Media and Digital Management [1st ed.] 978-3-319-71344-1, 978-3-319-72000-5

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages I-XVIII
Front Matter ....Pages 1-1
Introduction (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 3-6
The Information Environment (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 7-16
Front Matter ....Pages 17-17
Production Management in Media and Information (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 19-58
Technology Management in Media and Information Firms (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 59-95
Human Resource Management for Media and Information Firms (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 97-126
Financing Media, Information, and Communications (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 127-163
Intellectual Asset Management (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 165-199
Managing Law and Regulation (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 201-229
Front Matter ....Pages 231-231
Demand and Market Research for Media and Information Products (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 233-266
Marketing of Media and Information (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 267-303
Pricing of Media and Information (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 305-340
Distribution of Media and Information (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 341-383
Front Matter ....Pages 385-385
Accounting in Media and Information Firms (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 387-422
Strategy Planning in Media and Information Firms (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 423-459
Concluding Observations (Eli M. Noam)....Pages 461-466
Back Matter ....Pages 467-479

Citation preview

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MEDIA AND D IGITAL  MANAGEMENT

ELI M. NOAM

Media and Digital Management

Eli M. Noam

Media and Digital Management

Eli M. Noam Columbia Business School Columbia University New York, NY USA

ISBN 978-3-319-71345-8    ISBN 978-3-319-72000-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017964229 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover image © Maxim Basinski/Alamy Stock Vector Cover design by Fatima Jamadar Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

V

Contents I Overview 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 The Need for “Media ­Management”?........................................................................................... 4 1.2 Approaches to the Study and Teaching of Media Management....................................... 4 1.3 Outline of the Book............................................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Outlook.................................................................................................................................................... 5 2 The Information Environment............................................................................................... 7 2.1 Drivers of Change................................................................................................................................ 8 2.1.1 The Setting.............................................................................................................................................. 8 2.1.2 Technology............................................................................................................................................. 8 2.1.3 People....................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 The Microeconomics of the New Media Economy.................................................................. 9 2.2.1 Characteristic #1 of Media and Information: High Fixed Costs, Low Marginal Costs—Very High Economies of Scale................................................................ 9 2.2.2 Characteristic #2 of Media and Information: Network Effects................................................ 9 2.2.3 Characteristic #3 of Media and Information: Excess Supply................................................... 10 2.2.4 Characteristic #4 of Media and Information: Price Deflation.................................................. 10 2.2.5 Characteristic #5 of Media and Information: Convergence of Technology........................ 11 2.2.6 Characteristic #6 of Media and Information: Importance of Intangible Assets................ 11 2.2.7 Characteristic #7 of Media and Information: The Presence of Non-Maximizers of Profit............................................................................................................... 11 2.2.8 Characteristic #8 of Media and Information: High Government Involvement.................. 12 2.2.9 Summary of Economic Properties................................................................................................... 12 2.3 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 12 2.3.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 13 2.3.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 13 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 16

II Production 3 Production Management in Media and Information............................................. 19 3.1 Media Production................................................................................................................................ 21 3.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 21 3.1.2 Content Production............................................................................................................................. 21 3.1.3 Special Characteristics in Content Production............................................................................ 21 3.2 Content Industries.............................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.1 Early Content.......................................................................................................................................... 22 3.2.2 Types of Production............................................................................................................................. 22 3.2.3 Cost Characteristics: Film Versus Theater...................................................................................... 22 3.2.4 History of the Film Production Industry........................................................................................ 23 3.2.5 Production in Other Media Industries............................................................................................ 24 3.2.6 The Global Success of the Hollywood Production Industry.................................................... 26 3.2.7 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 27 3.3 Conventional Arguments for Hollywood’s Success in Production................................... 28 3.3.1 Supposed Advantage: Market Size? Language?......................................................................... 28

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3.3.2 2nd Supposed Advantage: Vertical Integration of Content with Distribution?................ 29 3.4 Organizational Success Factors for Content Production...................................................... 30 3.4.1 Organizational Structure.................................................................................................................... 30 3.4.2 Funding and the Reduction of Risk................................................................................................. 32 3.5 Product Development....................................................................................................................... 34 3.5.1 Concept (Style)...................................................................................................................................... 34 3.5.2 Product Selection................................................................................................................................. 35 3.5.3 Product Development......................................................................................................................... 37 3.6 Production Planning.......................................................................................................................... 38 3.6.1 Operational Challenges for Content Production........................................................................ 38 3.6.2 Budgeting............................................................................................................................................... 38 3.6.3 Location and Supply Chain................................................................................................................ 42 3.6.4 Inventory Management...................................................................................................................... 43 3.6.5 Production Scheduling....................................................................................................................... 43 3.7 Production Control............................................................................................................................. 46 3.7.1 Budget Control...................................................................................................................................... 46 3.7.2 Productivity Measurement................................................................................................................ 46 3.8 Revenue Shares of Producers in Media....................................................................................... 48 3.9 Content Production in the Next Generation of Technology............................................... 48 3.10 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................... 49 3.11 Conclusion: Success Elements for Content Production........................................................ 53 3.12 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 55 3.12.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 55 3.12.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 56 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 58 4 Technology Management in Media and Information Firms.............................. 59 4.1 Technology Drivers and Trends...................................................................................................... 61 4.1.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Technology Management................................................................................................................ 62 4.2.1 The Technology Function................................................................................................................... 62 4.2.2 Chief Technology Officer (CTO)........................................................................................................ 63 4.2.3 Key Tasks for the CTO: Technology Assessment.......................................................................... 63 4.2.4 Integration of Technology with Firm Strategy............................................................................. 68 4.2.5 The Placement of R&D: In-­House, Acquired, or Co-­developed?............................................ 72 4.2.6 The Organizational Structure of R&D Activities.......................................................................... 73 4.2.7 Open Innovation – Community-­Based R&D................................................................................. 75 4.2.8 Budgeting for Innovation................................................................................................................... 76 4.2.9 Implementing R&D Alliances............................................................................................................ 77 4.2.10 Knowledge Management................................................................................................................... 77 4.2.11 Standards Strategy............................................................................................................................... 78 4.3 The Six Stages of Media and Communications ­Technology Digital ­Convergence: “The 6 C’s”.................................................................................................... 79 4.3.1 Convergence #1: Computers............................................................................................................. 79 4.3.2 Convergence #2: Computers with Communications Hardware............................................ 82 4.3.3 Convergence #3: Integration with Consumer Electronics....................................................... 84 4.3.4 Convergence #4: Integration with Content.................................................................................. 85 4.3.5 Convergence #5: The Media Cloud................................................................................................. 87 4.3.6 The Next Convergence: Bio-­electronics and Human Cognition............................................ 88 4.4 The Next Act for Sony........................................................................................................................ 88 4.4.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 88

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4.5 Outlook.................................................................................................................................................... 90 4.6 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 90 4.6.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 91 4.6.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 92 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 95 5 Human Resource Management for Media and Information Firms................ 97 5.1 The HRM Function and Its Organization..................................................................................... 98 5.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 98 5.1.2 HRM Characteristics in Media, Information, and Digital Industries?.................................... 100 5.2 HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM”............................................................................................... 100 5.2.1 The Rate of Return on Investment in Human Capital................................................................ 100 5.2.2 The Internal Labor Markets................................................................................................................ 103 5.2.3 The Use of Finance Theory in Analyzing Compensation.......................................................... 105 5.2.4 Salary Differentials................................................................................................................................ 107 5.3 HRM by Negotiation: “Tough Labor”............................................................................................ 109 5.3.1 The Industrial Workforce.................................................................................................................... 109 5.3.2 The Crafts (Skilled) Media Workforce.............................................................................................. 110 5.3.3 The Creative Workforce....................................................................................................................... 110 5.3.4 Freelancers and Unions in the “New Economy”.......................................................................... 111 5.3.5 Building Relationships with Unions................................................................................................ 112 5.4 HRM by Human Touch: “Soft Control”......................................................................................... 113 5.4.1 Soft Control............................................................................................................................................. 113 5.4.2 Managing and Motivating the Creative Workforce.................................................................... 113 5.4.3 Models of Motivation.......................................................................................................................... 113 5.5 Employment in the Digital Economy........................................................................................... 120 5.6 Conclusion and Outlook................................................................................................................... 122 5.7 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 122 5.7.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 122 5.7.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 123 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 126 6 Financing Media, Information, and Communications........................................... 127 6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 129 6.1.1 The Finance Function in Companies.............................................................................................. 129 6.1.2 Basic Factors in the Finance of Media and Communications................................................. 129 6.1.3 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 130 6.1.4 An Overview of Funding Sources.................................................................................................... 130 6.2 Internal Funding.................................................................................................................................. 130 6.2.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 132 6.3 Debt Financing..................................................................................................................................... 133 6.3.1 Pros and Cons of Debt......................................................................................................................... 133 6.3.2 The Hierarchy of Debt......................................................................................................................... 133 6.3.3 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 134 6.3.4 Short-Term Debt.................................................................................................................................... 134 6.3.5 Long-Term Debt.................................................................................................................................... 134 6.4 Other Types of Debt............................................................................................................................ 135 6.4.1 Vendor and Buyer Financing............................................................................................................. 135 6.4.2 Lease Finance......................................................................................................................................... 137 6.4.3 Government Financing....................................................................................................................... 137 6.4.4 Private Grant Financing...................................................................................................................... 138

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6.4.5 The Impact of Debt Financing on Content................................................................................... 139 6.5 Risk Reduction Strategies................................................................................................................ 139 6.5.1 Risk Reduction Strategy: Diversification........................................................................................ 139 6.5.2 Risk Reduction Strategy: Hedging................................................................................................... 140 6.6 Equity Financing.................................................................................................................................. 140 6.6.1 Types of Equity Arrangements......................................................................................................... 140 6.7 The Ownership of Media and Communications Companies............................................... 151 6.7.1 Individual and Family Ownership of Media.................................................................................. 151 6.7.2 Institutional Investors.......................................................................................................................... 151 6.7.3 Governmental Ownership................................................................................................................. 153 6.8 Capital Structure.................................................................................................................................. 153 6.8.1 Optimal Capital Structure.................................................................................................................. 154 6.8.2 The Lifecycle of Capital Structure.................................................................................................... 157 6.9 Outlook.................................................................................................................................................... 158 6.10 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 158 6.10.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 159 6.10.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 160 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 163 7 Intellectual Asset Management........................................................................................... 165 7.1 Intellectual Assets............................................................................................................................... 166 7.1.1 What Are Intellectual Assets?............................................................................................................ 166 7.1.2 History...................................................................................................................................................... 166 7.1.3 How Companies Organize Their Intellectual Property Management.................................. 168 7.2 The Different Types of Intellectual Assets.................................................................................. 169 7.2.1 Trade Secret Protections..................................................................................................................... 169 7.2.2 Contract-Created Intellectual Assets.............................................................................................. 171 7.2.3 Patents...................................................................................................................................................... 172 7.2.4 Trademarks............................................................................................................................................. 173 7.2.5 Copyrights............................................................................................................................................... 175 7.3 The Commercialization of Intellectual Assets.......................................................................... 178 7.3.1 How Important Is an Intellectual Asset?........................................................................................ 178 7.3.2 Aligning Intellectual Assets with Strategy: Intellectual Asset Audits................................... 179 7.3.3 How to Value Intellectual Assets...................................................................................................... 179 7.3.4 Intellectual Asset Management....................................................................................................... 181 7.4 Challenges to Intellectual Assets.................................................................................................. 189 7.4.1 Piracy........................................................................................................................................................ 189 7.4.2 Protection Strategies........................................................................................................................... 190 7.5 Case Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 194 7.5.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 194 7.6 Outlook.................................................................................................................................................... 194 7.7 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 195 7.7.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 195 7.7.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 196 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 199 8 Managing Law and Regulation............................................................................................. 201 8.1 Introduction: Non-Market Competition..................................................................................... 202 8.1.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 202 8.1.2 The Relationship of Government and Media............................................................................... 203 8.2 The Legal and Public Affairs Functions in Media Firms......................................................... 205 8.2.1 General Counsel: Head of Legal Department.............................................................................. 205

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8.2.2 Outside Counsel.................................................................................................................................... 205 8.2.3 Litigation Management...................................................................................................................... 206 8.3 Influencing Government and the Public.................................................................................... 209 8.3.1 Lobbying.................................................................................................................................................. 209 8.3.2 Public Relations Management.......................................................................................................... 212 8.4 The Regulatory Process..................................................................................................................... 215 8.4.1 Self-Regulation...................................................................................................................................... 215 8.4.2 Direct Government Regulation........................................................................................................ 215 8.5 Substantive Media Law..................................................................................................................... 218 8.5.1 Content Restrictions............................................................................................................................ 218 8.5.2 Antitrust and Anti-monopoly Law................................................................................................... 220 8.6 Outlook.................................................................................................................................................... 223 8.6.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 223 8.6.2 Looking Ahead...................................................................................................................................... 223 8.7 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 225 8.7.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 225 8.7.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 226 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 229

III Marketing 9 Demand and Market Research for Media and Information Products.......... 233 9.1 Why Demand Analysis....................................................................................................................... 234 9.1.1 The Importance and Special Problems of Demand Estimation for Media Industries..... 234 9.1.2 Examples for the Problems in Forecasting Media Demand.................................................... 235 9.1.3 Limits to Audience and Market Research...................................................................................... 236 9.1.4 How Media Companies Organize Their Market Research........................................................ 237 9.1.5 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 238 9.2 Data Collection..................................................................................................................................... 238 9.2.1 The Impact of Collection Methodology........................................................................................ 238 9.2.2 Collecting Data from Users................................................................................................................ 239 9.2.3 Measurement at the Provider (Sell-Side) Level........................................................................... 243 9.3 Analyzing the Data............................................................................................................................. 247 9.3.1 Transforming Data into Information—Audience Metrics........................................................ 247 9.3.2 Transforming Information into Knowledge: Qualitative Analysis......................................... 249 9.3.3 Quantitative Analysis: “Data Mining” —Overviews of Techniques........................................ 250 9.4 Conclusions and Outlook................................................................................................................. 259 9.4.1 Case Discussion..................................................................................................................................... 259 9.4.2 Challenges in Audience and Market Research............................................................................ 260 9.4.3 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................. 262 9.5 Review Materials.................................................................................................................................. 262 9.5.1 Questions for Discussion.................................................................................................................... 263 9.5.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................... 263 Quiz Answers.......................................................................................................................................... 266 10 Marketing of Media and Information............................................................................ 267 10.1 Marketing: General.......................................................................................................................... 270 10.1.1 What Is Marketing?............................................................................................................................ 270 10.1.2 The Marketing Function: Structure and Organization........................................................... 271 10.1.3 How Does the Marketing of Media Products and ­Services Differ from Regular Marketing of Other ­Products?................................................................. 271

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Contents

10.1.4 Limited Attention.............................................................................................................................. 272 10.2 Case Discussion................................................................................................................................. 273 10.3 Product Design.................................................................................................................................. 274 10.3.1 Statistical Tools for Product Design............................................................................................. 274 10.4 Product Positioning......................................................................................................................... 275 10.4.1 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 276 10.4.2 Demand and Audience ­Analysis................................................................................................... 276 10.4.3 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 277 10.4.4 Competitor Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 277 10.4.5 Branding............................................................................................................................................... 277 10.5 Pricing................................................................................................................................................... 278 10.6 Promotion........................................................................................................................................... 279 10.6.1 Promotion: General........................................................................................................................... 279 10.6.2 Timing................................................................................................................................................... 279 10.6.3 Word of Mouth, Buzz, and Viral Marketing................................................................................ 279 10.6.4 Publicity and Public Relations....................................................................................................... 280 10.6.5 Product Placement............................................................................................................................ 280 10.7 Advertising......................................................................................................................................... 281 10.7.1 Advertising: General......................................................................................................................... 281 10.7.2 Advertising Agencies........................................................................................................................ 281 10.7.3 How Much to Spend on Advertising?......................................................................................... 282 10.7.4 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 284 10.7.5 The Optimal Mix of Marketing Activities.................................................................................... 284 10.7.6 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 285 10.7.7 Allocation Within a Media and Marketing Category.............................................................. 286 10.8 Promotion to Advertisers, Retailers, and Distributors....................................................... 287 10.8.1 Promotion to Advertisers................................................................................................................ 287 10.9 The Impact of the Internet on Marketing................................................................................ 288 10.9.1 Customization, Targeting, and Individualization..................................................................... 289 10.9.2 New Tools for Creating ­Marketing Impressions....................................................................... 289 10.9.3 New Types of Reach.......................................................................................................................... 290 10.9.4 Tracking Customers.......................................................................................................................... 290 10.9.5 Location-Based Marketing.............................................................................................................. 290 10.9.6 Dynamic Pricing and Auctions...................................................................................................... 290 10.9.7 Social Marketing................................................................................................................................ 290 10.9.8 Payments and Micropayments...................................................................................................... 291 10.9.9 Data Mining and Online Market Research................................................................................. 291 10.9.10 Relationship Building....................................................................................................................... 291 10.9.11 Creating a Marketplace for Online Advertising........................................................................ 291 10.10 The Promotion of Media Products............................................................................................. 291 10.10.1 Film......................................................................................................................................................... 291 10.10.2 TV and Cable Channels.................................................................................................................... 292 10.10.3 Music...................................................................................................................................................... 292 10.10.4 Books..................................................................................................................................................... 292 10.10.5 Newspapers......................................................................................................................................... 293 10.10.6 Magazines............................................................................................................................................ 294 10.10.7 Video Games....................................................................................................................................... 294 10.11 The Marketing of Technology...................................................................................................... 294 10.12 The Regulation of Marketing....................................................................................................... 295 10.12.1 Self-Regulation................................................................................................................................... 295 10.12.2 Government Regulation of Advertising..................................................................................... 296 10.12.3 False Advertising................................................................................................................................ 296

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10.12.4 Privacy Regulation............................................................................................................................. 296 10.13 Analyzing Marketing Performance............................................................................................ 297 10.13.1 Advertising Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 297 10.13.2 Sales Analysis...................................................................................................................................... 297 10.13.3 Marketing Cost Analysis.................................................................................................................. 298 10.13.4 Marketing Audit Tools...................................................................................................................... 298 10.14 Outlook................................................................................................................................................. 298 10.15 Review Materials............................................................................................................................... 299 10.15.1 Questions for Discussion................................................................................................................. 300 10.15.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................ 300 Quiz Answers....................................................................................................................................... 303 11 Pricing of Media and Information.................................................................................... 305 11.1 Setting a Price.................................................................................................................................... 307 11.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 307 11.1.2 Special Problems in the Pricing of Information Products..................................................... 307 11.2 Pricing Strategies............................................................................................................................. 310 11.2.1 Pricing by Cost.................................................................................................................................... 310 11.2.2 Market-Based Pricing........................................................................................................................ 312 11.2.3 Dynamic Pricing and Peak-­Load Pricing..................................................................................... 313 11.2.4 Indexed Pricing................................................................................................................................... 314 11.2.5 Value Pricing........................................................................................................................................ 315 11.3 Measuring Price Sensitivity.......................................................................................................... 317 11.3.1 Econometric Estimation of Price Elasticities and Hedonic Prices....................................... 317 11.4 Strategies to Keep Prices Above Cost....................................................................................... 318 11.4.1 Integrate Information with Hardware......................................................................................... 318 11.4.2 Create a “Lock-in” of Customers.................................................................................................... 318 11.4.3 Bundling............................................................................................................................................... 318 11.4.4 Establish Market Power Through Monopoly............................................................................. 318 11.4.5 Participate in an Oligopoly............................................................................................................. 319 11.5 Price Discrimination........................................................................................................................ 319 11.5.1 Optimal Price Discrimination......................................................................................................... 320 11.5.2 Versioning............................................................................................................................................ 321 11.5.3 Second Degree Price Discrimination........................................................................................... 322 11.5.4 Third Degree Price Discrimination: Differentiation by User Category.............................. 323 11.6 Strategic Pricing................................................................................................................................ 323 11.6.1 Skim (“Premium”) Pricing................................................................................................................ 323 11.6.2 Penetration (“Value”) Pricing.......................................................................................................... 324 11.7 Other Types of Pricing.................................................................................................................... 325 11.7.1 Flat Rate vs Usage-Based Pricing.................................................................................................. 325 11.7.2 Regulated Pricing.............................................................................................................................. 326 11.7.3 Transfer Pricing................................................................................................................................... 326 11.7.4 Protection from Price Variations: Hedging................................................................................ 327 11.8 Legal Aspects of Pricing................................................................................................................. 327 11.8.1 Ethics of Pricing.................................................................................................................................. 327 11.8.2 Legal Constraints............................................................................................................................... 328 11.9 The Futures of Pricing..................................................................................................................... 330 11.9.1 “Free”?.................................................................................................................................................... 330 11.9.2 Micro- and Nano-pricing................................................................................................................. 331

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11.10 How Firms Organize Their Pricing Function........................................................................... 332 11.10.1 Setting Pricing Policy........................................................................................................................ 332 11.11 Conclusions......................................................................................................................................... 333 11.11.1 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 333 11.11.2 Conclusions on Pricing..................................................................................................................... 335 11.12 Review Materials............................................................................................................................... 336 11.12.1 Questions for Discussion................................................................................................................. 337 11.12.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................ 337 Quiz Answers....................................................................................................................................... 340 12 Distribution of Media and Information........................................................................ 341 12.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 344 12.1.1 The Definition of “Distribution”..................................................................................................... 344 12.1.2 The Myths of Media Distribution.................................................................................................. 344 12.1.3 Distribution Networks...................................................................................................................... 345 12.2 The Economic Characteristics of Distribution Networks................................................... 347 12.2.1 Economies of Scale........................................................................................................................... 347 12.2.2 Network Effects.................................................................................................................................. 349 12.2.3 The Role of Government................................................................................................................. 350 12.2.4 Price Deflation.................................................................................................................................... 350 12.2.5 The Vertical Integration of Distribution with Production..................................................... 350 12.3 Network Models................................................................................................................................ 351 12.3.1 Distribution Architecture #1: The Non-sharing Network...................................................... 351 12.3.2 Distribution Architecture #2: The Bus and the Ring............................................................... 352 12.3.3 Distribution Architecture #3: Tree-and-Branch........................................................................ 352 12.3.4 Distribution Architecture #4: The Star......................................................................................... 353 12.3.5 Distribution Architecture #5: The Mesh...................................................................................... 354 12.4 Analytical Tools for Distribution Management..................................................................... 354 12.4.1 The Network Analysis Tools of Sociologists............................................................................... 355 12.4.2 The Network Analysis Tools of Lawyers: Essential Facilities................................................. 355 12.4.3 Network Analysis Tools of Electrical Engineering.................................................................... 355 12.4.4 Network Analysis Tools of Statisticians: Operations Research............................................. 356 12.4.5 Network Analysis Tool of Operations Research: Queuing Theory...................................... 356 12.4.6 Network Management..................................................................................................................... 357 12.5 Wholesale Distribution.................................................................................................................. 358 12.5.1 Film Wholesale Distributors........................................................................................................... 358 12.5.2 Book Distributors............................................................................................................................... 359 12.5.3 Magazine Wholesale Distribution................................................................................................ 361 12.5.4 Music Distributors............................................................................................................................. 361 12.5.5 Consumer Electronics Distribution.............................................................................................. 362 12.5.6 Wholesale Distribution: Trends..................................................................................................... 362 12.6 Retail Distribution: Physical Distribution................................................................................ 363 12.6.1 Film......................................................................................................................................................... 363 12.6.2 Book Retailing..................................................................................................................................... 364 12.6.3 Magazine and Newspaper Retailing............................................................................................ 366 12.6.4 Music Retailing................................................................................................................................... 366 12.7 Online Retail Distribution of Electronic Media..................................................................... 366 12.7.1 Business Models for Online Media Retailing............................................................................. 367 12.7.2 Online Distribution of Film and Video......................................................................................... 369 12.7.3 Online Periodicals Distribution..................................................................................................... 370 12.7.4 Books Online Retail Distribution................................................................................................... 370

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12.7.5 Direct Electronic Distribution to Users: Streaming Music..................................................... 370 12.7.6 Online Videogame Retail Distribution........................................................................................ 371 12.8 Distribution Channel Strategies................................................................................................. 371 12.8.1 Self-Distribution: Customer-­Direct Distribution by Producers........................................... 371 12.8.2 The Selection of Distributors......................................................................................................... 372 12.8.3 The Timing and Sequencing of Distribution Over Various Platforms............................... 372 12.8.4 Retail Distribution: Conclusions on Trends................................................................................ 373 12.9 The Revenue Shares in the Distribution Chain..................................................................... 375 12.10 The Impact of Distribution on Content.................................................................................... 377 12.11 Conclusions......................................................................................................................................... 378 12.11.1 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 378 12.11.2 Overall Conclusions on Distribution............................................................................................ 378 12.12 Review Materials............................................................................................................................... 379 12.12.1 Questions for Discussion................................................................................................................. 380 12.12.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................ 381 Quiz Answers....................................................................................................................................... 383

IV

Feedback Loop

13 Accounting in Media and Information Firms............................................................ 387 13.1 Accounting and Media Accounting........................................................................................... 389 13.1.1 The Function of Accounting in Business.................................................................................... 389 13.1.2 Is Accounting for Media and Technology Special?.................................................................. 391 13.1.3 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 392 13.1.4 The Five Sets of Books...................................................................................................................... 392 13.2 Profit Accounting.............................................................................................................................. 393 13.2.1 How to Depress Accounting Profits............................................................................................. 393 13.2.2 Royalties for Books and Music....................................................................................................... 393 13.2.3 Profit Accounting in Limited Partnerships................................................................................. 394 13.2.4 How Profit Participants Can Protect Themselves..................................................................... 395 13.3 Public Financial Accounting......................................................................................................... 396 13.3.1 Major Financial Documents for Investors.................................................................................. 396 13.3.2 Auditing................................................................................................................................................ 397 13.3.3 Regulation of Accounting............................................................................................................... 397 13.4 Analyzing Financial Statements and Valuation of Media Firms..................................... 398 13.4.1 Ratios and Metrics............................................................................................................................. 398 13.5 The Valuation of Media Properties............................................................................................ 403 13.5.1 Cost Approaches................................................................................................................................ 403 13.5.2 Income Approaches.......................................................................................................................... 403 13.5.3 Multiples Approach........................................................................................................................... 404 13.6 The Balance Sheet............................................................................................................................ 405 13.6.1 Assets..................................................................................................................................................... 406 13.6.2 Depreciation and Amortization of Assets.................................................................................. 406 13.7 Liabilities............................................................................................................................................. 408 13.7.1 Stock Options...................................................................................................................................... 408 13.7.2 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 409 13.8 Income and Profit Statements..................................................................................................... 409 13.8.1 EBITDA and Other Profit Definitions............................................................................................ 410 13.8.2 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 410 13.8.3 The Cash Flow Statement................................................................................................................ 411 13.8.4 Cost and Expenses............................................................................................................................. 411

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13.9 Managerial Accounting.................................................................................................................. 412 13.9.1 Responsibility Center and Profit Centers................................................................................... 413 13.9.2 Overhead and Indirect Cost........................................................................................................... 413 13.9.3 Transfer Pricing................................................................................................................................... 413 13.9.4 Tracking Costs..................................................................................................................................... 414 13.10 Capital Accounting and Budgeting........................................................................................... 415 13.11 Information Technology in Accounting................................................................................... 415 13.11.1 Management Information Systems............................................................................................. 415 13.11.2 Enterprise Resource Planning Systems....................................................................................... 415 13.12 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 417 13.12.1 Case Discussion.................................................................................................................................. 417 13.12.2 Conclusions on Accounting in Media.......................................................................................... 417 13.13 Review Materials............................................................................................................................... 418 13.13.1 Questions for Discussion................................................................................................................. 419 13.13.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................ 419 Quiz Answers....................................................................................................................................... 422 14 Strategy Planning in Media and Information Firms............................................. 423 14.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 425 14.1.1 What Is Different About Strategy Setting in Information Sector Industries?................. 425 14.2 Theories and Tools of Business Strategy................................................................................. 427 14.2.1 Basic Strategy Perspectives............................................................................................................ 427 14.2.2 The Emergence of the Guru Industry.......................................................................................... 432 14.3 The Strategy Process....................................................................................................................... 433 14.3.1 Organization of the Strategy Process.......................................................................................... 433 14.3.2 Who Engages in Strategic Planning?........................................................................................... 434 14.4 The Strategic Plan............................................................................................................................ 436 14.4.1 The Vision and Mission Statement............................................................................................... 436 14.4.2 The External Assessment................................................................................................................. 436 14.4.3 Internal Assessment.......................................................................................................................... 440 14.5 Strategy Options............................................................................................................................... 444 14.5.1 Generic Options................................................................................................................................. 444 14.5.2 How to Select Among Strategies.................................................................................................. 446 14.6 Implementation of Strategy......................................................................................................... 450 14.6.1 Internal Communication................................................................................................................. 450 14.6.2 Budgeting............................................................................................................................................ 451 14.6.3 Monitoring, Control, and Feedback............................................................................................. 451 14.6.4 Implementation of Strategy: Government Relations............................................................. 453 14.7 Outlook................................................................................................................................................. 453 14.7.1 Constraints on Strategy................................................................................................................... 453 14.7.2 Conclusion: Strategic Priorities..................................................................................................... 455 14.8 Review Materials............................................................................................................................... 455 14.8.1 Questions for Discussion................................................................................................................. 455 14.8.2 Quiz........................................................................................................................................................ 456 Quiz Answers....................................................................................................................................... 459 15 Concluding Observations...................................................................................................... 461 15.1 The Matrix of Media Management............................................................................................ 462 15.2 Is Management in the Media and Information Sector Different?.................................. 462 15.2.1 Fundamental Factors........................................................................................................................ 462 15.2.2 Personal Motivation.......................................................................................................................... 463

XV Contents

15.3 Challenges for Media Managers................................................................................................. 463 15.3.1 The Search for a New Media Business Model........................................................................... 463 15.3.2 The Search for a Media Industry Structure................................................................................ 464 15.3.3 The Search for a New Content Model......................................................................................... 464 15.3.4 The Search for New Government Policy and Regulation...................................................... 464 15.3.5 Understanding the Future and Understanding the Past....................................................... 465 15.3.6 Dealing with People.......................................................................................................................... 465 15.3.7 Being Good with Numbers............................................................................................................. 465 15.3.8 Globalization of Media and Information.................................................................................... 465 15.4 Managing in the Media and Information Sector.................................................................. 466 15.4.1 How Organizations Succeed.......................................................................................................... 466 15.4.2 Organizational and Personal Responsibility............................................................................. 466

Supplementary Information 

Index...................................................................................................................................................... 469

List of Figures Figure 2.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 7.5 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6 Figure 9.7 Figure 9.8

The three legs of media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Universal Studios lot 1936. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Networked production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Tradeoffs in the development process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Gantt schedule for book production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Critical Path Method (CPM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 PERT chart example for music video production (schematic). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Bell Labs R&D Facilities in Holmdel and Murray Hill, NJ in their heyday. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 R&D project selectivity and success rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Investment horizons in innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Dimensions of consumer acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Risk-reward diagram of projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Example for an HRM Organizational Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Risk and Employee Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Techco Internal Labor Market Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Company Employment Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Disney Internal Labor Market Maps by Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 The Composition of Risk of Disney and its Peers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Compensation of Employees Relative to Contribution. . . . . . . . . . 107 Disney’s Compensation Profile (Wages in $000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 What Matters Most to IT Technologists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Corporate Organizational Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 The Optimal Leverage Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Cost of Capital and Optimal Capital Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Funding Options over the Life Cycle of a Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Hierarchy of intellectual property rights by frequency. . . . . . . . . . 169 GE trademarked logo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Mapping of the Prior-Art interrelationship of patents . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Intellectual asset audit map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 The Flow of Rights and License Fees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Organizational Chart of a Corporate Legal and Public Affairs Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Decision Tree for Decision to Litigate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Company Reaction Curve for Optimal Investment in Litigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Collection Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Comb Analysis: Divergences in Evaluating Product Factors by Dell and its Retail Distributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Organizing and Classifying the Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Attribute Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Anomaly Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Clustering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Feature Extraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

XVII List of Figures

Figure 9.9 Figure 9.10 Figure 9.11 Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3

Econometric Regression Analysis: Magazine Subscriptions and Income. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Sampling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Stages of Product Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Coverage of reader segments by major magazine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 The Bass model: diffusion of adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Marketing dashboard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Price elasticity of demand h = DQuantity DPrice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Quantity Price Willingness to Pay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Bertelsmann physical vs electronic distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Economics of scale in media industries (schematic). . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Capital intensity and media industry concentration (Average 30 Countries) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Figure 12.4 Non-sharing model of producers to retailers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Figure 12.5 Distribution model #2: The Bus or The Ring–Fiber network ring around Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Figure 12.6 Distribution model #3: tree-and-branch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 12.7 Star distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 12.8 Multi-star distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Figure 12.9 Distribution Model #5: Mesh network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Figure 12.10 Capacity cost, revenues, and net gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Figure 12.11 Typical distribution windows from release date, c.2014. . . . . . . . . 373 Figure 13.1 Disney social accounting report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Figure 14.1 SWOT analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Figure 14.2 Appraising Comcast’s resources and capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Figure 14.3 The growth share matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Figure 14.4 Radar chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Figure 14.5 Decision tree for Comcast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Figure 14.6 Balanced scorecard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Figure 11.1 Figure 11.2 Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2 Figure 12.3

List of Tables Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 7.1 Table 8.1 Table 8.2 Table 9.1 Table 9.2 Table 10.1 Table 10.2 Table 10.3 Table 11.1 Table 11.2 Table 12.1 Table 12.2 Table 13.1 Table 13.2 Table 13.3 Table 14.1 Table 14.2 Table 14.3

Net present value of a film project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Theater budgets (Subcategories partial). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Activities-based cost allocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Example for daily cost overview accounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Film investments, revenues, and ROI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Ranking and scoring R&D projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 ROI of projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Intellectual Asset Value in GE’s Divisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Cost-Benefit of Investment in Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Illustration for Cost and Value of Lobbying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Golden Years Magazine Circulation Reports (Schematic). . . . . . . . . . . 244 Conjoint Analysis Example: The Importance of Attributes of MP3 Players (Scale 1–10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 World’s largest advertising agencies by revenue (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . 281 The cost-effectiveness of different marketing activities . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Cost-Effectiveness of Magazines in Advertising to Aerobics Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Cost characteristics of Encyclopaedia Britannica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Price elasticity and price. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Global and regional market shares of the music group majors (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 The revenue shares in the distribution chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Social Accounting Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Example of a balance sheet ($ thousands). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Disney Incomes (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Comcast SWOT analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Appraising Comcast’s resources and capabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Value of Comcast divisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

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Overview Contents Chapter 1

Introduction – 3

Chapter 2

The Information Environment – 7

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Introduction 1.1 The Need for “Media Management”? – 4 1.2 Approaches to the Study and Teaching of Media Management – 4 1.3 Outline of the Book – 5 1.4 Outlook – 5

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_1

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1.1  The Need for “Media

1.2  Approaches to the Study

This book is a college-level version of a longer volume aimed at graduate courses and the professional market. The basics are shared because the subject matter and its significance are the same. Everybody understands the importance of the media and information sector. It is a growing and dynamic field, encompassing content creation, distribution platforms and technology devices. The information industry sector in 2017 accounted for about $1.7 trillion in the USA and $6 trillion worldwide, about 6% of global gross domestic product (GDP). As a share of “discretionary income,” the share of the sector is closer to 20%; as a share of “discretionary time,” it is an extraordinary 30%. Per capita media consumption in the USA is 2100  hours annually, which translates to 5.7 hours per day. And it is not only quantity that counts. Media industries are also a driver of change, leading in technological innovation, testing new organizational practices, and transforming societal institutions and culture. Thus, there is no dispute over the centrality of the sector in advanced and developing economies and s­ ocieties.

Media management has traditionally had a strong reliance on experience and “gut” feeling. But lifelong experience in one segment of this increasingly overlapping environment does not suffice. Media companies require managers who have an understanding of a variety of industry segments and functions. And young entrepreneurs, too, must cover many bases to be effective and to be taken seriously. Media activities are being taught and practiced all over the world. A large number of communications students end up on the business side of media companies. Basically, the subject matter can be thought of as a two-dimensional matrix. The vertical dimension is that of the various industries— music, film, the Internet and so on.1 The vertical elements tend to be taught or written about by sectoral experts in the particular industry “silo.” Yet, one of the defining characteristics of the overall sector is its increasing convergence.2 The second approach has been to consider the horizontal dimension of the matrix, proceeding along disciplinary and functional lines, such as marketing,

Books: Greco, Albert N., Jim Milliot, and Robert Wharton. The Book Publishing Industry. New York: Routledge, 2013; Compaine, Benjamin M. The Book Industry in Transition: An Economic Study of Book Distribution and Marketing. White Plains, NY: Knowledge Industry Publications, 1978. Music: Krasilovsky, M. William et al. This Business of Music, 10th ed. New York: Billboard Books, 2007. Theater: Langley, Stephen. Theatre Management in America. New York: Drama Book Publishers, 2006. Magazines: Wharton, John. Managing Magazine Publishing. London: Blueprint, 1992; Daly, Charles P., Patrick Henry, and Ellen Ryder. The Magazine Publishing Industry. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1996; Heinrich, Jürgen. Medienökonomie: Band 1: Mediensystem, Zeitung, Zeitschrift, Anzeigenblatt. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994. Newspapers: Herrick, Dennis F. Media Management in the Age of Giants: Business Dynamics of Journalism, 2nd ed. Albuquerque: UNM Press, 2012; Giles, Robert H. Newsroom Management: A Guide to Theory and Practice. Indianapolis, IN: R.J. Berg, 1987; Rankin, W. Parkman. The Practice of Newspaper Management. New York: Praeger, 1986; Mogel, Leonard. The Newspaper: Everything You Need to Know to Make it in the Newspaper Business. Pittsburgh, PA: GATF Press, 2000; Picard, Robert G. and Jeffrey H. Brody. The Newspaper Publishing Industry. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1997; Willis, William J. Surviving in the Newspaper Business: Newspaper Management in Turbulent Times. New York: Praeger, 1988. Film: De Vany, Arthur. Hollywood Economics. New York: Routledge, 2004; Clevé, Bastian. Film Production Management, Waltham, MA: Focal Press, 2000; Epstein, Edward J. The Hollywood Economist 2.0: The Hidden Financial Reality Behind the Movies. New York: Melville House, 2012. Radio: Reinsch, J. Leonard and Elmo Israel Lewis. Radio Station Management, 2nd ed. New York: Harper, 1960. TV and Cable: Marcus, Norman. Broadcast and Cable Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986; Quall, Ward L. and Leo A. Martin. Broadcast Management: Radio + Television. New York: Hastings House, 1969; Blumenthal, Howard J. and Oliver R. Goodenough. This Business of Television, 3rd ed. New York: Billboard Books, 2006; Roe, Yale. Television

Station Management: The Business of Broadcasting. New York: Hastings House, 1964; Owen, Bruce M., Jack H. Beebe, and Willard G. Manning. Television Economics. Lexington, MA: Heath, 1974. Telecom: Sherman, Barry L. Telecommunications Management, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997; Gershon, Richard A. Telecommunications Management. New York: Routledge, 2001. Advertising: Jugenheimer, Donald W. and Larry D. Kelley. Advertising Management. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2009. Websites: Elliott, Geoff. Website Management. Colchester, UK: Lexden Publishing Limited, 2007; Layon, Kristofer. Digital Product Management. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders, 2014; Strauss, Roy and Patrick Hogan. Developing Effective Websites: A Project Manager’s Guide. Boston: Focal Press, 2013. Video Games: Hotho, Sabine and Neil McGregor. Changing the Rules of the Game: Economic, Management and Emerging Issues in the Computer Games Industry. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013. Wagner, Marcus, Jaume Valls-Pasola, and Thierry Burger-Helmchen. The Global Management of Creativity. New York: Routledge, 2017. Vogel, Harold. Entertainment Industry Economics: A Guide for Financial Analysis, 10th ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Van Tassel, Joan and Lisa Poe-Howfield. Managing Electronic Media: Making, Marketing, and Moving Digital Content. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2010; Albarran, Alan B. Management of Electronic and Digital Media. Boston: Wadsworth, 2013; Chaturvedi, B.K. Media Management. New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing House, 2009; Turow, Joseph. Media Today: Mass Communication in a Converging World. New York, Routledge, 2013; Lavine, John M. and Daniel B. Wackman. Managing Media Organizations. New York: Longman, 1988; Pringle, Peter K. and Michael F. Starr. Electronic Media Management, 5th ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2006; López, Juan Torres. Economía de la Comunicación. Madrid: Gruopo Zero, 1985; Hollifield, C. Ann, Jan LeBlanc Wicks, George Sylvie, and Wilson Lowery. Media Management: A Casebook Approach, 5th ed. New York: Routledge, 2015.

­Management”?

1

and Teaching of Media Management

2

5 1.4 · Outlook

financing or human resources across industries.3 Such approach follows the disciplinary specialties of their authors and are thus rarely interdisciplinary or holistic across business functions. 1.3  Outline of the Book

It is the goal of this book to overcome the limitations of this matrix and apply the major dimensions of a business curriculum—from finance to production to marketing to accounting, and more—to the entire media and information sector. In the process, communications students benefit from a businessoriented summary, while more generally oriented business students are introduced to the media and information sector. Both approaches afford a look at the main players and their challengers. The book could be subtitled: Management Study in a Nutshell. It takes most major components of a business program, simplifies them, summarizes them, and applies them to the media and information sector. It covers these tools and approaches in a non-technical way. There are few equations. There are no prerequisites, though an introductory course in economics would probably help in terms of mindset. 1.4  Outlook

This leaves the question: Why be a manager in the media and information sector? It is a difficult business with an uncertain career path. Yet,

3

Marketing and Distribution: Eastman, Susan Tyler, Douglas Ferguson, and Robert Klein. Eds. Media Promotion & Marketing for Broadcasting, Cable & the Internet. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2006; Marich, Robert. Marketing to Moviegoers. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2013; Ulin, Jeffrey C. The Business of Media Distribution: Monetizing Film, TV, and Video Content in an Online World. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2013. Strategy: Küng, Lucy. Strategic Management in the Media: Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Sage, 2016; Aris, Annet and Jacques Bughin. Managing Media Companies: Harnessing Creative Value. Chichester: Wiley, 2012; Chan-Olmsted, Sylvia M. “Issues in Strategic Management.” In Handbook of Media Management and Economics. Eds. Alan B. Albarran, Sylvia M. Chan-Olmsted, and Michael O. Wirth. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006. Economics: Shy, Oz. Economics of Network Industries. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001; Picard, Robert G. Media Economics: Concepts and Issues. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1989; Owen, Bruce M. and Steven S. Wildman. Video Economics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992; Toussaint-Desmoulins, Nadine. L’economie de Medias. Paris: Press Universitaires de France, 1978; Doyle, Gillian, Understanding Media Economics, London: Sage, 2013; Picard, Robert G. The Economics and Financing of Media Companies. New York: Fordham University Press, 2011; Alexander, Alison et al. Eds. Media Economics: Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.

it is also an endlessly interesting, fascinating field that generates great enthusiasm. Creativity meets management. Imagination meets technology. Arts meet investment. Left brain meets right brain. Youth meets wealth. Media create the entertainment that forms our fantasies, shapes our styles and sets our role models. It provides our analysis of the world around us. It is the trendsetter that affects our tastes. It represents sweet imagination, seductive opportunity, rich possibilities, style, opportunity, fortune and fame. The good news is that for those interested in the information resource—how to produce it, how to distribute it, how to use it—the present is the most exciting period, ever. The bad news is that it is also a period with the greatest uncertainty and risk ever. What does it take for success in the media business? Creativity, innovation and performance, of course. But that is not enough. It requires an understanding of technology, money, markets, audiences, pricing, global business, economics, managerial accounting, government relations, and the ability to nurture and lead talent. Our aim in this book is to help those in the media, information and media technology sector to become creative managers and managerial creatives. The purpose of this book is to make young managers in this field more knowledgeable and less blinded by hype. It aims to make the reader a more effective, more productive and more responsible participant. Acknowledgments  The material was tested out at several universities, including the Annenberg School of Communication at the University of Pennsylvania, but in particular at Columbia University. At the Columbia Business School, many people contributed their talent and energy. I thank the School and Dean Glenn Hubbard for summer support, and the Columbia Institute of TeleInformation (CITI) for providing the environment and research structure. Two people, in particular, deserve special thanks. Jason Buckweitz, Executive Director of CITI, held this project together with an amazing combination of skills in research, management, technology and law. Many thanks also go to Corey Spencer, Assistant Director of CITI, for superb administration and assistance on numerous levels with a variety of tasks. I am grateful to both colleagues for their dedicated and outstanding contribution to this large project. They were assisted by teams of able young summer college interns and

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Chapter 1 · Introduction

research associates. Several young professionals contributed during their stays at Columbia: John Lazcano, Aleksandra Kotlyar, Ana Bizberge, Boris Nicholson, Inho Lee and John Heywood. The book, covering so much ground, draws from numerous sources and authors, and I am indebted to them. Over 1600 citations for sources have been used or referenced, but should we have inadvertently omitted giving adequate credit to a source or author, my apologies. Several authors have been particularly important and deserve special mention. They are Haig Nalbantian (for the chapter on Human Resource Management); Alexander Poltorak (Intellectual Assets); Matthew Stewart (Strategy); Thomas Nagle and his co-­ authors (Pricing); Edward Jay Epstein

(Production, and more); and my professor of many years ago, Richard Caves. Several outside experts have been helpful in reviewing parts of the manuscript and deserve great thanks. In addition to several anonymous referees, they are Harold Vogel (himself a noted author in this field), Scott MacDonald and Devin Brook. At Palgrave Macmillan, I thank my editor, Shaun Vigil, Editor of Film, Cultural and Media Studies, for supporting this major project with trust, patience and good judgment. We also thank Glenn Ramirez and Tikoji Rao for their dedicated contribution to the editorial process. The greatest thanks of all go to my beloved wife Nadine Strossen, champion of free speech and open media. She inspires me every day.

7

The Information Environment 2.1

D  rivers of Change – 8

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3

The Setting – 8 Technology – 8 People – 8

2.2

 he Microeconomics of the New Media T Economy – 9

2.2.1

2.2.9

 haracteristic #1 of Media and Information: C High Fixed Costs, Low Marginal Costs—Very High Economies of Scale – 9 Characteristic #2 of Media and Information: Network Effects – 9 C  haracteristic #3 of Media and Information: Excess Supply – 10 Characteristic #4 of Media and Information: Price Deflation – 10 Characteristic #5 of Media and Information: Convergence of Technology – 11 Characteristic #6 of Media and Information: Importance of Intangible Assets – 11 Characteristic #7 of Media and Information: The Presence of Non-Maximizers of Profit – 11 C  haracteristic #8 of Media and Information: High Government Involvement – 12 Summary of Economic Properties – 12

2.3

R  eview Materials – 12

2.3.1 2.3.2

 uestions for Discussion – 13 Q Quiz – 13



Q  uiz Answers – 16

2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_2

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Chapter 2 · The Information Environment

2.1  Drivers of Change

2.1.2  Technology

2.1.1  The Setting

The technology driver of the Industrial Revolution was the steam engine. What is the equivalent for the Information Revolution? If we strip down the building blocks of information technology to their basics, the major technological driver is the increased ability to manipulate sub-atomic particles (electrons and photons). We have progressively gained the capability to harness these particles for useful applications. The scientific foundation was that of physics research and experimentation, which was paralleled by an engineering ability to produce means that enabled us to control these particles and then to string these devices together into systems. The prime example of such a linkage is the Internet. To facilitate operations and applications, all information and content is transformed into a code that can be processed by a variety of tools: a process we call “digitization.” The swift spread of the technology was made economically possible by the rapid drop in the production cost of electronic micro-components. In 2017, processing power and computer memory (random access memory—RAM) cost less than one billionth of the price in 1971. These changes follow the pace of “Moore’s Law”: the observation that the capability of computer components is doubling every 18 months—i.e. increases at a rate of approximately 40%, per year.1 With technology accelerating and prices dropping, the applications followed suit. In three decades, we have moved from the “kilobit” stage of individualized communications (in which the signals of digital 0s and 1s could reach us individually were measured in the thousands), through a “megabit” stage (a thousandfold increase), and we have now reached the “gigabit” stage—yet another thousandfold increase. It is a difference as dramatic as moving from animal-powered transportation to jet planes. And it has similarly fundamental impacts.

“Media” consists of three segments—distribution platforms, content production, and media devices (. Fig. 2.1). As mentioned, in 2017, the US information industry sector accounted for about $1.7 trillion, of which content industries represented $400 billion; distribution industries, $1000 billion; and device industries, $300 billion. Worldwide revenues for 2017 were $6 trillion. This amounts to about 6% of the world gross domestic product. Growth has been rapid for a long time. Media activities have been around since the dawn of humankind with its cave paintings, dancing, and singing. The Industrial Revolution began in England during the 1770s. Stripped to its basics, it was based on technologies that could extend human physical strength. The enabling technologies was the steam engine, which powered production machinery such as mechanical looms, and transportation devices such as trains and ships. Gasoline engines and electrical power followed a century later, leading to another spurt in industrialization. The Industrial Revolution was characterized not only by mass production, rising living standards and urbanization, but also by social strife and environmental decline. Today, we are in the midst of another economic transformation: the Information Revolution. This time, we are witnessing the extension of human mental strength. New devices enhance our capability with regard to memory, logical processing, communication, sensory cognition, storytelling and interaction. Because brainpower is a more basic characteristic of humans than muscle power, this second revolution is even more fundamental than the first.  

Content Production

2.1.3  People

Distribution Platforms ..      Fig. 2.1  The three legs of media

Devices

People are just as much a major driver of the Information Revolution as technology. There has been a huge increase in the number of information 1

Even if this rate slows down, as every exponential process eventually does, we have still a long way to go.

9 2.2 · The Microeconomics of the New Media Economy

producers. In one decade, the 1960s, the share of labor force employed in the “quaternary”, (or information) sector of the economy, working with paper and symbols rather than with muscles, went from one quarter to one half. More information workers lead to more information products. It has been observed that 90% of all the scientists who have ever lived are alive today.2 This is also true for most, or even all, information-based occupations, whether screenwriters, architects, lawyers, ­engineers, MBAs and so forth. Every 30 seconds, a new book is published. Every hour, three new feature films are produced. In almost any scientific field, more research articles were written just this year than in the entire history of human beings before 1900. In the field of chemistry, within a span of 32 years (1907–1938), one million chemistry articles were written and abstracted. In contrast, it took less than 1 year for a million such articles to be produced in 2010.3

Media and information activities are subject to 12 fundamental economic characteristics and properties. Many of these factors exist in other industries, too, but not in the combination seen in the media and information sector.

Similarly, media distribution networks are expensive to create but cheap to extend to additional users. Thus, average costs per unit become lower with the quantity produced. The more units that are produced, the lower the average cost per unit. Products that exhibit this property are said to have high economies of scale. We can observe these characteristics for films, TV programs, computer software, electronic networks, videogames, newspapers and semiconductors. There are several business implications of the economic property of high fixed costs and low marginal costs. They include: 55 The economies of scale lead to the emergence and predominance of large-sized companies in media, telecom and the Internet. 55 There are incentives for companies to increase their size through mergers and to be a first-mover in a product in order to gain economies of scale early. 55 There are incentives to achieve global rather than local operations. 55 In competition, prices are very low due to the low marginal costs that determine price. 55 In competition, there is a large consumer surplus (buyers having to pay less than they would be willing to) because of low prices. 55 There is an incentive for companies to price-discriminate among customers in order to reduce such consumer surplus.

2.2.1  Characteristic #1 of Media

2.2.2  Characteristic #2 of Media

2.2  The Microeconomics of the New

Media Economy

and Information: High Fixed Costs, Low Marginal Costs— Very High Economies of Scale

The first economic property is the fundamental cost structure of media products and services. They usually involve very high “fixed costs,” i.e. costs that remain constant independent of the number of units produced. At the same time, the “marginal costs” (the incremental costs required to produce the next unit) are relatively low. Media content is typically expensive to produce but cheap to reproduce.

2 3

Price, Derek John de Solla. See Cloud, Wallace. “Science Newsfront.” Popular Science 182, no. 3 (Mar 1963): 17. Information production in the Western world has increased since about CE (Common Era) 1000, with a nadir during the Dark Ages when a significant part of the information accumulated in the period of Antiquity was lost.

and Information: Network Effects

The second of the frequent economic properties of media is a “network effect.” Individual benefits from media are often interdependent of those of other users. Network effects arise when users benefit by sharing a resource such as a network, or sharing the experience with each other. The value to an individual of connecting to a network of users depends on the number of other people already connected to that network. The larger that network, the more value it provides to its users and the more valuable it becomes itself. For Internet and telecom companies or for social ­network providers such as Facebook, the benefits to users rise with the number of other users on the network. On the content side, too, a major benefit of media consumption is to share the experience

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Chapter 2 · The Information Environment

with one’s peers. To most individuals, the value of a film, TV show, music recording, or popular book rises as the experience is shared with many other people. Network effects have several business implications. As in the economies of scale—which describe advantages to size on the production side—size is important also on the consumption side. For certain goods and services, the larger the firm’s user base, the more value is provided to users. A song that gets attention on a large social network gains a cumulative advantage because many more want to be included in the experience.4 A firm that captures a relatively large share of an audience will often e­xperience further demand growth, and can charge users a higher price.

of information creates a poverty of attention”.7 New media consumption must be mostly supported by substitution from existing media in terms of time or full attention. Inevitably, this leads to competition for “mindshare” and “attention.” Compared with 1998, fewer than half of the new products make it to the bestsellers lists, reach the top of audience rankings, or win a platinum disc. The business consequence is more competition and greater specialization in media content and technology. In addition, a greater product innovation and marketing effort is necessary. Together, costs rise per product.

2.2.3  Characteristic #3 of Media

A major economic property of media has been price deflation. In general, when price competition occurs, in any industry, the price of a good or service is driven toward its marginal cost.8 Marginal cost for many information products and services is near-zero. But that low price, the revenues do not cover total cost, which also includes the high fixed cost. The result of price competition with low marginal cost has been price deflation in information products and services. This is a good deal for the consumer but a difficult problem for the creators, producers and distributors.9 Price deflation toward marginal cost poses a threat to their long-term viability, since low prices make it difficult to cover costs and achieve profitability. And that is, indeed, what has been happening. Information has become cheaper for many a decade. And it is becoming increasingly difficult to charge anything for it. Music and online content is increasingly free. Newspaper prices barely cover the cost of paper and delivery; the content is thrown in for free. As social media pioneer Stewart Brand said, “Information wants to be free.” Free in terms of content, but also free in terms of price.

and Information: Excess Supply

We observed that media production has been increasing exponentially. Media consumption, however, increases only linearly and slowly. Excess supply is inevitable; it is accelerated by the increased ease of spreading globally through ever-cheaper electronic distribution and the proliferation of start-­ up content providers. The compounded annual growth rate of media production is about 12.0%, whereas the compounded annual growth rate of media time consumption is only 1.2%. Even that rate will decline. As mentioned, the average American citizen already consumes 2100 hours of media per year—5.75  hours per day.5 Given time for sleep, eating and work, that number will increase only slowly. Thus, the demand gap is growing at over 10% each year. This has consequences for both content style and marketing.6 Attention is the scarce resource. As observed by Herbert A. Simon, the 1978 winner of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences, “a wealth 4

5 6

Salganik, Michael J., Peter Sheridan Dodds, and Duncan J. Watts. “Experimental Study of Inequality and Unpredictability in an Artificial Cultural Market.” Science 31, no. 5762 (February 10, 2006): 854–856; The Economist. “The gazillion-dollar question.” April 20, 2006. Last accessed on August 2, 2012. 7  http://www.economist.com/node/6794282. Some of this consumption is while multitasking, e.g. while driving or working. School of Information Management & Systems, University of California, Berkeley. “How Much Information.” 2000. Last accessed on May 14, 2008. 7  http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info/ summary.html#consumption.

2.2.4  Characteristic #4 of Media

and Information: Price Deflation

7

8 9

Simon, Herbert. “Designing Organizations for an Information-Rich World.” In Martin Greenberger. Computers, Communication, and the Public Interest (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), 37–72. Strictly speaking, toward its long-run marginal cost, where all inputs are variable. Collis, D. J., P. W. Bane, and S. P. Bradley. “Winners and Losers—Industry Structure in the Converging World of Telecommunications, Computing, and Entertainment.” In Competing in the Age of Digital Convergence, edited by D. B. Yoffie. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1997.

11 2.2 · The Microeconomics of the New Media Economy

Price deflation is one of the fundamental economic trends of our time. The entire competitive part of the information sector—from music to newspapers to telecoms to the Internet to semiconductors and anything in-between—has become subject to a gigantic price deflation in slow motion. This price deflation leads to economic pressure, to price wars that squeeze out weaker companies, followed by the jacking up of prices, volatility of prices, and to instability in the entire information sector. Therefore, one main strategy for media managers is to avoid such price competition; rather, they focus on product differentiation, price discrimination (differentiation), consumer lock-in strategies, and industry consolidation. Thus, it has been observed that the economics of information do not just frequently encounter imperfectly competitive markets, but that they actually require it.10 Without mechanisms that reduce competition such as patents or ­oligopolistic market structures, the creation of information such as media content and technological innovation becomes unprofitable. 2.2.5  Characteristic #5 of Media

and Information: Convergence of Technology

A major factor in the recent evolution of media and information is the increasing convergence of such media. Historically, media industries used to be separate from each other. Newspapers, music, TV, telecom, computers and so on were realms of their own, each with its own technologies, companies, suppliers, distributors and industry culture. Starting in the 1970s, integration between sectors in the technology industry began to occur with increasing technical overlap of devices, components and software. Any content can be digitized— encoded as a stream of bits, and then processed, shared, distributed and displayed in similar ways.11 In the 1980s, increased integration of technology extended the overlap also to consumer electronics and office equipment. For example, a smartphone 10 Evans, Philip, and Thomas S. Wurster. Blown to Bits (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000), 15–21. 11 Shapiro, Carl. and Hal R. Varian. Information Rules (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999), 1–18.

combines the technologies of telecom, computers, radio transceivers, ­consumer electronics, information vendors, TV players, video game consoles, calculators, cameras, music players, flashlights, dictaphones, e-books, navigation devices and more. The implications are that industries and firms that used to fill their separate niches comfortably are increasingly facing competition from each other. It also means that companies can expand more easily to adjoining markets, which facilitates the emergence of media conglomerates. These “economies of scope” and “synergies” of operating across multiple markets and products are increasing. Production and distribution across several lines of media business are often more cost-effective—all other things equal—than separate activities in each segment. 2.2.6  Characteristic #6 of Media

and Information: Importance of Intangible Assets

Many media and information activities are not based on physical assets but, rather, on “intangibles,” in particular on “intellectual assets.” There are multiple characteristics to this kind of capital: it is not inherently a scarce resource; it does not deplete with use; it can be shared; and it is hard to prevent others from using it. This is true for content as well as for technology. Coupled with the low marginal cost of copying, this invites appropriation by others and makes it difficult for the creator/producer/innovator to recoup their effort. Because this reduces the incentives to create and innovate, governments have created special property rights—in particular, patents and copyrights—and are engaged in the protection of these rights. Similarly, the distributors of information create protective technological and economic fences around their intellectual assets. 2.2.7  Characteristic #7 of Media

and Information: The Presence of Non-Maximizers of Profit

Many individuals in the media field derive utility from the process of creating a product, not from profiting from its sale. They like to perform, to see a play produced, to distribute poetry or a short story, to publish a scientific paper, or to contribute

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Chapter 2 · The Information Environment

code to a collective software development. Producing the good is not a chore but a benefit. When this occurs, it is hard to distinguish production from consumption. In standard economic analysis, producers follow the incentives of profits while consumers maximize their “utility.” In media production, however, creators are often incentivized to maximize recognition, not profit. This means that they may give the product away; or, that they will aim to reach only a small segment of important arbiters of quality, since such acceptance elevates their status. In either case, profitability is secondary. Larger media firms operate on more traditional incentives but, nevertheless, they are affected, since they must compete against these non-economic participants, or incorporate them into their own production and distribution models. 2.2.8  Characteristic #8 of Media

and Information: High Government Involvement

Governments are involved in most aspects of the media and communications sector. A private under-investment in the production of certain categories of useful information leads to government taking a role in assuring its creation (intellectual property rights) and supporting non-profit production (e.g. basic research, funding of universities, funding of the arts etc.). However, there are many other motivations for government involvement. Information distribution is considered essential and, hence, the government aims to make it widely available across geography and income classes, and to protect it against dominance by a private company. For instance, antitrust and anti-monopoly rules have been established to limit mergers and price fixing. Regulatory policy also seeks to reduce distributor power over content providers. The high impact of media companies on politics and culture is such that they are always controversial, highly visible, regulated and fought over. In consequence, there exists strong participation of and regulation by government in broadcasting, cable, satellite, telecom, mobile, film, IT and many other areas. Governments are involved in almost every aspect of media: in the protection of children and education, promotion of culture and national identity, economic growth and innovation, establish-

ment of infrastructure, protection against market power and opinion power, protection of intellectual property and so on. Considering the government’s strong regulatory presence, there is a need for media firms to be able to manage government relations. 2.2.9  Summary of Economic

Properties

We have identified eight factors of the media and information industry which are not unique to media industries, but which, in combination, make its management different, in some ways, from management more generally.12 We can compress these factors into three broad categories: 55 Very high advantages to size; 55 High uncertainty and market instability; 55 Public good characteristics. These characteristics affect almost every media and information activity. 2.3  Review Materials

Issues Covered In this chapter, we have covered the following issues: 55 The factors that make the management of media and information organizations different; 55 The technological and human drivers of the Information Revolution; 55 How fixed and marginal costs of media products and services are distributed; 55 How the excess in media supply and attention as a scarce resource influence content style and marketing; 55 How network effects benefit the consumption and production side; 55 How intangibles assets are protected and why they are important; 55 Why price deflation impacts the information sector;

12 Divergence in the cost trends in the value chain; Cumulative and accelerating returns; Non-normal distribution of risk; and Public good characteristics.

13 2.3 · Review Materials

55 How the convergence of technology and media channels creates the potential for synergy; 55 Why many providers of media content do not follow the traditional economic concept of profit maximization; 55 How the government is involved in the media and information sector.

??   9. Why do media companies incur such high fixed costs of production? Has this changed in recent years? Have the marginal costs of distribution changed? ?? 10. What are the causes and effects of price deflation in the media industry? How can media firms cope with it?

2.3.2  Quiz 2.3.1  Questions for Discussion ??   1. How should we define the information sector? ??   2. With information becoming a central part of the economy, should its production be left entirely to market forces? What is the role for the non-profit and governmental sectors in the distribution of information? ??   3. Extrapolating present trends for 20 years, what kind of economies will advanced countries have? What kind of industries and companies will succeed? ??   4. What were the success factors for business leaders in the Industrial Revolution and what are they for the Information Revolution? ??   5. Information technology progresses at the rate of Moore’s Law, but business, personal and societal adjustments are much slower. What are the implications? ??   6. How does managing in the economy of things differ from managing in the economy of information? ??   7. How does the information revolution affect the process of globalization? ??   8. How has the relationship between producers and consumers of media changed in the past decade?

?? 1. To be profitable in the information business usually requires imperfect markets. A. False. B. True. ?? 2. The economics of information production has a tendency toward: A. Diminishing returns for an initial period to be followed by increasing returns. B. Diminishing returns throughout. C. Increasing returns throughout. D. Increasing returns for an initial period to be followed by diminishing returns. ?? 3. The basic technology of the Industrial Revolution can be seen as an extension of: A. Information processing capabilities. B. Assembly lines. C. The Renaissance. D. Human physical strength. ?? 4. In terms of basic technology, what is the main driver of the Information Revolution? A. Disaggregating systems by stringing segmented devices. B. Ability to manipulate sub-atomic particles. C. Both of the above. D. None of the above. ?? 5. Perhaps the last major constraint on media consumption is: A. High price of media goods. B. Ubiquity of media goods. C. Bad programming. D. Limited time for consumption.

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?? 6. Which is not a fundamental characteristic of knowledge today? A. Proliferation. B. Innovation. C. Specialization. D. Scarcity.

?? 12. What are the segments of the media industry? A. Media devices. B. Distribution platforms. C. Content production. D. All of the above.

?? 7. Which is not an obstacle to the transition toward new media? A. Anti-P2P legislation. B. Network effects. C. Garnering the type of advertising revenue that the current mass media attracts. D. All of them can be obstacles.

?? 13. What makes the Information economy Schumpetarian? A. Rapid technological change and creative destruction. B. Increasing returns to scale. C. Decentralized economic actors. D. Ease of communication and symmetrical information exchange.

?? 8. The shape of the new media establishment seems to be, as such: A. A sphere, with equidistant unlimited nodes, all with equal power—it signifies total decentralization. B. A cube, with segments of equal reach—the symmetry signifies the balance between media producer and media consumer. C. A pyramid, with a few mass producers at the top and numerous media venues supporting it at the bottom. D. A simple arrow—projected toward an unknown and unpredictable future. ?? 9. All these characteristics make media management different except for: A. Difficulty in predicting consumer preferences. B. High fixed costs and low marginal costs. C. Price deflation and public good characteristics of products. D. Mostly scientific management methods. ?? 10. Network effects lead to: A. An elastic demand curve. B. Decentralization. C. Barriers to entry. D. Falling prices. ?? 11. What makes the media industry so risky? A. Of products, 10% make most of the profit. B. Price deflation. C. Market instability. D. All of the above.

?? 14. What causes market failures in the information sector? A. High fixed costs and low marginal costs in a competitive environment causes firms to price at a loss. B. Asymmetric information leads to adverse selection, so that only the consumers with the least to pay will read newspapers. C. Government intervention has disrupted the market mechanism and is creating significant dead weight loss. D. Positive externalities are not recognized by consumers of information products. ?? 15. Which of the following is not a characteristic of an intellectual asset? A. Does not deplete with use. B. Easy to price differentially. C. Not inherently a scarce resource. D. Can be shared. ?? 16. Which of the following is not a consequence of high fixed cost/low marginal cost characteristics for a media firm? A. Large “consumer surplus.” B. Incentives to piracy. C. No incentive to price discriminate among customers. D. Competitive prices are often unprofitable. E. First-mover advantage.

15 2.3 · Review Materials

?? 17. Why do governments often take a role in supporting the creation of information? A. Solely to have a stronger influence on the information. B. Information, as a public good, implies under-investments by private parties. C. Information wants to be free. D. Information, as a public good, implies over-investments by private parties. ?? 18. Information assets often have a shorter economic life than tangible ones. Why? A. High employee turnovers. B. As a society, we are getting smarter. C. Exponential growth of information shortens usefulness period. D. Can be shared easily. ?? 19. What should be a main strategy for media managers in terms of pricing? A. Typically, keep price competition in favor of competition on features and quality. B. Typically, avoid price competition in favor of competition on features and quality.



C. Cost-based pricing. D. Marginal-cost pricing.

?? 20. Managerial implications of price deflation in the overall information sector include which of the following: 1. Strong process and product innovation. 2. Outsourcing of production. 3. Short term sales contracts. A. 1 and 2. B. 1, 2 and 3. C. 1 and 3. D. 2 and 3. ?? 21. As the media sector is highly regulated by the government, what are the implications for media managers? A. Manage government relations as a business function. B. Industry is more volatile. C. Changing of pricing in mass media requires governmental approval. D. Greater flexibility in decision making.

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Quiz Answers

vv 11. D

vv  1. A

vv 12. D

vv  2. C

vv 13. A

vv  3. D

vv 14. A

vv  4. B

vv 15. B

vv  5. D

vv 16. C

vv  6. D

vv 17. B

vv  7. D

vv 18. C

vv  8. C

vv 19. B

vv  9. D

vv 20. A

vv 10. C

vv 21. A

17

Production Contents Chapter 3 Production Management in Media and Information – 19 Chapter 4 Technology Management in Media and Information Firms – 59 Chapter 5 Human Resource Management for Media and Information Firms – 97 Chapter 6 Financing Media, Information, and Communications – 127 Chapter 7

Intellectual Asset Management – 165

Chapter 8

Managing Law and Regulation – 201

II

19

Production Management in Media and Information 3.1

M  edia Production – 21

3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3

Introduction – 21 Content Production – 21 Special Characteristics in Content Production – 21

3.2

C  ontent Industries – 22

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6

E arly Content – 22 Types of Production – 22 Cost Characteristics: Film Versus Theater – 22 History of the Film Production Industry – 23 P  roduction in Other Media Industries – 24 The Global Success of the Hollywood Production Industry – 26 C  ase Discussion – 27

3.2.7

3.3

C  onventional Arguments for Hollywood’s Success in Production – 28

3.3.1 3.3.2

S upposed Advantage: Market Size? Language? – 28 2nd Supposed Advantage: Vertical Integration of Content with Distribution? – 29

3.4

O  rganizational Success Factors for Content Production – 30

3.4.1 3.4.2

 rganizational Structure – 30 O Funding and the Reduction of Risk – 32

3.5

P  roduct Development – 34

3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3

 oncept (Style) – 34 C Product Selection – 35 Product Development – 37

3.6

P  roduction Planning – 38

3.6.1 3.6.2

 perational Challenges for Content Production – 38 O Budgeting – 38

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_3

3

3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5

L ocation and Supply Chain – 42 Inventory Management – 43 Production Scheduling – 43

3.7

P  roduction Control – 46

3.7.1 3.7.2

 udget Control – 46 B Productivity Measurement – 46

3.8

R  evenue Shares of Producers in Media – 48

3.9

 ontent Production in the Next Generation C of Technology – 48

3.10

Case Discussion – 49

3.11

 onclusion: Success Elements for Content C Production – 53

3.12

Review Materials – 55

3.12.1 3.12.2

Questions for Discussion – 55 Quiz – 56



Quiz Answers – 58

21 3.1 · Media Production

3.1  Media Production 3.1.1  Introduction

The media sector has three legs: content, distribution and devices. In this chapter, we will address content, its production and, specifically, the following questions: 55 What are the ingredients of successful content production? 55 How is content production being organized on an industrial scale? 55 What management tools can be applied to media production? When it comes to media content—movies, TV shows, music, books, newspapers—it seems that everybody is an expert. It has surrounded us since birth individually and infused our culture collectively. Media content is not merely art and entertainment. It is also a worldwide role model, a trendsetter and moodsetter. Media content exerts influence on our values, our attitudes, our politics and our lifestyles. It is the subject of intense public fascination and scrutiny. It is also an industry and, for the USA, among the largest export businesses. Creativity is thought of as an individual activity, but it has become an organized business and social activity. Film, theater, opera and software development are all the result of highly organized collaboration and teamwork. Creative content is being created on an industrial scale—the “Dream Factory.” It is a complex process. 3.1.2  Content Production

Production management aims at a smooth and continuous flow of production. It must allocate resources to different activities. It aims to increase productivity. And it must have a system in place to measure and evaluate performance. Production activities in companies are often headed by the Chief Operations Officer (COO). The responsibilities of production management include: purchasing, inventories, and supply chain; process engineering; production scheduling and capacity planning; subcontracting; and locational choices. A sub-set is project management, which tends to be more limited in scope and time.

3.1.3  Special Characteristics

in Content Production

The basic stages of content production are similar to those of production more generally. Typically, production requires the following steps: 55 Market analysis; 55 Concept creation; 55 Selection; 55 Funding; 55 Product design; 55 Development; 55 Production planning; 55 Procurement and deployment of inputs; 55 Production and assembly; 55 Post-production improvements and quality control; 55 Preparation for distribution. Each of these steps also exists for content production. However, there are indeed differences, as we discussed in 7 Chap. 2 The Information Environment. These include: 55 An unusually high level of uncertainty about the commercial success of content products. 55 Extremely high fixed production costs and low reproduction costs. They require significant upfront capital to make the initial product. This means unusually high economies of scale, which are further increased by network effects: the users of a product partially increase the value of that product to other users. 55 There often exist content producers who do not aim to maximize profit, which affects the nature of competition. 55 Media content often has public good characteristics: its value goes beyond the immediate benefits to the producers, and it is often impractical to exclude non-payers from enjoying the content.  

We will discuss, in particular, the film industry, as it has always been the most commercialized of content media, with dynamics that has often foretold those of other media. In order to understand the success factors for content production, we will explore why one particular content production center—Hollywood—has been so successful, for so long, in so many countries and, potentially, now the Internet. This is despite the fact that Hollywood is a high-cost producer and that it has usually lacked a long-term strategic vision (e.g. it

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initially totally missed the ­significance of broadcast TV, cable TV, home video and the Internet). Also, Hollywood’s success is despite the fact that many major international markets have only been partly open, with many of them imposing import quotas for almost a century.1 Yet, none of this seems to have made a difference. Hollywood productions have remained predominant around the world throughout that time, despite countless efforts to support national production and to restrict Hollywood. In 1920, the Hollywood studios accounted for over 70% of the world’s movie revenues. In 2016, they still maintain about the same market share, 67.7.2 During this time, pretty much the same six firms (Universal, Paramount, Disney, Warner Bros., Columbia, 20th Century Fox) dominated and produced the majority of films. (MGM and RKO dropped out; Disney joined.) Not even Houston’s oil companies, New  York’s Wall Street and London’s City financial clusters, or Detroit’s automotive industry maintained such long-term global dominance. What does this tell us about the elements for success in content production? 3.2  Content Industries 3.2.1  Early Content

The production of what we now call “media content” goes back to the early days of humanity, when individuals and groups performed for their community or overlords. Over time, this became organized and institutionalized—theater in ancient Greece, gladiatorial spectacles in Imperial Rome, playhouses in Elizabethan London, opera stages in Italy. Some performers were individual content providers, such as bards, troubadours and minstrels. They provided entertainment and news. Others were teams organized as content companies that produced and performed spectacles, plays and music events. In nineteenth-century America and Europe, popular entertainment was provided by theater, opera, circus and various kinds of burlesque

1 2

For example, import quotas and restrictions were set in Germany and France in 1921. Tartaglione, Nancy. “2016 Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts & China Dips—Studio Chart.” Deadline Hollywood. Last updated January 5, 2017. 7  http://deadline.com/2017/01/highestgrossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.

shows. But the economics were unfavorable—they were relatively expensive events to produce, and the limited potential for automation and mass production meant it was difficult to expand performances to larger audiences. The “craft”-style content production was ready to be replaced by a mass production model in the same way that print technology had industrialized the book medium after the sixteenth century. For music, this technology emerged after 1877 with the Edison phonograph; for moving visual imagery, film technology made a big splash after 1895. 3.2.2  Types of Production

Production is generally done in one of two basic ways: as a “job shop” or as a “flow shop.” A job shop means a specialized craft production. This approach creates special and highly varied products and uses general tools. In the media field, examples for job shop productions are plays, music events and books. Job shop productions typically require a relatively limited upfront capital investment to cover the relatively small upfront overheads, but they have relatively high variable costs of production for the individual item. In contrast, a “flow shop” is a process of mass production that requires specialized resources. Flow jobs tend to be industrial productions, i.e. on a larger scale and repetitive. They are characterized by high fixed costs but low marginal costs. They are less flexible than a job shop production and require larger capital investment. Examples of flow shop productions are newspapers and magazines in content creation, and telecommunications services in distribution. In media and technology, there are typically two stages of production. The first is the production of the “first copy”, which has job shop/craft characteristics; the second is the making of reproductions and their distribution, which have flow shop/industrial characteristics. 3.2.3  Cost Characteristics: Film

Versus Theater

The basic economic advantage of film over theater is that its distribution cost per viewer is only 1% or less of the cost to distribute a similar item

23 3.2 · Content Industries

of content via live theater. This low cost facilitates distribution to audiences of many millions. However, to make millions of people want to see a particular film rather than any of its rivals, one needs to create a highly attractive product. This requires a higher upfront production costs for the film than is spent on a theatrical show.3 These costs can then be spread over the larger audience. Thus, content production costs for Hollywood films (the fixed costs) have risen, over time, to the remarkable figure of approximately $10,000/ second—500 times higher than for a typical commercial theater production. Thus, film shifts costs away from the variable costs of distribution to the fixed costs of content production. The cheaper the distribution, the more elaborate the content production can become, since it is spread across more users. It is one of the economic characteristics of an industry with high fixed costs and low marginal costs that it has high economies of scale—large providers have cost advantages over small ones (provided they produce reasonably efficiently). The same cost dynamics apply to a comparison of printed books with hand-written manuscripts. A printing press reduces incremental cost, but increases upfront investment in fixed costs. It is also the case for recorded music vs. live music, or for off-the-shelf packaged software vs. customized programs. It is the economics of industrial mass production vs. those of artisan production. However, it is also a double-edged sword. Production with higher fixed costs and lower marginal costs is more profitable when the number of tickets or copies sold is large. Conversely, it can also lead to a much higher loss when the number of tickets sold is low. It is the higher-risk strategy. To deal with this downside, risk reduction therefore becomes a central management task in the content production of mass-market media. A second management consequence is that a high-fixed cost, low marginal cost industry with its high economies of scale means a more concentrated industry structure, composed of a few large firms. These dimension of content production will now be discussed, with the film industry, which has pioneered many of the business models of media, as the main example. 3

For theater, these upfront production costs include expenses up to the opening show, after which the costs are those of reproduction.

3.2.4  History of the Film

Production Industry

In the 1820s and 1830s, Nicéphore Niépce and Louis Daguerre, in France, and William Fox Talbot, in England, invented the process of photography, using glass plates. In the 1880s, George Eastman of the USA created celluloid film that could be rolled up, and he introduced cheap Kodak cameras. In 1891, Thomas Edison’s laboratory invented the Kinetoscope, where the viewer stared into a box to see moving images. However, Edison’s peep-show style display could only be viewed individually, or by small groups using a bank of consoles. In contrast, the brothers Louis and Auguste Lumière of Lyon, France, projected their moving images onto a screen, facilitating mass audiences. Their first film clip was L’Arrivée d’un train à la Ciotat (1895). Its first showing was in Paris in 1895 and can be counted as the beginning of the film medium as popular entertainment. Almost immediately, new types of content began to emerge; film moved beyond novelty to a medium of considerable creativity. Already in 1902, A Trip to the Moon, a science fiction film, was produced in France with new special effects. Physical comedy emerged, and the antics of comedians such as Charlie Chaplin were distributed worldwide. The first Western film, The Great Train Robbery, was created, as was the first sexually suggestive film, The Gay Shoe Clerk. These and other productions could venture into content that theater could not accomplish technically or financially—special effects and genuine outdoor scenes. The fundamental economics of the film medium led also to imitation, piracy and to attempts to monopolize markets. In 1908, in a bid to control the industry, the so-called “Edison Cartel” pooled the patents of the industry leaders Edison, Pathé, Vitagraph, Eastman Kodak, and Biograph, as well as the financial resources of J.P. Morgan. The cartel possessed patents, theaters, money, lawyers and connections. Yet, it was unable to suppress independent film entrepreneurs. These emerged from the popular entertainment industry (such as vaudeville) that catered to working-class audiences, or from retail and merchandizing trades. These pioneers established the film companies that continue to exist into the twenty-first century.

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3

..      Fig. 3.1  Universal Studios lot 1936

As the industry grew, the studios organized factory-like production facilities and employed actors, directors, craftsmen, crews and equipment that could be used for many projects (. Fig. 3.1).4 They moved into flow-type production, creating hundreds of films each year. The MGM studio in Culver City could shoot six different films at the same time. Feature films could be shot in less than a week.5 The legendary Cecil B. DeMille at times directed and produced two films simultaneously. Today, the six major Hollywood film studios that dominate the film business are fairly similar in size, with market shares of about 10–15%, depending on the success of a particular season.  

3.2.5  Production in Other

Media Industries

3.2.5.1  Books

After the emergence of print technology in the fifteenth century, early printers at first also functioned as publishers by selecting and commissioning content. Printing centers emerged, such as Venice and Amsterdam. In the early eighteenth century, publishing separated from printing and became a profession in its own right. Publishers such as Weidmann (Leipzig) and Longmans (London) have continued into the twenty-first

4

5

The Studio Tour. “Universal Studio 1936 Aerial.” Last accessed July 18, 2017. 7  http://www.thestudiotour.com/ush/frontlot/images/1936_aerial.jpg. Epstein, Edward Jay. The Big Picture, The New Logic of Money and Power in Hollywood. New York: E.J.E. Publication, Ltd., 2005. This highly informative book was a frequent source for factual information for this book.

century. In the USA, the structure of the book industry, after a period of fragmentation and easy entry, stabilized in the 1920s and centered on a handful of major publishing companies surrounded by thousands of small firms. The large publishers were McGraw-Hill, Random House, Simon & Schuster, Little Brown, HarperCollins, and MacMillan, and were mostly located in New York. The book industry has fairly high marginal costs and moderate fixed costs; its economies of scale are therefore moderate. This has contributed to an industry with numerous small publishers (about 3000), and to a huge number of individual products, most of them with a small production run. Combined with the rising supply of authors, the number of titles published has grown strongly. Publishers need to make numerous managerial decisions beyond the editorial ones and are the central node in book production. They select authors and manuscripts; improve the product; oversee printing and manufacturing in-house or outsourced, and determine the quantity; they market the book, set prices, secure copyrights and license subsidiary rights; they manage the distribution channels; and collect sales proceeds and distribute them to claimants such as authors.6 3.2.5.2  Newspapers and Magazines

In the richer countries, newspaper penetration used to be high but it has been steadily declining. In the USA, 78% of the adult population read a daily paper in 1970. That number dropped to 51.6% by 2005, 33.7% by 20147, 8, 9 and 28% in 2016.10 Some countries have a newspaper system

Bailey, Herbert S. The Art and Science of Book Publishing. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1990. 7 Newspaper Association of America. “Newspaper Readership & Audience by Age and Gender.” NAA.org. Last updated March 18, 2013. 7  http:// www.naa.org/Trends-and-Numbers/Readership/Age-and-Gender.aspx. 8 Newspaper Association of America. “Daily Readership Trend – Total Adults (1988–2005).” Newspaper Association of America. (1988–2005). Last updated October 2005. 7  http://www.naa.org/marketscope/pdfs/ Daily_National_Top50_1998-2005.pdf. 9 Pew Research Journalism Project. “Newspaper Readership by Age.” Pew Research Center. Last updated July 2014. 7  http://www.journalism.org/ media-indicators/newspaper-readership-by-age/. 10 Edmonds, Rick. “Newspaper declines accelerate, latest Pew Research finds, other sectors healthier.” Poynter. Last updated June 15, 2016. 7  http://www.poynter.org/2016/newspaper-declines-accelerate-latestpew-research-finds-other-sectors-healthier/416657/. 6

25 3.2 · Content Industries

based on large, nationwide newspapers; examples are Japan and the UK. Other countries have a system of local/regional papers, for example, the USA and Germany. The newspapers distributed in the USA nationally are The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, and The New York Times. Aside from such presence, in most US cities newspapers operate in a near-monopolistic local market structure. In 2014, only 20 American cities were served by two or more separately owned competing local dailies. The city population needed for the general assurance of a single local paper in the year 2000 was above 100,000 whereas, in 1980, this figure had been only half that number. To sustain more than one daily local newspaper required, on average, a population of more than one million, double the figure in 1980.11 In many countries, the market share of the top newspaper publishing company is quite high: Mexico (O.E.M. 49.4%); Turkey (Dogan 63%); Australia (News Corp. 58%); Chile (Mercurio 55%); Ireland (INM 52%); South Africa (Naspers 36%); Argentina (Clarin 45%); France (Amaury 30%); and the UK (News Corp. 35%).12 In the USA, the largest newspaper company is Gannett, with a market share of 12% in 2016. Given the historically central role of newspapers in political and commercial communications, there has been a great deal of concern about the decline of newspapers. The continued trend toward local market newspaper monopoly, the mergers of newspaper groups, shrinking circulations and the emergence of the Internet as an effective delivery platform of free news and targeted advertising have raised worldwide alarms about the future viability of newspapers. Newspapers firms responded by further consolidation, using technology to streamline production and distribution processes, and the cutting of editorial costs (and often quality). But, in particular, newspapers “repurposed” their content in new electronic ways to compete for consumer attention and advertiser support. Magazines do not include up-to-the minute news and are able to rely on more leisurely

11 Noam, Eli. Media Ownership and Concentration in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, 142. 12 Noam, Eli. Who Owns the World’s Media? New York: Oxford University Press, 2016

delivery systems than newspapers.13 Magazines rapidly adapt to changing interests and activities in society; as a result, the industry has faced a less steep decline than daily newspapers. The major magazine groups tend to publish dozens of different titles, with economies realized in the physical production and distribution more than in content production. In the USA, these groups are Advance Publications, Meredith, and Hearst, each with about 7–9%. Internationally, aside from the Government of China and the three US groups mentioned, the largest groups are the commercial publishers Abril and Globo (both in Brazil), Bauer, Axel Springer, Burda, and Bertelsmann (Germany), Lagardere (France), Sanoma (Finland) and Bonnier (Sweden). 3.2.5.3  Music

The recorded music industry is internationally concentrated and integrated with other media. Three major music groups own large numbers of specialized and national labels worldwide, each with its own character and specialties. The Universal Music Group, owned by the French company Vivendi, has a global market share of 33.5%, Sony (Japan) holds 22.6% and the Warner Music Group (USA) 17.1%. For a traditional music CD, the production activities (artist, songwriter, composer, copyright, producer, recording, manufacturing, and allocated overheads and profit) account for about 53% of overall revenue. Distribution accounts for 37%. For online music, production gets about 44% of revenues.14 3.2.5.4  Television Content

Much TV content has a short half-life, especially news and sports events. “Disposable television” includes talk shows, award galas, and so on. However, a short economic life has advantages, too, since it attracts less piracy. Other major parts of TV entertainment content are serials and

13 Compaine, Benjamin M. and Douglas Gomery. Who Owns The Media? 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 2000, 147–193. 14 For online music, the retailer—such as Apple iStore—takes about 30%; the distributor (for encoding, submission and so on) 8%; the producer/ label 28% (the latter includes marketing 11%, production 10%, administration/overheads 5%, and profit 2%); advertising intermediaries 16%; the artist 10%; songwriter and composer 6%.

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“made-­ for-­ TV” films. These have increasingly become part of subsequent distribution over the Internet. The world’s largest producers of TV content are state-owned broadcast entities (such as in China, Egypt and Russia), and national public service broadcasters such as BBC (UK), RAI (Italy), NHK (Japan), and ARD and ZDF (Germany). Large commercial TV producers are Globo (Brazil); Televisa (Mexico); NTV, TV Asahi, Fuji, TBS (Japan); SBS (Korea); Bertelsmann (Germany) and Fininvest (Berlusconi, Italy). In the USA, the largest TV content producers in 2013 were Disney (29.0%), Viacom/CBS (20.1%), Universal (Comcast, 16.3%), 21st Century Fox (Murdoch, 7.8%), Time Warner (10.7%) and Sony (4.5%). Almost all these companies not only produce, but also operate broadcast and cable channels. Market shares vary from year to year based on the success of particular shows.

3.2.6  The Global Success of the

Hollywood Production Industry

We now return to a discussion of the film industry. For several centuries, the flow of culture— books, theater and music—flowed largely in one direction: out of Europe to the colonies and the rest of the world. Then, however, the direction of the flow reversed for the youthful medium of film. Starting in 1910, American films accounted for over half of the box office in Europe, exceeding domestic products even in France, Germany and the UK, and this percentage grew in the 1920s. In response, protective import quotas and restrictions on the repatriation of box office earnings were speedily established in the major European countries. In effect, this was an early regulatory measure against cultural globalization—which, until then, had been acceptable in music and literature. Content protectionism serves three func3.2.5.5  Video Games tions: to shelter a country’s national culture and Video games, though distributed by game pub- identity, to support the influential cultural prolishers, are actually written by different types of duction sector and its workforce, and to help projdevelopers: in-house teams of the publishers, ect a country’s visibility worldwide. The measures independents who may self-publish and self-­ employed were direct governmental subsidies, distribute, and third-party contractors. When import quotas, screen and broadcast quotas, and self-developing, the distribution forms hire pro- tax breaks. Many of these policies have persisted in grammers, game designers, artists, sound engi- one form or another for almost a century. Even so, neers, producers and testers. of the top 40 grossing films worldwide in almost Major games cost easily $10 million and more every year almost all were Hollywood producto produce, plus $10 million to market. Game tions. In most countries, audiences prefer domesplatforms are subject to a five-year hardware cycle tically produced films. Imported Hollywood films of technology generations, and game companies follow behind as the second most popular and, as must redesign most of their game software on they are more numerous, they thus dominate. The the same schedule to conform to the enhanced key problem is that films from third countries— technological capabilities of the new-generation including films from neighboring countries—are platforms. much less popular outside their own country. In The video game industry has moved to eco- 2004, only 8% of film revenue in Europe was from nomics similar to those of Hollywood. This European films shown outside their own national includes high budgets and a reliance on block- market in other European countries.16 busters.15 The industry introduced in-game What, then, are the reasons for Hollywood’s advertisements similar to TV commercials. success as a content production center? The answers may help to identify the main success factors for content production more generally.

15 Nussenbaum, Evelyn. “News and Analysis; Video Game Makers Go Hollywood. Uh-Oh.” New York Times. August 22, 2004. Last accessed April 11, 2017. 7  http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/22/business/news-andanalysis-video-game-makers-go-hollywood-uh-oh.html.

16 European Audiovisual Observatory. Focus 2004 – World Film Market Trends. Cannes: Marché du Film, 2004. Last accessed August 7, 2012. 7  http://www.obs.coe.int/online_publication/reports/focus2004.pdf.

27 3.2 · Content Industries

3.2.7  Case Discussion Canal Plus and the Hollywood Advantage France is the birthplace of film and is also a significant market for the medium. In 2016, 209 million tickets were sold; 34.5% of admissions were for French films, while 53.6% were for American films, an increasing number over 2011 when it was 48%;17 and 211 French films were released,18 which made France the largest film producer in Europe. Canal Plus (or Canal+) is the major French film distribution and production company, a subsidiary of the multi-media firm Vivendi. It has its own production arm (StudioCanal) and distribution channels in France, Europe and Africa. Cinema in France To understand the present and future of Canal Plus, one must understand its past. For several decades, French film had been a relatively weak exporter. In other cultural markets, French cultural products have been highly successful around the world. Paris is the capital of fashion and cuisine; its books are read worldwide. In popular French music, dance music group Daft Punk has become highly successful. Its album Random Access Memories, released in 2013, sold half a million copies and was number one in the Billboard album chart. Another famous French musician is the rock star Johnny Hallyday, who has sold more than 100 million albums worldwide. For decades, many of the major French films were elaborate productions of classic novels of French culture. This “cinema of quality” was supported by government funds. Critics covered it gently. Outside of France, it left no mark. A dissident group of

gifted writers and critics centered around the journal Cahiers du Cinema, including Francois Truffault, Jean-Luc Godard, Eric Rohmer and Jacques Rivette, and attacked this tradition. Starting in the late 1950s, they began to make their own movies. The result was a major renaissance in French filmmaking. 120 first-time directors made full-length films in the years 1958–1964. Governmental or public-service TV usually supported these films. This era is known as the French New Wave—Nouvelle Vague. Other French filmmakers in those years included Claude Chabrol, Jean Renoir and Alain Resnais.19 Soon, however, the New Wave crested. Financial success was less frequent, and younger audiences did not follow the 1960s generation in enthusiasm. By the late 1970s, French film had declined again. To deal with this decline, the French government created a financial support mechanism. Its most notable element was through the creation of the new pay-TV channel Canal Plus in the mid-1980s. Previously, under conservative French presidents de Gaulle and Pompidou, French TV was totally owned and controlled by the government, for which it was the mouthpiece. De Gaulle’s influence rested on his direct TV addresses to the nation. A new socialist president, Francois Mitterand, himself long a victim of such state TV, opened the medium, and created the first pay-TV channel, Canal Plus. But, staying within the paradigm of state control, it was guided by Andre Rousselet, the President’s

17 Centre National du Cinema et De L’Image Animee. “Theater Admissions—Estimates for February 2017.” Last modified March 3, 2017. 7  http://www.cnc.fr/web/en/theater-admissions. 18 The Numbers. “Movies Produced by France and Released in 2016.” Accessed April 11, 2017. 7  http://www.the-numbers.com/France/movies/year/2016.

closest advisor, chief of staff, regular golfing partner, campaign finance director and the executor of his will. Rousselet became head of the largest French advertising and media company, Havas, which then received from the government a monopoly license to transmit pay-TV in France, as Canal Plus. Being the state-licensed monopolist of pay-TV, Canal Plus was able to charge prices that would have failed in more competitive markets. In 2014, it charged almost $53 per month. In contrast, HBO or Showtime in the USA charge $11–$17. In return for its profitable exclusivity20 in pay-TV, Canal Plus had to agree to allocate 10% of its revenues to the production of French films. This revenue source became the major funder of French cinema. Vivendi—The Parent Company Vivendi is the largest European media company. Its origin is the French municipal water utility Compagnie Generale Des Eau, created by edict of Napoleon III in 1853. Eventually, water distribution led to waste management, construction, energy, cable TV distribution and mobile telecom. The media part was renamed “Vivendi.” Its president, Jean-Marie Messier, was a highly entrepreneurial leader who admired the American media CEO model. He made the company a major vehicle of growth. Vivendi diversified by buying the second French cellular telecom operator, the videogame companies Activision and Blizzard Games, and Canal Plus. It then acquired the major Hollywood studio and music companies Universal Pictures and Universal

19 Grant, Barry Keith. Schirmer Encyclopedia of Film. Detroit: Schirmer Reference, 2007, 235. 20 Canal Plus briefly got competition for terrestrial pay-TV, 30 years later, when the French government licensed SelecTV, which, however, went bankrupt after a short time.

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Music in 2000. Eventually, however, Vivendi over-extended itself and faced huge debt obligations and insolvency. The losses in 2001 stood at $11.2 billion. Messier was fired, and Vivendi sold off some of its acquisitions, including most of Universal Pictures. Messier was charged with securities violations and, a decade later, was slapped on the wrist to pay a fine of €150,000.

Vivendi became a classic vertically integrated multi-national mass media and telecommunication company with activities in music, television, film, publishing, telecommunications, the Internet and video games.21 Its market share in the film market in France is 26.8%, far ahead of others, including Hollywood firms whose combined share was about 50%. In 2016, Canal Plus accounted for 23% of Vivendi’s profits.22

3.3  Conventional Arguments

for Hollywood’s Success in Production

3.3.1  Supposed Advantage:

Market Size? Language?

Many explanations have been offered for Hollywood’s enduring success as a center for content production. The most frequent reasons given are the large scale of the market, as well as political and economic power; superior access to talent; and vertical integration of production and distribution. These factors will now be discussed, as they are relevant to all types of content industries. The conventional argument for content success is that a large domestic market must exist before exporting the content worldwide. Thus, the US population is about 318 million, whereas the French population, for example, is only 66 ­million. A 2013 compilation finds that English as a first and second language was understood by 840 million people. For French, the number was 486 million; for Spanish, 430 million; for Portuguese, 310 million; and for Arabic, 620 million. It is highest for Mandarin at 1036 million and Hindi/Urdu at 850 million.23 Thus, English by sheer numbers is not a radical outlier, though

21 Vivendi. “Vivendi in Brief.” Last accessed April 12, 2017. 7  http://www. vivendi.com/en/vivendi-en/. 22 Vivendi. Vivendi 2016 Annual Report. Last accessed April 12, 2017. 7  http://www.vivendi.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/20170223_ Financial_Report_and_Consolidated_Financial_Statements_FY_2016. pdf. 23 Simons, Gary F. and Charles D. Fennig. Eds. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 20th ed. Dallas, TX: SIL International, 2017. Online version: 7  http://www.ethnologue.com.

Canal Plus has a stake in twothirds of French film production and is the prime provider of original cable TV content in France. It is Europe’s largest film distributor (over pay-TV) and film producer, and it wants to export worldwide, including to the USA. The question is, how this might be done? How can Canal Plus become a global content producer? What kind of content should Canal Plus produce, and how?

it is clearly by far the most influential and global language, and is spoken by an economically affluent slice of the world’s population. But is market size, even when weighted by income, determinative of production success? If it were, this would relegate small countries into permanent roles as importers. However, such “two-­stage” thinking, in which exports are only a subsequent second step after domestic success, makes no sense for a business firm. With such economic logic, there would be no major industry of making watches in Switzerland, chocolate in Belgium, software in Israel and Ireland, or video games or consumer electronics in Korea. All these countries are relatively small. None possesses unique natural resources. But they are major exporters of their products despite (or, perhaps, because of) their limited national markets. In the modern economy, producers must plan from the beginning to sell in a world market, rather than only domestically. That it can be profitable for media companies from small or medium-sized countries to become large in global terms can be seen by the world’s largest commercial book publishers. In 2009, these had been #1 Bertelsmann (Germany); #2 Lagardère/Hachette (France); #3 Fininvest/ Mondadori (Italy); #4 Planeta (Spain); followed by a US company (Harper Collins) as #5, controlled by the long-time Australian Rupert Murdoch’s News Corp. All of these companies made a substantial part of their business outside their home base. But an exports orientation also has an impact on content. If export revenues rise in importance, the incentives for content in terms of themes and style will be more global and less local. Therefore,

29 3.3 · Conventional Arguments for Hollywood’s Success in Production

content that aims at export will most likely shed some of its domestic distinctions in favor of a wider global appeal. “Mid-Atlantic” or “mid-­ Pacific” content emerges. An extreme example, in the late 1960s, was the highly successful films out of Italy known as “Spaghetti Westerns,” which emulated American cowboy films. Given the worldwide popularity of the genre at the time, these Italian-made films were hits everywhere. But they were not particularly Italian in content. Similarly, television content, for worldwide success, becomes export-oriented. Endemol, a Netherlands-­based firm, developed TV formats that were then widely franchised, such as “Big Brother” and “Fear Factor.” There are few elements in it that are distinctively Dutch or Western European. The same dynamics affect American content. Not all content is equally exportable. Films with action, adventure, physical comedy and special effects generally travel well to other countries. In contrast, comedy films are more difficult to translate in terms of language and subtext. Social controversies such as race themes do not export well, either. In consequence, the tastes of foreign audiences affect American film themes and casting. In the casting of films, an increasingly multinational set of performers is chosen for their marketing appeal. A large domestic market helps content production. But it can be overcome by a firm that “thinks globally” in its content production strategy rather than locally, and on a scale that goes beyond its domestic position. It must not think of exports as an aftermarket but as the market. This, however, means a reduction of the national character of the content in order to appeal to a wider audience, through themes, styles and costs. (There will, of course, be a few exceptions in which the very “foreign-ness” of content is its attraction.) 3.3.2  2nd Supposed Advantage:

Vertical Integration of Content with Distribution?

Many people believe that the success of content producers requires that they control distribution channels, which gives them advantages over competitors. There are two major kinds of vertical

integration for media. The first, backward integration, is when a distribution company such as a TV network produces its own inputs such as TV shows. By doing so, the company controls the costs and quality of inputs. The other kind of vertical tie-in, forward integration, is when production firms control distribution channels. This ensures distribution, markets and supply, while also helping to create product synergy. Examples are when a music company or book publisher operates its own distribution through retail stores or “media clubs.” The major distribution companies handle products created by their own affiliated production companies, but they also distribute content produced by independent and foreign producers, and even by competitors. This is true for film, TV, music, or videogames. It is also the case, in some instances, for book, newspapers and magazine publishing. What are the business reasons for the vertical integration of production and distribution? 55 Vertical integration is advantageous to a content producing company in order to control the release of its products and their prices through a “release sequence” of different outlets, different timings, coordinated planning and different prices. 55 The cross-marketing of multiple products and a cross-platform distribution are facilitated, thereby reducing transaction costs. 55 To a distributor, it is advantageous to have assured access to products it controls, and to favor those products over those of others. Attractive content may be scarce, and superior access to it provides a distributor with market power. 55 Through vertical integration, market power can be extended from one stage of the value chain to another, e.g. from distribution to production, and used to foreclose markets to competitors. 55 Rivals can be subjected to a vertical “price squeeze” in which the wholesale market price for their product is kept low by their rival’s domination of wholesale distribution. The vertically integrated rival then shifts its profit to the wholesale sector from the production sector. The same can be done by a company that dominates retail.

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That said, economists are generally skeptical about these alleged business advantages of vertical integration. (The exception exists when high market power in one stage is extended into a competitive stage. An example of this would be Microsoft using its market power in operating systems – i.e. Windows – to gain market share in related applications programs such as word processing.) Generally, favoring one’s own product is sensible only if it is a stronger product. It is not economically rational for a distributor to reject another producer’s blockbuster and push its own less popular product into distribution. Similarly, it is not economically rational for a distributor to be a captive buyer for an inferior product of its own production company. Disney, as a TV show producer, should sell any of its new programs to the highest bidder, not to only to its own TV network ABC.  And the ABC network, similarly, should buy the most attractive programs at the best price, not specifically those produced by Disney companies. Vertical integration works where market power lies in one segment and is expanded to a competitive segment, thus foreclosing markets to competitors. But the source of the advantage is the market power in a segment, not the vertical integration itself. When it comes to advantages such as cross-marketing, timing of release and so on, a media firm can achieve through contracts most of the same results. The existence and magnitude of “synergies” have been exaggerated by empire-builders and deal brokers. The actual performance of the vertically merged entities has often been disappointing. To conclude the wider point of the discussion so far: the conventional explanations for success as a content producer—as exemplified by Hollywood—have been: domestic market size, and vertical integration of production and distribution. These factors are helpful, to some extent, but are not the core reasons for success. They should not deter other film producers and distributors. Instead, the major factor for a content company’s sustained economic achievements is the effectiveness of its production system and product development. These are key elements that are not exclusive to Hollywood. They will now be ­discussed.

3.4  Organizational Success Factors

for Content Production

There are three factors for a superior production process for content: A. Organizational structure; B. Risk reduction; C. Product development. 3.4.1  Organizational Structure 3.4.1.1  Networked Production

When people discuss film production they tend to talk about the “studios” that they are producing all “Hollywood” movies. This is not so. A production process can be one in which all activities are conducted in-house or, alternatively, by outsourcing many activities, with the firm being more in the nature of assembling the pieces and functioning as a marketing brand. This is true for consumer electronics just as it is for content production. Up to the 1950s, the Hollywood film studios were integrated mass producers, like automobile makers or oil companies. In consequence, they operated with high overhead costs. The invasion of television forced the Hollywood studios to ­re-­engineer themselves in the 1960s. The main strategy was, first, to position themselves at the high-end of the product spectrum and leave cheaper mass production (B-movies) to TV.  Second—and this has been much more important in management terms, even if it is less noticed by film fans—was to lower overhead costs by shifting to a project-­based organization. The studios moved from mass-producing commodity content along the “flow-shop” model of production to a customized production model— a “job shop”—based on ad hoc specialists and a networked production system. Contributors to a project—such as actors, writers, musicians, cinematographers, editors and financiers—became free-lancers. Over 100,000 of the film industry’s workers are now independents, or work for tiny companies with fewer than 10 people.24 What 24 Kotkin, Joel and David Friedman. “Why Every Business Will Be Like Show Business.” Inc. March 1, 1995. Last accessed April 12, 2017. 7  https:// www.inc.com/magazine/19950301/2182.html.

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31 3.4 · Organizational Success Factors for Content Production

Specialist 2

Specialist 1

Specialist 3

Integrator A Specialist 7

Specialist 4

Specialist 5 Specialist 6 Aggregator I

Integrator B

Specialist 8

Specialist 9 Specialist 10

Integrator C

Specialist 11 Specialist 12

..      Fig. 3.2  Networked production

the major Hollywood studios do is provide back-office support for production teams, some financing, and distribution/marketing. This structure has several benefits: it is relatively low on bureaucracy, low in capital overheads and low on employee fringe benefits such as pensions and health plans. These trends restructure an industry from vertically integrated production companies with in-­house employee talent and skills to a system of horizontal specialists for hire. These specialists are brought in for in-house projects, or by specialist outsourced companies. It was an early version of a “gig-economy” based on freelancers and independent contractors. This decentralized organizational model was adopted by other leading industries. High-tech companies in Silicon Valley are a good example. The former chairman of Intel, Andy Grove (former CEO of Intel), compared the software industry to the theater, where producers, directors, actors, technicians and

others are brought together briefly to create a new production.25 A networked structure for production emerges, shown in . Fig. 3.2. In this illustration, there are three levels of hierarchy in content production: aggregators, integrators, and specialists. The aggregator (I) is a distributor TV network, or online platform that put together packages of content. The i­ ntegrators (A–C) are the film and TV producers and entrepreneurs who create specific ­content products by bringing together specialized talent (1–12) and management. There may be a fourth level, when the specialists are themselves firms that put together individual talent. A fifth level may exist when multiple aggregators (networks) are combined in a larger platform such as cable TV or an online film website.  

25 Rifkin, Jeremy. “When Markets Give Way to Networks…Everything Is a Service.” The Age of Access: How the Shift from Ownership to Access is Transforming Modern Life. London: Penguin, 2000, 361–374.

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Such network structures exist, or are emerging, in many content media, including film production, software development, video game development, recorded music, book publishing and many magazines.

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3.4.1.2  Clustering

Specialization both encourages and feeds on geographic clustering. Clustering enables specialization. It also leads to a disaggregation of the production process into multiple firms and providers that are assembled for each project into an ad hoc organization. Clustering is prevalent in the media and information sectors. Major reasons for the formation of economic clusters are: 55 Positive network effects: The various specialists encourage each other, and this attracts yet more specialists, in a “virtuous” cycle. 55 Clusters encourage investment in reputation for high-quality and cooperative behavior. This is because there are repeated interactions among the parties in a cluster. Film clusters exist in other countries. But the Hollywood cluster is the largest. Companies outside this cluster therefore have to make more of an effort to link up with it, and benefit from its scale and network effects. Electronic communications make this easier—and, in the process, are broadening the geographic footprint to a virtual one. Nevertheless, the person-to-­person aspect remains important for creativity, deals and the informal bonds that reduce transaction costs.26 To conclude: this, then, is the organizational structure of Hollywood: 55 Entrepreneurial specialization and fierce competition in production; 55 Oligopoly in distribution. There are also similar structures—though less developed—for music labels, book imprints, and video games.

26 Kotkin, Joel and David Friedman. “Why Every Business Will Be Like Show Business.” Inc. March 1, 1995. Last accessed April 12, 2017. 7  https:// www.inc.com/magazine/19950301/2182.html.

3.4.2  Funding and the Reduction

of Risk

The second major economic factor in content production is money. This is often described as “access to capital,” and Hollywood is said to possess such access. But “access” is a meaningful concept only in association with a price. The price of money is the interest rate (explicit or implicit); it is determined by the perceived risk to the investor that must be compensated. Such risk can be reduced by managerial actions. Thus, the access to capital is ultimately a matter of risk management. Risk reduction is a major factor for superior production. According to a 2013 study by the British Film Institute, of 613 UK films made between 2003 and 2010, only 7% made a profit and, of low budget films, only 3.1%. For big budget films, it was still low at 20%. There have been cases where a film flop ruined an entire movie studio, such as the tradition-rich studio United Artists, through Heaven’s Gate, and the upstart studio Carolco, through the disastrous Cutthroat Island. 20th Century Fox was nearly sunk by Cleopatra. The probabilities of success have become still lower. As platforms and productions expanded, the probability of reaching the top of a week’s audience rankings (for movies), or to platinum status (for music), or the bestseller’s list (for books) declined by half. Of new US primetime TV series, only one-quarter survive beyond the first season, whereas in the 1980s, it was one-­third.27 At the same time, content production became more expensive. Factors that have increased the production cost of media include rising wages. Audio and video media copyright licensing fees increased by 8.32% per year, from 2010 to 2014.28 With costs rising, rivals abounding, and attention fragmenting, risk reduction is a crucial management task in the media production ­process.

27 Aris, Annet and Jaques Bughin. Managing Media Companies: Harnessing Creative Value, 2nd ed. West Sussex: Wiley, 2009. 28 Bureau of Labor Statistics. “May 2013 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates United States.” Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  https:// www.bls.gov/oes/2013/may/oes_nat.htm; Marybeth Peters. “Analysis and Proposed Copyright Fee Adjustments to Go into Effect on or about August 1, 2009.” Register of Copyrights. March 15, 2009. Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  https://www.copyright.gov/reports/fees2009.pdf.

33 3.4 · Organizational Success Factors for Content Production

There are various ways to reduce risk: 55 Market forecasting; 55 Insurance; 55 Shift of risk to others; 55 Diversification; 55 Hedging. 3.4.2.1  Market Forecasting

Can the success rate of media products be improved by market research? Some of this is discussed in 7 Chap. 9 Demand and Market Research for Media and Information Products.  

3.4.2.2  Insurance

Typically, about 1.5% of a film’s budget is spent on general insurance that covers the production if something goes wrong. “Errors and Omissions” insurance protects production companies against lawsuits for libel, slander and copyright infringement. For movies with outside funding, banks or investors require a “completion bond” to ensure that investors do not lose everything if the film runs out of money. “Completion bonds” are similar to insurance. They are purchased from a guarantor. Major bonding companies are owned or backed by large insurance companies. The guaranty fee is typically 3–6% of the production budget. 3.4.2.3  Step-Wise Investment

(Option Contacts)

One major way to lower risk is to decompose a project into several phases, each with a different risk level, with the option to proceed or not to proceed to the next phase. Such arrangements are common in ­venture financing, as well as for film and music investments. For example, a producer might acquire rights to a book under an option contract for $10,000, and commission a screenplay from a writer for another $40,000–$100,000. The producer and distributor, at each step, can proceed under pre-negotiated terms that give them an exit strategy in case they choose to get out of the project and cut their loss. 3.4.2.4  Risk Shifting

Content producers and distributors will reduce their risk by shifting it to others, in particular to: 55 Outside investors, by sharing potential losses with them when they are sequenced into a late position on the ladder of those receiving payments. Being last to be paid, they bear a disproportionate share of losses.

55 Talent and performers, by compensation based on profit-sharing, which makes them be a part of the downside risk. Here, too, they may be last in line for their payout for the upside, whereas the producer receives “first dollar” which is less risky. Risk can be shifted through control over the accounting of profits, in which direct costs and overheads are inflated, while revenues are understated. Fewer than 5% of released films show a profit for “net profit participation” purposes. 55 Suppliers, by pushing inventory-holding requirements to them. 55 Buyers, by requiring foreign distributors and other distribution platforms to “pre-buy” as yet unproduced projects. Together, these techniques may make a content project profitable to the producer itself, even if it is a loss to others involved. 3.4.2.5  Content Portfolios

and Diversification

If risk reduction is the key for the lowering of capital cost, diversification is the central element of such reduction. Financial theory shows that an investment can achieve a lower risk by being part of a portfolio. This is called diversification. The first type of diversification is a “product extension,” where a company uses its expertise in one area to extend into a related area. For example, the publisher of a business newspaper may also create a real estate magazine. The second type of diversification is that of a portfolio creation. If there is a slate of four movies, A–D, each with a different probability of success, the expected value of the overall outcomes is the sum of the products of the probability times the result. In the media world, portfolio diversification is created all the time, for example by a music group owning dozens of labels, (each of which, in turn, may have dozens of artists), or by a publishing company with numerous magazine titles, or by a book publishers with many “imprints” (subbrands) and titles. There is a third dimension of risk reduction by diversification. It is based on the possibility that the separate items are not independent of each other but, rather, are correlated. People tend to plan seeing a movie on a weekend. If they decide against film A, the likelihood that they will see film B increases, and vice versa. A and B are negatively correlated.

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The incremental risk of an asset depends on whether its returns tend to vary with or against the returns of the other assets held. If it varies against, then it reduces the overall variability of a portfolio’s returns. As long as returns on assets are negatively correlated (when one does poorly, the other does well), a portfolio may have a low overall volatility even with extremely volatile individual assets. Finance theorists have used the concept of “beta” to describe stock portfolios. Beta describes the sensitivity of a stock portfolio to broad market movements. The overall stock market (represented by an index such as the S&P 500 or FT-100) is assigned a beta of 1.0. By comparison, a portfolio which has a beta of 0.5 will tend to participate in broad market moves—but only half as much as the market overall. In contrast, a portfolio with a beta of 2.0 will tend to benefit or suffer from broad market moves twice as much as the overall market.29 An arrangement in which studios distribute numerous films, or music groups own multiple music labels, or print publishers own multiple magazine titles, and so on, reduces risk by pooling many risky projects into a much less risky portfolio. This makes their aggregate cash flow much safer for the lenders and, hence, lowers their cost of capital. By reducing risk, portfolios reduce the cost of capital for media companies and increase their access to financing. This is one of the major factors for a content company’s success: to deal with highrisk projects at a medium-risk financing cost. 3.5  Product Development

As presented above, organizational structure and risk reduction are two major factors for advantages in production. Product development is the third key factor and will be discussed now. 3.5.1  Concept (Style)

A product’s design needs to be based on an understanding of users and the market. For innovative products, the design may be ahead of market demand. A product will often fail if it is too far ahead. This is true for media technology as well as for media content. Originality is important for 29 RiskGlossary.com. “Beta.” July 9, 2009. Last accessed Aug 2, 2012. 7  http://www.riskglossary.com/link/beta.htm.

success but radical originality will often miss the mass audience. To be one step ahead of mass taste is innovative, to be three steps ahead is risky in business (and artistic) terms. Media products typically aim at either a mass market or niche market.30 Mass-market media products will be near the center of the taste distribution. They are typically short-term oriented and marketing-driven.31 Niche products will be more at the edges of the distribution, seemingly with low demand. However, the center is likely to be crowded with other products, while niches may well be less contested. Niche audiences may therefore be just as high, while higher prices may be achievable and shelf life is longer. Book publishing has always combined a niche orientation with a mass-market orientation (“bestsellers”). An orientation toward specialization is obvious for professional books. But, even in fiction, publishers have ventured far to attract niche audiences through finely tuned sub-­genres.32 The divergence of the “popular culture” approach from the “niche” approach is one of the differences of Hollywood film vs. “artsy” films. In film, there are two major perspectives on style. The Hollywood orientation on popular style is that of the business culture: “film is show business. No business, no show.” In several other film centers, greater reverence is given to the creator than to the audience. The filmmaker’s orientation is to critical success (succes d’estime), and even disdain for the general public. The famous French-Swiss filmmaker Jean-­ Luc Godard put it provocatively: “Who is the enemy? The audience!”33 This dichotomy is not new. Alexis De Tocqueville, the French political thinker, wrote in 1830, after visiting America: “In aristocracies a few great pictures [paintings] are produced; in democratic countries a vast number of insignificant ones.”34

30 A third category is “true talent,” products which are driven by exceptional artists whose performance cannot be readily replaced. See Aris, Annet. 31 Aris, Annet and Jaques Bughin. Managing Media Companies: Harnessing Creative Value, 2nd ed. West Sussex: Wiley, 2009. 32 For example, Atria, an imprint of Simon & Schuster, publishes erotic African American romance novels. Another romance novel sub-genre is the Hispanic historical genre. Danford, Natalie et al. “Toujours L’Amour.” Publishers Weekly. December 1, 2003. Last accessed April 17, 2017. 7  http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20031201/29546toujours-l-amour.html. 33 Glazebrook, Philip. “Movies versus films.” The Spectator. May 31, 1997, 39. 34 De Tocqueville, Alexis. “In What Spirit the Americans Cultivate the Arts.” In Democracy in America Volume II. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia. Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  http://xroads.virginia. edu/~HYPER/DETOC/ch1_11.htm.

35 3.5 · Product Development

Elements of “popular culture” in film (as well as popular novels, where applicable) include: 55 Brisk pacing; 55 Sexual tension; 55 Episodes of action, violence, and suspense; 55 Special effects; 55 Intrigue; 55 Mood music; 55 A novel approach to an old fable; 55 Happy ending or “wow finish.”35

attention, marketing and promotion priority, production facilities and release timing. The main phases of such a process are: 55 Understanding the market and identifying needs; 55 Attracting, receiving, or generating ideas; 55 Selecting the project; 55 Monitoring, testing, and modifying the ­product; 55 Feedback.

There is no inherent reason why other countries’ studios cannot produce similar popular content. Most European, Japanese, Indian, Korean, Australian and Egyptian films are not “artsy” but aim at popular taste, too. In other words, they, too, often try to be commercially successful but succeed less in doing so, at least when it comes to exports. (Usually, only the “high-culture” films get exported, thus creating a skewed image of quality.) The Indian film industry, known as “Bollywood,” aims squarely at popular taste, where (chaste) love conquers all. Bollywood films rarely mention politics, poverty, or the grim social realities of India.36 They were produced mostly for audiences in South Asia, yet have been moving toward globalization, paralleling the broader shifts in the Indian economy. Both Hollywood and Bollywood succeed with audiences because their orientation is demand-driven and popular.

It is claimed that, of 10,000 theater scripts, one play is being produced; of 5000 proposals for TV shows, one is chosen; of film scripts, one in 5000; and of novel manuscripts, one in 15,000. The president of the Doubleday book publishing house reported that of 10,000 submissions he received “over the transom” (i.e. unsolicited) each year, only three to four were accepted. Fox claims to receive 10,000 film screenplays, treatments, books and oral pitches yearly.37 Of these, 70 to 100 projects move into development. Of these, only 12 films are created.38 And, if only 20% of films break even, that would mean that about 2 are ultimately successful out of 10,000 that enter the pipeline. For TV program selection, out of thousands of proposed ideas for series, in the USA about 600 are chosen each year for further development. Of those, only several dozen make it to the “pilot” stage test production. About 15 shows are then picked for regular programming by each major network. Most of these shows are not renewed due to insufficient audience success. Business factors for selection are: 55 Artistic quality. 55 If based on a play, concert, or, a book, the sales history in that medium. 55 Associated talent: directors, producers, authors, stars and their track record. 55 The potential for sequels, merchandise, and movie-related books and video games. 55 Competitive offerings. 55 Fit with the company’s brand. 55 Fit with the company’s portfolio. 55 Pre-existing financing deals.39

3.5.2  Product Selection

Selection among content ideas is a key media industry function. The typical investment per content production is significant at the level of major media companies. 55 Hollywood film: $70 million; 55 Network TV series/pilot: $8 million; 55 Video game: $10 million; 55 CD with hit potential: $1million; 55 Book with best seller potential: $0.5 million. Any project competes for access to funding and to other scarce resources such as management

35 Wasko, Janet. “The Magical-Market World of Disney.” Monthly Review 52, no.11, April 2001: 56–71. 36 Mehta, Suketu. “Welcome to Bollywood.” National Geographic. February 2005, 52–69.

37 One must be somewhat skeptical about all these numbers. 38 Caves, Richard E. Creative Industries: Contracts Between Art and Commerce. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. 39 Levison, Louise. Filmmaking and Financing: Business Plans for Independents. New York: Focal Press, 2013, 47–49.

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55 Anticipated marketing effort (hard sell? likely word-of-mouth?). 55 How promising the author/artist is for future creations.

3

In any selection process, there will inevitably be wrong calls followed by finger-­pointing. Universal Pictures, after spending more than three years developing the script of Shakespeare in Love, decided in the end to pass on it. Disney’s subsidiary Miramax then bought the rights and produced it, and the film went on to win seven Oscars, including for Best Picture. To avoid taking blame, there may be a built-in incentive to play it safe by accepting projects associated with well-known producers, directors and stars.40 Of course, designing an effective selection system is important. But, any selection system, whatever it may be, will be denigrated by many of those left out as being biased, prejudiced and ignorant. And since, inevitably, most projects will be rejected, any selection mechanism will be unpopular within the artistic community. In practice, the screening is a logistical challenge. The initial screening requires so many hours of professional attention that firms are trying to cut the effort (and cost) required. As a major screening mechanism, many publishers, film producers, or music labels do not accept submissions unless they come pre-screened through a trusted intermediary, such as an agent or a person whose judgment is valued. These agents, in effect, endorse the scripts. They are filters for quality, as well as legal firewalls. They have to do repeat business with a media company and hence must protect their own reputation by maintaining a balanced and objective perspective about their clients’ work, while at the same time promoting it. Given the large number of submissions and the need to keep track, a database must be created with relevant pieces of information. A book manuscript/proposal is then reviewed by an acquisitions editor or similar professional. The screener will write an internal report on projects that they recommend, and possibly also on those that require significant revision or rejection.41 The report may include an estimate of market

40 Epstein, Edward Jay. The Big Picture, The New Logic of Money and Power in Hollywood. New York: E.J.E. Publications, Ltd., Inc., 2005. 41 Curwen, Peter. The World Book Industry. New York: Facts on File, 1986.

potential and production cost. An author’s future potential is factored in.42 In film and TV, some companies try to use computer tools to do the initial screening on the script. Scripts that pass are then reviewed by a studio reader who creates a “coverage” report, which very succinctly summarizes concept, plot, principals, commercial prospects and evaluation. This is reviewed by managers in charge of creative affairs and, if it proves to be suitable, is passed up the chain for approval. The script may go through a dozen executives. Input must also include that of marketers and financial managers (a sensitive issue for creators). 3.5.2.1  Economic Tools for Product

Selection

Project selection takes place in every industry; it is not particular to commercially-oriented content industries. Most common is the technique that considers net “present value” (NPV) of a stream of income. NPV =

n

å t =1

Ct

(1 + r )t

Ct is the net cash flow in year t, r is the discount rate (the lower value of future cash (next year) over present cash), and t is the time of the cash flow. Consider a film in which the total production costs come to $7,000,000. The revenue, after the theater’s share of half of the box office receipts, decrease each year by half, from $5 million in the first year to $2.5 million in the second year, and so on. We assume a discount rate of 12%. . Table 3.1 shows revenues and their discounted value. Total net present value is:  

4

C

å 1.12t t t =0

= 7, 921, 516 - $7, 000, 000 = $921, 516

The film is profitable, with a return on investment of about 13% ($0.921 million/$7 million). 42 Authonomy. “How book publishers decide which books to publish.” Last accessed June 13, 2014. 7  http://authonomy.com/writing-tips/howbook-publishers-decide-which-books-to-publish/; Legat, Michael. “What Do Publishers Want?” Writer Services. 2001. Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  http://www.writersservices.com/resources/what-do-publishers-want; Zacharius, Steven. “To Publish or Pass: The Editorial Meeting & Selecting Books for Publication.” The Huffington Post. Last updated March 8, 2014. 7  http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steven-zacharius/to-publishor-to-pass-the_b_4542548.html; Bennett, Jeffrey. “How Publishers Choose Manuscripts.” Ezine Articles. February 10, 2007. Last accessed June 13, 2014. 7  http://ezinearticles.com/?How-Publishers_ChooseManuscripts&id=449959.

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37 3.5 · Product Development

another round. A film screenplay goes through a dozen of drafts, and is rewritten as late as during the shooting or in the editing process.43 The origiYear Cash flow, discounted Present value nal writer often has no role or say in the changes. t=0 −$7,000,000 −$7,000,000 (For Broadway theaters, labor union contracts gives playwrights veto rights.44) High end “script $4,464,286 t=1 5, 000, 000 doctors” may be paid high fees for last-minute 1.12 emergency revisions. Feedback to content designers is constant. t=2 $1,992,985 2, 500, 000 Films are tested through “sneak previews” to help 1.122 make changes. In theater, plays and production t=3 $889,725 1, 250, 000 are tested through public performances. 1.123 The development process is even more structured for technology-based content, for example, t=4 $397,199 625, 000 software for a videogame. Here, the process starts 1.124 with a lead designer/visionary, who is responsible for the game concept. The game is then t=5 $177,321 312, 500 broken down into a series of levels and missions 1.125 for a player to complete.45 The specialized tasks are managed by level designers, software planners, lead architects, and managers responsible for art, sound, and quality. A game design plan The problem with this tool is that the future-­ includes an overall budget, a schedule46 and suboriented revenue numbers are highly uncertain. schedules for engineering, art, various features, Statistical tools for project selection were there- testing and so on.47 Most video game console fore developed to improve the odds on prediction. development teams require 20–50 people, and The problem is that they basically mimic whatever some over 100. has worked before. Generally, these models do not work well in the selection process. If they did, 3.5.3.1  Market Research the success rate of films or books would improve, Especially for expensive products, the developand production companies not using such models ment process will often be dominated by marwould suffer, and there is no evidence for that. ketability, rather than art. This will include a search for appealing endings, and special effects with a “wow-factor.” The studios will also use test 3.5.3  Product Development screenings and focus groups to fine-tune the film before the “final cut” version. That said, audience “Development” is the process by which a story research often misses successes or failures. For idea or editorial concept is written, revised and example, opinion surveys predicted that the film improved. For technology projects, it is the “D” Fight Club would be a flop—yet, it grossed more in “R&D”. According to one estimate, in 2002 the than $100 million.48 six Hollywood studios and their subsidiaries had more than 2500 ideas in some stage of development with producers. Most do not get produced 43 Vascieck, Donald L. “How to Choose a Good Script Consultant.” Donin the end. For example, 90% of projects under Vascieck.com. October 13, 2010. Last accessed June 13, 2014. 7 http:// development by Paramount failed to be green-­ 44 donvascieck.com/screenwriting/how-to-choose-a-good-consultant/. Caves, Richard E. Creative Industries: Contracts Between Art and Comlighted. Projects that fail to be green-lighted are merce. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000. Newman, James. Videogames. New York: Routledge, 2004. either put in “turnaround,” which gives the pro- 45 46 Long, Starr. “Online Product Development Management: Methods and ducers the right to sell them to another studio, or Madness.” Presented at the Game Developers Conference, San Jose, March 4–8, 2003. are simply abandoned. The basic idea for a piece 47 California, Bethke, Erik. Game Development and Production. Plano: Woodware Pubof content must be developed into a full outline lishing, Inc., 2003, 19–95. Brooks. “Solving Equation of a Hit Film Script.” New York Times. of a work. The process is divided into defined 48 Barnes, May 5, 2013. 7 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/06/business/media/ stages, with an option at each step to continue for solving-equation-of-a-hit-film-script-with-data.html. ..      Table 3.1  Net present value of a film project

 

 

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One type of market research is to recruit a focus group and preview audiences for in-depth interviews, or more general survey responses. The demographic makeup is either random or selected. Test audiences are often used for film in advance of its release. There are two types of such film “previews:” for production and for marketing. Production previews help filmmakers fine-­ tune the movie while it is being made, whereas marketing previews study an audience’s reactions to complete films and assess marketing strategy.49 Many popular movies have been altered after being shown to test audiences. Originally, Glen Close’s character in Fatal Attraction—that of a vindictive, spurned woman—survived; however, audiences hated her and the ending was therefore changed to see her die.50 Conversely, in the movie ET, the lovable alien space traveler character originally perished before test audiences rescued him and sent him back to his galaxy. Thankfully, test audiences do not always prevail. Wizard of Oz test audiences complained that “Somewhere Over the Rainbow” slowed down the movie but the song stayed and became a classic.51 These audience analysis tools are not used only by electronic media concerned with audience maximization. Newspaper editors, too, use various types of audience analytics to help shape their selection and placement of stories. On the Internet, it becomes much easier to track the popularity of individual stories, the time spent reading them and the potential for sharing with others. This tracking can be correlated with other data about each reader. Experiments become much easier on the Internet. If Amazon. com wants to find out whether a new webpage design increases sales, it can run a controlled experiment. It will show the design to, say, every hundredth visitor. Determination of whether the new design increases sales can be made within a few days.52

3.6  Production Planning 3.6.1  Operational Challenges

for Content Production

3.6.1.1  “Scientific Management”

“Scientific management” was a concept conceived in the early twentieth century by Frederick Taylor. He envisioned the firm as a well-oiled machine, with defined process rules, a clear hierarchy and each component being replaceable. Taylor introduced the stopwatch measurement of the time required for various tasks and, indeed, for each body movement. Taylor was lionized in his time, but his examples and stories were later revealed to be factually and analytically weak. Yet, the basic concept of a management of company operations based on models and numbers has survived. Tools of operations management are: 1. Budgeting; 2. Production design; 3. Supply chain; 4. Inventory control; 5. Scheduling. Software programs aim to guide managers by using internal and external data, and various analytical modules. Manufacturing resource planning (MRP) systems are used to organize production.53 They use models of operations-research business process management and economic/finance analytical business models. But, to reach the proper judgment, a manager needs to understand the elements of such programs. This will be the subject of the next sections. 3.6.2  Budgeting

For a successful development process, a firm must balance three essential variables: budget, time and quality (. Fig. 3.3).54  

49 Friedman, Robert. “Motion Picture Marketing.” In The Movie Business Book, 3rd ed. Ed. Jason Squire. UK: Open University Press, 2006, 282–298. 50 Bay, Willow. “Test Audiences Have Profound Effect On Movies.” CNN. September 28, 1998. Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  http://www.cnn.com/ SHOWBIZ/Movies/9809/28/screen.test/. 51 Bay, Willow. “Test Audiences Have Profound Effect On Movies.” CNN. September 28, 1998. Last accessed April 18, 2017. 7  http://www.cnn.com/ SHOWBIZ/Movies/9809/28/screen.test/. 52 Varian, Hal R. “Kaizen, That Continuous Improvement Strategy, Finds its Ideal Environment.” New York Times. February 8, 2007. 7  http://www. nytimes.com/2007/02/08/business/08scene.html.

53 Investopedia. “Manufacturing Resource Planning – MRP II.” Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/manufacturing-resource-planning.asp. 54 Based on Bethke, Erik. Game Development and Production. Plano: Woodware Publishing, Inc., 2003, 19–95.

39 3.6 · Production Planning

High Quality

For the high-budget theater categories, advertising/marketing and the physical production account for about 40% of the cost. Within physical production, “scenery” is the largest expense (12.5%) of the entire budget.58 One particular thorny issue in budgeting is how to allocate costs among several different activities. Most media organizations pursue, at any given moment, more than one project. How, then, does one separate their revenues, costs and investments? This is discussed in 7 Chap. 13 Accounting in Media and Information Firms. Here, we introduce one element, that of “activity-­based costing” (ABC) or “activity-based budgeting” (ABB). ABC enables budget accounts for various activities based on cost allocation for those activities. The full cost of each activity is calculated, and “cost drivers” are established that link cost elements to the various activities of the firm. ABC breaks down overall costs according to how many resources a particular activity consumes. ABC differs from traditional cost accounting, which assumes that the volume of the end product is the only driver of costs. ABC thus helps an organization to analyze which activities create what cost, and enables firms to control their costs based on tangible activities rather than general accounting reports. An example for activities-based costing is provided in . Table 3.3. Suppose a company makes music CDs as well as video DVDs. CDs are sold for $10 wholesale, and DVDs for $16. Of each type of disc, 20,000 are sold each week. Both use the same factory, the same workers and the same materials. One would therefore think that DVDs are the more profitable product line, with a sales price of $16 vs. $10 for CDs. But, before reaching such a conclusion, one would have to allocate the various costs associated with production. The two products have the same cost for a jewel case and the underlying disc. But the DVD manufacturing also requires a patent license fee per unit, whereas the CD patents have expired. Also, the space requirements for DVD stamping are four times as high as those for CDs, and rent should be allocated accordingly. The overall wage bill ($160,000) should also be allocated among the  

On Budget

On Time

..      Fig. 3.3  Tradeoffs in the development process

In the real world, projects tend to achieve only two of these goals.55 1. On budget and on time, while sacrificing quality; 2. High quality and on budget, but requiring more time; 3. High quality and on time, but requiring extra spending. The challenge to production planners is how to reduce overspending, while maintaining the schedule and the required quality. To create a budget, one needs to know comparative data for similar projects and activities. Some are available to the producer or publisher from their own past activities, others must be found in databases, trade papers and industry magazines.56 The rest need to be calculated based on specific cost items, hours, pay levels, rental fees and so on. An example is the budget of several types of theater in New  York City (. Table  3.2). Theater productions and their budgets vary greatly according to the nature of the production itself— whether it is a Broadway show (premium commercial), an off-Broadway show (commercial or non-profit), or off-off Broadway (low-budget, non-profit).57  

55 Bethke, Erik. Game Development and Production. Plano: Woodware Publishing, Inc., 2003, 19–95. 56 Levison, Louise. Filmmakers and Financing. 4th ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2004, 153–168. 57 The figures were compiled for the year 2001 and no updates have been published.

 

58 Brown et al. Wonderful Town: The Future of Theater in New York. New York: National Arts Journalism Program, 2001.

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..      Table 3.2  Theater budgets (Subcategories partial)a, e

3

Production type

Broadway

Off-Broadway (Commercial)

Off-Broadway (Nonprofit)

Off-Off-­ Broadway

Capacity

1350 seats

287 Seats

165 seats

60 seats

Length of run

Open-ended

Open-ended

56 performances

15 performances

Ticket price

$25–$70

$47.50–$50

$40

$15

$66,500 (11.1%)

$34,050 (15.5%)

$1250 (16.7%)

Cost $/% Physical production

$418,250 (20.9%)

Scenery

$250,000

$37,500

$18,000

$900

Costumes

$50,000

$7500

$2000

$250

Lighting

$50,750

$11,000

$3000

$100

$179,300 (9%)

$42,789 (7.1%)

Fees

$22,500 (10%)

$3150 (42.1%)

Director

$50,000

$9138

$3800

$1000

Author

n/a

$7000

$3600

$0

Designers

$100,300

$14,388

$10,000

$1300

$161,288 (8.1%)

$40,050 (6.7%)

Salaries

$51,180 (23.3%)

$0 (0%)

Actors

$75,120

$24,000

$23,760

$0

Understudies

$30,048

$2108

$0

$0

Stage management

$36,670

$5958

$9770

$0

Rehearsal expenses Stagehands, load-in

$187,000 (9.4%)

$55,100 (9.2%)

$12,900 (5.9%)

$130,000

$15,250

$11,500 b

$1000 (13.4%) $0

Rehearsal space rent

$13,000

$5000

$0

$1000

Workshop expense

$0

$28,500

$0

$0

Front of house

$40,000 (2%)

n/ac

$12,730 (5.8%)

$120 (1.6%)

Box office

$40,000

n/a

$9460

$0

Programs

$0

n/a

$750

$120

Advertising/marketing

$469,000 (23.5%)

$165,500 (27.6%)

$57,300 (26.1%)

$1955 (26.1%)

Publicist

$8000

$5500

$2400

$1000

Opening night

$60,000

$7500

$2500

$0

General admin.

$211,162 (10.5%)

$75,459 (12.6%)

$15,423 (7.2%)

$0 (0%)

Payroll taxes

$28,778

$10,727

$9323

n/a

Insurance

$25,000

$5000

n/ad

n/a

Legal

$20,000

$16,000

$0

$0

$0 (0%)

$0 (0%)

Contingency

$166,500 (8.3%)

$100,000 (16.6%)

41 3.6 · Production Planning

..      Table 3.2 (continued) Production type

Broadway

Off-Broadway (Commercial)

Off-Broadway (Nonprofit)

Off-Off-­ Broadway

Union bonds

$167,500 (8.4%)

$54,602 (9.1%)

$13,678 (6.2%)

$0 (0%)

Actors equity

$150,000

$27,882

$11,014

$0

ATPAM

$10,000

$2740

$0

$0

Total (pre-opening)

$2,000,000

$600,000

$219,761

$7475

Per-week expenses

$223,281

$50,000

$5000–$11,000

$937.50

aBrown et al. Wonderful Town: The Future of Theater in New York. New York: National Arts Journalism Program, 2001, 49; bCompany pays annual rent; cFront-of-house expenses accounted for under other categories; dIncluded in annual company budget. eBudget sub-categories of “Other” are omitted.

..      Table 3.3  Activities-based cost allocation Sales revenue

$10/CD

$16/DVD

TOTAL

(20,000 sold in each product line)

200,000

320,000

520,000

$.60 jewel case

12,000

12,000

24,000

$1.60 disc

32,000

32,000

64,000

0

32,000

32,000

44,000

76,000

120,000

156,000

244,000

400,000

Rent

20,000

40,000

50,000

Wages

45,720

114,280

160,000

Energy

8,000

32,000

40,000

Total operating expenses

63,720

186,280

250,000

Net profit

92,280

57,720

150,000

Costs of goods sold

$1.60 special license for DVD Total cost of goods sold Gross margin Operating expenses

two product lines. Suppose it takes longer to make a DVD because 50 steps are required, whereas CDs require 20 steps. To calculate the share in wages, one first determines the number of total steps for making the CDs (20,000 CDs ∙ 20 steps) = 400,000 and the number of steps for making

a DVD = 20,000 DVDs × 50 steps = 1,000,000. The share of work steps in overall is, for CDs, 400,000/1,400,000 = 28.57% of the total labor steps, and correspondingly 71.43% for DVDs. The total labor cost of $160,000 is then allocated accordingly.

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Energy cost is allocated in a simpler fashion. Suppose that DVD machinery uses four times as much electricity. The percentage allocation then would be 80% for DVDs and 20% for CDs. The results, after the ABC allocation are done based on our assumptions, show that the simpler and cheaper product, the CD, is more profitable in total ($92,280 vs. $57,720) and on a per unit basis ($4.61 vs $2.89). 3.6.3  Location and Supply Chain

An important management decision about production is its location and the extent of its outsourcing. Whether it is the assembly of electronic media devices or the editing of book manuscripts, production activities have been decentralized within highly developed countries and have also migrated to other countries. Factors are labor costs, taxes, local resources, market size and access to it, proximity, distribution costs, regulatory environment and governmental support. Book publishers, too, have moved production activities, especially to India. For example, Springer Science Publishing employs 1200 Indian typesetters and editors for English and German language works.59 Outsourcing to other firms allows firms to concentrate on their core activities while benefiting from the economies of scale of specialist firms.60 For example, the UK public service broadcaster BBC, since 2001 has not been engaged in the technical aspects of actual broadcasting but has used the transmission service company Red Bees (a commercial BBC spinoff that also transmits for Virgin Media TV, Channel 4, Canal Plus, Channel 5, RTE and others.).61 This has lowered costs for the BBC, and has gained access to

59 Srinivasan, S. “German publisher Springer to shift 1,550 jobs to India.” Rediff. September 14, 2005. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www. rediff.com/money/report/jobs/20050914.htm. 60 Outsourcing has different categories. Business process outsourcing (BPO) is the outsourcing of a specific operational task, such as payroll or invoicing. Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) involves technological, analytical and R& D skills. In production process outsourcing (PPO), a contractor provides manufacturing. 61 “Outsourced Broadcast.” Cable & Satellite Europe no. 261 (September 1, 2006): 1. 7  http://ezproxy.cul.columbia.edu/login?url=http://search. proquest.com/docview/221819396?accountid=10226.

updated broadcast technology and infrastructure with expert engineering support. One must also recognize the downsides: most outsourcing relationships end up being unsuccessful. The failure rate is said to lie between 40% and 70%.62 For building solid relationships with suppliers, particularly those in distant countries with different legal systems, trust is a crucial element.63 Such a relationship develops slowly. Typically, the first contracts with a new supplier will be on a project-by-project or shipment-by-shipment basis, and lengthens and deepens from there. A contract would have service level agreement (SLA) between the buyer and the supplier. If the supplier fails to meet agreed levels of service, SLAs usually provide for compensation, often in the form of price rebates. Such an agreement is followed by constant coordination and careful attention.64 It requires that: 55 The production schedules of the buyers and the vendors are coordinated. 55 Vendors are updated on strategic changes or new products early on. 55 Forecasts of sales are shared in real time. 55 A purchase order system is used to monitor the purchases. 55 Bills are paid promptly. 55 Vendors and buyers integrate each other’s inventory planning or forecasting systems, electronic data interchange (EDI) and enterprise resource planning (ERP). A typical way for a buyer to lower cost is to use several vendors to split orders and to rotate among them. However, multiple sourcing can also include hidden costs. Relationship handling costs are multiplied, and suppliers will have lower economies of scale and hence a higher cost.65

62 Overby, Stephanie. “The ABC’s of Outsourcing.” CIO. June 8, 2007. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.cio.com/article/2438784/outsourcing/the-abcs-of-outsourcing.html. 63 Outsourcing requires considerations beyond direct cost. There are legal considerations: who is liable if a product causes harm? What is the recourse in the event of a dispute (which will be frequent)? How reputable is the supplier? 64 Board of Trade of Metropolitan Montreal. “Manage Your Suppliers,” InfoEntrepreneurs. Last accessed May 22, 2014. 7  http://www.infoentrepreneurs.org/en/guides/manage-your-suppliers/. 65 Gadde, Lars-Erik and Ivan Snehota. “Making the Most of Supplier Relationships,” Industrial Marketing Management 29 (2000): 305–316.

43 3.6 · Production Planning

3.6.4  Inventory Management

A major operational challenge for content production is scheduling: production timetables, release dates, sequencing and so on. Software packages make this easier and faster. For film, in particular, planning must be elaborate. Each

day of production costs a great deal of money. For example, the film Terminator 3 was running a daily operating cost of $300,000. Stars may become unavailable after certain dates. It is therefore important to organize the process of production. In the James Bond film Tomorrow Never Dies, while the main star Pierce Brosnan was playing the 007 hero in London, a stuntman playing James Bond was being filmed at another English location. A third “Bond” was parachuting out of a plane in Florida, a fourth “Bond” was piloting a speedboat in Bermuda, and a fifth “Bond” was shooting a swimming scene in London. The coordination of these scenes and their logistics requires elaborate planning, especially since they included many uncertainties, such as weather.67 An important function of production management is thus the scheduling of facilities and people. In a flow job operation, with a high and standardized process, this is a more predictable task. A rotogravure printing company, for example, will schedule the various magazines it prints very tightly in order to optimize the very expensive machine. In order not to create problems for other magazines with their varying distribution schedules, they absolutely must adhere to these times. For a film, the script is broken down into scenes. Each scene must be planned in a “breakdown sheet”, which includes locations, cast, props, wardrobe, extras, stunts, visual and special effects, animals, vehicles, and so on.68 It also incorporates the number of work days required at each location. The length of each scene is estimated by its page count, measured in eighths of a page. Planning is similar for a monthly magazine, with tasks that need to be done by specific days prior to publication. For example, the editorial copy may get started 49 days before the publication date. The first stage of editorial work must be completed 41 days before publication. The pages are then proofed and finalized, and that copy goes to the printer 31  days before publication, and back to editorial on day minus 24, and so on. The schedule incorporates other items, such as the cover, advertising, printing and delivery.

66 Breen, Bill. “Living in Dell Time.” Fast Company. November 1, 2004. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/88/ dell.html.

67 Epstein, Edward Jay. The Big Picture, The New Logic of Money and Power in Hollywood. New York: E.J.E. Publications, Ltd., Inc., 2005. 68 Honthaner, Eve Light. The Complete Film Production Handbook. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2010, 57.

Operation research (OR) is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques for decision making and management tasks. It often incorporates stochastic elements of uncertainty and random variables. An example is the management of the supply chain, i.e. how to obtain the inputs for the production process. A firm must find and select suppliers, provide storage for its inputs, and store the finished products while awaiting distribution. The challenge is to reduce an expansive inventory sitting around without creating value, but incurring cost. At the same time, the inventory level must be consistent with the risk levels the firm seeks. Perhaps the best-organized supply chain system is the renowned Japanese just-in-time (JIT) system. A JIT system requires major coordination and the reliability of all participants, with constant communication and interaction. It reduces inventory and waiting time. It favors production clusters that are geographically proximate. The computer manufacturer Dell has an inventory strategy where it basically has no inventory at all. “Inventory is a four letter word at Dell.”66 The company claims that it turns over inventory 107 times per year. CEO Kevin Rollins says, “The longer you keep it the faster it deteriorates—you can literally see the stuff rot…Cutting inventory is not just a nice thing to do. It’s a financial imperative.” Dell used to carry 20 to 25 days of inventory in a network of warehouses. It created a Japanese-style JIT manufacturing model, and this cut costs drastically. On the other hand, it makes the company more vulnerable to future labor strikes, natural disasters and other disruptions. 3.6.5  Production Scheduling

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Chapter 3 · Production Management in Media and Information

Production Starts

3

Production Ends and Marketing Begins

Month 2

Month 1

Month 3

Month 4

Month 5

Month 6

Month 7

Month 8

Cover Design

Copy Editing Phase Developmental Editing Phase 1

Developmental Editing Phase 3

Developmental Editing Phase 2

Layout Design Phase 1 Layout Design Phase 2 Layout Design Phase 3

..      Fig. 3.4  Gantt schedule for book production

3.6.5.1  Gantt Chart

A popular planning tool is the Gantt chart, which displays how a project proceeds over a timeline, and where the project stands in terms of overall completion.69 An example, as applied to book production, is . Fig. 3.4.70  

3.6.5.2  The Critical Path Method

A different tool used for scheduling is the critical path method (CPM). The chemical company DuPont developed the critical path methodology in 1957. CPM displays a timeline of the project development, but additionally prioritizes the different parts of the project. It identifies activities that can delay the entire project. A hypothetical example for a CPM diagram is the production of a new microchip (. Fig.  3.5).71 The project comprises the tasks of: (A) wafer preparation—three  days, (B) micro-electrode production—four  days, (C)  

69 Gantt, H. L. Work, Wages and Profit. New York: The Engineering Magazine, 1910. 70 Based on McKay, Hannah. “The Production Timeline.” Shadow Time Writers. May 30, 2014. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://shadowtimewriters.com/tag/production-timeline/. 71 Figure based on NetMBA. “CPM Diagram.” NetMBA Business Knowledge Center. 7  http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/cpm/.

photolithography—one  day, (D) etching— two  days, (E) electrode assembly—two  days and (F) metal deposition—three  days. These tasks have their own start and end dates. Activities C and D cannot be started unless activity A is completed. It means that if the task A is delayed, tasks C and D will be delayed, too, as would be the entire project. Conversely, there is no point in tasks D and E being completed, as they are, in days 5 and 6 and then sit idle while F is scheduled to be completed only after seven days, even without delays. Therefore, the project manager has to accelerate the finish of activity F by one day, possibly by using resources from activity D which would slow down that activity by one day. This juggling would result in all tasks being completed at the same time, on day 6. CPM works best as a scheduling tool for projects with fairly high certainty as to the completion times of the various stages. Applications include the scheduling of magazines, books and regular TV series, where the estimated completion times tend to be predictable. Many other projects, however, present uncertainty for their completion times. Here, a closely related methodology, the product evaluation and review technique (PERT) is applied.

3

45 3.6 · Production Planning

..      Fig. 3.5  Critical Path Method (CPM)

C

A Start

Wafer Preparation 3 Days

B MicroElectrode Production 4 Days

..      Fig. 3.6  PERT chart example for music video production (schematic)

Photolithography 1 Day

D Etching 2 Days

F Metal Desposition 3 Days

Finish

E Electrode Assembly 2 Days

selecting

recording

marketing 10 D

10 D

artwork

marketing design

10 D

20 D

An example for a PERT chart is how to produce an online music video (. Fig. 3.6). The process is

broken down into five activities: selecting, recording, artwork, planning marketing and marketing. Each of these activities has an expected length of time (in days) to be accomplished.73 The expected time is based on an optimistic scenario (O), a pessimistic scenario (P), and the most likely scenario (L). E = (O   +   P   +   4L)/6. For example, suppose that for recording the scenario would mean, in days, either 8 ­(optimistic), 16 (pessimistic), or 9 (most likely). The expected time would be: E  =  (8    +    16    +    (4 × 9))/6 = 60/6 = 10. In a similar way, the other expected times can be estimated for each operation. Two parallel tracks are designed for the production. While recording is taking place, artwork and marketing design is taking place. Their expected time is 10 + 20 = 30. This is a considerably longer time path than the expected time for recording, which is 10. Thus, the recorded music would have to wait

72 NetMBA. “PERT.” NetMBA Business Knowledge Center. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.netmba.com/operations/project/pert/.

73 Figure based on McGraw-Hill Technology Education. “Multimedia: Making It Work.” Lesson 15-Planning and Costing (2003): 14. 7  http:// ewibowo.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/10-planning-costing.pdf.

A PERT chart approach helps to plan where different activities are involved. It defines the required activities that are part of the project, their estimated completion period, with a certain probability, and whether they are a prerequisite to other steps.72 The methodology was initiated in the 1950s for large defense systems where hundreds of contractors were required to fulfill thousands of tasks, each contributing to a project with a certain probability distribution for completion. For each activity, the expected time is approximated by incorporating the most optimistic, the most pessimistic, and the most likely, in this weighted average: Expected time = (Optimistic + 4 ´ Most Likely + Pessimistic) / 6

 

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Chapter 3 · Production Management in Media and Information

for 20 slack days for the other necessary tasks to be completed. The only way for the two tracks to converge in time would be for recording to perform according to the worst-case (pessimistic) scenario (20  days), while the marketing design and artwork perform according to the most optimistic scenario (5 and 15). This is a conceivable scenario, but highly unlikely. Its probability is: 1 1 1 1 , i.e. 4 chances in 1000. ( )⋅( )⋅( )= 6 6 6 256 The alternatives would be to speed up the artwork and the marketing design to match the expected recording activity time, which could be expensive, or to deliberately slow down recording (for potential cost savings but slower output), or to create a parallel track for artwork and marketing. This is a simplistic example, of course, but imagine its extension to a more complex project such as making a film, with numerous activities, some of which that can be in parallel, others that must be sequential, and all with a varying likelihood of on-time performance.74 3.7  Production Control

To control and run the success of a business or product, one must be able to measure performance. Traditionally, performance measurement has been financial, going back to the double-entry book keeping of fourteenth-century Venice, and to cost accounting adoptions by Josiah Wedgwood and Alfred Sloan as part of modern cost accounting. Measurement techniques became more refined for the continuousflow type of production. 3.7.1  Budget Control

Monitoring of actual time used, cost of various activities, performance, and a comparison of planned (“budgeted”) and “actual” figures helps to decide whether corrective action is needed. There are several cost tracking techniques. For a “job shop” production, job-costing is used, which compiles direct costs (materials and labor) as 74 Manchester Metropolitan University. “PERT Analysis Toolkit.” MMU. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www2.mmu.ac.uk/media/mmuacuk/ content/documents/bit/PERT-toolkit-v1.pdf.

well as a share of overheads and indirect costs attributed to each project. “Flow shop” firms that repetitively produce homogenous goods use process costing, and calculate unit costs or total costs divided by the number of units.75 Budgeting needs to be continuously adjusted. Software packages make this easier and faster.76 To control cost, high-budget activities such as film shoots utilize daily production reports. They state how many minutes were filmed or recorded, the estimated running time of the film created, the hours of all crew and cast members, and the events on the set.77 One measure of production effectiveness is the “shooting ratio,” which is the footage that is to be used for post-production editing relative to the footage shot.78 A daily cost overview is provided in . Table 3.4 as an example. What does this daily cost sheet show? It was the fourth day of shooting the film Another Day, Another Dollar. During the day, four scenes, accounting for 4 and 5/8th pages of the script were completed. However, this was two scenes and 6/8 pages behind the schedule. At the same time, cost ran over by $21,088, chiefly due to an extra hour of shooting, which also led to various other charges. A few budgeted items such as extras and meal penalty, however, came in at less the cost, and slightly offset the day’s deficit. Thus, on that particular day the production was behind schedule, took longer, and cost more than planned.  

3.7.2  Productivity Measurement

“Productivity” describes how efficiently a company transforms inputs into outputs. It measures the units of product or service produced per inputs such as employees or unit of time, space and capital investments. This can be Output expressed, in principle, by the ratio . Input The higher the ratio, the greater the productivity.

75 Wild, Ray. Production and Operations Management. London: Cassell, 1995. 76 Honthaner, Eve Light. The Complete Film Production Handbook. Boston: Focal Press, 2001, 27–34. 77 Patz, Deborah S. Surviving Production: The Art of Production Management for Film and Television. Studio City: Braun-Brumfield, Inc., 114–122. 78 Kindem, Gorham and Robert Musburger. Introduction to Media Production. 2nd ed. Woburn: Focal Press, 2001, 55–60.

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47 3.7 · Production Control

..      Table 3.4  Example for daily cost overview accounting Show______Another Day, Another Dollar_________________________ Prod. #_2777_______________ Date____07/05/2017_______________________________ Day#_4____________________ Start Date:_07/01/2017_____ Scheduled finish:_07/18/_2017____Revised Finish:__07/20/2017_______ Per call sheet

Shot

Ahead/behind

# of scenes

6

4

2 behind

# of pages

5 3/8

4 5/8

6/8 behind

Budgeted

Actual

Cost overrun (-)

Cast overtime

$5,000

$6,500

$1,500-

Shooting hrs.

12

13

$20,000-

Meal penalty

$500

$300

$200

Extras

$632

$577

$55

Catering

$840

$960

$120-

Technical equipment

$2,250

$1687

$563

Unanticipated

Addt’l prop asst.

10 hrs. @ $22/hr.

$242$44-

Fringe

Total for today______$21,088Previous total _______$4,000Grand total________$25,088- (over) Table based on “Daily Hot Costs” figure from Honthaner, Eve Light. “Basic Accounting.” The Complete Film Production Handbook. New York: Elsevier, 2010.

..      Table 3.5  Film investments, revenues, and ROI

USA

Investment/film (US$ million)

Worldwide tickets/film

Worldwide tickets/ investment

Overall Revenue/ investment

Return on investment

70

17

0.24

1.27

0.27

Europe

7.5

0.6

0.08

0.40

−0.60

India

1.5

3.5

2.33

1.19

0.19

Operationalizing this, the following are measures for such an output/input relationship: 1. Revenues/employee; 2. Value-added/employee; 3. Revenues/cost of inputs; 4. “Total factor productivity” (output not caused by individual inputs).

Different methods of measuring productivity yield different insights, as . Table  3.5 shows, which compares productivities for film for the USA, Europe and India. When outputs are measured in physical units (i.e. films or TV shows), Hollywood’s productivity is much lower than that of India or Europe. The investment required  

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per unit produced is $70 million per film in the USA vs. $7.5 million in Europe and $1.5 million in India. But, when output is measured by tickets sold per invested dollar, India shows the highest number per dollar, at 2.33, while Europe is very low at 0.08. The USA is in between at 0.24. The Hollywood big budget is spread over a much larger audience, and its production budget per actual viewer is, hence, smaller than for a European film. For each ticket that is sold, Hollywood spends significantly less than its European counterparts. Its budget is much higher, but so are the number of ticket sales it generates per film. On a per-ticket basis, Bollywood is even more efficient. But, when output is defined as revenues generated per investment, Hollywood at $1.27 per dollar of investment becomes more productive than India ($1.19), and much more productive than Europe ($0.40). In Europe, films on average thus lose 60 cents on the dollar, and the deficit is made up by non-theater revenues, subsidies and co-production with TV networks. In India, films return 0.19 cents on the dollar, while in the USA they return 0.27 cents on the dollar. When it comes to the productivity of individual creators, this is difficult to measure and such measurement is deeply unpopular with creatives. It is most accepted for software programming, where metrics for measuring productivity in software development exist, and data can be tracked and collected fairly easily. For other types of writing, one method of measurement involves tracking production output, such as articles or pages completed by journalists, scriptwriters, or editors.79 A daily one-­hour soap opera episode requires the production of 80 about 75 pages of script per day by a writer or a team. However, such an output-oriented approach lacks considerations of quality or of ­difficulty. It takes much less effort for a journalist to cover a routine sports event than to break a local corruption story. Other ways to measure journalistic productivity therefore include measuring input activities undertaken by journalists, such as interviews conducted. A third and more recent approach, made possible by online publishing tracking technology,

79 Picard, Robert G. “Measuring and interpreting productivity of journalists.” Newspaper Research Journal 19, no. 4 (Fall 1998): 71–84. 80 Allen C. Robert. Speaking of Soap Operas. Raleigh, NC: University of North Carolina, 1985, 46–73.

is to count ‘clicks’, ‘hits’, or time spent by readers; in other words, measuring the ratings of a story in terms of its audience. What size readership does the writer generate? Neither of these approaches is particularly satisfactory for an individual story or day—let alone for the quality of journalism— but, over time, the numeric aggregates may reveal trends. 3.8  Revenue Shares of Producers

in Media

The overall revenues of a medium must, in the final analysis, be split up among producers, creators, distributors, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and so on. For all of their efforts, what is the approximate share that the producers receive from the overall consumer spending for their medium? . Table 12.2 in 7 Chap. 12 Distribution of Media and Information shows the average numbers for various media industries. On average, for 18 media industries, the share in revenues that is going to producers is above 44%—by far the largest share, much higher than for retailers, wholesalers and creators. However, a producer’s share also covers various inputs, components, and materials bought from suppliers. For theatrical film, the producers’ net share is low at 14%, the share for distributors (i.e. the studios) is 30%, for theaters (exhibitors) 45% and for creators 11%. A film producer’s share rises to 20% for pay-TV and to 22% for online distribution. These increases can be explained by the lower share for retailers.  

 

3.9  Content Production in the Next

Generation of Technology

Although the cost of production hardware has declined, thus enabling the entry of small independent producers, it would be a mistake to believe that overall production costs have therefore dropped. Hollywood’s average “negative costs” for a film rose from $47.7 million in 2001 to $88.6 million in 2011. This rise in production costs will be even greater with next-generation content based on broadband and ultra-broadband connectivity throughput. These elements will create entertainment experiences with user immersion, user participation and some user control.

49 3.10 · Case Discussion

The lower costs of technical equipment apply to everybody and, as a result, much more content is being produced and supplied. As content supply grows relative to the fairly steady stock of attention, the general expectations on production quality standards rise, and with them the cost of production. There will thus be an even greater pressure for “blockbuster” content that stands out from the crowd, and for content that makes the most of the multi-media and interactive features of broadband communications. To produce such content is expensive. It requires creativity, programmers, performance testing and the continual generation of new versions. The production of the film Avatar required 900 graphic designers.81 Such content exhibits strong economies of scale on the content production side, and strong network effects on the demand side. At the same time, the broadband Internet means that such content can be distributed globally at a relatively low cost. This has been termed “the death of distance.” People in Peru, Panama and Portugal can select, click and download. The protection of distance is thus giving way, as are many of the protections of regulation and licensing. The content itself exhibits strong economies of scale. Once produced, it can be reproduced at almost no cost. Of course, there will also be opportunities for other producers to create and distribute specialized programs for niche and general audiences. Providers and producers will

also emerge in other production centers, such as India, Europe, or Japan. They will be based on the cultural, technological and financial resources of those regions. There is also room, in creating innovative content, for new ideas on content, format and interactivity to come from new directions and new firms. New types of content production specialists will emerge on the technology side, often in the Silicon Valley cluster of innovation. The major audiences will still be attached to big-budget and technically sophisticated productions that combine glitz with technology. In this environment, Hollywood will be even stronger, because it will have a more direct link to global audiences. It does not have to go through the intermediaries of TV networks, and will pass through fewer regulations of governments. It has also the ability to fine-tune prices. And it can also deploy in its network of specialists the talent and creativity from anywhere—animators from Japan, special effects software in India, post-production in Shanghai, venture finance in London, technologists in Silicon Valley and advertising companies in New York. Such a networked firm structure can cope with change and innovation. It is strengthened by more powerful communications pipes, since the clustering can spread beyond those of geography. Thus, “Hollywood” will become less of a description of geography and more of an industry structure.

3.10  Case Discussion Canal Plus and the Hollywood Advantage In the pursuit of claiming a global role in content production comparable to that of the Hollywood content companies, Canal Plus has strategic options, or a combination thereof: 1. Buy Hollywood (and European) studios; 2. Seek governmental support; 3. Vertical integration of content and distribution; 4. Multi-platform integration;

5. Expand language reach; 6. Globalization of content; 7. Sign up stars; 8. Advanced technology; 9. High budgets; 10. Cheap and large financing; 11. Diversification; 12. Shift to a two-tier system of independent producers and co-producers.

81 Webneel. “3D Animation Movie Making Process and Behind the Scenes – Avatar.” Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://webneel.com/3d-animation-movie-making-process-and-behind-scenes-avatar.

 trategy 1: Buy Hollywood S (and European) Studios In the early 1990s, Canal Plus bought the library of the failing Carolco Studio in Hollywood. More significantly, in 2001, the parent company Vivendi bought Universal Film and Universal Music—both of them top American and global media firms. But, in 2004, in financial distress, Vivendi sold 80% of

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Universal Film to the American conglomerate General Electric (GE) in return for $14 billion and a 20% partnership in NBCUniversal, which GE created by combining its NBC TV subsidiary with Universal. In 2011, Vivendi sold the remaining 20%, for $5.8 billion to GE. Thus, this strategy proved unsuccessful for Vivendi.  trategy 2: Seeking GovernmenS tal Support The French film industry is subsidized in a variety of ways. The Centre Nationale de la Cinematographie (CNC) contributed about $500 million per year. There is also support by several regional governments. France requires theaters to reserve 20 weeks of screen time per year for French (now European) films. DVDs cannot be sold or rented out for six months after the end of theatrical distribution. There are also subsidies from the EU. EU support has a budget of €1.46 billion for the Creative Europe Programme. Although publicly advocating an absence of national support programs, in 2013 the EU Commission, in New State Aid Rules for Cinema, adopted new film-­support rules that permitted aid to be “limited” to 50% of the production, distribution and promotion budget. Co-productions funded by more than one Member State may receive aid of up to 60% of the production budget. There are no limits on aid for scriptwriting or film-project development, or for “difficult” audiovisual works, and definitions were left open. Territorial spending obligations are permitted as long as they do not exceed 80% of the production budget.”82 There are also film subsidies in other countries where Canal Plus films are being created. But perhaps the largest support element are the tax shelters known as Sociétés de financement de

l’industrie cinématographique et de l’audiovisuel (SOFICA) where wealthy investors can write off 40–50% of the investment against their tax obligations. The strategy enlisting government support for cultural activities is traditional in France, as it is in many countries. Canal Plus has been effective in making use of this and extending it, and receiving significantly more governmental financial and tax support than Hollywood studios. This has raised French film production above that of other European countries. But it also has drawbacks. In that system of subsidies, in effect, various bureaucratic bodies decide what will be produced. As one young director put it—anonymously, since he did not wish to offend the funding committees—“Every one seems to have a suggestion on what to do—add a character here or there, change the ending, etc.”83  trategy 3: Vertical Integration S of Production and Distribution A common view is that Hollywood firms dominate through their greater vertical integration. Canal Plus therefore set out to do the same. It became the predominant French and European distribution system (through pay-TV and film distribution), and a major producer of filmed content. There are similar vertical integrations of production and distribution in Germany (Bertelsmann with its divisions RTL and Ufa) and in Italy, with Mediaset and its film and TV production, including the large Dutch TV producer Endemol Media. Canal Plus/Vivendi has been successful in pursuing this strategy to provide its paychannels with in-house content. But such content would have been forthcoming anyway from other providers, given the dominant role in retail pay-TV distribution which

82 Katsarova, Ivana. “An overview of Europe’s film industry.” European Parliamentary Members’ Research Service. December 2014. 7  http:// www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2014/545705/EPRS_ BRI(2014)545705_REV1_EN.pdf.

Canal Plus has. Neither European nor American content can easily bypass Canal Plus, and this, not the vertical integration, gives Canal Plus an economic advantage. Strategy 4: Multi-Platform ­Integration A common view is that Hollywood content providers dominate through their greater horizontal multi-platform, multi-media integration. Actually, no Hollywood company has been as horizontally (and vertically) integrated as Canal Plus and its parent Vivendi. Vivendi’s activities include (or included) music, television, film, publishing, telecommunications (mobile) and wireline, the Internet and video games. For example, Vivendi acquired video game leader Activision Blizzard, which created successful franchises such as Call of Duty and World of Warcraft.84 Vivendi acquired the film businesses of Universal and also the Universal Music Group, the leading music producer in the world with more than 20% of the global market. In advertising, Vivendi took control of Havas, one of the world’s largest advertising groups. In telecommunications, Vivendi acquired SFR, France’s second largest mobile telecommunications company and a major Internet provider. Vivendi also acquired Maroc Telecom, Morocco’s leading mobile, landline phone and Internet provider. Obviously, these platforms could be used for content distribution. However, the platforms cannot discriminate against other content providers and distributors. Neither would Canal Plus limit its content exclusively to SFR subscribers and leave out the other 75% of French mobile subscribers. That would make

83 Briançon, Pierre. “Politics fade from French Cinema.” Politico. Last updated November 2, 2015. 7  http://www.politico.eu/article/politicsfade-from-french-cinema-movies-culture/. 84 Hall, Jessica and Scott Hillis. “Guitar Hero meets Warcraft in VivendiActivision deal.” Reuters. December 2, 2007. Last accessed June 4, 2013. 7  http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/12/02/us-activision-vivendiidUSN0236714920071202.

51 3.10 · Case Discussion

sense only if its content would be so important that the mobile subscribers of Orange and others would switch their subscription to SFR just to get that content. And this is unlikely. It is therefore not surprising that, in 2014, Vivendi sold 80% of SFR to the French telecom and cable company Altice for $23 billion.85 Additionally, Vivendi acquired GVT, the leading highspeed Internet and connected television company in Brazil. Subsequently, Vivendi came under the control of the French billionaire Vincent Bolloré, a close friend of former French president Nicolas Sarkozy. Bolloré, a major investor in Africa, also started the Direct 8 TV station and Direct Soir, a free newspaper. Bolloré then acquired enough shares in Vivendi to become its largest stockholder and, in 2014, was appointed ­chairman of the board. In comparison, major US media companies also have a conglomerate structure, but not as strong and diverse as Vivendi’s. But did this create much success for Vivendi? There is no evidence that conglomerate ownership of music, or games, or mobile phones have strengthened Vivendi beyond making it a more powerful presence as a company. The multi-platform integration, while it may make for an interesting story, did not seem to create much of an advantage in terms of synergy. Indeed, it is possible to argue the opposite—that the conglomerate structure ended up dragging Vivendi down financially. After billions of Euros in losses, Vivendi sold or spun off SFR, GVT, Havas, Activision Blizzard, Universal Pictures and Maroc Telecom. It explained these deals not as being based on financial revenue but,

rather, as a way to “unlock” shareholder value. At the time, its P/E (stock price to earnings) ratio was 3–6, whereas US media companies had a multiple of about 10. In other words, Vivendi was undervalued by investors. It is left with the music group UMG, possibly because the music business has dropped so much that no one is willing to buy UMG at a decent price. And it is not clear how ownership of music labels and distribution helps Canal Plus or a film. This leaves Vivendi with one major asset—the Canal Plus group. That unit is strong, but not because of a conglomerate structure.  trategy 5: Expanding the S Language Reach Film companies in smaller language markets are often said to be disadvantaged in comparison with those of English-language countries. Traditionally, the French government has made major efforts to spread the French language. Canal Plus, however, took the opposite approach with a strategy to join the widespread English-language market, rather than fight it. In 2006, when Olivier Courson became StudioCanal’s CEO, 90% of StudioCanal’s films were in French but, by 2012, 70% of its films were in English.86 To deal with the criticism of cultural language advocates, Courson argued that StudioCanal’s goal was to add a “European touch” to English-language films. The strategy—successful, on the whole—illustrates the point that reaching world export markets can be achieved by companies from a smaller language market, but that it requires a reduction of countryspecific characteristics such as language and national culture components.

85 Altice tried to acquire the remainder of SFR with a stock swap but was blocked in October 2016 by the French securities regulator. 86 Pereira, Miguel Mendes. “Vertical and Horizontal Integration in the Media Sector and EU Competition Law.” Presented at The ICT and Media Sectors within the EU Policy Framework, Brussels, April 7, 2003. 7  http://ec.europa.eu/competition/speeches/text/sp2003_009_en.pdf.

 trategy 6: Content MainstreamS ing and Globalization Courson began to support international co-production and local films that could be distributed globally to a bigger market. StudioCanal’s stated production priorities are: 1. International co-production; 2. Family entertainment; 3. Elevated genre (such as The Last Exorcism) and complex films; 4. Local productions with international appeal.87 Of these priorities, 1, 2 and 4 are export-oriented and focus on popular films, whereas 3 is more culturally ambitious. StudioCanal still presents its brand as aiming at audiences with intellectual and artistic tastes. But its focus has increasingly become films that have mass appeal. Inevitably, this has led to a blockbuster orientation in which the revenue successes of its films are touted. Officially, the shift to a commercial orientation was downplayed. Courson stated that, “We at [StudioCanal] are developing more entertaining movies, but we also keep the link we have with auteurs.”88 StudioCanal was a senior partner in the film My Piece of the Pie (2011) (“Ma Part du Gateau”). The film is about a single mother who loses her factory job and moves to Paris, where she is employed to clean the apartment of a rich broker. The film was not well received in the USA and an American critic, expecting a “French movie,” noted that it was just “another glossy coffee table book of a film, presenting familiar content through handsome, instantly forgettable images.”89 Thus, StudioCanal’s films may have become less “French movie”

87 Hopewell, John. “Financial Sense Yields Solid Results.” Variety. May 11, 2012. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://variety.com/2012/film/ awards/financial-sense-yields-solid-results-1118053320/. 88 Barraclough, Leo. “Canal Plus at 25.” Variety. November 2, 2009, A27-A28. 89 Sachs, Ben. “My Piece of the Pie.” Chicago Reader. February 2, 2012. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/mypiece-of-the-pie/Film?oid=5502884.

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for critics, but their global box office (not including the USA and Canada) increased by 32% over five years (2007–2011).90 In France itself, in 2014, five of the top ten box-office hits were US movies. And the top three French movies were two light comedies, one of which was Lucy, a Luc Besson film starring the American actors Scarlett Johansson and Morgan Freeman. The film was considered “French” only because it was partially shot and produced in France. Strategy 7: Technology Canal Plus adopted some of the content and special razzle-dazzle effects which Hollywood employs. Audience interest led StudioCanal to finance and distribute one major 3-D computer-generated animated film per year, jointly with the Belgian 3-D company nWave. This resulted in Sammy’s Adventure (2010), Sammy’s Adventure 2 (2012), and House of Magic (2013), which had a substantial production budget at $34 million.91  trategy 8: Sign up Stars S A stereotype is that “European films are less concerned with A-list actors.”92 But, quite to the contrary, to broaden the appeal of Canal Plus films, its productions and coproductions include foreign stars in its own films or co-productions. Thus, Canal Plus has taken a similar approach to casting as do the Hollywood studios, by anchoring its marketing appeal on expensive big-name stars.  trategy 9: Large Budgets S European films typically have much lower budgets than Hollywood films. But StudioCanal’s budget

range is now $15 million–$25 million—lower than Hollywood but higher than in the past.93 In several co-production deals where it was the junior partner, the budget was much greater, for example, The Tourist (2010), was a big budget film that cost $100 million to make.  trategy 10: Financing S When it comes to financing, it simply cannot be said that there have been no commercial funding sources for films in France aside from the government. Crédit Lyonnais was France’s largest bank in the 1990s. It was owned by the French state, but became a leading lender to Hollywood in the 1980s. Crédit Lyonnais’s top entertainment finance executive was Frans Afman, whose projects included deLaurentiis movies (Serpico, 3 Days of the Condor) and various Cannon Films. Pirates, with Roman Polanski and Jack Nicholson, cost $40 million and garnered a box office of $5 million. Crédit Lyonnais also financed other independents—Carolco, New World, Vestrom, Hemdan—and many of them went to bankruptcy or reorganization. Crédit Lyonnais often funded second-rate films by second-rate production ­companies, often with big names past their prime but impressive to the ­bankers.94 These included Katherine Hepburn, Charles Bronson, Robert Mitchell, Faye Dunaway, Shelly Winters, Elliot Gould, John Voight, Brooke Shields and Bo Derek. It also financed Grancarlo Parretti’s disastrous takeover of MGM. After losing $5 billion, the bank had to be bailed out by the government. Crédit Lyonnais

90 MPAA. “Theatrical Market Statistics: 2012.” Motion Picture Association of America, Inc. Last accessed March 29, 2013. 7  http://www.mpaa.org// Resources/3037b7a4-58a2-4109-8012-58fca3abdf1b.pdf. 91 Hopewell, John. “StudioCanal works ‘magic’ on sales.” Variety. February 7, 2013. Last accessed April 17, 2017. 7  http://variety.com/2013/film/ news/studiocanal-works-magic-on-sales-1118065857/. 92 Dawtrey, Adam. “Euros Create Hits on Their Own Terms.” Variety. May 10, 2010, A14, A33. 93 Hopewell, John. “Variety’s Achievement in Int’l Film Award: Olvier Courson.” Variety. May 11, 2013. Last accessed June 4, 2013. 7  http://variety. com/2012/film/news/creative-punch-meets-biz-savvy-1118053319/.

filed for bankruptcy in 1993. In 1996, its headquarters burned down and, with it, its data archives. Canal Plus also diversified its funding beyond its own subscriber base. In 2011, it departed from the traditional use of bank loans and engaged in Europe’s first slate financing to fund films.95 In that slate deal, rather than buy a single film project, investors bought into a whole portfolio of films.96  trategy 11: Diversification S The stereotype is that only Hollywood has the scale to diversify in content and platforms. Yet, StudioCanal currently releases around 40 movies per year in European countries, and owns rights to around 5000 movies. StudioCanal distributes around 15 feature films each year in France directly to theaters. Distribution activities include marketing, publicity, theater owner relations and transactions, TV/cable/VOD deals, and video releases. More than 2000 StudioCanal films are available online. StudioCanal also provides films for mobile phone viewing. Thus, the company has considerable diversity in distribution and volume.  trategy 12: A Two-tier System S with a Shift to Independent ­Producers and Co-Producers Just as Hollywood has created dependent-independent producers, in France Canal Plus distributes dependent films to theaters—in a shift to a two-tiered structure. With these independents, StudioCanal’s involvement is mainly that of financing and distribution, but the company also makes decisions

94 Stadiem, William. Moneywood: Hollywood in Its Last Age of Excess. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012. 95 Saigal, Kanika. “Slate financing: StudioCanal signs Europe’s first slate financing.” Euromoney. November 2011. Last accessed April 19, 2017. 7  http://www.euromoney.com/Article/2928950/Slate-financingStudioCanal-signs-Europes-first-slate-financing.html. 96 The main investor was the European media fund, Anton Capital Entertainment, which put in about $200 million. Other investors included US-based Falcon Investment Advisors and the Bank of America, as well as the Union Bank of Switzerland and various European institutional investors representing private parties.

53 3.11 · Conclusion: Success Elements for Content Production

about the script and other artistic aspects, and may also provide technical support.97 Government film policy in France pursues the goal of helping artistically minded independent film producers flourish. By law, 2.125% of its considerable revenues (17% of the 12.5% that Canal Plus must invest into other films) must be allocated to films that have a budget of less than a $5.2 million per year. That comes to a pool of about $140 million per year. Canal Plus could thus cover half of the budget of 50–100 such films per year. Independent film producers account for 95% of films made in France.98 Canal Plus helped finance at least 64% of French films, plus any films that may have been licensed or acquired later in “negative pickup deals.” On one level, such support of independent producers is a positive contribution. On the other hand, when Canal Plus supports two-thirds of French film productions it also creates major dependencies and enormous cultural power. If its orientation in picking projects to support is increasingly commercial, then it also affects the entire content direction of the French film industry and, thus, French culture.

 onclusion: How Does it All Add C Up for Canal Plus? Canal Plus and its production subsidiary StudioCanal became Europe’s closest counterpart to a major Hollywood studio. It is rooted in a new financial model— a pay-TV near-monopoly of a commercial company based on a de facto exclusive government license. The official mission of Canal Plus is to create “mainstream auteur films that have audience punch without sacrificing artistic ambition.” Officially, Canal Plus is trying to merge the popular and artistic, but is “mainstream auteur” yet another oxymoron? Canal Plus has said that “StudioCanal needs to avoid dependency to any one market and develop line-ups that are common for each of the three main European markets that it serves.”99 Translation: less French. It is also declared that it also needs to further focus on UK productions, which are popular throughout Europe. Translation: content that is more American-style. StudioCanal adopted a “mixed model of coordination and decentralization.” This means StudioCanal works with other distribution and production companies and often outsources

3.11  Conclusion: Success Elements

production duties. Translation: the Hollywood production model. Though this will usually be denied, CanalPlus in the process is becoming indistinguishable from a Hollywood major. (The main difference, is that it has a government-­granted virtual monopoly over pay-TV, allowing it to charge high prices. There is also a government-mandated support quota for independent filmmakers. In effect, it is a system that forces French consumers to subsidize French independent filmmakers.) Thus, for the production and distribution of film content, certain fundamentals seem to operate. Hollywood majors, too, have moved in a direction that embraces more foreign stars, locales, themes and funding. On both sides of the Atlantic, we observe a convergence from national to global. There is also a counter-trend to more small independent filmmaking, made possible by cheaper digital equipment and online distribution. But the main viewing around the world is that of expensively produced premium products, and these have their distinct business dynamics.

What does it take for success in content creation and production? Creativity and originality, of course. But that is not enough. Content production requires “organized creativity.” The image of content creation is one of individualism. The reality, once one moves beyond an initial flash of inspiration, is one of collaborative effort, in the same way that individual inventors have largely been superseded for major innovation by

organized R&D efforts by development teams of large or specialized firms. In the media and communication sector, content creation has been an increasingly organized team effort. Newspapers, for example, rely on reporter teams, editors, a newsroom and so on. Performance arts—such as theater, dance and music—depend on troupes, orchestras and bands. Software and game companies rely on large development teams. In novels, the author (still largely the solitary creator) works with teams of editors and marketers. Other

97 StudioCanal. “Activities.” Last accessed May 29, 2013. 7  http://www. studiocanal.com/en/activities/france. 98 Goodfellow, Melanie. “French Producers boycott CNC over Crew Pay Deal.” ScreenDaily. March 21, 2013. Last accessed June 17, 2013. 7  http://www.screendaily.com/news/french-producers-boycottcnc/5053189.article.

99 Hopewell, John. “Variety’s Achievement in Int’l Film Award: Olivier Courson.” Variety. May 11, 2012. Last accessed May 30, 2012. 7  http://variety. com/2012/film/news/creative-punch-meets-biz-savvy-1118053319/.

for Content Production

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books—such as educational, reference and “how-to” books—do not depend on an individual creator but, rather, rely on author and editor teams. Content creation is a high-risk activity, trying to meet the great but unpredictable audience demand for entertainment and information. There is intense competition for audience attention. Film may be the forerunner and pathbreaker for most types of content creation. By analyzing Hollywood, we may find the success factors for content production more generally. Understanding them helps established media organizations, and independents and start-­ ups who seek their niche. So, what do we deduce to be the elements of success for commercial content production? People can imagine dark conspiracies that keep Hollywood successful. Instead, they should look at it as a different business model. For most of its elements, artistry is only of secondary importance, the greater importance is managerial. Key success factors for media production are diverse and can be grouped by focus: Risk Reduction Techniques Enable expensive production under uncertainty and risk through: 55 A system of risk financing; 55 Portfolio diversification; 55 Transformation of discrete projects into a flow model. Product Development 55 Popular-taste oriented style and niches; 55 A strong pipeline of project proposals; 55 A strong system of selection and testing; 55 Budget and cost tracking. Organizational Structures The most important success factor of content business is its evolving business model. That business model is important to all industries and all companies, not just in the media and digital ­sector. 55 Project-based, ad hoc organizations with low fixed costs, and high project entrepreneurship; 55 Skewed reward system as incentive to ­creators.

zz Put Together, the formula seems to be: Competitive Creation and Oligopolistic Distribution

The elements of content production reinforce each other. There is geographic clustering, as well as constant artistic and business interchange, as well as interaction and information exchange. There is also a physical agglomeration of activities, which creates proximity to skills and restructuring (disintegration) of content production. We can see these developments now moving to the breakup of electronics and other companies, with some specialist firms doing the design, others making the components, yet others manufacturing, and still others doing the marketing. Hollywood has developed this model not because of its superior access to management gurus, but because it has been engaged in a Darwinian process. Each year, about 200 major films are produced. Each of the major films costs about $70–$100 million to make, and $40 million or more to promote. Many of these films disappear within days. Thus, under the pressures to sink or swim, companies and business practices evolved and re-engineered themselves continuously. In that model, the Big Six Hollywood studios are mostly in the business of distributing films made by small independent or semi-independent firms. The studios also finance some of them, fully or partly. They may rent them production facilities, but their share in the actual production of the major films they distribute keeps declining, and is probably less than 20% now. (There are many gray shades between outright studio production and truly independent production.) The studio companies (and similar companies in other sectors of media) are the integrators of this system, but they themselves are small relative to their activity level: low-central bureaucracy, low overheads, low levels of risk assumption, and low employee benefits to support. Even much of management staff is project-based. Thus, content production in film today involves hundreds of small independent production companies—some established, some ad hoc and some start-ups—that, in turn, use hundreds of specialized firms with special skills. This has restructured the industry from one of vertically integrated firms with in-house skills to one based

55 3.12 · Review Materials

on specialists for hire. It forces the central media companies to concentrate on the coordination of multiple skills and elements, with an emphasis on multi-national, multi-cultural, and multi-media orientation. Their other major roles are in financing production and managing the distribution of the product.100 Such a model of the project-oriented, increasingly “virtual” production firm may be the forerunner model for many business operations in general, which integrates creativity with business needs: 55 Decentralized; 55 Networked; 55 Virtual; 55 Freelance; 55 Global. The major content firms, then, are mainly coordinators, integrators of the specialist firms, and branders of the final products. This may be, for many industries, the business model of the future. It would not be the first time that media has led the way for a general business transformation. The printing press led the way for an industrial massproduction system. Perhaps the film industry model, created in the Darwinian process described, is a forerunner for the next stage: the global postindustrial production system and economy. 3.12  Review Materials

Issues Covered In this chapter, we have covered the following issues: 55 What we can learn from Hollywood regarding success factors for content production; 55 What the future industry structure of content production looks like; 55 The role of print publishers; 55 The role of music producers and video game companies;

100 Rifkin, Jeremy. “When Markets Give Way to Networks…Everything Is a Service.” The Age of Access: How the Shift from Ownership to Access is Transforming Modern Life. London: Penguin, 2000, 24–95.

55 Whether vertical integration plays a role for the success of content producers; 55 How specialization and clustering shape media industries; 55 What different types of risk-reduction strategies exist; 55 How diversification can lower the risk of content portfolios; 55 What the development process for content looks like; 55 What factors play a role in the selection and development of projects; 55 How budgeting and financing impacts the production of content; 55 How to set budgeting and cost control among production activities; 55 How to measure productivity for content production; 55 How the next generation of technology impacts content production; 55 What the future of content and content production looks like.

Tools Covered We described these tools to deal with some of these issues: 55 Options approach to project selection; 55 Project valuation; 55 Activities-based costing (ABC); 55 Release sequencing; 55 Gantt charts; 55 PERT; 55 Critical path methods; 55 Portfolio diversification of content; 55 Markowitz frontier of efficient risk-reward tradeoffs; 55 Process flow diagrams; 55 Production and cost functions.

3.12.1  Questions for Discussion ??   1. What is the effect of vertical integration of production with distribution and supporting industries (books, toys, music, games) on the success of Hollywood?

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??   2. What media production industry (book publishing, Hollywood, TV, video games) is least dependent on the others? Why? Is that an advantage or disadvantage?

3

??   3. Which characteristics of major non-Hollywood industries (automobiles, manufacturing, services) should Hollywood adopt to better itself? ??   4. How can one define and measure productivity in content production? Is it increasing? ??   5. How will advancements in technology influence the future of film production? Newspaper production? ??   6. How can the European film industries become more financially successful? Why, in contrast, are European book publishers more successful? ??   7. Is the Hollywood production model a suitable model for other industries of the economy? What is an example? ??   8. What are the ingredients of successful content production in music? What do they suggest for content production in general? ??   9. Can content production be organized on an industrial scale? How can mass-­ production accommodate individualized creativity? ?? 10. Where can industrial production processes be applied to the content industry?

3.12.2  Quiz ?? 1. Of the following answers, which one is not a reason for the unfavorable economics of theater? A. Expensive to promote. B. Difficult to create special effects. C. Expensive to produce. D. Expensive to distribute.

?? 2. When did Hollywood produce the most films annually? A. 1950s and 1960s. B. 1990s and present day. C. 1920s and 1930s. D. 1970s and 1980s. ?? 3. The television and the film industries have always worked together to maximize their profits. A. False. B. True. ?? 4. The video game industry is becoming more creative with their products and taking more financial risks. A. True. B. False. ?? 5. Of the choices below, which country annually produces the most films per population? A. France. B. Italy. C. United States. D. Germany. ?? 6. Films with which ratings are the most profitable for Hollywood? A. R-rated. B. PG-13 rated. C. PG-rated. D. G-rated. ?? 7. Which of the following is not a ‘negative cost’ for a production company? A. Printing. B. Paying “below the line” cost. C. Film editing. D. Script development. ?? 8. Which of the following is a disadvantage of vertical integration? A. Raising of entry barriers for ­competitors. B. Cross-marketing possibilities. C. Alternative distribution for independent films. D. Creation of captive suppliers and buyers.

57 3.12 · Review Materials

?? 9. What structure is today’s media production firm taking on? A. Market model of the firm. B. Centralized firm model. C. Network firm model. D. None of the above. ?? 10. In Hollywood, along with the music and video game industry, which is more important? A. Cost reduction. B. Revenue generation. ?? 11. Which of the following is not a reason for Hollywood’s project selection ­success? A. Hollywood has learned to influence legislation. B. Hollywood has a superior selection system to other film industries. C. Hollywood has first pick of the best projects. D. Hollywood has available investment funding for development. ?? 12. A strong financing structure to invest significant capital in movies is missing from the European film industries relative to the structure of Hollywood financing. A. True. B. False. ?? 13. Which of the following is not a risk-reducing strategy in production? A. Insurance. B. Higher pricing. C. Step-wise investment. D. Diversification. ?? 14. Which of the following statements is true of the magazine publishing industry? A. Despite the recent mergers of global media companies, companies that publish magazines only can still prosper as only 160 of over 22,000 magazines have a circulation over 500,000. B. With the mergers of global media companies, there are only a handful of companies which print 22,000 consumer magazines.



C. Both are true. D. Neither is true.

?? 15. Which factor influences the production budget of music recording? A. How many recordings the label thinks it can sell of the artist. B. Reputation and experience of artist. C. Genre of music. D. All of the above. ?? 16. The primary coordinator for a new film in many countries outside the United States are: A. The distributors. B. The talent agency. C. The executive producer. D. The director. ?? 17. Which of the following is not a media product content category? A. Profit-driven. B. Segment-driven/niche. C. Talent-driven. D. Marketing-driven. ?? 18. What are the limitations of the program evaluation and review technique (PERT)? A. May only be a guess. B. Consistently under-estimates the expected project. C. Activity time estimates somewhat subjective. D. All of above. ?? 19. In a Broadway theater production, what two aspects make up nearly 40% of the budget? A. Physical production and advertising/ marketing. B. Advertising/marketing and salaries. C. Physical production and salaries. D. Salaries and general administrative. ?? 20. What is not a way to reduce risk in content production? A. Market forecasting. B. Insurance. C. Shifting of risk to others. D. Specialization. E. Hedging.

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Quiz Answers

vv 11. B

vv 1. A

vv 12. A

vv 2. C

vv 13. B

vv 3. A

vv 14. A

vv 4. B

vv 15. D

vv 5. A

vv 16. D

vv 6. D

vv 17. A

vv 7. A

vv 18. D

vv 8. D

vv 19. A

vv 9. A

vv 20. D

vv 10. B

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Technology Management in Media and Information Firms 4.1 Technology Drivers and Trends – 61 4.1.1 Case Discussion – 62

4.2 Technology Management – 62 4.2.1 The Technology Function – 62 4.2.2 Chief Technology Officer (CTO) – 63 4.2.3 Key Tasks for the CTO: Technology Assessment – 63 4.2.4 Integration of Technology with Firm Strategy – 68 4.2.5 The Placement of R&D: In-­House, Acquired, or Co-­developed? – 72 4.2.6 The Organizational Structure of R&D Activities – 73 4.2.7 Open Innovation – Community-­Based R&D – 75 4.2.8 Budgeting for Innovation – 76 4.2.9 Implementing R&D Alliances – 77 4.2.10 Knowledge Management – 77 4.2.11 Standards Strategy – 78

4.3 The Six Stages of Media and Communications ­Technology Digital ­Convergence: “The 6 C’s” – 79 4.3.1 Convergence #1: Computers – 79 4.3.2 Convergence #2: Computers with Communications Hardware – 82 4.3.3 Convergence #3: Integration with Consumer Electronics – 84 4.3.4 Convergence #4: Integration with Content – 85 4.3.5 Convergence #5: The Media Cloud – 87 4.3.6 The Next Convergence: Bio-­electronics and Human Cognition – 88

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_4

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4.4 The Next Act for Sony – 88 4.4.1 Case Discussion – 88

4.5 Outlook – 90 4.6 Review Materials – 90 4.6.1 Questions for Discussion – 91 4.6.2 Quiz – 92

Quiz Answers – 95

61 4.1 · Technology Drivers and Trends

4.1

Technology Drivers and Trends

The media sector consists of three broad segments: content creation, content distribution and media devices. This chapter focuses on the devices and their development, and, more generally, on the technology of media and communications that underlie distribution networks and content production. The key question of technology management is how to reconcile an unpredictable and disruptive process of innovation with organized business management. The issues addressed are: 1. How does a media company organize its technology function? 2. How does technology innovation affect media industries? Technology transforms our lives, our work, and the way we produce and consume media. For media firms, technology is destiny. Or, at least, it is a trajectory, a direction. Technology has always initiated big media innovations. The printing press created the publishing industry. The telegraph spawned global wireline networks. The phonograph created the music recording industry. Broadcast technology and TV screens shifted mass media to the home. More recently, personal computers, cellular mobile networks and the Internet have been rapidly transforming media. As mentioned, in the Industrial Revolution, the main technology driver was the ability to create machine-­based power as a substitute for human and animal muscle power. For the Information Revolution, the main technology driver is the increased ability to create machine-based information processing as a substitute and complement for human brainpower. This was achieved through the ability to manipulate sub-atomic particles (electrons and photons) through a variety of devices, followed by an ability to string these devices together to create systems and applications that could process all forms of information based on binary signals. Not long ago, the various types of media employed specialized technology devices: text-­ based media such as newspapers used the printing press, audio-based media such as music used spinning vinyl records, film had its celluloid photographic technology, TV broadcasting transmitted various analog waveforms, while telephone networks enabled two-way audio signals over copper lines. Each of these media types was based

on separate technologies, devices, suppliers, producers, industries and regulatory systems. But, more recently, all are increasingly based on common technical elements: 55 Semiconductor electronic components; 55 Software programs and modules; 55 Radio-frequency transmission and receiving devices; 55 Information processors; 55 Display screens; 55 Optical signal devices; 55 Storage devices and components; 55 Battery technology; 55 Fiber transmission and distribution links; 55 Signal switching and routing devices; 55 Information coding methods. Because these components are usable across most types of media devices, the expectation was that this would also lead to a convergence in the underlying media technologies in media industries and firms, and thus of media themselves. “Media convergence” thus became a concept much bandied about, but was slower to emerge in reality. In the 1980s, the conventional wisdom was that the future electronic environment would be dominated by a titanic struggle between the giants AT&T and IBM, then dominant in their respective sectors of telecom and computers. Both were making big electronic boxes that were interconnected worldwide, and which generated and controlled flows of digital information. Inevitably, they would become each other’s greatest rivals. Soon, however, business reality set in. IBM withdrew from the telecommunications sector, while AT&T abandoned its business in computers after incurring huge losses. There were other instances where successful companies moved beyond their core area and failed. Time Warner, in a major merger with AOL, wanted to enter the Internet; Microsoft made major investments in cable TV; the Japanese consumer electronics giant Matsushita (Panasonic) bought a Hollywood film studio; Bertelsmann moved into online activities. The outcomes were disastrous for the companies involved. Will the same happen to a new set of media-­ tech companies, in particular Google, Apple, Amazon, Facebook and Samsung? Beyond company-­specific issues, the more fundamental reason is that convergence is not the only business

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trend. A second powerful trend is the acceleration of innovation, and with it the incentives to ­specialization and differentiation in order to succeed in a highly competitive environment. While technology has been converging, few firms have 4.1.1

4

succeeded in keeping up with the pace of change in multiple fields. Why this failure? To answer that question, we will discuss throughout this chapter a major “convergence firm”—the Japanese electronics and entertainment company Sony.

Case Discussion

Sony Is Sony the exception, or a confirmation to the frequent failure of “convergence” companies in the technology field? Sony has been active in many media and media technology sectors: TV sets, radios, audio players, computers, cameras, film production, TV shows, music, film production equipment, games and hardware/ software, telecom handsets and financial services. The question is whether Sony can be a technology leader in all of these fields. Has Sony’s technology strategy of convergence worked? For 14 generations, the Morita family ran a sake brewery in Osaka. After Japan’s defeat in World War II in 1945, Akio Morita broke away from family tradition and started, in a basement, the Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, soon renamed Sony Electronics. In 1950, Sony came out with its first breakthrough product, an inexpensive transistor radio. By the late 1950s, Sony had become a major producer of radios, television sets and other home entertainment devices. In the 1970s, Sony changed its strategy from that of a low-cost producer to being a technology leader with a wide array of smartly designed products. In 1975, Sony introduced the first consumer video cassette

recorder, the Betamax. But the VHS technology of its rival, Matsushita, prevailed. In 1979, Sony introduced the Walkman as a portable cassette tape audio device and sparked a revolution in portable music and in music cassette sales. Sony’s strategist in the 1980s was Norio Ohga, who had had a career as an opera singer and symphony conductor, Ohga negotiated Sony’s acquisition of CBS Records for $2 billion. This helped Sony to launch the compact disc (CD). Based on the success of the CD, Sony entered the film business as well. In 1989, Morita bought the film studio UA-Columbia from Coca-Cola for $3.4 billion. Nobuyuki Idei, who handled the home video division, succeeded Morita as Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Sony was nicely balanced across its business segments and geographic regions, deriving about a quarter of its sales each from Japan, Europe, the USS and the rest of the world. Sony became, according to annual Harris Polls, America’s number one “best brand” for most of the years 1996–2007, ahead of Coca-Cola, Ford, or General Electric. Since 2000, however, Sony has been under pressure. Worldwide prices for consumer electronics (CE) products fell. New competitors emerged. Sony’s revenues declined,

4.2

Technology Management

4.2.1

The Technology Function

Research and development (R&D) is the creation of new knowledge by a firm, and the strengthening of its existing and future operations and products. “Research” expands the

as did its profits and stock price. By 2005, Moody’s lowered its long-term credit ratings for Sony from A1 to A2. In that year, Sony’s most profitable business was not electronics or entertainment but, rather, financial services. Under fire, Idei’s successor, Kunitake Ando, was forced to step down. Welsh-born Howard Stringer, a former news producer at CBS in New York, became Sony president. He spoke no Japanese, was no engineer and operated mostly from Sony’s American base in New York.1 Sony began rebuilding. It sold its real estate assets and financial services, and dropped 6% of its workforce (16,000 employees). It eliminated about 600 products, closed four plants in Japan and another four overseas. Another round of job reductions was started in 2012, totaling over 10,000. But this did not end the problems. Sony’s products did not sell as they used to. It lost a considerable amount of money on its TV sets, fell behind in flat screens, laptops and mobile phones, and was weak in MP3 players, despite the connection to its own huge music division (which also declined.) The questions are, therefore, whether Sony’s technology efforts worked well, whether they were well-managed, or whether they contributed to the decline of the company.

firm’s scientific knowledge and engineering skills. “Development” applies this knowledge and makes it relevant to the firm’s business through new products. 1

Schlender, Brent. “Inside the Shakeup at Sony.” Fortune Magazine. April 4, 2005. Last accessed August 10, 2012. 7  http://money.cnn.com/ magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/04/04/8255921/index.htm.

63 4.2 · Technology Management

The image of innovation has been that of an individualistic endeavor. Indeed, lone (or duo) inventors abound—Gutenberg, Fulton, Watt, Marconi, Morse, Bell, Tesla, the Wright Brothers, the Lumière Brothers, Jobs and Wozniak, Gates and Allen, Brin and Page. But the reality of corporate R&D is less glamorous than such heroic images of invention. Thomas Edison’s major innovation may not have been the real lightbulb but, rather, a figurative one: the organized process of invention. Edison established a free-standing laboratory in 1876 in Orange, New Jersey. In that laboratory, one year later, the Edison team developed a rotating wax tin-foil cylinder with grooves, creating the first consumer electronics product. In 1891, Edison’s lab came out with an early movie ­technology. In 1879, the lab developed the light bulb; this led to electric power generation and distribution which, in turn, enabled and powered numerous new devices. Following this model, major companies established large organized R&D structures. They created sprawling research facilities such as Bell Labs, IBM Labs, RCA Laboratories and GE-­ Labs (. Fig. 4.1).2 Similar big corporate labs exist in other countries. This approach has not been the organizational path for start-ups, which are more inclined to follow the lone-inventor model. However, some of the most innovative technologies were initially spawned inside the large labs by researchers who then went out on their own.  

4.2.2

Chief Technology Officer (CTO)

Inside a company, the technology function is often run by an executive with a title such as Chief Technology Officer (CTO) or Chief Scientist. The CTO is the link between business managers and technical personnel. The role of the CTO must be distinguished from that of the Chief Information Officer (CIO), who is responsible for internal IT adoption and support. The CTO is not a lab director but, rather, a business person who is technical- and management-­ savvy (often with a tech background) who shapes part of the overall corporate strategy along the

dimension of technology.3 The CTO’s role differs depending on the company, the industry and their personal qualifications. Generally, they oversee the process of technological innovation in products and operations. To do so, the CTO needs to be a change agent who can identify new technology and bring it into the company. Obviously, large companies are more likely to deploy a CTO than small ones but, conceptually, even a grocery store needs someone who takes the initiative to bring in new technology. We will now review several of the functions of CTOs as a way to understand a company’s management of technology, a critical task in the media and information sector. 4.2.3

The CTO identifies present and future technology options, and assesses their potential role for the company. Factors are technical viability and business potential.4 A similar assessment effort must be conducted by investors when they evaluate a start-up firm that is based on new technology, or by a company when it tries to acquire another firm that holds special technologies and patents.5 However, assessing technology is difficult even for experts. One of the greatest scientists of  all time, Ernest Rutherford of Cambridge University, dismissed nuclear energy in a presidential address to the Royal Physics Society in 1933: “Anyone who expects a source of power from the transformation of these atoms is talking moonshine.”6 At  the opposite extreme, another famous scientist, John von Neumann, predicted in 1956 that “a few decades hence, energy may be free, just like unmetered air.” If two such leading lights can be so wrong, and diametrically so, how can a lesser technology manager have a chance to be right? The answer is that a CTO need not deal 3

4 5 2

AT&T also operated a huge R&D facility at Murray Hill, NJ, and several other research centers. Photo used under Creative Commons. Beaumont, Lee. “Bell Labs Holmdel.” 7  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Bell_Labs_Holmdel.jpg.

Key Tasks for the CTO: Technology Assessment

6

Lewis, W. W. and H. L. Lawrence. “A new mission for corporate technology.” Sloan Management Review 34, no. 3 (1990). Taken from Smith, Roger D. “The Role of the Chief Technology Officer in Strategic Innovation, Project Execution, and Mentoring.” Research Technology Management 46, no. 4 (August 2002): 3. Inside Jobs. “CTO.” Last accessed July 11, 2011. 7  http://www.insidejobs. com/jobs/cto. Smith, Roger D. “The Role of the Chief Technology Officer in Strategic Innovation, Project Execution, and Mentoring.” Research Technology Management 46, no. 4 (August 2002): 10. Doyle, Jim. “Energy from Nuclear Fission”. June 20, 2011. Last accessed July 12, 2011. 7  http://www.btinternet.com/~j.doyle/SR/Emc2/Fission.htm.

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..      Fig. 4.1  Bell Labs R&D Facilities in Holmdel and Murray Hill, NJ in their heyday

with the long-range future of science. Their role has to be to deal with the set of “plausible possibles,” i.e. with scenarios and opportunities that are composed of building blocks that already exist. How to go about looking forward in such a way? To stay close to the leading edge, information is key. This means close ties to academic laboratories and journals, attendance at trade shows, the reading of trade and technology magazines, checking out websites, and the creation of a personal network of respected innovators and business analysts. Another way to review the state of and pace at which technology advances in a field is to look at published patents in one’s sector.7 Patent 7

US government’s website for patent searches is 7  https://www.uspto.gov. IBM’s free site 7  https://www.ibm.com/ibm/licensing/. In Europe, the European Patent Office is at 7  http://www.epo.co.at:80/index.htm. And in Japan 7  https://www.j-platpat.inpit.go.jp/web/all/top/BTmTopEnglishPage.

a­ pplications and grants are useful as a source of ­information about the “prior art” of technology innovations. Looking at patent applications, one can identify competitors, innovators, and potential partners and licensees, as well as the velocity of technology in a sub-area.8 Progress in the field of electronics has f­ ollowed broad trends. A major way to assess a specific technology is to compare it with the more general rate of change in the electronics sector. Forty years ago, the computer electronics pioneer Gordon Moore observed that the power of semiconductors doubled every one to two  years, predicting that this trend would continue. This rate of progress—about 40% a year—became famous as

8

Department of Commerce. “US Patent Office.” May 27, 2011. Last accessed June 12, 2011. 7  http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/PTO/ search-bool.html.

65 4.2 · Technology Management

“Moore’s Law.” And, indeed, it described the progress over the subsequent decades pretty well. Computer components became smaller, or more powerful, or cheaper, at roughly the predicted rate. Whereas in 1970 a memory chip would store 1000 bits, it holds up to 8 trillion in 2017 (1 terabyte). Such progress enables marvels of technology, from computerized tomography (CAT) scans to video over cell phones. Part of the secret for the resiliency of Moore’s Law has been that it has moved from prediction to self-fulfilling prophecy. It establishes a time line for progress that everyone in this highly decentralized industry understands. When a company is engaged in developing the next generation of its components, software, or hardware, it knows that the overall pace of technology progresses at the rate of Moore’s Law, and it must plan to match it. If it falls behind that pace, it must add engineers, money and partners to its development effort. If it is too far ahead, it could end up designing products that have no complementary devices or content and will not find buyers. If its production costs do not drop fast enough, it must compensate by gaining scale or moving to cheaper shores. Thus, like a giant bell tower, Moore’s Law has helped to synchronize the development of global electronics. Similar trends can be observed in the transmission throughput “speeds” achieved by engineers, which leads to ever-cheaper transmission “bandwidth.”9 Or, to the increased amount of information that can be stored and processed in progressively less space for progressively less money. It also translates to an exponential trend in the cost per unit of distribution of information over time. A firm can look ahead, identify the trends in the underlying components in terms of performance and cost, and then analyze in what direction this is taking the industry. There is no need to resort to science fiction. One can observe the trends, what leading edge adopters are already doing, and what technology companies are offering by way of hardware and applications.

9

Magee, Christopher L. “A Quantitative Functional Approach to the Study of Technological Progress.” Massachusetts Institute of Technology, April 30, 2007.

Of course, details of developments are unfathomable in advance, but the broad trend is a different story. 4.2.3.1

 election of R&D Projects S for Funding

According to one analysis, it requires about 3000 raw ideas to produce one substantially new, commercially successful industrial product.10 Of 3000 new ideas, 125 are narrowed down to small projects of which approximately nine evolve into significant projects for major development efforts and commercial launches (. Fig. 4.2).11 Of these, only one is commercially successful. With these staggering odds, how is a firm to evaluate how to select among technology ideas? Innovation is a discovery process and may not necessarily have a sure destination.12 But it helps to define the task for the R&D project clearly. When Steve Jobs envisioned the iPod, he defined the goal as “1000 songs in my pocket.” Once a task is well-defined, it is easier to develop a focused and actionable strategy. (However, many of the most important innovations cannot be willed; rather, they emerge ­serendipitously.) Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “If a man can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a better mousetrap than his neighbor, though he build his house in the woods, the world will make a beaten path to his door.” But this is not necessarily true. Studies show that 40–90% of new products fail. Experts and early adopters loved TiVo’s digital video recorder but consumers were reluctant to sign up; the company lost over $600 million by 2005 and, subsequently, was in the red in six out of eight  years because of low demand. Why do consumers fail to buy innovative products? An explanation is supplied by ­behavioral economists such as 2002 Nobel Prize  

10 Stevens, Greg A. and James Burley. “3000 Raw Ideas = 1 Commercial Success!” Research Technology Management 40, no. 3 (May/June 1997): 1–12. 11 Graph based on Stevens, Greg A. and James Burley. “3,000 Raw Ideas = 1 Commercial Success!” Research Technology Management 40, no. 3 (May/ June 1997): 1–12. 12 Satell, Greg. “How to Manage Innovation.” Forbes. March 7, 2013. Last accessed May 2, 2017. 7  http://www.forbes.com/sites/gregsatell/2013/03/07/how-to-manage-innovation-2/.

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..      Fig. 4.2  R&D project selectivity and success rate

10,000 3,000 Raw Ideas (Unwritten)

4

Number of Ideas Logarithmic Scale

1,000 300 Ideas Submitted 125 Small Projects

100

9 Early Stage Developments

10

4 Major Developments 1.7 Launches 1 Success

1 1

2

winner Daniel Kahneman, who showed, with Amos Tversky, that consumers have a “loss aversion,” which means that they fear losses much more than gains of the same magnitude. The problem with introducing a new technology or application is that it forces consumers to change their behavior, which is never easy. Studies show that people tend to overvalue the benefits of the goods they own and know over new ones, by a factor of 3:1. ­Innovators, at the same time, overvalue their new products by a similar factor, 3:1. Having put their ideas, hopes, energy, money and time into a new product, some innovators tend to lose a sense of realism.13 Taken together, there is a mismatch of 9:1 between what innovators think consumers want and what consumers truly desire. A new product must therefore not be better by a small measure; rather, its gains must far outweigh the potential losses, or consumers will not adopt it. In every active company, plenty of ideas bubble up that could lead to promising products. But money, time, personnel and attention are scarcer than ideas. How, then, does a company select projects for R&D funding? Gut feeling and hunches are one way to go. Another is to formalize the process. There are several methods to do so.

13 Gourville, John T. “Eager Sellers & Stony Buyers.” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 6 (June 2006): 98–106.

3 4 5 Stages of Selection Process

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7

Scoring methods rank potential R&D projects according to several performance dimensions.14, 15 Such dimensions could be the completion probability of a project, its duration, its budget cost, the number of researchers needed to complete the project, the potential use for follow-up products and so on. As an example, assume that three projects are assessed (. Table 4.1).16 Projects are scored along criteria 1–7, with a grade ranging from 1 to 10 (column 3), and the weighting of each criterion, according to its importance, from 1 to 10 (column 2). For example, Project A scores a high 10 on criterion 1, and a low 2 on criterion 2. These scores are then multiplied by their weight factor (7.5 and 6.9), resulting in scores of 75.0 and 13.8 (column 4). These criterion scores are then added up and result in an overall score of 313.4 for Project A, 286.6 for Project B, and 268.0 for Project C.  The projects can be ranked from high to low. Project A scores highest and Project B is second-highest. However, the scoring method has problems. The formula and its weights tend to be inflexible. Yet, if they were flexible and changeable they could be manipulated to get a desired result.  

14 Poh, K.L. B. W. Ang, and F. Bai. “A Comparative analysis of R&D project evaluation methods.” R&D Management 31, no. 1 (January 2001): 63–75. 15 The Economist. “Out of the Dusty Labs – The Rise and Fall of Corporate R&D.” March 1, 2007. Last accessed May 2, 2017. 7  http://www. economist.com/node/8769863. 16 Rengarajan, S. and P. Jagannathan. “Project selection by scoring for a large R&D organization in a developing country.” R&D Management 27, no. 2 (April 1997): 155–164.

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67 4.2 · Technology Management

..      Table 4.1  Ranking and scoring R&D projects Criterion no.

Weightage factor (W.F)

Project A

1

7.5

10

75.0

10

75.0

8

60.0

2

6.9

2

13.8

10

69.0

8

55.2

3

6.8

10

68.0

2

13.6

2

13.6

4

7.0

10

70.0

10

70.0

8

70.0

5

4.6

8

36.8

2

9.2

2

9.2

6

5.1

8

40.8

8

40.8

10

51.0

7

4.5

2

9.0

2

9.0

2

9.0

Marks

Project B Marks × W.F.

Total score

Marks

313.4

Project C Marks × W.F.

Marks

286.6

Marks × W.F.

268.0

..      Table 4.2  ROI of projects Year

0

1

2

3

4

Net profit

ROI

NPV

ROID

Project A

−9000

−1000

4000

6000

10,000

10,000

1.0

4304

0.43

Project B

−3000

0

0

3000

6000

6000

2.0

3047

1.01

The weakness of the scoring method is that a technology-based formula is not linked to a market-based economic-­financial analysis. Such analysis is based on one of several interrelated methodologies: net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), return on investment (ROI), discounted cash flow (DCF), cost-benefit analysis (CBA), and the payback period. Example: Project A contains a new technology development with high initial research expenditures of 9000 (. Table 4.2). However, the project is expected to have high returns after year 2. In contrast, Project B is a project with modest research expenditures (3000). However, it will not generate revenue for two years due to authorization procedures. After the first two years, Project B is expected to produce significant returns in years 3 and 4. If we compare net profits, Project A is superior (10,000 vs. 6000). But what about the return on investment? ROI is found by dividing net profit by the investment. For project A, this would 10, 000 6000 = 1.0. For project B, it is = 2.0. be 10, 000 3000 Now, project B seems superior.  

But this does not take into account the time-­ value of money. Some of the revenues are realized in future years down the road. To take this into consideration, one discounts the future earnings by a discount rate of, say, 10% per year. Then, we obtain NPVs for A and B of 4304 and 3047. Now, Project A is the superior option. While the NPV of Project B is lower, its undiscounted ROI is higher. Lastly, if the ROI is used with the time-­ value of money considered (i.e. discounted), as would be the economically proper way, it would 4304 be, for project A, ROI = = 0.4347, 9000 + 900 3047 and for project B, ROI = = 1.0157. Thus, 3000 Project B is the superior choice. The chief problem with these financial methodologies is that it is difficult to forecast future net revenues. It involves subjective projections of sales, prices, the state of the economy and the effectiveness of competitors. Company projections of future market penetration are often overly optimistic. One must also pick the appropriate discount rate, and that rate varies with risk.

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A final observation: these technological and financial analyses are not be quite sufficient for an optimal selection of projects. Timing, marketing efforts and market forces may greatly affect the success of a project. But this should not leave a company with pure intuition. A formal framework of analysis forces disciplined thinking as a complement, not a substitute, for good judgment and vision. 4.2.4

Integration of Technology with Firm Strategy

Beyond the technological and economic performance of R&D, there is also a question: is the R&D project aligned with the company’s overall strategy? R&D budgets are set for one or several years but, within the budget, decisions about projects are often left largely to R&D management. Normally, R&D should not drag the company into a strategy different than the one it planned.17 But there must also be flexibility to capitalize on fortuitous discoveries that are outside the strategic focus of the firm. Usually, these should be sold or licensed to others,18 but there can be exceptions. The Finnish company Nokia was mostly a paper product producer with a small electronics sideline before it seized on the newly opened Scandinavian cellular phone market, the world’s first, and for several years became the leading global mobile handset manufacturer. A major strategic decision for the firm is to select the scope of its activity. It could be a narrowly focused specialist or, alternatively, a ­ broad-­ based diversified technology developer. Diversification has certain advantages in reducing risk. It allows for synergizing across several product lines and also what economists call “economies of scope”— cost saving in the development, production and marketing of multiple products. But there are also disadvantages to diversification. In a fast-moving field, if a company is not  fully focused on a particular product it may

17 Say, Terry, Alan Fusfeld, and Trueman Parish. “Is your firm’s tech portfolio aligned with its business strategy?” Research-Technology Management 46, no. 1 (January/February 2003): 32–38. 18 Smith, Roger. “5 Patterns of the Chief Technology Officers.” ResearchTechnology Management. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.158.1721&rep=rep1 &type=pdf.

lose its competitive edge for that product. Diversification may also lead to a lower scale than for the specialist firms. Intel is a specialist focusing on microprocessors and all the company’s R&D goes toward making that product line better, faster and cheaper. Andy Grove, famed former CEO of Intel, recalled, “The most significant thing was the transformation of the company from a broadly positioned, across-the-board semiconductor supplier that did OK to a highly focused, highly tuned producer of microprocessors, which did better than OK.” Specialized firms may have competitive advantages in their narrow field, with resultant market power. But specialization means putting all one’s eggs into one basket.19 Demand could fizzle, or competitors may emerge. Staying specialized without the certainty of weak competition and ongoing demand is risky.20 Intel, for example, missed out on components for the emerging portable computing devices of smartphones and tablets. Apple and Samsung, on the other hand, have multiple products to fall back on if their smartphones do not work out. But being a jack-of-alltrades has disadvantages, too, where competition is strong in each segment. In recent years, the debate between specialization and diversification has tended to go in favor specialization.21 One must also think about innovation across time.22  The strategic question is how much of a firm’s activity level should rely on improving already well-­established products, and how much of it should be based on products that must be newly developed. Reliance on the former plays to a firm’s current strength but leaves it vulnerable in the future. Conversely, reliance on future products leaves it vulnerable to risk if things do not work out. A useful perspective is that of the “three horizons.” One author, Tim Kastelle, suggests that a firm should create a balance between “improving existing products and processes,” “searching out 19 Hesseldahl, Arik. “Intel Fights Back as Chips Are Down.” Businessweek. January 17, 2007. Last accessed June 1, 2011. 7  http://www.businessweek.com/ technology/content/jan2007/tc20070117_984122.htm. 20 Yager, Tom “What’s a Monopoly to Do?” InfoWorld 27, no. 33 (August 2005): 52. 21 Ante, Spencer E. “The Info Tech 100; Constant reinvention of who you are, what you produce, and how you sell it is critical for any tech player.” BusinessWeek. July 2, 2007. Last accessed May 3, 2017. 7  https://www. bloomberg.com/news/articles/2007-07-01/the-info-tech-100. 22 Kastelle, Tim. “Innovation for Now and for the Future.” The Discipline of Innovation. August 17, 2010. Last accessed May 5, 2017. 7  http://timkastelle.org/blog/2010/08/innovation-for-now-and-for-the-future/; The concept goes back to Baghai, Mehrdad, Stephen Coley, and David White. The Alchemy of Growth. New York: Perseus Books, 1999.

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69 4.2 · Technology Management

..      Fig. 4.3 Investment horizons in innovation

Ho

Market Expansion

New Markets

Exploration into New markets

10% Ho

Existing markets not served

Existing markets currently served

Adjacent Growth

20%

Ho

riz

on

1:

Im

70%

pr

ov

em

Extensions, cost reduction

riz

on

2N

ex t-

riz

on

3:

Pa th

br

ea

ke

rs

Ge

n

en

ts

Next generation Exploration of products new technologies

Existing New technology technology not deployed Technology Advances

Existing technology currently deployed

adjacencies” and “exploring completely new ­markets” (. Fig. 4.3).23 The first horizon (H1) involves implementing innovations that improve current operations. Innovations related to the second horizon (H2) are those that extend current competencies into new but related markets. Innovations related to the third horizon (H3) are those that will change the nature of the industry. In general, H3 innovations tend to be radical rather than incremental. H1 innovations are low-risk, low-return, while H3 innovations are high-risk, high-return. H1 R&D projects, dealing with a firm’s core technologies, are typically necessary but not sufficient to achieve competitive advantage.  They have well-­ defined commercial objectives. The likelihood of technical success is relatively high, and the costs and benefits can be defined fairly well. In contrast, R&D in H3 projects is speculative and its budget requirements largely conjecture. The R&D projects of H2 are somewhere in between. They deal with key technologies. Thus, a firm should have a portfolio of three broad classes of technologies: the first to maintain its position in the market; the

second to provide competitive advantage; and the third category, that of “pacing technologies,” aims to advance the market significantly.24 A firm should think of its innovation efforts as a portfolio, with innovation taking place across all three time horizons. The balance is based on the firm’s risk tolerance and on industry volatility. The three kinds of innovation need a different mix of input and skills. H1 innovations require mostly money and people. H2 innovations go deeper, and need a corporate culture of creativity and management that is willing to push forward and onward. H3 innovations require top management to make bets on careers and, even, the company. The major career risk is that of management, not of the researchers. The company must give its staff considerable leeway, lower controls and avoid negative feedback for the failure of crazy ideas. A company such as 3M, which pioneered scotch tape and post-it notes, derives up to 30% of its revenue from products launched in the past five years. It emphasizes H2 and H3 strategies in its R&D.  The company—and, similarly,

23 Kastelle, Tim. “Innovation for Now and for the Future.” The Discipline of Innovation. August 17, 2010. Last accessed May 5, 2017. 7  http://timkastelle.org/blog/2010/08/innovation-for-now-and-for-the-future/; The concept goes back to Baghai, Mehrdad, Stephen Coley, and David White. The Alchemy of Growth. New York: Perseus Books, 1999.

24 Erickson, Tamara J. et al. “Managing Technology as a Business Strategy.” MIT Sloan Management Review. April 15, 1990. Last accessed May 3, 2017. 7  http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/managing-technology-as-abusiness-strategy/.

 

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..      Fig. 4.4 Dimensions of consumer acceptance

Low Easy Sells

Smash Hits

Limited Product Changes and Behavior Changes

4

Significant Product Changes, Limited Behavior Changes

Degree of Behavior Change Required Sure Failures

Long Hauls

Limited Product Changes, Significant Behavior Changes

Significant Product and Behavior Changes

High Low

High Degree of Product Change Involved

Google—uses a 15% or 20% rule, where certain employees are expected to devote a fixed portion of their time to projects unrelated to their job, i.e. work associated with H2 and H3.25 Even so, both companies’ main R&D efforts deal with improving existing products (H1), not on as yet unborn technology generators. For Google, much of the R&D work is on innovations in its core products: the search engine, maps, online advertising and so on. The company’s PR narrative—such as self-driving cars—tends to project a more ambitious agenda than warranted by reality. Google, too, uses a 70/20/10 split, with most innovation efforts going to improving existing activities. The last type of innovation tends to differentiate leaders from followers. But they are gambles, and investments in potential breakthroughs are hard to justify in conventional business terms of ROI. One must think of them as buying options on future opportunities. Ideally, a relatively modest investment—and downside risk—creates the potential for a large upside. The problem with a breakthrough R&D strategy is that it could either

25 Satell, Greg. “How to Manage Innovation.” Forbes. March 7, 2013. Last accessed May 5, 2017. 7  http://www.forbes.com/sites/gregsatell/2013/03/07/how-to-manage-innovation-2/.

fail to deliver, or actually succeed in technological terms and yet be too far ahead of market readiness in terms of complementary products and consumer demand.26 The figure above is technological in nature (will it work?) and does not consider markets (will it sell and be profitable?). How can a company analyze the market for its innovations? In the first instance, it helps to look at demand, and to organize innovations by consumer acceptance. Four such categories are “easy sells,” “sure failures,” “long hauls,” and “smash hits” (see . Fig.  4.4).27 They are ordered in a matrix whose two dimensions are product improvement (the horizontal axis), and the change required from the consumer (the vertical axis). Some innovations require a major behavior change and the others less so, but they may offer major improvements that could conceivably overcome this.28 Companies may create great new products, but this may not mean much if it requires major behavior change. It is easier to change technology than behavior.  

26 Clayton, Christensen M. The Innovator’s Dilemma. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1997, xv. 27 Graph based on Gourville, John T. “Eager Sellers & Stony Buyers.” Harvard Business Review, 84, no. 6 (June 2006): 98–106. 28 Gourville, John T. “Eager Sellers & Stony Buyers.” Harvard Business Review, 84, no. 6 (June 2006): 98–106.

71 4.2 · Technology Management

Easy sells  The product benefit improves modestly and requires only limited adjustments in behavior. Examples: a move from iPhone 7 to iPhone 8, or another James Bond movie.

An illustration of these categories is the TiVo DVR and the DVD player, both products of the late 1990s. By 2005, the USA had 20 times more DVD players than TiVo DVRs, even though the value of a TiVo player was much greater (recording TV shows, skipping advertisements and so on). Consumers were familiar with music CDs and needed no behavior change, in contrast with TiVo which required a new viewing behavior. Yet, many companies do not have enough resources to wait patiently for demand to grow. The second option is to have innovations that offer a quantum leap in improvements (in the order of almost three times of previous performance, as we have discussed) to overcome consumer conservatism. But such innovations are rare. The third alternative is to target consumers who are either early adopter types, or who are not yet users of legacy products and thus have no commitment to them.29

Market demand does not provide a full answer either. An innovation must also be ­ profitable. Demand for the product helps, of course, but the cost side of investments and operating expenses is also a factor. This is dealt with graphically in . Fig.  4.5,30 which shows a “bubble diagram,” where projects are mapped according to three dimensions: NPV (the horizontal axis), a measure for profitability; the probability of R&D success (the vertical axis); and the required investment (the size of each bubble).31 The overall size of the ­bubbles adds up to 100%. The bubble diagram model helps management to make resource allocation decisions, given the finite resources of budget and people. The sum of the areas of the circles is a constant, zero-sum game. The model then forces management to consider tradeoffs. If one adds or enhances one bubble – one project – then some other projects must be reduced or dropped. There are four different types of projects: 55 Pearls (upper left quadrant): such projects have a high probability of success (low risk) and a high yield. In . Fig. 4.5, the company is engaged in two pearl projects, one of them with a high investment need. But profitability is high, which justifies the project. 55 Oysters (lower left). These are long-shot projects with a high expected payoff but low probability (high risk) of technical success. A technical breakthrough will generate strong payoffs. The company has three such projects but funds them at a low level, thus protecting its downside. 55 Bread and Butter Projects (upper right). These are safe choices. The probability of success is high but the rewards are low. Examples would be improvements of existing products. As discussed, a firm may put 70% of its R&D budget into such projects. And, indeed, the company has several such projects, and more than half of its R&D investments are allocated to them. 55 White Elephants (lower right): these are low-probability and low-reward projects. Nevertheless, the company has several of such projects. This seems to be a flawed allocation of scarce resources.

29 Gourville, John T. “Eager Sellers & Stony Buyers.” Harvard Business Review 84, no. 6 (June 2006): 98–106.

30 Based off of Cooper, Robert. Winning at New Products. New York: Basic Books, 2011. 31 Cooper, Robert G., Scott J. Edgett, and Elko J. Kleinschmidt. “Portfolio Management in New Product Development: Lessons from the Leaders – II.” Research-Technology Management 40, no. 6 (1997): 43–52.

Sure failures  The innovation has only limited

benefits in performance but requires a significant behavior change. Example: transitioning from the standard QWERTY keyboard configuration to the Dvorak keyboard, which is slightly faster but requires relearning the “muscle memory” of typing.

Long hauls  These innovations provide a technological improvement, but require a significant behavior change. Initially, at least, adoption will be slow because consumers resist the switch. An example is satellite radio. Even the cellular telephone took a fairly long time to spread (25 years to reach an 80% adult subscribership). If the product does not sell itself, and a company business plan is over-­optimistic about adoption rates of the new product, it will fail.

 

 

Smash hits  The innovation generates major ben-

efits with only slight behavior change. Example: the Google search engine.

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Chapter 4 · Technology Management in Media and Information Firms

High

Probability of Technical Success

Game Consoles

Pearls

4

VR Video Production Equipment

Bread and Butter

MP3

Blu-Ray Video Games DVD

$100 M

8

3-D Cameras

4

2

Stereos

Reward (NPV)

6

Holographic display

0

Semiconductors Phones TV sets

Oysters

Immersive Editing

Computers

White Elephants Circle Size = Resources (annual)

Low

..      Fig. 4.5  Risk-reward diagram of projects

4.2.5

 he Placement of R&D: T In-­House, Acquired, or Co-­developed?

The question of in-house vs. outside innovation is not simply one of yes/no, but also one of “what” and “where.” Rarely would a firm innovate, on its own all, of its components and all the elements of its value chain. It would, instead, focus on one or several aspects and leave the others for development by outside vendors. Why should it develop

its own cameras or computers? The important R&D question for companies to consider is, then: where is the right “decoupling point” of its internal technology development? Which part of its value chain does it create and innovate on its own, and which does it acquire from others, either offthe-shelf or by special commission? Advantages of development inside the company include proximity of R&D to production and marketing, the protection of business secrets, a clear ownership of the i­ntellectual property rights, better cost

73 4.2 · Technology Management

control of projects, and greater familiarity of the firm with the needs of customers and markets. But an outsourcing of R&D has advantages, too. Outsourcing allows firms to take advantage of specialists with experience and economies of scale. For example, for content-oriented media companies, technology R&D is not a core competency. Even for technology companies such as device manufacturers and network operators, the outsourcing of some or all R&D is part of a larger trend of separation of production and development. In some cases, production-oriented firms subcontract their R&D. In other cases, conversely, firms focused on R&D will outsource production. And, in some cases, “virtual companies” outsource both. The manufacturing contractors are known as electronic manufacturing services (EMS) or original equipment manufacturers (OEM) firms. A major OEM, Flextronics, produces handsets for mobile device companies located in high-cost countries. The world’s largest PC maker, largely unknown outside the industry, is Quanta, a Taiwanese company. It manufactures computers for most major brands around the world.32 Apple outsources part of its manufacturing to Foxconn in China. One of Foxconn’s plants employs 230,000 workers, 60,000 of whom live in factory dormitories. Outsource manufacturers such as Selectron, Flextronics, Celestica, SCI Systems, Foxconn, and Jabil Circuit increasingly do the design and R&D of various products, not just the manufacturing. Alternatively, specialty boutique design companies perform the R&D. In the extreme, only the marketing would still be done by the name-brand company, and even that could be contracted out. 4.2.6

 he Organizational Structure T of R&D Activities

Among the most important issues facing a large company is how to position its R&D within the larger multi-divisional corporate structure. The R&D will either be centralized, decentralized, or somewhere in between. Control and funding are the central issues. In industrial firms, R&D was often a top-down structure. Major firms created sophisticated 32 Funding Universe. “Quanta Computer Inc.” Last accessed July 11, 2011. 7  http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/QuantaComputer-Inc-Company-History.html.

stand-alone laboratories. Bell Labs won six Nobel prizes, and IBM-Zurich earned two such prizes. Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) innovated PC elements such as the computer mouse, the Ethernet protocol for computer networking and the graphic user interface (GUI).33 But a centralized research system creates a distance from the production and design activities of the firm. In contrast, a fully decentralized R&D structure permits various company units to pursue goals closer to the product lines. In such a system, the corporate-level R&D is limited in scope, and focuses on the identification and evaluation of emerging technologies which have no home yet in the company. Hitachi and Intel are examples, with little corporate-level R&D. Intermediate arrangements are “centrally led” or “centrally supported” R&D. Typically, the corporate center handles the research part of R&D, covering more basic technology that might have applications across the company, while the refinements and applications into products—the development—is handled by divisional labs. A related organizational question is how an R&D lab should be structured. They could be arranged according to research disciplines such as typically found in universities; e.g. chemistry, metallurgy, electronic engineering. This promotes specialization and makes it easier to hire promising young scientists. The disadvantages are an orientation to “science,” rather than commercial innovation; a work-pace under less time-pressure; and greater difficulty in the conducting of cross-disciplinary R&D. In contrast, R&D activity can also be organized by type of activity, such as basic research, applied research, development, design, engineering, prototyping, testing. This is a more ad hoc structure, the staffing of which could fluctuate greatly. A third approach is to organize an R&D department by product line, such as storage devices, TV sets and tablets. Advantages are a stronger customer focus, easier coordination and smoother integration with business activities. A fourth option is to organize the R&D department by project, such as a new type of flat screen. Such a system frequently operates on a matrix basis, drawing experts from different parts of the company, labs and scientific specialties. 33 The Economist. “Out of the Dusty Labs – The Rise and Fall of Corporate R&D; Technology R&D.” March 1, 2007. Last accessed August 10, 2012. 7  http://www.economist.com/node/8769863.

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Another dimension for the organization of R&D is its geographical location. Global companies conduct R&D globally. Technology has few frontiers, though some countries have tried to erect protectionist barriers around “their” companies and “their” technologies. Pioneers of R&D internationalization have been high-tech companies with global markets, headquartered in a relatively small home country with finite technology resources. Examples are Philips in the Netherlands, Ericsson in Sweden and Nokia in Finland. European companies perform about one-third of their R&D outside their home countries. Another reason for an international distribution of ­production facilities are the politics of trade, since the location of an R&D facility may be part of a company’s efforts to gain market access. A third 4.2.6.1

reason is the relative cost, which favors low-cost R&D in India or China. Other locational factors are governmental subsidies, strong universities with a large pool of graduates, harmonious labor relations, and a favorable regulatory and tax system.34 Some tech companies from around the world have created small innovation labs in Silicon Valley as footholds in order to remain up-to-­ date on emerging technologies and to develop deeper relationships with start-ups. There are, however, also reasons against international R&D.  These include an immobility of top research personnel and a lack of critical mass when R&D is dispersed, plus language and cultural problems, political instability, the diffusion and potential loss of company know-how, and significant coordination and transaction costs.

Case Discussion

How Sony’s R&D Is Organized Sony’s R&D outlays were considerable. In 2008, they were $5 billion and, in 2013, $5.7 billion35 Its R&D priorities were in its digital image sensor business (supplying camera components to smartphone makers),36 the 4K Playstation and artificial intelligence.37 Samsung’s R&D expenses were about $14 billion, higher than any other ICT company. Microsoft expenses were $10 billion, Google $8 billion, and IBM’s and Cisco’s $6 billion each. R&D as a percentage of revenue was 7% for Sony, slightly higher than for Samsung and IBM, much higher than for Apple (2.5%) but lower than for Microsoft, Google and Cisco, all with about 12–13%.

Thus, Sony did spend a great deal on R&D and also achieved much innovation, if patents are a measure. In 2013, Sony filed 2241 US patent applications; Samsung, 4945; and Panasonic, 2232. In 2015, Sony had 2448 US patent applications; Samsung, 5059; and Panasonic, 1474.38 But Sony’s R&D system was not well-coordinated. It was spread out across divisions and countries. Its R&D strategy was to give its various labs a pretty much free hand. At times, different divisions developed incompatible products. Sony’s R&D is based on a corporate (central) research lab with six separate sub-labs. The corporate lab is used for the

34 For example, IBM had 12 corporate research centers worldwide in 2017, with over 3000 employees in R&D centers in the USA (Hawthorne, Yorktown Heights, Almaden and Austin), Australia (Melbourne), Brazil (São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro), China (Beijing), Kenya (Nairobi), South Africa (Johannesburg), Israel (Haifa), India (Delhi and Bengaluru), Ireland (Dublin), Japan (Tokyo) and Switzerland (Zurich). (Last accessed May 9, 2017 at 7  http://www.research.ibm.com/labs/). 35 PwC. “2013: Top 20 R&D spenders.” Last accessed on June 21, 2016 at 7  http://www.strategyand.pwc.com/global/home/what-we-think/ innovation1000/top-innovators-spenders#/tab-2013. 36 Kennedy, Joshua. “3 Changes to Watch at Sony (SNE).” Investopedia. January 26, 2016. Last accessed June 21, 2016. 7  http://www. investopedia.com/articles/markets/012616/3-changes-watch-sony-sne. asp.

development of next-generation products with wide applications, such as OLED video display screens. Additionally, there are R&D labs at network level, as well as division level and regional zone level.39 The zones are Asia, the USA and Europe. The aim was to better coordinate R&D activities not only within each region, but also among regions. CTOs were appointed for each zone and given considerable authority. A relatively informal and non-bureaucratic cooperation between them was encouraged. The idea was to establish personal relationships and teamwork in order to achieve global synergy. An example is Sony America’s zone R&D, which

37 Davies, Jamie. “Sony leans on AI to give technological advantage.” Business Cloud News. May 18, 2016. Last accessed June 21, 2016. 7  http://www.businesscloudnews.com/2016/05/18/sony-leans-on-aito-give-technological-advantage/. 38 USPTO. “Ranked List of Organizations with 40 or More Patents, as Distributed by the Year of Patent Grant and/or the Year of Patent Application Filing, Granted: 01/01/2015–12/31/2015.” Last accessed June 21, 2016. 7  http:// www.uspto.gov/web/offices/ac/ido/oeip/taf/data/topo_15.htm#PartB. 39 All R&D labs are assigned fairly generic “3 Missions” and “6 Goals”. The “3 Missions” were: Strengthen R&D employee’s abilities and knowledgebase; Globalize domestic R&D efforts; Establish a “global human information network.” The “6 Goals” were: Clear vision and policy; Clear target and differentiation of R&D strategy from rivals; Strategic selection and precise focus of R&D themes through fair evaluations; Highly skilled (“best of the best”) staff for R&D; Mobility of technology and R&D staff within a global Sony; Export of Sony’s R&D function and strengthen overseas labs.

75 4.2 · Technology Management

spearheaded the development of the cell processor (jointly with IBM and Toshiba). (This example also illustrates that, rather than outsourcing its R&D, Sony’s R&D has increasingly become a collaboration with major partners.) Sony has international R&D facilities in Asia, the USA and Europe, each specializing in one or more fields of technology. For example, the Sony China Research Lab in Beijing (2005) focuses on

4.2.7

security technology, intelligent media, solar cells and wireless networks. Sony opened seven R&D labs in the USA since 1987. The research focus in the USA includes the Advanced Video Technology Center (AVTC) in San Jose, California (1994), which focuses on HDTV, and the Open 3D Research Center in Las Vegas (2010), specializing in 3D TV and film, in collaboration with CBS. Research in Europe is done in Brussels,

Open Innovation – Community-­Based R&D

Another way to organize R&D is to link it with developers and with users. The two are overlapping. A structured and company-led approach is where the company builds basic platforms (hardware, software, or both), and aims to create uses and users. To do so, it provides specifications of the product to developers to induce them to create applications. This creates a symbiotic relationship, where both the platform company and the applications firms benefit from the creation of synergies and network effects. An example is Apple with its iPhone apps. For some companies, a major management strategy is therefore to encourage developerbased innovation. They may provide independent developers access to their software or platforms. They do so by granting interoperability arrangements via application program interfaces (APIs) that enable the outside programs to link up and thereby make the device more versatile and powerful.40 Developers then compete with each other’s applications software. The credit card company Visa, for example, gives developers access to hundreds of its financial payment APIs.41 The social media company Facebook

Alsace, Paris, Stuttgart, Barcelona, Lund (Sweden), Basingstoke (UK) and Pencoed (UK). The Sony Computer Science Lab in Paris focuses on the personal music experience, computational neuroscience, developmental cognitive robots and self-organizing communication. The European Technology Center in Stuttgart focuses on sensing systems, material science and automotive entertainment.

offers a Games Developer Center that features a variety of interoperability arrangements, monetization tools and services for game developers.42 The goal is to drive traffic to the Facebook site. Amazon and Microsoft provide developers with the Internet of things (IoT) software development kits so that they can build IoT apps and products. Going one step further is user-generated innovation.43 Advantages are not only reductions in a company’s development time and cost, but even more so a potentially better match of product with customer needs, given that the latter are directly involved. It also raises user loyalty because they are more involved. The company can import low cost, high-quality ideas from a wide array of experts44 and test these ideas, as well as its own, by a “peer-review” process of a “smart crowd.” An example is the car maker BMW, which set up a “Customer Innovation Lab,” which is an online tool kit to help customers develop ideas and innovations for automobile telematics and driver assistance systems. BMW chooses the best ideas, which are then implemented by its engineers. Taking still another step is “open innovation,” where there is no longer a company in charge, only a community of users, developers and v­ olunteers 2017. 7  https://www.mashery.com/sites/default/files/Edmunds-Case-

40 In some cases, such access to the APIs has been mandated by governmental regulators in order to enable competition in the applications. 41 Thurai, Andy. “How APIs Fuel Innovation.” Wired. Last accessed June 21, 2016. 7  http://www.wired.com/insights/2013/12/how-apis-fuelinnovation/; PYMNTS. “Visa’s Developer Platform Begins With and ‘I’.” February 5, 2016. Last accessed May 9, 2017. 7  http://www.pymnts. com/news/payments-innovation/2016/visas-developer-platformbegins-with-an-i/; Tibco Mashery. “Driving Innovation and Revenue with Partners and Developers.” September 22, 2015. Last accessed May 9,

Study.pdf. 42 These tools include Achievements API, Scores API, App Notifications, Requests, Feed Gaming and Facebook SDK for Unity. The Facebook Games Developer Center offers information such as games overview, API migration guide, tutorials, production and checklists, game monetization and more. 43 Von Hippel, Eric. “Horizontal innovation networks – by and for users.” Industrial and Corporate Change 16, no. 2 (2007): 293–315. 44 Rigby, Darrell K. and Barbara Bilodeau. “Management Tools & Trends 2013.” Bain & Company. 2013. Last accessed May 9, 2017. 7  http://www.bain. com/Images/BAIN_BRIEF_Management_Tools_%26_Trends_2013.pdf.

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who come together in a loose and decentralized collaboration to create an innovative product or service. In computer software, there has been community development in the form of “open source” software such as Apache and Linux,45 to which numerous people contribute. It is an important challenge for company R&D leadership to find ways to integrate such largely uncontrolled and dynamic innovation with proprietary corporate R&D. 4.2.8

Budgeting for Innovation

The cost of R&D has been climbing. This is not surprising, since the “easy innovations” are done first and the cost of subsequent innovation increases. A second reason is that the average economic lifespan of innovation has shortened due to increasing competition, globalization and convergence. Costs are also going up due to the acceleration of the process. Often, company managers, under competitive pressure, demand that technology developers speed up their ­activity. They need to understand the cost implications. Compressing R&D project time may greatly raise its cost relative to speed-up gains. The reason is that each R&D step builds upon results of previous tasks. To accelerate a project, then, requires some of the steps to overlap and to start with less information. Several approaches may have to be tried concurrently, rather than sequentially. A study shows that a 1% squeeze in the duration of a project can increase costs at double that rate.46 The broader question is how much money a firm should put into R&D. The largest technology firms in electronics spend billions of dollars annually on R&D. Microsoft, IBM, Intel, Google, Nokia, Panasonic, HP and Sony all devote well over $5 billion per year to R&D.  In 2013, Samsung spent $14 billion in R&D, over about

45 Von Hippel, Eric. “Horizontal innovation networks – by and for users.” Industrial and Corporate Change 16, no. 2 (2007): 293–315. 46 Graves, Samuel B. “Why Costs Increase When Projects Accelerate.” In Measuring And Improving The Performance And Return On R&D. Arlington, VA: Industrial Research Institute, 316–318.

6% of its revenues. Qualcomm spent 20% of its sales revenues on R&D, about $150,000 per employee. But how much should a company spend? Often, there is no shortage of good ideas and worthy projects; however, their aggregate will be unaffordable. Of course, the firm’s financial condition is relevant. When things are tough, R&D is often one of the first things to be cut from corporate budgets. The famed AT&T Bell Labs shrank from 25,000 in the 1970s to just 1000 researchers in 2003. Its 1975 budget, which, in 2003 dollars, had been $3.24 billion,47 had dropped to $115  million in that year.48 While cutting out R&D may make sense in the short term, from a long-term perspective it is like eating one’s seed corn. One way to estimate a target R&D budget is to compare the firm’s R&D to that of competitors, either in absolute terms or by the ratio to sales. A second way is to adjust one’s R&D spending to that of rival companies’ flow of new products, so as to match or surpass it. A third method, which is finance and economics oriented, would be to determine the incremental profit from incremental R&D spending. But that is easier said than done. One would need to have an idea of the productivity of R&D spending. Productivity can be measured by an output—for example, by the number of patents. (While each patent tends to be distinct in terms of effort required or its value, when the number is large the differences tend to average out.) On average, Sony spent $2.0 million on a patent in R&D expenses, Samsung spent $2.7 million and Google spent $4.3 million. Several R&D performance measurement techniques have been developed. According to one study, US industrial firms use more than 50 metrics to monitor their R&D function.49 They come in several categories. 47 Noll, A. Michael. “Telecommunication Basic Research: An Uncertain Future for the Bell Legacy.” Prometheus 21, no. 2 (June 2003): 177–193. 48 The Economist. “Out of the Dusty Labs – The Rise and Fall of Corporate R&D.” March 1, 2007. Last accessed May 2, 2017. 7  http://www. economist.com/node/8769863. 49 Werner, Bjorn M. and William E. Souder. “Measuring R&D Performance— State of the Art.” Research Technology Management 40, no. 2 (March–April 1997): 38–46.

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zz Quantitative Metrics

55 Input measures include the number of scientists employed, or total R&D expenditures. 55 Output measures include the number of patents filed, costs reductions and the number of new products released. 55 With economic values assigned to such measures, one can calculate the ROI attributable to an investment in R&D.

Qualitative Metrics  Qualitative metrics rely on

expert judgments on the performance of individual scientists, teams, groups, or departments. They are similar to evaluations of academic departments or researchers by peer reviewers. These evaluations can be transformed into numeric scores and related to R&D spending. Both quantitative and qualitative metrics have advantages as well drawbacks, and they can be combined into a single and integrated metric.

4.2.9

Implementing R&D Alliances

Companies may acquire and create new technology through R&D alliances with other firms. The advantages are numerous: the pooling of talent, economies of scale and scope, risk-sharing, leveraging comparative advantages, attracting talent, stimulating internal innovation, increasing o ­ verall technological innovation capabilities, increased speed, reducing costs through sharing and rapid access to new or proven technologies. There are also disadvantages to such collaboration. They include transfer of know-how to rival firms, the transaction cost of coordination and contracting, loss of control, lower ability to profit from the innovation and potential conflicts. In order for R&D alliances to succeed, there must be technological and strategic compatibility, a more efficient innovation process and improved market access. These factors are hard to coordinate effectively and a majority of R&D alliances fail. An important part of alliances is with u ­ niversities. Private capital plays a role in the commercialization of innovations, but not directly in the funding of

basic research, the results of which are distant and speculative. Thus, basic research is mostly conducted in government labs and universities.50 Many research ideas are created inside the universities and they flow through them from multiple directions.51 Companies benefit from collaborations with leading research universities, which gives them early access to basic research and researchers. Examples are the symbiotic ­relations of Silicon Valley companies with Stanford and Berkeley, of Route 128 corridor businesses in Boston with Harvard and MIT, and of the North Carolina Research Triangle firms with Duke, the University of North Carolina, and North Carolina State. A firm may use universities as suppliers of useful research. Intel, for example, selects academic scientists and teams to develop technology that results in patents. Both company and u ­ niversity research benefit. Research funding from a corporation allows universities to conduct more advanced and expensive research.52 4.2.10

Knowledge Management

In far-flung organizations, knowledge of the flow of R&D and its absorption between various levels is important.53 As the past CEO of Hewlett-­ Packard, Lew Platt exclaimed with exasperation: “If HP knew what HP knows, we would be three times as profitable.” Knowledge management (KM) is the organization and distribution of information, experience, “tacit knowledge” and wisdom inside the company. It aims at sharing knowledge while also protecting it. It is crucial for any company to ensure the effective management of the flow of internal and external technical information. 50 Waites, Robert. “Reinventing Corporate Research.” Research-Technology Management 45, no. 4 (2002): 15–22. 51 Tennenhouse, David. “Intel’s Open Collaborative Model of Industry-University Research.” Research-Technology Management 47, no. 4 (2004): 19–26. 52 The Economist. “Out of the Dusty Labs – The Rise and Fall of Corporate R&D.” March 1, 2007. Last accessed May 2, 2017. 7  http://www. economist.com/node/8769863. 53 McCormick, John. “5 Big Companies That Got Knowledge Management Right.” CIO Insight. October 5, 2007. Last accessed June 14, 2012. 7  http://www.cioinsight.com/c/a/Case-Studies/5-Big-Companies-ThatGot-Knowledge-Management-Right/.

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There are a variety of knowledge management tools. Documents can be tagged with metadata, which makes them searchable. This avoids having to replicate information that has already been created and to put together pieces into a greater whole, which is often a foundation of innovation. Software can also be used to limit who has access to what material. Other tools are knowledge mapping of resources, creation of communities of practice and social software for interaction. At its most fundamental, knowledge management is like creating an internal search engine that makes company-generated information accessible throughout the organization, and even to customers and vendors. It reduces duplication and assists coordination. 4.2.11

Standards Strategy

CTOs are often a company’s liaisons on technology matters to the outside research community — universities, government labs, professional ­ associations and other companies. In particular, companies need to deal with standards bodies and standardization efforts. Standards are quite prevalent in most parts of media technology. Examples are the times a DVD spins per second or the number of scan lines or the ratio of width to height of a TV picture. A standard tries to create common parameters. In some cases, such as driving on the left side of the road or the right, the substance of the standard is less important than its existence. This example also shows that standards can coexist, with different regions, car manufacturers and car owners going their own way (though, one hopes, not on the same road). In media technology, standards are widespread; almost as widespread are the struggles over them. Behind many standards is a saga of rivalry, conflict, intrigue and diplomacy. Examples are the original analog color TV broadcast protocols (NTSC in the US vs. PAL in some parts of Europe and SECAM in others), video cassette recorders (Sony’s Beta vs. Panasonic’s VHS), for mobile wireless (GS vs. CDMA), or for high-definition DVDs (Blu-ray vs. HD-­DVD). The alternative to standards is a proprietary technology. In some cases, it becomes so prevalent as to constitute a de facto standard for most market participants. An example is Microsoft’s DOS and then Windows operating system, which

was not “standardized” with other companies or countries, but which emerged as the de facto way in which much of the microcomputer industry functioned. The benefits of standards include expanded network effects.54 Standards enhance compatibility. But proprietary technology may fail if other competitors have a similar product which is non-­ proprietary or easy to license. Examples are the failure of Sony’s Beta VCR system vs. the open VHS.  Deciding between openness or control is never easy, but it typically depends on a company’s ability to create alliances with others. There are also disadvantages to formal standardization. To reach an agreement on a standard can be costly and time-consuming. Lagging companies may try to slow down the process in order to catch up. There is often politicization and companies try to enlist their governments as being a “national champion” that benefits the country. In the media field, standards tend to be set either by various international or domestic industry organizations, or by governmental, ­ ­inter-­governmental and semi-governmental organizations.55 It is important for a company to play the standards game well. Standards can determine company success, as well as market structure. Yet, generally speaking, start-up companies and their investors are unfamiliar with the role standards play, and ignore the standards process until they are forced to follow it. A big standards battle, such as Sony Blu-ray vs. Matsushita’s HD-DVD, costs many millions just in the standards body process. A mid-size tech company with a more modest budget could easily spend $100,000 a year just on monitoring the standards process affecting it. Digital technology does not require uniformity in the same way that analog technology does. It is more flexible. Smart TV sets can process multiple standards. Different video providers will

54 Shapiro, Carl and Hal Varian. “Waging a Standards War.” Information Rules. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999, 228–233, 238–242, 273–276. 55 Standards bodies include the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the International Standards Organization (ISO), the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), as well, in the USA, as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). There is the CEA (Consumer Electronics Association) and SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers). DVB sets TV and video standards for Europe and elsewhere. Internet standards are set by bodies such as the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as well as the W3C (www consortium).

79 4.3 · The Six Stages of Media and Communications T­ echnology Digital C ­ onvergence: “The 6 C’s”

choose different standards and compete with them. This permits rapid entry of new technologies and innovation. In consequence, it is unlikely that uniform standards will be as important to the future of media as they have been in the past.

Beyond those specific tasks, one of the CTO’s major responsibilities is to help foster a climate of innovation in the organization. This is further discussed in 7 Chap. 5 Human Resource Management for Media and Information Firms.  

4.2.11.1 Case Discussion Sony’s Standards Efforts Sony had mixed results from its standards efforts. It scored a great success when it developed the CD player technology jointly with Philips of the Netherlands as its European ally, and this then became the worldwide standard.

4.3

On the other hand, Sony’s go-it-alone approach did not work for Betamax at all. Many years later, Sony’s Blu-ray DVD standard prevailed after a major struggle, but it took much coalition-building to achieve it; also, the process

 he Six Stages of Media T and Communications ­Technology Digital ­Convergence: “The 6 C’s”

The next major section of this chapter is a discussion and overview of the significant trends in technology as they affect media and communications. Due to the breadth of the subject, it can serve only as an introduction. But such an ­introduction is important for those engaged in or contemplating a career in this sector. Traditional media were separated by delivery technology—printed paper, film on celluloid, broadcast amplitudes, telephone wires, vinyl discs, computer discs and so forth. Similar specializations separated the provision of content from conduit. Within these separate markets, a firm could achieve market power. In the 1980s and accelerating in the 1990s, however, a technical convergence of media gradually began to blur the clear lines between segments, thereby creating potentially more rivalry. This fundamentally affects media, the borders between them and the market structures in which they operate. The “convergence” of technology has been a broad and long process. It can be decomposed into several distinct convergences, some sequential, some marching in parallel. This will be the subject of the segments that follow.

4.3.1

retarded consumer acceptance of high-definition DVDs by several years. Partly in consequence, Blu-ray penetration rates were much lower than those of the previous generation, that of DVD players.

Convergence #1: Computers

Several major technologies have come together to make computers possible. In particular, they are calculating devices, electronic components and control codes. 4.3.1.1

Calculating Devices

Calculators started as mechanical devices such as the abacus, created to assist people in arithmetic. In 1642, when he was 19, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematical genius and entrepreneur, invented a mechanical calculator. In the nineteenth century, Charles Babbage, a British scientist, inventor, traveler, economist, politician and author, designed a complex “difference engine” and a still more elaborate “analytical engine.” His work was supported by Ada Byron (the Countess of Lovelace and the daughter of Lord Byron). 4.3.1.2

Components

Babbage’s machines and similar calculators that followed had to rely on mechanical wheels, gears and so on. As soon as calculations became more complex, mechanical devices were not up to the task. To overcome this required the use of electrical signals. A major breakthrough was the electric vacuum tube, which goes back to 1906 and the AT&T engineer Lee de Forest. This made it possible to mirror and amplify weak signals, as well as to open and close an electric circuit. The vacuum

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tubes were bulky, fragile and energy hogs. They were replaced in the 1950s by “solid-state” transistors based on silicon. Transistors were invented in 1947 by William Shockley and his AT&T Bell Labs team, for which they received a Nobel Prize in 1955. Shockley started his own company. In turn, two of Shockley’s best engineers, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore, left him to start their own firm, Fairchild Semiconductors, which subsequently split off to form Intel, the perennial leader in microprocessors. Transistors are the key element of all microelectronics. They are similar in concept to an electronic tube: a weak signal controls a stronger one and is thus amplified. Transistors consist of three terminals: the source, the drain and, between them, the gate. When a positive charge is applied to the gate, the electrons are pulled from the source to the drain, meaning that the transistor is “on.” But when the positive charge at the gate is removed, electrons do not flow and the transistor is turned “off.” The on/off functionality of the transistor is what enables it to code and process information as binary 0s (“off ”) and 1s (“on”). Transistors proliferated, as did the other solid-­ state components that are part of electronic circuits, such as resistors and capacitors. In the third generation of components, these elements were put together in a single “integrated circuit” (IC) on a silicon chip. The first such integrated circuits were produced in 1959 by Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductors. Each IC contained an increasingly large number of transistors on a single semiconductor chip. Such a chip was dedicated to a particular function, such as math calculations, or thermostat control. This changed with the fourth generation of components, microprocessors, which were programmable, i.e. they could be instructed to do many different things. (There are also many types of specialized chips, e.g. for image processing.) In order to boost performance, semiconductor manufacturers now combine multiple processor “cores” on a single chip. In 2018, Intel’s I9-7980XE Processor had eighteen cores, and operated at a 4.20 GHz clockspeed. The next generation of chips moved miniaturization and integration to yet another level, that of a “computer-on-a-chip” or a “system-­ona-chip” (SOC). They contain many components of a single chip: a processor (CPU), non-volatile memory (ROM or flash), volatile memory

(RAM), a clock, an input/output control unit and more. This is ideal for compact products such smart phones. 4.3.1.3

Control Code and Devices

As machines began to develop power and speed, it became evident that they required control by human operators who were often too slow, expensive, and unreliable. Mechanical control devices were therefore developed. In 1805, punch cards were used in France to control a weaving loom. In 1896, Herman Hollerith introduced a tabulating machine for use by the U.S. Census Bureau. Central to the ability of electronic machines to process and store information is “binary” coding, in which information is expressed as a string of 0s and 1s. These sequences and patterns of 0s and 1s can represent not only decimal numbers, but also letters, numbers, colors and graphics. They can be manipulated through the mathematics of “Boolean” algebra, developed by George Boole in the nineteenth century, establishing the mathematical foundation of what became “computer science.” The mathematics of controlling electronic calculating devices were advanced by Alan Turing of the UK along with John von Neumann, who had left Hungary for the USA. During World War II, they conceptualized how a machine could manage computational tasks. Instructions that controlled the functioning of computer hardware became known as “software.” Its “programs” or “languages” have progressed from the earlier specialized, expensive science of mathematicians to a craft by skilled programmers and technicians, and to a stage where machines are able to write programs for other machines. The software has moved from an arcane and specialized craft product that only specialized engineers could interpret to a thriving, industrialized and often consumer-oriented industry producing a massproduct—and from products of low ­volume and high price to those of high volume and low price.56 In the late 1990s, there were new developments in software. The first and most potentially challenging development was the growth of the Internet. As transmission bandwidth grew cheap and plentiful, many observers expected that users would only need a so-called “thin client” with which to access the Internet, with the intensive 56 Noam, Eli. Media Ownership and Concentration in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.

81 4.3 · The Six Stages of Media and Communications ­Technology Digital ­Convergence: “The 6 C’s”

computing done at a distance by more powerful servers. By reducing the need for a standardized operating system and for most applications programs, software providers would compete based only upon their price and performance criteria such as speed, reliability and ease of use. The thin-­ client network computer concept failed to live up to expectations, but the emergence of cloud-based computing may bring a revival. 4.3.1.4

The Computer

We have briefly explained the emergence of calculating machines, electronic components and software control languages. By the 1940s, these elements were put together into the first computers. During World War II, British and Polish decryption of the German secret military “Enigma” codes led to advanced mechanical calculation machines, which soon became electronics-based devices that could quickly go over millions of permutations. The Harvard Mark I (1943) was the first program-controlled calculator. It weighed five tons, had 750,000 parts and 3304 relays. The US Navy utilized it for ballistic tables. The chief programmer was Grace Hopper, who later became the first woman US Admiral. But it was still a specialized machine for specialized purposes, rather than a universal multi-task computer. In Germany, similarly, Konrad Zuse in 1941 developed the Z3 as a programmable computing machine. The first general purpose computer was the ENIAC (1946). It was designed by John Mauchly and J.  Presper Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania to break codes, calculate artillery flight and assist in nuclear development. It was 100 feet long, weighed 30 tons and cost $500,000. The ENIAC’s inventors commercialized the technology into the Universal Automatic Computer (Univac) and soon sold their company to Remington Rand. This was the beginning of the computer industry. IBM, a major office machine supplier of typewriters and desktop calculators, entered the market in 1953. It was able to leverage its dominant position in the tabulator punch card market and soon dominated the business market. When such “mainframe” computers were not powerful enough to meet specialized demand for high ­performance, “supercomputers”. In 2011, the IBM Sequoia could run at the speed of 20 PetaFLOPs. In 2017, the top performer was the Chinese Sunway Taihulight with 93 PetaFLOPs. By 2018, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee

took the lead with its 200 PetaFLOP Summit computer. Exascale computers were being developed, the equivalent of about a trillion regular laptops. These supercomputers—whose performance rises roughly a thousand-fold each decade—consist of massive, parallel processors and are used for large-scale scientific calculations, simulations, code-breaking algorithms and so on. A different approach to high processing requirements is taken by Google and cloud providers. They run “server farms” of hundreds of servers. These servers are not supercomputers but, rather, commodity-class PCs running a customized version of Linux operating software. They aim to achieve best performance per dollar, instead of being the fastest machines. With upward of 450,000 servers, each with over 80 gigabytes of hard drive space and 2–4 gigabytes of RAM, Google’s processing capacity reached about 143 PetaFLOPs in 2018, with over one million servers in operation, mostly of the inexpensive commodity type.57 Massive computing is used in the film industry for producing special effects and animation. Animated objects such as talking cars or animals are relatively straightforward to generate by computer. It is harder to create the believable animation of regular people, since humans are pretty experienced in the subtle reading of other human faces and motions, and computerized recreations would have to be near-flawless in order to be believable, rather than seen as cartoons. To do so requires animation computers with a huge combined processing capacity. In 1977, computer processing was still so prohibitively expensive that, when George Lucas made the original Star Wars film, he could afford to use computer graphics for only a single 90-second sequence.58 The Death Star sequence took several computers three months to complete. The trend in the film industry shifted from a single supercomputer doing animation and special effects, to several mainframes and, eventually, to a network of medium-­sized workstations known as “render farms.” DreamWorks’ render farm had about 30,000 “cores.” Pixar had 24,000. 57 Pern, James. “What is Google’s Total Computational Capacity” Google+. 7  https://plus.google.com/+JamesPearn/posts/gTFgij36o6u. Halfacree, Gareth. “Google announces 100 petaflop TPU 3.0 pod” bit-tech 7  https://www.bit-tech.net/news/google-announces-100-petaflop-tpu30-pod/1/ 58 Epstein, Edward Jay, The Big Picture, The New Logic of Money and Power in Hollywood. New York: E.J.E. Publications, Ltd., Inc., 2005.

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Once it becomes technically and economically feasible to create believable human characters, the next step will be for studios to create entirely artificial actors by computer technology. They would own the characters—like they own Mickey Mouse—pay them no salaries, subject them to amazing stunts, fine-tune their physical features, and let them live happily forever, with no profit participation or residual rights to royalties. At a foreseeable point in the future, this will become an economically viable proposition.

Consumer Computers The 1960s, 1970s and 1980s saw a number of governments around the world supporting “national champion” electronics firms in order to keep up with IBM in building computers. None was successful in challenging IBM. Yet, upstarts in the emerging Silicon Valley of California succeeded without government backing where the big firms had failed. They brought microcomputers to the consumer markets. Intel’s 8080 microprocessor chip, introduced in 1974, enabled many computer processes. It could be combined with off-the-shelf components to build small computers, but large firms ignored this potential. Amateur computer builders therefore emerged to take advantage of this new market. In 1976, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs introduced the Apple I computer, which used a Motorola microprocessor and an operating system written in the BASIC computer language.59 The microcomputers required software development machines. Focusing on the operating software for such small computers, Paul Allen and Bill Gates created Microsoft MS-DOS, which was adopted by IBM when it introduced its highly s­uccessful Personal Computer (PC) and laid the groundwork for Microsoft’s and Intel’s market ­dominance.60 With the development of computer networks, the PC soon moved from being a standalone processor and storage device to an inter-networked device. The Internet became the major platform for such interconnection. 59 Smith, Roger. “5 Patterns of the Chief Technology Officers.” ResearchTechnology Management. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http:// citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.158.1721&rep=rep1 &type=pdf. 60 Ohebsion, Rodney. “A Biography of Bill Gates and History of Microsoft.” Last accessed May 9, 2017. 7  http://www.rodneyohebsion.com/bill-gates.htm.

4.3.2

 onvergence #2: Computers C with Communications Hardware

The second convergence is that of computers with  telecom communications. Electronic communications ­ technology has been around  since the mid-nineteenth century. Telecommunications—two-way individualized electronic communication—are now used more than ever before: at home, in the office, on the road, at the beach, when web surfing, chatting with friends, e-­mailing, streaming music, watching video, holding a meeting, or running a ­company. Telecom networks used to consist, at their user end, of lines known as “twisted pairs” of copper wires. For a higher capacity of signals, and for transmission under the oceans, copper co-axial (coax) lines were used. Optical fibers became a hugely powerful alternative means of transmission. They consist of very clear glass strands which can transmit the pulses emitted by light-emitting devices such as lasers. Not only do these fiber strands have a huge capacity, but they can also transmit signals for thousands of miles before they need to be regenerated and amplified. The trend of technological progress in wire-based communications, in terms of transmission rate (“speed”), has progressed at a compounded annual growth rate of about 44%, and that rate has been accelerating.61 The alternative to wired networks are wireless ones. In the 1840s, the English physicist James Clark Maxwell came up with the theory of electromagnetism. In 1888, Heinrich Hertz (Germany) demonstrated electromagnetic waves. In 1895, Gugliemo Marconi (Italy) applied these waves to transmitting telegraph-type signals to ships. Broadcasting soon followed. In time, technologists mastered increasingly high frequencies of electromagnetic waves. This made it possible to focus the radio beams narrowly, which enabled microwave transmission via one hilltop tower to the next, and later via satellites that seem to be hovering in a stationary orbit.

61 Koh, H. and C. L. Magee. “A functional approach for studying technological progress: Application to information technology.” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 73, no. 9 (2006): 1061–1083.

83 4.3 · The Six Stages of Media and Communications ­Technology Digital ­Convergence: “The 6 C’s”

The development of cellular wireless increased the utilization of the electro-magnetic spectrum by dividing a coverage area into small sections or “cells.” Each cell uses a low-power transmitter. The same frequency can be reused in multiple cells in nearby (through non-adjoining) areas, and this greatly increases system capacity. This is only possible with the use of computer technology that can identify a calling party’s location as they are moving, and is able to establish connections. It also 4.3.2.1

benefited from increasing computing power in handsets—leading to “smartphones,” which are small handheld computers that are network connected. Manufacturing cell phones was initially a booming business with many vendors, but for a long time the average price for a cellular handset declined steadily while the products increased in complexity. Only a few manufacturers with very deep pockets were able to keep up.

Case Discussion

Should Sony Be in Telecom? Today, billions of people around the world are walking around connected to each other through telecom networks and small computers in their pockets, made by a variety of manufacturers. Is Sony one of them? Sony was an active supplier of consumer telecom equipment. Initially it focused on well-designed devices such as answering machines and cordless telephones. Sony had a recognizable brand and achieved a strong and profitable market role. However, commodification in the low-end products and low-priced imitators caused Sony to lose its share. At the same time, Sony, as a consumer-oriented firm, had no success entering the business telecom market. For more advanced telecom products such as mobile phones, an increasing resource commitment was required. At first, Sony followed a go-at-it-alone strategy; however, this was unsuccessful even in Japan, mostly because Sony was never a member of the “NTT family” of suppliers to the national telecom incumbent NTT. By 1999, the state of Sony’s wireless position looked dismal. Its global market share of the handsets

4.3.2.2

market was less than 1% and it was losing money. In 2000, Sony entered into a joint venture with Sweden’s Ericsson, the third largest vendor of handsets in the world but facing its own difficulties of plummeting market shares and record losses. The joint venture’s headquarters were in the UK, with R&D labs in Sweden, Japan, China, the USA, Canada, Netherlands, India and the UK. The company relied heavily on the West European market, which was Ericsson’s main turf. Sony brought its strength in music to help stimulate its phone sales. The joint venture was, at first, able to increase its market share by two percentage points to 4.9% in 2009, which was in fourth place worldwide, but far behind the then market leaders Nokia (37.8%), Samsung (21%) and LG (11%). Worse was to come: Sony Ericsson was soon overtaken by Apple and its innovative smartphone. Sales shrank from 103 million units in 2007 to 57 million units in 2009, leading to the layoff of 2000 jobs, nearly 25% of the total number. In 2008, Sony Ericsson came out with its smartphone Xperia. It

The Internet

The Internet was initiated by the United States Department of Defense as a system of linking smaller networks. The Pentagon’s Defense

outsourced the manufacturing of half of its Xperia line to the low-cost Taiwanese contract manufacturer Foxconn, many of whose operations are in mainland China. Xperia moved its operating system from Windows to Android (earlier, it had still used a third operating system, Symbian.) Xperia was well-designed and had useful features such as water resistance, but it did not make a big dent in the market. In 2011, Ericsson was bought out of its partnership by Sony for $1.47 billion. By 2013, Sony’s world market share was about 2.1%. Sony’s initial role in to the first and second generations of mobile was due to the company’s reputation as a consumer electronics giant, and due to its marketing prowess. But Sony did not succeed in entering the next level of mobile handsets on its own. The R&D here required a major commitment and investment. Instead, Sony had to rely heavily on Ericsson’s R&D ability. When Sony and Ericsson parted company again, Sony could not stay technologically in the leading group, in contrast to its Korean rivals Samsung and LG.

Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded a project based on this concept, linking several defense technology R&D centers in ­government, private industry and academia. It

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could interconnect local computer networks provided the individual machine could speak a common digital language known as TCP/ IP  (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). The resultant ARPANET grew rapidly after 1969. In 1995, the governmental system was replaced by a collection of commercial Internet backbones and Internet service providers (ISPs). ISPs link computer users to the Internet, and may provide additional services such as email. Small users typically connect to an ISP by using always-on high-­throughput connectivity (“broadband”) through various forms of transmission, such as a digital subscriber phone line (DSL), a fiber line, cable coax connection, mobile wireless network, or satellite. The ISP connects to the rest of the Internet by high-capacity links as directed by “routers,” and reaches the main backbones which, in turn, connect directly or over still other backbones to other Internet nodes or ISPs. The original Internet grew by leaps and bounds, but was initially confined to relatively sophisticated users. It was complex to use and its content was essentially geeky text. This changed dramatically with the introduction of the World Wide Web (the “web”). The web’s key ease-of-use feature is hypertext, developed at Geneva’s CERN laboratory in 1989 to allow researchers to reference other documents available on the Internet. This means that data need only be stored on one server to be accessible by any computer connected to the web. The number of host networks and domains increased exponentially. In 1995, 50 million people were online, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. By 2006, that number had increased to 694 million and, by 2013, to 2.71 billion, including by mobile devices. Plummeting computer and Internet access prices coupled with growing access, increased transmission and faster processing speeds drove Internet usage. Applications such as email portals, interactive gaming, online banking, e-auctions, e-tailing, online ­advertising, and social networks, and streaming music and video made the Internet increasingly popular. For a period, the Internet was celebrated as open, free and competitive. Entrepreneurialism was high, financing easy and entry barriers were low. But, in time, it became dominated by large firms with market power, whether ISPs or large application providers. The common elements are

high economies of scale (scalability), based on high fixed costs and low marginal costs, and often complemented by network effects (positive externalities) on the demand side. 4.3.3

 onvergence #3: Integration C with Consumer Electronics

The convergence of consumer electronics (CE) with computing and telecom devices has two ­dimensions: 1. Integrated multi-purpose devices; 2. Communications capabilities. Devices combine a platform (typically, a CE device such as a music player or game console) with processing (calculators, computers and so on), data storage, software for operating systems and applications, and communications capabilities through connectivity technologies such as telecom, cable, Ethernet, mobile wireless, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and the like. Some such integration goes back a long time. Originally, consumer electronics devices were not connected to each other or to a central node. Example are phonographs (1870s) and cameras.62 However, key devices of consumer electronics became connected by communications networks, though initially of the one-way variety. Milestones were: 55 Radio sets (1920s); 55 Television sets (1940s); 55 Cable TV and satellite TV connected TV sets (1960s); 55 MP3 players (1990s); 55 Smartphones (2000s); 55 Tablets (2010s). CE became a global business, centered in Asia. For CE companies, the best business model has been to build up scale and experience behind early protectionist walls, then move into exports on a valuepricing basis; to build a strong, global brand with a few impressive products, and then expand into multiple products while commanding a premium price. The emergence of contract outsourcing manufactur62 Originally, cameras were based on optical and chemical processes, rather than electronics. They gradually incorporated electronics in light sensors and other control functions, and then became fully electronic by way of digital recording. We therefore include camera devices under consumer electronics.

85 4.3 · The Six Stages of Media and Communications T­ echnology Digital C ­ onvergence: “The 6 C’s”

ers (OEMs) such as Flextronics and Solectron lowers entry barriers on the design stage by giving smaller CE firms access to large, flexible manufacturing facilities with economies of scale. For example, an entrepreneurial upstart in TV sets, Vizio, entered successfully with a low pricing model and offshore manufacturing. In time, even established CE giants such as Sony, Philips and Motorola outsourced the manufacturing of products to the OEM firms. More recently, TV sets also became “connected” by two-way access to the Internet, and supported links to content providers such as Netflix, as well as to each other. They incorporated electronic storage, switching, modems and home networking, and thus became, in effect, display and control terminals of home-based computer-­style networks. As consumer electronics firms moved into networked devices, IT companies moved in the opposite direction and eyed the large consumer market. Most successful was Apple, which did well with its iPod, a music device based on computer-­ based data compression (MP3) and laptop-style memory (at first, magnetic hard drive; later, solid-state semiconductor). This was followed by the iPad, a light handheld and Wi-Fi-­ networked consumer computer in the tablet format which became a successful device for media consumption. There were also small innovator startups from the Internet and IT sector. TiVo, Roku, and Sling are examples, with products that extended the range of video options open to the user in terms of time and location. Virtual and augmented reality devices and applications (apps) emerged, with products by Samsung, Sony, Facebook, HTC and Google, as well as several Microsoft Windows-based ­vendors. Thus, by the early twenty-first century, consumer electronics had transitioned from stand-­ alone devices lacking logical processing and produced by sprawling multi-product firms to an industry of inter-networked and “smart” p ­ roducts produced by a wider set of companies hailing also from other industries and from the startup sector. In the aggregate, this trend accelerated the pace of innovation in the consumer electronics industry and, in some cases, changed the scale economies. CE markets became global, manufacturing split off from product design and marketing, and the market power of large retail intermediaries rose enormously. The industry destabilized. Some CE firms weathered this challenge better than others.

4.3.4

 onvergence #4: Integration C with Content

The fourth type of convergence is that of media hardware with media content—with text, music, pictures, videos and games. This goes beyond one hardware device connecting to others. Such connectivity enables links to content, but they are not the content integration itself. An example is an interactive game console. These have built-in modems which can provide access to Internet content such as software, web browsing, social media and email. But, in particular, they offer content, i.e. games. Electronic books are another type of device, as are audio players. Apple’s iPod and iPad were successful because Apple was able to integrate hardware and content through the creation of its online digital media retail site iStore.63 By 2017, the Apple iTunes store had sold over 50 billion songs. It offered 45 million songs, 90,000 movies, 2.5 million iBooks and 2 million apps. Its annual revenue was almost $10 billion. This made Apple the leading music retailer in the world. 4.3.4.1

Video Game Hardware

Video games have become a new mass media— increasingly sophisticated, interactive, feature-­ rich and popular. Video game hardware was pioneered in the United States in the mid-1970s by Nolan Bushnell, who invented Pong (an early arcade video game machine) and founded Atari.64 However, by 1984, consumers grew bored with Atari’s products. A new entrant from Japan, Nintendo, became dominant in 1985. The higher quality of Nintendo games and 8-bit CPUs and, later, 16-bit machines reinvigorated the industry. In 1990, Nintendo machines accounted for 90% of the $4 billion global hardware and software markets. But, by 1993, Nintendo lost its leadership to Sega and its machine, which was based on a 32-bit microprocessor. Sega, in turn, lost out to Sony, which enjoyed quick success with its own 32-bit PlayStation machine released in 1995. Sony’s PlayStation combined superior hardware with access to content, and a $40 million marketing campaign that focused on celebrities and

63 MacNN Staff. “Apple calls iPod nano demand ‘staggering.’”MacNN. October 11, 2005. Last accessed May 9, 2017. 7  http://www.macnn. com/articlesloaddetails/05/10/11/aapl.q4.conference.call/. 64 Earlier projects were those of Steve Russel and Ralph Baer (“Game Room,” “Space War,” and “Magnavox Odyssey”).

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trendsetters. In time, Sega withdrew from the video console business altogether, leaving Nintendo and Sony to duke it out with newcomer Microsoft, which entered the market in 2001 with its Xbox console. As can be seen from its history, this market is unforgiving. New technology, expressed in processor complexity, drives console adoption. The first to market with the latest processor technology will sell many consoles in its first year, but sales will quickly fall in succeeding years as the novelty declines and rivals catch up. Gaming consoles became more than just gaming machines. Machines function as DVD players and enable users to access the Internet, especially for online games. The intense competition in 4.3.4.2

g­ aming consoles and the high demand for the latest game releases led industry participants to adopt a razor-and-blades business model. Manufacturers are willing to make little or no money on video game hardware sales to quickly build a large installed hardware base, thereby boosting profitable game or cartridge (software) sales. The video game hardware industry is deeply competitive but sustains only three globally operated firms. These tent-pole companies are surrounded by small game developers, which jointly create the network effects and scale necessary for success with a very finicky and volatile user base. Entry barriers are high for the hardware consoles but much lower for the game applications.

Case Discussion

How Sony Achieved Content-Hardware Convergence Sony’s content-hardware strategy is probably stronger than that of any other company in the world. This strategy goes back to its Betamax defeat by the technologically inferior Matsushita’s (Panasonic) VHS. The debacle led Sony’s CEO, Morita, to conclude that hardware superiority was not enough and had to be supported by control over some content software to assure a format’s success. Morita’s content strategist was Norio Ohga. Ohga had had a career as an opera singer and symphony conductor. In 1986, Norio Ohga got Sony to buy the music division of CBS for $2 billion. This acquisition helped the success of the CD launch. 65 In 1983, Sony and Philips jointly introduced the compact disc (CD) for high-fidelity, noisefree digital audio storage. The CD revitalized the recorded music and audio electronics industries. Sony also pioneered the portable audio tape player with the release of its popular Walkman in 1979. But the market as a whole

declined with the advent of portable alternatives with better sound quality. New products emerged, most notably the portable MP3 player, introduced by the tiny computer equipment company Rio. Sony and Thomson followed with their own products. Sony, however, was hampered by the demands of its own music division for strong security against piracy. In 2001, Apple entered the market with the iPod, coupled with the music store i-Tunes, and quickly became the dominant force in the market with a share of 73.8% in 2005. Through innovations such as the iPod Mini and Nano, Apple was able to keep charging a premium price. In contrast, Sony’s market presence in portable music declined. In 2004, Sony added to its music content strength by joining up with Bertelsmann, another of the five music majors, and merging their music operations to create Sony BMG, the world’s second largest music group. In 2008, Sony raised the stakes further and

65 Epstein, Edward Jay. The Big Picture, The New Logic of Money and Power in Hollywood. New York: E.J.E. Publications, Ltd., Inc., 2005.

bought out Bertelsmann’s half share of the company. Sony Music Entertainment incorporates several subsidiaries including Columbia Records, Epic, Legacy, RCA, Jive, Kinetic, Arista, Sony Music Japan, Sony Music UK and Sony Music Germany. Sony also distributes many independent labels. Sony tried to integrate this content into its mobile phone venture Sony Ericsson. In order to compete with Apple’s iTunes and Nokia’s Comes With Music services, Sony Ericsson launched its own mobile phone service: PlayNow Plus. However, this did not make much of a dent. Also without success was Sony’s MP3 player. Sony’s music division, instead of helping the hardware to achieve leadership, worried greatly about piracy. This held Sony back from taking the lead in the MP3 market, which should have been Sony’s stronghold given its dominance with its Walkman and Discman player generations. Yet, Sony’s MP3 player was a distant runner up.

87 4.3 · The Six Stages of Media and Communications T­ echnology Digital C ­ onvergence: “The 6 C’s”

Music was only the first step for Sony’s entry into the content business. Film followed. In 1989, Morita bought the film studio UAColumbia for 3.4 billion dollars from Coca-Cola. Sony Pictures was able to produce big hits at the box office such as The Da Vinci Code, Casino Royale, and Spider-Man 3. Sony used its content strategy to drive the transition to HDTV and high-definition DVD film format. By owning film content, Sony strengthened its hand in the battle over the standards. For example, Sony collaborated with the Discovery Network and with IMAX to launch a 3D network called “3Net,” with Sony being the primary sponsor for the ESPN network. Sony used its game console PS3 to drive consumers to its Blu-ray videodisc standard, and prevailed over its rival Panasonic. The success of the PS3 console was partly driven by publishing games such as EverQuest, Star Wars Galaxies, The Matrix Online, Gran Turismo, Warhawk and Formula One, which created a user base with Bluray, which in the end tipped the scale. Thus, there have been several examples of success for Sony’s content integration strategy. The

4.3.5

Sony Reader was the first tablet to use an e-paper screen, but it had no Wi-Fi or wireless connections. It failed to make a splash while Amazon’s Kindle got 85% of the market share. Kindle had the advantage of Amazon’s book store, while Apple’s iPad had the advantage of its iStore when it took off in 2010. Sony’s online content store which offers a broad selection of fiction and nonfiction manga comics and graphic novels, did not take off, just as its music store had also failed. In 2014, Sony closed the North America operations of its Sony Reader due to lack of success against Amazon and others. Other Sony efforts included a wireless broadband TV, enabling the first Dual-Band Wireless AV transmission, with web browsing, e-mail photos and access to personal contents while traveling. Sony’s Cocoon (released 2003) was a Linux-based set-top box, with broadband Internet connectivity. Cocoon a aimed to become an alternative to the PC for accessing Internet content. It could also analyze previous choices and items stored to identify a user’s preferences, and automatically record programs that fit that profile.

Convergence #5: The Media Cloud

Today, the next generation of technology integration is emerging—that of connecting consumer hardware devices with computing services. The World Wide Web, with its numerous websites for information and transactions, was a major step. Today, we are moving to data processing itself, by way of “clouds,” which is the current term for server-based services to end users. The basic idea has been around for decades, to move data and operations to big central servers, and to leave the periphery of end user “clients” to be relatively slim terminals. In that way, the device can be small, relatively simple and parsimonious with battery power. Some companies, such as Amazon or Apple, have created huge facilities for their services. Apple spent about $1 billion on a new data center in Maiden, North Carolina. What are the

So, the question is whether Sony’s content strategy has benefited the company, or slowed it down. Has Sony achieved an advantage from its content, or should it simply concentrate on offering a better hardware device platform? Sony’s PS3 had the Blu-ray player and, with it and its Hollywood studio position, Sony was able to win against HD-DVD. On the other hand, Sony’s music division opposed aggressive moves in MP3 players due to fears of piracy. And Sony’s TV set business? Its film Hancock was made available via Internet download only for its Bravia premium brand TVs for just $9.99 prior to the DVD release.66 Did that measurably increase Sony’s sales? Probably not, but it generated some buzz. Despite these efforts, Sony’s TV set sales were in serious trouble. Symmetrically, one should also ask whether Sony’s content benefited from Sony’s hardware connection. Has Sony created new “convergence” types of content, or promoted its content better through its hardware? So far, there have been no examples.

i­mplications? First, the consumer electronics business is being changed. If all devices in the home are interconnected, then we move from consumer electronics as hardware devices to consumer electronics as services. A familiar example is the voicemail service that is now being provided by a phone company as a service that replaces an answering machine—a hardware device. Services are paid according to usage, or by subscription, or by some sponsorship. The necessary hardware will mostly be bought by service providers, rather than the consumers. In this market space, IT companies have more credibility than CE companies. More powerful but fewer hardware boxes will be sold. This is even worse news for retailers.

66 Nakashima, Ryan. “Sony free to mix music, electronics.” Los Angeles Times. October 14, 2008. Last accessed June 1, 2011. 7  http://articles.latimes. com/2008/oct/14/business/fi-sony14.

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4.3.6

 he Next Convergence: T Bio-­electronics and Human Cognition

4.4

The Next Act for Sony

4.4.1

Case Discussion

and human responses or emotions could be detected and interpreted directly in a kind of “brain-­modem.” Futurist Ray Kurzweil, extrapolating current exponential trends in computation power, predicts The next convergence (6C), clearly ahead of us, is that the capability of a human brain will be availthat of IT technology with bio-technology: “bio-­ able electronically around 2023 for a price of 1000 electronics.” Already, cochlear implants, which dollars and, in 2037, for only 1 cent. Eventually, the directly stimulate the auditory nerve, have enabled capability of the entire human race can be reached thousands of deaf people to hear sound. Similarly, in 2049 for 1000 dollars and, in 2059, for 1 penny.68 a retinal implantable chip for prosthetic vision may restore vision to the blind.67 Another type of While such extrapolations often reflect a technolotechnology, aimed at creating a “touch and feel” gist’s narrow perspective of human capability, the sensation, is the TactaPad, where a pad is touched broader point is valid: a good number of our mendirectly with the hands, providing dynamic “force tal processes could be done more powerfully by feedback.” The pad has a unique feel that corre- machines. And this includes the control of mediacreated sensory experiences. sponds to the object being touched. Such technologies emerge first for medical and But the applications will go deeper, rather military use. They have a great potential for good, than overcome sensory handicaps. We may be but have also implications for altering or controlable to integrate a computer’s speed and accuracy, ling behavior. They are fraught with perilous as well as its ability to transfer knowledge easily, implications and will lead to much societal debate. into our own sensory systems. Similarly, sensory And they create enormous challenges to the next signals picked up by humans may be processed by generation of technologists and media managers. technical devices rather than the human brain,

Where Does This Leave Sony? Sony is a brilliant technology and marketing firm but has difficulties in keeping up with specialized firms. Increasingly, it leaves R&D in those areas to partners or vendors. Sony’s strengths are its integrator role, its strengths in design and its prowess in global marketing. The aim is a streamlined Sony. As Sony’s past CEO Howard Stringer stated, “in terms of the variety of products, Sony is still unbeatable. The question is how much variety is too much

variety.”69 Specialization is not just a matter of technology. Sony is spread thin not only in R&D, but also in the marketing of its products. Aware that it may be too diversified, Sony gradually and reluctantly abandoned its “scatter-gun” approach to customer electronics in favor of focusing on the “champion products.”70 But internal stakeholder constituencies of product fiefdoms make such a prioritization difficult.

67 McGee, Ellen M. and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. “20th WCP: Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips.” Proceedings of the Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy, August 1998. Last accessed August 10, 2012. 7  http:// www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Bioe/BioeMcGe.htm. 68 Kurzweil, Ray. “The Law of Accelerating Returns.” KurzweilAI.net. March 7, 2001. Last accessed August 10, 2012. 7  http://www.kurzweilai.net/ the-law-of-accelerating-returns.

Internal communications in the sprawling company were often flawed. In one instance, Sony’s marketing people did not alert the R&D managers of the impending demand for large flat screen TVs, leaving the company to fall behind Samsung and Sharp, and, embarrassingly, requiring it to buy those screens from its other competitors. In the field of computers, PCs became a commodity, with Intel and Microsoft taking most of the profit. Sony’s Vaio did not create a

69 Schlender, Brent. “If you don’t act, you will kill the company.” Fortune Magazine. April, 4, 2005. Last accessed May 11, 2017. 7  http://archive. fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2005/04/04/8255922/ index.htm. 70 Nakamoto, Michiyo and Paul Taylor. “From push to pull – Sony’s digital vision.” Financial Times. January 6, 2006. Last accessed June 1, 2011. 7  http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/381891be-7f09-11da-a6a2-0000779e2340. html#axzz1O3C6NQw3.

89 4.4 · The Next Act for Sony

strong multiplier for the company’s overall products. Being pummeled financially, in 2009 Sony announced layoffs of 8000 permanent and 8000 contract workers, most of them in America. In 2010, there were 450 layoffs at Sony Pictures. In 2010, it reduced its capital investments in electronics by 30% and reduced manufacturing prices by 10%. It continued to shift R&D and manufacturing to be done outside the firm. Even so, it lost $5.5 billion in 2011. In 2013, sales declined and the loss was over $1 billion. TV shipment declined from 40 million to 20 million. According to its then- CEO Howard Stringer, every TV set built by Sony creates losses for the company.71 Outside analysts recommended that Sony abandon product categories where it could no longer compete, such as televisions sets, and focus on its strengths such as entertainment and video games. Kazuo Hirai, a lifelong Sony technologist, credited for making the PlayStation business profitable, was appointed as the new CEO.72 Hirai aimed to turn the business around with cost cuts, layoffs, new products and a breakdown of internal barriers. His priorities were five initiatives: 1. Focus on the core businesses: digital imaging, games and mobile; 2. Turn-around of the TV business; 3. Expansion of business in emerging markets; 4. Creation of new businesses and acceleration of innovation; 5. Realignment of the business portfolio and optimization of resources, i.e. bring its content units to be more closely

coordinated with its technology devices. These were broad goals, hardly focused targets and action strategies. Concrete actions taken were a new top management structure (“One Sony, One Management”), which means a unification of all electronics business units, but, at the same time, the divisions would have more independence to accelerate decision making; one goal was cost reduction in the TV set business, cutting fixed costs by 60% and operating costs by 30%. In 2014, and again in 2015, CEO Hirai took several steps: Sony spun off the audio and TV set manufacturing operations into a wholly owned subsidiary to speed up processes; and its computer division, Vaio, was sold to an investment consortium, Japan Industrial Partners, for about $500 million plus a 5% stake in the new company. Another 5000 jobs (approximately 3% of global staff) were cut. Within the constraints of legacy, Sony’s strategy was to focus on its most profitable and high-margin businesses. It aimed to increase operating profit 25-fold within three years by growing its camera and game divisions, and give up on raising its sales in smartphones or computers. It then proceeded to cut 2000 jobs of the 7000 in its smartphone division. The major building block for Sony was its strength as one of the largest camera manufacturers in the world. Sony is number one in 4K quality video, production cameras and projectors. The entire market, however, has greatly declined due to a migration to smartphone cameras. The emerging Sony strategy has

71 What Hi-Fi? “Sony Admits Losing Money On Every Kind of TV It Makes; Plans “different kind of TV.” November 11, 2011. Last accessed June 14, 2012. 7  http://www.whathifi.com/news/sony-admits-losing-money-onevery-tv-it-makes-plans-different-kind-of-tv. 72 Yasu, Mariko. “Sony’s Hirai Stakes Reputation on Restoring TVs to Profit”. March 27, 2012. 7  http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-27/ sony-s-incoming-president-hirai-to-run-home-entertainment-unit.html.

been “From the Lens to the Living Room,” meaning the value chain from professional content production hardware to consumer media devices. Profitability of Sony’s camera business rose 73% in 2015/2016. Another strategy was to differentiate Sony by connecting its entertainment properties—such as the music, movie and video game section—more closely with its electronic devices. This concept, of course, had been promoted for over two decades and it was not clear why it would be more successful now. Sony also aimed to increase capital investments by generating significantly funds—$3.6 billion— in its first outside capital raising in 25 years. Partly based on these measures, operating profit rose in 2015/2016 by 330% (from $655 million to $2.81 billion). Losses in its mobile communications business dropped 72%, to $590 million from $2.08 billion.73 Its gaming division’s profits rose 84% to $850 million, with PS4 sales rising significantly to 35 million. On the other hand, it lost $270 million in its semiconductor and component division. That segment had recorded a profit of $850 million in the preceding year. But the trends are still running strongly against it. Does this mean that, within the next few years, Sony will continue to break itself up? It will remain a strong brand—but with most of the R&D and manufacturing done outside, and with major product lines being spun off. Rather than a technology R&D developer, Sony will be a technology aggregator, and a technology/content integrator.

73 Kharpal, Arjun. “Sony just posted a 666% rise in profit as its turnaround plan takes hold.” CNBC. April 28, 2016. Last accessed June 22, 2016. 7  http://www.cnbc.com/2016/04/28/Sony-just-posted-a-666-rise-inprofit-as-its-turnaround-plan-takes-hold.html.

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4.5

Outlook

We have discussed in this chapter a dozen tools and tasks for media and digital companies to manage their technology functions. Even all the enormous changes in media technology, we are most likely only at the early stages of the evolution. Coming down the road are many technologies with a media impact, some of which are listed below: 55 Intelligent interfaces that make human-­ machine interaction more convenient; 55 Bio-electronics that directly link physiological sensations with machines; 55 Machine-to-machine intelligent communication; 55 Semantic networks which can interpret and understand meaning; 55 Intelligent screeners of information; 55 Cognitive radio that can roam and can use bits and pieces of spectrum; 55 Large, thin and flexible screens that are integrated into walls and various products; 55 Ubiquitous non-stop connectivity; 55 Gigabit-rate networks in the home; 55 Megabit mobile wireless; 55 Smartphones with visual projection; 55 Miniaturization and systems-on-a-chip; 55 Sensor networks that can provide feedback, monitoring and controls; 55 Holographic and glasses-free 3D; 55 Real-time rendering that enables true customization and interactivity of content. People tend to over-estimate the short term but underestimate the long term. In technology devices, it is quite common to encounter a “hype cycle,” in which new or anticipated products raise expectations that are far out of line with reality. Eventually, inflated expectations reach their peak and disillusionment sets in, a dark counter-­ reaction to the previous rosy scenario. But, in time, reality returns, and a cooler assessment emerges. And then, gradually, the impact of the new technology gathers momentum and its ­accumulated impact is often much larger than anticipated. The preceding discussion has shown the many dimensions and tasks of technology management faced by a media or digital company or organization. They are issues that require an understanding of the underlying trends, of competitors’

initiatives, production planning, market forces, the fostering of innovation, and government actions. They require savvy in tech, strategy, marketing, operations, HR and public policy. This is not an easy set of skills to combine, but it is an essential one for a media company. The aggregate impact is fundamental. Media technology affects media content and societal interaction. In that sense, R&D technologists are also the engineers of our culture and of our politics.74 4.6

Review Materials

Issues Covered We have covered the following issues in this chapter: 55 The technological trends that drive the media industry’ 55 The functions and responsibilities of the Chief Technical Officer; 55 How to select R&D projects for funding; 55 Whether to specialize or diversify in R&D; 55 A tech company’s R&D horizons for short-term and long-term projects; 55 How to position and organize R&D within the firm; 55 When to outplace R&D; 55 How to involve developers and users in the R&D process; 55 How to determine R&D budgets; 55 How companies (and universities) benefit from R&D alliances; 55 How companies manage their internal knowledge; 55 How to play the standards setting game well; 55 How semiconductors transformed IT and CE

74 Example: A study shows that, over time, films have shifted toward movie types that are most amenable to special effects, such as action films and sci-fi, while romance and drama have declined. “Movie characters can now be transported, transfigured, or killed in an incredible number of ways, but what can digital effects do for a kiss?” Ji, Sung Wook and David Waterman. “Production Technology and Trends in Movie Content: An Empirical Study.” Working Paper, Indiana University, December 2010. Last accessed May 11, 2017. 7  https://www.researchgate.net/profile/ Sung_Wook_Ji/publication/228448250_Production_Technology_and_ Trends_in_Movie_Content_An_Empirical_Study/ links/55196ea60cf23c470a5c7a23.pdf.

91 4.6 · Review Materials

55 How personal computers and smartphones evolved; 55 How the Internet emerged and evolved; 55 The future of the consumer electronics industry; 55 How the integration of media hardware and content-generated new media types; 55 The implications of the convergence of consumer hardware and computing devices; 55 What the potential of a convergence of bio-­electronics and bio-technology might be.

Tools Covered We used these tools to discuss Technology Management issues: 55 Moore’s Law; 55 R&D project selectivity and success rate; 55 Scoring method for projects; 55 Economic-financial analysis of project prioritization; 55 A tech company’s R&D categories for short-­term and long-term projects; 55 Dimensions of consumer acceptance; 55 Risk-reward diagram; 55 Network effects; 55 R&D effectiveness index; 55 Standards process participation; 55 Knowledge management (KM); 55 Media cloud.

4.6.1

Questions for Discussion

??   1. What are key technology innovations from the 1990s that will affect media by 2020? Explain. And what are technology innovations of the 2000 that will affect media in 20 years’ time?

??   2. A consumer electronics manufacturer has hired your consulting services to forecast trends in CE. What do you foresee and how should this CE manufacturer adapt to the future? ??   3. When it comes to patents, is R&D management moving in an identifiable direction? If so, what is it, and does it make sense? ??   4. Is there a relationship between market volatility and technological progress in a field? How do these relationships play out in major media sectors? ??   5. You are the CTO for a network equipment firm. Researchers from the University of Wallalia have just reported discovering a new principle of particle physics that could lead to hyper-broadband that leaves all current transmission technology in the dust. How should R&D management address this opportunity and threat? ??   6. Does the current patent system retard technology innovation? Explain why, or why not. ??   7. Contrast the responsibilities of the CIO and the CTO at a typical media company. ??   8. How does the CTO evaluate the viability of R&D projects? What advance information from the R&D department would they require? ??   9. How does Moore’s Law affect R&D planning? ?? 10. How can a media company take advantage of user communities that would like to converge with the company, and provide innovation? What are possible disadvantages?

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4.6.2

Quiz

??   1. Which of the following products is a part of the convergence of devices and content? A. Sony’s multi-media platform Vaio computer. B. Amazon’s e-book reader Kindle. C. Sony’s mobile media player LocationFree TV. D. None of the above. ??   2. Which is not likely to be an impact of the ultra-broadband networks? A. Higher prices for devices as they become more powerful. B. More subsystems (software and hardware) are built into the devices. C. Transitions from device-based features to online-based services. ??   3. Which of the following best represents the organizational structure of R&D activities? A. In the centrally-support model, most research is done at the division level, while most development is done at the corporate level. B. As R&D becomes more complex, the R&D organizational structure becomes more decentralized. C. Companies can be successful in R&D even without any corporate level R&D. ??   4. Which of the following will ensure a standardization war victory over a rival? A. Control over a large part of the installed base. B. Perfect compatibility with former standards. C. Exceptional quality of new standards. D. None of the above. ??   5. Which of the following is the worst reason to join a R&D alliance? A. Members can share the cost for developing new technology. B. Members have highly complementary technology skills and experiences. C. The culture and structure of the alliance will reduce the development time significantly.

??   6. Which of the following is correct about the impact of home networks? A. Shifting actual functions to remote locations is not practical, because it overloads bandwidth requirements. B. It will become even more complex for the users to handle the functions of devices, because of the complexity of the network. C. Standardization will become more important because of various systems provided by various service providers. D. None of the above. ??   7. Which of the following is not a necessary criterion of good balance between the centralization and decentralization of R&D activities? A. The corporate level has the ability to conduct research and acquire knowledge to enable future profitable innovations. B. The company has the ability to synthesize the knowledge of different divisions. C. The responsibilities of R&D are split clearly between the corporate and division levels. D. None of the above. ??   8. Which of the following can be considered the first general purpose electronic computer? A. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), invented in 1946. B. The “difference engine,” invented in 1839 by Charles Babbage and Ada, Countess Lovelace. C. The Atanasoff-Berry computer, developed by Iowa State College professor John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry in 1941. ??   9. The impetus for the development of the ENIAC was the need to: A. Compute enormous amounts of statistical data for meteorological research. B. Perform ballistics computations for firing tables during World War II.

93 4.6 · Review Materials





C. Calculate studies of thermonuclear chain reactions, i.e. the hydrogen bomb. D. All of the above.

?? 10. In 1975, Intel CEO Gordon Moore predicted that the power of a computer chip would: A. Progress arithmetically. B. Progress exponentially, doubling every 18–24 months. C. Double every four years due to exhaustion of early gains. ?? 11. When IBM entered the computer industry in 1953, its business strategy did not include: A. Leasing, rather than selling, equipment. B. Leveraging its dominant position in the tabulator punch-card market by bundling equipment. C. Making it cheap for competing manufacturers to connect peripheral equipment to create network effects. ?? 12. The future trend in computing is: A. Mainframes becoming insignificant. B. Computer devices accelerating performance at the rate of Moore’s Law. C. Computer devices for every person on the planet. D. All of the above. ?? 13. With client-server computing, corporate growth is expensive because: A. PCs take up a great deal of footprint. B. The complexity of PCs makes maintenance difficult. C. If companies decide to upgrade software, they must do so on every PC. D. All of the above. ?? 14. During what phase of tech product development, should a company more effectively analyze market potential? A. Testing. B. Product selection. C. Prototype construction. D. None of the above.

?? 15. What is the trend of the video game market? A. Reaching out to younger consumers. B. Increased video game console sales. C. Increased competition in portable consoles. D. Online gaming sales are increasing mainly due to the popularity of high-tech games. ?? 16.

Which sales have decreased? A. Gaming hardware sales. B. Electronic game sales. C. Electronic gaming software sales.

?? 17. Which type of R&D model emphasizes the least importance on research? A. Technology-driven. B. National treasure. C. Market-driven. D. Global. ?? 18. Which officer of a company is most responsible for the corporate R&D organizational structure? A. Chief Information Officer. B. Chief Technology Officer. C. Chief Executive Officer. D. All of the above. ?? 19. What has the convergence of consumer electronics with telecom devices led to? A. Integrated multi-purpose devices with communications capabilities. B. Faster mobile Internet speed. C. Telecom law regulation extended to consumer electronics devices. D. Data caps. ?? 20. What is not a key task or function of a CTO? A. The CTO identifies present and future technology options. B. The CTO contributes to published scientific research.

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C. The CTO has to deal with scenarios and opportunities that are composed of building blocks that already exist. D. The CTO shapes part of the overall corporate strategy along the dimension of technology

?? 21. Which statement about the purchasing behavior of consumers is incorrect with regards to innovative products? A. Consumers fear losses much more than gains of the same magnitude. B. Behavioral change is not easy for consumers.





C. People tend to overvalue the benefits of new goods over the goods they own. D. There is a mismatch between what innovators think consumers want and what consumers truly desire.

?? 22. What is especially important for the innovation stage “Horizon 1: Improvements”? A. Mostly money and people. B. Corporate culture of creativity. C. Making bets. D. Exploration into new markets.

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Quiz Answers

vv 12. C

vv 1. B

vv 13. D

vv 2. A

vv 14. B

vv 3. C

vv 15. C

vv 4. D

vv 16. A

vv 5. A

vv 17. C

vv 6. D

vv 18. B

vv 7. C

vv 19. A

vv 8. A

vv 20. B

vv 9. D

vv 21. C

vv 10. B

vv 22. A

vv 11. C

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Human Resource Management for Media and Information Firms 5.1 The HRM Function and Its Organization – 98 5.1.1 Introduction – 98 5.1.2 HRM Characteristics in Media, Information, and Digital Industries? – 100

5.2 HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM” – 100 5.2.1 The Rate of Return on Investment in Human Capital – 100 5.2.2 The Internal Labor Markets – 103 5.2.3 The Use of Finance Theory in Analyzing Compensation – 105 5.2.4 Salary Differentials – 107

5.3 HRM by Negotiation: “Tough Labor” – 109 5.3.1 The Industrial Workforce – 109 5.3.2 The Crafts (Skilled) Media Workforce – 110 5.3.3 The Creative Workforce – 110 5.3.4 Freelancers and Unions in the “New Economy” – 111 5.3.5 Building Relationships with Unions – 112

5.4 HRM by Human Touch: “Soft Control” – 113 5.4.1 Soft Control – 113 5.4.2 Managing and Motivating the Creative Workforce – 113 5.4.3 Models of Motivation – 113

5.5 Employment in the Digital Economy – 120 5.6 Conclusion and Outlook – 122 5.7 Review Materials – 122 5.7.1 Questions for Discussion – 122 5.7.2 Quiz – 123



Quiz Answers – 126

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_5

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5.1  The HRM Function and

Its Organization

5.1.1  Introduction

5

This chapter deals with a major input for media, information and digital activities—people—and the human resource management (HRM) practices to manage them. Historically, the main sources of value for business companies have been their hard assets, such as machines, assembly lines, buildings and land. The industrial age was characterized by factories built with vast capital investments in machinery and equipment provided by “capitalists” and operated by unskilled or semi-skilled workers who were mostly interchangeable.1 In the knowledge economy, however, all this is different. Capital is not as scarce as it used to be and there is often a shortage of essential employees. Companies cannot generate profits without the ideas, skills and talent of knowledge workers. The main assets of a firm leave the company every evening to go home and, increasingly, they actually stay at home. An information-sector firm’s productivity greatly depends on the success of managing its human resources. Microsoft earned $173,203  in profit per worker in 2013. In the same year, Google saw $270,626  in profit per employee. In Hollywood, Silicon Valley, Madison Avenue and Wall Street, hard assets matter less than people. The employees—the knowledge workers, content producers and IT geeks—represent the difference between success and failure. When the main sources of value depend on the talent of the people involved rather than the productivity of the company’s hard assets, effective HRM becomes at least as important to a media and information company as the management of financial assets to a bank. Dealing with the people of the enterprise is the realm of HRM. In general, HRM deals with a multitude of issues: hiring, promoting, training, firing, compensating, supervising, evaluating, protecting, providing benefits, and generally matching firm needs with people and their needs.

1

Surowiecki, James. “Net Worth.” The New Yorker. March 14, 2005. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  http://www.newyorker.com/archive/ 2005/03/14/050314ta_talk_surowiecki.

HRM has a leading role in creating and maintaining morale, developing the skills of employees, controlling labor expenses and applying the company’s policies. Failure to carry out a human resource strategy successfully inevitably leads to problems. The wrong person may be hired for the job, or there is a high turnover of employees, or inefficiencies develop. And if the company fails to comply with the many employment laws and regulations, it opens itself to lawsuits and negative publicity.2 5.1.1.1  The Changing Focus of HRM

The traditional style of HRM had been “soft,” i.e. people-oriented, and run by personnel specialists who emphasized hiring, training, communicating, motivating and promoting. More recently, a “hard” HRM style has gained a following. This style incorporates a finance-oriented analysis and the implementation of overall company strategy — such as diversification and globalization — into the human resources (HR) environment. But this approach can conflict with the need to manage an increasingly creative workforce, as will be discussed. 5.1.1.2  The HRM Organizational

Structure

How are HRM departments organized structurally? It varies, of course. The top officer is titled the Chief Human Resource Officer (CHRO), or has a similar title. This function was formerly known as the VP for Human Resources, and before that, Personnel Director. The upgrade in title reflects the increase in scope and responsibility. HRM functions can be divided into relatively routine activities, administrative duties and human resource strategists. Standard transactional activities such as payroll, benefits administration and workers’ compensation are increasingly being outsourced to external providers. The more administrative functions, such as hiring and promotions, are run by core HR specialists, often at the divisional level. Finally, the strategic direction of employment issues is often guided by a corporate level HR group. In a large 2

Dessler, Gary. Human Resource Management. 12th ed. New York: Pearson, 2011, 200.

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99 5.1 · The HRM Function and Its Organization

..      Fig. 5.1  Example for an HRM Organizational Structure

CHRO Information Systems Labor Relations

Strategy

Compensation & Benefits Manager

firm, the HRM function typically looks like the one depicted in . Fig.  5.1. Its main components are compensation and benefits, training, employment and recruitment, and labor relations. HRM is supported by computers and software of increasing complexity and capability—human resource information systems (HRIS)—and is often outsourced. HRIS has mostly been used for administrative applications such as benefits, recruitment, personnel records, skills inventory, performance rating and so on. But it is also a tool for strategic analysis. The vast amount of data  

Employment/ Recruitment

Compliance

Training and Development

generated and stored in HRIS over time can be used for many types of internal HR analyses in support of a more efficient employment system. Which incentives work best? What is the full cost of employee benefits? What recruitment factors work best? What factors are associated with quitting? What educational credentials work out best? For the first time, management has nearreal-time tracking tools for its workforce—its cost, performance, productivity, individual and group progress, and the effects of various policies and circumstances.

5.1.1.3  Case Discussion Disney’s HR Management Throughout this chapter, we will use the Walt Disney Company as an example for employment and labor issues. Disney is one of the largest media companies in the world. It is comprised of several movie studios, television and cable networks, theme parks, Internet sites, retail stores and branded products. The company’s primary business is to organize and commercialize the output of creative people. In 2014, Disney employed approximately 159,000 people, many of whom are referred to as “cast members.” Business Week named Disney the “Best Place to Launch a Career” in the United States.3 It wrote: “Disney’s place

3

at the pinnacle is also a testament to its popularity with students, but its desirability goes well beyond the company’s instant name recognition.” The magazine praised the positive work environment: “Disney rose to No. 1 on its reputation with students. Cynics need not apply: culture stresses creativity, optimism and decency.” At the same time that this praise was given, Disney was under fire from its own employees. Its top management was challenged by dissident directors, including Roy E. Disney, Walt Disney’s nephew, in the annual shareholder meeting. A staggering three-quarters of Disney

Among other media-related companies, General Electric was ranked 8th, Verizon was 11th, Google was 13th, and AT&T was 21st.

employees, as identified by their classification as 401(k) pension plan participants, voted against their own management in the shareholder meeting. This raises several questions: 55 Why did Disney management lose the confidence of threequarters of its own employees? 55 How can a management such as Disney’s keep creative people happy while also maintaining profitability? 55 Is Disney’s compensation structure well-developed? 55 How should Disney deal with its unionized employees? 55 How should Disney’s HR policies proceed into the next generation of media?

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5.1.2

 RM Characteristics in Media, H Information, and Digital Industries?

Media content industries have a strong emphasis on fostering, harvesting, and monetizing creativity. “Creativity” is combining expertise in a specific field with unconventional thinking— resulting in a novel solution to an existing or new problem. The challenge to HRM in the media and media tech sector is to strengthen this creative part of the enterprise. James Webb Young, a former creative vice president at the J.  Walter Thompson advertising agency, wrote:

»» The production of ideas is just as definite

a process as the production of Fords; the production of ideas, too, runs an assembly line; in this production, the mind follows an operative technique which can be learned and controlled; and that its effective use is just as much a matter of practice in the techniques as the effective use of any tool.4

Young had the advertising world in mind. But the same can be said for Hollywood and its “dream factories,” for the “skunk works” of high tech firms, about the “think tanks” of policy ideas, for consultancies and financial innovators, and for technology startups. Creativity is not just an individual’s “aha moment” and a cartoon-style flashing light bulb, but just as much an organized process. 5.2  HRM By the Numbers:

“Hard HRM”

In the traditional “soft” approach of HR, personnel specialists deal with hiring, training, and so on. “Soft HRM” is analytically based on the study of individual and organizational behavior. We will discuss it later. More recently, “hard HRM” research has been introduced, with HRM tools, based on economics and finance, that analyze people as assets.

5.2.1

Human capital theory sees human capital not only as an input to production, but also the output of a production process in which the organization invests time and resources.5 The approach sees HR decisions as investment decisions that can be analyzed in the same way that investments in machines and other capital goods are being modeled. Research in this field was advanced by Nobel prize winning economists Gary Becker and Theodore Schultz.6 Hard HRM helps establish a causational link between personnel investment and bottom-line business performance. This is important because 60% to 70% of most firms’ expenditures are now labor related. And yet, according to a study by the consultancy Accenture,7 70% of executives said they rarely measure the impact of HR expenditures such as training initiatives. One reason for this lack of knowledge lies in the difficulty of measuring and assessing the effects of investments in the labor force. One way to do so may be to determine the impacts of an HR initiative on measurable items such as time savings, quit rates, productivity and customer satisfaction, and then assign a specific monetary value to these gains or losses. Gains are valued at the monetary value of the extra goods produced. In some cases, one may have to proceed indirectly. For example, a study at a telecom company with 20,000 employees showed that every 1% improvement in employee satisfaction boosted customer satisfaction by 0.5%. Customer satisfaction, in turn, is associated with lower customer churn and greater consumption. Suppose that it can be shown that it would cost the company with 20,000 employees $1000 per year per employee to raise employee satisfaction 1%, that a satisfied employee raises a customer’s satisfaction by half as much, and that a 1% customer satisfaction raises average consumption by $5 for its ten million customers. One can then measure the cost of raising employee satisfaction through an HR 5

6 4

Belch, George E. and Michael A. Belch. Advertising and Promotion: An Integrated Marketing Communications Perspective, 9th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011.

 he Rate of Return on T Investment in Human Capital

7

Nalbantian, Haig et al. Play to Your Strengths: Managing Your Company’s Internal Labor Markets for Lasting Competitive Advantage. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Bartel, Ann P. “Productivity Gains from the Implementation of Employee Training Program.” Industrial Relations 33, (1994): 411–425. Gary, Loren. “The New ROI: Return on Individuals.” Harvard Business School Working Knowledge. September 1, 2003. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/3648.html.

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101 5.2 · HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM”

activity and link it with the estimated value of customer satisfaction in terms of added revenues, and then estimate an ROI.8 The ROI would be a fairly substantial 25%: 1 ´ 0.5 ´ $5 ´ 10 million - $20 million 5 = = 0.25 $20 million 20

In another analysis, Forbes magazine calculated movie stars’ “payback figure” (in terms of sales of theater tickets and DVDs sold) as a ratio of the actors’ salary. ROI =

Revenue - Budget Salary

The study showed that, in 2007, the ROI for Matt Damon was $29 of income generated for every dollar he earned. Jennifer Aniston had the highest payback figure among female actors, with $17 of revenue per dollar of salary. Will Ferrell and Jim Carrey’s films produced about $10 for every dollar these actors earned. In contrast, Russell Crowe was the worst investment among top stars, with an ROI averaging $5 of revenue per dollar of salary.9 Five years later, Forbes found Natalie Portman at the top, with a $42.70 return for $1 paid, followed by Shia LaBeouf ($35.80). And, in 2016, Chris Evans’ ROI was $135.80 for every dollar paid, and Scarlett Johansson had $88.60.10

5.2.1.1  Case Discussion Disney and the ROI of Retraining Repetitive Employees In this hypothetical example, the Walt Disney animation studio is revamping its operations by moving to computer-generated animation (CGA). On the HR side, it has two options: hire new computer animators and fire the existing hand animators, or retrain the latter. A new young CGA hire can hit the ground running, and is also cheaper by $15,000 per year than an existing hand animator. So, this seems a no-brainer. But let’s look at the (hypothetical) numbers.

Option 1: Hire a New Computer Animator and Fire an Existing Hand Animator A. Costs of hiring a new computer animator: Search for new animator:  $9,000 Selection:        $7,500 Proficiency training:    $8,000 Subtotal:        $24,500 B. Costs of firing a hand animator (compensation, etc.): $31,000 C. The value added of a seasoned hand animator $100,000 D. Initial slowing of productivity due to inexperience of a new hire $17,000. This means that the net value added of a new computer animator is: $100,000 − $17,000 = $83,000 E. The return on investment (ROI) of Option 1 can then be calculated as:

Gary, Loren. “The New ROI: Return on Individuals.” Harvard Business School Working Knowledge. September 1, 2003. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/3648.html.

Value Added - ( Firing + Hiring - Lower Salary ) -1 ( Firing + Hiring - Lower Salary )

ROI =

$83, 000 - ( $31,000 + $24,000 - $15,000 ) -1 $40, 000

ROI = 7.5%

Option 2: Retrain the Hand Animators The costs associated with this option are: A. Costs of retraining an animator Direct instruction cost

$37,000

Absence cost (Disney still has to pay the animator’s salary) Total cost of retraining animators

$17,000 $54,000

One benefit of retraining is greater employee retention. After successfully passing the retraining, the hand animators will be more committed to Disney, as well as trained more specifically for Disney operations, while new hires pose a greater flight risk. Assume that retrained animators stay with the company three years longer than new hires. The NPV of this avoided cost is estimated to be $25,000.

Pomerantz, Dorothy. “Ultimate Star Payback.” Forbes. August 6, 2007. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/03/ celebrities-hollywood-movies-biz-cz_dp_0806starpayback.html. 10 Robehmed, Natalie. “Chris Evans is Hollywood’s Best Actor for the Buck in 2016.” Forbes. 7  https://www.forbes.com/pictures/emjl45efmjk/1-chrisevans/#7b3ba32e70e6. 9

8

ROI =

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The total monetary benefit of retraining is, then, as follows: Value of employee retention

$25,000

Value added of computer animator

$100,000

Subtotal

$125,000

The ROI of retraining hand animators is thus:

5

ROI =

Benefits - Costs 125, 000 - 54, 000 -1 = -1 Costs 54, 000

ROI = 31.5% The conclusion? The return on retraining is 31.5%, versus only 7.5% for the option of new hires. Thus, based on these hypothesized numbers, and even before reaching considerations of fairness, Disney should retrain its animators instead of hiring new ones to replace the existing ones.

5.2.1.2  Case Discussion Disney’s Internal Labor Structure Assume in this hypothetical example that Disney needs to decide between hiring two different types of employees: a worker with a fairly certain output (Julia), or a worker with a far riskier output (Max) (. Fig. 5.2). Assume that Julia and Max are both 30-year-old computer animators who are likely to work until they are 65 with a salary of $50,000.11 The difference is their productivity. Julia’s productivity level is at a reliable $150,000. In contrast, it will take one year to determine Max’s productivity level to see whether he is a dud with a zero production value, or a star producing $200,000 a year. Julia is the safe choice. Max, in contrast, is a gamble. Who should be hired? Julia’s expected net output, after subtracting her salary, for the first year and every year thereafter is a constant $100,000. Unlike Julia, Max has two potential outcomes. If  

Max proves to be a disaster, he will be fired. Disney’s loss will be the cost of his salary ($50,000). But if Max is a star, his first year output would be $200,000, minus his salary of $50,000, for a net of $150,000. Both possible outcomes must be combined to arrive at a total expected output. Max’s expected net output: (0.5)($150,000) + (0.5)(−$50,000) = $75,000−$25,000 = $50,000. This is half of Julia’s net output of $100,000. With Julia’s expected net output greater than Max’s, should she be the one to be hired? This seems to merit an easy “yes”. But it would be incorrect. Because the analysis so far considers only the first year of employment. Instead, the projected net output for both must be calculated for the 35 years they plan to work, we assume, at Disney. In Julia’s case, her expected net value (after salary) for the first

year and every year thereafter remains constant at $100,000. Her expected net value over 35 years of employment, at a 10% discount rate, yields $578,650. It is different for Max. If Max turns out to be a disaster in his first year, his output would be –$50,000, and he would then be fired. But should Max turn out to be a star animator, his net output would be $150,000 each year over 35 years of employment. The discounted net present value (NPV) for his activity minus the NPV of his salary if he does not work out would be about $1.4 million. Thus, Max is almost 2.5 times more valuable than Julia in expected value. As long as Disney has the option to terminate workers who perform poorly, it will be better to hire riskier workers if they have enough of a promising upside potential.

..      Fig. 5.2  Risk and Employee Selection

P=0.5

Disaster

P=0.5

–$50,000 Star $150,000

Max Who should be hired?

Julia

P=1.0

11 One could give them regular raises but this would complicate the calculation.

Certain Output Net $100,000

103 5.2 · HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM”

Career Level

Hires

6

40 (10.2%)

5

104 (19.0%)

Exits

2 234

884 (21.0%)

2

598 (29.9%)

12

(12.0%)

(5.0%) 26

(16.8%) 2,002

78 130 (19.0%)

130 (10.4%)

1300

4,186 338

1

104 (19.0%)

546

182 (14.0%)

3

(9.5%)

52

156

4

24 (6.1%)

390

(11.5%) 676

(2.2%)

846 (20.2%) 362 (18.0%) 78 (12.5%)

..      Fig. 5.3  Techco Internal Labor Market Map

5.2.2

The Internal Labor Markets

A second element of hard HR is the analysis of intracompany labor flows. It is based on the observation that most important HR transactions take place inside a company, not in external labor markets.12 5.2.2.1  Workforce Mobility

An example is the effectiveness of the company’s compensation structure. A compensation system is likely to be too low, or a promotion system too slow, if many mid-level and low-level employees leave the firm in order to work elsewhere, especially at comparable organizations. A tool for such analysis, by the HR consultancy Mercer Human Resources, maps the flow of the workforce of a real company, anonymized as TechCo. . Figure.  5.313 is such an internal labor market (ILM) map. The horizontal bars show the number of employees at a particular level of the organizational hierarchy. For example, there are  

12 Such analysis was begun by Peter Doeringer, Michael Piore, Sherwin Rosen and Richard Freeman. 13 Based on image from Nalbantian, Haig R. and Richard A Guzzo et al., “Play to Your Strengths”, McGraw-Hill, 2004.

338 employees at the bottom in Level 1. Of these, 39 move up to Level 2. At that level, there are 1001 other people; 181 employees leave from Level 2 to other employment, while 299 are recruited from the outside, and 169 are promoted. The large bulge in the middle levels shows that the largest group, 2093 people, is at mid-level. Level 3 is a career “choke point,” as the probability of moving higher (117 make that promotion) is low at 5.8% per year and even less when demotions (2.2%) are taken into account. One can also observe that a high share of employees at Levels 4 and 5 are new hires from the outside, relative to internal promotions. This indicates that the company is not developing managerial talent internally, but recruiting from outside. Other ILM maps could be developed to show the proportions and mobility of employees at each level according to gender, race and professional specialization. Similarly, these kinds of maps can be used to afford a statistical analysis of turnover, promotions, pay levels and impacts of individual performance. Companies should strive for an ideal “quit rate” and monitor it closely over time. If it is too low, it could indicate stagnation, inbreeding, complacency and, ­possibly,

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­ ver-­compensation. When a job becomes so good o that employees cannot expect a comparable deal elsewhere, it helps morale, but it also generates a risk-­averse attitude. On the other hand, if the quit rate is too high it may indicate dissatisfaction, or low commitment, and it will impose a high replacement cost. The ideal number should be somewhere in between.

5

Employees

Outsourcing

Freelancers

5.2.2.2  Organizational Hierarchy

..      Fig. 5.4  Company Employment Pyramid

A firm’s hierarchy can be a fairly flat triangle with few levels and no strong hierarchy, but also with few promotions. Or, it can be highly hierarchical. It can have bulges at the bottom and the middle. What would be the best shape of the pyramid? Flat or steep? Many people speak admiringly of “flat” organizations, i.e. with only a few levels. This is popular with startups as part of a non-­ hierarchical peer culture. But it also has disadvantages: 55 The higher transaction costs of horizontal consensus building and coordination vs. the top-down orders of a hierarchy.

55 People at the higher levels have numerous people to supervise. 55 Low chances for promotion. Given the advantages and disadvantages, there should be an optimal degree of hierarchy. A firm can shape its organizational pyramid through a variety of policies. They include the outsourcing of certain functions, and the hiring of freelancers (. Fig. 5.4). The following example for Disney shows different types of hierarchy for different divisions of a company.  

5.2.2.3  Case Discussion Disney Internal Labor Markets This hypothetical depiction shows the organizational hierarchy of several of Disney’s divisions. Disney’s radio stations (Unit 1) used to be composed of a very small number of top managers, and many middle-level managers and low-level employees (. Fig. 5.5).14 Most people got promoted from within, but few made it to the top. In contrast, its film and TV production (Unit 2) employ mostly low-level staff, such as production crew, and relatively few middle and top managers. The employment structure is essentially two-tiered—entry level and management level. Early promotion in that structure is easy, but the jump from Level 3 to Level 4 becomes dramatically more difficult. After that barrier, however,  

internal promotion of employees again becomes easy. The third business segment, theme parks, is closest to a classic pyramid structure. How would one expect employee relations and culture to look in these three divisions of the company? Radio stations: Small top management, with staff mostly mid-level. The relatively low ratio of hires over promotions means that most people get promoted from within but few people make it to the top levels. At the lower levels, there is very little career stress. But, at the career “choke point,” the opposite is true. The transition from one culture to the next is hard on people and on the organization.

14 Hypothetical example, based on Nalbantian, Haig, et al. Play to Your Strengths: Managing Your Company’s Internal Labor Markets for Lasting Competitive Advantage. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

Film & TV: There are few employees in the positions above the lower levels. Most mid-level employees are project-­based temporary hires. The structure is essentially one of two types—entry level, plus thinly staffed management levels. This structure is typical in industrial firms. The culture of such a hierarchy is a sharp divide of higher-level executives (the “suits”) from middle managers and blue-collar staff. Theme parks: The pyramidshaped hierarchy creates a reasonable incentive system and internal promotions. Partly as a result, Disney theme parks experience a rank-and-file turnover that is only one-third that of rival theme parks.15 This gives Disney an important competitive advantage, even where compensation levels are similar.

15 Capodagli, Bill, and Lynn Jackson. The Disney Way: Harnessing the Management Secrets of Disney in Your Company. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

105 5.2 · HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM”

Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Radio Stations

Film and TV Production

Theme Parks

Few top managers, many middle managers

Mostly lowlevel staff

Classic Pyramid

..      Fig. 5.5  Disney Internal Labor Market Maps by Division

5.2.3

 he Use of Finance Theory T in Analyzing Compensation

One important question for fashioning a compensation system is how much of it should be performance-­ based. Many companies reward their managers if the firm does well. Often, the measure is the company’s stock price, which is a reflection of its profitability and reputation. In some cases, most of the top managers’ compensation is contingent. Is such a compensation system efficient? It all depends. In finance theory, as well as in the practice of stock analysis, the risk of financial securities can generally be decomposed into three components: overall market risk, industry specific risk and firmspecific risk. Market risks cannot be readily reduced. When the stock market and the overall economy are in general retreat or doing very well, there is little a firm can do about it one way or the other. It rides out the trends. In contrast, the other types of risk—industry and firm-specific risks—can be reduced through, e.g., diversification and effective management. The three components of volatility can be calculated. General market volatility can be measured from an index of stock mar-

ket performance (e.g. Standard & Poor’s 500). Industry volatility can be measured by an index of stock market performance by the peer group of companies in the same sector. And companyspecific volatility is then the remaining “residual” volatility. What is the implication for companies’ compensation systems? There is no point in rewarding or punishing employees for company performance that is significantly linked to the overall economy or of the industry, rather than to the performance of the firm itself. Where there are high levels of market risk, the effectiveness of variable rewards will be low. The award of stock or stock options would be costly to shareholders yet would not deliver strong incentives to managers. In contrast, where companies have high levels of firm-specific risk, stock or stock options would provide more effective incentives to employees. The performance of employees at these companies would then have a closer link to the rewards they receive.16

16 Nalbantian, Haig et al. Play to Your Strengths: Managing Your Company’s Internal Labor Markets for Lasting Competitive Advantage. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

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5.2.3.1  Case Discussion Was Disney CEO Michael Eisner’s Compensation Package Well-Designed? Standard financial software can decompose the price volatility of Disney shares and that of its peers/ competitors (. Fig. 5.6).17 Disney has a relatively low degree of firm-specific volatility, at 22%. Thus, Disney stock’s performance is heavily related to developments in the overall market and industry. Therefore, a strong bonus system for managers, based on stock performance, would reward (or punish) uncontrollable developments and, hence, be relatively ineffective as an incentive on managers to perform effectively. In contrast, Viacom at 35% and Time Warner at 31% have higher firm-specific volatility. Their bonus-based pay system would create stronger incentives. Yet, Disney gave CEO Michael Eisner a compensation package that was extraordinarily heavy  

more years, much of the compensation was a paper gain, and when Disney’s stock performed poorly in 1999 and 2001, Eisner received no bonus, except his base salary of $1 million. In 2000, he made $9.3 million in addition to stock options, but he experienced a paper loss of $266 million when Disney’s stock plummeted in 2001, along with the stock market. He bounced back in 2004 with a $7.3 million bonus and, in 2005, his last year at Disney, got a $9.1 million bonus, both on top of his $1 million base salary. Most of Eisner’s compensation was incentive pay (bonus and stock options). He benefited from rises in overall market and industry stocks. But Eisner’s compensation was over 90% in variable awards. This seems grossly sub-optimal for shareholders.

35% 30% 25% Vdatility

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on the incentives side. After becoming CEO of the Walt Disney Company, Eisner received a base salary of $750,000 a year, as well as stock options in the company. His contract was later adjusted to a $1 million base salary plus up to $19 million in bonuses based on the company’s share price and on growth in earnings beyond 7.5%. He also received stock options that had to be held for several years. Eisner earned a combined $234 million from 1991 to 1995, which averages out to $46.8 million per year. In 1998, his package hit an extraordinary $570 million, which were mostly due to gains in stock options resulting from an increase in share price since 1989. Yet, during this period, Disney stock barely outperformed the Standard & Poor’s index. Since the stock had to be held for several

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..      Fig. 5.6  The Composition of Risk of Disney and its Peers

17 Graph created from data by Yahoo Finance and Factiva. Last accessed on 7 February 7, 2008 at 7  http://finance.yahoo.com and 7  www.factiva. com.

17% CBS

35% 17% News Corp

Market volatility Industry volatility Firm specific volatility

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107 5.2 · HRM By the Numbers: “Hard HRM”

5.2.4

Salary Differentials

Studies of optimal employment compensation look at the effectiveness of fixed wages vs. commissions, and on the relationship between group incentives and individual rewards.18 They also look at the optimal differences in pay across the levels of a company’s hierarchy. How much more should people be paid as they move up in the hierarchy? Tournament Theory is a way to analyze a firm’s vertical gradient of compensation. Determining a firm’s compensation structure to achieve maximum incentive is much like setting the prize money for the players in a tennis tournament. If, say, the pot is being split up among the top 16, and the extra reward for winners is relatively low, the star players will not join, but more second-tier players will sign on, since they have a chance of taking home some of the prize money. But if the reward for winning is very high (“winner take all”), the participation incentives will be reduced and fewer second-rate players will join. A similar dynamic takes place in companies and industries. Tournament theory analyzes this gradient and the spread of rewards within an organization. That wage spread is typically designed to pay young employees less than they contribute in terms of their productivity, and pays senior employees more than their direct value added to the firm.19 . Figure 5.720 shows this wage/ age relationship. Workers are paid less than they are worth when young, but expect to be paid more later, after year T. One reason to overpay senior employees is not for superior performance while they are old but, rather, because this later high compensation was a motivation factor during their early years of their career. But this implicit deal has increasingly been broken by the firing of older employees once the value of their product is lower than  

18 Lazear, Edward P. Personnel Economics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995; Spence, A. Michael. “Job Market Signaling.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 87, no. 3 (August 1973): 355–374; Stiglitz, Joseph E. “Risk, Incentives and Insurance: The Pure Theory of Moral Hazard.” The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance 8 (1983): 4–33; Bartel, Ann P. “Productivity Gains from the Implementation of Employee Training Program.” Industrial Relations 33 (1994): 411–425; Ichniowski, Casey, Katherine Shaw, and Giovanna Prennushi. “The Effect of Human Resource Management Practices on Productivity.” American Economic Review 87 (June 1997): 291–313. 19 Lazear, Edward P. Personnel Economics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995. 20 Dessler, Gary. Human Resource Management, 12th ed. New York: Pearson, 2011, 200.

Salary & Productivity

Wage

Value contribution to Firm

V0 W0 0

T

Experience (years)

..      Fig. 5.7  Compensation of Employees Relative to Contribution

their compensation, i.e. after time T. This results in angry older employees who feel that a promise has been violated. But it also means a greater need to reward younger employees early in order to keep them as motivated as before, if they cannot expect to “cash in” later. This is an extra cost of firing older employees which rarely gets factored in when the firm decides to cut the higherpriced veterans. Yet, it must be included in the calculation. Firms in risky industries must offer a large spread of rewards in order to motivate employees. If the career risk is low in an industry—for example when employees are being promoted by seniority and are rarely fired—then the wage spread can be small. There is low risk and therefore no need for the incentive to compensate for the risk. But if the career risk is high, such as in a startup, one must create incentives for people to accept the risk either by a high general salary level which is more expensive for the firm in the short term, or by the promise of future high rewards upon promotion. Such a high career risk environment exists in media and digital startup firms, where one therefore finds a wide wage spread. On the other hand, large Japanese firms, which often used to operate in what was, for employees, the less risky environment of “lifetime employment,” could operate with a narrower wage spread than American firms.21

21 OECD. “Growing Unequal? Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries.” Directorate for Employment, Labour, and Social Affairs. October 21, 2008. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/45/57/41527303.pdf.

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A company’s reward structure does not only affect employees’ job motivation, it also affects who works for the firm. Rewards shape an organization over time. They reflect the values of the

organization and shape the employees’ choices. Rewards signal what the firm values. It attracts people with these values. “Over time, an organization becomes what it rewards.”22

5.2.4.1  Case Discussion Is Disney’s Compensation Structure Efficient?

5

We apply the tournament theory analysis to Disney’s compensation structure to see whether the company is setting the optimal wage spread. Disney’s compensation profile is presented in . Fig. 5.8, which shows the compensation for each level, starting with Level 1 (unskilled, minimum wage) and progressing to Level 10 (CEO). An example for a Level 9 senior executive was Tom Staggs, Disney’s Chief Financial Officer, who earned $1 million in salary, a $4 million bonus, $790,000 in stock options and $4 million in long-term incentive pay. Another senior Level 9 executive was Alan Braverman, Disney’s General Counsel, who earned $850,000 in salary, a $3 million bonus, $420,000 stock options and $4 million in long-term incentive pay.23 On average, Eisner received an overall compensation of $45 million, almost literally off the chart as depicted in . Fig. 5.8.24 The salary acceleration at Disney is relatively modest in the lower levels (1–7) where compensation is so low that it cannot be seen in the graph. But it then increases dramatically in Level 8 and above. The multiple between the compensation the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) received and other employees’ compensation was 714 times for entry-level blue-collar jobs (Level 2). How does Disney’s compensation compare with other firms? Disney’s non-executive pay scale  

 

is said to be 10–15% below the market for comparable work elsewhere. In Hollywood, annual compensation is generally not high for most job levels except for those at the top. Questions for Disney to consider: 55 Is this compensation profile excessively accelerating at the top? 55 Is the career risk at Disney so high as to make it necessary to incentivize through very high compensation at the top? 55 Could the Disney board have purchased the same performance from its chief executive for less incentive?

is whether the acceleration of compensation beyond a doubling of salary at each promotion is believed to generate an extra 17% in company profits. If it does not, the money is not well spent. If it has added only 10% to profits, that would be $120 million that year, and the ROI on that incentive (which cost Disney $188 million) would be:

The salary acceleration from one of the top four levels of executives to the next is about 600%, on average. A simple doubling in salary (100%) at each promotion, which seems generous, rather than the sixtupling would lower the salary cost by $188 million. So, the question is how much do these $188 million at the top buy for the firm in terms of extra productivity incentive for everyone (over the incentive of a mere doubling of compensation at each level)? Disney’s annual profits were approximately $1.2 billion in 2003. Its return on investment was about 9%. If we consider the extra salary cost of $188 million an investment, it would have to return (1+.09)$188 = $204 million to meet Disney’s normal level of ROI. This amounts to 17% of Disney’s overall profits. The question, then,

In other words, if Disney believes that the impact of the added compensation at the top beyond a doubling at each promotion generates 20% of higher profits, then the money is well spent. But it would also raise the question, why stop here? Why not accelerate salaries even more? A good question is why Disney’s top executives, to perform well, would need not just a doubling of salaries at each promotion, but much more than that in order to perform at their peak. Incentives of such magnitude may not be necessary since the reasons to perform highly are not just those of money but also of prestige, power and personal character. The people at the top tend to be type-A personalities who tend to be driven to perform at their personal best.

22 Nalbantian, Haig et al. Play to Your Strengths: Managing Your Company’s Internal Labor Markets for Lasting Competitive Advantage. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

120 - 188 = negative 188 But, if the impact of the extra incentive was 20% ($240 million), then the ROI would be: 240 - 188 = 27.6%. 188

23 Marr, Merissa. “Disney CEO Iger’s Bonus, Salary Total $17 Million.” Wall Street Journal. January 13, 2007. Last accessed April 20, 2017. 7  https:// www.wsj.com/articles/SB116864237874675613. 24 Rubis, Leon. “Disney Show & Tell: Disney Institute’s Four-Day Seminar on Human Resource Management.” HR Magazine, April 1998.

109 5.3 · HRM by Negotiation: “Tough Labor”

This, then, leaves us with another possible explanation for the high salaries: that they are at marketbased levels. Since other firms are willing to pay top executives at those levels, Disney must match these firms or lose top managers. The other

50000 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

firms must have also concluded that the huge salary accelerations are economically efficient for them. Because these numbers are much higher than in other countries, there would have to be a particularly high incentive effect on American top

managers. Because this is unlikely, one may have to resort to another potential explanation: that of institutional inefficiencies—specifically, that, in many major companies, top management, in effect, sets its own salaries.

$45,000

$8000 $12

$35

$55

$60

$65

$90

$150

$1200

f ) d, ) e e f r) ec af rft iv iv or or af ille e) ne Ex St ni ut k ni ut St rc s r i s m r c c e u a i j E s o n -t ll lla xe r& xe s( d ni s( ) U rt Co lla )E er rE Co Ju er an e (1 (pa 8 o o g ) ( g e r i u a t a e (7 e Bl eC en hi an an (Ig lu ag vl W )S M M B L ) O w 9 ) ) ( (4 ts (5 in CE (6 try af m 0) En Cr 1 ) ( ) (2 (3 ..      Fig. 5.8  Disney’s Compensation Profile (Wages in $000)

5.3  HRM by Negotiation:

“Tough Labor”

Thus far, we have discussed elements of the analytical, number-driven approach of hard HRM. We now move to a second dimension of managing media HR: that of dealing with employees collectively. 5.3.1

The Industrial Workforce

The industrial information sector workforce often involves manual labor working in a mass production or infrastructure setting. One example of this type of workforce is assembly line work in the IT sector. Labor unions are often active in these industries, such as ver.di in Germany, NWJ in

Japan, CWU in Australia and the UK, and CGTFAPT and F3C-CFDT in France. In the USA, there are three major industrial unions for the telecom, IT, TV and film industries: the Communications Workers of America (CWA), the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW) and the International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees (IATSE). The strength of unions has declined as the industrial economy has transitioned to a services-based economy. In America, unionization dropped from its peak in the 1940s of roughly 35% of the labor force to about 11% in 2017.25 For private sector non-agricultural employees, it was

25 Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Union Members Summary.” January 19, 2018. Last accessed May 7, 2018. 7  https://www.bls.gov/news.release/union2. nr0.htm

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not about half that, at 6.5% in 2017. In wired telecommunications, the figure is 17.1% (for other telecom such as mobile, it is 10.2%). For motion pictures, unionization stood at 10.1% and, for newspapers, 9.3%.26 The steady decline reflects the industry’s deregulation and the shrinking workforce at the heavily unionized traditional companies. Union membership in other industrial nations has decreased, too. In Japan, it fell from 55.9% in 1949 to 18.5% in 2010; in France, from 30% in the 1950s to 8% in 2014, even lower than in the USA. In the French private sector, the figure is 5% (and 14% in the public sector). In the UK, unionization stood at 26% and, in Germany, at 18%. However, unions are often the sole representatives of all employees, including non-members. In some countries, they sit on corporate boards and co-administer benefit plans.27 Studies show that unionization has a positive effect on salaries.28 In the USA, for example, unionized telephone operators earn almost double the wage of non-unionized workers. However, some of the difference reflects a better-quality workforce. Jobs with higher wages and more protections are usually more desirable and generate more applications, thus enabling employers to be more selective in terms of quality. Also, unions upgrade the skills of their members and often are a provider of training. But higher wages also lead to lower labor mobility. Of telecom company technicians, 80% have worked for more than ten years with the same firm. In contrast, the largely non-unionized IT industry experiences much greater labor mobility. 5.3.2

 he Crafts (Skilled) Media T Workforce

The second category of employee is the crafts workforce, which consists of skilled technical and artisan workers. Here, the history of labor unions

26 Hirsch, Barry T., and David A. Macpherson, “Union Membership and Coverage Database.” Unionstats.com. Last accessed on June 25, 2014. 7  http://www.unionstats.com. 27 The Economist. “Why French Trade Unions are So Strong.” March 17, 2014. Last accessed April 24, 2017. 7  http://www.economist.com/blogs/ economist-explains/2014/03/economist-explains-15. 28 Batt, Rose, Harry C. Katz, and Jeffrey H. Keefe. “The Strategic Initiatives of the CWA: Organizing, Politics, and Collective Bargaining.” Paper presented at symposium on Changing Employment Relations and New Institutions of Representation, Ithaca, New York, May 25–26, 1999.

has been stormy. One union activity has been to negotiate work rules, which can be onerous, and also fragment work tasks. This has affected labor costs in the film industry and contributed to “runaway productions,” where films move from Hollywood to Canada and other countries, or to less expensive US locations. In response, rules were relaxed so that independent producers could make low budget non-union movies and TV shows, as long as the studio had no creative control. Newspapers, too, have had a turbulent history of industrial union conflicts. Typesetters were once powerful and regarded as the aristocracy of labor. Eventually, the increase in automated typesetting without hot-metal composing threatened employment. As a result, strikes became frequent. An epic newspaper strike in New  York in 1962 shut down eight daily newspapers. After 114 days, the strike ended, but several newspapers never recovered and closed for good. 5.3.3

The Creative Workforce

The third category of employees in the media sector is that of the “creatives,” often known in the film industry as “above-the-line” (in the budget), as contrasted with the “below-the-line” crafts employees. Actor unions, often known as “guilds,” originated in nineteenth-century theater, often to assure the payment of salaries owed if a show closed down. Creatives’ unions also exist for film actors, dancers, musicians, journalists and others. The question is, why is there often such strong unionization in media crafts and among media creatives? There are at least five factors: oversupply, money, political leverage, stress and respect. Oversupply  The supply of aspiring artists is large and not particularly price sensitive to entry level pay. W.  B. Yeats once opened his address to his fellow poets’ Rhymers’ Club in London by saying: “The only thing certain about us is that we are too many.”29 The high level of competition for jobs in the creative sector depresses the average compensation. Many creatives are willing to work for free just

29 Giraldi, William. “Creative Destruction.” New Republic. February 4, 2015. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.newrepublic.com/ article/120932/scott-timberg-culture-clash-review-americas-creativedestruction.

111 5.3 · HRM by Negotiation: “Tough Labor”

for the experience, the opportunity to be noticed, to build a résumé, or to express themselves.30 As mentioned, American music schools each year graduate about 14,000 students with performance degrees. There is also a significant immigration of talent. But there are only 250–350 job openings a year in symphony orchestras. Live musicians are being replaced by recordings. One of the functions of unions is, therefore, to limit competition and to reduce access by newcomers. Money  Those on the inside with a union-pro-

tected job can expect fair returns. In 2010, the annual salary of the heavily unionized New  York Metropolitan Opera orchestra members was $110,869. In addition, orchestra members also receive compensation for rehearsals at an hourly rate of $80, averaging ten hours per week, can provide lessons to private students, and give their own performances. This level would be rare for nonunion creative jobs. Political Leverage  Beyond work conditions, labor

unions wield broader political power where they are affected financially and ideologically. In 2008, six unions representing 11,000 French TV network staffers and 4000 public radio station employees walked out in protest over President Sarkozy’s plan to ban advertising from public TV channels, which would cost these public channels over $1 billion per year in revenue. In 2006, over 1000 Korean film stars, production staffers and local artists rallied to protest the government’s change to the screen import quota system, which protects Korean movies from foreign competition.

Stress  The high level of stress in creative fields is due to several factors, including risk, long periods of unemployment and job search, intense competition, frequent rejection, an often short productive life as an artist (especially in film and dance), and long, irregular work hours.31 Respect  Unions help to reduce the perceived lack of respect from management (the “suits”), and to protect against favoritism, discrimination, and 30 Giraldi, William. “Creative Destruction.” New Republic. February 4, 2015. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.newrepublic.com/ article/120932/scott-timberg-culture-clash-review-americas-creativedestruction. 31 Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor. “Actors, Producers, and Directors.” Last modified March 2004. 7  http://www.bls.gov/oco/ ocos093.htm.

harassment. Writers have often penned biting exposés of the inner workings of Hollywood film studios. Examples include Budd Schulberg’s What Makes Sammy Run, F.  Scott Fitzgerald’s The Last Tycoon, Nathanael West’s The Day of the Locust and William Faulkner’s Golden Land.32 Unions are, in part, a response by those who feel more talented but less powerful than their management bosses. 5.3.4

Freelancers and Unions in the “New Economy”

The image of Silicon Valley culture is egalitarian and democratic, with employees offered ownership in the company and opportunities for advancement. Nevertheless, labor in dot-com companies began to organize.33 For employees, factors contributing to dissatisfaction include the perception that middle-aged workers are obsolete, disparity in rewards relative to top executives and low job security.34,35 The growing threat to the labor force in the “new economy” has been outsourcing and off-shoring. Software developers earn $60 per hour in the USA and $6 per hour in India, on average.36 There is also an immigration of talent. From 2001 to 2003 alone, about 180,000 new skilled workers entered the USA to join the field of computing.37 The Programmers Guild, a union, therefore attempts to limit foreign competition by resisting a variety of tech visas which would allow foreigners to work in the USA. High-tech unions, however, face considerable resistance. This push-back comes primarily from entrepreneurs who feel that the restrictions promoted by unions threatens the entrepreneurial essence of their companies.38 32 Epstein, Edward J. The Big Picture: The New Logic and Power of Hollywood. New York: Random House, 2005. 33 Greenhouse, Steven. “The First Unionization Vote by Dot-Com Workers is Set.” New York Times. January 9, 2001. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.nytimes.com/2001/01/09/business/technology-the-firstunionization-vote-by-dot-com-workers-is-set.html. 34 Batt, Rosemary et al. “Work Patterns and Workforce Policies for the New Media Industry.” EPI Book. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2001. 35 Fraser, Jill Andresky. White-Collar Sweatshop. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 2001, 140. 36 Farrell, Diana et al. “Offshoring – Is it a Win-Win Game?” McKinsey Global Institute. August 2003. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www. mckinsey.com/global-themes/employment-and-growth/offshoring-is-ita-win-win-game. 37 Francis, David R. “Endangered Species: US Programmers.” The Christian Science Monitor. October 14, 2004. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1014/p17s01-coop.html. 38 Girard, Kim. “Unions? Not in this Valley.” Fast Company. September 1, 2001. Last accessed June 16, 2010. 7  http://www.fastcompany.com/ magazine/74/unions.html.

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The second thrust of unionization is the issue of freelancers. More and more people work from home, or have become independent contractors. The trends move in the direction of independent contractors and freelancers, rather than traditional employees. This is known as the “Gig Economy.” Technology accelerates these trends. The number of people in the USA who used some form of telework in 2015 was 35 million (International Association for Telework). Another survey showed that about 58 million people (37% of the US workforce) telecommuted, the average being two days per month.39 In 2001, 20 million people worked at home as part of their primary job (National Bureau of Labor Statistics). Over 50% of those who worked at home were salaried workers taking work home unpaid; 30% were selfemployed. Freelancers incur substantial transaction costs. One study found that such employees spend only 49% of work time in new media on direct production. The remainder is spent on searching for new work and on client relations, i.e. on developing future employability.40 The status of freelancers inevitably led to legal and political disputes. Onethird of Microsoft’s workforce was, in the oxymoronic term, “permatemps.” This gave flexibility to Microsoft and other tech firms but led to high levels of employee insecurity.41 The primary concern of permatemps is that, despite often fair take-home pay, they lack benefits and job security. As their demands expanded, the Washington Alliance of Technical Workers (WashTech) began to unionize these white-collar tech workers. They also went to court. In the case of Vizcaino v. Microsoft, a court ruled that the workers Microsoft hired as “independent contractors” were actually de facto employees and were thus entitled to the same pension plans and other benefits.42 In response, some employers created access arrangements for health insurance. The Health and Welfare Fund in the film industry served as a model for p ­ roviding

39 Jones, Jeffrey M. “In U.S., Telecommuting for Work Climbs to 37%.” Gallup. August 19, 2015. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.gallup. com/poll/184649/telecommuting-work-climbs.aspx. 40 Batt, Rosemary et al. “Work Patterns and Workforce Policies for the New Media Industry.” EPI Book. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2001. 41 Pederson, April. “Should High-Tech White Collar Workers Unionize?” Speak Out. June 6, 2000. Last accessed March 25, 2004. 7  http:// speakout.com/activism/issue_briefs/1284b-1.html. 42 Muhl, Charles J. “What is an Employee? The Answer Depends on the Federal Law.” Monthly Labor Review 125, no. 1 (January 2002), 3–11.

benefits in project oriented industries such as software development.43 In 2013, taxi drivers in California and Massachusetts brought a class action lawsuit representing 385,000 drivers against the taxi services company Uber, alleging that they should be treated as employees and not as independent contractors. In 2016, Uber settled with the drivers, agreeing to pay $84 million along with working to create better rules and communication with drivers.44

5.3.5

Building Relationships with Unions

In an environment with significant union presence, it becomes an important management skill to deal constructively with unions. Companies need to build and maintain relationships with labor unions as an investment in good work relationships. These relationships do not form overnight and it takes a long time to establish the necessary credibility.45 This starts with understanding the other side. Union officials sincerely believe that they provide an invaluable service to their members, including higher wages, greater job security and due process protection against arbitrary decisions. Advice by other managers on how to build relations with unions includes: 55 People want their concerns to be heard and then addressed. 55 Stay in touch. Meet regularly with an employee representative to hear about problems. 55 Solicit advice. 55 Be available. 55 Stress partnership and common goals. 55 Be open to ideas and suggestions.46 43 Batt, Rosemary et al. “Work Patterns and Workforce Policies for the New Media Industry.” EPI Book. Washington, DC: Economic Policy Institute, 2001. 44 Isaac, Mike and Noam Scheiber. “Uber Settles Cases With Concessions, but Drivers Stay Freelancers.” New York Times. April 21, 2016. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/22/ technology/uber-settles-cases-with-concessions-but-drivers-stayfreelancers.html. 45 Ajalat, Peter B. “Union Organizing, Negotiations and Contract Administration: Perspectives of a Former Union-Lawyer Now Laboring for Management.” The Metropolitan Corporate Counsel. November 2004. 46 Haring, Bob. “How to Build Relationships with Labor Unions.” Houston Chronicle. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://smallbusiness.chron. com/build-relationships-labor-unions-43674.html.

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It is important to an employer’s success in negotiating with the representatives of employees to have established and maintained solid personal relationships with them. Such relationships take a long time to create. To be successful, negotiators on both sides should have clear objectives, have patience, be wellprepared with data, be fair, ignore rhetoric, be good listeners and be careful about details. They must understand the other side’s motivation, needs, personalities and priorities, and need for face saving. Management must carefully prepare the data on which to base its negotiations: data on pay and benefits, comparisons with local rates and also with rates paid for similar jobs within the industry.47 There may be a need to construct a financial model to compute the costs of various benefits and so on. If negotiations break down, an “industrial action” may take place, such as a strike, a work-­ by-­the-book, or a go-slow work. Employers can engage in a lockout, in which employees cannot work and are unpaid. Strikes are highly regulated through law. In most countries, essential services such as emergency communications are defined and excluded from industrial action. 5.4  HRM by Human Touch:

“Soft Control”

5.4.1  Soft Control

The classic HR approach, augmented by the methodologies of “hard HRM”, has been that HR management should be based on clear performance measures of employees. Such standards are based on formalized targets, and performance measurement, with rewards based on an analysis of the difference between the two. Increasingly, however, it is realized that formal procedures can have a cost in stifling creativity and energy, and that “soft controls” based on interpersonal relationships are often more effective in enhancing performance. “Soft” does not mean “unimportant” or “indulgent.” Examples of soft controls include:48 55 Setting tone at the top and leadership; 47 Citeman. “Management and Union Negotiations.” July 3, 2008. Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  http://www.citeman.com/3566-management-and-union-negotiations.html. 48 Roth, Jim. “Soft and Strong: A Best-practice Paradox.” Tone at the Top 50 (March 2011). Last accessed April 28, 2017. 7  https://global.theiia.org/ knowledge/public%20documents/tat_march_2011.pdf.

55 Empowerment of initiatives throughout the organization; 55 Ethical climate, shared values, and mutual trust up and down the hierarchy; 55 Sense of community, shared values and joint accomplishment; 55 Physical comfort, safety, respect; 55 Vertical and horizontal fairness in compensation and opportunities; 55 Personal growth opportunities.49 5.4.2

Managing and Motivating the Creative Workforce

“Creativity” may be described as a process in which expertise in a specific field is combined with unconventional thinking and results in new solutions, or in new questions. The task of an organization is to create the conditions for such creativity to flourish, within the imperatives of a large organization that is more bureaucratized than a startup. By suppressing creativity, one often loses the most valuable people of an organization. They are also the most mobile of employees. Similarly, technology “geeks” are resistant to leadership yet may be more in need of it than any other group of employees. Conversely, business managers often find geek values baffling. Conflicts arise in structured organizations where managers seek stability and control. To be an effective leader of geeks, power and authority are a less useful tool for moving a project than creating motivation (. Fig. 5.9).50 In consequence, the management of technical teams by people who understand geek values and patterns has become a specialty unto itself.  

5.4.3

Models of Motivation

There are three basic perspectives on stimulating employees, those of “extrinsic,” “intrinsic,” and “situational” motivation. A major approach to understanding motivation takes into account that a person’s motivation is not immutable but, rather, that it depends on circumstance. Motivational attitudes follow a

49 Hartmann R. C., F.G.H., and Sergeja Slapnicar. “Control Systems: “Hard” and “Soft” Management Controls.” MCA, no. 2 (March 2007): 26–31. 50 An updated version is Murphy, Chris. “2014 US IT Salary Survey” InformationWeek Reports May 2014, 54.

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100%

challenge flexibility

90%

stability 80%

base pay vacation

70%

5

opinions valued

60%

benefits 50%

technology

40%

job atmosphere casual attire

30%

training

20%

innovative work

10%

recognition contribute to success

0% ..      Fig. 5.9  What Matters Most to IT Technologists

“hierarchy of needs,” a concept popularized by Abraham Maslow.51 Human needs will never be fully satisfied, but they follow a hierarchy of priority. As each level of needs is fulfilled, a person moves up to the next level where needs (and motivation) will different than before and become more important than before (. Fig.  5.10).52,53 In Maslow’s hierarchy, each level corresponds to specific needs. Every person has all of these needs but in varying degrees of intensity and desire. As a lower level is filled, higher levels become more important. For creatives, attaining Level 5 (self-­actualization) is particularly important, but the needs of Levels 1 to 4 (food and shelter, security, group companionship, and esteem needs) must be fulfilled first. This hierarchy of needs serves as a framework in understanding how a firm can motivate its employees and generate a “soft” form of control.  

51 Maslow, at one point, postulated his perspective to be “TheoryZ”, but that term has been applied more to William Ouchi’s views on loyalty and the human workplace. 52 Cairncross, Frances. The Company of the Future: How the Communications Revolution is Changing Management. Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2002. 53 Graph based on https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html.

5.4.3.1  Level 1: Physical Comfort Needs

For their creatives, many effective companies provide “caring sweatshop” environments that may make work as attractive—or even more so— than their regular life, yet may also be relentlessly demanding, because creatives thrive on challenge. Job perks signify “caring” far beyond their organizational cost.54 Google provides all-you-can-eat snacks, a massage therapist, and doctors and dentists on site.55 Apple, Yahoo and Google have organic chefs and on-site masseuses.56 Employees get access to advanced equipment and resources. The workplace is made visually stimulating. The workspace can be physically organized to encourage collegiality. For example, the building of Pixar (subsequently a Disney subsidiary) was designed by then CEO Steve Jobs to maximize unplanned encounters.57 54 Florida, Richard. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002, 132. 55 Google. “Life at Google,” Last accessed June 16, 2010. 7  http://www. google.com/jobs/lifeatgoogle/benefits/. 56 BloombergBusinessWeek. “Zen and the Art of Corporate Productivity.” Bloomberg. July 28, 2003. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  https://www. bloomberg.com/news/articles/2003-07-27/zen-and-the-art-of-corporate-productivity. 57 Catmull, Ed. “How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity.” Harvard Business Review. September 2008. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  https://hbr. org/2008/09/how-pixar-fosters-collective-creativity.

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..      Fig. 5.10 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Selfactualization: Achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities

Self-fulfillment needs

Esteem needs: Prestige and feeling of accomplishment

Psychological needs

Belongingness and love needs: Intimate relationships, friends Safety needs: Security, safety

Basic needs

Physiological needs: Food, water, warmth, rest

5.4.3.2  Case Discussion Disney and Physical Comfort Needs Walt Disney was an early pioneer of the “caring sweatshop” concept back in the 1930s, when he built a new studio in Burbank, California, with an ambience that resembled a college campus. In contrast to virtually all larger companies, there were no set working times or punch-in clocks. There was a relaxed sick day policy in which employees would still receive full pay.58 Disney’s animators in the 1930s made $100–$125 per week, which was generous during the Depression, providing security and peace of mind to enhance creativity. Today, Disney’s headquarters and studios are equipped with many amenities including buffets, barbershops and gyms. There are many perks for Disney employees.59 Thus, on the whole, Disney has done a good job on physical comfort, Level 1 of the Maslow hierarchy of needs.

5.4.3.3  Level 2: Safety Needs

Once basic needs of shelter and sustenance are met, the next level on the hierarchy of needs is safety. Safety needs included several elements: job security, retirement security and the security of 58 Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006. 59 Rubis, Leon. “Disney Show & Tell.” HR Magazine 43, no. 5 (April 1998): 110.

fair treatment. The media and information sector (aside from traditional telecom) is not a good environment for job or retirement security; in fact, it is hard to think of an industry that offers less security. This is the major reason for the high unionization that was discussed earlier in the chapter. A fundamental element of security is fairness. Without fairness, an employee is subject to arbitrary treatment in the workplace and, hence, great insecurity. Fairness has many dimensions, among them an objective performance appraisal and non-discrimination.60 Creatives can lose their motivation if they feel they are being treated inequitably.61 Creative employees value an unprejudiced workplace treatment, and a compensation structure that is not lopsided. 5.4.3.4  Level 3: Social Needs

Humans are social animals and strongly seek to belong to a community. An important element of the “soft control” of creatives is to integrate them into teams with community spirit. One way to accomplish this is by creating an “us” vs. “them”

60 Glen, Paul. Leading Geeks. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003. 61 Ainsworth Maguire. “Managing Creative People.” Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://www.ainsmag.co.uk/pr-advice/managing-creativepeople/.

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identification in the workplace. This encourages competition against other companies, rather than against colleagues. In the telecom industry, morale is highest during peak periods of emergencies such as natural disasters, when the job is objectively at its most difficult. The feeling of service to others motivates people. Managers can spur motivation across groups by creating shared goals and common peer values. In such an effort, team cohesion helps productivity, but also lowers it when things go badly. In teams, individual performance cannot be easily observed, and only team output can be measured. This has its advantages: a strong incentive to cooperate, rather than compete, with one’s colleagues, which creates complementary skills, specialization and the encouragement of knowledge transfer. This is one of the strengths of startups. The disadvantages of teams are a weaker incentive structure, a free-rider effect, and a “group think” mentality which values “getting along.” Team members tend to monitor each other’s efforts informally in such a way that is often more effective than if done by an outside supervisor, while emphasizing mutual reliance and trustworthiness.62 The disadvantages of teams are a weaker incentive structure, a free-rider effect, and a “group think” mentality which values “getting along.” Methods of group motivation are the communication of a shared goal and a shared reward.

Top managers often view the creatives as having valuable ideas but lacking the broad perspective or the business imperatives. Therefore, they are typically not included in the company’s strategic discussions.63 Others try to include creatives in order to motivate them and create a community of interest. Creatives will be more motivated when they understand the big picture and the relationships between the firm’s short-term and long-­term objectives.64 However, including creatives in corporate management can also generate problems. For example, many newspaper companies have created “cross divisional teams,” task forces and committees, with reporters and editors joining circulation and advertising managers to produce marketing and other strategies. This broke the tradition of separating “church and state” —the supposed wall between the editorial and the publishing business sides of the operation. Since the mid-1980s, big newspaper chains such as Gannett in the USA have pushed for an “open newsroom” in which all departments, whether editorial or marketing, are expected to work together in producing and promoting the paper. This development created criticism from news staff of being pressured to report news content of less informational value but helpful to the newspaper’s advertising and marketing.

5.4.3.5  Case Discussion Disney—Promoting Community During the company’s earlier years, fostering a close-knit leading-edge group made everyone feel needed and was consciously used by Walt. As the company expanded, creatives felt more replaceable and team spirit declined. Disney lost the “us” identity that was so valuable during its beginning. To restore it, Disney tried various techniques, such as calling many of its employees “cast members.” But these efforts went only so far. “Us” became

the employees, not the company as a whole. “They” became top management, not the competitors. Disney did reasonably well in forging a community. But this community became directed against top management, which they viewed as interlopers into that community. A marked contrast is another animation studio. Pixar leapfrogged Disney in innovation and creativity. From its early days as a startup, Pixar worked hard to create a peer

62 Hartmann R. C., F.G.H. and Sergeja Slapnicar. “Control Systems: ‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ Management Controls.” MCA, no. 2 (March 2007): 26–31.

culture that encourages people to help each other produce their best work. For example, the daily animation work in progress is shown to the whole crew. This helps people get over any embarrassment about sharing unfinished work. It generates peer contributions and inspires all to do their best. To generate community, Pixar freed up communication among personnel, without their having to get permission or having to go through the “proper” channels.

63 Mumford, Michael. “Managing Creative People: Strategies and Tactics for Innovation.” Human Resource Management Review 10, no. 3 (September 2000): 313–351. 64 Glen, Paul. Leading Geeks. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003.

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These approaches worked for Pixar’s animation films, which reaped triumphs. Pixar recreated the spirit of Disney when that company had been a startup itself in the 1920s, full of team spirit, exploration and innovations.

But, by the early 2000s, Disney animation had become a shadow of its former self. Its full-length animation films, which had been its foundation for 50 years, mainly produced flops. Disney was far behind in computer animation.

5.4.3.6  Level 4: Esteem Needs

Creatives, more than most people, need the reassurance of positive feedback. It is inherent in the subjective nature of such work that its creators seek assurance that they are doing a good job. Recognition ideally comes from people who are familiar with the work, and can make objective and informed judgments.65 Working with and being recognized by talented peers are among the things that creative employees value most. Studies show that money does not necessarily increase creativity: 10–15% of employees innovate when recognition is monetary, such as through bonuses or increased salary, but 70–80% of employees innovate more actively in order to garner professional esteem, such as an award or a special title.66 Tools of peer recognition are award ceremonies and appropriate credit for notable work. The Oscars, Golden Globes, Grammies, Tonys, Pulitzers and numerous other awards are annual platforms to recognize creative excellence by peers. Encouragement is another motivational element of “soft control.” Creativity involves risk, so managers who stress consequences of failure inhibit creativity. Instead, managers should stress rewards for success.67 “Constraints” should be converted into “challenges.”68 Negativity is an enemy of creativity.

65 Florida, Richard. The Rise of the Creative Class. New York: Basic Books, 2002, 8. 66 Robinson, Alan. G., and Sam Stern. Corporate Creativity: How Innovation and Improvement Actually Happen. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 1997. 67 Reitz, Joseph H. Behavior in Organizations. 3rd ed. Homewood: Irwin Publishers, 1987. 68 Javitch, David. “Inspiring Creativity in Your Employees.” Entrepreneur. April 4, 2005. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  https://www.entrepreneur. com/article/76890.

But it still had deep pockets. It bought the successful upstart Pixar for $7.4 billion and, with it, acquired the creative and technical talent. In buying Pixar, Disney, to its credit, hoped to bring back the spirit of its own youth.

5.4.3.7  Case Discussion Disney’s Recognition System Disney awards over 20 service recognition rewards to its employees. Such awards include “Applauseo-Gram” cards for anyone who has done a good deed. There are “Thumbs Up” gift certificates for landscaping staff, “Golden Hanger” gift certificates and Department of the Month awards.69 Disney is also actively promoting its films, TV shows and artists for awards such as the Oscars or Emmys. Partly as a result, Disney has produced or distributed films that have garnered over 50 Academy Awards in the first decade of the 21st century, and over 150 TV Emmy awards. Altogether, then, Disney has done a good job of meeting its employees’ need for recognition and esteem.

5.4.3.8  Level 5: Self-Actualization

Needs

Self-actualization is the most defining level of needs for creatives. This has many dimensions. Creatives are motivated and inspired by the prospect of advancing their skill levels—getting better at what they do, achieving mastery, breaking out. Therefore, training, development and stimulating experiences are ways to motivate them. Companies thus must provide, beyond financial rewards, intrinsic rewards70 for personal growth.71 To increase intrinsic motivation, they must give employees responsibility, autonomy, and tasks that promote personal development.

69 The Disney Institute. Be Our Guest: Perfecting the Art of Customer Service. New York: Disney Editions, 2001. 70 Black, J. Stewart, and Richard M. Steers. Organizational Behavior. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1994, 218. 71 Bowen, Brayton. “Today’s Workforce Requires New Currency.” HR Magazine 49, no. 3 (March 2004): 101–105.

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It is useful for the firm to train individuals in organization-specific skills.72 The larger the employee’s investment in it, the more costly it is for them to leave, both for themselves and for the company which loses them. This fosters mutual loyalty. It should be noted that the approach of a company investing in its employees skills is not the only way to go. An entirely alternative organizational philosophy has been to leave up-skilling to an employee’s own initiative. Intel’s motto is “own your own employability.” Employees are individually responsible for improving their work skills after receiving periodic reports detailing the status of the firm and changes to skill requirements.73 Another element of self-actualization is job “sculpting,” which involves, as much as possible, shaping jobs around employees’ skills and interests. Workers are allotted more freedom to pursue personal achievements in the industry.74 Newspapers often employ job sculpting when they allow their journalists to expand and compile stories into a book, which generates visibility (and income). 5.4.3.9  Case Discussion Disney Training and Development “Disney University” was one of the first structured corporate learning facilities and continues to be one of the largest in the world. Beyond the job training program, it also aims to preserve Disney’s business culture.75 Disney also runs a Human Resource Certificate Institute (HRCI), a program designed for its HR professionals.76 A Disney University is established at each of Disney’s theme park locations, providing diverse training in skills, including management protocol, cooking techniques and computer proficiency.77 Training is flexible and extensive. Disney provides the option of taking self-paced courses in

72 Luthans, Fred, and Carolyn M. Youssef. “Investing in People for Competitive Advantage.” Organizational Dynamics 33, no. 2 (May 2004), 143–160. 73 Pasternack, Bruce, and Albert Viscio. The Centerless Corporation. New York: Simon & Shuster, 1998, 67. 74 Butler, Timothy, and James Waldroop. “Job Sculpting: The Art of Retaining Your Best People.” Harvard Business Review, September–October 1999. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  https://hbr.org/1999/09/ job-sculpting-the-art-of-retaining-your-best-people. 75 Clarke, Thomas and Antoine Hermens. “Corporate Developments and Strategic Alliances in e-Learning.” Education + Training 43, no. 4 (2001): 265. 76 Disney Institute. “Accredited Programs.” Last accessed June 10, 2010. 7  http://www.disneyinstitute.com/About_US/Accredited_Programs. aspx. 77 Paton, Scott M. “Service Quality, Disney Style.” Quality Digest. January 1, 1997. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://www.qualitydigest.com/ jan97/disney.html.

a variety of subjects so that employees are able to study at their own convenience. Disney also pays for employees’ college courses through an educational reimbursement plan. Other activities are Disney’s mobile training units, which enable employees to receive computer training at their work site, and training via satellite, where management courses are offered from top business schools to supervisors and managers.

5.4.3.10  Corporate Culture

The pre-industrial firm reflected the personality of its leader. The industrial firm, once mature, was impersonal but had distinct characteristics. This character was “hardwired” into the organization and was hard to change or even control. There was much homogenization. IBM expected its employees to wear white shirts. Corporate America in the 1950s was populated by men in quintessential gray flannel suits. Japanese firms had their cadres of dark-­suited “salarymen.” But corporate culture goes far beyond dress code. The corporate culture of a firm affects how new information is interpreted. One study looked at why two very similarly situated American telecom companies reached radically different business decisions regarding the cellular telephone. US West decided not to enter the market at all, while BellSouth entered it enthusiastically. The key explanations were found not in information but in the culture. US West was focused on generating short-term results, and thus considered the investment-intensive cellular telephony a poor prospect. On the other hand, BellSouth’s culture was one of infrastructure and public service, and it took a long-term perspective. It thus viewed mobile service as a c­omplement to its wireline business.78 US West’s decision to skip mobile communications turned out to be a disastrous decision. For more than a century, telecom organizations operated with a culture shaped by engineering and civil service value systems and operations: clear and specified procedures; clear

78 Barnett, William P., and Robert A. Burgelman. “Evolutionary Perspectives on Strategy.” Strategic Management Journal 17, no. S1 (Summer 1996): 5–19.

119 5.4 · HRM by Human Touch: “Soft Control”

lines of responsibility; long planning horizon; job security; politicized decision making; a public service orientation; a national and social perspective; risk avoidance; and a management that rose slowly inside the organization, having adapted to its values. In America, those that shared the dominant telecom culture were known as the “Bellheads.” The Internet culture, in contrast, draws from other wellsprings: entrepreneurialism, individualism, risk taking, rapid product cycles, uncertainty and informality. By analogy, its adherents were sometimes known as “Netheads.”79 This corporate culture conditions members to respond to certain situations with a certain set of behaviors. This has some efficiency benefits. Members of the team share these values and assumptions, and are hence much easier and faster to work with, and can be reliably sent off to represent the organization. At its widest reach, business culture may vary by country; William Ouchi, in his book Theory Z (1981),80 demonstrated how American culture places a high value on individual achievement, whereas Japanese culture stresses a sense of community. Inculcating new employees with the values of the organization helps to integrate them. All new hires at the telecom company Verizon must take an orientation program. The program includes computer training, guest speakers, benefits and corporate culture education. For entry-level managers, there are also formal leadership or management development programs that last one year, or longer. The Verizon orientation program includes three “tours.” An online virtual tour that includes information such as the code of conduct and benefits; a team tour that helps new employees become comfortable with peers and bosses; and a classroom lecture that highlights company history, mission and values. Corporate culture is much slower to change than organizational structure, top leadership, or strategy. All of those can be changed rapidly

79 Noam, Eli. “The Impact of Accelerating Knowledge on the Business Firm.” In Antonio Pilati and Antonio Perrucci. Eds. Economia della conoscenza: profili teorici ed. evidenze empiriche. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2005. 80 Heck, Ronald H., and George A. Marcoulides. “Organizational Culture and Performance: Proposing and Testing a Model.” Organization Science 4, no. 2 (May 1993): 209–225.

by decision. But the collective values of organization and the way its people operate change much more slowly, because they are the aggregate of behaviors and routines acquired over the organization’s lifetime. Corporate “re-education campaigns” are usually either doomed to failure, or produce hypocrisy and obstructionism. It takes major incentives to make employees change the patterns they were told to follow in the past. Culture conflicts are especially difficult when companies merge. An amalgamated new common culture may emerge or be dictated, but it may not be satisfactory to either partner. For example, a style combining Internet and telecom may be stressful to both parts of the organization and unsuccessful in serving their markets.81 Within a corporate culture, companies must evolve. As with individuals, they must learn and adapt. The idea of the firm as a learning organization became popular with Peter Senge’s 1990 book The Fifth Discipline. Senge argues that the firm is an organism and that change is not simply a matter of retooling. Organizational learning theorists take their cue from studies in biology and mathematics of so-called self-organizing systems. They believe that the firm is self-organizing at all levels and that it is a living organism that cannot be controlled by top-down directives.82 The president of the animation firm Pixar describes his company’s culture thus: “We think and we share some basic beliefs: lasting relationships matter, talent is rare. Management’s job is not to prevent risk but to build the capability to recover when failures occur. It must be safe to tell the truth.”83 These are inspiring words. Many companies articulate equally nice principles. For creatives, a congruence of word and deed is essential. When corporate culture says one thing but management behavior goes another way, trouble follows.

81 Noam, Eli. “The Impact of Accelerating Knowledge on the Business Firm.” In Antonio Pilati and Antonio Perrucci. Eds. Economia della conoscenza: profili teorici ed. evidenze empiriche. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2005. 82 Noam, Eli. “The Impact of Accelerating Knowledge on the Business Firm.” In Antonio Pilati and Antonio Perrucci. Eds. Economia della conoscenza: profili teorici ed evidenze empiriche. Bologna: Il Mulino, 2005. 83 Catmull, Ed. “How Pixar Fosters Collective Creativity.” Harvard Business Review. September 2008. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  https://hbr. org/2008/09/how-pixar-fosters-collective-creativity.

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5.4.3.11  Case Discussion Disney Cultural Dissonance

5

In conclusion, then, Disney did a good HRM job on three levels of the Maslow hierarchy of needs: those of physical comfort, esteem and self-­actualization. Where Disney failed was in a perception of fairness—an integral part of the need for security—and a lack of an understanding of the need for community. This generated Disney’s main HR problem: an internal dissonance in its corporate culture, which led to an internal “us” vs. “them” climate. Disney’s corporate culture was shaped by Walt Disney and his early animation team. Walt Disney followed a “soft” management style centered on making creatives comfortable and appreciated. The tradition of taking care of the creatives was kept alive

by Walt’s nephew Roy E. Disney. As the Disney Company grew in the 1980s, management became increasingly rigid. Disney’s official culture, emphasizes creativity and family, was at odds with the reality of managing a global corporation responsive to investors. In 2004, dissatisfied employees voted overwhelmingly against management. They wanted to restore Disney’s traditions. This movement was led and encouraged by Roy E. Disney which lent legitimacy to their rebellion. They opposed a pay hierarchy that had become excessively unequal beyond its incentive needs. They felt no identification with the goals of the leadership because they perceived that leadership to act in its own self-

5.5  Employment in the Digital

Economy

We end this chapter by looking at the overall impacts of the digital economy on employment, because it is important to understand the big picture. For many years, people have believed and hoped that the Internet—and, more generally, the digital economy—would replace and enhance industrial jobs. This was important to developed countries, as their traditional manufacturing activities were either being automated, or were migrating to developing or emerging countries. It was also important as a way to find a productive space for younger generations who moved from the blue-collar jobs of their parents to knowledge-­ based occupations where they could utilize society’s investment in their higher level of education. Such jobs were also believed to reduce class division and inequality. The conventional story is one of great success. The Internet is supposed to have caused up to 21% 84 Ford, Robert C., Frank S. McLaughlin, and John W. Newstrom. “Questions and Answers about Fun at Work.” Human Resource Planning 26, no. 4 (2003): 18.

interest. Whereas Walt Disney had spoken in inspirational terms: “You don’t work for a dollar—you work to create and have fun,”84 now the company Chief Operations Officer Jeffrey Katzenberg proclaimed: “I’m not interested in Academy Awards, but in ‘Bank of America’ Awards!” Disney’s employees did not see themselves as rebels but as the restorers of a proud tradition. To them, CEO Eisner and his financial performance-­driven style and strategy were the usurpers. The questions, then, are how does Disney reconcile its financial objectives with its culture? How can the company modify its corporate ­culture for the twenty-first century? Could it? Should it?

of GDP growth in five years in mature countries.85 In the USA, the Internet economy has reportedly created 1.2 million jobs directly.86,87 There were also new types of jobs spawned by various applications. A study found that each Internet job supports approximately 1.54 additional jobs elsewhere in the economy.88 In France, too, the Internet has supposedly created 1.2 million jobs directly. But what kinds of jobs? In the USA, most of them were in e-commerce, not in anything really creative but, mostly, in order fulfillment, i.e. packaging and shipping, as well as the delivery of physical goods such as through trucking, accounting for more than 500,000 of the 1.2 million jobs.

85 Du Rausas, Matthieu Pélissié et al. “Internet matters: The Net’s sweeping impact on growth, jobs, and prosperity.” McKinsey Global Institute. May 2011. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://www.mckinsey.com/ industries/high-tech/our-insights/internet-matters. 86 Thibodeau, Patrick. “Study: Internet economy has created 1.2M jobs.” Computerworld. June 10, 2009. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http:// www.computerworld.com/article/2525229/internet/study--interneteconomy-has-create-1-2m-jobs.html. 87 Quelch, John. “Quantifying the Economic Impact of the Internet.” HBS Working Knowledge. August 17, 2009. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/6268.html. 88 Quelch, John. “Quantifying the Economic Impact of the Internet.” HBS Working Knowledge. August 17, 2009. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/6268.html.

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Internet service providers generated 181,000 jobs. Creative jobs were, in particular, in content-related employment (estimated at 60,000) and in software as a service (31,500).89 These modest numbers are in contrast to the sometimes breathless hype. But one must also consider the downsides. In the USA, industrial blue-collar jobs disappeared at the rate of 350,000 industrial jobs each year after 2000. (There is also the multiplier effect of jobs, about 1.6 per industrial worker and 2.5 per skilled industrial worker.) Of course, many of these jobs would have disappeared anyway, but more slowly. Transition time is important. People need time to adjust, retrain and relocate. The Internet has accelerated the outmigration of jobs. Following the blue-collar jobs, the “pink collar” jobs in retailing and clerical staff began to shrink as retailing moved online. Similarly, service support jobs such as telemarketing or editorial work have been moving offshore. Levels of middle management have been cut as ICT made supervision and information exchange easier, thus reducing the need for intermediate levels of management. Retailing is not the only service industry to be squeezed. A short list of some of the major industries affected by the Internet90 includes newspapers, travel agencies, stock brokers, and universities. Thus, we can observe not only a de-­ industrialization but also a “de-servicization.” The problem is not just the loss of traditional employment at a pace that is hard to counteract by digital employment, but that the losses are distributed unequally. In the United States, Europe and Japan, half the jobs lost during the Great Recession were in industries that pay middle-class wages. But most jobs gained since then have been in low-pay industries, or in professional jobs that pay well.91,92 Many middle-level jobs are easier to automatize with smart software programs, or

89 Thibodeau, Patrick. “Study: Internet economy has created 1.2M jobs.” Computerworld. June 10, 2009. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http:// www.computerworld.com/article/2525229/internet/study--interneteconomy-has-create-1-2m-jobs.html. 90 Briefing Investor. “Industries Destroyed by the Internet – A Reflection.” July 26, 2012. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://www.briefing.com/ investor/our-view/ahead-of-the-curve/industries-destroyed-by-theinternet--a-reflection.htm. 91 Condon, Bernard, and Paul Wiseman. “Millions of Middle-Class Jobs Killed by Machines in Great Recession’s Wake.” Huffington Post. Last updated January 23, 2013. 7  http://www.huffingtonpost. com/2013/01/23/middle-class-jobs-machines_n_2532639.html. 92 Condon, Bernard, and Paul Wiseman. “Millions of Middle-Class Jobs Killed by Machines in Great Recession’s Wake.” Huffington Post. Last updated January 23, 2013. 7  http://www.huffingtonpost. com/2013/01/23/middle-class-jobs-machines_n_2532639.html.

to outsource and offshore, than low-level jobs. One can automatize travel agents and bank tellers, but it is harder to do it for road construction or cleaning crews. This “hollowing out” of the middle-­class workforce will continue. This creates a bottleneck: menial jobs at the bottom, professional jobs at the top, and a weakening in the middle. It means that the job mobility from lower to middle class, which had been the historic route to individual progress, is becoming more difficult. Is the creative sector going to be the substitute for all of those industrial and service sector jobs that are being lost? This claim, often heard, is unrealistic if one looks at the numbers. In America, including the multiplier effects, seven million industrial and clerical jobs have been lost in the period 2008–2017.93 In contrast, the total number of people with jobs in journalism, books, TV, film, theater and music is less than one million.94 So, if creative jobs alone should be the compensation, one would have to expand that sector by a factor of 7. Demand for the output will not grow as fast. Plus, many more people produce content as volunteers, not as a job. The globalization of media means that every other country’s content is also available and, by the same logic, is also expanding. Managers and entrepreneurs in the digital economy create value and wealth, but are also part of “creative destruction” and disruption. They must understand the environment in order to function in it. Every time there is a technology shift, there are doubts and fears. Throughout history, technology has been a net job creator.95 But that did not help those that were dislocated. In the Industrial Revolution, which proceeded at a much slower pace, millions of Europeans ended up destitute and had to migrate to sprawling city slums or to distant shores. Social and political revolutions and upheavals abounded. Now, the pace of dislocation is even faster.

93 Kurtzleben, Danielle. “Report: America Lost 2.7 Million Jobs to China in 10 Years.” US News & World Report. August 24, 2012. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2012/08/24/ report-america-lost-27-million-jobs-to-china-in-10-years. 94 Bureau of Labor Statistics, US Department of Labor. “Occupational Outlook Handbook: Reporters, Correspondents, and Broadcast News Analysts.” December 17, 2015. Last accessed April 30, 2017. 7  http:// www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/reporters-correspondents-and-broadcast-news-analysts.htm. 95 Smith, Aaron, and Janna Anderson. “AI, Robotics, and the Future of Jobs.” Pew Research Center. August 6, 2014. 7  http://www.pewinternet. org/2014/08/06/future-of-jobs/.

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5.6  Conclusion and Outlook

5

Why is it important to understand the HRM of media companies? Creative workers have a distinctive set of individualistic work styles, meritocratic values and unconventional social behaviors that pose unique challenges to a company’s HRM. Management guru Peter Drucker noted, “Knowledge workers and their skills may well be a firm’s main asset and can, unlike manual workers in manufacturing, own the means of production: they carry that knowledge in their heads and can therefore take it with them.” The long-­term survival of firms in the future depends on creating and replenishing those creative resources.96 Managers must be able to handle creative talent, or at least handle the handlers of talent. Managers of creatives need to consider both the creative and profit aspects of the firm. They must balance their need for operational control with assuring creative freedom.97 The most successful companies will be those where management provides equal attention and respect to both the “suits” and the “pony tails.” They must maintain hard HRM and “soft control” simultaneously. 5.7  Review Materials

Issues Covered We have covered the following issues in this chapter: 55 How the focus of HRM has changed; 55 How HRM is organized in a company; 55 How the importance of creativity influences HRM in the media, information and digital industry; 55 How to analyze intra-company labor flows; 55 How to shape the optimal organizational hierarchy; 55 What implications finance theory has for companies’ compensation systems;

96 Lampel, Josh et al. “Cultural Industries: Learning from Evolving Organizational Practices.” Organizational Science 11, no. 3 (June 2000): 263–269. 97 The Economist. “Special Report: How to Manage a Dream Factory – The Entertainment Industry.” January 16, 2003. Last accessed April 24, 2017. 7  http://www.economist.com/node/1534766.

55 How the power of unions shifted; 55 What factors define the creative workforce; 55 How the increase in freelancing affects labor relations; 55 What the special HR factors are for middle managers and freelancers; 55 How soft control based on interpersonal relationships can be more effective; 55 What the explanations are for employee unionization in media industries; 55 How firms can leverage motivation theory to motivate their employees; 55 What the significance of corporate culture is; 55 What the impact of the digital economy is on employment.

Tools Covered We used these tools to address HRM issues: 55 Rate of return on investment in human capital; 55 Productivity measurement; 55 HRIS; 55 Hiring of risky employees; 55 Outsourcing/offshoring; 55 Internal labor market analysis; 55 Organizational pyramids; 55 Fixed vs. variable pay; 55 Optimal compensation gradient; 55 Incentive scheme design and promotion; 55 Union negotiations; 55 Elements of soft control; 55 Leading and motivating geeks.

5.7.1

Questions for Discussion

??   1. How do producers assess how much to compensate a star or superstar for their services? ??   2. Discuss whether the typical compensation structure utilized in the film and telecom industry is an effective method to promote productivity and creativity. ??   3. Are individuals motivated by their enthusiasm for their craft and profession

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rather than by hope for financial gain more valuable to the overall success of a media company than those seeking mostly money and power? ??   4. What is the reason for strong unionization in many media industries? Should one expect similar trends in new creative industries such as games development? ??   5. How can a TV network company measure return on investments in human capital, such as a training program in respect for diversity? ??   6. How should an e-commerce company determine its compensation mix of fixed salary and contingent compensation? What factors should the company consider? ??   7. Discuss where the creative workforce is going. Will it continue to keep growing, or will it peak and decline, as agricultural or industrial workers have in the past? ??   8. How should a startup proceed in motivating its employees? ??   9. How can a firm use the concepts of tournament theory to design a compensation gradient for the firm’s employees? ?? 10. Discuss how a company could use an internal labor market map to improve its performance.

5.7.2

Quiz

??   1. What is the best way to judge a creative’s output? 1. Comments from senior creatives; 2. Comments from his/her peers; 3. Number of usable product ideas created. A. 1 and 3. B. 2 and 3. C. 2 only. D. All of the above.

??   2. What is the most cost-effective/best way of increasing a firm’s creativity? A. Hire outside talent. B. Train current employees. C. Redesign organizational the ­environment. ??   3. According to studies, to have a project team maximize its total creative output, how many people should usually be in it? A. 20. B. 5. C. 10. ??   4. Which best describes the actor compensation practices used in Hollywood right now? A. Producers and studios often end up paying stars way more than they are actually worth. B. Studios and producers end up paying actors much less than they are actually worth. C. Producers and studios pay a pretty accurate amount to actors—giving them about as much as their presence in a film adds to its value. ??   5. A company’s internal labor market map is broadly pyramid shaped. What can we conclude from this? A. This firm prefers to build rather than buy its workforce talent. B. The firm likes to buy rather than develop its workforce talent. C. It is difficult to reach any significant conclusion from this bit of ­information. ??   6. Of Company X’s employees, 80% are at or below hierarchy Level 5 out of a possible seven levels. The company tends to hire Level 6 and 7 employees from outside the firm. What kind of employee turnover can this company expect at Levels 5 and below? A. High: employees see they are not likely to be promoted past Level 5. B. Low: employees see that, although they will not reach upper management, they have very high job ­stability. C. Average.

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??   7. When a company hires aggressively in tight labor markets, what does it run the risk of doing? A. Undervaluing its current employees by underpaying. B. Attracting top talent to work for it, only to have them leave after a short time. C. Not providing incentive for employees to perform at their capability level. D. All of the above. ??   8. Company ABC has been calculated to have 20% market risk, 35% industry risk, and 45% firm-specific risk. For this company, would it be wise to base employee compensation on stock options? A. No. B. Yes. C. More information required. D. No possible answer. ??   9. Which of the following is not a direct reason for unionization in crafts and among media creatives? A. Scarcity of talent. B. Oversupply of talent. C. Stress. D. Need for respect. ?? 10. What are factors for the low unionization in high tech startups? A. Founder-centric culture. B. Subjective pay practices. C. High turnover. D. Egalitarian culture of managers and employees. ?? 11. How should managers design a company’s wage spread when it faces a riskier environment? A. The wage spread should be smaller. B. The wage spread should stay the same. C. The wage spread should be larger. D. The wage spread should be indexed to the inflation rate.

?? 12. What main effect does the firing of older employees have, besides causing anger in these employees? A. Rewards for young employees should be lowered. B. Need to better reward younger employees. C. Younger employees are not affected. D. Younger employees want to stay with the company. ?? 13. When should a manager hire Person A over Person B even though A’s expected NPV for the first year is lower? A. When the upside potential for A is higher than for B. B. When A is more experienced than B. C. When B is younger than A. D. When A has better personal relations with the management. ?? 14. What level of Maslow’s hierarchy is the most defining one for creative ­employees? A. Esteem needs. B. Safety needs. C. Social needs. D. Self-actualization. ?? 15. What is not a reason for difficulties in measuring productivity for black-collar creative jobs? A. Outputs are hard to define and measure. B. Differences in quality. C. Production is difficult to measure. D. Non-homogeneous products. ?? 16. Why is it difficult to manage geeks? A. They are judgmental about the company’s strategy. B. Their values are peer driven rather than hierarchy driven. C. Geeks are structured and do not need guidance. D. They can be energized by actions.

125 5.7 · Review Materials

?? 17. Which of the following statements about labor unions is incorrect? A. Strongly unionized industries experience great labor mobility. B. Unionization has a positive effect on compensation. C. Unions often upgrade the skills of their members. D. The membership of unions has declined as the industrial economy is transitioning to a services-based economy. ?? 18. Why is there often such a strong unionization in media crafts and among media creatives? A. Oversupply. B. Money. C. Political leverage. D. Stress. E. Declining rate of newcomers. F. Need for respect.

?? 19. Which of the following statements about motivation & needs is incorrect? A. Motivational attitudes follow a hierarchy of needs. B. Motivation depends on ­circumstance. C. Humans are social animals and strongly seek to belong to a community. D. Psychological needs precede safety needs. ?? 20. Which of the following elements do not describe the Internet culture? A. Clear lines of responsibility. B. Individualism. C. Rapid product cycles. D. Uncertainty. E. Entrepreneurialism.

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Quiz Answers

vv 11. C

vv  1. D

vv 12. B

vv  2. C

vv 13. A

vv  3. C

vv 14. D

vv  4. A

vv 15. C

vv  5. A

vv 16. B

vv  6. A

vv 17. A

vv  7. D

vv 18. E

vv  8. B

vv 19. D

vv  9. A

vv 20. A

vv 10. D

127

Financing Media, Information, and Communications 6.1 Introduction – 129 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4

T he Finance Function in Companies – 129 B  asic Factors in the Finance of Media and Communications – 129 Case Discussion – 130 An Overview of Funding Sources – 130

6.2 Internal Funding – 130 6.2.1

Case Discussion – 132

6.3 Debt Financing – 133 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5

Pros and Cons of Debt – 133 T he Hierarchy of Debt – 133 Case Discussion – 134 Short-Term Debt – 134 L ong-Term Debt – 134

6.4 Other Types of Debt – 135 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5

 endor and Buyer Financing – 135 V L ease Finance – 137 G  overnment Financing – 137 Private Grant Financing – 138 The Impact of Debt Financing on Content – 139

6.5 Risk Reduction Strategies – 139 6.5.1 6.5.2

 isk Reduction Strategy: Diversification – 139 R Risk Reduction Strategy: Hedging – 140

6.6 Equity Financing – 140 6.6.1

Types of Equity Arrangements – 140

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_6

6

6.7 The Ownership of Media and Communications Companies – 151 6.7.1 6.7.2 6.7.3

I ndividual and Family Ownership of Media – 151 Institutional Investors – 151 Governmental Ownership – 153

6.8 Capital Structure – 153 6.8.1 6.8.2

 ptimal Capital Structure – 154 O The Lifecycle of Capital Structure – 157

6.9 Outlook – 158 6.10 Review Materials – 158 6.10.1 6.10.2

 uestions for Discussion – 159 Q Quiz – 160



Q  uiz Answers – 163

129 6.1 · Introduction

6.1

Introduction

In this chapter, we discuss how media and information sector firms can fund their activities. We will review financing alternatives, and see how they are applied in media and the technology ­sectors. We will also consider how the various funding types affect 55 The structure of companies and industries; 55 Content and innovation; 55 Companies’ activities. 6.1.1  The Finance Function

in Companies

Within a company, the finance function is usually managed by the Chief Financial Officer (CFO). Reporting to the CFO are typically a treasurer and a controller (. Fig. 6.1). The controller handles the accounting function. This includes taxes, cost/financial accounting and information systems. The treasurer handles cash flows, implements capital expenditure decisions and makes financial plans. The CFO is in overall charge of raising the funds to carry out business operations, and the amount, source and type of financing. The CFO also conducts financial analyses of the firm’s performance. The CFO takes responsibility for the company’s primary financial statements—the balance sheet, the income statement and the statement of cash flows. Publicly traded companies are required to issue financial statements periodically, and also to disclose major ownership changes and any insider transactions. In the USA, after the year 2000 the legal responsibility of CFOs was significantly increased following several financial scandals—in particular, the collapse of the energy and commodities company Enron.  

CEO

CFO

Controller

One important question is whether the different ways in which media firms are financed also affect the type of content that is produced and distributed by them, and the nature of innovation. What would finance theory suggest about the impact of different financing types? In 1958, the finance professors Merton Miller and Franco Modigliani—both subsequent Nobel Prize winners—postulated a theorem that has become a major concept in the field. According to Miller and Modigliani, the value of firms is unaffected by their funding choices, such as debt, equity or private investment. The value of a company is based on its performance, not on funding types. The conduct and behavior of a firm are aimed at maximizing value, and are independent of its funding. Applied to a media and communications firm, this would mean that its production or marketing decisions would not be affected by its funding sources or styles. Miller and Modigliani’s conclusion is based on several unrealistic assumptions.1 But is the basic point plausible—that content and innovation are independent of a media organization’s financings? We will keep returning to that question.

6.1.2  Basic Factors in the Finance

of Media and Communications

The high fixed costs of many media and communications projects often force media companies to make large early investments far ahead of the collection of revenues. To bridge that gap they must often borrow large amounts. Investment needs in media products, platforms and devices are high, and keep increasing. The cost of full residential fiber-connection of the USA would be about $500 billion. Similarly, a broadband wireless infrastructure that would cover most of the population is estimated to require an investment of about $100 billion per network company to achieve nationwide coverage, and about $500 billion in total for the entire mobile industry. Similarly, the production of premium media content is often expensive. It often requires over

Treasurer

..      Fig. 6.1  Corporate Organizational Chart

1

These include an efficient financial market, no taxes, symmetric information and no bankruptcy costs.

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Chapter 6 · Financing Media, Information, and Communications

$100 million to make and market a Hollywood movie.2 Films are perishable, with a short window of revenue generation, yet delayed in the collection of revenues. In network television, the average production cost for a prime time network show rose from $200,000 in 1971 to $1 million in 1991, $1.9 million in 2008, and $3 million in 2017. The average pre-opening ­budget for a musical on Broadway was $10 million and, for a play, about $4 million. Even “Off-Broadway” theater required $2 million for a commercial and $300,0003, 4 for a non-profit production. (These figures were about two to three times higher than they had been in 2002.)

On top of this, investments are highly risky. Of all films, books and music, 80% do not generate a sufficient audience to become profitable. Most new commercial online sites fail to make money. Two-thirds of new magazines fail in the first year. The distribution of success is extremely skewed. Successful payoff is very high for a few products and low or negative for the rest. Risk is also increased by the long lag between a project’s inception and its transformation into a revenue stream, as well as the excess supply of products relative to demand, and due to price deflation toward low marginal costs.

6.1.3  Case Discussion The Funding of a New Venture: Time Warner Versus Startup Entrant—A Hypothetical Case The company Time Warner Media, acquired in 2018 by AT&T, is looking into the possibility of starting a new Internet television project. It is named Time Warner Internet Television (TWIT). The capital costs of the TWIT project will be $1 billion. The company must ask itself whether this is a worthwhile investment. Also, how is the company going to fund it? Even if it has enough cash on hand, this does

not mean that it should spend it on the new project, just as a family buying a home will, in most cases, not fully deplete its liquid assets and, instead, take a mortgage. TWIT must consider, at the very least, how its actions will affect its profitability, share price and debt repayment burden, and how much control it is willing to give up. An alternate (and entirely hypothetical) entrant contemplat-

6.1.4  An Overview of Funding

Sources

We will now look at how the different sources of financing are used by media and how they affect them. What, generally, are the funding sources for a business? They are, in particular: 55 The creator/entrepreneur personally; 55 Family and friends;

2

3

4

A typical theatrical film in Europe cost €11 million to produce. European Commission. “New European film strategy aims to boost cultural diversity and competitiveness in digital era.” May 15, 2014. Last accessed May 16, 2017. 7  http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-560_en.htm. Janeway, Michael, and András Szántó. Eds. Wonderful Town: The Future of Theater in New York. New York: National Arts Journalism Program, Columbia University, 2002. Rubino-Finn, Olivia. “Broadway Budgets 101: Breaking Down the Production Budget.” New Musical Theatre. January 22, 2016. Last accessed May 16, 2017. 7  http://newmusicaltheatre.com/greenroom/2016/01/broadway-budgets-101-breaking-down-the-productionbudget/.

ing a foray into Internet TV is a company called Startup NewGeneration Internet Television (SNIT). SNIT’s founders have estimated its initial capital costs to be $100 million, one-tenth of the better established TWIT, and with the same proportions for the major components of the project as are projected for TWIT.

55 Retained earnings of the company; 55 Banks and other lenders; 55 Private investors; 55 Vendors and buyers; 55 Institutional investors (mutual and pension funds, insurance companies, PE funds, etc.); 55 Governments. Within each category, there are multiple varieties. Often, a mix of several funding sources will be put together as a package.

6.2

Internal Funding

The first and most obvious source of funding is the company itself, or the owners and entrepreneurs who start it, as well as their family members and friends. Why not go to the bank for a loan instead? Because new businesses initially lack just about

131 6.2 · Internal Funding

everything that a bank looks for in assessing and reducing risk: a record as an operating entity, audited financial statements, assets that can be used as collateral, a repayment history, or traded securities that are continuously evaluated in the market. This makes it difficult to obtain debt financing in the early stages of a businesses. The alternative for a startup is self-­financing. Friends and family will often play an important role. When Bill Gates started Microsoft with Paul Allen, his well-to-do parents contributed money to the fledgling firm. When seeking help from friends and family, one must be mindful of several problems.5 55 It puts pressure on the relationship and often changes its nature. An entrepreneur who brings in friends as investors must be prepared to lose them when things go wrong. 55 It affects the entrepreneur’s peace of mind. It is one thing to default on a bank loan, and another to burn through grandma’s retirement nest egg. 55 Family members and friends often feel free to meddle in the running of the business and it is hard to maintain an arms-length relationship. 55 There has to be a clear exit strategy for such investors/friends. 55 It deters outside investment. The presence of active family insiders can dissuade professional investors from participating. On the other end of the spectrum of business size, internal funding can also make sense for very large firms. The resources come from past capital injections, or from earnings which were not returned to shareholders as dividends but were, rather, retained for new investments.6 Some firms have accumulated vast reserves and can fund virtually every prospect on their own. This is not always positive. When companies use their own cash, rather than distribute it to shareholders as

dividends, they may make their stock less attractive. Also, there may be a less stringent assessment of internally funded projects, at times based on internal corporate politics, in contrast to the scrutiny that would be applied by a more detached outsider reviewing the project. That having been said, internal financing by large companies has several advantages: 55 Funding may be immediately available. 55 Transaction costs are lower relative to the issuance of securities. 55 No supervision and review by banks. 55 Less disclosure of financial details that could benefit competitors. 55 A better informed evaluation of the project and its risk. Well-established firms will often use a mix of internal and external financing: small projects are funded internally, but large ones externally. Thus, over the life cycle of a firm, internal funding is most likely to be used in the early stages of startups, but also in the mature stages of well-­ established firms operating in steady state.7 It would be a mistake to view self-financing as “free.” Internal funding has an opportunity cost to a company or individuals and a very real cost to shareholders. Profit that is re-invested is money that could have been paid out as a dividend to stockholders. In the words of the investment guru Warren Buffett, “earnings should [only] be retained when there is a reasonable prospect  – backed ­preferably by historical evidence or, when appropriate, by thoughtful analysis of the future – that for every dollar retained by the corporation, at least $1 of market value will be created for owners.”8 There are various ways to estimate the cost of self-funding. For established firms, the finance literature typically uses a “bond-yield-plus-­ premium” approach. It takes the interest rate of a company’s long-term debt and adds a risk premium for the project.

Cost of Retained Earnings = Firm’s Long Term Bond Yield + Risk Premium

5

6

Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234. Stevenson, Howard H., Michael J. Roberts, and Harold I. Grousbeck. New Business Ventures and the Entrepreneur. Homewood, IL: Irwin, Inc., 1985, 190–199.

6

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8

Berger, Allen N., and Gregory F. Udell. “The Economics of Small Business Finance: The Roles of Private Equity and Debt Markets in the Financial Growth Cycle.” Journal of Banking and Finance 22, nos. 6–8 (1998): 613–673. Buffet, Warren E., and Lawrence A. Cunningham. The Essays of Warren: Lessons for Corporate America. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2015.

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For a startup company, too, there is an opportunity cost for self-financing. Its calculation is more complex since, as a new company, it has not yet established a long-term debt interest rate and thus one cannot use the “bond-risk-plus- premium” approach of the equation above to estimate the cost of capital. Instead, one looks at a “benchmark” use for these funds, which would be to invest them in a project of comparable riskiness to the prospect at hand. This is done through the “capital asset pricing model” (CAPM) approach, in which the estimated cost of capital is estimated as9:

6

ra = rf + b a ( rm - rf ) 55 ra = Estimated cost of capital; 55 rf = Risk free rate of interest; 55 βa = “Beta”: the volatility of the specific industry vs. the volatility of the stock market as a whole; 55 rm = Expected rate of return for a similar firm. The CAPM approach has three basic steps. First, one estimates the risk free rate (rf ) on an investment with “zero risk”. Typically used is the rate of US Government Bonds. The 12-month US Treasury Bond rate average since 2000 has been about 2.75%.10 Second, one determines the expected rate of return for similar firms (rm). For startups,

the comparison would be with “small cap” stocks, i.e. of moderately-sized firms. Since the 1980s, the average yearly return for small cap firm has been 13.8%.11 The last step is to estimate the company’s riskiness, as expressed in its “beta” (βa). Beta is an important element in many analyses of stocks and can be calculated from the stock market price fluctuations of a stock in comparison with overall market fluctuations. When one does not know a firm’s specific price volatility because the company’s stock is not traded in a stock exchange and has no reported prices, one can estimate it by using average betas of similar firms in similar industries. For example, the average beta for the “Internet Sector”,12 based on 180 firms, is 1.11. Self-financing has an impact on content and innovation. On the one hand, creators and entrepreneurs, since their personal money is on the line, may actually take less risk than a corporate manager whose owners are diffuse and distant, especially when it comes to large projects that could wipe them out financially. But this is usually more than offset by the impact of independence, and the prospects of an upside financial and reputational gain. With self-financing, the owner is in control. Content produced and distributed may reflect the owner’s own opinions and aesthetics. In technology, owners can take greater risks in backing projects in which only they have faith. This encourages greater innovation.

6.2.1  Case Discussion Internal Funding Time Warner Media could use retained earnings as a funding source for TWIT. What will be the cost and the availability? Though there are no interest payments associated with using retained earnings, there is still the opportunity cost of the money.

As shown, for established firms the opportunity cost of capital is given by13: Cost of Retained Earnings = Firm¢s Long Term Bond Yield + Risk Premium

Investopedia. “CFA Level 1 – Cost of Retained Earnings.” Investopedia. 2012. Last accessed May 16, 2017. 7  http://www.investopedia.com/ exam-guide/cfa-level-1/corporate-finance/cost-of-retained-earnings.asp 10 Mortgage-X. “Mortgage (ARM) Indexes.” 2012. Last accessed July 18, 2012. 7  http://mortgage-x.com/general/arm_index_average.asp. 11 AXA. “Good Things May Come In Small Packages: Small-Cap Stocks.” 2013. Last accessed May 16, 2017. 7  http://www.axa-equitable.com/ investments/small-cap-stocks.html. 9

We will see in later sections that the interest rate on the company’s long-term debt is 6.9%. The risk premiums for media firms run in the 2–5% range,14 and, since Time Warner is well-established with a good credit rating, its risk premium would be at the lower end of the

12 Damodaran, Aswath. “Betas by Sector.” New York University Stern School of Business. January 2012. Last accessed July 18, 2012. 7  http://pages. stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/New_Home_Page/datafile/Betas.html. 13 Brigham, Eugene F., Dilip K. Shome, and Steve R. Vinson. “The Risk Premium Approach to Measuring a Utility’s Cost of Equity.” Financial Management 14, no. 1 (Spring 1985): 33–45. 14 Investopedia. “CFA Level 1 – Cost of Retained Earnings.” Investopedia. 2012. Last accessed May 16, 2017. 7  http://www.investopedia.com/ exam-guide/cfa-level-1/corporate-finance/cost-of-retained-earnings.asp.

133 6.3 · Debt Financing

range. The cost of retained earnings can thus be estimated as 6.9% + 2% = 8.9%. Expressed in terms of the average US prime rate of the preceding five years (5.45%), it would be 3.45% above that rate. SNIT Each of the three founders of SNIT has a total of $11 million of his

6.3

own money and loans from friends and family to invest. The CAPM equation estimates the cost of SNIT’s internal funding: ra = rf + b a ( rm - rf ) .



55 The risk free rate r f = 2.75%. 55 The return for Internet firms has been rm =13.8, and their beta has been βa = 1.11.

Debt Financing

6.3.1  Pros and Cons of Debt

Other than internal funding, debt is usually the cheapest form of financing. Debt is typically money borrowed from an outside source such as a bank or other type of lender, with the promise to return the principal (the original amount borrowed) and, in addition, pay an agreed level of interest, either regularly or at the end. There are several advantages to debt. It is: 55 Quicker to create than equity. 55 Does not change the existing ownership structure. 55 Allows for interest payments to be deducted from taxes. 55 Keeps the upside potential of the project with shareholders. But there are disadvantages to debt. 55 Loans must be repaid in a timely manner and can lead to the bankruptcy of even a good project if it is caught in a cash flow squeeze. 55 The borrowers may have personal liability with their assets. 55 Assets pledged as collateral may be lost. 55 There is a hidden cost to debt as it makes the company more risky for investments. A bank will scrutinize a company’s business plan, management, financial reports and the other financial backers, and will set conditions on how the company must operate. These “debt covenants”

Thus SNIT’s estimated cost of capital is: ra = 2.75 + 1.11 (13.8 - 2.75 ) = 15.02 Expressed in terms of the average US prime rate, this would be 5.45% (the average prime rate over five years) plus 9.57%.

give lending institutions control and prevent borrowers from increasing riskiness. 6.3.2  The Hierarchy of Debt

Debt comes in many forms, with some more secure than others. A “hierarchy of debt” ranks it from the most secure to least secure. In the event of bankruptcy, the most secure debt is paid first and the least secure debt last, which often means never. Most mid-sized firms have arranged for a bank debt “Line of Credit” (LOC) or “Letter of Credit”, or “Credit Security.” An LOC is an agreement in which the lender gives the borrower access to a certain level of funds. This is on condition that the borrower’s condition has not suffered material adverse change, or that the borrower has violated a covenant in the contract. In a way, it is like an overdraft privilege for personal checking accounts with a ceiling. The second most common form of bank financing for small and mid-sized companies is senior term debt. These loans are made against fixed assets that are fairly liquid, such as real property, plant and equipment (e.g. cable TV financing). A “senior” lender ranks ahead of some other creditors in the event of liquidation, and can seek repayment from the forced sale of the secured assets. Such loans will usually not be provided for a new venture. “Subordinated” or non-collateralized debt ranks below senior debt in repayment when there is a bankruptcy. It can be secured by a second lien on company assets (like a second mortgage on a house), or be unsecured.

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6.3.3  Case Discussion Line of Credit

6

T WIT Viable loan programs available to TWIT include a commercial bank loan (term loan) and a ­revolving line of credit (LOC) secured by the full faith and credit of its parent company. Such borrowings are charged an interest rate that is determined on the basis of Time Warner’s senior debt rating (BBB+ at the time).

SNIT In contrast, startup company SNIT has no, or only limited, access to bank loans or credit lines due to its small size, lack of assets and lack of a historical track record. What interest rate would conceivably compensate a bank for the risk? Assume that the founders themselves have found limited sources for a loan.15 The loan amounts and the interest charged are based on the credit scores of the founders, their income streams,

6.3.4  Short-Term Debt 6.3.4.1  Commercial Paper

A major way for established companies to raise money for short periods is “commercial paper” (CP). CP is an unsecured loan taken by a company with a repayment period (“maturity”) of up to 270 days, but with an average of about 30 days. CP interest is paid at the maturity date. The companies borrow money from financial institutions and issue CPs as promises to repay. These promises, in turn, are resold by the lenders to other investors at a discount. CP is bought by banks, insurance companies, the money market and pension funds, and other institutional investors. It is typically “issued” (i.e. money is being borrowed) by companies with good financial standing, because they are unsecured by assets and thus stand on the reputation of the borrowing company. It is often said they are the kind of loans made to companies that do not really need them, except for the purpose of smoothing their income. CP buyers (the lenders), in turn, do not need to do much in the way of “due diligence” to investigate the borrower because those firms are low-risk.

15 Credit Guru Inc. “Setting Credit Limits.” 2012. Last accessed May 17, 2017. 7  http://www.creditguru.com/CreditLimits.htm. 16 Marlon, Sharon. “Unsecured Personal Loans on the Increase.” MarketProSecure. March 14, 2011. Last accessed July 18, 2012. 7  http:// www.marketprosecure.com/personal-finance-news/unsecuredpersonal-loans-on-the-increase-198.html.

6.3.4.2

and the personal assets that can be pledged as collateral. Assume that SNIT’s five founders have found a lender willing to issue them an LOC in an amount equal to 20% of their net worth. Each of the founders has an impeccable credit score, a private home, an ongoing relationship with the lending bank and an average net worth of $1 million. The cumulative line of credit amount would therefore be $1 million. The rate of interest on the LOC would be 15%.16

Case Discussion

Commercial Paper Debt TWIT One major debt option for TWIT is unsecured CP backed by its well-established parent company. Generally speaking, a long-term project such as TWIT should be financed through long-term means, rather than using a short-term approach.17 But the CP could be used as a temporary financing vehicle. SNIT SNIT, as a newcomer, would not be able to issue CPs. To enter the CP market, it would require sponsorship from a commercial bank or third party to guarantee payment. But, in SNIT’s circumstances, this would be unlikely.

6.3.5  Long-Term Debt 6.3.5.1  Corporate Bonds

Once a firm is well-established its next stage of financing is to access long-term corporate debt. The typical form of such debt is bonds. When such debt is traded in open financial markets it 17 The ceiling on Tier 2 issues is usually around $6–8 billion. Example: The Walt Disney Company had a substantial $4.5 billion in outstanding Tier 2 CP debt in 2004. By 2010, this had declined to $794 million. Tier 3 CP debt is usually rated in the mid-BBB level. It has an interest rate well above LIBOR and smaller issues of $200–300 million. See also Kacperczyk, Marcin, and Philipp Schnabl. “When Safe Proved Risky: Commercial Paper During The Financial Crisis of 2007–2009.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 24, no. 1 (Winter 2010): 29–50.

135 6.4 · Other Types of Debt

is known as “public” debt, which should not be ­confused with governmental debt. The standard length to maturity of a corporate long-term bond is 3–30 years. However, some bonds have a 100-­ year maturity date, or even go on forever. Long-term debt is most appropriate for companies with steady cash flows or strong growth prospects. Examples are companies in cable TV, direct broadcast satellite (DBS), wireless and telecom. Companies issuing bonds are evaluated by rating agencies in terms of their credit level based on business and financial analysis. Three firms lead the credit rating market in the USA: Moody’s, Standard & Poor’s and Fitch. Rating agencies look at both quantitative and qualitative 6.3.5.2

factors when analyzing bond issuers. Bonds with an acceptably low risk of default are rated BBB and higher. These bonds are considered “investment grade.” Bonds with a rating of BB or lower have a higher risk of default and are considered speculative grade, “high yield” or, colloquially, “junk bonds.” Junk bonds are issued by “rising stars” (new companies). In other cases, it may be a solid company that borrows heavily to finance an acquisition. In still other cases, the company borrows to pay for its own acquisition by others (“leveraged buyout”). The default rates of junk bonds are, on average, approximately 3–4% of all issues, but much higher during downturns in the economy.

Case Discussion

Long-Term Debt—Corporate Bonds TWIT Corporate bonds require steady cash flows and a strong proven performance. Time Warner had these characteristics. It could issue corporate debt through a process called “underwriting,” with one or more securities firms or banks forming a syndicate and buying the entire issuance of bonds (i.e. they lend the company the money). The banking syndicate would then re-sell much of that debt to investors at a higher price and, hence, at a lower yield. Based on the company’s corporate credit rating of BBB, it would have to pay an annual interest rate of about 6.9%18 on ten-year corporate bonds. It could finance TWIT’s entire $1 billion budget through corporate bonds, but there are other

variables that effect its funding decisions, so it may limit the use of corporate long-term debt. In 2010, Time Warner’s debt-to-capital ratio was 33.3%.19 The company made major efforts to lower its debt in an effort to boost its stock price and lower the cost of borrowing. It does not want to overload again with debt but, rather, to apply its debt financing ratio ceiling of 33.3% to the $1 billion needed to fund TWIT. This would put a ceiling on its new borrowing. SNIT In order for SNIT to issue corporate bonds to the public bond market, it needs to be rated by the major rating agencies to satisfy investors. SNIT, as a startup, would not attain

Other Types of Debt

a decent rating, if any at all. A SNIT borrowing would be considered a high-risk “non-investment grade” bond. It would receive a rating as a corporate “junk bond” rating of CCC, CC, or C.20 It would probably hold a CC rating (“obligations which are highly speculative or which have a high risk of default). This rating is associated with a steep cost of 30% interest before tax. We assume, hypothetically, that SNIT could find private investors who are willing to buy these highly speculative bonds directly through a private placement offering. This translates to the five-year average prime rate of 5.45% plus 24.55%. Even after tax deductibility, the cost would be at 21%, and hence not desirable for SNIT.

Quite frequently, one of the partners in a transaction grants credit to the other in order to conclude a deal. It is usually the seller who extends such

financing to the buyers. For example, a computer manufacturer may entice an animation production company to select its computers for its render farm. In other cases, it is the buyer who lends money to the producer, such as when a film studio or a TV network provides financing for a film which they will later distribute.

18 Besley, Scott, and Eugen F. Brigham. Principles of Finance. Independence, KY: Cengage Learning, 2009. 19 Martin, Laura, and Dan Medina. Time Warner Inc. (TWX): An Investment Analysis. New York: Needham & Company, LLC, 2010.

20 Fitch IBCA. “Credit Ratings.” June–November 2006. Last accessed July 19, 2012. 7  http://www.tgbr.com/tgbr/cont/Credit_Ratings.pdf.

6.4

6.4.1  Vendor and Buyer Financing

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Often, vendor credit is used as a sales tool and can then be cheap, with sellers extending longterm credit or other favorable terms to clinch a sale. They often have advantages over financial institutions in extending such credit, as they have better private information about the business and the buyer. They may also be able to use leverage in terms of withholding future supplies, and they may be better positioned to repossess or resell collateral.21 Vendor financing (or its sibling, buyer financing) has existed for film and theater for a long time under various names. In film production, vendor/buyer financing includes funding (or loan guarantees) from studio distributors, theatrical distributors and others. The quid pro quo of a pre-sale financing deal is usually the licensing of the film’s rights to a media d ­ istributor within a specific territory, or technical platform, or both. Photo laboratories, too, used to provide credit in order to enable the production of a film that would generate a large print order later. The classic film financing deal is a studio production-­finance-distribution PFD) deal. The distributor (the studio), as the buyer, agrees to lend to the producer part of the cost of production, i.e. to finance it. Producers will often use the studio’s facilities, for which the production budget will be charged; this will be repaid when box office revenues start rolling in. Here, the studio is the “seller” of production services. The studio also manages the distribution to exhibition channels. These expenses are charged to and paid for by the film’s budget, with interest for the loan.22 One alternative to such vendor (distributor) financing is a straight purchase contract. This is known in the film business as a “negative pickup deal” in which the distributor pays for a completed film, rather than by funding the production process itself. (“Negative” refers

21 Berger, Allen N., and Gregory F. Udell. “The Economics of Small Business Finance: The Roles of Private Equity and Debt Markets in the Financial Growth Cycle.” Journal of Banking and Finance 22, nos. 6–8 (1998): 613–673. 22 Caves, Richard E. Creative Industries: Contracts between Art and Commerce. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000.

to the photographic negative, not to a quality assessment). A “negative pickup” letter is a commitment to purchase or license film distribution rights post-production. The independent producer/borrower uses the pickup commitment letter by the distributor studio as collateral in order to borrow production funds from a bank. The producer gets more independence in creating the film, without having to worry about distribution while making the movie. The studio distributor, on their part, has no financial exposure if the producer fails to finish the film, or if it runs over budget. 6.4.1.1

 he Impact of Vendor T Financing on Content

Arranging advance financing favors established producers with experience, contracts and a proven track record. The selective availability of financing by distributors give these distributors significant influence over content, with the advantage going to established projects over truly independent producers. Distributors generally retain “final cut” rights—i.e. control over editing— for most of the films they finance. This allows them an opportunity for drastic changes to a film in order to make the film more commercially successful, which typically means happy endings, less ambiguity and less controversy. Studio financing can also come with strict procedures. Sometimes, studios demand cast approvals, script change approvals and daily screenings. With studio financing, the studio usually owns the negative and can exploit the film’s future in new media. With independently financed films, filmmakers tend to retain ­ownership. Vendor financing of media and digital activities is most developed in the film sector, perhaps because its funding requirements are the largest among content media. It is also used, to some extent, for video games, music and book publishing (when printing companies extend credit to small publishers). In the tech sector it is used for hardware. A computer firm, for example, can finance the developer of an advanced semiconductor chip in return for an early delivery of this technology.

137 6.4 · Other Types of Debt

6.4.1.2

Case Discussion

Vendor Financing TWIT For TWIT’s tech hardware, vendors could contribute financing in order to boost sales for their firms. An established company could expect vendor financing at an interest rate of about 7.0%.23 But TWIT’s vendor financing would be limited for hardware upgrades to its network infrastructure. It will be hard to presell TWIT’s interactive video content because the product is new and unproven for buyers. SNIT SNIT would have some access to vendor financing for its hardware purchases. Beyond the 30-day vendor credit, vendors would typically charge startups such as SNIT 10–15% interest. SNIT’s initial hardware acquisitions are estimated to be $30 million. Hardware vendors may finance half of this amount ($15 million).

6.4.2  Lease Finance

Using leaseback arrangements as a source of financing has become a popular vehicle. It is typically done when, instead of purchasing an asset, a company enters into a long-term lease with the seller. Such leasing frees cash for other purposes. It reduces the debt on a company’s balance sheet and enables the firm to take on debt for other purposes. On the consumer level, such a leasing arrangement is popular for automobiles. And, of course, anyone who rents an apartment, rather than buys it, is involved in a lease transaction. In the United States, “equipment under lease” accounts for nearly one-third of the annual overall new equipment investment.24 For the seller, leases can be used as a tool to improve sales. They can also serve as an arbitrage of the credit risk. A seller may have a better credit

23 Nevitt, Peter K., and Frank J. Fabozzi. Equipment Leasing, 4th ed. New Hope, PA: Frank J. Fabozzi Associates, 2000; Mitcham Industries, Inc., Form 10-K, April 6, 2011. Last accessed May 17, 2017. 7  http://www. faqs.org/sec-filings/110406/MITCHAM-INDUSTRIES-INC_10-K/. 24 Sharpe, Steven A., and Hien H. Nguyen. “Capital Market Imperfections and the Incentive to Lease.” Journal of Financial Economics 39, nos. 2–3 (1995): 271–294.

standing than the potential buyer/ lessee and thus pay a lower interest rate. Participants can transfer risk to the corporations that can not only better handle that risk, but also handle it inexpensively. These deals can also transfer tax benefits among companies, from the highly tax-burdened to the lightly taxed. 6.4.3  Government Financing

Governments around the world are important sources for the financing of media and information technology. This help is typically extended through direct grants, tax benefits and loan guarantees. Indirect financing support can be given through protectionism and favorable regulatory policy that make a project more profitable by enabling a company to charge higher prices. Film is particularly favored as a recipient of cultural subsidies. (This has been discussed in 7 Chap. 3 Production Management in Media and Information). The European Union’s Commission supports films to the tune of €1.6 billion per year. In France, the Centre Nationale de la Cinematographie (CNC) spends over $100 million per year financing films. France also offers tax incentives for the film industry and its investors.25 In the United States, too, there is a wellestablished system of government finance of media and high tech. On the federal level, this is done through a variety of agencies and programs, such as those of the Small Business Administration, the National Telecommunications & Information Administration (NTIA), the National Endowment for the Arts, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) and others. Tax benefits are frequently offered by state and  

25 These tax shelters allow investors to write off 40% or more of their investments against their taxes, subject to the upper limit of 25% of taxable income and subsequently capped at €18,000. If such an entity, known as a SOFICA, uses 10% of its investment capital to acquire shares of production companies, then this deduction increases to 43%. Production companies may immediately write off 50% of the amount invested. Another major support mechanism is the quasi-monopoly status of the pay-TV provider Canal+, whose high consumer prices generate revenues that must be partly used for domestic film support.

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local governments. Louisiana gives 15% in state tax credits that are transferable (i.e. can be sold to third parties), plus a 20% tax credit on wages paid to Louisiana residents. By 2005, the amount spent on production in Louisiana had risen to $425 million, with the state providing $65 million in tax credits. Film is not the only industry favored in this way. Generally, entrepreneurial high tech is desirable as a clean and knowledge-­intensive sector with a high multiplier. Many states and countries have support programs.

6

6.4.3.1

Impact of Government Financing on Media and Tech Firms

The aim of governmental support programs is partly economic, partly cultural. Where the private sector funding for media content underserves significant groups or tastes, the public sector may generate additional money to create such content. Where financing comes from governmental organizations, it will often come with strings attached. A film financed in Portugal may require scenes in that country, which could be a clumsy fit. In other cases, a country’s heritage must be treated with respect. For assisting the film Ghandi, the Indian government mandated script changes and other modifications.26 When it comes to tax advantages, given the various approvals and greenlights from agencies across multiple countries that need to be assembled, it would be difficult for a small artsy film to create complex funding packages. A German investor tax shelter consortium, for example, would probably not be interested in a low-budget film. The high transaction and legal costs of such a highly involved deal would consume the profits and tax advantages from a leaseback agreement.27

26 Grenier, Richard. The Gandhi Nobody Knows. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983. 27 Epstein, Edward Jay. “How to Finance a Hollywood Blockbuster” Slate. April 25, 2005. 7  http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/the_hollywood_ economist/2005/04/how_to_finance_a_hollywood_blockbuster.html.

6.4.3.2

Case Discussion

Government Financing TWIT Government funding is an option even for a large company. Time Warner Media could receive state and local support in the form of subsidies for loans with an interest cost of around 2% below the prime rate for equipment and in-state software development. There will also often be tax credits against its state and local taxes. The government programs typically have a ceiling, often $10 million, and a subsidized interest rate of 2% below market rate. The funding often comes with locational requirements, which may raise some of TWIT’s operational costs. SNIT SNIT, too, could secure state and local grant subsidies of about 10% of the costs for tech equipment and infrastructure costs, in the form of low-interest loans. Another alternative is for SNIT to apply for a Small Business Administration loan guarantee. But, for a startup with an unproven track record, such a guarantee will be difficult to secure.

6.4.4  Private Grant Financing

In some countries, in particular in the USA, direct government spending on cultural activities has been relatively low but tax laws provide incentives for private grants and contributions. In the USA, 57% of the income of public broadcasting comes from private sources including as foundations and donations. Corporate and individual funding to the arts exceed US federal funding considerably, and about 40% of private individual giving is paid for indirectly by the tax savings, i.e. is a “tax expenditure.”28 However, corporate and private donations are not a stable source of financing, since they decline in a business downturn. Also, corporations tend to use their funding as a way to enhance their national and local image and visibility, and as a way to network more effectively with high-level personalities. These underlying objectives make the contributions less likely to be a force for major 28 Americans for the Arts. “Average Source of Revenue for Nonprofit Arts Organizations (Estimated).” Last accessed July 20, 2012. 7  http://artsusa. org/pdf/get_involved/advocacy/research/2008/revsources08.pdf.

6

139 6.5 · Risk Reduction Strategies

cultural innovation.29 Other factors that affect corporate giving are a company’s relationship to the community, the culture of philanthropy prevailing in an entire industry and the benefits to employee loyalty by matching their contributions to their favored causes.

Similarly, a venture capital fund will bundle numerous projects for investment, and thereby reduce the overall risk through diversification.30 For media firms, being active in a variety of films, music recordings, book titles, games, software programs, TV shows and content genres, and at a variety of budget levels, attracts a wide range of audiences and reduces a media firm’s vulnerabil6.4.5  The Impact of Debt Financing ity to a flop in any one of them. Firms will thus spread their risk by operating in different media on Content projects and industries.31 Product diversity also In conclusion, debt financing reduces the risk-­ generates information on developing market taking and innovation by companies relative to trends, giving the company a better chance of hitthose prevailing with financing by equity. Lenders ting a moving target. A second factor for portfolios goes beyond do not usually require profit maximization, only financial soundness—a high upside is not the averaging of risk. It is the assembly of a portfolio of assets whose performances are not expected as long as the downside is low. There is also an impact of short-term vs. long-­ merely independent of each other, but are negaterm debt. A company that must seek frequent tively correlated. This was discussed in 7 Chap. re-financing is under greater performance pres- 3 Production Management in Media and sure to do well in the short term. Such companies Information. The goal of diversification, then, is need to be non-risky as well as non-controversial to reduce the risk of the portfolio as a whole, for in their content, technology and labor relations. In a given return. Risk is defined as the statistical contrast, long-term debt allows for a longer time “variance”: a measure of the dispersion of the horizon to enable managers to create and innovate. observations from the average (i.e., expected) The public good characteristics of media, value. The higher that dispersion, the greater networks and technology generate a major fund- the probability of ending up either way above or ing involvement by government in the finance of way below the average, i.e. the greater the volathese activities. Such financing, too, tends to be tility of outcomes and, therefore, the greater the supportive of non-controversial, relatively low-­ risk. (A similar measure for risk is the “standard deviation,” which is just the square root of the risk projects. variance. It is commonly depicted by the symbol σ.) Now, suppose that if Event 1 happens, Project A goes down but Project B goes up. But 6.5 Risk Reduction Strategies if Event 2 happens, it is the reverse. Both of the To gain access to funding, or to lower its cost, one projects, seen individually, are risky. But, taken of the most important tasks for media and tech together, their joint portfolio has a very low firms is to reduce the risk involved in their proj- riskiness. Whatever happens out there, one of the assets will counterbalance the other’s downects. There are several approaches. turn.32 The measure of how much two v­ ariables move together and counter to each other is their  

6.5.1  Risk Reduction Strategy:

Diversification

Companies may internally pool multiple risky projects, making their aggregate cash flow safer. 29 LeClair, Mark S., and Kelly Gordon. “Corporate Support for Artistic and Cultural Activities: What Determines the Distribution of Corporate Giving?” Journal of Cultural Economics 24, no. 3 (August 2000): 225–241.

30 Caves, Richard E. Creative Industries: Contracts between Art and Commerce. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. 31 Picard, Robert. The Economics and Financing of Media Companies. New York: Fordham University Press, 2002. 32 Chan-Olmsted, Sylvia M.“Diversification Strategy of Global Media Conglomerates: Examining Its Patterns and Determinants.” Journal of Media Economics 16, no. 4 (2003): 227.

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“covariance.”33 Its values range between 1 and −1. Values of −1 indicate perfect negative correlation. A value of 0 means that the returns on the two assets vary independently, and a value of +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation, which would make for a poor portfolio match. A strong positive correlation means that when one investment goes down, the other investment declines, too. To diversify, an investor does not want this; for risk reduction, it is preferable to have a negative correlation. Thus, a product with a substantial risk may still be feasible if it moves in an apparent direction than other films in the same slate of production. The popular mood two years from now is uncertain. For example, a pacifist movie could be economically risky if a major terrorist activity occurs at the time of release. But, if paired with a war movie, the two films together will be less risky: one of them will probably catch the spirit of the time when released.

term has acquired negative public connotations but the concept is solidly positive (when applied in a transparent fashion). Derivatives transfer risk from people who do not want to bear it to others who are willing to accept it. For example, currency derivatives are attractive to a firm affected by foreign exchange fluctuation because they provide shelter from the worst of swings in the values of the euro, dollar, ruble and so on. Such derivatives can be a contractual arrangement between two parties, or they can be traded at an exchange. As mentioned, option arrangements are quite frequent in the media and technology field. A film option is a contractual agreement between a production company on the one hand, and a writer on the other hand, in which the producer pays for the right to buy the rights to a screenplay or story from the writer before a certain date, and at a certain price.

6.5.2  Risk Reduction Strategy:

6.6.1  Types of Equity Arrangements

Hedging

One major way to reduce risk is to hedge it by “selling” it to another person who is willing to buy the risk, in the same way that people buy insurance. This is also discussed in 7 Chap. 11 Pricing of Media and Information. There are several such instruments to reshape the risk profile, either increasing or decreasing exposure: commodity futures, forward contracts, options, swaps and so on. Collectively, these instruments are part of what has come to be called “derivatives.” The  

33 In order to estimate the rate at which two assets co-vary, one multiplies the deviation in performance of asset A by the deviation of asset B in each of the N scenarios and then average the products. If A and B are two projects with returns r and probabilities p, then the covariance between the return on A and the return on B is as follows: n

cov ( rA ,rB ) = å pi éë riA - E ( rA ) ùû éë riB - E ( rB ) ùû i =1

The concept of relatedness that the co-variance expresses can also be stated as the correlation. The statistical correlation between two variables is the co-variance, “normalized” to lie between +1 and −1. Such normalization is done by dividing the co-variance by the product of the variances of the two variables. For the two projects A and B, the correlation between the return on A and the return on B is as follows:

r ( rA ,rB ) =

cov ( rA ,rB )

s ( rA ,rB )

6.6

Equity Financing

After self-financing34 and debt, the third major form of financing is through equity financing. By this, we mean funding that includes an element of ownership. Equity financing arrangements include: 55 Partnerships and limited partnerships, 55 Venture and angel financing, 55 Private and public equity. For an order of magnitude, small businesses in the USA receive about 50% of their financing from equity (including self-financing) and the other half from debt.35 Equity financing tends to be an expensive form of financing for a company due to investors taking on more risk with equity investments than they do with debt investments. In the case of bankruptcy, equity investors are usually wiped out but debt holders are paid off, at least partly, especially if they hold collateral. Debt is higher on

34 Self-financing is actually, depending on its structure, part equity, part debt. 35 Berger, Allen N., and Gregory F. Udell. “The Economics of Small Business Finance: The Roles of Private Equity and Debt Markets in the Financial Growth Cycle.” Journal of Banking and Finance 22, nos. 6–8 (1998): 613–673.

141 6.6 · Equity Financing

the pecking order than equity in the case of liquidation and reorganization. Equity may be more risky, but it also offers a great upside—a share in the profits and a gain from an appreciation of the stock. Shareholders also have voting rights and thus affect the control of the firm. “Preferred stocks” are a hybrid in terms of risk, since dividends must be paid before dividends are paid to common stockholders. A major reason for a firm’s use of equity financing is that debt may simply not be available. Startups and Internet firms, for example, are mostly financed by equity because few banks will provide loans for such high-risk endeavors without a track record or stable cash flows, and with few assets that could be used as collateral. Another advantage of equity is that there is no obligation to pay interest. A firm may have a bright tomorrow but, when current debt falls due and cannot be paid, the firm becomes insolvent. Other reasons to sell equity include the need of existing owners to increase the liquidity of the company or of themselves, to pay off existing debt, to create funds for new acquisitions, or to facilitate estate planning. And what are the disadvantages? There is the high cost of return that an equity investor would expect. There are also high transaction costs (underwriting fees) and a dilution of control of the existing owners.36 To counter such dilution of control, the existing owners at times create a system where there are several classes of stock, each with different voting rights. Class A stock may be held by the entrepreneur, management, or the controlling family. It usually offers additional voting rights over other shares. Class B shares offer fewer voting rights but may offer higher dividend entitlements, or a lower acquisition price. It is usually referred to as “common stock.” Class A stock tends to be in control even while being in the minority in terms of investment or overall shares, which is mostly the reason for the arrangement. This may be rationalized as aiming to insulate corporate management from the swings in the stock price and to focus on long-term goals. The preferred class A stock is not available to the public and is usually not traded in the same way as common stock. Examples for minority owners holding full control are the following:

36 Lynch, Richard. Corporate Strategy. Harlow, Essex: FT Prentice, 2003, 288.

55 The Murdoch family held 39% of voting shares in the global media firms News Corp and 21st Century Fox, but only about 16% of equity. 55 The Roberts family has only 1–2% of outstanding stock of Comcast, the world’s largest cable TV operator and owner of NBC Universal, but holds 33% of voting shares. 55 The Sulzberger family controls The New York Times Company through its 88% of class B shares, but holds only 19% of the total equity outstanding.37 55 The Washington Post Co. used to be 75% controlled by the Graham family through 40% of the outstanding stock.38 55 Cablevision was controlled by the Dolan family, which owned 20% of equity but 74% of the voting rights. 55 In Germany, the Mohn family controls Bertelsmann through its domination of the Bertelsmann Foundation, which holds all of the company’s stock. 6.6.1.1

Partnerships

Equity investments come in many forms. By far the most prevalent in sheer numbers is the individual proprietorship. Usually, its owner also runs the business, assisted by employees. This form of organization is used most often for small businesses. In the media world, a producer may run a project in that fashion. Individual proprietorships could take the legal form of a small corporation, where the stock is not traded but, rather, is held by the sole owner. This provides a limited liability and thus protects the personal assets of the owner from creditors in the event that the business fails. When a business based on a single proprietorship expands, there is usually a need for outside participation. The most basic form of participation, especially for small firms, is a partnership with others as co-owners and, possibly,

37 The New York Times Company. Notice of 2010 Annual Meeting and Proxy Statement. March 12, 2010. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http:// s1.q4cdn.com/156149269/files/doc_financials/proxy/2010_Proxy_Statement.pdf. 38 Fox, Justin. “Murdoch vs. Family-Owned Newspapers.” Time. May 10, 2007. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.time.com/time/ magazine/article/0,9171,1619562,00.html. The Washington Post Co. was subsequently bought by Jeff Bezos, founder of Amazon.com. Bezos owns “Nash Holdings LLC”, a holding company created for the Washington Post deal. Nash Holdings owns 100% of The Washington Post, which was purchased for $250 million.

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co-­managers. Partnerships are formed to pool the skills, resources and information of several individuals or companies. One major advantage of partnerships, in contrast to incorporated firms, is that in many countries there is no income tax on the profits of that partnership because, legally, it is not treated as a separate entity from its owners but merely a “pass-through entity” to each of the partners, who report their share of profits or losses as personal income. Therefore, taxes on partnership income must be paid only once by a partner,39 in contrast to a corporation, which must pay its own corporate income taxes, and then the shareholders must pay income tax again on the distributed profit of the company, i.e. the dividend.40 A simple partnership is easy to set up. The law provides a basic structure that defines respective rights (voting, profit participation and so on) and respective obligations (liability questions, loss participation and the like). In the USA, partnerships are governed by state law, except for federal taxes and other nationwide regulations, unless the partners specifically agree to different rules in their partnership agreement. There are two types of partnerships: general and limited partnerships. In a general partnership, all partners have a say in the day-to-day management of the firm and each partner is personally liable for the entirety of any business-related obligation. In other words, if in a film production company Partner A decides to buy the movie rights to a bestselling book, his Partner B must fulfill the payment obligation on behalf of the firm, even if he disagrees with the decision of Partner A and has never approved it. It is therefore prudent to select one’s partners carefully, since one is financially and legally stuck with responsibility for their actions. This risk exposure is reduced in a limited partnership. Here, at least one general partner is responsible for the dayto-­day management of the company and is personally liable for business obligations. Limited partners, on the other hand, contribute capital but have minimal control over business operations. In return, their personal liability is capped at the amount of the initial investment. Limited

39 On the other hand, India taxes partnerships twice, once with a flat rate of 30% of total income minus a deduction of interests and remuneration to the partners, and then the partners are also taxed. 40 The double taxation of corporate profits and dividends is one of the arguments made for setting corporate income taxes at a lower rate than individual income tax rates.

partnerships are often used in private equity and in hedge funds. The logic behind this division of liability is that it enables the limited partners to invest without having to worry about every move of the general partner that could trigger a potentially huge liability.41 An example for the fear of liability in a full partnership is Apple Computers. In 1976, Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne formed Apple Computers as a real partnership, with 45%, 45% and 10% ownership shares, respectively.42 But Wayne worried about the possibility of holding the bag in the event of a bankruptcy, given that Jobs and Wozniak had no personal assets, and he formally withdrew from the partnership just a few days later by filing a notarized statement to that effect. He sold back his 10% ownership stake to his two co-partners for $2300. That stake would have been worth about $94 billion in 2018. It is more difficult to create and run a limited partnership than a full one without professional help, since there are requirements in terms of registration, the legal contracts between the partners, tax filings, and compliance with various regulators. Although there are exceptions, limited partnerships tend to be used more in the early stages of a company or venture rather than in its mature stages, where corporate forms predominate. For investment funds, the limited partnership arrangement is prevalent, in part due to its tax treatment.

Film Partnerships Partnerships were frequent in film financing. Before the 1976 and 1986 tax reforms in the USA, limited film partnerships were among the most effective tax shelters there. Subsequently, “passive losses” from tax shelters could no longer be used to offset income from wages, salaries, interest and dividends. Absent the tax angle, few movie partnerships have historically returned better than 10–15% annually and many have, in fact, lost money to limited investors. Occasionally, they generate high profits to investors, of course. Yet, from a purely economic standpoint, it is usually better to invest directly in the common stocks

41 Bankman, Joseph. “The Structure of Silicon Valley Start-ups.” UCLA Law Review 41, no. 7 (September 1994): 1737–1768. 42 Isaacson, Walter. Steve Jobs. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011.

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of the production or distribution companies, especially considering the advantage of greater liquidity (ability to sell quickly.) But film investments have always been driven by considerations beyond those of pure economic rationale. Investing in film directly via partnerships is often seen as “glamorous,” which is a factor for many investors—whether they admit it or not. On top of that consideration limited partnerships in film are popular in many countries where tax shelters continue to exist to encourage investment in film production. Some of these perfectly lawful tax loop holes existed by coincidence and were discovered and used by savvy financiers and lawyers until the respective government closed them down. But such tax shelters have often been deliberately designed to help rich and influential people lower their taxes while being justified as supporting the generally risky business of film, which in many countries is not profitable without some kind of governmental help. A well-organized limited partnership seeking investors requires a prospectus that spells out all aspects of the deal and its downsides. It describes the general partners, other managers, the planned projects, the business plan, the tax angles and so on. The drafting of such a prospectus can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars when it covers a complex scenario. It is spells out duties and obligations, which will affect lawsuits if the project is unsuccessful (or highly profitable) and conflicts arise. Creating the legal structure of a limited partnership, important as it is, is only an input toward the goal of finding investors. This will be discussed further later.

in the USA, many of them actively sought out by entrepreneurs for investment. In 2008, in the midst of a major recession, over 55,000 ventures were funded with over $20 billion from angels— an average investment of $346,500 per deal.44 In 2015, angels invested $24.6 billion in 70,000 deals45 for an average of $351,000. In contrast, venture capitalists are far more selective, and often only after the angels had already invested their money earlier and taken greater risks. In 2015, venture capitalists invested $59.7 billion in 4,497 deals, with an average deal size of $13.3 million.46 While venture capital funds mostly invest other people’s money, angels put their own personal funds at risk. The angel investors can also be advisors, mentors and facilitators. They are often successful businessmen and women with entrepreneurial experience and expertise in the chosen investment field, and attracted by the potential for getting into a promising technology venture early. For them, a non-financial reason to invest in a venture is active involvement. An angel should not be treated as a “moneybag” but as a business partner.47 Angels prefer a low profile to limit the amount of unsolicited deals that may come their way. How, then, to find them? There are several possibilities, the best choice is to use one’s personal network— contacts from college, university, friends, family and so on. Industry gatherings and forums are public and accessible—though often for a hefty fee— but often less productive. Law firms specializing in media and technology may have information, as may tax accountants. There are also online platforms, such as the Angel Capital Network (ACE-Net), or the website Active Capital.48

Technology Partnerships In high tech ventures, early funds may also be provided by “angel” investors (the term is borrowed from theater financing), which typically are individuals (or sometimes a firm) specializing in high-risk, “early-stage” investments. Angels have a long business history. Some of the biggest companies (e.g. Ford, Amazon, or Apple) have had ­business angels in their startup phase.43 By one count, in 2009, there were 260,000 such angels

43 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

44 Bowers, Brent. “In Pitching to Angel Investors, Preparation Tops Zeal”. New York Times. June 10, 2009. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http:// www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/business/smallbusiness/11hunt.html. 45 Angel Capital Association. “2017 Angel Capital Association Summit: Angel Investors Drive the Success of American Startups and Economic Growth” PR Newswire. April 12, 2017. 7  http://www.prnewswire.com/ news-releases/2017-angel-capital-association-summit-angel-investorsdrive-the-success-of-american-startups-and-economic-growth-300438845. html. 46 PricewaterhouseCoopers. MoneyTree™ Report, Q1 2016. April 2016. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  https://www.pwc.com/us/en/ technology/assets/national-moneytree-report-summary-q1–2016.pdf. 47 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234. 48 In other countries, there are intermediaries such as the British Venture Capital Association (BVCA) 7  http://www.bvca.co.uk/home, the Canadian organization of angel investors Mindfirst 7  http://mindfirst. com/, and the European Trade Association for Business Angel Network (EBAN) 7  http://www.eban.org/.

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Pitch fests or business plan competitions from business schools, magazines or consulting firms are also a way not only to get practice, but also possibly leading to prize money and contact with potential angels. Industry trade magazines and webpages, and even the end credits of films, may show funds that have supported films in the past. But it is usually personal contacts that will provide leads and introductions. Trusted referrals are the best openers of doors.49 The look-over must be in both directions. An entrepreneur should check out an investor carefully. Meetings with prospective investors must be well-prepared with a business plan and presentation. Investors look at people as much as at their business plan. They will check out the entrepreneur and team, and consider their experience, track record and reputation. Passion to the idea is important in a pitch, but a good business plan, credibility and realism carry more

weight.50 A demonstration that the entrepreneurs themselves have invested in their venture is important. Angels will also look for a profitable exit strategy, with specific potential merger partners or acquirers. In general, the angel investor will expect a high rate of return, probably at least 30%. Most ventures fail, and those that make it must compensate for the losses of others. Usually, the angel investor will require a stake in the company whose value represents the expected return. Since normal valuation methods—such as discounted cash flows—do not work because they require figures on profits, revenues and expenses, one must rely on some implicit value of the company. This requires judgment as much as calculation. If the parties agree that the company’s value is $1 million, the investor, for a $100,000 investment, should then expect a 10% stake in the company.

Case Discussion Limited Partnerships TWIT Limited partners could, in concept, be a viable funding source for TWIT: The parent company could remain in control as the general partner and would bear most of the financial risk beyond the limited partner’s direct investment. It could set up the limited partnership by selling partnership shares in TWIT. The company has run its projections and expects the internal rate of return (IRR) on the TWIT project to be 16.34%. If it sells a stake in TWIT to limited partners, it will be giving up a proportional amount of expected future profits with this expected return of 16.34%, to which

are added transaction costs. Even this high rate of return may not be enough, since limited partnership investors often require at least 20% return—though, in this case, they may take less. The general partner typically contributes 20% of the investment, in order to assure the outside investors that it, too, has “skin in the game.” Without such assurances, limited partners will require a higher return on their investment. On the whole, forming a limited partnership to fund TWIT would be unattractive to the company, since it has cheaper and more efficient forms of financing available.

49 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

SNIT For SNIT, on the other hand, a limited partnership is a more feasible option. SNIT was started by entrepreneurs with significant experience in this field. These individuals have a combination of technical knowledge and entrepreneurial spirit. SNIT’S initial list of potential limited partners draws from family and friends. The cost of limited partnership funding is based on projections of SNIT’s IRR. The limited partners will also share in the losses, if the company does not do well. If SNIT is successful, then these limited partners could be bought out in the future.

50 Bowers, Brent. “In Pitching to Angel Investors, Preparation Tops Zeal”. New York Times. June 10, 2009. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http:// www.nytimes.com/2009/06/11/business/smallbusiness/11hunt.html.

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6.6.1.2

Private Equity

The term “private equity” has a variety of meanings. Almost all of equity is “private” in the sense of being owned by private parties rather than government. But equity is differentiated according to its trading status: public equity is stock that is traded on a stock exchange and accessible to the general investing public. Publicly offered securities are subject to securities laws and must adhere to strict legal standards. For example, financial documents such as the company’s balance sheet, income statement and other information have to be disclosed periodically. In contrast, firms whose stock is held privately (not traded on a stock exchange) are subject to much looser financial reporting.51 In most countries, public equity placements must be structured to comply with securities laws.  In the USA, these laws, dating back to the 1930s, say that a stock offering must be registered with or approved by a government agency, unless it meets a specific exemption. A sale of securities that is conducted privately, without a public offering, will generally be exempt, on condition that the offering is made only to sophisticated and wealthy investors.  The frequently used “Regulation D” stock offerings include a number of exemptions from registration requirements, depending on the size of the issuer, the number of investors and the manner in which the offering is conducted. Private equity is an important source of funds for a variety of situations: 55 Startup firms; 55 Financially distressed firms; 55 Public firms in need of buyout capital; 55 Large shareholders who want to gain full control over their target firm; 55 Small companies with untraded stock; 55 Startups on the way to going public; 55 Large companies withdrawing from public trading. Private equity funds draw money for their investments either from individuals (who need to be wealthy enough to be legally admitted to invest) or from organizations that invest professionally. Private equity money tends to come from astute 51 The Economist. “Public v Private Equity: The Business of Making Money.” July 5, 2007. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.economist.com/ node/9440821.

investors with deep pockets, including rich people, insurance companies, pension and mutual funds, endowments and sovereign funds. In 2015, private equity firms raised $629 billion and, in 2016, $589 billion.52 Private equity ventures are often financed by leveraged buyout (LBO) debt on the acquired company itself. The private equity firms typically only put up a percentage of the capital required to buy the target corporation.

Private Equity in the Media and Media Technology Industry Media and technology companies have been particularly interesting to private equity investors, because there is a possibility of greater returns due to the volatile and risky nature of the business, which favors aggressive investors. In addition, private equity funds believe that the frequent lack of financial and managerial sophistication in newer media and digital companies provides an opportunity.

Impact of PE Acquisitions on Content With much investment money in the hands of private equity fund managers, what has been the impact on media content or technology innovation? Private equity deals often lead to a breakup of large firms such as media conglomerates in order to reduce the debt that paid for the acquisition. Clear Channel used to be the largest radio company in the world, but the private equity owners, once they got control, sold off almost half of its 1100 radio stations.53 Second, private equity partners will be generally be less interested in investing in quality or innovation that will only pay out in the longer run. Unlike startup venture capital, this kind of private equity is short-term oriented in its search for cash flows to meet debt payments and position the company for resale.

52 Drean, Antoine. “Private Equity Fundraising Is Set To Break Records, But The Plenty Holds Danger.” Forbes. December 8, 2015. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.forbes.com/sites/antoinedrean/2015/12/08/ private-equity-fundraising-is-set-to-break-records-but-the-plenty-holdsdanger/#495744d751ac; MacArthur, Hugh, et al. “As Good As It Gets For Private Equity Fund-Raising” Forbes. March 10, 2017. 7  https://www.forbes. com/sites/baininsights/2017/03/10/as-good-as-it-gets-for-private-equityfund-raising/#7b92398771d4. 53 This was not enough to cover the debt. In 2018 the company filed for Chap. 11 bankruptcy.

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Traditional institutional investors such as the Fidelity and other mutual funds rarely exert their influence over the management of companies they invest in. In contrast, private equity funds control the acquired company fully and often install new management with tough performance mandates. With so much capital at risk, as well as the immediate need to make debt service payments to pay back loans, the PE funds play a hands-on operational role beyond the merely financial.

Case Discussion

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Private Equity—TWIT Versus SNIT Private equity financing can be used by a young corporation lacking access to public debt and equity markets. TWIT, by itself, meets that category, but its parent company, Time Warner Media, is an established company with much cheaper funding options. In contrast, companies such as SNIT that cannot raise finance from debt or public equity markets are candidates for the issuance of private equity to get early stage financing from private investors with faith in the project and its entrepreneur. The cost of such equity will be similar to that of venture financing. It is easily a whopping 40% or more.

6.6.1.3

Venture Capital

Venture capital firms finance new and rapidly growing companies. Venture capital funds are pools of capital, typically organized as limited partnerships, that invest in companies and industries that represent opportunities for a high rate of return. In return for financially backing a startup, they receive equity securities. Usually, they also assist in the development of new products or services. They are designed for institutional and deep-pocket investors. Venture capital firms have a long-term orientation, and take high risks and expect high rewards. They are often hi-tech focused, with less involvement in content media. Venture capital firms invest in a startup company and take a percentage of ownership. Typically, they will look for a 35–40%

54 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

return on investment on a single venture, knowing that many of their investments will never return a profit. It is claimed that 20% of venture deals are failures, 60% are disappointing and the remaining 20% are winners.54 The main goal of a venture capital firm is exit: to see the portfolio firm go public (an IPO), be acquired, or be merged as soon as possible to make a sizeable profit. Once the stock is freely tradable after an IPO, venture capital firms distribute shares or cash to the limited partner investors. The process of funding is structured in a benchmark system, similar to the option arrangements discussed earlier. Finance is provided to the portfolio companies in several stages called pre-­seed, seed, first round (early stage) and second round (expansion). Funds for a next stage are provided only if the performance objectives are met for the previous stage. At every stage, the level of financing is very different due to a varying level of risk, and the expected return for that phase of the project. Some rules-of-thumb for expected rates of return for each stage of the company are55: 55 Seed stage: 80%+; 55 Startup stage: 50–70%; 55 First Stage: 40–60%; 55 Second Stage: 30–50%; 55 Bridge/mezzanine stage: 20–35%; 55 Public expectations stage: 15–25%; In the early days of venture capital firms, in the 1950s and 1960s, typical venture investors were rich individuals. Only later did venture capital firms emerge as major investment vehicles managing other people’s money. Prior to the 1980s, US pension funds were effectively barred from any economically significant investment in venture capital firms due to of the “prudent man rules” that required financiers to be cautious with money they managed. However, in 1979 the US Labor Department reinterpreted the law regarding retirement protection to permit pension fund investment in venture capital if it did not endanger the entire portfolio. These and other

55 Junee, Ryan. “Startup Valuation –The VC Method.” September 20, 2006. Last accessed July 20, 2012. 7  http://blog.ryanjunee.com/2006/09/ startup-valuation-the-vc-method/.

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regulatory changes led to a large increase in the flow of investments into venture funds. In 2004, sources of venture capital funds included public pension funds (42%), commercial banks and life insurance companies (25%), and endowments and foundations (21%).56 Individuals and families accounted for only 10% of venture capital sources of funds. For most private equity funds (of which venture capital is a sub-category), the managers of the fund takes a fee of “2 and 20”; a 2% of asset value as an annual management fee and up to 20% of any profits made by their funds. Usually, there is a minimum so-called “watermark” (in the vicinity of 8%, depending on several factors) that must be exceeded in order for the 20% profit participation to kick in. If there are losses in one year and the following years are profitable, the watermark will prevent any profits being reaped by the venture capital fund until the sum of profits and losses exceeds the watermark.

The limited partners typically put up 98% or more of the funds necessary and receive 80% of the partnership’s profits. The general partner provides only a fraction of the investment but contributes the ideas, the entrepreneurship and the management effort. Venture capital firms are usually actively involved in the management of each of the portfolio companies. They often spend more than 100 hours per year on a portfolio firm and visit each firm a dozen times per year. Venture capital firms are highly selective in the projects they pick. According to one venture capital firm, only 2–3% of deals presented to a venture capital firm get funded. If the business plan is submitted “cold” (without the referral by a trusted intermediary), the odds are practically zero.57 The major drawback for venture capital funding is that it is an expensive form of financing, with the founder giving up a big chunk of the firm, thereby reducing their control and upside potential.

Case Discussion Venture Capital TWIT ­Versus SNIT Venture capital is an expensive form of startup financing, at a cost of at least 25% (prime plus 20%) interest. It is too costly in deeppocket situations when a new project such as TWIT has Time Warner’s corporate backing. It would also dilute control of TWIT, since venture capital firms require a major stake in the venture in return for financing. The benefit of using

6.6.1.4

venture capital to provide business guidance is also less important to TWIT, since its corporate parent has knowledge resources and experience. For SNIT, on the other hand, venture finance is much more helpful. Not only could venture capital firms provide much needed capital, but they would also deliver business management advice, contacts

Initial Public Offerings (IPOs)

“Public equity” is supplied by capital markets that are regulated by strict rules (securities laws) and agencies—such as the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). A company can access the public equity markets by issuing shares. (They are “public” in the sense of “generally accessible

56 Berger, Allen N., and Gregory F. Udell. “The Economics of Small Business Finance: The Roles of Private Equity and Debt Markets in the Financial Growth Cycle.” Journal of Banking and Finance 22, nos. 6–8 (1998): 613–673.

and credibility. SNIT is a good candidate for venture capital as it is too small and too young to raise capital in the public markets, or to secure a bank loan. Yet obtaining venture capital is difficult. Given the first stage status of its development, SNIT should expect financing at an implicit cost of 40–45%, and may get $5 million at that point.

to investors,” rather than in the sense of “governmental” or “state-owned.”) Why would a company issue public equity? 55 Present owners are not able or willing to increase their capital contribution. 55 Present stockholders need cash, and cannot easily sell their shares unless they are publicly traded.

57 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

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55 Greater credibility of a company as a result of the publicity generated by issuing stock and being followed by security analysts and the business press.58 55 A wider universe of investors and pool of investment capital is accessible. 55 Ability to attract and retain managers, if the firm offers stock options and other incentives.59

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Founders and shareholders are interested in cashing in their holdings in the company they helped to start up. There are also drawbacks to being a public company: 55 There is much less confidentiality for a public company; for example, the salaries for top managers are public. Extensive disclosure of company financial information is required, especially when it is unfavorable. 55 Even small IPOs can easily cost hundreds of thousands of dollars. 55 The cost of regular compliance with regulation is costly. There are reporting requirements, which require extensive and expensive legal, accounting and investment banking services. 55 Due to their increased exposure, public companies are an easier target for pressure groups—such as environmental, child protection, and morality groups60—and may face various boycott campaigns. 55 The control and vision of the founding m ­ anagers by the addition of the new ­shareholders. 55 Share fluctuations can be costly and, in some circumstances, place a public corporation in serious peril. 55 Managers fixate on the short-term price of the stock and could potentially be ignoring future risks, opportunities and long-term growth.

58 Investopedia. “What are the advantages and disadvantages for a company going public?” November 12, 2010. Last accessed July 20, 2012. 7  http://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/06/­ ipoadvantagedisadvantage.asp. 59 Inc. “Weighing the Benefits of Hitting the IPO Road.” November 1, 1999. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.inc.com/articles/1999/11/15714. html. 60 The Economist. “The Business of Making Money.” July 5, 2007. Last accessed July 5, 2007. 7  http://www.economist.com/displaystory. cfm?story_id=9,440,821.

When a company wants to finance through public markets (whether with debt or through equity), most often it will need to rely on the services of investment banks. In the banking world, one distinguishes between retail banks (for personal financing needs such as a checking account, a mortgage and so on), commercial banks (dealing with businesses about deposits, loans and so forth) and investment banks. The latter are specialty institutions that function mainly as advisors for big companies with respect to financing needs. There are only a few sizeable investment banks in the world and in a country (such as Goldman Sachs or JP Morgan in the USA). The services of an investment bank consist of four major functions: 55 Providing advice on issuance, purchase and sale of securities, and on other financial matters. 55 Providing capital for corporations and local governments by “underwriting” and distributing new issues of securities. “Underwriting” is the process of purchasing all new securities from a corporation at one price and selling the issues in smaller units to the investing public, usually with a markup. 55 Maintaining markets in securities by trading and executing orders in secondary market transactions. Aftermarket trading begins after the new issue has been sold to buyers, at an issuing price.61 55 Providing a “stamp of approval,” i.e. adding their credibility to investors who must decide whether to commit their funds.62 For being listed on the Nasdaq exchange, a company must have a minimum of 1,250,000 publicly held shares, which is defined as “total shares outstanding less those held by officers, directors or anyone who is the beneficial owner of more than 10% of the company.”63 The company is also

61 Investopedia. “A Look at Primary and Secondary Markets.” November 20, 2010. Last accessed July 20, 2012. 7  http://www.investopedia.com/ articles/02/101102.asp#axzz1Qg8yNJve. 62 Callard, Abbey. “Banks, Firms, and Houses: Deciphering the Terms in the Financial Crisis Coverage.” Slate. September 18, 2008. Last accessed July 20, 2012. 7  http://www.slate.com/id/2200410/. 63 In addition, the minimum bid price must be more than $5, and there must be at least three market makers for the stock. The company must also have at least 450 round lot (100 shares) shareholders, or 2200 total shareholders, or 550 total shareholders with $1.1 million average monthly trading volume over the preceding 12 months.

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required to follow a variety of Nasdaq corporate governance rules, and its aggregate pre-tax earnings in the preceding three years must be at least $11 million, and no one year in the preceding three years can show a net loss. In addition, its average market capitalization over the prior 12 months must be at least $550 million, and revenues in the previous fiscal year must be at least $110 million. Traditional IPOs are cumbersome and expensive. There have therefore always been efforts to make it easier and less bureaucratic for small companies and startups to enter capital markets and reach potential investors. In 1976, the option of direct public offerings (DPOs) was established in the USA. SCOR offerings (small company offering registrations) followed. Regulation A+ offerings (known also as “mini-IPOs”) have been in force since 2015. More recently, there have also been moves to use new technology and to use online platforms so that small companies can reach small investors. DPOs over the Internet have risen in popularity. A full registration is still necessary, but a company can raise capital directly, from small investors in small amounts, without an intermediary investment bank or broker-dealer. It may be used by small firms that cannot find an investment bank interested in handling their business. It is then marketed directly via the Internet. A relatively new method of financing productions is micro-funding, also called “crowdfunding,” where small investments are provided by a large number of enthusiasts for the technology or the creation. Here, “equity crowdfunding” that involves small direct investments in a company must be distinguished from the provision by users of money that is more in the nature of a reward, donation, or loan.64 In “rewards crowdfunding,” the contributor receives a product or service once the company is operating. It is, in effect, a pre-sale of products such as software, a film download, or technology devices. PebbleWatch raised $10 million in a single month with the promise to deliver the connected watches once they were being produced. In contrast, “Donation crowdfunding” involves a voluntary contribution by a fan

64 Fundable. “Types of Crowdfunding” Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  https://www.fundable.com/crowdfunding101/types-of-crowdfunding.

to a ­creator without an expectation of a benefit in return. Such projects include independent films, plays, music, journalism stories, video games, technology projects, even scientific research. For example, small-scale independent music may be funded by “fan-angels” in this way, utilizing micro-funding donation-oriented websites such as Kickstarter, ArtistShare, or IndieGoGo. An artist pitches their project, sets a monetary goal and a deadline, and hopes that fans will become patrons of the project.65 An average contribution is about $25. Kickstarter received about $2 billion in pledges from almost ten million backers for over 250,000 creative projects. Donation platforms may also be purely charitable, such as DonorsChoose. There is also “crowd-lending,” in which people lend small amounts to projects they consider promising or worthy. “Equity crowdfunding” platforms include Seedrs, EquityNet, AngelList, Crowdfunders and CrowdCube. To the startup company seeking funds, crowdsourcing provides an access to a wide pool of potential funders. Beyond the money raised, advantages are the creation of word-of-mouth publicity as contributors pass the word to others. The extent of public response is also a gauge for the market potential of a new product. Equity crowdfunding is treated as a form of public offering of securities. Government concern with Internet-based IPOs is that they invite fraud and manipulation because the Internet provides an anonymous environment to inveigle money out of gullible investors. ­Securities laws in the USA therefore put conditions on equity crowdfunding. A company must file annual reports and update its crowdfunding disclosures continuously. A company must become a “public” reporting company if it has over 500 investors.66 Certain companies are not eligible to use the relaxed rules on crowdfunding. These include non-US companies, for example.67

65 Billboard. “Rethink Music’s ‘Financing Creativity’ Panel Explores Concept of Fans as Patrons, Not Consumers.” April 26, 2011. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/indies/rethink-musics-financing-creativity-panel-1005154602.story. 66 Mirabile, Christopher. “2016 Crowdfunding Rules: How the Restrictions Work and Why it Matters to You” Inc. April 11, 2016. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.inc.com/christopher-mirabile/2016-crowdfunding-rules-how-the-restrictions-work-and-why-it-matters.html. 67 United States Securities and Exchange Commission. “Regulation Crowdfunding: A Small Entity Compliance Guide for Issuers.” May 13, 2016. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  https://www.sec.gov/info/ smallbus/secg/rccomplianceguide-051316.htm.

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The crowdsourcing concept and rules received much media coverage that enthused over the opening of opportunities for small entrepreneurs. Yet, the transaction costs are still formidable.

Impact of IPOs on Media Content and Conduct When a project is funded by public equity, its managers are held responsible by shareholders. Public corporations therefore need to show

6

more caution, which makes them move more slowly. They also follow a more pure profit orientation to satisfy shareholders. There is less willingness to produce educational or socially beneficial content unless it, too, helps profits. They take fewer risks and pursue safer content or technology projects. They also have a greater short-term earnings orientation. In short, all other things equal, they are more risk-averse and less innovative.

Case Discussion Initial Public Offering—TWIT Versus SNIT A TWIT IPO, in which TWIT issues its own stand-alone shares, is difficult to arrange and comes with high cost relative to other financing options. TWIT, on its own, would have complications with a listing on a major stock exchange, as it does not meet requirements in terms of track record and so on. But it could probably have its stock listed on a smaller exchange. A TWIT IPO would also dilute the parent company’s control over TWIT, as it would have to share ownership with other investors. TWIT would need to comply with government regulations, which can be intrusive and costly. But, as an alternative, the parent company could issue more of its own stock to finance just this venture, as a secondary public offering (SPO). SNIT would not be able to undertake an IPO. It has no operating history. Even smaller stock exchanges require that a company has several years of pre-tax earnings, profitability, or cash flow and a minimum market capitalization.

However, after several years with a combination of a proven financial track record, venture capital funding and venture capital guidance, SNIT could aim for an IPO. Taking SNIT public at a good share price could make several categories of people rich: the founders, the financial backers, and those employees who had been partly compensated by shares. Financially, this is the goal of many startups. For example, suppose each of the founders had invested $100,000 and has 20% ownership, that there are one million shares outstanding, and that the company issues ten million additional shares at a price of $20. Then, each of the founders now holds a value of $4 million, 40 times the original investment. If the shareprice rises, as IPO stock often does, their stake would rise correspondingly still further. Should SNIT use crowdfunding? For once, ironically, SNIT may be too large a project. It is seeking $100 million in financing. Barely over ten crowdsourcing projects

68 SeedInvest. “Title III Crowdfunding Cost Model.” Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  https://docs.google.com/ spreadsheets/d/1g2ZOtUy5jd6s4-j0cNaSFoYMZcpJqKXQhVEfNOBRei4/ edit#gid=0.

have been funded for more than $10 million, most of them videogames or “rewards crowdsourcing” projects that were, in effect, pre-sells of products. SNIT could not expect a huge surge in small equity investor interest, and pre-selling of subscriptions does not seem to have major prospects. Thus, the expected money that could be raised for equity is likely to be modest in size. And at what cost? The various cost of raising and maintaining equity crowdfunded capital for a $1 million is 25%,68 plus the forgone capital gains, estimated at 25% for a tripling of the stock price over five years. There are also significant opportunity costs for the management time required to prepare the periodically required disclosure statements; foregone dividends, if those get distributed; and a dilution of control. Altogether, this does not seem to be an attractive funding option for SNIT: a limited amount of money that can be raised, yet at a high cost and with many headaches of regulatory requirements.

151 6.7 · The Ownership of Media and Communications Companies

6.7

 he Ownership of Media T and Communications Companies

“Equity financing” means, in plain language, “ownership.” We will now look at such ownership. 6.7.1  Individual and Family

Ownership of Media

The fields of media, communications and ICT have been a source of great wealth. In 2000, almost one-quarter (99) of the Forbes 400 richest individuals in America had earned their prosperity in the media and communication fields. The 2011 Forbes 400 list69 included 119 individuals whose wealth derived from the media, IT and telecom industries. This does not include the many financiers who made fortunes in the field of media, such as Warren Buffet or Ron Perelman. Individual ownership varies by industry. Top telecom networks companies rarely have major individual owners. The main exception is America Movil in Latin America, with Carlos Slim of Mexico holding 52%. Several other large platform firms with high individual ownership stakes originated as a media or Internet company and added a presence in platforms. They are 21st Century Fox (and its Sky TV platform), controlled by the Murdoch family; Softbank in Japan, owned by Masayoshi Son; and Comcast, owned by the Roberts family. Most of these companies have a dual stock structure to allow the individual owners to maintain control while accessing outside capital. The other major platform companies are majority-­owned by large institutional investors or governments, and have no dual stock structure. In contrast, content oriented media firms around the world tend to be privately owned. Most of the top content companies have major individual or family owners—Globo Group (Marinho family, Brazil); Largardère (Lagardère family, France); Bertelsmann (Mohn family,

69 Kroll, Luisa. “The Forbes 400 – The Richest People in America.” Forbes. September 21, 2011. Last accessed October 4, 2011. 7  http://www. forbes.com/forbes-400/list/.

Germany); Fininvest (former Prime Minister Berlusconi, Italy); Softbank (Masayoshi Son, Japan); Fuji Television (Shikanai family, Japan); TF1 (Bouygues family, France); Fox/News Corp (Murdoch family); Google (Larry Page and Sergey Brin); Comcast (Roberts family); Liberty/Charter (John Malone); CBS/Viacom (Redstone family); Baidu (Robin Lee, China); Yomiuri (Shoriki family, Japan); Vivendi (Bolloré family, France) and Disney (Steve Jobs family with 7.8%). Many companies are controlled by their founders/entrepreneurs or, later, by their top managers who also own significant stakes in the company. Among media companies, newspapers in particular have traditionally been owned by individuals and families. Even where they are publicly traded companies, the decision making power is usually exercised through special voting stock that is untraded. In other cases, control can be exercised through a family-controlled foundation. IT firms typically start out with a high insider ownership but this declines over the years due to of the growth cycle of companies from founder-­ controlled startup to a giant established corporation. Microsoft, for example, was owned 66% by the insider-founders in 1988, but that share declined to 23.6% in 2005 and 11.6%70 in 2011. 6.7.2  Institutional Investors

For many companies, the largest owners are institutional investors such as State Street, Vanguard, or Fidelity. The main categories of institutional investors are: 55 Mutual funds; 55 Pension funds; 55 Hedge funds; 55 Insurance companies; 55 Endowments; 55 Trust departments of banks. Institutional owners control the shares they hold in two ways. First, they own shares outright in

70 Fidelity. “MSFT Ownership and Insiders.” Last accessed November 15, 2010. 7  http://eresearch.fidelity.com/eresearch/evaluate/fundamentals/ownership.jhtml?stockspage=ownership&symbols=MSFT.

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their own account, partly to earn a dividend return and often for the potential gain in value. In some cases, they may have been part of an investment bank consortium that created and marketed the public shares in an IPO or SPO, and they may have kept shares for gradual sale. The second way for financial institutions to control shares is to hold them as asset managers. They manage other people’s money through various forms of investment funds which they run. Institutional ownership is not a recent phenomenon, but it has increased with the growth of mutual funds and pension funds. Mutual funds are companies that seek and manage the money of investors and invest it in a portfolio of stocks, bonds and other assets. They attempt to optimize return for a given risk level or category of investment. In some countries, government rules aimed at protecting investors from imprudent risk-­ taking limit fund investment in any single company to no more than, for example, 5% of assets in any one company, and to no more than 10% of any company’s outstanding shares.71 This limits the capacity of any individual fund to exercise much control over a firm. Aggregate pension fund assets in the USA increased from $260 billion in 1975 to $1.7 trillion in 1990, to $7 trillion by 1998, and $22.1 trillion in 2014. For 16 major OECD countries, institutional pension funds managed $23.3 trillion in 2009 and $36 trillion in 2014.72 Generally, the stake of institutional investors is much larger than those of individuals. In 2013, State Street had $65 billion invested in major media and digital companies. Rupert Murdoch, in comparison, had “only” $11.6 billion. Dodge & Cox, with $20 billion, had more money tied

71 In the USA, institutional investors are required to file disclosure information when they own 5% or more of a publicly traded company. They are limited in their ability to profit on shares held for less than six months once they reach the 10% ownership threshold. If a mutual fund wants to promote itself as “diversified” and gain pass-through tax benefits, then the regulated 75% of the fund cannot own more than 10% of a company in its portfolio. Also, a “diversified” fund cannot have more than 5% of its total assets invested in a single company (Investment Company Act of 1940). Therefore, only 25% of a fund, the unregulated portion, can be concentrated in a single stock. Pension funds fall under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), which requires each fund to diversify. But, under ERISA, pension fund managers are given some leeway to avoid diversification if it is “clearly prudent” not to do so. 72 Towers Watson. “Global: Global Pension Funds Up by 15% in 2009.” March 2010. Last accessed July 19, 2018. 7  http://www.towerswatson. com/research/1380.

up in media than Berlusconi, Malone, Redstone and Lagardère combined. The largest institutional investor in the top 20 media and digital platform companies was the Vanguard Group, based in the United States. Vanguard owns shares of 10 of the top 20 platform companies, with a total value of $47.5 billion, and shares of 12 of the top 20 content companies, valued at $49.8 billion. Vanguard is invested in almost every major media and digital company: in the United States, the five major TV networks and content providers, the three major traded cable TV companies, and two major search engines; in Europe, three major TV companies; in Canada, Singapore, France and Germany, major telecoms. More interesting than the components of the portfolio is their magnitude. Vanguard is hugely invested in Google ($20 billion), Comcast ($11 billion), Disney ($10 billion), Time Warner ($5 billion) and 21st Century Fox ($5 billion), not counting another $3 billion for the Time Warner Cable spin-off. Its stake in Google was almost as high as that of company founders Brin and Page (though without the voting power). It holds more shares in Comcast than the Roberts family (again, without the votes). It is by far the largest shareholder in Time Warner, Liberty and Disney (except for Steve Jobs’ widow). And so on. Thus, on any objective measure, it is a huge media investor and owner. And yet, hardly anybody has heard of its CEO, F. William McNabb III, or of its headquarters location, Malvern, Pennsylvania. The total media assets of the top 10 institutional owners add up to $332.5 billion; the top 20 have $423.4 billion and the top 30 have $449 billion. Of overall global media value, estimated as $4.7 trillion excluding state-owned media, the top 10 institutional owners hold 6.1%, and the top 30 hold 9.6%. Institutional investors are usually viewed as primarily concerned with short- or mediumterm gain, gauging corporate performance solely according to stock price and earnings. But, institutional investors cannot easily liquidate very large stakes and are therefore often in for the long haul. They have the capability to intervene, and top management knows that. In 2006, several institutional shareholders, led by Carl Icahn, challenged Time Warner’s conglomerate structure, advocating a breakup of the company. They argued that the sum of the parts

153 6.8 · Capital Structure

was more valuable than the whole. Time Warner’s management opposed the shareholder resolution and prevailed in a formal sense. But, within a few years, it sold or spun off these parts of the company: Warner Music Group, Time Warner Cable, AOL, TW Telecom, Time Books and Time Inc. magazines. By 2014, Time Warner itself was a target of acquisition, with AT&T signing the deal in 2017. Has there been an impact of institutional investors on content? The actual ownership of each institutional investment firm in each company and sector may be small and fragmented. No single investor firm owns a majority, or could establish control. However, in the aggregate, institutional owners can influence company decisions through their buy and sell decisions, affecting the value of the stock and sending a signal of support or skepticism to management. Generally, institutional investors will prefer safe mainstream content, rather than controversial content that may make some of their investors unhappy. Similar incentives for safe mainstream content exist also for corporate media management. It also exists for individual owners, unless their personal politics and commercial interests are intermingled. Institutional ownership may affect content quality through greater pressures for short-term profitability. Yet, it may also shield managers from control by erratic principal o ­ wners. 6.7.3  Governmental Ownership

In many countries, there are public service television organizations that are either controlled directly, by the state, or indirectly, through politically appointed boards that may reflect the government in power or a more pluralistic makeup. These broadcasting organizations are quite often the largest and/or most influential media organization in their country. Also, around the world, many of the large incumbent telecom network companies, even after their privatizations (fully or partly) in the 1980s, have major majority ownership stakes held by their governments. This includes NTT in Japan (33% state ownership), Deutsche Telekom in Germany (32%), Orange in France (27%), China Telecom, China Unicom and China Mobile (100%), Svyazinvest in Russia (53%) and Telkom

in South Africa (50.7%). These governmental ownership stakes are particularly high in companies with fragmented private stock holdings. Other ownership models are those by employees (e.g. Der Spiegel), non-profit organizations such as foundations, churches or universities, or by community groups (e.g. Ohmynews in South Korea). 6.8

Capital Structure

We have looked in the previous sections at various funding options and ownerships. We now address the questions of what mixture, if any, is the best for a firm. This is usually described as the optimization of the “capital structure” —the mix of debt and equity capital of a firm. Some firms or some industries depend more on debt, others more on equity. Within each funding category, there are sub-sets, such as short-term and long-term debt, or public and private equity. The overall mix is the “capital structure.” This composition tends to change over time, depending on interest rates, share prices, and the growth cycle of companies and industries. The simplest measure of how much debt and equity a firm is using is the proportion of debt to total financing sources: Debt-to-Capital Ratio = Debt/(Debt + Equity).73 For example, the capital structure for incumbent US telecom firms is made up of about 60% debt74 and 40% equity. Their Debt-to-Capital Ratio = 60% Other terms for the same concept are “capital gearing,” “leverage,” or “debt-to-equity ratio”. The abovementioned debt-to-capital ratio of 60% (or 0.6) translates into a debt-to-equity ratio of: 60% = 1.5 40% Firms with no debt on their balance sheet are called “unlevered” companies. After the issuance

73 Damodaran, Aswath. “Finding the Right Financing Mix: The Capital Structure Decision.” New York University Stern School of Business July 1, 2004. 7  http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/pdfiles/cfovhds/capstr. pdf. 74 West, Rob. “Competing for Capital: The Diffusion of Bilateral Investment Treaties, 1960–2000.” Working Paper, University of Illinois. February 28, 2000.

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of debt, the firm becomes “levered” or “geared.” Startups usually have no access to debt and, by necessity, favor equity. Their debt/equity ratios are therefore lower than those of established companies, such as telecom operators. The median “new economy” firm in the 1990s in the UK even had negative net debt/equity ratios, i.e. deposits of cash exceeded gross debt, making net debt negative.75 6.8.1  Optimal Capital Structure

6

Where firms have access to various financing, is there an “optimal” mix between debt and equity?76 Companies organize their funding priorities according to several operational principles. 6.8.1.1

 he “Pecking Order” Approach T to Determining the Capital Structure

The “pecking order” (or ladder) approach is not a theoretically well-defined model but, rather, a practical method based on the reality of availability.77 Basically, a firm would use the cheapest method of financing first, up to the available limit, and then move to the next available funding option by ascending order of cost. According to one survey, seven out of ten CFOs prefer the “pecking order” method as a way to proceed.78 The “pecking order” of financing is typically as follows, by rank of priority: 1. Internal funding (retained earnings); 2. Debt; 3. Equity. Within each of these three classes, there would be an ordering of sub-categories—many of them discussed above—based on their after-tax cost and their availability. The pecking-order approach is practical. Furthermore, it can be used within

75 Brierley, P. G., and A. Kearns. “The Financing Patterns of New and Old Economy Firms in UK.” Bank of England. June 22, 2001. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  https://www.bis.org/publ/cgfs19boe1.pdf. 76 Lewellen, Katherina. “Capital Structure, cont.” MIT. July 1, 2004. Last accessed July 19, 2012. 7  http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/ Sloan-School-of-Management/15-402Finance-Theory-IISpring2003/ LectureNotes. 77 Shyam-Sunder, Lakshmi, and Stewart C. Myers. “Testing static tradeoff against pecking order models of capital structure.” Journal of Financial Economics 51 (1999): 219–244. 78 Asaf, Samir. Executive Corporate Finance. Harlow, Essex: FT Prentice Hall, 2004, 50–70.

a desired debt-to-capital ratio, by applying two pecking orders, one for debt and one for equity, within their respective optimal allocations. The shortcomings are several. A debt option may be cheap but still requires liquidity for repayment, otherwise it could put the company into insolvency. Or, the expectation of dropping interest rates and/or rising stock market prices may favor short-term debt as a placeholder.

Optimizing Company Value

6.8.1.2

Perhaps the major problem with the Miller-­ Modigliani analysis and the pecking order approach is that, if a company issues more debt, the equity gets riskier, and thus requires a higher risk-adjusted rate of return. Beyond some point, more debt will reduce the value of the firm.79 Therefore, when a corporation uses financial leverage (i.e. debt) properly, it can increase its overall market value. Introducing financial leverage into an unleveraged corporate capital structure will initially raise the market value (and then lower it) due to the change in overall returns to debt and equity holders. The company has a “sweet spot” of leverage to lower its cost of capital while simultaneously increasing its market value and share value. If the company increases leverage beyond this sweet spot, it will increase risk, and force investors and lenders to compensate by raising the interest they charge the company, which would raise its capital cost, lower its share value and, thus, the firm’s value.80, 81 In . Fig.  6.2, we can see how a firm’s optimal debt leverage is a tradeoff between the costs and benefits of borrowing.82 We can see how the firm’s overall value, represented by the curved solid line, begins at the level of the value of an unlevered firm. This is the firm’s value when it is using only equity to finance itself. As the graph curves upward, we can see the benefits from the lower cost of debt relative to equity and from the interest tax deductibility. This tax benefit is  

79 Smith, Dr. J. Herbert. “Analysis of Financial Statements.” University of New Brunswick. Last accessed July 19, 2012. 7  http://www.unb.ca/web/jhsc/ TME_courses/tme3013/ratios/index.htm. 80 Brealey, Richard A., and Stewart C. Myers. Principles of Corporate Finance. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. 81 Asaf, Samir. Executive Corporate Finance. Harlow Essex: FT Prentice Hall, 2004. 82 Myers, Stewart C., “The Capital Structure Puzzle.” The Journal of Finance 39, no. 3 (July, 1984): 575–592.

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155 6.8 · Capital Structure

..      Fig. 6.2  The Optimal Leverage Ratio

WACC

$3,200 $3,000 $2,800 $2,600

11.8% 11.3% 10.8% 10.3%

Firm value

$2,400 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%100%

After-Tax WACC %

Firm value ($m)

$3,400

9.8%

Debt to total assets ratio

a byproduct of using debt (whose interest cost is deductible), and it increases with additional leverage. These factors initially raise the firm’s value because they lower the firm’s overall cost of capital. But, if a company were to keep ramping up leverage (debt) too much, it would eventually suffer value erosion. As risk increases and, with it, the interest rate it must pay rises. The overall cost of capital rises, the firm’s value declines and share prices fall. At the top of the curve, firm value is maximized. That point identifies the optimal leverage.83 In . Fig. 6.2, the optimal financial leverage ratio is 34%. If the firm operated at this ratio, it would be maximizing the total benefit from its current overall value. According to this approach, the firm should stay at (or at least near) the optimal point in terms of capital structure. It should issue equity or cut back debt when leverage rises above the target level. It should buy back stock or issue debt when leverage falls below the target capital structure level.84 There are various ways to find the “sweet spot.” One method is to minimize the cost of capital. A firm would seek to operate at the lowest cost of capital across its several financial sources—the firm’s weighted average cost of capital (WACC).85

The WACC is a calculation of a company’s cost of capital where each source of capital is weighted in proportion to the amount of capital that it supplies to a company. A low WACC indicates that a corporation obtains capital inexpensively. Businesses will discount their cash flows at the WACC rate to determine the NPV of a project, or of the firm. Net Present Value = Present Value of cash flows, discounted at WACC

 

83 Shyam-Sunder, Lakshmi, and Stewart C. Myers. “Testing static tradeoff against pecking order models of capital structure.” Journal of Financial Economics 51 (1999): 219–244. 84 Lewellen, Katherina. “Capital Structure, cont.” MIT. July 1, 2004. Last accessed July 19, 2012. 7  http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/ Sloan-School-of-Management/15-402Finance-Theory-IISpring2003/ LectureNotes. 85 Fairchild, Richard. “An Investigation of the Determinants of BT’s Debt Levels from 1998–2002: What does it tell us about the Optimal Capital Structure?” Working Paper, University of Bath School of Management, February 2003. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.bath.ac.uk/ management/research/pdf/2003-03.pdf.

A company’s WACC is a function of two primary components: (1) the cost of the equity capital (Ke) and debt capital (Kd) that a firm employs, and (2) the mix of equity capital and debt capital used to finance a firm’s operations. The cost of debt (Kd) is given as the cost after tax deductions were made on the debt interest payments: WACC = (We ´ K e ) + (Wd ´ K d ) (1 - t ) We and Wd are the proportions of equity and debt capital, respectively, used to fund the firm’s operations; t is the tax rate. As an example of the application, assume a company with $100 million debt, $50 million market value of equity, 10% cost of debt, 20% cost of capital, 35% tax. This information yields: Debt to capital ratio = $100/$150 = 66% Equity to capital ratio = $50/$150 = 33% and WACC = ( 0.33 ´ 0.20 ) + ( 0.66 ´ 0.10 [1 - 0.35]) = 11% The relationship between the amount of leverage (debt to capital) and the expected rate of

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..      Fig. 6.3  Cost of Capital and Optimal Capital Structure

Expected Rate of Return

Cost of Equity

Weighted Average Cost of Capital Cost of Debt

6 AAA

10%

20%

BBB

A

30%

40%

50%

B

60%

70%

Debt/Capital Ratio

Optimal Capital Structure

return by investors and lenders is represented in . Fig. 6.3.86 The top line represents the cost of equity and the bottom curved line represents the cost of debt. The middle line is the weighted blend of both these financing costs: the WACC. During the initial leverage (debt/capital) ramp-up, the expected rate of return on debt stays constant, the expected rate of return on equity increases very slightly and the WACC falls due to the tax advantages of debt offsetting the slight increase in expected return on equity. But, as the leverage (debt/capital) increases (past 36% on the graph), things change. Both investors in debt and equity  

6.8.1.3

begin to demand higher returns for each incremental increase in leverage, because the firm and its debt become riskier. The WACC begins to rise accordingly. Thus, as a firm increases debt relative to equity, the average cost of capital decreases because debt is cheaper. However, rising debt will eventually lead to higher interest rates charged and to a lower stock price. The lowest WACC is at a 0.36 debt-to-capital ratio. Since the firm value is the firm’s income stream discounted by the WACC, with identical income streams the firm’s value is highest when the discounting by the WACC is lowest.

Case Discussion

The Financial Funding Mix TWIT The cheapest method of financing TWIT is for it to fund itself entirely using the corporate parent’s (Time Warner Media) debt. TWIT would choose the least expensive composition to fund itself. Based on the case discussion throughout this chapter, this funding would

include, in ascending order of cost: 55 $300 million in CPs at 2.24% after-tax; 55 $10 million in government loans at 2.42% after-tax; 55 $250 million through its line of credit (i.e. bank debt) at 3.50% after-tax;

86 Based on Morris, Matthew R. “Creating Shareholder Value Through Capital Structure Optimization.” Value Incorporated, 2001.

55 $333 million in convertible debt (i.e. bonds that convert into stock shares) at 4.13% after-tax; 55 $107 million in corporate longterm debt at 4.83% after-tax. The WACC for the funding would be 3.81%.

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157 6.8 · Capital Structure

SNIT We found SNIT’s optimal capital structure to be at the 30% debt-tocapital ratio. SNIT’s funding would be composed of: 55 $10 million in government loans at 2.42% after-tax; 55 $15 million in vendor financing at 8.75% after-tax;

55 $5 million in lease financing at 10.50% after-tax; 55 $3 million of internal funding at 15.02%; 55 $67 million limited partnership financing at 16.34%. SNIT would have a 15.15% cost of capital to raise $100 million. In comparison, TWIT has a 9.27%

6.8.2  The Lifecycle of Capital

cost of capital to raise $1 billion, a cost advantage of almost 40% over SNIT. A much lower funding cost and its higher available volume provide significant advantage to TWIT. This kind of advantage can only be overcome by SNIT through much greater innovation and lower operating costs.

Each firm must decide its optimal capital structure based on its specific needs and the needs of its industry. These needs and availabilities change, and depend on the stage of the firm’s life cycle. A capital structure must be analyzed regularly and adapted for specific scenarios in which the company finds itself. It may also need to be tailored to the expectations of investors. The financial needs of a firm are affected by cycles of the macro economy, of the industry and of the firm itself. The general business cycle affects investment needs, riskiness, costs, availability of funding, interest rates and share prices. The industry cycle is based on technology trends and market demand for new categories of services. Mobile telecommunications, smartphones and apps are an example. The telecom company Verizon invested a very substantial $30 billion from 2004 to 2007 in fiber optic lines. After the build-out of the desired fiber footprint, the company’s investment needs in fiber infrastructure declined considerably, to less than $1 billion per year in 2015.87 On the other hand, Verizon’s investment in wireless infrastructure, including spectrum license acquisitions, rose from $5.6 billion in 2004 to $11.7 billion in 2015.88 The third cycle is the company’s own progression. It typically consists of four phases: startup, growth phase, maturity and decline. During the

startup phase there is little debt. There is plenty of risk, little taxable income to make the tax deductibility useful, and lenders are cautious. But, in the growth phase, debt increases in the capital structure. During the maturity phase, the company will start to distribute higher dividends to shareholders, rather than invest that money, and will rely less on equity funding because debt will be inexpensive since the company is a good credit risk. In the decline phase of the company, internal financing becomes scarcer, equity financing becomes more costly, but the firm’s asset base permits an expansion of debt, though under less favorable conditions than before. The main sources of capital also follow the pattern of the company’s life cycle. In . Fig. 6.4,89 funding sources are plotted horizontally, representing the stage of company maturity. The vertical axis shows the degree of risk an investor faces.90 In the initial phases, angel investors and personal acquaintances both take a great deal of risk investing in the business, as very little is known about it. When the business matures slightly, venture capitalists may be available. In the growth phase, with a longer and stronger track record, banks and other financial institutions will provide debt financing. These investors also usually have a larger investment capital available. As the business keeps growing, an IPO may be issued that opens up equity funding. Together with higher-­quality commercial bank debt, these are the mainstays

87 Brodkin, Jon. “Verizon nears ‘the end’ of FiOS builds.” Ars Technica. January 23, 2015. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://arstechnica. com/business/2015/01/verizon-nears-the-end-of-fios-builds/. 88 Baburajan, K. “Verizon lowers telecom network Capex to $17.7 billion in 2016.” Telecomlead. January 21, 2016. Last accessed May 19, 2017. 7  http://www.telecomlead.com/4g-lte/verizon-lowers-telecomnetwork-capex-17-7-bn-2016-66805.

89 Partly based on Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234. 90 Using and supplementing Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

Structure

 

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..      Fig. 6.4 Funding Options over the Life Cycle of a Company

Founders, Friends, and Family High Level of investment risk assumed by investor

Business Angels

6

Venture Capitalists Limited partnership Private Equity IPO Government Loan Securitization Corp. Bonds SEO Lease Financing Commercial Banks CDs

Low Seed

Start-up

for the mature company. As its revenues grow, the self-financing component rises.91 In the decline phase, the asset base permits funding through debt backed by collateral and by the selling off of assets. 6.9

Outlook

As the examples of the Hollywood film industry and of the Silicon Valley technology startups demonstrate, financing techniques and practices for traditional and new media and information sector industries are a major factor for their health. Good ideas, creative concepts, R&D and personal energy are important, but they will usually go nowhere without funding. Creativity and innovation require a financial base. We have seen how these industries show a rising demand for financing. This is due to an increasing production of content, the growing complexity of electronic distribution networks, and greater and faster R&D cycles. Such financing is inherently risky.

91 Kelly, Peter. “Finance and Venture Capital Markets.” In Handbook of Product Service Development Communication and Information Technology. Eds. Timo Korhonen, and Antti Ainamo. New York: Springer, 2003, 211–234.

Early Growth

Established

The financing of media and information activities is therefore becoming an ever more central function. It requires effective financial understanding inside media and technology companies. And it requires financial institutions and business practices to channel funds from investors to firms and projects, and to provide a screening and monitoring of projects. Navigating financing techniques, flows and institutions is therefore a major factor for the strength of media activities and tech ventures. With an effective understanding of the system and its opportunities and pitfalls, a financial manager can make an important contribution to innovation and culture.

6.10

Review Materials

Issues Covered We have covered the following issues in this chapter: 55 Why capital investments in media and communications are high; 55 What different funding sources are available to established companies and startups;

159 6.10 · Review Materials

55 The pros and cons of debt financing; 55 The difference between short-term and long-­term financing; 55 The different types of debt sources that are available; 55 What the various bond ratings mean; 55 The impact of vendor financing and PFD deals; 55 How negative pickup deals work; 55 Why many projects use lease financing; 55 The impact of government financing; 55 The impact of debt financing on content; 55 How risk reduction strategies work; 55 How private equity and venture capital work; 55 How to set up limited partnerships; 55 The requirements for IPOs; 55 The opportunities and limitations of private equity and crowdfunding; 55 The difference between individual and institutional ownership; 55 How a company’s optimal capital structure can be determined.

Tools Covered We used these tools to address financing issues: 55 The Miller-Modigliani theory of the irrelevance of funding; 55 Capital budgeting; 55 Cost of internal funding; 55 Capital asset pricing model (CAPM); 55 Portfolio diversification and hedging; 55 Net present value and discounted cash flow; 55 Internal rate of return; 55 Duration matching; 55 Weighted average cost of capital (WACC); 55 Financial funding mix; 55 Pecking order approach; 55 Debt to capital and equity ratio; 55 Life cycle of financing.

6.10.1  Questions for Discussion ??   1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of debt for an Internet company? ??   2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of equity for a media company? When should a firm generally choose equity over debt, and debt over equity? ??   3. What role do institutional investors play in media companies? What accounts for an increasing role? ??   4. How does governmental funding of media vary across the world? Discuss the US, the EU and the Asian tigers. ??   5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a digital company going public— not only in relation to its management, but also its investors? Discuss the impact of IPOs on media content and conduct. ??   6. How does accessibility to capital vary across a media firm’s life cycle? ??   7. Discuss the pros and cons of financing and distributing a film independently vs. through a studio distributor. ??   8. Discuss the effect of availability of vendor/buyer finance and lease financing to different types of media firm. ??   9. Discuss the effects of different kinds of ownership on the way a media company is run. In what ownership model does management have the greatest autonomy? ?? 10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of internal funding. ?? 11. What aspects of finance in the media industry are different from other ­industries?

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6.10.2  Quiz ??   1. If a radio station sells its transmitter tower to a finance company and then leases it for its use, this is called a: A. Capital lease. B. Operating lease. C. Lease-back. D. Secondary lease.

6

??   2. Which is not a characteristic of the media industry that makes financing difficult? A. Periods of revenue from products are short. B. Period between investment outlay and revenue realization is short. C. Intangible nature of product makes it difficult to charge a price. D. Investments in pioneering technology are uncertain. ??   3. Which is not a characteristic of a junk bond? A. Usually offered by a company that has debt of > 4x EBITDA. B. Usually offered by a company that has a quick ratio > 1. C. Often issued by “fallen angel” ­companies. D. Has a default rate of 3–4%. ??   4. What are the characteristics of a negative pickup deal? A. Making a distribution deal before production gives crew and cast extra incentive to complete movie on time. B. Distributor must bear risk of film going over budget. C. Favors producers with a proven track record. D. Unsuccessful date. E. Does not require advanced financing. F. Both C and D. ??   5. Which one of the following is true about leasing as a form of financing? A. Reduces company’s ability to borrow. B. Temporarily increases debt on balance sheet. C. Accounts for more than half of all annual investment in equipment. D. Allows arbitrage of credit risk.

??   6. The most common and least expensive form of film financing is: A. Equity. B. Senior term debt. C. Subordinated debt. D. Revolving line of credit. ??   7. The largest source of equity for small firms is: A. Principal owner. B. Angel investors. C. Venture capital. D. Publicly raised equity. ??   8. What strategy is followed most often in achieving an optimal capital structure? A. Modigliani-Miller theory. B. Target capital structure. C. The pecking order of raising capital. D. No particular strategy comprises a majority of firms’ strategies. ?? 9. How do media companies often alter the pecking order? A. Resort to debt before equity. B. Rely more heavily on internal ­financing. C. Place equity before debt. D. They do not. ?? 10. Which is not a risk reduction strategy for a media product? A. Diversify revenue streams. B. Lengthen term of debt to attract more investors to the higher ­interest rate. C. Shift risk onto investors with equity offering. D. Develop derivative financing options as hedging devices. ?? 11. At what part of the firm life cycle is a firm most likely to use venture capital or angel finance? A. Startup. B. Growth. C. Mature. D. Decline.

161 6.10 · Review Materials

?? 12. Which of the following is a reason that a new startup company would not initially turn to a bank for a loan? A. Interest rates are very high and make a loan cost prohibitive for a startup company. B. The cost of hiring attorneys to prepare financial documents to secure a loan is too high for a startup company. C. New companies lack credit records, assets for collateral and other items banks look for when providing loans. D. Banks require an equity stake in young companies to provide loans, which raises the cost of the loan ­significantly. ?? 13. Which of the following is a limit on ­commercial paper? A. Issuers can only offer short-term CPs, with a limit of 270 days. B. Issuers can only offer interest up to 5%. C. Issuers are required to have a AA+ credit rating. D. Issuers are prohibited from offering CPs to individuals. ?? 14. Which of the following is not a reason a company would issue public equity? A. Equityholders of the company need capital and their shares are not easily tradeable in private equity. B. The firm wants to be able to attract and retain managers that would only be attracted if they received stock options and other incentives expected from a publicly traded company. C. It is much cheaper for a company to issue an IPO than to borrow funds from a bank, or to attract money from venture capitalists. D. A wider pool of investors is attracted and the company can raise more money. ?? 15. What is not an attribute of commercial papers (CP)? A. CP is a way for established companies to raise money for short ­periods. B. CP interest is paid at the maturity date.





C. The companies borrow money from financial institutions and issue CPs as promises to repay. D. CP is most appropriate for companies with steady cash flows or strong growth prospects.

?? 16. Which statement about vendor financing is correct? A. Vendor financing of media and digital activities is most developed in the film sector, perhaps because its funding requirements are the largest among content media. B. It reduces the debt on a company’s balance sheet and enables the firm to take on debt for other purposes. C. Under vendor financing the financer typically doesn’t influence the production in any way. D. Vendor financing in the film industry is also referred to as a negative pickup deal. ?? 17. Which statement is incorrect for Venture Capital (VC) Financing? A. VC firms finance new and rapidly growing companies. B. VC firms also assist in the development of new products or services. C. VC firms differentiate among several stages of startup financing. D. Inexpensive for startups as they don’t have to pay interest. ?? 18. One source of funding is often selffinancing from undistributed profits. Which statement about internal funding is incorrect? A. Transaction costs are lower relative to the insurance of securities. B. No supervision and review by banks. C. Internal funding has no cost to the company. D. Less disclosure of financial details that could benefit competitors. E. Self-financing has an impact on ­content and innovation.

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?? 19. Which statement about the CAPM is not correct? A. 12-month US treasury bonds are typically used to estimate the risk free rate of interest. B. A ß value of greater than one, indicates that the company is more volatile than the market. C. According to CAPM, a security’s expected return is equal to the risk free rate plus a premium. D. None of the above.

6

?? 20. What does the ß in the “capital asset pricing model” (CAPM) stand for? A. Estimated cost of capital. B. The company’s riskiness. C. Risk free rate of interest. D. Expected rate of return.

163 Quiz Answers

Quiz Answers

vv 11. A

vv  1. C

vv 12. C

vv  2. B vv  3. B vv  4. C vv  5. D vv  6. D vv  7. A vv  8. C vv  9. C vv 10. B

vv 13. A vv 14. C vv 15. D vv 16. A vv 17. D vv 18. C vv 19. D vv 20. B

6

165

Intellectual Asset Management 7.1

I ntellectual Assets – 166

7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3

 hat Are Intellectual Assets? – 166 W History – 166 H  ow Companies Organize Their Intellectual Property Management – 168

7.2

The Different Types of Intellectual Assets – 169

7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5

T rade Secret Protections – 169 C  ontract-Created Intellectual Assets – 171 Patents – 172 Trademarks – 173 Copyrights – 175

7.3

 he Commercialization of Intellectual T Assets – 178

7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4

 ow Important Is an Intellectual Asset? – 178 H Aligning Intellectual Assets with Strategy: Intellectual Asset Audits – 179 H  ow to Value Intellectual Assets – 179 Intellectual Asset Management – 181

7.4

C  hallenges to Intellectual Assets – 189

7.4.1 7.4.2

Piracy – 189 Protection Strategies – 190

7.5

C  ase Conclusion – 194

7.5.1

Case Discussion – 194

7.6

Outlook – 194

7.7

Review Materials – 195

7.7.1 7.7.2

 uestions for Discussion – 195 Q Quiz – 196



Q  uiz Answers – 199

© The Author(s) 2018 Eli M. Noam, Media and Digital Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72000-5_7

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Chapter 7 · Intellectual Asset Management

7.1  Intellectual Assets 7.1.1  What Are Intellectual Assets?

7

In this chapter, we will cover a key element of media and information management: how to create, protect and manage intellectual assets (IAs). IAs are more commonly referred to as intellectual property (IP) or intellectual property rights (IPRs), terms derived from a legal perspective. For business purposes, we should think of them as assets—items of value that are designed, invested in, produced, improved, valued, priced, sold, licensed, or exchanged. It is characteristic of information products that they are expensive to create but easy to duplicate. Technology makes it easier for a producer to create and distribute information, but it also makes it more difficult to protect information from unauthorized copying and distribution by rivals and users. This applies to new content as well as to new technology. Due to the difficulty in excluding others from use, the ability to collect payments is reduced and, with it, the incentives to create new information and innovation. These fundamental characteristics have led to the creation of the legal construct of IPRs. To discuss intellectual property one must first clarify, more generally, what “property” means. Property is the collection of ownership rights held by someone in an item, that are protected by the state. This “bundle”1 includes some or all of these rights: to use, consume, destroy, sell, rent, extract, and exclude. “Property” is a central feature of the economic system. Under feudalism, when land was the main resource, real property (i.e. land) was central to law and commerce, and defined the social and economic order of the era. In the industrial age, machinery and financial resources became all-important and “personal and financial property” became the focus of legal and managerial attention. In the information age, information is the key resource, and intellectual assets are an increasing center of economic activity and, hence, of management efforts. However, this area has been left primarily to lawyers and, until recently, it was under-appreciated as a managerial task.

We should start with a broad picture. Individually-­ held property, i.e. the notion of private ownership, is an alien concept to some cultures. For example, before European colonization most Native American tribes exercised a communal rather than personal ownership of land,2 though individuals or families personally owned items such as weapons, clothing and jewelry. Even in Western cultures, not everything is property—i.e. owned by someone. Much of the oceans, which constitute two-thirds of the world’s surface, are not owned by anybody, even by states. Space is another example. Also, many places and things are not owned privately but, rather, collectively—such as parks, roads, national forests, and military installations. Approximately 40% of the US land area is publicly owned.3 As late as the 1950s and 1960s, the expression “intellectual property” was rarely used4 and was applied narrowly. Certain creations with potential economic value were left outside the notion of “ownership,” such as dance steps, weather predictions, a great scientific idea, or business strategies. But, for each of these examples, the realm of intellectual property has expanded and private ownership is now being claimed. 7.1.2  History

Intellectual Property is not a new concept; it has been around for well over 500  years, at least. In 1469, the Venetian Senate granted John of Speyer (Spiro) the exclusive right to print classic works for a period of 5 years. This privilege ended soon with his death; freed from exclusivity, Venice printing flourished in subsequent decades and it became Europe’s major publishing center. Venice was also the first jurisdiction to grant, after 1450, patents on inventions, particularly in glass-making. In Britain, the statute of Anne (1710) created

2

3

4 1

Penner, J. E. “The Bundle of Rights Picture of Property.” UCLA Law Review 43, no. 3 (February 1996): 711–820.

Isakson, Hans R., and Shauntreis Sproles. “A Brief History of Native American Land Ownership.” In Indigenous Peoples and Real Estate Valuation. Eds. Robert A. Simons and Rachel Malmgren. New York: Springer, 2008, 63–75. Lobowski, Ruben N. et al. Major Uses of Land in the United States, 2002. Washington, DC: Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 2006. Scherer, Frederic M. “The political economy of patent policy reform in the United States.” Faculty Research Working Papers Series. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kennedy School of Government, October 2007.

167 7.1 · Intellectual Assets

property rights for authors and publishers.5 In the USA, the drafters of the Constitution of 1787 made special provisions for IP protection in Article I of the document: “Congress shall have the power…to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.” Though IPRs create incentives to innovate, they also encourage monopoly pricing. AZT, the first antiretroviral effective against AIDS, sold initially for $10,000, while ­incremental production costs were much lower.6 Many patients—or public health systems—could not afford such expensive drugs. Patents lead to high medicine prices and may prevent treatment of patients living in poor countries. On the other hand, without patent protection some of the drugs may not have been developed in the first place. It is similar for copyrights, where protection keeps prices way above marginal cost. The incremental cost to produce and ship a CD-ROM copy of the PC operating software Windows is about $2.40, including the disc, packaging, shipping and so on. For an electronic download version, incremental cost is close to zero, except for minor administrative expenses. But the price charged is $350 for professionals, $200 for residential use and $120 for students. Beyond affordability, IPRs can also create petty restrictions. For example, in 1996, the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) threatened to sue girl scouts organizations for singing campfire songs such as “This Land is Your Land” without obtaining a license and paying for it. Some large restaurant chains did not serenade their patrons with “Happy Birthday” since that ditty was claimed by Warner Music Group to be under copyright until 2030, despite its dubious origins. (Eventually, the copyright claim was invalidated in 2015 in a court challenge.) Every change in the property system is a change in the ownership of assets and resources,

5

6

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant provided an ethical rationale. Kant believed that an author has an inherent right to protection against unauthorized compulsion to speak, and that unauthorized publishing would violate the individual’s personal autonomy. Kant, Immanuel. “Of the Injustice of Counterfeiting Books (Von der Unrechtmaessigkeit des Buechernachdrucks).” Essays and treatises on moral, political, and various philosophical subjects. London, 1798. Scherer, Frederic M. “The political economy of patent policy reform in the United States.” Faculty Research Working Papers Series. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Kennedy School of Government, October 2007.

and is hence a fight over wealth and income in society. Therefore, it is not surprising that IP is an area whose growth has been accompanied by increasing controversy, both economic and political. Opponents argue that patents often reward very little innovation, stifle progress and suppress the free flow of information. Companies use them to block each other. Furthermore, critics state that patents and copyrights rights have become too broad, and give excessive rights to first movers, shutting out competition. Intellectual assets affect non-profit organizations, too. An example is the licensing income received from patents by Columbia University, which in 2008 was $134 million, highest among American universities7,8 according to the American University Technology Managers, and $115 million in 2014.9,10 This income benefitted its students and faculty. But, at the same time, the same university had a student body that topped a list by the film industry of film piracy at universities in the USA with 1198 “unauthorized uses of copyrighted material.”11,12 This kind of internal contradiction mirrors the similarly conflicted roles of many individuals: they are consumers of media and information, and yet they often are also producers of content of some value to others—as writers, managers, artists, or entrepreneurs. Often, they do not mind sharing their ideas and creations, but are not willing to let someone else “rip off ” their creations to make money. Despite the importance of patents and copyrights, most firms have no effective IA strategies. A 1998 survey of 360  US companies found that 71% admitted wasting patents through mismanagement. Another study showed that more than   7 Gordon, Larry. “How the UC system is making patents pay off.” Los Angeles Times. October 10, 2015. Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www. latimes.com/local/education/la-me-uc-patents-20,151,011-story.html.   8 National Academy of Inventors. “Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents 2015.” Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www. academyofinventors.com/pdf/top-100-universities-2015.pdf.   9 Gordon, Larry. “How the UC system is making patents pay off.” Los Angeles Times. October 10, 2015. Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www. latimes.com/local/education/la-me-uc-patents-20,151,011-story.html. 10 In 2015, Columbia was the ninth highest recipient of patents (119) among educational institutions in the world. National Academy of Inventors. “Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents 2015.” Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www.academyofinventors. com/pdf/top-100-universities-2015.pdf. 11 Fisher, Ken. “MPAA Names its Top 25 Movie Piracy Schools.” Law and Disorder. April 2, 2007. Last accessed June 9, 2010. 7  http://arstechnica. com/tech-policy/news/2007/04/mpaa-names-its-top-25-movie-piracyschools.ars. 12 Columbia University was followed by the University of Pennsylvania with 934, Boston University with 891, University of California, Los Angeles with 889, and Purdue University with 873.

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35% of US patents go unused by their owners, though they are potentially of value to others.13 The estimated value of wasted patents was $150 billion. The value of under-­utilized copyrights is vast, although even more difficult to estimate.

The questions for this chapter are what options exist for a media and information firm to create and protect its innovations? How can a firm optimize the benefits from its IAs? We will use the firm General Electric (GE) as the main example.

7.1.2.1  Case Discussion GE Intellectual Assets

7

In 2012, at its peak, GE was ranked the fourth largest firm in the world in Forbes Magazine’s Global 2000, based on a set of several metrics. The company was active in consumer electronics, aviation engines, appliances, financial services, energy, health and transportation. It was the most successful conglomerate in America. From 1981 to 2001, legendary CEO Jack Welch led the company. Welch raised GE’s market value by 4000% to make it the most valuable company in the world. In 1999, he was picked by Fortune Magazine as the “Manager of the Century.”14 GE was the 4th largest company in the world by profits, 7th for management, 5th for global brand, 15th “most admired,” and 19th for “most ­innovative.” It had 333,000 employees working in 160 countries. By 2018, however, the sprawling company was performing poorly and narrowed its focus by divesting several of its operations. GE operates with 12 major divisions, each holding substantial

autonomy. It acquired the electronics technology firm RCA in 1986 and, with it, its subsidiary, the major media company NBC. It also acquired the Universal Pictures film studio from French video game company Vivendi in 2004. GE then sold control of the combined NBCUniversal to the major cable firm Comcast in 2012. NBCUniversal is one of the world’s leading media and entertainment companies. The NBC Television Group consists of the NBC network with its many inhouse produced shows in entertainment, news and sports; numerous owned and operated local stations; the Spanish-language channel Telemundo; and many cable channels such as MSNBC, CNBC, E!, Bravo, Syfy and the USA Network. Universal Pictures is a major motion picture company. It also owns Universal Theme Parks & Resorts, a popular entertainment destination, and Dreamworks Animation. Hulu. com is an online video service offering TV shows, movies and clips, of which NBC owns 30%.15

7.1.3  How Companies Organize

Their Intellectual Property Management

With the importance of IAs rising, the question is how companies organize the management of this area. Often, the function is delegated to the legal

13 Rivette, Kevin G., and David Kline. Rembrandts in the Attic: Unlocking the Hidden Value of Patents. Boston: Harvard Business School, 2000, 122. 14 Comstock, Beth. “Best Advice: What I Learned From Jack Welch Hanging Up on Me.” LinkedIn. February 26, 2013. Last accessed July 16, 2013. 7  https://www.linkedin.com/today/post/article/2013022611302119,748,378-best-advice-what-i-learned-from-jack-welch-hanging-upon-me.

GE owns valuable trademarks. It holds trade secrets, confidentiality agreements and business methods for which it owns business process patents. It holds patents for complex technology. GE received 1652 patents in 2016 alone. In 2012, it was the third largest patent creator in the USA.16, 17 GE spent $5.5 billion on R&D in 2016. In just one year, 2011, it collected 184 “green energy” patents (the highest number of such patents received in the USA).18 Over the course of its corporate history, GE has amassed more than 67,500 patents. GE was a major content producer when it owned NBC and Universal Pictures, holding a vast collection of valuable copyrights. There are several questions for discussion: 55 How does GE manage these assets? 55 How does GE protect and exploit its innovations? 55 How does GE deal with the property rights of others?

department—the people who deal with a company’s contractual rights and obligations. Other companies assign different types of IP to different departments. For patents, the R&D unit is in

15 NBCUniversal. “This is NBCUniversal.” Last accessed July 15, 2013. 7  http://www.nbcuni.com/corporate/about-us/. 16 Anderson, Ash. “IBM, King of the Patents.” SFGate. January 16, 2013. Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www.sfgate.com/business/fool/article/ IBM-King-of-the-Patents-4199052.php. 17 GE. “GE Reports.” March 8, 2010. Last accessed June 13, 2013. 7  http:// www.gereports.com/twenty-thousand-patents-this-decade-andcounting/. GE list of its patents (over 20,000 in a decade) can be viewed on FreshPatents.com. 18 GE. “GE Reports.” April 13, 2012. Last accessed June 13, 2013. 7  http:// www.gereports.com/ge-tops-clean-energy-patent-list/.

169 7.2 · The Different Types of Intellectual Assets

charge; for trademarks, the marketing unit;19 for licensing, contracts, and infringements, the Legal Counsel; for trade secrets, the HR department;20 and for valuation, the corporate finance group. Whatever the company’s organizational structure, it is clear that collaboration between various departments within a company is essential, often implemented through an IA review team with representatives from all groups.21, 22

. Fig. 7.124 ranks them in terms of frequency and

7.1.3.1  Case Discussion

7.2.1  Trade Secret Protections

How GE Organizes Its Intellectual Asset Function GE’s IA function is led by a Chief Intellectual Property Counsel at the corporate vice-president level, an upgrade of the position in rank from what it had previously been. That person reports to the Corporate General Counsel. All 12 GE business groups have a dedicated IP division,23 which includes a Head of Intellectual Property, Senior Intellectual Property managers, a legal counsel and others. At the corporate level, GE Licensing is in charge of outbound patents and trademarks. Inbound licensing is handled by the units in need of a license. GE also has a Central IP Group, which supervises trademarks and foreign patent filings. In the 1990s, GE changed its accounting practices, providing an incentive to its individual units to generate licensing revenue. License fees received were credited from the corporate level back to the business unit that had created the IA.

7.2  The Different Types

of Intellectual Assets

One can distinguish five basic types of IAs: trade secret protections, contract-created rights, patents, trademarks and copyrights. The pyramid in

 

difficulty in creation. Patents are fairly rare and very difficult to obtain. Trademarks are easier to get but offer less protection. Copyrights are created frequently and easily, but have limited protections. Most abundant are trade secrets, which will now be discussed.

By one estimate, 90% of overall commercial value in IA is found in trade secrets.25 A trade secret is information which is not already wellknown publicly, which benefits a business commercially and which the owner has taken reasonable measures to keep secret. For example, the fast food chain KFC keeps its Kentucky fried chicken recipes secret. Only a handful of people are told the recipe after signing strict confidentiality agreements. KFC goes so far as to use different companies to blend the spices together so that no company has the complete recipe. Firms may use trade secrets when it is not feasible to obtain a patent. Some creations

Patents Trademarks Copyrights Contract created rights Trade Secrets

19 Tao, John et al. “Developing an Effective Strategy for Managing Intellectual Assets.” Research-Technology Management 48, no. 1 (January/ February 2005): 50–58. 20 Managing Intellectual Property. “25 ways to be a more effective TM manager.” May 1, 2006. Last accessed May 22, 2017. 7  http://www. managingip.com/IssueArticle/1254631/Archive/25-ways-to-be-a-moreeffective-TM-manager.html. 21 Thomas, Brad. “Intellectual Property Management Tips.” The CPA Journal 73, no. 8, (August 2003): 10. 22 “Meeting of the Minds.” Risk Management 49, no. 12, (December 2002): 28. 23 Wild, Joff. “The GE Revolution.” Intellectual Asset Management. (August/ September, 2004): 25–28.

..      Fig. 7.1  Hierarchy of intellectual property rights by frequency

24 Poltorak, Alexander I., and Paul J. Lerner. Essentials of Intellectual Property. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. 25 Anton, James J. “Little Patents and Big Secrets: Managing Intellectual Property.” RAND Journal of Economics 35, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 1–22.

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are not readily patentable; for example, David Copperfield’s magic tricks or Coca Cola’s syrup formula. But many patentable inventions have not been submitted for a patent. The reasons are that companies ask themselves whether it worth trying to get a patent for 20 years, spend considerable money and time to obtain it and, in the process, disclose the invented technology thereby risking imitation, particularly from abroad. Or is it better, faster, safer, and cheaper to use trade secrets? This is particularly the question in those areas of technology where innovation is rapid and accelerating, and where patents are less important than a head start which is helped by adequate measures of trade secret protection.26 This helps, in particular, where innovation exists in the production process itself. Here, secrecy can be better protected internally than for consumer products that circulate widely and can be reverse-­engineered. Keeping innovations as trade secrets avoids the costs of applying for patents and the disclosure of the technology to rivals. But it is not cost free. There are costs associated with protecting the secret. The more valuable the trade secret, the more a firm should spend to protect it,27 by deterring theft and inadvertent disclosure. There are several approaches to protecting trade secrets. One is physical security, such as guards, locks and paper shredders, as well as

locked document files. There is electronic security, including password protection, firewalls and so on. Employee background checks and training are part of HR security. There are non-disclosure agreements with employees and business partners (discussed later), as well as internal access and document control. Obtaining confidential information about a rival’s plans and products is not an offense as long as it does not involve a criminal act, such as breaking and entering, or bribery. In many countries, the theft of trade secrets is a criminal offense and is punishable by substantial penalties. To remedy some trade secret breaches, a firm can use its lawyers to obtain a court order (injunction) that aims to stop the beneficiaries or perpetrators of the breach. To discourage frivolous applications for such an order, the firm usually has to post a substantial bond, which costs money. Firms whose trade secrets were violated can also sue for damages, including punitive damages. Trade secrets and their laws do not prevent “reverse engineering.”28 Reverse engineering is used to analyze how a competitor’s product works, or how it is made, and to develop similar or interoperable products. This is common in software, games, consumer electronics and microchips. Where no patent exists, the reverseengineered copycat product is perfectly legal.

7.2.1.1  Case Discussion GE and Its Trade Secrets GE possesses a wide array of highly confidential information that is important for its business. It includes contract terms for deals, the manufacturing processes for jet engines, primetime TV schedules, business plans, technology in development, story ideas, royalty rates and much more. In 1997, GE charged a former employee of using the

confidential knowledge he acquired while working for GE in order to start his own company. A Chinese court agreed with GE but imposed a fine, at only $120,000, a small sum relative to the competitive gain and business volume obtained by the Chinese company.29 In another lawsuit, General Electric v. Sung (1994), the company won protection for

26 Anton, James J. “Little Patents and Big Secrets: Managing Intellectual Property.” RAND Journal of Economics 35, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 1–22. 27 Friedman, David D., William M. Landes, and Richard A. Posner. “Some Economics of Trade Law,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 5, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 61–72.

trade secrets used to manufacture synthetic industrial diamonds.30 The defendant was a synthetic diamond expert who worked for GE in the 1980s. He pleaded guilty to stealing numerous documents and trade secrets from GE; he was sentenced to a lenient six months of house detention and fined $200,000, plus another $120,000 in restitution. The firm

28 NPD Solutions. “What Is Reverse Engineering?” Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  http://www.npd-solutions.com/reverse-engineering.html. 29 People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Commerce. “GE Wins Trade Secret Infringement Case against Jiuxiang.” Intellectual Property Protection in China, November 12, 2007. Last accessed June 1, 2011. 7  http://www. chinaipr.gov.cn/casesarticle/cases/caseothers/200711/247674_1.html. 30 New York Times. “GE Wins a Stolen Secret.” August 3, 1993. Last accessed October 5, 2010. 7  http://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/03/business/gewins-on-stolen-secret.html.

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which bought the information was a Korean company named Iljin Corp, but no damages were awarded against it.31 Complaints go both ways. GE has also been the subject of trade

secret litigation as a defendant. In 1997, the Dow Chemical Company sued GE for theft of trade secrets. Dow claimed that GE employed 14 engineers who previously had worked at Dow, and put them to

work on similar and competing projects.32 Dow’s former head of plastics sales and marketing had taken a confidential Dow document and used it after he started work with GE. GE settled the case.

7.2.2  Contract-Created

taxi driver who overhears privileged information. In other instances, CNCs are simply a “golden hanshake”—a way to pay a great deal of money to Contractual agreements are a major practical way former top managers beyond their term of actual of protecting many trade secrets, in particular work for the firm. Software companies create contract-generthose that cannot be copyrighted or patented. The law expects employees to be loyal to their employ- ated IP rights by way of a “shrink-wrap” contract. ers, and this includes not disclosing trade secrets The seller considers users to have agreed to and to competitors, even without any particular signed to be bound by a contract once they open the agreements. However, specific agreements can be shrink-­wrap packaging. The same term applies made to toughen confidentiality requirements of to software that is downloaded. In order to be employees, to spell out restrictions and penalties, valid, such contracts must be stated in a conand to put them on notice that they must not dis- spicuous, legible and printable manner, and the user must have the opportunity to turn it down. close sensitive information. Companies thus attempt to create contract- (This is usually not much of a realistic option, based IAs by non-disclosure agreements (NDAs), even assuming that a user will peruse a lengthy work-for-­hire agreements, and covenants to not-­ agreement.) Ideas can also be the subject of contractual IA compete (CNCs). These are also known as “confidentiality agreements.” Such contracts require protections. A writer who pitches a story idea to employees to refrain from activities that compete a studio or publisher is vulnerable to theft, since with their employer after their employment ends ideas are not protected under copyright law. and, for others involved, such as potential inves- However, a story idea can be protected by making tors or partners, not to make use of the informa- it the subject of a contract, where a film producer tion gained.33 However, many NDAs and CNCs agrees not to use the story idea presented except are actually legally invalid and, hence, unenforce- with those who pitched it. Realistically, a strugable. They must be limited in duration and apply to gling writer is usually in no position to demand specified and relevant information. Unreasonable a signed advance agreement from an influential parts of a contract are voided by judges as being producer. A less threatening approach is to make contrary to good public policy. They would make the producer orally agree to confidentiality, in the it difficult for an employee to quit and could, presence of other participants who could be wit34 for example, prevent former employees from nesses. An agent who does repeat business with ever working again in their chosen field. CNCs the producer adds a layer of protection. The writer are typically held valid for up to three years. In could start by saying something like: “I want to addition, confidentiality agreements do not cover make sure you understand that I am telling you third parties that have no obligations, such as a this idea with the understanding that it is confidential and, if you decide to use it, I expect to receive reasonable compensation.” The producer will probably nod affirmatively or say “sure,” and 31 Kennedy, John H. “Jury rules Korean company misused GE diamond this would create an agreement. The writer should secrets.” Boston Globe. July 31, 1993. Last accessed May 25, 2017. follow up with a polite letter restating verbal 7 https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8238711.html.

Intellectual Assets

 

32 Gilpin, Kenneth N. “Dow and G.E. Resolve Suit on Theft of Trade Secrets.” New York Times, April 10, 1997. 33 Anawalt, Howard C., and Elizabeth F. Enayati. IP Strategy Complete Intellectual Property Planning, Access and Protection. Eagan, MN: West Publishing, 1999, 536–537.

34 Litwak, Mark. Contracts for the Film & Television Industry. Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, 1998.

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agreements made in the meeting. But, if the producer does not agree, warning lights should go off and the author may choose not continue disclosing information. That said, it is not easy to define what constitutes the theft of an idea. Story elements are often similar. Not everyone who writes a play about two young lovers from hostile families has stolen the idea from Shakespeare (who, in turn, was not the first to come up with the story). It has been claimed that “there are only six basic plots.” Some instances of parallelism may be quite innocent. Others are not. Media firms have been subject to legal challenges from authors who believe they have been plagiarized. To reduce such lawsuits, media firms will often not review unsolicited manuscripts unless submitted through a reputable agent or other trusted intermediary. 7.2.3  Patents 7.2.3.1  Patent Overview

The term “patent” is derived from Latin, meaning “to lay open.” It was applied to many rights— such as offices, military commissions, titles, status and monopolies—conferred by the ruler, often in return for payments or some other service to the Crown. In its modern and narrower meaning, a patent is the grant of an exclusive right to make (or use, sell, import, or license) an invention. The grantee of a patent has the exclusivity for the production and use of the product, or process. In return, he must disclose details of the invention. There are several ways to make money from a patent. In particular, companies can use it, sell it (assignment), rent it (licensing), or not use it at all but instead prevent rivals from using it. After a government agency grants a patent, the product is protected typically for 20 years. But, since patented technology tends to become quickly outdated in many fields, the average economic life of a patent is said to be 5 years.35 After the patent expires, the innovation is in the “public domain,” and anyone can use it without permission.

35 Poltorak, Alexander I. “Valuing Patents as Market Monopolies.” Patent Strategy & Management 4, no. 5 (September 2003).

Inventors who obtain patents have a monopoly on the exploitation of their innovation, which helps recoup research and development costs. The patent also adds credibility to a startup venture. However, the downsides of patenting are, as mentioned, that not only must inventors disclose details of the invention, but they also shoulder the high cost of obtaining and protecting the patent. A patentable invention can be a product, a process, a method, a composition of matter, a design, or a plant. Innovations that cannot be patented include ideas (“sail westward to reach India”), laws of nature (E = MC2), mathematical formulas, unsafe drugs and surgical techniques. Albert Einstein could not patent his scientific discoveries, but he obtained eight patents with another famous physicist, Leo Szilard, for something as mundane as a refrigerator pump. However, the recent patentability of software and “business methods” edges toward patents for formulas and ideas. Other things that cannot be patented include inventions for illegal purposes (e.g. devices to counterfeit money) and naturally occurring substances, plants and animals. 7.2.3.2  How to Get a Patent

Patents are granted by governments through a patent and trademark office (PTO). The process typically takes between two and four years. Examiners search the databanks to determine if an invention is new. The inventors need not actually construct the invention or demonstrate that it works, as long as they can describe plausibly how one could make it work. In theory, the description must allow a skilled person to make and use the invention, but patents are often complex, under-described and hard to understand, often on purpose. The PTO usually responds to the application within 12–18  months after the application. Typically, the patent office rejects most of the claims, which have often been drawn over-broad to maximize coverage. The inventor and patent lawyer then dispute the ruling, resulting in giveand-take between the inventor and the PTO, and a reinstated application, typically with a narrower focus. Due to this complex interplay, only one-fifth of patent applications in the USA were filed without the assistance of a patent lawyer. To get a US patent typically costs between $10,000 and $25,000. To obtain additional patents in other countries costs a further $10,000 to $20,000 per

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country.36 One study estimated that a European Patent Office filing valid for 13 EU countries costs an average of €30,000 per patent.37 7.2.3.3  Case Discussion GE and Its Patents GE’s first patent was to Thomas Edison, initiator of General Electric, for electric lights using a carbon filament (1880). Over the first half of the twentieth century, GE won more patents than any other US company and, over the course of its corporate history, GE has amassed more than 67,500 ­patents.38, 39 GE spent $5.5 billion on R&D in 2016, in areas such as aviation, renewable energy and power, and transportation.40 The majority of GE’s many thousands of patents probably have little value. Even so, the sizable patent portfolio represents a significant deterrent to competitors.

7.2.3.4  Patent Infringements

Applying for patents is not cheap, but the cost of maintaining them can be much higher. If the patent has commercial value, it will attract imitators. The inventor will have to defend the patent in the courts. Often, the cost of litigation is larger than the revenue the inventor may subsequently earn from royalties or licensing. A patent infringement occurs if another person uses the elements of the “claims” of a granted patent. To stop them, the original inventor can obtain a court injunction (a cease-and-desist order), seek payment for damages, or demand the return of up to three times the infringer’s profits (treble damages). Microsoft had to pay IBM $30 million in a patent infringement suit. The patent holder need not actually produce the invented product or process to claim infringement. Companies can just use their patents to block somebody else. Patent

36 Quinn, Gene. “Overview of the US Patent Process.” Patents & Patent Law. February 15, 2008. Last accessed June 15, 2010. 7  http://www.ipwatchdog.com/patent/patent-prosecution/. 37 Von Pottelsberghe, Bruno. Lost Property: The European Patent System and Why It Doesn’t Work. Brussels: Bruegel Blueprint Series, 2009. 38 General Electric. “Fact Sheet.” Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  http://www. ge.com/company/factsheets/corporate.html. 39 ifi Claims Patent Services. “2016 U.S. Patent Trends & Insights.” January 6, 2017. Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  https://www.ificlaims.com/news/ view/ifi-claims/2016-u-s-patent-trends.htm. 40 General Electric. GE 2016 Annual Report. Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  https://www.ge.com/ar2016/assets/pdf/GE_AR16.pdf.

holders can then threaten to shut down the operations of other companies.41 For many years, large companies rarely sued each other over patents. But, today, it is normal. “Patent trolls” are firms that buy or file patents and later sue other firms in their field.42 They buy patents and operate in plaintiff-friendly states or countries.43 Patent infringement suits grew in the USA from an annual 1500  in the 1990s to more than 3000 in the 2000s. Complex patent trials can easily cost over $5 million. The average cost to challenge a patent is $1.2 million; thus, it is often cheaper and faster to pay royalties than to challenge a patent. Most suits are settled before the trial. In trials, and even with the ability of the challenger to the claimed patent to seek a friendly jury, the defenders of the patent win 58% of copyright infringement trials and 68% of jury trials.44 Protecting patents is relatively more costly for small firms than for large firms. Small companies, even with solid patents, can be overwhelmed by legal challenges from deep-pocketed firms who tie them up while catching up in their R&D, or by patent trolls with spurious claims but with the ability to create delay. The risk of a challenge to a vital patent has led to the emergence of IP insurance. This strengthens a small firm’s bargaining position in licensing deals, since the license is more secure.45 7.2.4  Trademarks

Trademarks are another major category of intellectual assets.  A trademark is a word, name, phrase, sound, logo, or symbol used to identify a company and to distinguish its products and services. The aim of a trademark is to protect the

41 Griffin, Greg. “System patently out of date, some inventors complain A CU symposium dissects U.S. patent procedures in light of an explosion in technological innovation.” Denver Post. April 10, 2006. 42 Chapman, Glenn. “Patent wars plague Internet Age, add innovation tax.’” The Sydney Morning Herald. April 16, 2012. Last accessed October 22, 2012. 7  www.smh.com.au/it-pro/business-it/patent-wars-plagueinternet-age-add-innovation-tax-20120416-1x2ej.html. 43 Crovitz, L. Gordon. “Google, Motorola and the Patent Wars.” The Wall Street Journal. August 22, 2011. Last accessed October 22, 2012. 7  http://online.wsj.com/article/SB100014240531119036394045765184 93092643006.html. 44 Poltorak, Alexander I., and Paul J. Lerner. Essentials of Intellectual Property. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. 45 Lanjouw, Jean O., and Mark Schankerman. “Protecting Intellectual Property Rights: Are Small Firms Handicapped?” The Journal of Law and Economics 47, no. 1 (April 2004): 45–74.

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investment in a name or logo to build reputation and brand, avoid confusion by consumers, or create brand awareness. Examples of trademarked terms are “Windows 10,” “Disney World,” or “iPhone.” Some names started out for distinct products by a company but were not registered. They became generic over time and lost protection. Examples are aspirin, cellophane, escalator, kerosene, yo-yo, zipper and trampoline. In consequence, companies now make major efforts to clarify that the names of products that are used in everyday language—such as Xerox, Kleenex, or Band Aid—are identified as distinctive trademarks and use a clarifying qualification such as “Xerox copier” or “Kleenex tissue.” How does one obtain a trademark? Typically, trademark registration goes through a country’s patent and trademark office. Such PTO grants the use of the registration symbol (R in a circle). But there are also “common-law” trademarks, for which no registration is required. An unregistered trademark holder can generally only defend in the area in which it does business, not necessarily in the entire country. Also, it cannot sue to recover damages; it can only prevent the use of the name or logo. The symbol “TM” is used for unregistered trademarks. This also prevents others from using the same or similar marks. In Europe, a trademark regulation was passed in 1993 that made a trademark valid throughout the EU and established the European Trademark Office in Alicante, Spain. In the USA, Europe and Japan, official trademark registration lasts ten years and can be renewed forever. But, if a trademark is not used for two years (five years in the EU), a presumption of abandonment is created. What kind of words can a firm register as a trademark and thus get legal protection of some exclusivity? Easiest to protect are arbitrary new words, such as Xerox.46 According to photography pioneer George Eastman, a good trademark should be short, easy to spell, punchy and mean

46 Gardner, Steven. “Basics of Trademark Law and Trademark Registration Procedures for the General Corporate Practitioner.” Campbell Law Observer. April 1, 1999.

absolutely nothing—such as his company’s name “Kodak”. Trademark names to avoid, because they are hard to protect, are personal and family names, nicknames, initials, or words that describe a product’s characteristics or location. Personal names can get protection if they become distinct, such as “Ben & Jerry’s” for ice cream (but not for a garage, especially if the owners are indeed named that way, and avoid misleading customers to believe that they are connected to the ice cream company).47 To create trademark names, there are name consultants, websites and software programs such as NameStormers. They also offer to screen for meaning in other languages, avoiding the problems of the French soft drink Pschitt. Beyond names, there are trademarks for unique symbols, for phrases such as “Don’t leave home without it,” for musical jingles, for distinctive colors associated with a company and even for odors. One can trademark a film or book title, if it has acquired a distinct secondary meaning.48 Internationally, trademarks are covered by the Singapore Treaty concluded in 2006, which established a regulatory framework of common standards.49 If a company is regularly doing business in another country, a trademark registration there may help to protect it.50 Companies may spend much effort on protecting their trademarks. At the consumer products company Unilever, the trademark team alone consists of 54 professionals based in three different countries.51

47 Elias, Stephen and Kate McGrath. “Trademark Legal Care for Your Business & Product Name.” Berkeley: Nolo Press, 2010. 48 Greene, K. J. “Abusive Trademark Litigation and The Incredible Shrinking Confusion Doctrine – Trademark Abuse in the Context of Entertainment Media and Cyberspace.” Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 27, no. 2 (2004): 608–642. 49 New International Treaty. WIPO Magazine. April 2006. (An earlier common framework was the “Madrid Protocol,” which offered a trademark owner in one country the ability to obtain registration in many other foreign countries.) 50 Internicola, Charles. “What Are The Benefits of The International Trademark Registration Process?” Charles N. Internicola, Business and Franchise Lawyer, 2011. Last accessed June 2, 2011. 7  http://www.franchiselawsolutions.com/faqs/what-are-the-benefits-of-the-internationaltrademark-registration-process.cfm. 51 Managing Intellectual Property. “25 ways to be a more effective TM manager.” May 1, 2006. Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  http://www. managingip.com/IssueArticle/1254631/Archive/25-ways-to-be-a-moreeffective-TM-manager.html.

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7.2.4.1  Case Study GE Trademarks GE has over 2000 registered trademarks in the USA alone. GE’s primary trademark since 1900 has been the well known “GE” monogram, with the stylized letters “GE” inside a circle with four curlicues (. Fig. 7.2).52 In 2003, BusinessWeek ranked the GE brand the fourth most valuable in the world. GE trademarks the actual letters “GE” across many different industries, from medical technologies to fuel cells to chemical research. When it owned NBCUniversal, GE held many iconic trademarks of  

entertainment media, such as the NBC peacock and chime jingle, and Universal Studios’ globe, both recognizable to most TV and film viewers. GE also held the trademarks owned by Universal, including those for films and TV series such as Jurassic Park, Magnum P.I.,53 The Tonight Show and Saturday Night Live. Not only is the name Saturday Night Live protected, but NBC also trademarked the initials of “SNL,” a nickname by which the show is commonly known.

In 2011, a subsidiary of the office supply chain Staples reached a deal with NBC Universal to create a “Dunder Mifflin” paper brand that was based on the fictional paper company of the popular TV series The Office. NBC receives 6% of Staples’ revenue from its paper sales under the Dunder Mifflin brand name. The cases of paper are sold (at a price that is well above market price) for $65 each, so NBC gets $3.90 for each case of paper reams sold.54

Copyright is the property right created by law that grants to the creator of an original work the exclusive rights for its use and distribution. It originally covered books and then expanded far beyond printed works to almost any form of expression, including dance, music, paintings, photographs, movies, software, TV shows, sports, computers,

architectural sketches and computer chip designs. In music, for example, these rights include reproducing, distributing and making copies of derivative works based upon the copyrighted work, performing publicly and more. Copyright gives the owner, for a certain period, exclusive rights to use (or to not use) a work, and to transfer ownership of the work. After that period, the work moves into the “public domain.” As mentioned earlier, the first copyright privilege was issued in Venice in 1469. In 1710, the first copyright law was passed in England, known as the “Statute of Anne,” after the contemporary English queen. In 1787, the US Constitution listed the protection of authors as one of the specific powers of federal government, and the first US copyright law was passed in 1790, among the very first pieces of legislation at the federal level. Exclusive rights were given for 14  years, renewable for a further 14 years. But, by the twenty-first century, both American and European copyrights had lengthened considerably. In 1962, US copyrights were extended to 28  years, renewable for

52 Intellectual Property Watch. “Inside Views: General Electric’s View on Green IP And Technology.” June 12, 2009. Last accessed August 1, 2012. 7  http://www.ip-watch.org/2008/06/12/inside-views-general-electricsview-on-green-ip-and-tech/.

53 LegalForce Trademarkia. “Magnum.” July 15, 2013. Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  http://www.trademarkia.com/magnum-73281111.html. 54 LoGiurato, Brett. “Dunder Mifflin Paper Comes to Life as NBC, Staples Strike Licensing Deal.” International Business Times. November 28, 2011. Last accessed June 18, 2013. 7  http://www.ibtimes.com/dunder-mifflinpaper-comes-life-nbc-staples-strike-licensing-deal-375734.

..      Fig. 7.2  GE trademarked logo

7.2.5  Copyrights 7.2.5.1  Copyright Overview

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an additional 28  years. Over the next 40 years, the US Congress extended the lengths of copyrights 11 times. In 1998, the Sonny Bono Act— named in commemoration of its chief sponsor, the Congressman and pop singer (of the duo Sonny and Cher) who died in a skiing accident— added another 20 years to the previous periods of 50 years beyond the life of the author, and 75 for works of corporate authorship. These are very long periods, especially since the economic value of most copyrighted works is far shorter than these extensive periods of protection. But there are notable exceptions, among them creations whose authors and artists died in the early or middle part of the 20th century, but whose works still produce income today. This includes films by Charlie Chaplin and Walt Disney, which benefitted from the 20-year retroactive extension. Other beneficiaries were the heirs to Edward Munch, Glen Miller, Wassily Kandinsky, Jerome Kern, Hank Williams, Buddy Holiday, Albert Camus, Ernest Hemingway and Ian Fleming. A copyright notice contains three elements: the symbol for or word “copyright,” the year, and the name of the copyright owner. Use of the © mark is not necessary. However, in an infringement lawsuit the extent of how much notice is given will affect the size of damages that would be awarded. To obtain a copyright, no formal registration is necessary. But if there is no registered copyright, one cannot usually sue for damages but only stop the copying and distribution. Registration provides evidence of the creation and is a notice to others that they cannot use the work. This is especially necessary for screenplays and manuscripts that circulate. While contract-based protections such as nondisclosure agreements are also available, registration provides good evidence in a potential court case.55 To register for a formal copyright, the owner sends a copy of the work to the Copyright Office (in the USA, at the Library of Congress), files a copyright registration application and pays a registration fee.

55 Litwak, Mark. “Frequently Asked Questions: Copyright.” Mark Litwak’s Entertainment Law Resources. Last accessed June 27, 2011. 7  http:// www.marklitwak.com/faq/copyright.html.

7.2.5.2  What Can Be Copyrighted?

Many things can be copyrighted. Literary and dramatic works, sound recordings, choreographic works, pictures, graphics and sculptural works, motion pictures, computer software, names (and logos) of programs, or a program format and set designs can all be protected by copyright trademark. After 1984, copyright protection was provided in the USA and other countries for mask works (the original etching) of semiconductor chips, providing protection for ten years. What cannot be copyrighted? An idea or a fact, by themselves, cannot get a copyright, though the actual expression of the idea or fact is protected. But, if a different wording is used for the idea, there is no copyright violation, at least not in America. Simple lists of facts do not get a copyright, for example, phone directories arranged alphabetically. That was decided by the US Supreme Court in 1991 when it denied copyright protection for databases that did not involve some original “creative” selection and/or organization of data. Until then, the legal theory was that a “sweat of the brow” effort created copyright for a database. The management consequence therefore is for such lists to be either kept as a trade secret, or ­augmented and transformed in some fashion. Direct and unauthorized copying of someone else’s work is a copyright violation. Quotes and paraphrases with attribution are acceptable within reason, as are innocent omissions of attribution, especially where the content is not central to the new work or is not truly unique. But there is much of a gray zone when it comes to the commercial use of another person’s central ideas without attribution or compensation. Such borrowing has a long history, like the retelling of someone else’s joke. But today, some authors (or wannabes) will sue. Patent protection deals mostly with technological property, whereas copyright protection is mainly concerned with literary and artistic property. But, in some cases, both are available. Computer software or semiconductor designs qualify for either. Which, then, to choose? A patent offers strong protection but for a relatively short period (17–20 years) and must satisfy strict standards, such as novelty. Obtaining a patent can be long process and expensive, and the inventor has no enforceable rights until a patent is issued.

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A copyright offers relatively soft protection against direct copying for a very long period (the creator’s life plus 70 years). It can be obtained easily and quickly. Copyright laws differ somewhat in every country. In some jurisdictions, such as France, the “moral rights” of creators against the alteration of work gives them the right to participate in the future profits of resale. Moral rights in a work refer, in particular, to the right to be known as the author of a work, and to the right of authors to prevent others from doing things to their work which can hurt their reputation. Moral rights are retained by an author even if all of the other rights are assigned to another. Moral rights cannot be assigned to anyone else by the author. 7.2.5.3  International Copyright

Protection

The USA was pro-piracy in its early years—in fact, the first US copyright law of 1790 explicitly limits the protection of foreign works (typically British ones). This attitude toward foreigners’ IP rights encouraged the widespread legal piracy of English books. Only in 1891 did the USA begin to recognize international copyrights. This follows the classic pattern that a country which is primarily an importer of creations and innovations is disdainful of foreigners’ IPRs, until that country becomes an exporter itself. There is no such thing as an “international copyright.” However, through international treaties and agreements, many countries recognize each other’s copyright legislation. Such agreements began with the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886.56 Each country respects the copyrights of other signatory countries and applies the copyright laws of the nation in which the work is originally copyrighted. The minimal protection period is 70 years for authors and 50 years for performers. The USA eventually adopted the terms of the Convention in 1989. The Berne Convention aimed to help non-national authors and publishers receive payment wherever their works are sold. 56 United Nations. Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. 1979. Last accessed June 6, 2011. 7  http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/trtdocs_wo001.html.

Another treaty—the Agreement on Trade-­ Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIP, 1994) —established minimal requirements and procedures for enforcement.57 Most importantly, that Treaty created the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a specialized agency of the United Nations in Geneva, with over 180 member nations. Because WIPO has its own financial source in its hefty payment and patent registration fees, it is said to be the richest United Nations agency. The WIPO’s principles are “national treatment” and “material reciprocity.” A government is obligated to protect the IP rights of foreign owners in the same way that it protects the rights of national holders, as long as the foreign country grants reciprocal rights. WIPO has also created an arbitration and mediation system. 7.2.5.4  “Fair Use”

The “fair use” exemption permits making and distributing copies for research, teaching, parody, journalism and library activities. Media firms hate fair use but universities rely on it.58 “Fair use” was at issue in 2005 when book publishers sued Google for copyright infringement.59 Google had started to scan books and make them available through its search engine when they were out of copyright, but also intended to expand the project to copyrighted works. Developing an electronic library, as many university and public libraries have done, falls under the terms of “fair use.” However, creating such a digital library for commercial purposes requires permission of the copyright holders. Publishers argued that Google, while not charging for access to the books, was using the digital library to increase the number of visitors to its site, and therefore raising its advertising revenue.60

57 United Nations. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. 1994. Last accessed June 6, 2011. 7  http://www.wto.org/ english/tratop_e/trips_e/t_agm0_e.htm. 58 Minow, Mary. “How I Learned to Love Fair Use.” Stanford Copyright & Fair Use Center. July 6, 2003. Last accessed May 25, 2017. 7  http://fairuse. stanford.edu/commentary_and_analysis/2003_07_minow.html. 59 Gilbert, Alorie. “Publishers Sue Google Over Book Search Project.” CNET News. October 19, 2005. Last accessed June 21, 2010. 7  http:// news.cnet.com/Publishers-sue-Google-over-book-search-project/2100-1030_3-5902115.html. 60 Gilbert, Alorie. “Publishers Sue Google Over Book Search Project.” CNET News. October 19, 2005. Last accessed June 21, 2010. 7  http:// news.cnet.com/Publishers-sue-Google-over-book-search-project/2100-1030_3-5902115.html.

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Chapter 7 · Intellectual Asset Management

544620

5620 5420 544625 5800

544376

544624 544680

5146591 4899290

5325466

5325466

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4899290

7

5325466

5325466

5153830

5581663

5581663

5276774 5510978

5276774

5581663

5153830

567820 5276774

5734916

5581663

..      Fig. 7.3  Mapping of the Prior-Art interrelationship of patents

7.3  The Commercialization

of Intellectual Assets

Now that we have described IAs and their scope, we will look at how one creates value from them. 7.3.1  How Important Is

an Intellectual Asset?

How to judge the importance of an item of intellectual property? One way is to use the public record. Applications and registrations for patents, copyrights and trademarks are public.61 In the case of patents, the applications require specific references to “prior art.” This permits a check on which patents are out there and which seem to be important to subsequent inventors. This information can be used to check on the importance of 61 The free US government PTO website for patent searches is 7  http://patents. uspto.gov. A for-pay source for US patents is Micropatent (7  http://micropat. com). European patents can be searched through the European Patent Office (7  http://www.epo.co.at:80/index.htm). Japanese patents can be found in translation through the International Science and Technology Associates (7  http://www.intlscience.com and 7  http://www.jpo-miti.go.jp).

a patent and its place in the broader technology trends of its field, as well as the technology status of rival firms and inventors. Patent “parents” (backward citations) show the influences of prior art, and assess whether an innovation potentially infringes on a prior patent, and whether a firm should acquire a license before using the technology. One can also trace an invention’s “children” (forward citations): Who has been influenced? Where did it lead? Are there potential infringements? Does it provide clues to technology competitors and to potential licensees? . Figure  7.362 shows the “children” of patent no. 5153830 (“Method and apparatus for providing assistance with respect to the development, selection, and evaluation of ideas and concepts”) awarded to Fisher Idea Systems. Six subsequent patents refer to it. And 14 patents refer to patent no. 4899290 (“For a system for specifying and executing protocols for using iterative analogy and comparative induction in a model-based computation system”,  

62 Based on Aurigin Systems, Inc. 1999. Aurigin is now part of the Clarivate company.

179 7.3 · The Commercialization of Intellectual Assets

..      Fig. 7.4 Intellectual asset audit map

Business Unit Growth Future Plans

Current Plans

> 4 times GDP

Core Patents Maintain 53%

Not In Plans

Noncore Patents License Out 34%

2–4 times GDP Noncore Patents Abandon 12%