MBTI Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [3 ed.] 0891061304, 9780891061304

Citation preview

;

MKLL

®

MANUAL '

""*.,

r

1

Da i

fif

i

A Guide of

Development and Use the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® to the

THIRD EDITION

MARY H. MCCAULLEY QUENK ALLEN L. H Ah MER

ISABEL BRIGGS MYERS

NAOMI

L.

H&to

°*%A,

MBTI Manual

•3JST

PimaCommunityCollege Donated

by:

Downtown Campus

Advising and Counseling

MBTI Manual A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Third Edition

Isabel Briggs

Myers

Mary H. McCaulley Naomi L. Quenk Allen

L.

Hammer

CPP CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, Palo Alto, California

INC.

i

onsulting Psychologists Press. Inc.

5803 East Bayshore Road, Palo Uto 800-624

^4303

\

(

www.mbti com (

©

op) n>>ht

may

19Q-8 h\

onsulting Psychologists Press. Inc. All rights reserved.

c

No

pari ol this

hook

be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, elec-

tronic, mechanical,

except in the

lisher,

02 01 00 99

photocopj

ing. recording, or

ase "I brief quotations




Male Small Business Owners Sample

Compared Tabu 12.16 Tabu 12.17

Chapter

Male National Representative

to

Sample 299 Female Small Business Owners Sample Compared to Female National Sample 300 Male Small Business Owners Sample-

Compared

to

MBA Students

Tabu

1

in 12.19

Type Table of Librarians

Sample

Specialties

I

mi

i

1

2.20

L3.2

mi

13.3

mm

12.21

Table 12.22

Table 12.23

301 Tabi

i

1

2.24

Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction with

Work

Aspects in the National Sample

305

Abilities,

Liking for the

R1ASEC Codes

Tabi e 13.6

Communication 336

Ranked RIASEC

313

Each Types Five Most Important Values

I

in

12.33

MBTI Function

Tabu 13.9

What Each

Pairs

339

and Decision

Preference Needs During

342

Tabu 13.10

Thinking-Feeling During the Grieving

Table 13.11

Typical

343

Work Stressors for Each MBTI Preferences 345

Table 13.12

Ranking of Resources

Table 13.13

Summary

for

Tabu 13.14

of the

Each Type 347

of Other Studies Using the

Team

351

Higher and Lower Scoring Types on the

20 Folk Concept Scales of the CPI

For Each Value, the Four Types Most Often

Table 12.32

Preferred Conflict Styles of Types

Table 13.8

354

313

Table 12.28

12.30

13.7

as the Unit of Analysis

Table 12.27

mii

i

310

Organizational Values of the 16 Types

I

\n

Eight

of the 16 Types in the National

as "Very Important"

MBTI

335 Behavioral Cues During

Process

Values of the National Sample Ranked

Table 12.31

329 The Dominant Function of Each Type 333 Communication Strategies and Needs: Preferences

in the

309

Table 12.25

2.29

3.4

Organizational Change

Table 12.26

1

1

Confidence, Performance, and Liking in

Sample

328

Type Distribution of Management Analysts

Making 341

Satisfiers in

Performing, and

Confidence in

Themes

Resources

Significant Relationships with

Abilities for the Highest

i Mil

i

Table 13.5

The Types Expressing the Most and Least Work Satisfaction and Likelihood to Leave, and the Highest and Lowest Income Levels in the National Sample 304

The Greatest Dissatisfiers and the Work Environment 306

327

in Percentages

Human

and Consultants

Within the Library

302

National Sample

T mi

Ivpc Distribution of

Personnel

I I

Type Distribution of Participants in the

Development Program

Tabu

300

Profession and Aspects of the Job

Enjoyed

3.1

Center for Creative Leaderships Leadership

I

Tabu 12.18

1

13

314

Chapter 14

Endorsing "Very Important" in the National

Table 14.1

National Normative Samples of Adults

Sample

Tabu 14.2

Multicultural Type Distribution Samples

315

Merging Supers Life-Span Stages with Type Development 319

One ST's Career and Type Development One SFs Career and Type Development One NFs Career and Type Development One NTs Career and Type Development

of

Tabu 14.4

Selected Multicultural Database

of University Students

Samples

321 321

380

Multicultural Type Distribution Samples

320 320

High School Students

Tabu 14.3

Table 14.5

381

382

Multicultural Type Distribution Samples of Managers

383

379

Figures

Chapter 8

Chapter 2 Figure 2.1

Number

of Articles

About

the

Published by Year from 1957

MBT1

to

E-I Test Information and

Figure 8.1

1994

S-N

Figure 8.2

Chapter

T-F Figure 3.1

The J-P Dichotomy

Final

Final

Format of Type Tables

for

167

and TSE Functions

for

M Versus Form G Item Pools

Form Form

166

and TSE Functions

J-P Test Information and TSE Functions

Chapter 4

for

M Versus Form G Item Pools

Form

Test Information

27 Figure 8.4

Figure 4.1

Test Information

Final

3

TSE Functions

M Versus Form G Item Pools

Form

Final

10

1

68

for

M Versus Form G Item Pools

169

36

Chapter 9 Chapter 7 Figure 7.1

Hypothetical Items

Figure 7.2

Dichotomies

135

Empirical Item Characteristic Curve for an

Figure 7.4

Maximum

Low

I

u.i

re 7.6

Figure 7.7

T-F Dichotomy 187 Faculty Ratings of Gregariousness in Students

Figure 9.3

Who

Two

Likelihood Curves for

Different People

Figure 7.5

138

and

Women

S-N

Test Characteristic Curves for

and

Women

T-F

Test Characteristic

Men

Reported Different Levels of Preference

on the E-I Dichotomy 188 Reported Books Read per Year as

147

E-l Test Characteristic Curves for

Who

Reported Different Levels of Preference on the

138

Discrimination

186

Proportion of Engineering Students

Figure 9.2

Empirical Item Characteristic Curve for an E-I Item with

Aptitude Scores at Different Levels

of Preference Scores for Each of the

Two

E-I Item with High Discrimination

Figure 7.3

Mean

Figure 9.1

Item Characteristic Curves for

Figure 9.4

a

Function of

Sensing and Intuition Preference Scores

154

Men

Evoked

Figure 9.5

and Introverted Students

154 Curves

for

189

Potential Analysis for Extraverted

190

Men

and Women 154 J-P Test Characteristic Curves for Men and Women 154 E-I Test Characteristic Curves for Older Figure 7.9 and Younger Respondents 155 Figure 7.10 S-N Test Characteristic Curves for Older and Younger Respondents 155 Figure 7.1 1 T-F Test Characteristic Curves for Older

Chapter

and Younger Respondents 155 Figure 7.12 J-P Test Characteristic Curves for Older and Younger Respondents 155

High School 269 Figure 11.2 Comparison of Aptitude and Achievement of the 16 Types in Liberal Arts 269

Figure 7.8

10

Mean

Figure 10.1

Ratings of Satisfaction with Intimate,

Friendship, and Family Relationships for the 16 Types

Chapter

I

245

I

Figure 11.1 Comparison of Intelligence and Grades

ol

the 16 Types in

xm

MBTI Manual

\iv

Figuri

11.3 Premedical Point-Hour Ratio

Compared at the End

I

ii

ki

12.2

of Phase I

ri

i

11.4

II

of Medical School

MBTI

Preferences and Function Pair

Differences Associated with

with the National Board Average

R1ASEC General

Occupational Themes (GOT) and

270

Clinical Ratings for Medical Expertise

Confidence Inventory (SCI)

Compared with

College Students

Clinical Ratings for

in a

Skills

Sample of

311

Enthusiastic Involvement in Medical

Schools

270

Chapter 14 Figuri

Chapter

12

Ik. re 12.1 i

14.1

Three Levels of Uniqueness in

Programming 368 Holland's Vocational Types and Brief Definitions

308

Human

Mental

Foreword

The

revision of the

MBTl Manual: A Guide

to the

Devel-

opment and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has carefully formulated mission state-

been driven by a

ment and philosophy. This has been research, development,

true of

all

work

in the

and application of the Myers-Briggs

insights of

expanding knowledge

— thus our commitment

to

a "tradition of change." The development of both the instrument and the theory should be viewed as an ongoing process.

This ongoing process

is

MBTl much has

richly illustrated in the

Manual. Since the death of Isabel Myers in 1980,

body of new

research, from the

Type Indicator carried out under the auspices of Consulting

been learned from

The philosophy embodies a combination and change. The value of tradition and the commitment to change are based on the vision, mission, and goals of Katharine

experience of thousands of practitioners, from developments

tion,

new technology and psychometric methodology have

Cook

made

significant contributions.

Psychologists Press. of tradition

and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, in their collaboration to create an instrument to identify Jungian Briggs

in effective feedback,

and from refinements

For those of us

who remember

from early

The shared vision of Katharine Briggs and Isabel Myers was "to enable individuals to grow through an understand-

for nearly four decades, the

ing and appreciation of individual differences in healthy per-

this

enhance harmony and productivity among Myers believed that Carl Jung's understanding of human development, his theoretical model

sonality

and

to

diverse groups." Briggs and

encompassing psychological of individuation,

and

type, his concept of the process

his structure of the

psyche offered the

most promising approach. Their mission was

to give the

individual access to the benefits of this understanding.

In following this tradition sis

on holding

we have

and Myers

in their

never-ending quest for deeper understanding of emerging

new and

in the

Isabel

Myers working

morning

phenomenon

in

until late at night

of the large group

who worked

together on manual and the new Form M seems awesome and wondrous. It has been an exciting project for those involved; the authors, editors, coordinators, and production team. We are of talented, knowledgeable people

proud of the fine collaborative spirit displayed throughout and the wonderful relationships that have developed. For many years, Isabel Myers was the primary researcher. This manual pulls together the work of hundreds of researchers and

practitioners.

We are indebted to each of them.

placed special empha-

to the spirit of Jung, Briggs,

ideas, the possibilities of

in Jungian theory

coupled with insights from complementary theories. In addi-

relative isolation

personality type.

a large

untried methods, and the

Katharine

Downing Myers

Peter Briggs

Myers

June 1998

xv

Preface

give order manuals are revised periodically Test has accumulated new knowledge users access to

in

that

to

from research and practitioner experience. This purpose, together with the introduction of

Form

M

of the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®, was central to the develop-

ment

new

of this

edition of the

MBT1® Manual. A

even more powerful, objective of force the connection of the

MBT1

second,

was

to rein-

to its roots in the

psycho-

this revision

a broad overview of the distinctive features of the

ment

of the instrument,

and explores the

poses behind the development of the Part

II,

and pur-

rationale

new standard Form M.

"Theory," explains Jung's dynamic theory of type and

ways

the it

MBTI and

basis in Jung's type theory, details the 50-year develop-

its

when

in

which Myers and Briggs extended and

clarified

they created their instrument. Combinations of

preferences and the 16 types are described and research evi-

summarized

make

dynamic core of psy-

logical type theory of Carl G. Jung.

dence

One consequence of the popularity of the MBTI is that it has become increasingly detached from psychological type

chological type accessible and meaningful to users. Part

theory is

—often

to the detriment of the individuals

intended to benefit. Reconnecting the

ory has

critical practical

MBTI

whom

it

to type the-

implications and applications. In

this regard, the overall goal of this edition is identical to

that of the

two editions

that

preceded

it,

and indeed

to that

is

to

help

the

III,

"Administration and Interpretation," gives practitioners the

MBTI

effectively

and

offers practical insights into issues that influence these

two

basic information necessary to use the

IV "Research," covers the wealth of information relevant to the psychometric features of the MBTI with regard to its construction, reliability, and validity. It critical areas. Part

types described by Jung understandable and useful in peo-

new method of selecting items for and scoring Form M through item response theory (IRT) and contrasts it

ple's lives.

with the prediction ratio method used for previous forms of

of the Indicator

In this

itself: to

make

the theory of psychological

edition the registered trademark notation appears

and the MBTI is These additions are not without significance. The trademark addresses a second consequence of popularity the need to ensure that the origins and ownership of the MBTI described as a "personality inventory."

—

are is

acknowledged and protected. Specifying

a personality

inventory rather than some other kind of

assessment tool discourages abilities or as a

test of skills or

The focus on type dynamics and whole types

permeates Parts

1

through IV culminates in Part

V,

"The

Uses of Type," which provides hands-on, practical guidance to those using the MBTI in counseling and psychotherapy, education, career counseling, organizations, multicultural settings, and,

by extension, other applications yet

to

be

dis-

covered. In the

first

(1962) manual, Isabel Myers acknowledged

her mother, Katharine C. Briggs, coauthor of the MBTI, for

her original theory of type that predated her discovery of Jung's theory, for "her penetrating analysis of the part

An associated and far more seriMBTI for a personality trait mearather than a dynamic typology. Readers will find many

played by the judgment-perception preference in her struc-

its

result of detaching the

theoretical roots. is

mistaking the

references to

and

clarifications of this issue in the chapters

making up all five parts of the manual. As the essential reference for users of the MBTI, ual

that

instrument

styles."

one problematic

ous issue sure

misuse as a

the Indicator.

Such possible misunderstanding

just

from

its

simple measure of a particular construct,

such as "cognitive is

MBTI

that the

describes the

is

organized with the goal of promoting

standing and ease of application. Part

I,

the

maximum

man-

under-

"Introduction," gives

ture of Jungian types,

and

for her indispensable collabora-

tion in the writing of the Type Indicator

and support

in its

development." In the acknowledgments to the 1985 Manual, Mary McCaulley commented, "The influence of Isabel

Myers permeates this volume. Some sections of this manual were written by her. In other sections, her ideas are summarized, using written records supplemented by notes of

xvii

xviii

MBT1 Manual

hundreds of hours of discussions over the decade the two authors worked together.

.

.

.

This work reflects Myers' six

chapter in this manual. To further address this need, a com-

prehensive glossary of terms appears

The Glossary covers

at the

end of the man-

relevant terms that appear in

decades of interest in Jung's theory of psychological types and four decades of research to develop a way of putting

ual.

Jung's theory to practical use."

consistent and accurate manner. Also included are items

When Isabel Myers died in 1980, Mary McCaulley took on the immense revision task that culminated in the 1985 Manual. Her extensive knowledge of the MBT1 and her commitment to Myers' vision of a world able to make "constructive use of differences" enabled her to produce an outstanding work almost singlehandedly. It covered all the professional requirements for a psychological test manual with great clarity and precision. It was unique, however, in being accessible to both the professional psychologists for it

whom

was intended and laypeople who had little or no psychoAs such, the 1985 Manual was the training

logical training.

vehicle for thousands of professionals

now

using the Myers-

the manual, including guidelines for using terminology in a

that are not referred to explicitly in the

relevant

and useful

such as

Isabel Briggs

MBTl Data

The goal

of addressing the needs of both psychological

and the variety of professionals in other fields who use the Indicator was central to the writing of every

manual, but that are

to professionals interested in the

MBTI,

Myers Memorial Library and CAPT-

Bank. To accommodate users in other countries,

the glossary includes definitions of such terms as grade point average

and middle

school.

This 1998 revision of Isabel Briggs Myers' monumental life's work both celebrates the centennial of her birth and moves her accomplishments into the twenty-first century. It

is

our hope that

it

will bring us closer to Myers' vision of a

which Jung's theory of type promotes, through the

world

in

MBTI,

the constructive use of differences.

Briggs Type Indicator.

professionals

all

Naomi

L.

Allen L.

Quenk

Hammer

June 1998

Acknowledgments

no single author could have hoped to duplicate Mary McCaulleys (1985) accomplishment. The depth and especially the breadth of knowledge about the MBT1 and its applications that are necessary 13 years later are beyond the scope of one person. Thus the volume reflects major efforts from a number of producing

this revision,

In

information and insights that ensure that the legacy of Isabel

Myers has been preserved.

new

The manual could never have been completed without the dedicated and unstinting efforts of the many individual members of the CPP manual team. Tom Prehn, Director of Test Publishing and Information Services, successfully balanced the enormous time-and-effort requirements of the

ones. All contributed within the tradition established by

revision process within the larger context of CPP's publish-

Myers and McCaulley and they made every

ing commitments. Peggy Alexander, Senior Project Direc-

people

who

either revised existing chapters or wrote

effort to retain

tor,

the original language wherever possible.

Martha Wilson Alcock,

R. J.

Harvey, and

Wayne

Mitchell contributed significantly to the chapters in Part

Martha Wilson Alcock provided expertise

D. IV.

sion process. Kathleen Simon, Developmental Editor, both

in the area of

interdependent and intersecting elements of the

provided substantive content editing

J.

Harvey con-

tional level

knowledge and research methods

in using item

specificity

brain functioning in relation to type, R. tributed his

accomplished the daunting task of coordinating the

many

response theory in the construction and analysis of

M, and Wayne

Mitchell contributed his research and inter-

pretation of studies

A number

Form

on type dynamics and whole

new

chapters for Part

accomplished the daunting task of of information into a form that

V.

All authors

distilling vast

would be

the larger organiza-

and kept close watch over matters of clarity and of language. Jill Anderson-Wilson, Managing

Editor, used her depth of understanding

attention to detail to help

hone the

and meticulous

final edited text.

Laura

Ackerman-Shaw, Director of Design and Production,

type.

of individuals either revised chapters exten-

sively or created

at

revi-

amounts

clear, accessible,

in

addition to executing an outstanding design, exerted super-

human efforts in keeping everyone and everything on

track.

Superior proofreading was provided by Pat Harris, ably assisted

copy

by Karen Stough and Stacey Lynn. Jean Schiffman,

and Shirley Manley, indexer, masters of their went out of their way to accommodate the

and usable by practitioners. Chapter 10 was revised by Naomi Quenk, Chapter 1 1 was revised by John DiTiberio, Chapter 12 was revised by Jean Kummerow, Chapter 13 was contributed by Linda Kirby, Nancy Barger, and Roger Pearman, and Chapter 14 was contributed by Linda Kirby

ever-changing schedule that was inevitable in a work of this

and Nancy

Editorial Assistant,

Barger.

Many members

of the type

community generously

vol-

editor,

respective crafts,

Anne Scanlan-Rohrer was many tables. Cici Arabian, cheerfully and efficiently managed all of

complexity. Consulting editor

responsible for coordinating the

the

many

details associated with permissions, captions, ref-

Peter B. Myers, Isabel Myers' son, and Katharine D. Myers,

and other elements. Elysia Cooke, graphic artist, worked feverishly to lay out the pages, input the hundreds of changes made to the manuscript and galleys, and bring the production process to completion. Gloria Forbes and

her daughter-in-law, carefully reviewed the entire manu-

Jennifer Cass, both in Manufacturing, ensured that the

unteered their time and expertise in critiquing selected parts of the manuscript. Their individual

and combined

contributions have considerably strengthened the work.

script as

it

was being

written.

They provided invaluable

erences,

printed and

bound book became

a reality.

xix

XX

MBTI Manual

|udy

C

hartrand, Research Scientist,

was responsible

for

analyzing the massive amounts of data collected on the national sample and other related research efforts,

completing

all

She was assisted by Mark Majors,

and thorough

and

for

analyses within very light time constraints.

in the

many

who was

both flexible

analysis projects he undertook.

Charles Junn, Research Associate, efficiently and conscientiously coordinated

and managed

all

the data used in the

analyses. These data were collected by a

number

of people

who

generously volunteered their time and

them

effort.

Among

Dennis Gailbreath, Gina Zanardelli, Karen Salazar, Roger

are Barb Krantz, Kevin Nutter,

Jane Tibbs, Ron

Seel,

Pearman, Jesse Holschbach, and the theran Church.

staff of Trinity

Each of the individuals who participated

in the

Lu-

many

aspects of the revision demonstrated dedication, energy,

and commitment

to the goal that is

edition of the manual.

now

realized in this

new

R

Introduction

The

two chapters

in Part

I

J

provide a broad yet

ciently detailed overview of the

suffi-

manual so

that

readers will have both an accurate anticipation of the

material

and

follows

that

grasp

practical

a

ot

its

usefulness.

Chapter

1,

"Overview," covers

all

of the features of the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 9 (MBTI®) that are

understanding

and how

it

critical for

position as a theory-based instrument

its

from other personality instruments. The

differs

chapter succinctly encapsulates

much

of the material that

follows in the remaining chapters, giving readers a useful

preview of what will

is

become aware

to

come. As you read Chapter

1,

you

of the following:

The MBTI identifies preferences rather than competencies. The eight characteristics that are defined in the MBTI are not traits that vary in quantity; they are dichoto-

mous

constructs that describe equally legitimate but

opposite ways in which

The MBTI describes

a

we

use our minds.

dynamic personality system such

that the 16 types are greater than the

sum

of their parts.

The dynamic and developmental approach

of the

MBTI

involves the interplay of the dominant, auxiliary, tiary,

and

inferior functions that

ter-

were specified by Jung.

The new standard Form M uses a different statistical method for scoring from the one used in earlier forms. There are five major fields in which the MBTI is currently being used.

Introduction

Chapter

2,

"A Tradition of Change," focuses on the essenMBTI as an implementation of Jung's the-

features of the

tial

ory.

The chapter describes

the 50-year

development of the

Indicator, the rigorous requirements in the construction of

various forms, and the factors that led to the

Form M, with

its

Item selection items to

2,

you

—

Form

will

rather than pathology.

A national random sample was used

and new scoring method. As become aware of the following:

M

is,

and adding was based on both

deleting, revising,

of the Indicator

and empirical

—

to revise the

MBTI.

People

criteria.

Separate scoring keys for males and females on the

Thinking-Feeling dichotomy are no longer needed.

who

are

new

to type will find

many terms

in

these two chapters that are either unfamiliar or defined in different

that

on on normal, adaptive behavior

revision adhered firmly to Myers' focus

types rather than traits and

standard

revised items

you read Chapter

theoretical

new

its

The 1998

also find

and special ways. People familiar with type will some new words. All of these important words

and terms are explained and

end of the manual.

clarified in the Glossary at the

Overview

(

II

A

P

T E R

V

How to Use This Differences

E

RV

1

i

E VV

Manual

Between the MBTI

and Other Instruments

T

he purpose of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality inventory

is

to

make

the theory of psy-

chological types described by C. G. Jung (1921/1971)

Overview of Psychological Type Theory Identifying

MBTI

Preferences

understandable and useful in peoples the theory

is

that

The essence

much seemingly random

Uses of the MBTI Instrument

behavior

Conclusion

to basic differences in the

is

lives.

actually quite orderly

way

of

variation in

and consistent, being due

individuals prefer to use their

perception and judgment.

ways of becoming aware of Judgment involves all the ways of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived. If people differ systematically in what they perPerception involves

all

the

things, people, happenings, or ideas.

ceive

and

in

how

they reach conclusions, then

it is

only rea-

sonable for them to differ correspondingly in their interests, reactions, values, motivations,

and

skills.

In developing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, the Isabel Briggs to

make

Myers and her mother, Katharine

aim of was

Briggs,

the insights of type theory accessible to individuals

and groups. They addressed two related goals in the development and application of the MBTI instrument: 1.

The

identification of basic preferences

on each of Jungs

the four dichotomies specified or implicit in

The MBTI personality inventory (also reis based on Jung's ideas about how different ways of perceiving and judging, theory.

ferred to as "the Indicator")

in

combination with different attitudes, describe

ferent types of people. Perception

and judgment

dif-

are

conceived of as mental junctions; the term attitudes refers to orientation of

energy and orientation to the

Introduction

Readers of this manual

external world. Personality types result from inter-

among

actions

the four

MBT1

dichotomies. These

want

will

who

new

are

to the

MBTI

instru-

to the sections

pay careful attention

to

on

dichotomies encompass four opposite domains of mental functioning: opposite ways of perceiving, oppo-

Jung's theory and the modifications of the theory con-

ways of judging, opposite attitudes in which preferred perception and preferred judgment are typically used, and opposite ways of relating to the world. The identification and description of the 16 distinctive personality types that result from interactions among the preferences. A type is not created by simply adding the four preferred ways of functioning. Each type described by Jung and Myers is greater than

enced users of the Indicator will be particularly interested

site

2.

ment

the

sum

oj

its

parts because of the different interac-

four preferences that make up a type. By identifying the preferences, the combinations of preferences, and how the combined preferences operate as whole dynamic types, researchers can establish effects and put them to practical use. tions

among the

MBT1

Because the the variety of

ways

in

is

based on a theory and beca^s'cP"

which

it

has been applied, this man-

tributed by

Myers and Briggs (Chapters 3 and

in the sections that describe

how

(Chapter 2) and

why

the

4).

MBTI was

Experi-

revised

the revision relates to the construc-

and properties (Chapter 7) and the reliability and 8 and 9) of the MBTI Both new and seasoned MBTI practitioners will benefit from a careful review of the theoretical and psychometric differences between the MBTI and other personality instruments. Chapters 3 and 4 provide the theoretical foundation for the Indicator, and Chapter 7 its essential psychometric features. In addition, theoretical and psychometric differences between the MBTI and other instruments have tion

validity (Chapters

important implications for both the administration of the

instrument (Chapter 5) and

^Chapter

6). Familiarity

with

its

interpretation to clients

all

of these differences will

ensure effective use of the instrument with clients in areas in

which the MBTI

is

ual has four equally important goals: tion, researchers will profit

all

appropriately applied. In addi-

from the detailed explanation of

and 9)

To provide users with an adequate understanding of psy-

the distinctive psychometric features (Chapters 7, 8,

chological type theory

of the Indicator, as this will enable

To explain the psychometric properties of the instru-

appropriate research designs and data analysis techniques.

ment that are a direct consequence of which it is based, which requires the

the theory

identification of

qualitatively different types rather than the

monly measured

upon

more com-

The varied ways appear in

To present the research that demonstrates the

reliability,

and psychometric soundness of the instrument To serve as an essential handbook for using the MBTI in

which the Indicator is effectively applied Chapters 10 through 14. These chapters give

the manual, a general overview of Jung's psychological type theory, issues in identifying

As compared with previous editions, the emphasis this edition of the manual is on the dynamic

MBTI

and the

preferences,

that

make up

izes all or

given to evidence concerning the preferences single dichotomies. This

most of the chapters

cations in the

many

appli-

var-

oj the

Myers-Briggs type

Indit

ator

to the is

Devel-

a revision

1985 edition and covers information relevant to

understanding and using type as obtained from the

new

Form M, which

replaces Form G. Extended forms (Forms J and K) that give respondents individualized type results on component parts of each type dichotomy have been published. Separate manuals are avail-

Indicator

able for these extended forms of the press; Saunders, 1987, 1989).

Between the MBTI

and Other Instruments

Manual

This third edition of The MBTI Manual: A Guide

ol the

and research on

areas relevant to type.

MBTI.

How to Use This

standard

emphasis character-

that cover theoretical con-

siderations, psychometric analyses,

Differences

of the

MBTI has been used summary of relevant

the

throughout

less attention

The goal of this chapter is to provide readers with the orientation needed to make maximum use of the remaining chapters. The chapter therefore covers the intended uses of

opment and Use

way

each application setting and a

character of whole, four-letter types with correspondingly

wide variety of settings

ied uses of the

use the most

research.

validity,

a

to

in

detailed information about the in

universal traits

them

MBTI

(Mitchell, in

The MBTI in

that

differs

from most other personality instruments

the theory

upon which

it

is

based postulates

dichotomies. These dichotomies are believed to reflect innate psychological or mental dispositions.

ment

that the instrument reflect these

been a major factor

in the

The

require-

dichotomies has

design of items, use of numerical

information to determine type preferences, general psychometric properties, and interpretation of results of the MBTI. The following points summarize the instruments important distinguishing features.

Overview

The MBT1

is

from typical

different

trait

approaches

to

Based on the theory, there are specific dynamic relation-

among

personality that measure variation along a continuum;

ships

instead, the Indicator seeks to identify a respondent's

Introversion, Sensing or Intuition, Thinking or Feeling,

one or the other of two opposite personal-

Judging or Perceiving) that lead to the descriptions and characteristics of the 16 personality types. Further,

status

on

either

ity categories,

both of which are regarded as neutral in

the four preferences (Extraversion or

MBTI

relation to emotional health, intellectual functioning,

although the four dichotomies identified by the

and psychological adaptation. Each of the categories

are psychometrically independent of each other, the

specified in the instrument represents a multifaceted

dynamic

characteristics of each type are not reflected in

domain of psychological functioning. The assumption is that one of each pair of categories is inherently more

a simple

summation of an

appealing than the other to a particular respondent. Thus

interaction that

the forced-choice format of items

is

designed

to reveal a

preference between equally viable mental processes and attitudes. In contrast, trait-based instruments typically

define a dimension or scale as a single

The

trait.

type-trait distinction leads to quite different

mean-

and MBTI

prefer-

ings for the scores of trait instruments

ence clarity indexes. For example, a person with a high

on the Extroversion

score

scale of the

Inventory™ (NEO-PI™), a

McCrae, 1985),

NEO

Personality

&

instrument (Costa

trait

seen as having more Extroversion than

is

a

person with a low score on that

a

low score on the

scale

may

scale,

and

a

person with

be viewed as having a

deficit

of the identified personality trait of Extraversion. In con-

MBTI

trast,

clearly a

how

preference clarity indexes indicate

respondent prefers one of two opposite poles of

a dichotomy, not

Each preference

how much

in a pair

imate content that

is

is

of that pole she or he has.

a construct

with

own

its

legit-

separate and distinct from the con-

Opposite preferences are

tent of the opposite preference.

not adequately described by using one or the other as the definitive criterion.

For example, Introversion

described as a lack of Extraversion, nor

is

is

not

Extraversion

seen as a deficit in Introversion.

Because the requirement

is

opposite categories rather than to measure an

degree of a

trait as is

done

amount or

in trait-based instruments,

the numerical preference clarity index reflects the

is consistent with the Jung and Myers Understanding these dynamic interactions aids the interpretation and verification process and provides critical information for applications and research.

theory.

The type descriptions are designed to reflect a theory that includes a model of development that continues throughout the lifespan. As a result, specific hypotheses relevant to different ages and stages of life can be made and tested empirically.

For example,

degree of confidence

in the

on the MBTI

accuracy of place-

ment of a respondent into a particular type category. Chapter 6 provides guidelines for estimating degrees of confi-

the

their preferences than are

we

expect lower

ples of

theory

that

less clear

reliability coefficients

young people and higher

subjects. This hypothesis

predicts

and consistent in mature individuals. As a result,

younger persons are generally

is

when

testing

clearly

sam-

with older

reliabilities

confirmed in a num-

ber of samples in the 1985 Manuel/, although sufficiently

samples of young people are not yet available on

large

Form

M to allow for a definite conclusion.

conclusions about the fore,

a

it is

In

coming

to

reliability of the Indicator, there-

important to recognize that samples that include

wide range of ages

will

demonstrate lower

reliabilities

than samples limited to mature, well-functioning adults.

Whereas such

a result helps validate the developmental

aspect of the theory, failure to recognize the basis for differential reliabilities

to sort individuals into

individual's four preferences.

Rather, each of the 16 types results from a specified

can lead

to

an erroneous conclusion

regarding the overall reliability of the instrument.

The MBTI dichotomies are concerned with basic attitudes and mental functions that enter into almost every aspect of behavior; therefore the scope of practical applications

is

broad rather than narrow and includes quite varied aspects of living. This

is

evident in the

tions covered in Part

number of different

applica-

V of this manual, "The Uses of Type."

dence in category placements.

As

a self-reported indicator of

complex underlying psy-

chological processes, preference clarity indexes associ-

ated with

MBTI

type categories are properly viewed as

trustworthy indications of the accuracy of an individual's results.

However, the focus of the MBTI

is

on

its

Overview of Psychological Type Theory

usefulness to respondents. Therefore, verification of the

accuracy of the indicated type by the respondent tial. is.

MBTI

results

do not

"tell" a

person

who

is

essen-

she or he

Rather, individual respondents are viewed as experts

who

are best qualified to judge the accuracy of the type

descriptions that result from their self-report. Chapter 6

covers

recommended techniques and procedures

for

Type theory as used in this manual refers to Jung's theory as interpreted by Isabel

Myers and Katharine Briggs

dynamic character

specified

by type theory involves the

interaction of a person's four basic preferences. This section

describes the opposites that

make up each dichotomy and among the four

helping clients assess the accuracy of their reported

the 16 types that result from interactions

MBTI

preferences.

type and identify the type that best

fits

them.

in the

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator personality inventory. The

Introduction

The Four Preferences That Make Up The MBTI instrument

a Type

identifies four separate dichotomies:

Extraversion versus Introversion, Sensing versus Intuition,

Thinking versus Feeling, and Judging versus Perceiving. An individual is assumed to have a preference for one of each pair of opposites over the other.

The four preferences direct and judgment by an

the characteristic use of perception

The

Individual.

son

particular preferences that interact in a per-

not only what

affect

is

attended to in any given situation

but also how conclusions are drawn about what has been

The four dichotomies of the MBTI are described and are outlined in Table 1.1. The MB classifies the first and fourth dichotomies listed as attitudes or orientations and the middle two dichotomies as functions or processes. Attitude and orientation are used perceived.

in the following sections 1

Introversion in the sense intended by Jung (1921/1971). Extraverts are oriented primarily toward the outer world;

thus they tend to focus their energy on people and objects. Introverts are oriented primarily toward the inner world;

thus they tend to focus their energy on concepts, ideas, and

internal experiences.

Jung regarded Extraversion and whose

Introversion as "mutually complementary" attitudes

differences "generate the tension that both the individual

society need for the maintenance of

life" (p.

saw both Extraversion and Introversion

160).

and

Jung thus

as necessary for

psychological adaptation.

1

interchangeably throughout this manual, as are function

and

Extraversion or Introversion (E-l) The E-l dichotomy is designed to reflect whether a person prefers Extraversion or

process.

Table

I.I

The Four Dichotomies of the MBTI

Extraversion-lntroversion Dichotomy (attitudes or orientations of energy) Introversion

Extraversion (E)

(I)

Sensing or Intuition (S-N) The S-N dichotomy is designed to reflect a persons preference between two opposite 1

ways of perceiving. A person may rely primarily upon the process of Sensing (S), which attends to observable facts or happenings through one or more of the five senses, or a person may rely more upon the less obvious process of Intuition (N), which attends to meanings, relationships, and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind.

Thinking or Feeling (T-F)The T-F dichotomy

is

designed

between two contrasting ways of making a judgment. A person may rely primarily on Thinking (T) to decide impersonally on the basis of logical consequences, or a person may rely primarily on Feeling (F) to decide primarily on the basis of personal or social values. In Jung's and Myers' approaches, the term Thinking does not imply intelligence or competence, and the term to reflect a person's preference

Directing energy mainly toward

Directing energy mainly toward

the outer world of people and

the inner world of experiences

objects

and ideas

Sensing-lntuition Dichotomy (functions or processes of perception) Sensing

Intuition

(S)

(N)

Feeling

is

not to be confused with emotional. Intelligence

and emotional expression are independent of psychological Focusing mainly on what can be

Focusing mainly on perceiving

perceived by the

patterns and interrelationships

five

senses

Thinking-Feeling Dichotomy (functions or processes of judging)

typology.

Judging or Perceiving (J-P)TheJ-P dichotomy is designed person tends to use in dealing with

to identify the process a

the outer world, that Thinking (T)

Feeling (F)

Basing conclusions on logical

on and detachment

analysis with a focus

objectivity

person

Basing conclusions on personal

or social values with a focus on understanding and harmony

who

is,

with the extraverted part of

Judging

(J)

A

uses either Thinking or Feeling (the Judging processes)

when

dealing with the outer world.

A

person

who

prefers a

Perceiving (P) process reports a preference for using either

Sensing or Intuition (the perceiving processes) Judging-Perceiving Dichotomy (attitudes or orientations toward dealing with the outside world)

life.

prefers using a Judging (J) process typically

dealing with the outer world.

and Bnggs believed

was not

this

it

Chapter

elucidates Briggs

when

should be noted that Myers

dichotomy was

theory, but 3

It

implicit in Jung's

explicitly described in Jung's writings.

and Myers' extension

of type

Perceiving (P)

theory in this regard.

Preferring the decisiveness and

Preferring the flexibility and

closure that result from dealing

spontaneity that results from

with the outer world using one

dealing with the outer world

one

of the Perceiving

of the Judging processes

using

(Thinking or Feeling)

processes (Sensing or Intuition)

It is

tive of

important to note that a preference for one alternaeach dichotomy does not

less-preferred alternative

is

mean

that the opposite,

never used. Both the theory and

practical observations describe individuals as using each of

Overview

the eight preference categories at least

Thus

who

a person

—

extraverting

a

typically uses

person with a Judging

some of

the time.

Thinking (T) when (J

)

attitude

—may

times extravert the preferred or even less-preferred Perceiving (P) process, even though such an approach

may

Identifying

MBTI

Preferences

at

not be

typical for the person.

The main

objective of the

opposite categories

is

MBTI

to identify which of two on each of the four di-

is

preferred

chotomies. The Indicator obtains a numerical score based

on responses favoring one pole versus

The 6 Types 1

its

opposite. These

calculations are designed not as scales for

measurement of

traits

According

to theory,

each of the 16 types results from a

preference for one pole of each of the four dichotomies over the opposite pole.

A

preference on any one dichotomy

is

designed to be psychometrically independent of the preferences on the other three dichotomies. 2 Therefore, preferences on the four dichotomies yield 16 possible combinations called tvpcs,

which

are

denoted by the four

letters

identifying the poles preferred (e.g., EST], INFP).

The theory postulates

among

dynamic relationships

specific

the preferences. For each type, one process

leading, or dominant, process

an auxiliary process that provides balance ity.

Each type has

own

its

is

the

and a second process serves

1)

in

In terms of the theory, people

may

expected to develop greater comfort and

reasonably be

facility

with the

processes they prefer to use and with the attitudes in use them. For example,

if

they prefer

the Extraverted (E) attitude, they are likely to be

more

confident and effective in dealing with the outer world than with the Introverted inner experiences.

Sensing tive in

(S),

If

(I)

world of concepts,

ideas,

and

they are likely to be more confident and effec-

which are in the sphere of Intuition (N). If they prefer the judgment process of Thinking (T), they are likely to rely more heavily on objective Thinking judgments than on the values that underlie Feeland

possibilities,

And if they prefer to use Judging (J) rather than Perceiving (P) in interacting with the world

ing (F) judgments.

around them, they are

likely to be

more comfortable when

they can organize the events of their lives than

can only experience and adapt to them. hand,

if

a

On

when

they

the other

person prefers Introversion, Intuition, Feeling,

and Perceiving (INFP), then the converse of the description above is likely to be true.

The preferences and

the specific

dynamics of

their inter-

actions are discussed further in Chapters 3 and 4 of this

book,

in Gifts Differing

Introduction to Type Kirby, 1994),

and

analogous

its

are

opposite.

used

The

letters

to designate

right-handedness or left-handedness.

to

expects to use both the right and

hands, even

left

though one reaches first with the preferred hand. Similarly, everyone is assumed to use both sides of each of the four dichotomies but to respond first, most often, and most comfortably with the preferred functions and attitudes.

Items and Preference Clarity Index The MBTI items require forced choices between the poles of the dichotomy at issue. Choices are between seemingly inconsequential everyday events, chosen by Myers as stimuli to evoke the more comprehensive underlying type preferences. All choices reflect the two poles of the same dichotomy, that is, E or I, S or N, T or F J or P On the computerscored version of Form M, responses that best predict to total preference carry greater weight. On the template- and self-scorable versions, all the items have the same weight and are simply counted to determine which preference received the most answers. Technical details of item construction and weighting as developed and tested by Myers, as well as the methodology used in the current revision of the instrument, appear in Chapters 2 and 7.

they prefer the perceiving process of

dealing with facts and realities than in dealing with

theories

tives,

One

T or E and J or P

as

in the personal-

which these are habitually used. Determining these dynamic relationships is enabled by the J-P dichotomy of the MBTI and is fully explained in Chapter 3. The distinctive characteristics of each type follow from the dynamic interplay of processes and attitudes.

to

E or I, S which ol the opposite sides of a respondent's nature are preferred. The intent is to reflect a habitual choice between rival alternaor N,

pattern of dominant and auxiliary

processes and the attitudes (E or

which they prefer

or behaviors but rather as indications of preference for

one pole of a dichotomy or

(Myers with Myers, 1980/1995), in

Dynamics and Development (Myers

in other publications.

&

Form

M

computer-scored versions yield preferences

based on an established midpoint. is

When a respondents score

to the right of the midpoint, the preference indicated

N, E or R When the score persons preference is E, S,

is

I,

midpoint, the

is

to the left of the

T,

or J. Tied scores are designated

M

scoring. The N, F or P in both the Myers and Form preference letters indicate which of each pair of opposites the

as

1,

person prefers and presumably has developed or

is

likely to

develop to a greater degree. For example, a preference

letter

E

suggests that the person prefers extraverting to introverting

and probably has spent more time extraverting than verting. Consequently, that

more comfortable with than activities that

person

is

likely to seek

intro-

out and be

activities that call for Extraversion

call for Introversion.

For instance, such a

person will presumably find greater satisfaction in a career

more extraverting than introverting. As evidence that a preference has been accurately reported, MBTI results include an indication of clarity of that requires

preference termed a preferem

indexes range from

1

to

e clarity index.

Preference clarity

30 on each of the four dichotomies.

Introduction

The higher the index, the

greater the clarity of preference

can be assumed. For example, a person whose preference clarity index for Thinking is T 28 could be said to be that

much more 9

—

at least

clear in this preference than a person with

based on responses

to the Indicator items.

characteristics associated with a preference

not necessarily) less apparent associated with a preference.

when

A low

may be

T

The

(but are

a low clarity index

preference clarity index

N

30 has greater

N

Similar cautions apply to

15.

facility

with, confi-

or keenness of Intuition than the person reporting

in,

all eight preferences identified

by the preference clarity indexes trait scores,

oj the

differences described by the

of everyday

MBTI. Thus unlike

health, competence, or maturity cannot be

and

to use

makes

almost every

human

experience involves either perception

judgment and is played out in either the extraverted world of action or the introverted world of reflection. or

MBTI. Chapter 6 discusses these issues

type differences are apparent.

MBTI times indispensable in

its

perceived as valuable and at

own area

of operation.

The theory

assumes that all types can deal effectively with life in general and in their own areas of potential talent in particular. All types are viewed as necessary in a complex world that relies on diversity and specialization to progress toward important personal and societal goals. Each type has its own special gifts and strengths, its own areas of vulnerability, and its own pathway for development.

The

type description

presents these relationships in

everyday terms. Each type

is

described in terms of effective

use of the functions and attitudes and also in terms of the specific difficulties arising

not used effectively.

when

The four

type

is less

developed or

letters that designate a type

provide a compact definition of each type

(e.g.,

ESTJ, 1NFJ,

ESFP). The dynamic interrelationships of the preferences are described in

Chapter 3 along with the behavioral charwith each preference pattern.

acteristics associated

is

human A good deal

therefore a broad range of

activities

where

of research that

examines the ways the MBTI has been applied in the years since publication of the 1985 MBTI Manual appears in

Assumptions Underlying the Types is

easier to recognize

majority of people who have found the MBTI interesting and valuable did not have an original interest in Jung. Rather, general interest in the MBTI is due to the fact that

There

Each pole of a dichotomy

it

in constructive ways.

inferred from the numerical preference clarity index of the in greater detail.

are a familiar part

them The theory is indisunderstanding and using the MBTI, but the

them

pensable for

MBTI

Jung's theory offers an explanation for

life.

these differences that

from almost equal votes for each opposite pair in a dichotomy. It is incorrect to assume, however, that the person with, for example,

The

is

results

dence

Uses of the MBTI Instrument

Applications:

A Decade

Briggs Type Indicator

oj Research on the Myers-

(Hammer, 1996b). The

tions chapters that appear in Part

major ways the

MBTI

is

five applica-

V of this manual

cover the

currently being used.

Conclusion This chapter has provided the context for understanding

and using the MBTI. Users can

effectively consult

one or

another chapter as appropriate to their stage of research or particular application. However, familiarity with the devel-

opment and construction and

of the instrument (Chapters 2

and the theory underlying the instrument (Chapters 3 and 4) will maximize the explanatory and predictive potential of the MBTI. Reviewing these chapters is therefore recommended. 7)

ATradition of Change

Construction of the

MBTI

The

Development of the MBTI

The 998 1

Revision

Conclusion

")

implementation of Jung's theory of psychological

type by Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Briggs in

the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has endured for

Today the MBTI

50

years.

ity

instrument in the world

is

the

most widely used personal-

— 2 million administrations

given each year. The history of the

by evolving ideas of type theory of the

instrument

in

research. Isabel Briggs

more than

new

MBTI

are

has been marked

interpretation, application

areas,

and nearly constant

Myers herself continually tinkered

with the items and the scoring procedures. Yet the assumptions underlying the initial construction of the

formed the foundation

for the

MBTI have

continued development of

the instrument. These assumptions, and the construction

procedures that follow from them, represent the rich tion that has

Change,

grounded

all

changes

in the sense of constant

to

tradi-

the instrument

improvement and devel-

opment, has always been part of the tradition of the MBTI personality inventory.

10

Introduction

Number of Articles About

Figure 2.1 Source.

From M&TI applications: A decade of research on

the

MBTI Published by Year from 1957

the Myers-ktriggsType Indicator (p. 2), A.

L Hammer

to

(Ed), 1996 Palo Alto,

1994 C A: Consulting Psychologists

Press,

Copyright 1996 by Consulting Psychologists Press.

Used with permission.

Since

its

introduction, the Indicator has continued to

and alternative methods for administering and scoring those forms (e.g., selfscorable, mail-in, template scoring). Between 1988 and 1997, there were four forms of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in wide use Forms F, G, J, and K and three levels of interpretation. These three levels are referred to as Steps I, II, and III. The MBTI Step I consists of four separate mature through

1 1

revised forms

—

scales designed to

—

determine a person's preferences on four

dichotomies, E-I, S-N, T-F, and J-P. The result of Step I scoring of the MBTI is a four-letter type, e.g., ENFP. Two scoring variations were created in the 1980s, using

Forms J

and K, that extended the original research by Isabel Briggs Myers and focused on the measuring of individual differences within type. These two scoring methodologies called the

MBTI

Report, or

EAR) and

Step

II

the

(formerly the Expanded Analysis

MBTI

Step

111

(formerly the Type

—

TDI) add depth to the explodynamics and type development by the addi-

Differentiation Indicator, or

ration of type

—now

was

in personal counseling, career counseling,

tion.

and educa-

There has been considerable growth of the Indicator

new areas such as organizations, leadership, management development, and multicultural settings. Research on the instrument has kept pace with the applications, with more than 4,000 research studies, journal articles, and dissertations written on the Indicator since the publication of the first MBTI manual in 1962. This explosion of research represents one of the most extensive empirical foundations for any psychometric personality assessment. Figure 2.1 shows the number of publications per year. Many of the studies conducted since the publication of the 1985 MBTI Manual are summarized in the book into

MBTI Applications: A Decade of Research

on the Myers-Briggs

Type Indicator (Hammer, 1996b).

The purpose of this chapter is to briefly summarize what has and has not changed with the 1998 revision of the MBTI. Longtime users of the instrument will find this material useful in quickly orienting themselves to the

New

may

not need to read this

tion of subscales or facets associated with each of the

revised instrument.

dichotomous preferences. Finally, inspired by the observed and potential benefits derived from understanding type

chapter, although they

differences in educational settings, the Murphy-Meisgeier

ples of construction, including the underlying

Type Indicator jor Children

(MMTIC) was developed

1987 by Elizabeth Murphy and Charles Meisgeier. pose

is

to

make

Its

in

pur-

type concepts available to younger respon-

dents and to aid teachers in understanding various learning styles.

As the use of the MBTI has grown, so have ihe applicaThe original use of the Indicator

tions of the instrument.

revision in

its

users

may

find

proper context,

it

we

interesting. first

To place

this

discuss the princi-

assumpdevelopment of the instrument. This is followed by a review of past developments in the history of the instrument. We then introduce the 1998 revision, followed by a brief summary of the revision process. All of the topics discussed in this chapter are presented in more detail in Chapter 7 of this manual, and users are urged to read that tions guiding the

chapter carefully.

A

assumed

At

stages in

all

was governed by unusual requirements imposed by ing hypothesis.

The hypothesis

a

work-

ferences in normal people result from their preferred

ways of

using perception and judgment. Each of these preferences,

that

a dichotomy.

is,

by nature

is

The MBTI Step

contains four separate

I

on four

according to the hypothesis, produces two categories of peo-

is

In contrast, the intent of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator specifically not to

measure

The object of

inclination

traits,

but rather to sort people

into equally valuable groups to which, in accordance with

Jungs

theory, they already belong.

These groups are the 16

types. This intent has important implications for the con-

struction of the instrument results, as well as for the

and the interpretation of the

kind of evidence sought

which

ENTP

the respondent naturally belongs, for

or ISFJ. This basic working hypothesis has

remained as the foundation of the 1998 revision.

Major Tasks Involved The foregoing

in

Construction

basic assumptions have guided the construc-

tion of the Indicator at each stage in

the result of a lengthy

Jung's theory of psychological types provided the assump-

and

and

set the tasks for the initial

for all

construction of the

MBTI

of the revisions that have been made since, includ-

ing the current one. These assumptions are as follows:

"True preferences" actually

(see

Chapter 3

exist.

for

1.

These preferences can

an explanation of type de-

so that this information could be used to determine a

dominant function. test, weight, and select items that would achieve the widest separation and least overlap between the two

Write,

a self-

kinds of people preferring opposite poles of each

report inventory.

Maximize precision

3.

The preferences

are dichotomized,

and the two poles of a

preference are equally valuable, each in

its

own

scale, so that

sphere.

in the center, or

scale.

midpoint, of the

persons reporting indeterminate prefer-

ences would be more likely to be classified according to their "true" preference

Types,

cre-

or Perceiving attitudes in their extraverted appearance,

Persons can give an indication of the preferences that

on

which was

ated by Myers to identify preferences for the Judging

2.

directly or indirectly,

by

Sensing

or Intuition (S-N), and Thinking or Feeling (T-F).

be correctly assigned to a category.

form type,

to reflect preferences described

for Extraversion or Introversion (E-I),

Also, determine items for the J-P scale,

the probability that persons unsure of their preferences

to

Determine items

Jung

development. However, any instrument must maximize

combine

and complicated process, the follow-

involved in the construction of the instrument:

velopment), than in persons with inadequate type

will

long history, includ-

ing outline provides a simple description of the major tasks

be more confidently identified in persons with good type

development

its

ing the present revision. Although each revision has been

Underlying Assumptions

tions

to estab-

to ascertain, as accurately as possible, the four

categories to

instance

makeup and

work may

scale

lish its validity.

MBTI

the

low score on the dominance

individual will belong to one or the other category

based on his or her

as indi-

be labeled "submissive" and carry a negative connoiation.

is

dichotomies, E-I, S-N, T-F, and J-P Each dichotomy,

An

on dominance, however, may be interpreted

cating an aggressive or controlling approach to social or

"either-or,"

scales designed to determine a persons preferences

ple.

a score

situations. Likewise, a

being a choice between opposites,

A

they "have."

appropriate "amounts" of assertion or leadership. Too high of

that certain valuable dif-

is

11

preted as positive, suggesting that the person demonstrates

development, construction of the MBTI

its

how much dominance

Change

reasonably high score on a dominance scale might be inter-

MBTI

Construction of the

to indicate

Tradition of

on each dichotomy.

Not Traits

most psyMost current measures of personality hypothesize the existence of one or more psychological "traits." In the trait model, the person is assumed to "have" varied amounts of these characteristics. The instruments

The assumptions

stated above are not typical of

chological measures.

designed to assess

much this

traits are

thus intended to

measure

how

of the particular characteristic the person possesses. In

model, one end of the

trait

dimension

is

usually consid-

ered to be good, or better than the other, and the other end to

be "bad," or

at least less

models, having too

good. Furthermore, in

much

(depending on which one

or too is

little

many

of the characteristic

being measured) can be viewed

For example, a trait often found on based personality measures is "dominance." Based on

as being neurotic.

responses to

test items,

trait

Development of the MBTI The MBTI has been developing since 1942, continuing to the present revision and publication of Form M in 1998. (A

more complete found

in

history of the construction of the Indicator

Chapter 7 of

improvements

to

this

is

manual.) Over this period,

and development of the MBTI have

occurred in the following areas: language of the items,

num-

ber of items, item format, item weights and scoring method,

gender differences, tie-breaking method, location of the

divi-

trait-

sion point, expansion beyond Step

their

methods, and composition of the standardization group.

people are assigned a score that

is

Each of these

is

briefly

1

into additional scoring

reviewed in the following sections.

Introduction

12

for

Language of the Items

each

Beginning with Form C, a new scoring sys-

scale.

tem was used,

The language reflect

of the items has been

usage current

been modified te

es.

at the time,

to eliminate

making changes

In

for the

stimulus to constant

is

and items have sometimes guiding principle has

to items, the is

less

important than the

words and form of the sentence to serve as a evoke a type response." What has remained

that the responses for

each item have been writ-

ten to appeal to the appropriate types. For example,

writing an item for the J-P scale, every effort has been to

make

to

ambiguity or awkward alterna-

been that the content of the item need

changed periodically

when made

the Perceiving response to a J-P item as attractive to

Perceiving types as the Judging response

to

is

Judging types.

The success of the item in evoking a response from the person for whom it was intended has always been considered more important than content coverage of Jung's theory. For Form M, a thorough review of

all

Form

of the

contained

to identify those with J

was used because

of the items that had ever been considered

all

shows

prediction ratio

designed forjudging types

and

is

method. The

the probability that, say, a response is

in fact given

by Judging types

not given by Perceiving types. This method yields

separate prediction ratios for each of the two responses to the items. In this manner,

account. This

it

takes social desirability into

method was employed

letters of type for all

to arrive at the four

forms of the Indicator from Form

Form

M

uses a

method

called item response theory (IRT) to

score for type. Research conducted for the revision suggests that IRT provides a particularly

more

precise indication of preference,

around the midpoint of the

prediction ratio method. The in detail in

new

method

in

Throughout the development of the MBTI, all item analyses were computed separately for males and females. In the

E and

of Items

and females

the

number

of items

94 in the self-scoring version of Form G to 290 in Form J. Not all of these items have been used in scoring for type, however; some have been included on various forms for as

items, 94 of

which

Form G

contains 126

and 32 of which are Also, items on some forms that are

are scored for type

unscored research items.

not scored for type are used to score the subscales in Step

and Step

Form

M

III

F,

S-N, T-F and J-R Beginning with Forms the same keys were used for both genders because for E-I,

item analyses showed that item popularity and prediction

across the various forms of the Indicator varied from as few

research purposes. For example,

II

scoring procedures.

ratios scale,

were comparable on E-I, S-N, and J-R On the T-F was evident that females, even those who in their

it

behavior and attitudes indicated a clear preference for

Thinking, had a greater tendency to give certain Feeling responses than did males. The difference was ascribed either to the possibility that certain Feeling responses

more

were

socially desirable for females than for males or to the

effect of social training. Separate

T-F items

for

weights were assigned to

each sex, based on the prediction ratios for

each item, with checks that the criterion groups were assigned the correct preference.

contains 93 items,

all

of which are scored for type.

For Form M,

tial

)riginally all

by a choice

were added

of

MBTI

all

of the items

in

the

initial

item pool were

analyzed using a technique derived from IRT called differen-

Item Format (

described

Weights by Gender

early forms, separate scoring keys for males

Form M,

is

Chapter 7 of this manual.

Differential

were used

Prior to the publication of

does the

scale, than

scoring

it

years of testing by Myers.

Number

C

through Form K.

of the items contained

MBTI was performed J outdated or awkward language. Form in

called the prediction ratio (PR)

items were phrase questions, followed

two or more responses. Word-pair questions Forms E and F. The instructions in paren-

for

item functioning. All items from any scale that

demonwere

strated significant differential responses by gender

eliminated from the item pool. This

in

need for

Form M.

differential

item weights on

turn eliminated the

theses for word pairs were added for Form G because interviews with persons taking Form F revealed that some had

answered some of the word pairs on the basis of the sound or appearance of the words, not their meaning.

Tie-Breaking

Method

In the early stages of the for the poles of the

Form

M

contains both word-pair and phrase questions.

MBTI development,

same

scale

thus a type might be designated lxTJ or ENFx. With

F a tie-breaking formula was adopted.

Item Weights and Scoring Method Forms A and B of the Indicator, the items all had the same weight, and overall preference was determined by simply adding up the number of items indicated for each preference In

equal points

were designated by an If

the

x;

Form

raw points

derived from adding the weights for the item responses associated with each preference were equal, the

ken

in the favor of

rationale for this desirability

may

I,

N,

F,

or

method was affect a

R depending on that,

tie

was broThe

the scale.

given U.S. culture, social

persons responses

in the direction

A

of E,

Thus any

or J.

S, T,

The use of IRT

ties

may be

the result of responding

manner.

in a socially desirable

On

to score the

MBT1

inventory makes

the extremely rare occasion

pens, a tie-breaker continues to be used with

it

when this Form M.

hap-

tional student

M,

all

are broken

ties

class of

1943

—was

samples were included.

Between 1975 and 1977, a new standardization of items was carried out. The new analyses seemed appropriate to ensure that cultural changes had not decreased the

make some minor

items and to

On Form

— the Swarthmore

13

Change

also included in the initial criterion groups. Later, addi-

nearly impossible for a score to land exactly at the midpoint of the scale.

sample of students

Tradilion of

previous forms of the Indicator:

in I,

the same direction as with

N,

F,

or

utility

of

modifications that two

decades of experience had suggested were desirable. As a result of the analyses of the restandardization, the scoring

P.

weights for the

T-F scale were modified for Form E and a new Form G, was published in 1977.

revision of the Indicator,

Locating the Division Point In

Form

A, where

all

items had equal weight, the division

The

Form

standardization sample for

M

is

based on a national

point was the point on a scale where hall the items were

representative sampling of adults over the age of

answered for each pole. By definition this point was the boundary between people showing one preference and peo-

This

showing the opposite preference. Later, external criteria were employed to help determine the exact location of the division point. For example, E-I continuous scores were

characteristics of this sample are described

ple

is

the

1

8 years.

time that the item weights for the MBTI

first

inventory have been based on a large national sampling.The

this

in

Chapter 7 of

manual.

regressed onto a rating of gregariousness. Significant changes in the level

the location

and slope of the regression line helped indicate on the E-l continuum that provided maximum

separation between Extraverts and Introverts. This and other external criteria are reviewed in Chapter

As

of a best-fit type study. For each scale, the location of the

was chosen to maximize agreement between the and the Form M scored preference.

point

II

and Step

III

MBTI

the changes

an instrument

Step

Form

M

is

a Step

I

in their respective

I

continues this tradition.

In this section, revision, followed

it

does not include

Groups

is

then

People

who

take the

MBTI

inventory

may make important

decisions based on the results. These results can have a

Many

on a person's self-understanding and selfMBTI practitioners, in fact, became

current

interested in the instrument after seeing the positive effect

MBTI on

first

tested the ini-

a small criterion

group

and friends whose type preferences seemed to them to be clearly evident from a 20-year period of observing their behavior. As data on the item responses started to accumulate, larger samples were used check or determine item weights in later forms of the These initial criterion samples mainly included

Indicator.

adults because adults were expected to have reached higher

development and therefore

and better able

revision process

is, it is

of about 20 of their relatives

their preferences

The

made.

esteem.

Katharine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers

levels of type

present the rationale for the 1998

targets for the research efforts.

significant impact

to

we

by the specific goals that provided the

described, followed by a brief overview of the changes

life

items that became the

more consistently and correctly idenThe 1998 revision of the MBTI

that

people's preferences.

Rationale for the Revision

scoring method, that

any of the subscales.

tial

improving the

are not covered in the

scored only for the four letters of type,

Standardization

in the service of

true to Jung's theory of types. These changes have resulted

tifies

two new scoring methods were developed that have come to be known as Step 11 and Step III. These methods both include subscales that show facets or a more fine-grained structure within the four dichotomous scales.

Since

made have been

psychometric properties of the instrument while remaining

In the late 1980s,

manuals (Saunders, 1987, 1989) and present manual

inventory outlined above, the instrument has a

long tradition of change, adjustment, and refinement. All of

best-

Scoring Methods

These scoring systems are described

evident from the brief history of the development of

is

the

in

Step

Revision

1

7.

For Form M.the division point was set based on the results

fit

The 998

to

to report

be clearer about

them. However, a

an interpretation could have on their that use the instrument

may

clients.

Organizations

base important business deci-

on the outcomes. Results can affect how individuals on teams interact with one another or can help identify sions

sources of job satisfaction. Because of the importance that

placed on the results,

and precise

all

is

essential that they be as accurate

as possible. This

tion driving

number

it is

was the overarching motiva-

revision activities. Within this context, a

of events, observations, and research results sug-

gested that

it

was time to examine the possibility of making or improvements to the Indicator.

some refinements

14

Introduction

A

Cultural Changes Cultural changes over the past 20 years

review conducted in 1994 of

MBTI

Form J, which

contains

indicated that item endorsement rates should be re-

all

examined. The rationale was that such changes might

aflect

small but potentially significant portion of the items used

which might turn might lead to

vocabulary that was colloquial or subject to possible social

how

certain

words or phrases

are interpreted,

responses to the items, which in

alfect

changes in the item weights. Also, the prediction ratios used

weights for

to derive the

Form G were based

samples of high school and college students, and desirable, given that

on was

largely it

more working adults are taking the on a more representative sample.

Indicator, to base weights It

was

also desirable to have various culturally diverse

groups reflected

in the standardization sample.

Cultural changes in the roles of

women

in society indi-

cated that the separate weights used to score responses for

males and females on the T-F scale should be examined.

of the

items developed by Myers, suggested that a

desirability response sets, particularly for

young people.

Research by Harvey and his colleagues (Harvey L994; Harvey, Murry,

&

& Murry,

Markham, 1994) suggested

that

measurement error on the MBTI scales may have been particularly troublesome around the midpoints of the scales, which would affect test-retest and best-fit type congruencies. A study by Thomas and Harvey (1995) suggested that the addition of new items to the MBTI item pool may improve the accuracy of the type classifications by increasing the precision around the midpoint when using IRT to select and score items.

Research supported this observation. Harris and Carskadon

Form F weights were more Form G weights. Also, applica-

(1988) suggested that the old

men

valid for

than were the

tion of IRT-based differential item functioning techniques

(Greenberg

& Harvey,

that separate weights

1993) led the authors to conclude

were not needed

for this scale.

Goals of the The

New

Research Research had

typically

reliabilities of the

among

also

shown

The data

&

that the internal

McCaulley 1985),

suggesting that the issue of using separate weights on this scale

needed

to be

reexamined. Researchers also realized,

however, that the lower

reliabilities

on

this scale

might

involve issues of type development as much as issues of measurement and scoring procedures. Test-retest reliabilities for whole types were lower than hoped for (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), although the percent agreement varies widely across studies. The metaanalysis by Harvey (1996) shows that the agreement across all four scales was 36% for studies in which the retest period was greater than nine months and 51% for studies in which the retest period was less than nine months. (Harvey's summary was based on Table 10.6, page 173, of the 1985 Manual.) It is hypothesized that one reason for the low percent agreement is the possibility of misclassification around the midpoints of the separate scales. Note that since the four preferences that constitute a type are measured on four separate scales, only a small percentage of misclassifi-

on each

add up across all four scales to yield a lower than desired agreement on whole types. For example, the average test-retest agreement on each of the E—I, S-N, T-F, and J-P preference scales for periods of less than nine months is 82%, 87%, 82%, and 83%, respectively. cations

A number

scale can

of studies have

compared reported or MBTI

type with "best-fit" type. Percent agreement in these studies

ranges from

64%

ment between verified

to

85%.

When

there has been disagree-

the type reported by the

by the individual,

it

MBTI and

work

in the

the type

almost always has occurred on

MBTI forms

in use before

and they work quite

as intended,

well.

1985 Manna/ and the review of most of the

studies conducted since

Thinking-Feeling scale were

the lowest (Myers

998 Revision

remains that the current

fact

the revision

Applications,

consistency

1

its

publication (reviewed in

Hammer, 1996b) support

ever, the cultural

changes and

new

this conclusion.

MBTI How-

research discussed in the

preceding section suggested that certain improvements

might be possible. Therefore, the purpose of the 1998 sion of the

MBTI was

revi-

to balance the dual goals of preserving

the integrity of the instrument and

making psychometric

improvements. Preserving the Integrity of the for preservation

MBTI Inventory The need

should be obvious. The Indicator has been

used successfully

for

decades by millions of people. The

characteristics of the instrument that have to so

many

for so

long should be retained

made if

it

so useful

at all possible.

These features include the following:

A A

focus on positive, normal, healthy behavior

foundation in the theories of Jung and Myers

The measurement of type Improving the Instrument

as

opposed

On

to traits

the other hand, changes in

culture and language, and advances in survey and test

construction methodologies, suggested that certain innovations might be possible. Therefore, the following specific objectives

were targeted

for research for the

1998

revision:

To update item wording and remove outdated language

To increase the capacity of the instrument ate, particularly

to differenti-

around the midpoint of each scale

To base the item weights of the MBTI on the responses from

a national representative

sample of adults

To decrease the number of items necessary ing a four-letter type

those scales on which the person reported only a slight

To improve item-to-scale correlations

preference on the instrument.

To lower scale intercorrelations

for

determin-

e

A

To eliminate separate gender scoring

tradition of

15

Change

Introverted differences in sociability, friendship, intimacy,

To minimize the influence of social desirability in

re-

detachment or involvement, and outspokenness or

reserve.

sponses to the items for different age and gender groups

To remove

all

items with more than two response options

To explore state-of-the-art scoring methodologies consistent

with the above goals

To achieve improved as an

validity of predicting "verified type"

Item Selection Item selection was based on multiple criteria, which are detailed in Chapter 7 of this manual. Basically, there were two sets of criteria: theoretical and empirical. Theoretical criteria

demanded

that items be

congruent with Jung's and Myers' theories of psychological

outcome of the hoped-for increased precision

opposites. Empirical criteria primarily centered

Overview of Changes The process used

many

move toward

to

these goals involved

steps of item writing, item selection, research with

and

different samples,

process

is

testing of various item sets. This

described in detail in Chapter 7 of this manual.

we

on prediction

and item parameters derived from item response

ratios

theory.

Jungs theory of type posits that people make choices between two opposite ways of perceiving and judging. For example, to function well, a person comes to prefer one of the two opposite ways of perceiving, Sensing or Intuition, because these two distinct ways of perceiving the world

an overview of the 1998

"compete" for the person's attention (Myers with Myers,

and highlight the changes that resulted in a new form of the MBTI Form M. This overview deals primarily with four issues: changes in the wording of the items, item selection criteria, changes in the scoring, and changes in the

the tradition of presenting questions in forced-choice format

Here, however,

will present

revision

—

standardization sample.

1980/1995). So, because type theory postulates dichotomies,

was

retained.

sented separately, both poles could be chosen and one

could not

Item Wording

number added

To examine the

to the tryout pool.

The

effect of

item language, a

and some new items were

of items were revised

pool consisted of the

initial

290 items from FormJ, 200 revised items (Thomas, i996a), and an additional 90 items written by two experts in the theory and use of type, making a total of 580 items.

A number

of items in this pool

before testing.

Some

true/false format

of the items that

were changed

to

fit

were then modified had been written in the format of

J

made

either eliminated or rewritten so that there

at the

opposite poles of the dichotomy.

an item

is

Does the

felt

used by Myers items.

in

her

The content of

evoke a type reaction;

ments

emphasis follows the techniques revisions and changes to the

many

was only a stimulus to was not determined by require-

a question it

to provide a specified level of coverage of all of Jung's

An example

of such

idea of

making

a

list

of

what you should

weekend

(S) appeal to you, or

d)

leave

you cold, or

Cj pos t v cl y -depr

ones, the focus

changes or additions that the item writers

re-

the following:

get done over the

for consistency

separate people with particular preferences into the appro-

were only two

weights associated with them were retained, as these

MBTI

was on would better

Form

sponses did the best job of discriminating between people

i

new

all

response choices. Those two responses that had the greatest

both within the item pool and with the theory. In revising items or writing

pole was preferred.

items that had more than two response options were

response options were changed to allow only two response options. Both of these changes were

know which

To be consistent with the forced-choice format,

items already in existence. All items with three or more

priate categories. This

However, since every person uses all eight of if each choice were pre-

the preferences at different times,

ss

i

—

you?

example, response (C) was deleted and was placed in the initial pool for further testing with only the (A) and (B) responses, which are keyed to the J and P preferences, respectively. Another theoretical criterion that was used to guide item selection was the need to have the item pool for each scale reflect the richness of that preference domain. As the Step II

As

illustrated in this

the item

MBTI

concepts related to that dichotomous preference. Nor were

scoring of the

meant to cover all domains of the preference. The intent was rather to identify any clues about preference that would empirically distinguish the two groups. The interest in questions was not

ence domains can be further subdivided into a number of

the content areas reflected in the questions

in the superficial behavior reported but in the evidence the

questions could provide about the underlying preferences.

While

some

method governed the item-writing phase, was made during item selection to ensure that set of items did provide good coverage of the this

effort

the final

domain number

of that dichotomy, at least as determined by the of and the particular subscales covered by the items.

For example, the E-I questions touch on Extraverted and

subscales.

than

is

demonstrates, each of the four prefer-

Each of the four dichotomies encompasses more

represented by

its five

subscales

—

the subscales are

more complex preference domain. However, the subscales do provide a criterion by which the richness of the domain can be measured. Consequently, a number of items from each of the 20 subscales of Step II were included in the initial item pool, and subscale coverage samples of the greatly

also played a role in the final item selection.

Turning

to the empirical criteria, the prediction ratio

method was used

to first eliminate items

failed to reach the current cutoffs for

whose

ratios

item weights. These

.

Introduction

which the ratios for both responses were which would lead to item weights of for those responses. An obvious example of such an item is the

were items than

less

for

.62,

following:

When

you have done situation, are you

A

all

you can to remedy

able to stop worrying about

CD

more or

still

less

haunted by

it,

a

troublesome

or

it?

Items for which one of the response weights

do not

is

function well to differentiate people of opposite preferences.

Almost form

all

of these items in fact were never intended to per-

were designed

this sorting function but rather

sure specific subscales that appear in the Step

11

mea-

to

and Step

III

scoring methodologies, as the above example demonstrates

(from the Worried versus Carefree Comfort/Discomfort scale

found

in Step

scoring).

III

Item response theory parameters were also used to select

were the degree of discrimina-

items. Primary considerations

maximum

and the location of the

tion

discrimination.

The

degree of discrimination refers to the probability that the item separates people of opposite preferences into the correct categories. Location refers to

separation takes place.

where on the

One

scale the

maximum

of the responses to an item could

be answered, for whatever reason, in the same

way by almost on one

everyone; only a few people with very clear preferences side of the tion.

dichotomy would answer

An example is this item

it

Do you usually A show your feelings freely, or B

keep your

While people of different preferences (on the E-I and also perhaps on the T-F scale) may respond differently to this item, the different response rates by preference are not as great as is the difference between males and females. This item was therefore eliminated. Elimination of items showing gender differences means that

Form

A

i

B

for

rather

from the Thinking-Feeling scale:

work under someone who

is

the other three scales. This

of the

MBTI

to the Feeling preference.

Only

a

(i.e.,

those

almost every question on the T-F scale in

who very consistently

up with

a certain

prefer

amount

of

fair."

Appar-

Thinking are

is

will-

unkind behavior

long as they can be assured that they are being treated

Such an item

who

few people

the Thinking direction) responded "always

ing to put

as

fairly.

M

IRT was also used in another way to select items. Using

an IRT technique called

differential item functioning (DIF),

each item in the pool was examined

to

determine whether

gender or age was significantly related to the response to the item.

The DIF method

is

a powerful technique that can

help determine whether the response to the item

is

better

predicted by gender, for example, than by the person's pref-

erence on a given four scales that

MBTI dichotomy.

showed

differential

for

.

.

.

,"

which

is

unlikely to be in the

behavioral repertoire of an 18-year-old respondent. Another

example

is this

party (A)

word

CD

pair from the E-I scale:

theater

Based on the response data, young people either have

what

a theater actually

is

little

or see this as not a very

when compared with

a party. This item

showing age DIF were items that were more developmental in nature. These primarily tended to be items from the J-P scale that asked the respondent to choose between planning versus acting spontaneously. These items were retained (if they met the set of items

other criteria described in Chapter 7) in order to not eliminate items that might be sensitive to the development of preferences.

A

possible

test-retest reliabilities

outcome of

may

this decision is that

be lower, especially over long

periods, for younger respondents.

gender differences:

Scoring Scoring includes a decision about how to weight items and then how to summarize the responses to the items

one of the primary goals of the revision was to improve the classification of people around the midpoint of each scale, scoring and weighting schemes were examined for their capacity to increase the precision around the midpoint of into an overall indication of preference. Since

each dichotomous

were tested and

scale.

Two

different

approaches to scoring

compared: the prediction ratio method,

and

Items from any of the

an approach based on

responding by gender

two approaches, a number of scoring alternatives were devised and tested. To determine which was the better approach, a large-scale best-fit type study was conducted.

were eliminated. For example, the following item showed significant

nor on any of

not useful for separating people at the mid-

point of the dichotomy and therefore was not selected for

Form

scale,

form of the MBTI

questions includes the response "when run-

ning a business meeting

A second

reported a very clear preference for Thinking

ently people

first

was therefore eliminated, as were other such items.

fair?

who answered

the

is

which there is no separate weighting for males and females on any of the scales. Although age differences were also examined, not all items showing age DIF were automatically eliminated. The items that did show age differences were generally of two kinds. One set included questions that younger respondents would have trouble answering because they have not had the experience necessary to respond. For example, one

attractive choice

Almost everyone, including those with a clear preference Thinking, chose "always kind," which is the response

keyed

does not require separate weights for males

in the opposite direc-

always kind, or always

M

and females on the Thinking-Feeling

idea of

Would you

feelings to yourself?

item response theory.

For each of these

7

1

.

A

Isabel Briggs

Myers developed the

earliest

Indicator using a select criterion group

items of the

whose type

of a small criterion group, while essential to the ini-

stages of a personality assessment

tion,

and

gave way early in Myers' research to larger, heterogeto a reliance on determining statistical

among

relationships

these data. However, the fundamental

knowledge and awareness of his or her best-fit type against the reported type on and using a sample large enough to yield the Indicator ample statistical power has been undertaken only in comparing

objective of

—

.

to later valida-

neous samples and

—

Based on the same philosophy that

best-fit type

study undertaken to

Item selection based on Jung's and Myers' theories of type

3.

Focus on separating people into types, not measuring

4.

Fifty-one items with the same wording

5.

Same forced-choice item format

6.

Same two-item

7.

Multiple levels of scoring: Steps

8.

Same

MBTI

to

more

addition to

word

formats: phrase questions and I, II,

and

pairs

III

four dichotomous preference scales, combined to yield

6 types

9.

Professional qualifications

still

required to purchase administra-

and scoring materials

tion

than 2,400 people nationwide. (Methods and results are described in more detail in Chapter 7 of this manual.) In to the Indicator,

as

traits

on current forms

test alternative

scoring methods involved administering the

responding

preferences are equally

2.

1

The

all

valuable

a person's

recent years.

1

Tradition

1

tial

Change

A Summary of What's New and What's Not: Form M

2.

prefer-

ences were clear enough to be manifest consistently in observable behavior. Purely observational data collected by

means

Table

Tradition of

Innovation

each person also

participated in a face-to-face interpretation, either individu-

with the interpreter or in a group feedback setting. The interpretations covered the theory of psychological types

ally

and a description of the preferences. Each person was asked to identify the type he or she believed provided the best fit. Each person was also asked to rate, on a scale of 1 to 5, his or her level of confidence in the estimate. The best-fit type estimates were then compared with the types that were

1

2.

Forty-two items with

New

new and updated wording

scoring system based

more

on item response theory, yielding

precise measurement, especially around the midpoint of

each scale

4.

New reports and support materials No items with more than two possible

5.

One

3.

6.

responses

item overall

less

No separate weights for the Thinking-Feeling (or any other) scale

derived by applying the different scoring procedures to the 7.

Item weights based on responses of national sample of adults

item responses.

The results indicated that one of the 1RT alternative scoring methods provided the highest percentage of matches with the best-fit type estimates. The sample was divided in many different ways by clarity of preference, age, gender, ethnic group, confidence rating, and type of interpretation and in every analysis the IRT approach provided at least a marginally better match with best-fit type. This approach was then adopted as the scoring procedure for the

8.

Improved

internal consistency

and test-retest

reliability

of each

of the four preference scales

—

—

1998

received the forms. This sample of 3,200 adults was then

used

The item weights used

determine the item weights. (The characteristics of in greater detail in Chapter 7 of

sample are described

this

manual.)

revision.

Standardization Sample

to

this

to score

previous versions of the Indicator were based on prediction ratios that

were calculated from the responses of high

school and college students. Although these samples were large

and

efforts

were made

to select

Conclusion

samples that might

provide a substantial degree of variability, a more recent desired. Consequently, re-

Because one of the goals of the 1998 revision was preserva-

and representative sample was

tion of the

random sample. Households across the United States were selected by random-digit dialing of telephone numbers. Specific population demo-

between Form

searchers collected a national

graphic targets for the final sample were based on the latest U.S. census. these,

More than 8,000 people were contacted;

about 4,000

who matched

of

the census targets agreed

and were mailed copies of the MBTI research form, along with an extensive demographic questionnaire. Responses were received from about 80% of the sample who to participate

These

MBTI

tradition, users will note

M

similarities, as well as the

Table 2.1.

It

many

similarities

and previous forms of the Indicator. changes, are outlined in

can be observed in this table that the

foundations of the MBTI,

basic-

those characteristics that have

most widely used personality test in the world, have not changed. The changes to the instrument are primarily technical and were intended to ensure that the mea-

made

it

the

surement of type keeps up with and takes advantage of the latest advances in psychometrics and test development.

H

Theory Part

II

of this

R

A

I'

manual comprises Chapters

3

and

4.

These two chapters cover the theoretical basis of the

MBTI and

as

such are

critical to

understanding the remain-

der of the manual and to using type in accurate and effec-

tive

ways.

Chapter

3,

"The Theory Behind the MBTI," puts Jungs

theory and Myers and Briggs' extension of

it

into historical

showing how Jung's initial notion of two opposite categories grew to encompass three pairs of opposites, later evolving into the four dichotomies defined by Myers and Briggs. As you read Chapter 3, you will become aware perspective,

of the following: All of the opposite functions

and attitudes are used by

at least some of the time. The Judging-Perceiving dichotomy permits two kinds

every individual

of

balance in our personalities. in

which each

The environment plays a very important development and expression of type.

role in the

The theory describes type

A

is

likely to

the

dynamic ways

develop over the

life

span.

persons preference for Extraversion or Introversion for Judging or Perceiving enables us to determine

and the

dynamics of her or

his type.

People usually need a "good reason" for using

a less

preferred function or attitude. In reading this chapter, easier to

you may notice

that

you

understand and see the value of your

find

own

it

pre-

dichotomy but that it takes more effort and value your less-preferred You may also recognize as you read that

ferred poles of each

and

objectivity to appreciate

personality parts.

one or the other pole of each dichotomy may be more generally valued within our culture or other cultures. Awareness of both personal type bias and societal type bias is central to maintaining an objective perspective as you read the second chapter

in Part

II.

20

Theory-

Chapter eral

4,

"Understanding the 16 Types," presents sev-

approaches that will help new users begin

to

under-

stand the details about the types. The chapter also provides

The workplace accommodates the values and goals of some types more readily than it does those of other types.

experienced users with some new ways of understanding

Different types find different aspects of

and explaining the dynamic aspects of the typology. Readers are shown how to read and use type tables for quick access to group type differences. This is followed by a

less stressful

description of and rationale for the precise terminology

needed

to describe different type groupings.

The remainder

and cope with perceived

consistent ways.

leads to

some

"positive-seeming" and "negative-seeming"

research results.

When we

research for groupings of types that consist of specific two-

falling into a "trait perspective" that

letter

combinations. The 16

full

type descriptions and sup-

read Chapter 4 you will

become aware

4.

As you

of the following:

more and

Assessing the 16 types from a single-norm perspective

of the chapter identifies, describes, and provides supporting

porting research summaries complete Chapter

life

stresses in type-

evaluate research,

we must be

careful to avoid

makes some types

look "better" than others.

Much

is covered in Chapter 4, and it varies in newcomers to type, keeping type dynamics accurately in mind takes practice and repetition. They may find it difficult to fully absorb some of the information in

material

complexity. For

There

is

a difference

between, for example, dominant

and ISFJ) and Introverts with Sensing (ISTJ, ISFJ, ISTP, and ISFP). A good deal of research has been conducted with some groupings of types and very little with others. introverted Sensing types (ISTJ

this chapter.

These readers might find

it

useful to revisit the

chapter after they become more experienced and comfortable with the language

and concepts of type.

^

The Theory Behind the MBTI

V E RV

C H A P T E R

A

]

Brief History of Type Theory

Even' individual

The Four Functions

is

unique. Each of us

is

a product of

heredity and environment and, as a result,

is

differ-

The Four Attitudes or Orientations

ent from everyone else.

The Theory

ever, gives

no practical help in understanding the people

whom we

must educate, counsel, work with, or

of Type

The Dynamic

Development

Interaction of the Preferences

with in our personal

The doctrine of uniqueness, how-

interact

lives.

Conclusion

we tend to assume unconsciously that other minds work on the same principles as our own. All

In practice people's

whom we interact do do not value the things we value, or are not interested in what interests us. The assumption of similarity, therefore, can promote misunderstanding of the motives and behaviors of people whose minds operate quite differently from our own. The value of the theory underlying the Myers-Briggs too often, however, the people with

not reason as

we

reason,

Type Indicator personality inventory

is

that

it

enables us to

expect specific differences in specific people and to cope

with people and their differences more constructively than

we otherwise

could. Briefly, the theory

ingly chance variation in to chance;

it is

human

is

that

behavior in

much seem-

fact is

not due

the logical result of a few basic, observable

preferences.

aim knowing their personality type. A secondary and vital goal was to validate C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types (J un g. In developing the Indicator, Isabel Myers' primary

was

to give individuals access to the benefits of

1921/1971) and to put it to practical use. Jungian theory was taken into account in every question and in every step of development of the MBTI instrument. Details of the research leading up to the development of Form M are described in Chapter 7. The MBTI theory is explained in detail in Gifts Differing

(Myers with Myers, 1980/1995),

a

21

— 22

Theory

all who plan to use the MBTI. The dynamic and developmental nature of the theory is further explicated in Introduction to Type® Dynamics and DexelopKirby f 994) and in other works that focus ment (Myers on specific aspects of dynamics and development (Corlett & Millner, 1993; Quenk, 1993).

basic reference for

&

and two opposite judging functions, thinking ver1 As stated in Chapter 1, perceiving refers to the gathering of information, and judging refers to the manner with which we come to conclusions about what we perceive. The specific meaning of each of these functions will be disintuition;

sus feeling.

cussed

later in this chapter.

ticular

form of psychic

ciple

Jung defined a function as "a parremains the same in prin-

activity that

under varying conditions" (Jung, 1921/1971, p. 436). further specified which of the two attitudes of extra-

Jung

A Brief History of Type Theory

version and introversion was likely to be habitually used in

conjunction with the dominant mental function in an indi-

When

the term type thcoiy

is

used

in this

Jung's theory as interpreted by Isabel Briggs in the

MBTI

manual,

refers to

Myers and Katharine

personality inventory.

ory was developed over a period of

it

J ungian type the-

many years. Jung gradu-

ally refined the descriptive elements of the system

and the

vidual.

The term dominant function

refers to the function

—

Sensing, Intuition, Thinking, or Feeling

that

is

be

likely to

used most enthusiastically, most often, and with the greatest confidence.

The dominant function can be viewed

as

directing, or "dominating," the personality.

The addition

of the pairs of functions to the

two

initial

dynamic interactions of the elements. Myers and Briggs further refined the approach in providing detailed, neutral

attitude types led to Jung's specification of the following

descriptions of the types as well as in clarifying the rationale

eight types in Psychological Types (1921/1971).

underlying the dynamic

interactions hypothesized.

Extraverts with dominant sensing

dominant sensing

Introverts with

Focus Extraversion and Introversion on

Jung's

Initial

Jungs attempt ity initially

Extraverts with dominant intuition

to explain individual differences in personal-

stemmed from

his observation that there

two types of people, extraverts and

dominant intuition

Introverts with

introverts.

He

were

described

whose energies are primarily oriented outwardly toward people and events in their external environment and introverts as those whose energies are directed inwardly toward thoughts and experiences in their inner extraverts as those

Extraverts with dominant thinking

dominant thinking

Introverts with

Extraverts with dominant feeling

dominant

Introverts with

feeling

Jung's system thus defined eight

dominant

types.

They

are

briefly described in Table 3.1.

environment. His identification of these two types led to the detailed

and broad-ranging descriptions of extraversion and

introversion that he later described in Psychological Types

(1921/1971). Jung saw extraversion and introversion as

two

different attitudes, with the

term attitude defined as "a

readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain

having an attitude

is

synonymous with an

way

.

.

.

a priori orienta-

tion to a definite thing" (1921/1971, p. 414). 1

years after his initial studies of extraversion sion,

Jung noted

that these

About 10 and introver-

two types did not provide a

complete picture of what he observed. He stated,

What struck me now was the undeniable fact [that] while people may be classed as introverts or extraverts, this does not account for the tremendous differences between individuals in either class. So great, indeed, are these differences that I was forced to doubt whether I had observed correctly in the first place. It took nearly ten years of observation and comparison to clear up this doubt. (1921/1971 p. 535)

The Addition

of the

Judging-Perceiving (J-P) In developing the

ments by Jung

Dichotomy

MBTI, Myers and Briggs

that related to the

functions interacted, that

is,

the

built

way Jung

on

state-

believed the

dynamic character of the

model. They extended Jung's model by adding the J-P dichotomy, thereby making explicit one aspect of the theory that was implicit but undeveloped in Jung's work. Specifically, they built

iary function that

upon Jung's

description of an auxil-

supported and complemented the domi-

nant function in every type. The addition of the J-P

dichotomy

in the

MBTI

dominant and auxilThus Jung's model was refined

identified the

iary functions for each type.

3

so as to describe i6 types: Extraverts with

dominant Sensing and

auxiliary

Thinking

,

Extraverts with dominant Sensing and auxiliary Feeling Introverts with

dominant Sensing and auxiliary Thinking

Introverts with

dominant Sensing and

During those 10 years, Jung subdivided his initial extravert and introvert types into eight types by identifying two pairs

Extraverts with

dominant

Extraverts with

dominant Intuition and

opposite mental functions: two opposite perceiving func-

Introverts with

dominant

The Addition of the Four Functions

ol

tions, sensation (called Sensing

by Myers and Briggs) versus

Introverts with

Intuition

dominant

Intuition

auxiliary Feeling

and

auxiliary

Thinking

auxiliary Feeling

and auxiliary Thinking and auxiliary Feeling

Intuition

23

The Theory Behind the MBTI

Table

3.1

The

Eight Jungian Functions

Dominant Extraverted Sensing

Directing energy outwardly and acquiring information by focusing on a detailed, accurate

accumulation of sensory data

Dominant Introverted Sensing

in

the present

Directing energy inwardly and storing the facts and details of both external reality and internal

thoughts and experiences

Dominant Extraverted Dominant Introverted

Directing energy outwardly to scan for

Intuition

new

ideas, interesting patterns,

and future

possibilities

Directing energy inwardly to focus on unconscious images, connections, and patterns that

Intuition

create inner vision and insight

Dominant Extraverted Thinking

Seeking logical order to the external environment by applying and decisive action

Dominant Introverted Thinking

Seeking accuracy and order

in

internal thoughts

clarity,

goal-directedness,

through reflecting on and developing a

logical

system for understanding

Dominant Extraverted

Dominant Introverted

Seeking harmony through organizing and structuring the environment to meet people's needs and their own values

Feeling

Feeling

Seeking intensely meaningful and complex inner harmony through sensitivity to their

own and

others' inner values and outer behavior

Extraverts with

dominant Thinking and

auxiliary Sensing

Extraverts with

dominant Thinking and

auxiliary Intuition

Introverts with

dominant Thinking and

auxiliary Sensing

Introverts with

dominant Thinking and

auxiliary Intuition

Extraverts with dominant Feeling and auxiliary Sensing

and auxiliary Intuition dominant Feeling and auxiliary Sensing Introverts with dominant Feeling and auxiliary Intuition Extraverts with dominant Feeling Introverts with

The Dynamic Character of Type Theory and the MBTI

The Four Functions The essence

of Jung's comprehensive theory of type

are called Sensing (S), Intuition (N),

and Briggs were

constantly attentive to the dynamic character of the per-

The

sonality types they were describing.

richness, depth,

and breadth of their descriptive systems result from the dynamic interplay of the functions and attitudes inherent in each type. It is

important to bear

this in

ing type theory and interpreting the

mind

MBTI

in apply-

personality

inventory.

When

people are introduced to the MBTI, the parts of

J-P

—

—the four type dichotomies,

are generally explained

interesting

and useful

this level of

first.

E-I,

S-N, T-F, and

Because these parts are

in themselves,

many

people stop

at

understanding. In doing so, they miss the

Thinking

(T),

and

among

the functions that occur in each

and the next chapter describe the distinctive dynamics and development of each type. The four functions postulated by Jung Sensing, Intuition, Thinking, and Feeling represent functions as they are related to consciousness. This means that any one of the of the 16 types. This

—

—

four functions can be conscious in a particular individual.

The function

that

mand, determines three.

most conscious or dominant, that is, amount of conscious energy at its com-

is

the degree of consciousness of the other

For example,

if

Sensing

is

the dominant,

most con-

scious function, the opposite. Intuition, will be the least

conscious. Thinking and Feeling will be

tween Sensing and Intuition

somewhere beThe same

in available energy.

broader implications and applications that are intrinsic to

principle applies

dynamic character of the MBTI. Explaining the parts that contribute to the whole is, however, a necessary step in arriving at an understanding of the dynamics of type. The following discussion focuses on the four dichotomies of the MBTI.

the largest share of psychological energy or attention.

the

Feel-

The 16 types differ in the priorities given to each function and in the attitudes of Extraversion (E) and Introversion (I) in which they typically use each function. These differences in priorities and attitudes of energy (E or I) account for the

that has the greatest

the theory

that

ing (F). These four functions are essential for daily living.

different interactions

In developing type theory, Jung, Myers,

is

everyone uses four basic mental /unctions, or processes, that

when

Intuition, Thinking, or Feeling has

Jungs concept of the four functions grew from his many years: Jung concluded, "I distinguish these functions from one another because they cannot be related or reduced to one another" (1921/1971, empirical observations over

— 24

p.

Theory

437). Type theory assumes, therefore, that

many

aspects

subsumed under one of

of conscious mental activity can be

become so

on pursuing

intent

possibilities that they

overlook actualities.

these four categories.

An Example

Use of the Terms

and Judgment

Perception

of Sensing Versus Intuition The difference

between the two perceiving functions can be

When

the example of an apple.

To understand Jung's theory

it is

important to appreciate the

uses ol the terms perception and judgment. Perception

means

all

the

It

an apple, a person might describe

includes information

gathering, the seeking of sensation or of inspiration, and the selection of a stimulus to attend to

Judgment means all the ways of coming to conclusions about what has been perceived. It includes evaluation, choice, decision making, and the selection of a response

the sensory attributes of the apple. function

is

used

say "William

same

to perceive the

"How

Tell,"

it

is

to

When

used

as "juicy,"

with black seeds." The focus

"crisp," "red," or "white

ways of becoming aware of

things, people, events, or ideas.

to perceive

by

illustrated

the Sensing function

on

is

the Intuitive

apple, a person

may

keep the doctor away," "Roast

pig," or "My grandmother's famous pie." Here the focus is on the associations and possible meanings stimulated by the

apple.

after perceiving a stimulus.

Two Two

Kinds of Perception:

Sensing

(S)

and

Intuition (N)

rational direction. Freely experiencing a flood of sensations

amongst them is an illustration of sensing as an irrational function. During such a state of free receptivity, sensations flow freely with no attempt to evaluate them. The technique of brainstorming illustrates intuition in the irrational sense. During brainstorming, inspirations are encouraged to now freely, withto limit or select

observable by

of the senses. Sensing establishes

what

exists.

senses can bring to awareness only what

is

way

Because the

occurring in the

These rational judging functions appraise or evaluate per-

and Feeling judgments

ceptions; Thinking

received by the two irrational perceiving functions, which

on the general

are focused entirely

Thinking Judgment (T) Thinking to a decision

to

Intuition refers to perception of possibilities,

acterized intuition as perception by

may come

Intuition

way of the unconscious.

to the surface of

consciousness as a

"hunch" or as a sudden discover)' of a pattern in seemingly

the function that

comes

be objective and impersonal in the application

judgment to

is

making

judgment

The focus of attention of Thinking

on the Sensing or

who

Intuitive information relevant

the particular decision at hand. Thinking

relies

on

and neutrality with respect to and values of both the decision maker

impartiality

and the people who may be

(N)

is

connections. Thinking relies on principles of cause and effect

focus

meanings, and relationships by way of insight. Jung char-

flux of events.

by linking ideas together through logical

present

Intuition

act as constraints

or limits on the free flow of the sensations or intuitions

the personal desires

moment, persons orierited toward Sensing tend to on the immediate experiences available to their five senses. They therefore often develop characteristics associated with this awareness, such as enjoyment of the present moment, realism, acute powers of observation, memory for the details of both past and present experiences, and practicality. Persons oriented to Sensing may become so intent on observing and experiencing the present moment that they do not sufficiently attend to future possibilities.

ways

can be per-

sonally directed and are in accord with the laws of reason.

of reason to a decision. (S) Sensing refers to perceptions

feeling in specialized

to refer to the rational junctions, functions that

and tends

out the constraint of criticism or appraisal.

Sensing

(F)

Jung used the terms thinking and

Jung divided all perceiving activities into two categories sensation and intuition. He called these irrational functions, by which he meant that they are attuned to the flow of events and operate most broadly when not constrained by with no attempt

Kinds of Judgment:

Thinking (T) and Feeling

affected

are primarily oriented

by the decision. Persons

toward Thinking are

develop characteristics associated with

this

way

likely to

of arriving at

conclusions: analytical inclination, objectivity, concern with principles of justice

and

fairness, criticality

an impassive and

dispassionate demeanor, and an orientation to time that linear, that

is,

is

concerned with connections from the past

through the present and toward the future.

Feeling

comes

Judgment

to decisions

(F) Feeling is the function

the issues. Feeling relies

by which one

and merits of on an understanding of personal

by weighing

values and group values; thus

relative values

it is

more subjective than

Thinking. Nevertheless, "Feeling, like thinking,

is

a rational

unrelated events. Intuition permits perception beyond what

function, since values in general are assigned according to

visible to the senses, including possible future events.

the laws of reason" (Jung, 1921/1971, p. 435). Because values are subjective and personal, persons making

is

People thai

who

prefer Intuition

may develop

the characteristics

can follow from that emphasis and become imagina-

tive, theoretical, abstract,

creative.

4

future oriented,

and

original or

Persons oriented toward Intuition

may

also

judgments with the Feeling function are more likely to be attuned to the values and feelings of others as well as to their own values and feelings. They try to understand

— The Theory Behind

people and to anticipate and take into account the effects of

hand on the people involved and on what is them. They have a concern with the human as

The Roles

the

MBTI

25

of the Functions

the decision at

important to

opposed

to the technical aspects of

problems, a desire for

warmth, and harmony, and

affiliation,

a time orientation

subjective values renders the process of less directly

making

Sensing (S) seeks the is

may be

at a

T-F

when asked

to "justify" their

classical distinction in

it

Feeling (F) seeks rational order in accord with the cre-

logic alone.

psychology between is

two of the common misconceptions about people who favor one or the other of the two judging functions. Equating Feeling as a decision-making process with feeling as

by the tions,

emotion

Jung

fact that i.e.,

is

also a

common

stated, "Feeling it

is

more nor

less

than an ordinary thinking

process" (1921/1971, p. 434).

An Example of Thinking Versus Feeling Decision Making An example of the difference between using Thinking judgment and using Feeling judgment is the following: In making a decision about which of five employees should be promoted to a supervisory position, the Thinking decision process would very likely involve developing a set of explicit criteria, ranking the criteria relative to their

importance to the decision, and rating each of the five employees accordingly. After deciding which candidate or candidates best met the criteria, a Thinking type might or might not use the less-preferred Feeling function

dynamics of the theory

to the

lies in

the assump-

and therefore pull in different directions, toward difdomains of mental activity. If all functions exerted equal weight, the personality would be at cross-purposes, lacking in consistent direction. To compare a personality to ization

ferent

a ship at sea,

produces no perceptible physical innerva-

neither

The key

tion that the four functions have different areas of special-

misperception. In this

distinguishable from affect

harmony among important

subjective values.

does not follow that "thinking"

not follow a logical argument. Such erroneous views reflect

regard,

ation and maintenance of

one aspect

people do not have "feelings" or that "feeling" people can-

affect or

experience of what

Intuition (N) seeks the furthest reaches of the possible

disadvantage

difference,

fullest possible

real.

and imaginative. Thinking (T) seeks rational order in accord with the nonpersonal logic of cause and effect.

"tough-minded" and "tender-minded" people of the

immediate and

a Feeling

judgments from the point of view of Although the

mental activity toward

observable than the linear, logical

process of making a Thinking judgment. As a result, Feeling types

direct conscious

different goals:

enduring values. The focus on

that includes preservation of

judgment

The four functions

we

take

it

for

granted that a ship needs a cap-

to set the course and bring The ship would never reach its destination if each person at the helm in turn aimed at a different destination and altered course accordingly. In type theory, one of the four functions is the favorite, or dominant, function. This dominant function serves as the "captain" of the personality. It determines what is the necessary direction to reach the desired destination and keeps the ship "on course." The other functions are important but are subordinate to and serve the goals of the dominant function. In Jungian terms, the dominant function has the largest share of the available psychic energy under its control. In the hierarchy of the functions, the auxiliary, tertiary, and

tain with

undisputed authority

the ship safely to port.

inferior functions have proportionally less energy available that the individual

can direct and control.

to consider

other factors such as personal style, acceptability to other

employees, and the employee's personal circumstances.

Such considerations might aid decision making when

a

made between equally logical alternatives. these more subjective issues might also allow maker to see whether any of these factors

The Four Attitudes or Orientations

choice must be

Attending to the decision

might have a significant negative impact on the

logical

choice.

A

functions interrelate in each type requires an explanation of the Extraversion-Introversion (E-I)

tions for the job, including impact

on other workers and

whether the best candidate or candidates stood out weighing of values.

If

in type theory. This section explains these dichotomies.

per-

sonal circumstances of the five employees, determining clearly as

two or more appropriate

Two

Kinds of Energy

Extraversion and Introversion

candidates resulted from this process, the Feeling type

A

might use the less-preferred Thinking function

devoted

to

set of objective criteria to aid in final decision

develop a

making.

would be applied

to

all

to the historical

is

development and description of the

concepts of extraversion and introversion. These are seen as

complementary attitudes or orientations of energy. The nature and extent of differences between extraversion and

smooth and harmo-

introversion translate into profoundly different approaches

overlooked, as well as to

nious transition for

If

major portion of Jung's Psychological Types (1921/1971)

ensure that nothing important was

only one candidate was clearly outstanding, objective ria

and Judging-Perceiving

dichotomies, the two pairs of attitudes or orientations ( J-P)

Feeling decision might focus initially on the qualifica-

a result of this

Understanding the way in which the dominant and other

facilitate a

crite-

employees affected by the decision.

to or orientations

toward

life.

26

Theory

The Extraverted Attitude

(E) In the Extraverted attitude,

energy and attention flow out, or are drawn out, to the objects and people in the environment. The individual experiences a desire to act on the environment, to affirm

importance, to increase

Persons habitually taking

its effect.

may develop some

the Extraverted attitude

its

or

all

of the

These people were identified

by Myers and Briggs as

later

people with a Judging attitude. Briggs described other people as habitually interacting with the outer world using perceiving, liking to

continue gathering information as long as

possible before comfortably

coming

These peo-

to closure.

ple were identified later as having a Perceiving attitude.

characteristics associated with Extraversion: awareness of

Katharine Briggs' work in conjunction with Jung's incom-

and reliance on the environment

and

plete discussion of this area

guidance; an eagerness to interact with the outer world; an

mulation used in the MBTI.

for stimulation

action-oriented, sometimes impulsive

openness

to

sociability;

new

way

of meeting

and a desire

The J-P dichotomy has two

life;

experiences; ease of communication and

with the E-I dichotomy,

two preferred functions

to "talk things out."

and which

The Introverted Attitude (I) In the Introverted attitude, energy is drawn from the environment toward inner experience and reflection. One desires to stay focused on the internal, subjective state, to affirm

this focus as

its

and

value,

to

maintain

formed the basis

is

it is

for-

uses. First, in conjunction

used

which of the dominant function

to identify

the leading or

is

J-P

for the

the auxiliary function. Second,

describes

it

identifiable attitudes or orientations to the outer world.

The

recognition and development of the character of the J-P

dichotomy

are a

major contribution of Briggs and Myers

to

the theory of psychological types.

The concept

long as possible. The main interests of the

of the J-P attitude

was derived over

MBTI

a period

Introverted type are in the world of concepts, ideas, and

of several decades, before any

inner experiences. Persons habitually taking the Introverted

Myers' observation of different behavioral patterns formed

attitude

may develop some

or

all

of the characteristics

the basis for the J-P distinction. Behaviors characteristic of

who used either Thinking or Feeling in who extraverted one of the judgment

associated with Introversion: interest in the clarity of

persons

concepts, ideas, and recollected experience; reliance on

life (i.e.,

enduring concepts and experiences more than on transitory

formed the basis

external events or fleeting ideas; a thoughtful, contemplative

Behaviors characteristic of persons

detachment; an enjoyment of solitude and privacy; and

or Intuition in their outer

a

many

laypeople, the term extraverted

and introverted means

shy.

3

Jung's concept

means

is

sociable,

different

and much broader than the laypersons view Seen as

from

differ-

often recognize

energies typically flow, outward or inward. Extraverts are

attitude

seen as having more energy directed toward the outer seen as.having more energy directed

available for activities in the outer world.

and amount of time devoted by individuals mal

human

results in

personality

to

energy

less

The comfort with

each orientation of energy

two recognizable variants of nor-

— Extraverts and

Introverts.

These

types of people have been recognized throughout history

and

literature,

each making major contributions to

is

who used either Sensing who extraverted a per-

life (i.e.,

of the most overlooked characteristics that

how people behave

notice

toward the inner world, with correspondingly

functions)

Judging pole of the J-P dichotomy.

it

describes the orientation to the

outer or extraverted world for every type. Others readily

Introversion identifies the direction in which a person's

world, with correspondingly less energy available for inner

One

the J-P dichotomy.

oj the J-P dichotomv

ent orientations of energy, a preference for Extraversion or

activities. Introverts are

for the

their outer

ceiving function) formed the basis of the Perceiving pole of

desire to "think things out" before talking about them.

To

items were written.

In

in the outer

world and, as a

someone as having a Judging or relatively early on in the acquaintance.

any new

activity,

it is

appropriate

first

to

result,

a Perceiving

use a perceiv-

ing function (S or N) to observe or take in the situation; then it is

on

appropriate to use a judging function (T or F) to decide

the appropriate action. Perceiving types typically remain

longer in the observing attitude because able

and natural

for

them. Judging types

through perception in order closure, as they are

to reach

it is more comfortmove more quickly

conclusions and achieve

satisfied when a when a decision has been made.

most comfortable and

plan has been developed or

society.

Myers' descriptions of Extraverts and Introverts reflect the

The

complex, multifaceted nature of Jung's conception.

is

Two Attitudes or

Judging (TJ) types, the decisions and plans are more likely to be based on logical analysis; for Feeling Judging (FJ)

Judging Attitude

(J) In the

Judging

planning operations, or organizing

Outer World No

explicit

Orientations to the

—Judging

mention

is

(J)

and Perceiving

made by Jung regarding

(P)

a judging

1

activities.

types, the decisions and plans are more weighing and assessing values. But

who

people,

attitude, perception tends to be shut off as

her unpublished

work that

prior to the publication of Jung's

some people

habitually use judg-

ment in interacting with the outer, extraverted world, being likely to

come

to

conclusions and achieve closure quickly.

characteristically live in

observed enough

who

to

make

For Thinking

be based on both TJ and FJ the Judging (J) soon as they have

for

world. Katharine Briggs described such a type classification in

person

likely to

versus perceiving attitude' or orientation toward the outer :

work She observed

attitude, a

concerned with making decisions, seeking closure,

a decision. In contrast, people

prefer the Perceiving attitude will often suspend

judgment to take another look, reporting, "We don't know enough yet to make a decision." People who prefer Judging

The Theory Behind

seem

often

the

27

MBT1

in their outer behavior to be organized,

we do

purposeful, and decisive, frequently stating, "Yes,

have enough information to make

Perceiving (P)

this decision."

Procrastination can be the result of perception with a

judgment. Prejudice can come from judgment

deficit of

with a

People

deficit of perception.

new

limes erroneously assume that Judging types are necessarily

important to understand that Judging refers

judgmental.

It is

to decision

making, the exercise of judgment, and

able

and indispensable

tool.

It is

Sensing

Intuition

MBTI some-

to the

is

a valu-

Figure 3.1 The J-P Dichotomy From Introduction to Type {6th ed.p 6). by B Myers, with CA: Consulting Psychologists Press Used with permission.

Source Alto.

I

LK

Kirby

&

KD Myers. 1998

Palo

also important to distin-

guish between a preference for using a Perceiving function in the outer

world (P) and

should not be assumed

to

perceptiveness. Just as J types

be judgmental, P types should

not be assumed to be especially discerning.

A source of confusion for many people MBTI is the fact that Judging includes

learning about

both Thinking

the

and Feeling and Perceiving includes both Sensing and Intuition. Figure 3.1 shows this relationship.

with or contaminated by any other function (1921/1971).

and with the reinforcement of constant practice these functions become more controlled and trustworthy. The pleasure of using preferred functions generalizes to other activities

requiring use of the functions and leads to the surface

Perceiving Attitude (P) In the Perceiving attitude, a

person

attuned to incoming information. For Sensing

is

Perceiving (SP) types the information

immediate

realities in the

is

more

likely to

environment, what

is

be the

happening

and is observable. For Intuitive Perceiving (NP) types the information is more likely to be new ideas, interesting patterns,

and future

possibilities.

types, the Perceiving attitude

Persons

seem

who

aim

is

But for both SP and

NP

open, curious, and interested.

characteristically live in the Perceiving attitude

in their outer

adaptable,

is

and open

to receive

behavior to

what

to

is

be spontaneous, curious,

new and

changeable. Then-

information as long as possible in an

effort to

miss nothing that might be important.

this

ring, there this

is

development of preferred functions

sequence of events, for example, a child

Sensing perception and a child

of Type

who

who

Each

Development

important aspect of Jung's type theory

a hierarchy of functions that describes

sonality at any stage of

life.

is its

other remains undifferentiated. Both channel their interests

and energies into activities that give them a chance to use their minds in the ways they prefer, and each acquires a set of surface traits that grows out of the basic preferences.

Type Development During Adolescence and Adulthood

For example,

ing in a highly differentiated

person

a

way

is

who

develops Sens-

likely to

become an

most useful

span. There

assumed to follow from this acute awareness: realism, practicality, and common sense. While paying attention to the

life

an individuals per-

This hierarchy of dominant, aux-

an individual

at

In the

process, the person acquires

and inferior functions permits and encourages development and adaptation that is likely to be for

some

focus on the

iliary, tertiary,

the kind of

will

As a child becomes an adolescent and then an adult, continued exercise of the dominant and auxiliary functions promotes further enjoyment, development, and differentiation of them as compared with their opposite inferior and ter-

development of personality throughout the is

prefers

an area in which the

relatively differentiated in

astute observer of the immediate environment.

An

occur-

prefers Intuitive per-

ception will develop along divergent lines.

become

is

relative neglect of the opposite functions. In

tiary functions.

The Theory

trails,

behaviors, and skills associated with these functions.

While

The

A

sense of competence comes from exercising a function well,

each stage of life.

specifics of the

environment, the person spends

and energy using

Intuition,

which

tion opposite to Sensing. Focusing

people

who

of the characteristics

is

less

time

the perceiving func-

on the present

(S) gives

prefer the Sensing function less time for focus-

ing on the future (N); focusing on the concrete (S) gives

Type Development During Childhood Type theory assumes that children are born with a predispo-

some functions

Children are most They are motivated to exercise their dominant function and to a somewhat lesser extent their auxiliary function, becoming more skillful, adept, and differentiated in their use. Jung described a differentiated function as one that is separate and exists by itself, so that it can operate on its own without being mixed up

sition to prefer

to others.

them less energy for focusing on the abstract (N); focusing on practical applications (S) gives them less interest in theoretical issues (N); and focusing on reality (S) gives them less time for focusing on the imaginary or fanciful (N).

interested in their preferred functions.

Type Development over the Type development greater tion

command

is

Life

Span

seen as a lifelong process of gaining

over the functions or powers of percep-

and judgment. For each

type,

two of the four functions

— 28

Theory

and more likely to be consciously developed and used. The two less-preferred functions are assumed to be less interesting and are likely to be relatively neglected. Development comes from striving are

assumed

to be

more

interesting

for excellence in those functions that

hold the greatest

interest and from becoming at least passable in the other

Rationale for a Type

Some people

but essential functions.

In youth and adulthood, the task (leading, or

dominant) and the second

is

to

develop the

that these innate, natural functions are

The theory assumes

best suited to helping a person find a comfortable tive place in the

first

(auxiliary) functions.

world

—the

task of youth

and

dominant function and

dislike the idea of a

prefer to think of themselves as using equally. tions,

able. less interesting

Development Theory

erroneously believing this to be necessary or desir-

Jung

said that

when energy

is

shared equally between

two opposite mental functions, differentiation cannot occur. Both functions remain undeveloped, which produces an unconscious "primitive mentality" in which neither function can be directed and controlled. When a person tries to

effec-

and adulthood.

the functions

all

Others strive for equal development of the func-

attend to two incompatible opposites at the

same

time, they

"Specializing" by devoting a great deal of energy to one's

"jam" each other and no clear signal comes through. For example, a person who is "pulled" equally toward Sensing

dominant and auxiliary functions is therefore appropriate during the first half of life. During midlife, people appear to

and Intuition might focus on concrete

be naturally motivated toward completing their personalities through gradually adding the previously neglected ter-

different set of facts,

tiary

and

inferior functions to the sphere of operation. In

the second half of

life, it is

appropriate to be a "generalise

Development of this kind allows add new perspectives and experiences that

move

facts in the present,

quickly to future possibilities, switch to an entirely

and so on. Persistent vacillation among would very likely produce confusion and frustration for the individual. At the point at which a decision needs to be made based on available information. perceiving functions

rather than a specialist.

Sensing facts and Intuitive possibilities

individuals to

guishable from one another. Thus,

may be

indistin-

energy and attention to the tertiary and inferior functions

one of a pair of functions is to develop, the other must be shut off most of the time to give the person a chance to gain experience and

involves a corresponding lessening of energy and attention

confidence in the natural, preferred function.

were previously not very

fulfilling to

them. Giving greater

dominant and auxiliary functions. However, this does not involve a change in a persons type. Type theory to the

assumes that type does not change over the the expression of type ent stages of

A

life

and

may

life

span. Rather,

vary in accordance with

different

life

differ-

circumstances.

very few exceptional persons

may

optimum use

of the four

is

tion both to

to

its

relative

importance

to the individual

useful relationship to the other processes.

goal of development

is

and

to

The general

to

at

long process, with no expectation that a person will arrive at a

either

be obtained not through equality but rather through selective development of each function in propor-

functions

its

reach a stage of

which they can use each function relatively easily as the situation requires. For most people, however, striving for a comfortable and effective expression of the four mental functions is an interesting and challenging lifedevelopment

In Jungian typology, therefore,

if

predetermined

level of

Become

differentiated with the preferred functions

adequately develop a dominant, most-conscious function used primarily in the preferred attitude,

ancing and somewhat used primarily

development.

less

and

a bal-

conscious auxiliary function

in the less-preferred attitude.

Eventually admit the least-developed processes to conscious, purposeful use in the service of the

dominant

Influence of the Environment

process and for selected tasks or for limited periods of

on Type Development

time. This use

In the type

model, environment becomes extremely impor-

tant because

it

can foster development of each person's nat-

ural preferences, or

it

can discourage them by reinforcing

activities that are less satisfying, less comfortable,

The confidence and motivating.

latter situation skill in one's

makes

it

and

difficult to acquire

natural preferences. In fact,

environmental interference with type development can tort or

to

dis-

suppress a person's natural, innate type. Individuals

whom

this

occurs

tially less-preferred

may own

less

feel less

best

may become

function but

competent, or

gifts.

may

skillful in

may

using an

ini-

require the

dominant and auxiliary

ness so that the third or fourth function can

more accessible. Use each of the functions

for the tasks for

best fitted. For example, a

dominant

find that using her inferior Sensing

is

become

which they are

Intuitive type

may

the most effective

way of handling important financial records; a dominant Thinking type may find employees to be less resistant to organizational change when they are given an opportunity to voice personal

concerns and issues.

also be less content,

be out ol touch with their

The MBT1 does not

may

functions to temporarily relinquish control in conscious-

The

Universality of Type

necessarily reveal the

extent to which natural development has been fostered or

thwarted. Chapters 5 and 6 will discuss

some

of the strate-

gies for helping individuals identify their true preferences.

The growing evidence regarding the chological type, which is described

biological basis of psyin detail in

gives credence to Jung's assumption that type

is

Chapter

9,

universal.

The Theory Behind

that

is,

that the personalities of

human

all

beings are struc-

tured in accordance with type dichotomies. Support for universality

MBT1

the

comes from

the fact that

many

are being used successfully

translations of

and many more are

being developed. Users in other countries and cultures report excellent results in applying personality type con-

dichotomies and

cepts. All four

16 types are recognized

all

However, the way the opposite preferences in each dichotomy are expressed in other cultures may vary considerably from the way they are in other countries

and

cultures.

A

expressed in U.S. culture.

discussion of this and related

issues regarding the universality of type can be

Chapter

found

in

For each type, one function This

is

the

Members

first

29

MBT1

be dominant.

function.

of each type will mainly use their

in their favorite attitude.

That

is,

first

function

Extraverts use the

first

function mainly in the outer world of Extraversion; Introverts use the

first

world of concepts, In addition to the

function mainly in the introverted

ideas, first,

and inner experience.

or dominant, function, a second,

or auxiliary, function will be developed to provide balance.

The

auxiliary function provides balance

between Extra-

version and Introversion. For Extraverts, the

dominant, function

or

first,

be extraverted, and the second,

will

or auxiliary, function will typically be used in the inner

14.

world. For Introverts, the

will typically be

The Dynamic

fort

of the Preferences When people

respond

(I),

used

in the outer world.

With the auxil-

and facility

in living in

both the outer world and the

inner world.

to the items

on

the

MBT1 assessment

they are not only casting votes for Extraversion (E) or

Introversion

or dominant, function

or second, junction, therefore, a person develops com-

iary,

Interaction

first,

be introverted, and the second, or auxiliary, function

will

tool,

will lead, or

the

Sensing (S) or Intuition (N), Thinking (T)

Notice that in this model, Extraverts show then best, function to the

i>!irsiTnent of the moment. situations in their environment.

Characteristics of ESTPs

ESTPs

everything going on around them

Be overly focused on immediate impacts of decisions

preferences are energetic,

responding creatively

—

are interested in

activities, food, clothes,

people, the outdoors, and everything that offers experiences. Because they learn

new

more from doing than from

'

Understanding the 16 Types

Table 4.27

69

Research Describing ISFJ

Personality, Psychotherapy,

Trend toward overrepresentation among

Health, Stress, Coping

One

of four

men married more

most common types among males

Overrepresented among females

Among substance

in a

in a

Predominant type among men

who

two times

1

substance abuse program'

substance abuse program

abusers, are attracted to heroin

Overrepresented among members of

than

1

1

program

a cardiac rehabilitation

1

had undergone coronary bypass surgery 2

Overrepresented among female coronary heart disease patients and second most frequent type 2

With

outnumber dominant extraverted Sensing types with chronic

ISTJs, far

More frequent among both male and female

One

of the four types

in

2

college reporting the lowest levels of assertiveness 2

national sample, highest

In

"Balancing

pain

chronic pain patients 2

reporting stress associated with "Health," "Caring for aging parents," and

in

home and work" 3

In

national sample, ranked third fhighest

In

national sample, ranked fourth highest

"Ever had heart disease or hypertension" 3

in

in

"Believing

power" 3

higher spiritual

in a

Ranked second highest on both "Emotional exhaustion" and "Depersonalization" burnout

Ranked

Education

third highest

in

"Negative

affectivity"

scales

3

3

Males among three lowest on one out of three measures two out of three measures of creativity 4

of creativity; females

among

three lowest on

Second most frequent type among education majors 5

As teachers, prefer

Rated by psychologists Rated by faculty as

approach to reading instruction 5

a basal as

one of two types

skilled in

least likely to

working with dental patients

have trouble

in

school 5

5

Higher on deductive reasoning than dominant Thinking or Feeling types, with other dominant Sensing types 6

Academic subjects preferred: In

practical skills

7

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented

underrepresented

in

in

"Watching TV three hours or more per day," "Watching sporting events," "Appreciating art,"

"Playing with computer/video games,"

and "Playing sports" 5

Careers

Most important

features of an ideal job: stable and secure future 8

Highest of all types

one of three

"No

in

in

in liking

national sample

expectation for working extra

opportunities"

work environment characteristic "Employee loyalty & job security"; work environment characteristics "Clear structures" and hours"; lowest of all types in liking work environments with "International

national sample

highest types

in liking

9

among

three types with lowest income 9

In

national sample,

In

national sample "Organizational Values," place high value

challenge" and "Visible

on "Happy

family" and

low value on "Variety &

autonomy" 9

among top

In

national sample,

In

national sample, dissatisfied with "Promotions," "Stress,"

four types

Overrepresented among working

in

valuing "Health" and "Spirituality"

MBA students

and "Salary"

compared with

in

9

their jobs

national sample

9

9

Overrepresented among male small business owners compared with national sample 9 Occupational trends

Organizations, Leadership,

identified: education, health care, religious settings

Higher on CPI scales Sc.Fm; lower on Do, Ai,Cs,le,Sy,

Management.Teams

Py, Sp,

Fx.Sa, In.Wb,

Higher on LSI scales Conservative, Conventional, Guarded, Reserved

Modal type in the organization in study comparing type with were negatively correlated with performance 12

9

internal

Em.To 10

'

performance

ratings

— but

ratings

Showed change on at least four of seven leadership items in Naval Academy leadership behavior study where type training was followed by feedback from lower-ranked students 12

Note

'''Brief

definitions of these

CPI

ratings by subordinates of types that Source

Quenk

& Quenk,

1996;

scales can be

were

Shelton, 1996;

creativity calculated separately for males

found

in

(

hapter 13, "Uses of Type in Organizations." See also rable 4.26;

significantl) higher or lower See

Chapur

and remales. Thorne

Usesol type

10

& Gough,

on various leadership in

'

'Tables

4.

26-4.41 report

scales, relative lo the other types.

Counseling and Psychotherapy

,

Highesi three and lowest three types on three measures of 7

&

See Chapter 11. "Uses of Type in Education"; T)iTiberio, 1996. Myers McCaulley, 1985: Hammer. 1996a; See Chapter 12, "Uses of Type in Career Counseling"; A studv thai compared the mean scores of [he 16 types on the scales of the CPI using a sample ol 15.102 people who attended leadership development programs at he ( enter for Creative Leadership Fleenor. 1007 Results in the same study at the Center for Creative I

Leadership on the Leadership Style Indicalcn (LSD;

12

Walck, 1996

1991

70

Theory

May

studying or reading, they tend to plunge into things, learning as they go, trusting their ability to respond resourcefully.

ESTPs

not see the wider ramifications of their actions and

decisions

May

are likely to be

forget dates

and events

that have special

meaning

to

others

Observant Practical

and

May be unaware of the impact of their actions on others May be impatient with discussion or exploration of

realistic

Active, involved in immediate experience

ESTPs make decisions by and can be tough when the They usually are

logical analysis

relationships

and reasoning

situation calls for toughness.

problem solvers

Analytical, rational

Under great stress, ESTPs may have negative fantasies. They may imagine that others do not really care about them, then marshal and distort their Sensing data to provide themselves with "evidence" of this neglect.

Straightforward and assertive

ESTPs

Table 4.28 summarizes relevant research results for ESTPs.

are expert at seeing the needs of the

reacting quickly to meet them. For the

with what

fer to deal flexibly

is,

most

moment and

part, they pre-

rather than

make judg-

ments. They good-naturedly take things as they are and seek satisfying solutions, rather than impose a "should" or

Some

inferred

from a review of Table 4.28. ESTPs are rated lower by

observers on adaptation, to

"must" of their own.

of the possible consequences of extraverting rather

than introverting ones dominant Sensing function can be

be

some measures assumed

and

in

to reflect psychological

comparison with ISTJs they are

common in substance abuse and

less likely

cardiac groups.

How-

ever, they are frequent in chronic pain groups, like the ISTJs.

How

Others May See Them ESTPs are strong in the art of living. They love life and immerse themselves in it; others respond to their enthusiasm and good humor. ESTPs are people of action. They usually dislike and avoid theory and written directions. Traditional schools can be difficult for

people with these preferences, though ESTPs do well

when

they see the relevance and are allowed to experiment.

They seem

fied

by colleges as candidates

for

substance abuse training,

but in fact ESTPs are less likely to appear in substance abuse treatment programs. Other variables in this content area that for Introverted Sensing types

with an ESTP approach to Gregarious, fun-loving, and spontaneous

Adventurous

is

Pragmatic troubleshooters

seem

consistent

life.

Although the gender difference

risk takers

effects that

dominant Introverted Sensing types, are highest of the types in positive affect, and report satisfaction with their intimate relationships. Note that this type is identi-

do not show up

Others usually see ESTPs as

kind of job burnout

less subject to the

characterize the

in

measures of

creativity

puzzling, the remaining educational results are consistent

with expectations for a type whose learning style needs and expression of competence are addressed poorly by our edu-

Potential Areas for Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported ESTPs in the development and expression of their Thinking and Sensing preferences. If

they have not developed their Thinking,

not have a useful

way

incoming sensory

amongst the barrage of They may then have difficulty may make ill-founded decisions. of selecting

they have not developed their Sensing, they

on the Sensing data decisions

may

will

data.

setting priorities or If

ESTPs

that are

may

focus

immediately available. Their

then be limited to gratification of their

sensual desires, particularly those involving physical challenge and If

gifts feel

risk.

ESTPs do not find a place where they can use their and be appreciated for their contributions, they usually

frustrated

and may

Have trouble accepting structure and meeting deadlines Focus entirely on excitement and activity, getting caught up in external activities Put enjoying

life

ahead of important obligations

cational system. Note, however, that tional strengths are also indicated.

tend to remain, perhaps because the broader spectrum of subjects

and training methods permits them

educational needs. Chapter

natural for

1 1

to

meet

their

discusses educational issues

ESTP and ESFP

types in some detail. The career and organization areas highlight some of the ways ESTPs function in the world of work. They are attracted to type-consistent fields such as marketing and technology, and their confidence and comfort in interacting with the environment are shown in their higher standing on the CPI scales of Dominance, Sociability, Social Presence, and the like. In contrast, they may be judged somewhat negatively for their just as type-consistent lower scores on Responsibility, Self-Control, Tolerance, and other scales. Some of the characteristics that come naturally and comfortably to ESTPs and their companion dominant extraof

verted Sensing type, the ESFPs, are well regarded by society,

while others can be interpreted as showing immaturity, lack of responsibility, and a lack of seriousness about goals and

accomplishments.

ESTPs to give less attention to their nonpreferred Intuitive and Feeling parts. If they neglect these too much, however, they It is

some of their educaOnce in college they

etal biases

Much

of the data above suggest such soci-

and the ways

in

which dominant extraverted

be misunderstood and misjudged,

Sensing types are likely

to

particularly as students

and

in the workplace.

'

71

Understanding the 16 Types

ESTP

Research Describing

Table 4.28

among

three lowest on "Efficacy"; females

Personality, Psychotherapy,

Males

Health, Stress, Coping

and "Efficacy"'

among

three lowest on"Soundness"

Frequent among college students referred for substance abuse training 2

One

of three least

common

types

among males

in a

Underrepresented among members of a cardiac

substance abuse program 2

rehabilitation

More frequent among both male and female chronic

pain patients

Less frequent than dominant introverted Sensing types

With

3

among female

chronic pain patients pain 3

due to overdoing among those with long-term

ISTPs, at highest risk for setbacks

Ranked 15th out of 16 types on using

program 3

and 16th out of 16 types on

spiritual/philosophical coping resources

using cognitive coping resources 3

One

of the four types

Ranked

college reporting highest levels of assertiveness

third lowest in "Emotional exhaustion"

Ranked highest In

in

in

"Positive affectivity"

and "Depersonalization" burnout scales 4

4

national sample, ranked fourth highest

satisfaction with "Marriage/intimate relationship"

in

Males among three lowest on two out of three measures one out of three measures of creativity 5

Education

Collaborative learners and

One

of

Among the

highest

in

types

With

overall

ISTPs, the

modal types of language students

at the University of Hawaii

history, math, practical skills

characteristics favored

national sample,

among

in

most

types

9

in

"Playing sports"

dissatisfied

national sample,

In

national sample, dissatisfied with "Promotions,"

four types

Occupational trends

in

"Visible

Higher on CPI scales Do, Sy,

Management.Teams

Higher on

LSI scale

MBA

Sp, Sa, Fx;

Demanding

Departures from Most

autonomy" and low value on

"Opportunity to contribute to

society,"

and "Amount

students compared with national sample

1

law enforcement, applied technology

lower on Re.Sc.To, Ac, Ai.le.Py,

9

Fm 10

'

underemphasize "Active teamwork toward a common goal," management," "Equality," "Responsible idealism and collaborative work";

overemphasize "Self-protection, self-interest

first"

2

Note: "Brief definitions of these CPI scales can be found in Chapter 13, "Uses of Type in Organizations." See Table 4.26; significantly higher or lower

9

Effective Profile:

"Efficiency, strong impartial

Sourte:

9

9

identified: marketing, skilled trades, business,

Organizations, Leadership,

were

&

9

Overrepresented among working

that

"Independence

with company/organization worked for

valuing "Prestige"

In

of stress"

6

national sample; "Variety of tasks,"

In national sample "Organizational Values," place high value on "Achievement within system" and "Financial analysis'

among top

8

9

achievement," "Clear structure"

by subordinates of types

Feeling

compared with Howard University males 8

high school males

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented

Three top work

In

on deductive reasoning than dominant Thinking or

types, higher

7

Academic subjects preferred:

Careers

three highest on

6

More frequent among African American

In

among

GPA 6

college retention

With other dominant Sensing

of creativity; females

4

dependent learners 6

field

two types with lowest

3

on

12

Tables 4.26-4.41 report ratings

various leadership scales, relative to the other types.

Highest three and lowest three types on two measures of personal adjustment ("Soundness" and "Efficacy"), which were calculated separately for males and females. 4 3 1996; Shellon. 1996; See Chapter 10, "Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy"; Highest three and lowest three Gough, 1991; See Chapter 11, "Uses of Type in Education"; DiTiberio, 1996; three measures of creativity, calculated separately for males and females. Thorne

& Gough. 1991; 2 Quenk & Quenk,

Thorne lypeson 8 Kirby

&

& Barger,

9

See Chapter 12, "Uses of Type in Career Counseling",

A study

that

compared the mean scores of the 16 types on the

scales of the

CPI using a sample

Results in the same study al the Center for Creative leadership development programs at the Center for Creative Leadership. Fleenor, 1997, 12 the Leadership Style Indicator (LSI); A study using SYMLOG analysis of 529 subjects from the top three tiers of management Ratings of SYMLOG values for the

of 15.102 people

Leadership on

1996;

who attended

16 types were averaged across

all raters.

Sundstrom

& Busby. 1997.

72

Theory

ESFP: Extraverted Sensing

Resourceful and supportive

with Introverted Feeling

Gregarious, fun-loving, playful, spontaneous

Dominant

function: Se

Potential Areas for Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported ESFPs in the development and expression of their Feeling and Sensing preferences.

Auxiliary function: Fj Tertiary function: T,

Fourth/inferior function: Nj

If

At Their Best People with ESFP preferences are exuberant life. They live in the moment and find enjoyment in people, food, clothes, animals, the natural world, and activities. They seldom let rules interfere with their lives, lovers of

focusing on meeting

human

needs in creative ways.

ESFPs are excellent team players, oriented to getting the done with a maximum amount of fun and a minimum amount of fuss.

in the interactions of the

mechanism

for

If

the sensory data available in the

may

then be limited

ESFPs do not find and be appreciated

and new experiences. Because they learn more from doing

ally feel frustrated

their possessions

and take pleasure

to

in

be

Observant

deci-

to gratification of their

a place

where they can use

their

usu-

and may

natural for

ESFPs

to give less attention to their If

non-

they neglect these

much, however, they may

Fail to look at

long-term consequences, acting on imme-

diate needs of themselves

and others

Avoid complex or ambiguous situations and people Put enjoyment ahead of obligations

Under nally

sympathetic, and tactful

with

distracted and overly impulsive Have trouble accepting and meeting deadlines Overpersonalize others' actions and decisions

too

Generous, optimistic, and persuasive

sensual

for their contributions, they

preferred Intuitive and Thinking parts.

ESFPs make decisions by using their personal values. They use their Feeling judgment internally to make decisions by identifying and empathizing with others. They are good at interpersonal interactions and often play the role of peacemaker. Thus, ESFPs are likely to be

Warm,

focus

Become

It is

and specific Active, involved in immediate experiences Practical, realistic,

may

moment. Their

other people.

Characteristics of ESFPs ESFPs are interested in people

They appreciate them. ESFPs are likely

or anchoring

desires, particularly those involving interactions

If

things, learning as they go.

evaluating,

they have not developed their Sensing, they

on

gifts

than from studying or reading, they tend to plunge into

weighing,

get

moment, with no

themselves.

sions

task

may

they have not developed their Feeling, ESFPs

caught up

great stress,

by negative

ESFPs may feel overwhelmed interThey then put energy into

possibilities.

developing simplistic global explanations for their negative

to

ESFPs are keen observers of human behavior. They seem sense what is happening with other people and respond

pictures.

Table 4.29 summarizes relevant research for ESFPs.

Many

How

ESTPs apply to ESFPs as comments that address the results. However, do the there are also some interesting differences that may be due to the auxiliary introverted Feeling function of ESFPs in

of

contrast to the auxiliary introverted Thinking function of

quickly to their practical needs. They are especially good

mobilizing people to deal with

at

crises.

Others May See Them ESFPs get a lot of fun out and are fun to be with; their exuberance and enthusiasm draw others to them. They are flexible, adaptable, congenial, and easygoing. They seldom plan ahead, trusting their ability to respond in the moment and deal effectively with whatever presents itself. They hate structure and routine and will generally find ways to get around life

them.

ESFPs tend

to learn

by doing, by interacting with their

environment. They dislike theory and written explanations. Traditional schools can be difficult for ESFPs, though they

do well when they see the relevance and

are allowed to

interact with people or the topics being studied.

usually see

ESFPs

as

of the results found for

well, as

Others

the ESTPs.

Gender

effects

may

also be inferred, given the

and Feeling preference incidences for males and females. Thus it is interesting that male ESFPs are among the three highest types on one measure of psychological adjustment (Efficacy) and female ESFPs are among the three lowest, while both male and female ESTPs are judged to be low on these adjustment measures. Since the Efficacy measure was based on ratings by observers who were naive about type theory and the types of their subjects, this result reflects the way in which these typedifference in Thinking

gender combinations are perceived in our

society.

Chapter

10 explores this issue. Similarly puzzling type and gender

'

73

Understanding the 16 Types

Research Describing ESFP

Table 4.29

Personality, Psychotherapy, Health, Stress, Coping

Males

among three

highest

on

"Efficacy"; females

among

three lowest on "Efficacy"

Overrepresented among new college students referred for Overrepresented among members of a cardiac

rehabilitation

types,

program

abuse workshop 2

3

chronic pain patients 3

among female

Less frequent than dominant introverted Sensing types

With other three dominant Sensing

a substance

1

more frequent among both male and female

chronic pain

patients 3 In

national sample, ranked

1

5th out of

1

6 types on using physical coping resources;

using spiritual/philosophical coping resources; highest ranking coping resource

the

1

second highest

national sample,

in satisfaction

Dependent

learners

(little

intellectual curiosity,

scales

with "Marriage/intimate relationship"

Males among three highest on two out of three measures of one out of two measures of creativity 5

Education

1

6 on

— 3rd of

6 types

Ranked second lowest on "Emotional exhaustion" and "Depersonalization" burnout In

6th out of

1

was "Emotional"

creativity;

females

4

4

among

look to authority for guidelines) and

three lowest on

field

dependent

learners 6

One

of

Among

Among

two types with lowest the highest

in

overall college

college retention

highest persisters

in

college

GPA 6

6

6

Higher on deductive reasoning than dominant Thinking or Feeling types, with other dominant Sensing types

7

Academic subjects preferred: history 8 In

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented

underrepresented

Careers

Most important Highest of

all

as possible" In

in

features of an ideal job:

types

and

in

"No

national sample,

in

"Watching TV three or more hours per day";

"Reading" and "Working out/exercising" 6

national sample

"A

stable and secure future"

in liking

work environment

expectation for working extra hours"

among

types with lowest income and

9

characteristics

"Making the job as simple

10

likely

to leave the job

10

national sample "Organizational Values," place high value on "Happy family" and low value on "Achievement within system" 10

In

In national

sample, among top four types valuing"Home/family,""Health,""Friendships,""Financial security,"

"Spirituality" In

10

national sample, dissatisfied with "Promotions," "Job Security," "Stress," "Salary," and

and

satisfied

with "People

I

"Accomplishment"

work with" 10

Underrepresented among working

MBA students compared

with national sample

10

Underrepresented among both male and female small business owners compared with national sample Occupational trends

identified: health care, teaching, coaching, childcare

lower on

Organizations, Leadership,

Higher on CPI scale

Sy;

Management.Teams

Higher on

Changeable, Energetic, Forceful,

LSI scales

Showed change on

Sc,

Ac, Py

worker,

skilled trades

10

'

Initiating,

Resourceful

at least four of seven leadership items in Naval

12

Academy

leadership behavior study

in

13 which type training was followed by feedback from lower-ranked students

Note: "Brief definitions of these CPI scales can be found in Chapter 13, "Uses of Type in Organizations." See Table 4.26; ratings

by subordinates of types that were significantly higher or lower on

12

Tables 4.26-4.41 report

various leadership scales, relative to the other types.

Highest three and lowest three types on two measures of personal adjustment ("Soundness" and "Efficacy"), which were calculated separately for males and females 4 2 Quenk Quenk, 1996; 3 Shelton, 1996; See Chapter 10, "Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy". 'Highest three and lowest threet) pes Gough, 1991, See Chapter 11, "Uses of Type in Education"; 'DiTiberio 1996; Myers on three measures of creativity, calculated separately for males and females. Thome &McCaulley, 1985; 'Hammer, 1996a; 10 See Chapter 12, "Uses of Type in Career Counseling"; "a study that compared the mean scores of the 16 types on the scales ol thl Source:

Thome

& Gough, 1991

;

&

&

a sample of 15,102 people who attended leadership development programs at the Center for Creative Leadership. Fleenor, 1997; Walck, 1996. Center for Creative Leadership on the Leadership Style Indicator (LSI);

CPI using

"Results in the

same study

at the

— Theory

74

results

occur for measures of creativity shown

in Tables

4.28 and 4.29.

ESFPs report watching TV

as a frequent leisure activity,

independent, trust their own perceptions and judgments more than those of others, and apply their high standards of knowledge and competence most rigorously to themselves.

while ESTPs are overrepresented in playing sports. To what extent gender contributes to this remains for further study.

How

There are notable differences in career and organizational

decisive,

ESTPs, ESFPs are higher on the CPI and lower on the Self-Control, Achievement via Conformity, and Psychological-Mindedness scales. However, the overall results in the career and work areas results as well. Like

scale Sociability

suggest that

ESFP

from those of ESTPs, in the

and low job

work values ESFP focus on

career and

stress,

and

appeal to those with an

a

calm,

and assured face to the world, though they may find it difficult to engage in social conversation. They usually don't directly express their most valued and

valuable part: their creative insights. Instead, they translate

them

into logical decisions, opinions,

and

plans,

which they

are quite distinct

often express clearly. Because of this, others sometimes

stability, security,

experience INTJs as intractable,

in the kinds of occupations that

ESFP

Others May See Them INTJs present

INTJ,

who

is

much

to the surprise of the

very willing to change an opinion

when new

evidence emerges. Others usually see INTJs as

nature.

Private, reserved, hard to

INTJ: Introverted Intuition

know, even aloof

Conceptual, original, and independent

with Extraverted Thinking Potential Areas for Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported INTJs in the development and expression of their Thinking and Intuitive preferences.

Dominant function Nj Auxiliary function: Tertiary function:

TE

FE If

Fourth/inferior function: Sg

they have not developed their Thinking, INTJs

may

not have reliable ways to translate their valuable insights into achievable realities

preferences have a clear

At Their Best People with INTJ

If

and They love complex

vision of future possibilities coupled with the drive

they have not developed their Intuition, they

may

not

challenges and readily synthesize complicated theoretical

enough information or take in only that information that fits their insights. Then they may make illfounded decisions based on limited or idiosyncratic

and abstract matters. Once they have created

information.

organization to implement their ideas.

take in

their general

structure, they devise strategies to achieve their goals. Their

broad-brush plan for achieving these within large

If INTJs do not find and be appreciated for

organizational structures.

frustrated

global thinking leads

them

to

develop visionary goals and a

INTJs value knowledge and expect competence of themselves

and

and

others.

They

especially

where they can use

aloof and abrupt, not giving

Be

critical of

those

who do

not see their vision quickly

Become single-minded and unyielding Characteristics of INTJS INTJs see things from a global perspective and quickly relate new information to overall

They

connections regardless

trust their insightful

of established authority or popular opinions. Dull routine

smothers their

creativity.

It is

too

INTJs use their Thinking

itive

to

are tough

tion calls for toughness.

they neglect these

do not

fit

into their Intu-

others

make

logical decisions.

and decisive when the

INTJs tend

details or facts that

patterns

Not give enough weight on individuals

They

to

Fail to give as

be

of their decisions

praise or intimate connection as

stress,

—watching TV

activities critical

or

INTJs are excellent long-range planners and often positions of leadership in groups or organizations.

impacts

others desire

Under extreme and objectively

much

to the

situa-

Clear and concise Rational, detached,

If

Engage in "intellectual games," quibbling over abstract issues and terms that have little meaning or relevance to

assess everything with a critical eye, quickly identify prob-

and

it

much, however, they may

Overlook

Conceptual, long-range thinkers

to solve,

pursuing

INTJs use their Intuition primarily

where they develop complex structures and of the future. They are likely to be

Insightful, creative synthesizers

lems

in

natural for INTJs to give less attention to their non-

preferred Sensing and Feeling parts.

internally,

pictures

enough informa-

tion about their internal processing

inefficiency.

patterns.

their gifts

their contributions, they usually feel

and may

Become

abhor confusion, mess,

a place

rise to

They

are

INTJs can overindulge in Sensing

reruns, playing cards, overeating

become overly focused on

ronment

that they normally

specific details in their envi-

do not notice or usually see

unimportant (housecleaning, organizing cupboards).

as

— 75

Understanding the 16 Types

Table 4.30 summarizes relevant research results for

Dominant introverted

INTJs.

Intuitive types with extra-

verted Thinking are mostly quite different from the other

they

with their inner vision. They use their Intuition

fit

primarily internally, where they develop complex pictures

and understandings. INFJs

are likely to be

dominant Introverted perceiving type with Thinking, the ISTJs.

among subunderrepresented among cardiac

Except for a reported overrepresentation

stance abusers, INTJs are

and hypertensive groups, report low stress in two areas, and are low in the negative affectivity measure (described in Chapter

10). It is interesting that they are the type reporting

and on two of the three job burnout scales. As noted in Chapter 10, INTJs present a complex picture in their experience of and response to life stresses. The education results in Table 4.30 are quite consistent for a type whose interests and abilities are mostly consonant with our educational system and typical measures of intel-

Conceptual, symbolic, and metaphorical Idealistic,

complex, and deep

INFJs apply personal values and empathize stand others and

make

the highest fear of reinjury of those with long-term pain

and

are also high

interest in those that

lectual

competence. In a general way, the results for INTJs

image of those for the opposite type, ESFR The 1NTJ focus on competence, achievement, creativity, and independence is also evident in the career and organization areas. Although INTJs fulfill many of the positive expectations and values of society, there are some ways in are the mirror

which

their qualities

may be viewed less positively. They home and family and other

ranked lowest in values around

relationship-centered areas, and though high on the CPI

and visionary

Insightful, creative,

decisions.

They

under-

to

are loyal to people

institutions that exemplify their values but have

sively

by sharing

do

They

their vision.

Sensitive, compassionate,

Deeply committed

little

not. INFJs prefer to lead persuaare likely to be

and empathic

to their values

INFJs want meaning and purpose in their work, their relationships, even their material possessions.

They

are

invested in growth and development for themselves and significant others

and

are willing to consider unconventional

paths to achieve these. They value the depth and complexity of their insights

They want

and

creative gifts as well as those of others.

to see these insights realized in the world.

How

Others May See Them INFJs readily show compassion and caring for others, but they share their

Self-Control,

both kinds of

internal intuitions only with those they trust. Because they

achievement measures, and Intellectual

Efficiency, they

keep

this

find

them

scales

Responsibility and

were lower on scales that concern relating

Dominance,

Good

to people

Sociability, Social Presence, Self-Acceptance,

Empathy They

Impression, and

similarly

underem-

phasize (in the Systematic Multiple-Level Observation of

Groups data) some

of the

more

"social" qualities.

most valued, important part private, others may difficult to know. When they try to communicate their internal sense of "knowing," they often express it metaphorically and with complexity. They especially value and commitment in relationships. Though INFJs are usually reserved, they don't

authenticity

assert themselves

when

their values are violated.

hesitate to

Then they

can be persistent and insistent. Others usually experience

INF): Introverted Intuition

INFJs as

with Extraverted Feeling Private,

Dominant

function: Nj

even mysterious

Intense and individualistic

Auxiliary function: F E Tertian- function:

Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported INFJs in the development and expression of their Feeling and Intuitive preferences. Potential Areas for

TE

Fourth/inferior function: Sg

At Their Best People with INFJ intuitively

preferences have a

understanding complex meanings and

relationships.

They have

faith in their insights

gift for

human

and find

that

If

they have not developed their Feeling, INFJs

have

may

not

ways of making decisions and accomplishgoals. Then, their valuable insights and creativ-

reliable

ing their

stay locked inside.

they often empathically understand the feelings and

ity

motivations of people before the others are themselves

If

aware of them. They combine

enough information or take in only what fits with their internal pictures. Then they will make ill-founded decisions based on distorted or limited information.

with the drive and organization for

enhancing peoples

to

which,

implement global plans

lives.

INFJs have a visionary grasp of possibilities,

empathic understanding

this

when

human

articulated,

relationships

can elevate and

and in-

spire others.

Characteristics of INFJs INFJs seek meaning and connection in their lives and have little use for details unless

they have not developed their Intuition, they

may not

take in

If INFJs do not find and be appreciated for frustrated and may

Not

a place

where they can use

their gifts

their contributions, they usually feel

give others the information they used to arrive at a

decision,

and thus seem

arbitrary

'

'

76

Theory-

Research Describing INTJ

Table 4.30

Discreet, industrious, logical, deliberate, methodical

Personality, Psychotherapy, Health, Stress, Coping

Among

three male types overrepresented

1

among substance abusers 2

Underrepresented among members of a cardiac rehabilitation program 3

Had the

highest fear of reinjury of

all

among those

the types

suffering long-term pain

Highest rank on coping resources used was spiritual/philosophical

out of the

third

1

6 types 3

In

national sample, lowest

in

reporting stress associated with "School" and "Caring for aging parents" 4

In

national sample, lowest

in

"Watching TV" as method of coping with

In national sample, ranked third lowest in "Ever In

national sample, ranked highest

in

Ranked fourth lowest

One

of

Among

in

two types with

"Negative

saying "No" to belief

affectivity"

self

greatest

number

of

two

types with highest

One

of

two

types

GPA 5

In

of

of years into the future first

semester college

most frequent among RAs

GPA among persisters

Highest

at a

essays

women's

college 5

college 5

in

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented

TV three

in

5

5

GPA 5

two types most frequent among female student

art," "Playing

burnout scales 4

third highest in "Depersonalization"

church-related colleges 5

in

One

One

power4

a higher spiritual

in

Participant learners (learn course content and like to go to class)

Projected

4

4

highest undergraduate

highest persisters

stress

had heart disease or hypertension" 4

Ranked fourth highest on "Emotional exhaustion" and

Education

— ranked

3

affairs officers in

5

"Taking classes, going to school," "Appreciating

with computers or video games," "Working out/exercising"; underrepresented

in

"Watching

hours or more per day" 5

Higher on deductive reasoning than Feeling types, with other dominant

Intuitive types

6

Academic subjects preferred: science 7

Careers

features of an ideal job: creativity and originality 8

Most important

One

of three highest types

in liking

work environment characteristic "Variety of tasks" as well as highly & achievement"; lowest of all the types in liking work

favoring "Clear structure" and "Independence

9 environments characterized by "Making the job as simple as possible" In

national sample "Organizational Values," place high value

"Business sociability"

on

"Financial analysis"

9

In

national sample,

among

four types valuing "Achievement"

In

national sample,

among

types with highest income; dissatisfied with "Future

"Promotions," and "Job security" In

in

their job

national sample, ranked lowest (65.1%) of

"Relationships

&

and low value on

9

friendships" (30.8%), and

Overrepresented among working

work

opportunities,"

9

all

types

in

"Community

valuing "Home/family," "Financial security" (50.0%),

service"

MBA students compared

9

9 with national sample

Overrepresented among female small business owners compared with national sample 9 Occupational trends identified: scientific or technical

fields,

computers, law 9

Organizations, Leadership,

Higher on CPI scales Re.Sc, Ac, Ai.le.Py, Fm; lower on Do, Sy, Sp, Sa.Gi.Em 10

Management.Teams

Higher on LSI scales Adaptable, Analytical, Appreciative, Deliberate, Determined, Initiating,

Fair,

Independent,

Methodical, Organized, Resourceful, Self-Confident, Supportive, Understanding

Lower than the otherTJ types on "Tough-minded, self-oriented

SYMLOG

assertiveness"

1

'

2

Effective Profile: underemphasize "Active teamwork toward a common management," "Popularity and social success" (on which they were also significantly lower than ESTJs, ENTPs, and Feeling types),"Protecting less able members," "Having a good time," "Friendship"; seen as overemphasizing "Self-protection, self-interest first," "Conservative, 2 established, correct ways of doing things," "Obedience" (more than any type except ISTJs)

Departures from

Most

goal," "Efficiency, strong impartial

Note

Source:

1996;

wkv

sesof Type in Organizations." See Table 4.26; CPI scales can he (omul in Chapter 5. were significantly highei oi lowei on various leadership scales, relative to the other types.

°Briel definitions ol these

In subordinates ol types that

Summar) of salient AG Shelton

1996;

H.iinnni

15,102 people

N

who

L>

1

data and

Q

(U

'

see

(

haptei

I2t

l

Ises ol

type

in

(

areei

attended leadership development programs

all

raters

Sundstrom

AmiuK

& Busb]

at

I

ounseling'

the

t

enter for

using SYMLOG analysis

1991

t

ol

'

Tables 4 .26-4.41 report ratings

&

Gough.1991 Quenk& Quenk, to type when making then ratings Thome McCaullej ^iTiberio 1996 Myers SeeChapterll ses of Type in Education I stud) thai compared the me. in scores ol the 16 types on the scales of the CPI using a sample "I reative eadership Fleenor, 1997 Results in the same study at the Center lore reative Leader529 subjects from the top three tiers ol management. Ratings of SYMLOG values for the Itnypes

sort descriptions oi 12 ol the 16 types Raters

were naive

1

See Chapter 10, "Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy";

ship on the Leadership Style Indicatoi (LSI)

wereavei

I

l

1

'

&

77

Understanding the 16 Types

Base their judgments on ing" that has

little

little

on

data,

a sense of

"know-

At Their Best People with ENTP

Withdraw their energy and insight Become resentful and critical

They and at

It is

natural for INFJs to give less attention to their non-

preferred Sensing and Thinking parts. too

If

they neglect these

much, however, they may

Be unable

to verbalize their

preferences constantly

scan the environment for opportunities and possibilities.

basis in reality

inner insights in a

way

that

see patterns

at

and connections not obvious

to others

times seem able to see into the future. They are adept

generating conceptual possibilities and then analyzing

them

strategically.

ENTPs

are good at understanding how systems work and are enterprising and resourceful in maneuvering within them to achieve their ends.

others can understand

check their insights against reason and practical-

Fail to ity,

and end up following

ity

of being realized

Become single-minded

a vision that

has

little

possibil-

in pursuit of a vision

Characteristics of ENTPs ENTPs are enthusiastic innovators. Their world is full of possibilities, interesting concepts, and exciting challenges. They are stimulated by difficulties, quickly devising creative responses and plunging into

Under

may become

great stress, INFJs

obsessed with data

they normally would consider irrelevant or overindulge in

Sensing

activities

such as watching

buying things that have

little

TV

meaning

They use

The

improvise.

and enjoy

exercising ingenuity in the world.

ENTPs

are likely to

for

Creative, imaginative,

them.

and clever and curious

Theoretical, conceptual,

ENTPs

difference in auxiliary extraverted Feeling

use their Thinking primarily internally to ana-

own

rather than auxiliary extraverted Thinking yields quite

lyze situations

striking contrasts in the personality, stresses, values, inter-

admire competence, intelligence, precision, and

ests,

and

career-

be

reruns, overeating, or

Table 4.31 summarizes relevant research results for INFJs.

activity, trusting their ability to

their Intuition primarily externally

and job-related variables of INFJs. They are and to bene-

ENTPs are

and

their

and

ideas

to plan.

They

efficiency.

usually

attracted both to the practice of psychotherapy fiting

from

Analytical, logical, rational, as clients. In contrast to the INTJs, they report

it

Assertive the highest stress of

the types in areas associated with

all

work, intimate relationships, and school and in areas designated as "other" and report the greatest dissatisfaction with their marriage/intimate relationship.

INFJs are similar

INTJs in being particularly favored

to

in the educational sphere,

although their leisure

focus on introverted activities that are

more

trast to the INTJs'

more

activities

artistic, in

con-

as well as

in tune with that

from

their typological character as highly

unconscious communications, one might

infer

INFJs are quite sensitive to nuances and undercurrents

of feeling in

many

aspects of their lives. As such, situations

that are not particularly stressful for

prove stressful areas

may

for INFJs.

some other

may many

types

Their dissatisfactions in

be partly due to their possibly idealistic criteria

for satisfaction.

are enterprising, resourceful, active,

They respond complex and global

to challenging

getic.

solutions.

"reading" other people, seeing

They

how

and ener-

problems by creating are usually adept at

to

motivate them, and

assuming leadership. They can do almost anything

that

captures their interest.

"intellectual" pursuits.

Some insight into the patterns revealed in the personality area may be gained by reviewing the research results on careers and the work setting. From the values and interests shown,

ENTPs

and objective

and questioning

1NFJ males are

among the most

their partner's dissatisfaction in

and INFJs in general express mate relationships.

oblivious to

an intimate relationship,

dissatisfaction with their inti-

How

Others May See Them ENTPs are spontaneous and They find schedules and standard operating procedures confining and work around them whenever possible. They are remarkably insightful about the attitudes of others, and their enthusiasm and energy can mobilize people adaptable.

to

support their vision.

Their conversational style

Intuition

customarily challenging and flu-

ent conversationalists, mentally quick, and enjoy verbal sparring.

When

they express their underlying Thinking

principles, however, they

may speak with an

intensity

and

abruptness that seem to challenge others. Others usually see

ENTPs as Independent, autonomous, and creative Lively, enthusiastic,

ENTP: Extraverted

is

stimulating because they love to debate ideas. They are

and energetic

Assertive and outspoken

with Introverted Thinking Dominant

function:

Potential Areas for Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported ENTPs in the development and expression of their Thinking and Intuitive preferences.

NE

Auxiliary function: T] Tertiary function: F|

Fourth/inferior function:

If S\

they have not developed their Thinking, they

have

reliable

ways

to evaluate their insights

may

not

and make

1

78

'

'

Theory

Table 4.3

Research Describing INFJ

Personality, Psychotherapy, Health, Stress, Coping

Sincere, sympathetic, unassuming, submissive, weak

among

Males are

the three lowest on "Efficacy" 2

Overrepresented among a sample of male therapists 3

Among the With

three male types most "oblivious" to partner's dissatisfaction with the relationship 3

ISTPs, ranked first

among

Overrepresented among national sample, highest

In

in

the types

all

clinical

in

psychologists

using spiritual/philosophical coping resources 4

compared with

a range of psychologists

5

reporting stress associated with "Work," "Intimate relationship," "School," and

"Other" 6 national sample, highest

In

Ranked second lowest

coping with stress by "Talking to professional" 6

"Positive affectivity" and third lowest

national sample, ranked highest

In

One

Education

in

in

of

two types with

Among top

four types

highest in

in

undergraduate

6

GPA 7

GPA

7

Among

highest college persisters

Among

highest persisters at church-related schools 7

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented in "Writing" and "Appreciating art,"

In

underrepresented

in

"Watching sporting events" 7

Higher on deductive reasoning than Feeling types, with other dominant

With

ISTJs,

modal type of language students

Predominated among Japanese Americans

Academic subjects preferred: art,

Careers

affectivity"

being dissatisfied with "Marriage/intimate relationship" 6

semester college

first

"Negative

in

Most important

in

English,

at the University of Hawaii

a study of classroom behaviors

8

in

children of different ethnic groups

9

music 5

"Use of my

features of an ideal job:

Intuitive types 9

special abilities"

10

Three top work characteristics favored in national sample: "Variety of tasks," "Clear structure," "Independence & achievement"; lowest of all the types in liking work environments with "Opportunities for advancement & high pay but not job security" 1

among top

In

national sample,

In

national sample, dissatisfied with

In

national sample, ranked lowest

&

status"

four types

'

valuing "Spirituality," "Learning," and

in

"Promotions" and "Salary"

in

their

in

"Community

service"

1

'

work'

valuing "Health" (55. 3%), "Financial security" (50.0%), and "Prestige

(0%)"

Occupational trends

identified: religion, counseling, teaching, arts'

Organizations, Leadership,

Higher on CPI scales Ai.Fm; lower on Do.Sy.Sp, Sa.Wb, Gi.ln 12

Management/Teams

Higher on

LSI scales Delegating,

Dependable, Easygoing,

Fair,

Guarded,

Initiating, Patient,

Permissive, Reflective, Reserved, Supportive

Sole:

12

Bnef definitions of these CPI scales can be found in Chapter

13,

"Uses of Type in Organizations." See Table 4.26;

13

Tables 4.26-4.41 report ratings by

subordinates of types that were significantly higher or lower on various leadership scales, relative to the other types.

&

Source Summary of salient ACL data and Q-Son descriptions of 12 of the 16 types. Raters were naive to type when making their ratings Thorne Gough. 1991; "Highest ihree and lowest three types on two measures of personal adjustment ("Soundness" and "Efficacy"), which were calculated separately for males and females. Thome Gough, 1991; Quenk Quenk. 1996; Shelton. 1996. Myers &r McCaulley. 1985; See Chapter 10. "Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy"; 'See Chapter 11, "Uses of Tvpe in Education"; TDiTiberio, 1996; Kirhy Barger. 1996, Hammer, 1996a; See Chapter 12. "Uses of fype in Career Counseling"; A study that compared the mean scores of the 16 Results in the types on the scales ol the CPI using a sample of 15, 102 people who attended leadership development programs at the Center for Creative Leadership. Fleenor, 1997; same study at the Center foi ( native eldership on the Leadership Style Indicator (LSI).

&

&

&

I

plans to carry them through.

Then they go from

asm

actually accomplished.

If

to

enthusiasm with

little

they have not developed their Intuition, they

take in

enough

enthusi-

may

Criticize others, especially those inefficient or

not

relevant information, resulting in "in-

Become Become

rebellious

scattered

sights" unrelated to current reality. It is

•If

gifts

ENTPs do

not find a place where they can use their

and be appreciated and may

for their contributions, they usually

who seem

them

to

be

natural for

and combative

—unable

ENTPs

to focus

to give less attention to their

preferred Sensing and Feeling parts.

too

to

incompetent

If

non-

they neglect these

much, however, they may

feel frustrated

Become

brash, rude, and abrasive

Not take

care of the details

implement

their insights

and routine required

to

79

Understanding the 16 Types

Not give enough weight

to the

As we

impact of their ideas and

shall see,

many of the results found for ENTPs are ENFPs (Table 4.33), the other domi-

plans on others

also characteristic of

Be excessively and inappropriately "challenging and

nant extraverted Intuitive type.

stimulating"

Under

ENTPs

great stress,

can be overwhelmed by

ENFP: Extraverted Intuition with Introverted Feeling

generate possibilities. Then

detail, losing their ability to

they focus on a minor or distorted detail, thinking that

Dominant

it is

supremely important. Table 4.32 summarizes relevant research ENTPs. The research results for ENTPs seem to the

way

level,

results for fit

multiple interests, and enthusiasm for exploring the

environment come through

they are perceived

—males

as lowest

in

some of the ways

on the "Soundness"'

measure of adaptation, females as high on the "Efficacy" measure

—

in their

frequency in remedial at-risk programs as

high school students and as violators of college alcohol polihigh standing on creativity measures and values

cies, in their

in this area,

and

leisure activities. trate the

Tertiary function: Tj

well with Fourth/inferior function:

they are typically described. Their high activity

limits of the

way

in

many

in their overrepresentation regarding

These are just

a

few of the results that

which predictable

illus-

and behaviors

attitudes

develop through the exercise of type preferences.

Also consistent with an

ENTP

approach

At Their Best For people with ENFP

stress.

"confronting the problem," report the lowest stress in sev-

and intense emotions. They need affirmation from others and readily give appreciation and support. ENFPs are good at understanding how people and groups work and are persuasive and compelling in pursu-

what

ing

that

companion dominant extraverted ENFPs, seem to seek out and function from the point

ol

view

types. Further discussion of

Chapter

10.

as well.

by new people, ideas, and experiences. They meaning and significance readily and see connections others don't. They are likely to be

ENFPs

value

and spontaneous

harmony and

sible.

ENFPs

and empathy with

others.

ENFPs are

Warm,

nant introverted Intuitive types with auxiliary Extraverted

Cooperative and supportive

among chronic

pain patients.

INTJs reported the highest fear and ENTPs the lowest. One might speculate about the possible differential role of the inferior function of these types

They

like to please

when

pos-

primarily use Feeling internally, making deci-

types with auxiliary introverted Thinking) and INTJs (domi-

Thinking) on "fear of reinjury"

goodwill.

others and will adapt to others' needs and wishes

sions by applying personal values through identification

shown in Table 4.32 is the exactly ENTPs (dominant extraverted Intuitive

intriguing result

opposite standing of

bloom

Energetic, enthusiastic,

effec-

of other types. This suggests that the perception of stress

One

to

Curious, creative, and imaginative

Intu-

their

stress variables appears in

them. They are adaptable, bloom-

are stimulated

with observations suggesting that

markedly across the

to

Characteristics of ENFPs ENFPs are innovators, and directing great energy into getting them underway. Using Intuition primarily externally, they

results are consistent

varies

important

initiating projects

hypertension, and are

at least

is

ing where they are planted. Their energy and enthusiasm

find

—

a

are

keenly perceptive about people and insightful about the

and low in job burnout measures. These

tively at high levels of stress

life is

ENFPs

present and future. They experience a wide range of feelings

eral life areas, are lowest in reporting heart disease

itive type, the

preferences,

creative adventure full of exciting possibilities.

encourage others

They have the highest mean level of coping resources and are highest in coping with stress by

ENTPs and

S[

to life is their

reported standing on variables related to experiencing and

coping with

NE

function:

Auxiliary function: F]

on

this

very specific

friendly,

ENFPs have

likely to

be

and caring

exceptional insight into possibilities in oth-

and the energy and motivation to help actualize them. They feel confident moving ahead based on their insights, and their enthusiasm tends to bring others along with them. ers

behavior.

Results in the education, career, and organization areas further confirm the descriptive characteristics of

Then high assertiveness (reported

ENTPs.

in the personality con-

readily connected to their

independence and

How

Others May See Them ENFPs

gregarious,

and

are usually lively,

sociable, with a large circle of friends.

are interested in almost everything

and bring

They

a zest to

life

on Leadership scales. They are high on Dominance, Capacity for Status, Sociability, Social Presence, Self-Acceptance, Tolerance, and similar scales that are predictable for their type, and lower on Responsibility, Socialization, Self-Control, Communality, Achievement via Conformity, and Femininity/Masculinity also not

draws others to them. At the same time, they value depth and authenticity in their close relationships and direct great energy to creating and supporting open and honest communication. ENFPs hate routine, schedules, and structure and usually manage to avoid them They are normally verbally fluent, even in extemporaneous situations; however, when

surprising associations.

their deepest values

tent area)

is

initiating results

—

that

need expression, they may suddenly be

'

80

Theory

Table 4.32

Research Describing

ENTP

Personality, Psychotherapy,

Enterprising, friendly, resourceful, headstrong, self-centered

Health, Stress, Coping

Males

among

three lowest on "Soundness"; females

among

1

three highest on "Efficacy" 2

Overrepresented among female substance abusers 3

Overrepresented among those having Type A behavior 4

mean

With ENFPs.had

highest

Reported lowest

fear of reinjury of

One In

of four types

in

level of all

coping resources 4

the types

among

a

group

suffering long-term pain

4

college reporting the highest levels of assertiveness

national sample, lowest

in

reporting stress associated with "Children," "Intimate relationship," and

"Health" 5 coping with stress by "Confronting the problem" 5

In

national sample, highest

In

national sample, ranked lowest

In

national sample, ranked third highest

in

in

"Ever had heart disease/hypertension" 5 in

"Not Sure"

higher spiritual

re: "Belief in

Ranked fourth lowest on "Emotional exhaustion" and lowest

in

power" 5

"Depersonalization" burnout scales 5

Males among three highest on two out of three measures of creativity; females among three highest on one out of two measures of creativity 6

Education

Projected

self

second-greatest

number

Frequent among high school students

One In

of

of years into the future

remedial at-risk program

in

two types most frequent among

art," "Playing sports," "Playing

in

7

7

college alcohol policy violators

national sample"Leisure Activities," overrepresented

"Appreciating

essays

in

7

"Taking classes, going to school," "Writing,"

with computers or video games"; underrepresented

in

"Watching TV three hours or more per day" 7

With other dominant

Intuitive types,

With INTPs, among middle school

were higher on deductive reasoning than

students, had lower grades than aptitude scores

More frequent among African American males compared with Howard Academic subjects preferred:

Most important

Careers

art,

Feeling types

science

8

would predict 8

University males

9

10

features of an ideal job: creativity and originality

1

'

In national sample, highest of all types liking work environment characteristics "Independence & achievement" and "Opportunities for advancement & high pay, but not job security" and including "Variety of tasks" and "Clear structure" among top three characteristics; one of top three types liking

"International opportunities" as a characteristic In national In

sample, among those types

"Organizational Values," value

In national

12

most dissatisfied with work and among those with

"Autonomy" and "Achievement"

highest

sample, dissatisfied with "Promotions," "Opportunity to use talents," and "Salary"

Overrepresented among working Occupational trends

Organizations, Leadership,

Higher on CPI scales Do, Cs,

Management.Teams

Higher on

LSI scales

MBA students

identified: science,

Sy, Sp,

Independent,

compared with

national sample

management, technology, arts

Sa.To, Ai.le, Py, Fx,

Initiating

In,

income

12

in

their

work 12

12

2

Em; lower on Re, So, Sc, Cm, Ac.Fm 13

14

Departure from SYMLOG Most Effective Leader Profile: seen as underemphasizing "Active teamwork toward a common goal," "Efficiency, strong impartial management," "Collaborative work," "Trust in the goodness of others"; seen as overemphasizing "Self-protection, self-interest first," "Popularity and social

13 Brief definitions of these CPI scales can be found in Chapter 13, "Uses of Type in Organizations." See Table 4.26; by subordinates of types that were significantly higher or lower on various leadership scales, relative to the other types.

Note.

14

Tables 4.26-4.41 report ratings

&

Gough, 1991; "Highest three Source: Summary of salient ACL data and Q-Son descriptions of 12 of the 16 types. Raters were naive lo type when making their ratings. Thome Gough, 1991; and lowest three types on two measures of personal adjustment ("Soundness and "Efficacy"), which were calculated separately for males and females Thome Quenk&Quenk. 1996; Shellon. 1996; 5 See Chapter 10, "Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy", ^Highest three and lowest three types on three measures of Barger, 1996; creativity, calculated separately for males and females Thome &r Gough, 1991; See Chapter 11, "Uses of Type in Education ", DiTlberio, 1996; Kirby Myers & McCuilley, 1985; "Hammer, 1996a, See Chapter 12, "Uses of Type in Career Counseling"; A study that compared the mean scores of the 16 types on the scales of Results in the same study at the the CPI using a sample of 15,102 people who attended leadership development programs at the Center for Creative Leadership. Fleenor, 1997; nun im ruin. eldership on the aulaslup Style Indicator (LSI); 5 A study using SYMLOG analysis of 529 subjects from the top three tiers of management. Ratings of SYMLOG values lor the In ivpes were averaged across all raters Sundstrom &r Busby. 1997.

&

1

&

(

i

I

I

81

Understanding the 16 Types

awkward and express

their judgments

Others usually see

intensity.

with uncharacteristic

ENFPs as

Both

ENTPs and ENFPs ranked

being sure regarding a belief in

a

third highest in not

higher spiritual power

(note that the large majority of every type indicated such Personable, perceptive, and persuasive belief, as

Enthusiastic, spontaneous,

and

versatile

Giving and seeking affirmation

Growth Sometimes life circumstances have not supported ENFPs in the development and ex-

they have not developed their Feeling, they to

If

enthusiasm, never committing the

may

may fail their own

enough information, lack trust in be uncertain, and accept others' perceptions too

to take in

by teachers and

ENFPs do

feel frustrated

Become

a result in accord with observations

While both ENTPs and ENFPs

indi-

academic subjects, ENFPs indicate

tion,

while this does not appear to be the case for ENTPs.

ing,

and

religion

ENFPs

to science,

management, and and

In the career area, creativity, independence,

variety

important for both dominant extraverted Intuitive

ENFPs

are notable in their valuing of

friendships,

and community service

for their contributions, they usually

scattered, have trouble focusing, be easily dis-

attracted to counseling, teach-

and ENTPs

technology.

types.

and may

sci-

also appear to be attracted to careers in educa-

Their occupational trends also differ except for a shared

not find a place where they can use their

and be appreciated

—

parents.

ENFPs

ily,

gifts

may be seen as troubled ENTPs likely also to be

ence.

are

quickly. If

seen as underachievers

interest in art, with

overly personal decisions.

they have not developed their Intuition, they

insights,

10). Different studies also indi-

English and music in contrast to ENTPs' attraction to

may go

energy necessary to actualize their insights, or they

make

Chapter

cate art as a preference in

pression of their Feeling and Intuitive preferences.

from enthusiasm

in

and/or troublesome at school, with

Potential Areas for

If

shown

cate that students of both types

—

all

fam-

areas that

may

ENFPs

reflect their auxiliary

Feeling function.

be underrepresented

among working MBA

ENTPs are

home and are

found

to

students, while

overrepresented in this category.

tracted Fail to follow

Become

through on decisions

rebellious, excessively

ISTP: Introverted Thinking

nonconforming

with Extraverted Sensing

Ignore deadlines and procedures

Dominant It is

natural for

ENFPs

to give less attention to their

preferred Sensing and Thinking parts.

too

If

they neglect these

much, however, they may

Not take

and routine required

for

interesting possibilities

—have

trouble saying

no

to

Under and

apply reason and logic to assess their inspirations

great stress, lose their

At Their Best People with ISTP observe what

and people

and decisions

detail

Ng

Fourth/inferior function: Fg

their inspirations

Overextend themselves Fail to

Auxiliary function: Sg Tertiary function:

care of the details

implementing

function: Tj

non-

ENFPs may become overwhelmed by

normal perspective and sense of options.

Then they tend to focus on an unimportant or distorted detail, letting it become the central fact of their universe. Table 4.33 summarizes relevant research results for

is

preferences carefully

going on around them. Then,

when

the

need arises, they move quickly to get to the core of a problem and solve it with the greatest efficiency and the least effort. They are interested in how and why things work but find abstract theories uninteresting unless they can quickly apply them. They often function as troubleshooters.

ISTPs

and

resist

novelty,

regimentation and rules, thrive on variety

and enjoy the challenge of solving

crete, extensive

a

new, con-

problem.

ENFPs. Not unexpectedly, the results in Table 4.33 are quite many ways to those for ENTPs and are therefore

similar in

not repeated in detail for ENFPs. This their standing

is

on physical symptoms of

in reporting stress in a

number

of

the case regarding

stress,

life

areas

being lowest

and having

highest reported levels of coping resources. Interesting differences are that one study found

among substance abusers, and to violate alcohol policy.

ENTPs

overrepresented

they were also frequent types

However, they were not referred

more frequently in college to substance abuse workshops. ENFPs, in contrast, were overrepresented in this area in college but did not appear more frequently in actual substance abuse groups at least based on the available data.

—

ISTPs use their Thinking

Characteristics of ISTPs

primarily internally to see the essential structure underlying

work almost like computers, organizing data, reasoning impersonally and objectively. They make rational decisions based on a great deal of the facts. Their

minds seem

to

concrete data. ISTPs are likely to be

Detached and objective

critics

Analytical and logical problem solvers

ISTPs are

done with

it,

realists,

focusing on what

rather than

on

is

and what can be They

theoretical possibilities.

°

82

Theory

ENFP

Research Describing

Table 4.33

Personality, Psychotherapy,

Enthusiastic, outgoing, spontaneous, changeable, impulsive

Health, Stress, Coping

Overrepresented among

a

1

sample of male therapists 2

Overrepresented among new college students referred for

a

substance abuse workshop 2

Underrepresented among female coronary heart disease patients 3

men

Underrepresented among

With ESTJs.had

highest total coping resource scores of

With ENTPs.had Ranked

first

of

with chronic pain 3

highest

mean

16 types

all

level

all

the types 3

of coping resources

3

using social and emotional coping resources, and second

in

in

using cognitive

resources 3

Education

In

national sample, lowest

in

reporting stress associated with "Other" 4

In

national sample, lowest

in

coping with stress by "Developing physical symptoms" 4

In

national sample, ranked fourth lowest

In

national sample, ranked third highest

among

Males and females

likely

6 to see student behaviors as serious problems

national

CASE

professor of the year

among education majors

Third most frequent

in

Rated by psychologists among three types most In

college

whole language approach to reading

teachers, prefer

power" 4

higher spiritual

re: "Belief in

6

Second most frequent among

As

"Not Sure"

third- to sixth-grade academically talented students 6

Innovatively creative learners

As teachers, least

in

"Ever had heart disease/hypertension" 4

three highest on one measure of creativity 5

among

Highly represented

in

likely

finalists

6

instruction

6

to have trouble

national sample "Leisure Activities," overrepresented

6

in

in

school 6

"Writing," "Appreciating art," "Playing musical

instrument," "Listening to music," "Reading"; underrepresented

in

"Watching TV for leisure" and

"Watching TV three hours or more per day" 6 Higher on deductive reasoning than Feeling types, with other dominant

Intuitive types

7

Among African American

college students, most underrepresented among those with an was underrepresented) 7

N

preference (where

Academic subjects preferred: art,

Careers

Most important In

English,

the national sample, lowest of

from In

different

the types

all

9

work environments where "Everything is done by "Independence & achievement," "Teamwork," and "People

in liking

in liking

backgrounds" 10

national sample "Organizational Values," place

In national sample, among top four types and "Community service" 10 In

music 8

features of an ideal job: creativity and originality

the book"; one of three highest types

Intuition

in

low value on "Achievement within system" 10

valuing "Home/family," "Friendships," "Creativity," "Learning,"

national sample, dissatisfied with "Promotions" and "Salary"; satisfied with "People

work with"

I

in

their

work 10 In

national sample, ranked highest

(55.

1

%)

valuing "Relationships

in

&

friendships" (79.5%), and "Being creative"

10

MBA students

Underrepresented among working

compared with

national sample

10

Underrepresented among male small business owners compared with national sample 10 Occupational trends

Organizations, Leadership,

identified: counseling, teaching, religion, arts

Higher on CPI scales Do, Cs,

Management.Teams

Higher on

Sy, Sp, Sa.To, Ai, le.Fx.ln,

'

Em; lower on

LSI scales Appreciative, Easygoing, Energetic, Resourceful,

Showed change on

at least four of seven leadership items in Naval

So,

Sc.Gi.Cm, Ac

Understanding

Academy

1

'

12

leadership behavior study

in

which type training was followed by feedback from lower-ranked students 13

'Brief definitions ol these

\.'i9 months

559

.70

.68

.59

.63

Form

Meta-analysis

9 months

1.133

75

76

75

77

Meta-analysis

NF > ST > SF From the trait pertypes

eeling types.

spective, all Intuitive types are predicted to rank

low

eel

by

all

first, fol-

Sensing types. Within the Intuitive and Sensing

types, the linear ordering

would then rank Thinking types

above Feeling types. While the authors did not discuss the rankings predicted by this kind of linear analysis, these

shown

rankings are

in the

trated, the linear

second part of Table 9.32 for type theory. As illus-

made by

contrast with predictions

of four because

factor include the following:

frame of reference than Sensing types. The

a longer

T-F dichotomy I

because of the relatively few Intuitive and Perceiving types. Preferences and types significantly associated with each

model lumps the types together in groups considers only the S-N and T-F prefer-

it

Factor

Happy

family (harmonious interpersonal rela-

types were ESFJ, ISFP, ISFJ,

and ESFR Lowest type was

ENTR 2: Variety and challenge (latitude to work creon intellectually stimulating problems). Highest type was ENTR Lowest types were ISFJ and ISFR Factor 3: Achievement within the system (orientation toward climbing the corporate ladder). Highest type was ESTJ. Lowest types were ESFR ESTP, and ENFR (The

Factor

atively

highest six types are all

all

Judging types; the lowest six are

Perceiving types.)

Factor

when

ences in determining ranks.

1:

tionships with pleasant material surroundings). Highest

4: Visible

at

autonomy

odds with the

expression of views even

(free

were

social milieu). Highest types

Nevertheless, a visual comparison of the actual and pre-

ESTP, 1NTR and ENTR Lowest types were 1ST] and ISFJ. Factor 5: Outgoing affiliation (satisfaction in being part of a group). Highest type was ESFJ. Lowest type was ISTR (Top three types were all EFs; bottom three were all ITs.)

dicted rankings, as well as the difference in the sizes of

Factor

The

correlations of the trait predictions

respectively.

Both correlations are significant

much

at

.98,

p < .001.

Business sociability (sociability with a pur-

6:

clear that the typological predic-

pose). Highest type

was ESFJ. Lowest type was INTJ.

closer to the observed rankings than are the

(Top four types were

all EJs;

these coefficients, tions are

and the typologi-

with the observed rankings were .88 and

cal predictions

makes

linear predictions. This

it

is

because the linear model

fails to

Factor

7:

bottom three were

account for characteristics that are important in under-

curiosity about

economic and

standing a person's orientation to time. These characteris-

types were

types.

tics are

accounted for by type theory. More such studies that

contrast the two competing explanations trait

—would be

— type

versus

invaluable.

Correlations with Factor Scores Derived from Other Measures Mitchell (1981) reported on data from 475 bank

employees

at all levels of the

organization in

a

study

concerned with the social climate of the organization. Data included FIRO-B (Schutz, 1978), Strong-Campbell Interest

Factor

8:

INs.)

all

Financial analysis (scientific and intellectual

NTJ

Nurturing

financial matters). Highest

Lowest types were STP

affiliation.

types.

Highest types were

ENFJ

and INFR Lowest type was ENTJ. (Top seven types were Feeling types; bottom five were Thinking types.) In the Mitchell study, consistent with theoretical predictions, sociability

and concern

for others

were associated

with Extraversion and Feeling; focus on achievement with Judging; and independence, autonomy, and intellectual

achievement with Intuition and Perceiving.

Inventory (SOI) (Campbell &r Hansen, 1981), Edwards Personality Preference Schedule (EPPS) (Edwards, 1954),

Super's

Work

Values Inventory

(WVI)

(Super, 1970),

and

data about job level, type of job, and performance. Factor

was used to derive factors from the items of FIRO-B, SCII, EPPS, and WVI. The author describes the factors as group phenomena that report value orientations in the group process and the experience of the organization. Factor scores were then created for each person in the sample, and MBTI differences on these factors were

MBTI Research Resources

analysis

identified.

Mitchell extended the analyses beyond

MBTI

Given space limitations, this manual does not review all of the thousands of research studies conducted with the MBTI. For those interested in additional information on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator that ual, please see

MBTI

not covered in this man-

is

Applications:

the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

A Decade

of Research on

(Hammer, 1996b)

for a

identification of specific types

thorough summary of 10 years of research in seven areas where the MBTI is frequently used: career management and

the FIRO-B, SCII, EPPS,

counseling;

correlations of the four

prctcrence scales to

and type groupings based on and WVI. Analysis of variance was used to investigate type differences in factor scores. Note that the MBTI was not included in the original factor analyses. The sample was 55% E, 70% S, 57% T, and 68% J. Mitchell cautioned about generalizing from these data

management and leadership; teams; counseling and psychotherapy; education, learning styles and cognitive styles; multicultural applications; and health, stress, and coping For those interested in more research on the use of the

MBTI

in organizations

and

in leadership in particular, see

Validity

Developing Leaders: Research and Applications cal Type

in

Psychologi-

and Leadership Development (Fitzgerald

1997b). Another excellent source, of course,

is

&

Kirby,

the Journal

The Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT) maintains the Isabel Briggs Myers Memorial Library and can provide copies of some research of Psychological Type.

articles.

MBT1

An

extensive and regularly updated bibliography of

research

is

also available

from CAPT.

mapping dence

of brain activity patterns

219

and provides strong eviOther

for the biological basis of the dichotomies.

studies of behavioral differences, including studies of creativity,

differences in

imagery desire erally

orientation

for privacy,

to

time,

fantasy

and

optimism, and anxiety also gen-

support the theoretical definitions of the scales.

For the

first

time, evidence has been accumulated to

address the question of the validity of whole types and of type dynamics theory. section

is

Some

of the research presented in this

based on original analyses of the national sample

data collected for this revision. This section reflects the

Conclusion

emphasis throughout

this

manual on whole types and type

dynamics. Evidence presented here on type distributions, This chapter has examined two kinds of evidence for the validity of the

MBTI

—evidence

for the validity of the four

preference scales and evidence for the validity of whole types, including type dynamics.

MBTI

A number

of exploratory

demonstrated very close correspondence with the hypothesized four-factor factor analyses of the

scales have

and

and from other measures suggests that there are characteristics of whole types that are not predictable from knowledge of the individual preferences alone attraction

satisfaction in couples, reactions to stress,

factor scores derived

or from simple additive models of the preferences. Descrip-

vide even stronger support for the model. Correlations of

tions of the types based on self-reports and on ratings by independent observers also show that each of the 16 types can be uniquely described with various sets of adjectives and

the four preferences scales with a wide variety of scales

descriptors.

from other instruments support the predictions of type theory regarding the meaning of and the behaviors believed to

also presented that directly

structure.

More rigorous confirmatory

factor analyses pro-

be associated with the four dichotomies. Evidence for the

dichotomous nature of the

scales

was seen

in plots of pref-

A

was compared type theory-based and trait theory-based predictions and showed that the type theory-based predictions were more accurate. The applications chapters that follow also present rereanalysis of a study of time orientation

erence scores against external variables. Analysis of these

search that

plots demonstrated that the only significant differences

erence scales and of whole types. Chapter 4 also contains

between successive groups of scores were exactly at the midpoint of the scales, which was also where the major changes in direction and slope was observed. An exciting new line of research was presented that uses topograhpic

is

relevant to the validity of the individual pref-

evidence for the validity of the types. Hopefully, the research

presented in this chapter and elsewhere in this manual on the validity of

whole types and on type dynamics will ento examine these questions.

courage other researchers

p

y

The Uses of Type The

goal of making psychological type useful in peoples

lives is realized in

The emphasis useful,

each of the

in all of the chapters is

five

chapters in Part

on what

is

practical

V

and

backed up by theoretical consistency and available

research evidence. Experienced users will note the addition of

two new areas of application, organizations and multicultural appeared in the 1985 Manual. Practi-

settings, to those that

tioners

whose focus

is

on one

will find helpful guidelines,

the

MBTI

in their setting,

particular area of application

many illustrations

of ways to use

and selected research evidence

that

supports such uses.

Readers

may

note that these chapters sometimes include

cross-references to other applications chapters or to chapters in earlier parts of the manual. Material written for a specific

application area

may

be quite relevant in other areas as well.

For example, information about learning 11,

"Uses of Type in Education,"

counselors

(Chapter

12)

may

styles in

Chapter

be helpful to career

and management consultants

(Chapter 13). Therefore, readers are encouraged to peruse of the chapters in Part their

title

V Even chapters

and overview

to

be less

all

may appear from interesting or relevant may that

contain important and generalizable information of use in a variety of applications.

222

The Uses of Type

"Uses of Type in Counseling and Psy-

How

to avoid using type

chotherapy, covers issues relevant to each of the di-

iting

and prescriptive way

using type dynamics and whole type

How

the

Chapter

10,

chotomies as well as in

to

addressing the therapeutic process. As you read Chapter

10,

you

will

become aware

and career information

same career can prove

in a lim-

satisfying to each of the

16 types

of the following:

Chapter 13, "Uses of Type in Organizations," covers

How

neutral and positive type language can enhance

psychotherapy

What

practical considerations this increasingly

from counseling and

different types expect

how

to

you

this chapter,

and selected relevant research

in

important area of application. As you read will

become aware

of the following:

address those expectations

How

different types are likely to benefit

tal

What

Practical

issues are of concern in therapy for people of dif-

ferent ages, for couples

undergoing treatment

for

and

and for those chemical dependency

Chapter 11, "Uses of Type all

How to introduce and use the dynamic and developmen-

from different

kinds of interventions to help them cope with stress

in

families,

How

As you read Chapter

11,

you

will

How

MBTI

ways of

effectively

used in work teams

a type perspective in leadership

Chapter 14, "Uses of Type in Multicultural Settings,"

preferences

its

newness and

research

How type preferences relate to preferred writing styles How type is influential at all educational levels, from ele-

will

is

are included in this area. its

being applied.

is

As

breadth, comparatively

currently available.

become aware

When

mentary school through university

MBTI

Multiple issues and a broad range of countries, cultures,

and subcultures disadvantages are associ-

problem solving,

for

development

become

learning

What academic advantages and some type

is

covers the newest area in which the

the 16 types differ in their most effective

ated with

the

The value of applying

Education," encompasses

aware of the following:

ways of using the MBTI

decision making, and conflict resolution

of the information available in this well-studied area

of application.

aspects of type in an organization

a result of little

both

definitive

As you read Chapter

14,

you

is

not

of the following:

multicultural use of the

MBTI

is

and

appropriate

Chapter 12, "Uses of Type

in Career Counseling," pre-

and recent research relevant to important area. As you read this

sents practical information

using the chapter,

MBTI

you

Which

will

in this

become aware

of the following:

occupational trends distinguish the types

How self-selection

ratio type table

(SRTT) analysis con-

tributes valuable information to career counselors

That people of the same type seem

to

have similar

experiences, regardless of the culture in which they live

That the expression of type preferences in different cultures

may

be markedly different

That occupational type tables in different cultures are remarkably similar

W

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

V

PTER

V

E R V

1

J_

^ U

E

Advantages of a Typological Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy

Carl G. Jung based

Type and the Therapy/ Counseling Process

patients.

his theory of psychological types

primarily on observations of his psychotherapy

that

He

seemed

repeatedly observed individual differences

to lie outside of the pathological

Implications of Research on Health, Stress, and Coping with Stress

were not

Using Type with

ders, or other diagnostic categories.

Different Age

-,

domain; they

easily attributable to neuroses, character disor-

Jung

also observed

Groups these kinds of differences in philosophers, writers, poets,

Using Type with Couples and

scientists

and found evidence

for the universality

Using Type with Families of his types across cultures, historical eras,

for

Chemical Dependency

Summary

and socio-

in Treatment

Using Type

of Clinical Research

economic

situations.

Jungs development and refinement

of type theory are described in Chapter

Administering and Interpreting the MBTI in Counseling and Psychotherapy Settings

his application of the type

Conclusion

day practitioners

appear throughout his

who

and psychotherapy

3,

approach

in

and examples of psychotherapy

many published works.

Present-

use Jungian typology in counseling

attest to its value, often seeing

indispensable to their

work with

it

as

clients.

223

224

The Uses

of Type

The development

of the Myers-Bt iggs type Indicator per-

made

more available to psychotherapists and counselors. Indeed, some of the earliest interest in the Indicator was on the part of clinical psychologists. In the 1960s, Mendelsohn and his associates (Mendelsohn, 1966; Mendelsohn & Geller, 1963, 1965, 1967, Mendelsohn & Kirk, 1962) reported on students who sonality inventory

sought counseling

tim-

counseling center of the University

at the

of California, Berkeley.

type theory

A

1979 review of the research

litera-

on counseling applications tCarskadon, 1979) reported

from the standpoint of 16 different "norms" of human

When

behavior.

more

therapists use this approach, clients are

likely to feel appreciated as individuals characterized

by legitimate and predictable strengths and

frailties.

In

norm of mental make inappropriate

avoiding comparing clients with a single health, practitioners are less likely to

diagnoses of pathological conditions. They are also less likely to miss subtle signs of psychological or

disturbance. For example, ESTJ and

ENTJ

emotional can often

clients

maintain outward composure and efficiency while experi-

more than 50 studies. The application of the MBT1 to counand psychotherapy issues has continued to increase

encing extreme internal confusion and

over the years. Recent clinical research literature

directly related to using type-based rather than single-

in

Quenk and Quenk

is

reviewed

(1996). For a review of research on

the related area of type influences

on health,

stress,

and

goal of this chapter

is

to

MBT1

instru-

ment in the broad variety of settings in which it is appropriate. The chapter is organized so that readers can readily find guidelines relevant to each counseling/psychotherapy issue

Where

Establishing

and treating clients. and counselors

A in

who

Therapists

Rapport are

A brief summary of relevant

included in this chapter.

1

aware of type differences

listen for

them,

form tentative hypotheses, and can communicate understanding and acceptance of a client quite early in the interac-

available, resources for addi-

tional information are suggested. clinical research is

criteria in evaluating

typological approach helps therapists

provide counselors and psy-

chotherapists with a practical guide to using the

or specific application.

norm-based

the following ways.

coping, see Shelton (1996).

The

distress.

Additional advantages of a typological approach are

seling

For example,

tion.

many

Introverted clients see their Intro-

version as "a problem" or even as pathological.

who

A

therapist

hears this can clearly explain Introversion as a normal

and adaptive energy preference, giving examples and asking the client questions that are likely to accurately reflect the client's feelings

Advantages of a Typological Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy The standard

A

and experiences.

A

couple in marital coun-

in their report of their disagreements

differ in the

Judging versus Perceiving attitude

appear to

will both feel

understood and affirmed when the counselor accurately describes the discomfort each experiences with the others

which behavior is judged tends to depend on the prevailing societal and professional view of mental health and psychological adaptation. Jungs observation of consistent, nonpathological individual differences in his patients casts doubt on such a normative view and provides the most compelling reason for taking type into account in psychotherapy and counseling settings.

who

seling

of "normality" against

systematic conception of normal personality

differences such as that afforded by psychological type

approach. Experienced practitioners can use such hypotheses about possible type characteristics with regard to

whole

types.

Using type knowledge

all

of

dynamic

the preferences, combinations of preferences, and

to aid in establishing

rapport often occurs before the Indicator has been administered

and interpreted, and

a practitioner

need not use type

"language" to talk with clients about type differences. the

MBT1

Once

has been administered and type verified by the

client, practitioners

can further enhance rapport through

continued understanding of the clients type perspective.

enables mental health practitioners to discriminate between

may signal difwe would expect an

behaviors that are "normal" for one type but ficulties for

another type. For example,

Promoting Therapist Neutrality

good deal of time same behav-

selves

and

ior in a typically active, people-oriented Extraverted child;

when

they are aware of the different meanings that

Introverted child to enjoy spending a

alone but might be concerned

an 1ST)

who

on new

is

when we

habitually anxious

see the

and cautious about

tak-

Practitioners tend to listen to clients' presentation of themtheir difficulties

from a more neutral standpoint

associated with different type characteristics.

They

may

would be consistent with her type, ENFP would be puzzling; the aggressive behaviors of an ENTJ and an ISFJ would likely

likely to interpret a client's style

have quite different dynamics and motivations.

client's

behavior using the bias of their

stated,

"The greatest mistake an analyst can make

assume

that his patient has a

ing

projects

while the same behavior in an

Understanding what

and what

is difficult,

is

natural, comfortable,

uncomfortable, and

and valued

trivial for

each of

the 16 personality types enables therapists to assess clients

be

are less

and behavior as disturbed or

problematical before evaluating them in the context of the client's type.

(1960,

p.

Counselors are also

259).

less likely to

own

view the

type.

psychology similar

As Jung

to his

is

to

own"

Uses of Type

in

225

Counseling and Psychotherapy

Clients can also be helped to take type into account as a

Providing a Nonpathological Language

way

for Discussing Problems

of accepting and,

if

desirable,

own may benefit by viewown and others' lessmodifying their

behavior and communications. They

The underlying premise of type is that each of the opposite type functions and attitudes is valid, necessary, and useful. The careful use of neutral and positive language in describing the opposite preferences

People

new

is

an

effort to

convey

to type as well as experienced users

this notion.

can

attest to

and pejorative language

the difficulty of avoiding biased

in

describing one's opposite type or one's less-preferred type

come

ing behaviors associated with their

preferred sides as expected consequences of specializing in

one of each pair of opposites. This can encourage them to appreciate rather than disparage differences. For example, an 1SFJ planning a vacation with an ENFP spouse is more likely to compromise about including unscheduled activities if her advance planning and attention to the details of

counseling because of a

the trip are appreciated by the

ENFP

long period of disconfirmation by others, dissatisfaction

ridiculed as overly controlling

and compulsive.

characteristics. People often

with themselves, and a desire limits their lives.

A

to

to

reduce the distress that

way

of describing difficulties

positive

that are associated with type differences

Providing Clients with a Sense of Self- Worth

can stimulate

increased energy, optimism, and cooperation with the ther-

Counselors have said that what they

apy process. This in turn can motivate a

that

client

with serious

gives clients a sense of worth

it

own

qualities. Clients

their

therapeutic approach that sees the client's type preferences

that finding out about type, one's

weaknesses and differences from "normal" behavior can

add

to the

discouragement and hopelessness that

may have

been feared.

however admirable others may be

People typically understand others from the point of view

tion that they can travel

assume that my friend's or colleague's motives for an action, what she means by her words, and what she wants me to do in response to her are the same as if I were performing that action, saying those words, or wanting a response. The reality of 16 different types makes such assumptions largely untenable. This is very likely reflected in the frequency with which clients express frustration and despair at their difficulties in living and working effectively with others. Clients who under-

own

natural for

me

When to

stand type differences gain a useful perspective on the

meaning of

others'

communications and behaviors. With

continued guidance from the counselor, they can come closer to understanding the

is

one as may have Finding out about type frees one to recognize

spective ways.

It is

beginning

own natural bent and to trust one's own potential for growth and excellence. There is no obligation or need to be like others,

type.

at the

other people's,

a releasing experience, not a restricting

Encouraging Change Based on Understanding of Differences

own

own and

one's

brought the person to seek help.

of their

like most about type is and dignity concerning

can be assured

psychological problems to persist in therapy. In contrast, a

as

as helpful rather than

meaning of

the

words and

in their re-

they see a road toward effectiveness and satisfac-

by discovering and following

intrinsically valuable preferences, clients often

more hopeful. As the model

is

their

become

explained, problems and

lia-

can be seen as a neglect of less-preferred functions

bilities

while more-preferred ones were being developed. The stage

can be

set for

looking at the

spective of gaining ferred

more

client's

effective

problems from the per-

command

and nonpreferred functions and

ple, the Intuitive type

over both pre-

attitudes.

For exam-

can see that the dream of the future

is

may have been overThe Sensing type may see

valuable but that present realities

looked and need more attention.

that the skills of dealing with present realities are valuable

but that including Intuition will open up additional practical options.

actions of a person of a different type- For example, an ESFJ client expressed anxiety

and concern about losing

his job

because his quiet and dispassionate INTP supervisor

fre-

quently pointed out mistakes and gave praise sparingly. The client believed his supervisor

and

dissatisfied

was

critical,

disapproving,

Type and the Therapy/ Counseling Process

with his performance. The counselor

described and gave the rationale for the natural tendency of

Psychotherapy and counseling are complex endeavors, and

dominant introverted Thinking type to focus on discrepancies rather than on what is going well. The counselor also

many

a

pointed out that for an ESFJ short on praise

would indeed

to

be long on criticism and

indicate disapproval

and

dis-

satisfaction with someone's performance. This explanation

interacting factors influence the process for both prac-

and client. Issues such as presenting problems, setwhere counseling occurs, referral source, allowable

titioner

ting

number

of sessions, therapist theoretical orientation, age of

the client modify his expectations of his supervisor

and myriad other variables may be involved. The extent to which knowledge and use of the MBTI are appropriate and helpful will vary in relation to this wide range of

made him more

factors.

INTPs and ESFJs helped and and effective in his work situation.

of the natural differences between

resilient

client,

Experienced therapists, however, report a continuing

226

The Uses of Type

process of discovering and capitalizing on the insights and

avoid important issues but rather as the natural "think-

richness type provides in their treatment of clients.

ing out loud" style of Extraverts.

This section

is

designed

to

provide both

new and

experi-

enced counselors and psychotherapists with information that

they can incorporate and use with clients. Typical

counseling issues associated with the individual type preferences are presented

and very i)l

first,

followed by the more complex

fruitful area of type

A

each of the 16 types.

cation given the different styles of clients

and

dynamics and understanding

third topic

is

effective

communi-

communication and language

therapists.

Some

Extraverts

seem

This makes them appear to others as "extreme Extraverts" (see the discussion of auxiliary function issues later in this

chapter). For Extraverts with this kind of imbalance in their

use of energy, the developmental task

is balancing their E They need to learn in small doses to reflect (use I) before acting and to gain greater comfort with solitude and their own company (I). Some Extraverts find they can

with their

1.

add Introverted balance

Counseling Issues Related to Each of the Four Type Dichotomies The following descriptions

seling

with each

can be helped

the counselors task tool

is

needed

to include

some

A major value of counslow down and consider their

help Extraverts

to

MBTI

act,

and then consider

it

again after

preference.

they

act.

Introversion Introverts are

more

likely to

look to themselves

causes of difficulties rather than to others and the

first for

environment. They are therefore more intrapunitive than

to see the preferences as tools. Part of is

helping the client recognize which

While

for a given situation.

clients recognize circumstances

more

extrapunitive. Introverted clients can be reassured that their instinct to first

it

is

"blame" themselves for any

difficulties is a

certainly

natural

and expected aspect of

Such

communication can discourage

a

their Introverted preference.

clients

from assum-

suitable to using their

and functions can be equally help-

less-preferred attitudes

The

is

behavior before they

important to affirm the clients natural preferences, helping

ful.

through formal medi-

by making sure

solitary time in their daily activities.

The information provided can also be useful in helping clients appreciate and use both poles of the dichotomies. This can be especially important for clients whose use of a preferred attitude or function is one-sided or rigid. Such clients

to their lives

tation techniques or simply

are designed to alert counselors

to issues frequently associated

use their auxiliary function as

to

well as their dominant function in the Extraverted attitude.

safety of the counseling situation can

encourage

effective use of possibly neglected poles of the dichotomies.

ing that their self-blaming tendency itself ing.

They

will then

a personal

is

fail-

be more able to consider other people

and external circumstances standing and life difficulties.

as contributing to misunderIntroverts also tend to

Extraversion and Introversion (E-l) Issues related to the

Gain experience more

E-l dichotomy focus on the orientation of energy toward

conceptual or experiential framework. Therefore they

the outer world of people, things, and activities (E) or the

benefit

world of concepts, ideas, and inner experiences

cepts or linkages of past experiences that

(I).

Want

before they look inward for an explanation of the events

ior.

that occur in their lives.

They

are

more

likely to initially

from comments that help them

own

their

Extraversion Extraverts can be expected to look outward

have an internal

easily after they

clarify the

may

con-

be behind

behavior.

understand what

is behind other people's behavSuch knowledge makes the environment more

to

understandable and therefore

safer,

so that they can

blame others or life circumstances for difficulties than to examine their own contributions to problems. Extraverts

attempt action. Dominant introverted Thinking clients

also tend to

others' behavior

Gain insight more

easily after

having an experience.

Therefore counseling sessions are likely to be devoted to describing developments of the past week, seeking

(ISTP and INTP) in particular are often bewildered by

and misinterpret or overinterpret

its

meaning.

may

Need long pauses during

sessions (which

comfort

counselors) while they clarify

to Extraverted

internally

cause dis-

what has been said or gain the courage

to

con-

explanations of past events.

Become uncomfortable if the counselor is very quiet. They seek active interaction as a verification that they have been heard and may interpret silence and lack of active involvement of the therapist as disapproval and rejection.

Present such an active, competent face (especially EJ types) that

it is

easy to miss signs of distress and lack of

a fair

amount of

talking as a

way

point" of their communication.

view

this

not as

something

else to the counselor.

Benefit from being encouraged to try activities.

The

may

new

Extraverted

therapist can reassure the client that

first

awkward and uncomfortable but greater ease will come with practice. The goal is for the Introvert to develop a comfortable way of attempts

be experienced as

extraverting as an Introvert rather than extraverting like

an Extravert.

confidence.

Do

fide

trivial

of arriving at the

Counselors should

communication or an attempt

to

Some Introverted clients introvert both their dominant and auxiliary functions, making them appear as "extreme Introverts. " A developmental issue for them is to learn to

227

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

and may wish to continue therapy after the initial been resolved. As clients, intuitive types are

use their auxiliary function in dealing with people and the

lives

Extraverted world. Counselors can encourage this balanc-

issues have

ing development by suggesting tasks

likely to

and activities that and at which he

require the client to extravert the auxiliary

or she

is

Continued success often allows

likely to succeed.

the "natural process" to

come

more

into play

and

actively

spontaneously. Introverts benefit from practicing actions

Be so caught up in possibilities that they (1) overlook the facts and the limitations facts impose, (2) assume they already

know all the facts, or (3) assume that facts A counselor may need to push Intu-

are unimportant.

and outward expression of opinions.

itive clients to

cal steps

Sensing and Intuition (S-N)

Issues related to Sensing

Intuition involve the opposite

ways

clients take in informa-

world and what they attend

tion about the

and

to in their

imme-

diate environment.

turn on their Sensing to assess the practi-

needed

to turn their possibilities into realities.

Be independent and see many interesting connections

in

the process of discussing themselves. Counselors will do

well to

let

them

find their

own

solutions with a mini-

mum of direction. Focus on new

Sensing in counseling with a Sensing type, issues should be

discussed in specific and concrete terms, using frequent

examples that are relevant

and

to the client's life experience

circumstances. Sensing clients typically seek counseling for

problem and tend

a specific, current

to

be disinterested in a

lengthy psychodynamic exploration of their

minate

some

when

later

that

problem

is

resolved.

lives.

They

possibilities and take the position that must be an answer if they look long enough. This stance can provide hope and optimism in treatment, but a counselor may need to ask whether the clients energy might be better spent on goals for which more immedi-

there

needed solutions.

ate possibilities offer

ter-

They may return

at

time to obtain help with another specific issue.

Intuitive type clients enjoy

ventions that

make

and

psychological connections. They

Sensing clients are likely to

and therefore as permanent or a given. The counselor can broaden the client's perspective by describing practi-

critical

assume plexity

may

be resistant to more

and systematic approaches and disappointed in and of counselors who promote them. Such clients may

factual

See their view of the situation as the only possible one

are often adept at inter-

use of fantasy and the exploration of

com-

that the counselor does not understand the

and uniqueness of the

clients personality.

cal alternatives for the client to assess.

See the alternatives proposed as negative. ition is the inferior function (ISJ

be particularly bilities is to

known can

The

true.

and ESP

Intu-

goal of providing positive possi-

teach the client that what

is

not presently

others' intuitions

and

and appreciate

put greater trust in their

to

when Sensing does not

own

provide adequate

answers.

Issues related to decision

making and the general way of evaluating perceptions and communications involve the difference between Thinking and Feeling.

A Thinking type is naturally skeptical and critical and can be expected to be so in the counseling session. A counselor therefore should be prepared to back up his or

Thinking

her statements with evidence. Thinking types

Therapeutic strategies that involve being active can be helpful for grounding Sensing types

comfort with for

Thinking and Feeling (T-F)

be enhancing and not always threatening.

Benefit from being taught to recognize

Intuition

When

types), this will

reality is

and obtain

when

their trust in

and

shaken. Sensing types are often eager

from homework exercises that

great benefit

Disregard what matters to them (Feeling issues) because "It isn't logical to

and

much." At some stage, it is and integrate their values and deserving of respect. They often

care so

important for them feelings as valid

to accept

involve answering specific, factual questions, thinking about

do

and assessing past experiences, and trying out new behaviors. They may be skeptical and uncooperative when an

logical, cause-and-effect analyses.

Intuitive counselor suggests interventions that use fantasy

also not appropriate to label

and imaging techniques.

who

also prefer Feeling

the counselor,

In

such situations, Sensing types

may be

distressed at "disappointing"

which can exacerbate

feelings of inadequacy.

Intuition Intuitive type clients are likely to

use more abstract

or symbolic terminology and respond to symbolism and

metaphorical allusions from the counselor. They

make

leaps from

"intuiting"

comments

something that

is

may

also

may also

this

Not

by including Feeling considerations into

find

it

useful to be asked to describe feelings.

their

It is

Thinking types as "defensive" or "intellectualizing" when they have trouble

when their words for feelsound stereotypical or analytical. Have issues about discomfort and a sense of inadequacy putting feelings into words, or ings

in social situations, as they tend to take longer than

other types to develop comfortable social particularly true for

skills.

This

is

dominant introverted Thinking

the counselor makes, at times

types (ISTP and INTP). Social skills training with easy

not what the counselor had in

exercises can be useful

mind. Intuitive types tend to be attracted to open-ended and broad-ranging exploration of both their inner and outer

when the client sees the when they will enable

learning these skills and

relationships or activities.

logic of

desired

228

The Uses

Clients

of Type

who

prefer Thinking can benefit from achieving

some comfortable ways of expressing approval and appreciThe counselor should be careful not to to initially do this with finesse well and would do to recommend low-key, non-

ation of others.

expect the Thinking type

and

skill

emotive approaches. People

who

have fewer words

and discriminate among

o\\

to describe

prefer Thinking usually their

n feelings as well as to identify others' expression of feel-

During the process of counseling or psychotherapy, such clients can be helped to identify and make discriminaing.

tions in this

sometimes puzzling

area.

Find adapting

to

change

have Judging types

ful to

when

stressful, especially

previous strategies have proven ineffective.

go of control

let

It

their

can be help-

for a limited

time

or in a limited area. The client can "plan" to be flexible. Benefit from being taught strategies for using Perception

understand their

to

own or other people's behavior. Judg-

ing clients can be taught to ask questions where they

think they already have answers. For example,

bad because he

prefer Feeling benefit from clarifying

prefer Judging are also

likely to

does

who

Feeling Clients

who

the outset of therapy. Clients

.

.

."

"My son

is

becomes "Why do you suppose he

?" .

.

.

then values and discussing choices between short-term and

Take the counselor's expressed hypotheses, suggestions, and interpretations as final judgments rather than as the

long-term goals. They are likely to seek approval and

exploration of possibilities. Frequently emphasizing the

mation from the therapist and may be reluctant their

needs and desires

directly. In addition,

they

affir-

to state

may

discrepant

profit

from gentle confrontations with these

facts.

At times a counselors straightforward

interpretations can be taken as harsh criticism.

Become negative and

cynical

when

ues have been undermined or ignored. This detrimental in types in which Feeling

is

is

and

val-

especially

dominant (EFJ

and IFP). Finding a new and caring connection or emphasizing good current relationships can be helpful in

The counselor can help Judging types avoid premature them to think about other possibilities and facts that could be relevant and to define a period of

know

other people ought to told.

It is

and assume

their desires

that

without being

useful to point out that Thinking types

may not

know what matters to another person and it is unkind to make them guess when such information could be pro-

more

willing to stay

open

They may then be

to their preferred

and thus

tion (Sensing or Intuition)

form of percep-

tolerate a delay in final

decision making. Perceiving Types cially

Clients

who

types, derive

prefer Feeling, especially Feeling Judging

genuine pleasure from helping others create

and maintain harmony

may devote

that they

so

energy

to

and organizing

them

can be a slow process to is

intrinsic

against legitimate attention to their

own desires. Judging and Perceiving (J-P) Judging and Perceiving are relevant

when

clients

problems related

difficulty

to dis-

meeting deadlines

their time effectively. In addition, they

may

See even modest structure as unduly restricting, especially their preference for Perceiving

tent.

is

very clear and consis-

Behavior that can seem irresponsible to others

may

be seen by the client as a valuable exercise of freedom.

other people's needs

help Feeling types balance the nurturance that satisfying for

and

procrastination,

Benefit from considering the consequences of their

be taken not to automatically "diagnose" their behavior as It

have a Perceiving preference, espe-

approach. Thinking Perceiving clients can learn the use

have insufficient time for themselves. Care should

unhealthy or "codependent."

who

clients, often report

At times, however,

in their lives.

much

younger

tractibility,

if

have concerns about organizing and

controlling their lives or about adapting and being life

they "decide not to decide." Judging type clients

natural discomfort with lack of closure.

vided in a straightforward manner.

and

when

often feel affirmed by the counselor's recognition of their

tempering a cynical attitude.

Hesitate to state their wishes clearly

they

therefore

closure by asking

time

their goals

is

important.

Ignore unpleasant facts that conflict with their values.

They can

tentative nature of the counselor's statements

open

of Judging skills by considering the negative consequences of not coming to closure or being late. Feeling Perceiving clients can consider the harm they may be

by not coming to closure. moderate their approach by examining what happens when they have difficulties with decision making and asking themselves what facilitates or blocks decisions for them. A client can be taught time managedoing

to others

Be able

to

ment or similar Judging skills, but to

it is

usually

more

useful

mobilize the energy of the decision-making functions,

to

Thinking and Feeling,

to

understand and overcome

experiences.

blocks to decision making.

Judging People with a Judging preference bring issues ing to control and authority into sessions.

uncomfortable with the therapy process as requiring

them

to give

ing types, especially those

comfortable

when

up control

who

clear goals

if

relat-

They may be

they perceive

to the therapist.

Judg-

also prefer Sensing, are

and timelines are

laid

it

most

out

at

People

who

prefer to extravert the perceiving functions of

Sensing or Intuition can be helped to being asked to consider the

how

wrong decision given

likely

the

it is

come

to closure

that they will

by

make

amount of information they overwhelmed with too

have. For Intuitive Perceiving types

many

options, practice in collecting facts will often eliminate

— Uses of Type

most options as impractical and make their choices manHelp in breaking up a large project into smaller, more manageable pieces can also be beneficial. ageable.

in

diagnostic categories as might be elicited in such instru-

ments as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMP1). Isabel Myers observed that some people were able to use their type more effectively than others, and experience certainly bears this out. Clients seeking counseling

Counseling Issues Related to Type Dynamics and Development

and psychotherapy

are likely to be less effective in their

expression of their type.

Type theory leads us

to expect greater comfort, confidence,

and facility when individuals' most conscious functions, the dominant and auxiliary, are directing their lives. We expect correspondingly greater discomlort. insecurity, and ineptitude

and is

when

the inexperienced, relatively unconscious tertiary

inferior functions are being used. This expected

dynamic

predictable in a system that assumes specialization of

capitalize

on

Dynamic and developmental and verifying the

For example,

way

if

of perceiving, the person

ent data

and

more

neither Sensing nor Intuition

of differentiation

in

the habitual to pres-

Quenk

be the major source of the

client's difficulties.

We

may

can expect

general impairment seems to be re-

flected or expressed in inadequate type functioning, the

may be

able to address the issue from the neutral

and affirming perspective of type dynamics. To expand on the example above of a person with an undifferentiated Perceiving function, such a client

may be

to attend to possible

People often experience as "abnormal" the "normal" characteristics of types

when

selves, especially

who

are different

from them-

appraising their opposite type.

Counselors and therapists need

to exercise particular

vigilance in this regard. For example, an 1NTJ therapist

focus on a few concrete facts and

der;

an

ENFP

counselor should

site ISTJ client as all

pairs of therapist

When a client is the same pist

may miss

viewing his oppo-

resist

obsessive-compulsive. Similar cautions

and

client types.

type as the therapist, the thera-

significant

dynamic

difficulties

what the

client describes feels familiar

therapist

may overlook evidence

type

is

ational

ineffective,

and

and

because

The

natural.

that the clients use of

perhaps viewing the difficulty as

situ-

external.

Dynamics of Type Development

Identifying the

seen as somewhat

eccentric and even paranoid because he or she tends to

move quickly

to a global

theory that connects those facts in an idiosyncratic way. The

The MBTI provides

ficulty

essential.

priate in a given situation, rather than as a serious "thought

disorder." Strategies to help the client notice

and

differenti-

two kinds of perception can then be adopted as a

therapeutic approach. Thus, therapists and counselors

who

dynamic and developmental "signs" knowledge in formulating and imple-

model

The

on

nat-

weaknesses of

less

that builds

makeup. Discovstrengths and reinforcing them is therefore

developed aspects of ering the client's

such "paranoia" to the client as a difin choosing which kind of perception is most appro-

a therapeutic

ural strengths before dealing with the

therapist can describe

ate the

is

verified or hypothesized type.

apply for

(1985a).

general psychological impairment to have an impact on type

therapist

approach

of type, not evidence of a narcissistic personality disor-

significantly contribute to the client's

Alternatively (or in addition), nontypological factors

Where

fruitful

deviations from the "expected" dynamics of the client's

an unpredictable way. This kind of lack

haphazard man-

presenting complaints. For further discussion of undifferen-

functioning.

absence or presence of "type-relevant" prob-

A more

must remind herself that the gregariousness and focus on sensual pleasure of an ESFP are natural expressions

may

tiated functions, see

difficulty

not by themselves indica-

world may diverge

shift to future possibilities in a

ner; his or her resulting awareness of the

from that of others

is

may alternately attend

sometimes be

However, ease or

clients type.

in verifying a best-fit type are

who are experiencing psychological and emotional distress may not conform to this hypothesized dynamic picture. The client's type development may be at issue there may be one or more ways in which the persons type is undifferentiated or there may be no clear and consistent of the dichotomies.

issues can

hypothesized during the sessions devoted to explaining

tive of the

—

knowledgeable practitioner can them. However, the following

cautions apply in assessing possible dynamic problems:

lems.

clients

A

this in treating

opposite pairs of mental functions and attitudes. However,

preference for either pole of one or

229

Counseling and Psychotherapy

a client's typological

goal of this section

is

to help practitioners

identify effective use of type as well as signs of possible

dynamic and developmental ate, strategies for

difficulties.

Where

appropri-

treatment in dealing with these issues are

suggested.

are alert to evidence of

can capitalize on

this

menting individualized treatment of the

Assessment of the Dominant Function dominant function

client.

in

theory gives direction and

Since the is

the

most

trustworthy, the counselor should listen for evidence that

Therapists and counselors should bear in

ory and the

MBTI

is indeed trusted and giving dominant function is Sensing, does the person have a good sense of reality, do practical things well, and enjoy the little pleasures of everyday life? If the dominant function is Intuition, do insights stand up under verification? If the dominant function is Feeling, are values

the

Cautions in Making Inferences About Type Dynamics

dominant function

directions.

mind

that type the-

inventory address individual differences in

normal personality functioning, not psychopathological or

If

the

230

The Uses

of Type

securely in place and can the client live by his or her values

usually ascribed to shyness; their one-sided Introversion

dominant (unction is Thinking, does the client see consequences clearly and take them into account when governing his or her behavior? The assumption is that

pleasure in the solitude of their

comfortably?

If

relying

on

lead to

more

autonomy

the

well-differentiated, trustworthy functions will

positive

outcomes and

sense of

a greater

is

having in the aspects of

life

related to the

dominant function. For example, impracticality in a Sensing type is more serious than impracticality in an Intuitive type since realism should be an essential characteristic of those who prefer Sensing perception. Habitual concern about hurting others' feelings stress in a

may

Thinking type but not

be a sign of chronic

in

counseling situations are related to failure to

develop the auxiliary function. Isabel Myers' original and revised type descriptions failure to

all

trast,

with

avoidance of the outer world rather than

own company.

In con-

well-balanced Introverts relate to the outer world relative

comfort by exercising their auxiliary

Extraverted function. One-sided Introversion can be

succeed

in

work and

young

difficulties in these areas often

to

adults striving to

in intimate relationships. Indeed,

bring such young people

seek help.

Types with Sensing or Intuition dominant types) can be so caught fail

up

in experiencing

to direct their activities

and come

(IJ

life

and EP

that they

to closure.

For

example, according to theory an ISTJ has dominant Introverted Sensing and auxiliary Extraverted Thinking.

in a Feeling type.

Assessment of the Auxiliary Function Many problems encountered

result in

particularly troublesome for

for the individual.

Serious consideration should be given to any difficulties

an individual

may

discuss the consequences of

develop the auxiliary function, and sensitivity to

If all or most of her energies are devoted to collecting and storing information, little or none is available to logically organize the information and develop structures for its use in the world. Without an Extraverted auxiliary function, an IJ might look like an exaggeration of a

"pack

rat,"

an

continually collecting either concrete objects

or more and more theories (in the case of an

these consequences should enter into the interpretive

(for

interviews and the conduct of therapy. The developed

INJ).

between Perception and Judgment and enables expression of both Extraversion and Introversion. Myers with Myers (1980/1995, p. 182) wrote, "In type theory balance does not mean equality of two func-

extraverted Sensing with auxiliary introverted Feeling.

auxiliary function provides balance

two attitudes; instead, it means superior skill one, supplemented by a helpful but not competitive

tions or of in

skill in

the other."

Some

of the effects of failure to develop

the auxiliary function are described below:

ISJ)

An ESFP

energy

is

should theoretically balance dominant

senses, there will be

little

who

dominant much reliance on place so

habitually extravert both their

and auxiliary functions

will

the outer world that they will not be in touch with their

own

inner perception or judgment. For example, accord-

ing to the theory of type dynamics an

ENFP

extraverts

If he dominant Intuition and Feeling, extraverts both dominant Intuition and auxiliary he may have little ability to judge himself and others from

introverts auxiliary Feeling.

the standpoint of his

on

own

inner values.

He may

judgments and be

therefore

way

for

repeat worthwhile experiences; he

him is

to select

likely to

and

come

across as shallow, insincere, and unreliable. In contrast, a

more balanced ESFP will use a stable set of inner values to choose which sense experiences are most satisfying and meaningful. Similarly, a balanced ENTP or ENFP will use the Introverted

Extraverts

If

primarily devoted to stimulation of his five

which exciting

projects are

Judging function to choose worth pursuing and complet-

ENP

flit from one none of them. Types with Thinking or Feeling dominant (IP and EJ types) can be so caught up with controlling their worlds that they fail to collect data that would help them understand their experiences. Their judgments and decisions may therefore appear categorical and ill founded because they are in effect using only their dominant Judging func-

ing,

while a less balanced

likely to

is

exciting idea to another, accomplishing

easily influ-

tion without the balance that should be provided by gath-

enced by outside circumstances. The therapist can

ering and considering relevant information (Perception).

rely primarily

encourage clients

others'

who

extravert both conscious func-

For example, an ENTJ (dominant extraverted Thinking

and relevance of relying on other people's perception or judgment and learn to attend to and value their own "inner voice." Such clients may

with auxiliary introverted Intuition) should, according

seek therapy during midlife for issues related to habitual

an emerging feeling that they lack inner substance and

and extreme judgments will likel) come across as overcontrolling and domineering, and he will be seen as judgmental. Similarly, the dominant intro-

have no comfortable sense of themselves.

verted Feeling of an 1SFP, in the absence of auxiliary

tions to question the accuracy

extraverting of the auxiliary function; they

Introverts

who

may

habitually introvert both their

up

report

dominant

and world that they will be ineffective in the outer world. These Introverts may demonstrate the characteristics auxiliary functions will be so caught

in their inner

theory, be

making judgments about

acquired through Intuition. in,

If little

to

relevant information

or no data are allowed

his categorical

extraverted Sensing,

may

result in

hypersensitivity to criticism.

The

low self-esteem and draws negative,

client

erroneous conclusions about her self-worth because adequate data are not available

to

her dominant Feeling

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

Judgment. For further discussion of auxiliary function, see

Quenk

failure to

develop the

(1985b).

Counselors can help clients make conscious use of tertiary and inferior functions through practice, not through understanding alone. The counselor can

and fourth functions,

especially the

new

to type theory

that

Inferior Functions

and most vulnerable

theory, individuals are least effective

fourth, or inferior, function. Counselors

may

help clients

first

and become aware of their level of discomfort with or avoidance of them and then teach them to practice using the functions. Small tasks

Assessment of the Tertiary and the areas of their third

231

take the position that

if

In in

have dominant Feeling,

clients

the most helpful counseling strategy

to

is

their inferior Thinking. This is not the

help them develop

approach taken

developmental counseling, which builds on strengths

in

to get

dominant

to weakness. The client is and auxiliary functions to strengthen the less secure and more inexperienced tertiary and inferior functions. Isabel Myers (Myers & McCaulley, 1985; p. 64) described this in giving the rationale for differential development of

encouraged

to use the

identify their less-preferred functions

may seem

inconsequential to outsiders are better for

learning to develop functions than are major

life

decisions.

The process of choosing a meal in a restaurant is a better way to practice a new skill than the process of choosing a career. Small tasks are especially

important for practicing

less-preferred functions, since initial failures can be inter-

esting experiments, not blows to self-esteem. Practical exercises that

encourage gaining access

experiencing, and

to,

developing each of the functions can be found

in

Myers and

Kirby(1994).

type functions. She stated that [tlhe kind of perception one prefers and the kind of judgment one prefers determine, between them, the directions in which one can develop most fully and effectively with the most satisfaction to oneself. ... It is sometimes said that both kinds of perception and both kinds of judgment should be developed equally. The answer is that such a dead level of uniformity leaves one with no stable direction for one's life. Each of the four functions has its own objectives, its own fulfillments. The

goals of the opposite functions are not compatible. Intuition

does not want the same things as sensing. Feeling is not satisfied by what satisfies thinking. One cannot direct one's life effectively toward a desired result until one's best-trusted kind of perception and best-trusted kind of judgment are agreed as to what is to be desired. Individuals are most willing to develop skills in using less-

preferred functions

when doing

so

is

in the service of their

dominant and auxiliary functions. This useful strategy

for

developing the less-preferred functions helps achieve goals set

by the dominant and auxiliary functions. For example, an

ENFP

in theory

would be caught up with new

(dominant Intuition) cult for

an

ENFP

for

possibilities

people (auxiliary Feeling).

to deal

It is diffi-

with matters in a tough-minded

fashion (tertiary Thinking) or with attention to practical details (inferior Sensing). If the

ENFP

is

enthusiastic about a

and Feeling, Sensing and the service of Intuition and Feeling

project that captures his Intuition

Thinking to

will

be used in

accomplish the practical aspects of the project. Exercises

of this nature are valuable for teaching

full

use of perception

and judgment; they are also a way to help clients which functions are easier or more difficult for them.

identify

Experience and maturity can lead to natural develop-

ment of

less-preferred functions. For example, an experi-

enced INTP family practice physician may carefully collect facts and details (tertiary Sensing) and develop a successful "bedside manner" (inferior Feeling) in seeing her patients

because doing so serves her dominant Thinking and auxiliary Intuition sis.

—which she

relies

on

for arriving at a diagno-

Experience has also taught her that such an approach

encourages patient compliance with treatment.

Eruptions of the Inferior Function

During the course of psychotherapy clients are likely to report concern and distress about episodes of unfamiliar and disturbing thoughts, feelings, and actions. Such reports often conform to eruptions of their unconscious inferior functions. Unconscious energy is most likely to emerge when the client's level of conscious control of dominant and auxiliary functions is lowered. This shift of energy from conscious

dominant

to

unconscious inferior often occurs

in response

and consciousness-lowering drugs such as alcohol. In terms of type dynamics, it puts the individual in the awkward and distressing position of trying to stress, fatigue, illness,

using the least experienced, most undeveloped,

to operate

most unconscious, and

largely ineffectual parts of his or her

When

a therapist explains the role of the

inferior function in

normal type dynamics, and describes

personality.

the predictable form of each inferior function, clients often

experience a sense of

relief.

The

predictability of their out-

them

of-character behavior reassures

danger of "crazy."

totally losing control of

that they are not in

themselves and are not

The dynamics and descriptions

functions can be found in

Quenk

of the eight inferior

(1993, 1996).

Because severe stress often pushes people apy, clients

may

to

seek ther-

not reveal their typical dominant and auxil-

iary strengths during initial sessions.

They may come across

as poorly developed, exaggerated versions of their opposite type.

Only when the

severity of stress has diminished will

the therapist recognize the client's tioning.

The presence of unusual

the practitioner that type

may be

assessment of type will be

more

stress

typical type func-

should be

distorted

initially

and

a clue to

that accurate

questionable, either

through inquiry or through administration of the MBTI. This section has provided examples of some of the practical applications of type

dynamics. For insights into other

rel-

evant dynamic issues related to counseling and psychotherapy, see Corlett

and Millner (1993), Jones and Sherman

(1997), Jung (1923/1971), McCaulley (1990b), Myers and

232

The Uses

h pe

of

Quenk (1989), Quenk, Quenk and Quenk (1982).

Kirby (1994), Provost (1993), (1985), and

on Knowledge of Whole Type

Capitalizing

who

Counselors and psychotherapists logical

framework

into their

this level of typological

sensitive to

They can

awareness into a broad range

of therapeutic issues and across a wide spectrum of clients. As experience and knowledge grow, the existence of type differences serves as an implicit assumption that informs the therapists awareness and appreciation of the individuality of every client. The following comments are examples of just a few of the subtle qualities that emerge as distinctive therapeutic issues for some of the 16 types.

1NFJ clients often admit to the therapist their fear that they are or could easily become "crazy." Their fear is a function of their uncanny ability to "read" the underlying emotions of the individuals and groups of people

whom

with

they interact long before anyone else

aware that such emotions

ESFP in

clients

acknowledge

in light of their focus

grown up"

feeling "not quite is

understandable

on sensual experience

in the pres-

ent and their often "fun-loving" approach to

does not

fit

is

exist.

comparison with other people. This

which

life,

well with the notion of responsibility and

attention to long-range goals.

men, tend

1STJ clients, particularly

to agree

with a thera-

pists suggestion that they express love for their children

by providing financial security and ensuring that the children behave in an appropriate and responsible ner.

These

clients

at the

may

misin-

such an expression of love as a need

terpret

and dominate the

ENTP

that they have

an underlying

and seriousness and valued.

They may

complishments istics,

to control

child.

may acknowledge with some

clients

man-

can become quite emotional

therapists recognition that an ISTJs family

discomfort

fear that they lack

substance

that their contributions are not really

therefore take particular pride in ac-

that call

on less-preferred type character-

those that require slow, methodical, and detailed

work over an extended

more come most easily to them. women, often report an early period, rather than the

facile,

innovative projects that

INTP

clients, especially

awareness of being profoundly different from other

chil-

dren, leading to a hypersensitivity to signs of rejection

and

to painful

memories

of being ridiculed

and scape-

goated as "weird."

ESTJ and ENTJ

clients

may view

their

need

for counsel-

ing as a "defeat," as personal failure to solve their

problems. They

may

project their

own

own

life-

sense of incompe-

tence onto the therapist, which can emerge as a challenging, confrontational

enterprise.

approach

to the

Table

10.

1

Indicative and Contraindicative Adjectives on the Waltz-Gough Efficacy Index

Indicative Adjectives

incorporate a typo-

work can become

the nuances that differentiate each of the 16 types.

weave

A. T.

counseling/therapy

active

Contraindicative Adjectives

234

The Uses of Type

Table

1

0.3

Rank Order of Types on Two Measures of Adjustment: Males Soundness

Type

Efficacy

Uses of Type in Counseling

Table

1

0.4

Rank Order of Types on Two Measures of Adjustment: Females Soundness

Type

Efficacy

.uul Ps)

choiherapy

235

236

The Uses of Type

Table 10.5

Type ISFP

Rank Order of Types Who Answered "Yes" to Ever Having Heart Disease or Hypertension

Percentage

Type

Percentage

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

Table 10.6

Types Reporting Highest and Lowest Mean Levels of Stress

Category

in

Nine Categories

Types Reporting Lower Stress

Types Reporting Higher Stress

Work

INFJ

INFP

INTJ

ISTJ

ENTJ

ENFJ

ESFJ

Finances

ISFP

ESFP

ENFP

INTJ

ENTJ

ISTP

ESTP ESTJ

Children

ISFP

ESFP

ISFJ

INTP

ENTP

INTJ

ESTP ENFP

Intimate relationship

INFJ

ESFP

INTJ

INTP

ENTP ENFJ

ESTP ENTJ

School

INFJ

ESFP

INTP

ISFJ

INTJ

ENFP ENTJ

Health

ISFJ

ESFJ

ISFP

ESFP

ENTP

INTJ

ENTJ

Caring for aging parents

ISFJ

ESFP

ISFP

ESFJ

INTJ

ESTP

ENTP INTP

ISFJ

INFJ

ESFJ

ENFJ

ISTP

ENTP

INTJ

ESTP

INFJ

INTP

ISFP

ESFP

ENFP ENTP ENFJ

ESTP

Balancing

home and work

Other

Note

:

N=

3,036. Each category rated

on a

five-point scale; See

Appendix

for a description of the

Source: National sample.

Table 10.7

Number ofTimes aType Is

Included

in

Highest

and Lowest Categories Type ISTJ

High

Low

Type

High

Low

sample

ISFP

ESTJ

INFP

237

238

The Uses of Type

Table 10.8 Coping Method Try to avoid

Top and Bottom RankingTypes Highest

Lowest

in

Methods of Coping with Stress Coping Method

Highest

Lowest

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

239

— 240

The Uses

of Type

stimulated the referral

may

be well within what

young Extraverted Sensing

for

very active, interactive,

is

expected

whose natural style is experiential, and experimental. types,

Awareness of the possible influence of type differences can therefore aid mental health professionals in the diagnostic

on the relevance of

process. For additional information

type in assessing and counseling children, see

Murphy

(1992, 1997).

Issues with

Adolescent Clients

and

tertiary

inferior functions.

clients to a

mental health professional, administration and

MBTI can provide immense relief and young people who are questioning their acceptability as individuals and members of important peer groups. For example, a 15-year-old 1NTP who is ambivalent interpretation of the

affirmation for

about

"fitting in"

with her peers can be assured of the rea-

sonable and natural basis for her ambivalence; an

who

validated by his type description

feel

ENFP

has been persistently criticized for procrastinating can

to "go against his grain"

and then encouraged

by adopting some strategies for

meeting deadlines; an INFJ can be reassured that her uncanny knack for knowing the unspoken thoughts and feelings of others

is

by his attempts

to

is

many

clients

why

his friends

crisis as the midlife emergence of the and fourth functions. Clients in this situation may report loss of interest and meaning in what has heretofore been exciting and important, a feeling of being invaded by alien and uncontrollable thoughts and feelings, and a dis-

apparent midlife third

most dramatic cases, the and family to take up a new partner, or a successful career may become so unsatisfying that the person leaves it to do something entirely different.

is

Young peo-

evident in the lower reliabilities found

MBTI is administered to younger groups (see Chapter 8). Some adolescents may have difficulty identifythe

ing a best-fit type because of this as well as because their

expression of type

may be

influenced by pressures to

or Introversion can be most affected by

who

fits

use the

Other adolescent

them

well.

this is natural,

It is

MBTI

this.

Counselors and

inventory with adolescents

may

clients

readily verify a type that

important to convey to unsure clients that

normal, and predictable and that

essary or important for the client to settle

on

it is

not nec-

a type at this

The counselor can use the client's type information to validate, reassure, and help the adolescent cope with stresses and pressures and better prepare for the future. stage of

self.

In the

leave spouse

Therapists sensitive to the characteristics of the inferior function can often interpret the client's experiences in these terms

and explore the developmental nature and meaningfulness of these often quite puzzling and distressing experiences. Understanding the meaning and importance of what is happening

to

them sometimes enables

clients to

proceed in their

development without making major changes in their own and others' lives. For information on the dynamics and development of midlife and older people, see Corlett and Millner (1993),

Quenk

(1993), and Millner (1998).

Using Type with Couples Happy and unhappy marriages

are found in all type combiand type differences and similarities are likely to be only one of several sources of difficulty in a relationship.

nations,

in"

should be prepared for questions and doubts from some clients.

may

Regardless of the nature of such other difficulties, a typologi"fit

with the group. Determining a preference for Extraversion therapists

individual

sometimes are

Psychological type develops over the lifespan.

mature people, as

One can interpret the who come to therapy with an

be helpful in group situations.

ple are expected to be less clear about their preferences than

when

may be

shared by other people of her type; an

ESTJ can gain insight into irritated

shift

mild and gradual.

the process

behavior of

tressing loss of a sense of

Regardless of the presenting issues that bring adolescent

For others, the

more sudden, extreme, and disruptive. These latter older clients are more likely to seek help than those for whom

approach

cal

to

couples counseling can enhance the thera-

peutic process and increase the likelihood of an effective

outcome.

Focusing on natural type differences early

in the

coun-

seling process can be the "neutral ground" that enhances

rapport, reassures the couple that the therapist

is

not likely

and provides a nonjudgmental language for discussing sources of irritation and misunderstanding. to "take sides,"

When

interpreting results of the

MBTI

to a couple,

it is

use-

life.

ful to let

cussed and to compare these with the answers given on the Indicator.

Issues with

Middle-Aged and Older Clients

partners guess their preferences as they are dis-

Both partners can be asked

and

their partner

and

affect their relationship.

with greater energy being devoted to exercising the tertiary

that

and

the partner

There

is

recognizing and expressing less ing midlife and into old age.

wide variation in ways of developed functions dur-

Many

individuals "mellow"

into old age, gradually shifting energy and focus from the dominant and auxiliary functions by adding interest in the

comment on

the

to discuss type characteristics as they

As discussed in Chapter 3, Jung's theory predicts differential use and development of type in the second half of life, inferior functions.

to

accuracy of type descriptions in describing both themselves

When is,

couples take the type Indicator "for each other"

when

they answer the questions the

would

(see the section

interpretation later in this chapter) tify

—

probable issues in the couple's

counseling issues are indicated

way they think

on administration and the therapist can idendifficulties. Particular

when couple members

rec-

ognize that they are different from each other and accurately

241

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

Mutual Usefulness of Opposite Types

Table 10.12

Intuitive Types Can Benefit from the Natural Inclination of SensingTypes to

SensingTypes Can Benefit from the Natural Inclination of Intuitive Types to

Bring up pertinent facts

Face the

realities of

new

Bring up

the current situation

Apply experience to solving problems

Apply

now

Focus on what needs attention

possibilities

Anticipate future trends insight to solving

problems

Focus on long-term goals

FeelingTypes Can Benefit from the Natural Inclination of ThinkingTypes to

ThinkingTypes Can Benefit from the Natural Inclination of FeelingTypes to

Analyze consequences and implications

Forecast

Hold consistently to

Make needed

a policy

how

others

will

react and feel

individual exceptions

Stand firm for human-centered values

Stand firm for important principles

Create rational systems

Organize people and tasks harmoniously

Be

Appreciate the Thinking type along with everyone else

fair

Source

From

Introduction ro Type (6th ed-.p. 30),

by

I.

B.

Myers, 1998, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Copyright 1998 by Consulting Psychologists Press.

Used with permission.

by answering the MBTI

personality

a couple, a typological

ing, critical,

explanation of the differences they already recognize in

on each other, each seeing the other as demandand controlling. These and similar kinds of discrepancies in the ways couples answer the MBTI for each

each other can be therapeutic. Rather than attributing

other can often reveal the nature of the couples expecta-

assess the nature of their differences "correctly" for each other.

For such

dif-

ferences to the partners "annoying habits," "hang-ups," or

tions of and projections onto each other.

"incompetence," the couple can learn to appreciate the nature and reality of their differences as legitimate and

Differences Related to Each

interesting.

The

task of counseling

believe they are both the

answering

for

is

very different

same or

each other "inaccurately"),

are quite different. a different type

when

the couple

similar in type (therefore

when

in fact they

When a person believes the partner to be

from what he or she actually

is,

the misper-

ceived partners communications and behavior are likely to

be misunderstood. The misperceiving partner distorted notion of the other's needs

example, an wife as

if

ENTP husband

may have

a

and motives. For

answered the Indicator

for his

she were an ENFP, but she verified her type as

ESFJ. Her major complaint in the marriage was that she

of the Four Dichotomies Counseling issues vary considerably with the type mix of

on the mutual

the couple. Sharing the perspective

shown

ness of opposite types, as

Introduction to Type (Myers, with Kirby

&

useful-

and

in Table 10.12

can be a focal point for the couple to gain insight into the validity of their differences

and the

positive nature of each

other's contribution to the relationship. In addition, the

following suggest issues and approaches to differences in

each of the type dichotomies.

felt

discounted, ignored, and misunderstood by her husband.

E— Differences

became evident during counseling that he did not recognize her central desire for harmony and togetherness. Instead, he assumed that what she really wanted was more

privacy (Introversion) need to be resolved for couples

It

freedom

to

pursue her

many

interests

in

Myers, 1998),

without interference

I

differ

on

this

Issues of sociability (Extraversion) and

dichotomy. The Extravert needs

sufficient external stimulation sufficient time alone.

A

first

step

to

who have

and the Introvert needs is

getting each partner to

from him. He was genuinely puzzled when she told him

recognize the legitimate but different energy needs of the

how bad

other partner. Such recognition

husband and saw each other as ISTJs; they later recognized that both of their fathers were probably ISTJs. The partners thus projected an exaggerated and distorted ISTJ his

ESFP

she

felt.

In another couple, the INFJ

wife both

partner

is

Extraverted energy during the

energy

is difficult

when

either

Introverted and expends his or her finite

may be

left for

work

day. Little Extraverted

talking and interacting with the

242

The Uses of Type

partner or for socializing with others in the evening.

recommendation

effective

is

for the Introvert to

An

have a

period of time alone soon after coming home. The couple's

agreement

such

to the legitimacy of

brief "alone time' can

both the couple and unaware therapists

to

assume

that gen-

der accounts for what are primarily Thinking-Feeling

diller-

ences. Research supporting clinical observation regarding

type and gender differences can be found in Otis and

When

prove restorative and enable the Introvert to be responsive

Quenk (1989) and Demarest

and

Feeling type and the female the Thinking type, confusion

sociable.

who

Couples also have a

differ

on Extraversion-lntroversion may

problem communicating, since the Extraverted

partner is more likely to reach decisions by talking them out and getting feedback, while the Introverted partner is more likely to process issues internally, sharing

only the

final

con-

clusion. This difference leaves the Extraverted partner feeling

excluded from an important source of satisfaction

The Introverted partner may experience the Extrapartner's insistence on joint problem solving as intru-

\

cited

sive

and

controlling. Explaining their different approaches to

processing and sharing information can encourage them to

modify

their

is

the

fruitful therapeutic intervention.

Thinking types can improve relationships by voicing appreciation before giving criticism and by

comments only when

making

critical

necessary, rather than as a natural,

automatic response to the partner and the world

at large.

Feeling types can improve relationships by stating their

wishes

mutual misperception.

the male

and misunderstandings arise because neither partner conforms to expectations. There may be accusations that the woman is unfeminine and the man lacks masculine traits. Helping couples distinguish between genuine gender influences and Thinking-Feeling differences is often a very

—mutual

sharing.

(1997).

so that the Thinking type does not have to

clearly,

guess about their needs and desires. Feeling types can also

slow and mundane. Sensing type partners with a solid

avoid having hurt feelings by learning to differentiate between intended critical assessments and comments that sound like personal criticism but are merely impersonal observations from the viewpoint of their Thinking type partner. Couples therapists can be especially helpful by using their type knowledge to "translate" the Thinking lan-

sense of reality can cause Intuitive partners to feel im-

guage of one partner into the Feeling language of the other,

When

S— N Differences Intuition,

a couple differs

on Sensing and

misunderstandings can occur because the two

people often look

at the

same event very

differently.

It is

important that they define terms carefully. Intuitive type partners with rapid insights can feel

make Sensing

and unobservant. Differences of

practical

type partners

this

nature can

often be expressed as categorical accusations.

A

careful

and vice

versa.

Such "type translations" were first incorpoAs described by

rated into psychotherapy by Jung himself.

Hannah

explanation of their very different processes of gathering

one of

and trusting information can help the couple understand and accept the reality of their differences. The counselor can

had written Psychological Types and had considerably more experience of people, Jung was able to speak the language'

encourage them

of every type. Just as he took a lot of trouble to learn the

to verify their

understanding of each other

by asking clarifying questions and accepting the answers as valid reflections of the partner's state of

Differences

When

a couple differs in

(1976), "[A]fter he

languages of his patients (English, French, and so on), so

he learned

mind.

ical

T— F

his biographers, Barbara

to

type to

put things into the language of the psycholog-

whom he was talking"

(p. 132).

Thinking and

and

Feeling, decision-making issues can be a source of difficulty,

J— P Differences

since one partner will favor a logical, objective approach to

typically associated with the Judging-Perceiving dichotomy.

arrive at truth

approach irritated

to arrive at

when

situation

and the other

will value a personal, subjective

harmony. Thinking types can become

Feeling types appear to ignore the logic of a

and come

to a

conclusion that seems

illogical;

Feeling types often accuse Thinking type partners of being cold, uncaring,

and

hypercritical.

Such misperceptions

occur regardless of gender, although gender stereotypes add an additional stressor

when

addressing Thinking-Feeling

differences in relationships.

on

dichotomy are subject to definitional misunderstandings as well as gender stereotypes. Thinking is olten confused with intellectual competence and lack of emotion; Feeling is confused with intellectual fuzziness and excessive emotionality. Thinking is assumed to be the special province of men, Feeling of women. Thus when the male prefers Thinking and the female Feeling, there is conformity to what is expected. However, this conformity can encourage Differences

this

Issues of order, territory,

lifestyle are

more important to the Judging partner; spontaneity and freedom are more Order

in the

important planning

to the

is

is

often

Perceiving partner.

How much

advance

necessary or comfortable for each partner

may

As a counseling technique, the practitioner might have the couple discuss how they have planned for vacations and what each believes to be the issues in vacation also be

an

surroundings

issue.

planning. This exercise can be enlightening to couples.

Disagreements are also likely

to arise

about

how much

data

should be collected before making important decisions and taking action.

The Perceiving

an exhaustive search of

all

type partner

may wish

to

do

the available alternatives before

new piece of furniture, while the Judging type may be ready to decide after seeing only a few items.

purchasing a partner

A

counselor can encourage forbearance of each other's and suggest ways to compromise to achieve relative

styles

comfort for both partners about the timing of decisions.

Uses of Type

in

Counseling and Psychotherapy

243

244

The Uses of Type

type in the base population. Higher attraction ratios that the pairing occurs

expected relative

Only

to its

mean

men

(EST]

INFP women, ESTP men married

to

ENTP men

married to

INFJ women, and there any evidence

married to 1SFJ women) is of opposite types being attracted to each other. Other pairings reflect greater evidence of type similarity.

at type and a measure on self-assessment of the relationship as "very dissatisfied" and "somewhat dissatisfied" (combined) compared with "somewhat satisfied" and "very satisfied" (combined). In examining rankings by the percentage of relationships in which both partners were satisfied, no type-related pattern was found for women. However, the same analysis for men showed a statistically significant higher percentage of male Extraverts in relationships in which both partners were satisfied. It was further observed that INTP men had by far the lowest percentage of relationships in which both partners were satisfied (only 33%),

(1996) also looked

al.

of satisfaction based

although INTP

men

their relationship.

of one type

who

themselves reported being satisfied with

This result led to the development of an

obliviousness index

—

the difference

between the percentage

say they are satisfied and the percentage of

same type in the relationships in which both partners are The authors hypothesized that the greater the difference in the couple's satisfaction levels, the more "oblivithe

satisfied.

ous"

is

the partner with the higher satisfaction rating. Table

10.14 shows the obliviousness indexes for each type separately

by gender.

It is

interesting to note that

INTP men

have the highest index of all the types, regardless of gender (33%). ENFJs are highest

though

at a

much

among

female types (13%),

lower percentage than male INTPs.

Another source of data on marital from the national sample. Subjects asked

to rate their satisfaction

satisfaction

in this

comes

sample were

with their marriage or

inti-

mate relationship using the same four-point scale as that used in the Marioles et al. (1996) study. The national sample data were analyzed by type but not by gender. Partner satisfaction

two

was not assessed

in the national

sets of data, therefore,

to rating satisfaction

were also asked

sample

study.

The

cannot be compared. In addition

with marriage, subjects in

this

study

with their friend-

to rate their satisfaction

ships and their relationships with family members. Figure 10.

1

shows the

results for all 16 types in their ratings of the

three areas of relationship satisfaction.

note that types

who

It is

important to

Perhaps "relationship satisfaction"

phenomenon

one relasame way as

are satisfied or dissatisfied in

tionship area tend to rate the other areas in the well.

is

a generalized

that reflects the possibility that different types

use different definitions of or criteria for satisfaction. The observation that, in general, types are

more

satisfied

than types

who

who

prefer Extraversion

prefer Introversion

tend to support such a conjecture. Introverts

would

may have

greater discomfort with and/or "idealized" expectations of relationships in comparison with Extraverts, in

10. 14

occurrence in the base population.

in three notable instances

Marioles et

Table

more frequently than would be

and greater ease with others may be

whose comfort

in operation.

Type of Satisfied Person

The

Obliviousness Index

Uses of Type

1 ESFP

ISFJ

ISFP

ENFP

INFJ

I

ENTP

INTJ

INFP

ESFJ

245

Counseling and Psychotherapy

in

INTP

ENFJ

ENTJ

Type

mhbobb Figure 10.1

Mean

Marriage/intimate relationship

project provides insights

couples therapists and reports results about whole type,

in addition

to

Friendships

i

i

Family

i

i

members

Ratings of Satisfaction with Intimate, Friendship, and Family Relationships for the 16 Types

The Marioles-Hammer research for

mm

differences

on

the four individual type

dichotomies. These ongoing studies also use

MBT1 Form J

and therefore provide information about the 27 subscales scored by that form.

The parent-child relationship suffers severely if a parent tries to make a child into a carbon copy of him- or herself. It is hard on children to find that a parent wishes they were something they types

may

definitely are not. Children

Thinking types may hostility.

who

are Feeling

try to distort their type in the desired direction; resist their

parents expectations with

Neither reaction repairs the damage done to the

child's self-confidence.

The Judging-Perceiving dichotomy can be important

UsingType with Families

in

child-parent relationships. For example, a parent describing

manner can be shown that his full of judgments ("This is wrong." "He shouldn't have done that." "I made a misa child's behavior in a Judging

Type concepts can be useful

in family counseling.

The type

distribution of the family provides a language for talking difficulties in

communication, allocation of

take."). Practice in the Perceiving attitude

over child rearing, and chil-

ments such

When working with

families,

it is

discuss the value of type differences. the oppositeness of preference

is

particularly relevant to

Any

relationship suffers

treated as an inferiority.

"Why did

can lead to

state-

wonThe essence of the Perceiving attitude is that a topic opens up new questions and creates curiosity for learning more about a situation. Judgment closes the issue; perception opens it up for new discoveries. der

dren's career plans.

if

is

tasks, differences

about alliances,

household

or her every description

if

he did

as, it

because

.

.

it

.

look like that to him?"

?"

"I

246

The Uses of Type

Many Judging

types benefit from learning to stay longer in

the Perceiving

learning to It

mode; many Perceiving types

come

from

benefit

child.

on how parenting differs based on the type of the is easier for an orderly, practical Sensing Judging

It

parent to raise a Sensing Judging child

conform

to structure than

retaining the

same preferences the whole

These investigators found

that

it

is

who

has a desire to

for that parent to rear

independent Intuitive Perceiving child

who

an

finds structure

and consistency anathema. Understanding type differences can reduce guilt in the relationship and promote problem solving on the part of both parent and child.

Family therapists report that understanding type often all family members modify their perceptions about

helps

meaning and motives behind each others behaviors. therapist can suggest ways for family members to better explain themselves and more accurately assess the meaning of each other's communications. Suggestions relevant to using type in families can be found in Meisgeier and Meisgeier (1989) and in Murphy (1992). Ginn (1995) describes the distinct ways in which each of the types func-

fit

Many

newfound freedom

their

(Shuck

way

of

clients expressed relief at

However, they and friends showed some their newly emerged state

to be themselves.

also reported that their families difficulty in accepting

them,

for

often describing their earlier type as depicting their

behaving while addicted.

time.

always

nearly

clients

reported that their "changed" type was the best

to closure.

can be helpful for the counselor to give parents a per-

spective

20%

than

them

in

& Manfrin, 1997).

When

attempting to determine

should be sensitive

best-fit type, therapists

such factors as age of onset of drug use. Arrested development of personality can be a conseto

quence of early age of onset of addiction; doubts about type may be present, and helping the client identify his or her

may

be a gradual and

the

natural type

The

with early onset of addiction as well as those with codepen-

tions as a

member

ways of mothering

different

way

of a family; the is

that type influences

presented in

work by Penley

and Stephens (1994).

dency issues may "adopt" the type of the therapist, thus adding to their difficulty in recognizing who they are. Counselors who incorporate their knowledge of type in treating chemically dependent individuals attest that its value

helping them better understand their

lies in

psychological

makeup and enabling them

client's

to tailor interven-

tions to the verified or hypothesized type of the client. selors also find

it

Coun-

profitable to tailor their language to the

client's strengths, as a

way

of encouraging collaboration in

and cooperation with a treatment plan. In one treatment facility where type was routinely collected for both clients and therapists, an attempt was made to "match" clients and

in Treatment Chemical Dependency

Using Type for

difficult process. Clients

therapists in therapy groups. Clients

whose types included

Thinking and/or Judging were placed in a group cofacilitated by an INTJ and an ISFJ therapist. Feela preference for

It is

advisable that a respondent be drug-free for at least 30

days prior to administered

MBTI

administration, or that the

at least

ment program,

30 days

after

admission

as earlier administration

unreliable results

and may

is

elicit a client's

MBTI be

to the treat-

likely to yield

attempt

at

cop-

Chemical- and alcohol-impaired

ing, albeit unsuccessfully.

clients are also likely to

have a high frequency of low pref-

erence clarity indexes

when

during active drug use.

gram

is

When

inquiry should be

is

MBTI

is

administered

entry into a treatment pro-

not voluntary and/or a client denies any abuse,

made

into the clients chemical use pat-

tern during the preceding

MBTI

the

30 days,

to

determine

when

the

best administered.

MBTI

inventory with caution, even after a 30-day drug-free period.

ries

may

An

unusually low dropout rate was found for

groups.

with addiction histo-

Of particular note was

that clients

all

three

who were man-

dated to be in treatment voluntarily remained in group treatment longer than was required

occurred rarely

(Shuck

if

—

a

phenomenon

that

ever prior to client-therapist "matching"

& Manfrin, 1997).

Research with addictive populations shows some consistency in finding a preference for Introversion

among

those

seek treatment for chemical dependency, though gen-

eralizing this result to addicted individuals

treatment

is

who do

not seek

not warranted. For a review of studies of type

and chemical dependency, see Quenk and Quenk (1996).

agree too readily with their reported type without

carefully assessing to focus

clients, those

INFP

and an ENFP, and a Sensing Perceiving therapist requested and was given a group made up of acting-out adolescents.

who

Experienced counselors advise interpreting the

As compared with general

ing type clients were placed in a group co-led by an

on

its

best

fit.

Such

clients

can be encouraged

the parts of their description that

seem

to

fit

well

as a vehicle for helping the counselor in treatment planning.

Summary of Clinical

Research

Preliminary analysis of data collected on 500 male and female

an alcohol and drug addiction treatment program

This section summarizes the research presented in the 1985

supports the use of caution in administration and interpreta-

MBTI Manual and briefly comments on studies included in the more recent MBTI Applications (see Quenk & Quenk,

clients in

The MBTI was administered 30 days after admission and again six months later to these clients. Approximately 80% of them changed on at least one preference on retest, with less tion.

1996), which covers research available since the manual's publication. Readers are referred to the latter publication for

I

titles, and details ol the study results summarized The section is organized into major research topics.

authors, here.

type in Counseling

sis ol

and Psychotherapy

247

and kind ol information needed for accurate evaluation of clients, and the use of metaphor. Differences on other dicliotomies also provide potentially useful information for

Providers and Users of Psychological Services Type theory can illuminate behavior differences

and

vices,

it

among

raises issues

and

all

16 types

and

of the personality

care.

by providers of psychological

become

but the distribu-

clients,

tions of both differ from the general population. In theory,

helping people through psychological methods requires

more

Intuitive than Sensing skills, since Intuition

is

con-

cerned with perception of patterns, recognition of inferred

meanings, and intangible relationships. In a study by New-

man

(1979), Intuitive types scored significantly higher than

Sensing types on ability to identify implied meanings.

A

study by DiTiberio (1977) found Intuitive types higher for covert feeling messages.

Any career that deals mainly with people tends to attract more Feeling than Thinking types. The 16 studies in the 1985 MBT1 Manual that looked at characteristics of providers of psychological services confirm this expectation.

A

higher percentage of therapists/counselors

ferred Feeling over

Thinking was found

32 samples analyzed separately studies in

which

who

plicated, nonlinear ways.

results. Relatively small

doing ther-

their style to bet-

of the earlier results re-

numbers

to anticipate

such

of subjects, types of ther-

apy, different lengths of treatment

and treatment

settings,

and other uncontrolled variables related to clients, therapists, and contexts make comparisons and generalizations from the available studies difficult. However, such results can be useful to practitioners in stimulating awareness of

may be at work

in their interactions

A recent study serves as a model of a

carefully conceived,

more with

pre-

subtle factors that clients.

in all but 5 of the

analyzed, and interpreted research effort that capitalizes on

27

an in-depth understanding of type dynamics. Otis and

in the 16 studies. In the

a Feeling preference predominated, the

Louks (1997) investigated the hypothesis dysfunction

52 to 84. The studies covered included samples of counselor trainees (Levell, 1965), secondary school counselors

They studied

1970), Veterans Administration therapists (Braun.

a

assistants (Schilling, 1972), doctoral students in the help-

runaway

1975), crisis center staff (Galvin, 1976),

APA

that psychologi-

expressed differently for different types.

sample of Introverted male veterans using

MMPI. They found

Scales of the

were both more

ing professions (Frederick, 1975), counselors of

is

measures of "Rebelliousness" and "Psychological Distress" developed through a factor analysis of the Wiggins Content

1971), counseling supervisees (Beck, 1973), residence hall

(Elliott,

Some

ported by Mendelsohn (1966) seemed

percentages preferring Feeling over Thinking ranged from

youth

styles of

accommodate clients of different types. The results of some of the recent studies that looked at psychotherapy outcome variables point to possibly complex interrelationships among client and therapist type characteristics and outcome measures such as satisfaction Therapist-client type similarity appears to affect some kinds of outcomes positively and others in negative or more com-

cal

(Terrill,

own

ter

providers of psychological ser-

about the delivery ol health

All 16 types are represented

services,

many

therapists in understanding their

apy and insight into ways they can modify

that

INTP and ISTP

likely to score higher

"Rebelliousness" measure as compared to a pling

on

this

types

than expected on the

random sam-

dimension, and significantly more likely to be

clinical psy-

diagnosed with combat-related post-traumatic stress disor-

chologists (Perry, 1975), psychiatrists and child psychia-

der as well as "antisocial" and "avoidant" personality

counseling students (Newman, 1979),

trists

(McCaulley, 1977), psychotherapists of differing

ori-

disorders.

They were

for a

kinds (McCaulley, 1978), psychologists (Coan, 1979),

accommodating

Canadian student counselors (Casas crisis center

Across

& Hamlet,

1984), and

volunteers (Macdaid, 1984a).

all

these studies, Intuition

and Feeling tended

to

predominate. Occupations that require practitioners to deal

with large numbers of people tended to have more Extraverts,

and there were relatively more Sensing types in the in which counseling is accompanied by more

also

more

likely to

non-substance abuse crime and

entations (Levin, 1978), helping professionals of various

have been arrested

to

have had trouble

imposed by which the research was conducted. ISFJs were more likely to score lower on "Rebelliousness," ISFPs had the highest score on "Subjective Distress," and ISFJs and INFJs were more likely to be given one of the "dramatic" diagnoses. INTJ was the only type to stand out with a diagnosis of major depression. The to the behavioral constraints

the inpatient treatment facility in

occupations

researchers discuss these and other findings in the context

paperwork. Given that the majority of the population

of patient histories

most counselors prefer Intuition creates a responsibility for counselors to learn methods for communicating with and treating Sensing type

qualities of the types.

prefers Sensing, the fact that

and as a function of the

distinct

dynamic

Professional Orientation

clients.

Dilfering styles of doing therapy

were reported

ing and Intuitive type therapists in the

for Sens-

more recent

studies

MBTJ Applications (see Quenk & Quenk, 1996). Differences on the S-N dichotomy were revealed in the assessment of client symptoms and prognosis, the amount reviewed in

on environmental of individuals and numbers issues and to work with larger intrapsychic on should prefer to focus groups. Introverts longer-term provide individuals, and to work with therapy, to treatment. Sensing types should prefer to use more applied In theory, Extraverts should prefer to focus

248

The Uses of Type

NF

students in the same classes

methods; Intuitive types should prefer more dynamic

they wanted.

approaches. Thinking types should prefer more analytical,

faculty

"tough-minded" approaches, and Feeling types should be drawn to approaches that involve understanding the clients goals and values. Judging types should prefer more directive and controlled kinds of treatment, while Perceiving types should favor methods that emphasize understanding the client. The 1985 MBT1 Manual reported on several stud-

reported in McCaulley, 1978, p. 188).

The

were neglecting

Mendelsohn and

studies by

students

who came

(1962-1967, cited

this part of their

that the

his colleagues using

to the university counseling center

at the

beginning of

this chapter)

the following significant differences; (1) their peers, those

felt

education (Otis as

who

found

Compared with

preferred Intuition, Thinking,

and

found significant differences (p < .05) among counselors of different types. These included Coan (1979), Levin (1978), Perelman (1978), and Witzig (1978).

when

The studies reported in MBTl Applications (see Quenk & Quenk, 1996) confirm those reported earlier in finding

missed more sessions during treatment; (3) students with types different from their counselors' almost always came for

type-related factors in preference for treatment models.

only a few sessions; (4) students

ies that

Practitioners

who

prefer

Thinking tend

to

apply

analytic processes (as in behavioral

cal,

linear, logi-

and cognitive

Perceiving were

more

likely to

be clients of the center; (2)

the students had types similar to those of their coun-

selors, they

came

for

more sessions

overall,

but they also

who were more

more

like or

unlike their counselors later rated the counseling experience less favorably

than did students of middle

An unpublished

approaches); Feeling types prefer humanistic, affective

similarity.

study by Grant (1966) compared the

approaches that emphasize the therapeutic relationship.

type distribution of 114 students with personal problems

The Sensing-lntuition and Judging-Perceiving

coming

differences

found also corresponded to the preferences composing these dichotomies Judging type counselors like operating

—

in systematic

ways, and Perceiving type practitioners prefer

more

flexibility;

stand

how

those

who

prefer Intuition like to under-

and ideas are interconnected; those who more prescribed methods. There apbe little if any effect attributable to Extraversionfacts

Introversion differences.

Treatment Strategies The 1985 MBTI Manual noted that "very little work has been conducted on the appropriate treatment method for any given type. However, there is some evidence about the counseling expectations of different types"

(p. 73).

This

same statement appears to be true over 10 years later. Carskadon (1979) asked college students what qualities

Auburn University

to the

the "problem group" were INFJ, INFP, 1NTJ, ISFP, ENFP,

and

ENTR

Students underrepresented were ESTP, ISFJ,

ENFJ, ESFJ, ESFP, and ESTJ. INFPs came for more counseling sessions than did other students who sought counseling. In these few studies,

prefer Sensing use

peared to

to the counseling center at

distribution of the student body. Types overrepresented in

it

appears that Intuitive types,

who

more interested in psychological approaches to life, are also more likely to seek psychological solutions to their problems. The studies also suggest that there may be a match between the kinds of treatments preferred by clients of a particular type and the kind of treatment offered by practitioners of the same type. The more recent studies reviewed in MBTI Applications (see Quenk & Quenk, 1996) confirm this finding. They reveal that just as people who prefer Intuition and Feeling disproportionately become counselors and psychotherapists, so do clients seeking therapy tend more often to be those same types. are

they valued in a counselor. Thinking types rated behavioral

and Feeling types rated humanistic Weir Feeling types who listened to an audio-

characteristics higher,

characteristics higher. In a study of college students, ( 1

976) found that

tape of a counselor demonstrating high unconditional positive regard

were significantly more

likely to prefer this

Supervision of Counseling and Psychotherapy Students

A number of studies have appeared

in the past

10 years that

examine type influences on student counselors and

thera-

approach than were other types. A study by Arain (1968) found that among high school students seeking counseling.

pists in relation to their supervisors as well as specific

Thinking

the general satisfaction of supervisees with the supervision

types

preferred

cognitive

characteristics

in

supervision variables. Type seemed to have

little effect

on

outcome measures such

prospective counselors, and Feeling types preferred affec-

experience. However, meaningful

tive characteristics.

perceived effectiveness of supervision were found to be

College undergraduates

who

volunteered for a small

group "self-understanding" research project were

51% NF) dents ty to

84% N

(and

types (McCary, 1970). In a group of medical stu-

who were

asked,

"How important is it for the faculown personal development and

help you with your

self-understanding?,"

understanding and

ST

NF

types reported low interest in

sell-

types reported high interest in

The ST types also reported that the facplaced more emphasis on self-understanding than

related to supervisee preference for

Thinking or Feeling.

as

A

by Schacht, Howe, and Berman (1989) used scores on the Bairett-Lennard Relationship Inventory as a measure of

stuch'

perception of the extent to which former training supervisors

were judged as

"facilitative"

by a sample of clinical and coun-

seling doctoral psychologists their training.

The

who had

investigators

found

recently completed that,

although both

self-understanding.

Thinking and Feeling types rated highly those supervisors

ulty

who were

high in such areas as "positive regard," "empathy,"

249

Uses of Type in Counseling and Psychotherapy

"unconditionality,"

and "willingness

be known," Feeling

to

and psychosocial well-being

types significantly and consistently rated their most helpful

esteem (r=

supervisors as higher in "regard" and "empathy" than did

its

.49,

p-land College Park). Dissertation Abstracts

Unpublished master's W. Post.

cultures. sity at C.

40

applu ation

study of American and Thai corporate

Jung, C. G. (1923). Psychological types Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Jung, C. G. (1960). The structure and dynamics of the psyche. In Collected Works, Vol. 8 (R. E C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

402

MBTI Manual

Jung, C. G. (1971) Psychological types. In Collected works: Vol. 6

E C. Hull, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Originally published in German as Psychologische Typen, Rasher Verlag, Zurich, 1921)

Komisin,

The

lung. C. G. (1971).

structure

and dynamics of the psyche. In C. Hull, Trans.), 23 (4),

Collected works, Vol. 6 (R. E

315-331 Snidman, N. (1991). Kagan, J.,

&

Infant predictors of inhibited

and

&

I.,

McCaullcv.

\1

M. (1981). Use of the

Unpublished raw data. 50 items as a surrogate mea-

fist

sure of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Psychological Type,

Kalsbeek, D. (1987).

J.

&

Kuhn,

&

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in higher education, (pp. 31-63). Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black. Kalsbeek, D., Rodgers, R., Marshall, D., Denny, D., Nicholls, G (1982). Balancing challenge and support: A study of degrees

&

of similarity in suitemate personality type

and support

and perceived

Kummerow,

ing.

Unpublished doctoral

land, College Park,

Mary-

& Holland, C. L.

KummerowJ. M., & Quenk, N. L. (1992). Interpretive guidefor the MBTI expanded analysis report. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

A study of the influence of psychological type and locus of control on the academic performance of students

Kyle J. (1985).

(Doctoral dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers of Vanderbilt University) Dissertation Abstracts International,

46/08-A, 2236.

"

Boston,

Kelly,

MA:

&

Smith, D. K. (1993). The wisdom of teams. Harvard Business School Press.

&

Bates, M. (1978). Please understand me: An essay on temperament styles. Del Mar, CA: Promethean Books. E J. (1991). MBTI differences between emotionally disturbed and conduct disordered students. Journal of Psychological Type, 21, 23-34.

Keirsey, D.,

Kelly,

Lamphere, G. R.,

G. A. (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. York: Norton.

Kendall,

B.,

& Carr,

S.

(1997). Using the

simulations. In C. Fitzgerald,

New

MBTI with management

& L.

K.

oping leaders: Research and applications

Kirby (Eds.), Develin

psychological type

&

McHenry,

R. (1998). Technical supplement to the

MBTI Manual. Oxford, UK: Oxford

Lawrence, G. (n.d). Zig-zag process for problem solving. [Handout]. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological

Type.

Lawrence, G. ( 1982). People types and tiger stripes. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type. LawTence, G. (1984). A synthesis of learning style research involving the MBTI. Journal of Psychological Type.

8.

2-15.

Lawrence, G., Martin, C. R. (1996) Profile of your MBTI results. Handout] Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psy-

A comparison of personalities and background of teachers using a whole language approach and a basal approach in teaching elementary reading (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University). Dissertation

Lehto, B. A. (1990).

&

Introduction: Psychological type and the

Abstracts International, 51/03-A, 740.

W, Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1996). Social development from a social cognitive perspective In D. Brown & L.

Lent, R.

&

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In C. Fitzgerald L. K. Kirby (Eds.), Developing leaders: Research and applications in psy-

Brooks (Eds.), Career choice and de\clopment (3rd

and leadership development (pp. 3-32). Palo

CA: Davies-Black

& Barger, N.J.

.

I

chological Type.

Kilmann, R. H., Thomas, K. W. (1975). Interpersonal conflicthandling behavior as reflections of Jungian personality dimensions. Psychological Reports, 37, 971-980.

Alto,

relationship between teacher and stu-

its

versity). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46/06-A, 1564. LatheyJ. W. (1991). Temperament style as a predictor of academic achievement in early adolescence. Journal of Psychological Type, 22, 52-58.

Consulting Psychology Journal, 48 (2).

chological type

The

effects on teacher perception of student (Doctoral dissertation, United States International Uni-

Psychologists Press.

Kilburg, R. R. (Ed.). (1996). Executive coaching [Special issue].

Kirby, L. K. (1997).

(1985).

&

Davies-Black. B.,

I.

dent personality and

and leadership development (pp. 361-380). Palo Alto, CA: Kendall,

CA: Consulting

Psychologists Press.

Inventory of Personality. Journal of Psychological Type, 30,

J.

for verifying type:

Journal of Psychological Type, 15, 20-25.

Comparing

30-38.

Katzenbach,

M. (1988). A methodology results.

the Singer-Loomis

(1994).

MBTI, the Jungian Type Survey, and

[Handout]. Gainesville,

career development workbook. Palo Alto,

MD.

Karcsh, D. M., Pieper, W. A., the

dissertation, University of

in type.

KummerowJ. M., Barger, NJ., &~Kirby, L. KJ1997). W'ORKTypes, New York: Warner Books. KummerowJ. M., & Hammer, A. L. (1995). Strong and MBTI

dif-

ment. Journal of College Student Personnel. 23. 434-442. J. J. ( 1991 ). The effects of group homogeneity-heterogeneity based on cognitive style on the quality of group decision mak-

J.

Research

in a residence hall environ-

Kandell,

(1987). Talking

FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

tions of the

ference in challenge

(1986). Verifying your type preferences. Gainesville,

FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

KummerowJ. M. The MBTI in institutional S. Anchors (Eds.), Applica-

CA: Davies-Black

(1970). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. T. S.

KummerowJ. M.

retention:

A. Provost

suicidal behaviors in

Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 239-244 Krumboltz.J. D. (1996). A learning theory of career counseling. In M. L. Savickas W. B. Walsh (Eds), Handbook of career

G. Research in

55-61.

4,

Campus

self-studies. In

Form

and

counseling theory and practice. Palo Alto,

H. (1975). [Type differences in

selection to medical school). Kaiser, K.

K. (1992). Personality type

Krumboltz.J. D. (1991). Revised Carca Beliefs Inventory manual Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Krumboltz.J. D. (1992). Comment: The wisdom of indecision.

uninhibited profiles. Psychological Science, 2 (1), 40-43.

Kainz, R.

L.

college students. Journal of Psychological Type, 24, 24-32.

(R.

ed.).

San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Levell J. R (1965). Secondary school counselors:

A study of differ-

(1996). Multicultural applications. In

entiating characteristics (Doctoral dissertation. University

Hammer (Ed), MBTI applications: A decade of research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (pp. 167-196). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Kirton, M. J. (1987). Kirton Adaption and Innovation Inventory (KAI) manual (2nd ed.). Harfield, UK: Occupational Research Center. Knapp, R. H., Lapuc, P. S. (1965). Time imager)', introversion and fantasied preoccupations in simulated isolation. Perceptual and Motoi Skills, 20, 327-330.

of Oregon). Dissertation Abstracts International, 26, 4452.

Kirby, L. K.,

A. L.

&

(University Microfilms No. 65-12, 227) Levin,

\

S

.

KrumboltzJ.

D.,

& Krumbollz, B. L. (1995). Explor-

A workbook for the Career Beliefs Inventory with techniques for integrating your Strong and ing youi career beliefs:

MBTI

results.

Palo Alto. CA: Consulting Psychologists

Press.

Levin, L.

S.

(1978). Jungian personality variables of psycho-

therapists of dilferent theoretical orientations (Doctoral dissertation.

University of Oregon). Dissertation Abstracts

403

References

International, 39.

4042B-4043B. (University Microfilms No.

future of time: Man's temporal environment (pp.

Carolina at Chapel

Dissertation Abstracts Interna-

Hill).

58/12-B,3716.

Murphy. C. & Carlson. R. (1972). Personality types among Negro college students. Educational and Psychologi-

Levy, N..

Measurement, 32, 641-053.

cal

N.,

& Ostrowski,

B.

(1983).

A comparison

casian ancestry. Research

in

of the Jungian

of Japanese

Psychological Type.

Dawson,

6,

and Cau-

J..

&

L.

&

idgard, C. E,

& Bates, N. W (1988). Do police departments

Aus-

in

and the United Kingdom re< Mil different types of police officers? Paper presented at the 24th International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, Australia. Lim, T. K. (1994). Personality types among Singapore and American students. Journal ol Psychological Type, 31. 10-15. Loomis. M. E. (1991). Dancing the wheel oj psychological types tralia, U.S.A.,

Wilmette.

i

Lueder, D. L. (1986). The "Rising Stars" in educational administration: A corollary to psychological types and leadership 13-15.

styles. Journal of Psychological T\pe. 12, S.

tion for Psychological Type 11th International Conference (pp.

129-130). Kansas City, MO: Association for Psychological Type Sellers, R A. ( 1996). Preferences for different eduLynch, A. Q., cational environments and psychological type: A comparison of adult learners and traditional age college students.

&

Journal of Psychological Type, 39, 18-29. Macdaid. G. P (1984a). Types of volunteer phone counselors in a crisis center.

Recommended

uses of the abbreviated ver-

(Form AV) of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and comparisons with Form G. Journal of Psychological Type, 7, 49-55. Macdaid, G. P, Kainz, R. L, & McCaulley, M. H. (1984). The dision

I

versity of Florida longitudinal study:

Unpublished paper. Macdaid, G. P, McCaulley, M. H.,

A

& Kainz,

ten-year follow-up

R.

I.

(1986). Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator atlas of type tables. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1960). The highly ers College Reeotd. 61,

effective individual. Teach-

367-378.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1962a). The nature and nurture ent.

American Psychologist,

MacKinnon, ity:

D.

W.

A study

(

1 7.

of creative

tal-

484^-95.

American

architects. In G. S. Nielsen (Ed.),

Personality Research, Proceedings of the Congress of Applied Psychology, 2, 1 1-39.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1965). Personality and the

XIV

International

&

Microfilms No. 76-19-756)

Conner,

and

R. H. (1997, July). Type

Paper presented

Hammer,

S.,

&

the XII International Conference of the

at

Association for Psychological Type, Boston, Marioles, N.

.

couples: Part three

A. L., Stricken, D. P,

&

MA.

Adams, J., Conner,

R. H, Mareth, T. 1995). Type and couples: Part 2. Paper presented at the XI meeting of the Association for Psychological Type, Kansas City MO. Hammer, A. L. (1996). AttracMarioles, N. S., Stricken, D. P., (

&

tion, satisfaction,

and psychological types of couples. Jour-

nal of Psychological Type, 36, 16-27. The nature of insight:

Marrott, G. (1981),

A

conceptual and

doctoral dissertation. University of California. Marshall, N.

J.

(

1971). Orientations toward privacy. Environmen-

and personality components (Doctoral

dissertation,

Uni-

versity of California). Dissertation Abstracts International. 31, 4315B. (University Microfilms

Maslach,

C,

Jackson,

Bunwul

S.

Inventory

&

E.,

No. 71-815)

M.

Leiter,

Manual (3rd

ed.).

P.

(1996). Maslach

Palo Alto, CA: Consult-

ing Psychologists Press. styles, personality and temperament types of eighth and twelfth-grade urban AfricanAmerican and white students: A comparative study (Doc-

May, A. O. (1992). The learning

toral dissertation, Seattle University). Dissertation Abstracts

International, 52/07-A, 2472.

May, D. C. (1972).

An

investigation of the relationship between

selected personality characteristics of eighth-grade students

and

their

achievement

in

mathematics (Doctoral disserta-

tion. University of Florida). Dissertation Abstracts International,

33/02-A, 555.

& Carskadon,

T.

G. (1983). Test-retest reliabili-

ties

of scales

and subscales of the Myers-Briggs Type

tor

and of

criteria

for clinical

involving them. Research

in

Psychological Type,

& Carskadon, T. G.

Indica-

interpretive hypotheses 6,

24-36.

The perceived accuracy of elements of the 16 type descriptions of Myers and Keirsey among men and women: Which elements are most

McCarley, N. G.,

(1986).

accurate, should the type descriptions be different for

men

and women, and do the type descriptions stereotype sensing types? foumal of Psychological Type, 11, 2-2 L (1970). The effects of small self-understanding McCary, P. groups on the self-concept and anxiety level when group composition has been varied (Doctoral dissertation. Uni)

W

2112A. (University Microfilms No. 70-20, 401 McCaulley, M. H. (1977). The Myers Longitudinal Medical Study (Monograph II). Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of |

Psychological Type. realization of cre-

American Psychologist, 20, 273-281. MacKinnon, D. W. (1971). Creativity and the transliminal experience. Journal of Creative Bcha\ioi: 5 (4), 227-241. Mann, H., Siegler, M., Osmond, H. ( 1968). The many worlds of time. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 13 (1), 33-56. ative potential

sity

Marioles. N., Stricken, D. P, Babcock, R. B„ Campbell. B R

versity of Michigan). Dissertation Abstracts International, 31.

1962b). The personality correlates of creativ-

of

and time orientation (DocUnited States International University).

K, (1976). Jungian typology

McCarley, N. G.,

Unpublished paper.

Macdaid, G. R (1984b).

S.

toral dissertation,

tal

P (1991). A study of learning styles, personality types and brain hemispheric preferences of teacher education majors (Doctoral dissertation, Drake University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 51/12-A, 4067. Lund, S. L. (1995). Where personality meets culture: Leveraging personal and cultural diversity to improve organizational communication and teamwork. In Proceedings of Associa-

Luh,

Marcus,

State University). Dissertation Abstracts Interna-

49/02-A, 227.

empirical exploration of the insightful person. Unpublished

Chiron.

IL:

Memphis

Dissertation Abstracts International. 37(03), 1409B. (Univer-

54-57.

Means, E.Jurkus, A. E, T. L. (1996). Psychological types of male multi-line insurance agents. ]oun\al of Psychological Type. 39, 37-39. Liddell, D. L, Halpin, G., Halpin, W. G. (1992). The measure of moral orientation: Measuring the ethics of care and justice. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 4, 325-330. Lewis. R. M., TobacykJ.

142-178).

Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Manske, D. H. (1988). A study of the relationship of preference scores on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the reading comprehension of adult readers (Doctoral dissertation, tional,

among Hawaiians

personality types

I

& Osmond, H. (1971). The psye hotypology Osmond, & F Cheek (Eds.), The

M. (1988). Jungian personality type and recreational reading patterns (Doctoral dissertation, University of North tional,

ev)

H., Siegler, M.,

of time. In H. Yaker, H.

Levine, D.

1

Mann,

79-01,823)

McCaulley, M. H.

(

1978). Application of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicaand other health professions (Monograph 1).

tor to medicine

Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

McCaulley, M. H. (1985). The selection ratio type strategy for

companng

logical Type, 10,

46-56.

table:

type distributions. Journal

A research of Psyi ho-

— 404

MBTl Manual

McCaulley, M. H. (1990a). The MBTl and individual pathways in engineering design. Engineering Education, 80, 537-542. McCaulley, M. H. (1990b). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in counseling. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

and femininity. Journal of Personand Social Psychology, 42 (6), 1157-1170. Metts, V L. (1995). Team type diversity and team effectiveness. Paper presented at the 1 1th International Conference of the Association for Psychological Type, Kansas City, MO. of patterns of socialization ality

E, Harrisberger,

Millner, N. B., (1998). Creative aging: Discovering the unexpected

Sloan, E. D. (1983). Applications of psychological type in engineering education. Engineering Education, 73, 5,

joys of later life through personality type. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

McCaulley, M. H., Godleski, L.,

Yokomoto, C.

E. S.,

&

394-400 McCaulley, M. H.,

& Kainz, R.

First follow-up.

longitudinal study

&

McCaulley, M. H..

(1974). The University of Florida

1.

Kainz, R.

Unpublished paper.

Millon, T. (1994). Mi/Ion Index of Personality Styles manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation Parker, W. D. (1996). Psychological Mills, C. J., Moore, N. J.,

&

type and cognitive style in elementary-age gifted students: Comparisons across age and gender. Journal of Psychological

(1976). [MBTl and achievement

1

in a Florida middle school] Unpublished raw data. Granade.J. G. (1993). Career McCaulley, M. FL, Macdaid, G. P, satisfaction and type: A working paper Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

&

&

MagidsonJ. (1997). IntroducMcCaulley, M. H., Macdaid, G. P., ing a new graphical modeling technique for profiling type tables. Paper presented at the Association of Psychological Type XII, Boston, MA. McCaulley, M. H., Macdaid, G. P, Briggs Type Indicator

& Walsh, R. (1987). Myersand retention in engineering. Interna-

tional Journal of Applied Engineering, 3, 2,

McCaulley, M.

H

& Natter,

,

E

L.

99-109.

E

L.

Natter

&

S.

A.

Rollins (Eds.), The governor's task force on disruptive youth:

Phase

McCrae,

II

R. R.,

report. Tallahassee, FL: Office of the

& Costa, P T,

Governor.

(1989). Reinterpreting the Myers-

Jr.

Briggs Type Indicator from the perspective of the five-factor

model of personality. Journal Meisgeier, C. H.,

& Meisgeier, C.

of Personality,

(1989).

A

57

(1),

17^40.

parent's guide to type.

Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological

Psychological Reports, 57, 1135-1143.

Miner, M. G.,

&

Murphy-Meisgeier Type Indicator for Children manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting

Murphy,

E. (1987).

guide to type.

& Meisgeier, C.

(1989).

A

teacher's

Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

&

Haring, K. (1994). The relation M. J., and Jungian psychological type: Common-

Meisgeier, C. H., Poillion,

between ADHD ality in Jungian psychological type preferences among students with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder. ProThe ceedings: Orchestrating Educational Change in the 90's Role of Psychological Type, 285-304. Richardson, S. (1994). Learning styles of African Melear, C. T, American children which correspond to the MBTl. ProceedThe Role ings: Orchestrating Educational Change in the 90'

&

—

of Psychological Type, 11-22. Mendelsohn, G. A. (1966). Effects of client personality

their ratings of the seriousness of student misbehaviors. Journal of Psychological Type, 14, 25-31. Minnesota Department of Economic Security. (1997). From the

DOT to 0*NET:

client-

H. (1963). Effects of counselor-

on the outcome of counseling, journal

of

Counseling Psychology, 10(1), 71-77. Geller, M. H. (1965). Structure of client A.,

&

attitudes toward counseling

and

their relation to client-

counselor similarity. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29 (1), 63-72. Geller, H. (1967). Similarity, missed sesMendelsohn, G. A.,

&

and

Taking occupational information into the next

Unpublished manuscript.

W. D. (in press). MBTl Step 11 manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Mitchell, W. D. (1981). Type and social climate in a large organization. Unpublished manuscript. Kummerow, J. M. (1997). Mitchell, W. D., with Quenk, N. L., MBTl Step II: A description of the suhscales. Palo Alto, CA:

Mitchell,

&

Consulting Psychologists Press. Molpus, D. (1997, December 9). A leadership and the people All Things Considered.

issues,

Upper Marlboro, MD: National Pub-

Radio.

Montross, D. H., Leibowitz, Z.

B.,

& Shinkman, C.J.

people real jobs: Reflecting your interests

in the

(1995). Real world of work.

Moody,

R. (1988). Personality preferences

and foreign language

Modem Language Journal,

72, 4, 389-401. Bayne, R. (1997). Preference for sensing or intuition Moore, D., and reading for pleasure. Journal of Psychological Type, 41,

learning.

The

&

38-42.

Moore,

L. S., Dietz, T. J.,

& Jenkins, D. A.

self-awareness: Using the social

MBTl

work education, journal

to

(1997). Teaching about enhance professionalism in

of Psychological Type, 43, 5-11.

Most, R. B. (1984). [A test-retest comparison of Form AV and Form G of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.] Unpublished raw data. Murphy, E. (1992). The developing child: Usingjungian type to underE. (1997). Coping, adjusting, accommodating, and fostering the development of type differences in families. In Proceedings: APT XU Biennial International Conference, Boston,

Murphy,

MA.

& Geller, M.

client similarity

Mendelsohn, G.

A. (1988). Psychological types of sec-

stand children. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

and

counselor similarity on the duration of counseling: A replication and extension, journal of Counseling Psychology, 13 (2), 228-232. Mendelsohn, G. A.,

I.

Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

Psychologists Press. Meisgeier, C. FL, Murphy, E.,

& Hyman,

ondary teachers and

lic

Type. Meisgeier, C. H.,

sions,

&

Smith, L. (1985). Conflict-handling and Robey, D., personality dimensions of project-management personnel.

J.,

century.

(1974). Psychological (Myers-

Briggs) type differences in education. In

Type, 38, 13-23. Mills,

M

early termination. Journal of Counseling Psychol-

Murphy,

E.,

&

Murphy-Meisgeier Type CA: Consulting Psycholo-

Meisgeier, C. H. (1987).

Indicator for Children. Palo Alto, gists Press.

&

Markham, S. E. (1997). The MBTl Murry, W. D., MagidsonJ., cognitive Junctions: Using latent class and trait theory to examine the dominant and auxiliary. Paper presented at the 12th International Conference of the Association for Psychological Type, Boston,

Murry, W. D.,

& Markham,

MA.

S. E.

(1997). The

MBTl and work

val-

ogy, 14 (3), 210-215. Kirk, B. A. (1962). Personality differences Mendelsohn, G. A., between students who do and do not use a counseling facil-

shaping an organization's culture. In APT Xll Proceedings, 165-170. Myers, I. B. (1962). Manual: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.

ity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 9 (4), 341-346. Feimer, N. R. (1982). ConcepMendelsohn, G. A., Weiss, D. S., tual and empirical analysis of the typological implications

Myers,

&

&

ues:

The

role of personality in

Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Type and teamwork. Gainesville, FL: Center I. B. (1974). for Applications of Psychological Type.

405

References

Myers,

(1977). In M. H. McCaulley, Tin- Myers longitudinal

B.

I.

medical study

(Monograph

ID. Gainesville, FL:

Otis, G. D.,

B„ with

I.

& Myers, K. D. (1998).

Kirby, L. K.,

Introduction to

CA: Consulting Psychologists

type (6th ed.). Palo Alto,

&

Myers, 1. B., McCaulley, M. H. (1985). Manual. development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Alto. CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Myers, I. B., with Myers, P. B. (1995). Gifts differing:

CA: Davies-Black.

personality type. Palo Alto,

A

guide to the

ndei standing

(original

Decision making and type.

(n.d.).

C. (1962).

&

language learning strategies: chological Type, 16, 22-32. Oxford,

Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological

Nechworth.J.

A.,

& Carskadon, T. G.

(1979). Experimental vali-

pilot study. Journal of Psy-

& Ehrman, M. (1988). Vive la difference? on sex differences in use of language learning

strategies. Foreign

&

A

Nyikos, M.,

R.,

Reflections

Type-

Kirby L. K. (1994). Introduction to type dynamics Myers, K. D., and development Exploring the next level oj type. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Language Annals, 21,

4,

in fantasy production. Journal of Analytical Psychology, 17

116-131.

(2),

Park,

(1996). Paper presented at Psychological Type and Cul-

J. S.

A

dation of an assumption underlying the clinical interpreta-

ture-East

between Myers-Briggs Type Indicator scores computed separately from word-pair and phrased

University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu.

question items. Research

in

Psychological Type.

M. (1989). Determining whether

S.

2,

mic achievement

levels of

Pearman,

56-59.

Pearman,

Newman,

L. E.

and

Penley,

& Marcia,

istics

J. E.

Some

personality character-

Ananda Marga meditations: A

associated with

study. Perceptual

(1980).

and Motor

Skills. 51,

pilot

(1981).

T.

Percival, T. Q.,

at the

B,

T.

N.

,

Osborn, D.

B.,

O'Shea,

&

T.,

Mamchur,

oj

& Mahoney

Perry, H.

Stein.

P.

model

fit

dence from three diverse organizations. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Myers-Briggs Typology

(pp. 99-108). Montreal,

Canada: International Type Users

cal distress in a

University). Disserta-

6080B. (University Micro-

waiting for you. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

that's

Petty,

M.

L.

(1985).

personality

A

profile of college student leaders relating

types,

learning

styles,

and

leadership

approaches (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University). Dissertation

Abstracts International, 46/12-A, 3621.

The relationship of GPA to personality facof students as measured by the MBTI and the 16PF

Pollard, C. K. (1989).

(Doctoral

dissertation,

Baylor University).

Dissertation

Abstracts International, 49/10-A, 3006.

&

Lundsten, L. L. (1997). Studies that compare type S. J., theory and left-brain/right brain theory. Journal of Psychological Type, 43, 22-28.

Power,

(1997). Rebelliousness and psychologi-

M. (1993). An examination of response to literature and Myers-Briggs personality preferences in high-ability sec-

sample of Introverted veterans. Joun\al of

ondary school students (Doctoral dissertation. University of

Organization.

D.,&Louks,J.

Dame

films No. 75-13,100)

between

organizational culture and employee personality: Case evi-

Otis, G.

W. (1975). Interrelationships among selected personality and their professional orientation

tion Abstracts International, 35.

to

of Psychological Type, 25,

(1994). The

interac-

Peterson, L. (1995). Starting out. starting over: Finding the work

E (1993). Psychological types of firstthe United Kingdom: A comparison of

&

An

variables of psychologists

profiles of not-so-distant busi-

C. (1989). Using a loglinear

P.

(1992). Myers-Briggs

its relationship to specific constructs in Jungian analytipsychology (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburg). Dissertation Abstracts International. 38, 5258A. (University Microfilms No. 7801874)

tors J.

& Kelly, M.

cal

31-38.

Oswick, C, Mahoney,

Smitheram, V,

(Doctoral dissertation, Notre

Psychological Type, 36, 3-15.

and U.K. managers. Journal

learning styles, clinical

and

CA.

J.

line supervisors in

U.S.

among

and personality types of U.S. Army nurses

approach. Journal of Psychological Type. 23. 10-16 Perelman, S. G. (1978). A phenomenological investigation of the

Indicator, Gainesville, FL.

analyze MBTI distributions. Journal of Psychological Type, 17. 56-65.

Oswick, C,

type in mothering. Gainesville,

tive

& Twillman, B. (1996). MBTI, F1RO-

and NAFTA: Psychological

ness neighbors. Jourrial

vow personality

5

counselor's personal experience of his counseling practice

ofJapanese companies. 4th National Conference on the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto,

Osborn,

Psy-

The M.O.M.S " Handbook:

Type Indicator and conflict-handling intention:

447-452.

A profile of top executives

Paper presented

oj

(Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin). Dis-

T.

ence on the Myers-Briggs Type

Ohsawa,

MO.

I'm not crazy. I'm just

sertation Abstracts International, 53/02-A, 393.

(1975, October). MBTI experiences in Japan: Career choice, selection, placement, and counseling for individual development. Paper presented at the 1st National Confer-

Ohsawa,

(1994)

(1992). Correlations

B. K.

specialities,

sity of

T. D.,

C. (1997).

(1996). Differences in observed and

& Stephens, D. W.

R,

J.

concern and time perspective (Doctoral dissertation, Univer-

O'Haire,

& Fleenor.J.

R. R.,

Understanding

relationship of Jungian type to death

South Carolina). Dissertation Abstracts International, 33, 3956B. (University Microfilms No. 73-3609) Noer, D. M. (1993). Healing the wounds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

S.

selec-

conference of

FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Type.

Penn,

The

A. (1973).

J.

manager

chological Type, 39. 3-17.

(1979). Personality types of therapist and client

46-55.

2,

in

self-reported qualities of psychological types. Journal

their use in counseling. Research in Psychological Type.

Nightingale,

Type bias

at the 1 1th international

& Albritton,

R. R.,

Pearman,

(1985). Hemisphere specialization and Jungian typol-

ogy-evidence for a relationship. Bulletin of Psychological Type, 10(2), 13, 25-27.

Paper presented

not you: The real meaning of the sixteen personality types. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black.

freshman medical students (Doc-

Abstracts International 50/04-A, 906.

Multicultural Research Symposium.

the Association for Psychological Type, Kansas City,

a predictive relation-

toral dissertation, Mississippi State University). Dissertation

Newman, J.

and West:

R. R. (1993). Diversity denied

tion.

ship exists between noncognitive characteristics and acade-

321-329.

Palmiere, L. (1972). Intro-Extra-version as an organizing principle

tion of discrepancies

Neral,

investigation of creative potential at the

Oxford Psychologists Press (1993). Reported to best-fit type: Changes during the Oxford Psychologists Press qualifying workshops, February 1991-April 1993. Unpublished report. Ehrman, M. (1988). Psychological type and adult Oxford, R.,

work

[Handout],

An

junior high level. Studies in Art Education, 3, 16-22.

Press.

Indicator. Palo

I

Owen,

published in 1980)

Myers, K. D.

(1989). Care and justice considera-

L.

Type, 18, 3-10.

Applications of Psychological Type.

Myers,

& Quenk, N.

tions in "real life" moral problems. Journal oj Psychological

Center for

Price, P L.

Psychological Type, 40, 20-30.

Virginia). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54/05-A, 1660.

1

406

MBTI Manual

P

Pritchett,

(n.d.).

The employee handbook

oj

new work habits for a

The relationship between personality type, academic major selection and persistence (Doctoral disser-

Rigley, D. A. (1993).

radically changing world: 13 ground rules for job success in

information age. Dallas, TX: Pritchett

flic

Provost,

A. (1985).

J.

q)

Provost,

Psychological Type.

in

foi

sui

i

ess:

(

sing type to do better

Gainesville, FL: Center for the

high school and college

Applications of Psychological Type. Provost.J. A. (1993). Applications oj the Myers-Briggs Type Indica-

A casebook

counseling:

in

to\

Gainesville, FL: Center for

Applications of Psychological Type. Provost,

&

J. A.

Anchors,

&

Provost

activities. In J. A.

S.

P G. (1987b). Teaching excellence and type. Journal of Psychological Type, 13, 23-33. Quenk, A. T. (1985a). Psychological types and psychotherapy. Gainesville, FL: Center for Applications of Psychological Beidler,

—

& Terrel, M. D.

(1996). Multicultural issues in assessL.

J.

training and practice (pp. 113-153). Alexandria, VA: Associ-

ation for Counselor Education Rosati,

and Supervision.

(1997). Psychological types of Canadian engineering

P.

students. Journal of Psychological Type, 41, 33-37.

A psychological type comparison of Cree and non-native junior high students: Implications for education

Rosin, P L. (1995).

(Master's thesis, University of Alberta). Master's Abstracts

Type.

Quenk, A. T, and Quenk, N.

L.

(1982). The use of psychological

typology in analysis. In M. Stein (Ed.), Jungian analysis. La

Open Court

Salle, IL:

International 33/01, 37.

Ross,

J.

Press.

(1961). Progress report on the College Student CharacterisStudy: June 1961

tics

Quenk, N. L. (1966). Fantasy and personal outlook: A study of daydreaming as a function of optimism, pessimism, realism and anxiety (Doctoral dissertation, University of California,

Memorandum

(Research

Ross,

S.

(1994).

1.

The

relationship between cognitive style

academic achievement

Fordham

students (Doctoral dissertation,

sertation Abstracts International, 55/04-A,

(1985b). Directionality of the auxiliary function.

L.

Quenk, N.

L

1989). Jung's theory of psychological types and the

(

self-contained patient. In E. M. Stern (Ed.), Psychotherapy

and the self-contained patient.

Quenk, N.

New York: Haworth

response modes in the perception of paintings to selected

Press.

everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black. Quenk, N. L. (1996). In the grip: Our hidden personality. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Quenk, N. L., & Albert, M. (1975). A taxonomy of physician work settings (Study Report #2 to Bureau of Health Resources Development, Health Res'ource Administration, Contract No. l-MI-24197). Albuquerque, NM: University of New-

Mexico.

Quenk, N.

L.,

& Kummerow,

interpretive report:

M. (1996). MBTI Step II expanded Form K. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting PsyJ.

chologists Press.

Quenk, N.

&

L.,

chotherapy. In A.

L.

T.

(1996). Counseling and psy-

Hammer

(Ed.),

MBTI

applications:

A

decade of research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (pp. 105-122). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Random House

of the English language unabridged). (1987). New York: Random House.

dictionary

(2nd

ed.,

and How of managerial types through organizational levels in business and indus-

Reynierse,

J.

H. (1993).

The

distribution

Journal of Psychological Type, 25, 1 1-23. Reynierse, J. H. (1997). An MBTI model of entrepreneurism and try-

bureaucracy: The psychological types of business entrepre-

neurs compared to business managers and executives. Journal oj Psy< hological Type, 40, 3-19. Reynierse, line

|

II

and

.

Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.

3803

E.

Bayshore Road

Palo Alto, California

94303

800-624-1765

www.mbti.com 9 780891 "06 1304

6111

H