Marionettes in the North of France 9781512807073

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
Introduction
Part One: The Early Marionettes in France
Part Two: The Marionettes in the North of France
Appendix I: Les Divertissements De Sceaux
Appendix II: La Vie Et L'oeuvre De Palissot
Bibliography

Citation preview

MARIONETTES IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE

"J'en ai deja fait Vaveu, j'aime les marionnettes." ANATOLE FRANCE

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MARIONETTES in the North of France

By REGINALD

S.

SIBBALD

Philadelphia UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA London: Humphrey

PRESS

Milford: Oxford University 1936

Press

Copyright 1936 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS

Manufactured in the United States of America by the Lancaster Press, Inc., Lancaster, Pa.

Dedicated

to

Μ. ALBERT SCHINZ

PREFACE 1. THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK

T

HE chief object of this book is a study of the marionettes of the north of France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. However, it may not be without interest to begin by a rapid recapitulation of the early history of the marionettes in Europe. For this historical matter we cannot lay claim to great originality as far as the investigation of facts is concerned. A rather abundant literature exists already on the subject. We may, however, try to add something to the subject in grouping the facts gathered by our predecessors in such a way as to bring out certain points that ought to be noticed, especially in showing the intimate relation that exists between the plays of the little wooden actors and the dramatic literature of the corresponding periods in history, for the acting dolls did play quite a unique part in the development of the theatre in France during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. And it is our intention, in the second part of this study, to stress the contribution of " L' Theät' Louis" of Roubaix to the history of the marionettes. We wish to do this because it is the only theatre that survives in the north of France, and because it is, in our opinion, by far the most interesting theatre of its kind in existence, not excluding the famous "Piccoli" of Podreca, the modern marionettes of Salzburg, and others. 2.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It gives me great pleasure to acknowledge at this time, far too briefly, the very deep gratitude that I owe to several men who have helped me with unstinted generosity to gather the information that has made this book possible. [vii]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE I give my most sincere thanks to M. Henri Beaulieu of the Bibliotheque des Auteurs et Compositeurs dramatiques for the assistance that he gave me in finding material on the marionettes before the nineteenth century, to M. Paul Jeanne for his many instructive conversations and letters concerning the modern marionettes, to M. Leopold Richard for his kindness in showing me all the details of "L' Theät' Louis" and in writing for me such splendid examples of its repertoire, to M. Louis Delannoy for allowing me such free use of his articles on the marionettes of the north of France, to M. Albert Dequene for permitting me to use a copy of his magnificent painting as a frontispiece to this study, and, last but not the least, to M. Albert Schinz for his persistent effort and unfailing patience in helping me put this book into its final form. R. S. S.

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CONTENTS Chapter

Page

PREFACE

vii

INTRODUCTION 1. 2. 3. 4.

The Marionettes for Adults The Name "Marionette" Definition of Terms Some Books about Marionettes

1 5 7 8

PART ONE: THE EARLY MARIONETTES IN FRANCE 1. The Marionette in Antiquity II 2. The Marionette in Europe during the Middle Ages 12 3. The Growing Importance of the Marionette after the Middle Ages 13 4. The Marionette in France during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 15 a. The marionette at the fairs b. The marionette on the boulevard du Temple c. The marionette at the Palais-Royal

PART TWO: THE MARIONETTES IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 1. The Origin of the Marionette Theatres in the North of France 2. The Marionette Theatres of Amiens a. b. c. d. e. /. g.

47 50

Origin History Construction of the dolls Organization of the theatres Lafleur Some minor characters Repertoire

3. The Marionette Theatres of Lille а. Origin б. History

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66

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE c. d. e. /. g.

Construction of the dolls Organization of the theatres Jacques Some minor characters Repertoire

4. The Marionette Theatres of Roubaix

82

a. The extinct theatres b. The marionette theatre of Louis Richard (1) Early life of Louis Richard; (2) Foundation of his theatre; (3) His dolls; (4) Contributions to his theatre; (5) Repertoire c. " L ' Theat' Louis" (1) Leopold Richard and the history of his theatre; (2) Characters; (3) A personal visit to his theatre; (4) Repertoire; (5) The future of his theatre

APPENDIX I: LES DI VERTISSEMENTS

DE SCEA UX 121

APPENDIX II: LA VIE ET L'OEUVRE DE PALISSOT

124

BIBLIOGRAPHY

127

Μ

INTRODUCTION 1. THE MARIONETTE FOR ADULTS

S

O many people believe that the marionettes are only an amusement for children that it would be well to state at the outset of this study the reactions of a few important adults toward these little actors of wood. In his Conle de peau cTäne Charles Perrault (1628-1703) shows a kindly admiration of the marionettes: Pour moi, j'ose poser en fait Qu'en de certains moments l'esprit le plus parfait Peut aimer sans rougir jusqu'aux marionnettes, Et qu'il est des temps et des lieux Oü le grave et le serieux Ne valent pas d'agreables sornettes.

Early in the eighteenth century we find the acting dolls entertaining and amusing the aristocracy of France when Nicolas Malezieu (1650-1727) introduced them into the famous Court of Sceaux.1 In 1705, and again in 1732, these dolls played humorous satires against the Academie FranQaise, and in 1713 Madame de Maintenon honored them by praising them in a letter to the Princesse des Ursins.2 Although, as we shall see, the marionettes of the fairs had parodied several of Voltaire's plays, he evidently did not think any the less of them, for as early as 1738 there was a marionette theatre at Cirey. Madame de Graffigny (16951758), who was staying there at the time, tells of these dolls in her letters, and describes Voltaire's pleasant reaction to their performances.3 Moreover, in 1746, at the theatre of 1

See Appendix I. Charles Magnin: Histoire des marionneties en Europe depuis Vantiquile jusqu'ä nos jours. Paris, Michel Levy, 1852, pp. 184^86. 'Letters of Madame de Graffigny to M. Deveaux. December 11, 16, and 17, 1738. 2

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Sceaux, Voltaire himself became for a moment a director of marionettes, 4 and also wrote some couplets in the name of Polichinelle.5 Nor was Jean-Jacques Rousseau too serious to scorn the little actors of wood. In the first book of his Confessions he tells of his interest in them, at least as a child.6 The immortal Faust was the culmination of Goethe's (1749-1832) interest in the Doctor Faustus legends, which he played in his childhood with the marionettes of his own doll-theatre at Weimar. Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) saw the temptations of Saint Anthony first presented by the marionettes at Rouen. So much did they delight him that he took his friends Turgenieff and George Sand to see them, and from these dolls he got his first ideas for his own Tentation de SaintAntoine. Perhaps it was these same marionettes that inspired George Sand (1804-1876) to begin playing with puppets at Nohant. Her theatre, where she and her friends presented political satires with dolls made to represent human types of the day, became famous. Her son continued it, writing most of its plays. It remains still one of the interesting attractions to be seen by visitors at Nohant. During the nineteenth century there existed in France several puppet theatres directed by men of letters. 7 One of the first of these was that of the poet Marc-Monnier (18291855). 8 However, the most artistic marionette theatre of 4

Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 186. « Volteire: Oeuvres (Edition of M. Beuchot), XIV, 393-94. 6 JeanJacques Rousseau: Oeuvres (Edition of Hachette), Book I of Les Confessions, vol. VIII, p. 16. 7 The puppet theatre of Mourguet at Lyon, though not as literary as some, was very important because it was the birthplace of the famous Guignol. The puppets of Duranty in the Jardin des Tuileries were very clever, but lasted only a few years. The Theatre de la rue de la Sante superseded it and was much better known. The Pupazzi of Lemercier de Neuville were made to represent personages of the day, and his plays were satires of current events. 8 Bernard Bouvier: Marc-Monnier et Genkve. Geneve, Imprimerie Centrale, 1930. From the Bulletin de Γ Institut National Genevois. Vol. XL1X.

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INTRODUCTION the century was the Petit Theatre of Henri Signoret. Many well-known artists, musicians, poets, actors, and playwrights collaborated in making it an artistic whole. Maurice Bouchor (1855-1915) wrote for it a translation of Shakespeare's Tempest, as well as several religious legends and mysteries which deserve the name of dramatic literature. Moreover, all the critics of the time, including Anatole France, Jules Lemaitre, Emile Faguet Paul Arene, etc., were unanimous in their praise of these dignified dolls. Thus, in La Vie litteraire Anatole France said of them: J'en ai dejä fait l'aveu, j'aime les marionnettes, et Celles de Μ. Signoret me plaisent singulierement. Ce sont des artistes qui les taillent; ce sont des poetes qui les montrent. Elles ont une grace naive, une gaucherie divine de statues qui consentent ä faire les poupees, et l'on est ravi de voir ces petites idols jouer la comedie. . . . Ces marionnettes ressemblent ä des hieroglyphes egyptiens, c'est-a-dire ä quelque chose de mysterieux et de pur, et, quand elles representent un drame de Shakespeare ou d'Aristophane, je crois voir la pensee du poete se derouler en caracteres sacres sur les murailles d'un temple. And we may be permitted to state that in a conversation with M. Rene Doumic, Secretaire perpetuel of the Academie Frangaise and editor of the Revue des Deux Mondes, he said to us: "Les marionnettes ne devraient pas etre seuleOn page 27 he says of the marionette plays of Marc-Monnier: Ce sont dee chefs-d'oeuvre, mais dans un genre excetionnel et ephemfere. Leur theatre ideal, c'est le cerveau du sage, en face du grand jeu politique et de la diplomatie, ou le sort des peuples est engage. Mais jeux d'une epoque, d'une generation, que les generations suivantes ne peuvent plus euivre. La Princesse Danubia, c'est la question d'Orient; Le Cure d'Yvelol, c'est le pouvoir temporel du SaintPcSre; Paillasse, c'est la merveilleuse parodie des gouvernements successifs de la France, de Louis XIV au coup d ' E t a t du prince-president. Pour gouter ces petites revues politiques, ou les grands, les chefs de nations, les faiseurs de guerres et de traites, dans une Europe dejä bien loin de nous, sont reduits au role de pantins, de sots malfaisants et ignorants de leur eflroyable egoisme, par le plus plaisant des moralistes, le plus sense des artistes, le plus habile des versificateurs; pour gouter cette sagesse, et savourer cet art, il faut aujourd'hui s'enfoncer dans son fauteuil, et oublier son temps. Aiors on reconnait comment, de la region moyenne de la satire politique, les marionnettes de Marc-Monnier sont montees ä la dignite de la poesie pure.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

ment pour les enfants, mais elles devraient etre pour les personnes instruites, et pour l'elite des personnes instruites." Strange to say, indeed, we have found only one discordant note in this harmonious praise of the marionettes; namely, that of M. Maurice Maeterlinck. For many years there has been a current rumor that the great Belgian poet was one of the most ardent admirers of the acting dolls. This idea was obtained in many commentaries on Maeterlinck, probably because of the fact that he combined three one-act plays under the title of Trois petits drames pour marionneties, and because he mentioned the marionettes while discussing his theoretical theatre in the preface to his Pelleas et Melisande. In view of that much prevailing opinion, we ventured to write him to ask for the privilege of an interview. The following letter was received in reply, which we reproduce, without comment: 18 aout 1931.

Chateau de Medan Medan, par Villennes-sur-Seine (S. & 0.)

Cher monsieur: L'edition originale de La Mort de Tintagiles, Interieur, et Alladin et Palomides, publiee ä Gand en 1894, porte Trois petits drames pour marionnettes. Comme je n'avais ä cette epoque aucun espoir de voir les petites pieces representees par des acteurs, sur un theatre normal, je m'etais, un peu ironiquement, resigne ä les destiner ä un theatre de marionnettes. Mais je n'avais jamais songe ä les ecrire pour les marionnettes. Je me suis du reste fort peu occupe de marionnettes. Les meilleures que j'aie vues etaient Celles d'un certain Holden, mais elles etaient encore bien imparfaites. Si on peut en faire de meilleures, je ne doute pas qu'il ne soit possible de leur confier, avantageusement, la plupart des pieces qui confinent ä la legende ou ä la feerie. Mais en attendant qu'elles soient perfectionnees, je me contente d'acteurs en chair et en os, qui, du reste, sont dejä des fantoches, comme tous les hommes.

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INTRODUCTION Je regrette de ne pouvoir vous donner les details interessante que vous semblez esperer, mais je vous dois la simple verite. [Signed] Maeterlinck. Due consideration being granted to Μ. Maeterlinck's opinion, we may now well dismiss the idea that the marionettes must be associated exclusively with amusements for children. There is, it is true, a reason why even nowadays people associate with the name of marionette such simple affairs as the puppet booths in the parks of Paris, the productions of Hans Wurst in Germany, or the Punch and Judy shows in England and America. For, as will be fully explained later, previous to the nineteenth century the marionettes played a definite part in the struggle of the theatres, so that they were endeared to adult audiences. It was only after that time, freedom having obtained in the theatres so that living actors could play without fetters, that the marionettes began to present plays of a type reserved for children. Nevertheless, during the nineteenth century, and to an ever increasing extent at the present day, marionette theatres of an artistic and literary nature have again become a delectable entertainment for educated adults. There undoubtedly has existed, and still exists, a very real "art of marionettes." 2. THE N A M E

"MARIONETTE"

The term "marionette" has been used since the sixteenth century to designate all types of articulate dolls, regardless of their construction or manner of manipulation. However, the origin of the word, as applied to these little wooden actors, is not entirely clear. Charles Magnin has made a detailed study of the derivation of the term, and of how it came to be applied to movable dolls.9 He follows the opinion of Gilles Menage (substantiated later by such authorities as Littre, Hatzfeld 8

Ch. Magnin: op. cit., pp. 113-16.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE et Darmesteter, and Leon Cledat) 10 that the word is derived from among the many diminutives of the Latin name " Maria." He cites some of these, such as " Marote," " Mariotte," " Mariole," " Mariette," " Marion," etc. The name " Marionnette," applied to a girl, is found for the first time given to Marion in one of the pastorals of the so-called cycle of Robert et Marion: "He! Marionnette, tant aimee t'ai!" 11 A little later these same diminutives were applied to statuettes of the Virgin Mary. This was the first application that we know of these names to dolls, but it had become so common that even the streets of old Paris where one sold such images were called "rue des marmouzettes," "rue des mariettes," "rue des marionnettes." Another application of the name " marionette," similar to that just mentioned, was found not many years ago. In a French book, printed in 1561, is a reproduction of a ducat bearing the figure of the Virgin with the Christ child, which is called a "marionnette." 12 These religious or affectionate names acquired later a profane and even derogatory meaning. One finds the name "marotte" applied to a jester's staff because of the doll's head that crowned it. Also, the name "marionette" was sometimes given to the so-called magic figures of those who posed as sorcerers during the seventeenth century. Finally, the showmen of the doll theatres began to call their wooden actors "marmouzettes," "mariottes," and, a little later, "marionnettes," which name has remained. 10

Gilles Menage: Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue frangoise. Paris. E. Littre: Dictionnaire de la langue frangaise. Paris, Hachette, 1882. Hatzfeld et Darmesteter: Dictionnaire general de la langue fran^aise. Paris, Delagrave. Leon Cledat: Dictionnaire elymologique de la languefrangaise. Paris, Hachette, 1917. 11 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 114. He cites the sixth of the pastorals published by Francisque Michel following the Jeu de Robert et Marion in his The aire frangais au moyen age, p. 35. 11 Article by Gordon Craig in The Marionette Tonight at i2ü!0. Florence, Italy, I, 27. April 1, 1918.

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INTRODUCTION 3. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Because of the confusion in the nomenclature of movable dolls, it is necessary to begin with a definition of terms. There are, according to their construction and manner of manipulation, some twenty different kinds of so-called marionettes, but all may be divided into three main classes. (1) The "ombre chinoise," or "Chinese shadow." This is a flat figure, thrown in silhouette on a screen by means of a strong light from behind. It is operated by rods or strings attached to the jointed arms, legs, and head. This type, although seldom found in occidental countries, was formerly very popular in China, Java, and Turkey. It will be referred to in this study as the "Chinese shadow." (2) The "marionnette ä gaine," or "hand marionette." This kind is made to act by means of the first three fingers of the hand which are inserted into the head and two arms of the hollow doll. The sheath that forms the body conceals the forearm of the manipulator. In England and the United States the hand marionette is usually called a "puppet," and the operator a "puppeteer." These names will be so used in this study. In France this doll is commonly called "Guignol," though sometimes erroneously, for Guignol is only one character of the puppet theatre. So the famous dolls of George Sand, or those of Lemercier de Neuville, cannot properly be called guignols, since Guignol does not appear in any of their plays. The fact is that the role of Guignol is so important in most of the plays of the hand marionettes that in France the name is applied loosely to all dolls of that type. (3) The "marionnette ä fil," or "string marionette." This doll, which is a wooden or stuffed figure with movable joints, is supported and manipulated by means of strings attached to its arms, legs, and head. It is the true marionette. This third class will be designated by the single word "marionette," and the name "marionettist" will be

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE applied to the manipulator of these dolls, although the term has not yet been accepted by the English dictionaries. 4. SOME BOOKS A B O U T T H E

MARIONETTES

The earliest information about the marionettes does not come from books written about them, but from sources where they are mentioned only incidentally. Two early works that mention invaluable facts concerning the acting dolls at the Paris fairs are Lesage and d'Orneval's Theatre de la foire ou I'Opera-Comique, 1737, and Les Freres Parfaict's Memoires pour servir ä Vhisloire des spectacles de la foire. Each gives several plays presented by the wooden actors. The first important book to deal exclusively with marionettes is Charles Magnin's Histoire des marionnettes en Europe depuis Vantiquite jusqua nos jours, 1852. It has remained the greatest authority on the subject up to the year 1800 (the title is not exact in saying "jusqu'ä nos jours"). Second only to Magnin's book in giving interesting information about the marionettists at the fairs and the plays that they produced is Emile Campardon's Spectacles de la foire, 1877. Pietro Ferrigni's Storia dei burattini, 1884, remains the Italian authority. In 1900 Maurice Albert's Theatres de la foire linked the history of the marionettes to that of the other theatres. Ernest Maindron's Marionettes et guignols, 1901 (another inexact title, since there is only one Guignol), deals chiefly, but very incompletely, with the marionettes and puppets in France during the nineteenth century. In 1905 appeared H. S. Rehm's Das Buch der Marionetten, the best German history of marionettes. Several such histories have appeared more recently in England, Germany, and the United States, but those that we have seen add little new information to the above books. To come now to the special subject of this study, published material dealing with the marionettes of the north of France is very scarce. M. Edouard David has written

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INTRODUCTION several brochures on the marionettes of Amiens: Etude picarde sur Lafleur, 1896; Les Theatres populaires ä Amiens. Lafleur esl-il Picard?, 1906; Les Compagnons de Lafleur et Sandrine, 1927. His investigations into the origin of Lafleur are invaluable. In a series of articles printed in Les Amis de Lille, 1930-1932, M. Louis Delannoy, under the title of "Marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres," has written an interesting history of the marionettes of Lille, with one division on those of Amiens and another on those of Roubaix. Very little else has been written about the marionettes of Roubaix. However, we had the privilege of visiting "L' Theät' Louis" at Roubaix and of studying it personally under the generous guidance of its present owner, M. Leopold Richard. To add to the facts gathered from this visit, M. Richard has written several letters that give much more original information about his theatre. Also, more facts were gathered about the dolls of the north of France from long conversations with and letters from M. Paul Jeanne, dean of the French puppeteers, who has done so much towards the organizing of the Union Internationale des Marionnettes (known commonly as the Unima) and the Federation Nationale des Marionnettes Frangaises. A detailed list of the books treating of the marionettes will be found in the bibliography of this study.

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PART ONE:

THE EARLY MARIONETTES IN FRANCE 1. THE MABIONETTE IN ANTIQUITY

T

HE birthplace of the marionettes is not definitely known and will probably never be known. They may have originated independently in various parts of the world. Some authors have advanced fanciful theories, with little or no evidence to support their statements. Some say that they were born on the banks of the Ganges, others on the banks of the Nile. Some say that the marionette theatre preceded the theatre itself. Mrs. Helen Haiman Joseph writes of a legend in China that tells of a shadow show that, existed there a thousand years before Christ, and she claims that in Japan the marionettes were so old that the traditional acting of the stage was based upon the movements of the little wooden figures.1 It is Charles Nodier (1780-1844) who introduced the pretty theory that the first marionette was the doll of the first little girl. "La poupee a donne naissance aux marionnettes, qui ont donne naissance ä la comedie." 2 But the first real marionettes seem to be those articulate figures that played a role, however small, in the religious ceremonies and aristocratic feasts of old civilizations. Magnin tells of the movable dolls that have been found in the ancient tombs of Egypt and Greece. He cites several authors of those countries, and of Syria, who would confirm the early existence of religious marionettes; but at the same time he shows that, in Greece at least, there existed also a popular non-religious theatre of marionettes. These same 1 Helen Haiman Joseph: A Book of Marionettes. New York, Viking, 1929, pp. 40, 44. 1 Charles Nodier (le docteur Neophobus): "Les Marionnettes." Revue de Paris. November, 1842, and May, 1843.

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MARIONETTES IN

FRANCE

types of dolls, religious and non-religious, would be those commonly found in ancient Rome.3 But there is one important point to be noticed in regard to these marionettes of Rome; namely, the personage of Maccus. He was a native of Rome, and became, according to Magnin, George Sand, Ferrigni, Maindron, and other authorities, the ancestor of all the later comic heroes of the marionette theatres. 2. THE MARIONETTE I N E U R O P E D U R I N G THE MIDDLE

AGES

Definite information about the marionettes in Europe during the Middle Ages is very scarce. W e know little more than that they seem, like the real theatre, to have disappeared after the fall of Rome, to be reborn later within the Christian church. According to our meager reports, they were probably at first only movable figures in Christmas mangers or in representations of the Easter passion. Then, following again the history of the theatre, they took part in small ritualistic plays—mysteries and lives of the saints. But they do not seem to have attained any great importance even within the church until about the sixteenth century. Such figures as that used to represent the famous "tarasque" of Tarascon, or the dragon of Paris that was killed by Saint-Marcel, may be considered as a sort of semi-religious doll. The best example of this type is found, however, in the marionettes that replaced the living girls in the "festa delle M a r i e " in Venice.4 Magnin, who tries hard to prove the existence of popular non-religious marionettes during the Middle Ages, recalls the Latin "cantiques" that were used to explain the pantomimes of living actors, and suggests that wooden actors might have been used as well. T o prove that they must have existed at that time he also cites Greek authors of the Ch. Magnin: op. cit., pp. 11-30. Ch. Magnin: op. cil., pp. 62-63. He cites G. R. Michiel: Oriyine delle fesle veneziane, Milan, 1829, I, 91-109. 3 4

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EARLY MARIONETTES seventh and twelfth centuries who refer to marionettes.5 Finally, he devotes several pages to a famous document of Strasbourg, which contains a picture of two armed knights that dance or fight by means of horizontal strings passing through them, pulled by men at either end.6 There is another indication of the existence of marionettes during the Middle Ages in an illumination in a Flemish manuscript of Li romans du bon roi Alixandre which dates from about 1340. It shows three women watching the performance of two acting dolls.7 Mrs. Isabel Emerson, in an article on the Sicilian marionettes, states that they borrowed the old French epics as a subject matter for their plays from the French marionettes during the French occupation of Sicily in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.8 This statement presupposes popular dolls in both countries at that early date. However, in a letter to the author, she admits that the epic material, introduced into Sicily at that time, may well have been adopted by the marionettes only later.9 3. T H E GROWING IMPORTANCE OF THE

MARIONETTE

AFTER THE MIDDLE AGES

The marionettes seem to have attained an important place in the religious plays only after the living actors were prohibited in 1548. In some places at least they acquired a great popularity after that date. At Dieppe, for example, they had a part for many years in the elaborate representation of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, as well as in the Christmas and Easter plays.10 »Ibid., pp. 64-67. • Ibid., pp. 68-70. 7 Max von Boebn: Puppen und Puppenspiele. München, Bruckmann, 1929, II, 39. 8 Isabel Emerson: "Sicilian Marionettes," Contemporary Review, March, 1930, vol. 137, pp. 369-372. 9 Manuscript letter from Mrs. Isabel Emerson, April 4, 1932. 10 Magnin: op. cit., p. 118. He cites Vitet: Hisloire de Dieppe. Edition of Gosselin, pp. 35-47.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Also, in Paris there were some unique religious marionettes. Cardinal Mazarin called there, in 1642, the Italian order of priests known as the Theatins, who not only preached, in Italian, the doctrines of their order, but used small marionettes to illustrate their words. "Ce qui tenoit plus de l'artifice de l'ltalien que de la devotion du Francois." 11 However, because of their very popularity, the religious marionettes fell into disfavor with the ecclesiastical authorities, so that they were banished from the church toward the end of the seventeenth century, just as the religious plays by living actors had been forbidden in the preceding century; 12 but they continued to be used in plays representing lives of saints, biblical stories, and New Testament mysteries in the public squares and at the fairs until the nineteenth century,13 and in private theatres even up to the present day. Some of these will be mentioned in studying the theatres of Amiens and Lille. Apparently quite a time before the dolls were forbidden to act within the church, secular or popular marionettes had been known in Europe. Magnin cites the works of Jerome Cardan and Bernardino Baldi to show that, by the middle of the sixteenth century, there were many puppet and marionette theatres of a non-religious nature in Italy.14 Such authorities as Magnin, Ferrigni, Maindron, Rehm, and McPharlin claim that Italy was the cradle of the popular marionettes in Europe, and that it was the Italian manipulators who introduced into France, Germany, Spain, and England the acting dolls of the types that exist today. Their repertoire consisted chiefly of farces, and their characters were copied from the heroes of the "commedia deH'arte" (Pulcinella, Arlecchino, Colombina, etc.).15 u Ernest Maindron: MarionneUes el guignols, les poupees agissanles ct parianies ä iravers les ages. Paris, Juven, n.d. (1901), pp. 116-17. 12 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 119. 13 Ibid., pp. 119-23. 14 Ibid., pp. 75-79. 15 Ibid., p. 86.

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EARLY MARIONETTES As to the date when the popular marionettes were first introduced into France, Magnin suggests, by reference to the Serees of Guillaume Bouchet, that they must have been known there by about 1590.16 At that time their personages were probably copied from those of the comic stage of the day, but a little later, with the coming of the " commedia dell'arte" into France, they too adopted its characters and repertoire, as had already the marionettes in Italy. According to Magnin, however, Polichinelle, although he owes his name to the Italian Pulcinella and although his ancestry may be traced back to the Roman Maccus, would be, by his form, his manners, and his characteristics, entirely a French creation; and his companion, Dame Gigogne, would be even more French than he.17 However that may be, Polichinelle and his friend Arlequin were the leading characters in France by 1630,18 and remained the great heroes of the marionette theatre until the end of the eighteenth century. Even today Polichinelle is far from forgotten in marionette shows for children. It is to be noticed in this connection that we find no mention of the marionettes at this time playing the old French epics or even historical or legendary plays, as we know that they did in other countries, such as Italy, Sicily, etc., and as we shall find them doing later in the north of France. We now come to a period when documents are not quite so hard to unearth. 4. THE MARIONETTE IN FRANCE DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH

CENTURIES

The Golden Age of the marionettes in France lasted from about the final quarter of the seventeenth century to the 18

Ibid., p. 124. The first part of the Serees of Guillaume Bouchet was printed in 1584, and the last two parts in 1608, about two years after the author's death. 17 Ibid., pp. 126-34. 18 Ibid., p. 128.

[15]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE end of the eighteenth, for, during the greater part of that period, they played a very definite and important part in the struggle for the liberty of the French theatre. In 1669, the monopoly to present operas had been granted to Perrin, then in charge of the Academie Royale de Musique, also called the Opera.19 Moreover, on October 12, 1680, the actors of the Hotel de Bourgogne and those of the Theatre Guenegaud had been united by royal ordinance to form the Comedie Frangaise, and the monopoly to present plays in Paris accorded to the Comediens Frangais, except where direct order of the King permitted otherwise.20 The Comediens Italiens were allowed to present light farces and the repertoire of the "commedia dell'arte" at the Hotel de Bourgogne. The only other theatres in Paris were those of the fairs of Saint-Germain and Saint-Laurent.21 They were, at first, small affairs consisting only of tight-rope dancers, tumblers, and acrobats. Later some directors purchased, by means of fees paid to the privileged theatres, the right to produce comedies and farces. However, when ambitious directors tried to establish small independent theatres, without the payment of fees and contrary to the granted monopolies, the Comedie Frangaise or the Opera would cause them to be closed or compel them to limit their productions to monologues or pantomimes. It was only the marionette theatres that were permitted absolute liberty. During the eighteenth century, until the time of the French Revolution, 19 Maurice Albert: Les Theäires de la foire, 1660-1789. Paris, Hachette, 1900, p. 40. " Ibid., p. 12. 81 The Fair of Saint-Germain is mentioned as early as 1176, as belonging to the abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Pres in Paris. In the eighteenth century it took place each year from the third of February until Palm Sunday. It was the most important of the Paris fairs. The Fair of Saint-Laurent dated back to about 1344. During the eighteenth century it opened on the ninth of August, or sometimes a little earlier, and closed on the twenty-ninth of September. There were also in Paris the annual fairs of Saint-Claire and of Saint-Ovid, where marionette theatres were found, but which are much less important then the two already mentioned.

[16]

EARLY

MARIONETTES

would-be directors made innumerable attempts to establish real theatres in the face of the oppressive restrictions of the monopolies, but, except for a few short periods when the large theatres did not enforce their privileges, the small ones managed to exist without opposition only by paying for the right. 22 Into this struggle came the marionettes. Maurice Albert has said: Les veritables adversaires des Baron, des La Grange, des Hauteroche et de la Champmesle seront d'abord, non des acrobates qui dansent sur la corde, mais de petits morceaux de bois faconnes, humbles dryades sorties des chenes; ou du moins, c'est sur les planches d'un theatre de marionnettes que paraitront les premiers acteurs dont la Comedie Frangaise ait reellement redoute la puissance rivale.23

The marionettes took sides with the small theatres, and aided them in several ways. First: many important directors began as marionettists, and used their marionette theatres as a foundation upon which to establish a theatre of living actors in direct opposition to the monopolies of the large theatres. Second: often when a director found his actors disbanded because of the monopolies, he resorted to the marionettes as a way of maintaining his booth at the fairs, as a means of livelihood, and as a foundation for new attempts to establish a theatre. Third: sometimes a marionette show was advertised as the chief spectacle, only to conceal the real theatre that followed. And fourth: the farces and satires presented by the marionettes were very important factors in this struggle. In enforcing their monopolies, the large theatres did not limit the productions of the marionettes, except in a few instances, so that they were free to play and to say what they wished. The farces that the wooden dolls presented, although often written by a

The best authority on the entire subject of the struggle between the privileged theatres and those of the fairs is the work of Maurice Albert just cited.

" M. AJbert: op. cit., p. 15. [17]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

important authors, were, like the old fabliaux, considered beneath official contempt. Nevertheless they attracted people, amused them, and gave them such a taste for the theatre that they supported the many attempts to establish popular theatres at the fairs. The satires were both social and literary. The latter took the form of parodies directed against the current productions of the Comedie Frangaise and the Opera. More than once the fall of a play at the Comedie Frangaise was said to be hastened by a parody played by the marionettes. Thanks to the aid of the little wooden actors, the directors were encouraged to continue their struggle for liberty even against the greatest odds, and the people were won to the side of the small theatres to such an extent that the police became more and more loath to enforce the monopolies against them. In the following chapters, a detailed study will be made of this role of the marionettes in this long struggle for the liberty of the French theatre. a. The Marionette at the Fairs

In 1618 the ecclesiastical chapter of Saint-Germain gave permission to marionettists to open booths at the Fair of Saint-Germain,24 and this is the first mention that we know of the dolls appearing at the Paris fairs. One of the earliest descriptions to be found of the marionettes in their new homes occurs in a poem by Scarron addressed to Prince Gaston (1643). He says: Le bruit des penetrants sifflets, Des flutes et des flageolets, Des cornets, hautbois et musettes, Des vendeurs et des acheteurs, Se mele ä celui des sauteurs Et des tambourins ä sonnettes, 24

1877.

Emile Campardon: Les Spectacles de la foire. T w o volumes. Introduction, p. xii.

D8]

Paris, Berger-Levrault,

EARLY MARIONETTES Aux joueurs de marionnettes Que le peuple croit enchanteurs." Francois Datelin (1620-1681), called Fanchon Brioche, although he did not enter into the struggle for the liberty of the theatres, deserves special mention as being the first to bring marionettes into prominence at the fairs. His father, Pierre Datelin (1567-1671), an Italian, had owned a marionette theatre near the Pont-Neuf at about the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV. 26 Fanchon Brioche continued his father's theatre. He owned, besides his marionettes, the monkey Fagotin, a favorite of the Parisian public, who was killed in a duel with the fiery Cyrano de Bergerac because of a supposed grimace at his large nose.27 It was in 1657 that le sieur d'Aubry, lieutenant of police, granted to Brioche permission to present his marionettes at the Fair of Saint-Germain, and for many years his dolls, which were nearly three feet tall, were to be seen there, or at his regularly established theatre at the end of the rue Guenegaud.28 Nothing is known of the types of plays that Brioche presented. All that we know is that he won such a favorable reputation that he was twice asked, in 1669, to show his marionettes at Saint-Germain-en-Laye before the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV, and his little court.29 A few years later, in 1676, when Brioche was in trouble with the police, the king himself interfered to assure him a suitable a

Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 148. E. Maindron: op. cit., p. 118. Depending on Jal's Diclionnaire de biographie et d'histoire, he corrects the errors of Magnin and Campardon in regard to the genealogy of the several Brioches, and he is right in so doing. Pietro Ferrigni (Yorick), in Sloria dei Buraitini, tries to prove that Datelin and Brioche are two different marionettists, but he is undoubtedly wrong. 57 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., pp. 136-37. Fagotin has been immortalized by a pamphlet entitled Le Combat de Cirano de Bergerac conlre le singe de Brioche, 1655, as well as by being mentioned in La Fontaine's fable of La Cour du lion, and in Moliere's Tarluffe (Act II, scene 3). This latter work appeared in the same year that Brioche played before the Dauphin. 28 Les Freres Parfaict: Memoires pour servir ä l'histoire des spectacles de la foire, par un acteur forain. Paris, Briasson, 1743. Introduction, pp. xl, xlv. le Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 137. He cites the registers of the royal treasury for the year 1669, folios 14 and 47. 16

[19]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE place in which to exploit his wooden actors. 30 Moreover, Brioche and his dolls were mentioned, although sometimes only ironically, by many of the writers of the day. 31 Even Boileau mentions him in his seventh Epilre: Et non loin de la place ou Brioche preside . . . Another Francois Datelin, born in 1630, and a Jean Datelin, born in 1632, both brothers of Fanchon Brioche, also played marionettes at the fairs, but they were less important. 32 *

*

*

It was in 1676 that the marionettes made their entrance into the struggle between the privileged theatres and those that were trying to establish themselves at the fairs. Permission had been granted in 1675, under royal seal, to Dominique Normandin, sire de La Grille, to show his little wooden dolls in Paris, and the following year he opened his "Troupe Royale des Pygmees" at the Marais du Temple. He claimed that his show was not only an amusement for the public, but an instruction for the young. 33 His dolls were exceptionally large, over three feet tall, and his scenery was very elaborate. People under the stage spoke for the dolls, and even sang for them, so that his plays were really small operas. The first piece that La Grille presented was Les Pygmees, iragi-comedie en cinq actes, ornee de musique, de machines, de changemenls de theatre.3* The success of this enterprise was great and these dolls became the talk of Paris—so much so that the Academie Royale de Musique 80 Ibid., p. 141. H e cites an unedited letter from Colbert to the lieutenantgeneral of police, dated October 16, 1676. " Ibid., pp. 141-42. And on page 138 he cites the complaints of Bossuet against the marionettes. Bossuet is the only one that we know of the great figures of the seventeenth century who objected to the antics of the wooden dolls. He became the preceptor of the Dauphin the year after Brioche played at Saint-Germain-en-Laye. " E. Maindron: op. cit., p. 119. M E. Campardon: op. cit., II, 120. 3< Ch. Μ agnin: op. cit., pp. 144, 145.

[20]

EARLY MARIONETTES made complaints to the authorities, claiming that La Grille was infringing upon its monopoly to present operas in Paris.35 We do not know that anything came out of this complaint, but, at any rate, the following year La Grille tried to avoid such opposition by changing the name of his spectacle to the "Theatre des Bamboches," 36 and he got through the season with little trouble. In 1678 he resumed the former name of "Troupe Royale des Pygmees," but moved his theatre to the Fair of Saint-Laurent. This time he presented a fanciful fairy opera entitled Les Amours de Microion ou les Charmes (Γ Oer an, which was described as a "pastorale enjouee." 37 However, these changes of name and place could not save these over-popular singing marionettes, and, after their appearance at the Fair of SaintLaurent, La Grille was compelled to abandon them because of the complaints of the Opera.38 This is, to our knowledge, the only time that either of the two large privileged theatres succeeded in completely suppressing the marionettes. *

*

*

We have, a few years after the theatre of La Grille was closed, noticed that the marionettes were having further troubles at the Fair of Saint-Germain. The difficulty arose this time from the fact that they were playing satires against events of the day. Magnin cites a letter, dated February 7, 1686, from Archille de Harlay, attorney-general of the parliament, to M. de la Reynie, lieutenant-general of police, in which the former stated that the marionettes at the fairs » E. Campardon: op. cit., II, 120. 59 This name of "Bamboche," which is often applied to the marionettes in France, especially in the north, is worthy of notice. A certain Dutch painter by the name of Laer, who died in 1675, was called Bamboche because of the peculiar distortion of his face. H e painted small figures in small settings, so that the marionettes on their little stages were likened to the paintings of Bamboche, and the name remained with them. " Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 146. J8 E. Campardon: op. cit., II, 122.

[21]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE were presenting pieces that satirized the discomfiture of the Huguenots because of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which he considered too bold a subject for public presentation.39 M. de la Reynie took cognizance of this complaint and imposed silence on the marionettes, but did not close their theatres.40 The names of the offending plays are not known, however. This is the first mention made of the marionettes playing social satires, and it is one of the few cases in which they were disturbed for the subject matter of their plays. *

*

*

The next marionettes to become involved in this struggle were those of Alexandre Rertrand, one of the most intrepid champions of the cause of the small theatres. Rertrand was by trade a master gilder, but during his leisure hours he began to make marionettes, and soon became the furnisher for such prominent marionettists as Feron, Archambault, Artus, Duvaudier, and Aubry.41 Recoming fond of the dolls that he was creating, Rertrand decided to make some for himself and to open a show of his own. In 1684,42 at the Fair of Saint Germain, he rented, with his brother Jean, a booth in the blind alley of the rue des Quatre-Vents, where he displayed his marionettes.43 His success was so great that he built another booth in the central court of the Fair of Saint-Germain, and called his spectacle the " Jeu des Victoires." 44 However, rendered bold by success, Rertrand ventured to add a troupe of young living actors to his doll theatre, and to offer real comedies, without interludes or dances, which was a new sort of spectacle for the fairs.45 If possibly Rertrand was ignorant of the monopoly of the " Ch. Μ agnin: op. eil., p. 150. 40 P. Ferrigni: op. cil., p. 357. 41 M. Albert: op. cil., p. 17. He states that the Brioches made all their own dolls. 41 Ibid. He is the only one to give this date as 1689. 43 Ch. Magnin: op. cil., p. 150. 44 M. Albert: op. cit., p. 17. 44 Ibid.

[22]

EARLY MARIONETTES Comediens Francais, they had indeed not forgotten their privileges, and they complained to M. de la Reynie, so that Bertrand was compelled to close his theatre on that very day, February 10, 1690.46 He sought to repair his loss by returning to his marionettes—which was not the only case in which a would-be director maintained himself by his doll theatre after his real theatre had been closed. He added to his spectacle a troupe of tumblers and rope-dancers, and exhibited it from fair to fair until that of Saint-Germain in 1697. 47 That year is memorable in the history of the French stage. The Comediens Italiens, who occupied then the Hotel de Bourgogne, were expelled from there and from France on the accusation of having characterized Madame de Mai η tenon in their representation of La Fausse Prude. Bertrand immediately claimed the right to inherit that stage, under the argument that his marionettes bore the costumes and names of the characters of the "commedia deU'arte," as had the actors of the Comedie Italienne. Not waiting for royal permission, he leased the empty house and began to show there, on the theatre of Corneille and Racine, his marionettes and all his spectacle. However, just a week later, an order from the King compelled the over-bold director to remove his show from that stage. 48 From the Hotel de Bourgogne, Bertrand took his marionettes to a little theatre in the rue du Paradis at the Fair of Saint-Laurent, where in 1701 he played the first dramatic work of Fuzelier, 49 Thesee ou la Defaite des Amazones.i0 This farce, which was in three acts, had an equal number of interludes that made up an episodic play called Les 41

Les Fr£res Parfaict: op. cit., I, 8. «Ibid. 48 M. Albert: op. cit., pp. 19-20. 45 Louis Fuzelier (1672-1752) is known for the many plays that he wrote for the theatres of the fairs. At least a couple of his plays for living actors were presented at the Comedie Fran^aise. 50 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 152.

[23]

MARIONETTES I N

FRANCE

Amours de Tremblotin et de Marinette, by the same author.51 Magnin states, contrary to some authorities, but it seems correctly, that this interlude was played by living actors," for it was with this play that Bertrand made his second attempt to establish a real theatre. Another fact to be noticed in regard to this play is that it was made up of dialogues and couplets, mixed with songs and music,53 so that it is one of the earliest examples of that type of play that later gained lasting favor in France, the opera-comique.'' Bertrand had violated the monopoly of the Comedie Frangaise as well as that of the Opera, and once more these privileged theatres entered a formal complaint on February 20, 1699, against the small theatres that had sprung up at the fairs, and the latter carried an appeal to Parliament. But now, while this appeal was pending, no decrees or complaints could be enforced against Bertrand or any of the other directors,54 who gaily took advantage of this opportunity. As a result the marionettes lost importance for the moment, since real theatres existed at the fairs for about four years. On June 26, 1703, however, the Parliament decreed in favor of the Comedie Frangaise and the Opera,55 so that all the small theatres were closed or limited to the use of monologues or pantomines. Bertrand had to return to his acting dolls as a means of livelihood, and once again the marionettes were to form the foundation for a theatre of living actors, for two years later, in 1705, we find Bertrand with his dolls at the Fair of Saint-Germain, offering another elaborate three-act play by Fuzelier, Le Ravissemeni d'Helene ou le Siege de Troie, and repeating the experiment of three interludes that made another play that was pre51 Ibid., p. 153. " Ibid. M M. Albert: op. cit., p. 24. M Ibid. " Ibid., p. 25.

[24]

EARLY MARIONETTES sented by living actors.56 Bertrand, hoping that twentyfour months were enough for everybody to forget the edict of Parliament, calmly claimed that this episodic piece, made up of these interludes, was not a real play which could be considered as infringing upon the monopoly of the large theatres. 57 The latter, though, were aroused, and determined to quell all competition on the part of the small theatres. Once more Bertrand was compelled to withdraw his living actors. But Bertrand did not give up. For fifteen more years he led a long and bitter struggle against the suppressive monopolies, joined by several other enterprising showmen. They resorted to every sort of subterfuge in order to get the better of the decree limiting their productions to monologues and pantomines. They employed such inventions as the "pieces a la muette" (plays in which only one character would speak and then pretend to listen to speeches whispered to him by other characters so that he could repeat them aloud for the benefit of the audience), the "pieces ä jargon" (plays in which one character would speak in the ordinary manner while the other actors used jumbled and meaningless words, but whose import was obvious to the audience), and the "pieces ä ecriteaux" (plays in which the actors played their parts without speaking, while their lines were shown on rolls displayed above the stage, or on rolls carried by the actors themselves or by children who kept near them). Such tricks, although they won the sympathies of the people toward the ambitious directors, could not take the place of real plays produced in the normal manner—but it was only to the marionettes that such freedom was permitted. So we find Bertrand and several other directors retaining their dolls during this time, not only as a means of livelihood, but also using them as blinds M 47

Ch. Magnin: op. cii, p. 152. M. Albert: op. cil., p. 29.

[25]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE for their troupes of real actors.58 The importance of the marionettes to these enterprising directors can hardly be overestimated. Here are, by way of samples, two more plays presented by Bertrand's marionettes. In 1715 they played what is described as a parody of Moliere's Medecin malgre lui,i9 in three acts and in "vaudevilles," which is to say, with intermixed couplets put to the music of popular songs of the day. The text is not known, but this is probably an imitation of Moliere's play, rather than a satire against it. In the same year Fuzelier gave to Bertrand a one-act farce entitled Arlequin defenseur d'Homere, in which the marionettes made fun of the famous Quarrel between the Ancients and the Moderns. Arlequin, favoring the Ancients, says: Bailly, laissez aux femmes Ces ouvrages abjects; Pour les plaisirs des dames Ces Modernes sont faits. The death blow to Bertrand's many attempts to establish a real theatre came in 1719. The Comediens Frangais managed at that date to close all the theatres of the fairs, except those of the marionettes,60 and at last Bertrand gave up his repeated efforts to found a theatre of living actors. Old and worn out by the hard fight, he returned to his actors of wood, and continued to play them exclusively until the Fair of Saint-Germain of 1723, which is the last that we see of him. He died shortly afterwards in 1725.61 *

*

*

68 Les Freres Parfaict: op. cil., I, 63. (Un proems-verbal du commissaire Cailly en date du 30 aout 1707.) " Ayant pris place dans une loge, nous avons observe qu'apres que les marionnettes ont ete jouees sur le theatre, il a paru un Scaramouche et plusieurs acteurs en nombre de sept, etc." And on page 82. (Un proces-verbal du 3 aoüt 1708.) " Les chandelles ayant ete allumees, et une toile levee, aurait ete un jeu de marionnettes, lequel fini, Ton aurait encore leve une autre toile, il a paru un theatre, etc." 19 Ch. Magnin: op. cil., p. 154. " M. Albert: op. cit., p. 104. β1 E. Campardon: op. eil., I, 128.

[26]

EARLY MARIONETTES The marionettes of Bertrand did not die with him. His daughter had married, about 1700, a certain Nicolas Bienfait, who was also a manipulator.62 He began showing his dolls at the Fair of Saint-Germain in 1717,63 and took over the theatre of his father-in-law upon the latter's retirement in 1723. He soon became one of the foremost marionettists at the fairs. Although Bienfait was never so ambitious as to endeavor to establish a real theatre, his constant and persistent action in presenting with his marionettes satires of plays offered by the regular stage was indeed a protest against the privileged theatres. He succeeded, however, in never getting into difficulties with the Government or the large theatres. His parodies, moreover, were written by authors of real fame, such as Carolet, Favart, Fuzelier, d'Orneval, Piron, and Valois d'Orville.64 In 1724, at the Fair of Saint-Germain, Bienfait's marionettes presented Ines et Marianne aux Champs-Elysees, a parody by Piron, in one act with prologue, of two new tragedies, the Ines de Castro of Houdard de La Motte and the Marianne of Voltaire.65 On March 18, 1726, the dolls of Bienfait gave La GrantTmere amoureuse by Fuzelier and d'Orneval, which was a parody in three acts of the opera Atys by Quinault and Lulli. And, in April of the same year, they presented Les Stratagemes de Vamour by the same authors, which was Ibid., I, 141. " Ibid., I, 147. M Carolet, who died about 1738, wrote many plays for the theatres of the fairs and for the Comedie Italienne. Charles-Simon Favart (1710-1792) wrote for the theatres of the fairs and, later, for the Comedie Frangaise. He was director of the Opera Comique, and his wife was one of the most popular actresses of the century. D'Orneval, who died about 1766, wrote over sixty plays for the small theatres. Alexis Piron (1689-1773) needs no comment. Adrien-Joseph de Valois, seigneur d'Orville, wrote plays for the small theatres. " Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 160.

[27]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE a parody of the ballet of the same name by de Roy and Des touches. 66 In 1731 Bienfait gave two plays by Carolet: Le Cocher maladroit ou Polichinelle-Phaeton, a parody in three acts with vaudevilles of the opera Phaeton by Lulli; and Le Palais de Vennui ou le Triomphe de Polichinelle, a parody in one act with vaudevilles of the opera Endymion by Blamont. 67 The author Favart made his debut as a dramatic writer by composing for the marionettes of Bienfait Polichinelle comte de Paonfier, a parody of the Glorieux of Destouches. It was played at the Fair of Saint-Germain in 1732.68 In the same year Carolet gave Bienfait three pieces: Polichinelle-Amadis, a parody in verse of the Amadis de Gaule of Quinault and Lulli; Polichinelle-Α leide ou le Heros en quenouille, a parody of the opera Omphale by La Motte and Destouches; and Un Fourbe fourbe el demi ou le Trompeur trompe, a parody of the Isis of La Motte. 69 In 1735, the marionettes of Bienfait played La Grenouillere galante by Carolet, a parody in three acts with vaudevilles of the ballet Les Indes galantes by Rameau. 70 The following year Bienfait presented a parody of the M

Magnin (p. 160) is wrong in accrediting the first of these two plays to Lesage, Fuzelier, and d'Orneval, for, according to the heading of the play in Le Theatre de lafoire by Lesage and d'Orneval, it is stated that the play is by only the last two of the authors. Magnin is wrong also in giving this play to the English marionettist, John Riner, for, in the same heading, it is stated that it was presented by the marionettes of Bienfait. Campardon is entirely confused also in regard to this play, for he follows the authority of Magnin in accrediting it to the three authors and to Riner (II, 326), and he also credits it correctly to the last two of the authors and to the dolls of Bienfait (I, 147). As to the second of these plays, Magnin accredits it to Riner (p. 161) while Campardon credits it to Bienfait (I, 147), and we feel that Campardon is right, as these three authors wrote so much for Bienfait and so little for any other marionettists. 67 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 162. S8 Ibid. See G. L. van Roosbroeck and A. Constans: Polichinelle comte de Paonfier, parodie inedite du "Glorieux" de Destouches (1732), Paris, Campion, 1924, for a copy of this parody and a comparison with the original play. 89 Ibid.. p. 163. 70 E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 148.

[28]

EARLY MARIONETTES opera Thetis el Pelee by Laborde under the title Les Amans peureux ou Polichinelle et Dame Gigogne.71 And in the same year, La Fille obeissante, which was a parody of Voltaire's Alzire; and Polichinelle-Atys by Carolet, another parody of the opera Alys.72 Bienfait presented in 1737 two more pieces by Carolet: Polichinelle-Persee, a parody of the opera Persee by Dauvergne; and a poor parody of the opera Pyrame by Rebel under the title of Le Quiporquo ou Polichinelle-Pyrame.73 In 1739 he played Alcesie, a parody of the opera of that name by Lulli.74 At the Fair of Saint-Laurent of the following year, Fuzelier and Valois d'Orville gave Bienfait La Descents (TEnee aux enfers, which was a parody of the Didon of Lefranc de Pompignan. 75 In 1743 Valois d'Orville wrote another play for Bienfait: Don Quichotte-Polichinelle, a parody of the opera Don Quichotte by Boismortier. And, for the Fair of SaintLaurent of the same year, Bienfait presented another play by the same author: Javotte, a parody of Voltaire's Merope.76 At the Fair of Saint-Germain, in 1744, the marionettes of Bienfait played their last parody. It was PolichinelleGrosjean, a parody of the lyric tragedy Roland by Lulli.77 However, Bienfait did not limit himself entirely to parodies. The farces that he presented increased the popularity of his marionettes as well as the prestige of the theatres of the fairs. 78 By way of example, we may cite the following titles of a few of these farces: La Cendre chaude by Carolet, 1717; Les Eaux de Passy by Carolet, 1724; " Campardon gives this name as Les Amans heureux. 71 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 163. Ibid. 14 16 76

E. Campardon: op. eil., I, 148. Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 163. Ibid.

77

E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 149. For a list of the farces presented by Bienfait, see Magnin: op. cit., pp. 159-166, and E. Campardon: op. eil., I, 147-49. 78

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Polichinelle ä la guinguelte de Vaugirard by Carolet, 1731; UImpromptu de Polichinelle by Valois d'Orville, 1733; and VUn pour Vautre by Yalois d'Orville, 1742.79 In Les Noces de Polichinelle et de la veuve Barnabas, by an unknown author, Polichinelle gives his ideas on marriage. Venus, not knowing what else to do, inspires the Widow Barnabas with love for Polichinelle, and the affair is soon settled between them: La veuve: "Allons! marions-nous, sans fagon, et au plus vite." Polichinelle: "C'est bien dit; il faut prendre une femme comme une medecine, sans reflexion." 80 Although the greater part of these farces were merely light comedies for the amusement of the people, some were of a satirical nature. For example, Carolet's Entetement des spectacles, 1722, and his Aventures de la foire de SaintLaurent, 1736, are satires directed against the Comedie Frangaise and the Opera. The Polichinelle distributeur d'esprit, 1741, by Valois d'Orville, is a humorous criticism of all the plays presented by the large theatres during that season.81 *

*

*

Bienfait died in 1744 or 1745.82 Even before his death, his son, Nicolas Bienfait II, had already opened a marionette theatre of his own at the fairs. When his father had objected to these rival dolls, the son had placed above his booth the device: " Ne suis-je pas Bienfait Ρ " He inherited his father's marionettes, but soon changed the spirit of his repertoire. He still gave a few farces, but most of his plays were spectacular affairs, as can be seen from the following titles: Le Bombardement de la ville d'Anvers, 1746; La Prise de Charleroi, 1746; Le Depart de Mars et les travaux de " Ε. Cam pardon: op. eil., I, 149. 80 Dictionnaire des theatres de Paris. Paris, Lambert, 1766, III, 508. 81 Ch. Magnin: op. eil., p. 165. 81 E. Cam pardon: op. eil., I, 149. Magnin does not notice the death of Bienfait, but continues to credit him with the plays presented by Bienfait II.

[30]

EARLY MARIONETTES Vulcan, 1747; and L'Assaut de Berg-op-zoom, 1748· Bienfait II showed his dolls until the fire at the Fair of SaintGermain in 1762. Receiving 2,400 pounds indemnity for his losses, he retired after selling the rest of his theatre to a marionettist named Rossignol, who later showed his dolls on the boulevard du Temple. 83 We find Nicolas Bienfait III, son of Bienfait II, playing his marionettes at the Fair of Saint-Germain in 1767, 1772, and 1773, but we know nothing of this repertoire.84 *

*

*

Let us now return a step back to 1719, the year of the complete suppression of the theatres of the fairs. In 1720 a certain Francisque Molin, often called simply Francisque, opened a real theatre, contrary to police orders, with a play in two acts by d'Orneval, Ulsle du Gougou, preceded by a prologue, L'Ombre de la foire, by Lesage and d'Orneval. 85 Francisque had been an actor in the provinces and at the fairs, but this was his first attempt to become a director. His efforts immediately attracted to him the famous Lesage, who, having quarreled in 1711 with the Comediens Frangais over the production of his Turcarel, had come to lend his talents to the theatres of the fairs, and to help them in their struggles against the privileged theatres. 86 During the years 1720 and 1721 Lesage, often in collaboration with Fuzelier and d'Orneval, wrote many plays for this new theatre of Francisque, such as: Arlequin roi des ogres ou les ω

Ε. Campardon: op. cit., I, 149-50, and II, 334. E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 150. » Ibid., I, 338. M For an authentic account of Lesage's difficulties over the production of his Turcaret, and for his life and work at the fairs, see the Introduction, Chapter III, and Chapter V, of Lintilhac's Lesage (Paris, Hachette, 1893). M. Claretie, in his Lesage, romancier (Paris, Colin, 1890), states that Lesage left the Comedie Fran^aise " par depit de I'accueil fait a Turcarel qu'il fallut presque leur faire jouer de force; par degout de ce monde d'artistes vaniteux qu'il criblera ä son aise de pointes et de brocards; ρω fierte; par une foule de causes enfin dont la principale fut qu'il fallait vivre et faire vivre les siens." See also Barbaret: Lesage et le theatre de la foire (Paris, 1888). M

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Boties de sept lieues by Lesage, Fuzelier, and d'Orneval; La Statue merveilleuse, a comic opera in one act by Lesage and d'Orneval; Ulie des Amazones by Lesage and d'Orneval; etc.87 However, in 1722 the privileged theatres noticed this infringement on their rights, and suppressed it at once, so that the three authors deserted Francisque in his plight. 88 Resolved to try another means of defeating the large theatres, he resorted to the marionettes, and obtained Piron to write a play for him, Arlequin-Deucalion. This was Piron's first dramatic work. In it a living actor spoke in monologue to the mute actors that appeared before him and to the marionettes, which answered by means of voices off stage. 89 The Comedie Francaise had not thought of forbidding such a unique sort of dialogue, so Francisque was able to maintain his theatre. The applause that Piron received encouraged him to write more plays for the "Theatre des grandes marionnettes." 90 The same year, with dolls that were almost life size, Francisque played at the Fair of Saint-Germain a comic opera in three acts by Piron, La Vengeance de Tiresias ou le Mariage de Momus.91 But Piron demanded of these heavy dolls such lively movements and light repartee that they appeared very awkward and mechanical, so that their success was not great. 92 In 1723, Francisque's dolls presented another play by Piron at the Fair of Saint-Laurent, Colombine-Nitelis, a parody of the tragedy Nitelis by Danchet, 93 but, failing to win the success he wanted, Francisque disheartened left Paris, with a troupe of provincial actors.94 *

*

87

*

E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 338-39. Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 156. M. Albert: op. cit., p. 121. 90 E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 339. For further information concerning Piron's activities at the fairs, see the Introduction to Poesies diverses et la rie (ΓAlexis Piron. London, Jackson, 1787. 91 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 158. 92 M. Albert: op. cit., p. 137. 93 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 159. 91 E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 340. 88

89

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EARLY MARIONETTES In the meantime the three authors, Lesage, Fuzelier, and d'Orneval, after leaving Francisque, had started a new enterprise, and they have told us in their own words how this came about: Plus animes par la vengeance que par l'interet, les auteurs de l'Opera Comique [thus they styled themselves] s'aviserent d'acheter une douzaine de marionnettes et de louer une löge, oü, comme des assieges dans leurs derniers retranchemens, ils rendirent encore leurs armes redoutables. Leurs ennemis [the Comedie Frangaise, the Opera, and the newly revived Comedie Italienne], pousses d'une nouvelle fureur, firent de nouveaux efforts contre Polichinelle chantant; mais ils n'en sortirent pas ä leur honneur.95 Thus it was that on February 3, 1722, Lesage and his two companions opened their theatre, called the " Marionnettes etrangeres," at the Fair of Saint-Germain.96 The proud device of this new theatre was:" J'en valons bien d'autres." 97 However, the three authors hid their identity behind the names of the marionettists La Place and Dolet, who were the manipulators of the dolls.98 During all that fair these authors presented on their small theatre three of their own plays, which they had intended for Francisque's Opera Comique: 09 UOmbre du cocher poele, prologue to the two following pieces, Le Remouleur d'amour, a one-act play in verse, and Pierrot-Romulus ou le Ravisseur poll, which was a parody of the Romulus of Houdart de La Motte that had opened at the Comedie Frangaise on January 7, 1722.100 The success of this theatre was immense. Magnin, in telling of it, quotes a letter from the Abbe Cherier, written 05 Lesage and d'Orneval: Le Theälre de lafoire ou l'Opera Comique. Paris, Gandouin, 1737. Ten volumes. V, 47. 93 Ibid. This name may have been adopted because very often at the fairs foreign spectacles were granted more privileges by the authorities and attracted more attention from the people. 97 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 157. 98 E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 255. 99 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 156. 100 Lesage and d'Orneval: op. eil., V, 47.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE in 1731, in which the latter states that the success of Pierrot-Romulus was so great that it was played from ten o'clock in the morning until two o'clock the following morning, so that the Regent, who wished to see it, had to wait until after that hour before he could bring it to his house. 101 Magnin also quotes the Journal of Mathieu Marais for February 16, 1722, in which the latter tells the jealousy of the Comediens Frangais because of the popularity of the "Marionnettes etrangeres," and of how the old Baron, the famous actor of Moliere's troupe, who was playing the role of Romulus in La Motte's play, got the worst of it in an argument with Polichinelle. 102 After this season of great success at the Fair of SaintGermain, La Place and Dolet took the "Marionnettes etrangeres" to the Fair of Saint-Laurent, where they opened with the same plays. However, their three authors had withdrawn their direction of the theatre, and it obtained comparatively little success. Carolet came to the aid of the manipulators, and gave them three new pieces: La Course galante ou VOuvrage d'une minute, a parody of the Galant coureur ou VOuvrage d'un moment by Legrand; Tiresias aux Quinze-vingts; and Brioche vainqueur de Tiresias, which was a satire against the same play by Legrand. 103 These plays maintained the theatre during that fair, and 101

Ch. Magnin: op. eil., p. 157. Ibid. He cites from the Revue retrospective, second series, VIII, 162-63: "Les Comediens Frangais, blesses de cette critique [the praise of PierrotRomulus'], voulurent faire taire Polichinelle. Baron, qui, malgre son age, etait fort applaudi dans le role de Romulus, fit une noble harangue ä Μ. de la Vrilliere. Le οοηιρέΓβ de Polichinelle, qui avait ete appele, s'en tira, comme toujours, par une polisonnerie:' II n'avait point, disait-il, Γ eloquence necessaire pour repondre a un aussi beau discours, et il ne dir ait que deux mots: depuis plus de cinq cents ans [Magnin points out that this would make the marionettes go back to the thirteenth century, but that statement carries no authority], Polichinelle etait en possession de parier et de p. . . .r; il demandait d'etre conserve dans ce double privilfege, ce qui fut reconnu de toute justice; les Comediens et Baron lui-meme ne purent que rire de ce burlesque plaidoyer avec le reste de rauditoire.'" 103 Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 159. 101

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EARLY MARIONETTES the following year La Place and Dolet gave up their marionettes.104 *

*

*

After the years 1722 and 1723, the most brilliant in the history of the French marionettes, their appeared at the fairs many marionettists whose names are well worthy of remembrance,105 but whose theatres did not come into any direct conflict with the privileged theatres. In fact, from 1723 until 1725, the small theatres of the fairs were seldom disturbed in the pieces that they played. In that year all the theatres of the fair were combined into one large theatre, known as the Opera Comique,106 which continued to play with but little interference until 1745.107 In that year the Comedie Fran^aise succeeded in having even that theatre suppressed,108 so that, for the next seven years, the marionettes ruled supreme as the only actors at the fairs of Saint-Germain and Saint-Laurent.109 In 1752 the Comedie Frangaise and the Opera, finding themselves in need of money, recalled the disbanded members of the Opera Comique, and gave them permission to play again upon payment of an annual fee.110 This fee gave to the Opera Comique, and to all the other small theatres that wished to pay it, the privilege of playing light comedies in Paris. The marionettes alone were left the right to play everything without the need of paying for it. It may be of interest to note as we conclude this section of our study that on the twentieth of July, 1760, Cadet de Beaupre, director of the "Comediens artificiels de Passy," presented at the fairs with his marionettes a play called Les 104

E. Campardon: op. eil., I, 232. · Ambroise, Boursault, Chassinet, Gaubert, Guilliau, Leblanc, Legrand, Levasseur, Guillaume Nicolet, Perico, Prevost, Renault, Sauvat, Second, Toscani, etc. M. Albert: op. cit., p. 157. «" Ibid., Ch. VI. 108 Ibid., p. 187. 109 Ibid., p. 188. Ibid., p. 192. ,0

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Philosophes de bois in one act and in verse. This was a parody of La Comedie des philosophes by Palissot, in which Jean-Jacques Rousseau was depicted as walking on all fours.111 b. The Marionette on the Boulevard du Temple At about this time there was opened a new field of battle in this struggle for the liberty of the French theatres, and once again it was the marionettes who led the fight. In 1737 the city of Paris had begun to drain, level, and replant that section of the eastern part of the city known as the "rempart du Marais," and, under the name of the "boulevard du Temple" (sometimes called also the "boulevard du Crime "), this district became a popular promenade. Little by little shops and booths were erected here, and soon the directors of the attractions of the fairs came to establish themselves. They were permitted to begin in this way a sort of permanent show on the boulevard du Temple, under the condition that they would present their spectacles there only during the intervals between the fairs. This privilege continued until the law of January 3, 1791, proclaimed the liberty of all theatrical enterprises.112 Fourre fils was the first marionettist to establish a permanent theatre of marionettes on the boulevard. In 1756 he began to show his dolls there, together with some ingenious mechanical devices.113 Nothing is known of the plays that he presented. We may assume that they were light farces. Fourre fils is mentioned here only because his building became the first theatre of two other very important marionettists; Nicolet and Audinot. *

*

*

Jean-Baptiste Nicolet (1728-1796), called Nicolet cadet, was the eldest son of Guillaume Nicolet (1687-1762), who, 111 D. Delafarge: La Vie el les oewores de Pallissol, Hachette, 1912. See also Appendix II. Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 170. 113 Ibid., p. 171.

[36]

1730-1814.

Paris,

EARLY MARIONETTES with his wife, Jeanne Marlont, had directed "Les Comediens de bois" at the different fairs from about 1715 until 1753, but had taken no active part in the struggle in question.114 That saune year Guillaume retired, after having given his dolls to his two sons, and Nicolet cadet opened his theatre at the Fair of Saint-Germain.115 He was ambitious, and, after a few successful seasons, he joined some living actors to his little actors of wood, even acting with them himself.116 One of the most important pieces in his repertoire was an original farce by an unknown author, Arlequin amant et valet.117 There is no record of the Comedie Francaise attacking this theatre of mixed actors. In 1760 Nicolet cadet rented the theatre of Fourre on the boulevard du Temple, and played his marionettes there at the intervals between the fairs.118 Maurice Albert cites the Journal of Barbier for March, 1762, to show that the fire of Saint-Germain started in the marionette booth of Nicolet,119 while Campardon states, without citing any authority, that the fire started in the booth of another marionettist by the name of Jean-Baptiste Ricci. 120 What is of more importance is that in that same year, 1762, the Opera Comique of the fairs was united with the Comedie Italienne to form another licensed theatre in Paris, so that the little theatre of Nicolet became the last hope of the public of the fairs.121 Thus once again the marionettes were to play the part of a foundation upon which a real theatre was to be established. Nicolet added to his marionettes a small troupe of actors, some ropedancers, tumblers, and trained animals, including a monkey, E. Campardon: op. eil., II, 149. M. Albert: op. cii., p. 221. IIS E. Campardon: op. eil., II, 151. 117 Ch. Μ agnin: Ibid. 118 Ε. Campardon: Ibid. "» Μ. Albert: op. eil., p. 220. Ε. Campardon: op. cii., II, 321. «ι Μ. Albert: op. eil., p. 221. 114

115

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Turco, which recalled the famous Fagotin of Brioche.122 It was behind the shelter of his marionettes and rope-dancers that Nicolet exploited very discreetly, so as not to arouse the jealousy of the Comedie Fran^aise, his troupe of living actors, playing chiefly original pieces furnished by Taconnet, a former carpenter of the Comedie Frangaise.123 Beginning at first with pantomines and monologues, the type of play gradually increased in importance until finally the troupe, now including sixty members, was playing real farces.124 Among the best known of these latter were Les Ecosseuses de la Halle and Le Baiser rendu, both by Taconnet. His theatre having become more and more popular, Nicolet had bought some land on the boulevard du Temple, adjoining the theatre that he had rented, and had had built a most elaborate little one of his own, which he opened in 1769.125 Its device has become proverbial in France: "De plus en plus fort comme chez Nicolet." 126 In 1772 the king himself commanded Nicolet to come to Choisy to play his marionettes and his spectacle before him and Madame du Barry, and so great was Nicolet's success that the king permitted him to name his theatre "Les Grands Danseurs du roi." 127 (This name was retained until September 22, 1792.) But the ever increasing popularity of Nicolet's spectacle finally attracted the attention of the Comedie Frangaise and the Opera, and in 1784 a rigorous order was made against Nicolet, forbidding him to show in his theatre other attrac10

Ibid., p. 222. Ibid., p. 229. Gaspard-Toussaint Taconnet (1730-1774) became an actor at the fairs and in Nicolet's theatre as well as a playwright. »Ibid., p. 130. 12i Ch. Magain: Ibid. Albert gives the date of Nicolet's first appearance at the fairs as 1750, and Campardon gives the date of his first appearance on the boulevard as 1759, and that of the opening of his own theatre as 1763, but we prefer to rely upon the authority of Magnin. 1M E. Campardon: op. eil., II, 151. 127 Ch. Magnin: Ibid. m

[38]

EARLY MARIONETTES tions than pantomimes, rope-dancers, and marionettes, and forbidding any sort of dialogue or vaudeville even with his marionettes, under the penalty of a heavy fine and the demolition of his theatre. 128 Nicolet, though, had become rich in his enterprise, so rather than fight against such great odds, he paid the fine, and continued to buy from the large theatres the privilege for his small theatre from then until 1791. 129 After September 22, 1792, that is, after all the theatres of Paris had obtained full liberty, Nicolet changed the name of his theatre, from which the marionettes had disappeared, to the " T h e a t r e de la Gaiete," which theatre, with a few lapses, has lasted until the present day. 130 Let us say in passing that Frangois-Paul, the youngest son of Guillaume Nicolet, had been showing marionettes too at the different fairs from 1753 until about 1775. His dolls were fairly popular, but he acquired his greatest celebrity by causing the arrest of a man who, he claimed, was disturbing his show, only to discover too late that he had caused the arrest of a member of Parliament. 131 *

*

*

Nicolet cadet had scarcely left the theatre of Fourre when it was rebuilt and occupied by a marionettist and director of spectacles who was to exceed him in importance. Nicolas-Medard Audinot (1732-1801) had begun his career as an actor at the fairs. Having success in becoming an actor, author, and singer at the combined Opera Comique and Comedie Italienne, 132 he had quarreled in 1767 with his fellow actors and had left the theatre at the end of that season.133 Audinot had then taken up the marionettes, 128 129 1,0 131 132 133

M. Albert: op. cit., p. 231. E. Campardon: Ibid. Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 172. E. Campardon: op. cit., II, 164. Ibid., I, 30. Ch. Magnin: Ibid.

[39]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE appearing with them for the first time in 1769 in the central court of the Fair of Saint-Germain. His "bamboches" or "comediens de bois," as he called them, soon became the chief attraction of that fair. They were made to represent his former colleagues of the Opera Comique—Laruette, Clairval, Mme Berard, etc.134 With these same realistic marionettes Audinot imitated, with what was considered an astonishing verity, and satirized with a most malicious impertinence, the actors of the former Hotel de Bourgogne, just as Moliere had done with his Impromptu de Versailles.13' The most complete success crowned his efforts.136 At the end of that fair, Audinot went to install his marionettes in the renovated theatre of Fourre on the boulevard du Temple, where he continued to play with great popularity several pieces furnished by Jean-Baptiste Nougaret (1742-1823). 137 Encouraged by his ever increasing success, Audinot aspired to a more elaborate spectacle, and he began by joining to his marionettes a dwarf to play the role of Arlequin, a whole ballet, and, a little later, a troupe of children. The latter played at first simple pantomines, and then a type of play with the paradoxical name of "dialogued pantomine." 138 In 1770 Audinot gave his theatre the title of "Ambigu Comique," with the Latin device; "Sicut infantes audi nos." 139 Gradually the troupe of children replaced the marionettes in this very popular theatre, so that Audinot ceased to be a marionettist. This was of course to bring about struggles with the Opera, which, however, have no place in this study. With Audinot, as with so many others, we see an important director of theatre who had his beginning with the humble marionettes. *

*

m

Ibid. M. Albert: op. cit., p. 233. E. Campardon: Ibid. 137 Ch. Magnin: Ibid. 138 Ibid. 133 Ibid., p. 173. 13ί

1M

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*

EARLY MARIONETTES The last important theatre of marionettes to appear on the boulevard du Temple was the "Theatre des Associes." It was begun by a certain Nicolas Vienne, called Beauvisage and Le Grimacier, who had been an actor at the fairs. 1 " Gaining more and more popularity, he had ventured, in his turn, to show some living actors with his dolls. Later, in company with Louis-Gabriel Salle, a former actor of "Les Grands Danseurs du roi," he opened in 1774 the "Theatre des Associes" on the boulevard du Temple,141 where the marionettes were definitely relegated to second place, for he had succeeded in obtaining the permission of the privileged theatres to play with living actors any type of play on the condition that he would always begin his performance with the marionettes. 142 Still later, Le Grimacier having withdrawn, Salle became the sole proprietor of this theatre, the name of which was changed in 1790 to the "Theatre patriotique "—probably to satisfy the new politics. That is the last that we hear of it, but one can imagine that the marionettes disappeared entirely from its stage with the declaration of liberty of the following year. c. The Marionelte at the Palais-Royal Just as the boulevard du Temple had replaced the fairs as the favorite place for amusements and spectacles of all kinds, so, about 1784, the galleries of the Palais-Royal began to replace the boulevard du Temple, and there again appeared the marionettists with their little wooden actors as forerunners of the real theatres. 143 On October 26, 1784, Gardeur and Delomel opened at the Palais-Royal their "Theatre des petits comediens de bois de S. A. S. monseigneur le comte de Beaujolais," with a program in three parts: Momus directeur de spectacle, pro140

E. Campardon: op. cit., II, 458. Henri Beaulieu: Les Theatres du boulevard du Crime. 1905, p. 35. 142 Ibid. i" Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 175. 141

[41]

Paris, Daragon,

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE logue; II y a commencement ά lout, proverb with vaudevilles; and Promethee, a play with songs and dances, with music by Froment.144 Another play that these marionettes gave with success was Figaro directeur de mar ionnettes.Ub We cannot find that these were parodies, such as were so commonly found at the fairs, so suppose them to be original comedies of an amusing nature. Now once more we find that Delomel began to mix children with his marionettes in his production of Le vieux soldat et sa pupille by Dumaillot, with music by Froment.146 By 1786, children of from five to sixteen years of age had entirely replaced the dolls.147 Thus this theatre passes beyond our interest here; but the marionettes had once again played their part in founding a theatre of living actors. *

*

*

There had been a theatre similar to the "comediens de bois de Beaujolais" before this time, but outside the walls of Paris. It was known as "Les Petits Comediens du roi au Bois de Boulogne," the actors of which were children. It had begun as a marionette theatre and had existed during the years 1778 and 1779. Batcave in his brochure dealing with it,148 cites Thiery's Guide des amateurs et des etangers voyageurs ä Paris:149 Ce n'etait d'abord que des marionnettes de carton, de trois pieds et demi de haut, qu'on faisait mouvoir par des ressorts, tandis 144 Louis Pericaud: Theatre des petils comediens de bois de S. A. S. monseigneur le comte de Beaujolais. Histoire de l'histoire des grands el des petits theatres de Paris pendant la Revolution, le Consulat el 1'Empire. Second volume of the series. Paris, Jorel, 1909, chs. I, II. Magnin gives this same information, but states the opening date as October 28, 1784, and gives the names of the directors as Garden and Hömel. We prefer to rely on this later book that has specialized more on the study of the theatres of this time. Ch. Magnin: Ibid. 14e L. Pericaud: Ibid. 1,7 Ch. Magnin: Ibid. 148 L. Batcave: Les Petils Comediens du roi au Bois de Boulogne, 1778-1779. Paris, Schemit. M® Thiery: Guide des amateurs et des elrangers voyageurs ά Paris. Paris, 1787, I, 28.

[42]

EARLY MARIONETTES qu'on parlait et chantait pour elles dans les coulisses. La reunion des talents d'auteurs et de musiciens soutint quelque temps les marionnettes. Mais les directeurs, toujours occupes des moyens de plaire au public, ont imagine depuis peu, de leur substituer des enfants. *

*

*

Two other marionette theatres appeared at the PalaisRoyal, but neither of them took any active part in the struggle of the theatres. They were the "Theatre des Pygmees frangais" of Pierre-Simeon Caron, who had formerly shown some dolls on the boulevard du Temple,110 and the "Fantoccini italiens" of Castagna. 151 Both of them enjoyed a short popularity and then disappeared. *

*

*

The short duration of the marionette theatres that were started during these latter years shows that their popularity was waning. For over a hundred years the acting dolls had held a notable place in the history of the French theatre. Sometimes, as with the Brioches and the Bienfaits, the actors of wood had been popular because of the skill of their manipulators or because of the type of play that they presented—which is also true to a lesser degree of many of the marionette theatres not mentioned in this study—and sometimes they had been popular because they were the only type of theatre, except for the large privileged theatres, to which the people had access. Perhaps they had been popular too because they were cheap. However, as we have seen, for many years the small theatres had been purchasing their right to exist, so that the need for marionette theatres had become less urgent. For that reason the dolls, who had so long helped the small theatres in their struggle for liberty, and who had sometimes been the only theatre of the people—these dolls were being forgotten. 160 151

Ch. Magnin: op. cit., p. 176. E. Campardon: op. cit., I, 193.

[43]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE After having served so long in the struggle, just before the end, the marionettes found themselves compelled to work hard for their very existence. From the moment that the people could have real theatres they deserted those of the marionettes. Let us note, though, a new attempt to add luster to the dimming fame of the latter. Dominique Seraphin opened his theatre of "Ombres chinoises" at the Palais-Royal in 1784.152 These Chinese shadows are not, however, the type of acting dolls in which we are interested. Suffice it to say that for about fifteen years they met with much success, but, just at the end of the century, Seraphin found it necessary to rejuvenate his show by adding to it some marionettes.153 *

*

*

We have emphasized the part played by the marionettes in Paris in the struggle with the regular stage. As this struggle did not extend into the provinces the importance of the acting dolls was not so great there. But this does not mean that marionettes did not exist in the provinces during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. M. Delannoy, in an article in Les Amis de Lille (December 1, 1930, p. 9), gives a list of the marionettists who applied to the city of Lille during the last quarter of the eighteenth century for permission to show their dolls. Also M. Detcheverry, in his Histoire des theatres de Bordeaux (Bordeaux, Delmas, 1860, pp. 291, 363), gives information about Bojolay's "Theatre des Pantagoniens" which enjoyed some popularity during the last decade of the eighteenth century. (See also, Maindron: op. cit., pp. 260-62.) We shall see, however, in studying the marionettes of the north of France, that there is a great deal of evidence that marionette theatres of a permanent nature existed at Amiens, Lille, and ISS Anonymous: Feu le theälre de Seraphin, depuis son origine jusqu'ä sa disparition, 1776-1870. Paris, Rouquette, 1872. Lyon, Scheuring, 1875. 153 Ε. Maindron: op. cit., p. 158.

[44]

EARLY

MARIONETTES

Roubaix, as well as in Paris, not only during the eighteenth century, but even during the seventeenth century, and possibly even before that. *

*

*

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the marionettes entered into a new phase of their existence. The theatres had gained their full liberty, and the acting dolls were no longer so important as they were at the Paris fairs. From this time on they were exploited only as small public enterprises or as artistic amusements. Many of them, as we have seen, won to a rather enviable fame, and found for themselves authors who have preserved them for posterity. However, some of the lesser-known marionette theatres still remain in comparative obscurity, and this is especially true in regard to those of the north of France. Thus, the following pages aim to bring forth whatever facts we have been able to collect concerning the acting dolls of Amiens and Lille, and to make a really serious and detailed study of those of Roubaix.

[45]

PART TWO:

THE MARIONETTES IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 1. T H E

ORIGIN

OF

THE

MARIONETTE

THEATRES

IN

THE

NORTH OF FRANCE

T

O solve the problem of the origin of the marionettes in the north of France a few remarks regarding the type of marionette used there, especially in the cities of Amiens, Lille, and Roubaix, may be useful. As far as I know, the sort of doll in question here is not found anywhere else in France. It is an unusually large doll, varying in height from eighteen inches to three feet, and so heavy that the light strings by which the arms and legs are moved are not sufficient to support it. The manipulator, who stands on a raised scaffold behind and above the back curtain of the stage, maintains it in its standing position and makes it move about by means of an iron rod, called the "tringle," that is fastened into its head. To say where this type of large marionette with the iron rod originated, it will be necessary to go far afield from the north of France into a remote past where there are no records to help in the search, indeed perhaps to the first real acting dolls of which we have any knowledge, those, as has been mentioned before, found in the ancient Greek and Roman tombs.1 Made of clay or terra cotta, these had that rod fixed firmly in the top of the head. Some of them had no articulate joints, while others had movable arms or movable legs, or both, to which strings may or may not have been attached. Information concerning the manner of manipulating marionettes is very meager even up to the end of the eighteenth century. Definite knowledge of how 1

H. S. Rehm: Das Buch der Marionetten.

[47]

Berlin, Frensdorf!-, 1905, pp. 6-7.

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

they are made to act comes only in the nineteenth century, and by that time those supported by the manipulating strings have become the popular type over all western Europe. (We do not consider here the even more popular hand puppets of France, England, and Germany.) Only in Sicily, in Belgium, and in the north of France does one still find the heavy marionette with the "tringle." But let us turn back for a moment to the marionettes of Belgium, and let us notice a little their construction and repertoire, in order to see their influence upon those of the north of France. The modern doll of Belgium, especially that of Liege, would seem to adhere most closely to the ancient Greek and Roman models. In its primitive form it is made entirely of wood, crudely carved to represent the human body, with articulated joints, but having no strings either to the arms or to the legs, and supported only by an iron rod fastened securely into the top of the head. However, we are told that the manipulator succeeded in giving a surprising amount of realistic movement to this crude figure merely by the jerky manner in which he moved it about the stage. M. Rodolphe de Warsage, in his book on the marionettes of Liege,2 gives some interesting information concerning their origin and their repertoire. He cites a brochure by Dieudonne Salme called Li Houlo (Liege, Vaillant-Carmanne, 1888, ch. VI) in which the author states that one Talbot, a lame Frenchman, organized at the time of the Napoleonic wars the first acting dolls of Liege. However, de Warsage doubts the authority of Salme, and shows that Talbot merely made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a theatre of small string marionettes of the type that had been so popular at the fairs of Paris. He states, furthermore, that the original marionettes of Liege were far more primitive than those French dolls, and that they may date 2 Rodolphe de Warsage: Le celhbre theätre likgeois de marionnettes, elude de folklore. Bruxelles, Vanoest, 1905, p. 43.

[48]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE back even into the Middle Ages.3 Referring to the plays that they presented he says: "Le theatre de marionnette a son origine dans la terre plebeienne. Ce qu'on y representee, c'est ce qui plaisait au peuple primitif du moyenäge. A cette epoque, deux institutions principales regnent sur l'Europe, ce sont: Le Chevalerie et l'Eglise." Since these two subjects filled almost the entire repertoire of the marionette theatres of Liege, de Warsage infers their very early beginnings, and he is probably right in so doing. Just when this type of doll, with its epic and romantic plays, was introduced into the north of France, and in what locality it first became established, is not known. However, a brief glance at the construction of these dolls, and a slight study of their repertoire, shows their obvious relationship to the primitive ones of Liege. Of course they suffered some change, both in their physical form and in the type of plays that they presented, according to their change of location. The rod, instead of being fixed to the head itself, became in some cases attached to a ring in the head of the doll, which made for more flexible manipulation, and strings were attached to the arms and legs, so that they were able to make more varied and more lifelike motions. And, as will be seen in greater detail later, the repertoire became more or less modified to suit the tastes of the different localities. The people of Amiens, Lille, and Roubaix were at that time a little more primitive in their tastes than the cultured society of Paris, and it is a well-known fact that primitive peoples prefer epic and romantic literature to the more refined genres. While the people of Paris were watching their marionettes perform parodies, satires, and light vaudevilles, those of the north of France were enjoying representations of the old French epics and romances, dealing with knights and their combats, or plays of a similar nature. The marionettes, not following the example of the classi3

R. de Warsage: op. cit., p. 45.

[49]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

cal theatre in prohibiting bloodshed on the stage, seem to believe that the greater the number of combats shown and the more fierce they are, the more exciting and the more interesting the play. (The marionettes are always disciples of the Romantic school of literature.) Small dolls upheld by light strings would be poor figures in the heavy armor of knights and in their wild fights. A large, heavy, and solid doll is therefore a matter of necessity for that type of play and, moreover, it must be well under the control of the manipulator, instead of dangling loosely from the ends of swinging strings. It is only the iron rod attached to the head that answers that purpose. In fact, it is this matter of repertoire that explains why the large marionette with the "tringle" was adopted in the north of France instead of the lighter ones that were so popular in Paris. Plays full of action having been chosen, it was necessary to adopt the sort of marionette that could best present them. 2. T H E M A R I O N E T T E T H E A T R E S

a.

OF

AMIENS

Origin

The most famous marionettes in the north of France at one time were those of Amiens. During the period of their greatest popularity, the latter part of the nineteenth century, they were called "cabotins" 4 (pronounced "cabotans" in the Picard dialect), and they, together with their theatre and its paraphernalia, were commonly referred to as "ches cabotans." The research carried on up to the present time has not as yet been able to establish definitely the date of the beginnings of the marionette theatres at Amiens. M. Paul Jeanne and M. Edouard David are the two marionettists 4 Littre: op. cit. He states that the word "cabotin" is derived from the same root as the verb "caboter," meaning " t o sail along the coast." "Cabotin" in modern French means "a strolling player," and has come also to mean "a poor actor." The term has been applied to the marionettes because of the lightness of their character.

[50]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE and scholars who have done the most along that line of study, and they do not hesitate to admit that they are derived from those of Liege. The distance between these two cities is not so great but that the Belgian players may not have presented their shows in that place, and either have established theatres there or influenced others to do so, taking their type of marionette as the model. It is also possible, and very probable, that strolling marionettists from Paris may have brought their theatres to Amiens, but their sort of doll, without the "tringle," did not become fixed there. The preference of the people of Amiens for the repertoire of the marionettes of Liege made it necessary for them to adopt the same heavy doll with the supporting rod. Even if one admits that the marionettes of Liege gave rise to those of Amiens, it is still not settled just when the first acting dolls were presented or the first theatres established there. One can scarcely even approximate the century. If it is safe for M. de Warsage to date the marionettes of Liege back into the Middle Ages, it would be quite as safe to say that those of Amiens began shortly thereafter, or, at the latest, during the sixteenth or seventeenth centuries. However, that is all a matter of guesswork. In this connection, perhaps it may help a little to consider here when the chief character of that stage, the famous Lafleur, first came into being. Having established, at least approximately, the time of his birth, we may be able to make a more correct estimate of the date of the first marionette theatres of Amiens. Μ. H. Daussy, in a speech made at a public meeting of the Academie d'Amiens, December 17, 1876, to which he gave the title of Le Patois picard el Lafleur, said that the first person to create this famous character was a workman of the old city by the name of Louis Bellette, who lived about the beginning of the nineteenth century, and that the original doll was still in the possession of the grandson of its creator. [51]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE M. Edouard David was at first inclined to accept this as the origin of the character of Lafleur and to call him a contemporary of the great Napoleon. However, the costume of this doll, as well as its very name, would indicate even an earlier beginning for him. Lafleur wears the costume of a soldier of the time of Louis X I Y , and his name is one that reminds of those soldiers, servants, and comic types of the stage as early as the reign of Louis X I I I . (It was customary for soldiers and valets during the seventeenth century to adopt such names as La Tulipe, La Rose, La Plante, La Branche, La Fleur, etc.) These observations, combined with the fact that such a complete character as Lafleur must be a growth rather than the creation of one man, led M. David to make further investigations into the origin of this famous personage. In 1906,5 with the aid of M. Delambre, conservator of the Musee d'Amiens, he found in the archives of that institution the trace of a certain real Lafleur who played an important part in an ancient lawsuit at Amiens. It seems that a certain lieutenant in the service of the king, because of a matter of precedence, wished to interfere with a religious procession that was to take place in that city on Assumption day, August 15, 1649. He armed his servants, including his valet Lafleur, and they succeeded in breaking up the procession. However, Lafleur was caught, tried, and executed for his part in the affair. From the facts of this incident M. David seeks to establish the birth of Lafleur as a marionette as coming shortly after the middle of the seventeenth century. The creation of a definite character, such as that of Lafleur, proves the existence of an established theatre rather than shows the beginning of it. So, if we accept the doll of Bellette as the original Lafleur, it is evident that marionette theatres existed at Amiens prior to the nineteenth ' Edouard David: Les Theatres populaires a Amiens. Amiens, Ivert, 1906, p. 56.

[52]

Lafleur esl-il Picard?

THE NORTH OF FRANCE

century. If we accept the theory of M. David, then we must admit the existence of marionette theatres at Amiens well before the middle of the seventeenth century. In our opinion the evidence tends to sustain the earlier of these two possible dates. b.

History

Nothing is known concerning the history of the earliest theatres of Amiens, but since about the beginning of the nineteenth century the character of Lafleur has enjoyed a hundred years or more of continuous popularity.6 M. David states, though, that the oldest marionette theatres of that city of which one has definite knowledge were those of the rue de la Plumette and the rue des Pouliers.7 He does not give any certain dates for them, but seems to assume that they existed towards the middle of the nineteenth century. He states also that at the beginning of the twentieth century there were still about a dozen theatres that flourished there, having among their clientele not only children but also many adults,8 and Maindron names six such theatres that existed in 1906: that of the rue Rigollot, that of the passage du Logis-du-roi, that of the rue GrandVidame, that of the faubourg Saint-Pierre, that of the faubourg de Hem, and that of the rue de l'Uiiion.9 Among the known authors who wrote for the marionette theatres were Gedeon Baril, Leon Gaudefroi, Rene de Soutter, Gaston Bourdon, and Edouard David; and among the known marionettists were Autrique, Bellette, Calmet, Clabout, Dailly (who, upon his deathbed, begged that his marionette of Lafleur be buried with him), Zacharie (called Jacarie), the Barbier brothers, Bernaux, Merrier, Eugene Gacquer, and finally Charles Caron, the only member of this group who still lives.10 6 L. Delannoy (L'Homme de la rue): " Les marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres." In Les Amis de Lille. November 15, 1930, No. 76, pp. 4-5. 7 E. David: op. cii., p. 61. 8 E. David: op. cit., p. 61. 9 Ibid. 10 L. Delannoy: Ibid.

[53]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE We have just mentioned the fact that six marionette theatres still existed at Amiens in 1906, but shortly after that date they all disappeared, perhaps due to the increasing popularity of the moving pictures. In 1912 a first attempt was made to revive Lafleur and his theatre, but it was a failure, and that was the last time that this famous character appeared on the public stage.11 During the years of the World War he aroused no interest at all, but since about 1920 there has been a steadily increasing enthusiasm for Lafleur at Amiens on the part of the historians of the stage. Thanks to M. Paul Jeanne, M. Edouard David, M. Ott, and to other amateurs of marionettes and of folklore, a society called " L e s Amis de Lafleur" has been formed to keep alive the interest in this traditional character. 12 Through the efforts of these friends of Lafleur several detailed studies into his history have been made. So far no new public theatre has been established where Lafleur may act, but each year he is revived on the stage, even though a private stage, for six or eight performances, and always as the perennial hero. Whether or not he will ever acquire a new popularity with the people, in competition with the modern cinema, Lafleur is for the present at least in no danger of being forgotten by the marionette amateurs of Amiens. c. Construction of the Dolls We now come to the study of the more tangible side of the marionettes of Amiens, and we begin by a brief description of the physical appearance of these dolls. They ranged in height from twenty to twenty-four inches, with some lesser figures even smaller than that. They had the supporting rod firmly fastened in the top of the head, similar to the marionettes of Liege, but they differed from these latter in having strings attached to their arms in order to facilitate their movements. Furthermore, in the case of " u

Ibid. Ibid.

[54]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE Lafleur, the strings went to the legs as well, for he had to be a very active and agile marionette, and the full use of his legs was an important part of his acting. d. Organization

of the

Theatres

The marionette theatres of Amiens were generally on the ground floor of some house. One entered by a narrow passageway into a hall varying in size from forty to a hundred square yards. The stage, from fifteen to thirty square meters in size, was at one end of this hall. The walls were generally whitewashed, with floral designs painted by the owner. The seats were usually long wooden benches. The hall was lighted by the footlights of the stage and by a luster of wrought iron in which oil lamps burned. On the curtain of the stage was an inevitable painted vase of flowers surmounted by the motto: "Castigat ridendo mores." 13 Plays were given at the theatres in the evenings, except during the summer months. It was customary to send out a group of children into the neighborhood to announce the program on the streets, with the understanding that each child who could bring in ten others would receive his ticket free. The price of admission was generally one or two sous. Each play began with an announcement by a character with whom we have already made friends—Monsieur Polichinelle—who had no other part than that in any of the performances. The children would cry: " Α Γ gla'iade" (ä la glissade), because Polichinelle glided instead of walking —he evidently had no strings to his legs—and then he would appear before the curtain to announce the play by a speech like the following: Bonsoir ä tous ces messieurs, Ces dam's et ces demoiselles; Nous arrivons tout joyeux, Lafleur et Polichinelle, 13

E. David: op. cit., p. 3.

[55]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Qui vont vous rendre contents Par tant de choses nouvelles; Vous serez parfaitement Saisfaits pour votre argent. Nous nous sommes embetes De ne recevoir personne; C'etait la faute de l'ete. Void revenu l'automne, Et si vous etes contents Des soirees que l'on vous donne, Donnez vos applaudissements Et venez nous voir souvent. Chorus. (Sung by all) Pan! pan! Qui est la? C'est monsieur Polichinelle!14

After such a prologue came the long evening performance, two or three hours for a penny. The performance of the evening generally began with a melodrama, but this could be supplanted by a comedy, a comic opera, or even a grand opera. However, the second part of the program was always the more popular, for then came the farce, known as the " bouffondrie" (bouffonerie), in which the beloved Lafleur always appeared. The third part of the evening's performance seems to have been a sort of anticlimax, but it assured every one of his money's worth. It consisted generally of a "metamorphose," which was a simple kind of show in which a small flat figure of one shape was hidden behind a larger flat figure of another shape, such as an old lady behind an elephant. When the director stamped his foot, the front figure would disappear, leaving the second in sight, thereby creating the illusion that the former had been changed into the latter. This was indeed a poor and uninteresting type of marionette show, if it could even be called such. " Ibid., p. 12.

[56]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE Sometimes, by way of variety, instead of this final " metamorphose," the director would finish his performance by some magic-lantern slides, or, which was better, by some Chinese shadows. 15 e. Lafleur

It has been necessary to speak of Lafleur in many places in this study of the marionette theatres of Amiens, because those theatres were built so closely around his character that they seem to have existed only because of him. At this point, I should like to make a more detailed study of this famous personage. Lafleur is undoubtedly the best-known character among the marionettes of the north of France, and he is second only to Guignol in all of France. Maindron said: "Si Guignol n'existait pas, ce qu'aux dieux ne plaise, le Lafleur amienois serait, sans contredit, le type de marionnette le plus amüsant, le plus parfait que la province ait produit." 16 I have mentioned above how a living Lafleur was hanged in 1649 for his interference with an Assumption procession. M. David says that it is possible that soon after that incident some marionettist made a play for his dolls, using Lafleur as a character to prove that crime is always punished, and from that beginning was developed the modern personage of the marionette Lafleur. The play was well received, and was repeated, and copied in other marionette theatres. However, one evening some marionettist became inspired to vary the program by permitting Lafleur to get the better of the police. That ending gave rise to such enthusiasm in the audience that from that day the new hero has always ended his play by winning his struggle with the magistrates, the police, and the hangman. 17 M. David's idea of the origin of the character of Lafleur is ingenious, but as plausible as any other. At least, the character 16

E. David: op. cit., p. 56. E. Maindron: op. cit., p. 245. 17 E. David: op. cit., p. 59. 18

[57]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE of Lafleur has become so firmly established that the people always expect him to win against the authorities in the end. It happened once that an imprudent marionettist wished to change this usual denouement. The gendarmes led Lafleur away to prison and the curtain fell. There was immediately a frightful storm of cries and tumult on the part of the audience, so that the director had to bring Lafleur back onto the stage and permit him to beat and to kick the gendarmes more than usual, to the great joy of the victorious public.18 Lafleur may have been created to prove that crime never pays, but he has certainly come to represent the power of the people over the established authority. Admitting that a human Lafleur gave the inspiration for the character of the marionette Lafleur, it was not possible for the former to give the complete and rounded character of the latter. That has been a matter of gradual development. M. David decides reluctantly that Lafleur is not entirely a native of Picardy, on the ground that his immediate marionette-ancestor is Polichinelle, who is a native of Italy. However, to carry the matter further, Polichinelle is a descendant of the Roman Maccus. As has been stated before, Maccus is the common ancestor of Polichinelle, Harlequin, Lafleur, Guignol, and all the comic characters of every locality. Nevertheless, each of these comic figures is different, each represents a different humor, each typifies the locality in which he lives. If these comic personages are not natives of their respective districts, they are, at least, individual to their localities—naturalized citizens, so to speak. Lafleur is to that extent a native of Picardy and of Amiens. I have spoken above of the dress of Lafleur as being an evidence of his early origin. There are two distinctive uniforms for him, and these two costumes have become traditional. The marionette of Bellette, mentioned above, shows him in his long red velvet military coat, his white 18

Daussy: Le Patois picard el Lafleur.

[58]

Amiens, I vert, 1877.

THE NORTH OF FRANCE shirt with fringed collar and cuffs, his red breeches and white stockings, and his three-cornered hat with broad, turned-up brims. One of the most essential peculiarities of Lafleur is his famous pigtail, which he wears twisted above his hat, tied with a small bow. (It is highly probable that Guignol adopted his famous " sarsifis " from Lafleur.) A later marionette than t h a t of Bellette has somewhat modified this elaborate and militaristic uniform. The long coat became shorter, with a multi-colored waistcoat; and the white stockings became striped with red. The military tricorne hat was changed to a large peasant's hat, but the pigtail of Lafleur remained the same, and his character. In fact, the personage of Lafleur is to a very great extent a complete summary of the Picard character. He is always gay and always in good humor, sparkling with wit. He loves to eat—so much so that once, believing his wife to be dead, he cried: " E j sus si tellemeint malheureux, que j' creuve d' fan." (Je suis tellement malheureux que je creve de faim.) His probity is not always unquestionable, but he is usually true to his friends. He is talkative to excess, speaking always in the thickest of Picard dialects (a necessary element of his humor), but he always combines good sense with his gaiety. He is kind and generous, slow in his decisions and rough in his actions, patient and enduring in suffering, but terrible in anger, and always a keen lover of equality and liberty. Finally, Lafleur is the winner in every battle, whether of wits or of fists, and in the latter sort of fight he does not use the proverbial club of Polichinelle or of the English Punch, but only his fists and his feet. We shall see in the pieces to be cited how Lafleur wins his battle to end the play. Every "bouffondrie" must end with a fight, either against the police or against some other recognized authority, with Lafleur in his victorious pose—his ironclad foot on the level with his face—as he watches his retreating enemies. [59]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE / . Some Minor Characters Many other characters aside from Lafleur have become traditional with the marionette theatres of Amiens. 19 The closest of Lafleur's friends is Blaise, although he began to appear on the stage as a definite character only about the middle of the past century. He is a young workman of a timid and naive character who worships Lafleur as his god. It is he who often suggests to the latter the ideas, good or bad, which he puts into action. A second companion of Lafleur was Popaul Colicot, whose peculiarities were his excessively large head and his stuttering speech. Two more companions were Papa Cucu, a small figure about half the size of Lafleur, and Lapointe, both of whom appeared very late. Lafleur also had a wife who managed to find some place with him in each of his "bouffondries," although some marionettists would never concede him the privilege of one. Those who did give Lafleur a wife called her by various names: Clemence, Gertrude, Adele, Martine, or Aglae. However, about 1895, through the efforts of M. David, the wife of Lafleur came to be known by the single name of Sandrine, a pretty diminutive of Alexandrine. g. Repertoire Unfortunately, very few examples of the plays presented by the marionettes of Amiens remain in existence. It was customary for the manipulators to learn their lines, generally after having composed them, without putting them in writing. In some cases the names of the plays have been remembered, but in other cases only the type of play produced seems to have been kept. At first the melodrama of the evening was based upon some of the old French epics, or upon some old local legend. I have not been able to find any definite example of this sort of play, but, according to M. Paul Jeanne, Ourson et " F o r all this matter of the companions of Lafleur, see E. David: Les Compagnons de Lafleur. Paris, 1927.

[60]

T H E N O R T H OF FRANCE Valentin must have been one of them, for it was common to the dolls of Amiens, Lille, Roubaix, and Liege. Later this melodrama became based upon the romantic novels of dramas of the time. Michel Strogoff, La Princesse Elisa, Cyrano de Bergerac, and Richard Coeur-de-lion were the names of some of the plays of this type that are still remembered, though not in print. I t is also known that during the latter half of the nineteenth century these marionettes began to adopt the repertoire of the local theatres, so that they had a great variety of comedies, comic operas, and grand operas to choose from. M . David tells of the opera Si j'etais roi by Adam (1803-1856) being played by these dolls, with Lafleur in the role of Zephoris.20 However, these last two types of plays fell into disuse during the last quarter of the past century.21 One of the reasons why these first plays of the evening are so little known now is that they never acquired the importance at Amiens that the same play had at Lille and at Roubaix. Lafleur was the attraction of the evening and, although it was common for him to do so, he did not necessarily appear in these melodramas or operas. The treat of the evening was the second part of the program, the "bouffondrie," in which Lafleur inevitably appeared, and these farces are much better remembered. The sources of the plots of the " bouffondries" were almost limitless. One of the favorite places for gaining material for them was from the old fabliaux of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but the subjects were also chosen from the fables of La Fontaine, from the fairy tales of Perrault, from the comedies of Moliere, from Aesop's fables, or from any other source where such humor might be obtained—or they might be entirely original.22 Regardless of the time or place from which the plot was taken, it was always adapted to the Picard humor, with the leading E. David: Les Theatres populaires, etc., p. 16. Ibid., p. 15. 22 Ibid., p. 21.

20

21

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE roles sufficiently changed to fit the characters of Lafleur and his companions, and with local color as one of the very important features.23 It was not common for these " bouffondries " to be written and preserved, as they, like the melodramas, were generally composed by the marionettist himself, and the lines spoken impromptu, with great cleverness and skill. It was only during the last few years of the existence of these theatres that some of the plays were edited. Most of these printed editions are by M. David, and include the following names: El Balaille d' Querriu, pieche militaire ein 2 actes, 1891; Lafleur ou le Valet picard, comedie picard en 1 acte, 1901; Lafleur ein service, comedie picarde en 1 acte, 1902; Ech' Pardon, comedie picarde en 1 acte, 1923; Pou ch' VEinfant, (suite) en 1 acte, 1923; Grand'mere, (deuxieme suite) en i acte, 1925; Ch' vieux Lafleur, sa resureclion et sa re—mort, fantasie locale en 3 tableaux, 1926. Also the well-known and very original " bouffondrie" of Ch' nana, 1904, by G. Baril is to be found in print. Sometimes during the Christmas season religious plays would replace the usual farce. However, no religious play was ever complete without a role for Lafleur. We find him playing an important part in one of these Christmas plays in U Nais sainche ed Veinjant Jesus, by Edouard David. In that play the curtain goes up on the manger scene, with the three kings offering their gifts to Joseph and Mary who are watching over the Infant Jesus, while the guiding star shines above. Suddenly Lafleur enters with his gift. He tells Joseph that he has heard how Jesus was born in a manger with no place to lay his head, so he has brought him a wicker bed that he has taken from his own children. He apologizes that the bed is not in better condition, but Mary and Joseph accept his gift with sincere thanks. Lafleur picks up the little Jesus and plays with him till Mary has to take him from the room. While she is attending to 23 Ibid.

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THE

N O R T H OF

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her child, L a f l e u r asks the k i n g s t o help him p u t up the bed, and scolds t h e m s o u n d l y f o r their ignorance of such practical affairs. T h e news c o m e s t h a t Herod has sent soldiers to kill the C h i l d Jesus. L a f l e u r calms M a r y ' s fears b y telling her t h a t he will p r o t e c t the H o l y Child. W h e n the soldiers a r r i v e on the scene, Lafleur defeats t h e m all in a hand-to-hand conflict. M a i n d r o n , in his v e r y brief chapter on the marionettes of Amiens, 2 4 g i v e s a p a r t of the t e x t of one of these " bouffondries," El Langue ed ches famnes, w i t h o u t mentioning the n a m e of t h e a u t h o r or t h e d a t e of the p l a y . I take the liberty of t r a n s l a t i n g it here, inserting here and there samples of the original P i c a r d dialect, j u s t as M a i n d r o n gives it. (entering and throwing himself worn out on a bench)— Ah, Clemence, what a great misfortune has just befallen me! I am entirely exhausted because of it. CLEMENCE—What's the matter, Lafleur, old dear? You look exceedingly worried. (Quoi qu'i gno, Lafleur, min pauv' eher homme, t'os l'air tout decompose?) LAFLEUR—What's the matter? The matter is that—but no, I shan't tell you or you will have me hanged. CL£XIENCE—Come, Lafleur, it can't possibly be so grave that you can't tell me. Have you perhaps strangled that "cadoreux" ? (Sergent de ville) LAFLEUR—No, Clemence; it is perhaps even worse than that. CL£MENCE—You frighten me to death, Lafleur. LAFLEUR—There's a reason for it, you'll see, my poor Clemence. CLfeMENCE—But, come now, what is it? LAFLEUR—You absolutely won't tell? CLEMENCE—Why no, of course not; never fear. LAFLEUR—The fact is t h a t — b u t first, Clemence, close those shutters and that doorway to this room. Close everything. Sometimes people hear us. (Queque fois qu'o nous einteinche.) Is that all right ? (Clemence goes to close everything while Lafleur laments.) LAFLEUR

CLEMENCE—Yes, Lafleur. 24

E. Maindron: op. cit., p. 251.

[63]

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LAFLEUR—You absolutely won't tell anybody ? It's a matter of life and death for me. CLEMENCE—No, I swear on my word of honor. (She starts to put her finger to her chin, and then she spits.) Here, wait, my finger isn't clean. LAFLEUR—Look out of that door and tell me if there is anyone listening to us. (She goes to look out and then makes a sign that there isn't anybody around.) This is what is the matter . . . (Pleading) But you absolutely won't tell anyone? . . . (Continuing) Listen, . . . this morning I had climbed up into a tree to get some branches, seeing that it is the season when they cut them . . . (Hesitating) Clemence, listen at the door again . . . Look out. (She goes to the door and listens, and then returns.) . . . (Continuing) There was a fine large one that I couldn't quite reach, when the idea came to me to stretch out on another branch to reach it . . . (Pleading) Clemence, you absolutely won't tell anyone? . . . (Continuing) Then there happened by, by chance, a priest who was walking . . . I was cutting and cutting with great blows of my ax, when all of a sudden the branch breaks . . . (Hesitating) Clemence . . . I hear somebody walking at our door. Oh, oh, oh! I am lost! (Looking out, terribly frightened)—No, Lafleur, it's your imagination. LAFLEUR—When all of a sudden the branch breaks, and I fall through the air. I land on the ground, and I feel myself all over . . . I was lucky, for I hadn't broken or smashed anything. But, suddenly, upon getting up . . . You absolutely won't tell anybody? . . . upon getting up . . . Clemence, look out of the door and listen . . . Oh, I shall never have the courage to finish my story. CLEMENCE—Come, Lafleur, I beg you, I beseech you, continue. LAFLEUR—You promise me not to tell a word? (She makes a sign that she won't.) Upon getting up I found that I had s—s—sma—smashed that priest. I buried him so that nobody will see anything. CLEMENCE—Oh, heavens, Lafleur, you are lost. The police will come to arrest you. LAFLEUR—Give me a rope, Clemence, I'm going to hang myself. CLEMENCE

[64]

T H E NORTH OF FRANCE (Donn'-me einn' corde, Clemence, ej vos m' peinde.) What do you think of it? . . . A priest! (He goes up to the attic.) CLEMENCE (AS some one knocks at the door)—Hello, Yictoire. YICTOIRE—Hello, Clemence. Why what's the matter with you? Your eyes are all red. You have been crying. Can Lafleur be ill? CLEMENCE—No, Yictoire; if it were only that it wouldn't be anything. (Si gn'avoit qu' cho, cho n' s'roit rien.) YICTOIRE—What's the matter then? (Quoi qu' ch'est qu'i gno done ?) CL6MENCE—I can't tell you, Victoire; Lafleur doesn't want me to. YICTOIRE—Bosh! Between women? If one can't tell her little secrets . . . And, anyway, I'd never go and tell Sandrine, nor Clarisse, nor Lalde, for they have wagging tongues. CLEMENCE—Do you promise me that? YICTOIRE—Of course I promise you. CLEMENCE—You won't change your mind? LAFLEUR (from the attic)—Clemence, be sure not to tell anything. CLEMENCE—Well, this morning Lafleur as—sas—si—nated . . . a priest! VICTOIRE—Oh, the scoundrel! Oh, the brigand! He will never be able to esca . . . Well, I haven't any more time now, Clemence; my supper is late, and I must stop at the butcher shop first. All that I can do is to pity you. CLEMENCE—You absolutely won't tell anybody? VICTOIRE—Don't be afraid, Clemence. Things are bad enough already. (Ch'est bien assez malhureux.) LAFLEUR (from the attic)—Be sure not to tell anything. The rest is easily guessed, of course. Victoire tells her little story to all the other women, and so it goes from mouth to mouth. An hour later the guards descend upon Lafleur's home. Clemence, naturally, swears by all the gods t h a t she has said nothing. Finally Lafleur tells t h a t he wanted to test the tongue of his wife, and t h a t the priest t h a t he killed was only a butterfly, of the kind that bears t h a t name. The guards, though, won't believe t h a t sort of story and [65]

MARIONETTES IN

FRANCE

start to take Lafleur away. The latter, however, jumps on them and beats them off, as usual. 3. THE MARIONETTE THEATRES OF LILLE

a.

Origin

One cannot use the hero of the marionettes of Lille to estimate the date of the origin of their theatres there, as could be done in regard to those of Amiens. The name of this hero was Jacques, but the date of his birth is far more uncertain than that of Lafleur. Even the century in which he was born is unknown. The earliest authentic knowledge of Jacques dates back only to 1845, but he was a well-known personage at that time.25 The beginnings of this marionette must then go back before that date, and the theatre in which he was born must go back farther still, but to what date cannot be determined. It has already been mentioned that there were marionettists who gave their shows in Lille as early as 1771, but these were only strolling players who appeared at the fairs, and there is certainly no indication that they had Jacques for their hero. It is just possible that these manipulators may have inspired some men of Lille to establish permanent theatres of acting dolls, in which the character of Jacques later became developed. One thing, though, is certain; such a personage cannot be created in a moment, and many years would be needed to make him so popular as to become common to all the theatres of one city. For that reason it would be quite easy to assume that theatres existed already in Lille when these marionettists made application to show their dolls there. Furthermore, many of these manipulators were from Paris, but it was not the Paris type of doll that became established at Lille. M. Paul Jeanne and M. Delannoy are agreed that the marionettes of Lille are derived from those » L. Delannoy: op. cit., Dec. 1, 1930, no. 77, p. 8.

[66]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE of Liege, and their construction and repertoire confirm that belief. It may well have been that marionettists from Liege introduced their theatres into Lille at about the same time as they introduced them into Amiens. If this be so, then marionette theatres probably became established at Lille during the seventeenth century, if not earlier. b.

History

The marionette theatres of Lille were generally known by the name of "Γ Comedie." Their owners were not professional players but laborers who exploited their shows when they were not busy with their trades. No definite information is at hand concerning these workmen-manipulators prior to the middle of the nineteenth century. M. Delannoy mentions a certain Cesar as the first known marionettist at Lille, and reproduces an old cut of his theatre.26 He also tells of Charles Muller, whose dolls played in the rue de Bourdeau from 1878 to 1888, but later moved to the rue Mahieu. Another well-known manipulator of the latter part of the past century was Vasseur, who had a theatre for many years in the rue de Poids. Old Fieuw, with his son, had his "Theatre d'Artagnan" in the rue Fombelle. In the rue des Etaques was a theatre called " Au gran Quinquin," in the rue de Fives was "Γ Comedie Frangos," and in the rue de la Vignette "Γ Comedie Duthoit." 27 Ledoux displayed his dolls in the rue des Bouffiers, and there were other theatres on the quai du Wault, in the rue SaintCatherine, and in the cour Jeannette-a-Vaches. Other known marionettists were Louis Poire-Cuite, Lesaint,28 and Frangois.29 Auguste Delmotte also mentions Vasseur as having a theatre in the rue Wicar.30 One of the best raa26

L. Delannoy: op. cit., March 1, 1931, no. 83, p. 9. Ibid., March 15, 1931, no. 84, p. 9. 28 Ibid. 29 Maury: "Les Marionnettes picardes." In the Revue April, 1928, p. 71. 30 A. Delmotte: " L e s Marionnettes de Lille." In the Revue Feb., 1929, p. 59. 27

[67]

Seplenlrionale. Septenlrionale.

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE nipulators was a certain " Cheo." He played all of his dolls alone, male as well as female roles, and his hall was usually crowded because he was an artist in all lines of the work.31 All this refers to the last quarter of the nineteenth century, but several theatres continued to operate during the first years of the present century. Maindron says that there were six in his time.32 Also the press of Lille mentions the name of Georges Messing, a manipulator, who shared in its lottery in 1905, without stating whether or not he was still showing his dolls.33 The last of the important marionettists of Lille was a certain Nassez. He had a theatre in the rue Saint-Sauveur about 1892, but, in an attempt to revive the waning interest in the little wooden actors, he moved in 1900 into a more elaborate theatre on the second floor of a large building in the rue du Croquet. While he continued to play he enjoyed great popularity, but with him died, for a while at least, the interest in the famous Jacques of Lille.34 Several attempts have been made in recent years to revive in that city the interest in their old marionettes, but so far they have ended chiefly in lectures and articles about them, without any revival of the old theatres or the old dolls. The societies of " L e s Amis de Lille" and " L e s Rosati," which are so enthusiastic about all matters of local folklore, have done much to call attention to the importance of these former marionette theatres, and it is to be hoped that their efforts will be rewarded. At least, they have succeeded in causing several shows to be given in Lille by the marionettists of other towns and, as will be seen later, in one performance the little Morveux of Roubaix welcomed to the stage again his old colleague, Jacques of Lille. M. Delannoy, in his splendid article on these marionettes, speaks with regret of the change of conditions that has Manuscript letter from Leopold Richard. E. Maindron: op. eil., p. 254. " Maury: Ibid. M L. Delannoy: Ibid.

31 a

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May 18, 1932.

THE NORTH OF FRANCE caused the dolls of Lille to lose their popularity so that they have finally disappeared. 35 He shows how well the plays and the stories of the Romantic school of French literature were adapted to these little actors of wood. As long as the taste for such literature stayed with the people these dolls remained popular, and the large type of marionette was especially suitable for that type of play. However, with the coming of the Realistic and Naturalistic schools, mental action took the place of physical action, and psychology was substituted for swordplay. The new dramas and the new novels did not offer the sort of material that these acting dolls could reproduce, and, as the taste of the people changed towards the psychological action, the popularity of the marionettes gradually lessened, until they were forced to abandon the stage that they had held for so many years. With the failure of Nassez, and with the keen rivalry of the moving pictures, the history of the marionettes of Lille comes to a close. c. Construction

of the Dolls

The marionettes of Lille were larger than those of Amiens. They were generally about thirty-six inches tall, like the dolls of Liege from which they were derived. They had the iron supporting rod, as did those of Amiens and Liege, but this rod was made fast to a small iron ring set in the head, instead of being fastened to the head itself. Since the head was jointed with the body, it could be moved separately, and this loose manner of fastening the supporting rod made possible a more free manipulation of the doll. Four strings, one to each arm and each leg, were attached to a wooden balance at the other end of the "tringle." Recause of this construction a single manipulator could handle two dolls at the same time, but two assistants were generally needed during the course of a play. The three of them recited the lines for the figures as they made them »Ibid., May 1, 1931, no. 85, p. 4.

[69]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE perform. These marionettes were most commonly made of wood or stuffed cloth, with wooden heads into which glass eyes were set. The hands were also made of wood, and the right hand was always made partially closed in such a way as to be able to hold a sword, a dagger, or a club when necessary—which was often. It is peculiar that in Lille there were at least two professional makers of marionettes who furnished the dolls for most of the theatres. 36 There was a Belgian whose name is not known, and a Frenchman named Leonard, who were very skilled in that art. They charged about ten francs for the simplest sort of figure. It is strange to find manipulators purchasing their dolls ready-made, for in most places it is considered a disgrace for one not to create all his own marionette theatre. To operate a show with any variety of repertoire, it was necessary to have at least twenty marionettes. Vasseur is known to have had eighty of them, whose value amounted to a small fortune for a laborer of his time. 37 d. Organization

of the

Theatres

The greater part of these old marionette theatres of the latter part of the nineteenth century were in "caves"; that is, in underground rooms with narrow steps leading down from the sidewalks. Most of them were rather dismal places, and not always too clean. M. Delmotte cites the following poem sung by the children of Lille: On va chez Ledoux, On attrape des poux, Et on passe s' soiree A toudis gratter. However, all the theatres could not have been so bad as that of Ledoux, for M. Delmotte cites again: 34 37

L. Delannoy: op. eit., March 1, 1931, no. 83, p. 10. Ibid.

[70]

T H E N O R T H OF FRANCE On va chez Muller, Un sou ch' n'est point quer, Et on passe s' soiree A bien rigoler.38 The poorly lighted hall was filled with plain wooden benches, divided into two sections by a narrow aisle, one side for the boys and the other for the girls—so as to assure the good conduct of the young members of the audience.39 There were generally two performances each week at these theatres. On Sunday evenings four acts especially for children were presented, at the cost of one sou. On Monday evenings the performance was for adults, and long melodramas, some of which had to be continued through several weeks, were played. Many theatres, such as that of Nassez, gave another performance on Tuesday evenings, especially for students.40 All of them have gala programs on holidays. The shows were sometimes announced by hand-written and hand-illustrated posters pasted on the entrance ways. I t was more common, however, to have a few children cry the evening's program through the neighboring streets.41 Although a definite time for the performance was announced, it was not usual for the curtain to go up until the theatre was full. I t is told that at Nassez's it was customary for the curtain to rise very slowly, in the hopes that the children would cease their noise before it was entirely raised. If this noise continued too long, the director would put his head out from behind the curtain and cry in the Picard dialect: " S i vous vous taijez point, j ' m'in vas abacher Γ rideau et cha comp'tra pour un a c t e " — ( I f you don't shut up, I am going to lower the curtain, and that will count for one act).42 A. Delmotte: Ibid. L. Delannoy: op. eil., March 15, 1931, no. 84, p. 9. 40 A. Delmotte: Ibid. « Ibid. ° Ibid., p. 62. 59

39

[71]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Whereas at Amiens Polichinelle announced the play to be presented, this honor at Lille was given to Jacques. As well as announcing the play of the evening, he w ould very often make a plea for extra gifts from his audience, which would result in a shower of pennies or fruits or cakes—the latter of which were sometimes resold to the audience during the long intermission.43 During the intermissions, when some of the theatres presented a special amusement, others sold cakes and candies through the audience in order to gain a few extra sous.44 The special feature of each program was a romantic drama or melodrama, adapted to the marionettes and given in a thick Picard dialect. The play might vary in length from four to eight acts, sufficient to fill an evening, or it might be of so many acts that it would have to be continued over a period of several weeks. (The play Borgia ou les Aventures du chevalier Ragastens had 110 acts, and Nassez played Les Quatre fils Aymon as a drama in 268 tableaux.) 45 Although most of the marionette theatres of Lille gave a one-act comedy after the drama of the evening, this "bamboche" never acquired there the importance of the " bouffonerie " at Amiens. Very little is known about these comedies, for they were simple and unimportant, created just to make the children laugh. They usually consisted of a struggle between Jacques and the gendarmes. They seem to have been dropped entirely a little before the end of the past century. e. Jacques Jacques was the chief and favorite character of the marionettes of Lille. As has been stated before, nothing is known of his origin, but he was a well-known and fully developed character in 1845. As a doll he was not very elaborate, but was usually dressed in a short red jacket with 43

Ibid., p. 63. " L. Delannoy: op. cil., March 15, 1931, no. 84, p. 8. a Ibid.

[72]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE two rows of large buttons, knee breeches of the same color, white stockings, and a soft two-cornered hat.46 His face was always round, with bright red cheeks, and wide-open eyes. By his mechanical construction Jacques was a descendant of the marionettes of Liege. By his character he was a descendant of the Roman Maccus, and more immediately, of Polichinelle. He was, however, sufficiently different from any of his ancestors as to be a unique and typical character of the city of Lille. Jacques was, like Polichinelle, a comic fellow, but he was far more respectable and honorable than the latter. He was always an upright and decent person, and one of his most shining virtues was his perpetual loyalty and devotion to his master. Nearly every play of the marionette theatres of Lille was constructed so as to give Jacques an important role, and in each it is he who entered into the midst of all the action, who saved his master in every difficult situation, and who defeated the agents of crime, injustice, or dishonor. In spite of the comical side of his character, it was he who gave to the marionettes of Lille their chief moral theme: that of the punishment of crime, and the triumph of right over wrong.47 In speaking of these servant-heroes of the marionette theatres one is often reminded of the valet-heroes of the Moliere comedies, and it might be of interest here to make a very brief comparison of the two. It is obvious, to begin with, that the immortal characters of Mascarille and Scapin are more brilliant, more clever, more generally talented than the humble servants of the marionette theatres, but still there is a noticeable similarity between them. Two outstanding characteristics of the Mascarille of LElourdi are his extreme ability to improvise new and unusual tricks, and his loyalty to his master. These two points are found " 47

Ibid. Ibid.

[73]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE also in the character of Jacques of Lille, but Jacques is far more moral than Mascarille. On the other hand, Lafleur of Amiens more nearly resembles Moliere's Scapin because of the intelligence of his foolishness, the originality of his lies, his generosity towards his friends, and his love of food. Although I mention only briefly these points of similarity, there is such a likeness between Jacques and Mascarille and between Lafleur and Scapin that we might expect either of these marionette-heroes to cry out in the renowned words of Mascarille: " Fourbum imperator!" / . Some Minor

Characters

Jacques had several intimate companies, but these varied a little according to the theatres. Sometimes his immediate friend was Capiau-Gris (Chapeau-Gris), a rather simple fellow who imitated all his gestures and answered all his questions, 48 and sometimes it was Trifouillard, the cousin of Jacques, who was not unlike Capiau-Gris in character and actions.49 The other dolls varied according to the play presented, but the young master of Jacques was generally Valentin, who was also the " jeune premier." 50 Very often there was the part of a giant, the villain of the play, who was so tall that his head could not be seen on the small stage, but whom Jacques always defeated, even if he had to stand in the air to deliver the deadly blow.51 In some of the theatres it was Jacques alone who spoke patois, but in others all the characters, even the kings and duchesses, used the Picard dialect. 52 g.

Repertoire

The repertoire of the marionette theatres of Lille was a large one, but the plays of which it consisted might almost "

Ibid.

" A. Delmotte:

Ibid.

»Ibid. " Ibid., p. 64. 12

E. Maindron: op. cit., p. 257. [74]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE all be classified as romantic drama. More specifically, this repertoire was drawn from about six different sources: French literature, French history and legend, local history and legend, biblical history, the plays of the Grand-Theatre of Lille, and simply the imagination of the marionettists." Usually the author took the original story or play and adapted it or varied it according to his wishes or ability. There were obtainable at this time editions of the French and foreign classics, known as the " Bibliotheque nationale," that could be purchased for twenty-five centimes a volume, and it was from these that many copied their plots. The following is a list of some of the better-known plays and stories of French and English literature that were thus adapted: Othello, Oberon, and Les joyeuses commeres de Windsor, by Shakespeare; Le Malade imaginaire, by Moliere; La Belle au bois dormant, by Perrault; Les Voyages de Gulliver, by Swift; Ruy Bias, Marion Delorme, Hernani, and Le Roi s'amuse, by Victor Hugo; Kean, Urbain Grandier, La Reine Margot, Le Gentilhomme de la Montagne, Georges le mulatre, Intrigue el amour, Le Comte Hermann, La Tour Saint-Jacques-la-Boucherie, Catilina, and La Tour de Nesles, by Dumas pere and his collaborators; Le Verre d'eau, by Scribe; Vaulrin, by Balzac; Mauprat, by George Sand; La Bohemienne de Paris, by Lemoine and Paul de Kock; Cleopätre, by Emile de Girardin; Le Fils du diable, by Paul Feval; Echec at mat, by Octave Feuillet; La Jeunesse du roi Henri, by Ponson du Terrail; La Belle et la bete, by Bayard and Varier; Le Tour du monde en 80 jours, and Les Enfants du capitaine Grant, by Jules Verne; Patrie, by Sardou; Guillaume Tell; La Tentation de Saint-Antoine; Valentin et Ourson; and Ali Baba (with the forty thieves reduced to three). Plays taken from the history and legend of France were innumerable, but the favorites were those dealing with the musketeers of the seventeenth century. Such plays were M

For all this matter of plays, see Delannoy, Maury, and Delmotte.

[75]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE based oil Les Trois Mousquetaires, Vingt Ans apres, Le vicomte de Bragelonne, etc. The story of Jeanne d'Arc was also popular in this classification. Of the plays based on local legend I can find only one, Lyderic et Phinaert, but many others that drew their plots from local tradition, with local heroes, must have existed. Some of the plays taken from biblical sources were: Joseph vendu par ses freres (common to every theatre of Lille), UEchelle de Jacob, Le Sacrifice rf'Abraham, and Le Jugement de Salomon. It is to be noted, though, that on the marionette stage of Lille one never saw plays based on the birth or crucifixion of Christ, although such plays were so common with the marionettes of Amiens and Liege. Among the plays copied from the repertoire of the GrandTheatre of Lille, and adapted to suit the dolls were: Latude ou Trente-cinq ans de captivite, by Pixerecourt; Les Crochets du pere Martin, by Erckmann-Chatrian; Le Bossu ou le petit parisien, by Auguste Bourgeois; Les deux Orphelines, Le Juif-errant, and Les mysteres de Paris, by Eugene Sue; Trente ans ou la Vie d'un joueur; Le Vieux Caporal; Les Pirates de la Savane; Marie-Jeanne ou la Femme du peuple; La Porteuse de pain; Le Courrier de Lyon; and Marceau ou les Enfants de la Republique. The plays drawn from the imagination of the marionettists were also innumerable. Charles Muller wrote more than 150 plays, and Nassez wrote as many. Among these original plays were: Les Brigands du Pont-rouge, Le Messager du Paradis, Le Somnambule de Paris, Les Mousquetaires gris, Le Pont des soupirs, Les Vengeurs, Les Mousquetaires du Cardinal, Guillaume Bras-de-fer dans les montagnes d'Ecosse, Le Masque de fer, Les Mysteres du souterrain, Lucrece Borgia, Le Poison des Borgia, La Vengeance d'un fils, La Fee aux etoiles d'or, La Fee Carabosse, Croquemirlitontaine, Les Prodiges de Passe-Lacet, Les Tribulations de Μ. et Mme Pipelet, Le Secret des moines, La Nouvelle Mascotte, and Bartholo le pecheur. [76]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE This list of borrowed and original plays gives more than a fair idea of the repertoire of the marionettes of Lille, but the mere names are not sufficient to show how these plays were changed and adapted to suit the little theatres in which they were presented. Two points must be remembered: these plays were generally given in the Picard dialect, and it was always necessary to make a role for the comic hero Jacques. The plays, as they were produced, were more the works of the none too scholarly artisans than of the original authors, so t h a t crude and naive passages were abundant. For example, here is a brief but amusing sample of a conversation between Jacques and a princess, when the latter, in prison, was weeping her sad plight: Vous soupirez, princesse? Non, j'arniffe. (Je renifle.) The chief point in the reconstruction of these plays was to make them as dramatic and as melodramatic as possible, w ith plenty of physical action and clever humor for Jacques. The matter of grammatical construction, of local color, or of trueness to life was not nearly so important as was the opportunity for Jacques to use the club with which he always routed his enemies. M. Delannoy has given the synopsis of several of the plays mentioned above, and I take the liberty of translating two of them here, showing occasionally how they appeared in the original Picard dialect. The first is an example of the "drame sombre," Tartary et Minart. F I R S T ACT—Tartary is a general of some foreign country. By his uniform and his heavy whiskers, one might consider him a Russian general. He is in conversation with his wife, and they are complaining of their son who is a good-fornothing and who steals money even from his parents. The father declares energetically t h a t he has had enough of it and that he is going to take some strenuous measures. (In his ignorant dialect he says t h a t he is going to "prind des [77]

MARIONETTES

IN

FRANCE

m'sures coservitives," for "coercitives.") He leaves, and his son arrives. The latter demands that his mother give him a large sum of money, and, when she refuses, he kills her with his dagger. The father Tartary reenters and sees the crime. The son tries to stab him also, but he succeeds in escaping. SECOND ACT—The young Tartary, having accomplished this crime, wanders through the forest. He meets some robbers who are lamenting the loss of their chief who has just been killed. They see Tartary and prepare to kill him, but he stops them, tells them what he has done, and proposes himself as their captain after offering to show them some proofs of his courage. The brigands accept him and he suggests, to celebrate his appointment, that they go that very evening to pillage the chateau of Count Minart. THIRD ACT—Count Minart is in his chateau conferring with his knights, for he wants to purge the country of the band of brigands who are devastating it. A. messenger is announced, and he tells his servant Jacques to bring him in. (Va ouvert et fais rinter ichi la personne qui intre.) The messenger is introduced, and he states that the father Tartary is about to arrive. He also tells of the crimes of the son of Tartary. The count cries out, " We must purge the world of that abominable scoundrel." (Y faut purger Γ monte d' cheull' abominable canall'.) However, the father Tartary, who has just arrived, declares that he pardons his son, and begs Minart to hold better feelings towards him. Minart pledges his word and gives to the old Tartary two sure guides in order that he may go to seek his boy (aller querre sin garchon), and in order to lead him on the right road. These two guides are Jacques and Capiau-Gris. It is explained to them that they are to go to seek Tartary (qu'ils vont chercher Tartary), but they understand that they are going to eat some rice tarts (qu'ils vont minger de l'tarte au riz), for which they are very glad and show their joy. [78]

THE

NORTH

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F O U R T H ACT—Jacques and his companion arrive before the cave of the brigands. They ask the guard where it is that they eat the rice tarts. (Et d'uch' qu'on minge de ]' tart' au riz.) The father Tartary arrives and has a conversation with his son whom he reproaches for his crimes, and adds that he is willing to forgive him if he will return with him. The son will not listen to his father, and he finishes by killing him. Then he sounds the call of his troops in order to attack the chateau of Minart. F I F T H ACT—Terrific gun-shots burst out in the wings; it is the battle between the brigands and the friends of Minart. The latter are outnumbered and defeated. Madame Minart arrives with her two "garchons," and the entire company is captured by the bandits. Jacques and CapiauGris have had their share of the action, and they are both wounded and prisoners. " T h a t is a strange rice tart." (Quell' d r o l ' d ' tart' au riz!) S I X T H ACT—Tartary, now the chief of the brigands, falls in love with the beautiful Madame Minart. He declares his love and proposes "Γ mariache" to her. This good lady gives an indignant refusal and curses him in the finest manner while reproaching him for his crimes. This refusal drives the lover wild: "You have a quarter of an hour in which to change your mind, madame, and if in five minutes you don't say yes, I shall have your two sons decapitated." (Vous avez un quart d'heure pour busier, medaime, et si dans chinq minutes, vous n' dites point awi, j' fais coper I' tiet' ä vos deux garchons!) As she will not yield, he himself cuts off the head of the elder son, but the younger escapes. S E V E N T H ACT—Count Minart, who has succeeded in escaping, wanders in the forest. He meets his younger son, who tells him what Tartary has done to his brother. The count swears that he will avenge his son: "Hatred overcomes me! I shall cut off the head of that brigand as he did your brother's!" (La suffocation est envers moi! Je

[79]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE lui cop'rai Γ tete aussi, ä ch' brigand, comme il a cope la chelle ä tin frere!) Then they both leave in search of Tar tar y. E I G H T H ACT—This is the act of vengeance. The bandits, after the pillage of the Minart chateau, have attacked the well-furnished wine cellar. One hears the cry " T h e y are d r u n k " (Y sont rostes), and the brigands allow themselves to be surprised and massacred without protest. Tartary, who sleeps in a corner has his head cut off by Minart—who pushes his body off stage, which permits the marionette's head to be removed and then attached to the hand of the young Minart, who enters and displays it to the public. Madame Minart arrives; she embraces the count, and the curtain goes down while the audience applauds and calls for Jacques. *

*

*

The following play, La Bequille merveilleuse, gives a better idea of the humorous side of Jacque's character and of his ability to accomplish heroic deeds. The curtain of the first act rises on the splendors of the throne room of the royal palace. The king, in a pensive mood, is seated on the throne at the back of the stage, while at his right and left are seated four princes who have come from different countries to ask the hand of his daughter. He is very much bored and embarrassed while each prince in succession gives a long recital of his titles, his exploits, and his riches. The king continues to reflect in a royal attitude, until suddenly he rises, for there has come to him an idea that seems quite clever. There is, he announces, within a few hours march of his palace, a large giant who pillages, kills, and eats all those who pass within his reach, and who spreads terror throughout the land. The prince who will succeed in killing him will have his daughter in marriage. That fine proposition does not seem to appeal to the four suitors who arise and retire nobly with rather stiff strides. [80]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE The second act takes place in the public square. The princes, who do not show themselves very ardent about seeking a quarrel and beginning a fight with the great giant, are holding a conference. One of them sums up the indecision of all by saying: "If it were only a little giant, we could see about it! (Si ch'etot un p'tit geant, on pourrot voir!) Jacques arrives, listens to the conversation, and offers to go himself into the grotto where the enemy holds forth. "We'll see if he is as great as all t h a t ! " he says. (On virra si qu'y est si grand qu' cha!) In the third act Jacques is in the forest in which is found the famous cave. He talks to himself and figures out how he is to go about his task. An old sorceress appears; she descends from the sky astride a wand, for she is a fairy. She listens to Jacques, asks him where he is going, and, after the necessary explanations, as she too bears a grudge against the giant, she gives Jacques her enchanted wand. He has only to strike with it and the giant "querra mort subito." Jacques shows his joy and wishes to embrace the fairy, but she disappears. Jacques is, in the fourth act, before the terrible grotto, and he provokes the giant in the manner of the Greek heroes who apostrophized the Trojans in order to make them come out from their ramparts. (To translate the patois of Jacques at this point would be to take the life from his speech, so I give it here in the original.) "Sors de t' cachette, nicdorille! J' vas t'agroulier, he balou, arland, teigneux! Yiens fair' vir' ichi si t'es point berlou, he greignard! N' fais point tes giries, j ' vas t' faire des badoulets, colas, guervassin, crapeux! T'as p't'ete la drisse, gross' gafe! J ' t ' fais du piche, he, plat-fieu, halbran, imborgneux d' puche, mabre, pana! T'as biau faire rinquinquin, j' t' f'rai demucher, rogneux et t' mingeras des pichaults pa' Γ racine! T'as peur d' bourler dins 1' bedoule, cachiveux!" (Who would not be reminded here somewhat of Rabelais and the amusing string of words that he puts

[81]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE into the mouths of Jean or of Panurge?) The giant comes out of his cavern roaring. Jacques has a good time teasing him and dodging around him. Finally, after making a few passes, he strikes with his magic wand. The giant falls dead, and Jacques comments on his downfall: " T h e r e you are dead, and you won't have a very fancy funeral." ( L ' v'lä mouru, et cha n' f'ra point un gros mort.) In the fifth act, we are back again in the throne room. Jacques recounts his exploit. The king is bothered at the thought of having to give his daughter to a simple servant who has such a stupid air, and tries to get out of a bad bargain by offering, instead of his daughter, a huge reward: a large sum of money and the government of one of his provinces. Jacques accepts on the condition that he himself will have the choice of the prince who will become " Γ bieau garchon" of the king. Everybody is agreed, and he chooses Prince Valentin, his master. The king wishes to give Jacques to boot the Order of the Garter, but he refuses because one would not be able to see it since his jacket reaches below his knee. The spectacle ends with a gorgeous wedding procession, accompanied by the shouts and the songs of the audience. 4. THE MARIONETTE THEATRES OF

a. The Extinct

ROUBAIX

Theatres

The marionette theatres of Roubaix were formerly known by the name of the " T h e ä t ' Boboche," or, more commonly, the " T h e ä t ' d'un sou," as that was the general price of admission. Upon studying the little wooden actors of Roubaix one is struck by a peculiar circumstance. Although there appear to have been there in the past many marionette theatres, only one of them is heard of nowadays. This one, which still exists, seems to have absorbed even the memory of those that are now extinct. T o date I have been able to

[82]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE find almost no records to tell of their beginnings or of their history. The first information on the subject of these extinct theatres comes from the very short article by M. Charles Bodart-Timal on the marionettes of Roubaix.54 He claims that there were at least six or seven in 1905, but that they had all disappeared by 1914. They were generally situated on the ground floor of some house, and the performances, given on Thursdays and on Sundays, were announced, through the streets by selected youngsters. The repertoire consisted of such plays as: Les Brigands de la Foret noire, Le Petit Poucet, Genevieve de Brabant, La Tenlation de SaintAnloine, Les Mousquetaires du roi, etc. Much more important and precise is the information furnished me through the kindness of M. Leopold Richard, the director of the now only existing marionette theatre at Roubaix, whose letter I translate here: Unfortunately, I cannot give you much information about our [his and his father's] colleagues, as most of them had disappeared when I was about sixteen years of age. I have, however, a few memories of them of which I shall tell you. The type of doll, for example, was the same as those of Lille. The repertoire varied according to the ability of the manipulator, who was usually the author, but most of the plays were taken from the works of Paul Feval, Louis Noir, Alexandre Dumas, etc. They gave "cape and sword" dramas, such as: Le Bossu, Les Trois Mousquetaires, etc. There were also some marionettists at the fairs, but they were a class apart, for they did anything to make money, so that they brought disfavor upon the serious manipulators, as the public put them all in the same category. There were at one time at Roubaix about thirty marionette theatres. Some of the older directors live still but, being a little ashamed now of their former profession, they do not wish their names published. I shall point out to you, however, a few of the theatres that I knew by their "noms de guerre." " Charles Bodart-Timal: "Les Marionnettes ä Roubaix." Septenlrionale, February, 1929, p. 51.

[83]

In the Revue

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE "Le Theatre Pierre" existed formerly in the rue de la Pile. The hall was small and the material limited. They played there "cape and sword" dramas. "Le Theatre Deudo" was on the rue Drouot in 1903. It was a rather fine theatre, and used the repertoire of Lille. "Le Theatre Cho" was in the quartier du Ciel-de-Tour. Cho loved his profession and manipulated well. His theatre seated an audience of two hundred and his stage was quite large. He used the repertoire of Lille, but he was an artist. "Le Theatre de la rue de la Lys" was also quite fine. It was one of the oldest in Roubaix. My father went there often in about 1866-67. Another theatre in the same street was the last one to close. The director sold his marionettes during the War. He had used the same repertoire as the others. There were also other theatres in the rue Archimede, in the rue de l'Ommelet, in the rue Plutarque, in the rue Chevreul, and in the rue Rollin, but they all had the dolls of Lille. Imagine plays with such fantastic titles as; Le Pont maud.it, La Cour du diable, L'Epee de Satan, etc., and you will have an idea of their repertoire.45 Although these two sources grant only meager information, they do show that there were at Roubaix theatres of wooden actors that enjoyed a certain popularity from the first half of the nineteenth century up to the time of the World War. How much farther back these theatres may date is not definitely known. It is evident, by the type of doll and the repertoire, that the marionettes of Roubaix can be traced back to those of Lille rather more directly than to those of Liege. If we assume that marionette theatres were established at Amiens and Lille as early as the seventeenth century, then we may be safe in assuming that they were to be found at Roubaix at least as early as the eighteenth century, even though we lack definite informa" Manuscript letter from Leopold Richard. May 18, 1932. I have three such letters, dated August 12, 1931; May 18, 1932; and February 11, 1933 respectively. I shall refer to these letters hereafter as Letter I, Letter II, and Letter III.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE tion about them until a century later, for Lille and Roubaix are only a few miles apart. b. The Marionelte

Theatre of Louis

Richard

(1) Early Life of Louis Richard "L' Theät' Louis" was founded at Roubaix in 1869, and the permit, under the seal of Napoleon III, is still in the possession of the present owner. The founder of this theatre was a Belgian, Louis Richard, who was born at Bruges on October 8, 1850, and died at Roubaix on September 15, 1915. In his early childhood, in order to bring back a few pennies to his home, Louis Richard acted as guide to a blind man. A little later he learned the trade of "tourneur en metaux," and then added to this the trade of ropemaker. Very early he took a great interest in all things dealing with the theatre. When he was still quite young, he would amuse his astonished comrades by the capers of the little figures that he would make from bits of wood or metal,66 and he always found a keen pleasure in working around the small marionette theatres of his city.57 His ambition was always to start a theatre of "real" marionettes. (2) Foundation of His Theatre Having moved to Roubaix, Louis Richard at the age of nineteen years opened a marionette theatre of his own in an attic of the Grande-Rue. A few years later he moved it to a "cave" on the rue des Longues-Haies, and then to a new location in the rue de Croix. Finally, in 1884, he established it in its present site in the rue Pierre-de-Roubaix.58 From the time that this theatre was founded until the present day, it has never ceased to function, except during the four years of the World War. Representations were 68 67 68

L. Delannoy: op. cit., Dec. 1, 1931, no. 101, p. 6. L. Richard: Letter I. L. Delannoy: Ibid.

[85]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE given on every Sunday, Monday, and Thursday afternoons, and on Thursday evenings. The pre-war prices for these shows were: on Sundays, for twelve acts, twenty-five centimes; on Mondays, for eight acts, fifteen centimes; on Thursday afternoons, for the four acts given for very small children, four centimes; and on Thursday evenings, for five acts, five centimes. 69 (3) His Dolls At first Louis Richard was greatly influenced, both in his repertoire and in the construction of his dolls, by the marionettes of Lille. However, when he began to make his own, he showed a skill and originality that soon made his dolls far superior to those from which they were copied. One of his greatest improvements was in the manner of manipulating his figures. Most marionettes, when they walk, must lean slightly backwards, so that the strings leading to the legs will not strike against the body or become entangled in the clothing, and, as the strings are generally attached just above the knee joint, the doll walks by raising his knees, while the lower part of the leg simply dangles. Louis Richard, to my knowledge, is the only maker of marionettes who has found the way to overcome this difficulty. By means of a secret method, he passed the strings downwards through the head and body of the doll into the lower legs. The result is that his marionettes walk in an upright position with very realistic movements. As the leg strings are attached to a simple balance at the end of the supporting rod, the manipulator can make the doll walk by only a slight motion of his wrist while holding it in a standing position. The speed of the motion and the degree of swing on the balance regulate the speed and size of the step. With this system of strings the doll may run with long strides just as realistically as it can walk with short steps. 19

L. Richard: Letter II.

[86]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE In other respects the marionettes of Louis Richard are quite similar to those of Lille, having the " t r i n g l e " fastened to a ring in the head rather than to the head itself. (4) Contributions to His Theatre Louis Richard carved all the heads for his dolls. They were made of wood, with glass eyes, and constructed so as to be removable from the bodies. They are indeed a lasting evidence of the fact that their maker was a keen observer of details, for the ethnological exactitude of their construction is most striking. He has never failed to differentiate the characteristics of the heads and faces of the various nationalities and races that his dolls represent. There are heads for Europeans, Asiatics, Africans, and even for American Indians, and each is surprisingly correct in every detail. Over three hundred of these heads remain in good condition to the present day. Louis Richard also made all the costumes for his marionettes—elaborate costumes that again are historically correct. When one realizes the variety of the repertoire of this theatre and the number of characters necessary for each play, one begins to understand the vastness of this task. With these costumes, and the heads already mentioned, this theatre is still able to present any type of historical play dating from the time of Charlemagne to the present day, with all the different personages involved, in the costume of the period. 60 Finally, Louis Richard also constructed all the scenery and stage accessories necessary for his theatre, always with the same character of correctness as is found in the heads and costumes of the dolls. Drop curtains, wings, movable sets, interiors and exteriors suitable to each country and to each century; everything is complete and exact—palaces, salons, public squares, forests, rocks, landscapes, prisons, gardens, roofs, and even a scene in midocean. To this day 60

L. Richard: Letter I.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE " L ' Theät' Louis" possesses and uses forty-two of the stage sets painted by its founder. And, to complete the list, one must not forget the miniature furniture of all sorts, suitable to the dolls, and the special animal-marionettes—horses, dogs, bears, lions, and tigers—all made by this master constructor. 61 (5) Repertoire Last but not least, Louis Richard was not only founder of his theatre and the maker and manipulator of his marionettes, but he was also the sole author of his plays. Influenced greatly at first by the neighboring marionettes of Lille, he began with historical subjects. His first pieces were Jean Bart, a story of the famous pirate under Louis XIV, and La Juive, which was probably based on the libretto of the same name by Eugene Scribe. The tales of Charlemagne and his knights gave him much of his early material; he adapted the old "chansons de geste" to suit his dolls, and it is interesting to note that his marionette representing Charlemagne is one of the most elaborate of his entire collection. The reign of Francois I, epoch of vagabonds, thieves, and jailbirds, also gave abundant material for many dramas. The stormy reigns of Henri II and Henri III offered even more material, and Ravaillac's assassination of Henri IV was a favorite subject. Then came the time of Louis X I I I and the Cardinal Richelieu, with their rival musketeers and with the many duels of the period, still a rich mine for exciting and dramatic situations. And so, down through the history of France to the Napoleonic wars, Louis Richard found an endless inspiration for the romantic plays presented by his dolls. The history of England tempted him also, and the period of the Tudor kings gave him many dramatic suggestions suitable to his dolls. Perhaps the best play of this English cycle is Les Compagnons de la Rose blanche. The history and legend of Flanders provided more subjects, such as the story of 61

L. Delannoy: Ibid.

[88]

T H E N O R T H OF F R A N C E Lyderic et Phinaert and that of Ourson et Valentin, this latter being very similar to the old French epic of Berthe aux grands pieds. History was not, however, the only source for the plays of this theatre. T h e famous romantic novels of the nineteenth century, such as Notre-Dame de Paris by Victor Hugo and Le Comte de Monte-Cristo by Alexandre Dumas pere, were adapted to the use of its wooden actors. E v e n the great American novel of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was represented in a very sensational manner under the title of La Case de Voncle Tom. Finally, many plays were built around such varied and well-known characters as Caligula, Massena, Cartouche, Hamlet, William Tell, and, of course, Jeanne d'Arc. 62 These dramas varied in length, ranging from four to fifty acts—(Charles le Temeraire had fifty acts)—and it is estimated that Louis Richard composed over eight hundred such plays. Among the eager patrons of this theatre were many children, for whom such dramas as those just mentioned would be a heavy diet, so Louis Richard followed the example of the marionettes of Lille and Amiens, and mixed light comedies and farces with his historical and legendary plays. E a c h performance began with a drama, or with several acts of one if it were too long to be given in a single evening, and then came a comedy of one or two acts, very light and humorous, in the dialect of the country. This little comedy is known at Roubaix as the " b o b o c h e , " a corruption of the word " b a m b o c h e . " It is greeted still by the children of the audience singing, or shouting, to the air of Au clair de la lune, the following refrain: Incore un boboche E t in s'in ira. (On s'en ira.) Mets tes sous dins t' poche E t in ar'ven'ra! (On reviendra.) 81

For all this matter of repertoire, see Letter I and Delannoy:

[89]

Ibid.

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE (Another "boboche" and we shall leave. Put your sous in your pockets, and we shall come back again.) Following are a few from among the innumerable titles of these light comedies: Un Veilleur de nuil, Le Savetier, La Fourche magique, Le Mari d'une Muse, La Flute enchantee, La Poularde, Les deux leltres, La Nuit des rois, Le Couteau Caron, Les 27 sous de la lingere, A cache-cache, Les bons metiers, La Reponse, Un grand peinlre, etc. I do not give here any specific samples of the plays of Louis Richard, but any that I might present would be very similar to the dramas and "boboches" of Leopold Richard, of which I shall produce several examples later on. c. "L' TheaV Louis" (1) Leopold Richard and the History of His Theatre Louis Richard had five children, all of whom helped him with his theatre as they became old enough to do so. His eldest son, Jules, was killed in action at Verdun in 1916. His second son, Maurice, died in Paris of wounds received in action. His third son and chief collaborator, Leopold, was born at Roubaix, December 1, 1890, and is now the owner of his theatre. His two daughters, Leopoldine and Florence, were born respectively in 1894 and 1895. His wife, who still lives and does her bit around the theatre was born on August 24, 1866.63 Leopold Richard reopened the theatre of his father immediately after the close of the World War. He gave it the name that it bears today—"L' Theat' Louis"—in memory of his father, who had died in 1915, and continues to direct it as nearly as possible in conformity with the old traditions of its founder. As he must work from eight to ten horn's a day at his regular trade of cabinetmaker, Leopold Richard has been unable to give more than one representation a week, on Sunday afternoons, and on special holidays. He is aided M

L. Richard: Letter I.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE in his work by his brother-in-law, Albert Dervaux, who is also a devotee to the art of the marionettes, having spent much of his childhood at the theatre of Louis Richard, where he met the sister of Leopold, Leopoldine, whom he later married. During his evenings, Leopold Richard spends his time reading French history and French romantic novels in order to find new subjects for the plays of his dolls. Sometimes he takes an entire historical event and dramatizes it as exactly as possible, but at other times a single line may inspire him with an original plot.64 It is not his habit to write out his plays in detail, but rather he makes a summary of each scene and each act as it is to be presented. Then he and Albert Dervaux go over the play together and rehearse a sort of impromptu dialogue for the characters. These two marionettists spend their free hours of Saturdays and Sundays selecting the dolls, costumes, and scenery that are to be used, and preparing them for the coming performance. The proper heads must be chosen and attached to the bodies, the bodies must be dressed in the proper costumes, and the stage must be set with the suitable scenery. As some of the plays are so long and contain so many personages, it can be seen that assembling the necessary marionettes and preparing the stage is no small task. Nor is the monetary return for such hard labor sufficient to interest anyone who is not willing to cultivate "l'art pour l ' a r t " in the realm of the marionettes. The amount received at each performance depends a great deal upon the weather; rainy days bring a larger remuneration, since the crowd seeks its amusement inside. It may be roughly estimated that the average receipt for each performance is very little over one hundred francs. From this sum, first M

In a conversation with Leopold Richard, he made the boast that he had read so much French history that he was sure that he knew as much about it as any specialist on the subject, and I am inclined to believe that his boast is a good one.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE of all, this little theatre must pay to the government thirteen and a half percent of its gross receipts. From the eighty-six francs and fifty centimes that remain, deduction must be made for heat, light, depreciation of materials, interest on the capital invested, etc.65 One can easily see that very little is left to repay the manipulators for the long hours spent in preparing a play and for the strenuous hours spent in producing it. For many years "L' Theat' Louis" remained practically unknown outside of Roubaix. It was long before Leopold Richard could be persuaded to show his marionettes apart from their original setting. There were several reasons why he refused. First of all, every member of the Richard family loves these dolls. They are something more than wood and cloth to these people in whom the art of manipulating them is inborn. They have wanted to keep their own marionettes in their own theatre,66 for they have felt that something would be lacking in their art if they separated their dolls from their traditional setting. Another reason why Leopold Richard has not wished to take his marionettes away from Roubaix is best expressed in his own words: Monsieur, comprenez done, je fais les marionnettes de tout mon coeur, mais outre le travail imposant que je m'impose, je travaille ä l'atelier comme ouvrier tourneur. A Roubaix les marionnettes ne nourissent pas leur homme, et il faut bien gagner le pain quotidien. Je ne suis pas ambitieux. Je demande ä vivre et e'est tout. J'aime les marionnettes. Elles sont tout pour moi. Le matin ä quatre heures je suis debout pour chercher un sujet ω P. Jeanne: Speech before the Rosati on the marionettes of Roubaix, Feb. 28, 1930. M In 1929 the "Union Nationale des Marionnettes Franoaises" sponsored an exposition of marionettes in Paris. Dolls were sent from all parts of the country, but Leopold Richard refused to send any, not wishing to cheapen his dolls by putting them on public display outside their native theatre. Also, when I begged the privilege of buying one of his dolls, he offered to help me in any other way, but refused to part with the least of his marionettes.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE nouveau de piece et j'en fais une tous les mois, et je suis content quand ma piece plait. Voilä, monsieur!67 However, during the years since 1929, Leopold Richard has been induced to give several performances outside " L' Theät' Louis." Early in 1929, at the Patronage NotreDame de Roubaix, he played Iena, and shortly afterwards, at the Hippodrome of Roubaix, he played another Napoleonic piece, Wagram.68 At the "Concours du Broutteux" 69 at Tourcoing, he presented a "boboche" in two acts called Le Colibri du marquis de Trucmuche in the Picard dialect, and his production won the first prize of the meeting.70 Soon after this event M. Paul Jeanne heard of these marionettes of Roubaix, and, in November of 1929, he attended a performance at "L' Theät' Louis," taking with him M. Dellepoulle, president of "Les Amis de Lille," who was also unaware of the existence of that theatre. That visit marks a turning point in the career of Leopold Richard and in the history of his marionettes. Shortly afterwards M. Dellepoulle took the members of "Les Amis de Lille," together with the members of "Les Abonnes de l'Opera de Lille," of which he is also the president, members of "Les Amis de Tourcoing," and representatives of the press of Lille and of Roubaix, to a special gala performance at " L' Theät' Louis." During the course of this performance the marionettes presented a special "boboche" in which both Jacques of Lille and Morveux of Roubaix appeared, each speaking in his respective dialect, as a sort of official meeting of the two local heroes. This performance met with signal success.71 This important event was soon followed by others. " L. Richard: Letter I. 88 Ibid. " T h i s "Concours du Broutteux" is an annual meeting in Picardy, at which performances of all kinds are given in the Picard dialect. 70 L. Richard: Letter I. 71 P. Jeanne: Speech before the Rosati of Paris. February 28, 1930.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Leopold Richard gave three more performances outside his own theatre; before the old soldiers of Esquermes, at the Salle des Fetes of Roubaix, and at the Concordia Club of Roubaix. 72 Then came another high point in the history of these marionettes. Even Paris now welcomed "L' Theät' Louis." At the instigation of M. Paul Jeanne, Leopold Richard made his dolls perform before the Rosati of Paris.73 On February 28, 1930, at the Salle du Parthenon, Leopold Richard, aided by Albert Dervaux and Madame Dervaux, gave two special performances with his marionettes. At each they presented a "cape and sword" drama in two acts, Un Episode de la guerre de trente ans, and the same two-act "boboche" with which they had won first prize at Tourcoing.74 Here again the marionettes of "L' Theät' Louis" won another outstanding success. During the remainder of 1930, Leopold Richard gave five more special representations; he repeated his Paris performance before the Rosati of Lille, and gave other programs in the public square of Tourcoing, at the Industrial Hall of Lille, at the Salle de Jeanne d'Arc in Roubaix, and, on Christmas day, at the theatre of the rue de l'Orpheon at Lille.75 All this caused the people of Roubaix to become aware at last of the artist in their midst. In 1931 the Journal de Roubaix sponsored a special public performance of these marionettes. 76 For more than a month before the play, Madame Reboux, editress of the Journal, gave almost daily publicity to "L' Theät' Louis." Long articles in French and in the Picard dialect, together with pictures of the 71

L. Richard: Letter I. The Rosati are an association devoted to art, literature, music, and especially to folklore. 74 Program of the performance. 75 L. Richard: Letter I. '"Journal de Roubaix, March 25, 1931; March 29, 1931; April 6, 1931, April 13, 1931; April 19, 1931; April 23, 1931; and April 27, 1931. Also L. Richard: Letter I. 73

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE marionettes, told much of its history and of its directors, so that more and more people came to know about this unique theatre that existed in their midst. Before noon of the day on which the thousand tickets were put on sale, every seat was sold. This important performance took place on the afternoon of Sunday, April 26, 1931, at the Central-Theatre, rue du Vieil-Abreuvoir. The program began with a historical drama, Les deux chemins, which was an episode from the War of 1870. (Two Alsatian brothers have made their choices, one for France, the other for Prussia. When the Prussians capture their native city, the German general commands the one brother to take charge of the platoon that is to shoot his father and brother. This situation opens the eyes of the unfaithful brother so that he allows his father and brother to escape, and kills himself.) The second play was a "cape and sword" drama entitled A la Rochelle, in which the figure of Richelieu reigns supreme. To close the program, a "boboche" of exceptional hilarity, II mefaut 35 sous (of which I give a summary later), was presented, in which the small Morveux and the large-faced Jacques Lenfle were at their best. The people and the press of Roubaix joined in the praise of this performance, and many were those who learned to appreciate the marionettes of "L' Theät' Louis" and to admire the skill of its director. 77 During the following months of that year, these dolls gave two more outside performances, one at Tourcoing and the other at Saint-Armand. 78 However, one of the greatest and most important pieces of publicity that has ever come to these marionettes was attained, not through their own efforts, but through the talents of a young artist of Lille. M. Albert Dequene, a native of Lille, exhibited at the Salon d'ete at Paris in 1931 a large canvas entitled Le Theatre de Marionnettes, with the 77 78

Journal de Roubaix, April 27, 1931. L. Richard: Letter I.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE subtitle of " L' Theät' Louis," a copy of which I have placed in the frontispiece of this study. A keen lover of local tradition and folklore, M. Dequene chose the marionettes of Roubaix as the subject for his great painting, considering them one of the outstanding traditional features of his native province. The painting represents two rows of marionettes standing on the stage of their theatre, while at one side is M. Leopold Richard and at the other M. Albert Dervaux. In the front row are the marionettes representing the hangman of Bethune, d'Artagnan, Charlemagne, Ophelia, Hamlet, the ghost of Hamlet's father, Louis XIY, and Soliman II. In the second row are Athos, Porthos, Aramis, Napoleon I, Saint-Nicholas, Frangois I, Robert de Bethune, Sully, and one of the magi kings. The light from the three footlights at the front of the stage shines strongly on the brilliantly colored costumes of the dolls of the front row, bringing out every detail, while those of the second row are half hidden in the semi-darkness, with their black shadows reflected behind them on the curtain. The lifesize figures, that of Albert Dervaux at the left and that of Leopold Richard at the right, tower above the marionettes and seem to support the top of the stage like the Caryatides of the temple of Artemis. For this painting M. Dequene was awarded three prizes: a Medaille d'or, the Prix EugeneRomain Thirion (founded by Madame Thirion in memory of her husband and her son, in favor of a French artist of less than thirty-five years of age), and the Prix de l'Afrique Occidentale Frangaise (founded by the Governor-General, William Ponty). This picture has since been purchased by the Μ usee de Lille, where it now hangs as a perpetual memory of a famous local tradition as painted by a famous local artist. During the few months that this painting hung in the Grand Palais at Paris, it attracted and held the attention of thousands of people from all over the world, and the marionettes of " L' Theät' Louis" were introduced to many people who might not have heard of them in any other way. [96]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE (2) Characters The marionettes of Roubaix did not originally have any typical hero, such as Polichinelle of Paris, Lafleur of Amiens, or Jacques of Lille. In the beginning, the character who took the leading role in the dramas was called simply "Le Brave," and his young friend was "Le Petit Brave." "L'HercuIe" was another name given to the principal personage. The noble mother was called "Notre-Dame des Sept-Douleurs." The character that acted as comic relief in these romantic plays often received the name of "Barbea-Poux," but nowadays he is known as "Bibi-lolo," which begins to identify him as the typical humorous character of the Roubasian dramas. However, Bibi-lolo is noticeably different from the other traditional comic types that we have already met. Polichinelle is almost always common, coarse, and vulgar, and often quite obscene. Lafleur of Amiens and Jacques of Lille are valet types who very often sink to coarseness in their humor. Bibi-lolo, on the other hand, is seldom vulgar and never obscene. His humor is more pleasing and more refined than that of these other figures. Nor need he always be a servant, as he is sometimes a soldier, or he may be just a minor character. He is the comic relief of the play in whatever role he may appear, and he offers a comedy that is at least a little above the average. The "boboches" had distinct comic characters, different from those just mentioned, and they have not changed much since the days of their origin. "L' p'tit Morveux" is the hero of these farces. He is small and lively, with a sparkling repartee and a sharp wit, plus an attractive and refined personality that always wins his audience. The Roubasian children take pleasure in identifying their own characteristics in those of Morveux. His chief companion is "Cataplasse," a large and stupid fellow, with a dull eye and slow speech. "Jacques Lenfle" is a porter type, with a large head and a red, good-natured face. "Pitche" is [97]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE the good Flemish type, calm and naive. With these four figures are found several of less importance: "Dominique Platelette," "Christophine," "Grognon," "Bouffetout," and "Casimir Baluchon." 79 (3) A Personal Visit to His Theatre Before deeding with the repertoire of this theatre it may be allowed me here to devote a few pages to a personal experience. It was my great privilege and pleasure to visit, toward the end of August 1931, "L' Theät' Louis"—the first American ever to have done so—and to witness one of the regular performances of this unique and most interesting marionette theatre. Upon arriving at the designated address I was surprised to find, not a theatre, or anything resembling one, but just a house in a street of small brick houses built together along the edge of the sidewalk. The only sign to indicate that this was the theatre for which I was searching was a handwritten poster, with the required government tax-stamp, pasted in the front window. This simple notice announced the theatre and stated the name of the next play with the number of acts. After passing through the door one finds himself in a small hallway that leads past the parlor and into the family kitchen. This immaculately clean room serves as the box office on afternoons when performances are given in the theatre, and Madame Richard is there to collect the small entrance fee—only seventy-five centimes. From the kitchen one passes through a tiny open court, through a narrow corridor, and at last one enters " L' Theät' Louis." And what a theatre it is! One feels immediately that he is going to experience something intensely interesting, for one is in a place filled to the brim with that indescribable something called "atmosphere." This theatre, however, is only a long, low room, with brick walls " L. Delannoy: op. cil., Dec. 25, 1931-Jan. 1, 1932, no. 103, p. 6.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE and a wooden ceiling. A hard dirt floor slopes gently down to the stage. This hall is about fifty feet long by about twenty-five feet wide,80 without any sort of decorations. Twenty or twenty-five rows of plain wooden benches run entirely across the theatre, leaving only a narrow aisle along the wall to the right, where one enters. The room is lighted only indirectly by three electric lamps that serve as footlights to the stage and throw back their dim light from the painted curtain. The stage itself, in the center of the lower end of the room, has a proscenium opening about ten feet wide by five feet high. When the curtain rises, it is seen to be about ten feet deep, with space behind the back drop for a narrow scaffold upon which the marionettists manipulate the dolls. T o the right of the stage and at the end of the aisle are a few steps leading up to a small platform from which opens the door that leads backstage. On this door is seen a surprising sign that announces: "Defense de chanter et jouer aux cartes." Seen when the theatre is empty, this notice causes one to wonder, but once the room is filled with lively and impetuous Roubasian children, its importance soon becomes quite evident. It is not necessary to describe the noise and confusion that a group of healthy children can make when assembled in one room for their own entertainment, and these children of Roubaix are no exception to the rule. In spite of the sign over the stage door, I could not help but see several boys playing cards on the back benches during the intermission, and it may have been that some of the screeching that deafened my ears was meant to be singing. Once the play has begun, Madame Dervaux mounts to her place on the little platform before the stage door, from which vantage point she keeps a watchful eye on her young charges and acts as a controller of order, sometimes aided by a few of 80 Since the war this main hall of the theatre has been shortened by onethird from its original length, but this is the only way in which the theatre has been changed since the day it was moved to its present site.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE the older boys. If some gamin becomes conspicuously noisy during the performance, Madame Dervaux warns him by calling: "Silence la-bas, ou vous allez voir l'acte a la cour" (Silence down there, or you'll have to see the act from outside), or, in cases of exceptional seriousness: "On va vous mettre ä la rue." Although I heard both those threats repeated several times, I never saw either of them carried out. The mere threat is sufficient to restore order. (The reason for this noise and confusion during the performance is that many of the younger members of the audience become so excited at the action on the stage that, in their enthusiasm, they cry out their comments to the little wooden actors.) In describing the audience of this theatre one cannot help but mention one exceptionally important figure. An old man, now an inmate of the almshouse of Roubaix, is always to be found at the right end of the first bench of this little theatre. It is claimed that he has not missed a regular performance of these marionettes during the past forty years. He comes always to see the drama of the day, and sometimes to help Madame Dervaux keep order, but leaves when the "boboche" begins. When I heard of his fidelity to the dolls and remarked to him that he must be fond of marionettes, he turned away with a disgusted snort that I should dare to ask him such an obvious question. Before the performance began on the day of my visit, Leopold Richard took me backstage and up a ladder to a loft above the theatre. This loft is the workshop and storeroom. Here one finds the walls lined with shelves. On them are the three hundred or more heads that Louis Richard bequeathed to his son. Other shelves hold the innumerable costumes and the headless bodies of the unassembled dolls, while still more strange figures hang from wires stretched across the room. So great and so sufficient is this supply of heads, bodies, and costumes that Leopold Richard repairs in his workshops only those that have

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE

suffered minor injuries in their strenuous roles. The unfortunate dolls that are too severely injured are simply destroyed, and new heads or bodies are taken from the shelves to replace them. It has never been necessary for Leopold Richard, up to the present time, to make any new dolls for the many shows that he has written and produced, because of the sufficient supply made by his father. After the performance begins, and while the children are having such a happy and carefree entertainment before the stage, those who are manipulating the dolls behind the stage are not having such an easy time of it. Standing on the raised platform, narrow and crowded, the marionettists lean over the back curtain, high enough above the top of the stage opening that their hands cannot be seen from the front of the theatre, moving the dolls back and forth on the stage. These dolls of Roubaix are not light. Few of them weigh less than ten pounds, so that it requires great strength as well as great skill to make them act in an easy and graceful manner at the end of a slender rod four or five feet long. Nor can the manipulator give himself a chance to rest by allowing his doll to remain still a moment while it makes a long speech. This young audience is an impatient audience, one that demands action, and it does not consider a motionless marionette attractive. It must at least walk around the stage and move its arms and legs as it talks. For that reason, from the time the act begins until it ends, there is not a moment of rest for the men who move the dolls. And the fights! No play is a success with this exacting audience unless it has many fights in it, and then indeed the manipulators must work hard. The marionettes, armed with swords and shields, with daggers, with clubs, or with bare fists, rush at each other with smashing blows—while the audience shrieks. The fight may be for two opponents, or for two opposing armies, but, above all things, it must be long and severe. I have seen Leopold Richard and Albert Dervaux keep twelve or fourteen dolls

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE crashing together in a terrific struggle from ten to fifteen minutes at a time. It is not at all unusual at " L' Theat' Louis" to see the stage, at the end of an act, completely covered with dead marionettes, to the joy of the Roubasian youngsters. There are even at this theatre a few dolls that automatically detach their heads from their bodies when the opposing marionettes swing at them with their swords. It is indeed a grand sight to see a headless body fall to the floor, while the head, still attached to the supporting rod, goes flying back into the wings. The children always greet this performance with the utmost enthusiasm. This swashbuckling type of acting requires more strength than skill on the part of the manipulators. Their skill is more clearly shown in the quieter parts of the plays. Then they must watch closely the doll that they are making act to see that it is keeping its feet firmly on the stage floor, and that it is making its motions in a manner fitting to its speech. I have watched the manipulation of many marionettists, but I have never seen any more skilful men than Leopold Richard and Albert Dervaux. Never once did their dolls leave the floor to float about in the air (a most annoying, but common, fault in the manipulation of marionettes), and, although their dolls were kept in almost perpetual motion, their actions never seemed artificial or forced. With all the strength and skill needed to make the marionettes act well, the manipulator has also another task to perform, that of speaking for his dolls. Except for the female parts, for which Madame Dervaux slips behind the stage, and except for a few minor parts now being taken by the ten-year-old Richard boy, the entire duty of speaking for the dolls falls upon Leopold Richard and Albert Dervaux. They must make up their impromptu lines, watch for unexpected cues, be ready for the lines that follow, and, at the same time, synchronize the actions and the words. And, what is more, they must change their voices for each personage in order that the actors may stand out

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE as distinct individuals. These two men are exceptionally skilled in depicting each character and in keeping it distinct from all the others, as well as in their art of composing and reciting the lines. A single performance generally lasts from three to three and a half hours. It is no wonder that the marionettists are compelled to give a long intermission at the middle of the program. It is then that they go to the kitchen for coffee, cognac, and a cigarette, while the children refresh themselves, too, by means of a crust of bread or a piece of cake that they have tucked away in their blouses. And it was then that I had my best opportunity to meet all the members of the Richard family. When the drama of the afternoon was finished, the "boboche " began. I was soon lost in the Picard dialect. However, through the clever acting of the dolls (which are much smaller in size than those used in the dramas), I was able to follow the plot of this farce, and the noisy and enthusiastic appreciation of the audience would have made me enjoy it even though I had understood none of it. In describing this one performance of the marionettes of " L ' Theät' Louis," I fear that I have given the impression that the audience is composed only of children. That is not true, for at the performance that I witnessed, there were at least a dozen adults, who seemed to be enjoying the actions of the dolls quite as much as the children were, although the show might not have been especially attractive to a mature audience. Leopold Richard told me that he finds it surprising how the number of adults that attend his plays is increasing, in spite of the rivalry of outdoor sports and the moving pictures. For myself, I can truly say that if I were near " L ' Theät' Louis," I should be one of its most frequent visitors.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE (4) Repertoire Having looked at the physical side of " L' Theät' Louis," it is necessary now to consider some of the plays that the marionettes present on that stage. It would be impossible even to mention here all the extant pieces composed by Louis and Leopold Richard, as there are over eight hundred of them. 81 The latter continues to present many that his father wrote, but he is continually enriching his repertoire with new ones. What I have said above concerning the repertoire of Louis Richard holds true for Leopold, as he still draws the subjects for his pieces from the same sources. He has found that plays based on historical subjects retain the interest of his exacting audience better than any other type, and he believes that his fidelity to the historical drama is the reason why his theatre still exists while all the others in the north of France have long since disappeared. 82 However, it may be well to note here that the scope of the plays of this theatre is steadily increasing. Christophe Colomb treats of the discovery of America. Le marquis de Montcalm deals with the struggle of the French and English in Canada. La Lutte pour Γ independence is a story of the American Revolution. Le Tour du monde, written by the late Maurice Richard, is taken from the novel by Max Cadar, and carries the marionettes into China. And finally, a new Napoleon tells the story of the Emperor from the siege of Toulon to the Island of Saint Helena. In this long play there are forty-nine battles, and in it are found soldiers of all the nations involved in the Napoleonic wars. 83 I have been so fortunate as to receive from Leopold Richard summaries of and scenes from several of his most typical dramas and "boboches." 84 The translation of some of them will give a very good idea of the type of play presented by the marionettes of "L' Theät' Louis." 81

L. Richard: Letter III.

«Ibid. Μ Ibid. 84

L. Richard: Letters II and III.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE Trois Grands

Francais

Personages: The Duke of Richemont, constable of France. Jacques Coeur, rich merchant of Bourges. Jean Bureau, inventor of cannon. Michel Lallier, organizer of the defense of Paris. Georges de la Tremoille, ambitious and jealous. Antoine de Chabannes, chief of the "ecorcheurs" (bandits). Dunois, a French captain. The Duke of Somerset, an English captain. Lord Talbot, an English captain. Caboche, chief of the "canochans" (bandits). The Duke of Bourbon. The Duke of d'Alengon. The Count of Clermont. Joli-nez, a French soldier, comic character. Charles VII, king of France. Agnes Sorel, favorite of the king. Yolande d'Anjou, mother-in-law of the king. French officers and soldiers. English officers and soldiers. A band of "ecorcheurs." A band of "cabochans." Breton soldiers. Barons. (At least eight.) Resume for fifty acts: After the death of Jeanne d'Arc, the Duke of Richemont, constable of France, who was one of those who had helped the heroine, wished to continue her work. Charles VII, badly advised by La Tremoille, left his last cities to the English. Richemont resolved to suppress this bad counselor, and went to attack him at his palace with his Bretons. La Tremoille, gravely wounded, did not appear again before the King, and Jacques Coeur, who was the counselor of the [105]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Parliament, took advantage of that fact to try, with the aid of Richemont, to stop the rebellion that reigned in France. The King understood then and listened to Jacques Coeur, who, having come into power, organized the army. Michel Lallier, who had already saved Paris from the English, came to find Jacques Coeur. Famine was spreading in Paris, and Jacques Coeur aided him with his wealth. But the barons, who lived as absolute masters in their domains, did not wish to unite themselves with Jacques Coeur, and many of them willingly went over to the English. Richemont attacked them, but he had to give up his attack against the barons in order to fight off the English. The house of Anjou alone had joined the cause of Richemont and Jacques, whose great plan it understood. Then a genius came out of the common people. Jean Bureau, a bourgeois of Paris, had perfected the cannon by giving them a secret spring which is still unknown to the present day. Jacques Coeur financed the invention of Jean Bureau, and then the two of them, with Richemont, went to drive the English out of France. Agnes Sorel understood also the great project and helped Jacques Coeur before the King. This King, so weak and vacillating in his ideas, who had not allowed himself to be guided by Jeanne d'Arc, gave full power to Jacques Coeur through the mediation of his favorite. Bureau took his cannon to Meaux, a city held by the English and reputed to be impregnable, and in two days the city and the castle were taken (1439). Richemont, Bureau, and Jacques Coeur decided then to retake Normandie from the English, but Antoine de Chabannes was committing such crimes at the head of his "ecorcheurs" that Richemont wanted to destroy them before continuing the war. Jacques Coeur led the King to create some ordinances, and it was decreed that pillaging would be punished by death. At the same time Jacques Coeur prevented the barons from raising taxes from their lands, and it was made an offense punishable by death to do so. The barons then rose up and conspired with the [106]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE "ecorcheurs." La Tremoille and Chabannes managed to inspire disloyalty into the army so that when Richemont began to besiege the English in Normandie, he was abandoned by all the army except his Bretons. He swore to punish the instigators of the plot. La Tremoille was afraid and led the Dauphin to conspire against the King, but Jacques Coeur was watching and Richemont was nearby with the cannon of Bureau. The planned insurrection did not take place, and the chiefs of the revolt, the Duke of Bourbon and the Duke of Αίβηςοη, were driven back into Poitou, Auvergne, and Bourbonnais. They signed an armistice then. During this time the English were recapturing the badly defended city of Harfleur, and the "ecorcheurs" were still resisting the King. Jacques Coeur wished to make an example, and, having caught the Duke of Bourbon pillaging, he had him executed. This caused the other barons to remain quiet for a time. Richemont got the King to accept his invitation to see the cannon in action, and attacked Saint Germain and Creil. After these victories, Richemont took the King to Pontoise, where the English captain, Lord Talbot, had to surrender. Then Richemont compelled the King to take from the barons who had helped Lord Talbot the castles that they had put to the use of the English. Bureau took several fortresses in the south of France. During the absence of these leaders, the "cabochans," commanded by La Tremoille, began to continue the exploits of the "ecorcheurs." But the English, worn out by this warfare, demanded peace, which was signed when the English gave up the city of Mans. Jacques Coeur then established fifteen companies of artillery and light infantry, which he placed in the different provinces. The English, who still had their army in France, began to pillage in Brittany, and the war began again. Bureau had made some new cannon and, with the newly disciplined army, he attacked the English in Normandie, and in a few days took several cities from them. Lord Talbot was defending [107]

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IN

FRANCE

Rouen, but had to surrender. At the battle of Formigny, the Count of Clermont was defeated by the English and his cannon almost taken, but Richemont arrived with his Bretons, and the English were pushed back. The city of Caen was reputed to be impregnable, but Bureau took it in three days from the Duke of Somerset. The capture of Falaise and of Cherbourg completely freed Normandie from the English. Then began the conquest of Guyenne, where Bureau, Jacques Coeur, and Richemont entered the cities without fighting, so that within two months they succeeded in reuniting the English part of Gascogne to France. Calais was then the only possession of the English in France. At the end of this long summary the author adds: You can see that in this play the history of France is very strictly observed. However, there are a few imaginary personages in order to give to this too serious drama some comic parts, without which the audience would not be satisfied. Joli-nez is a Breton who thinks only of fighting the English, and who seeks every occasion to do so. He is in every act of the play and in every plot. It is he who, at Formigny, warns Richemont of the predicament of the Count of Clermont. In short, in this resume, there are fifty acts of battles, of pillagings of castles, of plots, and of intrigues.

This summary does not give any of the details of the play. It is composed of fifty acts, which means that it would be presented through seven or eight consecutive Sunday afternoon performances. The production is without doubt filled with the proper dramatic suspense, with fights and battles galore, with frank humor, and with comic situations sufficient to satisfy any audience. It is interesting to note the number of marionettes that would be required for such a play, and to think of the skill and strength that would be needed to manipulate these dolls and to give the correct character to each one through different voices. This is undoubtedly a fine example of the long historical plays presented by the marionettes of Roubaix. [108]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE Le chevalier Bayard Personages: Pierre Bayard, French knight. Basque, French soldier, comic character. Lopez, traitor, sworn to avenge his master who had been killed in a duel by Bayard. Gonzalve, Spanish captain. French officers and soldiers. Spanish officers and soldiers. (A play in four acts. The scene is laid in Italy, where the French army has conquered Naples and lost it, having no help either in men or money.) Act One (Scene one, a French camp near the Garillan river.) The French soldiers are faring badly at the hands of the Spanish, commanded by the great Gonzalve, who is chasing them little by little from the kingdom of Naples, to the profit of the king of Aragon. Bayard, camped near the bridge across the Garillan, is philosophical, but sees with sadness the loss of a state conquered for the second time. Basque comes and obtains permission to go to see what is happening on the other side of the Garillan. (Scene two, the Spanish camp.) Basque secretly listens to the Spanish officers who are speaking of winning the right bank of the Garillan. Lopez proposes to attract the French army to the wharf while he captures the bridge. His plan is accepted and will be carried out t h a t afternoon. Basque leaves to find Bayard in order to tell him the plans of the enemy. Act Two (The Left Bank of the Garillan) Lopez, hidden in the woods, awaits with his men t h e moment when he will be able to attack the unguarded bridge. Basque appears and finds himself in the midst of Lopez's men. He defends himself and throws himself into the river. Lopez believes that he has perished. One hears [109]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE the trumpets of the false attack on the wharf, and Lopez sees the French soldiers withdrawing from the bridge and prepares to capture it. Act Three (The Bridge) Basque warns Bayard of the enemy's plans. Bayard sends Basque for reinforcements and sets himself to defend the bridge. Bayard places his horse sideways across the bridge and, in spite of the incessant attacks, remains conqueror over the Spanish until the French army arrives to put the Spanish to flight. Act Four (A Forest) In pursuing the Spanish, Bayard is disarmed and made a prisoner. Lopez recognizes him and accuses him of killing his master. The French army arrives and frees Bayard. The Spanish are killed, captured, or put to flight. In the fight, Bayard meets and kills Lopez. After the battle Bayard praises his soldiers, but prudently withdraws to the right bank of the Garillan. This little drama is short and very simple, and still it offers all the elements of the long historical play previously given. In it there is sufficient plotting to make it dramatic, sufficient fighting to make it exciting, and sufficient comedy to make it amusing. One can imagine the laughter of the Roubasian children when Basque has to jump into the river to save himself, and their shrieks of excitement when their favorite Bayard alone defends the bridge against the entire Spanish army. This play would indeed make a thrilling afternoon for any child. As in the long play just cited, Leopold Richard has found the main story of his plot in French history, or legend, but he has added the character of Lopez as an extra danger for Bayard, and the character of Basque as a comic relief for the play. And it might be added that Leopold Richard has struck the classical note in this simple little play by observing the unity of time, the

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unity of plot, and, according to the example of the great Corneille, the unity of place. Raphael de

Montdidier

Personages: Raphael de Montdidier. Gaston de Montdidier, his father. The Marquis of Gosselin, the traitor. Mirande, uncle of the Marquis of Gosselin, an escaped prisoner. Fauvieres, former soldier, servant of the castle of Gosselin. Briboux, squire of Raphael, comic character. A vagabond. Guards. Brigands. Act One (Castle of the Marquis of Gosselin) Gosselin recalls his past life and how he became a marquis by killing his father and accusing his uncle of the crime so that the latter is now in prison. Fauvieres announces the Marquis Gaston de Montdidier, who enters and offers to Gosselin to make a road that will mark the line between their two estates, which are adjoining. Gosselin is astonished at this offer, but Gaston informs him that some rumors about a certain fire are not favorable to him so that he wishes to make definite his own property. Gosselin agrees with him and offers to help him with the work. Gaston withdraws satisfied, accompanied by Gosselin. Briboux enters, thinking that his master is still there. He hears Gosselin commanding his troops and hides. Gosselin enters with his guards and promises them one thousand crowns to share among them if they will bind Gaston before he leaves the park and cover him with dead wood. The guards accept and go out followed by Gosselin. Then Briboux goes to warn and to defend his master. [Ill]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Act Two (The Park) Gaston is warned by Briboux, and they hide. A vagabond and a group of brigands meet before their hiding place, and the vagabond shows the brigands the road to the castle, which they are planning to rob. Gosselin and his guards appear and surprise the brigands. Gosselin conceives a new plan. He sends away his guards and offers the thousand crowns to the brigands if they will bind and burn a man whom he says that they will see pass in a few minutes. The brigands accept the offer, and Gosselin leaves. Then Mirande, who has escaped from prison, comes wandering back to his former home. He is taken by the brigands, bound, and buried under a pile of dead wood. Raphael, having been warned by Briboux, arrives, fights and defeats the brigands, frees Mirande, and takes him to his castle. Briboux, as a joke, sets fire to the wood. Act Three (A Room in the Castle of Montdidier) Raphael listens to Mirande, who accuses his nephew Gosselin of having killed his own father. Raphael asks him what he intends to do, and the old man says that he wishes to do something to bring honor back to the house of Mirande and Gosselin. Fauvieres has found a part of the park on fire and comes to warn the Marquis of Montdidier in order that he will not blame his master. Raphael thanks Fauvieres, but tells him all the reason for the fire. Fauvieres cannot believe what he hears, and goes to find his master again. Then Gaston and Raphael prepare to go to the castle of Gosselin to ask for an explanation. Briboux accompanies them, very much worried. Act Four (Castle of Gosselin) Gosselin, having seen the fire, awaits the brigands in order to pay them, believing that they have burned Gaston de Montdidier to death. Fauvieres enters and tells Gosselin frankly of what he has heard him accused. Gosselin

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE hears his story haughtily and begins to threaten Fauvieres when Raphael, Gaston, Mirande, and Briboux enter, the last named armed to the teeth and very much afraid. Gaston accuses Gosselin of having attempted to murder him. Raphael slaps Gosselin as a challenge to a duel, which pleases Briboux immensely. Gosselin defies Gaston and Raphael and calls his guards. Briboux beats a retreat. Mirande discloses his identity and accuses Gosselin of having killed his father. Raphael orders Briboux to shoot down Gosselin, but Mirande does not wish it, saying that the honor of the family would be lost if the last of the race were killed in his crime. Raphael and Gaston do not understand, but they leave with Briboux when Mirande promises that he will avenge the honor of his family. Left alone, Gosselin thanks Mirande for having saved him, but Mirande forces Gosselin at the point of a pistol to call his guards and to send them all away from the castle. Then, when they are alone again, Mirande locks all the doors and sets fire to the house. Gosselin pleads for his life, but Mirande says that he believes that he will only disgrace their name if he lives, and they die together in the flames. In the summary of this play one sees an example of the roniantic type of play. It resembles very closely one of the newspaper serial-novels of Charles-Paul de Kock or of Alphonse Karr, except for the total lack of the love element. It is, though, an original play by Leopold Richard, similar to the type of novel just mentioned. It bears many of the elements of the two historical dramas cited above, but does not equal them. In this play the verbal arguments greatly exceed the physical action, and its author creates interest more by the suspense of the plot than by the action of the marionettes. Such a play would not be so exciting for its young audience, as it contains only one good fight. However, the comic role of Briboux would go far to keep the audience interested and amused. *

*

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*

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE Following is a good example of a "boboche" written by Leopold Richard and enacted by the marionettes of " L ' Theät' Louis." La Consigne est de ronfler

(A bamboche in one act) Personages: Captain Durondin. Madame Eulalie, his wife. Jacques Lenfle, orderly of Captain Durondin. Dominique, a soldier. Morveux, a young soldier. The major. (The theatre represents a room in which are placed a table, two chairs, and a bed with a curtain in front of it) Captain Durondin receives a letter that Dominique brings him, telling him that his friend Duplacard is awaiting him at the inn for a nice game of cards. Durondin does not dare to tell his wife about this letter, as, in his opinion, she is the meanest woman in the world. Nevertheless he wishes to leave. Morveux enters with a feather duster in order to dust the room, and Durondin sends him for Jacques Lenfle. Madame Eulalie comes to announce that supper is ready, but Durondin excuses himself, saying that he is ill. Madame Eulalie scolds him for not having told her sooner, so that she could have saved herself the trouble of preparing his supper. She sends him to bed, scolds him again, and goes to prepare some broth for him. Jacques Lenfle enters, and Durondin explains the case to him. He tells him to take his place in the bed until he returns, and that, if Madame Eulalie comes, he is to pretend to be asleep, and to snore loudly. Jacques promises, and the captain leaves satisfied. Jacques, in bed, is very proud to have the confidence of the captain, but Madame Eulalie arrives with the broth. Jacques snores. " He sleeps," says madame to herself, and leaves. Jacques sits up and laughs at the good [114]

THE NORTH OF FRANCE farce that he is playing. Dominique arrives with a dispatch for the captain. "He sleeps," says madame. Dominique begs her to waken him, but Jacques obeys his orders and snores. Madame Eulalie tells Dominique to leave the dispatch, and he departs. Then madame becomes worried about the heavy sleep of her husband, and decides to get the major to come to see him. She leaves. Jacques finds that his farce is becoming a drama, and tells Morveux, who has slipped in, to go to tell the captain what is happening. Morveux leaves. Madame Eulalie and the major arrive and try to awaken the sleeping man, but he only sleeps and snores. The major leaves after assuring madame that nothing is wrong. When she is alone again, madame uses various means to awaken her husband. She addresses the most tender words of love to him, but he only snores. She slaps him, but he only snores. She threatens to set fire to the bed—and Jacques leaps up frightened. Madame Eulalie is stupefied, and Jacques is compelled to tell everything. Captain Durondin enters, accompanied by Morveux, and guesses all. He tries to tell madame that he used this trick to get out of the house in order to buy her a present. She won't listen to him, and leaves in a fury. The captain sends Jacques to prison for a fortnight. Although it is simple and nonsensical, this farce is enjoyable, and I am sure that the two manipulators play it with such clever and witty lines as to keep the audience screaming with laughter. As it is the custom for the children to lend their voices to the dolls in case there is something repeated often during the "boboche," one can be certain that they will increase the volume of each snore as Jacques begins it. One can readily see a similarity between this "boboche" and the famous old French farce of Maitre Pathelin, with the bleatings of the sheep replaced by the snores of Jacques.

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II me faut 35 sous (A "boboche" in one act)

Personages: The Marquis of Bonenfant. Jacques Lenfle. Monsieur Levieux. Morveux. Emile. Dominique. The Marquis of Bonenfant has had to dismiss his steward for drunkenness, and is awaiting a new applicant for the position. He finds that he must leave at once, and calls Emile, his gamekeeper, to tell him to receive the applicant in his place. Emile cadis together the other servants in order to impress upon them the importance of his new task, and sends them about their business. Morveux remains to dust the room (with a feather). Jacques Lenfle enters and asks for the marquis. (I keep the following conversation in French in order to retain the proper flavor.) (entrant)—Bonjour, la compagnie, me voilä, c'est moi! MORVEUX—Oui. Ah! c'est toi? JACQUES—Oui, gargon! Je viens voir M. le marquis. Est-il la? JACQUES

MORVEUX—Non. JACQUES—Je vais attendre alors. MORVEUX—Si tu n'es pas trop presse.

JACQUES—Presse? On est toujours presse, mais puisque je dois attendre et que je ne peux pas faire autrement qu'attendre, je vais attendre. MORVEUX—Que veux-tu?

JACQUES—Ah, voilä! j'ai entendu vanter la bonte de Μ. le marquis, et comme il me manque 35 sous pour acheter trois poules, je viens les lui emprunter. MORVEUX—Les poules?

JACQUES—Non, les 35 sous. credit.

Le marchand ne veut pas faire

MORVEUX—Pour 35 sous?

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE JACQUES—Les affaires sont les affaires. 35 sous, c'est peu de choses, mais enfin, c'est 35 sous, et si on ne les possede pas. . . . MORVEUX—Ecoute, mon gros, il y a moyen de s'arranger. (A part) Je vais faire une farce ä Emile. (Haut) Suis-moi bien, hein! Pour avoir les 35 sous il sufFit de dire que tu t'appelles Intendant. JACQUES—Ah! Non! Je m'appelle Jacques Lenfle. MORVEUX—Mais le garde ne t e c o n n a i t pas. JACQUES—Moi non plus.

MORVEUX—Tout ira bien. Je vais le chercher. Quand il te parlera, tu diras que tu es l'Intendant. JACQUES—Et j'aurai mes 35 sous? MORVEUX—Tu les auras. J A C Q U E S — v a ! parce que si je rentre Ä la maison sans mes trois poules, ma femme m'a promis de m'arracher les cheveux. MORVEUX—Tu auras tes trois poules. (Appelant) Emile, Emile, monsieur Emile . . . l'Intendant. EMILE (entrant)—J'ai bien l'honneur de vous saluer. (Saluant plusieurs fois) Prenez seulement quelques instants de patience. M. le marquis ne tardera pas ä rentrer. Si vous avez un desir ä formuler, je suis ä vos ordres. MORVEUX (ä Jacques)—Dis que tu as soif. JACQUES (meme jeu)—C'est vrai? (Sur un signe affirmatif de Morveux) J'ai soif! EMILE—Veuillez, je vous prie, me suivre. Je vais avoir l'honneur de vous offrir au nom de M. le marquis tout ce que vous desirerez. Un verre de Bordeaux? du Bourgogne? ou du Champagne? JACQUES—Quel est le meilleur?

EMILE—Trois marques de premiere qualite. MORVEUX (Ä Jacques)—Prends les trois. JACQUES—Eh bien! les trois, je choisirai apres. After this little scene, Jacques steps out of the room and Dominique, the stable boy, enters. Morveux convinces them that they should give Jacques the 35 sous that he needs. They leave to give them to him. M. Levieux, the real applicant, arrives and is not pleased with his welcome. Morveux takes M. Levieux somewhere to await the mar[117]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE quis. Jacques, having attained that which he wanted, wishes to go away, but Emile retains him by force. Morveux urges the two of them on to a fight. The marquis enters at the beginning of the fight, and Emile explains that he was trying to keep the applicant from leaving. M. Levieux enters, and the marquis has to make apologies for Emile's mistake. Emile and Dominique complain of the 35 sous that they have given to Jacques. Levieux, having accepted the position of steward, goes to get the money from Jacques. Morveux furnishes Jacques with a stick, and tells him that Levieux is coming to steal his 35 sous. Jacques gives Levieux a sound thrashing. (5) The Future of His Theatre It has been seen above how the lovers of folklore in France have become more and more interested of late years in "L' Theat' Louis," and how they have rewarded Leopold Richard by their patronage for his work with these marionettes. So it should be, and I dare to predict that the popularity of these little wooden actors of Roubaix will continue to increase in favor until they become something of a local institution, if not more. These are not the "artistic" marionettes, such as one can find in the private theatres of Paris, supported by groups of ultra-modern artists who are trying continually new experiments in technic and repertoire.85 They are marionettes of the people—created by one of the people for the enjoyment of the people—clinging closely to the ideals in which they were founded. Let the other dolls try to find themselves in the maze of artistic innovations and new experiments, but those of Roubaix have long since discovered their abilities and their limitations. They have found the work for which they are best suited, and are content to continue as they are, doing their best according to their ideals. Very few theatres of any 85 In making this statement I have in mind such theatres as l'Arc-en-ciel directed by M. Blattner, l'Ecole Μ edgy es, and, among the puppets, the Guignolia of the Pare Montsouris.

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THE NORTH OF FRANCE sort can boast of a longer consecutive existence than that of " L ' Theät' Louis," and few actors have lived more true to the ideals upon which they were begun than have the dolls of this little theatre. These marionettes are as artistic in their own way as any that ever existed, and still they are popular in the true sense of the word. The marionettes of " L ' Theät' Louis" live up to the high criterion set by M. Rene Doumic, for they appeal not only to children, but also to the people who know and love the traditions of their country, and also to the connoisseurs of folklore and of dramatic art. Just what Leopold Richard will do in the future with his marionettes is not to be predicted, but it is very certain that " L ' Theät' Louis" will remain under the directorship of some member of his family, and that it will always remain true to the traditions in which it was founded. I have seen the two young sons of the family keenly interested in the work of their father, and anxious to reach an age at which they will be able to take over their share of the task of making these dolls perform. Leopold Richard has said: " J e continue la tradition de ma famille, mais si j'etais sür que les marionnettes de Roubaix, apres ma mort, ne continueraient pas a travaillcr avec honneur, c'est ä dire, avec de vrais marionnettistes, je detruirais cette oeuvre, car je ne veux pas qu'elle tombe dans des mains profanes." 86 M

L. Richard: Letter I.

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APPENDIX

I

Taken from

LES DIVERTISSEMENTS DE SCEAUX Paris, Ganeau, 1712 Scene de Polichinelle et du voisin POLICHINELLE—Bonjour, voisin, sgais-tu le dessein qui M'a pisse par la tete? LE VOISIN—Comment pisse? c'est passe que tu veux dire. P O L I C H I N E L L E — P a r la sanguenne, il n'est pas passe puisqu'il y est encore. L E V O I S I N — E h bien! quel est ce dessein? P O L I C H I N E L L E — C ' e s t que je veux demander a etre receu dans le cas de ma mie Frangoise. . . . L E V O I S I N — H a ! je t'entends, tu voudrais etre de L'Academie frangoise pour avoir des jettons. P O L I C H I N E L L E — E h ouy, t'y voilä, par sanguie! On dit que ces jettons-la valent pour le moins 20 francs, et je n'en gagne que 5 ä porter mes crochets. Voilä un grand profit que je ferai lä. L E V O I S I N — D i s done profit; en parlant comme tu fais, comment peux-tu esperer d'entrer dans cette compagnie qui n'est composee que de gens eclaires? P O L I C H I N E L L E — P a r sanguie, s'il n'y a que cela, je suis bien plus eclaire qu'eux, car c'est moi qui eclaire les autres. LE VOISIN—Comment, tu eclaires les autres? POLICHINELLE—Eh ouy, tu ne sgais done pas que je suis le lanternie de notre quartier? Et puis on dit que ces gens-lä ne parlent que lanternerie; si cela est, la vache est ä nous, compere. II y a pourtant une chose qui m'embarrasse! LE VOISIN—Qu'est-ce que c'est? P O L I C H I N E L L E — C ' e s t que je ne sgais comment je feray pour manger du foin. LE VOISIN—Qu'est-ce que tu veux dire? manger du foin! P O L I C H I N E L L E — J ' a y trouve deux charrettes de foin qui faisoient

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MARIONETTES

IN

FRANCE

un embarras devant leur porte, et on m'a dit que c'etoit la collation de ces messieurs-la. LE VOISIN—Gros sot! C'est pour les chevaux. POLICHINELLE—Oh! oh! ce sont done des chevaux qui sont la? Par sanguie, je m'en vais demander une place pour le mien. Aussi bien, est il bien maigre, le foin sera pour lui, et les jettons pour moi, compere! LE VOISIN—Impertinent, gros pai'sant que tu es, sgais-tu bien qu'il faut faire des vers pour etre de cette compagnie? POLICHINELLE—J'en ay peut-etre fait sans y prendre garde. . . . Quoy est-ce des vers de fougere? LE VOISIN—Des vers sont des ouvrages d'esprit que font les poetes. Cela rime. POLICHINELLE—Cela lime, tu dis? S'il ne faut qu'une lime, j'en ay une chez nous. LE VOISIN—Rime, te dis-je. Voilä un plaisant animal! T u ne sais pas deux mots de suite, et comment ferois-tu pour haranguer le jour de ta reception? POLICHINELLE—Pourquoi non? je suis de race. LE VOISIN—Comment, de race? POLICHINELLE—Ouy, de race. Mon pere vendoit des harangs et ma mere etait harangere. LE VOISIN—Allons, voyons comment tu ferois; represente-toi que je suis l'Academie. POLICHINELLE—Ouy da, compere. ( I l p . . . . , tousse et crache.) LE VOISIN—Qu'est-ce que tu fais lä, infame. POLICHINELLE—Je me prepare. . . . Or ga, puisque tu le veux, entrons en matiere. Messieurs done, depuis ce grand cardinal de Richelieu a tire l'Academie frangoise de la (profondeur) du neant, elle a si bien rive le clou aux autres Academies, qu'on peut dire qu'elles ne sont (rien) ä l'esgard de la votre. . . . Ainsy, je ne pretends point vous ennuyer par de fades losanges. LE VOISIN—Dis done: louanges. POLICHINELLE—Je veux d'abord vous fourbir une occasion. LE VOISIN—Fournir, gros sot! et non pas fourbir. POLICHINELLE—Vous fournir une occasion de manifester vos talons et vos genices. LE VOISIN—Quel diable de patois! Crois-tu que ce soit la le

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APPENDIX

I

stile de l'Academie? Tu veux dire manifester vos talents et vos genies. POLICHINELLE—Eh ouy! I'un vaut l'autre, C'est tout un; de par tous les diables ne m'interrompe done plus. . . . LE VOISIN—Voilä qui va fort bien, tu n'as qu'Ä t'aller faire recevoir. Tu pourras bien recevoir aussy quelques coups de baton. POLICHINELLE—Bon! il y a tant de gens qui en meritent et qui n'en ont pas.

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APPENDIX II

Taken from D. Delafarge LA VIE ET L'OEUVRE DE 1730-1814

PALISSOT

Paris, Hachette, 1912, p. 233 ff Ce n'etait pas tout. Une piece de marionnettes, jouee le 20 juillet, avait repris la these de la grande comedie [Les Philosophes, par Palissot]. Cela s'appelait les Philosophes de bois,87 et cela merite, pour l'originalite meme de l'entreprise, d'etre mentionne ici. On l'imprima avec une preface oü le Directeur des Marionnettes presentait au public "ce poeme sans mechancete." II s'y excusait d'avoir adopte un ton respectueux: "Je serais bien plus sur, disait-il, du debit de ma piece en injurant mes lecteurs." Quant ä la piece, eile ne s'asservissait pas ä une imitation exacte de la comedie representee sur un theatre plus imposant; si eile en suivait les peripeties, c'etait librement; eile n'en retenait que les evenements essentiels et l'esprit general, les accommodant ä cette scene en miniature et aux acteurs traditionnels. C'est ainsi que nous voyons Polichinelle qui, pour reussir dans le monde, s'est mis en tete de devenir philosophe; deux philosophes attitres, M. Sapin et Μ. Fagot commencent son education: II te faut souvenir que la Philosophie Est presque en tout semblable ä la Magonnerie: Le plus ou le moins de talents Nous est indifferent che/ celui qui postule, 87 Les Philosophes de bois, en un acte et en vers par M. Cadet de Beaupre, membre de plusieurs troupes et directeur des comediens artificiels de Passy, representee pour la premiere fois sur son theatre, le 20 juillet 1760 (imprimee avec approbation et permission). Une estampe represente un des personnages, Mme Gigogne, dans la traditionnelle posture de Crispin.—Grimm avait attribue l'ouvrage ä Bertin, tresorier des parties casuelles (Cooresp., IV, p. 305); de Mouhy et Favart l'ont attribue ä Poinsinet de Sivry, et cette opinion a ete suivie par Querard. Elle n'a rien d'invraisemblable, en effet; peut-etre avons-nous affaire ä un ouvrage de societe.—Signale par d'Hemery ä la date du 14 aoüt.

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APPENDIX

II

E t chez nous on regoit tous les honnetes gens Quand ils n'ont pas trop de scrupule. Soit, mais le posulant a des inquietudes: il sait si peu de choses! M. Sapin Γ a vite rassure: "il s'agit seulement d'accoupler de grands mots," et le voilä tout ä fait a son aise, libre des prejuges courants. Comme Madame Gigogne, sa femme, se plaint d'etre abandonnee, Polichinelle lui repond en tout tranquility: Le sage ne vit que pour soi, Et ne doit point songer aux autres. Convaincue, Madame Gigogne se fait "philosophesse" et dejä son mari a pose cette nouvelle enseigne quand Gilles et Arlequin paraissent ä leur tour; ils viennent d'etre rosses l'un et l'autre, Gilles par sa femme, convertie ä la philosophie, Arlequin par son maitre qui l'avait surpris en train de voler un fromage et d'appliquer ä sa maniere la doctrine de la communaute des biens. Tous deux se precipitent sur Polichinelle qui les met hors de combat. Madame Gigogne rentre alors en scene, marchant comme Crispin, repetant meme ses paroles: eile apporte a son mari "quatre fils naturels" dont il voudra bien etre le "Pere de famille." Lä-dessus vaudeville, ballet—et la toile tombe. Oui, c'est bien une piece pour Marionnettes, avec les calembours, les coups de baton, la simplicite d'intrigue obligatoire. La satire des philosophes n'y est pas moins ingenue que le reste. Les philosophes de bois sont des charlatans destructeurs de toute morale: voilä certes un jugement peu complique. Mais, ä vrai dire, est-ce que la pensee de Palissot nous semble plus subtile? Qu'est-ce qui distinguait la petite piece de la grande? Ce n'etait pas l'objet, qui restait le meme des deux cötes: c'etait surtout la forme litteraire et dramatique.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY The books listed here are arranged alphabetically within the stated sections. In this bibliography no attempt is made to list books that contain only plays for marionettes. Books marked "*" have not been consulted directly. Books marked "**" are important to this study. 1. BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF BOOKS ON MARIONETTES

(**) Paul Jeanne: Bibliographie des marionnetles. Paris, Soupente de Guignol. 1926. (**) G. G. Ransome: Puppets and Shadows, a Bibliography. Boston, Faxon. 1931. A. Sanford: "Books about Marionettes." In The Library Journal. November 1, 1929. Books and Prints Relating to Marionettes and Puppets. Newport, Fletcher. 1933. Guignol, Marionnettes, Ombres Chinoises. Catalogue of Librarie Ritti. Paris. 1934. 2. GENERAL HISTORIES OF MARIONETTES

(**)

(**) (**) (**)

Madge Anderson: The Heroes of the Puppet Stage. London. 1924. Max von Boehn: Puppen und Puppenspiele. München, Bruckmann. 1929. 2 vols. Translation of same: Josephine Nicoll: Dolls and Puppets, with a preface by G. B. Shaw. London, Harrap. 1932. L. Delannoy: "Les Marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres." In Les Amis de Lille. February 15, 1930; March 1, 1930; and November 1, 1930. Pietro Ferrigni (Yorick): La storia dei burattini. Firenze, Fieramosca. 1884. Η. H. Joseph: A Book of Marionettes. New York, Viking. 1929. Charles Magnin: Histoire des marionnettes en Europe depuis Vantiquite jusqua nos jours. Paris, Michel Levy. 1852. [127]

MARIONETTES IN

FRANCE

(**) Ernest Maindron: Marionnettes et guignols, les poupees agissantes et parlantes ä travers les ages. Paris, Juven. 1901. Paul McPharlin: A Repertory of Marionette Plays. New York, Viking. 1929. W. H. Mills and L. M. Dunn: Marionettes, Masks, and Shadows. London. 1927. (**) H. S. Rehm: Das Buch der Marionetten, ein Beitrag zu Geschichte des Theaters aller Völker. Berlin, Frensdorff. 1905. 3. BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON THE MARIONETTES UP TO THE N I N E TEENTH CENTURY

(**) Maurice Albert: Les Theatres de lafoire, 1660-1789. Paris, Hachette. 1900. Maurice Albert: Les Theatres des boulevards, 1789-18U8. Paris. 1902. Anonymous: Les Divertissements de Sceaux. Paris, Ganeau. 1712. Anonymous: Feu Seraphin; histoire de ce spectacle depuis son origine jusquä sa disparition. Lyon. 1875. E. d'Auriac: Theatre de lafoire avec un essai historique sur les spectacles forains. Paris, Gamier. 1878. (*) Bachaumont: Memoires secrets. Barbaret: Lesage et le theatre de lafoire. Paris. 1888. L. Batcave: Les petits comediens du Roi au bois de Boulogne. Paris, Schemit. 1909. Henri Beaulieu: Les Theatres du boulevard du Crime. Paris, Daragon. 1905. J. Bonnassies: Les Spectacles forains et la Comedie Franqaise. Paris, Dentu. 1875. Boudet: Les Affiches de Boudel. February 20, 1749; etc. N. Brazier: Chronique des petits theatres de Paris depuis leur creation jusqu äce jour. Paris, Allardin. 1837. 2 vols. (*) Pierre Brun: Pupazzi et statuettes. Etudes sur le dix-huiti&me siecle. Paris, Comely. 1908. (**) Emile Campardon: Les Spectacles de la foire. Paris, BergerLevrault. 1877. 2 vols. Ε. K. Chambers: The Mediaeval Stage. London. 1903.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

(*)

(*) (*)

(*) (**)

A. Chapius and Ε. Gelis: Le Monde des automates. Paris. 1928. 2 vols. L. Claretie: Histoire des theatres de societe. Paris, Moliere. 1906. L. Claretie: Lesage, romancier, d'apres de nouveaux documents. Paris, Colin. 1890. D. Delafarge: La Vie et les Oeuvres de Palissot, 1730-181U. Paris, Hachette. 1912. Depping: Correspondence administrative sous Louis XIV. Paris. 1850-1855. 4 vols. G. Desnoiresterres: La Comedie satirique au dix-huitieme siecle. Paris, Perrin. 1885. Detcheverry: Histoire des theatres de Bordeaux. Bordeaux, Delmas. 1860. M. Dondo: " Marionettes in the Time of Shakespeare." In the University of California Chronicle. July. 1923. M. Drack: Le Theatre de la foire. Paris. 1889. I. Emerson: "Sicilian Marionettes." In the Contemporary Review. March, 1930. I. Emerson: Manuscript letter. April 4, 1932. A. Font: Favart, l'opera-comique et la comedie-vaudeville aux dix-septieme et dix-huitieme sihcles. Paris, Fischbacher. 1894. J.-B. Gouriet: Personnages celebres dans les rues de Paris. Paris, Lerouge. 1811. 2 vols. Mme Frangoise de Graffigny: Letters to M. Deveaux. December 11, 16, and 17, 1738. Grimm: Correspondence litteraire. Paris, Garnier. Vol. II, p. 400. A. Heulhard: Jean Monnet, vie el aventures d'un entrepreneur de spectacles au dix-huitikme siecle avec un appendice sur l'Opera Comique de 1752 a 1758. Paris, Lemerre. 1884. A. Heulhard: La Foire de Saint-Laurent. Paris. 1878. A. Julien: Les Grandes Nuits de Sceaux. Paris, Baur. 1876. Lesage et d'Orneval: Le Theatre de la foire ou l'Opera Comique. Paris, Gandoein. 1737. 10 vols. Ε. Lintilhac: Lesage. Paris, Hachette. 1893. E. Lunel: Le Theatre et la Revolution. Paris, Daragon. 1910. [129]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

(*)

(**)

(*)

(*)

H. Lyonnet: Diclionnaire des comediens franqais; biographie, bibliographie, iconographie. Paris, Jorel. 1904. 2 vols. Maurepas: Recueils de chansons et de vers satiriques. Paris, Leyde. 1865. 6 vols. R. N.: "Les Marionnettes ä travers les ages." In the Revue britannique. 1899. J.-B. Naugaret: Almanack forain. Paris, Guillot. 1771, 1775, 1786. Charles Nodier (Doctor Neophobus): "Les Marionnettes." In the Revue de Paris. November, 1842, and May, 1843. Les Freres Parfaict: Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire des spectacles de la foire, par un acteur forain. Paris, Briasson. 1743. 2 vols. L. Pericaud: Theatre des Pelits Comediens de S. A. S. Monseigneur le comle de Beaujolais. Paris, Jorel. 1909. A. Pougin: Diclionnaire historique et pittoresque du theatre. Paris, Firmin-Didot. 1885. Sauval: Antiquites de Paris. Tallement des Reaux: Historieties. (Henri de Loraine, due de Guise.) Paris, Delloye. 1840. 10 vols. Thiery: Guide des amateurs el des etrangers voyageurs a Paris. Paris. 1784. G. L. Von Roosbroeck and A. Constans: Polichinelle comte de Paonfier, parodie inedite du "Glorieux" de Deslouches (1732). Paris, Champion. 1924. L. Vitet: Histoire de Dieppe. Paris, Gosselin. Voltaire: Recueils de chansons et de vers saliriques. Edition of Beuchot. Vol. XIV. Calendrier historique des spectacles de Paris. Paris. 1751. Dictionnaire des theatres de Paris. Paris, Lambert. 1766. 3 vols. Le Monde dramalique, histoire des theatres anciens et modernes. Paris. 1837. 4 vols. Poesies diverses et la vie d'Alexis Piron. London, Jackson. 1787.

4. BOOKS A N D ARTICLES ON MARIONETTES SINCE THE N I N E T E E N T H CENTURY

A. Altherr : 1923.

Marionetten

und

[130]

Schattenspiele.

Ziirich.

BIBLIOGRAPHY C. Anet: "Les Marionnettes de Mme Forain." In Le Theatre. May, 1908. Mme Laure Bernard: Theatre de marionneltes. Paris, Didier. 1837. Bernard Bouvier: Marc-Monnier et Geneve. Geneve, Imprimerie Centrale. 1930. Η. Cambell: "Parisian Marionettes." In the Literary World. Vol. 19, p. 249. Carol Chiesa: Puppet Parade. New York, Longmans Green. 1933. Anatole France: La Vie litleraire. In Oeuvres completes. Paris, Calmann-Levy. 1926. Vol. VI, "Les Marionnettes de Μ. Signoret." Vol. VII, "Hrotswitha aux marionnettes" and "M. Maurice Bouchor et l'histoire de Tobie." Ε. T. Gabler: Marionetten Kunst und Künstler. Berlin. 1926. Charles le Goffic: "Le Petit-Theätre des marionnettes." In the Revue encyclopedique. June 15, 1894. A. Hovaroff: Theatre des Pantagonia du carre Marigny. A. Kreymborg: Puppet Plays. New York, French. 1916. P. Leclerq: "Theatres des Nabots; les marionnettes de Mme Forain." In Le Theatre. March, 1906. J. Lemaitre: Impressions de theatre. Paris. 1888-1898. Vol. V, p. 263; vol. VI, p. 373. Lemercier de Neuville: Histoire anecdotique des marionnettes modernes. Paris, Calmann-Levy, 1892. Lemercier de Neuville: Souvenirs d'un montreur de marionnettes. Paris, Bauche. 1911. Marc-Monnier: Theatre de marionneltes. Geneve, Richard. 1871. Maurice Sand: Le Theatre des marionnettes. Paris, CalmannLevy. 1890. J. Sarrazin: Souvenirs de Montmarte et du Quartier Latin. Paris, Sarrazin. 1895. P. Veron: Les Marionnettes ä Paris. Paris, Michel-Levy. 1875.

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MARIONETTES IN FRANCE 6. BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON THE MARIONETTES OF THE NORTH OF FRANCE A N D OF FLANDERS

(*) (*) (*) (*)

Alios: "Le Cycle de Charlemagne." In Figaro. January 21, 1932. Alphonse Capon: Flanders en fete. 1925. Alphonse Capon: Marie-Claire. 1896. Alphonse Capon: Ree its du nord. 1913. Alexandre Desrousseaux: Moeurs populaires de la Flandre Jran$aise. Lille, Quarre. 1889. 2 vols. Paul Jeanne: "Les Marionnettes ä Anvers." In the Revue Seplentrionale. February, 1929. Maury: "Les Marionnettes dans le nord." In the Revue Septentrionale. April, 1928. Maury: "Les Marionnettes de Liege." In the Revue Septentrionale. January, 1931. Rodolphe de Warsage: Histoire du celebre theatre lihgeois de marionnettes, etude de folklore. Bruxelles, Vanoest. 1905. 6. BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON THE MARIONETTES OF AMIENS

Daussy: Le Patois picard el Lafleur. Amiens, Ivert. 1877. (**) Edouard David: Etude picard sur Lafleur. Amiens, Jeunet. 1896. (**) Edouard David: Les theatres populaires a Amiens. Lafleur est-il picard? Amiens, Ivert. 1906. (**) Edouard David: Les Compagnons de Lafleur et Sandrine. Paris. 1927. (**) Edouard David: "Les Marionnettes picardes. In the Revue Septentrionale. April, 1928. (**) L. Delannoy: "Les Marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres." In Les Amis de Lille. November 15, 1930. (*) J. Hollain (Babenne): Article in La Vaclette. 1910. (**) Paul Jeanne: Manuscript letters. August 4, 1931; August 17, 1931; April 24, 1932. (*) Paul de Wailly: Article in the Revue du Nord. July 1, 1896. 7. BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON THE MARIONETTES OF LILLE

(**) L. Delannoy: "Les Marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres." In Les Amis de Lille. December 1, 1929; [132]

BIBLIOGRAPHY December 1, 1930; March 1, 1931; March 15, 1931; April 1, 1931; April 15, 1931; May 1, 1931; May 15, 1931; November 15, 1931. A. Delmotte: "Les Marionnettes de Lille." In the Revue Septenlrionale. February, 1929. (**) Paul Jeanne: Manuscript letters. August 4, 1931; August 17, 1931. (*) E. Laut: Article in Le Petit Journal de Lille. December 6, 1905. 8. BOOKS A N D ARTICLES ON THE MARIONETTES OF ROUBAIX

(**)

(**)

(**) (**)

C. Bodart-Timal: "Les Marionnettes ä Roubaix." In the Revue Septentrionale. February, 1929. C. Bodart-Timal: "Un theatre de marionnettes a Roubaix." In the Revue Septenlrionale. October, 1929. L. Delannoy: "Les Marionnettes lilloises et quelques autres." In Les Amis de Lille. December 1, 1931; December 15, 1931; December 25, 1931-January 1, 1932. Paul Jeanne: "Les Marionnettes de Roubaix." Manuscript speech before the Rosati of Paris. February 28, 1930. Paul Jeanne: Manuscript letter. August 4, 1931. Leopold Richard: Manuscript letters. August 12, 1931; M a y 18, 1932; February 11, 1933. P. Hirsch: " U n peintre de Flandre: Albert Dequene." In the Mercure de Flandre. June-July, 1931.

9. MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS A N D ARTICLES ON MARIONETTES

(*) A. d'Agnel and L. Dor: Histoire des Santons. H. d'Allemagne: Les Jouets des enfants. Paris, Hachette. (*) A. Avril: Sallimbanques et marionnettes. Paris. 1867. Hilaire Belloc: "Marionnettes." In the London Outlook. June 16, 1923. (*) H. Bidou: "Les petits comediens de bois." In the Journal des Debats. January 3, 1930. P. Bonnefon: " U n chapitre de l'histoire des marionnettes." In UArtiste. 1883. Remo Bufano: Be a Puppet Showman. New York, Century. 1933. [133]

MARIONETTES IN FRANCE

(*) (*)

(*) (*)

(*) (*)

(*)

G. Cony and L. Megret: Les Marionneltes ä Vecole. Paris, Gadalge. 1927. Gordon Craig: The Marionettes tonight at 12:30. Florence. 1918. L. Delannoy: " L a Psychologie des marionnettes et les marionnettes dans la litterature." In Les Amis de Lille. October 15, 1932; November 1, 1932. Alfred Demont: La Litterature patoise artesienne. Amelia von Ende: "The Christmas Creche." In the New York Bookman. December, 1914. G. Escudier ·. Les Saltimbanqu.es. Paris, Michel-Levy. 1834. Franc-Nohan: " L a Mystique des marionnettes." In the Nouvelles litteraires. February 18, 1933. Mme Giradot: Theatre et marionnettes pour les petits. Paris. H. de Graffigny: Le Theatre ä la maison. Paris, Guyot. 1914. Irjo Hirn: Les Jeux d'enfants. Paris, Stock. 1926. P.Jacob: Recueil de farces, soties et moralites. Paris. 1897. J. S. Kennard: Masks and Marioneties. New York, Macmillan. 1935. E. Legarde: Ombres chinoises, guignol et marionneltes. Paris, Choux. 1900. A. Levinson: " Unima." In L'Art vivant. November, 1929. Brander Matthews: "Puppet Shows, old and new." In the Bookman. December, 1914. J. Petite: Guignols et marionnettes. Paris. J. E. Rabe: Kasper Putschenelle. Hamburg, Quickborn. 1924. H. Robert: "Guignol." In the Conferencia. March 1,1920. E. Vuillermoz: "Les Piccoli ä Paris." In UIllustration. January 5, 1929. Η. S. West: "Puppet Warfare in France." In the Literary Digest. November, 1915. P. Wölfl": "Guignols et pantins." In the Journal de Γ Universite des Annales. August 15, 1911. "Parisian Puppet Theatre." In the Scientific American Supplement. October, 1902. "Puppet Show at the Paris Exposition." In the Scientific American. November, 1900. [134]

OMITTED FROM BIBLIOGRAPHY Theophile Gautier: "Les Marionnettes." In Souvenirs de Theatre, dart el de critique, Paris, Charpentier. 1883.