Maqām : Historical Traces and Present Practice in Southern European Music Traditions [1 ed.] 9781443861946, 9781443859875

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MaqƗm

MaqƗm: Historical Traces and Present Practice in Southern European Music Traditions

Edited by

Jürgen Elsner, Gisa Jähnichen and Jasmina Talam Editorial Secretary Amra Toska

MaqƗm: Historical Traces and Present Practice in Southern European Music Traditions, Edited by Jürgen Elsner, Gisa Jähnichen and Jasmina Talam This book first published 2014 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2014 by Jürgen Elsner, Gisa Jähnichen, Jasmina Talam and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5987-7, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5987-5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Part I: Between MaqƗm and Mode: The Intermediate Realms Maqam in Peripheral Cultures ..................................................................... 8 Gisa Jähnichen The Concept of ùube (“Branch”) as a Tetrachordal Classification Method in the 15th Century Ottoman Makam Theory and the Enchiriadis Theory: A Hermeneutic Interpretation .................................................................... 20 Murat Okan Öztürk The Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs....................................................................................... 43 Gueorgui Harizanov Part II: Historical Traces of Ottoman Music in the Mediterranean Region The Melodic Characteristics of Greek Rebetika Music: A Comparative Study on the Dromos and the Maqams ...................................................... 68 Ali Fuat Aydin Improvised Instrumental Sections on Bosnian Commercial Recordings: From Westernisation to Re-Orientalisation ............................................... 76 Risto Pekka Pennanen Theory of Ottoman Music of the Modern Period ...................................... 94 Fikret Karakaya Oriental Musical Tradition during the Period of Austro-Hungarian Rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina ...................................................................... 132 Lana Šehoviü Paüuka and Fatima Hadžiü

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Table of Contents

A Turkish Contribution to Algerian Musical Culture: The Bashraf ........ 146 Jürgen Elsner Part III: Role and Revival of Religious Genres in the Balkans Adhan in the Tradition of Islamic Religious Community in Vojvodina ............................................................................................ 172 Vesna Ivkov Contemporary Maqam Practice in the Jewish Community of Belgrade: The Example of the Liturgical Hymn Nishmat kol hay ........................... 183 Jasmina Huber From Traditional to Modern: Ilahy in Bosnia and Herzegovina .............. 204 Jasmina Talam Contributors ............................................................................................. 213

INTRODUCTION

In previous meetings of the ICTM Study Group MaqƗm some fundamental problems of the maqƗm phenomenon as well as many historical aspects of corresponding regional music traditions have been described and discussed. The results of these efforts have considerably extended and deepened the knowledge and understanding of the maqƗm phenomenon. Nevertheless, it cannot be ignored that multifarious personal, local and regional traditions and their history, constructive foundations and mutual relations as well as the impact on other music traditions are not yet sufficiently investigated and recognized. In spite of all the specified contributions on several topics, many facts are left uncertain, hypothetical, imaginary or even unknown. Even with the continuous evolution and discontinuous practice of personal, local and regional music traditions according to the maqƗm-principle, the materials of the corresponding music have yet to be studied more precisely. The scientific acquisition shows large gaps of knowledge and understanding due to lack of an intensified actual discussion asking for details. This is true not least for the music cultures of South European countries, especially for the Balkans. The history of the Balkans since the late Middle Ages, which is strongly characterized by the Ottoman conquest and dominion, consists of manifold cultural indications, especially musical traces, respectively. The influence of the Ottoman Empire, however, varied from region to region and that is manifested in the manner of the adaptation, resistance or even the neglecting of historical influences in recent times. In view of this fact the Academy of Music in Sarajevo and the Musicological Society of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina offered to organise the 8th Symposium of the ICTM Study Group MaqƗm in order to focus on this less highlighted scientific area regarding research on maqƗm related issues. The scientific preparation for the symposium was done by a programme committee consisting of the following members: Jürgen Elsner (Germany), Gisa Jähnichen (Germany/Malaysia) and Jasmina Talam (Bosnia and Herzegovina). In this way the 8th Symposium of the ICTM Study Group MaqƗm was held at the Academy of Music in Sarajevo, from 8th to 11th November 2012.

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Introduction

Scholars from Germany, Turkey, Tunisia, Serbia, Malaysia, Finland, Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina contributed to the conference. The symposium lasting four days and comprised of five sessions as well as two concerts, and was framed by a show of traditional costumes from Bosnia and Herzegovina and the presentation of old crafts, including making of folk musical instruments.

Figure 1. Members of the ensemble Etnoakademik performing with the pan

In order to open up our minds and to widen the horizons of discussions on historical traces and present music practices related to the maqƗm principle in Southern Europe including neighbouring regions, the general topic of the Symposium "MaqƗm: Historical Traces and Present Practice in South European Music Traditions" was substructured into three special topics: 1. Between maqƗm and mode: the intermediate realms 2. Historical traces of Ottoman music in the Mediterranean Region 3. Role and revival of religious genres in the Balkans. It is the nature of a symposium that only has a few specialists that means not all topics could be sufficiently and comprehensively worked out. However, the papers contributed to a deeper understanding of the

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questions’ complexity. Nevertheless, the contributions offered new insights and knowledge on some aspects of the influence of Ottoman music culture in the Mediterranean region and especially in parts of the Balkans. There exists historical developments and recent occurrences in the realm of music culture which seem to wait for their discovery and investigation. Gisa Jähnichen (Malaysia/Germany) started a principal approach to the maqƗm phenomenon in an interregional transfer and use of modern media. Speaking about the "MaqƗm Principle in Peripheral Cultures" based on her Southeast Asian experiences she aimed at defining various degrees of awareness in music making and elemental understanding of the maqƗm principle, recognising its distinctiveness under today’s social and cultural conditions.

 Figure 2. Jürgen Elsner and Gisa Jähnichen during the session

Okan Murat Öztürk’s (Turkey) contribution on "The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method in the 15th Century Ottoman Makam Theory" is based on two treatises: the Kitab-i Edvar of Hizir bin Abdullah (1441) and the Risale-i Musiki of Kirsehirli Yusuf (1411). Öztürk describes speculative reinterpretation and systematization of historical facts of the four lately developed shu`bes Yekgah, Dugah, Sikah and Chargah and the tetrachordal arrangement that he compares with the fourth-based system of the Musica enchiriadis stated 500 years ago. He points out that maqƗm practices may also have changed depending on new theoretical contemplations implemented in the 15th century.

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Introduction

Most of the papers, however, deal with historical facts and deduced developments, with social and economic background studies on regional music traditions in Muslim communities of the Balkans. Ali Fuat Aydin (Turkey) lectured on "The Melodic Characteristics of Greek Rebetika Music", the music of one and a half million Greek people who have re-migrated from Turkey to Greece since 1850. Their musical heritage that adopted some Turkish appearances such as the use of instruments like the Bouzouki and Baglama or the way of melody construction using the maqƗm system changed considerably with the application of Western harmonic progressions. Comparing dromos–the theoretical fundament of Rebetika–with maqƗm, the author tries to outline the corresponding similarities and differences. Risto Pekka Pennanen (Finland) draws in his presentation "A Hundred Years of Makams and Modes in Bosnian Commercial Recordings" an interesting picture of features and consequences of keeping and transmitting traditional music by technical media from records from the beginning of the 20th century onwards. Westernization can be observed identified widely with modernization. Since the 1980s, re-orientalization shaped yet another special result of media transmission: note-for-note imitations of recorded pieces, peculiar to taksims, became a relatively common feature in performances replacing traditional creativity. To some extent, Fatima Hadžiü and Lana Paüuka (Bosnia and Herzegovina) follow the problem the other way round. The invasion of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1878 after the Russian-Turkish war confronted the Oriental musical heritage that had grown up in the Ottoman period with the new Western musical culture. Cultural imposition, through the colonizers, took place in various areas, among them through military bands of the Austro-Hungarian army. Further research looks at the musical influence of the Ottoman Empire on North-African countries. Jürgen Elsner’s (Germany) study on "A Turkish Contribution to Algerian Musical Culture: the Bashraf" sheds light upon one aspect of the Ottoman influence in dealing with the relation of the Algerian bashraf to its supposed Turkish model. It concerns a rather intricate problem that cannot be solved easily. Thus the description presents a, so far, complete list of Algerian bashrafs as well as notations and analyses of some pieces emphasizing tonal-melodical characteristics, rhythmic periods and formal construction. Such material elaborated as detailed and as precisely as possible is a necessary prerequisite to a useful reference to the history of Ottoman instrumental music that has been investigated during the last decades in an outstanding way.

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Vesna Ivkov’s paper "Adhan in the Tradition of Islamic Religious Community in Vojvodina" draws attention especially to the regeneration of religious life strengthened by immigrants of Muslim countries. Oriented to the maqƗm bound adhan practice of the Egyptian Azhar University, the structure of adhan in Vojvodina and the conditions and methods of its transmission are discussed. According to Jasmina Huber (Germany) in her paper "Contemporary Maqam Practice in Jewish Community Belgrade Outlined by the Example of the Liturgical Hymn Nishmat Kol Hay" describes and analyses the introduction of a Sephardic Jerusalem rite in Belgrade at the end of the previous century and the musical challenges the performers of the newly installed rite had to face. It is the increasing repertoire of liturgical music based on maqƗm and its special subtleties that only a very few members of the community can cope with. The case was exemplified by an analysis of the liturgical hymn "Nishmat kol hay" regularly performed during the Shabbat morning prayer. Jasmina Talam (Bosnia and Herzegovina) evaluates in her paper "From Traditional to Modern: Ilahy in Bosnia and Hercegovina" the recovery and commercialization of the traditional and in general mƗqam bound Muslim genre ilahy handed down in her country. Originally possessing a personal confessional character, the ilahy as well as the ancient kasida, have been transformed into a Western style using modern technology and presented at concert halls and stadiums for fun to thousands of people, thus remodelling the genre, which is left for diverging evaluation. Besides these contributions presented as outlines during the 8th Symposium of the ICTM Study Group maqƗm, this volume consists of a further two papers submitted by researchers who could not attend the Symposium. Fikret Karakaya heavily criticizes in his paper "Theory of Ottoman Music of the Modern Period" the 20th century Turkish maqƗm theory based on scale systems. He proposes a more practical approach to maqƗm descriptions considering melodic features as equally essential. Another very interesting paper of Georgui Harizanov "The Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs" interprets maqƗm as a "multilayered modal framework or system governed by a set of rules". Based upon voluminous collections of folklore he suggests a combination of modal theory and maqƗm system to better analyse Bulgarian traditional songs. The present publication continues with the promotion of the international academic discourse regarding subjects related to the maqam. We hope that it may contribute to a better comprehension of this interesting cultural

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Introduction

phenomenon and will serve as an invitation to further reflections and research on maqam, and also to the history of Ottoman music and its legacy in the Mediterranean region. Prof. Dr. Jürgen Elsner

PART I: BETWEEN MAQƖM AND MODE: THE INTERMEDIATE REALMS

MAQAM IN PERIPHERAL CULTURES GISA JÄHNICHEN MALAYSIA/GERMANY

The Case of Ghazal in Malaysia First, I want to introduce a music practice that is continuously moving throughout the region and permanently changing: ghazal performances as observed between India and Indonesia. However, local differences are elemental to their popularity. Taking ghazal Johor and the appearance of ghazal parti as an example, I want to draw your attention to the multilayered meaning of music traditions and the possible re-interpretation of adopted elements.

Ghazal Johor Johor is a state in the south of Malaysia. There are at least five culturally different areas: Muar, Batu Pahat, Mersing, Kluang and Johor Bahru, the capital of the state and the residence of the Sultan. Johor’s Sultans of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries played a key role in attracting performers from abroad, mainly from southern islands sultanates such as Riau Lingga and later Singapore (Matusky & Tan 2004: 351-353), and in developing an urban entertainment culture in their rich market towns. Ghazal came with Indian musicians to Malaya’s larger cities playing prevalently in the touring Indian Parsi theatre, later in the second half of the 19th century. It was then performed in Bangsawan (Tan 1997), an urban theatre developed parallel to and from Parsi theatre, and different local genres of Chinese, Malay or Western origin. Though Parsi theatre might have operated with ghazal as well, there are no reliable sources on how ghazal of that time was produced and perceived. Most probably, Parsi theatre performed in a local Indianized style might be the first mediator of ghazal in Johor and other places throughout Malaya. In Penang at the beginning of the 20th century, it mixed with Arabian entertainment music brought from the Middle East by Malay scholars and boria, an entertaining theatre and dance performance that lost its original religious meaning and

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that was developed in the context of a growing entertainment business in Penang. Similar movements could be observed in the states Perak and Kedah where ghazal groups became popular not only in urban but also in rural areas. Over the decades, ghazal has found its own performance conditions within the sphere of private music entertainment for weddings and birthday parties, for open house ceremonies and other regular amusements. Ghazal groups, as can be observed, play not only ghazal but all the favourite instrumental and vocal music. In Penang, Perak and Kedah ghazal groups also play for dancing, especially zapin (Jähnichen 2009) and joget. Cross dressing men performing as female dancers (Sohaimi 2006) is one interesting feature without which a ghazal parti seems to be incomplete in the North Peninsula.

Figure 1: Map showing main routes of cultural exchange with Malaya/Malaysia (scheme by the author).

Though the instruments in ghazal Johor point strongly to Indian ensembles, the musical perception is translated into the historically earlier developed framework of a maqam based practice that was taken over in the course of Islamisation and adaptation of Arab musical ideas imported by traders and some scholars returning from the Middle East. However, this historically earlier period1 of development in urban entertainment music is not very deeply rooted and rather an orientation or a loose 1

Starting not earlier than in the late 18th century, when the southern tip of Peninsular Malaya attracted settlers from various regions to invest in industrial plantations and intense trade between larger ports (Andaya and Andaya 1982: 151– 152).

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framework of rules in appropriating melodic and rhythmic features. The Maqam used are named Bayati, Kurd, Nahawand, but mainly Hijaz, which gave its name to the modernized gambus, the ud-like instrument making a strongly Malay musical identity (Jähnichen 2009). The same can be said of the application of raga-like patterns of melodic treatments and the importance of basic notes throughout the piece.

Malaysian Ghazal in Performance Over time in the early 20th century, ghazal playing was developed at least in two quite different appearances, strongly influenced by early media technology, namely movie companies operating in Singapore. Among them are the Shaw Brothers, who controlled most of the young film industry and the later import of Hindi films from India, where ghazal played an important role as part of film music. Those film music songs were often independently performed in support of cinema advertisements and for private entertainment. Interestingly, these film songs contributed to the “tradionalising” of ghazal in a more definite way than ghazal groups performing elder forms of ghazal, such as the classic ghazal Johor, that were often radically transformed by creative individuals and in regional competition amongst the mostly wealthier hierarchy. So, we can find a classification of Johor ghazals according to their cultural area such as Muar, Mersing, Johor Bahru and Batu Pahat. Siti Rohaya binti Zakaria (2010) describes–though insufficiently–the main differences in both ghazal appearances. She says that ghazal Johor uses song melodies of the so called Malay Asli style such as Sri Mersing, Siti Payung, Patah Hati and Seri Banang. Musicians and singers are seated and perform without applying gestures and special facial expressions. Ghazal Johor is accompanied by an ensemble of at least seven musicians playing the harmonium, tabla, violin, gambus, guitar, tambourin and maracas. Ghazal Johor is strictly not for dancing. It is an entertainment genre of the well situated and educated upper and upper middle classes. Of the other appearance of ghazal, called ghazal parti, it is said (Siti Rohani binti Zakaria 2010; Omara 2012, Sohaimi 2006) that songs are taken from famous ballads such as Anawintal Wahdina, Ahbabinna, Wai Ya, Ya Gamil, Istak Na Ya Albi, Ah-Yazid and Ifrah Ya Albi, Ahba Bina Ya Aini.2 Musicians and singers may stand up to perform, showing gestures 2

The Arab title names of the repertoire are adopted into the Malay language as quoted. Occasionally, one can find modifications in spelling throughout the country.

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and mimicary art. There must be at least eight musicians accompanying the singer that play gambus, accordion, violin, seruling, bongo, maracas, tambourin and double bass3. Ghazal parti is performed for the purpose of dancing. Mainly, two men are engaged to dance in womens dresses with elegant movements, circling around the singer (Omara 2012, Sohaimi 2006). This feature became an issue after the reformation of Islam in Malaysia following the model of Iran in the 1970s. Many ghazal parti events were cancelled or held only in private settings for selected and invited participants. The term 'ghazal parti' means the music played or repertoire as well as the group of musicians and the event itself. Among songs transformed into ghazal parti are also modern Arab and Hindustani songs that are taken from movies or live concerts broadcasted via mass media. Ghazal parti groups increasingly compose their own ghazals. While observing ghazal in Malaysia, one should always be aware of the main differences in appearance and purpose. Another important point is that creating ghazal in both main categories, ghazal Johor and ghazal parti, is a dynamic process that reveals a great part of cultural negotiations within the Malay community as a space open for many inspiring music and dance elements coming from outside, or, to be more precise, established exclusively through migrated individuals. Nevertheless, in discussion with scholars, (Nor 2012) clear statements on adaptations are often neglected or refused while pointing towards the unique attributes of a respective song. Musicians, on the other hand, are less reserved though they likely to create their own views on historical facts (ASWARA 2012) derived from legends and local folklore. Songs, in general, are most of the time seen as carriers of text messages, thus songs-wherever used-are regarded as literature rather than music. The musical mood and feelings aroused are, therefore, justified through hermeneutic means, which might be a result of religious views on singing and music (Jähnichen 2012) in a Muslim society that is drawing on scholars such as Al-Ghazali.4 In the following section, I try to analyse how various construction principles, among them the maqam principle, are kept or translated in

3

Today, we often find an electric bass guitar instead of a double bass. There can be more than one guitar and an additional harmonium player as well. 4 Al-Ghazali’s (1058-1111 AD) book "Music and Singing" is still widely propagated. It consists of quite precise instructions on how to appreciate which kind of music and for what reason. As a result, only a very few genres and conditions seem to be acceptable for a conservative Muslim (Jähnichen 2012).

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ghazal performances.5

Examples of Varying Perception

Figure 2: First example – Framework transcription of Ghazal Sri Puteri Ledang by the author. Notes with stems down illustrate the continuation of the core melody by musical instruments. This melodic part is compulsory for the identification of the ghazal, thus ghazal definitely is meant as ensemble music rather than solely a sung text. 5

The transcriptions given here are an approximation of the melodic framework and cannot represent any maqam or raga for the complexity of both their cultural appearances and the insufficient possibilities using western notations as a tool of description. However, they are a reminder of the sound examples and not their replacement. Definitive statements of how these melodic patterns are "translated" or re-interpreted are taken from quoted sources.

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The first example is the ghazal 'Tun Mamat - Puteri Gunung Ledang', also called "Ghazal Sri Puteri Ledang", using elements of Bhairavi (with the basic scale when starting with C: C, Db, F, Gb, Ab and Bb) in melodic phrases.

Figure 3: Basic tone material and sequences of approaching various pitch levels depending on melodic directions in raga Bhairavi and raga Bhairava.

Though basic tone material may point to raga Bhairava, the melodic intention and the mood of raga Bahairavi, in a mixed way of renditioning, (Parrikar 2002) is far more prominent. However, easier to associate to is the translation into the maqam principle behind this construction consisting of incomplete Hijaz sequences in the first and Nahawand (ASWARA 2012) in the second tetrachord though only roughly worked out, i.e. the third tone of the lower tetrachord is avoided, throughout the whole piece.6 Different versions of this ghazal emphasise one or the other musical relationships as it is easily identifiable in the sound examples given: one strictly follows the shifting centres between the tetrachords;, the other example focuses on the basic tone and keeps the melody fully related to it, to name only one distinct feature that can be observed.

6

This ghazal is in the same mode as Air Mata Hati, another famous ghazal.

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Figure 4: Outlines of the pantun melody in "Anawinta" as performed by the Group Ajinda Ghazal Parti Kepala Batas in 2006.

The second example shows the Arab ballad Anawinta played in a ghazal parti. Here, we can barely find a connection to Indian ghazal. It seems to be dedicated to its Arab ideal in its treatment of melodic sequences and rhythmic structures. We may find elements of maqam Husseini, that combines sequentially tetrachordic material of Bayati and Rast (ASWARA 2012)7 melodically formulated in a unique way typical for popular music migrated from Egypt. Though some musicians may express these ideas, it is not to be taken as proof of really using any essential tonal material–especially in the context of melodic features based on the maqam principle–consciously deriving from any definite maqam. Therefore, names may not represent what they mean in first place. However, the elements mentioned are used in melodic fragments and possibly with little awareness of tonal relations within the melodic frame. Yet the third example demonstrates how a Hindustani song is placed within ghazal parti. Though being thought of as a clear reminiscence to Indian origins, we might detect some maqam traces as well (ASWARA 2012). As understood by the musicians playing in ASWARA, the main feature of a maqam is its application of mainly tetrachordic layers that are melodically approached and determined through a hierarchical context in a way typical for each maqam. Here we find sequential layers that are then worked out further in the course of the song, based on this rather simple introduction. 7

Bayati and Rast produced in a timely sequence. A fourth part is associated with this type of imported ghazal brought to Malaya in the early 20th century, especially to Penang. That, in return, does not touch a more complex definition of the maqam principle such as given by Touma (1996: 43) on maqam Rast. The question on how Malay musicians intentionally translated and appropriated maqamat still remains open, so far.

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The typical differentiation between ascending and descending melodic patterns as seen in bar one and six in this ghazal-like performance can be read as maqam elements as well as the specific movement towards the final tone (D) that translates a glissando from the vocal style within a raga applied on a ghazal.

Figure 5: Outlines of the Introduction and the first pantun melody in "Lagu Hindustani" performed by the Group Ajinda Ghazal Parti Kepala Batas in 2006.

Maqam through the Gaze of Raga The strong associations of completely different musical systems and principles are caused by emphasising some basic features such as the strict attachment to one single basic tone and a rising development in the course of the ‘lagu’, the core melody used for the pantun8, which is a requirement for any raga-like interpretation. On the other hand, some alternating interval relationships and temporary shifting of basic tones within a short phrase fixing tonal hierarchies accommodate the interpretation of an underlying maqam principle, which might be interpreted as a local translation of sound appearance de-rooted from its earlier cultural connotations. Not surprisingly, maqam and raga as conceptual sources with established rules for performances might be a future field of merging musical ideas in peripheral cultures with an affinity to both directions. This affinity, given through the physical presence of Indian musicians or the personal experience through cultural journeys, such as the Haj, seems to be the deciding precondition for creative transformations. One example is an experiment conducted by Vishwa Mohan Bhatt and Simon Shaheen that started 15 years ago (Saltanah 1997/electronically 2011, Kalhor et al. 8

Quartraine, a text consisting of four lines with a typical rhyme scheme.

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1997). In a series of well perceived pieces played with a modified guitar and an ud, the two musicians combined various elements and melodic rules given through maqamat9 corresponding with a few points with ragas that were, until today, considered to be strictly separated though sharing, for instance, abstract interval relationships. As entries in web-blogs and evaluating websites show, this experiment of double-reading musical cultures is not always well received. Though a mixture between maqam and raga with Western classical music elements, namely harmonic progressions, are absolutely common and unchallenged in any discussion, the mixture of Arabian and North Indian perceptions of musical ideas is still an issue due to the familiarity with the context and the symbolic interaction associated with it. Ranade’s description of maqamat (Ranade 2008: 17-18) underscores the very formal approach to a maqam principle as understood among the learned in North India. He gives the following comparative instructions: 1. Different notes are selected for accentuation and further, the tonal centres thus created are shifted upwards in ascending movements; 2. Repetition is a deliberately employed strategy of creating music; 3. Durational values of notes are frequently changed and often the presentation as a whole may not impart the experience of a regular rhythmic pulse; 4. Changes are effected in Makam presentation through the shifting of emphasis between the lower and the upper half of the octave. To us, this instructive note may be interesting from the viewpoint of its relatedness to North Indian classical music experiences that are based on a musical understanding of fixed emphasis on one tonal centre and regular rhythmic pulses. Seen from the scholarly viewpoint of Arabian music, Ranade’s explanation is weak in many points such as the evaluation of melodic structures purely from their primary sound appearance that deconstruct cultural connectedness and historical meanings given through the performative shaping of essential tonal relations. However, maqamand raga-thinking do not completely exclude each other, at least from the perspective of primary musical sound. The following maqamat were used in relation to their raga counterpart by the two musicians named above:

9

Maqamat is the plural of maqam in the language of the term’s origin.

Gisa Jähnichen

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Nahawand and Kirwani Hijaz and Basant Mukhari Ajam Mu’addal and Bagashri Ajam and Pahari Kurd and Bhairavi.

The combination of Nos 1, 2 and 5 are also established in Malaysia though in a fragmented way. Obviously, the maqam principle can be ignored by those who may listen to the related raga and opposite. This phenomenon deserves further study.

Conclusion It is a question of re-interpretation and the level of consciousness in the process of transformation if principles of generally different systems can be applied in a new joint musical framework that partly depends on tools borrowed from Western musical structures. While most transformations taking place in the course of ongoing traditional music practice can be seen as rather additive and based on an affinity towards various cultural attributes, the merging of musical ideas that lead to a destruction or reconstruction of conceptual sources does not necessarily need to be known to the audience as much as the musicians are aware of it. The separation of music production and perception widely allows for approaches in many individual ways, which is to me the 'good' in the 'bad'. In a globalised world that lives mainly on mass consumption of inevitably arbitrary musical products, creations of this kind cause a discussion of musical roots and rights among scholars and the internally learned that is definitely outdated. However, those discussions on the permissibility of merging expressions through musical sound show the rootedness and the strength of structural identification within music practices that have to be explored through practical applications such as the described experiment by Vishwa Mohan Bhatt and Simon Shaheen. Peripheral cultures will always work on bridging ideas and mutual understanding. Nowadays, the very space in which this process runs is not as important as in the past due to modern communication technology. However, the cultural periphery of one huge area is determined to a great part by these processes of permeability that may–on the other hand– contribute to the stability of the musical identity within the core area.

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References Anis Nor. 2012. Personal communication on 17 May, 2012, University Malaya. Serdang: ARCPA Code-No.15… at UPM Music Department. Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Y.Andaya. 1982. A History of Malaysia. London: MacMillan Press. ASWARA Ghazal class. 2012. Rehearsal for examination 10 May, 2012 under supervision of Norihan and Sabihah. Kuala Lumpur: ASWARA. Jähnichen, Gisa. 2012. "Al-Ghazali’s Thoughts on the Effects of Music and Singing upon the Heart and the Body and their Impact on PresentDay Malaysian Society". International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, No. 2 (9), 139-146. —. 2009. "Renovation versus Formalization in Zapin Music? Some Remarks on the Recent Meaning of Maqam in the Malay World". Proceedings of the Sixth Study Group Meeting Muqam, Urumqi / Xinjiang, 2006. English Edition. Beijing: Academy of Arts. 209-228. Kalhor, Kayhan, Shujaat Hussain Khan and Swapan Chaudhuri. 1997. As Night Falls on the Silk Road. Shanachie, B00000AFQ3. Matusky, Patricia and Tan Sooi Beng. 2004. The Music of Malaysia – The Classical, Folk and Syncretic Traditions. Aldershot: Ashgate. Meddegoda, Chinthaka Prageeth. 2012. Personal communication, 10-12 June, 2012. Serdang: UPM Music Department. Omara bin Hashim. 2012. Personal communcation, 28 November, Kuala Lumpur and 9 December, Penang. Serdang: ARCPA Code-No. 16901691, 2065-2069 at UPM Music Department. Parrikar, Rajan P. 2002. Bhairavi (1/2). South Asian Women’s Forum (SAWF) on April 29, 2002: 1-2. Ranade, Ashok D. 2008. Perspectives on Music – Ideas and Theories. New Delhi & Chicago: Promilla & Co. Shaheen, Simon and Vishva Mohan Batt. 1997. Saltanah. CD by Water Lily Acoustics, B000002VYP. Siti Rohaya binti Zakaria. 2010. Website comment made on Thursday, September 30, 2010. Perbezaan di antara ghazal parti dan ghazal Johor. Last accessed October 12, 2012, via: http://ghazal-smp2252. blogspot.de/search/label/PERBANDINGAN%20JENIS%20GHAZAL. Sohaimi Haji Abdul Aziz. 2006. Ghazal Parti Pulau Penang. Penang: Jabatan Kebudayaan, Kesenian dan Warisan Negeri Pulau Pinang. —. 2012. Personal communcation, 10 December, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. Serdang: ARCPA Code-No.15… at UPM Music Department.

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Tan Sooi Beng. 1997. Bangsawan. A Social and Stylistic History of Popular Malay Opera. Penang: The Asian Centre. Touma, Habib Hassan. 1996. The Music of the Arabs. Portland and Cambridge: Amadeus Press.

THE CONCEPT OF ùUBE (“BRANCH”) AS A TETRACHORDAL CLASSIFICATION METHOD IN THE 15TH CENTURY OTTOMAN MAKAM THEORY OKAN MURAT ÖZTÜRK TURKEY

Introduction This paper deals with the concept of úube ("branch") which is one of the main components of the 15th century Ottoman makam theory. In this theory there are four classes with their specific symbolic meanings organizing the melody: (i.) twelve makams for the zodiac, (ii.) seven (or in some sources six) âvâzes for heavenly bodies, (iii.) four úubes for four elements, and (iv.) unlimited (formerly twenty four1, then forty eight, etc.) terkibs for hours. The sources that I used to study the branch concept are the texts of HÕzÕr bin Abdullah2 (hereafter HbA) and KÕrúehirli Yusuf (hereafter KY) who were leading adwar writers in the Ottoman 15th century. I aim to emphasize the multicultural and even transcultural characteristics and the crucial symbolism of esoteric knowledge which has 1

In Abd al-Qadir Maraghi’s system, twenty four terkibs was referred to as úube. Therefore it is possible to say in adwar tradition, in terms of úube concept, there are two main understandings: the first one relates the úubes with the four elements and the second one relates them with the twenty four hours of a day. 2 HÕzÕr bin Abdullah’s Kitâbü’l-Edvâr has copies in different libraries: (i.) Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin Diez. A. Oct. 7; (ii.) Paris Bibliotheque Nationale, Turc. 150 R.34.280; (iii.) TopkapÕ SarayÕ Müzesi Kütüphanesi Revan YazmalarÕ Böl. No. 1728; (iv.) Konya Mevlana Müzesi Yazma Eserler Kütüphanesi No. 5762. The copies of Risâle-i Musiki of KÕrúehirli Yusuf is also found in: (i.) Paris Bibliotheque National de France Suppl. Turc. 1424; (ii.) Ankara Milli Kütüphane No. 131/1; (iii.) Çorum Hasan Paúa Kütüphanesi No. 2263. I use the texts of Çelik (2001) and of Özçimi (1989) for translations of HbA and of Sezikli (2000) and of Do÷rusöz (2007) for KY.

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an important place in the 15th century Ottoman makam theory. That’s why I want to compare my observations on the branch concept, with some sources and concepts in the history of European modal theory. Among these are the concept of qualitas in Musica Enchiriadis and Scolica Enchiriadis (hereafter ME and SE) and the concepts of authentic and the affinitas in modal theory. Thus, I also want to emphasize the necessity for reconsideration of the multicultural characteristics of esoteric knowledge in the area of music theory. For this quest, everything began when I noticed the hidden connection between the esoteric symbolism of the first four numbers and the concept of branch. I should note that when I first read these Ottoman texts, I understood very little. However the texts have an incredible attractiveness and therefore I felt the need to make successive readings. The topics discussed in the texts, expression styles, the contexts and connections of those gave me new directions in the course of obtaining information. With my intensive effort to understand these texts, I knew I needed to find out more about the fields such as astrology, cosmology and esotericism. This effort of understanding and interpreting these texts has led me to a hermeneutic experience; the process is described as "penetration into the text" by Gadamer. About historical understanding Gadamer says: "If we fail to transpose ourselves into the historical horizon from which the traditionary text speaks, we will misunderstand the significance of what it has said to us". (2006: 302). In both the sources I mentioned, it was persistently stated that the tones which are qualified as branches corresponded to the four elements, the four natures/qualities, the four humours. The four main tones with these relationships were called "the four authentic branches" (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The four authentic branches of HbA and KY. In the notation, reverse flat shows a "neutral" (neither major, nor minor) tone.

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

This relationship was also taken as the basis for the explanations of makams and âvâzes. The most striking aspect was that authentic branches were used in a style which will establish an evident affinity, relationship and kinship between the traditional tones.

Musical Symbolism and the Esoteric Tradition The esoteric tradition is basically an area of occult knowledge. The area of occult knowledge consists of some "hidden sciences" such as alchemy, astrology, witchcraft, white magic, etc. These sciences can’t be known by everyone and are not open for all therefore, the esoteric tradition has its own language which is largely based on the symbols and implicit expressions (Guenon 2004). Its mysterious language is only open for and can only be understood by the initiates. Certainly the various beliefs and symbols have an important place and role since ancient times, in particular from Plato and Pythagoras in the source of the esoteric connections and relationships which is established between music and the cosmos, the heavenly bodies and some concepts of nature, time and humanity. In this tradition, the concepts of unity, harmony and interrelationship are the essence of all things. According to Pythagoreans, the first four numbers create the most harmonious ratios: the octave (2:1), the fifth (3:2), and the fourth (4:3) which are called tetractys or tetrad (Theon of Smyrna 1979; West 1994; Wellesz 1998; Hailey 2009). For Pythagoreans, cosmos is represented by tetrad (Heninger 1961) and tetractys symbolizes the musical-numerical order of the cosmos (Ferguson, 2008). It is also known as the "sacred decad" because their addition gives ten and according to famous philosopher Philo of Alexandria: "Both in the world and in man, the decad is all" (quoted by Critchlow, in Waterfield 1988: 21). In his foreword for Waterfields’ Iamblicus translation, Keith Critchlow says: "That ten is ‘complete at four’ is a well-known Pythagorean paradox based on the simple cumulative progression of 1+2+3+4=10; or, in direct manner of those who had no separate number symbols". (Waterfield 1988: 9) Tetrad and decad, are both symbolized by a triangular form of the ten points. As stated by West: "The earliest Pythagoreans appear to have been entranced by the simple ratios of the octave, fifth and fourth, and to have treated them as an exclusive set with a mystical significance" (West 1994: 235). For Pythagoreans, tetrad and decad are the models of perfection: "They create unity out of multeity, and multeity out of unity. They originate in the unlimited, absolute world, but when they extend into the physical

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world, they create a limited, yet perfect, unified system, a universe" (Berghaus 1992: 45). In music, Pythagorean tetrad is symbolized by a tetrachord. A tetrachord (literally "four-stringed") consists of four tones and three intervals in a perfect fourth. Historically tetrachords are the building blocks of the Ancient Greek modal theory (Barker 1989). In this sense, the four-stringed lyre has also acquired a character in terms of symbolizing the tetrachord in an esoteric tradition. As a tetrachord, the strings of the lyre correspond to the four elements (Wellesz 1998). It’s also remarkable that Hermes is accepted as the inventor of the lyre (Theon of Smyrna 1979) and then he thought Orpheus played it (Mathiesen 1999). Additionally, the lyre is also a mythological instrument which is identified with Orpheus and this is extremely important in terms of musical esotericism and symbolism (West 1994). In Chapter 19 of ME, there is a place given in the Orpheus myth for Neoplatonic knowledge. According to Boynton (1999: 71), this chapter of ME: "expresses pessimism about the possibility of understanding the metaphysical aspect of music". Looking at the sources of the relationship between music, cosmology, and astrology they also encountered the esoteric traditions such as Hermeticism, Pythagoreanism and the Neoplatonism. Indeed these esoteric traditions and their many symbols were transferred to the Islamic culture by translations and commentaries on these ancient Greek sources starting from the 9th century. Al-Kindi, "the philosopher of the Arabs", is the first representative in Islamic culture in terms of the esoteric knowledge and its musical symbolism. According to Shehadi: "In his theory of knowledge and his move to understand music by its similarities to the non-musical, Kindi is thoroughly Greek, but he is particularly Pythagorean in specifically making the astral connections, and more generally in assuming that there is an affinity (mushakalah) among the various aspects of what makes up the Kosmos. However, unlike the Pythagoreans, he does not make numbers the universal principle that binds the cosmos.… There are four strings on the ud and there are four elements, but without the cosmology and metaphysical assumptions such similarity between strings and elements by itself has no explanatory force" (Shehadi 1995: 20). Thus the traces and the effects of these ancient and well-established esoteric traditions can also be clearly seen in the Ottoman sources, which were shaped in Islamic culture from the 9th to 14th centuries by the works of Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ikhwan al-Safâ, Avicenna, Safi Al-Din al-Urmawi and Abd Al-Qadir al-Maraghi, etc. The most influential representatives of these hermetic/esoteric traditions in Islamic culture were the members of Ikhwan al-Safâ ("The Brethren of Purity") fraternity which were active in

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

the Basra region in 10th century (Shiloah 1993; Wright 2010). Their treatises, in which the knowledge was compiled within an encyclopedic mentality in their period, exist in the most basic sources of the Islamic culture (KÕlÕç 2010). The main sources of the epistles are associated on a large scale with Neoplatonic and the Pythagorean traditions (Nasr, 1993). As emphasized by Shehadi: "Like Kindi, and in what looks more like retroactive symbolic connecting than a historical account, the Ikhwan maintain that the musician philosophers specified the number of strings on the lute to four, no more and no less, so that their creations should emulate the natural order of things that are below the lunar sphere, and this in further emulation of the wisdom of the Creator" (Shehadi 1995: 41). As Morewedge explains: "…Islamic tradition in its normative dimension participated substantially in Platonic and Neoplatonic structures, both in its concept of the ultimate being and in its instrumental and pragmatic theory of knowledge via the path of self-realization. …Muslim philosophers were influenced in the same manner in which Pythagoreans influenced Plato and Plato influenced Neoplatonism. Perhaps in the same way that one may look at Neoplatonism as a natural development of the esoteric features of Platonism, many Islamic traditions are mystical developments of Neoplatonic themes …" (Morewedge 1992: 71). Of symbolism in Islamic culture, Pacholczyk says: "Islamic art, including music, is deeply symbolic. It contains a code of symbols that reflects and explains the totality of the cosmos and essence of God. The symbols are used as a way of explaining the unexplainable. Much Islamic symbolism was developed under the direct impetus of Greek philosophy and scholarship. Many of its elements, however, can be traced back even further to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, Sumerians, Chaldeans, and Manicheans. These beliefs were incorporated into Greek thought and gained authority and acceptance within Islamic philosophy and scholarship" (1996: 145).

HÕzÕr bin Abdullah and His Work The main source of my study for analyzing the branch concept is HbA’s Kitâbü’l-Edvâr [c. 1441] (Book of the Cycles)3. He was one of the musicians at the Edirne Palace of Sultan Murad II (1404-1451). The very little information given in the introduction of Kitâbü’l-Edvâr (KE) represents almost all of what is known about his life. Accordingly, the sultan asked him to write a book about the music. HbA expressed that 3

I use the treatise of KY in order to emphasize some parallels and similarities.

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there were more proficient musicians than himself in the sultan’s court and writing a book on music was not within his talent. But the sultan was determined and finally HbA was persuaded to write the KE. The book includes 52 titles of which 48 were indexed. The content of the book is really intriguing and noteworthy in every respect. The path followed by HbA on behalf of explaining music is extremely complex, hard to understand, and mysterious. The text is full of hints, symbols, and strange diagrams. In other words, the language of HbA is not "open for all" or "understandable by everyone".4 As stated by Popescu-Judetz: "HÕzÕr’s ideological thesis expounds the correspondences of the melodies to cosmology and the movement of the stars, stresses the ensuing influence of their relations upon human creatures, and analyzes the fundamentals of the melodic modes and the principles of musical rhythm" (2010:29). Indeed, the first 27 titles of KE reached into such topics as cosmology, astrology, the twelve signs of zodiac, the four elements, the four humours, and the celestial bodies, etc. In this respect, KE bears the imprint of the Platonic and Pythagorean concept of "the Harmony of the Spheres" that music was seen in the framework of cosmology and astrology (Godwin 1995). Therefore it seems impossible to understand the explanations about music which were contained by KE, without knowing various cosmological and astrological concepts and principles in a flat reading. Epistles of the Brethren of Purity exist in the source of the knowledge on cosmology and astrology transmitted by HbA. Popescu-Judetz (2010: 30) emphasizes that: "…long passage taken from an adaptation of the chapter on music from Ikhwan as-Safâ" by HbA. He uses various expressions and symbols about his hermetic knowledge in his book. The most remarkable of these is the well-known hermetic axiom "as above, so below" (Godwin 1995), which is expressed as "below is known by above" by him. The diagrams given in the book by HbA include typical hermetic symbols. These, such as the all-seeing-eye, svastika, eight-pointed star, sun, zodiac, and the unity of the opposites, exist in the visuals by HbA. For instance, he uses one of the most striking examples of these esoteric symbols while explaining the intervals and tones according to the four authentic branches (Figure 2).

4

All of these features mentioned for HbA are also true for KY.

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

Figure 2: The notation of the explanatory drawing of intervals and tonal sequences according to the four authentic branches as designed as an eight-pointed star by HbA. It’s noteworthy that Yekgâh, "the first", takes place in the middle of the figure and it’s the centre of all branches.

It’s really remarkable that the shape was designed as an eight-pointed star. This symbol mainly represents "the opposites" in terms of the four elements and also the four qualities. According to Nicomachus: "Harmony always arises from opposites; for harmony is the unification of the diverse

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and the reconciliation of the contrary-minded" (Heninger 1961:14). In terms of esoteric symbolism, it also looks very important that the expression of "Yekgâh" which represents “the first and point” takes the centre place in figure. It’s worth remembering that in esoteric symbolism a point represents God. He says: "Yekgâh is a point that is authentic and the principal" (translated from Özçimi 1989: 183 and Çelik 2001: 265). In this regard, through these kinds of symbols and expressions, we can understand that he was not only satisfied with explaining music, but he also carried out a hermetic/esoteric representation with his mysterious identity. While he quotes Pythagoras as a "sage" and refers to that he can hear the music of the spheres, KY refers him to as the Prophet Idris. According to HbA: "In ancient times, the sage Pythagoras knew the mathematical sciences very well … some people call him the Prophet Idris and he explained the science of music to the world and also it is said that he could hear the sounds of the heavenly bodies" (translated from Özçimi 1989: 165 and Çelik 2001: 246). KY utters that music is "the secret science" of the Prophet Idris (Sezikli 2000; Do÷rusöz 2007). Pythagoras and Hermes Trimegistus (the Prophet Idris in Islam) are viewed as the prophets or the sages of the mystery in hermetic/esoteric traditions. In this respect, Morewedge stated that: "In Islamic mysticism the use of the sage in mystical allegory is very common. Philosophers are conscious of the hidden meaning of such symbolism" (Morewedge 1992: 68). There is considerable similarity between the esoteric information given by HbA and KY. Actually, the content of their esoteric knowledge is found not only in their own sources, but also in the other important 15th century Ottoman treatises, such as Bedri Dilshad, Ahmedoglu Shuqrullah, Al-Ladiqi, KadÕzâde Tirevî, and Seydî. This situation is extremely striking in terms of the influence of, the power of and the domination of the esoteric knowledge on the music theory in the 15th century Ottoman culture. Within this frame, if we insist on the branch concept of HbA, we encounter the following characteristics: a) He explains the creation of the universe according to a four-stage model: "Allah first created the essence called akl-Õ küll from the power of his own…(then) another essence became evident from intelligence called nefs-i küll…and (finally) another essence became evident from the soul called heyula-yÕ evvel". This creation model is closely connected with the Neoplatonist view (Nasr 1993). In this model, the stages symbolize respectively: (i.)

The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

28

b)

c)

d)

e)

creator one, (ii.) intelligence, (iii.) soul, (iv.) the first matter. This model of creation in four steps, symbolically overlaps one-to-one with the number of branches and their esoteric meanings. The first four numbers representing the four phases of creation are associated with the geometric elements, also in the Pythagorean tradition (Heninger 1961; Ferguson 2008). This very characteristic symbolic relationship between the first four numbers and the Pythagorean geometric elements, finds its typical expression in the writings of HbA: "the first tone of the branch is the rank of point, the second one is the rank of line, the third one is the rank of space/plane, and the fourth one is the rank of body/volume" (translated from Özçimi, 1989: 170 and Çelik 2001: 251). In this geometric symbolism: (i.) point symbolizes God; (ii.) line is intelligence; (iii.) space is soul; and (iv.) material is body/matter. He related the four authentic branches to the four elements, and named them in order as Yekgâh (Yg), Dügâh (Dg), Segâh (Sg), and Çârgâh (Çg). From these: Yg corresponds to earth; Dg corresponds to water; Sg corresponds to air; and Çg corresponds to fire. He says: "You should know that the makams, âvâzes, and terkibs are not excluded from these four. At the outset is Yekgâh, secondly Dügâh, thirdly Segâh, fourthly Çârgâh; this is the origin of all…and necessarily the four úubes are the authentic/principal of all" (translated from Özçimi, 1989: 140 and Çelik 2001: 215). In addition to the four elements, he expresses that each of the elements has four natures or qualities: dry, moisture, hot and cold. This explanation is a one-to-one correspondence to the symbol of the eight-pointed star in esoteric tradition. The best expressions, which bring out the relationship with the esoteric tradition of HbA is the connection that was established by him between the astrological aspects5 and the branches (Figure 3). According to this: Yg is trine (120o); Dg is sextile (60o); Sg is square (90o); and Çg is both opposition (180o), and conjunction (0o). HbA explains that characteristics of these aspects as the following: trine is full of friendship; sextile is half friendship; opposition and conjunction are full of hostility and square is half of hostility. Therefore trine and opposition and conjunction are the opposites of each other and sextile and square are the

5 For more detailed information about the astrological aspects and musical intervals, see Godwin, 1995: 136-140.

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opposites of each other, too. As is well known, astrology and alchemy are accepted as the main hermetic sciences. In this regard, that at this depth of astrological knowledge and its musical connections are known by HbA is really remarkable.

Figure 3: The schematic relationships between the four authentic branches, tones, their features, the four elements, and the astrological aspects according to explanations of HbA (symbols and gray zone added by me).

a) Hence, in numerous parts of KE, one encounters typical correspondence of the classifications in fours as an esoteric tradition: the four humours, the four directions, the four seasons, the four winds, the four ages, the four phases of the moon, etc. b) The four-folding symbolism related to music in HbA, traditionally corresponds to the four strings of the old oud (ûd-Õ kadîm) and the four branches. In this respect, HbA replicates the Brethren of Purity’s view: "The old masters had put the origin of the instruments on four strings: zîr (the highest), and mesnâ (the second), and mesles (the third), and bâm (the lowest)" (translated from Özçimi 1989: 166 and Çelik 2001: 246).

The Branch as a Method of Classifying and Unifying the Different Tones In terms of our study, the originality of HbA and KY is their usage of the concept of branch as a classification method which helps set up unity, harmony and resemblance between the traditional tones (Öztürk 2012). According to them, the numbers of the authentic branches are four. These four are the principal of all things in music. How can we understand the usage of the branches as a unifying method? The first clue in the function of this method is the usage of the

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

names of the tones together with the names of the branches. Both HbA and KY use the term "house"6 instead of the term perde ("tone", "pitch", "fret"). They use nomenclatures such as "Yekgâh (on) Râst house", "Dügâh (on) Hüseynî house", "Segâh (on) Kûçek house", "Çârgâh (on) Gerdâniye house", etc. At first glance, this naming style appears strange. Because, for example, Yekgâh is a name of the first branch and Râst is a traditional name of a tone which is the beginning and ending of makam Râst. This situation is also valid for other examples. Normally, the tones are mentioned only by their own names and this is sufficient for identifying them. However, it’s seen that HbA and KY follow a unique and very original way of associating the tones with branches in nomenclature. In giving examples, while Yg, Dg, Sg, and Çg represent branches and their natures, the following name shows an individual tone which has an affiliation with the related branch. Hence, branches categorically separate and qualify the tones with which they are associated. A more interesting aspect of this method is in some cases, the branch names directly replace traditional names. For instance Hüseynî is a sixth tone from Râst and it is related to second branch, Dügâh. For this reason the name of Hüseynî is often mentioned to "Dügâh (on) Hüseynî house" in these sources. Sometimes the same tone (Hüseynî) is also mentioned only as Dügâh. But in this case, it isn’t understood whether Dügâh indicates its own place or Hüseyni’s place, at first glance. In order to determine this, it needs to look at the traditional tone sequence. In an ordinary configuration of the tones, while Dügâh has its own house between Râst and Segâh tones, Hüseynî takes place above Isfahan and below Hisâr. Therefore, if Dügâh takes place between Isfahân and Hisâr tones, it exactly indicates Hüseynî tone. As shown by these examples, the authentic branches (Yg, Dg, Sg, Çg) can be found in many places in a traditional tone system. Figure 4 shows the placement of these relationships between the branches with the tones mentioned by HbA.

6

This term has a very close meaning with the term "seat" in 10th century medieval modal treatises. For detailed information, see Pesce, 1987.

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Figure 4: The branches and traditional tones mentioned by HbA and KY. When looking carefully at the system, it’s seen that there are four basic tetrachords and each of them have a different name.

In the 48th title of KE, he gives more detailed explanations about instrument tuning in terms of fret positions required by modes. In this part, he gives the following expressions which are of great importance from the methodological point: "You should know with the proficiency of octave data that how many Yekgâh, or Dügâh, or Segâh, or Çârgâh is in the octave; these four must be known very well. Whatever practice is done and revealed in this science just through the competency of these four branches" (translated from Özçimi 1989: 175 and Çelik 2001: 257-58). When approaching the tonal sequence of HbA in terms of the branches, it is seen that there are four tetrachords in the system, following: (i.) authentic branches, (ii.) second branches, (iii.) sharps, and (iv.) softs. As shown in figure 5, branches provide a unity between the different tones which are separately located in a traditional tonal system. Why is the concept of unity this important? Maybe the best answer to this question is located in Nasr (1993: 4): "The question of the Unity of the Divine Principle and the consequent unicity of Nature is particularly important in Islam where the idea of Unity (al-tawhid) overshadows all others and remains at every level of Islamic civilization the most basic principle upon which all else depends". But we know that the concept of unity is also very important and a principal for the Pythagoreans and the Neoplatonists. The following statements of Theon of Smyrna are of utmost importantance: "The Pythagoreans, whose feelings Plato often adopted, also define music as the perfect union of contrary things, unity within multiplicity, even accord within discord. For music does not only coordinate rhythm and modulation, it puts order into the whole system; its

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

end is to unite and to coordinate, and God also is the arranger of discordant things, and his greatest work is to reconcile with one another things which were enemies, by means of the laws of music and medicine. It is also through music that the harmony of things and the government of the universe are maintained, for that which harmony is in the world, good legislation is in the State, and temperance is in the family. It has indeed the power to bring order and union into the multitude" (1979: 7-8).

Figure 5: Traditional tones according to the four authentic branches in classified and unified styles.

According to Berghaus "the Pythagorean philosophy sought to explain the unity of the cosmos by establishing a single principle that lies at the root of all things and constitutes the original cause of Being" (1992: 44). In lights of these explanations we can understand that branches of HbA and KY have functions which provide unity and harmony between different tones. Thus all tones in the system basically are classified and unified by the four authentic branches. In this way, a kinship/

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relationship/affinitiy between the tones in the same class there is established. In authentic branch tetrachord, the intervallic order is described as tam+buçuk+buçuk by HbA. While tam can be understood as "tone" or "whole tone", buçuk means "half". By taking HbA’s usage of this half term, it’s seen that the term should be understood as either a "semitone" or sometimes "a neutral tone" (bigger than a half tone, smaller than a whole tone). Thus we can understand that Segâh has a very special function among the other authentic branches because it always shows the "mediant" or "intervening" tones. These additional intervening tones sometimes take place between Yekgâh and Dügâh (in the middle of whole tone), sometimes between Dügâh and Çârgâh (about the minor third) in different placements of the traditional tonal system. In conjunct tetrachords, Yekgâh replaces the Çârgâh. Thus the appearance of a tonal sequence of conjunct tetrachords is: Yg Dg Sg+Yg Dg Sg Çg. In this sequence, the second tetrachord’s Yekgâh overlaps the first tetrachord’s Çârgâh and therefore takes its place. This situation is different in disjunct tetrachords and it can be clearly seen as the tonal sequence of two tetrachords in the normal order: Yg Dg Sg Çg+Yg Dg Sg Çg. As a very special case, in this sequence, a mediant tone can take place between the first tetrachord’s Çârgâh and the second one’s Yekgâh and it’s called Kûçek in both HbA and KY. In HbA’s tone system, there are fourteen main tones, but it seems that the system also allows some additional or optional tones such as Nerm Çârgâh, Segâh-Kûçek, Tiz Pençgâh, etc. In the approaching HbAs (also shared by KY) system in terms of the concept of affinity, it’s seen that not only the fifth intervals but also the fourth intervals have defining features, as shown in Figure 6. He uses the term of mastar for the octave interval and his system has a partly octave relationship (e.g. from Râst to Gerdâniye, or from Dügâh to Muhayyer, or from Segâh to Evc, etc.). Therefore some tone names only have different affixes such as nerm ("soft") for the lowest tetrachord and tiz (“sharp”) for the highest tetrachord. It’s also noteworthy that some tones have multiple names. For example not only in HbA and KY but also in the other 15th century sources Pençgâh is called Isfahân; Gerdâniye is called Tiz Râst; Nerm Hisâr is called Irak; Nerm Hüseynî is called Acem; and Nerm Pençgâh/Isfahân is also called Mâye, etc. This shows that naming the tones was a controversial issue in those times7. 7 For a detailed discussion on the nomenclature of scale degrees in Ottoman music see Feldman 1996: 197-200.

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The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

Figure 6: Intervallic affinity between the branches in HbA and KY. Branches can be took place on different tones. As shown in figure 6, Yg can take place on D, G, d and g. When it replaces Çg, it can also take place on C and c.

Another notable feature of the four authentic branches is their function as final tones. When we analysis the modal entities described by HbA, it’s seen that the main final tones of these modal entities gathered "massively" (but not "only") on the four authentic branches. This feature of authentic branches underscores their functional importance in terms of modal entities. Therefore it’s possible to say that the four authentic branches take place among the main final tones such as Râst, Dügâh, Segâh, and Çargâh, at the same time. Additionally, the other final tones with the exception of these four are gathered on the connected tones such as Nerm Pençgâh (related with Yekgâh), Nerm Hüseynî (related with Dügâh) and Irak/Nerm Hisâr (related with Segâh). We can understand that the concept of affinity also provides another relationship between the branches as final tones.

Conceptual and Functional Similarity The characteristics of this method, reminded me, due to the esoteric concepts in it, that it can be compared to some concepts in European sources and it made me to deal especially with the Enchiriadis’ texts (ME and SE) which have an important place in the history of European music theory (Holladay 1977; Phillips 1984; Erickson & Palisca 1995). However, I have to mention that I particulalry deal with the traditions

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created by these texts upon some basic concepts in Enchiriadis’ texts. In other words, my aim is not to analyze these texts, but to follow the continuity of some basic concepts that belong to the modal theory which became cemented with them in time. So, initially, the concepts I deal with are Protus, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus which are called qualitas ("qualities"). I want to draw attention to the categorical characteristics which create homogeneity in ME. Second, in terms of this study, it is noteworthy that the qualification of these terms is "authentic". These four qualifications, which played a role in the formation of the affinitas ("affinities") concept which developed from the 11th century, existed as a basic concept in European modal theory with their authentic characteristics until the 16th century (Pesce 1987). In this context, the functional similarity between the concepts of affinitas and branches is clearly seen. It can be observed that a similar form of the tetrachordal method used in the 15th century Ottoman makam theory for establishing similarity, can be also found in Enchiriadis tradition. In these texts, the tones are arranged within tetrachords named as qualitas. In esoteric tradition, the "affinity" concept has very important and symbolic meaning in terms of universal harmony. For instance, according to Al-Kindi: "…music is relevantly connected to many other things in the total scheme of the cosmos…in terms of the affinities and similarities that music has to the metaphysical, astronomical, astrological, meteorological and other aspects of the cosmos. Music also has affinities with, and causally affects our biological constitution and our psychological traits. The assumption of all this is that the cosmos has a unity based on the principle of affinity, or theoretically significant similarity among the constituents" (Shehadi 1995: 34). In medieval theory, it is remarkable that the tones within the tetrachord named as Primus, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus are also the names of four authentic medieval modes of the same time. This borrowing is sourced from the names of the four authentic modes in the Byzantine theory (Wellesz 1998; Cohen 2006) whereas the qualitas are named as graves, finales, superiores and excellentes respectively. The tetrachord of finales seems to be especially important because of it having the final tones of the tunes (Atkinson 2009). The interval sequence within the four disjunct tetrachords is tone-semitone-tone, and the finals are D, E, F, and G (Cohen 2006). The classification of the tones as "tone" and "semitone" without giving any mathematical ratio, resembles the classification approach of HbA and KY, just including the concepts of "tam/bir perde" (tone) and "buçuk/yarÕm/nim perde" (either semitone or sometimes about half a minor third) also failing to define such ratios.

36

The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

In addition, the meaning of the names used for identifying the tones in the tetrachord are the same as the meaning of the equivalent names used for the tones in the branches: Primus and Yekgâh both mean "the first"; Deuterus and Dügâh, both "the second"; Tritus and Segâh, both "the third"; and Tetrardus and Çârgâh, both "the fourth". In ME, the tones in the tetrachords are classified due to their capability of constituting "similarity". Therefore, just like the branches, there can be many qualitas within the tone sequence. So, it can be said that there is a remarkable similarity between the concepts of qualitas and úube both in meaning, classifying and functioning methodology. Phillips (1984) and Boynton (1999) especially pointed out the Neoplatonic elements in ME. This situation leads us to concentrate on a specific question: the symbolic importance of the musical theory regarding the esoteric traditions like Neoplatonism and particularly Pythagoreanism. It’s true that the Neoplatonist schools were effective in spreading the Pythagorean thought into the Christian world. As Berghaus (1992) pointed out "Pythagorean principles of unity and harmony had already been so thoroughly incorporated into Christian theology that they survived… right to the Middle Ages" (Berghaus 1992: 48). Nancy Phillips lists the Neoplatonic elements found in ME as the following: "1. The universe was put into order from a state of disorder and confusion by binding its parts together in unity, in order; 2. These basic parts are identified as the four elements, which are antithetical, inimical, allergic to one another, combatant; 3. They, or more correctly their qualities, are bonded together by the mathematical proportions and proportionalities; 4. The universe was then furnished, equipped, provided, filled out, ornamented with living things, plants, animals, higher and lower beings, all related and bound together by the same mathematical laws; 5. This is the state of harmonia, concord, concentus, adunatio8, the uniting of all parts in a harmoniously functioning whole" (Phillips 1984: 296-297). According to Pesce (1987), the medieval theoreticians are connected to the idea that there is a relationship between the affinitas concept which unites the sounds and the harmony in cosmos. This situation is also the same in terms of branches described and used by HbA and KY. In this respect, it’s possible to say that the esoteric traditions show a multicultural characteristic according to the symbols and the concepts they use. In other words, the similar symbols and conceptions with similar functions used in different cultures, in terms of esoteric musical knowledge. The

8

Lat. adunatio: Eng. "union", "uniting".

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understanding of unity, harmony and order of cosmos is located in the very heart of esoteric traditions and their musical symbolism. It should also be remarked that the notations used in SE are made in the form of lambda. As noted by Critchlow, tetractys was developed from Plato’s Timaean Lambda (Waterfield 1988: 15). He explains how Plato’s lambda can be transformed to Pythagorean tetractys: "Now we have seven positions representing two progressions, which leaves us with the impression that there could be three more 'points' or positions within an open triangle, so that if filled the model would become like the sacred tetractys of the Pythagoreans or the triangular ‘four’ representing the full decad" (Waterfield 1988: 13). Erickson interprets these diagrams as "a pair of ladders" (Erickson & Palisca 1995). But considering the relationship between tetractys and the lambda form, Erickson’s view doesn’t seem to be able to participate. As set out in detail by Pesce (1987), the affinity concept and the basic tetrachordal structure showed significant changes until the 16th century in Europe. Some theoreticians such as Guido of Arezzo (c. 991-1033), Hermannus Contractus (1013-1054), Aribo (fl. 1068-1078), Petrus Tallanderius (15th century), and Johannes Tinctoris (1435-c.1511), explained and interpreted these concepts and terms in different ways. Among them, especially Guido Arezzo’s hexachordal method and Contractus’ new classification are really significant in terms of this study. While Guido used the affinity concept with solmization syllables (ut, re, mi, etc.), Contractus reorganized the tetrachords by protecting the intervallic sequence. These improvements are comparatively shown in figure 7. The 15th century theoretician, Petrus Tallanderius, used the hexachordal system in a more advanced way to show some additional semitones such as B-flat, C-sharp, E-flat, and F-sharp, etc. (Pesce 1987). This technic is especially similar with the methods of HbA and KY because particularly they used the Segâh branch to express some extra tones added to traditional systems such as Segâh-Kûçek, Segâh-Zengüle, Segâh-KarcÕ÷ar, etc. This application clearly shows that they weren’t satisfied with only the main tones but also some additional tones could be used in the traditional tonal system by HbA and KY. This situation reflects that there were some differences between the theoretical tonal system and modal practice. Nevertheless it’s clearly understood that the traditional tonal system had an available structure that was expandable according to modal needs.

38

The Concept of ùube as a Tetrachordal Classification Method

Figure 7. Comparisons of the improvements about the affinity concept and its unifying role in the classification of tones from different European sources.

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Conclusion The concept of branch was used not only as an esoteric symbol, but also as a naming and classifying method for the traditional tones in 15th century Ottoman sources, particularly HbA and KY. As with the four authentic branches, the first four numbers was seen as the elements representing the harmony of the universe. The concept of branch has some functions which classify the different tones according to four authentic tones and provides the unity, harmony and affinity between them. This study revealed that there are some important conceptual and functional similarities between úube and the various concepts used in European modal theory such as qualitas, authentic and affinitas. Although much more detailed studies will basically be needed on this subject it seems that the connections of these concepts and functions with each other within the scope of music theory are closely related to some important symbols and understandings in the field of esoteric knowledge. Within this frame, it seems that a more holistic scene can be provided by the comparative study of the knowledge into the music theory and history with the studies made on the forms of the creation and the appearance of the knowledge in Pagan, Ancient Greek, Hebrew, Christian and Islamic cultures, especially the symbolic importance of the first four numbers and the four-fold things. The primary role of these and the identification of music as being one of the most important elements representing the unity of the cosmos ("Harmony of the Spheres") in Platonic and Pythagorean tradition can be very strongly expressed in the musical theory with the support of such similarities. In other words, this symbolism turns out to be an index of identity and belonging that is worth thinking about. This examination on the concept of úube of the 15th century, aims to put forward the value and the importance of the Ottoman written sources with respect to the esoteric knowledge and symbolism referred in the text in terms of the history of music theory.

References Atkinson, Charles M. 2009. The Critical Nexus: Tone-System, Mode, and Notation in Early Medieval Music. New York: Oxford University Press. Barker, Andrew. 1989. Greek Musical Writings II: Harmonic and Acoustic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Berghaus, Günter. 1992. "Neoplatonic and Pythagorean Notions of World Harmony and Unity and Their Influence on Renaissance Dance Theory". The Journal of the Society for Dance Research. 10(2). 43-70. Boynton, Susan. 1999. "The Sources and Significance of the Orpheus Myth in 'Musica Enchiriadis' and Regino of Prüm’s 'Epistola de harmonica institutione'". Early Music History. 18: 47-74. Cohen, David. 2006. "Notes, Scales, and Modes in the Earlier Middle Ages". In T. Christensen (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory (307–365). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Çelik, Binnaz B. 2001. HÕzÕr bin Abdullah’Õn Kitâbü’l-Edvâr’Õ ve MakamlarÕn øncelenmesi. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. østanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi. Do÷rusöz, Nilgün. 2007. Harirî bin Muhammed’in KÕrúehrî EdvârÕ Üzerine Bir ønceleme. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. østanbul: Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi. Erickson, Raymond and C. Palisca. 1995. Musica Enchiriadis and Scolica Enchiriadis. London: Yale University Press. Ertan, Deniz. 2007. "Cycles and Peripheries: An Ottoman 'Kitâb elEdvâr'". Asian Music. 38 (1): 31-60. Farmer, Henry G. 1986. Studies in Oriental Music I. Frankfurt am Main: IGAIW Publication. Feldman, Walter. 1996. Music of the Ottoman Court: Makam, Composition, and the Early Ottoman Instrumental Repertoire. Berlin: VWB. Ferguson, Kitty. 2008. Pythagoras: His Live and the Legacy of a Rational Universe. New York: Walker Publishing. Gadamer, Hans G. 2006. Truth and Method. London: Continuum. Godwin, Joscelyn. 1993. The Harmony of the Spheres. Vermont: Inner Traditions. —. 1995. Harmonies of Heaven and Earth. Vermont: Inner Traditions. Guenon, Rene (2004). Perspectives on Initiation. Tr. Henry D. Fohr. Hillsdale NY: Sophia Perennis. Heninger, S. K., Jr. 1961. "Some Renaissance Versions of the Pythagorean Tetrad". Studies in the Renaissance. 8: 7-35. Hailey, David. 2009. Gregorian Chant. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holladay, Richard Le. 1977. The Musica Enchiriadis and Scholia Enchiriadis: A Translation and Commentary. Doctoral Dissertation. Ohio: Ohio State University. James, Jamie. 1993. The Music of the Spheres. New York: Grove Press.

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KÕlÕç, Mahmud Erol. 2010. Hermesler Hermesi. østanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat YayÕnlarÕ. Mathiesen, Thomas J. 1999. Apollo’s Lyre: Greek Music and Music Theory in Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Morewedge, Parwiz. 1992. Neoplatonism and Islamic Thought. Albany: State University of New York Press. Nasr, Seyyed Hussein. 1993. An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Albany: State University of New York Press. Özçimi, Sadreddin. 1989. HÕzÕr bin Abdullah ve Kitâbü’l-Edvâr’Õ. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. østanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi. Öztürk, Okan Murat. 2012. "15. YüzyÕl OsmanlÕ Müzi÷inde ùube KavramÕ ve Hermetik Gelenek". In: Do÷u BatÕ. 62: 115-140. Pacholczyk, Jozef. 1996. "Music and Astronomy in the Muslim World". Leonardo. 29 (2): 145–150. Pesce, Dolores. 1987. The Affinities and Medieval Transposition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Phillips, Nancy C. 1984. Musica and Scolica Enchriadis: The Literary, Theoretical and Musical Sources. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. New York: New York University. Pingree, David. 1973. "The Greek Influence on Early Islamic Mathematical Astronomy". Journal of the American Oriental Society, 93 (1), 32–43. Popescu-Judetz, Eugenia. 2010. A Summary Catalogue of The Turkish Makams. østanbul: Pan YayÕncÕlÕk. Russo, Mariamichela. 1997. Hexachordal Theory in the Late Thirteenth Century. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, Michigan: USA. Sezikli, Ubeydullah. 2000. KÕrúehirli Yusuf bin Nizameddin’in Risâle-i Musiki AdlÕ Eseri. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. østanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi. Shehadi, Fadlou. 1995. Philosophies of Music in Medieval Islam. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Shiloah, Amnon. 1993. The Dimension of Music in Islamic and Jewish Culture. Norfolk: Variorum Publication. Theon of Smyrn.a 1979. Mathematics Useful for Understanding Plato. Tr. Robert & Deborah Lawlor. San Diego: Wizards Bookshelf. Waterfield, Robin. 1988. The Theology of Arithmetic. Michigan: Phanes Press. Wellesz, Egon. 1957. Ancient and Oriental Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Wright, Owen. 2010. Epistles of The Brethren of Purity: On Music. New York: Oxford University Press.

THE MAKAM SYSTEM AS A METATHEORY FOR INTERPRETING BULGARIAN TRADITIONAL SONGS GUEORGUI HARIZANOV BULGARIA

History Ever since the late 19th century in Bulgarian folk music research, the term makam has been used by traditional singers and musicians, as well as by musicologists in different contexts and its meaning widely varied. Most Bulgarian musicologists today share the view that the pioneers of Bulgarian musicology, Dobri Hristov and Stoyan Dzhudzhev among others, borrowed the term makam because of a shortage of a more appropriate term for their theoretical writings1 and applied their own meaning to it–predominantly scales or modes, and especially the chromatic2 modes (Dzhudzhev 1970: 262-266, 301-338). Later generation Bulgarian musicologists, Lozanka Peycheva, Ventsislav Dimov and Ivanka Vlaeva ascertained in their research the existence of the term’s various meanings for different groups of people involved with Bulgarian folk music. For the traditional singers and musicians the term makam means chromatic scales or modes and a performance style. For the Roma (Gypsy) musicians it means a modal system employing microtones and a performance style. And for the musicologists scales or modes, a modal system employing a tone system different than the 12-tone equal temperament, a performance style in a geographically vast and multi1

In his theoretical works Stoyan Dzhudzhev developed a hybrid system explaining the Bulgarian traditional music using Eastern Orthodox Church modes, for the diatonic and enharmonic modes and the makam system (the way he understood and interpreted it) for the chromatic modes (Dzhudzhev 1970: 262-266, 301-338). 2 The term "chromatic" applied to a mode or a scale and/or to a tetrachord or a pentachord in this text means a structure that contains an interval of augmented second; contrary to its meaning–consecutive semitone intervals within an octave.

44 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

ethnic region and melodic formulas, or form structure (Peycheva and Dimov 1999: 51-59; Vlaeva 2009: 98-110). For Lyuben Botoucharov the makam is a complex compositional framework governed by a set of rules (Botucharov 1989: 42-46). The freer use or interpretation of the term makam in Bulgarian musicology logically led to some misunderstandings and criticism abroad3. That is why in this article, as well as in my previous work (Harizanov, 2011), the adapted definition of the term makam is a multilayered "modal framework" or "system"4 governed by a set of rules, which determine the hierarchy of its parameters–direction of melodic development (seyir), initialis, repercusse (güçlü), finalis (durak), modal elements (çeúni)– trichords, tetrachords, and pentachords, melodic formulas and modal mobility. Having defined the term makam, I believe that it is important to reveal also the philosophy upon which the makam system has been used as a metatheory for interpreting Bulgarian traditional songs in my work. The Indian musicologist Bigamudre Chaitanya Deva believed that the differences between the traditional and the classical (or the professional concert) music does not consist of the nature of their expression, but in the extent of awareness of the rules used. Namely, in Indian classical music there has been developed the theory of raga, rala and various forms, as separate sides of the overall model or system (Deva 1980: 130–131). In the past, in Bulgarian musicology, attempts have already been made to explain some of the modal characteristics of Bulgarian traditional songs through the makam system by Dobri Hristov and Stoyan Dzhudzhev among others. The main reason for that is because the makam system, to a 3

Risto Pekka Pennanen in his article "Lost in Scales: Balkan Folk Music Research and the Ottoman Legacy" writes: "Ever since the nineteenth century, folk music researchers in the Balkans have concentrated on intervals, tetrachords, pentachords and scales rather than melodic characteristics which are crucial for, among others, Ottoman modal systems called makams (Turk. sing. makam, pl. makamlar) and their rural equivalents ayaks (Turk. sing. ayak, pl. ayaklar). Scholars have used scales for melodic classification and stratification, the central research methods in the Balkans and East Europe. Thus, Balkan scholars have tended to apply a Western scale concept to music, which function more or less in terms of other principles" (Pennanen 2008: 130). 4 The terms are borrowed from Karl Signell, who wrote about the makam: "It is important to note that the modern Western interpretation of the word 'mode' cannot be used here.'Modal framework' or 'system' would be better terms, for makam, gusheh, and tonos prescribe not only a scale with a given ambitus and center toneas does a mode-but also typical motifs and tone progressions" (Signell 1977: 16; Sultan 1988: 389).

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certain extent, became necessary in the process of theorizing the folk culture of a much wider geographical region–from Spain to Northern India (Vlaeva 2009: 100). Like the raga system designed for Indian classical music, but also used to explain the modal parameters of Indian folklore (Vlaeva 2009: 111), the makam system provides the same opportunities for theoretical analysis of folk music, even in the periphery of the aforementioned region (Vlaeva 2009: 100). As a result of the historically accumulated facts, an individual approach, using the makam system as a metatheory, as the present one, seemed to me challenging, but logical.

Terminology Before I proceed with the analysis, I should explain the meaning of the theory borrowed from Schenkerian [Forte & Gibert, 1982] terms, such as "foreground" and "background", as well as the terms "modal elements" and “modal axes”, used in the present text. To define the multilayered melodic development and the role of its parameters I decided to use the aforementioned terms as follows: 1) on a deeper structural (background) level function parameters such as the modal axes, including in itself the initialis, the repercusse (güçlü) and the finalis; 2) on a melodic (foreground) level–the modal elements (çeúni)–trichords, tetrachords, and pentachords, the melodic formulas and modal mobility5; 3) the role of the direction of melodic development (seyir), not only literally as the direction in which the melody develops, but as a parameter, in which is encoded the genetic information of the "modal framework" or the makam. The term "modal elements" is borrowed from the book of the Bulgarian composer and theorist Assen Karastoyanov–"Melodic and Harmonic Foundation of the Bulgarian Folk Song" (Karastoyanov 1950), where the author developed an interesting individual analytical concept for interpreting Bulgarian traditional songs, based upon modal elements (trichords, tetrachords, and pentachords). Recognizing them as building blocks or units in the phase6 development of the Bulgarian traditional song, Karastoyanov tried to demonstrate the different character of the mode 5

The term "modal mobility" has been borrowed from Elena Kuteva (Kuteva 1975:22-26; 1988: 41-42), as a more appropriate term for the Eastern type monody than the term "modulation", associated with Western-European tradition– modulating from one tonality to another, or in the case of traditional music from one mode to another. 6 A "phase" in Bulgarian traditional song is usually with ambitus of a fourth or a fifth.

46 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

formation of the Bulgarian folk song tradition opposed to the octave scales or modes in other traditions. The term "modal axes" is borrowed from the work of the Bulgarian musicologist Iskra Racheva, where the author commented on the importance of the formation of the second modal pillar–the repercusse (güçlü), as the antitheses of the finalis and the result of which are the formation of the "prime quartal axes" (1-4), the "secondary quartal axes" (VII-3) and the "double quartal system" (1-4 and VII-3), where the Arabic numeral represents the degrees of the mode and Roman numerals–the subtonic (leading) tone (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Double Quartal System

In my work I developed the idea of the double quartal system to a multiple modal axes, which represents the backbone of the form and the mode structure, which are inseparable when it comes to the traditional monody. Last but not least most of the music examples are notated in double staves, where on the top staff is notated the analyzed song, and on the second–the analysis, where the whole-note figure represents the finalis, the half-note figure–the external tones of the modal elements, and the quarternote figure without stems–the secondary tones of the modal elements.

Modal Elements In my doctoral dissertation (Harizanov 2011), analyzing more than 10,000 Bulgarian traditional songs, published in the capital works of the Bulgarian folklorists, I extracted the most common modal elements. To be as true and unbiased, as possible, I had to use the names of the modal elements of the Glarean system for those, which were written without microtones and the names used in the makam system for those notated with microtones as well for those that did not exist in the Glarean system, as follows:

Gueorgui Harizanov

Dorian tetrachord or pentachord

Hicaz tetrachord or pentachord

Phrygian tetrachord or pentachord

Ionian tetrachord or pentachord

Müstear pentachord

Tetrachord Uúúak or pentachord Hüseyni

Tetrachord or pentachord Rast

47

48 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

Tetrachord Sabâh

Nikriz pentachord

Locrian pentachord

Lydian pentachord

Modal Axes The song analyzed in Figure 2 illustrates the melodic phase development of the Bulgarian folk song tradition, as well as how in each phase only one of the modal axes is ornamented. In the first phase of the analyzed song, the external tones of a Dorian pentachord from A1 (A1 and E2) define the upper axis; while in the second phase the external tones of a Dorian pentachord from E1 (E1 and B1) define the lower one. These two pentachords form the skeleton of the song (1-5 and 4-8), where the repercusse, A1 is also the intersection tone for both modal elements. Even though the resulting octave scale or mode might be identified as an Aeolian mode from E1 (by Glarean), the logic of the mode formation is clearly in the melodic ornamentation of the axes, in this particular song with two Dorian pentachords. The following examples confirm my theses that the scale is the result of the axes ornamentation, rather than the prime source for tone content. Firstly (Figure 3), the ambitus of the song is only a minor sixth. The modal axes 1- 5 and 3-6 are ornamented by an Ionian tetrachord from C2 with a VII (B1) and a Phrygian pentachord from A1. The resulting scale is not only less than an octave but has both variants of the second degree B1 and

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Bb1, which makes it undetermined and unidentifiable with any particular mode. The ambitus of the next song (Figure 4) is a minor seventh, and the ornamented axes are 1-b5 and 4-b7. The upper axis is ornamented with a Hicaz tetrachord from A1 and the lower with a Müstear pentachord from E1. In Bulgarian musicology there is no established name for such a scale.

Figure 2. "Ʉɚɪɚ ɋɬɨɹɧ ɜɨɣɜɨɞɚ"

50 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

Figure 3. "Ɉɬɞɚɜɧɚ ɥɢ ɫɢ ɦɨɦɧɟ ɥɟ, ɤɚɥɭɝɟɪɢɰɚ"

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Figure 4. "Ɇɨɥɛɚ ɡɚ ɞɟɬɟ"

From the analyzed up to this point of the songs, one can make two main conclusions: 1) on the deeper structural level (background), the mode formation is based entirely upon the modal axes, which form the skeleton of the song; and 2) that the role of the repercusse is not only as the halfsentence tone, but also a crossing point of the modal elements involved in the ornamentation of modal axes.

Direction of Melodic Development (Seyir) Karl Signell defines the seyir as a "set of rules" (Signell 1977: 50-60) or as a "distinctive progression" (Signell 1974: 46). The three seyirs are: 1) the low-register or the ascending seyir (çÕkÕcÕ), in which the melody begins on the finalis or in its register (often on the subtonic leading tone–VII), develops to the middle register and ends on the final; 2) the high-register seyir or the descending one (inici), in which the melody starts in the higher

52 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

register (on the octave of the final) and then descends to the final; and 3) the middle-register or the ascending-descending seyir (inici-çÕkÕcÕ), in which the melody starts on or in the same register of the repercusse (güçlü), and develops in that register before ending on the finalis [Pennanen 1995: 131]. The key-role of the seyir is not only to describe the direction of melodic development (ascending, descending or mixed), but also to predetermine the register in which other modal parameters will appear. That is the most important feature of the parameter (seyir) as a "codified melodic progression" (Feldman 1993:3). Based upon the understanding that a seyir is a "codified melodic progression" and using songs recorded and notated by Vasil Stoin in his collection "Bulgarian Folk Songs from Eastern and Western Thrace" (Stoin 1939), as empirical material, I am attempting to demonstrate some patterns of melodic development in Bulgarian folk song tradition parallel to the seyir, especially in songs with ambitus of a perfect fifth or wider. It is important to note that in Bulgarian folk song tradition the observed patterns of melodic development bear some features of the seyir, but do not strictly follow the rules observed as in the makam system. The first examples demonstrate ascending melodic development. The song analyzed in Figure 5 demonstrates clearly an ascending melodic development, in which the only modal axis 1-4 degrees (G1-C2), is ornamented with a Hicaz tetrachord from G1 (with a subtonic leading tone VII). The melody starts on the final and ascends to the second pillar, reaching its culmination and then descends back to it, which is very similar to the already defined ascending seyir (çÕkÕcÕ) above. The analysis of the following song (Figure 6) not only demonstrates an ascending melodic development, but how the axes could be ornamented with melodic models from a variety of modal elements. In this case the axis (1-b5) is ornamented with the tonal content of a Müstear pentachord. In addition to the ascending melodic development the examples demonstrate some of the basic genetically encoded modal parameters in this modal parameter (seyir): 1) the direction of the melodic development predetermines the initialis, which is either the finalis or a tone from the same register (often it is the subtonic leading tone–VII); 2) the repercusse is in the same register as the finalis; 3) the ambitus of the song is also predetermined–in this case narrow, mostly within a pentachord and 4) the tessitura–mostly in the middle register.

Gueorgui Harizanov

Figure 5: "Ɉɬɪɨɜɢɥɚ ɫɧɚɯɚ ɫɢ"

Figure 6. "Ⱦɚ ɦɭ ɩɨɞɚɪɢ ɨɱɢɬɟ ɢ ɜɟɠɞɢɬɟ"

53

54 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

The following examples demonstrate the descending melodic development.

Figure 7. "Ȼɪɚɬɟ Ƚɶɨɪɝɶɨɥɶɨ"

In the song analyzed in Figure 7 the upper axis (3-b7) is ornamented with a Lydian pentachord from C2, while the lower (1-5) with a Dorian pentachord from A1. The resulting scale could be identified with a Dorian mode from A1, but in reality the tone content is due to: 1) the downward direction of the melodic development, which begins in the upper register and finishes in the low register on the finalis; and 2) the chosen modal elements (a Lydian and a Dorian pentachords). The following example (Figure 8) also demonstrates that a resulting scale could not be identified with any of the established modes. The upper axis (4 – b7) is ornamented with a Hicaz tetrachord from A1, while the lower (1 – b5) with a Müstear pentachord from E1. The repercusse A1 could be clearly recognized not only as the conclusion of the first half of the melody, but also as the intersection of the modal elements.

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Figure 8. "Ɇɨɥɛɚ ɡɚ ɞɟɬɟ"

Taking into consideration the above observations that the direction of melodic development predetermines some if not most of the other modal parameters, one can conclude that: 1) the initialis is in the high register; 2) the repercusse is in the middle; 3) the finalis in the lower; 4) the ambitus is wider–a seventh or wider; and 5) the tessitura varies–the melody starts in the upper register, passing through the middle before its conclusion in the lower register. The song melody analyzed in Figure 9 starts in the middle register, develops in the upper one, ornamenting the upper axis (4–8) with a Dorian tetrachord from A1, before its conclusion in the lower register– ornamenting the lower axis (1-5) with a Hicaz pentachord from D1. This melodic development fits reasonably well the definition for the mixed melodic development, as well as a number of other Bulgarian folk songs. The last example (Figure 10) is included to illustrate the fact that any scale (especially the octave scales) in Bulgarian folk music tradition could not be identified as the prime source for tone content. They are the result of the melodic ornamentation of the axes with a variety of modal elements. The resulting scale of the song analyzed in Figure 10 could be identified with a Dorian mode, as well as the song analyzed in Figure 7 despite the different direction of melodic development. But is that its most important feature?

56 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

Figure 9. "Ɉɛɡɚɥɨɠɢɥ ɫɟ ɡɚ ɧɚɞɩɢɜɚɧɟ – ɜɡɟɥɢ ɦɭ ɛɭɥɤɚɬɚ ɢ ɫɟɫɬɪɚɬɚ"

Figure 10. "ɉɪɨɞɚɜɚ ɫɟ ɋɜɟɬɚ ɝɨɪɚ"

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The identified model for the melodies developing in the mixed direction of melodic development can be described as: 1) the initialis and the repercusse are in the middle range; 2) the ambitus is wide–a seventh or wider; and 3) the tessitura is diverse. From the songs analyzed in this chapter one can conclude that the direction of the melodic development (seyir) in Bulgarian folk song tradition should be seen as a fundamental modal parameter, as a "codified modal progression"–especially in songs with ambitus a prefect fifth or wider. In the seyir, as a modal parameter, the characteristics of a number of modal parameters are predetermined, such as ambitus, initialis, repercusse, tessitura, even the register in which the modal axes appear. In other words the main morphological formula on the background level is: initialis–repercusse–finalis.

Melodic formulas The melodic formulas in Bulgarian folk song tradition should be considered as a modal parameter. These stereotypical phrases are used in the important structural moments of the melody, such as the half sentence and the cadence. Most of them are closely associated with particular modal elements and for that reason in this chapter the formulas are categorized in that way. The most common tetrachord or pentachord in Bulgarian folk song tradition is the Dorian one. The formulas associated with Dorian modal elements are numerous in variants, but some of the most widespread (with or without the subtonic leading tone) are:

a)

b)

c) Figure 11. Dorian formulas

Here is important to point out that some of the formulas associated with the Uúúak tetrachord and the Hüseyni pentachord are very similar to those of the Dorian mode, most likely because of their similar intervallic structure.

58 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

a)

b)

c) Figure 12. Uúúak or Hüseyni formulas

There are numerous formulas for the Phrygian tetrachords or pentachords, but the most characteristic of them are:

a)

b)

c) Figure 13. Phrygian formulas

Numerous formulas are associated with the Ionian modal elements, but again the typical ones are:

a)

b) Figure 14. Ionian formulas

The stereotyped phrases associated with tetrachords or pentachords Rast, Müstear, Huzzam, Sabâh, Hicaz and Nikriz are fewer in numbers. These formulas are used very strictly, with very few or no variants.

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a) Rast

b) Müstear

c) Huzzam

d) Sabâh

e) Hicaz

g) Nikriz Figure 15. Rast, Müstear, Huzzam, Sabâh, Hicaz and Nikriz formulas

This part of the study demonstrates the importance of the modal parameter "melodic formulas" as an element playing a major role in the finalization of the mode on the foreground level. They are part of the tradition and should be considered as a parameter when it comes to mode classification.

Modal mobility The last modal parameter, which plays a role on the foreground level, is the "modal mobility". In Bulgarian musicology the alterations of one or more degrees of the tetrachord or the pentachord, are called "unstable" (Kaufman 1970, 1981, 2003) or "mobile" (Kuteva 1975, 1988) degrees. They are usually the second or the third degree. These alterations of the tonal content of the modal elements naturally lead to a change in their modal characteristics. In other words, the modal mobility within the modal elements leads to a rich variety of modal excursions while ornamenting the modal axes. The core of the issue is not only the change from one mode to another, within the same genera, but also the change from one genera– diatonic or chromatic, to the other or vice versa. In this text the modal

60 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

mobility is categorized into two groups: 1) modal elements with a mobile second degree and 2) those with a mobile third degree. In Bulgarian traditional music, the second degree of a Dorian mode is often altered in the final phase of the melody yielding a Phrygian conclusion as illustrated in Figure 167. The opposite conclusion is rare, but isolated examples do exists (Figure 17).

Figure 16. "ə ɜɢɤɧɢ, əɧɤɟ"

Figure 17. "ɋɝɨɞɢɥ ɫɟ ɡɚ ɛɨɝɚɬɚ, ɧɨ ɧɟ ɡɧɚɹɥɚ ɞɚ ɢɝɪɚɟ ɩɨɥɤɚ"

There are cases, in which the second degree is notated with half flat or neutral second (Figure 18).

Figure 18. "Ɂɚɡɨɪɢ ɫɢ ɛɟɥɚ ɡɨɪɚ"

7

All the examples in this chapter are from Vassil Stoin’s book "Narodni pesni ot Timok do Vita".

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In this group could also be included the songs with a mobile second degree in the upper tetrachord or pentachord, where the alteration would change the mode’s colour from Dorian to Aeolian or Phrygian or vice versa (Figure 19).

Figure 19. "ɂ ɸɧɚɤ ɢ ɜɴɡɞɴɪɠɚɬɟɥ"

As mentioned earlier, the second group consists of songs with a mobile third degree, where, due to the alteration the modal nuances change from Ionian or Rast to Dorian or Phrygian and from chromatic Hicaz to a diatonic Phrygian, as illustrated in Figure 20 and Figure 21.

Figure 20. "ȿɪɢɧɤɟ ɦɨɦɟ"

Figure 21. "ɉɪɢɩɟɜɤɢ"

62 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

The alteration of the third degree of the upper structure causes the changes from Ionian to Mixolydian (Figure 22) or from Hicaz with major seventh to the one with minor seventh (Figure 23).

Figure 22. "ɑɭɠɞɢ ɸɧɚɤ"

Figure 23. "ɇɚɣ-ɞɨɛɪɨɬɨ ɧɚ ɫɜɟɬɚ"

Lastly, worth mentioning are the songs with mobile fourth or fifth degrees in which the mode changes from Nikriz to Dorian (Figure 24), from Dorian to Müstear (Figure 25) and from Sabâh to Phrygian (Figure 26).

Figure 24. "Ɂɚɦɴɱɢ ɫɟ Ȼɨɠɚ ɦɚɣɤɚ"

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Figure 25. "Ʌɨɲɚ ɲɟɝɚ"

Figure 26. "ɍɦɪɟɥɨ ɥɢɛɟ"

Conclusion Within the scope of an article as the present one, it is impossible to go into more detailed analysis of the mode formation in Bulgarian folk song tradition. That is why the main goals for this study were 1) to identify the modal parameters–the direction of melodic development (seyir), initialis, repercusse (güçlü), finalis (durak), modal elements (çeúni)–trichords, tetrachords, and pentachords, melodic formulas and modal mobility [Harizanov 2009: 21-33]); 2) to establish the hierarchy in their multilayered relationship; and 3) by using Schenkerian terminology to demonstrate which parameter on which level functions for a better understanding of their role. To achieve these goals, I conducted the following: 1) a historic retrospection of the definition of the term makam; 2) a parallel between the terminological apparatus of the makam system and Bulgarian musicology; and 3) an illustration of the existence of the aforementioned modal parameters in Bulgarian folk music and their role in the mode formation. Thus proving that the makam system, to a certain extend, became necessary in the process of theorizing folk cultures of a much wider

64 Makam System as a Metatheory for Interpreting Bulgarian Traditional Songs

geographical region, including the Balkans, and therefore could be used quite successfully as a metatheory for interpreting Bulgarian traditional songs.

References Botoucharov, Lyuben. 1989. "Bulgarskata narodna muzika ot gledishte na profesionalnata tradicia na iztoka" [Bulgarian traditional music from the prospective of eastern professional tradition]. Muzikalni horizonti 16(12-13): 42–46. Deva, B. Chaitanya. 1980. Indiiskaya muzyka [Indian music]. Moscow: Publishing house "Music". Dzhudzhev, Stoyan. 1955. Teoria na bulgarskata muzika [Theory of Bulgarian Music]. Nauka I izkustvo, Sofia, vol 2, Melodika. —. 1970. Bulgarska narodna musika [Bulgarian Traditional Music]. Nauka I izkustvo, vol.1. Feldman, Walter. 1993. "Ottoman Sources on the Development of the Taksîm". Yearbook for Traditional Music, Musical Processes in Asia and Oceania, 25:1-28. Forte, Allan and Steven E. Gilbert. 1982. Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis, W. W. Norton & Company. Harizanov, Gueorgui. 2009. "For Some Terms in the Theory of Bulgarian Traditional Music Borrowed from Eastern (Persian, Arabian and Turkish) Music Theory". Bulgarian Musicology, Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia.33/1:21-33. —. 2011. Modal and Intonational Characteristics of Bulgarian Traditional Music (Doctoral Dissertation) Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Science Institute of Art Studies. Hristov, Dobri. 1970. Muzikalno-teoritichno i publicistichesko nasledstvo. Sofia. BAS. Vol. 2. Karastoyanov, Assen.1950. Melodic and harmonic foundation of the Bulgarian folk song, Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Science. Kaufman, Nikolay. 1970. Bulgarska narodna muzika. Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo. —. 1981. Bulgarski narodni pesni. Sofia: Izdatelstvo muzika. —. 2003. Bulgarski narodni pesni na polski trud. Sofia: Izdatelstvo "Marin Drinov". Kuteva, Elena. 1975. "Za mobile tip ladoobrazuvane v bulgarskata narodna pesen". Bulgarska muzika, 26/3:22-26. —. 1988. "Terminologichniiat aparat v melodichnite koncepcii za bulgarskia folklore". Bulgarsko muzikoznanie. 15/1:28-44.

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Pennanen, Risto Pekka. 1995. "Development, Interpretation and Change of Dromos Houzam in Greek Rebetika Music". The Structure and Idea of Maqam: Historical Approaches, Elsner, Jürgen and Risto Pekka Pennanen (eds.). Department of Folk Tradition Publication, 24:125174. —. 2008. "Lost in Scales: Balkan Folk Music Research and the Ottoman Legacy". Muzikologija. 8:127-147. http://www.komunikacija.org.rs/ komunikacija/casopisi/muzikologija/VIII_8/index_html?stdl ang =cz, 28.04.2009. Peycheva, Lozanka & Dimov, Ventsislav. 1999. "'Sladkata musika' (Bulgarski muzikanti za poniatieto makam)"["'Sweet Music' (Bulgarian Musicians for the Term Makam)"]. Bulgarian Foklor 25/3: 51-59. Racheva, Iskra. 1989. "For Some Development Trends of the Mode in Bulgarian Folk Song"[Za niakoi razvoini tendentsii na lada v bulgarskata narodna pesen]. Musicalni Horizonti. 16/11 :11-53. Signell, Karl L. 1974. "Esthetics of Improvisation in Turkish Art Music". Asian Music. Vol. 5, No. 2 (1974). University of Texas Press. 45-49. —. 1977. Makam: Modal Practice in Turkish Art Music. Nokomis FL (USA): Usul editions/Lulu.com. Stoin, Vassil. 1928. Narodni pesni ot Timok do Vita. Sofia. —. 1931. Narodni pesni ot Sredna Severna Bulgaria. Sofia. —. 1939. Bulgarski narodni pesni ot iztochna i zapadna Trakia [Bulgarian Folk Songs from Eastern and Western Thrace], zapisani ot Vassil Stoin. Sofia: Trakiiski nauchen institute. Sultan, Nancy. 1988. "New Light on the Function of 'Borrowed Notes' in Ancient Greek Music: A Look at Islamic Parallels". The Journal of Musicology 6/3:387-398. Vlaeva, Ivanka. 2009. Muzika po putia na koprinata [Music on the road of silk].Sofia: Uniskorp.

PART II: HISTORICAL TRACES OF OTTOMAN MUSIC IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION

THE MELODIC CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEK REBETIKA MUSIC: A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE DROMOS AND THE MAQAMS ALI FUAT AYDIN TURKEY

The rebetika (Greek ȡİȝʌȑIJȚțĮ, sing. ȡİȝʌȑIJȚțȠ) is an urban music of Greek-speaking people which developed over the past century in Asia Minor (now Turkey), Greece and the United States. They are composed songs of love, lament, celebration and social commentary as well as instrumental pieces, dance music and free improvisations. Rebetika gained its popularity as a commercially recorded music and influenced all subsequent popular music in Greece between 1920 and 1960 (Tsounis 1997:vi). Savvopoulos gives 15 different assumptions for the etymology of the word, some of them are: the production of the word from the ancient verb "remvomai" (to wander) through the medieval "rembomai", of a Turkish origin from the word "rebet" (rebetis-es in Greek, meaning outlaw), of an Italian origin from the Venetian word "rebelo" (rebel), Arabian from the word "rubaiyat" (quatrain), Slav from the word "rebenok" (brave) and, more recently, a mixed origin "from the musical note re (D) and the English verb beat…" (Savvopoulos 2006:13). None of the above assumptions have been confirmed. However, it was associated with the "underworld", that is, the part of society engaged in crime or vice: a short story titled "ȠȚ ȝȣıIJȘȡȚȫįİȚȢ ȞȣțIJȠțȜȑʌIJĮȚ", i.e. "the mysterious thieves of the night" by Ȃinas D. Chamoudopoulos published in Smyrna in 1871 reports the word "rebeta" as "the night thieves". The story is about the low–level population of Smyrna (outlaws, small thieves etc.) of the time and it somewhere explains: "Rebeta: That is how these night thieves name themselves". The word "rebeta" is of feminine genre and means something like "the gang", "the gathering of people".

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Figure 1. The first record with the term rebetiko in its label (1910-12) (Savvopoulos 2006:15)

Figure 2. Another record with the term rebetiko in its label (1913) (Savvopoulos 2006:16)

Rebetika can be divided into two main styles; the oriental style associated with the large refugee population from Asia Minor in the 1920s can also be called café aman style coming from the places where they were performed. This style is called smyrneika in Greece. The other main style, the bouzouki-based Piraeus style, was associated with the urban subculture of Greece. Its early stages are called teke style after the teke or hashish dens where they were performed (Pennanen 1997:66). Pappas explains the situation in Greece after 1922 as: "The performers who arrived in Greece after 1922 from urban centers in Anatolia came from a long-established tradition of musical innovation and originality that had blended Greek language with eastern modality and rhythms. Many of

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The Melodic Characteristics of Greek Rebetika Music

these had received some training in classical Turkish music that had significantly broadened the various frameworks within which they composed and performed. They also had experience in dance rhythms such as the karsilamas, the zeibekiko, and the tsifteteli, all of which were relatively unknown on mainland Greece. They arrived in Greece, therefore, surprised to find their Greek compatriots, even in the urban centers, still bound to rural dimotika and kleftika, songs of the 1821 revolution and folk tunes that bore little relevance to urban life. At the same time, they encountered the upper classes clinging to a more western influence with operettas, kantades, conventional tangos, and foxtrots the fashion. At the other end of the social spectrum, they heard the poor and destitute playing stringed instruments similar, but not identical, to those they had themselves brought with them from Anatolia and singing songs about social dislocation and drug dependency" (Pappas 1999:354). This sudden and abrupt incursion of eastern Greek musical culture into mainland Greece was to revolutionize mainstream Greek music. On the one hand, without the refugees, rebetika may never have made the impact they did, since it was upon the launching pad of the newly imported music of the refugees that they sprang to prominence. And, on the other hand, not only did the music of the underworld rebetes achieve a respectability, but the narrow confines of the musical repertoires of these local manges were to be significantly broadened during the period of dominance of cafe aman or smyrneika in Athens until late 1936 (Pappas 1999:357). It should be noted that all the famous composers of "rebetiko" songs born before 1890 were from Asia Minor: Dimitris Barousis (1860-1944), Stavros Pantelidis (1870-1955), Kostas Skarvelis (1880-1942), Panagiotis Tountas (1885-1942), Kostas Karipis (1885-1952), Evangelos Sofroniou (1885-1942) and Yiannis Dragatsis (1886-1958). The first Greek composers appeared in the second "generation", including Giorgos Batis (1890-1967), Iakovos Montanaris (1893-1965), Kostas Tzovenos (18991985), Dimitris Goggos (1902-1985), Kostas Roukounas (1904-1984), Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972) and Stelios Kiromytis (1908-1979). However, Asia Minor composers still outnumbered the Greeks. Among them were Gregory Asikis (1890-1967), Antonis Diamantidis (18921945), Yiannis Eitziridis (1893-1942), Manolis Chrysafakis (1895-1972), Zacharias Kasimatis (1896-1965), Vangelis Papazoglou (1897-1943), Spyros Peristeris (1900-1966), Dimitris Atraidis (1900-1970), Apostolos Chatzichristos (1901-1959) and Kosmas Kosmadopoulos (1903-1973) (Zerouali). By 1931, Asia Minor performers were dominating the recording industry. As recording techniques improved, composers like Panayiotis

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Toundas, Kostas Skarvelis, Yiannis Dragatsis, and Vangelis Papazoglou contributed new material in the Anatolian vein to supplement the recording of traditional Anatolian pieces. Old lyrics were sometimes varied to reflect the social conditions of the refugees while still retaining their predominantly Anatolian essence (Pappas 1999:357).

Figure 3. The Famous Piraeus Four (Stratos Pagioumtzis, Markos Vamvakaris, Giorgos Batis, Anestis Delias).

Things changed in 1933-1934, when "lower classes" became a reality. The first recordings of the Ș ȉİIJȡȐȢ IJȠȣ ȆİȚȡĮȚȫȢ (The Famous Piraeus Four - Stratos Pagioumtzis, Markos Vamvakaris, Giorgos Batis, Anestis Delias) did not introduce any revolutionary form in music. They only recognized and revealed to the audience a concealed and marginal tradition. The later generation of Asia Minor composers like Giorgos Rovertakis (1911-1978), Anestis Delias (1912-1944) and Yiannis Papaioannou (1913-1972) as well as some earlier figures started to adopt, even superficially, the “Piraeus style” and closely cooperate with the "natives". The rest of them gave way to the Greeks of the third "generation": Yiannis Stamoulis (1912), Odysseas Moschonas (19121995), Giorgos Mouflouzelis (1912-1991), Gerasimos Klouvatos (19141979), Dimitris Fratis (1914-1978), Panos Petsas (1915-1980), Yiannis Kyriazis (1915-1982), Stelios Chrysinis (1916-1970), Michalis Genitsaris (1917-2005), Vasilis Tsitsanis (1917-1984), Marinos Gabriel (1919),

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The Melodic Characteristics of Greek Rebetika Music

Babis Bakalis (1920-2007), Manolis Chiotis (1920-1970), Kostas Kaplanis (1921-1997), Stavros Tzouanakos (1921-1974), Thodoros Derveniotis (1922-2004), Apostolos Kaldaras (1922-1990), Spyros Kalfopoulos (19232006), Fotis Chaloulakos (1922), Dimitris Skarpelis (1924) and Giorgos Mitsakis (1924-1993) (Zerouali). The core instruments of rebetiko, from the mid-1930s onwards, have been the bouzouki, the baglamas and the guitar. Instruments characteristic of the Ottoman café style included the accordion, politiki lyra, clarinet, kanonaki, oud, santouri, tsimbalo, or cimbalom, violin, violoncello and finger-cymbals. Several of these instruments were also used in rebetiko songs of other than a Ottoman character. Other instruments heard on rebetiko recordings include: double bass, laouto, mandola, mandolin and piano. In some recordings, the sound of clinking glass may be heard. This sound is produced by drawing worry beads (komboloi) against a fluted drinking glass, originally an ad hoc and supremely effective rhythmic instrument, probably characteristic of teké and taverna milieux, and subsequently adopted in the recording studios (http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Rebetiko). The bouzouki-dominated groups had begun to attract an audience that looked upon the bouzouki as the accompanying instrument of Greek songs, apparently unpolluted by the eastern influences of Anatolia. This popularity spread rapidly and ultimately coincided with Metaxas’s concerted efforts to stop further recording of cafe aman songs. The end result was the virtual disappearance of smyrneika by 1937 and the dominance, since the second World War, of the bouzouki as the archetypical instrument of Greek songs. In his book, Songs of the Greek Underworld, The Rebetika Tradition, Petropoulos says that about a dozen different keys are used and these are usually decided upon by the maqam, the final result of which is known as a road (dromos: įȡȩȝȠȢ). Some of the roads correspond to Western scales of the minor variety but the use of mostly minor 7ths and 3rds and augmented intervals make them quite different (Petropoulos 2000:148). Pennanen says, the melodies of most rebetiko songs are often considered to follow one or more dromoi (Greek for "roads" or "routes"; singular is dromos). The names of the dromoi are derived in all but a few cases from the names of various Turkish modes, also known as maqam. Maqam-based compositional systems of Greek popular music are called dromoi and some characteristics of dromoi have been retained in both rebetika and its successor laika (Pennanen 1997:65).

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However, the majority of rebetiko songs have been accompanied by instruments capable of playing chords according to the Western harmonic system, and have been harmonized in a manner which corresponds neither with conventional European harmony, nor with Ottoman art music, which is a monophonic form normally not harmonized. Furthermore, rebetika has come to be played on instruments tuned in equal temperament, in direct conflict with the more complex pitch divisions of the maqam system. Comparing dromos with maqam, Pennanen states that the works on dromoi are not based on actual performances, the scale and harmony conceps of them are basically Western. In rebetika, chords are not exclusively on scale degrees, melodies are built around tonal centres and melodic formulae which makes it different from the Western one. Tonal centres are dictated by the seyir of each maqam which is a set of rules that conducts the melodic outline in a theoretical scale. However, in rebetika seyirs have not been strictly followed by composers and musicians, instrumental sections in vocal works often avoid classical rules. But tonal centres and maqam specific melodic formulae are still important for identification and classification (Pennanen, 1997:74). The following is a list of the dromos most commonly used (Petropoulos, 2000:149):

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The Melodic Characteristics of Greek Rebetika Music

By comparing these dromos with the maqams, it can be said that: x The sound material used by dromos had been largely differentiated from the material of the maqam structures especially after the Westernization period faced by the Greece. x The construction of the melodic scales by the combination of tetrachords in dromos refers to the old theory.

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x

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The characteristic melodic movements of the maqam structures including directional fret (intonational) variations have been generally preserved in dromos. The dromos like Ousak are composed of the characteristics of more than one maqam structure, therefore some of the organizational details were lost on the way from maqam to dromos. Although some dromos have the same name as the maqams, the organization is different. For instance the dromos and maqams houzam and segiah are used alternatively; kartziar and kiourdi dromos are different than the maqams with the same names; there are dromos whose names are not derived from makams.

References Emery, Ed .2002. Rebetika – A Brief History. http://www.rebetology.com/ hydragathering/2002emery-history.html Pappas, Nicolas. 1999. "Concepts of Greekness: The Recorded Music of Anatolian Greeks after 1922". Journal of Modern Greek Studies. Vol.17. 353-373 Pennanen, Risto Pekka. 1997. "The Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music: 1930s to 1960s". British Journal of Ethnomusicolohgy. 6. 65-116. Petropoulos Elias. 2000. Songs of the Greek Underworld, The Rebetika Tradition. Translated by Ed Emery. London: Saqi Books. Savvopoulos, Panos. 2006. Ȇİȡȓ IJȘȢ ȜȑȟİȦȢ "ȡİȝʌȑIJȚțȠ" IJȠ ĮȞȐȖȞȦıȝĮ... țĮȚ ȐȜȜĮ. Athens: Odos Panos. Tsounis, Demeter. 1997. Rebetika Music-Making in Adelaide: Diaspora Musical Style and Identity. Ph D. University of Adelaide Faculty of Performing Arts Department of Music Studies. Zerouali, Basma. "Rebetiko (Greek urban folk song)". http://www.ehw.gr /l.aspx?id=8911

IMPROVISED INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS ON BOSNIAN COMMERCIAL RECORDINGS: FROM WESTERNISATION TO RE-ORIENTALISATION RISTO PEKKA PENNANEN FINLAND

In this chapter, I aim to analyse taksim sections in flowing rhythms, which are, generally, improvised on the one hand and composed sections, which purport to be improvisations on the other.1 The material consists of commercial recordings–mostly in popular styles–made in BosniaHerzegovina from 1908 till the late 2000s.2 The analyses do not concentrate exclusively on music as sound; I also study taksims as social and cultural products. The term 'taksim' (Ar. taqsƯm, 'division') refers to, for example, an Arab, Ottoman-Turkish, Macedonian, Bulgarian and urban Greek (taksími) improvised instrumental form in a non-metrical, flowing rhythm which is supposed to demonstrate the various melodic qualities of a modal system called makam, dromos or other.3 Either a prelude to a piece (Turk. baú taksim), a section within a piece (Turk. ara taksim) or a separate piece of improvised music (Turk. ulama taksim), a taksim in a classical or popular style can be performed without any accompaniment or over a drone or an ostinato pattern (Reinhard & Reinhard, 1984: 104-105).4 Today, the term

1

For problems in the study of free rhythm, see Clayton, 1996. Henceforth, I refer to Bosnia-Herzegovina as Bosnia. 3 Other related forms in the Balkans are the Romanian doina and the Albanian kaba. 4 For the historical development of the taksim, see Feldman, 1996: 274-299. For analyses of Ottoman-Turkish classical taksims, see Beken & Signell, 2006. 2

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‘taksim’ does not belong to the emic terminology of Bosnian musicians; instead, they speak about improvizacija (improvisation).5 Bosnian scholars of folk music have noticeably failed to study the makam-related modes and taksims of local urban folk and popular music; Vlado Miloševiü’s (1983) analysis of Bosnian Quranic recitation is the closest thing scholars have done in that field. Illustratively, Miloševiü utilised church modes rather than the makam theory in his work. Actually, practically all the few people in contemporary Bosnia with performance and possibly theoretical knowledge of Arabic and Ottoman makams are male Quranic recitators or hafizi, who have studied in such centres of the makam traditions as Cairo or Istanbul. Such specialists know several basic makams as melodic models as well as their typical formulae (Hafiz Mensur Malkiü, personal communication, 11 November 2000).6 That said, some practising Bosnian musicians of various popular styles know the performance practice of a few Balkan-style makam-related modes, and thus they are able to play taksims. This chapter utilises three important conceptions, the first of which is Westernisation. According to Bruno Nettl (1985: 20), Westernisation may be described as the substitution of central features of non-Western music for their Western analogues, thereby sacrificing essential facets of the tradition. Nettl lists the following examples: functional harmony, major and minor scales, large ensembles and emphasis on composed pieces performed more or less unchanged. In Bosnian urban music, Westernisation has been rapid since the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia in 1878. In the nineteenth century, Bosnian urban sevdalinka songs were performed unaccompanied or with a long-necked lute accompaniment. The next century brought about a change since musicians began to provide such songs with a chordal accompaniment. Ensembles grew in size, and Western aesthetics prevailed; during the socialist period, the Radio Sarajevo tamburica lute orchestra accompanied sevdalinka songs from written Western-style arrangements. Modernisation, on the other hand, is "the incidental movement of a system or its components in the direction of Western music and musical life without, however, requiring major changes in those aspects of the nonWestern tradition that are central and essential" (Nettl, 1985: 20). Western elements are viewed in the culture as ways of continuing the tradition rather than changing it. Typical examples are slightly adjusted scales and 5

In Bosnian language, the word 'taksim' occurs in its original Arabic meaning in the old-fashioned expressions 'rastaksimiti' and 'taksim uþiniti', both meaning 'to divide' (Škaljiü 1985: 531, 597). 6 For recordings of Bosnian Quranic recitations, see Veþer (2009).

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the introduction of notation. Consider, for instance, the Bosnian Takum sazlija (Turk takÕm; 'Group of Saz Players') project of the Omer Pobriü Foundation’s Sevdah Institut in 2003; Sarajevo sazlija Šukrija Trako had to begin the project he was leading by adjusting the frets of the longnecked saz lutes of the 11-piece group into uniform positions. Otherwise, the ensemble would have sounded horrible (Šukrija Trako, personal communication, 9th June 2012). A third process of musical change in Bosnian music, dating from the 1980s, but fully flourishing roughly since the Dayton Accord that ended the Bosnian War in 1995, is Orientalisation, which is linked with the growth of Bosniak cultural nationalism and identity. Thereafter, local musicians have increasingly imitated the performance practices of Ottoman-influenced Balkan styles or those of Turkish popular music. The easy availability of foreign commercial recordings–on radio and television, CDs, VHSs, DVDs and the Internet–has contributed to Orientalisation. The traditional primarily memory-based transmission of performance practice from master to student has often switched to the secondary memory-based transmission, which means learning from recordings (cf. secondary orality in Ong, 1982: 136).7 In addition, Turkish and Iranian musicians have played at Bosnian recording sessions as guest musicians. In the Balkans, Orientalisation is not limited to Bosnian music; it has been a trend for decades in the peninsula, for instance in Greek popular music in the 1950s and 1960s (see Pennanen, 1997a: 69-72).

Examples from Early Recordings: Facets of Westernisation I will begin my analysis of taksim recordings in Bosnia from the advent of the recording industry in the area. Between 1907 and 1912, Bosnian musicians waxed possibly as many as 400 sides for various record companies (see Pennanen 2007, 2010). The most interesting early taksims available for this study are those which Mustafa Sudžuka and Merkuš play on the 1908 Sarajevo recording Sivastopol! (Lyrophon 47777).8 Clarinettist Mustafa Sudžuka was a Sarajevo Muslim professional musician, whilst accordionist Merkuš may have been Sephardic musician Merkuš Alkalaj.

7

'Memory-based' is my translation of the Finnish term 'muistinvarainen', which is more accurate in modern musical contexts that the conventional 'oral'. 8 The group also recorded the march for the Gramophone Company (mat. 5698L[lc]/cat. Zonophone X 100666) in 1907.

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Their remarkably large number of recordings includes several Ottoman pieces (see Pennanen, 2007: 119-121; 2010: 84). The example here is Sivastopol MarúÕ–also known by the first words of its lyrics as Sivastopol önünde yatar gemiler–by Ottoman composer RÕf’at Bey (1820-1888).9 This makam Rast march from the time of the Crimean War (1853-1856) was a relatively common piece at the evenings of music and drama of Bosnian Muslim cultural and other societies in Habsburg Bosnia before the Great War.10 The Mustafa Sudžuka and Merkuš recording contains three introductory taksims; first on the accordion, then on the clarinet and lastly once again on the accordion. The taksims are in makam Rast but the seyir is descending as in makam Mahûr which is common in the popular styles of Ottoman music (see Pennanen 1997a: 7475, 106-107). Several well-known late Ottoman pieces–often marches–have become part of the Bosnian sevdalinka repertoire. Among those pieces is Plevne MarúÕ or Osman Paúa MarúÕ in makam Kürdî by Mehmet Ali Bey (18401895) from the Russo-Ottoman war of 1877-1878; the march transformed into the sevdalinka song Zaplakala šeüer Ĉula. Another example is Hürriyet marúȚ in makam Nihâvend by RÕf’at Bey. This march in 3/4 time is known as the celebrated sevdanlika Kad ja poÿoh na Bembašu. Albeit not a march, yet another case of an Ottoman piece in the prevailing sevdalinka canon is Kâtibim or Üsküdar’a gider iken in makam Nihâvend originally recorded as Poletjela dva goluba in Sarajevo in 1908 but nowadays known, with different lyrics, as Oj djevojko Anadolko.11 As is evident from Figure 1, Sivastopol marúÕ experienced some melodic and structural changes when Bosnian musicians adapted the tune to the sevdalinka repertoire as S’ one strane Plive (or S’ one strane Jajca).12 The syncopation of the march vanished, as did some of the emphasis on the melodic dominant güçlü (d2). Furthermore, the final cadence gained additional melodic material; paradoxically the movement

9

For an Ottoman recording of the piece, see the rendition of Ramazan Efendi and Zahid Efendi (mat. 13515b/cat. 2-14359) recorded for the Gramophone Company in Smyrna in June 1909. 10 e.g. the evenings of music and drama of the Muslim Temperance Society Iršad in Nevesinje on 1st March 1911 and 2nd May 1914 (Musavat, 27th February 1911; Vakat, 30th April 1914). 11 For Ottoman music in Habsburg Bosnia, see Pennanen 2009. 12 Incidentally, from November 1992 to February 1998, the tune, with lyrics by Edin Dervišhalidoviü, served as the national anthem Jedna si jedina of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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g1-f#1-e1-f#1-g1, which appeared in the Bosnian version, is a typical melodic formula of makam Rast (see Signell 1977: 127).

Figure 1. The melodic comparison of Sivastopol marúÕ (Üngör, 1966: 169) and the sevdalinka S’ one strane Plive (Žero, 1995: 348).

The recording S one strane Jajca (mat. 509/cat. Jugoton C-6194) from c. 1956 by singer Zaim Imamoviü (1920-1994) and accordionist Ismet Alajbegoviü-Šerbo (1925-1987) illustrates the Westernisation process of music that took place during the first half of the twentieth century. The rendition contains no taksim, and because of the compatibility the scalelevel similarity brings about, the accordionist is able to harmonise the makam Rast melody through the basic chord functions of the major tonality (cf. Nettl, 1985: 37). In Titoist Yugoslavia, post-Second World War socialist cultural policies included state-sponsorship of the newly established institutions for traditional music and dance, which certainly accelerated the Westernisation, modernisation and standardisation of the repertoire: large folk ensembles performed written arrangements with chordal harmony and minimal improvisation.13 The mixture of folk and Western classical components was most evidently audible and visible in the performances of 13 Despite the 1948 Stalin-Tito break-up, the Soviet model of direct party control of cultural life continued till 1952 (Wachtel, 1998: 146-147).

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the professional state folklore ensembles, which were established in Serbia 1948, in Macedonia in1949 and in Croatia in 1964. Simultaneously, few Yugoslavian amateur groups had educated leaders, unlike in other socialist countries, where professionals of music and dance shaped folklore (Wachtel 1998: 130-134; Kurkela 1989: 104-108; Hofman 2011: 241242).14

Faking Taksims: Orientalism I will now study two introductions that purport to be taksims without being improvised. Both examples illustrate Orientalism in Bosnian music. Edward Said (1978: 2-3) defines Orientalism more generally as a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between "the Orient" and (most of the time) "the Occident". For Said, Orientalism is also ‘a Western style for dominating, reconstructing, and having authority over the Orient’. An Orientalist composition by a Western composer represents the Orient for Western audiences through certain musical devices, such as the interval of the augmented second and ornamentation (see Scott 1998: 309-313).15 The first example is the clarinet introduction of a well-known sevdalinka waltz recording from 1972. The taksim-like introduction is from the recording Voljelo se dvoje mladih–also known as Žute dunje– which the extremely popular sevdalinka singer Himzo Polovina (19271986) recorded with the folk music band of Ratomir Petkoviü for the LP Narodne pjesme iz Bosne i Hercegovine (Polovina 1972). The clarinettist was probably Drago Paradžik. The introduction uses the tone of g1 as the final which gives the impression of the tempered Hitzas scale–a relative of the Ottoman makam Hicâz Hümâyûn–typical of Balkan urban music (see Figure 2).16 Melodically, the tonal centres are g1, b1, d2 and g2–the notes of the G major triad–whereas Hitzas would emphasise g1 and c2. Other melodic features are the absence of Hitzas formulae and the untypically descending melodic 14

For details of the artistic treatment of folk music in socialist Yugoslavia, see Rasmussen, 2002: 20-29. 15 The idea of Orientalism seems obscure in Bosnian musicology; scholars have lacked theoretical models for understanding Orientalist representations, thus paying lip service to scholarship and critical analysis (see e.g. Hadžiü 2012: 3132). 16 I have chosen to use the transcribed Greek forms of Ottoman makam names for the nominally similar modes of Balkan popular music (see Pennanen 1997b: 129130).

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progression. The positions of the tonal centres and the restless repetition of short phrases around them imply that the introduction is tonal rather than modal. The soft tone colour and the occasional changes in the dynamics are further influences from Western classical tradition. Considerably often, the clarinettist undulates between g and ab in both octaves and the oscillation g1-ab1 intensifies into a tremolo.

Figure 2. The pitch movement of the taksim-like clarinet introduction of Voljelo se dvoje mladih from 1972 (Jugoton LPY-S-60957).

The solo clarinet section does not tell everything; however, as is apparent from the chordal cadence F#dim7-G7-Cm with the orchestra, the actual tonality of the introduction is C harmonic minor, the key of the vocal section. Such a practice of ending a section on the dominant chord is typical of sevdalinka harmonisations (cf. Kuba, 1901: 381). All things considered, the introduction sounds like an attempt of a Western classically trained musician to create an Oriental ambience through the augmented second ab1-b1, ornamentation and tempo rubato.17 In fact, it would not be a surprise if the rhapsodic introduction were precomposed. Possibly because of the references in the lyrics to Istanbul, this Orientalist fake taksim introduction is the sole one on the LP. Since the Orientalist features are superimposed on a Bosnian-Oriental traditional piece arranged and performed by Bosnian musicians, we could label this clarinet solo as a case of auto-Orientalism.18 Now I will shift my analytical focus to Bosnian Islamic popular music. Active since October 2005, Hor Gazel is a Sarajevo-based female choir specialising in Islamic popular music.19 The founder and leader of the 21piece choir is Izeta Avdiü, whilst Alma Tuzi acts as choirmaster. Avdiü 17

The clarinettists in Polovina’s recorded output are Spaso Berak, Drago Paradžik, Dragan Kuliš and Rajmund Likiü who all have their background in Western classical music (Nedžad Imamoviü, personal communication, 6th November 2012). 18 For a very different and controversial use of auto-Orientalism in the turbofolk popular style of Serbian origin, see Archer, 2012. 19 For Islamic popular music in Turkey, see Erol, 2011.

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wrote lyrics and melodies for all the songs for the choir’s 2008 CD Sad Te zovem Ja Rahman (Gazel, 2008). The CD contains an especially interesting song named Ramazan arranged by rock musician Zenan Šahinoviü. The lyrics describe the atmosphere and the religious traditions during the Ramazan month of fasting. The instrumental accompaniment–consisting of the keyboard, a synthesised rhythm section, the electric guitar and the electric bass–is by Šahinoviü and Hamza Ražnatoviü of the Bosnian rock band Macbeth (Sara Izeta, personal communication, 25th February 2013). The percussion and bass dominate the instrumentation; the rhythm sounds like a Europeanised form of the Cuban bolero which is relatively often used in Balkan Orientalist compositions in a popular vein (cf. Pennanen, 1997a: 70-72). The reason for the speciality of the recording is the apparently precomposed instrumental introduction, which occupies 17 seconds of the 4’27” total duration of the piece (see Figure 3). The introduction consists of a synthesised ney section, in which the keyboardist tries to imitate a taksim over a C minor drone. Apart from d1 and eb1, the ‘taksim’ utilises the tones of the G minor scale with a raised and natural leading tone. The section finishes on g1, although the song proper is in the C minor tonality. As in the previous example, this peculiarity may refer to the traditional sevdalinka harmonisation, which often ends a section on the dominant chord. The introduction serves as a distinct function, as through that very signifier the musicians strive to create Orientalist references to the Orient in a textually Islamic piece otherwise musically unmistakably Western. Thus, the ‘taksim’ is another example of auto-Orientalism, this time intending to merge the religious-cultural identity of practising Bosniak Muslims with the modern Westernised culture of Bosnia (cf. Gumpert 2007, 150-157).

Figure 3: The taksim-like introduction for the piece Ramazan (Hayat CD 128).

Improvised Taksims I will now turn to very different kinds of taksims from the 2003 CD Bosna, moja zemlja–Bosnia, Land of Mine (Jažiü, 2003) by Sarajevo musician, composer, arranger and producer Faruk Jažiü (1959-2011). The CD–the third volume in the series Bosnian Music Heritage–consists of

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instrumental pieces inspired by or at least linked in the CD booklet to poems by, among others, Mevlânâ Celâleddîn Rûmî (1207-1273)–the founder of the Mevlevî Sufi order–Bosnian Naqshbandi dervish sheikh Abdurrahman Sirri Baba (1785-1846/47), Heinrich Heine (1797-1856)20, Bosniak writer Safvet-beg Bašagiü (1870-1934), Jažiü himself and contemporary Sarajevo sheikh Midhat ýelebi, who, according to the sleeve text, acted as a consultant for the project. The sleeve notes mention the musicians Faruk Jažiü (guitar, the electric bass and apparently the frequent synthesiser parts), Elvidin Kriliü (accordion) and the Prague Symphony Orchestra (strings). The listing, however, is not complete since the players of the rim-blown flute ney and the frame drum bendir remain anonymous; possibly Faruk Jažiü sampled the instruments. Among the sponsors of the project are a Sarajevo chocolate factory, a Bosniak businessman living in Berlin and, most interestingly, the Sarajevo Cantonal Board of the Bosniak National SDA (Stranka Demokratske Akcije). According to Elissa Helms (2008: 88), ‘[t]he SDA and its allies in the religious establishment have dominated efforts to define Bosniac national identity, advocating a major political and cultural role for Islam in a population that includes large numbers of atheist, secularist, and nonpracticing "Muslims". Mirjana Lauševiü (1996: 123-131) sees a similar amalgam of national identity, religion and politics in the manner that the SDA utilised sevdalinke and religious ilahija songs in political campaigns in the early 1990s. Jažiü’s intentions in the CD Bosna, moja zemlja were certainly not purely artistic since he was an SDA activist, who worked as a German-based cultural attaché of the Bosnian Government between 1993 and 1996, and subsequently in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. The religious background of the recording project is visible in the acknowledgment: All gratitude belongs to the Almighty Allah dž.š. and to His last Messenger Mohammad s.a.v.s. In spite of that, the CD does not exclusively strive for the market of Islamic popular music: Apparently to maximise the amount of potential buyers, the booklet is bilingual in both Bosnian and English. The series Bosnian Music Heritage is certainly appealing for tourist customers. With two exceptions, the repertoire consists of Jažiü’s instrumental compositions and arrangements of traditional sevdalinka tunes without vocals. One of the sevdalinke is by Ismet Alajbegoviü-Šerbo. The second exception is the recording I will analyse here. The piece, Salavat, is the only track on the CD with an evident Sufi association: ney flutes, the 20

Heine’s presence in the booklet is due to his Orientalist poem Der Asra, which, translated and set anonymously, has become part of the sevdalinka canon. The name of the piece on the CD is Šadrvan.

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bendir and a vocal section. More properly, Salavat is Salât-Õ Ümmiye by Ottoman composer Buhurizade Mustafa Itrî (d. 1711/12), and it is an Arabic-language prayer in makam Segâh asking divine blessing for the Prophet Muhammad and his descendants. As the piece is traditionally well known in Bosnia, the sleeve notes do not credit Itrî for the composition; Salât-Õ Ümmiye forms a part of zikr trance rituals, which Bosnian dervishes perform at their lodges or tekije (Turk. tekke) (TaY/KPA 9734; TaY/KPA 9745).21

Figure 4. The formal and modal structure of Salavat. The guitar sections are an octave and the vocal section two octaves lower than notated. The semibreve symbolises the final, and the minim is the güçlü or melodic dominant.

Faruk Jažiü has certainly found inspiration for his rendition in easily available Turkish models; several recordings of Salât-Õ Ümmiye by Turkish Islamic pop musicians have become hits during the 2000s (cf. Erol 2011: 196-197). Stylistically, the meditative arrangement could be labelled as New Age or chill-out music. The arrangement supports the tranquil and mystical mood of the piece. The synthesised, low-voiced male choir, the bendir and the whispered blessing Bismillah (Ar. 'In the name of God') represent Sufism, as do the bird song effects, which apparently refer to the symbol of the nightingale frequently occurring in Sufi poetry. Some ilahija songs of the Sarajevo dervishes mention the nightingale (Bos. bulbul < Turk. bülbül) (Schimmel 1975: 287-343; Pennanen 1994: 55, Ex. 2). Other embedded effects aimed at creating a mystical atmosphere are the wind sound effects at the very beginning of the track and the beginning of the second ney taksim and the occasional cymbal sound. Itrî’s composition is sandwiched between a classic-style OttomanTurkish taksim section on the ney flute, its partial repetition and two 21 For Sufism and music in Sarajevo in the late 1980s, see Pennanen, 1993a, 1993b and 1994.

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Balkan popular-style taksims on the semi-acoustic guitar (see Figure 4). The recording begins with an almost exactly one-minute ney taksim in makam Segâh over a bB drone by another ney. Exploring the area around the finalis and the güçlü, the taksim contains several typical melodic formulae of the makam (cf. Pennanen 1997b: 147-148). The occurrence of c# in the taksim does not indicate a modulation to makam Müstear since the melody moves to it from d2 to which it returns. Therefore, c# is the raised leading note of the güçlü. The musician sounds like a competent Turkish ney player of the younger generation. The harmonisation, which appears in the end of the section, reveals that Faruk Jažiü utilises the Western notion of the correspondence of the final and tonic. Surprisingly, the tonic chord is B major rather than G major as used in harmonised Balkan makam Segâh-based melodies or B minor as the Western theory would suggest for the Segâh scale (see Pennanen 1997b: 135-139; 2008: 136-140). Furthermore, Jažiü utilises the cadence I-IIb-I, which is harmonically fit for the next section rather than for Segâh. The subsequent guitar taksim begins in Hitzas on b which is against the rules of Ottoman and even Balkan popular music. Apparently the arranger does not know the conventions of the makam systems, their modulations and their harmonisation. That said, the outcome does not sound artificial in the context; the various elements blend together easily. The guitar sections utilise a peculiar Hitzas harmonisation, which uses I and IIb chord degrees but not the important IV degree (cf. Pennanen 1997a: 106-108). However, the first subsection of the taksim begins from the fourth degree (güçlü) on IIb and gradually descends to the finalis, IIb substituting IV. Soon the section modulates to Hitzas on e, which is harmonised with E (I) and F (IIb) major chords. Melodically, Jažiü modulates by sliding to an indefinite pitch. In addition, the relationship between the B major and E major chords smooths the modulation between the Hitzas sections with different tonal centres. Jažiü modulates twice between the two forms of Hitzas. In the fourth and last subsection on E, he raises the leading note to d#1 and uses a blues bend to reach from d#1 towards e1. Consequently, the subsection is in Hitzaskar–the Balkan popular form of makam Hicazkâr. The one-minute guitar taksim ends on the E major chord, which leads to Itrî’s theme in Segâh on E on the synthesiser. The synthesised choir appears when the theme is repeated and sings the composition three times (see Figure 5). The melody differs slightly from those notated in printed sources. Rhythmically, Itrî’s piece is a darbeyn, a combination of several usuls, and the sequence is as follows: (a) 10/4 aksak semai evferi, (b) 13/4 nim evsat, (c) 10/4 aksak semai and (d) 10/4 aksak semai (Yi÷itbaú 1968: 123; Karadeniz 1984: 709).

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The second, 30-second transitional guitar taksim, partly over the bendir rhythm, begins in Hitzas on e but modulates soon to the low-register Hitzas on B through the B major change (see Figure 4). The leading note of both these scales is raised, although the upper structure does not refer to Hitzaskar. In contrast with the first guitar taksim, both subsections lack an emphasis on the güçlü. Lastly, the first 30 seconds of the introductory ney taksim already heard bring the piece to an end.

Figure 5. Salât-Õ Ümmiye by Buhurizade Mustafa Itrî as performed by Faruk Jažiü (Bosnaton CDBT 005).

Faruk Jažiü’s arrangement of Salavat is an example par excellence of re-orientalisation in Bosnian Islamic popular music. Even more interestingly Jažiü introduces elements of Sufi music into his rendition and combines them with purely secular guitar taksims. The ney taksim of Salavat is not unique in the recordings of Bosnian Islamic popular music; for instance, Turkish musician Türker Dinletir plays one to a rhythmic accompaniment in the piece Zvijezde tiho sedždu þine on the CD Tebe trebam (Šaban 2011) by Burhan Šaban, a hafiz and the most successful star of Bosnian Islamic popular music. Featuring Bosnian and Turkish musicians, it was was recorded in 2010 in Sarajevo and Istanbul. On the contrary, Šaban’s earlier version of the piece from the 1998 CD 3 Hafiza (Šaban 1998) with exclusively Bosnian musicians contains a synthesiser taksim. In addition, the tracks Nurija Muhammedija and Kasida from Šaban’s 2002 CD Draga moja Džemila (Šaban 2002) contain ney taksims. Residing in Sarajevo and Istanbul, Burhan Šaban is by birth a Macedonian Turk from Skopje which explains his preference for Turkish musicians.

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Re-Orientalisation in Bosnian Popular Music Since the early 2000s, Bosnian popular music and sevdalinka star Hanka Paldum has orientalised a considerable part of her repertoire and especially the style of its accompaniment. An early example is from her concert at the Zetra Olympic Hall in 2004 (Paldum, 2006).22 On the video recording, guitarist Nihad Rahiü plays an introductory taksim for the song Kani, suzo, izdajice (music Ibro Mangafiü; lyrics Jasmina Jovanoviü) on the Greek bouzouki. Because of its tuning–the intervallic relationships between the open courses are the same as between the four top strings of the guitar–the modern four-course bouzouki is a relatively common second instrument for Bosnian and other Balkan guitarists of certain popular styles. In addition, bouzouki taksims on the recordings of Greek popular music offer easily accessible models for Bosnian guitarists to create their own improvisations. A more recent example of Hanka Paldum’s re-orientalised style is on her 2007 concert DVD containing the piece Osman-paša, which is the Ottoman Osman Paúa MarúÕ also known as Plevne MarúÕ by Mehmet Ali Bey (Paldum, 2007). Here, Paldum sings the original Ottoman Turkish text of the march. In the middle of the performance, a male actor in a stylised Ottoman costume performs choreography possibly referring to the whirling dance of the Mevlevî dervishes and recites the last verse of the song in Ottoman Turkish. By contrast, on the 2008 studio CD Sevdah je ljubav (Paldum 2008), Paldum sings the Bosnian-language sevdalinka version Zaplakala Šeüer-Ĉula. In both versions, guitarist Vernes Ljuštaku performs a short introductory taksim on the modern Turkish amplified long-necked elektrosaz lute: on the DVD, the length of the taksim is eight seconds, whilst on the CD it lasts for 30 seconds.23 My last example comes from the Bosnian pop band Hari Mata Hari, which has been extremely successful in the former Yugoslavian countries. The video recording of their 2008 concert in Zagreb, Croatia, contains the Orientalist hit song Emina (music Hajrudin Varešanoviü; lyrics Faruk Buljubašiü) (Hari Mata Hari, 2008). Whilst the composition lacks practically any Orientalist devices, the song title Emine–an Islamic female name–associates itself with the famous Orientalist poem and sevdalinka song of the same name by Mostar poet and composer Aleksa Šantiü (18681924). The band performs the song with the female Bosniak Islamic popular music choir Arabeske of Zagreb which wears stylised Islamic 22

From 2010, the official name of the hall has been Olympic Hall Juan Antonio Samaranch. 23 For the elektrosaz, see Stokes 1992.

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robes and headscarves. The piece begins with melodies in a flowing rhythm simultaneously on the clarinet and the bouzouki, and these elements reappear sporadically in the course of the song. The choir, the musical characteristics and the goblet drum darbuka provide the performance with considerably more (auto-) Orientalist effects than the studio version of the song (see Hari Mata Hari, 1997). As is evident from comparing studio and concert recordings, taksims and fake taksims occur more frequently in live performances than on studio recordings. This tendency stems from the marketing strategy for achieving larger market coverage through an arrangement appealing to the average consumer. Concert performances, on the other hand, may contain taksim sections since their duration does not depend on the standard threeminute radio format.

Conclusion As we have seen, because of the rapid Westernisation in Bosnian music in the twentieth century, taksims all but disappeared from commercial recordings and, very likely to a lesser extent, from live performances. However, Orientalist imitations of taksims became relatively common on recordings. After the rebirth of Bosniak cultural and political nationalism in the 1980s, some forms of Bosnian music have experienced an accelerated process of re-Orientalisation, which has brought modal improvisations in flowing rhythm back into musical performance practice. Such a development in sevdalinka and popular music is connected with the Bosniak nationalist expression of a partly non-Western identity connected with Islamic cultures. One may be tempted to speculate whether taksims will appear still more frequently in live performances and on studio recordings–and whether Bosnian musicians will begin learning the Turkish performance practice through recordings or even at courses of Turkish music.

Acknowledgements I thank Maja Baraliü, Charles Howard, Damir Imamoviü, Nedim Imamoviü, Panagiotis Poulos and Derek Scott for help in completing the article.

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References Archer, R. 2012. Assessing turbofolk controversies: Popular music between the nation and the Balkans. Southeastern Europe 36(2), 178207. Beken, M. & Signell, K. 2006. Confirming, delaying, and deceptive elements in Turkish improvisations. In: MaqƗm traditions of Turkic peoples: ICTM Study Group ‘MaqƗm’. Proceedings of the 4th meeting. J. Elsner & G. Jähnichen, eds. Berlin: Trafo verlag. 197-208 Clayton, M. R. L. 1996. "Free rhythm: Ethnomusicology and the study of music without metre". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 59(2). 323-332. Erol, A. 2011. Understanding the diversity of Islamic identity in Turkey through popular music: The global/local nexus. Social Compass. International Review of Sociology of Religion 58(2), 187-202. Feldman, W. 1996. Music of the Ottoman court: makam, composition and the early Ottoman instrumental repertoire. Berlin: VWB. Gumpert, M. 2007. "'Everyway that I can': Auto-Orientalism at Eurovision 2003". In: A song for Europe: Popular music and politics in the Eurovision song contest. I. Raykoff & R. D. Tobin, eds.. Aldershot and Burlington, VT: Ashegate. 147-157. Hadžiü, F. 2012. "'Cvijeüe sa bosanskohercegovaþkih livada': nacionalni identitet i muzika u Bosni i Hercegovini u vrijeme austrougarske uprave (1878-1918)". In: Zbornik radova 7. meÿunarodnog simpozija "Muzika u društvu". J. Talam et al., eds.. Sarajevo: Muziþka akademija and Muzikološko društvo FBiH. 27-34. Helms, E. 2008. "East and west kiss: gender, Orientalism, and Balkanism in Muslim-majority Bosnia-Herzegovina". Slavic Review 67(1). 88119. Hofman, A. 2011. Questioning socialist folklorization: the Beltinci Folklore Festival in the Slovenian borderland of Prekmurje. In: Audiovisual media and identity issues in Southeastern Europe. E. Pistrick, N. Scaldaferri and G. Schwörer, eds. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 238-257 Karadeniz, E. 1984. Türk mûsikîsinin nazariye ve esaslarÕ. Ankara: Türkiye øú BankasÕ Kültür YayÕnlarÕ. Kuba, L. 1901. "Gesang und Musik". In: Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild. (Vol. 22): Bosnien und Herzegovina. Erzherzog Rudolf, ed. Vienna: Kaiserlich-königlich Hof- und Staatsdruckerei. 376-390.

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Kurkela, V. 1989. Musiikkifolklorismi ja järjestökulttuuri. Kansanmusiikin ideologinen ja taiteellinen hyödyntäminen suomalaisissa musiikki- ja nuorisojärjestöissä. Helsinki: Suomen Etnomusikologinen Seura. Lausevic, M. 1996. "The ilahiya as a symbol of Bosnian Muslim national identity". In: Retuning culture: musical changes in Central and Eastern Europe. M. Slobin, ed. Durham: Duke University Press. 117135. Miloševiü, V. 1983. "Melografija arapskih testova 'Suretun-nahl' i 'Salla'". Radovi. 73. Sarajevo: Akademija nauka i umjetnosti Bosne i Hercegovine. 57-70. Nettl, B. 1985. The Western impact on world music: change, adaptation, and survival. New York: Schirmer Books. Ong, W. J. 1982. Orality and literacy: the technologizing of the word. New York: Methuen. Pennanen, R. P. 1993a. "Sufism and music in Sarajevo. In The Middle East: unity and diversity". Papers from the Second Nordic Conference on Middle Eastern Studies. K. S. Vikør & H. Palva, eds. Copenhagen: NSMES. 146-152. —. 1993b. "The God-praising drums of Sarajevo". Asian Music 25(1-2), 1-7. —. 1994. "All-comprehending, united and divine: The myth of ilahija hymns in Sarajevo". World of Music 36(3), 49-67. —. 1997a. "The development of chordal harmony in Greek rebetika and laika music, 1930s to 1960s". Ethnomusicology Forum 6(1), 65-116. —. 1997b. Development, interpretation and change of dromos houzam in Greek rebetika music. In: Structure and idea of maqƗm: Historical approaches. Proceedings of the Third Conference of the ICTM MaqƗm Study Group. J. Elsner & R. P. Pennanen, eds. Tampere: Department of Folk Tradition. 125-174. —. 2007. "Immortalised on wax: professional folk musicians and their gramophone recordings made in Sarajevo, 1907 and 1908". In: Europe and its other: notes on the Balkans. B. Jezernik et al. eds.Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta. 107-148. —. 2008. "Lost in scales: Balkan folk music research and the Ottoman legacy". Muzikologija/Musicology 8, 127-147. Retrieved on 25 February 2013: http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/1450-9814/2008/ 1450-98140808127P.pdf —. 2009." Ottoman Music in Habsburg Bosnia-Herzegovina (18781918)". In: Collection of Papers: 6th International Symposium "Music in Society". J. Talam, ed. Sarajevo: Academy of Music in Sarajevo and Musicological Society of the FBiH. 81-91.

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—. 2010. "The Lindström labels in Habsburg Bosnia-Herzegovina: Some preliminary observations". In: The Lindström project: contributions to the history of the record industry – Beiträge zur Geschichte der Schallplattenindustrie. Vol. 2. P. Gronow & C. Hofer, eds. Vienna: Gesellschaft für historische Tonträger. 83-87. Rasmussen.Vidiü, Ljerka. 2002. Newly Composed Folk Music of Yugoslavia. New York & London: Routledge. Reinhard, K. & Reinhard, U. 1984. Musik der Türkei. Band 1: Kunstmusik. Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen’s Verlag. Said, E. 1978. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Schimmel, A. 1975. Mystical dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North Caroline Press. Scott, D. B. 1998. "Orientalism and musical style". The Musical Quarterly 82(2), 309-335. Signell, K. L. 1977. Makam: modal practice in Turkish art music. Washington: Asian Music Publications. Škaljiü, Abdulah. 1985. Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. Stokes, M. 1992. The media and reform: the saz and elektrosaz in urban Turkish folk music. British Journal of Ethnomusicology 1, 89-102. Üngör, E. 1966. Türk marúlarÕ. Ankara: Türk Kültürnü AraútÕrma Enstitüsü. Wachtel, A. B. 1998. Making a nation, breaking a nation: literature and cultural politics in Yugoslavia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Yi÷itbaú, M. S. 1968. Dil, din ve musiki. Istanbul: Matbaa Sanat Enstitüsü. Žero, M. 1995. Sevdah Bošnjaka: 430 sevdalinki notnim zapisom. Sarajevo: Ljiljan.

Newspapers Musavat (Sarajevo) Vakat (Sarajevo)

Compact Discs Gazel 2008. Sad Te zovem Ja Rahman. Sarajevo: Hayat CD 128 Jažiü, F. 2003. Bosna, moja zemlja – Bosnia, land of mine: Sufi and ethno music of Bosnia & Herzegovina. Bosnian Music Heritage Vol. 3. Sarajevo: Bosnaton CDBT 005.

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Hari Mata Hari. 1997. Ja nemam snage da te ne volim. Belgrade: HifiCentar CDD 10162. Paldum, H. 2008. Hanka Paldum & Ansambl Cultura Music: Sevdah je ljubav. Sarajevo: Hayat CD 145. Polovina, H. 1972. Narodne pjesme iz Bosne i Hercegovine. Zagreb: Jugoton LPY-S-60957. Šaban, B. 1998. Burhan Šaban. 3 Hafiza. Sarajevo: NIPP Ljiljan CDLJ001. —. 2002. Draga moja Džemila. Sarajevo. —. 2011. Tebe trebam. Sarajevo: Gramofon GCD4001.

DVDs Hari Mata Hari (2008). Zagreb 2008. Sarajevo: Hayat DVD 166. Paldum, H. (2006). Hanka Paldum i prijatelji. Snimak koncerta Hanke Paldum i prijatelja u sarajevskoj Zetri, 18. novembra 2004. godine. Belgrade: Hi-Fi-Centar DVD 03. Paldum, H. (2007). Sevdahom kroz vrijeme. Sarajevo: Hayat DVD 091.

Internet Veþer 2009. Veþer Kur’ana. Careva džamija: Sarajevo. 29.5.2009. god. Retrieved on 25 February 2013: http://bosnamuslimmedia.com/category/albumi/kuran/

Field Recordings TaY/KPA 9734 Zikr ritual of the Kadiri order at the Hadži-Sinanova tekija, Sarajevo, 4 February 1988. Recording by Risto Pekka Pennanen. Folklife Archives, University of Tampere. TaY/KPA 9745 Zikr ritual of the Mevlevî order at the Nadmlini tekija, Sarajevo, 19 February 1988. Recording by Risto Pekka Pennanen. Folklife Archives, University of Tampere.

THEORY OF OTTOMAN MUSIC OF THE MODERN PERIOD FIKRET KARAKAYA TURKEY

Introduction In the lifetimes of the greatest masters (of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), Turkish music was learned according to the meúk1 method. No notation was used by these masters to convey information to their students concerning pitches and makams. In fact, the information they passed on could fit into a small notebook. Musical education was instead based on practice. As can be understood from old theory books, the definitions of makams were extremely short and simple. For instance, the makam pesendîde, invented by Sultan Selim III, was defined thus: "you do niúâbûr, and end up on rast". The student did not learn the makams from these primitive definitions, but rather from the pieces his master assigned for memorization and practice. Learning the usûls took a long time. While teaching pieces with lyrics, the masters would teach usûl as well, and tell their students that "they had to wear out the knees of their pants beating the usûls". Because they learned which syllable of the lyrics fell on which beat of the usûl, the usûls prevented the student from forgetting the piece and served in a way as a substitute for notation. For the masters of the golden periods, the definitions of the makams provided a narrow framework, given that their basic forms were simple. For this reason, whatever the makam they were composing in, they gave great value to innovations within the body of the makam. Just as these innovations brought about change in the makam’s content, they sometimes also brought about the invention of new makams. Because composers did not use notation, pieces either were completely forgotten, or in one or two 1

Meúk is the educational system by which the student memorizes a piece section by section, listening to his teacher. The expression meúk etmek means for the student, "to take a lesson, to learn"; and for the teacher, "to give a lesson, to teach".

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generations would take on a completely different form. In short, within this living artistic environment, everything changed rapidly. It was nearly impossible to speak about composers’ personal styles. Teachers more or less put their personal stamp on every piece they taught. Even pieces from much earlier periods were adapted to the tastes of the period in which they were being taught and received their share of the elements unique to that period. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, this situation began to change. On one hand, wealthy collectors of sheet music spent fortunes having the pieces that were stored in the memories of living masters put to paper. Because most of the pieces were taken and notated one-by-one from a few source people, different versions appeared. Musicians, unaware that every version reflected one facet of the piece, sometimes got into heated debates, each claiming that the version in his own collection was "the true one". On the other hand, some musicians worked to merge the wealth of information in treatises on traditional theory with modern European music theory. Those with a European mentality gave great importance to the learning of notation and theory. The more traditional mentalities emphasized meúk over notation and theory. In 1916 especially, after the opening of the Conservatory, the esteem of the musical community for notation and theory increased. The first modern system, introduced by Rauf Yekta Bey, became known to a certain extent. During the Republican period, meúk gradually gave way to notation and theory. After the death of the last of the great masters who came up firmly within the meúk method, Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi, making certain small changes to the Rauf Yekta System, devised the Arel-Ezgi System. Because it had the advantage of being easy to teach, it gained acceptance in all the schools and music societies both formal and informal, large and small, which were rasising amateur and professional musicians. Now those drawn to music, instead of finding a master and learning the subtleties of his art, turned towards learning notation to the point where they could decode pieces that they did not know. They also took in the fundamental theoretical knowledge of makams and usûls. Those who wanted to compose based their work on the superficial knowledge gained from handbooks on makams, that is, without examining the masterworks–the true representatives of makam. Unfortunately, during the 1950s, these composers, detached from tradition and of very low artistic quality, began to hold sway in the radio and recording industries. Now, in the first decade of the twenty-first century, true Turkish makam music has had to settle for a very small share of publishing as well as radio and television broadcasting since it now has only a very small, if passionate, following.

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Traditional theory The first book in Turkish on musical theory, now housed in the Leiden, is the Kitâbü’l-Edvâr by the Azerbaijani composer and theoretician Abdülkadir Meragî (1360? – 1435). Earlier, Safiyüddin Abdülmü’min Urmevî (d. 1294), as well as Azerbaijani, had written a book in Arabic with the same title. Meragî’s book is really a commentary on Urmevî’s. Meragî also wrote a book in Persian which he called ùerhü’l-Kitâbü’lEdvâr. After Meragî, several authors wrote works that mentioned musical theory and were faithful to Urmevî’s thought in their basic principles, and gave them titles similar to Urmevî’s or Meragî’s works. In the old theory books written in Turkish, Arabic or Persian, explanations based on the mathematical and acoustic data of their period are presented alongside legends, old wives’ tales and astrological/astronomical fabrications. Pitches (perdes) and terkîbs, úubes, âvâzes, which we gather together today under the general term makam, were tied to the various movements of the zodiac, planets and the earth. What is more, the source of music was shown to be the sound made by the revolution of the heavenly bodies. Edvâr is an Arabic word meaning "revolutions", "circles", "cycles". The assignment of the title kitâbü’l-edvâr ("book of cycles") to the book derives from the fact that each of the makams and usûls are described as circular, cyclical. Up until the end of the nineteenth century, almost all theory books written in Turkish adhered to this tradition. It must be noted that over time, in Turkish, the term edvâr standing alone acquired the meaning "musical theory". Names such as HÕzÕr A÷a EdvârÕ, Kantemiro÷lu EdvârÕ took the place of the real titles of these theory books. During nearly six centuries following Safiyüddin Urmevî, even though some authors gave different names to some pitches, their theory books state that there are seventeen pitches in an octave and these pitches are obtained in the same way as had been explained by Urmevî. In his Kitâbü’l-Edvâr, Urmevî explains the sources of the pitches as follows: The octave, called zülkül is divided into seventeen unequal parts. That is, one octave contains eighteen pitches. These pitches are shown along a line that is thought to represent a string. This line is called the mutlak-Õ vitir. At the lower end of the mutlak-Õ vitir, the letter "A" is placed, at the upper end, the letter "M". The pitches along the mutlak-Õ vitir are explained with the help of the processes listed below: 1. The range from A-M is divided in two and the letters YH are placed at the middle point. This is the pitch nevâ; it is represented by the fraction 2/1.

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2. The range from A-M is divided into three and the first point after A is marked with YA. This point is the pitch dügâh; it is represented by the fraction 3/2. 3. The range from A-M is divided into four and the first point after A is marked with the letter H. This point is the pitch rast; it is represented by the fraction 4/3. 4. The range from H-M is divided into four, and the point after H is marked with the letters Yh. This is the pitch çârgâh; it is indicated by the fraction 16/9. 5. The range from A-M is divided into nine, and the point after A is marked with the letter D. This is the pitch hüseynî-‘âúîrân; it is represented by the fraction 9/8. 6. The range from D-M is divided into nine and the first point after D is marked with the letter Z. This is the pitch geveút; it is represented by the fraction 81/64. 7. The range from H-M is divided into eight and at the point 1/8 of the way from H to A is marked with the letter h. This is the pitch acem-aúîrân; it is represented by the fraction 32/27. 8. The range from h-M is divided into eight and the point 1/8 of the way from h to A is marked with the letter B. This is the pest bayâtî; it is represented by the fraction 256/243. 9. The range from B-M is divided into three and the first note after B is marked with the letters YB. This is the pitch kürdî; it is represented by the fraction 128/81. 10. The range from B-M is divided into four and the first point after B is marked with the letter T. This is the pitch úûrî; it is represented by the fraction 1024/729. 11. The range from T-M is divided into four and the first point after T is marked with the letters YV. This is the pitch sabâ; it is represented by the fraction 4096/2187. 12. The range from YV-M is divided into two, and the point halfway between YV-M in the direction of A is marked with the letter V. This is the pitch Õrak; it is represented by the fraction 8192/6561. 13. The range from V-M is divided into eight, and the point 1/8 of the way from V-M in the direction of A is marked with the letter C. This is the pitch pest hisar; it is represented by the fraction 65536/59049. 14. The range from C-M is divided into four and the first point after C is marked with the letter Y. This is the pitch zengûle; it is represented by the fraction 262144/177147.

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15. The range from Y-M is divided into four and the first point after Y is marked with the letters YZ. This is the pitch ‘uzzal; it is represented by the fraction 243/128. 16. The range from V-M is divided into four and the first point after V is marked with the letters YC. This is the pitch segâh; it is indicated by the fraction 32768/19683. 17. The range from D-M is divided into three and the first point after D is marked with the letters YD. This is the pitch bûselik; it is represented by the fraction 27/16. .

Modern theories a. The Rauf Yekta system Safiyüddin’s seventeen-pitch system was maintained until the time of Rauf Yekta Bey (1871–1935). Continuing from the work left by three Mevlevî shaykhs, Atâullah Dede (1842–1910), Celâleddin Dede (1849– 1907) and Hüseyin Fahreddin Dede (1854–1911), who had taken up music theory in a serious way again in the nineteenth century, Rauf Yekta Bey increased the number of pitches to twenty four. Rauf Yekta Bey was himself influenced by the Lebanese musicologist Mihail Meshakka (1800– 1888) and in assigning names to some of the new pitches, he adopted Meshakka’s method. For example, earlier there was only one pitch in between rast and dügâh zirgüle. In the same interval, Meshakka mentions three pitches, divided from one another by a fourth of a tone: nîm zirgüle, zirgüle and dik zirgüle. In Rauf Yekta Bey’s scale, the names of the pitches between rast and dügâh are the same. Rauf Yekta Bey took the addition of the adjectives nîm or dîk ("half" and "high") from Meshakka. The names used by the two authors for the pitches are shown below: Rauf Yekta Bey’s pitch names YEGÂH Nîm pest hisar2 Pest hisar Dik pest hisar Hüseynî-aúîrân3 2

Mihail Meshakka’s pitch names Yegâh Karar nîm hisar Karar hisar Karar dik hisar Aúîrân

Rauf Yekta Bey replaced Meshakka’s term karar with the meaningless word pest. This difference between the two writers, one Turkish and the other Lebanese, is insignificant.

Fikret Karakaya

Acem-aúîrân Dik acem-aúîrân Irak Geveút Dik geveút Rast Nîm zengûle Zengûle Dik zengûle Dügâh Kürdî Dik kürdî Segâh Buselik Dik buselik Çargâh Nîm hicaz Hicaz Dik hicaz Neva

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Karar nîm acem Karar acem Irak Geveút Dik geveút Rast Nîm zirgüle Zirgüle Dik zirgüle Dügâh Nîm kürdî Kürdî Segâh Buselik Dik buselik Çargâh Arba (nîm hicaz) Hicaz Dik hicaz Neva

In reality, the only idea that Rauf Yekta Bey did not take from Meshakka was the principle of the quarter tone. While Meshakka showed his twenty-four pitches as divided equally by quarter tones, Rauf Yekta Bey often emphasized that the intervals between the pitches in his system were not equal. During Rauf Yekta Bey’s lifetime, pitches in Turkish music such as Õrak, segâh, hicâz, and evc had raised considerably in comparison with the previous 250 to 300 years. However, in Iranian and Arab music no such changes had taken place in these pitches. If Meshakka’s pitches are conceived not as fixed, but rather as movable points-moving towards the direction of the melody (tending to move higher or lower), or raising and lowering according to their relation to the chief tones of the melody-then the system, based on "twenty-four quarter tones", could, to a degree, be accepted as compatible with Arab music. But because in Turkish music the raising of the four pitches mentioned above could not be explained, Rauf Yekta Bey was forced to make adjustments

3

In Turkish, the term aúîrân is used as an abbreviation of hüseynî-aúîrân.

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to the Meshakka system. That is to say, Rauf Yekta Bey’s system is an amended Meshakka system. In the comprehensive article he wrote for Lavignac’s encyclopedia and, later, in his theory book titled Türk Musikisi NazariyyâtÕ (Gavsiyye)of which only nine copies were ever published-he explained that in Turkish music, twenty-four pitches were used in an octave and that every makam had a scale consisting of the union of one tetrachord and one pentachord. In the Gavsiyye he proclaimed that this was the first time in our music history that this explanation had been expressed (Erev 1950: 6). In fact, Abdülkadir Meragî had mentioned tetrachords and pentachords much earlier. In Turkey, the use of Western notation became widespread after Giuseppe Donizetti, brother of the famous Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti, was brought in to direct the Muzika-i Hümâyûn, the Royal Military Band, in 1828. Classical Turkish works were written in a notation system with no special symbols that only reflected the Western tempered scale with simple flats and sharps. In the tempered system there is only one halftone between two main tones, while in Turkish music there are several semitones; therefore, it is not correct to use Western notations in Turkish music without noting any changes. Rauf Yekta Bey was of the opinion that Western notation could be used in Turkish music only after certain adaptations had been made. In order to be able to indicate the flats and sharps unique to Turkish music (but also the tonic and semitones), he took as his foundation the acemli rast scale, which he considered to be the fundamental scale4. Accordingly, the main pitches were yegâh, hüseynî-aúîrân, acem-aúîrân, rast, dügâh, segâh, çârgâh, nevâ, hüseynî, acem, gerdâniye, muhayyer, tiz segâh, tiz çârgâh and tiz nevâ. The evc and bûselik pitches were also semitone pitches. From this standpoint the only differences between the Rauf Yekta Bey System and the Arel-Ezgi System5 are that in the first, the segâh pitch is the tonic while in the second, the bûselik is the tonic.

4 The fundamental scale (ana dizi) used in almost all other old and new systems for the definition of the chief pitches and semitones is that of the makam acemli Rast. However, Arel and Ezgi used the scale of the makam Çargah, and Kemal ølerici used that of the makam Hüseyni as their fundamental scales. 5 The Arel-Ezgi Sistemi is identical in its basic structure to Rauf Yekta Bey’s system. This theory-used in Turkey for nearly sixty years-was devised by Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi. It will be discussed later in this chapter.

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Figure 1. Acemli Rast scale and Rauf Yekta Bey’s scale

According to Rauf Yekta Bey, one whole tone is not composed of four quarter tones, but rather of nine commas6. Of these nine small intervals, the first, fourth, fifth or eighth are used as semitones. This claim was later adopted by Hüseyin Arel and Subhi Ezgi. Rauf Yekta Bey called the 1comma interval fazla (F), the 4-comma interval bakîye (B), the 5-comma interval küçük mücenneb (mücenneb-i sagîr) (S) and the 8-comma interval büyük mücenneb (mücenneb-i kebîr) (K). He considered the Western sharp as 4-comma and the Western sharp as 5-comma, and also came up with symbols for three new flats (one-, four- and eight-comma) and three new sharps (one-, five- and eight-comma). These symbols were adopted by Arel and Ezgi, with some small changes. Supporters of traditional Turkish music, which especially after the Tanzimât7 period was scorned and ridiculed by some intellectuals, became enthusiastic in trying to express the makams and pitches by means of several mathematical and physical formulae, as if they thought this would suffice to silence their mockers. First Rauf Yekta Bey, and later Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi took on this effort as the greatest service to Turkish music. However, to do 6

The comma (Turkish, koma) is a small interval defined by Rauf Yekta Bey, Abdülkadir Tore, Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi as one of nine within the tanini interval (whole tone). The above-mentioned musicologists adopted the comma defined by the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras (c. 570–480 B.C.). Several other Western musicologists have made widely differing definitions of the comma. 7 The Tanzimat reforms were those initiated in 1839, which were undertaken with the goal of redesigning the political, social and economic structure of the Ottoman state along the lines of western nations.

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a chemical analysis of water that is believed to be medicinal and explain its content with certain scientific equations does not prove that the water actually is medicinal. In the case of Rauf Yekta, and Arel and Ezgi, the situation is exactly the opposite: The water truly is medicinal, but the chemical analysis is incorrect.

b. The Arel-Ezgi System One of the founders of the Arel-Ezgi System, which was considered valid in Turkey for nearly sixty years, was Hüseyin Sadettin Arel, who, in the famous debates between "alaturka-alafranga"8 supporters, fought with the "alaturka" camp. But Arel, like most of the "alaturka" supporters, was not against Western music; he was actually an admirer of counterpoint, harmony and polyphonic composition techniques such as the fügue. He was simply against abandoning traditional music entirely in favour of Western music. According to him, the makams and usûls of Turkish music, which were such a rich source, should be united with polyphony to create more developed music. But this polyphony, as it was practised by some Turkish composers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, was not obtained by harmony based on a Western tempered system, but rather by developing a harmony compatible with the tonal system of Turkish music. This new music that was to be created, contrary to the ideas of the "alafranga" camp, should be played not on Western instruments but on traditional Turkish instruments. Arel, who found such instruments insufficient for the performance of the music he composed, believed that they needed first to be improved and brought to a level where they could form a large orchestra. 8

During the second half of the nineteenth century, those who belittled the elements of traditional culture and elevated European culture characterized everything unique to Turkish thought and art as alaturka ("alla turca"). Proponents of this point of view were known as alafrangacÕlar. Those not wishing to break from the traditional lifestyle, in turn defined the elements of European culture with which the former wanted to replace the local culture as alafranga ("alla franca"). These traditionalists were known as alaturkacÕlar. The conflicts between these two camps continued, sometimes smouldering, sometimes flaring, into the early twentieth century as well. During the first years of the Republic, which was established in 1923, the Istanbul Municipal Conservatory’s Turkish music department was closed and the school was given over entirely to Western musical education. The ensuing explosive polemics went down in history as the "alaturkacÕlar-alafrangacÕlar debate".

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Thanks to this view, Arel hovered between the "alaturka" and "alafranga" camps. His road was the middle road. Naturally both camps found him in opposition to their ideas. The first camp accused Arel of not understanding Turkish music and corrupting it, while the second group did not add traditional instruments to the orchestra and would not use the socalled "quarter tones" or "comma tones" and were determined not to add a Turkish music department to the Ankara State Conservatory (the only state conservatory of that period). Trying to disseminate his views through his writings, conferences and conversations, until his death Arel along with his students continued the struggle to come up with concrete examples of his reforms. Today, nearly fifty years after his death, although the "alaturka" camp has managed to create a few state conservatories and ten "state choruses", they are quite far from realizing Arel’s reforms. The Arel-Ezgi System is explained in two books, one by Subhi Ezgi and the other by Hüseyin Sadettin Arel. Subhi Ezgi’s main work, titled Amelî ve Nazarî Türk Musikisi (Practical and Theoretical Turkish Music), was published between 1933 and 1953 in five volumes. Arel’s book is titled Türk Musikisi NazariyatÕ Dersleri (Lessons in Turkish Music Theory). This work, consisting of notes from lessons he gave from 1943 to 1948 at the østanbul Municipal Conservatory, was later published in instalments in the Advanced Turkish Music Conservatory’s publishing organ, Musiki MecmuasÕ. Remaining unpublished in book form for years, this work was duplicated for the first time in 1968 by the østanbul Municipal Conservatory. But this effort, considered Arel’s most important work, was not published until 1991. In the Arel-Ezgi System, in order to achieve unity with the symbols of Western music, the çârgâh scale was taken as the fundamental scale. (The çârgâh scale recognized by Arel and Ezgi is close to the Do major scale, considered the fundamental scale of Western music). In the Rauf Yekta System, in use during the time of the Dârülelhân9, the fundamental scale was that of the makam acemli rast.

9

The Darülelhan was the first official European-style music school, established in Istanbul in 1916, which provided education in both Turkish and Western music. During the Republican period it was renamed the "Istanbul Municipal Conservatory".

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Rauf Yekta Bey’s pitch names YEGÂH Nîm pest hisar Pest hisar Dik pest hisar Hüseynî-aúîrân Acem-aúîrân Dik acem-aúîrân Irak Geveút Dik geveút Rast Nîm zengûle Zengûle Dik zengûle Dügâh Kürdî Dik kürdî Segâh Buselik Dik buselik Çargâh Nîm hicaz Hicaz Dik hicaz Neva

H. Sadettin Arel’s pitch names YEGÂH Kaba nîm hisar Kaba hisar Kaba dik hisar Aúîrân Acem-aúîrân Dik acem-aúîrân Irak Geveút Dik geveút Rast Nîm zirgüle Zirgüle Dik zirgüle Dügâh Kürdî Dik kürdî Segâh Buselik Dik buselik Çargâh Nîm hicaz Hicaz Dik hicaz Neva

Suphi Ezgi’s pitch names YEGÂH Kaba nîm hisar Kaba hisar Kaba dik hisar Hüseynî-aúîrân Acem-aúîrân Dik acem-aúîrân Irak Geveút Dik geveút Rast Nîm zirgüle Zirgüle Dik zirgüle Dügâh Kürdî Dik kürdî Segâh Buselik Dik buselik Çargâh Nîm hicaz Hicaz Dik hicaz Neva

Like Rauf Yekta Bey, Arel and Ezgi often emphasized that the octave was divided into twenty-four unequal intervals and adopted the names he used (fazla, bakîye, küçük mücenneb, büyük mücenneb, tanini) with the same comma values. Stating that their fundamental approach did not depart from the traditional system laid down by Safiyüddin Urmevî, Arel and Ezgi claimed that the twenty-four interval system had been explained in Lâdikli Mehmed Çelebi’s Risâletü’l-fethiyye. Some present-day theoreticians claim that the system mentioned by Çelebi was a seventeeninterval one and that Arel and Ezgi misunderstood this. It could be said that the gap formed during the long years when Arel’s work remained

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unpublished was filled for a time by Subhi Ezgi’s publications. Because Arel was the director of Istanbul’s only conservatory and had published a great many of his notations in Musiki MecmuasÕ, notations written in the Arel-Ezgi system became widespread. The target of various criticisms while Arel was still alive, the Arel-Ezgi System was defended by such "Arelists" as YÕlmaz Öztuna, Ercüment Berker, Laika Karabey, Mustafa Cahit Atasoy, Refet Kayserilio÷lu, Cahit Öney and Burhan Uysal. Starting with the østanbul Municipal Conservatory’s Turkish music department, all the societies and associations training students based their education on the Arel-Ezgi System, and all involved with notation-either in the key signature or the text-used this system’s sharp and flat symbols. The abovementioned followers of Arel made an effort in 1975 to have a Turkish Music State Conservatory (TMDK) established in Istanbul. This conservatory espoused "the ideal of creating polyphonic music based on the Turkish makam and tonal system, and performed on Turkish instruments", a goal which Arel was unable to achieve in his lifetime. Later on, conservatories opening in Izmir and other cities committed themselves to the same ideal. The TDMK, with a history of a quarter of a century, has not shown any success worth mentioning toward realizing this ideal. The basic characteristics of the Arel-Ezgi system are its taking the scale of the makam çârgâh as its “fundamental scale”, giving names to twenty-four pitches in an octave and three classes of makams—basic, compound (mürekkeb) and transposed (úedd)—made of several pentachords and tetrachords. In the Arel-Ezgi System, six full tetrachords and six full fifths, created by adding one tanini (whole tone)10 to the former, are mentioned. The full tetrachords are: 1. Çârgâh (tanini + tanini + bakîye), 2. Bûselik (tanini + bakîye + tanini), 3. Kürdî (bakîye + tanini + tanini), 4. Rast (tanini + büyük mücenneb + küçük mücenneb), 5. Uúúak (büyük mücenneb + küçük mücenneb + tanini), 6. Hicâz (küçük mücenneb + artÕk ikili + küçük mücenneb)11. The full pentachords are: 1. Çârgâh, 2. Bûselik, 3. Kürdî, 4. Rast, 5. Hüseynî, 6. Hicâz. Combined in various ways, they form the thirteen basic makams.

10 In Turkish music, the full-second interval is known as tanini. The intervals D-E, F-G, A-B and C-D of the scale are tanini. Twentieth-century theoreticians consider the tanini equal to nine Pythagorean commas. 11 Like Rauf Yekta Bey, Arel and Ezgi considered the bakîye to be four commas, the küçük mücenneb five commas and the büyük mücenneb eight commas.

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Figure 2. Tetrachords

The basic makams are: 1. Çârgâh (çârgâh pentachord + çârgâh tetrachord), 2. Bûselik (bûselik pentachord + kürdî or hicâz tetrachord), 3. Kürdî (kürdî pentachord + bûselik tetrachord), 4. Rast (rast pentachord + rast or bûselik dörtlüsü), 5. Uúúak (uúúak tetrachord + bûselik pentachord), 6. Hüseynî (hüseynî pentachord + uúúak tetrachord), 7. Nevâ (uúúak tetrachord + rast pentachord), 8. KarcÕ÷ar (uúúak tetrachord + hicâz

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pentachord), 9. Sûzinâk (rast pentachord + hicâz tetrachord)12, 10. Hicâz (hicâz tetrachord + rast pentachord), 11. Hümâyûn (hicâz tetrachord + bûselik pentachord), 12. Uzzal (hicâz pentachord + uúúak tetrachord), 13. Zengûle or zirgüle (hicâz pentachord + hicâz tetrachord).

Figure 3. Pentachords 12

There is yet another sûzinâk that is formed with the addition of the hicaz tetrachord to the hicaz pentachord, called zirgüleli sûzinâk. The other is known as basit sûzinâk ("simple sûzinâk").

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Figure 4. 13 basic makams

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These last four basic makams make up the "hicâz family". In the ArelEzgi system, all the other makams are either considered transpositions (úedd)13 of these basic makams or compounds formed from them. For instance, the makams sûzidil, hicazkâr, evcârâ and úedd-i arabân are transpositions of the zengûle makam; nihâvend and sultânî-yegâh are transpositions of bûselik; mahûr and acem-aúîrân are transpositions of çârgâh.14 In order to identify some compound makams unexplainable in terms of the above-mentioned tetrachords and pentachords, they needed some different trichords (niúâbûr, segâh), tetrachords (segâh, hüzzam) and pentachords (nikrîz, pençgâh, ferâhnâk, hüzzam, segâh). Outside of usûls that they considered to be "simple usûls", such as nîm sofyan (in two), semâî (in three), and sofyan (in four), Arel and Ezgi identified all the rest of the usûls as comprised of various combinations of the basic usûls. In their view, for instance, the five-beat Türk aksa÷Õ usûl was created by adding one semâî to one nîm sofyan; the seven-beat devr-i hindî by adding one sofyan to one semâî; and the ten-beat aksak semâî by putting two Türk aksa÷Õ side by side. They called the usûls comprised of 1-15 beats "small usûls" and those consisting of 15-120 beats "great usûls". With the exception of a few (the 24-beat çenber, the 26-beat evsat, the 28-beat devr-i kebîr etc.), they saw all the great usûls as multiple derivatives of sofyan. However, Rauf Yekta Bey did not class usûls into "simple" and "compound". Whatever their time, he considered every usûl to be arrived at by a unique order of beats of varying lengths-like the syllable lengths in aruz15-each identified by a different syllable (düm, tek, te, ke- kâ, tâ and hek). However, in usûls considered multiple derivatives of sofyan or those considered to be arrived at by the stringing together of other simple usûls, the placement of the strong and weak counts is usually different from in the simple usûls seen (by Arel and Ezgi) to be their basic building blocks. This situation proves Arel’s and Ezgi’s approach to usûls is inappropriate. Thinking along the same lines as Rauf Yekta Bey, 13

ùedd makam is the name given by Arel and Ezgi to makams arrived at by changing the tonic of a simple makam’s scale. One of the most-debated aspects of the Arel-Ezgi System is its view of ùedd makams. 14 Arel made this remark to his opponents concerning whether or not there really was a çârgâh makam in the sense that he had defined it: "Mahur and acem-aúîrân are not the úedds of çârgâh". 15 Aruz is a metre system common to classical Turkish, Arabic and Persian poetry, based on the long and short nature of syllables. Just as in the usuls of music, there are aruz patterns which represent the long and short syllables in a variety of orders. In the same way that prosody requires, poems too, written in certain aruz patterns, are almost always composed in a particular usul compatible with its metre.

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Abdülkadir Töre and Ekrem Karadeniz (who will be discussed later in this chapter), recorded the great usûls without breaking them up. The basic criticisms directed towards Arel and Ezgi have been made by several famous performers who have suggested that the characteristic pitches of several makams (for instance, the B-flat in makams such as uúúak and hüseynî, the E flat in hüzzam and the D-flat in sabâ) are not correctly expressed: namely Ekrem Karadeniz, who names many more pitches than twenty-four in an octave and YalçÕn Tura16, who claims that the Arel-Ezgi System is not much different from the tempered system of Western music.

c. The Töre-Karadeniz System One of Arel and Ezgi’s oldest critics was composer theoretician Abdülkadir Töre (1873–1946), who was born in Xinjiang (East Turkestan). Later, Töre’s student Ekrem Karadeniz (1904–1981), in over nearly half a century of writings and speaking engagements, criticized Arel and Ezgi at every opportunity. He accused them of teaching a system incompatible with Turkish musical practice and having misunderstood the information they had taken from Abdülkadir Töre. Working from the notes left by his teacher, Ekrem Karadeniz completed his own work in 1965, which he titled Türk Musikisinin Nazariye ve EsaslarÕ. Only after Karadeniz’ death did his full work-the opening section of which was published as a supplement to Gültekin Oransay’s magazine Ba÷lama-go to press. In the Töre-Karadeniz System laid out in this voluminous work, there are six semitones in one tanini. As in the Arel-Ezgi System, the unit of division is the comma. One of the unique aspects of the Töre-Karadeniz System is that one comma is considered to be 200 cents, and therefore one tanini is 1800 cents. As this special cent-equal to one 1200th of an octave16 YalçÕn Tura (b. 1934, Istanbul) is known as much for his compositions and musicological works in the area of Turkish music as in Western polyphonic music. After graduating from the Galatasaray Lyceum, he received his education in the Literature Department of Istanbul University. He began taking violin and piano lessons during his childhood. Becoming interested in composition during his high school years, he studied counterpoint, fugue and composition with Cemal Reúit Rey. He wrote the soundtracks for several films for cinema and television, and the music for some ten plays. He began working as a member of the teaching staff at the Istanbul State Conservatory of Turkish Music, founded in 1976. Later he became President of the school’s musicology department and in 1997 was appointed Director of the conservatory, where he served until his retirement in 2001.

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was adopted because it expresses the Turkish intervals without the surplus points that arise when they are expressed with Western cents. The comma values of the small intervals within the tanini are as follows: koma = 1; irha = 1.5; sagir = 2.5; bakîye = 4; küçük mücennep = 5 and büyük mücennep = 8. In the Töre-Karadeniz System the fundamental scale, or “esas gam” is not the çârgâh, but rather the rast makam scale, as in the Rauf Yekta Bey System. Consequently, the natural si in Turkish music is not bûselik, but segâh. On the subject of makam, Töre and Karadeniz place much emphasis on the concept of seyir (course, movement, behaviour; see below, n. 19). In explaining the makams, they resort neither to concepts such as âvâze and terkip used by the old teachers, nor to the tetrachords and pentachords of the Arel-Ezgi System. In the Töre-Karadeniz System, there are two types of makam, simple and compound. Most of the makams contain two scales, one ascending and one descending. Between most of these pairs of scales, there is little difference beyond the sixth or seventh degree becoming flattened slightly during the descent. The scales of the basic makams have been reduced to six types, three of them descending and three of them ascending. These scales are comprised of whole and half tones as well as various strings of second intervals. Finding twenty-four intervals in an octave insufficient to explain the pitch system of Turkish music, Töre and Karadeniz raised this number to forty-one, and resorted to crude concepts such as whole and half tones to divide them into types. Actually, just as in the Arel-Ezgi System, there is no such thing as a "half tone". By not resorting to the division of these scale types into smaller groups of tones such as trichords, tetrachords and pentachords, the Töre-Karadeniz System avoids serious failings in its explanation of the simple makams; but when explaining the compound makams, the great convenience that these trichords, tetrachords and pentachords afford becomes obvious. On the subject of usûls there is an important difference between Töre and Karadeniz, on the one hand, and Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi, on the other. Töre and Karadeniz found Arel and Ezgi’s division of the great usûls into several basic usûls unfounded and defended the idea that, just like the small usûls, the great usûls were composed of different types of beats arranged in various ways. According to Töre and Karadeniz, there are five types of beats (darb) in Turkish music: düm, tek, tekâ, teke and tâhek.

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d. ùefik Gürmeriç-øsmail HakkÕ Özkan Theory ùefik Gürmeriç (1904–1967), a long-time instructor of theory at the østanbul Municipal Conservatory, and his student øsmail HakkÕ Özkan (b. 1941) made some small changes to the Arel-Ezgi theory in order to bring it in line with actual practice and thus made it easier for this theory to withstand the objections of performers that were steadily weakening the Arel-Ezgi System. Basically, the changes introduced by Gürmeriç and Özkan were limited to stating that: 1) in the makams used in the uúúak class, the B-flat of the characteristic second degree should be 1-2 commas lower; 2) the fourth degree (E-flat) in the makam hüzzam should be higher; and 3) the sixth degree (D-flat) of the makam bestenigâr should be higher than shown in the notation. Both Gürmeriç and Özkan worked to create a theoretical basis for the addition of a few new sharp and flat symbols to allow these subtleties to be expressed in written notation.

e. Yavuz Özüstün Theory Yavuz Özüstün (1931-2007) has served as an instructor at the Istanbul State Turkish Music Conservatory since 1976 and has made some of the most radical criticism at the Arel-Ezgi System. In his lesson notes, which unfortunately are as yet unpublished, he claims that this system is really a collection of principles and that by reducing the number of pitches to twenty-four, it impoverishes Turkish music. In Özüstün’s view, one cannot learn music based on theoretical knowledge; quite the contrary, one must first learn music and then theory, in the very same way that a child who has begun to learn a language learns grammar years later. In the beginning of Turkish music education, meúk methods should be devised that, through simple ilâhîs and úarkÕs, assure the acquisition of sound knowledge and impressions of makams, pitches and intervals.

The makams The tetrachords and pentachords resorted to by Rauf Yekta Bey and Hüseyin Sadettin Arel and Subhi Ezgi in order to explain the content of the makams show that these musicologists conceived of the makams chiefly as one-octave ranges of pitches. The scales of makams may consist of tetrachords and pentachords, but these are not the makams themselves because the makams do not arise from putting the notes in just any order, but, rather, from motifs within a clear order, in which some pitches stand

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out and some pitches are emphasized. This order is known as the seyir17. Pre-eminent or emphasized pitches sometimes slightly raise or lower the pitches of adjacent pitches. Thus, there is a close relationship between the concept of makam and micro-intervals. It must also be stated that in Turkish music makams extend not over one, but two octaves (every piece does not utilize the full two octaves. A piece with a range less than two octaves simply does not exploit the makam’s full range of possibilities). Thus, makams are not based on tetrachords and pentachords: that which we could call a "small makam" still consists of the coming together of fundamental elements that are still within the makam structure, and for which in this chapter we shall hereafter use the term cins (pl. cinsler) (