Mapping an empire: the geographical construction of British India, 1765-1843 0226184870, 9780226184876, 9780226184883, 0226184889

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MAPPING M A P P I N G AN A N EMPIRE EMPIRE

H. H.

MATTHEW M A T T H E W

EDNEY E D N E Y

M A P P I N G AN

Eoopme THE T HE

GEOGRAPHICAL G E O G R A P H I C A L CONSTRUCTION C O N S T R U C T I O N BRITISH B RITISH

INDIA, I N D I A ,

1 7 6 55- 118 8 443 3 17

The University of of Chicago Press Chicago and London

OF OF

professor of geography-anthropology geography-anthropology and American and Matthew H. Edney is associate professor New England England studies and faculty scholar in the Osher Osher Map Library and Smith Center Cartographic Education at the University of Southern Southern Maine. for Cartographic

University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University London The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1997 by The University of Chicago © 1990, 1990,1997 Chicago Published 1997 All rights reserved. Published Printed Printed in the United States of America

0605040302010099989712345 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 12 3 4 5 ISBN 0-226-18487-0 0-226-18487-0 (cloth) Library of of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Cataloging-in-Publication Data Edney, Matthew H. empire : the geographical geographical construction construction of of British Mapping an empire: India, 1765-1843 / Matthew H. Edney. p. p. cm. bibliographical references references (p. 409) and index. Includes bibliographical ISBN 0-226-18487-0 0-226-18487-0 (cloth: (cloth : alk. alk. paper). paper). ISBN Cartography—India—History. 2. East India Company-History. Company—History. 1. Cartography-India-History. I. Title. GA1131.E36 1997 912'.54-dc21 96-39703 912'.54—dc21 CIP @)The © The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American American National Standard Standard for Information Information Sciences-Permanence Sciences—Permanence of Paper Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

memory of In memory of John, Brian, and now Josh.

Who knows what other wonders they would would have given us?

CONTENTS CONTENTS

List of ix of illustrations Illustrations and Maps List of Tables xi Preface xiii Preface Note on East India Company xvii Company Coinage Places Mentioned Mentioned in the Text: Southern India and Northern India xviii Chronology Chronology of Events and the Expansion of the East India Company xx Company Chapter Chapter One

The Ideologies Ideologies and and Practices Practices of of Mapping Mapping The Imperialism and Imperialism

1

ONE: T H E ENLIGHTENMENT PART ONE: THE CONSTRUCTION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE

Chapter Two Two Chapter

Observation and Representation Observation Representation

Chapter Three Three Surveying Surveying and and Mapmaking Mapmaking Chapter

39 77

PART Two: T W O : INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND CARTOGRAPHIC ANARCHY Chapter Four Four Chapter Chapter Chapter Five

Structural Structural Constraints of the East India Administration Company's Administration

121

Cartographic Anarchy Anarchy and and System System in in Madras, Madras, Cartographic 1790-1810

165

PART THREE: THE T H E GREAT TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY AND CARTOGRAPHIC SYSTEM Chapter Six Chapter

Institutions for Mapping All of British India, 1814-23

199

Contents

viii vm Chapter Seven Triangulation, the Cartographic Panacea, 1825-32

236

Triangulation and and Chapter Eight The Final Compromise: Triangulation Archive, 1831-43

261 261

PART CARTOGRAPHY, SCIENCE, PART FOUR: FOUR: CARTOGRAPHY, SCIENCE, AND AND THE THE

REPRESENTATION OF OF EMPIRE EMPIRE REPRESENTATION

Scientific Practice: Incorporating Incorporating the Chapter Nine Scientific Rationality of Empire

Chapter Ten

Cartographic Practice: Inscribing an Imperial Space

Biographical Notes Notes Archival Sources and Bibliography Bibliography Unpublished Unpublished Primary Sources, by Archive Published Published Primary Sources Secondary Secondary Sources Relating to the British Surveys in India Principal Secondary Sources Index

293 319 341 349

409 411 411 419 425 437

ILLUSTRATIONS I L L U S T R A T I O N S AND A N D MAPS MAPS

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3

2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4

B. B. d' d'Anville, de Berar and Orissa on J.J. B. Anville, Carte de l'Inde I'Inde (1752) Hermann Hermann Moll, "The West Part of India, or the Empire of the Great Mogul" (1717) C. F. F. Delamarche, "Presqu'isle des Indes Indes orientales" (ca. 1790) Berar and Orissa on James Rennell, Hindoostan (1782) Title cartouche on James Rennell, Hindoostan (1782) The triangulation triangulation of India, 1800-43 Untitled sketch, plan, and section of a Javanese Untitled temple (1812) Samuel Davis, "[Landscape] Near Tacisudon" Tacisudon" (1783) Henry Walters, Sketch of funerary funerary monuments monuments and an iron-smelting bellows, Khasi Hills (1828) "View in the Kasya Hills" (1831) Henry Walters, Sketch maps of of John Jones and Henry caves, Khasi Hills (1827, 1828) (1827,1828) Herbert Herbert Edwardes, Caricature of of a surveyor surveyor in action (1845) Image of of aa statue statue of of the the bodhisatva Gomata Gomata Raja, Raja, Image Sravana Belagola, Mysore (1801) Alexander Alexander Boileau, Route survey in the northern northern plains (1829) Abstract Abstract schematic of James Rennell's methodology in determining the longitude of methodology of Cape Comorin Comorin (1788) (1788) Cape North-West India ... ," John Hodgson, "Atlas of North-West sheet 5 (1823)

66 7 10 12 12

14 20 56 56

59 70 71 71 73 75

80 93 93

101 103

x

3.55 3.66 3.77 3.88 3.99 3.10 10 4.11 4.22 5.11 5.22 5.33 6.11 6.22 6.33 8.11 9.11 9.22

illustrations Illustrations and Maps Colin Mackenzie, Triangulation Triangulation plan for Guntur District, n.d. 107 survey of Nagpur, sheet J. B. Norris, Plane table survey 21 (1821-31) 109 21(1821-31) William Brown, Village boundary boundary traverse, northern 111 northern plains, 1832 William Brown, Maps of a village boundary traverse, northern 112-13 northern plains, 1832 112-13 JopP, "Bombay John Jopp, "Bombay Presidency: Degree Sheets," 114 sheet sheet 12 (1831) Godfrey Vigne, Erection of Godfrey of a survey signal for 117 the Great Trigonometrical Trigonometrical Survey (1834) Thomas Hickey, portrait portrait of of Colin Mackenzie 154 (1816) William Havell, portrait portrait of William Lambton (1822) 156 Administrative structure of mapmaking Administrative mapmaking activities in the Madras presidency, 1800-1810 1800-1810 166 Colin Mackenzie, Index to the Mysore Survey 178 maps (1808) 180 John Warren, Map of Colar, Mysore (ca. 1802) Aaron Arrowsmith, Atlas Atlas of of South India, sheet 7 Aaron (1822) 225 of the Outline Aaron Arrowsmith, Sketch of Outline and 226-27 of India (1822) Principal Rivers of John Walker, Index to the Atlas Atlas of India (1825) 231 of the Calcutta James Prinsep, Measurement Measurement of baseline (1831) 263 of India in Persian G. Herklots, Untitled map of (1826) 315 of the Solar System System for Use in Schools Schools Sketch of (Lucknow, 1835) 317

TABLE S TABLES

2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 5.1 5.2 5.3 8.1

Categories of Data for Mackenzie's Survey of of Mysore, 1800-1807 Categories of Buchanan in Mysore, of Data for Buchanan 1800-1801 Categories of Data for Buchanan Buchanan in Bengal, 1807-14 Determination of the Longitude of Horsburgh's Determination of Bombay, 1803 Goldingham's Weighting of Longitude Observations -1816) for Madras Observations (1787 (1787-1816) Cartographic Cartographic Expenditures by the Madras Board of Revenue, 1794-1808 Savings in Survey Expenditures, Madras, 1810-12 Relative Savings in Survey Expenditures, Madras, 1810-12 Signatories to Prince Augustus's Petition to the Court Court of Directors, 1835

45 46 47 89 90 190 192 193 275

PREFACE PREFACE

II

t is difficult difficult to characterize this study succinctly. My intention intention has been to write a history of cartography, but subject matter means but my subject that I must necessarily address the history of science and the idestudy also has overtones which I hope will ology of British India. The study interest scholars in cultural studies and cultural history. In trying to broad an audience as possible, I have had to explain issues address as broad and events which which some of my readers will think are too obvious to be forbearance in advance. Any errors I have mentioned, so I must ask for forbearance made concerning concerning the history of the East India Company Company are entirely my own responsibility. own responsibility. My fundamental fundamental topic is the multilayered multilayered conflict conflict between between the desire implement the perfect and the ability to implement perfect panopticist panopticist survey, between what the British persistently persistently thought thought they had accomplished and the had accomplished hybrid cartographic image of India which they actually constructed, constructed, between the ideals and practices of knowledge creation in the later and between book is not a detailed explication of of all of the East Enlightenment. This book India Company's surveyors and of their work; that has already been accomplished by Reginald Phillimore in his monumental monumental Historical Reaccomplished cords of the Survey Survey of India (1945-58). This study study is chronologically chronologically cords framed by James Rennell's survey of Bengal (1765-71)-the (1765-71)—the first extenframed survey undertaken India—and by George Eversive survey undertaken by the British in India-and retirement from from his joint appointment as surveyor surveyor general of India est's retirement joint appointment superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Trigonometrical Survey in 1843, by and superintendent compromise between between cartographic ideals and practices which time a compromise had been been effected. effected. My My approach approach is is both both topical topical and and narrative. narrative. Parts Parts One One had and Two examine in detail my my protagonist protagonist and antagonist: the epistemologies and methodologies methodologies of of geography geography and and mapmaking in the eighmapmaking in the eighmologies and nineteenth centuries, on the the one hand, hand, and, on the teenth and early nineteenth other, the the East East India India Company's Company's institutional institutional structures structures which led to to other, which led what described as as "cartographic "cartographic anarchy." anarchy." Part Part Three Three what might might best best be be described comprises the the narrative of how how the the attempts attempts to create the survey to create the perfect perfect survey comprises narrative of of India India were out and and were eventually compromised. compromised. Part Part were eventually of were played played out

xiv XIV

Preface

Four is the topical resolution to the conflict conflict and explores the significance of the surveys to the British in terms of the representation representation and self-legitimation of their empire. self-legitimation punctuation of the I have taken the liberty of updating some of the punctuation original quotations in order order to clarify clarify them; the original meanings are preserved. I have also used some modem modern forms of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century terms; for example, for the plural of of "surveyor "surveyor gennineteenth-century "surveyor generals," as it is easier on the modem modern ear than eral" I use "surveyor contemporary plural of "surveyors general." the contemporary My primary primary source has been the East India Company's own archives, now held by the British Library's Oriental and India Office Office Collections. thorough because, prior prior to 1858, copies of of These archives are incredibly thorough all documents relating to even the smallest decisions made in India complained about the numwere sent to London. Even as the surveyors complained ber and the length of the reports and letters that they were required to write—and the time it took them to do so-they so—they created a wealth of write-and of information covering covering all all aspects aspects of of the the mapping mapping process. Only aa fracfracprocess. Only information tion is used here. I have not made use of the archives in India, which include the the Survey Survey of of India's India's archives archives (now (now in the National Archives of of in the National Archives include India in New Delhi), for the simple reason that for the time period of India in New Delhi), for the simple reason that for the time period of this study study they they duplicate duplicate the the material material in in London. London. Phillimore's Phillimore's Historical this Records cites very few relevant documents from the Survey Survey of of India's India's Records cites very few relevant documents from the archives which I did not also encounter in the Company's regular ararchives which I did not also encounter in the Company's regular archival series. series. chival Beyond the Company's own archives, I have used the personal collections of several British administrators and scientists in United United Kingdom depositories, notably the British Library (both manuscript manuscript and map deof partments) and the University University of Nottingham. Other institutions of great use are listed in the bibliography, to which should be added: the American Geographical Society Collection, Golda Meir Library, UniWisconsin—Milwaukee; National Register of Archives, Lonversity of Wisconsin-Milwaukee; Greenwich Observatory, Herstdon; New York Public Library; Royal Greenwich of monceaux (now moved to Cambridge); and the university libraries of University College College London, London, University University of of London, London, University of WisWisUniversity University of consin—Madison, State University of New York at Binghamton, and consin-Madison, University of of Southern Southern Maine. Maine. The The many many librarians, librarians, archivists, archivists, and and cucuUniversity rators who who have have helped helped me me have have my my heartfelt heartfelt thanks. thanks. rators Material support support has come from various sources, including the University of Wisconsin-Madison Wisconsin—Madison Graduate School, the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, and the College of Arts and Sciences of of University of Southern Southern Maine. The research itself itself was underwritten underwritten the University by the National Science Foundation Foundation under under Grant SES 88-01781. The U.S.

Preface

xv xv

Government has certain rights in this material; any opinions, findings, findings, Government and conclusions or recommendations recommendations expressed expressed in this material are mine and do not necessarily necessarily reflect reflect the views of of the National Science Foundation. must acknowledge a number of Beyond Beyond the archives and libraries, I must number of intellectual debts. David Woodward Woodward was first an excellent advisor and has since been an excellent friend. Brian Harley defined defined for me what what cartography should be; we still feel his death keenly, six the history of cartography years later. Robert Frykenberg of the University of Wisconsin History Department provided encouragement and made essential Department provided enthusiastic encouragement comments on the East India Company. For his immense help with the his generosity in sharing his extensive Company's records records and for his thoroughly indebted mapping of India, I am thoroughly knowledge of the British mapping Gordon Bleach deserves a great reward Andrew Cook. Gordon reward for helping to Andrew me with with art art history history concepts concepts and and for for numerous numerous enlightening enlightening discusdiscusme sions and explanations in cultural studies. Michael Armstrong, of Active Archives, Archives, London, London, the the staff staff of of the the History History of Cartography Cartography project project in in tive Madison, and and Jim Jim Smith Smith all all provided odd references references and and pieces from Madison, provided odd pieces from afar. Don Don Quaetert, Quaetert, Laura Laura Seltz, Seltz, and and Robert Robert Sweet Sweet all all read several porporread several afar. tions of of the the manuscript manuscript and and commented commented on on language, language, style, style, and and concontions tent. Chris Chris Bayly Bayly was most useful commentator. Too Too many many others others was aa most useful commentator. tent. have commented commented on on parts of this this work work at at various various times times to to be be listed listed here, here, parts of have but they they all all have my thanks. thanks. And, And, of of course, course, II am am especially especially grateful grateful to to but have my all of of my my family family and and friends friends who who have have tolerated tolerated me, me, distracted distracted me, me, all helped me, me, and and kept kept me me sane sane for for so so many many years. Special thanks thanks must must go go years. Special helped to Anne Anne Hedrich, Hedrich, Paul Paul Rogers, Rogers, Lon Lon Bulgrin, Bulgrin, Robert Robert Sweet, Sweet, Scott Scott SalSalto mon, Lewington, Christi Christi Mitchell, Mitchell, Ros Ros Woodward, Woodward, my my brother brother mon, Tim Tim Lewington, Philip, and and to to my my mother. mother. Philip,

N O T E ON O N EAST E A S T INDIA INDIA NOTE C O M P A N Y C O I N A GE COMPANY COINAGE

B B

efore 1818, the currency of account in Madras was the (gold) pagoda, subdivided subdivided into forty-two or forty-five forty-five (silver) fanams, fanams, separate with one fanam being eighty (copper) cash. Originally a separate of "35 pacoin, the fanam was still occasionally used so, as in the sum of godas and 378 fanam" (1807). The pagoda pagoda was replaced in 1818 by the official exchange rate was a hundred hundred pagodas to 350 (silver) rupee; the official sonat rupees. sanat Bombay and Bengal used the rupee; one rupee contained contained sixteen anna. Unless otherwise indicated, the rupees cited in the text are sonat sanat rupees. However, figures were on occasion given in sicca sicca rupees-that rupees—that freshly minted and unworn and therefore therefore of is, rupees which were freshly of sonat rupee was considered considered equivalent equivalent to higher exchange value. One sanat fifteen anna sicca. sicca. A A lakh lakh contained contained ten ten thousand thousand rupees. rupees. fifteen For the sake of comparison, I provide approximate sterling equivafive lents. Pagodas, being gold, are easily equated to seven shillings, five one-quarter pence (£0.372). The conversion of rupees, however, deand one-quarter upon the going rate in London for silver; the accepted range of pends upon of fluctuation in the early nineteenth century-"Coins, century—"Coins, Weights, this rate's fluctuation and Measures of British India," part one of Useful Tables, Tables .forming anApApforming an pendix to the Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, pendix Journal of the Asiatic Society (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834)—gives approximate conversion factors of one shilling, ten pence 1834)-gives sicca rupee. (£0.092) to a sonat rupee, or two shillings (£0.1) to a sicca pound sterling contained contained twenty shillings; one shilling conOne pound hard to define present-day present-day sterling equivatained twelve pence. It is hard commodity value in Douglas Jay's Sterling: lents. The index of sterling's commodity Pleafor for Moderation Moderation (London: (London:Sidgwick Sidgwick and and Jackson, Jackson, Its Use and Misuse: A Plea 1985), 273-79, indicates, for example, that the purchasing purchasing power power of the 1985),273-79, pound more than halved between 1780 and the inflationary inflationary peak of pound of suggests between 1780 and 1840 suggests 1813; the mean index for the period between would buy buy approximately the same as £3 in 1954 or £24 in that £1 then would 1983. In the text, sums are written written as complex numbers separated separated by slashes. Thus, "20/16" would be twenty pounds and sixteen shillings fanams. or twenty pagodas and sixteen fanams.

PLACES MENTIONED PLACES M E N T I O N E D IIN N THE T H E TEXT T E X T :: SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN S O U T H E R N IINDIA NDIA A ND N O R T H E R N INDIA INDIA Hyderabad.

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BHONSLE Maratha BHONSLE Maratha rajas rajas at at height height of of rule. rule, ca.1800 ca.1800 BARAMAHAL British British districts. districts, not named after after their BARAMAHAl not named their principal town town principal

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Bengal, Awadh; latic

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Robert Clive

Cameron

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Cassini Surveys Surveys (France) Cassini

John Call

Second Mysore

Fourth Mysore Second Maratha

Revolutionary and Napoleonic

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BRITISH AND MD1AN WARS

Mark Wood Charles Reynolds

^ e g 5 d e r Robert Hyde Colebrooke

if Colin. NJtedkenzie I

I tambton,,

I William

Ordnance Survey (Ireland*

George Everest

James D. Herbert

Madras Military Institution

Jervis: Konkan

William Lambton: General Survey ' Gireat Trigonometric]jal Survey Nagpur Mysore Ceded Districts ^ Colin Mackenzie Herbfert: Himalayas

Ordnance Survey (England and Wales)

\KEY TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS IN INDIA AND EUROPE]

Burrow's Ard (Bengal)

Bourgeois Revolutions

GovernonGenerals of India Lord Auckland, Hardlnge i Lord Lord Ellenlporough Dalhousie

Punjab

1st 2d Afgahnistan - . Qpium Sikh Sikh tar (1st)

Lord ^ Wm. ^ ^

VICTORIA

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Andrew Scott Wangh

fohn Surveyor Generals of India ^larstin Charles Andrew Colin Valentine George Everest Scott Waugh Crawford Mackenzie i Bkdbsr j Monier ^John A / Henry Williams Walpole Hodgson

SURVEYOR GENERALS IN IN0IA

Greenwiq h-Paris Connection

Thomas Barnard Madras Jagir

Burma

^ Lord ^

Mysore Mysore Kumaon western and Assam; Delhi; Orissa 1st Partition northern Arracan; 2d Partitidn Carnatic Uppeij Provinces; "ceded districts"

1790-180$

1830

GEORGE iv WILLIAM

1820

Gurkha Third Maratha

BRITISH TERRITORIAL GROWTH IN INDIA

American Revolution

Jambs Rennell (Bengal)

1. -

Regency

1810

PRINCIPAL ADMINISTRATORS IN INDIA

1800

Governor] Generals of Ft. William Lord Lord Sir John iLordHastings rt*u « * * , « Comwaflis i Shore 4 ^ Minto William A. Clarke Cornwallis Sir Gj. H. Barlow John Macpherson Meadows

Warren Hastings

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Northern Circars

to 1789

1790

GEORGE m

1780

Superintendents of the Gr^eat Trigonometrical Surveyl of India

Madras Madras

Bombay Bombay

Bengal Bengal

I John (tartier

First Mysord

24 Parganas Bepgal; Bihar; Madras jagir

Alexander Dawson

Administrators of Ft. William Henry Harry \ferelst i • I I \ Vansittart

GEORGE II

1750

CHAPTER C H A P T E R ONE ONE

The The Ideologies Ideologies and and Practices Practices of Imperialism of Mapping Mapping and and Imperialism

The activities of the East India Company Company in sponsorsponsorapproach to the ing science are an obvious point of approach whole ideology of British rule. The Great TrigonometTrigonometrical Survey of India shows the workings of British policy better than still another study study of of Macaulay's education minute. education Susan Faye Cannon, 1978 Susan

II

mperialism mperialism and mapmaking mapmaking intersect intersect in the most basic manner. fundamentally concerned concerned with territory and knowledge. Both are fundamentally subject of Jorge Luis Borges' famous famous Their relationship was the subject fantasy of of an empire so addicted addicted to cartography cartography that its geographers geographers fantasy constructed an "unconscionable" map at the same size as the empire constructed point.!1 This satire is rooted in an imitself, coinciding with it point by point. portant realization: knowledge of the territory is is determined determined by geoportant representations and most especially by the map. Geography Geography graphic representations intimately and thoroughly thoroughly interwoven. "In order and empire are thus intimately to set boundaries boundaries to their empire and to claim to have reached reached those that were marked marked out," Claude Nicolet writes of the Romans, they "needed a certain perception perception of geographical space, of its dimensions dimensions "needed "the and of the area they occupied." More generally, Nicolet argues, "the ineluctable necessities necessities of of conquest conquest and and government government are are to understand ineluctable to understand (or to to believe believe that that one understands) understands) the physical space that one occupies or or that one hopes hopes to to dominate, dominate, to to overcome overcome the the obstacle obstacle of of distance distance pies that one and to establish regular contact with the peoples peoples and and their territories and to establish regular contact with the their territories (by enumerating enumerating the the former former and and by by measuring measuring the the dimensions, dimensions, the the sursur(by faces and and the capacities of of the latter)." 2 To To govern govern territories, one must must the capacities the latter)."2 territories, one faces know them. know them.

2 2

Mapping and Imperialism

In the case of the British conquest hundred years conquest of South Asia in the hundred after after 1750, military and civilian officials officials of of the East India Company Company undertook a massive intellectual campaign campaign to transform transform a land of incomof prehensible spectacle into an empire of knowledge. At the forefront forefront of campaign were the geographers who mapped this campaign mapped the landscapes and studied the inhabitants, who collected geological and botanical specistudied mens, mens, and who who recorded recorded details of economy, society, and culture. More fundamentally than even Susan Cannon Cannon recognized, the geographers geographers fundamentally created and and defined defined the spatial image of the Company's empire. empire. The The created the spatial image of the Company's itself, to give it territorial integrity and maps came to define the empire maps came to define the empire itself, to give it territorial integrity and its basic existence. The empire exists because it can be mapped; the its basic existence. The empire exists because it can be mapped; the 3 meaning of empire is inscribed into each map. meaning of empire is inscribed into each map.3 Imperial British India was far more dependent dependent on maps than early imperial Rome had had ever been. The steady expansion expansion of map literacy in Europe since 1450-driven 1450—driven by new print print technologies, protocapitalist protocapitalist culture—meant that by the eighteenth eighteenth cenhumanist culture-meant consumption, and humanist tury the map had dominant vehad become, and has since remained, the dominant hicle hicle for conveying geographical conceptions. The intellectual process geographical conceptions, of creating, communicating, and accepting geographical whether at an individual individual or sociocultural level, is thus often often referred referred to whether as "mapping." "mapping." It It is is aa process in the world depends depends as process which which in the modern modern world heavily production of maps, which mapmaking heavily on the the actual production which is to say mapmaking Just as, as, in in Samuel Samuel Johnson's Johnson's phrase phrase of of 1750, 1750, "when "when aa book is once once per se. Just book is in the hands of of the the public, it is is considered considered as permanent and unalterin the hands public, it as permanent and unalterable; and and the the reader accommodates his mind to to the author's dedereader .. .. .. accommodates his mind the author's able; sign," so so maps maps shape shape and and manipulate manipulate mental geographical images. images. 44 The The sign," mental geographical mapmaking process process and and the the resulting maps are are in in turn turn dependent dependent on on mapmaking resulting maps aculturated conceptions conceptions of of space. space. As As with with any any other other form form of of represenrepresenaculturated tation—graphic or or ephemeral-meaning ephemeral—meaning is is inintation-graphic or textual, textual, artifactual artifactual or vested in in all all aspects aspects of of cartography: cartography: in in the instrumentation and and techtechvested the instrumentation nologies wielded by the geographer; geographer; in in the social relations within by the the social relations within nologies wielded which are made made and and used; used; and, and, in in the cultural expectations expectations which which which maps maps are the cultural define, and and which which are are defined defined by, by, the the map image.s5 map image. define, This study of the surveys and maps which the British made in and of of South Asia during the first hundred hundred years of their ascendancy ascendancy is accordingly a study study of the British conceptions of what India should be. It is a study of of how the British represented represented their India. I say "their "their India" bemapped the India that cause they did not map the "real" India. They mapped they perceived perceived and that they governed. To the extent that many aspects remained beyond beyond British experience of India's societies and cultures remained negotiated with the British, and to the extent that Indians resisted and negotiated India could never never be be entirely and perfectly perfectly known. The British de-

Mapping and Imperialism

3

luded luded themselves that their science enabled them to know the "real" India. But what what they did map, what they did create, was a British Wrapped in a scientistic ideology, each survey and geographical geographical India. Wrapped investigation was was thoroughly thoroughly implicated implicated in in the the ideology ideology of of the the British British investigation empire in in South South Asia. Asia. empire A Spatial History of "India" to 1780 The creation of of British India required the prior acceptance by the British signifying a specific region of the earth's surface. Changes Changes of "India" as signifying in the European European involvement involvement with Asia during the seventeenth seventeenth and eighteenth centuries produced produced important important changes in geographical geographical coneighteenth ceptions, which were in turn more broadly broadly accommodated accommodated and disseminated through cartographic representations. The issue here is that seminated unless aa region region is is first first conceived conceived of of and and named, named, it it cannot cannot become the unless become the specific subject subject of of aa map. map. Conversely, Conversely, aa mapped mapped region region gains gains promipromispecific nence in in the the public public eye. eye. For For example, example, there there could could be no maps maps of of "South"Southnence be no east Asia" until the Second World War, when the several colonial east Asia" until the Second World War, when the several colonial spheres of of interest interest were were replaced replaced by single theater theater of of war; war; the the distridistrispheres by aa single bution of maps of that theater subsequently led to the general accepbution of maps of that theater subsequently led to the general acceptance of of Southeast Southeast Asia Asia as as aa region region sufficiently sufficiently coherent coherent and and meaningful meaningful tance to warrant warrant its its own own academic academic discipline. discipline.66 For For South South Asia, Asia, changing changing ecoecoto nomic and and political political activities activities led led to to new new geographical geographical conceptions conceptions nomic which, by the later later eighteenth eighteenth century, century, had had developed developed into into an an image image of of which, by the India that that coincided coincided with with the the territory territory of of the the subcontinent subcontinent and and which which India was given given meaning meaning by by the the commercial commercial and and imperial imperial ambitions ambitions of of the the was British. British. In the fifteenth fifteenth and sixteenth sixteenth centuries, Europeans conceived of Asia as an ill-defined ill-defined series of exotic and fabulously fabulously wealthy countries. There was Cathay (China), Cipangu Cipangu (Japan), and "the Indies." The conception of the Indies derived derived from Hellenistic Antiquity. It origiconception nally signified signified all the lands east of the Indus, the traditional eastward eastward of the Hellenistic world. The Hellenistic image of the Indies was limit of adapted by Renaissance Europe from the geographies of of Ptolemy Ptolemy and and adapted by Renaissance Europe from the geographies Strabo and, and, although although the the Ptolemaic Ptolemaic map map was was quickly quickly supplanted supplanted by by Strabo new maps maps constructed constructed by Portuguese navigators, navigators, the the Hellenistic Hellenistic nononew by Portuguese menclature survived. survived. India India intra intra gangem—the Indies this this side side of of (within) (within) menclature gangem-the Indies the Ganges-comprised Ganges—comprised all all the the lands lands lying lying between the Indus Indus and and the the the between the mouth of of the the Ganges Ganges and and included included the peninsula, which which Ptolemy Ptolemy seems seems mouth the peninsula, to have have transformed transformed into into Taprobana, Taprobana, the the oversized oversized Sri Sri Lanka. Lanka. India India extra extra to gangem—the Indies beyond beyond (outside (outside of) of) the the Ganges-comprised Ganges—comprised all all the the gangem-the Indies lands further further west, west, specifically specifically Indochina Indochina and and modern modern Indonesia. Indonesia. Some Some lands

44

Mapping and Imperialism

and Renaissance geographers carried the name to its logical extension and called China "India "India superior." superior/' Christopher Christopher Columbus's conviction that indeed reached the Indies in 1492 resulted in the name being he had indeed transplanted to the New World. The Indies henceforth henceforth became the East transplanted sought to comIndies, or East India. Thus, the London merchants who sought pete with with the the Portuguese Portuguese in in the the spice spice trade, trade, and and for for which which they they received received pete monopoly charter charter from from Elizabeth Elizabeth II in in 1600, 1600, soon soon acquired acquired the the popular popular aa monopoly name of of the the "East "East India India Company." Company." name The initial plan of the English merchants was to establish trading cenIndonesia in order to control the supply supply of spices. ters in what is now Indonesia but were evicted by their Dutch coreligionists in 1623. The They did so, but English resorted to trading across the whole width of the Indian Ocean, from Arabia and East Africa peninsula and further further east to Africa to the Malay peninsula from southern China. They established several trading centers, known as as southern China. They established several trading centers, known "factories," of which three on the coast of the subcontinent subcontinent were dominant by by 1700: 1700: Madras Madras (Fort (Fort St. St. George), George), Bombay, Bombay, and and Calcutta Calcutta (Fort (Fort WilWilnant liam). The East India Company appointed a council of traders at each liam). The East India Company appointed a council of traders at each of these these factories factories to to manage manage the the Company's Company's affairs affairs in in each each portion portion of of of the subcontinent. subcontinent. Each Each small small bureaucracy bureaucracy was was known known as as aa "presidency" "presidency" the because its governing governing council council was was headed headed by by aa president; president; this this name name because its continued to to be be used used even even when when the the three three small small administrations administrations were were continued transformed into into major major territorial territorial governments. governments. transformed functionally distinct during the initial The three presidencies were functionally involvement in South Asia, that is, before before the midperiod of English involvement eighteenth century. Administratively, none were responsible for the others. More More often often than than not, not, they they competed competed rather rather than than cooperated cooperated with with others. presidency was Madras. Bombay and Calcutta each other. The principal presidency gave access access to to the the markets markets and and produce produce of of the the great great Mughal Mughal empire, empire, gave dominated the north of the subcontinent, but the empire also which dominated regulated the the English English traders. traders. Madras, Madras, on on the the other other hand, hand, lay lay on on the the regulated southern fringes fringes of of Mughal Mughal power power so so that English there enjoyed that the the English there enjoyed southern much greater greater economic economic flexibility. flexibility. Located Located at at the the center center of of the the Indian Indian much Ocean trade trade routes, routes, and and set set up up as as an an early early version version of of aa free-trade free-trade zone, zone, Ocean Madras flourished. flourished. The The French French Compagnie Compagnie des des Indes Indes sought sought to to emulate emulate Madras the English English success success when when it it established established its its own own factory factory at at Pondicherry, Pondicherry, the just to the the south south of of Madras. Madras. just to European maps accordingly framed framed the subcontinent subcontinent in three distinct European maps ways in this early period. Beginning in the early 1500s, general maps showed the traditional region of the Indies, from the Indus to Indosubcontinent was, of course, a prominent prominent feature of these china. The subcontinent maps, but it was not their focus. Later in the sixteenth century, Europeans began began to to produce maps that that framed framed only only the the peninsula peninsula south south of produce maps of ans the river river Krishna, Krishna, the the area area of of their their principal principal involvement. involvement. The The third third the

Mapping and Imperialism

55

framing developed developed in the early seventeenth seventeenth century and focussed focussed on framing emphasized the seat of the polity of the Mughal empire. These maps emphasized of power in the northern plains. They also included included the Mughal Mughal power of the Indus: the Punjab, the Hindu Hindu Kush, and on occaterritories west of sion Afghanistan. Afghanistan. They They omitted omitted the the peninsula? peninsula. 7 sion framings began to merge in the eighteenth eighteenth century. In part, The three framings manifestation of the Enlightenment's encyclopedic menthis was a manifestation produced massive tomes intended intended to present present all available tality, which produced knowledge to their bourgeois readership in a systematic manner. Geographical encyclopedias took the form of huge multivolume texts, which contained contained many small maps, maps, as as well as huge huge multisheet multisheet cartocartomany small well as which graphic extravaganzas. extravaganzas. These These maps maps were constructed at at such such large large were constructed graphic cartographer could simply physically so big, big, that the cartographer scales, and were physically copy data data directly directly from from survey survey maps into the the expansive expansive graticule graticule of maps into of copy latitude and and longitude; longitude; he have to to omit omit any any data data to to ensure ensure he would would not not have latitude the new new map's map's legibility.8 legibility.8 the prominent French cartographer cartographer J. B. B. d' d'Anville published the Anville published The prominent 1752. He constructed constructed his Carte de de I'Inde in in first such map of the Indies in 1752. 1.1). It It comprised comprised alfour sheets at a scale of about 11:3,000,000 :3,000,000 (figure 1.1). most one square meter of paper, too large to be reproduced reproduced here in its entirety. It was framed like all other maps of the Indies, extending from from entirety. It was framed like all other maps of the Indies, extending the Indus to the China Sea, with the subcontinent subcontinent on the left left and and Indochina on on the the right. It was was not not much smaller in in scale scale than than maps of the the right. It much smaller maps of china two regional framings, and d'Anville copied data from them directly two regional framings, and d' Anvill~ copied data from them directly into the the larger larger frame. frame. The The quality quality of of d' d'Anville's sources was was variable. variable. Anville's sources into As the the region region of of most most European European activity, activity, the the peninsula peninsula was shown in in As was shown greatest detail; detail; d' d'Anville the same same sources sources to to construct construct aa somesomegreatest Anville used used the what larger-scale larger-scale map map just of the the Camatic, Carnatic, which was published in what just of which was published in 1753. For For the the rest rest of of the the Indies, Indies, d' d'Anville's data was so sparse sparse that that the the 1753. Anville's data was so map was was dominated dominated by by substantial substantial areas areas of of white white space. space. D' D'Anville himmap Anville himself acknowledged acknowledged that that he this map map with with such such he would would never never have have made made this self sparse data data had not the the Compagnie Compagnie des des Indes Indes specifically specifically commiscommissparse had not sioned him him to to do do so; so; nor nor was was he reluctant to to express express his his dissatisfaction dissatisfaction he reluctant sioned with the the map map once once it it had had been published. 99 with been published. More significantly of significantly for the idea of India, the southward southward expansion expansion of under Aurungzeb (reigned 1658-1707) 1658-1707) in the later sevpower under Mughal power enteenth century century led to the merging of the two regional framings framings in the enteenth eighteenth century. As the empire now encompassed encompassed all but but the early eighteenth southernmost tip of the subcontinent, in name at least, European European ca.rcarsouthernmost extended their maps of the empire to incorporate incorporate the pentographers extended Hermann Moll's "The West Part of India, or the Empire of the insula. Hermann (1717) is just one of several maps which equated equated the subGreat Mogul" (1717) continent (the (the west west part part of of the the Indies) Indies) with with the the empire empire (figure (figure 1.2). 1.2). The The continent

Figure 1.1 1.1 Jean Jean Baptiste Baptiste Bourguinon Bourguinon d' d'Anville, Carte de de Vlnde dressee pour pour lalaCompagnie Compagniedes desIndes Indes (Paris, (Paris, 1752). 1752).Detail Detail of of Berar Berar and and Orissa. Orissa. Figure Anville, Carte I'Inde dressee Copper-engraving. Copper-engraving. D'Anville used only only information derived from so his his data data for for northern sparse; he he did, did, however, however, borrow borrow D' Anville used information derived from reputable reputable sources, sources, so northern India India were were sparse; from other maps the fictitious Ganga river, shown here here passing the "great "great extent extent of of country country of of which which there is no no particular particular maps the fictitious Ganga river, shown passing through through the there is from other knowledge/' (The Smith Smith Collection, Collection, Osher Osher Map of Southern Southern Maine.) Maine.) knowledge." (The Map Library, Library, University University of

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Figure 1.2 Hermann Moll, "The West Part of India, or the Empire of the Great Mogul," Mogul/ 7 Atlas Geographicus Geographicus(London, (London,1717). 1717).Copper-engraving; Copper-engraving;original original size size18 18 xX 25.5 25.5cm. cm. One of the first maps to show all of South Asia in its modern conception. Previously, Previously, in his A System of Geography Geography (1701), Moll had followed the existing convention and had had Library.) shown only the Mughal empire. (The Newberry Library.)

8

Mapping and Imperialism

map's frame now encompassed encompassed the entire region usually considered considered to be India per se, specifically specifically the lands south of the entire circuit of northern mountains and including the lands west of the Indus. Nonetheless, between the old regional conthere is still an ambiguity in such maps between cept of the Indies and the Mughal empire. eighteenth century was also the It is no coincidence that the early eighteenth period when the English and the French began to meddle seriously in from South Asian politics. The prize was the immense revenue derived from promised to far surpass the profits which land taxation, revenue which promised European could be realized even by monopoly trade. Initially, both European trading companies companies rented rented out out their their regiments regiments to to In