Man's Impact on the Western Canadian Landscape 9780773595453

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Figures
Preface
Introduction: Man’s Impact on Landscape
1. Man and Landscape in the Western Plains of Canada
2. Some Comments on the Causes and Effects of Fire in the Northern Grasslands Area of Canada and the Nearby United States, Ca 1759-1900
3. Changing Fauna of the Northern Plains Area: Images and Effects
4. Suffield Military Reserve Controversy
5. Canada’s National Parks: Past, Present, Future
6. Man, Birds and Mammals of Pacific Rim National Park, B.C.: Past, Present and Future
7. Canadian National Parks and Related Reserves: Research Needs and Management
8. Some Background Thoughts on Environmental Impact Statements
9. A Critique of the Environmental Impact Study, Trans-Canada Highway, Miles 0 -7.8 , Banff National Park
Bibliography

Citation preview

Man’s Impact on the Western Canadian Landscape

ITT*** * MR *wi t r y i f i i r i r .

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Man’s Impact on the Western Canadian Landscape by J. G. Nelson

The Carleton Library No. 90 P u b lis h e d by M c C le lla n d a n d S te w a r t L im ite d in a s s o c ia t io n w ith th e In s titu te o f C a n a d ia n S t u d ie s , C a r le t o n U n iv e r s ity

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T H E C A R L E T O N L IB R A R Y A se rie s o f C a n a d ia n re p rin ts, new title s, and new c o lle ctio n s o f so u rc e m a te ria l re la tin g to C a n a d a , issu ed u n d e r th e e d ito ria l su p erv isio n o f th e In stitu te o f C a n a d ia n S tu d ies o f C a rle to n U n iv ersity , O tta w a.

l/ ' DIRECTOR O F T H E IN STITU TE

D av id so n D unton G E N ER A L EDITOR

M ich a e l G n aro w sk i EX ECU TIV E EDITOR

Jan ies M arsh EDITO RIAL BOARD

B. C a m ia n B ickerton (H istory) D en n is F o rce se (.Sociology) D avid B. K night (G eo g ra p h y) J. G e o rg e N euspiel (Low) T h o m as K . R ym es (E co n o m ics) D erek G . Sm ith (A n th ro p o lo g y) M ich ael S. W hittin g to n (P o litica l S c ie n ce )

© M c C le lla n d a n d S te w a rt L im ited . 1976 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

T h e C a n a d ia n P u b lish ers M cC le lla n d and S te w a rt Lim ited 25 H o llin g e r R o a d , T o ro n to 374. 0-7 7 1 0 -9 7 9 0 -5 P rin te d a n d h o u n d in C a n a d a

Table of Contents List o f Figures P reface

vii

xiii

Introduction:M an’s Im pact on L andscape

1

1 Man and L andscape in the W estern P lains o f Canada

19

2 S o m e C o m m en ts on the C a u ses and E ffects o f Fire in the Northern G rasslands A rea o f C anada and the N earby U nited S ta tes, Ca 1 7 5 9 -1 9 0 0 3 C h an gin g E ffects

33 Fauna

of

the

Northern

P lains

Area:

Im ages

and

44

4 S u ffield M ilitary R eserve C on troversy

69

5 C an ad a’s N ational Parks: Past, P resent, Future

78

6 M an, Birds and M am m als o f P acific R im N ational Park, B .C .: Past, Present and Future

103

7 C anadian N ational Parks and R elated R eserves: R esearch N eed s and M anagem ent

140

8 S o m e B ackground T h ou gh ts on E nvironm ental Impact S tatem en ts

165

9 A C ritique o f the E nvironm ental Im pact S tu d y , Trans-C anada H ig h w a y , M iles 0 - 7 .8 , B a n ff N ational Park B ib liograp h y

187

178

List of Figures Fig.

1. P lains A rea

18

Fig.

2.

66

Fig.

3. Suffield

70

Fig.

4.

N ational P ark s o f C an ad a

90

Fig.

5.

N ational P ark s and Fo rest R eserv es

92

Fig.

6.

P acific R im N ational Park

102

F ig.

7.

W ild life H ab itats

124

F ig.

8.

B ou n d ary C h an g e s for P h ase 3 P acific R im N ational Park

130

Fig.

9.

F acilities D ev elo p m en t in B a n ff N a tio n al P a rk . 1930

161

Fig.

10.

F a cilities D ev elo p m en t in B a n ff N ational P ark . I960

162

Fig.

11.

F a cilities D ev elo p m en t in B a n ff N ational P a rk . 1971

163

Fig.

12. C o rrid o r A ltern ativ es

G rasslan d A sso ciatio n s and Soil Z ones

183

F o r S h ir le y .

" W e cro ssed the B o w R iv er a little above th e m o u th o f th e E lbow , fin d in g a g o o d f o r d a t th is place. T h e view f r o m th e h ill on th e north side o f th e Bow . when we reached it a t the beg in n in g o f S e p te m b e r. 1875. a m a z e d us. B efo re us la y a lovely valley, fla n k e d on th e south b y rolling hills. T h ic k w oods b o rd e re d th e b a n k s o f both s tre a m s; to th e w est low ered th e m o u n ta in s w ith their sn o w y p e a k s ; b e y o n d the E lbow stre tc h e d a n o th e r wide valley, a n d hea vy tim b e r f u r t h e r west along th e Bow. B u ffa lo in large b a n d s g ra z e d in th e valleys, but o f m a n we sa w a t f i r s t no sig n ." S ir C e cil D enny. T h e L aw M arch es W est (T o r o n to , 19 3 9 1, p. 83.

Preface T H E opportunity to publish this co llectio n o f e ssa y s arose in the spring o f 1 9 7 4 , prim arily as a result o f the interest and en cou ragem en t o f P rofessor D avid B . K night, D epartm ent o f G eograp h y, Carleton U n i­ versity. T h in gs have b een rather rushed, but I want to thank him very m uch for urging m e on. T hanks are due a lso to the m any other p eop le w h o helped m e in differen t w a y s o v er the years. M an y o f these persons are m entioned in the Introduction. S o m e such as N ick R o e , n ow d oin g graduate work at U .B .C .; Ray E ngland, n o w resident in M anitoba, but form erly a grad u a te student at C a lg a ry ; and L a r iy C o rd es, c o lle a g u e , and field co m p a n io n , are co -a u th o rs o f som e o f the p ap ers. T here have been m any helpers and friends w ith w hom 1 have talked on num erous o c c a sio n s, am on g them H arvey B u ck m aster, Chad D ay and D ick Butler. 1 h ave learned m uch from m y c o lle a g u e s in the N ational and P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n , notably G avin H enderson, A1 F ram e, and Robin Fraser. M uch a ssistan ce also cam e through G overn m en t, in the form o f inform ation from Jean C hretien, M inister o f Indian and Northern A ffa irs, John G ord on , form erly S en ior A s sis­ tant D ep u ty M inister in the sam e D epartm ent, and John N ico l and his co llea g u es in P arks C anada. M any p eop le at libraries such as the N ational A rch iv es, O ttaw a, or the G len b o w F oun d ation, C algary a lso aided m e. 1 b en efitted from study and d iscu ssio n at T h e U n iversity o f C aliforn ia, B erk eley , and the U n iversity o f Canterbury, C hristchurch, N ew Z ealan d . 1 o w e m uch to m any form er students: Jim Gardner, R oger B yrne, B asil P o g u e , Ed Jack son , Barry N o b le , Jack G len n , John M arsh, B ob S c a c e , D ick Porter, B ob G a lo is, Carl N o rb eck , Jim M asyk , B ob B eatty, Jim B attin, R oger N eed h a m , Phil H a le, Terry G reen , R eid K reu tzw iser and others w h o regretfu lly can not all b e m en tion ed here. I a lso learned m uch from P rofessor Jam es C ragg and Dr. S teph en Herrero, e c o lo g is ts and en ­ vironm ental scien tists at C algary. I am grateful to Dr. G ordon H o d g ­ so n , Linda J on es and other sta ff at the E nvironm ental S c ie n c e s C entre, U n iversity o f C algary, for providing m e with the fa cilities n eed ed to co m p lete this m anuscript q u ick ly. M rs. G race G ray and M rs. M . A . B urge did m uch o f the typ in g o f the original papers. M rs. C athy S y lv ester has assisted w ith the typin g and preparing o f the present m anuscript. The late N ick B ab ey o f Calgary and Mr. D erry G raves, T h e U n iversity o f W estern O ntario, assisted with drafting and other tech n ical m atters. A t various tim es xiii

xiv

W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N LA N D SC A PE

finan cial assista n ce w a s provided by T he U n iversity o f W estern On­ tario, the N ational R esearch C o u n cil, Federal G overn m en t D epart­ m en ts. the N ational and P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n and T h e Canada C ou n cil. 1 appreciate receiv in g perm ission to republish all or part o f mate­ rial that o rigin ally appeared in H um an G eography: C oncepts a n d Case Studies, U n iv ersity o f C anterbury. D ep t, o f G eograp h y (ed itor, W . B. Joh n ston ), 1969; The C anadian G eographer; The C anadian G eog­ raphical Journal; G ./.R .M .S ., (G eograp h y Inter-U niversity R esource M anagem ent S em inar); T h e G eographical R eview ; Studies in L and Use H istory a n d Landscape C hange; and P ark N ew s. I a lso w ish to thank the S ocial S c ie n c e R esearch C ou n cil o f Canada for p erm ission to republish an article from C anadian P ublic L a n d Use in P erspective. F in ally, I w ish to thank m y fa m ily , and m ost e sp e c ia lly m y w ife, S h irley , without w h o se support and in tellectu al participation, these papers and this book w ou ld not have b een co m p leted . J. G . N elson

Introduction M a n ’s Im p a c t on L andscap e* J . G. Nelson

M E N have lon g been interested in their effe ct on the en viron m en t or landscape. T h e history o f this interest has been stu d ied in con sid erable detail by C laren ce G lacken (1 0 4 ) and h is various w orks sh ou ld be con su lted by all th o se interested in m an, lan d scap e, and con servation . T he first major sy n th esis o f m an’s e ffe c ts on the landscape w as pub­ lished by G eorge Perkins Marsh (1 8 6 ). H e recogn ized clea rin g , lum ­ bering, g ra zin g , c u ltiv a tio n , and other a ctiv ities not just as e c o n o m ic p ractices but as cultural p ro cesses w h ich often prom oted intense and w idespread ch a n g es in v eg eta tio n , anim al life , s o ils , and other asp ects o f landscape. In the years that fo llo w ed the publication o f M arsh's m onum ental w ork, g e o lo g is ts , e n g in eers, adm inistrators, govern m en t o ffic ia ls , and others b eca m e in creasingly aw are o f hum an effe cts on the land and a variety o f m anagerial and technical approaches to the problem were m ade in a num ber o f cou n tries. For ex a m p le, in nineteenth century France w here d eforestation , overgrazin g, so il ero ­ sio n , and flo o d in g w ere o f particular con cern to M arsh, the en gin eers began to u se a com b ination o f sm all d am s and other d e v ic e s , as w ell as b io lo g ica l m eth o d s, to control lan d scap e deterioration in alp in e and h illy lands ( 2 0 8 ) .In the U nited S tates, forestry and other departm ents were foun d ed by govern m en t to h elp m anage forest resources and about 1900 m en such as G ifford P inchot began to prom ote the idea o f “ w ise u se” o r “ co n serv a tio n ” as a social and a p olitical id eo lo g y (2 7 ). At this tim e geograp h y a lso began to em erg e as a p rofessional d iscip lin e and its m em b ers started to m ake contributions to the under­ stan d in g and m anagem ent o f m an 's im pact on lan d scap e. S o m e were in v o lv ed in the organ ization and co n d u ct o f early land u se and land cap ab ility su rv ey s as part o f a program m e to reduce so il erosion and gen erally to im prove the lot o f the agriculturalist. Later, historical and cultural geographers undertook relevant stu d ies, on e o f the leaders b ein g Carl S au er, w h o foun d ed a sc h o o l o f geograp h y at the U n iversity o f C a lifo rn ia , B erk eley , in the 192 0 ’s (1 5 8 ). Cultural history and landscape are central interests o f the Sauer *A la rg e p art o f this In tro d u ctio n is fro m G eo g ra p h y, L a n d sc a p e a n d C o nservation, in H u m a n G e o g ra p h y : C o n ce p ts a n d C a se S tu d ie s, W . B . Jo h n ­ sto n , e d ., D e p artm e n t o f G e o g ra p h y , U n iv ersity o f C a n te rb u ry , C h ristc h u rc h , N .Z ., 1969.

1

W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N LA N D SC A PE

sc h o o l and h a v e led to m uch study o f m an 's e ffe c ts on the w orld around him . In m any c a s e s an interest in the effe cts o f man has not been central to the study at hand, any relevant fin d in gs b ein g a m inor, in cid en ta l, or accidental by-product o f research prim arily directed to other g o a ls. An ex a m p le is J oseph S p en cer's 19 6 6 m onograph on sh iftin g agriculture in southeastern A sia . H ere the focu s is on such thin gs as the d istribution o f the practice, its ty p o lo g y , and its o rigin . H o w ev er, S p en cer a lso recog­ n izes that the sh iftin g cu ltivator is resp onsib le for part o f the ex ten siv e soil erosion in the hill country o f southeastern A sia ( 2 8 7 ). In their m ore direct approaches to the study o f m a n 's e ffe c ts, geographers h ave so m etim e s fo c u sse d on the p ro cesses at work on the la n d sca p e, fo r ex a m p le, fire. Carl Sauer h as v iew ed fire as an early tool o f m an, used for thousands o f years as a m ean s o f hunting and in other w a y s (2 7 1 . 2 7 2 ). T h e w ork o f Sauer and others on fire is a useful ex a m p le to begin with b eca u se it im m ed iately raises the problem o f a ss e s sin g m an’s e ffe c ts v is-a -v is other p o ssib le non-hum an ca u ses o f landscape ch an ge. T h u s, there is m uch ev id e n c e to indicate that fire has been very sign ifican t in the form ation o f the w orld 's grasslan d s. But the im por­ tance o f man as a c a u se o f fire h as been a su b ject o f m uch d isagreem en t. L ightning frequently has been cited as a p o ssib ly im portant natural ca u se , but this idea has been rejected by Sauer and other geographers. For ex a m p le, D avid Harris' (1 1 2 ) stu d ies in the arid and semi-arid" southw estern U nited States h ave led him to con clu d e that m illio n s o f acres o f form er grassland recently have b een invaded by m esq u ite and other w o o d y plants. T he b egin n in g o f this in vasion is attributed to the reduction o f form erly frequent grass fires. T h is reduction in turn is attributed to the cessa tio n o f burning by n ative p eo p les fo llo w in g their con q u est by the A m erican s. Harris con sid ers it " m o st im probable that ligh tn in g w a s a principal cau se o f frequent fires m en tion ed by early travellers, m any o f w h om indeed ascribed them to burning by the aboriginal p o p u la tio n " (1 1 2:416). In other w ord s, he is o f the op in ion that the form erly ex ten siv e grasslan d s o f the sou th w estern United S tates w ere prim arily due to the a ctivities o f m an. H o w ev er, in the northern grasslan d s o f the Canadian prairie p rovin ces ligh tn in g has been a frequent cau se o f fire throughout h istoric tim es. It fo llo w s that, in this area at lea st, grasslan d s could d e v e lo p independent o f man (2 3 8 ). In their m ore direct approaches to the study o f m a n 's effe cts, geograp h ers h ave a lso fo cu ssed on one or m ore elem en ts o f landscape, such as lan d form s, v eg eta tio n , or so ils . An ex a m p le is the study by P arsons and B o w en (2 5 4 ) o f so m e usual landform s on the low er M agdalena R iver floodp lain in northern C olom b ia. W ith the aid o f aerial p h otograp h s, they have id en tified an e x ten siv e area o f abandoned

in t r o d u c t io n

:

m a n ’s im p a c t

3

ridged field s a lon g the western margin o f the flood p lain . S o m e o f the best preserved and m ore v isab le ridges have a relief o f three feet or m ore and norm ally are w id e en ou gh to have supported at least four or fiv e row s o f cro p s. T he ridges are b elieved to b e pre-European in a g e, m ainly b ecau se S panish ch ron iclers o f the tim e o f con q u est did not d escrib e the rid g es, or use o f them . Parsons and B ow en co n sid er it alm ost im p o ssib le that the S p an ish w ou ld not have com m en ted on these unusual features had they seen them under cu ltivation and they estim ate that so m e 8 0 ,0 0 0 persons m ight have been supported w ithin the old field s area. T hey a lso say that this n ew ev id e n c e in northern C olo m b ia su b stan tially rein forces the g row in g argum ent that pre-European popu­ lation d en sities in the A m erican tropical low lan d s have b een grossly u nderestim ated. P resum ably this underestim ation a lso ap p lies to the lan d scap e ch an ge cau sed by such p op u lation s. M arvin M ik e se ll’s (2 0 4 ) study o f northern M orocco is an exam p le o f a m ore co m p reh en siv e attempt to assess m a n 's effe cts on the land­ sca p e . A lthough the sc o p e o f the study is quite w id e, so m e em p hasis in evitab ly falls on certain p rocesses and elem en ts o f lan d scap e, su ch as so il ero sio n , and v eg eta tio n . M ik esell u ses a variety o f m ethods to sh o w that burning, g ra zin g, and forest cu ttin g have profoundly ch an ged the v eg eta tio n o f northern M orocco and cau sed w idespread soil ero sio n . For e x a m p le , he cites historical sou rces to sh o w that tall forests w ere present in areas w here they are no lon ger found today and u ses sim ila r inform ation to study p rocesses su ch as w o o d con su m p tion , attem pting to estab lish their rate o f operation and the extent to w hich they have m odified the lan d scap e through the years. A nother approach is to map trees at relig io u s sh rin es distributed throughout northern M o ro cco . T h ese areas m ay never h ave been cut o ver by m an, and the trees therefore con stitute an im portant clu e to the nature o f the early M oroccan forest. S in ce the 1 9 5 0 ’s m ore geograp h ers h ave b eco m e interested in m an’s im pact on the landscape. D ev elo p m en ts w ithin the d iscip lin e are at least partly resp on sib le for this. For ex a m p le, D avid L ow en th al's (1 6 7 ) study o f the life and work o f G eorge Perkins Marsh m ade more p eo p le aware o f the earth as m od ified by hum an action . G eographers such as T h o m a s, Sauer, D arby, C lark, and Evans (3 0 6 , 2 7 2 , 4 5 , 87) jo in ed with m em bers o f other d iscip lin es in the sy m p o siu m o f M a n 's R ole in C hanging the F ace o f the E a r th , held in N ew York C ity in 1955 ( 3 0 6 ). T h e publication o f the papers and p roceed in gs o f this con feren ce stim ulated w idespread sch o larly and p u b lic interest. M uch o f the g ro w in g concern o f the !9 5 0 's undoubtedly g rew out o f actual ob serv a tio n s o f the ev er m ore apparent exten t and depth o f the human imprint on the lan d scap e. Population w as risin g sharply. M ore and m ore production w as ca lled for to m eet su b sisten ce n eed s in so m e

4

W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N LA N D SC A PE

parts o f the w orld and the g row in g aspirations for ev e r higher livin g standards in others. M ore and m ore stress w as b ein g placed on tech n ol­ o g y as the m eans o f prom oting greater production and m eetin g these n eed s or d em ands. T h e clim a te o f op in ion and the general d irection o f the expert thought o f the 1 9 5 0 ’s is reflected in the papers and p roceed in gs o f the M a n 's R o le sy m p o siu m . M uch thinking w a s directed alon g rather fam iliar lines: v eg eta tio n ch a n g e, so il ero sio n , and the lik e. B ut, in ad d ition , there w ere sig n s o f n ew and differen t kinds o f con cern . L eisu re, recreation, and problem s o f w aste d isp osal received so m e attention. Harrison Brow n (2 0 ) w rote o f the spread o f the m ach ine and tech n o lo g ica l d enudation. H e en v isio n ed the tech n ology o f a future w orld population o f about 3 0 b illion p eop le co n su m in g so m e 1500 b illio n ton s o f rock each year in the search for an in creasingly large am ount and array o f m inerals. Northrup directed attention to aesth etic, eth ica l and legal v a lu es. He sa w tech n ological so c iety as em p h asizin g in tellect and te c h n o lo g y , creating: a m odern man w h o has b eco m e so absorbed by the intellectual im agin ation , its tech n o lo g ica l to o ls, and its abstract legal co d es that he is starved em o tio n a lly and with respect to aesth etic im ­ m ed iacy (2 4 4 ). A reading o f the papers and p roceed in gs o f m ore recent con fer­ en ces su ch as that on The F uture E nvironm ents o f N orth A m erica (6 6 ), held in W arrenton, V irgin ia, in A p ril, 1965, or on The N ew Zealand C ountryside in 1980 ( 3 0 1 ), held in A uckland in N ovem b er, 1 9 6 7 , sh o w that m any o f the budding con cern s o f the M a n 's R ole sym p osiu m have c o m e to fuller flo w er in the last fifteen or tw en ty years. P opulation, prod u ction , and tech n o lo g y h ave con tinu ed to g ro w . A spiration s for still higher liv in g standards h ave con tin u ed in North A m erica and other parts o f the w o rld , stim ulated by ad vertisin g and the idea o f a grow in g eco n o m y (1 3 8 ). In less-d e v elo p ed areas such as A frica, agricultural and other e co n o m ic pressures are pushing hard on w ild fauna and flora. In m any cou n tries the urban, ad m in istrative, p o litica l, and acad em ic atm osphere is h ead y with talk and study o f air and w ater p ollu tion . In in creasingly autom ated and tech n o lo g ica l so c ie tie s leisure is no longer a p astim e am idst productive pursuits but a w ay o f livin g frequently undertaken u n w illin g ly and u n w ittin gly. U nder these circu m stan ces p eop le are m ore and m ore con cern ed with landscape and with the purpose o f life — with what to d o and w here to d o it! And the leaders and the exp erts talk in crea sin g ly o f the quality o f en viron m en t and the quality o f life. H ow have geographers responded to increasing contem porary

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interest in m an’s im pact on the land? S o m e have begun to d o research on a sp ec ts o f the landscape hitherto so co m m o n p la ce or so little used as not to be m atters o f general con cern or study. D avid L in ton 's (16 5 ) w ork on the sc en ery o f S cotland is a g o o d ex a m p le. Scen ery can be lo o k ed on as an a sp ect o f the lan d scap e. But it a lso can be v iew ed as a resou rce. Linton justifies h is attem pt to assess scen ery as a resource by p o in tin g out that tourism and the recreational d em and s o f an in creas­ in gly urban so c ie ty are p lacin g m ore d em and s on the visu al assets o f S cotlan d . A situation is thus arising in w h ich there is danger, as with alm ost ev ery other resou rce, o f exp loitation that is unplanned and irra­ tional. lo ca lly o v er-in ten se and ev en s e l f d estroyin g by the p rolif­ eration o f u g lin ess. It is thus b eco m in g im portant to attem pt the eva lu a tio n o f sc e n ic resources in so m e ob jectiv e and quantitative fash ion (1 6 5 :2 1 9 ). In attem pting h is a ssessm en t o f scen ery as a resou rce. Linton aim s to ap p ly the p rinciples that h ave b een used in evalu atin g and m apping other resources. W e m ust stu d y the elem en ts o f scen ery that in flu en ce our reactions to it. w e m ust se lect th ose w e con sid er basic and m ap their variations o v er the w h o le area o f the stu d y; and w e must range the several ca teg o ries w e map in a h ierarchy o f valu e. W e w ill then be ab le to m eet the requirem ents that w e have already laid d o w n , n a m ely , to say o f our scen ery “ h o w m uch there is that is better than a sp ec ified standard and w h ere it is to be fo u n d '' (1 6 5 : 2 2 0 ) Linton attem pts to evalu ate the scen ery o f S cotland on the b asis o f lan d form s, the w ater elem en t, and land use. H e c la ssifie s the landform s into six general ca teg o ries and m aps th ese. H e a lso id en tifies and m aps lan d scap es w ith a sig n ifica n t w ater elem en t. A variety o f different types o f " land u se " lan d scap es a lso are id en tified and m apped. He then a ssig n s point or valu e ratings to all these e lem en ts and co m b in es them to arrive at a quantitative evalu ation and a map o f the scen ic resou rces o f S cotland . M any critical co m m en ts cou ld be m ade about L inton’s interesting stu d y , although this is not the p lace to d o so . The relatively h igh lev el o f su b jectiv ity in the se lectio n o f criteria and in the assign m en t o f point ratings is o n e problem that o b v io u sly w ill crop up in all such stu d ies. M any lan d scap es are marked by ston e rem ain s, old b u ild in gs, ancient field patterns, o r other human artifacts. T h ese an tiq u ities d is­ appear in the co u rse o f a n ew h ou sin g project, the con stru ction o f a n ew

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h ig h w a y , or the ex p a n sio n o f so m e agricultural en terprise. Y et, like scen ery , they in crea sin g ly are con sid ered to be valu ab le in m any parts o f the w orld . T h ey o ften are lo ok ed upon as aesth etically p leasin g and in tellectu ally and ed u ca tio n a lly u sefu l, v isib le ev id en ce o f national, tech n o lo g ic a l, and cultural h istory. C on seq u en tly in so m e cou n tries an tiq u ities are b ein g stu d ied and treated as resou rces. T he geographer N ew co m b (2 4 0 ) has describ ed h ow this is d on e in D enm ark. T h e basic aim is to preserve relic features and lan d scap es as o n e o f the com p onent e lem en ts o f a d y n a m ic contem porary sc en e. T h e features are c la ssifie d , su rv e y ed , and m apped on a national b a sis. W ith this k n ow led ge o f the d istribution and the relative u n iqu en ess o f the various an tiq u ities, the d ecisio n -m a k er is in a m uch better p osition to d ecid e h o w im portant it is to c o n se rv e a g iv e n feature or features. E ven if no threat o f ch an ge is im m ed iately apparent, m easures can b e taken to protect an tiq u ities that are rela tiv ely rare or oth erw ise o f sp ecia l valu e region ally or n ation ally. N ew co m b a lso d escrib es (he various institutional and cultural arrangem ents that have been introduced in an attem pt to m anage the antiquarian resou rces o f D enm ark. A g e n c ie s such as the National M u seum play a prom inent role in organ izin g and co n d u ctin g surveys and in ven tories. A lthou gh its nam e m ight su ggest an em p hasis on other th in g s, the Nature Preservation A ct o f 1963 sets a sid e ap p roxim ately I per cent o f the D anish landscape in parks or reserv es, so m e o f w hich cou ld be used to p reserve a n tiq u ities. A ccord in g to N e w c o m b , these um brella-type p rotective m easures are reinforced by a general Danish tradition for the protection o f h istorically in terestin g fragm ents o f lan d scap e. N ev erth eless N ew co m b is o f the op in ion that m ore n eed s to b e d o n e to m ake adm inistrators and planners se n sitiv e to an tiq u ities as resou rces and to p ersuade them to include an tiq u ities on a sp e c ific basis in overall land u se m anagem en t and p lan nin g. N ew co m b b e lie v e s that the historical geograp h er can contribute d irectly as a participant in antiquarian resource m anagem ent and indirectly as a m oulder o f public op in io n toward the con servation o f land history. R ecent in creases in p op u lation , the u se o f in sec ticid es, leisure, recreation , and other a sso cia ted c h a n g es, a lso have prom pted more geographers to b eco m e in v o lv ed w ith the problem s relating to what m ight be ca lled the “ naturaLness" o f lan d scap e. A ll but the m ost rem ote parts o f the w orld have been a ffected by man to varyin g degrees: but it is this very matter o f d egree that is now im portant to m any p eo p le. T h ey w ish to find and protect w ild or relativ ely little ch a n g ed areas for various purposes. S o m e want them as sanctuaries for in creasingly rare sp e c ie s o f fauna and flora or as nature p reserves in the w id est se n se. O thers want su ch areas for recreational p urposes: as h aven s w herin to ca m p , w alk , and oth erw ise en jo y the so -ca lled w ild ern ess ex p erien ce. O thers want th ese areas for scien tific

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and ed u cational p urposes; as reservoirs for p otentially useful or­ g a n ism s. or as standards again st w h ich to ju d ge the im pact o f in sec­ ticid es or other hum an to o ls on surrounding lands. T h ey w ish to use rela tiv ely unchanged areas as laboratories in w h ich to learn m ore about the e ffe c ts o f man on the la n d scap e, and as cla ssro o m s in w hich the urban d w eller can be sh o w n what m uch o f the land o n ce w a s like. S o areas with rela tiv ely high d egrees o f “ n atu raln ess" b ecom e resources to be id en tified , c la s sifie d , in ven toried , and m apped. In N ew Z ealand for ex a m p le, a botanist. A tk in son (4 ). has su g g ested that a series o f con servation districts be estab lish ed w h o se boundaries w ould m ore or less con form to the soil types in the N ew Z ealand g en etic soil m ap. A s he se e s it, the advantage is that the soil types a lso are a sy n o p sis o f general d ifferen ce s in clim a te, so il, parent m aterial, top og­ raphy, availa b le o rg a n ism s, and the tim e in w h ich these factors have been interacting. T h ese con servation d istricts c o u ld , thu s, be used as a fram ew ork for the preservation o f o n e or m ore representative sam p les of “ rela tiv ely undisturbed soil and v e g e ta tio n ,” or o f “ natural c o m ­ m u n ities." Such a sy stem cou ld a lso prove u sefu l in m aking d e c isio n s on w h eth er or not to p reserve a "natural area" threatened by lum bering or so m e other eco n o m ic a ctivity. In 'this con n ection A tk in son a lso presents a list o f co n servation criteria for u se as an index o f scien tific valu e. P oin ts are allocated and a rating estab lish ed on the b asis o f such standards as the relative u n iqu en ess o f the ca n o p y co v er, B - horizon m o rp h o lo g y , plant and anim al sp e c ie s, and d egree o f m odification from the " p rim itiv e” co n d itio n o f thin gs. G ro w in g public and sch olarly con cern about the protection o f landscapes that h ave been rela tively little m odified by m an is on e o f the things that recently has cau sed so m e geograp h ers and m any b io lo g ists to put in creasing stress on the e c o lo g ic a l approach to landscape m an­ agem en t and planning. T he e c o lo g ic a l approach se e m s to m ean a num ber o f thin gs. At the rela tively sim p le end o f the spectrum it has been used to mean that inform ation on the natural history and character o f a landscape should be em p lo y ed in plan nin g. In its m ore sop h isti­ cated se n se it can be con sid ered as sy n o n o m o u s with the eco sy ste m s approach, an ec o sy ste m h avin g b een d efin ed as a fu n ctio n in g , interact­ ing sy stem co m p o sed o f o n e or m ore organ ism s and their effe ctiv e en viron m en t both p h ysical and b io lo g ica l (9 4 , 2 9 5 ). A m on g other th in g s, the d escrip tion o f an eco sy stem m ay include its spatial rela­ tio n s. in ven tories o f its p h ysical featu res, its habitats, its o rg a n ism s, its b asic reserves o f matter and en erg y , and the patterns o f circulation o f matter and en erg y . In other w ord s, the eco sy ste m approach stresses k n ow in g as m uch as p o ssib le about all elem en ts o f a landscape and the interactions or inter-relatedness am o n g them . T h e em p h asis is on v iew in g part or all o f a lan d scap e or environm ent as a sy stem or part o f a

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sy stem and on understanding the w ay the sy stem w ork s. W ith such an understanding, or a substantial m odicum th ereo f, the planner and the d ecisio n -m a k er se em in g ly are less lik ely to interfere w ith the landscape in such a w ay as to ca u se u n w an ted and so m e tim e s en tirely u nforeseen ch a n g es. A fairly w id e range o f geograp h ical stu d ies cou ld be cited as illustrating the e c o lo g ic a l approach in the rather broad se n se o f the term . R elevant research has b een carried on in B a n ff N ational Park. C anada, where a sc en ic h igh w ay program m e has been proposed to m eet the anticipated n eed s o f tourists and as a m ean s o f reducing traffic in other in crea sin g ly cro w d ed parts o f the park. E cological con sid era­ tions can be said to play a part in the fo llo w in g an alysis o f on e o f the prop osed routes w h ich w ou ld run for forty m iles through the now road less w ild cou n try o f the upper Red D eer V a lley . C onstruction through the upper Red D eer w ould be particularly unfortunate as th is probably is the largest o f those areas in the park w here the lan d scap e is still com p aratively c lo s e to what it w a s at the tim e that the fur trader and the Indian roam ed the land. The upper Red D eer largely escap ed the fires, m ining and lum bering that a ffected so m any other parts o f the park in the d ecad es around the turn o f the tw entieth cen tu ry. It is therefore covered for the m ost part with relatively old spruce-fir forest rather than the fire fo llo w in g lo d g ep o le pine (so c om m on elsew h ere in the park). The upper Red D eer a lso sh elters g rizzly bear, m ountain g o a ts, and other an im als not so co m m o n ly seen in m ore frequented parts o f the park. Its faunal im portance certainly m erits further study before any road is constructed through the v a lley ; there is already a co n sid era b le b od y o f ev id e n c e in support o f the settin g aside o f this area, not for the a u to m o b ile, but for the cam per, the p h oto­ hunter and others w h o w ish to en joy the “ w ild ern ess e x p erien ce” (2 2 4 :8 1 ). T he g eograp h er, Stoddart, has argued for the protection o f the sm a ll atoll o f A ldabra, lo ca ted in the Indian O cean about 2 6 0 m iles northw est o f M ad agascar, on the grou n d s that its e c o lo g y m akes it e sp e c ia lly valu ab le to sc ie n c e . Stoddart p oin ts ou t that as a result o f their iso la tio n , and for other reason s, islands p o ssessed d istin ctive a ssem b la g e s o f plants and a n im als. H o w ev er, early European voyagers introduced ca ts, d o g s, g o a ts and other a n im als, both d elib erately and inadvertently. Later settlers clea red , burned, m ined, and otherw ise ch a n g ed the isla n d s, su b stan tially altering the plants, an im als and e c o sy ste m s o f all but a few o f them . Aldabra is on e o f th ose w h ich has undergone rela tiv ely little ch a n g e. But in the early 1 9 6 0 ’s the British

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M inistry o f D efen ce and the British B roadcasting C om p any began to plan the con stru ction o f an airfield and a transm itting tow er on the isla n d , although these projects have n ow b een sh elv e d o w in g to a ch a n g e in Britain’s p o licy ea st o f S u ez. H ow ever, a num ber o f sc ie n ­ tists o b jected to the projects w h ile they were under active con sid era­ tio n , a m o n g them Stoddart, w h o has put his argum ent as fo llo w s: U n lik e m ost elev a ted a to lls, Aldabra has never been m ined for gu an o and hum an in terference has been very lim ited . S o m e o f its a n im als and plants are im portant in th e m se lv e s— the last Old W orld giant to rto ise, fo r e x a m p le , the last Indian O cean flig h tless bird, the largest c o lo n ie s o f Frigate birds in the Indian O cean , and en d em ic sp e c ie s and su b -sp ecies o f land birds, in sects and plants. But from an e c o lo g ic a l point o f v ie w these are in the lon g term less im portant than the p reservation , intact, o f the last rem aining natural laboratory in the Indian O cean . S o far the S e y c h e llo is fisherm en w h o use Aldabra h ave had on ly a sm all effect on the island eco sy stem : . . . (2 9 6 :8 ). Stoddart g o e s on to ca ll for planned preservation o f the w o rld ’s differen t kinds o f islan d e c o s y ste m s and su g g ests so m e institutional or p olitica l arrangem ents w hereby this goal m ight be m et. T he 1964 A greed M easu res for the C on servation o f A ntarctic Fauna and Flora could serv e a s a m odel for the n ecessary international agreem ent or treaty. T he 1964 M easu res govern the protection o f n ative m am m als, birds, and plants, prohibit the im porting o f an im als and plants not in d igen ous to the area and provide for the d esign ation o f S p ecially Protected A reas o f outstanding im portance. T h e p reced in g e x a m p les are o f additional interest in that they raise q u estio n s as to w h y p eo p le react to landscape and resou rces in the w ay that they d o . T hus the statem ents on the upper Red D eer Road or Aldabra both in v o lv e the use o f e c o lo g ic a l inform ation, but this m ate­ rial is a n alyzed in such a w ay as to reflect the attitudes and v a lu es o f those w h o m ade the stu d ies. A ll kinds o f in form ation , all sorts o f ap p roach es, and a variety o f altern atives m ay be used and con sid ered in problem s o f lan d scap e and resource m an agem en t, but the d e c isio n s that u ltim ately are m ade gen erally w ill d epend on su ch thin gs as attitudes or valu es. T h o se w h o are in the p osition o f m aking the final d ecisio n on the Red D eer V a lley or Aldabra in the end m ay co n sid er the problem as thoroughly as any interested group, but d ecid e to act in another w ay b ecau se o f d ifferen ces in attitudes or va lu es. O f cou rse an assessm en t o f pu b lic op in ion u su ally w ill w eig h h ea v ily on the d ecision -m ak er. It fo llo w s from the fo regoin g that those w h o are interested in m an’s e ffe c ts on la n d sca p e, w hether for a cad em ic or practical reason s,

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sh ou ld learn as m uch as they p o ssib ly can about w h y p eop le react to the lan d scap e as they d o . In recent years a num ber o f geograp h ers have been trying to d o just this through what are often ca lled perception stu d ies. T h e m eaning o f the w ord perception ten ds to vary som ew h at am o n g researchers and situ ation s (1 1 0 . 2 6 9 ). In its broadest se n se it se em s to refer to the ou tlook or v ie w that p eop le h a v e o f a lan d scap e or resou rce. W hen used in this se n se it en co m p a sses the m ore traditional geograp h ic idea that a lan d scap e or en viron m en t is used or ch an ged by a p eo p le in accordance w ith their v a lu e s, their attitu des, and other cu l­ tural attributes. On the other hand the word perception has been used in a more p recise w a y , a w a y that separates it at least in the gradational se n se from the ideas in v o lv ed in w ords such as attitudes or va lu es. T h u s the geograp h er, G ilbert W h ite, w h o has w orked with p sy ch o lo g ists on perception research , has d efin e d '■attitude" as b ein g interchangeable with " b e lie f" o r " o p in io n ." A ttitude is said to describe: a p reference held by a person with respect to an object or con cep t. It d o es not in itse lf con stitute a valu e, it is the result o f a valuation p rocess o f so m e k ind, and a lw a y s in v o lv e s p reference. Insofar as it ap p lies to an a sp ect o f the en viron m en t it requires perception o f the en viron m en t. By percep tion is m eant the individual organ iza­ tion o f sen so ry stim ulation (3 2 2 :1 1 0 ). Perception se e m s to in v o lv e a variety o f p h y sio lo g ic a l, s o c io lo g i­ c a l. and other in flu en ces. D iffer en ces in v isio n o r a night lost w ith a girl in the w o o d s can work to m ake p eop le p erceive an aspect o f landscape d ifferen tly. A ll kinds o f in flu en ces w eigh on perception and so on the form ation o f attitu des and v a lu es. S o m e see L os A n g e le s sm o g as a d irty, u n h ealth y, and unfortunate co n se q u en ce o f h avin g too m any a u to m o b iles. O thers see this sm o g as a so m etim e s irritating byproduct o f that attractive and useful status sy m b o l, the m otor car. T h e perception approach h as been adopted by an increasing num ber o f geograp h ers in recent years (1 3 8 . 170). T h ey attem pt to determ in e perception o f and attitudes tow ard s various asp ects o f the lan d scap e in several w a y s, n otab ly by stu d yin g literature and art. and through in terv iew s, although so m e also u se p sy ch o lo g ica l tests. Many o f the perception studies h ave b een carried out on p ro cesses that trouble m an in e c o n o m ic or other w ays: flo o d s, droughts and other " h a za rd s." as they are n o w o ften ca lled (1 7 0 . 143. 2 6 8 ). T h ese stu d ies fo llo w a line o f geograp h ic thinking that lead s back to Harlan Barrows (8) and his ca ll for g eo g ra p h y as hum an e c o lo g y in a Presidential address to the

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A m erican A sso cia tio n o f G eograp h ers ( A .A .G .) in 1923. Barrows stressed that geograp h ers should be interested in the w ays that man adjusts to and m o d ifies the en viron m en t. He and h is students w orked on various flo o d control and w ater m anagem ent projects in the 1 9 3 0 's. S o m e referen ce a lso sh ou ld b e m ade to the g ro w in g interest in what are so m etim e s called p olitical and institutional arrangem ents. S uch an interest can be a sso ciated with h istorical, e c o lo g ic a l, or other approaches to any a sp ect o f lan d scap e. T h u s, both N ew co m b and Stoddart h ave had so m eth in g to sa y about the institutional and p olitical arrangem ents that m ight b e m ade for the protection and m anagem en t o f antiquarian or rela tiv ely u n m od ified island lan d scap es. On the other hand, m ore geographers are b egin n in g to approach m an-landscape p rob lem s from a sp e c ific a lly p olitical or institutional point o f v iew . T h e traditional geograp h ical interest in p olitical ar­ ran gem en ts at the state or national level is exp an d in g to in clu d e m et­ ropolitan areas, c itie s, differen t typ es o f land u sers, con servation ists and other interest groups. An e x a m p le is H arold M ayer's study o f p o litics and land u se a lon g the Indiana sh orelin e o f Lake M ich igan . M ayer b egin s by d escrib in g the sh orelin e as a battlefield for c o n flic t b etw een urban-industrial land u se and recreational land use and con servation . The major industrial dem and is for land c lo s e to water for steel m ills and port fa cilities. Part o f the land in dem and is the Indiana D u n e s, w h ich G eorge C ressey described in 1928 as " a rem arkable belt o f d u n es” h old ing “ great interest b eca u se o f its rich assem b lage o f plant and anim al life . . . the various en viron m en ts o f sh iftin g san d s and tam aracks furnish splendid ex a m p les o f e c o lo g ic a l relation sh ip " (1 9 4 :5 0 9 ). In op p osition to the dem ands o f steel are those o f p ersons w h o w ish to p reserve the d unes for recreational p u rp oses. M ayer sets and d escrib es their c o n flic t in a p olitical fram ew ork c o n sistin g o f tw o sta tes, c itie s su ch as C h ica g o and G ary, several differen t steel co m p a n ie s, and a variety o f interest grou p s, in clu d in g so m e con servation organ izations. M ayer d iscu sses the w a y the con cern s o f the states, the c itie s, and the various interest groups w ork to curtail or to op en up con sid eration o f alternative sites for steel and port fa cilities. He d escrib es the gradual en croach m en t o f the steel co m p a n ies on the du n es during the 1 9 5 0 's and 19 6 0 ’s w h ile the op p o sitio n w as attem pting to have a s m uch o f this lan d scap e as p ossib le placed in a national park, an ob jectiv e that w as fin ally ach ieved in S ep tem b er, 1967. In h is co n clu sio n M ayer underlines the general nature o f the co n flic t o v er the Indiana D u n es. S uch problem s ex ist on the frin ges o f m any m etropolitan and urban areas, w h ere the need for op en sp a ce, recreational areas and s c e n ic and natural p reserves m eet the d em ands o f

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industry, h o u sin g and the lik e. M ayer se e s regional planning and the use o f exp erts a s b asic to the attainm ent o f ‘ ‘optim al so lu tio n s” to these prob lem s. In Canada very little g eo grap h ic research has been undertaken on m an 's effe cts on la n d scap e. T h e em p hasis sin c e the seriou s b egin n in gs o f the d iscip lin e during the 193 0 ’s has largely been on p h ysical, e c o n o m ic , urban, and land use stu d ies. H o w ev er, w ithin the last ten to fifteen years historical and resource geographers h ave b eco m e more and m ore co n cern ed about m an’s relations with en viron m en t and also about environm ental m anagem en t. John W arkentin’s stu d ies on the ch a n g in g im ages and character o f nineteenth century W estern Canada are an ex cellen t ex a m p le, as is Conrad H eid en reich 's (1 15) recent work on the land u se, la n d scap e, and e c o lo g y o f Huronia in pre- and early-C aucasian d a y s. R ecent research on human adjustm ents to flood s and other “ h azards” by Burton, S e w e ll, and o th ers, and J. C . D a y ’s eva lu a tiv e stu d ies o f the so c ia l, e c o n o m ic , and p h ysical e ffe c ts o f d a m s, reservoirs, and other tech n ology represent the flo w erin g in Canada o f the hum an e c o lo g y and resou rces sc h o o l o f G ilbert W hite and Harlan B arrow s, his p red ecessor and teacher at C h icago ( 2 6 , 28, 2 7 9 , 6 8 , 6 9 ). E ven with these p rom isin g d ev elo p m en ts, w e still k n ow rem arka­ bly little about the nature o f the landscape at the tim e o f arrival o f the C au ca sia n s, and the w a y w ild life , veg eta tio n , and other elem en ts and p ro cesses have ch an ged through recent cen tu ries. H istorians su ch as Innis and R oe h ave told us som eth in g about our e ffe c ts on b eaver, b iso n , and other a n im als through the fur trade and other a ctiv ities. But the geograp h er, with his su p p o sed ly strong interest in interactions betw een man and lan d , had largely been silen t. M y o w n attem pts to gain a fu ller u nderstanding o f m an ’s ch an gin g im pact on the C anadian la n d scap e began in the early 19 6 0 ’s not lon g after taking up a teach in g p osition at The U n iversity o f C algary. A s with all research en d ea v o u rs, the form and su b stan ce o f these attem pts can o n ly be w ell understood in term s o f the d eep er learning in flu en ces and ex p erien ces that prepared the student for h is stu d ies. M y B .A . work at M cM aster w a s prim arily in land u se and regional geograp h y. T h e fo cu s at the M . A . level at C olorad o w as on land u se, con servation , and g eo m o rp h o lo g y , this b ein g accom p an ied by an initial exp osu re to the ideas o f Barrow s through on e o f h is form er stu d en ts, Harold H o ffm eister. P h .D . work in cultural geograp h y at Johns H op k ins w as pursued under G . F. Carter, a form er student o f S au er’s. In a PostD octoral year the g e o m o rp h o lo g y interest w as furthered under the process-orien ted g e o lo g ist and p h ysical geograp h er, M . G . W olm an. S u b seq u en t con tact w ith b io lo g ists and b iogeograp h ers at C algary, and

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w ith m any graduate stu d en ts, prom pted a greater interest in plants, birds, and other an im als. T h e essa y s in this vo lu m e reflect the d ev elo p m en t o f this back ­ ground in W estern C anada. T h e first e s sa y on man and lan d scap e in w estern C anada w as prepared in 1965 and 1966, about on e h alf-d ozen years after taking up resid en ce in the W est. T h e paper sh o w s a ssim ila ­ tion o f so m e o f the literature on Indian and C aucasian activity and an em erg in g ap preciation o f the w h ite m an's invasion o f the northern plains area. T he paper is ch ron ological in nature but also reflects an interest in p h ysical and cultural p ro cesses and in pu b lic land, ranching, and other to p ics thought particularly w orthy o f further stu d y. A m o n g the to p ics o f sp ecial interest are fire and an im als, the foci o f attention in the next tw o e ssa y s in the v o lu m e. Both are stu d ied in the con text o f q u estion s that have lon g interested Sau er and other students o f la n d scap e. T he fire e ssa y attem pts to build a c h ron ology o f fire as the b a sis for understanding its relation s to ligh tn in g, m an , clim a te, and other variables. T h e fire paper, and the fo llo w in g on e on a n im als, both w ere written in the late I9 6 0 's . T he last-nam ed paper particularly m an ifests a g ro w in g a w a ren ess o f the m any p h ysical and cultural p ro cesses w hich must be con sid ered in any attem pt to understand m an ’s role in ch an gin g the fa ce o f the northern plains. N ot o n ly is it n ecessary to con ten d with the lon g-stan d in g con troversy o ver the relative roles o f fire, m an, and clim a te in creating and perpetuating the grasslan d s o f this area, but o n e m ust a lso recogn ize the very im portant role o f the m ultitudes o f pre-C aucasian a n im als, su ch as b iso n , a n telop e, and elk , w h o se grazing and b row sin g undoubtedly a ffected the nature o f the v e g eta tio n , and w h o se in flu en ce often m ust h ave overridden that o f clim a te, or other varia b les, in clu d in g m an. Further d etails on the C aucasian in v a sio n , and on the interaction o f m an, fire, a n im als, and other interrelated in flu en ces are set forth in a recent b ook . The Last R efuge (2 3 1 ). T h e fourth paper in this v o lu m e , on the S u ffie ld M ilitary R eserve C o n tro versy , is a b rief attem pt to present historical and e c o lo g ic a l ev id e n c e and argum ent for the estab lish m en t o f a national park or sim ilar public reserve a lo n g a reach o f the South S ask atch ew an R iver w h ich has been relatively little disturbed by dry farm in g, irrigation, dam con stru ction , and other cultural p ro cesses largely introduced sin ce the co m in g o f the C aucasian to the W est. T h e paper reflects the con tin u in g interest o f so m e students o f m an’s im pact on lan d scap e in the p o licy and m anagerial im p lication s o f their research. T he d egree to w h ich the student sh o u ld b eco m e in v o lv ed in present-day m anagem ent issu es has been con tro v ersia l, with so m e m aintaining that he sh ou ld not get em b ro iled in current land use argum ents. T h e “ o b je ctiv ity ” o f the

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researcher and its relation to his role as interpreter, critic, and teacher is seen as a key issu e h ere, although it has been pointed out that personal va lu es are inherent in m ost research an yw ay ( 2 1 5 ). Sauer apparently w as se n sitiv e to this matter and en cou raged h is students to maintain their d istan ce from current issu es. On the other hand, Sauer did not fail to ex p ress h is o w n general v ie w s on the ad verse e ffe c ts o f m an’s agricultural and other a ctiv ities o n landscape and culture through tim e. The S u ffield essa y leads from the first block o f papers, prim arily in v o lv in g the northern p lain s, to the seco n d block w h ich are ch iefly co n cern ed w ith national parks and environ m en tal m anagem en t, nota­ bly in the R ock y M ountains. T he first paper in this secon d section is an attem pt to trace and interpret the d evelop m en t o f Canadian thinking about national parks and co n servation al reserves, e sp e c ia lly in relation to the A m erican precedents that have s o freq u en tly in flu en ced us over the years. T h e approach is prim arily from the perceptual stan d p oin t, an attem pt being m ade to v iew the d evelop m en t o f national parks and related types o f land use in term s o f the id eas, b e lie fs, v a lu e s, k n ow l­ e d g e . and social clim a te o f the tim es. T h e fo llo w in g e ssa y is a ca se study o f m an’s effe cts on landscape in the v icin ity o f P acific R im . a n ew Canadian national park, on the w est co a st o f V a n co u v er Island. T h e focu s is on man and fauna, notably birds and m am m als. T he d ifferen ces in the role and e ffe c ts o f preC aucasian and C aucasian m an are d iscu ssed and an alyzed , and an attem pt is m ade to fo resee the im p lication s o f current recreational and other pressures resulting from the recent estab lish m en t o f the park, as w ell as to present a m o d el, or organ izational fram ew ork , for future m anagem en t o f man and landscape in the park area. T h is paper there­ fore c o m b in es an a cad em ic interest in the ch an gin g effe cts o f m an, with a practical co n cern for the im p lication s o f current land u se trends for lan d scap es and e c o sy ste m s o f the future. T he P acific Rim paper, and the next essa y “ Canadian National Parks: R esearch N eed s and M a n a g em en t,” were written in the early I9 7 0 's and are o f additional interest in that they sh o w ch a n g es in approach and m eth o d o lo g y w h ich h ave d ev elo p ed during about ten years o l research. T h e earlier papers on the northern plains reflect the general state o f the art during the late I9 5 0 's and early I9 6 0 's . Man is seen as so m ew h a t distinct from the an im als, trees, and the world around h im , and so m e stress is placed on separating h is e ffe c ts as m uch as p o ssib le from those o f c lim a te, or other forces or p ro cesses “ in d e­ pendent o f h im .” to u se term in ology from the M a n 's R ole Sym posium ol 1955. The foci are v eg eta tio n , fire, erosion , agriculture, and other elem en ts ana p ro cesses o f traditional con cern . T h e later papers, for ex a m p le on P acific R im , or “ Canadian N ational Parks: R esearch N eed s and M a n a g em en t,” are m ore com p lex

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and reflect more ex p o su re to the theory, m eth o d o lo g y , and find in gs o f b io lo g ists, p sy c h o lo g is ts , la w y ers, p olitical sc ien tists, e c o n o m ists, and other m em ebers o f a w id e array o f sch olarly d iscip lin es. T h e trend to greater con tact with m ore and m ore d iscip lin es is accom p an ied by serious organization and an alytical prob lem s. T h e c o n c e p ts, m eth od s, and term in o lo g y o f the various d iscip lin es h ave to be reco g n ized , assim ila ted , and utilized in d ealin g with the problem at hand. S om e type o f integrative organ izational fram ew ork , or m o d e l, therefore is n ecessa ry , not o n ly for personnel reason s, but a lso to satisfy the needs o f graduate stu d en ts, sch olars in other d isc ip lin e s, adm inistrators, and citizen s. T h e m odel that has b een d ev elo p ed in a prelim inary attem pt to co-ord in ate and interpret data and con cep ts from a variety o f different sou rces is describ ed in the e ssa y “ C anadian N ational Parks: R esearch N eed s and M a n a g em en t,” and w ill not be d iscu ssed further here. The m odel is a lso applied in the P a cific R im stu d y. T h e papers in the secon d part o f this v o lu m e a lso se em to reveal a shift aw ay from orientation to rela tiv ely sim p le c a u se and effect think­ ing. in v o lv in g a com p a ra tiv ely sm all num ber o f in flu en ces, toward m ore co m p lex a n a ly sis, in w hich m any interacting variables are con sid ered in a sy stem s-o rien ted fram ew ork. T h u s, the con cep t o f ec o sy ste m takes its p la ce a lo n g sid e that o f landscape. H o w ev er, term s such as la n d scap e, en viron m en t, and eco sy stem tend to be used in this and other research in overlap p in g and rather co n fu sin g w a y s, in part b eca u se the d ifferen ces am on g them often are m ore apparent than real. T he term environm ent has lon g been used not on ly by b io lo g ists and other p h ysical sc ien tists, but a lso by g e o g ­ raphers, an th ro p o lo g ists, and other m em b ers o f m ore so c ia lly or c u l­ turally oriented d iscip lin es. For the p h ysically oriented sch o la rs, the term com p reh en d s air, w ater, nutrients, so il, and other essen tially non-hum an elem en ts in flu en cin g the grow th and distribution o f or­ g a n ism s. T he p h ysical scien tists h ave not used the term as broadly as the geograp h ers and so c io lo g is ts w h o g en erally m ean it to include not on ly p h ysical variables but a lso b u ild in g s, liv in g sp a c e , and other cultural en tities. In the late 19 3 0 ’s , b io lo g ists a lso began to use the word e co sy stem to describe the e lem en ts and p ro cesses interacting with and in flu en cin g an organism or org a n ism s in sp ace and tim e. E ssen tially eco sy stem refers to the elem en ts and p ro cesses that g iv e life to a p lace through tim e. T h e term stresses en erg y flo w , and the c y c lin g o f p h osp h orou s, nitrogen, and other ch em ica ls through s o ils , rock s, w ater, air, plants, and an im a ls, in clu d in g m an. R ecently as b io lo g ists h ave b ecom e more sen sitiv e to hum an e ffe c ts on the sy s te m , and as they have m oved aw ay from their lo n g -tim e ten d en cy to look for “ natural en v iro n m en ts”

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w here plants and an im als cou ld be studied m ore or less “ in d ep en dent" o f m an, they have in crea sin gly exten d ed the con cep t o f eco sy stem and the theory and m ethod o f the sc ie n c e o f e c o lo g y to m inin g, lum bering, and other p ro cesses a sso cia ted with m an. At this point the d ifferen ces b etw een the term s en viron m en t and eco sy stem b eco m e m ore and more d ifficu lt to discern. L andscape is b a sica lly a geograp h ical and architectural con cep t. It refers to the a ssem b la g e o f plants, a n im als, roads, b u ild in gs, clo u d s, and other elem en ts located at or near the earth’s su rface at so m e point in tim e. L andscape a lso at least im p licitly com p reh en d s plant su cc essio n , ero sio n , anim al m igration, trade and com m e rce, and other p h ysical and cultural p ro cesses at w ork at or near the earth's surface at su ch a point in tim e. L andscape traditionally has been a less dyn am ic con cep t than e c o s y ste m , but o b v io u sly is c lo s e ly related to it. Indeed lan d scap e m ay, perhaps, best be c o n c e iv e d o f a s a m anifestation o f the ec o sy ste m at a particular tim e and p la ce. L andscape stresses m o rp h ology, or struc­ ture, m appable fo rm s, and the p h ysical or cultural p ro cesses accou n t­ ing fo r their character and distribution. T he con cep t o f landscape is im portant as it provid es e v id e n c e o f the eco sy ste m and can serve as a b a sis for m anagem en t o f national parks, and other types o f land u se, as is sh ow n in " C an ad ian N ational Parks: R esearch N eed s and M anage­ m e n t.’’ Environm ent L andscape

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c o

Ecosystem Sim ple C onceptual D iagram In general the last tw o papers in this v o lu m e represent the m erging o f h istoric stu d ies o f m an’s e ffe c ts on lan d scap e with the current high lev el o f concern for better m anagem ent o f en viron m en t in Canada and m any other parts o f the w orld . S p e c ific a lly , the tw o papers are c o n ­ cerned w ith environ m en tal im pact a ssessm en t, i.e . with attem pts to

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id en tify, m ea su re, and predict the effects o f m an -in d u ced c h a n g es on the lan d scap es and ec o sy ste m s o f the future. T h ese attem pts raise sign ifican t philosop h ical and procedural q u estion s about planning for the future, w h ich arc touched upon in the first paper “ S om e B ack ­ ground T h ou gh ts on E nvironm ental Im pact S ta tem en ts." T he secon d paper, the last in the v o lu m e , d isc u sse s the proposed tw in n in g o f the T rans-C anada H ig h w a y through B a n ff N ational Park as an ex a m p le o f a critical ev alu ation o f an en viron m en tal im pact assessm en t. H o p efu lly the papers in this v o lu m e dem onstrate the valu e o f research on m an 's e ffe c ts 011 the w orld about him . S uch studies se em to be not o n ly o f general intellectual or acad em ic interest, but a lso o f sig n ifica n ce to p lan nin g, resource m an agem en t, and environ m en tal education in C anada. A sim ilar v iew has been exp ressed for the United States by the A m erican geograp h er M ik esell (2 0 5 , 2 0 6 ) in a recent A m erican A sso cia tio n o f G eograp h ers p u b lication . P erspectives o f E nvironm ent. H e points out that, for m any y ears, the entire field o f traditional g eo g ra p h ic interest know n as m an-land relation s, has been n eglected by U .S . g eo g ra p h ers, at least in part b ecau se o f reactions against the d eterm in istic thinking typical o f the first thirty years o f this century. In this brief introduction, it is im p o ssib le to d iscu ss the rise, fall, and p o ssib le resurgence o f environ m en tal d eterm in ism with its notion o f lim its to human population and a ctivity. H o w ev er, M ik e se ll’s paper and referen ces are availa b le to the interested reader, as are other relevant w ork s, in clu d in g D esign with N ature, by the determ in istic architect and planner, M cH arg. C ertainly at this tim e o f h eigh tened concern about the general health o f the en viron m en t and the future o f m an, m ore study o f m an 's im pact upon and interactions with landscape se em m ost d esirable in Canada.

i M N T $ .\

Figure I: Plains Area

1 M a n a n d L an d sc ap e in the W e ste rn Plains of C a n a d a J . G. Nelson

T H E original agreem ent w as a relatively lo o se o n e, to d o a study o f man and land in western C anada.* O n ce the work b eg a n , problem s o f sc o p e im m ed ia tely arose. W hat span o f tim e sh ou ld be co v ere d by the study? S h ou ld the em p h a sis be put on the traditional approach o f en viron m en ­ tal in flu en ce on man and m an's in flu en ce on en viron m en t? H o w far sh ou ld o n e be co n cern ed with p h ilosop h ical q u estion s? W hat is en viron m en t? H o w d o es it differ from landscape? Can w e really think e ffe c tiv e ly about man as distinct from environm ent or landscape? S h ou ld w e u se another approach, perhaps an e c o lo g ic a l, com m u n ity, or sy stem s approach o f the kind recently stressed by various g e o g ­ raphers (2 0 7 . 6 3 )? And there are a lso q u estion s o f area. W estern Canada is a h u g e place! E ven W arkentin’s " w estern interior o f C an ad a" is a ch a llen g e in term s o f siz e and v o lu m e o f relevant material (3 1 7 ). In arbitrary resolu tion o f these d iffic u ltie s, this essen tia lly nonp h ilo so p h ica l essa y is co n cern ed with so m e a sp ects o f m an’s im pact on the landscape o f the w estern plains area, prim arily during the nineteenth century. T h e w estern plains area is taken as roughly corre­ spondent w ith central and southern A lberta and southeastern S ask atch ­ ew an (Figure I). T he term lan d scap e is used m ore or less in the Sauerian se n se (2 7 0 ) o r in the se n se o f the “ fa c e o f the e a rth " in th e M a n 's R ole v o lu m e (3 0 6 ). H o w ev er, the essa y is broader than the previou s state­ m ent su g g ests in that C aucasian settlem ent and occu p an ce are d is­ c u sse d , albeit b riefly and rather s e le c tiv e ly , as are m any asp ects o f what m ight be called the hum an geograp h y o f the w estern interior o f C anada. S uch an ela stic co v era g e se em in g ly is n ecessary for reasona­ b le understanding o f the main them e and area. T he approach has the advantage o f p roviding a substantial b od y o f inform ation and o f en u n ­ cia tin g or im p ly in g research top ics or them es pertinent to the western plains as w ell as other areas. T h i s e ssa y w as w ritten in resp o n se to an in v itatio n to prep are a p a p er for inclusion in the C en ten n ial issue o f the C a n a d ia n G e o g ra p h e r, x l , 4 (1967): 251-264 19

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T h e C a u c a s ia n In v a sio n At the b egin n ing o f the nineteenth century the n atives o f the w estern p lain s and ad join in g areas w ere in the m idst o f ch a n g es brought about by the appearance o f the w hite man and his culture ( 3 2 9 ). H o w lon g the Indians had been on the plains is uncertain. A rch a eo lo g ica l fin d s and old er C - 14 dates in areas to the south in the U nited States su g g est a very lon g habitation. H o w ev er, the old est occu p an ce date so far ob tain ed in Alberta is 1 1 ,0 0 0 years at the B ayrock site near T aber, A lberta. The date d erives from w o o d found near the sk u ll o f an extin ct sp e c ie s o f b iso n . W ithin the sk u ll w as a co b b le ch op p in g tool. T he skeletal rem ains o f an infant a lso h ave been d iscovered beneath glacial till at the Stalk er site in the T aber area, but the age o f this find is uncertain. T h e q u estion o f h o w and w hen early man first entered A lberta and region therefore rem ain s o p en . W orm ington and Forbis (3 2 9 ) ou tlin e a series o f stages through w hich man d evelop ed upon his re-entry after the last g la cia tio n . A s in other parts o f the northern p lain s, three broad sta g es seem to predate the H istoric; these W orm ington and Forbis call the P aleo-In d ian , the M eso-In d ian , and the N eo-In d ian . T he b egin ­ n in g s o f the earliest sta g e o b v io u sly must be h a zy , but it is said to en d at about 2 ,5 0 0 B .C . The stage is characterised by w ell-m a d e lan ceolate points w h ich w ere used in the hunting o f b ig g a m e , ancestral form s o f b iso n , and other an im als n o w extin ct. T he n e x tsta g e , the M eso-In d ian , is sa id to exten d from 2 ,5 0 0 B .C . to about a . d . 6 0 0 , and to be charac­ terized by the production o f a variety o f large stem m ed and notched p oin ts. D uring this sta g e, p eo p le in parts o f the northern p lain s se em to h ave put so m ew h a t le s s em p h a sis on b ig -g a m e hunting and m ore on the gatherin g o f fo o d p lan ts, but this apparently did not occu r in A lberta. In the third sta g e, the N eo -In d ian , w hich began about a . d . 6 0 0 , m ost p rojectile tips w ere sm a ll, light arrow p oin ts. T h e hunting em p hasis w as on the m odern b ison . W orm ington and Forbis b e lie v e that there w as an in tensification o f Indian occu p ation and an elaboration o f Indian culture in N eo-Indian tim es. T h ey ad van ce the h y p o th esis that these ch an ges arose from the late, sp ec ia lize d , and productive d evelop m en t o f the b u ffalo ju m p , a form o f anim al drive in w hich the b ison or other an im als w ere driven over a c l i f f rather than into a w ood en en closu re or pound for slaughter. “ W ith this tech n iq u e the Indians were provided with the relatively certain m ethod o f producing su p p lies o f m eat and raw m aterials for clo th in g and sh elter far in e x c e s s o f what they cou ld c o n su m e. T hick b on e layers at m any jum p sites clearly in d icate that vast num bers o f an im a ls, running in to tens o r hundreds o f th ou san d s, if not m illio n s, w ere left to rot and s p o il.’ ’

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W orm ington and Forbis co n clu d e from the foregoin g that the Indian “ harboured no notion o f co n se r v a tio n .” H o w ev er, early buffalo p opulations have been estim ated in the tens o f m illion s. T he question therefore arises as to what con servation al thought and p ractice m ight be ex p ected w hen a resource w as s o very p len tifu l, perhaps as all pervad­ ing as air or w ater w as o n ce for us! Later o n , in the nineteenth and tw entieth cen tu ries, the Indians w ere said to b e resp onsib le for e x c e s ­ siv e slaughter o f in crea sin g ly scarce b iso n , m ountain sh ee p , and other a n im als, but their role and attitudes in the d ep letion p rocess are not clea r and certainly w orthy o f further research. T h e end for the N eo-In d ian began with the com in g o f the w hite m an’s g o o d s, w h ich , by trade and other m ean s, preceded h is actual entry into western C anada. W hen the First w h ites penetrated the w est they often found the form erly pedestrian n atives u sing h orses, g u n s, and m etals, with the latter q u ick ly d isp la cin g their traditional stone to o ls. A cco rd in g to W orm ington and F orbis, this ch an ge in to o ls occurred so q u ick ly as to create a gap b etw een the early tribes w h ich w e k n o w by a rch aeological study o f ston e to o ls and the later tribes d e­ scribed in the historical literature. A ttem p ts to link arch aeological and h istoric Indians presum ably w ou ld be further com p licated by their d isp lacem en t during w h ite ad van ce. N ot all such m ovem en ts appear to have b een traced in d etail. T h e B la ck fo o t, the A ssin ib o in e, the S n ak e, and other western p la in s’ tribes all have shifted con sid erab ly in the last 2 5 0 years or s o ( 8 9 , 3 2 9 ). A lthough other con sid eration s su ch as the rom an ticized search for the w estern sea are in v o lv ed ( 7 2 ), w hite m ovem en t into the western plains w a s c lo s e ly lin k ed to the fur trade (1 3 1 ). T he French were active in the upper Great L akes country in the mid to late 1 6 0 0 's. Joliet and M arquette reached the M ississip p i and the m outh o f the M issouri in the early 1 6 7 0 ’s . La V erendrye w as a ctiv e in the lake country o f co n tem ­ porary w estern O ntario in the early d ecad es o f the eigh teen th century and estab lish ed p osts on Lake W in n ipeg and the A ssin ib o in e R iver. B y the 1 7 5 0 ’s the French w ere operating p osts on the North S ask atch ew an , a river w h ich o v er the next hundred years and m ore w as to serv e as the m ajor artery o f su b sisten ce and co m m erce for the exp a n d in g fur trade. From York Factory and the N elso n R iver sy stem , and from M ontreal, the Great L a k es, and Lake W in n ip eg , b u lky York b o a ts, and sv e lte ca n o es w ere used to m ove su p p lies and furs a lo n g the river and b ey o n d , to p la ces such as Lake A thabasca in the north and the C olu m b ia R iver country w est o f the R ock y M ou n tain s. But m uch o f this w as in the future in the m iddle o f the eigh teen th cen tu ry, w h en the E n glish began sen d in g m en to the North S ask atch ew an v a lley and the p lains, apparently to counteract French interferen ce with Indian trade

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to H u d so n 's B ay. A H u d so n ’s Bay C om p any e m p lo y e e , A n thon y H en d ay. se e m s to h ave been the first to reach the R ock y M ountain fo o th ills, although the w an d erin gs o f h is French Canadian p red ecessors are v a g u e. O thers such as W illiam P ink, Jam es G ad d y, and M atthew C o ck in g fo llo w ed him on to the plains as the com p etition b etw een the fur co m p a n ies built up in the I 7 6 0 ’s , I7 7 0 ’s , and I 7 8 0 ’s; P ond 's H ou se. H udson H o u se, M anchester H ou se, and other p osts all b ein g estab lish ed in these years. T h e jou rn als o f H enday and C o ck in g have b een published ( 2 4 ), but the a ctiv ities, routes and role o f others in ex p lo rin g and o p en in g the w estern p lain s are not w ell k n ow n . T h e fur co m p a n ie s tended to fo llo w o n e another up river to n ew territory, the p osts ad van cin g in grou p s, co m p etin g in tensely for the furs o f the regio n . B eaver, for the hats o f E u rop e, w as the prim e com m od ity in the early years. A lthough not too m any detailed stu d ies seem to be a v aila­ b le , it has been said that the traders m ined a region s o rapidly that it w as ruined for fur in about seven years (2 0 9 ). In the 1 7 8 0 ’s and 17 9 0 's the fur traders began to m ake con certed e fforts to estab lish p osts in central and southern A lberta and in southern S ask atch ew an . O n e line o f approach w as from the North Sask atch ­ ew a n . south a lo n g the eastern ed g e o f the fo o th ills to v a lley s such as the B o w and the H igh w o o d . D avid T h om p son m ade su ch a trip in 1787 and w intered with the Indians in the B o w V a lley (1 0 5 , 3 0 8 ). Peter Fidler fo llo w e d him in 1792, w in terin g in the H igln vood and jou rn eyin g to the O ldm an R iver and w est into the m ountains b efore returning in the spring o f 1793 (9 0 ). A nother lin e o f approach w as alon g the Sou th Branch o f the S ask atch ew an R iver (9 1 , 179). O ne o f the early posts w a s South Branch H o u se, built in 1786 but d estroyed by the Indians in 1794. C hesterfield H o u se, at the Junction o f the Red D eer and South B ranch, w a s esta b lish ed by Peter F idler in 1800-1801 and he and so m e Cana­ dian com p etitors a lso appear to h ave traded at this site during the fo llo w in g w inter. N orth w est C om p any traders under John M cD on ald o f G arth, and so m e H u d so n 's B ay C om p any m en did b u sin ess there in 1 8 0 5 -1 8 0 6 , but no p osts are kn ow n afterw ards until 1822 (1 9 0 ). O n e o f the m ain problem s w as the h ostility o f the p la in s’ Indians, notably the Fall or Gros V en tres. It w as the Fall Indians w h o w ip ed out all but one o f the e m p lo y ees at South Branch H o u se in 17 9 4 and participated in the harassm ent o f F idler and h is C anadian com p etitors in 18 0 0 and 1801. M cD on ald w as a lso bothered, h avin g so m e m en k illed by an unknow n tribe during the trip out in the sp rin g o f 1806. A nother problem w as g ettin g the quantity o f furs that the fur traders desired . T h e reports o f m en su ch as F id ler, and th e jou rn als o f posts such as South Branch H o u se, su ggest that con sid erab le num bers o f b eaver, f o x , w o lf, and other sk in s were secu red at tim es. On the

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other hand the distribution and siz e o f these anim al p op u lation s, n ota­ b ly the b eaver and other are uncertain. T h e ob servation s o f Fidler and others do in d icate, h o w ev er, that b eaver p op u lation s w ere high in at least so m e o f the poplar “ w o o d s” stretching d iscon tin u ou sly a lo n g the South Branch. A nother p roblem w hich co m p lic a tes a ssessm en t o f early anim al p op u la tio n s w as the apparent d isin clin ation o f the B lack foot and other p lain s’ Indians to hunt for furs, particularly th ose o f riverine an im als. M ost o f their trade w a s in w o lf and fo x . And ev en w ith this the traders com p la in ed that the plain s' Indian w as d ifficu lt to incorporate into the fur trad e.H e w as lab elled as “ in d ep en d en t,” preferring to ch a se the vast herds o f b u ffa lo , e lk , a n telo p e, and other gam e from w hich he cou ld sa tisfy h is wants: m eat, fresh , dried, or m ade into p em m ican , le g g in g s, m o cca sin s, and other clo th in g , warm rob es for w in ter, horns for u se as con tainers, sin ew for strin g, and rope and sk in s for the teep ees in w hich he m ade h is h om e during h is w anderings o ver the land. In 1 8 2 2 , the H u d so n 's Bay C om p any m ade a bold attem pt to try to esta b lish the fur trade in southern A lberta and S ask atch ew an , as w ell as the nearby areas in present-day M ontana, by sen d in g the B o w R iver E xp ed ition d ow n the South S ask atch ew an R iver (2 3 1 ). T h is strong party, co n sistin g o f o v er one hundred m en , w a s led by exp erien ced leaders su ch as D on ald M cK en zie and John R ow an d . Y et the group w as con tin u a lly harassed and threatened by hundreds o f Indians w h o cam e and w ent for trade, w ar. and other reasons during the cou rse o f the w inter. In the spring the traders left and no w h ites from the Canadian sid e o f the border se em to have operated p osts there until 1871. w hen Isaac C o w ie m anaged a h ou se in the C yp ress H ills for the H u d son 's B ay C om p any for o n e w inter (5 9 ). H o w ev er, there is little doubt that the M etis were in creasingly a ctiv e in the Southern plains in the d ecad es b etw een 1822 and 1871. In d eed , the M etis m ay have begun to enter the region for trade purposes on a regular basis in the early 180 0 ’s, fo llo w in g the abortive estab lish ­ m ent o f C h esterfield H o u se. A lth ou gh sh ortlived , this post g a v e som e o f F id ler's m ixed b lood s a ch an ce to m ake con tact with the Indians. S o m e are know n to h ave g o n e to live with the B la ck fo o t, at least tem porarily, at that tim e. M any o f these M etis, and the Indians them ­ s e lv e s , b eca m e hunters o f b ison rather than fur, deliverers o f m eat to the p osts a lo n g the North S ask atch ew an in particular. M uch o f the m eat w as m anufactured into p em m ican and distributed to the b rigades m o v ­ ing alon g the river in spring and fa ll, carrying fur or su p p lies. T h ese b rigades were g o in g to o q u ick ly to hunt, or to distant p osts in the north, w here fish and other so u rces did not su p p ly the great quantities o f food that cou ld be extracted from the p lains. T hus the b ison herds o f the

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south served a s a pillar o f the trade until w h ite settlem en t began in earnest later in the century. W hatever the situation on the Canadian sid e , the A m ericans b eca m e more and m ore active in the upper M issouri cou n try, and the nearby plains and m ountains in the years b etw een 1804 and 1871. L e w is and Clark and their party o f about thirty m en staked the A m eri­ can interest during their exp ed ition to the P acific and return in 1804, 1 8 0 5 . and 1806 (5 3 ). S o m e o f the participants were drawn back by the country and its fur and b ecam e part o f the various fur com p an ies operating in the M issouri v a lle y , and even tu ally in the R o ck ies, during the years 1 8 0 7 -1 8 4 0 (4 1 ). T h e A m erican s en countered strong resis­ tance from the B la ck fo o t and other Indians, but p ersisted , even tu ally esta b lish in g p osts and settlem en ts such as Fort U nion and gradually w earin g the Indian d ow n by w ar, d ise a se , and other m ean s. T o what exten t the southern and w estern plains o f Canada w ere in the trade area o f enterprises such as the A m erican Fur C om p any during the 18 3 0 ’s and 1 8 4 0 's is. h o w ev er, not en tirely clear. T h e B lack foot se em to have oriented quite stron gly to the M issouri p o sts, but no study has been m ade o f the over-a ll trade pattern o f the Indians, or o f their relations with Canadian p osts during th ese years. The M etis se em to have m oved rather freely b etw een A m erican and Canadian p o sts, and s o through the region o f the M issou ri-S ou th S ask atch ew an v a lle y s, regardless o f any im aginary border. In 1848. P alliser w a s guided in his solitary ram bles on the plains by a M etis w h o seem ed quite fam iliar with the area g en era lly east o f the C yp ress H ills (2 5 2 ). By 1850 the interests o f variou s g overn m en ts w ere su fficien tly aroused that ex p ed itio n s w ere sent from the U nited S ta tes. E ngland, and C anada to ex p lo re the w estern p lain s, the A m erican and English parties being particularly interested in routes for railroads. T h e A m eri­ can su rv ey for the northern railroad route w as d irected by Isaac S teven s and travelled through m uch o f the M issou ri, the R o ck ies, and the country w est to the P acific in the early 1 8 5 0 's (3 1 0 ). V arious m em bers o f the E n glish ex p ed itio n under John P alliser covered m uch o f western C anada from present-day M anitoba to eastern British C olu m b ia in 1 8 5 7 -1 8 5 9 ( 2 5 3 ). T h e C anadian govern m en t sent Henry Y o u le Hind into present-day w estern O ntario, M an itoba, and S ask atch ew an at about the sam e tim e (1 2 3 ). M uch geograp h ical inform ation is c o n ­ tained in the various reports o f these e x p ed itio n s, with several im ­ proved m aps o f the w estern plains area b ein g o n e result, although blank sp ots rem ained in the so u th w est, the d om ain o f the B lack foot and other p la in s’ tribes. A co m b in a tio n o f factors se em to have cau sed a breakthrough into the w estern plains in the late 1 8 5 0 's, 18 6 0 ’s and 18 7 0 ’s (2 8 1 . 180). G old w as d isco v ered in M ontana and other areas to the w est o f the

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m oun tain s. There fo llo w e d a w a v e o f prospectors and m iners into the p lain s, fo o th ills, and m ountains o f what is n ow eastern British C o lu m ­ bia and western A lberta. T he num ber o f these m en . their routes and e ffe c ts arc not w ell k n ow n (2 6 7 ). A nother factor w as d ise a s e , a tantalizin gly interesting but in su fficien tly studied in flu en ce on w estern C an­ adian settlem en t and d ev elo p m en t. The B lack foot and other p la in s’ tribes su ffered from a num ber o f outbreaks during the years o f w hite ad van ce, the ep id em ic o f 1781 apparently k illin g about tw o-thirds o f tribes su ch as the B la ck fo o t. T h e outbreaks o f 18 3 7 and 1869 a lso were very se v ere am ong m any p lain s' tribes, with the last o n e probably being a fundam ental b lo w to B lack foot p ow er, w hich se em in g ly had been in stead y d eclin e for about a d eca d e. A third factor in the breakthrough w as a m ajor sp illo v er o f A m erican settlem en t. For d ecad es A m erican traders and trappers had been trading in the southern Canadian p lains, but their pressure se e m s to have b eco m e particularly strong in the 1 8 6 0 's w h en a num ber o f p osts w ere estab lish ed by so called “ w h isk y trad ers,” and southern A lberta earned the d esign ation " W h o o p -U p C o u n try .” T he p ow er o f the H u d son ’s Bay C om p any a lso w as w aning fast at this tim e, w ith Rupert's Land b ein g transferred to Canadian control in 1870. T h e Canadian govern m en t w as thus left with such basic p ro b lem s as the transgression o f A m erican settlem en t onto what w a s n ow C anadian so il. T h in gs ca m e to a head w ith the s o called C yp ress H ills m assacre o f 1873. A group o f A m erica n s, w h o felt that their h orses had b een stolen by the Indians en g a g ed in battle with so m e A ssin ib o in e s, w h o m ay or m ay not have been the gu ilty party. O ne A m erican and a num ber o f Indians w ere k illed . T h e battle and the killing occurred on Canadian so il and nationalistic feelin g s w ere aroused. E ventu ally the North W est M ounted P o lice w ere sent to bring law and order and Canadian so v ereig n ty to the w estern p lain s (7 0 , 2 8 3 ). T h ey m arched from the Red R iver and W in n ipeg area in 18 7 4 and after a trek o f m any m onths reached the O ldm an R iver o n ly to find that, for the m ost part, the A m erican s had d isp ersed . In the fo llo w in g m onths and years the North W est M ounted P o lice estab lish ed m any posts throughout western C anada. S o m e o f these p o sts, like Fort W alsh in the C ypress H ills, w ere su b seq u en tly abandoned and largely forgotten . O thers, lik e F oil M a cleo d , h ave g ro w n , with so m e stru g g le, to sm all tow n s or e v e n to large citie s like C algary. The sam e is true o f the trails, although their form er g eograp h y is v a g u e. S o m e se em to be m ore or less p aralleled by contem porary h ig h w a y s such as route 2 to E dm onton; others h ave disappeared or been relegated to a lesser role. T he late I8 6 0 's . I8 7 0 's and the early I8 8 0 's were transitional years. T h e fur trade, with its scattered settlem en ts and its m aintenance o f w id e op en sp a ces am en able to the nom adic hunting life o f the Indian

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and the M etis, w as d isap p earin g. For the Indian in the next ten to fifteen years the p rocess w as o n e o f in creasing co n fin em en t and the sig n in g o f treaties relegatin g them to reservation lands. For the M etis the story w as sim ilar. T h ese p eop le se e m to h ave m oved from the fur trade post and the w hite w orld into that o f the Indian relatively freely, to have b een the practitioners or forerunners o f the fur trade in areas w here w hite p osts w ere not esta b lish ed , eith er b e c a u se o f Indian h o stility or b eca u se attem pts had not been m ade. T hroughout the greater part o f the n in eteen th century so m e o f them lived at the Red R iver co lo n y and d ev o ted th e m selv es in part to cu ltivation and in part to the life o f the nom ad and the b u ffa lo hunt. O thers lived aw ay from the Red River v a lley , out on the p lain s, w intering at m ysteriou s sites in the relatively m o ist, treed v a lley s and h igh lan d s, su ch as B atoch e on the South S ask atch ew an or East End in the C yp ress H ills. Like the Indians, the M etis had trouble in fin d in g a p lace in the C anadian sc h e m e o f things. A diaspora, rather vague in s iz e , ex ten t, and geograp h ical detail, occurred after the failure o f the first rebellion in 1 8 6 9 -1 8 7 0 and also after the seco n d in 1885. M any M etis fled to the U nited States or the further reaches o f the w est w h ere they con tinu ed to hunt, to be slo w ly integrated into C anadian or A m erican so c ie ty , or to be driven into the relatively free north during the latter part o f the nineteenth and the early tw entieth cen tu ries. (1 0 2 , 103).

R esearch T hem es T h e d eclin e o f the Indian and the M etis w as accom p an ied by the d isappearance or d ep letion o f various kinds o f w ild life . O n ly the story o f the b u ffa lo se e m s relatively w ell k n ow n , although largely on the b a sis o f stu d ies o f the A m erican rather than the C anadian situation (2 6 5 . 16). By the I8 7 0 's the anim al se e m s to have been elim in ated or driven from the eastern section o f the w estern interior so that M etis from the Red R iver v a lle y had to con d u ct their great hunts far out on the p lain s, as far as the neigh b ourhood o f the C yp ress H ills in co n tem p o ­ rary southern A lberta. T he final throes o f the b u ffalo appear to have b een rapid with the lo n g -tim e pressure o f th e fur trade, the Indians, the M etis, com m ercial hide hunters, the railroads, and other in flu en ces all b ein g in v o lv ed in its d isappearance as a w ild anim al by the early 1880%. A very fundam ental force for ch an ge w as the co m in g o f the railroad. S u rveyors for the C .P .R . w ere w ork in g under the d irection o f Sir Sandford F lem in g throughout the plains and ad join in g m oun tain s in the early I8 7 0 's ( 9 3 ). T h e railroad itself w as constructed in the early 1 8 8 0 's, h avin g a variety o f e ffe c ts on land u se and landscape w hich

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h ave not been thorough ly stu d ied . T he d evelop m en t o f agriculture and the o p en in g o f the w est o w e m uch to the railroad, although the history o f agriculture is an old o n e in the w estern interior, for sm all vegetab le gardens w ere part o f m any an early fur-trade p ost. A ls o , a range o f grains and v eg eta b les h ave been grow n in the Red R iver v a lley s sin c e at least the tim e o f Selkirk in the early 18 0 0 ’s. And w hen the early railroad su rveyors and the M ounted P o lice cam e in the early I8 7 0 's they found agricultural settlers here and there in v a lley s such as the O ldm an. T h e d ev elo p m en t o f the cattle industry still se e m s to d eserve geograp h ical attention. T h e H u d son ’s B ay C om p any records refer to im portations o f sm all num bers o f cattle in the early 1 8 0 0 's. A udubon m en tion s M etis m o v in g ca ttle about in the M issouri v a lley in the 1 8 4 0 ’s (5 . 177). John M cD o u g a ll. (1 9 8 , 199, 2 0 0 ), the m ission ary, trailed cattle from Fort Benton north to the B ow v a lle y in the early I 8 7 0 ’s. C attle and the c o w b o y tradition were certainly in the A lberta footh ills and southern plains in the 1 8 7 0 ’s and early 1 8 8 0 ’s , sp illin g o ver from the in crea sin g ly w ell-sto ck ed ranges o f M ontana. A lthough British and other in flu en ces did c o m e in . alon g with C anadian in n ovation and c h a n g e , m uch o f the character o f Canadian ranch life , lore, and land­ sca p e se e m in g ly stem s from the tradition o f the A m erican w est, which in turn w as d erived in part from S panish traditions in the A m erican south and sou th w est (1 4 5 . 3 0 2 , 175, 180). T h e style o f ranching w a s op en ran ge, w ith cattle grazing on un fen ced crow n land. T he ranches were private or com p an y o w n ed , w ith the c o w b o y " r e p ” b ein g the agent for h is ranch at the big co -o p era tiv e roundup. H o w ev er, the system w as sh ort-lived , for the railroad op en ed the w a y to the introduction o f large num bers o f cu l­ tivators or farm ers. T he few soon b ecam e tens and hundreds o f thou san d s as their introduction proved to be m ore and m ore a matter o f national p o licy in the 1 8 9 0 's and 190 0 ’s. A s in the U nited S tates, they were a llo w ed to settle on p h y sica lly unknow n areas, w here s o ils were often poor and the clim a te se v e r e , or on farm units o f doubtful siz e for su c c e ss . In m ost areas, the peak se em in g ly w as reached so m e tim e in the early I 9 0 0 ’s. In the p ro cess, the open range w as largely cut up by p lo u g h s and fen ced for farm s, m any o f w h ich lasted for o n ly a few years before b ein g am algam ated into larger u nits or reverting back to range or ranch. S ca n d in a v ia n s, G erm ans, U krainians, and other ethnic grou p s and n ation alities were in volved in the settlem en t p rocess and in the adaptation to lim ited and uncertain rainfall through su m m er fa llo w ­ ing and other dry farm ing tech n iq u es. R elatively few stu d ies o f these grou p s, their varyin g settlem en t p olicies-an d p ractices, and their g e o ­ graphical e ffe c ts , h ave been carried out (3 1 6 ). T hroughout the 1 8 9 0 ’s and early I9 0 0 ’s , the settlers tried to work out so m e adjustm ent to their en viron m en t, their problem not o n ly being

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s o ils , clim a te and drought. T h ey w ere bothered to an uncertain d egree by lo cu sts and in sect p ests. Fire w as a great problem (2 5 9 , 2 1 1 ). A lthou gh lightning w as often a ca u se , prairie b la zes were started ca relessly by settlers, cam p ers, railroad e n g in e s, and for a variety o f other reasons. On the in co m p letely cu ltivated prairie such fires could burn, uninterrupted for m iles and often d estroyed hay, crop s, h o m es, and even human liv e s. In m any ca ses the fires d estroyed farm eq u ip ­ ment and w hatever h ead w ay the settlers had m ade, often driving them from the land. N ot surprisingly therefore, fires were b asic to the earliest leg isla tio n introduced in the C anadian w est, with various con trols, such as the p lou gh in g o f fireguards alon g railroad track s, or fines for ca r e le ssn e ss, b ein g stipulated. W in d s, H oods, and other p ro cesses a lso were a hazard to the early settlers w h o , alon g with g overn m en t, early began to d ev elo p tech n iqu es to com bat th em , so m etim e s su c c e ssfu lly , so m etim e s not, in a battle that con tin u es up to the present. T o w n s such as Fort M a cleo d se em to have had to be abandoned at various tim es b eca u se o f flo o d in g and a cco m p a n y in g channel ero sio n . E lsew h ere, as in C algary, a m ore gradual a ccom m od ation w as w orked out through the con stru ction o f d a m s, le v e e s , in fillin g o f the ch an n el, and other m ean s, in a story that rem ains largely untold. T he im pact o f man on w ild life con tinu ed to in crease in the 18 9 0 's and 1 9 0 0 's. The early settler often w a s d ependent on the g a m e o f the region for su b sisten ce, particularly in winter. The rancher and the farm er both seem to h ave seen certain kinds o f gam e as in com patib le with their en d s. T h e g rizzly , form erly abundant on the p lain s, appar­ en tly w as g o n e ev en from treed n ich es such as the C yp ress H ills, by the late I8 8 0 ’s or early 1 8 9 0 's. M any ranchers did not even se e the bear but o n ly the scars he carved on h orses ridden by those c o w b o y s w h o w ent out to la sso him in the g a m e so w ell portrayed by the fam ou s A m erican co w b o y artist, C h arles R u ssell. D etailed stu d ies o f their num bers and distribution are c o n sp icu o u s by their rarity, but on e gain s the im p res­ sion that the great herds o f elk and a n telop e seen by Peter Fidler in the early I8 0 0 's se em in g ly w ere all but g o n e from the S outh S askatchew an v a lle y and other nearby areas by the early 1 9 0 0 's. E a g les, vultures, w o lv e s , c o y o te s , the fo x , w aterfow l, all fell in creasin gly before the hea v y hand o f settlem en t. On the other hand, in the late d ecad es o f the nineteenth and early tw entieth cen tu ries, there grew an increasing concern for the preservation and con servation o f w ild life . V ery ffiw d etails o f this co n cern are a v a ila b le, although attem pts w ere m ade to estab lish such co n tro ls as season al hunting lim its, a bag lim it, and a prohibition on the hunting o f certain an im als. M any o f these ideas seem to be tied to sim ilar d ev elo p m en ts in the U nited States. T h e years after 1900 are not o f primary interest here. H ow ever, they are full o f ch a llen g in g to p ics for the geographer. The cu ltivators

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con tinu ed to h a v e d ifficu lties. Farm abandonm ent w as com m on as w ere stead y in creases in farm siz e . S c ie n c e and tech n o lo g y were in creasingly applied to agricultural land use. In th is co n n ectio n it w ould be interesting to trace ch a n g es in ideas and attitu des, fo r e x a m p le , what appears to have b een a ch a n g e from the idea o f the in sect as a pest to the idea o f in sec ticid es as a m enace. A nother th em e, w h ich has b eco m e in creasin gly im portant in the late nineteenth and tw entieth cen tu ries, is that o f C anadian-A m erican relation s. In p rev io u s d iscu ssio n , several ex a m p les have been g iv en o f the penetration o f the A m erican p e o p le , their id ea s, m eth o d s, land-use patterns, and effe cts into m in in g, ran ch in g, and oth er a ctiv ities in the C anadian w est. A n other e x a m p le is w ater, o f w h ich study irrigation is an interesting branch. S tu d ies o f the historical geograp h y o f western C anadian irrigation d istricts cou ld an sw er a n um ber o f q u estio n s not on ly about land u se and landscape ch an ge but a lso A m erican in flu en ce on p o licy and the d ev elo p m en t o f the C anadian irrigation en terprise. To what d egree is Canadian irrigation procedure a product o f eth n ic groups su ch as the M orm on s? For that m atter, what w a s the general in flu en ce o f groups such as the M orm on s on w estern C anadian agricultural land use? T o what exten t w ere the A m erican s resp on sib le for the introduc­ tion o f sugar b eets or o f other irrigation cro p s, p ractices, and m eth o d o lo g y ? W hat h as b een the A m erican in flu en ce on w ater law in the C anadian p lain s? H ow d o es the govern m en tal role in irrigation com p are in the U nited S tates and Canada? What p olicies and proce­ dures h ave been fo llo w e d in the starting o f irrigation d ev elo p m en ts and what have their e ffe c ts been? H ow has the su itab ility o f land been d eterm in ed prior to d ev elo p m en t in both cou n tries? W hat e ffe c ts have C anadian d istricts had on e c o n o m ic and social d evelop m en t and on the landscape in com p a riso n to th ose in the U nited S tates, or. for that m atter, in other sem i-arid areas? Q u estio n s sim ilar to the foregoin g c o u ld b e asked about other ty p es o f w ater u se and about other resources as w ell. T h e years after 1900 a lso sa w the d evelop m en t o f various a g e n c ie s, such a s the P. F .R .A .. w h o se in flu en ce on land u se and landscape ch a n g e rem ains largely unstudied. O ther a g e n c ie s, w hich began to work in the nineteenth century or earlier, often con tin u ed to play an im portant role. For ex a m p le , the C .P .R . w as in v o lv ed in ev ery th in g , from the distribution o f m igrants through to the d e v e lo p ­ m ent o f irrigation, urban areas, and national parks. Industries such as o il and gas a lso grew after the turn o f the century and m ade u n assessed d em and s on w ater and other a sp ects o f landscape. Industrialization and urbanization b eca m e m ore and m ore im portant, with such attendant problem s as w ater a llo ca tio n and p ollu tion . A ll these thin gs seem to h a v e led to less co n cern about con q u est o f the en viron m en t, a basic

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them e o f the nineteenth and early tw entieth cen tu ries ( 1 8 1 ), and to m uch more con cern about con trollin g m an's im pact on the land. A nother c h a n g e, w h ich really began in the nineteenth but cam e to fruition in the tw entieth cen tu ry, w as the creation o f large b lo ck s o f pu b lic land. T h e gam ut in clu d es national parks, the p rovincial parks, m ilitary reserves, grazin g d istricts, w ild life p reserves, and Indian re­ se rv es. T o what d eg ree w ere m isu se o f land, the d evelop m en t o f con servation al id ea s, agricultural failu re, the prospect o f eco n o m ic g a in s, and other unknow n in flu en ces resp on sib le for their estab lish ­ m ent and for ch a n g es in bou n daries, land u se. and landscape through the years? H ow have their use and valu e ch an ged through tim e? W hat is to be their situ ation to d a y , and in the future, w h en tech n o lo g ica l ad v a n ce, population g ro w th , in creases in leisu re , and other factors have ch an ged the nature o f the d em and s to be m ade upon them ? S o m e w ork on public reserves has been d on e in C anada. S tu d ies o f lan d scap e-ch an ge in B a n ff N ational Park sh o w that this area is not the " u n to u ch ed la n d sca p e" o f national parks p u b lication s, h aving been cut o v er, m ined, lum bered, and oth erw ise m od ified by the w hite man notably during the nineteenth and early tw en tieth cen tu ries (2 3 3 ). B ey o n d their a ca d em ic interest, such fin d in gs h ave im portant im plica­ tions for plan nin g. For o n e thin g, the pu b lic can n ot think o f p rop osals for road co n stru ctio n , h y d ro-electric d ev elo p m en ts, or other " im ­ p ro v em en ts" in the national parks as in v o lv in g reserves little used hitherto by m an. On the contrary such p rop osals in v o lv e ch an ge in or lo ss o f w ild land built up from a lo w ebb during the p ion eer d a y s o f the nineteenth cen tu ry. For another th in g , hum an e ffe c ts on national park lan d scap es h ave been u n even and this sh ou ld be taken into accou n t by p lanners. T h u s, if zo n in g is to be instituted, it w ou ld seem sen sib le for those areas least m o d ified by man to b e con sid ered as prim e can d id ates for prim itive or " w ild e r n e ss " status rather than to be d ev elo p ed for m ore in ten siv e u se through in stallation o f facilities such as roads, m o te ls, and g as sta tio n s, with the attendant p ollu tion associated with su ch ch a n g es. \ A nother th em e w orthy o f research is the ch an gin g im pact o f man in urban areas. In the nineteenth and early tw entieth cen tu ries, the v illa g es and to w n s o f the w estern plains se em to h ave been q uite narrow in fu n ction , m ainly agricultural cen tres, sm all in s iz e , rate o f grow th , effe c ts on the la n d scap e. M any w ere railroad tow n s w h ich g rew around the sta tio n , the tracks and, in so m e ca se s around tax-preferred lands. T od ay the situation is quite d ifferen t. T h e industrial function has b eco m e in crea sin g ly varied and im portant, the to w n s and c itie s m uch larger, lo w d en sity , often q u ick -grow in g un its, w h o se con su m p tion o f sp a ce , production o f w a ste, and other effe cts on rivers and other parts o f the lan d scap e is n o w a w id esp read problem often requiring large

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3I

am ounts o f m o n ey for a m elioration . V ery few stu d ies have been undertaken o f the d ev elo p m en t o f these urban areas and these prob­ lem s, o f the cultural and legal fram ew ork w ithin w h ich they a rose, or o f the sp a tia l, e c o n o m ic , so c ia l, and e c o lo g ic a l im p lication s i f present trends con tinu e in future. T h is essa y m ay at tim es h ave se em e d ram bling and in co m p lete, a n ecessary result, perhaps, o f the d esire to g iv e con sid erab le inform a­ tion on the occu p a n ce o f the w estern p lain s an d . at the sam e tim e, to raise m any q u estion s and stim u late stu d y, all in the span o f a few thousand w ords. The sc o p e for research o b v io u sly is great. Indeed, en ou g h em p hasis p robably has not been placed on the real paucity o f cultural and historical g eo g ra p h ic stu d ies o f any period, p lace, or hum an activity in w estern Canada as a w h o le . A s W ood has recently pointed o u t, with reference to A lberta, d esp ite the w ealth o f availab le e v id e n c e ranging from H u d so n 's B ay C om p any records to old field patterns, the “ on ly historical geograp h y that has arisen from this bounty is to be m easured in fragm en ts" (3 2 7 ). W hether certain general top ics or approaches are particularly w orthy o f attention is largely a matter o f op in ion . H o w ev er, special ch a llen g e d o es se em to lie in historical g eograp h ic stu d ies em p h asizin g past b io lo g ica l and p h ysical co n d ition s and p ro cesses and their interre­ lation s with man and culture, and a lso in stu d ies o f the historical geogra p h y o f land u se. land m anagem en t, and con servation . Im plicit in the latter research is so m e em p h asis on C anad ian -A m erican relations and its im p lication s for land u se through the years. S tu d ies o f attitudes or v iew p o in ts, percep tion and other asp ects o f resources or hazards alon g the lin es o f the U n iversity o f C h icago stu d ies directed by G ilbert W hite (3 2 2 . 3 1 2 , 169), a lso se em particularly ch a llen g in g and w orth­ w h ile , esp e cia lly in v ie w o f their p o ssib le application not o n ly to flo o d s and drought, but a lso to such p ro cesses as fires and erosion on the C anadian plains. A ll the previou s kinds o f stu d ies are con sid ered to be particularly w orth w h ile not just b ecau se o f their acad em ic interest and sig n ific a n c e , but b ecau se o f their relevan ce to sp atial, en viron m en tal, and lan d -u se p rob lem s o f g ro w in g concern to all segm en ts o f so c iety . T h ey are lik ely to b e quite useful in the form ulation o f public p o licy . T h e research can be undertaken in various w a y s. S p e c ific , s y s ­ tem atic studies co u ld be undertaken o f su ch problem s as m an’s adjust­ m ent to flo o d s in the Q u ’A p p elle R iver V a lle y , historical and current attitudes toward w ild life in Alberta Irrigation D istricts and their e ffe c ts , land u se in and around the B lo o d Indian R eserve, A lberta, or the role o f the C .P .R . in the d ev elo p m en t o f C algary. A s in the p reced in g e x a m ­ p le s. these sy stem a tic stu d ies m ight fo cu s on su ch th in gs as a p rocess or hazard, an attitude, id ea , or point o f v ie w , an eth nic group or a g en cy , and their im pact on land use and landscape (2 7 3 ). On the other hand.

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certain areas an d /or tim e p eriod s cou ld be selecte d for w ork. A d y n a m ic flavour h o p efu lly w ou ld grow out o f em p h asis on certain them es such as flo o d s, fires, eth n ic variations, land tenure, and so forth, or, altern a tiv ely , out o f an e c o lo g ic a l, co m m u n ity , or sy stem s approach, although the landscape fram ew ork o f Sauer and others se em s to h ave a sim ilar effe c t. If these approaches are fo llo w e d , a historical geograp h y ol N o rd eg g , A lberta, m ight be con cern ed with such them es as w ild life p opulation and e c o lo g y , Indian use o f the area, the d e­ velop m en t and character o f the fur trade in the North S ask atch ew an v a lley , the im pact o f the trade on w ild life and la n d sca p e, the d ev elo p ­ m ent and d eclin e o f the coal industry, labour m o v em e n ts, govern m en t p o lic y , further ch a n g es in the b io m e . the d evelop m en t o f o il and other industries in nearby areas, urban g row th , in creasing d em and for recrea­ tion and tourism , and further ch a n g es in w ild life , veg eta tio n , and other a sp ects o f la n d scap e. B eca u se o f their s c o p e and co m p lex ity these rather h o listic stu d ies gen erally w ou ld require con sid erab le co m p e ­ ten ce and training in a num ber o f sy stem a tic fie ld s, in clu d in g those w here em p h a sis is placed on p h ysical and cultural p ro cess, and the history and an a ly sis o f ideas.

2 Som e C o m m e n ts on the C au ses and Effects o f F ire in th e N o rth e rn G ra s s la n d s A re a o f C a n a d a a n d the N e arb y U nited States, C a. 1750-1900 J . G . Nelson an d R. E. E ngland*

A L T H O U G H g eo g ra p h ers, b io lo g ists, and other scholars h a v e lon g stu d ied fire in the grasslan d s and savan n as o f the w orld (2 7 2 . 2 9 2 , 9. 4 5 ) , so m e ou tstand in g q u estio n s rem ain. H ow im portant have lightning and other forces independent o f man been as ca u ses o f fire? H as man cau sed m any fires, and, if s o , in what w ays? D id fires increase as a result o f the in vasion o f the w h ite m an? W hat e ffe c ts have fires had on v e g eta tio n , flora, and other asp ects o f lan d scap e, in clu d in g man h im self? W hat relation sh ip s h ave ex isted betw een fires, clim a te, and m an? Little relevant research on such q u estion s has b een undertaken in the u nusually rich historical literature on the northern plains o f Canada and the nearby U nited States ( 3 1 7 , 2 2 2 ). S o m e results o f such a review are presented in this paper. T h e tim e period for the study w as selecte d b ecau se the historical literature b egin s about 1750 and h om estead ing and cu ltivation w ere w ell on the w ay to d isp la cin g ranching from m any areas by 1900, thereby creating a n ew fire en viron m en t w h ich has not been adequately in vestigated as y et. T h e results o f the present study m ay apply to other areas, but not a lw a y s; for ex a m p le the occu rrence and e ffe c ts o f fires m ight d iffer in the N ew Z ealand grasslan d s b ecau se o f the lack o f large grazing an im als like the North A m erican b ison .

N o n -h u m a n C a u se s W h ile reco g n izin g other uncorroborated p o ssib ilitie s, such as the spread o f fire from c o a ls burning in river b anks, lightning is the o n ly ca u se o f fire, independent o f m an, w hich is m en tion ed in the historical literature on the northern grasslan d s. R eferen ces are frequent en ou gh to su ggest that ligh tn in g w a s a c o m m on cau se o f fire. For e x a m p le, w h ile cam ped in the H ig h w o o d V a lle y , south o f p resen t-d ay C algary, on 18 D ecem b er 17 9 2 , the H u d so n 's B ay C om p any trader and su rveyor Peter F idler noted in h is journal that “ ligh tn in g in the spring and fall fre­ *T his p a p er o rig in ally a p p eared in the C a n a d ia n G e o g ra p h e r, X V , 4 (1971): 29 5 -3 0 6 33

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q u en tly lights the G rass" (9 0 ). A more recent ob server, w h o w as em p lo y ed at a range research station in southern A lberta from 1949 to 1 9 6 4 , has stated that o f “ all the fires he sa w during those y ears, only tw o w ere caused by m an . . . A ll the other fires, and there m ust have been a dozen or so w ere cau sed by ligh tn in g" (1 4 2 ).

H u m a n C a u se s T h e Indians often se em to have started fires a ccid en ta lly . For ex a m p le, on I I January 1792, w h ile not far from the site o f the present city o f C algary, Peter Fidler and so m e com p an ion s w ere jo in e d b y n atives w ho had been cam p ed about three-quarters o f a m ile aw ay and had not put ou t their fire w hen they left it. It spread rapidly am ong the dry grass, travelling " a great d istan ce in a little w h ile " (9 0 ). T h e Indians d elib er­ a tely started fires for cerem o n ia l, su p erstitiou s, and other reaso n s, for e x a m p le, as an o fferin g for fair w eather or the return o f a war party. Fire w as a lso used for w ar, sig n a llin g , hunting, and con trollin g the m o v e­ ment o f w ild life (5 3 :1 0 5 3 , 2 5 3 :5 7 , 1 0 5:197, 5 0 :1 0 3 ). T h e em p lo y m en t o f fire to control w ild life m ovem en ts on a large sca le is less k n ow n than the other u ses and is worth elab orating upon. S o m e tim es fires were started early in the year to prom ote grass grow th. For ex a m p le, in M arch 1805, w h ile near the M andan v illa g e s in present-day North D ak ota, L e w is and Clark ob served that the M innitarees or G ros V entre Indians had set all the n eigh b ouring grass afire in order to obtain an early " cro p " for their h orses and a lso to in d uce the b u ffalo and other w ild life to co m e to the area (53:241 and 2 4 9 ), R udolph Kurz, an em p lo y ee o f the A m erican Fur C om p an y, and a resident o f the M issouri valley in the late 18 4 0 ’s and early 1 8 5 0 's, also reported that the Indians set fires in the sp rin g to rem ove “ the old dried grass and provide room for the y o u n g tender g ro w th " ( 1 1 8 :3 3 1). About tw en ty -fiv e years later the N orth-W est M ounted p olicem an C o lo n el S. B. S te e le , o b serv ed that " th e Indians and the h alf-breed hunters w il­ fully set the prairies on fire so that the b ison w ou ld con ic to their part o f the country to get rich green grass w h ich w ou ld fo llo w in the sp rin g" (2 9 0 :6 9 ). Indians a lso used fire in su m m er to rem ove the grass and ca u se the b u ffa lo to g o elsew h ere. W h ile near the Q u 'A p p e lle River v a lley in late July 1 8 5 9 , the C anadian scien tist H enry Y o u le H ind sa w m uch grass­ land that had b een burned by the n atives and said that on e o f their o b je ctiv es w as to divert the an im als to the sou th , w here “ they w ould feed for a tim e before they pursued their w ay to the Little S ou ris in the country o f the S io u x , south o f the 49th p arallel” (1 2 3 :3 3 6 ). Earlier reports o f sim ilar u se o f fire w ere m ade elsew h ere in the plains country.

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for ex a m p le, by the Spanish am on g the Ign aces Indians, w h o lived in southeastern T ex a s in the I5 0 0 's . T h ese p eop le burned to drive o f f m o sq u ito es, to' bring lizards from the ground for fo o d , to kill d eer, and " to d ep rive the an im als o f pasture, co m p ellin g them to g o w here the Indians w ant” (2 9 2 :3 1 7 ). H o w ev er, the im pression sh ou ld not be left that the Indians cou ld alw a y s exert a c o n siste n tly high lev el o f annual control o ver the grow th and q u ality o f grass sim p ly by varyin g the season o f burning. S o ils, p recip itation , and other factors must have w orked against this in so m e areas or in the sa m e area in drier years. In d eed , the botanist John M acou n , w h o w as activ e in the Canadian grasslands in the late nineteenth cen tu ry, has stated that “ fire p assin g o ver the cou n try, w here the rainfall is lig h t, p reven ts nearly all the grass from se ed in g that year, and it is o n ly in the seco n d year after a fire that seed in any quantity can b e o b ta in ed ” ( 18 2 :2 8 6 ). A v igorou s grass fire a lso could burn the organ ic matter in the upper soil h o rizo n s, thereby ad versely affectin g the grow th o f grass for years. N ev er th eless, the u se o f fire in the m anner ou tlin ed undoubtedly g a v e the n atives a lev el o f control o v er their environm ent and a p lace in the e c o lo g y o f the grasslan d s that has not gen erally been appreciated. T o d w ell on the e c o lo g ic a l point for a m om en t, various attem pts have been m ade to reconstruct the seasonal m ovem en ts o f the m ultitud es o f p lain s b iso n , w ith so m e students su b scrib ing to the notion o f regular north-south m o v em en t o f the an im als in w in ter, the reverse occurring in su m m er. H o w ev er, the regularity o f this m ovem en t has been d is­ puted by other sch olars for various reason s, am on g them that large bison herds w ere frequently ob served in parts o f the plains at the “ w ro n g ” season o f the year (2 6 5 :5 6 9 -9 5 ). W ithout g o in g further into this co m p lex m atter, su ffic e it to say that ob servation s lik e th ose o f H ind, a s set forth a b o v e, indicate that m an, through his use o f fire, had an im portant in flu en ce on the m ovem en t o f bison and other w ild life , an in flu en ce w h ich cou ld transcend clim ate or other factors. T he entrance o f the w hite man resulted not o n ly in m ore p eop le cau sin g fire through traditional m ea n s, such as c a relessn ess, but a lso in the introduction o f n ew ca u ses o f fire. T h e im portance o f so m e o f these n ew c a u se s is d ifficu lt to evalu ate. S o m e w ere ep h em eral; for exam p le, for a tim e fo llo w in g the elim in ation o f the b ison about 18 8 0 , the Indians, the M etis, and early European settlers burned and blackened the grasslands in order to m ake it easier to see and co llect b ison b on es w h ich w ere so ld for m anufacture into fertilizers or for other purposes ( 1 7 8 : 16 4 - 5 ) .O ther c a u se s se em alm ost bizarre; for ex a m p le, the w hite man introduced iron h o rsesh oes w hich so m e early settlers sa y caused sparks that set fire to the grass. A m o n g the m ore lon g co n tin u ed , w id esp read, and im portant new

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ca u se s o f fire w ere the sparks thrown from the railroad e n g in e s that began to traverse the grasslan d s after the con stru ction o f the Canadian P a cific railw ay in the early 1 8 8 0 ’s . On M on d ay. 10 O ctob er 1898, the C algary H erald reported that a railroad en g in e had started fires in tw en ty different p la ces a lon g about tw enty m iles o f track north o f C algary (2 6 4 :1 5 ). On W ed n esd ay, 2 6 N ovem b er 1896. the H erald ind icated that cattle had had to be m oved from the north to the south sid e o f the B o w R iver, a w a y from the rail lin e, b ecau se o f num erous fires resulting from railroad op eration s (2 6 4 :1 4 -1 5 ).

S o m e I n flu e n c e s o n th e C h a r a c te r an d F r e q u e n c y o f P r a ir ie F ir e s Prairie fires are not a lw a y s im p ressiv e sp ec ta cles. T h u s, on a w indy April d ay in 1 8 5 2 , R udolph Friedrich Kurz w ent into cam p near the Y ello w sto n e and M issouri rivers with several co m p a n io n s w h o ' prom ptly started a fire and w ent to sle ep . A ccord in g to Kurz, In the m eantim e the dried grass about them caught fire but burnt slo w ly , surrounding them with a w id e circle o f fla m e. T h en , fanned by a gu st o f w in d , it spread, driving onw ard in w in d ing cu rv es. I fo llo w e d a lon g w ay at an ev en g a it, w alk in g over the charred grou n d , sp rin gin g several tim es across the flam es . . . A lthough the w ind w as rather h igh the fire in the dead grass did not spread any m ore rapidly forward than I cou ld ea sily fo llo w w ith­ out w a lk in g very f a s t . . . T h e fire w as at no point m ore than three feet in depth. It spread in ev ery d irection , m ore sw iftly w here the w ind b lew hard; for in stan ce, the h ills and s lo p e s , then d escen d ed m ore gradually on the o p p osite sid es o f those h eigh ts (1 18:331 -2 ). On the other hand, fires can burn very q u ick ly and dram atically. G iv en favourable co n d itio n s and free rein o ver a vast exten t o f un­ fen ced and unbroken grass and parkland, they are k n ow n to h ave lasted for w eek s and co v ered thou san d s o f m ile s, so m etim e s ju m p in g major river v a lley s such as the North Sask atch ew an in the p rocess ( 7 0 :2 3 3 ). A grass fire o f im m en se proportions w as describ ed by H enry Y o u le Hind during h is travels in the eastern and central Canadian plains in the late 1 8 5 0 ’s: “ From b eyon d the South Branch o f the Sask atch ew an to Red R iver all the prairies w ere burnt last autum n, a vast con flagration ex ten d ed for 1,0 0 0 m iles in length and several hundreds in b r e a d th ,. . . w e traced the fire from the 49th parallel to the 53rd , and from the 90th to the 107th d egree lo n g itu d e. It exten d ed no doubt to the R ocky M oun­ tain s” (1 2 3 :2 9 2 ).

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A variety o f m ete o ro lo g ic a l, ciim a to lo g ica l. h y d ro lo g ica l, b io lo g ­ ica l, and other factors o b v io u sly can in flu en ce the freq u en cy, m agn itid e, and character o f grass fires. A ridity is a b asic in flu en ce on both a short and a lo n g term b a sis. S e a so n a lly , fires are m ost frequent in the sp rin g and fall w h en drier w eath er c o in c id e s with the exp osu re or p resen ce o f dry “ cu red " grass. E v id en ce to support this con ten tion can be found in the Annual Reports o f the N orth-W est M ounted P o lice, C algary D istrict. O f about six ty -se v e n fires cited in these reports during 1887- 1 9 1 5 . tw en ty -eig h t and sev en teen occurred in the m onths o f April and O ctober resp ectiv e ly (2 6 4 :1 5 ). On the other hand, fire can occu r on the plains at any tim e during the year, if w eath er and other in flu en ces are favourable. O ne p ositive in flu en ce is the ch in o o k or “ sn o w -e a te r ." a foehn type o f w ind w hich can bring tem perature increases o f tens o f d eg rees in a few hours in the co ld m onth s. T h is co u p led with its gen erally lo w h u m id ity, often ca u ses e x te n siv e sn o w m elt, e x p o sin g and drying the plains grass ( 18). W h ile in the C algary area in the w inter o f 1792-93. Peter F idler made certain ob serv a tio n s ind icative o f the effe ct o f the ch in ook on w eather and fire (90). T h e ob serv a tion s w ere recorded during D ecem b er and January, w hen tem peratures can fall b elo w 0°f for w eek s. On 19 D ecem b er 1792, F idler w rote o f “ clo u d y w ea th er," " g a le w in d s," and “ a great th a w ," a d escrip tion very rem in iscen t o f ch in ook co n d i­ tio n s. On 31 D ecem b er the w eather w a s d escrib ed as very w arm , with a tem perature o f about 40°f . On 5 January the tem perature w as said to have b een betw een 3 l°Fand 50°f for three d ays with " fresh g a le s " and " fly in g c lo u d s” as w ell as " n o m ore sn o w than in su m m er" . On 6 January a light sn o w fa ll occu rred, but the grass w as on fire all around the H ig h w o o d area. On 7 January the w eather is again reported as warm and on 10 January the grass w as burning “ w ith great fu r y .” Such o b servation s su g g e st that the fo o th ills and plains o f w estern Alberta and sim ilar areas farther so u th , w hich have a high ch in ook freq u en cy, w ou ld be particularly su scep tib le to grass fires, w inter and sum m er.

R e la tio n sh ip s B e tw e e n F ir e , A n im a ls , a n d V e g e ta tio n T h e historical e v id e n c e m akes it d ifficu lt to estab lish the over-all e ffe c ts throughout the period under d iscu ssio n , but grass fires undoubt­ e d ly had co n sid era b le in flu en ce on fauna and flora. For e x a m p le, the n estin g s u c c e ss o f various kinds o f birds w as d im in ished by prairie fires (107- 1 2 4 ).T h ey a lso are know n to h ave injured and killed large num ­ bers o f bison from tim e to tim e. A lexan d er H enry, a fur trader w ho liv ed and w orked in the Red R iver V alley and other parts o f the plains around the turn o f the nineteenth cen tu ry, sa w b u ffalo w h ich had been

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cau gh t in grass fires. H e d escrib ed the sc en e as fo llo w s: ' ‘T h e poor b easts h ave all the hair sin ged o ff. ev en skin in m any p laces is sh riv­ elled up and terribly burned, and their e y e s arc sw o lle n and c lo s e d fast . . . In o n e spot w e found a w h o le herd ly in g d ead " (5 4 :1 :2 5 3 -4 ). O b servation s can a lso be cited to sh o w that fires caused e x ten siv e destruction o f trees and favoured the m ainten an ce or ex ten sio n o f grassland at various tim es during the period ca . 1 7 5 0 -1 9 0 0 . D avid T h o m p so n , the su rv ey o r and fur trader w h o travelled through m uch o f w estern Canada in the 1 7 8 0 's, I 7 9 0 's . and early I8 0 0 ‘s , sa w m any areas w here large g ro v es o f asp en had been burned, and co n clu d ed that the Great P lains w ere “ con stan tly increasing in length and breadth with the D eer g iv in g p la ce to the B iso n " (1 0 5 :2 4 3 -5 0 ). In the late I 8 5 0 ‘s H enry Y o u le H ind noted the destruction o f large areas o f forest, particularly south o f the Q u 'A p p e llc and the A ssin ib o in e rivers in present-day M anitoba and S ask atch ew an (1 2 3 :3 3 4 ). In d isc u ssin g the vegetation in the sam e general area in the 1 8 7 0 's, the R everend G eorge G rant, a com p anion o f the c p r su rveyor Sanford F lem in g, stated that autum n grass fires were frequent and “ destroyed the w ood w hich form erly w as o f larger siz e and m uch m ore abundant than n o w " (1 0 7 :1 5 8 ). G rass fires con tinu ed to have an im pact on the parkland and nearby forests during the 188 0\s and I8 9 0 's . with m uch tim ber repor­ ted ly b ein g destroyed by burning (1 1:55, 2 5 9 :8 4 , 2 4 5 ). T h e problem , h o w ev er, is to determ in e w h eth er these fires were frequent and con tin u ou s en o u gh to ca u se an ex ten sio n o f the grassland during the eig h teen th and nineteenth cen tu ries. T h is need not n ecessa r­ ily have been the ca se for poplar can regrow q u ick ly after burning, as ind icated by H enry Y o u le H ind, w h o said that if a portion o f the grassland “ esca p es fires for tw o or three years, the result is seen in the grow th o f w illo w s and asp en s, first in p atches, then in large areas, w h ich in a short tim e b eco m e united and c o v e r the cou n try" ( 12 3 :3 3 6 ). M ore w ill be said about this problem later.

S o m e E ffe c ts o f F ir e on M an G rass fires are know n to h ave cau sed injury and death to Indians (1 9 6 :3 5 , 7 2 ). S everal w ere burned in a fire w hich L e w is and Clark o b serv ed w h ile cam p ed in the M issouri V a lley in the fall o f 1805 ( 5 3 : 18 5 ). D uring the nineteenth century fur traders a lso su ffered e x te n ­ siv e d a m a g e to h a y , w o o d su p p lies, and other p roperty. In the 1 8 7 0 's, I8 8 0 's , and I8 9 0 's fire con stituted a major handicap to w h ite se ttle­ m ent. Pasture and hay su p p lies were frequently d estroyed , “ m aterially reducing the g ra zin g cap acity to the great d etrim ent o f sto c k m e n ." M en w ith fa m ilies to support were left standing “ in the o n ly thin gs they

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p o sse sse d , v iz. their clo th es. . . . A representative ca se in v o lv ed lo ss o f h ou se and all the furniture, tw o s ta b le s ,” m uch w h eat, o a ts, and hay, and sle ig h s and im plem en ts (2 5 9 :8 2 -3 ). Fires were so serio u s a hazard in the late nineteenth century as to have an important in flu en ce on the d evelop m en t o f legislation and govern m en t. S o m e o f the earliest legislation in w estern Canada relates to fires. For e x a m p le, in the 18 8 0 's guards had to be p lou ghed in order to contain b lazes started a lon g the railw ay tracks. E ventu ally the govern m en t got in to the b u sin ess o f building fire guards on a very large sc a le in d eed . A bout 1 ,7 5 0 m iles w ere constructed in 1902 under a contract betw een the D epartm ent o f Public W orks and the Canadian P acific R a ilw ay (2 5 9 :8 6 ). A fter 1909 the m ile a g e d ecreased , there b ein g better fire control as the lon g unbroken se c tio n s o f op en range g a v e w a y to the roads, cu ltivated fie ld s, and other m an ifestation s o f present-day settlem en t. In the early 188 0 ’s legislation w as passed w h ich perm itted the estab lish m en t o f fire d istricts o f not less than 3 6 square m ile s and not m ore than 144 square m ile s upon application o f the m ajority o f the resid en ts. O n ce esta b lish ed , a district co u ld assess taxes payab le in funds or in s e r v ic e s, to be used for fire control. A cco rd in g to T h o m a s, it w as from these fire d istricts, representing the m ost o b v io u s lo ca l p rob lem , that the present sy stem o f rural m unicipal govern m en t in S ask atch ew an “ really g r e w ” (3 0 3 :1 -2 ).

Frequency o f F ire s, ca. 1750-1900 T o g et anything m ore p recise than an im pression o f fire frequency from the historical so u rces is d ifficu lt for several reason s. In the first p lace, so m e ob servers were m ore interested in fire than others. S e co n d ly , the o b serv a tio n s for various tim e p eriods are uneven: so m etim e s o n ly tw o or three so u rces are a v a ila b le, and at other tim es sou rces are num erous. T h ird ly , a con tin u o u s record o f the sa m e type and quality is not alw ays ob tain ab le for the entire C anadian plains region or e v en for a large part o f it. M uch o f what is said b elo w relates to an area o f indeterm inate exten t betw een the North S ask atch ew an and M issouri R iver v a lley s in the w estern Canadian plains and nearby M ontana. Fur trade journals and other d ocu m ents g iv e a fairly co m p lete historical account o f this part o f the country. A lthou gh statem ents cou ld be m ade about the relative frequency o f burning, for ex a m p le the period ca. 1 8 3 5 -6 0 se e m s to have had m ore fires than any other (1 2 9 ), the general im pression gained from the historical so u rces is that grass fires w ere a p ersistent feature throughout the years ca . 1 7 5 0 -1 9 0 0 . T he ubiquitous nature o f fires is evid en t in certain general rem arks m ade by early travellers. T h u s, on 10 April

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1 8 0 5 , w h ile travelling up the M issouri V a lle y , in w hat is n o w North D ak ota, L ew is and Clark o b served that: " O n both sid es o f the M is­ so u ri, after ascen d in g the h ills near the w ater, on e fertile unbroken plain ex ten d s itse lf as far as the e y e can reach, w ithou t a solitary tree or shrub, excep t in m oist situ ation s or in the steep d ecliv ities o f the h ills, w h ere they are sh eltered from the ravages o f fire” (5 3 :2 6 4 ). A s another ex a m p le, parts o f the M issouri country are referred to as “ Prado del F u e g o ,” or the Fire Prairie, in S panish d ocu m en ts datin g from the penultim ate d ecad e o f the eigh teen th ccntury (2 1 6 :1 2 5 ). If the various historical d ocu m en ts are a reliab le g u id e, fires were sim p ly a part o f life for the fur trader and this m ay account for their often b ein g referred to in a cryp tic or casual w ay. R elatively detailed and lengthy referen ces tend to appear o n ly w hen fires b ecam e a threat, a s, for ex a m p le, at Carlton H ou se on 13 M ay 18 1 5 , w hen the clerk wrote: " M en em p lo y ed as b efore till about I I o 'c lo c k w h en everyon e at both H o u ses w a s b u sily em p lo y ed ex tin g u ish in g the Fire, that is raging through the G rass and W ood s all around the H ou se, and after m uch exertion w e g ot it under su fficien t to prevent it com m u n icatin g w ith the W orks. Kept tw o M en on W atch all night in case the fire might take in any fresh b la z e ” (1 2 9 ). O ne a lso g a in s the im pression from the historical sou rces that fires in creased , albeit so m ew h a t u n ev en ly , during the period o f w h ite set­ tlem en t. Indeed su ch an idea is im p licit or ev en ex p licit in the previous d iscu ssio n o f the g ro w in g num bers o f w hite settlers and o f the introduc­ tion o f n ew c a u ses o f fire to the g rasslan d s. C h an ges in cultural con trols also m ay have b een a sso cia ted with in creases in fire freq u en cy. Certain remarks by the R everend G rant, in the I 8 7 0 's indicate that the H u d so n ’s B ay C om p any m ay h ave had fire control regu lations w hich w ere in creasingly d ifficu lt to ap p ly as settlem en t increased: O f late years fires h ave b een frequent: and they are so d isastrou s to the w h ole o f our N orth -W est that en ergetic action should be taken to prevent them . F orm erly, w h en the H u d son ’s Bay C om p an y w as the o n ly p o w er in the G reat L one Land, it w as a liv e to the n ecessity o f th is, and very su cc essfu l in im pressing its v ie w s on the Indians as w ell as on its o w n servan ts. Each o f its travelling parties carried a spade with w h ich the p ie c e o f ground on w hich the fire w as to be m ade w as d u g up. and as the party m oved o ff, earth thrown on the em b ers extin gu ish ed them (1 0 7 :1 2 4 , I 1:56). H o w ev er, a search in the H u d so n ’s B ay C om p any arch ives in O ttaw a and London turned up no referen ces to form al fire regu lations like those referred to by Grant. On the other hand the rem arks o f other ob servers do su g g est that the H u d son 's B ay C om p any did h ave a

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m easure o f control o v er fires. For ex a m p le, in d escrib in g fire c o n d i­ tions on the C anadian p lain s in 18 7 0 's , C olon el S . B. S te ele said: “ The H u d so n 's B ay C om p any had no ju risd iction n ow [havin g sold R uperts' Land to C anada in 1869] with the lam entable result that p eop le had b eco m e ca reless. T ravellers left their fires b u rn ing, tenderfeet threw their m atch es into the grass after ligh tin g their p ip e s" (2 9 0 :6 9 ). The p o ssib ility therefore e x is ts that any fire regu lations w ere inform al field requirem ents rather than form al written rules.

T h e R e la tio n s B e tw e e n F ir e , C lim a tic V a r ia tio n , a n d M a n V ariou s efforts have been m ade to correlate p eriods o f high and lo w fire frequency with clim a tic variations. For ex a m p le, in A lberta, M o ss has attem pted to link the freq u en cy o f poplar stands o f d ifferent a g es with fire freq u en cy and clim a tic ch a n ge. T h e individual poplar stands w ere ap p roxim ately ev en -a g ed and co n sid ered to h ave d ev elo p ed as suckers sh ortly after burning. T he stands w ere tree-ring dated and their ages found to group at intervals o f about tw en ty years for the period ca. 1 8 1 8 -1 9 2 9 . M o ss interpreted these fin d in gs as ev id e n c e that general burning “ term inated periods o f general drought in the poplar region " and w ent on to ad van ce the h yp oth esis o f clim atic c y c le s o f about tw en ty years in len g th , each o f w hich w as ch aracterized by a period o f extrem ely dry co n d itio n s fo llo w ed by a period o f h eavy precipitation (2 1 1 :3 8 9 -9 2 ). Such c o n c lu sio n s and h y p oth eses are fraught with prob lem s. For on e thin g, the idea o f high or lo w fire freq u en cy g en erally m ust be dealt with in q u alitative rather than quantitative term s. It is ex c e e d in g ly d ifficu lt to arrive at a reliable count o f fires for several reason s, in clu d in g the problem o f the rep resen tativen ess o f the historical sou rces and the associated problem o f d elim itin g the tim e period and the area to be co v ered in the cou n t. M o reover, p eriods o f low burning m ay be m ore apparent than real and fires m ay turn out to h ave occurred in so m e num ber o n c e the historical literature is exam in ed th orou gh ly. T o illu s­ trate these d iffic u ltie s. M o ss su g g ests that the w et phases o f h is clim atic c y c le s se em to h ave co m m e n c ed about 1819. 1 8 5 9 , 1879. and 1899. Y et the journals o f the P alliser E xp ed ition , o f H enry Y o u le H ind, and o f Edm onton H ou se sh o w that con sid erab le burning occurred in the late 1 8 5 0 ’s and early 18 6 0 's in at least parts o f the w estern plains o f C anada. T h e M ounted P olice reports, n ew spap er a cco u n ts, and other sou rces a lso indicate that fires occurred fairly frequently in the late 18 7 0 's and early I 8 8 0 ’s in the central and southern se ctio n s o f w hat is n ow A lberta. And this last statem ent lead s, in turn, to the fact that clim a tic co n d itio n s can vary from area to area in the grasslan d s, so that

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ev id e n c e for c h a n g es in one area need not ap p ly to another (3 0 4 . 20 2 ). A m ajor d ifficu lty in attem pting to correlate fire freq u en cy with clim a tic ch an ge is in esta b lish in g the freq u en cy and distribution o f cultural in flu en ces on fire. M oss certain ly recogn ized this problem w hen he stated: “ E x ten sive burning during the period 1 9 0 8 -1 9 is thought to have been due not so m uch to dry co n d itio n s as to human a c tiv itie s" (21 1:392). Sim ilar c o n c lu sio n s co u ld b e m ade about the reportedly high fire freq u en cies in ca . 1859 or 1879. D uring the late I850*s or early I8 6 0 's num erous A m erican s began to m o v e into the w estern plains and m ountains o f Alberta search in g for g old fo llo w in g earlier d isc o v e r ie s in M ontana and other parts o f the U nited States. R anchers began m igrating into the w estern and southern p lain s o f A lberta and S ask atch ew an in the m iddle to late 1 8 7 0 's and a w a v e o f settlem en t fo llo w ed in the I8 8 0 's. An increase in grass fires in the late I8 7 0 's or early I 8 8 0 's also cou ld h ave b een a sso cia ted w ith the elim in ation o f the b ison as a wild anim al on the p lain s. T h e great b ison herds are k n ow n to h ave cropped the grass short o v er large areas during their w an d erin gs for food and w ere still present in very large num bers on the w estern plains o f Canada up to the m id -1 8 7 0 's T he virtual exterm ination o f the herds by 1878 m ay h ave led to the grow th o f e x te n siv e areas o f lon ger grass m ore favourable to burning, particularly as cattle num bers in w estern Canada in the late 1 8 7 0 's and early 18 8 0 ‘s did not approach the form er num ber o f the b ison (7 0 :2 7 -3 1 ).

S u m m a r y a n d C o n c lu sio n s Fires w ere freq u en tly started by ligh tn in g and by man on the northern grasslands o f C anada and the U nited States during the period ca. 17 5 0 - 19 0 0 . T he n a tiv e p eo p les used fire o ften for a variety o f purposes, in clu d in g the control o f w ild life m o v em e n ts on a large sc a le . Indeed, althou gh their relative im portance is d ifficu lt to a ss e s s, fire, and so m an. must take their p lace a lo n g with clim ate and other factors as an im portant part o f b ison and grassland e c o lo g y . W here clim a tic and other con d ition s were favou rab le, t ires could rage q u ick ly and d ram atically o ver hundreds or thou san d s o f square m ile s, cro ssin g m ajor river v a lle y s in the p ro cess. Fires appear to have been m ost frequent in spring and fa ll, but co u ld o ccu r at any tim e o f the y ea r, b ein g favoured in w inter in m any areas by the w arm , dry ch in ook w in d s. A lthou gh their o v er-all effe ct through the years is d ifficu lt to ev a lu a te, fires clea rly in flu en ced the fauna and flora o f the grasslands. B ird s, b iso n , and other a n im als w ere injured and k illed by them . At v ariou s tim es fires caused e x te n siv e destruction o f trees and contrib­

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uted to the m ainten an ce and ex ten sio n o f the grasslan d en viron m en t. S uch effe cts w ere clea rly not d ependent on m an, ligh tn in g being cap ab le o f starting m any fires in a decade or s o , thereby lead in g to the repeated burning o f large areas. A sid e from b ein g a hazard to the n ative p eo p les and the early fur traders, fires w ere im portant o b sta cles to the settlem en t o f the C anadian plains in the 1 8 7 0 's, 18 8 0 's , and 1 8 9 0 's, ca u sin g destruction o f crop s, fora g e, and property. A s a resu lt, fires brought about so m e o f the earliest legislation in w estern Canada and also the d evelop m en t o f fire control d istricts, antcedents o f the present sy stem o f rural m unicipal govern m en t in S ask atch ew an . T h e nature o f the historical ev id en ce m akes it d ifficu lt to gain a p recise picture o f fire freq u en cy through the years. T h e general im pres­ sion acquired from the h istorical so u r c e s, h o w ev er, is the p ersisten ce o f grass fires throughout the period ca. 1 7 5 0 -1 9 0 0 . Fires a lso appear to have increased in freq u en cy as m ore and m ore settlers o f European origin ca m e into the g rasslan d s, b ringing n ew c a u se s o f fire, such as the railroad, and a lso p o ssib ly ch an gin g attitudes toward fire control. R esearch ers h ave attem pted to estab lish ch a n g es in fire frequency during the nineteenth century and to relate these to clim a tic ch a n g es or c y c le s . H o w ev er, it is very d ifficu lt to reconstruct fire frequency accu rately and ev en m ore d ifficu lt to separate cultural from clim atic ca u ses o f fire. T he historical literature on the northern grasslands in d icates that natural and cultural in flu en ces on fire h ave been intri­ ca tely in terw oven sin ce at least 1750; m oreover the relatively u n co m ­ p licated nature o f m any o f the n atives u ses o f fire, as w ell as referen ces to their early em p lo y m en t, m ake it certain that this w as a lso true w ell b efore the co m in g o f the w h ite man to the G reat Plains.

3: C h an g in g F a u n a o f th e N o rth e rn P lain s A rea: Im ages an d Effects* J . G . Nelson

In tro d u ctio n IN sp ite o f the availa b ility o f m uch pertinent literature, relatively few d etailed historical e c o lo g ic a l stu d ies have been carried out on the northern plains w ild life o f ap p roxim ately the last tw o cen tu ries. T h is has resulted, first, in an in co m p lete im age o f the kind and num ber o f an im als in the area in pre and early C aucasian tim es and, se c o n d , in m islea d in g interpretations o f the character o f the landscape and m an 's im pact upon it. G enerally w e have tried to understand the northern p lain s landscape in term s o f a sm all num ber o f m ajor variab les, notably grassland and poplar g ro v es (P op u lu s trem u loid es); lo w , fluctuating rainfall and high evaporation; fire; so il erosion ; and the introduction o f liv esto ck and c u ltiv a tio n — or agriculture. Our perception o f the interac­ tion o f these m ajor variables has been a b asic point o f departure for reason ing about the ch an gin g character and boundaries o f the northern plains. For exam ple, dryness and fire have been seen as destroying poplar and other trees, and as m aintaining or ex ten d in g the grasslan d , w h ich retreats again before the ad van cin g trees during p eriods o f rela tiv ely high rainfall. A s w ill be s e e n , su ch thinking n eg lects other varia b les, for ex a m p le, an im als. T he northern p lain s landscape a lso has frequently been p erceived as a reasonably “ balanced sy ste m ” prior to the com in g o f the w hite m an. It w as “ natu ral,” “ pristin e” and “ v ir g in .” until the arrival o f the C au casian , his cattle and tech n o lo g y brought “ o v erg ra z in g ,” d e ­ struction o f “ c lim a x ” vegetation and “ accelerated e r o s io n .” Such con cep tu al im ages have been d iffu sed w id ely a m o n g North A m erican s and have provided m otivation for im proved resou ce m anagem en t. N ev er th eless, they arc gross and overd raw n , as the fo llo w in g essay dem onstrates. T he essa y is largely based on stu d ies o f the northern plains o f M ontana, North D ak ota, Sask atch ew an and A lberta (Figure I ). W ithin this broad area, the C ypress H ills country o f southeastern A lberta,

*T he original version o f this p a p e r w as prep ared fo r T h e Im ages o f th e Plains C o n fe re n ce , D e p artm e n t o f G e o g ra p h y , U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a, L in co ln , N e ­ b ra sk a . A p ril. 1972

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southw estern S ask atch ew an and northern M ontana has received sp ecial attention. Field stu d ies w ere con d u cted there by the author and graduate students in the m iddle and late 1 9 6 0 's. D ocu m en ts in major libraries in E d m on ton . C a lgary. R egin a and H elen a were con su lted during this period. A dd ition al work w as a lso carricd out in the H u d so n 's Bay d o cu m en ts, the P ub lic A rch iv es. O ttaw a. T h ese d ocu ­ m ents are e sp e c ia lly valu ab le b ecau se they include accou n ts o f late eig h teen th and early nineteenth century exp loration s and o f fur trade activ ity in the North and South S ask atch ew an R iver sy stem , C anada. A lso o f co n sid era b le va lu e are the reports o f g overn m en t su rveyors and sc ie n tists, such as L ew is and Clark, P alliser. and Hind ( 2 3 1 ). The reports o f these m en throw light on the M issouri b asin country as w ell as the Canadian p lains. M ore recent p u b lication s by b otan ists, z o o lo g ists and other scien tists interested in grassland sp e c ie s and their distrib u tion , v eg eta tio n c la ssific a tio n , drought, overgrazin g and other top ics a lso h a v e b een co n su lted , e sp e c ia lly for the period sin ce the 1 9 3 0 's. S o m e o f the results o f the aforem en tion ed stu d ies have been p ublished so that a very d etailed treatm ent o f the ev id e n c e is not con sid ered n ecessary here. T h e special purpose o f this paper is to relate the m ore recent theoretical and em pirical fin d in gs o f scien tists to eigh teen th and nineteenth century historical ob servation s o f northern p lain s w ild life and their lan d scap e effe cts. T he results are sig n ifica n t to our e v o lv in g understanding o f h ow C aucasian man has p erceived , m an a g ed , and ch an ged the northern plains lan d scap e (2 2 3 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 1 , 2 3 8 ).

A nim al K inds an d N um bers T h e 18 0 4 -1 8 0 6 journals o f L e w is and Clark reflect the m any kinds and num bers o f a n im als in the upper M issouri basin in early European tim es. T h ey m en tion b ison (B iso n b iso n ), elk (C ervu s ca n a d en sis), a n telo p e (A ntilocapra am erican a), w o lf (C an is lu p is). b eaver (C astor ca n a d en sis), g rizzly bear (U rsu s arctos horrib ilu s). prairie dog (C y n o m y s la d o v icia n u s), h aw k , crane, duck and other an im als. The accou n ts arc rem in iscen t o f d escrip tion s o f the S eren g eti, o f a land­ sca p e rich in anim al life o f m any k in d s. For e x a m p le , near the junction o f the M ilk and M issouri R ivers in early M ay. 1805. L e w is and Clark foun d w ild life s o plentiful that it b ecam e " a m ere am usem en t to supply the party with p r o v isio n s .” In p laces the num erous b ison had to be driven out o f the w a y w ith stick s and sto n es. T h e e ffe c ts o f the beaver w ere very apparent; the w o o d s in on e p lace reportedly “ being entirely prostrated for a d istan ce o f three acres in front o f the river, and on e in

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L ess w ell k n ow n than L e w is and Clark is Peter F idler, a H u d son ’s B ay C om p any trader and su rveyor w h o travelled through parts o f the A lberta-M ontana border country in the 1 7 9 0 ’s and early 1 8 0 0 ’s . Dur­ ing a trip up the S outh S askatchew an in early fa ll, 18 0 0 , he en countered m any a n im als, in clu d in g b eaver, b iso n , elk and g rizzly . N ear the E lb o w o f the South S ask atch ew an , ap p roxim ately on e hundred m iles w est o f R egin a, about ten g rizzly w ere seen in a fe w d ays. F idler spent the w in ter o f 1800-1801 at a post called C h esterfield H ou se near the jun ction o f the Red D eer and Sou th S ask atch ew an R ivers and the border o f the present p ro v in ces o f Alberta and S ask atch ew an . W hile there he frequently referred to the b u ffalo. S o m e tim es the an im als w ere nearby, so m etim e s fa r a w a y . In D ecem b er, 1800, for ex a m p le, bison w ere sca rce. In early January, they w ere very p len tifu l. At o n e point F idler said that the “ ground literally w as black with them for a great d istan ce . . . ’’ (2 2 8 , 2 3 1 ). M any referen ces to the b iso n , e lk , or other an im als are indi­ v id u a listic, in the se n se that little referen ce is m ade to groups com p osed o f sev era l different sp ec ies. H o w ev er, so m e ob servers noted such faunal a sso cia tio n s. And they probably were m ore com m on than the record su g g e sts, for an im als su ch as the w o lf and b ison were e c o lo g i­ c a lly d ependent on o n e another for food and other n eed s. John P alliser describ ed a group o f ab ou t 5 ,0 0 0 b ison as w ell as so m e w o lv e s , a n telo p e, cro w s and ravens near C algary in 1858. In 1787, w h ile in the sam e area, D avid T h om p son d escrib ed a sim ilar association o f anim als: b iso n , sm all herds o f “ d o e and red d e e r ,’’ w o lv e s and fo x e s (V u lp es spp) (2 2 8 , 2 3 1 ).

Effects on L andscape T h e fauna can be d iv id ed into four groups for d iscu ssio n o f landscape e ffe c ts . R eco g n itio n o f these groups is in part a reflection o f their probable im portance in in flu en cin g the sy s te m , and in part o f the stage o f m y ow n work on the problem . T he four b asic groupings are the b iso n ; the burrow ing rodents; the beaver; and the other an im als, in clu d in g e lk , d eer, m o o se (A lc e s alces) and certain in sects. Fire, clim a tic ch an ge and man a lso are d iscu ssed as they interact with an im als in a ffectin g landscape.

T he Bison Through p ro cesses su ch as g razin g, w a lk in g , w a llo w in g , and manur­

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in g, the b iso n a ffected the sp ec ies c o m p o sitio n , len gth , distribution o f grass and other v e g eta tio n , g u llie s and other lan d form s, s o ils , and landscape sou n d s and sm e lls as w e ll. T h e b ison a lso in flu en ced the presen ce and distribution o f other an im als. B i s o n G r a z in g a n d T r a m p lin g

R eferen ces to h eavy b iso n grazing have been m en tion ed elsew h ere (2 3 1 ) and o n ly so m e illustrative citation s w ill be presented here. On August 2 , 1805, the C anadian trader. F ran cois L arocq ue, noted that the grass a lo n g a stream near the B ig Horn M ou n tain s, M ontana, had " b een co m p letely eaten by b u ffalo and d eer” (2 3 1 :1 2 9 ). Edward U m fre v ille, a resident on the North Sask atch ew an in the I7 8 0 's w rote that: In va llies and hum id situ ation s the grass g ro w s to a great h eig h t, w h ich fattens our h orses in a short itm e, but the b u ffalo usu ally lik es c h o ic e h illy dry ground to feed o n , the blades o f grass w h ich are sm a ll, short and tender. W hen a num erous herd o f these an im als stay any length o f tim e in on e p lace, the ground is ab solu tely barren there for the rem ainder o f the se a so n , the grass b ein g eat o f f as c lo s e as i f sh aved with a k n ife . . .(8 6 :8 9 ). In 1801 after travellin g o v er about tw en ty m ile s o f grassland near the Red River and the 4 9 th parallel, the trader, A lexan d er H enry the Y ou n ger, co n clu d ed that the grass w ou ld have been “ rather lon g were it not for the b u ffa lo " (8 6 :8 9 ). W h ile riding alon g a sm all stream in this area H enry a lso noted that the “ few sp o ts" o f riparian woodland: . . . had been ravaged by b u ffaloes; non e but the larger trees are stan d in g, the bark o f w hich is rubbed p erfectly sm o o th , and heaps o f w o o l and hair lie at the foot o f the trees. T he sm all w ood and brush are en tirely d estro y ed , and ev en the grass is not perm itted to g ro w in the points o f w o o d . T h e bare ground is m ore tram pled by these cattle than the gate o f a barnyard . . . (1 4 :5 8 ). Other ob servers have co m m en ted on the tram pling and destruction o f w o o d la n d by b iso n , althou gh there is d isagreem en t about w hether such a ctiv ity w as im portant in m aintain in g and ex ten d in g the grassland (se e R o e, 1951). R eferen ces a lso h ave frequently been m ade to the w earin g and sm o o th in g o f large rock s, u su ally glacial erratics, by gen eration s o f en circlin g b iso n . T h ese artifacts can still be ob served in m any areas on the northern plains today.

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B i s o n W a lk in g a n d W a llo w in g

B ison w alk in g and w a llo w in g frequently left the ground m arked by d eep ly worn path s, esp e cia lly near stream s and river v a lley s. The R everen d G rant, com p anion o f the I8 7 0 's C .P .R . S u rveyor. Sanford F lem in g , d escrib ed such features v iv id ly . A ccord in g to h im . the tracks o f form er tim es were “ indented in the ground lik e old furrow s . . . ” (8 6 :9 0 ). In referring to a Red R iver site in 1801, A lexan d er H enry the Y ou n ger said: The ground a lon g the river is worn d ow n by the b u ffa lo , esp e cia lly at ev ery bend o f the river w estw ard , w h ere the plains run d ow n to the w ater, and w here the herds c o m e day and night to drink. . . . T he B o is P erce, near w h ich w e are cam p ed , has b een a great cro ssin g p lace for m any years. T h e ground on both sid es is worn sm ooth as p avem en t, and the num ber o f roads at the cro ssin g , so m e o f w h ich are a foot d eep is surprising. C on sid erin g the hard so d through w h ich these tracks are b eaten , I am at a lo ss to form any idea h o w m any herds m ust have passed (54:1:88). Sim ilar e ffe c ts have been ob served in present-day nature reserves, n otably in the ap p roxim ately 1 7 ,0 0 0 square m ile W ood B u ffalo Na­ tional Park, northern A lberta, w here about 1 2 ,0 0 0 b ison still live rela tiv ely undisturbed by C au casian man (2 8 5 . 95). A sid e from w a lk in g , the b ison can break the ground by w a llo w ­ in g , or rollin g in the dust or m ud. T h is a c tiv ity , or p rocess, is appar­ en tly co m m o n in spring and su m m er w h en the anim al lo se s its winter coat and the in sects are em erg in g for the se a so n . T he resulting d ep res­ sio n s often are roughly sp o o n sh a p ed , tens o f feet lo n g , and can o ccu r in s c h o o ls . W hen M atthew C o ck in g , a H u d son 's B ay trader, w as so m ew h ere in the triangle b etw een the North and South S askatchew an R ivers in 1772 he stated that: “ A ll over the country w here buffalo resort were m any h o llo w p laces in the ground . . (8 6 :9 0 ). C ock ­ ing attributed these to the agitation o f b u lls during the breeding sea­ son . J .D . S o p er (2 8 5 ) a b io lo g ist w h o w orked in W ood B u ffalo Na­ tional Park in the I9 3 0 's , found m ultitudes o f dry w a llo w s to b e m ost prom inent sig n s o f b ison occu p ation . He a lso w as im pressed with the great trail netw ork co v erin g hundreds o f square m iles. S o m e o f the trails were m inor. S o m e he describ ed as • ‘trunk h ig h w a y s.” A ccordin g to S o p er. " T h e general run o f ordinary trails" w ere from three to six in ch es d eep . S o m e trails, e sp e c ia lly larger on es on acute s lo p e s , were d eep en ed by rain, runoff and ero sio n , and had to b e abandoned by the b ison for m ore n a v ig a b le routes. Soper a lso com m en ted on bison

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rubbing against trees. T his often stripped m uch bark, although m any o f the plants rem ained a liv e.

F ertilization S op er indicated that the bison cou ld be a very im portant sou rce o f fertilizer. “ A n y o n e ." he sa id , “ w h o has seen the great q u an tities o f this m aterial, distributed in a sin g le se a so n , o v er plain and m ea d o w , is im pressed with the p o ssib ilitie s." H istorical ob servation s tend to su p ­ port S o p er's id eas. T ravellers in the nineteenth century referred to organ ic productivity o f the b ison on a num ber o f o c c a s io n s. An im pres­ siv e illustration is found in the w ritin gs o f Isaac C o w ie ( 5 9 ), a trader, w h o en countered m any b ison near the Q u 'A p p e lle R iver in present-day Sask atch ew an in 1869. A s he describ ed it: O ur route took us into the m idst o f the herd, w hich o p en ed in front and c lo s e d behind the train o f carts like water round a ship . . . the earth trem bled day and night . . . as they m oved o v er the in clin ation s o f the p lains. E very drop o f w ater on our w ay w as foul and y e llo w w ith their w a llo w in g s and excretion s. S uch organic con trib ution s were by no m eans con fin ed to the b iso n . W hile livin g at P em bina Post in 1801 A lexan d er H enry the Y ou n g er o b serv ed that: Bears m ake p rod igiou s ravages in the bush and w illo w s; the plum trees are torn to p ieces, and every tree that bears fruit has shared the sam e fate: the tops o f the oaks are a lso very roughly h an d led, broken, and torn d ow n to get the acorns. The h avoc they co m m it is asto n ish in g ; their dung lies about in the w o o d s as plentiful as that o f the b u ffalo in the m ead ow (54:1:102). The North W est C om p any trader, Francois Larocque described sim ilar co n d itio n s in the Y ello w sto n e V alley in 1805. He reported “ m any bears in the neigh b ourhood drawn by the w ild cherries and other fr u its. . . the banks o f the river are covered with bear dung as the approaches o f a stab le are with cattle m anure" (2 3 1 ). A dram atic w ay o f indicating the organ ic contribution o f the bison alone is to cite eig h teen th and nineteenth century referen ces to the m any drow ned a n im als o b serv ed alon g stream s in spring and sum m er. W h ile near Fort Carlton on the North S ask atch ew an in 1793 the trader John M cD on ald o f Garth saw “ upward o f a thousand d ead " a lo n g one stretch o f river, and co n clu d ed that th ey had drow ned w h ile crossin g

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breaking ice. A m o n g the dead were m any bears feed in g on th e car­ c a s se s . In M a y , 1 7 9 5 . another trader reportedly cou n ted o ver seven thousand dead b u ffa lo during a sin g le d a y 's travel on the Q u 'A p p elle R iver. In A p ril, 1801. A lexan d er Henry the Y ou n ger observed drow ned b u ffalo d riftin g by in " h e r d s." T h e Indians told him that it w as the sa m e each spring (2 6 5 , 2 3 1 ). S ou n ds a lso w ere d ifferen t during the b u ffalo days on the northern p lains. O ne o f the best d escrip tion s o f the n o ise o f the b ison is that m ade by A udubon w h ile on a barge g o in g d ow n the M issouri in A u gu st. 1843. H e sa w thousands o f b u ffalo w h o se roaring resem bled " T h e gru n tin g o f h o g s, w ith a rollin g sou n d from the throat." T h e next day the b u tta lo cou ld be seen all a lo n g the river banks and “ their roaring cou ld be heard for m ile s" (2 3 1 :1 3 1 ).

B ison a n d O ther A nim als I he g ra zin g , w a lk in g and w a llo w in g o f the b ison a lso in flu en ced the distribution o f other fauna. O ne anim al p o ssib ly a ffected in this way w as the pronghorn a n telo p e, w h ich m ay have been as n u m erous, i f not m ore num erous than the b ison on the pre-C aucasian plains (8 6 :5 1 ). Its range probably ex ten d ed from the Alberta fo o th ills north to the North S ask atch ew an R iver, east into M an itoba, and w ell south in to the United States. T od ay o n ly a relatively sm all num ber o f an telope rem ains, principally on pu b lic lands su ch as the S u ffield M ilitary R eserve, A lberta. T he idea o f a n telope form erly b ein g as num erous as the b u ffalo is com p atib le w ith w hat is k n ow n about the feed in g habits o f the bison. T he antelope eats g rass, e sp e c ia lly in su m m er, but relies h ea v ily on forbs and sh ru b s, or b ro w se, m uch o f the year. B iso n , like cattle, often d o not prefer su ch plants, w hich are cla ssifie d as " in c rea se rs” or " in v a d er s" on range m uch used by them . M oderate to h ea v y grazing by the b u ffa lo therefore quite p o ssib ly en cou raged b row se and habitat su itab le for large pronghorn p opulations (8 6 :5 1 ). Burrow ing rodent p op u lation s a lso are said to be favoured by m oderate to h ea v y cattle grazin g w h ich breaks the sod and rem oves the higher g ra sses not liked by prairie d o g s, ground squirrels and gop h ers, perhaps b ecau se lon g grass ob scu res their vision (1 4 7 ). B ison grazing cou ld have had a sim ilar effe c t in the past. Prairie d o g c o lo n ie s have b een o b served in m oderately to h eavily grazed parts o f present day national parks and other public reserves. But the rodents are not m entioned m uch in the h istoric d ocu m en ts and rarely in such a w ay as to link them with bison g ra zin g. England and D e V o s do use som e citation s from M atthew C o c k in g 's account o f h is 1772 travels to

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su g g est su ch a link. A s another e x a m p le, w h ile near the E lb ow o f the South S ask atch ew an in 1857. John P alliser referred to m any " b a d g er" h o le s, like "rabbit w a rren s." w hich m enaced his horses and hunters ch asin g b u ffa lo . P alliser a lso found b ison to be very num erous in this area, and the grass reportedly w as h ea v ily grazed , at least in p laces (2 8 9 :1 4 4 -1 4 6 ).

T he B urro w ing R odents It is d ifficu lt to estim ate h ow n u m erous the b urrow ing rodents were overall on the p lain s. H istoric records d o sh o w the prairie d o g s were very co m m o n in so m e areas. H o w ev er, their " d o g to w n s" m ay not have p ersisted in one general location for m any years. R ecent p opula­ tions are know n to have disappeared rather q u ick ly and m ysteriou sly (1 4 7 ). L ew is and Clark m ade a num ber o f referen ces to prairie d o g s during their trip a lon g the M issouri in 18 0 4 - 18 0 6 . S o m e o f the c o lo n ie s were sim ilar in siz e to those in present national parks and other public reserv es. For ex a m p le, L e w is and Clark reported " a V illa g e o f Barking Squirrels 9 7 0 yards lo n g and 8 00 yards W id e S ituated on a gen tle S lop e o f a h ill" near S ca lp C reek. South D ak ota, in S ep tem b er, 1804. S om e o f the to w n s w ere m uch larger, h o w ev er. W h ile near the W hite R iver-M issouri jun ction in S ep tem b er, 1804, L e w is described a plain, on e m ile w id e and about three m iles lon g w h ich w as " en tirely occu p yed by the burrow s o f the barking squiril . . . the anim al appears in in fin ite n u m b ers" (2 5 :1 0 5 ). Still further w est, near the ju n ction o f the M arias R iver and the M issou ri, the L e w is and Clark exp ed ition e n co u n ­ tered " th e largest co llectio n o f b urrow ing or barking squirrels that we had ev e r yet seen ; w e passed through a skirt o f the territory o f this com m u n ity for about 7 m ile s ” (2 5 :1 0 5 ). T h is last c o lo n y m ay have been large en ou gh to rival a huge on e reportedly co v erin g thou san d s o f square m iles in T e x a s about 1900. T h e b io lo g ist, M erriam , estim ated its population at about 4 0 0 m illion prairie d o g s. H e w as o f the op in ion that they con su m ed en ou gh forage to support 1.5 0 2 ,5 0 0 head o f cattle. On the b a sis o f his M ontana and W y o m in g stu d ies during the I9 5 0 's , K oford thought both these figu res were far too h igh . A ccord in g to his arith m etic. M erriam 's forage con su m p tion estim ate im plied a stock in g rate o f six ty head o f cattle per section year round or " ab out four tim es a reasonable rate . . . for sh ort-grass r a n g e .” K oford w ent on to say that in the earlier part o f this century there apparently " w a s a tendency am o n g m en o f the B io lo g ica l S u rvey to overem p h asize rodent d am age in order to gain support for the work o f their bureau, w h ich at the tim e w as d ev o ted m ainly to predator and rodent co n tro l" (1 4 7 :4 3 ).

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R o d e n t G r a z in g a n d B r o w s in g

Students o f b urrow ing rodents h ave found their e ffe c ts on vegetation to be interw oven w ith and d ifficu lt to separate from large grazers su ch as cattle or b ison . In g en era l, m oderate to h eavy grazing by cattle and bison in both m ix ed and lon g grass a sso cia tio n s se e m s to favour an im als such as the prairie d o g . although the rodent distribution d oes not a lw a y s n icely con form to the presen ce o f the large grazers. N or. acco rd in g to K oford . do prairie d o g s serio u sly c o m p ete for forage with cattle or b iso n , ex cep t perhaps during d rought, w h en the pressure o f all org a n ism s on availa b le forage is high and previou s food p references m ay not hold (1 4 7 :4 8 ). In su m m arizin g h is 1950"s research o ver large parts o f the d o m in ­ antly short-grass U .S . northern p lain s, K oford stated that typical dog tow n v eg eta tio n co n sisted o f abundant short perennial grasses such as gram a (B o u telo u a g ra cilis) and b u ffa lo grass (B u c h lo e d a c ty lo id e s), a large variety o f forb s, and rarely o f shrubs. M id grasses, tall grasses and shrubs, such as the w heat grasses (A grop yron sp p ), the blue stem s (A n d ro p o g o n spp) and shrubby cin q u efo il (P oten tilla fruitic o s a ), resp ectiv e ly , arc m ore com m on around rather than w ithin a co lo n y . N ear the w estern ed g e o f the tall-grass reg io n , if grazin g or other co n d itio n s produce an area o f short g ra ss, it m ay be occu p ied by prairie d o g s. T h ese can m aintain the short-grass stage in d efin itely on so m e sites, but on others the supplem ental effe cts o f h oofed anim als are required. O n the m ixed prairie, the general e ffe c ts o f prairie d o g s are sim ilar to those o f cattle in that they tend to ca u se a d ecrease in w estern w h eatgrass, and an increase in bu ffalograss o v er blu e gram a. In other w ord s, in m ixed prairie, prairie d ogs alon e can both produce and m aintain the short-grass association . A lthough so m e forbs and shrubs are elim in ated by prairie d o g s, the fact that they e x p o se so il and often reduce perennial grasses tends to in crease forbs and m ake range vegetation h eterogen eou s (1 4 7 :6 2 ). K oford a lso stated that the e ffe c ts o f h eavy pressure on vegetation by a variety o f a n im als, in clu d in g rodents, cou ld b e severe and long lastin g. In p la ces on the northern plains re-estab lish m en t o f “ na­ tive g ra sses” on “ bared s o il” m ight require from tw en ty to forty years. Furtherm ore overgrazin g ca u ses m any o f the sam e vegetation ch a n g es as d rought. It is therefore d ifficu lt to d istin guish b etw een these p ro cesses, although so m e range researchers in Canada h ave attem pted to do so (4 7 ). In m ixed prairie, drought gen erally se e m s to ca u se a d ecrea se in the proportion o f mid g ra sses, an increase in short grasses,

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and a reduction in forage y ield . In dry years grazing in creases and aggravates the e ffe c ts o f drought. T he e ffe c ts o f drought and h eavy grazin g on the d istribution o f the prairie d o g s and other rodents are not w ell un d erstood . It has been su ggested that drought ca u ses d ep letion o f food su p p ly in and near the tow n s and that th is, in turn, stim u lates em igration . If s o . then the e ffe c ts o f drought and h eavy grazin g cou ld spread w id ely o v er the p lains from p re-ex istin g c o lo n ie s. H o w ev er, other ob servation s su g ­ gest that rodent num bers fall con sid erab ly during drought, so that m igration o f d o g s and their effe cts on grass and other vegetation m ay not be sig n ifica n t (1 4 7 :6 7 ). R o d e n t B u r r o w in g a n d C u ltiv a tio n

T h e g eo m o rp h ic e ffe c ts o f the prairie d o g s, gop h ers (T h o m o m y s sp p ). ground squirrels (C itellu s spp) and other rodents undoubtedly w ere substantial in pre-C aucasian d ays. T he different rodents tend to d ig at d ifferen t le v e ls in the so il. T h e gop h er se em s to concentrate w ithin about tw en ty in ch es o f the su rface. Ground squirrels g o dow n a few feet, and the prairie d o g . c o y o te , w o lf, and other a n im als can penetrate m ore than ten feet beneath the su rface. V arious estim ates h ave been m ade o f so il m o v em en ts by these a n im als. For ex a m p le, w orking in T e x a s, in the early I9 4 0 's , B uechner (2 2 ) calcu lated that gop h ers in one area brought .3 6 o f a ton o f so il to the surface per acre per year. In earlier studies in Y o sem ite Park. Joseph G rinnell form ed the op in ion that the lo o se n in g o f the ground by gop h ers increased w ater absorption and retarded ru n -o ff to stream s. He a lso felt that the gop h er cou n ­ teracted the packing o f s o ils by large m am m als grazin g on uncultivated rangelands (1 0 9 ). Prairie d o g s and other burrow ers h ave been id en tified as major c a u ses o f se v ere w ind and w ater ero sio n , but this co n clu sio n h as not been accep ted by all ob servers for all circu m stan ces (8 4 . 3 0 7 ), In fact it has been pointed out that w h en topsoil and plant co v e r h a v e been lost, “ gop h er w ork in gs m ade a favourable seed bed and h elp ed to re­ estab lish v eg eta tio n " (1 4 7 :4 1 ). A s a result o f research in the W asatch Plateau area in U tah , E llison co n clu d ed that " a lth o u g h gop h ers in­ creased the sp eed o f erosion after it w as w ell started, overgrazin g by liv e sto c k , not b urrow ing by go p h ers, w as the primary ca u se o f e x c e s ­ siv e e ro sio n " (8 4 ). K oford form ed a sim ilar op in ion about the ero siv e effe cts o f prairie d o g s in the M on tan a-W yom in g area (1 4 7 :4 1 ). R o d e n ts a n d O t h e r A n i m a l s

The b urrow ing rodents have a variety o f e ffe c ts on other a n im als in the

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e c o s y ste m . T h e prairie d o g . gop h er and ground squirrel serve as food for predators su ch as g o ld en e a g le s (A q u ila ch ry sa cto s). h aw k s: b ob ­ cats (L yn x rufus): c o y o te s (C an is latrans); b lack -footed ferrets (M ustella nigrip es): and badgers (T axid en taxu s). K oford 's stu d ies indicate that certain o f these predators, for ex a m p le ferruginous h aw k s (B u teo regalis) and ferrets, feed e sp e c ia lly h ea v ily on prairie d o g s. Any con trol program s directed at these rodents therefore co u ld h ave pro­ found e ffe c ts on their predators, although the latter do h ave an in com ­ plete!}. understood cap a b ility o f sw itch in g to rabbits and other fo o d , if this is n ecessa ry . T h e rodents a lso affect other an im als through their b urrow ing and h ab itat-m od ifyin g a ctiv ities. K oford (1 4 7 :3 2 ) noted that pronghorn a n telo p e " m a y profit by the ab sen ce o f thick grass and the abundance and variety o f fo rb s" in prairie d o g tow n s. C ottontail (S y lv ila g u s auduboni) con cen tration s in d o g to w n s appear to be largely due to the rabbit's use o f the d og burrows and to a lik ing for the forbs com m on in d og co lo n ie s. Certain types o f m ice (P ero m y scu s m aniculatu s) also appear to be rela tiv ely num erous in m any d o g to w n s, as do predators such as the rattlesnakes (C rotalu s v. riridis). The b urrow ing ow l (S p eo ty to cun icu laria) has been recogn ized as a com m on resident o f prairie d og to w n s sin ce the o b servation s o f early C aucasian travellers in the nineteenth cen tu ry. O ther birds reported by K oford as being rather num erous in d og to w n s are horned larks (E rcm op h ilia alp estris). m ead ow larks (Stu rn ella n eglecta) and m ourning d o v es (Zenaidura m acroura). T h ese, and the other an im als c o m p o sin g the com m u n ity o f w h ich the prairie d o g and other rodents are a b asic part, o b v io u sly have m uch in flu en ce on v eg eta tio n , so ils and o th e relem en ts o f the landscape through seed d ispersal and organ ic d ep o sitio n .

T he B eaver T h e b eaver is often thought o f as a d w e lle r o f the northern forests. But step p e and savannah (parkland) lan d scap es theoretically can offer m uch habitat for the an im al. T h e poplar, w illo w and other plants co m m o n ly used by the b eaver for fo o d , sh elter and stream en gin eerin g are plentiful in treed interio'r high land s such as the C yp ress H ills, as w ell as along the M isso u ri, North and South S ask atch ew an and other river v a lley s. Y et in so m e o f these areas, such as the C yp ress H ills, early b eaver p op u lation s are not ea sily estim a te d , prim arily becau se M etis and Indian trappers left few ob servation s o f anim al num bers (2 3 1 ). On theoretical grounds b eaver cou ld b e ex p ected to m od ify the lan d scap e and eco sy ste m in several b asic w ays. The anim als w ould

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build m any d a m s, e sp e c ia lly on sm aller stream s and ch a n n els, and so reorgan ize drainage o v er m uch o f the v a lley floors. T h ese drainage c h a n g es, in turn, w ou ld in flu en ce g eo m o rp h ic, v egetation and w ild life patterns, for ex a m p le by prom oting a llu v ia tio n , and grow th o f marsh g ra sses, w illo w , alder and other plants favourable to w aterfow l, gro u se, other birds, m o o se , deer and their predators (1 3 4 . 152. 3 3 0 . m i).

S uch e ffe c ts h a v e b een reported by so m e early C aucasian travel­ lers in the S ask a tch ew a n -M issou ri cou n try. For e x a m p le , in O ctob er. I 7 5 4 . w h en the H u d so n ’s Bay C om p any trader, A n thon y H en d ay, w as in the p la in s-fo o th ills frin ge, not far from the Red D eer R iver. A lberta, he d escrib ed the country a s “ L evel land with p oplars; and great m any C reeks and p o n d s, w ith p len ty o f B e a v er H o u se s ." A num ber o f m o o se a lso w ere ob served in this general area (2 2 8 :7 1 -2 ). On July 18, 1805, w h ile just a b ove the Great Falls o f the M issou ri. Clark saw a num ber o f beaver d am s “ su cc eed in g each other in c lo s e order and exten d in g as far up these stream s as h e co u ld d isco v e r them in their cou rse tow ards the m o u n ta in s" (25:1 10). W h ile near T o w n sen d . M ontana, in late Ju ly. 1 805. L ew is and Clark o b served m any b eaver w h ich had d am m ed up the sm all ch an n els am o n g islands and cau sed the river to cut new rou tew ays. S om e ch a n n els w ere said e'ventually to fill with m ud. sand, g ra v el, and d riftw o o d . T h is p rocess reportedly prom pted the b eaver to m o v e to n ew sites. L e w is and Clark co n clu d ed that the b eaver w a s very instrum ental in ad d in g to the m any islan d s in the river (2 2 8 :7 1 ).

O th er A nim als M oose

T h e m o o se w as a preferred fo o d o f the traders, w h o apparently fan cied its n o se and to n g u e. Prior to the attack o f the w h ite m an . the an im al's range probably ex ten d ed w ell into the parkland and grassland. S uch an exten d ed range is reasonable on theoretical grou n d s for valley b eaver p opulations w ould prom ote the p o n d s, w illo w s , and other marsh grow th so attractive to the m o o se . England and D e V o s have supported such a form erly larger range on the b asis o f ev id e n c e in jou rn als su ch as A n thon y H en d a y 's. In 1 7 5 4 -1 7 5 5 H enday travelled from the north­ eastern part o f the northern p lain s, w estw ard s a lo n g the Carrot River through present-day S a sk a tch ew an , to the A lberta fo o th ills z o n e , and then back a lon g the South and North S ask atch ew an R ivers. D uring this jou rn ey he spent about tw o and one h alf m onths in the grassland or " M u sco ty P la in s" w h ere he recorded the k illin g o f at least forty-eight m o o se.

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In co n clu d in g their c o m m en ts on the m o o se . England and D e V os say that they do not w ish to im ply that these an im als were " b y any m eans as num erous as the b ea ver, a n telop e, or even elk in the relatively op en grassland o f C anada. H o w ev er, they apparently w ere present in su ffic ien t num bers to warrant recogn ition a s a sign ifican t part o f the b io m e .” H ow far their range exten d ed southw ard is uncertain. N either L e w is nor Clark p ersonally en cou n tered the anim al in the p lain s area o f present day M ontana. On the other hand, in their personal d iaries tw o m em b ers o f the ex p ed itio n reported that on M ay 10. 1805. a party o f hunters " sa w so m e M o o se d eer, w h ich w as larger than the com m on d e e r ," a few m ile s a b o v e the m outh o f the M ilk R iver w h ich drains the C yp ress H ills area (2 5 :1 4 0 ). D eer

A nother anim al w h o se pre and early C aucasian num bers and distribu­ tion are not w ell know n is the deer. In their review o f the historical literature on the northern C anadian plains England and D e V o s found ev id e n c e for o n ly o n e type, the m ule deer (O d o c o ilcu s h em ion u s), although both the m u le and w h ite tailed deer (O d o c o ileu s virginianus) w ere recorded further sou th , alon g the M issou ri, by L e w is and Clark. T h e m ule deer m ay principally have o ccu p ied the rougher higher ground aw ay from the river b o tto m s, w hich apparently w ere preferred by the w hite tailed deer. S in ce C aucasian settlem en t the w h ite tailed deer apparently has b eco m e d om in an t over m uch o f the availab le range on the northern p lains. D e e r b r o w s i n g a n d g r a z in g

D eer are u su ally thought o f as brow sers w h ich u se a w id e range o f fora g e, including a sp en , w illo w and other broad leaved trees and shrubs, as w ell as co n ifers ( I I 1 :155-1 5 6 ). H o w ev er, deer a lso graze, and can adapt their feed in g to availab le p lan ts, s o that it is d ifficu lt to g en era lize about their pre and early C aucasian e ffe c ts on vegetation . T h e sam e ap p lies to their p o ssib le effe cts on land form s, s o ils or other w ild life. D eer do not exh ib it sig n ifica n t b ehaviour patterns su ch as w a llo w ­ ing. But their w a lk in g , like that o f other a n im als, m ust have contributed to the form ation o f dunuded trails, e sp e c ia lly near river v a lley s. T hey a lso contributed to the plains eco sy ste m organ ically.

E lk Today the elk is gen erally p erceived as a m ountain d w eller. But in pre

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and early C aucasian d a y s it w as very num erous on the p lains. S o m e elk undoubtedly m igrated, as they do tod ay, from su m m er m ountain habitat to w inter in p rotected , lo w -ly in g plains river v a lle y s, or in the ch in o o k z o n e in the fo o th ills-p la in s fringe. O thers w ere perm anent inhabitants o f the p lain s, and cou ld find food and sh elter in parts o f the grasslan d s, particularly in poplar g ro v es and w oodland along stream s. D uring his 1755 sojourn in the northern plains grasslan d s A nthony H enday o b serv ed elk freq u en tly, on on e occa sio n recording a herd o f ap p roxim ately three hundred an im als (8 6 :9 1 ). In 1 8 0 0 . w h ile near the e lb o w o f the South S a sk a tch ew an , about on e hundred m iles w est o f present day R eg in a , Peter Fidler noted that elk cou ld be ob served all alon g the stream w h erever there were “ sm all w o o d s" o f any kind (2 2 8 :6 5 ). L ew is and Clark ob served (he elk quite frequently alon g the M issou ri. On April 2 6 , 1 8 0 5 , w h ile near the m outh o f the Y ello w sto n e R iver, they noted that “ the open b ottom s border on Ihe h ills, and are covered in m any parts by the w ild h y sso p (sageb ru sh . A rtem isia tridentata) w h ich rises to a heigh t o f tw o f e e t . . . the A n telo p e , B u ffa lo e , Flk and deer feed on this herb; the w illo w o f the sand-bars a lso furnish a favorite w inter fo o d o f these an im als as w ell as the grou se, the por­ c u p in e, hare and rabbit" (2 5 :1 3 5 ). E lsew h ere L e w is and Clark record elk feed in g on grass and ru sh es, as w ell as fern and evergreen and d ecid u o u s shrubs in the w o o d s. H istorical records and more recent ob servation s in B a n ff and other national parks indicate the elk has a w id e ranging b row sin g and grazin g d iet w ith con sid erab le adaptability to circu m stan ces. R a b b i ts a n d I n s e c ts

O ther an im als w hich undoubtedly a ffec ted the pre and early C aucasian landscape w ere rabbits and in sects. Rabbits undergo fluctu ations or “ c y c le s " in pop u lation . At the high p oin ts, in particular, they can b row se, g ird le, and kill poplar, spruce and other trees and shrubs (1 4 :2 7 ). Insects such as the grassh op p er or “ lo cu st" (M elan op lu s spretus) a lso p eriod ically occu r in great num b ers, d evou rin g m uch o f the v eg eta tio n and m any o b jects in their path. D escrip tion s o f the outbursts o f the late 1 8 5 0 'sa n d early 1 8 6 0 'sh a v e been left by both the E n glishm an . P a lliser. and the C an ad ian . Hind (2 3 1 ). T h e latter wrote o f grassh op p er m ov em en ts in the sk y and their e ffe c ts on its co lo u r, at tim es b lu e, then silv er w h ite , ash g rey , and lead -lik e. T h o se p ortions o f the prairie w hich had b een v isited by grasshoppers had a “ curious ap pearance, the grass w as cut u n iform ly to on e inch from the gorund. and the w h o le surface w as covered with sm all round, green ex u v a ie (fe c e s) o f those d estru ctive in v a d ers" . P alliser m ade sim ilar

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o b serv a tio n s, although h is referen ces to v egetation con su m p tion are not as sp e c ific as H in d 's (2 2 8 :7 3 ).

Fire Fire has lon g been reco g n ized as a m ajor variable in the plains' eco sy stem (2 3 8 . 3 2 0 . 3 2 1 ). G rass fires were and co n tin u e to be caused b y both lightning and man (2 3 8 . 3 2 0 , 3 2 1). T h e se fires vary in charac­ ter d ep en d in g on w in d , fuel and other variab les. S o m e h istoric fires reportedly w ere slo w m o v in g short lived affairs. O thers w ere im m ense con flagration s w h ich burned thousands o f square m ile s. T h eir effects on grass and other elem en ts o f the ec o sy ste m und oub ted ly varied with the tem peratures g en erated , so il m oisture and other co n d itio n s. It is therefore d ifficu lt to g en era lize about their e ffe c ts . But they frequently d estroyed or d am aged poplar and other trees, thereby con trib utin g to the m aintenance and at tim es to the ex ten sio n o f the grasslan d , although its borders p robably fluctuated u n ev en ly in sp a ce and tim e as do droughts and other factors w hich can favour fire (2 3 8 ). In addition to their e ffe c ts fires in flu en ced other parts o f the eco sy ste m . A lex a n d er Henry the Y ou n ger w as o n e o f those traders w ho en countered bison herds w hich had been caught in fires, with m any an im als being k illed , or injured. S od and organic m aterial co u ld a lso be burned, affectin g plant grow th and an im als for years. T h e availab le inform ation o f such effe cts is in su fficien t to estim ate their sig n ifica n ce. It is d ou b tfu l, h o w ev er, that fire w as n early as im portant as d row n in g or the w o lf, in con tro llin g b ison population in pre-C aucasian tim e (2 6 5 ,2 3 1 ). In d eed , fires co u ld create fresh grass grow th and other co n d itio n s favourable to b ison and other a n im als. T h e Indians knew this and used to burn large se c tio n s o f the prairie in fall and early spring in order to prom ote the grow th w h ich attracted the b u ffalo. Sum m er fires a lso w ere used tem porarily to d estroy pasture and d iscou rage b ison from m igrating into areas w here they w ere not w anted by the Indians (2 3 8 ).

C lim ate O ne o f the m ore o b v io u s in flu en ces on vegetation and the eco sy ste m is clim a te. It is not surprising therefore to find that there has been a ten d en cy to read the e ffe c ts o f clim a te into ch an ges in vegetation or other landscape e lem en ts, or— to say the sa m e thing d ifferen tly— to try and use v eg eta tio n and other ch an ges as ev id e n c e for drought or clim a tic ch a n g e. A basic d ifficu lty here, o f co u rse, is the attem pt to use

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fire frequency as a d irect indicator o f d ry n ess, w hen fires can arise from a num ber o f in flu en ces m ore or less independent o f w eather and clim a te. For ex a m p le, the influx o f the careless w h isk y traders and prospectors into the northern plains in the 186 0 ’s co u ld have brought m ore frequent burning at that tim e. T h e severe d ep letion o f the b ison by the 18 6 0 - 187 0 's in the east-central C anadian plains cou ld have resulted in in creases in grass fuel for fires. Such a ch an ge m ay h ave overridden in creases in precipitation norm ally con sid ered detrim ental to fire. F lo o d s, short g rass, ex p o sed grou n d , and other occu rrences have been used as ev id en ce for w et or dry co n d itio n s, or clim a tic ch an ge. H o w ­ ev e r , large flo o d s can occu r during years o f relatively low rainfall (2 7 7 ). And short grass and other p o ssib le indicators o f aridity co u ld be due to p rolonged grazin g or other p ro cesses. In fact the nature o f the ev id en ce is such that w e must adm it to h aving little sp ec ific k n o w led g e o f ch a n g es in clim ate in the nineteenth century northern p la in s, in sp ite o f the efforts o f various m eteorologists and geograp h ers (3 0 5 . 164. 153). Furtherm ore, even if reliable infor­ m ation on clim a tic ch a n g e were a v a ila b le, the data p o ssib ly w ou ld not fit w ell sp a tia lly o r tem p orally with e x p o se d ground or other “ sig n s " or d rought, b eca u se o f ihe in flu en ce o f other variab les, notably an im als. Indeed short g rass, g u llie s, and other p h en om en a w h ich w e h ave c o m e to p erceiv e as indicators o f “ o v e r g r a z in g ,” “ accelerated er o sio n ” or other “ ab n orm al” co n d itio n s m ay h ave been m uch m ore w idespread or “ norm al” in the d ays o f the b ison , elk and other an im als than has hitherto gen erally been su sp ected .

M an Pre-C aucasian hum an num bers are d ifficu lt to estim ate, but m ay have been about 2 0 0 .0 0 0 for the northern plains area o f approxim ately present-day A lberta. S a sk a tch ew an , North D akota and M ontana (2 6 5 : A ppendix G ). C ertainly human num bers were con sid erab ly less than those o f an im als such as the b ison , a n telop e and e lk . And their effe cts on landscape gen erally se em to h ave been greater than m a n 's, although human b ehaviour often m ay h ave been im portant, as the fo llo w in g ex a m p les sh o w . From very early tim es the n ative p eop les o f the northern plains appear to h ave been rather stron gly in flu en ced by clim ate and su b se­ quent m igration o f b iso n and other an im als to the ch in ook z o n e , or to treed and sheltered h igh land s and v a lley s in w inter (2 3 1 ). A ccord in g to traders su ch as A lex a n d er H enry the Y ou n ger, the n atives often were “ c o m p e lle d ” to fo llo w the m igrating b ison , their principal sou rce o f m eat, h id es, b o n es, other fo od , sh elter and to o ls. On the other hand

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these p eop le a lso interacted with the sy stem in such a w ay as to override clim a te, at least on a short term b a sis. O ne direct m ean s o f d oin g s o was through the u se o f fire, w h ich co u ld overrid e clim atic in flu en ces on bison m o v em en t o v er large areas. T h e p olitical arrangem ents am o n g the various tribes a lso in flu ­ en ced the distribution and num ber o f a n im als, their grazing and other e ffe c ts on la n d scap e. The northern plains tribes tended to o ccu p y a lo o se ly d efined territory w h ich the early traders called " th eir general lo c a lity ,” an area in w hich they preferred to hunt and liv e . B etw een the general lo ca lities were buffer z o n e s , w here relatively little hunting w as d on e at risk o f attack from n eigh b ouring p eo p le. A ccord in g to Hickerson (1 2 0 ) a b u ffer or neutral zon e existed b etw een the S iou x and the O jibw a in present-day M in n esota for m any years during the nineteenth cen tu ry. W h ile near the E lb ow o f the S outh S askatchew an R iver in about 1 860. P alliser referred to a b u ffer zon e b etw een the C rees and the B la ck feet o f the eastern and w estern plains resp ectiv e ly . P alliser also noted a concentration o f bison and other an im als in this z o n e , as w ell as sig n s o f h ea v y g ra zin g . At o n e p oin t he said that " th e grass in this arid cou n try, a lw a y s s o sca n ty , w as n ow actu ally sw ep t a w ay by the b u ffa lo , w h o a ssisted by the lo cu sts, had left the country as bare as if it had been run o v er by fire" (2 8 9 :1 4 5 -1 4 6 ). T h e C yp ress H ills area appears to have been a b uffer zon e betw een the B lack feet o f the Sask atch ew an and the C row s o f the Y ello w sto n e country for at least se v en ty years during the nineteenth century. Like other b u ffer zo n e s it se e m s to have been rich in e lk , g rizzly bear and other w ild life , and w as d escrib ed as late as the I8 7 0 ’s by the trader. Isaac C o w ie . in the fo llo w in g rather extravagant m anner . . . A s far back as the m em ory and traditions o f the C rees then liv in g ex ten d ed , these C yp ress H ills . . . had been neutral ground b etw een m any differen t warring tribes. . . . N o Indian for hunting purposes ev e r set foot in the h ills, w h o se w ood ed c o u le e s and ravines b eca m e the undisturbed haunt o f all kinds o f g a m e, and esp e cia lly abounded in g rizzly bears and the b eau tifu lly antlered and m agn ificen t W a s-K a y -S o u s k n ow n variou sly by the English as red d eer or elk . O n ly wary and w atchful w ar parties o f any tribes ev e r visited the h ills and so d angerous w as it to cam p in them it w as cu stom ary for such parties to put up barricades about the spots in w hich they stayed o v er night. (5 9 :3 0 4 ) N oth in g in the historical d ocu m en ts in d icates that man w as sig ­ n ifican tly d ep letin g any w ild life sp ecies prior to the arrival o f the C au ca sia n , w h o se co m m erce and tech n o lo g y transform ed the human

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role and put man in a p osition o f landscape ascen d en cy w ithin a few d eca d es. T h is is not to d en y that pre-C aucasian man at tim es m ay have contributed to anim al ex tin ctio n or d ep letio n . Indeed it has b een c o n ­ tended that he played an im portant role in the extin ction o f the m am ­ moth and other m em b ers o f the giant North A m erican P le isto cen e fauna by about 6 ,0 0 0 B .C . (1 8 9 ). But, on the b asis o f the ev id en ce availab le for the eigh teen th and nineteenth cen tu ries, m an w as a contributing variable in the sy ste m — not the overw h elm in g ly dom inant on e he later b ecam e w ith the arrival o f the C au casian .

Significance I m a g e s o f P r e - C a u c a s ia n L a n d s c a p e s

In the light o f the p reced in g d iscu ssio n , the pre-C aucasian northern plains cannot be e n v isio n ed as a ''p ristin e'' or " v ir g in " landscape first ex p o se d to " se v e r e o v erg ra z in g ," " accelerated ero sio n " and other p ro cesses as a result o f the co m in g o f the w hite m an. T h e b ison , burrow ing rodents, elk and other a n im als, as w ell as fire, clim atic ch an g e and the a g en cy o f m an. must h ave interacted on num erous o cca sio n s o v er the cen tu ries to reduce grass and tree co v er, ex p o se bare ground and induce h eavy w ind and w ater erosion (1 8 5 . 4 5 , 6 4 ). T he idea o f a reasonably " b alan ced natural sy ste m " is also d ifficu lt to accept in the light o f the ev id e n c e presen ted in this essa y , u n less o n e is prepared to a llo w for pronounced sw in g s in the sy stem . V ariations in the intensity and spatial distribution o f d rou gh ts, fire, grazin g , w a lk in g , w a llo w in g and other p ro cesses must have produced a w id e range o f o sc illa tio n s in landscape character about so m e rare and transitory m ean. D ust storm s approxim ating those o f the " d irty thir­ tie s" could have been produced on a num ber o f o c c a s io n s o ver the last few thousand years o f pre-C aucasian tim e as a result o f variations in lau n al, clim a tic and pyric p ro cesses, at least on a regional b asis. T h e idea o f a " p u re" pre-C aucasion landscape is a lso d ifficu lt to sustain when o n e rem em bers other sign ifican t p ro cesses, for exam p le the drow n in g and rotting o f thou san d s o f p lain s b ison each spring. S ig n i f i c a n c e to M o ti v a tio n f o r C o n s e r v a ti o n

Support for m any co n servation al practices has. o f co u rse, been built on the idea o f man as a great evil fo rce, a " ra p ist" o f the " u n tou ch ed la n d ." A rather typ ical ex p o sitio n o f this p h ilosop h ical b asis for c o n ­ servation is found in the w ork o f su ch influential A m erican d e c is io n ­

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m akers as W alter H ick el. form er U .S . S ecretary o f the Interior, w ho has written o f h is b oyh ood con cern about the p lo w in g o f the prairie for m ore w heat. "T hat is what w e d id .” he said , and that is what upset n atu re's b alan ce. T here w eren't any dust storm s w h en the Indians lived by th e m se lv e s in K an sas. O k­ lah om a. N ebraska and the D ak otas. T h e upset dated back to W orld W ar I. w hen w e started p lo w in g up the prairies to s o w grain for the A llied arm ies o f w estern Europe. T h e top soil had b een held together for thousands o f y ears by b u ffa lo grass and a few trees. T he p lo w jarred it lo o se from its soil und erp inn in gs. T h is is h ow w e not o n ly d ep ressed the agricultural ec o n o m y but cam e c lo s e to d estroyin g the land o f what cam e to be know n as the dustbow l

(I 19:50-f). A lthou gh so m e o f H ick el's facts and his underlying philosop h ical basis for con servation are not en tirely a ccep ta b le, he d o es hint at one b asic reason for concern about h eavy g ra zin g , cu ltivation and soil ero sio n . It is not so m uch that su ch p ro cesses are n ew o r " u n n atu ral," but that under the C aucasian m an. in particular, they are extrem e and e x c e s s iv e and if con tinu ed for lon g periods o f tim e can seriou sly d am a g e or d estroy grass, so il and other landscape elem en ts w h ich are valu ed by p eo p le for e c o n o m ic , aesth etic or other reason s, in clu d in g sh eer respect for life. M a n 's P l a c e in ilie S y s te m

T h e fo reg o in g rem arks lead to the lon gstan d in g q u estion o f m an 's overall e ffe c ts on the northern plains lan d scap e. T he literature o f the eigh teen th and nineteenth cen tu ries indicates that pre-C aucasian man w as not a d om in an t a g en cy . H is e ffe c ts w ere supersed ed by an im als such as the b iso n and b eaver. H o w ev er, after the arrival o f the C aucasian with his com m ercial sy stem and his different religion and te c h n o lo g y , man q u ick ly rose to d om in an ce and n ow co m m o n ly per­ c e iv e s the lan d scap e as very su scep tib le to his m an agem en t, and u ltim ately to h is co n tro l.. A s an a g en cy o f ch an ge on the p lains, C aucasian m an has d on e m any thin gs with co n fid e n c e w h ose lon g term im p lication s are not k n o w n . An outstanding ex a m p le is the rem oval o f m uch o f the plains w ild life , and the creation o f crop and animal m on ocu ltu res— w heat and ca ttle— for sa le in grow in g m arkets ou tsid e the region . T h e result is a d eclin e in organic d ep osition on the plains, and increasing reliance on ch em ica l fertilizers, with uncertain co n se ­ q u en ces in the future.

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P re-C aucasian m an long contributed to the m aintenance and at tim es to the ex ten sio n o f the grassland and savannah through h is u se o f that “'an cien t t o o l." fire. But fire is m ore than a to o l. It is a process w h ich can occu r independent o f m an. prin cip ally through lightning. A n d . on the b asis o f the availab le in form ation , it is im p o ssib le to argue co n v in cin g ly for eith er man o r ligh tn in g as the dom inant ca u se o f fire and its e ffe c ts on the northern p lains. Both man and ligh tn in g have cau sed fires for thousands o f years, and their e ffe c ts se em c lo s e ly in tertw in ed . It m ight be argued that the historical ev id e n c e indicates that m ore fires w ere started by man than ligh tn in g, and that he is the p rem ier force. But e v e n w ith the rem oval o f m an. so m e ligh tn in g fires w ou ld h ave occurred ev ery year or s o on the northern p lains. M oreover, nineteenth century o b serv a tio n s sh o w that such fires cou ld h ave burned for thousands o f square m iles o v er the unbroken plains o f preC aucasian tim e. U nder such con d ition s a few lightning Iires cou ld result in the burning o f as large areas as m any o f the m an-m ade fires d escrib ed in h istoric records. W hen this o b servation , and the fact that fires can occu r at any tim e o f the year are reco g n ized , the im age form s o f a country part o f w h ich w as a lw a y s a fla m e, day after d ay. year after year. T h is leads to the lon gstan d in g problem ol w h eth er the grasslands o f the northern plains are due to fire, or clim a te. In m y v ie w , to se e the grasslan d s as prim arily due to on e or the other is not a lruitlul w a y o f approaching the problem o f their form ation and m ainten an ce. And this v iew is at least partly shared by th ose w h o have su g g ested that fire can be co n sid ered as a part o f the grasslan d s clim a te. It w ou ld se em better, h o w ev er, to go another step further and adopt an e x p licitly m ultivariant approach to the p rob lem , o n e that lead s to recogn ition and critical evalu ation o f the potential effe ct o f other a g e n c ie s, such as an im als. T he b iso n 's a ctiv ities m ake it a prim e can d id ate for reducing aspen en croach m en t on the grasslan d . But so m e o f the m auled trees d escrib ed by S o p er in present-day W ood B u ffalo Park rem ained a liv e . Further­ m ore. historical referen ces to su ch d am age do not seem n u m erous, so that b ison im pact on tree grow th m ay h ave been m inor overall. Indeed, at tim es the w a llo w in g o f the b ison and the b urrow ing o f rodents and other a n im als m ay actu ally have w orked to prom ote the ex ten sio n o f poplar o n to the grasslan d . T h u s, the se ed s ol trees such as the aspen reportedly have d ifficu lty penetrating the prairie so d . H o w ev er, the se ed w ill estab lish itse lf w hen the sod has b een broken by an im als and the e x p o se d so il protected by shrubby cin q u efoil or other early c o lo n iz ­ ing shrubs (1 4 ). S uch broken ground w as quite com m on in the b u ffalo d ays. O ther an im als su ch as m o o se , e lk , and deer p robably had a greater

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effe ct in preventing asp en grow th than the b ison . T h ese an im als b row se on the su ccu len t bu d s and tips o f poplar and w illo w e sp e c ia lly in w inter. In the past such b ro w sin g could have k illed or d am aged trees, and lim ited the grow th o f g roves just as it d o es today in parts o f the Porcupine H ills. A lb erta, or B an ff N ational Park. T h ese effe cts w ould have been reinforced by the attacks o f the b eaver, rabbit, and other an im als.

V egetation T ypes a n d D istribution I he northern plains clim a te can be look ed upon as having so m e kind o f ultim ate effect on v eg eta tio n . Yet grasslan d s h ave been found to occur in a variety o f differen t tem perature and precipitation reg im es, su g g e st­ ing that there is not a co n sisten t grassland clim ate (4 0 ). On the other hand, d efin itio n s or cla ssific a tio n s o f clim ate w h ich include evap otranspiration and so il m oisture con d ition s h ave sh ow n a high correla­ tion b etw een grasslan d and certain clim atic types (1 9 2 ). But ground tem perature, precipitation e ffe c tiv e n e s s, evapotranspiration and soil m oisture are all in flu en ced not on ly by clim ate but a lso by burning, gra zin g , b row sin g and related p ro cesses, w h ich reduce vegetation co v er. S o it rem ains d ifficu lt lo separate either clim a te, fire or an im als, and estab lish their independent role in the form ation o f the northern plains grasslands. T h e fo reg o in g d iscu ssio n bears on the vegetation m od els that p ro fessio n a ls h ave constructed for the northern p lains. A num ber o f differen t c la ssific a tio n s have b een used in m apping major plant a sso cia ­ tions. The sy stem o f C am p bell, et al (3 5 ) is a representative exam p le (F igure 2 ). It in clu d es the fo llo w in g major groups: Short-grass prairie (B ou telou a-S tip a association ) M ixed prairie (S tip a-A grop yron -B ou telou a association ) F escu e prairie (F estu ca scabrella association ) True prairie (S tip a-S p orob olu s association ) Tall grass prairie (A ndropogan association ) as w ell as the parkland or savannah with its poplar, fescu e (F estu ca spp) and other gra sses. T h is cla ssific a tio n sy stem is sim ilar to others, for ex a m p le. W att’s ( 3 1 9 ). w hich w as d erived from the w ork o f C lem en ts and a sso cia tes. S uch vegetation ty p es have largely been id en tified and m apped using relic tw entieth century grassland areas w h ich apparently either escaped cu ltivation and g ra zin g , or had b een left •■idle" for years. T he grass­ land areas— and the vegetation cla sse s— were sp atially and ty p o lo g i­

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ca lly organized by assu m in g they were fun d am en tally related to d iffer­ ent clim a te types on the m odern p lains, the d ifferen ces am ong these clim a tic types th e m selv es not a lw a y s being w ell estab lish ed . Short-grass prairie, m ixed prairie and the other vegetation a sso c ia ­ tions are often referred to as the clim a x , another b asic vegetation c la s s, or co n cep t, w h o se m eaning has lon g been ob scu re (2 7 8 ). For so m e students clim a x is that vegetation association m ost in tune w ith the en viro n m en t, n otably c lim a te. It w ill persist for an in d efin ite period, u n less disturbed by fire, grazing or other p ro cesses. C lim ax a lso has been d efined as that a sso cia tio n w h ich esta b lish es and reproduces itse lf under a g iv en set o f clim a tic and related environm ental co n d itio n s. Through the years problem s have arisen with the clim ax co n cep t, and it has been m odified to incorporate the lon g term in flu en ce o f so ils , drainage and other factors w hich can ca u se certain plant a sso cia tio n s to persist in an area for a lo n g tim e, ev en though other a sso cia tio n s se e m in g ly w ou ld b e favoured by the regional clim a te. For ex a m p le, a sso cia tio n s w h ich o w e their character and p ersisten ce to p rocesses su ch as fire or grazin g h ave been g iv en special recogn ition as d isc lim a x e s, the assum ption b ein g that w ithout th ese p ro cesses the plants w ou ld proceed to a clim a x stage com m en su rate with the clim ate o f the area. V egetation cla ssifica tio n and m apping based on the clim ax c o n ­ cep t are d ifficu lt to accep t for the northern plains on the basis o f the inform ation presented in this e s sa y . In pre-C aucasian tim es the effe cts o f clim a te, fire, grazin g and other p ro cesses w ere intertw ined and spatial and tem poral ch a n g es in vegetation m ust often have been related to any or all o f them . Furtherm ore, grassland areas m apped as ‘‘orig i­ n al” or “ undisturbed v eg eta tio n ” in the late nineteenth or tw entieth cen tu ries do not reflect the character o f the pre and early C aucasian v egeta tio n ; for, by the 18 7 0 ’s , the b ison had been substantially reduced in num ber throughout the northern plains and the w h o lesa le attack on the e lk , g rizzly , and other w ild life w as w ell u nderw ay. B y the 1 8 9 0 's these an im als w ere g o n e; and, although cattle had been introduced in m any areas, g ra sses, trees and shrubs had for d ecad es been subject to a lo w er level o f g ra zin g and b row sin g than that typical o f the preC aucasian w ild fauna. A num ber o f d ifferen ces in the eco sy stem cou ld be ex p ect­ ed under C aucasian co n d itio n s. For o n e thing grasses m ore su scep ti­ ble to grazin g and other p ro cesses, such as lon g and m id grasses o f the true or m ixed prairie, w ould b eco m e m ore num erous and co v er more ground. T h is, o f co u rse, im p lies that m oderate to h eavy b ison grazin g w ould have m aintained a short grass association o v er large parts o f the p re-C aucasian northern p lain s. T h is point has been m ade by a few b otan ists, notably Larson ( 1 5 1 ), w h o did not present m uch historic

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ev id e n c e to support his c a se . H o w ev er, as w e have se e n , such docum entation is not un com m on for the northern p lain s, even being availa b le for the Red R iver area in the ea st, w here A lexan d er H enry the Y ou n ger noted that b ison g razin g had at least tem porarily sh ortened the co v er in what is n o w thought o f as a subhum id lon g grass area.

S um m ary R em arks T he results o f historical e c o lo g ic a l stu d ies lik e this on e are relevant to the form ation o f pu b lic p o licy and to grassland u se and m an agem en t, as w as fo rcib ly pointed out about thirty years ago by the historian, Jam es C . M alin. in h is n eg lected The G rassland o f N orth A m erica, P ro­ legom ena to Its H istory (1 8 4 ). M a lin 's research focu sed on the south­ ern and central p lain s o f the U .S . H is e v id e n c e , interpretations and co n clu sio n s o ften find counterparts on the northern Canadian plains. A s M alin realized , lay and p rofessional attitudes and b eh aviou r in the general field o f range m anagem en t are related to p ercep tion s or im a g es o f the late nineteenth century plains lan d scap e. For m any p eop le th is is the “ o rig in a l” or " n atu ral” lan d scap e that their pioneer forefathers saw . D ev ia tio n s from it often are con sid ered undesirable on a esth etic, n o sta lg ic and e c o n o m ic grounds. U n critically and rather p arad oxically, in m any m inds this landscape co m b in es im ages o f ‘ ‘great b ison h erd s” with n otion s o f a relatively undisturbed, con tin u ­ o u s ‘“pristin e” grasslan d — until the com in g o f the ‘‘w hite m a n .” P rofession als th e m selv es have m an ifested so m e o f this thinking in the con cep t o f c lim a x , with its stron g link to clim ate as the dom inant con trol. F luctuations o r ‘‘d istu rb an ces” in the v eg eta tio n , s o ils or other elem en ts o f the sy stem as a result o f the a ctivities o f either w ild fauna, or d om esticated sto c k , are seen as departures from the id eal. The ev id e n c e presented in this paper and in M alin 's work d oes not support this type o f paradigm , w ith its associated n otion s o f le v e ls and hierar­ ch ies. Rather the ev id e n c e su g g ests that the plains are m ore accurately v ie w e d as a m ultivariate system w h o se state has lon g fluctuated in accord an ce w ith ch a n g es in clim a te, fire and a n im als, in clu d in g m an. W hether any state (lan d scap e) in this sy stem is any m ore natural than another dep en d s very m uch on o n e 's attitudes on the w ild , tech n ology and other co n cep ts. M uch a lso d ep en d s on learning: o n e 's notion o f what con stitutes the d esirable hum an and earthly con d ition ; and o n e ’s ideas on the ab ility o f man to understand, m anage and control the sy stem . T he fin d in g s in this paper, and in M a lin 's w ork, su ggest that w e have so m e rather uncertain im ages or ideas about the co m p lex ity o f the plains la n d scap e, and w hat w e have d on e to it in the last tw o

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hundred years. U n d er these circu m stan ces, it w ou ld se em w ise to undertake m ore d etailed stu d ies in land use history and landscape ch an g e w ithin and o u tsid e the g rasslan d s, w h ile attem pting to m aintain as d iv erse an array o f lan d scap es and e c o sy ste m s and as flex ib le a set o f future land use altern atives as p o ssib le.

4: T he Suffield M ilitary R eserve C o n tro v ersy * J . G . Nelson a n d L . D. C ordes

T he Problem T H E question is w hether the S u ffield M ilitary R eserve sh ou ld be used for tank and infantry ex erc ises as set forth in a recent agreem ent b etw een Canada and the U nited K in gd om . C ontroversy has arisen b eca u se o p p on en ts o f such m ilitary u se are co n v in ced that it w ill cau se unw anted ch a n g es in the R eserve landscape w hich is said to have q u alities m eriting its d esign ation as a national park.

Location an d Physical C h a ra c te r T h e S u ffield M ilitary R eserve is a 1 ,0 0 0 square m ile b lock o f land located b etw een the Red D eer and the South S askatchew an R ivers in southeastern A lberta. T he m ain entrance to the R eserve is at the tow n o f S u ffield about tw en ty m iles northw est o f M ed icin e Hat (Figure 3 ). The fen ces m arking its northern, w estern and southern boundaries follow sectio n lines rather than any topograph ic features. T he eastern bound­ ary parallels the m eandering cou rse o f the South Sask atch ew an River for about forty to fifty m ile s. In this reach the river is d evoid o f dam s or other m ajor structures although the South S askatchew an project has b een co m p leted d ow nstream to provide water for h yd ro-electric p ow er, irrigation, recreation and other u ses. On the north, w est and south the S u ffield R eserve is surrounded by ranches and farms on public and on freehold land. Part o f the land op p osite the R eserve, on the east side o f the South S ask atch ew an R iver, is fed erally o w n e d , but the greater part is p rovincial land lea sed out to ranchers. T h e R eserve is sem i-a rid , the average annual rainfall being 12.8 in ch es near the tow n o f S u ffield . T h e R eserve lands were glaciated tens o f thousands o f years ago and the western and central portions are m arked by rollin g basins and h ills and by so m e steep -w a lled dry v a lley s left by u n even ly m eltin g ice. T h e eastern portion o f the R eserve is marked on the north by m any square m iles o f a ctive sand d u n es and in the centre and south by the

* Park News, 8, 3, 1 9 7 2 , 5 - 13.

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F ig u r e 3 : S u ffie ld

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beds o f ancient g la cia l lakes. N o detailed stu d ies o f the geo m o rp h o lo g y and g la cia l history o f the R eserve have been carried out. T h ese w ou ld be valu ab le in d ecip h erin g the arch aeological and human history o f the R eserv e and o f interest to all those in tellectu ally curious about its scen ery . T od ay S u ffield is a vast ex p an se o f grasslan d , a sea o f w heat g rass, n eed le-an d-thread . gram a grass and other native sp e c ie s, stretching to the h o rizo n . T h ese grasses and a sso cia ted forbs and shrubs su ch as sh oo tin g star, cro cu ses and saskatoon berry are, h o w ev er. largely regrow th on land cu ltivated and grazed by w hite settlers prior to the estab lish m en t o f the R eserve in 1941. A s a result o f this human in terferen ce, the s p e c ie s co m p o sitio n and the distribution o f the gra sses and other vegetation undoubtedly differ from thos’e o f pre-European d a y s. But the overall character, im pression and fe e lin g o f the landscape probably is m uch the sam e as it w a s then.

H um an H istory H undreds o f arch a eo lo g ica l site s are located on the R eserve, notably on the east s id e , a lo n g the South S ask atch ew an R iver. M any are probably rem nants o f the ca m p sites o f the Indians w h o roam ed the land prior to the co m in g o f the C au casian . But others cou ld be artifacts o f very early hum an a ctiv ity . F ield work farther up the South S a sk atch ew an , near the tow n o f T aber, has resulted in the d isco v e ry o f a hum an sk eleton buried beneath the drift laid dow n during the last glaciation o f that area, perhaps 2 0 .0 0 0 years ago. Early fur traders and explorers began to m ove into the R eserve area in the eigh teen th cen tu ry. T he H u d son ’s Bay C om p any m an. A n thon y H en d ay, and so m e Indians travelled d ow n the Red D eer R iver, just north o f the R eserve, in the spring o f 1754. returning to H u d so n 's Bay after a w inter on the p lain s. In 1 8 0 0 -1 8 0 2 , Peter Fidler and so m e other traders esta b lish ed a post northeast o f S u ffield , near the ju n ctio n o f the R ed D eer and the S outh S ask atch ew an R ivers. N o post is k n ow n to have been constructed earlier than this an yw h ere on the northw estern plains o f what is n o w A lberta. S ask atch ew an and M on ­ tana. T h ejn terest o f the w hite man in the northw estern plains increased in the 1 8 5 0 ’s and I8 6 0 's and exp lorin g exp ed ition s were sent there from the U nited S ta tes, the U nited K in gd om and Canada. T h e British E xp ed ition under C aptain John P alliser travelled w id ely in what is now w estern C anada, p assin g through the R eserve on the w ay to the C ypress H ills in the su m m er o f 1859. At that tim e he and h is co m p a n io n s saw a profusion o f b iso n , e lk , d eer, g rizzly and other w ild life as w ell as som e

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Indians w h o told them that o n ly tw o w hite m en had ever crossed the country betw een the C yp ress H ills and the forks o f the Red D eer and the Sou th S askatchew an rivers. H o w ev er, w ithin a d ecad e the southern A lberta area w a s b ein g invaded b y w h isk ey traders from the U nited S tates, w h o se main interest w as barter w ith the Indians, p rin cip ally for b ison rob es, and w h o se so le m ean s o f ex ch a n g e often w as a lco h o l adulterated with tob acco and other invigorating ingrediants. F ew o f these A m erican s penetrated the R eserve although M etis and w h ite traders from Fort Q u 'A p p e lle , in p resen t-d ay S a sk a tch ew a n , m ay h ave don e s o o cca sio n a lly in the 1 8 6 0 's and I8 7 0 ’s. At this tim e ranchers began to m ove into southern A lberta, c h ie fly from M ontana. But little land w as taken up in the vicin ity o f the R eserve until the co m in g o f the Canadian P acific Railroad in 1883. T hen the town o f S u ffield w as estab lish ed and im m igrants began to try to set up su cc essfu l ranches in the surrounding country. S o m e En­ glish m en and A m erica n s in v ested in large sp reads o f tens or hundreds o f thousands o f a cres, o n ly a sm all part o f w hich w as u su ally freehold lan d , the rem ainder b ein g leased from g overn m en t. A bortive attem pts w ere m ade to irrigate and in ten sively d ev elo p on e large tract o f about 2 5 .0 0 0 acres in the R eserve area: this b ecam e k n ow n as the British B lo c , a nam e n ow often applied to the R eserve itself. T h e settlers gen era lly w ere intolerant o f n ative p e o p le s, and also o f the b ison and other w ild an im als w h ich com p eted with liv esto ck for range. The n atives w ere so o n co n fin ed to reserves and the b iso n , elk and other an im als elim in ated or sharply reduced in num bers. In the late 1 8 9 0 's and early I9 0 0 's the federal govern m en t under­ took its vig o ro u s p o licy o f settlin g farm ers or cu ltivators on the sou th ­ ern C anadian p la in s, in clu d in g the R eserve area. H om estead s were provided to p eo p le w h o m oved into little k n ow n grasslands largely too dry fo r e c o n o m ic production o f grain or other cro p s, at least on the sm all 160 acre fa rm s orig in ally allocated by the govern m en t. T h ese folk com p eted w ith o n e another and with the ranchers, even tu ally drivin g m any o f the latter aw a y . T h ey a lso tried to co p e with the d ifficu lt en viron m en t through the 1920's and 1 9 3 0 's . But as a result o f the d rought, dust storm s, erosion and e c o n o m ic failures o f the I9 3 0 's in particular, m any o f them abandoned or so ld their land. T his was gradually co n so lid a ted by the survivors into large dry farm s and ran ch es, often thou san d s o f acres in siz e and m uch m ore su ited to the production o f w heat and cattle for export. W ith the outbreak o f W orld W ar II in 1939. Britain and her allies began to look for land for airports and other m ilitary u ses. B y an unknow n p ro cess, the S u ffield area w as selecte d as a reserve, one m ajor co n tem p lated u se apparently b ein g exp erim en tation with gas.

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although the ex a ct u ses to w hich the R eserve w as put by the army and others during the 1 9 4 0 ’s , 1 9 5 0 's and I9 6 0 ’s arc not w ell know n. T h e A lberta govern m en t w as a principal agent in the settin g up o f the R eserv e, an unknow n num ber o f settlers h avin g hundreds o f square m iles o f land taken by the p rovin ce. In return they w ere paid SI .0 0 per acre for freeh old , and $ .5 0 or less per acre for leased land. In other w ord s, so m e o f the p eo p le w ho had su rvived the arduous en viron m en ­ tal c h a llen g es o f the I9 2 0 's and 193 0 ’s received as little as $ 1 ,2 4 0 fo r a hard w on tw o se c tio n s o f farm and range land. S o m e su rvivin g settlers are still bitter and b e lie v e that the land sh ou ld be returned to them . At so m e tim e during the 1 9 4 0 's or 1950’s the D e fe n c e R esearch Board o f Canada began co n d u ctin g exp erim en ts on the R eserve. The nature and extent o f these is not w ell know n but so m e in volved b ioch em ica l w eaponry and others the d etonation o f large quantities o f e x p lo siv e s in sim u la tio n s o f atom ic blasts and their e ffe c ts on build­ in g s. airplanes and other structures. F ew i f an y craters rem ain, but parts o f the R eserve are strew n with cultural debris used in these exp eri­ m ents. H o w ev er, m uch o f the R eserve m ay never h a v e been used to any sign ifica n t exten t for m ilitary p u rp oses. In fact, surrounding ranchers h ave been allo w ed to graze large parts o f it for years w ithout m uch in terference from g overn m en t. Furtherm ore, on e se n ses that during the I9 6 0 's the m ilitary u sefu ln ess o f the R eserve w as co m in g into q u es­ tio n , so m e land on the east sid e b ein g estab lish ed as a grazin g c o ­ op erative or co m m u n ity pasture for nearby ranchers in co-op eration w ith the PFRA about 1965. But, at so m e point in this p rocess the p o ssib ility o f N A T O u se for tank and other e x e r c ise s w as raised and approved. T he initial agreem en t is with the British although the area c o u ld a lso be used by other N A T O m em b ers. A s far as can be deter­ m ined the B ritish w ill be g iv en u se o f about 65 percent o f S u ffield . with part o f the rem ainder to be left for the work o f the D e fe n c e R esearch B oard, w hich not o n ly con tin u es with various b io ch em ic a l and m ilitary exp erim en ts, but a lso is b ein g charged with the b reakdow n and d isp osal o f n o x io u s su b stan ces such as D D T . A cco rd in g to personn el stationed at S u ffield and press reports, so m e stu d ies h ave been carried out in order to a sse ss sen sitiv ity o f v e g eta tio n , w ild life and lan d scap e to disturbance by tank m ovem en ts, firing and m ilitary a ctio n . At least partly as a result o f th ese, the northeastern sand h ills area w ill not be op en to m ilitary u se. Tank m anoeuvres w ill largely be co n fin ed to reportedly less se n sitiv e so ils located in the northern and w estern parts o f the R eserve. Infantry training w ill be concentrated in the central and eastern portions al­ though com b ined tank and infantry ex erc ises o cca sio n a lly m ay be carried out there. S o m e grassland in the sou th east has been id en tified as

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m ix ed prairie, and sp ecial care apparently w ill be taken in u sin g this u n u su ally interesting b io lo gical z o n e . A m ile -w id e b u ffer a lo n g the Sou th S ask atch ew an a lso has been ex clu d ed from m ilitary ex erc ises. T h e e c o lo g ic a l and other reports on w hich these land u se d ecisio n s are based are cla sse d as con fid en tial and h ave not been released to the p u b lic , although F igure 3 . a m ap sh o w in g so m e e c o lo g ic a l data and land u se zo n es is posted at S u ffield . A con fid en tial report by a m em ber or m em b ers o f the C anadian W ild life S erv ice is said to id en tify the S outh S ask atch ew an v a lley area and other parts o f S u ffield as e x cellen t habitat for e a g le and other in creasingly rare birds and w ild life . The b iso n , the elk . the p lain s grizzly and other w ild life o f earlier d ays are. o f co u rse, n ow m issin g from the R eserv e, but other an im als have recovered from the lo w ebb to w h ich they w ere reduced in the late 18 9 0 ‘s and early 1 9 0 0 ’s. T h e a n telop e w ere thought to be c lo s e to ex tin ctio n by 1907 or 1908 b ecau se o f h ea v y hunting and habitat d isturbance, as w ell as the u n u su ally hard w inter o f 1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 7 . Several national parks w ere set up to protect ih ese a n im als, including W an ak asey. a block o f so m e forty se ctio n s in east central S u ffield . bordering the S outh S ask atch ew an R iver. T h e a n telop e recovered rem arkably w ell and these parks are n o lo n g er op eratin g. W anakasey h avin g been returned to A lberta in 1938. T od ay hundreds o f a n telope can be seen in a drive through the R eserve. W h ite-tailed deer a lso are co m m o n , particularly in the South Sask atch ew an R iver v a lle y , find in g water in the stream s and fo od and sh elter in the co tto n w o o d , w illo w and other trees and shrubs a lo n g its b anks. T h e trees in the v a lley a lso h ou se the nests of m any haw ks and other interesting birds. The Sand H ills area borders the river and is rela tiv ely little disturbed, b ein g the h om e o f m any a n telo p e, deer, rattlesnakes and kangaroo rats, as w e ll, perhaps, as an o cca sio n a l kit fo x , although that anim al is con sid ered by so m e exp erts to be extinct throughout the Great P lains.

S um m ary In su m , the w ild natural character o f the S u ffield R eserve o w e s m uch to the protection afforded by its status as a m ilitary reserve, in d eed som e ob servers feel that it w ill rem ain a reservoir for native plants and wild a n im als so lo n g as it rem ains in m ilitary u se. H o w ev er, this argum ent

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a ssu m es that the nature and am oun t o f m ilitary u se w ill be the sam e as b efo re. T h is is doubtful for the British w ill station about fifty 60-ton tanks on the R eserve and a lso fly in about fiv e hundred to a thousand infantry, on rotation, ev ery three to four w eek s throughout the spring, su m m er and fall o v er a ten-year period. C o n ceiv a b ly these tanks and troops cou ld b e jo in e d b y those o f other n ation s. T h e tanks w ill fire very p ow erfu l sh ells w h ich require thou san d s o f yards o f safety clearan ce. A rrangem ents h ave been m ade to m onitor and recover faulty e x p lo ­ s iv e s . although h o w w ell this can be d on e is a q u estion . T he British w ill be em p lo y in g rubber-lined treads and other p rotective m easures but the turning o f the tanks and their repeated u se undoubtedly w ill disturb the grassland. M o reover, if the lan d scap e b eg in s to sh o w sign s o f d am age, the tanks reportedly w ill be used on other parts o f the R eserve. The firing o f sh e lls and other in cen d iaries by tanks and infantry cou ld cause m any grass fires. T h ese w ill be con trolled by p lou gh in g en circlin g fire guards. The co m b in a tio n o f troop and tank m o v em e n ts, the firing o f e x p lo s iv e s , the n o ise , the burning o f grass and the p o ssib ly quite frequent and e x ten siv e p lou gh in g o f fire guards all w ill result in d istu rb an ces to v eg eta tio n and w ild life grea ter than anything d on e by the m ilitary in the past. W hether the a n telope o r other fauna cou ld stand up to such a d istu rb a n ce w ell is unknown.

R ecom m endations 1. In the light o f the fo regoin g it se e m s best to d elay the proposed m ilitary use o f the S u ffield R eserve until all relevant inform ation on its natural character and the p o ssib le c o n se q u en ce s o f tank and infantry m anoeuvres are in the hands o f interested in d ivid u als and citizen groups. 2. P ublic h earings sh ou ld then be held in C algary and. perhaps, else w h e r e in C anada. T he su b m issio n s o f the p u b lic sh ou ld be carefully con sid ered by the authorities prior to m aking any d efinite d ecisio n on the ultim ate use o f S u ffield . It m ay be that su ffic ien t control can be introduced to safeguard the w ild life and natural character o f this grass­ land. R eg a rd less, the q u a lities o f the S u ffield R eserve m ay be per­ ce iv e d as su fficien tly high to merit settin g all or part o f it asid e as a national park. N o area o f com p arab le siz e and character is k n ow n to be av a ila b le an yw h ere in the North A m erican Great P lains. T h e interior

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grasslan d s o f M e x ic o , the U nited S tates and Canada have been so sev erely disturbed by the European invasion that the A m erican s have been search in g for years and have been unable to find a region com p ar­ able to S u ffield for a national park. Such reserves are very useful for scien tific and ed u cational p rogram m es. A ccord in g to Robert N ero, a M anitoba plant sc ien tist, the U n iversity o f C h ica g o recently paid S 2 5 0 .0 0 0 for a four-acre tract o f prairie rem nant. T he R eserve a lso co n stitu tes a cultural reserv e, in that it can be used to sh o w som eth in g o f life and lan d scap e in Indian, fur trade and early ranching d ays. 3. In addition to providing an unusual opportunity for p reserving a rare ex p a n se o f grassland for future en joym en t and study by re­ crea tio n ists. students and sc ien tists, the central and eastern part o f the R eserve borders the Sou th S a sk a tch ew a n , thereby raising the prospect o f esta b lish in g a w ild and sc en ic river. T his stretch o f the South S ask atch ew an is p ollu ted to an unknow n d egree by efflu en t from M ed icin e Hat but is undisturbed by d am s and other structures and runs through a v a lley rich in scen ery , birds and w ild life . T h e com b ination o f this se ctio n o f the S outh Sask atch ew an and ap p roxim ately the eastern third o f S u ffield w ou ld co n stitu te a u nique North A m erican grass and w ild river park. In this regard it is worth recallin g that the sand du n es area and a m ile w id e b u ffer a lon g the river already have been exclu d ed from m ilitary u se. T h is ex clu sio n c o u ld be exten d ed inland in settin g up a national park. H o w ev er, there rem ains the problem o f the com p atib il­ ity o f park a ctiv ities with the prop osed high level o f m ilitary u se and its im pact on the rest o f the R eserve. T he n orm ally rather d ifficu lt problem o f acquiring land for park use from freeh old ers co u ld be reduced substantially in the S u ffield c a s e , for m uch or all o f the land a lo n g the east sid e o f the South S ask atch ew an is p u b licly o w n e d , although large areas are leased to ranchers and their rights w ou ld h ave to be protected. But the v isits o f n on -m otorized v e h ic le s— the c a n o e s and rafts perm itted on a wild river— se em in g ly w ou ld not interfere m uch with the landscape wanted and used by the ranchers. C attle cou ld con tin u e to graze the eastern slo p es o f the river. In d eed , these an im als and o cca sio n a l strays on the w est sid e w ould rem ind v isitors o f the d ays o f the cattlem en and the op en range. A c c e s s to any prop osed park w ou ld have to be studied carefu lly in order to m in im ize disturbance to w ild life . Large areas probably w ou ld h ave to be zon ed as w ild ern ess. M ost n ecessary b u ildin gs and other fa cilities cou ld be located at the park boundary, just north o f M ed icin e Hat. T he potential e c o n o m ic im pact o f a grassland and w ild river park a lso d eserv es c lo s e stu d y , for it c o u ld provide m ore in vestm en t, in com e and em p lo y m en t than the ten-year agreem ent w ith the m ilitary. F in a lly, d esign ation as a national park w ou ld p lace em p h asis on the protection

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o f w ild life and landscape and perhaps w ou ld be com p atib le with the re-introduction o f the b iso n , the elk and other an im als typical o f pre-European d a y s.

P ostscript S in c e the w riting o f this article the British have been co n d u ctin g m anoeuvres on the range, and fires and other disturbances h ave o c ­ curred. Large d ep o sits o f natural g a s a lso h ave been d iscovered beneath the reserv e. T h e p rovincial govern m en t h olds su b su rface m ineral rights w h ile the surface rights are in the hands o f the federal govern m en t. W hat arrangem ents w ill be m ade for g a s exp loitation is uncertain, as is the prospect o f esta b lish in g a grasslan d and w ild river park, although the h istorical, e c o lo g ic a l and spatial argum ents still seem valid .

5: C a n a d a ’s N atio n al P a rk s: P a st, P re se n t, F u tu re* J . G . Nelson

T H E land u se id ea s, p o licies and practices em b o d ied in the con cep t o f the n ational park are co m p lex and d ifficu lt to d efin e readily. M oreover, they have ch an ged through tim e, and ev en n ow are in flux am ong adm inistrators, p lan ners, p o liticia n s, con servation ists and other citi­ zen s. Stu d ies o f land u se history and landscape ch an ge in the Canadian national parks therefore se em u sefu l and tim ely as a m eans o f im p rov­ ing general understanding, id en tifyin g im portant trends or fo rces for ch a n g e, and a sse ssin g their im p lication s for the future. Such studies a lso can lead to recom m en d ation s w h ich w ill reduce the lo ss o f land use o p tio n s and flex ib ility so im portant for the needs o f tom orrow . M uch o f the present study is based on inform ation pertaining to the w estern C anadian national parks, little sch olarly attention h aving been paid to those in the east (2 3 2 , 2 3 9 . 2 3 6 . 3 2 . 2 7 3 . 191. 187. 133, 2 2 1 . 2).

D evelopm ent o f N ational P a rk s T h e idea o f the n ational park originated in the U nited S tates w here the first park. Y e llo w sto n e , w as estab lish ed in 1872. S in ce that tim e sim ilar public reserves h ave been estab lish ed in m ost cou n tries o f the w orld. Several b asic threads h ave led to their d ev elo p m en t, particularly in North A m erica; these b ein g an interest, first, in the preservation and protection o f nature or w ild ern ess; se co n d , in planning for the recrea­ tional and aesth etic n eed s o f the p eop le; and third, in in co m e from b u sin esses a sso cia ted w ith the national parks. W e can begin with the last tw o threads or in flu en ces as these w ere e sp e c ia lly im portant up to about the first d eca d e o f the tw entieth century in both the U nited States and C anada, as w ell as other cou n tries such as N e w Z ealan d .

Influence of the A rchitect an d P lan n er In his b o o k . N ature an d the A m e ric a n . Hans Huth ( 130. 2 1 7 ) traces the *T his paper o rig in ally a p p eared in C a n a d ia n G e o g ra p h ic J o u r n a l, (1973): 68-89 . 78

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in flu en ce o f ihe lan d scap e architect and urban or regional planner on recreation and parks in gen eral. Huth points out that early recreation in North A m erican c itie s w a s a rather haphazard affair at least as far as the p rovision o f public land w as co n cern ed . For m ost citiz e n s a c c e ss to the cou n trysid e by fo o t or carriage apparently w a s not too d ifficu lt. M any p eop le liv ed c lo s e lo the fringe o f the relatively sm all citie s and tow n s. O thers found their recreation in yards, cou rts, or co m m o n s, or pic­ n ick ed or w alked a lo n g river banks or the w id e b ou levard s built to b eau tify c itie s su ch as P hilad elp h ia or W ash in gton , to m ake them rivals o f distant en v ied p laces such as Paris. A s early citie s grew to in clu d e thousands o f p eo p le, and as over the years these fo lk d ied , it b ecam e n ecessary to co n so lid a te m any sm all scattered burial p lots into large urban cem e te r ie s, precursors o f those w e are fam iliar with tod ay. T h ese early cem eteries were often w ell landscaped and m aintain ed , presenting ex p a n ses o f green law n, bush and trees that b ecam e the focu s o f various kinds o f recreation. T h ou sand s o f p eo p le used such site s , sp rin g, su m m er and fa ll, in the eastern U nited States in the I 8 3 0 ’s and 1840's. N ew Y ork appears to have been on e o f the first o f the large c itie s to con cern itse lf w ith the sp e c ific p rovision o f p u b lic land for recreational o r park purposes. T he term . park, s t e m s to h ave b een d erived from England and the O ld W orld where it w as used to refer to the faunal and floral reserves o f the n o b les. In N e w York arch itects su ch as Frederic L aw O lm stead began to plan and prom ote sim ilar parks, although w ithout m uch apparent em p h a sis on d eer or other an im als, but rather m ore on greenery for the p eo p le. T h e fight for such parks w as not an e asy o n e , apparently b ein g fought with uneven su c c e ss throughout the 18 2 0 's . 1830"s and 1 8 4 0 's against th ose interested in m ore com m ercial land u ses. S im ilar efforts presum ably w ere m ade in Canadian cities such as T o ro n to , but little research se em s to have b een don e on these and w e k n ow little about them . E ventually the efforts in N ew York and other eastern North A m erican cities resulted in so m e s u c c e ss , an ex a m p le b ein g Central Park. O lm stead later m o v ed to San F ran cisco w here he and others w orked on the idea o f large regional parks w h ich w ou ld h ave roads, p icn ic s ite s , ca m p sites and other fa cilities for citizen s o f grow in g urban areas such as San F ra n cisco , but w h ere large natural areas w ould g iv e v e g eta tio n , an im als and landscape so m e protection against lum ber­ in g, fire, e x ten siv e sh eep grazing and other cultural a ctivities that were ch a n g in g the fa ce o f the fo o th ills and the Sierra N evad a M ou n ­ tains. In 1862 this interest in regional parks cu lm in ated in the esta b lish ­ ment o f Y o sem ite Park, a State o f C alifornia recreation and co n serv a ­ tion reserve that fo resh a d o w ed m any o f the co n cep ts em b od ied in the

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first national parks and ev en tu a lly b ecam e o n e later in the cen tu ry. In en su in g years m any architects and planners, as w ell a s citizen s in g en era l, w orked to prom ote and protect Y o se m ite as a park in this sen se and a lso to en cou rage the d evelop m en t o f sim ilar parks elsew h ere. Bui il is probably fair to say that in these early effo r ts, and to a large extent in later o n e s, the architects h ave been c h iefly interested in the v ista , the im a g e, the v ie w , the scen ery. T heir em p h asis has been on a landscape a p p ealin g to the e y e rather m ore than the ear. the n ose or other s e n se s. A n d , unlike m any so -ca lled co n se rv a tio n ists, th ey have not been ad­ verse to m anipulating the trees and the h ills, to create the im age that they w anted; that indeed being the purpose and practice o f their p rofes­ sio n . T h is led to less con cern about in d igen ou s vegetation or the protection o f “ p ristin e” en viron m en ts than w as later true w ith the more spiritually or b io lo g ic a lly oriented p reservation ists or con servation ists.

Influence of the Econom ic V alue o f N ational P a rk s T he seco n d major thread leading to national parks w as an e co n o m ic one w h ich b ecam e m uch m ore im portant after the con stru ction o f the trans-continental railroads in w estern North A m erica in the 1 8 6 0 ’s, I 8 7 0 's , 18 8 0 's and 1 8 9 0 ’s. T h ese routes crossed vast areas with very lo w p o p u lation s, y ield in g little in com e to the often precarious treasuries o f the railroads. T h e co m p a n ies therefore searched vigor­ o u sly for resources that w ou ld raise funds from “ em p ty a rea s" . T hey so o n seized on the scen ery , the m oun tain s, the forests, the great rivers and the hot sp rin gs. W hen parks such as Y e llo w sto n e and G lacier began to em erg e in the I8 7 0 's , I8 8 0 's and I8 9 0 \s the railroads built lin es to them and constructed h otels and other fa cilities in and near them . T h ey attem pted to attract tourists from all o ver the w orld , so m etim e s to their em barrassm ent, a s. for e x a m p le , w hen a group o f Y e llo w sto n e v isitors were surprised by hundreds o f N ez Perce Indians b ein g pursued by an A m erican arm y w ish in g to force the n atives onto a reserve. Im age b u ild in g and a d vertisin g began early and h ave rem ained a vibrant part o f railroad and other b u sin ess op eration s related to the parks. T od ay o n e hears o f p ack age ski tours to B a n ff and Jasper. In the early d ays the Canadian P a cific Railroad (C .P .R .) hired photographers su ch as T h om p son o f V a n cou ver to portray the grandeur o f the m oun­ tains. Post cards o f the 18 9 0 \s and early 1 9 0 0 's, in the British C olum bia a rch iv es in V icto ria , sh o w burned forests w h o se b leach ed and black­ en ed spars have b een tinted red or y e llo w , in an attem pt to create a more attractive sc en e.

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Interest in B a n ff Park appears to have b egu n with the d isco v e ry o f the hot springs w hich were seen as p otentially offerin g great ' ‘san i­ tary" or health ad van tages to p eo p le. The C .P .R . and the federal govern m en t entered a kind o f partnership d esign ed to d ev elo p the hot sp rin g s area and attract visito rs to the C anadian w est. The original 1885 reserve at B a n ff w as ten square m ile s, but by about 1900 the g overn ­ m ent had exten d ed the boundaries to the R ock y M ountain fo o th ills, en co m p a ssin g an area greater than the present park, the size later b eing cut d ow n to its present ap p roxim ately 2 .6 0 0 square m iles to a llo w for the d ev elo p m en t o f lim esto n e m inin g and other e co n o m ic enterprises. B an ff tow n site itself, contrary to com m on o p in io n , did not d evelop from an early pre-park railroad sid in g but w as a planned c o m m u n ity , a sp a in the European tradition, providing am en ities to persons taking the hot baths or e n jo y in g the m ountains. G la cier N ational Park o rig in a lly w as a forest reserve on the rail route through the d ifficu lt R ogers P ass across the high Selkirk M ou n ­ tains o f B .C . T h e su m m it o f the pass is set am idst high m ountains and g la ciers, rich in sn o w m uch o f the year, and an avalan ch e sp aw n in g ground then and n o w . T he S elk irk s were particularly attractive to clim b ers and alp in ists w h o se v isits en cou raged the estab lish m en t o f trails, alpine h u ts, and other fa cilities— and v ic e versa. M any m ore sedentary tourists sim p ly stayed a day or so in the n ow m oribund hotel near the su m m it o f the p ass, w atch in g a ch ain ed g rizzly bear, strolling in the gard en s, or w alk in g a fe w m iles alon g paths c lo s e to the lod ge. T he w ritings o f m any o f these visitors refer to the m ountains in religio u s or p seu d o -relig io u s to n es. T he peaks w ere describ ed as sub­ lim e, grand, a w e-in sp irin g , d a n gerou s, clo se to G od and a rem inder o f H is p o w er and a ch iev em en ts. T h e interest o f the railroads has c o n ­ tinued to the presen t, although the a ctiv ities o f the C .P .R . and other co m p a n ies seem to h ave p eak ed in the years 1910 to about 1930. T he au to m o b ile b ecam e in creasin gly im portant after 1910, bring­ ing visito rs to B a n ff and other parks from nearby cen tres such as C algary and, with tim e, from m ore distant North A m erican c itie s. An e x ten siv e road netw ork w as built in m any o f the parks, the route across the V erm ilion P ass and the m ain ranges o f the R o ck ies b ein g finish ed in the early 1 9 2 0 ’s and others such as the north-south Banff-Jasper sc en ic route in 1939. M ore entrepreneurs began to m o v e into the parks to prom ote recreation and d erive a livin g from the trade. G overnm ent con tinu ed to assist by p aying for or su b sid izin g a variety o f services in clu d in g w ater su p p ly fa cilities, garbage d isp o sa l, p o lice and the like, in order to d ev elo p the national parks and protect b u sin essm en from the sea so n a l vagaries o f tourism w hich w ere q u ite strong in early d ays.

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Influence o f Interest in P reserv atio n o r Protection of N a tu re o r W ilderness T h e third b asic thread behind the national parks is interest in preserva­ tion or protection o f nature or w ild ern ess, w h ere the latter term e m ­ b od ies a con cern for the land as it w a s before the co m in g o f European culture and tec h n o lo g y . T he w ild ern ess idea d ev elo p ed earlier in the U nited States than C anada, w here it se e m in g ly appeared on ly rarely and then u su ally in the con tained and co n servative w ay that has been typical o f C anadian reaction to rom antic or aesth etic id eas. N ot s o in the U nited States w h ere, accord in g to Nash in his W il d e r n e s s a n d th e A m e r ic a n M i n d , the w ild ern ess idea b ecam e a nineteenth century A m erican attem pt to estab lish identity v is-a -v is Europe (2 1 7 ). T h e Old W orld had cities and culture. A m erica had the grandeur o f the untram­ m eled land, the w ild ern ess. Early proponents o f w ild A m erica spread their m essa g e with v o ic e , pen and brush. T ravellers and artists such as the form er P hiladelphia la w y er, G eorge C atlin. sa w the Indian, the a n im als and the landscape as part o f a w orthy and d esirable w h o le, and ca lled for their preservation and protection in a p u b lic reserve as early as the I8 3 0 's. Im agine th em , h e w rote, " a s they m ight in future be seen (by so m e great protecting p o licy o f govern m en t), preserved in their pristine beauty and w ild n ess, in a m agn ificen t park, w hen the world co u ld se c for a g e s to c o m e , the native Indian in his c la s sic attire, g a llo p in g h is w ild h o rse, with sin e w y b o w . and sh ield and la n ce, amid the fleetin g herds o f elk and b u ffa lo es. W hat a beautiful and thrilling sp ecim en for A m erica to p reserve and hold up to the v ie w o f her refined citiz e n s and the w o rld , in future a ges. A n ation 's Park con tain in g man and beast in all the w ild and fresh n ess o f their nature's b ea u ty ." C learly the con servation al thinking o f early w ild ern ess propo­ nents such as C atlin w as based on the rom antic and aesth etic rather than on sc ien tific grou n d s. It did not d erive from an inform ed appreciation o f w ild an im als and their e c o lo g y , or rocks and their g e o lo g y . T h is latter type o f form ulation w as not to em erge fu ll-b low n until d ecad es later after the publication and d issem in ation o f the ideas o f D arw in. L yell and other sc ien tific thinkers. But, although the sc ien tific b asis for w ild ern ess protection and national parks h as d ev elo p ed s lo w ly , and has a lw a y s had an a esth etic or rom antic thread as its handm aiden, sc ien tific a n a ly sis o f the im pact o f man on en viron m en t, and o f the n eed for careful m anagem ent o f the lan d , did appear at a relatively early date. A bout I860 John Perkins Marsh published the first co m p reh en siv e study o f m an ’s e ffe c ts on landscape— M a n a n d N a tu r e : O r . P h y s ic a l G e o g r a p h y A s M o d i f i e d b y H u m a n A c tio n (1 8 6 ). Marsh w as a learned N ew E nglander, h igh ly sk illed in a num ber o f

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la n g u a g es, w h o served for m any years as A m erican A m b assad or to Italy. H e therefore had ihe opportunity to read about and to o b serve first hand the results o f cen tu ries o f w o o d -cu ttin g , ch arcoal-b u rn in g, lum ­ b erin g, sh eep and g o a t grazin g and other cultural practices on the form erly green clo a k ed but n ow largely eroded dry slo p e s o f the M editerranean lan d s. He a lso lived in N ew England at a tim e when lu m b erin g, clea rin g for agriculture and other en th u siasm s o f early settlem en t w ere d am a g in g or d estroyin g forests, soil and w ild life. Marsh put m any o f these p ro cesses and their unw anted e ffe c ts forward in h is book and called for careful husbandry and an end to e x c e s s. But Marsh d o es not se em to have been very aw are o f the thoughts o f men lik e C atlin about the setting a sid e o f public reserves for the protection o f lan d sca p es or en viron m en ts. H o w ev er, although h e apparently w as not particularly se n sitiv e to the idea o f the national park, his w ritin gs are said to have b een influential in the estab lish m en t o f a U .S . Departm ent o f Forestry and in other land use im provem en ts in the I8 7 0 's , I8 8 0 's and 1 8 9 0 ’s. N ot o n ly did the ideas o f the nature protection or preservation sc h o o l p lay a rela tiv ely m inor part in the estab lish m en t o f the National Parks, they a lso played a n eg lig ib le role w ithin them — for d ecad es. For m any years after its estab lish m en t in 1872 Y e llo w sto n e N ational Park w as the scen e o f m uch hunting and trapping, with b eaver, e lk , sh eep , bear and other a n im als b ein g attacked. V isitors to the park were careless and forest fires and destruction o f trees and o f w ild life habitat were co m m o n . A sim ilar state o f affairs later existed in Canadian N ational Parks such as B an ff. W aterton or G lacier. H unting w ithin the parks w as w idespread both for su b sisten ce and sporting purposes. D yn a m ite w as em p lo y ed to obtain large quantities o f fish from stream s and lak es. T im b er berths w ere a llow ed and con sid erab le cu ttin g o f D o u g la s fir and other trees carried out. P rosp ectors and su rveyors d elib erately or ca relessly burned the park. Railroad construction and operation cau sed m any fires. C oal and other m inin g w as carried out. w ithin B an ff, with certain park sup erin ten d en ts and other observers p erceiv in g the grow th o f co a l-m in in g co m m u n ities as d esirable rather than paradoxical w ithin their boundaries. It w as not until the early I9 0 0 ’s in C anada, after su ch p olicies and practices had had a rather profound effe ct on the a n im als, the forests and the ex p erien ces to be en joyed in the parks, that a seriou s attempt began to protect the la n d scap e. S o m e funds and a few w ardens were provided in national parks at this tim e, hut these m easures were on ly m argin ally e ffe c tiv e . A more im portant ch a n g e cam e with the estab ­ lishm ent o f the D o m in io n Parks Branch as an overall m anagem en t unit for parks that p rev io u sly had b een estab lish ed and run as separate units. T h ese ch a n g es w ere in flu en ced to an unknow n d egree by further

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d ev elo p m en ts in the resource m an agem en t field in the U .S . At the turn o f the tw entieth century T ed d y R o o sev elt em erged as a president with a real con cern for land. A id ed and abetted by foresters and p rofession als su ch as G ifford P in ch o t, he b ecam e the leader o f land use im prove­ m ents in the U .S . and o f a body o f thought and action that cam e to be ca lled the C onservation M ovem ent. R o o sev elt and his co llea g u es w orked with others in Canada and M e x ic o and m any o f their ideas d iffu se d , so m etim e s in som ew h at m odified form to these nations. C anada esta b lish ed a C o m m issio n o f C on servation in the early 19 0 0 's , under the leadership o f the form er M inister o f the Interior, C lifford S ifto n . Forest reserves a lso were estab lish ed to control fires, protect forests, im prove w atershed m anagem ent and reduce H oods and erosion in m any parts o f the w est. B a sica lly these early landscape m anagers w ere utilitarian in ou t­ lo o k . L ike Pinchot in the U .S ., they favoured the m ultiple use co n cep t o f resource m an agem en t, the con trolled cu ttin g o f trees, and the har­ v estin g o f resou rces in a co-ord in ated m anner, on a sustained yield b asis. In this regard they w ere un like A m ericans such as John M uir, the w anderer o f the C alifornia high S ierras, w ho w as a ch am pion o f the p reservationist sc h o o l o f co n serv a tio n , w h o favoured elim in ation o f h eavy grazing and other extractive p ractices and the strict m anagem ent o f areas such as Y o sem ite Park. M uir and Pinchot w ere p rincipals in the battle o v er the proposal to build a reservoir in sc e n ic H etch y-H etch y V a lley in Y o sem ite during the 1 8 9 0 's and early I 9 0 0 ’s. E ventually M uir and h is supporters lo st, and the V a lley w a s flo o d e d to p rovid e a reservoir for water for San F ran cisco. T his issu e led to the estab lish ­ m ent o f the Sierra C lub and to the b egin n in gs o f a vigorou s and increasing A m erican citizen com m itm en t to con servation . J. B . Harkin w as appointed as first C o m m issio n er o f the Canadian N ational Parks in 1911 and in the 2 5 years or so o f his tenure this little k n ow n man left a d eep im print on the C anadian lan d scap e. H e appears to h ave been a d ev o tee o f the idea and the value o f w ild ern ess. He a lso w as interested in d ev elo p in g recreation in the parks, in part perhaps b ecau se o f a strong b e lie f in the a ctiv ity , in part b ecau se as a pragm atic and effe ctiv e adm inistrator, he saw that this activity w ou ld p rovid e the interest and the funds n eeded to d ev elo p the Canadian N ational Park sy stem . In the 19 2 0 's and 1930*s Harkin and his co lle a g u e s slo w ly prom oted protection o f the park lan d scap es. Strict fire control p olicies w ere introduced at an early date and con tin u e to the present tim e with the result that m uch burned and denuded forest, brush and grassland w as returned or is returning to tree co v er. T h is has had certain negative e ffe c ts on the kind and num ber o f an im als in the parks. T he protection o f a n im als w as also en cou raged although not

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uniform ly. Elk and o th e r u n g u lates w ere p erceived as “ n ic e " an im als, w h ile pred ators w ere seen as n oxiou s an im als or p ests, d a n g ero u s to man o r b east. Elk. d eer, sh eep and oth er w ild life p op u lation s w e r e , of c o u r se , serio u sly reduced by 1910. In fa c t, it w a s con sid ered n ecessary to re-in trod u ce elk into B anff N ation al Park from Y ello w sto n e in 1917. T h ese a n im als m ultiplied rapidly in the next 2 0 y ea rs. By the early I9 4 0 \s they w ere s o plentiful that they com p eted v igorou sly with deer and o th e r w ild life fo r a v a ila b le fo r a g e , stripping bark from m any aspen stan d s in B an ff and Ja sp er N a tio n a l Partes. Elk con trol p rogram s w ere introduced at about that time and these con tin u e today. T h e w o lf, the c o y o te , the cou gar and the g rizzly received less favourable treatm ent than the u n gu lates although “ the great w hite bear" w as apparently subject to more o fficia l protection than the others. Even today the predators are subject to an am bivalen t attitude. A s sc ien tific k n o w led g e o f their concentration on the hunting o f old . you n g and infirm an im als has in creased , and id eas on their valu e in m aintaining healthy herds o f herb ivores h ave spread, they h ave been v iew ed m uch m ore favourably. But old attitudes d ie hard and co y o tes h ave been killed recently in B an ff as a result o f com p lain ts about their num ber and their p row lin g. T he w o lf p opulation apparently w as build­ ing up in B a n ff in the 1 9 4 0 's but so m e reportedly were k illed as p o ssib le d isea se carriers during a rabies outbreak in A lberta in the early 195 0 ’s . T h e grizzly w as often o b served by early exp lorers and traders in the plains cou n try, east o f the R o ck ies. T h e anim al frequently w as seen near rivers su ch as the M issou ri, the Red D eer and the South S ask atch ­ e w a n . w here it fed on berries, roots and other v e g eta tio n , as w ell as on so m e fresh m eat and carrion. On the other hand, the anim al rarely s e e m s to have been seen in the m ou n tain s, sin ce at least the co m in g o f the w hite m an, s o that its num bers are d ifficu lt to estim ate there for any tim e period. In the early I8 0 0 's traders w h o travelled in the R ock ies su ch as A lexan d er H enry the Y ou n ger, m ade little referen ce to the g rizzly . H o w ev er, sco res o f its sk in s are recorded in the fur returns from trading e sta b lish m en ts su ch as Piegan P o st, w h ich w as located on the B o w R iver in the fo o th ills, about forty m ile s w est o f present-day C algary during the early I8 3 0 's . S o m e o f th ese p elts cou ld have been ob tain ed in the m ountains. But m any also cou ld have b een secured from the nearby plains and fo o th ills. T ravellers in the m id-nineteenth century a lso rarely sa w the bear, although the Earl o f Sou th esk did refer to m any sig n s o f the anim al in the A thabaska and South S askatchew an R iver V a lley s in 1859. W hatever its origin al p opulation in the m oun tain s, the assault o f the fur traders, p rosp ectors, su rveyors, railroad m en and early settlers

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reduced the g rizzly to a lo w level in the w est by the I 8 8 0 ’s and it w as g o n e from ranching country such as the C yp ress H ills, w here it w as p erceived as a grave threat to liv e sto c k , by about 1890. T h e grizzly appears to have b eco m e m ore num erous in the foot­ h ills and m ountains after 1910. in part no doubt b ecau se o f the slo w introduction o f p rotection ist m easu res. S o m e referen ces to the p resen ce o f the anim al w ere m ade in B a n ff Park in the I9 2 0 's and these increased in the 1930’s w hen at least tw o en cou n ters with the bear resulted in injuries to hum ans. T h e g rizzly w as num erous en ou gh to merit the su g g estio n that an E nglish Earl be a llo w ed to hunt and kill one in B an ff National Park during the I9 3 0 's . H o w ev er. J. B. Harkin refused perm ission for this venture on the grou n d s that it w as contrary to the protection ist p o licy . On the other hand. Harkin did a llo w perm its to m useu m s and others w ish in g to obtain sp ecim en s for sc ien tific and related p urposes. N or did the p rotective regu lations ex clu d e the carry­ ing o f g u n s on the grou n d s that they m ight be n eed ed by visitors or adm inistrators for d e fe n c e . It is not know n h ow m any an im als have b een k illed in the n ational parks o f Canada b ecau se o f su ch real or apparent danger. During the 19 3 0 's and I9 4 0 's m any g rizzly bears began to ch an ge their behaviour patterns as a result o f hum an interference with the park e c o s y ste m ; for ex a m p le they began to feed upon garbage and spoil around ca m p sites and to w n sites. In the I9 5 0 ’s and 1 9 6 0 ’s tourists w ish in g to see g rizzlies d rove to the B an ff d u m p , w here the anim als co u ld be approached and photographed— at so m e risk o f personal sa fety . W ith the in crease in bears and e sp e c ia lly in hikers and recreation alists g en era lly after W orld W ar 11. en cou n ters b etw een man and the bear have g o n e up rather sharply, although the num ber o f in cid en ts and injuries appears to be m uch low er in Canada than in A m erican Parks. Data for the C anadian parks is d ifficu lt to secu re, but in Y e llo w sto n e N ational Park in recent su m m ers scores o f injuries have been attributed to bears. A s a resu lt, the U . S . N ational Park S erv ice has sp on sored several d etailed stu d ies o f g rizzly e c o lo g y and is introducing a scries o f m easures d esig n ed to take the anim al aw ay from garbage and m an. to m ake it m ore self-relian t and so probably reduce unfortunate en cou n ters betw een g rizzly and hum ans (I 16).

T he T u rn in g Point A bout W orld W a r II W orld W ar II m arked a turning point in the history and geograp h y o f B an ff and other N ational Parks. By this tim e the e lk . sh eep and other an im als had increased su b stan tially in num bers from their low ebb about 1 900. A n d the an im als w ere cau sin g over-grazin g and other

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problem s in various parts o f the parks. A series o f w ild life stu d ies con seq u en tly w as approved with b io lo g ists su ch as C o w a n , C larke and B a n field , being en cou raged to do research on the e lk , w o lf and other sp e c ie s in an attem pt to understand their e c o lo g y for park m anagem ent p u rp oses (5 6 , 4 6 ) .T h ese really w ere the first seriou s attem pts to ad­ m inister the parks on a sc ien tific b asis and therefore con stitute a landm ark in the ev o lu tio n o f national park p o licy and practice. D uring and after the w ar Canada and other w estern cou n tries entered a period o f very rapid p op u lation , e c o n o m ic and technical grow th w h ich had strong e ffe c ts on the national parks o f the country. T h e “ baby b o o m ” o f the I9 4 0 's and 1 9 5 0 ’s really began in the fear o f u ncertainties o f the w ar and resu lted , alon g with im m igration , in m illio n s m ore C anadians in the next tw en ty years. J h is grow th w as accom p an ied by a strong trend to u rbanization, a con tinu in g process w h ich p rom ises to place m uch o f our population in urban e x ten sio n s o f M on treal, T oronto and V an cou ver by the year 2 0 0 0 . P opulation grow th and u rbanization, in turn, w ere associated with an in crease in the kind and num ber o f C anadian industries as w ell as in jo b s , in co m e and o v era ll, in G ross N ational Product. The introduction o f the m eth o d o lo g y o f operations research, o f the com p uter, and other n ew tech n o lo g ie s a lso reduced labour requirem ents, ushering in the p rocess k n ow n as au tom ation. Transport a lso im proved su b stan tially, with the au to m o b ile and the airplane greatly in creasing m o b ility , nota­ bly in the m iddle and upper in co m e grou p s. U n io n s and other a g en cies pressed for labour's share o f productivity in creases, on e result being m ore h o lid a y s, lon ger v a ca tio n s, and greater leisu re gen erally for C anadians and other North A m erican s. T h ese in creases in p op u lation , in co m e, m o b ility , leisure and other factors co m b in ed to put m ore and m ore pressure on recreational land and op p ortu n ities in C anada and the U .S . in 1 9 5 0 's, 1 9 6 0 'sa n d I9 7 0 's . M ore and m ore C algarian s began to visit nearby parks such as B an ff during these years. M ore easterners and A m erican s began to c o m e to the w estern parks each su m m er, e sp e c ia lly in the m onths o f Ju ly and A u g u st, cro w d in g the ex istin g roads, cam p sites and other fa cilites.

T he A m erican o r U .S. R esponse to Post W a r C hanges A s usual in North A m erica , the U nited States led in recogn izin g the p rob lem s and the opportunities presented by these post w ar ch an ges (8 8 ). T h e U . S . govern m en t estab lish ed the O utdoor R ecreation R e ­ sources R eview C om m ission (O R R R C ) w hich u tilized en g in eerin g , e c o n o m ic , g eo g ra p h ic, so c io lo g ic a l and other ex p ertise to predict the nature and the quantity o f future recreational dem and and s o either

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p rovided the b asis for or m ade recom m en d ation s d esign ed to m eet the ch a llen g e as the C o m m issio n p erceived it (2 5 1 ). T h e O R R R C stu d ies indicated that s ig h t-se e in g , touring and other auto-oriented a ctiv ities led the recreation list, with other m ore natureoriented a ctiv ities, such as b ack p ack in g, ranking m uch low er in lev el. O R R R C estim ated that recreational dem and o f all kinds w ou ld more than triple in the U .S . by the year 2 0 0 0 . T h e departm ents and a g en cies o f the U .S . govern m en t responded with co n sid era b le v ig o u r to the O R R R C ch a llen g e. U nder the lab el. M issio n 6 6 . the U . S . N ational Park S ervice approached C on gress for funds to provide the n ew road, trails, ca m p sites and other fa cilities seen as n ecessary to m eet the projected recreational g row th . Funds a lso were requ ested for b u yin g m ore land and estab lish in g n ew parks. A zon in g sy stem w a s a lso d ev elo p ed to allocate land to different use cla sse s accord in g to the nature and in tensity o f d em and and land character. A Federal Bureau o f O utdoor R ecreation w as estab lish ed to work w ith the state g o v ern m en ts and other federal a g e n c ie s in co-ord in atin g effort to m eet anticipated n eed s. T h e U .S . F orest S erv ice and other a g en cies traditionally interested in lum bering and other productionoriented a ctiv ities a lso began to respond to the n ew recreational ch a l­ le n g e . in part b eca u se o f criticism by public o ffic ia ls and c itiz e n s, and. in part b eca u se so m e foresters saw it as the thing to do. In the early and m idd le 1% 0 ’s as the c o m p le x ity o f recreational dem and b ecam e m ore apparent, the resp onse b ecam e m ore d iv erse. For e x a m p le , an A ct w a s passed in the U .S . in 1964 w h ich en ab led major pu b lic land a g en cies in the U .S . to d esign ate areas w ithin their h old in gs as w ild ern ess, w h ere this w as d efin ed as country sh o w in g relatively little sig n o f the w ork in gs o f m an . areas that he m ight visit for a tim e, but w here he did not rem ain. T h is W ilderness A ct w as a resp onse to the in crea sin g d em and s o f back country hikers and cam p ers, p h otohunters, b ird-w atchers and other naturalists, v igorou sly exp ressed through a g en cies such as the Sierra Club and the W ilderness Society. M any areas h ave been set asid e under the W ild ern ess A ct in the last five years, prin cip ally in the W ild life refu g es and Forest R eserves. R ela tiv ely few h ave been estab lish ed by the N ational Park S erv ice, w h ich se em s to h ave b eco m e m ore and m ore interested in p rovid in g a variety o f recreational opportunities for m any p eop le in A m erica w ho are not w ild ern ess b u ffs. A n alm ost b ew ild erin g array o f differen t types o f parks and land use have been d ev e lo p e d , in clu d in g national recrea­ tion areas: n ational sh o relin es: w ild and sc e n ic rivers: architectural m onu m en ts such a s the great arch in S t. L ou is; h istoric parks dedicated to form er p residents; early can als and railroads: and ed u cational parks or land marks intended for use at all le v e ls in the sc h o o l sy stem . The d esirab ility o f this co m p lex cla ssific a tio n o f parks h a s. h o w ev er, been

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q u estio n ed in a recent report on The F uture o f th e N atio n a l P arks by T h e C on servation Foundation o f the U .S .A . (5 1 ). A lthou gh it is not p o ssib le to d iscu ss all the resp on ses o f the U .S . N ational Park S erv ice to the recreational c h a llen g es o f recent years, m ention must be m ade o f the introduction o f a pu b lic hearings system d esig n ed to p rovid e for pu b lic participation in m aster planning for national parks. U nder this program plans are prepared for a national park; indicating prop osed zo n in g , location o f n ew roads, ca m p sites, interpretation cen tres and the lik e. T h e p lan s are prepared on the b asis o f d etailed sc ien tific studies o f the flora, faun a, and natural and cultural ch aracteristics o f the park. A sc ien tific A d visory Board o f inform ed and interested n on -governm en t persons is attached to the N ational Park S erv ice to assist with this and related sc ien tific w ork. U pon c o m p le ­ tion. prop osed m a ster p lans are p ublished and com m ents and criti­ cism s are invited at a public h ea rin g . A ny su b m issio n s are studied by the N a tio n a l Park S erv ice and the p lan s are ch a n g ed as con sid ered n ecessa ry o r d esir a b le.

T he C anadian R esponse to the Post W a r C hanges W hat has been the resp o n se o f C anada to the recreational ch a llen g e o f the I9 4 0 's . I9 5 0 's , and 1 9 6 0 's (3 2 5 , 3 2 6 )? A lthou gh so m e important ad va n ces h ave been m a d e, the C anadian effort has not equaled that o f the U .S . in im agin ation or in a ch iev em en t. T he C anadian N ational and H istoric Parks Branch undertook various relevant stu d ies and a ctio n s in the early and m iddle 1 9 5 0 's. For ex a m p le, con su ltan ts were asked to m ake recom m en d ation s on the future o f B a n ff to w n site. A m on g other th in g s it w as su g g ested that this com m u n ity o f about 4 ,0 0 0 sh ou ld be lim ited in siz e and zo n ed into co m m e rcia l, resid en tial and other use c la s se s . T h is arrangem ent w as en v isio n ed as settin g the stage for greater land u se control by the g o v ern m en t, even tu ally perm itting rem oval o f so m e o ld er h o u ses and tourist ca b in s, m akes it p o ssib le to introduce m odern m o tels, and high rise structures, and to a c h ie v e a h igh er population and tourist d en sity in B an ff N ational Park w ithout m uch further urban spraw l. A series o f serv ice centres were a lso recom m en d ed for d e v e lo p ­ m ent at p la ces such as Lake L o u ise in B a n ff, as w ell as in other national parks. T h e scrv ice cen tres were not c o n c e iv e d o f as to w n sites o f the s iz e and c o m p le x ity o f B a n ff or Jasper but as areas w here so m e m otels, g a s sta tio n s, and other so -ca lled essen tia l se r v ic e s w ould be provided for park visitors. In the I9 5 0 's and I9 6 0 's the Canadian N ational Park S erv ice also b egan to work on a w in ter recreation program . T rad ition ally, Canadian

Figure 4: N a tio n al Parks of C a n a d a

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national parks h ave receiv ed relatively little u se in w inter, ev en though B a n ff, Jasper, and others h ave ex cellen t sk iin g terrain. A p o lic y w as d ev elo p ed w h ich d esign ated certain d ow n h ill ski and w inter sports areas in so m e o f the w estern parks: for exam p le in B a n ff the three areas are Mt. N orquay near the to w n site . Sun sh in e about 15 m iles to the north and W hitehorn near Lake L ou ise. N o other areas w ithin the national parks w ere to be used for d ow n h ill sk iin g or related services such as roads, parking lo ts, restaurants and apres ski fa cilities. The exa ct boundaries o f the ski areas are h o w ev er not w ell k n ow n and little thought has apparently been g iv en to the type and d en sity o f d e v e lo p ­ ment p erm issib le in these w inter sports areas. In other w ord s, what do the zo n e s or areas mean in term s o f land use d evelop m en t? T his question w as b asic to the recent c o n flic t over the proposed V illa g e Lake L o u ise in B a n ff N ational Park. Indeed, the V isito r S erv ice C entre idea and the w in ter sports program ca m e together in the proposed plan for Lake L ou ise. In e s s e n c e , the old er settlem en t on the B ow V a lley floor w as to be renovated and m odern ized . In ad d ition , on a high terrace facin g west into the w inter su n , a new project. V illa g e Lake L ou ise w as to be constructed co n sistin g o f h o te ls, p o ssib ly as high as tw elv e stories, general sp ecia lty sh o p s, a hospital and other se rv ices n ecessary to m eet the n eed s o f thou san d s o f v isitors, particularly sk iers, as w ell as about 2 ,5 0 0 support sta ff. For m any ob servers the prop osed d evelop m en t far e x cee d e d the V isitor S erv ice C entre con cep t and carried su ch a high tech n o lo g ica l load that it w as v iew ed as lik ely to ca u se m uch unwanted landscape and sc en ic ch an ge in the park. A c itiz e n 's group, the N a­ tional and P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n , pushed for public hearings on the project and the en su in g ex p ressio n o f p u b lic op in ion cau sed the govern m en t to reject the project. D uring the I9 6 0 's the Canadian N ational and H istoric S ites Branch a lso d ev elo p ed a zo n in g sy stem for the national parks. At first a three part sch em e w as en v isio n ed wherin land w ou ld be d esign ated as w ild ern ess, se m i-w ild ern ess and in ten sive u se. H ow ever, the branch is n ow u sin g a liv e part sch em e patterned on A m erican exam p les. T h e C anadian N ational and H istoric S ites Branch a lso instituted a scries o f public h earings on proposed m aster plans in the late I9 6 0 's . U p to the present h o w ev er, the proposed plans are not based on the sa m e quality and quantity o f sc ien tific inform ation as the A m erican. For ex a m p le the plans for B a n ff, Jasper, K ooten ay and Y o h o were d ev elo p ed largely in the early 1960'-s and represent the planner's resp onse to anticipated rapid in creases in auto traffic, as projected by O R R R C in the U .S . M any n ew roads were to be built, in clu d in g so m e through relatively untouched v a lley s. T h e prop osed zo n in g w as largely

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based on a study o f topography and en g in eerin g and e c o n o m ic co n sid ­ era tio n s, although it is very doubtful if even a rudim entary b en efit-cost a n a ly sis o f the proposed roads w as undertaken as a gu id e in d e c isio n ­ m aking. C ertainly the proposed roads, ca m p sites and other facilities w ere not based on any sig n ifican t stu d ies o f flora, fauna and other en viron m en tal or cultural features o f the park or on the w ay that their character or quality w ou ld be ch an ged by the introduction o f the fa cilities and large num bers o f tourists. F ortunately the N ational and H istoric S ites Branch had a ch an ce to adjust to this d e fic ie n c y by u sing inform ation from the su b m issio n s m ade at the p u b lic hearings on four m ountain national parks in the spring o f 19 7 1 . and the branch has sin ce ca n celled the prop osed road program . R ecently the N ational and H is­ toric Parks Branch has exp an d ed its planning and resource inventory se ctio n s so that the quality o f background inform ation and planning p rop osals can be ex p ected to rise in future. Furtherm ore, under the leadership o f the H onourable Jean Chre­ tien . M inister o f Indian A ffairs and Northern D ev elo p m en t. Canada recently has m ade u nparalleled ad d ition s to its national park sy stem . In about the last four years ele v e n n ew national parks have b een estab ­ lished as part o f a netw ork that is en v isio n ed as incorporating ex a m p les o f all major e c o s y ste m s in C anada. A m on g the n ew parks are the first tw o ev e r to be esta b lish ed in Q u eb ec: La M auricie and F orillon . A num ber, in clu d in g K ejim kujik and G ros M orne have b een created in the M aritim es, w here they are e c o n o m ica lly attractive, although the federal govern m en t p o licy o f rem ovin g resid en ts and m any traditional types o f land use upon estab lish m en t o f a park is n o w ca u sin g negative reaction s in these eastern p rovin ces. It has been m ore d ifficu lt to acquire land e ls e w h e r e , for ex a m p le for P a cific R im on w estern V an­ co u v er Island or K luane or N ahanni in the north, w h ere op p osition from lu m b erin g, m in in g and other com m ercial interests has a lw a y s been stron g. U nder Chretien substantial ch a n g es a lso have been m ade in the level o f federal contributions to the cost o f park acq u isition . F orm erly, the c o s ts w ere en tirely borne by the p rovin ces w h ich then turned the land o v er to Canada “ free o f all en cu m b r a n c es" . S o m e d ifficu lties are b ein g ex p erien ced in agreein g on the new park bou n daries, these b ein g a subject o f m uch con troversy a m o n g all interest grou p s. Final resolu tion m ay take years but h o p efu lly w ill result in parks-at least eq u ivalen t to, if not higher in q u ality than the ex p ecta tio n s g en era lly created at the tim e that the original an n ou nce­ m ents were m ade. M o reover, there are m any potential national park areas, k n ow n for yea rs, w h ich have not been estab lish ed b ecau se o f industrial or other op p o sitio n . T h e recent addition o f K luane cam e after about thirty years o f w a ilin g , ap p roxim ately 1 0 ,0 0 0 square m ile s h avin g b een p laced in park reserve in 1942 (3 0 0 ). A m ajor o b sta cle w as the p resen ce o f

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potentially valuable g o ld , copper and other m in erals, w hich have been m ined sp o ra d ica lly , but at relatively little e c o n o m ic gain . N everth e­ le s s, their presen ce has in flu en ced the ex clu sio n o f about 2 .0 0 0 square m iles o f the original reserve from the park. T he om itted land is the K luane Lake and V a lley country on the northern fringe o f the park, w h ich although rela tiv ely sm all in area, is reco g n ized as u nusually important for ca rib o u , w o lf, Dali sh ee p and other w ild life . T h e A rtil­ lery Lake area, near Great S la v e L ake, w a s p rop osed fo r a national park m ore than ten years a g o . At that tim e the op p osition o f m inin g interests w as substantial. Indians a lso h ave lived and hunted in the area for cen tu ries. U nder current national park practice they w ou ld be largely ex clu d ed from any national park and they therefore are very concerned about lo ss o f traditional rights o f liv e lih o o d . A nother very im portant in n ovation in federal park p ractice has a lso occurred in very recent m onth s. In O ctob er, ju st prior to the federal e le c tio n , the Liberal govern m en t said it had acquired d ev elo p ed land on T oronto harbour w hich w ou ld be turned into a large urban park. The entry o f the federal govern m en t into the urban park field is long o v erd u e, for that is w here very h eavy recreational and op en space problem s lie and fin a n cin g is d ifficu lt. But w hether direct federal ow n ersh ip and operation o f urban parks is d esirable or not is debatable. M any p eo p le favour m eetin g the need for urban parks through so m e type o f jo in t m un icip al, provin cial and federal system o f finan cin g and m anagem en t. T h e sudden an n ou ncem en t o f the T oronto urban park a lso brought com p la in ts o f “ se c r e c y ” and “ failure to c o n su lt” from city and p rovincial o ffic ia ls . T h is is a com m on p rob lem , h o w ev er, the govern m en t o f O ntario h aving received m any com p lain ts in the past year or so o v er its quiet acq u isition o f thou san d s o f acres o f potential recreation land in the B ruce P eninsula area. On the other hand, there are m od els o f fed eral-p rovin cial co-op eration av a ila b le, for ex a m p le, the C O R T S arrangem ent for the p lanning and m anagem en t o f the RideauTrent Canal sy stem in O ntario. Persons from m any a g en cies and le v e ls o f govern m en t are participating in co m m ittees and study team s on this project. In su m , dem ands on national parks in C anada h ave accelerated greatly sin ce W orld W ar II. T he three b asic threads o f nature or w ild ern ess preservation and p rotection , planning for the recreational and aesth etic n eed s o f the p e o p le , and the opportunity o f deriving in co m e from the parks, are still at w ork , m o d ify in g and exp an d in g the national park sy stem . But they are actin g in a m uch m ore com p lica ted and interreleated w a y . T h is is the age w hen the sc o p e and in tensity o f en virom en tal ch a n g e has been recogn ized as a b asic problem w hich man is largely resp on sib le for and w hich he has great d ifficu lty in

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con tro llin g . T h e ca ll for the protection and preservation o f nature is therefore g row in g stron ger, em anating c h ie fly from a vocal literate m in ority, representing m any w a lk s and w ays o f life: sc ie n c e , b u sin ess, education and the arts. M o reover, the ca ll for nature protection and m anagem ent in creas­ in gly is based on scien tific and e c o n o m ic con sid eration s (6 0 ). Thus b io lo g ists, eco n o m ists and others talk o f the value o f the g en e p o o ls in the plants and a n im als o f national parks and related reserves. T h ese p o o ls are seen as con stitu tin g reserviors for the p o ssib le derivation o f n ew fo rm s o f e lk . or w h eat, or p in e, o f the utility to the hunter, the agriculturalist or the forester. Certain eco n o m ists h ave stressed that the ec o n o m ic a lly u n a ssessa b le but great valu e o f the scarce C alifornia tule elk lies in the fact that these an im als provide the potential for new anim al ty p e s, the utility and v a lu e o f w hich w e w ill never k n ow if they b eco m e extin ct. A esth etic or rom antic argum ents for w ild ern ess protection h ave, h o w ev er, certainly not disap p eared . T here are m any p eop le — sc ien tists, adm inistrators and laym en — w h o argue for nature protec­ tion on the grounds that a n im als and other life sim p ly h ave the right to e x ist independent o f m an. T h ese p eop le depart from the anthropocentric v ie w that an o rg a n ism ’s ex iste n c e must be related to its present or potential u sefu ln ess to m an. Such p eop le also argue that plants, anim als and w ild areas d o not need to be visited to be w orthy o f p rotection . T h ey can serve sim p ly by b ein g there, as ob jects for thought and con tem p la­ tion. T he planning thread in the d evelop m en t o f national parks has b eco m e in creasingly frayed and d iffu se. T h u s the parks are often thought o f as sin g le use areas, d esign ed and m anaged for recreational p u rp oses. Y et, from an early stage this v ie w has been d ifficu lt to uphold b ecau se the protection o f an im als and other natural elem en ts o f the park lan d sca p es have often b een in co n flic t with and adm inistered in w ays not a lw a y s clea rly related to m ajor o b je ctiv es o f recreational u se and p lan nin g. T h e g rizzly is a g o o d ex a m p le. In situ ation s w here d angerous en cou n ters are in crea sin g , what sh ou ld be sa c rificed , the anim al or certain recreational opportunities? T o d a y the num ber o f u ses o f national parks is so co m p lex that, as the U .S . ex a m p le sh o w s , new land u se categories and arrangem ents are n eed ed to reco n cile the different types and le v e ls o f u se. T hus the U .S . N ational R ecreation A reas are not intended to p rovid e large untram ­ m eled w ild ern ess areas, m ore or less com p atib le with the protection and m anagem ent o f a n im als such as the g rizzly or the m ountain sh eep , but rather as c o m p le x e s o f trees, grass, lan d form s, water and other elem en ts useful for la rg e-sca le ca m p in g , b oating or other m ore inten­

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siv e recreational a ctiv ities. M any recreational areas in the U .S . are sim p ly w ater reservoirs constructed by the U . S . A rm y C orps o f E n gin eers for irrigation, h y d ro-electric p o w er or other purposes. T h e great u sefu ln ess o f national parks and related reserves for ed u cation and other cultural p urposes is a lso b eco m in g m ore apparent each year. In d eed , the U .S . N ational Park S erv ice has co-op erated with m any sc h o o l boards in providing facilities and se rv ices for outdoor and environ m en tal ed u ca tio n . O ver se v en ty N ational Education B en ch ­ m arks are n ow availa b le for use in the U .S ., with the Parks S ervice p roviding personnel to assist teachers and students with their stu d ies in these areas. T he Park S erv ice a lso has led the d ev elo p m en t o f im agina­ tiv e , in tegrative teach in g m eth od s, the b asic idea b ein g to h ave a general teach in g m odel or fram ew ork useful to m any d iscip lin es and so en cou rage inter-disciplinary or m ultid iscip lin ary w ork, and a total or ■‘real” v iew o f the w orld . T he m odel w hich has been d ev elo p ed is built around the fo llo w in g organ izational them es or " stran d s" : sim ilarities and d ifferen ce s, patterns, interaction and in d ep en d en ce, ch a n g es and co n tin u ity , adaptation and ev o lu tio n . T h ese threads are thought o f as part o f a p rocess rather than a program . T h ey are in ten d ed , like precursors in the U nited K in g d o m , to elim in ate a ca d em ic, class sc h ed u lin g , and other barriers and bring m any typ es o f training and m any points o f v ie w , w hether g eo g ra p h ic, b io lo g ica l or m athem atical, together in a co m m o n forum an d /or area. T h is co m in g together m ay be fo r a d a y , several d a y s or even a w eek , in a national park or benchm ark. T h e third thread in flu en cin g national parks and related reserves, their eco n o m ic v a lu e, has b een w id ely recogn ized recently. M ore and m ore b u sin essm en are now interested in locatin g in the parks b ecau se sea so n a l dem and brings few er problem s than a d ecad e or m ore ago. W inter recreation program s arc rising to b alan ce traditional sum m er tourism and recreation in C an ad a, p rovid in g the entrepreneur w ith a m ore stable annual return on h is in vestm en t. C om m ercial interest is a lso rising in recreation op p ortu n ities ou t­ sid e but c lo s e to the national parks. But this trend is not as pronounced in Canada as the U .S . O ne reason is that in the U .S . far few er facilities are a llo w ed in n ational parks: to w n sites. d ow n h ill ski areas and sim ilar d ev elo p m en ts g en era lly b ein g required to be located ou tsid e the parks. A ls o , in the C anadian national parks, particularly B an ff and Jasper, the govern m en t su b sid ize s entrepreneurs by con stru ctin g road s, trails, c a m p sites, se w a g e d isp osal plants and other fa cilities and by con tin u ­ ing to assist the w arden, w aste d isp osal and other serv ices. G iven this support, w h ich is not unique to C anada, and grow in g dem and, b u sin essm en are in crea sin g ly interested in the opportunity o f d e v e lo p ­ ing ski runs, m o tels, h o tels and other fa cilities w ithin the national parks.

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Furtherm ore, the interest and in vestm en t o f the federal g overn ­ ment is g en era lly not b alan ced by that o f the p rovin ces. T h is m ight be understandable in areas with relatively lo w in co m es su ch as the M aritim es. H o w ev er, rather rich p rovin ces such as A lberta and British C olu m b ia have parks and e x te n siv e forest reserves near the national parks. But they h ave not d on e m uch to d ev elo p them for recreation. The forest reserves in A lberta h ave b een m anaged prim arily for w atershed p rotection , with so m e lu m b erin g, g razin g and other a ctivities perm itted or en cou raged on a m ultiple use b asis. At the m om en t, interest in the production o f m inerals and particularly in the strip m ining o f c o a l, is very high in A lberta and British C olu m b ia. A s a result, pu b lic reserve boundaries have been sh ifted or are b ein g re-exam ined in accord an ce with m inin g and other com m ercial p rospects. In the early d a y s, as w e h ave s e e n , there w a s con sid erab le lum ber­ in g, m inin g, and other extractive industry in the C anadian national parks. O ver the years these industries have su ffered e c o n o m ic failure, b een phased out by the national park au th orities, or both. S o m e c o m ­ m ercial lea ses or freehold lands are still held in certain national parks. But the ten d en cy is for the govern m en t to purchase such h o ld in g s. For ex a m p le, w ithin the last ten years a major lu m b erin g lease in G lacier N ational Park apparently w as on the verge o f b ein g activated and Canada purchased it from the com p an y to prevent cutting w ithin the park. T h u s, although there is still the p o ssib ility o f lu m b erin g, m ining or other extractive industry in the p rovincial parks, this is u n lik ely in the national parks. The m ain threat there is recreation , form erly the handm aiden o f p rotection ism but n o w in creasingly in com p atib le with it. T h is state­ m ent d o es not a p p ly , o f co u rse, to all form s o f recreation, although the large and g ro w in g num ber o f p eop le interested in even the less popular a ctiv ities such as b ackpacking and w ild ern ess cam p in g e v en tu a lly w ill n ecessita te rationing and control o f entry b ecau se o f effe cts on veg eta ­ tio n , w ild life , scen ery and the w ild ern ess exp erien ces desired by other p eo p le. Litter is b eco m in g a major problem , ev en in back-country areas. Litter co lle c tio n s sp on sored by the N ational P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n and the Canadian N ational Parks Branch have y ield ed tons o f w aste in B anff. But the m ajor problem arises from what m ay be called facilitiesoriented recreation, i.e . from those a ctiv ities that d ep en d h ea v ily on the b u ild in g s, m ach ines and constructs o f man rather than upon the re­ so u rc es or en viron m en t o f a park. A u tom ob ile touring is very m uch a fa cilities-o rien ted a ctiv ity , with its requirem ent o f roads, g a s stations and parking lo ts, as is d ow n h ill sk iin g with its cleared runs, to w s, lifts, parking lo ts, and apres ski fa cilities. On the other hand h ik in g , backcountry p a ck in g, cross-cou n try sk iin g , and sim ilar form s o f recreation

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require few fa cilities and have corresp on d in gly less im pact on the landscape. An e c o lo g ic a lly and tech n o lo g ic a lly se n sitiv e cla ssific a tio n o f recreational a ctiv ities is basic to any future m anagem ent o f national park la n d sca p es, if they are to aim at providing recreation b ased on the v e g eta tio n , a n im als and other resou rces w ithin th em , and at the sam e tim e, m aintain those resou rces for recreational and other u ses su ch as ed u cation and sc ien tific research. T he im pact o f differen t recreational a ctiv ities and v o lu m e s must be m onitored and studied and used as the b a sis for d ecid in g on the kind and level o f u se that is sustain ab le in part or all o f a park. T h e settin g o f su ch carrying ca p a cities w ill prove very d ifficu lt, being largely a function o f percep tion s and va lu es, but is required to protect recreational and other u ses o f the parks. T h ose u ses or a ctiv ities p lacin g h eavy relian ce on facilities or m ach ines are the o n es requiring m ost careful w atch . O ne need o n ly look at the e ffe c ts o f the au to m o b ile to s e e h ow often u n foreseen ch an ges can a m p lify from a tech n o lo g ica l introduction. In the w estern C anadian national parks, the a u to m o b ile is resp on sib le for m uch o f the b asic character and siz e o f B a n ff and other to w n sites, for the in creasing s iz e , v o lu m e and c o m ­ p lex ity o f the roads, for the gravel m inin g and other cultural p ro cesses that are carried on w ithin park b ou n daries, for the d evelop m en t o f d o w n h ill sk iin g and the rapid in creases in tourism and in back-country u se. The sn o w m o b ile and other all terrain v e h ic le s could have sim ilar e ffe c ts in the national parks.

S u m m ary of Im p o rta n t T re n d s o r C hanges M ajor historical trends in national park d evelop m en t and m anagem ent arc n ow clear. Three prim e threads, w ild ern ess or nature p rotection , an interest in planning for the recreational and aesth etic n eed s o f the p eo p le, and an interest in in com e from co m m erce associated with national parks, have interacted: 1) T o help reduce extractive industries such as lum bering and m in in g , although large sc a le aggregate m inin g for road and other construction has occurred in parks su ch as B a n ff sin ce about 1960. 2) T o p rovid e for the regrow th o f forests and other v egetation in large burned o v er areas created in the late nineteenth and early tw en ­ tieth cen tu ries. 3)

To in crease the kind and num ber o f an im als from a lo w ebb in

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the early 1 9 0 0 's, although pre-C aucasian sp e c ie s such as b ison and w o lf are still very rare in parks su ch as B anff. 4 ) To m ake the national park lan d scap es and e c o s y ste m s in­ crea sin g ly attractive to scien tists and ed u cators interested in en viron ­ m ental research and tea ch in g , e sp e c ia lly in areas relatively little d is­ turbed by m an. w h ere long-term m onitorin g o f p h ysical p ro cesses may be p o ssib le w ithout m uch hum an interruption. 5) T o in crease the kind and v o lu m e o f recreational u se in the national parks, n otab ly in the last ten years, with the em p h asis on auto and fa cilities-o rien ted recreation and tourism . 6) To produce increasing co n flic t b etw een recreational land use and en viron m en tal or resource con servation . T h ese trends h ave been p aralleled by a ten dency for the p rovincial govern m en ts to n eg lect their park sy stem s until recent d ecad es. S in ce the early I 9 5 0 ’s , O ntario has greatly im proved the quality and in­ creased the num ber o f its parks, but other p rovin ces such as Alberta h ave lo o k ed upon national parks as the prim e p lace for region al recrea­ tion and the d ev elo p m en t o f tourism . In d eed , the national parks in Alberta have been an im portant form o f federal recreational, en v iro n ­ m ental and e c o n o m ic su b sid y . A lberta govern m en ts have tended to push for m ore o f the sa m e, rather than in vestin g in a p rovincial or region al park sy stem .

Recommendations If w e w ish to ch a n g e these trends w e m ust d e v e lo p a parks or co u n ­ tryside p o licy in Canada that in clu d es the fo llo w in g elem ents: I) Increasing the kind and am ount o f p u b lic land in Canada: there is a need for m ore and better m anaged p rovincial parks, and a lso for the introduction o f n ew institutional arrangem ents like those re­ cen tly d ev elo p ed in the U .S . and elsew h ere; for ex a m p le, national recreation areas, national se a sh o res, w ild and sc en ic rivers, ed u ca ­ tional reserves and the lik e. T he recently published w hite paper on B yw ays a n d S p e cia l P laces in d icates that the national parks p eop le are thinking in this d irection but m uch rem ains to be d on e from the standpoint o f fin a n c e s, intergovernm ental co -o p era tio n , and the secu r­ ing o f a public reaction to the proposed program , esp e cia lly in se n sitiv e areas such as the M aritim es.

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2) Increasing the quality and the quantity o f inform ed ad vice reaching the civ il serv ice and govern m en t by esta b lish in g sc ie n tific and c itiz e n 's ad v iso ry co m m ittees at various points and le v e ls in the s y s ­ tem . Such arrangem ents have been very su cc essfu l in cou n tries such as the U .S . and N ew Z ealand but have been resisted or ignored in Canada in spite o f recom m en d ation s to govern m en t by organ izations su ch as the N ational and P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n o f C anada. What is in v o lv ed here is the w h o le question o f m ore e ffe c tiv e public participa­ tion in m anagem ent. 3) Increasing the kind and am ount o f recreational and related socia l se rv ices in C anada, preferably in co-op eration with those re­ sp o n sib le for pu b lic land m anagem ent. For ex a m p le, the federal g o v ­ ernm ent should exten d financial and tech n ical assistan ce to to w n s and citie s w here resou rce le v e ls or in co m es are low or w here there are other barriers again st a ch iev in g a reason able level o f recreation and related a ctiv ities; in this regard there is an urgent need to d ev elo p an effe ctiv e and w id ely availab le en viron m en tal ed u cation program and relate it to the national parks and other pu b lic land now or p otentially availab le in this country. 4) Increasing the kind and am ount o f regional planning in Canada: m ore e ffe c tiv e co-ord in ation is required to avoid errors and in e ffic ie n c ie s; the C O R T S arrangem ent in O ntario in v o lv es joint fed eral-p rovin cial p lanning o f the R ideau and Trent R iver sy ste m s; this m odel cou ld b e a p p lied in the C anm ore corridor and other areas east o f B a n ff w here the federal and provin cial govern m en ts se em to be pro­ c eed in g in d ep en dently with plans and, in the op in ion o f m any ob serv­ ers, in com patib ly and b ad ly, e sp e c ia lly on the provincial sid e. 5) Increasing the am ount o f research on e c o n o m ic , so c ia l, g e o ­ g rap h ical, b io lo g ica l and other top ics relating to public land use and m anagem en t in Canada to the en d that m ore is k n ow n about the national parks and related reserves and better d e c isio n s are m ade in adm inister­ ing them . 6) D etailed en viron m en tal im pact statem ents should be pre­ pared and m ade availa b le to advisory co m m ittees and the p u b lic for criticism and resp o n se prior to any m ajor tech n ological or land use ch a n g e in the national parks. S uch statem ents are n ow w id ely used in the U .S . and sh ou ld present as m uch inform ation as p ossib le on the im pact o f a ch a n g e on sa fety , social co n d itio n s and the national park lan d scap e. In B a n ff N ational Park, at the m o m en t, stu d ies are under­ w a y on a proposed tw inn in g o f the Trans Canada h ig h w a y , for exam -

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p ic. S uch a project w ou ld have m ajor e ffe c ts on lan d scap e and land use not o n ly in the park but in areas so m e d istan ce a w ay. T o undertake such a project im p lies ev en tu a l p o ssib le construction alon g the p resent Trans Canada all the w a y to V an cou ver. Better altern atives to any traffic problem s m ay be ava ila b le. Reports on the e c o n o m ic , social and environm ental a sp ects o f such a c o stly project sh ou ld be availab le at so m e stage for rev iew by citizen s. 7) The p o licy o f p rovid in g fa cilities and serv ices m ore or less e x c lu s iv e ly through private enterprise in the national parks sh ou ld also be ex a m in ed c lo s e ly . C areful con sid eration sh ou ld be g iv en to g o v ­ ernm ent con stru ction and operation o f certain fa cilities and se r v ic e s in the interest o f m in im izin g en viron m en tal im p act, con trollin g large sc a le corporate-type ad vertisin g, and g iv in g seriou s attention to the p rovision o f lo w to m edium co st fa cilities in B a n ff and other parks. C oop era tiv e units o f the youth hostel type sh ou ld be en cou raged by govern m en t and open to a ll, w ith the num ber o f users and e n viron m en ­ tal im pact b ein g con trolled in the sam e w ay as with other projects. Any ten d en cy to use in co m e as a m easure o f a ccess to the parks or as a m eans o f co n trollin g the nature and quantity o f d ev elo p m en t and en viron m en ­ tal ch an ge should be resisted. V arious w a y s o f a ch iev in g these o b je ctiv es se em p o ssib le . The National and P rovincial Parks A sso cia tio n o f Canada has recently su g g ested that the n ational parks p ortfolio sh ou ld be m oved from the D epartm ent o f Indian A ffairs and Northern D evelop m en t to the D e­ partment o f E n viron m en t. A p o ssib ly better alternative for im prove­ m ent m ight be to re-organ ize the D epartm ent o f Indian A ffairs and Northern D ev elo p m en t into o n e resp on sib le for Public Land and R e­ lated S o cia l S erv ices. T h is w ou ld perm it con tinu ed work w ith the Indians, and the retention o f the present national parks and northern lands program . But the departm ent program cou ld be exp an d ed into an integrated approach in v o lv in g different types o f p u b lic land and use in C anada, with personn el b ein g in v o lv ed w h o w ould not o n ly be in­ form ed about the e c o lo g ic a l or p h ysical character o f the areas in q uestion but a lso the recreational, ed u cational and other social ac­ tivities to be carried ou t there. Perhaps with this type o f m issio n , these institutional arrangem ents and these p erson n el, a co-ord in ated p h ysical and cultural fram ew ork for the e ffe c tiv e and vision ary use o f the lan d scap e cou ld be d ev elo p ed in C anada. W hat is d on e in the National parks can serve as a m odel fo r land use in the country as a w h o le.

Figure 6: Pacific Rim National Park

6: M a n , B irds a n d M a m m a ls of Pacific Rim N ational P a r k , B .C .: P ast, P rese n t and F u tu re * N .A . Roe a n d J .G . Nelson

Introduction T H E b asic them e o f this essa y is past, present and future human d isturbance o f w ild life in the P a cific Rim National Park area, V an­ co u v er Island. T h e em p h a sis is on Phase I o f the park b etw een approx­ im ately T o fin o and U clu elet (F igure 6 ). O verall the approach is histori­ cal (or tem poral) a n d e c o lo g ic a l. Faunal ch a n g es in sp a ce and tim e are particularly related to cultural, but a lso b io tic, h yd rologic and other c o n tro ls. Man is o f sp ecial interest as an e c o lo g ic a l agen t. H is effe cts are con sid ered w ithin a three part fram ew ork: I) p ercep tion s, attitudes and v a lu es; 2) institutional arrangem ents; 3) tech n o lo g y .

Some Ecological Considerations T he p h ysical ch aracteristics o f P hase I h ave b een d iscu ssed at len gth in

P acific Rim : A n E cological A pproach to a N ew C anadian N ational Park (2 3 6 ). T h e clim a te is m ild and hum id due to the m oderating in flu en ce o f the o cea n . The m ean annual tem perature is 4 9 ° F. and ex trem es in tem perature are rare. T h e m ean tem perature for the warm ­ est m onth is 58° F. and for the c o o le st m on th , 41 ° F. P recipitation is h ea v y , w ith an annual m ean o f 1 10-120 in ch es. F o g s are frequent during the su m m er and last from early m orning to about n oon . W inds are m oderate with a m ean sp eed o f 7 -1 0 m .p .h ., but o c c a sio n a lly reach ga le fo rce, e sp e c ia lly during w inter storm s. B a sica lly tw o ty p es o f land su rfaces occu r in Phase I. T he first co n sists o f o ld a n d esitic v o lca n ic rocks w hich are ex p o sed on coastal h ead lan d s, islan d s and h ills. For ex a m p le, large e xp osu res o f vo lca n ics occu r on the head lan ds b etw een W ick an in nish (L on g B each) and F loren cia B a y s. S everal glacier sm ooth ed co n e-sh ap ed h ills rise ap­ p roxim ately fiv e hundred feet a b o v e sea lev el and form the heigh t o f *F rom J . G . N elso n and L .D . C o rd e s, e d s ., " P a c if ic Rim : A n E cological A p p ro a c h to a N ew C a n a d ia n N a tio n a l P a r k .' ' S tu d ie s in L a n d U se H is to ry a n d L a n d sc a p e C h a n g e, N o . 4 (C a lg a ry : U n iv ersity o f C a lg a ry , 1972).

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land in the park. T h ese h ills arc thousands o f feet low er than the easterly fringe o f m ountains co m p o sin g the sp in e o f V an cou ver Island. T h e seco n d b asic land su rface stretch es m ore or less con tin u ou sly from U clu elet to T o fin o . It c o n sists o f a gen tly undulating strip o f sand b ea ch , g la cia l o u tw a sh , till and m arine clay d ep osits o f P leisto cen e and recent a g e. T h ese d ep o sits m ake up the Estevan C oastal P lain. On its seaw ard sid e the plain norm ally b eg in s with a terrace face or scarp w hich rises from the b each es to about o n e hundred feet ab ove sea lev el. S u rface drainage on this terrace is p oor due to lim ited stream cutting and the p resen ce o f iron pans and im p erviou s clay; layers w ithin the s o il . T h is poor drainage results in s o ils that are w a terlogged m uch o f the tim e, stan d in g w ater b ein g com m on in w inter and spring. D rainage im p ro v es lo ca lly a lo n g stream s and terrace ed g es; th is, in turn, favours grow th o f taller trees w ith a som ew h at different sp e c ie s com p osition than in other areas. V eg eta tiv eiy , Phase I lies in the C oastal W estern H em lock Z on e. On better drained or m esic sites this forest is dom in ated by western h em lo ck and P acific silv er fir. The forest is m ultistoried , b ein g made up o f d en se u n even -aged stan d s. T h e understory is lu sh , co n sistin g o f ferns and shrubs. T rees, other w o o d y plants and the forest floor are cov ered with m o sses and liverw orts. W estern red cedar, shore pine and y e w are com m on in poorly drained areas. Sitka spruce occu rs on flo o d p la in s, seep age sites and in a band a lon g the co a st, w here it is relatively tolerant o f salt spray. D ou g la s fir apparently w as u n com m on in the past. It prefers xeric or drier sites and is favoured by fires w h ich are rare in this w est co a st area. In recent y ears, h o w ev er. D o u g la s fir has been planted e x te n siv e ly after lu m b erin g, and sh o w s g o o d grow th on w ell-d rain ed sites. Human settlem en t and land u se h ave not been e x ten siv e in the park. T he fish in g v illa g e s o f T o fin o and U c lu e le t, each with a popula­ tion o f ap p roxim ately three to four hundred are jo in ed by a black-top road that p arallels the co a st and even tu ally lead s east to Port A lberni. S ettlem en t in the park has been sp orad ic h istorically, with n od es d ev elo p in g around T o fin o airport and at the W ick an in nish Inn. on the north sid e o f the headland b etw een L ong B each and F loren cia Bay. O th erw ise, holiday ca b in s and a few com m ercial b u ildin gs arc dotted alon g the T o fin o -U c lu e le t road. A griculture has never been practised e x te n siv e ly w ithin park bou n daries, although a few sm a ll, cleared field s can be seen a lon g the m ain road. L oggin g a ctiv ities h ave cleared a sign ifican t proportion o f original fo rest, and left behind a netw ork o f gravel roads. Little settlem en t h as occurred in P hase II. the E ffingh am Islands, although Indian activity m ay h ave been m ore pronounced there in the past. In Phase III. a lon g the L ifesa v in g T rail, the villa g es o f B am field

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and Port R en frew , situated at eith er end o f the boundary, have little effe ct on the park. There are no roads, lo g g in g activity has been m in im a l, and o n ly o n e sm all settlem en t— at C lo -o o se — o ccu rs w ithin the park. T h e fauna o f P a cific Rim is num erous and varied. T he birds and m am m als o f the park area are o f particular interest in this paper and are listed in A p p en d ices I and 2. N ot all the listed an im als d efin itely have been ob served w ithin the park boundaries but se em lik ely on the basis o f h istoric or recent o b serv a tion s in sim ilar habitats or adjacent areas on V an cou ver Island (5 8 ). E xam p les are the V a n co u v er Island w o lf, now rare throughout the islan d , and the w o lv erin e. O thers w h ich arc un­ com m o n but w h ich h ave been seen or reported to the first author are b eaver and m arten. T he m uskrat, norw ay rat and h ou se m ou se are ex a m p les o f e x o tic an im als introduced in tention ally or unintentionally by C aucasian settlers (3 7 ). Both the m am m als and the birds sh o w an em p h asis on sp ecies asso cia ted with aquatic habitat, eith er salin e or fresh water. S eason al increases in the total avian population occu r during the m igration p eriod s. M arch-M ay and O ctob er-N ovem b er, w h en thousands o f anseriform s u tilize both near-shore and estu arin e habitats and larger num bers o f w aders o ccu p y the b ea ch es. S p e c ie s co m p o sitio n therefore varies a ccord in g to the sea son . R esident birds inclu d e various g u lls, and the bald e a g le , although this sp e c ie s tends to drift southw ard; in d ivid u als sigh ted in the w inter m onth s p o ssib ly b ein g vagrants from m ore northerly breeding grounds. T he m ajority o f the passerine sp ec ies are m igratory. T he d egree o f hum an disturbance o f the various habitats o f Phase I o f P acific Rim N ational Park m ay w ell h ave g iv en rise to a more d iverse sp ec ies com p o sitio n o f p a sserin es than is present in the le ss varied habitat types found in P hases 11 and 111. T he d iversity m ay a lso be a function o f natural p ro cesses a sso cia ted with g eo m o rp h ic, p e d o lo g ic , h yd rologic and v egetation al ch aracteristics. T he topic o f habitat d iversity and hum an disturbance w ill be d iscu ssed at greater length later in this e ssa y .

Methods A s stated p rev io u sly , the b asic them e is to ex a m in e h ow m an has shaped the distribution and num ber o f an im als in the park area in the past and his p o ssib le effe cts in future. T h e d ev elo p m en t o f this them e requires the use o f govern m en t reports, tra v elo g u es, trader's accou n ts and other primary sou rce m aterials. T h ese not on ly yield in sigh ts into anim al or e c o lo g ic a l ch an ge but a lso into the variations in human p ercep tio n s, a ttitu des, v a lu es, institutional arrangem ents and tech n o l­

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o g y a sso cia ted w ith the ch a n g es. Important secondary sou rces include D ruckcr's (7 8 ) study o f eth n o lo g y and history o f the N ootka tribes resident in the general v icin ity o f P acific Rim N ational Park; L ittle's (1 6 6 ) history o f the m aritim e fur trade; and P earse's (2 5 6 ) com p en d iu m o f bird ob serv a tio n s and d escrip tion s b y early C aucasian exp lorers in the North P acific. In so m e in sta n ces in this stu d y, ob servation s or find in gs m ade ou tsid e the park h ave b een applied to it b ecau se o f sim ilarity in habitat, or other variab les. R eco n n a issan ce field work w as con d u cted o v er m ost o f Phase I o f P a cific R im . R elatively d etailed stu d ies were m ade o f bird pop u lation s and p o ssib le hum an d isturbance in certain p h y sica lly sim i­ lar rocky headlands and b each es k n ow n to be su b ject to d ifferin g le v e ls o f human use.

W ild life a n d th e In d ia n

L a n d M am m als a n d die Indian M uch o f the fo llo w in g inform ation is d erived from the w ork o f the an th rop ologist. D rucker ( 7 8 ). w h o con d u cted field in vestigation s am o n g the N ootka in the late 1940’s. It is d ifficu lt to sin gle out any land m am m al as b ein g m ore sign ifican t to the pre-historic Indian than any other. A few certainly w ere im portant for n utritional, ritu alistic, m yth i­ cal or other reason s. T h ese m am m als were the black bear, b eaver, black tail d eer, w o lf and, in the interior, the R o o sev elt elk . Fur bearers such as the m arten, m ink and river otter apparently w ere o f m inor im portance. Black bears w ere caught with a d ead fall trap. V ests were m ade o f the h id e and the flesh w as eaten . H o w ev er, the bear se e m s to have found m ore im portance in ritual than in e c o n o m ic u se. ‘ ‘B ear cere­ m o n ia lism " w as w id esp read . For ex a m p le a bear w as m yth ically su p p o sed to h ave en g a g ed in a ritual bath to esc a p e traps. In this bath the bear used lea v es to scrub its body and Indian trappers fo llo w e d this practice c lo s e ly in the exp ectation o f catch in g m ore an im als. If a bear w as trapped, the carcass w as carried to the v illa g e w here it w as offered salm o n and m ats to lie on and e a g le d ow n w as sprinkled on its head, after w hich the bear w as sk in n ed and eaten . At K yuquot. north o f the park area, the usual m ode o f sp eak in g to a bear w a s to call it ‘ ‘Chufis w ife " or “ q u e e n " . Bears w ere respected m ore than m any other ani­ m als o f greater eco n o m ic im portan ce, for ex a m p le, the hair se a l, sea otter and blacktail d eer. Drucker (7 8 :2 5 9 ) m akes one referen ce to grizzly bears, but there is no ev id en ce o f this a n im al’s occu rrence on V an cou ver Island in recent centuries.

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A ccord in g to D rucker (7 8 :5 9 ) beavers w ere not hunted by m ost o f the V an cou ver Island N ootk a until “ rather late d a y s ." H o w ev er the anim al m ay have been used m ore by th ose N ootk a w h o lived in the park area b ecau se the fla tn ess o f the Estevan plain, the lo w er stream gra­ dients and ea sier d a m m in g co n d itio n s all w ou ld h ave been favourable to the b eaver. T h e d ead fall trap w as used to catch b eaver and they w ere also k illed w ith harpoons. T h e flesh w as eaten . Interior tribes such as the M uchalat and H opachisat are noted by Drucker (7 8 :6 0 ) as hunting e lk , w h ereas coastal groups are not. One reason for th is, he su g g e sts, is that the dank tangles o f coastal V an ­ co u v er Island w o o d s are d ifficu lt to hunt in. But th is did not stop interior groups from d oin g so . C haracteristic elk habitat is not the d en se, virtually im penetrable rain forest o f the im m ed iate co a st; it is m ore o p e n , eith er w ith ev en ly sp a ced trees and little understory veg eta ­ tio n . or m ea d o w s interspersed with grou p s o f trees. It is m ore lik ely that the elk w ou ld find su ch habitat at higher e lev a tio n s w here clim atic p h en om en a w ere sig n ifica n tly differen t from th ose o f the c o a st, and that this habitat w ou ld be co n d u civ e to Indian hunting “ d r iv e s” . In com p a riso n , blacktail deer are adapted to the m uch d en ser forest near the c o a st, or w ill readily invade disturbed areas near hum an habitation to feed on su cc essio n a l grow th . T h e coast Indians are not k n ow n to h ave clea red land on any substantial sc a le , for they were not agricu l­ turalists. But their d aily a ctiv ities and the u se o f forest products w ould have ch an ged v eg eta tio n around the villa g es w hich blacktail deer could then e x p lo it. Here they were hunted with the d ead fall. W o lv es seem to h ave played a strong ritualistic and m ythical role am on g the N ootk a. U n lik e p eop le such as the plains In d ian s, h o w ev er, the N ootk a did not d o m estica te the w o lf nor k eep it as a pet. Indeed, accord in g to D rucker (78 :1 5 2 ): W o lv es w ere p laced in a sp ecial category am on g all the an im als, as p o ssessed o f great supernatural p ow ers w h eth er in anim al g u ise or, without their sk in s, in hum an form . T h ey w ere a “ trib e” , and liv ed in a great h o u se under a m ountain. There w as so m e peculiar relationship e x istin g b etw een w o lv e s and killer w h ales; so m e p eo p le b eliev ed the latter em erg ed from the sea to turn into w o lv e s . N eith er anim al w a s con sid ered d angerous to m an. In fact, they w ere m ore lik ely to be friendly than m ost spirits. There w as no prohibition on k illin g either sp e c ie s o f the real an im als. D efin ite ta b o o s were placed on the eatin g o f w o lf fle sh , although in so m e in stan ces it apparently w as used as m ed icin e. W o lf p elts d o not se em to h ave been im portant later o n . during the m aritim e fur trade,

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although so m e early traders and w hite visitors m ention their presence am o n g otter and b ea v er sk in s (1 6 6 :2 4 ). T he m ink, marten and river otter w ere o f m inor im portance to the pre-historic N o o tk a , apparently not being eaten b ecau se o f their rank odour. R a cco o n s reportedly w ere con sid ered g o o d eatin g after soak in g the flesh overn igh t in fresh w ater, but were hunted o n ly ca su a lly . Red squirrels w ere subject to an eatin g tab oo, but with m ink were often " sh a m a n iz ed ” , b ein g regarded as spirit p ow ers w h ich cou ld e n d o w a person fortunate en ou gh to en cou n ter them with ritual so n g s and d a n ces, perhaps with m edical p o w ers. T hus squirrels and m ink were so m etim e s seen in the w o o d s sin g in g and shaking tiny rattles. T h ey are purported to h ave sh am an ized o v er rotten lo g s, m aking the lo g s writhe and groan through the p ow er o f their so n g s. T he final land m am m al to be d iscu ssed is the cou gar. Drucker m akes very few referen ces to its role in early N ootk an life , stating that it w a s not d elib erately h unted, “ but a fat on e that w andered into a bear d ead fall w as e a te n ” (7 8 :6 1 ). N eith er did the cou gar apparently hold any p osition in ritual o r m yth. It s e e m s that it w as neither d an gerou s nor u sefu l to the N o o tk a n s, w h o con seq u en tly se em to have been rather ind ifferen t to it. T he N ootka Indians h ave hunted the sea otter for an indefinite period. T w o m eth od s apparently were in com m on use b efore the fur trade era. F irstly, a hunter and ca n o e steersm an w ent before daybreak to the b ed s w here the anim al sle e p s, and w ou ld kill it before it aw ok e with eith er b o w and arrow or a spear or a harpoon. S e c o n d ly , a pup w ou ld b e located by its cries and caught ea sily as it w as less wary than the adult. T yin g it to his c a n o e , the hunter a llo w ed the pup to sw im about w h im p ering and these sou n d s attracted the m other w ithin har­ p o o n in g d istan ce s o that first sh e then her pup w ere killed. T he skins were esteem ed s o h igh ly that o n ly persons o f high rank w ore clo a k s m ade o f them . Until the tim e o f the m aritim e fur trade, rigid en forcem en t o f g a m e law s am on g the N ootk a is said to have ensured that the sea otters that co u ld be taken w ere prized as trading co m m o d ities. Even then, w hen the p elts were given aw ay in occasion al p o tla ch es, no particular n otice w as paid , as far as can be learned, to size or q u a lity , although the Indians were w ell aw are during later tim es that the w hite trader w ou ld m easure the sk in , feel the d en sity o f the fur, and s o o n . in setting a p rice on it. In w inter, or for cerem on ial o c c a sio n s, so m e Indians w ore garm ents and hats o f w o v en ced ar fibre, or robes m ade o f three sea otter sk in s in w hich the sid es o f the tw o were sew n togeth er, and the sid e ot the third se w n to the en d s o f the others. The im p ressiv en ess o f such a robe is referred to by Little (1 6 6 :3 2 1 ) who d escrib ed the pelt as g iv in g “ the erroneous im pression o f co m in g from an anim al at least six feet in le n g th .”

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A lthou gh other an im als such as sa lm o n , w h a les and bears w ere con sid ered w orthy o f cere m o n ies in their h on ou r, the sea otter report­ ed ly w as not so revered , d esp ite the high esteem in w h ich it w as held. Sea otter hunting w a s co n sid ered a noble v o ca tio n , and if a lesser man k illed o n e he w ou ld g iv e the h id e to his c h ie f, rece iv in g in ex ch a n g e a sm all reward. C h iefs w ould fo llo w a ritual bathing routine before hunting a sea otter. T h ese w ou ld a lw a y s take p lace in salt w ater, being the habitat o f the a n im a l, and the Indian w ou ld fo llo w the shore line sw im m in g , floatin g and d iv in g “ like a sea otter" as lon g as he could stand the cold (7 8 :1 6 9 ). A ttem p ts h ave been m ade to estim ate sea otter p op u lation s in pre-fur trade d a y s. K en yon (1 4 6 ) id en tified 1741 as the year in w hich C aucasian pressure w as first exerted on the an im al. H e co n clu d ed that islan d s contribute m ore usable habitat than unbroken co a st and that the population o f sea otters in 17 4 0 m ay h ave been no m ore than fiv e tim es the pre-C aucasian num ber, probably b etw een 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 and 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 an im als for the entire w est coast from lo w er C alifornia to the A leu tians. A ccord in g to K enyon (1 4 6 :1 3 6 ): it appears . . . that a g ro w in g sea otter p opulation in an u n exp loited habitat m ay reach a tem porary d en sity o f 4 0 or more an im als per square m ile o f habitat . . .T hat a d ep leted feed in g habitat m ay support about 10 to 15 otters per square m ile is indicated by the fact that the fiv e d en sely populated areas dropped to that lev el. In the P acific Rim area. Phase II, the E ffingh am Islan d s, probably is c lo se st to the ideal habitat en v isio n ed by K en yon . C alcu latin g that the area o f Phase II is about 4 5 square m ile s, the sea otter population probably reached a m axim u m o f about 1800 and a m inim um o f about 4 0 0 . W hen the w h o le park is co n sid er ed , perhaps 2 5 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 sea otters m ay h ave liv ed in the area at a favourable tim e during the pre-C aucasian era. O f co u rse this estim ate is o n ly a g ro ss app roxim a­ tion but it is useful in the light o f the ten dency to en v isio n m uch higher otter p op u lation s prior to the co m in g o f the w hite m an.

Indians a n d Sea M am m als The natural orientation o f the N ootka w a s toward the sea and m any an im als o f the co a st and o cea n w ere u tilized w h ich cannot be c o n si­ dered in detail h ere, particularly fish and invertebrates. Plants a lso m ust be n eg lected in this d iscu ssio n . T he principal a n im als o f interest are the various w h a les, the hair se a l, sea lio n , fur seal and p o rp oise. T he hunted w h a les in clu d ed the gray hum pback, p o ssib ly B aird's beaked w h a le, and rarely the killer.

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T h e sperm w hale apparently w a s not hunted, nor the b lu e, w h ich was too b ig to handle. A ll hunted w h a les appear to have been caught in the sa m e w a y and to h ave had a sim ilar p lace in myth and ritual. T h e origin o f w h alin g reportedly lies in the w est coast villages w here there w as little or no a ccess to salm on stream s. The art d iffu sed to other tribes and b eca m e a sy m b o l o f a c h ie f’s greatn ess rather than an im portant sou rce o f su b sisten ce. A ccord in g to D rucker. " o n ly great w halers o f ancient tim es killed 10 w h ales ev ery se a so n . R ecent w h al­ ers. though they hunted d ilig en tly and had im proved eq u ip m en t, ob­ tained o n ly a few in their entire ca ree rs." D rucker relates the figu res for w h a le k illin g am o n g the A h ou sat tribe, given to him by an inform ant w h o w as the last w haler am on g that p eo p le. In o n e gen eration , on ly eigh t m em b ers o f the tribe w ere w h alers, and o f th e se, on ly tw o were su cc essfu l in k illin g a w h a le, and o n ly four w h a les were killed in all. In the p receding generation there had been three w h alers, on e o f w hom k illed thirteen w h a les o v er a period o f tw elv e years, and the other tw o k illin g three ea ch . S uch figures indicate that the im pact o f the preC aucasian N ootka on w h ale p op u lation s w as probably slig h t. T he m ethod o f hunting w a s as fo llo w s: C an oes w ou ld sc o u t the o cea n an yw h ere b etw een o n e and tw o m iles o f f the sh ore. On sigh tin g a w h a le, the ca n o e w as brought alo n g sid e the anim al and the harpoon w as payed out as the ca n o e took a void in g action in order that the injured w h a le did not sm ash the boat to p ieces. T h e w h ale was rarely killed by the harpoon, and it took several other thrusts to w eaken the anim al b efore a lance w as used to cut the ten don s o f the flukes and then driven under the flipper for the coup d e g ra ce. T h e carcass w as supported by flo a ts and the m outh tied shut in order that w ater did not fill the body and ca u se it to sin k . T o w in g to shore w as probably the m ost arduous task o f all. E ventu ally the anim al w as beach ed and butchered with m uch cerem o n y . W h a le hunting ritual in v o lv ed bathing in first running fresh w ater and then in the sea. T he rite took p lace o ver a period o f six m on th s, starting in N o v em b er in tim e for the w h alin g season in April. W h ales w ere con sid ered to " ru n " lik e sa lm o n , and this m ay reflect an understanding o f their m igratory habits alon g the eastern P a cific co a st­ lin e. T h ey w ere a lso b eliev ed to have h om es under the se a . as did hair se a ls, although the en tran ce to the h ou se o f the latter w as through a cave in a high island. T h is m yth has interesting p arallels am on g the plains Indians w h o b eliev ed the b ison (Bison bison b iso n ) cam e from beneath the grou n d , en su rin g a n ever-en d in g su p p ly. K iller w h a les w ere rarely h unted, ex cep t as a test o f s k ill: the meat and fat were ea ten . N on e o f D ruckcr’s inform ants had ev er heard o f one o f these a n im als attacking a c a n o e , as they are reported to d o by n o n -w h a lin g tribes o f northern British C olu m b ia and A la sk a , as w ell as m odern C au casian s. In g en eral. like the w o lf, the N ootka apparently

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con sid ered the killer w hale b enign and not particularly d angerous. T h e hair seal appears to h ave b een o f particular interest to the N oo tk a n s. T h ey were hunted at alm ost any tim e o f the year from can oes u sin g a harpoon and lin e. H avin g sigh ted o n e . the hunter paddled to w here the anim al last d iv ed , fo llo w in g the theory that an undisturbed hair seal w ill resurface in the sam e p lace. If the anim al reappeared, an attem pt w as m ade to harpoon it. A nother hunting m ethod w a s to harpoon seals that w ere stranded on rocks e x p o se d at low tide. There w a s a lso a hair seal rite in v o lv in g bathing in salt w ater and sw im m in g with head held high out o f the w ater, im itating the desired b ehaviour o f the sea l for the ea siest kill. A cco rd in g to D rucker, sea-Iion s were hunted m ost in K yuquot and C layoq u ot territory, w here they con gregated . A present-day colon y ex ists w ithin park boundaries on S ea-L ion R ock s a few m iles w est o f L ong B each . T h is c o lo n y probably has been u tilized for m any years by the C layoq u ot tribe, w hich p redom inates in P hase II. H o w ev er seaIions w ere gen erally less esteem ed than hair sea ls. T h e sam e is true for p orp oise w hich were not hunted h ea v ily . S o m e tim es they w ere taken w ith hair seal h arp oon s, as were sea-Iions. A nother interesting hunting m ethod w as to throw handfuls o f sand or fine gravel into the w ater in order to sim u late the n o ise m ade by sc h o o ls o f fish , w h ich attracted the p orp oise w ithin harpooning range. T h e fur seal apparently w as not hunted in aboriginal tim es and o n ly b eca m e im portant as a trade item in the latter h a lf o f the nineteenth century.

Indians a n d B irds Thanks to the w ork o f Pearse (2 5 6 ) m uch valu ab le inform ation on the num bers and sp e c ie s o f birds in the N ootka area in the late eigh teen th and early nineteenth cen tu ries has been co llected from the d iaries and lo g s o f early eastern P a cific ex p lorers. Extracts from P earse's w ork can be cited to fam iliarize the reader with the avifaun a at the tim e o f C au casian d isco v e ry . T h ese citation s were often m ade at different tim es o f the year and so m e o f the d ifferen ce in num bers am ong them undoubtedly is due to season al variations in the occu rrence o f sp e c ie s. On M ay I 1. 1 776. B roughton describ ed w ild fo w l as present in vast quantities in the N ootka area. H a sw e ll, at C layoq u ot on O ctob er 12. 1 7 9 1 , said that: T he natives were b ringing a few wild g e e s e and ducks for sale. T he fo w l indeed w ere s o p lentiful that our sp ortsm en seld om returned w ithout tw en ty or thirty du ck s and g e e s e .

W E ST ER N CA N A D I A N LA NDS CA PE

H a sk in s, a lso at C layoq u ot b etw een 1790 and 17 9 3 , g a v e a len gthy descrip tion o f b ird -life, co m m e n c in g w ith a statem ent at od d s with H a sw e ll’s im pression: T he feathered tribe are not very num erous nor do they form any great variety— raven s, c ro w s, brow n e a g les with a w hite head and tail, h eron s, rob b in s, h o u se and bank sw a llo w s are m ost num berou s [sic ] — b esid es these there are three sorts o f w o o d p eck ers, the V irginia red birds [presu m ab ly the cardinal— an im p o ssib le sig h t­ ing] , y e llo w or bastard canary | probably the A m erican g o ld fin c h ], sn o w birds [? ], lon g-tailed thrushes [?]. ground birds [? ], tom tits [probably the ch estn u t-b ack ed c h ic k a d e e ], sp arrow s, w ren s, blueja w s [S teller's ja y ], partridges [probably a sp e c ie s o f g rou se], q uails [? ]. a sm all sp ec ies o f h aw k , o w ls , p ig eo n s (probably the b and-tailed p igeon ] and d o v e s [probably the m ourning d o v e ], and several sorts [un lik ely] o f h u m m in g birds. T he w aterfow l are plentiful from the last o f A u gu st until the b eg in n in g o f M arch— there are tw o sorts o f g e e s e , the on e re­ sem b lin g the co m m o n w ild g o o s e found on our side o f the co n ti­ nent [ probably the C anada g o o se ] and the other brown and from its tam en ess w as denom inated the fo o lish g o o se by our sailors [w h ite-fronted g o o se ? ]— there are also brants [black brant], tw o sorts o f d u ck s, sh a g s [corm oran ts], sh illd rak es [?] and tcels [g reen -w in g ed and b lu e-w in g ed ], large lo o n s, several sorts o f d ivers and g u lls, se a p ie s [black o y stercatch er], plovers [k illd eer?], m urres, m arsh lark [?], p eep s, the large crested A m erican k in gfishers and a few flo ck s o f sw a n s w ere o n ce or tw ice seen . T here w as a lso a bird about the siz e o f a haw k with a large crest and o f dark b ottle green seen fly in g about the w o od s— this bird w a s scarce and se ld o m to be se en — w e w ere therefore never a b le to procure and o f cou rse on ly had a distant sigh t o f them [p o ssib ly the pileated w ood p eck er], B oit, a lso at C layoq u ot on S ep tem b er 2 0 , 1 7 9 1 , said: W e procured a constant su p p ly o f w ild g e e s e d ucks and teal. The d ucks and teal resem ble those at h om e [N e w E ngland] but the d u ck s w ere ex a ctly o f the sam e sp e c ie s with the tam e o f our country [m allard]. W e se e n on e o f any other kind. N o w and then w e shot a w ild turkey. T he latter sp ec ies is id en tified by Pearse as the sandhill crane (G rus

canadensis) w h ich is not on the present park sp e c ie s list. A lthough a num ber o f sp e c ie s in clu d ed in these d escrip tion s are

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I 13

terrestrial, very fe w o f the referen ces are to sm all p asserines w hich inhabit the forests. T h is m ay b e b ecau se the forbidding nature o f the terrain dissu aded the early exp lorers from travelling inland. T h e Indians used m any o f the birds for variou s p u rp oses. A ccord ­ ing to Drucker (7 8 :5 9 ): E a g les w ere caught in a num ber o f w a y s for their feathers and the flesh w as not disd ain ed as food in the fall w hen the birds w ere fat from eatin g sa lm o n . In fact, old er p eop le sa y a g o o d fat e a g le is quite as tasty as duck. S h o o tin g and snaring (w ith sim p le loop snares) w ere the usual m od es o f capture. A H esqu iat told o f ca tch in g e a g le s in a m anner rem iniscent o f the interior o f the m ainland: the hunter lay on the beach co n cea led by branches and se a w eed with a p iece o f salm on b efore h im . W hen an ea g le aligh ted on the bait, the hunter se ized him by the leg s. Drucker (7 8 :6 1 ) states that the se a g u lls were not eaten until recent tim e s, and there w a s a v agu e avoid an ce o f them by y o u n g adults b eca u se o f an asso cia tio n o f these birds with tw in n in g, but elderly p eo p le ate the b ird s, and children staged m ock battles with the e g g s. R av en s and cro w s w ere not eaten o w in g to the taboo on their flesh . D uring the sa lm o n -sp a w n in g season traps con tain in g salm on e g g s were set on sh a llo w p la ces for d iv in g d ucks and g u lls. A nother m ethod o f capturing w aterfow l w as to u se a net from a ca n o e. Here on a pitch black night tw o m en w ou ld approach a flo ck o f resting du ck s or g e e s e w ith a bright light attached to the prow o f the boat. T he birds were disturbed in to se ek in g the apparent sa fety o f the sh a d o w o f the b o w w here they were netted. At tim es o f the year ou tsid e the m igration se a so n , this m ethod dep en d ed upon storm s driving the birds to sh elter in the m any inlets and bays alon g the co a st, o f which G rice B ay and T o fin o Inlet bordering P hase I o f the park are im portant e x a m p le s. W hen there w ere no storm s and birds rem ained on the sea, but near the sh o re, a blind w as m ade o f a can oe by putting fir branches around it so as to screen the occu p an ts. The hunters circled w ell out. then drifted in tow ard a flock stern forem ost. T he d u ck s w ould u su ally be sw im m in g about just o u tsid e the lin e o f breakers, an d , w hen w ithin range, the hunters o p en ed fire with b o w s and arrows (7 8 :4 2 ). T he role o f birds in ritual and m y th o lo g y se e m s to have been p ron ou n ced . C erem onial use o f feathers w a s w id esp read . M ozin o d escrib es this and a lso rem arks on the tam ing o f e a g les to su p p ly feathers (2 5 6 :1 5 0 ). G ray, b etw een 1787 and 1790, a lso w itn essed the adornm ent o f a sacrificed s la v e 's head w ith ea g le feathers in honour o f the k illin g o f the first w hale o f the season (2 5 6 :2 5 3 ). M o zin o tells o f the im itation o f birds during d an cin g (2 5 6 :1 5 0 ).

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Indian Im pact on W ildlife: A Sum m ary At this point so m e su m m arizin g rem arks can be m ade about the im pact o f the Indian on w ild life in pre-C aucasian d a y s. T h is im pact w o u ld , o f cou rse, be govern ed by the siz e o f the native p op u lation , as w ell as Indian p ercep tion , a ttitu des, v a lu e s, institutional arrangem ents, and tec h n o lo g y . V ariou s attem pts h ave been m ade to reconstruct early Indian p op u lation s but these h ave been handicapped by the p au city and u n even quality o f early C aucasian ob servation s and other factors. A lthou gh the estim a te can serve o n ly as an illustrative approxim ation, at the end o f the eig h teen th cen tu ry, w hen an unknow n population d e c lin e had occurred after C aucasian arrival and the introduction o f virulent n ew d isea ses su ch as sm a llp o x , B rough ton 's exp ed ition re­ corded that at C layoq u ot there w ere fiv e settlem en ts each with a p opulation o f 1500 and o n e with as m any as 2 5 0 0 . S u ch populations ranged o v er large areas o f sea and co a st for su b sisten ce and on these grounds alon e are not lik ely to have had a h eavy im pact on fauna. Indian tech n o lo g y , although in g en io u s, a lso had lim itation s, as can be seen from p rev io u s d escrip tion s o f w hale and seal hunting; this also w o u ld lim it the pressure that the Indians placed on w ild life. W hen resources b eca m e lo w in an area the hunters w ou ld m ove o n . lea v in g the region to recover for later u se. O nly hair sea ls were the e x c lu s iv e property o f ch iefs and. in gen eral, gam e b ecam e the property o f the su cc essfu l hunter. O th erw ise no group o r person ow n ed gam e in the w ild , although tribal territories w ou ld be d efen d ed again st undue p ilferin g by n eigh b ours. W hen captured, all gam e w as honoured by cerem o n ies aim ed at p leasin g the spirit o f the trapped anim al so that the spirit w ou ld again let its body be captured. T h is cu stom w as b ased on the b e lie f in im m ortality o f anim al sp irits, and aim ed to c o n cilia te them for a llo w in g th e m se lv e s to be taken. It has already b een m en tion ed that killer w h a les and other a n im als traditionally held in superstition and fear by C au casian s were regarded by the N ootk a as frien d ly, benign spirits w ho did not attack m an. In co n se q u e n c e , sin ce the N ootk a are not noted for undue w aste or m ass killin g b efore the arrival o f the C au casian , there appears to have been no o veru se o f w ild life . E fficien t tech n iqu es in trapping and hunting w ere e v o lv e d , but not to the overall detrim ent o f any sp e c ie s. In so m e c a s e s, for exam p le w h a lin g or hunting sea otters, prestige and so c ia l h ierarchies were o f con sid era b le im portance in m otivating a hazardous task and in lim iting those w h o hunted to a fe w . W ith these sy ste m s in op eration , together with the role o f m yth and ritual, it can be said that the N ootkan relation sh ip 'to w ild life w as essen tia lly on e o f resp ect, toleran ce and. h en ce, sy m b io sis.

P A C IFIC RIM N A T IO N A L PARK

T he C aucasian and Wildlife The M aritim e F ur Trade Initially the B ritish , F rench, R u ssian s and A m erican s were principals in this trade. The im portant anim al sp ecies were primarily the sea otter and fur seal with the b eaver b ein g taken w here availab le. Intensive exp loita tio n began in 1741 with the v o y a g e o f V itus B ering and c o n ­ tinued unregulated for 170 years w h en it w as halted as far as the sea otter w as co n cern ed through an international treaty o f 1911 am on g the U nited S tates, Great Britain, R ussia and Japan. C ow an and G uiguet (58) d escrib e the se a otter as at on e tim e inhabiting the entire length o f British C olum bia c o a st, but note that the last records o f non-introduced in d ivid u als w ere m ade at N ootka Island in 1909 and at K yu q uot, sligh tly farther north on V an cou ver Island, in 1929. A s an eco n o m ic resource the anim al probably fin ish ed by the turn o f the century. A lthou gh K enyon (1 4 6 ) points to 1741 as the b egin n in g o f the trade, V a n co u v er Islan d 's w est co a st w as not in v o lv ed until C o o k ’s v o y a g e o f 1778. H is reports led to a series o f British and French ex p ed itio n s w h ich sought to sa tisfy the dem and for sea otter sk in s in C hina. A m o n g the m en w h o captained these ex p ed itio n s were M eares, Strange and Barkley from Great Britain, and La P erouse from France. T he num ber o f skins that w ere taken is hard to determ in e as is the place o f o rigin . For ex a m p le. La P erou se's exp ed ition ob tain ed 6 0 0 sea otter sk in s, and H anna’s 100 (1 6 6 :7 6 -7 8 ). B arkley, w h ile at N ootk a in 1787, “ obtained a large num ber o f sea otter sk in s " and sold 800 realizin g $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 in M a ca o , and M eares 357 sk in s realizin g S 14,702 (1 6 6 :8 0 and 9 1 ). M eares c o llected 140 sk in s w h ile at N ootka Sound b etw een M ay 13 and 2 8 ,1 7 8 8 . H e a lso visited W ickaninnish and the C layoq u ot secu rin g I 50 sea otter skins ( 16 6 :1 0 8 ). T h e su cc ess o f these ex p ed itio n s apparently dep en d ed upon the luck o f the sh ip in arriving at N ootk a . or so m e other productive port, at just the tim e w hen the sea otter p opulation had been able to recover from a p reviou s visit. S u ccess m ay h ave b een further co m p lica ted by the ten dency o f the sea otter to reproduce erratically, or p o ssib ly c y c lic a lly , g iv in g period ic h ighs and low s to the num bers cau gh t. C o n seq u en tly , con sid erab le rivalry d e ­ v elo p ed b etw een the sh ip ’s captains if it w as know n that m ore than one exp ed itio n w a s sc o u tin g the co astlin e at the sam e tim e. A s the nineteenth century p rogressed , the trade in ten sified , and the N ootka Indians b eca m e an integral part o f the exp an d in g C aucasian com m ercia l eco n o m y ; in fact, the e c o n o m y ’s s u c c e ss dep en d ed upon them . Prior to the incursion o f the C au casian , sea otter sk in s and hunting had been con sid ered fit o n ly for the n ob lem en am ong the

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trib es, and all sk in s obtained by n on -n ob lem en w ere surrendered to the c h ie f. T h e great valu e placed by the w h ite traders on the sk in s altered this and the in d ivid u al hunter w a s able to k eep those he cau gh t. T h e net result w as that there w as far m ore in cen tive for any man to kill a sea otter than form erly. A nother im portant in flu en ce on the N ootk a w as the d evelop m en t o f m ore in ten siv e hunting tech n iq u es. T h ese b ecam e h igh ly s y s ­ tem atized as the an im als b ecam e scarcer, and all hunters set out togeth er. A s m any as tw en ty ca n o e s took part in on e hunt, form in g a line from the e d g e o f the breakers seaw ard , and fo llo w in g the sh o relin e, so m etim e s a hundred yards apart and therefore o ver a m ile out to sea. An otter sig h tin g w as sig n a lled by a w aved paddle and transm itted to the en d o f the lin e. T h e ca n o e s then assem b led in a circle about the p lace w here the otter w as se en , and w hen it su rfaced , those nearest shot at it with b ow and arrow. A p p aren tly, several v o lley s o f arrow s were u su a lly n ecessary b efore the anim al w as hit, the first man to do so cla im in g the sk in . U su a lly the anim al w a s k illed by a harpoon, for it w a s rarely m ore than injured by the first o r seco n d sh ot. If it d ived under the ring o f c a n o e s , the circle w as reform ed about the area in w hich it had appeared, and o n e can sa fely say that fe w esca p ed . T h e e fficien cy w as ch iefly d erived from the hunt's thorough co v era g e , sw eep in g in a w id e area to find the quarry and coverin g the areas through w hich it m ight esca p e. V arious estim a tes have been m ade o f the num bers o f sea otters taken during the fur trade period. F isher (9 2 ) in an in com p lete stu d y, lists records o f 3 5 9 ,3 7 5 sk in s b ein g taken b etw een 1740 and 1916. L ensin k (1 5 9 ) presen ts figures and broad estim a tes w h ich p lace the take o f sea otters from A laska at o v er 9 0 6 ,5 0 0 an im als. K en yon ’s (1 4 6 ) study appears the m ost reasonable: If the annual increm ent that cou ld be crop p ed on a sustained yield b asis w as about 2 .5 percent per year (th e approxim ate yield o f the P rib ilo f fur seal [C allorhinus u rsin u s ] herd is 5 percent per year and fur se a ls norm ally bear on e pup each year, w ith tw o years ela p sin g b etw een births), then the take in 170 years cou ld have been b etw een 4 2 5 .0 0 0 and 6 3 7 .5 0 0 if crop p in g had been rational. The k illin g o f sea o tters, h o w ev er, w as unregulated and for periods o f m any years the take w as at the ex p en se o f the popula­ tion “ c a p ita l.” P robably certain p opulations w ere w iped out during an early part o f the exp loitation period. T hus the yield over the entire period w as less that it w ould have been if o n ly the annual increm ent had been taken. R eason in g on this b asis, it appears that the probable take o f sea otters betw een 1740 and 1911 w as less than a m illio n and m ore lik ely about a h alf a m illion an im als.

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T h e replacem ent o f b o w and arrow by the gun probably about the m id-nineteenth cen tu ry , undoubtedly hastened the p rocess o f exterm i­ nation; h o w ev er, as Pearse points ou t, guns w ou ld still h a v e been rarities until the tim e o f settlem ent o f V an cou ver Island, w hen they cou ld be relatively ea sily acquired. It se e m s , therefore, that in general the in ten siv e group hunting w as resp onsib le for the d eclin e o f the sea otter.

C aucasian S ettlem ent a n d A griculture A num ber o f Indian reserves are dotted a lo n g the co a stlin e w ithin and just ou tsid e the park at present, and these su g g est a fairly ev en ly distributed pre-C aucasian p opulation o f sm all groups w h o se effe cts upon lan d scap e apparently w ere quite lo ca lized . B efore the turn o f the cen tu ry, the C layoq u ot v illa g e settlem en t w as the m ost im portant for C au casian s and n a tiv e s, and sin ce that tim e T o fin o . U clu elet and B am field h ave been the cen tres o f pop u lation . Initial land su rveyin g for settlem en t w as don e in the 1 8 9 0 ‘s , and so m e o f the reports subm itted to the British C olu m b ia D epartm ent o f Lands and Forests have interest­ ing referen ces to w ild life con tained in general d escrip tion s o f the re­ g io n . G ore (1 0 6 ) reports d eer as b ein g “ num erous ev ery w h e re" Leach (1 5 5 ) d escrib es birds as: . . . very p len tifu l, e sp e c ia lly d u ck s and g e e s e . K ennedy Lake is the c h ie f resort o f these sp ec ies. T here are a lso w illo w g ro u se and sn ip e in fair num bers. D eer are fairly n u m erous, and bear and cou gar are to be found on the m ainland o f V an cou ver Island. T here are a lso a few sm all fur-bearing a n im als, such as m ink and m arten. A gain in 1913, L each com m ents: T h e w aters alon g the co a st abound in w ild fo w l, d u ck s, g e e s e and brant. . . . B lack bear arc num erous and are trapped or shot along the stream s w hen they are feed in g on the salm on . D eer are very scarce and d ifficu lt to approach on account o f the d en se brush. . . . Fur-bearing a n im als are w ell represented and co n sist o f otter, m arten, m ink and ra cco o n . T he p elts are inferior to those obtained in the co ld er p ortions o f the p rovin ce but bring fair prices. N ot all o f the early reports indicate that w ild life w as plentiful h o w ev er; for ex a m p le in referring to the Barkley Sound area in 1938. Jackson (1 3 6 ) w rites that:

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W E S T E R N CA N A D IA N LA NDSCAPE

It is very poor g a m e cou n try. There w ere few sig n s o f deer and hear and no an im als th e m selv es w ere se en . W e on ly sa w o c c a ­ sional grou se and a few p ig eo n s. D u ck s and g e e s e are said to be fairly p lentiful in so m e o f the islets in w inter. T here is so m e trapping, the a n im als taken are m ink . c o o n , m arten, and b eaver. T he fur-seal herd p a sses the sound on its m igration north and so u th , and a few are captured by the Indians with spears. During the tim e period covered by these reports, settlem en t did not progress q u ick ly . Abraham ( I ) d e sc r ib e sT o fin o and U ciu elet as " a little v illa g e o f a few stragglin g h o u ses, a life-b oat station and a road ," and " a sm all fish in g h am let" resp ectiv ely in 1919. V ery little land clearan ce w as p ractised , but so m e o f the origin al settlers o f T ofin o "ran herds o f cattle w h ich grazed on the v ita m in -d eficien t grass on the river fiats and the hay they raised on their slo w ly -clea red fie ld s " (2 8 0 ). Apparently there w as little in cen tive to settle the area, probably o w in g to the nature o f the terrain and lack o f regular co m m u n ica tio n s, w hich were all by sh ip to V ictoria or Port A lberni. Early agricultural land u se d o es not se em to h ave been sign ifican t en o u g h to alter habitat and d ep lete w ild life . E ven tod ay, m uch o f the P acific Rim area is u n d evelop ed agricu lturally. A ll large sc a le settle­ ment has taken p la ce in Phase I. T h is is partly attributable to the natural harbours at T o fin o and U c iu e le t. and partly to the flatn ess o f the land w h ich favoured co m m u n ication s b etw een them . It w as the p rom ise o f a road link to Port Alberni that brought m any h om esteaders to the area in 191 I. but m any o f these p eop le did not rem ain lon g. T w o unpublished reports by H illier (1 2 1 ) and M atterson (1 9 3 ) d escrib e the situ ation . Both refer to the influx o f settlers fo llo w in g the p rom ise o f a road to the e a st, and the hardship and even tu al failure o f attem pts to clea r the forest and use the land. R em o v in g the stu m ps o f hundreds o f felled trees must have been back -b reakin g and unreward­ ing w ork, co n sid erin g the to o ls that w ere then av a ila b le, and the rapid rate o f regeneration o f v eg etation in the m oist clim a te. T h e e ffe c ts upon w ild life habitat w ere therefore probably m in im al, actual clearan ce b ein g a ch iev ed during a period o f not m ore than fiv e y ears, and not over a particularly w id e land area. S o m e o f this m ay h ave been b en eficial in providing " e d g e " habitats w h ich deer and certain sp e c ie s o f passerine birds w ou ld readily co lo n iz e . O ne anim al that w as d ep leted as a result o f the a ctiv ities o f the C au casian s during the 1 9 2 0 's, I9 3 0 's and I9 4 0 's w as the cougar. Sharcott (2 8 0 ) in d icates that early settlers rarely had the fear o f the cougar ex h ib ited by later o n es; the o ld -tim er’s " ch ildren w alk ed for m iles through the w ild ern ess but no harm ca m e to th e m ." In the late

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I9 2 0 's a liver d isea se d ecim ated the deer population and m any cougar w ere seen around settlem en ts taking ch ick en s, d o g s and ca ts. T h is u n doubtedly contributed to the g ro w in g C aucasian fear o f the cou gar, but o n ly o n e hum an fatality is k n ow n to be d u e to the an im al, this being a K yuquot b oy w h o disturbed a cougar at a fresh kill so m e m iles north o f the T o fin o area. T he o fficia l attitude toward the cou gar in the I9 4 0 's probably is reflected in a B .C . T ravel Bureau docum ent (1 9 4 9 ? ) w hich describ ed the cou gar as " v e r m in , an ou tlaw with a price on h is h e a d ." Such attitu des and the p lacin g o f a bounty on the anim al undoubtedly led to a reduction in the pop u lation . O ne fa m ily is k n ow n to have k illed six ty tw o cou gars b etw een 1914 and 1 9 4 0 's in the area north o f Phase I. W hat other ch a n g es in anim al life occurred in the park area through C aucasian interference during the 1 9 3 0 ’s, 1 9 4 0 's and later is d ifficu lt to say on the b a sis o f the e v id e n c e availab le at this tim e. Bears m ay not h ave b een m uch d ep leted : they do not se em to have bothered settlers to any sig n ifica n t exten t; Abraham (1 :6 5 ) d escrib es them as “ fe w " in w inter and m ostly found at L ong B each or a w ay from com m u n ities su ch as T o fin o . T h e con stru ction o f the W orld W ar II R .C .A .F . b ase south o f T o fin o in v o lv ed clearin g about tw o square m ile s o f forest and shrub. T oday b lacktail d eer, ruffed grou se and other w ild life frequently can be o b served in the area. T h e " e d g e " or " e c o to n e " created by con stru ction and the production o f what is alm o st a " h ea th la n d ” site probably has prom pted in creases in anim al num bers. Road construction and its en cou ragin g e ffe c t on red alder and other lo w v eg eta tio n a lso has provided habitat for certain birds, o f w h ich W ilso n 's w arbler is m ost notable and therefore m ay be more num erous in the park area now than in the past. C aucasian settlem en t throughout North A m erica has en cou raged the.grow th o f the sa lm o n -fish in g industry o f T o fin o and U clu elet. W ith in creasing dem and for these fish , pressure on an im als w hich prey on them has built up. M an y fish erm en se e the predators as undesirable co m p etito rs, detrim ental to their e c o n o m ic interests. T h ey often hold the v ie w that the fur se a l, harbour seal and sea lion capture a large am ount o f sa lm o n . H o w ev er, S p aldin g (2 8 6 ) has estim ated that sea lion and harbour seal each year co n su m e on ly about 2 .5 percent o f the annual com m ercial ca tch . N ev er th eless, the S ea-L ion R ock s, a few m iles o ffsh o r e from L on g B each and Phase I o f P acific R im . h a v e been the sc e n e o f num erous sh o o tin g s o f se a -lio n s by fish erm en . R ecently pressure has been p laced on the fish erm en to abandon this p ractice (3 7 . 38). A nother m odern d ev elo p m en t has been the grow th in num bers o f " h ip p ie s" settlin g on or adjacent to the b ea ch es, so m e perm anently.

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but m ost during the m ore b en ign su m m er m on th s. Crude sh ack s are com m o n features. S o m e d eserted cab in s in the coastal S itk a spruce zo n e h ave been reoccup ied and a few are n ew ly built. R ecen tly park authorities have elim in ated m any o f the sh ack s and cabins as part o f general p o lic y , but this m ay not d iscou rage p rolonged visitation o f seclu d ed b each es in the future. N o stu d ies have been com p leted to determ in e actual o r potential w ild life disturbance by these p e o p le , but h aving taken the trouble to se ek se clu sio n , their d en sity on the b each es is far less than on th o se a c c e ssib le to cars, trailers and tents. D o g s ow n ed by the h ip p ies were seen to harass w ading birds and gu lls frequently and u n rem ittin gly, and u se o f rocky headland areas by hip pie fisherm en m ay d isco u rage so m e o f the m am m als u su ally found there, su ch as m ink , river otter and m arten. H o w ev er, it is the opinion o f the authors that a w aren ess o f d isturbing b eh aviou r is m uch greater am o n g these p eo p le than those o f the cam pertrailer type. A ctiv ities w ere a lso less n o isy and less w id esp read on the b each es. S w im m in g , fish in g and su n -b ath in g accou n ted for m ost o f these.

Logging T h e e ffe c ts o f lo g g in g are k n ow n to be e x te n siv e but are not w ell understood s o that o n ly som e o f the more im portant e ffe c ts ob served in the park area can be con sid ered here. A p p roxim ately 20 percent o f P hase 1 has been cut o v er during the last tw en ty years, and little lo ggin g w h atsoever occurred before that tim e. Fire has been used to clear slash and d eb ris and en cou rage n ew g ro w th , w h ich in turn, probably cau sed a greater variety o f bird sp ec ies to invade lo g g ed areas. Other birds asso cia ted with the original forest habitat p robably w ould be d isp laced . C h a n g es in forage co n d itio n s by lo g g in g a lso probably h ave cau sed an increase in the num ber o f b irds, deer and other anim als ( 9 8 , 9 9 , 109a). T his in turn cou ld have prom pted a recent upsurge in predators su ch as the cougar. R estock in g o f lo g g ed areas with D o u g la s fir h as been com p reh en ­ s iv e , excep t in certain ex p erim en tal plantations o f Sitka sp ru ce. A s a fo o d sou rce the D ou g la s fir is kn ow n to be b en eficial to the O regon ju n co . On the other hand lo g g in g w ill reduce the num ber o f old dead trees in the forest and so the habitat o f w ood p eck ers and other birds. L o g g in g a lso has caused c lo g g in g o f stream s w ith slash and other d eb ris, thereby creating sm all stagnant p o o ls alon g stream cou rses. T his undoubtedly has an effe c t on fish p op u lation s and perhaps on predators such as the black bear. D uring our field w ork birds were ob served in profusion around the p ools w h ile surrounding lo g g ed areas appeared m ore sp arsely p opulated.

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R ecreation a n d Tourism A ccurate records o f v isitor num bers are not availab le for any part o f P a cific Rim N ational Park. C am p sites are fe w ev en in the T ofin oU clu elet area and o n ly o n e ex ists w ithin Phase I boundaries. T h is is situated in a Sitka spruce forest o v erlo o k in g L ong B each , w ithin the c o n fin e s o f the form er W ick an in nish P rovincial Park. S o m e visitor data, prim arily for the su m m er, is availab le for this area, in d icatin g an in crease from about 14,1 12 to 4 6 ,0 4 8 users b etw een 1964 and 1970. H o w ev er, m any m ore v isitors n ow cam p on the b each es and their a ctiv ities and e ffe c ts are largely con fin ed to the near-shore z o n e . T h ese in clu d e auto traffic on the b each , airplanes on the b each , h orses on the b ea ch , m otor ra llies, unregulated c o lle c tin g o f foresh ore invertebrates, inadequate sanitation fa cilities, refuse and, sim p ly , con cen tration s o f hundreds o f h olid aym ak ers in areas that are too sm all to sustain them co m fo rta b ly and protect the beach from undue d am age. In term s o f w ild life , the su m m er m onths have m eant increasing n o ise and disturbance by a u tom ob iles and m o to rcy lces sp eed in g along the b ea ch es and frigh ten in g or so m etim e s k illin g flo ck s o f feed in g or lo a fin g w ading birds and g u lls. In ad d ition , refuse has attracted m any N orthw estern cr o w s and black bears to the o n e cam p site. In areas o f h ea v y d isturbance, bald e a g les se e m o n ly o c c a sio n a lly to u se the Sitka spruce frin ge from w h ich to su rvey the surrounding cou n try, although they are regularly seen fly in g overh ead . M any m ore sp e c ie s o f birds are seen from the rock y headland areas separating the tw o main b each es at F loren cia B ay and L ong B each than arc seen in the h eavy disturbance areas. T h ese ob serv a tio n s sh ou ld be carried further h o w ev er, and p o ssib le non-hum an con trols stressed m ore c lo s e ly . S im ilarly, m ink, river otter and marten can be seen near the rocky headlands foragin g. T here u n doubtedly is less disturbance in these prom ontories b ecau se o f their ru g g ed n ess and com p arative in a ccessib ility to m ost park visitors. A m ore p recise account o f this situation w ill be given later.

C aucasian Im pact on W ildlife: A Sum m ary N ot all o f the early effe cts o f the C aucasian on w ild life are w ell u n derstood, for the availa b le ev id e n c e d oes not perm it accurate reco n ­ struction o f the num bers and distribution o f an im als such as the bear, the w o lf, the d eer and the cou gar. N ev erth eless so m e sp e c ie s are know n to have b een d ep leted by the C au casian , although to an unknow n d eg ree, for ex a m p le the cou gar. Other an im als arc k n ow n to h ave been elim in a ted , notably the sea otter. V ery heavy pressures on fauna have arisen sin ce 1945 w ith the

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larg e-sca le introduction o f m odern tech n o lo g y and a set o f p ercep tion s, v a lu es, attitudes and institutional arrangem ents favourable to the d e ­ velop m en t o f lo g g in g , tourism and recreation. T h e resp ect, tolerance and sy m b io sis o f Indian and w ild life have b een replaced by an orien ta­ tion to grow th and d ev elo p m en t and a general lack o f sym p athy for an im als and lan d scap e even w hen the em p h a sis is on land use for recreation. A m ultitude o f ch a n g es in veg eta tio n , birds, m am m als and other elem en ts o f the eco sy stem are n ow underw ay w h ose range and detail are sim p ly n ot appreciated ev en by m any p eop le in national park m anagem en t. T h e Indians th e m se lv e s are in creasin gly drawn into the C aucasian valu e sy stem . T ech n o lo g ica l ch an ge has given them and the w h ite m en greater e ffic ie n c y in fish in g , hunting and other a c tiv itie s, at least so far a s short term y ield is con cern ed . A lm o st ev ery o n e se e m s to be in favour o f m ore roads, m ore cam p sites and m ore v isito rs, m ost o f w h om sh o w little appreciation o f or respect for habitat or w ild life , apparently h avin g co m e ch iefly for the sun and san d . T h is increasing u se is co m in g at a tim e w hen no zon in g plans h ave been prepared for the park and interpretation p rogram m es or other con trols or education d e v ic e s are not ava ila b le. O n ly the “ h ip p ies" stand asid e from the tech n o lo g y , the value system and the grow th syn d rom e, although their life -sty le probably w ill not lon g endure at P acific Rim .

Pacific Rim National P a rk as a Recreational and Conservational Unit T he tw o basic p u rp oses o f a n ational park are recreation and co n serv a ­ tion o f w ild life , v eg eta tio n and other elem en ts o f the lan d scap e or e c o s y ste m .T h e p rev io u s d iscu ssio n in d icates that these tw o u ses have c o m e into increasing co n flic t in P acific Rim . T he em p h asis on increas­ ing visitor num bers and on a u to m o b iles, ten ts, cam pers and other elem en ts o f tech n o lo g y is threatening to ch a n g e the fauna and wild character o f large parts o f P hase I. T he N ational and H istoric Parks Branch is w orking on a zon in g and m anagem ent plan for P acific Rim and is a lso co n sid erin g various control and m anagem ent m easures d esig n ed to m ake recreational and con servation al u ses m ore com p ati­ ble. But the introduction o f these m easu res m ay take a con sid erable am ount o f tim e and m uch undesirable ch an ge could occu r in the interim . O ne thing that is required for the ad van cem en t o f m anagem ent m easures is a theoretical and organ izational basis for m anaging the park, an e c o lo g ic a l cla ssific a tio n or m odel w h ich w ill bring so m e order to what se em s to be a m aze o f trees, shrubs, a n im als, rocks and water, and provide a foundation for z o n in g , p o ssib le ch an ges in boundaries and other m easures d esig n ed to m ake recreation and con servation more

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am en a b le. The m odel can a lso p rovid e a b asis for the d evelop m en t o f interpretation, education and research program m es and recreational en joy m en t. A ten tative m odel can be su g g ested on the basis o f the inform ation presented in this paper and related research on the e c o lo g y o f the west c o a s t. T h e m odel (F igure 8) in v o lv es d ivid in g the park into e le v e n basic habitats or zo n e s and a p p lies o n ly to P hase I o f P a cific Rim although su bsequent research m ay reveal its ap p licab ility in other se ctio n s o f the park. R esearch and use m ay a lso result in its m od ification for Phase I. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I.

T h e p ela g ic zo n e T h e near-shore unprotected zon e T h e protected zo n e betw een offsh ore islands and shore Estuaries Fresh water b o d ies such as lak es and stream s Intertidal beach es T h e beach - d une co m p lex Tidal m udflats T h e sitka spruce zone T h e ced ar-h em lock zon e T h e bog forest

S o m e co m m en ts w ill n ow be m ade on the ch aracteristics o f these z o n e s , their availa b ility w ithin the park area, any land u se problem s asso cia ted w ith them and any other m atters sign ifican t for m an age­ m ent. 1) The p ela g ic z o n e , like the near-shore unprotected and protected z o n e s , is e x c lu s iv e ly m arine. T h e p elagic z o n e d iffers from the other tw o z o n e s , h o w ev er, in b ein g located w ell out to sea and largely u n affected by and out o f sight o f land. A m on g the im portant an im als are transient or m igratory birds such as the tw o sp e c ie s o f albatross, certain shearw aters and a lcid s. O ther sign ifican t fauna are sea m am ­ m als. n otably the fur seal w hich rarely is found w ithin tw o m iles o f sh ore. T h e se a -lio n . hair s e a l, harbour seal and other an im als are found w ithin the z o n e , but m ore frequently clo se r to sh ore. P a cific Rim N ational Park ex ten d s at a m axim um just o ver a m ile from shore and thus provid es for so m e ob servation and protection o f the p ela g ic zon e e sp e c ia lly as a buffer around areas fa llin g w ithin the unprotected o ffsh o re zone. 2) T h e near-shore unprotected zon e in clu d es stretch es o f op en water and o cca sio n a l islands and rocks located w ithin sigh t and relatively

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ea sy reach o f sh o re. Here one fin d s an im als su ch as scoter d u ck s, as w ell as sea lio n s, harbour se a ls, cru isin g gray w h a les and p orp oises. R elatively large areas o f this zon e are included in Phase 1. Human use and disturbance is not as great as in other parts o f the park, but can be sig n ifica n t from the standpoint o f w ild life m anagem ent and co n se r­ vation. For ex a m p le the relatively rare sea lion s concentrate at Sea Lion R ock s in this zo n e and. ev en though the an im als are in the national park, they are still attacked by fish erm en . S ea Lion R ock s a lso is the o n ly k n ow n n estin g site o f Brandt's corm orant in Canada and the black oystercatch er, g la u co u s-w in g ed gu ll and p elagic corm orant a lso are recorded as n estin g there. A m arine patrol is n ecessary to en force w ild life protection in this z o n e and other offsh ore areas w ithin the park. All o ffsh o re zo n es w ill be used in creasingly by com m ercial and recrea­ tional watercraft and o il. garbage and other pollution problem s there­ fore w ill require m onitorin g and con trol in future. 3 ) The protected zo n e in clu d es the o ffsh ore islan d s and rocky head ­ lands o f Phase I. T he zon e is an im portant habitat for sea ls and other an im als. A lcid s such as the m urres and p eleca n ifo rm s, particularly corm oran ts, use the o ffsh o re islan d s and the nearby quiet w ater c lo s e to shore. T h e p rotective m easures describ ed for the unprotected offsh ore zo n e a lso apply to the protected z o n e . M oreover, b ecau se the rocky h ead lan ds can be approached on foot from land they could be su b ject to con sid era b le disturbance in future. T he p o ssib le e ffe c ts o f increasing recreational use on birds and other an im als is not w ell understood; with this in m ind a prelim inary study o f the tw o rock y headlands w as undertaken in su m m er, 1971. T h e study in volved in terview in g visitors to these areas, ob serv a tio n o f litter and other sig n s o f disturbance and bird c o u n ts. S o m e o f the results can be presented here in a general w ay. A total o f fifty -fo u r sp ec ies o f birds w ere ob served in the tw o h eadland areas. In general more birds o f all typ es were seen in the m ost rem ote parts, although so m e en viron m en ts w ere characterized by high population ev en w h en subject to relatively h eavy hum an u se, for exam p le intergraded beach and rock areas. T h e nearby offsh ore islands w ere seen to be points o f m uch avian a ctiv ity , particularly if variation in topograph y, water and other co n d itio n s p rovid ed m any nich es for the birds: steep c liffs for the corm orant, flat land and su rf-w ash ed areas for sle ep in g , lo a fin g , feed in g g u lls , turnstones, black oystercatch crs, and other sh o re birds. M am m als su ch as river otter and m ink w ere ob served on a few o c c a sio n s. S ca ts and trails were seen in m any p laces on the rock s. T h e a ssociation o f num erous birds with areas w here least p eop le w ere en cou n tered in d icates a probable cau sal relation sh ip but m ore

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in vestigation is required before m ore p recise results and recom m en d a­ tio n s can be presented. C aution in a llo w in g or en cou ragin g h eavy use o f the headlands se e m s w ise h o w ev er, until m ore k n o w led g e o f the effe cts o f disturbance are availab le. In the interim , observation and interpretation program m es cou ld be d ev elo p ed around certain high p oin ts con n ected by clearin g so m e trails through the forest behind the h ead lan ds, so that approaches cou ld be m ade w ithout the disturbance and alarm w hich u su ally o ccu r if the approach is m ade alon g the rocks. In general the rocky headlands and offsh ore islan d s are o f great im por­ tance to w ild life and it is essen tial that research and m anagem ent m easures be d ev elo p ed soon to m ake them a v ailab le for recreation and at the sam e tim e co n se rv e th em . O ne n ecessary m easure is to zone certain headland areas as w ild ern ess and apply more rigid con trols there. S eriou s con sid eration also sh ou ld be g iv en to ex ten d in g the boundary o f P hase I southw ard to include the entire headland area and asso cia ted w ild life at the south en d o f F lorencia Bay. 4 ) Estuaries are d ifficu lt to d efin e but are often describ ed as em b aym ents characterized by the m ixin g o f fresh and saltw ater: they are often asso cia ted with the tidal m udflats d iscu ssed separately in this park m o d el. Estuaries are im portant sp aw n in g and feed in g areas for fish and p rovid e valu ab le n estin g sites for m igratory birds. Large estuaries are not w ell represented in Phase I w h o se northern boundary is con tigu ou s w ith T o fin o Inlet and B ro w n in g P assage w hich are not part o f the park. T he entrance to Nitinat Lake in P hase III rep resents a p o ssib le addi­ tional estuary but is sm all and narrow. Estuaries are im portant for the harbour seal. 5 ) Freshw ater b o d ies are not w ell provided for in Phase I o f the park so that the p o ssib le in clu sio n o f N itinat Lake takes on added sig n ifi­ c a n ce. N o co m p lete drainage basin o f any large river is in clu d ed in the park. A sm all part o f K en n ed y Lake is in clu d ed in Phase I; seriou s con sid eration sh ou ld be giv en to m akin g ad d ition s here as sw im m in g and cam p ing op p ortu n ities are g o o d , with fog and w ind less com m on than near the sea . A rare n estin g c o lo n y o f M ew g u lls a lso is located on a sm all island in K en n ed y L ake, ou tsid e the park.* 6 ) Intertidal b each es are w ell represented in P hase I. In fact the sp len d ou r o f uninterrupted sand stretching for m iles is seen as the principal attraction by m ost v isito rs, park o ffic ia ls and h ip p ies, being best d ev elo p ed at L o n g B each and F loren cia B ay. P ools so m etim e s

*The K ennedy L ake s e c to r u n fo rtu n ately h a s sin ce b een rem oved fro m P h a se I.

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several hundred yards in length are found at lo w tide in d ep ression s in the sand. T h ey not u n com m on ly are fed by sm all freshw ater stream s flo w in g ou t on to the b ea ch . T h ese have been seen to attract num erous loafing and bathing glaucous-winged gulls Heerman’s gull, California gull and Bonaparte’s gull. Killdcer, semi-palmated plover and various “ peeps” can also be observed in or around them, feeding on thread worms. The b each es th e m selv es attract flo ck s o f p eep s and g u lls regu­ larly. On three su c c e ssiv e m orn ings in early A u g u st. 1 9 7 1, in e x c e s s o f three thousand g u lls o f all typ es were ob served loafin g in this habitat type on S ch o o n er C o v e. It is on the b each es that the greatest and m ost o b v io u s human disturbance is present. On July 13, 1967. the T ofino-U cluelet P ress d escrib ed the sc en e thus: On the stretch o f L on g B each b etw een G reen Point and S ch oon er C o v e there w ere hundreds o f tents set up on the sand with a population running into the thousands. A count taken last w eek sh o w e d 283 tents and cam p ers on the beach b etw een G reen Point and S ch o o n er C o v e . A veragin g o n ly 3 persons per cam p this w ou ld g iv e a total o f 8 4 9 persons. T h e im pact o f su ch con cen tration s is ev id en t. F locks o f g u lls and sandpipers are co n tin u o u sly harrassed by a u to m o b iles, p edestrians and d o m estic d o g s, the latter b eing particularly prone to ch asin g and putting to flig h t all flo c k s o f birds w ithin range. On several o c c a sio n s drivers w ere seen to head straight for flo c k s o f birds on the b each . On at least o n e o cca sio n so m e birds were k illed by the purposeful act. S erious con sid eration should im m ed iately be g iv en to ex clu d in g au tom ob iles and sim ilar v e h ic le s from the beach as w ell as from cam p in g w hich c o u ld be provided inland. Certain b each es sh ou ld a lso be zon ed as w ild ern ess or sp ecial e c o lo g ic a l areas and u se carefu lly con trolled . 7) T h e beach -du n e co m p lex in clu d es the area betw een the intertidal beach and the b eg in n in g o f the Sitka spruce z o n e . A s such it in corp o­ rates a num ber o f p o ssib le w ild life habitats. O n e d etailed research project has been carried out by K uram oto (1 4 8 ) on what apparently is the o n ly large activ e dune area in P hase I, at L ong B each . T h e em p hasis in this study w as on v eg eta tion and relatively little se em s to be know n about the faunal attributes o f this and any sim ilar areas. T h e rufous hum m ingbird and ruffed grou se appear to be relatively n u m erous and the so n g sparrow is co m m o n . O ld relatively stable du n es are located at C o x B a y . F lorcncia Bay and other sites in Phase I but little is know n about their g eo m o rp h ic o rig in , distribution or b io lo g ica l character.

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D u n es are often p erceived as fragile areas, su scep tib le to hum an distur­ bance and accelerated erosion and require in vestigation in this regard both for sc ien tific and park m anagem en t purposes. 8) T he tidal m udflats in the park are located on G rice Bay next to the T o fin o W aterfow l M anagem ent R eserve. T he reserve, w hich is ou tsid e the park, w as esta b lish ed in 1956. and en larged in 1958 and 1964. It is run for the b en efit o f duck and g o o se hunters. A s a resting p lace for g e e s e the G rice B ay m udflat area has been im portant for cen tu ries. H o w ever recent inform ation su g g ests a p o ssi­ ble dow nw ard trend in the num ber o f d ucks and g e e s e u sin g the area. A report o f the regional w ild life b io lo g ist for V an cou ver Island, I.D . S m ith , in clu d es the fo llo w in g cou n ts m ade in the general area o f the reserve:

G eese N ov. D ec. N ov. N ov.

1 6 /'6 0 2 1 /'6 0 1 1/’61 1 6 /’67

3 ,4 6 7 486 4 ,8 1 0 5 50

D abbling D ucks 12,637 5 ,3 0 2 5 ,3 6 8 1,000

T h ese figures are far from co m p lete; m oreover a num ber o f variables m ay be resp on sib le for the su g g ested trend. H o w ev er, local opinion s e e m s to confirm the indications o f d eclin e. T he T ofino-U cluelet Press o f D ecem b er 5 . 1 9 6 8 . reports that cou n ts have d w in d led from 1 0 ,0 0 0 g e e s e to 5 0 0 in about the tim e period covered by S m ith 's report. I f this is s o , human disturbance could be resp on sib le as hunting pressure has increased. T h e ex clu sio n o f the W aterfow l R eserve from the park probably cam e about as a result o f pressure from hunters and com m ercial interests. W hether the ex clu sio n is n o w ju stified on con servation al and e c o n o m ic grounds is , h o w ev er, q u estion ab le. F inancial returns from recreational use o f Phase I are increasing stead ily and cou ld override any lo ss in in co m e resulting from the ex clu sio n o f hunting from m ost o f the G rice B ay area. A lternative hunting opportunities a lso are availab le in T o fin o Inlet and other areas ou tsid e the park. T h e relationships b etw een the T o fin o W aterfow l M anagem ent R eserve and P hase I o f P acific R im d eserv e careful re-exam ination . 9 ) T he S itk a spruce zon e occu rs in a tw en ty -fiv e to six ty yard w ide band in salt spray areas adjacent to b each es and rock y h ead lan ds. The Sitka sp ru ce in the z o n e are often bent and d eform ed and con seq u en tly have been little disturbed by lo g g in g . N o stu d ies appear to h ave been

PA C IFIC RIM N A T IO N A L PA RK

129

undertaken on the fauna o f the z o n e , although C ord es is co m p letin g a d etailed study o f the e c o lo g y o f the S ilk a spruce in the Phase I area. The zo n e is reco g n ized as providing im portant n estin g sites for bald ea g les. T he d en se undergrow th c h ie fly sa la l, lim its hum an u se and a lso un­ d ou b ted ly provid es valu ab le habitat for m any birds and the raccoon , m ink , river otter and other a n im als. C utting o f the Sitka spruce can e x p o s e inland red ced ar, h em lock and other less tolerant trees to un sigh tly d am age and death from salt spray. For all these reasons and its attractive appearance the Sitka spruce zo n e d eserves careful m an­ agem en t. 10) T h e ced a r-h em lo ck zon e c o n sists o f the inland forests con tain in g these sp e c ie s p lu s A m ab alis fir and other trees.T h is zo n e is the on e w h ich has been m ost a ffected by lo g g in g in Phase I. with the higher q u ality stan d s, although the anim al life o f the zo n e is not w ell known and research is n eed ed . T he cutting o ver o f the Sitka spruce stan d s in P hase I also m akes a stronger ca se for the in clu sion o f the Nitinat trian gle w hich is said to still have areas o f undisturbed tall red cedarh em lo ck forest. A m ajor problem arises with respect to the revegetation o f logged o v er areas in the red ced ar-h em lock zon e in Phase I. Should so m e o f th e se b e kept in shrub and n on -forest vegetation by cutting and fire in order to m aintain the d iv erse bird and anim al life n o w found there? If the areas are replanted sh ou ld the D ou glas fir be u sed , as is u su ally the c a s e , with co n seq u en t in crease in the O regon ju n co and other ch an ges in w ild life? O ther faunal e ffe c ts w h ich m ight fo llo w from su ch replant­ ing d eserve further stu d y, as d o the p ossib le ch a n g es arising from con tinu ed use o f the lo g g in g roads in the ced ar-h em lock area by trucks com m u n ica tin g w ith lum ber op eration s around the park boundaries. I 1) T h e bog forest (3 1 4 ) c o n sists principally o f shore p in e, Labrador tea and other plants tolerant o f poor drainage. It apparently is present o n ly in Phase I o f the park but se e m s fairly safe from h eavy disturbance or drainage b eca u se o f the bog co n d itio n s. A n im als kn ow n to regularly occu r in this zo n e are black bear and oran ge-crow n ed w arbler. The trees are w ell spaced and shrubs com m on and the zo n e se e m s to be used rela tiv ely frequently by transient or m igratory birds and so m e anim als w h ich u tilize other ad join in g z o n e s , for ex a m p le the b lacktail deer. M ore research on the zon e w ould be u sefu l; it se e m s p rom isin g for interpretation p u rp oses from both the plant and anim al stan d p oints. O ther w ild life co n sid era tio n s should be kept in m ind in thinking about b o u n d a ries and land use p o licy in P acific Rim N ation al Park (F ig u re 8 ). O ne is the p o ssib ility offered by the N itin a tT r ia n g le and the L ifesavin g T rail a rea fo r p reservation o f the V a n co u v er Island w o lf

Figure 8: Boundary C hanges, Phase 3, Pacific Rim National Park

PA C IFIC RIM N A T I O N A L P A R K

13 1

and w o lv erin e. T h e w o lf has been cla ssifie d as a threatened sp e c ie s by the International U nion for the C on servation o f Nature. Its n um bers are estim ated at no m ore than a few hundred in ail o f the Island by D onald B lood o f the British C olu m b ia Fish and W ild life D epartm ent. A nother sp e c ie s w orthy o f sp ecial care is the bald e a g le. A lthou gh the park has a relatively large population com pared with m any other North A m erican areas w here it w a s form erly c o m m o n , sou rces su g g est that its num bers are d w in d lin g (T o fin o -U clu elet P ress, A u gu st 1, 1963). T h e bird is particularly num erous in the E ffingh am Islands (P h ase II) w h ich afford naturally favourable habitat and sh ou ld be zon ed and m anaged for their p rotection . It is a lso co n ceiv a b le that a sea otter p opulation m ight thrive in this group o f islan d s. Introduction o f these typical w est coast m am ­ m als w ou ld be a boon to co n servation and recreation in the area. A nother fitting addition w ould b e on e or several o f the lak es north and w est o f N itinat Lake that are resting grounds for trum peter sw a n s.

Appendix 1 M am m al Species T he fo llo w in g is a list o f m am m als eith er know n or b elieved to range through the park area [5 8 ], T h o se marked with an asterisk have been recorded in a part o f the northern section o f the park by the naturalists B u ffam [23] and C am p bell [ 3 7 ,3 8 ,3 9 ) . O r d e r : in s e c t iv o r a : F a m il y : s o r ic id a e

Sorex cinereus cin e re u s — C in ereu s Shrew * S. vagrans iso la tn s — W andering Sh rew S . p a lu slris brooksi — N avigator Shrew O r d e r : c h ir o p t e r a ; F a m il y : v e s p e r t il io n id a e

M yotis californicus caurinits — C aliforn ia M yotis Bat M . evotis p a c ific u s — Long-eared M yotis Bat M . lucifugus a la scen sis — Little Brow n M yotis Bat M . y u m a n en sis sa tu ra tu s — Y um a M yotis Bat O r d e r : r o d e n t ia ; F a m il y : s c iu r id a e

T am iansciurus hudsonicus lanuginosus— R ed S q u irrel* F a m il y : c a st o r id a e

C astor canadensis leucodontus — B eaver

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F a m il y : c r ic e t id a e

P erom yscus m aniculatus a n g u stu s — W h ite-footed D eerm ou se* P . m . interdictus M icrotits tow nsendi la in g i — T ow n sen d V ole M . t. tetram erus O ndatra zibethica osoyoosensis — Muskrat f a m il y

: m u r id a e

R attus norvegicus — N orw ay Rat M us m u scu lu s — H o u se M ou se o r d er

: c e t a c e a ; su b o r d e r : o d o n t o c e t i; f a m il y : z ip h id a e

B erardius b a ird i — Baird Beaked W hale* M esoplodon stejn eg eri — S tejn eger B eaked W hale Z ip h iu s ca viro stris — C uvier W hale fa m il y

: ph y s e t e r id a e

P h yseter cato d o n — Sperm W hale* fa m il y

: d e l p h in id a e

Sten ella eu p h ro sn e — L on g-b eak ed D olphin D elphinus b a ird i — Baird D olphin L agenorhyncus obliquidens — P a cific Striped D olphin G ram pus recti p in n a — P acific K iller W hale* G lobicephala sc a m m o n i — S cam m on B lackfish P hocaena v om erina — Harbour Porpoise* P hocaenoides d a lli — Dali P orpoise G ram pus g riseu s — R isso D olphin subo rd er

: m y s t ic e t i; f a m il y : r h a c h ia n e c t id a e

E schrichtius g la u c u s — G ray W hale* f a m il y

: b a l a e n o p t e r id a e

B alaenoptera p h y sa lu s — C om m on Finback W hale B. b o re a lis — S ei W hale* B. a c u to ro stra ta — S h arp -n osed Finner. M inke or Pike W hale S ibbaldus m u scu lu s — Blue W hale M egaptera nova ea n g lia e — H um p b ack W hale E ubalaena sieb o ld i — P acific Right W hale o rd er

: c a r n iv o r a : f a m il y : c a n id a e

C anis lupus c ra sso d o n — V an cou ver Island W o lf

PA C IFIC RIM N A T IO N A L PA R K f a m il y

133

: u r s id a e

U rsus am ericanus vancouveri — A m erican B lack Bear* f a m il y

: pr o c y o n id a e

P rocyon lotor vancouverensis — R accoon * f a m il y

: m u s t e l id a e

M aries am ericana c a u rin a — Marten M ustela erm inae a n g u in a e — Short-tailed W easel M . vison eva g o r — M ink* G ulo luscus vancouverensis — W olverin e L utra canadensis p a c ific a — C anadian R iver Otter* FA MILY : FEL ID A E

F elis concolor vancouverensis — C ougar* o rd er

: PIN N IPE D IA ; f a m i l y : o t a r i d a e

C allorhinus ursinus cynoceplialus — Northern Fur S eal* E um etopias ju b a ta — Northern S ca-L ion * Z alophus c a lifo rn ia n u s — C aliforn ia Sea-L ion f a m il y

: p h o c id a e

P hoca vitulina rich a rd i — Hair Seal (H arbour S eal*) M irounga angustirostris — N orthern Elephant S eal o rd er

: a r t io d a c t y l a ; f a m il y : c e r v id a e

O docoileus herm ionus co lum bianus — C oast D eer or C olu m b ian B lacktail D eer*

Appendix II B ird Species T h is list is that g iv en by Stirling [2 9 3 ]. It is probably in com p lete, and o n ly a part o f the northern section o f the park is referred to. H ow ever, the occu rrence o f the various s p e c ie s is not lik ely to vary substantially betw een the three park se c tio n s. T w o ex cep tio n s to this general rule m ight b e cited . T h e first co n cern s those sp ec ies associated with the tidal m udflats o f G rice B a y . w hich is a habitat type availab le o n ly sparingly in the other sectio n s. The seco n d con cern s the sp ec ies associated with the m ore e x ten siv e ced a r/h em lock forest o f the northern se c tio n , and the d eg ree to w h ich it has b een lo g g ed . D ifferen ces as a result o f the

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W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N LA N D SC A PE

latter factor m ay not b e in sp ec ies co m p o sitio n but rather in num bers o f in d ivid u als. T h o se sp e c ie s w ith an asterisk are ad d ition s to S tirlin g's list that have b een o b serv ed by the first author. o rd er

: g a v iif o r m e s : f a m il y : g a v id a f .

Gavin im m er — C o m m o n Loon G. a rc tic a — A rctic L oon G. ste lla ta — Red-throated L oon o r d er

: po d ic ip e d if o r m e s ; f a m il y : po d ic ipe d id a e

A ech m o p h o n ts occidentalis — W estern G rebe P odiceps g riseg en a — R ed -n eck ed G rebe P. a u ritu s — H orned G rebe o r d e r

: pr o c e l l a r iif o r m e s : f a m il y : d io m e d id a e

D iom edea n ig rip es — BI ack- footed AI batross fa m il y

: h y d r o b a t id a e

O ceanodrom a fu r c a ia — F ork-tailed Petrel O. leuco rh o a — L ea ch 's Petrel o r d e r

: p e l e c a n if o r m e s ; f a m il y : ph a l a c r o c o r a c id a e

P halacrocorax a u ritu s — D ou b le-crested Corm orant P. p e n c illa tu s — Brandt's Corm orant P. p e la g ic u s — P ela g ic Corm orant o r d e r

: a n s e r i f o r m f .s ; s u b - f a m i l y : c y g n i n a e

O lor buccin a to r — Trum peter Sw an su b

-f a m il y : a n se r in a e

B ra n ta ca n a d en sis — Canada G o o se B . nig rica n s — B lack Brant A n ser alb ifro n s — W h ite-fron ted G oose C hen hyp erb o rea — S n o w G o o se su b

-f a m il y : a n a t in a e

A nas p latyrhynchos — Mai lard A . a c u ta — Pintail A . caro lin en sis — G reen -w in ged Teal A . d isco rs — B lu e-w in g ed T eal* sub

-f a m il y : a y t h y in a e

A ythya m a rila — Greater Scaup

PA C IFIC RIM N A T IO N A L PA RK

B ucepluila isla n d ic a — B arrow 's G old en eye H istrionicus histrio n icu s — H arlequin Duck M elanitta degla n d i — W h ite-w in g ed S coter M . p ersp icilla ta — S u rf S coter O idem ia n ig ra — C o m m o n S coter su b

-f a m il y : m e r g in a e

M ergus m erg a n ser — C om m on M erganser M . s e n a to r — R ed -b reasted M erganser L o p lw d ytes c u cu lla tu s — H ooded M erganser ORDER: FA LCO N1FO RM ES; FAMILY: ACCIPITRIDAE

A cc ip iter stria tu s — Snarp-skinned H aw k B uteo ja m a ic e n sis — R ed-tailed H aw k H aliaeetus leuco cep h a lu s — B ald E agle f a m il y

: pa n d io n id a e

P andion lialiaetus — O sprey f a m il y

: fa l c o n id a e

F aleo p e re g rin u s — P eregrine Falcon F . colu m b a riu s — P ig e o n Hawk F . sp a rve riu s — Sparrow H aw k (A m erican K estrel) o r d e r

: g a l l if o r m e s ; f a m il y : t e t r a o n id a e

D en dragapus o b se u ru s — B lue G rouse B onasa itm bellus — R uffed G rouse o r d er

: c i c o n i i f o r m e s ; f a m i l y : •a r d e i d a e

A rdea h e ro d ia s — Great B lue Heron o rd er

: g r u if o r m e s ; f a m il y : r a l l id a e

R alhts U m icola — V irgin ia Rail o rd er

: c h a r a d r iif o r m e s ; f a m il y : h a e m a t o p o d id a e

H aem atopus b a ch m a n i — B lack O ystercatchcr f a m il y

: c h a r a d r iid a e

P luvialis d o m in ica — A m erican G old en P lover S quatarola sq u a ta ro la — B la ck -b ellied P lover C haradrius sem ipalm attts — S em i-p alm ated P lover C . vociferus — K illdeer

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W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N L A N D SC A PE

FA M IL Y : SC OLO PAC ID AE

N um enius p h a e o p u s — W him brel A ctitis m a cu la ria — Spotted Sandpiper H eteroscelus in ca n u m — W andering Tattler T otanus m e lanoleucus — G reater Y e llo w leg s L im nodram us g rise u s — Sh ort-b illed D ow itch er A phriza virgata — S u rfb ird A renaria interpres — Ruddy T urnstone A . m elanocephala — B lack T urnstone E rolia p tilo c n em is — Rock Sandpiper E . m elanotos — Pectoral Sandpiper C alidris c a n u tu s — K not E rolia a c um inata — Sharp-tailed Sandpiper E . a lp in a — Dunlin C rocethia a lb a — Sanderling E rolia b a ird ii — B aird 's Sandpiper E . m inu tilla — Least Sandpiper E reunetes m a u ri — W estern Sandpiper f a m il y

: p h a l a r o po d id a e

P halaropus fu lic a r iu s — Red Phalarope L obipes lob a tu s — Northern Phalarope f a m il y

: st e r c o r a r iid a e

S tercorarius p a ra siticu s — Parasitic Jaeger 5 . p o m a rin u s — P om arine Jaeger fa m il y

: l a r id a e

; s u b - f a m il y : l a r in a e

L a ru s glaucescens — G la u co u s-w in g ed Gull L. h yp erb o reu s — G la u co u s G u ll* (E d w ard s, 1968) L. o ccidentalis — W estern Gull L. a rg en ta tu s — H erring Gull L. califo rn icu s — C alifornia Gull L. c a n u s — M ew G ull L. h eerm a n n i — H eerm an ’s Gull R issa trid a ctyla — B la ck -leg g ed K ittiw ake X em a sa b in i — S a b in e 's Gull L arus p h ila d e lp h ia — B onaparte's Gull su b

-fa m il y : s t e r n in a e

H ydroprogne ca sp ia — C aspian Tern (27 5 ) f a m il y

: a l c id a e

U ria a a lg e — C o m m o n Murre

PA C IFIC R IM N A T IO N A L PA R K

C epphus co lu m b a — P igeon G u illem ot Lundha c irrh a ta — T u fted Puffin C erorhinca m onocerata — R h in oceros Auklet P tychorum phus a leu tica — C a s sin ’s Auklet B rachyram phus m a rm o ra tu m — M arbled M urrelet o rd er

: c o l u m b if o r m e s ; f a m il y : c o l u m b id a e

C olum ba fa s c ia ia — B and-tailed P igeon Z enaidura nuicroura — M ourning D o v e o rd er

: s t r ig ifo r m e s ; f a m il y : strig id a e

B ubo virg in ia n u s — G reat H orned Owl N yctea sc a n d ia ca — S n o w y O wl o rd er

: C A PR1M U 1.G IFO RM ES; FA M IL Y : C A P R IM U L G ID A E

C hordeiles m in o r — C om m on N ighthaw k o r d er

: a p o d if o r m e s ; f a m il y : a po d id a e

C ypseloides n ig er — B lack S w ift C haetura vauxi — V aux S w ift f a m il y

: t r o c h ilid a e

Selasphorus ru fu s — R u fous H um m ingbird o r d e r

: c o r a c iif o r m e s ; f a m il y : a l c e d in id a e

M egaceryle a lcy o n — Belted K ingfisher o rd er

: p ic if o r m e s ; f a m il y : pic id a e

C olaptes ca fe r — R ed -sh afted F licker D ryocopus p ile a tu s — P ileated W ood p eck er Sphvrapicus v a riu s — “ R ed -b reasted " S apsucker D endrocopos villo su s — Hairy W ood p eck er D. p u b e sc en s — D o w n y W ood p eck er o r d er

: p a s s e r if o r m e s ; f a m il y : t y r a n n id a e

E m pidonax d ifficilis — W estern F lycatcher fa m il y

: h ir u n d in id a e

H irundo ru stic a — Barn S w a llo w P etrochelidon p yrrlio n a ia — C litf S w a llo w Tachycineta th a la ssin a — V io let-g reen S w a llo w Iridoprocne b io co lo r — Tree S w a llo w Stelgidopteryx ru fico llis— R ou gh -w in ged S w a llo w

138

fa m il y

W E S T E R N C A N A D IA N L A N D SC A PE : c o r v id a e

r C yanocitta ste lle ri — S tcller's Jay ■ C orvus co ra x — C o m m o n R aven C . cau rin u s — N orthw estern Crow fa m il y

: p a r id a e

P a n ts ru fescen s — C h estnut-backed C h ick ad ee f a m il y

: c e r t h iid a e

C erthia fa m ilia r is — Brow n C reeper fa m il y

: t r o g l o d y t id a e

T roglodytes tro g lo d ytes — W inter Wren fa m il y

: t u r d id a e

Turdus m ig ra to riu s — A m erican Robin Ix o reu s n a e viu s — Varied Thrush H ylocichla g u tta ta — H erm it Thrush H . ustu la ta — S w a in so n ’s Thrush fa m il y

: s y l v iid a e

R eg u lu s sa tra p a — G o ld en -crow n ed K inglet R . c a len d u la — R u b y-crow n ed K inglet fa m il y

: m o t a c il l id a e

A n th u s sp in o letta — W ater Pipit f a m il y

: b o m b y c ill id a e

B om bycilht ced ro ru m — Cedar W axw in g F A M I L Y : S T U R M DA E

S tu rn u s vulgaris — Starling F A M I L Y : PA R U LI D A E

V erm ivora c ela ta — O ran ge-crow n ed Warbler D endroica p e te ch ia — Y e llo w W arbler D . a u d u h o n i — A u d u b o n ’s W arbler D . tow nsendi — T o w n sen d 's W arbler G eothlypis triclias — Y ellow th roat* W ilsonia p u silla — W ilso n 's W arbler f a m il y

: ic t e r id a e

M o lo th ru s a te r — B row n-headed C ow bird

P A C IFIC R IM N A T IO N A L PA RK

f a m il y

: f r in g il l id a e

H esperiphona vespertinei — E ven in g G rosbeak S pinus p in u s — P in e Siskin S . tristis — A m erican G old fin ch L oxiu c urvirostra — Red C rossbill P ipilo eryth ro p h th a lm u s — R u fou s-sid ed T o w h ee P asserculns sa n d w ich en sis — Savannah Sparrow ,I unco o reg a n u s — O regon Junco Z onotrichia leucophrys — W h ite-crow ned Sparrow Z. a trica p illa — G o ld en -cro w n ed Sparrow P asserella ilia c a — Fox Sparrow M elospiza m e lo d ia — S o n g Sparrow

.

7

C a n a d ia n N ational P a r k s an d R elated Reserves: R esearch Needs an d M anag em ent* J . G. Nelson

Introduction IN this rev iew paper the fundam ental aim is to em p h a size topics w here m ore research w ou ld sig n ifica n tly add to general k n o w l­ ed g e and a lso assist with pu b lic p olicy and practice. T h e r ev iew is largely based on personal ex p erien ce and research in W estern C anada, O ntario, the U nited S tates, U nited K in g d o m , Central A m erica, N ew Zealand and Australia. M y o w n approach to national parks and other land u se is b a sically historical (tem p oral) and e c o lo g ic a l. Stress is placed on the role and e ffe c ts o f m an, e sp e c ia lly C aucasian m an, and on the relevan ce o f the research results to m anagem en t.

T he Model A m ajor need in such stu d ies is an organ izational fram ew ork , or m odel, w h ich w ill bring order to the m aze o f p o ssib ly relevant th eories, m ethods and term in o lo g y d erived from su ch potentially pertinent d is­ cip lin es as a rch a eo lo g y , h istory, g eograp h y, e c o n o m ic s, g e o lo g y , b otany and z o o lo g y . T h e m odel sh ou ld be broad and in tegrative, useful to con cern ed a ca d em ics, con su ltan ts, adm inistrators and citizen s with d iv erse education and background. T he m odel sh ou ld provide for as m uch mutual understanding and interaction am ong these p eop le as p o ssib le . T h e m odel a lso sh ou ld be flex ib le and cap ab le o f u se at d ifferen t le v e ls o f g en era lization . It sh ou ld b e a p p licab le to a relatively sm a ll topic like M an, B irds a n d M am m als in P acific R im N ational P a r k , or to a larger o n e , such as the study o f the C anadian N ational Park sy stem undertaken in this paper. O ne m odel that se e m s to m eet these ♦T h is p a p er w as prep ared fo r th e c o n feren ce on C a n a d ia n P u b lic L a n d U se in P e r sp e c tiv e , H um an E n v iro n m en t C o m m itte e , S o cial S cien ce R esearch C oun­ c il, O tta w a, O c to b e r, 1973. T h e P ro ceed in g s w e re p u b lish ed by th e C ouncil in Ju n e, 1974. G ra n ts from the N ational R esearch C o u n cil and T h e U n iv ersity o f W estern O n tario aid ed in the p re p a ra tio n o f this paper.

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requirem ents, and h as, in fact, been used in both these stu d ies co n sists o f four basic parts: e c o lo g y ; strategies and institutional arrangem ents; p ercep tion s, attitudes and v a lu es; and tech n ology.

E cology T h e co n cep t o f e c o lo g y is fundam ental to the m odel and is m eant to focu s attention on the identification o f th c elem ents and p ro cesses in the sy stem , and the interrelations am on g th em , e sp e c ia lly as these pertain to m an. T he term , e c o lo g y , is used in both the p h ysical and cultural se n s e . It reco g n izes the potential im portance to land use problem s o f elem ents such as plant and anim al sp e c ie s, their population and d is­ tribution, v o lca n o es and other lan d form s. p o d zo ls and other so il ty p es, as w ell as v illa g e s, road s, dam s and other hum an con stru cts. E c o lo g y com p reh en d s p ro cesses such as plant su c c e ss io n , fluctu ations or " c y ­ c le s " in anim al p o p u lation s, w ild life m igration s, stream erosion and eutrophication o f lak es. M any o f these p ro cesses can be a ffected by both the so -ca lled physica l (b io p h y sic a l) and cultural (hum an) a g en cies. T h u s. fire, a p h ysical p ro cess, can be cau sed or in flu en ced by ligh tn in g or w eath er, or by hum an attem pts to hunt, cam p or operate railroad e n g in e s. C ultivation o f so il w as carried ou t by prairie d o g s, and other an im als in the pre-C aucasian northern p lain s, but not to the sam e exten t and d egree as later by man and the p lou gh. T he term , e c o lo g y , thus lead s in a c o n sc io u s w ay to the problem o f d istin gu ish in g lan d scap e ch a n g es independent o f man from those d e ­ pendent on h im . T he id en tification o f these typ es o f ch an ge is no easy task and has b eco m e m ore d ifficu lt as man and the various p h ysical ag en cies have interacted with pro cesses such as fire, flo o d in g , erosion and earthquakes, to affect v e g eta tio n , w ild life , landform s and other interrelated elem ents o f landscape and eco sy stem . T h is brings us to the verge o f th e cla ssica l q u estion o f w hether man is b a sica lly a natural or cultural en tity. T h is problem cannot be d is­ cu ssed at length here. It is relevan t, h o w ev er, to national park m an­ a gem en t, as w ill be seen later. M y o w n present position is that the term , natural, is co n fu sin g and not particularly h elp fu l. M an 's culture d oes not really separate him from other life , in that he is fundam entally d ependent on air. w ater and other vital elem en ts, w hich ev en the m ost sop h isticated tech n o lo g y must transform from s o m e ultim ate b io p h y si­ cal state. Man and his e v o lv in g ideas and tech n o lo g y have been a part o f the g lo b a l eco sy stem for ten s o f thou san d s o f years. He has e v o lv ed and ch an ged like other an im als and in that se n se se e m s as natural as they are. H aving m ade these c o m m e n ts, it se e m s that particular concern about man arises w hen h is e ffe c ts b egin to d om in ate the sy stem , w hen veg eta tio n , w ild life , and other inter-connected e lem en ts and p rocesses b egin to b eco m e su b stan tially d ependent on en ergy con trolled by man

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and h is elaborating tech n o lo g y rather than on sou rces in d ep en dent o f him . M a n A s E c o lo g ic a l A g e n t

T he fo regoin g d iscu ssio n m akes it clear that, in the m odel used in this paper, man is con sid ered a s an e c o lo g ic a l agen t, an adapter to and a m o d ifier o f the e c o s y ste m . H o w ev er, in order m ore fu lly to understand h ow man adjusts to and ch a n g es the w orld , w e must id en tify and characterize h is a ctiv ities m ore p recisely , in this ca se in term s o f strategies and institutional arrangem ents; p ercep tion s, attitudes and va lu es; and tec h n o lo g y . T h ese categories se em co m p reh en siv e, but the d istin ction s a m o n g them are not a lw a y s clear-cut and can be arbitrary. S t r a t e g i e s a n d I n s t i t u t i o n a l A r r a n g e m e n ts

B riefly , s t r a t e g i e s refer to hum an g o a ls and broad m eans o f a ch ievin g them . In the very general se n se these g o a ls can be thought o f as relating to liv elih o o d (e c o n o m ic ), other m en (so c ia l) and the w orld , u n iverse or larger en viron m en t in w hich w e liv e (supernatural, relig io u s, sc ie n ­ tific ). For ex a m p le, ec o n o m ic a lly w e w ou ld be interested in k n ow in g w h eth er a group under study w as su b sisten ce or com m ercial in orienta­ tio n , for the production o f a surplus for external m arkets can lead to m uch landscape c h a n g e. S im ilarly, so c ia lly w e w ou ld be interested in k n o w in g w hether a group w a s b asically com m u n al or ca p ita listic, w ar-like and ag g ra n d izin g , or oth e rw ise, as these trails can have an im pact on the sy stem . From the standpoint o f the larger en viron m en t, w e w ou ld be in terested , am ong other th in gs, in w h eth er the group w as an im istic, m o n o th eistic or id e o lo g ic a l in orien tation . C hristianity, with its em p h a sis on the idea that the earth w as created for the use o f m an. has b een id en tified , rather inaccurately in the light o f other contributing factors, as the b asic ca u se o f resource and environm ental p rob lem s in areas su ch as North A m erica. T h e term , in s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . refers to form s o f g o v ern ­ m ent. a g en cies, c iv il and crim inal la w s, legislation and other m ean s o f in flu en cin g hum an beh aviou r and land u se. T h e term in clu d es what have b een referred to as “ so cial g u id e s" : rules and regu lation s, penal­ ties and other en fo rcem en t, p erform ance standards, su b sid ies, taxes and other m ean s o f inhibiting or en cou ragin g ch an ge. A lso to be reco g n ized as institutional arrangem ents are social p h en om en a w h ich often have an indirect and unappreciated e ffe c t on land use and la n d scap e. An ex a m p le is the neutral ground or buffer zo n e separating native hunting p eop les in parts o f w estern North A m erica in pre- and early C aucasian tim es. W ild life reportedly was

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m ore p lentiful in th ese zo n es than in a grou p ’s h om e territory w here danger o f attack w as le s s, and hunting m ore frequently carried out (2 3 1 ).

P erceptions, A ttitudes a n d Values G eograp h ers, a n th rop ologists and other social scien tists h a v e long reco g n ized the in flu en ce o f m a n 's caste o f m ind on land u se and lan d scap e. D ifferent in d ivid u als and groups dem onstrab ly h a v e ap­ praised resources d ifferen tly in sim ilar e c o s y ste m s. C om pare the sop h istica ted civ iliz a tio n o f Egypt and the N ile w ith the corn grow ers and co llecto rs o f the lo w er C olorad o V alley in pre-C aucasian tim e s .I n the 1 9 5 0 ’s this cultural appraisal approach elaborated into stu d ies o f ind ivid u al and group percep tion s and attitudes, notably with regard to flo o d s and other hazards to hum an settlem en t and eco n o m y . Inter­ v ie w s . q u estion n aires and other m ethods w ere em p lo y ed to study p rofessional and pu b lic p ercep tion s o f the attitudes tow ards le v e e s and other co m m o n adjustm ents to flo o d s (3 2 2 ). T h e results were linked with increasing u se o f flo o d p la in s, at even higher co st to the citizen . O ne co n se q u en ce o f this research has been a broadening o f the range o f flo o d adjustm ents; fo r ex a m p le, m ore em p h a sis is n o w p laced on z o n in g , land use regu lations and other n on -en gin eerin g tech n iq u es. T here are o b v io u s problem s in d efin in g and w ork in g with the term s, p e rcep tio n s and attitudes ( 2 7 6 .1 6 9 ,3 2 2 ). T he word perception has often been used to refer to an in d ivid u al's or grou p 's sen sory and c o g n itiv e im pressions o f a situ ation . T h e term com p reh en d s what one " s e e s ,'' " fe e ls " and is aware o f. A ttitudes are g en era lly seen as being stronger reactions. T h ey are p referen ces and o p in io n s, based on per­ ceptual or other d ifferen ces a m o n g -p eo p le. A ttitu d es m ay be habitual and o v ert, q u ick ly and su b co n scio u sly acted upon. T h ey a lso m ay be rationalizations o f an action after it has occurred (1 2 ). Values are fundam ental b e lie fs and g u id es to hum an b eh aviou r, strong in flu en ces on the percep tion s and attitudes w e exhibit toward land u se. landscape or e c o sy ste m . For e x a m p le, so m e p eop le b asically valu e growth in in co m e and tech n o lo g y and se e su ch ch an ges as m easures o f so c ia l progress. O thers valu e trees, w ild life and the rural sc en e and w ou ld o p p o se grow th w hen it a ffected these thin gs funda­ m en tally. O b v io u sly any co m p reh en siv e approach to land u se prob­ lem s. national park or o th e rw ise, m ust in v o lv e con sid eration o f such im portant human in flu en ces on d ecision -m ak in g.

Technology T h is term is often d efined as the organ ized use o f k n o w led g e for

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practical purposes. It is, h o w ev er, an im p recise term w h o se u sage in the broad se n s e en co m p a sses m uch o f what w e call culture (2 0 3 ). V arious kinds o f m ech an ical and other to o ls are clearly in v o lv ed in tech n o lo g y . S o m e w ou ld a lso exten d its m ean ing to include program s and arrangem ents n ecessary for op eratin g m ach ines such as the co m p u ­ ter |so ftw a re]. S o m e o f the latter group w ou ld also extend the m eaning to en co m p a ss an entire cultural orientation. T h e French scholar, Jacques Ellul (8 5 ) has used the word technique to refer to the em p hasis on standardization and e ffic ie n c y , w hich he s e e s as characteristic o f in creasingly tech n ical W estern culture. M ost technical ch a n g es can be cla ssifie d as m ech an ical, b io lo g i­ cal or ch em ica l, or a com b ination thereof. In the national parks the outstanding m ach ine in terms o f e co sy stem e ffe c ts probably has been the au to m o b ile. E xotic plants and an im als have been used as to o ls to “ im prove' scen ery and fish in g . H erbicides and other c h e m ic a ls have a lso been em p lo y ed to m o d ify the landscape. Let us n ow turn to a b rief review o f the state o f k n ow led ge o f C anadian national parks and related pu b lic reserves in term s o f the four part m odel: e c o lo g y , strategies and institutional arrangem ents; percep­ tio n s, attitudes and v a lu es; and tech n ology.

C an adian National P a rk s and Related Reserves E cology T h e C anadian national park sy stem co n sists o f tw o b asic elem en ts: national and h istoric parks. T h e national parks are o f greatest interest here. H istoric parks arc m ore n u m erous, but rem ain little studied. N ational parks ty p ica lly are large, often e x c e e d in g 1.0 0 0 square m iles in area, although so m e such as P elee, on Lake Erie, and Elk Island, near E d m on ton , en co m p a ss less than 100 square m iles. In contrast. W ood B u ffa lo N ational Park, in northern A lb erta, e x c e e d s 1 7 .0 0 0 square m iles. A bout tw en ty-n in e national parks are located throughout C anada, notably in the w est and the M aritim es. A p p roxim ately I p ercen t o f the co u n try ’s land area is in national parks and perhaps 5 p ercen t is d evoted to both national and p rovincial parks. (F igure 4 ). O ntario and Q u eb ec are c o n sp icu o u s for their sm all national park area, esp e cia lly in light o f their relatively large p op u lation s. S o m e large provincial parks are found in these p rovin ces but fe w are m anaged alon g “ w ild ern ess" lin es and they gen erally are located m any m iles from c itie s. Polar B ear P rovincial Park, on Jam es B ay. is isolated and w ild and has been cla ssed by the govern m en t as a prim itive (w ild er­

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n ess) park. Q u etic o , w est o f Lake Superior, has recently been c la s­ sified as p rim itiv e, and con trols on lu m b erin g, sn o w m o b ilin g and other extra ctiv e or tech n ica l a ctiv ities introduced. Jacques Cartier P rovincial Park, north o f Q u eb ec C ity , appears to have largely escap ed industrial e ffe c ts but is n o w prop osed as the site o f a dam and h yd roelectric fa cility . O nly four n ational parks. W ood B u ffa lo , K luane, N ahanni and B affin Island, are located in the north, w here territorial and p rovincial parks are rare as w ell. A sm all num ber o f national and p rovincial parks h ave b een esta b lish ed a lon g the P a cific, A tlantic and G reat Lakes co a sts. Large national and p rovincial parks w ere created in Canada in tw o m ajor periods; ap p roxim ately 1 8 8 5 -1 9 3 0 and 1955-1973 (2 3 2 ). L ess than h a lf the national parks w ere set up in the first period, c h ie fly in the w e s t, w here the federal govern m en t con trolled large b lo ck s o f public land fo llo w in g con fed eration in 1867. In contrast, in the ea st, in 1867, settlem en t had been underw ay for d ecad es and m ost public land d is­ p osed o f to in d uce settlem en t and pay govern m en t e x p e n se s. H ow ever, so m e large b lock s rem ained in p rovincial hands late in the nineteenth cen tu ry , and part w as set asid e as parkland, n otably A lgon q u in P rovin­ cial Park in 1893. T h e national and provin cial parks created in this first period have sin c e been under h ea v y pressure for lu m b erin g, m in in g, p ow er and other u ses. A s a result m any boundary ch a n g es h ave been m ade and so m e parks elim in ated (3 2 ). T h e seco n d period o f park d evelop m en t cam e after W orld W ar II. w hen risin g m o b ility , in co m es, leisu re and other in flu en ces all c o m ­ bined to a ccelerate recreation d em and . T h is pressure resulted in new federal and provin cial in itiatives. For ex a m p le, in O ntario in 1955, about 2 0 parks w ere in op eration . B y 1973 the num ber had increased to about 120. A p p roxim ately 12 n ew national parks have been proclaim ed by the federal govern m en t in coop eration with the p rovin ces in the last four years. T h ese are ch iefly located in the M aritim es and the north w here o n ly W ood B u ffa lo ex isted prior to 1971. P ukaskw a has been p roclaim ed , on the north sh ore o f Lake S u p erior, as w ell as La M auricie and F o rillo n , the first n ational parks in Q u eb ec. Large national and provincial parks o f w ild ern ess type are un­ e v e n ly distribued w ith respect to p op u lation , as w ell as lan d scap es and c c o sy stm e m s. S tu d ies are n eeded to determ in e the relative le v e ls o f a c c e s s that citiz e n s in differen t parts o f the country h ave to forests, h igh land s and co a sts in public reserves. A num ber o f la n d sca p es and eco sy ste m s are not in clu d ed in the large national and p rovincial parks. N otab le gap s ex ist in the short and m ixed grass areas o f S ask atch ew an and A lberta, the C yp ress H ills, the A lberta fo o th ills, the dry southern v a lley s o f British C olu m b ia, the

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M a ck en zie R iver V a lle y , the Barren G rounds o f the N orthw est Ter­ ritories, the taiga forests o f Q u eb ec and O ntario and the islan d s o f the G u lf o f Saint L aw rence and the M aritim es. S o m e potential parks are k n o w n to have been under con sid eration for years. O ne is Val M arie about o n e hundred m iles south o f R egina. T his park w ould include e x ten siv e areas o f short grass, rolling glaciated terrain and rare a n im als such as the prairie d o g . T h is burrow ing rodent appears to h ave been relatively num erous in the sou th w estern Canadian plains until the introduction o f liv esto ck , cu ltivation and " p e st" c o n ­ trol program s. A nother potential national park is the forest and lake country o f the B lo o d v ein area. M anitoba and western O ntario. T he estab lish m en t o f su ch potential parks apparently has been slo w e d and perhaps b lock ed by op p osition from m ineral, agricultural and other interests. For e x a m p le , the S ask atch ew an N D P govern m en t reportedly w ish es to retain rights to d ev elo p p ossib le oil and gas d ep o sits in Val M arie. T his d o es not appear to be accep tab le to the federal govern m en t. M ore d etailed research is required on the history o f these proposed parks in order that w e m ay better understand the factors that o ffset the creation o f public reserves. S u rv ey s h ave recently been carried out by a g en cies such as the C anadian W ild life S erv ice on potential sites for national parks in the north, in clu d in g the A rctic archipelago: so m e tw en ty-n in e sites report­ ed ly w ere identified in o n e report. D isc u ssio n s h ave been underw ay for so m e tim e about a p o ssib le G u lf Island M arine Park in the coastal w aters o f southern British C olu m b ia. The status o f this proposal is v agu e and p o ssib ly has been a ffec ted by c o n flic ts with fish in g and sh ip p in g , in clu d in g potential e ffe c ts o f oil sp ills from tankers destined to m o v e A laska o il to Cherry P oin t, W ash in gton . E c o lo g ica l k n o w led g e o f ex istin g and potential national and pro­ vin cial parks is u n even and inadequate (5 7 ). O ld er national parks such as B an ff. Jasper and W aterton have lon g attracted g e o lo g ists , g la c io lo g ists, b io lo g ists and. m ore recently, geograp h ers, so c io lo g is ts and other scholars. M uch p ublished sc ien tific inform ation is therefore av a ilab le on these parks, but not alw ays in a form appropriate for m anagem ent. Im portant w ork has been d on e on the character and b eh aviou r o f a n im als such as m ountain sh eep and g rizzly . T h is has b een used to predict the e ffe c ts o f proposed road con stru ction and other p rop osals on a n im als. Y et m uch rem ains to be learned about the park fauna, e sp e c ia lly the sm aller a n im als upon w hich the e x iste n c e o f large m am m als d ep en d s. T he vegetation o f parks such as B an ff and Jasper is still not w ell u n derstood, although these parks h ave been in ex iste n c e for d ecad es. Prelim inary forest m aps w ere prepared for B an ff in the 1 9 5 0 's. But d etailed v eg eta tio n m apping in the B o w V a lley has been undertaken

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o n ly recen tly , by con su ltan ts in v o lv ed in environm ental im pact studies relating to the prop osed tw inn in g o f the T rans-C anada H ig h w a y . The potential use o f such stu d ies to m anagers is prejudiced by the fact that they appear to have been undertaken after a d ecisio n had been m ade to proceed with a m ajor land u se ch an ge; the outstanding q u estion s presum ably co n cern in g its character and lo ca tio n , not w h eth er the project sh ou ld in fact g o forward. R ecen tly, d etailed vegetation studies h ave been undertaken for W aterton. but n oth in g appears to be on the im m ed iate horizon for Jasper. K ooten ay or G lacier. On the other hand, the N ational and H istoric Parks Branch n ow has a resources inventory group and is org a n izin g w id e-ran gin g stu d ies o f veg eta tio n , lan d form s, s o ils and other lan d scap e elem en ts for u se in park planning and in­ terpretation. R elevant studies have a lso been sp on sored on lim eston e cavern s in B an ff, G lacier, and other parks. Q u estion s rem ain, h o w ­ e v er. about the c la ssific a tio n s, the m ethods and the sc o p e o f this in ven tory w ork. Id eally such research sh ou ld y ield a high lev el o f understanding o f p ro cesses and rates o f ch an ge so that p red ictions can be m ade about the e ffe c ts o f a road or an in flu x o f visitors on plant sp e c ie s , erosion and other asp ects o f the eco sy stem [ 10 .2 9 , 3 0 ,6 5 ,7 1 ,7 9 ,1 2 2 ,1 3 2 ,2 0 1 ] . O ther relevant elem en ts or p ro cesses rem ain unstudied. A notable exam p le is flo o d in g and a sso ciated erosion and d ep o sitio n . T h is has cau sed lon gstan d in g problem s in parks such as P elee w here m any attem pts h ave been m ade to control w ave erosion alon g the approxi­ m ately six by o n e m ile p en in su la. T he history o f these attem pts and their e ffe c ts is not w ell know n and rem ains u nevaluated in term s o f p o ssib ly better flo o d and erosion control altern atives. S im ilar remarks c o u ld be m ade about attem pts to control stream flo o d in g and erosion in B an ff and W aterton, c h iefly u sin g en gin eerin g m ethods. In so m e parks m uch in ven tory data are availab le to m anagers, but not en ou gh is know n about d y n am ics. An ex a m p le is the inform ation on birds o f the P acific Rim N ational Park area, V an cou ver Island. B io lo g ists have co n d u cted bird studies along this coast for y ears. M uch is k n ow n about the sp e c ie s that occu r and their m igration and b eh aviou r patterns. But m ore k n o w led g e o f their e c o lo g y is required i f the p op u lation s o f oy sterca tch ers, w andering tattler, tufted p u ffin , ruddy turnstone and other birds are to be m aintained as recreation pressure in creases in this n ew park. W hat types o f disturbances cau se such birds to d eclin e? Can these disturbances b e m anaged e ffe c tiv e ly ? S u ch ' q u estio n s require d etailed stu d ies, in clu d in g m onitoring. Inventories sh ou ld b e carried out as so o n as p o ssib le b efore or after the esta b lish ­ m ent o f a park and sp e c ie s with p otentially high se n sitiv ity to distur­ bance q u ick ly id en tified in term s o f num bers and d istribution. O b serva­ tion or m onitoring o f these p op u lation s sh ou ld a lso begin q u ick ly so as

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to m easure the effe cts o f recreational and other u se and lay the b asis for e ffe c tiv e m anagem ent by z o n in g or other m ean s. S uch research can be c o s tly . But early exp en d itu res here m ight be m ore useful than in v est­ m ent in rapid and e x ten siv e d evelop m en t o f roads and other facilities w h ich could attract users in num bers su fficien t to ca u se u nw anted and u n foreseen deterioration in the features w hich prom pted park estab ­ lish m en t o rigin ally. P lants, a n im als and other elem en ts and p ro cesses o f park land­ sca p es are related to past as w ell as recent co n d itio n s. W ild life sp ecies com p o sitio n and distribution m ay be ch an gin g n ow as a result o f ec o sy ste m ch a n g es w h ich began d eca d es or cen tu ries ag o , perhaps as a result o f the in vasion o f the C aucasian and his com m ercial and tech n i­ cal sy stem . P lants and a n im als n ow in the park m ay not h ave been there so m e years a g o . A n im a ls present earlier a lso m ay h ave b eco m e ex tin ct, w ith uncertain e ffe c ts on plants or other lan d scap e elem en ts grazed or used by them . In order to id en tify and understand su ch ch a n g es, and be in a position to m ake d ecisio n s on th em , h istorical ecological studies are n ecessary. Such stu d ies in v o lv e tracing ch a n g es in human use o f an area and its e ffe c ts on the e c o s y ste m . T h ese stu d ies require som e k n o w led g e and ex p ertise in all four parts o f the m odel used in this paper. In thinking about the valu e o f e c o lo g ic a l research it is im portant to reco g n ize that the results can o n ly contribute to a d e c isio n , w h ich a lso w ill be in flu en ced by other factors, notably the p ercep tion s, attitudes and v a lu es o f interested in d ivid u als and groups. An illustrative ex a m p le can be cited from N e w Z ealan d . In about 1906 a sm all herd o f elk w as introduced to Fiordland N ational Park, South Island. S u ch a large m am m al had not been k n ow n in this area before and it m ay h ave b egu n to ca u se so m e ch an ges in vegetation by gra zin g on plants not su b jected to such use for thousands o f years. H o w e v e r , any ec o sy ste m ch an ges are not lik ely to have been nearly as great as those caused by the deer w h ich a lso w as introduced into N ew Z ealand for the first tim e during the nineteenth century. In this type o f p rob lem , the b io lo g ist and other scien tists can study and d ocu m ent at least so m e o f the e ffe c ts o f deer or elk , and perhaps estim a te what ch a n g es arc lik ely in future. T h e b io lo g ist can a lso point out that the d eer is an e x o tic , a refu gee from another e c o s y ste m , and not a preferred resident if the aim is to preserve the lan d scap e and e c o s y s ­ tem o f earlier tim es, as is often the c a se in national parks. But the ultim ate d ecisio n on h o w to m anage the deer and elk sh ou ld a lso in v o lv e co n sid eration o f the v ie w s o f citiz e n s. P eop le may like and want m any deer ev en if so m e ch an ge in the character o f the pre-European eco sy ste m results. W here such ch an ges are so se v ere as to ca u se erosion o f the sca le and in tensity induced by the deer in N ew

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Z ealan d , a preference for deer is very c o stly e c o lo g ic a lly and e c o n o m i­ ca lly and con trol program s are lik ely to b e w id ely recogn ized as d esira b le. On the other hand, the ex ten sio n o f such con trols to the rare e lk . and its probably m inor e ffe c ts on lan d scap e, is m ore debatable from the standpoint o f p ercep tion s, attitudes and valu es. Little co m p reh en siv e research in historical e c o lo g y has been car­ ried out in C anadian o r A m erican national parks and related reserves. O ne major study w as co m p leted recently for the m oun tain ou s Y o sem ite N ational Park, C aliforn ia (100). H istorical records, old photographs and b io lo g ica l tech n iqu es were used to reveal rem arkable ch a n g es in vegeta tio n and sc en ery , e sp e c ia lly on the v a lley flo o rs. In pre- and early C aucasian tim es an oak savannah association w as w idespread there, b ein g m aintained largely by fires started by lightning and Indian hunters. W ith im proved fire control and other ch an ges fo llo w in g A m erican settlem en t, the oak savannah has largely b een replaced by forests o f cedar, pine and other sp ec ies. T h ese c h a n g es, in turn, have had their effe cts on so ils and other elem en ts, and a n ew landscape has e v o lv e d . Parks m anagers have recently d ecid ed , on the b asis o f these research fin d in g s, and their perception o f what the Y o sem ite V a lley lan d scap e sh ou ld be lik e, to introduce con trolled fires and attem pt to recreate the oak savannah o f old . S o m e historical e c o lo g ic a l stu d ies have been carried out in B an ff and P acific Rim N ational Parks (3 2 ,2 3 3 ,2 3 6 ). S im ilar work has been co m p leted in part o f the Porcupine H ills Forest R eserv e, and for the C yp ress H ills area, southern A lberta and S ask atch ew an ( 8 0 ,2 3 1 ). S o m e o f this work is less d etailed than the Y o sem ite stu d ies and relies le ss h ea v ily on v eg eta tio n m app in g, d en d roch ron ological work and other m ore ex p e n siv e tech n iq u es. A co m p reh en siv e study o f this type by M cK en zie for W aterton Lakes N ational Park is nearing com p letion (M c K e n z ie , M .S c . th e sis, G eograp h y, U n iv. o f C algary). In general the results o f these Canadian stu d ies arc sim ilar to those for Y o sem ite. T h ey reveal that C aucasian im pact on the frequency and exten t o f tires, as w ell as other elem en ts and p r o cesses, had e ffe c ts that reverberated through the ec o sy ste m . T h e research results have been applied to m anagem ent problem s in several w a y s. First, it has been p oin ted out that the results are u sefu l in estab lish in g land use zo n e s in parks: areas rela tiv ely little a ffec ted by C aucasian man h ave q u alities w h ich m ake them attractive can d id ates for w ild ern ess cla ssific a tio n . S eco n d , road p rogram s h ave b een op p osed on the b asis o f their destruc­ tive im pact on areas rela tiv ely little disturbed by C aucasian a ctiv ities (2 3 7 ). T h e results o f historical e c o lo g ic a l stu d ies a lso are relevant to m anagem ent p h ilo so p h y and to p ercep tion s and attitudes that p rofes­ sio n a ls and citizen s hold about national parks. T h ese percep tion s and

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attitudes effect the p o sitio n s that p eop le take on m anagem ent propos­ als. Y et so m e o f their v ie w s are h istorically inaccurate, as later d iscu s­ sio n w ill sh o w (2 2 5 ).

Sira regies a n d Institu tio n a l A rrangem ents N o co m p reh en siv e study o f the d evelop m en t o f the national park sy stem has been p ublished in C anada, althou gh this is not the ca se in other cou n tries such as the U nited States ( 1 3 3 ). Stu d ies o f the d ev e lo p ­ ment o f Canadian p rovincial parks are rare, w ith so m e com p leted research rem aining unpublished ( 1 4 9 ,2 7 4 ,3 2 8 ). W e also lack c o m ­ prehensive stu d ies o f the history and use o f fo rest, grazin g and other p ublic reserves, lik e those com p leted by C la w so n for the U nited States (4 8 ). N or has any federal or provin cial govern m en t seen it as d esirable to support broad ev a lu a tio n s o f p u b lic land p o licy and p ractice in the m anner o f the A m erican in v estigation s o f the last d ecad e ( 2 5 8 ). Stu d ies like that o f the historian, C hester Martin (1 8 8 ) are ex cep tio n s. But M artin's research on D om inion Lands P olicy en d s about 1930. K n o w l­ ed g e o f public land is o n ly indirectly and u n even ly ad van ced by studies o f related to p ic s, for ex a m p le, railw ay d ev elo p m en t or w estern settle­ m ent. W e also lack critical in tellectu al histories o f relevant co n cep ts or ideas su ch as " n a tu re" or “ w ild e r n e s s.” Huth ( 1 3 0 ), N ash (2 1 7 ,2 1 8 ) and Shepard (2 8 2 ) h ave co m p leted revealin g stu d ies o f such co n cep ts in the U nited S tates. T his research h elp s A m erican s understand h ow their e v o lv in g p h ilosop h ical id eas about nature and lan d scap e have in flu en ced the character and distribution o f national parks and other land u ses. A s a result o f the dearth o f h istorical stu d ies, little is k n ow n about the strategies in v o lv ed in the C anadian n ational park sy stem . One prelim inary study (2 2 9 ) has su g g ested that the strategies can be thought o f as b a sica lly three part: 1) A rchitects and planners have aim ed to m eet the anticipated recreational needs o f the p eop le. 2) B u sin ess and govern m en t have aim ed at generating in com e from B a n ff and other parks. 3 ) S o m e adm inistrators and citiz e n s h ave been con cern ed with the preservation and protection o f nature or w ild ern ess. M ore research is d efin itely required to evalu ate the role o f arch itects and planners. M uch o f what w e k n ow about them really d eriv es from the U nited States. H o w ev er, authorities from Europe were invited to C anada in the early tw entieth cen tu ry to a d v ise on city and

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lan d scap e p lanning and so m eth in g approaching a w ild ern ess p olicy w as recom m en d ed for the G atineau Park area, near O ttaw a. W e need d etailed work on such in flu en ces on parks o f all ty p es. N ot one com p reh en siv e study o f the d evelop m en t o f an urban park system appears to have been p u b lish ed in Canada. D etailed stu d ies o f in flu en ­ tial b od ies such as the C o m m issio n o f C on servation , C anada, w hich m ade m any recom m en d ation s on recreation, city and landscape plan­ n in g , a lso are lack in g. O n ly prelim inary work has been don e on the aim s and im pact o f b u sin ess and g o v ern m en t. In a short, in cisiv e paper, the historian, R. C . B row n (2 1 ) has presented ev id e n c e for a m ajor shift in thinking about national parks am o n g p olitician s and high level governm ent o ffic ia ls during the late nineteenth and early tw entieth cen tu ries. In the late 1 8 8 0 's and 1 8 9 0 ’s , m inin g and other extractive u ses w ere pro­ m oted in the park's, as w as the d evelop m en t o f fa cilities to attract tourists and in co m e from m any parts o f the w orld . Later, in the early tw entieth century, there w as a turn to m ore con servation al thinking, w ith strong utilitarian rather than p reservationist overton es. Concern w as ex p ressed , h o w ev er, about the appropriateness o f com m ercial a ctiv ities in national parks. P o licies a im in g at the protection o f nature d o not se e m to have p layed a prom inent part in national park or other land use m anagem ent in Canada until the tw entieth cen tu ry. In O ntario, A lexan d er K irkw ood and others did introduce far-sigh ted legislation for A lgon q u in which stipulated that the park w ould be a plant and anim al refuge as w ell as a p lace for ed u ca tio n a l, sc ien tific and health purposes (1 4 9 ). B ut, from a very early stage A lgon q u in se e m s to have been m anaged on m ultiple u se grou n d s, with preservationist thinking g iv in g w ay in creasingly to the pragm atic and the utilitarian.-T he reverse appears to h ave occurred w ith respect to B a n ff and other national parks. At first B an ff National Park w as a m aze o f lu m b erin g, m in in g, hunting and other a ctivities. But fire control and other p rotective practices w ere shortly introduced. J. B. Harkin began to em p h a size the sc ie n tific , aesth etic and spiritual valu es o f the " w ild " about 1911, w hen ap p ointed first C om m ission er o f D om in ion Parks. H e d ev elo p ed a strategy for park d evelop m en t w hich co m b in ed an interest in nature and w ild ern ess protection with the d evelop m en t o f fa cilities for tourism and in com e. T h is co m b in ed p o licy o f protection and d ev elo p m en t, w h ich w as en shrined in the N ational Parks A ct o f 1930. has cau sed m uch con flict and d isagreem en t. But it has an interesting ring in relation to the S to ck h o lm C o n feren ce o f June 1972. with its call for a com b ination o f C onservation a n d D evelopm ent in resource m anagem ent throughout the w orld. Harkin and his c o lle a g u e s supported strong fire control p o lic ie s and p ra ctices, as w ell as w ild life protection program s, excep t

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for predators and " n o x io u s a n im a ls" such as w o lv e s , cou gars and co y o te s. H is adm inistration a lso w orked for the rem oval o f m uch o f the hu n tin g, trapping, m inin g and other extractive activities w h ich had substantially a ffected w ild life and landscape in B a n ff and other parks by 1911. Private u ses and " rig h ts" in the park were dim in ished con sid era b ly in the years lip to W orld War II. T his included Indian hu n tin g, w hich w as p erceived as a m ajor ca u se o f w ild life dep letion early in the nineteenth century. O ther m o v e s w ere m ade to protect w ild life and “ n a tu re.” For e x a m p le, betw een about 1910 and 1920. three national parks w ere estab lish ed in the A lberta grasslan d s to protect d eclin in g a n telo p e p o p u lation s. Later, in pan b ecau se o f an increase in a n telope num bers, these parks w ere elim in ated . V ery little has been published on the history o f national park institutional arrangem ents. O rigin ally a separate act w as passed for each new " D o m in io n P ark .” But co m p reh en siv e legislation has been p roclaim ed and am en ded on a n um ber o f o cc a sio n s sin ce 1 9 1 1. The relation sh ip b etw een these leg isla tiv e ch an ges and ch an ges in p o licy , p ractice and p o litica l, social and other in flu en ces on the system rem ains u n k now n. What govern m en t d epartm ents the national parks branch has p assed through o v er the years, and h ow the present N ational and H istoric Parks Branch (n o w Parks C anada) b ecam e part o f the D epart­ m ent o f Indian A ffairs and Northern D ev elo p m en t a lso is a subject for further research. W hen historical parks were first esta b lish ed , and h ow they relate to the rest o f the sy stem is another q u estio n , as indeed are the ch a n g in g relations b etw een the w ild life se r v ic e , Indian affairs and n ational parks. A lm o st all land in Canadian national parks is p u b lically ow n ed and h as b een lea sed to residents and b u sin essm en in a variety o f w ays sin ce the I8 8 0 's . T he leasin g sy stem h as had a fundam ental in flu en ce on the character o f the national park sy stem . Y et it rem ains un stu d ied, ex cep t for unpublished co n su ltan ts’ , reports on govern m en t in the parks, and S c a c e ’s (2 7 3 ) work on the d evelop m en t o f B a n ff tow n site. S c a c e ’s study sh o w s that the leasin g sy stem has e v o lv e d in su ch a w ay as to prom ote an array o f b u sin esses and structures w h o se grow th and distribution are d ifficu lt to co n tro l, as in d eed , are their e ffe c ts on lan d scap e. A b a sic ch a n g e in the sy stem , in order, apparently, to p rovid e for more govern m en t land u se p lan nin g, and reduce profiteer­ ing w hen leased lots and a sso ciated b u ildin gs and im provem en ts were transferred, or " s o l d .” w as taken to the S u prem e Court o f C anada by so m e Jasper resid en ts during the late 1 9 6 0 's, and d isa llo w ed . M ore govern m en t su c c e ss appears to h ave been a ch ieved in O ntario, where cottagers in p rovincial parks su ch as R on d eau , on Lake Erie have been inform ed that their lea ses w ill be ren ew ed for on e m ore term , w h ere­ upon their b u ild in g s and im provem en ts w ill b e subject to purchase

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an d /or rem oval in order to provide for greater pu b lic a c c e ss to beach es and other park resou rces by the p u b lic. C om p arative stu d ies o f leasin g and licen sin g sy stem s in different parts o f C anada, as w ell as the U nited States and other parts o f the w orld , w ou ld b e instructive. T h e first interpretation o f the N ational Parks A ct, k n ow n as the National Parks P o lic y , w as issu ed by the M in ister resp on sib le for national parks in 1964. The d ocu m ent is apparently an important gu id elin e for adm inistrators and others interested in parks. In recent years it h as frequently been referred to by m any p eop le participating in pu b lic hearings on proposed m aster p lan s for C anadian national parks. It is a so m ew h a t a m b igu ou s d ocu m ent. W hen and h ow w a s it d ev elo p ed ? W hat purposes w as it seen as servin g? H ow has it been used and what e ffe c ts has it had? Should a revision o f th is p olicy statem ent by undertaken, as ad vocated by s o m e , or should the A ct itself be rewritten? Park zo n in g sy stem s a lso d eserve study. T h e Canadian systen is a m o d ification o f an A m erican m odel and d iv id es parks into sp ecial e c o lo g ic a l and cu ltural, w ild ern ess recreation, natural en viron m en t, recreation and in ten siv e use z o n e s . T h e d escrip tion s o f p erm issib le land use in these zo n e s are very general and v a g u e, and co u ld be im p roved , e sp e c ia lly with regard to con trollin g the e ffe c ts o f large num bers o f visito rs and recreation tech n o lo g y . A variety o f tech n iqu es are gradually co m in g into use to am eliorate su ch e ffe c ts , a m o n g them the settin g o f v isitor lim its, p roh ib ition s again st u se o f non-burnable m aterials in the b ack -coun try, and rotation o f trails and cam p grou nd s. A lternative zo n in g sy ste m s, sp e c ific a lly incorporating such tech ­ niq u es, d eserve stu d y , as d o new park cla ssific a tio n sy stem s w hich m ore clea rly d istin g u ish a m o n g park u ses and so red u ce co n flic t am ong th em . V arious ty p es o f recreation are in creasin gly in com patib le with on e another and sh ou ld be sp atially or tem porally zon ed . S cien tific work often in v o lv es ch a n g es in lan d scap e not w anted b y other users and so is not d esirable in all types or parts o f parks (6 0 ). T h e International U n ion for the C on servation o f Nature ( I .U .C .N .) is p rom otin g the d ev elo p m en t o f a parks cla ssific a tio n aim ed at these prob lem s. T h e public hearings th e m selv es are a prim e subject for study. T h ey appear to h ave d e v e lo p e d , lik e s o m any other asp ects o f Canadian land u se p o licy and p ractice, from precedents in the U nited S tates, sp e c ific a lly the m anagem en t and planning ch a n g es m ade in that co u n ­ try in the 1950"s and early I9 6 0 's . T h e first Canadian hearin gs were held for K ejim kujik and other M aritim e parks, and ev en tu a lly c u lm i­ nated in h earings for the four R ock y M ountain Parks. B a n ff, Jasper, Y oh o and K ooten ay, and for the proposed V illaga Lake L o u ise, a project in v o lv in g hotel and m otel con stru ction to a ccom m od ate about 1 0 ,0 0 0 p eo p le, largely tourists. T h e su b m issio n s and the records for

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these hearings are a v a ila b le, as are so m e park d ocu m en ts relatin g to d e c isio n s m ade fo llo w in g the h earin gs. The original p u rp oses, e ffe c ts , and current status o f public h earin gs, as w ell as the m aster planning program , con stitute an im portant research area. T h is research is rele­ vant to current q u estio n s about m eth od s and e ffe c ts o f pu b lic partici­ pation in d ecisio n -m a k in g . M ethods o f a ssessin g the valu e o f national parks and related reserves a lso d ese rv e the attention o f social scien tists. B e n e fit/co st tech n iq u es h ave been applied to m any A m erican and overseas reserves (1 3 ,4 9 ,1 1 7 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 5 ,2 2 6 ,2 9 8 ) . There arc p rob lem s in ap p lyin g these tech n iq u es to p sy c h o lo g ic a l, s o c ia l, health and other so -ca lled in tan gi­ ble v a lu e s. R esearch aim ed at the im provem ent o f tech n iq u es is desira­ ble ( 5 2 ). Few b en efit/co st stu d ies se em to have been undertaken on C anadian national, parks, although o n e has been com p leted for G ros M orne, N ew fo u n d la n d . T his d ocu m ent is restricted to use by park and govern m en t o ffic ia ls , a handicap to th ose interested in m ore fu lly understanding the ad van tages and d isad van tages o f parks and other typ es o f land u se. T he reasons for such restrictions on research p u b lica­ tio n , and the e ffe c ts on d ecisio n -m a k in g , d eserve stu d y. In other cou n tries A c c e ss to Inform ation A cts have been passed to deal with this problem . C om parative study o f su ch A cts, and their e ffe c ts , w ou ld assist in id en tifyin g ad van tages and d isad van tages for Canada. A nother priority research area is the u se o f ea sem en ts and other m eans o f providing p u b lic a c c e ss to private land. T h e purchase o f rights to recreation and other public u ses, w ithout h a v in g to bear the higher e x p e n se o f outright p u rch ase, se em s attractive at this tim e o f rapidly risin g land c o sts. E asem en ts appear to have been reason ably su cc essfu l in N ew B ru n sw ick , but reportedly h ave en countered problem s in W is­ co n sin . F ew d etailed studies o f easem en t ad van tages and d isad van tages appear to have been co m p leted in areas where they h ave been used for so m e tim e. U sefu l ca se stu d ies cou ld be carried out in areas such as N ez Perce National Park. Idaho, w here ea sem en ts apparently h ave been co m b in ed with pu b lic land ow n ersh ip to create an unusual national park, at least from the North A m erican standpoint. S tu d ies o f e x p eri­ e n ce in Britain— w here ea sem en ts and land u se regu lations are the basis for the operation o f national parks on private land— w ou ld b e a valuable g u id e. O n e such study reports favourably o n their use in the Peak D istrict and su g g e sts that they hold p rom ise for North A m erica (1 4 1 ). A nother im portant research area is intergovernm ental and re­ gion al planning (1 1 4 ,3 4 ). T he fed eral-p rovin cial co n feren ces arc often cited as a forum for the ex ch a n g e o f id eas. But their e ffe c tiv e n e ss has been q u estion ed and they merit research. S tu d ies a lso co u ld be carried out on the U nited S tates' W ild ern ess A ct, as w ell as the C ountryside A ct in the U n ited K in g d o m , in order to evalu ate their e ffe c ts on

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recreation and other park u ses and their p o ssib le utility in Canada ( 7 6 ,8 1 ,1 4 1 .1 2 6 ) . T h e U . S. W ild ern ess A ct is an attem pt to bring " w ild a rea s” separately m anaged by the L'. S . N ational Park S erv ice, the F orest S erv ice and other govern m en t a g e n c ie s, under a com m on p olicy fram ew ork. Perhaps this type o f legislation cou ld be used to e ffe ct better relation sh ip s b etw een the federal and p rovincial g overn ­ m ents in Canada. E nabling leg isla tio n by the federal g overn m en t, sp e c ify in g standards to be m et for d esign ation as a Canadian W ild er­ n ess A rea, cou ld be backed w ith offers o f financial support, in order to protect m ore w ild land in Canada. At an even d eep er level in the sy stem are the relation sh ip s b etw een the m u n icip a lities, the p rovin ces and the federal g overn m en t. O ne m ech an ism w hich reportedly in v o lv e s the coop eration o f the three m ajor le v e ls o f govern m en t is the C O R T S sc h e m e w h ich provid es arrangem ents for research and m anagem ent o f the Trent and Rideau river sy stem s, O ntario. The o rig in , ad van tages and disad van tages o f this sc h e m e d eserv e study in term s o f its ap p licab ility elsew h ere. N ational park boundary areas, such as the C anm ore C orridor, a rou gh ly tw en ty by five m ile stretch leading alon g the B ow V a lley into B an ff National Park, d efin itely require so m e type o f coop erative m an­ agem ent and plan nin g. S everal years ago w hen the federal govern m en t issu ed its proposed m aster plans for B an ff and the other m ountain parks, very little con su ltation apparently took p lace am on g the provin ­ cial g o v ern m en t, the C algary R egion al Planning C o m m issio n , and other co n cern ed en tities. Paradoxical su g g estio n s were m ade about proposed land u se zo n in g in B a n ff in relation to o n g o in g or planned use on provincial and private land ad join in g the park. T h e recent Alberta govern m en t public hearings on land use in the R ock y M ountain fo o t­ h ills, ea st o f B a n ff Park, also se em to have in volved little con su ltation w ith the federal g o v ern m en t, at least in the preparation o f background papers.

P erceptions, A ttitudes a n d Values T he first point that c o m e s to m ind is that m any C anadians undoubtedly are unaw are o f national parks and other types o f pu b lic land and have o n ly the vagu est idea o f their p urposes. M ore in v o lv ed p ro fessio n a ls and citizen s have greater k n o w led g e but often differ w id e ly in p ercep tion s, attitudes and valu es respecting these reserves. T heir v iew p o in ts o b v io u sly in flu en ce their p o sitio n s on park land use issu es and therefore are very im portant in d e c isio n ­ m aking. Yet m any o f their percep tion s and attitudes are erron eou s in the historical se n s e , failin g to sh o w an understanding o f the co m p lex ity o f park o rigin s and d ev elo p m en t.

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T h u s, there are those w h o p erceive the national parks as b asically h avin g been estab lish ed for recreation. M any o f these people w h oleh earted ly support the introduction o f m ore roads and other fa c ilitie s, ev en though they m ay ca u se fundam ental ch an ges in the b io lo g ica l character o f parks, a central concern o f m anagem ent sin ce at least J. B . H arkin's d a y . On the other hand are those w h o p erceive the parks as “ pristin e” or “ u n tou ch ed ” nature, the protection o f w hich has been the b asic g o a l o f park m anagem ent from the b eg in n in g , in the 1 8 8 0 's. T h o se p eo p le gen erally are o p p osed to m ore roads and other d ev elo p m en t. Y et park p o lic ie s, p ractices and lan d scap es clearly h ave changed through the years ( 3 2 ,1 8 7 ,2 2 5 ,2 4 3 ) . For ex a m p le, origin ally in B an ff and other w estern parks, c o y o te s, w o lv e s , b ad gers, sk u n k s, cou gar and other predators w ere regarded as n o xiou s an im als. P rogram s were introduced to control or elim in ate th em . T h ese program s, cou p led with regrow th o f poplar, and other vegetation fo llo w in g e x ten siv e forest Fires in " p io n eer d a y s ,” have contributed to an increase in elk num bers in particular. By 1 940, b io lo g ists su ch as C ow an (5 6 ) co n clu d ed that the num erous elk w ere overgrazin g range. Population control program s w ere introduced and co n tin u e today. M ore recently it has been con ten ded that lon g-con tin u ed national park fire control program s h ave produced e x ten siv e a g ein g forests. T h is has led , in turn, to su g g estio n s that these p o lic ie s be term inated and that con trolled burning or lum bering b e used to recreate the shrub and other v eg etation m ore favourable to m any kinds o f w ild life. A ll these su g g estio n s for ch an ge raise q u estio n s w h ich require stu d y. W ill con trolled fires or lum bering h ave the sam e e ffe c ts on veg eta tio n and w ild life as “ w ild " fires? If introduced, sh ou ld lum ber­ in g be carried out by govern m en t or private enterprise? H ow w ould citizen s p erceive and react to lum bering? It se em in g ly threatens the “ w ild ern ess id e a l” o f national parks w hich has grow n stronger in Canada in recent years. T he fo regoin g d iscu ssio n raises the problem o f h o w to d efine w ild ern ess, o r, m ore im portantly, landscape g o a ls gen erally in national parks. H isto rica lly the trend has b een to bar or m od ify lum bering, hunting and other cultural p ractices p erceived as in com p atib le w ith the e v o lv in g im age o f a national park, w h ile oth erw ise a llo w in g the e c o s y s ­ tem to g o on ch a n g in g , w ithou t m uch thought o f end p oin ts or land­ sc a p e g o a ls. In other w ord s, the ten dency has b een to v ie w national parks as areas w h ere certain hum an practices do not o ccu r, rather than to think about what type o f landscape or eco sy stem is e v o lv in g as a result o f an essen tia lly n egative m anagem ent p o licy . T h is approach has

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led to m any u n foreseen ch a n g es and to m uch co p in g and uncertainty am o n g m anagers and the public. In the United States the L eop old C om m ittee (1 6 0 ,1 6 1 ) addressed this problem o f natural park lan d scap e g o a ls during the 19 6 0 ’s . T h e C om m ittee co n clu d ed that the desirable national park landscape w as that extan t w hen the “ w h ite m an ” cam e to North A m erica. E stablish­ ing the character o f such an early landscape can provide fruitful re­ search op p ortu n ities for geograp h ers and e c o lo g is ts ( 1 0 0 ), but the L eopold C o m m ittee recom m en d ation d o es p ose certain p rob lem s. For o n e thin g, it is not a lw a y s e a sy to d eterm in e the state o f the e c o s y ste m at the tim e o f C au casion in v a sio n . In w estern C an ad a, for ex a m p le, Indian trade routes m ade it p o ssib le for the B la ck feet, the Sh osh on i and other n ative p eo p les to ch a n g e from a su b sisten ce, sto n e-a g e culture to com m ercia l iron-age hunting o f b eaver and other an im als w h ile the European fur trade p osts w ere still hundreds o f m iles aw a y . A fine tem poral d iv isio n o f the Indian and the w h item an ’s landscape is therefo te hard to estab lish and perhaps not realistic. A nother problem w ith the L eop old sch em e is its sc ie n tific and ed u cational restrictiven ess. L an d scap es other than those existin g at the tim e o f the C aucasian arrival are o f great in tellectu al interest, as arc lon ger term ev o lu tio n a ry ch a n g es occu rrin g in the en viron m en t. C h an g es in vegetation and w ild life sp e c ie s, in ero sio n , and in land form s, h ave lo n g occurred in resp onse to ch an ges in clim a te and other b iop h y sica l p r o c e s se s , as w ell as in resp onse to hum an a ctivity. In this c o n te x t, any d ecisio n to control or prohibit hum an a ctiv ites in national parks can be q u estio n ed in relation to in d igen ou s native groups w h ose hu n tin g, burning, and other action s h ave had a fundam ental p lace in the ec o sy ste m for cen tu ries. W hat do w e m ean by the term “ nature" under these circu m stan ces? Is it not quite arbitrary to d ecid e at what point in tim e human a ctio n s and effe cts are “ unnatural” : and subject to control? A final reason for q u estio n in g the value o f a park p o licy aim in g at the estab lish m en t and m ainten an ce o f lan d scap es as they w ere at the tim e o f arrival o f the w hite man is the lack o f en th u siasm su ch a g o a l is lik ely to generate am o n g n on -w h ite grou p s. T h ese p eop les are lik ely to co n c e iv e o f la n d sca p es that are o f m uch greater historical sig n ifica n ce to them . In the U nited States and C an ad a, attem pts h ave been m ade to deal with the problem o f g o a ls through the co n cep ts o f era and evolu tion ary lan d sca p es (2 2 0 ). Era la n d scap es are those w here d isea se, fire and other p ro cesses are m anaged in order to m aintain the land as it w as at the tim e o f the fur trader, the rancher or early gold m iner. E volutionary lan d scap es are those w h ere no hum an interference is con tem p lated and

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the landscape is a llo w ed to ch an ge " n a tu ra lly ." independent o f m an. Such evo lu tio n a ry lan d scap es are, o f cou rse, still b ein g m anaged by m an, w h o has sim p ly taken the p o licy d ecisio n not to interfere directly in their d ev elo p m en t. R ela tiv ely few parks or reserves actu ally se em to be d elib erately m anaged as era or evo lu tio n ary lan d scap es, in part b ecau se o f lack o f the n ecessary historical e c o lo g ic a l research. O ne excep tion is Y osem ite N ational Park, w here co n tro lled burning is n ow b ein g con d u cted on the v a lley floor in an attem pt to rem ove the con ifers and recreate the oak savan n ah s o f early C aucasian tim e. In Y e llo w sto n e N ational Park, large evo lu tio n a ry zo n e s have been set asid e w h ere g rizzly bear, b ison and other a n im als roam freely. R ecreational u se is con trolled and hum an interference is m in im ized . S o m e roads traverse these areas, a llo w in g for sig h tse e in g . But visitors are w arned n ot to venture far from cars at risk o f injury from w ild life . T h e p o licy is to let fire, c y clic variations in anim al p o p u la tion s, “ o v e r -g r a z in g ,” and other p ro cesses run their co u rse, although if su ch p ro cesses occu r on a sc a le large en ou gh to threaten the v ia b ility o f a particular sp ec ies or the character o f the landscape rem nant as a w h o le, con trol m easures w ou ld be introduced. B efore lea v in g the topic o f p ercep tion s, attitudes and va lu es, their potential im portance in form u latin g zon in g and other land use regu la­ tions should be pointed out. A ttem pts to em p lo y land u se con trols en cou n ter the b asic problem o f h o w the kinds and lev els o f u se in an area are to be d eterm in ed and esta b lish ed . O r. to phrase the problem d ifferen tly , h ow do w e d eterm ine the carrying cap acity o f a zo n e or a park (7 4 )? T he p resen ce o f too m any p eop le, or o f certain typ es o f a ctiv ities or m a ch in es, for e x a m p le sn o w m o b ile s, can alter vegetation and eco sy ste m s as w ell as detract from recreational en joym en t p sy c h o lo g ica lly . But h ow do w e m easure and determ in e w h eth er a c h a n g e in v eg eta tio n or w ild life is sign ifican t? H ow e x te n siv e must erosion be before it is v iew ed as d angerous or d am agin g? S om e b io lo g ists speak o f " irrev ersib le " or " irretrievab le" eco sy stem ch a n g es as a result o f hum an a ctivity (3 1 5 ). W hat d o es this m ean in term s o f recovery tim e and character? W ill the sy stem never return to so m eth in g approxim ating its predisturbance co n d itio n , or w ill this o ccu r in tw en ty , or forty, o r o n e hundred years? H ow can on e m easure and determ in e w h en m a n ’s en joym en t has d ecreased sig n ifica n tly as a result o f cro w d in g , n o ise, or so m e other p rocess (1 9 )? H ow m any p eo p le m ust share this perception before m anagem ent con trols are introduced? R ela tiv ely few stu d ies h ave b een carried out on such prob lem s. T h e cla ssic research o f L ucas in the isolated Boundary W aters C an oe A rea o f northern M ich igan still rem ains a m ost instructive

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ex a m p le o f p erceptional d ifferen ces am ongst users and the relevan ce o f these d ifferen ces to zo n in g ( 1 7 3 ). Apart from lo g g in g , the m ain activity in the forests, stream s and lak es o f the Boundary W aters C an oe A rea is recreation , in clu d in g ca n o e in g , m otor boating and ca m p in g . L u ca s’ study reveals sig n ifica n t d ifferen ces in the w a y in w hich the various typ es o f users d efin e and d elim it w ild ern ess. H e in terview ed c a n o e ists, m otor boaters and others, in various parts o f the area, and co n clu d ed that, from a perceptual standpoint, there w ere tw o w ild ern esses: that o f the can oeist and that o f the m otor-boater. T h e ca n o eist's w ild ern ess w as the m ost se n s itiv e , being reduced by road co n stru ction , encounters with m otors and sim ilar c h a n g es. R em o ten ess and sig n s o f lo g g in g were not as im portant in flu en ces on the ca n o e ist’s w ild ern ess. A s a result of-his stu d y, Lucas su g g ested that, in order to c o n se rv e the c a n o e ist's w ild ern ess, the U .S . Forest S erv ice sh o u ld zo n e the Boundary W aters C anoe Area into the tw o p erceived w ild ern esses and regulate the type and am ount o f use in each zo n e acco rd in g ly .

Technology Little d etailed research is a v ailab le on the im pact o f tech n o lo g y on national parks and related reserves in C anada. R ecen tly the s n o w ­ m o b ile and other all-terrain v e h ic le s ( A .T .V .) h ave attracted attention b ecau se o f their w id e-ran ging environ m en tal effe cts ( 6 .3 1 .4 3 . 4 4 ,1 9 1 ) . T h e n o ise, w eigh t and m obility o f the sn o w m o b ile , and its u sers, have ch an ged v eg eta tion and w ild life . S tu d ies have sh ow n that the v e h ic lc a lso has a ffected sn o w ch aracteristics, so il tem peratures, sn o w m elt, so il ero sio n , n o ise , and other ecosystem , elem en ts and p ro cesses. T he sn o w m o b ile is o f sp ecial interest in the light o f current con cern about tech n o lo g y and environ m en tal im pact, for parks m ana­ gers gen erally fa iled to fo resee all the direct and indirect e ffe c ts o f the v eh icle and the reaction s these ch an ges ca u se am on g park users. After b ein g introduced rather q u ick ly into B an ff and other national parks during the I 9 6 0 's . sn o w m o b ile trails have been d rastically reduced in recent years. T h e e ffe c ts o f other te c h n o lo g y , for ex a m p le a u to m o b iles and trains, is often in tu itiv ely grasped but really not w ell understood quan­ tita tiv ely . B etw een the tim e o f its introduction about 1910, and 1970, the a u to m o b ile transform ed m uch o f B an ff Park. R oads were built alon g m any o f the m ajor v a lle y s in the 192 0 ‘s , I9 3 0 's and I9 4 0 's , a llo w in g a ccess to large num bers o f visitors. T h ese p eop le w ere then provided with g as sta tio n s, m o tels, restaurants, cam p sites and other fa c ilitie s. The e ffe c ts o f these fa cilities on w ild life and other a sp ects o f

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the eco sy stem h ave not been stu d ied in d etail. S im ilar d ev elo p m en ts occurred in other parks such as Point P elee, Elk Island and J asp er.(S ee F igu res 9 . 10, 11.) A major ch a n g e in p olicy se em s to have been m ade in 1971-72 w hen proposed major roads for the R o ck y M ountain and other national parks were ca n celled o n the b a sis o f p rofession al and citizen representa­ tions about their potential effe cts on lan d scap e. M ajor problem s still arc asso cia ted w ith ex istin g roads as w ell as to w n sites. and d ow n h ill ski areas, w ith their high tech n o lo g ica l load. G reater use o f pu b lic trans­ port w ill ea se so m e o f these e ffe c ts , but not others asso cia ted with increasing concentration o f large num bers o f p eop le in sm all areas. S u ch effe cts have led to the d evelop m en t o f environ m en tal im pact stu d ies in the U .S . and Canada ( 7 3 ,2 2 2 ). T h e aim is to foresee and take into account as m any potential environ m en tal ch a n g es as p o ssib le in m akin g a d ecisio n for o r again st land use ch an ge. Environm ental im pact studies are required by law in the U nited S tates, w h ere the Environm ental P rotection A ct ( E .P .A .) w as sig n ed by the P resident in 1970. T h is A ct requires the preparation o f a Statem ent o n the e ffe c ts o f a proposed d am , road, or other tech n ology on w ild life or other asp ects o f the eco sy ste m . C om m en ts are ca lled for on su ch th in gs as the “ irretrievable" nature o f any anticip ated e ffe c ts , long-term lo ss o f resou rces and p lan nin g altern atives. Initially the b iop h ysical ch an ges w ere o f greatest con cern , although the stu d ies are n ow b ein g exten d ed to in clu d e ch a n g es in em p loym en t opportunities and other social ph en om en a. In the U nited States, environ m en tal im pact statem ents are required to be circu lated to other con cern ed a g en cies for re v ie w . The statem ents are a lso a v a ilab le to the pu b lic for co m m e n ts. S o m e ch an ges h ave been m ade in proposed projects as a result o f a gen cy and citizen criticism , but others h ave g o n e forw ard , u n m od ified . E ven though C anada d oes not have E nvironm ental Im pact A s­ sessm en t leg isla tio n lik e that o f the U nited S ta tes, a num ber o f e n ­ vironm ental im pact stu d ies have been carried out in various parts o f the D o m in io n , for ex a m p le on the Jam es Bay P ow er S ch em e and the p rop osed tw inn in g o f the T rans-C anada h igh w ay through B an ff N a­ tional Park. T h ese C anadian stu d ies have certain d e fic ie n c ie s. In m ost ca ses they w ere prepared after a particular land use d ecisio n had been m ade, so that the opportunity to co n sid er a range o f alternatives w as lim ited . T he need for the d ecisio n often w as not dem onstrated c o n v in c ­ in g ly . T h e stu d ies a lso tend to be hastily prepared and provide in su ffi­ cien t data and an a ly sis for d ecisio n -m a k in g . S o m e stu d ies have been treated a s co n fid en tia l and not released to other govern m en t a g e n c ie s, nor the p u b lic, for com m en t. R esearch on m eth od s o f co n d u ctin g en viron m en t im pact stu d ies w o u ld be u sefu l, e sp e c ia lly w h ere this in v o lv es stu d ies o f proposed

Figure 9: Facilities Development in Banff National Park, 1930

Figure 10: Facilities Development in Banff National Park, 1960

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Campgrounds

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Picnic Sites

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Visitor Services

0

Ski Slopes

Cabins-Lodges

............. ....Railroad --------

Major Highway

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Secondary Highway

--------Public Access

Is miles

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Non-Public Access

i — Read—

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Proposed Roads

10 Mile Corridor

Figure 11: Facilities Development in Banff National Park, 1971

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projects in national parks and sim ilar reserves. Such research is a lo g ica l ex ten sio n o f historical e c o lo g ic a l stu d ies, and w ou ld probably ben efit from this type o f approach. E valu ation s o f the e ffe c ts o f en v i­ ronm ent im pact stu d ies on d ecisio n -m a k in g and resource m anagem ent a lso w ould be useful in d eterm in in g their overall social valu e. A few very general p oin ts should be m ade in co n clu d in g this paper. In m y v ie w , m uch m ore research on n ational parks, and other pu b lic reserv es, is required, if w e are to understand and better m anage this type o f resource. M uch o f the research sh ou ld be m ulti­ d iscip lin a ry . w h eth er carried out by a team o f sch olars, or an indi­ vid u al. M uch o f the research sh ou ld also have an applied orientation. A g e n c ie s su ch as the N ational R esearch C ou n cil tend to g iv e such w ork lo w priority. H op efu lly Canada C ou n cil w ill be m ore receptive. T h e D epartm ents o f Indian A ffairs and Northern D evelop m en t (D .I . A .N .D .) , E nvironm ent and Urban A ffairs sh ou ld en cou rage such research, a lo n g with their provin cial counterparts. Funds sh ou ld be provided to p ublish m ore o f the g o o d th eses that often rem ain unused in un iversity libraries. G overn m en t departm ents su ch as D .I .A .N .D . do not have a p u b lish ing program for departm ental and consultant reports and sh ou ld introduce o n e in order to bring m ore inform ation to the attention o f p ro fessio n a ls and the p u b lic, in the interest o f betler d ecisio n -m a k in g .

8. Som e B a c k g ro u n d T h o u g h ts on E n v iro n m e n ta l Im p a c t S tatem ents* J . G. Nelson

Intro d u ctio n In recent years d eterg en ts, p esticid es, all terrain v e h ic le s , dam c o n ­ struction projects and other tech n ical ch an ges have had far-reaching effe c ts on en viron m en t and have created a strong interest in the better prediction and m anagem en t o f tech n o lo g y . T h is interest is still co n c e n ­ trated, h o w ev er, on b iop h ysical and b ioch em ical ch an ges and not on so c ia l o n es. There are probably various reasons for th is, am on g them the b asic idea, at least in w estern s o c ie ty , that social organization and valu es sho u ld change in resp onse to tech n ical d ev elo p m en ts and c o m ­ m ercial o p p ortu n ities. Certain e x istin g social sy stem s are co n c e p ­ tualized as “ o ld ,” “ p rim itiv e” and “ back w ard ” and are often per­ ce iv e d as im pedim en ts to “ p ro g ress,” w here this is g en erally d efined as tech n ical and e c o n o m ic grow th . N ot to say that there have not been departures from this type o f thinking. B ut they really con stitute m o d ifi­ cation s on the b asic th em e rather than true ch a n g es in it. T h u s, in d iscu ssin g b en efit-co st an a ly sis o f proposed water p rojects, the e c o n o m ist, H o w e, refers to the need to con sid er the c o sts o f social c h a n g es, such as the d islo ca tio n o f p eop le from a j o b , a h om e area and a life s ty le , but in a cryptic and u n im p ressive w ay com pared to his d iscu ssio n o f p o w er c o s ts , b en efits o f recreational u se o f reservoirs and other factors that w e have learned to quantify in various w a y s (1 2 8 ). R ecen tly , certain “ futurists" h ave prom oted the con cep t o f tech ­ n o lo g y a ssessm en t, i.e . the study o f the effe cts o f tech n ical ch a n g es not o n ly on the p h ysical en v iro n m en t, but a lso on p opulation distribution, o ccu p a tio n s, in co m es, m arriage, the fa m ily , recreation and life sty les (9 6 ). M any o f these p eo p le urge a m uch stronger orientation to the future in planning. T h ey tend to denigrate the value o f h istoric stu d y. T h ey say that w e sh ou ld state what w e want the future to be and then work to a c h ie v e this rather than con tinu in g to think in term s o f co p in g with or m o d ify in g the present and the past. T h ey ad vocate the u se o f sim u lation tech n iqu es and scen arios in se lectin g the ideals or g o a ls for the future. W hile su ch thinking has m any attraction s, it a lso brings *G .I.R .M .S., D epartm ent o f G eography, W aterloo Lutheran University, W aterloo, 3, 1972 - 7 3 , 128 - 142. 165

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w orries and p ro b lem s. A b asic o n e is, do w e really want to d ecid e upon and know the d eta iled shape o f thin gs to c o m e , and work to in flu en ce their occurrence at the lo ss o f w h o k n ow s what potential even ts, ch a n g es and v alu es? D o w e h ave the k n o w led g e and w isd om to foresee and ju d g e the co n se q u en ce s o f our im ages o f the future? Rather rigid, d eterm in istic, g o a ls-o rien ted thinking b egs problem s covered by men like L e w is M um ford in their stu d ies o f ideal futures (2 1 3 ). S u ch utopias are often c o n c e iv e d in co m p letely and w ithout adequate aw aren ess o f their d isad v a n ta g es. Indeed, u top ias m ay be nearly attained and found w an tin g. If w e do want to plan d eterm in istically for the future, by w h om and h ow are the c h o ic e s to be m ade? W hat w ill b e the role o f the ex p erts, the p ro fessio n a ls and the public o fficia ls? What w ill be the role o f the in d iv id u a ls, the c itiz e n 's grou p s, the public? In this c o n te x t, there is a very real d an ger that determ in istic futuristic thinking w ill pull us farther aw ay from the careful con sid era­ tion o f the present and the past that is essen tial to understanding what and w here w e are so c ia lly , p sy c h o lo g ic a lly and en viron m en tally. W e cou ld very w ell pay ev en less attention than w e d o n ow to the often unappreciated u tilities and ad van tages o f certain social or cultural arrangem ents. A s p ro fessio n a ls, w e h ave tended to overlook the e c o lo g ic a l and cultural ad van tages o f certain p rim itive form s o f agricu l­ ture. such as the m ilp as, or o f " o ld " d ow n tow n residential areas or market p la ces. A s p ro fessio n a ls, w e often liv e apart from su ch things and so h ave great d ifficu lty in appreciating them until they are g o n e and w e h ave to c o p e with the e n su in g p rob lem s. S u rely this is one reason for the g row in g interest in p u b lic participation; those w h o are affected by proposals can provide a differen t v iew o f the nature and valu e o f things.

T h e E nvironm ental Im p act S tatem en t: Som e Difficulties E nvironm ental im pact stu d ies and statem ents are related to fundam en­ tal co n sid era tio n s like those ju st d escrib ed , but the present surge o f interest in them in Canada and other cou n tries arises c h ie fly from e v en ts leading up to and fo llo w in g the p a ssa g e o f the U n ited States ( U .S .) National E nvironm ental P olicy A ct on January I, 1970 (7 3 ). John Steinhart has describ ed the p olitical interplay am on g m em b ers o f C o n g ress, various govern m en t a g en cies and the U .S . P resid en t's o ffic e regarding this and a sso cia ted ch a n g es in environ m en tal p o licy and institutional arrangem ents ( 2 9 1 ). C reated w ere the C ou n cil on En­ vironm ental Q uality ( C .E .Q .) . a three man group o f high ex ecu tiv e rank, h ou sed in the E x ecu tive O ffic e o f the P resident; a C itizen 's A d v iso ry C om m ittee on E nvironm ental Q uality; and an O ffic e o f

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Environm ental Q u ality co n sistin g o f support sta ff for the C o u n cil. The E nvironm ental P rotection A g e n c y ( E .P .A .) a lso w as estab lish ed about th is tim e and g iv e n resp on sib ility for Federal W ater Q uality A d m in is­ tration, a group o f p esticid e program s, the N ational Air Pollution C ontrol A d m in istration . S o lid W aste, and other program s. T h ese had been h ou sed in other departm ents such as Interior; A griculture; H ealth, E ducation and W elfare; and C om m erce. T h eir rem oval has b een a s­ sociated with m uch hurly burly, attem pts to protect the bu d get, pow er p lays and other traditional institutional a ctiv ities. M any a g en cies or program s rem ain in rather aw kw ard states. For ex a m p le, the National O cea n ic and A tm osp h eric A g en cy rem ains in the D epartm ent o f C o m ­ m erce w here it operates the W'eather Bureau, the Bureau o f C o m m er­ cial F ish eries. M arine Sports F ish eries and other program s, in an en viron m en t that d iffers from that in E .P .A . A prim e instrum ent for en viron m en tal im provem en t under the general su p ervision o f the n ew C ou n cil on E nvironm ental Q u ality is the E nvironm ent Impact S tatem en t, w h ose character is d ifficu lt to d efine and m ay co n tin u e to be for so m e tim e. Part o f this d ifficu lty results from the adjustm ents n ecessary in govern m en t and private groups w h en ev er any major n ew requirem ent is p laced upon them . P eop le h ave to b eco m e aw are o f the legislation at all le v e ls o f resp onsib ility. P ersonnel have to be found and trained to work with the n ew system . M ore fu n d am en tally, the general legislation has to be con verted into reason ably w ell understood g u id e lin e s, procedures and practices, som eth in g that is p rovin g very d ifficu lt w ith E nvironm ental Impact S tatem en ts b eca u se o f the broad and e lu siv e nature o f the con cep t o f environm ent and its relation to cla u se s in the A ct. S o m e o f the d ifficu lty arises from the general introduction w hich b egin s the A ct. There it is said that the con tin u in g p olicy o f the federal govern m en t sh o u ld be to co-op erate with other le v e ls o f govern m en t and private org a n iza tio n s and use " a ll practicable m ean s" to m eet its o b je ctiv es. Is it p o ssib le to co -op erate in any e ffe c tiv e w ay w ith the im plied array o f state, local and private groups on environ m en tal m atters w ithout at least incurring very large n ew personn el and operat­ ing c o s ts . and this is at a tim e o f budgetary constraint in govern m en t in the U .S .? And w hat d o es “ p racticab le" mean in this co n tex t? T he Act also aim s to p ro v id e, " w h erev er p o ssib le , an en viron m en t w hich supports d iversity and variety o f individual c h o ic e ” , and to "approach the m axim u m attainable recy clin g o f d ep letab le reso u rces.” What do these cla u se s m ean in operational term s? H ow are they to be ap p lied on the different parts o f the U .S .? T h e sp e c ific cla u se in the A ct regarding the u se o f E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ents p o ses sp ecial d ifficu lties in interpretation and ad­ m inistration. T he relative cla u se . S e c . 102. C . reads:

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(C ) in clu d e in ev ery recom m en d ation or report on p rop osals for leg isla tio n and other m ajor Federal action s sig n ifica n tly affectin g the q u ality o f the hum an en viron m en t, a d etailed statem ent by the resp on sib le o fficia l on— |i] the environm ental im pact o f the proposed action . [ii] any ad verse environ m en tal e ffe c ts w h ich cannot be avoid ed sh ou ld the proposal be im p lem en ted , [iii] altern atives to the proposed action , [iv] the relationship b etw een local short-term u ses o f m an's en viron m en t and the m ainten an ce and en h an cem en t o f the long-term p rod u ctivity, and [v] a n y irreversible and irretrievable com m itm en ts o f re­ so u rces w h ich w ou ld b e in v o lv ed in the proposed action should it be im plem en ted . Prior to m akin g any d etailed statem ent, the resp on sib le Federal o fficia l shall con su lt with and obtain the co m m en ts o f any Federal a g en cy w h ich has jurisd iction by law or sp ecial exp ertise with respect to any en viron m en tal im pact in v o lv ed . C o p ies o f such statem ent and the co m m en ts and v ie w s o f the appropriate F ederal. S tate, and local a g e n c ie s, w hich are authorized to d ev elo p and en fo rce en viron m en tal standards, shall b e m ade availab le to the P resident, the C ou n cil on E nvironm ental Q uality and to the public as provided by section 5 5 2 o f title 5 U nited States C o d e, and shall a ccom p an y the proposal through the e x istin g a g en cy rev iew proc­ e s se s (73: 146-47). O b v io u sly , a host o f d efinition al problem s h ave to be w orked out here. M ost fundam ental is the sim p le q u estion o f w hat is an im pact? A m on g the array o f ch a n g es o f all typ es and m agnitu d es that fo llo w from the construction o f a road or the introduction o f a n ew ch em ica l, w h ich are to be id en tified as sig n ifica n t? On what b asis or criteria? A nd h ow are they to b e described? C la u se C a lso states that a Statem ent sh ou ld be prepared for major Federal a ctio n s. W hat d o es this m ean? In itially, it w as p erceived as a p p lying to federal a g en cies o n ly , but is n o w apparently b ein g in vok ed for h ou sin g d ev elo p m en ts and other projects carried out by private groups tied to fed eral funding and legislation . A m on g the other q u estion s that have arisen are the fo llo w in g . At what stage in the co n sid eration o f the various e ffe c ts o f a project should a Statem ent be prepared for circu lation to departm ents and the public for co m m en t? W hat sh ou ld be d on e w ith the com m en ts? S o m e State­ m ents appear to have b een m od ified after rece iv in g them . In other c a s e s , the co m m en ts se e m sim p ly to have b een attached to the original

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S tatem en t. The effe ct that the Statem ent and co m m en ts have had on the nature o f the project is d ifficu lt to determ ine in m any c a s e s, although there is so m e data, to b e co m m en ted on later, w h ich indicate m o d ifica ­ tions by the sp on sorin g a g en cy to reduce en viron m en tal im pacts. C la u se C a lso requires that ad verse environ m en tal im pacts be id en ­ tified . Physical and cultural p r o cesses, for ex a m p le flo o d s and apart­ m ent co n stru ctio n , are not a lw a y s readily d istin gu ish ab le in to ’’g o o d ” and “ b ad " im p acts, but m ay have intertw ined elem en ts o f both. H ow is " a d v e r se ” to be determ ined? A ltern atives a lso are to be provided for the proposed action . A g a in , there is the q u estion o f what range o f altern atives can fea sib ly be con sid ered ? Sim ilar d ifficu lties apply to other term s in the A ct, for e x a m p le, " irrev ersib le” and " irretriev a b le.” The b io lo g ists often speak o f irreversible ch a n g es. D o they m ean no exact return to present con d itio n s? If s o , is this reason able? D o they m ean return to som eth ing app roach in g a present clim a x forest or clear trout stream , and if so . b eyond h ow m any lifetim es or cen tu ries m ust w e pass for a return to such co n d itio n s b efore the ch an ge is con sid ered irreversible? A series o f other b asic q u estion s arose in the U .S . after the introduction o f the E nvironm ental Impact Statem ent requirem ent. S o m e o f these h ave been con sid ered in the C ourts. O ne w as when w ou ld the Act actu ally b eco m e e ffe c tiv e ? A test ca se with the A tom ic Energy C o m m issio n resulted in the ju d gm en t that the Act w as in force upon its date o f p assage and that all projects in p rogress or in the p lanning stage required an Environm ental Im pact S tatem en t. T h is has not b een a popular d ecisio n with th ose large a g en cies w h ose projects often require eigh t or ten years to co m p lete and are d ifficu lt to m od ify at a late planning stage. A nother q u estio n co n cern ed the ad eq u acy o f the Environm ental Im pact S tatem en ts. S o m e a g en cies in itially filed very su p erficial re­ ports with unsupported, sim p listic and rather standardized com m en ts 011 p o ssib le im pacts. For e x a m p le , " C on stru ction projects w ou ld in­ clu d e environ m en tal stip u lation s preventing p ollu tion o f stream s and lak es by fu e ls, o ils , bitum en . . . and by erosion after con stru ction is c o m p le te ." A num ber o f leg a l suits on su p erficial S tatem en ts resulted in ju d gm en ts that tend toward the " letter o f the L a w .” T h u s, in a proposed dam project for the A rkansas R iver the ju d ge noted that the d efen dan t m ust, u tilize a sy stem a tic and interdisciplinary approach u sin g natural and social sc ie n c e s and environ m en tal d esig n art. in clu d in g d is­ cu ssio n o f the value o f the river w ithout the d am , in clu d e all environ m en tal im pacts o f dam con stru ction , exp lore all alterna­ tiv es to dam co n stru ctio n , inclu d e all irreversible com m itm en ts o f

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reso u rces, and in clu d e co m m en ts o f fed eral, state and local ag en ­ c ie s (324: 2 5 -2 6 ). A nother early q u estio n co n cern ed the role o f the C ou n cil on E n viron ­ m ental Q u ality. At the m om en t its m ain aim apparently is to see that the environm ental im pact procedure w ork s, that overall g u id elin e s and inform ation flo w are a d eq u ate, and not very carefu lly to rev iew all S tatem en ts w hich are su b m itted , o f w h ich there are thou san d s. It and the O ffic e o f E nvironm ental Q uality are a clea rin g h o u se, a sou rce o f g u id a n c e, not om b u d sm en c o m m e n tin g on w h eth er or not a project sh o u ld g o forw ard. T h e C .E .Q . and its sta ff clearly do take a stronger interest in certain p rop osals, h o w ev er, and ad m itted ly work with a g en ­ cies on E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ents. What the d etails o f such w ork in gs are and w h eth er they co m p ro m ise C .E .Q . in any w ay is un k now n.

E valuation o f the E nv iro n m en tal Im p act S tatem en t T h e Environm ental Im pact Statem ents are b ein g evalu ated in a num ber o f w a y s. O ne is by the sp on sorin g agen cy its e lf w h ich can recon sid er its plan on the b a sis o f reaction to its initial S tatem en t. A nother m ean s is by C o n g ress, w h ich m ay use the E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent as one o f the criteria for d ecid in g upon the funding o f projects subm itted by various a g en cies. H ow often th is has occurred in the U .S . is not k n o w n . E valuation can a lso b e m ade by another a gen cy w h ich is in a p ositio n to m ake its op in ion felt through its control o f licen sin g or so m e other m ech a n ism . T h e C oast Guard is the a g en cy charged with ju d g ­ m ent co n cern in g n avigation hazards on m arine w ater b o d ies. The E .P .A . ev a lu a tes m any S tatem en ts, for e x a m p le , those in v o lv in g p o s­ sib le air and w ater p ollu tio n or the harm ful e ffe c ts o f p esticid es or solid w a ste. A s w e h ave se e n . S tatem en ts a lso can be evalu ated and a ffected by the C ourts and by public op in ion in general.

Som e Effects of E nviro n m en tal Im pact S tatem en ts A lthough fe w . if a n y . scholarly stu d ies o f the e ffe c ts o f E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts h ave yet been m ade, the results have been w id eranging and im portant. For ex a m p le, the en viron m en tal im pact re­ quirem ent has forced far m ore d etailed studies o f the e ffe c ts o f projects such as the Trans A laska p ip elin e . T he result has been a d elay in the con stru ction o f the p ip eline and probably the introduction o f a series o f m easures d esig n ed to reduce su b sid en ce o ver perm afrost, earthquake

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disturbance and other d a m a g es from p o ssib le oil sp ills. A g e n c y and pu b lic d isagreem en t o v er the need for the p ip elin e co n tin u es, h ow ever. T h is d isagreem en t probably a lso ex ten d s to the matter o f w hether or not the environ m en tal im pact requirem ent h as, in fact, been a good thing in the light o f the co m m o n percep tion o f the m agnitu d e o f the U .S . en ergy crisis and the need for fossil fu els to m eet it. Public a ccessib ility to the o v er forty v o lu m e s o f the E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent on the p ip elin e h as b een d ifficu lt. A lim ited num ber o f c o p ie s w ere prepared and they can be con su lted at o n ly a sm all num ber o f location s in the U .S . H o w ev er, the W ild ern ess S o c ie ty , the Friends o f the Earth and other c itiz e n ’s g ro u p s have studied the Statem ents and used them in legal suits to d ela y and am end the project. Certain a g en cies h ave stated that so m e o f their procedures and p rojects have been m odified as a result o f the en viron m en tal im pact requirem ent. O ne is the C orps o f E n gin eers w h ich , am on g other th in gs, reportedly has ( 1)

R ev iew ed and ch an ged m any reservoir operation sch e d u les to en h an ce fish sp a w n in g, hold higher water le v e ls during the recreation se a so n , m in im ize late su m m er exp osu re o f mud flats, and provide additional flo w s for d ow nstream water quality.

(2)

Incorporated in all construction con tracts “ environm ental p rotection sp ec ifica tio n s with sp e c ific safegu ard s on e n ­ vironm ental degradation related to the con stru ction ac­ tiv itie s ."

(3)

Held “ pre-construction co n feren ces with the contractor to review and d iscu ss en viron m en tal asp ects o f the w o rk , the plant la y o u t, location o f construction roads, and livin g areas to m in im ize their im pact on en viron m en t" (154: 5 3 -6 0 ).

T h e C orps a lso h as m o d ified a num ber o f projects. For e x a m p le, a dam site w as m oved in the B ig W alnut R eservoir project. Indiana. O pen sp ace w as provided to save “ unique w ild life habitat” at M orrison C reek. C aliforn ia. At La Farge R eservoir. M in n esota, a m ultiple level outlet is to be provided w hich w ill create a n ew trout fishery d o w n ­ stream . In the ca se o f the C olu m b u s Lock and D am , M ississip p i, a dam site w a s m oved upstream to protect a valuable arch aeological site, w h ich the C orps has recom m en d ed for registration as a National Nature A rea. S o m e C orps projects a lso h ave been term inated. T w o ex a m p les are the B u ffa lo Bayou project. T e x a s, w hich in v o lv ed channel m od ifi­

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ca tio n s to increase d isch arge c a p a city , and the p rop osed ch an n elization and lev eein g o f the Jack and S im m erly S lo u g h s, C alifornia.

Som e P roblem s in M ethodology: T he P re p a ra tio n o f a S tatem ent M uch attention has been paid to the problem s associated with the preparation o f E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts. L eopold and his c o lle a g u e s provided an early m o d e l, based on a m atrix, w hich id en ­ tified a large num ber o f ex istin g ch aracteristics and co n d itio n s o f the en viron m en t and proposed action s w hich m ay cau se environm ental im pact. T his m odel apparently has been u sefu l, e sp e c ia lly in c o n c e p ­ tualizin g and org a n izin g the interplay betw een the prop osed project or program , and the en v iro n m en t. B ut, the m odel is static and d o e s not really provide for an alysis o f p h ysical and cultural p ro cesses through tim e, nor o f the affect o f a tech n ical ch an ge on them , at least not w ithou t separate study and the preparation o f additional m aterial. The matrix a lso is d ifficu lt to use in ranking the im portance o f.th e various e ffe c ts. T he fault in the last se n s e lies as m uch in our lack o f k n ow led ge o f the various b io p h y sica l, b ioch em ical and so c ia l p rocesses as in the m atrix. S o m e c itiz e n 's groups have found the matrix m ethod overly d etailed and co n fu sin g . S o m e o f this co m p le x ity and uncertainty is, o f co u rse, very m uch a part o f the prop osed ch a n g es. B ut, it can be argued that a clearer m ethod cou ld be d ev elo p ed for pu b lic use. A nother m ethod o f preparing S tatem en ts has been d ev elo p ed by the B a telle Institute in the U .S . ( 3 2 3 ). Here the effe cts are d ivid ed into four m ajor c a teg o ries; e c o lo g y , environ m en tal p ollu tion , esth etics and hum an interest. W ithin each o f th ese categories a hierarchy o f other en viron m en tal c la s se s is id en tified for use in estim atin g the e ffe c ts o f a tech n ica l ch a n g e. A w eig h tin g sy stem is applied to these e ffe c ts in acco rd a n ce w ith ju d gm en ts on their sig n ific a n c e . The sy stem w as prepared sp e c ific a lly for use by the Bureau o f R eclam ation and has m any ad van tages and d isa d v an tages. A notable problem throughout is the perceptual o n e; for ex a m p le the w eigh t g iv en the various asp ects o f en viron m en t in determ ining the o verall sig n ifica n ce o f ch an ge is bound to vary con sid era b ly am o n g grou p s. T o illustrate, the e c o lo g y and hum an interest ca teg o ries are a ssig n ed 315 and 2 0 5 points out o f a p o ssib le 10 0 0 for the four c la sses. W hy? A pparently this allocation w as based largely on the p rofessional op in ion o f the study team , after so m e con su ltation with a lim ited sam p le o f co n cern ed citizen s. T he m eth od s and the results are ch a llen g ea b le. An exam in ation o f so m e o f the E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts w h ich h ave been prepared by various a g en cies in d icates little apparent u se o f m ethods such as that o f L eop old or B atelle. T h e organ ization o f

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the S tatem en ts g en era lly parallels the operational clau se in the N .E .P .A . A ct; there is a presentation on the environ m en tal im pact o f the prop osed a ctio n , any adverse e ffe c ts , altern atives, and s o o n . A con sid era b le am ount o f research o b v io u sly has g o n e in to the prepara­ tion o f so m e o f the statem ents presented under these h ead in gs. But, there are clearly grou n d s for im provem ent in procedures. N eil O rlo ff, an o ffic e r in E .P .A ., has recently review ed problem s asso cia ted with E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts and raised a number o f q u estio n s and recom m en d ation s co n cern in g their im provem ent (248; 2 9 -4 1 ). U nder the h ead in g. D ecision on P reparing A n E nviro n ­ m ental Im pact S ta te m e n t, O rlo ff m akes a num ber o f co m m en ts and su g g estio n s regarding the d ecisio n to prepare or not to prepare. First, he su g g ests that each a g en cy or organization c la s sify its activities in term s o f their lik elih o o d o f ca u sin g environm ental e ffe c ts . S eco n d , he rec­ o m m en d s that sulpher d io x id e e m iss io n s , therm al fluctu ations or other ch a n g es a sso cia ted with each o f these activities or groups o f a ctiv ities be id en tified . Third, he ad v ises id en tifyin g the b asic data w h ich w ill be used to m easure these e ffe c ts and the initiation o f proced u res to gather them (w h ere, by w hom and w hen in the planning p ro cess). Fourth, he su g g ests that a sp e c ific point in planning be selecte d for d ecisio n as to w hether or not to prepare a Statem ent. The fifth step is to provide d etailed gu id an ce on the criteria to be used in m aking the d ecisio n to prepare or not to prepare a S tatem en t. O rlo ff a lso u n d erscores another b asic problem in preparing S tate­ m en ts. i.e . what is the “ proper project en tity” ? H ow sh ou ld an interre­ lated series o f projects w ithin an overall w atershed m anagem ent project by han d led? Into h o w m any se ctio n s sh ou ld it be broken? Such q u estio n s h ig h lig h t major problem s and p itfalls. A too broad d efin itio n o f a project m ay m ake an E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent quite su p erficia l, c o s tly , or d ifficu lt to d o . ev en g iv en long-term stu d ies. An narrow d efinition raises the p o ssib ility o f lea v in g out valuable inform ation and p o ssib le altern atives. In this co n tex t, O rloff su g g e sts tw o le v e ls or types o f E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent. The first w ou ld be a broad o v e r v ie w and the se co n d a m ore d etailed treatm ent. He a lso supports the idea o f the a g en cies preparing Hand­ b o o k s o r G uides on projects that co m e up o ften . P resu m ab ly, these H andbooks w ou ld include con cep tu al fram ew ork s for preparing S tatem en ts at the tw o le v e ls o f sig n ific a n c e . O rlo ff d o es not say so ex p licitly but o n e feels that he is in favour o f honest ad m ission o f d e ficien cies in data o r in theoretical or other k n ow led ge n ecessary to predict and deal with certain environ m en tal im p acts. There has b een a ten d en cy to g lo ss o v er such problem s in the past. Failure to se e them reco g n ized in reports on major projects in future sh ou ld arouse su sp i­ cio n .

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O rlo ff a lso stresses that any en viron m en tal im pact fram ew ork sh o u ld b e m od elled in such a w ay as to provide for fuller consideration o f altern atives. H e recom m en d s that o b je ctiv es be id en tified for a project, w ith reason s for the settin g o f th ese g o a ls. T he fram ework sh ou ld describe the range o f alternatives gen erally to be con sid ered and sh ou ld require detailed d escrip tion s o f all alternative action s that w ill acco m p lish the o b je c tiv e s, in clu d in g estim a tes o f relative c o s ts . He recom m en d s in clu d in g the results o f any b en efit-co st a n a ly sis. Many w ou ld feel that su ch an an a lysis sh ou ld be an integral part o f en viron ­ m ental im pact appraisal. A b ib liograph y is a lso con sid ered d esirable by O rloff. H e a lso stron gly supports n otifyin g the public o f the d ecisio n as to w hether or not an Im pact S tatem en t is to be prepared. A negative an n ou ncem en t w ill do no harm , he sa y s, and cou ld result in the su b m issio n o f inform ation w hich m ight cau se the a g en cy to ch an ge its m ind. Injunctions and other p rob lem s cou ld fo llo w a con tested d ecisio n not to prepare and publish a S tatem en t. O rlo ff fe e ls the announcem ent to prepare should be m ade early in order to g iv e the public a ch an ce to respond in the b eg in n in g sta g es o f d ecisio n -m a k in g , perhaps providing “ n e w " in sigh ts, id ea s, p ercep tion s, attitudes or other inform ation. O rlo ff n otes that an an n ou ncem en t o f intent to publish or not to publish is not n o w required in the U .S . leg isla tio n , b u t, lie feels that it should b e. F in a lly , O rlo ff recom m en d s a com m on c o d in g and inform ation sy stem for E nvironm ental Impact S tatem en ts. T h is w ould m ake a ccess to and u se o f them ea sier. Such a sy stem now se e m s to be in increasing use in the U .S .

E nvironm ental Im p act S tatem en ts in C a n ad a A s far as Canada is co n cern ed , the A m erican exp erien ce raises -a num ber o f q u estio n s. S h ou ld the federal and provin cial govern m en ts require E nviron­ m ental Im pact S tatem en ts like those in the U .S .? S h ou ld these be asso cia ted with leg isla tio n like that in the U .S .. w h ich requires circu la­ tion o f the Statem ent am ong_intcrested a g en cies and the p u b lic? S h ou ld the leg isla tio n in clu d e the estab lish m en t o f a group such as the C ouncil on E nvironm ental Q uality and the O ffic e o f E nvironm ental Q uality? A v a ila b le inform ation on the e ffe c ts o f the u se o f the Statem ents su g g ests that they h ave co n sid erab le social v a lu e. S om ew h at sim ilar E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts h ave already been prepared in Canada for projects su ch as the prop osed P ickering airport. B ut. these are quite superficial in so m e w a y s, for ex a m p le , in term s o f e c o n o m ic and so cia l e ffe c ts . M oreover. lliey w ere not prepared until very late in

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the planning p ro cess. A g e n c ie s such as the parks departm ents in vari­ o u s p rovin ces o f C anada, or the N ational Parks B ranch, do not now require S tatem en ts, although the National Parks Branch has c o ­ operated with the D epartm ent o f Public W orks in preparing o n e on the p rop osed tw inn in g o f the Trans Canada H igh w ay through B a n ff Na­ tional Park. A cc e ss to co m p leted Impact S tatem en ts is not e asy in C anada. The E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ents for the prop osed tw inn in g o f the Trans Canada apparently are not to be con sid ered at a p u b lic hearing or m ade availab le to the p u b lic, althou gh they are being sent to certain c itiz e n 's groups for criticism and evalu ation . G oin g to court o v er any o f these m atters, in C anada, is not lik ely to b e fruitful for the p lain tiff, in part, b ecau se o f traditional Canadian legal and sociZil attitu des, and in part b ecau se o f a lack o f a legal b asis like that provided by the U .S . N .E .P .A . A nother serio u s problem is that if the Court finds in fa v o u r o f the d efen d an t, the p la in tiff can b e held resp onsib le for the c o s ts o f any resulting d ela y . S uch c o sts can be very high for projects costin g m illio n s o f d ollars. A cco u n tab ility for such c o s ts is said to b e n ecessary to protect c o m p a n ies and a g en cies and to prevent friv o lo u s su its. On the other hand, it has the effect o f lim itin g public ch a llen g es against co n ten tio u s p rojects, so m e o f w h ich could h ave large unw anted im ­ pact. In su m . there se e m to b e a num ber o f reason s w hy legislation like N .E .P .A . sh ou ld be passed in C anada and w h y C ou n cils on E nviron­ m ent Q uality sh ou ld be con sid ered for estab lish m en t at the level o f the Prem iers and the Prim e M inister. Environm ental Im pact Statem ents sh o u ld be m ore frequently prepared and w id ely availab le. At this tim e, they se em in g ly need not be associated with any cen tralized d e c is io n ­ m aking function in g o v ern m en t, but can sim p ly p rovid e the inform a­ tion n ecessa ry for m ore e ffe c tiv e participation by p olitician s and the p u b lic in land u se and en viron m en tal p rob lem s. T h e A m erican sy stem o f p u b lish in g lists o f a vaila b le S tatem en ts through a central o ffic e is a m odel that cou ld be fo llo w ed in C anada. T h e lists could be sent to p u b lic libraries, u n iv ersities, tech n ical c o lle g e s and interested people or g rou p s. Not all citizen s can be ex p ected to take advantage o f them . Indeed that is not a reasonable v ie w o f p u b lic participation. But m any w o u ld , as is n orm ally the ca se in a dem ocratic system . T h e fo regoin g co m m en ts are no m ore than personal resp on ses m ade at a stage in the d ev elo p m en t o f environ m en tal im pact studies and an a ly sis. M any th in g s m ay ch a n g e. It m ay be that m ore legal teeth w ill be required in order to prevent unw anted en viron m en tal e ffe c ts . Such leg isla tio n m ay b e e sp e c ia lly n ecessary in the ca se o f the social effects o f p roposed d ev elo p m en ts. Cultural an th rop ologists, in the I9 5 0 's and I9 6 0 's w ere co n cern ed with a ssessin g the im pact o f technical ch an ge

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on various kinds o f le v e ls o f s o c ie ty , prin cip ally from the standpoint o f ea sin g the transition to “ m odern w a y s " and m in im izin g injuries to in d ivid u als and grou p s in the p rocess. In spite o f this interest and w ork, the e ffe c ts o f tech n o lo g y h ave g o n e o n , and m any cu ltu res, n eigh b our­ hood s and p eo p le h ave been ch an ged in w ays they did not w ant. M ost o f these groups w ere m inorities like the n atives in C anada's north, m any o f w h om are n ow sa y in g that they d o not want to ch an ge their way o f life . T h ey d o not want d a m s, h ig h w a y s and the w hite m an’s prog­ ress. B ut, they are fighting against con tinental and international ec o n o m ic forces and an id eo lo g y accep ted by very large num bers o f p eo p le. T h ey are the o n es w h o are raising the test ca ses in Canadian C ourts on environ m en tal m atters and land rights in areas su ch as Jam es B ay. D etailed and w ell written stu d ies o f the im pact o f tech n o lo g y and western culture upon the native p eop les cou ld result in their future being con sid ered m ore c a refu lly . W e m ust ask w h y they sh ou ld ch an ge at all i f they d o not w an t, e sp e c ia lly as so m e o f them live on lands never con sid ered in any treaty with the C anadian govern m en t. And s o w e return to the ideas set forth in the Introduction. H o p efu lly , the S tatem en ts w ill not b eco m e so standardized, so c e n ­ tralized , s o oriented to sp e c ific o b je ctiv es that they b eco m e to o m uch a part o f our tech n o lo g ica l thrust, o f the tech n iqu e w h ich worried Jacques Ellul (8 5 ). E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts cou ld be used principally as a m eans o f id en tify in g and m o d ify in g or elim in atin g action s that reduce cultural and p h ysical d iversity rather than as part o f a planning p ro cess leading to a set o f d eterm in istic overall o b je ctiv es. In practice, such o b je ctiv es m ay be in co m p letely thought ou t, illu sory, or d ecep ­ tiv e, and o f rela tiv ely m inor operational im portance. T h ey g iv e the accountant an opportunity to ca teg o rize his b u d get. But, the m anipula­ tion o f funds and adm in istrative action am on g line item s is u su ally a con tin u o u s p ro cess. M oreover, m any projects are ju stified in term s o f go a ls that are o n ly part o f the m otivation for undertaking th em . For ex a m p le, m any stu d en ts, and other c itiz e n s, are hired by govern m en t a g en cies not so m uch to a c h ie v e certain thin gs as to have so m eth in g to do and to earn in co m e. M any h igh w ay projects are undertaken with su ch em p lo ym en t very m uch in m ind. If this em p loym en t is a b asic o b je c tiv e , a fundam ental part o f pu b lic p o lic y , then let that be stated as a g o a l. T h e various alternative w a y s in w hich such em p loym en t can be provided can then b e put forward and exam in ed in term s o f their environm ental e ffe c ts . Such em p lo y m en t program s and other public and private projects c o u ld b en efit from the preparation o f E n viron m en ­ tal Im pact S tatem en ts. T h ey w ou ld be one m ean s o f a llo w in g the citizen to a ssess g o a ls, altern atives and e ffe c ts , and to participate along with the p ro fessio n a ls and p o litician s in in flu en cin g the future. In this w a y , E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts cou ld p rovid e a m eans o f

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g a in in g k n o w led g e o f public p ercep tion s, attitu des and v a lu es and a v o id in g undesirable ch a n g es in en viron m en t and lan d scap e, as w ell as preventing lo ss o f flex ib ility , op p ortu n ity, c h o ic e and freedom in C anada. A s a fo cu s o f inform ed d iscu ssio n , am on g p ro fessio n a ls, p o liticia n s and c itiz e n s, E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en ts can contri­ bute m uch toward better resou rce and en viron m en tal m anagem en t in C anada.

9 A C ritiq u e o f the E n v iro n m e n ta l Im p a c t S tu dy, T r a n s - C a n a d a H igh w ay , Miles 0-7.8, B anff National P a rk * J . G. Nelson

In tro d u ctio n T H E preparation o f this E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent is a m ileston e in land u se m anagem ent in C anadian national parks. A lthou gh the Statem en t can b e subjected to strong criticism , this criticism , and any socia l va lu es that accrue from it, w ou ld be im p ossib le if the Statem ent had not b een prepared. T he National and H istoric Parks Branch is to be congratulated for h avin g requested the Statem ent as is the D epartm ent o f Public W orks for co-op eratin g in carrying the n ecessary studies out. In this critique w e intend to evalu ate the Statem ent from the standpoint o f b asic m eth o d o lo g y , so m e o f its con ten ts and the co n clu ­ sio n s. The criticism s on m eth o d ology are based on so m e k n o w led g e o f the em erg in g literature on en viron m en tal im pact assessm en t. Partly b ecau se o f its recent d ev elo p m en t, en viron m en tal im pact assessm en t en co m p a sses a variety o f approaches and tech n iqu es that largely are still in the testin g sta g e. A num ber o f these m ethods are not w id ely k n ow n . T h is handicaps con su ltan ts and adm inistrators charged with their use and interpretation. T he E nvironm ental Impact Statem ent under con sid eration here is based on a variation o f the overlay tech ­ n iq ue, associated w ith the architect and planner, Ian M cH arg, and lon g em p lo y ed by geographers in various land use projects. Other m eth od s, such as that o f L e w is, the architect and planner, h ave been review ed in various p u b lication s as h ave the problem s associated with en viron m en ­ tal im pact a ssessm en t in general (1 0 ,7 3 ). In the near future w e can ex p ect new environm ental a ssessm en t m ethods to be d ev elo p ed as w ell as useful com b in a tio n s o f ex istin g m ethods.

T he Scope o r the P roject EntityO n e o f the basic problem s in environm ental im pact a ssessm en t is d efin in g the appropriate sc o p e o f the stu d y. T o state this problem in another w a y , what is the proper project entity? In d iscu ssin g a proposal *T his p a p e r o rig in ally a p p eared in P a rk N e w s , 9 , 2 (1 9 7 3 ): 13-24. 178

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for a p ow er d am , fo r e x a m p le, sh ou ld o n ly that dam be co n sid er ed , or the entire series o f dam s and assorted fa cilities o f w hich it is o n ly a part? In the co n tex t o f this critiq ue, w hat is the proper project en tity for the proposed additions to the T rans-C anada H igh w ay? The consultants apparently have been asked to prepare a Statem ent o n ly for the short 7 .8 m ile se g m en t o f the Trans-C anada betw een the East G ate and the h igh w a y interchange to B a n ff to w n site. But the prop osed tw in n in g has im p lication s for the rem aining ap p roxim ately o n e hundred m iles o f the T rans-C anada through B a n ff park, as w ell as the hundreds o f m iles from the w est boundary o f the park to V an cou ver. S ection s o f this h igh w a y pass through G lacier N ational Park in the Selkirk ran ge. B .C . and the Fraser C a n y o n . T h e problem s in h ig h w a y con stru ction and operation through G lacier Park and the Selk irk s are reasonably w ell k n ow n . The rugged, steep terrain m akes con stru ction co sts h igh . S n o w d ep th s and avalan ch e shelters h ave been built across the h ig h w a y at the base o f avalan ch e tracks leading from the surrounding m ountains. It is doubtful w hether these avalan ch e paths w ill con tin u e to conform to the tracks that they o ccu p ied w hen the h igh w ay sh elters were con stru cted . C osts o f adjusting the shelters to a ccom m od ate to natural sh ifts in the tracks can be ex p ected to be h igh , as can any attem pts to tunnel to avoid avalan ch e e ffe c ts . S n o w and ice con d ition s also m ake it d ifficu lt to use the Selkirk sectio n o f the Trans-C anada con tin u ou sly and safely through the w inter and spring. S im ilar cautionary remarks co u ld be m ade about further construction in the steep -w a lled Fraser C anyon leading to V an cou ver. C onstruction and m ainten an ce co sts associated w ith rock falls. w a sh o u ts and other p ro cesses su rely must be su b stan ­ tial. A nother problem w ith preparing an environ m en tal im pact as­ sessm en t for o n ly the 7 .8 m iles b etw een the East Gate and B an ff tow n site is that this constrains o n e 's v ie w o f the sig n ifica n ce o f ch an ges w ithin this area for the park as a w h o le . Thus the con su ltan ts com pare v egeta tio n ty p e s, w ild life habitat, drainage con d ition s and aeq u ifers am o n g the various parts o f the 7 .8 m ile study unit, but they d o not relate these characteristics to the rest o f the B o w V a lle y , nor to the park as a w h o le. F ew data are provided on the veg eta tio n , w ild life or other characteristics o f the rest o f the B ow V a lley . But en ou gh is k n ow n from other stu d ies to raise so m e sign ifican t q u estio n s. For in stan ce, at one point in the report, it is noted that “ all the w hite tail d eer, tw o thirds p f the w ap iti, and o n e third o f the m ule deer are found b e lo w an elevation o f 4 ,5 0 0 feet in the C anadian R ock y M ountain N ational P ark s." Study o f availa b le topographic m aps sh o w s that m uch o f the land lyin g b elo w this elev a tio n is located in the low er B o w V a lle y , and a large part is b elo w B an ff, w ithin the 7 .8 m ile s stated for the con stru ction o f the tw inn ed Trans-C anada. Other relatively large areas with sim ilar e le v a ­

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tions and w ild life habitat are located in the vicin ity o f the North S ask atch ew an C ro ssin g or in the lo w er Red D eer R iver V a lle y . near the eastern park boundary. The last area is not a c c e s sib le to m ost tourists. Furtherm ore, the overall area in the park with elev a tio n s less than 4 5 0 0 to 5 0 0 0 feet is rela tiv ely sm a ll. T h e w ild life , grasslan d . D o u g la s Fir and other flora and fauna associated with su ch lan d scap es arc therefore rela tiv ely rare in the park and are w orthy o f sp ecia l care in m an age­ m ent. In d eed , the relatively lo w lyin g grassland and savannah land­ sca p es that occu r in such areas are not com m on throughout the western parks. M o reover, they tend to be located at the v a lle y en tran ces to the m oun tain s and so are subject to an u nusually high d egree o f h igh w ay, ca m p site and other d ev elo p m en t. A nother g o o d ex a m p le o f su ch an area is the parkland corridor lead in g into W aterton National Park. T h is area has been con sid erab ly altered by roads, ca m p sites, gravel pits and other features. It is clea r, therefore, that the E nvironm ental Impact Study for the 7 .8 m iles b etw een the East G ate and B an ff to w n site offers in su fficien t sc o p e for a ssessin g the sig n ifica n ce o f h igh w ay con stru ction or other land u se ch a n g es in B a n ff National Park as a w h o le, or for ou tlyin g areas w h o se character could be ch an ged by the p rogression o f TransCanada d ev elo p m en ts w h ich ev en tu a lly w ou ld fo llo w tw inn in g o f the first 7 .8 m iles o f the h ig h w ay w ithin the park.

T h e Need A n other fundam ental point that sh ou ld be covered in an environ m en tal a ssessm en t study is the need for the project under con sid eration . W e are not g iv en m uch data on need in the S tatem en t. T he principal com m ent reads as follow s: W ith both com m ercia l and recreation d em and s on the h igh w ay increasing at a rapid rate, it w as not d ifficu lt to predict as early as the b eg in n in g o f the " s ix tie s '' that the traffic v o lu m e s w ou ld soon reach the d esig n ed ca p acity le v e l. In d eed , traffic su rveys c o n ­ ducted in 1967 revealed that v o lu m e s w ere e x c e e d in g m axim um capacity le v e ls on 50% o f the w eek d ays and on 100% o f w eek en d s based on a verage hourly v o lu m e during the dayligh t hours. T h ese c o n d itio n s prevail throughout m ost o f the tourist sea so n . T h is statem ent d o es not provide m uch b asis for thou gh t and ev a lu a tio n . Indeed it is co n fu sin g in that it fails clearly to d elin ea te the study period. Initially it reads a s if the data are for the entire year. But the co n clu d in g sen ten ce su g g e sts that they are for o n ly part o f the

TRANS-CANADA HIGHW AY

18!

tourist se a so n . W hat part? Furtherm ore, how is the m axim um cap acity level m easured in quantitative term s? W hat proportion o f the traffic or ■‘d em a n d " is com m ercia l rather than recreational? H ow m uch o f the traffic is p roceed in g o n ly to B a n ff to w n site and h o w m uch is passing through the park to other d estin ation s? What are these d estin ation s? T h e E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en t g o e s on to co n clu d e that " M ore recent su rv ey s indicate the con tin u ed grow th in the u se o f the h igh w a y and therefore the need for tw o additional lanes is b ecom in g m ore and m ore im m in en t" .

T h e A lternatives T h is co n clu sio n raises another fundam ental point pertaining to e n ­ vironm ental im pact a ssessm en t stu d ies, i.e . they sh ou ld co n sid er alter­ n atives. Here the in crease in traffic is seen as lead in g d irectly to the need for tw o additional lan es for the T rans-C anada. But in w hat other w ays cou ld the traffic be handled? C ou ld so m e type o f sc h e d u lin g be used? For ex a m p le, what proportion o f truck or com m ercial traffic runs at night w hen tourist traffic is lo w ? H ow m uch m ore cou ld be run at that tim e, e sp e c ia lly in the high tourist season o f July and A ugust? A s another approach, m uch o f the traffic co n g estio n on the T rans-C anada b etw een the East G ate and B a n ff tow n site is cau sed by the con striction at the East Gate itself. T h e T rans-C anada narrow s from four lanes ou tsid e the park to tw o w ithin and the traffic a lso has to pass through the G ates w here any m otorists w h o h ave not paid an entrance fee earlier have to stop and obtain a stick er, slo w in g and b lock in g the overall traffic H ow . S u rely a better arrangem ent c o u ld be d ev ise d for handling these p aym ents and the traffic at this entrance. O ther altern atives a lso cou ld be con sid ered , esp e cia lly if the Trans-C anada is to be tw inn ed b eyond B an ff to w n site in the near future. For e x a m p le, a new h igh w ay c o n c e iv a b ly co u ld be constructed through o n e o f the m ountain p asses south o f B a n ff Park. T h e fea sib ility o f such a venture dep en d s on what traffic v o lu m e s are lik ely to be a lon g the T rans-C anada in say fifteen or tw en ty years. W hether estim a tes o f this traffic h ave b een calcu lated is not k n ow n . O ne w ou ld e x p e c t, h o w ev er, that an y availab le estim ates w ou ld be very large. If such traffic is to be diverted through the Bow V a lley and the present T rans-C anada to the w est then con stru ction c o s ts and probable im pact cou ld be great indeed. Should the present TransCanada b e d ev elo p ed in crem en tally to h andle such traffic and im pact or sh ou ld a larger v ie w be taken and alternative routes con sid ered , inclu d ­ ing the p o ssib le d ev elo p m en t o f a T rans-C anada route alon g present H igh w a y 3 through the C row s N est P a ss, m ore than on e hundred m iles

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to the so u th , near the U .S . border? In thinking about this last p o ssib il­ ity , o n e sh ou ld k eep in m ind that the con tem p lated ch a n g es in the T rans-C anada in v o lv e tens o f m illio n s o f d ollars and s o con stitute a m ajor force for e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t and ch a n g e w herever located . Other altern atives und oub ted ly ex ist w h ich cou ld be considered by a group c o m m issio n ed to think alon g broader lon g term lines. Furtherm ore, w e should a lso recogn ize that any p rojected large in­ crea ses in auto traffic a lon g the T rans-C anada m ay not. in fact, occur. E nergy sh ortages, particularly o il and g a s. cou ld ca u se substantial rises in travel c o sts and drastically reduce the apparent need to undertake c o stly en largem en ts o f the T rans-C anada. T h e p o ssib ility o f such price in creases se em s strongest in the U nited S tates w h ich is a m ajor source o f tourists for W estern C anada. H o w ev er, the con su ltan ts w ere not ask ed to take the broad v ie w , w hich se em in g ly sh ou ld be part o f the first phase o f any en viron m en tal im pact a ssessm en t. Rather they agreed to con d u ct an en viron m en tal im pact study for the first part o f the program ( 7 .8 m iles) and " in c o r p o ­ rate the results into the final en g in eerin g , locational and d esign co n sid ­ erations. . . . It w as hoped that the study w ou ld in addition to sa tisfy in g the environ m en tal co n cern s, p rovid e valu ab le inform ation for the in progress planning stu d y o f traffic w ithin the park and facilities m eetin g the sch ed u le for b eg in n in g the tw inn in g p rogram ." T h is statem ent stron gly su g g ests that the D epartm ent o f Public W orks is co m m itted to tw inning the T rans-C anada and the en viron m en ­ tal im pact study is intended o n ly to assist in se lectin g the route.

T h e Route Let us n ow turn to a con sid eration o f the stu d ies carried out b etw een the East Gate and the B a n ff turnoff and the recom m en d ation s m ade for a route through this area. T hree p o ssib le routes w ere con sid ered (Figure 12). T h e first. Corridor A , p arallels the e x istin g T rans-C anada up to the Carrot C reek, w h ere it sw in g s north and takes a cou rse a lo n g the top o f the upper terrace or b ench. T h e se co n d altern ative, Corridor B . p arallels the C .P .R . railw ay right o f w a y throughout the 7 .8 m ile study area. T his alternative in v o lv e s the relocation o f ap p roxim ately three m ile s o f railw ay line. T h e third altern ative. Corridor B -I. in v o lv es b u ildin g the n ew lanes im m ed ia tely adjacent to the ex istin g h ig h w a y . S o m e railw ay relocation w ou ld be in v o lv ed in this alternative. In attem pting to se lect am ongst three altern atives, su rficial g e o l­ o g y and lan d form s. drainage (su rface and ground w ater), v egetation , s o ils , fish and w ild life habitat, visual resou rces and arch aeological sites

Figure 12: “Corridor Alternatives'

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w ere m apped. T h ese c o m b in ed m aps and related theoretical con sid era­ tions and field data on erosion and other p r o c e sse s, w ere a n alyzed in term s o f anticipated E nvironm ental Im pact, E ngineering C on sid era­ tions (in clu d in g co sts) and P lan n in g and V isual Im p lication s. A d e­ tailed d iscu ssio n o f these m atters is set out in the E nvironm ental Impact S tatem en t and cannot be presented here. It w as co n clu d ed , h o w ev er, that Corridor B w as the best alterna­ tiv e. Corridor B -l w as thought least d esirable for tw o b a sic reasons. First, it traverses ‘ 'certain e c o lo g ic a l u nits” and “ ca u ses d am age to o th e r s.” It is d ifficu lt to d eterm in e the relative sig n ific a n c e o f this ob jection as it a ctu a lly cou ld be applied to all three potential corridors. S eco n d , and m ore im portant. Corridor B -l “ raises a major b iological ob jection on the b a sis o f sid e by sid e tw in n in g . S cien tific ev id en ce rev ea ls that the num ber o f h ig h w a y anim al k ills m ore than d ou b le as a result o f this type o f four lane d e sig n ." Corridor A is rated a b o v e B -I, apparently largely b ecau se it w ould result in con stru ction through “ a relatively undisturbed area” and seco n d b eca u se it " is d ifficu lt to predict the total im pact in term s o f n o ise p o llu tio n ." H o w ev er, uncertainty about n oise p ollu tion also appears to hold for the other tw o alternatives as w ell. T h e p o sitiv e points cited in favour o f B . the preferred alternative, are that it “ p arallels an ex istin g corrid or." the railw ay, and “ skirts areas o f sig n ifica n t e c o lo g ic a l im p o rta n ce.” Corridor B a lso is co n sid ­ ered to o ffer " th e superior a lign m en t with resp ect to visu al ex p erien ce from the ro a d .” H o w ev er the cla ssific a tio n and evalu ation o f scen ery u sed in the report is rather su p erficial and arbitrary. M any p eop le w ould probably prefer Corridor A . w hich sits atop the terrace and o ffer s many attractive v ie w s and ex p erien ces. Corridor A is a lso ranked low er than the others b eca u se it is c lo s e to the p ow er transm ission lin e. It is d ifficu lt to attach m uch n egative w eigh t to this factor h o w ev er, as it is to any detailed con sid eration o f the scen ery b ecau se the proposed h ig h w a y is to be a lim ited a c c e ss route d esign ed to sp eed the traveller to h is destination as q u ick ly as p o ssib le. T h is type o f h igh w ay is an om a­ lou s and in co m p a tib le with a national park, w here the em p h a sis is on scen ery and the a esth etic and in tellectual en joym en t o f the landscape. T he requirem ents o f truckers and com m ercial users sh ou ld take second p la ce. T h e tourists require a slo w e r p ace and the opportunity for turnoffs and p a u ses not o ffered by a lim ited a c c e ss route. If the h igh w ay is built, the sp ec ifica tio n s sh ou ld be rev iew e d and the en gin eers and planners ch a llen g ed to bring forth a d esig n com p atib le with the superb en viron m en t, its en joym en t and use. It is a lso p oin ted out in the Statem ent that the burrow pits required for Corridor B co u ld have a n eg a tiv e im pact, u n less properly located and treated. T h e present T rans-C anada route is already m arked by

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burrow pits and debris m oun d s, e sp e c ia lly b etw een B an ff tow n site and Lake L o u ise. A n y route w hich in v o lv ed con sid erab le fillin g , as B apparently d o e s, w ill in v o lv e m uch b u rrow in g, an activity that lea v es m ajor scars on the landscape. T h is a ctivity sh ou ld be lim ited in the park and a s m uch fill as p o ssib le obtained ou tsid e its b ou n daries, even though this w ou ld be relatively ex p en siv e . T h e preferred corridor. B , se e m s to h ave m ajor potential n egative en viron m en tal im pacts w h ich are not su ffic ien tly recogn ized in the stu d y . It traverses lon g stretch es o f floodp lain and low terrace. A s the report in d ica tes, these areas o ffer sh elter and habitat for elk and other an im als in w inter. M oreover, this habitat is located at rela tiv ely low elev a tio n s and is not co m m o n in the park. C orridor B could a lso have major d isad van tages from the h yd rologic and so ils stan d p oints. It w ou ld interfere w ith drainage and cou ld cau se su b sid en ce o f underly­ ing organ ic m aterials. The B o w R iver a lso has a lon g Hood h istory. M ajor inundations occurred in the I 8 8 0 's , 1 8 9 0 ’s , early 1 9 0 0 's. 1 9 2 0 'sa n d 19 3 0 ’s . T h ese w ere clim a tic flo o d s induced largely by a com b ination o f h eavy rains, high tem peratures and m uch sn o w m elt in sp rin g. M ore lo ca lized ice jam H oods also have occurred frequently a lo n g the B o w , although the d etails o f their history are not w ell know n for the area under study. F lo o d in g , erosion and a sso ciated problem s are not con sid ered ade­ quately in this E nvironm ental Im pact S tatem en t. Y et they bear stron gly on the ad v isa b ility o f se le c tin g alternative B. In our v ie w , the e c o lo g ic a l im pacts o f Corridor A do not loom as large as those for B . The area that w ou ld be disturbed is largely cloth ed in ap p roxim ately n in ety year old lo d g ep o le p in e forests w h ich g rew up after fires and other d isturbances fo llo w in g upon railroad construction and op eration , lum bering and other p ion eerin g a ctivities o f the late nineteenth and early tw entieth cen tu ries. S uch lo d g ep o le pine stands are rela tiv ely co m m o n in the park and do not com p are aesth etically and e c o lo g ic a lly with the flo o d p la in vegetation and w ild life habitat alon g Corridor B. T he Environm ental Im pact Statem ent an ticip ates problem s with certain sp aw n in g stream s and other se n sitiv e areas located at a few sites alon g Corridor A . H o w ev er, ad verse e ffe c ts probably cou ld be m in im ized or a v o id ed by careful planning and by so m e in vestm en t in environ m en tal sa feg u a rd s. N ol m uch attention is d evoted to this p o ssi­ b ility in the E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent. T he major e c o lo g ic a l ob jection to Corridor B -I— the p o ssib ility o f a large num ber o f anim al injuries and d eaths— is an im portant o n e. But a substantial increase in su ch a ccid en ts cou ld w ell occu r with a n y o f the proposed altern atives. M o reo ver, it m ay w ell be that such accid en ts w ou ld be high a lo n g preferred route B; e sp e c ia lly in w inter, w h en ice

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co n d itio n s and e lk , deer and other an im als can be found relatively frequently in the H oodplain area that this route traverses.

S um m ary In su m , there are major reason s for h avin g reservations about this E nvironm ental Im pact Statem ent and the se lectio n o f Corridor B. i) the Statem ent is lim ited in sc o p e and d o es not ad eq u ately deal w ith the im pact o f the 7 .8 m ile addition or o f future ex p ected ad d ition s in B a n ff Park and other areas a lo n g the route to V an­ co u v er. ii) the need for the addition is not dem onstrated , nor are alterna­ tiv es to any ex istin g traffic problem s serio u sly con sid ered , the lo n g term im p lication s o f con tin u in g to d ev elo p the Trans-C anada as the so le m ajor ea st-w est route in C anada have not been e x ­ am ined nor related to other altern atives, such as H igh w ay 3 to the south. iii) the an a ly sis o f the three alternative corridors b etw een the East G ate and the B a n ff traffic cir c le , and the selection o f Corridor B , is not c o n v in c in g , e sp e c ia lly on eco lo g ica l grounds. If an un d erlyin g reason for p roceed in g with this project is the stim ulation o f em p lo y m en t and the ec o n o m y , h ig h w a y s can be co n sid ­ ered else w h e r e , or other projects can be undertaken. T he thrust o f this rev iew and critique is that on the b asis o f the inform ation provided in the Environm ental Im pact Statem ent it w ou ld be u n w ise to proceed w ith the tw inning o f the Trans-C anada in the m anner su g g ested at this tim e.

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