Management and Leadership Innovations 9781783504701, 9781783504695

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Volume 38

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS Advances in

Librarianship

Editorial Advisory Board Kenneth Haycock, University of Southern California Maureen L. Mackenzie, Molloy College Pat Levine (formerly Molholt), Words & Ideas Marie L. Radford, Rutgers University Louise Schaper, Schaper Consulting, Inc. Robert A. Seal, Loyola University Chicago Barbara K. Stripling, Syracuse University Catherine C. Wilt, PALCI–Pennsylvania Academic Library Consortium, Inc.

Volume 38

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS Advances in

Librarianship Edited by

Anne Woodsworth Glen Cove, New York, USA

W. David Penniman Columbus, Ohio, USA

United Kingdom • North America • Japan India • Malaysia • China

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2014 Copyright r 2014 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78350-469-5 ISSN: 0065-2830 (Series)

ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001

Contents

Contributors Preface

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Leadership Leadership Role of an Academic Library in Community Outreach: Surabaya Memory Project 3 Toong Tjiek Liauw (Aditya Nugraha) I. II. III. IV. V. VI.

Introduction and Background 3 Surabaya Memory and Its Early Years 5 Expanding the Sphere of Influence 6 Growing the Project 11 Growing Stakeholders and Partners 16 Conclusion 17 References 18

Mindful Leadership Defined and Explained

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Stephanie Beverage, Kathleen DeLong, Irene M. H. Herold and Kenley Neufeld I. II. III. IV.

Introduction 21 Mindful Leadership Theories 24 Transformation through Mindfulness 29 Viewing a Leadership Program through Mindful Leadership: A Case Study 31 V. Conclusion 34 References 35

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Contents

Distributed Leadership and Library Service Innovation 37 Anne Goulding and J. Graham Walton I. II. III. IV.

Introduction 37 Context and Concepts 40 Distributed Leadership Skills Study 47 Conclusion 55 Appendix A: Questionnaire Results 57 Appendix B: Interview Protocol about Leadership Skills for Partnership Working/Collaboration 77 References 78

Library Instructor Development and Cultivating a Community of Practice 83 Malia Willey I. Introduction 83 II. Challenges for Library Instructors and Their Coordinators 84 III. Communities of Practice 87 IV. Monroe Library’s Case Study 90 V. Conclusion 97 Acknowledgment 98 References 98

Leading for Learning: A Model for Best Practice in School Libraries 101 Cristina S. Judge and David McMenemy I. Introduction 101 II. Schooling and Libraries in the United States and United Kingdom 102 III. Recent Research 106 IV. The Research Design 109 V. Discussion and Model Presentation 112 VI. The Model 117 VII. Conclusions 124 Appendix A: On Grounded Theory 127 Appendix B: Sample Interview Questions 128 References 129

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Service Design for Libraries: An Introduction

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Mark E. de Jong I. II. III. IV. V.

Introduction 137 What Are Service Science and Service Design? 139 Service Design in libraries: Exemplars 145 Implications 148 Conclusion 149 Appendix A: De Jong and Shepard’s (2012) Core Values Appendix B: De Jong and Shepard’s Guidelines 150 References 150

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Management The Fit Test: Interview Techniques to Build a Strong Team 155 Anne C. Barnhart, Jean M. Cook, Jessica Critten, Angela Pashia, Andrea G. Stanfield and Dean Sullivan I. II. III. IV. V.

Introduction 155 Literature Review 157 The Interview Process 159 An Evolving Interview Model 162 Conclusion 166 Acknowledgment 167 Appendix A: Job Ads 167 Appendix B: Telephone Interview Questions Appendix C: On-Campus Interview Questions Appendix D: Interview Schedules (as Sent to Candidates in Email by Anne Barnhart, Head of Instructional Services) 172 References 174

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Management of Content Development and Subject Engagement through an Arts Matrix Model: A Case Study 177 Casey D. Hoeve, Ellen R. Urton and Thomas W. Bell I. Introduction 178 II. Strategic Planning 179

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III. IV. V. VI.

K-State Libraries Reorganization 183 Position Restructuring and Role Transformations 189 Matrices 195 Conclusion 204 Appendix A: K-State Libraries’ Reorganization Satisfaction Survey 208 References 209

Managers, Stress, and the Prevention of Burnout in the Library Workplace 211 Nancy McCormack I. II. III. IV.

Introduction 211 Stress and Burnout 215 Management Intervention Conclusion 236 References 237

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Gossip and Library Management: An Examination of the Perceptions of Library Managers 245 Richard Olorunsola I. II. III. IV. V.

Introduction 245 Literature Review 247 The Study of Gossip in Nigerian Academic Libraries Findings 254 Conclusion 261 Appendix A: Sample Questionnaire 262 Appendix B: Participating Libraries 265 References 266

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Strategic Library Management with the United Nations’ Agenda 21 269 ¨ pfel Joachim Scho I. II. III. IV.

Adapting Ranganathan’s Fifth Law 269 Origin and Content of Agenda 21 271 Agenda 21 and Library Issues 272 Sustainable Development vs. User Satisfaction?

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Contents

V. Conclusion: Toward a Global Library 279 Acknowledgments 280 Appendix A: A Brief Description of Agenda 21 References 284

Index

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281

Contributors

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which an author’s contribution begin.

Anne C. Barnhart (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA Thomas W. Bell (177) Libraries, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA Stephanie Beverage (21) Huntington Beach Public Library, Huntington Beach, CA, USA Jean M. Cook (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA Jessica Critten (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA Mark E. de Jong (137) Library, University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD, USA Kathleen DeLong (21) University of Alberta Libraries, Edmonton, Canada Anne Goulding (37) School of Information Management, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand Irene M. H. Herold (21) Library, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA Casey D. Hoeve (177) Libraries, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA Cristina S. Judge (101) Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Toong Tjiek Liauw (Aditya Nugraha) (3) Library, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia Nancy McCormack (211) Faculty of Law, Queens University, Kingston, Canada David McMenemy (101) Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Kenley Neufeld (21) Luria Library, Santa Barbara City College, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

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Contributors

Richard Olorunsola (245) T.Y. Danjuma Library, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria Angela Pashia (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA ¨ pfel (269) Department of Library and Information Joachim Scho Sciences, Charles de Gaulle University—Lille III, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France Andrea G. Stanfield (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA Dean Sullivan (155) Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA Ellen R. Urton (177) Libraries, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA J. Graham Walton (37) Library, Loughborough University, UK Malia Willey (83) J. Edgar & Louise S. Monroe Library, Loyola University New Orleans, LA, USA

Preface

This volume presents chapters on innovations in two parts. The first part focuses on leadership and the latter half under management. Our thoughts for the theme of this volume are centered on the use of new digital and social media swirling around us and how these engender new approaches within and external to all information service providers. How can we design and redesign ourselves in the face of changing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats? This volume presents a wide range of potential answers. Be it France, Nigeria, Canada, or the United States and United Kingdom, librarians everywhere are searching for innovative ways to manage operations, themselves, and at the same time enlarging their leadership roles—not just on campus but also in their cities and surrounding communities. This volume provides some stellar examples of both leadership and management creativity. Take for example, a small academic library in a private university in Indonesia engaging its greater metropolitan population of 5.6 million in edutainment events—from interactive children’s activities, to walking tours of historic sites and more importantly, building a digital repository of that city’s history and culture. In doing this, the library wove academic students and faculty members into the fabric of the entire city. The partnerships both inside the University and in the external community are exemplary showcases from which all types of libraries can learn. The chapter by Toong Tjiek Liauw (Aditya Nugraha) is unlike any outreach activities experienced in our combined professional lives which—alas—total nearly century. The following chapters deal with mindful leadership and how it impacts libraries, both public and academic. As a reviewer said of the chapter by Beverage, DeLong, Herold, and Neufeld, this provides a “a great landscape for leaders” if they want to hone their talents to better their environments. This is followed by a study by Goulding and Walton in which, after strong literature review, they report the findings of the attributes of leaders in collaborative enterprises and establish a link between distributed leadership, collaborative work, and innovation. Willey literature review examines how devolved leadership and development of a community of practice helped a group of library instructors learn and grow in their roles as

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teacher in a higher education setting. The chapter by Judge and McMenemy covers interviews of school media librarians in both the United States and Scotland about their roles and positions. After a thorough literature review, the authors present a model for optimum conditions and support which will ensure highly successful school library operations and enable further development of school libraries in many countries. According to an eminent scholar in the field this is, simply put, a great chapter. Last but not least in this section is the chapter by deJong addressing service science and service design approaches to building customer service systems for libraries independent of the community served. This chapter, conceptual in nature, presents the why and how of implementing service design as a means of increasing user satisfaction and patronage and represents the application of a novel subdisciplines of management studies to various library environments. The section on management has similar creative solutions to day-to-day library operations. The chapter by Barnhart et al. recounts how a team struggled to reinvent traditional interview processes in order to find colleagues who were good “fits” for both existing and evolving teams. They describe how engagement of applicants in real-life activities during the interview processes ensured that both candidates and existing staff would experience and engage in their future responsibilities as a cohesive group. The result is a model which would do well for others who seek to find people who might best complement existing teams’ knowledge, skills, and styles. A similar approach is taken at Kansas State University Libraries where Hoeve, Urton, and Bell report development of a matrix approach to both collections and they became client focused by restructured positions and transformed their roles from traditional narrow collection development librarians into more broadly focused, service-oriented colleagues. McCormack’s chapter clearly, and in depth, provides a thorough literature review which differentiates between situational and short-term stresses that managers face—as opposed to chronic conditions which drain energy and create total burnout. McCormack not only provides a scholarly foundation but also has valuable practical advice for mitigating these situations. This is followed by Olorunsola’s study of the use and management of gossip in academic libraries—highly useful despite its seemingly geographic limitations. Of this, one reviewer said that it is one of the most refreshing and interesting papers she has reviewed for Advances in Librarianship to date. Gossip can have negative impact in organizations but in this study, a fair portion of upper level managers conceded that it has its uses, particularly if it identifies problems/issues which can be resolved once they surface. Stepping back farther, and looking at a broader, even global picture, Scho¨pfel analyzes the extent to which the United Nation’s Agenda 21 can be used by

Preface

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libraries to ensure global sustainability through actions at local levels. He concludes that in so doing, a global library will ultimately emerge. As editors, we trust that readers will find these chapters helpful to them as current and future leaders and managers. We could not have succeeded in completing this volume without the authors all of whom were unfailingly prompt and responsive to our questions and suggestions. To them go our heartfelt thanks. Members of the Editorial Advisory Board also deserve our thanks for giving us advice about possible themes for volumes, for guiding potential authors to us, and for reviewing the papers submitted. Its members are: Kenneth Haycock, Professor Emeritus at San Jose’s School of Library and Information Science and more recently, Research Professor of Management and Organization at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, all the while spearheading a consulting company in Vancouver, Canada; Maureen Mackenzie, Business Professor at Molloy College, Rockville Centre, NY whose experience and education straddle the worlds of business and information management; Pat Levine (formerly Molholt), currently a consultant, grant writer and editor in Ashley Falls, MA, and who retired as Associate Vice President at Columbia University’s Medical Center, New York, NY; Marie Radford, Chair and Professor of the Department of Library and Information Science (recipient of numerous research grants to examine information seeking behaviors) at Rutgers University’s School of Communication and Information, Newark, NJ; Robert A. Seal, Dean of Libraries at Loyola University, Chicago, IL, who has not only contributed to this series as an author, but has been the backbone of the Editorial Advisory Board since 2002; Louise Schaper, an award-winning public librarian with her roots in Bell Labs and currently Vice President of Schaper Consulting, Inc., in Naples, FL; Barbara A. Stripling, Assistant Professor of Practice at Syracuse University’s School of Information Studies in Syracuse, NY (who juggles time and effort between teaching and serving as President-Elect, and then President of the American Library Association, 2012 2014); and last but not least, Cathy Wilt, Executive Director of the Pennsylvania Academic Library Consortium, Inc. (PALCI) in Philadelphia, PA, with many years of experience in directing library consortia. Once again, our gratitude goes to the Emerald team with which we worked—Sarah Baxter, Virginia Chapman, and Wendy Lynch. Their support and help in clarifying publication processes was much appreciated. Anne Woodsworth W. David Penniman Editors

Leadership

Leadership Role of an Academic Library in Community Outreach: Surabaya Memory Project Toong Tjiek Liauw (Aditya Nugraha) Library, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia

Abstract A community outreach program called Surabaya Memory (SM) initiated by Petra Christian University’s Library in Indonesia is described in this chapter. It is dedicated to the preservation of Surabaya city’s historical and cultural heritage, and provides a case study of academic library leadership both in its campus setting and in society in general. The initiative started in 2001 as a heritage project dedicated to preserving resources digitally, but since then evolved into much broader initiatives involving various community outreach programs. These programs and activities have been held in the city’s malls in an effort to reach everyone, not just the learned and cultured groups of society. In organizing all those programs and activities, the Library found itself assuming expanding roles and functions. It has also found itself exercising leadership roles in facilitating various university academic departments and administrative units to reach out to the community at large. SM also served as a forum wherein academic departments could showcase the Surabaya-related work of faculties and students to the general public. In some cases SM’s programs and activities which could be integrated into academic courses in several academic departments. The chapter discusses a model for academic libraries to assume leadership roles on campus, and for redefining their roles and activities well beyond their campuses. Such newly redefined roles will, in the end, raise not only the public profile of academic libraries on campus but also of the entire university. Keywords: Surabaya Memory; digital heritage; library community outreach; Indonesia; academic libraries

I. Introduction and Background The advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) has created significant changes in our everyday lives. This is especially true with the invention of personal computers and the Internet. Both have virtually MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038004

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redefined many roles and functions of “traditional” institutions that have influenced our lives. One of these institutions is the library. Kathlin Smith (2005), Director of Communications of Council on Library and Information Resources, touched one of the core issues when she asked “what is the role of a library when it no longer needs to be a warehouse of books and when users can obtain information without setting foot in its doors?” (p. vii). In the case of academic libraries, many are now “soul searching” to redefine their roles and functions in adapting to the myriad changes affecting the landscape of library and information services. According to Freeman (2005) some are revamping their buildings and facilities to “meet today’s academic needs as well as those in the future … while also accommodating myriad new information and learning technologies and the ways we access and use them” (p. 2). Although he spoke from an architect’s perspective, Freeman (2005) touched an important aspect on academic libraries in today’s technological environment when he further stated that “rather than threatening the traditional concept of the library, the integration of new information technology has actually become the catalyst that transforms the library into a more vital and critical intellectual center of life at colleges and universities today” (p. 2). Freeman also believed that rather than perceiving technological advancements as threats to academic libraries’ roles and functions, we should embrace them and integrate them into our newly defined roles and functions. Many have implemented this approach by developing digital libraries (DLs) or institutional repositories (IRs). However, in our endeavors to stay relevant in this era of digital natives, academic libraries should never lose sight of their traditional mission in engaging their user communities. This author believes that “DLs/IRs hold promises of exciting future since DLs/IRs provide new and exciting avenue for libraries to engage the society in a much broader roles and scope” (Liauw, 2006, p. 131). Engaging their user communities and the society in general is the core mission (and the reason for the existence) of libraries. New developments such as ICTs, DLs, and IRs, should not replace this mission. Instead, they should help libraries in their attempts to accomplish their mission. This chapter discusses the opportunities and possibilities of a digital heritage project called Surabaya Memory (SM) in the form of both DL and IR to better enable an academic library to reach out to its broader community, which in the process, put that same academic library into a leadership role among campus units as well as external organizations and institutions. The SM project (see references for the URL) was initiated in 2001 by the Library at Petra Christian University (PCU). PCU is a medium-sized private university with approximately 7700 students (mostly undergraduates) and

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207 full-time lecturers. The Library at PCU holds 160,976 volumes in its hardcopy collection and 230,127 digital objects in its IR. SM is one of seven thematic collections in the repository with 780 digital objects. The other thematic digital collections are the Digital Theses, eDIMENSI (articles from journals published by PCU), Petra@rt Gallery (works of art by the campus communities), Petra Chronicle (historical and “archival” documents related to PCU), Petra iPoster, and Chinese-Indonesians (as a support system for the Center for Chinese Indonesian Studies). The Library has five professional librarians and four library-assistants among its 22 total number of staff. Besides serving PCU students the Library also has approximately 2000 outside student memberships from Surabaya and surrounding cities/areas (Liauw, 2013). PCU is situated in Surabaya, the capital city of East Java Province and the second largest city in Indonesia with a total population of 3.1 million people with a greater metropolitan area population of 5.6 million (Surabaya City Government, 2012). It is located at the east end of the Java island, while Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital, is at the west end. Surabaya is only a 40-minute-flight away from Bali, one of the major tourist destinations in the world. The city is also known as a Hero City for its heroic November 10, 1945, battle against the Dutch, which started the Indonesian war of independence.

II. Surabaya Memory and Its Early Years As a digital heritage initiative SM is dedicated to capturing the historic and cultural heritage of the city of Surabaya. It initially had two main goals, which were to digitally preserve the city’s heritage and to increase heritage awareness in its communities. In its beginning years SM emphasized the first goal, the digitization of heritage-related materials. These materials came from the campus community as well as the population in general. Individuals and organizations contributed related materials to the Library to be digitized and the Library naturally gave credit to the contributors. This approach—involving stakeholders outside the Library—was taken since the Library did not have many materials about the city. The content was out there in the broader community. More importantly, by involving outside stakeholders, the PCU library could do what Kranich, Reid, and Willingham (2004) termed building social capital and encouraging civic engagement of the communities they serve through partnerships. On the first few years of its existence SM was simply a digital repository of heritage-related resources. It was integrated into the IR that the Library

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had developed. The SM related digital resources could only be accessed through the Library’s online catalog. This condition did not help efforts to promote the digital resources to the general public since they were overwhelmed by other academically inclined digital resources in the IR. The Library therefore decided in 2001/2002 to develop a specialized web-based search engine that could search only those digital resources related to SM. The Library also developed a simple web site interface surrounding this specialized search engine and populated it with educational information about Surabaya city. This decision had implications in terms of the efforts needed to update the web site and the search engine since it was separate from the general/universal search engine used for the Library’s online catalog). Due to staffing limitations, the web site could not optimally exploit its potential. Educating the general population, the second goal of SM, could not be carried out solely through the web site while it did signify the broadening of SM’s on-site programs and activities.

III. Expanding the Sphere of Influence In the early 2000 the Internet was still in its infancy in Indonesia, which made relying solely on the online methods (web site and digital resources) was an inadequate way to reach and educate society about heritage-related issues. According to Buschman (2003) (see also Matarasso, 1998; McCabe, 2001) as quoted by Aabø and Audunson (2012), public libraries can “contribute to local communities by fostering imagination, creativity, and personal development, and by strengthening local culture and identity, social cohesion, and community empowerment” (p. 138). In their own ways and to their user communities, the same can be said of other types of libraries. In the case of SM this same spirit inspired the Library to reach out to the broader community by going off campus and utilizing external sites and more aggressive methods. Beginning in 2004 SM started to organize photo exhibitions in cultural and/or civic institutions such as galleries, museums, and at the Surabaya city hall. After some time the library staff noticed that the audiences who attended these exhibitions tended to be groups of people with similar characteristics. They came from the upper and middle classes which were the learned and cultured groups of society. It is understandable that people with such demographical characteristics have more capacity and time to appreciate heritage-related exhibitions whereas lower class groups did not have such luxuries. Yet the latter were the groups that were supposed to be the main target of the exhibitions. The author believed that the majority of people

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find cultural institutions—including universities—to be intimidating places to visit, which also contributed to their absence at on-campus exhibitions. Improvising on this condition led the library to come up with a new idea. In 2006 SM began what was then considered to be a novel idea, that is to say, bringing exhibitions to malls. Most cities in Indonesia do not have adequate public spaces, where people can interact with one another and use them as community centers/hubs. Therefore malls are the de facto community centers/hubs in Indonesian cities. Various people in society go to malls to hang out, to dine, and to socialize with families and friends, not just to shop or buy things. These settings are ideal for outreach efforts. Since the idea of setting up a heritage exhibition was considered to be a cutting-edge idea at the time, several malls literally competed to have SM exhibitions on their premises, particularly since the media provided good coverage of the events. In 2006 SM also held a public logo design competition. Although the winning logo design was decided by a jury comprised of an architect and graphic designers, a number of finalist logos were also exhibited along with the photo exhibition. The public had opportunity to choose their favorite logo for the duration of the exhibition with the best design (see Fig. 1) announced at the end of the exhibition. Since 2007 the annual exhibitions (usually in May, the anniversary of Surabaya city) have been enriched by cultural and/or artistic performances, all with Surabaya flavor. The main exhibitions however, were still limited to old/historical photographs and the Library began to run out of new photographs to exhibit. The reuse of old photographs was mentioned by nationally syndicated media in its coverage of SM exhibitions. Again, this pointed to need for the Library to improvise further.

Fig. 1

The winning Surabaya Memory logo (2007). Source: Logo designed by Selvy Hermawan.

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In 2008 the Library expanded its design and concept of SM exhibitions. Instead of just exhibiting historical and old photographs, the exhibits began to feature all things related to Surabaya. These included contemporary photographs, architectural designs, interior designs, visual/graphic designs, calligraphies, green maps, sketches and drawings, poetry, short essays, and Surabaya-flavored food. The departure from photo exhibitions into a more dynamic and rich-in-diversity was significant in terms of educational value. As Maloney (2012) stated “well-curated displays can transform ‘passive’ library collections into communal spaces of discovery, cultivation, and contemplation” (p. 282). It was difficult to get an accurate number of exhibition visitors since the exhibitions were (almost) always held at malls’ atria, open spaces with many points of entry for visitors. However in one of two exhibitions in which the venue had only one point of entry, the Library managed to count 7500 visitors during an eight-day exhibition. It was by far the most visitors that SM had attracted and this was due to the fact that it was held in the most popular mall in Surabaya. Depending on the popularity of the venue, other exhibitions that lasted four to eight days usually attracted approximately 2500 4500 visitors. It might also be helpful for readers to know that the Library managed to negotiate with various malls to use their spaces free of charge. The normal rate for renting atria mall space would have been 20 30 million rupiahs (approximately US $2000 3000) per day. Minimal fees were only paid for cleaning and electricity. Getting free exhibition space was the reason for SM’s strong public outeach. In conjunction with the exhibitions, various activities were organized such as cultural and artistic performances, competitions, and other “edutainment” activities. One example of these edutainment activities was an information scavenger hunt for elementary school students, asking them to find “hidden” information in photographs and other exhibit materials. For example, in 2013 an SM event themed “Surabaya Mendongeng” (Storytelling Surabaya), the Library organized an exhibition and other educational activities on the theme of storytelling, folklores, legends, and the like (see Figs. 2 5). The exhibition featured various educational tools/toys, books, and posters relating to storytelling that had been created by students from Visual Communication Design Department at PCU (see Fig. 2). Students in the English and Chinese Departments created bilingual threedimensional storybooks, with which children and visitors could interact (see Fig. 3). Some exhibit materials were the contributions from an art vocational school (SMKN 12) and a paper puppetry group from Yogyakarta called Papermoon. Other materials related to storytelling were featured by the Goethe-Institut (Wisma Jerman/The House of German) which celebrated its 200th Anniversary of the Grimm-Brothers children’s fairy tale fame. Several

Academic Library Leadership in Community Outreach

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Mall visitors interacting with exhibits. Source: Photo taken by Aditya Nugraha.

Fig. 3 Children interacting with 3D books on local folklores created by PCU students. Source: Photo taken by PutuMahendra Wijaya.

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Storytelling program and activity. Source: Photo taken by PutuMahendra Wijaya.

Fig. 5 Workshop for teachers making educational tools. Source: Photo taken by PutuMahendra Wijaya.

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other cultural institutions and foundations also participated by lending exhibit materials. Various on-site educational activities were also organized for Surabaya Mendongeng. In line with the theme, storytelling activities were held as shown in Fig. 4). Surabaya Mendongeng also featured storytelling competitions by different age groups including school children and adults as well as a childrens’ fashion show themed “Costumes of Legends, Folklores, and Fairy Tales.” The exhibit organizers were pleasantly surprised to find that some participants not only paraded the beauty of their costumes on the catwalk, but also enacted, without dialog, the story behind the costume they wore. The first place winner was a cute little girl, who wore the costume and creatively enacted the local folklore of Timun Mas (Golden Cucumber). Lecturers from English Department, Chinese Department, Visual Communication Design Department, Interior Design Department, Architecture Department, and Communication Science Department served as jury members in competitions such as these, along with individuals from outside PCU. Another kind of on-site activity was a workshop for early childhood education teachers, in which these teachers created educational toys and storytelling tools using recycled materials (see Fig. 5). The participants came from various local schools and early childhood education communities, with the aim of introducing heritage issues as early as possible to the younger generation. This workshop was led by a lecturer from the Visual Communication Design Department and involved students from the same department as part of their community outreach program.

IV. Growing the Project The Library managed to include a wide variety of exhibition materials and edutainment activities by collaborating with various academic departments at PCU as well as stakeholders outside of PCU. The academic departments that were involved included Architecture, Interior Design, Visual Communication Design, English, Chinese, Communication Science, and Hotel Management. As Sidorko and Yang (2011) said, such approaches “not only help to promote access to the University’s intellectual content but they also serve as ‘relationship management’ tools” between the university and “the broader community” (p. 388). This was apparent in many instances when the general public associated the city’s heritage with PCU. In the following years since 2009, SM endeavored to involve more stakeholders from outside PCU in its programs and activities, especially the exhibitions that celebrate Surabaya city’s anniversary annually each May. SM

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almost always involved local elementary and high schools in this annual event and its workshops, competitions, cultural performances, and exhibitions, as well as the heritage walks. Other external stakeholders that SM has worked with included: • • • • • • • •

Surabaya City Library and Archives; East Java Provincial Library and Archives; National Archives; Komunitas Jejak Petjinan (Chinese Trails Community); Goethe-Institut Indonesien; Institut Francais Indonesia; Yayasan Caraka Mulya (a foundation that fosters relationships with the Netherlands); and Roode Brug/Red Bridge (a military historical reenactment group).

Besides contributing exhibit materials and on-site activities for the SM exhibitions, cultural institutions such as these agreed to lend their heritagerelated materials to be digitized and incorporated into the SM digital collection. There were not too many new resources obtained for SM through this venue, however it did serve to encourage public participations in building SM digital collections to increase public awareness and appreciation of heritage-related issues. SM has also engaged individuals in its programs and activities, particularly private collectors, who owned collections of heritage-related materials for their personal enjoyment. SM managed to invite several individuals to exhibit their personal collections of old photographs, postcards, and other paraphernalia related to Surabaya, which the public otherwise would not have been able to enjoy. The author believes that SM programs and activities were directly responsible for achieving what Westney (2006) termed as an “engaged university” that “links the differing perspectives of the dynamic partnerships that universities are forging with external constituencies to advance knowledge while building community through collaboration” (p. 200) The author also contends that collaborations with stakeholders outside PCU created a platform where PCU faculties and students were directly connected to external stakeholders to “initiate both formal and informal educational opportunities” (Fabian, D’Aniello, Tysick, & Morin, 2003, p. 45). The Library also collaborated with several academic departments to integrate SM programs and activities into their students’ learning processes. SM enjoyed the help of students from an Event Management class in the Hotel Management Department in the preparation, fund raising, and execution of SM exhibitions and other activities. These students used SM as a real world project which became an integral part of their course assignments. Groups of students from the Tourism and Leisure Management Department

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helped to organize the Heroic Trails Heritage Walks since 2005 (Figs. 6 and 7), which are usually held in conjunction with SM exhibitions. The Heritage Walk programs (Heroic Trails, Journey to the Past, and Tour de Kampoengs) served these students real world opportunities to practice their tour-leading skills, which is part of their course work. It is fair to say that SM programs and activities have provided a service-learning platform that, according to Westney (2006), integrates community service into academic study by linking classrooms to their communities, [where] individuals [(students)] become involved in service projects that are of benefit to others and their communities … [and in which] projects are designed, enacted, supervised, and evaluated with the educational benefits of the volunteer experience as one of the consciously held goals. (p. 200)

In the words of Honnet and Poulsen (1989), service learning can “help individuals appreciate how service can be a significant and ongoing part of life. Service, combined with learning, adds value to each and transforms both” (p. 1). Service learning is of paramount importance at PCU since the University’s vision is to be a Caring and Global University. To support this, the University has been part of the International Partnership for ServiceLearning network since 2005. In short, SM has created mutually beneficial

Fig. 6 Heritage walk: visiting the heroes monument. Source: Photo taken by staff from the Tourism and Leisure Management Department, Petra Christian University.

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Fig. 7 Heritage walk: visiting the historic home of the national anthem’s composer. Source: Photo taken by staff from the Tourism and Leisure Management Department, Petra Christian University.

relationships between the Library, various academic departments, other campus communities, and stakeholders outside of the campus. A. Amassing More Digital Content and Users With respect to the digital content of SM, some recent developments have been highly encouraging. In early 2013 the Library managed to lobby the Surabaya City Planning and Development Agency to agree to release numerous public documents to be uploaded to the SM database, thus making them accessible from the Internet through SM search engine. This recent development proves that SM has played a role in facilitating transparency and public accountability of the local government. At the same time SM was facilitating the culture of information sharing through open access to public documents. An agreement was also reached between PCU Library and KTILV (Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde) the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies, wherein SM could harvest the metadata and preview images of KTILV’s digital resources related to Surabaya city. Another possibility on the horizon as of the writing of this chapter, is the possible collaboration with Delft

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Access (hits)

140,000,000 120,000,000 100,000,000 80,000,000 60,000,000 40,000,000 20,000,000

2009/2010

2008/2009

2007/2008

2006/2007

2005/2006

2004/2005

2003/2004

2002/2003

2001/2002

–

Fig. 8 Access statistics to the institutional repository at PCU.

University of Technology in the Netherlands to create open access to its digital repository of its resources on Dutch colonial architecture and town planning in Indonesia. Such resources would be of interest to students and faculties in the Architecture Department at PCU. The digital documents and/or resources developed by the Library through SM are significant sources of learning and research materials for students and faculties at PCU as well as stakeholders outside of PCU. This is apparent in the number of accesses to these digital resources as shown in Fig. 8. It should be noted that access statistics for 2009/2010 were very high. There had been online attempts to do systematic download to the Library’s digital resources around that time, which could responsible for the very high number in that year. The latest number for 2010/2011 is around 65 million hits. Unfortunately this number cannot be exact since it was taken from a visual observation of the weblog before technical problems occurred, which had rendered statistical data for 2010/2011, 2011/2012, and 2012/ 2013 unavailable. It is safe to estimate that current access ranges between 60 and 80 million hits per year. It should also be noted that these numbers are for the whole PCU repository, not just those of SM. The Library developed these digital resources with the help of various campus communities and external stakeholders. The Library then provided them for use by anyone. This is in a way completed the circle of a mutually beneficial relationship. This is also true in the arrangements whereby students who helped various SM programs and activities engaged in service learning. Through all of SM’s programs and activities the PCU Library has become aware that it is in the middle of changing the roles of academic libraries and of librarians.

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V. Growing Stakeholders and Partners There have been many discussions about the changing roles of academic librarians. Shupe and Pung (2011) stated that “the academic librarian’s role has become both dynamic and challenging, with librarians frequently involved in outreach” (p. 413). Freeman (2005) said that “The [academic] library’s primary role is to advance and enrich the student’s educational experience; however, by cutting across all disciplines and functions, the library also serves a significant social role. It is a place where people come together” (p. 6). While Freeman talked about library buildings and their new functions, the same concept, the author believes, can be applied to the role and function of community outreach by all types of libraries in each of their local communities. According to Usherwood (2002), as cited by Aabø and Audunson (2012), “public libraries have impact on communities by their social, educational, and cultural roles, and by developing confidence in individuals and communities” (p. 138). Having SM as a digital heritage project as well as an outreach project did not require massive changes in PCU’s Library in terms of staffing. SM programs and activities are handled by the librarians in charge of Reference and Cooperation Services. Each year the Library forms an organizing committee for SM, with the position of head of committee being served on a rolling basis among librarians. Other librarians and library support staff will help the committee, as do lecturers from academic departments, university staff, and students. Serving on the organizing committee provides invaluable experience for all involved in terms of teamwork; and in the case of the serving head of committee, leadership skills. In the digitization aspect, the Library expanded the cataloging division by appointing a dedicated librarian to be in charge in the digital cataloging of the heritagerelated materials acquired. This responsibility also covers materials acquired for other digital collections (e.g., Digital Theses, eDIMENSI, Petra@rt Gallery, Petra Chronicle, Petra iPoster, and Chinese-Indonesians). This librarian hired three to four part-time student workers to help with various tasks. This librarian is also responsible for liaison and coordination with digitization vendors (scanning, OCR, for example) for digitizing older materials such as photographs, posters, old hardcopy theses, and so on. Due to the relatively high volume of incoming materials, the Library also recently “outsourced” digital cataloging and processing tasks to its own librarians and support staff, who work on the tasks outside of work hours in what might be called an inside-outsourcing arrangement. With the approval of University’s human resource department, the Library has also been soliciting help from librarians from other institutions in an outsourcing basis.

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This approach not only provides more incentives for the librarians and support staff, but also has a positive impact in terms of increased awareness and support for digital projects, including SM and its outreach initiatives. With SM as a study case, the author has come to a realization that while assuming these new roles, academic librarians are also “unintentionally” assuming leadership roles in their local communities, especially within the campus communities which are their main constituents. The University of Hong Kong Libraries (2009) realized this when it stated it wants to play its roles by promoting knowledge exchange and demonstrating leadership in communities in the region … engaging, for mutual benefit, with business, government or the public to generate, acquire, apply, and make accessible the knowledge needed to enhance material, human, social, cultural and environmental well-being … and it is a two-way process. (p. 8)

Kranich (2001) also stated the importance of engaging students in civic and political activities and at the same time bringing the academic library closer to the campus and local communities it serves. In organizing various SM’s programs and activities the PCU Library found itself to be a hub where various campus units come together to engage with the broader community. SM has provided a common platform, upon which various campus communities find channels/avenues to reach out, connect to, and engage the community at large. Some lessons learned and recommendations based on the experience in organizing various community outreach efforts through SM are the importance of: • communication and personal approaches in bringing together various stakeholders, inside and outside the campus boundaries; • accommodating the interests of various stakeholders and the ability to “orchestrate” them into mutually beneficial relationships and a common goal; • continuous efforts to link the community outreach initiatives with the campus communities’ interests (that campus communities can benefit from the initiatives); • continuous advocacy for the initiatives to the university administrators by showing the “value for money” that they get for supporting such initiatives (media coverage is usually the best advocacy since it boosts the university image in the society); • think creatively in terms of thematic exhibitions and on-site programs & activities; • providing the exhibition space and opportunities to contribute on-site programs and activities to as many stakeholders as possible, inside and outside the traditional campus boundaries; and • conscious efforts by the Library to play the role of relationships manager inside the campus boundaries as well as connecting the campus communities to the broader society.

VI. Conclusion Advances in ICT have forced many libraries to do soul searching, and redefine their roles and functions to stay relevant in the new landscape of libary

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and information services. Instead of perceiving these changes to be a threat, libraries—especially academic libraries—should embrace them and see them as opportunities to strengthen their roles in their communities and society in general. Digital heritage projects provide opportunities for libraries to do just that. Libraries can capitalize on digital resources of heritage-related materials to engage their user communities and their external communities. Libraries can achieve this by supplementing digital resources with on- and off-site programs and activities that make their resources come alive. This approach is in line with what Lynch and Lippencott (2005) said—that “a major direction [for DL/IR projects], is connecting and integrating digital libraries with broader individual, group and societal activities” (p. 6). In implementing programs and activities on top of digital heritagerelated resources, libraries, as demonstrated by SM, need to collaborate not only with various campus constituents but also with other stakeholders beyond traditional campus boundaries. In so doing libraries and their librarians will also find themselves assuming leadership roles and becoming hubs in surrounding communities and regions. These new roles and functions will enforce the irreplaceable value of libraries in communities and society in general. As Oakleaf’s research (Association of College and Research Libraries, 2010) said so eloquently, “the demonstration of value is not about looking valuable; it’s about being valuable” (p. 140).

References Aabø, S., & Audunson, R. (2012). Use of library space and the library as space. Library & Information Science Research, 34(2), 138 149. doi:10.1016/j.lisr. 2011.06.002 Association of College and Research Libraries. (2010). The value of academic libraries: A comprehensive research review and report. Researched by Megan Oakleaf. Chicago, IL: Author. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/issues/value/ val_report.pdf Buschman, J. E. (2003). Dismantling the public sphere: Situating and sustaining librarianship in the age of the new public philosophy. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited. Fabian, C. A., D’Aniello, C., Tysick, C., & Morin, M. (2003). Multiple models for library outreach initiatives. The Reference Librarian, 39(82), 39 55. doi:10.1300/ J120v39n82_04 Freeman, G. (2005). The library as place: Changes in learning patterns, collections, technology and use. In Library as place: Rethinking roles, rethinking space (CLIR Publication No. 129, pp. 1 9). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub129/ reports/pub129/pub129.pdf

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Honnet, E. P., & Poulsen, S. J. (1989). Principles of good practice for combining service and learning: A Wingspread special report. Racine, WI: Johnson Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.servicelearning.org/filemanager/download/Principles_ of_Good_Practice_for_Combining_Service_and_Learning.pdf Kranich, N. (2001). Libraries help to build a civil society. American Libraries, 32(6), 7. Kranich, N., Reid, M., & Willingham, T. (2004). Civic engagement in academic libraries: Encouraging active citizenship. College & Research Libraries News, 65(7), 380 384. Retrieved from http://crln.acrl.org/content/65/7/380.full.pdf + html Liauw, T. T. (2006). Desa Informasi: The role of digital libraries in the preservation and dissemination of indigenous knowledge. The International Information & Library Review, 38(3), 123 131. doi:10.1016/j.iilr.2006.06.004 Liauw, T. T. (2013). 2012/2013 Petra Christian University library annual report. Unpublished report. Surabaya, Indonesia: Petra Christian University Library. Lynch, C. A., & Lippencott, J. K. (2005). Institutional repository deployment in the United States as of early 2005. D-Lib Magazine, 11(9). Retrieved from http://www.dlib.org/dlib/september05/lynch/091lynch.html Maloney, M. M. (2012). Cultivating community, promoting inclusivity: Collections as fulcrum for targeted outreach. New Library World, 113(5/6), 281 289. doi:10.1108/03074801211226364 Matarasso, F. (1998). Beyond book issues: The social potential of public library projects. London: Comedia. McCabe, R. B. (2001). Civic librarianship: Renewing the social mission of the public library. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Shupe, E. I., & Pung, S. K. (2011). Understanding the changing role of academic librarians from a psychological perspective: A literature review. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 37(5), 409 415. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2011.06.005 Sidorko, P. E., & Yang, T. T. (2011). Knowledge exchange and community engagement: An academic library perspective. Library Management, 32(6/7), 385 397. doi:10.1108/01435121111158538 Smith, K. (2005). Preface. In Library as place: Rethinking roles, rethinking space (CLIR Publication No. 129, p. vii). Washington, DC: Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub129/ reports/pub129/pub129.pdf Surabaya City Government. (2012). Situs resmi pemerintah kota Surabaya: Demografi. Retrieved from http://www.surabaya.go.id/profilkota/index.php?id = 22 Surabaya Memory. (2013). Retrieved from http://surabaya-memory.petra.ac.id The University of Hong Kong Libraries. (2009). Books and sichuan. FOCUS: HKUL Newsletter, 8(3), 8. Retrieved from http://www.lib.hku.hk/general/focus/ mar09/2009Mar.pdf Usherwood, R. (2002). Demonstrating impact through qualitative research. Performance Measurement and Metrics, 3(3), 117 122. doi:10.1108/14678040 210453546 Westney, L. C. (2006). Conspicuous by their absence: Academic librarians in the engaged university. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 45(3), 200 203. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/20864514?uid = 3739832&uid = 2129& uid = 2&uid = 70&uid = 4&uid = 3739256&sid = 21102636764363

Mindful Leadership Defined and Explained Stephanie Beveragea, Kathleen DeLongb, Irene M. H. Heroldc and Kenley Neufeldd a Huntington Beach Public Library, Huntington Beach, CA, USA b University of Alberta Libraries, Edmonton, Canada c Library, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA d Luria Library, Santa Barbara City College, Santa Barbara, CA, USA

Abstract From the perspective of library leaders, this chapter charts a path to mindful leadership by providing key definitions, theories, and organizational and cultural applications of mindful leadership. The four authors bring personal experience and knowledge to the topic by outlining practical examples of applying mindfulness in the workplace and in leading the library profession. The chapter considers the College Library Directors’ Mentor Program from the College Libraries Section of the Association of College and Research Libraries as a case study for mindful leadership in this successful leadership development program. Keywords: Mindfulness; leadership; meditation; leadership theory; emotional intelligence

I. Introduction A. Mindful Leadership: One Individual’s Tale of Practice by Kenley Neufeld Mindfulness practice has been transformative for the leadership that Kenley Neufeld provides in his library setting. A library leader since 1993 and a mindfulness practitioner since 1995, Kenley has found that cultivating a personal mindfulness practice has been key to his professional growth, as well as for the success and happiness of the library where he serves as the library director. Kenley shares the following narrative of his experience as a mindful leader in a library setting.

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038000

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Mindful leadership for the work environment begins at home. You have the opportunity when you wake up each day to start with an intention—an intention to live with gratitude at being alive and having twenty-four brand-new hours to live. You may have other activities in the morning that can be used to provide the foundation for mindful leadership. For example, you may spend 10-minutes in sitting meditation or you may take the time to eat and enjoy your breakfast. When you travel to work you can practice being present and resist the urge to make calls on your cell phone while on your way. Allow yourself this time to just be with yourself, with nature, and the world around you. Preparing for the day in this way allows you to arrive fresh and present for the work environment. Arriving at work, feeling calm, and at ease provides the foundation to not only start the day with mindfulness, but to also allow you to cultivate mindfulness throughout the day. The work of being a mindful leadership truly begins at home with the cultivation of my own practice and with an increased self-awareness of my habits, energies. and patterns of thinking and acting. In my experience, this started with learning to calm my mind and to look deeply at myself as a human being. Over a period of years, insights arose that facilitated changes in my thinking and in my action and gave me the footing to be a better leader and manager. Asking myself questions such as “What is this?” or “Am I sure?” both provided the method for looking deeply at myself and pushing the boundaries of understanding. A mindful leader may start her work day looking inward; stopping and calmly allowing the day to unfold with awareness. It is the inward reflection of knowing oneself, and navigating the daily activities with awareness, that creates the foundation for a mindful leader. This does not happen overnight but may take a period of training and practice. We can use the time waiting at the bus stop, train station or at a stoplight as an opportunity to practice our meditation, follow our breathing, and enjoy having nowhere to go and nothing to do. Traveling to work we may become aware of any tension in the body, or any irritation, anger or frustration and try to relax by coming back to your breathing. These practices help us to arrive at work in a peaceful state of mind and be present for the library staff and the library patrons. Training ourselves to be truly present is a key characteristic of a mindful leader. As mentioned above, setting the stage at home is a place to begin, but then we arrive at work and we can also create an environment in which mindful leadership can occur within the workspace itself. In my experience, this manifests in how I organize my computer, my office, my schedule, and my communication. Since most of us likely work on a computer a good portion of the day, it is very important that it contain the keys for mindfulness. In my case, I use an application to remind me throughout the day to stop and check-in with myself. This reminder appears at a schedule of my choosing and puts a message on the screen that requires me to stop my typing, look out the window, or to simply pause for a moment. I’ve found this small “intrusion” a gentle method for maintaining mindfulness throughout the day. This is a key element to being present for my staff and for my patrons. I frequently have office visitors—students will come to complain about a charge or to request a special use for the library, staff will come for an evaluation or a meeting, faculty may come to discuss curriculum or material needs, and donors come to explore how they can help the library. What kind of environment am I providing for them and for myself? I’ve found that a clean and organized space goes a long way for setting my mind at ease and an easy place for visitors. If you are able, placing art or words around

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the room to remind you to be present can also help. In my case, I have a few pieces of art with affirmations. I am also very fortunate to have a semi-large office and for the past 8-years it has been a meditation space once a week for students, faculty, and staff. There are days when there isn’t much time to eat a meal, take a walk, and just to stare out the window. But I have found that each of these activities is critical for the well-being of the library and me. I find ways to leave gaps in my schedule and that also provide time to move between each activity. If I can take ten 10-minutes to walk to the next meeting rather than three minutes then everyone is better served and I can arrive fresh and calm and ready to participate in the meeting. My habit for lunch is to leave the office and most often the library, because it is yet another opportunity to stop and check-in with myself. The most important activity that I undertake as a library leader is communication. When I have a student in my office upset about something, the most important thing I can do is be fully present for him. When I have a library employee in my office, for whatever reason, the most important action I can take is to be active in my listening to her. Learning how to be present for myself has guided me in learning how to be present for others. There is not anything more important than the person in front of me and my thinking and my actions need to demonstrate this. If it is difficult to listen, I can use the practices I have cultivated at home and through the environment I have created to remind me to return to the present. This can also serve me in my written communication and also in my communication in meetings. Sometimes it’s more important that I do not say anything at all, especially if I am experiencing strong emotions. If I feel a strong emotion arising during a meeting, I can take a short break to go to the restroom and walk there in walking meditation. Nobody needs to know I am checking in with myself. Throughout the day, if I feel anger or irritation arising, I do not need to say or do anything. I can stop and follow my in- and out-breath until I’ve calmed down. This is where walking can be very helpful—sometimes I just take a slow walk around the library and smile at everyone present working diligently on their tasks. We can learn to take care of our tension and not have to share it with others. Taking care of myself allows me to take care of the library and those I interact with in the library. Simple tools such as being aware of my breathing, taking the time to arrive calmly at work, providing space in my schedule, and having reminders in my environment help me to be a better librarian, a better leader, and a better human.

B. Definitions 1. Mindful Leadership Mindful leadership is the connection between the brain and leadership and focuses on being in the moment and paying attention. Studying the act of paying attention and focus as a neuroscientific phenomenon bridges emerging knowledge about human intelligence, and is a framework that supports leadership that is mindful (i.e., thoughtful and attentive) of the nature and nurture of intelligence in influencing others toward achievement

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of goals. According to Dickmann and Stanford-Blair (2009) the goal of mindful leadership is to provide “compelling leadership purpose and guiding principles” (p. 5), not a universal prescription. 2. Leadership in General According to Kotter (1990), leadership creates an agenda, develops human resources, executes, and has outcomes that achieve a vision by establishing direction, aligning people, motivating and inspiring, and produces change, often to a dramatic degree. This is as opposed to management where the focus is on efficiencies, processes, and meeting goals and targets with a degree of predictability and order. The most effective leaders both lead and manage. In creating an agenda, a manager plans and budgets, while a leader establishes direction. A manager organizes and hires staff, a leader aligns people to work toward the direction. A manager controls and solves problems, and a leader overcomes political barriers and reaches out to external and internal constituencies to understand the direction in which the organization is heading. Managers produce order following proscribed pathways, leaders realize their vision. Leadership in this sense is visionary and produces change. It does not include the “influence” factor mentioned by Dickmann and Stanford-Blair (2009) in their definition of mindful leadership. Trying to influence others could fall under the label of authoritative leadership and has the danger of drifting into coercive leadership, which Goleman (2000) described as one of the least effective leadership styles. No one likes to feel manipulated or that an outcome is pre-determined.

II. Mindful Leadership Theories Mindful leadership, sans influence, is a subset of emotional intelligence, a term popularized by Goleman (1995), and resonant leadership. Emotional intelligence refers to four areas: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002). Emotionally intelligent leaders motivate followers to do more than expected, because the emotionally intelligent leader is perceived by their followers as more empathetic and caring. This motivates followers to do more than expected, rather than simply influences them to do what is expected. A leadership theory that builds upon the work of emotional intelligence is resonant leadership. Resonant leaders manage their emotions, read

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individuals and groups accurately, and Boyatzis and McKee (2007) state they … consciously attune to people, focus them on a common cause, build a sense of community, and create a climate that enables people to tap into passion, energy, and a desire to move together in a positive direction. They are optimistic and realistic at the same time. (p. 22)

The flip side of resonance is dissonance, which is burnout and falling into feelings of self-sacrifice, which can be countered by the concept of renewal. Renewal includes experiences of mindfulness, hope, and compassion. Effective mindful leadership occurs when the leader is self-aware and followers perceive them to be more empathetic. This can help to create a climate that enables others to move together in a positive direction to achieve the vision. Dickmann and Stanford-Blair (2009) present a model of the attributes of a mindful leader. The three mindful principles are: • Attend to information about the nature of intelligence • Articulate perception of the nature and nurture of intelligence • Apply perception of the nature and nurture of intelligence to behavior (pp. 195 197).

Dickmann and Stanford-Blair suggest application of the principles in six standard practice ways: physiologically, socially, emotionally, constructively, reflectively, and dispositionally. Physiological refers to brain fitness, social—cultivating common purposes with others, emotional stimulates the mind through ease and excitement, constructive justifies and extends ways of thinking, reflective challenges thinking, and dispositional is about creating habits of open-mindedness. The opposite of mindful is mindless. Mindless leadership creates stress, promotes isolation and confusion, generates passivity and anxiety, limits and provides redundant access to information, encourages complacency, and cultivates closed minds. A. Mindful Leaders and Organizational Culture A critical and ever-present question within organizations relates to the style and approach to leadership that is needed to make positive and enduring change. With any change agenda, the question of organizational readiness or how the culture of the organization will support or accept change comes to the fore. Schein (1990) has provided the most commonly used definition of organizational culture, which is: A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems that has worked well enough to be considered valid and is passed on to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. (p. 111)

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Organizational culture includes such things as how hard we work, how long we like to discuss before making decisions, and how we do things here because it is the best way to do them. Schein also notes that organizational cultures are extremely resistant to change. This is for several reasons. First, most organizations look for a good cultural fit when filling positions so we tend to hire people who already perceive, think, and feel like we do, and, second, changing the organizational culture questions the status quo which tends to be deeply ingrained. Making significant changes to the status quo causes discomfort within the organization and the dominant culture may then seek to block or subvert the change agenda. There are various ways organizational leaders can work to try to overcome this dynamic. The change agenda should be clearly communicated, the organizational structure may be changed to accommodate the needed change along with creating opportunities and enabling people to find meaningful roles through the change process, and of course stating and affirming accountability to new performance standards allied with creating new values and goals for the organization, and shifting rewards to the new values and goals are all common change management practices. However these actions can be difficult for leaders or a leadership group to accomplish because of the strong and persistent influence of organizational culture. What makes the difference between organizations who can accommodate, perhaps even revel in change and those that cannot?

B. Mindful Leadership and Change Processes The theory and practice of mindful leadership is useful in dealing with organizational change because it suggests that leaders examine themselves first—their awareness, perceptions, actions, and skills—and then model new ways of performing and dealing with change, as well as setting a new tone within an organization. The way that leaders do this is by being mindful, authentic and straightforward. They are conscious and intentional in supporting the change experience. In doing so, mindful leaders develop trusting relationships within the organization. Mindfulness and authenticity generate trust which allows leaders to guide others through transitions. These trusting relationships enable leaders to work productively with the people as well as the structural side of change, transitioning staff from one set of commonly held beliefs about how the organization works and performs well, to another paradigm for organizational performance. Leaders build trust when they are mindful of what is happening in the organization, understand their own reactions and act accordingly, choosing strategies to

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move the organization in a different direction. This approach is very different from the old command and control style of leadership because leaders are not mindlessly operating from a state of reduced attention or employment of rules and policies to make change. A mindless approach can lead to incorrect perceptions and assumptions of how to work with the change agenda, assessment of the individuals who will need to implement change within the workplace and the potential of the organization itself. Instead, mindful leaders are thoughtfully and attentively observing the state and readiness of the organization, choosing their actions, building relationships, and reinforcing valued behaviors.

C. Leadership Competencies that Build Trust The mindful approach demands leadership competencies such as selfawareness, a focus on learning, and feedback. Leadership competencies can promote, maintain, or improve a level of trust and effectiveness throughout change processes. There are two sets of leadership competencies discussed here that lend themselves to mindful perceptions and actions. Bunker and Wakefield (2006) display at the heart of their work on leadership competencies what is called the Transition Leadership Wheel. The leadership wheel incorporates trust at the core of the process for managing change and transition. Around the wheel are various paired competencies that leaders move between, in order to balance their responses within the organization and they build trust in doing so. These competencies may seem contradictory but leaders must be adept and display their proficiency in understanding and applying them in a balanced way depending upon what they observe within the organization. For example, leaders must be both optimistic and communicate the positive potential of change but they must also be realistic and open in assessing situations and ongoing prospects. In this way they provide vision and suggest strategies but they don’t mask problems, and they acknowledge setbacks and mistakes. Leaders must also be self-reliant while trusting others and respecting their competences. In doing so they are confident in their own abilities, but they also understand the strengths that others bring and they rely upon them. Shelton, Darling, and Walker (2002) propose leadership skills or competencies that are different from the Bunker and Wakefield’s competency set, but that have many common properties. The leadership skills they describe are labeled Quantum Skills because they use the paradoxical principles of quantum mechanics as their foundational framework. Shelton et al. argue that the quantum concept is a much better metaphor for 21st century

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organizational life, than are machine metaphors from where the traditional management skills of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling are derived. The Quantum Skills are defined in terms of seeing, thinking, feeling, knowing, acting, trusting, and being. Quantum seeing is the ability to see intentionally. The authors argue that leaders’ beliefs reinforce their perceptions and their perceptions reinforce their beliefs. Consequently, they can become trapped in a repetitive cycle, seeing the world as they have always seen it and making their decisions within a relatively narrow band of possibilities, not because opportunities are limited, but because perceptions always are. So leaders must learn to become more aware of their intentions and learn to consciously select new intentions, thus expanding their vision of what is possible for themselves and their organizations. Quantum thinking, or the ability to think paradoxically, is about the inadequacy of logical, linear thinking skills and the need for leaders to choose seemingly opposite options, such as choosing hope in the face of discouragement, in order to arrive at innovative and creative responses or solutions. Quantum feeling is the ability to feel vitally alive and fully energized regardless of external circumstances with an emphasis upon focusing on and appreciating what is right rather than depleting organizational energy through a problemfocused, negative leadership style. With Quantum knowing or the ability to know intuitively, leaders rely on intuition in decision-making rather than always going for certainly and this uncertainty keeps leaders attentive both to external conditions and to their internal intuitions. Quantum acting is the ability to act responsibly. When leaders choose quantum acting, they practice social responsibility, making decisions that are good for both the organization and for society, learning that organizations can perform well while also doing good in the larger environment. Quantum trusting is the ability to trust life’s process. Shelton et al. posit that many leaders are exhausted from their attempts to predict and control and that as they begin to focus on what they call the mystery of organizations, rather than on mastery over them; they become less intent on manipulating people and more intent on listening to them and trusting their abilities. And finally Quantum being is the ability to be fully in a relationship. Leaders must learn that it is through relationships that an organization’s potential is released. When leaders trust that improved relationships will translate into improved results, they discover that progress is a by-product of relationships and partnerships. Shelton et al. argue that these seven leadership skills are intended to be practiced but also modeled by leaders as a way of widely diffusing these skills throughout the organization. It is hypothesized that as these skills permeate an organization, the probability of excellence will increase.

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III. Transformation through Mindfulness Working within the competencies described above, leaders practice and model mindful behaviors that have the potential to transform an organization. Leaders who are acting mindfully demonstrate ethical behaviors that counter self-deception and unconscious biases. They also exhibit a reluctance to simplify and persist in acknowledging and understanding complex environments. In doing so they seek out divergent views and maintain sensitivity to operations, adjusting and changing as necessary and recognizing and deferring to expertise, understanding that authority and position doesn’t necessarily equate to expertise. Mindful leaders acknowledge failure and also focus on success, they encourage open discussion of problems and mistakes but celebrate success and they expect that there will be errors and surprises and they react with resilience and commitment to continuing learning and adaptation. Finally, they are wary of “bandwagon” behaviors. Mindful leaders use discernment and insight into unique circumstances to guide decision-making processes. With mindfulness as their watchword, leaders let go of their belief in themselves as technical and problem-solving geniuses and embrace the notion of becoming mindful partners. Leaders acknowledge mistakes quickly when things are not turning out as they predicted. They are flexible enough to make changes without defending their territory or ego, and they become more open and accepting of others, and their differing points of view, rather than trying to reshape the world in their own image.

A. Mindful Leadership in Practice and Perspective Over the past few years, the library profession has faced serious challenges. The Great Recession and the economic downturn have led to budget and staffing reductions while demand for services continues to grow and change. Because we live in a modern culture of diluted attention, we jump from one thing to the other, sometimes balancing many projects, tasks, and objectives at the same time. There are more and more digital and electronic resources and tools to master. Most adults have a smartphone and use it to access services. Tablets are outselling laptops, and the “death of the desktop” is a recurring theme in the IT industry. Library customers have high expectations, and it can seem like the changes never end. In this volatile environment, it is easy to get caught up in the constant distractions, jumping from fire to fire, in a state of busy distraction. Our minds are full, but we are not mindful. It can feel like we do not have time

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to do anything well, or to learn what we need to know to be effective. How does a leader keep things in perspective? How can you be mindful as a leader in this chaos of our modern world? Here are some practical things that over time can help a library leader develop mindfulness at work: • Practice and reflect—like anything worthwhile, this takes time and energy Allow yourself time to think and reflect—get out of the office, take a walk, go out to lunch, take time to journal, meditate, daydream. If you are located near green space, take a break outside. All of this will help you disconnect from the daily “noise” that can get in the way of truly connecting. • Cultivate self-awareness Take time to look at your strengths, your weaknesses, what you enjoy. Think about your intention. Why do you do what you do? What led to a career in Libraries? What energizes you? What saps your energy? Are you an introvert? An extrovert? What is your story? Taking a look at what motivates you and how you work can help you identify patterns. Being aware of your distractions and stress points can help you manage them and deal with them more effectively. Self-awareness helps you work with others. The more you know yourself and can recognize your own strengths, the more you can also recognize and work with others whose style and strengths are different. There are a number of tools on the market to help you gain greater awareness of your preferences and strengths. Taking the time to explore these issues through a tool like the Myers Briggs Type Indicator personality inventory or the Enneagram can help you gain perspective and can be an effective tool in cultivating greater awareness. • Listen Work on being present when talking with your staff. Focus on your intention, and really being in the moment, and hearing what they say. Allow people to break down or challenge ideas and ways of doing things. Ask people what they think and really listen to what they say in response. Try to ask your staff and customers important questions—have strategic conversations. Ask why are we here? Why do we do what we do? Who is this for? Remind yourself that in times of great change lie great opportunity. For example, if you are dealing with budget reductions and facing staff shortages, you have a great opportunity to really assess what you do and how you do it, and to discover whether or not you are doing the right things, things that really matter and make a difference to people. • Keep your organization’s mission and vision alive for your staff Remind people why we do what we do, and who it is for, providing the appropriate framework for others, and helping you stay focused on your intentions. If you haven’t looked at your mission or vision statements recently, start working on looking ahead and thinking strategically. We all need to do periodic strategic reality checks to make sure we are on track and moving forward. Engage your staff in this process and you will lay the groundwork for greater engagement and participation. • Remember the importance of creativity and experimentation Take time to nurture your creativity and the creativity of others. Try to ask big questions and open discussion to all perspectives and ideas. Have brainstorming sessions around big issues, and engage everyone in strategic planning, and strategic discussions. Make time for your staff so that they can explore new ideas and PLAY. Studies have shown that people need unstructured time in their day to engage their creativity. Think about what it was like when you were a child—you had regular recess breaks, to play and work off energy. It looks like there is real science behind the idea of recess, and having time to let your thoughts run wild and not think

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about the day to day. Look at Google, where employees are required to spend time working on something that they want to, no matter what that is. Google has made a conscious decision as a company to encourage creativity, recognizing that by doing so, the company will benefit. The company will profit from successful ideas and staff will feel more connected and satisfied in their work. Try and create an environment where experimentation is valued, and where failure is a gift. Remember that you and your staff all need time and space, to find balance.

IV. Viewing a Leadership Program through Mindful Leadership: A Case Study Using the lens of mindful leadership applied to a leadership development program helps clarify mindful leadership. The College Library Directors’ Mentor Program (College Libraries Section, 2013; Hardesty, 1997) began in 1992 sponsored by the American Library Association’s Association of College and Research Libraries’ College Libraries Section’s Leadership Committee. The College Libraries Section perceived a need for a program to help new college library directors with the transition to the director’s position at small colleges, those with a student FTE under 2500 (although today it admits those with FTE’s of 3500 and below). Many new college library directors were either coming from much larger institutions, or from different types of libraries, and needed help understanding the operational, cultural, and political landscape of colleges. Riggs (2001), whose conclusions align with Mech’s (1990; 1993) studies of library directors, notes that search committees often hire those with managerial skills, without consideration of their leadership abilities. Just because someone was a good department head does not automatically translate into their innate knowledge and understanding of how to be a good library director. The College Library Directors’ Mentor Program was created to bridge this gap. Mentoring in the context of the College Library Directors’ Mentor Program, aligns with the definition provided by Clutterbuck and Megginson (1999). They define mentoring as one person helping another to make “significant transitions in knowledge, work, or thinking” (p. 3). This definition reflects a mindful approach in that the brain is present in this statement by the reference to thinking. The College Library Directors’ Mentor Program is now an independent 501(c)3 organization with a board of trustees. The Program consists of a formal mentor, who is an experienced college library director, matched with a new director for a year, a closed listserv of current and former mentors and new directors, a three day intensive face-to-face seminar, and an exchange of

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site visits between mentors and new directors. Readings are distributed prior to the seminar. Herold (2012) examined the program for evidence of leadership development by analyzing the historical work of the College Libraries Section in establishing the program, and the content of the program from its curriculum, listserv messages, and reports from the new directors and their mentors between 1992 and 2009. While there was evidence of management, there were only hints that leadership might have been developed in the participants of the program. The program had no stated learning outcomes for leadership, and did not perceive itself to have a mission of leadership development despite the historical record noting that as the impetus for the creation of the program. No artifacts showing change as a result of participating in the program were collected. Despite that conclusion, the new director participants and mentors perceived the program as having great value. Looking at the program through the lens of mindful leadership, emotional intelligence, and resonant leadership helps to explain the chasm between evidence and perception. A program founder said, it was not a “course in management theory, but a practical introduction to the responsibilities, duties, and tribulations of a college library director” (M. Adams, personal communication, November 20, 2011). Again, this did not explain why the new directors and mentors talked about the program as being transformative, increasing credibility on campus from having participated in the program, citing their mentor in support of their position on an issue, and found having an outside expert to reference influenced others to take the new directors’ ideas more seriously. Another thread was new directors’ reporting their perception of an increase in their self-confidence. The role of the mentor to reflect back to the new director, provide affirmation of their choices, and options from best practices and the mentor’s own experiences, contributed to the new directors’ feelings of validation, and encouragement to think outside the box. Mentors talked about learning a lot from the new director, feeling empowered to reflect and look at their own practice with new eyes, and feeling refreshed by the experience. While none of this may fit into demonstrated evidence following Kotter’s (1990) definitions of leadership leading to dynamic change from agenda setting to outcomes, it does play into mindful leadership practice. Table 1 maps the mindful leadership attributes to reported events in the College Library Directors’ Mentor Program and perceptions from the mentor program participants of results (Herold, 2012, pp. 188 211). The mentor program is process-oriented and about openness, sharing, reflection, stimulation, etc., that is, mindfulness.

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Table 1 Mindful Leadership Attributes Found in Mentor Program Attribute Physiological Social

Emotional Constructive Reflective

Dispositional

Mentor program The program provided the mentor and new director to have new encounters The program is a new professional affiliation for the participants, the listserv connects participants with others virtually, and mentor/ new director is a dyadic relationship Engage in discussions with others on listserv, mentors, new directors Site visits, face-to-face seminar with other new directors, listserv communication Mentor to new director relationship

Offers safe and confidential environment

Result Contributed to stimulating neural networks Expanded peer group of experts, relationship(s) extend beyond year of formal program/mentorship

Exposed to group norms (ease) and mission dialogue (excite) Multimodal approach Emphasis on problem reflection (not problem solving), challenges thinking, provides examples of best practice and experience Questioning, analysis, debate, acknowledging many possible answers/options to consider

Source: List of attributes identified from Dickmann and Stanford-Blair (2009, Fig. 11.1, p. 190); Mentor program information paraphrased from Herold (2012, Chapter 6, Leadership analysis of mentor and new director reports, pp. 188 211).

Since 2012, The College Library Directors’ Mentor Program has added components that hopefully will provide evidence of demonstrated leadership development. While the new directors interact with a variety of new colleagues on multiple levels, in addition to the program structure established twenty years ago, the new directors participated in three fall semester webinars with specific learning outcomes around leadership development. The three day seminar was revised around learning outcomes for each session and participants were asked to reflect on how successfully the session achieved that outcome. The new directors were asked to give an example of how they will apply what they have learned from their participation in

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the program and what changes they will make leaving the seminar and returning to their institution. Mentors were given training for the first time, with a fall webinar, readings, and the opportunity to gather with other mentors for discussions during national conferences. The newly restated goals of the program are: socialization, creating a network of support, retention to the profession and position of new director, and exposure to alternative ways of approaching and developing management and leadership (B. Burd, October 5, 2012, Mentoring, unpublished Webinar; Herold, 2012). Whether or not a mindful approach in a mentoring program develops leadership needs to be examined by further research. It does appear to provide a grounding in an emotionally intelligent leadership approach, and particularly for the mentors a resonant one, that is focused externally to the new directors’ institutions. This focus is intended to help the new directors be more mindful of their leadership within their new positions.

V. Conclusion Mindfulness and the application of mindful practice can have a powerful impact on leadership. Being mindful and taking the time to be present and aware in one’s daily work can make a significant difference to both employees and organizations. Scientific research into how brains function and the neuroscience of attention shows that mindfulness and mindful practice increase awareness and enhance our emotional intelligence. Mindful leaders are perceived as more self-aware and empathetic, and can more effectively motivate their employees and colleagues to achieve the goals and vision of an institution. With the challenges inherent in our busy world, and the potential for burnout and dissonance for everyone, mindfulness and mindful practice can help build resilience, and enable leaders to manage change more effectively. Simple daily activities—taking the time to pause; stepping away from the desk and taking a walk; working on actively participating in conversations with colleagues, students, patrons, and staff—all help us focus, connect, and become more effective as leaders. The principles of mindful practice have been successfully applied in the library field, and some good examples show the potential for leadership development and growth of mindful library leaders at all levels. There are many resources available that can assist anyone interested in the development of their own mindful practice. As leaders we should be prepared to explore these resources but also to engage in conversations with others about mindful leadership practice and the impact it has had on ourselves and our organizations.

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References Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2007). Resonant leadership: Renewing yourself and connecting with others through mindfulness, hope, and compassion. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Bunker, K. A., & Wakefield, M. (2006). Leading in times of change. Harvard Management Update, 11(5), 3 6. Clutterbuck, D., & Megginson, D. (1999). Mentoring executives and directors. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. College Libraries Section. (2013). The college library directors’ mentor program. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/about/sections/cls/collprogdisc/collegelibrary Dickmann, M. H., & Stanford-Blair, N. (2009). Mindful leadership: A brain-based framework (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (2000). Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review, 78(2), 78 90. Retrieved from http://hbr.org/product/leadership-that-gets-results/an/ R00204-PDF-ENG Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., & McKee, A. (2002). Primal leadership: Realizing the power of emotional intelligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Hardesty, L. (1997). College library directors mentor program: “Passing it on:” A personal reflection. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 23(4), 281 290. doi:10.1016/S0099-1333(97)90135-X Herold, I. M. H. (2012). An examination of the leadership program for college library directors associated with ACRL’s College Libraries Section. Doctoral dissertation, Simmons College Boston, MA. Kotter, J. P. (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York, NY: The Free Press. Mech, T. F. (1990). Academic library directors: A managerial role profile. College & Research Libraries, 50, 415 428. Retrieved from http://crl.acrl.org/content/51/5/ 415.full.pdf + html Mech, T. F. (1993). The managerial decision styles of academic library directors. College & Research Libraries, 54, 375 386. Retrieved from http://crl.acrl.org/ content/54/5/375.full.pdf + html Riggs, D. (2001). The crisis and opportunities in library leadership. Journal of Library Administration, 32(3 4), 5 17. doi:10.1300/J111v32n03_02 Schein, E. H. (1990). Organizational culture [Special issue]. American Psychologist, 45(2), 109 119. Shelton, C. D., Darling, J. R., & Walker, W. E. (2002). Foundations of organizational excellence: Leadership values, strategies, and skills. Retrieved from http://lta.hse.fi/ 2002/1/lta_2002_01_a2.pdf

Distributed Leadership and Library Service Innovation Anne Gouldinga and J. Graham Waltonb a School of Information Management, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand b Library, Loughborough University, UK

Abstract The concept of distributed leadership within library services is explored in this chapter. It focuses on how this model of leadership, which devolves leadership functions and practice widely throughout organizations, can lead to intra- and interorganizational collaboration as a catalyst for library service development and innovation. The chapter discusses the distributed leadership approach by presenting selected results of a study of team leaders in public and university library services in the East Midlands region of the United Kingdom. The study employed an online questionnaire and individual interviews with library team leaders to identify the level and nature of collaboration taking place in library services and also to ascertain the skills needed for successful partnership work. The interviews focused primarily on how and why collaborations occurred and it emerged that the team leaders had considerable autonomy to establish and participate in partnerships, fitting well within the distributed leadership paradigm. The chapter adds to, and augments the limited literature on distributed models of leadership in libraries by exploring how this approach works in practice. It also proposes and evidences a link between distributed leadership, collaborative working, and innovation. The authors suggest that distributed leadership can help library services innovate and lead service development by freeing up the creativity of employees through a less formal, hierarchical leadership approach. The chapter ends with propositions for a research agenda to establish the best conditions and most appropriate format of distributed leadership in library services. Keywords: Distributed leadership; collaboration; partnership working; innovation; library services; the United Kingdom

I. Introduction The development of effective leaders who are successful at representing their institutions and the profession has been a key focus for the library sector across the globe for many years. Leadership development has been an issue MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038002

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for both public and academic library services. In public libraries, the Public Library Association in the United States in 2013 started a PLA Leadership Academy: Navigating Change and Building Community (Public Library Association, 2013). The Canadian Urban Libraries Council (CULC), in partnership with others, was preparing leaders with the launch of the new executive Public Library Leadership Fellows (PLLF) program (Barrie & Raven, 2012). Its goal was to “contribute to the vitality and success of public libraries and the diverse communities they serve by positioning public library professionals to be proactive, effective leaders in the global information environment” (p. 1). Similarly, the UK’s Leading Modern Public Libraries has been evaluated (Wilson & Corrall, 2008) to show that it was successful in addressing a perceived weakness in leadership development within the public library sector. CAVAL, an Australian not-for-profit company was established to provide library services to all libraries in Australia, New Zealand and Asia. They set up a Library Leadership Program (CAVAL, 2013) which gives library leaders an opportunity to “explore the leadership terrain in new ways and with sound research-based ideas and frameworks” (n.p.). In the context of academic libraries, the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) in the United States has set up the Research Library Leadership Fellows (RLLF) Program. This is seen as an executive leadership program that offers an opportunity for development of future senior-level leaders in large research libraries and archives (ARL, 2013). A different approach is evident in the United Kingdom where the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education (2013) provides the Future Leaders Programme (FLP) which aims at helping “experienced professional information services staff in Higher Education (typically library and ICT staff) to deepen their understanding, leadership ability and potential in preparation for a role as head of service” (n.p.). The quest for strong and potential leaders has become more pressing in the current environment characterized by economic, political, and technological change. Libraries in all sectors are facing unprecedented challenges and pressures as their activities and services are scrutinized and, occasionally, fundamental questions are raised about society’s need for libraries at all (e.g., Flood, 2013; Housewright, Shonfield, & Wulfson, 2013). In this context, crisis management and fire-fighting is arguably insufficient to ensure that libraries both survive and thrive. Instead, library leaders should be going on the offensive to demonstrate the enduring value of the services and skills they provide by innovating through the introduction of new and/or improved services and information products to meet changing user demands. Challenges to the library’s mission, disintermediation and

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competition from alternative information providers all threaten to marginalize the institution and survival may depend on the ability to develop new audiences and retain existing customers through the delivery of innovative services. Ronald C. Jantz (2012a), one of the few to consider innovation in the library field from a theoretical perspective, defines innovation as, “the introduction into the organization of a new product, a new service, a new technology, or a new administrative practice; or a significant improvement to an existing product, service, technology, or administrative practice” (p. 526). His definition encompasses both incremental innovations (those building upon existing practice) and radical innovations (those representing a departure from existing practice), and he suggests that innovation in nonprofit organizations such as libraries will be predominantly of the latter type. Although Rowley (2010) states that innovation “is often discouraged in public sector organisations” ( p. 254), other commentators argue that innovation occupies a central role in public policy and public services management in the early 21st century and that an “innovation imperative” is perceived as necessary to tackle the many and complex economic and social challenges facing governments across the world (Osborne & Brown, 2011). Indeed, exhortations for library and information services to innovate or risk extinction are difficult to avoid. A recent report commissioned by the Arts Council in England (Ipsos MORI, 2013), for example presented a review of innovations in library services with the aim of stimulating debate about “what public libraries of the future need to be and do differently” (p. 2). Leong and Anderson (2012) go as far as to suggest that we should take the need for continuous innovation as a given, such is the attention given to the innovation imperative in professional and scholarly publications in the library field. Accepting this, the focus has now shifted to the organizational conditions necessary to promote a climate of innovation in library and information services. Leong and Anderson (2012), for example, describe how RMIT University (Melbourne, Australia) library developed a focus on cultural change and support for leadership to enhance employee engagement and innovative potential. Rowley (2010) argues that libraries should develop an innovation strategy which includes attending to a range of aspects of organizational design such as culture, leadership and processes. Similarly, Jantz (2012a) presents a process model and propositions to explain how innovation may work in research libraries, relating the institutional and service framework, organizational structure and leadership to innovation. Primary focus herein is on one organizational factor identified as critical to successful innovation in library services and more generally: leadership. The authors propose that an approach to leadership known as distributed

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leadership provides suitable conditions for the fostering of innovation in library and information services. We explore the concept and practice of distributed leadership in the context of a study of library team leaders to analyze how this form of leadership practice can lead to innovation in library services specifically through the fostering of partnerships and collaborative links outside the library service. A literature review explains and explores the concepts employed in the chapter, followed by a discussion of the results of the study.

II. Context and Concepts A. Leadership and Innovation The link between leadership and innovation is widely accepted in the management literature. Mumford and Licuanan (2004), state clearly that “leadership makes a difference in the nature and success of creative efforts” (p. 164). Leaders shape the organizational environment and, in so doing, establish the context and opportunities in which innovation may (or may not) thrive. On this latter point, Denti and Hemlin (2012) make the point that very few studies deal with how leaders obstruct or impede innovation and suggest that further research is needed on when and how leadership behaviors are detrimental to innovation. Generally, though, literature considering leadership and innovation emphasize the positive relationship between leadership and innovation, suggesting that leaders play a significant role in creating the appropriate organizational climate and conditions to release individuals’ and groups’ innovative potential. Carmeli, Gelbard, and Gefen (2010) note that “every organization faces the challenges of adapting to its environment and thereby either surviving or failing” (p. 339), adding that leaders play a critical role in shaping the organizational context and followers’ behaviors as a necessary precondition for change and adaptation. This includes creating “a vision and an appropriate organizational atmosphere” (p. 345). There is also a strong emphasis in the literature about leading for innovation on the importance of the leader in promoting appropriate internal strategic fit that is adapting organizational conditions (such as organizational structure and relationships) to the changing external environment (Hill & Cuthbertson, 2011). Denti and Hemlin (2012) suggest that “leaders construct the environments that favour creativity and ultimately innovation” (p. 124007-12). The organizational conditions considered most conducive for change, adaptation, and innovation are those in which individual initiative is allowed

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to flourish through low formalization and high levels of autonomy for individuals and work groups. While Carmeli et al. (2010) stress the importance of finding a balance between bureaucracy and anarchy, there seems to be a general acceptance that formalization and centralization tend to inhibit innovation (see, e.g., Damanpour, 1991) by reducing the autonomy of creative employees and teams (Jung, Wu, & Chow, 2008). Mumford (2000), in his consideration of the kind of human resource strategies likely to foster innovation, recommends an open system in which individuals’ jobs are defined in terms of broad core duties rather than administrative requirements. He also suggests that staff should have discretion to structure their own work activities. Similarly, Denti and Hemlin (2012) assert that leaders should grant autonomy to individuals and teams through “organizational slack” (p. 124007-12) because leaders who monitor their employees too closely, and give them insufficient autonomy, can stifle creativity and innovativeness. In practice, this may be achieved through defining goals more broadly, allowing individuals to pursue opportunities when they arise unexpectedly, maximizing autonomy and encouraging interaction (Mumford, Scott, Gaddis, & Strange, 2002). The need for increased employee autonomy and empowerment to unleash creativity and innovation and meet the challenges associated with a turbulent environment is also recognized in the library literature although the organizational barriers preventing creative thinking are also acknowledged. Walton (2008), for example, suggests that “[t]he drive to increase efficiency, improve quality and raise productivity does not always sit easily alongside the need for creativity and innovation” (p. 127). Nevertheless, he insists that library leaders can develop creativity among their staff by being open to participative decision making and by relinquishing some of their power and control so allowing employees a greater degree of freedom. The importance of the library leader in establishing the conditions in which innovation can flourish is emphasized here by Walton and by others in the library literature. Dysart and Jones (2011) report the results of a study that found that “all innovative libraries had supportive leaders” (p. 14), while Leong and Anderson (2012) document how leadership was considered central to efforts to engage staff to envisage and implement new approaches at RMIT library. Similarly, Jantz (2012a) asserts that the library leadership has a significant impact on organizational innovation. In his survey of leaders in research libraries, respondents described how they created an environment for innovation through establishing a management style which was variously characterized as collaborative, collegial, participatory, consultative, and empowering, with the aim being to “keep the door open to as much experimentation as possible” (Jantz, 2012b, p. 8). Jantz concludes that

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flatter organizational structures and transformational styles of leadership empower library staff so creating a more innovative environment in which the flow of new ideas increases. Although Jantz advocates a transformational style of leadership, others have suggested that transformational leadership can work against the notion of empowering people in the workplace and thus freeing their capability for creativity. Tourish (2013), for example, suggests that a transformational style of leadership is elitist, undemocratic and extends the power of the formal leaders of the organization by establishing a vision for the organization and manipulating the followers to embrace the goals set for them, rather than releasing them from close supervision and allowing them discretion over their own area of work with a view to stimulating innovation. This concern about the “leader-centrism” (Gronn, 2002) and the concentration of power and influence in the hands of individual leaders has led to increasing interest among management theorists in a more appropriate leadership style in which leadership is not limited to the formally appointed leader, but rather to distributed leadership. B. Distributed Leadership Environmental conditions, such as the need to respond quickly to fast changing external conditions, coupled with increasing expectations from staff for consultation and participation in decision making, has meant that so-called “heroic” models of leadership (including transformational leadership) are no longer appropriate in many modern workplaces. As Pearce and Manz (2005) suggest, “[m]ore traditional forms of leadership, which center on the leader having the power, knowledge and answers to emerging problems, do not encourage optimal creativity and innovation” (p. 136). In a reaction against conventional top-down leadership approaches, models of leadership in which leadership is not limited to the formally appointed leader have emerged (Fitzsimmons, James, & Denyer, 2011). They note that a variety of terms is used to describe these models including dispersed, devolved, democratic, distributive, collaborative, collective, cooperative, concurrent, coordinated, relational and coleadership, but state that the terms “shared” and “distributed” are by far the most common. The terms shared and distributed leadership, although sometimes used interchangeably, do not describe the same approach to leadership, however. Shared leadership generally refers to leadership in self-managed teams, “where leadership is carried out by the team, rather than solely by a single designated individual” (Ensley, Hmieleski, & Pearce, 2006, p. 220). Thus, in the library and information field, Carriveau, Viers, and Ziebell (2008) describe a shared or collaborative

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leadership model at the Lane Library of Ripon College (Wisconsin, United States) in which the three librarians form the Library Governing Committee and share decision making. Distributed leadership, on the other hand, describes a model of leadership in which leadership does not just reside with those in formally designated leadership positions but is enacted by employees throughout the organization (Fitzsimmons et al., 2011). Thus, the focus is on leadership as a practice or social process, rather than as a role in which “leadership is not the monopoly or responsibility of just one person” (Bolden, 2011, p. 252). Bolden suggests that academic interest in the concept of distributed leadership has increased considerably and rapidly since the year 2000 but that its popularity is restricted to particular geographic areas (mostly the United Kingdom) and to specific disciplines (mostly the field of education). Although there has been some interest in shared governance in the healthcare sector in the United States, shared leadership, as explained above, is a distinct concept. Distributed leadership involves extending leadership responsibility beyond the formal leader or figurehead within the organization and giving others the responsibility and power to “exert discretionary effort on behalf of the organization” (Thorpe, Gold, & Lawler, 2011, p. 240). Leadership is “stretched” over a range of different people and diverse work-related situations (Spillane, Halverson, & Diamond, 2001). Distributed leadership is thus conceived of as a form of collective leadership in which responsibility for decision making is widely distributed throughout the organization. Leadership is spread broadly so that more employees are given the responsibility to make decisions and the authority to act in the best interests of the organization. Alongside this, they are also held accountable in terms of delivery and conduct. Harris (2012) describes how the distributed leadership approach inevitably results in a changed role for the formally designated leader of the organization. Basing her analysis on a review of the evidence from school leadership, she suggests that a distributed leadership approach will fail without the support of the principal who needs to be able to make the shift from being at the apex of the organization to developing leadership capacity and skills in others, supporting them to lead innovation and change. Drawing on the empirical evidence, Harris (2012) further asserts that schools which have successfully implemented distributed leadership have implemented organizational redesign by creating new teams, flattening structures and giving individuals great responsibility and accountability so that leadership can be more widely shared. In this scenario, the nominated leader needs to develop and involve others in leading improvement by encouraging and supporting staff-led initiatives (Harris, 2004), and by

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persuading others to take more responsibility to exert discretionary effort on behalf of the organization (Thorpe et al., 2011). The formally designated leader thus establishes an appropriate organizational design and promotes a supportive workplace climate in which colleagues feel confident and willing to take initiative, in the belief that this will free their creativity and lead to innovative service or product design. Distributed leadership is presented as a potential contributor to positive organizational change and improvement by Harris (2012), especially in the public sector. Currie and Lockett (2011) argue that governments have promoted distributed leadership in the public sector as a means of reviving poorly performing pubic-sector organizations, for example. Summarizing the findings of a range of studies investigating distributed leadership in schools, Bolden (2011) suggests that most indicate a positive relationship between distributed leadership and organizational change and also that this leadership model was positively correlated to organizational indicators such as staff morale. He also found evidence though, that distributed leadership could have a negative impact on team performance because of a dispersion of responsibility, a reduced sense of stability and security, and boundary management issues. Generally, however, literature on the impact of distributed leadership in organizations suggests that the relationship is a positive one. Hill and Cuthbertson (2011), for example, proposes that distributed leadership can be viewed as a form of work-redesign through which employees are provided with more responsibility, autonomy and feedback which positively impacts on their motivation and learning and thus leads to improved organizational outcomes. Turning to the librarianship literature, Jon E. Cawthorne (2010) reports on one of the very few studies of what he terms “shared leadership” in academic libraries. In fact, his description of shared leadership as “encouraging the involvement of subordinates in decision making” (p. 151) is more akin to the definitions of distributed leadership given above. He suggests that “middle managers are in positions of leadership in academic libraries” (p. 151) and his study was designed to establish the extent to which middle managers believed they shared in decision making in the library. Cawthorne found that while the middle managers participating in his study believed they shared information, made decisions and influenced the work of subordinates and were accountable for their decisions, there was some disagreement that they were fully engaged in the problems faced by the library, particularly in influencing the overall strategic direction of the library. Looking at this approach to leadership from the opposite perspective, that is that of the formal leader of the library, Du¨ren’s (2012) report of a qualitative study of library leadership found that three of the four leaders interviewed said they

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favored a cooperative leadership style and saw themselves as coordinators who saw their team members as experts who participated in decisions and to whom they delegated tasks with the aim of enabling them to work independently. Others in the library field have also shown an interest in the potential of the principles of distributed leadership. As long ago as 1998, Deiss and Sullivan explored some of the ideas underlying distributed leadership. They indicated that to meet the challenges to come, libraries will need staff at all levels to have an expanded set of skills and competencies. Focusing primarily on the concept of “followership,” Deiss and Sullivan also suggested that although most libraries are still predominantly hierarchical in structure, many are seeking new ways to share decision making and leadership whether through team-based designs or just trying to make sure responsibility for decisions is held at appropriate levels in the organization. A decade later, Hernon and Schwartz (2008) agreed that leadership can exist at all levels of an organization or institution but, aside from Cawthorne’s work, empirical studies of this distributed approach to leadership are few and far between in the library literature although there are some reports of new methods of organizing staff to release their creative potential. Pan and Howard (2010) report on an experiment in organizational design in the Technical Service department at the University of Colorado Denver’s Auraria Library. A team-based shared leadership approach was adopted in which staff members were able to move flexibly in and out of leader and follower roles as required, the aim being to maximize the talents and skills of all the staff enabling the organization to become responsive and innovative. In a similar vein, McCarten (2011) describes the Shared Leadership Program of 2006 by the Victoria State Library in Australia. As in Cawthorne’s study, the term shared leadership is used to describe a distributed leadership model in which middle managers were recognized as having important leadership potential which was being hampered by hierarchy and the separation of functions within a vertical organizational structure. The program aimed to increase the knowledge, skills and confidence of the participants in leading their teams and although it was successful in this regard and in creating new networks and communication channels across the organization, McCarten (2011) concludes that the State Library is still “grappling with the challenge of harnessing this workforce energy and getting full value out of its investment” (p. 27), suggesting that this style of leadership has not been an unqualified success. Interestingly, she also suggests that those going through the program may have become more challenging to manage as they were ready and keen to take on new initiatives while their managers struggled to balance program participants’

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enthusiasm for new projects with the need to maintain day-to-day service delivery. Overall, a common theme in the library literature is the trend to recognize the need for leaders at all levels (Mason & Wetherbee, 2004) and an acknowledgment that although top-down leadership has been effective in the past, other approaches can be more effective in “creating a healthy work environment, utilizing human resources, engaging employees, meeting customer needs, and in other ways fulfilling the mission of the organization,” including those which view every employee as a leader (Stephens & Russell, 2004, p. 239). Staninger (2012) goes as far as to suggest that traditional, hierarchical forms of leadership can be a sign of ineffective leadership which often result in poor decisions being made due to insufficient or incorrect information. He advocates a form of shared leadership, in which leadership is broadly distributed among a group of individuals, to ensure employee empowerment in planning, organization, and goal setting and shared accountability for performance. As noted above, giving library staff a degree of freedom can create the conditions in which creativity can flourish leading to service innovations. A distributed approach to leadership would seem to be an appropriate framework in which to promote staff autonomy with the aim of fostering innovation. Of particular interest to the study reported here is the extent to which a distributed model of leadership enables employees to pursue collaborative working relationships with others outside the library unit, leading to new service developments. C. Collaboration and Innovation As Bell (2013) asserts, the library profession has a tradition of engaging in collaborative partnerships with stakeholders both inside and outside parent institutions, but Rowley (2011) argues that the innovation imperative makes collaboration all the more necessary, particularly interorganizational collaboration. Armistead, Pettigrew, and Aves (2007) acknowledge that there is no clear definition of what constitutes a partnership and that a multitude of terms is used to describe this approach to work including networking, alliances, cooperation and so forth, but they suggest that many regard the terms “partnership” and “collaboration” as synonymous and, in contemporary Britain, the term partnership is used to indicate a variety of forms of collaboration, particularly in the public sector. They describe how partnerships are pursued with the prospect of achieving collaborative advantage, that is, there is a belief that working in partnership will add value over and above the ability of agencies or organizations working separately.

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In a similar vein, Faems, Van Looy, and Debackere (2005) explain that organizations can improve their innovative capabilities by developing interorganizational collaborations with a variety of partners and that the main benefits to be gained from this approach are access to complementary assets, the transfer of knowledge resulting in the development of resources, and spreading the cost of innovations. Morse (2010) states that this phenomenon of the collaborative advantage is widely accepted in the public sector, in particular, because it is felt that the challenges facing public service organizations are so complex that boundary-crossing partnerships are necessary to address them. He also explores the concept of “integrative leadership”, namely leadership that facilitates the combining of different components, and further argues that mainstream leadership theories resting on hierarchical assumptions and a leader follower dynamic do not translate well to a context of collaboration. Morse suggests that integrative leadership, on the other hand, focuses on assisting others to create shared goals and work together to create public value. Rowley (2010) stresses the importance of libraries collaborating with other libraries and with other public, voluntary and public sector organizations to deliver service improvements and innovations of social or community value. She argues that the role of the leader in this situation is to create the conditions that enable employees to be collaborative and therefore innovative. It is this relationship that this chapter aims to explore.

III. Distributed Leadership Skills Study Drawing on data from a study of library team leaders in the East Midlands region of the United Kingdom, this chapter analyzes the links between a distributed leadership approach, collaboration and service innovation, proposing that a distributed style of leadership gives library team leaders the freedom to engage in partnerships and that this can lead to service innovation. The innovations may be incremental or radical and the aim of the chapter is not to evaluate the nature of the innovation itself, but rather the processes which lie behind service innovations and, particularly, the role played by collaboration and partnerships and the impact of the style of leadership on the extent of collaboration. The study aimed to explore the skills needed by those in middle management positions (often referred to as team leaders) to participate in, and lead collaborative partnerships with those inside the library service, colleagues within the wider organizational setting (e.g., the university or local public library authority) and with external partners and organizations.

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The following discussion focuses on the last two of these elements in particular because of the interest in interorganizational collaboration as a key factor in innovation. A. Methodology The study was small scale and exploratory, involving a limited number of library services within a specific geographic region. The applicability of the findings to other settings is therefore restricted. Four library services were approached to participate in the study; two public library services and two university library services. This was a purposeful sample, therefore, and the services were chosen partly for convenience since they were situated within the same geographic area (the East Midlands area of the United Kingdom) and good working relationships had been established with them previously on other projects. As this was a convenience sample to a large extent, the findings of the study cannot be generalized to the wider population. The participating library services varied in size and profile (e.g., urban/rural, communities served), however, which enabled the authors to explore the concepts of leadership, innovation and collaboration across a reasonably diverse range of institutions. One of the public library services was a county council library service, for example, serving diverse socioeconomic communities, while the other was a city-based, unitary authority. The university libraries served academic communities which also varied in size and academic disciplines covered. A project management team of six individuals was established to oversee the project. The team included a senior manager from each participating library service, an academic member of staff of the Department of Information Science at Loughborough University and a Staff Development professional with expertise in the area of leadership. There were two stages to data collection with an initial online survey being followed up by key informant interviews. An initial review of the literature was completed which was used to develop the focus and emphasis of the questionnaire (see Appendix A). Key areas that were explored included the changing levels of collaboration, the benefits and challenges of collaboration, the skills needed for effective collaboration and how technology has helped/hindered collaboration. The questionnaire was piloted with a group of eight librarian colleagues who did not participate in the final survey and some changes were made to reduce the length of time needed for completion. Purposeful sampling was used to identify who should complete the questionnaire. The project management team supplied the names of the team leaders from their library

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Table 1 Respondent Distribution across the Participating Library Services Sample size

Public Library Service

University Library Service

No Answer

Totals

University 1

7

0

5

0

5

University 2

17

0

7

0

7

Public Library Service 1

18

14

0

0

14

Public Library Service 2

15

8

0

1

9

No Answer

2

1

3

6

Totals

24

13

4

41

services who were contacted by e-mail with a link to an online questionnaire. The individuals identified were in middle management positions, reporting directly to the library services’ senior management teams. Table 1 show the number of questionnaires distributed to each participating library service (sample size) and the number of responses received. There were 41 responses in total, a response rate of 72%. The project management team completed an analysis of the survey results to inform a schedule for semi-structured interviews with key informants. The protocol used for the interviews is detailed in Appendix B. Those completing the questionnaire were invited to participate in individual telephone interviews. Eight interviews were completed with individuals from the four organizations. Two of the interviewees were from university library services participating (one from each university library) and the remaining six were from the public library services. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for analysis. B. Results and Discussion As seen in Table 2, the majority of questionnaire respondents felt that collaboration had increased across the board, especially internally within the library service itself. However, 21.1% responded that collaboration with external organizations had decreased, with suggestions that more competition for funds and pressures on budgets meant an increased focus on service delivery and maintenance, rather than new projects with other organizations. Turning to the benefits of collaboration, participants were asked to select and rank the top three advantages of this type of work. Interestingly, creativity did not feature strongly when the respondents were asked to identify the advantages of a collaborative approach to work within the library or

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Table 2 Changes in Collaboration with Outside Agencies decreased a lot:

5.3%

2

decreased a little:

15.8%

6

stayed the same:

26.3%

10

increased a little:

39.5%

15

increased a lot:

13.2%

5

within the wider corporate setting. When asked to rank the benefits of partnership working with external agencies, however, creativity was ranked higher, third behind the benefits of resource sharing and access to skills not otherwise available, as shown in Table 3. 1. Creativity and Innovation One interviewee, when asked to identify the most important skills needed to lead collaboration, said that “Creativity is one of the things I would see as key … . You’ve often got to create something out of nothing and do it in a way that’s providing some benefits to people. It’s finding a niche really.” Another interviewee also talked of the need for imagination and creativity but stressed the importance of appropriate organizational conditions for innovation, stating that “When things are going badly, like when you’re coming to a restructuring or something, all that completely went out the window.” 2. Collaboration and Adding Value The potential for collaboration to add value to service offerings was highlighted in the qualitative comments on the survey. One respondent noted the principal benefit as, “joint working to achieve something neither organisation could have done alone,” and another that this style of working was central to “keeping ideas fresh.” An interviewee participant similarly suggested that: Work with partners can bring different experiences, different examples to the work that you do that you, with the best will in the world, probably would not have thought of … it brings something that we wouldn’t necessarily have got just of our own efforts and our own thinking about.

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Table 3 Benefits of Interorganizational Collaboration/Partnerships First choice Problem solving:

11.4%

4

Establishing common vision:

11.4%

4

Resource sharing:

37.1%

13

Creativity:

5.7%

2

Access to skills not otherwise available:

25.7%

9

Extending role:

8.6%

3

Problem solving:

11.4%

4

Establishing common vision:

5.7%

2

Resource sharing:

22.9%

8

Creativity:

22.9%

8

Access to skills not otherwise available:

28.6%

10

Extending role:

8.6%

3

Second choice

Third choice Problem solving:

13.9%

5

Establishing common vision:

8.3%

3

Resource sharing:

19.4%

7

Creativity:

22.2%

8

Access to skills not otherwise available:

22.2%

8

Extending role:

13.9%

5

To illustrate these points, interview participants provided a range of examples of innovative service development delivered in partnership with external organizations. One interviewee talked about two partnerships with commercial partners who sponsored reading and literacy promotion initiatives, both long-term projects lasting several years through which the partners funded events and resources to support the public library service’s work with children and young people’s reading and literacy development.

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Partnership work with publishers was also common in the public library services participating in the study, usually in the form of sponsorship for events focused on reading promotion. Some interviewees described initiatives they had developed in partnerships with other public sector organizations. One public library interviewee, for example, explained how she worked with the local health authority to organize events and exhibitions in the library for Mental Health Awareness Week. Another described a project in which the public library service worked in partnership with the local Museums Service and a health authority to create reminiscence kits including objects from museums and books, DVDs and CDs from libraries. These were initially aimed at informal caregivers of people with dementia, but the partners found that care homes were also interested in borrowing them. The Books on Prescription Scheme, where public libraries worked in partnership with health organizations to provide self-help books on a range of health and wellbeing related topics, was also highlighted by another interviewee. For the participating public libraries, partnerships within the authority were also common. In fact one interviewee said that these were becoming more prevalent because of the difficult economic situation which meant that external organizations were less likely to fund initiatives. Another interviewee gave an example of this kind of collaboration, describing a reading group for people with aphasia established with funding from the council’s Equalities and Inclusion unit which paid for an external facilitator and a speech therapist. A third interviewee described the development of collections of books for children who are fostered or adopted. These were partly funded by the local authority’s Adoption and Fostering service and kept in public libraries. Cross-departmental working was also common in the university libraries participating in the study. One interviewee described collaborative training initiatives, for example, both within the university and more widely with other local university libraries. 3. Autonomy, Distributed Leadership, and Formal Leaders The evidence suggests, then, that the team leaders or middle managers interviewed were involved in, and often initiated collaborative arrangements with a range of partners which resulted in new service developments. The interviews also explored how these arrangements had come about and it appeared that, generally, the team leaders were given considerable latitude and autonomy to pursue opportunities for partnerships that might arise, indicating a distributed model of leadership which empowered them to engage in collaborations leading to innovative service offerings. One

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questionnaire respondent stated that “Communication and encouragement to participate from the leader are vital,” presumably meaning the formally designated library leader, and an interviewee acknowledged that “some of the ideas for partnership work would come from the head of service level and beyond who might well have gone out and done the sort of groundwork, if you like” but, generally, it appeared that staff at this level had a great deal of freedom to contact potential partners, and respond to approaches coming the other way, with ideas for new services. One interviewee said that: We’ll hear about perhaps what Early Years staff are doing or health services and then from that a discussion might follow [and we might say] well actually, you know, we could offer this, if that’s something that would work with what you’re planning on doing.

Several interviewees mentioned the role of serendipity and personal contacts in the development of partnerships but the important point is that they all seemed able to follow up on ideas for collaboration with potential partners without the need to gain authority from higher up the hierarchy. No doubt, when the collaboration had implications for resource allocation, formal approval would be necessary but the system of distributed leadership practiced enabled the team leaders to form partnerships which led to the development of new services to meet the needs of their communities of users. The only restriction on their capacity to pursue partnership opportunities mentioned by many was the time they had available to follow up ideas for collaboration. Thus one university library interviewee, when asked how easy it was to pursue collaborative opportunities, said For me it’s extremely easy, is the honest answer! The librarian will pretty much let us do whatever we want, she doesn’t really get involved in that sort of level of things … You can’t just pick random things and go, “Oh I’d quite like to do that,” you have to say why it would be beneficial. But we’re actively encouraged to find things to do, to get involved with things …, to get out there and try and find people to work with.

He continued, It’s up to me really to manage myself. I’m very, very rarely told that I have to be anywhere at a particular time, at a particular place by my line managers, you know, I manage my own diary and so it’s up to me to really prioritise it.

Interviewees from the public library services had similar experiences. One suggested that this kind of autonomy was key to getting partnerships going and she talked of the “freedom to move quickly … I can move very quickly and almost get in before anybody else can see what I’m doing!” She added that “you police yourself, I think, but nobody else is. I don’t mean

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that nobody else is aware but there’s nothing oppressive going on.” Another interviewee from a public library had moved from a community-based position to a more central role and discussed how she had enjoyed more of this kind of autonomy in her previous job: When I was a community librarian, I probably had a broader role because you’d have your patch and you could see what sort of organisations there were on your patch and you could very much almost create the job for yourself if you could get people coming into the library. So I did work with numerous groups.

Nevertheless, she, like all the other interviewees, indicated that there were few organizational barriers which prevented her following up contacts that may lead to new collaborative service developments. Although authorization would be needed from the designated, formal service leader or leadership team to take a partnership opportunity forward, especially if it were to involve the time of other staff or additional resources, the team leaders explained that they had the freedom to spot opportunities for collaborative service developments, meet with representatives of potential partner organizations and develop plans for new services without close supervision. As outlined in the literature review section, the role of the formal organizational leader in a distributed leadership model is to provide the appropriate conditions and the necessary support to enable leadership functions and responsibilities to be devolved to those who are best placed to lead a particular task or function. The formal leader also has to ensure that all those in leadership roles are aware of and committed to the organization’s strategic plan, and understand how their jobs and any innovations they propose contribute to organizational goals and objectives. It was clear from the interviews that team leaders were always mindful of corporate goals when considering new service developments. One interviewee from a public library, for example, stated: “Obviously, we have to work to our council aims and objectives and then the library service’s plan, so we’ve got sort of criteria there. First of all, we’d be making sure it met or fell within those.” Another agreed, saying: We are very much focusing on what are the outcomes? What are the council wanting to achieve? And does it fit in? You know, is it a nice thing to do, or is it something that’s going to help us deliver on our programme and our aims and objectives—really?

Partnership for innovation is high up on the agenda therefore, but the participants in this study all recognized the need to ensure that any initiatives should contribute to the library service’s mission, as established by the formal leaders of the organization. The interviewees emphasized that this was of particular importance in the current economic climate when they

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were often struggling to deliver the “core offer.” They recognized that partnerships, and the new services which emerged from them, were ways in which libraries could fulfill their aims and objectives and meet their targets by, as one interviewee put it, “tapping into other people’s skills and experiences,” but that it was still important to work within the parameters set by the organization’s formal leaders.

IV. Conclusion The library services participating in this study have adopted a distributed leadership approach through which team leaders have considerable autonomy and discretion over their own particular areas of work. The evidence suggests that this has enabled them to form partnerships and collaborative working relationships with a range of internal and external organizations leading to innovative practices and new services. The absence of close monitoring and micromanagement has given them the freedom to explore ideas for service delivery in collaboration with others, which in turn led to creative approaches to work. As noted in the literature review, the relationship between appropriate leadership style and practices and innovation has been established for some years. Results of the study reported here would suggest that a distributed style of leadership, involving extensive delegation of authority and responsibility to those who are close to points of service delivery and have wide community contacts, can stimulate creativity in library service delivery through intra and interorganizational collaboration. This approach to leadership is particularly appropriate in today’s environment which is characterized by change and uncertainty and as it is likely to encourage more flexible organizations, able to move quickly to capitalize on opportunities as they emerge. As noted in the methodology section of this chapter, the study was small scale and limited in geographic location. A larger study involving a greater number and diversity of library services would explore the extent to which the patterns of leadership identified here can be replicated more widely. In addition, although the heads of service were involved in the research as part of the project management team, they were not research subjects. Thus, they contributed to discussions which assisted in the design of the questionnaire and interview schedules but they were not formally interviewed themselves. Thus their perspective on the distributed leadership approach was not explored in depth. Further work could incorporate the views of people in formal leadership positions to identify how and why they distribute leadership tasks and compare their approach with those of staff to

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whom they devolve leadership responsibilities. Interviews with the heads of library services could explore when they think leadership is most appropriately distributed, how a distributed leadership approach is developed in practice and the kinds of support that team leaders need to work effectively. It would also be instructive to evaluate the limits of distributed leadership and the extent to which it sits comfortably alongside a more vertical, hierarchical leadership approach during times of crisis or conflict. This would add to our knowledge about the contexts within which distributed leadership thrives. As Spillane (2006) suggests the important point “is not the fact that leadership is distributed but how leadership is distributed” (pp. 102 103, emphasis added). Bolden’s (2011) review of the literature on distributed leadership presents taxonomies developed by a number of authors and it would be instructive to analyze the extent to which distributed leadership in libraries fits within these frameworks. Some forms of distributed leadership are more likely to be successful in supporting innovation than others, for example. It would also be valuable to evaluate the circumstances in which it is appropriate and advantageous to distribute leadership and how it develops in libraries. The evidence presented in this chapter indicates that the role of formal leaders in libraries is still a crucial one since they establish appropriate organizational conditions and convey the mission within which other employees operate. Increasingly though, leadership functions are being shared with, and distributed to others. As this leadership approach becomes more common, it is important that we understand how it works and how best to develop a model of distributed leadership that meets particular circumstances and needs.

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Appendix B: Interview Protocol about Leadership Skills for Partnership Working/Collaboration Preamble Thank you for taking time to talk to me today. Focus of this interview will be on your experiences of participating in partnership working/collaboration with the library service both internally within your own organisation and with external partners. We’ll be reflecting on some of the results of the questionnaire and exploring some of the issues a little further. Are you happy for me to record?—it is completely confidential and nobody will be identified by name in any publications arising out of the research. 1. First I’d like to talk about your personal experiences of partnership working. The vast majority of respondents to the questionnaire stated that partnership/collaborative working had increased (either a little or a lot): a. Is this your experience? b. Can you give me some examples of where it has worked well/good partnership/collaborative working—either internal to your organisation or with external partners? c. Why do you think that was so successful? What helped it worked well? [critical success factors] 2. We are very interested in trying to identify the skills necessary for effective partnership/ collaborative working. From the questionnaire survey, we can see that negotiation and building trust were the top rated skills. a. Is this your view? If so, can you explain a little about their importance within the context of your workplace when working in partnership/collaboratively? b. How have you acquired these skills? 3. What is your experience of leading collaborative or partnership working? Again, thinking about the skills required here, the questionnaire results seem to suggest that effective communication and vision are the most important skills in this context. a. Is that your experience? Can you perhaps give some examples of using these skills in partnership working/collaboration? b. Again, how did you acquire these skills? 4. Moving on to talk about organisational issues, why do you think it is important for the library service to engage in partnership/collaborative working? 5. How easy is it for you, as a team leader, to pursue any opportunities for partnership working/ collaboration that may arise? [any organisational barriers/cultural issues] 6. As a team leader, how do you decide whether to pursue the opportunity of partnership/ collaborative working—internally and/or externally? 7. How would you measure whether partnership working/collaboration had been a success? [evaluation]

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References Armistead, C., Pettigrew, P., & Aves, S. (2007). Exploring leadership in multisectoral partnerships. Leadership, 3(2), 211 230. doi:10.1177/174271500 7076214 Association of Research Libraries (ARL). (2013). ARL Leadership Fellows Program. Retrieved from http://www.arl.org/leadership-recruitment/leadership-development/ arl-leadership-fellows-program Barrie, L., & Raven, R. (2012). Building our future: The public library leadership fellows program. Partnership: Canadian Journal of Library and Information Practice and Research, 7(1), p. 1. Retrieved from https://journal.lib.uoguelph.ca/index. php/perj/article/view/1867 Bell, S. (2013, March 27). Skills for leading libraries of the future: Leading from the library. Library Journal. Retrieved from http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2013/03/ opinion/leading-from-the-library/skills-for-leading-libraries-of-the-future-leadingfrom-the-library/ Bolden, R. (2011). Distributed leadership in organizations: A review of theory and research. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13(3) [Special issue], 251 269. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00306.x Carmeli, A., Gelbard, R., & Gefen, D. (2010). The importance of innovation leadership in cultivating strategic fit and enhancing team performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(3), 339 349. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2010.01.006 Carriveau, A., Viers, V., & Ziebell, C. (2008). Collaborative leadership at Ripon College. College & Undergraduate Libraries, 15(3), 301 313. doi:10.1080/ 10691310802258224 CAVAL. (2013). CAVAL library leadership program. Victoria, Australia. Retrieved from http://www.caval.edu.au/leadership.html Cawthorne, J. E. (2010). Leading from the middle of the organization: An examination of shared leadership in academic libraries. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 36(2), 151 157. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2010.01.006 Currie, G., & Lockett, A. (2011). Distributing leadership in health and social care: Concertive, conjoint or collective? International Journal of Management Reviews, 13(3) [Special issue], 286 300. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00308.x Damanpour, F. (1991). Organizational innovation: A meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 555 590. Deiss, K. J., & Sullivan, M. (1998, May). The shared leadership principle: Creating leaders throughout the organization. Leading Ideas. Retrieved from http:// kathryndeiss.pbworks.com/f/Shared + Ldrshp.pdf Denti, L., & Hemlin, S. (2012). Leadership and innovation in organizations: A systematic review of factors that mediate or moderate the relationship. International Journal of Innovation Management, 16(3), 1240007-1-1240007-20. doi:10.1142/ S1363919612400075 Du¨ren, P. (2012). Leadership in libraries in times of change. IFLA Journal, 39(2), 134 139. doi:10.1177/0340035212473541 Dysart, J., & Jones, R. (2011). Innovative services in libraries. Computers in Libraries, 31(5), 14. Retrieved from http://www.infotoday.com/cilmag/jun11/ Zeeman_Jones_Dysart.shtml#Innovative_Services Ensley, M. D., Hmieleski, K. M., & Pearce, C. L. (2006). The importance of vertical and shared leadership within new venture top management teams:

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Implications for the performance of start-ups. Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 217 231. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.02.002 Faems, D., Van Looy, B., & Debackere, K. (2005). Interorganizational collaboration and innovation: Towards a portfolio approach. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 22(3), 238 250. doi:10.1111/j.0737-6782.2005.00120.x Fitzsimmons, D., James, K. T., & Denyer, D. (2011). Alternative approaches for studying shared and distributed leadership. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13[Special issue], 313 328. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00312.x Flood, A. (2013, February 13). Libraries “have had their day”, says Horrible Histories author. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/ books/2013/feb/13/libraries-horrible-histories-terry-deary Gronn, P. (2002). Distributed leadership as a unit of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(4), 423 451. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00120-0 Harris, A. (2004). Distributed leadership and school improvement: Leading or misleading? Education Management Administration & Leadership, 32(1), 11 24. doi:10.1177/1741143204039297 Harris, A. (2012). Distributed leadership: Implications for the role of the principal. Journal of Management Development, 31(1), 7 17. doi:10.1177/17411 43204039297 Hernon, P., & Schwartz, C. (2008). Leadership: Developing a research agenda for academic libraries. Library & Information Science Research, 30(4), 243 249. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2008.08.001 Hill, A., & Cuthbertson, R. (2011). Fitness map: A classification of internal strategic fit in service organisations. International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 31(9), 991 1020. doi:10.1108/01443571111165857 Housewright, R., Shonfield, R. C., & Wulfson, K. (2013, April 8). Ithaka S&R US Faculty Survey 2012. Retrieved from http://sr.ithaka.org/research-publications/usfaculty-survey-2012 Ipsos MORI. (2013). Envisioning the library of the future phase 1: A review of innovation in library services. Retrieved from http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/media/ uploads/pdf/Envisioning_the_library_of_the_future_phase_1_a_review_of_ innovations_in_library_services.pdf Jantz, R. C. (2012a). A framework for studying organizational innovation in research libraries. College & Research Libraries, 73(6), 525 541. Retrieved from http://crl.acrl.org/content/73/6/525.full.pdf + html Jantz, R. C. (2012b). Innovation in academic libraries: An analysis of university librarians’ perspectives. Library & Information Science Research, 34(1), 3 12. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2011.07.008 Jung, D., Wu, A., & Chow, C. W. (2008). Towards understanding the direct and indirect effects of CEOs’ transformation leadership on firm innovation. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(5), 582 594. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.07.007 Leadership Foundation for Higher Education. (2013). Future Leaders Programme. Retrieved from http://www.lfhe.ac.uk/en/programmes-events/index.cfm/flp-9 Leong, J., & Anderson, C. (2012). Fostering innovation through cultural change. Library Management, 33(8/9), 490 497. doi:10.1108/01435121211279858 Mason, F. M., & Wetherbee, L. V. (2004). Learning to lead: An analysis of current training programs for library leadership. Library Trends, 53(1), 187 217. Retrieved from https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1723/Mason 187217.pdf?sequence=2

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McCarten, M. (2011). Developing sustainable leadership capability in Victoria State and public library sector. The Australian Library Journal, 60(1), 21 28. Morse, R. S. (2010). Integrative public leadership: Catalysing collaboration to create public value. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(2), 231 245. doi:10.1016/j. leaqua.2010.01.004 Mumford, M. D. (2000). Managing creative people: Strategies and tactics for innovation. Human Resource Management Review, 10(3), 313 351. doi:10.1016/ S1053-4822(99)00043-1 Mumford, M. D., & Licuanan, B. (2004). Leading for Innovation: Conclusions, issues and directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 15(1), 163 171. doi:10.1016/j. leaqua.2003.12.010 Mumford, M. D., Scott, G. M., Gaddis, B., & Strange, J. M. (2002). Leading creative people: Orchestrating expertise and relationships. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 705 713. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00158-3 Osborne, S. P., & Brown, L. (2011). Innovation, public policy and public services delivery in the UK: The word that would be king? Public Administration, 89(4), 1135 1350. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9299.2011.01932.x Pan, D., & Howard, A. (2010). Distributing leadership and cultivating dialogue with collaborative EBIP. Library Management, 31(7), 494 504. doi:10.1108/ 01435121011071193 Pearce, C. L., & Manz, C. C. (2005). The new silver bullets of leadership: The importance of self-and shared leadership in knowledge work. Organizational Dynamics, 34(2), 130 140. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2005.03.003 Public Library Association. (2013). PLA Leadership Academy: Navigating change— Building communities. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/pla/education/leadership academy Rowley, J. (2010). Should your library have an innovation strategy? Library Management, 32(4/5), 251 265. doi:10.1108/01435121111132266 Rowley, J. (2011). Innovation for survival: From cooperation to collaboration. In A. Woodsworth (Ed.), Librarianship in times of crisis (Vol. 34, pp. 207 224). Advances in Librarianship. Bingley, UK: Emerald. Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2001). Investigating school leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Educational Researcher, 30(3), 23 28. doi:10.3102/0013189X030003023 Staninger, S. W. (2012). Identifying the presence of ineffective leadership in libraries. Library Leadership & Management, 26(1), 1 7. Retrieved from http:// journals.tdl.org/llm/index.php/llm/article/view/5782/5815 Stephens, D., & Russell, K. (2004). Organizational development, leadership, change and the future of libraries. Library Trends, 53(1), 238 257. Retrieved from https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/bitstream/handle/2142/1727/Stephens238257. pdf?sequence = 2 Thorpe, R., Gold, J., & Lawler, J. (2011). Locating distributed leadership. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13(3) [Special issue], 239 250. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2011.00303.x Tourish, D. (2013). The dark side of transformational leadership: A critical perspective. Hove, UK: Routledge.

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Walton, G. (2008). Theory, research and practice in library management 4: Creativity. Library Management, 29(1/2)[Special issue], 125 131. doi:10.1108/ 01435120810844702 Wilson, K., & Corrall, S. (2008). Developing public library managers as leaders: Evaluation of a national leadership development programme. Library Management, 29(6/7), 473 488. doi:10.1108/01435120810894509

Library Instructor Development and Cultivating a Community of Practice Malia Willey J. Edgar & Louise S. Monroe Library, Loyola University New Orleans, New Orleans, LA, USA

Abstract After an overview of the literature on challenges facing library instructors and their coordinators, the chapter describes how the communities of practice model relates to professional development in librarianship, specifically in the area of instructional development. A case study of a community of practice fostered by an instruction coordinator at an academic library is detailed. Academic librarians may encounter several challenges when entering the classroom as library instructors, and instruction coordinators seek to address these and other challenges as they build library instruction programs. By developing a community of practice, instruction coordinators can enable library instructors to learn together. The case study describes how the Instruction Coordinator cultivates library instructor development for members of the Teaching and Learning Team at Loyola University New Orleans’ Monroe Library through a community of practice model. The practical implications for this chapter are that instruction coordinators can establish instructional development opportunities that allow library instructors to enhance their teaching abilities and ultimately further library instruction programs. Communities of practice are well known in several fields and have been discussed in the library literature. This chapter provides additional value to researchers and practitioners through the discussion and application of the concept in the context of library instruction at academic institutions. The case study provides specific examples of how instruction coordinators at other academic libraries can apply the community of practice model and instructional development opportunities to a library instruction program in order to build and sustain a learning culture that supports library instructor development. Keywords: Communities of practice; library instruction; teaching development; academic libraries

I. Introduction Academic libraries contribute to the educational mission of their institutions though library instruction. As library instructors, librarians teach students research and information literacy skills. Depending on the institution, MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038005

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the educational settings of library instruction programs may range from individualized reference interactions to course-integrated instruction and credit-bearing courses. Instruction coordinators are tasked with overseeing library instruction programs, including the instructional development of library instructors. Academic librarians may feel uncertain, unprepared, uncomfortable, or underappreciated in their roles as teachers. As managers of information literacy programs and leaders in information literacy, instruction coordinators seek to build and sustain learning cultures that allow library instructors to enhance their teaching abilities. Informal and formal interactions between library instructors can offer opportunities to address their instructional roles. Communities of practice offer a support system for participants to reflect and learn together. This model allows instruction coordinators to intentionally create the time and design opportunities for instructors to improve as learners and teachers. The J. Edgar and Louise S. Monroe Library’s Teaching and Learning Team at Loyola University New Orleans serves as case study for how a community of practice model can provide development for library instructors, and how instruction coordinators can apply this concept to a library instruction program in order to build and sustain a learning culture that supports improved teaching of library instructors.

II. Challenges for Library Instructors and Their Coordinators Librarians have long served as teachers of information. Library instruction in higher education builds upon a rich tradition of librarian educators and bibliographic instruction (Grassian, 2004). As Loesch (2010) indicates, “Academic librarians have always been ‘teaching’, even while assisting patrons in the library; now they just need to expand that aspect of their profession to take command of the classroom” (p. 31). Many librarians have embraced an information literacy model, defined by Gibson (2008) as “a programmatic, curriculum-integrated, and pervasive and sustained placement of information and research skills throughout the curriculum” (p. 12), as a reform movement within the higher education landscape that emphasizes active learning, critical thinking, and authentic assessment. The integration of information literacy into a campus curriculum can promote sustained relationships with students, a better understanding of how students use information, and a more integral role for librarians in supporting the mission of the institution (Donnelly, 2000). A plethora of organizations, programs, publications, and conferences have sprung up to support information literacy

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instruction (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009). While these resources provide opportunities for librarians to enhance their educational expertise, there are several challenges facing instruction programs at academic libraries. Despite the proliferation of information literacy discourse within the library field today, the popular conception of a librarian is not yet synonymous with teacher. Stereotypes surrounding librarians in both the public and academic spheres can be antiquated and limited, and may emphasize a service-orientation over a teaching role for academic librarians (Loesch, 2010). Bruch and Wilkinson (2012) also note a “cultural conflict within libraries between traditional librarian dharma emphasizing service preeminence, and a new librarian dharma emphasizing educator responsibilities” (p. 17). Not all librarians are willing to take on an instructional role, such as teaching or learning new methods for teaching (Seymour, 2012). Furthermore, librarians who teach may find that their colleagues may not regard their work contributions as highly. Some academic librarians have reported that they need to defend their roles as teachers to other librarians (Davis, 2007). Another study indicated that a majority (66%) of academic librarians perceive that they value their teaching roles more than their institution values these roles (Cunningham & Donovan, 2012). In fact, only 38% of respondents surveyed indicated that their teaching was considered as part of their annual review process (Cunningham & Donovan, 2012). Some colleagues may not recognize instruction as an activity that contributes toward achieving tenure (Partello, 2005). The teaching role of academic librarians is still being solidified. A. Preparedness of Librarians as Teachers A string of studies indicates that librarians are typically not prepared for their roles as teachers (Albrecht & Baron, 2002; Julien, 2005; Sproles, Johnson, & Farison, 2008). As the role of librarian begins to converge with that of educator, more educational training is needed (Bruce, 2011). Librarians who have taken a formal course in instruction are more likely to feel prepared for work as teachers (Julien & Genuis, 2011). However, coursework on the educational role of librarians is not ubiquitous. Librarians, especially experienced librarians, may have entered into the field without the expectation that they would serve as classroom instructors. As of 2005, only one school of library and information science required a course on instruction (Julien, 2005). While instruction is increasingly present in job descriptions for librarians, a more recent study of reference syllabi at library and information science programs indicated that 66% of required reference courses included instruction, (Sproles et al., 2008). In the programs that include coursework on information literacy, the groundwork for competency

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in the instruction of information literacy was still incomplete. The topic of instructional design was most often taught, while skills needed in the areas of leadership, administration, and assessment of library instruction preparation were addressed less often. Sproles et al. (2008) conclude that the current coursework alone does not sufficiently enable librarians to provide effective library instruction. Another survey of academic librarians in the United Kingdom confirms that while there is support for incorporating pedagogy into the curriculum of library programs, informal methods of teacher training, such as on-the-job development and learning via trial and error, are more common (Bewick & Corrall, 2010). Librarians who have engaged in further education in the area of information literacy report increased knowledge (Appleton, 2010). The general absence of pedagogical training by information and library science programs suggests that librarians are lacking in this area of professional preparation. In addition to being underprepared by their degree programs, some librarians may also feel anxious about instruction. The act of performing library instruction may induce stage fright (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2009). A survey issued by Davis (2007) to librarians via a listerv pertaining to information literacy instruction revealed that a majority of respondents have felt symptoms of mental or emotional anxiety (65%) or physical anxiety (60%) when teaching. The career length of respondents did not correlate with feelings of teaching anxiety, which suggests that teaching anxiety may occur throughout the career of an academic librarian (Davis, 2007). These stressors can affect the confidence and performance of library instructors. B. External Guidance and Internal Expectations Bruch and Wilkinson (2012) outline the national, institutional, and professional challenges that affect the implementation of a comprehensive information literacy culture on campuses. They identify a lack of agreement on the definition of information literacy, and information literacy education is not required at the national level, which means information literacy programs vary by institution. Garnering faculty buy-in for information literacy instruction and curriculum reform are other institutional challenges. One professional challenge that Bruch and Wilkinson (2012) pinpoint is the absence of an established educational role for all librarians in the guiding documents of the American Library Association. While the Association of College and Research Libraries has compiled standards for information literacy competency (2000) and proficiencies for instruction librarians and coordinators (2007), the extent that academic librarians are held professionally responsible as educators remains unclear.

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There are often high expectations for instruction programs, and subsequently high expectations of instruction coordinators. Coordinators of successful information programs require advanced skills in creative thinking, communication, institutional knowledge, and planning (MacDonald, 2008). In addition to the skill set of a well-rounded manager, MacDonald (2008) explains that .

For many IL [information literacy] librarians, there is more than the expectation that you will keep the IL program running and growing smoothly; there is also a knowledge that many eyes are on us to convince or perhaps prove to our campus community that IL is necessary and really does add a main ingredient to the rich content of higher education. (p. 134)

These high expectations can lead to stress and burnout for library instructors and instruction coordinators (Grassian & Kaplowitz, 2005). Bruch and Wilkinson (2012) concur that “When only one librarian in an institution is charged with or expected to implement an information literacy program, and/or so many challenges and underlying issues exist within the profession, burnout can threaten to undermine positive advancement” (p. 21). Instruction coordinators must look to their colleagues and administrations for support. Instruction coordinators are likely to rely on powers of persuasion to further their programs. They may have limited or no formal power. Librarians who perform instruction often work across multiple departments, and may not report to the instruction coordinators at their library. This lack of authority can additionally complicate a coordinator’s ability to make changes in an instruction program (Bruch & Wilkinson, 2012). Instead, instruction coordinators must foster allies for their cause. An effective, but intensive, strategy to achieve this is to enable cultural change (Bruch & Wilkinson, 2012; Travis, 2008). As Travis (2008) explains, “The process of change is slow. Depending on the campus culture and external forces motivating the change, it may take more planning and negotiation to achieve a favorable outcome” (p. 18). While cultivating cultural change is no easy task, a shared understanding and commitment to information literacy can be powerful.

III. Communities of Practice Communities of practice bring individuals together to learn, which enables instruction coordinators to foster a sustained learning culture among their fellow library instructors. The concept of communities of practice is rooted in sociocultural and constructivist theory. Wang, Bruce, and Hughes (2011)

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explain that, “Sociocultural theories describe human cognition as developed through engagement in social activities, as an individual interacts with other people, objects, and events” (pp. 297 298). Learning is embedded in the social, cultural, and historical contexts of the learner. Constructivists, likewise, view the learning process in individual and social contexts (Booth, 2011). Simply put, people learn from one another. The definition and usage of the term “community of practice” varies by author and context. Cox (2005) describes the evolution of the term. As sociocultural and constructivist theory espouses, these groundbreaking works share that learning is individually and socially constructed. According to Cox (2005), Lave and Wenger introduced a community of practice as a theoretical concept in 1991, and the term has since evolved to describe a managerial concept. Cox (2005) writes, “The dominant usage of the term ‘community’ of practice, at least in the organizational literature, is now to refer to a relatively informal, intra-organizational group specifically facilitated by management to increase learning or creativity” (p. 538). Fields related to project and knowledge management have especially adopted the community of practice model in order to increase knowledge sharing and innovation (Khan, Khan, & Jaleel, 2010). While the phrase community of practice has become widely known in certain circles, there still remains ambiguity surrounding the concept. Communities of practice can take several forms according to Wenger, McDermott, and Snyder (2002). Some researchers differentiate between a community of practice and a learning community (Hara, 2009; Wubbels, 2007), while others may use the two terms almost interchangeably (Booth, 2011; Wenger, 1998). Communities of practice can be informal or formal and unstructured or structured (Khan et al., 2010). Regardless of their structure, the focus of communities of practice is creating an environment that facilitates learning. A community of practice, however, cannot be simply imposed on a group. Instead, Wenger et al. (2002) maintain that communities of practice are cultivated through recognition, support, encouragement, and nurture. Wenger et al. (2002) identify several benefits related to a community of practice model. Organizations are better able to solve problems, coordinate across the organization, and take strategic opportunities. Members of the community experience improved work from help with challenges, access to expertise, increased confidence, and a sense of belonging with colleagues. This environment of professional development allows individuals to expand their skill set, become more knowledgeable of trends in their field, and to enhance their sense of professional identity. The literature of higher education and libraries includes discourse on communities of practice. As both learners and educators, academics have

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been particularly receptive to the idea (Buckley & Giannakopoulos, 2009). The community of practice model has been employed at several academic libraries in different manners. While the applications vary, the experiences reported in the literature all indicate increased learning. A cohort of newly employed librarians at the University of Idaho explored several development options before implementing a community of practice (Henrich & Attebury, 2010). As new faculty members, they needed guidance in their pursuit of tenure. They considered traditional mentoring and peer mentoring programs, but a community of practice offered both learning opportunities from those with expertise and an atmosphere that encouraged group support. The cohort and other colleagues met monthly during the academic year, and the meetings allowed for both structured and unstructured activities. This community of practice led to several collaborations and research projects. A group of science and engineering librarians at the University of Notre Dame became familiar with the community of practice concept as they worked to establish a better sense of their professional identity (Belzowski, Ladwig, & Miller, 2013). Some librarians had discovered a disconnection between the services that they provided and what their academic departments actually wanted. As Belzowski et al. (2013), stated, “We believe that a fundamental problem for the profession today is that the changing nature of the information landscape has left librarians as confused about our practice as our patrons” (p. 209). By forming a small community of practice, they were better able to understand the roles that they could take. Conversations with faculty members from outside of the library and later visits to other science and engineering libraries helped them to reassess their identity and services. Other research suggests using a community of practice model is an effective way to advance information literacy education (see Harris, 2008; Lloyd, 2005; Wang et al., 2011). Harris (2008) points out that the current standards for information literacy primarily focus on the individual, and that the idea of community is missing. Lloyd (2005) writing from a social constructive perspective asserts that, “Information literacy takes on a different shape wherein it is collaborative and underpinned by social practices which turn the focus of engagement with information towards the construction of shared meaning about practice and the development of collective outcomes” (p. 231). The context in which information literacy is learned becomes more complex when the concept and implication of community is taken into consideration. Benefits of using a sociocultural approach to information education include a co-constructed understanding of research, specialized support for students, the development of customized information literacy tools, and a student-centered focus (Wang et al., 2011).

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A community of practice model may also be applied to the advancement of library instruction programs and teachers of information literacy. Booth (2011) explains that From finding one person who gives you solid feedback to creating a programmatic instructor development initiative in your workplace (or both), the goal of a community of practice is to find individuals with who[m] you can connect productively around the issue of pedagogy and praxis. (p. 28)

Resources for developing communities of practice around library instruction include online learning communities, conferences, professional organizations, continuing education programs, and online resources (Booth, 2011). More attention has been paid to instructional improvement in higher education, and many libraries have developed in-house training for their instructors that vary by institution (Walter, Arp, & Woodard, 2006). Cunningham and Donovan (2012) noted that “As librarians further engage in teaching activities, they will benefit from creating and participating in communities of practice that progress their knowledge of pedagogy and produce opportunities for their unique contribution to conversations on teaching at the institutional-level” (p. 213). A recommendation to campus stakeholders for creating a comprehensive information literacy culture includes employing a “holistic change leadership to reinvent each library’s instructional community as a collaborative team or learning community in order to build a culture of teaching and assessment; re-purposing an instructional workforce for student and librarian learning” (Bruch & Wilkinson, 2012, p. 36, emphasis added).

IV. Monroe Library’s Case Study A. Institutional Context Loyola University New Orleans is home to the Monroe Library. Loyola is a private university located in the historic district of New Orleans, Louisiana. It is a Jesuit and Catholic institution of higher education founded in 1912. Social justice and educating the whole person are key elements of Jesuit education, and the Loyola community strives to be men and women for others. Loyola offers over 60 undergraduate degrees and over a dozen graduate and professional programs. There are over 5000 students enrolled, and over a third of those students are undergraduates. Loyola faculty, students, and staff hail from diverse backgrounds and geographic locations. The Loyola community has access to the Monroe Library and the Law Library. Librarians at Loyola have faculty status. They are expected to meet

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the rigors of tenure, which includes excellence in teaching. The Monroe Library is the main library at Loyola, and focal point on campus for students to study, engage with technology, and collaborate. There are 13 members of the library faculty at the Monroe Library. The library is organized in teams in order to accomplish shared responsibilities. Team leaders facilitate team meetings and organize team goals. The Instruction Coordinator at the Monroe Library is responsible for leading the Teaching and Learning Team. Team members consist of library faculty members who hold an advanced degree in library and information science or an equivalent. All 10 members of the Teaching and Learning Team participate in the library’s instruction program to provide research and technology instruction for the campus. Team members also serve as liaisons to academic departments across the university, and provide specialized instruction services to their liaison areas. Instruction services include individual support through appointments, email correspondence, phone conversations, in-person reference shifts, and virtual chat. As of the 2009 2010 academic year the library instructors taught over 100 library instruction sessions for courses. This involved meeting once or multiple times with a course taught by another faculty member from outside of the library. The liaisons have a long tradition of working with the Music and Music Industry programs. Library instructors have co-taught Tech for Music, which is a pass or fail course that covers topics on research and technology that relate to music. Introduction to Music Industry Studies, a required course for all students who major or minor in Music Industry Studies, has been co-taught by library instructors. They teach multiple instruction sessions and are able to assign part of students’ grades. The library instructors have offered an one-credit course Research and Technology 2.0. The course has been typically taught during the last eight weeks of the semester. The instruction workload is distributed among the team members depending on liaison responsibilities and interest. B. A Community of Practice The Teaching and Learning Team is intentionally modeled on a community of practice to foster library instructor development. The Instruction Coordinator organizes shared development for library instructors, including team-building activities, open discussions, shared readings, instructional challenges, presentations and workshops, and collaborations with the University’s Center for Faculty Innovation (CFI). The team meets approximately every other week. Agenda items are collected and determined before each meeting by the Instruction Coordinator. Each meeting includes time

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at the end of the agenda for “News and Announcements,” which allows for the more informal discussion of items by team members. The Teaching and Learning Team engaged in several activities that have helped solidify the identity of their community. In the summer of 2010, the Instruction Coordinator attended the Program Track of the Association of College and Research Libraries’ Information Literacy Immersion Program. In preparation for this, the entire Teaching and Learning Team contributed to analysis of the instruction program in order to complete a background study. The Instruction Coordinator ultimately developed an Information Literacy Plan based upon the Immersion experience and supplementary input from members of the team. The major elements of the Information Literacy Plan are development for librarians, development for faculty members outside of the library, curricular integration, support for graduate and online degrees, and outreach. Every team member volunteered to work on multiple goals related to the plan. This distribution of work took the onus off information literacy being the primary responsibility of the Instruction Coordinator, and created a shared sense of responsibility for the development of the library instruction program throughout the team. This shared responsibility and participation also allowed the team to cover more ground. During this process, the Teaching and Learning Team reimagined their role as information literacy educators. To reflect this process, each member contributed to rewriting the mission statement of the team as seen in Box 1. Box 1.

Teaching and Learning Team Mission Statement.

The Teaching and Learning Team provides learner-centered research and technology instruction for students, faculty, and staff at Loyola University New Orleans. The content and delivery of our instruction is designed to meet the information needs of the individual or group. According to the Association of College and Research Libraries (2000), information literacy is “an intellectual framework for understanding, finding, evaluating, and using information.” We teach information literacy though our interactions in the Learning Commons, in research appointments, and in the classroom. We integrate information literacy into the curriculum through our instruction, partnerships, and collaborations with faculty to enhance the success of students in their coursework and in their future pursuits. An understanding of the broader social and ethical implications of information literacy encourages the Jesuit values of thinking critically and acting justly. As advocates for information literacy, we contribute to the education of the whole student and promote lifelong learning.

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A major component of the Information Literacy Plan included instructional development for librarians. Development opportunities were selected based upon a formal survey and feedback. The Instruction Coordinator distributed the Association of College and Research Libraries Standards for Proficiencies for Instruction Librarians and Coordinators (Association of College and Research Libraries, 2007) to each team member every year. Areas of proficiencies include administrative skills, assessment and evaluation skills, communication skills, curriculum knowledge, information literacy integration skills, instructional design skills, leadership skills, planning skills, presentation skills, promotion skills, subject expertise, and teaching skills. The respondents rated their abilities in each area as “not yet,” “progressing,” “proficient,” and “advanced.” Two additional questions were posed by the Instruction Coordinator: (1) How have you grown as an instructor? (2) What instruction topics would you like to learn more about? These open-ended questions allowed instructors to identify development needs not covered by the standards. This feedback mechanism allowed the Instruction Coordinator to target individual and group development needs. For example, the Instruction Coordinator was able to work with an individual, or identify another team member with expertise in that area to work with that individual, if he or she believed they needed additional help in a given area. For example, one team member noted that she would like assistance in creating online tutorials. The Instruction Coordinator arranged for another team member to work with that individual. If several members showed an interest in a topic, the Instruction Coordinator then arranged programming for the whole team. For example, many team members reported that they would like further training in lesson planning and assessment. The Instruction Coordinator subsequently arranged workshops on these topics for all team members. Input from the team has been revisited each year to keep development opportunities relevant. Open discussion has been an easy way to share teaching experiences among library instructors. MacDonald (2008) encourages, “To keep the IL [information literacy] program moving in the right directions it’s important to hold both planning meetings and other less formal work-group or workshop sessions” (p. 118). At the Monroe Library, the Instruction Coordinator of the Teaching and Learning Team allowed for time throughout meetings to discuss instructional ponderings. Team members posed formal agenda items related to instruction. For example, the librarian liaison to Biology asked for feedback from the other library instructors on the research assignment for the course Cells and Heredity because students are required to meet with a librarian. The Instruction Coordinators also brought forward and encouraged team members to bring forward relevant instruction examples during

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applicable agenda items and during the “News and Announcements” portion of the meeting. This allowed library instructors to share upcoming assignments and suggest teaching techniques so that library instructors could provide better assistance for specialized reference questions. Library instructors also received suggestions from their team members when they asked how to make a topic in an upcoming instruction session more engaging. Recurring discussions on subjects, such as teaching with a specific technology, often led to more formal agenda items at future meetings of the Teaching and Learning Team. Participating in open discussion furthered the sense of community among team members by building on their shared knowledge and trust. The Instruction Coordinator found that some librarians were more vocal about their experiences. It was therefore helpful for the Instruction Coordinator to specifically engage more reluctant participants until they become more comfortable with sharing with the group. Shared readings were another tactic for exploring educational topics. Based upon the areas of instructional development identified by team members, the Instruction Coordinator selected relevant readings through serendipity or by browsing databases for articles on a specific topic. The articles were distributed to team members at least a week in advance of upcoming meetings, and the discussion of the article was added to the next agenda. The Instruction Coordinator found that shorter readings tended to guarantee higher levels of participation. However, longer readings were be broached if the content was particularly engaging and/or important, and if appropriate time was given for team members to prepare for the discussion. Longer readings were distributed further in advance to allow team members more preparation time. To keep the conversation moving or on topic, the Instruction Coordinator came prepared with major points or specific questions about the reading. She also brought activities related to the reading, such as a quiz that allowed team members to identify their learning style. If a conversation took on a helpful life of its own, the Instruction Coordinator made an effort to be flexible about regulating the conversation. Another approach to shared readings was the jigsaw method. Team member(s) chose different reading materials, and they were responsible for relating the major points of the pieces. Team members were given several weeks to prepare. One jigsaw topic was online learning. The resulting conversation revolved around how the different articles on online learning were related. In either situation of shared reading, the Instruction Coordinator monitored and moderated conversation, if necessary, to allow for the participation of both talkative and quieter members. Among the signature instructional development activities of the Teaching and Learning Team were the teaching challenges. Each semester

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a new challenge was issued to team members to incorporate into their instruction or librarian liaison activities. The challenge usually related to a previous topic of development or a particular university-wide initiative. For the first challenge, instructors were encouraged to try something new in their instruction. Time during a regular team meeting at the end of semester was reserved for instructors to share their experiences. The conversation from the challenge proved so fruitful that the team unanimously decided to continue the tradition. Subsequent challenges have included co-teaching with another librarian, incorporating an active learning activity in an instruction session, experimenting with web conferencing, attending student events, and mentoring new members of the team. As each activity became more challenging, team members began to express difficulties with employing certain techniques. This willingness to share vulnerable experiences demonstrated a growing level of trust. The Instruction Coordinator also arranged lengthier, hands-on activities. More formal presentations and workshops required more preparation, but were effective for addressing particular development topics. Members of the community of practice served as presenters, or an outside expert was brought in depending on the subject matter. Librarian liaisons have shared subject knowledge in specialized areas, such as expertise in government, marketing, music, or science information. More experienced instructors presented techniques for incorporating knowledge of learning styles and other pedagogical concepts into instruction. Effective use of teaching technologies, such as blogging, was also introduced. An outside expert in student retention related strategies for understanding and engaging with first-generation students. Instructional design was an area that several members of the team had identified as needing further development, which made it an excellent topic for a more formalized workshop. The Instruction Coordinator and another team member designed a workshop that modeled effective instructional design. They prepared handouts and targeted activities based upon actual instructional requests. Members practiced writing learning outcomes and related activities using a lesson plan with built-in comprehension checks to assess for student learning. The team shared their results, which allowed the workshop organizers to gauge the success of the workshop. The Teaching and Learning Team already had a long history of providing research and technology development for other faculty, and of collaborating with Loyola’s CFI, which provides professional development for faculty on campus. Several topics of development addressed within the team were applicable for sharing with faculty colleagues outside of the library. An internal discussion and brainstorm on creating effective and engaging

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research assignments within the team led to the first offshoot presentation for CFI. The presentation was led by several team members and attended by several other team members and many other faculty members. A follow-up workshop with a majority of the library instructors allowed individual faculty members to troubleshoot specific questions about creating assignments. The team has since presented twice in a similar fashion on the topic of academic honesty and preventing plagiarism. Both events were well attended. These development opportunities have facilitated new partnerships between librarians and teaching faculty. The presentations and workshops allowed the library instructors to showcase their pedagogical expertise and promoted the idea that librarians are instructional allies of faculty members. As with any collaboration, the team had less control over the nature of these higher profile events. Nonetheless, working with CFI allowed for more exposure of the library instruction program and further encouraged the growth of information literacy awareness on campus.

1. Sharing the Community of Practice Externally The next step in the evolution of instructional development of the Teaching and Learning Team was to share their community of practice with other librarians outside of the Monroe Library. After discussion about extending instructional development activities to include other academic librarians in the local area, the Instruction Coordinator and another team member organized the inaugural NOLA (New Orleans, Louisiana) Information Literacy Forum in 2012. The conference was open to local librarians at no cost. Over 40 librarians from both public and private academic libraries across the city and the state convened to view brief presentations on information literacy topics. After the presentations, the attendees gathered into informal discussion groups and to talk about their instruction programs. Feedback from the forum was overwhelmingly positive, and attendees expressed a desire for more programs. An Executive Board, consisting of academic librarians throughout the greater New Orleans area, was formed the following year in 2013 to formally establish the NOLA Information Literacy Collective. Several members of the Teaching and Learning Team serve on the Board and the Instruction Coordinator served as the first Chair of the Executive Board. The Executive Board now plans an annual NOLA Information Literacy Forum. The content of the forum continues to grow, and now features concurrent, full-length presentations. The 2013 forum had over 50 attendees, including a presenter from a neighboring state. The Board plans to offer further free opportunities and programming for academic librarians to

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collaborate on instructional development in order to cultivate a larger community of practice for information literacy in higher education.

V. Conclusion A community of practice model has been beneficial for the Teaching and Learning Team. One of the primary lessons learned is that shared instructional development allowed the team to recognize and utilize the expertise of other team members. As the community of practice model embodies, these activities led to dispersed knowledge and increased innovation. A practical outcome of this shared knowledge was that more librarians were able to engage in specialized and enhanced instruction, which further distributed the load of teaching activities that could be performed by multiple instructors. Another lesson learned is that the enhanced development of library instructors leads to a more robust instruction program. Because a community of practice fosters a sustained learning culture, team members gained additional knowledge for improving their teaching effectiveness. Members of the Teaching and Learning Team have applied what they have learned in the community practice to their individual instruction, and have reported greater confidence in their work. The instruction program has doubled in size as throughout this process. Since the 2010 2011 academic year, library instructors have consistently provided over 200 individual instruction sessions for the Loyola community. The instruction program has also grown to include more intensive instruction commitments, such as embedded librarian experiences and co-taught courses with other faculty. Embedded librarianship involves integrating a librarian into the user environment. Library instructors were integrated into several more courses, including Historical Methods, Interdisciplinary Humanities Research for honors students, Introduction to Film and Digital Media, and Synoptic Gospels. A library instructor now co-teaches the first year seminars for nontraditional students. A community of practice model can lead to a change in the culture of a library instruction program. A shift of the Monroe Library’s culture toward information literacy is evident in the changing nature of the librarians’ work. The team was asked to craft language about library instruction and information literacy for the job descriptions of new hires with the expectation that all new librarians will participate in instruction and the Teaching and Learning Team. The team’s next major initiative is to develop a more sophisticated assessment of the instruction program. They will continue to share their ever-expanding experience in library instruction with one

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another, their faculty colleagues, and the greater information literacy community. Fostering a community of practice takes energy and time to develop, but this model can offer great rewards for instruction programs and their coordinators. Instruction Coordinators can replicate the instructional development activities described in the case study at the Monroe Library at other institutions in order to enhance their library instruction programs. Communities of practice bring learning together to the forefront. Through the process of cultivating opportunities to learn as a community of practice, instruction coordinators can make the time for library instructors to intentionally share, reflect, and ultimately learn to be better teachers.

Acknowledgment The author thanks Brian Sullivan for collaborating on an earlier presentation (Sullivan & Willey, 2012) that inspired this chapter. References Albrecht, R., & Baron, S. (2002). The politics of pedagogy: Expectations and reality for information literacy in librarianship. Journal of Library Administration, 36(1/2), 71. doi:10.1300/J111v36n01_01 Appleton, L. (2010). LolliPop for learning resources: Information literacy staff training within further education. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 42(3), 191 198. doi:10.1177/0961000610368919 Association of College and Research Libraries. (2000). Information literacy competency standards for higher education. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/ acrl/standards/informationliteracycompetency.cfm Association of College and Research Libraries. (2007). Association of College and Research Libraries standards for proficiencies for instruction librarians and coordinators. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/acrl/standards/profstandards Belzowski, N. F., Ladwig, J. P., & Miller, T. (2013). Crafting identity, collaboration, and relevance for academic librarians using communities of practice. Collaborative Librarianship, 5(1), 3 15. Retrieved from http://collaborativelibrar ianship.org/index.php/jocl/article/view/212/187 Bewick, L., & Corrall, S. (2010). Developing librarians as teachers: A study of their pedagogical knowledge. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 42(2), 97 110. doi:10.1177/0961000610361419 Booth, C. (2011). Reflective teaching, effective learning: Instructional literacy for library educators. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Bruce, C. (2011). Information literacy programs and research: An international review. Australian Library Journal, 60(4), 326 333. doi:10.1080/00049670. 2011.10722652

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Bruch, C., & Wilkinson, C. W. (2012). Surveying terrain, clearing pathways. In C. W. Wilkinson, & C. Bruch (Eds.), Transforming information literacy programs: Intersecting frontiers of self, library culture, and campus community (Vol. 64, pp. 3 44). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. ACRL Publications in Librarianship. Buckley, S., & Giannakopoulos, P. (2009, September). Challenges in knowledge sharing in higher education. In E. Bolisani & E. Scarso (Eds.), Proceedings of the 10th European conference on knowledge management (Vol. 1, pp. 133 143). Vicanza, Italy. Retrieved from http://www.gbv.de/dms/tib-ub-hannover/626784751.pdf Cox, A. (2005). What are communities of practice? A comparative review of four seminal works. Journal of Information Science, 31(6), 527 540. doi:10.1177/ 0165551505057016 Cunningham, A. D., & Donovan, C. (2012). Settling uncharted territory: Documenting & rewarding librarians’ teaching role in the academy. In C. W. Wilkinson, & C. Bruch (Eds.), Transforming information literacy programs: Intersecting frontiers of self, library culture, and campus community (Vol. 64, pp. 181 219). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. ACRL Publications in Librarianship. Davis, K. D. (2007). Derailing anxiety in library instruction: A study of teaching anxiety in academic librarians. Tennessee Libraries, 57(1), 1 8. Retrieved from http://www.tnla.org/associations/5700/files/davis.pdf Donnelly, K. (2000). Reflections on what happens when librarians become teachers. Computers in Libraries, 20(3), 46. Retrieved from http://www.infotoday.com/ cilmag/mar00/donnelly.htm Gibson, C. (2008). The history of information literacy. In C. N. Cox, & E. B. Lindsay (Eds.), Information literacy instruction handbook (pp. 9 25). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Grassian, E. (2004). Building on bibliographic instruction. American Libraries, 35(9), 51 53. Grassian, E. S., & Kaplowitz, J. R. (2005). Fostering growth in yourself and others. In E. S. Grassian, & J. R. Kaplowitz (Eds.), Learning to lead and manage information literacy instruction (pp. 118 143). New York, NY: Neal-Schuman. Grassian, E. S., & Kaplowitz, J. R. (2009). Information literacy instruction: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Neal-Schuman. Hara, N. (2009). Communities of practice: Fostering peer-to-peer learning and informal knowledge sharing in the work place. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. Harris, B. R. (2008). Communities as necessity in information literacy development: Challenging the standards. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 34(3), 248 255. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2008.03.008 Henrich, K. J., & Attebury, R. (2010). Communities of practice at an academic library: A new approach to mentoring at the University of Idaho. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 36(2), 158 165. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2010.01.007 Julien, H. (2005). Education for information literacy instruction: A global perspective. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 46(3), 210 216. Julien, H., & Genuis, S. K. (2011). Librarians’ experiences of the teaching role: A national survey of librarians. Library & Information Science Research, 33(2), 103 111. doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2010.09.005 Khan, A., Khan, M., & Jaleel, F. (2010, September). Strategies for developing communities of practice in the organizations. In E. Tome´ (Ed.), Proceedings of the 11th

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European Conference on Knowledge Management, (pp.540 545). Largo Tinoco Sousa, Portugal. Reading, UK: Academic Publishing. Retrieved from http://www. academic-conferences.org/pdfs/ECKM_2010_Abstract_booklet.pdf Lloyd, A. (2005). No man (or woman) is an island: Information literacy, affordances and communities of practice. Australian Library Journal, 54(3), 230 237. doi:10.1080/00049670.2005.10721760 Loesch, M. F. (2010). Librarian as professor: A dynamic new role. Education Libraries, 33(1), 31 37. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ887232.pdf MacDonald, M. (2008). Program management. In C. N. Cox, & E. B. Lindsay (Eds.), Information literacy instruction handbook (pp. 113 138). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Partello, P. (2005). Librarians in the classroom. Reference Librarian, 43(89 90), 107 120. doi:10.1300/J120v43n89_08 Seymour, C. (2012). Ethnographic study of information literacy librarians’ work experience: A report from two states. In C. W. Wilkinson, & C. Bruch (Eds.), Transforming information literacy programs: Intersecting frontiers of self, library culture, and campus community (Vol. 64, pp. 45 71). Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. ACRL Publications in Librarianship. Sproles, C., Johnson, A., & Farison, L. (2008). What the teachers are teaching: How MLIS programs are preparing academic librarians for instructional roles. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 49(3), 195 209. Sullivan, B., & Willey, M. (2012, August). Teaching the information literacy teachers: Fostering communities of practice. Paper presented at the Indiana University Libraries Information Literacy Colloquium, New Albany, IN. Travis, T. A. (2008). Librarians as agents of change: Working with curriculum committees using change agency theory. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 114 [Special issue], 17 33. doi:10.1002/tl.314 Walter, S., Arp, L., & Woodard, B. S. (2006). Instructional improvement: Building capacity for professional development of librarians as teachers. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 45(3), 213 218. Wang, L., Bruce, C., & Hughes, H. (2011). Sociocultural theories and their application in information literacy research and education. Australian Academic & Research Libraries, 42(4), 296 308. doi:10.1080/00048623.2011.10722242 Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Wenger, E., McDermott, R. A., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Wubbels, T. (2007). Do we know a community of practice when we see one?. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 16(2)[Special issue], 225 233. doi:10.1080/ 14759390701406851

Leading for Learning: A Model for Best Practice in School Libraries Cristina S. Judge and David McMenemy Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Abstract This chapter introduces a model for school libraries in Scotland, based on best practices as identified in the literature, and on five case studies undertaken in schools, two in the United States and three in Scotland. The research design was qualitative, and used grounded theory and multiple case study methods. The model represents an ideal set of circumstances for school libraries in Scotland, highlighting the interconnected web of influences that affect the success of a school library in meeting professional standards. These influences primarily fall in three areas: the school librarian, the school environment, and the professional support available to the librarian. The school librarian is the primary leader of the school library program, but factors in these other two areas can provide opportunities and barriers that can help or hinder the success of the library service. For instance, the findings suggest that school-based factors such as curriculum, scheduling, technology facilities, and staffing can have significant influence over the access the librarian has to teachers and students. Our model includes all three areas in describing a set of circumstances that would allow a school library program to thrive and meet the highest professional standards. Keywords: School libraries; qualitative case study; multiple case study; Scotland; grounded theory; professional issues

I. Introduction This chapter presents a model for school libraries based on best practice as identified in the literature and via comparative case studies in the United States and Scotland. The main goal of the project was to learn from the US model of school librarianship and apply elements of it to a model for school libraries that could help Scottish school libraries benefit from the, arguably, more successful US model. Because this chapter refers throughout to the US (or American) and the UK (or British) models of school librarianship, it will be useful to define MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038006

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these terms at the outset. The US model of school librarianship is one in which school librarians are dual-qualified as teachers and librarians, have clerical support staff, and benefit from strong professional associations and robust professional standards (AASL, 2012; Callison, 2006; Knuth, 1995; Maatta, 2008; Michie & Holton, 2005; Thomas & Perritt, 2003). A significant body of research collectively called the Lance studies indicates that the US model of school librarianship improves educational outcomes: American school libraries contribute positively to student learning and attainment (Barrett, 2010; Callison, 2006; Lance, 2006; Lance & Hofschire, 2011; Lance, Rodney, & Hamilton-Pennell, 2000; Lance, Rodney, & Russell, 2007; Lance, Welborn, & Hamilton-Pennell, 1993; Library Research Service, 2008; Lonsdale, 2003; Sinclair-Tarr & Tarr, 2007; Williams, Wavell, & Coles, 2001). It is this body of research that warrants referring to the US model of school librarianship as more successful. The British model, in contrast, typically describes school librarians as working alone with no clerical support and no additional training beyond a standard library qualification, although many school library staff across the United Kingdom lack any professional qualifications (Knuth, 1995, 1997; Ritchie, 2009, 2011; Tilke, 2002; Turner, 2005; Williams, Coles, & Wavell, 2002). UK professional associations representing school librarians are seen as weak and passive, speaking with conflicting voices (Knuth, 1995; Owen, 2009). Little research exists on the provision and quality of UK and Scottish school libraries (Johnson, Williams, Wavell, & Baxter, 2004; Knowles, 2002). Because Scotland is part of the United Kingdom, it might be reasonable to assume that it would fit the British model, however, education is a devolved power in Scotland,1 and Scottish school libraries, unlike the rest of the United Kingdom, typically staff professional librarians rather than library or classroom assistants (Knowles, 2002; Ritchie, 2009; Tilke, 2002), suggesting that there is a place for a model specifically tailored for Scotland.

II. Schooling and Libraries in the United States and United Kingdom There are many differences between the two systems at all levels, from the qualifications of individual librarians to national-level professional

1 Devolved powers are areas that the Scottish Government controls rather than the central UK government.

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organizations. Some of these differences are systemic and have evolved over time. In the United States, for instance, school libraries are much more tightly integrated into the education system (Knuth, 1995, 1997). They are administered by school districts and in most states are staffed by librarians with dual teaching and library qualifications whereas in Britain, school libraries are more closely aligned with public libraries in terms of their administration and also in their focus on recreational reading (Knuth, 1995, 1997). Table 1 lists some of the main differences between these two systems. A. American Public Education In the United States, government-funded schools are called public schools. There is no national curriculum in the United States. Decisions on what to teach are usually taken at the state or local level, as education is primarily the responsibility of state and local governments rather than the federal government’s Department of Education (USDE) (United States, 2010). Organizations of all kinds, public or private, can “establish schools and colleges, develop curricula, and determine requirements for enrolment and graduation” (USDE, 2010, n.p.). Typically, public school systems are funded by a combination of federal, state, and local funding. The USDE only Table 1 Comparison of US and Scottish/UK Models of School Libraries US model of school libraries Clerical support (Knuth, 1995) Dual-certification commonly required (Thomas & Perritt, 2003) Better pay than public librarians and teachers (AASL, 2012; Maatta, 2008) Active professional associations (Knuth, 1995) Regularly-updated qualitative high professional standards (Knuth, 1995; Michie & Holton, 2005) Large body of impact research (Callison, 2006)

Scottish and UK model of school libraries Solo worker (Ritchie, 2011; Tilke, 2002; Turner, 2005) No specialist training (Ritchie, 2011, p. 101) Lower pay than teachers and most public librarians (Ritchie, 2009) Weak professional associations (Knuth, 1995; Ritchie, 2011, p. 101) Guidelines instead of standards, quantitative only (Knuth, 1995) Scant research (Johnson et al., 2004; Knuth, 1997; Williams et al., 2002)

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contributes around 10.5% of the funds used by public elementary and secondary schools (USDE, 2010). Often, local property taxes contribute significantly toward the costs of schools. Because of this, the quality of provision can vary widely, due to differing tax bases from area to area (Baker, Sciarra, & Farrie, 2010). B. Scottish Education From a UK perspective this study focuses on school libraries in Scotland, which are different from those in England and Wales. The Scottish education system has been on a different path than that of English education since 1885, when the Scotch (later Scottish) Education Department was formed and placed under the control of the Secretary for Scotland (The Scottish Government, 2004). In 1888, this department established a single external examination system for Scotland, a system that is currently overseen by the Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (Scottish Qualifications, 2010). One-hundred years later, a similar examination system was set up in England and Wales, when the Education Reform Act of 1988 established a national system of testing and the National Curriculum in England and Wales. The Curriculum for Excellence (CfE) is a national curriculum for Scotland, which was being implemented at the time of this field study, in 2010 2011, replacing the 5 14 curriculum (Learning and Teaching Scotland (LTS), 2010b). It is designed to be more flexible than the 5 14 curriculum, and schools are to develop their own interpretations of the curriculum, while aiming to meet certain learning outcomes (LTS, 2010b). The CfE covers pupils ages 3 18, though it does not supersede nor does it replace the National Qualifications system, overseen by the SQA. LTS, a nondepartmental public body, is the national body responsible for reviewing CfE (LTS, 2010a). At the time of writing, CfE was still being developed for pupils aged 14 18. The administration of Scottish education is “devolved to the education authorities and in some cases to the schools themselves” (The Scottish Government, 2004, n.p.). There are 32 local authorities in Scotland, and they have direct responsibility for “the provision of schools, the employment of educational staff, the provision and financing of most educational services” (The Scottish Government, 2004, n.p.) and the implementation of Scottish Government policies in education. Education accounts for over half of the annual expenditure of local authorities, and is the most expensive service provided by authorities, paid for by a combination of Council Tax, taxes on business premises, and an annual grant from the Scottish Government (The Scottish Government, 2004).

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C. LIS Education and Qualifications in the United States For librarians in most sectors in the United States, masters degrees are the standard requirement for employment, but because school librarians are also classed as teachers in most states, school librarians are typically required to hold some form of teaching qualifications as well. The exact requirements vary from state to state, but most states (36 out of 50, including the State of Connecticut, where the American case studies were located) require a classroom-teaching certificate as well as a masters degree or credit hours for certification as a school library media specialist (Thomas & Perritt, 2003). Additional coursework may include topics such as educational psychology, child development, or educational foundations. Thirtyseven states require at least some time spent in practice or an internship in a school library prior to certification, “thus sending a clear message that media specialists require specialized training” (Thomas & Perritt, 2003, n.p.). In the United States, it is typical for school librarians to have undertaken more training than either their librarian or their teaching colleagues. Data gathered by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) indicates that school librarians are more likely than teachers to hold a masters degree (Lance, 2006). The NCES data indicate that 98.1% of principals, 48.1% of teachers, and 69.4% of school library media specialists hold a masters degree or higher. In addition, school librarians are the only types of librarians for whom additional qualifications are required as a norm. There are, however, ongoing debates in academic librarianship regarding whether or not academic librarians should hold additional qualifications, either in a content area to work as subject specialists, or in teaching to work as instructional librarians (Julien, 2005; Sproles & Johnson, 2008). D. LIS Education in the United Kingdom A topic heavily debated in the 1960s and 1970s was the issue of training for librarians. Many authors called for school librarians to hold a dualqualification, demonstrating competency in teaching and in librarianship (see, among others, Dyer, Brown, & Goldstein, 1970; School Library Association, 1961). The Library Association Guidelines of 1977 quote the recommendations of the 1975 Bullock Report that “as a long term aim all school librarians should be doubly qualified in teaching and librarianship,” and comments that the “trend towards dual qualification will continue and must be taken account of” (Library Association, 1977, p. 15).

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Herring (1988) notes that arguments in favor of dual qualification include: that school librarians do teach information skills and information literacy; that they select materials supporting the entire curriculum, and that dual qualification may enhance the status of the school librarian within the school. Brewer (1981) argues that having a dual qualification ensures that school librarians are recognized and treated as professionals by both teaching staff and librarians. Herring (1988), however, poses a counterargument that there is a danger in being seen as an extra teacher to the detriment of the library. The current reality is that there is no financial incentive to have dualqualifications, because school librarians have pay ranges wholly different to, and much less than, teachers in Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom (Ritchie, 2009; Turriff, 2005). In contrast, American school librarians, who are typically certified teachers, earn the same salary as teachers or even more in some situations, for keeping the library open throughout the afternoon (AASL, 2012). Though the debate over dual-qualification, and the idea of dual qualification itself, eventually died out in the United Kingdom, dual qualifications became the norm elsewhere, such as in the United States and Australia (Tilke, 1998).

III. Recent Research A. Research in the United States: Impact Research In the United States, a large body of research spanning twenty years and 14 states has indicated with remarkable consistency that student achievement is improved where schools have libraries with longer opening hours, more teaching hours spent on information skills, high-quality collections, and higher numbers of professional staff. These studies are called “Lance studies” after the researcher Keith Curry Lance, who published a seminal study using state-wide educational and socioeconomic data in Colorado from school year 1988 1989 (Lance et al., 1993). This study, referred to as the first Colorado study, concluded the following, paraphrased below: • Academic achievement was higher in schools that have better-funded libraries regardless of the economic status of the students or local communities and the educational attainment of adults in the area; • Academic achievement was higher at schools where the librarian participated in library-related instruction; • Amongst predictors of academic achievement, the size of the library staff and collection was second only to the absence of at-risk conditions such as poverty and low adult educational attainment (Lance et al., 1993).

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By 2005, the first Colorado study had been replicated in more than a dozen other states by Lance as well as several other researchers and research teams, covering approximately 2.6 million students, with remarkably consistent findings: test scores were significantly positively correlated with high levels of library resources and library teaching activity (Callison, 2006). It is a hallmark of the Lance studies that these correlations are still found even controlling for socioeconomic variables (Lonsdale, 2003, p. 12). Tables 2 and 3 highlight both the aspects of school library programs that have consistently emerged as significant to academic achievement, and the socioeconomic variables that the studies typically controlled for (Lance, 2006; Lance & Hofschire, 2011; Lance et al., 1993, 2000, 2007; Lonsdale, 2003; Sinclair-Tarr & Tarr, 2007). School librarians who have shared these research findings with their principals and teaching colleagues have found that their relationships with their colleagues improved, that they spent more time collaboratively planning with teachers, that they spent more time teaching information skills to students, and that library usage increased (Callison, 2006). Table 2 Typical Aspects of the Lance Studies Qualities of school library programs that impact achievement Schools with a professional librarian The number of hours a librarian is on duty Higher levels of library staffing Library staff dedicated to information skills The number of information skills lessons students receive Good levels of funding

Table 3 Typical Controlled Variables in Lance Studies Controlled variables Socioeconomic status of students Teacher pupil ratio Per-pupil spending Poverty Adult educational attainment Racial and ethnic diversity

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B. Recent Research on UK School Libraries There is little research on the impact of school library provision in the United Kingdom, no national picture of provision in Scotland (Knowles, 2002), and the collection of annual library statistics published by LISU at Loughborough University has been discontinued. As such, many scholars in the United Kingdom who wish to comment on the impact of school libraries refer to the Lance studies and other research from around the world. Williams and Wavell (2001) conducted a study of the noncurricular impact of school libraries, finding that teachers, librarians, and pupils have different ideas of how the school library makes an impact, however, all three groups believe it contributes to independence, motivation, and interpersonal skills. Through data collected via case studies, the researchers found evidence to support these perceptions as being accurate. They recorded many instances of the school library impacting on the development of pupils in terms of independence, peer support, motivation and attitude, and progression of reading, study, and information, communication and technological (ICT) skills (Williams & Wavell, 2001). In 2001, Williams et al. conducted a critical review of the literature regarding the impact of school libraries on learning and attainment (Williams et al., 2001). Their areas of interest included literature related to: • • • •

impact on academic achievement as measured by performance on tests impact on broader areas such as personal growth models of school library service provision professional training, experience, and attitudes of key stakeholders (Williams et al., 2001)

The authors sought to identify areas of further research, investigate how applicable the impact research would be to school library services in England, and explore methods of service evaluation (Williams et al., 2001). They concluded that librarians who take a “professional and proactive approach” to the role are able to gather evidence of their impact on learning, and are better able to improve and develop their programs (Williams et al., 2001). Their conclusions also include the observation that although there is good evidence to suggest how well school libraries can impact student learning, further research is necessary to explore the transferability of findings elsewhere to school libraries in England (Williams et al., 2001, p. 26). Williams et al. followed their 2001 publication with a related critical review of the literature pertaining to the links between educational attainment and school library use at the primary school level (Williams et al., 2002). In their 2001 report they had highlighted the differences between English primary education and primary education in the countries where much impact research has been carried out (Williams et al., 2001). In the

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2002 report, the authors acknowledge the relative underdevelopment of primary school library provision in the United Kingdom compared to the United States, particularly in terms of the number of librarians staffing primary school libraries (Williams et al., 2002). Remember that in the United States, 95% of public elementary schools had a school library in 2003 2004, and most public school libraries at all levels were staffed by a librarian (Michie & Holton, 2005). In the United Kingdom, little is known about library provision for primary schools, but primary schools typically do not have librarians (Streatfield, Shaper, & Rae-Scott, 2010), and any library services primary schools enjoy are typically offered by centralized school library services (Williams et al., 2002).

IV. The Research Design As indicated at the beginning of the chapter, the specific research questions of this study were: • What are the different internal and external factors that hold influence over the development of the school library program? • What allows a school library to succeed? • What can prevent a school library from succeeding? • How important are the systemic differences between the United States and Scotland to the success of a school library?

The research questions address the complex relationship between the school library and its environment, and explore deeply the issues affecting school libraries. As the research questions should determine the methods chosen for a study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008), the next section will provide an overview of the methods used. In the research questions above and throughout this chapter, the word “success” will be used. In this context, its use refers to how well a library or a librarian meets his or her professional goals and standards. This work does not attempt to replace professional standards in defining exactly what professional goals a librarian should be trying to attain, rather it seeks to investigate the factors that determine how well a librarian will be able to meet his or her professional goals. Defining success in more specific terms than this is outside the scope and purpose of this research. A. Methodology This research used both multiple case study and grounded theory tools and procedures. Put simply, case studies provided the data and grounded theory

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provided a flexible, iterative approach to data collection and analysis that allowed for better use of the limited time spent in field study. This type of hybridization of research methods was once thought to contravene the principles of grounded theory, but is now an accepted practice in qualitative research (Charmaz, 2006; Goulding, 2005). The work was inspired by comparisons made between school libraries in Scotland and those in the United States, and the decision to use multiple (or comparative) case studies was the first methodological decision made. Case studies were seen as a desirable way to compare school libraries in both countries, because they lend themselves to studying complex, real-world phenomena (Denscombe, 2007), and qualitative methods were chosen because such methods generate rich data on complicated, interconnected relationships and processes (Crabtree & Miller, 1999). The research used a grounded theory approach to data collection and analysis. Grounded theory is recognized as a legitimate approach to qualitative research, and it is well-suited to small-scale research conducted by individuals (Denscombe, 2007). Grounded theory is based on the idea that one should not impose an external hypothesis on data; rather, a researcher should maintain an open mind to themes that emerge during data collection (Charmaz, 2006). In grounded theory, one does not test a hypothesis, one follows lines of enquiry as they emerge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) and builds theory from the data collected (Bryman, 2008; Mansourian, 2006). B. The Field Study The case studies for this research included five schools and took place in 2010 2011. American and Scottish schools divide at different age levels, so in the United States cases both middle schools (ages 12 13) and high schools (ages 14 18) needed to be included to cover the same range as Scottish secondary schools (ages 12 18). The American schools chosen, two middle schools and one high school, were all in the researcher’s home state of Connecticut, where the researcher maintains contacts in the education world. The Scottish schools chosen were both secondary schools. All five schools were state-funded. The field study in each country was scheduled so that the researcher spent two nonconsecutive weeks in each school, meaning that field time was spent alternating full-weeks in the different schools. This ensured that the researcher could compare data from the schools to use as a basis for further investigation, enhancing the immediate comparative aspect of the field study. The Connecticut case studies were conducted in May and June 2010. The Scotland case studies were conducted in February and March 2011.

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Data collection methods included unstructured observation, semistructured interview, and documentary evidence collection (Davies, 2007; Yin, 2009). The researcher primarily observed for the first several days of each two-week period, and conducted semi-structured interviews in the final few days, in order to reduce the influence of the interview questions on participants’ observed behavior. This structure also allowed interview questions to emerge from the observations made, another grounded theory approach (Mansourian, 2006). The researcher developed good relationships with the participants, who were welcoming and granted the researcher ready access. The librarians in each school acted as gatekeepers, and facilitated interviews with teachers and school managers.

1. Toward the Model---Facets of a Good School Library Much can be learned from research in the fields of librarianship, education, and service marketing, particularly when one considers that a school library is at once a library, a part of an educational institution, and a service. Based on an analysis of the literature the following sets of qualities have emerged as what one might expect would support a successful, leading school library program. For ease of reading, these qualities have been put into lists, in the following categories: the school librarian, the school environment, and the professional support available to the librarian. According to the literature, a successful school librarian will: • Be a professionally qualified librarian (Stimpson, 1976) • Develop positive relationships with students (Hughes, Cavell, & Willson, 2001; Newberry, 2010; White, 2000) • Demonstrate appropriate dispositions across the intellectual, cultural, and moral domains (Council of Chief State School Officers, n.d.; Katz & Raths, 1985; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educators, 2010; Schussler, Bercaw, & Stooksberry, 2008) • Display a disposition of caring toward students (Newberry, 2010; O’Connor, 2008) • Display empathy and perspective-taking (Birdi, Wilson, & Cocker, 2008; Oswald, 1996; Parker & Axtell, 2001) • Deliver strong service encounters and build strong service relationships (Chandon, Leo, & Phillipe, 1997; Godson, 2009; Gutek, Groth, & Cherry, 2002; Nicholson, Compeau, & Sethi, 2001; Ng, David, & Dagger, 2011) • Interact courteously with users (Johnson & Zinkhan, 1991) • Offer tailored services which satisfy users’ information needs and problems (strong marketorientation) (Singh, 2009) • Be a service enthusiast rather than a service bureaucrat (Godson, 2009) • Be service-oriented (Alge, Gresham, Heneman, Fox, & McMasters, 2002) • Go beyond the minimum required and voluntarily do more than what is strictly specified in the role description (Becton, Giles, & Schraeder, 2008; DiPaola & da Codta Neves, 2009)

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The school environment has been shown in the literature to have a significant impact on the functioning of the school library program. The successful school library sits within a school that will: • Facilitate a culture of collaboration in which librarians and teachers co-plan projects (Loertscher, 2000; Montiel-Overall, 2007) • Have an atmosphere where colleagues have strong relationships and trust one another (MontielOverall, 2008) • Employ administrators who expect collaboration and idea-sharing to occur (Montiel-Overall, 2008) • Employ administrators who are knowledgeable about the school library program and who support the school library program in terms of vision, resources, planning, and problem-solving (Church, 2008; Oberg, 2006) • Employ administrators who do not want a school librarian to fulfill a traditional (i.e., operational) role (Hartzell, 2002; Mardis, 2007) • Employ administrators who see the librarian as having an area of expertise (Roys & Brown, 2004)

The literature also suggests that professional support is important to the personal and professional wellbeing of professionals. According to the literature, this professional support will comprise: • A professional association that generates standards, which serve to formalize models of practice (Knuth, 1997) • A single professional association that acts as “the voice” of school librarians (Knuth, 1997) • A professional association that provides networking opportunities to combat professional isolation (Chernow, Cooper, & Winston, 2003; Knuth, 1996) • Peer support networks that meet regularly (Chapman & Hadfield, 2010; Wenger, 1998; Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002)

A school library that meets all of these criteria, in all of these areas, would most likely be an example of excellence.

V. Discussion and Model Presentation The goal of this research was to develop a model for school libraries in Scotland based on data from case studies conducted in this project as well as best practices gleaned from the literature. In its early stages, the model was built directly from the literature, with additional emergent themes added

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from the case studies. These pieces were refined into a draft model, which was then presented to the case study librarians for feedback, and their feedback was incorporated into the final version of the model. A. International Comparison The international comparative aspect of this work is one of its core features and is important to the model. Because a key feature of the model is that each element could feasibly exist in Scotland, aspects of the US model of school librarianship that are truly unique to American librarians or libraries cannot be included. In this section the focus is on broad differences in the US and UK models of school librarianship such as pay, status, and the strength of professional associations. The relevance of these differences to the daily practice of the case-study librarians is discussed, with an eye toward the development of the model. 1. Pay and Status The most obvious differences between school librarianship in the United States and Scotland are related to pay and status. School librarians in most states in the United States hold dual-certification as a teacher and a librarian (Thomas & Perritt, 2003). School librarians in Scotland typically hold professional qualifications solely as a librarian (Ritchie, 2011), and school librarians in the United Kingdom outside of Scotland are often qualified neither as a teacher nor a librarian (Tilke, 2002). Having teacher status was financially advantageous to the American school librarians. In Connecticut, as in many other states, school librarians are paid as teachers who hold masters degrees, because they are required to hold a teaching certification (Thomas & Perritt, 2003) and because it is mandated by ALA’s Committee on Accreditation that a library and information science degree be at the master’s level. School librarians in the United States are generally more likely than teachers to hold masters degrees (Lance, 2006). This means that in the Connecticut case studies, school librarians were paid more than many teaching colleagues, and better than some local public librarians. This was not the case in Scotland. School librarians there typically have a maximum pay that is lower than a new, nonprobationary teacher’s starting salary (Ritchie, 2009). This is true even if the librarian holds a master’s degree, whereas a teacher in Scotland will typically only hold a bachelor’s degree or a postgraduate certificate or diploma (General Teaching Council for Scotland, n.d.).

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Does the lack of pay and status make a difference to the quality of the school library program? The evidence in this study suggests that the difference in pay could prevent some from entering the profession at all, particularly career-changers. Put another way, the fact that school librarians earn teacher salaries in the United States makes school librarianship an option for teachers looking to change jobs. Having teacher pay and status, however, is a feature of the American model of librarianship that is unlikely ever to be implemented in Scotland. Therefore, it could not be one of the recommendations in the model. Additionally, the case studies suggested that the role of a school librarian is to support learning within and beyond the curriculum, and that this can be done well in either country, regardless of teacher status. There is no evidence in the case studies to suggest that not having a teacher’s pay or status is detrimental to the school library program. A teacher’s pay and status will therefore not feature in the model. 2. Differences in Professional Associations A major difference in the strength and quality of the professional associations available to librarians in this study was an issue highlighted by the literature prior to the start of field study. Authors have highlighted that the US professional associations, such as the American Library Association (ALA) and the American Association of School Librarians (AASL) were robust and successful organizations who published strong professional standards, spoke with authority, and successfully advocated and lobbied for stronger training and certification requirements. In contrast the UK-based associations such as Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) and the School Library Association (SLA), have issued conflicting statements and were seen as weak and passive (Ashcroft, 2003; Knuth, 1995; Thomas & Perritt, 2003). 3. Professional Standards American school librarians can look to the professional standards published by ALA and AASL for guidance. Information Power (AASL & AECT, 1998) covers the standards expected of school librarians, and Standards for the 21st Century Learner lays out standards for students to meet (AASL, 2007). There are no Scotland-specific standards for their school librarians to aspire to, despite the fact that education in Scotland is a devolved power, and is different than in the rest of the United Kingdom. Although Scottish school librarians do not have Scotland-specific standards or guidance, they do have

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a self-evaluation framework that reflects school librarianship in Scotland. How Good Is Our School (HGIOS) (HMInspectorate of Education (HMIe), 2005) is a self-evaluation framework designed for schools to assess themselves against various quality indicators in preparation for inspections. This framework for school libraries, called Libraries Supporting Learners, provides a way for school librarians to gather and use evidence to evaluate how well they support their school. The document defines a school librarian as one with a professional qualification, reflecting the tradition in Scotland, rather than the rest of the United Kingdom. The most important feature of Libraries Supporting Learners is that it defines the role of the school library as supporting learning across the entire school. This is a fundamentally different vision than that of the CILIP guidelines. The key recommendations in the CILIP guidelines for secondary school libraries place the librarian as a steward of literacy and recreational reading in the school: “The school librarian [should] play a lead role in developing a whole-school reading culture, promoting literacy and reading for pleasure” (Barrett & Douglas, 2004, p. xi). The HGIOS framework, in contrast, offers a much broader role for the librarian: An effective school library resource center is one which is central to the learning and teaching taking place in the school … The specific contribution of the school library resource center includes: • • • •

access to a wide range of information; development of information literacy; effective use of ICT in learning and teaching; and promotion of reading for enjoyment (HMIe, 2005, p. 1).

The HGIOS framework places the librarian at the heart of the school community, as a facilitator of learning: “Their understanding of different learning styles and collaboration with teaching colleagues enables them to act as a bridge between young people, teachers, information and the curriculum” (HMIe, 2005, p. 1). Like Information Power, HGIOS describes the librarian as a collaborative, technologically-literate partner, whose role is to support student learning across the entire curriculum. Because HGIOS articulates the role of the school librarian as supporting learning across the curriculum, this assumption underpins our model, as does the assumption that school librarians should have a professional qualification. HGIOS will influence our model in another way. It shows that there is an appetite for Scotland-specific standards, and the will to work toward them, and so this serves as further justification for the model and the fact that it will be an aspirational model rather than one simply reflecting current practices.

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4. Conferences and Networking Opportunities American librarians in the case studies enjoyed more, and more school library-specific professional conferences and networking opportunities through their professional associations than did the case-study librarians in Scotland. US librarians preferred to engage with their professional associations at the state level rather than nationally. For instance, two of the case librarians regularly attended conferences of two organizations: Connecticut Association of School Librarians (CASL), and Connecticut Educators’ Computer Association (CECA). Conferences at the state-level are more relevant, more manageable are more affordable since only in-state travel is involved. Further everyone at the conference is held to the same educational standards, which are generated by the State of Connecticut. In contrast, case-study librarians in Scotland had mixed feelings about the value of their professional associations, their doubts centering on the lack of relevant local conferences, local professional development opportunities, and lack of standards for school libraries, generally, let alone Scottish school libraries. School librarians in Scotland do not have a professional association that is as relevant to them as CASL and CECA are to their American counterparts. CASL and CECA represent both regional support and specialist support for school librarians. Scottish school librarians do not have a comparable form of professional support. They are either supported regionally by CILIPS (which is an arm of the UK-wide CILIP) or they are supported as school librarians by the SLA or the School Libraries Group (SLG) within CILIP. Scottish education is a devolved power, and UK-wide organizations such as SLA and SLG do not support the Scottish curriculum. In 2009, 2010, and 2013, CILIPS conference programming included presentations on school libraries, although not in 2011 or 2012, highlighting that it is not guaranteed in any given year that school librarians will enjoy conferences relevant to their work (CILIPS, 2011, 2012, 2013). 5. Professional Role Expectations As we have seen, the professional landscapes in the United States and Scotland are very different. How our American and Scottish participants perceived the role of the school librarian, however, was much more similar than one would think after comparing the US and UK models of school librarianship (Knuth, 1995) or national standards for school libraries.

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The American standards, as outlined in Information Power, stress the importance of student learning stating that “At the center of the Information Power logo is student learning. Nurturing authentic student learning within and beyond the curriculum is at the core of an effective school library media program” (AASL & AECT, 1998, p. 49). In contrast, CILIP’s guidelines for secondary school librarians recommend that the librarian “play a lead role in developing a whole-school reading culture, promoting literacy and reading for pleasure” (Barrett & Douglas, 2004, p. xi). This difference reflects the historical alignment of libraries with education in the United States, and with recreational reading in the United Kingdom (Knuth, 1995). Findings of this case study indicate that Scottish school librarians perceive their role to be more in line with the US model, rather than the UK model. Both Scottish librarians viewed the role of the library as supporting learning within and beyond the curriculum. They ensured that their projects met curricular goals, including, but critically, not limited to, those related to reading and literacy. There are systemic differences between professional associations in the United States and Scotland that cannot easily be overcome. Our American librarians enjoy robust professional standards and active professional associations at the national and state levels that provide relevant and regular professional networking opportunities. There were, however, some surprising similarities to emerge from the data. How Scottish school librarians see the role of the school library is more closely aligned with the United States than the rest of the United Kingdom, but the lack of statutory status and Scotland-specific standards means they have no official guidance in developing their programs. The model presented here is built on the belief that school librarians should hold professional qualifications, as is the current tradition in Scotland, and that the role of the school librarian is to support learning, an outlook which was shared by case-study librarians in both countries.

VI. The Model A. Developing the Draft Model In developing a draft of the model for school libraries in Scotland, elements found in the literature as well as in the case studies were combined. The literature-derived framework was discussed above. The elements from the case studies that are included in the model are as shown in Fig. 1.

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School environment (Chapter 6) Curriculum supporting inquiry-based learning

Professional Support (Chapter 7) Local authoritybased support • Visionary leader • Peer network

School Librarian (Chapter 8)

Persistently seeing & seizing opportunities

Resources • Computers

Fig. 1

Elements of the model derived from the case studies.

1. Elements from the Case Study Data that Will Be Included in the Model The framework can be described in words as follows: 1. School environment a. School curriculum that supports inquiry-based learning b. Resources that enable maximum access to classes i. Enough computers for a whole class 2. Professional support a. Local authority-based professional support i. Visionary local professional leader or manager ii. Strong local peer support network 3. Librarian a. Persistently seek, see, and seize opportunities to work with teachers

The case study-derived framework was combined with the literaturederived framework, and then this combined framework was refined to generate the draft model. In order to combine both frameworks into a coherent whole, several adaptations were made: • All elements were evaluated for feasibility in Scotland. This reasoning excludes items such as teacher-level pay; however, we also found no case study evidence for this to be included in the model. • Elements were grouped using the three main categories of librarian, school environment, and professional support, and then grouped further within those headings. • The librarian, as a main heading, was moved to the beginning of the model, for two reasons: The case study data reflects that the librarian is the primary driver of the library program. The school environment and professional support offer opportunities and challenges to the librarian but the librarian is at the center. The model will primarily be of use to school library policy-makers and school librarians.

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2. Member-Checking and Revisions It was desirable to ask the case-study librarians for feedback on the draft model, to ensure that the model made sense to them, and did not overlook anything they deemed significant. This process is part of validation of the analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Gorman and Clayton (2005) consider the process of asking participants for feedback, sometimes called “memberchecking,” to be “the single most important action inquirers can take, as it goes to the heart of” credibility and validity of the construct. In this case the construct is the model. Minor final revisions to the model were made after member feedback was incorporated: one Connecticut librarian suggested the inclusion of embracing current technology and also the use of online learning, and both were added. Another Connecticut librarian suggested emphasizing the teaching aspect of school librarianship, but this was not included for reasons explained above. Librarians in Scotland gave positive feedback and did not make suggestions for changes.

B. Finalizing the Model This model is designed to represent an ideal school library, and an ideal set of elements that help it achieve high standards. This model does not represent professional standards. Rather it seeks to describe features that would enable a library service to meet high professional standards. It seeks to describe an exemplary school library that could feasibly exist in Scotland, drawing on research literature and our American and Scottish case studies. The case study elements of the model from Fig. 1 are broken up into three interdependent parts: the librarian, the school environment, and professional support. These elements shaped the model, including factors that are internal to the library (the librarian) and external factors that influence how well the librarian is able to develop the service (the school environment and the professional support available to the librarian). These three areas all contribute to the success of a school library and form the top-level elements in our model (Fig. 2). The school librarian is the primary driver of the school library and is critical to its success; however, even a model school librarian can become demotivated by an unsupportive senior management team in the school, the lack of professional support at the local authority level, or a combination of both. Outside support helps active, visionary librarians meet standards and maintain motivation, commitment, and resilience. The more of these model elements a school library has, the better it can be.

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School librarian

School environment

Professional support

Fig. 2 Three top-level elements in model. School librarian • Dispositions • Strategic vision

Fig. 3

School environment

Professional support

• Management • Culture • Resources

• Professional associations • Local professional support

Framework of the model.

The three top-level elements in the model represent areas of influence. Within these three areas, the model contains subcategories of elements that represent an ideal school library program, such as “management” and “culture” within the school environment. What follows is the essential framework of the model (see Fig. 3). 1. The School Librarian The model school librarian will be professionally qualified and will have a strategic vision that involves supporting the overarching goals of the school through dynamic, tailored, high-quality library services. The model school librarian will exhibit appropriate behaviors that contribute to providing a high-quality service that supports learning within and beyond the curriculum. When describing these behaviors the word dispositions will be used. Dispositions are observable behaviors that one is inclined to exhibit repeatedly and consciously. The term dispositions does not relate to personality, level of introversion or extroversion, character, or even beliefs; but only to

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observable actions (Katz & Raths, 1985). The following dispositions reflect the multifaceted nature of the librarian’s role. The model school librarian will display appropriate dispositions. • Develops positive, productive relationships with students and teachers • Engages in positive interactions with students whether the student is seldom or regularly in the library • Is welcoming to every student and teacher who enters the library • Shows caring and empathy toward students • Displays a service-orientation by seeking to fulfill others’ needs in a courteous and helpful manner • Takes the perspective of students and teachers • Manages expectations of self and others

The model school librarian will have a strategic vision expressed through a diverse set of dispositions. • • • • • •

Prioritizes the enhancement of teaching and learning as the main goal of the school library Demonstrates knowledge of the curriculum and stays current with curricular developments Aligns the goals of the library to the goals of the school Offers tailored services centered around teachers’ and students’ needs Stays current in best practices, technology, and literature Seeks to expand and develop the school library, for instance, by working with new teachers and departments or new types of projects every year • Persistently seeks, sees, and seizes opportunities to work with teachers

2. The School Environment The school environment can provide both opportunities and barriers to a school librarian. The model school environment allows the library to thrive by providing numerous opportunities for the librarian to interact with teachers and students. The model school managers will be supportive of an active librarian. • Managers support the librarian taking an expansive, nonoperational role and endeavoring to support learning across the curriculum • Managers see the librarian as a professional with an area of expertise

The model school culture will support the library by having the following features. • • • •

A culture of collaboration in which staff are expected to work together An atmosphere in which colleagues have strong relationships and trust one another A strong focus on shared objectives and continual improvement of teaching and learning A curriculum that supports inquiry-based learning and/or research projects requiring independent sources, critical thinking, and information literacy

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The model school will have resources that enable the librarian to have good access to teachers and classes. • There should be enough computers in the library for a whole class • There should be adequate time for the librarian to work with teachers • There should be clerical support in the library to enable the librarian to take on higher-level work

3. Professional Support Strong professional leadership can help motivate school librarians and raise the standards of professional activity. Model professional support will provide intellectual and social resources to help librarians better achieve their strategic vision. This support should be available to school librarians nationally, regionally, and locally, through a combination of professional associations and local, employment-based support. The model professional associations and organizations will support school librarians nationally and regionally. • Professional associations publish high professional standards librarians can work toward • Professional associations provide opportunities for peer networking and idea-sharing, such as conferences and online learning

The model local professional personnel will support librarians at the local authority level. • The school librarian has a local professional manager within the council who has a strategic vision for school libraries and encourages high-level professional activity • The school librarians in the council form a strong local peer support network, working together to solve professional problems and share knowledge

C. Discussion of the Model 1. Interconnection The three sections of this model are closely entwined. A model library program depends on an active librarian as well as adequate resources and support from the school and the professional sphere. A school library program will not thrive without a combination of internal and external strengths. This interrelatedness is visible in the model, as elements in one section sometimes complement elements in another: • A model school librarian: Seeks to expand and develop the school library, for instance, by working with new teachers and departments or new types of projects every year • A model school librarian: Prioritizes the enhancement of teaching and learning as the main goal of the school library • A model school environment: Managers support the librarian taking an expansive, nonoperational role and endeavoring to support learning across the curriculum

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The first two of these elements represent the librarian’s efforts to reach out and develop the library program, and the third element represents an environment that is receptive to those efforts. Elements such as these reflect the two-way relationship that exists between the librarian and the school environment. If a school librarian meets with resistance or even hostility from management, the library program will be less likely to succeed (Church, 2008). Conversely, a librarian with a narrow, traditional view of the school library who never reaches out to teachers and ignored the educational mission of the school would not run a model school library program, even with unlimited support from school management. Another example of model elements being intertwined is when several different elements describe various facets of a single significant phenomenon, such as the library supporting learning via the curriculum. In our model, four elements cover this idea: The model school librarian will have a strategic vision expressed through a diverse set of dispositions. • • • •

Prioritizes the enhancement of teaching and learning as the main goal of the school library Demonstrates knowledge of the curriculum and stays current with curricular developments Aligns the goals of the library to the goals of the school Offers tailored services centered around teachers’ and students’ needs

The first of these four elements is akin to a mission statement, defining the main goal, and the main role, of the school library: to support teaching and learning across the school. The next three elements spring from this statement. The curriculum is the main delivery mechanism for learning and teaching; therefore, the librarian must be familiar with the curriculum in order to support it and work within it. The first two elements in this group are both general, and will apply to all schools. The third element recognizes the importance of working toward specific school-level goals, because the school is the parent organization the library serves, and the fourth element highlights the importance of meeting the individual needs of individual teachers and students. These four elements work together, describing how the model school librarian will support learning and teaching across the school. 2. Feasibility One of the core goals of this work is to develop a model for school libraries in Scotland that was feasible. This meant that everything in the model must be possible in Scotland. For many of the items, the possibility of

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existing in Scotland was proven simply by being observed in one of the Scottish case studies. We are making a leap when recommending in the model that professional associations available to school librarians in Scotland and “publish high professional standards librarians can work towards.” There are currently no standards for school librarians in Scotland, although many school librarians voluntarily follow the HGIOS: Libraries Supporting Learners selfevaluation framework (HMIe, 2005) which was developed by a working group within the Scottish Library and Information Council (SLIC). Members of the working group were primarily heads of library services from various Scottish local authorities and their work demonstrated that motivated practitioners can work in concert with an official body to produce useful guidelines. The role of professional associations is not limited to standardsgeneration, however. In the model, it is recommended that professional associations “provide opportunities for peer networking and idea-sharing, such as conferences and online learning.” Findings from the case studies indicate that Scottish school librarians are closer to the American model of school librarianship than they are to the British (Knuth, 1995, p. 267), in terms of role-perception and program orientation. This has two main consequences: firstly, it validates the researchers’ approach of learning from the American model of school librarianship. Secondly, it means that it no longer seems reasonable to expect Scottish school librarians to follow the CILIP guidelines for secondary school librarians, particularly when the school library community has developed and chosen to adopt HGIOS as its own evaluation framework. There is an appetite for better guidance and higher standards in Scotland, and the will to work toward them clearly exists, therefore it is feasible to suggest that school librarians should have Scotland-specific professional guidelines to follow.

VII. Conclusions A. Revisiting the Research Questions The purpose of this study was to develop a model of best practice for school libraries in Scotland based on literature and existing practices in the United States and Scotland. In order to develop a model of best practice, the authors investigated what made libraries successful via the literature and

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undertaking five case studies. Through research questions, they sought to examine factors that enabled individual libraries in both the United States and Scotland to succeed. The research questions were: • What allows a school library to succeed? • What can prevent a school library from succeeding? • How important are the systemic differences between the United States and Scotland to the success of a school library? • What are the different internal and external factors that hold influence over the development of the school library program?

These questions were explored both through the literature and through case studies in Connecticut and Scotland. The findings were used to build a model for school libraries in Scotland, and in the next few sections, we will address each of these questions directly, in turn. What are the different internal and external factors that hold influence over the development of the school library program? Results indicate that the school library program is influenced by factors that are internal to the school library (the school librarian) and external (the school environment and professional support). As the main internal influence, the school librarian is the primary driver of the school library program. The librarian interacts with external forces such as the school environment and the professional support available to him or her. The interplay of these three main spheres of influence is what determines the shape of a library program. Aspects of the school environment and available professional support can provide opportunities or barriers to the librarian in developing the library program. While it is the responsibility of librarians to seize opportunities and minimize barrier, there is a limit to what can be done. Chronic conflict or a lack of support in both the school environment and the professional sphere can lead to demotivation or staff attrition (Day et al., 2006). For a school library program to meet its highest potential, all three areas should be strong. 1. What Allows a School Library to Succeed? An interconnected web of factors allows a school library to succeed. It depends on the school librarian firstly, and also the school environment and the professional support available to the librarian. A school librarian is the main driver of the school library program, and without the librarian, the school library will not succeed. A librarian builds a strong program through careful high-level strategic management as well as successful day-to-day

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operations. A school librarian can develop a high-quality service through actions in three areas: • Managing self: employing effective coping strategies to maintain motivation and commitment; • Interacting with others: forming positive relationships with managers, teachers, and students; and • Strategic management: working toward a vision for the school library.

Although the model lists elements individually, some of them overlap all three of these areas. 2. What Can Prevent a School Library From Succeeding? Just as the librarian, the school environment, and professional support can allow a library program to succeed, factors within any of these areas can provide barriers to the development of a successful program. Many of these things could be described as the opposite to elements in the previous section. For example, imagine a librarian who has poor relationships with teachers and students, who cannot manage disappointment well, loses motivation easily, has no vision for the program and who is content to perform only basic operational tasks such as checking books in and out. That librarian will not run a successful program. A school environment can provide many barriers to a library program, either by having a culture or atmosphere that is hostile to the efforts of an active, collaborative librarian or by putting logistical barriers to the librarian’s efforts, such as resources so limited that the library becomes difficult to use. Poor professional support can leave librarians without clear guidance or standards to aim for. Professional associations can under-serve school librarians by publishing weak or irrelevant professional standards, or by providing a lack of opportunities to meet and learn from other school librarians at conferences. A lack of employment-based support offered by the local authority can be another weakness. Poor or even hostile leadership at the local level can mean that librarians are given conflicting messages about their roles, and are thwarted in their attempts to reach high professional standards. Nonexistent peer support can mean that librarians feel isolated and lose motivation. 3. How Important Are the Systemic Differences between the United States and Scotland to the Success of a School Library? International comparison has been a key element of this study, investigating how important the systemic differences between school libraries in the United States and Scotland are to individual, practicing librarians. The findings indicate that although American school librarians enjoy advantages in pay, status, and professional support, some differences can be overcome, and

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are not insurmountable barriers to excellence in Scottish school libraries. Our Scottish case studies showed that our librarians in Scotland, like those in the United States, see the role of the school library as supporting learning across the school, both within and beyond the curriculum. Although some might choose not to enter the profession because of the low pay relative to teachers, that says nothing about the capabilities of those who do. Another difference that can be overcome is the difference between the strength of the professional associations in the United States and United Kingdom. Professional standards in the United Kingdom are weak relative to those in the United States. The Scottish school library community have responded by taking the initiative to develop their own self-evaluation framework. Their efforts to integrate with the education establishment and become part of the inspection process is impressive given that school librarians do not hold a statutory position, and there is no legal requirement to have library staff (Owen, 2009). B. Final Thoughts This chapter reports on an investigation of the reality of daily life in a school library comparing the workings of American and Scottish school libraries to find out if they are as different as the literature and national guidelines would make them seem. In many ways, American and Scottish school libraries are highly similar. The findings suggest that librarians in both countries see the role of the school librarian to be the same, namely supporting learning throughout and beyond the curriculum. Librarians in both countries are influenced, negatively and positively, by aspects of their school environments and the professional support available to them. In each country, limited resources means reduced access to a library, and solo workers struggle with lack of time and lack of staffing support. Success was also to be found in each country, and the factors that influenced success were similar: a welcoming, motivated, visionary school librarian who is wellsupported by the school environment and who, professionally can meet the highest standards. The research indicates that a resourceful, resilient, committed, visionary librarian can overcome numerous and significant obstacles and create an excellent program.

Appendix A: On Grounded Theory The type of grounded theory used in this research is the Strauss variation. Strauss and Glaser were the two progenitors of grounded theory (Glaser &

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Strauss, 1967), although their usage of the approach became divergent (Bryman, 2008). A key difference between the Strauss and the Glaser branches of grounded theory is that Strauss does not discourage the researcher from undertaking a literature review before entering the field, as Glaser does (Glaser, 1998). To Strauss, reading the literature prior to data collection is one way to develop the researcher’s sensitivity to meaningful themes in the data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Corbin and Strauss contend that sensitivity is greatly increased by having a mind prepared by literature, preexisting professional experience, or other preexisting knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Grounded theory is an approach to research very commonly used with qualitative case study because they are both flexible approaches to studying real-world situations and processes, and both are focused on the significance, rather than the quantity, of the events observed (Bryman, 2008; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000; Denscombe, 2007; Selde´n, 2005). Indeed, its flexibility is one of the defining features of grounded theory: unlike methods that require the researcher to have a detailed plan at the outset of a study, and require piloting of research instruments, grounded theory encourages the researcher to explore significant or meaningful ideas as they emerge from the data using theoretical sampling and coding, facilitating a wider potential for the investigation of relevant information (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). This flexibility allowed for significant or interesting themes that emerged during field study to be followed and compared across cases. Because the period of field study for the project reported in this chapter was for a fixed duration, the ability to analyze, code, and compare data across cases before the end of the field study meant that richer, more significant, and more relevant data could be collected in the limited time available.

Appendix B: Sample Interview Questions Although the interviews were semi-structured and did not follow a precise script, some questions were commonly asked of interviewees. Below is a sample of these questions. Librarians Could you tell me what you think makes a good school library program? What are your goals for the library in terms of developing the program? What would your job be like if you didn’t have your teaching experience and if you weren’t a teacher at all as is the case in Scotland? (US only)

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Could you tell me about the wider world of librarianship, school librarianship, in terms of professional support and your resources that you draw on and your professional networks? What would your job be like if you were a solo worker, if you didn’t have clerical staff, if the entire library staff was you? (US only) If you had staff support, like if you had an assistant, what would you do? (Solo workers only) What guides you when you’re running the program? What makes you good at your job? Could you tell me about the challenges that you face in the library day to day? What advice would you give a school librarian who was just starting out in a school? What does a good school library mean to you, if you were to describe one? What’s the purpose of a school library? In what ways does the school library support learning and teaching? Nonlibrarians (Teachers and School Managers) What does a good school library mean to you, if you were to describe one? What’s the purpose of a school library? If you were hiring a school librarian, what would you look for in the candidate? Give me an example of how you use the library in your teaching (teachers only) If this district decided to cut all of its school librarians, what impact would that have on your teaching? (teachers only)

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Service Design for Libraries: An Introduction Mark E. de Jong Library, University of Maryland University College, Adelphi, MD, USA

Abstract The management concept of service science (SS), and its origins in the business sector through evolving customer service expectations are explored in this chapter. It proposes the concept’s utility—indeed its emerging necessity—as an administrative requisite to meet library users’ needs. The chapter is a conceptual one addressing SS and service design (SD) approaches to building customer service systems for libraries, the why and how of implementation in libraries regardless of the community served—that is to say, the why and how of implementation in libraries regardless of the community served. The changing outlook of customers and managers regarding commercial service expectations is not disputed in the business and management literature. Extreme customer service has become a norm. However, these service expectations can and have carried over into the public and nonprofit sectors. This chapter proposes that libraries become aware of changing service norms and utilize SD methods to meet users’ needs. Quite simply, libraries that do not investigate SD methods and implement community-specific design strategies, may begin to suffer patron dissatisfaction and even lose patronage. Alternatively, libraries which do adopt SD methods, may see increases in user satisfaction and patronage. SS and design are relatively novel subdisciplines of management studies. This, however, does not belie their importance. A broad introduction of the topics for library administration and planning considerations is warranted and necessary. Keywords: Service design; service science; design thinking; customer service

I. Introduction Few would dispute that a shift has occurred in the American and global economies. Indeed, reports of ever diminishing employment in US-based manufacturing have been common for decades. Quite presciently, Bell (1973/1999) predicted an economic swing from manufacturing to services. That is to say, he foresaw the transition from the production of goods to the delivery of services, and he began making these projections as early as MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038003

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the 1950s. The service economy refers quite broadly to the service sector, which is one of three primary economic divisions. Somewhat more specifically, the other two sectors constitute manufacturing and agriculture. Information, knowledge, and the intangible exchange of these and similar service-based resources have overtaken the once dominant tangible exchange of manufacturing and agriculture. Service is now foremost in the global marketplace and most companies realize this, even those focused on the manufacture of goods. Indeed, the National Academy of Engineering (2003) reported that services made up approximately 80% of the United States’ gross domestic product. Integral to creating a successful service-based exchange system is the acknowledgment of the significance of the customer service experience, regardless of whether the service product is financial advice, employment assistance, social services, information brokering, or the like. This means that simply providing a valued service may be insufficient to meet client needs. Even organizations recognized for the high quality of their services could fail if customers’ comprehensive wants and expectations are not meet. How a client feels about the service exchange process matters as much, or even more, than the actual service itself (Katzen, 2011; Maglio & Spohrer, 2013). One generally associates the economic shift and service focus with the commercial sector. Yet, the stimulus likewise extends to the public service, nonprofit, and government sectors (Clatworthy, 2011; Katzen, 2011). As clientele become accustomed to tailored consumer experiences in one market sector, the demand for similar experiences in other sectors increases. Moreover, increased resource scarcity began to manifest in the late 20th century. This forced greater managerial attentiveness to products and services in all sectors. Pungitore (1995) noted and reported on this change in public libraries. In fact, in some respects libraries led the noncommercial shift to a service-oriented model. Employing new planning methods to assist in service redesigns and the establishment of service objectives and priorities became critically important to the Public Library Association and individual library systems beginning in the 1970s. Yet, a need to focus on services affects all libraries just as it affects all economic sectors. Public libraries are not unique in this regard. The purpose of this chapter is to explore customer service orientation, and more importantly the design of services, and its role in designing service systems in libraries. All library services should be well thought out, implemented carefully, assessed judiciously and frequently, and never set change in motion in an ad hoc manner, or without collaborative input from the patrons to be served. Creating a service system is a complex undertaking, and

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the service design (SD) process has a distinct methodology. This chapter will provide a rationale and overview for implementing a SD approach regarding the modification and creation of patron services in libraries. The chapter has five sections. The second and succeeding section provides an explanation of SS—the discipline which encompasses SD—and SD overall. The third section touches upon service life cycles, SD principles and methods, and the concept of design thinking. The fourth section provides an example of how to apply SD in library environments, and lastly, the fifth and sixth sections discuss the implications and conclusions related to the application of SD methods to libraries and library operations.

II. What Are Service Science and Service Design? Before delving too deeply into the chapter’s purpose, some basic definitions are required. These should function as fundamental underpinnings for the reader. To begin, one can define service as an action, performance, or assurance that is given by a provider to a client in exchange for some agreedupon value (Spohrer, Maglio, Bailey, & Gruhl, 2007). SD is the deliberate development of a service, and it is an integral instrument within SS, which is emerging as a significant discipline within business and management studies (Bitner & Brown, 2006; Katzen, 2011; Spohrer et al., 2007). SS, similar to business and management, is an interdisciplinary subject. It draws from computer science, economics, design, psychology, marketing, and other fields as appropriate. The definitive application of SD is the creation of a highly functional service system, which is a suite of services provided by an organization. A well-designed service system interlocks an organization’s various services when possible and as much as practicality allows. Efficiency, client focus, and seamlessness are some of the critical elements service designers strive towards in creating a service and service system. Regarding scholarly interest, Bitner and Brown (2006) contended that business schools began studying services in the 1970s. Early scholarship revolved around such topics as human resources, operations, and management, but the preponderance of efforts centered on service marketing. Interest in the services of SD quickly grew due to the growth of the service sector per Bell (1999), the ever-increasing competition for customers and market share, and the growing complexities of managing services when no business school curricula and scholarship existed to broach the issue. While initially centered on human interactions, namely customer and employee contact, the study of services now includes science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) disciplines such as engineering and computer science.

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Thus, SS’ interdisciplinary approach now ranges into the social sciences, the professional disciplines (particularly business and management), as well as STEM (see Boudreau, Hopp, MClain, & Thomas, 2003; Choi, Nazareth, & Jain, 2010; Dong, Johar, & Kumar, 2012). Maglio and Spohrer (2013) stated that SS currently “combines organization and human understanding with business and technological understanding to categorize and explain service systems, including how they interact and evolve to cocreate [sic] value” (p. 1). Therefore, SS began its maturation with the soft skills and social sciences, but as interest intensified, so did its complexity. In addition, scholarly perspectives multiplied. The hard sciences and professions have become prominent, which has added greater insight to the contemporary study of and practices within the services sector. SD theory and application has a similar historical provenance to SS. As was true in the early years of the study of services, SD, then and now, focuses on the organizational/employee interaction with the customer. It is the deliberate development of a positive customer service experience. Katzen (2011) offered a more precise explanation, “the objective of SD is to add value by enhancing the efficiency, effectiveness, and efficacy of older service systems and to create newer ones with requisite attributes” (p. 43). While the SD concept predominantly originated in marketing as did SS, in the early 1990s design practitioners and firms began to come into play. Artistic, creative, and abstract thought eventually took hold as organizations such as the Ko¨ln International School of Design (2013) and IDEO (2013) altered the conceptions of SD methods (Brown, 2008; Kannan & Proenc¸a, 2010). In some of the most recent scholarship, authors have argued that service delivery and SD now represents the dominant forces in commercial and noncommercial service exchanges and business model development. For example, theorists such as Vargo and Lusch (2008), Voelker, Stodnick, and Wysong (2012), and Brohman et al. (2009) argued that service dominant logic (SDL) currently dictates a successful exchange of goods and services. SDL theory states that the full customer experience, not solely the good or service purchased, influences customer satisfaction. Moreover, it may be that the delivery of the service or good outweighs the importance of the actual product or service in relation to customer satisfaction, that is to say process may matter more than the result. Other scholars have focused on SD’s growth and utility as means of managing all organizational operations. In so doing, they affect customer satisfaction through maintained efficiency and effectiveness via change management practices. Maglio and Spohrer (2013) and Sangiorgi (2011) have addressed this. Indeed, Sangiorgi even theorized that transformational design—the next evolutionary step in

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SD—goes well beyond the first order service modifications aimed at the internal workings of an organization. Rather, satisfaction must derive from “change that entails change in the core assumptions and world view of an organisation [sic], companies need to change all the other levels, including the organizational philosophy, mission and purpose, culture and core processes” (p. 13). Thus, the goal is to facilitate change in communities as well as organizations—an extension of customer satisfaction beyond the corporate framework. A. Service Design Methods Building from the historical and theoretical foundations in the previous section, this section will focus on the most appropriate methods for designing services within the library environment. To achieve this, some of the more advanced theoretical frameworks noted above, such as SDL and transformational design, will not be addressed. This is not to say that there is no value or room for them in library services. In fact, libraries may greatly benefit from them. However, this chapter is an introductory one and therefore, presents practicable SD frameworks regarding services and service systems (to a lesser degree) is the essential goal. 1. Service Life Cycle Services, similar to organizations, move through various but predicable life cycles. Katzen (2011) conceptualized six life cycle stages. Fig. 1 graphically represents the author’s structuring. Service commitment refers to an agreement to provide a service, or services, to a client audience by a provider. An example could be providing introductory web research classes at a public library. Service production pertains to building the infrastructure necessary to provide a service to clients in a satisfactory way. This would entail finding and arranging an instruction location, purchasing personal computers or similar technology, training staff, and so on. Service availability relates to when a service begins to be provided, the frequency of offerings, for what length of time, and so on. Referring back to the example, this could mean determining if is to be a finite or continuous offering, whether to request registration or allow walk-in participation, and similar decisions. Service delivery represents the actual service—the introductory class—and point of provider client contact, also commonly referred to as the touch point. Service analysis is the assessment stage. Thus, activities and costs associated with service creation and customer satisfaction comes under scrutiny. The life cycle begins again with renewed commitment and

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Termination Commitment

Analysis

Delivery

Production

Availability

Fig. 1 Service design life cycle.

necessary adjustments per the assessment output. The last life cycle stage, service termination, only need occur if the assessment cycle determines that the value propositions inherent to the service do not meet provider, client, or neither party’s requirements. To finalize the example, imagine that the introductory classes are not well attended, that a competing agency’s trainers are deemed more skilled, or perhaps a library staff member designs a self-paced online tutorial that would-be students prefer. 2. Service Systems Armed with the knowledge of service life cycles, one broadly understands the process of creating, recycling, and terminating a service. Maglio and Spohrer (2013) proposed that understanding business model creation— comparable in this context to service system development—would be an ideal approach for adding organizational specifics to the life cycle framework. They suggested four principles for creating a highly functional business/service system model. These principles should guide the conceptualization of the business model, which in turn informs the design of individual services. The principles are: • service systems dynamically configure four critical resources for maximum service efficiency and effectiveness, such as people, technologies, organizations, and information;

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• multiple stakeholder concerns influence the service and the service system, for example providers, customers, regulators, and competitors; • service value creation is a joint activity amongst stakeholders that is dependent on communication; and finally; • access to and exploitation of information via modern interconnectivity is critical, as is the management of it.

A gap or restriction in the interconnectivity could severely devalue a service and weaken a service system. In non-jargonistic language, these four principles simply mean that four resources are the fuel for any particular service—stakeholder individuals (employees, customers, regulators, and competitors), technology, stakeholder organizations (providers, competitors, and regulators), and the information exchanged between stakeholders at all levels. Also, cooperation and information sharing amongst stakeholders is essential. While developing a business model might seem more in tune with the commercial sector, libraries and other noncorporate entities create similar plans. However, they may not refer to them as business models. Moreover, because service system modeling is not yet a common concept in any sector, it is a potentially more palatable synonym to those who are sensitive to business jargon usage within the public and nonprofit sectors. 3. Service Design Foundations With the life cycle and service system tiers of structure now in place, how does one begin to design a library service? Katzen (2011) suggested four foundations of SD. The first, which seems elementary, explains that it is necessary to establish a context for the service. This can actually be difficult depending on the variability of stakeholder opinions. As Katzen stated, you don’t [want] to solve the wrong problem at the right time or the right problem at the wrong time. This is as much a cultural endeavor as it is a procedural problem … Something that works at IBM probably isn’t going to work in Google. (p. 48)

This foundation challenges the library manager’s oft-used tool, the outof-the-box cure-all, as inadequate. The second foundation is codesign. This was alluded to previously, and it means that the client/patron not only provides input into the design but also becomes an essential member of the design team (Vargo, Maglio, & Akaka, 2008). Indeed, “co-design is seen as critical to success and a range of benefits are attributed to co-design” (Steen, Manschot, & De Koning, 2011, p. 53). Third, access to, and the sharing of information is key. That is, to what degree are patrons willing to share personal identification information with the library and what level of service is

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expected in return? In addition, to what level are the library’s partners willing to exchange information for the benefit of the library user? Full disclosure and cooperation may not be required. Rather, only the level sufficient to satisfy patron expectations is ideal and necessary. Lastly, the sharing of information and communication between stakeholders should be continuous and unimpeded between all parties. This ensures coordination among, and efficiency of, the service network members, such as patrons, the library, and library partners/vendors. This includes informal communication. Informal communication links are just as valuable as formal ones regarding this fourth foundation. 4. Service Design Processes The specifics of the SD process actually vary greatly depending on the scope of the project, the resources available to dedicate to the design, and the timeframe for actualization. Essentially, as noted above, what works in one library probably will not work in another (Katzen, 2011). However, Katzen suggested three general phases to guide an SD project. These are (1) inspiration, (2) ideation, and (3) implementation. The inspiration phase includes the selection of designers, formation of the design team, preliminary data gathering about customers’ needs and behaviors, and scoping potential paths to improve or replace the service(s) under scrutiny. The designer(s) can be professional service designers, a small groups of librarians and/or other stakeholders (such as library paraprofessionals, teachers, trustees, technology professionals, and similar), or a single individual. Yet, one or more team members should have some degree of SD experience or knowledge. The designer or designers lead the team. Service consumers, that is to say library patrons, should also serve on the team. In fact, representation of all service stakeholders is highly recommended as it provides the greatest diversity of perspective, and thus a greater likelihood of comprehensive input and robust output. Early data gathering might be as simple as direct observation of service consumers’ behaviors, informal interviewing, and analyzing readily available and aggregated quantitative data. Ideation refers to more advanced data gathering and solution creation steps. The collection of data often employs key methods from the social sciences and professions. Especially prevalent are ethnography, formal interviewing, focus groups, and surveys. Note that adherence to standard quantitative and/or qualitative data-gathering practices should be maintained whenever feasible. Doing this reduces bias during analysis and the potential of specious results and conclusions. Cooperative lateral thinking—group

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critical thinking, creative exploration, brainstorming, and related measures—refers to collaboratively generating likely solutions and working through the possible pitfalls. The team fleshes out and formalizes previously tentative design solutions, including the conceptions of short and long-term success and the development of future trends. The last phase, implementation, concludes the design process. Yet, one should consider the phases as cyclical rather than linear. That is to say, as implementation concludes, new feedback may lead to another inspiration phase, which begins the life cycle anew. This ensures that services remain highly relevant to patrons and generate the greatest degree of service satisfaction. Early stages of implementation often include rapid prototyping, piloting, testing, and fine-tuning the newly designed service. As implementation shifts into production mode (a middle to end stage of implementation), testing, or assessment, should continue on a regular basis as per the service life cycle. 5. Design Thinking A popular concept associated with SD is design thinking. While SD or SS often elicits no acknowledgment, the phrase design thinking has entered the lexicon of many employees and managers. Although, comprehensive understanding might be absent. In essence, it is a simple way to communicate all of the points addressed above regarding SS and SD (Brohman et al., 2009; Dong et al., 2012; Katzen, 2011). Thus, design thinking places the customer at the center of the design process with the goal of making the provisioning of services or goods as valued by the customer—or library patrons in this case—as the actual service or good. To this end, the designer employs knowledge and an interdisciplinary and innovative approach to the design methods as necessary. Brown (2008) stated it more movingly: “it is a discipline that uses the designer’s sensibility and methods to match people’s needs with what is technologically feasible and what a viable business strategy can convert into customer value and market opportunity” (p. 84) (see Fig. 2).

III. Service Design in libraries: Exemplars Although SS and SD are relatively novel, especially outside of the business community, libraries and librarians have already ventured into the SD realm. While formal methodologies may be absent, the SD philosophy, and perhaps even SDL, tacitly exists in many projects (Hinsch & Dunn, 2009;

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Service system/business model Combination of resources, stakeholders, and stakeholder communications

Service B – in design Termination

Inspiration ideation implementation

Service A

Service C

Service foundations

Commitment

Analysis

Delivery

Service context

Co-design

Fig. 2

Production

Availability

Service consumer & provider information sharing

Service provider & service partner information sharing

Service design in full context.

Morrone & Friedman, 2009). However, absence may not always the case. As mentioned previously, Pungitore (1995) reported on what is likely the most prescribed and large-scale design process. The Rethinking Resource Sharing Initiative (2013) also has elements of formalized SD practice (see also Beaubien & Stevens, 2008; Wanner, Beaubien, & Jeske, 2007). de Jong and Shepard (2012) reported on a unit-level SD project. The unit, an interlibrary loan and document delivery team for a large, distance education-oriented public university, sought to improve efficiency and customer orientation for its document borrowing service. Document borrowing provides on-campus patrons with materials not available at the home library. The project leader designed a framework dubbed Patrons, People, Process, and Information technology (PPPI), which achieved the SD’s goals

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and continues to deliver improvements through frequent assessment and design thinking innovations. The inspiration phase of the design began with the installation of a new unit manager. Using revised assessment criteria, his staff determined that document-borrowing patrons waited 7.1 days (measured from point of submission to point of delivery with no pauses) for their materials. The unit team deemed this unacceptable for a distance learning university. Moreover, the manager found customer care and service delivery to be passive rather than proactive. Given these circumstances, the manager initiated a service redesign project in order to make improvements. Inspiration consisted of choosing members of the design team, reviewing readily available performance data, and adjusting unit culture towards a customer service and design thinking modality. The design group ultimately consisted of professional-level, paraprofessional, and part-time unit members, including undergraduate and graduate students employed by the unit. Due to staff turnover in the early phase, the project team consisted of five to seven rotating members. Regarding performance data, already compiled aggregated quantitative data, informal interviews with patrons and unit staff, and nonintrusive observations of patron behaviors and actions informed the design team. Concurrent to the data review, the unit manager began formulating new policies and a set of core values to encourage unit members to embrace a customer service orientation, an innovator’s outlook, and a design thinking overview. One of the most important of these framework components is core value one, which states, “always consider what is easy/best for the patrons over what is easy/best for us” (de Jong & Shepard, 2012, p. 189). See Appendix A for the full list of the eight core values that were implemented. Indeed, creating the core values acted as the potential path scoping mentioned previously. In the ideation phase, the values would serve as the skeleton upon which processes were fleshed out. The ideation phase contained no additional data gathering or evaluation as only one unit in the library, focused on one primary service, constituted the design project. This omission would likely not be feasible in a public library system or large academic campus with multiple libraries and highly customized services. The primary product of the ideation process was the PPPI standard. As you might recall, PPPI stood for patrons, people, process, and information technology. The first P is relatively self-explanatory. The unit manager and the design team sought to put patrons’ needs first. The second P stands for the people who interact with patrons at the point of service delivery—the touch point. To create an exemplary service experience for patron’s, the employees received greater autonomy in meeting user’s needs, the unit

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manger created a process-specific skills program to assist employees in making decisions, and the manager engaged in risk analysis to continually assess appropriate autonomy levels per each employee. Process refers to the front and back end of the service delivery workflow. Rather than leaving it customized for staff ease, it was revamped for patron ease. Moreover, the unit manager encouraged staff to consider and make efficiency improvements. The design team reasoned that workflow should be considered organic and constantly in a state of evolution. This would allow for capitalizing on incremental and radical innovations internal and external to the unit. The last factor, information technology (IT), also stands as self-explanatory, and it exemplifies the interdisciplinary approach of SS. Designers wanted to maximize IT utilization for greater speed, efficiency, and to free staff time from rote tasks so that they could focus on customer care. As you might expect, each factor of the PPPI model supported and gained from the others. Rather than silo considerations, the model espouses integration as much as feasibility permits. Implementation occurred somewhat slowly over a two-year period to prevent change shock from inflicting unit staff but has shown short and long-term results. Adapting IT to improve efficiency occurred more rapidly than the focus on service delivery and customer orientation. Moreover, changes from hierarchy to autonomy and the implementing of an organic workflow moved variably at moderate to slow speeds. Yet, effects occurred immediately. The primary measure, Document borrowing turnaround time ultimately dropped to 2.2 days on average, a 69% improvement. The Unit manager has since reported a drop to 1.8 days on average. Positive anecdotal feedback from patrons has increased dramatically while negative feedback has dropped to nearly nonexistent. This example demonstrates the power of SD in libraries. However, it should not be emulated. Each library and library system has a unique set of needs and patrons. Yet, the authors provided some valuable guidelines. These are available in Appendix B.

IV. Implications Two obvious implications exist: that of adoption of SD as a tool and the alternative, neglect of it. Adoption merely reflects the trend that many successful businesses now employ. Customer desire for highly satisfactory touch points is not likely to diminish for some time, if at all. While execution entails greater up-front efforts and resources, the expenditure will likely yield long-term results of patron satisfaction, stakeholder satisfaction, resource security through effectiveness, and perhaps even a lighter workload

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for staff in some respects. Neglect has one obvious side effect: decline. Holding back the adoption of this national trend will most likely lead to a library’s decline and perhaps even closure. Community relevance will decline as patrons go elsewhere for the services and service delivery they expect—which some would argue already occurs. Decline can be much slower and less dramatic in public/nonprofit organizations as opposed to forprofit ones. Profits are measured quarterly, monthly, even daily, and a lack of profit can result in a precipitous organizational decline. In libraries, this is not the case. In this respect, an unanswered shift to services is a greater threat to the nonprofit and public sectors than business.

V. Conclusion The conceptions of SS, SD, and design thinking are powerful ones in the commercial sector. The reason for this stems from shifts in global and national economic patterns and subsequent customer expectations. Some libraries and librarians have been leaders in adopting this perspective within the noncorporate sector. These early adopters realized that the service trend could not be ignored. To do so could invite disaster to libraries and perhaps even the profession. What has been presented in the chapter is an overview of SD, its correlates, and the potential power when executed properly. While design projects can be enormous and complex undertakings for large organizations with a variety of integrated services, they need not be onerous, as demonstrated by de Jong and Shepard’s (2012) project. They must be executed properly however. This chapter should not be used as a guide for implementing a SD project. Not enough detail is provided. Rather, it should be considered a primer. Instead conduct research on SD, apply it to your constituency’s unique needs and circumstances, and raise the probability that you will exponentially increase patron satisfaction, library use, and stakeholders’ praise for your offerings.

Appendix A: de Jong and Shepard’s (2012) Core Values 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Always consider what is easy/best for patrons over what is easy/best for us. Removing geographical and technological barriers to our resources whenever possible. It is the manager’s job to take care of the employee. The employee will take care of the patron. Employee ideas and innovation are paramount to keeping us ahead of the curve. High speed over high quality, when a choice must be made. Helping patrons with their research, not doing their research for them.

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7. Ethically adhering to the ALA ILL Code, Title 17, CONTU, and all related laws, treaties, policies and agreements. 8. Contain expenditures when it does not conflict with our mission.

Appendix B: de Jong and Shepard’s Guidelines 1. Focus primarily and consistently on patron needs and expectations in developing services and workflows. Always prioritize what is best for patrons over what is easy or familiar for library staff. 2. Cross-train all staff and flatten hierarchy—fast turnaround and high-quality customer service require that each employee have a “big picture” view of operations and assist at the point of greatest need. 3. Promote innovation by mandating professional development, encouraging autonomy and critical thinking in team members, and valuing their insights. 4. Know the potential of the technologies you are using and maximize it whenever possible to automate and streamline workflows, remove barriers to services, and to simplify the means by which patrons access these services. 5. Treat organizational structure and workflows as perpetual works in progress and subject to change as patron expectations alter and technology advances (2012, pp. 197 198).

References Beaubien, A. K., & Stevens, P. (2008). Rethinking resource sharing. Resource Sharing & Information Networks, 19(1/2), 3 14. doi:10.1080/07377790802 308581 Bell, D. (1973/1999). The coming of post-industrial society: A venture in social forecasting. New York, NY: Basic Books. Boudreau, J., Hopp, W., MClain, J. O., & Thomas, J. L. (2003). On the interface between operations and human resources management. Manufacturing & Service Operations Management, 5(3), 179 202. Bitner, M. J., & Brown, S. W. (2006). The evolution and discovery of services science in business schools. Communications of the ACM, 49(7), 73 78. doi:10.1145/1139922.1139952 Brohman, M. K., Piccolo, G., Martin, P., Zulkernine, F., Parasuraman, A., & Watson, R. T. (2009). A design theory approach to building strategic networkbased customer service systems. Decision Sciences, 40(3), 403 430. doi:10.1111/ j.1540-5915.2009.00242.x Brown, T. (2008). Design thinking. Harvard Business Review, 86(6), 84 92. Choi, J., Nazareth, D. L., & Jain, H. K. (2010). Implementing service-oriented architecture inorganizations. Journal of Management Information Systems, 26(4), 253 286. doi:10.27.53/MIS0742-1222260409 Clatworthy, S. (2011). Service innovation through touch-points: Development of an innovationtoolkit for the first stages of new service development. International Journal of Design, 5(2) [Special issue], 15 28. Retrieved from http://www.ijde sign.org/ojs/index.php/IJDesign/article/viewFile/939/334

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de Jong, M., & Shepard, R. (2012). The DocumentExpress model: Proposals for improving interlibrary loan and document delivery services. Journal of Access Services, 9(4), 187 199. doi:10.1080/15367967.2012.713226 Dong, S., Johar, M. S., & Kumar, R. L. (2012). A benchmarking model for management of knowledge-intensive service delivery networks. Journal of Management Information Systems, 28(3), 127 160. doi:10.2753/MIS0742-122280304 Hinsch, N., & Dunn, K. (2009). UNSW library’s outreach librarian service: What they need before they want it! The Australian Library Journal, 58(3), 286 297. doi:10.1080/00049670.2009.10735906 IDEO. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.ideo.com/ Kannan, P. K., & Proenc¸a, J. F. (2010). Design of service systems under variability: Research issues. Information Systems and e-Business Management, 8, 1 11. doi:10.1007/s10257-008-1040-2 Katzen, H., Jr. (2011). Essentials of service design. The Clute Institute: Journal of Service Science, 4(2), 43 60. Retrieved from http://journals.cluteonline.com/ index.php/JSS/article/view/6644/6719 Ko¨ln International School of Design. (2013). Retrieved from http://kisd.de/home. html?lang = en Maglio, P. P., & Spohrer, J. (2013). A service science perspective on business model innovation. Industrial Marketing Management, 42(5), 665 670. doi:10.1016/j. indmarman.2013.05.007 Morrone, M., & Friedman, L. (2009). Radical reference: Socially responsible librarianship collaborating with community. The Reference Librarian, 50(4), 371 396. doi:10.1080/02763870903267952 National Academy of Engineering. (2003). The impact of academic research on industrial performance. Washington, DC: National Academic Press. Pungitore, V. L. (1995). Innovation and the library: The adoption of new ideas in public libraries. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press. Rethinking Resource Sharing Initiative. (2013). Web log posts. Retrieved from http://rethinkingresourcesharing.org/ Sangiorgi, D. (2011). Transformative services and transformative design. International Journal of Design, 5(2), 29 40. Retrieved from http://www.ijdesign. org/ojs/index.php/IJDesign/article/viewFile/940/338 Spohrer, J., Maglio, P. P., Bailey, J., & Gruhl, D. (2007). Steps toward a science of service systems. Computer, 40(1), 71 77. doi:10.1109/MC.2007.33 Steen, M., Manschot, M., & De Koning, N. (2011). Benefits of co-design in service design projects. International Journal of Design, 5(2) [Special issue], 53 60. Retrieved from http://www.ijdesign.org/ojs/index.php/IJDesign/article/viewFile/ 890/339 Vargo, S. L., & Lusch, R. F. (2008). From goods to service(s): Divergences and convergences of logics. Industrial Marketing Management, 37, 254 259. doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2007.07.004 Vargo, S. L., Maglio, P. P., & Akaka, M. A. (2008). On value and value co-creation: A service systems and service logic perspective. European Management Journal, 26, 145 152. doi:10.1016/j.emj.2008.04.003 Voelker, K., Stodnick, T. M., & Wysong, S. (2012). Modeling structural service design decisions. Business Studies Journal, 4(2), 1 17. Wanner, G., Beaubien, A., & Jeske, M. (2007). The rethinking resource-sharing initiative: A new development in the USA. Interlending & Document Supply, 35(2), 92 98. doi:10.1108/02641610710754097

Management

The Fit Test: Interview Techniques to Build a Strong Team Anne C. Barnhart, Jean M. Cook, Jessica Critten, Angela Pashia, Andrea G. Stanfield and Dean Sullivan Ingram Library, University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA, USA

Abstract Traditional interviewing techniques often fail to fully assess the “soft skills” required for a potential hire to succeed in a particular organizational culture. This case study presents an alternate framework for evaluating candidates to determine their ability to effectively collaborate with existing team members. The authors report the process used in hiring two faculty librarians in 2011 and the ways the process was revised to fill two newly created positions in 2013. A review of management literature on interview techniques supports using practical exercises and strategically designed questions to assess a candidate’s fit within a given organizational culture. The experiences reported in this case study bear that out. The process of strategically designing the interview structure enabled the department to gain a better vision of its priorities and values, while the interviews enabled the team to select additional members who work well in a collaborative environment with the personalities already in place. Readers can use this to redesign their interview procedures to more effectively select candidates who will contribute to the vision and positive culture of their workplace. This model was successful in this instance and readers can modify these procedures to adapt to their own workplace cultures in any type of library. Building on strategies used in various industries, this chapter translates the use of practical exercises and strategically designed questions into an academic library context. Keywords: Interview techniques; management; team building; organizational culture; recruitment; hiring

I. Introduction Librarians work with people—with the public, with external stakeholders, and with colleagues. This fact is due in part to the nature of the work and in part to financial necessity. Collection development librarians need to move toward collaborative collection development practices because shared

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038007

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collections are the only way that patrons can have access to a rich catalog. Technical services librarians collaborate through sharing of cataloging records. Instruction librarians collaborate through borrowing from each other’s research guides and lesson plans; and library schools require students to work on group projects because this is reflective of the environment in which they will work. Despite what the tired stereotype about the librarian alone in a darkened basement would suggest, collaboration is not a new or especially controversial aspect of this profession. However, traditional library search and interview processes do not do enough to determine which candidates will be able to work productively within a specific work culture. Most librarian job searches do not measure the “soft skills” that have become a vital aspect of almost every working environment, not just the library. During an interview, both the interviewers and the interviewees are on their best behavior. Given the superficiality of a traditional interview structure, how can both sides really know whether they will want to work together when the daily stressors and aggravations of working in a bureaucratic institution are present? These were the challenges the authors faced in both 2011 and 2013. This chapter outlines how the Instructional Services (IS) department of the University of West Georgia’s (UWG) Ingram Library changed its interview process to hire two new colleagues in 2011 and two additional new colleagues in 2013. The authors outline how they believe the revised interview format is a more effective means of hiring colleagues who fit in a truly collaborative work environment. With reflection on the process came the realization that the experience of hiring four new colleagues over the course of two years focused in many ways around a theme of storytelling. The story of the department was being written and rewritten with each new hire, and the committee learned about its potential new colleagues through the stories they told. These stories came from outside-the-box interview questions and authentic brainstorming sessions meant to measure a candidate’s soft skills. The new hiring methodology advocated in this chapter is transferable to librarians across more than academic libraries, and other types of specializations and institutions that wish to foster a productive and amiable work culture. A. Background Located in Carrollton, Georgia, the UWG is a comprehensive, doctoralgranting university in the University System of Georgia. UWG grows steadily each year, and had almost 12,000 total students by fall 2013. Librarians have tenure-track faculty status at UWG, and ten of the eighteen

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total faculty librarians who work in UWG’s Irvine Sullivan Ingram Library are located in the IS department. Along with coordinating the library’s liaison program, government documents department, and reference program, IS is, as its name would suggest, the teaching arm of the university library. Faculty librarians in IS lead instruction sessions for their constituent liaison departments and general informational sessions about the library for other campus entities and the community, conduct workshops for faculty and students, and also teach both online and face-to-face sections of a two credit-hour semester-long course, LIBR 1101 (Academic Research and the Library). This course can fulfill a core (general studies) requirement, and is taken by almost 700 students each academic year. Teaching in all of its incarnations is expected to take up the largest percentage of IS faculty librarian time. In 2011, the IS department conducted a search to fill two vacant positions. The authors of this article presented a paper about the unconventional 2011 search method at LOEX (Library Orientation Exchange) of the West conference in Burbank, CA in 2012 (see Barnhart et al., 2012). Comments and observations from the audience there provided additional perspective on the process. When the department received funding for two additional positions in 2013, IS reflected on what had worked well in 2011 and what was to change in the new round of hiring.

II. Literature Review Many articles offer advice to candidates and employers in the library field about how to conduct a search and what kinds of questions to ask. Some of these articles are about the nuts and bolts of conducting a search (Dura´n, Garcia, & Houdyshell, 2009; Jago, 1996). Fitsimmons (2010, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c) published a four-part series of articles that offered step-bystep instructions on specific aspects of conducting a search, such as evaluating the institution’s needs, writing the job advertisement, contacting references, phone interviews, and face-to-face interviews. Some articles focus on what to ask during an interview (McKay, 2006; Peele, 1978; Peterzeil, 1999) and what not to ask, especially in the age of social media (Attebury, 2009). There are also a number of articles written for job-seekers, typically recent library school graduates (Collins, 1995; Morgan, 2005; Pergander, 2006; Walker, 2011; Wang & Guarria, 2010). The focus of the articles shift with the economic trends but the constancy of interest in this topic remains.

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While much literature focuses on Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA), the more recent literature acknowledges that personality, creativity, motivation and other soft skills are equally important (Peterzeil, 1999). Ream noted that 85% of job mismatches are due to soft skills (2001). Dinerman (1995) has written about the importance of the right personality in a position: Every corporation/institution has a persona—a quality of individuality that is distinctive. That uniqueness defies explanation. There is no job description that says “must have a sense of humour”; “must be flexible enough to change focus as needed”; “must help upper manager look good to the board of directors.” What talents are necessary for the smooth flow of your workload? What characteristics blend with your management style? (Dinerman, 1995, p. 33)

In her article, Dinerman discussed her “DISRAELI Method,” a system of interview questions that screen for certain characteristics such as diversity, initiative, skills, responsibilities, accomplishments, energy, loyalty and integrity. Articles published more recently also recognize that these characteristics are important. Ream’s, 2000 article had the word “fit” in the title and Schachter’s, 2005 article title included the word “team.” However nothing was found in any of the library literature that offered methods to determine fit, or whether a candidate belongs on the team, outside of asking questions and talking with references. Outside of the library field, human resources literature has periodically published articles on the use of behavioral description or “patterned behavior description interview” (PBDI) questions. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was a surge of literature advocating this line of interview question. “Among the distinguishing features of the PBDI are the focus on past behavior, and the probing of interviewees to enable the interviewer to understand the basis for each response” (Klehe & Latham, 2005, p. 108). These kinds of questions “require respondents to tell stories” (Ralston, Kirkwood, & Burant, 2003, p. 8). Storytelling reveals more about the perspective, worldview, and emotional intelligence of the candidate than do closed questions. As Ralston, Kirkwood, and Burant (2003) noted, “Listening to how applicants tell their stories provides rich information regarding applicant-employer fit” (p. 13). This advice is extended to quick lists of interview pointers in trade publications such as Wofford’s list of “five ways to hire good employees” in which she specifically suggested using stories: Try asking [candidates] to tell you a story. For example, say “Tell me about a time when” … Then listen to the story for hints on how they prefer praise, get along with others, share credit with coworkers or bad mouth their boss. Also “listen” for creative storytelling and watch their body language. Much is revealed when a person tells you a story. (2007, p. 48)

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This style of questioning helped the IS team narrow down its applicant pool.

III. The Interview Process A. Preparing for the Search: 2011 2011 was in many ways the first chapter of the story of IS, as the department faced the exciting but daunting task of building an instructional program within the library from the ground up. Adding two new colleagues to a department of five was a huge opportunity to grow and meaningfully make strides in shaping the department. Because of this, it was desirable to have the interview process be a time to reflect on the story IS wanted to tell through its faculty, space, and goals. In the summer of 2011, UWG’s Ingram Library was finishing a significant phase of a major building renovation. IS librarians had previously been separated across several floors and the workplace culture reflected that distance. In the renovated library, IS librarians were to be co-located in a spacious office suite featuring a large collaborative work area with glass marker boards on the walls to facilitate collaboration. When the two positions, one for a First Year Programs Librarian and the other for an Outreach Librarian, were advertised and telephone interviews conducted however, the new space had only been seen on paper. The job ad was written to attract visionaries and pioneers (see Appendix A) who could make the most of the possibilities the new space afforded. Although the IS librarians had not seen Dinerman’s (1995) article when the initial ad was drafted, it included two of the three items she said ads never use: sense of humor and the ability and courage to fail gracefully and change course when necessary (see Appendix A). The job ad listed sense of humor under preferred qualifications because it is impossible to assess objectively and document, in the event that an unsuccessful candidate later challenged the process. It also listed sense of humor under preferred for the same reason. While the process did have to adhere to the rules for hiring tenure-track faculty as outlined by University policy, there was freedom to make decisions on many of details of the search. Ingram Library’s administration was supportive of the IS department’s desire to experiment. Thus, in the spirit of the language of the job advertisement, the search committee was open to new ideas, willing to take risks, and had the ability and courage to fail gracefully. The department was entering new territory—both physically and culturally—with the new space. The interview process was

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designed to push candidates out of their comfort zones. The 2011 search focused on finding new colleagues who could navigate uncertainty while being flexible and good-natured. B. Constructing Interview Questions As IS began planning for the 2011 search, it was decided very early on that an interview process that merely tested whether a candidate could teach and do reference should be balanced with questions about KSA to determine compatibility and fit. Early on in the search process, the Head of IS asked each member of the IS department and search committee to read Sutton’s (2010) book The No Asshole Rule, which served as a springboard to discuss larger issues of personality traits and how to identify them. In his book, Sutton discussed how certain individuals can damage an organization’s culture and effectiveness and outlined strategies for filtering for these in an interview. Sutton wrote that IDEO’s Diego Rodriguez told him how IDEO hires good team members for their innovation and consulting firm: “We try to select for professional competence before people walk in the door so that the interviewing process can focus on a person’s human qualities (or lack thereof)” (p. 63). This strategy was applied and a job advertisement was prepared indicating that candidates had to have a “strong desire to experiment with new instructional pedagogy and delivery methods,” and a demonstrated interest in teaching (see Appendix A). The search committee combed through CVs and cover letters to screen for these competencies. Previous experience was not required for the two beginning level positions, so the competencies sought were interest, passion, and good communication skills. As a result, the telephone and on-campus interviews concentrated on determining fit and on listening to how candidates framed their experiences. The search committee also consulted De Becker (1997) work, The Gift of Fear, to prepare for the interviews. De Becker outlined specific questioning tactics to use during an interview to help identify potential warning signs to weed out aggressive coworkers. While not concerned with workplace violence as outlined by de Becker, the committee wanted to avoid getting a bully, or, as Sutton called it, an asshole. Not all of de Becker’s suggested questions were used but his reasoning for each question helped to inform the questions which were asked. (See Appendix B for telephone interview questions and Appendix C for on-campus interview questions.) For instance, de Becker recommended asking interviewees to describe the best and worst bosses they ever had to reveal important attitudes about managers and management. Instead of being asked about their best and

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worst boss, IS applicants were asked to describe the supportive and nonsupportive work environments they had experienced. They were also asked what could have made the non-supportive environment better and how they saw themselves contributing to a supportive environment. This was done to hear their attitudes about colleagues and teamwork. The candidates who responded to the question “How do you see yourself contributing to a supportive environment,” with an answer that focused solely on how they would receive support were not invited to the on-campus interview The colleagues sought were those who could both receive and provide support. De Becker also suggested asking about a failure in life and why it occurred. His explanation of this question was: Does the applicant say he cannot think of one? If he can describe something he perceives as a failure, does he take responsibility for it or does he blame others (e.g., “I never graduated from high school because those damned teachers didn’t know how to motivate me”)? (p. 159)

The interviews utilized several versions of this question. In the telephone interviews, it was modified it to focus on teamwork as follows: “In working with a group, think of a time that someone else in the group did not come through. How did that affect you? What did you do?” It was also used to ask about failure: “Describe a situation in which you failed.” The question was intentionally direct and blunt to see if interviewees got defensive or not. During on-campus interviews there was a follow—up question to try to again get at how they handle both mistakes and criticism: “We asked you on the phone to tell us about a time when you failed. Please now tell us about a time when someone else had to point out to you that you were failing.” De Becker’s suggestions for language that revealed a candidate’s worldview meshed with the committee’s desire to hear how candidates told their stories. Instead of asking how a candidate worked in a team, the search committee phrased the question as, “Tell us about a time when …” to put the candidate back into the memory of when the event occurred. The committee felt that asking a candidate directly how he or she worked in a team would allow the candidate to distance him or herself from the experience and speak more objectively. Framing a response within a story reveals much more about the narratives one might choose to retain and the attitude one had about the experience. As Sutton noted The assumptions and language we use—the lenses that we see the world through—can have big effects on how we treat others. Even seemingly small differences in language that we hear and use can determine whether we cooperate or compete. (2010, p. 103)

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Even though the committee had not read any of the human resources literature from the 1990s and early 2000s that advocated the use of PBDI techniques, those techniques were instinctively employed to see how the candidates framed their stories. In his work about ethnography, Goodson (2013) concluded that “[l]ife stories, then, are a crucial ingredient in what makes us human, and, in turn, what kind of human they make us.” He continued: Our life stories provide us with a stock of narrative capital: an armoury of narrative resources with which we not only render accounts but flexibly respond to the transitions and critical events which comprise our lives and equip us to actively develop courses of action and learning strategies. (p. 63, original emphasis)

The interview questions asked candidates to share their work-life stories with the committee in order to get a sense of how they would respond to the work environment in UWG’s IS department.

IV. An Evolving Interview Model As the search started in 2011 and as the unit prepared to move into a new space, IS librarians began working on more collaborative projects. Some of these projects included co-teaching a semester-long information literacy course and co-designing instructional materials. There was widespread agreement within the IS department that care needed to be taken with the interviews to make sure that the new hires fit into the team. In the old interview system, candidates were asked in to prepare a presentation (often about a database) before coming to campus, but these canned presentations revealed little about the candidates themselves. This format also did the candidates a disservice, since their topics were often already familiar to the audience, so they did not seem original or interesting. Even presentation topics regarding issues within librarianship provided little insight into the candidates. Another problem with the old on-campus interview was the structure of the interview day itself. If the IS department stuck to this template, then actual contact time with the candidates would be limited to a morning question and answer session, lunch, an afternoon wrap-up session, and perhaps dinner with other time devoted to tours and meetings with library administration. The events did not allow for the opportunity to judge working styles or how well candidates might work with the IS librarians. This traditional interview model required a large time investment from the search committee but ultimately provided little revealing data in return.

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The search committee saw an opportunity to restructure the process in a way that would provide them with the information needed about the candidates (see Appendix D for the newer interview schedules).

A. Brainstorming Sessions Rodriguez had told Sutton (2010) that at IDEO, “[Interviewees] participate in design exercises. It’s all about creating a mutual feeling of ‘fit’” (p. 63). In other words, IDEO executives had interviewees participate in activities that reflected what would be their normal work duties in their normal work settings. The search committee incorporated this activity into the interview process, creating dynamic and telling experiences that would reflect the duties of both the Outreach Librarian and First Year Programs Librarian positions. Candidates engaged in two brainstorming exercises with members of the search committee and IS: one that created a framework for an outreach program, and the other that produced a lesson plan for an one-shot instruction session. These sessions were designed to not only give the search committee an idea of what the candidates would be like to work with, but also to give the candidates a chance to see what working with the IS team was like. Each outreach session consisted of the candidate and two UWG librarians. One librarian would be from the search committee and participate in every outreach session, and one librarian would be selected from a rotation of librarians outside of IS. In this way, some level of consistency was established for the effective comparison of candidates, while also allowing some variability in the group dynamics. The two librarians would not overpower or unduly influence the candidate because of their past experience with the exercise. Working together, the three librarians worked to select an audience, brainstorm potential outreach initiatives for that audience, and then further develop one possible scenario. In an attempt to reflect the experience the Outreach Librarian would have, IS librarians allowed the candidate to lead the session by suggesting a programming idea and then helped the interviewee form a plan of action based on that idea. For example, IS librarians might be called on to give more information about a group of students, the physical and technological limitations of the school, or prior initiatives enacted at the library. Ideally, the candidate would provide the ideas for potential audiences and initiatives as well as offer workarounds for any obstacles. The Head of IS did not participate in any of the brainstorming sessions. While all members of IS collaborate on a regular basis, including

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the head, there was concern that the perceived authority figure could make candidates nervous and alter the dynamics of sessions. At the time of the interviews, the IS department was beginning to develop ready-to-go instruction packages for common instructional sessions. These activities, which IS called Active Learning Exercises (ALEs), were designed to keep students engaged throughout the instruction session. For the second brainstorming session, the candidate and two librarians from IS worked on developing an ALE for a mass communications class in which students are required to give a speech on a controversial issue. By the end of the hour-long collaborative work session, the candidate had enough material to give a basic outline of an ALE for this class, including learning objectives, an activity, a timeline, and an assessment tool. The Information Literacy Coordinator participated in each session with the other IS librarians alternating between sessions. Some candidates were extremely uncomfortable with the scenario, while others seemed uncertain at first but soon actively engaged once they realized they were not expected to deliver an actual instruction session as a presentation. The IS librarians participating in this brainstorming session found it challenging to allow the instructional scenario to unfold without pushing the candidate in a specific direction while still contributing ideas once the idea for an ALE started to formulate. IS librarians wanted the candidates to take the lead in introducing some general ideas, which some candidates seemed to find difficult. All brainstorming sessions were located in areas that included white boards with markers and erasers, yet of the six candidates brought to campus, only one used the whiteboard without being prompted. In practice, there were some limitations to the brainstorming approach. Candidates did not always know what to expect of these sessions or what was expected of them. Many had trepidations about the requirements of the brainstorming, and often the first moments of the session were spent reassuring and explaining the interview process. B. Presentations After the two brainstorming sessions, candidates were given one hour to fashion a presentation based on both experiences to library faculty and staff. Candidates were told that they should prepare a semi-formal presentation directed to colleagues they expected to help implement their plans, whether it was describing a lesson plan to a colleague who might teach a class based on it, or participating in an outreach initiative. After candidates recapped the brainstorming sessions, attendees were encouraged to ask questions and

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offer suggestions. In this, the librarians and staff got an introduction to the candidate’s presentation style, what sort of initiatives and pedagogies the candidate favored, and also how the candidate would interact with them professionally. The committee also benefited from observing how the candidate handled leading a discussion between colleagues. The search committee found it edifying to see what the candidate took from the earlier sessions; some candidates attributed ideas to the librarians who first offered them, and others ignored ideas from librarians who had offered them. Sometimes the finished projects barely seemed to relate to what the IS librarians had thought they ended with. The search committee felt that these presentations did a fair job of giving insight into what kind of colleagues the candidates would be. By hearing the stories candidates told of their interview day and the brainstorming sessions, listeners were given an impression of what the candidate valued from their experiences and how they characterized their interactions with potential colleagues. C. Changes for 2013 By 2013, IS had spent nearly two years in the new space, and the department was in a more stable place. An established a track record of success (see Cook, in press) on campus was rewarded with two new tenure-track IS librarian positions to begin in summer 2013 (see Barnhart, in press). With nearly two years of working with the colleagues hired in 2011, IS realized how well its method had worked for finding qualified individuals with the soft skills necessary to work in authentic collaborative environments. Also, with a better understanding of their story, the department was able to be more intentional in how they told it. The search committee agreed to repeat much of what had been done in the 2011 search because, frankly, it worked; two great colleagues had been hired. In 2013, there was more focus on finding colleagues who could balance spontaneity with preparation. The 2013 search was also different in that the position did not have a dedicated focus at the outset. Instead, the search committee decided that the person hired into each new position would be able to shape the duties of that position in keeping with their experiences, interests, and strengths. Still, there would be aspects of these two new positions that were standard for every faculty member in IS, namely teaching and collaboration. With this in mind, the instruction brainstorming was retained from the 2011 search to learn how the candidates approached students and teaching. The outreach brainstorming session was replaced with a time for the

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candidates to get to know their potential colleagues in an informal meeting. By 2013, IS librarians were presenting at more conferences and sharing their story with more external audiences. Therefore in the 2013 search, the search committee decided that candidates should also be evaluated on their presentation skills, to see how they would tell the IS story to campus entities and national professional audiences. Candidates were asked to deliver a presentation on an interesting item noted on their curriculum vitae from a previous presentation, publication, or capstone project. As the two new positions were only very recently filled at the time of writing, it was too early to tell if the adjustments to the new interview method would prove fruitful. The search committee members felt that the changes were productive and revealing, however, and the IS department was very confident about the potential of the new colleagues yielded from the 2013 search.

V. Conclusion Schachter (2005) noted: It is often easier to hire individuals who are similar to us or who are similar to other staff members, just to avoid any type of conflict or friction within the team. By doing this, though, we may stifle the creativity of the library by not generating the type of creative friction that leads to innovation. (p. 13)

As part of the philosophy of trying new things and being willing to fail, the IS search needed to bring in candidates who complemented and worked well with an existing team, but who were also not just going to parrot back existing ideas and practices. The interview process described here allowed IS librarians to determine who would work well with the team and who could appropriately assert their ideas in a collaborative setting. Not all candidates were able to engage in an appropriate and productive level of back-and-forth in the outreach and instruction brainstorming sessions. Some bulldozed over the interviewers and others seemed almost too scared to contribute. Neither of those personalities would add to the team and foster creativity. The 2011 search ended with the selection of two candidates whose different styles and approaches added value to the team, and it was felt very strongly that the 2013 searches should do the same. The process developed helped a previously fractured department grow together as the team learned more about each other and themselves through the process of telling the IS story to interviewees.

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The interview process outlined in this chapter worked well for the librarians at UWG because they were willing to try something potentially risky, and to invest time in the self-reflection necessary to make it work. Readers should consider their own workplace culture to identify traits that are valued and desired in colleagues and experiment with ways to incorporate these into search processes. While the exact method used by UWG may not directly transfer to every institution, others are encouraged to adapt the underlying ideas to create a customized interview process that meets the needs of their particular organization.

Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank Laurie Aycock, Dave Beltz, Shirley Lankford, Miriam Nauenburg, Craig Schroer, and Stacey Snyder for their tireless search committee work. We also thank Sarah Brandt and Naomi Stuesser for coming to join our team in 2013.

Appendix A: Job Ads 2011 Do you have a passion for working with students? Would you like to work in a newly renovated building? Do you want a professional outlet for your creativity? Are you open to new ideas and challenges? Do you get energized from helping students connect ideas? The University of West Georgia seeks to complete our Instructional Services (IS) team by filling the following two positions: • Instructional Services (IS) Outreach Librarian • First Year Programs Librarian (FYP)

All positions are tenure-track faculty positions. All librarians serve as a liaison to academic departments and provide reference services (face-to-face and via chat). Librarians also teach information literacy classes by instructor request and through our credit-bearing LIBR1101 course. Reference and instruction activities may include some evening and weekend hours. As faculty, librarians serve on university committees, support the greater good of the institution and pursue professional development opportunities. IS librarians are expected to have a strong interest in advancing the field of library instruction.

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Additional Responsibilities for each position: The IS Outreach Librarian will identify events and activities on campus where IS should be involved. The IS Outreach Librarian will also identify opportunities for IS to create connections with students, faculty and staff. The FYP Librarian will be the liaison to the various first year classes and programs. This librarian will design and coordinate programs and activities to connect first year students to the library in order to bolster the university’s goal of improving first year retention rates. IS is building a positive culture of assessment. Each librarian is responsible for outlining an assessment strategy for his or her area of focus. Working with colleagues, these strategies will be revised and implemented in a supportive learning environment as the IS team learns together how to best assess our services. Ingram Library is currently finishing a major building renovation. IS will have a new office suite designed to facilitate collaboration among IS librarians and the library will have new flexible instructional spaces. This new space provides opportunities for librarians to experiment with emerging pedagogies. Ideally, librarians will be open to new ideas, willing to take risks and have the ability and courage to fail gracefully and change course when necessary. For more information about the library renovation see http://www.westga.edu/library. The University of West Georgia is located in Carrollton, GA, a community approximately one hour west of Atlanta and about 20 miles east of the Alabama. As an employee of the University of West Georgia, librarians enjoy free tuition for most degrees (through doctoral level) at all University System of Georgia schools. Librarians earn 14 hours of annual leave per month, 8 hours of sick time per month, and twelve assigned paid holidays per year. Required Skills: • ALA accredited Masters in Library Science in-hand by the start date • Comfortable teaching and presenting information both in virtually and in face-to-face environments • Strong desire to experiment with new instructional pedagogy and delivery methods • Ability to work cooperatively with people from diverse backgrounds • Strong communication skills • Adept at learning new technologies and using them effectively • Quick-thinking and flexible • Demonstrated ability to work creatively and collaboratively with others while also pursuing and completing individual projects • Record of establishing and maintaining effective work relationships

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Preferred Qualifications: • • • • • •

2 years professional academic library experience Teaching experience Experience with course management systems Subject expertise in a field that is currently taught at University of West Georgia Additional Masters degree (to be hired at the Assistant Professor rank) Sense of humor

2013 Do you get energized by working with students and helping them connect ideas? Would you like to work in a newly renovated building designed to foster professional creativity, collaborative teaching, and student learning? Are you open to new ideas and challenges? The University of West Georgia seeks to add to our Instructional Services (IS) team by hiring an IS Librarian. A major component of our information literacy program is our creditbearing course; approximately 30 sections of this course are taught each year with documented positive results for student success (see http://crl.acrl. org/content/early/2012/12/19/crl12-424.full.pdf+html). In addition to the credit-bearing course, librarians teach information literacy classes by instructor request and in scheduled topical workshops. Courses and workshops are offered face-to-face and online. Librarians serve as liaisons to academic departments and provide reference services (face-to-face and via chat). Reference and instruction activities may include some evening and weekend hours. All librarian appointments are tenure-track faculty positions. As faculty, librarians serve on university committees, support the greater good of the institution and pursue professional development opportunities. IS librarians are expected to have a strong interest in advancing the field of library instruction. Each IS librarian has an area of focus to contribute to the short and long-range goals of the department. Due to the dynamic nature of librarianship and the ever-evolving needs of our patrons, these areas of focus change as IS continuously monitors campus needs and curriculum trends. Therefore, the successful candidate will have diverse interests and talents as well as a desire to grow professionally in new directions. IS is building a positive culture of assessment. Each librarian is responsible for outlining an assessment strategy for his or her area of focus. These strategies will be revised and implemented in a supportive learning environment as the team learns together how to best assess our services.

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Ingram Library recently finished a major building renovation. The library has three instructional spaces for one-shots and the credit-bearing course. The IS office suite is designed to facilitate collaboration among IS librarians. These new spaces provide opportunities for librarians to experiment with emerging pedagogies. The successful candidate will be open to new ideas, willing to take risks and have the ability and courage to fail gracefully and change course when necessary. Required Qualifications: • • • • • • • •

ALA accredited Masters in Library Science in-hand by the start date Comfortable teaching and presenting information in front of a group Strong desire to experiment with new instructional pedagogy and delivery methods Ability to work cooperatively with people from diverse backgrounds Strong communication skills Adept at learning new technologies and using them effectively Quick-thinking and flexible Demonstrated ability to work creatively and collaboratively with others while also pursuing and completing individual projects • Record of establishing and maintaining effective work relationships • Intellectual curiosity

Preferred Qualifications: • • • • • • • • • • •

2 + years professional academic library experience Teaching experience Experience with course management systems Familiarity with assessment methods and standards Comfortable teaching and presenting information in an online environment Subject expertise in a field that is currently taught at UWG Demonstrated success with applying for and securing grants Academic background in business or familiarity with business resources Experience teaching technology usage Project management experience Sense of humor

The University of West Georgia is located in Carrollton, GA, a community approximately one hour west of Atlanta and about 20 miles east of the Alabama state line. As employees of the University System of Georgia, UWG librarians enjoy free tuition for most degrees (through doctoral level) at all University System of Georgia schools. Librarians earn 14 hours of annual leave per month, 8 hours of sick time per month, and twelve assigned paid holidays per year. See http://www.westga.edu/hrpay for other benefits information.

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Appendix B: Telephone Interview Questions 2011 1. What is attractive to you about the position here at the University of West Georgia? 2. What do you think this position (IS Outreach; FYP) will be like? What do you think that you’ll be doing in it? 3. How has your education and/or past experience prepared you for this job? 4. Describe a situation in which you failed. 5. How do you work in groups and what experience have you had working in a group? 6. Give an example of a work situation that you found to be supportive and one that wasn’t. How did you deal with it? What would have made the one that wasn’t better? 7. When you read in the job ad that we strive to create a supportive environment, what image did that conjure up for you? How do you see yourself contributing to a supportive environment? 8. Tell us about a time when you did something no one else would do? 9. In working with a group, think of a time that someone else in the group did not come through. How did that affect you? What did you do? 10. Do you have any questions for us?

2013 1. What attracted you to the position here at UWG? 2. What challenges are you looking for in a position? 3. Describe a particularly stressful, frustrating or chaotic work situation and tell us how you handled it. 4. Describe an environment in which you worked or studied that was supportive. What made it that way? How did you contribute to the supportive environment? 5. What was your best classroom experience? (If you haven’t been a teacher, you can describe what it was like as a student). 6. Can you tell us about a time when you inspired a disinterested student? 7. What management style helps you work effectively and why? 8. [question tailored for each candidate based off of CV or cover letter] 9. Any questions for us?

Appendix C: On-Campus Interview Questions 2011 1. What role do you think Outreach plays in an information literacy program? 2. What strengths do you bring to an instruction position and what areas would you like to improve? 3. How would you characterize your interaction with students in the classroom? 4. What is the most difficult situation you have faced in teaching a class and how did you handle the situation? 5. What do you like about teaching?

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6. What do you dislike about teaching? 7. We asked you on the phone to tell us about a time when you failed. Please now tell us about a time when someone else had to point out to you that you were failing. 8. How do you respond to convergence of deadlines? 9. How do you approach learning new technologies? 10. What do you think the most challenging aspect of this position will be? 11. “Assessment” is a buzzword now in libraries and academia. When thinking of the library’s involvement with Outreach, what are goals you think we can have? And, how can we know if we’ve met them? 12. As you know from the ad and from Anne’s email to you, we are looking to fill two positions: Outreach and First Year Programs. You indicated that you’d like to be considered for both. Have you had much time to think about FYP? And if so, what makes you a good candidate to work with that student population? 13. What questions do you have for us?

2013 1. What strengths do you bring to an instruction position? What areas would you like to improve? 2. What is the most difficult situation you have faced when teaching a class? How did you handle the situation? 3. What are the differences between how you plan a 50-minute one-shot vs. how you plan a 50-minute session in a semester-long credit-bearing course? 4. What are your experiences with assessment? What are the biggest challenges with it? 5. Which technologies do you use in your teaching? How do you use them and why do you find those effective? 6. Which professional organizations would you like to be involved with? If you had to pick two, which conferences (or types of conferences) would you want to attend? 7. Tell us about a time when you had several projects with concurrent deadlines. How did you prioritize them? 8. Describe a time when someone had to point out to you that what you were doing wasn’t working. 9. What do you think the most challenging aspect of this position will be?

Appendix D: Interview Schedules (as Sent to Candidates in Email by Anne Barnhart, Head of Instructional Services) 2011 8:00 Head of IS picks up candidate from hotel 8:15 Candidate meets with Library Business Officer (travel paperwork) 8:30 9:30 Candidate meets with search committee 9:45 10:30 First Year Programs (FYP)/Outreach brainstorming. Candidate meets with 2 people for a brainstorming activity to develop possible

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outreach plans areas on campus. This will be roughly structured in the following manner: 5 minutes introductions and brainstorm to come up with outreach area 10 minutes candidate and IS people talk about possible ways to do outreach in that area 15 minutes for candidate to draft plan 10 minutes group feedback slight refinement 5 more minutes for candidate to take notes on feedback

To prepare for this please be familiar with University of West Georgia First Year Experience and its programs 10:45 11:15 Candidate meets with Associate Dean of Libraries for library tour 11:15 1:15 Lunch and tour of Carrollton (Candidate +3, not Head of IS) 1:30 2:30 Candidate meets with 2 people from IS and comes up with an idea for a lesson plan for an one-shot that includes an active learning exercise. The time will be structured similarly to the Outreach Brainstorming session 2:30 3:30 Candidate prepares presentation (choice of office or Starbucks) 3:30 4:30 Presentation: Candidate presents what they came up with in Outreach Brainstorming and IS Session brainstorming 4:30 5:00 Candidate meets with Dean of Libraries 5:15 5:30 Meet with Head of IS 5:30 6 Wrap-up with Search Committee 6:15 ? Dinner (Head of IS plus 2 others) 2013 8am—get picked up at the hotel 8:30—meet with Search Committee 9:30—break 9:45—candidate talk (IS Suite; coffee available) 10:45—break 11am—meet with Information Literacy Coordinator (and another librarian) 12:00 2:00—lunch and tour of the town (with 3 colleagues) 2pm—meet with Instructional Services librarians (includes tour of the library) 3:15—break 3:30—meet one-on-one with Head of Instructional Services 4:00—meet with Dean or Associate Dean 4:45—meet with Search Committee 6pm—dinner (with Head of IS and 2 other librarians)

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References Attebury, R. I. (2009). The personal question: Revisiting the issue of our online presence and job hunting. C&RL News, 70(4), 220 221. Retrieved from http:// crln.acrl.org/content/70/4/220.full.pdf+html?sid=1566ba84-6f65-4af5-8aff-1c1ca 951b8bb Barnhart, A. C. (2013). Absens haeres non erit: Being in the right place at the right time. In M. K. Aho & E. Bennett (Eds.), Winning allies, combating budget cuts and influencing stakeholders. London, UK: Chandos. Barnhart, A., Cook, J., Critten, J., Pashia, A., Stanfield, A., & Sullivan, D. (2012, June). Sowing the seeds of a successful program: Using unconventional interview techniques to build a strong team. Paper presented at the LOEX of the West Conference, Burbank, CA. Collins, S. (1995). They want to talk to me? Surviving your first professional interview. Library Journal, 120(17), 34 35. Cook, J. M. (in press). A library credit course and student success rates: A longitudinal study [Preprint]. College & Research Libraries. Retrieved from http://crl.acrl. org/content/early/2012/12/19/crl12-424.full.pdf + html De Becker, G. (1997). The gift of fear: Survival signals that protect us from violence. Boston, MA: Little, Brown. Dinerman, G. (1995). The DISRAELI method: The absolutely foolproof way to hire. Library Management, 16(6), 33 36. doi/10.1108/01435129510091838 Dura´n, K., Garcia, E. P., & Houdyshell, M. L. (2009). From the inside out and the outside in: The academic library interview process in a tight economy. C&RL News, 70(4), 216 219. Retrieved from http://crln.acrl.org/content/70/4/216. full.pdf + html Fitsimmons, G. (2010). Directing the personnel search part I: The position announcement. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 23(4), 205 207. doi:10.1108/08880451011104027 Fitsimmons, G. (2011a). Directing the personnel search part II: Notes on contacting applicants. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 24(1), 38 40. doi:10.1108/08880451111142033 Fitsimmons, G. (2011b). Directing the personnel search part III: Preliminary interviews. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 24(2), 110 112. doi:10.1108/08880451111169142 Fitsimmons, G. (2011c). Directing the personnel search part IV: The on-site interview. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 24(3), 157 159. doi:10.1108/ 01420548880451111185973 Goodson, I. F. (2013). Developing narrative theory: Life histories and personal representation. New York, NY: Routledge. Jago, A. (1996). Selecting your team: How to find the right people. Librarian Career Development, 4(3), 27 31. doi:10.1108/09680819610126878 Klehe, U., & Latham, G. P. (2005). The predictive and incremental validity of the situational and patterned behavior description interviews for teamplaying behavior. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13(2). 108 115. doi:10.1111/j,0965 075X.2005,00304.x McKay, R. (2006). Inspired hiring: Tools for success in interviewing and hiring library staff. Library Administration & Management, 20(3), 128 130, 134. Retrieved from http://journals.tdl.org/llm/index.php/llm/article/view/1636/916

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Morgan, S. (2005). What would you do if I asked you to shave your beard off? Top ten ways to succeed at an interview. SCONUL Focus, 35, 7 11. Peele, D. (1978). Fear in the library. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 4(5), 361 365. Pergander, M. (2006). Working knowledge: Mastering the group interview. American Libraries, 37(2), 44. Peterzeil, V. (1999). Using recruitment selectivity to improve an organization’s competitive advantage. HeinOnline Trends in Law Library Management and Technology, 10(4), 5 7. Ralston, S. M., Kirkwood, W. G., & Burant, P. A. (2003). Helping interviewees tell their stories. Business Communication Quarterly, 66(3), 8 22. doi:10.1177/ 108056990306600303 Ream, R. (2000). Why are manhole covers round? How to assure the proper fit during the interview process. Information Today, 17(5), 26 27. Schachter, D. (2005). Building your team with hiring practices. Information Outlook, 9(11), 12 13. Sutton, R. I. (2010). The no asshole rule: Building a civilized workplace and surviving one that isn’t (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Business Plus. Walker, S. (2011). The interview process and beyond. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 24(1), 41 45. doi:10.1108/08880451111142042 Wang, Z., & Guarria, C. (2010). Unlocking the mystery: What academic library search committees look for in filling faculty positions. Technical Services Quarterly, 27(1), 66 86. doi:10.1080/07317130903253449 Wofford, M. (2007). Beyond experience: Five ways to hire good employees. Kitchen & Bath Business, 54(8), 48.

Management of Content Development and Subject Engagement through an Arts Matrix Model: A Case Study Casey D. Hoeve, Ellen R. Urton and Thomas W. Bell Libraries, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

Abstract From 2007 to 2009, Kansas State University Libraries (K-State Libraries) committed to strategically assess and redevelop their organizational structure. The Libraries’ Strategic Plan and position redistributions commenced in 2007 and 2009 respectively, with adjustments in 2010 to accommodate the university’s K-State 2025 Strategic Plan. Together, these changed the roles of former subject librarians, dividing and transferring responsibilities for outreach, reference, instruction, and collection development. Among the more significant changes was the creation of departments devoted to patron groups, rather than specific academic disciplines. Illustrating how the reorganization changed the roles of traditional library services, this chapter outlines the responsibilities of three librarian positions: Undergraduate and Community Services, Faculty and Graduate Services, and Content (collection) Development. The librarians are also founding members of the K-State Libraries Arts Matrix, an ad hoc team operating within the new organization to enhance communication and expand subject expertise in the visual and performing arts. These transitions presented both opportunities for engagement and specialization, as well as challenges to communication and subject identity. These issues are addressed, including solutions offered by the matrix model. Although this study is limited by the neoteric existence of this model, and lack of precedents for comparison, K-State Libraries’ example may offer a viable model for institutions adapting to fiscal realities. Additionally, matrices may supplement the traditional subject librarian model for those seeking to enhance engagement and collaboration. This chapter offers further insight into a strategic planning process, as well as a transparent, inclusive strategy for librarians adjusting to organizational change. Keywords: Collection development; matrix reorganization; engagement; team-based services; academic libraries

MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038001

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I. Introduction Kansas State University (K-State) is a public, 4-year doctoral granting institution, classified as a Research University by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2010). Founded in 1863, K-State was one of the first land-grant institutions in the United States. Presently, K-State is an aggregate of three campuses, with its main campus located in Manhattan, and branch locations in Salina (College of Aviation and Technology) and Olathe (located approximately one and two hours from the main campus, respectively). Additionally, the K-State Office of Research and Extension serves all 105 counties in Kansas, providing community outreach programs to improve the lives of rural and urban citizens (Kansas State University, Research and Extension, 2013b). K-State Libraries collectively support the philosophy and mission of a land-grant institution. It is within this environment that the K-State Libraries Arts Matrix operates, advocating for the visual and performing arts at a university that excels in and emphasizes traditional land-grant subjects including agriculture, engineering, and the sciences. The initial steps of the Libraries’ strategic planning and reorganization began in 2007, in response to technological advances and current trends in library service models, and to align with the strategic goals of the university. The authors present this narrative as a means to describe a lesser known team-based model that is not currently well documented in the academic literature. The choices made by administration are detailed, as well as the strategies implemented to adequately represent all library employees in the decision making process. Additionally, a comparison of the traditional configuration prior to the reorganization establishes the scope of the changes and contextualizes the impact of the new structure on the roles of the librarians discussed in this case study. Documentation of the K-State Libraries’ process offers a method of evaluating the matrix model that will allow other institutions insight into the impact of this unique organizational structure. The experiences of the founding members of the Arts Matrix in this transition provide an example of how one of the K-State Libraries’ matrices functions within the new organizational structure. Through this example, this study presents issues common to all disciplines as they adapt to fiscal realities and technological automations, while striving to make library resources and services more desirable to the academic enterprise in their unique communities. Since the evolution of planning and its ensuing implementation took place over a protracted period of time, Fig. 1 provides the overall timeline of events and show when they occurred.

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Creation of K-State Libraries new strategic plan Libraries Reorganization announcement to Libraries’ staff K-State 2025 University Strategic Plan begins Hiring of Associate Deans, Assistant Deans and Department Heads for reorganization of Libraries Transition of librarians and staff into new roles Creation and meeting of undocumented matrices Libraries Office of Planning and Assessment post reorganization survey Arts Matrix first meeting Authorization of matrix groups by Libraries Office of Planning and Assessment Matrices meeting on a regular basis to provide services to users.

Fig. 1 K-State Libraries reorganization timeline.

II. Strategic Planning A. Libraries’ Strategic Plan This overview of the K-State Libraries’ organization and strategic planning process highlights the rationale behind the decision to reorganize the library system beginning in 2007. The Libraries strategic plan established

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the philosophical framework that underlies the matrix model and produced significant impacts upon content development and subject engagement by librarians. Its preceding plan tentatively expired in 2006, requiring modifications to reflect current trends in academic service models. Subsequently, adjustments were also requisite to meeting forthcoming challenges in library services, including prioritized areas of information literacy, collection management, and e-resource proficiency. A strategic planning committee facilitated the development of objectives and the finalized plan was expected to be implemented in incremental stages from 2007 to 2012, after which, it would be subject to review and alteration. A total of 13 librarians and administrators were selected to serve on an ad hoc strategic planning committee; with the committee’s first act being the generation of a report profiling the status of the Libraries. It was determined that the previous plan was unable to adapt to forthcoming challenges of digital information, specifically prospective advancement in the next five years. Committee representatives met with department members and university stakeholders, finalizing A Living Strategic Plan (K-State Libraries, 2006) which outlined five specific goals for the Libraries, given below with page number citations. 1. Goals 1 and 2 Goals 1 and 2 stated that “Our patrons will find collections tailored and managed to meet their changing needs and advance the priorities of the university” and “Our users will have seamless, user-driven access to reliable information, scholarship, and services when and where needed and have opportunities to learn how to effectively use and apply these resources” (p. 4). They established the means to apply greater levels of metric analyses to decision making processes, creating an academically sound collection which encouraged use through the provision of popular and sustainable formats. As evidenced by changing trends in library usage and materials purchasing, it was generally observed that acquisitions of electronic based content had been steadily increasing, corresponding with the availability of e-resources offered by information vendors. The sheer availability and duplication of materials in print and digital formats, as well as physical media and streaming content, yielded an opportunity to better assess what patrons were using, specifically addressing format preferences. In addition to improving acquisition methodology, the Libraries recognized the need for advanced instructional services to complement modern resources in the collection. K-State Libraries prided themselves on excellent

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customer service; however, it was clear that new technologies created a literacy gap in faculty and student research capabilities. Goal 2 therefore dictated a shift in the traditional service model, allowing librarians to become more accessible and to “take the library to the user” (p. 5). Addressing the evolving roles of contemporary academic librarians as teachers and partners in crafting educational experiences enabled additional innovative practices for collaborating and communicating with patrons. Information literacy sessions were tailored to fit new electronic interfaces, providing students and faculty with skill sets for lifelong learning and technological adaptations. Traditional elements of information literacy were retained in the instructional model to help users develop into critical examiners of authoritative scholarship. 2. Goal 3 This goal mandated that “The Libraries will increasingly support the creation, discovery, sharing, and preservation of the unique digital academic and institutional knowledge assets produced at our university” (p. 6). It implemented a scholarly communications and open-access publishing framework within the Libraries. The acquisition and conversion of materials was to be completed by the Libraries, with incentives to subsidize faculty open-access publishing. The creation of New Prairie Press in 2007, the open-access publisher of Kansas State University, provided free support and hosting of journals started by faculty, scholarly organizations, or students (New Prairie Press, 2013). The third goal also supported the digitization of additional materials as recommended by University Archives and Special Collections employees to best guide the collection of historical materials representing the State of Kansas, and Kansas State University (p. 6). Educational outreach was to be combined with this program to provide relevant information about the fair use of publications, open-access licensing models, and the attribution of metadata to digital content. The initial criteria would strategize acquisition methods and format preferences, thus defining a process for preserving, storing, and managing university resources in the future. 3. Goal 4 The purpose of this goal was to ensure that “Our users will find innovative and welcoming learning spaces, both physical and virtual, that stimulates learning, continually respond to user needs, and enrich the library experience” (p. 8).

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The changing functions of library space, patron demands, and again, the expanding roles of librarians helped to formulate the ideas stated in Goal 4. The Libraries wished to remain progressive in comparison with peer institutions, offering popular services representative of modern educational needs. Many of the service trends involved converting materials storage areas into study space, and expanding library assistance beyond the reference desk, as well as beyond physical spaces entirely. The new strategic plan envisioned more support for physical and virtual environments, including innovative online learning objects (such as LibGuides, online resource tutorials, virtual tours, online reference help, 24/7 library access), and the provision of amenities to support a communal atmosphere. It was also anticipated that the library would host several cultural programs and speakers throughout the year to engage the campus community, and function as a focal point for collaborative university learning. 4. Goal 5 This stated that “Our internal capacity will expand so we can deliver 21st century library and information services aligned with the University’s missions and academic priorities” (p. 9). This addressed the internal capacity of the Libraries, and the need for flexibility to respond to transitions in the information environment. Successful completion of Goals 1 4 were contingent upon the Libraries’ ability to empower staff, and allow them the latitude to co-create new roles and to acclimate to new responsibilities. The previous strategic plan was dually explicit in its intention, recognizing that objectives should coalesce with campus culture and university strategic planning. To enhance services for users, positions were to be evaluated to improve core work processes, thus utilizing a project plan to refine roles for more efficient service models. Appropriate staffing was deemed critical for maintaining service levels, and it was additionally recognized that staff size should increase as needed to fill vacant or underserved areas of the library. As the planning phase continued, the Libraries made additional modifications to the strategic plan in 2009, and prioritized the following valued outcomes: • • • • • •

Move from a collection-centered to a user-centered organization; Recognize diverse user needs; Make data-driven decisions about resources through improved quantitative and qualitative; Data collection and assessment; Improve delivery, coordination of information services; Manage for flexibility and relevance to users;

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Clarify reporting relations and balance supervisory workload; Streamline workflows; Reallocate human resources to new, emerging needs in order to be more adaptable; and Maximize staff strengths, talents, and interests (K-State Libraries, 2009a, p. 2).

When these objectives were juxtaposed with the library’s organizational structure at the time, it was concluded that the structure was too narrow in scope, and yielded fewer opportunities for shared user-centered initiatives. In addition, the Libraries anticipated a 15% workforce reduction as the result of a university hiring freeze, resignations, and retirements. These cutbacks significantly reduced the Libraries’ capacity to put the strategic planning processes into motion, and the decrease in faculty and staff left service gaps in crucial library functions. The Libraries administration made the tough decision to transform the structure, and the job responsibilities of most K-State Libraries faculty members. As the University unveiled its new Strategic Plan in 2010 K-State 2025 (Kansas State University, Office of the President, 2013a), these adjustments were able to better accommodate long term planning and assessment, fitting with the university’s goal of becoming a top 50 public research institution by 2025.

III. K-State Libraries Reorganization A. Pre-Reorganization (2008) The following discussion offers a snapshot of the K-State Libraries structure before and after the 2009 2010 reorganization to contextualize the impact of changes on content development practices and subject engagement. Previous to the organizational change, K-State Libraries utilized the traditional subjectdivisional model, similar to the approach popularized in the 1930s by Ralph Ellsworth at the University of Colorado (Kent, Lancour, & Daily, 1978), and Richard Offer at the University of Leeds (Feetham, 2006). At K-State, subject librarians were responsible for performing outreach, instruction, and collection development for specific academic disciplines, usually assigned according to undergraduate or advanced degree expertise. As shown in Fig. 2, all library departments were required to report directly to one Associate Dean, responsible for management of subject departments, or the Dean of the Libraries, responsible for financial and facilities services, and human resources. The subject divisions (nonadministration) were divided into nine departments: 1. Government Documents and Microforms 2. General Information Services

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Asst. to the Dean, Collaborative Initiatives

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Head, General Information Services Department

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Architecture & Design Library

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Math & Physics Library

Rare Books

Serials & Acquisitions

Applications Development

Monograph Acquisitions

Content Development

Binding

Fiedler Engineering Library

Desktop Support

Liaison with Vet Medical Library Liaison with K-State Salina Library

Fig. 2 Organization chart, 2008 (K-State Libraries, 2008b).

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Social Sciences and Humanities Public Relations and Communications Coordination Sciences Special Collections and Archives Cataloging and Serials Department Digital Initiatives Collection Services

Divisions operated under relatively autonomous conditions, with a department head supervising librarians and staff under each sub-division. Branch libraries were classified according to subject, including the library at the K-State Salina campus. Subject specialists for the Sciences, Social Sciences, and the Humanities engaged in outreach and instructions at all levels (community, undergraduate, graduate, and faculty), and undertook collection development for monograph resources. For serials and databases, subject specialists consulted with a Collections Council, which vetted requests regarding substantial purchases and academic discipline-based monograph fund allocations. The Collections Council, consisting of departmental representatives and chairs, the Consortial Liaison, the Associate Dean, and the Acquisitions Librarian acted as the decision making body. The Council’s charge included collections decision making, budget allocation, policy development and use assessment of current resources. Subject librarians coordinated purchasing with the Acquisitions Librarian, who processed requests according to the consensus of the Collections Council, collection priorities, budget, accessibility, and licensing terms. Under the new reorganization (2009), the appointments of Dean of Libraries and Associate Dean continued, but two Assistant Dean positions were added to head two newly created divisions, along with a Senior Director for Administrative Services/IT and a Director of Human Resources and Diversity. The Associate Dean and Assistant Deans were charged with the task of creating new position descriptions, and determining how job duties would transfer from old divisions into a new structure (Kansas State University, News Services, 2010). B. Post-Reorganization (2009 2010) The reorganization model, unique in its implemented form, was loosely modeled on philosophies exemplified by other libraries and nonlibrary professions. During the planning process, library administrators examined the team-based service model used by the University of Guelph Library. Guelph shared circumstances similar to K-State, citing a constrained budget and reduced library staff as motivators for change. It was believed that

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a team-based service model would better leverage expertise across the library (University of Guelph Library, 2013), and increase staff flexibility as new challenges materialized. A comparable team-service model was also introduced at the University of Arizona Libraries, confirming that teams could quickly adapt to technological changes in information services (Andrade & Zaghloul, 2010). The Library administration was adamantly explicit in stating that no librarians or staff members would have to forfeit their job as a result of the reorganization. To diminish fears, support services were offered, aligning each employee’s expertise with a potential new appointment. Brief surveys were evaluated by the Associate Dean, Assistant Deans, and department heads to determine interests and skill sets, producing a list of available jobs which most closely matched their responses. Positions were then prioritized according to preference, allowing for comparison against the selections of other colleagues. Much to the delight of library administration, most librarians were able to obtain their first choice. For those who were not able to receive their desired position, extra training was offered to help them make a smoother transition to new responsibilities (K-State Libraries, 2009a). Completion of the organizational chart in 2010 unveiled four new areas, as shown in Fig. 3: • Associate Dean: Communications, Marketing, and the Office of Planning and Assessment (LPA) • Content Management and Scholarly Communications: Content Management, Scholarly Communications, Acquisitions, Interlibrary Loan, and Resource Linking • Research Education and Engagement: Undergraduate and Community Services, Faculty and Graduate Services, Circulation, and University Archives and Special Collections • Administrative and Information Technology Services: Administration, Financial Services, Building Services, and Information Technology

Within each area, multiple departments were furcated, with a department head supervising major projects, librarians, and library staff. 1. Associate Dean The Office of Communications and Marketing coordinates all events at the Libraries, including exhibits, Friends of the K-State Libraries fundraisers, and scholarly lectures, and also provides a consistent voice and image for the organization (signs, pamphlets, and promotional items). Web Services frequently partners with marketing to maintain a relevant web presence, and serves as the primary agent for enhancing usability of the library web site. Under the Associate Dean, the Libraries’ Office of Planning and Assessment (LPA) functions as the steward of the Libraries’ strategic plan, organizing responses, themes, and metrics into a feasible procedure. LPA

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K-State Libraries reorganization chart, 2010. Fig. 3

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also compiles statistics for internal and external reports, and assists with outcome analysis and accreditation (K-State Libraries, 2009b). 2. Content Management and Scholarly Communications The establishment of the division of Content Management and Scholarly Communications constitutes the most significant change to collection development. This division specializes in the provision of technical services to the Libraries. Duties previously assigned to individual subject librarians and members of the Collections Council were transferred to the purview of Content Development librarians. Content (collection) Development is primarily responsible for the evaluation and selection of all information resources, as well as undertaking collection management projects such as patron driven acquisitions, collection analysis, and weeding. The Acquisitions unit performs purchasing and budgetary management tasks, including interlibrary loan fulfillment and licensing, while the Resource Sharing Unit maintains link resolvers and web scale discovery systems (K-State Libraries, 2009b). The Cataloging and Metadata department collaborates with Content Development and Acquisitions to process all information resources purchased by the Libraries. This unit also executes material location transfers, the bulk loading of catalog and metadata records to the server, and assists Scholarly Communications with assigning metadata to digital repository objects. The Preservation unit functions alongside Cataloging and Metadata, managing the stacks and a storage annex, and applying appropriate treatments to damaged or at-risk materials (K-State Libraries, 2009b). 3. Research, Education, and Engagement The Research, Education, and Engagement Division (REED) provides reference and instructional services to the university and the community. Faculty and Graduate Services (FGS) focuses specifically upon the educational needs of K-State faculty and graduate students, whereas the Undergraduate and Community Services (UCS) department develops instructional content for first-year programs, undergraduate students, and the local community. Although reference is housed in and primarily staffed by the UCS department, employees from multiple departments contribute hours to the Library Help Desk and online reference service. REED librarians consult with Content Development librarians to assist with resource selection, and to develop collections for curriculum support. University Archives and Special Collections maintain a reading room, and are responsible for collecting

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university records, manuscripts, and rare books collections. Special Collections librarians additionally collaborate with Content Development librarians and preservation staff to evaluate collections, and relocate selected materials to Special Collections (K-State Libraries, 2009b). 4. Administrative and Information Technology Services The Administrative and Information Technology (IT) Services Division is responsible for the operational aspects of K-State Libraries. The Human Resources unit assists with hiring, professional development training, payroll, and addressing the concerns of library employees. The Financial Services unit communicates with Content Development and university financial services to coordinate purchases of library resources, professional development reimbursement, and facilities expenditures. The Building Services unit manages facilities upkeep, event set up, emergency response, and security. Additionally, the IT unit maintains the library’s technological infrastructure, integrates library and campus systems, and provides technical support (K-State Libraries, 2009b). The reorganization ultimately transformed the Libraries from a subjectdivision model into a team-based model. Librarians who had grown accustomed to participating in all three fundamental components of subject specialist librarianship (reference, instruction, collection development), were tasked with reference and instruction, while primary responsibility for collection development was reassigned to Content Development librarians. In the case of research, education, and engagement, some librarians who were previously assigned by subject specialization joined departments that were defined by user groups rather than academic disciplines. Many former librarians chose either Undergraduate and Community Services (UCS) or Faculty/ Graduate Services (FGS) as their new departmental “home,” and other used the reorganization as an opportunity to explore an entirely different aspect of librarianship in one of the new departments or divisions.

IV. Position Restructuring and Role Transformations A. Former Roles of Subject Librarians Two of the former subject librarians (and founding members of the Arts Matrix) elected to join Undergraduate and Community Services (UCS) and Faculty/Graduate Services (FGS) and were originally hired to work with academic disciplines in the visual and performing arts. The Visual Arts

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Librarian was initially liaison to the Department of Art, and the Apparel, Textiles and Interior Design Department, then subsequently, the College of Architecture, Planning, and Design. The Performing Arts Librarian served as liaison for Music, Theater, Dance, and Communication Studies. The core responsibilities of these two positions were consistent with the traditional subject-collection model, including reference, instruction, collection development, and building relationships with faculty (outreach), thereby establishing a recognized role as a university peer. 1. Instruction and Reference Prior to hiring the Visual Arts Librarian and Performing Arts Librarian, there were few formal instruction sessions in place, and there was limited integration of library and information skills in the curriculum for the disciplines to which they were assigned. As these subject librarians became better acquainted with faculty and the curricula, they collaborated with instructors to plan library visits and instructional sessions for specific classes, and to integrate both information literacy and visual literacy standards into courses. These two subject librarians increasingly worked with their assigned disciplines to investigate and creatively integrate research and information skills, eventually becoming essential parts of the department curricula. Both practiced “embedded librarianship,” cultivating a strong presence in courses, and even co-teaching on occasion. The Collections Council necessitated that current and potential uses of library collections motivate purchasing decisions and therefore this close collaboration on instruction additionally benefitted collection development practices. With intimate knowledge of the curriculum, the subject librarians were able to apply their deep understanding of teaching and research in the disciplines to collection development choices. 2. Faculty Outreach For both the Visual Arts Librarian and the Performing Arts Librarian, one of the most crucial elements of faculty outreach was visibility. This obligated librarians to attend department-sponsored events, exhibit openings, and performances, and also seek avenues to increase time spent in departments and meet departmental faculty. By becoming acquainted with faculty and students in more social settings, librarians enriched their insights into the research interests of the campus arts community. They additionally benefited from enhanced collaboration in graduate and faculty research as both consultants and as co-authors. As the librarians developed rapport

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through their involvement in the departments, campus arts, and local arts communities, they gradually established reputations as peers in many of the academic departments with which they liaised. Faculty engagement coupled with instruction activities also conveyed trust in their knowledge and understanding of the arts disciplines, as well as in their abilities to advocate for the information needs of faculty and students. 3. Collection Development Their collection development responsibilities involved accepting requests from faculty, and continually discussing research and teaching requirements to establish collection priorities. This enabled librarians to seek appropriate materials of interest, such as monographs, databases, journal subscriptions, and media, and to construct collection development policies and approval plans. Since approval plans often fail to serve as a panacea for collection development, additional work was required creating resource lists, and developing strategies to acquire materials. In certain circumstances, this also involved applying for special funds, with which to build the collections in particularly underrepresented areas. Librarians were also able to serve as a resource for faculty in terms of discovering key vendors and publishers. Both librarians were well also connected to a network of art, architecture, music, and theater librarians through active participation in professional organizations. B. Current Roles of UCS and FGS Librarians (2011 2013) 1. Instruction and Reference In the new model, the former Visual Arts Librarian chose to work as an Undergraduate and Community Services Librarian (UCS) and the former Performing Arts Librarian chose to work as a Faculty/Graduate Services Librarian (FGS). All UCS and FGS librarians began with common position descriptions. Eight UCS Librarians and six Undergraduate Specialists provide instruction for undergraduate courses and undergraduate research consultations, as well as partner with campus co-curricular units and departments to liaise with the undergraduate community. Ten FGS librarians are responsible for instruction in graduate courses and consulting on graduate and faculty research. Each department determined which individual librarians and specialists would work with each of the academic disciplines, and made these assignments in consultation with their departmental library colleagues, primarily based on the academic background, expertise, and

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interests of each librarian or specialist. Since the reorganization, librarians are no longer encouraged to cultivate “ownership” of a discipline, but are instead expected to work collaboratively with library colleagues in multiple units and departments to develop the best means of meeting the unique needs of each program. Additionally, the UCS Department has responsibility for the Library Help Desk, and library colleagues from a variety of departments help to staff both in-person and virtual reference services with regular weekly shifts. Reference service is required of UCS Librarians and specialists. Within UCS, librarians may elect to focus on either reference or instruction, although everyone contributes to both activities. Undergraduate Specialists were hired to support reference, outreach, and instruction, often teaching first-year information literacy sessions and working with highenrollment courses. Many smaller teams were formed within the UCS Department as necessitated by collaborative teaching or shared outreach endeavors. Additionally, as the UCS department identified unmet needs, new positions were created to focus on functional specialties rather than on academic disciplines. An Undergraduate Experience Librarian, for example, collaborates across campus to tether the Libraries to various campus-wide undergraduate educational initiatives. Additionally, an Instructional Design Librarian and two Instructional Design Residents develop innovative learning objects used in reference and instruction. Similar to UCS, the FGS Department has begun to create functional roles to address specialized services that do not fall within a subject classification, such as a Data Services Librarian position. Librarians in FGS bear more resemblance to subject librarians within their department, but collaborate across departmental lines to contribute to interdisciplinary teams.

2. Faculty Outreach Currently, the UCS department has a total of four employees working with the arts disciplines and FGS has four contributing to the arts fields (including architecture and design). Since the two former subject librarians had established relationships with a broad range of academic departments these two current UCS and FGS Librarians collaborate most closely to strategize and coordinate work across departmental boundaries. To synchronize efforts in teaching and research support for nearly the same arts disciplines that each previously worked on as subject librarians, they both share responsibility for communicating their activities with the Department of Art, College of Architecture, Planning, and Design, and the School of Music, Theater, and Dance.

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3. Collection Development In the current organizational structure, the UCS and FGS librarians continue to collaborate on collection development but do so from the periphery. With the addition of a Content Development Librarian dedicated to development and management of collections in the Arts, Architecture, and Humanities disciplines, the UCS and the FGS Librarians in the Arts Matrix no longer need to oversee sizeable monograph budgets, and other traditional collection development tasks. Although time spent on the day-to-day activities of collection development is dramatically reduced, both the UCS and FGS Librarian continue to inform and advise these processes as partners with the Content Development Librarian responsible for the Arts and Humanities. Each of the former subject librarians possesses a depth of knowledge not only of the outstanding needs and wants of K-State patrons, but also of the K-State Libraries collections and how those collections may or may not be relevant to the curriculum and current research undertakings. Additionally, established in professional organizations, they also possess knowledge of best practices from the collective wisdom in the arts, having met with key vendors at conferences and subscribed to essential catalogs. The process of sharing this expertise selectively and meaningfully with the Content Development Librarian is ongoing. C. Current Role of a Content Development Librarian The Content Development Librarian for Arts, Architecture, and the Humanities presented a unique case for the redevelopment of the organizational structure. Being one of the few librarians not employed at K-State Libraries during the prior model, the reorganization did not affect his previous responsibilities and relationships within the university community. This position was an anomaly within the Content Development and Acquisitions Department, where Content Development Librarians for the Sciences and Social Sciences served as subject specialists in their previous traditional roles. In conjunction with navigating the new organizational structure, the disparity of expertise between the Content Development Librarian and former subject specialists yielded additional challenges. The Content Development Librarian attained a bachelor’s degree in Biomedical Science and Middle East History, but possessed limited knowledge of Arts, Architecture, and the Humanities. Rather than assignment of one or two new subjects, the Content Development Librarian was expected to provide specialized collection services for a broad range of departments: Apparel,

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Textiles, and Interior Design, Architecture (with a branch library), Art, English, Dance, Modern Languages and English as a Second Language (ESL), Music, Philosophy, and Theater. This initial lack of subject expertise served as the root catalyst for the establishment of the Arts Matrix to balance experience in the matrix and to reconcile the components of instruction, outreach, and collection development. The Content Development Librarian’s available expertise in Biomedical Science and History, however, afforded excellent preparation for addressing new collection management trends. Much of collection development has shifted toward increased reliance upon analytical data, syncretizing usage statistics (and cost per use) with strategic acquisitions (see Morris, 2012). Given humanities professional’s general distaste for metric assessment and number crunching, the Content Development Librarian’s skills released the FGS and UCS Librarians from these less gratifying tasks. It has also expanded the Content Development Librarian’s role of interaction among librarians and university department faculty by serving as a consulting liaison for collection management activities, exploring resource needs with greater depth, and developing broad strategies for supporting research and teaching. Under the reorganization model, aspects of collection development can receive more attention than experienced in the past. What was the parttime responsibility of subject librarians, has evolved into the full-time time responsibility of the Content Development Librarian. Although many former subject librarians continue to consider themselves to be spokespersons for the departments to which they were once assigned, Content Development librarians are the main advocates of resource purchases for the humanities, sciences, and social sciences. This ensures that budgetary allocations are fairly distributed, and that the Head of Content Development is apprised of specific details to better justify purchases in a given fiscal year. In addition to proposing resource purchases, Content Development librarians provide much of the research, evaluation, and technical work that leads up to purchase proposals. Content Development librarians review vendor and consortia offerings, selecting only the product trials that strategically enhance library collections. They also configure trials in the electronic resource management system (ERM), and work with UCS and FGS librarians and university faculty to complete comprehensive resource evaluations, including annual subscription renewals. This liberates UCS and FGS Librarians to tend to their core responsibilities, and efficiently articulate input at the point it is required. Furthermore, Content Development Librarians maintain all aspects of collections budgets, firm orders, and approval plans. Managing a broader range of subjects attributes a holistic,

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less partisan approach to materials acquisitions; money can be redistributed according to need within a given fiscal year, without being encumbered by specific subject biases and budget expectations. With regard to policies, Content Development Librarians collaborate with library administration, crafting statements concerning the acceptance of gifts, collection evaluations, collection development plans, and appropriate workflows for weeding. UCS and FGS Librarians are typically consulted once a policy has been drafted to share additional concerns as needed. This was a significant change, giving more autonomy to the Content Development Librarian who is charged with managing collections based on metrics, consultations with library faculty, departmental faculty, and professional expertise. This arrangement makes it vital that the Content Development Librarian pursue, build relationships with, and communicate well with the above named stakeholders. Although library instruction is conducted by UCS and FGS Librarians, Content Development librarians frequently partner with UCS and FGS to engage in department outreach. The two UCS and FGS Librarians on the Arts Matrix played pivotal roles in introducing the Humanities Content Development Librarian to key stakeholders in his assigned departments. Each librarian serves as a liaison in some capacity, and can direct the faculty member, graduate student, or undergraduate student to the appropriate librarian for assistance. Patrons are typically referred to Content Development Librarians to answer questions about purchasing materials, setting up product trials, or collection evaluations. Reciprocally, Content Development Librarians encourage faculty members to speak with UCS and FGS Librarians if it is evident that they require research and instructional services. This illustrates the strength of the Matrix System which more efficiently allows the stakeholder to communicate with the person who can most helpfully address their concern.

V. Matrices A. Matrix Model A significant component of the Libraries’ reorganization plan was the addition of matrices. A matrix was conceived of as a functional, ad hoc group, for the purpose of addressing interdisciplinary challenges and interdepartmental collaboration. A matrix was viewed as a viable solution to unifying library departments and assembling professional expertise, while maintaining a large degree of autonomy in everyday activities.

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The use of matrices is not an exclusive practice of library and information science. The matrix model first developed as the result of labor restructuring in the aerospace industry in the 1960s (Galbraith, 1971). Management sought a more efficient method to improve communication among specialists in isolated roles, and a model that prevented the need to hire additional, intermediary personnel (Galbraith, 1971). The matrix model was viewed as a compromise between functional structures and project organization to maximize both the use of employee labor and specialized knowledge. Lower level employees were given moderate decision making authority to improve turnaround time, while specialists were only summoned to provide input as needed. It was believed that this measure would prevent jargon dominant meetings, or potential project hijacking by specialists with a narrow comprehension of the project charter (Galbraith, 1971). The health care and engineering professions have also chosen to adopt matrix models as a productive method of operation. The engineering industry has refined the original structure, adding three gradient models that vary in authority and responsibility (Kuprenas, 2003). In a functional matrix, coordinating authority is given to the project manager, while the department managers still retain control over their staff. In a balanced matrix, project managers and department managers equally share responsibility, making collaborative decisions regarding resource and staff allocation. Lastly, a project matrix places the most authority in the hands of project managers, with the department managers assigning staff members or expertise as needed (Kuprenas, 2003). B. K-State Libraries: Matrices When the Libraries new organizational chart was mapped, several new relationships were visualized. Commonalities were assessed, and dotted lines were drawn to link divisions that could potentially contribute to interdisciplinary functions. Draft departmental descriptions generally embraced the idea of a “matrix” group, but most were unsure of how each division would provide support, and which staff members would be involved. The original vision mimicked the Project Matrix model described by Kuprenas (2003), underpinned by the belief that “matrices should function as high level policy-making groups, while implementation would be accomplished by project teams pulled from across the organization” (K-State Libraries, 2009d). Initial pairings served as prototype matrices for the reorganization, and emerged out of themes consisting of collections, services, and digital initiatives. In theory, matrices were meant to evolve organically as the

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reorganization progressed based on the needs identified by staff; therefore, these examples illustrated the philosophical framework and potential for matrices to facilitate communication and collaboration. Due to the inherent fluidity of the matrix model, from 2009 to 2010, library staff expressed confusion about these partnerships, and requested clarification about the internal composition of a matrix. The purpose of each matrix was generally unclear to library staff, and there was little indication as to how many staff members should serve on a matrix, and who would be asked to participate (K-State Libraries, 2010). It was also undecided if authority could be given to make decisions, or if a member could serve as a proxy for the Dean, Associate Dean, or Assistant Deans (K-State Libraries, 2009e). As new projects emerged, it was deemed necessary to reevaluate the purpose of the matrix model. The Services, Collections, and Digital Initiatives matrices were too large to be effective, and it became apparent that more granular matrices were needed. Rather than forming matrices at the department head level, librarians and staff asked permission to create their own matrices, addressing library functions and curriculum based support initiatives. The Collections and Services matrices gradually dissolved, with functions being served in subject matrices. In the case of the Digital Initiatives matrix, it was split into two more manageable groups (Figs. 4 6).

Fig. 4 Sample matrix handout Service matrix, 2009.

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Fig. 5 Sample matrix handout Collections matrix, 2009.

Fig. 6

Sample matrix handout Digital Initiatives matrix, 2009.

During the next phase, smaller matrices began to cultivate informally throughout the Libraries, yet general confusion still persisted as there was no clear definition as to how the matrices would function, or what the formal structure would resemble. Staff meetings were convened to discuss these

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issues, but they were unable to determine if matrices should operate at the subject level, or if they could be developed to support popular classes at the university (K-State Libraries, 2010). Several departments, such as Content Development, listed how matrices would be beneficial to link other units, but did not indicate that any members presently belonged to confirmed matrices. It was also asked or if matrices could enact decisions, thus demonstrating a hesitancy to form matrices if authority were severely restricted (K-State Libraries, 2011b). Without any formal procedures in place, several matrix groups emerged, but often existed without the knowledge of other library members. This inevitably led to multiple groups addressing similar concepts, independently of one another, The Faculty Recruitment matrix (K-State Libraries, 2008a) wavered between a standing body of regular members, and individual search committees that were formed to hire specific positions. The Libraries IT Committee labeled themselves as an unofficial (and therefore unidentified) matrix, citing that their duties fell within the definition implied by library administration, that is, pulling individuals from across the organization together to work on a common goal (K-State Libraries, 2009c). Additionally, subject matrices had been designed in several areas, but it was difficult to discern what groups currently existed, and what services should be managed, such as replacing the Collections Council that formally advised resource purchases (K-State Libraries, 2011a). On October 24, 2011, the Libraries’ Office of Planning and Assessment (LPA) released a survey (see Appendix A) for the purpose of analyzing the effectiveness of the reorganization. Out of the 109 total faculty and staff members at K-State Libraries, 41 employees responded (38%), offering feedback about the positive and negative aspects of changing jobs and responsibilities. Overall, 81 percent viewed the reorganization as somewhat successful to very successful. Nineteen percent believed the transition was unsuccessful, and that further work was needed to rectify problematic conditions (K-State Libraries, 2011c). Among the dissenting opinions, employees expressed the need for more staffing and better communication. There were several comments regarding matrices, with some asking if matrices would be used or not, or if they were creating matrices correctly, requesting more formalized parameters. From the feedback received, it was determined that LPA would spearhead documentation for matrix groups (K-State Libraries, 2011b). The Head of LPA sent out a Libraries-wide call, requesting that matrix-like assemblies identify themselves for evaluation. The Head of LPA visited each group as they met over July and August of 2012. Matrix members were asked to provide the following information:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

An official title for the matrix Matrix members Purpose of the matrix Missions or goals Specific projects to be completed or outcomes achieved Meeting frequency Minutes from a past meeting

Subsequently, most of the matrix groups were approved or conditionally approved by the K-State Libraries Office of Planning and Assessment, with the understanding that revisions would be made to clarify goals, meeting frequency, or participating members. Nine matrix groups were formally confirmed, and currently operate at K-State Libraries (as of mid-2013): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

AgBioSci Digital preservation Digital projects Education Government documents Humanities Social sciences Sustainability Arts (art; music; theater/dance)

At the end of the evaluation cycle, the Libraries’ Office of Planning and Assessment asked that all library staff coordinate future matrix development through its department. Additionally, LPA offered to provide continued guidance to current matrices, if it was felt the mediation was needed to improve efficiency (Table 1). Table 1 K-State Libraries List of Matrices List of matrices, updated in October 2012 Name AgBiosci Digital preservation Digital projects Education Gov docs Humanities Social science Sustainability Arts

Organizer

Frequency 2/month 1/month 1/month 1/month As needed 1/semester 2/month 1/July 1/semester

Members

Art

Note: K-State Libraries, Office of Planning and Assessment (2012).

Music

Theater/dance

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Although many matrix groups are similar in structure, most function differently to achieve distinctive goals. For purposes of this case study, the Arts Matrix illustrates how a matrix has replaced the traditional subject division model. In the next portion of the chapter, the interworking of the matrix will be analyzed in further detail, including an assessment of the advantages and disadvantages of working in this particular organizational model. C. K-State Libraries: Arts Matrix A review of the literature uncovered an existing gap in the study of matrix groups and libraries. Whereas several studies have analyzed the use of matrices in the aerospace, engineering, and nursing occupations, no research has explicitly covered library matrices. Rather, the profession seems to use the term “team-based organization” which as an overarching designation is opaque, and defines a variety of models. Therefore, K-State Libraries offers herein a unique glimpse of the Arts Matrix and its constituents within a holistic frame, including an assessment the matrix model itself and its ability to provide essential library services. The Arts Matrix was catalyzed by a personnel change and the hiring of a new librarian to fill the Content Development Librarian position for Arts, Architecture, and the Humanities in September 2011. Since the new hire was not familiar with K-State’s current department faculty and research priorities, formation of a matrix group was regarded as an opportunity for former subject specialists to transfer their expertise to the new librarian, as well as avenue for the Content Development Librarian to disseminate knowledge or solicit feedback on resource purchases. The beginning stages of matrix development were completed electronically, with potential members communicating by e-mail. The tenured and most senior member of the forthcoming Arts Matrix surveyed all library members, gauging interest in a matrix to brainstorm collaborative services in the Arts disciplines. Those who wished to participate met in April 2012 to begin conceptualizing what would become the Arts Matrix. The initial stakeholders in the Arts Matrix were the UCS Librarian for the Arts and Architecture, the FGS Librarian for the Arts and Architecture, and the new Content Development Librarian for Arts, Architecture, and the Humanities. Additional employees in UCS, FGS, and Scholarly Communications were asked to join, as well as UCS Specialists who assist with instruction and reference in the Arts disciplines, all in consultation with their supervisors. At present the matrix has eight members, with select members granted consulting membership, allowing for meeting attendance

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only when their area of expertise was needed or a particular agenda item was of interest. This arrangement sought to improve job efficiency, and maximize members’ abilities to concentrate on essential responsibilities. The first two meetings in April and August of 2012 were utilized to compose a statement of goals. Members unanimously agreed on an informal structure, which offered enough flexibility to resolve immediate and long standing matters. An online document was shared among all group members, providing collaborative access to meeting notes, and future meeting agendas. Although malleability was a crucial characteristic of the matrix, it was generally recognized that some themes should be instituted to impose some guidance and progression toward outcomes. At this point, the matrices are autonomous in order to allow them to address the unique needs of their stakeholders. A discussion elicited the following categories to serve as a regular meeting agenda structure for the Arts Matrix: announcements, discussion/feedback, projects, professional development, and socializing. Some examples of how each of these is currently used by the Arts matrix group follow below. 1. Announcements Announcements serve as a forum for individuals to share current activities and solicit project collaborators. Librarians may inform members about information literacy sessions taught, research consultations performed, or embedded roles in specific courses. Announcements are also an opportunity for librarians share information from academic departments, such as service expectations articulated by academic teaching faculty or information about new faculty hires, visiting scholars, or graduate teaching assistants. Group members might also share information regarding distinguished lecturers or events on campus and new classes or departments approved by the university to ensure that support is allocated for those areas. The Content Development Librarian might highlight new resources purchased such as databases, e-book packages and streaming media products, and announcements inform all matrix members eliminating the need to schedule meetings individually. 2. Solutions Announcements provide a useful forum for exposing and addressing current problems or lack of support. When issues are objectively reported and documented the group can act as a source of support and help to develop solutions. Scope creep was curtailed through such discussions, as all members

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brainstorm to solve identified problems. Solutions may take a variety of forms, from simple clarifications of announcements to chronic issues requiring significant planning and multiple contributors. The Arts Matrix provides a forum for issues to be expounded, so the appropriate individuals can take responsibility, while also arriving at a solution through consultation with the group. Rather than one subject librarian having to bear the brunt, the Arts Matrix divides labor among its members. 3. Projects/Collaborations Projects serve as the fundamental basis of the matrix, not only to produce measurable outcomes, but also identify practices for engaging academic department faculty members. In the course of the reorganization, matrix projects were used to target underserved departments, and to validate the Libraries’ commitment to providing relevant services. For example, the Dance Department at K-State had historically been oriented toward applied performance, rather than library research. The Arts Matrix group provided a channel for discussion of a streaming dance video collection, as well as development of a pilot proposal to reformat essential dance media. This project improved relations between the Libraries and the Dance Department and increased interaction between matrix members and the Dance faculty. The original Arts Matrix charter listed several projects to explore, but members are free to propose new projects as needs demand. Projects are submitted and voted on, and approved projects are assigned to matrix members for follow-up according to their expertise or authority. This serves as a more efficient model, requiring that only specific matrix members attend a meeting or a portion of a meeting. Shared documents enable matrix members to determine in advance when to attend meetings and in what capacity. They also enable members to read notes at their convenience, yet still remain informed participants. 4. Professional Development As the duties of the Arts Matrix expanded, the need for professional development and skills workshops was expressed, since taking on new subject areas produced anxiety for some members less familiar with those disciplines. Arts Matrix members agreed that cross-training would be helpful to improve knowledge and comfort for collaborating within the Libraries and with academic departments. Consequently, the Arts Matrix also searched for opportunities which coupled group mentoring and conferences. To achieve this, subject specialists were paired with less experienced librarians and

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matrix members to empower networking opportunities and expose them to new organizations promoting the latest research. In recent years, the Arts Matrix has attended the Art Libraries Society of North America’s Central Plains Chapter meetings. This organization has imparted a wealth of new contacts and information and provided opportunities for group scholarship and presentations. Additionally, matrix members regularly attend community events, such as art shows, theatrical performances, and public lectures. This proved beneficial in several ways. It demonstrated the Libraries’ support of stakeholders, such as university academic departments and the community at large. It has also helped matrix members meet department members or community stakeholders, which have proved invaluable as contact points and budding friendships. Lastly, it has helped librarians to leave the library and gain a better perspective of the community at large. These events allow us to step out beyond the K-State sphere, and see community functions outside of university life. 5. Social The social elements of matrices vary from group to group, depending upon the commitment and personalities of the members. Arts Matrix members formed highly congenial relationships, which enabled group members to complement each other’s strengths and weaknesses. Having lunch or going for a walk allowed for connections that help to delegate work in ways which did not overwhelm members. This added benefit helps to create a better work life balance to maximize productivity and minimize burnout.

VI. Conclusion A. Matrix Model: Benefits Flexibility is one of the greatest strengths of this unique, team-based model. The Libraries are better able to respond to change and adapt to unanticipated circumstances. Additionally, employees are positioned to take advantage of opportunities that perhaps an over-committed subject librarian would not have the time or desire to pursue. In the past, when the potential for a new project or collaboration emerged, completion could heavily depend upon time constraints or career priorities of an individual. Today, employees are empowered to collaborate and harness expertise from across the organization, thereby maximizing the Libraries’ ability to fulfill

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organizational and university goals. Prior to the reorganization, many employees with professional experience and/or academic training in particular fields of study were either underutilized or overlooked in a structure that deferred to siloed subject specialists. Through collaboration and shared responsibilities, the Libraries maximize the application of talents and expertise and deploy personnel to the greatest advantage of library employees and patrons. The flexibility of this model also enables greater coverage of topics, compensating for any weaknesses in the collective expertise. Additionally, by cross-training, more personnel are ready to respond to patron needs when the “expert” is out of the office. This also positively impacted time management for individual employees who were no longer bound to participate in activities by virtue of their subject assignment, but instead could respond as requested by the matrices. The new organization also enables a new philosophical approach to instruction. Within this fluid structure, both individuals and groups are better able to experiment; some examples include: addressing interdisciplinary concepts such as sustainability, developing expertise in particular categories of information such as Government Documents, pursuing originality in teaching and learning such as the “gamification” of instruction, or enhancing their pedagogy through student-centered learning or implementing the flipped classroom model. By dividing duties across introductory, advanced undergraduate and graduate level courses, and re-assigning development and management of the collection to Content Development Librarians, UCS and FGS librarians inherited time to collaborate with faculty more innovatively. Pursuits such as embedded librarianship were much more difficult to undertake in the subject librarian model if for no other reason than the time commitment required. Librarians also increasingly engage in service learning, developing programming, leading training, and creating more opportunities to deepen their understanding of the nature of teaching and research K-State. By devoting more time to building relationships with members of the K-State community, librarians are engaged in actively promoting the work of the organization to the campus and continue to earn the trust and respect of both students and faculty. With regard to content development, there are no longer single gatekeepers for each discipline. Content Development Librarians are able to give more of their time and consideration to development and management of collections than subject librarians could in the previous organization. In the new model, all academic disciplines receive equal attention. Rather than filtering requests from fields with a wide variety of needs and priorities through a single queue, Content Development Librarians work collaboratively to address collections holistically and much more strategically. It is

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also easier for Content Development Librarians to actively pursue collaboration and engage in collection analysis. The processes of fulfilling requests and responding to collections related questions are more efficient and expedient, and competition for resources has abated.

B. Matrix Model: Challenges While the library reorganization and matrix model have been successful in several areas, it has not been a panacea for all obstacles in the workplace. The issue of time has been addressed across the organization as employees adjust to a high volume of changes, create new roles, and develop collaborative ways of working. Overall, time management has been a primary consideration for many units and departments in the Libraries following the reorganization. Another universal challenge is the notion of identity. Most employees encountered change in some form or fashion as the reorganization was implemented. Whether roles change, responsibilities were added, duties were surrendered to colleagues, or reporting lines changed, or new employees were hired, all employees experienced some measurable difference in the new organization. As an example of the challenge presented by identity, in the subject librarian model librarians were encouraged to self-promote and cultivate an identity as the sole liaison between particular academic departments and the Libraries. This relationship was clear from the perspective of both librarians and most faculty members, who understood that one librarian was assigned to their department. Following the reorganization, many faculty expressed confusion over how to navigate the team-based model and were unclear about whom to approach for assistance with specific services or requests. Librarians also expressed confusion regarding their new roles. They occasionally reverted to old relationships out of familiarity or efficiency, finding completing certain tasks easier than training a colleague. In other instances, librarians preferred to work alone or felt apprehensive of the new model when asked to take on new subjects in areas for which they possessed limited knowledge of or simply disliked. Many librarians were unaccustomed to addressing the unknown, having worked to cultivate expertise over their careers. Therefore, attempts to build teams therefore met with mixed results as certain matrix groups failed or stagnated. Content development presented unique challenges, again, experienced from within and outside the Libraries. In some cases, content development has become disconnected from subject expertise, a challenge that the matrix model is meant to address. Developing new ways of working and

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establishing effective and efficient modes of communication, however, must evolve over time and with participation from all matrix members. Furthermore, departmental faculty accustomed to consulting with former subject librarians on collection development, may be unwilling to cultivate a relationship with a new librarian having established a rapport with their previously assigned liaison. In addition, Content Development Librarians are perhaps responsible for too many subjects, and the inability of approval plans to replace firm orders sufficiently limits the amount of attention that can be applied to individual subjects. Lastly, the Library reorganization survey indicated dissatisfaction with communication throughout the organization. Respondents reported a desire for improved channels of communication both across library departments and between the Libraries administration and individual units. Clarification was requested to perform jobs more competently, specifically subject knowledge linking the Undergraduate and Community Services, Faculty/Graduate Services, and the Content Development and Acquisitions Departments.

C. Future Considerations Perceiving challenges as inherently negative inhibits the ability to overcome whatever one wishes to address. However, if one considers the opportunities presented within a challenge the power shifts to the hands of the opportunist. This philosophical framework underpins the work of the Arts Matrix. The former subject librarian members of this matrix continually seek to impart their subject expertise and departmental insight to members of the matrix in a meaningful, timely fashion, as well as open their minds to the fresh ideas and insights of their colleagues. This established the group as a forum for developing a shared, base understanding of materials, instruction activities, faculty collaborations, and bonding library operations across departmental lines. As time passes, members of the Arts Matrix are better able to express their own needs and wishes regarding how the matrix can facilitate their work. Moving forward, it is increasingly important to delineate a fluid process of open communication that moves beyond the matrix and into job responsibilities. It is with this understanding in mind that the matrix will continue to reinvigorate communication with academic departments and unify the functional roles of librarians to more effectively communicate with patrons. It is also essential to provide faculty with direct access to specific librarians, and help matrix members understand patrons with more depth. More time spent outside of the library enables and empowers interactions with

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students and faculty. All members of the Arts Matrix should function as advocates for the visual and performing arts from sincere insight into who our patrons are, what motivates them, what constitutes research in the arts, and how traditional resources inform the work of students and faculty. Members of the matrix intend to increase involvement in academic departments to cultivate personal knowledge of the curricula and research needs. The Arts Matrix can also facilitate event attendance and cross-training to promote connections with these disciplines, thereby additionally bonding the team through shared experiences. Although adjustment to the reorganization will take time and further refinement, members of the matrix will devote themselves to involvement in academic departments, while promoting connections beyond library materials and transcending theory. This flexibility will continue to allow K-State to develop and provide relevant resources and services to patrons for years to come.

Appendix A: K-State Libraries’ Reorganization Satisfaction Survey The Office of Library Planning and Assessment is soliciting your feedback regarding our recent reorganization. Periodic assessment of the reorganization is important to assuring that we are on track or need to make adjustments. The first step is to gather information from staff. Please share with us your ideas and comments about the reorganization, focusing on library processes rather than behaviors or specific people. These comments will be shared as written with the Strategic Leadership Council and the summary results will be shared with library staff. Names will be removed and other identifiers will be removed to the best of our ability. 1. Up to this point, please rate the overall success of the reorganization on the following scale:

Not successful 1

Somewhat successful 2

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

3

Very successful 4

5

What positive changes do you see as a result of the reorganization? What is working well? Are there any gaps in the work or service we are doing? Are there barriers to getting your work done? If so what are they? Are there things we can stop doing or do differently? Do you have any additional comments about the reorganization?

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References Andrade, R., & Zaghloul R. (2010). Restructuring liaison librarian teams at the University of Arizona Libraries, 2007 2009. New Library World, 111(7/8), 273 286. doi:10.1108/03074801011059911 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (2010). Institution profile: Kansas State University. Retrieved from http://classifications.carnegiefoundation. org/lookup_listings/view_institution.php?unit_id = 155399&start_page = index. php&clq = %7B%22basic2005_ids%22%3A%2216%22%7D Feetham, M. (2006). The subject specialist in higher education: A review of the literature. In P. Dale, M. Holland, & M. Matthews (Eds.), Subject librarians: Engaging with the learning and teaching environment (pp. 3 18). Alsdershot, UK: Ashgate. Galbraith J. R. (1971). Matrix organization designs: How to combine functional and project forms. Business Horizons, 14(1), 29 40. Kansas State University, News Services. (2010). K-State Libraries names new assistant deans, department heads [News release]. Retrieved from http://www.kstate.edu/ media/newsreleases/jul10/ library71410.html Kansas State University, Office of the President. (2013a). K-State 2025: A visionary plan for Kansas State University. Retrieved from http://www.k-state.edu/2025/ plan/goals.html. http://www.k-state.edu/2025/plan/goals.html Kansas State University, Research and Extension. (2013b). Map for K-State research and extension. Retrieved from http://www.ksre.ksu.edu/map.aspx Kent, A., Lancour, H., & Daily, J. (1978). Reference services and libraries. In The encyclopedia of library and information science (Vol. 25, pp. 212 215). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker. K-State Libraries. (2006). A living strategic plan: K-State Libraries, 2007 2012 [Internal document]. Manhattan, KS. K-State Libraries. (2008a). Round robin: LLC meeting notes. Retrieved from http:// ksulib.typepad.com/bulletin/2008/08/round-robin.html K-State Libraries. (2008b). Organization chart. Retrieved from http://web.archive. org/web/20080829152141/http://www.lib.k-state.edu/geninfo/docs/orgchart.pdf K-State Libraries. (2009a). K-State Libraries reorganization plan, May 2009 [Internal document]. Manhattan, KS. K-State Libraries. (2009b). K-State Libraries: Snapshot of the new organization, revised 07/08/09 [Internal document]. Manhattan, KS. K-State Libraries. (2009c). LIT minutes. Retrieved from http://ksulib.typepad. com/ bulletin/2009/06/lit-minutes-28-may-2009.html. Accessed on May 28, 2009. K-State Libraries. (2009d). LLC meeting. Retrieved from http://ksulib.typepad.com/ bulletin/2009/07/llc-63009.html K-State Libraries. (2009e). LLC meeting. Retrieved from http://ksulib.typepad.com/ bulletin/2009/11/llc-meeting-notes-112409.html K-State Libraries. (2010). Reference meeting. Retrieved from http://ksulib.typepad. com/bulletin/2010/10/reference-meeting-october-18-2010.html K-State Libraries. (2011a). Meeting notes from faculty and graduate services department. Retrieved from http://ksulib.typepad.com/bulletin/2011/04/meeting-notes-fromfaculty-and-graduate-services-department-3-10-2011.html. Accessed on October 10, 2011.

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K-State Libraries. (2011b). UCS/FGS joint meeting notes. Retrieved from http:// ksulib.typepad.com/bulletin/2011/05/ucsfgs-joint-meeting-notes-april-22-2011. html. Accessed on April 22, 2011. K-State Libraries, Office of Planning and Assessment. (2011c). Reorganization staff survey, November 16, 2011 [Internal document]. Manhattan, KS. K-State Libraries, Office of Planning and Assessment. (2012). List of matrices, updated October, 2012 [Internal document]. Manhattan, KS. Kuprenas, J. A. (2003). Implementation and performance of a matrix organization structure. International Journal of Project Management, 21(1), 51 62. Morris, R. (2012). What’s the use? Perspectives on usage statistics across the information industry. Against the Grain, 24(4), 1, 12. New Prairie Press. (2013). About US. Retrieved from http://newprairiepress.org/ home/about.php University of Guelph Library. (2013). Team based service model. Retrieved from http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/about/team_based_service_model.cfm

Managers, Stress, and the Prevention of Burnout in the Library Workplace Nancy McCormack Faculty of Law, Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada

Abstract This chapter explores what managers in the library and information science workplace can do to keep stress and burnout levels low. The literature on stress and burnout in human services, or the helping professions, is surveyed and the differences between the two phenomena are explained. Research is clear that keeping stress levels low and burnout at bay in the workplace benefits both employees and the organization. Even so, managers are given little training on how to identify and deal with stress and often fail to notice that their employees are chronically stressed. When managers become aware that they do have employees who are seriously stressed or burned out, they are often unsure whether they should address the problem and how to handle it. The author explains the differences between stress and burnout and clarifies how managers can minimize their negative impact by monitoring six areas in which workers are most likely to experience them: (1) the demands of the job which include the quantity of work and the knowledge required to perform; (2) the amount of control employees are permitted to exercise in the workplace; (3) the amount of the social support employee’s feel they have from managers and colleagues; (4) the quality of workplace relationships; (5) the clarity of one’s role on the job; and (6) support and honest communication during times of change. The practical implication of this information aimed at managers is to help them create a better workplace and mentally and physically healthier staff members. Keywords: Managers; libraries; stress; burnout; intervention; prevention

I. Introduction The term “burnout” first gained attention in the 1970s when it was used by Herbert Freudenberger (1974) to describe what he saw happening to colleagues working in a drug clinic in New York City. New, idealistic employees would start their jobs with great enthusiasm only to find, after some time

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had elapsed, that their zeal had evaporated; the job had lost its meaning, and each day now seemed like endless drudgery. Freudenberger likened these colleagues to a burned-out building where the outer shell “seem[ed] almost intact. Only if you venture inside will you be struck by the full force of the desolation” (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980, p. xv), hence the designation burnout. In the more than four decades since Freudenberger first coined the expression, the workplace has become increasingly more challenging and greater numbers of workers have been found to be suffering from job-related stress. During the 1980s, for example, globalization brought about a growing emphasis on economic competitiveness that resulted in employees putting in more time and effort, yet struggling to meet increasing demands as organizations privatized, merged, and formed strategic alliances or entered into joint ventures “transforming workplaces into hot-house, free market environments” (Cooper, 1999, p. 115). On the heels of this decade of “enterprise culture,” (named for the entrepreneurial restructuring which was going on), the 1990s caused major changes to the workplace as these organizations “dramatically ‘downsized’, ‘delayered’, ‘flattened’, and ‘rightsized’” (Bickford, 2005, p. 6). Workplaces now had fewer staff members but with no decrease in responsibilities. At the same time, technological changes resulted in information overload and an increased pace of work. Employees felt insecure and overwhelmed by the speed and volume of work (Bickford, 2005). Adding to this, such employees were losing their way while attempting to navigate this new world of work. They were “expected to diagnose their abilities, know where to get appropriate training in deficient skills, know how to network, be able to market themselves to organisations professionally, and tolerate ambiguity and insecurity” (Cooper, 1999, p. 116). Not surprisingly, many of them failed in the endeavor. In 2000, the UN’s International Labour Organisation (ILO) conducted a survey of stress in the workplace and found that “levels of anxiety, burnout and depression [we]re spiralling out of control” (Osborn, 2000, p. 15). Part of the problem was that “[d]ownsizing, layoffs, mergers, short-term contracts and higher productivity demands ha[d] all exacted their toll in the last 10 years, leaving many workers frazzled and on the verge of a nervous breakdown” (Osborn, 2000, p. 15). The price exacted by this syndrome was staggering: employers found themselves spending billions of dollars to cover the costs of sick leave, absenteeism, and other time lost due to workplace stress and related mental illnesses in North America and Europe. The global economic recession which began in 2007/2008 only served to make matters worse. In 2009, for example, 68% of Americans reported

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that their employers had “taken steps such as putting a freeze on hiring or wages, laying off staff, reducing work hours, benefits or pay, requiring unpaid days off or increasing work hours in the past year as a result of the weak economy” (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 7). By 2010, 55% of working Americans had either become temporarily unemployed as a result of the recession, had their hours cut, or had been forced to accept part-time work (Pew Research Center, 2010). Those who remained working fulltime found their hours and workload had increased. Faced with the unrelenting pressures of the job, chronically stressed employees felt they were inevitably headed for its final stage, the syndrome now designated as burnout (Sanati, 2011). Stress and burnout have been found to have a devastating effect on mental and physical health, and employees suffering from these conditions cost an organization more money than the combined health problems brought about by smoking, high blood pressure, or being overweight (Goetzel et al., 1998). Healthcare costs for a stressed out employee are significant; one study found them to be 46% higher than they would be for a worker who is not stressed (Goetzel et al., 1998). In 2006, the Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada reported that psychological illness (which included stress and burnout and excluded addictions) was responsible for 17% of all short-term disability claims and one third of all long-term disability claims (Bergeman, Corabian, & Harstall, 2009). These numbers have been further exacerbated by the continuing economic downturn: in the wake of the 2008 global recession, one study found that work-related stress had increased by 40% (Jones, 2012). Stress is a major concern to organizations in terms of cost, and also raises apprehension regarding organizational effectiveness. One recent survey, for example, revealed that 54% of senior management believed burnout and low morale to be barriers to achieving business goals during the year (Burnout a worry, 2011). The worry was not only that stressed employees might not be up to the task, but also that these employees might be focused too exclusively on thinking about finding another job in order to escape current unhealthy work environments. Indeed, when asked what would make them leave their job, the reason given most frequently by US workers was stress (Few employers, 2008). Yet, despite this uneasiness about the impact of stress on organizational productivity and effectiveness, studies indicate that 40% of bosses do not talk to their employees about their mental or physical health (Bosses failing, 2012), and only a third of all workplaces offer stress management and resilience training or similar programs of any sort (Galt, 2006). Companies that do take action are more likely to focus only on promoting physical health

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through various initiatives such as stop smoking programs, fitness club memberships, first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training, workplace ergonomic assessments, and so on. Those companies that do provide help for stress tend to do little to alleviate the actual sources of stress in the workplace. They offer, instead, “‘post hoc’ individual-directed interventions” (Kompier & Cooper, 1999, p. 2). Stress management activities “focus on secondary and tertiary prevention, rather than primary prevention” (Kompier & Cooper, 1999, p. 1). In other words, organizations put their energies into treating the symptoms of the problem (through counseling and employee assistance programs, for example), and attempting to bring employees back to work after stress has sidelined them, rather than focusing on eradicating the fundamental problem. Few or no efforts are made to eradicate the disease, only to minimize its effects once it has damaged employees. It also doesn’t help that organizations provide managers with minimal or no training on detecting the signs and symptoms of mental distress in their employees. In one survey, at least 25% of bosses reported that they were not sure if they could recognize whether an employee was suffering from stress or depression (Bosses failing, 2012). In addition, the pace of work often makes it impossible for bosses to play a greater role in their employee’s health in the workplace regardless of what that might cost their businesses in the long run. So while workplace stress levels rise, managers are increasingly less able or less equipped to deal with the problem. This chapter concentrates on the role of stress and burnout in the library and information science fields. It begins by reviewing some of the literature especially pertinent to those realms. An explanation of what stress and burnout are and how each phenomenon manifests itself is offered, and the causes of burnout are considered. Finally, the steps that library management can take to prevent the syndrome in the workplace will be discussed. These steps include how to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

monitor and balance demands made of employees; provide employees with greater control; build greater support in the workplace; encourage better relationships by addressing conflict and unacceptable behavior; ensure that employees understand their role in the workplace; and best deal with change in the workplace (Health & Safety Executive (HSE), 2003).

Understanding how each of these broad areas can either serve as a source of stress or as a buffer against stress and burnout is a crucial part of managing the welfare of employees. It is also key to the health of the enterprise as a whole. Since burnout not only effects the workers but also the work

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itself and the economy of the organization, managers who can identify the warning signs and show leadership in combating burnout are doing more than just assisting employees at risk. By helping to prevent stress and burnout, these managers also go a long way toward ensuring the ultimate success of their own organizations.

II. Stress and Burnout Since Freudenberger first discussed burnout, roughly 6000 chapters, articles, dissertations, etc. have been published on the topic (Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009), and more than 60 professions and employee groups have been the subject of burnout research over the last several decades according to Kaschka, Korczak, and Broich (2011). In the past few years alone, burnout studies have emerged on a variety of occupations including physicians (Kondro, 2012), nurses (Chipas & McKenna, 2011), firefighters (Abdellaoui, Chevaleyre, Gana, Lourel, & Paltrier, 2008), lawyers (Tsai, Huang, & Chan, 2009), teachers (Williams, 2012), orthodontists (Pirillo, Caracciolo, & Siciliani, 2011), clergy (Schaefer & Jacobsen, 2009), physiotherapists (Serrano, Los Fayos, & Montesinos, 2008), journalists (Little, 2008), dietitians (Gingras, de Jonge, & Purdy, 2010), and so on. Stress and burnout, as these studies indicate, are particularly pronounced in professions which involve work and interaction with members of the public (the helping professions). Individuals enter these professions idealistically with the goal of helping others and, thereby, improving society as a whole. What new employees encounter instead are occupations which are surprisingly wearing and demanding, with far fewer rewards than initially contemplated. As Freudenberger explains, The helper has come to his profession with visions of a supportive institution peopled with wise superiors and co-operative patients, students, or clients. He has contemplated results and tangible proof of his ability to create a difference in people’s lives. What he finds instead is red tape, harried administrators, intractable cases. No one has prepared him for this. (1980, p. 154)

The difference between expectations regarding what the job might be and what it actually turns out to be, drains workers of their energy and strips away their idealism and enthusiasm. This, in conjunction with other factors such as overwork, prolonged periods of difficult work, office politics, lack of autonomy, and little social support can result in unrelenting or chronic stress and, ultimately, burnout.

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Information professionals, like professionals who make up other helping professions have been the subject of ongoing study over the past few decades and have been found to suffer from varying rates of stress and burnout (see, e.g., Affleck, 1996; Ajala, 2011; Becker, 1993; Birch, Marchant, & Smith, 1986; Caputo, 1991; Fimian, Benedict, & Johnson, 1989; Fisher, 1990; Haack, Jones, & Roose, 1984; Harwell, 2008; McClellan, 2011; Nelson, 1987). Certain perennial aspects of the job such as working with patrons, lack of job variety, lack of autonomy, inadequate work space, competition for resources between departments (Topper, 2007) as well as too much to do and not enough time to do it, (Merwin, 2003) appear to have been sources of stress for as long as libraries have been in business. However, in the thirty years since the earliest burnout studies of information professionals were conducted, a great number of changes have taken place in libraries which have made the workplace a source of even greater stress. Recent years, for example, have produced mounting challenges in the form of greater workloads (Topper, 2007), downsizing, technological changes (Prabhakaran & Mishra, 2012), budget cuts (Albanese, 2011), longer hours, constant change, and the closing or merging of libraries and branches (American Library Association, 2012). More than ever before, library administrators are struggling with staffing, organization, funding, and customer issues which have arisen in an environment of change and upheaval. As budgets and staffing complements shrink, those employees who remain are finding that each day, as Freudenberger and Richelson (1980) once explained, is marked by “fatigue and tension” consisting of “too many interruptions, too many details, too few rewards” (p. 1). Library managers are particularly aware that chronic stress and low morale are constant companions, and that burnout, leading to absenteeism and other dysfunctional workplace behaviors is an ever-present prospect. Most, however, understand little of the problems posed by unrelenting stress in the workplace, and have less understanding of the burnout syndrome. We turn next to a discussion of stress and burnout—the related and yet separate phenomena which afflict workers—and what managers need to know about each. A. Stress and Burnout Defined Although psychological stress and burnout are related, they are not the same. Stress is defined as a disruption of the equilibrium of the cognitive emotional environmental system by external factors … . These external factors, traditionally called stressors, may also lead to an equilibrium of the cognitive and environmental system or a state of wellbeing, depending on the performance capacities, for example, the available coping

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resources within the individual at a given time. Therefore, we prefer to use the term stressor only when an external factor has the potential to exert a negative influence on most people in most situations. (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001, p. 501)

Experts generally agree on four elements which are present when an individual is stressed: (1) the cause (often called the load, stress or stressor), (2) an evaluation by the affected individual (either mentally or physiologically) about whether the cause is harmful or benign, (3) an attempt on the part of that individual to cope with the stressor, and (4) the effects of the stressor on the mind and body (often called the stress reaction) of the individual (Lazarus, 1993). In a stressful situation, an individual reacts to something which he or she feels is a threat, and the stress reaction (mental, physical or both) has to do with that person’s appraisal of threat (i.e., how harmful it might be) and the way(s) in which the person attempts to cope with the threat. Stress itself is a normal part of any workplace. Indeed, the very nature of work itself—that is, an environment in which an employer makes specific demands of employees which employees are expected to meet, cope with and/or control—is stressful. Stress, in and of itself, however, isn’t necessarily harmful. Studies on stress have determined that short-term stress can invigorate the mind and even result in better physical health (Read, 2004). Short-term stress can push employees to rise beyond their limits, improve their work, and even increase their job satisfaction (Teasdale, 2006). For these benefits to accrue, however, the worker must be subject to the right kind of stress and it cannot be unrelenting. As Koster (2012) notes, “Stress is not the enemy; the enemy is stress without intermittent recovery” (p. 10). With unrelenting stress or pressure, at some point performance starts to decline, and becomes “sub-optimal” leading to a breakdown in mental health (Teasdale, 2006). Unrelenting stress, then, poses a significant risk to physical and mental well-being, so much so that experts see it “emerging as the top occupational health and safety issue for the 21st century” (Robinson, 2000, n.p.). Studies have shown that prolonged and unmanaged stress affects physical health regardless of how healthy a worker has been in the past (Major study, 2000). It has been found to contribute to a greater risk for serious and even fatal health problems such as heart attacks and strokes, even when healthy and unhealthy lifestyle choices (e.g., alcohol and tobacco use, excessive eating) have all been taken into account (Hintsanen et al., 2005). Chronic work stress is also responsible for the onset of psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and burnout in adults who have had no preemployment history of psychiatric problems (Melchior et al., 2007).

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Burnout, on the other hand, is a “response to chronic, everyday stress (rather than occasional crises)” (Maslach, 1982, p. 17) which begins very slowly and manifests itself over time. Workers are generally able to withstand stress for a short amount of time, but less able to tolerate it for a prolonged period. Burnout differs from stress in that stress can be present in every aspect of an individual’s life, while burnout is a condition which is experienced and, therefore, studied almost exclusively in the context of the workplace (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Also, unlike stress which can disappear either once the stressor has been removed from the environment, or once a way to successfully cope with the stressor has been established, burnout does not disappear immediately but can take quite some time from which to recover (Carter, 2011). Burnout is a syndrome consisting of three factors: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach, 1982). Workers who experience the first of these factors— emotional exhaustion—have lost their energy, enthusiasm, and confidence. Their emotions are blunted; they feel disengaged, detached, helpless, and defeated. There is nothing more to give; their mental and emotional resources have been depleted (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). In addition to this emotional weariness, workers who are burned out suffer physical problems. They may have trouble sleeping and feel physically drained. They also suffer from a variety of bodily complaints, and are more likely to be physically ill than those who are not burned out. Indeed, the prevalence of disease has been found to increase along with the severity of the burnout experienced by an individual (Honkonen et al., 2006). Workers who experience the second of these factors, depersonalization, find themselves feeling increasingly negative or cynical about their work. They may feel irritable and angry; where formerly they were interested in collaboration and teamwork, they seek instead to distance themselves from colleagues, supervisors and the recipients of their services, “presumably as a way to cope with the work overload” (Maslach et al., 2001, p. 403). As Freudenberger notes, “A person who is burning out is not, on the surface, a very sympathetic figure. He or she may be cranky, critical, angry, rigid, resistant to suggestions, and given to behavior patterns that turn people off” (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980, p. 11). Burned-out employees seek a self-imposed isolation, and given their recent behavior, their colleagues and sometimes even their supervisors are more than happy to give it them. At the same time, these employees who were formerly high-achievers experience burnout’s third factor, reduced personal accomplishment, in that they feel that they are no longer productive or performing adequately at work. This self-assessment at the onset of the syndrome is generally, when

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viewed objectively, not the case. Workers who are burning out are often seen by their colleagues, at least initially, to be performing as well as (and often outperforming) others (Ericson-Lidman, 2007). They continue to put in long hours and/or take on additional work, pushing themselves to the limit. Nonetheless, as time goes by, this sense of reduced personal accomplishment becomes self-fulfilling. Performance suffers; they are less effective, leading to higher rates of absenteeism, turnover, and intentions to leave the job (Maslach et al., 2001). They are exhausted, irritable, and attempt to distance themselves from the people around them. Yet, while both stress and burnout wreak havoc on the health of employees in the workplace, most library organizations provide minimal or no training on how these phenomena pose such a risk. Library schools themselves offer little education on supervision and leadership and as a result, library managers generally have to learn how to manage on the job. Not surprisingly, they are at a loss when it comes to identifying, avoiding, or addressing these matters. B. The Causes of Stress and Burnout In 1999, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) found that workplace stress was the top stressor in the lives of workers and responsible for more health complaints and problems than stress caused by money problems or difficulties with family (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1999). Some of the reasons had to do with the methods of organization and control exerted by organizations which are often counter to an employee’s flourishing in the workplace. In the view of Freudenberger, Since it is the function of the system to keep the individual subordinate and to place its own needs first in the firmament, every organization has an arsenal of weapons for keeping employees in line. The fragmentation of tasks is one way to keep people from becoming too powerful. Ratings systems and periodic reviews are another, especially since these can fall into the jurisdiction of someone who has a personal animus against the reviewee. Fringe benefits may be the most insidious tool of all. As attractive as they are in theory, in practice, profit-sharing and pension funds often tie a worker to a dreary, unfulfilling job. (1980, p. 178)

Freudenberger focuses on the fragmentation of tasks, personnel reviews, and fringe benefits, but over the years, a great many more factors have been studied and found to contribute to stress and burnout. Employees who are saddled with too great a workload or working under great time pressures, for example, have a higher risk for burnout than those employees with reasonable job demands (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2000).

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Similarly, employees who are expected to maintain or increase job performance levels in an environment in which organizational resources are scarce are also at risk (Shirom, 2003). In addition, workers who are denied adequate feedback, job rewards, or the ability to participate in decision making in the organization are susceptible to burnout (Demerouti et al., 2000). The list goes on: other factors include shiftwork and hours of work, physical environment (such as noise, dirt, and temperature), workplace isolation (i.e., working alone or with no or low social support from coworkers), conflicting job demands (i.e., more than one supervisor, incompatible expectations); lack of job security; lack of career development opportunities; lack of variety of work, poor relationships with colleagues, supervisors and staff; value conflicts; lack of recognition; unfairness; and little or no autonomy (Bergeman et al., 2009; Cooper & Marshall, 1976; Levi, 1984). Not surprisingly, incompetent managers are part of the problem. Indeed, researchers have found that “bad bosses” are a major stressor in the workplace (Jayson, 2012; Robinson, 2000). In one study, for example, at least three quarters of working adults reported that their immediate boss was “the most stressful aspect of their job” (Jayson, 2012, p. 16B). Bosses can cause employees stress in a variety of ways. Inept supervisors or those who do not provide employees with enough supervisory support in dealing with problems can be responsible (Stress Poll, 1992). Then there are bosses who are unrealistic in their expectations about the amount of work that can be done, or about the types of results that can be achieved. Bosses who are “‘over-zealous’ in trying to fulfill their roles” (Scutt, 2010) are problematic, as are those who are unfair, discriminatory, capricious, unreliable, or unreasonable. Ineffective managers exist in the library world, too. A recent survey found that poor management/administration was the second of the top three dissatisfactions on the job in libraries (with poor pay being first and budgetary concerns the third (Miller, 2011). This type of dissatisfaction has serious implications for the organization. Employees in the workplace, which includes those in libraries, respond to bad management with poor productivity, poor work performance, and increased absenteeism (Stress Poll, 1992). They are more likely to be disengaged and to suffer health problems which in turn cost the organization (Jayson, 2012). Employees also respond with anger. Two in five employees saddled with too much work report that they feel “very angry toward their employers versus only 1% who experience low overwork levels” (Galinsky et al., 2005, p. 2). As with stress, anger in the workplace has been linked to similar outcomes: absenteeism, poor productivity, and poor work relationships. It is also been linked to heart disease, anxiety, depression and stress.

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Nonetheless, not all workers find the same things stressful or even respond to stress in the same way. Similarly, not all employees who are stressed burn out. What follows next is a brief discussion of the signs of stress and burnout, and how managers can spot potential problems in the workplace.

C. Signs of Stress and Burnout In work environments generally, the signs that an employee is stressed or burned out are often quite similar. Stressed employees are tired, indecisive, irritable, or tearful. The quality and/or quantity of their work drops; they are no longer punctual and are absent from work more often than they once were. Stressed employees often attempt to cope with stress in dysfunctional ways such as smoking, drinking or overeating; they may also have trouble getting along with coworkers (Workplace stress, 2008). Some distinct differences, however, separate stressed employees from burned-out ones. For example, stressed employees are able to function normally when the stress passes, and they tend to recover relatively quickly once the source of the stress is removed from the environment (SayreAdams & Wright, 2012). Also, where an inept boss is the source of a worker’s stress, that stress is likely to dissipate relatively quickly once the boss is transferred. In contrast, burnout cannot be healed overnight, and burnedout individuals do not bounce back merely because the stressor is removed. On the contrary, when burnout has set in, workers experience emotional exhaustion and physical symptoms that can often last months or even years (Stanley, 2004). Brought on by prolonged and unmanaged stress, some of the signs of burnout include a disconnecting or a disengagement with life, feelings of hopelessness, numbness, or emptiness (Sayre-Adams & Wright, 2012), a clear decrease in job satisfaction, an expressed desire to leave the job, inadequate work performance, and poor productivity (Slatten, Carson, Carson, & Phillips, 2011). Because burnout does not happen overnight, it is easier to identify in hindsight than it is while it is going on. Nonetheless, those signs are present to those who know what to look for. For example, employees who were formerly enthusiastic and full of high energy are now apathetic and cynical about their work. They act in ways that are unlike their former selves. Where they were once even-tempered and keen, they now seem withdrawn, easily irritated, angered, or insensitive. Also, like their stressed coworkers, burned-out employees are more likely to call in sick, to watch the clock, to come in later or leave earlier.

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Ironically, despite this behavior, burnout is not an affliction of people who are “failure oriented or habitually destructive people.” Instead, the individuals who suffer from burnout are often the “ones most likely to succeed” (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980, p. xvii) and those who the organization can “least afford to lose: [its] high achievers” (p. xvii). Individuals prone to burnout are generally those who are “highly functioning, very conscientious, eager to please, with a strong sense of responsibility” (Milne, 2010, p. 10). They are more likely to take on a larger workload, to work longer hours, to carry on as usual despite growing resource shortages. Indeed, the reason they burnout out is because they have “pushed themselves too hard for too long” (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980, p. 12). So burnout is not, a sign of weakness, as organizations often tend to view it, but instead the result of real problems in the workplace. Workers who burnout, unlike those with a variety of other mental health problems, generally have been mentally healthy up until that point (Maslach et al., 2001). As one physician noted, “You can put any highly functioning person in an unhealthy environment and they too will become unhealthy” (Milne, 2010, p. 10). In short, burnout is what happens to a good employee in a bad environment. Stress and burnout affect not only feelings, thinking, and behavior but also manifest themselves in terms of an individual’s physical complaints. Employees who are chronically stressed or burned out will also seek medical help for physical problems such as insomnia, stomach aches, headaches, digestive problems, heart palpitations, neck, back, joint, and muscle pain (Billeter-Koponen & Frede´n, 2005; Stanley, 2004). An employee plagued by other mental and physical health conditions becomes even sicker when stressed out at work; stress has been found not only to exacerbate other medical conditions, but the cumulative effects result in more “total disability days (days spent entirely in bed) among workers” (Bergeman, 2009, p. 5). Unfortunately, managers often respond by ignoring these signs (Cronin, 1990). This in turn exacerbates the problem particularly given that the support of management is important in keeping burnout rates low (Boyle, Grap, Younger, & Thornby, 1991; Burke & Greenglass, 1995; Koeske & Koeske, 1989). Another dysfunctional managerial response may be to scold the employee or to impose discipline. Indeed, it is not uncommon for managers to let employees know that feelings must take a back seat to performance and outcomes, that is, that stress is irrelevant since the task must be performed regardless of how the employee feels (Maslach & Leiter, 1997). In these cases, management tends to interpret the signs of burnout as “laziness, lack of motivation or incompetence” (Maslach & Leiter, 1997, p. 33).

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The problem with these ill-informed or dysfunctional managerial responses, of course, has to do with the lack of information or training on the part of managers (Workplace stress, 2008; Topper, 2007). In order to avoid burnout, early intervention is critical, particularly since workers are more likely to be defensive, and less receptive to help, the more burned out they become (Freudenberger & Richelson, 1980).

III. Management Intervention Stress and burnout, as noted above, cost organizations money. In Britain, for example, “The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) said 13.7 million working days are lost each year as a result of work-related mental illness. This leaves employers with a total bill for lost productivity of £28.3 billion [US$43.8 million] a year” (Workplace stress costing, 2009). In the United States, job stress has been estimated to cost US industry more than $300 billion a year in absenteeism, turnover, diminished productivity and medical, legal, and insurance costs (American Psychological Association, 2009; Rosch, 2001). Despite these costs, most organizations do far more to help employees after they suffer from stress and burnout, than they do to prevent the problems at their earliest stages (Crail, 2007). One study found, for example, that employers have more back-to-work programs in place for employees absent as a result of stress-related illness than they do to reduce stress in the first place (Crail, 2007). There are a number of early interventions which organizations have put into place to try to reduce stress or provide employees with the tools to do deal with stress. The first is simply to provide information, for example, in the way of leaflets and pamphlets, on stress. Another is to institute stress prevention policies. Policies of this sort often set out expectations for managers to minimize the risk of work-related stress. For example, managers at the University of Oxford are told that they should: • ensure good communications, particularly where there are organizational or procedural changes; • ensure that jobs are properly designed, with realistic demands and workload, and that expectations and job role are clear; • ensure that staff are trained to undertake the demands of their job and are able to contribute to decisions about how the job is done; • ensure that there are regular opportunities to discuss the work and obtain feedback on performance, for example, regular one-to-one meetings and/or team meetings; • monitor working hours and holidays to ensure that staff are not overworking and are taking appropriate breaks; • identify or respond to issues of concern promptly and seek constructive solutions; • ensure staff are provided with meaningful training and development opportunities;

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A policy of this sort does more than merely require managers to provide a helpline or other stress-related information to employees who appear to be suffering from excessive amounts of stress. Instead, the policy insists on sound management practices such as good communication, job design, feedback, and providing training opportunities. Other methods organizations use to reduce stress include time management programs, exercise programs, healthy lifestyle programs, relaxation programs, stress coaching, and support groups (Crail, 2007). Among those which have been most highly rated, however, are those involving stressawareness training for managers and performance evaluations in which the subject of stress is specifically raised with the employee (Crail, 2007). The high rating of these measures and interventions indicate how important it is for managers to get involved in stress and burnout identification and intervention, and the difference employees feel that it can make in their lives. Even so, regrettably, organizations and managers often fail to take active steps toward these goals. A. Why Organizations and Managers Fail to Act Managers are often viewed as part of the problem in a stressful workplace because they may seem disinterested or unwilling to make the problem a priority. There are a number of reasons for this. First, a manager may be dealing with several competing demands, and stress management and intervention end up at the bottom of the “to do” list (Chartered Institute, 2009). This is especially so when managers feel there are not enough hours in the day to get the primary business of the organization done; there’s no energy left to invest time in other initiatives even if they are important. Second, managers may also believe there is little that their organization per se can do to alleviate stress (Daniels, 1996). Or they may take the position that the job of handling stress falls largely to the employee, and only to a lesser extent to the organization (Dewe & O’Driscoll, 2002). This puts employees in a difficult position because it is generally not within their power to make essential workplace changes, such as hours of work, workload, and how the work is to be done. Such workers are less able to do anything about their stress levels and they will naturally feel they have little control over the sources of stress in the workplace and are, therefore, all

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the more likely to see stress management as an organizational responsibility (Dewe & O’Driscoll, 2002). Third, managers are often trained to focus on outcomes and performance in the workplace rather than on the people whom they manage. As a result, they may ignore the signs of stress and burnout in the workplace unless they believe that addressing those problems will somehow improve outcomes. When management does introduce half-hearted stress-management programs, employees are liable to be cynical and to judge the programs as having little to do with their individual welfare (Dewe & O’Driscoll, 2002). They are also likely to be skeptical if stress management programs are implemented only because the organization’s leaders are keen on striking these off of their “to do” list, rather than as genuine efforts to deal with the health of their employees. Fourth, there is a prevailing tendency on the part of managers to “blame personality and lifestyle factors of employees who are absent from work or report health complaints, rather than the job or organisational factors, for which they are responsible” (Kompier & Cooper, 1999, p. 2). In these cases, managers are likely to attribute stress to various life-changing events in the employee’s private life such as divorce or death in the family, or caring for children or elderly parents, rather than on anything having to do with the job. Conveniently, this approach to stress overlooks the fact that employees in certain occupations are consistently more stressed and have higher rates of absenteeism than those in others (Kompier & Cooper, 1999). In addition to blaming the victim, this approach once again shifts the onus of treatment and recovery from the organization to the employee. Finally, managers are generally not equipped with the type of training that would enable them to understand behavioral changes in employees so they are often reluctant to discuss mental health issues with them (Laley, 2012). Accordingly, they “lack the expertise and the ‘emotional intelligence’ needed to spot when a worker is suffering from stress or another workrelated health problem” (Andalo, 2012, p. 29). Even in those situations in which managers are aware of the presence of stress in the workplace, they often take no action because they are not sure what should be done, or because they have no authority to redesign an employee’s position or to give that employee more control over his job (Dewe & O’Driscoll, 2002). Not surprising, then, are the results of one study in which only 29% of employees reported that their organizations were doing something to help them manage their stress. Indeed, half of the employees in that same study (Employers neglect, 2009) felt a lack of confidence in management which added to their stress levels (Investors, 2009). Clearly, the training of managers could go a long way toward remedying this situation. The goal of

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such training is not to turn supervisors into professional counselors or psychologists, but to provide them with at least enough information to know when they should encourage employees to get help. In other words, training is intended to help line managers become “recognisers,” that is, people “who have the ability to notice when something has changed in an employee and can refer that person to get help” (Andalo, 2012, p. 29). This is not quite as difficult as it may sound. Recent studies, for example, have found that between 20% and 30% of managers already instinctively take the proper action, while 60% are less effective, and 10% are “horrible.” It is that group of 60% which researchers feel could be made much more effective with information and training; the 10% at the bottom likely cannot be changed (Stressing balance, 2007). There is an ironic footnote to this. It is quite possible, even probable, that not knowing how to deal sensitively with the problems of burned-out employees is the cause of burnout on the part of certain managers themselves. But that would be the topic of another investigation. B. Stress Management Is Good People Management It is reassuring, then, to know that in libraries, just as in other workplaces, managers do not need to be psychologists to help combat stress in their employees; they just need to be good managers. Experts note that “managing stress at work is part and parcel of good people management” (Lessons for managers, 2009, p. 6)—and that good people management means monitoring six areas in which employees are likely to experience the most stress and burnout. These areas are (1) job demands which include the amount of work expected, the employee’s skills and abilities, and the physical environment, (2) the amount of control employees have in the workplace, (3) the amount of social support given to employees by management and coworkers, (4) relationships in the workplace along with procedures and policies to deal with conflict and unacceptable behavior, (5) the extent to which employees understand and are comfortable in their role within the organization, and, finally, (6) how the organization deals with change (HSE, 2003). Each of these six broad areas is discussed in greater detail below. 1. Job Demands In an era of ongoing budget cuts, libraries are often faced with the same or greater demand on their services regardless of their shrinking resources (Study, 2011). It remains, however, the job of management to ensure that employees are able to cope with the qualitative and quantitative work

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expected of them, particularly since overwhelming demand leads to overload, and overload leads to stress and burnout. But just what do we mean by overload? Quantitative overload occurs when a worker cannot possibly accomplish the sheer volume of work demanded. Yet, in a seemingly perverse way, not having enough work is also a problem in the workplace. The term used for this phenomenon is “underload”—meaning that employees are underutilized; their jobs are repetitive; they are bored, and/or have little or no opportunity to employ their skills. Both overload and underload have been identified as significant sources of stress and negative health outcomes. Overload, however, edges out underload in terms of negative mental and physical health consequences. Studies show that overload is “associated with higher reported frequencies for all health-related outcomes, both psychological and physical in nature … . [and] is more detrimental to both one’s physical and psychological health than role underload” (Shultz, Wang, & Olson, 2010, p. 108). In other words, employees who have too much to do are more likely to suffer from mental or physical illness than those who do not have enough to do. In contrast to quantitative overload, qualitative overload occurs when employees do not have (or feel they do not have) the experience, skills, or ability to carry out their work (Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2001). In a library, for example, reference librarians who are asked to take on cataloging duties or assist with problems involving electronic resources are more likely to experience qualitative overload in the absence of sufficient training and experience. The same might also be true for other library personnel who, lacking the experience or the training, are asked to fill in for reference librarians. Good management practices mean that managers ought to know their employees well enough to determine whether they have the skills necessary to deliver what is being asked of them and to provide them with training where that is not the case. Overload interventions, for example, might involve restructuring a job in some way to make it more manageable or implementing job rotation where workers need relief from the stresses of difficult or repetitive tasks. Communication is key. Managers should communicate on a regular basis with employees to ensure that what is being asked of them is capable of being accomplished not only given their skills but also given the time in which they are asked to do it. Over and above qualitative and quantitative issues, the demands made of an employee also include coping with an environment in which there might be insufficient or inadequate work space or equipment, or where there is crowding, and insufficient space for private conversations. Temperature extremes, dirt, noise, odors, poor lighting, vibrations, and

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location of the workplace can also produce stress. Areas in which there is heavy street traffic, for example, or neighborhoods in which the workplace is located in an unsafe part of town are “especially important contributors to people’s stress levels” (Connor & Worley, 1991, p. 62). All of these factors create very negative situations, yet are easily overlooked in the absence of sufficient communication, monitoring, feedback, and interaction between employees and their superiors. To aid in communication, experts suggest that some system should be put into place to respond to the concerns raised by workers (HSE, 2009). In the library, for example, staff members should know where to go with their concerns and whether that involves approaching a superior, a committee tasked to do the job, a workplace health and safety office or a human resources employee. They should also be assured that above and beyond safety issues posed by the workplace itself, that they are encouraged to voice safety concerns which they feel might be posed by serving certain members of the public. Managers should also be sensitive to the reality that workers may be reluctant to admit that they are feeling overwhelmed with work, bored because they do not have enough work, or insecure because they feel they lack the skills to carry out various tasks. Research confirms the reluctance of workers to speak to their managers about these types of issues; one recent study, for example, found that only a third of employees would go to their bosses if they were feeling stressed. In contrast, approximately half those surveyed reported that they would prefer to speak to their family physician, a friend, or a family member instead (AON, 2009). These findings indicate that managers should not wait to be approached by their subordinates but should build into their schedules time for holding such conversations. One specific moment could be during performance evaluations. However, since performance evaluations generally take place only once a year, managers (in the absence of a library policy on the matter) need to determine for themselves whether this is often enough. Whatever they decide, it is vital to find occasions to ask employees about the demands of the job and address any problems as they arise. 2. Control As with job demands, the matter of control, particularly the lack thereof, is an area in which employees experience high levels of stress. Control, at the most basic level, means employees have some say in how they do their jobs, as well the extent to which they are permitted to participate in workplace decisions which affect them. Most employees desire input into decisions and some

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discretion regarding how tasks are to be performed. This would include such matters as the pace of the work, and the right to refuse certain types of work such as dealing with a member of the public who has been unreasonably difficult or abusive (HSE, 2009). Control also has to do with being permitted some input into how and when vacations are taken, or work-breaks and/or hours of work. Input provides workers with an opportunity to influence their surroundings and, to some extent, predict or control their own futures. Control is also an integral part of the library profession itself. Librarians are taught the art of controlling access to information through categorizing, classifying, cataloging, and retrieving. Ironically, though perhaps not surprisingly, this emphasis on control sometimes finds its way into library management’s approach to its relationship to personnel, so much so that librarians find themselves at risk of being micromanaged and/or over-regulated in every facet of their work life. A recent instance of this appears in the 2013 Code of Conduct put into place by Library and Archives Canada (LAC) decreeing that teaching, speaking or appearing as a guest at conferences are “high risk to LAC and to the employee with regard to conflict of interest, conflict of duties and duty of loyalty” (Munro, 2013, p. 17). Accordingly, LAC professional librarians are only allowed to teach or speak if they have met a number of conditions and cleared their appearances with their manager. Otherwise, they are subject to workplace discipline and even termination. This over-emphasis on managerial control, along with rigidity and over-regulation has serious consequences for stress levels and burnout in any organization. Researchers have discovered, for example, that lack of control is not only demoralizing, but also associated with mental and physical ill health (Ganster, 1988; Jackson, 1984). Employees who have some degree of control, decision making authority, or autonomy are better able to ward off stress and burnout (Peterson, 1999). Conversely, a perceived lack of control has been found to be found to be significantly associated with burnout (Glass & McKnight, 1996). Clearly, employees cannot and should not participate in all decisions. Leaders in an organization are in place precisely because they are expected to have a perspective that is broader and wider than that of their subordinates. Nonetheless, allowing subordinates to participate in decisions has the benefit of allowing managers to better understand how things function at the unit, sub-unit, and task level. It also provides managers with a level of detail that they might not have been familiar with in the first place and which may aid in making better decisions. Employees who participate in decision making also learn more about an organization’s policies, procedures, and objectives. They are less likely to find management decisions harsh or arbitrary if they understand that

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the organization has certain goals or policies which managers must pursue, implement and/or observe. They are also more likely to assist in finding better ways to implement these goals and policies if they feel they are part of a team. Such increased participation has a number of additional benefits. Where employees are allowed input into their jobs, they have an opportunity to remove some of those obstacles which are merely frustrating, annoying or preventing them from doing good work (Jackson, 1984). They are also more likely to suggest improvements which can save the organization time and money. Yet another benefit of increased decision making power and autonomy in the workplace is a decrease in role ambiguity and role conflict (Jackson, 1984). Workers experience this role ambiguity when what is expected of them is unclear or ill-defined (discussed in more detail in Section 5 below (on Role)). Interestingly, supervisors themselves experience role conflict when they find themselves with incompatible workplace roles such as attempting to be both a supervisor and a best friend. The opportunity to participate allows workers the opportunity to clarify, define, and shape their roles in the workplace. It also has the additional benefit of building social support networks among coworkers (Jackson, 1984), the subject to which we now turn. 3. Social Support Social support is the extent to which employees feel that they are encouraged, assisted, and reinforced by their superiors and their colleagues. Support has been defined in a number of ways. Cobb (1976), for example, defined it as 1. Information leading the subject to believe that he is cared for and loved. 2. Information leading the subject to believe that he is esteemed and valued. 3. Information leading the subject to believe that he belongs to a network of communication and mutual obligation (p. 300).

Cobb refers to the first of these as emotional support. While emotional support is most often found in more intimate settings (e.g., among family and friends), but can also, although far less often, exist in the workplace. The second type of support is esteem support. This is more likely to be found in the public (as opposed to the private) world of an individual, and is important not only to the health of an employee but also to the health of an organization. For example, a librarian who has been recognized by a professional library association for volunteer activities would be said to have had the benefit of esteem support.

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The third and final element in Cobb’s list has to do with reciprocity. While caring can sometimes be an one-way street such as a mother caring for a newborn infant, Cobb’s network of communication and mutual obligation demands that the support flow both ways, such that a member of the group is cared for and cares for other members in return. Other experts in this field, however, differ somewhat from Cobb in their categorizations. Greenglass, Fiksenbaum, and Burke (1995), see social support in the workplace as one of three types: informational, practical, or emotional. Informational support involves the provision of advice, information, or guidance from coworkers or superiors. The purpose of this type of guidance is to simplify or streamline the work or to help solve problems. Practical support, on the other hand, is the provision of assistance in performing the job or supplying the resources to carry out the job. A librarian, for example, who requires certain kind of equipment to do her job, or assistive technology to accomplish certain tasks, requires practical support. Practical support can also include supplying information regarding rights in the workplace and providing assistance in solving work-related problems. Finally, emotional support is present in the workplace when coworkers and supervisors show one another that they care and are empathetic. Workers who are emotionally supported believe that their colleagues and superiors take an interest in them, recognize their contributions and will provide support or help when they ask for it. They feel respected, encouraged, unafraid to discuss their problems, and, importantly, part of a group. It is hardly surprising that all of the above types of social support have been shown to act as a buffer to stress (Greenglass et al., 1995), not only where the support is given by colleagues but also where it is provided by managers (Bakker, Demerouti, & Euwema, 2005; Himle, Jayaratne, & Thyness, 1989). It plays a particularly important part in preventing burnout; several studies have shown that support from managers and administrators have been “associated with lower levels of burnout … [and] [s]upport from coworkers has been shown to be correlated inversely with burnout” (Greenglass et al., 1995, p. 240). Social support is also important to the success of an organization. A workplace survey conducted by the American Psychological Association and Harris Interactive (2012) found that: Employees who feel valued are significantly more likely to report they are motivated to do their very best for their employer (93% vs. 33%). Employees who feel valued are also more likely to report they would recommend their workplace to others (85% vs. 19%). Employees who do not feel valued are significantly more likely to report that they intend to seek employment outside of their company next year (50% vs. 21%). (p. 4)

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While the absence or presence of social support obviously often has to do with the complex dynamics and personalities in the workplace, there are steps managers can take to help nudge it along. For example, implementing some system or mechanism whereby information, feedback, and encouragement can flow between employees and their managers is important. Managers who promote communication and social activities among employees or who encourage team building are also more likely to find their employees getting to know each other and valuing each other’s company (Ray, 2012). Even staff meetings can function as a place in which workers can exchange information, ask for advice, and look for support from coworkers. Importantly, though, employees who are encouraged to seek social support from their colleagues have to be sure that it is something they can count on. The benefits of social support will largely disappear if employees think that it is likely to evaporate when things go wrong in the workplace (HSE, 2003).

4. Relationships Relationships in the workplace are, not surprisingly, a source of stress for employees, particularly when they are negative or involve conflict (Connor & Worley, 1991). One recent study found that workers are more likely to call in sick after an unpleasant experience with a coworker or boss (Abma, 2011). Interestingly, those who called in sick were not faking the illness. Rather, they genuinely believed they had developed some acute minor illness subsequent to the unpleasant encounter in question. The same was also true when workers anticipated a very stressful work situation on the horizon (Abma, 2011). Abma noted that absenteeism “is one of the primary reasons for trying to reduce conflict at work and increase … the psychological safety of the workplace” (2011, p. F16). Conflict may arise for a number of reasons including disputes over particular issues such as hours of work, resources, or inappropriate behavior such as discrimination and harassment. Office politics or management practices which are inequitable (e.g., involving salaries, promotion, distribution of work and performance evaluations) are yet other potential sources of stress (Connor & Worley, 1991) in workplaces generally, including libraries. Resolving a dispute which relates to an issue requires that the parties in conflict meet to discuss the matter. Before this meeting, a manager might want to meet with the parties individually first to determine what the problem is and to hear all sides of the story. Sometimes this in itself is enough to recommend a course of action and iron out the problem.

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Where meeting alone has not helped, the next step is a meeting with both sides involved in the dispute. Recommended practice is that both parties, in anticipation of the meeting, develop a list which requires them to work out the issue from the perspective of everyone involved. For example, the individuals on each side are asked to write down not only what they want but what they think the other person might want. In addition, they are asked to consider the following: Why is resolving the issue important to me? Why might resolving the issue be important to the other person? How would I react if the issue is not resolved? How would the other person react if the issue is not resolved? Who do I think needs to be at the meeting? Who might the other person want at the meeting? What do I think the other person wants? What might the other person think I want? What information can I bring? What information can the other person bring? What information do I want the other person to bring? What information might the other person want me to bring? (Alberta Human Services, 2007, p. 7)

If a solution is not apparent once both sides meet, brainstorming a solution is sometimes recommended. During brainstorming, all possible solutions, regardless of how implausible they might be, are compiled and the participants are asked not to comment on the merits until everyone runs out of ideas (Alberta Human Services, 2007). The optimum outcome of this brainstorming session is the one which meets the interests of the participants, can be supported by resources within the workplace, and which will be acceptable to others not involved in the conflict (Alberta Human Services, 2007) such as coworkers. Any solution which fails significantly in one or more of these categories will most likely result in additional disputes. Fixing on a solution, however, does not end the process. Instead, the parties, along with management, must also determine who must be involved in the solution for it to be implemented; how and when it will begin, take place and be completed, and, finally, how the results will be evaluated. This means having a plan in place and making sure that everyone is involved and acts in accordance with the specifics (Alberta Human Services, 2007). Where a source of workplace conflict does not involve a dispute but rather harassment or discrimination aimed at someone in particular, leaders must consult their policies dealing with these matters and must be prepared to enforce them. Workers and supervisors alike need to understand, long before an incident takes place, that bullying, harassment and discrimination are matters which can lead to lawsuits and other legal difficulties and will not be tolerated. Employees who are the target of this type of behavior should know how to report their concerns. Similarly, disciplinary measures to be meted out for this behavior should be communicated widely and understood by everyone in the workplace.

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5. Role Role conflict and role ambiguity are two well documented sources of stress and burnout (Cooper & Dewe, 2004; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). According to Griffin and Moorhead (2012) role is a set of expected behaviors associated with a particular position in a group or organization. As such, it has both formal (i.e., job-related and explicit) and informal (i.e., social and implicit) requirements. (p. 183)

Expectations arise in the workplace from both library managers and library employees regarding how an individual is expected to act. Hence, employees can experience stress where those expectations are unclear. Role conflict occurs when an employee is faced with contradictory or conflicting demands such as economies on staffing having been made, but leaving the staff remaining to still supply the best service possible. Role ambiguity occurs when an employee is unclear about the scope or requirements of the job and uncertain about the expectations of coworkers and bosses (Connor & Worley, 1991). A comprehensive orientation to a new job is one good way to avoid role conflict and ambiguity. A thorough orientation allows employers to spell out what is expected of new employees and gives those employees the opportunity to ask questions and about their roles. Orientation, however, is not the answer where an employee has been in the job for years. In this case, performance standards and individual goalsetting let employees know what is expected of them, thus reducing role ambiguity (Connor & Worley, 1991). For both new and seasoned employees alike, however, library managers must make it clear that they are approachable and willing to answer questions and sort out problems at any time. Job descriptions also are important in combating role conflict and ambiguity. These descriptions should be up-to-date, detailed, accurate, and easily understood. An employee’s responsibilities should be set out in such a way that they are clear and precise, and that there is as little overlap as possible with the job responsibilities of others. The reporting structure should also be made clear, so that employees will grasp what they themselves are accountable for and which tasks are of higher or lower priority. 6. Change One of the major sources of stress and burnout in the workplace is change, particularly when it leads to insecurity or uncertainty (Cordes & Dougherty,

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1993; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Sutton & Kahn, 1987). Change having to do with virtually any part of a job such as hours of work, job responsibilities or tasks, technology, work processes, location, budget, can lead to stress if managers fail to be transparent about the change, or if changes are imposed arbitrarily (Connor & Worley, 1991). Where an upcoming change might be unpleasant and unavoidable, employees should be provided with information about reasons for the change as well as how the organization will ultimately benefit (HSE, 2003). In an environment in which library budgets are being cut continually and downsizing is an ever present fear, library managers need to stay visible and make communication a priority. This means making themselves available to employees who need to talk. According to Schuler and Sethi (1984) stress is often the result of a lack of communication and close-mouthed managers are likely to find their employees far more anxious. Honest communication is the best policy, so library managers should let their employees know what is going on even when times are difficult or things are not going according to plan. Experts are unanimous that providing information is always the better path, even if the news is mostly bad. Indeed, in the complete absence of information, employees’ fears are likely to escalate (Immen, 2008). Once again, group meetings are useful in that they allow managers to consult with employees on the change process. At the same time, employees have the opportunity to share their worries, vent their frustrations, and learn whether others in the unit or organization feel the same way they do. Library managers should make sure that group meetings are focused on finding solutions to problems rather than turning into prolonged gripe sessions which are likely to lead to more stress. One way to avoid this is to try to end the meeting in a timely way with a plan of campaign (i.e., agreement on a concrete action or set of actions for the future) or, if possible, at least on a positive note. Where certain individuals tend to monopolize the session with complaints, experts suggest that managers arrange a private meeting with such employees, to explain why a different approach might be more desirable to the group as a whole (Immen, 2008). Part of implementing change is letting employees know the potential impact on their jobs (HSE, 2003) and finding some way to support them through this. Again, this not only involves communicating effectively but also the development of a feedback system (Schwartz & Levin, 1990). Managers who encourage subordinates to share their reactions to managerial decisions and other actions help to alleviate stress, as long as employees are convinced that the request for feedback is sincere. In other words, library managers who respond defensively, emotionally or punitively to feedback

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will not be successful in encouraging an open system of communication (Schwartz & Levin, 1990). Instead, managers who act dispassionately and seek to make changes, from time to time, in response to feedback will help alleviate stress and also better their own and their unit’s performance.

IV. Conclusion Managers who feel that stress management is not part of their job are behind the times. Current research has persistently shown that the majority of employees expect supervisors to take active steps to deal with sources of stress in the workplace. Some countries, such as the United Kingdom go so far as requiring in law that employers monitor and work to reduce workplace stress which could lead to ill health. Consequently, ensuring a healthy workplace requires supervisors to be alert and to have some familiarity with the signs of stress and burnout in employees. The good news, which we see discussed over and over again in the literature, is that managing stress in the workplace and sound managerial practices go hand in hand. As we have seen, good managers are interested in and work toward managing change effectively and humanely; balancing an employee’s responsibilities with some autonomy and control; providing or creating the conditions for greater social support; managing job demands; and reducing role ambiguity and conflict. Open, honest, and ongoing communication in all of this is vital. Managers, of course, should communicate regularly and honestly with staff and provide ongoing feedback. They need to ask questions if an employee’s behavior appears to be out of character or is becoming problematic. And they need to be persistent. Employees who are chronically stressed or burning out are just as likely to push an offer of help away as they are to embrace it, and a good manager has to know when it’s important to keep trying to reach out. As importantly, though, managers need to communicate with their own superiors about potential stress problems that they observe among their employees. To make stress management work, managers need the backing of their superiors, as well as the resources in place to help their employees when necessary. In other words, they need to know that they are not on their own when trying to solve these problems. Finally, as suggested earlier, managers themselves need to be aware that they are not immune from the effects of managerial stress and burnout when they are burdened daily by problem employees, conflicts, organizational politics, and related sources of stress. They ought, therefore, to

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monitor their own mental well-being and put safeguards in place for their own mental health when the going gets particularly tough. One way of doing this is to establish an informal support system to discuss problems, share ideas, receive information and advice, or simply to vent. These networks, so crucial to employees, are also vital for managers and act as a buffer against the many stressors that are prevalent in the modern library setting. Otherwise, the absurd situation arises in which burned-out, dysfunctional managers are in charge of burned-out, dysfunctional employees, which, of course, can only lead to more stress. References Abdellaoui, S., Chevaleyre, S., Gana, K., Lourel, M., & Paltrier, M. (2008). Relationships between psychological job demands, job control and burnout among firefighters. North American Journal of Psychology, 10(3), 489 495. Abma, D. (2011, March 25). Swedish study links sick days to work troubles: Employees more likely to book off after a bad experience at job. Edmonton Journal, p. E.2. Retrieved from http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/ business/story.html?id = 3e4df0f5-1cc6-455d-8aa1-e02f6ac94369 Affleck, M. A. (1996). Burnout among bibliographic instruction librarians. Library & Information Science Research, 18(2), 165 183. doi:10.1016/S0740-8188(96) 90018-3 Ajala, E. B. (2011). Work-related stress among librarians and information professionals in a Nigerian university. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/450/ Albanese, A. (2011). Librarians brace for a tough 2011: The impact of e-books, budget cuts the talk of ALA midwinter. Publishers Weekly, 258(3), 4. Retrieved from http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/trade-showsevents/article/45795-librarians-brace-for-a-tough-2011.html Alberta Human Services. (2007). Let’s talk: A guide to resolving workplace conflicts. Retrieved from http://alis.alberta.ca/pdf/cshop/letstalk.pdf American Library Association. (2012). The 2012 state of America’s libraries. Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/news/sites/ala.org.news/files/content/Stateof AmericasLibrariesReport2012Finalwithcover5.pdf American Psychological Association. (2009). Stress in America, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress-exec-summary.pdf American Psychological Association. (2010). Psychologically healthy workplace program: Fact sheet: By the numbers. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/practice/ programs/workplace/phwp-fact-sheet.pdf American Psychological Assocation & Harris Interactive. (2012). Workplace survey. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/phwa/workplace-survey.pdf Andalo, D. (2012, October 19). Time to talk about workplace stress: It’s an issue that costs the UK economy billions of pounds every year, so why are businesses reluctant to discuss and invest in the mental health and wellbeing of their workforce? The Guardian. Retrieved from http://careers.guardian.co.uk/careers-blog/ workplace-stress

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Gossip and Library Management: An Examination of the Perceptions of Library Managers Richard Olorunsola T. Y. Danjuma Library, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria

Abstract The purpose of this chapter is to report on research that examined the perceptions of selected heads of Nigerian libraries about how gossip can assist in the management of libraries of all types. A survey was used to collect data from 40 heads of libraries in the south-west region of Nigeria. The questionnaire contained questions that related to the issues being investigated. The 30 responses (75%) received were processed, analyzed, and the results are presented herein. The study revealed that gossip has indeed helped library management in Nigeria. The heads of libraries reported that they derived some benefits from gossip which helped in decision making. Most respondents agreed that gossip might get out of hand, but said it should be monitored to be used as a positive tool in library management. While the study is limited to 30 libraries, it has applications to similar libraries across Nigeria, and even in other countries. This research provides a better understanding of the reasons why library managers and others should pay attention to gossip and to those behind it because of their influence. This study adds to the body of knowledge about gossip in libraries. Keywords: Academic libraries; gossip; Nigeria; heads of libraries; library management

I. Introduction Have you heard the latest about the new manager? No, but do tell. Well, apparently, and you must keep this to yourself, I’ve heard that she intends to change our current work methods in an attempt to reduce staffing levels. Now where did you hear that? (Michelson & Mouly, 2000, p. 339)

This scenario aptly illustrates what gossip is, how it originates, and how it travels around the workplace. The issue of gossip in organizations is not a new development. It has long existed within organizations and may be as old as the origin of any group or organization. Perhaps what may seem new MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP INNOVATIONS ADVANCES IN LIBRARIANSHIP, VOL. 38 r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN: 0065-2830 DOI: 10.1108/S0065-283020140000038009

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is the attention that is being given to its existence within libraries (Akangbe, Adeleke, & Olorunsola, 2011). Individuals at work, irrespective of the type of organization talk about or discuss issues that relate to the organization, a group, or a team, yet they do not always use formal channels of communication. From this, it is clear that gossip is a major activity that goes on among people as they relate together in society, be it in churches, academic institutions, and other workplaces. As management is a dynamic discipline, information from both formal and informal groups or discussions have their place in the operation of organizations, particularly in service oriented organizations such as a library. Such information, if properly managed, can go a long way to preventing disharmony, in building cordial relationships, and improving or enriching decision making. Presently studies are scant on the utility of gossip in library environments in Nigeria, particularly with respect to the help it gives the organization as a whole. Like other complex organizations, libraries generally have been structured hierarchically, with supervisors being responsible for their own actions and the decisions and actions of their subordinates. Klingberg (1990) says, that “libraries have many of the same elements as other organizations … set performance goals, and operate with a staff hierarchy” (p. 102). Consequently it becomes imperative to examine how gossip can help library managers in the decision making process, to avert disharmony, reduce tension and provide an environment conducive to efficient service and operations. An examination of the perception of library managers in selected libraries in south-west Nigeria is a further enquiry in support of the conclusions drawn in a previous study by Labianca (2010) that “gossip can be a diagnostic tool … the manager who keeps an ear to the ground has a good chance to hear about potentially troublesome issue as they arise … and gossip can reinforce the company’s value” (p. 28). The current study specifically focuses on the following: • to find out the perception of heads of libraries about the help of gossip to them; • to investigate library managers levels of using gossip in decision making; • to document practical situations of the ways gossip has helped to bring hidden issues to the fore; and • based on the results, make suggestions to help practitioners to use gossip to their advantage.

The chapter, while focusing on the usefulness or good of gossip in management of libraries, considers the various views expressed in the literature, with a view to balancing the opinions of writers on the issue. Consequently the chapter is structured as follows: first, there is a brief review of the concept of gossip—its origin, definition and where it occurs,

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without an attempt to limit it to any particular organization. Then there is brief background information and justification for the study with the survey instrument provided in Appendix A. Next, the method used and data collection and analysis, the results are analyzed and discussed, followed with a conclusion and recommendations.

II. Literature Review Various studies and writers have addressed the issue of gossip in workplace. In fact the body of literature on the subject is highly significant covering different aspects of it. For the purpose of this chapter, the literature review will cover the following aspects of gossip: its introduction, its negative effect in the workplace, gossip as management tool and summary. Studies have shown that gossip thrives well in organizations, when the flow of information from the top gets choked off (Labianca, 2010). This suggests that a manager who fails to encourage communication with his/her staff may well be preparing a conducive environment in which gossip will thrive. It is rightly observed that the role of managers is to communicate to employees often and redundantly, even if the message is—“I do not have answer at this time” (Bacal, 2003, p. 2), with the promise of providing information when it is available. From the foregoing, it can be argued that managers can inadvertently provide a fertile ground to breed gossip. The literature further reveals that a major cause of gossip in organization is the absence of official information. When such information is not forthcoming, people speculate, or circulate rumors. This clearly shows that by keeping staff better informed, a manager can remove the need to create false information to fill the information gap. There is a psychological interpretation of gossip which claims that gossip has an inherent place in the psyches of human beings. As Hannigan (2008) states, “gossip is never as trivial as people think it is. It is the common man’s closest approach to philosophy” (p. 1). This led the author to conclude that gossip helps to bring intimate insights that should not be underestimated, and that reflecting on gossip helps bring humanity close to understanding itself, by revealing “issues of the human condition, the human community and kinship …” (p. 1). Many authors have traced gossip back thousands of years, suggesting that humans used it as soon as they were able to speak, as a technique to curb “free riders” who would eat mammoth meat without helping to catch the animal (Rowley, 2012, p. 1). Some authors say that from ancient times, people and governments have always been trapped in the conspiracy of

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gossips. Roman emperors used to send out agents as spies among people to report on gossip in communities and also to spread gossip themselves (Gholipour, Kozekanan, & Zehtabi, 2011). After the World War II, despite the absolute governing power of USSR over news, sometimes the government spread gossip to gauge the public pulse. On the possibility of stopping gossip in the workplace, Corbin and May (2005) opined that we cannot stop it because it is part of employees’ personalities. They gave a suggestion as to what should be done: “since it cannot be stopped, it is only good to use it to an advantage in the workplace” (p. 2). They believe that gossip is a serious workplace problem that can be managed, which does not mean the gossip will disappear entirely, but that is can be contained to the point that the impact it has on the workplace is diminished. The above opinion is instructive. To stop gossip in the workplace is a mission impossible! The quotation that follows gives the reason. It will mean “that when we show up for work, they expect us to leave behind emotional and social parts of who we are. But we are unable to leave our humanity at the door” (Labianca, 2010, p. 29). A. What Is Gossip? In the search for definition, the first port of call was Webster’s Dictionary (2004) which describes gossip as “familiar idle talk, groundless rumor, mischievous tattle” (p. 546). It is also defined as “a key to human social activity” Grigsby (2007, p. 1). To draw some similarity between rumor and gossip, Michelson and Mouly (2000) refer to the two terms as a means of informal communication. They note that one of the interesting features of both rumor and gossip is that they are derivative in the sense that information is received third hand. Discussing the terms further, the authors say that “rumor is a talk that is unsubstantiated by authority or evidence as to its authenticity or truth” (p. 340). This suggests that rumors are hypotheses (unconfined propositions) regarded as synonymous with hearsay. But they regard gossip as idle talk or trivial chatter which carries with it the presumption of having some basis in factuality. It is perhaps not surprising then that some view the terms “rumor” and “gossip” as conceptually distinct (see Noon & Delbridge, 1993). Beyond this, research clearly shows gossip is a social activity by both males and females (Grigsby, 2007, p. 1). Belvalkar (2011) says “the etymology of the word gossip suggests a rather pure implication, but the connotation in which it is used today has undergone many changes, so that it has now reduced to a derogatory term” (p. 2). Gossip in the earlier times used

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to mean “a close friend” or a “chum.” But this does not apply in today’s world. Some authors who write about gossip as a strategy describe gossip as transferring invalid information verbally. Gossip is a guess about a definite subject which is not certain to be true and usually goes from one person to another verbally and it is like a snowball, the more it goes around the bigger it becomes. (Gholipour et al., 2011, p. 56)

No doubt the literature about gossip is quite significant, as is its definition. From the few definitions discussed above, certain things worthy of note have been revealed: • that at least three parties are involved in gossip: the gossiper, the recipient and the subject; • that rumors and gossip are not conceptually the same thing; • that gossip is a major activity that goes on among people as they relate in society in groups and various organizations like workplaces; and • that no person living or working in proximity to others is isolated from gossip—gossip is an unavoidable part of work life.

B. Negative Effect of Workplace Gossip Gossip has consequences, one of which is that “gossips are often destructive and sometimes out of control. They have consequences such as key employees leave their jobs, costs go up for fighting the gossips, the organization loses face, productivity decreases …” (Gholipour et al., 2011, p. 58). Anonymous (2009) sees “gossip as having undesirable effects on workplace. It creates a problematic work environment” (p. 1). The author explains that employees who are subjects of gossip may feel they are being unfairly picked on or targeted, which can lead to claims of discrimination. Examples of gossip that can result in hostility according to Anonymous include dating or office romances. These situations increase an employee’s potential exposure to legal liability, and can lead to costly lawsuits. The authors warn employers to be very careful of lawsuits as they drain money and erode reputation and good image. In Abbajay’s (n.d.) opinion “there is danger of work-place gossip as it can have many adverse effects on organization. Also it can increase conflict and decrease morale. It results in strained relationships” (p. 1). The author goes into the nitty-gritty of gossip as it affects individuals and gossips and concludes thus: “Gossip breaks down the trust level within the group, which results in employees second-guessing each other and ultimately running to the supervisor to clarify the directions or instructions or to settle the differences that will arise” (Abbajay, n.d., p. 1). Arising from the above view, gossip can be seen as the death of team work as a group can break up

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into cliques and employees begin refusing to work with others. Further, “as a result of gossip, productivity is lost, as good employees do not want to work in that toxic environment” (Abbajay, n.d., p. 1). Some authors have claimed that gossip can ruin the life of staff. As one of them states, “they say gossip is good, but let it get out of hand and it can ruin your life” (Belvalkar, 2011, p. 3). He concludes however, that there are benefits from gossip for individuals, not organizations. While concluding that gossip does not benefit the organization, the author gave two major effects on the organization: • a worthy employee may quit the organization due to workplace gossip induced stress; and • it can lead to the company gaining a bad reputation externally.

The literature reveals that gossip can have a very powerful effect on the reputation of a manager, whether positive or negative (Sobczak, 2013, p. 2). But even if the effect is not deserved, any attempt to stop the flow of gossip is bound to fail. He opined that manager cannot prevent gossip, it is potentially damaging, and they cannot rely on it—but that does not mean they should ignore it. But he was quick to add that the tone and content of gossip can also provide managers with insights into problems within an organization. Many organizations have recognized the ill-effects of gossip and have become more diligent about their work ethics. Employees are specifically instructed through handbooks about which of their actions will or will not be regarded as an instance of gossiping and what kind of action may be taken against an employee who fails to comply by the rules set by the employer (Belvalkar, 2011, p. 2). Bacal (2003) admits that workplace gossip is a serious issue which can be exceedingly damaging both to individuals and the company in general. The list of the destructive results of gossip as presented by the author is as follows: • • • • •

wasted time and productivity, as a result of excessive time in exchanging gossip information; circulation of false rumors and either heightened fear or false raised expectation; severe erosion of staff morale; hurt feeling and the possibility of reprisal; creation of a “toxic” work environment (p. 1).

In the view of Weissenberger (2009) gossip if left unchecked, can wreak havoc on company morale and efficiency. This author sees workplace gossip as unproductive, and a breeding ground for resentment. It also serves as a road block to effective communication and collaboration, and is often about things that really matter to the company or team which should be addressed.

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C. Gossip as a Management Tool A highly insightful contribution by Hannigan (2008) says that “it is human to communicate via gossip, and it isn’t necessarily a bad thing” (p. 1). Gossip perpetrates a healthy work environment and should be controlled and even facilitated by managers through productive strategies. This contribution to gossip sees gossip as having the ability to stimulate more productivity in employees who are not meeting the company’s wok standard. In other words, gossiping about those who were not contributing effectively to the efforts of the group could work to improve the output of the entire group by motivating the underperforming team members. Hannigan’s conclusion was that the majority of gossip in the workplace is not negative. The import of the point raised here is that positive gossip is needed in the workplace to increase productivity and foster relationships, thereby making gossip useful to management and can aid in team building and communication. Another author opines that “gossip is actually therapeutic and can lower stress levels for participants” (Giang, 2012, p. 1). Consequently, those who refer to gossip as bad workplace etiquette may be wrong! Giang further points out that “gossip gets a bad rap but there is evidence that it plays a critical role in the maintenance of social order” (p. 1). There is a claim that social scientists have long known that gossip is not just a frivolous pursuit or guilty pleasure. Gossip actually creates power hierarchies, strengthens bonds, and is an important form of communication. Mrosko (2012) reveals that “gossip can actually be used as a powerful productivity tool in business, but raised one issue that is fundamental—that if gossip is left as gossip, it can destroy a team or company” (p. 1). If the manager views gossip as an indicator of underlying issues that need to be addressed, he or she can use this as an opportunity to shed light on those issues and deal with them. This simply implies that when managers view gossip as an alert or a source of information, it can be a goldmine if they know how to use it. It may not be out of place if managers would find out how much employees are gossiping and what they are talking about. That way, “managers can turn a potentially negative distraction into a performance booster” (Mrosko, 2012, p. 1). Ground-breaking research on gossip has found it to be useful in diagnosing the problems of an organization. According to them, a manager who keeps an ear to the ground has a good chance to hear about potentially troublesome issues as they arise (Labianca, 2010, p. 28). These authors remarked, “… strange as this may sound, gossip can reinforce the company’s values.” Lester (2013) has a similar view and says “whether positive or negative gossip can be a diagnostic tool for managers and supervisors.

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This is because the gossip that circulates within an organization is an indicator of how employees feel and what they are thinking about” (p. 1). The author points out that listening to gossip prior to, or directly after, a major organizational change is a good way for managers to learn how employees feel about the change and how they are adjusting to it. This view suggests that managers can use gossip to have a feedback on reactions to policy implementation in organizations. Such reactions may provide the blueprints for how to react to employees actions on organizational matters. On the creditability of gossip, “it increases good information in an organization. There is useful and proper information in gossips which is a valuable supporting system for the official system and facilitates organizational goals” (Gholipour et al., 2011, p. 59). Gholipour et al. (2011) also suggest that when there is gossip in an organization, it is vital to analyze those who have started and spread it in order to get to know the source and reason and motive. The import of this statement is that gossip must be addressed by managers openly; this tells employees that you know what is going on. Clearly, managers are not to consider gossip as an un-necessary evil, something to be avoided. With careful handling, gossip can actually contribute to better management. Michelson and Mouly (2000) provide a list of certain things to consider before we can talk of gossip as a possible management tool, we must first understand how it functions within an organization. The choicest cuts of unofficial information are usually shared behind closed doors, in the security of private offices; People nearer to the top of the management are the most common targets of gossip; Managers who succeed in identifying the chiefs or gatekeepers of informal communication will have every chance of actually benefiting from gossip; Networks of informal communication can often constitute early warning systems that provide valid and useful information; If managers listen to more gossip, they will learn more about their organizations and run less risk of being taken by surprise by developments. (p. 1)

The above literature review has addressed the salient aspects of gossip in organizations, and has revealed the following: • Gossip thrives well in organizations when the flow of information from the top gets choked off; • The origin of gossip can be traced to ancient times, as people and government have always been trapped in the conspiracy of group; • It is not possible to stop gossip because it is part of human nature; • Gossip has the consequences of being destructive and sometimes out of control; • Gossip can result in intensified conflicts;

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Workplace gossip can lead to costly lawsuits, that may damage the image of the organization; Destructive gossip can cause valued employees to quit; Workplace gossip is seen as unproductive and can wreak havoc on organizations; Gossip can stimulate productivity in employees who are not meeting the company’s work standard; Majority of gossip in the workplace is not negative; Gossip allows people to gather and validate information; It can be used as productivity tool in organizations; It is not out of place for managers to find out how much employees gossip; You can use gossip to diagnose the problems of organizations; Workplace gossip can be used to find out how popular or acceptable policies are; Managers can use gossip to analyze those who start and spread gossip; and For gossip to be used effectively as management tool, there are issues to consider.

III. The Study of Gossip in Nigerian Academic Libraries A. Methodology: Targets and Assumptions This study used a hybrid of qualitative and quantitative research methodology and analysis. This is a post-positivist view of research in which the researcher deems most appropriate for the study, with each method being adopted appropriately at any stage in the research (Patton, 1988). The study covered three types of libraries in Nigeria, and nomenclature differs from one type of library to another, consequently the designation “heads of libraries” was used to mean the overall leaders/directors in the libraries. The study targets were selected heads of libraries in four states in south-west Nigeria in close proximity to the location of the researcher. They were Oyo, Osun, Ogun, and Kwara States. The reason for this was to make the project manageable. A background literature search was begun on the 22nd of January, 2013 and the survey was designed during the month of March, 2013. A purposive list of 60 head librarians was drawn up. Of the 60 questionnaire to be administered, only 40 were sent to respondents due to a strike action by research institutes and polytechnics at the time of the study. Visits were made to all the participating libraries by a research assistant to distribute and collect the surveys. Where the survey was not collected the same day, subsequent appointments were arranged. The collection period was between 13th of March and July 31, 2013. Out of 40 administered, 30 (75%) respondents completed the survey (see Appendix B). B. Research Questions This study uses the lenses of the library managers’ experience to gain insight into gossip encountered in library management. The goals of this study are threefold: (1) to understand the good gossip has done to the library

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and (2) to find out from open-ended comments the instances in which good gossip has benefited the library, and (3) the way it has proffered solutions to certain management problems. Accordingly, six research questions are posed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Does gossip help the library as a whole in any way? What role has gossip played in the management of libraries? Should library managers discourage gossip amongst his workforce? What problems exist for library managers in dealing with gossip? Do library managers see the majority of gossip as negative? Do library managers use gossip to make decision positively?

In general, respondents were asked to describe their personal opinions and perceptions on a five-point Likert scale. As shown in Appendix A, there were five demographic questions and two open-ended ones. Seventeen statements were used to elicit the participants’ perceptions about gossip in library management. These statements had been selected (with some modification) from the literature. Prior to survey distribution two professional colleagues among the participants commented on the appropriateness of the statements in measuring perceptions. The choice of respondents was based on a number of factors and assumptions. These were as follows: 1. The head librarian was deemed to be the person with a comprehensive overview and understanding of management issues in the library because he/she is responsible for decision making. 2. This position was most likely to lead significant management initiatives arising from gossip. Without this leadership role, it is unlikely that any major management initiatives could be conceived and implemented, given the nature of relatively more hierarchical organizational set ups in most libraries in Nigeria. 3. It was also assumed that the perceptions of participants were a critical factor in the successful use of gossip as a management tool.

IV. Findings A. Structured Question Responses It is essential to provide brief information on the types of libraries before the findings are presented. The types of libraries covered were: academic, special and public. The libraries of universities, polytechnics, colleges of education come under academic, those of research institutes fall under special, state library and national library branch are public libraries (see Appendix B). The purpose of this study was to gain an understanding of what head librarians perceived about the use of gossip in library management. However, there was need not to have information on the profiles of head

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librarians. This was addressed through five survey questions. The first question addressed the library of respondents. The responses of participants is presented in Table 1. From the table it can be seen that two thirds of the responses came from academic libraries. However, of the responses from the three different institutions that fall under academic libraries, more than half were from university libraries. All the respondents were heads of their libraries. Respondents were asked about their years of experience as head of a library with the results shown in Table 2. It showed that only four (13.3%) respondents had only one year experience as head of libraries, while 26 (86.7%) had been head for two years. The mean number of years was 4. It was assumed that most of the respondents had enough experience to determine the role gossip has played in library management. To categorize respondents by gender 19 (63.3%) were male and 11 (36.7%) were female. Though the number of males was Table 1 Respondents by Type of Library Type of library University Polytechnic College of education Research institute State National (branch)

Frequency

Percentage (%)

12 5 5 5 2 1 30

40 13.3 16.7 16.7 10 3.3 100

Table 2 Years of Experience as Head Librarian Year(s)

Frequency

fx

1 2 3 4 5 6 14

4 8 4 2 8 4 30

4 16 12 8 40 40 120

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overwhelming, the results showed that both genders were adequately represented in the survey. The results may further suggest that men are more likely than women to have leadership position in Nigerian libraries as a whole. The next section of the survey asked respondents to state whether they agreed or disagreed with seventeen statements about gossip, in order to collect their perceptions and experiences with it. Table 3 shows the responses. The broad aim of the study was to gain an understanding of the level of agreement or disagreement in order to provide a systematic understanding of the benefits which gossip offers to the library as a whole. Some highlights of the responses are presented in Table 3. In the highlights, “strongly disagree” and “disagree” are categorized as “disagree” and “strongly agree” and “agree” categorized as “agree.” Most respondents to statement number one, 19 (63.3%), disagreed that gossip had assisted to stimulate productivity in employees. However, 10 (33.3%) agreed that they had experienced such situations where gossip helped to increase the output of the group by motivating the underperforming team members. Interestingly 20 (67%) head librarians agreed that they were able to hear about potential problems in the library through gossip. Also, 20 (67%) agreed that solutions to certain problems emerged as a result of gossip. Twenty (67%) agreed with statement number three that solutions to certain problems emerged as a result of gossip. Respondents to statement number four further revealed that 18 (60%) agreed that gossip led them to improve internal communication. Table 3 shows that gossip had influenced most respondents to make decisions. Nineteen or 63.3% of respondents agreed that they had experienced the need to improve on internal communication. This indicates that gossip had assisted management to make quality decisions, which were appreciated by staff. Responses to statement number six reveal that a good number of respondents (70%) agreed that they were able to discover the truth as a result of gossip. A majority of respondents, 19 (63.3%) agreed that management came up with a better welfare program for their staff due to information they received from gossip. Curiously though, most respondents, (60%) did not agree to statement number 10 that they have a lot to gain if they listened more to gossip. Looking at the positive responses of participants to the aforementioned statements, a negative attitude to this statement should not be expected, because almost all responses above have revealed the benefits or positive role gossip has played in library management. Nonetheless, (36.6%) believed they have a lot to gain by listening to more gossip. In response to statement number eleven, most library managers 20 (67%) saw gossip as a necessary evil in any organization. It is therefore to

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Table 3 Respondents Experience with Gossip Statements

1 Gossip has helped stimulate more productivity in employees who are not meeting work standards 2 I have used gossip to hear about potentially troublesome issues as they arose 3 Gossip brought solutions to certain problems in the library 4 I have used gossip to bring improvement in internal communication 5 Gossip influenced me to make some decision positively 6 I have used gossip to know hidden truth 7 Gossip has helped me to improve on staff welfare 8 I am the most common target of gossip in the library 9 I have used chiefs or gatekeepers of informal communications to benefit from gossip

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

7(23.3%) 12(40.1%) 10(33.3%)

No answer from respondent 1(3.3%)

2(6.7%)

8(26.7%) 13(43.3%)

7(23.3%)

1(3.3%)

9(27.0%) 18(60%)

2(6.7%)

10(33.3%) 17(56.7%)

1(3.3%)

3(10.0%)

8(26.7%) 14(46.7%)

5(16.7%)

4(13.3%)

5(16.7%) 16(53.3%)

5(16.7%)

1(3.3%)

8(26.7%) 19(63.3%)

2(6.7%)

2(6.7%)

4(13.3%) 15(50.0%)

2(6.7%)

7(23.3%)

2(6.7%)

6(20.0%) 12(40.1%)

7(23.3%)

1(3.3%)

4(13.3%)

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Table 3 (Continued ) Statements

10 Library managers have a lot to gain if they listen to more gossip 11 Gossip is a necessary evil in any organization 12 I see the use of gossip in management as a way of turning what many see as evil to good 13 Gossip is often about things that really matter to the organization or team and should be addressed 14 Gossip is part of employee’s personality, and should be seen as such 15 Gossip provides intimate insights that should not be underestimated by managers 16 The majority of gossip in the workplace is not negative 17 Gossip can get out of control; managers must monitor it and use it as a positive tool it can be.

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

No answer from respondent

9(30.0%)

2(6.7%)

1(3.3%)

6(20.0%) 16(53.3%)

4(13.3%)

2(6.7%)

13(43.3%) 14(46.7%)

2(6.7%)

1(3.3%)

4(13.3%) 12(40.1%) 36(6%)

2(6.7%)

1(3.3%)

4(13.3%) 10(33.3%) 13(43.3%)

2(6.7%)

1(3.3%)

2(6.7%)

5(16.7%)

5(16.7%) 13(43.3%)

2(6.7%)

7(23.3%) 16(53.3%)

3(10.0%) 13(43.3%) 10(33.3%)

1(3.3%)

2(6.6%)

3(10.0%) 15(50.0%) 10(33.3%)

Note: Percentages may not total 100% due to rounding.

2(6.7%)

1(3.3%)

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be tolerated. In light of this and as a response to statement number twelve, 16 (53.3%) respondents agreed that library managers should turn the “evil” phenomenon into a good. Statement number thirteen attempted to find out what gossip is all about in the library. Only 13 (43.3%) respondents agreed that gossip in the library is always about things that are of interest to management and about issues that should be addressed. The statement about whether gossip is part of employee’s human nature had (50%) agreeing that gossip is an inherent behavior of employees. The response to the statement number 15 is instructive—wherein an overwhelming response of 70% that agreed that library managers should not underestimate gossip because of its benefits. With respect to the danger of gossip, it is noteworthy that 25 (80%) agreed that gossip may get out of hand, and that it must be monitored and used as a positive tool. Of all the responses, this has the highest level of agreement. B. Open-Ended Questions Results The two open-ended questions at the end of the survey provided qualitative responses that both supported the general study results and elicited further information. Question one asked respondents to cite two practical instances in which gossip had been helpful. The purpose of this question was twofold. Firstly, to allow respondents to give specific instances distinct from the list of 17 statements. Secondly, it allowed them to explain in their own words what their practical experiences had been. More than three quarters of respondents offered the following practical examples. • • • • • • • • • • • •

I have used gossip to prepare for opposition or issues in staff meeting. Gossip helped me to design better strategies in meeting the needs of my user community. When a staff was disciplined, I got a feedback from gossip. When information to deploy some library staff leaked, I learnt it from gossip. Gossip helped me to know of conflict between two categories of staff (junior and senior). Gossip helped me to identify those who always raised opposition to library management decisions. Gossip gave information on those who engage in illegal activities in the library. Gossip revealed existing discontent among staff. Gossip helped me to develop a better attitude to staff request. Gossip exposed plans to convert library resources to personal property. Gossip assisted with information required to fight for library staff benefits. Information from gossip was used to rectify the anomaly in staff promotion and placement.

Because there might be other issues not adequately addressed by the structured survey, participants were asked for general comments about gossip in their library. Responses were classified into three categories:

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comments with a positive attitude toward gossip; a negative attitude; and others, as given below: 1. Positive Attitude • • • • • • • • •

Gossip can improve relationship among management and staff if carefully used; Gossip helps to understand staff better; Gossip helps improve library service; Gossip is beneficial to the library system; Gossip is evitable in a workplace setting; Gossip is universal—it helps administration; Gossip could be true, so leaders should be careful; Gossip should be used to the advantage of the organization; and The role of gossip cannot be underrated in an organization.

2. Negative Attitude • • • • • •

Gossip does not influence my administration; Gossip is common in workplace but I don’t care; Gossip is inimical to library service; Gossip is unethical and should not be encouraged; Gossip does not always help; and I don’t believe in gossip.

3. Others • Leaders should be fair and just to avert negative rumors; • Gossip will be powerless where there is justice and fairness; and • Regular staff meetings and open administration can reduce gossip in libraries.

C. Discussion Data analysis of the survey results showed that gossip has helped in library management, particularly in the areas of library service, decision making, job security, and welfare matters among others. The study revealed that it is unrealistic to think that library managers could free the workplace of gossip, because it is seen as part of employees’ personalities. Banning gossip would be an inappropriate response. The study showed that problems may arise in dealing with gossip, but that library managers believed that with proper monitoring, gossip could remain an invaluable tool. A further look at the results of the study revealed that the majority of library managers see gossip in the library as a negative. Taking a holistic view of data analyzed in this study, it is clear that the benefits derived by library managers in using gossip far outweigh its negative effects.

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This study revealed that gossip helped to uncover hidden truths and brought hidden problems to the fore for management attention. Library managers were able to use the information from gossip to improve on their libraries. This may suggest that gossip was accurate because of its usefulness in providing solutions to problems. It is necessary to note however, that rather than ignore or try to suppress gossip in the library, library managers should attempt to tune into it. In fact, they should try and identify people who are key to the information chain, and feed them information they can spread to others. Most of the literature promotes the positive aspects of gossip in organizations. This study revealed that gossip can have beneficial effects on a library as a whole. However, there is nothing good in life without its bad side, but the minimal negative impact of gossip in an organization does not make it destructive to the organization as a whole. It is remarkable to note how the literature review herein supports the results of this study on the benefits of gossips to organizations (see Adams, 2012; Gholipour et al., 2011; Michelson & Mouly, 2000; Mrosko, 2012). Overall, on examining the responses in this study, it is safe to say that library leaders have used gossip to advantage in managing academic libraries in Nigeria.

V. Conclusion Putting the introduction of this study, the literature review, and results together, it can be said that gossip thrives wherever people interact with one another. This suggests that it cannot be eradicated in any organization; which may be why library managers cannot afford to ignore gossip. The survey has provided preliminary data on the perceptions of head librarians about the use of gossip in library management. Since the ultimate goal of the study was to improve library management using information from gossip, library managers need to learn how to manage it to facilitate smooth working relationship among staff and the achievement of goals. This study, as far as it goes, has confirmed that gossip has a place in library management as any other organization. The limitation of this study is in its coverage. The selected libraries were in south-west Nigeria, which is one of the six-geo-political zones in Nigeria. Overall, the study provides a better understanding of the reasons library managers and others should pay attention to gossip and to the individuals behind it because of their influence. This study provides valuable information for future studies in this and related areas. As librarians we need more studies that will focus on the role, power, and activities of

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informal groups within library systems because of their impact on libraries’ progress. A. Recommendations In light of findings of the study, the following are for consideration and use by library managers. • Library managers should take gossip as warning about problems that affect staff welfare, promotion, job security, and the overall operation of their library; • Since information goes around through gossip faster than official sources, library managers should carefully evaluate the effect of new policies by studying employees’ reactions; • It is advisable not to always rush to use gossip to make a very important decision to avoid error of judgment, particularly, issues that have to do with policies; • Once in a while, library managers should try and analyze who started and spread gossip in order to get to know the source, and the underlying reasons and motives; • Library managers should appreciate the fact that there is useful and proper information in gossip that can be valuable to the library as a whole; • It is important for library managers to know that gossip allows employees to find out a lot about what is going on in the system; • A library manager needs to be proactive by adopting an open-door policy—this enhances communication with staff because they will be better aware of what goes on outside their door; • Gossip as an informal communication provides valid information that is useful not only for decision but also as guidance relating to staff matters; • Library managers should consider holding all staff meetings often—to serve as an avenue to give accurate and timely information of interest to employees; • Positive gossip in the workplace fosters relationship, open communication between employees, and makes management aware or mindful of issues of interest to staff at various levels; • Supervisors and top library managers should try to single out the main sources of gossip among their employees by identifying gossip vectors and use them wisely to benefit from gossip.

Appendix A: Sample Questionnaire Gossip and Library management: An examination of the perception of Library Managers. Dear Respondent, This study is being conducted to elicit information about the perception of library managers on the help of gossip in library management. The survey should take about 15 minutes to complete. Thanks very much for your time. Richard Olorunsola T. Y. Danjuma Library Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo.

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Section A: Demographics 1. Name of library: …………………………………………………………………… Polytechnic Librarian 2. Position: University Librarian Institute Librarian Director (Public Library) 3. How many years have you spent in the position? 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 years 4. Sex: Male

College Librarian

5 years and above

Female

5. Age: 20 30

31 40

41 50

51 60

61 and above

Section B 6. This section deals with what you have experienced as Head of Library in dealing with gossip, and now it has helped you in managing the library. How much do you agree or disagree with each of the following statements?

Statements

1 Gossip has helped stimulate more productivity in employees who are not meeting work standards 2 I have used gossip to hear about potentially troublesome issues as they arose 3 Gossip brought solutions to certain problems in the library 4 I have used gossip to bring improvement in internal communication 5 Gossip influenced me to make some decision positively 6 I have used gossip to know hidden truth 7 Gossip has helped me to improve on staff welfare

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No answer disagree agree from respondent

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(Continued ) Statements

8 I am the most common target of gossip in the library 9 I have used chiefs or gatekeepers of informal communications to benefit from gossip 10 Library managers have a lot to gain if they listen to more gossip 11 Gossip is a necessary evil in any organization 12 I see the use of gossip in management as a way of turning what many see as evil to good 13 Gossip is often about things that really matter to the organization or team and should be addressed 14 Gossip is part of employee’s personality, and should be seen as such 15 Gossip provides intimate insights that should not be underestimated by managers 16 The majority of gossip in the workplace is not negative 17 Gossip can get out of control; managers must monitor it and use it as a positive tool it can be.

Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly No answer disagree agree from respondent

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Section C 7. Can you cite two practical instances that gossip has helped the library as a whole? 1. ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………….. 2. ……………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………… 8. Please comment freely on gossip in your library:…………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

Appendix B: Participating Libraries S/n 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Institution Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo Lead City University, Ibadan University of Ilorin, Ilorin Bells University of Technology, Abeokuta Babcock University, Ilishan University of Agriculture, Abeokuta Crescent University, Abeokuta Covenant University, Otta Fountain University, Osogbo Landmark University, Omu-Aran Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin Federal School of Surveying, Oyo Ibadan Polytechnic, Ibadan Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta College of Education, Ilorin United Missionary Church of Africa Theological College, Ilorin College of Education, Oro Alayande College of Education, Oyo Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo Federal College of Education, Osiele Abeokuta Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Ilorin Agricultural & Rural Management Training Institute, Ilorin National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization, Ilorin Nigerian Institute of Horticulture, Ibadan Nigerian Institute of Economic Research, Ibadan

Location (state) Oyo Oyo Oyo Kwara Ogun Ogun Ogun Ogun Ogun Osun Kwara Kwara Oyo Oyo Ogun Kwara Kwara Kwara Oyo Oyo Ogun Kwara Kwara Kwara Oyo Oyo

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(Continued ) S/n 27. 28. 29. 30.

Institution Institute of Agricultural Research & Training, Ibadan Kwara State Library Board, Ilorin National Library of Nigeria (Oyo State Branch), Ibadan Oyo State Library Board, Ibadan

Location (state) Oyo Kwara Oyo Oyo

References Abbajay, M. (n.d.). The danger of workplace gossip. Retrieved from http://definition1. com/the-danger-of-workplace-gossip-cornerstone-group-w2125.pdf Adams, S. (2012, December 19). Why gossip is good for the office. Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2012/12/19/why-gossip-is-goodfor-the-office/ Akangbe, B. R., Adeleke, A. A., & Olorunsola, R. (2011). Gossip in library and information service environments: Results of a survey. Library Management (Poland), 1(3), 135 145. Anonymous. (2009). Workplace law: Workplace gossip. Retrieved from http:// www.fentokeller.com/resources/workplace_law/2009/june_2009_workplace_ gossip.htm Bacal, R. (2003). Facing down workplace gossip. Retrieved from http://www2.fiu. edu/∼oea/InsightsFall2004/online_library/articles/facing%20down%20workplace% 20gossip.htm Belvalkar, M. (2011, December 23). Effects of gossip in the workplace. Retrieved from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/effects-of-gossip-in-the-workplace.html Corbin, J. & May, J. (2005, May). What to do about gossip in the workplace? Seattle, WA: Municipal Research and Services Center. Retrieved from www. mrsc.org/focus/hradvisor/hra0505.aspx Gholipour, A., Kozekanan, S. F., & Zehtabi, M. (2011). Utilizing gossip as a strategy to construct organizational reality Business Strategy Series, 12(2), 56 62. doi:10.1108/17515631111114859. Giang, V. (2012, January 30). Work gossip is good for you. The Age: Executive Style. Retrieved from http://www.theage.com.au/executive-style/management/ work-gossip-is-good-for-you-20120125-1qgyw.html Gossip. (2004). The new international Webster’s comprehensive dictionary of English language: Encyclopedic edition. Naples, FL: Trident Press. Grigsby, R. K. (2007). The deadly trap of gossip: A pitfall for junior faculty. Academic Physician & Scientist. Retrieved from www.oamc.org/download/164760/ data/grigsby-deadly-trap-of-gossip.pdf Hannigan, C. H. (2008). Facilitating gossip in the workplace. Retrieved from http//carriehannigan.com/gossip.html Klingberg, S. (1990). Library reorganization: The role of theory and research. Library Administration & Management, 4(2), 101 104.

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Labianca, G. (2010, September 1). It’s not “unprofessional” to gossip at work. Harvard Business Review: The Magazine. Retrieved from http://hbr.org/2010/09/ defend-your-research-its-not-unprofessional-to-gossip-at-work/ar/3 Lester, M. C. (2013). Office gossip: It’s not all bad. Retrieved from http:/careeradvice.monster.com/in-the-office-issues/good-office-gossip/article.aspx Michelson, G., & Mouly, S. (2000). Rumour and gossip in organisations: A conceptual study. Management Decision, 38(5), 339 346. doi:10.1108/002517400 10340508 Mrosko, T. (2012, October 17). Gossip as a productivity tool (Blog). Retrieved from cleveland.com/employment/print.html?entry = 2012/10/gossip_as_a_productivity_ tool.html Noon, M., & Delbridge, R. (1993). News from behind my hand: Gossip in organizations. Organization Studies, 14(1), 23 36. doi:10.1177/017084069301499103 Patton, N. Q. (1988). Paradigms and pragmatism. In D. M. Fetterman (Ed.), Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education: The silent scientific revolution (pp. 116 137). New York, NY: Praeger. Rowley, T. (2012, September 6). “Good gossip” should be encouraged at work, scientists claim. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/9726760/ Good-gossip-should-be-encouraged-at-work-scientists-claim.html Sobczak, A. (2013, October 24). Gossip oils the wheels of commerce. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/page/you-wont-BelieveThis/460/ Weissenberger, B. (2009, November 3). Gossip in the workplace. Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/managing/content/ nov2009/ca2009113_999372.htm

Strategic Library Management with the United Nations’ Agenda 21 ¨ pfel Joachim Scho Department of Library and Information Sciences, Charles de Gaulle University—Lille III, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France

Abstract The United Nations action plan on sustainable development, called Agenda 21, is applied as a new framework to strategic management of libraries and information services is described in this chapter. Strategic management with Agenda 21 involves adapting the library to its social and ecological environment. It affects the entire organization including institutional and individual strategies. Key issues are ecology, social responsibility, accountability and ethics. The chapter is not about climate change, but is about goal definition and resource allocation. The message is that library management should contribute to the sustainable development of society on a local level, in addition to its particular cultural or scientific objectives. The global approach of Agenda 21 helps to evaluate library performance as a system, against criteria derived from the action plan, and to develop sustainable scenarios integrating social and ecological impact. Also, following the Agenda 21 philosophy, no performance level such as service quality, information technology, financial balance or carbon footprint should be evaluated unrelated to the other levels. In the new societal context, social, economic and ecological aspects are inter-connected. The author’s conviction is that the traditional cultural and scientific functions of libraries cannot be isolated from this environment, and that strategic library management must integrate sustainable development, not as a marginal element, but at the heart of analysis and decision-making. Keywords: Library management; sustainable development; social responsibility; ecology; global performance; Agenda 21

I. Adapting Ranganathan’s Fifth Law In general, management is considered as “the art of getting things done through people” (Appley, 1956).1 This philosophy covers different levels,

1

A quote often also attributed to Mary Parker Follett (1868 1933).

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such as conceptual (analytical), interpersonal (social) or technical (expertise) management skills. It raises several questions such as: Which kinds of things? How should they be done? Who decides on the choice of things and the way they should be done? How are decisions made? Who are the people? How do they deal with them? Most of these questions can be answered, and a good number of management studies, including those dealing with libraries, are about tools, approaches, rules and procedures to improve the efficiency of decisionmaking and the quality of results. Yet, management is more than techniques and tools; it has also to do with strategy, values, ethics and society (see Abraham, 2012; Hitt, Ireland, & Hoskisson, 2010). It may be impossible to define strategic management and to delimit the disparate field of strategic management studies, as Nag, Hambrick, and Chen (2007) suggest. All that can be said is that “strategic management is concerned with those issues faced by managers who run entire organizations” (Fredrickson, 1990, p. 1). Society and environment, like market and finance, are part of a set of external factors that may present opportunities or threats to the organization. Today, the major challenge of our societies is sustainable development, that is, to say “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations, 1987, n.p.). How do libraries contribute to sustainable development? Do they? Libraries are part of the society (Baker & Evans, 2011; Herrera-Viedma & Lo´pez-Gijo´n, 2013). They play an important role in culture, education and research. Yet, beyond these traditional functions they fulfill other functions. Today, their field of action goes from information literacy, life-long learning and the digital divide, to social integration, urban policy and citizenship. Eighty years ago, Ranganathan anticipated this increasing societal role in his chapter about Fifth Law of library science that defines the library as a “growing organism” (1931, pp. 382 416). Even if Ranganathan laid emphasis on the need for internal change rather than on changes in the environment itself, it is evident that changes in staffing, collection building and services also reflect adaptations to external pressures and challenges. The proposal herein is to translate Ranganathan’s Fifth Law in a new societal context and to include the most important challenge of our time, sustainable development. As a growing organism that faces the challenge of sustainable development, libraries need strategic management capable of establishing the link between Fayol’s (1918) main management functions, such as forecasting, organizing and controlling, and upgrading its capabilities to be in tune with the changing economic and social climate (Krishnan & Das, 2012). This chapter tries to provide some elements for a new conception of library

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management with focus on the conviction that even if actions remain local, thinking about libraries must become global. Indeed, strategic library management with Agenda 21 as its foundation will create a kind of “global library.” This does not mean that all libraries will be the same or perform the same functions Global library simply means that each library, in its local place and in its specific manner, contributes to the sustainable development of culture, education, research and society. Strategic library management with Agenda 21 is the way to do so.

II. Origin and Content of Agenda 21 Twenty years ago, the United Nations (UN) Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, produced some important documents on biological diversity, climate change and sustainable development. The challenge was to define a global policy that would bring together ecology, economics, culture and society. Governments rose to this challenge with the “United Nations Program of Action from Rio” called Agenda 21 (UNEP, 1992, see a short overview in the appendix). Adopted by more than 178 governments, the document has 40 chapters grouped into four sections: (1) social and economic dimensions; (2) conservation and management of resources for development; (3) strengthening the role of major groups; and (4) means of implementation. The action plan did not prioritize environmental concerns over social or cultural policy. Poverty, human health, biotechnology and other issues were part of Agenda 21. Also, the plan was not limited to international organizations and national governments but addressed all social and economic stakeholders from business and industry to scientific communities in a double top-down and bottom-up strategy. As a reference paper, Agenda 21 has been the source of further declarations and agreements, such as the Agenda 21 for culture. Its philosophy is not static. Rather it is a global framework intended for local action. Local authorities can implement the action plan on the level of townships, boroughs or regions. As the implementation of the Agenda 21 by the states on national or local levels is voluntarily, its adoption varied. The action plan is well supported by European and African countries and in other regions such as Australia, Philippines and Canada. Several hundreds of US cities have already adopted local Agenda 21 as policy; but there is also growing opposition, by conservative political movements which consider Agenda 21 a conspiracy against American sovereignty and individual property rights.

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Industry and business started to develop their own blueprints for sustainable development in organizations. Corporate social responsibility (CSR), the commitment “to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life” (Holme & Watts, 1999, p. 3), has become a key concept of strategic management and marketing, is closely linked to globalization and supported especially by multinational companies. So, what about libraries? Often, when we look at the future of libraries, it is about skills and training, information technologies, literacy and user needs. Increasingly, we also reflect in terms of social policy and relation with local communities, and the focus shifts from collections to learning and coworking. Yet, until recently environment and sustainability continued to be too often excluded from future library scenarios. In fact, sustainable development is the business of the whole society, and Agenda 21 provides focus for national and local authorities of which libraries are a part. The purpose of this chapter is to show how Agenda 21 can be adopted by library management to reset its focus to encompass sustainability. Four main issues related to this adoption—ecology, social responsibility, accountability and transparency, and ethics—will be addressed. For readers unfamiliar with the United Nations document, the appendix provides a summary of its table of contents, together with excerpts from its preamble and introduction.

III. Agenda 21 and Library Issues A. Ecology If management is the art of getting things done through people, ecology is one part of the answer to the question about which kinds of things. Ecology is not the only answer and it is in rewarding competition with traditional library goals. It is not however a marginal, low priority, insignificant objective. Ecology is a new challenge, which library management must address. This said, libraries are certainly relatively clean, compared to power plants or road transport. Their carbon footprint is smaller than that of a coal plant. Yet they consume energy and water, buy chemicals and produce waste. They are affected by questions of environment and pollution, and should be concerned about these topics. With regards to Agenda 21, the question is not whether they are involved in the environmental cycle but how they perform. There is a growing body of articles, reports, conferences, meetings, web sites and books about green libraries, and the ecological performance of

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libraries, some with international, national and local focus. Some examples include the Going Green @ Your Library conferences (2010, 2012), the open sessions of the IFLA Environmental Sustainability and Libraries Special Interest Group at the 2013 IFLA World Library and Information Congress or the recent ALASustainRT Meeting at the ALA, 2013 annual conference at Chicago, IL. More specifically, we can distinguish at least four different action levels—awareness, evaluation, action and education. 1. Awareness The first action line is to raise awareness and alert staff and stakeholders about issues related to ecology and the environment. If a local authority (university or community) has already agreed on an Agenda 21 action plan, the library does not need to raise awareness, but needs to implement an action plan. 2. Evaluation A second level consists in checking the library’s carbon footprint and its ecological impact. The evaluation of ecological performance can make use of an increasing number of checklists, standards (see, for instance, BRE Group, 1999; USGBC, 2000), guidelines or recommendations for best practices which are published on the web or elsewhere (McBaneMulford & Himmel, 2010). Doing so will provide a more or less detailed and reliable ecological profile with hot spots or priority problems and a baseline for measuring improvements. 3. Action There is almost no limit for action in favor of waste reduction, recycling, saving energy. Some of these actions may require a high level of effort, others less. There will be differences in the magnitude of impact and return on investment. Some actions are linked to new buildings or important renovations such as a green roof; others can be implemented at any time like the use of energy-efficient light bulbs. Other examples include telecommuting to work from home, use of office equipment with Eco labels, and programmable controls for heating and cooling, and recycling and reuse of equipment. 4. Education Education in ecological literacy is another option more in line with the traditional role and mandate of the library by providing information on ecology-related issues to users. This may consist of several different actions

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such as re-defining acquisition policy, creating a specific web site, and hosting events, exhibitions, workshops. It would also imply networking with the community, with nonprofits, and nongovernmental organizations. More and more libraries all over the world are committed to ecological performance which can serve as models or benchmarks (Antonelli & McCullough, 2012; Genovese & Albanese, 2011; Hauke, Latimer, & Werner, 2013). The environmental issues and criteria they have in common became part of their strategic management. B. Social Responsibility After discussion of the things which could be done, this section discusses the art of getting things done through people. Usually, library management places people in the center of decision-making on what needs to happen in the future and action planning about new content and media. Since Ranganathan’s laws on library science, readers became the focal point of librarians’ attention. In modern library management, readers mutated into users, with user-centered approaches at the origin of new developments like community offices, learning centers or idea stores. However as Agenda 21 reminds us, there are other people beyond users and customer service management who need attention, such as staff, suppliers, neighbors, communities and more. In the aftermath of the UN’s action plan, this specific aspect of strategic management was conceptualized as social responsibility or, as it is known in the private sector, corporate social responsibility. One of the best definitions of this is given by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development as “the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as the local community and society at large” (Holme & Watts, 2000, p. 8). This concept of management has been applied to service industries, and provides a new framework for library management with four aspects—ethical behavior, contribution to economic development, the workforce and their families, and the local community and society at large. 1. Ethical Behavior Libraries should be committed to behave ethically, which means first of all to edit and apply deontological rules. After long debates on ethical librarianship and in the light of Agenda 21, these rules may include ethical neutrality, refusal of censorship, and respect for readers’ convictions, beliefs and interests.

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2. Contribution to Economic Development Libraries create value in their specific sector, be it culture, education, research and development, or sciences. This value can not only be evaluated in terms of outcomes like knowledge acquisition, new attitudes or behavioral changes, but also in terms of financial performance. However, value goes beyond that, including human and relational capital. Simply stated, libraries should not act in a vacuum but accept, and valorize, their roles and responsibilities in culture and society. They contribute to culture and society through transmitting information, disseminating research results, raising awareness and providing education in media literacy. 3. The Workforce and Their Families Staffing, motivation, coordination and interaction with employees are basic management functions which are crucial for optimum use of resources and goal achievement. The library committed to social responsibility should care for its employees. This part of global performance is often called social performance, a concept that covers initiatives in favor of working conditions, training, human resource management and wages. The underlying idea is that any managerial effort to improve the quality of life of the workforce and their families not only contributes to local development of a global community, but also enhances the quality of service through higher professional and social competencies, reduces absences and turnover, and enhances empathy and greater loyalty to the employer. 4. Local Community and Society at Large The last facet of social responsibility is societal performance, that is, the level of commitment to improve the quality of life of the local community and society at large, and the role of libraries as part of local and cultural policy. Several books and articles have been written on the political dimension of the library, and librarians are educated to be aware of their social and political responsibility. Agenda 21 adds three aspects. It draws attention to the development of adequate services for the disadvantaged sections of society. It includes the relationship with suppliers, contractors and other business partners. And again, it does not endorse the social performance as an important yet somehow stand-alone initiative, but puts it in the context of service quality, ecology and financial management. Social responsibility is meant to improve global service offerings. On the whole and from a marketing viewpoint, these initiatives are not parts of

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a library’s usual core services. As previously mentioned, they contribute to development of new and innovative peripheral and complementary services, such as idea stores or community offices. However, there cannot be one single model for a socially responsible library, or only one way to improve social and societal performance. It all depends on commitment, knowledge and competency, and on the specific environment. A successful model may fail under different circumstances. Here more than elsewhere, sustainability is a challenge for all types of libraries. C. Accountability and Transparency The UN’s Agenda 21 requires measurable goals and performance assessment as an elementary prerequisite for sustainable development. This idea is not really new for modern library management which generally understands “collecting and analyzing data … [to be] crucial aspects of delivering the right services, at the right time, to a well-understood customer base” (Lakos, 2007, p. 432). Library managers are generally used to financial governance and reporting their financial performance in the form of a balance sheet or a dashboard with some significant indicators. Good financial performance is one condition for service efficiency, and is necessary to decide on acquisition policies on hardware and software investments, and other fiscally driven activities. The philosophy of Agenda 21 puts emphasis on two aspects. First, it places financial performance in the context of global performance and sustainability, together with social responsibility and ecology. Performance should not be assessed as a kind of stand-alone feature and should be presented in the context of environment and service quality. Funding bodies of course are genuinely interested in feedback on governance and efficient use of allocated resources but this feedback should be also presented as a contribution to the sustainable development of the library and the community. Second, applying the principles of Agenda 21 leads to developing a philosophy of accounting, accountability and transparency in the long term in which communication is essential. Accountability and transparency are important for the image and the credibility of the library, which in turn impacts its funding, sponsoring and support. Libraries should not limit appraisal of financial performance to their funding bodies, but should include other stakeholders such as patrons, community, media, corporate partners and lobbies in libraries’ performances. Agenda 21 may prompt the library to evaluate the financial impact of its action in favor of sustainable development. In other words, the accountability could include more than traditional library statistics such as collection development. With regards to

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Agenda 21, other financial ratios derived from recycling, energy efficiency, life-long learning, work conditions and cultural action should be added. Finally, developing a strategy in favor of sustainable development may facilitate the adoption of new modes of financial accounting, particularly for the evaluation of added value and return on investments. Because of the nonmarket nature of library services and resources, it is difficult to estimate their value and to provide data on return on investment and funding. Some libraries, like the British Library, public libraries in South Carolina, Florida, St. Louis in the United States and in Norway (see Aabø, 2005; Missingham, 2005) started to apply contingent valuation methods based on surveys initially developed for environmental resources, such as air and water. Coming back to strategic management, it should not be forgotten that “performance assessment is a means to an end, not an end in itself” (Barton, 2004, p. 432) and if done well, it can be a means of delivering client-centered services of consistently high quality in a cost-effective manner, … support strategic planning and change management (and demonstrate) the value of … library services and their contribution to institutional goals, thereby securing resources for the future. (p. 432)

Agenda 21 management is in line with this adding context and transparency. D. Ethics Ethics is a key element of social responsibility. Management requires decision-making and action planning. Management compliant with Agenda 21 is different because it is value-based, with a leadership style that “shows an emphasis on the human aspects. Dialogue, respect, ethics and values are all phenomena in high regard” (Pors & Johannsen, 2003, p. 59). Protection of privacy but also neutrality are major deontological issues for libraries. Staying neutral is not easy, especially when “political, religious, or financial interference in (…) decision-making and (…) service provision is becoming increasingly common” (McMenemy, 2007, p. 181; see also Foster & McMenemy, 2012). A specific ethical challenge is the rising attraction of information and communication technology (ICT) with respect to individuality, human dignity, intellectual property and privacy. This is important for creating a trustful and confident relationship with users. As a result librarians are involved in creating guidelines, policies and “netiquettes” at local, national and international levels (Sturges, 2002). Winston (2005) highlights the role of education for future ethical leadership in library and information science. Also, the new IFLA’s Code of

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Ethics for Librarians and Other Information Workers (IFLA, 2012) will be helpful for strategic library management, as much for decision-making as for goal definition and relationship with colleagues and employees. The IFLA Code highlights librarians’ responsibilities toward individuals and society, stating for instance that in order to promote inclusion and eradicate discrimination, librarians and other information workers ensure that the right of accessing information is not denied and that equitable services are provided for everyone whatever their age, citizenship, political belief, physical or mental ability, gender identity, heritage, education, income, immigration and asylum-seeking status, marital status, origin, race, religion or sexual orientation. (IFLA, 2012, proposition 2)

This is compliant and in line with the philosophy of Agenda 21. Yet, the Code of Ethics focuses on the individual professional, while the UN action plan is aimed at organizations.

IV. Sustainable Development vs. User Satisfaction? The previous section may have given the impression that the library’s traditional raison d’eˆtre has changed and that sustainable development is in competition with the traditional goals. Above ecology was described as a kind of thing to be done, and social responsibility and ethics were discussed as different ways to do these things, and to make decisions and deal with people. But are ecology, social responsibility and ethics in conflict with service quality and user satisfaction? This cannot be. Contributing to sustainable development does not signify the end of business and service provision. Agenda 21 is a proposal to help pursue given objectives in other ways, with other criteria and resources, compliant with global welfare and the “ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Nations, 1987, Preamble). Often, ecological performance will operate in synergy with social, financial or commercial performance, better working conditions, reduced indoor pollution, and will thus create a positive image and strengthen community commitments to libraries. New ecological procedures and constraints (such as zero paper) may foster innovation and new services. Agenda 21 does not oppose criteria like increasing the number of customers, evolution of sales, or customer satisfaction, but it rejects the idea that those are the only strategic goals and the sole evaluation and auditing criteria. Sustainable development includes environmental action and social responsibility.

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As in the past, the library will survey the satisfaction of its users through interviews, questionnaires or direct observation, as an indicator of effective service delivery. As before, quality management will strive toward consistent objectives and procedures, and continuous concern and improvement. More than before, the library will be a user and community-centered service, with need for informed strategic decisions on who the users are and which communities to serve. Increasingly, customers and library users want to be taken seriously and treated as partners. Are they objects or subjects of the library? Since an increasing part of communication, interaction and service transaction is online, how does the library organize and manage its web community? People make the place. Relationships and interactions are important for the quality of service and the experience of satisfaction. The library is moving from being an individual reading sphere to an open space for learning, information, working and communication. Academic and public libraries have become learning centers, which is not only a linguistic change, but one which also impacts the library’s standards, procedures and norms. Interaction with others, formerly often prohibited or limited, is now encouraged. The library has become a living space, open to the academic and/or community environment. The contribution of Agenda 21 here is to highlight the responsibility of libraries toward their communities and society and to point out that quality and satisfaction are not the only criteria for management and evaluation.

V. Conclusion: Toward a Global Library Sustainable development is on mankind’s agenda. The United Nations action plan Agenda 21 is clear on one point. The solution cannot be found only? On the local level, although without local action, there will be no global solution. Local levels include the library, which is a service like any other. At the same time, it is part of a local community, or a local academic campus, and is a stakeholder in their local policy in favor of sustainable development. “Public institutions such as libraries operate in an environment characterized by conflicting, competing and ill-defined forces (such as) the state, the civil society, the market (…)” (Pors & Johannsen, 2003, p. 51). Sustainable development is an increasing challenge in this system of forces and pressures, and Agenda 21 can help library managers to respond to them

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because it integrates personal ethics, social values, performance and service quality. The mandate of libraries should no longer be confined to traditional concerns about acquisitions or helpdesk assistance, but should include focus on making a contribution to sustainable development. Thus, the proposal in this chapter is to apply the Agenda 21 to library management as a conceptual framework in which to set goals, make decisions and evaluate library services. Management has to do with goals, people and resources. Agenda 21 will help to change goals and priorities, to modify resource selection and usage, and to revise relations with people. This is not so much to reinvent the library, but to rethink its ways of working, and its projects and objectives in terms of sustainable development. This is the next challenge for management. As previously stated, the library is a cultural institution supporting education and research. Yet it is more than that in also being a part of the local community and, like any other service, is a potential contributor to the sustainable development. The Rio + 20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development 2012 reminds us twenty years after the first Earth Summit, as it was called, that “sustainable development emphasizes a holistic, equitable and far-sighted approach to decision-making at all levels. … It rests on integration and a balanced consideration of social, economic and environmental goals and objectives in both public and private decision-making” (United Nations, 2012, n.p.). Libraries are but a small piece on the global game field. Yet society needs their specific contribution for sustainable development. Library managers may sometimes dream of a blue ocean strategy (Kim & Mauborgne, 2005), with uncontested market space and no competition. But in the heart of education, science and society, there is no such a niche. Libraries will not survive by stepping aside and cultivating nostalgia about past strengths and advantages. They will succeed in adapting themselves best to the forthcoming environment by meeting the challenge of sustainable development.

Acknowledgments This chapter is based on master’s lectures on library management at the University of Lille 3, France, and on a paper presented at the 5th Joint Conference of Slovene Special and Academic Libraries at Ljubljana, Slovenia (Scho¨pfel, 2012), and I would like to sincerely thank my students, colleagues and librarians for helpful discussion and exchange.

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Appendix A: A Brief Description of Agenda 21 Agenda 21 is an action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development. Produced by the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, it contains 40 chapters grouped into four sections: social and economic dimensions, conservation and management of resources for development, strengthening the role of major groups, and means of implementation. The Preamble of Agenda 21 (first chapter) explains the purpose and underlying philosophy of the action plan as follows: 1.1. Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are confronted with a perpetuation of disparities between and within nations, a worsening of poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing deterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend for our well-being. However, integration of environment and development concerns and greater attention to them will lead to the fulfillment of basic needs, improved living standards for all, better protected and managed ecosystems and a safer, more prosperous future. No nation can achieve this on its own; but together we can—in a global partnership for sustainable development. 1.2. This global partnership must build on the premises of General Assembly resolution 44/228 of 22 December 1989, which was adopted when the nations of the world called for the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, and on the acceptance of the need to take a balanced and integrated approach to environment and development questions. 1.3. Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other international, regional and sub-regional organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also be encouraged. 1.4. The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for strengthening the capacity of international institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order of magnitude assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and organizations. 1.5. In the implementation of the relevant programme areas identified in Agenda 21, special attention should be given to the particular circumstances facing the economies

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in transition. It must also be recognized that these countries are facing unprecedented challenges in transforming their economies, in some cases in the midst of considerable social and political tension. 1.6. The programme areas that constitute Agenda 21 are described in terms of the basis for action, objectives, activities and means of implementation. Agenda 21 is a dynamic programme. It will be carried out by the various actors according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of countries and in full respect of all the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. It could evolve over time in the light of changing needs and circumstances. This process marks the beginning of a new global partnership for sustainable development. 1.7. Throughout Agenda 21 the term “environmentally sound” means “environmentally safe and sound,” in particular when applied to the terms “energy sources,” “energy supplies,” “energy systems,” or “technology/technologies.”

The second chapter highlights the need for international cooperation and national commitment: 2.1. In order to meet the challenges of environment and development, States decided to establish a new global partnership. This partnership commits all States to engage in a continuous and constructive dialogue, inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world economy, keeping in view the increasing interdependence of the community of nations, and that sustainable development should become a priority item on the agenda of the international community. It is recognized that, for the success of this new partnership, it is important to overcome confrontation and to foster a climate of genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is equally important to strengthen national and international policies and multinational cooperation to adapt to the new realities …

The following 40 chapters describe the different goals of the action plan (sections 1 and 2) and how to achieve them (sections 3 and 4). 1. Preamble SECTION 1: SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS 2. International Cooperation to Accelerate Sustainable Development in Developing Countries and Related Domestic Policies 3. Combating Poverty 4. Changing Consumption Patterns 5. Demographic Dynamics and Sustainability 6. Protecting and Promoting Human Health Conditions 7. Promoting Sustainable Human Settlement Development 8. Integrating Environment and Development in Decision-Making SECTION 2: CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPMENT 9. Protection of the Atmosphere 10. Integrated Approach to the Planning and Management of Land Resources

Library Management with Agenda 21

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18.

19. 20. 21. 22.

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Combating Deforestation Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Combating Desertification and Drought Managing Fragile Ecosystems: Sustainable Mountain Development Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Conservation of Biological Diversity Environmentally Sound Management of Biotechnology Protection of the Oceans, All Kinds of Seas, Including Enclosed and Semi-Enclosed seas, and Coastal Areas and the Protection, Rational Use and Development of Their Living Resources Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater Resources: Application of Integrated Approaches to the Development, Management and Use of Water Resources Environmentally Sound Management of Toxic Chemicals, Including Prevention of Illegal International Traffic in Toxic and Dangerous Products Environmentally Sound Management of Hazardous Wastes, in Hazardous Wastes Environmentally Sound Management of Solid Wastes and Sewage-Related Issues Safe and Environmentally Sound Management of Radioactive Wastes

SECTION 3: STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

Preamble Global Action for Women towards Sustainable and Equitable Development Children and Youth in Sustainable Development Recognizing and Strengthening the Role of Indigenous People and their Communities Strengthening the Role of Nongovernmental Organizations: Partners for Sustainable Development Local Authorities’ Initiatives in Support for Agenda 21 Strengthening the Role of Workers and their Trade Unions Strengthening the Role of Business and Industry Scientific and Technology Community Strengthening the Role of Farmers

SECTION 4: MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION 33. Financial Resources and Mechanisms 34. Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology, Cooperation and CapacityBuilding 35. Science for Sustainable Development 36. Promoting Education, Public Awareness and Training 37. National Mechanisms and International Cooperation for Capacity-Building 38. International Institutional Arrangements 39. International Legal Instruments and Mechanisms 40. Information for Decision-Making

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References Aabø, S. (2005). Are public libraries worth their price?: A contingent valuation study of Norwegian public libraries. New Library World, 106(11/12), 487 495. doi:10.1108/03074800510634973 Abraham, S. C. (2012). Strategic planning: A practical guide for competitive success (2nd ed.). Bingley, UK: Emerald. ALA, SustainRTmeeting. (2013, July 1). Chicago, IL. Retrieved from http://ala13. ala.org/node/11302 Antonelli, M., & McCullough, M. (Eds.). (2012). Greening libraries. Sacramento, CA: Library Juice Press. Appley, L. A. (1956). Management in action: The art of getting things done through people. New York, NY: American Management Association. Baker, D., & Evans, W. (Eds.). (2011). Libraries and society: Role, responsibility and future in an age of change. Oxford, UK: Chandos. Barton, J. (2004). Measurement, management and the digital library. Library Review, 53(3), 138 141. doi:10.1108/00242530410526538 BRE Group. (1999). BRE environmental asssessment method (BREEAM). Watford, UK: Building Research Establishment (BRE) Group. Retrieved from http:// www.bre.co.uk/page.jsp?id = 829 Fayol, H. (1918). Administration industrielle et ge´ne´rale [General and industrial management]. Paris, France: Dunod. Foster, C., & McMenemy, D. (2012). Do librarians have a shared set of values? A comparative study of 36 codes of ethics based on Gorman’s enduring values. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 44(4), 249 262. doi:10.1177/ 0961000612448592 Fredrickson, J. W. (Ed.). (1990). Perspectives on strategic management. New York, NY: Harper Business. Genovese, P., & Albanese, P. (2011). Sustainable libraries, sustainable services: A global view. World Library and Information Congress: 77th IFLA General Conference and Assembly, 13 18 August 2011, San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved from http://conference.ifla.org/past/ifla77/196-genovese-en.pdf Going Green @ Your Library. (2012, August 28). 4th& final: Libraries for sustainability webinar series. Retrieved from http://greeningyourlibrary.wordpress.com/ 2012/08/09/4th-final-libraries-for-sustainability-webinar-series-on-august-28/ Going Green @ Your Library 2. (2010, September 3). An Amigos online conference. Retrieved from http://greenlibs2.amigos.org/ Hauke, P., Latimer, K., & Werner, K. U. (Eds.). (2013). The green library: The challenge of environment sustainability (IFLA Publications 161). Mu¨nchen, Germany: De Gruyter. Herrera-Viedma, E., & Lo´pez-Gijo´n, J. (2013). Libraries social role in the information age. Science, 339(6126), 1382. doi:10.1126/science.339.6126.1382-a Hitt, M. A., Ireland, R. D., & Hoskisson, R. E. (2010). Strategic management: Competitiveness and globalization concepts (9th ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Holme, R., & Watts, P. (1999). Corporate social responsibility: Meeting changing expectations. Conches-Geneva, Switzerland: World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from http://www.wbcsd.org/pages/edocument/edocu mentdetails.aspx?id = 82&nosearchcontextkey = true

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Holme, R., & Watts, P. (2000). Corporate social responsibility: Making good business sense. Conches-Geneva, Switzerland: World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from http://www.wbcsd.org/web/publications/csr2000. pdf IFLA. (2012). Code of ethics for librarians and other information workers. The Hague, Netherlands: IFLA Governing Board, FAIFE (Committee on Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression). Retrieved from http://www. ifla.org/news/ifla-code-of-ethics-for-librarians-and-other-information-workersfull-version IFLA, Environmental Sustainability and Libraries Special Interest Group. (2013). Open session on “Future Libraries Going Green” at the 79thIFLA World Library and Information Congress, August 17 23, Republic of Singapore. Retrieved from http://conference.ifla.org/ifla79/calls-for-papers/future-libraries-going-green Kim, W. C., & Mauborgne, R. (2005). Blue ocean strategy: How to create uncontested market space and make the competition irrelevant. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Krishnan, N., & Das, C. K. (2012). Globalization and challenges in library management in the 21st century: An appraisal of the university library systems in India and the USA. In Challenges in library management system: Proceedings (pp. 381 386). Kolkota, India: IACS. Retrieved from http://www.iacs.res.in/conferences/clms/ Chakenges_Library_Management_System.pdf Lakos, A. (2007). Evidence-based library management: The leadership challenge. Portal: Libraries and the Academy, 7(4), 431 450. doi:10.1353/pla.2007.0049 McBane Mulford, S., & Himmel, N. A. (2010). How green is my library? Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited. McMenemy, D. (2007). Librarians and ethical neutrality: Revisiting the creed of a librarian. Library Review, 56(3), 177 181. doi:10.1108/00242530710735948 Missingham, R. (2005). Libraries and economic value: A review of recent studies. Canberra, Australia: National Library of Australia, Staff Papers. Retrieved from https://www.nla.gov.au/openpublish/index.php/nlasp/article/viewArticle/1213/ 1498 Nag, R., Hambrick, D. C., & Chen, M.-J. (2007). What is strategic management, really? Inductive derivation of a consensus definition of the field. Strategic Management Journal, 28(9), 935 955. doi:10.1002/smj.615 Pors, N. O., & Johannsen, C. G. (2003). Library directors under cross-pressure between new public management and value-based management. Library Management, 24(1/2), 51 60. doi:10.1108/01435120310454511 Ranganathan, S. R. (1931). The five laws of library science. London, UK: Edward Goldstone. Scho¨pfel, J. (2012, October). The global library. In Challenges of modern technologies: The competitive advantage of library services (pp. 39 51). 5th joint conference of Slovene special and academic libraries, 17 18 October 2012, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Ljubljana: Slovenian Library Association. Retrieved from http://www.zbds-zveza. si/eng/?q = node5/2 Sturges, P. (2002). Remember the human: The first rule of netiquette, librarians and the Internet. Online Information Review, 26(3), 209 216. doi:10.1108/ 14684520210432486

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UNEP. (1992). Agenda 21: Environment and development agenda. Conches-Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved from http:// www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?documentid = 52 United Nations. (2012). Sustainable development knowledge platform, Rio + 20. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, 20 22 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://sustainabledevelop ment.un.org/rio20.html United Nations, General Assembly. (1987, December 11). Resolution 42/187. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/ 42/ares42-187.htm USGBC. (2000). LEED rating systems. Washington, DC: U.S. Green Building Council. Retrieved from http://www.usgbc.org/leed/rating-systems Winston, M. (2005). Ethical leadership: Professional challenges and the role of LIS education. New Library World, 106(5/6), 234 243. doi:10.1108/03074800 510595841

Index

Abbajay, M. 249 Abma, D. 232 accountability, of libraries 276 7 Agenda 21 see UN Agenda 21 American Association of School Librarians 114 15 American Library Association 114 15 American Psychological Association 231 Anderson, C. 41 Appley, L. A. 269 Armistead, C. 46 Arts Matrix case study see Kansas State University Association of Research Libraries (ARL) leadership programs 38 Bacal, R. 250 Barton, J. 277 Bell, D. 137 8 Bell, S. 46 Belvalkar, M. 248, 250 Belzowski, N. F. 89 best practice model for school libraries see libraries, school Bitner, M. J. 139 Bolden, R. 43 4, 56 Booth, C. 90 brainstorming in dispute resolution 233 as interview technique 163 4 Brewer, J. 106 Brohman, M. K. 140

Brown, S. W. 139, 145 Bruch, C. 85 7, 90 Bullock Report (1975) 105 Bunker, K. A. 27 burnout causes 87, 212, 218 21, 229, 234 definition 25, 211 12, 218 19 and depersonalization 218 and enterprize culture 212 health, influences on 218 19 in library sector 216 and organizational productivity 213 14 and personal accomplishment 218 19 prevention or control 24 5, 229 and social support 231 2 studies of 212, 215 16 trends 212, 215 16 see also stress Buschman, J. E. 6 Canadian Urban Libraries Council (CULC) 38 carbon footprints 272 Carmeli, A. 40 1 Carriveau, A. 42 3 Cawthorne, Jon E. 44 5 Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals (CILIP) 114 school library professional standards and guidelines 115, 117

288

Clutterbuck, D. 31 Cobb, S. 230 collaboration and distributed leadership 52 5 and innovation 46 7 role in librarianship 155 6 collection/content development in Indonesian community outreach projects 11 15 in Kansas State University Arts Matrix 188 95, 205 7 College Library Directors’ Mentor Program development 33 4 mindful leadership attributes in 31 4 purpose 31 communities of practice advantages 88 9 definition 88 development resources 90 and library instructor development 84, 87 90 Loyola University New Orleans case study 91 7 theory 87 8 Connecticut Association of School Librarians 116 Connecticut Educators’ Computer Association 116 constructivism 87 8 Corbin, J. 248 corporate social responsibility 272 Cox, A. 88 Crail, M. 224 creativity, barriers to 41 Cunningham, A. D. 90 curriculum development in UK public education systems 103 4 Currie, G. 44

Index

customer service role in service economy 138 service design theories 138 41 Cuthbertson, R. 44 Davis, K. D. 86 De Becker, G. 160 1 de Jong, M. 146, 149 50 Deiss, K. 45 Delft University of Technology, Netherlands 14 15 Denti, L. 40 1 Dickmann, M. H. 24 5 digital libraries digital heritage projects 12 14, 18 increasing role of 4 Dinerman, G. 158 DISRAELI Method 158 Donovan, C. 90 Du¨ren, P. 44 5 Dysart, J. 41 East Midlands distributed leadership skills study adding value 50 2 autonomy and formal leaders 52 5 collaboration, influence on 49 55, 66 7, 77 creativity, role of 50 purpose 47 8 results and discussion 48 55, 57 76 ecology education and literacy 273 4 libraries, applicability to 272 4 performance evaluation 273 practices 273 education curriculum development, in UK 103 4

289

Index

economic development, contribution to 275 and ethical leadership 277 8 public education systems, international comparisons 102 4, 126 7 see also ethics; library instruction; teaching skills emotional intelligence 24 5 ethics and corporate social responsibility 272 ethical behavior 274, 277 8 IFLA Code of Ethics 277 8 privacy and neutrality 277 Faems, D. 47 Fayol, H. 271 Fitzsimmons, G. 157 Freeman, G. 4, 16 Freudenberger, H. 211 12, 215 16, 219 20 Future Leaders Programme (FLP) 38 Gholipour, A. 252 Gibson, C. 84 Glaser, B. G. 127 8 global libraries 279 80 Goleman, D. 24 Goodson, I. F. 161 gossip definition 248 9 historical role of 247 8 in Nigerian academic libraries, study 253 66 psychological interpretation 247 and rumor, similarities between 248 as social activity 248 9 in workplace advantages 245 6, 249 51, 260 1

as management tool 251 3 studies of 247 8 Greenglass, E. R. 231 Grigsby, R. K. 248 grounded theory 110, 127 8 Hannigan, C. H. 251 Harris, A. 43 4 Harris, B. R. 89 Harris Interactive 231 Hemlin, S. 40 1 Hernon, P. 45 Herold, I. M. H. 32 Herring, J. E. 106 Hill, A. 44 hiring see interview techniques Honnet, E. P. 13 How Good is Our School 114 15 Howard, A. 45 ICT academic library role in service provision 4, 17 18 ethical challenges 277 and library service access 29 and library service development 3 4 role development, and library reorganization 189 Indonesia, community outreach projects in see Surabaya Memory Project information literacy competency standards 86 7, 89 model 84 6 see also library instruction Information Power 115, 117 innovation generally 39 autonomy and formal leaders 41, 46

290

barriers to creativity 41 2 and collaboration/ partnerships 46 7 and leadership, relationship between 40 2 organizational conditions conducive to 40 1 in library services public policy, role in 39 40 integrative leadership 47 International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) Code of Ethics 277 8 International Labor Organization workplace stress survey (2000) 212 interview techniques brainstorming 163 4 DISRAELI Method 158 examples 167 73 face-to-face interview questions 171 2 focus of on failure and success 161 personality 160, 166 7 storytelling 158, 161 2, 165 6 teamwork 161 patterned behavior description interview (PBDI) questions 158, 162 presentations 164 5 studies of 157 9 see also University of West Georgia Jantz, Ronald C. 39, 41 2 Johannsen, C. G. 279 Jones, R. 41 Kansas State University libraries, reorganization see also libraries, reorganization faculty outreach 190 2

Index

organizational structure changes 183 9 role development 188 95, 205 7 Matrix development 195 6 Arts Matrix 178, 201 3 K-State libraries matrices 196 201 Matrix model benefits and challenges 204 8 Strategic Plan 177 80 goals 180 3 Katzen, H. 140 5 Kingberg, S. 246 Knowles, L. 108 Koster, K. 217 Kotter, J. P. 24, 32 Kranich, N. 17 Lance, K. C. 106 7 leadership, distributed academic interest in 43 and accountability 43 4 adding value, importance of 50 2 autonomy and formal leaders 41, 46, 52 5 and collaboration 49 55 definition 42 3 East Midlands leadership skills study 43 55 adding value 50 2 autonomy and formal leaders 52 5 collaboration, influence on 49 55, 66 7, 77 creativity, role of 50 purpose 47 8 results and discussion 48 55, 57 76 library leadership studies 44 6 limitations 56 and organizational change, link between 44

Index

principles of 43 4 and serendipity 53 and team performance, impact on 44 Leadership Foundation for Higher Education (UK) 38 leadership, generally autonomy and formal leaders 41, 46 command and control methods 26 7 definition 24 and innovation 40 2, 46 library leadership programs 37 8 library leadership studies 44 6 Quantum Skills 27 8 resonant leadership 24 5 in school libraries see libraries, school transformational leadership 42 Transition Leadership Wheel 27 leadership, mindful advantages 34 characteristics of 22 3, 29, 33 College Library Directors’ Mentor Program case study 31 4 definition 23 4 and emotional intelligence 24 5 and organizational change 26 7 and organizational culture 25 6 in practice 25, 28 31 resonant leadership 24 5 and self-awareness 27 8, 30 and self-sacrifice 25 theories of 24 8 and trust relationships 26 8 Leading Modern Public Libraries (UK) 38 Leong, J. 41 Lester, M. C. 251 2 libraries, academic cultural community contributions 6 7, 11, 17 gossip management see gossip

291

ICT role in service provision 4, 17 18 outreach services see Surabaya Memory Project reorganization see libraries, reorganization role and functions, redefinition of 4, 16 student engagement, role of 17 user education see library instruction see also leadership, distributed libraries, generally accountability 276 7 carbon footprints 272 challenges 38 9 as growing organisms 270 1 social role of 270 sustainability influences on 278 80 transparency 276 7 libraries, public community contribution of 6, 16 libraries, reorganization in Kansas State University Arts Matrix Development 195 208 faculty outreach 190 2 organizational structure changes 183 9 role development 188 95, 205 7 libraries, school best practice model for 111 12 feasibility 123 4 framework development 117 20 interconnection of aspects 122 3 success or failure factors 125 7 systemic differences, influences of 126 7 education, role in 102 3, 112 LIS teaching education impact studies, international comparisons 106 9, 126 7

292

requirements 105 6 school librarians conferences and networking opportunities 116 model characteristics 111 12, 120 1 pay and status variations 113 14 professional expectations 116 17 professional standards and guidelines 114 17 professional support 122, 126 role and status, international comparisons 113 17 strategic vision 123 Libraries Supporting Learners 115, 124 Library and Archives Canada (LAC) 229 library exhibitions community role of 6 8 and storytelling 8 11 success measurement challenges 8 see also Surabaya Memory Project library instruction in academic libraries, role of 84 5 challenges 84 7 and communities of practice 84, 87 90 external guidance 86 7 instruction coordinator roles and skills 87, 91 7 internal expectations 86 7 librarians as teachers 85 6 library reorganization role in development 189 92 Loyola University New Orleans, case study community of practice 91 7 feedback mechanisms 93 institutional context 90 1

Index

instruction coordinator responsibilities 91 7 teaching methods 93 5 perceived value of 85 programs, variations in 83 4 stereotypes, influence of 85 stress and burnout 86 7 Library Leadership Program (CAVAL, Australia) 38 library service innovation and collaboration/ partnerships 46 7 public policy role in 39 40 see also leadership, distributed Licunanan, B. 40 Lippencott, J. K. 18 Lloyd, A. 89 Lockett, A. 44 Loyola University New Orleans, library instruction coordination case study community of practice 91 7 feedback mechanisms 93 institutional context 90 1 instruction coordinator responsibilities 91 7 teaching methods 93 5 Lynch, C. A. 18 McCarten, M. 45 6 MacDonald, M. 93 Maglio, P. P. 140, 142 3 Maloney, M. 8 management collection/ content development see Kansas State University definition 24, 269 70 gossip management see gossip and social climate, relationship with 270 1

293

Index

team development see interview techniques see also stress management, strategic definition 270 performance assessment, role in 277 strategic library management see UN Agenda 21 Manz, C. C. 42 May, J. 248 Mech, T. E. 31 meditation 22 3 Megginson, D. 31 mentoring and mindful leadership, case study 31 4 Michelson, G. 248, 252 micromanagement 229 mindfulness and meditation 22 3 practical applications, in library environment 30 1 see also leadership, mindful Morse, R. S. 47 Mouly, S. 248, 252 Mrosko, T. 251 Mumford, M. D. 40 1 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) on healthcare costs of workplace stress 223 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) on workplace stress 219 Neufeld, Kenley 22 3 New Orleans Louisiana Information Forum (NOLA) 96 7 Nigeria, gossip study goals 253 4

limitations 261 2 questions 253 4 results 254 61 scope and method 253 4, 262 6 organizational change cultural resistance to 26 management role of gossip in 251 3 and mindful leadership 26 7 and workplace stress 234 6 organizational culture and mindful leadership 25 6 soft skills, importance of 155 6, 158 outreach programs community outreach see Surabaya Memory Project faculty outreach at Kansas State University 190 2 Pan, D. 45 partnerships and distributed leadership 52 5 and innovation 46 7 role in librarianship 155 6 Patrons, People, Process and Information technology (PPPI) 146 8 patterned behavior description interview (PBDI) questions 158, 162 Pearce, C. L. 42 performance assessment and distributed leadership 44 and strategic management, role in 277 Petra Christian University Library see Surabaya Memory Project Petra iPoster 5 Pors, N. O. 279

294

Poulsen, S. J. 13 PPPI model see Patrons, People, Process and Information technology privacy 277 professional associations supportive strength of 114, 124 professional development see library instruction professional support in school libraries best practice model for 122, 126 comparative strength 114, 124 professional standards and guidelines 115, 117 public education UK and Scottish models 103 4 US model 103 4 Public Library Association (US) PLA Leadership Academy 38 Public Library Leadership Fellows (PLLF) program 38 Pung, S. K. 16 Pungitore, V. L. 138, 146 Quantum Skills 27 8 Ralston, S. M. 158 Ranganathan, S. R. 270 recruitment see interview techniques Research Library Leadership Fellows (RLLF) 38 Richelson, G. 216 Riggs, D. 31 Rio+20 Summit on Sustainable Development (2012) 280 Rowley, J. 39, 46 7 Sangiorni, D. 140 1 Schachter, D. 166 Schein, E. H. 25 6

Index

schools model characteristics 121 2 see also education; libraries, school Schuler, R. S. 235 Schwartz, C. 45 Scotland public education system 102 4 see also libraries, school service design co-design 143 definition 139 40 design thinking 145 foundations 143 4 methods 141 5 Patrons, People, Process and Information technology (PPPI) 146 8 phases 144 5 processes 144 5 service life cycle 141 2 service systems 142 3 theory development 140 1 service dominant logic 140 service economy 137 8 service science 139 40 Sethi, A. S. 235 shared leadership see leadership, distributed Shelton, C. D. 27 8 Shepard, R. 146, 149 50 Shupe, E. I. 16 Smith, Katlin 4 social responsibility applicability to libraries 274 6 contribution to economic development 275 corporate social responsibility 272 ethical behavior 274 and ethics 277 8 for local community and society at large 275 6

Index

sociocultural theory 87 9 soft skills importance of 155 6, 158 service science role 140 Spillane, J. P. 56 Spohrer, J. 140, 142 3 Sproles, C. 86 Stanford-Blair, N. 24 5 Staninger, S. W. 46 stereotypes 85 storytelling in digital heritage exhibitions 8 11 in interviews 158, 161 2, 165 6 Strauss, A. L. 127 8 stress and absenteeism 232 causes 219 21, 228 36 control levels 228 30 definition 216 17 healthcare costs of 213, 223 influences on 213 14, 217, 224 5 International Labor Organization stress survey 212 in library sector 87, 216, 220 1 management back-to-work vs. prevention programs 223 challenges 224 8 communication, role of 234 6 dispute resolution 232 3 early intervention 223 4 job demand conflict 226 8 legal responsibilities 236 managers’ role in 234 organizational support 222 6 policies, focus of 213 14, 223 4 role conflict or ambiguity 234 self-monitoring 235 6 social support 230 2 stress recognition training 214

295

workplace relationships 232 3 and organizational change 234 6 short-term stress, benefits of 217 signs and symptoms 220 3 trends 212 13, 215 16 see also burnout Sullivan, M. 45 Surabaya Memory Project, Indonesia academic department collaborations service development initiatives 5 14 service learning initiatives 13 14 community contributions community partnerships 6 7, 11, 17 cultural institurion partnerships 11 12 local government resources 14 15 schools involvement 8 11 stakeholders 11 14, 16 17 digital content 5 6, 14 17 events and programs academic department involvement 11 14 educational activities 8 11 exhibition content development 6 11 Heritage Walks 12 14 logo design competition 7 mall exhibitions 7 8 public document access 14 15 storytelling 8, 11 history and purpose 3 6 library management policy, impact on 16 17 stakeholders 11 14, 16 17 sustainable development challenges of 270 1, 279 80 see also UN Agenda 21 Sutton, R. I. 160 1, 163

296

teaching skills development dual qualification, debate over 105 6 in LIS education and qualifications 105 6 impact studies 106 9, 126 7 teaching challenges 94 5 in United Kingdom 105 6 in United States 105 see also library instruction teamwork and interview techniques 161 performance, distributed leadership influence on 44 Tourish, D. 42 transparency, of libraries 276 7 UN Agenda 21 (Action Plan on Sustainable Development) background 271 2 challenges 271 outline 281 3 policy adoption trends 271 strategic library management, applicability to accountability and transparency 276 7 ecology 272 4 ethics 277 8 global library concept 279 80 social responsibility 274 6 sustainable development vs. user satisfaction 278 9 United Kingdom distributed leadership see East Midlands distributed leadership skills study LIS education 105 6 LIS professional associations 114, 124

Index

LIS professional standards and guidelines 114 17 public education system 103 4 workplace stress management 223 see also libraries, school United States interview technique development see University of West Georgia library instruction coordination see Loyola University New Orleans library reorganization see libraries, reorganization LIS professional associations 114, 124 LIS professional standards and guidelines 114 17 LIS teaching education 105 7 public education system 103 4 workplace stress, healthcare costs of 223 see also libraries, school University of Colorado Denver 45 University of Hong Kong Libraries 17 University of Oxford 223 4 University of West Georgia background 156 7 interview technique case study background 159 60 brainstorming 163 4 interview question development 160 2 interview schedules 162 3, 165 6, 172 3 job advertisements 167 70 on-campus interview questions 171 2 personality focus, importance of 160, 166 7 presentations 164 5 telephone interview questions 171

297

Index

librarians’ teaching role 156 7 Usherwood, R. 16 Victoria State Library, Australia 45 6 Wakefield, M. 27 Walton, G. 41

Wang, L. 87 8 Wavell, C. 108 9 Weissenberger, B. 250 Wenger, E. 88 Westney, L. C. 12 Wilkinson, C. W. 85 7, 90 Williams, D. A. 108 9 Wofford, M. 158