Lowland Iron Age Communities in Europe: Papers presented to a conference of the Department for External Studies held at Oxford, October 1977 9780860540281, 9781407347783

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
List of Illustrations
Preface
SETTLEMENT AND POPULATION IN THE BRITISH IRON AGE: SOME FACTS, FIGURES AND FANTASIES
BUILDINGS AND SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH-EAST BRITAIN IN THE LATE IRON AGE
LITTLE WALTHAM AND PRE-BELGIC IRON AGE SETTLEMENT IN ESSEX
SETTLEMENT AND LAND USE IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE: A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IRON AGE AND THE MIDDLE AGES
THE LANDSCAPE AND NATURAL HISTORY OF IRON AGE SETTLE MENT ON THE TRENT GRAVELS
IRON AGE SETTLEMENTS IN THE UPPER THAMES VALLEY
THE EMMEN-ODOORN REGION IN THE IRON AGE, A STUDY IN SCALE AND STRUCTURE (SUMMARY)
NEW ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS OF SETTLEMENT STRUCTURES (ROMAN IRON AGE) IN THE NORTHWEST — GERMAN COASTAL AREA
ECONOMY OF THE ROMAN IRON AGE SETTLEMENT AT FLÖGELN, KR. CUXHAVEN, LOWER SAXONY HUSBANDRY, CATTLE FARMING AND MANUFACTURING
STUDIES OF STRUCTURE, CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN IRON AGE SETTLEMENTS IN SWEDEN
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

Lowland Iron Age Communities in Europe Papers presented to a conference of the Department for External Studies held at Oxford, October I 977 Edited by

Barry Cunliffe and Trevor Rowley Prepared for publication by Sylvia Pryor

BAR International Series (Supplementary) 48

1978

-B.A.R. 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE�ERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. International Series 48, 1978: in Europe"

"Lowland Iron Age Communities

© The Individual Authors

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540281 paperback ISBN 9781407347783 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540281 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

Page L ist o f Con tr ibu tors L ist o f F igures a nd P lates Preface

1

S et t le ment a nd Popu lat ion i n t he Br it ish I ron Age :

s ome f acts, f i gures a nd f an tas ies

Barry Cun l if fe

3

Bu ild ings a nd S et t le men ts i n s ou th-east Br ita in i n t he l ate I ron Age

Warw ick Rodwel l

2 5

Pau l Drury

4 3

L it t le Wa l tha m a nd p re-Belg ic I ron Age s et t le men t i n E ssex S et t le ment a nd L and U se i n N ortha mp tons h ire :

ac ompar ison b e tween t he I ron Age

a nd t he Midd le Ages

Frances Brown a nd Chr is Tay lor

7 7

Chr istopher Sm i th

9 1

The l andscape a nd n a tura l h istory o f I ron Age s et t le men t o n t he T ren t g ravels , I ron Age s et t le men ts i n t he U pper Tha mes Va l ley

George L a mbr ick

1 03

J . A . Brongers

1 21

Peter S ch m id

1 23

W. H . Z i m mer mann

1 47

B . S t jernqu ist

1 67

The Em men-Ordoorn r eg ion i n t he I ron Age , as tudy o f s ca le a nd s tructure N ew a rchaeo log ical r esu lts o f s et t le men t s tructures ( Ro man I ron Age ) i n t he n orthw est-Ger man Coasta l a rea E cono my o f t he Ro man I ron Age s et t le men t F lt igeln , L ower S axony—husbandry , c a tt le f ar m ing a nd manu factur ing S tud ies o f s tructure, c on t inu ity a nd c hange i n I ron Age s et t le men ts i n Sweden B ib l iography

1 87

L IST OF CONTRD 3UTORS

Dr.

J . A . Brongers ,

R i jksd ienst v oor h et Oudhe idkund ig Bode monderzoek , Amersfoort , Ho l land Mrs. F . Brown , BA, Roya l Co m m iss ion o n H istor ica l Monumen ts, Ca mbr idge B . Cun l i ffe , MA, PhD , FSA, P rofessor o f European Archaeo logy , I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy , Ox ford P . J . Drury , AR ICS , Chel msford Excavat ion Co m m it tee G . L a mbr ick , BA, Ox fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l Un it W. Rodwel l , BA, DPh il , D irector , CRAAGS , Br isto l R . T . Row ley , BA, BL it t , FSA, Oxford Un ivers ity Depart men t f or Externa l S tud ies Dr. P . S ch m id , N iedersachs isches L andes inst itu t , W. Ger many C . Sm ith , BA, Anc ien t Monumen ts Departmen t , Co lwyn Bay , C lwyd Professor B . S t jernqu ist , I nst itu te o f Archaeo logy , L und , Sweden C . Tay lor , FSA, Roya l Com m iss ion o n H istor ica l Monu ments, C a mbr idge Dr. W. H . Z i m mer mann , N iedersachs isches L andes inst itu t , W. Ger many

L IST OF I LLUSTRAT IONS Page ( 1 ) Cun l if fe F igure 1

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age S ites i n n orth-east N ortha mptonsh ire

5

2

D ist r ibut ion o f I ron Age S ites i n s ou th-east Wessex

6

3

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age b rochs i n t he O rkney I sles

8

4

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age b rochs o n S het land

9

5

Da te r anges o f s e lec ted Wessex s et t le men ts

1 2

6

Popu lat ion f i gures f or Cha lton , Han ts

1 2

7

P opu lat ion g raph f or Br ita in

1 6

8

Preh istor ic p opu lat ions i n Br ita in

1 6

9

L og ist ic c urve

1 8

1 0

D iagra m t o i l lustrate a n o vershoo t s i tua t ion

1 9

1 1

D iagra m t o i l lustrate c hanges i n morta l ity a nd f ert il i ty l evels

2 0

1 2

D iagra m t o i l lustrate t he e f fects o f morta l ity a nd f ert il ity l evels o f r a is ing t he h o ld ing c apac ity o f t he e nv iron men t

1 3

2 0

Model t o d ef ine t he r elat ionsh ip b etween p opu lat ion g row th a nd s oc io-econo m ic c hange i n S ou thern Br ita in

2 3

( 2 ) Rodwel l 1

P lans o f f ar msteads a t Muck ing , O rton L onguev il le a nd Wyboston

2

i n S ou thern Br ita in 3

5

3 1

P lans o f l ong r ectangu lar b u ild ings a t Can terbury , Wick ford , L ock leys a nd Park S treet

4

2 8

Co mparat ive p lans o f sma l l s quare a nd r ectangu lar b u ild ings

2 9

P lans o f l arge t imber b u ild ings a nd smal l s tructures a t Ca mu lodunum

3 5

P lan o f t he l arge c ourtyard b u ild ing a t P i lsdon Pen

3 6

rury ( 3) D I ron Age s et t le men ts i n Essex 2

4 4

Early I ron Age s ett le men ts a t L in ford , Chel msford a nd Rawreth

4 7

3

The I ron Age s et t le men t a t Heybr idge

4 8

4 5

The I ron Age s ett le men t a t L it t le Wal tha m Per iod I h ouses a t L itt le Wa l tha m

5 0 5 2

6

House r econstruct ions a t L itt le Wa ltha m

5 3

7

I n terpretat ion o f h ouses C 15 a nd C 18 a t L it t le Wal tha m

5 5

8

House C 2, P er iod I I a t L it t le Wa ltha m

5 7

9

P lans c o mpar ing Chel msford a nd L it t le Wa ltha m

5 8

F igure

Page

1 0

Po t tery f ro m P er iods I -W

6 0

1 1

Po t tery f ro m Per iods I -IV

6 1

1 2

P ropor t ions i n wh ich p o t tery f or ms o ccur r elat ive t o o ne a no ther i n P er iods I -IV

6 2

' Be lg ic ' f or ms o f p ot tery

6 4

1 4

The f i eld s yste m a t L itt le Wa ltha m

6 6

1 5

S em i-c ircu lar b u i ld ings a t Gun H il l a nd Barley

6 9

1 6

I ron Age e nc losed s ett le men ts a t L itt le Wa ltha m , L angford ,

1 3

L it t le To tha m , Mist ley a nd Ard le igh ( 4 )

Tay lor 1

Excava ted s i tes i n N ortha mp tonsh ire

2

I ron Age s et t le men ts a nd a rchaeo log ica l ly i naccess ible l and

3

Med ieval v i l lages w ith in t he med ieva l p ar ish b oundar ies o f K ing 's S ut ton , Mewbo t t le a nd Farth inghoe

8 6

4

P robab le b oundar ies o f med ieva l l and u n i ts

8 6

5

D istr ibu t ion o f Ro man o ccupa t ion

8 8

i n t he p ar ish o f Yard ley Hast ings , N orthan ts.

( 5 )

( 6 )

7 2

7 9 8 1

Sm ith 1

L ocat ion map f or F isherw ick

9 2

2

C rop marks o f I ron f ea tures a t F isherw ick

9 6

L a mbr ick 1 2

I ron Age s i tes d iscussed i n t ext

1 05

F abr ic t ypes f rom e arly a nd m idd le I ron Age c on tex ts a t Far moor

1 07

3

Three p hases o f o ccupa t ion a t Far moor

1 08

4

The f loodp la in s ite a t Ming ies D itch

1 15

5

The f ar mstead s ite a t App le ford

1 16

6 7

Four p hases o f o ccupa t ion a t Ashv il le T rad ing Estate , Ab ingdon

1 09

The I ron Age a nd Ro man o ccupat ion a t Barton Court Far m , Ab ingdon

10

ch m id ( 7) S 1

S et t le men t e xcavat ions a long t he s ou thern N orth S ea c oast l ine

1 24

2

Ems e stuary s how ing f la t s ett le men ts a nd t erps

1 25

3

Ems s et t le men t Boo mborg-Hatzu m ( Pre-Ro man I ron Age )

1 27

4

Fort if ied Ems s et t le men t B entumers iel ( early Ro man I ron Age )

5

Weser a nd E lbe 6

1 30

Marshisland o f Feddersen Wierde w ith s e t t le men ts o f Ro man I ron Age

7

1 28

L andscape s tructures w ith " S ied lungska mmern" b etween

1 32

Reconstruct ion o f af ar myard w ith h ouse a nd g ranary ( Feddersen Wierde )

1 33

F igure 8 9

Page S et t le men t s tructure o f t he t h ird Wierde )

c en tury A .D. ( Feddersen 1 35

S tructure o f t he " Geest" s et t le men t F lögeln s econdt h ird c en tury A .D .

1 39

1 0

Far m u n it o f F lögeln ( second-th ird c en tury A . D.)

1 43

1

Far m u n it o f F eddersen W ierde ( f irst-second c en tury A .D.)

1 44

P late 1 Three-a isled " Ha l lenhaus" ( Feddersen Wierde )

1 34

P lat e 2 Reconstruct ion o f t he t erp v i l lage Feddersen ( t h ird c en tury 1 36

A .D.) P late 3 Aer ial v iew o f t he e xcava t ion F lögeln w ith f ar m u n it C ( 8 )

1 42

Z i m mer mann

F igure 1 2

" Inhab ited I sle" o f F lögeln , K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony D istribut ion o f C elt ic f i eld p at tern a rable l and i n NW Europe

3

D is tr ibu t ion o f Ce lt ic f ie ld p at tern a rable l and i n t he E lbe-

1 48 1 50

Weser-Tr iang le

1 51

4

F lögeln-Haselhörn , K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony

1 53

5

F lögeln-Eekhö lt jen ( " im Ö rt jen" ), K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony.

Wodden a nd s hares

1 55

6

F lögeln-Ee ld iö lt jen , K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony

1 56

7

F lögeln , K r. C uxhaven , L ower S axony.

1 57

8

F lögeln-Eekhö lt jen , K r. C uxhaven ,

House t ypes It o I V

L ower S axony .

S unken

h u ts o f 2 - a nd 6 -post t ype 9

1 62

F lögeln-Eekhö l t jen ( " im ( 5 rt jen" ), K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony.

Art isan h ouse, f ourth-f if th c en tury A .D.

1 59

P late i F lögeln-Hase lhirn , K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony. Ce lt ic f i e ld p at tern

1 64

P late 2 F lögeln-Eekhö l t jen , K r. Cuxhaven , L ower S axony . M i l lstone p roduct ion ( 9 )

1 58

S t jernqu ist

F igure 1

Model o f c o mponen ts o f ap reh istor ic c o m mun i ty

2

D i mens ion s a nd s o me v ar iables importan t f or t he s tudy o f

1 68

p reh istor ic c hange

1 70

3

I ron Age s et t le men ts i n S can ia

1 72

4

Map w ith c oncen trat ions o f i nvest iga ted s tructures marked

1 72

5

Part o f t he mode l b roken d own i n to c oncrete , o perable

6

S can ian s urvey map w i th c oncen trat ions o f i nvest iga ted

v ar iab les

7

1 79

s tructures a t GMrd lösa

1 82

Model o f s hort d istance a nd l ong d istance c on tacts

1 84

P late 1 The l oca l ity o f GMrd lösa w ith t he To m marp r iver e nc ircl ing t he w el l-def ined r idge

1 73

P late 2 U pr igh t s tone mark ing a g rave

1 73

P age P late 3 S tone s et t ings i nt he s ou thern p art o f t he i nvest iga ted a rea

1 76

P late 4 S tone s et t ing o f l imestone s labs d a maged b y f i re P late 5 S tone s et t ing f rom t he g rave-f ield

1 77 1 77

PREFACE

W ith in t he l ast t wo d ecades t he a rchaeo log ica l s tudy o f s ett le men t h as a dvanced d rama t ica l ly .

Changes, b oth i n t he q ua l ity o f t he d ata b ase a nd i n

a tt itude t owards i th ave b een p rofound a nd s pectacu lar. Excava t ion i s n ow moun ted o n af ar l arger s ca le , u sua l ly w ith t he a im o f s tudy ing a c o mp lete s et t le men t u n it ; s et t le men ts a re n o l onger c ons idered i n i so lat ion b u t i n t he c on text o f t he ir p hys ica l a nd c u l tura l e nv ironmen ts wh ile t he q uest ions b e ing a sked o f t he d ata a re i ncreas ing ly c oncerned t o e xp lore t he d ynam ics o f c u lt ure c hange. Withou t b e ing u ndu ly x enophob ic i ti s f a ir t o s ay t ha t i n t he f i e ld o f s et t le men t s tud ies , t he a rchaeo log ists o f G er many , Ho l land , S cand inav ia a nd B r ita in a re l ead ing t he w or ld. I n O ctober 1 977 a s ympos iu m w as h eld i n O x ford , o rgan ized b y t he Departmen t f or Ex terna l S tud ies , w ith t he p urpose o f b r ing ing t oge ther a rchaeo log ists f rom N orth-west Europe t o d iscuss r ecen t a dvances i n t he s tudy o f I ron Age s ett le men t .

The r ange o f methods, r esu lts a nd a na lyses p resen ted

w as b o th i nsp ir ing a nd r eassur ing. I n t h is v o lume w e b r ing t ogether a s elect ion o f t he p apers p resen ted t o i l lustra te t he p resen t s tate o f t he d isc ip l ine. Gratefu l t hanks a re d ue t o a l l t he c on tr ibu tors, a nd t o t he s taf f a t Ox ford Un ivers ity D epartmen t f or Ex ternal S tud ies w ho h ave h elped i n t he p roduct ion o f t h is v o lu me. We a re p art icu larly g ratefu l t o S y lv ia P ryor who w as r espons ib le f or t he p roduct ion o f t hese p apers. Barry Cun l if fe Trevor Row ley J u ly , 1 978

S ETTLE MENT AND POPULATION I N THE BR ITISH I RON AGE : S O ME FACTS , F IGURES AND FANTAS IES B arry Cun l i f fe

N o o ne w i l l d eny t ha t p opu la t ion a nd p opu la t ion c hange a re s ign i f ican t f actors i n a ny a t te mp t t o u nders tand s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic d yna m ics . T he work o f h is tor ians a nd d e mographers o n med ieva l a nd p os t- med ieva l p opul a t ions i n Europe h as d e mons tra ted , w i th s tar t l ing c lar i ty , t he d e l ica te c ons tra in ts a nd b a lances wh ich d e ter m ine t he r e la t ionsh ips b e tween f ood p rod uc t ion , b ir th a nd mor ta l i ty r a tes , a nd o vera l l p opu la t ion g row th o r d ec l ine . E ven t aken a t ag enera l is ing l eve l , d e mography i s as tudy wh ich n o h is tor ian wou ld d are t o n eg lec t :

a t i t s mos t s ubt le i tc an p rov ide e xp lana t ions f or s ocia l

a nd e cono m ic c hange o f ak ind wh ich wou ld o therw ise h ave b een t o ta l ly b eyond r ecovery. T he c are fu l work o f Wr ig ley , G ouber t a nd o thers h as s hown t ha t i n ap rei ndus tr ia l s oc ie ty t he v agar ies o f wea ther s tud ied o n ay ear t o y ear b as is , a c t ing t hrough t he med iu m o f c rop y ie ld , h ave h ad a s ign i f ican t a nd o f ten d evas ta t ing e f fect o nb o th mor ta l i ty r a te a nd b ir th r a te a nd t ha t m inor o sc i ll a t ions c an o f ten b u i ld i n to waves o f more t han l oca l s ign i f icance ( Wr ig ley 1 966 , 1 968 ;

G ouber t 1 963 , T i tow 1 969 ).

The ir r esu l ts a re a s a lu tary

r em inder t o a rchaeo log is ts work ing i n e ar l ier p er iods , o f t he h igh ly p rec ar ious n a ture o f t he r ura l s oc ie t ies w i th wh ich we a re d ea l ing .

I ti s o n ly

t hrough d e ta i led c ase s tud ies o f t h is k ind t ha t t he mechan is ms o f p opu la t ion c hange , a nd t he e f fec ts o f d is tort ing f ac tors , s uch a s t he o u tbreak o f p lague , c an b eg in t o b e a dequa te ly a pprecia ted . C lear ly ,f or t he a rchaeo log is t t h is k ind o f f ine d e ta i l i s t o ta l ly b eyond r ecovery.

T he h is tor ica l e xa mp les c an g ive a c lear i ns igh t i n to t he n a ture

o f t he d e mograph ic b a lance i np re-indus tr ia l s ociety b u t t hey c anno t p rov ide f ir m e xp lana t ions f or o ur c oarse-gra ined a nd g ross ly i nco mp le te a rchaeol og ica l d a ta .

I t wou ld b e a s wrong f or u s t o c rea te a p seudo-de mography t o

e xp la in c hange i n p reh is tory a s i t was f or p rev ious g enera t ions t o c ons truc t ap seudo-h is tory . Ye t h av ing s a id t h is i t wou ld b e e qua l ly a s f oo l ish t o n eg lec t t he d e mograp h ic f ac tor s i mply b ecause i ti s f raugh t w i th i n tang ib les .

P opu la t ion d yna m ics

was i n t i ma te ly b ound u p i n ac ause a nd e f fec t r ela t ionsh ip w i th s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic c hange a nd t o f igh t s hy o f f ac ing t he p rob le m i s t o d eny o urse lves ap o ten t ia l means o f i mproved u nders tand ing . The B r i t ish p re-Ro man I ron Age p rov ides a u se fu l r ange o f ma ter ia l a ga ins t wh ich t o a ssess t he p rob le ms p osed b y ac ons idera t ion o f p opu la t ion c hange .

Many t housands o f s i tes a re k nown a nd h ave b een mapped , h undreds

h ave b een s a mpled b y e xcava t ion a nd o f t hese s o me h ave b een t ota l ly e xa m ined . Moreover , f or s ou th-eas tern B r i ta in , c era m ic s tud ies p rov ide a n a dequa te

3

means o f c a l ibra t ing s truc tura l c hange a nd d eve lop men t .

I ti s n o e xaggera t ion

t o s ay t ha t a t p resen t , B r i ta in i n t he f irs t m i l lenn iu m B . C . p robab ly o f fers a b e t ter p oten t ia l f or p opu la t ion s tud ies t han a ny o ther a rea i n Wes tern E urope . CONSTRAINTS I MPOSED BY THE DATA S ince c e me tery a rchaeo logy i s a l mos t u nknown i n t he I ron Age o f B r i ta in , w i th t he n o tab le e xcep t ion o f r ecen t work i n Yorksh ire , i ti s n ecessary t o r e ly e n t ire ly u pon t he e v idence o f s e t t le men t .

F our b as ic q ues t ions mus t

f irs t b e c ons idered : a ) C an we h ope t o d iscover t he t o ta l s e t t le men t p a t tern o f ag iven r eg ion? b ) I s i tp oss ib le t o d e f ine a nd a ssess a s e t t le men t h ierarchy? c ) C an l eng th o f o ccupa t ion b e d e ter m ined? d ) C an t he n umber o f p eop le o ccupying a s i te a t a ny p ar t icu lar t ime b e r easonab ly e s t i ma ted? a ) T o ta l s e t t le men t p a t tern I n t heory , u n less s ubsequen t d es truc t ive a gencies h ave t ota l ly d es troyed e v idence o f s e t t le men t , i t wou ld b e p oss ible t o d iscover t he t o ta l s e t t le men t p a t tern o f ar eg ion b u t i n r ea l i ty t h is i s h ard ly l i kely t o b e a ch ieved s i mp ly t hrough l ack o f r esources . a pprox i ma t ion .

A t b es t t here fore we c an o n ly h ope t o g a in a n

S o me a reas o f B r i ta in o f fer g rea ter p o ten t ia l t han o thers

e i ther b y v ir tue o f al ong t rad i t ion o f h igh q ua l i ty f i e ld work , o r b ecause o f t he d urabi l i ty o f t he s urv iv ing s et t le men t t races i n r ela t ion t o s ubsequen t l and u se . As a n e xa mp le o f t he f irs t we may c i te n or th-eas t N or tha mptonsh ire , a n u pto-da te s u mmary o f wh ich h as r ecen t ly b een p ub l ished ( RCH M Nor than ts . 1 975 ).

T he I ron Age s e t t le men t p a t tern i s s u m mar ised i n F ig . 1 .

I n s p i te

o f a n i n tense a nd v ar ied p rogra m me o f f ie ld work i ti s e v iden t t ha t o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he a c tua l s et t le men ts h ave b een r ecovered b u t e ven s o s evera l i n teres t ing o bserva t ions c an b e made .

Where t he f ie ld work h as

b een mos t t horough , i n t he s ou thern p ar t o f t he r eg ion , n o s ign i f ican t d is t inct ion c an b e made b e tween s e t t le men ts o n t he l igh t g rave l s oi ls o f t he r iver v a l leys a nd t hose o n t he h eav ier b ou lder c lays : b oth e nv ironmen ts a ppear t o h ave b een e qua l ly e xp lo i ted . I n t h is s ou thern z one s o me 3 0 s i tes h ave b een d iscovered i n a n a rea o f 1 00 s q km .

Thus t he o bserved d ens i ty i s 0 .3 s i tes

p er s q km , af igure wh ich mus t b e mu l t ip l ied b y a n u nknown f ac tor t o g ive t he a c tua l n umber o f s e t t le men ts .

S ince t here i s n o way o f d e ter m in ing t h is

f actor o np resen t e v idence t he e xa mp le i s o n ly o f v a lue i n p rov id ing a min i mu m f or t he p ar t icu lar e nv iron men t . The Wessex a rea i l lus tra ted i n F ig . 2p resen ts many o f t he s a me p rob le ms . The p a t tern i s v ery i nco mp le te a nd i s d is tor ted b y t he v ary ing q ua l i ty o f t he f ie ld work b e tween o ne a rea a nd a no ther . I n t he Andover a rea where t he e v id ence i s a t i t s b es t 1 2 s e t t le men ts h ave b een n o ted i n a n a rea o f 1 00 s q km ( ad ens i ty o f 0 .12 p er s q km ) .

G iven t ha t , o f t he t o ta l a rea s hown o n t he map ,

o n ly C . 1 000 s q km o f fers t he r ange o f c harac ter is t ics d es ired b y t he ma jor i ty o f t he s e t t le men ts ( a l t i tude , s o i ls , e tc .) , t he min i mum n u mber o f s e t t le men ts r ecoverab le b y as tandard o f f ie ld work , c o mparab le t o t han u nder taken i n t he Andover a rea , wou ld b e 8 3 .

I n r ea l i ty o n ly 5 0 o r s o s i tes h ave y e t b een

4

•

L im i t o f s urvey a rea

I r on A ge s e t t lemen ts o n l i gh t s o i ls I r on A ge s e t t lemen ts o n c lay L and o ve r 3 00 f t . P i t a l ignmen t

0 F ig . 1

1 0K m

D is tr ibu t ion o f I ron Age S i tes i n n or th-eas t N or tha mptonsh ire .

5

0

C l )

a . )

C O • C l 4 ) • 4 4 C . 1 )

c . )

: e

2 .

0 4 • • 2 4

4 — ) C O •

C g • g • T 4

6

i den ti f ied . T he f igures a re o f n o g rea t s ign i f icance : wha t i s i mpor tan t i s t he impl ica t ion t hey h ave f or o ur d is tr ibu t ion maps . I ti s c lear t ha t u n less s ys te ma t ic f i e ld w ork i s u nder taken o ver a c ons iderab le p er iod o f y ears , c onc en tra ted i n sma l l manageab le a reas , s ou th-eas t Br i ta in w i l l n ever y ie ld d a ta o f t he r equ ired q ua l i ty .

Assess men ts o f p opu la t ion b ased o n e x is t ing d is tr i-

b u t ion maps c anno t f a i l t o b e g ross ly mis lead ing . Where e x tens ive f i e ld w ork h as b een c arr ied o u t o n t he c ha lk l and i n t he p ar ish o f C ha l ton ( Han ts .) 1 4 s e t t le men ts w ere d iscovered i n 7s q km — a d ens i ty o f 2s i tes p er s q km ( s ee b elow p . 1 3 ). S o f ar we h ave c ons idered l ow land a reas where a gr icu l ture h as b een a t i t s mos t d es truc t ive , b u t t here a re o ther a reas o f B r i ta in , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he n or th a nd wes t where t he p hys ica l s urv iva l o f s e t t le men ts , p ar t ly a f ac tor o f t he ir d urabi l i ty , i s much g rea ter .

The n or thern i s lands o f Orkney a nd S he t-

l and p rov ide g ood e xa mp les , w i th t heir b rochs t end ing t o s urv ive , i n s o me f or m o r a no ther , e ven t he h arshes t o f t rea t men t .

The Orkney b rochs ( F ig . 3 )

f avoured c er ta in d is t inc t ive l oca t ions , p ar t icu lar ly c oas ta l s i tua t ions where t hey c ou ld u t i l ise a r ange o f r esource p o ten t ia ls : t he u p land moors f or s heep a nd g oa ts , t he n arrow c oas ta l s tr ip f or a gr icu l tura l l and , a nd l i t tora l w i th i t s s he l l f ish a nd s ea-birds a nd t he s ea i t se l f . Bu t e ven s o t here a re s ign i f ican t g aps i nt he d is tr ibu t ion map . Why a re s o me c oas ts more t h ick ly s tudded w i th s et t le men ts t han o thers? E ynha l low S ound , f or e xa mp le , was e v iden t ly a p re ferred l oca t ion , wh i le t he wes t c oas ts o f Ma in land a ppear t o h ave b een more s parse ly s e t t led . One e xp lana t ion f or t h is i s a l mos t c er ta in ly t ha t t he s he l tered wa ters o f t he S ound were , t hen a s n ow , f ar more p ro li f ic o f s ea f ood t han t he more e xposed A t lan t ic c oas ts .

Ac loser s tudy o f r esource p oten t ia l

c ou ld , i n t heory , a l low t he o p t i mu m h o ld ing c apaci ty o f t he i s lands t o b e d e fined , a ga ins t wh ich t he k nown s e t t le men t p a t tern c ou ld t hen b e a ssessed a nd p red ic t ions made a bou t s e t t le men ts n ow d es troyed o r u n loca ted . Af ur ther r e f ine men t o f t he p rob le m c an b e i l lus tra ted b y t he I ron Age s e t t le men t p a t tern o n S he t land . The map ( Fig . 4 ) s hows t he k nown b rochs p lo t ted a gains t b ioc l i ma t ic s ubreg ions b ased o n t he s urveys o f B irse ( 1 971) a nd i nd ica ting , u nshaded , o n ly t he mos t c ongen ia l s ubreg ion . The c lose f i t i s impress ive b u t h ard ly u nexpec ted . The e xa mp le i s w or th emphas is ing , h owever , b ecause o f t he s cope i tp rov ides f or a ssess ing b o th t he t o ta l s et t lemen t p a t tern , a nd t he o p t i mum h o ld ing c apac i ty o f t he I s land 's r esources . E xa mp les o f t he k ind o f fered h ere c ou ld b e mu l tip l ied a l mos t i nde f in i te ly b y c ons ider ing o ther p ar ts o f t he B r i t ish I s les b u t s u f f ic ien t w i l l h ave b een s a id t o d e mons tra te t he e x tre mes o f s urv iva l a nd t o u nder l ine t he n a ture o f t he p rob le ms . The p o in ts t o b e emphas ised a re : a ) f or t he s ou th-eas t o ur d is tr ibu t ion maps a re t o ta l ly i nadequa te a nd c an o n ly b e b rough t u p t o au se fu l s tandard b y i n tens ive f i e ld work c oncen tra t ing i nt he f irs t i ns tance o n s a mple a reas ; b ) s o me p ar ts o f t he n or th a nd wes t , where c ond i t ions a re e x tre me a nd a nd s urv iva l o f s e t t le men t t races i s g ood , p rov ide amp le s cope f or q uan t i fying p opu la t ion f actors ;

7

L and o ve r 7 6 m

F ig. 3

D ist r ibu t ion o f I ron Age b rochs i n t he O rkney I sles.

8

SHETLAND B r o ch s i nr e la t ion t ob i o c l ima t i c s u b r eg ion s

0

1 0Km

E -I

1 -1

1 - 1

F ig. 4 .

D istr ibu t ion o f I ron Age b rochs o n S het land

9

C ) t he d ens i ty o f s e t t le men ts t hroughou t t he B r i t ish I s les was f ar more c ons iderable t han migh t h ave b een p rev ious ly a n t ic ipa ted a nd t he i mpress ion i s g iven t ha t a l l a va i lab le r esources were b e ing a c t ively e xp loi ted . b ) The d e f in i t ion o f s e t t le men t h ierarch ies One o f t he e ssen t ia l p re l im inar ies t o u nders tand ing p opu la t ion i s t o b e a b le t o d e f ine t he r ange o f s e t t le men t t ype i n a ny a rea a nd a t a ny o ne t ime . I n t he c ase o f Orkney a nd S he t land i ti s t o lerab ly c er ta in t han t he b roch f or med t he p r inc ipa l , a nd p robab ly t he o n ly s ign i f ican t , s e t t le men t u n i t i n t he l a te p re-Ro man I ron Age , r epresen t ing a n e x tended f am i ly u n i t . Bu t f ur ther s ou th p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ha lk l ands o f Wessex t he s i tua t ion was more c o mp lex . B y t he t h ird a nd s econd c en tur ies B . C . i ti s p oss ib le t o r ecogn ise a r ange o f s e t t le men t t ypes w i th in wh ich t he d eve loped h i l l for t c ons t i tu ted t he h ighes t e che lon p rov id ing a r ange o f s erv ices f or i t s h in ter land a nd i n a l l p robabi l i ty s uppor t ing a p er manen t r es iden t p opu la t ion ( Cun li f fe 1 976 a a nd b ) . B e low t h is , t hough n o t n ecessar i ly i n ad escend ing o rder w i th in t he h ierarchy , we c an r ecogn ise s e t t le men ts o f v i l lage-l ike p ropor t ions a nd l arge f ar ms teads o f t he s o-ca l led L i t t le Woodbury t ype . " V i l lages" a re a s y e t al i t t le-known c a tegory b u t as u f f ic ien t n umber o f " L i t t le Woodbury" f ar ms teads h ave b een e xa m ined t o s ugges t t ha t t he s oc ia l u n i t r epresen ted h ere was l i kely t o b e t he e x tended f am i ly a nd t he p oss ibi l i ty r e ma ins t ha t t he s ta tus o f t he p r inc ipa l o ccupan ts was h igh .

Th is p oss ibi l i ty a lone r a ises t he q ues t ion o f whe ther

s e t t le men ts o f l esser men e x is ted a nd c an b e r ecogn ised .

The " ban jo-

e nc losures" , wh ich u n t i l af ew y ears a go w ere c ons idered t o h ave h ad a p as tora l f unc t ion , h ave n ow b een s hown t o h ave b een o ccup ied , t hough o nb y n o means t he s ca le o f t he " L i t t le Woodbury" f ar ms .

T hese may h ave b een t he h o me-

s teads o f p easan t f ar mers . S u f f ic ien t w i l l h ave b een s a id t o s how t ha t e ven i n t he c o mpara t ive ly wel l e xcava ted r eg ion o f Wessex o ur k now ledge o f s e t t le men t h ierarchy i s s t i l l v ery i nco mp le te a nd a l though i ti s p oss ib le t o d is t ingu ish h i l l for ts f ro m t he o ther c a tegor ies o f s e t t le men t o ur d is tr ibu t ion maps mus t r e ma in o therwise l arge ly u nd i f feren t ia ted . A s ing le s po t o n F ig . 2c ou ld r epresen t a ny th ing f ro m a sma l l p easan t f arms tead t o av i l lage ! N or a re t he h i l l for ts f ree f ro m p rob le ms s ince t he ir o vera l l t opograph ica l s im i lar i t ies t end t o o bscure t he ir v ar ie ty o f f unc t ions . These p oin ts h ave b een c ons idered a t l eng th e lsewhere ( Cun l i f fe 1 978 a , 3 32-4 ) wh i le t he p rob le ms p osed b y t he p o ten t ia l u se o f t he more i so la ted f or ts o n ly b y t ranshuman t p opu la t ions h ave b een e x tens ive ly d eba ted ( A lcock 1 965 ; H ogg 1 962 ) . A l l t ha t c an s afe ly b e s a id o f t hose i n t he s ou th i s t ha t b y t he t h ird a nd s econd c en tur ies s o me f or ts h ad emerged a s c en tres o f p opu la t ion wh i le o thers were a bandoned o r c on t inued t o b e u sed a s c onven ien t e nc losures i n wh ich t o e s tabl ish f arms teads . An e xa m ina t ion o f s ur face f ea tures o r e ven l im i ted e xcava t ion c anno t n ecessar i ly a l low t he d i ff eren t s ty le o f u se t o b e i den ti f ied . The b rochs o f t he N or thern I s lands a nd t he c o mp lex s truc tured s e t t le men t p a t tern o f t he s ou th o nce more d e mons tra te t wo e x tre mes e v iden t i n t he B r it i sh ma ter ia l ;

b e tween a re a w ide r ange o f v ar ia t ions .

A s f ur ther s tudy

p roceeds i ti s b eco ming i ncreas ing ly a pparen t t ha t t here was c ons iderable r eg iona l v ar iabi l i ty i n s ocia l o rgan isa t ion a nd t here fore s e t t le men t s tructure 1 0

i nt he B r i t ish I s les ( Cun l i f fe 1 978 a , 1 61-242 ) .

Thus e ach r eg ion mus t b e

c ons idered i n i t s o wn r igh t a nd c are s hou ld b e t aken n o t t o impose a s e t t le men t mode l d er ived f ro m o ne s e t o f d a ta o n ar eg ion t o wh ich i t migh t o therwise b e i nappropr ia te . C ) The l eng th o f o ccupa t ion o f as i te E ven i fi ti s p oss ib le i n s o me a reas t o a rr ive a t ar easonab ly c o mp lete p ic ture o f t he s e t t le men t p a t tern i ti s s t i l l n ecessary t o a ssess t he c on te mp oranei ty o r o therwise o f t he i nd iv idua l s i tes . I t wou ld , f or e xa mp le , b e p o in t less t o b u i ld e labora te t heor ies o n t he d is tr ibu t ion o f C orn ish r ounds w i thou t ac hrono log ica l c on tro l when r ecen t e xcava t ions h ave s hown o ne , T rev isker , t o h ave b een o ccup ied i n t he mid-Bronze Age a nd a ga in i n t he l a te I ron Age , wh i le a no ther , T re thurgy , was n o t c ons truc ted u n t i l t he l a te R o man p er iod . I n C ornwa l l e xcava t ion i s l i ke ly t o p roduce s u f f icien t p o t tery t o g ive a t l eas t a n a pprox i ma te i nd ica t ion o f d a te r ange , b u t o ver much o f t he r es t o f t he n or th a nd wes t s e t t le men ts a re w i thou t t he b ene f i t o f c era m ic c a l ibra t ion , a nd r ad iocarbon d a tes a re u nab le t o p rov ide t he p rec is ion r equired .

Thus i n

t hese a reas c on te mporane i ty o f s e t t le men ts , e xcep t i n t he b roades t s ense , i s u n l ike ly e ver t o b e e s tab l ished . I nt he s ou th-eas t t he e v idence i s r a ther b e t ter . Mos t s i tes p roduce r eas onab le q uan t i t ies o f p o t tery a nd c era m ic s ty les c hanged s u f f ic ien t ly q u ick ly t o e nab le t he d eve lop men t s equence t o b e b roken d own i n to a n umber o f e as i ly i den ti f iab le c o mponen ts .

I ti s e ven p oss ib le o n s tyl is t ic a nd s tra t igraph ica l

g rounds , s uppor ted b y a n i ncreas ing n umber o f r adiocarbon d a tes , t o p rov ide t he o u t l ines o f a n a bso lu te c hrono logy . U s ing t h is d a ta , t he o ccupa t ion s pan o f e igh t s i tes , a l l o ccurr ing i n t he a rea c overed b y F ig . 2 , h ave b een c o mpared ( F ig . 5 ) . A l though n ecessar i ly a pprox i ma te , a nd l i ab le t o minor a l tera t ions , t he d iagra m s hows t ha t mos t o f t he s i tes were o ccup ied o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime a nd t ha t f or mos t o f t he p er iod b e tween 5 0 a nd 1 00 p er c en t o f t he m were i n c on te mporary u se .

E ven a l lowing f or t he i naccurac ies i nheren t i n

s uch a p rocedure t he e xa mp le g ives c lear i nd ica t ion o f t he f lex ibi l i ty o f o ur e v idence . d ) The n umber o f i nd iv idua ls p er s e t t le men t u n i t The a ssess men t o f t he p opu la t ion o f as i te a t a ny p ar t icu lar p er iod i s a p rob le m f raugh t w i th d i f f icu l t ies . E ven i n t hose r are c ases i n wh ich t he t o ta l , n umber o f h ouses c an b e c oun ted i ti s s e ldo m p oss ib le t o t e l l h ow many were i nu se a t a ny o ne t ime o r i ndeed t o b e s ure t ha t a l l c on te mporary s truc tures \ were u sed a s l i v ing a cco m moda t ion . Y e t a no ther v ar iable i s h ow many i nd i- , v idua ls s hou ld b e a l lowed f or e ach h ouse ( sum mar ised i n C ook 1 972 , 1 2-18 ). C lear ly , w i th s o many imponderab les , e s t i ma tes o f p opu la t ion p er s i te c an b e l i t t le b e t ter t han g uesses .

N one the less i ti s i n teres t ing h ow d i f feren t

wr i ters u s ing w ide ly d i f fer ing c r i ter ia h ave a rr ived a t f igures o f ac o mparab le o rder o f magn i tude f or h i l l for ts i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he c oun try :

1 1

BC

5 00

4 00

3 00

2 00

1 00

0

L ITTLE W OODBURY HARN HAM H IGHF IELD BOSCOMBE DO WN MEON

WEST

H ILL

WORTHY DO WN TWYFORD

DO WN

OV VSLEBURY

F ig . 5

Da te r anges o f s elec ted Wessex s e t t le men ts .

CHALTON , HANTS

P opu la t ion

( Area o f p ar ish 7s q . kms .)

N umber o f s e t t lemen ts/ h o ld ings

P opu la t ion

E ar ly PR I A

2 0/40

L a te PR I A

5 0/ 100

D omesday

7 0

1 695

8 0

1 80 1

M

1 8 11

. I

1 27

M .

2 52

« M M.

1 82 1

2 49

•••••• •

F ig . 6

P opu la tion f igures f or Cha l ton , Han ts .

1 2

1 00 AD

N o . o f p eople p er h ec tare G arn B oduan

6 0

G arn F adrun

3 1

C onway M t .

5 0

Tre 'r C e ir i

4 6

Midsu m mer H i l l C a mp C ro f t Ambrey Danebury

( Hogg 1 962 , 2 2 )

1 14

( S tan ford 1 972 , 3 15-7 )

1 80-240 1 40

( presen t a u thor )

Wh i le t hese f igures c an b e r egarded o n ly a s v ery c rude e s t i ma tes t hey g ive s o me i dea o f t he l ike ly e rror w i th in wh ich we a re d ea ling . POPULATION ESTIMATES I n v iew o f a l l t he d i f f icu l t ies , b r ie f ly e xposed a bove , i t migh t b e t hough t t ha t f ur ther p rogress t owards a ssess ing I ron Age p opu la t ion i s imposs ib le o r a t b es t i l l-adv ised . T h is may we l l b e , y e t i th as n o t p reven ted a n u mber o f s cho lars o f fer ing i nsp ired g uesses . R ecen t ly B ro thwe l l ( 1 972 ) , i n s umm ing u p t he s i tua t ion , h as p u t f orward f igures o f h is own f or Br i ta in , a l low ing w i thi n e ach wha t h e c ons iders t o b e t he max i mu m l ike ly v ar ia t ion : 2 50-5 , 0 00

Upper P a laeol i th ic

3 ,0 00-20 , 0 00

Meso l i th ic N eo li th ic

1 0 , 0 00-40 , 0 00

Bronze Age

2 0 , 0 00-100 , 0 00 5 0 , 0 00-500 ,000

I ron Age Med ieva l

1 ,5 00 , 0 00-4 , 0 00 , 0 00

T o t hese we may a dd F rere 's e s t i ma te o f o ver 2 , 0 00 , 0 00 f or t he midd le y ears o f t he R o man p er iod ( Frere 1 974 , 3 48-50 ).

I n g enera l t hese f igures a re s ign i-

f i can t ly h igher t han p rev ious a ssesse men ts . We w i l l r e turn l a ter t o t he b roader imp l ica t ions wh ich f o l low f ro m t he o vera l l p a t tern , b u t f i rs t i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider t he o rder o f magn i tude o f B ro thwe l l 's f igures f or t he I ron Age .

Averaged o u t t hey wou ld d e mand a

p opu la t ion d ens i ty o f a pprox i ma te ly 4 i nd iv idua ls p er s q km wh ich c o mpares w i th t he Do mesday a verage f or s ou thern Br i ta in o f 1 2 ( Darby 1 977 , 8 7-94 ) . Now t ak ing t he o bserved s e t t le men t d ens i ty f or n or th-eas t N or tha mptonsh ire o f 0 .3 s i tes p er s q km a nd mu l t ip lying b y af ac tor o f 4( ap ure g uess ) t o b r ing i tt o a c tua l s i tes , a nd a f ac tor o f 5 , f or n umber o f i nd iv idua ls p er s i te , we a rr ive a t ap opu la t ion d ens i ty o f 6p er s q km .

( The a ssump t ions i n t h is c a lcu-

l a t ion w i l l b e o n ly t oo a pparen t ! ) Turn ing t o Wessex w i th i t s o bserved d ens i ty o f 0 .12 s i tes p er s q km a nd mu l tip lying b y t he s a me f ac tors , we a rr ive a t af igure o f 2 .4 i nd iv idua ls p er s q km .

Bu t Wessex , u n l ike N or tha mp tonsh ire i s d om ina ted b y h i ll for ts w i th in

wh ich t here i s l ike ly t o h ave b een a r es iden t p opu la t ion .

The e v idence f ro m

Danebury wou ld i nd ica te a f igure o f C . 7 00 ( very a pprox i mate ly ) a nd s ince t he t err i tory wh ich t he h i l l for t c on tro l led was a pprozi ma te ly 3 00 s q kms we mus t a dd a f ur ther 2 .3 i nd iv idua ls f or e ach s q km b r ing ing t he e s t i ma ted f igure f or 1 3

Wessex u p t o 4 .7 p er s q km .

B o th c a lcu la t ions b r ing u s s urpr is ing ly c lose

t o B ro thwe l l 's f igure . Bu t t he mu l t ip lying f actor , x4 , d ev ised t o b r ing o bserved s e t t le men t d ens i ty t o a c tua l s e t t le men t d ens i ty i s a l mos t c er ta in ly f ar t oo l ow . L e t u s n ow c o mpare t hese f igures w i th t he C ha l ton s e t t le men t p a t tern where t he s earch f or s i tes h as b een more s ys te ma t ic a nd t he a c tua l n umber o f s e t t le men ts mus t a pprox i ma te more c losely t o t he n umber d iscovered . I nt he l a t ter p ar t o f t he I ron Age t here were a t l eas t 1 0 s et t le men ts i n a n a rea o f 7s q km wh ich i s ad ens i ty ( uncorrec ted ) o f 1 .4 s e t t le men ts p er s q km . Mu l t ip ly ing b y af ac tor o f 5f or p opu la t ion p er s i te w e a rr ive a t ad ens i ty o f 7p eop le p er s q km . N ow t he f ac tor o f x 5u sed t o c onver t t he n umber o f s i tes t o t he n umber o f p eople i s p robab ly t oo l ow . I f we a l low a f ac tor o f x1 0 , ( no t u nreasonab le i ft he g roup was a n e x tended f am i ly ) w e a rr ive a t a n a verage p opu la t ion d ens i ty s ign i f ican t ly a bove B ro thwe l l 's f igure .

I n o ther words wh i le h is I ron Age

e s t i ma tes c ou ld w e l l b e c orrec t t hey a re more l i ke ly t o b e t oo l ow b y af ac tor o f a bou t 2 . S o f ar we h ave a pproached t he p rob le m f ro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f a ssess ing p opu la t ion f ro m t he r ecorded s e t t le men t p a t tern b u t t here i s a no ther p oss ib le p rocedure wh ich i nvo lves t ak ing a n a rea o f l and a nd c ons ider ing i t s u t i l isa t ion . a nd r esource p o ten t ia l , c o mpar ing t he e ar l ier p er iods t o l a ter f or wh ich more a ccura te f igures a re a va i lab le . C ha l ton p rov ides a n e xa mple ( F ig . 6 ) . Work ing b ackwards i nt ime i ti s c onven ien t t o b eg in w i th t he e ar ly n ine teen th c en tury f or wh ich d e ta i led c ensus r e turns h ave b een p ub l ished . E ven t hough t hey a re d is tor ted , b y p o ten t ia l i naccuracies i n t he me thod b y w hich t he e arl i es t r e turns were g a thered a nd b y t he e f fec ts o f t he N apo leon ic wars , t hey a t l eas t g ive a n o rder o f magn i tude f or t he r ura l p opu la t ion wh ich t h is a rea o f c ha lk l and c ou ld h o ld i n t he d ays b e fore a r t i f icia l f er t i l izers a l lowed g rea t ly i ncreased c rop y ie lds . G oing b ackwards b y j us t o ver a c en tury , t o 1 695 , i t i s p oss ible t o e s t i ma te t he p opu la t ion a t t he t ime f ro m t he i n forma t ion c ont a ined i nt he e s ta te r ecords .

A l though t here were 2 3 i nd iv idua ls h o lding

f reeho lds , c opyho lds o r l easeho lds i nt he v i l lage o n ly 1 6 were h eads o f f am i l ies work ing s u f f icien t l and t o s uppor t t he mse lves a nd t he ir d ependan ts . The r es t were f or t he mos t p ar t w idows o r p easan ts p ossess ing o n ly a h ouse a nd a sma l l g arden . I fw e mu l t ip ly e ach o f t he 1 6 f am i l ies b y af ac tor o f 5( a r easonab le f igure t o i nc lude c h i ldren a nd o ld p eop le ) t hen t he t o ta l p opu la t ion mus t h ave b een a t l eas t 8 0 . T h is i s i n terna l ly c ons is ten t w i th t he l a ter c ensus r e turns a nd w i th t he e s t i ma te o f a bou t 7 0 f or a n a rea o f c ha lk d own land o f t h is s i ze u s ing Darby 's a verage c a lcu la t ions f or t he D o mesday p er iod ( Darby 1 977 , 8 79 0 ) . N ow k now ing , f or t he l a ter p re-Ro man I ron Age t ha t t here were a t l eas t 1 0 f ar ms teads i nt he a rea , t he min i mum p opu la t ion i s l i ke ly t o h ave r anged b e tween 5 0 a nd 1 00 d epend ing o n wh ich f ac tor i s c hosen f or t he n u mber o f p eop le p er s i te . I n t he e ar l ier p er iod t here a re f ewer s i tes wh ich migh t s ugg es t a more l im i ted p opu la t ion . Th is f igure , 5 0-100 f or t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he I ron Age , migh t a t f irs t s igh t s ee m u ndu ly l arge , a nd i ndeed i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t n o t a l l t he s e t t le men ts

1 4

were i r u se a t t he s a me t ime .

Th is may b e s o , b u t t he s urv iv ing a rchaeo lo-

g ica l e v idence i s s u f f icien t t o s how t ha t t he t o ta l max i mum a rea o f a rab le l and f ar med i nt he l a te I ron Age a nd e ar ly R o man p er iod was g rea t ly i n e xcess o f t ha t f ar med i n t he med ieva l p er iod a nd e ven c o mpared w i th t he a rable o f t he s even teen th c en tury i t was more e x tens ive .

I f we a l low t ha t t he f ood p ro-

d uc ing p o ten t ia l o f t he l and was n o t l ike ly t o h ave i ncreased s ign i f ican t ly b e tween c . 2 00 B . C . a nd c . A .D . 1 600 , t hen i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t t he r es ources r ea l ised i n t he I ron Age-Ro man p er iod c ou ld h ave s uppor ted a p opu la t ion g rea ter t han t he med ieva l-ear ly p os t- med ieva l f igure .

I n o ther

words t he e s t i mate o f 1 00 i nd iv idua ls i n t he l a ter I ron Age , r a ther t han b e ing t oo h igh , may we l l b e s ign i f ican t ly t oo l ow . C lear ly e s t i ma tes d er ived f ro m a s ing le a nd imper fec t e xa mp le o f t h is k ind , h owever i n terna l ly c ons is ten t , s hou ld n o t b e a pp l ied t oo w ide ly .

Ye t

c o mpar ing i tw i th t he o ther e s t i ma tes , b r ie f ly d iscussed a bove , i t migh t s ugg es t t ha t af igure o f 1 0-15 i nd iv idua ls p er s q km s hou ld b e r egarded a s a r easonab le min i mu m f or c ons iderab le a reas o f s ou thern B r i ta in .

Thus t he

impress ion g iven ( and i tc an o n ly b e a n impress ion ) i s t ha t t he I ron Age p opul a t ion e xceeded , p oss ib ly b y ac ons iderable f ac tor , t he e ar ly med ieva l p opul a t ion . When o ne e xa mines a reas o f t he wes t a nd n or th o f B r i ta in i ti s e v iden t t ha t t he l a te p reh is tor ic s e t t le men t p a t tern e x tended f ar b eyond t he l im i ts o f t he med ieva l p a t tern i n to a reas wh ich c an o n ly b e r egarded a s marg ina l . Th is t oo s treng thens t he v iew t ha t t he I ron Age p opu la t ion was much l arger t han we h ave h i ther to a l lowed .

The p oin t c an b e emphas ised b y p lo t t ing t he

B ro thwe l l e s t i ma te , t oge ther w i th a n i ncreased e s t i ma te b ased o n t he f igures d iscussed h ere , a ga ins t ag raph o f p opu la t ion c hange i n t he med ieva l a nd r ecen t p er iod ( F ig . 7 ) .

Wh ichever o f t he e ar ly c urves o ne p re fers , t he imp l ica t ion

o f a n I ron Age/Ro man p opu la t ion max i mu m i s d i f f icu l t t o g ainsay .

E ven t he

h igher e s t i ma te , wh ich wou ld e qua te t he l a te I ron Age p opu la t ion w i th t ha t o f p re-B lack D ea th B r i ta in , may we l l p rove t o b e t oo l ow . THE DYNA M ICS OF POPULATION CHANGE N o ma t ter wha t r everses t he p opu la t ion c urve s u f fered a f ter t he t h ird c ent ury A .D . t he g enera l o p in ion o f a l l wr i ters i s t ha t t he p reh is tor ic p ic ture was o ne o f c on t inuous g row th , b u t i t was b y n o means a s i mp le a r i th me t ica l i nc rease .

I f Bro thwe l l 's e s t i ma tes a re p lo t ted a mos t i n teres t ing c urve i s

p roduced ( F ig . 8 ) — ac urve wh ich imp l ies e xponen t ia l g row th .

Tha t t he r a te

o f i ncrease i n t he a c tua l n umber o f s e t t le men ts i n tensi f ied t hroughou t t he s econd h a l f o f t he f irs t mi l lenn ium B . C . i s a lso b orne o u t b y t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence b u t t he t rend i s a s y e t d i f f icu l t t o q uan ti fy w i th a ny d egree o f r e l ia bi l i ty . I t may a t f irs t s igh t s ee m s urpr is ing t ha t a n e xponen t ia l g row th r a te i s p roposed f or t h is p er iod b u t q u i te r ecen t ly , a nd u s ing a t ota l ly d i f feren t r ange o f d a ta , S nodgrass h as c onv inc ing ly d e mons tra ted a c lose ly s im i lar s i tua t ion i n A t t ica i n t he e igh th c en tury B . C . ( Snodgrass 1 977 , 1 0-13 ) . H is e xa mp le wou ld r equ ire t here t o h ave b een a n a nnua l p opu la t ion i ncrease o f 4p er c en t wh ich Wr ig ley ( 1969 , 5 4 ) wou ld a l low t o b e p oss ib le t hough r are , a n i ncrease o f 3p er c en t b e ing r egarded a s r ap id .

F igures o f t h is magn i tude h ave b een

r ecorded i n d eve loping c oun tr ies a nd a re a lso k nown t o h ave o ccurred i n n ew ly c o lon ised t err i tor ies ( B irdse l l 1 957 ).

F or c o mpar ison Wr ig ley q uo tes t he 1 5

1 0

M ILL IONS

8

6

4

, , I

. . . .• •

, , ' , • -. \ , _ , , „ , z ,,

2

- --

------ : :---1 000 BC

5 00

0

F ig . 7

5 00

1 500

1 000

AD

P opu la t ion g raph f or B r i ta in .

5 -

1 0

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1 BC

0

YEARS ( 1 ,000s )

F ig . 8

P reh is tor ic p opu la t ions i n B r i ta in ( a f ter B ro thwe l l 1 972 ) .

1 6

AD

2 000

f igure c f.1 .67 p er c en t p er a nnum ( f or 1 811-21 ) a s t he g rea tes t r a te o f i nc rease r ecorded i n B r i ta in o ver a ny t en y ear p er iod s ince c ensus r e turns h ave b een k ep t . E xponen t ia l g row th c an o n ly o ccur s o l ong a s t he c arrying c apac i ty o f t he e nv ironmen t a l lows .

Once t he p opu la t ion a pproaches t ha t c apac i ty i t s r a te

o f g row th w i l l b e s lowed b y i n terna l c ons tra in ts a nd a l og is t ic c urve w i l l r esu l t ( Fig . 9 ) .

S uch a c urve was o b ta ined e xper i men ta l ly b y P ear le work ing w i th

f ru i t f l ies ( Drosoph i la me lanogas ter ) wh ich were k ep t i n c on tro l led c ond i t ions a nd c oun ted a t r egu lar i n terva ls ( Pearle 1 925 ).

Exper i men ts o n y east ,

y ie ld ing s im i lar r esu l ts , h ave b een q uo ted b y Maynard Sm i th ( 1 974 , 1 8 ) . Bu t t he l og is t ic c urve i s a t b es t o n ly a g enera l ised model when a ppl ied t o h u man p opu la t ions .

Man 's a bi l i ty t o man ipu la te h is e nv ironmen t a nd t o s truc-

t ure h is own s oc ie ty i s l i ke ly t o d is tor t t he mode l i n a ny o ne o r more o f a v ar ie ty o f ways .

The more impor tan t o f t hese mus t n ow b e c ons idered :

a ) An Overshoo t s i tua t ion I n s o me c ases o f e xponen t ia l g row th i ti s q u i te p oss ib le t ha t ag radua l r ea d jus t men t w i l l n o t o ccur a s t he c arrying c apaci ty o f t he e nv iron men t i s r eached .

I n s uch c ases p opu la t ion w i l l p robab ly i ncrease a bove c arrying

c apac i ty w i th t he r esu l t t ha t as tress s i tua t ion w i l l b e c rea ted s u f f ic ien t t o r educe t he o vera l l p opu la t ion d ras t ica l ly a nd q u ick ly t o we l l b e low t he p oss ible max i mu m .

Th is may b e f o l lowed b y af ur ther r ise a nd f ur ther d ec l ine d e-

c reas ing i n magn i tude u n t i l a n e qu i l ibr iu m i s r eached ( F ig . 1 0 ) . Wr ig ley ( 1969 , 3 2-59 ) h as d iscussed t he mechan is m i nvo lved i n s uch a r e-ad jus t men t .

There a re p os i t ive c hecks wh ich i ncrease mor ta l i ty , s uch

a s d isease a nd ma lnu tr i t ion , a nd p reven ta t ive c hecks d es igned t o r educe f ert i l i ty , e .g . c on tracep t ion , i n fan t ic ide , l a ter marr iages e tc .

F ig . 1 1 i l lus-

t ra tes , i n s i mp le Ma l thus ian t er ms , t he s i tua t ion i ff er t i l i ty a nd mor ta l i ty d o n o t v ary .

The c arrying c apaci ty o f t he n am ta t a l lows t he p opu la t ion t o g row

t o s ize A a t wh ich p o in t p os i t ive a nd p reven ta t ive c hecks a re b rough t i n to p lay t o i ncrease mor ta l i ty a nd r educe f er t i l i ty .

Once p oin t Bi s r eached t he

p opu la t ion h as c eased t o g row a nd t herea f ter d ecl ines .

F ur ther r e-ad jus t men ts

may f o l low u n t i l t he r a tes a re s uch t ha t t he p opu la t ion r e ma ins s ta t ic . b ) T err i tor ia l i ty The p r inc ip les o f " terr i tor ia l i ty" h ave b een c ons idered b y B ar tho lo mew a nd B irdse l l i n r ela t ion t o b ird a nd ma m ma l p opu la t ions ( 1953 , 4 85 ) . B r ief ly s um mar ised t hey b e l ieve t ha t i n as i tua t ion o f p opu la t ion i ncrease l oca l p opu la t ion d ens i t ies d o n o t c on t inue t o b u i ld u p i nde fin i te ly b u t i ns tead i n terna l s oc ia l mechan is ms c o me i n to p lay wh ich f orce a s ec t ion o f t he p opul a t ion o u t i n to marg ina l s i tua t ions . o r ig ina l t err i tory i s c onserved .

I n t h is way t he r esource b ase o f t he

The d isp laced i nd iv idua ls may e i ther f a i l t o

s urv ive o r t hey may f ind a f avourable n iche i n wh ich t o d eve lop n ew c o mmun i t ies t hus e x tend ing t he r ange o f t he s pecies .

The o vera l l r esu l t o f t h is

p rocess i s t o ma in ta in a p re ferred l eve l o f p opu la tion i n t he c en tra l t err i tory wh ich i s b elow t he c arrying c apac i ty o f t he h abi ta t .

Tha t p re ferred l evel w i l l

b e a d jus ted s o a s t o p rov ide a d es ired s tandard o f l i v ing ( Tay lor 1 956 , 5 0 ). I n o ther words where , a s i n mos t h u man s ocie t ies , " terr i tor ia l i ty" i s ac ons tra in t , p opu la t ions w i l l n o t r ise t o t he c arrying c apaci ty a t s ubs is tence l eve l 1 7

- NOL LVindod

1 8 Log is t ic c urve .

NO a vindod

1 9

F er t i l ity &mor ta l i ty r a tes

F ERT IL ITY

A

P opu la t ion s ize

F ig . 1 1

D iagra m t o i l lus tra te c hanges i n mor ta l i ty a nd f er t i l i ty l eve ls l eading t o as ta t ionary p opu la t ion ( a f ter Wr ig ley ).

P opu la t ion s ize

F ig . 1 2

D iagra m t o i l lus tra te t he e f fec ts o f mor ta l i ty a nd f er t i l i ty l eve ls o f r a is ing t he h o ld ing c apac i ty o f t he e nv iron men t ( a f ter Wr ig ley 1 969 , F ig . 2 :5 ) .

2 0

b u t t o ac arrying c apaci ty g overned b y wha t s oc ie ty c ons iders t o b e am in i mu m d es irab le l eve l o f c om for t a nd l uxury . C ) . T echnolog ical i nnovation S o f ar we h ave c ons idered o n ly t hose t heoret ica l s i tua t ions i n wh ich t he c arry ing c apaci ty o f t he t err i tory r e ma ins a c ons tan t b u t c lear ly i ft ha t t hresho ld i s r a ised b y at echno log ica l o r s ocio-econo m ic i nnova t ion , t he p opul a t ion c ou ld i ncrease t o t he n ew c ei l ing .

I n s i mp le d iagra m ma t ic t er ms

( F ig . 1 2 ) B r epresen ts t he e qu i l ibr ium r eached u nder t echno logy 1 b u t w i th t he i n troduc t ion o f t echno logy 2 p os i t ive a nd p reven ta t ive c ons tra in ts a re r e moved s o t ha t f er t i l i ty c an i ncrease a nd mor ta l i ty d ecrease u n t i l t he c arrying c apaci ty u nder t he improved t echno logy i s a pproached a nd a n ew e qu i l ibr iu m a t ah igher p opu la t ion l eve l i s r eached a t C . i n d e ta i l b y B oserup ( 1 965 ) .

One a spec t o f t h is mode l h as b een d iscussed

S he c ons iders t ha t t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p opu-

l a t ion g row th a nd a gr icu l tura l d eve lop men t i s as i mp le o ne i n wh ich , a s t he p opu la t ion i ncreases , s o t echno log ica l i nnova t ions a re i n troduced i n to t he a gr ic u l tura l r eg i me l ead ing t o a n i n tensi f ica t ion i np roduc t ion .

S ince i n tens i f ica t ion

wou ld c ause a n o vera l l d rop i ny ie ld , a gr icu l tura l p ursu i ts b eco me i ncreas ing ly l abour i n tens ive .

Thus , t o B oserup , p opu la t ion p ressure c auses i nnova t ion .

We l inder ( 1975 ) h as d iscussed t h is mode l i n r e la t ion t o d e ta i led f ie ld e v idence d er ived f ro m a s a mple a rea i n E as tern S weden . The t hree mode ls b r ie f ly o u t lined a bove r e f lec t o n d i f feren t a spec ts o f t he p opu la t ion p rob le m . We may s um mar ise t he m i n t h is way . When a p opul a t ion a pproaches t he c arry ing c apaci ty o f i t s t err i tory o ne o f t hree t h ings i s l ike ly t o h appen : a ) p reven ta t ive a nd p os i t ive c hecks w i l l b e i nvoked t o r educe g row th ( t he Ma l thus ian mode l ) ; b ) t here w i l l b e em igra t ion ( t he t err i tor ia l i ty mode l ) ; c ) t here w i l l b e t echno log ica l i nnova t ion ( t he B oserup model ) . I n r ea l i ty t he i nd iv idua l s i tua t ions a re l i ke ly t o b e c o mp lex , p ar t icu lar ly i n a n a gr icu l tura l ly b ased s oc iety , a nd i t wou ld n o t b e s urpr is ing t o f ind e le men ts o f a l l t hree mode ls o pera t ing t oge ther .

Whether o r n o t t he a rchaeo log ica l

r ecord i s a dequa tely d e ta i led t o e nab le t he d i f feren t t hreads t o b e d is t ingu ished i s h owever a d eba table q ues t ion . IMPLICATIONS FOR S OUTHERN BR ITA IN I N THE F IRST MILLENNIU M B . C . S u f f icien t i s n ow k nown o f t he d evelop men t o f t he c o m mun i ties o f s ou thern Br i ta in i n t he f irs t mi l lenn iu m B . C . t o a l low t he ma jor s ocio-econo m ic c hanges o f t he p er iod t o b e d e f ined .

Three p hases a re o f p ar t icu lar s ign i f icance t o

o ur p resen t d iscuss ion : a ) C . 1 000-600 B . C .

The i n troduc t ion o f a more i n tens ive mode o f

f ar m ing i nvo lv ing t he i ncreas ing u se o f w in ter-sown c rops s uch a s h u l led b ar ley a nd s pe l t ( He lbaek 1 953 ) .

The d eve lop men t o f h i l l top

e nc losures a t t h is t ime may r e la te t o t he n eed o f s ocie ty t o c o l lec t a nd s tore i t s s urp lus ( an i ma ls a nd g ra in ) i n af or ma l ised manner f or r e-d is tr ibu t ion ( Cun l i f fe 1 976 b , 3 46-7) .

2 1

b ) c . 4 00-100 B . C . The emergence o f s trong ly d e fended h i l l-for ts a s c en tra l p laces i n we l l d e f ined t err i tor ies . These " deve loped h i l lf or ts" imp ly t he c oercive c on tro l o f s ocie t ies ' s urp lus i n t he i n teres ts o f c o m muna l d e fence .

They p rov ided s erv ices , i nc lud ing t he r e-

d is tr ibu t ion a nd t he manu facture o f aw ide r ange o f c o m mod i t ies ( Cun li f fe 1 976 b , 1 36-141) .

I t wou ld a ppear t ha t i t was n o t u n t i l

t owards t he e nd o f t h is p er iod t ha t i ron c a me i n to c o m mon u se . c ) 1 00 B . C . t o A .D . 4 3.

The d eve lop men t o f l ong d is tance t rade w i th

G au l a nd l a ter w i th t he R o man wor ld , t hrough p or ts-o ftrade l i ke H eng is tbury H ead a nd Moun t B a t ten , l ead ing t o t he c rea t ion o f n ew " enc losed o ppida" d om ina t ing ma jor r ou te-ways ( Cun l i f fe 1 976 b , 1 42-156;

1 978 b , 6 1-81 ).

A l though i t wou ld b e t oo o ver-s i mp le t o r egard t hese d eve lop men ts s o le ly a s t he r esu l t ( or c ause ) o f p opu la t ion c hanges , e qua l ly i t wou ld b e wrong t o d eny t he p oss ib i l i ty , i ndeed t he p robabi l i ty , o f s o me k ind o f r ela t ionsh ip .

The

f irs t g roup o f c hanges , wh ich i nvo lved t he i n tensi f ica t ion o f f ood p roduc t ion , wou ld u ndoub ted ly h ave i ncreased t he h old ing c apaci ty o f t he l and a nd t hus wou ld h ave a l lowed t he s a me t err i tory t o a cco m moda te a l arger p opu la t ion . S uch p roduc t ion modes wou ld h owever h ave b een l abour i n tens ive a nd t hus a re more l i ke ly t o h ave r esu l ted f ro m p opu la t ion p ressure t han t o h ave o ccurred n a tura l ly w i thou t s t i mu lus .

Once t he e cono my h ad r e-ad jus ted t o t he n ew

r eg i me t here was l i t t le f ur ther s cope f or s ign i f ican t ly improved p roduc t iv i ty . I ndeed t he l eve l o f p roduct ion i s n o t l ike ly t o h ave c hanged n o t iceably u n t i l t he a gr icu l tura l r evo lu t ion b eg inn ing i n t he s ix teen th c en tury A .D . The s econd p hase o f c hange ( 9 _ . 4 00-100 B . C .) — t he emergence o f s trong ly d e fended c en tra l p laces — c ou ld v ery we l l b e e xp la ined i n t er ms o f t he mode l o f t err i tor ia l i ty .

Wh i le t he d eve loped h i l l for ts d o s ee m t o h ave p rov ided a n

improved mechan is m f or e xchange , a nd t he more w idespread u se o f i ron m igh t h ave f aci l i ta ted a l eve l o f i ncreased p roduc t ion , t hus a l low ing s o me p opu la t ion r ise , t he emphas is o n d e Tence a nd war fare wh ich n ow b eco mes e v iden t i s s ugges t ive o f as oc ie ty i n as ta te o f s tress s uch a s migh t we l l h ave o ccurred when p opu la t ion g row th a pproached c arry ing c apac i ty .

War fare a nd h u man

s acr i f ice , b o th we l l a t tes ted i n t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd l i terary e v idence , may b e s een a s mechan is ms f or a r t i f ic ia l ly r a is ing t he mor ta l i ty r a te .

Whe ther

o r n o t " co lon ies" were b e ing s e t u p i n marg ina l a reas , t o r e l ieve p ressures ( and a l low t he l i v ing s tandard o f t hose o ccupying t he p re ferred t err i tory t o b e main ta ined ) , i s more d i f f icu l t t o d e ter m ine o np resen t e v idence , b u t i n s everal a reas s e t t le men ts b e long ing t o t h is p hase a ppear o n l and wh ich migh t p rev ious ly h ave b een r egarded a s marg ina l , i n t he Wea ld , o n t he b ou lder c lays o f N or tha mp tonsh ire , o n t he c lays o f E ssex a nd o n t he c ha lk u p lands o f Wessex i n a reas h i ther to u nse t t led .

T he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence w ou ld , t here fore ,

s ee m t o s uppor t t he v iew t ha t t he p opu la t ion h ad i ncreased t o c r is is p oin t b y t he s econd c en tury B .C. The s ocia l a nd e cono m ic c hanges wh ich were i n p rogress c an t hus n ea t ly b e e xp la ined b y t he mode l o f t err i tor ia l i ty . I t was a t t h is p oin t , s oon a f ter 1 00 B .C ., t ha t a n e x tens ive p a t tern o f o verseas t rade s udden ly c a me i n to b eing a s ap re lude t o t he d eve lop men t o f a f u l l s ca le u rban e cono my ( Cun l i f fe 1 978 a , 3 37-342) .

U rban isa t ion wou ld

a l mos t c er ta in ly h ave r e lieved p ressures a nd wou ld h ave h ad t he e f fec t o f

2 2

c o 0

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u i o o

T echno log ica l a nd r ed is tr ibu t iona l i mp rovemen t

S tress

A

Ove rseas t rade l ead ing t o u rban iza t ion

F ig . 1 3

Mode l t o d e f ine t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween p opu la t ion g row th a nd s oc io-econo m ic c hange i n S ou thern Br i ta in .

2 3

r a is ing t he c arrying c apac i ty o f t he l and t o an ew l eve l , b u t i tc anno t b e a rgued t ha t , i n t h is c ase , t he u rban mode d eve loped a s t he r esu l t o f p opu la t ion p ressure .

I n a l l p robabi l i ty t he impe tus c a me f ro m t he C on t inen t ( Cun l i f fe

1 978 b , 1 42-156 ) .

N ever the less t he e f fec t was t he s a me .

The s ocia l s truc-

t ures o f t he e ar lier s ys te m ( represen ted b y t he d eve loped h i l l for ts ) , were f or t he mos t p ar t a bandoned a nd a n ew p a t tern o f s e t t le men ts emerged .

Tha t

f ar ms teads were n o l onger s trong ly d e fended i s a n i nd ica t ion o f l ess war l ike c ond i t ions .

I t was u pon t h is d eve lop men t t ha t t he R o man i nvas ion o f A .D . 4 3

imposed i t se l f i n troduc ing n ew f ac tors wh ich c anno t h ere b e d iscussed . F ig . 1 3 i s a n a t te mp t t o s um u p t h is s i mpl i f ied mode l i n d iagra m f orm . On b a lance i t s ee ms f a ir t o a rgue t ha t a gr icu l tura l improve men t a nd p opu la tion d eve loped i np ara l le l d ur ing t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f irs t m i l lenn ium , p opu la t ion i ncrease e ncourag ing t he e vo lu t ion o f n ew f ar m ing r eg i mes .

Al i t t le l a ter t he

i n troduc t ion o f i ron a nd t he c rea t ion o f c en tres f or e xchange o f fered f ur ther s cope f or i ncrease b u t s oon a c r is is s i tua t ion was r eached wh ich l ed t o al ong p er iod o f s tress .

Th is was f ina l ly r e l ieved when e x terna l f orces d rew B r i ta in

i n to a s ys te m o f l ong d is tance t rade wh ich s oon l ed t o t he e vo lu t ion o f a n u rban e cono my a l low ing s cope f or p opu la t ion g row th o nce more . The mode l i s , o f c ourse , ag ross s i mp l i f ica t ion b u t i th as t he a dvan tage o f c on ta in ing t he k nown f ac ts a nd f ocus ing a t ten t ion o n q ues t ions d eserv ing f ur ther i nves t iga t ion . r e levance .

There were , n o d oub t , many o ther f ac tors o f p oten t ia l

C li ma t ic d e ter iora t ion l ead ing t o t he a bandon men t o f u p land f ar ms

i n t he Wes t a nd N or th , l and e xhaus t ion , a nd t he i n f lux o f n ew s e t t lers f ro m t he C on t inen t , w i l l h ave p layed a s ign i f ican t p ar t i n t he d yna m ic s i tua t ion u nder c ons idera t ion . S i mp ly t o l i s t t hese f ac tors i s ar em inder t ha t t he s oc ioe cono m ic s i tua t ion mus t h ave v ar ied f ro m o ne p ar t o f B r i ta in t o a no ther a nd t ha t t he d eve lop men ts were i m mense ly c o mp lex .

E ven i n t he s ou th-eas t

where t he e v idence i s a t i t s b es t we a re u n l ike ly e ver t o b e a b le t o u nders tand more t han t he g enera l t rends .

N one the less i ti s o n ly b y a sk ing q ues t ions o f

p opu la t ion a nd p opu la t ion g row th t ha t we w i l l b e a ble t o b eg in t o u nders tand t he f orces a t work b eh ind t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic c hanges wh ich man i fes t t he mse lves i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .

2 4

BU ILD INGS AND S ETTLE MENTS I N S OUTH-EAST BR ITAIN I N THE LATE I RON AGE Warwick R odwe l l

A l though t he r a ter I ron Age i n t he S ou th-Eas t h as b een o ne o f t he mos t i n tens ive ly s tud ied s ub jec ts i n Br i t ish a rchaeo logy t here a re , n ever the less , s o me s ign i f ican t l acunae i n t he d iscuss ions t o d a te .

Oppida , d ykes , c e me-

t er ies a nd a r ti fac ts h ave a l l r ece ived c ons iderab le a t ten t ion , b u t v i l lages , f ar ms teads a nd , i np ar t icu lar , b u i ld ings , h ave y e t t o b e t he s ub jec t o f e x tended d iscuss ion .

The p urpose o f t h is s hor t p aper i s t o f ocus a t ten t ion o n s o me o f

t hese d e f iciencies a nd t o s ugges t a reas o f s tudy i n wh ich a dvances migh t b e made . The p er iod u nder c ons idera t ion h ere i s t he l as t t wo c en tur ies o f t he I ron Age , a nd t he a rea c oncerned i s t ha t p ar t o f S ou th-Eas t B r i ta in wh ich , o n p o l it ica l ly a nd n um is ma t ica l ly b ased a rgu men ts , h as b een t er med ' Be lg ic ' ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , F ig . 1 0 ) .

The ma ter ia l u nder d iscuss ion i s b es t r e ferred t o a s ' l a te

I ron Age ' r a ther t han ' Be lg ic ' a t t h is s tage , i n o rder n o t t o p re jud ice i t s c u l tura l a f f in i t ies . S ETTLE MENT S TRUCTURE S e t t le men ts h ave b een d iv ided i n to s even b road c a tegor ies , w i th a n a l lowance f or c ons iderab le o ver lap ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 2 92-3 ) .

The d iv is ions h ave b een

b ased o n ac o mbina t ion o f g eograph ica ll o ca t ion , g ross s e t t le men t a rea , p rov is ion o f d efences , e v idence r e la t ing t o f unc t ion o r s ta tus , a nd a r t i fac t y ie lds . The mos t o bv ious om iss ion f ro m t h is l i s t i s a ny r e ference t o t he i n terna l l ayo u t o f t he s e t tle men ts , whe ther l arge o r sma l l .

Ou ts ide t he r eg ion , e xcava tion

i s n ow y ie lding d e tai led e v idence f or t he i n terna l l ayou t o f h i l l for ts ( e .g . Danebury , H an ts .:

C un l i f fe 1 971 a nd 1 976 ;

G u i lber t 1 975 ) , a nd i n E ssex t he

p lans o f u nde fended s e t t le men ts o f t he midd le I ron Age c an b e s tud ied i n t wo i ns tances : Muck ing ( Jones 1 968 , 1 974 ) a nd L i t t le Wa l tha m ( Drury , v . s upra ). Wha t , t hen , c an b e s a id a bou t t he p hys ica l f ea tures , e xclud ing d efences , o f l a te I ron Age s e t t le men ts? E xcava tors , b o th o f ma jor s i tes ( e .g . C a mu lodunu m o r V eru la m ium ) a nd a l l g rades o f l esser s i te , h ave n ear ly a lways b een d isappoin ted b y t he q ua l i ty a nd i n te l l ig ibi l i ty o f t he s truc tura l r e ma ins . f o l low ing :

These f requen t ly c o mpr ise t he

s preads o f c lay , g rave l o r c ha lk , u sua l ly o f i rregu lar f or m ;

a

modes t n umber o f p os tho les , s e ldo m i n a n a rrange men t wh ich s ugges ts a s ubs tan t ia l b u i ld ing ;

s hor t l eng ths o f g u l ly wh ich may h in t a t c ircu lar o r s ub-

c ircu lar e nc lo k tres ; o ther g u l l ies wh ich may b e s tra igh t a nd may o ccas iona l ly mee t a t r igh t-ang les ; c o mp lex i n tersec t ions o f d i tches , wh ich f o l low b o th s tra igh t a nd s inuous c ourses ; we l ls ;

h o l lows a nd p i ts o r i rregu lar f or m ;

s ha l low

a nd t he o ccas iona l c re ma t ion b ur ia l , u sua l ly p oor ly f urn ished .

2 5

Th is

i s t ypica l o f t he e v idence d er ived f ro m e xcava t ion o n many s i tes , s uch a s Ke lvedon o r Wick ford , E ssex . E xpress ly , wha t i s u sua l ly a bsen t i s c lear e v idence f or r ound-houses o r o ther r ead i ly d ec ipherable c lasses o f s ubs tan tia l b u i ld ing , a nd p i ts o f r egu lar f or m .

I ti s t here fore n o t s urpr is ing t ha t e xcava tors h ave s e ldo m

a t te mp ted d iscuss ion o f t he p hys ica l s truc ture a nd d yna m ics o f l a te I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n S ou th-Eas t B r i ta in .

B u t i s t he e v idence r ea l ly a s p oor a s i t

f irs t a ppears? THE I DENT IFICAT ION OF BU ILDINGS The p rob le ms r e la t ing t o t he i den t i f ica t ion o f l a te I ron Age b u i ld ings may b e b rough t i n to f ocus b y s e t t ing t he m a ga ins t t he b ackground o f wha t i s k nown a bou t t he g enera l d eve lop men t o f I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n t he S ou th E as t .

B o th

Mr . Drury ( v . s upra ) a nd t he wr i ter ( Rodwe l l 1 976b ) h ave d iscussed s e t t le men t i n E ssex i n t he e ar ly a nd midd le I ron Age a nd h ave s hown t ha t t here were b oth o pen a nd e nc losed s e t t le men ts i n wh ich t he h ouse f or m was b as ica l ly c ircu lar . A t L i t t le Wa l tha m t he e nc losed s e t t le men t was s hown t o h ave s uperseded t he o pen ;

t he s a me migh t p rove t o b e t rue a t Muck ing .

There , t he e nclosed f or m

o f s et t le men t i s we l l d e mons tra ted b y s evera l e xa mp les , e ach o f wh ich h as t he a ppearance o f a n i nd iv idua l f ar ms tead , ( F ig . 1 A , J ones 1 974 , 1 89 ) . The emphas is i nt he m idd le I ron Age was u pon c ircu lar h ouses i n s ub-rec tangu lar e nc losures , o f ten w i th s ub-c ircu lar c o mpounds a t tached .

I n many a reas o f

B r i ta in t h is r ead i ly d e f inab le s e t t le men t t ype c on t inued n ot o n ly d own t o t he R o man p er iod , b u t i n s o me c ases r igh t t hrough i t .

Th is d oes n o t a ppear t o

h ave b een t he c ase i n s ou th-eas t B r i ta in , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c oun t ies o f E ssex , H er tfordsh ire a nd n or th K en t .

Mrs . J ones ( 1 974 , 1 90 ) h as s hown t ha t t he

c ircu lar h ouse a nd i t s a t tached c o mpounds d id n ot r e ma in a d om inan t f ea ture o f t he l andscape a t Muck ing i n t he l a te I ron Age a nd R o man p er iods .

A l though

t here were s t i l l e nc losures a nd s truc tures o f s ub-c ircu lar f or m , t hey a re i n terpre ted p r i mar i ly a s s heep f o lds a nd a n i ma l p ens a nd n ot a s h ouses .

Tha t

d o mes t ic o ccupa t ion c on t inued o n t he Muck ing h i l l top b eyond t he e nd o f t he I ron Age i s n o t i n d oubt , a nd Mrs . J ones h as s ugges ted t ha t s o me r ec tangu lar g u l l ies , a ssocia ted w i th r ec t i l inear e nc losures , migh t mark t he s i tes o f ' Be lg ic ' h ouses ( Jones 1 974 , 1 90 ) .

L arge r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings d ef ined b y

p os tho les h ave a lso b een r epor ted ( Jones a nd J ones 1 975 , 1 90 ) ; t hese meas ured 1 0 b y 7m a nd 2 3 b y 1 0 m , b u t p ubl ished p lans a re n ot y e t a va i lab le . O ther e xcava t ions , i nd iv idua l ly more l im i ted i n e x ten t t han Muck ing , b u t c u mu la t ive ly h igh ly s ign i f ican t ,h ave d e mons tra ted t he a pparen t l ack o f b u i ld ings wh ich c ou ld r easonab ly b e d escr ibed a s c ircu lar h ouses , f or e xa mp le , a t C a mu lodunum ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 ) , V eru la m iu m ( Whee ler a nd Whee ler 1 936) , C an terbury ( i n f . S . S . F rere ) ; Welwyn , G rea t C hes ter ford ( i n f . l a te J .G .S . B r inson ) , Ke lvedon ( i n f . K . A . R odwe l l ) , W ick ford ( unpub l ished , W.J .R .) a nd F aversha m ( Ph i lp 1 968 ) , t o l i s t b u t af ew o f t he b e t ter k nown i ns tances . I n a l l t hese c ases e xcava t ion h as y ie lded a bundan t a r ti fac tua l e v id ence f or d o mes t ic o ccupa t ion i n t he l a te I ron Age , a nd i n o ne o r t wo i ns tances a n a t te mp t h as b een made t o f orce a c ircu lar h u t o n t o as ec t ion o f c urved g u l ly o r o ther f ea tures :

e .g . t he c ircu lar h ol low a nd d oub t fu l p os tho les u nder

t he v i l la a t L ock leys , We lwyn , H er ts . h ave b een i n terpre ted a s e v idence f or a' Be lg ic ' r ound h u t ( Ward-Perk ins 1 938 ) .

2 6

I n t he l i gh t o f p resen t k now ledge

t his ma ter ia l i s u naccep table a s e v idence e i ther f or a b u i ld ing o r ad wel l ing . I ts hou ld n o t b e p er m i t ted t o c on fuse t he s tudy o f I ron Age h ouses a ny l onger . On t he c on trary , when a t ten t ion i s t urned t o t he f r inges o f wha t h as b een d escr ibed a s t he B e lg ic a rea o f B r i ta in ( Rodwe l l 1 976a ) e xa mp les o f u nequ iv oca l c ircu lar h ouses may b e f ound wh ich a re a ss ignable t o t he l a te I ron Age . Ag ood e xa mp le h as b een r ecorded a t Or ton L onguev i l le , n ear P e terborough , where t hree c ircu lar h ouses l ay w i th in a s ub-rectangu lar e nc losure , Da l las .1975 ) .

( F ig . 1B ,

S im i lar ly , a t Wybos ton , B eds ., t wo c ircu lar h ouses h ave b een

r ecorded i ns ide a s ub-rec tangu lar e nc losure d a ted t o t he l a te I ron Age , 1 C , T ebbu t t 1 957 ) .

( F ig .

A t tached t o t he e nc losures were s evera l f ie lds o r p addocks

o f t o lerab ly r egu lar f or m , t o wh ich marked ly r ec t i l inear e x tens ions were made i nt he R o man p er iod . Enough i s n ow k nown o f c ircu lar s tructures i n S ou th-Eas t Br i ta in t o a sser t w i th r easonab le c onf idence t ha t d eep ly c u t g u l l ies o f c ircu lar , s ub-circu lar o r p olygona l f or m a re t o b e e xpec ted a s t he n or m i n t he e ar ly a nd midd le I ron Age .

These f ea tures a re n o t e as i ly d es troyed b y a gr icu l ture o r o ver looked

d ur ing e xcava t ion a nd i ti s t hus p laus ib le t o d educe t ha t where t hey h ave c ons is ten t ly f a i led t o a ppear i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord t hey a re e i ther a bsen t o r a t l eas t r e la t ive ly r are .

The c onc lus ion wh ich i s f orced u pon u s i s t ha t

i n E ssex , H er ts ., n or th K en t a nd p erhaps o ther a d join ing a reas a f or m o f c ons truc t ion was u sed i n t he l a te I ron Age wh ich a l lowed b u i ld ings t o s t and o n t he g round s ur face o r t o h ave o n ly v ery s ha l low f ounda t ions .

I f bu i ld ings c on-

t inued t o b e o f c ircu lar p lan s o me f or m o f mass-cons truc t ion i s impL ied , e .g . c ob wa l l ing .

Mr . Drury h as h owever a rgued c onvincing ly t ha t a t Ut t le Wa l tha m

a move men t t owards f ra med t imber c ons truc t ion c an b e d e tected .

S hou ld we

n o t t here fore b e l ook ing f or p ar t ly o r f u l ly f ra med b u i ld ings , p robab ly o f r ect i l inear r a ther t han c ircu lar f or m?

Th is q ues t ion h as b een u nder a c t ive c on-

s idera t ion d ur ing e xcava t ions i n E ssex f or t he l as t d ecade , a nd i ti s n ow o ppor tune t o o pen t he d iscuss ion o f e v idence wh ich b ears o n t he p rob le m . RECT ILINEAR BU ILDINGS T he c oncep t o f r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings i n t he Br i t ish I ron Age h as r ecen t ly b een d iscussed b y H ard ing ( 1 973 a nd 1 974 , c h . 3 ) , a l though h e made l i t t le r e ference t o t he l a t ter p ar t o f t he p er iod .

On t he o ne h and , h e a sked t he

p er t inen t q ues t ion ' shou ld we a t tr ibu te t he l ack o f r ec tangu lar h ouses i n g reat er n umbers i n B r i ta in s o le ly t o ad e f iciency i n f i eld t echn iques?'

( Hard ing

1 974 , 5 3 ) , a nd o n t he o ther h and h e s ee ms t o a ccep t t ha t t he c ircu lar h o l low u nder t he L ock leys v i l la ( F ig . 3 ) a nd t he c ur ious l i t t le ' hu ts ' a t C a mu lodunu m were h ouses ...

" Be lg ic" s truc tures wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een e ven l ess

s oph is t ica ted t han t he ir n a t ive p redecessors ' ( Hard ing 1 974 , 5 3 ) . The e v idence f or l arge r ec tangu lar h ouses i n t he e ar ly a nd midd le I ron Age i n B r i ta in i s s t i l l n o tor ious ly e lus ive . R ec tangu lar bu i ld ings o f more modes t p ropor t ions a re , h owever , f ar f ro m r are , a s H ard ing h as p oin ted o u t ( 1 973 , 5 6-9 ) , a l though t he ir r ecogn i t ion i n t he S ou th E as t h as b een s low . R ec t i l inear s truc tures a re d iv ided h ere i n to s ix g roups f or d iscuss ion .

2 7

-

A

0

F ig . 1

50

P lans o f f ar ms teads a t Muck ing , Or ton L onguev i l le a nd Wybos ton .

2 8

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F ig . 3

4b

1 0 m .

P lans o f l ong r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings a t C an terbury , Wick ford , L ock leys a nd P ark S tree t .

2 9

GROUP 1 :

Sma l l R ec tangu lar B u i ld ings

Bu i ld ings o f t h is g roup a re l ess t han 1 0 m i n l eng th a nd c o m mon ly e xh ibi t al eng th-to-w id th r a t io o f a bou t 2 :1.

Their f loor a reas r ange f ro m j us t u nder

1 5 m2 t o 3 0 m 2 ,a nd i n d a te t hey s pan f ro m t he I ron Age .

The f o l low ing

i l lus tra te t he t ype . F ig .

2 .1

A l l C ann ings C ross , Wi l ts .;

2 .2

i bid .;

S i te G .

2 .3

i b id .;

S i te F . S i te D .

S i te B ( Cu rm ing ton 1 923 ) .

2 .4a a nd 4 b

i b id .;

2 .6

i b id .;

S i te C .

S hown i n c orrec t j ux ta-pos i t ion .

2 .9

Muck ing , E ssex ( Jones 1 974 ) .

2 .10 2 .11

P ark S tree t , S t . A lbans , H er ts . ( O 'Nei l 1 945 ) . i b id .

2 .12

C a mu lodunu m , C o lches ter , E ssex ;

2 .13

F enga te , C a mbs .;

2 .17

Kes ton , K en t ( Ph i lp 1 970 ).

S i te D 10 ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 ) .

Bu i ld ing 2 ( Pryor 1 976 ) .

The s truc tures a t A l l C ann ings C ross a nd K es ton b e long t o t he e ar ly I ron Age , wh i le t he r e ma inder a re a ss ignab le t o t he l a te I ron Age .

The f loors a t A l l

C ann ings C ross a nd P ark S tree t were o f c ha lk r ubb le , a nd o f c lay a t C a mu lod unu m .

I n e ach c ase t he f loor r epresen ts t he p lan o f t he i n ter ior o f t he b u i ld ing

a nd t here a re n o r ecorded t races o f wa l ls :

t hese r es ted d irec t ly o n t he g round

s ur face a nd were e i ther f u l ly f ra med t imber c ons truc t ions , o r o f a ma ter ia l s uch a s c ob . The f or mer s ee ms t he more l ike ly i n v iew o f t he f ac t t ha t n o e v idence i s r ecorded f or c lay o r c ob wa l l ing a nd s uch a b u lk o f wa l l ing ma ter ia l c an h ard ly h ave d isappeared w i thou t t race .

P os tho les f or i n terna l f ix tures c an

b e s een i n n os . 1a nd 1 0 , a nd t wo h ear ths were p resen t i n n o . 1 1.

The s uper-

impos i t ion o f o ne b u i ld ing o n t he s i te o f a no ther c an b e s een i n n o . 6 , wh i le 4 a a nd 4 b r epresen t e i ther a d oub le b u i ld ing o r t he r ep lace men t o f o ne b u i ld ing b y a no ther a longs ide . The s harp ly r ec tangu lar f or m o f t he b u i ld ings i n t he ir o r ig ina l s ta te i s s hown b y n os . 1 , 1 1 a nd 1 2 . Where t he c orners o f t he f loors a ppear we l l r ounded ( espec ia l ly n o . 2 ) t h is i s l ike ly t o b e d ue t o d a mage t o t hese v u lnerab le p ar ts a t o r a f ter t he t ime o f d e mo li t ion .

There

c an b e l i t t le b as is f or i ns is t ing t ha t s o me o f t hese b u i ld ings were s ub-rec tangu lar . I n s evera l b u i ld ings t he p os i t ion o f t he e n trance i s r evea led b y t he f ac t t ha t t he f loor h as b een worn away i nt he t hresho ld a rea .

I nb o th n os . 3a nd 4 b t he

e n trance wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een i n o ne o f t he l ong s ides , a d jacen t t o a c orner .

A s im i lar a rrange men t c an b e s een i n F ig . 4 :6 , where t he e n trance

was a pparen t ly a bou t a me tre f ro m t he c orner .

I n a l l t hree c ases a n e n trance

w id th o f c . 1 .0 t o 1 .5 m i s imp l ied , n or th f acing . Bu i ld ing n o . 1 7 i s i ncomp le te ly k nown a nd d e f ined o n ly b y t he p os tho les o f i ts wa l ls , wh i le n o . 1 3 , wh ich i s a lso i nco mp le te , i s r ecorded b y i t s wa l l t renches a nd p os tho les . h ere .

Ap os t-in-trench f or m o f c ons truc t ion s ee ms l ikely

The p resumed i n terna l f loor a rea i s a l mos t t he s a me a s t ha t f or n o . 1 2.

Bu i ld ing n o . 9i s o ne o f s evera l l a ter I ron Age s truc tures o f wa l l-trench t ype a t Muck ing . GROUP 2 :

Sma l l S quare Bu i ld ings

Bu i ld ings i n t h is g roup a re a l l s quare , o r n ear ly s o , h av ing i n terna l meas ure men ts o f u p t o c . 5 m.

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C o mpara t ive p lans o f sma l l s quare a nd r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings i n s ou thern B r i ta in .

3 1

F ig .

2 .5

A l l C ann ings C ross , Wi l ts .;

2 .7

i b id .;

2 .8 2 .14

i b id . D anebury , H an ts .;

2 .16

i b id .

S i te H ( Cunn ing ton 1 923 ) .

S i te I . S 19 ( Cun l i f fe 1 976 ) .

T he b u i ld ings f ro m A l l C ann ings C ross r epresen t t he e x tre mes o f t h is g roup , n o . 5h av ing a f l oor a rea o f 3 0 m2 a nd n o . 8o n ly 2 .25 m 2 . I n c ons truc t ion t hese a re s im i lar t o b u i ld ings o f G roup 1 f ro m t he s a me s i te , a l though t here i s n o e v idence f or t he p os i t ions o f e n trances .

B u i ld ing n os . 1 4 a nd 1 6 a re

d ef ined b y t renches f or t imber wa l ls , wh ich a re d iscon t inuous a t t he e n trances . The i n terna l f loor a rea o f n o . 1 6 i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f n o . 8 .

The s quare

b u i ldings a t D anebury a re o f l a te I ron Age d a te , a nd h ave b een c o mpared t o t he r e l ig ious s truc ture a t H ea throw , L ondon ( Cun l i f fe 1 976 , 2 10 ) .

T he H ea th-

r ow ' t e mp le ' i s a nother e xa mple o f t h is g roup , b u t i ti s o f e ar ly o r midd le I ron Age d a te ( Gr i mes 1 961 ). GROUP 3 :

L arge S quare Bu i ld ings

Th is g roup c o mpr ises s truc tures o f a bou t 8t o 1 0 m s quare . F ig .

2 .15

Danebury , H an ts .;

2 .18

H ornchurch , E ssex ;

2 .19

i b id .;

S 18 ( Cun l i f fe 1 976 ) . Bu i ld ing C ( Marsha l l 1 963 ) .

Bu i ld ing D .

The Danebury b u i ld ing , wh ich b e longs t o t he l a te I ron Age , was d ef ined b y i t s wa l ls o f p os t-in-trench c ons truc t ion .

There was a n i n terna l p os t-bu i l t p ar-

t i t ion , d iv id ing t he b u i ld ing i n to t wo n ear ly e qua l p ar ts ; e n trance i s p robab le i n o ne s ide .

as ing le o f f-cen tre

The t wo n ear-square b u i ld ings a t H orn-

c hurch a re r ecorded o n ly f ro m a n i nco mple te p a t tern o f p os tho les ;

n o d irec t ly

a ssoc ia ted d a t ing e v idence was f ound , a nd t hey may b e e i ther l a te I ron Age o r e ar ly R o man . GROUP 4 :

The mean f l oor a rea o f t he G roup 3b u i ldings i s c . 7 5 m 2.

Med iu m t o L arge R ec tangu lar Bu i ld ings

Th is g roup i nc ludes a l l s tructures wh ich a re more t han 1 0 m i n l eng th . The mos t n o table b u i ld ings i n B r i ta in a re t he C r ick ley H i l l l onghouses ( D ixon 1 976 ) .

Wh i le b u i ldings o f a is le-pos t t ype s uch a s t hese a re a s y e t u nrecogn ised

w i th c er ta in ty i n s ou th-eas t B r i ta in ( a l though t hey may h ave b een f ound a t Muck ing , F ig . 1 ) , r ec tangu lar h ouses o f modes t s ize a re n o t l ack ing i n t he l a te I ron Age .

A l though t he e x is tence o f s o me h as b een k nown f or a n umber

o f y ears , i ti s u n for tuna te t ha t t he g roup a s a who le h as r ece ived n o d iscuss ion h i ther to .

I n a l l c ases t he p lans a re f rag men tary , e i ther a s ar esu l t o f e xca-

v a t ion o n t oo sma l l as ca le , o r o n a ccoun t o f p ar t ia l d es truc t ion b y l a ter f ea tures . T he t wo b es t p reserved o f t hese b u i ld ings h ave b een f ound i n e xcava t ions a t C an terbury a nd Wick ford , E ssex .

The C an terbury b u i ld ing ( F ig . 3 :1) was

e xcava ted b y P ro f . S . S . F rere i n Wh i teha l l R oad , where i t was f ound s ea led b enea th t he me ta l l ing o f t he C laud ian Wa t l ing S tree t . 1 3 m a nd i t s w id th was C . 7m o vera l l .

I n l eng th i te xceeded

One l ong a nd o ne s hor t s ide c o mpr ised

ac on t inuous t rench f or t imber wa l ls , wh i le t he o ther l ong s ide a ppears t o h ave b een f or med b y p os ts s e t i n i nd iv idua l p os tho les .

T he Wick ford

e xcava ted b y t he wr i ter i n 1 971 , was 1 5 m l ong a nd o f u nknown w id th ( F ig . 3 :2 ) . 3 2

The c on t inuous wa l l t rench was c . 3 0 cm w ide a nd o f s im i lar d ep th .

One

c orner o f ab u i ld ing o f s im i lar c ons truc t ion was r ecorded a t R ivenha l l , E ssex , a lso i n 1 971 ( no t i l lus tra ted ;

R odwe l l a nd R odwe l l , f or thco m ing ).

Two l a te I ron Age b u i ld ings s ea led b enea th t he v i l la a t P ark S tree t , S t . A lbans , h ave a lready b een n o ted ( F ig . 3 ) a nd a t l eas t t wo more c an b e s een i np ar t , s uper i mposed o ne u pon t he o ther ( O 'Nei l 1 945 , F ig . 2 ) . The f irs t was t he c orner o f ab u i ld ing o f Wick ford t ype ( F ig . 3 :4a ) , a nd t he s econd was ac layf loored b u i ld ing w i th wa l ls p oss ib ly o f p os t-and-p lank c ons truc t ion . I ft he h ear th l ay n ear t he c en tre , t hen t h is b u i ld ing wou ld h ave b een i n t he o rder o f 1 4 m b y 6m ( Fig . 3 :4b ) . A t V eru la m ium , i n t he a rea o f t he B e lg ic min t d ebr is ( i nsu la XVI I ) , P rof . Frere r ecorded t he r igh t-ang led c orner o f at imber wa l l t rench e nc los ing a c ha lk f l oor ;

s ince a s im i lar c ha lk f loor w i th a we l l d e f ined e dge was f ound

j us t ' ou ts ide ' t h is a ng le i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he b u i ld ing h ad a t l eas t t wo r oo ms ( Frere f or thco m ing ) . L ock leys , We lwyn , h as u n for tuna te ly b eco me a t ype-s i te i n t he d iscuss ion o f B e lg ic b u i ld ings , o n a ccoun t o f t he sma l l c ircu lar d epress ion ( . 3 .5 m a cross ) wh ich was r ecorded b enea th t he v i l la ( Ward P erk ins 1 938 , p l . LX .X ) , b u t i tc anno t r ea l is t ica l ly b e s een a s a' Be lg ic h u t ' a ny l onger ( F ig . 3 ) ; c ou ld p erhaps b e t he s i te o f a n a n i ma l p en .

i t

More s ign i f ican t , h owever , was

ab ur ied s oi l c on ta in ing l a te I ron Age p o t tery , wh ich was r ecorded u nder much o f t he v i l la b u i ld ing .

The e xcava tor s ugges ted t ha t t here h ad b een a ' second

B elg ic h ouse ' o n t he s i te , a nd e ven p roposed t ha t i tm igh t h ave b een o f r ect angu lar f or m ( Ward P erk ins 1 938 , 3 42-3 ). I n t h is c onnec t ion a t ten t ion may b e d rawn t o t he c ha lk r ubb le f loor ( i b id ., p l . LX IX , l ayer 2 ) s ea led b elow t he s ou th-wes t s ide o f t he v i l la .

A l though much d is turbed b y l a ter work a nd n o t

a dequa te ly d iscussed i n t he p ub l ished r epor t , i ti s n o t i n d oubt t ha t t he f loor a n teda ted t he v i l la , b e ing c u t b y i t s p r i mary f ron t wa l l .

There i s t hus e very

l ike l ihood t ha t t he f loor was p art o f ar ec tangu lar t imber-fra med b u i ld ing o f t he l a te I ron Age o r e ar ly R o man p er iod . i s n o t r ecorded .

I ti s r egret table t ha t i t s f u l l e x ten t

Ano ther f ea ture f or wh ich n o s a t is fac tory e xp lana t ion h as

b een a dvanced , a nd wh ich may b e p ar t o f t he b u i ld ing i n q ues t ion , i s t he r ow o f n ine f l in t p os t-pads wh ich were s e t i n to t he c ha lk f loor .

These p ads h ave

h i ther to b een r egarded a s s uppor ts f or v eranda p os ts a ssocia ted w i th t he f irs t p hase o f t he v i l la .

Th is i n terpreta t ion i s s o improbable t ha t i t s hou ld

b e r e jec ted o u tr igh t , f or a t l eas t t hree r easons .

F irs t , t he r ow o f p os t-pads

d id n o t e x tend a long t he f u l l l eng th o f t he f irs t-per iod v i l la , n or was i ts e t c en tra l ly t o t he f acade o r a l igned o n o ne e nd ; t he p os ts v ar ied ; o f t he v i l la .

s econd ly , t he s pacing b e tween

a nd t h ird ly , t he r ow was n o t s e t p ara l le l t o t he f ron t wa l l

The t wo marked ly c onverge i n as ou thwards d irec t ion , a nd t he

min i mum g ap i s a s l i t t le a s 1m .

I ti s i nconce ivable t ha t av i l la wh ich was

l a id o u t i n p rec ise mu l t ip les o f R o man f ee t wou ld h ave b een g iven s uch a r a ms hack le v eranda .

Once d isassoc ia ted f ro m t he v i l la , t he mos t p laus ib le

e xp lana t ion f or t hese f l in t p ads i s a s t he b ases o f a is le p os ts f or a b u i ld ing , p robab ly o f t en b ays l eng th , a ssocia ted w i th t he c ha lk f loor . p lan i s s hown i n F ig . 3 :3 ;

A r econs truc ted

t he o vera l l l eng th wou ld h ave b een a bou t 1 8 m, a nd

i fi tc o mpr ised o n ly t wo a is les , r a ther t han t hree , aw id th o f a bou t 8 m wou ld b e i mp l ied .

L ock leys d oes n o t s tand a lone:

a t F aversha m , K en t , t here i s

ac o mp lex o f p os tho les i nf ron t o f a nd u nder t he v i l la , s o me o f wh ich h ave 3 3

b een i n terpreted a s f or m ing a t imber v eranda ( Ph i lp 1 968 ) .

Aga in t here a re

c ons iderab le d i f f icu l t ies i n a ccep t ing t he n o t ion o f av eranda b ased o n t h is e v idence , a nd t he p os tho le c o mp lex i s b es t s een a s r epresen t ing p ar t o f a b u i ld ing o f l a te I ron Age o r e ar ly R o man d a te . GROUP 5 :

A is led Bu i ld ings o f C o mp lex F or m

The b u i ld ings c ons idered s o f ar h ave a l l b een o f r e la t ively s i mp le f or m a nd o f r egu lar p lan .

There i s , h owever , r eason t o s uspec t t ha t r ec t i l inear b u i ld-

i ngs o f more c o mp lex f or m e x is ted i n t he l a te I ron Age i n Br i ta in . p ar t icu lar ly wor thy o f c ons idera t ion : P i lsdon P en , Dorse t .

Two a re

o ne a t C a mu lodunu m a nd a no ther a t

The f or mer i s we l l-known ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 , 9 0 ,

S i te A l ) , b u t h as p erhaps n o t r eceived t he a t ten t ion i td eserves i n r ecen t y ears . The C a mu lodunu m b u i ld ing ( F ig . 4B :1) , wh ich was d a ted t o t he C laud ian p er iod , was d iscussed i n c are fu l d eta i l b y i t s e xcava tors a nd c o mpar isons s ough t w i th R o man mi l i tary b u i ld ings .

H owever , a n a ccep tab le p ara l le l c ou ld

n o t b e f ound , n o f unc t ion c ou ld b e a scr ibed t o i tw i th c er ta in ty a nd t he ma t ter was l e f t o pen ( i bid . 9 0-1) . I n t he i n terven ing 3 0 y ears many e ar ly mi l i tary t imber b u i ld ings h ave b een e xcava ted i n Br i ta in a nd i tc an n ow c lear ly b e s een t ha t t he C a mu lodunu m b u i ld ing d oes n o t b e long w i th t he m .

Pre-F lav ian m i l i-

t ary b u i ld ings , a s f or e xa mp le a t L ong thorpe , P e terborough ( Frere a nd S t . J oseph 1 974 ) , may a ppear i rregu lar i n f or m , b u t t hey were n ever theless s t i l l f u l ly f ra med s truc tures , r ec t i l inear i fn o t t ru ly r ec tangu lar i n p lan .

T he c on-

s truc t ion o f t he C a mu lodunum b u i ld ing i nvo lved c urved wa l l t renches a nd p os tho les .

S ince t h is was man i fes t ly n o t aR o man mi li tary b u i ld ing , t here i s

l i t t le a l terna t ive b u t t o a ccep t i ta s an a t ive t ype o f c ons truc t ion , e ven t hough i t may h ave b een e rec ted s hor t ly a f ter t he C onques t . S uper f ic ia l ly , t h is b u i ld ing a ppears t o c o mpr ise a n ave a nd o ne a is le , b u t i tw i l l b e n o ted t ha t o n t he n or th s ide t here a re t hree l a tera l ly p ro jec t ing l eng ths o f wa l l t rench , e ach t er m ina t ing i n ap os tho le .

F ro m t h is e v idence i t may r ea-

s onab ly b e i n ferred t ha t an or th a is le d id e x is t , a lbe i t t he o u ter wa l l o f wh ich was o f al ess s ubs tan t ia l n a ture . The o vera l l d i mens ions o f t he r econs truc ted b u i lding were t hus c . 2 6 m b y 8m , a nd t he p lan was u nm is takably ' boa t-shaped ' . A l though n o p ara l le l f or t he C a mu lodunu m b u i lding h as y e t b een r eported i n I ron Age Br i ta in , t he t ype i s c o m mon o n t he C on t inen t , p ar t icu lar ly i n H o l land a nd G ermany ( see f ur ther b e low ) . The r e markab le c our tyard b u i lding a t P i lsdon P en ( Ge l ling 1 977 ) mus t r ank a s o ne o f t he mos t o u ts tand ing s truc tures i n l a ter B r i t ish p reh is tory .

H ad

t h is b een f ound a t C a mu lodunum f ew s cho lars wou ld p robab ly h ave d issen ted f ro m i t s i n terpreta tion a s aR o man mi li tary-type a dm in is tra t ive b u i lding o r s torehouse . B u t i ti s o n as i te where R o man o ccupa t ion i s a bsen t . I t s p lann ing i s ag ood e xa mple o f t he r ec t i l inear , b u t n o t r ig id ly r ec tangu lar , f or m men t ioned a bove ( F ig . 5 ) .

The e xcava tor s aw t h is s truc ture merely a s a

f enced ' t e menos ' s uppor ted b y b u t tresses a nd h av ing a r ange o f l ong n arrow s tore r oo ms o n t he n or th-wes t s ide ( Ge l l ing 1 977 , 2 76-83 ) .

I ti s s ure ly b e t ter

i den ti f ied a s al arge c our tyard b u i lding , p robab ly s quare i n p lan , a nd h av ing a is led r anges wh ich c on ta ined a l arge n u mber o f sma l l r oo ms . The n or th-wes t r ange was c o mp le te ly e xcava ted a nd f ound t o b e C . 5 5 m i n l eng th .

I tc o mpr ised t hree a is les , a l l o f e qua l w id th , a nd w i th a t o ta l s pan 3 4

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A s taggered b ay s truc ture w as emp loyed , a l though a r ough ly c ons tan t

p i tch o f c . 5 .5 m i s c lear ly i n e v idence .

The o u ter a is le wa l ls were o f a n

i nsubs tan t ia l n a ture ( or , more l ike ly , af or m o f c ons truc t ion wh ich d id n o t p enetra te t he s ubsoi l ) , b u t t races o f o ne o f t he o u ter wa l ls were r ecorded n ear t he wes t c orner .

The s ou th-wes t r ange c o mpr ised o n ly t wo a is les , b u t

s panned c . 3 .5 m . Aga in t he b ays a re s een t o b e s taggered , b u t t he s a me c ons is ten t p i tch i s i n e v idence . The n or th-eas t r ange i s s im i lar t o t he s ou thwes t , b u t h as s urv ived i n al ess c o mp le te s ta te o r , a s t he e xcava tor s ugges ts , was n ever f in ished .

There a re f ewer b ay d iv is ions , b u t t he b as ic modu le i s

s t i l l c lear ly d iscern ib le , a nd i t may s i mp ly b e t ha t f ewer r oo ms were r equ ired h ere .

Ag ap i n t he s p ine wa l l n ear t he e as tern l im i t o f e xcava t ion migh t mark

a n e n trance :

i t wou ld b e c en tra l t o t ha t s ide i ft he b u i ld ing were a ssu med t o

h ave b een s quare . C lear ly , t he P i lsdon P en b u i lding was a n u nusua l s truc ture o f n on-do mes t ic n a ture , b u t t h is i s n o t t he p lace t o s pecu la te o n i t s f unc t ion .

I tp robab ly d a tes

f ro m t he f irs t c en tury B . C . GROUP 6 :

S unken-F loored Bu i ld ings

R e ferences t o ' p i t h u ts ' i n r epor ts o n I ron Age s i tes a re n ot u nco m mon , a l though t heir a ccep tance a s ac lass o f p re-Ro man b u i ld ing h as b een c au t ious . There i s , h owever , n o r eason t o d oub t t ha t a t l eas t af ew e xa mples o f s unkenf loored b u i ld ings o f r ec tangu lar o r s ub-rec tangu lar p lan h ave b een f ound . The b es t k nown i s t ha t e xcava ted b y P ro f . F rere i n 1 954-5 a t Wh i teha l l Road , C an terbury .

H ere t he p i t was a bou t 5m s quare ;

was e dged w i th s takeho les .

i th ad r ounded c orners a nd

I n 1 970 Miss B . R . K . Dunne t t e xcava ted a s unken-

f loored b u i ld ing a t C a mu lodunum :

i t was a bou t 6m b y 6 .5 m a nd h ad s ix

p r incipa l p os tho les ( Dunne t t 1 975 , F ig . 7 ) . An o va l p i t r ecorded a t S ud Moor , I s le o f Wigh t , r epresen ted t he b ase o f a no ther l a te I ron Age h u t ( Dunn ing 1 935 ) . a nd i t s l ong a x is was e xp lored f or 2 .75 m ;

I t s s hort a x is measured 2 .25 m i fas i mp le o va l , al eng th o f a bou t

5 .5 m wou ld b e impl ied , b u t t he b u i ld ing c ou ld o f c ourse h ave b een o f more e longa ted f or m .

P ro f . H arding h as s ugges ted t ha t af la t-bo t to med p i t , c .

4 .5 m b y 5 .8 m a t L ong Wi t tenha m , Oxon ., was t he s unken f loor o f a n e ar ly I ron Age b u i ld ing ( Savory 1 937, 2 ; H ard ing 1 972 , 3 4 ) . A s ha l low p i t a t Wi tha m , E ssex , c on ta in ing o ccupa t ion d ebr is o f t he midd le I ron Age , was i n terpre ted a s t he s i te o f ah u t b y F . C o t tr i l l , t he e xcava tor , i n 1 934-5 ( unp ub l ished : Dav ison , P e tchey a nd R odwe l l , f or thco m ing ). F or a f ur ther e xa mp le a t C a mu lodunum s ee b e low , F ig . 4 . Wh i le i ti s e v iden t t ha t s unken-f loored s truc tures d id e x is t i n t he B r i t ish I ron Age , i ti s c lear t ha t t hey were n o t a s we l l d e f ined o r a s r egu lar i n c ons truc t ion a s t he G rubenha t iser o f t he Ang lo-Saxon p eriod . THE BUILD INGS OF CA MULODUNU M Desp i te t he f ac t t ha t t h is o pp idu m h as r ece ived more e xcava t ion t han a ny , o ther i n Br i ta in , t he e v idence f or i ts b u i ld ings r e ma ins e n ig ma t ic a nd d isap po in t ing .

P ar ts o f f our ma jor t imber b u i ld ings were r ecorded i n t he 1 930s

a longs ide t he C laud ian r oad wh ich p asses t hrough t he S heepen d yke ( Fig . 4A ) . One o f t hese b u i ld ings h as a lready b een d iscussed , wh i le t he o thers a re t oo 3 7

f ragmen tary t o e nable a ny th ing t o b e s a id o f t he ir p lans ( F ig . 4B ) .

T hey were

c er ta in ly mass ive s truc tures , a nd a re r epresen ted b y b o th p os tho les a nd wa l l t renches .

I n o ne c ase ( F ig . 4B :2 ) t he r e ma ins a re s ugges t ive o f al oad ing

p la t for m b u i l t i n to t he r is ing g round a longs ide t he r oad .

A l though t here i s

n o g ood r eason t o q ues t ion t he C laud ian d a te o f t hese b ui ld ings , t he l ike l ihood t ha t a t l eas t t he o ne o f wh ich t he p lan i s t o lerably c o mp le te r epresen ts a n a t ive r a ther t han R o man a rch i tec tura l f or m h as a lready b een d e mons tra ted . Fur ther more , i ti s n o t i n d oub t t ha t wa l l t renches a ssoc ia ted w i th l arge t imber b u i ld ings o f g enera l ly r ec t i l inear p lan a re a lso k nown f ro m p re-Conques t l eve ls a t C a mu lodunu m ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 , 4 6-7 , S i tes Y 1 a nd L 2 ) .

I t

i s u n for tuna te t ha t more i s n o t k nown a bou t t he b u i ld ing o n S i te Y l , wh ich was i n e xcess o f 1 5 m l ong , a nd m igh t h ave b een a is led ( F ig . 4B :8 ) . There i s ag rea ter q uan t i ty o f e v idence f ro m C a mu lodunu m r e la t ing t o t he sma l ler r ec tangu lar , s ub-rectangu lar a nd s ub-circu lar s truc tures , o f wh ich a bou t t wen ty a re k nown i n who le o r i n p ar t .

These were d iscussed b y H awkes

a nd Hu l l ( 1 947 , 4 6-8 ) w i th t he c onc lus ion t ha t ' t he sma l ler a nd p oorer s or t o f B e lg ic dwe l l ing was a s truc tura l ly p r im i t ive a nd s qua l id h ove l ' ;

b u t a t t he

s a me t ime t he e xcava tors d id n o t r u le o u t t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t l arger a nd more s ubs tan t ia l h ouses migh t h ave f a i led t o s urv ive i n a n a rchaeo log ica l ly r ecogn isab le f or m . S ince t he 1 930s a g rea t d ea l h as b een l earned a bou t I ron Age s truc tures a nd i ti s n ow q ues t ionab le whe ther more t han o ne o r t wo o f t he sma l ler b u i ldings s hou ld b e r egarded a s dwe l l ings a t a l l .

Ad i f feren t v iew

was a dopted b y Dunne t t ( 1975 , 2 6 ) , who n o t o n ly a ccep ted w i thou t r eserva t ion t ha t t he ' s i mp le h u ts ' were h ouses , b u t a sser ted t ha t t hey were ' i n n o way d i ff eren t f ro m many i n t he p re-Be lg ic I ron Age ' .

Th is i s d e mons trab ly n o t s o ,

s ince t here i s n o t t he s l igh tes t r ese mblance b e tween a ny o f t he C a mu lodunum s truc tures a nd t he c o m mon f or ms o f r ound-house i n t he S ou th E as t . The h ouses o f c ircu lar a nd p o lygona l t ype , a s e xe mp l i f ied a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , were f ar s uper ior i nt he ir mode o f c ons truc t ion a nd t he a cco m moda t ion p rov ided t o a ny o f t he sma l l s truc tures a t C a mu lodunu m .

I f we c lass t he l a t ter

a s h ouses i ti s a x io mat ic t ha t we mus t a ccep t t ha t t here was a d ra ma t ic d ec l ine i n t he s tandards o f d o mes t ic a rch i tec ture a nd c om for t i n t he S ou th E as t i n t he f irs t c en tury B . C . A l l o ther e v idence p oin ts e xac t ly t o t he o ppos i te b e ing t rue , a nd t ha t t he l uxur ies o f c iv i l ised l i v ing i ncreased s tead i ly f ro m t he t ime o f C aesar o nwards ( Rodwe l l 1 976a ) . s i mply n o t b een f ound .

The ma jor h ouses o f C a mu lodunum h ave

To t ry t o a t tr ibu te a ny s ing le f unc t ion t o t he sma l l s truc tures wou ld b e a g ross o ver-s i mpl i f ica t ion :

t hey c lear ly d i f fer i np lan , c ons truc t ion , a nd p ro-

b ab ly f unc t ion . One r ec tangu lar c lay-f loored s tructure , 6 .0 m b y 4 .5 m , i s ag ood e xa mple o f o ur G roup 1 b u i ld ings ( F igs . 2 .12 a nd 4B .7 ) a nd t here i s n o d i f f icu l ty i n a ccep t ing t h is a s t he b ase o f at imber-fra med b u i ld ing .

S ince

i tl acked a h ear th a nd t he p r inc ipa l f inds f ro m i t were s herds o f amphorae o f Dresse l f or m 2 0 , i ti s b et ter i n terpre ted a s as tore b u i ld ing t han a s ah ouse ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l 1 947 , S i te D 10 ) .

A s ub-rec tangu lar s unken-f loored f ea ture

( S i te D 1) migh t b e r egarded a s ab u i ld ing o f o ur G roup 6 ( F ig . 4B :6 ) , w i th t he e n trance marked b y t he ' t ongue ' a t t he n or th-eas t c orner .

I n s ize i te qua tes

p recise ly w i th t he sma l l r ec tangu lar b u i lding f ro m S i te D 10 .

3 8

Mos t o f t he o ther f ea tures a t C a mu lodunum wh ich h ave b een r e ferred t o i nt he p as t a s ' hu ts ' a re o f o va l o r s ub-c ircu lar f or m : s o me were r ecogn isable a s s l igh t h o l lows ( eg . S i te E 2 ) , wh i le o thers were d e l im i ted b y l ow b anks , e g . S i te A 3 . 4B .5 .

Th is e xa mp le was we l l p reserved a nd i s r eproduced h ere a s F ig . T he ' bank ' , wh ich i s t aken t o r epresen t ac o l lapsed c lay o r c ob wa l l ,

e nc losed a n _o -va l a rea o f c . 4 .4 m b y 3 .8 m .

Mos t o f t he i n ter ior was o ccup ied

b y t wo s ha l low p i ts , t here was n o b reak i n t he b ank t o i nd ica te t he p os i t ion o f a n e n trance , a nd n o s truc tura l r e ma ins were r ecorded . I n t he l igh t o f c urren t k now ledge a nd o n t he g rounds o f p robabi l i ty , i t wou ld b e e xcess ive t o c la im t ha t af ea ture s uch a s t h is was a r oo fed b u i ld ing , l e t a lone t ha t i t was a dwe l l ing . Av ar ie ty o f i ndus tr ia l o r a gr icu l tura l u ses c ou ld b e p roposed f or t hese s truct ures , b u t t ha t i s i rre levan t t o t he p resen t d iscuss ion . I t may t hus b e c onc luded t ha t t here i s n o c o mpe l l ing r eason t o r egard a ny o f t he sma l l s truc tures a t C a mu lodunum a s dwe l l ings . D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUSIONS The f oregoing s ec t ions may b e b r ie f ly s ummar ised i n t he f o l lowing t er ms . Sma l lb u i ld ings o f s quare a nd r ec tangu lar p lan a re k nown f ro m s i tes i n s ou thern B r i ta in f ro m t he e ar l ies t I ron Age o nwards . S o me were b u i l t i n s uch a way a s n o t t o r equ ire a ny s truc tura l me mbers t o b e s unk i n to t he g round ; o thers u sed p os tho le o r p os t-in-trench f or ms o f c ons truc t ion ;

a nd t here were a lso o f

c ourse f our , s ix a nd n ine-pos t ' granar ies '. I n s ize , t he ' granar ies ' s pan t he s a me r ange a s t he sma l l b u i ld ings w i thou t s truc tura l p os tho les . R ec tangu lar a nd c ircu lar b u i ld ings a re f ound s ide-by-s ide i n s o me s e t t le men ts , a nd i n a f ew i ns tances t here i s r eason t o b el ieve t ha t s quare s truc tures may h ave s erved r e l ig ious f unc t ions . O therw ise , t here i s l i t t le t o i nd ica te f unc t ion : e ven where f l oors h ave s urv ived h ear ths h ave r arely b een r ecorded . Wh i le t hese sma l ler b u i ldings c ou ld h ave b een h ouses t here i s n o p ar t icular r eason t o i ns is t t ha t t hey were , a nd t hey a re p erhaps more r ea l is t ica l ly t o b e i n terpre ted a s a nc i l lary b u i ld ings , i n k eep ing w i th t he C on t inen ta l e v idence where t he p r inc ipa l h ouses a nd b arns were l arge r ectangu lar s truc tures . R ec tangu lar b u i ldings o f med iu m t o l arge s ize , w i th o r w i thou t a is les , a re s t i l l s carce i n t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he B r i t ish I ron Age , b u t c an n ow b e s een a s f ar f ro m u nco m mon i nt he l a te I ron Age , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he S ou th E as t . I t h as a lready b een p oin ted o u t b y H ard ing t ha t t he p re-occupa t ion o f B r i t ish p reh is tor ians w i th t he c ircu lar h ouse h as r esu l ted i n s ign i f ican t e v idence r e la t ing t o o ther f or ms o fb u i lding e i ther b e ing min im ised o r t ota l ly o ver looked . N o t o n ly w i l l t h is b ear r ei tera t ion , b u t i t s u n for tuna te c oro l lorary a lso n eeds emphas is :

t oo much e f for t h as a t t imes b een f ru i t less ly e xpended i n s earch ing

f or c ircu lar b u i ld ings where t hey a re u n l ike ly t o b e f ound . Th is i s p ar t icu lar ly t rue i n t he S ou th E as t , where e v idence f or c ircu lar h ouses i n t he B e lg ic a reas ( sensu s tr ic to ) i s v ery s lender . Un less a n ew f or m o f c ons truct ion was e vo lved whereby t he c lass ic r ings o f p os tho les , wa l l-trenches a nd e aves-dr ip g u l lies were r endered o bso lete , t here i s n o r easonab le a l terna t ive b u t t o p ropose t he d em ise o f t he r ound-house b e fore t he e nd o f t he I ron Age . I ti s s tr ik ing t ha t t here i s ag enera l c orrela t ion b o th i nt ime a nd p lace b e tween t h is d em ise a nd t he emergence o f t he B e lg ic d ynas t ies .

3 9

Th is i s n o t t o a sser t t ha t t here was a s udden o r t o ta l l oss o f a l l f orms o f c ircu lar a nd r ela ted s truc tures , e ven i n t he a rea p ar t icu lar ly u nder c ons idera t ion h ere .

We h ave a lready n o t iced t he c ur ious l i t t le s ub-circu lar

s truc tures o f u ncer ta in b u t c lear ly n o t d o mes t ic f unct ion a t C a mu lodunum . Ac ircu lar b u i ld ing o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D . a t C he l ms ford h as b een i n terp re ted a s a no u thouse ( i n f . P . J . Drury ) , a nd t he s take-bu i l t s truc tures r ecorded o nt he f oreshore a t T i lbury ( R .C.H . M. 1 923 , 3 9 ) a re b es t s een a s f ish ing h u ts o r a s s he l ters f or b r ine b o i lers . I n t he Mid lands , t he N or th a nd t he Wes t , c ircu lar h ouses , o f ten b u i l t o f s tone , a re k nown r igh t t hrough t he R o man p er iod , b u t i nt he S ou th E as t i ti s o n ly a nc i l lary b u i ld ings , o r s truct ures w i th s pecia l u ses , wh ich s ee m t o h ave r e ta ined t he c ircu lar a nd p o lygona l f or ms . T e mp les a nd mauso lea a ccoun t f or mos t o f t he r ecorded e xa mp les i n t ha t a rea . Once i ti s a ccep ted t ha t c ircu lar b u i ld ings a re n o t a n e ssen t ia l i ngred ien t i n t he p lans o f l a te I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n t he S ou th E as t , t he o u t lines o f b u i ldings o f r ec t i l inear f or m may b e p erce ived , a l though o f ten n o t w i thou t d i f f icu l ty . T he e ase o r o therwh ise w i th wh ich a b u i ld ing may b e d e tec ted i s f requen t ly r e la ted t o t he t echno logy o f i t s c ons truct ion . Th is mus t n o t b e c on fused w i th t he p er manence , r ig id i ty , a rch i tec tura l s oph is t ica t ion o r f unc t ion o f ab u i ld ing . The d i f ferences b e tween a n ' i nsubs tan t ia l s truc ture ' a nd a b u i ld ing wh ich l eaves ' i nsubs tan tia l r e ma ins ' f or t he a rchaeo log is t t o f ind c an b e v ery g rea t . T he w idespread f a i lure o f e xcava tors t o d i f feren t ia te c r i t ica l ly b e tween t hese t wo f unda men ta l c oncep ts h as r esu l ted i n c on fus ion a nd a l ow l eve l o f s truc tura l a na lys is a nd s yn thes is , wh ich i s b y n o means c on f ined t o t he I ron Age . The p rac t ice o f d escr ibing a b u i ld ing a s ' f l i msy ' s i mp ly b ecause i td oes n o t h ave d eep f ounda t ions , o r a ny f ounda t ions a t a l l , c anno t b e d ep lored t oo s trong ly . The c onverse o f ten a pp l ies , p ar ticu lar ly i n t imber a rch i tec ture : t he more mass ive a nd a rch i tec tura l ly a dvanced t he b u i ld ing i s , t he l ess t he n eed t o a nchor i tt o t he g round . The c o m mones t f or m o f b u i ld ing c ons truct ion i nt he R o man p er iod i n t he S ou th E as t was t imber f ra m ing , b ased u pon g round c i l ls ;

a nd wh i le i n m i l i-

t ary s truc tures t imber s lo ts may b e tray t he p os i t ions o f wa l ls , i t was p erhaps more c o m mon f or c iv i l ian b u i ldings i n r ura l s e t t le men ts t o r es t d irec t ly o n t he g round s ur face . The o u t l ines o f s uch b u i ld ings c an o n ly b e p lanned when f l oor l eve ls h ave s urv ived i n tac t . I ti s e v iden t f ro m t he e xa mp les a lready d iscussed t ha t r ec t i l inear b u i ld ings i n t he l a ter I ron Age c ou ld e i ther b e c ons truc ted o n g round c i l ls o r i n s ha l low f ounda t ion t renches . S ince i ti s v ery r are f or l arge a reas o f l a te I ron Age g round s ur face t o s urv ive i n tac t — mos t s i tes , s uch a s C a mu lodunu m , a re h eav i ly p loughed a nd d enuded — i t mus t f o l low t ha t t here i s l i t t le c hance o f d iscover ing t he s i tes o f l arge t imber-fra med b u i ld ings .

Un less e xcep t iona l c ond i t ions o f p reserva t ion e x is t , t he f ormer

p resence o f s uch b u i ld ings w i l l , r egre t tably , h ave t o b e d educed f ro m c ircums tan t ia l e v idence . I tw i l l , o f c ourse , b e r ead i ly a pparen t t ha t t he e xa mples o f l arge r ect angu lar b u i ld ings o f t he l a te I ron Age c i ted a bove a l l o we t he ir p reserva t ion ( a lbe i t p ar t ia l ) t o t he ir h av ing b een s ea led b y R o man b u i ld ings .

A t C an terbur y

a nd Veru la m ium t he B e lg ic-per iod l eve ls were s ea led b y t he R o man t owns ; a t P ark S tree t a nd L ock leys e ar ly t imber s truc tures were o n ly d e tectable where t hey were o ver la id b y v i l la b u i ld ings ; 4 0

a nd a t Wick ford p reserva t ion o f

I ron 2 3 ,g e a nd R o man l eve ls was d ue t o t he p resence o f a med ieva l h ead land b ank . T he s earch f or l arge t imber b u i ld ings o f r ec t i l inear f or m o n d enuded s i tes i s ad i f f icu l t b u t n o t n ecessar i ly imposs ible t ask . T o d a te , t here h ave b een f ew e xcava t ions c onduc ted o n al arge e nough s ca le f or t he e phe mera l t races o f r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings o f 1 0 m t o 3 0 m i n l eng th t o b e r ecogn ised . I n t he g round , t he s urv iv ing e v idence may t ake s evera l f orms : o ne o r t wo r ows o f p os tho les , r epresen t ing d oub le o r t r iple-a is led b u i ld ings , r espect ive ly ; af ew l eng ths o f s ha l low g u l ly , p erhaps d iscon t inuous , r epresen t ing t he d eeper p ar ts o f t he o u ter wa l ls o f b u i ldings , o r i n terna l p ar t i t ions ; o r n on-s truc tura l f ea tures wh ich s erve t o d e f ine t he s i te o f ab u i ld ing r a ther t han t he d e ta i ls o f i t s p lan . I n t h is l as t c a tegory a re h o l lows a nd s tony p a tches wh ich mark t hresho lds , a nd t he b urn t s ubsoi l u nder t he s i tes o f h ear ths ; b u t t he mos t impor tan t t e l l ta le f ea tures a re d ra inage g u l l ies wh ich a re s o met imes f ound a round r ec tangu lar a s we l l a s c ircu lar b u i ld ings , p ar t icu lar ly o np oor ly d ra ined s oi ls . Mos t c o m mon ly , d ra inage g u l l ies d id n o t c o mp le te ly s urround r ectangu lar b ui ld ings o f t he I ron Age , b u t mere ly f l anked t he l ong s ides .

F ur ther more ,

i ft he b u i ld ing was b oa t-shaped i np lan , t hen t he g u l l ies u sua l ly r e f lec ted t h is f or m a lso . Dra inage g u l l ies a round p ara l le l-s ided a nd b oa t-shaped h ouses o f I ron Age a nd l a ter d a te a re c o m mon i n N or th G er many a nd H ol land ( eg . F löge ln a nd T exe l ; i n f . D r W . H . Z i m mer mann a nd Dr P . J . Wo l ter ing ) . On s i tes where p reserva t ion i s g ood , a is le p os ts , wa l l o u t l ines a nd d ra inage g u l l ies may a l l s urv ive , b u t where i ti s p oor t he d ra inage g u l lies may c ons t i tu te t he o n ly r ecoverable e v idence f or a b u i ld ing . Wi th t he C on t inen ta l e v idence i n mind , i ti s i ns truc t ive t o r econs ider s o me o f t he f ragmen tary p lans o f l a te I ron Age s i tes i n s ou th-eas t B r i ta in , where p lough ing h as r e moved a l l c on te mporary o ccupa t ion l eve ls . S evera l p oten t ia l r ec tangu lar b u i ld ing g u l l ies may , f or e xa mple , b e s ugges ted a t Muck ing ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 3 ) ;

a nd t wo , o ne o f wh ich i s b oa t-shaped , h ave b een r ecorded a t

K e lvedon ( unpub l ished e xcava t ion , K . A . R odwe l l ) . I n c onc lus ion i t may b e emphas ised t ha t t he s tudy o f r ec t i l inear s truc tures o f t he I ron Age i n Br i ta in w i l l d epend , f irs t , o n t he e xcava t ion o f much l arger a reas i n o ppida a nd o pen s e t t le men ts t han h as h i ther to b een n or ma l ; s econd ly , o n t he c arefu l r ecord ing a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f e pher mera l t races o f t imber s lo ts a nd g u l l ies i n t he l igh t o f ag rea ter g enera l awareness t han a t p resen t e x is ts o f a rch i tec tura l f or ms i nt imber ; a nd , t h ird ly , ad i l igen t s earch f or s i tes where I ron Age l eve ls a re s ea led b enea th l a ter d epos i ts . I t may we l l t ransp ire t ha t t he mos t c o mp le te e v idence f or t he e lus ive h ouses a nd b arns o f B e lg ic B r i ta in w i l l b e f ound t hrough t he l arge-sca le e xcava t ion o f s elec ted R o man t owns a nd v i l las . ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iam i ndeb ted t o v ar ious c o l leagues , B r i t ish a nd C on t inen ta l , f or t he b ene f i t f o d iscuss ion o nt he a spec ts o f I ron Age t imber b ui ld ing c ons idered i n t h is p aper . Iam p ar t icu lar ly g ra te fu l t o P rofessor S . S . F rere who g enerous ly made a va i lab le p lans a nd d e ta i ls o f B e lg ic b u i ld ings a t C an terbury a nd V erul am ium , i n a dvance o f h is o wn p ub l ica t ion o f t hese .

Mrs K irs ty R odwe l l made

a va i lab le d e ta i ls o f h er w ork a t K e lvedon a nd a lso g enera l ly a ss is ted w i th t he p roduc t ion o f t h is p aper . 4 1

L ITTLE WALTHAM AND PRE-BELG IC I RON AGE S ETTLE MENT I N ESSEX P au l Drury

I n ar ecen t s tudy o f s e t t le men t a nd e cono my i n t he a rea o f t he Tr inovan tes , Dr R odwe l l h as a rgued t ha t t he b lock o f l and , s o me 6 ,300 km 2 i n e x ten t , d e f ined b y t he N or th S ea o n t he e as t , t he r iver Tha mes o n t he s ou th , t he r iver L ea a nd i t s t r ibu tar ies o n t he wes t , a nd t he wa tershed o f t he B ou lder C lay r idge o n t he n or th-wes t a nd t he n or th ( F ig . 1 ) , c ons t i tu tes a n a tura l ly d ef ined r eg ion w i th in wh ich I ron Age s e t t le men t c an u se fu l ly b e s tud ied ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 3 ) .

Ex tens ive d epos i ts o f b ou lder c lay c over much o f t he a rea , w i th t he u nder-

l y ing L ondon c lay s ur fac ing i n ab and a cross t he s ou thern f r inge ;

t he d eeper

c ha lk o f t he L ondon b as in i s e xposed i n t he n or th-wes t c orner o f t he a rea , a nd i n a sma l l a rea i n t he s ou th , a round Thurrock .

I n a dd i t ion t here a re e x tens ive

g rave l t erraces r e la ted t o t he Tha mes , a nd d epos i ts o f l oa m ( br ickear th ) p art icu lar ly i n t he r iver v a l leys . I n t he p as t i th as b een f ash ionab le t o c ons ider t he c lay a reas a s b eing d ense ly f ores ted , a t l eas t u n t i l wel l i n to t he R o man p er iod ( e .g . Whee ler 1 930 , 1 5 ;

d iscvssed i n R odwe l l 1 976a , 6 ) .

S uch a v iew was r ein forced b y as ub-

s tan t ia l n umber o f c asua l f inds o f I ron Age p o t tery i n g ravel a nd b r ickear th p i ts , a nd l a ter b y a er ia l p ho tography o n t he g rave l t erraces , b u t r ecen t e xcav a t ions h ave d e mons tra ted t he p resence o f I ron Age a nd e ar l ier s et t le men t i n t he c lay a reas .

I n s uch c ircums tances , d is tr ibu t ion maps o f ma ter ia l o f

e ar ly I ron Age d a te a re n o t mean ing fu l i n t he c on tex t o f u nders tand ing t he s e t t le men t p a t tern o f t he p er iod ; marked o n F ig . 1.

h ence o n ly s i tes d iscussed i n t h is p aper a re

I na no ther p aper , Dr R odwe l l c ons iders t he e v idence f or t he f or m o f s e t t le men ts a nd b u i ld ings i nt he l a tes t ' Be lg ic ' p hase o f t he I ron Age i n s ou the as t Eng land , h ence t h is p aper i s l argely c on f ined t o t he p er iod b e fore t he midd le o f t he f irs t c en tury B . C .

A r ecen t c ons idera tion o f t he sma l l n umber

o f ' h i l l for ts ' i n t he s tudy a rea ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 1 9-30 a nd Append ix I )h as d e mons tra ted h ow l i t t le i s k nown a bou t t he f or m a nd d a t ing o f t hose s i tes . N o i n terna l s truc tures a re k nown a nd o n ly t wo h ave p roduced s u f f ic ien t p o tt ery e ven t o s ugges t p er manen t o ccupa t ion , a ssu m ing t ha t t he ma ter ia l c onc erned ( i nb o th c ases p robab ly o f s ix th-cen tury d a te ) r ela tes t o t he d e fences : L angdon H il ls ( Hoares 1 971;

Rodwel l 1 976a , 1 80 ) a nd Asheldha m ( unpub l ished ,

b u t s ee Rodwel l 1 976a , 1 82-3 ). H owever , t he s carc i ty o f t hese d e fended s i tes , t he ir s i ting a nd d is tr ibu t ion , a nd t he f requen t l ack o f e v idence f or p er manen t o ccupa t ion w i th in t he r a mp ar ts ( a l though t he a rgu men t e x s i len t io i s n o t s trong h ere ) s ugges ts a p ure ly d e fens ive f unc t ion u nrela ted t o t he h ierarchy o f s e t t le men ts i n t he p re-Belg ic p er iod ( Rodwe l l 1 976a , 2 8 ) .

4 3

c n i :

^

L and o ver 1 22 me t res

EARLY I RON AGE S ETTLE MENTS To d a te , e v idence o f s e t t le men t morpho logy a nd s truc tures o f t he Bronze Age a nd t he e ar l ies t p hases o f t he I ron Age i s l ack ing .

On ly a t o ne s i te i n

E ssex — Muck ing , o n t he Tha mes t errace — where e x tens ive work h as b een u nder taken b y Margare t J ones , h as p ar t o f ar ec t i linear f i e ld s ys te m o f t he Bronze Age b een e xcava ted , a l though a s y e t n o a ssoc ia ted b u i ld ings h ave b een i den ti f ied . The s ys te m p re-da tes t he b iva l la te ' m in ia ture h i l l for t ' w i th t wo o pposed e n trances ( Jones 1 968, 2 12;

1 975 , 1 41) , wh ich h as y ielded

Carbon-14 d ates i n t he n in th c en tury b c Muck ing h as p roduced c ons iderab le e v idence o f c on t inu i ty o f o ccupa t ion f ro m t h is p er iod o nwards , b u t s truc tures o f t he e ar l ies t p hases , wh ich a re we l l r epresen ted b y p o t tery , h ave p roved e lus ive a nd d i tches n on-ex is ten t , a l though t he f or mer may y e t b e s ugges ted a f ter a na lys is o f t he p a l i mpses t o f p os tho les h as b een u nder taken . S evera l p robab le c and ida tes c an b e d etec ted o n t he p ubl ished s i te p lan ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 3 ) .

A t ten t ion migh t p erhaps b e d rawn t o t he c irc le o f p os t-

h o les c . 4 .5 m i n d ia me ter s ou th-eas t o f 1 300 x 3 50 ; a re s evera l p i ts ;

( cen tred o n 1 300 x 4 00 ) ; t ures ;

i nt he v icin i ty t here

t o t he e as t i s ac lus ter o f s ee m ing ly p a ired p os tho les

t o t he wes t

t o t he s ou th ( around 1 175 x 3 75 ) t wo f our-pos t s truc-

1 225 x 3 10 ) wha t s ee ms t o b e as em i-circu lar s truc ture ,

a nd i nt he g enera l v ic in i ty many s ee m ing ly u nassocia ted p os tho les .

The

sma l l d ia me ter o f t he p os t c irc le a nd t he w ide s pacing o f t he p os ts ( genera l ly C . 1 .5 m ) s ugges ts t ha t t he c irc le o f p os tho les h ere r epresen ts i n ter med ia te s uppor t f or t he r oo f o f ab u i ld ing r a ther t han t he l ine o f t he e x terna l wa l l . Excava t ions u nder taken b y Bar ton d ur ing g ravel d igg ing i n1 955, a t L in ford ( e f fec t ive ly p ar t o f t he Muck ing s i te ;

f or r e la t ionsh ip , s ee J ones 1 968 , F ig .

2 ) r evea led p ar t o f t he p lan o f a n u nenc losed E ar ly I ron Age s e t t le men t ( F ig . 2 ;. Barton 1 962 ). The a ssoc iated p o t tery was d ated b y H awkes ( i n Barton 1 962 , 8 3-7 ) t o t he f our th c en tury B .C . S o me f a l ls w i th in C un l i f fe 's Dar msdenL in ton g roup , b u t t here i s n o l onger a ny r eason t o r egard t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he v ar ious f ea tures a s b e ing c on te mporary ;

i t s ee ms l ikely t o r ange i n d a te

b e tween t he s ix th a nd f i f th/ four th c en tur ies B . C. Ac ons iderab le n umber o f p i ts were f ound , i n t wo p r inc ipa l c oncen tra t ions . The p i ts were g enera l ly o va l i n s hape , u p t o 4m l ong a nd 0 .75 m d eep , w i th s teep ly s loping s ides a nd f la t o r d ished b ot to ms .

T o t he e as t o f t he ma in c on-

c en tra t ion , s o me 2 8 p os tho les were f ound , f or m ing a n o va l c . 6m x7 .5 m ; n o p o t tery was f ound i n t he p os tho les , b u t t here c an b e l i t t le d oubt t ha t t he s truc ture was i ndeed a n I ron Age r ound-house more o r l ess c on te mporary w ith t he p its.

H earths , c ook ing p i ts ( one — Barton 1 962, F ig. 4 .7 — p erhaps

u nder a r oof ) a nd a s cat ter o f p ostho les were a lso p resen t , i n terspersed w ith t he p its b u t most ly a t s o me d istance f ro m t he h ouse. The c lose s pac ing o f t he p os tho les o f t he h ouse s ugges ts t ha t t hey r epresen t t he o u ter wa l l o f t he b u i ld ing , r a ther t han i n ter med ia te s uppor ts f or t he r oo f o f al arger s truc ture .

The mu l t ip l ici ty o f p os tho les o nt he e as t s ide s ugges ts

ap ar t ia l r econs truct ion , a nd t he t wo d is t inc t p a irs o f p os tho les o n t he wes t may r epresen t a n o r ig ina l p os t s uppor ted b y as hore . d en t ly c . 3m w ide , a nd f aced s ou th-eas t .

4 5

The e n trance was e v i-

Wi th a f loor a rea o f o n ly s o me

4 0 s q . m , t he b u i ld ing i s sma l l i n c o mpar ison w i th l a ter I ron Age R oundh ouses . I n 1 968 , t he f ragmen tary p lan o f a no ther o va l h ouse , c . 4 .75 x 5 .80 m , was r ecovered d ur ing r oadworks a t Rawre th , i n a n a rea o f L ondon C lay ( Drury 1 977 ;

s ee F ig . 2 ) .

The p os tho les a re more w ide ly s paced , s o t ha t i ti s

p oss ib le t ha t t hey r epresen t i n ter med ia te s uppor ts f or t he r oo f r a ther t han t he l ine o f t he o u ter wa l l ;

i f s o , p os tho les 1 13-4 c ou ld i nd ica te t he l ine o f t h is .

Two h ear ths a nd o ther m inor f ea tures were a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s tructure , b u t t here was n o s ign o f ad i tched o r f enced s e t t le men t e nc losure .

The sma l l

amoun t o f p o t tery f ound was n o t c lose ly d a teable , b u t af our th c en tury o r e ar l ier d a te i s i nd ica ted . P ar t o f a no ther s i te was e xcava ted b yt he wr i ter a t H eybr idge i n 1 972 ( unpub l ished ) ;

i tl ay o nt he g rave l t errace im med ia te ly a bove t he f or mer

c ourse o f t he r iver B lackwa ter a nd was much d is turbed b y R o man a nd l a ter f ea tures .

N ever the less , t hree I ron Age s truc tures w ere i den ti f iab le :

a n o va l

h ouse , c . 1 0 x1 1 m , wh ich was , l ike t ha t a t L in ford , d e f ined b y ac lose ly s e t p os t-r ing ;

as em i-c ircu lar b u i ld ing o f s im i lar c ons truc t ion , a nd a f our-pos t

s tructure ( prov is iona l p lan , F ig . 3 ) .

I ti s t e mp t ing t o s ee t hese s truc tures

a s f or m ing a s ing le s e t t le men t u n i t , c o mpr is ing r ound-house , s em i-c ircu lar workshop ( t hese s truc tures a re c ons idered i n more d eta i l b e low ) a nd f ourp os t g ranary : s i te .

b u t we c ou ld mere ly b e d ea l ing w i th a sma l l p ar t o f a n e x tens ive

Ap rov is iona l a ppra isa l o f t he p ot tery a ga in s ugges ts a d a te f or t h is

p hase c en ter ing o n t he 4 th c en tury B .C . F ina l ly i n t h is s ec tion we mus t c ons ider t he p ar t ia l p lan o f a sma l l a nd a pparen t ly r ec tangu lar s truc ture r ecovered d ur ing e xcava t ions o n t he mans io s i te ( S i te Z ) i n C he l ms ford i n 1 973 ( Drury 1 979 f or thco m ing ;

F ig . 2 ) .

On

t he e v idence a va i lab le , ad e ta i led r econs truc t ion i s n o t j us t i f ied , b u t t here i s more t han a h in t o f t he ' doub le-square ' p lan o f t he H ea throw ' t e mp le ' ( Gr i mes 1 961;

C un l i f fe 1 974 , 2 95-6 ) a l though a t 5m i n w id th t he C he l ms ford s truc ture

i s o n ly a bou t h a l f t he s ize o f t ha t a t H ea throw .

Burn t d aub i n t he p os tho les

s ugges ted d es truc t ion b y f ire , a nd t he p o t tery , a l though g enera l ly u ndiagnos t ic , s hou ld b e long t o t he f our th c en tury B .C . o r e ar l ier . Fro m t h is a dm i t ted ly meagre e v idence , c er ta in t rends - a t t h is s tage t hey c an h ard ly b e c a l led c onc lus ions - a re a pparen t . F irs t ly , t he h ouses t end t o b e r e la t ive ly sma l l , o f ten o va l r a ther t han t ru ly c ircu lar , a nd d efined b y a r ing o f p os tho les wh ich , f ro m t he c lose s pac ing s uch a s a t L in ford a nd H eybr idge , s ee m t o d e f ine t he o u ter wa l l , r a ther t han p rov ide i n ter med ia te s uppor t t o t he r a f ters .

H owever , t h is c ou ld b e af a lse impress ion , d ue t o r econs truc t ion a nd

a nd a c onsequen t d up l ica tion o f p os tho les , e specia l ly i n v iew o f t he l ike l ihood o f t he r everse b e ing t rue i n t he c ase o f t he p robab le e xa mp le f ro m Muck ing . Ah u t a t Wes t H ar ling , N or fo lk ( C lark a nd F e l l 1 953 ;

C un li f fe 1 974 ,

1 57 , F ig . 1 1.3 ) i s s im i lar t o t he b u i ld ings h ere d escr ibed , a nd d e mons tra tes t he e x is tence o f t he b u i ld ing t ype i n E as t Ang l ia b y t he s ix th c en tury B .C . ( f or d a t ing o f Wes t H ar ling s ee Cun li f fe 1 968 , 1 76 ;

1 974 , 3 4-5 ) .

An u l t i ma te

d er iva t ion f ro m t he sma l l h ouses o f t he t ype f ound o n l a te Bronze Age s i tes i n S ussex - f or e xa mp le I t ford H i l l a nd P lu mp ton P la in ( Cun li f fe 1 974 , F igs . 2 -3 , a nd r e fs . c i ted ) -s ee ms p robab le .

1 3 ,

The p resence o f e nc losures

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HEYBR IDGE

THE M IDDLE I RON AGE :

L ITTLE WALTHA M

The s e t t le men t a t L i t t le Wa l tha m l i es o n t he wes tern s lope o f t he C he l mer v a l ley , a bou t 2 4 km u ps trea m f ro m t he B lackwa ter e s tuary a t H eybr idge . The s i te i t sel f i s l argely o n s andy c lay - i br ickear th ' -i n a n a rea mos t ly c overed b y b ou lder c lay . I n 1 970 , f o l low ing a pprova l f or t he c ons truc t ion o f ab ypass r oad a round t he modern v i l lage , t r ia l e xcava t ions were u ndertaken t o d e ter m ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich a R o man s e t t le men t , k nown s ince 1 860 , wou ld b e a f fec ted b y r oadworks . T h is work r esu l ted i n t he d iscovery o f t he I ron Age s i te . The t hrea tened a rea , a bou t 1h a i n e x ten t , was s ubsequen t ly e xcava ted i n a dvance o f r oad c ons truc t ion , a nd t he f i na l r epor t i s n ow i n t he p ress . ( Drury 1 978a ) . I ti s p robable t ha t t here h as b een c on t inuous s e t t le men t i n t he v ic in i ty f ro m Meso li th ic t imes o nwards , t he n uc leus s hi f t ing w i th in a r ad ius o f s o me 5 00 m o f t he r iver c ross ing . Wi th in t he e xcava ted s tr ip , whose l im i ts were d e termined s o le ly b y t he f ence l i nes o f t he r oad , s ubs tan t ia l p arts o f t hree s uccess ive I ron Age s e t t le men ts w ere e xa m ined ( F ig . 4 ) . The e ar l ies t ( Per iod I ) was a n o pen v i l lage whose t ota l e x ten t was p robab ly i n t he o rder o f 1h a , o f wh ich a bou t at h ird was e xcava ted , i nc lud ing 1 5 r ound-houses , ar ec tangu lar b u i ld ing , a nd f our-pos t s truc tures . T h is o pen s e t t le men t was s ucceeded b y a n e nc losed o ne ( Per iod I I ) , o nt he more l eve l g round t o t he n or th . Two c ircu lar h ouses , o f at ype d i f feren t f ro m a ny i nt he o pen s et t le men t , were e xa m ined , a s we l l a s minor a ssocia ted f ea tures . The e nc los ing f ea ture s ee ms t o h ave b een a p a l isade r a ther t han a d i tch , b u t p roo f was u nobta inab le f ro m t he sma l l s ec t ion w i th in t he e xcava ted a rea wh ich d id n o t c o incide w i th a s urv iving b oundary . - E l , E 2

T o t he s ou th o f t he ma in e nc losure , t wo f ur ther e nc losures ,

c erta in ly f enced o rp a l isaded , a nd o pen o n o ne s ide - s ee m

t o b e

b road ly c on te mporary . The f i na l p hase o f s e t t le men t ( Per iod I V ) i s r epre. s en ted b y h ouse C 5 , c lear ly s i ted i n r e la t ion t o E nc losure 2 ; t he f our-pos t s truc ture R 7 may b e c on te mporary wh i le a s er ies o f p i ts c er tain ly a re . Th is p a t tern o f c ons iderab le , i fn o t d ra ma t ic , c hange i n t he morpho logy o f t he s e t t le men t a nd o f t he p r inc ipa l s truc tures w i th in i ti s n o t r e f lec ted i n t he a ssocia ted p o t tery ;

i ndeed s i mp le s ta t is t ica l a na lys is was n ecessary t o

d etec t a ny s ign i f ican t d i f ferences b e tween a sse mblages o f c oarse ware f ro m e ach p hase . H owever , a sma l l amoun t o f s ign i f ican t p o t tery a ssoc ia ted w i th P er iod I V s ugges ts t ha t i ts hou ld b e d a ted t o t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C . I n s p i te o f t he l ack o f o vera l l s tra t igraphy , i ti s c lear t ha t t here i s more t han o ne p hase o f c ons truc t ion i nb o th p er iods L Ea nd M.

Work ing o n

t he c onven t iona l a ssump t ion o f s o me 2 5 y ears a s t he l i fe o f at imber b u i lding o f t he t ype p resen t , t he P er iod I I e nc losed s e t t le men t s hou ld o r ig ina te a round t he t urn o f t he s econd a nd f irs t c en tur ies B .C ., a nd t he P er iod 1 o pen s e t t lemen t s hou ld o r ig ina te i nt he mid- t o l a teth ird c en tury . Th is t enuous d a t ing i s t o s o me e x ten t s uppor ted b y ac a l ibra ted mean C -14 d a te o f 2 34 _ ±5 5 B .C. f or t he d es truc t ion o f h ouse C 11 , wh ich s ee ms t o b e long e ar ly i n P er iod I ( f or b as is o f d a te s ee D rury 1 978 ). The C ircu lar H ouses I nt he o pen v i l lage a l l t he c ircu lar h ouses a re d e fined p r i mar i ly b y wa l l t renches . S o me a re s uper i mposed o nt he s i tes o f o thers ( e .g . 7 , 1 0 ; 1 3 , 1 2 ) , wh i ls t c lose ly j ux taposed b u i ldings l ike 6 a nd 9 a re u n like ly t o h ave b een i n

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o f p lough ing , t here i s i nsu f f icien t e v idence t o d e ter m ine t he s equence o f d eve lo p men t o n s tra t igraph ic g rounds a lone .

One i s t here fore f orced t o r esor t t o

t ypo logy . The h ouses c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree g roups o n t he b as is o f t he f or m o f t he ir wa l l-trenches : G roup A ( C8 , 1 1 , 1 4 , a nd 1 7 ) h ave wa l ltrenches s urv iv ing t o ad ep th o f 4 0-80 cms b e low p lough l eve l , G roup B ( C6 , 9 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 3 , 1 6 , 7 , 1 0 , 4 ) h ave t renches s urv iv ing 2 5-35 ems b e low p lough l eve l , a nd G roup C ( C15A , 1 8 ) h ave t renches o f s im i lar f orm b u t o f r egu lar ly p o lygona l p lan . These g roups s ee m t o r epresen t a n e vo lu t ionary s equence i n t he d evelo p men t o f t he s upers truc ture o f t he b u i ldings c oncerned , G roup A r epresen t ing t he b eg inn ing o f t he s equence a nd G roup C t he e nd . N one the less , i ts ee ms p re ferable t o v iew t he s e t t le men t a s ac on t inuous ly e vo lv ing e n t i ty i n wh ich s truc tura l i nnova t ions were a dop ted g radua l ly , r a ther t han r egard ing i ta s b e ing d iv ided i n to q uas i-chrono log ica l s ub-phases . There i s g enera l a gree men t c oncern ing t he b asic f or m o f c ircu lar h ouses i n L ow land B r i ta in : ac on ica l t ha tched r oo f , whose r a f ters were s uppor ted o n ar e la t ive ly l ow e x terna l wa l l , a nd u sua l ly a lso b y a n i nner r ing o f p os ts , p robab ly l inked b y ar ing-pur lin . I n a t te mp t ing t o r econs truc t t he f or m o f t he Wa l tha m h ouses , t wo b as ic a ssump t ions h ave b een made : a min imum wa l l h eigh t o f c . 1 .5 - 1 .7 m , a nd a r oo f p i tch o f 4 5° , wh ich modern e xper ience s ugges ts i s a min i mum f or t ha tch . N o c en tra l smoke v en t i s e nv isaged , i n l ine w i th r epor ted r ecen t p rac t ice i np r im i t ive b u i ld ings i n B r i t tany ( Me ir ionJ ones 1 976 , 5 8 ) a nd I t a ly ( C lose-Brooks a nd G ibson 1 966 ) . H or izon ta l t i es a t t he m id-heigh t o f t he r oo f , t o h e lp c on ta in t he o u tward t hrus t , a re a lso a ssumed . A s econdary f unc t ion o f s uch t i es a s t he b as is o f as torage o r smok ing f l oor s ee ms l i ke ly . The f i l l ing o f t he wa l l t renches g enera l ly c ons is ted o f t he o r ig ina l p os t p ack ing d is turbed d ur ing d e mo l i t ion , a l though i n s o me i ns tances , p ar ticu lar ly g d jacen t t o e n trances , t he o u t l ine o f t he a c tua l t imbers was p reserved . F loor a reas r anged f ro m 7 5 t o 1 50 s quare me tres , a nd d ia me ters f ro m 1 0 t o 1 4 m . An a verage h ouse o f a bou t 1 3 m i n d ia meter , w i th a n a ssu med wa l l h eigh t o f 2m a nd a r oof p i tch o f 4 5 0 ,wou ld h ave b een a bou t 9m ( 3 0 f ee t ) h igh a t t he a pex .

H ypo the t ica l r econs truc t ions a re s hown i n F ig . 6 .

I n ac ircu lar b u i ld ing w i th a s i mp le c on ica l r oo f , t he weigh t o f t he r oo f e xer ts a c ons iderable o u tward t hrus t o nt he t op o f t he wa l l . Un less t he t hrus t i s c on ta ined b y t he e f fec t ive h or izon ta l l inkage o f e i ther t he r a f ters o r t he t ops o f t he wa l l t imbers , i tt ends t o f orce t he wa l l o u twards a t t he t op a nd i nwards a t t he b o t to m ( assu m ing t ha t t he wa l l t imbers a re i nheren t ly r ig id ). Th is t endency c an b e c on ta ined b y s e t t ing t he wa l l t imbers s u f f icien t ly d eep i n to t he g round t o c oun teract t he o u tward t hrus t o f t he r oo f , a nd i ti s t h is s o lu t ion wh ich s ee ms t o b e r epresen ted b y t he G roup A h u ts , where t he wa l l t renches wou ld h ave b een ( a l low ing f or modern p lough ing ) 0 .75 - 1 .15 m d eep . When C 8 was r econs truc ted a s C 8A , t h is d ep th was i ncreased t o 1 .45 m , p resumab ly t o o bta in a f ir m b edd ing f or t he n ew wa l l . Where t he e v idence s urv ives ( e .g . i n C 8 ; F ig . 5 ) t he wa l l t imbers were o f s ubs tan t ia l s ec t ion , a bou t 3 5 ems i n d ia me ter , a nd f or med a v ir tua l ly s o l id t imber wa l l . Add i t iona l s uppor t a nd i nsu la t ion c ou ld h ave b een g a ined b y r eve t t ing t he wa l ls w i th t ur f a nd s o i l . The p resence o f i n terna l p os ts t o s uppor t t he r oo f , a l though n o t d e mons tra ted , c an b e imp l ied b y t he f ac t t ha t t he s pan o f t he r a f ters - 6 t o 7m — s ee ms t oo 5 1

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g rea t w i thout I n ter med ia te s uppor t .

S uch p os ts w ou ld , h owever , n o t b e s ub jec t

t o l a tera l t hrus t , a nd wou ld b e a s e f fec t ive r es ting o n t he g round s ur face , o r v ir tua l ly s o , a s i np os tho les .

S uch p os ts w ou ld , o f c ourse , l eave n o t race i n

t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . The f or m o f c ons truc t ion d escr ibed h as o bv ious d isadvan tages : t he n eed f or s ubs tan t ia l q uan t i t ies o f h eavy t imber f or t he wa l ls , t he e f for t o f d igg ing d eep t renches , a nd t he d ispropor t iona te e f fec t o f g round l eve l d ecay o n t imbers i nt ens ion . I t wou ld t here fore s ee m a dvan tageous t o c on ta in t he t hrus t a t t he e aves , s o t ha t t he wa l l t imbers mere ly t rans m i t t heir s hare o f t he r oo f l oad d ownwards . I n s uch c ircu ms tances , t he wa l l t imbers n eed o n ly b e b ur ied t o as u f f ic ien t d ep th t o e nsure t he g enera l s tabi l i ty o f t he s truc ture a nd i t s f ir m a nchorage t o t he g round . T he o bv ious me thod o f c on ta in ing t he t hrus t i s t o t i e t he t ops o f t he wa l l t imbers w i th w i th ies , t o c rea te a f or m o f r ing b ea mt h is wou ld b e i n t ens ion wh i ls t t he h u t s tood , b u t wou ld b e b e t ter a ble t o r es is t r o t t han t he f ee t o f wa l l p os ts s e t i n to t he g round . Th is f or m o f c ons truc t ion s ee ms t o c orrespond w i th o ur g roup B h ouses , w i th wa l l t renches o r ig ina l ly 6 0-70 ems d eep ( e .g . C 3 , F ig . 5 ) . Where t he e v idence s urv ives , f or e xa mple i nt he c ase o f C 7 ( Fig . 5 ) , t here i s at endency f or t he wa l l t imbers t o b e l i gh ter , a nd t here i s a lso s o me e v idence o f t he u se o f p os t a nd p ane l c ons truc t ion . An a l terna t ive s o lu t ion i s c once ivab le : t he e x tens ion o f t he f ee t o f t he p r incip a l r a f ters t o g round l eve l , t he h u t wa l l t hen a c t ing mere ly a s a n i n termed ia te s uppor t , a nd b y v ir tue o f i t s b e ing s e t i n to t he g round wou ld a nchor t he s truc ture . H owever , t h is s ee ms u n l ike ly , s ince n o p os tho les were f ound o u ts ide t he wa l l l ines , a nd i ft he p os ts w ere s o s ha l low ly s e t a s t o l eave n o t race , t hey w -u ld b e p rone t o r o t a nd t o t he s o f ten ing o f t he ir b ear ings i n we t w ea ther . I n c o m mon w i th g roup A h u ts , t here i s n o r eason why e v idence o f i n terna l p os ts s hou ld s urv ive . Two o r t hree p os ts l y ing o n a n a rc c oncen tr ic w i th t he wa l ls i n h ouses C 6 a nd C 9 may r epresen t r ep lace men ts o f o r ig ina l p os ts , b u t e qua l ly t hey may b e c onnec ted p ure ly w i th d o mes t ic f i t t ings .

T here i s at en-

d ency f or s ubs tan t ia l p os ts t o f l ank t he e n trances o f g roup B h u ts , p resu mab ly t o s uppor t ah or izon ta l b ea m wh ich c arr ied t he r a f ters o ver t he g ap , g enera lly a bou t 4m w ide . T he e n trances u sua l ly f ace e as t o u t o f t he p reva i l ing w ind . S o me G roup B h ouses , p ar t icu lar ly C 4 , h ave wa l l t renches more p o lygona l t han c ircu lar , b u t o n ly C 15 a nd C 18 , f or m ing G roup C , t ake t he f or m o f more o r

l ess r egu lar p o lygons ( F ig . 7 ) .

I ft he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he G roup B h ouses

i n t er ms o f t he. u se o f w i th ies t o c rea te a n e f fec t ive r ing-bea m i s c orrec t , i t s ee ms l og ica l t o r eso lve t he c ircle i n to a p o lygon , t hus p er m i t t ing t he u se o f a wa l l p la te made u p o f j o in ted s tra igh t s ec t ions o f t imber .

S ince t he r esu l tan t

s truc ture wou ld d epend f or much o f i t s s treng th o n t he j o in ts b e tween wa l l p la te s ec t ions , a nd b e tween t he wa l l p la te a nd t he u pr igh ts , r e la t ive ly h igh s tandards o f c arpen try wou ld h ave b een n ecessary , a nd a re i ndeed i nd ica ted b y o ther f eat ures o n t he s i te . I ti s a lso wor th c ons ider ing whe ther o r n o t i ron f ix ings were u sed i nt hese s truc tures , s ince n a i ls a nd d ogs d om ina te t he meta lwork a sse mb lage f ro m t he s i te .

The s urv iv ing e xa mp les a re a l l sma l l , b u t g iven

t he r e la t ive ly h igh c on te mporary v a lue o f t he ma ter ia l , i t wou ld n o t b e s urpr is ing i fa l l t he l arger e xa mp les were s a lvaged . H ouse C 18 i s n o table f or i t s t hree ' en trances ' o n t he n or th , e as t , a nd s ou th . T hese s ee m u nnecessary s o le ly f or p rov id ing a ccess a nd may h ave b een 5 4

i n tended p r irrar i ly t o a dm i t l igh t a nd a ir t o t he i n ter ior .

The b u i ld ing s ee ms

t o h ave b een c ons truc ted f or s o me s pec ia l p urpose, b u t wha t i t was , t he e v id ence d oes n ot s ugges t . Two a pparen t ly s uccess ive p hases o f b lock ing l e f t t he b u i ld ing w i th a s ing le s ubs tan t ia l e n trance o nt he e as t , d iv ided b y ac en tra l p os t . H ouse 1 5 p robab ly h ad b u t o ne e n trance o n t he e as t , b eyond t he l im i t o f e xcava t ion . The u l t i ma te p lan s ee ms t o h ave r esu l ted f ro m d iscon t inuous r econs truc t ion o f t he wa l l . I ft he a ng les o f t he p o lygon c orrespond w i th t he p os i t ions o f t he p r inc ipa l r a f ters , t he 1 4 i nd ica ted f or h ouse 1 8 c o mpare f avourab ly w i th t he n umber i nd ica ted b y a n i nner r ing o f p os tho les a t o ther s i tes , f or e xa mp le L landega i 2( Musson 1 970 ). I n c on tras t t o t he P er iod I s truc tures , t he e ncirc l ing f ea tures o f t he P er iod I I h ouses were u nm is takab ly g u l l ies , w i th a l ower f i l l ing r ich i n d o mes t ic r efuse , e specia l ly n ear t he e n trances . Wi th in C 2 ( F ig . 8 ) an umber o f p os th o les were f ound , whose f unc t ion c an b e i n terpre ted a s i n termedia te s uppor ts f or t he r oo f o f t he h ouse ; t he f ra m ing a ppears t o h ave e x tended t hrough t he g ap i n t he g u l ley t o f or m ap orch s truc ture .

I n c on tras t t o t he P er iod I h ouses ,

i t was t hese p os ts wh ich mus t h ave h e lped a nchor t he s truc ture , t he e x terna l wa l l s ee m ing ly b eing s o s l igh t a s t o l eave n o t race a t ad ep th o f s o me 3 0 cms o r more b e low t he o r ig ina l s ur face . Bu t s uch s l igh tness may b e more i l lusory t han r ea l , f or t he d es truc t ion f i l l ing o f t he g u l ley c ons is ted o f r e la t ive ly c lean ma ter ia l s ee ming ly d er ived f ro m a n i n terna l b ank .

One migh t t here fore s ug-

g es t ar econs truc t ion i n wh ich a r e la t ive ly l igh t t imber wa l l r e ta ins a t ur f a nd s oi l b ank , o ver wh ich t he r oo f e x tends d own t o t he l i p o f t he g u l ley . P ara l le ls f or t h is a rrange men t c an b e f ound i n s urv iv ing p r im i t ive b u i ld ings i n B r i t tany , a nd i nt he r ecen t e xcava t ions a t Muck ing ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 5 E , F ) a nd a t Orset t p ar ts o f t he s take c irc les o nt he p red ic ted i n terna l wa l ll i ne h ave b een f ound .

T he a l terna t ive s ugges t ion , o f at ur f ' mass wa l l ' , s eems i nheren t ly

l ess s tab le a nd t here fore l ess l i ke ly . H ouse 1 , o n ly p art ly e xcava ted , s ee ms t o h ave b een o f s im i lar f or m a l though sma l ler a nd l ack ing c lear e v idence o f ap orch . The f i l l ings o f t he g u l l ies o f b o th h ouses were i den t ica l , b u t t heir c lose j ux tapos i t ion s ugges ts t ha t t hey may b e s uccess ive . S truc tura l ly t he P er iod I V h ouse , C 5 , was p robab ly s im i lar t o t he P er iod I , g roup B , e xa mp les , b u t i t was d is t inc t ly s quar ish i n p lan w i th a n e n trance s i ted t owards o ne ' c orner ' . I ti nv i tes c o mpar ison ( s ee F ig . 9 ) w i th a much sma l ler b u i ld ing e xcava ted i n C aesaro magus - C he l ms ford - i n 1 975 , d a ted t o t he t h ird d ecade o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D . The d i f ference b e tween t he t wo s tructures i s e ssen t ia l ly o ne o f s ca le ; t he Wa l tha m b u i ld ing s ee ms t o b e a h ouse whereas t he C he l ms ford s truc ture i s n o more t han a n o u tbu i ld ing , c ons truc ted i n wha t was b y t hen a n a rcha ic v ernacu lar t rad i t ion . Dr . R odwe l l h as c onv inc ing ly s ugges ted t ha t t he t yp ica l s truc tures o f t he u l t i ma te I ron Age p hase i n t he a rea were r ec tangu lar . T he s hape o f t he Wa l th am a nd C he l ms ford b u i ld ings s ee m t o s how t he i n f luence o f r ec tangu lar b u i ld ings , b u t t hey s ee m t o d e mons tra te t he s urv iva l o f t he s truc tura l t rad i t ions o f t he p re-Be lg ic p er iod a t s uccess ively l ower

s ocia l l eve ls .

R ectangu lar S truc tures N ine r ec tangu lar s truc tures were i den ti f ied , o f wh ich 8were o f t he we l lk nown f our-pos t t ype .

The o ther , R 4 , s i ted i n t he m idd le o f t he o pen s e t t le-

men t , was c . 8 .5 m b y 3m , a nd s erves t o r em ind u s o f t he o ccas iona l p resence 5 6

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o f r ec laagu lar b u i ld ings o n s i tes o f t h is p er iod . I t was r econs truc ted a t l eas t o nce . The f our-pos t s truc tures o f P er iod I a l l h ave s ides i n t he p ropor t ion o f b e tween 1 0 :8 a nd 1 0 :9 . I n t hree c lear c ases , t wo p a irs o f p os tho les a re marked ly s ha l lower a nd i n tended f or sma l ler p os ts t han t he o ther t wo . S uch e v idence may b e i n terpre ted a s f avour ing a monopi tch r oo f f or s uch s truc tures , t he h eav ier a nd more d eep ly s e t p os ts i ndica t ing t he h igher wa l l . On p ure ly p rac t ica l g rounds , t heir s i ze d oes n o t j us t i fy a ny th ing more e labora te , a nd a s S tan ford ( 1 970 , 1 11) h as p o in ted o u t , o ne w ou ld e xpec t ar idged r oo f t o b e r ef l ec ted i np lan b y s ix p os ts , s uch s truc tures i ndeed b e ing k nown f ro m s evera l s i tes , i nc lud ing Muck ing ( J ones 1 974 , 1 90 ) . Tha t s i te h as a lso p rov ided a n e xa mp le o f an ine-pos t s truc ture , wh ich i s p robab ly t o b e i n terpre ted a s h av ing ar idged r oo f s uppor ted b y a n i n ter med ia te t russ . The t wo f our-pos t s truc tures o f P er iod I I were s quare a nd l ay t owards t he l im i ts o f t he e nc losure . R 2 was n otable f or i t s s ize , c . 3 .5 m s quare w i th p os ts C . 0 .45 m ( 1f t 6i ns ) i n d ia me ter ,a nd may e ven h ave b een o f t wo s tor ies . The og ler , R 1 ( F ig . 8 ) was n o tab le f or t he f ac t t ha t t he c orner p os ts were c lear ly s quare a nd s e t d iagona l ly t o t he ma in a xes o f t he b u i ld ing .

Th is f ea ture

s ee ms t o imp ly f a ir ly s oph is t ica ted c arpen try b u t t here s ee ms t o b e n o o bv ious s truc tura l r eason f or i t . The l ack o f s torage p i ts , p robab ly f or t he p rac t ica l r eason t ha t t hey wou ld r ap id ly f i l l w i th wa ter , p rov ides c ircu ms tan t ia l e v idence f or t he u se o f t hese s truc tures f or g ra in s torage , a l though o ther f unc t ions a re p oss ib le . O ther S truc tures T he o n ly o ther f ea tures o f n o te were t he t wo-pos t s truc tures . O f t he 3 4 p resen t i n a l l I ron Age p hases , 1 4 were w i th in 2 0 cms o f 2 .5 m , 1 1 w i th in 2 0 cms o f 3 .5 m , a nd t hree e ach w i th in 2 0 cms o f 2m a nd 4 m .

I n o ther words ,

t hey s epara te i n to t wo ma jor a nd t wo minor g roups , t he d i f feren t l eng ths p erh aps i mp lying d i f feren t f unc t ions .

I fs o , t he t wo mos t c o mmon u ses s ee m t o

h ave r equ ired s truc tures 2 .5 a nd 3 .5 m l ong . S o f ar a s a l ignmen t i s c oncerned , al i t t le more t han h a l f a re a t r igh t a ng les t o t he v a l ley s lope , a nd a bou t h a l f t he r e ma inder a re p ara l le l t o i t , b u t t here i s n o o bv ious c orrela t ion b e tween l eng th a nd a l ignmen t . The P o t tery Ac ons iderab le q uan t i ty o f p o t tery was f ound , wh ich c anno t b e c ons idered a t l eng th h ere . S ave f or a f ew o u ts tand ing i t e ms , t he p o t tery o f P er iods I -IV i s v ir tua l ly i den t ica l i nf or m a nd f abr ic r ange . S even teen f or ms h ave b een d is t ingu ished ( F igs . 1 0 , 1 1 ) , mos t o f wh ich o ccur i n a l l t hree p er iods , b u t a na lys is s hows ( F ig . 1 2 ) t ha t t he p ropor t ions i n wh ich t hese f orms o ccur r e lat i ve t o o ne a no ther c hange d e mons trably f ro m p er iod t o p er iod , a s d oes t he p ropor t ion o f f ine wares p robab ly n ot o f l oca l o r ig in . Thus t he r a ther a ngu lar j ar , f or m 1 , d ecl ines s tead i ly i n impor tance , a nd t he e ver ted-r im f oo tr ing b ow l , f or m 1 3 , i ncreases i n impor tance i n P er iod I I , o n ly t o d ec l ine i n P er iod I V .

One p oin t a t l eas t i s c lear :

we a re d ea l ing w i th a ma ture c era m ic s ty le ,

e vo lved b e fore t he e s tab l ish men t o f t he o pen s e t t le men t i n t he t h ird c en tury B .C. Mos t o f t he p o t tery was p robab ly made o n o r n ear t he s i te , i n t hree b as ic f abr ics -p redo m inan t ly s and ( H ) , v ege table ( G ) , o r f l in t-te mpered ( J ) , a ccount ing f or a bou t 8 0 , 1 2 , a nd 7% o f e ach g roup r espec t ive ly , t he f l in t-te mpered f abr ic b eing g enera l ly r eserved f or l arge c oarse v esse ls . 5 9

F 6

2 0cms F ig 1 0

,

F1 0B

F 14

k / F 15A

F 15B

F 15C

( 1 F 16

0

2 0cms

F ig 1

P ER IODI I H u t G roup A %

1 07 v esse ls

2 51

I _ -

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 8

P ER IOD I H u t G roups B& C 2 5 -

%

1 05 v esse ls

i m .

0

0

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 011 21 31 41 51 61 71 8 f o rm

0

5 2 v esse ls

12 34 5 6 7 8 91 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 8

P ER IOD H I A l l F ea tures 25-

%

f o rm

8 1v esse ls

P ER IOD I I E nc losures E 1&2 25-

%

%

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 011 21 31 41 51 61 71 8

P ER IOD I H u ts C l &C 2 2 5 -

%

f o rm

f o rm

1 47 v esse ls

-

12 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 8

P ER IOD E Z A l l F ea tures 2 5 -

7 2v esse ls

f o rm

-

m m A IMT-61 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I LM I I IL_Bm 1= _ _ _ _ _i iir _ 0i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 8 f o rm

S ize

G roups :

_ I L

A— D , F ig 1 2

_ EL

E

I n P er iod I V , t he i nc idence o f t hese v esse ls d ecl ines a nd f or t he f irs t t ime wha t m igh t b e c a l led ' Be lg ic ' p o t tery o ccurs .

One v esse l i s a l lied t o G roup

Ic o f Dr. Rodwel l 's ' ear l iest Belg ic ' wares ( Rodwel l 1 976b ,

2 25-34,

F ig.

1 6.21-6 ) , b u t t he o ther t wo v essels f a l l o u ts ide t he n or ma l r ange o f ' Belg ic ' p o ttery f ound i n s ou th-east Eng land.

The t a l l v essel , F ig. 1 3.1,

r ese mbles a much smal ler v essel f ound b eneath Red H il l I I a t L angenhoe ( Fig . 1 3.2 ) w ith a v essel d ecora ted i n c urv il inear s ty le ( Reader 1 908 , 2 8 , F ig. 8 B) , wh ilst t he o ther , F ig. 1 3.3, h as s tabbed d ecorat ion i n z ones , p rob ably p endan t t r iang les , p art ly d ef ined b y b urn ished l ines. A f rag men t o f a s im i lar ly d ecorated v essel , F ig. 1 3.4 , c o mes f ro m H eybr idge a nd a no ther s ee ms t o b e r ecorded f rom Asheldha m.

These v essels f ind c lose p aral lels i n

t he m idd le Rh ineland a rea , p art icu larly a t t he c e metery o f Wedera th-Belg inu m ( Ha f fner 1 971) , t he s ource o f v esse ls 5 -9 i n F ig . 1 3 ; n o . 1 0 i s f ro m t he T r ier a rea .

The v esse ls w i th s tabbed d ecora t ion a re t here a ss igned t o t he

L a T bne D2 p hase , d a ted c . 5 0/40 — 2 0/10 B .C . a nd t he t a l l b eaker , F ig . 1 3 .5 , s hou ld b e long t o L a n ne D 1, b eg inn ing c . 1 00 B . C . ( f or d a t ing s ee Ha f fner 1 974 , 6 8-9 ) .

The mos t l i ke ly p er iod f or t he v esse ls t o o ccur t oge ther t hus

s ee ms t o b e t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C .

Whe ther a ny o r a l l

o f t he E ssex v esse ls a re impor ts , o r whether we a re s i mp ly d ea l ing w i th a s tyl is t ic s im i lar i ty , i s a s y e t u nc lear , b u t s o me c onnec t ion b e tween t he a rea a round t he B lackwa ter e s tuary a nd t he Midd le Rh ine land a t t h is p er iod s ee ms i nescapable .

Whe ther t h is c onnec t ion was d ue t o c o m merce o r was t he r esu l t

o f sma l l-sca le f o lk- move men t , p erhaps i n r e la t ion t o R o man a ct iv i ty i n G au l , i ti s n o t y e t p oss ib le t o s ugges t . T he C hang ing N a ture o f t he S e t t le men t Wi th t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he v esse ls f ro m t he l a tes t p er iod o f s e t t lemen t , t he c era m ic e v idence a rgues s trong ly f or b as ic c u l tura l c on t inu i ty a nd a ga ins t f o lk- move men t , whereas t he c hang ing f or ms o f t he s e t t le men ts a nd t he s truc tures w i th in t he m s ee m t o a rgue f or u pheava l a nd s oc ia l c hange . There s ee m t o b e f our p oss ib le e xp lana t ions , n o t n ecessar i ly mu tua l ly e xc lus ive , f or t he o bserved c hanges .

F irs t ly , i ti s p oss ib le t o s ee t he c hange

f ro m o pen v i l lage t o e nc losed s e t t le men t i n s oc io-econo m ic t er ms , i .e . a s b e ing d ue t o i ncreas ing p opu la t ion a nd c onsequen t p ressure o n t he l and , e spec ia l ly i ft he e nclosed s e t t le men t s hou ld t urn o u t , o n f u l l e xcava t ion , t o b e a s ing le f ar m u n i t . S econd ly , c hang ing a gr icu l tura l p rac t ice c ou ld b e i nvo lved , a nd h ere o ne mus t r egre t t he f ac t t ha t s oi l c ond i t ions a re g enera l ly h os t i le t o t he s urv iva l o f f auna l a nd e nv ironmen ta l e v idence .

Th ird ly , i fo ne a ccep ts

Dr . R odwe l l 's s ugges t ion ( 1 976b , 1 83-211) t ha t a n a rea o f p r i mary B e lg ic c o lon isa t ion was e s tab l ished a round C o lches ter i n t he l a te s econd — e ar ly f irs t c en tur ies B . C ., o ne migh t s ee Wa l tha m a s f a l l ing o nt he b order b e tween t he B e lg ic Tr inovan tes a nd t he i nd igenous C a tuve l laun i :

l igh t ly d e fended h ouses

a re , a f ter a l l , ac o m mon f ea ture o f b order a reas ( e .g . b as t les o n t he Eng l ish/ S co t t ish b order : Ra m m e t . a l . ,1 970 ) . S uch c ircu ms tances o f u pheava l migh t p rov ide a s i tua t ion f avourab le t o t he i n troduc t ion o f an ew h ouse t ype i n to t he a rea .

I ti s a s y e t t oo e ar ly t o s ugges t h ow l oca l ised were t he t radi t ions o f

h ouse c ons truc t ion i nt h is p er iod .

F ina l ly , i ti s a lso p oss ib le t ha t t he Wa l tha m

s e t t le men ts r epresen t d i fferen t s oc ia l l eve ls — t he d i f fer ing p ropor t ions o f f ine t o c oarse p o t tery may b e r e levan t h ere , a nd t he s ugges t ion h as a lready b een made i n c onnec t ion w i th t he P er iod I V s e t t le men t .

6 3

F ig 1 3

0

2 0 cms

C hance f inds s ugges t t ha t t he u l t i ma te I ron Age s e t t le men t l ay t o t he s ou th-wes t o f t he e xcava ted s i te , c oeva l w i th a R o mano-Br i t ish n uclea ted s e t t le men t ( F ig . 1 4 ) p robab ly c a l led a v icus e ar ly i n t he S axon p er iod , t he a ppe l la t ion s urv iv ing i n t he n a me Wickha m L ey ( Drury 1 978a ;

G e l l ing 1 967 ) .

The s i te l i es a t t he c en tre o f ap a t tern o f f ie lds s urv iv ing i n t he modern l ands cape , a l igned b road ly o n t he r iver C he l mer i nt he v icin i ty o f t he e xcava ted s e t t le men t .

E xcava t ion s howed t ha t a n e le men t o f t h is s ys te m wh ich o ver lay

t he P er iod I V s e t t le men t wen t o u t o f u se i n t he C laud io-Neron ian p er iod , wh i ls t a no ther , i n u se t hroughou t t he R o man p er iod , was c lear ly r ela ted t o as urv iv ing modern b oundary .

I tt here fore s ee ms r easonable t o c onc lude

t ha t t he o r ig ins o f t h is s ys te m l i e i n t he l a te p re-Ro man I ron Age , ah ypo thes is s upported b y t he f ac t t ha t t he R o man r oad l ead ing n or th-eas twards f ro m t he s e t t le men t , a nd wh ich s ee ms t o b e long t o t he mid-f irs t c en tury A .D ., c u ts a cross t he p a t tern , d iagona l ly d iv id ing f ie lds i n t he v icin i ty o f E -F o n F ig . 1 4 . D esp i te s uch c lear e v idence o f t he s urv iva l o f c er ta in f i e lds f ro m t he p reR o man p er iod , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t many o f t he b oundar ies s hown o n F ig . 1 4 ( based o n t he t i the maps o f c . 1 840 ) a re o f l a ter o r ig in , r esu l t ing f ro m t he d iv is ion a nd ama lga ma t ion o f f i e lds w i th in a n e s tabl ished f ra mework .

N one-

t he less , i ti s c lear t ha t f or t ha t f ra mework t o s urv ive , t he l and i nvo lved mus t h ave b een i n v ir tua l ly c on t inuous a gr icu l tura l u se s ince t he l a te I ron Age : t he s urv iv ing e x ten t o f t he f ie ld s ys te m i nd ica tes t he min i mu m amoun t o f l and i n a gr icu l tura l u se a t t he l owes t e bb o f p rosper i ty i n t he i n terven ing p er iod . The r oad f ro m C he l ms ford n or thwards a long t he C he l mer v a l ley t owards G rea t Dunmow , c lear ly i n u se i nt he R o man p er iod , f or ms t he s p ine o f t he p reR o man s ys te m o f l and d iv is ion , a nd a n e as t-wes t r ou te ( D — A — 1 ) i s c lear , a s we l l a s at en ta t ive n or th-sou th r ou te ( F — M ) o n t he e as t s ide o f t he C he lmer .

THE MIDDLE I RON AGE :

OTHER S ETTLE MENTS

A s e t t le men t a t Ard le igh , i n n or th-wes t E ssex , was e xcava ted i n ar a ther u nsa t is fac tory f ash ion i n 1 967-8 .

I t mus t b e b road ly c on te mporary w i th t he

s e t t le men ts a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , a nd o n t he b as is o f t he p ubl ished e v idence ( Er i th a nd H o lber t 1 970 ) , Dr . R odwe l l ( 1976 , 3 3-4 ) h as t en ta t ive ly s ugges ted am in i mum o f t hree p hases o f d eve lop men t .

The s ing le p hase i n terpre ta t ion

p u t f orward b y t he e xcava tors , a nd s uppor ted b y Dr . H ard ing ( 1974 , 2 9-31) i s c lear ly i ncorrec t .

T he f irs t p hase s ee ms t o h ave c o mpr ised a s ing le

i so la ted h u t , t o wh ich a sma l l e nc losure , p robab ly d e f ined b y ap a l isade r a ther t han a d i tch , was s ubsequen t ly a dded .

F ina l ly , t he e nc losure s ee ms t o h ave

b een e n larged , a nd i n t h is p hase d e f ined b y ad i tch .

T he f or m o f t he h u t i n

e ach p hase i s u nc lear , d ue t o t he i nadequacy o f t he p ub l ished e v idence .

I t

h as a lso b een s ugges ted ( Rodwe l l 1 976 , 3 3 ) t ha t t he h u t may h ave f or med p ar t o f a' v i l lage ' s im i lar t o t he Wa l tha m P er iod I s e t t le men t . H owever , a er ia l p ho tography t o d a te h as f a i led t o d isc lose o ther c rop- marks i n i t s im med ia te v ic in i ty ; a l though s uch n ega t ive e v idence c an n ever b e c onclus ive , t here i s n o r eason t o d is trus t t he impress ion o f r e la t ive i so la t ion . When a na lys is a nd p ubl ica t ion i s c o mp le ted , Muck ing w i l l u ndoubted ly p rov ide a n i nva luab le p ic ture o f t he d eve lop men t o f a ma jor s e t t le men t d ur ing t he M idd le a nd l a ter p hases o f t he I ron Age .

A t t h is j unc ture , o n ly a f ew g enera l

p o in ts o f c o mpar ison c an u se fu l ly b e made . 6 5

L ITTLE WALTHA M : F ie ld S y s tem 1 7 ` -

v i l la N

N

2

* \

\

0

2 Km

R oads c .1840 F ie ld F ig 1 4

Fm R omano-B r i t ish F a rm

B ounda r ies

c . 1840

a ,b

S P r inc ipa l S e t t lemen t

W ickham L ey , L i t t le W ickham L e

F irs t ly , t here i s c lear ly a n u nenc losed s e t t le men t o f r ound-houses ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 3 ) o ver la in b y a' horseshoe ' e nc losure .

The h ouses a re r a ther

more w ide ly s paced t han a t Wa l tha m , b u t t h is d i f ference i s p robab ly a r ef lec t ion o f t he d i f feren t l andscapes i nvo lved .

S econd ly , t here i s ac lus ter o f

h u ts s o me d is tance t o t he s ou th a ssocia ted w i th r a ther sma l l e nc losures ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 4 ) ;

a no ther h u t ( Jones 1 974 , F ig . 3a t 1 150 x 3 00 ) i s

a t tached t o a sma l l e nc losure , s uper f icia l ly a t l eas t s im i lar t o Ard le igh , p hases 2 a nd 3 .

Th is l i es i n t he a rea o f t he o pen s e t t le men t , b u t t he r e la t ion-

s h ip b e tween t he t wo i s a s y e t u nknown .

To t he n or th , t here i s a much l arger

t rapezoida l e nc losure c on ta in ing a t l eas t t wo h u ts , n o t n ecessar i ly i n c ont e mporary u se ( M . U . J ones , p ers . c omm ) .

Th is l a t ter e nc losure s ee ms t o

p rov ide a p ara l le l f or t he e nc losed s e t t le men t a t L i t t le Wa l tha m ( assu m ing t ha t t he l a t ter r epresen ts a f ar ms tead r a ther t han a n uclea ted s e t t le men t ) a nd l i ke Wa l tha m i tp robab ly d a tes f ro m t he f irs t c en tury B .C .

The r e la t ive c hrono-

l ogy o f t he Muck ing s et t le men t h as y e t t o b e worked o u t i n d e ta i l , b u t i t s ee ms p robab le t ha t t he o pen s e t t le men t p re-da tes t he e nc losed s i tes . Many o f t he r ound-houses a t Muck ing , wh ich r ange f ro m l ess t han 5 t o 1 8 m i n d ia me ter , a re c lear ly s im i lar t o t hose o f P er iod I I a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , i nt ha t t hey a re p r i mar i ly d e f ined b y a n e nc irc l ing g u l ley s o me d is tance f ro m t he d ef in i te o r s upposed l ine o f t he i n terna l wa l l o f t he b u i ld ing .

I n s o me c ases ,

t he l ine o f t he i n terna l wa l l i s d ef ined b y an arrow s lot o r l ine o f s takeho les 1 -1.5 m f ro m t he i nner e dge o f t he g u l ley ( Jones 1 974 , 1 94 a nd F ig . 5 E , F ; F ig . 4 , s ou thernmos t h ouse ) . The e n trance i s g enera l ly emphas ised b y ap air o f s ubs tan tia l a nd d eep ly s e t d oorpos ts , wh ich may e ven b e t he o n ly s truc tura l e v idence o f t he b u i ld ing t o s urv ive ( e .g . J ones 1 974 , F ig . 5C ) , a l though r ef lec t ions o f ac en tra l r ing o f r e la t ive ly d eep ly s et p os ts a re p robab ly t o b e d iscerned i n t he p a l i mpses t o f p os tho les i n t he c en tra l a reas o f s o me h u ts ( i bid ., F ig . 5 A , D ). I n s o me c ases p orches , e x tend ing t hrough t he g u l ley c irc le , s ee m t o b e e v idenced b y as econd p a ir o f p os tho les p ara l le l w i th t he d oor p os ts ( i b id ., p . 1 96 ) .

The d i f ferences b e tween h u ts o f t h is t ype a t Wa l tha m a nd Muck ing ,

p ar t icu lar ly t he emphas is o n d oorpos ts a t t he l a t ter , a re p robab ly t ypica l o f t he l oca l s ty l is t ic v ar ia t ions wh ich migh t r easonab ly b e e xpec ted i n a n a rea a s l arge a s t he o ne u nder c ons idera t ion . H ouses d e f ined b y wa l l t renches a re a lso e v idenced a t Muck ing

( e .g . t he

e ar l ies t p hase o f J ones 1 974 , F ig . 5 B ) b u t a re c lear ly l ess c o m mon t han t hose d e fined b y e nc ircling g u l l ies .

The s lo ts s ee m t o h ave b een f a ir ly s ha l low , i n

l ine w i th t hose o f G roups B a nd C f ound i n t he P er iod I I s e t t le men t a t Wa l tha m . At h ird t ype a lso s ee ms t o b e p resen t , i n wh ich a wa l l t rench o r s lo t i s c losely s urrounded b y ac oncen tr ic g u l ley — s o c lose ly t ha t a t g round l eve l t he g u l ley mus t h ave im med ia te ly a d jo ined t he t imber wa l l ( e .g . J ones 1 974 , F ig . 5 B ). These r ound-houses s ee m t o b e long , a s a t Wa l tha m , p r i mar i ly t o t he Midd le I ron Age , a l though s o me a re a s l a te a s t he R o man p er iod ( Jones 1 974 , 1 88 ) ; t h is s ee ms t o b e a no ther i ns tance o f t he s urv iva l o f a rcha ic b u i ld ing f or ms a t al ow s oc ia l l eve l ( above ) i n t h is c ase p resu mably a s s hepherd 's h u ts . Anc i l lary b u i ld ings a re a lso r epresen ted a t Muck ing , i nc lud ing f our , s ix a nd n ine-pos t s truc tures , p robab ly g ranar ies ( i b id ., 1 90-91 ).

6 7

Another s i te i n t he Thurrock a rea , a t G un H i l l , h as b een r ecen t ly p ubl i shed i n d e ta i l ( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 ) a nd w i l l b e c ons idered b r ie f ly h ere . I tl i es t o t he wes t o f Muck ing , o n t he 7 5 f tT hames t errace , a nd was l argely d es troyed b y g rave l q uarrying d ur ing 1 969-70 . E xcava t ion a nd o bserv a t ion was u n for tuna te ly u nder taken o n al im i ted s ca le a nd t he f ina l r esu l ts were f ar f ro m s a t is fac tory . E v idence o f E ar ly I ron Age s e t t le men t was r a ther f ragmen tary ( s ee b e low ,) b u t t wo s uccess ive s em i-c ircu lar s truc tures o f t he Midd le I ron Age were o f p ar t icu lar i n teres t ( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , Area A , F ig . 6 , 5 3-54 , 6 0 ) . The l a ter a nd more c o mp le te e xa mp le ( F ig . 1 5 ) was d e f ined b y as ha l low wa l l-trench o f s em i-c ircu lar p lan ; o n t he d ia me tr ica l l ine was a s ing le l arge p os tho le , 1 .5 m f ro m t he n or th-eas t b u t t e nd o f t he s lo t , t he p os t p robably f lank ing t he e n trance . I nt he a rea e nc losed b y e ach s lo t was a s ing le p i t ; o ne p i t was r ecu t , t he l a tes t p hase c on tain ing i ron-work ing d ebr is . An i n terp re ta t ion o f s uch s truc tures a s workshops s ee ms l i ke ly ( i b id ., 9 6-7 ) .

T he

main s em i-c ircu lar wa l l was p robab ly f or med o f t imbers i n t he s a me manner a s t he P er iod I , G roup B h u ts a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , t i ed t oge ther a t t he t op ; t he t wo o pen e nds wou ld p robab ly h ave b een l i nked b y ah or izon ta l b ea m , p erh aps j o in ted o ver t he s ugges ted d oorpos t . The f i l ling o f t he o pen s ide was p resumab ly o f l i gh twe igh t — i ndeed p robab ly r e movable — p ane ls , i n o rder t o a dm i t l igh t a nd a ir i n to t he i n ter ior a s n ecessary . The o bv ious p ara l le l i s w i th c er ta in sm i th ies o f more r ecen t t imes , w i th o ne e ssen tia l ly o pen s ide , c losed o n ly b y s hu t ters o r d oor , a nd h ere t he p i t c on ta ining i ronwork ing d ebr is s ee ms t o b e r e levan t . The c ons truc t ion o f ar oo f o ver a b u i ld ing o f t h is t ype n eed n ot p resen t d i ff icu l t ies . Ap a ir o f p r incipa l r a f ters s uppor ted b y s tudwork c ou ld h ave b een e rec ted o nt he d ia me tr ica l b ea m , f or m ing i n e f fec t a g ab le e nd ; f ro m t he a pex o f t h is , c o mmon r af ters c ou ld b e t aken d own t o t he t op o f t he wa l l a nd s ecured a t b o th e nds . The e x is tence o f s em i-c ircu lar p os tho le s truc tures a t H eybr idge a nd p rob ab ly Muck ing i n as o mewha t e ar l ier p er iod h as a lready b een n oted ( p . a bove ) .

T here a re many l a ter e xa mp les a t Muck ing , d ef ined b y wa l l t renches

o r p oss ib ly e nc irc l ing g u l l ies ( e .g . J ones 1 974 , F ig . 4 , i n wes tern p ar t o f ma in e nc losure ; F ig . 5 , a t 1 125 x 2 50E ) a nd R odwe l l ( 1 976a , 4 4 ) d iscusses t he ir i ncidence o u ts ide t he s tudy a rea . A t al a ter d a te , o ccupa t ion a nd c u l t iva t ion o f t he s urround ing l and a t Gm H i l l s ee ms t o h ave c eased , t he h i l l top s ubsequen t ly b e ing d om ina ted b y a n e x terna l ly embanked e nc losure a pproached f ro m s o me d is tan t p lace t o t he n or th b y a? droveway ' d e fined b y t wo d i tches , a lso w i th e x terna l b anks . The c hanges s ee m t o s ugges t a n i n tens i f ica t ion o f p as tora l is m i n t he a rea . The l a ter h is tory o f t he s i te i s o u ts ide t he s cope o f t h is p aper , b u t h as b een f u l ly d escr ibed i n Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 . A ' horseshoe d i tch ' e xcava ted a t A ldwick , B are ly , H er ts . i n 1 959 ( Cra 's ter 1 961) i s , a s D r . R odwe l l h as p oin ted o u t ( 1 976a , 4 3 ) a no ther e xa mp le o f a s em i-c ircu lar b u i lding .

The s i te i s o n t he s ou thfac ing s lope o f a c ha lk

r idge , a nd o n ly a sma l l p ar t h as y e t b een i nves t iga ted . The b u i lding l ay i m med ia te ly t o t he n or th o f al arge g roup o f p i ts wh ich t ypi fy s i tes o n c ha lk , a s o pposed t o g rave l o r c lay . The o n ly o ther s truc ture f ound was a f our-pos t ' granary ' i n t he mids t o f t he p i ts .

The p o t tery s ugges ts

at h ird t o f irs t c en tury B .C . d a te f or t he ma in e xcava ted s i te , a l though s o me o u t lying p i ts a re p robably o f l a ter d a te , a nd t here a re a f ew s herds wh ich 6 8

S em i- C i rcu la r B u i ld ing s

me tres

F ig 1 5

1 0

s hou ld b e long t o t he f i f th o r f our th c en tur ies , p ar t icu lar ly t hose w i th f ingert i p impress ions o n t he s hou lder ( Cra 's ter 1 961, F ig . 8 .66 a nd p . 4 0 ) a nd t hose o f ab ow l w i th g rooves a bove t he c ar ina t ion ( i b id ., F ig . 8 .63 ) .

These

s ee m t o b e r es idua l i n t he ir c on tex ts . The ' horseshoe d i tch ' ( Fig . 1 5 ) i s c lear ly a wa l ltrench , w i th s teep s ides , af la t t ish b o t to m , a nd a f i l l ing wh ich a l though ' s ingu lar ly h o mogenous ' s hows c ons iderable l oca l v ar ia t ion i n t he d e ta i ls o f i t s f i l l ing : ' do mes t ic r ubb ish was a l mos t e n t ire ly a bsen t '

( Cra 's ter 1 961 , 2 5 a nd F ig . 6 ) .

Two s truc-

t ura l p hases a re d iscernable : a ) A s em i-c ircu lar wa l l t rench , r epresen ted b y t he wes tern s ec t ion o f D 1, t he o pen s ide f acing e as t o f s ou th . P os tho les 1 5 a nd 9 l i e o n t he d ia me tr ica l l ine ; b ) ar econs truc t ion c aus ing t he o r ig ina l wa l l t rench t o b e w idened ( e i ther i n r e mov ing t he o r ig ina l t imbers o r i nser t ing n ew o nes ) . A t t he s a me t ime , t he o r ig ina l e as t e nd was e x tended s ou thwards , c u t t ing t hree p i ts ( 6 , 8 , 9 6 ) ; t he r econs truc t ion o f t he wes tern e nd a lso c aused t he n ew t rench t o c u t t he e dge o f ap i t , P 3 . The o r ig ina l wa l l t rench d id n ot c u t a ny p i ts , a nd t he p i t c o mp lex t hus p robab ly d eve loped a f ter t he i n i t ia l c ons truc t ion o f t he b u i lding . P os tho les 1 6 a nd 1 8 l i e al i t t le t o t he s ou th o f t he t heore t ica l l ine o f ac los ing wa l l b e tween t he e nds o f t he r ebu i l t ma in wa l l , b u t n one the less s ee m l i ke ly t o h ave f or med p ar t o f t he s econd p hase s truc ture .

The e x is tence o f p i t 2o n

t he s a me l ine may a lso b e s ign i f ican t . The amoun t o f d o mes t ic d ebr is f ro m t he p i ts s ee ms t o s ugges t t ha t t he s truc ture was a h ouse , b u t p i t 2 3 p roduced a t uybre , ' one o r t wo ' o thers p rod uced ' sma l l l u mps o f i ron b loo m ' a nd t he n umber o f i ron o b jec ts was u nusua l ly h igh f or a s i te o f t h is p er iod .

An i n terpre ta t ion o f i ta s a workshop , s peci-

f ica l ly o ne c onnec ted w i th i ronwork ing , mus t b e c ons idered ; i fi t i s c orrec t , t he a ssoc ia ted h ouse d oubt less r e mains t o b e d iscovered , p robab ly i nt he immed ia te v icin i ty , c o mple t ing a g roup s im i lar t o t ha t e xa m ined a t H eybr idge ( a bove ,) . C ircu lar h ouses d e f ined b y e ncirc l ing f ea tures a re k nown f ro m o ther s i tes i nt he a rea b u t a re a s y e t u npub l ished i n d eta i l . A t N or th S hoebury , D . G . Mac leod h as e xa m ined a n e x tens ive s i te i n a dvance o f b r ickear th e x trac t ion . S tructures i nclude a r ound-house d ef ined b y a wa l l t rench , s ubsequen t ly r ebu i l t o n al arger s ca le , when i ta t ta ined a d ia me ter o f C . 9m . B o th t h is a nd a no ther r ound-house o nt he s i te h ave e n trances f acing n or th-wes t ( Dunne t t 1 975 , 1 10 ; f ur ther i n for ma t ion f ro m D . G . Mac leod ) . e xcava ted a t Wi tha m ( Rodwe l l 1 976 ,

Ano ther r ound-house h as b een

4 0-41) , a nd o thers h ave b een f ound a t

Wendens Ambo b enea th b u i ld ings c onnec ted w i th t he e x tens ive R o man V i l la ( Br i tann ia V I ( 1 975 ) 2 65 ) . As J ones ( 1 974 , 1 89 ) h as p o in ted o u t , i n r e la t ion t o Muck ing , ' crop- marks a re s i te i nd ica tors , n ot s i te p lans ' . N one the less , i ts ee ms wor thwh i le t o c o m men t o nt he e v idence wh ich i s emerg ing f ro m t he p rogra mme o f p lo t t ing E ssex c rop- marks c urren t ly b e ing u nder taken b y t he Archaeo logy S ec t ion o f E ssex C oun ty C ounc i l . T o d a te , mos t p ho tographs u p t o a nd i nc lud ing t hose t aken i n 1 975 h ave b een d ea l t w i th . Three p oin ts h ave emerged : f irs t ly , t here i s n o s ign o f l arge n uc lea ted g roups o f h ouses o f t he t ype e v idenced a t L i t t le 7 0

Wa l tha m i n P er iod I , o r i n as l igh t ly more d i f fuse f or m a t Muck ing . S econd ly , t here i s o f ten c ons iderable d i f f icu l ty i n d is t ingu ish ing b e tween r ound-houses , r ing d i tches , a nd c er ta in p er ig lac ia l f ea tures , mak ing p os i t ive i n terpre ta t ion f ro m a er ia l p ho tographs u nw ise ;

a l though i ts ee ms t ha t t he

more o r l ess i so la ted h ouse ( c f . Ard le igh p hase I )i s p robab ly r e la t ively c o mmon .

Th ird ly , s evera l s ubs tan t ia l s ub-rec tangu lar o r o va l e nc losures a re

k nown , g enera l ly c lose t o ar iver o r s trea m ;

s o me s how n o i n terna l f ea tures

b u t t hree c on ta in f ea tures wh ich a re a l mos t c er ta in ly t o b e i n terpre ted a s r ound-houses .

S uch e nc losures i nv i te c o mpar ison w i th t he P er iod I I s e t t le-

men t a t Wa l tha m , a nd t he g roup i l lus tra ted i n F ig . 1 6. The o ne e ssen tia l d i f ference i s i ha t t hose d e tec ted f ro m t he a ir s ee m t o c on tain o ne h u t , whereas Wa l tha m c on ta ins a t l eas t t wo ; a t f irs t s ee ms t o b e t he c ase .

h ence t he c o mpar ison may n ot b e a s v a l id a s The i l lus tra ted e xa mp les a re :

( 1 ) L ITTLE WALTHAM , P er iod I I s e t t le men t . ( 2 ) LANGFORD , Enc losure a t TL 8 42096 w i th s ing le , e as tfac ing e n trance . O f t he f our c ircu lar f ea tures , t hree a re p robab ly r ound b arrows o f B ronze Age d a te ; o n ly t he o ne w i th a s ou th-facing e n trance i s l ikely t o b e ah ouse . e as t .

The e nc losure a bu ts a n e ar l ier l inear f ea ture o n t he

E .C .C. S i tes a nd Monu men ts R ecord TL 8 0 .46 .

( 3 ) L ITTLE TOTHAM , Enc losure a t TL 8 83105 , a ga in w i th a s ing le , e as t-fac ing e n trance .

I ns ide , f our p i ts c an b e s een , t wo w i thin wha t

s ee ms t o b e t he e nc irc l ing f ea ture o f ah ouse .

E . C.C. S i tes a nd

Monumen ts R ecord T i 8 1.74 . ( 4 ) MISTLEY , Enc losure a t TM 1 03310 , w i th a s ing le e n trance f acing n or th-wes t ; I ns ide a p robab le h ouse i s v is ib le , w i th i t s e n trance f acing s ou th-eas t .

E. E .C . S i tes a nd Monumen ts R ecord TM 1 3 .28 .

SU M MARY AND CONCLUS IONS Any g enera l c onc lus ions d rawn f ro m t he r e la t ive ly meagre e v idence a t p resen t a va i lab le mus t b e t en ta t ive a nd t he f o l low ing d iscuss ion s hou ld b e t aken a s n o more t han a p re l im inary f ac tua l e v idence .

s yn thes is o f t he s e t t le men t a nd a r t i-

On t h is b as is , t he I ron Age i n t he a rea w i th wh ich we a re

c oncerned wou ld s ee m t o b e d iv is ib le i n to f our p hases w i thin wh ich f ur ther s ub-phases c an b e d e tec ted . c an b e mis lead ing ; I .

H owever , s uch a n a pparen t ly r ig id f ra mework

t he c hanges n o ted were p robab ly i n mos t c ases g radua l .

The L a te B ronze Age/Ear ly I ron Age Trans i t ion :

E igh th-seven th c en tur ies

B . C . E v idence f or t h is p er iod i s a s y e t l im i ted , b u t i n v iew o f t he v as t amoun t o f me ta lwork a nd t he i ncreasing n umber o f c re ma t ion b ur ia ls a nd b arrows o f B ronze Age d a te n ow k nown f ro m t he a rea , i ti s h ard t o b e l ieve t ha t i td id n o t s uppor t as ubs tan t ia l p opu la tion i n t he B ronze Age . Ye t d o mes t ic s i tes o f t h is p hase h ave s o f ar p roved e lus ive , a nd o n ly Muck ing h as p roduced s ubs tan t ia l a rchaeo log ica l e v idence o f o ccupa t ion . As B arre t t h as p o in ted o u t ( 1978 , w i th r e fs .) , t he o r ig ins o f ' Ear ly I ron Age ' c era m ic s ty les mus t n ow b e t aken b ack i n to t he e igh th-seven th c en tur ies B .C . a nd b eyond ;

b u t i n E ssex i ti s a lso c lear t ha t s o me e le men ts c lose ly

7 1

I r on A ge E n c lo sed S e t t lem en t s e

2L ang fo rd

1L i t t le Wa l tham

N

5

, , \ , .

3L i t t le

. .

4 M is t ley

T o tham

0

t res 2 00 me

F i g 1 6

' . -

r e la ted t o D evere l-R i mbury c oarse wares s urv ive t hrough t h is p er iod , b u t p robab ly n o t l a ter . These i nc lude j ars w i th a pp l ied n eck c ordons a nd c abl ing , a bsen t f ro m Orse t t C a mp , b u t p resen t i n t he f i l l ing o f t he ' m in i h i l l for t ' d i tches a t Muck ing ( J ones 1 975 , 1 -7 , F ig . 4 8 ) , a t L in ford ( Bar ton 1 962 , F ig . 1 1.11 ) , a nd a t Ard le igh ( Er i th a nd H o lber t 1 970 , 2 5-6 , F ig . 1 6 ). I .

The E ar ly P re-Ro man I ron Age :

s ix th — f our th c en tur ies B . C .

S e t t le men ts o f t h is p hase a re k nown p r inc ipa l ly f ro m e xcava t ions a t L inf ord/ Muck ing , R awre th a nd H eybr idge . As we h ave s een , t he h ouses s ee m t o b e o va l , r a ther sma l l , a nd g enera l ly d e fined b y p os tho les a pparen t ly r ep resen t ing t he l i ne o f t he e x terna l wa l l . A s em i-c ircu lar b u i ld ing i s k nown f ro m H eybr idge , w i th a no ther p robab le e xa mple a t Muck ing , a nd f our-pos t s truc tures a re p resen t ;

s ubs tan t ia l p i ts a ppear p r imar i ly a t s i tes o n g ravel

s ubso i ls , a s e xpec ted . A t G un H i l l n or th-sou th a nd e as t-wes t d i tches s ugges t ing t he d iv is ion o f t he s pur i n to f our a reas were i n u se d ur ing t h is p er iod , a l though t hey may h ave o r ig ina ted i nt he l a te B ronze Age ( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , 5 1-3 , 9 5-6) . One migh t s ugges t t ha t t hey f or med t he b as is o f ap a t tern o f s ha l low ly d i tched , b anked , o r h edged f ie lds o r e nc losures wh ich h ave l e f t n o t race i n t he a rchaeol og ica l r ecord , a nd t he s a me mus t b e t rue o f t he r e main ing o ccupa t ion s i tes o f t h is p er iod where n o t races o f f i e ld s ys te ms o r s e t t le men t e nc losrres h ave y e tb een f ound ,wh ich i s i n d is t inc t c on tras t t o s ix th t o t h ird c en tury s e t t lemen ts i n S ou thern B r i ta in , wh ich were f requen t ly s urrounded b y f ences b edded i np a l isade t renches ( Cun l i f fe 1 974 , 1 56 ) . I th as b een o bserved t ha t f ew o f t he sma l l t o ta l o f h i l l for ts k nown i n t he s tudy a rea h ave p roduced s ubs tan t ia l g roups o f p o t tery ;

i n s o me c ases , e .g .

Ambresbury B anks , t he s carc i ty o f o ccupa t ion d ebr is s ugges ts t ha t t he s i te was n ever i n tens ive ly o ccup ied . S uch c era m ic e v idence a s e x is ts s ugges ts t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f t he h i l l for ts i nt he a rea o r ig ina te i nt h is e ar ly p hase ; s o me , p erhaps i nc lud ing L angdon H i l ls a nd Ashe ldha m , i n t he s ix th c en tury. Apar t f ro m t hose a long t he I ckn ield Way , R odwe l l ( 1 976 ) r igh t ly s ees t he E ssex h i l l for ts a s ar eac t ion t o at hrea t o f s ea-borne ( and r iver-borne ) i nv as ion o r r a id ing . There i s n o e v idence o f t he ir h av ing f unc t ioned a s c en tra l p laces i nt he s e t t le men t h ierarchy . T he s tudy o f t he e ar ly I ron Age p o t tery o f t he a rea i s o n ly j us t b eg inn ing a s s ubs tan t ia l g roups o f ma ter ia lb eco me a va i lable f ro m e xcava t ions .

H ow-

e ver , i ti s c lear t ha t v ir tua l ly a l l t he p o t tery o f t h is e ar ly p er iod c on ta ins f l in t t e mper ing ; s uch a c haracter is t ic a lone i s o f ten s u f f ic ien t t o d is t ingu ish s i tes o f t h is p hase f ro m t hose o f t he f o l low ing o ne . I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t o d iv ide s o me s i te g roups o f p ot tery i n to t hree b road ly c hrono log ica l p hases wh ich p robab ly c en tre o nt he s ix th , f i f th a nd f our th c en tur ies r espec t ive ly , a l though i n many c ases t here i s i nsu f f ic ien t d iagnos t ic ma ter ia l a va i lable f ro m p ar t icu lar s i tes ( e .g . R awre th , C he l ms ford ) t o s ugges t a n a t tr ibu t ion t o as pec i f ic s ty le . A ) S i tes c haracter ised b y t he p resence o f f ine wares o f C un li f fe 's Wes t H ar l ing/S tap le H owe g roup ( Cun l i f fe 1 974 , 3 19 ) f or e xa mp le L in ford- Muck ing , L angdon H i l ls a nd Ashe ldha m .

R odwe l l ( 1 976 ) h as a lso d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he 7 3

p resence o f H ae ma t i te-coa ted wares a t L in ford ( Bar ton 1 962 , 7 7 ; s ee a lso P o t ter 1 974 , 5 ) , L angdon H i l ls , a nd p oss ibly C anvey I s land , wh ich s ugges ts a n e x tens ion o f t he T ha mes-borne d i f fus ion o f t h is e ssen t ia l ly Wessex t ype , a lready k nown t o e x tend i n to B erksh ire a nd S urrey ( Burche l l a nd F rere 1 947 , 4 5-6 , F ig . 2 0 ) . E le men ts o f C un l i f fe 's I v inghoe-Sandy g roup c an a lso b e d iscerned i nt he E ssex ma ter ia l , p ar t icu lar ly t he r es tra ined u se o f f ingert ip d ecora t ion o n t he c ar ina t ions o f j ars . B ) S i tes c harac ter ised b y f ine wares o f C un l i f fe 's Dar msden-L in ton G roup ( Cun l i f fe 1 974 , 3 9 , 3 26). A par t f ro m L in ton i t se l f , a nd s o me ma ter ia l f ro m L in ford , s uch p o t tery i s b eing i ncreas ing ly r ecogn ised i n E ssex c o l lec t ions , a l though l i t t le h as y e t b een p ub l ished . C ) S i tes c haracter ised b y al ack o f f ine ware , o r d ecora t ion o n t he c oarse ware , s ave f or f inger t i pping o n t he r im o n ly .

T he s hapes a re d evo lved r a ther

t han a ngu lar , b u t a l l t he p o t tery c on t inues t o b e f l in t-te mpered .

E xa mp les

o f s uch g roups i nc lude a p robab ly v o t ive d epos i t a t as pr ing i n G t . B roo m Wood , S tock ( Hedges f or thco m ing ) a nd R ivenha l l ( Rodwe l l 1 978 f or thco m ing ) . I t mus t h owever b e emphas ised t ha t t he ma jor i ty o f p o t tery f ro m s i tes o f t h is p er iod i s c oarse ware s im i lar t o t he p la in j ar e le men ts o f C un l i f fe 's I v inghoe-Sandy g roup , a nd c lear ly d er ived f ro m t he c oarse ware o f t he B ronze Age/Ear ly I ron Age t rans i t ion . I I .

The M idd le p re-Ro man I ron Age :

t h ird — f irs t c en tur ies B . C .

L i t t le Wa l tha m i s a t p resen t t he b es t i l lus tra t ion o f t he d eve lop men t o f a s et t le men t d ur ing t h is p er iod , wh ich c an b e s ub-d iv ided i n to t wo p has2s . Two b as ic i nnova t ions , i nt he f ie lds o fp o t tery a nd h ouse c ons truc t ion , a t p resen t c harac ter ise i t s a dven t .

T he p ot tery , a l though s im i lar t o t he u l t imate E ar ly

I ron Age g roup , i s n o l onger e xclus ively o r e ven s ubs tan tia l ly f l in tte mpered , b u t l arge ly t e mpered w i th s and , a nd o ccas iona lly v egetab le ma ter ia l .

C oarse

wares a re d ecora ted o n ly w i th v er t ica l s cor ing , r are ly e v idenced i n t h is a rea a t a n e ar l ier d a te , a nd w i th f inger t i pp ing t he r im , b u t n ever o n t he b ody . F ine wares i n s ou thern E ssex a re l arge ly c on f ined t o c o mmercia l ly p roduced e ver ted-r im f oo tr ing b ow ls emana t ing f ro m t he Thurrock a rea , wh i ls t a t B ar ley i nt he n or th-wes tern p ar t o f t he a rea b ow ls i n C un l i f fe 's HunsburyDraugh ton s ty le ( Cun l i f fe 1 974 , 4 6 , 3 36 ) f i l l t he s ame n iche ( Cra 's ter 1 968 , F ig . 8 .88-99 ;

c o mpare Wi l l ia ms 1 974 , F igs . 1 4 , 3 5 ) , a t l eas t l a te i n t he p re-

B e lg ic p er iod ( f or t h is d a t ing o f t he N or tha mp tonsh ire ma ter ia l s ee J ackson 1 977 , 3 2-3 ) . P o t tery s ty les c hange l i t t le d ur ing t h is p er iod , i n c on tras t t o s e t t le men t morpho logy , wh ich u ndergoes c ons iderable e vo lu t ion . The s econd i nnova t ion i s t he r ound-house d e f ined b y a n e nc irc l ing wa l l t rench , d ra inage g u l ley , t or b o th . S evera l v ar ian ts o f t h is t ype h ave b een d escr ibed , b u t t he o n ly s i te f or wh ich a s equence h as y e t b een worked o u t i s Wa l tha m ; u n t i l more work h as b een u nder taken t he s ign i f icance o f t he s eq uence w i l l n o t b e c lear . The b as is f or t he s ub-d iv is ion o f t h is p er iod i s t he c hang ing morpho logy o f t he s e t t le men ts : A . I nt he f irs t s ub-phase , t he e v idence a t p resen t s ugges ts ' unenc losed ' s e t t le men ts , whether o f n uc lea ted g roups o f h u ts ( L i t t le Wa l tha m , Muck ing ) o r

7 4

more o r l ess i so la ted b u i ld ings

( .

A rd le igh Phase I , G un H i l l l a te p hase I ) .

As s ugges ted a bove , t he ' unenc losed ' n a ture o f s uch s i tes may b e more i l lusory t han r ea l .

A t L i t t le Wa l tham — t he o n ly s i te f or wh ich d e ta i led a ssess men t

o f t he d a t ing e v idence i s y e t a va i lable — t h is p hase l as ts u n t i l t he t urn o f t he s econd a nd f irs t c en tur ies B .C . ,i n o ther w ords s oon a f ter t he p robab le p er iod o f t he p r i mary B e lg ic i n f lux ( Rodwe l l 1 976b , 1 83-94 ). ' Unenc losed ' n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts a re k nown e lsewhere i n s ou thern B r i tain , f or e xa mp le B oscombe D own Wes t ( R ichardson 1 951) a nd s o me s i tes i nt he U pper Tha mes v a l ley ( Hard ing 1 974 , 2 6 ) . B . I nt h is p hase , e nc losures c on ta in ing h u ts ( e .g . Wa l tha m , Muck ing , Ard le igh ) , o thers s ee m ing ly c onnected p ure ly w i th s tock manage men t a nd l i nked t o d rove-ways ( e .g . G un H i l l ) , a nd h orseshoe e nc losures , p erhaps s heep-fo lds , ( e .g . Wa l tha m , Muck ing ) f i rs t a ppear .

Whe ther t h is r epresen ts a r ise i n t he

impor tance o f s tock-ra is ing , o r mere ly a c hange i n t he manage men t o f t he o pera t ion a nd t he p hys ica l f ea tures a ssoc ia ted w i th i t , i s n o t y e t c lear . The t rans i t ion i s s o f ar mos t c lear ly d e mons tra ted i n t he g ravel a reas , b u t L i t t le Wa l tha m s ugges ts t ha t s im i lar c hanges were t ak ing p lace e lsewhere i n t he r eg ion . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t hese c hanges a re i n s o me way c onnec ted w i th t he e ar ly B e lg ic i n f lux , b u t i fs o t he n a ture o f t he r e la t ionsh ip mus t r e ma in u nk nown u n t i l e ar ly B e lg ic s e t t le men ts h ave b een l oca ted a nd e xcava ted . S ub-rec tangu lar o r o va l e nc losures c on ta in ing o ne o r more h u ts a re a we l l-known s et t le men t t ype i n t he l a ter I ron Age o ver much o f l ow lana Br i tain . E xa mp les w i th more t han o ne h u t i nc lude C o ls terwor th , L incs ., Draugh ton , N or than ts ( Gr i mes 1 961 ) a nd A ldwinc le , N or than ts , where t he s r ie losure a lso o r ig ina ted a round t he l a ter s econd/ear ly f irs t c en tury B . C . ( Jackson 1 977 ) . Enc losures p robab ly r epresen t ing a s ing le f ar ms tead a re c o mmon , f or e xa mp le , i n t he We l land V a l ley a t T a l l ing ton , L incs . ( S i mpson 1 966 , 1 F-19 ) , t he N ene v a l ley ( e .g . Or ton L onguev i l le , Da l las 1 975 ) , a nd t he T a me a nd T ren t v a l leys ( Sm i th 1 977 a nd t h is v o lume ) where t he s i te a t F isherw ick h as y ie lded a C 14 d a te o f 1 80 ± 1 00 b .c . The w idespread o ccurence a nd r ela t ive ly e ar ly d a t ing o f s o me e nc losures o f t h is t ype i n r eg ions d is tan t f ro m t he ' Be lgic ' a reas mi l it a te s trong ly a ga ins t aB e lg ic o r ig in f or t he t ype i n E ssex , b u t t he p oss ibi l i ty o f i t sb e ing i n troduced a s ar eac t ion r e ma ins .

O ther p oss ib le r easons f or t he

c hanges o bserved a t L i t t le Wa l tha m h ave b een d iscussed a bove. W.

T he U l t i ma te ( Belg ic ) P hase The u ncer ta in ty c oncern ing t he d a te a nd i ndeed t he a dven t o f B e lg ic i n-

v as ions makes t he o r ig ins o f t h is p hase d i f f icu l t t o d e f ine . On p rac t ica l g rounds , o ne i s f orced t o u se t he c r i ter ion o f t he p resence o r a bsence o f d is t inc t ive a r t if ac ts , e specia l ly p o t tery . A t Wa l tha m , ' Be lg ic ' p o t tery f irs t a ppears i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C . a nd i ts ee ms p robable t ha t i tc a me i n to g enera l ( a l though n ot e xc lus ive ) u se o ver mos t o f t he s tudy a rea b y o r d ur ing t he s econd h a l f o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C . R odwe l l ( 1 976b , 2 21-37 ) d raws a t ten t ion t o ac lass o f p o t tery wh ich may s ign i f ican t ly p re-da te Ay les fordS wa l ing t ypes , a nd i fi td oes i t s hou ld b e p oss ible i n t he f u ture t o d e tec t t he i ncep t ion o f t h is p hase i n h is s ugges ted p r i mary a reas o f s et t le men t a t ar a ther e ar l ier d a te .

D r . R odwe l l a lso ( t h is v o lume ) s ugges ts t ha t t he r ec tangu lar

h ouse was i n troduced b y t he B e lgae .

I n v iew o f h is d e ta i led c ons idera t ion o f

s e t t le men ts o f t h is p er iod , d iscuss ion h ere w i l l b e r es tr ic ted t o af ew s peci f ic c o mmen ts . 7 5

F irs t ly , t he c hange a t L i t t le Wa l tha m i s e v idenced b y t he a ppearance o f m id-f irs t c en turyB . C . ' Be lg ic ' p o t tery a s t he f ine ware a longs ide e ar lier t ypes , a nd i ti s l i kely t ha t t he t wo t ypes were i n u se s ide b y s ide a t many s i tes p robab ly a t l eas t u n t i l t he e nd o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C.

T he t rans i t ion f ro m

r ound t o r ec tangu lar h ouses mus t h ave t aken a t l eas t a s l ong , a nd t he l ong e s tab l ished c ircu lar f or m p ers is ted i n to t he R o man p er iod a s av ernacu lar s urv iva l .

H orseshoe e nc losures b eg in i n P er iod I I a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , b u t

s ee m t o b e a ssocia ted w i th ' Be lg ic ' p o t tery a t Muck ing where , t oge ther w i th s o me e nc losures c on ta in ing b u i ld ings ( l a t ter ly r ec t i l inear ) t hey r e ma in i n u se i n to t he mid f irs t c en tury A .D. A t Muck ing , t h is c on t inu i ty o f l and u se , p robab ly b ased o n s tock-rear ing , i s mos t s tr ik ing ;

e ven i n t he R o man p er iod , t he r ec t i l inear f ie ld s ys te m

t hough t t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th a v i l la a nd f orm ing p ar t o f a much w ider p a t tern i n t he Thurrock a rea ,

( Drury a nd R odwe l l 1 973 , 1 01 ) d oes n o t e x tend g rea t ly

o n to t he t errace , s ugges ting t ha t t he p la teau a rea c on t inued t o b e u sed f or g razing . H owever , a t L i t t le Wa l tha m , t he l andscape c hanges i n t h is p er iod a re s ubst an t ia l .

The u nenc losed P er iod I V s e t t le men t i s s o mewha t e n ig ma t ic a nd p rob-

a b ly s hor tlived ; f i e ld s ys te m .

b u t i ti s o ver la in b y e le men ts o f a n e x tens ive r ec t i l inear

A s im i lar s ys te m h as b een t raced a round Bra in tree , a lso i n a n

a rea o f b r ickear th a nd c lay s ubso i ls .

Do we p erhaps h ave e v idence h ere o f

a gr icu l tura l s pecia l is m , o f ac oncen tra t ion o f a rab le a nd s pec i f ica l ly c erea l c u l t iva t ion o n t he s oi ls b es t s u i ted t o i t , a nd t he i n tens i f ica t ion o f s tock-rear ing o n t he a gr icu l tura l ly p oorer s andy a reas?

S uch c hanges wou ld c er ta in ly a ccord

w i th P ro fessor Cun li f fe 's v iew o f a n e xponen t ia l g row th i n t he p opu la t ion d ur ing t he l a ter I ron Age , s uppor ted b y more e ff ic ien t a gr icu l ture a nd a n i ncreasing ly more c o mplex s oc ie ty . ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T h is p aper owes much t o t he work o f Dr . W arwick R odwe l l , f or whose c o mmen ts a nd a ss is tance Iam p ar t icu lar ly g ra tefu l . T hanks a re a lso d ue t o Margare t J ones , D . G . Mac leod , a nd Hugh T o l ler f or mak ing a va i lab le i n forma t ion c oncern ing t he ir e xcava tions a t Muck ing , S hoebury , a nd Orse t t r esp ec t ive ly a nd f or d iscussing v ar ious p o in ts w i th me . The f igures a re l arge ly t he work o f Mrs . B arbara C rowder .

7 6

S ETTLE MENT AND LAND USE I N NORTHA MPTONSH IRE : A CO MPAR ISON BET WEEN THE I RON AGE AND THE M IDDLE AGES F rances B rown a nd C hr is T ay lor

I n r ecen t y ears t here h ave b een s evera l a t te mp ts t o r econs truc t p os tR o man l andscapes i n c er ta in p ar ts o f Eng land . I n s p i te o f t he d i f f icu l t ies i nheren t i n s uch work i t may b e s a id t ha t f or s o me p laces i ti s p oss ib le t o e s tabl ish w i th c er ta in ty t hree b as ic a spec ts o f t he l a te med ieva l l andscape , a t l eas t f ro m 1 300 t o 1 500 A .D .

These a spec ts a re :

f irs t , t he p a t tern o f

s et t le men t , t ha t i s t he t o ta l n umber o f s e t t le men ts , t he ir s ize a nd s pa t ia l r el a tionsh ips ; s econd ly , t he p at tern o f l and u se , i n t er ms o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f a rable l and , meadow , was te a nd f ores t ; t h ird ly , t he e cono m ic r e la t ions h ip b e tween t he l and a nd t he s e t t le men ts , t ha t i s t he a rrange men t o f b locks o f l and f ar med f ro m i nd iv idua l o r mu l t ip le s e t t le men ts a nd w orked a s as ing le u n i t , r egard less o f t he t enur ia l b as is . I ti s n o t y e t p oss ible f or h is tor ians t o a gree o n t he o r ig ins a nd d eve lop men t o f a l l t hese a spec ts , b u t we c an b e s ure t ha t t he p ic ture o b ta inable f or t he f our teen th o r f i f teen th c en tury i s r easonably c orrec t . When we move b ack i n to l a te p reh is tor ic t imes t hese t hree a spec ts o f t he l andscape a re more d i f f icu l t t o d e tec t . S o me s cho lars w ou ld c la im t ha t i n c er ta in a reas t he p a t tern o f s e t t le men t a nd l and u se migh t b e r econs truc ted b u t f ew w ou ld h ope t o b e a b le t o d e fine t he b oundar ies o f t he l and u n i ts wh ich u ndoub ted ly e x is ted a t t ha t t ime . N evertheless, i n t h is p aper t he a u thors h ave e xam ined o ne a rea t o s ee h ow f ar i ti s p oss ible t o r econs truct t he l a te p reh is tor ic l andscape , h ave c o mpared t he r esu l ts w i th t he l a te med ieva l l ands cape a nd f ina l ly h ave l ooked f or p oss ib le c onnect ions b e tween t he t wo . F or t he l as t f ew y ears b o th wr i ters h ave b een e ngaged i n t he r ecording o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes o f a l l p er iods i n N or tha mp tonsh ire , f or t he R oya l C o mmission o n H is tor ica l Monumen ts . Though t he work i s n o t y e t c o mp lete , e nough o f t he b as ic ma ter ia l h as b een c o llec ted t o e nable c er ta in g enera l c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn a nd a work ing h ypo thes is t o b e p resen ted .

F or t he l a te

med ieva l p er iod , t he l arge b ody o f wr i t ten r ecords , a s we l l a s t he s urv iv ing a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd s tanding b u i ld ings , a l low a r econs truc t ion o f t he e n t ire l andscape o f N or thamp tonsh ire . A l mos t a l l t he s e t t le men ts , t he t owns , v i l lages , h am lets a nd i ndiv idua l f ar ms teads , c an b e i den t i f ied a nd l oca ted . S im i lar ly t he c on te mporary l and u se i s t raceab le ; t he e x ten t o f t he c o mmon f i e lds , e nc losures , wood land c learances , was te land , meadows a nd f ores t c an b e a scer ta ined f or mos t p laces b y a bou t 1 500 . I th as a lso b een p oss ib le t o r econs truc t t he a rrange men t o f l a te med ieva l l and u n i ts f or a g rea t p ar t o f t he c oun ty , a mos t impor tan t 'a dvance i n o ur u nders tand ing o f t he med ieva l l andscape . I nv ery g enera l t er ms t here s ee ms t o h ave b een , b y l a te med ieva l t imes , n o t as ca t ter o f n uc lea ted v i l lages e ach s urrounded b y i t s c o mmon f i e lds a nd

7 7

c en tred o n a n e cc les ias t ica l p ar ish , b u t av ery c o mp lex p a t tern o f l and u n i ts , g rouped i n to p ar ishes . W i th in e ach sma l l l and u n i t t here was a t l eas t o ne s e t t le men t , p erhaps a s ing le f ar ms tead , e lsewhere a l arge v i l lage , whose i nh abi tan ts f ar med t he s urround ing t err i tory a s as ing le e cono m ic u n i t , u sua l ly , b u t n o t a lways , o n ac o m mon f i e ld b as is . B y t he f i f teen th c en tury t h is p a t tern was a l mos t u biqu i tous i n N or tha mptonsh ire , r egard less o f t he v ery v ar ied p hys ica l n a ture o f t he c oun ty wh ich l i es a cross t he h eav i ly e roded J urass ic e scarp men t o f mid land Eng land . One wou ld h ave a ssumed p erhaps t ha t i n l a te med ieva l t imes t he g eograph ica l ly f avourable a reas s uch a s t he N ene V a l ley o r t he b road r ol l ing c lay lands wou ld h ave h ad a w e l l d eve loped p a t tern o f s e t t le men t a nd l and u n i ts b u t t he e x is tence o f as im i lar s i tua t ion i n t he a reas o f e x tens ive med ieva l wood land i nt he s ou th , s ou th-eas t a nd n or th o f t he c oun ty a nd i n t he b roken c oun try i nt he wes t a nd s ou th-wes t i s more u nexpec ted . The l a te med ieva l l andscape c an t hus b e r econs truc ted , b u t t he e x is tence b y t ha t d a te o f d eser ted a nd s hrunken v i l lages , a bandoned f arms teads a nd u nc u l t iva ted l and s hows t ha t , b y t he f i f teen th c en tury , t he l andscape was i n t he p rocess o f a l tera t ion . The wr i ters ' i n ten t ion , t here fore , i s t o t ry t o i den t i fy t he o r ig ins o f t h is l andscape a nd e s tabl ish t he p er iod a t wh ich i t was f u l ly d eveloped . The e v idence f or I ron Age s e t t le men t a nd l and u se i n N or thamptonsh ire i s much more l im i ted t han t ha t f or t he l a te med ieva l p er iod . The amoun t o f ma ter ia l i s c ons iderable , h owever , i n c o mpar ison w i th mos t p ar ts o f Eng land , l arge ly a s ar esu l t o f ama teur a rchaeolog ica l work c arr ied o u t o ver t he l as t t wen ty y ears . As r ecen t ly a s 1 960 , a par t f ro m f our h i l l for ts a nd a sma l l n umber o f c oins , n o more t han 1 5 p robab le I ron Age s e t t le men ts were k nown , a nd o n ly o ne o f t hese h ad b een e xcava ted . N ow t he p ic ture i s v ery d i f feren t . A t l eas t 2 00 c er ta in I ron Age s e t t le men ts h ave b een d iscovered a s we l l a s l arge a reas o f u nda ted c rop- marks , many o f wh ich may b e o f I ron Age d a te . A l though e xcava t ion h as l agged b eh ind f i e ldwork t here a re n ow s o me r easonably we l l e xcava ted s i tes ( Fig . 1 ) . S uch a wea l th o f ma ter ia l migh t s ee m t o b e s u f f ic ien t f or a t l eas t ap ar t ia l r econs truct ion o f t he I ron Age s e t t le men t p a t tern . Th is i s n o t s o h owever , f or t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t hese s i tes h as l i t t le t o d o w i th t he t rue p a t tern o f s e t t le men t i n l a te p reh is tor ic t imes . I n t wo e ar l ier p apers o ne o f t he p resen t wr i ters h as d iscussed t he d i f f icu l t ies o f i n terpre t ing a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , d i f f icu l t ies r esu l t ing f ro m i ncons is ten t me thods a nd s tandards o f d a ta c o l lec t ion ( Tay lor , 1 974 a nd 1 975 ) . A l l t he a rgumen ts p u t f orward i n t hose p apers a re a pp l icab le t o t he I ron Age ma ter ia l c ons idered h ere . The ma jor c oncen tra t ion o f I ron Age f inds i n s ou th-eas t N or tha mp tonsh ire , wh ich i nciden t ly c on t inues t o t he s ou th i n to n or th B ed fords h ire , r e f lec ts i n tens ive f i e ldwork b y t wo i nd iv idua ls . The l ess c oncen tra ted b u t s t i l l c ons iderable e v idence f or I ron Age o ccupa t ion f ur ther n or th a long t he R iver N ene a nd i n t he C orby-Ket ter ing a rea a s w e l l a s immed ia te ly t o t he s ou th-eas t o f N or thamp ton i t se lf , i s ma in ly t he r esu l t o f d iscover ies made d ur ing g rave l-d igg ing , i rons tone- min ing a nd u rban d eve lop men t . E lsewhere l oca l a rchaeolog is ts h ave made a n umber o f r ando m d iscover ies , b u t t he l arge a reas i n t he n or th-wes t a nd wes t o f t he c oun ty r e f lec t p ar t ly t he l ack o f f i e ldwork t here a nd p ar t ly t he amoun t o f p ermanen t p as ture wh ich r es tr icts s uch a ct iv i ty .

7 8

F ig . 1

E xcava ted s i tes i n N or tha mp tonsh ire .

7 9

The k nown d is tr ibu t ion o f I ron Age ma ter ia l i n N or tha mp tonsh ire i s t herefore a c o mbina t ion o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd o f modern l and u se a nd e xp lo i ta t ion ; i tc er ta in ly t e l ls u s l i t t le o f t he t rue p a t tern o f s e t t le men t i nt he I ron Age . I ti s l i ke ly t ha t i ff i e ldwork were c arr ied o u t o ver t he who le c oun ty , o n t he s ca le t ha t i th as b een i n t he s ou th-eas t c orner , as im i lar d ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion wou ld b e d iscovered . I t mus t b e r e membered , h owever , t ha t k nown d is tr ibu t ion o f s et t lemen ts i n s ou th-eas t N or tha mp tonsh ire may b ear l i t t le r ea l r e la t ionsh ip t o t he o r ig ina l I ron Age o ne .

T he r es tr ic t ions o n i n tens ive f i e ldwork a re s uch t ha t , e ven i n

t h is a rea , n o more t han 5 0% o f t he t o ta l l and s ur face c an e ver b e e xa m ined . Bu i l t u p a reas , w ood land , meadow , p er manen t p as ture , q uarr ies a nd r oads a l l a l l p reven t t he d iscovery o f a ny s urv iv ing ma ter ia l . I n a dd i t ion t he ma ter ia l t ha t h as c o me t o l igh t , o bta ined a s i ti s f ro m s ur face f i e ldwork , i s i nadequa te f or t he e luc ida t ion o f s e t t le men t s i ze a nd f orm a s we l l a s d a te . I tw i l l t heref ore p robab ly n ever b e p oss ib le t o r ecover t he t rue I ron Age s e t t le men t p a t tern o ver a l arge a rea a s we h ave f or t he l a te med ieva l p er iod . T he p roblem i s we l l i l lus tra ted i n t he p ar ish o f Yard ley H as t ings i n t he s ou th-eas t o f t he c oun ty , where s even I ron Age s i tes h ave s o f ar b een d iscovered ( R . C. H . M. , 1 978 , Yard ley H as t ings ( 3 )-(6 ) , ( 9 ) ) . These s i tes h ave b een p lo t ted o n a map wh ich a lso s hows t he p ar ts o f t he p ar ish c overed b y e x tens ive w ood land , p arkl and , p ermanen t p as ture , b u i l t u p a reas a nd q uarr ies a nd t hus i naccess ib le f or f i e ld a rchaeo logy ( F ig . 2 ) . A t o ther p laces t he p rob le ms a re n o t q u i te s o g rea t .

F or e xa mp le d eta i led

f i e ldwork h as b een c arr ied o u t i nt he p ar ish o f B ra f ie ld-on-the-Green , a lso i n s ou th-eas t N or tha mp tonsh ire , a nd 1 5 s epara te s e t t le men ts , a l l c er ta in ly d a ted t o t he I ron Age , a s we l l a s a no ther p robab le I ron Age s e t t le men t , h ave b een d iscovered ( R .C.H .M ., 1 978 , B ra f ie ld-on-the-Green , ( 13-26 ) ) .

T h is

means t ha t t here i s o ne s e t t le men t f or e very 3 3 h ectares o f l and . H owever , t he a ctua l d ens i ty was p robab ly much more t han t h is f or e ven i n t h is a rea t he r es tr ic t ions o n f i e ldwork a re c ons iderab le ; b ecause o f t he e x is tence o f t he v i l lage o f B ra f ie ld i t sel f a nd s o me wood land a nd p as ture , a s we l l a s u ncoo pera t ive l andowners , j us t o ver 3 7% o f t he t o ta l a rea o f t he p ar ish c anno t b e e xam ined b y f i e ld a rchaeo log is ts . There a re c er ta in ly many more s i tes awa i t ing d iscovery a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he a c tua l d ens i ty i s o ne s e t t le men t f or e very 2 0 h ec tares . H owever , a l though t he ma teria l f ro m t he f i f teen s i tes i s b road ly c lass i f iab le a s I ron Age , i ti s , o f c ourse , n ot a l l o f t he s a me d a te . I nsu f f ic ien t w ork h as b een c arr ied o u t o n I ron Age ma ter ia l f ro m N or tha mp tonsh ire f or t hese s i tes t o b e d a ted w i th a ny d egree o f a ccuracy . Moreover , s ince t he ma ter ia l h as c o me f ro m t he modern g round s ur face , p ipe-l ine t renches a nd t r ia l e xcava t ions , i ti s n o t l i ke ly t o g ive a t rue impress ion o f t he t o ta l p er iod o f o ccupa t ion o f t hese s e t t le men ts . A l l t ha t c an b e s a id i s t ha t , o f t he f i f teen s i tes , n ine s ee m t o b e o f t he l a ter I ron Age , w i th o ccupa t ion c on tinu ing i n to t he R o man p er iod , wh i le t he r es t w ou ld s ee m t o b e g enera l ly e ar l ier .

T here i s n o r eason t o

b e l ieve t ha t e i ther a l l t he l a te o r a l l t he e ar ly s e t t le men ts were o ccupied s imu lt aneous ly . Though n o e xcava t ions h ave b een c arr ied o u t a t Bra f ie ld , w ork a t s i tes i n a d jacen t p ar ishes a nd e lsewhere i n t he c oun ty s ee ms t o i nd ica te t ha t t hese s e t t le men ts h ave a r e la t ive ly s hor t l i fe , o f p erhaps t wo o r t hree c en tur ies ( R .C.H . M., 1 978 , B ozea t ( 3 ) ) .

I t migh t b e t en ta t ive ly s ugges ted , t hen , t ha t

8 0

P ar i sh b oundary •

i r on a g es e t t l emen t A r cha eo log i ca l l y i n ac c e s s ib l e l am

0

F ig . 2

3 000 m e tr e s

I ron Age s e t t le men ts a nd a rchaeo log ica l ly i naccess ib le l and i n t he p ar ish o f Yard ley H as t ings , N or than ts .

p erhaps o ne-th ird o f t he Bra f ie ld s i tes c ou ld b e c on te mporary a nd a d ens i ty o f o ne s e t t le men t p er 6 0 h ectares i s p oss ible . S o f ar we h ave d iscussed t hese s i tes merely a s ' se t t le men ts ' , b u t wha t were t hey? Once a gain l ack o f e xcava t ion p reven ts a ny r ea l c onc lus ions b e ing d rawn b u t t he o vera l l impress ion i s o f aw ide r ange o f s e t t le men t s ize a nd f or m . The f or t o n Borough H i l l , Daven try , was p robably t he s econd l arges t h i ll for t i n Eng land .

N ex t c a me t he sma l l h i l l for ts o f R a insborough , Hunsbury a nd

Arbury B anks .

A s i te e xcava ted a t Twywe l l ( Jackson , 1 975 ) c on ta ined n umerous

h u ts a nd a ppears t o h ave b een a n uc lea ted v i l lage o f c ons iderable s ize , wh i le t he u nexcava ted b u t u ndoub ted ly I ron Age s e t t le men t a t Thorpe Achurch w i th i ts c en tra l ' s tree t ' l ined b y e nc losures c on ta in ing a t l eas t n ine h u t-circ les c ou ld b e t er med a h am le t ( R .C. H .M ., 1 975 , Thorpe Achurch ( 2 ) ) .

The s i te

e xcava ted a t B ozea t ( R . C. H. M . ,1 978 , B ozea t ( 3 ) ) was d i f feren t a gain .

I t

s ee ms t o h ave b een made u p o f t hree o r f our h u t-s i tes i ns ide a l arge e nc losure a nd may b e o n ly a sma l l g roup o f f ar ms teads .

The s i te a t Draugh ton , e xca-

v a ted b y G r i mes i n t he 1 940s ( Gr i mes , 1 955 ) , was a s ing le d e fended f ar ms tead , a nd s ee ms t o b e a n e xa mple o f a no ther t ype o f I ron Age s et t le men t i n N or tha mpt onsh ire . T o s um mar ise , t h is e v idence s ugges ts t ha t I ron Age s e t t le men t i n t he c oun ty may n o t h ave b een v ery d i f feren t f ro m t he l a te med ieva l p a t tern , i n t ha t i t was made u p o f h abi ta t ions v arying f ro m l arge s em i-urban ised c en tres t hrough n uc lea ted v i l lages a nd h am le ts t o i so la ted f ar ms teads .

The ma jor d i f ferences

s ee m t o b e t ha t t he I ron Age p a t tern was c ons iderab ly d enser t han t ha t o f t he f our teen th o r f i f teen th c en tury a nd t ha t i t was more mobi le .

H owever i ti s

q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t he a pparen t ly h igh d ens i ty o f t he I ron Age s i tes i s d ue t o o ur i nabi l i ty t o d a te t he m c orrec t ly a nd t ha t t he a c tua l d ens i ty o f I ron Age s e t t le men ts was c loser t o t ha t o f l a te med ieva l t imes t han we s uspec t . The p oin t c oncern ing mobi l i ty o f s e t t le men t i s e spec ia l ly impor tan t . C er ta in ly t he a verage I ron Age s e t t le men t h ad a r e la t ively s hor t l i fe , t end ing t o b e moved q u i te o f ten , s o me t i mes o ver c ons iderable d is tances b u t s o met imes o n ly a s hor t way f ro m i t s o r ig ina l c en tre ( Everson , 1 976 ). Bu t , c ont rary t o p opu lar my th , s o d id med ieva l s e t t le men ts . One o f t he mos t i mpor tan t a dvances i n o ur u nders tand ing o f t he med ieva l p er iod i n N or tha mptonsh ire i s t ha t t he s e t t le men t p a t tern was n o t s table .

There i s n ow c ons iderable e v idence

t ha t , f ro m t he l a te S axon p er iod o nwards , med ieva l v i l lages were f ounded a nd a bandoned , were e xpanding o r s hr ink ing o r were b e ing r e-p lanned o n n ew s i tes ( Tay lor , f or thco m ing ) .

S im i lar ly t here i s e v idence f or t he e s tab l ish men t ,

a bandon men t a nd move men t o f h am le ts a nd f ar ms teads a s we l l a s t he c rea t ion o f n ew t owns .

I nf ac t t he s i tua t ion i n t he l a te med ieva l p er iod was n o t t he

b reak ing u p o f a n a pparen t ly o ld a nd s tab le p a t tern o f s e t t le men t , b u t was a c on t inua t ion o f ap rocess o f c hange t ypica l o f t he who le med ieva l p er iod . Fur ther b ack , i n S axon t imes , as im i lar h is tory o f s e t t le men t c hange a nd move men t i s b e ing r evea led , a nd t he med ieva l v i l lage c an n ow b e s een , n o t a s t he r esu l t o f c on t inuous o ccupa t ion f ro m e ar ly S axon t imes , b u t a s ar el a t ive ly l a te p heno menon e volv ing f ro m a q u i te d i f feren t p a t tern o f s e t t le men t wh ich e x is ted i n e ar ly- t o mid-Saxon t imes .

C urren t f ie ldwork i n N or tha mp ton-

s h ire i s s how ing t ha t s e t t le men t i n S axon t imes was made u p o f n umerous o ccupa t ion s i tes , s o me sma l l , s o me q u i te e x tens ive , s ca t tered o ver t he l and-

8 2

s cape i n a way v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he I ron Age b u t s eldo m i fe ver c oinc id ing w i th t he l a ter med ieva l p a t tern .

F or e xa mple i n G rea t Dodd ing ton

p ar ish where t here i s n ow o n ly o ne l arge v i l lage , n o l ess t han s ix e ar ly S axon s e t t le men ts a re k nown ( R .C .H . M., 1 978 , G rea t Dodd ing ton ( 6 -9 ) , We l l ingb orough ( 2 7 a nd 2 8 ) ) . Once a ga in t h is i s a min i ma l f igure wh ich c ou ld p rob ably b e d oub led o r t reb led i ft he l im i ta t ions o n f i e ldwork d id n o t e x is t . These S axon s e t t le men ts a lso s ee m t o h ave h ad r e la t ive ly s hor t l i ves . I fw e t ake a no ther s tep b ackwards i n t ime t o t he R o man p er iod , t he s a me p a t tern i s r epea ted . N or tha mptonsh ire s hows a p ic ture o f i n tens ive o ccupa t ion w i th s e t t le men ts o f e very s i ze s ca t tered o ver t he l andscape , a pparen t ly r egardl ess o f s o i ls a nd o ther p hys ica l d e ter m inan ts .

E x tens ive s em i-urban s praw ls ,

t owns , v i l lages , h am le ts , v i l las , a nd s ing le f arms teads a re a l l r ecorded ( Tay lor , 1 974 ) . Many o f t hese a ga in h ave r e la t ive ly s hor t l i ves . S o me h ave I ron Age b eg inn ings a nd s urv ive t he f irs t t wo c en tur ies o f R o man r u le ;

o thers

d a te f ro m t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tur ies , o r , more f requen t ly , f ro m t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies . S o me , wh ich were f irs t a pparen t ly o ccupied i n t he f our th c en tury , s ee m t o l as t i n to t he e ar ly S axon p er iod . I ron Age o ccupa t ion t hus c lear ly f i ts i n to a p a t tern o f c on t inuous c hange a nd move men t o f s e t t le men t t hrough t he p reh is tor ic a nd h is tor ic p er iods . The c auses o f t h is mobi l i ty , f or e xa mp le c l i ma t ic c hanges , e cono m ic p rob le ms , p o l i t ica l e ven ts , o r s ocia l move men ts may b e p roved o r p os tu la ted f or a p ar t ic u lar p er iod o r s e t t le men t , b u t i n g enera l t erms wha t emerges i s t he r ange o f s e t t le men t s ize a nd t he mob i l i ty o f s e t t le men t i n a l l p er iods , whe ther t he I ron Age o r t he f i f teen th c en tury . I ti s much h arder t o r econs truc t l and u se i n t he I ron Age t han i ti s t o work o u t t he p a t tern o f s e t t le men t s ince i n c o mpar ison w i th t he e x tens ive e v idence o f o ccupa t ion d iscussed a bove , t here i s a n a l mos t t ota l l ack o f i n forma t ion c oncern ing I ron Age f ie lds o r a gr icu l tura l s ys te ms .

An e xcava t ion a t G rendon

l ed t o t he d iscovery o f l a te I ron Age o r R o man f i e ld d i tches c u t ting a cross a g roup o f Bronze Age b arrows , b u t n e i ther t he s ize n or s hape o f t hese f ie lds was r ecovered ( R .C. H .M ., 1 978 , G rendon ( 3 ) ) . Apar t f ro m t hese , n o I ron Age f i e lds h ave b een i den t i f ied a nd l i t t le c an b e s a id a bou t t he e x ten t o f I ron Age a gr icu l ture .

N ever the less , c er ta in g enera l c onclus ions may b e r eached

o nt he e v idence o f s e t t le men t a nd a ga in , a t f irs t s igh t , t he p a t tern a ppears t o c on tras t marked ly w i th t he med ieva l o ne . The d ens i ty o f I ron Age s e t t le men t s ugges ts t ha t t he a ssocia ted l and was f armed more e x tens ive ly t han i n t he l a te med ieva l p er iod . As we h ave a lready n o ted , i n c er tain p ar ts o f N or tha mp tons h ire a c harac ter is t ic f ea ture o f t he med ieva l l andscape was e x tens ive woodl and a nd was te . I ft he d ens i ty o f I ron Age s e t t le men t s ugges ted a bove i s c orrec t , t hen , wh i le t here mus t h ave b een p as tures a nd meadow , t here c ou ld h ave b een v ery l i t t le was te a nd mos t l and mus t h ave b een u sed , i fo n ly o n a n i n f ield o u t f ie ld s ys te m . I ndeed i ti s l i ke ly t ha t i n I ron Age t imes a nd i ndeed i nt he R o man p er iod a s we l l , t he g rea t a reas o f f ores t wh ich e x is ted i n N ort hamp tonsh ire i n med ieva l t imes were n o t t here ( Pe terken , 1 976 ). F or e xa mp le i nt he h ear t o f t he g rea t R ock ingha m F ores t , a t C orby , f ive I ron Age s et t lemen ts a re k nown , a l l v ery c lose t oge ther ( R .C.H . M., 1 978 , C orby ( 2 -5 ) ) . L ikew ise w i th in S a lcey F ores t , a t l eas t t en I ron Age s i tes a re k nown , f ive o f wh ich a re o n l and wh ich was n o t c leared o f wood land u n t i l t he p os t- med ieva l p er iod ( R .C.H. M ., 1 978 , Y ard ley H as t ings ( 3 -6 ) , B ozea t ( 3 -5 ) , E as ton 8 3

Maud i t ( 2 -5 )) a nd i n Wh i t t lewood F ores t t here a re s o me t we lve s i tes a l l o f wh ich a ppear t o b e o n l and u ncu l t iva ted i n med ieva l t imes . T he a reas o f s oc a l led p r i mary wood land a re t here fore o f p os t-Ro man o r ig in ;

I ron Age a nd

R o man f ar mers l i ved a nd f ar med t here , r egard less o f t he s oi ls . H owever t h is p ic ture may b e more a pparen t t han r ea l . F irs t o f a l l i t may b e a rgued t ha t t hese s i tes i n a reas o f l a ter w ood land d o n ot n ecessar i ly imply l arge a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men ts ;

t hey c ou ld b e e i ther i ron-work ing c en tres ,

o r a t l eas t o n ly sma l l c learances i nt he f ores t . T he e v idence a t t he mo men t i s i nsu f f ic ien t . I ron s lag i s ar ecurren t ma ter ia l a t t he m , b u t t he e v idence o f q uerns a nd a n i ma l b ones a t many o f t he m s ugges t a mixed a gr icu l tura l e cono my . I fa l l t he k nown I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n N or tha mptonsh ire a re p lo t ted o n g eo log ica l a nd s oi l maps , t he r esu l t ing p ic ture s ugges ts t ha t n o p ar t icu lar s oi l r epe l led o ccupa t ion a nd a gr icu l ture . A l l s o i ls , e ven h eavy c lays a nd g lac ia l d epos i ts , were e xp loi ted . Th is i mpress ion i s g iven a ddi t iona l s uppor t f ro m mo l luscan e v idence f ro m e xcava ted s i tes .

T he s e t t le men t a t B lack thorn ,

n ear N or tha mp ton , o n d ry s andy s o i ls , h ad mo l luscan f auna i nd ica ting o pen c ond i t ions , a s migh t b e e xpec ted ( W i l lia ms , 1 974 ).

A t We l l ingborough , h owever ,

a no ther s e t t le men t , t h is t ime o n h eavy g lac ia l c lays , h ad a n a l mos t i den t ica l f auna ( Everson , 1 976 ). The e xcava tor o f t he We l lingborough s i te p oin ted o u t t ha t t he e v idence a ppeared ' t o c on trad ic t a ny i mpress ion t hese s i tes r epresen t s tr ic t ly l im i ted c learance o f f ores t a nd p erhaps s ugges t e x tens ive u se o f t he c lay lands '.

I nt h is c on tex t i ti s w or th n o t ing E vans ' p o in t t ha t t he marked

c on tras tb etween h eavy a nd l igh t s o i l t ypes s o f am i l iar t oday a nd p erhaps i n t he l a te med ieva l p er iod h ad b een b rough t a bou t b y p ro longed a gr icu l tura l e xp loi ta t ion ( Evans , 1 975 ) . o bv ious t han we i mag ine .

I nt he I ron Age t hese d i f ferences were p erhaps l ess

The e v idence s ugges ts a c lear c on tras t b e tween l a te med ieva l a nd I ron Age p a t terns o f l and u se , b u t a ga in we mus t n o t f a l l i n to t he t rap o f b e l iev ing t ha t b o th were s ta t ic s i tua t ions . The l a te med ieva l p a t tern was a ny th ing b u t s ta t ic , a s i s we l l-known ; i t was r espond ing v io len t ly t o e cono m ic , s ocia l a nd c l i ma t ic c hanges a nd e specia l ly t o t he e f fec ts o f d isease . Th is l ed t o t he a bandonmen t o f l and a nd t he c hangeover f ro m a rab le t o s heep f arm ing . Y et i n t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c en tur ies l and u se was v ery d i f feren t , w i th t he e xpans ion o f a rab le l and a nd t he c learance o f w ood land a nd was te i n r esponse t o i ncreas ing p opu la t ion a nd t he d i f feren t e cono m ic c l i ma te . A l though we k now l i t t le a bou t t h is a spec t o f t he S axon p er iod , t he l and u se mus t h ave b een d i f feren t a ga in , a s t he a ppearance o f f ores ts a nd was tes imply .

L ow p opu-

l a t ion a nd t he a bsence o f a marke t e cono my may b e p oss ib le r easons . Dur ing t he R o man p er iod i n N or tha mp tonsh ire , t o j udge f ro m t he e x is tence o f h undreds o f s e t t le men ts , s o me o f c ons iderable s i ze , a l mos t a l l t he a va i lable l and mus t h ave b een i n tens ive ly u sed a t s o me t ime .

When we l ook a t t he I ron

Age , t he e x tens ive u se o f l and i n c o mpar ison w i th t he i n tens ive u se d ur ing t he R o man p er iod may r e f lec t al ower p opu la t ion a s w e l l a s o ther f ac tors y e t u nk nown .

N ever the less t he u nder lying p a t tern i s o f c on t inuous c hange .

S o f ar a l l we h ave s ugges ted i s t ha t t he I ron Age a nd l a te med ieva l l ands capes were b oth p ar t o f ac ons tan t ly c hang ing p a t tern o f s e t t le men t a nd l and u se .

Th is may b e c ons idered h ard ly a p ro found s ta te men t , b u t a n e xa m ina t ion

8 4

o f t he t h ird a spec t o f med ieva l l andscape , t he b as ic l and u n i ts i n to wh ich i t was d iv ided , i s p erhaps more i mpor tan t .

We mus t n ow r e turn t o t hese a nd f ace

u p t o t he h is tor ica l p rob le m o f t heir o r ig in . I ti s n ow w ide ly r ecogn ised t ha t , i n med ieva l t imes , mos t o f l owland Engl and a t l eas t was d iv ided i n to e cono m ic u n i ts . I ti s a lso a ccep ted t ha t t hese l and u n i ts were i n e x is tence b y l a te S axon t imes a s t he S axon l and c har ters o f t he t en th a nd e leven th c en tury s how . I n c er tain a reas , s uch a s D orse t , who le t rac ts o f c oun trys ide c an b e s hown t o h ave b een d iv ided i n to t hese u n i ts b y t he n in th c en tury ( Tay lor , 1 970 , 4 9-71 ). Work b y D . J . B onney i n Wi l tsh ire h as p o in ted t o t he f ac t t ha t t he b oundar ies o f s uch u n i ts c an b e s hown t o b e i n e x is tence b y t he f i f th c en tury a nd t hus , b y impl ica t ion , i n l a te R o man t imes ( Bonney , 1 972 ) . The s a me c onc lus ion b ased o n d i f feren t e vidence was a lso r eached f or D orse t b y o ne o f t he p resen t wr i ters ( Tay lor , 1 970 , 7 2-3 ). I ndeed B onney s howed t ha t t here was e v idence t ha t s o me b oundar ies were p rob ab ly i n e x is tence f ro m t he B ronze Age . A lso s ign i f ican t i s t he w ork o f G . R . J . J ones o n mu l t ip le e s ta tes ( Jones , 1 976 ) . J ones h as s hown t ha t i n an u mber o f p ar ts o f Eng land a nd Wa les ma jor e s ta tes made u p o f an umber o f u n i ts o f l and a ssoc ia ted w i th med ieva l s e t t lemen ts c an b e t raced b ack i n to t he R o man p er iod a nd e ven b eyond . The t enur ia l imp l ica t ions o f s uch e s ta tes a nd whether t hey a re t he r esu l t o f a ccre t ion o r f iss ion n eed n ot c oncern u s a t t he mo men t . u n i ts e x is t f ro m a v ery e ar ly p er iod .

The ma in p oin t i s t ha t s uch l and

R ecen t work o n s o me S axon l and c harters h as s hown t ha t N or tha mp tonsh ire t oo h as e v idence t o i nd ica te t ha t l and u n i ts i n e x is tence b y l a te med ieva l t imes s eem t o h ave b een t here i nt he R o man p er iod ( Brown , 1 977) . B u t i n s o me p laces t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t s uch u n i ts migh t b e e ven e ar l ier . The c ont iguous p ar ishes o f K ing 's S u t ton , N ewbo t t le a nd F ar thinghoe i n t he s ou th o f t he c oun ty h ave b een e xa m ined ( F ig . 3 ) , a nd i ti s c lear a t o nce t ha t t he p ar ishes a re made u p o f s evera l s e t t le men ts a nd t he ir l ands .

K ing 's S u t ton p ar ish h as

t he v i l lages o f K ing 's S u t ton a nd As trop , N ewbot t le p ar ish h as N ewbo t t le a nd C har l ton a nd F ar th inghoe p ar ish h as F ar thinghoe a nd t he n ow d eser ted v i l lage o f S teane a nd i f we l ook more c lose ly we s oon d iscover t he s i tes o f o ther med ie va l s e t t le men ts , n ow d eser ted . There a re t wo p laces c a l led P urs ton a nd a no ther c a l led Wa l ton i n K ing 's S u t ton p ar ish a nd a t h ird Purs ton i n N ewbo t t le . F ro m a v ar ie ty o f d ocumen tary s ources i ti s p oss ib le t o i den t ify t he p rob able b oundar ies o f t he med ieva l l and u n i ts b e long ing t o t hese s e t t le men ts ( Fig . 4 ) . I ti s c lear f ro m D o mesday B ook t ha t a l l t hese p laces a nd t here fore t he u n i ts e x is ted i nt he e leven th c en tur y , b u t a l though t he s et t le men ts r ec orded t here a re i nd iv idua l manors , t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t t he who le a rea was o nce p ar t o f al arge r oya l e s ta te wh ich h ad b een b roken u p i n l a te S axon t imes . K ing 's S u t ton i t se l f was s t i l l ar oya l h o ld ing i n 1 086 a nd t he S oc o f t he manors o f Wa l ton , C har l ton a nd t wo o f t he P urs tons s t i l l p erta ined t o K ing 's S u t ton . I na dd i t ion i ts ee ms l i ke ly t ha t t here was a t l eas t o ne o ther s e t t le men t i n t he a rea i nt he e leven th c en tury , p robab ly s ou th-wes t o f S teane .

Do mesday

B ook r ecords t wo h o ldings u nder t he n a me S teane . One o f t hese i s c er tain ly t he k nown d eser ted v i l lage , b u t t he o ther , l i s ted u nder a d i f feren t H undred , was p robably a s epara te p lace .

I t s l oca t ion i s n o t k nown b u t i t may h ave 8 5

3 1 ed i er a lp a r i sh b o und a r i e s

0

. 1 ed i e t, a 1v i l l ag e s

1 0 00 m e t r e s

F ig. 3

Med ieva l v i l lages w ith in t he med ieval p ar ish b oundar ies o f K ing ' S S u t ton , N ewbot t le a nd Farth inghoe.

— S t e an e 0

W a l l T r e e s F a rm L a t e s a x on e s t a t e b o und an e s —

0

F ig . 4

P r o b ab l e l a t e s a x on e s t a t e b o und a r i e s

0

L a t es a x on s e t t l em e n t s

. 1 •

E a r ly s ax o n b u r ia l s

3 0 00 m e t r e s

P robab le b oundar ies o f med ieva l l and u n i ts .

8 6

b een o nt he s i te o f t he modern Wa l l trees F ar m .

The n ame Wa l l trees o ugh t

t o h ave s o me h is tor ica l s ign i f icance , b u t i ti s u n for tuna te ly n o t r ecorded i n d ocumen ts u n t i l av ery l a te d a te . H owever t he r ectangu lar s ou thern p roj ec t ion o f F ar th inghoe p ar ish i n wh ich Wa l l trees F arm l i es may b e t he l and o f t h is s e t t le men t . F ro m t he e v idence o f D o mesday B ook i t wou ld s ee m t ha t a l l t hese s e t t lemen ts a nd l and u n i ts e x is ted i n mid- t o l a te-Saxon t imes a s p ar t o f al arge e s ta te . The n a me C har l ton i s impor tan t i n t h is c on tex t f or , a s F inberg h as s hown , t he n a me d eno ted a v i l lage o n a n e s ta te wh ich i nc luded more t han o ne u n i t o f s e t t le men t .

I t was a l mos t a lways n o t t he p r incipa l u n i t , b eing u sua l ly

s o me d is tance f ro m t he s ea t o f t he l ordsh ip , a nd was where t he l ord 's own h usband men l i ved ( F inberg , 1 964 ) . T he p os i t ion o f C har l ton i n r e la t ion t o K ing 's S u t ton i s s ign i f ican t h ere .

T ha t t he a rrange men t o f t hese s ame e s ta tes

i s e ven o lder i s h in ted a t b y t he e x is tence o f p agan S axon b ur ia ls t o t he n or th o f K ing 's S u t ton a nd t o t he e as t o f As trop . The e v idence o f p lacena mes a lso e nables u s t o p ush t hese l and u n i ts p erhaps e ven f ur ther b ack i n t ime , f or t he mos t s ou th-wes ter ly o f t hese u n i ts i s c en tred o nt he n ow d eser ted v i l lage o f Wa l ton . Th is i s a l mos t c er ta in ly o ne o f t he Wea lh o r Wa lh n a mes , mean ing t he p lace where t he We lsh/Br i ta ins/s laves l ived a nd h ere we may h ave e v idence o f t he e ar l ier R o man o ccupa t ion o f o ne o f t hese l and u n i ts . Th is e v idence i s r einforced b y a rchaeolog ica l e v idence o f R o man s e t t le men t i n t he a rea ( F ig . 5 ) . Though n o s ys te ma t ic f i eldwork h as y e tb een c arr ied o u t h ere , t he amoun t a nd d is tr ibu t ion o f R o man o ccupa t ion i s s ign i f ican t . R o man ma ter ia l i s r ecorded f ro m n ear K ing 's S u t ton v i l lage i n aq uan t ity wh ich s ugges ts s e t t le men t t here . S o me r a ther u nsa t is fac tory 1 8 th-cen tury d iscover ies i nd ica te a nother s e t t le men t im media te ly s ou th o f As trop a nd r ecen t f i e ldwork h as l ead t o t he d iscovery o f aR o man s e t t le men t s ou th-wes t o f N ewb o t t le . Two o ther s i tes h ave b een f ound a round F ar th inghoe v i l lage a s we l l a s a no ther t o t he s ou th-wes t wh i le a R o man b ui ld ing h as a lso b een e xcava ted s ou th o f C har l ton v i l lage .

More s ign i f ican t i s t he l arge R o man s i te wh ich ,

t oge ther w i th t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon b ur ia ls , was d iscovered a nd d es troyed b y i rons tone- m in ing i n 1 910 , a t t he n or thern e nd o f K ing 's S u t ton l and u n i t .

The

p os i t ion o f t h is s i te , immed ia te ly t o t he wes t o f al ine o f med ieva l s e t t le men ts a t P urs ton a nd F ar th inghoe , s ugges ts t he p oss ibi l i ty t ha t t h is was t he R o man c en tre o fy e t a nother sma l l l and u n i t l a ter i ncorpora ted w i th in K ing 's S u t ton . Thus i t may we l l b e t ha t e ven i n R o man t imes t he b as ic o u t l ine o f t he med ieva l l and u n i ts was a lready i n e x is tence a nd y e t a lready i n t he p rocess o f c hange . I ndeed o ne c ou ld p os tu la te o ther e s ta tes a nd t he p oss ible s i tes o f R o man s e t t lemen ts a s y e t u nd iscovered . F or e xa mple t he R o man s i te i n t he s ou th-wes t o f t he F ar th inghoe l and u n i t migh t we l l h ave b een t he c en tre o f as epara te l and u n i t whose n or th-eas t b oundary l ay a cross t he n arrow ' wa is t ' o f t he med ieva l u n i t .

L ikew ise o ne migh t e xpec t aR o man s e t t le men t s o mewhere w i th in e ach

o f t he t wo p ro jec t ions t o t he wes t a nd s ou th-wes t o f t he S teane l and u n i t a nd a no ther t o t he n or th o f t he C har l ton u n i t . These s ugges t ions may s ee m t o b e h igh ly s pecu la t ive , b u t t he wr i ters b e l ieve t ha t t h is i s t he k ind o f q ues t ion wh ich we s hou ld n ow b e p os ing f or f u ture f i e ldworkers .

E ven i ft he s ugges t ions

a re i gnored , t he c orre la t ion b e tween R o man s e t t le men t a nd t he med ieva l l and u n i ts d oes s ee m t o b e o f s ign i f icance . I t may b e t ha t we d o h ave h ere a l arge 8 7

P r o b ab l e r oman e s ta t e b o und a r ie s P o s s ib l e r oman e s ta t e b o und a r i e s •

R o man

•

I r on a q e s e t t l emen t s

0

e t l emen t

s

H i l l f o r t

1 0 00 m e t r e s

F ig . 5

D is tr ibu t ion o f R o man o ccupa t ion .

8 8

R o man e s ta te w i th i t s c o mponen t s e t t le men ts a nd a ssoc ia ted l ands wh ich p assed t hrough t o t he med ieva l p er iod a t l eas t p ar t ly i n tac t . C an we , h owever , move b ack i nt ime a nd p os tu la te a s im i lar s i tua t ion f or t he I ron Age? H ere we a re f aced w i th c ons iderab le p rob le ms , n o t t he l eas t o f wh ich i s t he l ack o f a rchaeo log ica l f i e ldwork a nd t he d i ff icu l ty f or l oca l a rchaeolog is ts o f r ecogn is ing I ron Age p o t tery when i ti s f ound . C lear ly much more work i s n eeded a nd t he wr i ters h ope t o u nder take t h is i n t he n ear f u ture , b u t a t l eas t s o me e v idence i s a lready a va i lab le .

C er ta in ly t he R o man

s i te n or th o f K ing 's S u t ton h as p re-Ro man o ccupa t ion o n i t ;

I ron Age a nd

e ar l ier ma ter ia l h as b een f ound t here . There i s a lso s o me e v idence f or I ron Age o ccupa t ion a t F ar thinghoe . As y e t , h owever , n o I ron Age ma ter ia l i s k nown f ro m t he o ther l and u n i ts , w i th o ne impor tan t e xcep t ion . A t t he s ou th e nd o f t he C har l ton l and u n i t l i es t he I ron Age h i ll for t o f R a insborough .

H ere , s ure ly , i s t he k ey t o t he who le o f t he s ubsequen t h is tory

o f t he l andscape . The mass ively d e fended b iva l la te f or t h as b een e xcava ted ( Avery , 1 967 ) a nd s o me o f i t s s ecre ts r evea led . I t was f irs t c ons truc ted i n t he f i f th c en tury B . C . o ver a n e ar l ier o ccupa t ion a nd s ee ms t o h ave b een o ccupied u n t i l t he f irs t c en tury A .D .

C ou ld n o t t h is f or t h ave b een t he C apu t ,

c i tade l o r ' manor h ouse ' o f a n I ron Age e s ta te a nd i t s c o mponen t p ar ts a rranged i n much t he s a me way a s t he l a ter R o man , S axon a nd med ieva l o nes? The e v idence f or i t may b e s l im , b u t t o ah is tor ian s uch a h ypo thes is s ee ms much more a t trac t ive t han t he a l terna t ive o f t he t heore t ica l models o f l oca t iona l g eography . C er ta in ly i to ugh t t o b e p oss ib le b y i n tens ive f ie ldwork a nd p erhaps l im i ted e xcava t ion t o g o s o me way t owards p rov ing o r d isprov ing i t . I nt h is p aper t he a u thors h ave b een c oncerned n o t o n ly w i th c o mpar ing t he l a te med ieva l l andscape o f N or tha mp tonsh ire w i th t he I ron Age o ne b u t w i th e s tabl ish ing l i nks b e tween t he m . The l i nks a t t imes may s ee m t o b e v ery t enuous b u t wha t we h ope t o h ave e s tabl ished a re s o me b as ic c oncep ts o f l ands cape h is tory .

These may b e s u mmar ised a s mobi l i ty o f s e t t le men ts a nd

c hanges o f l and u se w i th in a b as ic s ys te m o f l and u n i ts wh ich a re r e la t ive ly s t ab le . We h ave s ugges ted t ha t t hese a spec ts l ink t he med ieva l p er iod t o t he I ron Age . Bu t i ft he l inks c an b e t raced t o t he I ron Age h ow much f ur ther b ack c an we g o? T o t he B ronze Age o r e ven e ar lier? The o r ig ins o f t he Eng l ish l andscape mus t n ow b e s een a s v ery a ncien t i ndeed .

8 9

THE LANDSCAPE AND NATURAL H ISTORY OF I RON AGE S ETTLE MENT ON THE TRENT GRAVELS C hr is topher Sm i th

The I ron Age s e t t le men ts o f t he Tren t g ravels h ave r ecen t ly b een d escr ibed i n s o me d e ta i l b y C ha l l is a nd H ard ing ( 1 975 ) a nd i n my own p aper ( Sm i th , 1 977) . I nt h is p aper my a im i s t o a dd s o meth ing t o o ur p ic ture o f t hose s e t t le men ts . A g rea t d ea l o f wha t f o l lows c o mes f ro m my d e ta i led s tudy o f t he a rchaeology o f t he v a l ley o f t he r iver T a me , a ma jor t r ibu tary o f t he r iver Tren t , a nd i n p ar t icu lar f ro m t he a bundan t wa ter-logged r e mains f ro m t he e xcava t ions a t F isherwick ( NGR SK 1 87081 ) ( Fig . 1 ) ( Sm i th 1 975a , 1 977 ,

a nd H a m mond ,

1 976 ) . P a lyno log is ts t el l u s t ha t d ur ing t he A t lan t ic a nd S ub-Borea l p er iods t he v ege ta t ion o f t he Tren t g ravels , a nd i ndeed mos t o f L ow land B r i ta in , was p redo m inan t ly a mixed d eciduous wood land i n wh ich o ak ( Quercus s p ) ,e lm ( U l mus s p . )a nd l ime ( T i l ia c orda ta ) were t he mos t impor tan t a nd w idespread t rees , w i th a lder ( A lnus g lu tinosa ) l oca l ly impor tan t i n we t a reas s uch a s r iver v a l leys ( Penn ing ton , 1 969 , 5 5-78 ) .

I n a t te mpt ing a r econs truc t ion o f t he I ron

Age l andscape o f t he S ub-A t lan t ic p er iod i ti s n ecessary t o c ons ider t he e x ten t t o wh ich t h is p a t tern h ad b een a l tered b y h u man a c t iv i ty .

S uch a l tera t ions

w i l l h ave t aken t he f or m e i ther o f a dap ta t ions o f t he wood land e cosys te m o r i ts p ar t ia l c learance a nd r eplace men t b y e cosys te ms i n wh ich g rass o r a rable l and p redo m ina ted . F or a l ong t ime i t was w ide ly h e ld t ha t t h is p r i mary wood land e cosys te m s urvived s ubs tan t ia l ly i n tac t i n t he M id lands wel l i n to t he M idd le Ages .

A

d om inan t t he me i n t he h is tory o f t he a rea d own t o A .D. 1 300 was t he c learance o f t he f ores t a nd t he e x tens ion o f c u l t iva t ion b y i ndus tr ious , Ang lo-Saxon p easan ts ( Lewis , 1 958 ;

H osk ins , 1 955 ) .

A bundan t d ocu men tary e v idence

f or wood land c learance a ppeared t o s uppor t t h is v iew , a s d id t he s tudy o f p lacen a mes wh ich were i n terpre ted ma in ly i n t er ms o f G er man ic im m igran ts a rr iv ing i n a reas h i ther to v ir tua l ly u nse t t led a nd c arv ing b locks o f a rab le l and o u t o f t he v irg in f ores t ( Sm i th , 1 956 ) .

Wi th s uch a mode l f or t he M idd le Ages ,

a nd t he a l mos t t o ta l a bsence o f s ur face r e mains o f e ar l ier p er iods , i ti s n o t s urpr is ing t ha t p reh is tor ians t ended t o wr i te t he a rea o f f a s " ...the h eav i ly wooded Mid land P lain , where p re-Ro man o ccupa t ion o f a ny k ind i s l ike ly t o h ave b een s can ty , t rans ien t o r b o th ."

( P iggo t t , 1 958 , 1 3 ).

The p ic ture i s

n ow s een t o b e f ar l ess s i mple . The e v idence f ro m t he M idd le Ages , e specia l ly t ha t o f p lace-na mes , i s u nder r econs idera t ion ( Ge l l ing , 1 974 ; S awyer , 1 974 ) ;

a er ia l p ho tography h as p roduced a bundan t e v idence f or e x tens ive p re-

Med ieva l s e t t le men t a nd l and u se ( Tay lor , 1 975a a nd b ;

Sm i th , 1 977 ) ;

a nd

t he c o mpara t ive ly r ecen t ly d eve loped s tudy o f h is tor ica l e co logy i s g iv ing t he t rees a nd o ther p lan ts - f or l ong t he s ub jec ts o f s o much s pecu la t ion - a c hance t o c on tr ibu te t o t he d eba te t he mse lves ( Pol lard e t a l , 1 974 ;

9 1

Rackha m , 1 976) .

a )

S toke-on -Trent

Nott ingh2 m • Derby

Burton.

F I S HER W I CK

L ichf ield

• Ta m worth

L e i cester •

• B ir m ingha m a von

400

00 0

F ig . 1

L oca t ion map f or F isherw ick .

9 2

Three c a tegor ies o f e v idence a va i lab le t o t he p reh is tor ian e nable s o me e s ti ma te t o b e made o f t he e x ten t o f wood land d ur ing t he I ron Age :

v iz a er ia l

p ho tography , p o l len a na lys is , a nd h is tor ica l e co logy -p ar t icu lar ly t he s tudy o f s urv iv ing f l oras a nd f i e ld-na mes . F irs t ly , i ts ee ms a r easonable a ssumpt ion t ha t t hose a reas i n wh ich t he r e mains o f I ron Age f i e ld s ys te ms a nd s e t t le men ts h ave b een r ecorded a s c rop- marks h ad b een r ec la i med f ro m t he wood land . Thus t he d is tr ibu t ion o f s uch r e ma ins b e l ieved t o b e o f I ron Age d a te d e f ines a t l eas t t he min i mum e x ten t o f o pen l and a t t he t ime . Th is i s t he e v idence p rov ided b y a er ia l p ho tographs . S econd ly , a l though p o l len s pec tra f ro m I ron Age s i tes i nt he Mid lands r iver v a l leys a re v ery r are , t he p ic ture t o d a te i s a t l eas t c ons is ten t . A t F isherw ick wood land p ol len a ccoun ted f or o n ly a bou t 3 5% o f t he r ecord ( Sm i th , 1 977 , 6 0 ), wh i le a t T a l ling ton i nt he We l land V a l ley ( S i mpson , 1 966 , 2 0 ) i t was o n ly 7% . A t Dragonby , as i te n o t o n r iver g rave ls , b u t c lose t o t he l ower T ren t Va l ley , w ood land h ad b een r educed t o a min i mum b y t he f irs t c en tury A .D. ( Ho l land , 1 975 , 3 62-3 ) a nd a t n earby Thorne Was te l arge-sca le c learance h as b een d e tec ted a t c irca 4 00 B .C. ( Turner , 1 962 , 3 39 ) . Th ird ly , t he s tudy o f t he s urv iv ing f l ora a nd f i e ld-na mes o f a n a rea c an b o th c on f ir m a nd ampl i fy t he p ic ture d rawn b y t he a er ia l p ho tograph ic a nd p a lyno log ica l e v idence . H is tor ica l e colog is ts h ave d eveloped a n umber o f t echn iques f or s tudying t he b otan ica l h is tory o f a n a rea f ro m i t s s urv iv ing v ege ta t ion ( Po l lard e t a l . 1 974 ; R ackha m , 1 976 ). Many p eop le a re f a mi lar w i th t he n ot ion t ha t i t may b e p oss ible t o d a te h edgerows b y s tudying t he n umb er o f s pec ies g row ing i nt he m b u t Ie xpec t f ewer h ave h eard o f t he s ugges t ion t ha t t he f or mer e x ten t o f w ood land c an , i n s o me p laces , b e d e l im i ted b y r ec ording t he p resence o f wha t a re k nown a s wood land r e l ic s pec ies . A woodl and r e l ic s pec ies i s av ar iety o f p lan t , u sua l ly sma l l t rees o r s hrubs s uch a s h aze l ( Cory lus a ve l lana ) , s pind le ( fuony mus e uropaeus ) , map le ( Acer c a mpes tre ) , mid land h aw thorn ( Cra taegus o xyacan thoides ) , a nd wayfar ing t ree ( V iburnu m l an tana ) ; o r h erbs s uch a s b lue b e l l ( Endy m ion n on-scr iptus ) , d ogs mercury ( Mercur ia l is p eren is ) , wood a ne mone ( Ane mone n e morosa ) a nd h erb p ar is ( Par is q uadr i fol ia ) , t he n a tura l h abi ta t o f wh ich i s wood land b u t a re t oday f ound i nn on-wood land h abi ta ts s uch a s h edgerows . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he o ccurrence o f s uch p lan ts i n h edgerows i nd ica tes t he f ormer p resence o f wood land i nt he im med ia te v icin i ty , i fi ndeed t he h edge was n o t o nce i t se l f p ar t o f a wood o r a wood land b oundary . An e xper i men t u s ing t h is me thod was c arr ied o u t i n t he T a me V a l ley . S o me 2 13 h edges were e xa m ined i nt hree p ar ishes , a nd h edges w i th wood land r e lic s pec ies w ere f ound t o o ccur i n c lus ters a nd i n s evera l c ases i n a reas k nown f ro m d ocumen tary s ources t o h ave b een wood land i n t he M idd le Ages . H owever , t heir wood land c harac ter i n t he M idd le Ages n eed n ot i mp ly s im i lar c ond i t ions a mi l lenn ium o r more e ar l ier a s t here wou ld h ave b een amp le t ime f or t he r egenera t ion o f a t l eas t s econdary wood land . Tha t t hese medieval woods h ad h is tor ies e x tending b ack t o t he I ron Age o r b efore i s s ugges ted b y t he ir d is tr ibu t ion wh ich i s e xc lus ive t o , a nd c o mpl imen ts t ha t o f , t he f i e ld s yste ms a nd s e tt le men ts i den t if ied b y a er ia l p ho tography . The w ood land r el ic h edges o ccur i n j us t t hose a reas wh ich wou ld b e s ugges ted a s p o ten t ia l t rac ts o f wood land b ecause o f t he a bsence o f e v idence f or a ny o ther k ind o f l and u se . 9 3

Many f i e ld-na mes a re t opograph ica l i n c on ten t a nd d escr ibe s o me a spec t o f t he p lace i n q ues t ion a t t he t ime t he n a me was f i rs t a pp l ied . T here a re f ew e ar ly r ecords o f f i e ld n a mes a nd t he l i gh t t hey c an s hed o n e ar ly p er iods must d epend u pon c orrobora t ive e v idence . F ie ld n a mes s ugges ting wood land may r e fer t o w oods t he mse lves s uch a s ' Coppice F ie ld ' o r ' Wood P iece ' , o r t hey may r e fer t o w ood land p lan ts s uch a s ' Ash C rof t ' , ' Seven O aks ' o r' Nine E lms '. O ccas iona l ly n a mes i mply t he c learance o f f ormer w ood land s uch a s ' S tock ford P iece ' f ro m t he O ld E ng l ish s t Z icc wh ich r e fers t o t he s tumps o f f e l led t rees , o r n a mes i nclud ing t he e le men t b rUc wh ich a re t hough t t o r e fer t o n ew ly r ec la i med l and ( Sm i th , 1 956a ) . The d is tr ibu t ion o f wood land f i eld-na mes i n t he Ta me Va l ley c orresponds c lose ly w i th t he d is tr ibu t ion o f wood land r e l ic h edges , wh ich , a s Ih ave men t ioned , c orresponds w i th t hose a reas t hough t mos t l i kely t o h ave b een wood land d ur ing t he I ron Age o n t he e v idence o f a er ia l p ho tographs . We mus t n ow c ons ider wha t t hese I ron Age woods l ooked l i ke ; t ha t i s w ere t hey p r i mary o r s econdary woods a nd h ow were t hey managed , i fa t a l l . Pr i mary a nd s econdary woods a re u sua l ly d is t ingu ished i np o l len s pec tra b y t heir t ypica l s pec ies ; o ak ( Quercus s p.) , e lm ( U l mus s p .) , l ime ( T il ia c orda ta, a nd a lder ( A lnus g lu t inosa ) i n t he c ase o fp r i mary woods a nd b irch ( Be tu la s p .) ,a sh ( Frax inus e xce ls ior ) , h aze l ( Cory lus a ve l lana ) , w i l low ( Sa lix s p .) , h o l ly ( I lex a qu i fol iun r ) , h aw thorn ( Cra taegus s p .) , map le ( Acer c a mpes tre ) a nd e lder ( Sa mbucus n igra ) i nt he c ase o f s econdary woods . T he p ol len s pec tra f ro m t he r iver g rave ls s ugges t t ha t b y t he I ron Age v ery l i t t le p r i mary woodl and r e ma ined , i nt he v a l leys a t l eas t , a nd t ha t t hose w oods wh ich d id f orm p ar t o f t he I ron Age l andscape were s econdary . These s econdary woods h ad p res umably g rown u p i n a reas t ha t h ad f or mer ly b een c leared a nd migh t b e t ak en a s ah in t o f a n e ar l ier s ys te m o f l and u se i n wh ich c leared l and was p er iod ica l ly a l lowed t o r ever t t o a wood land s ta te . T he a ppearance o f t hese s econdary woods w i l l h ave d epended u pon t he e x ten t t o wh ich t hey were e xp lo i ted a nd t he t ype o f manage men t emp loyed , f or a s P ope w i t t i ly o bserved "Woods a re , n o t t o b ep ro l ix , C o l lec t ive b od ies o f s tra igh t s t icks ; I ti s , my L ord , a mere c onundrum T o c a l l t h ings woods f or wha t g rows u nd 'r 'e m , F or s hrubs , when n oth ing e lse a t t op i s , C an o n ly c ons t i tu te a c oppice . ( A lexander P ope , 1 718 ).

t

Apar t f ro m r ough p as ture f or h is l i ves tock I ron Age man a lso l ooked t o woods a s as ource o f s upp ly f or t imber a nd w ood . Iu se t hese t er ms a s d ef ined b y R ack h am ( 1 976 , 2 03-4 ) , i nt ha t t imber r e fers t o l arge l ogs u sed f or b u i ld ing a nd p roduced f ro m s tandard t rees a nd wood r e fers t o sma l l l ogs u sed f or t oo ls , h and les , wa t t les , f encing a nd s o o n , p roduced f ro m c oppices a nd p o l lards . C opp ices a re t rees c u t n ear g round l eve l e very f ew y ears a nd g rown a ga in f ro m a s too l , wh i le p o l lards a re e ssen tia l ly s im i lar b u t a re c u t s evera l f ee t a bove g round l eve l ( Rackha m , 1 976 , 1 95 , 2 01 ). The d e mand f or f i rewood mus t a lso h ave b een c ons iderable , n o t o n ly f or d o mes t ic u se b u t a lso f or i ndust ry e specia l ly me ta l lurgy , p o t tery manu fac ture , a nd s a l t mak ing . The f inds f ro m t he S o merset t rackways s ugges t t ha t c oppic ing may h ave b een p rac t ised a s e ar ly a s t he N eol i th ic p er iod ( Coles e t a l , 1 975 , 1 976 ) , a nd R ackha m b e l ieves t ha t p o l lard ing may b e o f s im i lar a n t iqu i ty ( Rackham , 1 976 , 4 6 ) t hough p os t ive 9 4

e v idence i s a t p resen t l ack ing . C oppicing a nd t he mange men t o f wood land a s p as ture c annot c o-ex is t a s t he g razing s tock e a t t he y oung c oppice s hoo ts . Th is i s why p o l lard ing was d eve loped , ap o l lard b eing c u t a bove t he l eve l t ha t c an b e r eached b y c a t t le . I nt he I ron Age , a s i n l a ter p er iods , c oppice woods were p robab ly s egrega ted f ro m t he wood p as tures . I n t he M idd le Ages s uch s egrega t ion was e f fec ted b y ad i tch a nd a b ank w i th a h edge o n i t , a nd i t may b e t ha t s o me o f t he l arger I ron Age c rop- mark e nc losures w ere c oppices r a ther t han e nclosed p as tures a s i s u sua l ly a ssumed . P roper ly managed c opp ice woods c an s urv ive a l mos t i nde f in i te ly a nd Rackham ( 1 976 , 2 8-9 ) g ives e xa mp les o f i nd iv idua l c oppice s tools p oss ib ly a t housand y ears o ld .

Wi th c oppicing

a t tes ted i nt he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze Age s o me I ron Age c oppice woods c ou ld h ave b een o f c ons iderab le a n t iqu i ty . Those a reas wh ich were c lear o f wood land d ur ing t he I ron Age wou ld h ave b een u sed a s a rable , p as ture o r meadow l and . I ft hey were n ot t i l led , g razed o r c u t t he w ood land wou ld h ave r egenera ted w i th in a d ecade o r s o . We k now f ro m t he p a t terns o f c rop- marks r ecorded i n a er ia l p ho tographs t ha t s ubs tan t ia l a reas o f t he l andscape were d iv ided i n to e nc losures o f v arying s izes , S o me e nclosures were o ccupied b y s e t t le men ts a nd r epresen t t he c en tres f ro m wh ich t he s urround ing a reas were f armed . Ag roup o f s e t t le men t e nclos ures h ave b een i den t i f ied f ro m t he Tren t g rave ls wh ich a re c o mparable i n s hape , s ize a nd i n terna l a rrange men ts ( Sm i th , 1 977 , 5 2 F ig . 2 ) .

The t ype a s a who le

a ppears t o b e long ma in ly t o t he I ron Age a nd i s morpho log ica l ly d is tinc t f ro m t he R o mano-Br i t ish s e t t le men ts k nown f ro m t he s a me a rea ( Sm i th , 1 977 , 5 3 , F ig . 3 ) . The s i te e xcava ted a t F isherw ick i n 1 974 a nd 1 975 ( F ig . 2B ) ( Sm i th , 1 975 a nd 1 977; a nd H a m mond , 1 976 ) may b e r egarded a s t ypica l o f t he g roup . A s ub-rectangu lar a rea o f a bou t 0 .4 h a was e nclosed b y ad i tch 4 m w ide a nd 2 m d eep . The b o t to m 0 .5 m o f t he d i tch d epos i ts l ay b e low t he wa ter t able a nd c on ta ined l arge amoun ts o fp reserved o rgan ic ma ter ia l i nclud ing a nima l b ones , i nsec ts , p ol len , s eeds , p lan t r e ma ins a nd w ood . Among t he l arger p ieces o f wood o ak ( Quercus s p .) a nd a lder ( A lpus g lu tinosa ) were t he mos t c o mmon a nd many s howed t races o f h av ing b een t r i mmed a nd s harpened t o f or m s takes . These were p robably t he r e ma ins o f af ence wh ich a ppears t o h ave f o l lowed t he i nner l i p o f t he d i tch .

There was o ne e n trance t o t he e nc lo-

s ure , o n i t s e as tern s ide , where a c auseway 3 .5 m w ide c rossed t he l ine o f t he d i tch . Wi th in t he e nc losures were s i tua ted t he r e ma ins o f ar ound h ouse a bou t 1 1 m i n d ia me ter wh ich h ad b een r ebu i l t a t l eas t t hree t imes . F rag men ts o f s truc tura l t imbers i n t he d i tch d epos i t s ugges t t ha t o ak a nd a lder w ere t he p r incipa l b u i ld ing t imbers w i th w i l low ( Sa l ix s p .) u sed f or wa t t les . S evera l o f t hese f ragmen ts a ppeared t o b e r o t ted e nd p ieces wh ich h ad b een s awn o f f , p erhaps when t he t imber was t o b e r e-used . An o table me mber o f t he i nsec t f auna f ro m t he s i te was Anobium p unc ta tum , t he f urn i ture b ee t le . T he h ouse o pened o n to a no pen s pace wh ich i nc luded a h ear th a nd a p a ir o f p os ts . N o p i ts were f ound a nd , a l though t hey c ou ld h ave o ccupied a n u nexcava ted p ar t * o f t he s i te , t he l eve l o f t he wa ter t ab le makes t he ir p resence u nl ik ley . Marked c oncen tra t ions o f r el ic t p hospha te ( P205 ) i den ti fed b y ap re-excava t ions s urv ey s ugges ted t he p resence o f manure h eaps , a nd b o tan i t ica l f inds i nc lude a r ange o f t ypica l f ar myard p lan ts s uch a s n e t t les ( Ur t ica u rens ) , f a t h en ( Chenopod iu m a lbum ) , k no t g rass ( Po lygonum a v icu lare ) , r ed s hank ( Polygonum

9 5

F ig . 2

C rop marks o f I ron Age f ea tures a t F isherv v ick .

9 6

p ersicar ia/nodosum ) , b lack n igh tshade ( S o lanum n igrum ) , a nd t h is t les ( Sonchus a sper ) . B racken f ronds ( P ter id iu m a qu i l inum ) f ound i n t he e nc losure d i tch may h ave b een b rough t t o t he s i te f or l i t ter . Haze l Whee ler 's e xcava t ions a t Wi l l ing ton ( TVARC 1 970-2 ) i n S ou th Derbys h ire h ave s hown t ha t e nclosed s e t t le men ts were n o t t he o n ly e le men t i n t he p at tern o f s e t t le men t o nt he T ren t g ravels , a nd t ha t u nenc losed g roups o f r oundh ouses were a lso t o b e f ound . A mix ture o f e nc losed a nd o pen s e t t le men ts i s ac o m mon f ea ture i nu pland a reas a nd may h ave b een t he p a t tern t hroughou t Br i tain .

I n d escr ibing s ou th-eas tern B r i ta in C aesar s a id t he p opu la t ion was " ...exceed ing ly l arge , a nd t he g round t h ick ly s tudded w i th h o mes teads ."

( De B e l lo G a l l ico V .2 )

The e v idence f ro m t he T ren t g rave ls a nd e lsewhere i n t he M id lands s ugges ts t ha t t h is c ou ld h ave a pp l ied t o much o f L owland B r i ta in ( r e ferences g iven i n Sm i th , 1 977, 5 5-7 ) . My d e ta i led s urveys i n t he T a me V a l ley s ugges ted a d ensi ty o f o ne s e t t le men t p er 1 .2 km 2 , e ven a f ter a l lowance f or c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ion i nt he k nown s i tes . I fs uch a s ta t is t ic c an b e a pp l ied t o t he who le o f t he Tren t g ravels i n t he I ron Age t here may , a t a ny o ne t ime , h ave b een a s many a s 5 00 s e t t le men ts , a t l eas t h a l f o f wh ich c ou ld h ave b een s im i lar t o F isherw ick . The s et t le men ts a re f ound am id t he c rop- marks o f l arger e nclosures wh ich a re u sua l ly t aken t o b e f i e lds .

A s tudy o f t he r e la t ionsh ips o f s uch f i e lds t o

t he s e t t le men ts , t heir s hape , s ize a nd s o i ls , make i tp oss ib le t o s ugges t wh ich were a rable f i e lds , a nd wh ich were p as tures o r meadows . F igures 2 i l lust ra tes t he p a t tern o f c rop- marks i nves t iga ted a t F isherw ick b e tween 1 974 a nd 1 976. A t t he c en tre o f t h is s ys te m i s t he s e t t le men t e nc losure d escr ibed a bove . I to ccupies t he c res t o f t he l owes t g rave l t errace , j us t t o t he n or th o f a sma l l s trea m . N ear t he t errace s carp t races s urv ive o f ad oub le d i tched t rackway wh ich a ppears t o l ead d own t o t he r iver a nd p erhaps t o t he s i te o f a f ord . T o t he wes t a nd n or th-wes t o f t he s e t t le men t i s ag roup o f sma l l e nc los ures wh ich s ee m t oo sma l l t o h ave b een c onven ien t ly c u l t iva ted a nd a re more l ike ly t o h ave b een e nc losed p as tures - a c onc lus ion a lso s ugges ted b y t heir r a ther p oor ly d ra ined s o i l . T o t he e as t a nd n or th-eas t t he f i e lds a re l arger a nd more r egu lar . B eing o nt he c res t o f t he t errace t hey h ave b e t ter d ra ined s oi ls a nd may h ave b een t he a rab le f i e lds . The s ys te m i s d e l im i ted o n t he wes t b y ac urv ing l inear c rop- mark wh ich s k ir ts t he u pper e dge o f as i l ty d epress ion o n t he b ack-s lope o f t he t errace . T o t he s ou th o f t he s trea m a s econd , sma l ler , s e t t le men t e nclosure i s l i nked t o t h is f ea ture b y ap a ir o f c onverg ing c rop- marks wh ich r ese mble a s hor t l eng th o f d i tched t rackway . Th is migh t b e t aken t o i nd ica te t he p assage o f l i ves tock f ro m t he s e t t le men t t o o pen g razing b eyond t he wes tern b oundary . F ro m t he s ou th-eas t c orner o f t he e nc losure a l inear c rop- mark r uns o f f t owards t he r iver T a me . Th is g roup o f f ea tures a ppear t o d e l im i t ap or t ion o f t he t errace s peci f ica l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he more s ou ther ly s e t t le men t e nc losure . Th is p a t tern i s r epea ted a ga in t o t he s ou th where a f ur ther a rea o f t he t errace i s d e l im i ted b y c ropmarks a nd t he t errace s carp . T o t he s ou th t here may b e y e t af ur ther u n i t b u t i t s l im i ts c ou ld n o t b e t raced .

A sma l l , s et t le men t t ype ,e nc losure was

i den t i f ied i nt h is a rea b u t f u l l i nves t iga t ion o f t h is p ar t o f t he p a t tern was n o t p oss ib le . O vera l l , t he p a t tern o f c rop- marks s ugges ts t ha t t he g rave l t erra ce was d iv ided u p f a ir ly s ys te mat ica l ly b e tween t wo o r t hree s e t t le men ts . 9 7

The d a t ing o f t hese s i tes i s n o t s u f f ic ien t ly p recise t o d e mons tra te whe ther t hey r epresen t c on te mporary o r s equen t ia l o ccupa t ion , b u t t here i s n o th ing i n t he l ayou t o f t he s ys te m t o e xc lude c on te mporane i ty . The e v idence o f t he s urv iv ing f l ora a nd f i e ld-na mes , d iscuEsed a bove , s uggests t ha t s ome o f t he a rea b eyond t he ma in wes tern b oundary was w ood land o r s crub . The waterl ogged d epos i ts f ound a t t he n or thern s e t t le men t make i tp oss ib le t o s ugges t , t en ta t ive ly , wha t t h is l andscape l ooked l i ke . The f act t ha t we a re aware o f t he f i e lds a t a l l a r ises b ecause t hey were e nc losed b y d i tches wh ich h ave g iven r ise t o c rop- marks . The u pcas t f ro m t hese d i tches w i l l h ave f ormed b anks a nd o n t hese h edges p robably g rew . I k now o f n o d irec t e v idence f or I ron Age h edges i n Br i ta in , b u t i ts ee ms v ery l i ke ly t ha t t hey were f ea tures o f t he l andscape .

C aesar , i n d escr ib ing h is

c a mpa ign a ga ins t t he N erv i i i n G au l r e fers t o h ow " They c u t o f f t he t ops o f s apl ings , b en t t he m o ver , a nd l e t at h ick g row th o f s ide b ranches s hoo t o u t ; i nb e tween t hey p lan ted b r iars a nd t horns a nd t hus made h edges l i ke wa l ls , wh ich g ave s uch p rot ec t ion t ha t n o o ne c ou ld e ven s ee t hrough t he m , much l ess p ene tra te t he m ."

( De B e l lo G a l l ico I .4 ).

Th is s ounds v ery much l i ke t he t rad i t iona l p rac t ice o f l ay ing a h edge a nd may a lso h ave b een c urren t i n B r i ta in , Many o f t he t w igs f ound a t F isherw ick were f ro m t yp ica l h edgerow s pec ies a nd s o me h ad c u t marks s ugges t ing t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b een h edge t r i mm ings .

P resumab ly t he ma in p urpose o f d iv id ing

t he l andscape i n to f i e lds was t o s egrega te d i f feren t f orms o f l and u se . S tock g razing i nt he p as tures o r s tubble wou ld h ave t o b e p reven ted f ro m g a in ing a ccess t o t he g row ing c rops a nd b y f ar t he mos t e f f ic ien t s tock-proof b arr iers a re wel l ma in ta ined h edges . I n a dd i t ion t o t rees s uch a s h aw thorn ( Cra taegus monogyna ) , b lack thorn ( Prunus s pinosa ) a nd e lder ( Sambucus n iger ) t he f o l lowi ng h edgerow h erbs h ave b een i den t i f ied i n t he I ron Age d epos i ts a t F isherw ick : b lack a nd w oody n igh tshade ( So lanum n igrum a nd S . d u lca mera ) , a nd wh i te c a mpion ( S i lene a lba ) . The d i tches a longs ide t he h edgerows a ppear t o h ave h e ld s tand ing wa ter a nd p lan ts f ound i nc lude d uckweed ( Le mna s p . ) ,b l inks ( Mon t ia f on tana ) , P o ta moge ton s p ., a nd wa ter c row foo t ( Ranuncu lus B a trach ium ) The f lora o f t he d a mp s ides o f t he d i tches a re r epresen ted b y b ur mar igo ld ( B idens t r ipar t i ta ) , h em lock ( Con ium macu la tum ) , g ypsy wor t ( Lycopus e urop aeus ) , r agged r ob in ( Lychn is f l os-cucu l i ) , a nd r ushes ( Juncus s p . ) . The a ppearance o f t he f i e lds t he mse lves w i l l h ave d epended u pon t he l and u se b eing p ract iced a nd t he s eason e nv isaged . D i tches a nd h edges a re p er man en t b oundar ies a nd t heir p resence s ugges ts a p a t tern o f l and u se b ased o n p er manen t f i e lds a s o pposed t o af or m o f s h i f t ing c u l t iva t ion . I ts ee ms t ha t t he i n f ie ld/ou t f ie ld s ys te m i s t he mos t l i ke ly o ne t o h ave b een p rac t iced a t t h is t ime ( Baker a nd B u t l in , 1 973 ) . I ft h is i s c orrec t t he p er manen t f i e lds a round t he s e t t le men ts wou ld h ave f or med t he a nnua l ly c u l t iva ted i n f ields a nd a cco mmoda t ion f or s tock , w i th t he o pen s paces where t he f i e ld s ys te ms h ave n o t b een t raced , f or m ing a n o u t f ie ld u sed f or r ough p as ture , f ores try a nd t e mporary a reas o f c u l t iva t ion wh ich c ou ld h ave b een e nc losed b y f ences . S uch a s ys te m a ppears t o h ave s urv ived i np ar ts o f t he Mid lands i n to t he Midd le Ages a nd l a ter ( Baker a nd Bu t l in , 1 973 ; C ha mbers , 1 966 ; R ober ts , 1 973 ; a nd P lo t , 1 687 ). We k now f ro m e xcava ted r e ma ins a nd p o l len t ha t t he c rops g rown i n t hese

9 8

p u tat ive i n f ie lds i ncluded em mer a nd s pel t whea t , wh ich may i nd ica te b o th s pr ing a nd a u tumn s ow ing , a nd t he C elt ic b ean .

These v ar iet ies may i mp ly

t he u se o f s o me f or m o f r o tat ion w ith in t he i n f ie lds a nd c ou ld p roduce a n eed f or t he ir s ub-d iv ision.

The c orn w as p robably s own b road c ast a nd d id n o t

g row i n t he n eat r ows f am il iar s ince J ethro Tu l l 's i nven t ion o f t he s eed d r il l , wh ich mean t t hat w eed ing w as d i ff icu l t o r i mposs ible o nce t he c rop h ad s tarted s hoot ing.

We s hou ld n o t p icture I ron Age f i e lds a s b road , g o lden e xpanses o f

w av ing c orn .

The many w ild f lowers a nd w eeds o f c u l t ivat ion , a s we l l a s t he

n u mber o f c erea ls t hat may h ave b een s own t ogether, wou ld h ave g iven t he l andscape a much more v ar ied h ue a nd t exture.

Weeds o f c u l t ivat ion i den t i-

f i ed a t F isherw ick i nclude g oosefoot ( Chenopod ium f oc i fo l iu m ) , f at h en ( Chenopod ium a lbu m ) h e mp n e tt le ( Ga leop is t etrah it/spec iosa ) , h enbane ( Hyoscyanus n iger ), p oppy ( Papaver r hoeas ), a nd b lack b indweed ( Po lygonu m c onvo lvu lus ).

I n t he p asture f i elds , a longs ide t he many g rasses , w ere marsh

t h ist le ( Circ ium c f . p a lustre ) , h a iry h awkb it ( Leon todon c f. t araxaco ides ) , t ormen t i l ( Po ten t il la a rgen tea ), a nd d ock ( Rumex s p .).

I n t he meadows were

b u t t ercups ( Ranuncu lus s p.) , d a is ies a nd d andel ions ( Co mpos itae ), r ibwort p lan ta in ( Plan tago l anceo la ta ) , a nd r ue ( Thal ictrum s p.).

Ih ave d el iberately

men t ioned a c ons iderable n u mber o f t hese w ild p lan ts t o s tress s o meth ing o f t he v ar iety t o b e s een i n t he I ron Age l andscape , a nd t o u nderl ine t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd e co log ica l v alue o f s pec if ical ly s eek ing w a ter-logged s i tes. Th is b o tan ica l r ichness i s matched b y t he z oo log ica l e v idence a va ilable. The f auna l r e ma ins f ro m F isherw ick s uggests t hat i tw as ma in ly c a tt le a nd h orses t hat g razed t he I ron Age p astures t here , t hough s heep o r g oats were a lso p resen t i n sma l l n umbers a s were p igs , r ed d eer a nd w ild b oar.

Ma m mal

b ones w ere n o t n umerous o r w el l p reserved a nd f i sh a nd b ird b ones w ere e nt i rely a bsen t a nd t hese a spects o f t he n atura l h istory o f t he s ite r e ma in u nknown . However , i nsec t r e ma ins w ere a bundan t a nd a m in i mu m o f 13 d if feren t t ypes h ave b een i den t if ied.

I n a dd it ion t o t he f ar myard a nd i t s b u ild ings t hree o ther

h ab itats w ere r epresen ted :

ab ody o f s tand ing o r g en t ly mov ing w ater —the

e nc losure d itch , a d jacen t g rassland g razed b y l arge h erb ivores , a nd a muddy z one where t hese t wo met.

I t s ee ms t hat t he c at t le a nd h orses a ctual ly d es-

c ended i n to t he e nclosure d itch t o d r ink .

Ev idence o f af am i l iar r ura l s cene ,

a nd smel l , w as p rov ided b y l arge n u mbers o f b eet les o f t he g enus Aphod ius, who u sua l ly make t he ir h o mes i n t he d ung o f l arge h erb ivores. The I ron Age l andscape o f t he T ren t g rave ls may b e s um mar ised a s f o l lows : ar ela t ively e ven s ca tter o f e nclosed h o mesteads a nd p erhaps u nenc losed r ound h ouses e ach s urrounded b y ag roup o f h edged a nd d itched f i elds. w ere p robab ly c u l t ivated a nnua l ly a s a rable i n f ie lds.

S ome o f t hese

The s et t le men ts w ere

c onnected b y d itched a nd h edged t rackways , wh i le s im ilar t racks l ed t o a reas o f o pen g raz ing a nd wood land t hat l ay b eyond t he e nclosed f i e lds . The ma in emphas is was o n c at t le a nd h orse r ear ing b u t a rab le c u lt ivat ion w as a lso imp ortan t b o th f or d o mest ic u se a nd f odder.

The s et t le men ts h ad a r ich n a tura l

h istory w h ich p rov ided t he i nhab itant s w ith many o pportun it ies f or i nt roduc ing v ar iety i n to t he ir d ie t , t hough n o d oubt p redators a nd p aras ites a lso t hr ived. Th is a pparen t ly s uccessfu l e cosyste m s urv ived v irtua l ly u nchanged t hroughou t t he Romano-Br it ish p er iod a nd , i n c erta in r espects , i n to t he M idd le Ages. I nc onclus ion Is hou ld l ike t o l ook b ack t o e arl ier p er iods b ecause i n o rder t o g a in a s f u l l a n u nderstand ing a s w e c an o f t he I ron Age l andscape s o me 9 9

c onsidera t ion mus t b e g iven t o why i td eve loped i n t he way i td id . The I ron Age s e t t le men ts a nd f i e ld s ys te ms o f t he T a me V a l ley f orm a c oheren t p a ttern a nd i th as n o t y et b een p oss ib le t o d a te a ny o f t h is e ar l ier t han t he f i f th c en tury B .C. N e i ther h as i tb een p oss ib le t o i den t i fy a ny c o mparable p a t tern o f e ar l ier f ea tures . I nd iv idua l s i tes d o e x is t , s uch a s c auseway e nclosures ( Pa l mer , 1 976 , 1 80 , 1 84 ) , h enges , a nd b arrows , a nd a t tes t t o s e t t le men t o n t he T ren t g rave ls f ro m t he t h ird mi l lenn ium B .C . a t l eas t , S o me s e t t le men ts h ave b een l oca ted a nd af ew e xcava ted ( M i les , 1 969 ; Sm i th , 1 975b ) , b u t n o p a t tern o f p ermanen t f i e lds h as b een i den t i f ied . R a ther , e ach s e t t le men t s ee ms s urrounded b y a b lock o f o pen t erra in . The a bsence o f p er manen t b oundar ies s ugges ts s h i f t ing a gr icu l ture a nd i tw i l l b e r eca l led t ha t mos t o f t he I ron Age wood land a ppears t o h ave b een o f as econdary k ind wh ich h ad r egenera ted o n f ormer ly c leared a reas .

Why t hen d id t he c rea t ion o f p er manen t f i e ld s ys te ms o n t he T ren t

g rave ls -t he e nclosure move men t -b eg in i n t he I ron Age ? Un t i l r ecen t ly t h is c ou ld h ave b een e xp la ined i n t er ms o f ac l i ma t ic d e teri ora t ion wh ich s t i mu la ted a mod i f ica t ion a nd i n tens i f ica t ion i n t he p a t terns o f l and u se . B u t we n ow k now t ha t t he d e ter iora t ion i nt he c l i ma te b e tween t he S ub-Borea l a nd S ub-A t lan t ic p hases o ccurred t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd mi l lenn ium B .C., o r e ar ly i n t he f irs t ( P iggo t t , 1 972 ) . S o me improve men t may e ven h ave t aken p lace b y t he mid f irs t mi l lenn iu m a nd t he I ron Age c l ima te o f t he Mid lands d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave d i f fered g rea t ly f ro m t ha t o f t oday .

T he emergence o f ap ar t ia l ly e nc losed l andscape mus t b e e xp la ined

i n o ther t erms . N o s ing le e xp lana t ion i s l i ke ly t o b e s u f f ic ien t b u t If ee l t he r o le o fp opu lat i on g row th mus t h ave b een o f c ons iderab le impor tance , a nd If ind myse lf e choing s o me o f t he v iews o f B rad ley ( 1 971) i n h is c ons idera t ion o f t he d eve lopmen t o f h i l l for ts i n S ou thern B r i ta in .

T he c hange , i n t he e ar ly f i rs t mi l lenn iu m

B .C . f ro m a p a t tern o f l and u se b ased o n s h i f t ing c u l t iva t ion t o o ne b ased o n a more i n tens ive i n f ie ld/ou t f ie ld s ys te m c an b e e xpla ined a s ar esponse t o p opu la t ion g row th. Before t he f i rst m il lenn ium p opu lat ion g row th i n t he a rea h ad p robably b een a cco m moda ted b y s i mply e n larg ing t he s ize o r n umber o f t he t e mporar i ly c u l t iva ted p lo ts . H owever , when t he l im i ts o f s uch e xpans ion were r eached a nd n e ighbour ing c o m mun i t ies b egan t o e n ter i n to c o mpe t i t ion f or l and , a mod i f ica t ion o f t he s ys te m b eca me n ecessary . The mos t l i kely modi f ica t ion , b o th i nt heory a nd o nt he e v idence a va i lab le i s a n i n tensi f ica t ion o f a rable f ar m ing i n t he f orm o f t he d eve lop men t o f a n i n f ield/ou t f ie ld s ys te m . The d eve lop men t o f ap ermanen t i n f ie ld w ou ld h ave p roduced t he p er manen t b oundar ies wh ich d is t ingu ish t he I ron Age l andscape f ro m t ha t o f t he B ronze Age o r N eo l i th ic p er iods i n t he a rea . C on t inued p opu la tion g row th wou ld h ave i nvo lved t he e xpans ion o f t he i n f ie ld a t t he e xpense o f t he o u t f ie ld a nd i t s e ven tua l r ep lace men t b y af u l ly r o ta t iona l s ys te m , a nd t h is a ppears t o b e wha t h appened i nt he a rea i n t he R o mano-Br i t ish a nd s ubsequen t p er iods . The a dop tion o f ap a t tern o f l and u se i nt he I ron Age wh ich i nvolved t he l ay ing o u t o fp er manen t b oundar ies may h ave b een t he mos t i mpor tan t s ing le e ven t i nt he h is tory o f t he l andscape o f t he r eg ion .

1 00

Acknow ledge men ts S incere t hanks a re d ue t o P h i lip B anks , J a mes G re ig , C o l in H ayf ie ld , B ob J ones , P e ter Osborne , J ud i S tar t in , a nd P e ter Wi l l ia ms who a l l t ook p ar t i n t he F isherw ick p ro jec t a nd whose r esearch h as made much o f t h is p aper p oss ible. Is hou ld a lso l i ke t o t hank P a tr icia L ynch a nd J a mes G re ig f or r ead ing a d ra f t o f t h is p aper , a nd f or mak ing a n umber o f h e lpfu l c o m men ts .

1 01

I RON AGE S ETTLE MENTS I N THE UPPER THAMES VALLEY G eorge L a mbr ick

S ummary The r esu l ts o f r ecen t work o n I ron Age s e t t le men ts i nt he Ox ford r eg ion a re s um mar ised i nt h is P aper. The p roble ms o f c on t inu ity a nd r eg iona l d iv is ions w i th in t he I ron Age a re a lso d iscussed . Av ar ie ty o f a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men ts i nt he Tha mes V a l ley i s d escr ibed f or d i fferen t p er iods w i th in t he I ron Age d ea l ing w i th t he ir l ayou t , e cono m ic b as is a nd t he s truc tura l d e ta i ls o f s o me o f t he b es t p reserved b u i ld ings . G eo log ica l S e t ting The U pper Tha mes B as in f ro m L ech lade t o t he G or ing G ap h as b een r eg arded , e ver s ince t he f irs t e x tensive u se o f a er ia l p ho tography , a s ad ense ly s e t t led r eg ion i np reh is tor ic t imes . A t ten t ion h as b een c oncen tra ted o n t he r iver g rave ls , where s e t t le men ts a re mos t e as i ly d e tec ted a nd a re a lso u nder t he mos t s er ious t hrea t o f d es truc t ion , b u t t h is s hou ld n o t b e a l lowed t o mask t he r ea l d ivers i ty o f t he a rea 's g eo logy .

The p rof i le o f t he v a l ley r ises f ro m

t he r iver a nd f l oodpla in i n as er ies o f f our t erraces o f ma in ly c a lcareous g rave l w i th a v ar ie ty o f g eo log ica l d epos i ts b eh ind t he m. These p rov ide a r ange o f e co log ies f or man t o e xp loi t a nd t here i s n o r eason t o e xpec t a ny s ing le t ype o f s e t t le men t o r au ni for m e cono m ic b as is t o o ccur t hroughou t t he v a l ley. The v ar ie ty i s s t i l l i l lus tra ted b y s o me p ar ts o f t he modern l andscape wh ich h ave n ot u ndergone r ecen t improve men t : t he o f ten marshy r iver marg in , t he r ich meadows a nd s u mmer p as tures o f t he f l oodpla in . , t he f irs t g rave l t errace , s o me t i mes d a mp a nd r a ther p oor ly d ra ined , b u t e lsewhere w i th a l igh t f ree d ra in ing s oi l a s o nt he h igher t erraces , wh ich a re e x tensive ly c u lt iva ted . B eyond t hese t he v a l ley r ises t o t he c ha lk B erksh ire D owns a nd Ch i lterns, t he c lay Va le o f t he Wh ite Horse a nd f urther e x tens ive c lay l and b etween t he s ands a nd l imestone o f t he Cora l l ian r idge a nd t he o o l it ic l imes tone o f t he Cotswo lds. P rev ious Work a nd t he B ackground t o R ecen t R esearch Archaeo log ica l c overage o f t h is v ar ied l andscape i s s t i l l i nadequa te f or a l l p er iods a nd h as b een c oncen tra ted l arge ly o n t he g rave l t erraces b ecause o f t he p resence o f n umerous c rop- marks , t he e x ten t o f g rave l q uarry ing a nd ac oncen tra t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts n earby i n Ox ford . E ven s o , work o n t he g rave ls h as r are ly b een a dequa te : B enson a nd M i les ( 1 974 ) e s tima te t ha t a t S tan ton H arcour t , f or e xa mple , 9 2% o f t he c rop- mark c o mp lex h as b een d est royed o r b ad ly d a maged b u t o n ly 3% was r ecorded b e fore o r d ur ing d es truc t ion , a nd much l ess p roper ly e xcava ted .

1 03

esu l ts f or t he I ron Age o f t h is l im ited , p iece meal a pproach a re c oy. The r r e red b y D . W. Hard ing 's The I ron Age i n t he U pper Thames Va l ley . T he p ict ure i s i ncomp lete s i mp ly t hrough l ack o f s u f f ic ien t i n for ma t ion . O n ly a sma l l h andfu l o f h ouse p lans h ad b een r ecovered l e t a lone p lans o f c omp lete s et t lemen ts. Th is l ack , c omb ined w ith a l most n o b io log ica l d ata , made i td i f f icu l t t o o bta in e ven a p art ia l p icture o f a ny s ett le men ts o r t he ir e conom ies. The work o f t he O x fordsh ire Archaeo log ica l Un it i n t he f ive y ears s ince t he p ub l ica t ion o f Hard ing 's b ook i n 1 972 h as , t o ac erta in e x ten t , t ransfor med t he p ic ture. I ts hou ld b e n oted , h owever , t ha t n o n ew i n for mat ion i s a va ilab le o n t he H il l F or ts i n t he a rea o r t he n uc lea ted v a l ley s e t t le men ts s uch a s C herbury C amp , D yke H i l ls ( Dorches ter ) o r C ass ing ton . T he r e l ig ious c en tres a t F r il ford a nd Woodea ton h ave s im i lar ly n o t b een i nves t iga ted a ny f ur ther . R ecen t w ork h as b een c oncen tra ted o n f ar m ing s e t t le men ts i n t he v a l ley b u t i ti s n o t y et p oss ible t o f i t t he r esu l ts i n to a ny c oheren t o vera l l i n terpre ta t ion . More e xcava t ion a nd f i e ldwork a re r equ ired . The r esu l ts f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions h ave , h owe ver , p roduced v a luab le i n for ma t ion i l lus tra t ing t he v ar ie ty o f r ura l s e t t le men ts i n t he a rea a nd i ti s w i th t hese r esu l ts t ha t t h is p aper i s c h ie f ly c oncerned . R ecen t Work The Ox fordsh ire Un i t h as t r ied t o f or m a r esearch p rogra mme b ased o n t he o f ten l im i ted o ppor tuni t ies o f r escue a rchaeo logy . I t s s tarting p oin t was t he c o mpi la t ion b y Dav id Mi les a nd D on B enson o f The U pper Tha mes V al ley : a n Archaeolog ica l S urvey o f t he R iver G rave ls u s ing 5 0 y ears ' wor th o f a er ia l p ho tography t o c rea te a g aze t teer o f s i tes w i th wh ich t o e s tab l ish t he ma jor p r ior i t ies f or p reserva t ion a nd e xcava t ion . T he Un i t h as t r ied t o a void t he l im i ta t ions o f a r t i f icia l " per iod" s pec ia l iza t ion b u t mos t o f t he l arge e xcava t ions i n t he l as t f i ve y ears h ave b een c oncerned w i th I ron Age s i tes . L i t t le w ork h as y e t b een d one i nt he a reas away f ro m t he r iver g ravels , b u t f ie ld wa lk ing a nd a er ia l p ho tography o n t he s ands o f t he c ora l l ian r idge n ear F ar ingdon h ave r evea led a n umber o f n ew p robab le I ron Age s i tes .

B y

c on tras t , f i e ldwork o n t he c lay l ands j ust w est o f O xford , a round Cumnor ' a nd Wy tha m , h ave s o f ar p roduced n o th ing , b u t h ere t he s oi l i s u nsu i tab le f or c rop marks a nd much o f t he l and i s u nploughed .

The o n ly a rea o f f t he g ravels

where s ign if ican t p rogress h as b een made i s t he f l oodp la in wh ich h as p rov ided v a luable n ew i n for ma t ion . The p o l icy o f t he Un i t h as b een t o t ry t o p roduce f a ir ly c o mp le te p ic tures o f af ew s e t t le men ts r a ther t han p iece mea l o bserva t ions o f many s i tes .

An

impor tan t n ew e le men t i n t h is work h as b een v ery e x tens ive w ork o nb io log ica l r e ma ins u s ing s a mp l ing p rocedures f u l ly i n tegra ted w i th e xcava t ion . Work h as a lso b een d one o n e s tab l ish ing a p o t tery s equence b ased o n s tra ti f ied d ep os i ts . The ma in s i tes c oncerned ( Fig . 1 ) a re : 1 .

H ardw ick , Ming ies D i tch ( W indrush f l oodp la in ):

e ar ly/m idd le

I ron Age d ouble-d i tched c ircu lar e nc losure w i th h ouses a nd t races o f p addocks 2 .

F ar moor ( Tha mes f l oodp la in a nd f irs t g rave l t errace ): t races o f e ar ly I ron Age s e t t le men t o nt errace , u nenc losed midd le I ron Age f ar ms teads o nf loodplain a nd e dge o f t errace . 1 04

P o r t M eado H a rdw ick M ing les D i tch •

S tan ton H a rcou r t

F a rmoo r

O x fo r

M oun t F ar n

2 0

r 2 e3

D o rches te r

C 71

0 ' \

At le fo rd

2 0

• \/ , ' W i t tenham C l umps

Wa l l ing f c xd

5

F ig . 1

1 0m i l es

I ron Age s i tes d iscussed i nt ex t .

1 05

3 .

A pp leford ( f irs t t errace ) e arly/m idd le I ron Age t o f ar mstead.

4 .

A bingdon , A shv i l le T rad ing E s ta te , ( s econd t errace ) e ar ly I ron Age s e t t le men t s uperseded b y midd le I ron Age h am le t o r v i l lage a nd s ubsequen t l a te I ron Age f i e lds .

5 .

A bingdon/Rad ley B ar ton C our t F arm , ( second t errace ) e nc losed l a te I ron Age f ar ms tead o ver la in b y a sma l l R o man v i l la .

I ti s worth n ot ing t hat n one o f t hese s i tes c losely r ese mb led t he o thers ( excep t p oss ibly t he l ast p hase a t As hv il le a nd t he e nclosure a t Bar ton Court ), a nd a er ia l p hotographs s uggest t hat t here may s t il l b e ac ons iderable r ange o f s et t le men t t ypes awa i t ing d iscovery . B e fore g iv ing t he d e ta i ls o f t he s e t t le men t a nd t heir s truc tures a nd e cono m ies , h owever , i ti s wor th c ons ider ing t wo g enera l p rob le ms : t he d egree o f c on t inu i ty ( or d iscon t inu i ty ) w i th in t he I ron Age a nd t he d egree o f l oca l isa t ion o r r eg iona lism . B o th p rob le ms c an b e c ons idered i nt he l i gh t o f t he p o t tery e v idence , a nd w i th t he f irs t , t he c harac ter o f t he s i tes t he mse lves mus t a lso b e c ons idered . The P rob le m o f C on t inu i ty The t rad i t iona l t hree fo ld d iv is ion o f t he I ron Age i s a pparen t f ro m t he p o t tery f or ms i nt he a rea , a s H arding h as s hown , a nd r ecen t ly a g ood s tra t i f ied s eq uence o fp o t tery a t A shv i l le h as l argely c on f ir med t h is b as ic p a t tern . R ecen t work h as i nc luded a n a na lys is o f f abr ics , a nd h ere t here i s a marked c hange b e tween t he e ar ly a nd m idd le p er iods . A t F armoor , where t here was n o p rob le m o f r es idua l e ar ly s herds b e ing f ound w i th t he l a ter ( m idd le I ron Age ) p o t tery , t he d iv is ion was s tr ik ing ( Fig . 2 ) . A t A shv i l le t he d iv is ion was e i ther l ess marked o r masked b y r es idua l ma ter ia l . Th is d iv is ion b e tween t he f abr ics p erhaps h e lps t o emphas ise t he b reak b e tween t he p er iods s ince mos t o f t he l a ter f or ms , made p redo m inan t ly i n s andy wares , c ou ld h ave b een made i n t he e ar l ier , f ine , s he l ly f abr ics , s ugges t ing t ha t t he c hange was n ot mere ly o ne o f s ty le . There i s a lso e v idence f or t he d iv is ions emerg ing f ro m t he s truc tures a nd l ayou ts o f t he s i tes . The e ar ly I ron Age h as b een c harac ter ised b y t he e x ist ence o f s torage o r r ubb ish p i ts w i th f ew o ther r ecogn izable f ea tures - c er ta in ly n ot t he p enannu lar g u l l ies a nd r ound h ouses o f t he midd le t o l a te I ron Age , wh ich a re t he mos t c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f t ha t p er iod . T he l a te I ron Age s ee ms t o b e marked b y t he i n troduc t ion o f r ect il inear f i elds o r p addocks c ons is t ing o f r e la t ive ly l arge d i tches , s o mewha t s im i lar t o l a ter R o man e xa mp les . The l ayou t o f s o me s i tes a t d i f feren t p er iods a lso c hanges .

A t Ashv i l le

a sma l l a rea o f e ar ly s torage/rubb ish p i ts was o ver la in b y a midd le I ron Age h am le t o r v i l lage s ugges t ing much more i n tens ive o ccupa t ion ( F ig . 6 ) . A t F ar moor t he midd le I ron Age s et t le men t was i n at o ta l ly d i f feren t a rea f ro m t he e ar ly p i ts ( Fig . 3 ) . B e tween t he midd le a nd l a te p er iods a t Ashv i l le t here was a n e ven more marked c hange w i th t he a bandonmen t o f t he h am le t o r v i l lage a nd t he c onvers ion o f t he l and t o a na rea o f sma l l e nc losed f i e lds o r p addocks . B y c on tras t , a pprox i ma te ly t he s a me l ayou t a nd p resumab ly u sage o f t he s i te , s ee ms t o h ave c on t inued i n to t he R o man p er iod . A t B ar ton C our t F arm t here w as n o e arly o r m idd le I ron Age o ccupat ion b u t a ga in t here s ee ms t o h ave b een as im i lar c on t inu i ty b etween t he I ron Age f ar ms tead a nd i t s R o man s uccessor ( Fig . 7 ) . 1 06

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P HASE I E nc los u res ( M idd le I r on A ge )

F abr ic t ypes f ro m e ar ly a nd midd le I ron Age c on tex ts a t Far moor .

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F ARMOOR

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Three p hases o f o ccupa t ion a t F ar moor .

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The I ron Age a nd R o man o ccupa tion a t Bar ton C our t F ar m , Ab ingdon .

1 50

The a pparen t p a t tern o f d iscon t inui ty b e tween t he b as ic p er iods o f t he I ron Age b u t c on tinu i ty f ro m t he l a te I ron Age i n to t he R o man p er iod r ef lec ted i n t he n uclea ted s e t t le men ts .

i s p oss ibly

A par t f ro m t he c ons truc t ion o f t he n ew

v a l ley f or ts a t D yke H i l ls a nd C assing ton i n t he l a te I ron Age , Dav id Mi les h as r e marked o n t he c oncen tra t ions o f l a te I ron Age c oins a t o ther l ow-lying r ivers ide s i tes o n r ou teways , n o tab ly a t D orches ter , Wa l ling ford a nd A bingdon ( Fig. 1 ). A t Ab ingdon t here i s l ate I ron Age o ccupat ion c over ing a n e st i mated 3 0 a cres. The l arge n u mber o fb u t t b eakers a s w el l a s c o ins t here h as b een t hough t t o s uggest a s et t le men t o f s ome c o m merc ial impor tance.

Each o f t he l ast t hree

t owns a lso h as a s ubs tan t ia l R o man s e t t le men t o f wh ich t he wa l led t own o f Dorches ter , a t as hor t d is tance f ro m i t s l a te I ron Age p redecessor a t D yke H i l ls , i s b es t k nown . P oss ib ly t he a ppearance o f t hese c en tres i n t he l a te I ron Age c o inc ides w i th t he a bandonmen t o f e ar l ier h i l l-for ts , o f wh ich t ha t a t Wi t tenha m C lu mps o ver look ing D yke H i l ls i st he mos t l ike ly e xa mp le ( Benson a nd M i les , 1 974 , F ig . 1 7 ) . The a rgu men t o ver c on t inu ity i n t he I ron Age a nd i n to t he Roman p er iod h owever s t il l i s s pecu lat ive. Too f ew s ites h ave b een i nvest iga ted t horough ly t o r each a ny f ina l c onc lus ions a nd t he l a tes t u nder i nves t iga t ion - Moun t Far m , D orches ter ( f irs t e xcava ted b y J .N .L . Myres i n 1 934 ) - s ugges ts a much g reat er d egree o f c on t inu i ty i n i t s l ayou t t hroughou t t he I ron Age a nd e ar ly R o man p er iods t han h as b een t he c ase a t o ther s i tes . There i s n o r eason t o e xpec t t he s a me p a t tern e verywhere a nd i ti s n ot u nreasonable t o a ssu me , a s o thers h ave s ugges ted , t ha t t he s tabi l i ty a nd p a t tern o f I ron Age s e t t le men ts were a s v ar iable a s i n med ieva l o nes.

I ti s p ar t icu lar ly i n teres t ing t ha t t he a pparen t ly

r ela t ive ly s ta t ic r ura l s e t t le men t a t Moun t F ar m was s o c lose t o t he e ver c hang ing n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts n ear D orches ter ( F ig . 1 ) . The P roble m o f R eg iona l is m The v a lue o f t he d iv is ion o f I ron Age Br i tain i n to r eg iona l c u ltura l/trad ing g roups b ased o np o t tery t ypes c o m mon i n d i f feren t a reas ( Om li f fe 1 974 ) i s a lso wor th c ons ider ing i n r e la t ion t o t he med ieva l p er iod .

The s tudy o f med ieva l

p o t tery p rov ides much i n for ma tion a bou t t he med ieva l p o t tery t rade , b u t p rov ides o n ly p art ia l i n for mat ion a bou t t rad ing r ou tes g enera l ly , a nd t e l ls u s n oth ing a bou t t he c omp l ica ted h ierarch ica l s tructure o f med ieva l s oc iety a nd e cono m ic o rganisa t ion , wh ich a re u nders tood a l mos t e n t ire ly f ro m s urv iv ing d ocu men ts . The v ar ia t ions i n medieva l p o t tery s ty les d o n o t r ef lec t a ny s ign i f ican t c u l tura l d if ferences.

Even i ft he t rad ing g roups a re n o t t aken t o i nd icate more b as ic

d iv is ions b etween I ron Age c om mun it ies , t he e v idence o f t he p o t tery i n t he Oxf ord a rea s uggests d if feren t l evels o f manu facture a nd t rade n o t a l l o f wh ich a re r ef lected b y t he r elevan t g roup ing.

The f abr ic a na lyses h ave s uggested

t hat manufacture o f t he c oarse w ares a t l east w as v ery l oca l ised—th is i s p art i cu lar ly n ot iceable i n t he p roport ion o f f l in t u sed , wh ich i s q u ite c o m mon a round Dorchester , i s p resen t a t App leford b u t v irtua l ly a bsen t a t Far moor a nd Ashv il le , t he l at ter o n ly a bou t s ix m iles n orth o f Dorchester.

A t b o th

Ashv il le a nd Far moor t he r aw mater ials f or most o f t he p o t tery s ee m t o h ave b een a va ilab le o n t he s ite ( a l though i th as n ot b een p roved t hat t he p ot tery a ctua l ly w as made t here ). A t F ar moor t he o n ly p o t tery c o m mon i nb o th t he e ar ly a nd t he midd le I ron Age p er iods were j ars , r ough ly i den ti f iable w i th H ard ing 's " barrel j ars" , made i n c oarse f abr ics w i th mixed t e mper ing . The c on t inuance o f t h is f or m a nd

1 11

f abr ic u p t o t he l a te I ron Age a t Ashv i l le s ugges ts t ha t t hese p ots were e ssent ia l ly u t i l i ty p roduc ts , l oca l ly o r e ven d o mes t ica l ly made w i thou t v ery much c are b eing l av ished o n t heir p roduc t ion a nd w i th l i t t le r egard f or c hanges i n f ashion o r c u l tura l s tyle .

The f iner p o t tery o n t he o ther h and s hows a much

g reater c ons istency i n p roduct ion , s uggest ing l ess l ocal ised manufacture a nd p erhaps more t rade e xp lo it ing c urren t f ash ion .

Wider t rade s ee ms l im ited

b u t t here i s al i t t le d ist inct ive p o ttery t o b e f ound i n t he Dorchester/Ab ingdon a rea wh ich c an b e s hown t o h ave c o me f or e xa mp le f ro m Wessex a nd t he Ch ilterns.

Wi th t he Be lg ic ma ter ia l w ider l inks s ee m a pparen t b u t t h is r ef lects

t echn ica l i nnova t ion a nd c hanges i n t he t rad ing p a t tern a s wel l a s more f undamen ta l c hanges i n I ron Age s oc iety . Reg iona l a nd l oca g roup ings i n p o t tery t ypes a re t hus l ikely t o v ary d ependi ng o n wh ich waves a re u sed f or t he c o mpar ison .

O veral l g roup ings may d is-

g u ise a more c omp l icated g radua t ion f ro m p urely l ocal ised manu facture a nd t rade , t hrough more r eg iona l s ty les o f p roduc t ion w ith s tronger c u ltural a f f in it ies , t o w ider t rad ing l inks f or p art icu lar t ypes n o t a va ilable l oca l ly . The u se o f p art icu lar s ty les o f p ot tery t o d ef ine " trad ing g roups" , " areas o f c ont act" o r " sty le z ones" may t hus r ef lect o n ly o ne l evel o f t he manu facture a nd t rade o f p o t tery , r epresen ted o n ly b y t he most s ty l ist ical ly d ist inct f or ms o f v essel o r d ecorat ion .

More work o n g enera l f abr ic a na lys is may h elp t o p u t

t h is i np erspect ive b u t i ti s d oubt fu l h ow s ign i f ican t p urely p ot tery g roup ings may b e i n r ef lect ing more g enera l t rad ing p atterns a nd a reas o f c on tact , l et a lone more f undamen ta l c u ltura l , s oc ial o r p o l it ica l r elat ionsh ips. S e t t le men ts :

E ar ly I ron Age

P erhaps t he mos t r evea l ing a spec t o f t he r ecen t w ork i n t he a rea h as b een t he v ar ie ty o f s e t t le men t t ypes f ound , e spec ia l ly i n t he midd le I ron Age , a nd t he wea l th o f i n for ma t ion wh ich c an b e r ecovered f ro m p reserved b io log ica l r e ma ins .

The s e t t le men ts o f t he e ar ly I ron Age a re s t i l l f a ir ly e n ig ma t ic :

n o more h as b een d iscovered a bou t t he p oss ible e ar ly e nclosures s uch a s t ha t e xcava ted b y S avory a t L ong W i t tenha .m , a nd r ecen t ly o n ly g roups o f p i ts w i th v ery f ew a ssocia ted s truc tures h ave b een f ound , a s a t F ar moor ( Fig . 3 ) a nd Ashv i l le ( Fig . 6 ) .

T he s ize a nd n a ture o f t hese s e t t le men ts i s u nclear , i ndeed

i ti s e ven u ncer ta in whe ther s uch p i ts were o r ig ina lly d ug f or s torage o r f or r ubbish d isposa l ( t he p urpose f or wh ich t hey were p oss ib ly f i na l ly u sed ) . H owever , t he p i ts o n t he s econd g rave l t errace s i te a t Ashv i l le c on ta ined c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins wh ich i nd ica te we l l d eve loped a rable a gr icu l ture . A t l eas t f our c erea l c rops - s pe l t , b readwhea t , em mer a nd s ix r ow h u l led b ar ley - were c u l t iva ted a nd a ma ture a rab le weed f lora b eca me e s tab l ished . Th is may we l l b e t he p a t tern f or t he u pper g rave l t erraces , b u t a t F ar moor t he o n ly s a mple o f t h is p er iod e xa m ined p roduced n o p lan t r e ma ins a t a l l , p erhaps i nd ica t ing a more p as tora l e cono my o n t he l ower t erraces . Th is l as t p oin t i s v ery =cer ta in , h owever , a nd n eeds much f ur ther i nves t iga t ion .

A t

A pp le ford n o work o n c arbon ised r e mains was d one a nd t he p resence o f q uerns tones o n ly i nd ica tes t he p rocessing o f c erea ls w i th n o d e ta i ls o f t heir p roduct ion . S e t t le men ts :

M idd le I ron Age

F or t he midd le I ron Age a much g rea ter amoun t o f i n for ma t ion h as b een r ecovered .

The s e t t le men ts i nc lude sma l l f ar ms teads o n t he f loodpla in a nd 12

f irs t t errace a t F ar moor a nd A pple ford , av ery d i f feren t , e nc losed , s e t t le men t o n t he f loodp la in a t H ardw ick a nd wha t amoun ts t o ah am le t o r v i l lage a t Ashv i l le . A t F ar moor ( F ig . 3 ) i t was e v iden t f ro m wa ter logged b io log ica l r e ma ins t ha t t he f l oodpla in was o pen g rass land u sed p r incipa l ly f or p as ture .

F lood

r efuse i nt he d ra inage g u l l ies s howed t ha t t he f ar ms teads were s ub jec t t o f lood ing a nd s ince t he r e la t ive ly h igher g round o f t he f irs t t errace was n earby , i ti s r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t t h is was a s easona l s e t t le men t e xplo i t ing t he r ich s um mer g razing l and .

Moreover , t hese were p robab ly v ery s hor t-l ived

s e t t le men ts s ince e ach o f t he sma l l f ar ms teads p roduced e v idence o f h aving b een u sed f or o n ly f i ve o r s ix y ears .

Th is c onc lus ion

a nnua l f l ora o f d isturbed g round p lan ts :

was d educed f ro m t he

n et t le s pec ies s uch a s t he a nnua l

( Ur t ica u rens ) were a bundan t , b u t c o m mon n on-grass land p erenn ia l weeds wh ich d o n o t s e t s eed i n t heir f irs t y ear a nd p erhaps t ake a bou t f ive o r s ix y ears t o e s tab l ish t he mselves i n q uan t i ty , n o tab ly t he p erenn ia l n e t t le ( U . d io ica ) , were a l mos t e n t ire ly a bsen t . R o man s e t t le men t n earby.

B y c on tras t t hey were c o m mon i n t he p er manen t

The b one e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t c a t t le ( especia l ly

c ows ) a nd h orses were c o mmon , t hough s heep b ones were p resen t i n r ough ly e qua l n umbers . I ti s d oub t fu l i n v iew o f t he s easona l n a ture o f t he s e t t le men t , h owever , whether t he d o mes t ic b one r e fuse r el iab ly r e f lec ts t he c harac ter o f t he h erds b eing k ept o n t he s i te , The p ar t icu lar impor tance o f t he F ar moor f l oodplain s e t t le men ts i s t hreef o ld :

f i rst ly , i td e monstra tes t he v ery c ons iderab le e cono m ic i mpor tance o f

t he f l oodp la in , a n a rea p rev iously n eg lected b y a rchaeo log ists.

The v ery e x-

i stence o f h ab ita t ions o n wha t i s c lear ly marg ina l l and f or s ett le men t s hows t hat t he l and was c erta in ly n ot e cono m ica l ly marg ina l .

There c an b e l i t t le

d oubt t hat t he f loodp la in was a lso e xp lo ited b efore a nd af ter t he e x istence o f t hese s et t le men ts :

t he g rass land was c lear ly w el l e stabl ished a nd must h ave

b een t he p roduct o f h u man e f fort a nd af ter t he a bandon men t o f t he r ow o f f ar msteads a Ro man d roveway was l a id o u t o n t he s a me l ine , l ead ing t o t he e dge o f t he f loodp la in where a l arge h ay s cy the w as f ound. S econd ly Far moor p rov ides g ood e v idence f or s pec ial ised a gr icu l ture i n t he I ron Age w ith f ar ms e xp lo it ing o ne p ar t icu lar p art o f t he l andscape. Th is mod i f ies t he s tandard p icture o f f ar msteads b ased o n m ixed s ubs istence a gr icu l ture ( Cun l if fe 1 974, 1 79 ) :

n o t o n ly were t hese f ar msteads s pec ia l ised

t he mse lves , b u t i ti s q u ite c once ivab le t hat t hey b elonged t o al arger p er mane n t s et t le ment i n wh ich t he d iv is ion o f l abour a nd s pec ia l isat ion i n p art icu lar t ypes o f f ar m ing p layed a n impor tan t p art .

When e xcavated , s uch a s e tt le-

men t wou ld a ppear t o h ave p ract ised m ixed a gr icu lture s ince i tw as u s ing t he p roduc ts o f s uch a s yste m , w h ich a re u sua l ly a ssumed t o i nd icate a s ubs istence e conomy .

There i s n o s i mp le way t o p rove t hat t he e cono my o f s uch a s et t le-

men t w as n o t more s oph ist icated t han i s s uperf ic ia l ly a pparen t. Th ird ly Far moor imp l ies a more c o mp l ica ted s oc ia l s tructure t han m igh t h ave b een a ssumed f or s i mp le r ura l f ar msteads.

The p eop le o n t he f loodpla in

p erhaps wou ld h ave h ad s ome o ther p er manen t s et t le men t t o wh ich t hey b elonged , o r p oss ib ly w ere more o r l ess n o mad ic w ith w in ter e nca mp men ts e lsewhere. Aga in t he e v idence i s i nsu ff ic ien t t o b e a b le t o d eter m ine t he r ea l r elat ionsh ips , a nd t he p oss ib le c o mp l ica t ions o f g razing r igh ts a nd t he c on trol o f t he u se o f t he f loodp la in i s a no ther who le a rea o f s pecu la t ion f or wh ich t here i s n o e v idence .

13

The e v idence f ro m t he f l oodpla in f ar ms teads a t F ar moor s hou ld make u s wary o f t he g enera l d is t inc t ion b e tween "mobi le n or thern p as tora l is ts" a nd "more s eden tary c u lv itators o f t he s ou th".

Wh i le t he b road d ist inct ion i s

c lear ly v a l id , i ts hou ld n o t b e a l lowed t o mask t he much more c omp l ica ted e cono m ic a nd s oc ia l s tructure wh ich may u nder l ie t he s uperf ic ia l p at tern o f s et t le men t .

Far moor i s n o t u n ique :

s im ilar f ar msteads s urv ive i n e ar th-

work f or m o n Por t Meadow , av ery e x tens ive a rea o f f loodp la in w est o f Ox ford ( Fig. 1 ).

The p oss ib il ity t ha t t h is t ype o f f ar m ing p layed a l arge p ar t i n l ow-

l and I ron Age c om mun it ies c annot b e i gnored. I t wou ld a lso b e wrong t o a ssume t ha t t he F ar moor p a t tern i s u n iversa l ly a pp l icable :

a no ther f l oodp la in s i te u nder e xcava t ion a t M ing ies D i tch i s p ro-

d ucing d i f feren t r esu l ts , t hough t he f u l l p ic ture h as s t i l l t o b e worked o u t ( F ig . 4 ) .

I t s d ate i s p robab ly e ar ly t o midd le I ron Age ( t h is i s b ased o n a

s uper f icia l i nspec t ion o f t he p o t tery ) The t ype o f s e t t le men t — ad oub le-d i tched e nc losure w i th a t tached r ect angu lar f i e ld o r p addock , av ar ie ty o f b u i ld ings a nd a t l eas t f our p hases o f u se — i s c lear ly d i f feren t f ro m t he s hor tl ived , sma l l f ar ms teads a t F armoor . On t he b as is o f i t s l ayou t i t s ee ms t o h ave b een a more p er manen t s e t t le men t . The e nc losure was e n tered a long a g rave l r oad a nd a t o ne s tage t here was a g a te a cross t he e n trance .

Wi th in t he i nner e nc losure t here were s ix h u ts

( t hough n o more t han f our c ou ld h ave b een c on te mporary ) , t wo f our-pos t s truct ures , a nd v ar ious work ing a reas .

There was n o e v idence o f o ccupa t ion

b e tween t he i nner a nd o u ter d i tches , wh ich t oge ther w i th t he r ec tangu lar f i e ld migh t h ave p rov ided s pace f or c a t t le o r o ther a n ima ls . One o f t he mos t i n teres t ing a spec ts o f M ing ies D i tch s o f ar i s t ha t t he e nv ironmen t was d i f feren t f ro m t ha t a t F ar moor .

F ar f ro m b e ing o pen g rass-

l and t here was a l arge e le men t o f s crub i n t he im med ia te v ic in i ty , i nc lud ing f ie ld map le ( a s pec ies i nd ica t ing we l l e s tab l ished s crub , h edges o r wood land ). N ot e nough d e ta i led w ork o n t he s a mples h as y e t b een d one t o e s tabl ish e xac t ly wha t t ype o f e nv ironmen t i s r epresen ted , whe ther f or e xa mp le t he l and was b e ing c leared f or t he f irs t t ime , r ever t ing t o s crub o r p oss ib ly s uppor t ing managed wood land , s crub o r h edges . N or h as i tb een e s tab l ished t o wha t e x ten t t he s i te was s ub jec t t o f l ood ing , t hough i t was b u i l t o n a l luv ium a nd was s ea led b y at h in l ayer o f a l luv ium . I tc ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied s easona l ly , b u t i f s o o ver a l onger p er iod t han t he F ar moor f ar ms teads , s ince s evera l s truc tura l p hases a re a pparen t. Turn ing t o t he f irs t g rave l t errace , r e la t ive ly l i t t le d e ta i led i n for ma t ion was r ecovered a bou t t he e cono my a nd e nv ironmen t a t App leford . I t s ee ms t o b e a no ther f ar ms tead c ons is t ing o f sma l l e nc losures b u t w i th t races o f a d roveway a nd sma l l f i e lds a nd p addocks ( F ig . 5 ) .

There i s n o r eason t o s ug-

g es t a ny th ing o ther t han a p er manen t s e t t le men t , a nd t hough t here was e v idence f or a mixed e cono my i n t he p resence o f a n i ma l b ones a nd q uerns tones , w e h ave a lready s een h ow t h is t ype o f s uper f ic ia l e v idence migh t mask a more c o mp l ica ted a nd s pec ia l ised a gr icu l tura l o rgan isa t ion .

There was n o e v idence

f ro m t he l ayou t o f t he s i te o f t he t ype o f f ar m ing p rac t ised , t hough t he e xcav a tor h as s ugges ted t ha t t he f ie lds migh t h ave b een c u l t iva ted a nd t he p oss ible d roveway

b etween t he m u sed t o c on tro l t he move men t o f a n i ma ls .

T he e v i-

d ence o f t he b ones h ere , t oge ther w i th t hose f ro m F ar moor a nd Ashv i l le ,

1 14

H ARD W ICK

M ING IES D ITCH 1 977

F ig . 4

The f loodpla in s i te a t Mingi es D i tch .

A PPLEFORD 1 973

0 0

0

r ( 3 1

1 16

0

T he f arms tead s i te a t A pp le ford .

•

•

r espec t ive ly o n t he f l oodp la in a nd s econd g rave l t errace , s ugges ts a g rea ter p ropor t ion o f s heep o n t he s l igh t ly h igher , d r ier g round , a nd more c a t t le l ower d own , e spec ia l ly o n t he r ivers ide p as tures .

T h is p a t tern i s wha t migh t

b e e xpec ted , a nd t hough t he l ow l ying s i tes h ave o n ly p roduced sma l l s a mp les , t he a pparen t ly h igh p roport ion o f c ows a t F ar moor migh t i nd ica te a c oncen tra t ion o n d a iry f ar m ing ( W ilson i n P arr ing ton 1 978 ). The h igher g rave l t erraces t end t o b e l ack ing i n t he wa ter logged d epos i ts wh ich p rov ide i n for ma t ion a bou t t he n a tura l f auna a nd f l ora o f as i te , s o t ha t d e ta i ls o f t h is t ype o f s e t t le men t 's e nv ironmen t a nd e cono my r e ly more h eav i ly o n d o mes t ic r e fuse , p ar t icu lar ly c harred p lan t r e ma ins ( wh ich w ere s carce a t F ar moor a nd M ing ies D i tch ) a nd a n i ma l b ones , d epos i ted b y man r a ther t han a ccumu la ted n a tura l ly f ro m t he s urround ing e nv ironmen t .

T he e v idence

t hus t ends t o r ef lect l ess d irect ly t he i m med ia te s urround ings o f as i te , b u t more d irect ly d eta ils o f i t s a gr icu l tura l a ct iv i ty o r b ackground. Ashv i l le i n t he midd le I ron Age c o mpr ised a l arge n u mber o f h ouse s i tes o f ten w i th a nnexes t ogether w i th a f ew i rregu lar e nc losures ( F ig . 6 ) .

T here

were s t i l l many p i ts , s o me o f wh ich s ee med r e la ted t o o ne h ouse a nd a nnexe . The h ouses were f a ir ly c losely s paced a nd t he s e t t le men t a ppears t o h ave b een a sma l l v i l lage o r h am le t , t hough t he f u l l e x ten t o f t he s i te i s u nknown .

O f

t he 1 8 h ouse s i tes i den t i f ied n o t more t han s even c ou ld h ave b een u sed a t o nce , a nd t he c ons tan t r e-cu t t ing o f t heir s urround ing g u l l ies f ur ther s ee ms t o s ugges t a we l l e s tabl ished a nd f a ir ly l eng thy o ccupa t ion .

T he d a t ing e v i-

d ence i s n ot g ood e nough t o s ay more t han t ha t t he who le o f t h is p hase o n t he s i te b e longs t o t he midd le I ron Age.

A c o mparab le s i te , t hough n o t s o d ense ly

s e t t led , was d iscovered d ur ing s a lvage e xcava t ions o n t he M40 mo torway a t H ea th F ar m , M i l ton C o m mon ( Row ley 1 973 ) . N o b io log ica l d a ta was r ecovered f ro m H ea th F ar m , b u t t he c harred p lan t r e ma ins f ro m A shv i l le i nd ica te i nt ens ive c u l t iva t ion o f av ar ie ty o f c erea ls .

C harred c erea l d ebr is o ccurred

i n e very e xcava ted f ea ture a nd i t s u b iqu i tous p resence was t aken t o i nd ica te t ha t c erea l p rocessing was a n impor tan t p ar t o f t he s e t t le men t 's a c t iv i ty . The weed impur i t ies s ugges ted t ha t s o me a u tu mn s ow ing was p rac t ised , a lso t ha t t he n i trogen l eve l o f t he s oi l was d ropp ing c o mpared t o t he e ar l ier I ron Age , a nd t ha t t he a rea u nder c u l t iva t ion was s pread ing i n to s o me r a ther d a mp , u n favourab le g round .

A l l t hese f ea tures p oin t t o t he i n tens i ty o f c erea l p ro-

d uc t ion i n t h is p er iod ( Jones i n P arr ing ton 1 978 ) .

Th is i n tensi f ica t ion o f

a rable a gr icu l ture may b e a more g enera l p heno menon .

A t F ar moor a c on-

s iderable i ncrease i n t he b u i ld-up o f a l luv iu m o n t he f l oodpla in o ccurred f ro m t he midd le I ron Age t o t he l a te R o man p er iod .

Dr . S usan L i mbrey h as s ug-

g es ted t ha t o ne e xp lana t ion f or s uch a ccu mu la t ions m igh t b e c hanges i n a rable a gr icu l ture , s uch a s t he e x tens ion o f a rable a nd a n i ncrease i n t he p rac t ice o f a u tu mn s owing , wh ich c ou ld l ead t o g rea ter r un-o f f r a tes f ro m t i l led s oi l i n t he w in ter .

I ft h is i n terpre ta t ion i s c orrec t , a nd t he c hanges were w ide-

s pread , t he i mp l ica t ions c oncern ing I ron Age p opu la t ion l eve ls a re c ons iderable; b u t t he e v idence a t p resen t i s t oo s parse t o d o more t han p o in t t o ap o ten t ia l f ie ld o f i nves t iga t ion . Ana lys is o f t he b one e v idence f ro m Ashv i l le h as s ugges ted t ha t ah igh p rop or t ion o f s heep w as b e ing k ep t o n t he h igher g round , a nd t he a ge d a ta f or t he m , t hough d i ff icu l t t o a ssess f u l ly , s ugges ts t hat f l ocks were k ep t p r incip a l ly f or mea t a nd mi lk .

C a t t le , p igs a nd h orses were a lso k ep t , b u t i n much 1 17

l ower n umbers ( a l though i n t er ms o f mea t y ie ld t he impor tance o f t he c a t t le s hou ld n o t b e u nderra ted ). The v ar ie ty o f s e t t le men t t ype a nd e cono my i n t he midd le I ron Age i s p ara ll eled b y a n e qua l v ar ie ty i nb u i ld ing c onstruct ion .

A r easonab le n umber o f

I ron Age h ouses h ave n ow b een e xcavated i l lustrat ing a v ar iety o f b u ild ing methods , u s ing p osts a nd/or s takes , a nd i n t he c ase o f Far moor p oss ibly t urf , t he most r ead ily a va ilab le mater ia l t here.

A lso a t Far moor t here w as a p os-

s ib le s em ic ircu lar b u ild ing ( perhaps a workshop ) , t he o n ly b u ild ing t o h ave b een f ound wh ich w as n o t c ircu lar o r o va l i n s hape. The s i te a t M ing ies D i tch was p rotec ted b y at h in l ayer o f a l luv iu m a nd p ar t o f i t was u np loughed s o t ha t q u i te e xcep t iona l d e ta i ls o f s o me o f t he h ouses were r ecovered .

These i ncluded h ear ths , ag rave l f loor i n o ne h ouse ( wh ich

a lso h ad a s ubs id iary b ack d oor ) a nd a g rave l p a th t o t he d oor o f a no ther . I n o ne c ase q u i te t h ick l ayers o f o ccupa t ion d ebr is s urv ived , a nd a n o ak p os t was p reserved i n o ne p os tho le . A l l t he h ouses u sed t imber i n t heir wa l l c ons truct ion , v arying f ro m q u i te sma l l s takes f or t he ir ma in u pr igh ts t o s ubs tan t ia l p os ts .

A c on t inuous b u t s l igh t ly i rregu lar s lo t a bou t 5 cms w ide mark ing t he

wa l l o f o ne h ouse was i n terpreted a s t he t races o f s take a nd w at t le i n f il l ing b e tween s ubs tan t ia l ma in s truc tura l p os ts .

Mos t h ouse s i tes a re s urrounded

b y p enannu lar o pen d ra inage g u l l ies , i n t he e nds o f wh ich , e i ther s ide o f t he e n trance , t here t ends t o b e a n a ccu mu la t ion o f d o mes t ic r ubb ish .

The h ouses

a l mos t i nvar iably f ace e as t o r s ou th-eas t , a way f ro m t he p reva i l ing s ou thwes t w inds a nd t he c o ldes t n or th w inds , ap o in t we l l i l lus tra ted b y a modern g raph o f w ind f requency i n t he a rea ( Mar t in a nd S tee l 1 954 , F ig . 1 2 ) . S e t t le men ts :

L a te I ron Age

As w i th t he e ar ly I ron Age r e la t ive ly l i t t le e v idence h as b een r ecovered f or t he B e lg ic p er iod b u t a ga in s o me p o in ts o f i n teres t h ave b een r evea led . The a ppearance o f r e la t ively l arge f ie ld o r p addock d i tches h as a lready b een p oin ted o u t a s an ew e le men t i n t he l andscape : t he b oundar ies o f e ar l ier f ie lds a nd p addocks h ave s o f ar p roved mos t e lus ive , t hough t races o f g u l l ies a nd f ence s lo ts h ave b een i den t i f ied i n t he p as t , a s a t S tand lake , a nd f ur ther e v idence i s n ow b e ing r ecovered a t Moun t F ar m . A t Ashv i l le , t he midd le I ron Age h am le t was a bandoned a nd r ep laced b y ar ectangu lar f i e ld w i th b oundary d i tches a nd a f ew a ssoc ia ted p i ts .

T he e v idence f ro m t he c harred

p lan t r e ma ins s hows a f a l l ing o f f o f s pec ies i nd ica t ive o f d a mp g round ( no tab ly E leochar is ) s ugges t ing e i ther a r eversa l o f t he midd le I ron Age t endency t o e xpand a rable l and , o r t he improve men t o f d ra inage b y t he p rov is ion o f r eas onab ly l arge d i tches . There was a lso a c hange i n t he c erea ls g rown w i th t he d isappearance o f b read whea t . B y c on tras t t he n ew p a ttern r e ma ins r el a t ive ly s ta t ic i n to t he R o man p er iod , r e f lec t ing t he s truc tura l c on tinu i ty o f t he s i te a t t h is p er iod ( J ones i n P arr ing ton 1 978 ). A t B ar ton C our t F ar m a l a te I ron Age f ar ms tead e nclosure w i th a sma l l p ost b u il t r ound-house i n o ne c orner h ad b een b u il t o n as ite w ith n o e v idence o f e ar l ier I ron Age o ccupa t ion a nd a s a t A shv i l le t h is a rrange men t s ee ms t o h ave r e ma ined s ta t ic i n to t he R o man p er iod when t he e nc losure was r eplaced b y a no ther o f a l mos t i den t ica l s ize a nd o r ien ta t ion ( F ig . 7 ) .

R e la t ively l i t t le

work was d one o n c harred p lan t r e ma ins i n t h is c ase b u t t he b one e v idence s ugges ts a s im i lar p a t tern t o Ashv i l le , t hough w i th a h igher p ropor t ion o f c a t t le b ones . 18

Ap rob le m wh ich r e ma ins u nso lved i s t he n a ture o f t he ma in f i e lds u sed i n I ron Age a gr icu l ture o n t he g rave ls . T he p addocks a nd f ie lds marked b y t races o f g u l ly o r f ences i n t he midd le I ron Age a nd b y l arger d i tches i n t he l a te I ron Age s ee m t o b e f ea tures o f t he s e t t le men ts t he mse lves . There a re n o d e tec table e x tens ive f i e ld s ys te ms c o mparable t o t he c el t ic f i e lds n earby o n t he B erksh ire D owns . I ti s e qua l ly l i ke ly a t p resen t t ha t t he f i e lds were l arge ly u nenclosed , o r t ha t s ince t he l and i s f l a t ter a nd h as b een more i nt ens ive ly c u l t iva ted s ince t he I ron Age , a ny e v idence wou ld l ong s ince h ave b een p loughed a way . C onc lus ion The l as t f ive y ears ' work o n I ron Age c o mmun i t ies i n t he Ox ford a rea h as r evea led a s tr ik ing v ar ie ty a nd c o mp lex i ty i n t he t ypes o f s e t t le men t , t heir e cono m ies , a nd a lso t he c on te mporary e nv ironmen t . The p o ten t ia l c o mplex i ty o f I ron Age s oc iety a nd l and u se h as a lso b een i nd ica ted , a nd i ts hou ld b e n o ted t hat t he a bove d iscuss ion a pp l ies t o o n ly a v ery l im ited r ange o f s o il t ypes a nd l andscapes.

The n ew work o nt he f l oodp la in h as b een p art icu larly r evea l ing

a nd i tw ou ld n ow b e v a luab le t o s tudy I ron Age l and u se a nd s ett le men t p a t terns o ver c omp le te t ransects o f t he c oun trys ide. S ome S axon e states , r ef lected i n p ar ish b oundar ies wes t o f Ox ford , r an a t r igh t a ng les t o t he r iver , c ross ing av ar ie ty o f g eolog ica l z ones a nd t he s a me i s t rue o f t he p ar ishes o n t he s carp o f t he B erksh ire D owns a nd t he C h i l terns . Wh i le t he p a t tern o f I ron Age l and u se a nd s e t t le men t c anno t b e r e f lec ted i n q u i te t h is way , t he s pecia l ised t ype o f s e t t le men t a nd e cono my e v iden t o n t he f loodpla in a t F ar moor a t l eas t s ugg es ts t ha t I ron Age S oc ie ty may a lso h ave e xp lo i ted t he v ar ious a va i lab le l ands capes .

I ts t i l l r e ma ins p oss ib le , b y s tudy ing t he f u l l r ange o f s e t t le men t

t ypes o ver t he who le l andscape , t o r etr ieve a much f u l ler p icture o f t he s et t lemen t a nd l and u se p at terns a nd t he e conom ic o rgan isa t ion o f I ron Age c ommun it i es. Acknow ledge men ts Th is p aper , o r ig ina l ly p repared a t v ery s hor t n o tice h as u ndergone much r ev is ion , a nd Iam p ar t icu lar ly g ra te fu l t o Mar t in J ones a nd Mark R obinson r espec t ive ly f or s evera l v a luab le e x tra c on tr ibu t ions c oncern ing Ashv i l le a nd c harred p lan t r e ma ins, a nd M ing ies D itch a nd waterlogged b io log ica l r ema ins . Iwou ld a lso l i ke t o t hank T om H assa l l , N ei l McGav in , D av id M i les a nd B ob Wi lson f or t heir h e lp fu l c o m men ts a nd t o a cknow ledge t he w ork o f f or mer c o l leagues , D ee d e R oche , J ohn H inch li f fe a nd M ichae l P arr ing ton whose c onclus ions Ih ave a lso d rawn o n e x tens ive ly. Wendy P age ( n6e L ee ) f or p repar ing t he i l lus tra tions .

19

Iam mos t g ra te fu l t o

THE EM MEN-ODOORN REG ION I N THE I RON AGE, A STUDY I N S CALE AND S TRUCTURE ( SUMMARY ) J . A . B rongers

When t he s tructure o f a n a rchaeo log ica l l andscape h as t o b e d eter m ined , t he i nvest iga tor s tud ies t wo p henomena : f i rst ly , ap oss ib le c orrelat ion b etween t he s ubso il a nd t he f inds , a nd , s econd ly , t he mu tua l d ispos it ion o f t he p heno mena i n t he a rea u nder c ons idera t ion .

I n t he l a t ter c ase d istance a nd e ven tua l c luster-

i ng o r a l ignmen ts h ave t o b e d eter m ined. Pr i mar ily , ad istr ibu t ion map o f s ynchronous p henomena t ogether w ith a n a rchaeo log ica l ly r elevan tb ackground h as t o b e p roduced.

T he s ources f or t he

c onstruct ion o f s uch a map a re t o b e f ound i n a rch ives , o ld museum c o l lect ions , e xcavat ions , f i eld a rchaeo logy , a ir p ho tography a nd L andesau fnah me. P laced i n t h is o rder t here i s a n i ncrease i n t he h omogene ity w ith w h ich t he c o l lect ion o f a rchaeo log ica l i n for mat ion i n ac erta in r eg ion i s a cqu ired.

Th is h o mogene ity

i s n ecessary b ecause o ne c an o n ly h ope t o i den t i fy a s tructure i n a n a rea o f o ccupat ion w hen s uch a h o mogeneous s can f or f inds o f ap art icu lar a rea e x ists, f or i tw ould h ard ly b e f eas ib le o therw ise t o t ake n ega t ive e v idence i n to c ons iderat ion . N ega t ive e v idence p lays a d ec is ive r o le i n t he s earch f or s tructures i n l andscapes b ecause t he b oundar ies o f c lusters o f f indspo ts must b e e stab l ished. However , e ven i n as o-cal led f u l ly s urveyed d istr ibut ion map , b lack-ou t a reas h ave t o b e t aken i n to c ons iderat ion .

These a re r eg ions w here t he s can c anno t

b e e xecu ted a s i n tensely o r c omp letely a s r equ ired. Examp les ( accord ing t o t he s cann ing me thod u sed ) a re woods , h eath , o r b u ilt-up a reas. Another p o in t t he i nvest iga tor must t ake i n to c onsiderat ion w hen l ook ing f or s tructures i s t he s ca le o f t he map.

I ti s c lear t hat a map o f 1 :25 ,000 d ea ls

w ith d i fferen t a nd more d eta iled s tructures t han a map o f 1 : 1,000 ,000.

On t he

f i rst t ype o f map , f or e xa mp le , b oundar ies c an b e d iscerned b etween t wo o r more s et t le men ts b y c ons truct ing a p o lygona l d iv is ion o f t he l andscape.

On t he

s econd , t he c o mpar ison c an b e made b e tween l arge a reas where v ar ious t ypes o f e conomy a re p rac t ised , s uch a s s tock-breed ing , f i shery , a gr icu l ture , o r min ing ; w i th h e lp o f t hese maps t he e conom ic i n terdependency o f t hese a reas c an b e i nvest iga ted. A f ter t hese p rel im inary r e marks a n e xa mp le w as g iven o f t he s tructure r esearch o f o ne p heno menon—the C elt ic f i e lds —on d i f feren t s ca les. O n ly a s hort s ummary w i l l b e g iven b elow ;

d e ta ils c oncern ing A a nd B c an b e f ound

i n Brongers ( 1976 ) , d eta ils a nd maps c oncern ing C , Da nd E w il l b e p ubl ished i n BROB 1 979. A .

S cale 1 : 1,000.

1 .

t he l ines a long wh ich t he l and was a ssarted i n to f i elds; 2 .

b locks;

The a na lysis o f aC elt ic f i eld p lan a t Vaassen s how ing :

n ucle i , g iv ing e v idence f or mu l t ip le c ourse r o tat ion ;

e le men tary 3 .

ma in l ines,

v ery p robab ly r oads, w h ich d e ter m ined t he g enera l l ayou t o f t he f i e ld s yste m. 1 21

B .

S ca le 1 :25 ,000.

The a na lys is o f t he Em men-Odoorn r eg ion .

There i s a

marked r ela t ion b etween t he p resence o fb ou lder c lay i n t he s ubso i l a nd t he o ccurrence o f Ce lt ic f ie lds.

A p o lygona l s ubd iv is ion , w ith t he Ce l t ic f ie ld

c o mp lexes a s c en tre p o in ts, was d rawn .

Ca lcu lat ions o f p opu lat ion d ens ity

( 1-2 p ersons p er km 2 )a nd t he r at io o f a rable t o n on-arable l and ( abou t 1 :10 ) a re n ow p oss ible.

Carefu l c ompar ison o f t he s tructures o f t he i nd iv idua l Celt ic

f i e lds, t he p os it ion o f t he c e meter ies , a nd t he 1 9th-cen tury r oad s yste m made i tp oss ible t o r econst ruct t he L ate Bronze Age/ Iron Age r oad s yste m. C . S ca le 1 : 100 ,000. The s tructure o f t he p rov ince o f Dren the. There e x ists i n Dren the a n o ld j ur id ica l s ubd iv ision i n s ix s o-ca l led d ingspe len . N aard ing ( 1963 ), s upported b y B lok ( 1973 ) , h as s hown , w ith t he h elp o f t opony m ic e v idence , t ha t t here w ere o r ig ina l ly t hree d ingspelen .

I n t he l ecture i tw as d e monstrated

t hat i ti s p oss ible t o r elate t h is a ssumed t r ip le p art it ion t o t he d istr ibu t ion o f t he Celt ic f i eld a nd o ther e v idence i n t he I ron Age.

Each o f t hese t hree p arts

h ad i t s c en tra l a reas wh ich w ere s et t le men ts o f t he Vr ies t ype ( Brongers 1 973, Wa terbo lk 1 976 ). as ix p art it ion.

A f ter a bou tA . D. 1 000 t h is t r ip le p art it ion was r ep laced b y Here , a nd i n t he c ase o f t he r oads i n t he Em men-Odoorn r eg ion ,

t here s ee ms t o b e ad e monstrable c on t inu ity b etween p reh is tory a nd h istory i n Dren the. D .

S ca le 1 :250 ,000.

The n ortheast p art o f t he N etherlands.

The n u mber o f

Cel t ic f i elds p er 1 00 km ' s andy a rea was c ompared i n t hree l andscapes : D ren the ( 5 );

Twen the ( 3 );

l i shed i n BROB ).

a nd d e Ach terhoek ( 1 .5 ) ( Vons-Co m is, t o b e p ub-

The n u mber o f C el t ic f i elds d ecreases w ith t he i ncrease i n

d istance f ro m t he t erp r eg ion .

Th is i s a n a rgumen t f or t he d ependence o f t he

t erp r eg ion u pon t he C elt ic f i e ld r eg ion ( Brongers/ Wo lter ing 1 973 ). E .

S cale 1 : 1, 0 00 , 0 00.

I ron Age. r eg ions :

The s tructure o f c on t inen ta l n or thwest Europe i n t he

I ts ee ms t hat t he C elt ic f i e ld r eg ion i s s queezed i nb etween t wo t he t erp r eg ion , i n w h ich s tock-breed ing a nd f i shery c ou ld b e e con-

om ica l ly d om inan t , a nd a r eg ion i n wh ich m inera l p roducts a ppear t o b e d om inan t .

The l at ter r eg ion s upports Ach terhoek ( i ron o re ) , T eu toburgerwald

( s tone ) a nd Harz ( var ious me ta ls , s tone ).

1 22

NE W ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RESULTS OF S ETTLE MENT S TRUCTURES ( RO MAN I RON AGE ) I N THE NORTH WEST — GER MAN COASTAL AREA P e ter S ch m id

I .

THE ENV IRON MENT I n t er ms o f l andscape a nd g eography , t he r eg ions b e tween t he r ivers Ems

a nd E lbe a re n o t u n i f ied .

F our d i f feren t t ypes o f c oun try c an b e d is t ingu ished ,

t he ir d eve lop men t b eing c aused b y t he t ransgress ions a nd r egress ions o f t he s ea .

A t a bou t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D . a n o pen ( undiked ) s a l t

marsh c overed t he n or thern z one i n f ron t o f t he s ea . T o t he s ou th o f t he n or th wes t G er man marsh l i es a n e xpanse o f l ow b oggy l and wh ich f or med t he t rans i t ion b e tween t he c lay d is tr ic ts a nd t he h igh P le is tocene s and a nd l oa m r eg ions , t he s o c a l led " Gees t" .

B y t he b eg inn ing o f R o man t imes t he P le is-

t ocene r eg ions h ad a lready b een o ccup ied f or t housands o f y ears .

F ina l ly

t here were t he l ower r eaches o f t he g rea t r ivers Ems , Weser , E lbe , wh ich c anno t b e c o mpared w i th t he s o-ca l led " See marschen" , where t he t erps o r "Wur ten" a re main ly l oca ted .

I n t he r iver-c lay d is tr ic ts ( t he " Fluss marschen" )

t he e nv ironmen t was r endered c o mp le te ly s a l t-free b y t he a c t ion o f t he r ivers .

A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f irs t c en tury , i ta ppears t ha t f ores ts o f t he

s o-ca l led a sh-e l m- " Auenwa ld" ( Frax ino-U l me tu m/Esche-U l me ) were s t i l l p resen t i n t he r eg ions ( Behre 1 970 ).

As e ar ly a s t he R o man p er iod t hese

woods b egan t o d im in ish i n s ize a s ar esu l t o f h uman a c t iv i ty ( F ig . 1 ) . I .

THE S ETTLE MENTS OF THE EMS-RE G ION I nt he c ourse o f ap r ior i ty p rogra m me o f t he ' Deutsche Forschungsge-

meinscha f t" ( Ger man R esearch Organ isa tion ) , u nder t he t i t le " Pre- a nd p ro to-h is tor ic i nves t iga t ions i n t he r eg ion a long t he N or th S ea" , i t was p oss ible t o u nder take a n i n ter-d iscip l inary r esearch p rogra mme i n t he l ower p ar t o f t he Ems e s tuary .

A long t he r iver b ank i n ab and 1 km w ide we f ind

ar ow o f f l a t s e t t le men ts a nd t erps r epresen t ing s uccess ive p hases o f c olon iz at ion , wh ich s tar ted i n ar egress ion p er iod b eg inn ing i n t he e ar ly P re-Ro man I ron Age ( F ig . 2 ) .

They c ons is t o f sma l l f ar m u n i ts , i .e . af ar mhouse w i th

o u thouses i n af ar myard , f or e xa mple a t J e mgum . n e ighbourhood were s o me l arger s e t t le men ts .

A lso i n t he im media te

The d i f feren t p hases o f s e t t le-

men t h ad b een i n terrupted b y t ransgress ions o f t he r iver o r t he s ea . The b es t r esu l ts o f t h is d eve lop men t i n t he P re-Ro man I ron Age were f ound a t H a tzu m where c u l ture-layers a nd s ed i men ts e x tend ing o ver a p er iod o f n ear ly 3 00 y ears were f ound t o b e i n ter ( Haarnage l 1 969 ) .

I t was s i ted i n

ar eg ion o f n ear ly 1 h a ( 2 .5 a cres ) s urrounded b y t wo sma l l r ivers .

There

a" F lachs ied lung" h ad b een b u i l t d irec t ly o n t he s ur face o f t he f la t marsh , c onsis t ing o f t hree f ar mhouses o f t he t hree-a is led " Ha l lenhaus" t ype , t ha t c o mb ined l i v ing q uar ters a nd b yre u nder o ne r oof . 1 23

T oge ther w i th t hese were

•Vorgeschichte: 1H odde 2M yr thue 3 S tborg 6 D ank irke D rengsted 8 B raderup- Wenn ings ted t 1 0 A rchsu m ( Me lenknop ) 1 T ot t ing 1 3 O stermoor 1 4 H odor f 1 5 F eddersen W ierde 1 6 B arward 1 7 F löge ln 1 8 E inswarden 2 0 G r is tede 2 2 B oo mburg Hatzu m 2 3 J e mgu m

A Mittelalter: 4 E sb jerg 5 R ibe 9 A rchsu m ( A l t-Archsum) 1 2 E l isenho f 1 9 H essens 2 1 Emden

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1 24

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1 25

•r IGUNI

f ound o u thouses w i thou t b yres o r g ranar ies .

These f arm u n i ts l ay i n a

sma l l g roup c ons is ting o f a t l eas t s ix f ar mhouses , wh ich were c oncen tra ted a round a n o pen c en tra l a rea ( F ig . 3 ) . A sma l l n umber o f wa t t le-l ined b ound ary t renches h as a lso b een f ound s ugges t ing t ha t t he s ing le f arm u n i t h ad i t s own f ar myard a nd e n trance . The d is tr ibu t ion a nd t he s truc ture o f t hese e ar ly s e t t le men ts o nt he r iver b anks i s e x tre me ly c harac ter is t ic . They were c overed w i th s i l t d ur ing t he t h ird c en tury B . C ., b y t he P re-Ro man t ransg ress ion , a nd were f o l lowed b y n ew s e t t le men t l ayers , b eg inn ing s hor t ly b efore t he f irs t c en tury A .D . I n t he Ems v a l ley t h is p er iod i s a lso c haracter ized b y " F lachs ied lungen" mos t o f wh ich h ave g radua l ly d eve loped i n to t erps . I n c er tain l ow-lying r eg ions h owever , t h is d eve lop men t was h a l ted a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he l a te-Ro man p er iod b y t ransgress ions , wh ich s i l ted o ver t hese i nd iv idua l l ly r a ised d we l ling s i tes . Thus we f ind t wo t ypes o f s e t t le men t s ide-by-s ide ;the sma l l g roups o f i nd iv idua l ly r a ised dwe l l ing s i tes a nd t he f ur ther d eve lop men t o f r ad ia l ly p lanned t erp v i l lages ( Brand t 1 972 ) . The r esearches o n t he r iver b ank o f t he Ems b r ing u s i n to t he c on tact z one b e tween F r is ians a nd R o mans , wh ich we k now o f f ro m wr i t ten s ources . F ol low ing t he R o man " E lbe p o l icy" , we h ear o f s ix mi l i tary e xped i t ions t o t he t err i tory o f t he F r is ians :

t ha t o f Drusus i n 1 2 B . C ., o f T iber ius i n 4a nd 5

A .D . o f G er man icus i n 1 5 a nd 1 6 A .D . a nd t ha t o f C orbu lo i n4 7 A .D . They a l l f orm p ar t o f t he a t te mp t t o s ub juga te a nd Roman ize t he Ger man r eg ions a s f ar a s t he E lbe .

Mos t o f t he s ix e xped i tions men t ioned were c lear ly n ava l

manoeuvres o r t roop move men ts b y s ea , a nd t he wa ter-rou te o ver V ech t , F levo l ake a nd Wadden u ndoub ted ly p layed t he mos t impor tan t r o le . B y t h is way G er man icus c ou ld h ave r eached t he Ems o n h is e xped i t ions i n 1 5/16 A .D . I nt h is c onnec t ion n ew e xcava t ions o nt he r iver b anks o f t he Ems a re o f g rea t i n teres t . N ear B en tumers ie l t here was a n o ld i s land o f n ear ly 1 0 h a ( 25 a cres ) , s urrounded b y t he Ems a nd a sma l l r iver . I tc ou ld o n ly b e e n tered b y an arrow l and p assage 5 0 m w ide . P ara l le l p a ths w i th wa t t le f ences l ed f ro m t he r iver b ank i n to a c en tra l r eg ion wh ich was s ubd iv ided i n o pen a reas , p erhaps p ens , b y b oundary f ences ( Brand t 1 977 ). The p r incip le s e t t le men t r e mains c ons is ted o f g ranar ies o f d i f feren t s izes , f or e xa mple i n s ix-pos t c ons truc t ion . On ly o ne t hree-a is led h ouse w i thou t b yre h as b een f ound ( F ig . 4 ) . There a re t hree p er iods o f s e t t le men t , wh ich c an b e d a ted b y t he n a t ive h and- made p ot tery f ro m t he f irs t c en tury B .C . t o t he f irs t c en tury A .D . The f avourab le c ond i t ions o fp reserva t ion wh ich e nabled u s t o i nves t iga te t he p lan t r e ma ins o f t he p reh is tor ic s e t t le men t o f B en tumers ie l ( Behre 1 977 ) , h ave a l lowed t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t he f o l low ing c u l tiva ted p lan ts : f lax ( L inum u s i ta t iss i mum ) , g o ld-of-p leasure ( Ca me lina s a t iva ) , emmer ( Tr i t icum d icoce lm ) , b ar ley ( Hordeum s p .) , mi l le t ( Pan icum mi liaceum ) a nd h orse b ean ( V ic ia f aba ) . A l l t hese s pec ies h ad b een c u l t iva ted n earby a nd t hreshed w i th in t he s et t le men t .

There was o n ly s um mer c orn c u l tiva t ion .

F ie lds a nd s e tt le-

men ts were l a id o u t o nt he r iver b ank o f t he Ems , i nt he a rea o f t he u pper " Auenwa ld" ( Frax ino-U l me tum ) . The e cono m ic s ys te m o f t he i nhabi tan ts o f B en tumers ie l was e v iden t ly d i ff eren t f ro m t ha t o f t he p eople o nt he n e ighbour ing dwe l l ing mounds o r t erps , f or e xa mp le a t J e mgu mk loster.

The impor tan t d i f ference t here l i es i n

k eeping t he c a t t le ( ma in ly c ows ) i ndoors d ur ing t he w in ter , ah abi t n o t p ract i ced i n B en tu mers iel , where t hey h ad o n ly s um mer c a t t le ( Zawa tka u . 1 26

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1 28

4

R eichs te in 1 977 ) . T hus we c an s ugges t a n e cono m ic s i tua t ion , wh ich i s c o mp arab le w i th Du tch , p ar t ly f or t i f ied s e t t le men ts f ound i nt he p rov ince o f Dren the , s uch a s V r ies . H ere we f ind c oncen tra t ions o f g ranar ies a nd c ows heds t oo , a nd i ti s a ssumed t ha t t hese s e t t le men ts migh t h ave b een impor tan t f or t he e xpor t o f c onsumer g oods , s uch a s c a t t le a nd h ides , f or t rade w i th t he R o man Empire o r f or t r ibu tes t o t he R o man mi l i tary f orces . The t r ibu te o f h ides , a ga ins t wh ich t he F r is ians r evo l ted i n 2 8 A .D ., was imposed o n t he m b y Drusus . H e p resumab ly a lso f ounded c as te l lum F levum i n F r ies land , wh ich i s men tioned b y T ac i tus . Owing t o Augus tan s herds , h av ing b een f ound wh i le r e mov ing b r ick c lay , a nd b y s ondage e xcava t ions b e tween 1 928 a nd 1 930 , i t was s upposed t ha t as im i lar f or tp oss ibly e x is ted o n t he Ems e s tuary n ear B en tumers iel . As t he r esu l t o f s ys te mat ic e xcava t ion i n 1 971-73 a q uan t i ty o f R o man f inds h as b een d iscovered ( U lber t 1 977 ).

These f inds c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo c hrono-

l og ica l ly d i f feren t g roups : t he g rea ter p ar t b e longs t o t he e ar ly f irs t c en tury , t he sma l ler t o t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tury A .D . Wh i le t he l a ter f inds ( t erra s ig i l la ta a nd b ronze o b jec ts ) r eached t he G er man c oas ta l a rea i n t he n or thwes t a s t he r esu l t o f B o man-Ger man c o m merc ia l r e la t ions , t he f inds o f e ar ly R o man t imes c an o n ly b e c ons idered i n a ssocia t ion w i th t he R o man c a mpa ign a ga ins t t he G erman t r ibes . The a na lys is o f c era m ics , p ar t icu lar ly o f t he t erra s ig i l la ta f ro m I t a ly a nd S ou th G au l , s howed t ha t t he f ind o f B en tumers iel c anno t b e c o mpared w i th t he e ar l ies t mi l i tary s ta t ions o f Augus tan t imes ( as Oberaden , R ödgen , Dangstet ten ), b u t w ith y ounger s e tt le men ts ( Hal tern , Oberhausen ) . The mi l i tary c harac ter o f t he f inds o f B en tumers iel h as b een c lear ly d e mons tra ted b y n umerous p ieces o f e ar ly R o man mi li tary e qu ip men t : a l mos t t he e n t ire r ange o f a r ms a nd e qu ip men t b e long t o R o man i n fan try a nd c ava lry i s r epresen ted b y c harac ter is t ic f ragmen ts . I nd ica t ions o f t he e x ist ence o f af abr ica h ave a lso b een f ound h ere . S ince t he e ar ly R o man f inds c anno t y e t b e a ssoc ia ted w i th d is t inct ive mi l i tary b u i ldings o f t he R o man Imp er ia l a rmy , i ti s s ugges ted b y t he o ther r esu l ts o f t he e xcava t ion , t ha t t he s et t le men t o f B en tu mers ie l c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s at e mporary c a mp , a s upp ly b ase , o r n ava l b ase . The a rchaeo log ica l d a t ing o f t he f inds , i nt he l a te Augus tan-T iber ian p er iod , s trong ly s ugges ts a c onnec t ion w i th t he c a mp a igns o f G erman icus i nt he y ears 1 5 a nd 1 6 A .D ., i .e . t he f l ee t e xped i t ions i nt he mou th o f t he Ems a nd t o t he l ower Ems . The l a tes t d a te f or t he e x ist ence o f s uch a mi l i tary p os t wou ld b e t he y ear 2 8 A .D ., t he y ear o f t he F r is ian r ebe l l ion a gains t R o me . The n ew e xcava t ion r esu l ts a re , t here fore , o f g rea t i mpor tance n o t o n ly f or t he h is tory o f t he l as t p hase o f t he R o man wars a ga ins t t he G er man t r ibes , b u t a lso f or o ur u nders tanding o f t he s e t t le men ts a nd e veryday l i fe i nt h is z one o f c on tac t b e tween F r is ians a nd R o mans . I I . 1 .

THE S ETTLE MENTS OF THE WESERELBE-REG ION T he C lay D is tr ict

F ur ther t o t he e as t o f t he n or th-wes t G er man c oas ta l a rea , t he t erp F edd ersen Wierde , t o t he n or th o f B re merhaven ( F ig . 5 ) p rov ides a n e xa mp le o f t he e veryday l i fe o f at ypica l G er man ic v i l lage o n f l a t marsh land . I nt he c lay d is tr ic t a d jacen t t o t he r iver Weser , t h is t erp , wh ich c on ta ined t he r e mains

1 29

o f e igh t s tra ti f ied v i l lages , d a t ing f ro m t he f irs t t o t he f i f th c en tury A .D ., was a va i lab le f or t o ta l e xp lora t ion ( Haarnagel 1 973 ) .

The f irs t i nhabi tan ts

f ound a we l l-su i ted r eg ion o f n ear ly 6 h a ( 15 a cres ) , s urrounded b y t wo sma l l r ivers ( F ig . 6 ) .

They s e t t led o n t he s andy b anks o f t he s o-ca l led " F lachs ied-

l ung" , wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he f irs t c en tury B . C . — f irs t c en tury A .D .

The s e t t le men t b egan w i th f ive f ar myard u n i ts e ach c ons is t ing o f at hree-

a is led " Ha l lenhaus" a nd a g ranary ( P la te Ia nd F ig . 7 ) . Each f ar m u n i t f ar med i n ag roup w i th in r ectangu lar y ards e nclosed b y d itches.

Wat t le f ences d o n o t a ppear t o h ave b een u sed i n t he e arl iest p hases o f

Feddersen Wierde. w est-east .

A l l t he h ouses h ave t he s a me o r ien ta t ion , a pprox i mately

I n t he l ast p hase o f t he " Flachs ied lung" we f ind e leven f ar myards.

I nt he s econd c en tury A .D . t he i nhabi tan ts were f orced t o r a ise t he t erp b ecause t he t ide l eve l h ad b eco me p rogress ive ly h igher .

T he r ound , s trea m-

l ined s hape wh ich t he t erp n ow a ssu med was t he mos t p rac t ica l o ne i n ar eg ion r egu lar ly d is turbed b y h igh f l oods .

I ti s r e markable t ha t t he r ound e nc losed

v i l lage o f F eddersen Wierde i s d a ted t o t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he p hase o f t he f our teen r a ised f ar m u n i ts .

T o t he l e f t a nd r igh t o f t he wes t-eas t o r ien ted

h ouse t erps n ew dwe l l ings were a dded i n s uch a way a s t o f or m a c irc le a round a n o pen s pace .

Th is n uc leus r e ma ined t he c en tre f or t hree c en tur ies t o c o me

( Fig . 8a nd P la te I ) .

S ing le p a ths w i th wa t t le f ences l ed f ro m t he s urround ing

f ie lds i n to t h is c en tra l r eg ion .

Wi th t he b eg inn ing o f t h is r ad ia l s ys te m we

b eg in t o l earn o f t he s oc ia l s tructure o f t he s e t t le men t . o f d i f feren t s izes .

We n ow f ind f ar m u n i ts

The b yre o f o ne " ha l lenhaus" h ad r oo m f or t wen ty-four

c a t t le , i n t he sma l ler o nes t here was o n ly r oo m f or e igh t — s ix teen c a t t le . T o t h is e ar ly p hase o f t erp b u i ld ing a lso b e longs a g rea t f ar m u n i t e nc losed b y ab oundary d i tch .

I tc ons is ted o f t hree f ar mhouses

o ne o f wh ich h ad r oo m f or t h ir ty-two c a t t le .

o f d i f feren t s izes ,

The t hree f ar mhouses e ach h ad

t he ir o wn g ranar ies , wh i le w i th t he g rea tes t h ouse , a smal l o u thouse was a ssoc ia ted p resumably u sed f or c ra f ts .

Th is f edera tion o f i ndependen t f ar m

u n i ts , was c a l led "Mehr- o r V ie lbe tr iebsgehöf t" . The a ssoc ia t ion o f t hree f ar m u n i ts o f d i f feren t s izes a nd s truc tures i s t he b as is f or t he d eve lop men t o f a" far ms tead o f s pec ia l impor tance" .

I tc ons is ted

o f at hree-a is led h a l l w i thou t b yre a nd s o me f ar mhouses o f d i f feren t s izes . I tl ay s o mewha t a par t , h ad a r ela t ive ly l arge n umber o f o u thouses a nd o bv ious ly p layed a s pecia l r o le i n me ta lwork ing i ndus try a nd i n t rade .

Th is s i tua t ion

c on t inued t o e x is t f or t hree c en tur ies , a nd i n t he s uccess ive v i l lages t h is e x traord inary f ar m u n i t i s a lways l oca ted i n t he s a me s po t .

I ti s s ugges ted

t ha t i nt h is p ar t o f t he v i l lage l i ved t he h ead man a nd h ere t he p ubl ic mee t ingp lace was e s tabl ished — t he " v i l lage h a l l" . Thus t he " lord o f t he F eddersen Wierde" was g iven a l ead ing f unc t ion i n t he d ispensa t ion o f j us t ice a nd i n t he r e l ig ious l i fe o f t he c o m mun i ty .

Th is c o mp l ica ted s ys te m o f e cono m ic a nd

s ocia l s truc ture was p resen t u n t i l t he e nd o f t he s e t t le men t i n t he midd le o f t he f i f th c en tury A .D .

We f ind t ha t i n t he t h ird c en tury t here were t wen ty-

t hree f ar m u n i ts o f d i f feren t s izes w i th r oo m f or n ear ly 4 50 c a t t le . The mixed f ar m ing i ndus try f or med t he b as is o f t he e cono my i n wh ich t he a ccen t f e l l o n s tock-breed ing . 1 2 .7% h orses ;

1 1.1% p igs ;

There were 4 8 .3% c a t t le ;

2 3 .7% s heep ;

a nd 4 .2% d ogs ( Re ichs tein 1 973 ) .

o f c rops were f ound i n t he t erp :

4 0% b ar ley a nd o a ts :

1 31

S evera l s or ts

2 5% b eans a nd 2 5%

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Marsh-is land o f F eddersen Wierde w i th s et t le men ts o f R o man I ron Age .

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1 5

1 6

1 6

1 7

1 7

1 8

1 8

1 9

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2 3

2 4

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G rabung F edder sen W ie rde 1 9 55-1963

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S e t t le men t s truc ture o f t he t h ird C en tury A .D . ( Feddersen Wierde )

h ird C en tury A .D .).

f lax ( Körber-Grohn .e 1 967) .

A gr icu l ture t ook p lace p ar t ly o n t he t erp i t sel f

a nd was a lso c arr ied o n o u ts ide t he t erp a t t he s a me t ime , a s i s s hown b y p lough marks . V ar ious c ra f ts w ere p rac t ised . I n a dd i tion t o t heir mea t , t he a n i ma ls p roduced i mpor tan t r aw ma ter ia ls s uch a s h ides , woo l a nd b one . A par t f ro m h o me i ndus tr ies s uch a s b u t ter a nd c heese mak ing , c orn- m i l ling , p o t tery manu fac ture , s pinn ing a nd w eav ing , p ar t icu lar o pera t ions r equ ired ad egree o f s pecia l isa tion . F or e xa mp le f ragmen ts o f wooden c ons truc t ions s how t echn ica l s k i l l , a s t he w orkshop o f aw ood t urner w i th p ar t ly i nco mplete w ooden b ow ls d e mons tra tes . F inds o f whee l p ar ts i ndica te t he c ar twr igh ts . B one d epos i ts , a s r aw ma ter ia l f or t he manu fac ture o f b one i mp le men ts , were a round t he sma l l h ouses i nt he midd le o f t he v i l lage . The me ta lwork ing i nd us try w i th r aw ma ter ia ls , c ruc ibles , mou lds , t oo ls a nd sm i thy were c oncent ra ted i nt he f ar myard o f t he h ead man o f t he v i l lage . The d is tr ibu t ion o f R o man f inds a lso d e mons tra tes d i f ferences i n wea l th , f or e xa mp le t here was ac oncen tra t ion o f c oins , t erra s ig i l la ta , b eads a nd b ronze v esse ls i n t he n eighbourhood o f t he i mpor tan t f ar myard . I nt h is g o lden p er iod t he l a te R o man mar ine t ransgress ion c overed t he meadows a nd a rab le p lo ts w i th s i l t .

T he l and was n o l onger s a l t-free a nd

t he s e t t le men t c ou ld n o t s urv ive t here a ny more .

We f ind , i n t he y ounges t

c u l ture l ayers , t he t ypica l e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon t ypes o f h and made p o t tery f o l lowing t he p er iod o f f unnel c ups a nd c ups w i th d etached b ases . a re t wo ma in g roups o f e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery :

T here

t he n arrow mou thed b icon i-

c al o r g lobu lar p o ts a nd t he s o-cal led " Schalenurnen" , ( bow ls o f b icon ical ) t ype w i th s harp o r r ounded t rans i t ion f ro m t he b e l ly t o t he b road s hou lder ). There a re d i f feren t s tyles o f o rna men t , f or e xa mp le g rooved s hou lders a nd n ecks , s ta mped mo t ifs l i ke r oset tes o r c oncen tr ic c ircles.

I mportan t f or t he

d at ing i s t he a bsence o f r a ised b osses o nt he p ot tery a nd o f o ther d ist inct ive l a ter Ang lo-Saxon f or ms . T he meta l o b jec ts , s uch a s " S t t i tzar m f ibe ln" , h a irpins a nd a n e ar ly c ruc i for m b rooch c on f ir m t he d a t ing o f t he y ounges t c u lt ure l ayer i n to t he midd le o f t he f i f th c en tury A .D . ( S chm id 1 977b ) . T he s e t t le men t was t here fore a bandoned i n t he p er iod when many o ther v i l lages c eased t o e x is t i n n or th-wes t G er many . 2 .

The S andy D is tr ic t

S o me mi les t o t he e as t o f t he c lay d is tr ict n ear F eddersen Wierde t here i s av ery d i f feren t l andscape , t he " Gees t" , wh ich c ons is ts o f s andy a nd l oa my P leis tocene d epos i ts .

I n s uch a n a rea o f t he n or th-wes t G erman c oas ta l

r eg ion b e tween t he r ivers E lbe a nd Weser a n ew p rogram me o f r esearch was s tarted i n 1 971, a lso s ponsored b y t he " Deu tsche F orschungsge me inscha f t" . The d eve lop men t o f t he b ogs , b eg inn ing i n Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic t imes , s ubd iv ided t h is s andy a rea , n ear t he f l a t marsh land , i n to a n u mber o f i s lands , wh ich f or med t he h igher g rounds o f t he G ees t . T hese n a tura l i s lands , c a l led " S ied lungska m mern" , h ave b een i nhabi ted s ince Mesol i th ic-Neo l i th ic t imes ( S chm id , B ehre , Z i m mer mann 1 973 ) . I ti s t he p r incip le t ask o f t he r esearch p rogra m me t o s tudy t he e n t ire d evelop men t o f t h is c losed n a tura l u n i t i nc lud ing t he s e t t le men ts a nd t he e cono m ic s truc tures ( F ig . 5 ) . F inds f ro m a l l p er iods h ave b een r ecovered b y f i e ld-wa lk ing ( "ArchNo log ische L andesau fn ah me" )(Aus t 1 972 ). ,These r esu l ts a re impor tan t f or t he p lann ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ion u i s e t t le men ts , c e me ter ies , i ndus tr ia l work ing p laces , a rable l and e tc . ( s ee t he f o l lowing p aper b y Z i mmer mann ) . An 1 37

impor tan t a id i n t racing t he e volu t ion o f t he n a tura l e nv iron men t a nd t he i n f luence o f man a nd c a t t le o n t he f lora a re t he c on tr ibu t ions made b y t he n a tura l s c iences , f or e xa mple b y t he p o l len a na lys is i n a d jacen t r a ised b ogs ( Behre 1 976 ) . E specia l ly g ood work ing c ond i t ions f or t he t ea m o f a rchaeo log is ts , b iol og is ts , g eographers , h is tor ians , s oi l s c ien t is ts e tc . h ave b een f ound o n t he n a tura l " Gees t" i s land o f F lOgeln , n o t f ar away f ro m B re merhaven ( Gebhard t 1 976;

H ucker 1 973 ;

P ech 1 973 ).

The " S ied lungska m mer" F lögeln e x tends

o ver n ear ly 2 3 s quare k i lo me tres a nd d ur ing t he R o man I ron Age t here w ere t hree c oncen tra t ions o f s e t t le men ts o n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he " Gees t" i s land , e ach w i th a t err i tory o f 5 -8 s quare k i lo me tres , p ar t ly b ounded b y b ogs .

The

r esearch p rogra m me i s c oncen tra ted o n t he c en tra l a rea o f F löge ln , o n a sma l l p ar t o f t he i s land i n t he h igh r idge o f t he s o-ca l led " Hase lhörn" ( Zi m mer mann 1 974 ;

S chm id 1 978 ) .

L arge-sca le e xcava t ions s tar ted t here i n 1 971 a t a

s e t t le men t , d a ted i n to t he f irs t — f i f th c en tury A .D . ( Sch m id a nd Z i m mer mann 1 976 ) .

S ince t hen a bou t 5h a ( 1 2 .4 a cres ) h ave b een e xcava ted .

t wo a d jacen t c e me ter ies o n t he c en tury .

" Hase lhörn" :

There a re

One i s d a ted t o t he f irs t — f i f th

H a lf o f t he o ther sma l l c e me tery w i th n ear ly 2 00 u rn g raves a nd

c re ma t ion d epos i ts h as b een e xcava ted . I ti s s i tua ted a round a l arge N eol i th ic o r Bronze Age b arrow a nd o n ly p roduced o b jec ts o f t he f our th — f i f th c en tur ies ( Zi m mer mann 1 976b ).

Ano ther importan t e le men t i s t he a d jacen t

a nc ien t f i e ld s ys te m o f F löge ln , which c overs more t han 1 00 h ec tares ( Zi m mer mann 1 976a ) . E igh t smal l p o t tery c oncen trat ions o f t he f i rst c entury B .C. - f i rst c ent ury A .D . h ave b een f ound w i th in t he " Ce l t ic f i e ld s ys te m" b y means o f t r ia l t renches .

T he c hang ing o ver lap o f s e t t le men t t races a nd f i e ld s ys te ms s hows

t ha t t he h ab i ta t ion moved a f ter a s hor t t ime , t he o ld f ar myard e ven tua l ly h aving b een u sed f or c u l t iva t ion .

Th is s ys te m o f "mov ing s e t t le men t" i s we l l-known

a long t he c oas t o f t he N or th S ea , a nd h as b een d e mons tra ted f or e xa mple b y l arge-sca le e xcava t ions i n J u t land .

T o t hese dwe l l ing-places , s ca t tered a l l

o ver t he e xcava tion a rea a nd a bove a l l i n t he a d jacen t s ys te m o f " Cel t ic f i e lds" , b e longs a g roup o f f armyards , c ons is t ing o f f our t hree-a is led h ouses , a g ranary a nd a d eep p i t , b ounded b y ah orseshoe-shaped d i tch , wh ich was p rob ably a lso u sed a s g ranary .

Ano ther sma l l dwe l l ing-p lace o f t he f irs t c en tury

A .D . was f ound 6 0 m away , c ons is t ing o f at hree-a is led h ouse w i thou t b yre , a s we l l a s t hree g ranar ies a nd t wo s unken h u ts . o r wa t t le f ences .

There a re n o b oundary d i tches

N ever the less we c ons ider i tt o b e o ne e cono m ic u n i t , a s i n

t he f irs t c ase , where we h ave t he f our f ar mhouses w i th a c orresponding d eve lopmen t o f t hree p hases .

B u t t h is c oncen tra tion o f f our f ar m u n i ts i n o ne l oca t ion

i s a n i nd ica t ion o f af edera t ion o f e cono m ic u n i ts , ( wh ich we h ave c a l led "Mehr" — o r " V ie lbe tr iebsgehö f te" ) w i th in t he " F lachs ied lung" o f F eddersen Wierde . Th is s ys te m o f s ing le o r sma l l g roups o f f ar myards s h i f t ing t he ir l oca t ion o ver t he who le a rea , i s d om inan t i n t h is p er iod .

T he r easons f or t hese s h i f ts c ou ld

b e t he d eple t ion i n t he a rab le l and o f n u tr i t ive s ubs tances , f orcing t he c olon is ts t o c ons tan t ly c hange t he l oca t ion o f t heir dwel l ing-p laces a nd f ie ld s ys te ms . I n t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c en tury A .D . t here i s ac hange i n t he s truct ure o f t he s e t t le men t ( F ig . 9 ) . N ow we h ave a c losed s ys te m o f s even a d jacen t f ar m u n i ts o f d i f feren t s ize i n a n a rea o f a bou t 2 00 t o 1 60 n i ( Sch m id 1 977a ) . These f ar myards were s urrounded b y f ounda t ion t renches a nd were l ying b es ide 1 38

W es t 5 0

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1 0 0

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-5 0

5 0 -

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1 0 0 -

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F löae ln Eekhö l t jen 1 9 7 11975 2 00 -

-

Z AUNE

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S PE ICHER

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e ach o ther . The c on te mporary s ys te m o f b oundar ies i ns ide t he v i l lage s urv ives n ear ly u nchanged f or 2 00 y ears . A s trong p a l isade w i th a f or t i f ied g a teway i n t he n or th-wes t c orner o f t he s e t t le men t marks a ma in e n trance t o o ne o f t he l arges t f ar m u n i ts . I ns ide t he f armyards a n umber o f d i f feren t g roundp lans o f l ong h ouses were f ound o ver lapping o r l y ing b es ide e ach o ther . There were a lways t hree o f f our p hases o f f arm d eve lop men t w i th in e ach e cono m ic u n i t . U p t o 1 975 t h ir ty-seven g roundp lans o f t hree-a is led h ouses w ere k nown , d a ted t o t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tury A .D .

T here w ere d i f feren t n umbers o f

h ouses i n e ach o f t he s even f ar m u n i ts ( un i t A =1 6 , B =3 , E =2 , C =1 0 , D =6 ) . T ak ing i n to a ccoun t t he o ver lapping a nd t he t hree t o f our p hases o f d eve lop men t t here were n ear ly a lways t he f o l low ing n umbers o f c on te mporary l ong h ouses w i th in t he s even f ar m u n i ts : ( A =4 -5 , B =1 -2 , E =1 , C =3 , D =2 ) . A l toge ther i n a ny o ne p hase o f t he v i l lage t here were a bou t t wen ty c on te mporary l onghouses . We c an d is t ingu ish f our t ypes o f l onghouses ( S chm id a nd Z im mer mann 1 976) . T ype 1 i s t he t ypica l t hree-a is led h ouse w i th l i v ing q uar ter a nd b yre . I n t he b yre s ec t ion t here a re c a t t le s ta l ls f or , o n a verage , s ix teen c a t t le . The l eng ths o f t he h ouses s how marked v ar ia t ions f ro m s hor t h ouses o f n o t much more t han 1 0 m i n l eng th , t o o thers o f more t han 3 0 m . T ype 2 h as a c en tra l b yre w i th a l arge f ree r oo m a t t he e as t e nd a nd t ype 3 s hows a pprox ima te ly t he s a me i n terva ls b e tween t he p a irs o f r oof p os ts , s o t ha t t hese h ouses c ou ld e qua l ly h ave b een u sed a s l ong d we l l ing h a l ls a s we l l a s l ong b yres . T ype 4 o f t he l onghouses c ons is ts o f g roundp lans w i th d ouble r oof p os t i n terva ls . T h is v ar ian t was p robab ly u sed a s d wel l ing r oo m a nd a lso i n c onnec t ion w i th c ra f t a nd t rade . The o u thouses wh ich a d joined t he f ar m b u i ld ings c onsis ted o f g ranar ies o f v ary ing s hapes a nd o f b e tween s ix a nd t wen ty p os ts : av ar ian t o f p resumably t he " Erdspe icher" was s urrounded b y h orseshoe-shaped d i tches . T he g ranar ies a re o n ly f ound i nt he l arger f ar m u n i ts .

S unken h u ts o f t he t wo- a nd s ix-pos t

t ype h ave a lso b een b u i l t i nt he f ar myards , a nd i n t he l arger e nc losed y ards t here a re l arge we l ls , t he s lop ing s ides o f wh ich w ere b u i l t t o ta l ly o f i rregu lar b locks . I n o ne c ase a w ooden r a mp l ed d own t o h a l f o f t he d ep th ( 5m ) a nd o n t he b o t to m we f ound a s trong f ra me o f o ak b ea ms t oge ther w i th a r ound wooden s ha f t wh ich r eached t he g round-wa ter l eve l . I n s um mary t he s ign i f icance o f t he s econd a nd t h ird c en tury p hase i s i n t he g roup ing o f f ar myards l y ing b es ide e ach o ther , e ach s urrounded b y f ounda t ion t renches f or f ences . I ns ide t he v i l lage t here was a n o pen s pace . A s trong p a l isade a t t he n or thern b order o f t he s e t t le men t marks t he l im i ts o f ag a te . The s ing le f ar myards h ave t he ir own g a tes .

I ns ide t he f armyards t here i s

a n o ver lapp ing o f u p t o f our h ouseplans , wh ich i mp l ies a c on t inuous s equence o f s e t t le men t d ur ing t h is p er iod . The sma l les t f ar myards c ons is t o f o ne o r t wo l ong h ouses a nd o ne o r more s unken h u ts . The l arges t f ar myards c on tain u p t o f ive l ong h ouses , s o me g ranar ies , s unken h u ts a nd a we l l . I n o ne p hase t he who le s e t t le men t c ons is ted o f n ear ly t wen ty-three a is led " Ha l lenhMuser" w i th r oo m f or p resu mab ly 3 20 c a t t le a nd a n a verage o f n ear ly 1 00 t o 2 00 i nh abi tan ts . The main e cono m ic f ac tor was f ar m ing w i th s tock-breed ing a nd a gr icu l ture.

S evera l s orts o f c rops w ere f ound i n t he s et t le men t o r c an b e

d e monstrated t o h ave o ccurred b y p o l len-d iagra ms ( Behre 1 976 ) . The f ar mers c u l t iva ted b ar ley , o a ts a nd f lax a nd , i n t he l as t p hases o f t he s e t t le men t , r ye . 1 40

There i s a lso e v idence f or i ndus tr ia l a c t iv i t ies , a s i s s hown b y s unken h u ts , c harcoa l-burn ing k i lns ( Grubenme iler ) a nd f inds o f l oom w e igh ts, s p ind le whor ls , me ta l i ngo ts a nd o ther t h ings . When we a na lyse o ne o f t he l arge f ar m u n i ts , e nc losed b y ab oundary f ence ( f arm u n i t C ) ( P la te L T I ) , w e c an d e mons tra te t he c on t inuous d eve lop men t o f t hree f ar mhouses o f n ear ly t he s a me s ize ( Schm id 1 977a ) .

On ly i n t he l as t

o f t he t hree p hases i s o ne sma l ler h ouse a dded t o t he n or thern f arm ing c o mp lex , a nd t h is was p robably u sed f or c ra f t a c t iv i ty ( Fig . 1 0 ). A c oncen tra t ion o f g ranar ies a nd a we l l , f orm ing a n " econo m ic c en tre" i n t he n or th-eas t c orner o f t he f ar myard , i s a n i nd ica t ion o f t he c lose e cono m ic f edera t ion o f t he t hree i ndependen t f arm u n i ts .

We h ave s een t he s a me t h ing i n t he marsh s e t t le men t

o f F eddersen Wierde a nd h ave c a l led .i t "Mehr" — o r " V ie lbe tr iebsgehö f t" ( Fig . 1 1 ) . Th is f or m o f e cono mic u n i t w i th in t he v i l lage c ou ld a lso b e d e mons tra ted i n o ther s e t t le men ts o f t he s ou thern N or th S ea c oas ta l r eg ion , a s f or e xamp le i n t he e xcava t ions o f Wi js ter ( Ne ther lands ) ( Van E s 1 967) . I nd ica t ions f or t h is t ype o f o rgan isa t ion a lso c o mes f ro m t he e xcava t ions o f H odde a nd V orbasse i n D en mark ( Hvass 1 975;

Hvass 1 977 ).

When we c ons ider t he

r easons f or t he c hang ing s ys te m o f s e tt le men t-form f ro m t he f irs t t o t he s econd c en tury , we d o n ot f ind a s ign i f ican t c hange i n t he e cono m ic s ys te m o f t he f ar m u n i ts . The d om inan t e le men t i nb o th p er iods i s s tock f ar m ing a nd a gr icu l ture . T here fore t he r eason mus t l i e i n ad i f feren t w ork ing . Th is c ou ld h ave c aused t he c oncen tra t ion o f t he f arm u n i ts , a f ter t he s h i f t ing p er iod o f t he f irs t c en tury , i n to a v i llage , wh ich r e ma ined s ta t ic f or a p er iod o f 2 00 y ears .

B y t he e nd o f t he s e t t le men t , i n t he f our th — f i f th c en tury , t he f ar m-

y ards moved n or thwards a gain . The r easons f or t hese s h i f ts a re n o t y e t o bv ious . One p oss ibi l i ty may h ave b een a c hange i n t he e cono m ic s tructure w i th t he n ecess i ty o f moving n earer t he wa terway , wh ich c onnec ted t he l akes i nt he a d jacen t b og a nd t he r iver Mede m t o t he E lbe . H av ing l e f t t he o ld a rea t he n ew s e t t le men t was b ased i n t hree-a is led h ouses , wh ich b eco me l onger a nd were n o t a lways l y ing b es ide e ach o ther i n f enced-in y ards . The h ouses o f t h is p er iod h ave u p t o s ix teen c a t t le s ta l ls , i .e . r oo m f or t h ir ty-two c a t t le . The d we l l ing r oo ms , wh ich a re o f ten n ow d iv ided b y p art i t ions i n to s evera l l i v ing q uar ters , may h ave b een f or more t han o ne f am i ly , a s s epara te e n trances o n t he l ong s ides o f t he h ouses f urther i ndica te . I n t he n e ighbourhood o f o ne o f t he l onges t h ouses a s ys te m o f f ences h as b een f ound , wh ich s ubd iv ided sma l l o pen a reas , p erhaps u sed a s p ens . The l ack o f g ranar ies a nd t he c onc en tra t ion o f s unken h u ts i n s o me a reas i s n o table .

I n t h is c onnec t ion i ti s

i mpor tan t t o r e me mber t ha t t here i s a no ther c oncen tra t ion o f s unken h u ts , c harcoa l-burn ing k i lns ( Grubenme i ler ) a nd o ther f eatures r epresen t ing me talwork ing n ear t he sma l l c e me tery . Th is c e me tery a nd t he sma l l s e t t le men t u n i t c an a lso b e d a ted t o t he f our th — f i f th c en tury . These i n i t ia l r esu l ts , r e f lec t ing t he c hange i n o rgan isa t ion a nd e cono m ic s tructure , mus t b e c o mp l i men ted b y f ur ther e xcava t ion c a mpa igns i n t he s e t t le men t a rea o f F löge ln .

The f inds f ro m t he c e me tery a nd t he s e t t le men t

d a te t he y ounges t p er iod i n to t he midd le o f t he f i f th c en tury A .D . ( Schm id 1 977b ) . As i nt he marsh a rea o f F eddersen Wierde we f ind t he s a me t wo p r incip le g roups o f e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon p o t tery ; t he n arrow- mou thed b icon ic a l o r g lobu lar p o ts a nd t he s o c a l led " Scha lenurnen" w i th g eo me tr ic o rnamen ts , c ons is t ing o f g rooves a nd s ta mps , b u t w i thou t r a ised b osses . The

1 41

i w z n im ma r . f l iz i mmarY : P la te 3 Aer ia l v iew o f t he e xcavat ion F lägeln w i th f arm u n i t C , ( Fre igegeb Prf ts .d . N ds . V erw .B ez .O ldenburg , 2 8 . 5 .1975 , Nr . 1 64/7).

• •

•

•

•

•

•

. .

i z t

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1

• • • • • • • •

• 5

• • • •

• • •

•

e

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• • -

•

•

• :

•

•

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t b.

O D

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•

1 43

•• •

F ar m u n i t Co f F löge ln ( second-th ird C en tury A .D

•

1 44

d a t ing i s c on f ir med b y me ta l o b jec ts , f or e xa mple " S t t i tzar m f ibe ln" a nd a n e ar ly t ype o f c ruci form b rooches .

The s e t t le men t b reak d ur ing t he s o-ca l led

Dark Ages b e tween t he f i f th c en tury a nd a bou t 8 00 A .D . was c on f irmed b y p o l len a na lys is .

Dur ing t h is t ime t he a rea was o nce more c overed b y f ores ts .

I n s ummary t he n ew p rogra m me o f r esearch i n F lOge ln h as s hown t he p oss ib i l i t ies f or a na lys ing t he s truc tures o f R o man I ron Age s et t le men ts s i ted o n P le is tocene d epos i ts . We c an c o mpare t hese r esu l ts w i th o ther a reas , e spec ial ly s urround ing marsh r eg ions .

T he b roader a na lys is o f t he s e t t le men t

e v idence o f t he f irs t — f i f th c en tury A .D . w i th in t he c oas ta l r eg ions o f t he N or th S ea a nd o ther p ar ts o f n or th G er many , s ugges ts a n umber o f c orresp ond ing t endencies i nb o th a c hange o f s e t t le men t-s truc ture a nd e cono m ic a nd s ocia l o rgan isa t ion . The ma in r easons f or t hese d eve lop men ts , we s ugges t , a re t he c hang ing i n f luences o f t he e nv ironmen t .

1 45

EC ONOMY OF THE ROMAN I RON AGE S ETTLE MENT AT FLÖGE LN , KR. CUXHAVEN , LOWER S AXONY HUSBANDRY , CATTLE FAR M ING AND MANUFACTUR ING W. Ha io Z i m mer mann

S ince 1 971, a p rogra m me o f r esearch h as b een c arr ied o u t o n t he " S iedl ungska mmer" o f F lögeln , K r. Cuxhaven , i n L ower S axony. T h is " inhab ited i sland" ( Z i m mer mann 1 974 , n o te 2 ;

f or t he l ocat ion s ee F ig. 1 i n t he p re-

c ed ing p aper b y P . S ch m id ) c ons ists o f as andy r ise s urrounded b y b og.

The

work i s b e ing c arr ied o u tb y at ea m o f a rchaeo log ists, b io log ists , g eographers , p edo log ists, h istor ians e tc. w hose a im i ti s t o i nvest iga te t he e vo lu t ion o f s et t le men t a nd i t s e cono m ic b ackground f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic t o modern t imes. I n t h is p aper w e w il l c oncen trate o n t he c en tur ies a fter Chr ist , b ecause o ur e va luat ion o f t he r esu l ts o f s evera l d i fferen t i nvest iga t ions a re c omp lete e nough t hat s o me r e marks a bou t t he e cono m ic b ackground o f s et t le men t c an n ow b e made.

Cond it ions a re f avourab le , b ecause n o t o n ly i s t he l oca t ion o f t he dwel-

l i ngs k nown , b u t a lso t hat o f t he c e meter ies, t he a rab le l and a nd t he l ocat ion o f i ndustr ia l a ct iv ity .

Abou t 6 ha h ave s o f ar b een u ncovered b y e xcava t ion

( see t he p reced ing p aper b y P . S th m id ). The s et t ing o f t he s andy i s land , s urrounded a s i ti s b yb og , p rov ide t he p oss ib i l ity o f s tudy ing n o t o n ly t he s et t le men t i t se l f b u t a lso i t s e n t ire b ackg round , b ecause e ven t he b orders o f t he c ommon l and , wh ich was u sed a s p ast ure, c an b e d ef ined. The i s land , w h ich t oday i n t o ta l measures 2 3.36 km 2, i s d iv ided i n to t hree p ar ts ( Fig. 1 ) , e ach o f w h ich measures b etween 6 t o 9 km2 . We k now t he d epth o f t he s urround ing b ogs. To t he n orth , t he b order b etween t he Geest a nd b og c anno t h ave d if fered much f ro m p reh istor ic t imes , b ecause t he s and s lopes away q u ick ly t o ac ons iderable d ep th. To t he s outh , h owever , t he t h ickness o f t he b og i s i n s o me p laces n ot v ery g rea t , s o t hat i n t he Roman I ron Age more G eest w as e xposed t han t oday . Therefore, when w e d iscuss t he s ize o f t he t err itory o f t he s et t le men ts , w e must a lways b e aware t hat t he s andy a rea w as a l i t t le l arger t han i ti s t oday. On t he 2 3 km2 o f t he " inhab i ted i s land" , t here were t hree c on te mporary s et t le men ts ( Fig. 1 ) .

I ti s i n terest ing t o c o mpare t h is w ith t he c lay d istr ict ,

i n w h ich Feddersen Wierde l i es.

Here t he " inhab ited i s land" o f L and Wursten

( Haarnagel 1 973 ), wh ich a lso measured 2 3 km 2 ,s upported e igh t v i l lages. Cond it ions must t herefore h ave b een much more f avourab le t o s et t le men t t han o n t he G eest. Th is d if ference r e ma ined u n t i l a rt if ic ia l f ert il izers c a me i n to u se. I ndeed t he word G eest means i n fert ile , a r id. The i nvest iga t ions h ave s o f ar b een c oncen tra ted i n t he c en tra l p art o f t he i sland , t he s o-cal led " Hase lhörn" ( f ig. 1. I I ; F ig. 4 ; P late I ) . Wh ile t he 1 47

\I

t le men ts o f t he f i rst c en tury s pread o ver a c ons iderable p art o f t h is w edge' aped r idge , f ro m t he s econd c en tury o nwards t hey c oncen trated o n ap en ina l a c a l led " Eekhö lt jen". Because t h is who le a rea w as n o t s et t led a f ter i t s n ando runen t i nt he f i f th c en tury u n t i l t he t wen t ieth c en tury , t he p reservat ion o f l e s et t le ment e v idence a s w e l l a s t he a rab le l and o f t he Celt ic f i eld ( Cf ) p a t. ? rn , t he c e meter ies a nd t he manu factur ing a reas i s v ery g ood. The a rable I nd c overs more t han 1 km ( Z i mmer mann 1 976 ). A s urvey h as b een made fa bou t 8 7 h a , b y e va lua t ing a ir p hotographs a nd b y l evel l ing ( a t 1 0 cm i n ter a ls ) i n t he f orest . We a re n ow s a mp l ing 3 1 = o f t he Haselhörn b y p hosphate 2

. n a lys is.

Th is h as a lready b een d one i n t he a rea o f t he s et t le men t , w ith t he

e su l t t ha t t he h ighest v a lues i nd icate t he l ocat ion o f s et t le men t , b u t a d jacen t ) a rts o f t he C fs a re a lso r ecogn isab le b y t he ir p hospha te v a lues. We h ope h erefore t hat p hosphate a na lys is w il l a l low u s t o d eterm ine t he e xact s ize o f h e e n t ire a rea o f a rable l and . The f i eld s yste m o f F lögeln w as t he f i rst Celt ic f i e ld p at tern t o b e r ecogn i sed i n L ower S axony. A f ter i tw as f ound i n 1 972, a n e x tended s earch b egan F rom t he a ir b y e va luat ing o ld a ir p ho tographs a nd b y f i eld w alk ing w ith t he r es u l t t ha t u p t o n ow a bou t 8 0 f i eld s yste ms a re k nown i n t he E lbe- Weser t r iang le ( Figs. 2 , 3 ). T he s tudy t herefore h as a b roader a spect i n e va lua t ing t he p ref erence f or c erta in s o il t ypes, e .g. t he b ou lder c lay a nd t he s andy r idges, a s we l l a s d e monstrat ing d i f feren t p a t terns w ith in t he f i eld s yste ms. A s i tuat ion l ike F lögeln , w here t he w ho le a rea h as n ot b een c overed b y l a ter s et t le men t , i s r are. Most f i elds s how t hat t he s a me s o il a nd s i tuat ion w as s u itab le f or a rable i nt he Roman I ron Age a s w el l a s i n t he med ieva l p er iod .

I n s o me c ases med ieva l l ongstr ips c over most p arts o f t he C elt ic

f i elds .O n ly o n t he s lopes t o t he b og , where i tw as t oo w et f or med ieva l f ar mi ng , w ere a sma l l a rea o fC fs p reserved.

Rel ic 's o f f i elds a re a lso p reserved

o nt he c om mon b etween med ieva l f i e ld s yste ms o f t wo n e ighbour ing v i l lages. The p redo m inance o fb ou lder c lay a nd t he s ituat ion o n t he h igher p arts o f t he Geest r idges c ompares c losely w ith t he r esu lts o f Brongers ( 1976 ) i n Dren the , i n t he N etherlands. The p lan o f t he f i e lds o f F l eeln , w ith t hree d if feren t p at terns : r egu lar , i rregu lar a nd w i th t he b anks i n o n ly o ne d irect ion , h as c oun terparts among o ther g roups o f C el t ic f i elds ( Fig. 2 ) , b u t ac loser i nspect ion s hows t hat i t d i f fers i n s o me r espects f rom o ther p ubl ished g roups.

T he ma in d if ference,

w h ich c an e as i ly b e s een , a re t he v ery b road b anks u p t o 1 8 m w ide .

B etween

4 0 a nd 5 0% o f t he who le f i e ld a rea i s c overed b y t he b anks. T hese r idges d o n o t c on ta in a l ot o f s tones ( t hough many e rrat ics make modern f ar m ing d i f f icu l t ). The b anks a re e ssen t ia l ly c umu lat ions o f h umus. The p edo log ist o f t he t ea m ( Gebhard t 1 976 ) h as s tated t ha t h umus h as b een t ransported o ver s ome d istance t o b u i ld u p t he b ank s a s w el l a s t he a rea b etween . P hosphate a na lys is r evealed t ha t t he h ighest p ercen tages w ere f ound i n t he b anks, w ith l ower r ead ings i n t he a reas b etween , t hough h ere t oo i tw as f ar t oo h igh t o b e n or ma l . T he o n ly p oss ib le i n terpretat ion i s t hat t he p hosphate c on ten t i nd icates ah eavy manur ing o f t he f i e lds.

T he h igh c oncen tra t ion i n t he b anks c aused

t he p edo log ist t o s peak o f " Cel t ic B anks". I ndeed a l l t he r esu l t s uggest t hat a gr icu l ture w as f ounded o nt he b anks t he mselves. I n o ther words t hey a re n o t mere f i eld b oundar ies, l ike t hose i n s o me p ar ts o f Eng land ; wou ld h ave c overed f ar t o much l and. 1 49

f or t h is t hey

0

•

3ae,

to

o b

CUXHAVEN

• C e lt ic f i e ld wahrsche in t . C e lt ic f i e ld

• e isenze i t l iche A cke r f lur wahrsch .e isenze it l . A cke r f lur

F ig . 3

D is tr ibu t ion o f C el t ic f i e ld p a t tern a rable l and i n t he E lbeWeser-Tr iang le , 1=F löge ln-Hase lharn ; 3 = Appe ln .

2=L angen ;

For t he p edo log ist t he s ituat ion s ee ms c lear , b u t t he a rchaeo log ist h as t he d i ff icu l t t ask o f c ompar ing t hese f i e lds w ith f i e ld s yste ms i n Eng land , Denmark a nd t he N etherlands, a nd e lsewhere where t he t races o f t he a rd h ave b een f ound b etween t he b anks.

Though w e h ave n o t y et f ound a rd f urrows t here must h ave

p lough ing b etween t he b anks. P erhaps i tw as o n ly i n al a ter p hase , a f ter t he s o il h ad b ecome e xhausted , t hat t he b anks w ere u sed , b u t i ti s a lso p oss ible t ha t b o th a reas were u sed a t t he s a me t ime f or d i f feren t a rable p urposes.

These

q uest ions n eed f urther i nvest iga t ions a f ter t he p hospha te a na lys is h as b een c ompleted. U p t o n ow t he b anks h ave b een e xam ined i n s everal n arrow t renches, w h ile o ne b road t rench h as b een c u t t hrough f our b anks a nd t he a reas b etween t he m , away f ro m t he v ic in ity o f s et t le men t t races. S everal i rregu lar p its w ere u ncovered w h ich c ou ld n ot b e p ara l leled among t he p its f ound i n t he s et t le men t . We t h ink t hat h ere ( as w e k now f ro m med ieva l f i e lds ) s o il r ich i n m inera ls w as b rough t t o t he s urface. p ract ised .

T hus n o t o n ly w as o rgan ic , b u t a lso i norgan ic manur ing

With in t he C f-area i s ar eg ion , w here u p t o t h is c en tury mar l h as

b een d ug f or manur ing. T here m igh t t herefore h ave b een p reh istor ic marlp its , b u t t hese wou ld h ave b een d estroyed . An i nvest igat ion o f aC f

n ear Appe ln , a bou t 4 0 km S E o f F logeln , r evea led

d itches o r l ong p its a long o ne o r b o th s ides o f t he b anks, wh ich a re h ere o n ly 6m b road. Wh ile i nF lOgeln , t he s o il i s ab rown e arth ( BHnderparabraunerde ) i n Appeln t he C fs a re s itua ted o n ap seudog ley . These d itches o r l ong p its r ese mb le t he p its i nF ldgeln .

The v ar iat ions i n d igg ing a nd i n t he s ize o f t he

b anks, may p oss ibly r ef lec t a dapt ion t o t he d i f feren t s o i l t ypes. Con t inu ity o f s et t le ment a t F l e igeln-Eekhd lt jen e x tends f ro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he f i rst c en tury B .C. t o t he m idd le o f t he f i f th c en tury A .D. We e xp ected t he s a me f or t he C fs o f F l eeln , b u t w e w ere w rong.

The t renches

a nd t r ia l h o les y ielded a q uan t ity o f p ot tery a l low ing a n umber o f s et t le men t a reas t o b e mapped . These a lways d a ted f rom t he f i rst c en tury B .0 C .t o t he f i rst c en tury A .D. Apart f ro m a t t hese s ing le f ar ms o n ly a s l igh t d istr ibu t ion o f p ot tery w as n oted i n t he r est o f t he a rea.

Th is must h ave r esu lted f rom

t he s pread b y manure wh ich i nc luded s et t le men t w aste.

Most o f i td a tes

f rom t he f i rst c en tury B .0 C .t o t he f i rst c en tury A .D. a nd a sma l ler amoun t f rom t he s econd c en tury A .D. There w ere n o more r ecen t f inds. T h is c ompares w e l l w ith t he d a tes o f C fs i n o ther a reas a round t he N orth S ea ( Brongers 1 976 ) b u t i tr a ises t he q uest ion o f where t he f i eld s yste ms o f t he more r ecen t s et t le men tp hases a re l ocated.

We h ave v irtua l ly n o i dea h ow

t he f i e ld s yste ms o f t he y ounger I ron Age a nd E arly Med ieva l p er iod l ooked e xcep t f or s ome s l ight i nd ica t ions t ha t t hey w ere s urrounded b y d i tches ( Wo lter ing i n t h is p aper ). A s o il f ert il ity map o f 1 856 ( Fig. 4 ) s hows t ha t C f b anks d o n o t e x ist i n a reas wh ich i n t he n ine teen th c en tury were c onsidered t o b e t he most f ert ile. When we c o mpare t h is w ith t he g eo log ica l map w e f i nd t hat t hese a reas c o inc ide w ith a reas o f b ou lder c lay u nder a c over ing o f s and , p rod uc ing a s o i l t hat e lsewhere i nt he E lbe- Weser-tr iang le w as p referred f or t he e stabl ish men t o f C fs.

P erhaps i ti s h ere t hat w e must s earch f or t he f i elds o f

t he y ounger s et t le men t p hases. t e l l u s more.

Aga in , t he p hosphate a na lys is w il l e ven tual ly

Up t o n ow n o t races o f p lough ing h ave b een f ound i n F l t igeln , b u t p resuma bly o n t he l i gh t s andy s o ils t he a rd w as u sed s im i lar t o t hat wh ich was t raced d ur ing a no ther e xcavat ion , a t M id lum.

A t t he s ame t ime, t he s od-turn ing

p lough w as u sed i n t he a d jacen t c lay d istr ict ( Haarnage l 1 973 ). 1 52

Whether t he

p lough w as u sed a t a l l i n t he l oa my p ar ts o f t he G eest i s u nknown . I n t he 1 977 e xcavat ion a n umber o f a rd s hares w ere d iscovered a t F l t ige ln i g•5 ) • They a l l b elong t o a n improved a rd t ype w ith i n terchangab le s hare.

T hey

w ere h eav ily worn . O f t he p lan ts t hat w ere c u l t ivated i n t he C fs n o th ing h as y e t b een f ound i n t he a rea o f t he f i e lds t he mselves , b u t c harred g ra in h as b een f ound i nt he s unken h u ts a nd t he p ostho les o f g ranar ies. On t he b ronze a ge f i elds ma in ly o a ts, b u t a lso f our-row b arley , c lub whea t a nd emmer w ere c u l t iva ted. The a ctua l l ocat ion o f t hese f i elds i s a t p resen t u nknown .

A t t he t ime o f t he C el t ic

f i e ld s yste m t he ma in c rop w as t he f our-row b arley , b u t c harred g ra in f rom b read whea t , o ats , r ye a nd emmer h as a lso b een f ound. I n t he f ourth-f if th c en tury most c harred g ra ins f ound a re f rom r ye, o ther c rops i nclude f ourr ow b arley a nd o a ts. Thus , i nt he s econd-th ird c entury n o t o n ly d oes t he f i eld s yste m c hange , b u t s o a lso d oes t he s et t le men t p at tern , a nd a n ew c rop i s a dded . Throughou t t he p er iod f l ax must a lso h ave b een c u l t iva ted. S ome s eeds h ave b een f ound , a nd a t o ne p lace i n t he b og , f l ax p o l len w as n o ted s uggest ing t hat h ere , i n t he v ic in ity , f l ax s teep ing may h ave b een c arr ied o u t ( Behre 1 976 , 13, 1 14 ). I n t he s ett le men t an umber o f " granar ies" h ave b een f ound ( Fig. 6 ) . N o t a l l wou ld h ave b een u sed f or s tor ing g ra in b u t a lso f or h ay a nd o ther g oods. U p t o n ow 6 1 g ranar ies a re k nown , t he sma l lest w ith 4 p osts ,t he b iggest w ith 2 0.

They d ate f rom t he f i rst t o t h ird c en tury A .D .

N o g ranary i s k nown f ro m

t he f ourth-f if th c en tury b u t p erhaps s ome v ery sma l l s unken h u ts w ere u sed f or s torage i n t h is p hase. Ev idence o f c a tt le i s p rov ided n o t o n ly b y t he n umber o f s ta l ls i n t he h ouses ( Fig. 7 ) , b u t b y t he h undreds o f f oo tpr in ts, ma in ly o f c ows a nd h orses, wh ich i n 1 977 w ere u ncovered ( Plate 2 ). Good e xcavat ion c ond i t ions w ere f ound a long t he most e astern p art o f t he s et t le men t o n t he s lope o f a sma l l v a l ley , c a l led " im ö rt jen".

The f oot .pr in ts l ed t o ad itch ( f ig. 9 ) wh ich mea-

s ures a t l east 2 50 m i n l eng th . A t t he s ou th e nd s evera l d itches , r unn ing W-E, c o l lected t he s pr ing w a ter i n t he v a l ley a nd l ed i ti n to t he N -S d itch. The d i tch d oes n ot s lope b u t r e ma ins a t t he s a me l eve l t hroughou t , t hus i tw as i n tended t o h o ld w ater a nd n ot f or d ra inage. The w estern s ide o f t he d itch h as b een t horough ly t rodden d own b y c a tt le wh ile t he e astern s ide h as b een l e f t s harp. Because t h is n arrow d itch c annot : h ave b een a s evere b oundary f or c a t t le , ah erds man must h ave p reven ted t he a n i ma ls f rom c ross ing t he w ater. The i mportance o f c a tt le i s emphas ized b y t he c ons iderable w ork i nvo lved i n d igg ing a d r ink ing d i tch o f t h is s ize. f unct ion .

I td oes n ot s ee m t o h ave h ad a ny o ther

The 1 05 h ouses ( Sch m id a nd Z i mmer mann 1 976 ) , u ncovered i n F löge ln u p t o n ow b e long t o f our d i f feren t t ypes ( F ig. 7 ) : Type Ih as t he b yre a t o ne e nd o f t he h ouse , t he e n trance r oom i n t he c en tre a nd t he l iv ing q uarter i n t he o ther e nd.

I n t ype I , t he b yre i s s ituated i n t he c en tre.

Typ ica l o f t ype I I

i s t he r egu lar s pac ing o f p osts t hroughou t t he who le l eng th o f t he h ouse.

The

w id th i s t he s a me a s o f t he s ta l ls i n t he h ouses o f t ype Ia nd I , s o o ne p oss ib le e xp lana t ion i s t hat t he who le h ouse was u sed a s ab yre.

Bu t o ther i n terpreta-

t i ons a re a lso p oss ible. A t Feddersen W ierde t here a re s ome h ouses w i th t he s a me s et t ing o f p osts w here t he e x istence o f ad ung g u tter a nd a f i rep lace

1 54

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s how t ha t t hese h ouses w ere d iv ided i n l iv ing q uarters a nd b yre.

Bu t i ti s

d iff icu l t t o s ee why t he l i v ing q uarter was s o c lu t tered w ith p osts , wh i le i n b u i ld ings o f t ype Ia nd I p eop le t r ied t o k eep t he l iv ing s pace more o pen . Type I V s ee m t o b e s i mp ly dwel l inghouses w ith d ouble p a irs o f p osts w h ich we o therw ise k now o n ly i nt he l i v ing q uarters o f t he h ouses o f t ype I . When w e t ry t o work o u t t he n umber o f c a tt le b y c oun t ing t he s ta l ls w e n ecessar ily r estr ict o urselves t o h ouses o f t ype Ia nd I b ecause t he i n terpret at ion o f t he h ouses o f t ype I I i s u ncerta in .

G iven t h is r estr ict ion , a nd b y

n o t c ount ing t he o u ter 2 s ta l ls wh ich a t F eddersen W ierde s omet i mes h ave a no ther f unct ion , t here a re o n t he a verage e igh t s ta l ls i n t he h ouses o f t he s econd-th ird c en tury. Because t he s ta l ls p rov ide r oom f or t wo a n i ma ls e ach h ouse c ou ld t ake s ixteen a n i ma ls. Thus s ince u p t o t wen ty h ouses e x isted a t o ne p er iod , t here w as r oom f or 3 20 a du l t c at t le.

Th is i s am in i mum n umber

b ecause t here i s as trong l ikel ihood t hat t here w ere s ta l ls i n t he t ype I I h ouses. Moreover t he n umber o f s heep , g oats o r p igs f or wh ich w e h ave n o e v idence o f s ta l ls , c an n o tb e e st i mated. For t he f i rst a nd f ourth-f if th c en tury t he n umber o f h ouses i s s o f ar u nknown : n u mber o f c a t t le.

i ti s t herefore n o t p oss ib le t o e st i mate t he

The n u mber o f s ta l ls h owever i ncreases f rom t he f i rst t o t he

f i f th c en tury . Where w as t he p asture a nd where w as t he meadow f or h ay c rop?

S ta l l ing

t he a n i ma ls i n t he h ouses h as t he a dvan tage t hat t he c o l lect ion o f t he manure i s e asy b u t f or t he w in ter h ay h ad t o b e h arvested. Hay- mak ing t oo ls w ere u nc overed i n ap i t o f t he t h ird c en tury i n t he s et t le men t . The a sse mb lage i nc luded t he s cy the o f 3 8 cm l ength w ith r ing a nd w edge t o f asten i tt o t he h and le , t he a nv il a nd h a mmer t o s harpen i t , a nd t he mov ing c rook o r ma thak f or c oun terp ressure a nd g a ther ing t he g rass. I ti s p robab le , t hat t hese t oo ls w ere u sed o n ly f or h aymak ing , n o t f or c ut t ing t he c rops , f or w h ich p urpose t he s ick le w as u sed.

I ti s t he f i rst t ime t hat a p reh istor ic mov ing c rook h as b een f ound.

Th is imp le men t w as u sed u n t i l t oday w ith t he s hort h and led s cy the. I tc an b e c o mpared w ith t he E ng l ish f agg ing ( bagg ing ) h ook . The meadow f or h ay c rop may h ave b een , a s i n med ieva l t imes , i n t he f en land a longs ide t he l akes a nd s trea mlets n ortheast o f t he s et t le men t wh ich c overed a n a rea o fb etween 1 a nd 2h a. Pasture f or t he c att le w il l h ave b een p rov ided b y t ha t p art o f t he C fs wh ich r e ma ined u n t i l led ( on ly a sma l l a rea w il l h ave b een u nder t he p lough a t a ny o ne t ime ) , a nd t he c o m mon o f wood land a nd h ea th. The t o ta l a rea a va i la ble was t he H ase lhörn ( Fig. 1 , I ) o f 5 .7 km2 a nd F ah lenbruch ( F , ig. 1 , I V) o f 3 km2 ,i na l l 8 .7 km 2. Though c a tt le w ere sma l ler a nd more Geest land w as a va ilable wh ich w as n o t t hen c overed b y b og , t he a ctua l n umber o f a n i ma ls w as l arger b ecause w e d id n o t c oun t s heep , g oa ts o r p igs. Th is means, t hat t he l and a va i lable w as i n tens ively u sed. I tw as n o t p oss ible t o e ncroach o n t he w estern o r e astern p art o f t he i s land b ecause t hese a reas s upported s et t lemen ts ( F ig. 1 ) o ccup ied t hroughou t t he s a me p er iod a nd p resumab ly o f t he s a me s ize. The t err itory o f a l l t hree s et t le men ts h ad , when w e i nc lude Geest a nd f en land , a l most t he s a me a rea. By c ons ider ing t he s ize o f t he s ta l ls i n t he b yres o f h ouses d at ing f rom t he Bronze Age t o med ieval t imes , Waterbo lk ( 1975 ) h as s hown t hat c at t le must h ave b eco me sma l ler. That t h is h appens i n t he s hort p er iod f rom t he f i rst t o f i f th c en tury c an b e d e monstra ted a t F löge ln .

1 60

I n t he f i rst c en tury

h ouses , t he p lace a va ilable f or a n a du l t a n i ma l w as o n a verage 9 7 cm b road , i nt he s econd-th ird c en tury , 9 3 cm a nd i n t he f ourth -f ifth c en tury , 8 7 cm. P roducts o f h and icraf t , s uch a s t he b one i ndustry o r h a lf worked wooden b ow ls ( see t he p reced ing p aper o f P . S ch m id ) a re n ot o f ten p reserved . The g ood p reservat ion c ond it ions w h ich w ere met a t t he e xcava t ion a t F eddersen Wierde , h owever, a l low u s t o e st i mate t he k inds o f c raf t wh ich must h ave e x isted i nF l ee ln e ven t hough t he ir p roducts h ave v an ished. I n t he f o l low ing , w e g ive o n ly a s elect ion o f c raf ts , f or w h ich e v idence w as o bta ined d ur ing t he i nvest iga t ions. D if feren t k inds o f i ndustry a re f ound a t d i f feren t p laces i ns ide a nd o u ts ide t he s et t le men t.

S ome work w as d one i n t he l onghouses , s ome i n

t he s unken h u ts a nd i n a nd o u ts ide a rt isan h ouses. The womens work a s Haarnage l ( 1973 ) worked o u t a t t he F eddersen Wierde , t ook p lace i n t he c en tra l p art o f t he h ouse.

Houses o f t ype I p ose t he q uest ion o f whether o ne e nd o f

t he h ouse w as u sed a s as econd l iv ing q uarter, a ct iv i ty a rea o r s tore. Smal l r oo ms a t o ne e nd o r s omet i mes b o th e nds o f t he h ouses h ave b een f ound i n s evera l e xa mp les.

I n o ne c ase , ac harred wooden b ow l w as u ncovered ,

b u t n o o ther f inds i nd ica ted t he f unct ion . The b ow l , h owever , imp l ies t hat p arts o f t he l i v ing q uarter w ere u sed f or o ther t han s leep ing a nd c ook ing. The n u mber o ft he s unken h u ts ( i n t o ta l 7 7 ) g ives a n i nd icat ion o f t he import ance o fh and icraf ts. I n t he e n t ire p er iod f rom t he f i rst t o f i f th c en tury t here w ere s unken h u ts o fb o th t wo-post a nd s ix-post t ype ( F ig. 8 ) . Bu t wh i le d ur ing t he f i rst t o t h ird c en tury t here w ere o n ly a f ew h u ts , t he n umber i ncreases d ur ing t he f ourth-f if th c en tury.

Thus t he i mpor tance o f manu factur ing must

h ave i ncreased f or b oth d a ily l i fe a nd f or e xport. I n most c ases t he f unct ion o f ap art icu lar g rubenhaus c anno t b e d ef ined b ecause t he l oomwe igh ts o r o ther f inds w ith in i t may n ot h ave o r ig ina l ly b elonged w ith t he h u tb u t may h ave b een i n troduced w ith t he e arth f i l l.

I ti s a pparen t ,

h owever , t hat a l arge n umber o f h earths w ere f ound i n t hese h u ts where meta lwork may h ave b een c arr ied o u t. Ou ts ide t he s et t le men t o f t he s econd/ th ird a nd f ourth/f if th c en tury s o me a rt isan h ouses l ay n ear t o t he f ence ( see p la te 3 i n t he p reced ing p aper o f P . S chm id ).

We k now t hese h ouses w el l f rom Feddersen Wierde a nd f rom t hese

p ara l le ls i ti s e asy t o d ef ine t he ir f unct ion .

The h ouses a re s hortened t ype I

b u i ld ings w ith a v ery smal l b yre o f w ithou t o ne. The work w i l l h ave b een c arr ied o u t i ns ide a nd o u ts ide t he h ouse. One g ood e xa mp le i s ab u ild ing s i tua ted o n a sma l l e levat ion n ear t he d itch w h ich w as d ug f or c a t t le ( f ig. 9 ) . Three p hases c an b e r ecogn ized ;

t wo o f t he h ouses w ere r ebu il t a t e xact ly t he

s a me p lace w ith g u tters o nb o th s ides t o c o l lect t he w a ter f ro m t he r oo f. S ince t he g u t ters e nd b l ind w a ter must h ave c o l lected h ere. For e ach p hase t here i s a t l east o ne s tore b u i ld ing b u t t hey w ere p robably n o t u sed f or g ra in . Beh ind t he b u i ld ings w ere t wo d itches ( one e x ist ing a t at ime ), wh ich must h ave s erved a s as or t o fb as in a lways f i l led w ith g round w ater b ecause o f t he l ow s ituat ion .

These b as ins must h ave h ad t o d o w ith t he f unct ion o f t he c o mp lex

a nd g rea t amoun ts o f s a mp led e arth awa it ing i nvest iga t ion .

I ti s p oss ible t hat

t he t ann ing o f l eather o r s o me s im i lar c raf t w as c arr ied o u t h ere a nd t hat t he s tore b u ild ings w ere u sed f or w orked o r u nworked mater ia l.

1 61

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Recen t a er ia l p hotographs h ave r evea led im med iate ly t o

t he w est a nd s ou thwest , s everal c lusters o f s unken h u ts , w h ich t he s urface f inds i nd ica te , w ere i ndustr ia l b u i ld ings o f t he f ourth/ f if th c entury . One i ndustry , wh ich made u se o f ag rea t q uan t ity o f e rrat ics , was t he p roduct ion o f m i l lstones ( Plate 1 ) . S everal s tones s how t he w ay i n w h ich t hey w ere manu factured :

f rom t he r ough h ewn s tone t o n ear ly f i n ished e xa mp les,

t he who le p rocess o f p roduct ion c an b e e xa m ined . S ince i n n one o f t he s unken h u ts h as a g rea t q uan t ity o f s tone g r it b een f ound t he work ing p laces f or t he p roduct ion o f m il lstones must h ave b een o n t he s urface. S tones a lways h ave b een f ound i n s econdary p os it ions , most ly i n t he s tone f ac ing o f t he s lop ing s ides o f w el ls. The g ran ite m i l lstones f ound a t F eddersen Wierde w ere a lways f in ished e xa mp les imp ly ing t hat t hey w ere made o nt he G eest , o f s i tes l i ke F l eeln , a nd e xported t o t he c lay d istr ict. There must h ave b een a w el l d eveloped p at tern o f t rade b etween t he e dge o f t he Geest a nd t he c lay d istr ict i n g oods wh ich w ere o therw ise l ack ing t here. I ron o re ,t i mber f or b u i ld ing h ouses , m il lstones a nd a w ide r ange o f o ther c o mmod it ies, ( as t he e xcava t ion a t F eddersen Wierde [ Haarnagel 1 973 ] s howed ) w ere e xported f rom t he G eest t o t he c lay d istr ict. What w as g iven i n e xchange i s n o t s o c lear. For merly w e b el ieved i tt o b e c a tt le b u t w e n ow k now t hat c on s iderable h erds w ere a lso r eared o n t he Geest .

Tha t c on tacts b etween t he

Geest a nd t he c lay d istr ict must h ave b een v ery c lose a s i s s hown ,for e xa mp le , b y ac ompar ison o f t he h ouse p lans.

Wh i le t he w a l ls w ere d if feren t , p erhaps

b ecause o f t he l ack o f wood i n t he c lay d istr ict , t he p at tern o f p art i t ions i ns ide t he h ouses w as t he s a me.

T here a re s everal h ousep lans i n b o th s et t le men ts

wh ich a re v ery c losely s im i lar.

T here must h ave b een f i xed s tandards f or n ot

o n ly were t he measure men ts, b u ta lso t he d istances b etween t he t imbers were f ixed . We c an s uppose, t herefore , p rofessional c arpen ters e x isted a t t he t ime a nd t ha t t hey worked o ver c ons iderab le d istances s o t ha t s tandards c ou ld b e ma in ta ined t hroughou t t he e n t ire p er iod f rom t he f i rst t o t he f if th c en tury. A c ons idera t ion o f t rade i ncludes t he q uest ion o f h ow p eop le managed t o g et f rom t he G eest t o t he c lay d ist r ict o r b eyond. Waterways must h ave b een v ery impor tant . The s et t le men t must a lways h ave b een e as ily a ccess ible b y b oa t . F ro m t he l akes n orth o f t he s et t le men t t hrough L ehe a nd Mede m i tw as p oss ib le t o r each t he E lbe. The b og was c rossed o ver a d ike o f s and 3 m b road , wh ich e x isted f rom t he f i rst t o t he f i f th c en tury ( f ig. 1 ) . l ed f rom t he G eest t o a sma l l h arbour.

I tp robab ly

You c ou ld a lso r each t he s et t le men t

b y v eh icle c ross ing t he b og b etween t he i nhab ited i s lands o n t rackways. I n s evera l p laces r u ts made b y h eavy v eh ic les c an b e t raced l ead ing f ro m t he s et t le men t i n e astern d irect ion t o t he p r inc ip le l i nk ing r oad a s w el l a s t o t he f i e lds , where t he manure h ad t o b e c arted. A long t hese t racks t he h erdsman l ed h is a n i ma ls a s t he c op ious h oo fpr in ts s how ( Plate 3 ). Agr icu l ture a nd s tock far m ing h ave a lways b een t he ma in s upport s o f s et t le men t 's e conomy a t F lögeln .

The r elat ion b etween b oth w as p resumably

wel l b a lanced b u t t here i s n o p oss ib i l ity y et t o e xpress t h is a s ad irect p erc en tage.

1 63

The importance o f manu factur ing g rew f rom t he f i rst t o f i f th c en tury A .D. Th is c an b e e xp la ined i n t er ms o f i n tens ify ing t rade, ma in ly w i th t he t erps i n t he c lay-d istr ict .

The o rd inary r equ ire men ts o f t he s et t le men t w il l n ot h ave

a ltered n o t iceably . The w a terways a nd t he ir a ccess w ere o f importance f or t he t rade , a s w el l a s t he o ver land r ou tes wh ich w ere u sed t oo b y t he f ar mers t o g et t o t he ir a rable l and a nd t o d r ive c at t le ( as i s s hown b y t he r u ts o f h eavy c ar ts a nd t he h oo fpr in ts ). These d eta iled o bservat ions, wh ich c an b e made o f F lögeln , a re p oss ib le b ecause o f t he o pt i mu m p reva il ing c ond it ions f or a rchaeo log ica l a nd b o tan ica l s urvey o n b o th t he " inhab ited i s le" a nd i n t he s urround ing p eatbog.

Bu t t he

a rchaeo log ist a lone c ou ld n ot h ave e xp lo ited a l l a dvan tages o f fered w ithou t c lose c ooperat ion w ith d if feren t s c ien t ists i nvo lved i n t he p ro ject .

1 65

S TUDIES OF S TRUCTURE , CONT INU ITY AND CHANGE I N I RON AGE S ETTLE MENTS I N SWEDEN B . S t jernqu is t

Archaeo logy was d om ina ted f or a l ong t ime b y q ues tions r a ised i n t er ms o f h is tor ica l e ven ts a nd p o l i t ica l c hanges .

C hanges i n g iven a rchaeo log ica l

ma ter ia l were o f ten e xp lained i n t er ms o f t he i n f lux o f i deas o r o b jec ts c om ing f ro m a no ther s ocie ty o r c u l ture . Modern a rchaeology , h owever , t akes a d i ff eren t a pproach a nd u ses t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic p a t tern o f p reh is tor ic s ocie ty a s t he f oca l p o in t ( e .g . H iggs 1 972 ) . G raha me C lark ( C lark 1 939 ) .

One o f t he p ioneers i n t h is f ie ld was

The s tudy o f c hange wh ich o ccurs i n t he n a tura l

a nd s oc ia l e nv iron men t i s o f t he u t mos t i mpor tance i n t h is c on tex t . An a na lys is b ased o n t h is k ind o f a pproach c an b e b u i l t u p i n v ar ious ways . I n my r esearch o n s e t t le men t a rchaeo logy , Id ec ided t o b ase t he a na lys is o n at heore t ica l mode l ( S t jernqu is t 1 971 , 3 0 ) . The mode l ( F ig . 1 ) a i ms t o e nco mpass a l l t he c o mponen ts , i .e . a c t iv i t ies , o f as ocia l s ys te m a s we l l a s t he ir i n terrela t ionsh ip .

The a dvan tage o f s uch

ar esearch p lan i s t ha t n o th ing w i l l b e o ver looked a nd t ha t t he a na lys is w i l l c oncen tra te u pon a c o mprehens ive p ic ture o f s oc ie ty .

Thus , t he r esearcher

w i l l b e f orced t o g ive a n a ccoun t o f h ow f ar i ti s p oss ible t o g e t w i th a g iven s e t o f p re m ises , a nd o f wha t g aps t here a re i n t he ma ter ia l . The mode l c lass i f ies a c t iv i t ies i n ac oncre te f ash ion , s e t t ing u p t he c a teg or ies o f e cono m ic a c t iv i t ies ( produc t ion ) , s ocia l a nd r e l ig ious a c t iv i t ies , t he i n terre la t ionsh ip b e tween t he m a nd t he ir r e la t ion t o b o th t he n a tura l a nd t he s oc ia l e nv iron men t .

I ta lso i ncludes ma jor g roups o f ma ter ia l t o b e s tudied

when a t te mpt ing t o d educe e x is t ing a c t iv i t ies . I deas s im i lar t o t hose wh ich r esu l ted i n t h is mode l were a dvanced a t a bou t t he s a me t ime i n t he a pproach c a l led t he N ew Archaeology ( Chang 1 968 ) , wh ich c on tends t ha t p reh is tor ic a c t iv i t ies c an b e s tud ied b y a na lys ing v ar ious a r t if ac t c o mp lexes ( H i l l 1 970 , 1 1-58 ;

1 972 , 6 1-107) .

L ongacre emphas izes t ha t

" cu l ture i s v iewed a s t he means b y wh ich h u man p opu la t ions a dap t t o t he ir t o ta l e nv iron men t , b o th n a tura l s urround ings a nd o ther h u man p opu la t ions" ( Longacre 1 970 , 9 ) .

Fur ther more , h e c a l ls a t ten t ion t o a n impor tan t p o in t i n t h is n ew

a pproach , n a me ly " the i mpor tance o f e co logy f or e xp lana tion i n c on tras t t o d i ffus ion" ( Longacre 1 970 , 1 0 ) . e xa mp les .

The n ew a pproach c an b e e lucida ted b y many

Is hal l n o t e x tend t he ir n u mber u nnecessar i ly a nd w ish o n ly t o

men t ion t ha t R en frew , t oo , r epresen ts t h is n ew a pproach ( Ren frew 1 973b ) a s d o t he p ro jec ts o f t he S ocie ty o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon ( Bowen a nd C un li f fe 1 973 , 9 -15 ;

Cun l i ffe 1 973 , 1 73-190 ) .

A mode l s uch a s t he o ne p resen ted h ere d oes n o t h ave t o b e s ta t ic .

I ti s

i n tended t o i l lus tra te t he v ar ious i n f luences wh ich c ause s oc ie ty t o c hange . The p rocess u nder lying t hese c hanges i s e x traord inar i ly c o mp lex . 1 67

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Among t he mode ls p roposed f or r econs truc t ing a r esource a rea o ne c an c a l l a t ten t ion t o t he mode l c ons truc ted b y C larke f or t he G las tonbury s i te ( C larke 1 972 , 8 01-869 ) . I tt hrows l igh t o n t he c onnec t ion b e tween t he s et t lemen t a nd t he s urround ing a rea where t he r esources were t o b e f ound . T o c ons truc t s uch a model i nt he s hape o f ac irc le i s , h owever , a n a bs trac t ion o f t he s a me k ind a s h as o ccurred i nt he d iscuss ion o f ad i f fus ion p rocess . I f we v iew t he d i f fus ion o f at ype o f o b jec t f ro m a p roduc t ion c en tre a s ap roc ess where t he d ecrease i nd i f fus ion i n tens i ty i s r e la ted t o t he i ncrease o f t he d is tance f ro m t he p roduc t ion c en tre , t he c irc le b eco mes a n a tura l f rame o f r e ference . Th is f orm , h owever , d oes n o t e x is t i n r ea l i ty , where v ar ious r es is tances c ause i rregu lar d eve lop men ts a nd t he d i f fus ion p rocesses d o n ot t ake p lace a u to ma t ica l ly . The c ircu lar mode l wou ld b e c orrec t o n ly i fa r esource a rea were h o mogeneous i n a l l d irec t ions . I ns tead , t here may b e v ar ia tions wh ich , i n ac ircu lar mode l , w ou ld c ons t i tu te s ources o f e rror . These p recond i t ions h ave t o b e d iscussed a nd t he p oss ib le v ar ia t ions h ave t o b e i ncorpora ted i n to t he mode l . C onnec ted w i th t he d ard l tYsa s e t t le men t — a s w i th a ny s e t t le men t — i s i t s c o m mun ica t ions s ys te m a nd i t s p rerequ is i tes . I n t he p resen t c ase , t h is i s c harac ter ised b y ar iver s ys te m e nc irc l ing t he s e t t le men t . The r iver i n q ues t ion may b e p resu med t o h ave h ad s ign i f icance f or t he e xpanse o f t he r es ource a rea . The s hape o f t he l a t ter w i l l t hen p erhaps n o t b e c ircu lar , b u t r a ther a no b long f i e ld s tre tch ing a long t he r iver . Ano ther p o in t t o c ons ider i s t he f ac t t ha t t he r esource a rea o f o ne s e t t le men t a d jo ins o r o ver laps o ther r esource a reas b e long ing t o o ther , d i f feren t s e t t le men ts . Ge a r 'd lösa i s s i tua ted o nt he b order l ine o f t wo d is t inc t ly d i f feren t t ypes o f s o i l .

The r idge i s , i np oin t o f f ac t , a n o f fshoo t o f t he wooded L inderöd r ange

i n c en tra l S can ia .

T owards t he s ou th , t he l andscape i s more o pen .

T hese

f ea tures a re t rea ted i nt he g eo log ica l a n2lys is . The t opography o f t he s e t t le men t h as s ign i f icance f ro m more t han o ne p oin t o f v iew . I tr epresen ts a c o mbina t ion o f s o i l t ypes wh ich c ou ld b e u sed f or v ar ious d is t inc t p urposes . T he h igher g rounds o f t he r idge , f or e xamp le , a re e as i ly d ra ined , wh i le t he moor lands n ear t he wa ter c ourse p rov ide o ther k inds o f e nergy . A t t he e dge o f t he r idge a re l imes tone d epos i ts , s u i table f or a v ar ie ty o f u ses . T he l imes tone i s u t i l ised t o ah igh d egree i n g raves a nd o ther c ons truct ions . C lay , t oo , o ccurs i n s evera l c oncen tra t ions , a l though t o al esser d egree . C l ima te i s a no ther i mpor tan t f ac tor i n t h is k ind o f a na lys is . S o f ar , i t h as n o t y e t b een p oss ible t o f ind o u t i n wha t way t he c l i ma te c hanged d ur ing t he I ron Age , b u t Qua ternary g eo log is ts a re w ork ing o n t he p roble m . The v ege ta t iona l i nves t iga t ions c an b e c o mbined w i th o ther i nves t iga t ions o f t he s a me n a ture g o ing o n w i th in a l arge a rea i n t h is p ar t o f S can ia .

I n a nd

a round t he s i te t here a re p rac t ica l ly n o o ppor tun i t ies wha tsoever t o u nder take p o l len-ana lyses . F or s tud ies o f t he l oca l v ege ta t ion , t here fore , wood a nat o my h as b een emp loyed . There a re a g rea t n umber o f c harcao l s a mp les o n wh ich t o work . Tho mas B ar tho lin h as t rea ted t h is ma ter ia l a nd i tg ives a f a ir ly g ood p ic ture o f t he v egeta t ion . Ap recond i t ion f or t he r e l iabi l i ty o f t he r esu l ts i s t o t ake i n to a ccoun t t he p r inc ip les o f s e lec t ion t ha t migh t h ave g overned t he c ho ice o f f uel .

Th is ma ter ia l , t oo , mus t b e e xa m ined c r i t ica l ly . 1 80

The r esu l ts o f t he wood a na to m ica l a na lyses g ive i n for ma t ion n o t mere ly a bou t wha t k inds o f wood were u sed f or mak ing f ire , b u t a lso , t o ac er ta in d egree , a bou t ma ter ia l t ha t was a va i lable f or c ons truc t ing h ouses . The r esu l ts o f t he v ege ta t ion s tud ies h ave n o t y e t b een f u l ly e va lua ted . The ma ter ia l , h owever , a ppears t o i nd ica te v egeta t iona l c hanges a t ap o in t i nt ime c o incid ing w i th t he t rans i t ion b e tween t he R o man I ron Age a nd t he M igra t ion p er iod , t ha t i s , a t at ime when a r e loca t ion o f t he s e t t le men t t ook p lace . P ar t o f t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t i s , a s Ih ave men t ioned , t he f auna .

V ege-

t a t ion a s w el l a s f auna i s d ea l t w i th u nder t he h ead ing " Product ion" , wh ich i nc ludes u t i l isa t ion o f t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t 's r esources . P roduc t ion ( econo m ic a ct iv i ties ) E lsbe th L ange ( Lange 1 975 , 1 15-124 ) h as r ecen t ly c o mple ted a s urvey o f I ron Age p roduc t ion o f a n e x tens ive r eg ion i nc lud ing S ou thern S cand inav ia , b ased o n a va i lable i n for ma t ion . A ccord ing t o t h is s urvey , a marked i ncrease i np roduc t ion t ook p lace i n a bou t 5 00 A .D. L ange a t tr ibu tes t h is i ncrease t o t he i n troduc t ion o f t he i ron p lough a nd d raugh t a nima ls . H er r esu l ts h ave g rea t s ign i f icance f or t he ard ldsa i nves t iga t ion , s ince a c hange i nt he c haract er o f t he s e t t le men t c ou ld b e o bserved a t t he t rans i t ion f ro m t he R o man I ron Age t o t he M igra t ion p er iod . Th is c hange migh t p erhaps h ave b een c onnec ted w i th t echn ica l i nnova t ions o f t he k ind L ange i s p ropos ing . Qua ternary g eolog is ts a nd c u l tura l g eographers i n S weden ( e .g . L indqu is t 1 974 , 6 -32 ) h ave p rev ious ly c oun ted o n , a nd d iscussed t he p robabi l i ty o f , j us t s uch a n a gr icu lt ura l g row th i nt he l a ter p ar t o f t he I ron Age . The v ar ious k inds o f c erea l a re p ar t o f t he a gr icu l tura l p roduc t ion .

The

ma ter ia l a va i lable f ro m C ard lösa i s n o t v ery r ich . The d e ter m ina t ions made b y Hakon H je l mqv is t s how t he o ccurrence o f b ar ley , whea t , r ye a nd o a ts a s we l l a s f l ax . Another i mpor tan t f actor i s t he b one ma ter ia l wh ich c ou ld g ive a nswers t o q ues t ions r a ised i n c onnec t ion w i th means o f s ubs is tence . The t opograph ica l c ircums tances s ugges t c ons ider ing a nd t es t ing whe ther t he c o mbina t ion o f moor lands b e low t he r idge , a nd t he s lopes o f t he r idge w i th o ther t ypes o f s oi l , c ons t i tu ted a p ar t icu lar ly f avourab le s i tua t ion f or p as tura l f ar m ing . C a lcu lat i ons o f t he s ize o f t he l i ves tock a re p rob le ma t ic , a s s hown b y a t te mp ts made a t o ther s i tes , f or e xample , b y H agen i n N orway ( Hagen 1 953 ) . B u t a l though s uch c a lcu la t ions may b e i nexac t , t hey c an n one the less b e s t i mu la t ing when a na lys ing a c t iv i t ies t hat a re p ar t o f t he e nergy d i mens ion .

A t t he v ery l eas t ,

t hey a l low u s t o d iscuss t he s i ze o f t he a rea a va i lab le f or p as ture a nd g rass c rops . Imay men t ion h ere t ha t o n t he s o-ca l led S can ian s urvey map o f 1 816 , l arge a reas b e low t he r idge a re marked a s b e ing moor lands . E x tens ive d ra inage work l a ter s uccess ive ly c hanged t he l andscape i n more t han o ne r espec t ( F ig . 6 ) . The b one ma ter ia l i s u nder s tudy a t t he Os teo log ica l R esearch L abora tory o f t he U n ivers i ty o f S tockho lm , l ed b y N i ls-Gusta f G e jva l l . The c o mpos i t ion o f t he l i ves tock i s a n impor tan t f ea ture . The n earby f ores t a nd t he wa terc ourse n ear t he s e t t le men t were s ources o f g a me a nd f i sh . p roble ms o ne d epends o nt he q uan t i ty o fb one p reserved . 1 81

I n a na lys ing t hese A c r i t ica l e xa m ina t ion

1 82

o f t h is s ource ma ter ia l c an s how p oss ible d i f ferences b e tween b one ma ter ia l f ound i n t he h ouse f ounda t ions a nd t ha t f ound a t t he c u l t p lace . I n p o in t o f f act , i th as b een s hown t ha t t he b one ma ter ia l o f ac u l t p lace , c an b e v ery d i f feren t f ro m t ha t o f ac on te mporaneous s e t t le men t , p robab ly b ecause o f c er ta in d e fin i te p r inc ip les o f s elect ion . F actors t o b e d iscussed i na n a na lys is o f wha t c aused t he r e loca t ions o f t he s et t le men t a re a lso p ar t o f p roduc t ion . One c an t ry t o e xa m ine whe ther t hese i ns tances c ou ld h ave b een t he r esu l ts o f c on jo in t a c t ions o f v ar ious f ac tors , a nd d iscuss wha t c onsequences c er ta in c hanges i n e nergy r esources c ou ld h ave h ad f or t he s e t t le men t 's a c t iv i t ies . Those e cono m ic a c t iv i t ies t ha t a re mou lded a s work d i f feren t ia t ion , c an b e s tud ied i n t he p roduc t ion o f a r t i fac ts . H ere , c hanges i n work s truc ture , s uch a s s pec ia l isa t ion i np roduc t ion , w i l l h ave s ign i f icance . There i s 7h owever , o ther ma ter ia l wh ich c an g ive i n for ma t ion a bou t e cono m ic a c t iv i t ies . S oc ia l a c t iv i t ies Th is c a tegory c o inc ides b y a nd l arge w i th t he d i mens ion wh ich P log c a l ls i n tegra t ion . The s tudy o f o rgan isa t ion a nd o rgan isa t iona l c hanges i s p ar t ic u lar ly c o mp l ica ted .

The ma ter ia ls a va i lable s te m f ro m t he g raves , t he h ouse

f ounda t ions a nd t he c u l t p lace . I tc an b e a ssu med t ha t t he g rave ma ter ia l , e xa m ined c r i t ica l ly , w i l l o f fer c er ta in i n forma t ion a bou t s oc ia l l eve ls o f t he p opu la t ion . I n modern r esearch , q ues t ions r a ised a bou t t he s oc ia l s truc ture o f p reh is tor ic s ocie t ies h ave b een t aken u p i n d iverse c onnec t ions , s e t t ing o u t f ro m ma ter ia l o f t h is k ind ( Ren frew 1 973 a a nd R andsborg 1 974 , 3 8-61) . Approx ima te ly 1 50 g raves , r epresen t ing t he e n t ire s e t t le men t p er iod , h ave b een f ound a t t he s i te ,

The ma jor i ty o f t hese c an b e d a ted q u i te we l l , wh ich

i s ap recond i t ion f or a na na lys is o f t h is k ind .

I n r egard t o c ons truc t ion , t he

ma ter ia l i s e x tre me ly v ar ied . The s tra t igraphy o f t he c e me tery i s impor tan t . I tw i l l b e a na lysed t horough ly , s ince t here i s n o c ons is ten t h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy i n t he c e me tery b u t , i ns tead , g roups o f g raves h av ing t he s a me c ons truc t ion a nd b y a nd l arge t he s a me d a t ing , a re t o b e f ound i n v ar ious s ca t tered s po ts . Th is h o lds t rue , f or e xa mple , f or a c er ta in t ype o f l arge , c ircu lar s tone s e t t ing ( P l . V ) . Th is c ircums tance s ee ms t o f or m a b as is f or t he h ypothes is t ha t e ach f ar m u n i t owned a s peci f ic p ar t o f t he b ur ia l g round a ss igned t o i t s d ead . S uch a h ypo thes is o pens u p t he p oss ibi l i ty o f i l lu m ina t ing t he s ocia l s tructure . H owever , i t mus t b e t horough ly t es ted a nd c o mpared w i th t he r esu l ts o f t he a na lys is d ea l ing w i th t he g rouping o f h ouse f ounda t ions . The f unc t ion o f t he h ouses a nd t he ir c onnec t ion w i th t ime i s a no ther p rob le m wh ich h as s ign i f icance i na n a na lys is o f s oc ia l i n tegra t ion . Th is a na lys is i s i np repara t ion . I tw i l l e luc ida te p rob le ms o f f arm u n i t s tructure a nd p opul a t ion .

There i s ,f or i ns tance , ar e markable c hange i nt he c harac ter a nd

g roup ing o f h ouse f ounda t ions a t t he t rans i t ion f ro m t he R o man I ron Age t o t he M igra t ion p er iod , c o inciding w i th t he r e loca t ion o f t he s e t t le men t . P i t h ouses were i n troduced a t t ha t t ime ( S t jernqu is t 1 970 , 1 44-152 ). The ma ter ia l c om ing f ro m t he c u l t p lace c an a lso b e u sed i n c onnec t ion w i th t he p rob le m o f s oc ia l i n tegra t ion , s ince i tc an b e a ssumed t ha t r e l ig ious a c t iv it ies a re r ela ted t o t he s ocia l s ys te m o f t he c o mmun i ty . 1 83

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1 84

S oc ia l e nv iron men t a nd c o mmun ica t ion T h is c a tegory i ncorpora tes p roble ms c oncern ing t rade c on tac ts a nd o ther i nf luences s ign i f ican t f or d i f feren t ia t ion .

The f or ms o f d i f fus ion o f p roduc ts

a nd i deas t ouch q ues t ions r aised a bou t work s pec ia l isa t ion a nd o rgan isa t ion ( S t jernqu is t 1 967) .

C o m mun ica t ion a nd i t s p recond i t ions a re f ur ther v ar ia-

b les i n t h is p ar t o f t he a na lys is ( C larke 1 977) . H ere my h ypo thes is c on tends t ha t t he T o m marp r iver v a l ley was s ign i f ican t f or c o mmun ica t ion .

Wi th in t he v a l ley t he s et t lers o f G e .rd ldsa e ncoun tered

o ther s e t t le men ts w i th t he ir own r esource s ys te ms . t hese r esource a reas f or med a n e twork .

I tc an b e p resumed t ha t

Th is c ircu ms tance i s t aken i n to

c ons idera t ion i n s tudy ing t he mean d is tance b e tween c Ard lösa a nd o ther I ron Age s i tes .

R econno i ter ing f or l oca t ing o ther I ron Age s e t t le men ts i n t he

v icin i ty , a nd t es t i nves t iga t ions f or d a t ing s uch p laces were u nder taken .

The

c e me ter ies a re , o f c ourse , i mpor tan t i n c on junc t ion w i th t h is . The S i mr is i nves t iga t ion , men t ioned p rev ious ly , i s a n impor tan t p ar t o f t he a na lys is . Imigh t men t ion t ha t ac lay v esse l f ound a t S i mr is i s p rac t ica l ly i den t ica l w i th a no ther f ound i n ag rave a t C Ard lösa . The a na lys is o f t he w ider s ocia l e nv ironmen t c an b e b u i l t u p i n s evera l ways .

I n o rder t o g e t af ir m g rasp o f t he p rob le m , t wo ma in e x terna l i n f lu-

e nces in a me ly s hor t-d is tance a nd l ong-d istance c on tac ts r espec t ive ly a re e s tabl ished ( Fig . 7 ) .

Areas t o b e r eached b y s hor t j ourneys c ou ld b e c ons id-

e red a s p o in ts f or s hor t-d is tance c on tacts .

The l ong-d is tance c on tac ts may

h ave b een d irec t v ia l onger t rave ls o f t he me mbers o f t he c o m mun i ty t he ms e lves , b u t migh t j us t a s we l l h ave b een ma in ly i nd irec t .

A s pec ia l ly d es igned

a na lys is o f t h is p ar t icu lar p rob le m i s a lso i np repara t ion ( S t jernqu is t 1 967) . When a na lys ing t he v ar ious c a tegor ies o f my mode l , t he ma ter ia l o f t he s i te w i l l b e s tud ied , a s f ar a s p oss ib le , d iv ided i n to c on te mporaneous g roups c orresponding t o t he p er iods i nd ica ted b y t he r e loca t ions o f t he s e t t le men t . S uch s tructur ing b eco mes n ecessary f or a s tudy o f c hange . F ina l ly , i t s hou ld b e emphas ised t ha t t he s tudy o f c hange o ccurr ing i n a l l c a tegor ies p resupposes a t horough s tudy o f t echno log ica l i nnova t ions a nd a l terat ions .

Tha t s tudy h as a d i mens ion o f i t s own .

1 85

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A lcock , L ., 1 965 :

H il l-forts i n Wa les a nd t he Marches , An t iqu ity , 3 9 , 1 84-

1 95. Aust , H ., 1 972 :

D ie V or- u nd F rühgesch ich te d es K re ises Weser münde .

( Forthco m ing.) Avery , M., e t a l., 1 967 :

Ra insborough Excavat ions , 1 961-5 , P .P .S. 3 3,

2 07-37 0 67 Baker , A . R . H . a nd Bu t l in , R . A ., 1 973 :

S tud ies o f F ield S yst e ms o f t he

Br it ish I sles. Barre t t , J . C ., 1 978 .

' The L a ter P reh is tor ic P o t tery ' , i n H edges , J . D .,

' Excava t ions a t aN eo l i th ic C ausewayed E nclosure , Orse tt , E ssex , 1 975 ' , P roc . P reh is t . S oc ., 4 4 , f or thco m ing . Bartho lo mew , G . A . a nd B irdsel l , J . B ., 1 953:

Eco logy o f t he P ro toho m in ids ,

A mer ican An thropo log ist , 5 5 , 4 81-498. Barton , K . J ., 1 962 : S et t le men ts o f t he I ron Age a nd P agan S axon P er iods a t L in ford , Essex , T rans. Essex Archaeo l . S oc., S er. 3 . I , 5 7-104. Behre , K .-E

1 970 :

D ie En tw ick lungsgesch ich te d er n at t irl ichen Vegetat ion

im G ebe it d er u n teren Ems u nd i hre Abhäng igke i t v on d en Bewegungen d es Meeressp iege ls , P roble me d er Küstenforschung , 9 , 1 3-47. Behre , K .-E

1 976 :

P o l lenana ly t ische Un tersuchungen z ur Vege tat ions —und

S ied lungsgesch ich te b e i F lögeln u nd im Ah lenmoor ( Elb- Weser- W inke l ) , P rob le me d er K l isten forschung , 1 1, 1 01-118. Behre , K .-E., 1 977 : Acker, G r i fn l2nd u nd n at i irl iche Vegetat ion während d er r öm ischen K a iserze it im Gebe it d er Marschens ied lung Ben tumers iel/ Untere ms, P roble me d er K i isten forschung , 1 2, 6 7-84. Benson , D . a nd M iles, D ., 1 974 :

The U pper Tha mes Val ley , a n a rchaeo log ica l

s urvey o f t he r iver g ravels, O .U .A .S urvey 2 . Berglund , B . E ., 1 977 :

B io /og ica l/Pa leo log ica l Ana lyses f or Modern Archae-

o log ica l Research , P roceed ings o f t he N ord ic Con ference o n Ther mol um inescen t Dat ing a nd o ther Archaeo metr ic Methods. B irdsel l , J . B ., 1 957 :

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Co ld S pr ing Harbour S y mpos ia o n Quan t itat ive B io logy , 2 2, 4 7-69. B irse , E . L ., 1 971: Assess men t o f C l i mat ic Cond it ions i n S co t land :

3 The

B ioc l i ma t ic S ub-Reg ions. B lok , D : i c e ., 1 973 .

D e e igen i nbreng v an d e p laa tsnaa m-kunde i n d e n eder-

z e t t ingsgesch ieden is , N aa mkunde , 5 , 2 23-241. Bonney , D . J ., 1 972 :

Early Boundar ies i n Wessex , Archaeo logy a nd t he

L andscape , ( Ed.) Fow ler , P . J ., 1 68-86. Boserup , E

1 965 :

The Cond it ions o f Agr icu l tura l Grow th :

o f a grar ian c hange u nder p opu lat ion p ressure. 1 Q7

t he e cono m ics

Bowen , C . a nd Cun l if fe , B ., 1 973 :

The Evo lut ion o f t he L andscape, Ant iq. J .

L II IL : I. Brad ley , R ., 1 971:

Econo m ic Change i nt he Grow th o f Early H i l l-forts ,

J esson , M., e t a l . ( Eds.), The I ron Age a nd i t s H il l-forts, 7 1-83. Brand t , K ., 1 972 :

Untersuchungen z ur k a iserze it l ichen Bes ied lung b e i

J e mgu mk loster u nd Ben tumers iel ( ge m. Ho ltgaste , K re is L eer ) i m J ahre 1 970 , N eue Ausgrabungen u nd Forschungen i n N iedersachsen 7 , 1 45-63. Brand t , K ., 1 977 : D ie E rgebern isse d er G rabung i n d er Marschs ied lung Bentumers ie l/Un tere ms i n d en J ahren , 1 971-1973 , P rob le me d er Küsten forschung 1 2 , 1 -32. Brongers , J . A ., 1 973 :

1 833 :

Reuvens i n Dren the , Bussum/A mersfoort ,

N ederlands, Oudheden , 4 . Brongers , J . A . a nd Wo lter ing , P . J ., 1 973 : P reh istory i n t he N ether lands . a n e cono m ic t echno log ica l a pproach , B. R .0 .B ,2 3, 7 -47. Brongers , J . A ., 1 975 :

A ir Pho tography a nd Ce lt ic F ield Research i n t he

N e therlands , N eder landse Oudheden 6 . Brown , A . E ., 1 977 : S o me Ang lo-Saxon Estates a nd t he ir Boundar ies i n S ou th- West N ortha mptonsh ire , N orthan ts. Archaeo l. 1 2, 1 55-76. Brothwel l , D ., 1 972.

P a laode mography a nd Earl ier Br it ish P opu lat ions,

World Arch. 4 , 7 5-87. Burchel l , J . P . T . a nd Frere , S . S ., 1 974 :

The O ccupat ion o f S andown Park ,

Esher , d ur ing t he S tone Age , t he Ear ly I ron Age , a nd t he Ang lo-Saxon P er iod , An t iq. J . XXVI I , 2 4-46. Caesar , J .,:

De Be l lo Gal l ico ( t ranslat ion b y S . A . Hand ford , 1 951, P engu in

C lass ics ). Chal l is , A . J . a nd Hard ing , D . W., 1 975 :

L ater P reh istory f ro m t he T ren t

t o t he Tyne , B .A. R ., 2 0 ( i ) a nd ( i i ). Cha mbers , J . D ., 1 966 :

N ot t ingha msh ire i n t he E igh teen th Cen tury.

Chang , K . C . ( Ed .), 1 968 : C lark , D . L ., ( Ed.) , 1 972 :

S et t le men t Archaeo logy . A P rov is iona l Model o f a n I ron Age S oc iety a nd

i t s S et t le ment S yste m , Mode ls i n Archaeo logy . C lark , D . L ., ( Ed .) , 1 977 :

S pat ia l Archaeo lo n r.

C lark , D . L . a nd Fel l , C . I . , 1 953:

An Early I ron Age S i te a t Mick le moor

H i l l , West Harl ing , N orfo lk , a nd i t s Pot tery , P . P . S ., X IX , 1 -40. C lose-Brookes , J . a nd G ibson , S ., 1 966 : ) 00 ( I I , 3 49-52.

A Round Hut n ear Ro me , P .P .S.,

Co les , J . M ., 1 975 :

S o merset L evels P apers 1 , S o merset L evels P ro ject .

Co les , J . M., 1 976 :

S o merset L evels P apers 2 , S o merset L evels P ro ject .

Cook , S . F

1 972 :

P reh istor ic D e mography , McCa leb Modu le i n An thropo logy :

modu le 1 6. 1 88

Couch man , C . R ., 1 975 :

The Bronze Age Ce metery a t Ard le igh , Essex :

a

f urther c ons iderat ion , Essex Archaeo l . H ist ., VI I , 1 4-32. Cra ts ter, M. D ., 1 961:

The A ldw ick I ron Age S et t le men t , Barley , Hert ford-

s h ire, Proc. Ca mb. An t iq. S oc. LW, 2 2-46. Cun l if fe, B . W., 1 968 :

Ear ly p re-Ro man I ron Age Co m mun it ies i n Eastern

Eng land , Ant iq. J ., XLVI I I , 1 75-91. Cun l if fe , B . W., 1 971:

Danebury , Ha mpsh ire :

F irst I n ter i m Report o n t he

Excava t ions , 1 969-70 , An t iq. J ., L I , 2 40-52. Cun l iffe , B . W., 1 973 : Cha lton , Han ts :

The Evo lut ion o f aL andscape , An t iq.

J ., L I I I : I I. Cun l if fe , B . W., 1 974 :

I ron Age Co m mun it ies i n Br ita in .

Cun l iffe , B . W., 1 976a :

Danebury , Ha mpsh ire :

S econd I n ter i m Report o n

t he Excavat ions , 1 971-5 , An t iq. J ., LVI , 1 98-216. Cun l iffe, B . W., 1 976b :

The O r ig ins o f U rban iza t ion i n Br ita in , Opp ida :

t he

Beg inn ings o f U rban izat ion i n Barbar ian Europe, ( Eds.) Cun l if fe, B . W. a nd Row ley , R . T ., B .A.R. S 11, 1 35-161. Cun l if fe , B . W., 1 976c : H il l Forts a nd Opp ida . i n Br ita in , P rob le ms i n Econo m ic a nd S oc ia l Archaeo logy , Eds. S ievek ing , G . d e G ., L ongworth , I . H . a nd Wilson , K . E ., 3 43-358. Cun l iffe, B . W., 1 978a :

I ron Age Co m mun it ies i n Br ita in , S econd Ed it ion .

Cun l iffe , B . W., 1 978b :

Heng istbury Head.

Cunn ing ton , M. E ., 1 923: Da l las , C ., 1 975 :

A l l Cann ings Cross.

A Belg ic Far mstead a t O rton L onguev il le , Durobr ivae , 3 ,

2 6-7. Darby , H . C ., 1 977 :

Domesday Eng land.

Dav ison , B . K ., P etchey , M. a nd Rodwel l , W. J ., The Earthworks a t Witha m , Essex , ( f orthco m ing ). D ixon , P . W., 1 976 :

Cr ick ley H i l l , 1 969-72, Hard ing , D . W., ( Ed.), H il l

Forts , 1 61-75. Drury , P . J . a nd Rodwel l , W. J ., 1 973 : Excava t ions a t G un H il l , West T i lb ury , E ssex Archaeo l . H ist ., V , 4 8-112. Drury , P . J ., Excavat ions a t Rawreth , 1 968 , Essex Archaeo l. H ist., I X ( 1977 ) ( f orthco m ing ). Drury , P . J ., a : Chel msford Excavat ions I :

Excavat ions a t L itt le Wa l tha m

1 970-71, C . B.A. Research Report S er ies , ( f orthco m ing ). D rury , P . J ., b :

Chel msford Excavat ions I I :

The Mans io a nd o ther s ites

i n t he S ou th Eastern S ector o f Caesaro magus , C .B.A. Research Report S er ies. Dun .net t , B . R . K ., 1 975 :

The T r inovan tes.

1 89

Dunn ing , G . C ., 1 935 :

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XV, 3 55-8. Er ith , F . H . a nd L ongworth , I . H ., 1 960 :

A Bronze Age U rn f ield o nV inces

Far m , Ard le igh , Essex , P .P .S., XXVI , 1 78-92. Er ith , F . H . a nd Ho lbert , P . R ., 1 970 : The I ron Age Far mstead a t V inces Far m , Ar d le igh , Co lchester Archaeo l . G roup Ann . Bu l l ., X I I I , 1 -24. Es , v an , W.A., 1 967 :

Wi jster, A N at ive V il lage b eyond t he Imper ia l Fron t ier,

P a leoh is tor ia , 1 1. Evans , J . G ., 1 975 :

The Env ironmen t o f Ear ly Man i n t he Br it ish I sles, 1 34-8.

Everson , P ., 1 976 : I ron Age Enclosures, Hardw ick Park , Wel l ingborough , N orthan ts Archaeo l . ,1 1, 8 9-99. F inberg , H . P . R ., 1 964:

L ucerna , 1 44-60.

Frere , S . S ., 1 974a :

Br itann ia , 2 nd e d it ion .

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Frere , S . S . a nd S t . J oseph , J . K ., Veru la m iu m Excavat ions I , ( f orthco m ing ). Gebhard t , H ., 1 976 : Bodenk ind l ich Un tersuchungen d er e isenze it l ichen Ac kerf luren v on F i t igeln-Hase lhorn , K r. Weser münde , P roble me d er Küsten forschung , 1 1, 9 1-100. Gel l ing , M., 1 967 : Eng l ish p lace n a mes d er ived f ro m t he c o mpound w i-c ha-m Med. Arch., X I , 8 7-104. Gel l ing , M., 1 974 :

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Ang lo-Saxon S et t le men t a nd L andscape , B. A. R . 6 , 9 3-101. Gel l ing , P . S ., 1 977 : 4 3, 2 63-86. Goubert , P ., 1 963 :

Excavat ions a t P ilsdon P en Dorset , 1 964-71, P .P .S .,

L a morta l itd e n France s ans l ' anc ien Reg i me.

e t h ypotheses.

Proble mes

P roble mes d e mor ta l ith Ac tes d u Co l l. I n ternat iona l

d e Ddmograph ie H istor ique ( L iege ) 1 963, 7 9-92. Gr i mes, W. F ., 1 955 :

Excava t ions o f a n I ron Age S ite a t D raugh ton , Frere ,

S . S . ( Ed.) , P rob le ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Br ita in , 2 1-23. Gr i mes , W. F

1 961:

Draugh ton , H ea throw a nd Co lsterworth , Frere , S . S .

( Ed.) , P rob le ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Br ita in , 2 1-3. Gr i mes, W. F 1 961: S o me Smal ler S et t le men ts : A S ympos ium , Frere, S . S . ( Ed.) , P rob le ms o f t he I ron Age i n S ou thern Br ita in . Gu ilbert , G . C ., 1 975 : Haarnagel , W., 1 969 :

P lanned H i l l-fort I n ter iors, P .P .S., 4 1, 2 03-21. D ie Ergebn isse d er Grabung a u f d er a ltere isenze it l ichen

S ied lung Boo mborg/Ha tzum , K r. L eer, i n d en J ahren v on 1 965 b is 1 967 , N eue Ausgrabungen u nd Forschungen i n N e idersachsen , 4 , 5 7-97. Haarnagel , W., 1 973 :

Vor- u nd Frühgesch ich te d es L andes Wursten , v . L ehe ,

E . ( Ed.) , G esch ich te d es L andes Wursten , 1 7-128.

1 90

Ha f fner , A ., 1 971:

Das K elt isch-R t im ische Gräberfeld v on Wederath-Belg inum ,

I. Haf fner , A ., 1 974 :

Z um Ende d er L ateneze it im M it telrhe ingeb iet u n ter b eson-

d erer Berücks ich t igung d es T r ierer L andes, Archaeo log isches K orresp ondenzbla tt , I V, 5 9-72. Hagen , A ., 1 953 :

S tud ier iJ erna lderens a rdssa m funn , Un ivers itetets O lds-

a ksa m l ings S kr if ter Ha m mond , N ., 1 975 :

r v .

F isherw ick , I ron Age Econo my , The T i mes, 4 .11.75.

Hard ing , D . W., 1 972 :

The I ron Age i n t he U pper Tha mes Bas in.

Hard ing , D . W., 1 973 : Round a nd Rectangu lar : I ron Age Houses , Br it ish a nd Fore ign , Hawkes , C . F . C . a nd S . C . ( Eds.) , Greeks, Ce lts a nd Ro mans , 4 3-62. Hard ing , D . W., 1 974 :

The I ron Age i n L ow land Br ita in .

Hawkes , C . F . C . a nd Hu l l , M . R ., 1 947 :

Ca mu lodunum.

Hedges, J . D ., I ron Age p o t tery f ro m G t . Ben t leys Wood , S tock , Essex Archaeo l . H ist. ( f orthco m ing ). H e lbaek , H ., 1 953 :

Early Crops i n S ou thern , P . P.S ., 1 7 , 1 94-233.

H iggs , E . S . a nd V ita-Finzi , C . ( Eds.) , 1 972: H il l , J . N ., 1 970 :

Papers i n Econo m ic Preh istory.

P reh istor ic S oc ia l O rgan izat ion i n t he A mer ican S outh-west :

Theory a nd Method , L orgacre, W.A. ( Ed.) , Reconstruct ing Preh istor ic Pueb lo S oc iet ies. H il l , J . N ., 1 972 :

The Methodo log ica l Debate i n Con te mporary Archaeo logy :

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1 971:

L angdon H il ls :

The P ark , Thurrock Loca l H ist . S oc.

J ., X IV, 5 7-8. Hogg , A . H . A ., 1 962 :

Garon Boduan a nd T re 'r Ce ir i , Excava t ions a t t wo

Caernarvonsh ire h il l-forts , Arch. J ., CXV1 I , 1 -39. Ho l land , S . M., 1 975 :

Po l len Ana ly t ica l I nvest iga t ions a t Crosby Warren ,

L inco lnsh ire, i n t he v ic in ity o f t he I ron Age a nd Ro mano-Br it ish s et t le men t o f Dragonby , J . Arch. S c ience, 2 , 3 53-63. Hosk ins , W. G ., 1 955 : Hucker , B . U ., 1 973:

The Mak ing o f t he Eng l ish L andscape. D ie S ied lungska m mer F l t igeln u nd d as Gebe it v on

M id lum i n h istor ischer Z e it , 3 1-40.

J ahrbuch Manner v o m Morgenstern , 5 3 ,

Hvass, S t ., 1 975 : Das e isenze it l iche Dorf b e i Hodde, West ju t land , Acta Archaeo log ica , 4 6. Hvass , S t ., 1 977 :

Udgravn ingerne iVorbasse , Fra R ibe Amt .

1 91

J ackson , D . A ., 1 975 :

An I ron Age S ite a t Twywel l , Northan ts. Archaeo l. ,

X , 9 1-93. J ackson , D . A ., 1 977 :

Further Excavat ions a tA ldw incle, Northa mptonsh ire ,

Northan ts. Archaeo l. X I I , 9 -54. J ones, G . R . J ., 1 976 :

Mu l t ip le Estates a nd Early S ett le men t , S awyer , P . H .

( Ed.), Med iev al S ett le men t , 1 5-40. J ones, M. U ., Ev ison , V . I . a nd Myres, J . N . L ., 1 968 :

Crop- mark S ites

a t Muck ing , Essex , An t iq. J ., XLVI I I , 2 10-30. J ones, M. U ., 1 974:

Excavat ions a t Muck ing, Essex , A S econd I nter im

Report , An t iq. J ., I 1V, 1 83-99. J ones, M. U . a nd J ones, W. T ., 1 975 :

The Crop Mark S ite a t Muck ing , Essex ,

Eng land , Bruce- Mit ford , R . L . S . ( Ed.) , Recen t Archaeo log ica l Excavat ions i n Europe, 1 33-87. Korber-Grohne, U ., 1 967 :

Geobo tan ische Un tersuchungen a u f d er Feddersen

Wierde, Feddersen Wierde 1 . L a mbr ick , G . a nd Rob inson , M., I ron Age a nd Ro man R ivers ide S et t le men ts a t Far moor, Ox fordsh ire, 0 .A . U. Report 2 . L ange , E ., 1 975 :

C .B.A. ( f orthco m ing ).

The Develop ment o f Agr icu l ture d ur ing t he F irst Mil lenn iu m

A. D .,Geo log iska Foren ingens iS tockho l m Förhan c l l ingar , 9 7. L ew is, A . R ., 1 958:

The C los ing o f t he Med ieval Fron t ier A . D. 1 250-1350 ,

S pecu lum 3 3. L indqu ist , S .-0 ., 1 974:

The Develop men t o f t he Agrarian L andscape o n

Got land d ur ing t he Early I ron Age, Nor weg ian Archaeo log ical Rev iew , 7 : 1. L ongacre, W. A . ( Ed.), 1 970 :

A H istor ical Rev iew , Reconstruct ing Preh is-

t or ic Pueblo S oc iet ies. Marsha l l , K ., 1 963:

The Excavat ion o f aD itched Enclosure S ite a t Corbets

Tey , Hornchurch , Essex , Essex Natur. 3 1, 1 18-31. Mart in , A . F . a nd S teel , R . W., 1 954 : Maynard Sm ith , J ., 1 974 :

The Ox ford Reg ion.

Models i n Eco logy .

Me ir ion-Jones, G . I ., 1 976 :

S o me Early a nd P r im it ive Bu ild ing For ms i n

Br it tany , Fo lk L ife , XIV, 4 6-64. Miles, D ., Archaeo logy a t Barton Court Far m , Ab ingdon , Ox fordsh ire, 0 .A .U . Report 3 , C .B.A. ( f orthco m ing ). Miles, H ., 1 969 :

Excavat ions a t F isherw ick , S taf fordsh ire, 1 968 , Trans. o f

S ou th S taf fs, Arch. a nd H ist . S oc., X , 2 -23. Musson , C . I t ., 1 970 :

I ron Age Houses a t Wh itton a nd L landega i , Curren t

Arch., ) 0 ( I , 2 76-7. N aard ing , J ., 1 963 :

De t oponym ie v an h et Dren tse e sdorp , K eun ing , H . J .,

a nd N aard ing , J . ( Eds.), He t Esdorp , 2 3-43.

1 92

O 'Ne il , H . E ., 1 945 :

The Ro man V il la a t Park S treet , N ear S t . A lbans ,

H er t fordsh ire :

Report o n t he Excavat ions o f 1 943-45 , Archaeo l. J .,

C I I , 2 1-110. Pa l mer, J ., 1 976 :

I n terrupted D itch Enclosures i n Br ita in :

t he u se o f

Aer ial Pho tography f or Co mparat ive S tud ies , P. P .S ,4 2 , 1 61-86. Parr ing ton , M., 1 978 :

The Excavat ions a t Ashv i l le Trad ing Es tate , Ab ingdon ,

Ox fordsh ire ? 0 .A .U . Report 1 , C .B.A . P eacock , D ., 1 969 :

A c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s tudy o f G lastonbury ware f ro m

S ou th- Western Br ita in , An t iq. J ., XL IX , 4 1-61. P earle , R ., 1 925 :

The B io logy o f Popu la tion G row th .

P ech , A . F ., 1 971:

D ie G e me inhe itste ilungen im L andk re is Weser m t inde

1 760-1920 , J ahrbuch d er Manner v o m Morgenstern , 5 2, 1 93-217. P ech , A . F ., 1 973 : Der A l tacker v on F lögeln , P roble me d er K i lsten forschung , 1 0 , 1 13-125. Penn ing ton , W., 1 969 :

The H istory o f Br it ish Vegetat ion .

P eterken , G ., 1 976 :

L ong Ter m Changes i n Rock ingha m Forest , J . Eco l.,

6 4, 1 23-46. Ph ilp , B . J ., 1 968 :

Excava t ions a t Faversha m ? 1 965.

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