Liminal Images: Aspects of Medieval Architectural Sculpture in the South of England from the Eleventh to the Sixteenth Centuries 9781841717043, 9781407320335

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Ilustrations
List of Graphs and Tables
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Section I: Contexts
Chapter 1: Medieval Architectural Sculpture in Archaeology and Art History
Chapter 2: Liminal Visions: The Grotesque and the Dark Side of the Sacred
Chapter 3: The Social Life of Medieval Architectural Sculpture
Section II: Heads
Chapter 4: The Severed Head and the Evil Eye
Chapter 5: Foliage Disgorgers and Foliate Creatures
Chapter 6: Devouring and Distorted Mouths
Section III: Figures
Chapter 7: The Fallen World and the Divine Wild: Animal Humans and Human Animals
Chapter 8: Sirens
Chapter 9: Entertainers and Exhibitionists
Conclusion
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
References
Abstract

Citation preview

Liminal Images Aspects of Medieval Architectural Sculpture in the South of England from the Eleventh to the Sixteenth Centuries

Alex Woodcock

BAR British Series 3 86 2005

BAR

PUBLISHING

C on ten t s

L i s to fI lu s t r a t i on s L i s to fG r aph sa nd T ab l e s Ackn ow l ed g em en t s

v i x i i i x v

I n t roduc t ion

x vü

S ec t ion I : Con tex t s 1Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tory

1

2L im ina lV i s ion s :T he G ro te sque a nd t he Da rk S ide o ft he S ac red

1 5

3The S oc ia lL if eo f Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra lS cu lptu re

2 5

S ec t ion I : Heads 4T he S eve red Head a nd t he E v i lE ye

3 5

5F ol i age D i sgorge r s a nd F o l ia te C rea tu re s

4 7

6Devou r ing a nd D i s to r ted Mou th s

6 5

S ec t ion I I : F igu res 7The F alen Wo r ld a nd t he D iv ine Wi ld : An ima l Human s a nd Human An ima l s

7 7

8S i ren s

8 9

9En te r ta ine r s a nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s

1 09

C onc lu s ion

1 21

Append ix 1 :C a ta logue o f Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra lS cu lptu re f r om S e lec ted S i te si n Do r se t , Hamp sh i re , S ome r se ta nd Wi l t sh i re

1 23

Append ix 2 :T ab le s

1 63

R ef e rence s

1 69

Ab s t rac t

1 91

V

L i s to fI lu s t ra t ion s

3 .1

Wal p a in t ing o nt h en or th s i de o ft h en o r th n av ea i s le ,P ough i l l ( A . Woodcock )

3 3

4 .1

E xamp le so fc o rbe l s c a rv ed w i th ad oub le -head mo t if ,R om sey Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

3 6

4 .2

B ea s th ead s ,c o rbe l t ab le a tt h ee a s te nd o ft h ec ho i r , R om sey Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

3 6

4 .3

B ea s th ead s ,c o rbe l t ab l eo nt h ee a s tf a ce o ft h e s ou th t r an sep t ( now e nc lo sed ) , S tJ ohn ' s ,D ev ize s ( A . Woodcock )

3 6

4 . 4

C o rbe l tab l e ,w e s tf a ce o ft h e s ou th t r an sep t ,W inche s t e rC a thed ra l ( A . Woodcock )

3 7

4 .5

C o rbe l tab l e ,n o r th s i de o ft h e n av e , Wo r th Ma t rav e r s ( T . C h idg ey )

3 7

4 .6

De tached c a rv ing o f al i on , s ou th p o rch ,C ombe S tN i cho la s ( A . Woodcock )

4 1

4 .7

G a rgoy le o nt h et ow e ra tS tok e sub -Hamdon ( A . Woodcock )

4 1

4 .8

De ta i lo ft h es ou th d oo ra tS hebbea r( A . Woodcock )

4 1

4 .9

C ap i ta l sb enea th t h ec ro s s ing t owe ra tA l ton ( A . Woodcock )

4 1

4 .1 0

S hee l a -na -g ig u pon ak ey s tone a tB a l inde r r yC a s t l e ( A . Woodcock )

4 5

5 .1

T ree o fL if ew i th a t tendan tb ea s t s f r om ac ap i t a li nt h en or thea s tc o rne ro ft h ec r o s s ing t ow e r a tA l ton ( A . Woodcock )

4 7

5 .2

T ree o fL if ew i th a t tendan tb ea s t s . C ap i ta l ,c r o s s ing t owe r , S togu r sey ( A . Woodcock )

4 8

5 .3

T he t ympanum a bov et h en or th d oo rt ot h en av e a tL ul ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

4 8

5 .4 a

Wyv e rn b i t ing i t st a i l . C arv ed s t one ,w e s ts i de o ft h e s ou th d oo r , D i t te r idge ( A . Woodcock )

4 9

5 .4 b

L ion b i t ing af o repaw . C a rv ed s t one , e a s ts i de o ft h e s ou th d oo r ,D i t t e r idge ( A . Woodcock )

4 9

5 .5

Addo r sed l i on s . C ap i ta l ,e a s te nd o ft h ea mbu la to ry , R om sey Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

4 9

5 .6

G r iff in . B ench e nd i nt h en av ea tB radf o rd A bba s ( A . Woodcock )

5 0

5 .7

C ap i t a lf r om t h ew e s td oo ra t Ne the r avon ( A . Woodcock )

5 0

5 .8

C ap i ta lf r om t h ee a s ts i de o ft h e s ou th d oo ra tB roadw ey ( A . Woodcock )

5 0

5 .9

H ead d i sgo rg ing f o l i ag ea nd aw ing ed s e rpen t . C ap i ta l , s ou thw e s tc o rne ro ft he c r o s s ing t ow e r ,A l ton ( A . Woodcock )

5 1

5 .1 0

C onf ron ted a nd i n te r tw ined w yv e rn s f r om ac ap i t a la tt h ee a s te nd o ft h e c ho i r , R om sey Abbey ( A . Woodcock )

5 1

5 .1

Amph i sbaena . C ap i ta l ,w e s ts i de o ft h e s ou th d oo r ,B roadw ey ( A . Woodcock )

5 3

5 .1 2

F e l ine h ead d i sgo rg ing s c rol f ol i age . C ap i ta l ,e a s t s i de o ft h ee a s te rnmo s t s ou th d oo rt ot h e n av e , R om sey A bbey ( F . C h idg ey )

5 3

H ead d i sgo rg ing f o l i age . C ap i ta l , n o r thwe s tc o rne ro fc r o s s ing t ow e r , S togu r sey ( A . Woodcock )

5 3

5 .1 3

v i i

5 .1 4

H ead d i sgo rg ing f o l iage . C ap i ta l ,n or th s i de o fs ou th t r an sep ta la p se ,R om sey A bbey ( A . Woodcock )

5 3

5 .1 5

F o l i a t ed ragon s . M i se r i co rd ,c ho i r ,C h r i s tchu rch P r io ry ( T . C h idg ey )

5 7

5 .1 6

F o l ia te d ragon . R oof b o s si nt h ec ro s s ing t owe r ,B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( T . C h idg ey )

5 7

5 .1 7

D r agon s am id f o l i age . R oof b o s si nt he c hance l ,M i l ton Abba s ( T . C h idgey )

5 7

5 .1 8

F o l i a t ed ragon . R oof b o s s ,e a s tc l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( T . C h idg ey )

5 7

5 .1 9

I n te r tw ined d r agon s . R oof b o s s , s ou th c l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey

5 .2 0

B i rd s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e . R oof b o s si nt h ec r o s s ing t owe r ,B i shop ' sC ann ing s

5 .2 1

B i rd s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e . R oof b o s s ,e a s tc l o i s t e rw a lk ,L acock A bbey ( T . C h idg ey )

5 9

5 .2 2

T ympanum a bov et h en o r th d oor t ot h en ave a tS toke sub -Hamdon ( A . Woodcock )

5 9

5 .2 3

T ympanum a bov et he s ou th d oo rt ot h en av ea tL i t t l eL ang fo rd ( T . C h idg ey )

5 9

5 .2 4

Mon s t rou sh ead d i sgo rg ing f o l iage . G a rgoy l e , s ou thwe s tc orne ro ft he s ou th a i s l e ,S t in sf o rd ( A . Woodcock )

5 9

5 .2 5

Hyb r id mon s t e rd i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e . G a rgoy le , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft he s ou th a i s le t ot h en av e , S t Ma ry ' s ,D ev ize s ( A . Woodcock )

5 9

5 .2 6

Dog d i sgo rg ing f o l iage . R oof b o s s ,n or th n av ea i s l e ,S t eep le L ang fo rd ( T . C h idgey )

6 0

5 .2 7

C ompo s i te me rm a id . R oof b o s s , s ou th c l o i s t e rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( A . Woodcock )

6 0

5 .2 8

H ead d i sgo rg ing f o l iag e . C ap i t a l ,e a s te nd o ft h en o r th a r cade ,S togumbe r ( A . Woodcock )

6 1

5 .2 9

H ead d i sgo rg ing f o l iag e . C o rbe l , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft h en av e , Ho lybou rne ( A . Woodcock )

6 1

5 .3 0

H ead em i t t ing f o l i age f r om t h e n o s t r i l s . C o rbe l , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft h en av e , Mappowde r ( A . Woodcock )

6 1

6 .l a

H ead w i th b one h e ld i nt h e mou th . R oof b o s s , s ou th t r an sep t , Ame sbu ry ( A . Woodcock )

6

6 .l b

Mon s te rd evou r ing ah uman . Wa l l -p la te c a rv ing , s ou th t r an sep t , Ame sbu ry ( A . Woodcock )

6

6 .2 a

B ea s th ead w i th r oden ti nt h e mou th . C o rbe l ,n or th s i de o ft h en or th n av ea i s l e ,R om sey Abbey ( T .Ch idgey )

6 6

6 .2 b

B ea s th ead w i th b i rd h ead si nt he mou th . C o rbe l ,n or th s i de o ft h en ave ,L u l l ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

6 6

6 .3 a

B ea s th ead w i th h uman f i gu r ei nt he mou th . C o rbe l , s ou th t r an sep t a la p se ,R om sey ( T . C h idg ey )

6 6

6 .3 b

B ea s th ead w i th h uman f i gu r ei nt he mou th . C o rbe l ,n or th s i de o ft h en or th c ho i ra i s l e ,R om sey C h idgey )

6 6

6 .4

D ragon d evou r ing ah uman . R oof b o s s ,c ro s s ing t ow e r ,B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( T . C h idg ey )

6 8

6 .5

Mon s t e rc ha ined t ot he c hu rch . G ro te squ e , s ou thw e s tc o rne ro ft h en av e , S tC y r i ac ' s ,L acock ( A . Woodcock )

6 8

6 .6

C o rbe l s , n o r th s i de o ft h en or th c ho i ra i s l e , R om sey A bbey ( T . C h idg ey )

7 0

6 .7

C o rbe l s ,e a s t f a ce o ft he w e s tt owe r ,M i l fo rd -on sea ( A . Woodcock )

7 0

6 .8

L ion h ead s . R oof b o s s i nt h en av ea tS he rbo r n e ( 1 " . C h idgey )

7 1

6 .9

( r .Chidgey) ( T .Chidgey)

Mou th -pule r . C o rbe l ,n or thwe s tc o rne ro ft h en av e , S tud l and ( A . Woodcock )

v i i i

5 7 5 9

7 2

6 .1 0a

H ead w i th e x tended t ongue . R oof b os s , s ou th n ave a i s le , Ame sbu ry ( A . Woodcock )

7 2

6 .1 0b

H ead w i th e x tended t ongue . R oof b o ss , n ave ,B eaul i eu ( A . Woodcock )

7 2

6 .1

Mou th -pule r . C o rbe l , s ou th s i de o ft he n ave , S tud land ( T . C h idgey )

7 2

6 .1 2

Horned mou th -pul ing f i gu re . G a rgoy le ,w e s te nd o ft h e n ave , O ld B a s ing ( A . Woodcock )

7 2

6 .1 3a

H ead b e tween f i gu re s . G a rgoy le , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft h e s ou th a i s le , S t in sford

7 4

6 .1 3b

H ead b e tween f i gu re s . G ro te sque , n or thwe s tc orner o ft h en or th n ave a i s le , C e rne Abba s ( A . Woodcock )

7 4

6 .1 3c

H ead b etween f i gu re s , d i sgo rg ing at h i rd f i gu re . G ro te sque , s ou thwe s tc orne ro ft h e s ou th a i s le , C e rne Abba s ( A . Woodcock )

7 4

6 .1 3d

H ead b e tween f i gu re s . G a rgoy le , s ou th s i de o ft h e s ou th c ho i r a i s le , S he rborne ( A . Woodcock )

7 4

6 .1 3e

H ead b e tween f i gu re s . Ga rgoy le , s ou thwe s tc o rne ro ft h e n ave , Mappowde r A . Woodcock )

7 4

6 .1 3f

H ead b e tween f i gu re s . G ro te sque , s ou thwe s tc orner o ft h e t owe r , L ongbu r ton ( A . Woodcock )

7 4

6 .1 3g

H ead b etween f i gu re s . Ga rgoy le , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft h e t owe r , S toke sub -Hamdon ( A . Woodcock )

7 5

6 .1 4

F igu re b rand i sh ing s e rpen t s . Mo t if f r om t he c ap i ta lo n t h ee a s t s i de o ft h e s ou th d oor a tL i t t le L angford

( A . Woodcock )

( A . Woodcock )

7 5

6 .1 5

B i corpora te mon s te r . C ho i r s t al s , C h r i s tchu rch P r iory ( T . C h idgey )

7 5

7 .l a

F igu re o nt he b ack o f al i on . C orbe l , s ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l , Engl i shcombe ( A . Woodcock )

8 1

7 .l b

F igu re o nt h eb ack o f al i on . R oof b o ss , s ou th c hance la i s le , M i l ton Abba s

7 .2

L ion . G a rgoy le , n or th s i de o ft he n ave , S he rborne ( T . C h idgey )

8 1

7 .3

L ion . G a rgoy le , s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e , Mappowder ( A . Woodcock )

8 2

7 .4

A pe s . B ench e nd i nt h e n ave a tB radford Abba s ( A . Woodcock )

8 3

7 .5

Wyve rn p l ay ing ah a rp . R oof b o s s , s ou th c l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

8 4

7 .6

F ol i a te ma sk . C ap i ta l , c hance la r ch , Win te rborne Wh i techu rch

7 .7

B ea s t -headed e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re . C orbe l , B e t te s thorne c hape l , Me re ( A . Woodcock )

8 6

7 .8

H yb r id f i gu re . G ro te sque , s ou th s i de o ft h e s ou th c hance la i s le , E d ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

8 6

7 .9

H ybr id F igu re . G a rgoy le , n or th s i de o ft h en or th n ave a i s le , S yd l ing S tN icho la s ( A . Woodcock )

8 6

7 .1 0

H ybr id f i gu re . C o rbe l , n or th s i de o ft h e c hance l , Engl i shcombe ( A . Woodcock )

8 6

8 .1

D e ta i lo ft h e t ympanum a bove t h e s ou th d oo ra tB a rf re s ton ( T . Oak ley )

9 0

8 .2

T he whee l -w indow a tt h e e a s te nd o ft h e c hance l , B a rf re s ton ( T . Oak ley )

9 0

8 .3

B i rd -serpen t -s i ren . C ap i ta l , n o r th s i de o ft h e c hance la r ch , L u l l ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

9 2

8 .4

C ap i ta lc arved w i th amerma id , r e se ti nt h e s ou thwe s tc o rne ro ft he n av e a t Na te ly S cu re s ( A . Woodcock )

9 2

8 .5

c r . Oakley)

Me rma id f r om am i ser icord a tE xe te r C a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

i x

Y .Chidgey)

8 1

8 4

9 2

8 .6

C onf ron ted m e r -f igu re sw i th f ol i a t et a i l s f r om am i se r ico rd a tE xe te rC a thed ra l ( A . Woodcock )

9 3

8 .7

B ench e nd i nt he n av ea tS u tcombe ( T . O ak ley )

9 4

8 .8 a

Me rm a id .M i se r ico rd s uppor t e r , Winche s t e rC a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 b

Me rma id s uck l ing al i on . M i se r ico rd , Wel s C a thed r a l( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 c

Un f in i shed c a rv ing o f am e rma id . M i se r i co rd , We l l s C a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 d

Me rma id w i th m i r ro r .M i se r i co rd ,H ighwor th ( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 e

Tw in ta i led m e rma id . C ho i r s t al s , C h r i s tchu rch P r io ry ( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 f

F ol i a te t a i led h a rpy w i th h uman h and s . M i se r ico rd ,E xe te rC a thed ra l ( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .8 g

C onf ron ted b i rd se rpen t s i ren sw i th f ol i a te t a i l s . M i se r ico rd ,E xe te rC a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 5

8 .9 a

Ha rpy o rb i rd s i ren ( ma l e ) .M i ser ico rd ,W inche s te rC a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 6

8 .9 b

H a rpy o rb i rd s i ren ( f em a l e ) .M i se r ico rd ,W inche s te rC a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 6

8 .9 c

H ead w i th a v ian a t t r ibu te s .M i se r ico rd ,W inche s te rC a thed r a l( A . Woodcock )

9 6

8 .1 0

S ph inx o rb i rd l ion s i ren .B ench e nd ,C he r i ton B i shop ( A . Woodcock )

9 7

8 . 1a

B i rd -f i sh s i ren .R oof b o s si nt he c hance l , Queen C ame l( A . Woodcock )

9 8

8 . 1b

Me rm a id g r a sp ing t a i l .R oof b o s si nt he c ho i r ,E xe te rC a thed ra l( A . Woodcock )

9 8

8 . 1c

Me rm iad w i th m i r ro ra nd c omb . R oof b o s s ,n o r th c l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

9

8 .1 2

S e rpen t ine h a rpy . R oof b o s s ,n or th c l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( A . Woodcock )

9

8 .1 3a

Me rma id w i th m i r ro ra nd c omb . R oof b o s si nt he n av e ,S he rbo r n e ( A . Woodcock )

1 00

8 .1 3b

Me rma id w i th m i r ro ra nd c omb . R oof b o s si nt he n av e ,S tood le igh ( A . Woodcock )

1 00

8 .1 3c

Me rma id b e tween t he f e e to fS tC h r i s tophe r . De ta i lo fw a l l -pa in t ing i nt he s ou th a i s le a tO ak sey ( A . Woodcock )

1 00

8 .1 4

R epa in ted me rma id . De ta i lo fw a l l -pa in t ing i nt h en or th a i s l e ,P ough i l l ( A . Woodcock )

1 0 1

8 .1 5

F ema l eh ead w ear ing ah o rned h eadd r e s s . R oof b o s s ,c ro s s ing t ow e r ,B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( T . C h idg ey )

1 05

8 .1 6

Demon g r a sp ing awom an ' sh eadd re s s . G ro te sque , s ou thea s tc o rne ro ft h e s ou th p or ch , S t Ma r y ' s , Dev i ze s ( A . Woodcock )

1 05

9 .1

T umb le r . R oof b o s s ,s ou th c l o i s te rw a lk ,L acock Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

1 09

9 .2

Ma le e xh ib i t ion i s tf i gu re . C o rbe l ,w e s ts i de o fn o r th t r an sep t ,S op l ey ( A . Woodcock )

1 09

9 .3 a

T umb le r . G ro te sque ,e a s tf a ce o ft h es ou th a i s le ,S t in sf o rd ( A . Woodcock )

11

9 .3 b

T umb le r . C o rbe l ,n or th s i de o ft h en av e ,S tud land ( A . Woodcock )

11

9 .4

C o rbe lo n t h e n or th s i de o ft h en o r th n ave a i s l ea tR om sey Abbey

T .Chidgey)

11

9 .5 a

Ma le e xh ib i t ion i s tf i gu re . C o rbe l , s ou th s i de o ft h en av e ,S tud land

( T .Chidgey)

11

9 .5 b

P a i r ed e xh ib i t ion i s tf i gu re s . C o rbe l ,n o r th s i de o ft h ec hance l ,S tJ ohn ' s , Dev i ze s ( A . Woodcock )

11

9 .6

Ma le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re . C arved s t one s e ti n to t h e e a s te nd o ft h e c hance l , Ab son ( A . Woodcock )

11

9 .7

N aked ma le f i gu re . G ro te sque ,w e s t f a ce o ft h en or th t r an sep t , E d ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

13

9 .8

S hee la -na -g ig . C orbe l , n or th s i de o ft h e c hance l , Wor th Ma t rave r s ( A . Woodcock )

13

9 .9

S hee la -na -g ig . C o rbe l , n or th s i de o ft h e n ave , S tud land

T .Chidgey)

15

9 .1 0

S hee la -na -g ig . C a s to fc o rbe l f r om E xe te rC a thed ra l ( A . Woodcock )

15

9 .1

S hee la -na -g ig . C o rbe l , n or th s i de o ft h e c hance l , S tok e -sub -Hamdon ( A . Woodcock )

15

9 .1 2

S hee la -na -g ig s e ta bov e a n e n t rance g a te t ot h e c hu rchya rd a tB in s tead

9 .1 3

S hee la -na -g ig . C arved s t one s e ti n to t h ew e s t f a ce o ft h e n o r th t r an sep ta tR om sey Abbey ( T . C h idgey )

16

9 .1 4

S hee la -na -g ig . C a rved s t one s e ti n to t h e n o r th w al o ft h e n ave , Oak sey ( T . Oak ley )

17

9 .1 5

S hee la -na -g ig . Quo in s tone , s ou thea s tc orne ro ft h e s ou th n ave a i s le , F idd ing ton ( A . Woodcock )

18

9 .1 6

S hee la -na -g ig . G a rgoy le , s ou th s i de o ft h en ave , S toke -sub -Hamdon ( A . Woodcock )

19

9 .1 7

P o ss ib le f ema le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re . C orbe l ,e a s t s i de o ft h e n or th t r an sep t , S op ley ( A . Woodcock )

19

A l . 1

P l an o ft h e c hu rch a tM i lford -on sea ( A . Woodcock )

1 59

A l . 2

P l an o fR om sey Abbey ( A . Woodcock )

1 59

A l . 3

P l an o ft h e c l o i s te ra tL acock Abbey ( A . Woodcock )

1 60

A l . 4

Map t os how l o ca t ion o ft h e s t udy a r ea i nr e la t ion t o Eng land a nd Wa le s ( A . Woodcock )

1 61

A l . 5

Map t os how t h ec oun ty b ounda r ie s ( A . Woodcock )

1 61

X 1

C T ' .Oakley)

16

L i s to fG raph s a nd T ab le s

A2 . 1

C orbe l tab le i magery f r om as e lec t ion o fs i te si nt he s ou th o f Eng land

1 63

A2 . 2

V a r ia t ion s o nt h eh ead mo t if i nR omane sque a nd e a r ly Go th ic c orbe l tab le s

1 63

A2 . 3

P a i red h ead s a nd f i gu re s i nR omane sque a nd e a r ly Go th ic c orbe l tab le s

1 64

A2 . 4

Head s c a rved a sg a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s

1 65

A2 . 5

A rch i tec tu ra l med ium a nd l o ca t ion o f mou th -pu l le ri mage s f r om as e lec t ion o fR omane sque s i te s

1 65

A 2 . 6

V a r ie t ie s o f mou th -pu l l ing h ead s f r om as e lec t ion o fR omane sque s i te s

1 65

A2 . 7

A rch i tectu ra l med ium a nd l o ca t ion o fl a te r med iev a l mou th -pule rc arv ing s

1 66

A2 . 8

E xamp le s o f mou th -pu l le rc arv ing s

1 66

A2 . 9

E xamp le s o f mou th -pule r s f l anked b y f i gu re s

1 67

A2 . 1 0

A spec t s o f med ieva l me rma id i mage ry

1 68

A cknow ledg emen t s

T h i s b ook i s as l i gh t ly a l te r ed v e r s ion o f aP hD t h e s i s o ft h e s ame t i t l e , s ubm i t ted i nt h e s umme r o f2 003 t ot h e Un ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton . I np repa r ing i tf o r p ubl i ca t ion Ih av e m ade s ome m ino rr ev i s ion s t ot h e t e x tb u th av e o therw i se l e f t i ta l one : I h ad , a f t er a l , e nv i s ioned i ta s ab ook f r om t h ev e ry b eg inn ing a nd d e sp i te i t s l im i ta t ion s ( PhD t h e se s a r e n o tb ook s ! ) f e e lt h a t i tp o s se s se s ac er ta in c ohe r ence . W i th h ind s igh t Ic an s e e t h a tt h e s t reng th o ft h et h e s i sw a s ( i nt r u eg ro te sque f a sh ion ) a l so i t s w eakne s s ; t h e a t temp t t o c on tex tua l ize aw ide r ang e o fi mag e s f r om av a r ie ty o f s i t e s t h rough f i v e h und red y ea r s o r mo re c on t inua l ly t h r ea tened t od i sab le a ny c oncen t ra ted f o cu s . Howev e r , my p r ima ry mo t iv a t ion w a s n o t t ow r i te t h e b iog raphy o f a n i mag e o rg roup o fi mag e s b u t t op roduce as yn the s i s o f i mag e a nd c on tex t , h i gh l igh t ing t h e p rob l em s t h a t h av e b e se t t h e s t udy o ft h e se c a rv ing s a sw el a so f f e r ing n ew w ay s o fl o ok ing a tt h e ma te r i a lt h a tr e spec tb o th c on tex ta nd c on ten t . Ih ope I h ave made s ome p rog r e s si nt h i s d i rec t ion . T he c r ea t ion o ft h i s b ook a nd t h e t h e s i s o n wh i ch i ti sb a sed o w e s ag r ea t d ea l t ot h e o f ten g ene rou s a nd s ome t ime s i n sp i red c on t r ibu t ion so f an umbe ro fp eop le a nd i n s t i tu t ion s . F i r s t o fa l Imu s t t h ank L ou i se C ulen a nd my f o rme r t u to r a tt h e Un iv e r s i t y o fY o rk ,J ane G renv i l l e , f o re ncou rag ing m e t o s ubm i t aP hD p ropo sa li nt h e f i r s tp l ace . My s uperv i so r , P rof e s so r D av id H in ton , n o t o n ly w o rked h i s w ay t h rough v a r iou s , b a re ly c o mp r ehen s ib le d raf t s o fc hap te r sb u tp rov ided s ound g u idance o n av a r ie ty o fs ub jec t s , a lw i th c ha rac te r i s t i c h umou r . F or t h e i r s uppor t a nd f r i end sh ip Imu s t a l so t h ank D r R obe r t Wa l l i s a nd D r S t ephan ie Mo se r . On amo re p ro sa i c l e v e l , w i thou t t h e f i nanc i a l s uppo r t o f t h e A r t s a nd Human i t ie s R e sea r ch B oa rd a nd t h e Un iv e r s i ty o f S ou th amp ton S choo l o f R e sea rch a nd G r adua te S tud ie s ,n one o ft h i s wou ld h av eb een p o s s ib le a ta l . F o r t h e i r i n s igh t a nd g ood c ompany It h ank S imon C rook , S tua r t E dmond s , E d E van s ,J oe F l a tman , E r ica G i t t in s , Da r ren G laz ie r , C ha r lo t te J ohn , D av id Kn igh t , Ma t t L e iv e r s , K en L ym e r , C h r i s P eppe r , A l i ce P ype r , Wayne S ha rpe ,J enny S zew ie l a nd J ohn V e t te r le in . C h r i s Duke , G raeme E a r l , T om Go sk a r a nd Door t je V an Hov e a s s i s ted m e w i th t h e mo re t e chn i ca l a spec t s o fd a t ac olec t ion a nd t h e s i sp rodu c t ion . Doo r t je a l so p rov ided i nv a luab l e h e lp w i th m a te r i a li nv a r iou s l a nguag e s . F o r t h e i ri nna te u nde r s t and ing o ft h eg ro te sque Ic anno tt h ank Ma t t Mow lem a nd E l izabe th B ryan e nough . Many p eop le a i ded my f i e ldwo rk . T im C h idgey w a s p repa red t o s pend l ong h ou r s d r iv ing a nd e v en l onge r o ne s t a k ing p ho tog r aph s , u sua l ly f r om n ea r inacce s s ib le l o ca t ion s , e xcu r s ion s f o r wh ich S t ephan i e B ul r e ad i ly l o aned u s h e r c a r . Many e n joyab le v i s i t st os i te s a c ro s s t h ec oun t ry w e re m ade p o s s ib le b yT he re sa O ak ley . T ho se j ou rney s Iu nde r took o nm y own ,b y b i cyc le , w e r e s u s ta ined i n av a r ie t y o fw ay s b y n um e rou s p eop l e ; s pec i a l t h ank s mu s t g o t oW i l l a nd S ean a tJ ohn ' s B ike s i n B a th f o r t h e i rg ene rou s l o an o fe qu ipm en t , a sw el a st oa l t ho se who w e re h appy t ou n lock d oo r s a nd s how me a r ound t h e c hu rche s t h ey l ook ed a f te r . S ad ly , t oo m any b u i ld ing s p roved i n acce s s ib l e d e sp i te n ume rou s a t temp t s t ol o ca te k eyho lde r s . T hank s a r e a l so d ue t oD r P h i l ip D ixon , D rJ ul i en P a r son s , C u ra to r o f An t iqu i t ie s a tt h e R oya lA lbe r t Memor ia l Mu seum i n E xe te r , a nd t oJ ohn H edg e s a t BAR f o rh i s c a re , a t ten t ion t od e ta i la nd i n te r e s ti n my w o rk . F ina l ly Imu s t t h ank my p a ren t s who h ave c on t inua l ly s uppo r t ed m y e ndeavou r s , m y s i s t e r ,J enn if e r Woodcock , L au rence d e V az f o rm end ing my c ompu te r , a nd T he re sa f o rt h eb l ack h umou ra nd u pl i f t ing c ompany t h a tf a c i l i ta ted i nn o s m al m ea su r e t h ec omp le t ion o ft h et h e s i s . T he i n forma t ion u pon wh ich t h i s b ook d raw s w a s c olec ted o v e r at h ree -yea r p e r iod ( 1 999 -2002 ) , p r im a r i ly f r om s i te s i n Dor se t , H amp sh i re , S ome r se t a nd W i l t sh i re b u t o cca s iona l ly a l so f r om n e ighbou r ing c oun t ie s . T he s cu lp tu r e s o n e ach b u i ld ing w e re r e corded u s ing p ho tog raph s , s k e tche s a nd f i e ld n o te s ;t h i si n f orm a t ion w a s a ugmen t ed b yl i b ra r y -ba sed r e sea rch a nd f i naly w r i t ten u p t of o rm as e lec t iv e d a t aba se f o rm ed ieva la r ch i tec tu ra ls cu lp tu re i nt h e r e g ion b e tween t h e l a te e l ev en th a nd m id -s ix t een th c en tu r i e s ( Append ix 1 ) .

I n t roduc t ion

i mage s t h a t c ou ld p o t en t ial y b e s e en b y a l t h e u se r s o ft h e b u i ld ing w ou ld h av e b een v i ew ed i n s oc ia l c on tex t s f a r r emov ed f r om t h e l e i su re ly c on temp la t ion o f ab ook . S uch

B e tween t h e e l ev en th a nd t he s i x t een th c en tu r ie s s ome d i s t inc t ive f o rm s o f s cu lp tu re d eve lop u pon a nd w i th in E u ropean e cc l e s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s . T he se s ha re t wo c ha r ac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e s . F i r s t , r a the r t h an s t and ing a s s em i s epa r a te p i ece s i n mo re p rom inen t l o ca t ion s , t h ey e mbe l l i sh k ey a r ch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s s uch a sc o rbe l s , r oof b o s se s a nd c ap i ta l s . S econd ,t h e i ri mag er yp re sen t s wha th a sb een c aled

d i f f e rence s b e tw een t h e c r ea t ion a nd v i ew ing o f t wo d imen s iona la nd t h ree -d imen s iona li m ag e s m ake s t h eu se o f t h e t e rm m a rg ina l f o r b o th m anu sc r ip t d r aw ing s a nd s cu lp tu re p o ten t i a l ly c onfu s ing . No t o n ly d oe s i ti mp ly t h a t t h e l a t t e r m ay b e " r ead" i n as im i la r manne r t o t h e f o rme r b u t i ti g no re s t h e d i f f e r en t w ay s i n wh i ch s cu lp ted i m ag e s

' ak i nd o f b ack -cu r ren t o f a r t ' t h a t r un s ' c oun te r t o t h e o rd ina r y mo t iv e s o f h uman b eau t y ' ( P r io r a nd G a rdne r , 1 912 : 2 4 1 ) . Th i s i s b ecau se t h e se i m ag e s c r owd w i th b u lbou s v eg e t a t ion , f r an t ic a n ima l s , d i s to r ted h ead s , i mpo s s ib le h yb r id s ,u n iden t if i ab le b ea s t s , my th i ca lc r ea tu r e s , a c roba t s , f oo l s , mu s i c i an s , e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s , a nd d om e s t i c a s w e l l a s s ome b ibl i ca l s c ene s . S ecu l a r a nd a u tho r i t a t ive e cc l e s i a s t ica l f i gu re s s uch a sk i ng s , q ueen s a nd b i shop s a r ea l so r ep r e sen ted .

m ay h av e b een e xpe r ienced a sw el a st h e c on tex t i n wh ich t h ey w e r e s e en , h a lf seen o r g l imp sed , a nd b y whom ( S eku le s , 1 995 : 3 8 ) . "Ma rg ina l" f l ounde r s f o r o the r r e a son s when a ppl i ed t o a r ch i tec tu r a l r a the r t h an t e x tua l i mag e s . A t t h e h ea r t o ft h e p rob lem i s a n u nce r ta in t y o v e r d ef in it ion : i s i tc on tex t , c on ten t , o r b o th c on t ex t a nd c on ten t t h a t d ef ine s ma rg ina l s cu lptu re ? I ft h e p hy s i ca l s t ruc tu re o f ab u i ld ing i st a k en t o b e i t s " edg e s" t h en w e mu s t a s sume , w i th P h i l l ip L ind ley ,

S e lec t ing a n a pp rop r i a te d e sc r ip t iv e t e rm w i th wh i ch t o d i scu s s t h i s t y pe o f s cu lp tu re i s f r augh t w i th p rob lem s . " O rnamen ta l" h a s b een u sed , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e n ine teen th c en tu ry ( e .g .J one s , 1 982 [ 1 856 ] ; Wa rd , 1 899 ) , b u t a s al a be l

t h a t a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e i si n ev i tab ly m a rg ina l ( 1 995 : 7 6 ) . How ev e r , L ind ley d raw s ad i s t inc t ion b e tw een t h e i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r o f b u i ld ing s f o r h e c on s ide r s c a rv ed c ap i t a l s t o b e a n e xcep t ion , p re sumab ly b ecau se a s a

t end s t oc a r ry c onno t a t ion s o fs upe rf i c ial i t y . T h i s d oe s n o t f i t w i th e i the r t h e w ide sp r ead p re sence o f t h e se i m age s o r t h e i r t y p ica ll o ca t ion u pon c ruc i a l s t ruc tu ra l c omponen t s o f r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s , n e i the r o f wh i ch s ugge s t t h a t t h ey w e r e

c ommon i n te r io r f e a tu re t h ey c anno t b e c on s ide r ed a r ch i tec tu r a l ly p e r iphe ra l . T h i s v i ew , t h a t t h e c arv ing s o n t h e " shel" o f t h e b u i ld ing m ay b e c on s ide red ma rg ina l a s

c on s ide red i n s ign if i can t t ot h e c ommun i t i e s a nd i nd iv idu a l s t h a t p a id f o r a nd c r ea ted t h em . F u r the r , t h e t e rm g ene ra l ly s i gn if i e s ' a r t w i th a d eco r a t iv e r a the r t h an a s i gn if i ca t iv e f unc t ion ' ( Ha rpham , 1 982 : 3 2 ) a nd s o p rec lude s a ny s e a r ch

o ppo sed t o t ho se w i th in t h e s pace i ta r t icu l a te s , m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t h e re i s an o t ab l e d i f f e rence b e tw een t h e c on ten t o f t h e c arv ing s i nt h e se t wo a r ea s . T he s cu lptu re s t h em se lv e s , h owev e r ,d o n o ts uppor ts uch ad i cho tomy .

f o rp o s s ib le m ean ing s . T he t e rm c u r ren t ly f a vou red b y m ed i eva l a r t h i s to r i an s i s "ma rg ina l" ( e .g . C am i l l e , 1 992 ; K enaan -K eda r , 1 992 , 1 995 ) . T h i s h a s b een p opu l a r i sed b y w o rk u pon i l um ina t ed m anu sc r ip t s ( e .g . R andal 1 957 , 1 960 , 1 962 , 1 966a , 1 966b , 1 972 ) i n wh ich h yb r id c r ea tu re s a nd s a t i r i ca l s c ene s a ppea r a r ound t h e c en t ra l t e x t , l i t e r a l ly i n t h e m a rg in s , a nd f r equen t ly p unn ing u pon c e r ta in wo rd s . T h i s d i s t inc t iv e k i nd o fi mag er y , t og e the r w i th i t s p e r iphe ra l l o ca t ion b ea r s m any s im i la r i t i e s t o t h a t f ound c a rved u pon c hu rche s a nd c on sequen t ly t h e u se o f t h e t e rm h a s b een e x tended t o i n c lude s cu lp tu r e .

F u r the r , t od r aw ad i s t inc t ion b e tween o ff i c i a l , r e l ig iou s a r t ( e .g . b ibl i ca l s c ene s , i mag e s o f C h r i s t a nd t h e S a in t s ) a nd u noff i c i a l , ma rg ina l ( a nd t h e refo re , a s i ti so f t en a s sumed , n on re l ig iou s ) a r t r un s t h e r i sk o f c r ea t ing af a l se d i v i s ion . R e l ig iou s l i f e t oday , f o r t h e ma jo r i ty o fp eop le l i v ing i nt h e We s t , m ay w el b e d i s t anced f r om e ve r yday a c t iv i t i e s , b u t t h i si su n l ik e ly t oh av eb een t h e c a se f o rt h e med i ev a lp e r iod when t h e C hu r ch s t ood a t t h e c en t r e o f c ommun i ty l i f e ( Pound s , 2 000 : 3 40 ) . Mo reove r , ag r ea t d ea l o f s o -caled ma rg ina l s cu lp tu re r ep r e sen t s " off i c i a l" s ub jec t s , a s t h e s equence s o f c o rbe l s d ep ic t ing t h e h ead s o f k i ng s a nd b i shop s t h a t c an b e f ound i nm any W i l t sh i r e c hu rche s ( e .g . B i shop ' s C ann ing s , C a ine , O ak sey , W i l sf o rd ) m ake s p l a in . T he m a rg ina l a na log i e s mu s t , t h e refo re , b e p u r su ed w i th c a re . C e r t a in ly , t h e se a r e n o ti mage s o fm a rg in a li mpo r tance t o m ed i ev a l h i s tory . D e sp i te t h e i r c u r iou s s ub jec t m a t te r , g ene r a l ly c ap r ic iou s s t y l e a nd o f ten d i ff i cu l t l o ca t ion ' w e a r e n o t l o ok ing a t m a rg ina l o r s t r ange r a r i t ie s , b u t a t a f undamen ta lf e a tu re o f m ed i ev a la r t a nd a ni n teg r a lp ar t o f m ed i ev a l m an ' s p e rcep t ion o fr e a l i ty ' ( Gu rev ich , 1 988 : 1 8 1 ; s e e a l so Me rm ie r , 1 977 : 10 ) . M ichae l C am i l le o n ce

T h i s i sn o tw i thou t c omp l i ca t ion s . C e r ta in ly , t h e se c arv ing s o f ten o ccu r i n wha t may b e c a l led m a rg ina l l o ca t ion s b u t u n l ike manu sc r ip ti mag e s t h i s o f ten m ak e s t h em d i ff i cu l t t o s e e ; t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l "m a rg in s" c an i n c lude p l ace s t h a t a r e s om e d i s t ance f r om t h e g round a sw el a sa r ea s o fn a tu ra l ly l ow l i gh t . I ti sf r equen t ly t h e c a se t h a t e ven w i th b inocu la r s ' t he o b se rve r o n t h e g round i so f ten u nab le t oi d en t if y t h e s cu lp ted i mag e s c l ea r ly ' ( K enaan -K eda r , 1 995 : 1 ) . We mu s t a l so c on s ide r t h a t a c ce s s t o c e r ta in a r ea s o fa n e c c l e s i a s t ica l b u i ld ing w a s o f ten r e s t r ic ted t oc l e r i c s , s o s ome i mag e s m ay h av e b een v i ew ed o n ly b y as e lec t a ud i ence . E v en t ho se

c omm en ted t h a t m a rg ina l i s a' d i ff i cu l t t e rm ' f o r e xac t ly

x vü

L im ina lI mage s t h e se r e a son s l a nd i n deed , a t ab roade rl e v e lt h e c on cep to f m a rg in a l a r t ' i sv i r tu a l l y i n de f inab l e , h av ing b een g i v en a v a r i e ty o fi n comm en su r ab l e m ean ing s ' ( Ku sp i t , 1 996 : 1 9 ) . S om e w r i t e r s h av e a vo id ed t h e t e rm a l tog e the r , p r ef e r r ing i n s t ead t h e mo r e n eu t r a l " a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e" ( A l f o rd , 1 984 ; L ane , 1 997 ) , a nd i ti si nt h e i r f oo t s t ep s t h a t If o l low h e r e . Y e tu n t i lr e c en t ly t h e s t udy o fm ed i ev a la r ch i t ec tu r a la r th ad i t se l f b e en m a rg ina l i sed b y c onv en t iona l a r t a nd a r ch i t e c tu r a lh i s to r i e s .H i s to r i ca l ly ,i t ss t udy r un sc on cu r r en t w i th t h e d ev e lopm en t o f p ho tog r aphy . A l though a r ch i t e c tu r a lh i s to r i an s g i f t ed w i th t h e a b i l i t y t om ak e h i gh q u a l i ty d r aw ing s h ad p ubl i shed t h e i r w o rk ( e .g . C o t ton , 1 900 ) p ho tog r aphy a low ed ag r ea t e r e a se a nd a c cu r a cy o f v i ew ing i m ag e s s i tu a t ed i n d a rk o r d i s t an t l o c a t ion s . A rch aeo log i s t s c once rned w i th r oof b o s se s w e r e q u i ck t o s e e t h e a dv an t ag e s a nd i ti st o t h em t h a t c r ed i t i sd u e f o r mu ch p i onee r ing w o rk ( e .g . P r ideaux a nd S haf to , 1 9 10 ; R o se -T roup , 1 922 ; C av e , 1 927 , 1 934 , 1 935 , 1 948 ) . I nc rea s ing ly ,b o th a r ch aeo log i s t sa nd a r th i s to r i an sc ou ld n o l ong e r c l a im t ob e i g no r an t o ft h e p r e sen ce o f ap ow e r fu l r ang e o fm ed i ev a l c a rv ing s , y e t p r e jud i ce m i t ig a t ed a g a in s t t h e i r s e r iou s s t udy . T h i s f ound e xp r e s s ion i n t wo m a in a r ea s . T he f i r s tw a s a e s th e t i c —t h e r e spon se t ot h e s ub jec t m a t t e ra nd s t y l eo ft h ei m ag e ;t h e s e cond h e rmeneu t i c —t h e a t t emp t t o i n t e rp r e t o r e xp la in t h a t i m ag e ( K en a an -K ed a r [ 1 995 : 2 ]h a s s im i l a r c r i t i c i sm s ) . B o th w e r e a nd a r e c l o se ly i n t e rwov en . F i r s t , t h e s ub jec t m a t t e r a nd s t y l e o fm ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e h a s g ene r a l l y f a i l ed t o c onf o rm t o i n s t i tu t ion a l d ef in i t ion s o f a r t . E v en a f t e r p r im i t iv i sm h ad b ecom e a c cep t ab l e a s al e g i t im a t e s t y l e i n We s t e rn a r t d u r ing t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e t w en t i e th c en tu ry , t h e se a nonymou s ly p roduc ed a nd r e pe t i t iv ec a rv ing sw e r eo f t en r e ad a sc r ude i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e mo r e d e t a i l ed a nd h i gh ly w o rk ed i m ag e s p rodu ced d u r ing t h e l a t e r M idd l e A g e s a nd R en a i s sance ( Cav in e s s , 1 989 ) . Why t h i ss hou ld b es om ay b e u nde r s tood mo r e f u l l y i fw e c on s ide r t h e c i r cum s t an ce s s u r round ing t h e c r ea t ion o ft h e moder n a r t w o r ld . Du r ing t h e l a t e e i gh t een th c en tu ry t h e p ow e r o f e l i t e i n s t i tu t ion s s u ch a s mu seum s , g al e r i e s a nd t h e i rp a t ron s m ean tt h a ta r t c ame t o b e d e f in ed t h rough s ub sc r ip t ion t o ap a r t i cu la r a e s the t i c c anon ( S t an i szew sk i , 1 995 ) . T h i s e xc lud ed o r d i s t anced i t se l f f r om t h e c o rpo r ea l f o r o n ly ' ac e r eb r a l p l ea su r e p u r if i ed o fe r o t i c i sm . . .[ c ou ld ] e l ev a te t h e a e s the t e o r c r i t i c a bov e t h e m a s se s ' ( J one s , 1 993 : 3 93 ) . Med i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e , w i th i t s " f o lk" i m ag e s s ugg e s t iv e o f ap o t en t s uper n a tu r a l a nd p o ten t i a l l y s o c i a l ly t h r ea t en ing f o r ce t h a t a low ed b od i e s t o mu l t ip ly a nd o u tg row t h e i r n a tu r a l l i m i t s , f l e shy v eg e t a t ion t o s p rou t o u t o fh ead s a nd f a ce s , a nd f i gu r e s o f a u tho r i ty t o b e mock ed , w a s c on sequen t l y v i ew ed a s d ub iou s . T he se w e r e t r oub l e som e i m ag e s ,a tt h e ' b o rde r so fs a n c t ion ed e nqu i ry ' ( Coh en , 1 994 : 1 ) .

P e r sona lc ommun ica t ion , 1 2/6/200 1 .

E xc lu s ion f r om t h e a c ademy h a s h ad b o th p o s i t iv e a nd n eg a t iv e r am if i ca t ion s f o r t h e s t udy o f m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e . S i nce i th a s s or a r e l yb e en a c co rd ed much i mpo r t ance i t h a s a t t r ac ted a w ide v a r i e ty o f i n t e r e s t ing , y e t o f t en i n app rop r i a t e , m e thod s o f a n a ly s i s . C onv en t iona l a r t h i s to r i ca l e nqu i r y r e l i e s u pon d ocumen t a t ion f o r mu ch o fi t si n f o rm a t ion ,a nd t h roughou t t h el a t e n i n e teen th a nd mo s to ft h e t wen t i e th c en tu ry m any o ft h e se i m ag e sw e re c l a s s if i ed b yr e f e rence t om anu scr ip t s . F o rm any , o n l y at e nuou s l i nk e x i s t ed . T ho se i m ag e s wh i ch c ou ld n o t b e c a t ego r i sed i ns u ch am ann e r r e inf o r ced t h e i d ea t h a t t h ey w e re m ean ing l e s s , t hu s m i s s ing t h e s o c i a l c on t ex to ft h ei m ag e ry a mong an on l i te r a t e ,m emo r y -ba sed c u l tu r ei nw h i ch t e x t sw e r en o tw ide ly c i r cu l a t ed o ra v a i l ab l e ( Ca r ru th e r s , 1 990 : 8 ) . T he i n ab i l i ty t oe xp l a in s om any o ft h e s c u lp tu r e s f ound i n a nd o n m ed i ev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s b y t h e u su a l m e thod s s ugg e s ted t h a tt h ec a rv ing sw e r en o te n t i r e ly d i r ec t ed b yt h e c l e rg y a s h ad b een p r ev iou s ly t hough t . T hu s e n t e r ed t h e i d ea t h a t t ho se i mag e s w i thou t a ny d i sce rn ib l e b i b l i ca l o r mo r a l m e s sag e r e p r e sen t ed t h e c oa r se h umou r o f t h e m a son s ( e .g . And e r son , 1 938 ) . W i th t h i s a r gum en t , h ow ev e r , a r t h i s to r i an s e n t e r ed a n i n t e rp r e t a t iv e t w i l igh t z on e . On t h e o n e h and t h e se m igh t b e s e en a s d i d ac t i c s c u lp tu r e s p o ten t w i th ( a s y e t u nde c iphe r ed ) r e l ig iou s m ean ing . On t h e o th e r t h ey w e r e m ean ing l e s s d ood l e s c r ea t ed b y i l i t e r a t e b u i lde r s . A l though t h i s l a t t e r a r gum en t h e lped t o e xp l a in t h e i r o f t en v i sua l ly r e s t r i c t ed p o s i t ion ( t hey w e r e g ene r a l l y o u t o f s i gh t b ecau se t h ey w e r e m ean ing l e s s ) i td i d n o t e xp l a in t h e i r c r ea t ion i n t h e f i r s t p l ace . T ho se w ho d i d m ak e t h e a s soc i a t ion b e tw een t h e g r o t e squ e c on ten t a nd t h e w o r ld o f t h e s t on em a son o r w oodca rv e r g en e r a l ly r om an t i c i sed t h e i r " ch i ld l ik e" l a bou r o r p e rpe tu a t ed t h e i d e a o f p r im i t iv e , u ncu l tu r ed h and s f e eb l y a t t emp t ing t o c opy t h e c l a r i t y o f m anu sc r ip t i l u s t r a t ion s . Med i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re s t ood a pa r t , u ncomp rom i s ing i n i t s a b i l i t y t o r e s i s t i n t e rp r e t a t ion . Anonymou s l y c a rv ed , o f ten h i dden f r om v i ew y e t r e pea t ed f r equ en t ly e nough t o s ugg e s t t h a t i tw a s n o t c on s id e r ed i n e s sen t i a l d e co r a t ion ; i n t eg r a l t o t h e v e ry s t ru c tu r e o f C h r i s t i an c hu r ch e s y e t p e rpe tu a t ing " pag an" i m ag e r y , i t p r e sen t ed af l u id , d yn am i c w o r ld i n wh i ch t h e s a c r ed w a s mock ed a nd t h ea bno rm a lf l aun t ed . A l though r e cen t w o rk h a s b een mo re i m ag ina t iv e i n i t s a pp r a i sa l o f m ed i ev a l a r ch i t e c tu r a l s c u lp tu r e ( e .g . C am i l l e , 1 992 ) a nd mo r e r oo t ed i n c on t empo r a ry c onc e rn s w i th p a t ronag e a nd p rodu c t ion ( e .g . S eku l e s , 1 995 ) , i n m any r e spec t s l i t t l e h a s c h ang ed . Wo rk o n m a rg in a l i m ag e ry i n m ed i ev a lm anu sc r ip t s t e nd s t oo b scu r e e s sent i a ld i f f e r en ce s b e tw een s cu lp t ed a nd p a in t ed i m ag e s . I lum in a t ed m anu sc r ip t s w e r e o f t en c r ea t ed f o r t h e p r iv a t e u se o f s p ec if i cp a t ron s who c ou ld a nd d i dc on t emp l a te t h e i rp ag e s i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y . A r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e , h ow ev e r , ' p ubl i c y e t mo s t ly h i dden f r om o b serv e r s — mu s t h av e h ad a d i f f e r en tr a t iona l ef r om t h em a rg in s o f i l um ina t ion sp l a in l y o b se rv ab l e b y t h e i r p r iv a t e o wn e r s ' ( K ena an -K eda r , 1 995 : 3 ) .

I n t roduc t ion My a im h e re i s t o r e con s ide r m ed i ev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re b y s e t t ing i tf i rm ly w i th in i t s s oc i a l , a r ch i tec tu r a l , a nd r e l ig iou s c on tex t s . An i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach i s n ece s sa ry , b l end ing f o lk lo r e , a r chaeo logy a nd a r t h i s tory , a nd u s ing a pp roache s t ot h e m a te r i a ld r awn f r om l i t e ra tu re , a r ta nd a r chaeo logy . T he w ork i s d i v ided i n to t h ree s e c t ion s , e ach s e c t ion c ompo sed o f t h ree c hap te r s . T he c once rn o f t h e f i r s t s e c t ion i st oe s t abl i sh ac on tex t f o r t h e i mag e ry u pon wh ich t h el a t t e r t wo s e c t ion sm ay t h en d r aw . C hap te r 1e xp lo re si n g r ea t e rd e ta i lt h an i sp o s s ib l e h e re t h er e cep t ion o fm ed i eva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lptu r e i n a r t h i s to r y a nd a r chaeo logy , a nd t h e r e a son s w hy i t r ema ined a d i sa rm ing ly e a sy t op i c . D e ta i led a na ly s i s o f t h e mo s t p opu l a r t h eor ie s u sed t o e xp la in t h ei m ag e ry r ev ea l s t h el a ck o fc on s ide ra t ion p a id t o t h e c on tex t s i n wh i ch t h e i mag e s w e re p roduced a nd u sed . C hap te r 2t a k e s u p o ne o f t h e t h read s u ndone b y t h i s c r i t ique t o e xp lo re t h e p e rp lex ing a nd p a radox ica l wo r ld o f t h e g ro te sque a nd i t s s u i tab i l i t y t o m ed i ev a l r e l ig iou s l i f e . R oo t ed i n t h e i d ea o f r e l ig iou s s pace s a s l i rn in a l a nd t h e r efo re s u i ted t o man if e s ta t ion s o f s im i l a r ly a mb iguou s i mag e ry , t h e d i scu s s ion n av ig a te s t h e e dge s o f t h e m arv elou s i n m ed i ev a l s oc ie ty . L im inal i ty i sp re sen ted a s c r uc i a l t o u nde r s tand ing t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e o f m ed i ev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s , wh ich a l so i n fo rm s i t s o f ten c i t ed a po t ropa i c f unc t ion . F u r the r , t h e n ece s s i ty o f t a k ing w ha t i s n ow t e rmed t h e " supe rna tu ra l" s e r iou s ly , a s m ed i ev a l s o c ie t yd id , i ss t re s sed . C hap t e r 3b u i ld s u pon t h i s e xp lo ra t ion o fm e taphy s ica lc on t ex tw i th a ni nv e s t iga t ion o f h ow r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s w e re b u i l t , f unded , p e rce iv ed a nd u sed b y m ed i ev a l c ommun i t ie s . T he e mpha s i s u pon t h e b u i ld ing a nd i t s u se r s e nab le s a g l imp se o f aw o r ld s t ruc tu r ed q u i te d i f f e ren t ly f r om o u r o wn , w i th t r ad i t ion s

x i x

a nd o p in ion s t h a t c on t rad ic t a pp rop r ia t e r e l ig iou s b ehav iou r .

p o s t -V ic to r ian

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T he f olow ing t wo s e c t ion s t a ke t h e i mag e s a s t h e i r o rg an i s ing p r inc ip le . T he t h r ee c hap te r s t h a t c on s t i tu te t h e s e cond s e c t ion a r e b a sed u pon t h e c ommon mo t if o f t h e h ead . C hap te r 4 i n t roduce s t h e l o ca t ion s a nd t y p i ca l a ppea rance s o ft h e " s eve r ed h ead" i nm ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re b ef o re d i scu s s ing i t s l i ke ly a po t ropa i c q ual i t ie s . C hap te r s 5a nd 6 i nve s t iga te ' t he mo s t i mpo r tan t o f a l h uman f e a tu re s f o r t h e g ro te sque ' ( Bakh t in , 1 984 : 3 17 ) , t h e mou th . T he f unc t ion s o fd i sgo rg ing a nd d evou r ing c a r r ied s i gn if i can t t h eo log ica l w e igh t i nm ed iev a l r e l ig ion a nd w e r e b y n o m ean s d i ame t r ica l ly o ppo sed ; t h e s ymbol i c d evou r ing o ft h e b ody o fC h r i s t a tt h e m a s s t o a b so rb t h e d i v ine w a s m i r ro red b y t h e d evou r ing o fs ou l s i nh el . T he mou th a nd t h e h ead a r e p re sen ted a s a mb iguou s mo t if s w el s u i ted t o t h e e xpre s s ion o f m ed i ev a l c oncep t ion s o f t h e s a c red a s d ang e rou s a nd u n s t ab le . T he f i na l s e c t ion f o cu se s u pon t h e f ul f i gu re . T he b l end ing o f h uman a nd a n ima l a t t r ibu te s t o p roduce o b scu re c r ea tu re s i s an o t ab le c ha r ac t e r i s t ic o f med iev a la r ch i tec tu ra l a r t , a nd t h ey a r e e xp lo red i nc hap te r7 .C hap te r 8t h en t u rn s t o l ook a t as pec if i c g en re — t h e s i ren — t o e xam ine t h e C h r i s t i an u se o f a n a nc i en t f i gu r e . C lo se a na ly s i s o f t h e i mag e ry s ugg e s t s t h a t b enea th t h e s u rf ace mo r al i s ing t h e c l a s s i ca l a s soc i a t ion s o ft h e s i r en w i th d ea th a nd k now ledge r ema in . On t h e t a i l s o f t h e m e rma id , c hap te r 9e xam ine s wha t a r e c ommon ly p e rce iv ed a se xpl i c i t ly s e xu a l f i gu re s i n m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l a r t , e n te r ta ine r s a nd e xh ib i t ion i s t s . O f ten p or t rayed d anc ing o r t umbl ing , Ir e l a te t h e i mage s b ack t ot h ei d ea o fl im inal i ty a sf undamen t a lt ot h e s a c red .

C hap te r 1

Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH is to ry

I n t r od u c t i on I n to s uch af r amewo rk m ay b e p l aced t h e s t udy o fm ed i eva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e . T yp ica l ly c ha rac te r i sed a s o rnamen ta l i th a s c e r t a in ly g ene r a ted a v a r ie t y o f o f ten c on f l ic t ing i n t e rp re ta t ion s . I n many r e spec t s t h i s i sl a udab le , f o ri ta low s " f r ing e" t h eo r ie s e qua l f oo t ing t o mo re w e igh t y a cadem ic o ne s , i n t h e p roce s s c r ea t ing a t r u ly i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a nd w ide r ang ing b ody o f w o rk . On t h e o the r h and , t h e c ompe t ing v i s ion s c an b e s o d en se i ti s d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd a ny p a th t h rough t h em , o f ten p r ec lud ing t h e p o s s ib i l i t y o f g r ea te r u nde r s tand ing . Many o f t h e

I mag e r y c on s ide red o rnamen ta l , h a s , i n t h e h i s tor y o f We s te rn a r t , r a re ly b een a c co rded much p r a i se . One c r i t i c w r i te s t h a t a r t h i s tory h a s ' c on sp icuou s ly f a i l ed i n i t s r e spon s ib i l i t ie s t ow a rd s t h e s o -caled d eco ra t iv e a r t s t h rough s imp le n eg lec t a nd a n i d eo log ica l b i a s t ow a rd s t ho se a r t s t h a t p e rm i t t h e f r ee mov emen t o f t h e p en a nd b ru sh s t rok e , t h e ma rk o f t h e i nd iv idua l m ind o n p ape r o r c anv a s ' ( Sm i th , 1 995 : 1 7 ) . " Deco r a t ive" o r " o rnamen t a l" g ene r a l l y s ugge s t s a r t t h a t embe l l i she s af unc t iona l o b jec t , a r t t h a t i sl im i ted b y t h e n a tu re o f t h e m a te r ia l o r s pace a v a i l ab l e o n t h a t o b jec t . T h i s " s econda r y" n a tu r e ( a s o ppo sed t o a r t who se p r ima ry f unc t ion i s p u re ly a n a e s the t i c o ne ) h a s t r ad i t iona l ly a cco rded i tar e l a t iv e ly m ino r o r i n con sequen t i a l p o s i t ion i n t h e h i s tor y o f a r t ( s ee a l so B edf o rd a nd R ob in son , n . d . ) . T h i s v i ew h a s b een p e rpe tu a t ed a nd m a in ta ined b y c i rcu la r , r e inf o rc ing a r gumen t s : d eco ra t ive a r t i s r epe t i t iv e a nd t h e refo re p rov ide s n o o ppo r tun i ty f o r i nd iv idua l e xp re s s ion ; t h i s

p rob lem s s t em f r om t wo m a in a r ea s , b o th o f wh ich a r e c l o se ly r e l a t ed . F rom t h e M idd le A g e s o nw a rd t h e c on t en t a nd s t y le o f t h e i mag e ry h ave s hock ed t h e a e s the t ic s en s ib i l i t ie s o fc l a s s ica l ly e duca ted s cho l a r s ,i ne x t r eme c a se s p romp t ing a c t s o fi c onoc la sm . T he c on tex to ft h ei m age r y— i na nd u pon r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s —o n ly s e rv e s t o empha s i se a ny p e rce iv ed a e s the t ic i n cong ru i t y . C on ten t a nd c on tex t t hu s c ome p rob lem s .

p rec lude s o r ig ina l i ty , o f ten r e g a rded b y a r t h i s to r i an s a nd l i t e ra ry c r i t ic s a l ike a s ' t he c r i te r ion f o r q ual i t y ' ( Reno i r , 1 974 : 1 47 ) . Deco r a t iv e a r t , t h en , b y i t s v e ry n a tu r e , c anno t

t og e the r

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i n te rp r e t a t iv e

I n t h i s c hap te r Ia im t oi n t roduce a nd e xp lo re s ome o ft h e f e a tu re s wh i ch h ave b een i nf luen t i a l i n mou ld ing p e rcep t ion s a bou t med i ev a la r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re . T he f i r s t t wo s e c t ion s d ea l w i th q ue s t ion s o f s t y l e a nd c on ten t a nd t h e a s soc i a t ion s t h a t h av e a c crued a r ound b o th . T he l a t te r h a lf o f t h e c hap te r e xp lo re s t h e i n te rp re ta t iv e s cheme s

b eo r ig in a la nd t h e r ef o re c anno tb e o fa ny q ua l i t y . T h i s ' i deo log ica l b i a s ' h a s i t s r oo t s d eep i n t h e a e s the t i c i d ea l o f r e s t ra in t , wh ich , a s E . H . Gomb r ich s ugge s t s , i s e xemp l if i ed b yt h e c l a s s ica lt r ad i t ion ( 1 979 : 1 8 ) . C l a s s i ca l a r t a nd a r ch i tec tu re a r e g ove rned b y s ev e ra l i n te r re la ted p r inc ip le s , among t h em , s ymme t r y , mode ra t ion , t h e h a rmon iou s r e la t ion sh ip o f i nd iv idua l p a r t s t o t h e who l e a nd , e s pec ia l ly f o r a r ch i tec tu r e , ah i e r a rchy o f e l emen t s . W i th in s u ch ac on t ex to rnamen ti sd ang e rou s

wh ich h av eb een u sed t oe xp l a in t h e se c a rv ing s .

G ro tesque a nd G o th ic T he g ro te sque i s t he ( \ V i ld r idg e , 1 899 : 2 ) .

p rec i se ly b ecau se i td azz le s u s a nd t emp t s t h e m ind t o s ubm i t w i thou t p rope r r ef l ec t ion . T he a t t r ac t ion s o f r i chne s s a nd s p lendou r a r e f o r t h e c h i ld i sh ; ag rown -up p e r son s hou ld r e s i s t t h e se b l and i shmen t s a nd o p t f o r t h e s obe r a nd r a t iona l ( i b id . 1 7 ) .

s l ang

o f

a r ch i tec tu re

A s t h e i n t roduc t ion h a s h i gh l igh ted , i n t ho se p er iod s t h a t r ev e re c l a s s i ca l i d ea l s a st h e mo s t s ub l ime a nd t h e s t anda rd a ga in s t wh i ch e v e ry th ing e l se m igh t b e m ea su r ed , s t y l e s o f a r t wh i ch n o t o n ly f e a tu re t h e d i s tor ted , a s ymme t r ic a nd h yb r id b u t a ppea rt ob eg ov e rned b y s u ch p r inc ip le s t e nd t o c ou r t l i t t l e f a vou r . T o t h e R ena i s sance , f o r e xamp l e , m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu re w a s " Go th ic" i n t h a t i t s w i lfu l d i s rega rd o f c l a s s i ca l p r inc ip le s w a s a na logou s t o t h e b ehav iou ro ft ho se t r ibe s t h a tp lunde r ed R ome i nt h e f ou r th a nd f i f th c en tu r ie s , c h ief a mong t h em t h e Go th s ( Longue i l , 1 923 : 4 53 ; s e e a l so d e B ee r , 1 948 ) . I ndeed , a cco rd ing t ot h e s i x teen th -cen tu r y a r t h i s to r i an , V a sa r i , i t w a s t h e

H e re in f o r t h e c l a s s ic i s t ( a nd t r ad i t iona l w e s te rn a r t h i s tor y i n g ene r a l ) l i e s t h e p rob lem : t h e i mmed i acy o f o rnamen t b ypa s se s a l i n telec tu a l p roce s s ing . I ti sv i sce ra l r a the r t h an c e r eb r a l ,' a no f f ence a ga in s tr e a son ' ( i b id . 1 979 : 1 9 ) . Mu l t ip le a nd i n con s i s t en t i n te rp r e t a t ion s a r e i n ev i t ab le ( S te ine r , 1 988 : 6 1 ) .

1

S e c t ion I :C on tex t s a r ch i t ec tu r e o f t h e G o th i c t r i be s t h em se lv e s ( Bond , 1 9 12 : 7 ) .

c om e s t o b e a pp l i ed i n a mo re g ene r a l f a sh ion d u r ing t h eA g eo fR ea son —a nd o fN eo -C l a s s i c i sm —w hen t h ec ha r ac t e r i s t i c s o ft h eg r o t e squ e s t y l e o f a r t —e x t r av ag an ce , f a n t a sy ,i n d iv idu a lt a s t e ,a nd t h e r e jec t ion o f' t he n a tu r a lc ond i t ion s o fo rg an i za t ion ' —a r e t h e o b jec t o f r i d i cu l e a nd d i sapp rov a l . T he mo re g en e r a ls e n se . . .wh i ch i th a sd ev e loped b yt h e e a r ly e i gh t een th c en tu ry i s t h e r ef o r e t h a t o f ' r i d i cu lou s , d i s tor t ed , u nn a tu r a l ' ( a d j . ) ; < a n a b su rd i t y , a d i s to r t ion o f n a tu r e ' ( n oun ) ( C l aybo rough , 1 965 : 6 ) .

S im i l a r a tmo sphe re s h aun t t h eg ro t e squ e . P r ecu r so r s o ft h e t e rm f i r s ta ppea r ed i nt h el a t e f i f t een th c en tu ry t or e f e rt oa p a r t i cu l a r f e a tu r e o ff i r s t -cen tu r y R om an w al p a in t ing t h a t h ad b e en d i scov e r ed t h rough t h e e xc av a t ion o f r u inou s v i l a s a nd b a th -hou se s i n I t a ly ( Ku r y luk , 1 987 : 1 2 ; Y a t e s , 1 997 : 5 ) . T h i s h i the r to u nknown s t y l e o f c l a s s i c a l a r t w a s n o t t h e c en t r ep i ece o f e a ch w a l l p a in t ing , mu r a l o r f r e sco b u tr a th e ra ppea r ed a s af r am eo rb o rde rs u r round ing e mp t y s p ace ,l a nd scape , o r aw e l l -known m y th i ca l s c ene . T yp i ca l ly , t h i s s t y l e f u sed t og e the r a r ch i t ec tu r a l , v eg e t a l , a n im a l a nd h um an e l em en t s ; ' g r acef u lf a n t a s i e s , s ymme t r i c a la na tom i c a l i mpo s s ib i l i t i e s , s m a l l b ea s t s , h um an h ead s , a nd d e l i c a t e , i nde t e rm ina t e v eg e t ab l e s , [ w e r e ] a l p r e sen ted a so rn am en t w i th a f a in t l y m y tho log i ca l c h a r ac te r i mpa r ted b y r e p r e sen t a t ion s o f f a un s , n ymph s , s a ty r s , a nd c en t au r s ' ( Ha rph am , 1 982 : 2 6 ) . A l though t h e d e s ign s w e r e n ev e r i n tended t o b e u nde rg round , t h e i r d i scov e ry i n t h e d a rk t unne l s a nd r oom s o fb u r i ed p a l a ce s a nd b a th -hou se s l e n t t h e t e rm t h a tf e s tc am ei n to c ommon u se t od e sc r ibe t h em —g r o t t e s c h e —a ne n t i r e ly s ub t e r r anean f e e 1 . 1I n s om er e spec t s t h e c h thon i c s ub t l e t i e s o f t h e w o rd w e r e a pp rop r ia t e f o r t h e se h e te rog eneou s a nd c hao t i c f r am e s ' c on t r ad i c t ed t h e n o rm so fc l a r i ty ,b a l anc e , a nd h a rmony ,f e a tu r e s wh i ch w e r e a s sum ed t o h av e g ov e rn ed t h e a n c i en t m ind ' ( Ku ry luk , 1 987 : 1 2 ) . A n t iqu e a r t h ad , a f t e r a l , at e neb rou s p r e sence b en ea th i t sd r iv ef o ro rd e r .

Ov e r empha s i s u pon t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h e t e rm , h ow ev e r , m i s se s t h e p o in t t h a t f r om t h e o u t se t t h e f a n t a s t i c s t y l e n am ed g ro t e squ e b y i t s R en a i s san ce a dm i r e r s h ad e vok ed b roade r p h i lo soph i ca l d eba t e . I ndeed , i n sepa r ab l e f r om t h e s e em ing l y i nnocuou s o rn amen t a l s t y l e s l a y v a s t a nd , t ot h e p rev a i l ing o r thodox i e s , o f t en s ubv e r s iv e c oncep t s . On t h i s t op i c t h e c ommen t s o f t h e f i r s t -c en tu r y a r ch i t e c t a nd m i l i t a ry e ng inee r Ma r cu sV i t ruv iu sP ol io a r es t i l lr ew a rd ing . B u t t h o se s ub jec t s wh i ch w e r e c op i ed f r om a c tu a l r e a l i t i e s a r e s c o rned i nt h e se d a y s o fb ad t a s t e . We n ow h av e f r e sco p a in t ing s o f mon s t ro s i t i e s , r a the r t h an t r u thfu lr e p re sen t a t ion so fd ef in i te t h ing s . F o r i n s t ance , r e ed s p u t i nt h e p l a ce o fc o lumn s , f l u t ed a ppend ag e s w i th c u r ly l e av e s a nd v o lu t e s , i n s t ead o f p ed im en t s , c and e l ab r a s uppo r t ing r e p r e sen t a t ion s o f s h r ine s , a nd o n t op o f t h e i r p ed imen t s n um e rou s t e nde r s t a lk s a nd v o lu te s g row ing u p f r om t h e r oo t s a nd h av ing h um an f i gu re s s en se l e s s l y s e a t ed u pon t h em ; s om e t ime s s t a lk s h av ing o n l y h a l f l eng th f i gu r e s , s om e w i th a n im a lh ead s ,o the r sw i th t h eh e ad so fa n im a l s .

A s e xc av a t ion s p rog r e s sed , t ho se R ena i s sance a r t i s t s who m ad e t h e i n c r ea s ing ly l e s s d i ff i cu l t a nd h a za rdou s j o u rney i n to t h eb u r i ed v au l t s f ound i n sp i r a t ion i nt h e se d e s ign s f o r t h e i r o wn w o rk . T h e I t a l i an p a in t e r P in tu r i cch io ( 1 454 1 5 13 ) w a s o ne o ft h e e a r l i e s t a r t i s t s t oa d ap t t h e n ew s t y l e ( S chu lz , 1 962 ) a nd t h e d e s ign s l e f t as t rong i mp r e s s ion o n m any v i s i to r s ( Da co s , 1 969 : 3 ) . A s V a sar i r e coun t ed , b o th R aph ae l ( 1 483 1520 ) a nd G iov ann i d a Ud in e w e r e s t ru ck w i th a m a zem en t , b o th t h e o ne a nd t h e o th e r , a t t h e f r e shne s s , b eau ty a nd e x ce l l ence o ft ho se w o rk s 'w i th in t h e r em a in s o f t h e P a l a ce o f T i tu s ( Va sa r i , 1 568 : 1 673 ) . E xpe r i en ce s s u ch a s t h i s w e r e , f o r t h e d ev e lopm en t o f R en a i s sance a r t , s em in a l ; R aph ae l a s s igned t h e o rn am en t a l d eco r a t ion o ft h e V a t i can l o gg i a s l a rg e ly t oG iov ann i , who , ' g iv en af r ee h and ,c r e a t ed as y s t em o fd e s ign b a sed o n wha t h e h ad s e en i n t h e " g ro t toe s" t h a t f i l l ed t h e i r s p ace s o e n t i r e ly , a nd w e re s o i n dependen t o f a ny c en t e r t h a t t h ey r i v a l l ed t h em a in p ane l st h em se lv e s ' ( Ha rph am , 1 982 : 2 9 ) .

S u ch t h ing s d o n o te x i s ta nd c anno te x i s ta nd h av e n ev e r e x i s t ed . H ence i ti st h e n ew t a s t e t h a t h a s c au sed b ad j u dg e s o fp oo r a r t t op rev a i l o v e r t r ue a r t i s t i ce xcel en ce . F o rh ow i si tp o s s ib l et h a t ar e ed s hou ld r e a l ly s uppo r t ar oof , o r ac and e l ab rum a p ed imen tw i th i t so rn am en t s ,o rt h a ts u ch as l ende r t h ing a s as t a lk s hou ld s uppor t af i gu r e p e r ched u pon i t ,o r t h a t r oo t s a nd s t a lk s s hou ld p rodu ce n ow f l ow e r s a nd n ow h a l f leng th f i gu r e s ? Y e t when p eop l e s e e t h e se f r aud s , t h ey f i nd n o f a u l t w i th t h em b u t o n t h e c on t r a r y a r e d e l igh t ed , a nd d o n o t c a re whe th e r a ny o ft h em c an e x i s t o rn o t . T he i r u nde r s t and ing i s d a rken ed b y d e c ad en t c r i t i c a lp r inc ip l e s s ot h a ti ti sn o tc apab l e o fg i v ing i t s a pp rov a l a u tho r i t a t iv e ly a nd o n t h e p r inc ip l e o f p rop r i e t y t ot h a t wh i ch r e a l ly c an e x i s t . T h e f a c ti s t h a t p i c tu r e s wh i ch a r e u n l ik e r e a l i t y o ugh t n o t t o b ea pp rov ed . . . ( V i t ruv iu s , 1 9 14 : 2 11 -2 12 ) .

R en a i s sanc e d e s ign s s u ch a st h e se a r e c ommon ly a c cep t ed a st h e p r im a ry s e n se o f t h e t e rm " g ro t e sque" , wh i ch o n l y l a te rg a th e r s i n to i t se l f ab roade r c omp l ex o fa b s t r ac t i d ea s p o t en t i a l l y u n r e l a t ed t oi m ag e s . T h i s v i ew i sc l o se l y l i nk ed t ot h ec h ang ing p a t t e rn so ft h et e rm ' su s e , wh ich

D e sp i t e t h e f a c t t h a t V i t ruv iu s w a s w r i t ing t ow a rd s t h e c l o se o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry BC , a nd t h e r u in s t h a t ' i mp r e s sed t h e g ene r a t ion o fR aph ae l , a nd c r ea ted b y e mu l a t ion an ew a r t i s t i c i d iom ' w e r e i d en t if i ed a s t h e D omu s Au r e a ( t he p a l a t i a l c omp l ex c on s t ru c t ed b y N e ro f r om AD 6 4

1L ag r o t t e s c aa nd g r o t t e s c o , t h e I t a l ian r oo t s o ft h e wo rd , b o th r e f e r t o g r o t t a ( c ave ) , wh i ch , i nL a t in , i sp robab ly c r u p t a o r c r y p t a ( c r yp t ) ( f rom c r y p t ° mean ing " h idden" ) ; t h e G r eek t e rm f o r v au l t i sc l o se ly l i nk ed ( Kay se r , 1 963 : 1 9 ;H a rpham , 1 982 : 2 7 ;M i l le r , 1 982 : 8 ;Y a te s , 1 997 : 7 ) .

2

Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tory s e cond h a lf o ft h e e i gh teen th c en tu ry , ' aT u rk i sh mo sque , a C h ine se p agoda , a nd a Go th i c " ca thed ra l" w e re b u i l t ( S umme r son , 1 993 : 4 52 ) .A sB a ra sch n o te s ,

o nw a rd s ) , t h e q uo ted e x t rac t r em a in s i mpor tan t ( S ech te r , 1 994 : 2 3 ) . No t o n ly a r e t h e re c l o se f o rm a l s im i l a r i t ie s b e tw een V i truv iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion a nd t h e g ro te sque s o f t h e D omu s Au r ea b u t t h e wo rk o f V i truv iu s w a s t a k en a s

T ha t t h e p reva i l ing t a s te i n t h e a r t , l i t e ra tu re , a nd manne r s o f t h e n eo -c l a s s i ca l a g e i n E ng land w a s " G ro t e sque a nd Go th ique" i sp e rhap s as u rpr i s ing s t a temen t t ot ho se who a r e a ccu s tomed t ov i ew ing t h e e i gh teen th c en tu r y a st h e Augu s tan Age o ft h e E ng l i sh a r t s . Y e t t h i s i s wha t r a t ional i s t c r i t i c s t hough to ft h e i r own t ime s ( 1 971 : 9 5 ) .

a u tho r i t a t iv e , e ncap su l a t ing t h e a e s the t ic v i s ion o f c l a s s ica l R om e . F u r the r , h i s t r ea t i se , D e Ar c h i t e c t u r a , h ad b ecome a v a i l ab l e i n t r an s l a t ion d u r ing t h e o pen ing y ea r s o f t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry a nd w a s w ide ly emb raced b y n eo -c l a s s i ca l a r ch i tec t s . V i truv iu s w ind s h i s a s se s sm en t o f t h e f r e sco s a r ound t wo m a in p o in t s : t h e i r c l o sene s s t o r e al i ty ( m ime s i s ) a nd t h e a pp rop r ia t ene s s o f t h e i r s t y le ( d ecorum ) . T he se i mag e s d i sappo in t h im o n b o th c oun t s . T he V i t ruv i an v i ew h o ld s t h a t t h ev a lu e o f ap a in t ing r e s ide s i ni t s a b i l i ty t or ep re sen t

I t i s d u r ing t h i s c en tu ry t h a t t h e c onnec t ion s b e tw een g ro te sque a r t a nd Go th ic a r ch i tec tu r e w e re e s t abl i shed . B o th s t ood a s ap opu la r c halenge t o t h e a u tho r i ta t iv e p r inc ip l e s u pon wh ich c l a s s i ca l a r t a nd b eau ty w e re b a sed a nd i nt h i s w ay ' t he n a t iv e E ng l i sh a ppe t i te f o r f o rm s t h a t w e re " un regu la ted" a nd " unna tu ra l" t o ah andfu l o fc r i t ic s , s u rv iv e [d ] i np opu l a rt a s te a s ak i nd o fu nde rg round r a i l road r unn ing f r om t h e R ena i s sance t o t h e n ine teen th c en tu r y '

c onc re te f o rm s , ap i c tu re b e ing ' i n f a c t , ar ep re sen t a t ion o fa t h ing wh i ch r e a l ly e x i s t s o r wh ich c an e x i s t : f o r e xamp le , a m an , ah ou se , as h ip , o r a ny th ing e l se f r om who se d ef in i te a nd a c tu a l s t ru c tu r e c op ie s r e semb l ing i tc an b e t a ken ' ( V i truv iu s , 1 914 : 2 10 ) . I n t h i s s en se t h e f r e sco i m age s c anno t b e e s teemed b ecau se t h ey d ep ic t " unna tu ra l" a nd u n rea l f o rm s . S econd , a nd c l o se ly r e l a ted , t h e se f o rm s a r e d i sha rmon iou s a nd h yb r id , c on t rad ic t ing ' t he n eed f o r d ecorum ' t h a t ' l i e s a tt h e c o re o f t h e c l a s s i ca l d oc t r ine o f a r t ' ( S ech t e r , 1 994 : 2 7 ) . T h i s o p in ion , b a sed u pon V i t ruv iu s

( i b id . ) . I f p opu l a r t a s te w a s f o r t h e n a t iv e a nd Go th i c , l e a rned t a s te s t e nded t ow a rd s t h ec l a s s i ca l . R ev iv ed Go th i c , d e sp i te t h e s upe rf i c i a l g l amou r , s t i r red d eepe ri mag ina t iv e c u r ren t s t h a t h ad g r ea tb ea r ing u pon t h e r e cep t ion o fm ed i ev a la r t a nd a r ch i tec tu r e i ng ene ra l . I n t h e m id -e igh teen th c en tu ry t wo l a ndma rk b u i ld ing s , I nv e ra ry C a s t le , b u i l t u nde r t he d i r ec t ion o f t h e Duk e o f A rgyl i n 1 745 , a nd S t rawbe r ry H i l l , Tw i ckenham , t h e o ngo ing c r ea t ion ( f rom 1 747 ) o ft h e n ov el i s t Ho r ace Wa lpo le , b o th o f wh ich u sed t h e Go th i c s t y le t h roughou t , e f f ec t iv e ly q ue s t ioned Go th i c f r ivol i ty . R a the r , i tw a s a u then t ic i t y t h a t m a t te red : i n -dep th k now l edg e o f med iev a l a r ch i tec tu re w a s n ece s sa ry i fo ne w a s t ob e a b le t or e c rea te i ti nd e ta i l . T h i s s pu r red a mo re s c ien t if i c a pp roach t o t h e med iev a l p a s t , wh i ch e f f ec t iv e ly c ha rac te r i sed r e sea r ch w el i n to t h e

a nd p romo ted b y n eo -c la s s i ca l a r ch i tec t s s uch a s A lbe r t i , a f f ec ted a l a r t c r i t i c i sm t h a t a ppea r ed i n t h e l a te s i x t een th a nd s ev en t een th c en tu r ie s ( Ba ra sch , 1 971 : 7 5 ) .2

Go th ic R ev iva l T he Go th ic R ev iv a l f a c i l i ta t ed n ew a pp r ec i a t ion o f t h e g ro te squ e s t y l e . Du r ing t h e e i gh teen th c en tu ry t h e p h i lo soph i ca la nd a r t i s t i c mov emen tk nown a st h e C oun t e r E n l igh t enmen t c hamp ioned t h e Go th i c s t y le a g a in s t

n ine teen th c en tu r y . 3 Two c ruc ia l f i gu re s i n t h e mov em en t t owa rd g r ea te r a r chaeo log ica l a c cu r acy w e r e t h e s pec i al i s t p ubl i she r , J ohn B r i t ton , a nd t h e a r ch i tec t , T homa s R ickm an . B r i t ton ' s Ar c h i t e c t u r a l An t i qu i t i e s o f G r ea t B r i t a i n a ppea red i nf i ve v o lume s f r om 1 807 o nw a rd s a nd a ppea led t ob o th s cho la r s a nd t h e e duca ted p ub l i c a l ik e , ' as ucce s sf u l c omb ina t ion n o t o n ly f o r B r i t ton a s ap ubl i she r b u t f o r i n te r e s t i n t h e Go th i c s t y le i n g ene r a l ' ( Macau lay , 1 975 : 1 74 ) . I n 1 819 T homa s R ickman p ubl i shed An A t t emp t t o

c l a s s i ca l o rde r . Whe rea s E n l igh tenmen t p h i lo sophe r s h ad s ough t t o d i spen se w i th " a r cha ic" s upe r s t i t ion , p romo t ing i n s t ead t h e b el i ef t h a t t r ue k now l edge a nd p e rf ec t v i r tue c ou ld b e a t t a ined t h rough r e a son , ' t he ma s ter y o fp a s s ion , a nd o nc a lm , c onf iden tr egu l a t ion ' ( Dav enpor t -H ine s , 1 998 : 2 3 ) , t h e " Go th s" c e l eb r a t ed t h e i r ra t iona l , t h e c hao t ic a nd f r eak i sh , p l ac ing g r ea te r v a lue u pon e xpe r ience a nd f e e l ing t h an r a t iona l a r gum en t . T he f a sc ina t ion w i th t h e t r an sg r e s s iv e r a the r t h an t h e p rog re s s iv e f u eled t h e Go th i c o b se s s ion w i th t h e m ad a nd t h e o u tca s t , d ea th , r u ina t ion a nd t h e u ncon t rolab le p ow e r o f n a tu ra l f o rce s . R ev iv ed Go th i c h a s t h e ref o re a lway s h ad a t a s te f o r t h e ( m e lo )d r am a t i c a nd t h e c heap t h ea t r ica l e f f ec t . I n t h e e a r ly e i gh teen th c en tu r y t h i s f ound v i sua l e xp re s s ion i n t h e c a refu l ly s t ag ed g a rden s a r ound a r i s toc ra t ic h ou se s , whe r e t h e e r ec t ion o f r u inou s b u i ld ing s a nd t h e c a refu l a r r ang em en to fd ead t r ee s c o mb ined t op roduce t h e d e s i red s omb r e a tmo sphe re ( s ee , f o r i l u s t r a t ion , G e rm ann , 1 972 ; Macau lay , 1 975 : 2 0 -39 ) . Go th ic a nd e xo t i c s t y le s m ixed f r ee ly i ns ome g a rden s a sa tK ew i nL ondon , whe re , i nt h e

D i s c r im ina t e t h e S t y l e s o f Ar c h i t e c t u r e i nE n g l and , wh ich , l i k e B r i t ton ' s e n te rp r i se w a s v e ry w el r e ce iv ed a nd r an t o s ev e ra l e d i t ion s ( R i ckm an , 1 848 ) . I n t h i s w o rk h e a dv anced t h e c l a s s if i ca tory s y s tem w i th wh ich a r ch i t ectu r a l h i s to r i an s a r e s t i l lf am il i a r , d i v id ing t h e s t y l e s o fb u i ld ing i nE ng l and i n t h e m ed iev a l p e r iod i n to f ou r c h rono log ica l g roup s — No rm an , E a r ly E ng l i sh , D eco r a ted , a nd P e rpend i cu l a r . R ickman ' s m e t i cu lou s a pp roach d i d n o t , h ow ev e r , e x t ingu i sh t h e r oman t ic v i s ion o ft h e med i ev a l p e r iod a sa n a g e o f f a i th ; i ndeed , t h e r e l ig iou s mov em en t s o f t h e 1 830 s

3 2

T h i s e f f ec t ive ly s e ve r ed t h e c onnec t ion m ade b e tw een m ed ieva l

a r ch i tec t u ra l s cu lptu r e a nd E gyp t ian h i e rog lyph s t h a t w a s e s t abl i shed i n t h e R ena i s sance p e r iod a nd r e i t e ra t ed i n t h e e i gh teen th c en tu r y

A n o tab le e xcep t ion w a s t h e w r i te r H en r y Wo t ton , who , i n T h e

E l em en t s o f Ar c h i t e c t u r e ( 1 624 ) h ad q ue s t ionn ed V i t ruv ian w i sdom o n t h et op i c o fg ro t e sque o rnamen t ( Ba r a sch , 1 971 : 6 5 -66 ) .

( D i eckmann , 1 957 ;V anuxem , 1 957 : 5 4 ) .

3

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s h ad much i nc o mmon w i th t h e r oman t ic , a n t iqua r ian s p i r i t ( Wh i te , 1 962 : 2 5 -26 ) .

c ondemned t h e d e s ign s t h a t w ou ld i n sp i re R ena i s sance g ro te sque R u sk in d enounced R ena i s sance g ro te sque d i rec t ly . T h i s s a t w el w i th h i s t h eor y o f t wo t y pe s o f g ro te sque , " nob le" a nd " i gnob l e" . T he f o rme r w a s s e r iou s , f e a rfu l a nd g rue some , t h e l a t te r f r ivo lou s a nd o b scene . Nob le g ro te sque h e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s em i independen t m ed i eva l c r af t sman -de s igne r a nd Go th i c a r ch i t ec tu re , wh i le t h e i g nob le g ro te sque h e i d en t if i ed a s ap roduc t o f t h e R ena i s sance a nd d enounced v ehem en t l y , a s t h e f olow ing f r om T h eS t on e so fV en i c em ak e s c l ea r :

V ic to r i an d e s i re f o r a" v i r tuou s" Go th i c , e n t i re ly s u i ted t o t h e o pp re s s iv e , a we some a tmo sphe r e a pp ropr i a te f o r r e l ig iou s a r ch i tec tu re a nd i ndeed , at ho rough ly mo ra l s oc ie ty i ng ene r a l ( s ee , f o re xamp le ,P ug in , 1 973 [ 1 836 ] ) ,m ean tt h a t c er t a in a spec t s o fm ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu re w e r e p l ayed d own o r om i t ted f r om s e r iou s s t udy . I n i t ia l ly , o n ly t h e t h ir teen th c en tu r y a ppea r ed t o c ou r t f a vou r . T o t h e V ic to r ian s t h i s p e r iod r e p re sen ted ' m ed iev a l a r t a t t a ined , m ed i ev a la r t a ti t s h e igh t , a nd m ed iev a l a r t i n i t s mo s t c omp le te e xp r e s s ion , u nma t ched b efo re a nd u nequa led t h e r eaf te r ' ( Bobe r , 1 978 : v i ) . A u s te r e a nd l i gh t , t h i s p e r iod w a s r a re ly h ome t o t h e s o r t o f i mage r y t h a t c ha r ac t e r i sed t h e e a r l i e r R omane sque p e r iod a sp r im i t iv e a nd t h e l a te r med i ev a le r a a sd eg ene r a t e . A s Em i le Mä l e p u t i t ,t h e a r t o ft h e t h i r teen th c en tu r y w a s ' p u re ,a maz ing ly p u re ' ( 1 961 [ 1 9 13 ] : 6 2 ) .

T he a r ch i tec tu re r a i sed a tV en ice d u r ing t h i s p e r iod i sa mong t h e w o r s t a nd b a se s t e ve r b u i l t b y t h e h and s o f m en , b e ing e spec i a l ly d i s t ingu i shed b y a s p i r i t o f b ru ta l mock e ry a nd i n so l en t j e s t , wh i ch , e xhau s t ing i t se lf i n ad efo rm ed a nd mon s t rou s s cu lp tu re , c an s ome t ime s b e h a rd ly o therw i se d ef ined t h an a s t h e p e rpe tu a t ion i n s t one o f t h e r i ba ld r ie s o fd runkenne s s ( Ru sk in , 1 904a ,V : 1 35 ) .

T he d e s i r e f o r " pu r e" Go th i c a r t c aled f o r th h i gh ly r om an t i c i n te rp re t a t ion s o f t h e m ed iev a l p e r iod . No tw i th s t and ing i t s c onnec t ion s w i th a ny th ing c on s ide red r emo te ly b a rba r i c t h e t e rm Go th i ch ad b een a s soc i a ted w i th t h e s upe rna tu r a la nd my s te r iou s s i nce a tl e a s tt h ee i gh teen th c en tu r y ( Longue i l , 1 923 : 4 54 ) . A s al a te r s e c t ion e xp lo r e s i n mo r e d e ta i l , t h e i n c rea s ing ly s c ien t if i c v i s ion o f t h e w o r ld t h a t E n l igh tenm en t p h i lo sophy a nd m a s s i ndu s t r ial i sa t ion e ng ende r ed mean t t h a t i n expl i cab l e p henomena w e r e o f t en i g no red , r i d icu led , o r r e leg a ted t ot h e " non se r iou s" w o r ld s o f c h i ldhood o r d ream s . S uch a c on tex t n o t o n ly a lowed f o r b u t v i r tua l ly d em anded t h e p e r cep t ion o f m ed i ev a l c r af t smen a sc h i ld l ike a nd s upe r s t i t iou s . I ta l so m ean t t h a t i g no rance o ft h e m ed i ev a l p e r iod c ou ld b e t u rned t o o ne ' s i mag ina t iv e a dv an t ag e , a s e xempl if i ed i n t h e f olow ing b y W . R .L e thaby :

L a te ro n , h ea dd r e s se s t h e s t y le a s a n e l abo ra te a nd l u sc iou s f o rm o f n on sen se . . .compo sed o f n ymph s , c up id s , a nd s a ty r s ,w i th s h redd ing s o fh ead s a nd p aw s o fm eek , w i ld b ea s t s , a nd n onde sc r ip t v ege t ab l e s . . G ro s sne s s , o f o ne k i nd o r a no the r , i s , i ndeed , a n u nf a i l ing c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e s t y l e ; e i the r l a t en t , a s i n t h e r ef ined s en su al i ty o f t h e mo re g r acefu l a r abe sque s , o r , i n t h e w o r s t e xamp le s , m an i f e s ted i n e v e ry s pec i e s o f o b scene c oncep t ion a nd a bom inab le d e ta i l( i b id . 1 62 ) . H e re t h e c l a s s i ca li d ea o fv a lue i na r tb e ing d ependen tu pon s uch p r inc ip le s a s i t s d ep i c t ion o f " r ea l" t h ing s i n a n a pp rov ed a nd d eco rou s m anne r i sr e i te r a t ed . F o r R u sk in , t h e g ro te squ e s p a in ted i nt h e V a t ican r e p re sen ted ' t he f r u i t o fg r ea tm ind s d eg raded t ob a se o b jec t s ' ( i b id . 1 70 ) .

Go th ic a r ch i tec tu r e . . . i s as o r t o f f a iry s t o r y i n s t one ; t h e f o lk h ad f a len i n l ov e w i th b u i ld ing . . . [ s ]ome o ft h e i r t omb s a nd s h r ine s mu s t h av e b een c once iv ed a sl i t t le f a i ry b u i ld ing s ; t h ey w ou ld h av e l i ked l i t t le a ng e l s t o h op a bou t t h em a l a l iv e a nd b low f a iry t r umpe t s . I n t h e b u i ld ing o f t h e g r ea t c a thed r a l s i t mu s t b e a low ed t h a t t h e r e i s a n e l emen t t h a t w e d o n o t u nde r s tand . T he o ld b u i lde r s w o rked w onde r i n to t h em ; t h ey h ad t h e a b i l i t y wh i ch c h i ld ren h ave t oc al u p e nchan tmen t ( 1 912 [ 1 904 ] : 1 4 1 ) .

Wh i le R u sk in w ro te v ehemen t ly a g a in s t R ena i s sance g ro te sque , h e e x toled t h e v i r tue s o f m ed i ev a l g ro t e sque . L ike t h e c on tempo r a ry a r t i s t ic mov emen t s t h a t c e leb r a ted t h em ed i ev a l , R u sk in s aw i nm ed iev a la r ch i tectu r a ls cu lp tu re a n h one s ty m i s s ing i n t h e m anuf ac tu r ed f o rm s o f t h e R ena i s sance . Y e t w i th in ' t he v e ry f o rm s o f d eba semen t h e s o e xc i ted ly c ondemn s ' i nR ena i s sance a r t R u sk in f i nd s ' t he s ame q ual i t i e s h e a dm i r e s i n Go th i c a r ch i t ec tu re : " t he re i s j e s t —p e rpe tua l , c a re le s s , a nd n o t i n f r equen t ly o b scene — i n t h e mo s t n ob le w o rk o f t h e Go th i c p e r iod s" ( D i ed r i ck , 1 988 : 1 ) . R a the r , R u sk in ' s z ea lou s a t t emp t t o s e pa r a te d ecen t f r om i ndecen t a nd t r ue f r om f a l se g ro te sque m ay b e r e la t ed t o a mo r e w ide sp read t r end a mong t h e V ic to r ian m idd le c l a s se s —t h ec r ea t ion o f ab ou rg eo i s i d en t i t yt h rough e xc lu s ion o ft h a t wh i ch w a s c on s ide r ed l ow a nd v u lg a r .

Du r ing t h e n ine t een th a nd e a r ly t wen t i e th c en tu r ie s , t h e t e rm s G ro t e sque a nd Go th ic t e nded t o b ecome i n te r changeab l e , a nd t h e f o rme r , d e sp i te i t s c l a s s i ca lo r ig in s , i n c rea s ing ly c am e t o s i gn if y t h e mon s t rou s a spec t s o f m ed i ev a la r t .

J ohn R usk in o n Nob le a nd I gnob le G ro tesque

T he c on sequence s o f s uch a na ly s i s f o r g ro te sque i m ag e ry w e r e t wofo ld . On t h e o ne h and i to pened u p g ro te sque a r t f o rw ide r c r i t i ca l a t t en t ion ; o n t h e o th e r , s cho la r s t e nded t o c en so r o r t r iv ia l i ze t h e mo re o b scene e l emen t s ( e .g Wr igh t ,

One o ft h e mo s t i n f luen t i a l w r i te r s o n m ed iev a l a r t i nt h i s p e r iod w a s t h e c r i t i c J ohn R u sk in . Whe r e V i t ruv iu s

4

Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tor y t h e g r ea te r t h e i mpe tu s t owa rd d ef in i t ion t h e g r ea t e r t h e a dv anc ing d a rk : a s s c ience wo rked s t ead i ly t ow a rd s e s t abl i sh ing ' t he h omog ene i ty o f p henomena ' i t s imu l taneou s ly e xc luded f r om t h e f i e ld o f c on s ide ra t ion t ho se u nc la s s if i ab le , h e te rog eneou s e l emen t s ( Ba ta i l le , 1 979 : 6 8 ; L ykke , 1 996 : 1 6 ) . Unknow ab l e b y s c i en t if i c m ean s , b eyond a l f r am ewo rk s o f l e g i t ima te k now l edg e , t h e se s ub jec t s b ecame o f f -l im i t t o o r thodox e nqu i ry , s k i r t ing t h e b ounda r ie s whe re t h e ' r i g id c e r ta in ty o f t h e a cademy b lu r s t o aw i ld , s ugg e s t iv eu nknown ' ( Cohen , 1 994 : 1 ) .

1 865 ) . C e r t a in ly , t h e e f f ec t o f s epa ra t ing o u t a nd n am ing d i f f e ren t f o rm s o f g ro te squ e a nd i d en t if y ing e a ch w i th s pec if i c h i s to r i ca l e poch s h ad a l a s t ing i nf luence . Wh i le m ed i ev a l g ro te sque b ecam e p r a i sewo r thy , t h e " i gnob l e" g ro te sque , i d en t if i ed a si tw a s w i th t h e f o rma l a c adem ic i sm o ft h e c l a s s i ca l s t y le a nd t h e m a s s p roduc t ion o fd eco r a t iv e mo t if s , d id l i t t l e t or epud i a te t h e c onno t a t ion s o fe mp t ine s s a nd a b su rd i ty . I ndeed ,F .W . F a i rho l t ,w r i t ing o n' G ro te sque De s ign ' f o rt h e Ar tJ our na lo f1 862 a po log i se s t oh i s r e ade r s f o r c a l l ing t h e i r a t ten t ion t o s ome th ing s o t r iv i a l a nd m ean ing le s s ( F a i rho l t , 1 862 : 9 2 ) . No t u n t i l i n t e re s t i n t h e g ro te sque r ev iv ed a f te r t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r w ou ld t h e

T he i n c rea s ing e xc lu s ion o ft h e i ndef inab le f r om t h e a r ena o f p rope r i nve s t iga t ion n o t o n ly ma rg inal i zed t h e mon s t rou s a nd f a n t a s t ic , b u t t h rough a s soc i a t ion , c aled t h e i r h ab i tua l d we l l ing s i n to d i s repu te . P opu la ted w i th t a lk ing a n ima l s a nd s hape sh i f t ing c r ea tu re s , f a i ry ta le s a nd f a b le s w e r e g r adua l ly r e lega ted t o c h i ld ren ' s l i t e ra tu r e t h roughou t t h e s ev en teen th a nd e i gh teen th c en tu r ie s ( ' ( / a rne r , 1 994 : 1 2 -26 ) . B e ing s t ha t e xceed o r c onfu se s c i en t if i c d ef in i t ion s h av e b een c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th

t e rm b eg in t o b e r e cogn i sed a g a in a s ac r i t i ca l c oncep t i n terweav ing a nd c omb in ing o ppo s i t ion s i n e qua l m ea su re ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , K ay se r , 1 963 ; J enn ing s , 1 963 ; C l aybo rough , 1 965 ; T hom son , 1 972 ; Me rm i e r , 1 977 ; H a rpham , 1 982 ; Ku ry luk , 1 987 : R u s so , 1 995 ; M i le s , 1 997 ; Hyman , 2 000 ) . P o s t -w a r w r i te r s w e l comed t h e g ro te sque , f o r i ni t s d i s tor ted a nd s ch izo id f a ce t h ey f ound ac u r iou s ly f am i l ia r r e f l ec t ion . Un t i l t h en t h e a s soc ia t ion s r ema ined o v erwhe lm ing ly p e r jo ra t iv e a nd ' u nna tu ra l , f r ivo lou s , a nd i r ra t iona l c onnec t ion s b e tween t h ing s ' i n a r t a nd a r ch i tec tu r et e nded t ob e r e leg a ted t ot h e d eco ra t iv e ( Ru s so ,

i mma tu r i ty a nd i mag ina t ion e ve r s i nce . T o t h i s d ay a ny b ibl iog raph ic s e a rch u nde r t h e h ead ing "mon s te r s" i sl i ke ly t op roduce h und red s o fs t or y b ook s f o r c h i ld ren y e t o n ly a h andfu l o fw o rk s i n tended f o r a" s e r iou s" a du l t r e ade r sh ip . An ima l s , t oo , h av e s uf f e red as im i la r f a te . S c i en t if i c s uppo r t f o r r a t iona l e nqu i ry c oup l ed w i th a n a n th ropocen t r ic o u t look h a s m ean t t h a t a ny c on s ide r a t ion o f o r r e spon s ib i l i ty t owa rd s t h e n on -human c an ' o n ly b e t hough t o fa se xce s s iv e o ri n ca lcu lab l e ' ( Bake r , 2 000 : 7 7 ) . F rom t h i s p o in t o fv i ew t o ' i den t if y w i th a n ima l s ' i so f ten d i spa raged a s ' ac h i ld i sh t h ing ' ( i b id . 1 993 : 1 23 ) . T h i s i sa n i mpor tan t b i a s t oa cknow l edg e : i fo u rp re jud ice ' c on s t ruc t s t h e a n ima l a s a b so lu te ly o the r , a nd b y a s soc ia t ion t ho se who i d en t if y w i th t h e a n ima l . . .a s o the r ' t h en t h e empa the t ic r e ade r o f t h e n on -human o the r i s o ne who i s ' i n suff i c ien t ly s oph i s t ica t ed , i n suff i c ien t ly a du l t ' ( i b id . 1 24 ) . I n t h e e ye s o f i t s p r ac t i t ione r s n ine t een th - a nd t wen t ie th -cen tu r y s c i ence w a s n e i the r —i ndeed , t h e se w e re t h e v er y a ccu sa t ion s i t s ough t t o f l ee t h rough c l a s s if y ing a nd c a ta logu ing t h e n a tu r a lw o r ld t oi mpeccab l e s t anda rd s .

1 995 : 3 ;J one s , 1 982 [ 1 856 ] ) .

Mons ter s a nd S cho la r s T he f o rm al i sa t ion o f a r chaeo logy a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l h i s tory a s a c adem ic d i sc ip l ine s i n t h e l a t t e r h a l f o ft he n ine teen th c en tu ry r an c oncu r ren t ly w i th t h e e me rgence o f s c i en t if i c " ob jec t iv i t y" . T h i s r equ i red o f t h e t r ue s c ien t i s t ak i nd o f h e ro ic s e lf -d i sc ip l ine a nd a t ten t ion t o d e t a i l wh i ch f ound e xp re s s ion i n a' n ea r -f ana t ica l e f f o r t t o c r ea te a t la se s —t h e b ib le s o f t h e o b serv a t iona l s c ience s ' d ocum en t ing o b serv ab le p henomena s u ch a s b i rd s , f o s s i l s o r h uman b od ie s i ni n c red ib le d e t a i l ( Da s ton a nd G al i son , 1 992 : 8 1 ) . Howev e r , t h e r e w a s mo re t h an j u s t a c cu racy a t s t ake ; mo ral i t yw a sc l o se ly b ound u pw i th t h e s c ien t if i ce ndeavou r . S e lf -command w a s n ece s sa ry t o t r iumph o v e r ' t he t emp ta t ion s a nd f r a i l t i e s o f f l e sh a nd s p i r i t ' f o r n e i the r f a t igue n o r c a re l e s sne s s c ou ld e xcu se a l a p se i n a t ten t ion t h a t a f f ec ted m ea su r em en t s o rr e su l t s ( i b id . 8 3 ) . F ur the r , t h e

G iv en s uch a c u l tu r a l c on tex t , s om e o f t h e a s sump t ion s m ade a bou t m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re o v e r t h e l a s t c en tu ry o r s o a r e p e rhap s u n su rp r i s ing . A r t h i s to r i an s h av e o f ten c l a s sed t h e se i mag e s a s t h e p roduc t o f a n i mm a tu re m ind . Mä le , f o r e xamp le , b el i eved t h a t t h e med iev a l a r t i s t s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e se i mag e s w e re t h em se lv e s s imp le c r af t smen , n a ïv e a nd i l i te ra te , who ' d e l igh ted i nn a tu r e f o r

s c i en t i s t h ad t ob e w a r y o ft h e d a rk r e a lm s o f s upe r s t i t ion ; h e w a s as up r a ra t iona l b e ing , ad i spele r o f my th s a nd s hadow s . I ndeed , P e te r S t alyb ra s s a nd Alon Wh i te h av e a r gued t h a t n ine teen th -cen tu r y s c ience o n ly eme rg ed a s a d i s t inc t iv e a nd a u tonomou s s e t o fv a lue s a f te r ap ro longed s t rugg l e a g a in s tr i tua l a nd s upe r s t i t ion , f o r s c ien t if i c i d en t i ty d epended u pon t h ed i s t ance i tc ou ld e s tabl i sh b e tw een i t se l f a nd t h e p opu l a r b e l ief s a nd c u s tom s i tr eg a rded a s f oo l i sh ( S t a l lyb ra s s a nd Wh i te , 1 986 : 1 74 ) . A rchaeo log i s t s w e re l i k ew i se k een t o d i s tance t h em se lve s a nd t h e i r d i sc ip l ine f r om t h e s t udy o f f o lk lo r e , a nd a p roce s s o f g r adua l s epa ra t ion i n ten s if i ed t h roughou t mu ch o f t h e f olow ing c en tu r y ( Gaz in -Schw a r t z a nd Ho l to rf , 1 999 : 8 9 ) .

i t s own s ak e ' ( 1 96 1 [ 1 913 ] : 4 8 ) . T he re w a s n o d ep th t ot h e i r s cu lp tu re : ' [ 1 ]ef t t o h im se l f t h e med iaev a l s cu lp to r d i d n o t t r oub le a bou t s ymbo l s , b u t w a s s imp ly o ne o f t h e p eop l e , l o ok ing a t t h e w o r ld w i th t h e w ande r ing e ye s o f ac h i ld ' ( i b id . 5 1 ) . Ande r son r e i t e r a ted t h i s t h em e . T he i mage s t h a t c ou ld n o t b e e xp l a ined b y r e f e rence t o manu sc r ip t i l u s t ra t ion s , t h e ' a ppa ren t ly mean ing l e s s g ro te squ e s ' , w e r e t h e r e su l t o f a n ' e xube r ance o f c r ea t iv e f a ncy a mong t h e c a rv e r s ' ( Ande r son , 1 938 : 2 2 ) . I n al a te rb ook s he s t a ted t h a t l a 's a c h i ld h a rd ly k now s t h e d i f f e r ence b e tween t h e c r ea t ion s o fi t s o wn i m ag ina t ion a nd t h e f e a tu re s o fi t s r e a l

T he a t temp tt o s e pa ra t e o u t s c ien t if i c " f ac t" f r om s c i en t if i c " f i c t ion" d epended u pon r i go rou s c l a s s if i ca t ion . Howeve r ,

5

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s e nv i ronm en t , s o u n i co rn s , b a s i l i sk s , g r i ff in s , a nd o th e r m y th i c a l mon s t e r sw e r e much mo r er e a lt ot h ec a rv e r s t h an t h e a c tu a l f a una o f d i s tan t l a nd s ' ( 1 954 : 1 6 ) . T h i s i m ag in a t iv ep l ayf u lne s sw a s c l o se ly a s soc i a t ed w i th m ed i ev a l p opu l a rc u l tu re i ng en e r a l ;

When l ef t t o t h e i r o wn d ev i ce s t h e c r af t smen o f t h et h i r t een th c en tu ry w e r el i k e a r t i s t s o fe v e ry a g e , t o whom s om e n ew c omb ina t ion o f l i n e a lw ay s s e em s s up r em e ly w or thy o fe f fo r t . . . . N e i the r s a t i r e n o r i nd ecen cy h ad a ny p a r t i n t h e a r t i s t ' s j e s t ing , a nd t h e h i deou s o b scen i t i e s wh i ch h av e b een d i scov e red i n t h e c a th ed r a l s e x i s t o n l y i n t h e i mag in a t ion o f af ew p r e jud i ced a r cha eo log i s t s ( 1 96 1 [ 1 9 14 6 0 ,6 2 ) .

T he f a c t i st h a t c oncep t ion s o f t h i s k i nd a r e o f e s sen t i a l ly p opu l a r o r ig in . T he g a rgoy l e s l i k e c hu r chy a rd v amp i r e s , o r t h e d r agon s s ubdu ed b y a nc i en t b i shop s , c am e f r om t h e d ep th s o f t h e p eop l e ' s c on sc iou sne s s ,a nd h ad g rown o u to ft h e i r f i r e s ide t a l e s ( M a l e , 1 96 1 [ 1 9 13 ] : 5 9 ) .

Unc l a s s if i ab l e ( a nd t h e r ef o r e u nknow ab l e b y t h e u su a l m ean s ) , a mo r a l , d i s tor t ed a nd d emon i c , m ed i ev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e s a tw i th in as w amp o fo b jec t ionab l e e p i the t s . No to n ly d i dt h i s h e lp t of o rmu l a t ei t sl e s se rw o r th i n c ompa r i son t o mo r e f o rm a l C h r i s t i an s c u lp tu r e , b u t g r adua l ly f o rmed a ne ndu r ing v i ew o fm ed i ev a la r ch i t ec tu r a l w o rk a sl i t t l e mo r e t h an t h e i d l e f a n t a s i e s o fu n supe rv i sed , i l i t e r a te a nd c h i ld i sh c r af t smen .

A l though Mä l e m ade t h e a s tu t e p o in t t h a t t h e se a r e n o t s o mu ch i m ag e sc op i ed f r om t h em anu sc r ip t so ft h ec l er i c sb u t c r ea ted b y o rd ina ry p eop l e , i tw a s t h i s v e ry f a c t t h a t d em eaned t h em ; f r om t h e i r i n cep t ion t h ey w e re q u i t e l i t e r al yv u lg a r . Wh i le t h e p r e sen ce o f t h e u nc l a s s if i ab l e t r oub l ed t h e s c i en t if i cm ind , t h ep r e sen ce o fb e s t i a li m ag e r yt r oub l ed t h e r e l ig iou s : a n i rn a l i ty s i gn if i ed p a s s ion a nd t h e p o s se s s ion o f ( o r b y ) a n " an im a l n a tu r e" . B u t a tl e a s t t h e g en e r a t ion o f a n im a l sw a s n o rma l I nc on t r a s t , t h e c oncep t ion a nd b i r th o f mon s t e r s r e p r e sen t ed t h e t e r r ib l e c on sequ en ce s o f s e xu a l t r an sg r e s s ion , t h e p rodu c t ion o f a n a bno rm a l b ody . T he e mpha s i s u pon t h e p r ima l f o r ce o f s e xu a l i ty t h a t m ed i ev a l i mag e s o f ten d i sp l ay w a s e nough t o w a r r an t n eg a t iv e r e ac t ion s f r om m any a r t h i s to r i an s a nd w a s c l o se ly l i nk ed w i th t h e c r ude a r t i s t i c a b i l i ty — a nd t h e r ef o r e o u t look — o f t h e " uneduca t ed" s t onem a son . L oc a li c onoc l a s t s o f t en t ook m a t t e r s i n to t h e i r o wn h and s . P h i l l ip J ohn s ton n o t ed i n 1 9 18 t h a t an umbe r o fc a rv ed c o rbe l s o n t h e c hu r ch o fS t N icho l a s a t S tud l and ( Do r se t ) h ad b een b rok en o f f o r d ef a ced ( 1 918 : 5 4 -55 ) a nd t h e r e a r e s im i l a r r umou r s c on ce rn ing an umbe r o fm i s s ing s c u lp tu r e s f r om S t Ma ry a nd S tD av id ' si nK i lpeck ,H e r ef o rd sh i r e ( W e i ra nd J e rm an , 1 986 : 9 ) . I n t h e m id -n ine t een th c en tu ry ac o r r e sponden tt o t h e j o u rn a l N o t e s a nd Q u er i e s w ro t e t h a t ' Ik now a s a c r ed b u i ld ing s t i l l u sed f o r p ubl i c w o r sh ip , i n w h i ch t h e m i se r er i e s ( t hough v e r y b eau t i fu l a sc a rv ing s ) a r e s o f i l thy a nd o b scene i nt h e i r r e f e r ence s , t h a t t h ey a r e n a i l ed d own b y t h e a u thor i t i e s t h a t t h ey m ay n o t b e s e en ' ( ' R . S . ' , 1 859 : 2 39 ) .

I n terpre t ing Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra l S cu lp ture T he v a r iou s t h eo r i e s a dv anc ed t o e xp l a in m ed i ev a l a r ch i te c tu r a ls c u lp tu r em igh tb es umm a r i zed a sf o l low s : 1 . D ida c t i c . P e rhap s t h e mo s t i nf lu en t i a l o f a l i n t e rp r e t a t ion s , t h i s v i ew s ugg e s t s t h a t a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e p o s se s sed a s p ec if i c C h r i s t i an m e s sag e t h a t t h e l a i t y , p r e sumed i l i te r a t e , c ou ld t h e r ef o r e " r e ad" a nd a b so rb . D e sp i t ei t s l o ng ev i t yi na r t h i s to r y t h e v i ew o f a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e a s d i da c t i c p re sen t s n um e rou sp rob l em s ,t r e a t ed i nd ep th b e low .

I ft h e n i n e t een th c en tu ry f ound mu ch t ob e o f f ended b yi n a r ch i t ec tu r a l i m ag e r y i ti sp e rhap s u n su rp r i s ing t o d i scov e r s im i l a r a t t i tude s i n f o rm ing t h e i r s t udy . S om e o f t h e mo r e o u t r ag eou s s c u lp tu r e s w e re m i sd r awn o r h a s t i ly d e sc r ibed ( Ande r sen , 1 977 : 1 0 11 ) wh i l e o the r s w e r e om i t t ed a l tog e the r ( J ohn s ton , f o re x amp l e ,d i dn o td w el o ns om eo f t h e mo r e mon s t rou s f i gu r e s t ob e f ound a tS t ud l and ) . T he s e xu a le l em en t s o fm any m ed i ev a lc a rv ing s , h ow ev e r , c ou ld b e p l ay ed d own b y e mpha s i s u pon t h e c h i ld l ik e o u t look a nd m en t a l i t y o f t h e s c u lp to r s . M i l e ' s m ed i ev a l s c u lp to r s , f o r e xamp l e , w e r e c omp l e te l y i n nocen t a nd e n t i r e l y d r iv en b ya r t i s t i ci d ea l so ff o rm :

6

2 .

A po t ropa i c . T h e a po t ropa i c u nde r s t and ing o f m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu re s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e se i m ag e s w e r e i n t ended t o w a rd o f f a ny e v i l o r m a l ign i nf lu enc e t h a t m igh t t a rg e t a s p i r i tu a l h ou se . S u ch a n e xp l ana t ion a c coun t s f o r t h e i r o f t en v i su a l ly i n acce s s ib l e l o ca t ion ( t he se a r en o tm e an tp r im a r i ly f o rh um an e y e s ) a s w el a s t h e f r equ en t l y e xpl i c i t o r c u r iou s c on t en t( e xh ib i t ion i s t s , mon s te r s ,e t c ) .

3 .

T a l i sm an i c . C lo se ly c onnec ted t o t h e a bov e , y e t o pe r a t ing v i a s ub t ly d i f f e ren t m ean s , t h e i mag e s s e rv e t o " an im a t e" t h e b u i ld ing , t o e ndow i t w i th a l i v ing p r e sen ce , t h e r eby s t r eng th en ing a nd p ro t ec t ing i t .

4 .

S a t i r i c . T h i s v i ew s ugg e s t s t h a t m ed i ev a l c a rv e r s a nd s t onem a son s o pe r a t ed o u t s id e e c c l e s i a st i ca l s upe rv i s ion a nd w e r e t h e r eby p re sen t ed w i th t h e o ppo r tun i ty t o s a t i r i ze t h rough g ro t e sque r e p r e sen ta t ion r e cogn i zab l e m embe r s o f t h e c ommun i t y , f o r e xamp l e , c l e r i c s .

Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tor y 5 .

6 .

1 . I den t if i ca t ion o f l im ina l s pace . G ro te squ e f o rm s , i nd raw ing a t ten t ion t o t h e b ounda r i e s o fc onv en t iona lp hy s ica l f o rm o rb ehav iou rb y t r an sg re s s ing i t , embody a mb igu i ty . T h rough a s soc i a t ion , t h e se u nc l a s s if i ab le i mag e s d em a rca te t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l s pace o f ar e l ig iou s b u i ld ing a ss im i l a r ly b eyond h uman s y s tem s o f k now l edg e . I n t h i s s en se t h ey m ay b e t a ken a s m a rke r s o fl i rn ina l s pace , i nb e tween t h ew o r ld o f h um an s a nd God y e t s imu l taneou s ly b o th ( s ee c hap te r2 ) .

Memor i a l . S tud ie s o f a r t a nd m emor y i n t h e a nc i en t a nd med iev a l w o r ld s h av e s hown t h a t s t r ik ing i m ag e s , i fa s soc i a ted w i th a s pec if i c i d ea , c an s e rv e a s h i gh ly e f f ec t iv e m ean s o f p romp t ing t h e r e col ec t ion o ft h a t i d ea ( Y a te s , 1 966 ; C a rru the r s , 1 990 ; C am i l le , 1 993b : 1 4 ) . I n t h e se s y s tem s , a r ch i tec tu r a l m e tapho r s a r e c ommonp lace . Mo reove r , t h e re i s t h e p o s s ib il i ty t h a t t h e a r t i cu la t ion o fa r ch i tec tu ra l i mag e ry c an m an ipu l a te c o l l ec t iv e m emory ; t hu s t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o f p agan i mage s i n to C h r i s t i an b u i ld ing s , f o r e xamp le , m ay h av e s e rv ed t o e r a se o l de r n e two rk s o fm ean ing , i n t h ep roce s sr ep l ac ing t h em .

Two o f t h e se i n te rp re ta t ion s h av e t e nded t o d om ina te a l o the r s a nd a c co rd ing ly , w a r ran t e xp lo ra t ion . T he se a r e : t h a t t h e c a rv ing s s e rv ed a d i dac t i c p u rpo se ( no . 1i n t h e l i s t a bov e ) ; a nd t h a t t h ey r e p re sen t p agan d e i t ie s o r my tho log ica l f i gu re s ( no . 9 ) . Is hal b eg in w i th t h e d idac t i c a r gumen t .

P u rg a t iv e ( I ) . No s e r iou s p u r su i t o ft h e s a c r ed w a s a b sen t f r om n i gh tma r i sh e ncoun te r s w i th m a levo len td emon s .T h rough m ed i t a t ion u pon t h e i mage s o f s uch c r ea tu re s i ti sa r gued t h a t f e a rfu l n eophy te s c ou ld g r adua l l y c ome t o t e rm s w i th t h e i r f e a r s a nd e v en tua l ly m a s te r t h em . Th i s i s p a r t icu la r ly r e lev an t f o r c l o i s t e red c ommun i t i e s a nd t h e i r b u i ld ing s

The " P ic tu re B ook o ft he Chu rches" T he mo s te ndu r ing i n te rp re ta t ive mode lu sed t oe xp la in t h e s i gn if i cance o f m ed i ev a l e cc l e s i a s t ica l a r t mu s t b e t h e " P ic tu re B ook o f t h e C hu r che s" . T h i s i s t h e i d ea t h a t i mag e s i n a l med ia ( p a in t ing , s cu lp tu re , mo sa ic e t c ) w e re

( Da le ,2 00 1 : 4 24 -430 ) . 7 .

P u rg a t iv e ( I I ) . T he c a rv ing s r ep r e sen t t h e d emon s e xpeled f r om t h e s pace o ft h e c hu rch b y t h e i n augu r a l r i t e s o f h alow ing a nd e xo rc i sm ( Ba r t l e t t , 2 000 : 4 42 -3 ) . Wh i le s uch a n e xp l ana t ion a ccoun t s f o r c a rv ing s l o ca ted o n t h e e x te r io r o f ab u i ld ing s u ch a sg a rgoy l e s , i t f a i l s t o e xp la in a ny p re sence o f " demon ic" i mage ry o nt h ei n te r io r .

8 .

One i r ic . A s d i scu s sed a bov e , t h e d ayd ream s , h aluc ina t ion s , a nd i d l e d ood l ing s o f t h e m a son s a nd c a rv e r s p rov ided t h e i mag er y , i t se lf a mp l if i ed a nd/o r s t imu l a ted b y p opu l a r s t o r i e sa nd l e g end s .

9 .

S u rv iv a l . T he i m ag e s r ep re sen t p ag an g od s , g odde s se s a nd o the r f i gu re s f r om p re C h r i s t i an my tho logy , i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e

b o rn o u t o fd e s i r e o n t h e p a r t o ft h e c l e rgy t o i n s t ruc t t h e l a i t y i n m a t te r s o f C h r i s t i an d oc t r ine , mo ral i ty a nd a pp rop r i a t eb ehav iou r . T hu s t h e c hu r ch b ecome s ar e adab le " p ic tu r e b ook" i n wh i ch i l i te ra te l a ymen a nd women m ay l e a rn t h eb a s ic t e ne t s o ft h e f a i th . E n t i re ly s u i ted t o n ine teen th -cen tu ry a n t iqua r i an i sm , t h e s y s tema t i c P i c tu r e B ook s yn the s i s o f i mag e w i th C h r i s t i an r e f e rence s a t i sf i ed b o th s cho l a ra nd c hu rchman . H e re a tl a s t w a s a r chaeo log i ca l p roof o f t h e d e s i red m ed i ev a l a ge o f f a i th , t h a t ' b eau t ifu l a nd b r i l l i an t t ime when E u rope w a s a s i ng le C h r i s t i an l a nd ' ( Nov al i s , c i t ed i n V an E ng en , 1 986 : 5 20 ) . I ndeed , i n ap er iod when a c adem ic e nqu i r y , r e l ig ion a nd r oman t ic i sm w e re d i ff i cu l t t o s e pa r a te i ti sp e rhap s u n su rp r i s ing t h a t t h e i mpe tu s f o r t h e t h eor y c ame f r om n o s cho l a r ly d i s se r t a t ion b u t f r om ar oman t ic n ov e l . I n N o t r e D am e d e P a r i s : 1 482 ( 1 831 ) V ic to r Hugo ' d i scov e red a nd f o rmu l a ted t h e f i r s tt h eo rem o fn ine teen th -cen tu ry med iev a l i c onog raphy ' ( Bobe r , 1 978 : x i i ) . H i s m e s sage w a s s imp le : ' I n

m ed i ev a l c hu r ch t o s moo th t h e t r an s i t ion f r om p ag an t o C h r i s t ian w o r sh ip ( S he r idan a nd R o s s , 1 975 ) .

t h eM idd le A g e s m en h ad n og r ea tt hough tt h a tt hey d id n o t w r i te d own i n s t one ' ( Hugo , c i t ed i n B obe r , 1 978 : x i i ) . Med iev a l a r t w a s au n iv e r sa l s y s t em a nd t h e Go th i c c a thed ra l s a nd c hu r che s o fn or the rn F rance t o wh ich Hugo r e f e r red n o th ing mo re t h an v a s ts cu lp ted e ncyc lopaed i a s .

1 0 . An agog ica l . T ha t i m ag e s c an a l t e r c on sc iou sne s s w a s r e cogn i sed b y A bbo t S uge r o f S t Den i s i n h i s r ebu i ld ing o f t h e c i t y ' s c a thed ra l , i n co rpo ra t ing i d ea s t a k en f r om P seudo -D iony s iu s ' s m e taphy s i c s . A bbo t S ug e r w ro t e t h a t h e f ound h im se l f t r an s l a ted t o a no the r wo r ld u pon c on t emp la t ion o f t h e s p lendou r so ft h eb u i ld ing ( F r i sch , 1 987 : 9 ) .

A l though Hugo h ad p rov ided t h e o u t l ine , at h eo re t ica l f r ame f o r i n te rp r e t ing m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l a r t , i tw a s h i s d evo ted f r i end a nd a dm i re r , Ado l fD id ron , who s e t o u t t o d emon s t ra te i t s t r u th . H e b el i ev ed t h a t t h e c hu rch i n tended i t s f i gu ra l a nd i l u s t r a t ive a r t f o r t h e i n s truc t ion o f t he u n le t t e red p eop le who c ou ld t hu s " r ead" t h e monumen t s r a the r t h an b ook s : ' The o b jec t o fa r t b e ing t o i n s t ruc t , t h e p l an o f i n s truc t ion w a s i n tended t o b e e ncyc loped ic , a nd

T o t h i s l i s t Iw ou ld a dd af u r the r p o s s ib i l i t yb a sed u pon my own r e sea rch :

7

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s e f f ec t ive ly b ecame s o ' i d ron , 1 886 : 1 0 ) . T he i nf lu ence o f Hugo a nd D id ron i nt h e n ine teen th c en tu ry h i s tor ica lw o r ld —b o th w e r e a c t ive m embe r s o ft h e C omm i t tee o nA r t s a nd Monumen t s i nF rance — m ean t t h a t t h e l a t te r ' s t e ndency , a s a n e n thu s ia s t ic C h r i s t i an , t o e xagg e ra te t h e r o le o f t h e c hu rch i nt h ea r th e s t ud ied w a se a s i ly o v e r looked .

Ar c h i t e c tu r a lS a i l p t u r ea sD id a c t i c :P r ob l em sa nd I n c on s i s t en c i e s Wh i le much med iev a lp ub l ic a r tm ay b e c oun t ed a sd i dac t i c , f o r e xamp l e , t h e p roce s s ion s o f b ibl i ca l f i gu r e s o n p or ta l s a nd f r i eze s , c yc le s o fv i r tue s a nd v i ce s , a nd w al -pa in t ing s o f t h e L a s t J udgemen t , f o r t h e l e s s e a s i ly v i s ib l e i m ag e s c ha r ac te r i s t ic o fa r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re t h e r e a r e s i gn i f ican t p rob lem s ( K enaan -K eda r , 1 995 : 4 ) . A s t h e f olow ing d i scu s s ion i l u s t ra t e s , a r t h i s to r i an s w o rk ing w i th t h e P i c tu r e B ook t h eor y t e nded t o a t t r ibu te t ho se i mag e s t h a t e s caped c e r t a in e xp l ana t ion t o t h e i mag ina t ion o f t h e c a rv e r s t h em se lve s . T he se " d i srup t iv e" i m age s w e re p e rce iv ed t o h av en o d i sce rn ib l er e l ig iou s m ean ing b ecau se t h ey w e r e t h e p roduc t o fu n supe rv i sed , i l i te r a te a nd c h i ld l ike c r af t sm en . T hey w e r ep u re ly o rnamen ta l .

T he P i c tu re B ook t h eo r y w a s c on sol ida ted b y t h e e no rmou s ly i nf luen t i a lw o rk o ft h e a r th i s to r i an Em i l e Ma l e . I n 1 898 h e p ubl i shed h i s monumen ta l w o rk o n t h e a r t o f t h e t h i r teen th c en tu ry w h i ch , i n 1 913 , a ppea red i n a n E ng l i sh t r an s l a t ion . I n t h e p ref ace h e p rov ide s an ea t s u mma ry o ft h ei d ea : T o t h eM idd le A ge s a r tw a s d i dac t i c . A lt h a ti tw a s n ece s sa ry t h a t m en s hou ld k now — t h e h i s tor y o f t h e w o r ld f r om t h e c r ea t ion , t h e d ogma s o f r e l ig ion , t h e e xamp l e s o f t h e s a in t s , t h e h i e r a r chy o f t h e v i r tue s , t h e r ang e o f t h e s c i ence s , a r t s a nd c r af t s —a l t h e se w e r e t a ugh t t h em b y t h ew indow s o ft h e c hu rch o r b y t h e s t a tue s i nt h e p o r ch . T he p a the t ic n ame o f B i b l i a p aup er um g i v en b y t h e p r in t e r s o f t h e f i f teen th c en tu r y t o o ne o f t h e i r e a rl i e s t b ook s , m igh t w el b e g i v en t o t h e c hu r ch . T he re t h e s imp le ,t h ei g no r an t , a l who w e r en am ed " s anc ta p l eb s D e i ," l e a rned t h rough t h e i r e ye s a lmo s t a l t h ey k new o ft h e i r f a i th . . .Th rough t h e m ed ium o f a r t t h e h i ghe s t c on cep t ion s o f t h eo log i an a nd s cho la r p ene t ra ted t o s om e e x t en t t h e m ind s o f e v en t h e h umb le s t o f t h e p eop le ( Ma l e , 1 961 [ 1 9 14 v i i ) .

F o r i m ag e ry t o w o rk a s d i dac t i c an umbe r o f c ond i t ion s n eed t o b e m e t . F i r s t , i t mu s t b e e a sy t o r e cogn i se . T h i s t e nd s t ow a rd s au n ifo rm i ty o f r ep re sen t a t ion . A l though m ed iev a la r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r ei sf r equen t ly r e pe t i t iv ei ni t s c ho i ce o f s ub jec t s t h e r e i so f ten l i t t l e c onf o rm i t y i n t h e i r t r ea tm en t . Y e t i tw a s t h e m e thod o fc opy ing t h e se i m age s , r a the rt h an a ny f a i lu re o ft h eP i c tu re B ook t h eory i t se lf , t h a t w a sp e r ce iv ed t op roduce s uch d i sc repanc ie s : T ha t t h e c a rv e r s d i d n o t f u l ly u nde r s tand t h e s ymbol i sm o ft h e s ub jec t s t h ey r e p r e sen ted i sm ade c l ea r b y t h e e nd le s s v a r i a t ion s o n e v e ry t heme t h a t c an b e f ound i n t h e i r w o rk . E ach l e gend a f f ec ted t h e c r ea t ive g en iu s o ft h ea ge l i ke ap ebb l ed ropped i n a p ond , t h e s ha rp ly d ef ined i nne r c i r c le c o r re spond ing t ot h ec o r rec tc arv ing , d i rec t ly b a sed u pon a m anu sc r ip t i l um ina t ion , t h e l a s t r i pp l e s , d i s to r ted b y r e ed s a nd s t one s , t o t h e s en se l e s s " babe r ie s" wh ich d im ly r ef l ec t t h e o r ig ina l d e s ign . . .The c oun t le s s i n accu ra te v e r s ion s o f b ea s t s a nd l e g end s t ob e f ound i np a r i sh c hu rche s t h roughou t t h e c oun t ry p robab ly r ef l ec t t h e a t temp t s o f i l l i te ra te c a rve r s t o r ep rodu ce t h e d e s ign s s e en i nt h e m a son ' s l odg e a t t ached t os ome g r ea t c a thed ra l , whe re t h ey h ad b een t empo r a r i ly emp loyed ( Ande r son , 1 938 : 1 ) .

Nume rou s a s sump t ion s a nd p rob l em s , h ow eve r , p l ague t h e P i c tu re B ook i d ea . T he se m igh t b e l i s ted , i n n o p ar t icu l a r o rde r ,a sf olow s : 1 . 2 . 3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

I mag e sa r er ank ed a si n f e r io rt ot e x t s . D if f e rence s b e tween t e x t s a nd v i sua l i mag er y a r e i g no red . T he p roce s se s o f r e ad ing a nd w r i t ing a r e t a k en f o r g r an t ed , i . e . t h e m ed i ev a l a nd mode rn r e ade r a r e i nd i s t ingu i shab le f r om e a ch o the r . I n a s sum ing a n e cc le s i a s t i ca l i mpe r a t iv e f o r t h e a r t , n o t o n ly i s t h e r e a g ene ra l f a i lu re t o c on s ide r t h e c i rcum s t ance s o f p roduc t ion b u t a r i g id d i v i s ion b e tw een o ff i c i a l/c le r ica l/l i te ra te a nd c ommon/ lay/ i l l i te ra te i se s tab l i shed . I n a s sum ing u n iv e r sa l u nde r s t and ing s t h e re i sa l so a f a i lu re t o t a ke i n to a c coun t t h e d i v e r s i ty o f m ed i ev a l a ud ience s a nd t h e i r u nde r s tand ing s o f i m ag e s w i th many m ean ing s . T he re i sn o e v a lua t ion o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l o r s oc ia l c on tex t s o ft h ei m ag er y .

L oca t ing m ean ing f o r p i ece s o f a r t i n m anu sc r ip t s i sa f am i l i a r a r t -h i s to r ica l t e chn ique . F o r Ande r son , e ach i m ag e m igh t b e t r aced t o a" co r rec t" m anu sc r ip t i l u s t ra t ion , t h e c l a r i t y o f t h e c a rve r s ' r ep roduc t ion s d e t e r io r a t ing t h rough t ime a nd d i s t ance f r om t h e o r ig ina ll i ke t h ei n te l l ig ib i l i t yo fa p h r a se i n ag ame o f C h ine se Wh i spe r s . A r t h i s to r i an s i n r e la t ed f i e ld s o f s t udy , h ow ev e r , h ad o the r i d ea s . I f Ande r son ' s " i naccu ra t e" i mag e s w e re c once iv ed a s who l l y n eg a t iv e , t h e r e su l t o f p oo r c opy ing , f o r E . W . T r i s t r am s uch i mag er y g l owed w i th ' t he s p i r i t o f s e lf -rel i ance a nd i ndependence c ha rac te r i s t ic o f Go th ic a r t ' ( 1 950 : 4 15 ) . I n h i s c omp rehen s iv e s t udy o fm ed i ev a lw al p a in t ing h e m ade i tc l ea r t h a t t h e ' work o f t h e p e r iod , whe the r i n l a rg e c hu rche s o r i n s mal , w i tne s se s t o t h e f i ne t ouch o f t h e c r af t sman u nhampe red b y t h e i n ev i t ab le r e s t r a in t s i mpo sed b y t h e p roce s s o f c opy ing ' ( 1 950 : 4 15 ; s e e No rdenf a lk ,

B ef o re i nv e s t ig a t ing t h e se p o in t s i ti si n s t ruc t iv e t o l o ok a t a ppl i ca t ion o f t h e P i c tu re B ook mode l t o a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re f o ri ti sh e re ,a tt h em a rg in so fm ed i eva la r t ,w he re t h e t h eor yb eg in s t ob r eak d own .

8

Med ie va lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tor y 1 939 h e n o ted t h a t ' I t i s , i n f a c t , c ha rac te r i s t i c o f R omane sque a r t t h a t i ti n t roduce s i n to t h e d eco ra t ion a nd i mage r y o f t h e c hu rch f r e sh e l emen t s o f p opu l a r f a n ta sy , e v e r yday o b serv a t ion a nd n a iv e p i e ty , b e s ide a nd e v en w i th in t h e d oc t r ina l t h em e s e l abo ra ted b y c en tu r ie s o f t h eo log i ca l m ed i ta t ion ' ( 1 977 [ 1 939 ]: 4 0 ) . S chap i ro ' s r e cogn i t ion o f a" hyb r id" med iev a l r e l ig iou s a r t mean t t h a t h e s aw t h e r e l ig iou s ( a nd t h e ref o re mean ing fu l ) v e r su s t h e p rof ane ( a nd t h e refo re m ean ing l e s s ) a r gumen t s t h a t c ha r ac te r i sed m id tw en t i e th c en tu ry d i scu s s ion a bou t a r ch i tectu r a l s cu lp tu r e a sn on sen s i ca l . ' A re t h e r e l ig iou s a nd o rnamen ta l t h e o n ly a l te rna t ive s o fa r t i s t i c p u rpo se ? ' ( 1 977 [ 1 947 ] : 1 0 ) h e a sked , ap o in th ew ou ld e l abo r a te u pon s ome

1 967 : 4 2 1 f o rc on s ide ra t ion o ft h e ' a lmo s ti n c r ed ib l e p ow e r o fv a r ia t ion w i th wh ich a lt h e se p a in t e r sw e re e ndowed ' ) . D e r iv a t ive o r i n sp i r ed , t h e a s sumed i l i te r acy o ft h e c a rv e r s p rov ided a f r amewo rk i n wh i ch t ho se i mag e s t h a t r e s i s t ed t h e c onven t iona l mean s o f i n te rp re t a t ion ( b y r e f e r ra l t o m anu sc r ip t s ) m igh t b e e xp l a ined . T he se ' l e s se r c a rv ing s ' w he re ' t heo log i ca l s uperv i s ion w a s l e s s s t r ic t 'w e r eg ene r a l ly a s sumed t o b e t h e r e su l t o f t h e ' i nd iv idua l f a nc ie s o f t h e m a son -carv e r s ' ( Ga rdne r , 1 935 : 8 ) . On s im i la r g round s s om e w r i t e r s p ropo sed t h a t a l t h e se i mage s w e r e m ean ing le s s . I fl e a rned c l e r i c s s u ch a sB e rna rd o fC l a i rv aux w e re u nab l e t o c omp rehend t h e se i mage s , s ugge s t ed Mä l e , t h en wha t h ope i st h e re o ff i nd ing i nt h em a ny m ean ing a t a l ? " Ingen iou s a r chaeo log i s t s" w e re t o b l ame f o r t h e i d ea t h a ta r ch i t ec tu ra ls cu lp tu r e c a r r ied a ny s i gn if i can ce :

y ea r s l a te r : I ni n te rp re t ing w o rk s o f med iaev a lr e l ig iou s a r t , t h e q ue s t ion a r i se s whe the r a l f i gu re s r ep re sen ted i n t h em a r e p rope r ly u nde r s tood a s r e l ig iou s i n c on ten t . . . . F o r as t uden t who i sc onv inced t h a t a l i nm ed i aev a la r ti ss ymbol i co ri l u s t ra te s ar e l ig iou s t h eme , i ti sn o t h a rd t o f i nd at e x t t h a t s e em s t o j u s t if y amo r a l o r s p i r i tual i s t i c i n te rp re ta t ion . . .Bu t t h e re i s a l so t h e f amou s l e t te r o f S t B e rna rd d enounc ing t h e f a n t a s t ic s cu lp tu red c ap i ta l s o ft h e C lun i ac c l o i s te r s a sc o mp l e te ly d evo id o fr e l ig iou s s i gn if i cance ( 1 963 : 3 51 ) .

A cco rd ing t o t h em [ a rchaeo log i s t s ] t h e t i n ie s t f l owe ro r s ma l l e s tg r inn ing mon s t e r h a s amean ing wh i ch t h e med iev a l t h eo log i an s c an r ev ea l t o u s . . . Wha tl i ke l ihood i st h e re t h a t t h ey [ t he s cu lp to r s ] wou ld h av e a t temp ted t o e xp r e s s s o many a nd s uch s ub t le mean ing s t h rough f i gu re s wh i ch a r e i nv i s ib le f r om b e low e xcep t w i th g ood g l a s se s ? ( Ma l e , 1 961 [ 1 91 4 4 6 ,4 7 ) Whe re Ande r son t r i ed t ol o ca te m ean ing b y s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e se c a rv ing s d e r iv ed f r om t h e ( i nc rea s ing ly d im ) memor y o f a manu sc r ip t i mag e , Mä le a r gued f o r t h e i r l a ck o f

G . G . C ou l ton a l so c onc luded t h a t i t i s ' n o t o n ly p a radox ica l , b u t a nach ron i s t i c , t o s uppo se t h a t p i c to r i a l a r t w a s e v e r mo r e v a luab le f o r r e l ig iou s t e ach ing t h an t h e w r i t ten o r s pok en w o rd . . .A l a rge p a r t o f med iev a l

m ean ing d ue t o t h e i r g ene ra l i n comp rehen s ib i l i ty a nd a r ch i tec tu r a lp o s i t ion .

s ymbol i sm w a s a tn o t ime g ene ra l ly u nde r s tood , a nd w a s r a p id ly f o rgot ten e v en b yt h ec l e rgy ' ( 1 953 : 2 49 , 3 19 ) .

Howev e r , Ande r son h ad a l r eady h i gh l igh ted t h e f a c t t h a t t r an sm i s s ion o fa u thor i a l i n ten t i sn ev e r g ua ran teed . I n T h e M ed i ev a lC ar v er ( 1 935 ) s he i l u s t ra t ed t h i sw i th t h e s t or yo fS t N icho l a s , af i gu re who se o r ig ina l l e g end w a s r ad ica l ly

I ma g e sa nd T ex t s

a l te r ed a s ar e su l t o ff o lk i n te rp re ta t ion s o fh i s i c onog r aphy ( 1 935 : 4 8 -49 ; s ome y ea r s l a te r [ 1 971 : 9 4 ] s he n o ted af u r the r e xamp le ) . S o , d e sp i te t h e p e rce iv ed a dv an t age s o f med iev a l i c onog raphy — t h a t ' i t s b a s ic s ymbo l s w e r e g ene ra l l y r e cogn i sab l e , h oweve rp oo r ly t h ey m igh tb e e xecu t ed ' —t h e s y s t em w a s p o ten t ialy o pen t o c r ea t iv e i n te rp re t a t ion s ( 1 971 : 9 1 ) . I n o the r wo rd s t h e v e ry f l ex ib i l i t y t h a t m ade m ed iev a l i c onog raphy w o rk f o r Ande r son a l so s e rved t o d i sab le i tb y a low ing a n i n f in i te v a r i e t y o f r e ad ing s : m any ' s ub jec t s s t i l l d ef y i n te rp re ta t ion , ' s he w ro t e , ' wh i l e o the r s s ugge s t as t r ang ev a r ie ty o fp o s s ib le e xp l ana t ion s ' ( i b id . 9 3 ) .

T he n o t ion o f v i sua l a r t a s a u n iv e r sa l med ium o f c ommun i ca t ion i s ac ommonp l ace i n o u r p e rcep t ion o f m ed i ev a l a r t a nd r equ i re s s ome r e th ink ing ( Cam i l le , 1 985b : 3 3 ) . F rom i m age s w e e xpec ta n " an sw e r" o r amean ing , a nd i ft h i s e xpec t a t ion i st hw a r ted o r n o t i n s tan t ly f o r thcom ing t h ey a r e b randed i n con sequen t i a l o r a t w o r s t , s imp ly d eco ra t iv e . I n m ed i ev a l s t ud i e s i m age s a r e c o mmon ly u sed t o i l u s t ra te s ome p o in t o f h i s to r i ca l f a c t , p rov id ing ' t he i c onog raph i c " p roo f" o f t e x tua l t r u th ' ( Cam i l l e , 1 996b : 1 44 ) . How ev e r , t h i s p u re ly i l u s t r a t iv ev i ew , i n wh i ch i mag e s a s sume a p a s s iv e r o l e a s ' d i s tan t "m i r ro r s" o f med iev a l r e al i t y ' , o f l e s se r v a lue t h an a nd i n o ppo s i t ion t o w r i t ing , m i s se s t h e ' d ange rou s ly d i s rup t iv e b u t f e r t i le p owe r o f t h e v i sua l ' ( i b id . ) .

Wh i le t he m a jo r i t y o fa r t h i s to r i an s s t rugg led t o ma r r y t h e P i c tu re B ook t h eo ry w i th t h e w ide r ange o f i mag e s t o b e f ound i nm ed i ev a la r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re , o the r s b e l i ev ed i t s p re sence c r ea ted mo re p rob lem s t h an i t s o lv ed . Meye r S chap i ro w a s c on s i s ten t i n q ue s t ion ing t h e ' c ommon v i ew t h a t med i aev a l a r tw a s s t r ic t ly r e l ig iou s a nd s ymbol i ca l ' a nd ' d i rec t ly i mbued w i th s p i r i tua l c oncep t ion s i n a c co rd w i th t h e t r ad i t iona l t e ach ing s o f t h e c hu r ch ' ( 1 977 [ 1 947 ] : 1 3 ) . S chap i ro r e cogn i sed t h a t u n l ike h i s o wn c on t empo r a ry w o r ld t he m ed iev a l c hu rch w a s n o t o u t s ide t h e m a ter i a l l i f e o f t he c ommun i t y i ts e rv ed b u t a n e s sen t i a l p a r t o fi t . I n

T he p erv a s ive u se o f B e s t ia r ie s a s e xp lana tor y g u ide s t o a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i l u s t r a te s t h i s p o in t w el . B e s t i a r ie s a r e c omp i la t ion s o f a l m anne r o fw r i t ing a bou t a n ima l s i n wh ich l i t t l e d i s t inc t ion i sm ade b e tween e xo t ic , d ome s t ic o r i mag ina r yc r ea tu r e s . T yp i ca l ly , t h eh ab i t s a nd h ab i ta to fe ach c r ea tu re a r e d e ta i l ed a nd a n a lego r ica l i n te rp re t a t ion g i ven . Ar e cen t s t udy h a s s ugg e s ted t h a t t h i s i sl i k e ly t ob e d ue t o

9

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s t he n a tu re o fi t s m a in s ou r ce , as e cond -cen tu ry AD t r eat i se k nown a s t h e ey s i o l o gu s , o r ' Na tu ra l H i s to r ian ' , ar e l ig iou s t e x t t h a t u sed a lego r i ca l a n ima l s a s amean s o fe xp la in ing a b s t r ac tp o in t s o fC h r i st ian d oc t r ine ( Bax te r , 1 998 ) . B y t h e t we l f th c en tu ry , h ow ev e r , t h i s s ymbo l i ca l ly l o aded n a r ra t iv e h ad b een d i s rup ted b y t h e a dd i t ion o f ma te r i a l f r om a n umbe r o f v a r i ed s ou r ce s . A s e r i e s o f p ubl i ca t ion s o f i lu s t ra t ed B e s t ia ry manu sc r ip t s i n t h e m id -n ine teen th c en tu r y s e t t h e s c ene f o r a r t h i s to r i an s f o r t h e n ex t c en tu ry a nd ah a l f : s t r ik ing i l u s t r a t ion s e c l ip sed t h e p r imacy o ft h e t e x t a nd B e s t ia r i e s c am e t ob e s e en i n c rea s ing ly a sp i c tu r e b ook s , ' m ed iev a l e ncyc loped i a [ s ] o f z oo logy , w i th mo ra l i za t ion s ' ( i b id . 2 3 ) .

b yc ompa r ing t h em o ne w i th t he o the r( i b id . 4 6 ) . And a g a in ; ' t he a bno rma l f a una o f t he c a thed ra l s f i nd s i t s e xp lana t ion i nn o s ymbo l ic s chem e , a nd h e re t h e B e st i a r i e s d o n o th e lp u s ' ( i b id . 5 9 ) . A l though Alen f o r o ne d id n o t s ugge s t t h a t B e s t i a r ie s c on ta ined a l t h e a n swe r s t o t h e e n igma t i c w o r ld o f med i ev a l s cu lp tu re ( 1 887 : 3 57 ) , i t s i d en t if i cat ion a s aw o rk o fz oo logy , a' s er iou s wo rk o fn a tu ra lh i s tory ' ( Wh i te , 1 954 : 2 31 ) l e n t i t c on s ide rab l e a u tho r i ty . T he e ncyc lopaed i c , s c ien t if i c d r iv e o f t h e t ime , h ow eve r , mean t t h a t t h e p re sence o f t ho se c r ea tu re s u n recogn i sed b y mode rn b io log ica lc r i te r i a s e rv ed t od emean t h e e n t i re w o rk , l e ad ing t ot h ev i ew o fB e s t ia r i e s a sb e ing ' p re sc i en t if i c ' a nd r i dd l ed w i th m i s tak e s ' f rom w an t o fz oo log i ca l k now ledg e ' ( A l l en , 1 887 : 3 37 ) . T h i s i d ea o f B e st i a r ie s a s ' c ha rm ing a nd i n s ign if i can t ' c olec t ion s o f a n ima l s t o r ie s ( Ha s s ig , 1 999a : x v i ) h e lped t o r ende r s upe rf i c ia l t h e s cu lp t ed i m ag e s a s sum ed t o b e c op ied f r om t h em . Ma jo r w o rk s o n e cc le s i a s t i ca l a r ch i t ec tu re f r om t h i s p e r iod t end t o i g no r e t he a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re s e n t i re ly ( e .g . B ond , 1 9 13 ) wh i l e c omp rehen s iv e s t ud ie s o f med iev a l f i gu ra t iv e s cu lp tu r e a r e l e s s t h an c omp l imen ta ry . P r io r a nd G a rdne r , f o r e xamp l e , s t a te t h a t t h e ' f unc t ion o ft h e se l e s se r a r ch i tec tu r a l c arv ing s w a s t o b e s l i gh t a nd s umm a ry , a nd l i ke t he i r s ub jec t s t h e i r s t y l e s hou ld n o tb et a k en t oo s e r iou s ly ' ( 1 912 : 2 4 1 ) .

C e r t a in ly , mo s ta r chaeo log i s t s o ft h i s e r aw e re q u i ck t ol o ok t o B e s t ia r ie s f o r a n sw e r s t o t h e i r i c onog raph i ca l p rob l em s . Wi th in a n a r chaeo log ica l l e c tu re s e r ie s o n med i ev a l s cu lp tu re J ohn R om i l l y Alen c on c luded : We h av e n ow s ucceeded i n s how ing t h a t t he s y s t em o f my s t i c z oo logy c on t a ined i n t h e med iaev a l B e s t i a r i e s w a s n o t o n ly r e cogn i sed b y t he C hu r ch a s am ean s o f c onv ey ing r e l ig iou s i n s t ruc t ion . . .bu t a l so t h a t a n ima l s ymbol i sm , c o r re spond ing e xac t ly w i th t h a t o f t h e MSS , w a s u sed f o r t h e d eco ra t ion o f e cc l e s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s o ft h et we l f th c en tu ry ( Alen , 1 887 : 3 57 ) . H i sa r gumen t ,h ow ev e r ,l i ke t h a to fs ub sequen tw r i t e r s s uch a s G . C . Druce a nd A . H . C o l l in s , r e l ied h eav i ly u pon t h e e v idence o f o ne R omane sque d oorw ay , t h a t o f t he s ou th d oo r f r om t h e c hu r ch a tA lne i nY o rk sh i re ( s ee a l so A l l en , 1 886 ) . T h i s i s i t se l f au n ique e xamp le o f R omane squ e s cu lp tu re t h a t i sd i r ec t ly b a sed u pon aB e s t i a ry f o r e i gh t o f t he v ou s so i r s a r e i d en t if i ed b y i n sc r ip t ion s . T h i s s i ngu l a r i n s t ance d id n o t , h owev e r , s t op t h e f l ood o fp ub l i ca t ion s i n wh i ch t h e v i ew o fB e s t ia r ie s a s ag u idebook t o a nd s ou rce o f med iev a l e cc l e s i a s t ica l a n ima l s cu lp tu re b ecame a r t h i s to r i ca l d ogma ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , D ruce , 1 909 , 1 9 10 , 1 915 , 1 919 , 1 920 , 1 931 , 1 938 ;P r io ra nd G a rdne r , 1 9 12 : e sp . 2 7 -32 ;K l ing ende r , 1 928 ; Ande r son , 1 935 , 1 938 , 1 954 , 1 969 , 1 971 ; G a rdne r , 1 935 , 1 951 , 1 955 , 1 958 ; C o l l in s , 1 940 ; C ron in , 1 94 1 ;B oa se , 1 953 ) .

B e s t ia r ie s a r e , h ow ev e r , a n i mpor tan t s ou rce f o r med i ev a l e cc le s i a s t i ca l s cu lp tu re , a nd p rov ided a p a th a l ong wh i ch c l a s s i ca l a nd o r ien t a lp agan ma t e r i a le n t e red a nd f u sed w i th C h r i s t ian i n te rp r e t a t ion s . T oday i ti s a cknow l edged t h a t B e s t ia ry i mage s w e re a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f med i ev a l l i f e a nd w ide ly c i rcu la ted t h rough s peech — p r each ing , s e rmon s , s t o r i e s —a sw el a sv i sua l med ia ( Bax te r , 1 998 : 2 02 ; H a s s ig , 1 999a : x i ; s e e a l so Mu ra tov a , 1 986 ; Ha ss ig , 1 995 , 1 997 ) . Hence t h e i mag e s w e re p ar t o fc u l tu ra l l i f e i ng ene ra l a nd a cco rd ing ly n eed n o t h av e b een c op ied d i r ec t ly f r om manu sc r ip t s . Ne i the r a r e B e s t ia r i e s p e rce iv ed a ny mo re a s b ad z oo log ica l t r ea t i se s w i th a my s t ica l t w i s t , b u t a s p r ima r i ly s p i r i tua l wo rk s i n t h e i r own r i gh t t h a t u sed a lego r ized a n im a l s a nd b ea s t s a s c ommen t a ry u pon c omp lex C h r i s t i an t h eme s . T he u n iv e r sa l ' s y s tem o f my s t i c z oo logy ' i sq ue s t ioned ; i ndeed , s i nce B e st i a r i e s t h em se lv e s g ene r a l ly o f f e r c on f l ic t ing i n te rp r e t a t ion s o f t h e s am e a n ima l , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o s a y f o r c e r ta in wha t me s sag e m igh t h av e b een i n tended b y a ny p a r t icu l a r c a rv ing . Ag a in , t h e f ocu s s h if t s t ot h e q u e s t ion o fc on tex tf o rt h e se f i gu re s m ay h av e b een s u scep t ib l e t o mu l t ip l e i n te rpre t a t ion s , t hu s r ende r ing i mpo t en ta ny s pec if i cd i dac t ic i mpe r a t iv e .

I s o l a t ed v o i ce s s ugg e s ted B e s t ia r ie sm igh tb eo fl e s sv a lue t o t he a r ch i t ec tu r a l h i s to r ian t h an p e rhap s r e a l i sed . Mä le w a s o ne o f t he f ew who w e re c oncer n ed t o c oun te r ac t t h e t endency o f B r i t i sh w r i te r s t o o v e r s ta t e t h e i n f luence o f B e s t i a r i e s o n med iev a l s cu lp tu r e . H e w a s o n ly a b le t o c i te t wo c a se s o f d i rec t b o r row ing f r om a B e s t ia ry s ou r ce among t h ei mag e ry i nF rench c a thed ra l s a nd c hu rche s ( 1 961 [ 1 91 4 4 5 ) .F u r the r ,h es ugge s ted t h a t when f a ced w i th t h e

W i thou t d eny ing t he i n f luence o f m anu sc r ip t i mage s , t h e a s sump t ion t h a t p a t t er n b ook s o r manu sc r ip t s c an b e r e f e r red t o f o r a n swe r s d oe s n o t t a k e a ccoun t o ft h e s oc i a l d ynam i c s o f b ook p roduc t ion a nd d i s sem in a t ion . A s C am i l l e h a s n o t ed , o n ly i n' ac u l tu re s uf fu sed w i th t e x t s c an t h ing s " r ef e r" ( 1 993a : 4 6 ) . T ex t s w e re n o t u b iqu i tou s i n med i ev a l c u l tu r e . T h i s p roce s s o f s queez ing t h e p o ten t ia l ' mu l t ip l i c i ty o f s i gn if i can t a s soc i a t ion s ' o f a r ch i tec tu ra l

r i ch f a una a nd f l o r a o f R e im s , Am ien s , R ouen , P a r i s a nd i nt h e my s te r iou s wo r ld o fg a rgoy l e s . . . in wha tb ook i se n l igh t enmen tt ob e f ound ? We mu s t f r ank ly c onf e s s t h a t n o h e lp i s t o b e f ound i n b ook s f o r l i t e r a tu re a nd a r t a r e n o l ong e r c oncu r ren t . No c e r t a in c onc lu s ion s c an b er e ached

1 0

Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tory v i ew ed i n ac on t inuou s s equence f o rt h e c l o i s t e rg a r th — t h e s t one p l in th u pon wh ich t h e o pen a r cade s r e s t —' make s i t v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le t o f olow a s equence o f s c ene s e v en a r ound as i ng le c ap i ta l ' ( Da le ,2 00 1 : 4 06 ) .

c a rv ing s i n to t h e ' c l a s s if i ca tory p r inc ip le s o f n ine teen th c en tu ry s c ience ' ( K l ing ende r , 1 971 : 3 28 ) p roduce s o n ly a g l imp se o ft h e i rp o ten t i a l mean ing s .

R ead i n ga nd Wr i t i n gi nt h eM idd l e Ag e s E c c l e s i a s t i c a lo rP opu l a r Ar t ? T he i d ea t h a t p i c tu re s w e re t h e " l e t te r s o ft h e l a i ty" w a s o f c ou r se c u r ren t i n med iev a l c u l tu re i t se lf . E a r ly m ed iev a l

D e sp i t e t h e h i e r a rch ica l o rg an i za t ion o f t h e c hu rch , m ed i ev a l u se o f e cc le s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s m i r ro red a mo re f l u id o u t look . A s c hap te r 3 e xp lo re s i n g r ea te r d e ta i l , c hu rche s w e re n o t u sed e xc lu s iv e ly f o r w o r sh ip b u t

t h eo log i an s a nd w r i te r s s uch a s G regor y t h e G r ea t ( c .540 6 04 ) , B ede ( c .673 -735 ) , a nd Hono r iu s o f Au tun ( d .638 ) , a l m a in ta ined t h i s o p in ion w h ich , b y t h e t we lf th c en tu ry h ad n o t o n ly b ecom e a n o r thodox a r gumen tb u t w a s embod ied i nc anon l aw ( Cami l l e , 1 985a : 3 2 ; Meyvae r t , 1 979 : 6 9 ; E co , 1 986 : 1 6 ) . Many o f t he s t anda rd i m ag e s o f t h e p e r iod ,

p rov ided s pace f o r ad iv e r se r ang e o f c o mmuna l a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing l e ga l mee t ing s , p a r i sh f e a s t s , a nd e v en g am e s a nd w re s t l ing c on te s t s . C hu rche s w e re n o t s e t a par t f r om t h e c ommun i ty a tl a rg e a nd i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e i r a r t , g i v en s uch a s oc ia l c on tex t , w ou ld b e a ny d i f f e r en t . Mo reov e r , c l e r ic s i n m ino r o rde r s o f ten c ame f r om s im i la r

h ow eve r , w ou ld h av e b een t oo d i ff i cu l t t o u nde r s t and w i thou t t e x tu a l k now ledg e . T he a ud i ence b efo re mo s t t w e l f th -cen tu ry i m age s wou ld h ave b een u nab l e t or e ad t h e i n sc r ip t ion s , c ru c ia l i n i n te rp re t ing t h e m ean ing o f t h e p i ctu re . T he m ean ing o f t h e T r ee o fJ e s se , f o r e xamp l e , eme rge s o n ly i n r e f e rence t o t h e t e x t o f I s a i ah 1 : 1 ,o r f r om a p e rf o rm ance o f t h i s t e x t i n s e rmon o r s peech b y s omeone l i t e ra te . Mo reov e r , i t s p rope r r e ad ing p re suppo se s as c r ip tu r a l o rde r a nd men t al i ty , n o t f u l ly d ev e loped i n t ho se u nu sed t o t h e l e f t r igh t u p -down s equence o f t h e

b ackg round s t o t h e i r p a r i sh ione r s a nd s ha red s im i l a r c once rn s a nd a t t i tude s . I nf lu ence s w e re mu tua l a nd c i r cu la r r a the r t h an o ne s ided ( G inzbe rg , 1 980 : x i v -xx iv ) a nd i ti s o n ly t o b e e xpec ted t h a t e cc le s ia s t ica l a r t , t o s ome e x ten t , w a si nvo lved . I n a dd i t ion , med i ev a l C h r i s t i an i ty mu s t b e u nde r s tood a s d i f f e ren t f r om i t s mode rn s ucce s so r . A s i tw i l l b ecome i n c rea s ing ly c l ea r , t h e m ed ieva l w o r ld p u l sa ted w i th mon s t rou s f i gu re s : s hape sh if t ing w a s ac once rn o f p ea san t a nd c l e r ic a l ike ( Ba r t le t t , 2 000 : 6 85 ; Dun ton -Downe r , 1 997 ) ; f a e r y f o lk a bduc ted k n igh t s ( s ee c hap te r 5 ) ; s educ t iv e w omen c hanged i n to s e rpen t ine c r ea tu r e s ( s ee c hap te r 8 ) .4

l i t e ra te ( Cam i l l e , 1 985a : 3 4 ) . B efo re t h e a dven t o f ' v e rnacu la rl i t e r acy o n aw ide rl e ve la tt h ee nd o ft h ec en tu ry mo s t v i ew e r s o f a r t , u na ided b y t h e e xp l ana t ion s o f t h e o r a t or e s ,t h ec l e r i ca ll i t e ra te g roup ,w e r e o n ly r e a l ly c apab le o f ' r ead ing b e tween t h e l i ne s ' a si tw e re , i nt h e m a rg in s a nd a t t h e e dg e s ' o ft h ei mag e c omp lexe s wh ich w e re s uppo sed t o b et h e i r" book" '( i b id . 3 7 ) .

On t h eo ne h and , t h eo log ian s h ad f o r c en tu r ie s e l abo ra ted ac o sm ic , t r an scenden t , a nd mo r al i s t ic v i ew o f t h e

C e r t a in ly , a na log i e s s uch a s t h e P i c tu re B ook o f t h e C hu rche s ' t end t o t a k e t h e a c tu a l p roce s se s o fr e ad ing a nd w r i t ing ( a s t h e m ed i eva l s u nde r s tood t h em ) f o r g r an ted ' ( i b id . 2 6 ) . F o r monk s , t h e ma in p roduce r s o fb ook s i n t h e m ed iev a lp e r iod ,r e ad ing w a s l e s s am a t te ro fs e e ing t h an o f h ea r ing a nd s peak ing ( i b id . 2 8 ) . Mo reov e r , r e ad ing w a s a c ommuna l a c t iv i t y , a nd i m age s , ' whe the r i n b ook s o r o n w al s , w e re , l i ke med iev a l t e x t s , d ynam icaly d e l iv e red a nd p e rfo rmed a l oud r a the r t h an a b so rbed i n s t a t ic i s o la t ion ' ( i b id . 1 993a : 4 4 ) . Med i ta t ion w ou ld h av e b een an o i sy a f f a i r ( i b id . 1 985a : 2 9 ) . T he p r imacy o f t h e s poken wo rd i n t h e C rea t ion m y tho s — God l i t e ra l ly s peak s t he w o r ld i n to e x i s tence — s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e re w a s n o h i e ra rchy o fw o rd o ve r i mage ; r a the r , b o th t e x t a nd i mag e w e re ' s econda r y r ep re sen t a t ion s , e x te rna l t o , b u t a lway s r e f e rr ing b ack t o , t h e s pon t aneou s s p r ing s o fs peech ' ( i b id . 3 2 ) .

s upe rna tu r a l , av i ew d om ina ted b y p ow e r s a nd p r inc ipa l i t i e s c once ived a s f undamen ta l ly O the r t o t h e h uman r e a lm . Mo re c ha r ac t e r i s t i c o f l o ca l c ommun i t ie s , o n t h e o the r h and , w a s a n i n t ima t e , i mmanen t a nd a mo ra l v i ew o f t h e s upe rna tu ra l , o ne i n wh i ch t h e b u i ld ing b l ock s o f t h e s upe rna tu r a lw e re a p t t ob e c once iv ed a se l emen t s o ft h e n a tu ra l wo r ld c on jo ined i na n u nexpec ted o r marv e l lou s m anne r ( Cac io l a , 2 000 : 6 7 ) . W i th in s uch a c ompo s i t e o u t look t h e g ro te sque c a rv ing s a mong a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re a r e b y n o m ean s o u t o fp l ace . P a t ronage w i l lb ec on s ide red i n mo re d e t a i li nc hap te r3 ,b u t h e re i ti sw or th n o t ing t h a t wh i le i n mo s t c a se s p a t ron s a r e a nonymou s , t h e f ew r e co rd s t h a t d o e x i s t f r om t h e l a te r m ed i eva l p e r iod i nd ica te t h a t t h e c a rv ing s w e r e o f t en f unded b y t h e e n t i r e c ommun i ty . T he se i mag e s w e re c l ea r ly n o tc on t ra ry t oc on tempo ra ry r e l ig iou s s en s ib i l i t ie s .

A s w el a s a s sum ing t h a t m ed ieva l a ud i ence s w e re l i t e ra te e nough t o " r ead" t h e p i c tu r e s , t h e P i c tu re B ook mod e l a s sume s r e adab le s equence s o f i mage s . S ome m i se r i co rd s e r ie s d o t a k e at h eme ( a l though t h e i r l o ca t ion w ou ld m i t iga t e a g a in s t as equen t ia l r e ad ing ) a nd b ench e nd s m igh t a l so b ea r c a rv ing s o f s c ene s t h a t c an b e r e ad s equen t i a l ly ( s ee , f o r e xamp l e , J one s a nd T racy , 1 991 : 13 ) , y e t mo s t a r ch i tec tu r a l c a rv ing s d o n o t s uppo r t s u ch i n te rp r e ta t ion s . C lo i s te r c ap i ta l s i n p a r t icu l a r w e re n o t i n tended t o b e

4

F o re xce l len ti n t roduc t ions t op e rcep t ion s o fs upe rna tu ra l a nd

n a tu ra l i nt h e med ieva lp e r iod s e e Gea ry , 1 994 ;J oly , 1 996 ;a nd B ynum , 1 997 .

1

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s C on t ex t

W i ld r idg e a nd S chap i ro a pa r t , f ew o the r w r i t e r s t ook t h e t im e t oc on s id e r t h e s p ec if i c c on t ex t o ft h e c a rv ing s i na ny d ep th . A l though Ande r son s t a t ed i n h e r b ook M i s e t i c o r d s : M ed i e v a l L if e i n E n g l i s h W o od c a r v i n g ( 1 954 ) t h a t ' s a c red s ub je c t s a r e c ompa r a t iv e ly r a r e o n m i se r i co rd s ' a nd t h a t t h e r e ' w a s n o n eed f o r t h e c a rv ing s o n m i ser i co rd s t o c onf o rm t oa ny l o g i ca l s chem e o fd eco r a t ion , o rt oc onv ey t o a n i l i t e r a t e c ong r eg a t ion s om e d ogm a t i c s i gn if i canc e ' , t h i s s h e a s c r ibe s t o t h e i r ' h umb l e p u rpo se ' wh i ch m ad e t h em ' a nu n su i t ab l e s e t t ing f o r s u ch l of t yt h em e s ' ( 1 954 : 5 ) . T h i s m ay b e ap o in tw o r th c on s id e r ing ; b u tw h a t s h e f a i l ed t o m ak e c l ea r w a s a ny p o s s ib i l i ty o f d i f f e r ence b e tw e en s cu lp tu r e s i n t h i s r e s tr i c t ed p a r t o f t h e c hu r ch a nd e l sewhe re . T h i s i sb y n o m ean s u nu sua l f o r t h e w r i t ing o f t h e p e r iod . And e r son ' s p r ev iou s w o rk s , T h eM ed i e v a lC a r v e r ( 1 935 ) a nd An ima l C ar v i n g s i nB r i t i s h C hu r c h e s ( 1 938 ) , f o r e xamp l e , s imp l y m i r ro r s t and a rd a r t -h i s to r i ca l m e thod s o f e xp l ana t ion b yr e f e r r ing s cu lp t ed i m ag e s t os im i l a ri mag e si n m anu sc r ip t s .

A s M a l e h ad c l ea r ly e xp r e s sed , t h e i d e a o f a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e a s m ean ing l e s s w a s c l o se ly a s soc i a t ed w i th i t s t y p i ca l l y o b scu r e l o c a t ion . How c ou ld t h e se i m ag e s c a r r y a ny d i d ac t i c i n t en t i fn obody c ou ld s e e t h em ? F o r t h e d i da c t i c a r gum en t t ow o rk , s om e c on s ide r a t ion o fb o th t h e e a se o f v i ew ing a s p ec if i c i m ag e a s w el a s t h e a ud i en ce l i k e l y t ov i ew t h a t i m ag e i se s sen t ia l . A l though w r i t e r s o n m ed i ev a la r ch i t ec tu r ew e r eq u i ck t os e i ze u pon t h er om an t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e i n t e r io r o f e c c l e s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s — ' s hadowy ,t h eh i gh v au l t s s h rouded i ng l oom ,i l um in a t ed b y t h e s t r ay g l eam s o f s un l igh t f i l te r ing t h rough h i gh a nd n a r row w indow s ' ( C ro s s l ey , 1 94 1 : 1 ) —t h ey f a i l ed t om ak e e xp l i c i tt h ec onnec t ion t h a ts u ch ad a rk i n t e r io rw ou ld m ak e m any c a rv ing s i mpo s s ib l e t o s e e . I t mu s t b e r em embe red t h a tt h ei m ag e sp o s i t ioned h i gh u p , s u ch a sr oof b o s se s a nd c o rbe l s , a r e o f t en d i ff i cu l t e nough t om ak e o u t t od ay e v en w i th mode rn l i gh t ing a nd b inocu l a r s . F u r the r , t h e se i m ag e s a r e f r equ en t ly l o ca t ed i na r ea s o ft h e b u i ld ing t h a tw e r er e s t r i c ted t ot h e c l e rg y . How c ou ld t h e se h av e s e rv ed t o e du ca t e t h e i l i t e r a t e l a i ty ? T . T . W i ld r idg e w a s a n e a r ly d i s sen t ing v o i ce o n t h i s t op i c , e n t i t l ing as hor t c hap t e r i n h i s b ook T h e G r o t e s qu e i n C hu r c h Ar t ' Go th i c Or n am en t s n o t D id ac t i c ' ( 1 899 : 2 5 -27 ) . H e r e h e s t a t e s t h a t ' R ef l ec t ion w i l ln o tl e ad u s t ob el i ev ec a rv ing s t oh av eb een p l ac ed i n c hu r che s w i th d i r ec t i n t en t t o p r ea ch o r t e ach ' ( i b id . 2 5 ) . H e d i sm i s se s t h e o p in ion t h a t t h e c hu r che s w e re ' p r ac t i ca l l yt h ep i c tu r e ( o r s c u lp tu r e ) g a l l e r i e s a nd i l u s t r a t ed p ape r s f o r t h e i l i t e r a t e o ft h e p a s t ' f o r i tw ou ld m ean t h a t ' i n t h e d ay s w h en h umb l e m en r a r e ly t r av e l l ed f r om h om e . . . the i nh ab i t an t o f av i l l ag e o r t own h ad f o r t h e i mp rov em en to fh i s m ind . . .a s m a l lc o l l ec t ion o fc ompo s i t e a n im a l s , mon s t e r s ,m e rm a id s ,a nd i mpo s s ib l ef l ow e r s ' ( i b id . ) . F u r the r , h e i so ne o f t h e f ew w r i t e r s o f t h e n i ne t e en th c en tu r yt oc on s id e rt h ec on t ex to fa r ch i t ec tu r a ls c u lp tu r e :

T h eP i c t u r eB o ok T h ee i nR e c en tS t ud i e s T he p rob l em s a nd i n con s i s t en c i e s o f t h e P i c tu r e B ook mode l h av e c on t inued i n r e cen t y e a r s i n t wo b ook s o n a r ch i tec tu r a l s c u lp tu r et h a t a r eo f t en q uo t ed a sa u tho r i t a t iv e b y r e spec ted a c adem i c s ( e .g . Hu t ton , 1 99 1 : 3 11 14 ; Me l inkof f , 1 993 : 3 07 , n o te 1 ;t hough b o th a u tho r s h av e r e se rv a t ion s t h e se a r e , i n t e r e s t ing l y e nough , n o t w i th t h e s am e b ook ) . T he t wo b ook s i nq ue s t ion a r e G r o t e s qu e s a nd G amy l e s :P a g a n i sm i nt h eM ed i e v a lC hu r c hb y R on a ld S he r idan a nd Anne R o s s ( 1 975 ) a nd I ma g e so fL u s t : S ex u a lC ar v i n g so n M ed i e v a l C hu r c h e s b y An thony We i r a nd J am e s J e rm an ( 1 986 ) . G r o t e s qu e sa nd G a wk sw i l l b e e n coun t e r ed i n mo r e d e t a i l l a t e r i n t h i s c hap te r w i th r e g a rd t o t h e q ue s t ion o f med i ev a lp ag an i sm : t h e c once rn h e r e i sw i th i t se xp l ana t ion o f why s u ch i mag e s w e r e i n c luded i nc hu r ch e s i nt h e f i r s t p l ace .T he a u tho r s s t a t et h a t

m i se r i co rd e s h av e b een s p ec i a l ly s e l ec ted f o r t h i s e r roneou s c on s ide r a t ion o f o rnam en t t o b e t h e s t o r y -book o ft h eM idd l eA g e s . T h i si su nf or tun a te f o r t h e t h eo ry , f o r t h ey w e r e p l a ced o n ly i n c hu r che s h av ing c onne c t ion w i th a mona s t i c o r c o l l eg i a t e e s t abl i shm en t ; t h ey a r e i n t h e c hance l s , w he r e t h e f e e t o f l a ym en r a r e ly t r od , a nd , mo r eov e r , t h e r e w ou ld b e f ew h ou r s o u t o f t h e t w en ty -f ou rw hen t h e s t a l l sw ou ld n o tb e o ccup i ed b y t h e p e rf o rm e r s o f t h e d a i l y o ff i ce s o r c e l eb r a t ion s ( i b id . 2 6 ) .

T he c hu r ch w a sv e ry mu ch ap l ace o fi n s t ru c t ion i n m ed i ev a l t im e s , a nd t o al a rg e ly i l i t e r a t e l a y c ong r eg a t ion i t s m e s sag e mu s t o f n ece s s i ty b e c onv ey ed w i th t h e a s s i s t ance o f s ymbo l s , o r p i c tu r e -w r i t ing . B y s e l ec t ing i m ag e r y w h i ch w a s f am i l i a r t o t h e p eop l e t h e c hu r ch c ou ld t h e mo r e e a s i l yc onv ey i t sm e s sag e ( S he r idan a nd R o s s , 1 975 : 1 2 ) . H e r et h ed i dac t i ca r gumen ti sg i v en an ew t w i s t : t h e C hu r ch c onv ey ed i t s m e s sag e n o t w i th C h r i s t i an s ymbo l s b u t w i th p ag an o ne s . Wh a t e xa c t l y t h a t m e s sag e w a s , h ow ev e r , i s u nc l ea r , a nd S he r id an a nd R o s s g o l i t t l e f u r the r w i th t h e i r e xp l ana t ion .T h ea s sump t ion t h a ts u ch i mag e ry w a s s e l ec t ed a nd d i r ec ted b y c l e r i c s t o e du ca t e l a y m en a nd w om en r em a in su nqu e st ion ed . I n as im i l a rm ann e r We i ra nd J e rm an ' c a no t s t r e s s e nough t h e d i d a c t i c n a tu r e o f R om ane squ e o rnamen t a t ion ' ( 1 986 : 2 0 ) . T he a r ch i t ec tu r a lc on t ex t o ft h a t o rn am en t a t ion , h ow ev e r , a sa l r eady p o in t ed o u t b y w r i te r s a t t h e t u rn o f t h e t w en t i e th c en tu r y s u ch a s Mä le a nd

N e a r l y f i f ty y ea r s l a t e r , S chap i ro a l so p r e sen t ed c on tex t a s t h e k ey t o u nde r s t and ing m a rg in a l i mag e s . L ik e W i ld r idg e h e w a s c on cer n ed t o c oun t e r t h e w id e sp r ead i d ea t h a t m ed i ev a l a r t w a s ' t h rough a nd t h rough r e l ig iou s ' . I ndeed , ' I n t h eb u i ld ing s t h e r e i sa n e no rmou s q u an t i t y o fe l emen t s wh i ch , f r om a r e l ig iou s -d id ac t i c a nd s t ru c tu r a l v i ewpo in t , a r ee n t i r e ly u se l e s s ' ( 1 977 [ 1 947 ] : 3 ) .

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Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i nA rchaeo logy a nd A r tH i s tor y o ve r ac en tu ry e a rl i e r , f o r e xamp l e ; s e e B u rge s , 1 857 ) t h e i d ea t h a t p ag an i sm h ad c on t inued r e l a t iv e ly u n af f ec ted b y t h e p re sence o f C h r i s t ian i ty ow ed a g r ea t d ea l t o t h e p opu l a r i t y o f t h e w o rk o f Ma rg a re t Mu r ray . I n T h e W i t c h C u l ti nW e s t e r n E u r op e ( 1 92 1 ) Mu r ray a s se r ted t h a t t h e w i tch t r i a l sw e r e a n a t temp tt oe r ad ica te as y s tema t i ca l l y o rg an i sed p re -Ch r i s t i an r e l ig ion wh ich e v en b y t h e l a t e M idd le A g e s w a s ' i n a l p robab i l i t y s t i l l t h e c h ief wo r sh ip o ft h e b u lk o f t h e p eop le ' ( Mu r ray , 1 962 [ 1 92 1 ] : 5 4 ) . T he p opu l a r i t y o ft h e b ook m ean t t h a t i ts oon a s sumed t h e s t a tu s o fa u tho r i t y o n t h e s ub jec t ( Thoma s , 1 971 : 6 14 , n o te 7 6 ; s e e a l so Hu t ton , 1 999 f o rc omp rehen s iv et r ea tmen to ft he s ub jec t ) .

W i ld r idge , w ou ld a ppea r t o m i t ig a te a ga in s t t h e o p t imum c ond i t ion s f o r d i dac t ic i mage ry — n o t ab ly t h e e a se o f v i ew ing a n i m age . C onfu s ing ly , We i r a nd J e rman a r e n o t u naw a r e o f t h e c on tex t , n o t ing , w i th r e ga rd t o c a rv ed c o rbe l s , t h a t l e lv en when p l a ced o u t o fs i gh t , o v e r a n a i s l e r oof o rh i gh u p i n at owe r , t h ey w e r e c on s ide r ed i mpor tan t e nough t o b ea r r i ch d e s ign s ' ( i b id . 3 8 ) . How ev e r , t h e r am if i ca t ion s o ft h i s c ommen t a r e i g no red a nd b y t h e e nd o ft h ep a r ag raph t h e f am i l ia r' s cheme o fd idac t i cd eco ra t ion ' i st h ei n te rp re t a t ion f a vou red ( i b id . ) . U l t ima t e ly , t h e p a r adox o f t h e P i c tu r e B ook o f t h e C hu r che s a s a n i n te rp re ta t iv e mode l i st h a t i ti sb o th a

Wh i l s t p ionee r ing , t h e s t udy h ad e no rmou s f l aw s . Mo s t o f h e r e v idence c ame f r om t h e w r i t ing s o f c on t inen ta l d emono log i s t s a nd t h e c onf e s s ion s o f t h e a c cu sed , o f ten e x t rac ted b y t o r tu re . A s s ou r ce m a te r i a l t h e l a t t e r w e r e r el i ab l e o n ly i n r ef l ec t ing wha t t h e i nqu i s i to r s w an ted t o h ea r . F u r the r , Mu r ray f a i led t o r e cogn i se t h a t t h e r i tu a l s d e sc r ibed i nt h e se c onf e s s iona l s w e r e n o t a n t ique r i t e s b u t ' p a rod ie s o f c on t empo ra ry C h r i s t ian c e remon i e s a nd s oc ia l mo re s ' ( Hu t ton , 1 991 : 3 03 ) . How ev e r ,w i th l im i ted e v idence Mu r ray " p rov ed" t h e e x i s tence o f av i b ran t m ed i ev a l p ag an f e r t i l i t y c u l t , av i s ion wh i ch p e r s i s ted u n t i l i tw a s d i sm i s sed i nt h e 1 970 s ( Thoma s , 1 971 ; C ohn , 1 975 ) .

t h eor y o fr e cep t ion t h a t f a i l s t oc on s ide rt h ea ud i ence a nd a t h eor y o fa r t i s t i cc r ea t ion t h a tc on s ide r s n e i the rp a t ron s n o r a r t i s t s i n a ny d e t a i l . B o rn o u t o f a nd a n ima ted b y t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry v i ew o ft h em ed i ev a lp e r iod a sa n a g e o f f a i th i ta s sume s b o th ad idac t ic i mpe r a t ive a nd e cc le s i a s t i ca l p a t ronage f o r a lt h e a r t f ound i na nd o n m ed i eva l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s . C on sequen t ly , t h e m ean ing o ft h i s a r t i sd educed e n t i r e ly f r om t h e a s sumed i n ten t o f i t s ( a s sumed ) e c c l e s i a s t i ca l p a t ron s . Med i ev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re , h ow ev e r , p re sen t s s o me p rob l em s . Much o f t h i s i m age ry c anno t b e s e en c l ea r ly a nd f ew mode l s f o r i tc an b e f ound i nm anu sc r ip t s . T h i s h a s t e nded t op e rpe tu a te t h e i d ea t h a t s uch i mage ry w a s s imp ly d eco ra t iv e a nd c a r r ied n o p ar t i cu l a r m ean ing , t h a t i tw a s c a rved w i th i n f requen t o r

P ag an i sm h ad s u rv iv ed , b u tn o ti na ny o r ig ina l f o rm . R a the r i th ad b een t r an sfo rmed b y C h r i s t ian i ty a nd s u rv iv ed a s f o lk lo r ic p rac t ice . T he ' n o to r iou s r e ad ine s s o f t h e e a r ly

c omp le te ly w i thou t c l e r i ca l s uperv i s ion . I f s uch a r t i s t ic f r eedom w a s t h ec a se ,t hen i tb ecome s d i ff i cu l tt oa s c r ibe t o t h e se i mage s aw ho l ly d idac t i cp u rpo se ;t h ea r gumen tb eg in s t oa ppea r ' s impl i s t i c a nd u n sa t i sf ac tory ' ( Be t t ey a nd T ay lo r ,

C h r i s t i an l e ade r s t oa s s im i la te e l emen t s o ft h e o l d p agan i sm i n to t h e i r o wn r e l ig iou s p rac t i ce , r a the r t h an p o se t oo d i r ec t ac on f l ic t o f l o y a l t i e s i n t h e m ind s o f t h e n ew c onv er t s '

1 982 : 2 2 ) .

m ean t t h a t t h e ' a nc ien t wo r sh ip o fw el s , t r ee s a nd s t one s w a s n o t s o much a bol i shed a s mod if i ed ' ( Thoma s , 1 971 : 5 4 ) . C onv e r se ly , i fp agan i sm h ad b ecome C h r i s t i an i zed t h en much o f C h r i s t ian i t y h ad i t se lf b ecome p agan i zed , m ag i ca l

P agan S urv iva l

p owe r s , f o r e xamp le , b e ing a t t r ibu ted t o t h e s h r ine s o f s a in t s . I n t h i s s en se t h e h i s tor y o f t he m ed ieva l C hu rch c ou ld b e d e sc r ibed a st h e ' g radua l a nd mu tua l a dap t a t ion o f C h r i s t i an i t y a nd p ag an i sm t oe a ch o the r ' ( Pow ick e , 1 935 : 8 ) .

Whe r ea s mo s t n i ne teen th -cen tu ry a r t h i s to r ian s h ad f ound a n e n t i re ly C h r i s t i an a r t i n t h e c a thed r a l s a nd c hu rche s o f m ed i ev a lE u rope , a st he t w en t ie th c en tu r yw o re o n s cho l a r s w e re b eg inn ing t o t h ink o the rw i se . F rom t h e 1 920 s t o t h e 1 970 s t h ei d ea o ft he M idd le A ge s a s ap redom inan t ly p ag an e r a g a ined c u r r ency . T h i s t h eor y h e ld t h a t a l though C h r i s t i an i ty h ad a s se r ted i t se l f a s t h e d om inan t r e l ig ion o f w e s t e rn E u rope i th ad a c tu a l ly m ade l i t t le h eadw ay i n t h e r e a l t a sk o f c onve r t ing t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e p opu l a t ion , t h e o rd ina r y m an o rw oman r ema in ing e s sen t ia l ly p agan , u nde r aC h r i s t ian r u l ing c l a s s , u n t i lt h e f i f t een th c en tu ry . N a tu r a l ly m ed i ev a la r tw a si mp l ica ted a nd i np a r t icu l a rt h e s uppo sed ly l e s s " superv i sed" a r ch i tec tu ra l a r t . T he mo s t c omp l e t e e xp r e s s ion o f t h i s s en t imen t c ame i n 1 975 when R ona ld S he r idan a nd A nne R o s s s ugg e s ted t h a t ag r ea t d ea l o f m a rg in a l s cu lptu r e r epre sen t ed ' p ag an d e i t ie s d ea r t o t h e p eop le wh i ch t h e C hu rch w a s u nab l e t o e r ad ica te a nd t h e r ef o re a lowed t o s ub s i s t s i de -by s ide w i th t h e o b jec t s o f C h r i s t i an o r thodoxy ' ( 1 975 : 8 ) .

T h i s d i d n o t b e t ray , a s Mu r r ay h ad s ugge s ted , t h e p re sence o f a n " O ld R e l ig ion" . Ne i the r c ou ld t ho se e l em en t s i d en t if i ed a s p agan i n o r ig in b e c on s ide red s epa ra te f r om t h e C hu rch ; i ndeed , a s wo rk p rog re s sed i tw a s i n c rea s ing l y r e cogn i sed t h a t t h e d i cho tomy b e tween ' a n e l i te , c hu rch d om ina t ed c u l tu re a nd a ' f o lk lo r ic ' c u l tu re o f t h e m a s se s w a s f a r f r om a b so lu te ' ( Pound s , 2 000 : 3 26 ) . I ft h e C hu rch h ad t a ken o ve rp opu l a rp rac t i ce s , mod if i ed t h em , a nd ' g iv en t h em a v enee r o f s oph i s t ica t ion ' t h en t h e se s ame p opu l a r p rac t i ce s h ad i n co rpo ra ted C h r i s t ian i ty i n to t h e i r mag ica l u n iv e r se ( s ee , f o r e x amp le , T hom a s , 1 971 : 5 2 -57 ; V an E ngen , 1 986 ; K i eckhef e r , 1 989 , 1 991 ; F l in t , 1 990 , 1 99 1 ; Duke s , 1 996 ; G r i ff i th s , 1 996 ; S chm id t , 1 998 ; P ound s , 2 000 : 3 26 ) . T he r e su l t o ft h i s ' mu l t i f a r iou s a nd c onf l i c t ing mu tua l i nf luence w a s ac u l tu r a l ideo log ica lc omp l ex w h i ch m igh tb e c aled ' p opu l a r C h r i s t i an i t y ' o r ' p a r i sh C a tho l i c i sm ' ( Gu rev ich , 1 988 : 5 ; s e e a l so G ea ry , 1 994 : 3 3 ) . F o r t h e se

A l though t h e r e cogn i t ion o fp ag an i m ag er yw i th in med i ev a l c hu rche s w a s n o tp a r t icu l a r ly n ov e l , e v en f o rt h e 1 970 s ( t he t op i ch ad b een d i scu s sed w i th in t h ep ag e s o ft h eE c c l e s i o l og i s t

r e a son s i ti sm i s lead ing t o s peak o f ap ag an M idd le A g e s

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S ec t ion I :C on tex t s t h e p ag an mode l f a i l s t oc on s ide r t h e c on tex t o ft h e i mag e s a nd t h e s pec if i c s oc ia l , r e l ig iou s a nd m ag i ca lp e r spec t ive s o f t h e s oc ie ty t h a tp roduced t h em .

( M il s , 1 998a ) ; p ag an r i t e s a nd p rac t i ce s h ad b een a b so rbed a nd t r an sform ed b y t h em ach ine ry o ft h e C hu rch , wh ich , a s T hom a s p o in ted o u t , i n c rea s ing ly c am e t o a ppea r a s' av a s t r e servo i ro f mag i ca lp ow e r ' ( 1 971 : 5 1 ; s e ea l so M i l i s , 1 998b ) . Med iev a l r e l ig iou s l i f e w a s t h e ref o re n e i the r e n t i re ly C h r i s t i an n o r p redom inan t ly p ag an , b u t a c u r iou s c omb ina t ion o f t h e mag i ca l , f o lk lo r ic a nd e a r thy w i th t h e t r an scenden t a nd s p i r i tua l . A s Gu rev i ch h a s s ummed u p , t h e

C onc lu s ion Mo re r e cen tw o rk u pon med i ev a la r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lptu re h a s c hal eng ed t h e b l anke t d ida c t i c i sm o f t h e P i c tu re B ook t h eory ( Cam i l le , 1 992 : 8 4 ; B en ton , 1 996 : 1 61 ) . A g a in s t d ef in i t iv e i n te rp re ta t ion i ti s s ugge s t ed t h a t a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re w a s l i ke ly t o b e al o cu s o f r i ch a nd d i v e r se , mu l t ip l e o r l a ye red mean ing s ( Ben ton 1 996 : 1 60 ; Gooda l l , 1 995 : 3 24 ) . A mo r e s oph i s t i ca t ed a r gumen t s ugge s t s t h a t m a rg ina l s cu lptu re c a r r i ed d i f f e ren t m ean ing s f o r d i f f e ren t a ud ience s . T he s cu lp ted t r umeau a tS ou i l l ac , f o re xamp l e , i n i t s i nvoca t ion o f b road c u l tu r a l m e t apho r s o f ` a n im al i ty l i nked t oh uman a ppe t i t e a nd e mbod imen t 'i sl i ke ly t oh av e b een i n te rp re ted d i f f e ren t ly b y d i f f e ren t g roup s , w ho se ' mu l t ip l e m i s in te rp re ta t ion s ' a nd ' p a r t i a l c ompr ehen s ion s ' mu s t b e s e en a s c o -ex i s t an t w i th o ff i c i a l i n te rp re t a t ion s ( Cam i l le , 1 993a : 5 2 , 5 3 ) . E cc l e s i a s t ica l p a t ron s m igh t h av e r e ad c e r t a in i m ag e s a sp e r son if i ca t ion s o fv i ce a nd s i nw h i l e t h e l a i ty c ou ld r e cogn i se i nt h em p eop le ' o n t h e m a rg in s o f s oc i e ty — women , d runka rd s , j ong leu r s , a nd f oo l s —w ho e voked a mb iv a l en t a t t i tude s o f a t t r ac t ion a nd s u sp i c ion ' ( K enaan -Keda r , 1 992 : 1 8 ) . T ha tt h e se i m ag e sw e re e ndow ed w i th t h e p owe r t o r epe l e v i l i sa l so h i gh ly r e lev an t a nd c u r ren t i n t h e l i t e r a tu re ( e .g . C am i l l e , 1 992 : 7 0 -72 ) a nd w i l l f i gu re t h roughou tt h i s t h e s i s .

e xcep t iona ln a tu re o ft h i s c u l tu re l i e s i nt h e s t range c omb ina t ion o fo ppo s i te p o l e s : h eav en a nd e a r th , s p i r i ta nd b ody ,g l oom a nd h umou r , l i f e a nd d ea th . Ho l ine s s c an b e s e en a s af u s ion o fl o f ty p i e ty a nd p r im i t iv e mag i c , o fe x t reme s e lf -den ia l a nd ap r ide i n b e ing t h e e l ec t , o f wo r ld ly d e t achmen t a nd g r eed , o f m e rcy a nd c rue l ty . [ . . ] L ea rn ing i s g l o r i f ied a nd i g no ramu se s a r e t r ea ted w i th s co rn , a nd a tt h e s ame t im e f ool i shne s s , p ove r ty o fs p i r i t , e ven m adne s s , a r e r e ckoned t h e s u re s t w ay t o s a lv a t ion ( Gu rev i ch , 1 988 : 1 76 ) .

T he ' s t r ang ene s s a nd c on t r ad i c t ion ' t h a t s a tu ra ted med iev a l r e l ig ion i sr a re ly s o f o rcefu l ly e xp re s sed a si ni t s a r t , a nd i n p a r t i cu la r , g ro te sque a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu r e ( i b id . 1 76 ) . T he P i c tu re B ook i n t e rp re ta t ive mode l w a s o f c ou r se t h e c oun te rpa r tt h eo ry t ot h ev i ew o ft h em ed iev a lp e r iod a sa n a g e o f f a i th ; a s h i s to r i an s b eg an t o r ev i se t h i s n o t ion a nd i n t roduce t h ei d ea o f af l ou r i sh ing med iev a lp ag an i sm t ho se i mage s t h a t h ad p rev iou s ly d ef i ed i n te rp r e ta t ion c ou ld n ow b e a s c r ibed w i th c onf idence t o t h e " un supe rv i sed" c r af t sman . Howev e r , t os a y , a sS her idan a nd R o s s d id s ome y ea r s l a te r , t h a t s uch c a rv ing s w e re v i ew ed b y t h e p eop l e a s p ag an d e i t i e s i st o i g no r e t h e p rofound t r an sf orma t ion s o f p ag an r e l ig ion i n to mag ica l p r ac t ice a nd t h e i r c on sequen t a b sorp t ion i n to C h r i s t i an i ty ( Hu t ton , 1 99 1 : 3 14 ) . I t mu s tb e b o rne i nm ind t h a t

C lea r ly , t h e d i ff i cu l ty i n e s t abl i sh ing r e l i ab l e c on t ex t s f o r m ed iev a l m a rg ina l s cu lp tu re h a s f r u s t r a t ed r e sea r ch . Goodal n o te s t h a t ' t he wo rk o fi n te rp re t ing t h i s s cu lp tu r ei s f r augh t w i th d i ff i cu l t ie s , n o t l e a s t b ecau se i th a s l o s t mu ch o fi t s c on tempo ra r y c on tex t t h a tm igh t h av e b een c r i t i ca lt o a n a pp r ec i a t ion o f i t s mean ing : p a in t w o rk , t h e o r ig ina l f u rn i sh ing s o ft h e c hu rch a nd o the ri mag e r yi ns t a tua r y a nd g l a s s ' ( 1 995 : 3 23 -324 ; s e e a l so S eku l e s , 1 995 : 3 7 ) . T he t emp t a t ion t o t u rn t o t h e g r ea te r b ody o f w o rk o n i l u s t ra ted m anu sc r ip t s f o r a n swe r s t o i c onog r aph i ca l p rob lem s h a s b een g r ea t , a s i l u s t ra ted b y t h e t e ndency t o u se b e s t i a r ie si nt h i sw ay .

[ w ]hen l o ok ing f o r ' p ag an s u rv iv a l s ' i n t h e med i ev a lC hu rch , i ti sn o te nough f o rh i s to r ian s t o d e t ec t p a rale l s , r e l i c s o ri m i ta t ion s o fp ag an i sm . I t i s n ece s sa ry t o d emon s t ra te t h a t c e r t a in t h ing s , a l though n ow e x i s t ing w i th in aC h r i s t i an s t ruc tu re , k ep t a l iv e amemory o f , a nd r ev e rence f o r , t h e o ld

Wh i l s t i m ag e s c an c onv ey p owe rfu l s en su a l i mp re s s ion s u nmed ia ted b y l a nguage , t h e t a c i t s t a tu s o fa r t i ni ndu s t r i a l s oc i e ty a s s e conda ry t o mo r e t e chno log ica l , r a t iona l e n te rp r i se s , p e rpe tua te s ad eaden ing v i ew o f t h e v i su a l . Med iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re , a s t h i s c hap te r h a s i n t roduced , h a s b een v i c t im t o s uch p roce s se s , wh i ch , i n c o mb ina t ion w i th t h e g ene r a l n eg lec t o f t h e c on tex t s i n wh i ch t h e se i mag e s w e re m ade a nd v i ew ed , h a s h ad a d i so r ien ta t ing e f f ec tu pon i t s s t udy .

d e i t ie s . . . [ The ] r e appea rance o f ap ag an i mag e i na C h r i s t i an c oncep t o n ly d emon s t r a t e s t h e s u rv iva l o f p ag an i sm i t se lf i fi tc an b e s hown t o h av e a [ p ag an ] r e l ig iou s p u rpo se a nd i sn o t b e ing u sed a s a na na log yo rf o ri t s a e s the t ic v a lue ( i b id . 2 89 , 2 97 ) . P a t ron s wou ld n o t h av e c o mm i s s ioned a r t a n t i the t i ca l t o t h e i r f a i th . N e i the r c an i tb e a s sumed t h a t t h e v i ewe r s o f t h e se i m ag e s w ou ld h av e u nde r s tood t h em a s o f p ag an o r ig in .J u s t l i k e i t s p o l a r o ppo s i te , t h e P i c tu re B ook t h eory ,

1 4

C hap te r2

L im ina lV is ions : The G ro tesque a nd t he Da rk S ide o ft he S ac red

I n t r o d u c t i on L im ina ls i tu a t ion s a nd r o le s a r e o f ten r ega rded a sd ange rou s a nd i n au sp i c iou s , a nd , a s T u rne r s ugge s t s , a r e ' a lmo s t e ve rywhe re a t t r ibu ted w i th mag ico re l ig iou s p rope r t ie s ( i b id . 1 08 ) . T h i s i sd ue t o t h e d i ff i cu l ty o f c l a s s if y ing t h e l im ina l s ub jec t , e xpe r ience o rp l ace i nt e rm s o ft r ad i t iona lc r i te r ia o f c l a s s if i ca t ion : i nf l ee ing t h e d ef in i t iv e t h e l im ina li su n s t ab l e a nd m ay b e r ega rded a s p olu t ing a s w el a s s a c red . T h i s c oncep t ion o ft h e h o ly a sd ang e rou s a nd i mpu re a sw el a s b enevo l en t i s a p a radox g ene r aly u nf am i l i a r t o t h e i ndu s t r i a l ized w e s t ( Ba t a i l le , 1 985 [ 1 929/30 1 : 9 6 ; 1 985 [ 1 939 ] : c ap t ion t o f i gu re 1 5 ) . C ha r ac te r i sed b y e xce s s a nd i ndef inab il i ty , t h e l im ina l t h e ref o re r ep re sen t s t h e u nce r ta in t y o ft h e t h r e sho ld , t h e g ap s o r t r an s i t iona l p o in t s w i th in t h ep rev a i l ing s y s tem o fk now ledg e . A sJ u l i aK r i s tev a n o te s w i th r e ga rd t o t h e a b jec t , t h i s i s ' t he p l ace whe re mean ing c ol ap se s ' ( 1 982 : 2 ) . S uch af undamen ta l t h rea t t o c u l tu r a l a nd i nd iv idua l o rde r , t h e r emov a l o f t h e b a s i c p o in t s o f r e f e rence wh ich g u ide a nd g round u s i n t h e p henom ena lw o r ld , mu s tb ew e l l -p ro tec ted i fs oc ia l s t ab i l i ty i st o p rev a i l . Unde r s tandab ly , a u tho r i ty h a s v e s t ed i n te re s t s i n p o l i c ing t h e se w eak s po t s , d i scou rag ing t h e i r i nve s t ig a t ion t h rough t h e p l ac ing o ft a boo . Y e t t h e se w eak s po t s ( f rom t h ep e r spec t ive o f ac u l tu r a l s y s t em o fm ean ing ) a r e a l so p o in t s o fc on t ac tw i th wha tt h e s ame s y s tem c anno t

Med i ev a l p e rcep t ion s o f t h e s a c r ed w e re mou lded b y t h e p ecul i a r c i rcum s t ance s s u r round ing t h e d ev e lopmen t a nd d i s sem ina t ion o f C h r i s t i an i t y , who se i n t e r ac t ion w i th a nd a s s im i l a t ion o f v a r ie t i e s o f p ag an i sm c r ea ted a n e ndu r ing a nd c omp l ex r e l ig iou s f o lk lo re . I n t h i s , g ood a nd e v i l w e re c l ea r ly r e cogn i sab le b u t n o t c l ea r ly s e pa r a ted . Ang e l s c ou ld b e a s d ang e rou s a s d emon s , a nd b o th o ccup ied s im i la r v i s iona r y " space s" . No o ne s e em s t o h av e d oub t ed t h a t a g enc ie s o u t s ide t h e h uman m ind o the r t h an t h e u su a l o b jec t s o fs en se e xper ience c ou ld c au se i mag e s a nd t hough t i nt h e h um an s ou l . ' Bo th t h e H eb r ew a nd C h r i s t i an p a r t s o f t h e B ib le r e coun t s o m any i n s tance s o f s u ch e xpe r ience s t h a t t h e p i ou s med i ev a l r e ade r c ou ld r e ad i ly c onc lude t h a t v i s ion s w e r e n o t t h a t e x t rao rd ina r y am ean s b y wh i ch God a nd s p i r i t s —b o th g ood a nd e v i l —c ommun i ca ted w i th mo r t a l s ' ( Tob in , 1 995 : 4 2 ) . T h i s f l u id w o r ld w a s n ever the le s s a ncho red i nt h e p hy s ica l , a nd e spec i a l ly a ts i t e s o f c oncen t r a ted s p i r i tua l a c t iv i t y , s u ch a s c hu rche s . C on sequen t l y , w e mu s t v i ew m ed i ev a l e c c le s ia s t ica l b u i ld ing s a s l o ca t ion s whe re t h e " supe rna tu r a l" ( i . e . t h a t wh ich d i d n o t c onf orm t oc u l tu r a l d e f in i t ion s o f" na tu ra l" ) i mp ing ed u pon t h en a tu ra l , a nd i ndeed ,m igh tm an if e s t . T he t e rm " l im ina l ," d e r ived f r om t h e L a t in f o rt h re sho ld , i s a n a pp rop r i a te o ne t o d e sc r ibe s u ch e xpe r i ence s a nd/o r l o ca t ion s . T he u se o f t h e t e rm l im inal i t y i n moder n s cho la r sh ip i sc ommon ly t r aced t o A rno ld v an G ennep ' s w o rk o n r i te s o f p a s sage ( 1 960 [ 1 909 ] ) . V an Gennep s ugg e s t ed t h a t a l s uch r i te s a r e m a rked b y t h ree d i s t inc t

l im i t t h rough d e f in it ion . T he se a r ea s o f t r an s i t ion b e tween c l ea r ly d ef ined s pace s a nd c oncep t s a r e z one s o f g r ea t v u lne rab i l i ty a s w el a s g r ea t ( unoff i c ia l , n on in s t i tu t iona l ) p ow e r , v u lne rab le f o r b e ing a " g ap" b e tw een d ef in i t ion s , p owe rfu l b ecau se s uch ag ap i sa l so ap o in t o fc onnec t ion w i th t h ee ne rgy o ft h eu nknown a nd u nfo rm ed .

p ha se s ; a n i n i t i a l s epa ra t ion , i n wh i ch t h e i nd iv idua l o r i nd iv idua l s a r e d e t ached f r om t h e p r ev a i l ing , f am i l i a r s e t o f c u l tu r a l c ond i t ion s ; al i m ina l p e r iod , d u r ing wh ich t h e c ha r ac te r i s t i c s o f t h e r i tua l s ub jec t a r e a mb iguou s ; a nd f i naly , a gg reg a t ion o r r e ab so rp t ion i n to t h e c ommun i t y , i n wh i ch t h e s ub jec t r e tu rn s t o as t ab le , a l be i t n ew , c ond i t ion . T he a n th ropo log i s t V i c to r T u rne r e xp lo red t h e l im ina l p ha se o fs u ch r i tua l s i nf u r the r d e t a i li nh i s b ook T h e R i tua l P r o c e s s : S t ru c t u r e a nd An t i -S t r u c t u r e ( 1 969 ) . H e re h e i d en t if i ed l i m ina l e n t i t ie s a s ' n e i the r h e re n o r t h e re ; t h ey a r e b e tw ix t a nd b e tw een t h e p o s i t ion s a s s igned a nd a r r ay ed b y l aw , c u s tom , c onven t ion , a nd c e r emon i a l ' ( Tu rne r , 1 977 [ 1 969 ] :

R epr e sen t ing t h e l im ina l i s a n a t temp t t o p i ctu r e t h i s my s te r iou s f o rce o r e xce s s iv e , a bno rm a l e ne rgy . One o ft h e mo s t s u i tab le s t y le s o fa r t f o r t h i s t a sk , i ndeed , o ne t h a t h a s b een c aled ' a n a e s the t ic o fl im inal i ty ' ( S ech te r , 1 994 ) , i st h e g ro te sque .

I den t i ty C r is is : The Name o ft he G ro tesque S i nce t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry , a r t h i s tory h a s u sed t h e t e rm g ro te sque t o d e sc r ibe a p a r t icu l a r s t y le o f d eco r a t iv e i mag e r y c ha r ac te r i sed b y t h e p re sence o ff an ta s t ic c r ea tu r e s f o rmed f r om h uman , a n ima l , v ege tab le a nd i no rg an ic e l emen t s ( s ee c hap t e r 1 ) . F rom i t s i n cep t ion , h owev e r , t h e t e rm w a s s ynonymou s w i th a ny p e rce iv ed d ev ia t ion f r om

9 5 ) . T hu s ' s ecu l a r d i s t inc t ion s o fr ank a nd s t a tu s d i sappea r o r a r e h omog en i zed ' a s t h e r i tua l s ub jec t i n t h e l im ina l p ha se i s' r educed o rg round d own t o au n if o rm c ond i t ion t o b e f a sh ioned a new a nd e ndow ed w i th a dd i t iona l p ow e r s t o e nab le t h em t oc ope w i th t h e i rn ew s t a t ion i nl i f e ' ( i b id . ) .

1 5

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s c a t ego r i sed , o r , a tl e a s to n l yp oo r ly c a tego r i sed a c co rd ing t o p a r t i cu l a r c u l tu r a l o rg an i sa t ion s o f k now l edg e . T h e d i sm i s s iv e u s e o ft h e w o rd i sp e rh ap s n o t u nconn ec t ed t o t h eu n ea se g en e r a ted b yt h i si n def in ab i l i t y :

t h e mo ra l l y a nd a e s the t i ca l ly a c cep t ab l e o r t h e " na tu r a l " o rde r . A s ac onc ep to ft h e d ev i an t a nd a bno rm a l , t h er ang e o f t h e m a t e r i a l c an b e e x t ended r a d i c a l ly . Ku r y luk w r i t e s t h a tt h e m e an ing o f t h e g r o t e squ e i sc on s t i tu t ed b y t h e n o rm wh i ch i tc on t r ad i c t s : t h e o rde r i td e s t roy s , t h e v a lu e s i tu p se t s , t h e a u tho r i t y a nd mo r a l i ty i t d e r ide s , t h e r e l ig ion i tr i d i cu l e s , t h e h a rmony i t b reak s u p , t h e h eav en i tb r ing s d own t oe a r th , t h e p o s i t ion o fc l a s se s , r a ce s , a nd s e xe s i tr ev e r se s , t h e b eau ty a nd g oodne s s i t q u e s t ion s . T he w o rd " g ro t e squ e" m ak e s s e n se o n l y i fo ne k now s wh a t t h e " no rm" r e p r e sen t s —i n a r t a nd i n l i f e ( 1 987 : 1 ) .

G ro t e squ e r i e s b o th r e qu i r e a nd d ef ea t d ef in i t ion : t h ey a r en e i th e rs or e gu l a ra nd r h y thm i ca lt h a tt h ey s e t t l e e a s i l y i n to o u r c a t ego r i e s , n o r s o u np re ceden t ed t h a t w e d o n o t r e cogn i ze t h em a t a l . T h ey s t and a t am a rg in o f c on sc iou sne s s b e tw een t h e k nown a nd t h e u nknown , t h e p e r c e iv ed a nd t h e u npe r ce iv ed , c a l l ing i n to q u e st ion t h e a d equ acy o f o u r w ay s o f o rg an i z ing t h ew o r ld ,o fd i v id ing t h ec on t inuum o fe xper i en ce i n to k now ab l ep a r t i c l e s ( Ha rpham , 1 982 : 3 ) .

I n t h i s s en se g ro t e sque h a s ac ommon u se a s ad e rog a to ry t e rm . I nt h en i n e t een th c en tu ry t h et e rm b ecam e a l i ed w i th m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re . T oday , t h i s ' d im en s ion o f i n t en se a nd e xagg e r a t ed f o rm s ' t e nd s t ob e c ha r ac t e r i sed a s < a s ymbol i c c a t ego ry o f a r t w h i ch e xp r e s se s p sy ch i c u nde r cu r r en t s f r om b e low t h e s u r f ace o f l i f e , s u ch a s n am e l e s s f e a r s ,n i gh tma r e s ,A ng s t ' ( F ing e s t e in , 1 984 :4 19 ) .

A t t h e l i m i t s o f c omp r ehen s ion , t h e w o rd g ro t e squ e m ay h en ce b et a k en t od e s igna t e ' ac ond i t ion o fb e ing j u s to u to f f o cu s , j u s t b eyond t h e r e ach o fl a ngu ag e . I ta c commoda t e s t h e t h ing s l e f t o v e r wh en t h e c a t ego r i e s o f l a ngu ag e a r e e xhau s t ed ; i ti s ad ef en se a g a in s t s i l en ce w h en o th e rw o rd s h av e f a i l ed ' ( i b id . 3 4 ) . C h a r ac t e r i sed b y a n ' e ne rgy w h i ch t a k e s i t s o wn f o rm s a nd g oe s i t s o wn w ay ' ( Ch e s t e r ton , 1 936 [ 1 90 4 1 49 ) , g ro t e sque i mag e r y t h e r ef o r e o pe r a t e s i n t h eg ap sb e tw een m ean ing a nd m ean ing f u lf o rm .

A t t h e h ea r t o f t h e g r o t e squ e i s as e r iou s p l ay w i th c onv en t ion . H yb r id , c ompo s i t e , d i s to r t ed a nd e xagg e r a t ed f o rm s p r ev a i l ; c on t ex t s a r e d i sp l a ced , b ounda r i e s t r an sg r e s sed . U s ing ' d eba sem en t , d i s to r t ion , d i sp l a cem en t , a nd h e t e rog ene i ty ' a si t s k ey t e chn iqu e s , g ro t e squ e i m ag e ry c omm en t s u pon t h e f o rm s , c a tego r i e s , h i e r a r ch i e s a nd c onv en t ion s t h a t h av e b ecome p a r t a nd p a r ce l o f a c on sen su s r e a l i ty o r p r ev a i l ing w o r ldv i ew ( Ku ry luk , 1 987 : 3 0 1 ) . How ev e r , t h i s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i l y m ean t h a t t h e g ro t e squ e i m ag e i sd i am e tr i ca l ly o ppo sed t ot h e n o rm a t iv e : o n t h e c on t r a ry , g ro t e squ e f o rm s t e nd t ob l end e l em en t s o f t h e f am i l ia r t og e the r i n u n f am i l i a r w ay s . T he e f f ec t i sa v i su a lp a r adox , ar e cogn i sab l eb u tr a d i ca lo ther n e s s .

T hu s i t i s m y c on ten t ion t h a t m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e , s o o f t en c ompo sed o f g r o t e squ e e l em en t s , i s p oo r ly u nde r s tood n o t b ecau se i t s i m ag e s a r e i n h e r en t l y m e an ing l e s s b u t r a the r b ecau se t h ey c a r r y a n e x c e s s o f m ean ing wh i ch s e rv e s t o p l ace t h em a t t h e l i m i t s o f u nde r s t and ing : t h ey l i t e r a l l y e mbody t h e i n comp r ehen s ib l e . C oup l ed w i th a n u nde r s t and ing o f m ed i ev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s a s l i m ina l l o ca t ion s a nd l i m in al i ty a s s p i r i tu a l l y d ang e rou s a s w el a s p o t en t , ac on t ex t i se s t ab l i sh ed i n w h i ch t h e se i m ag e s a r e n o m e r e or n amen t b u t v i t a l p r e sence s t h a t s e rv e t od em a r ca t e a nd a n im a t e s a c r ed s p ace a s w el a s p ro t ec t t h e b u i ld ing a nd i t s u se r s f r om t h e m a l evo l en ta s pec t so ft h i s a mb iguou se n e rg y . I n to t h i sb a s i c t h eo re t i ca l g round m ay b e s own o the r p o s s ib i l i t i e s , f o r e xamp l e mo r a li n t e rp r e t a t ion s .

H e re in l i e s t h e f a sc in a t ion w i th t h e g ro te sque : i t i s p o t en t i a l ly l i m i t l e s s , ar e a lm o f d i srup ted me an ing s a nd u n in t e l l ig ib l e u n ion s ( Ha rph am , 1 982 : 3 ; Duco rn e t , 1 999 : 2 8 ) . R u sk in w a s a mong t h e f i r s t t on o t i ce t h e i n te rm ing l ing o fq ual i t i e sg ene r a l ly p e r ce iv ed a so ppo sed o rd i sco rd an t :

G ro tesque Bod ies i n Med ieva lA r t a nd L if e

F i r s t , t h en , i ts e em s t om e t h a t t h e g ro t e squ ei s ,i n a lmo s t a l c a se s , c ompo sed o f t wo e l em en t s , o ne l u d i c rou s , t h e o the r f e a rfu l ; t h a t , a s o n e o r t h e o the ro ft h e se e l em en t sp r ev a i l s , t h eg ro t e squ e f a l s i n to t wo b r anch e s , s por t iv e g ro t e sque a nd t e r r ib l e g ro t e squ e ;b u tt h a tw e c anno tl e g i t im a t e ly c on s ide r i tu nde rt h e se t wo a s pec t s ,b ecau se t h e r ea r eh a rd ly a ny e xamp l e s wh i ch d o n o t i n s ome d eg ree c omb in e b o th e l em en t s : t h e r e a r e f ew g ro t e sque s s ou t t e r l yp l ayfu la st ob eo v e r ca s tw i th n o s h ade o f f e a r fu lne s s , a nd f ew s o f e a r fu l a s a b so lu t e ly t o e xc lude a li d ea so fj e s t( Ru sk in , 1 904 ,X I : 1 5 1 ) .

T he g ro t e squ e m igh t b e c on s id e r ed t o o pe r a t e v i a t h e m ed ium o f e ncoun te r . I n f i gu r a t iv e t e rm s , f o r e x amp l e , i t r e pe a t ed l y d r aw s a t ten t ion , t h rough d i s to r t ion a nd t r an sg r e s s ion , t o t h e b ounda r i e s d e em ed t o d ef in e " hum an" . T hu s Im ]on s t rou s a nd g r o t e squ e f i gu r e s a r e g ene r a t ed b y o pe r a t ion s u pon t h e p e r iphe r y o f t h e b ody , u ndo ing i t sc oh e r en ce a nd t h e r eby i t ss e pa r a t ion f r om o the r b od i e s a nd f r om t h ew o r ld ' ( Do r r i an , 2 000 : 3 13 ) . Ab a t t e r y o f m an ipu l a t iv e t e chn iqu e s c an b e e mp loy ed h e r e . B od i e s m ay b e d i v ided a nd f r agm en t ed , t h e c on s t i tu en t p a r t s t h en m ixed t o g e the r i n wh a t a ppea r s t o b e ar a ndom f a sh ion b ef o re r e a s semb l y . P a r t s m ay b e mu l t ipl i ed t o e x c e s s , o r r emov ed a l tog e the r . I nd iv idua l f e a tu r e s a r e e l ong a t ed , c omp r e s sed , e n l a rg ed o rr e du ced i ns i ze , d i sp l a ced . P a r t s o f

P r iv i l eg ing " bo th -and" t o " e i the r -o r " t h e g ro t e squ e i s s ynonymou s w i th t ho se e l em en t s t h a t c anno t b e

1 6

T he G ro te sque a nd t he D ark S id eo ft he S acred Y e t i f o rde r a nd m ean ing d epend u pon c a tego r ica l b ounda r i e s , t h en t h e m a in tenance o f t ho se b ounda r ie s i s

d i f f e r en t s p ec i e s m ay b e f u sed t o c r ea te h yb r id b e ing s a nd f a n ta s t i cc r ea tu re s ( s ee Ku r y luk , 1 987 : 3 0 1-7 ) .

c ruc ia l . A cco rd ing ly , mean ing m igh t b e p e r ce iv ed a s God g i v en b u t i n n o w ay i si td iv ine ly ma in ta ined , a nd b lu r r ing t h e b ounda r ie s b e tween ' t he c a t ego r ie s o f c r ea t ion ' ( Doug l a s , 1 966 : 5 4 ) r un s t h e r i sk o f" undo ing" d i v ine o rde r b y r e in t rodu c ing c hao s . P o ten t i a l ly t r an sg r e s s iv e m a te r ia l mu s tb el im i ted o re xc luded i fd i srup t ion i st ob em in im i zed a nd t h e p rev a i l ing o rgan i sa t ion o fp e rcep t ion p re serv ed . I n

B od i ly a mb igu i t y u nde rp in s M ikha i l B akh t in ' s t h eory o f " G ro t e sque R eal i sm" ( 1 984 : 3 15 ) . B akh t in s ugge s t s t h a t ' t he a r t i s t i c l o g i c o f t h e g ro t e sque i m age i g no re s t h e c l o sed , s moo th , a nd i mpene t rab le s u rf ace o f t h e b ody a nd r e ta in s o n ly i t s e x c re sence s ( s p rou t s , b ud s ) a nd o r if i ce s , o n ly t h a t wh i ch l e ad s b eyond t h e b ody ' s l im i t ed s pace o r i n to t h e b ody ' s d ep th s ' ( Bakh t in , 1 984 : 3 17 -18 ) . A cco rd ing ly , t ho se s i t e sw her et h eb ody t r an sg re s se s i t s o wn b ounda r ie sa r et h e

t h i s n eed t o p re serv e ap a r t icu la r v i s ion o f c r ea ted o rde r m ay b e f ound t h e p re requ i s i te f o r t a boo s a nd o the r r e s t r ic t ion s , f o r wha ti sd ef ined a su nc lean ' i sn o tn ece s sa r i ly

mo s ti mpo r t an ti ni t sl i f e :

d i r ty o r l o a th some i ni t se l f , b u t t h a t wh ich b lu r s c a tego r ie s o f d i f f e rence w i th in a g i v en s ymbol i c s y s tem ' ( Be t t e r ton , 1 996 : 1 39 ) . H ence a mb iguou s s ub jec t s i nv i te t a boo f o r t h e i r

i fw e c on s ide r t h e g ro te sque i mage i ni t s e x t reme a spec t , i tn ev e r p r e sen t s a n i nd iv idu a l b ody ; t h e i mage c on s i s t s o f o r if i ce s a nd c onv ex i t i e s t h a t p re sen t a no the r , n ew ly c once iv ed b ody . I t i s a p o in t o f t r an s i t ion i n al i f e e t e rna l ly r enewed , t h e i n exh au s t ib l e v e s se l o f d ea th a nd c oncep t ion ( i b id .

c onfu s ion o fo r thodox d ef in i t ion s ( L each , 1 964 : 3 7 -38 ) . I n f i gu ra t iv e t e rm s a ny th ing t h a t d e t rac t s f r om t h e i d ea l i s t h e refo re o pen t o s u sp ic ion f o r i td ev i a t e s f r om t h e d i v ine p l an . S i nce i t s i n cep t ion C h r i s t ian i t y h ad a r t i cu la ted t h e se a s sump t ion s , a s soc ia t ing c o rpo rea l d eform i ty w i th s i n ( S ach s , 1 969 : x i x ) . A s t he B ook o f L ev i t i cu s ( 2 1 : 1 6 -23 ) make s p l a in t h e p hy s icaly i mpe rf ec t m an mu s t b e e xc luded f r om t he p r i e s thood l e s t h i s i mpe rf ec t ion — ' s ynonymou s w i th u nc leanne s s a nd i mpu r it y ' — d ef i le t h e L o rd ' s

3 18 ) . T hu s ' e a t ing , d r ink ing , d ef eca t ion a nd o the r e l im ina t ion ( sw ea t ing , b low ing o f t h e n o se , s neez ing ) , a s w el a s c opu l a t ion , p regnancy , d i smembe rmen t , s w a l low ing u p b y a no the r b ody ' m igh t b e c on s ide red a mong t h e k ey t h eme s o ft h eg ro te sque b od i ly i mag e ( i b id . 3 17 ) .1

s anc tua r y , ar equ i remen t f o r t h e h i ghe r c l e r ica l o rde r s t h a t p e r s i s t ed f r om t h e e a r ly med i ev a l p e r iod u n t i l 1 917 ( Me l inkof f , 1 993 : 13 -114 ) . Med iev a l e xeg e s i s c emen ted t h e c onnec t ion s b e tween b od i ly d efo rm i ty , d i sea se a nd m adne s s , g u i l t a nd i mmo ral i t y , a nd t h e a s soc i a t ion s p e rco l a ted t h roughou t med ieva l c u l tu re i n g ene ra l ( Doob , 1 974 : 1 30 ) . T he V ice s m igh t b e p i ctu red r i d ing o n a pe s o r

G ro t e sque r e conf igu ra t ion p re suppo se s t h e c oncep tua l e x i s t ence o f a n i d ea l b ody , wh i ch , i n t e rm s o f t h e h uman f o rm i s ac oncep t i n sepa r ab l e f r om ac u l tu re ' s mo ra lv a lue s ( Cam il e , 1 994 a ) . F or t h e med i ev a l p e r iod t h e p e rf ec t h uman b ody , m ade i nt h e i m ag e o f God , embod i ed d i v ine l aw , a nd , b yi n f e rence , C h r i s t ian t r u th a nd m ean ing . I ndeed , i n t h e B ook o f G ene s i s t h e c r ea t ion o f m ean ing r un s c oncu r ren t w i th t h e c r ea t ion o f t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld , t h e p roce s s o fs e pa r a t ing a nd n am ing , o fd i v id ing t h el i gh t f r om

p e r son if i ed a s a pe s , t h em se lve s c ommon ly p e rce ived a s d ef ormed h uman s ( J an son , 1 952 : 3 6 ) . L ep ro sy , t h e d efo rm ing s i ckne s s b el i eved t ob e s e xua l ly t r an sm i t ted , w a s w ide ly s e en a s ap un i shmen t f o r mo ra l d ep r av i ty ( R i cha rd s , 1 977 : 7 0 ; B ynum , 1 995 : 3 27 ) . I n af i f teen th -cen tu r y p oem t h e i n f ec t ion i ss en t b y ac ounc i l o fp l ane t a ry g od s f o r t h e c r ime s o f l u s t , b l a sphemy a nd i nf ide l i ty ( F r iedm an , 1 985 : 1 2 ) .

t h e d a rk a nd t h e f o rmed f r om t h e u nfo rmed . W i th e ach d i v i s ion ( o rm an i f e s t a t ion ) an ame i sg i ven t o' f i x 't h en ew ly c r ea t ed c a tego r y , b o th t o s epa r a te i to u t f r om , a nd t o p rev en ti ts l i pp ing b ack i n to , t h eu nd if f e r en t i a t ed v o id ( Gen 1 :5 ,1 0 ) .2N ame s s i gn if yt h ec r ea t ion n o to n ly o ft h ing s b u t as ymbo l ic o rde r w i th in wh ich t ho se t h ing s m igh t b e u nde r s tood i nr e l a t ion t oe ach o the r . ( To b ew i thou t an ame b e token s ad ange rou s i n s t ab i l i ty wh i ch H a rpham r i gh t ly s ugg e s t s i st h e g ro te sque c ond i t ion : s o t h e t e rm i s al a s t d i tch a t temp t t o s peak o ft h a t wh i ch i sp rope r ly n ame le s s , u nfo rm ed , a nd o u t s ide [ Ha rpham , 1 982 : 3 ] ) .

C lea r ly , t h e ' i dea t h a t d efo rm i ty w a s ap un i shmen t f o r s i n w a s p a r t o ft h e f o lk lo r i s t ic t r ad i t ion ' ( Fr iedman , 1 98 1a : 1 87 ; B ra ido t t i , 1 994 : 1 39 ) . D i sea sed o r mon s t rou s p rog eny f r equen ted med iev a lf o lk lo re , t h e i rc oncep t ion b l am ed u pon d ev ian t s e xua l p r ac t ice s t h a t v i o l a ted c a tego r i e s , f o r e xamp le , b e tween h um an a nd d i v ine , h uman a nd d emon ic , h uman a nd a n ima l , a nd c l ean a nd u nc lean . 3 One o f t h e e a rl i e s t s t o r ie s r e l a te s h ow t h e e ncoun te r o ft h e r ebe l a nge l s w i th mor t a l women ( Gene s i s 6 )p roduced at e r r ib le b rood ,

t h e c a tego r ie s o f k now ledg e H ence n am ing i s b o th ' t he

p re r equ i s i te o f am ean ing fu l ly o rde red w o r ld ' a sw el a s' a n e xp re s s ion o fc on t ro l ' ( F ewel a nd Gunn , 1 996 : 1 7 ) : i ft h e Wo rd m ade p o s s ib le t h e c r ea t ive p o t en t i a ll a t en ti nt h ev o id i ts e rv ed t od e l im i ti ta l so .

3

E t ymo log i caly , t h e wo rd " hybr id" , l i t e ra l ly a n a n ima l o r p l an t

p roduced b y c r o s s ing t wo d i f f e r en t s pec ie s , v a r i e t ie s , r a ce s o r b r eed s , h i gh l igh t s t h e se i n te r connec t ed p a th s o f m ean ing . Two s i n s i n 1T h i s

p ar t icu la r —p r ide a nd l u s t —r e sona t e . I n h i s a na ly s i s o ft h e c h ime ra , a f a bu lou s t r ipa r t i t e b ea s tw i th t h e b ody a nd h ead o f al i on , t h e t a i l o fa d r agon a nd o n i t s b ack , t h e h ead o f ag oa t , G iovann i B omp ian i s t a t e s t h a t ' i t i sf r om h ubr i s t h a t t h e w o rd " hyb r id ," wh ich d e sc r ibe s t h e

m e rg ing o fi n ne rw o r ld sw i th e x t e r io r s pace s i s ac en t ra l f e a tu r e

o f t h e g ro t e sque i n mode rn a r t a s w el ( s ee T ay lo r , 1 993 ; B e t t e r ton , 1 996 : 1 30 160 ;B ake r ,2 000 : 8 6 -92 ; Ma lber t ,2 000 ) . T he i d ea o f d i v ine w i l l c r ea t ing f o rm f r om t h e f o rm le s s w a s g i ven s ub s t anc e t h roughou t t h e M idd le A g e s i nt h e i mag e o f God a sp r ima l a r ch i t ec to ft h ec o smo s ( s ee R udo lph , 1 999 : 1 0 ) .

2

c h ime ra , d e r ive s ' ( 1 989 : 3 8 1 ) . A n a l te rna t ive r ou t e , f r om ' h ubr iz e i n , l e che rou sb ehav iou r 'i s af u r the rp o s s ib i l i t y ( Wa lke r , 1 983 : 4 19 ) .

1 7

S ec t ion 1 :C on tex t s h um an s f r om a n im a l s . W i th r e a son c am e s p i r i tu a l i t y . An im a l s , l a ck ing t h i s c apac i ty w e r e c o r re spond ing l y p e r ce iv ed a s s ou l l e s s : t h ey w ou ld n o t p a r t i c ipa t e i n t h e r e su r r ec t ion ( S al i sbu ry , 1 994 : 5 ) . T he c onv i c t ion t h a t a n im a l s l a ck ed r e a son a nd a n i mmo r ta l s ou l ' f o rm ed t h e b a s i s f o r t h e b el i ef i n t h e " na tu r a l " d om in ion o f h um an s o v e r a n im a l s , wh i ch s upp l em en t ed t h e b i b l i ca l v e r se a nd i n deed d e t erm ined i n te rp r e t a t ion s o f i t ' ( i b id . 6 ) . Wom en , d eem ed c l o se r t o t h e a n im a l w o r ld b y v i r tu e o f t h e i r b i o logy , w e r e t a in ted b y a s soc i a t ion a nd o f t en s im i la r ly r e g a rded ( s ee c h ap t e r s 7a nd 8 ) .

t h e g i an t , d e s t ru c t iv e a nd p e rpe tua l ly h ung ry ' m igh ty m en ' , t h e N eph i l im ( " unn a tu r a l l y b ego t ten m en" o r " ba s t a rd s" , f r om n e p e l , " abo r t ion" o r "m i sca r r i ag e" ) ( McK en z i e , 1 965 : 6 12 ) .I th a s b een c onv in c ing ly a r gued t h a tt h e s ou r ce o ft h e s t o ry , t h e a poc ryph a l B ook o f E noch , i n f lu en ced s u ch l i t e r a ry w o rk s a st h e p oem B eowu l fa nd t h e ref o r e p rov ided am ean s f o r i t s t r an sm i s s ion i n to m a in s t r eam m ed iev a l c u l tu r e ( M e l inkof f , 1 979 ; 1 98 1 ) . Ano th e r J udeo -Ch r i s t i an f o lk lo r i c t r ad i t ion a t t r ibu t ed t h e p ro l i f e r a t ion o fd emon s t o A dam a nd E v e ' s 1 30 y e a ra b s t inence f r om s e xu a la c t iv i t y , a p e r iod c h a ra c t e r i sed b y n um e rou s n oc tu rna l c oup l ing sw i th m a l ea nd f ema l ed emon i c s p ir i t s ( P a t a i , 1 990 : 2 24 ) wh i l et h e i n c r ea s ing ly s e v e r el e g i s l a t ion a g a in s tb e s t i a l i ty i nt h eM idd l e A g e s w a s , i n i t s l a t t e r s t ag e s , l a rg e ly f u eled b y af e a r o f p rodu c ing h yb r id a nd d emon i c c h i ld ren ( S al i sbu ry , 1 99 1 ) . S exua l a c t iv i t y t h a t t r an sg r e s sed c u l tu r a l c a t ego r i e s o f " c l ean" a nd " unc l ean" w a s c on s ide r ed a no th e r s ou r ce o f d ef o rm ed p rog eny , a s f o r e xamp l e t h e b e l i ef t h a t i n t e r cou r se w i th a m en s t ru a t ing w om an — t r ad i t ion a l ly p e r ce iv ed a s u nc l ean — w ou ld p rodu ce d emon i c o f f sp r ing ( s ee C r aw f o rd , 1 98 1 : 5 9 -62 ) . L epe r s , ' t ho se d ef o rmed c h i ld r en o f s i n a nd a b jec t ion ' w e r e t h em se lv e s o f t en u nde r s tood t ob e ' c on ce iv ed i nt h e u n c l eann e s s o fm en se s ' ( Campo r e s i , 1 995 : 19 ) .

A cco rd ing ly , a ny th ing t h a t w eak en ed o r d e s t roy ed t h e r e a son ing c apa c i ty i nm an m igh tb e c on s id e r ed t oh av e t h e p ow e r t od ef o rm h i s i m ag e , t or emov e t h e d i s t in c t ion t h a t w a s p e r ce iv ed t o s e pa r a t e m en f r om w om en a nd m en a nd w om en f r om a n im a l s . L o s s o ff o rm t h e r ef o r e c a r r i ed g r av e s p i r i tu a l i mp l i ca t ion s f o r i f' t he o rde r ed b ody r ef l ec t ed t h e h a rmon iou s n a tu re o f t h e g od ly s ou l , c o rpo r e a l d ef o rm a t ion s f u rn i shed m e t apho r s f o r t h e s ou l ' s p o t en t i a l d eg ene r acy ' ( Da l e , 2 00 1 : 4 08 ) . I n l o s ing h um an f o rm t h e s ou lw a s a tr i sk . P o s tu r e , i n t im a te l y r e l a t ed t o mo r al i t y a nd s p i r i tu a l i ty ( B a r a sch , 1 976 ; C he rew a tuk , 1 986 ) , w a s t h e r ef o r e i mpl i c a t ed . I n t h e t w e l f th c en tu ry Hugh o fS t -V i c to rw ro te t h a t

T he c l o se a s soc i a t ion o fp hy s i ca ld ef o rm i ty w i th s i na nd e v i l p rov ided t h e f ound a t ion f o r t h e p o r t r ay a l o f e v i l i n m ed i ev a l a r t ( J o rdan , 1 986 ) . T he i m ag e o f t h e d ev i l a s a mon s t e r c ompo sed o f h uman a nd a n im a l p a r t s w a s w ide sp r ead , a sw e r e b e l i ef s t h a t t h e d ev i l i n h um an g u i se ' a lw ay s h ad t ob e i d en t if i ab l e b y s om e d ef o rm i ty ' ( Lo r enz i , 1 997 : 2 2 -27 ; Me l inkof f , 1 993 : 15 ) . S hape sh i f t ing p ropo sed ap r eca r iou s mu t ab l e b ody , o ne t h a t d i d n o t c onf o rm t o c a t ego r i ca l d ef in i t ion s b u t t r an sg r e s sed t h em a tw i l l . O the r t r an sg r e s so r s o f d i v ine l aw , t h e d amned , w e r e t y p i c a l ly r ep r e sen t ed w i th ' d i s to r t ed a nd b e a s t l y h um an f e a tu r e s ' ( Ku ry luk , 1 987 : 1 3 ) .

J u s t a si n con s t ancy o fm ind b r ing s f o r th i regu l a r mo t ion s o f t h e b ody , s o a l so t h e m ind i s s t r eng thened a nd m ade c on s t an tw h en t h e b ody i s r e s t r a ined t h rough t h e p roc e s s o f d i sc ip l in e . A nd l i t t l e b y l i t t l e , t h e m ind i sc ompo sed i nw a rd ly t o c a lm , wh en t h rough t h e c u s tody o f d i sc ip l in e i t s b ad mo t ion s a r e n o t a low ed f r ee p l ay o u tw a rd ly . T he p e rf ec t ion o f v i r tu e i s a t t a in ed w h en t h e m embe r s o f t h e b ody a r e g ov e rn ed a nd o rde r ed t h rough t h e i n ne r c u s tody o f t h e m ind ( c i t ed i n D a l e ,2 00 1 :4 07 ) .

T h a t d ef o rm i t y a nd s i n w e r e j o ined i nn eg a t iv e s ymb io s i s , w r i t t en i n t h e v e r y f l e sh , m ean t t h a t t h e b ody c ou ld b e " r ead" a s ar e l i ab le g u id e t o t h e s t a t e o fo n e ' s s ou l ( Da l e , 2 00 1 : 4 05 , 4 03 ; s e e a l so F r i edm an , 1 98 1b ) . C o rpo rea l i ty t hu sb ecom e s t h ep r im a r y s i t e o fe n coun t e r , f o ri f' ap e r son w a s f ound t o h av e i mpe rf ec t p hy s i ca l f e a tu r e s , wh i ch d eno t ed a t e ndency t o c e r t a in v i ce s , i n t h eo r y t h a t u nf or tun a t ep e r son ,i fw i se a nd v i r tuou s , c ou ld s t rugg l e a nd s u cc e s sfu l ly r e s i s t t h e v i ce s a c company ing h i s p hy s ique ' ( Me l inkof , 1 993 : 16 ) . T he a s sump t ion w a s , h ow ev e r , t h a t s i nce t h e w i se a nd v i r tuou s w e r e b u t f ew , c ha r ac t e r a nd b eh av iou rw e r ed e t e rm in ed b yo ne ' sp hy s i ca lf e a tu r e s .

I ft h e m ind c ou ld b e c on t ro l l ed b y c on t ro l l ing t h e b ody , t h en a n o u t o fc on t ro l b ody s i gn a l l ed aw i ld a nd i ra t iona l m ind . B od i e s t h a t d i d n o t a ppe a r u p r igh t o r c a lm b u t c hao t i c a nd d i s to r t ed s u ch a s d an ce r s , a c roba t s a nd t h e i r a c comp l i ce s , mu s i c i an s , w e r e o pen t o s u ch i n t e rp r e t a t ion . F igu r e s o fv i o l en t mov em en t a nd s t rugg l e w ho se i regu l a r mo t ion m igh t b e r e ad a s at o k en o fi n n e r d i squ i e t , s u ch a s f i gh t ing s o ld i e r s a nd h un te r s c ha s ing b e a s t s , a l so s e rv ed t o e mpha s i ze t h e i n s t in c tu a l o v e r t h e r a t ion a l . S en su a l a nd e r o t i c a c t iv i t i e s m igh tb e s imi l a r ly p e r ce iv ed . D r aw ing u pon t h i s p oo l o f i mag e r y a low ed t h e c r e a t ion o f p ow e r f u l f i gu r a t iv e s c en e s .A tt h eA bbey o ft h eM ade l e ine a tV eze l ay , f o re xamp l e ,o ne f a ce o f ac ap i t a ld ep i c t s amu s i c i an p l ay ing ah o rn wh i l e an ak ed d emon w i th w i ld f l am ing h a i r g rope s t h eb r ea s t so f an ak ed w om an u pon t h eo ppo s i t e s i de ( Da l e , 2 00 1 : 4 12 ) . S u ch o rg i a s t i c e x ce s s e xp re s se s t h e d ang e r o f r e l inqu i sh ing r e a son t o p hy s i ca l d e s i r e , f o r a ny l o s s o f c on t ro lo ft h e d i srup t iv e f o r ce sw i th in c a r r i ed a n e no rmou s p r i ce : n o t o n l y t h e l o s s o f o n e ' s h uman i t y b u t t h e l o s s o f

D ef o rm i t y , t h en , i n t w i s t ing t h e i d e a l h um an f o rm a w ay f r om t h e d i v ine b l u ep r in t w a s c l o se l y a s soc i a t ed w i th t h e c o rpo r ea l f l u id i ty t h a t m ed i ev a l t hough t a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e m a l evo l en td emon i c . Wha tw a s r e a l ly a ts t ak e ,h ow ev e r ,w a s " humann e s s" . Med i ev a l t h eo log i an s o w ed a c on s ide r ab l e d eb t t o t h e c l a s s i ca l v i ew t h a t h e ld r e a son t o b e t h e d i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu r e o fh um an i t y ( Rudo lph , 1 990 : 1 23 ) . I t w a s t h e c apac i ty t o r e a son t h a t w a s b e l i ev ed t o d ef ine

1 8

T he G ro te sque a nd t he D ark S id eo ft he S acred T he s educ t iv e p owe r o f g ro te squ e f o rm s i n t im a t e ly t ot h e i rd ef orm i ty .A s Wi l l i am s n o te s ,

o ne ' s s ou l . A l l o ft h e se e x amp l e s a ppea r t o h av e g i v en u p t h e p owe r o fr e a son t o b ecome a s l av e t o o ne ' s p a s s ion s , v i o len t , s e xua l , o r o the rw i se . I n t h i s s t a te i tw a s b el i ev ed t h a t o ne w a s i n capab le o fw o r sh ip a nd t hu s b ecame l i ke t h e

N o s s o f f o rm e n ta i l s t wo c on t ra ry a t t i tude s : a t t rac t ion a nd r epu l s ion . On t h e o ne h and , d i so rde r a nd f o rm l e s sne s s d ep r ive t h e m ind o f a h ab i tua l s t ruc tu re n ece s sa r y f o r u nde r s t and ing a nd a c t ing a nd , u l t ima te ly , f o r b e ing . On t h e o the r , d i so rde r f r ee s t h e m ind i n c e r t a in c i rcum s tance s f r om t h e r e s t r i c t ion s o fo rde r a nd r e a son . L o s s o f wha t w e h ave c a l l ed l o g ica l , o r s c ien t if i c , f o rm d emol i she s r e a son a nd i t s c a tego r ie s s o t h a t t he m ind i si n i t ia l ly c onf ron ted w i th a b su rd i t y ( 1 996 : 7 ) .

i ra t iona la n ima l s ( Rudo lph , 1 990 : 1 23 ) . I ti sw i th in s uch a c on tex t t h a t t h e d oub t s e xp re s sed b y B e rna rd o fC l a i rv aux r eg a rd ing t h e a pp rop r i a tene s s o fs u ch c arv ing s a sm a te r i a l a i d s t o c on t emp l a t ion — t h e t r ad i t ion a l r o le o fi m age ry i nB ened ic t ine a nd C lun iac mona s t i c i sm — m igh t b e r e ad w i th g r ea te r i n s igh t .4 B e rna rd , a ss pok e sman f o r t h e r e fo rmed a nd i n i t i aly a s ce t ic C i s te rc i an o rde r w a s p a r t i cu l a r l y v oca lw i th r e ga rd s t o mona s t i c i ndu lg ence s a nd t h e Ap o l og i af o r Abb o tW i l l i am i st r ad i t iona l ly s e en a sd i rec ted a g a in s t wha t h e s aw a s t h e e xce s se s o f C lun i ac c l o i s te r c a rv ing s . I ti se v iden t t h a t B e rna rd w a s n o a s ce t ic when i t c ame t o p ro se , h ow ev e r , a nd a s s u ch t h e e xce rp t h a s l ong b een v a lued b y a r t h i s to r i an s f o r t h e h i gh ly a r t i cu l a te i mag e i t p re sen t s o f mon s t rou s f o rm s i n R om ane sque a r t ( S chap i ro , 1 977 [ 1 94 .1 :6 ,8 ) .

T he i mpo s s ib i l i ty o f a s s im i l a t ing s uch " ab su rd" ma te r i a l , h ow ev e r , e nf o rce s t h e t a boo o n i t s e ncoun te r wh i ch f o rce s i tt oo ccupy a n a b jec t r e a lm a tt he e dg e s o fc i v i l i zed l i f e , ' a t t h e b ounda r y o f wha t i sa s s im i lab le , t h ink ab l e ' ( K r i s teva , 1 982 : 1 8 ; C reed , 1 996 ) . Ou t s ide o f c a tego r i ca l f r amewo rk s o f k now l edg e , s uch h e te rog eneou s m a te r ia l i s s imu l t aneou s ly b eyond r a t iona lc omp rehen s ion , o ppo sed ' t o a ny p h i lo soph ica l s y s tem ' ( Ba ta i l le , 1 985 [ 1 929/30 ] : 9 7 ) . I t i s ,q u i te l i t e r a l ly ,e xpe l l ed b yt h eor y ( Hol ie r , 1 988 : x i x ) .

B e rna rd ' s m a in o b jec t ion t o t h e c a rv ing s p ivo t s u pon t h e s ub t l e p ow e ro ft h e f a n ta s t i c s hape s t od i s t r ac t t h e b ro the r s f r om t h e a r t t h a t l a y a tt h e b a s i s o f mona s t ic l i f e —r e ad ing a nd med i t a t ing u pon s c r ip tu re ( Rudo lph , 1 990 : 1 04 -124 ) . T he s educ t iv e p ow e r o ft h e g ro te squ e f o rm s r ep r e sen t ed a

B e rna rd o f C la i rv aux w a s a wa re o f s uch d i ff i cu l t ie s o f c omp rehen s ion . I n h i s s e rmon s h e d rew ac on t ra s tb e tween

p rof ound s p i r i tu a l d ang e r , f o r a l though c u r io s i ty w a s a n ece s sa ry a nd a pprop r i a te mona s t i c a t t r ibu te i f d i rec ted t owa rd s p i r i tua l m a t t e r s i tw a s p e r i lou s s hou ld t h e f o cu s o f

i m i t a t i o a nd a dm i r a t i o , t h e f o rme r b e ing t h a t wh i ch c an b e c on sumed , a pp rop r i a ted , a nd e xpe r i enced , t h e l a t te r t h a t wh ich c anno t b e i n corpo r a ted . B e rna rd o f f e r s t h e e xamp l e o f ag o lden g ob le t : when i ti so f f e red ' we c on sum e , a b so rb , i n co rpo ra te t h e d r ink ( t ha t i s , i m i ta t e t h e v i r tue s ) , b u t w e g i ve b ack ( t ha t i s ,w e w onde r a t ) t he g ob le t ' ( Bynum , 1 997 : 1 2 ) . T hu s w e w onde r ' a t wha t w e c anno t i n a ny s en se i n co rpo ra te , o r c on sume , o r e ncompa s s i n o u r men t a l c a tego r ie s ; w e w onde r a t my s te ry , a tp a radox ' ( i b id . ) . T he d i lemma o f r ad i ca l o the rne s s t hu s p re sen t s i t se lf a s u nknowab le ; o n ly i t s s hadow , t h e ' b l ind s t a in ' , o f f e r s t h e o ppor tun i ty o f ap ar t ia l u nde r s t and ing ( Foucau l t , 1 970 :

a t ten t ion b ecome t h e m a te r ia l w o r ld . I n t h i s s en se , a ny i mag e p re sen ted ap o ten t i a lt h rea tt ot h e monk f o ri tc a r r ied t h e p owe r t o d i rec t a t ten t ion t ow a rd s t h e w o r ld o f t h e s en se s , t hu s n eg a t ing t h e r enunc i a t ion o ft h e wo r ld a nd t h e q ue s t f o r t h e d i v ine . P i c tu r ing s uch i ra t iona l , p hy s ica l , a nd h yb r id s ub jec t s s imp ly e xace rba ted t h ep rob lem ,i n v i t ing t h e s i n o f men ta l w ande r ing o r c u r i o s i t a s ( Ca r ru the r s , 1 998 : 8 2 8 7 ) , wh ich , a si th a s b een p o in ted o u t o n t h e b a s i s o f h i s e l oquen t a nd i n f orm ed p ro se , B e rna rd w a s j u s t a s s u scep t ib l e t o a s a ny o the r ( S chap i ro , 1 977 [ 1 94 '1 : 8 ) . I ndeed , B e rna rd i nd i ca t e s t h r ee c a t ego r ie s o fi c onog r aph ica l t y pe s ' wh i ch h e f e e l sl e nd t h em se lv e s t os p i r i tu a ld i s t rac t ion : mon s t rou s a nd h yb r id f o rm s , a n ima l s , a nd men e ng ag ed i n wo r ld ly p u r su i t s ' ( Rudo lph , 1 990 : 1 20 ) . I n med iev a lt hough t s e e ing w a s u nde r s tood t ob e s op ow e rfu lt h a ti tc ou ld ' l e av e i t s t a c t i le i mpr in t u pon m a t te r ' ( Cam i l l e , 1 996a : 1 9 ;J an son , 1 952 : 9 7 ) . E ve r y ' s en se e xpe r ience ' , a c co rd ing t oW i l l i am o f S t -Th ie r ry , t h e f i gu re t o w hom B e rna rd ' s Ap o l o g i a w a s a dd re s sed , ' c hange s t h e p e r son e xpe r ienc ing i ti ns ome w ay i n to t h a t wh ich i s s en sed ' ( Rudo lph , 1 990 : 17 -118 ) . A ccord ing ly , i f o ne c ou ld b ecome wha t o ne s aw o r e xpe r ienced , t h en ' t he monk who i ndu lg e s i ni d le c u r io s i ty i n v i ew ing t h e h yb r id s o f t h e c l o i s te r c ap i t a l s o r o f h i s b ook s t a k e s o n s om e o f t h e c on f l ic t o fn a tu re i nhe r en t i n t h em a nd s oi sp ro sc r ibed f r om t h e h a rmony o fu n ion w i th

3 26 ) . F o r t h e se r e a son s , l e ]x t reme s o f f o rm a nd o f p l ace w e r e c l o se ly l i nked i na n t iqu i t y a nd t h e M idd l e Age s ' ( F r iedman , 1 98 1a : 3 5 ) , e xempl if i ed i nt h e t r ad i t ion o f mon s t rou s r a ce s i nhab i t ing e xo t ic g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion s ( i n r e l a t ion t o E u rope ) s uch a s I nd i a o r E th iop i a ( s ee a l so W i t tkow e r , 1 942 ; d e Waa l Ma lef i j t , 1 968 ; R oy , 1 975 ; K app le r , 1 980 ; C ampbel , 1 988 ; C ohen , 1 994 , 1 996 ; Da s ton a nd P a rk , 1 998 ; H a s s ig , 1 999c ; F l eck , 2 000 ) . C e r ta in ly , t h e i r l o ca t ion a tt h e p e rce iv ed ma rg in s o ft h e wo r ld ' s g eog raphy w a s ' n o wh im o f e rud i te d i scou r se , b u t an ece s s i ty , g i v en t h e i r o n to log ica l ly r e s i s tan t c o mpo s i t ion ' ( Cohen , 1 994 : 2 1 ) . F i rm ly l o ca ted i n t h e se ( c onceptua l ) g eog raph ica l m a rg in s s u ch mon s t e r s , p hy s ica l ly d eformed a nd mo ra l ly d ev ian t , p rov ided ' a na e s the t ic c on t ra s ta s ac l ea r ly s ub -human o the r ' t o E u ropean c i v i l i za t ion a nd a s s uch ' p o sed l i t t l e t h r ea t t o t h e c en t ra l o rde r ' ( F l eck , 2 000 : 3 85 ; C ampbel , 1 988 : 8 2 ) . Mo reov e r , t h e f e a r o f p olu t ion , o f b ecom ing a mon s te r o ne se lf , m igh t b e u sed t o p ro tec t t h e se b ounda r ie s . W i th in

God ' ( i b id . ) .

4

i s r e l a ted

T he a pp ropr ia te p a s sage f r om t h e Ap o l og ia may b e f ound i n

S chap i ro , 1 977 [ 1 947 1 : 6a nd R udo lph , 1 990 : 1-12 . F o r ac onc i se i n t roduc t ion t o t he c on tex t i n wh ich B e rna rd w ro te t he t e x t s e e Ma ta ra s so , 1 993 .

1 9

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s E ng l i sh t r an s l a t ion 1 9 15 ) , Du rkhe im c h a r ac t e r ized t h e s a c r ed a nd p rof ane a st wo ' d i s t in c ts o r t s o fr e a l i ty 's e pa ra t ed f r om e a ch o the r b y a' s ha rp ly d r awn l i ne o f d em a r ca t ion ' ( 1 9 15 : 2 12 ; s e e a l so 3 8 , 3 08 ) . A l though a f ew a n th ropo log i s t s a nd s o c io log i s t s h av e s uppo r t ed t h i s d i cho tomy , Du rkhe im h a s e a rned f a r mo r e c r i t i c i sm t h an p r a i se e s pe c i aly w i th r e g a rd t o t h e u n iv e r sal i ty o f t h e se c a t ego r i e s .5

t h i s c on t ex t i ti sn o t ab l e t h a t l e pe r h o sp i t a l s w e r e o f t en l o ca t ed o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o fm ed i ev a l s e t t l em en t s ( G i l ch r i s t , 1 994a : 4 7 -49 ) . Any p o l i t i ca l i mpe r a t iv e , h ow ev e r , < t o r e jec t a nd e l im in a te t h e d eba s ing " l ow" c on f l i c t s p ow e r f uly a nd u np r ed i c t ab l y w i th ad e s i r e f o rt h i s O the r ' ( S t alyb r a s s a nd Wh i t e , 1 986 : 4 5 ) . T he se l ow d om a in s , a ppa r en t l y e xpe l l ed a s ' O the r ' , r e tu rn a s t h e o b jec t o f n o s t a lg i a , l o ng ing a nd f a sc in a t ion ' ( i b id . 1 9 1 ) . D e sp i te a l a t t emp t s a te xc lu s ion , t h en , " h igh" c u l tu r e i s b o th d epend en t u pon a nd i n c lude s t h e l ow s ymbo l i ca l ly ,

One o f Du rkhe im ' s l e s s c on t rov e r s ia l a s se r t ion s , h ow ev e r , c on cer n ed t h e " ch a r ac te r" o f t h e s a c r ed . I n h i s n a t iv e t ongu e t h e c oncep to ft h e s a c r ed i n c luded a nd s t i l li n c lud e s am ean ing t h a t i sn ow o b so l e t e o r r a r e i n t h e E ng l i sh l a ngu ag e —t h e s a c r ed a s' a c cu r sed o rh o r r ib l e , a ss om e th ing d evo t ed t o ad i v in i ty f o r d e s t ru c t ion , a nd h en ce c r im in a l , i mp iou s , w i ck ed , i n f amou s ' ( P i ck e r ing , 1 984 : 1 24 ) . Du rkhe im w a s w e l l a w a r e o f t h i s ' p rof ound ly a mb iguou s , d ang e rou s ' ( B a t a i l l e , 1 985 [ 1 939 ] : 2 45 , n 1 ) n a tu r e o f t h e s a c red ,w r i t ing t h a t

a s ap r ima ry e r o t i c i zed c on s t i tu en t o f i t s o wn f a n t a sy l i f e . T he r e su l t i s a mob i l e , c on f l i c tu a l f u s ion o fp ow e r ,f e a ra nd d e s i re i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o f s ub jec t iv i ty : ap sy cho log i ca l d ependen ce u pon p r ec i se ly t ho se O the r s wh i ch a r e b e ing r i go rou s l y o ppo sed a nd e xc luded a tt h es oc i a ll e v e l( i b id . 5 ) .

[ t ] he r e a r e t wo s o r t s o fs a c r edn e s s , t h e p rop i t iou s a nd t h e u np rop i t iou s , a nd n o t o n ly i st h e re n o b r eak o f c on t inu i t y b e tw een t h e se t wo o ppo sed f o rm s , b u t a l so o ne o b jec tm ay p a s s f r om t h e o ne t ot h e o th e rw i thou tc hang ing i t s n a tu r e . T he p u r e i sm ade o u to ft h ei mpu r e a nd r e c ip roca l l y . I ti si n t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h e se t r an smu t a t ion s t h a t t h e a mb igu i t yo ft h es a c r ed c on s i s t s ( 1 9 15 : 4 11 ) .

T he r e pu l s iv e , o b scen e , mon s t rou s a nd d ef orm ed , p u shed t o t h e e dg e s o f c u l tu r e , p rov ided ' t he m e s s t h a t m ad e E u rope ' si mag ined o rd e rp o s s ib l e '( S ch i ck , 1 999 : 5 0 ) . I nt h i s l i gh t t h e ' s oc i a l ly p e r iphe r a l ' b ecom e s ' s ymbol i ca l ly c en t r a l ' ( Babcock , 1 978 : 3 2 ) , an ece s sa ry c oun t e rpo in tb yw h i ch o n e c an d e f ine a l t ho se v a lue s d eem ed a pp rop r i a t e n o t o n l y t o c i v i l i ty ,b u tt op hy s i c a l i t ya sw e l l .

D iv ine D ef o rm i ty : The Obscene a nd t he S ac red

S uch a mb igu i ty c h a r a c t e r i ze s m ed i ev a l e xpe r i en ce o f t h e s a c red .T ho se who m an ag ed t oe n t e rt h i sz one , f o re x amp l e , b yf a s t ing ,

A l though m ed i ev a l c u l tu r e m ay b e d i s t ingu i shed b y i t s i n teg r a t ed s t ruc tu re , i t s ' s pec i f i c n on -d i f f e r en t i a t ion , t h e i n sepa r ab i l i t y o fi t sv ar iou s s phe r e s ' , t h i s d oe s b yn o m ean s ' g u a ran t ee f r eedom f r om c on t r ad i c t ion ' ( Gu r ev i ch , 1 985 : 9 1 0 ) . H ence d e sp i t e i t s i n t eg ra t ion i n to e v e r yd ay l i f e t h e u l t im a t e o the r i n m ed i ev a l e xper i en ce w a s , p e rh ap s , t h e w o r ld o ft h es upe rn a tu r a lo rs a c r ed .

mov ed i n as ph e r e o f s upe rn a tu r a l ' s tupo r a nd e xce s s ' ,i na na mb iguou s a nd a l a rm ing s p ace w h i ch w a s i nhab i t ed n o t o n ly b y a ng e l s b u t a l so b y d emon s , w ho a l so d o n o t e a t ; t h ey f ound t h em se lv e s i n ac oun t ry w he re s a in t l in e s s a nd d eg r ad a t ion e x chang ed r o l e s , a nd whe r e t h e s a c red c ou ld a l so d i sgu i se t h ep e rv e r se f a ce o fw i ck edne s s ( C ampo r e s i , 1 990 : 1 49 ) .

" Sac r ed" d e r iv e s f r om t h e L a t in w o rd s a c e r( h o l y ) . L ik e t h e a s soc i a t ed t e rm , " p rof an e" , i t o r ig ina l ly i d en t if i ed t h e d i f f e r en t u s e s o fa r ch i t ec tu r a l s p ace i na nd a r ound c l a s s i ca l t emp l e s . Whe r ea sp r of a num r e f e r r ed t ot h e s p a ce i nf r on t o f t h e t emp l e p r ec inc t i n wh i ch p ubl i c r i t e s w e r e r egu l a r ly p e r f o rm ed ,s a c e rs ugg e s t ed t h e e n c lo sed a nd r e s t r i c t ed s p ac e o ft h e t emp l ei t se l f . S a c e ra nd p r of a nu s' w e r e t h e r ef o r el i nk ed t o s p ec if i c a nd q u i te d i st in c tl o ca t ion s ; o n e o ft h e se , as po t r e f e r red t o a s s a c e r , w a s e i the r w a l l ed o f f o r o the rw i se s e t a pa r t — t h a t i s t o s a y , s a n c t um — w i th in t h e o the r , s u r round ing s pace a v a i l ab l e f o r p rof ane u se ' ( Co lpe , 1 987 : 5 11 ) . T he w e s t e rn c oncep t o f t h e s a c r ed a s s om e th ing o th e r , ' p l a ced a pa r t f r om e v e ryd ay t h ing s o r p l ace s , s o t h a t i t s s p ec i a l s i gn if i can ce c an b e r e cogn i zed , a nd r u l e s r e g a rd ing i to beyed ' ( Hube r t , 1 994 : 1 ) i st h e r ef o r e v i s ib l e i nt h ec l a s s i ca lh e r i t ag e .

T h i s ' h a zy c on f in eb e tw een s a in t l ine s s a nd d emon i sm ' ( i b id . 1 50 ) c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed w i th p hy s i c a l a s w el a s p sy ch i c s pace . I n d ep i c t ing mon s t rou s r a ce s a tt h e v e r y e dg e s o f w o r ld m ap s ,m ed i ev a lc a r tog r aph e r sh ad n o to n ly s e t al i m i t t o t h e k nown w o r ld b u t m a rk ed o u t at r an s i t iona l z on e b e tw een t h e h um an w o r ld a nd t h e g r ea t b eyond . T he t r ad i t ion o fd ep i c t ing God h o ld ing t h ew o r ld m ean tt h a to n s om e m ed i ev a lm ap s t h e mon s t rou s r a ce s , i nt h e i rm a rg in a l d w e l l ing s , a r e p o s i t ion ed mu ch c l o se r t h an h um an s t o t h e d i v ine ( s ee , f o r e x amp l e , C am i l l e , 1 992 : 1 5 ) . T hu s t h e mon s te rf o rm s a" b r idg e" b e tw een t h em a te r ia la nd s p i r i tu a l w o r ld s , s imu l t an eou s l y p a r t i c ipa t ing i n b o th ( W i ll i am s , 1 996 : 1 3 ) .

Mode rn s c ho l a r sh ip o n t h e s a c r ed i si n ex t r i cab ly l i nk ed t o t h ew o rk o ft h e F r ench s oc io log i s tL im& Du rkh e im ( 1 858 1 9 17 ) . I n T h eE l em en t ag F o rm so ft h eR e l i g i ou sL if e( 1 9 12 ; f i r s t

5

S ee P i cker ing , 1 984 : 1 43 ,a nd B rück , 1 999 : 3 17 -319 f o rc ommen ta ry

u pon t h e mode rn c r ea t ion o f t h e r i tua l/secu la r d i s t inc t ion a nd i t s a b sence i nm any n on -w e s te rn s oc iet i e s .

2 0

T he G ro te sque a nd t he D ark S ide o ft he S acred p rog re s sed a l ong t h e p a th t ol i be ra t ion t h e c l o se r o ne c ame t o t h e e dg e s o f h umanne s s a nd a ncho r i t e s a nd h e rm i t s

A rch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e s ome t ime s p re sen t s ac l ea r e xamp l e o f mon s t rou s i mag e ry i n s u ch a m ed i a t ing r o l e . A t t h e c hu rch o fS tN icho la s a tB a rf re s ton ( Ken t ) , t h e e l abo ra te l y c a rv ed t ympanum a bov e t h e s ou th d oo r ( s ee F ig . 8 . 1 ) r ep re sen t s t wo s ph inx o r h a rpy l ik e c r ea tu re s , am e rm a id a nd ag r iff in , f l ank ing t h e f e e t o fC h r i s t . A bov e t h em , n ex t t o t he b ody a nd h ead o f C h r i s t w i th in a v e s i c a p i s c i s a r e i mage s o f a ng e l s a nd c r owned h ead s . Ang e l s , h ead s a nd my th ica l c r ea tu re s a l a ppea rw i th in s c ro l l ing f ol i ag e , wh ich s e rv e s t o u n if y t h e c arv ing a s w el a s s ugg e s t t h a t t h e se f i gu re s a r e u n i t ed i n o the r w ay s . L ik e t h e i r p o s i t ion a tt h e e dge s o f t h e k nown w o r ld o n m ed i ev a l m ap s whe r e t h e c on t inen t s d i s so lv e i n to t h e s e a a nd/o r t h en i n to t h e h and s o f God , t h e f a n ta s t i c c r ea tu re s a r e l o ca t ed a t t h e c l o se s t p o in t o ft h e c a rv ing t oh uman s , a ppea r ing t od em a rca t e t h e l im ina l s pace b e tween t h e wo r ld o f t h e d i v ine a nd t h e mea su red a nd k nown w o r ld o f h uman s oc i e t y . L oca ted a t t h e e dg e o ft h e u nknown t h e se a r e i mag e s t h a t s t a r t le a nd a l e r t o ne t o t h e p re sence o f t h i s o the rne s s , r e al i sed b y t h e f ul f i gu re o fC h r i s t a nd t h e a s soc ia ted a nge l s c a rv ed a bov e b u t a l so e mbod ied i n a nd a r t icu l a t ed b y t h e p hy s ica l b u i ld ing o f t h e c hu rch . I ti sp o s s ib l e t h a t t ympana w e re c once iv ed a s s ymbol i c v i su a l s pace s ( H ick s , 1 993 : 2 67 ) ; i n t h i s e xamp l e t h e c ompo s i te c r ea tu re s who se b od i e s a r e o n ly p a r t i a l ly f am il i a rc e r ta in ly s e em t oi nhab i t at r an s i t iona lz one b e tw een t h e f am i l ia ra nd t h eo therwo r ld ly .

f r equen t ly ' c ame t o m im i c t h e a n ima l n a tu re t h ey w e r e f i gh t ing a g a in s t ' ( i b id . 6 0 ) . T he b e s t i a l s a in t a nd t h e d emon ic g od d w e l ti ns imi l a rt e r r i tor y . P o r t en t s , a s d i rec t e ncoun t e r s w i th t h e d i v ine , embod i ed s im i la r p a radoxe s . A s I s ido re o fS ev i l le ( c 560 -636 ) n o ted , a ' p o r ten t d oe s n o t a r i se c on t ra ry t o n a tu re , b u t c on t ra r y t o w ha t n a tu re i su nde r s tood t o b e ' ( c i ted i nW i l l iam s , 1 996 : 1 3 ) . T hu s ap or ten t e xpo se s h uman c on s tru c t ion s o fn a tu r e b y u n i t ing t h e d i v ided a nd f r am ing t h e a b jec t i n h e t e rogeneou s a nd o b scene f o rm s — s ome o f t h e k ey t e chn ique s o fg ro te sque . I ndeed , o b scen i ty , f r om t h e L a t in o b s c enum ( i l l -omened ) ' b e long s t ot he t e chn i ca lv ocabu la r yo f a nc i en t d i v ina t ion ' ( Me r ce ron , 1 998 : 3 34 , n 9 ) . T h i s s en se o f o b scen i t ya sp rophe t ic , f i rm ly g round s t h e w o rd i n to t h e s phe re o f t h e s a c red , i n to a r e a lm o u t o f t h e r e ach o f o rd ina r y h uman e x i s tence b u t w h ich u nde r s pec ia l c i rcum s t ance s s end s o u t ' s i gna l s ' o r ' m e s senge r s . ' F rom t h e p rac t i ce o fo sc ino scopy , t h e L a t in w o rd o b s c enu sc ame t os pec ia l i ze i nt h e s i n i s te r s i de o ft h e s a c red , wh i ch c o r r e spond s t o wha t H indu r e l ig ion c al s t h e ' S ac red o f t h e L ef t H and , ' as a c r al i t y o f d i srup t ion a nd d i so rde r , e mpha s iz ing t h e c hao t ic v i tal i t yo fN a tu re ( i b id . ) .

I n med iev a l t hough t , t h e i d ea o f w i lde rne s s p rov ided a c onceptua l l o ca t ion f o r s u ch mon s t rou s a nd s em i -d iv ine b e ing s who se p hy s ica lh yb r id i ty r ep r e sen ted mo r a la sw el a s s oc ia l d ange r . F o r n a scen t C h r i s t i an i ty t h i s w a s c h i ef l y i d en t if i ed w i th t h e d e se r t .6 P opu l a ted b y d emon s s u ch a s t h e s a ty r l ik e s e i r im , t h e s h ed h im ( d emon s o ft h e s t o rm ) , t h e t a nn i n ( mon s t rou s h ow l e r s ) , a nd t h e d emonne s s L i l i th a nd h e r c h i ld ren , t h i s ' g ap i nn a tu re ' w a s p e rce iv ed t oo pen t h e d oo r s t o ap a r t i cu la r r e l ig iou s d e l i r ium ' g ene ra ted b y t h e e ncoun te r b e tween t h e d a rkne s s o f g u i l t a nd t h e l i gh t o f p rom i se ' ( Ba r t r a , 1 994 : 4 7 -48 ) . A l ong t r ad i t ion o f d e se r t r e c lu se s s e ek ing u nmed i a ted c on tac t w i th t h e d i v ine r un s t h roughou t t h e e a r ly h i s tor y o f C h r i s t i an i ty , u l t ima te ly f o rm ing t h e f ounda t ion s o f w ha t w ou ld b ecome mona s t i c i sm . T he ' d ua l n o t ion o f t h e d e se r t a s ap l ace i n wh i ch d a rkne s s a nd t h e a by s s a r e f ound t oge the r w i th p a rad i se a nd h ope ' w a s i n s t rumen t a l i n t h e b i r th o f t h e se c ommun i t ie s ( i b id . 4 9 ) . No a t temp t t o d w el i n t h e s a c red c ou ld b ew i thou tp han ta sm ic m a levo lence . T h i si sc r uc ia lt o a ny c on s ide ra t ion o f a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e . I ft h e p u r su i t o ft h e s p i r i tua ll i f ew a sb e se tw i th ,i ndeed ,i n sepa rab l e f r om , d emon i ca c t iv i ty ,a nd i ft h e mo t iv a t ion f o rt h er e su rg ence o f monumen t a l s t one s cu lp tu re w a s p r ima r i ly mona s t i c , t h en i t i sp e rhaps u n su rp r i s ing t h a t i mag e r y e xp re s s iv e o f s u ch a n a mb iv a l en t s upe rna tu ra l r e a lm s hou ld p erv ade m ed i eva l w o rk . T he mona s t ic e xpe r i ence p rov ided t h e t emp l a t e f o r a r i ch t r ad i t ion o fc a rv ing t h a t s ough tt ov i sua l ize t h ei nv i s ib l e f o rce s t h a ts a tu r a t ed e v e r yday l i f e : a mb iguou s p hy s ica l f o rm w en t w i th t h e l im ina l t e r ra in . I ndeed , t h e f u r the r o ne

T he s anc t i t y o f a mb iguou s f o rm i sr ef l ec ted i n t h e a nc ien t a nd w ide sp read b el i ef i n mon s te r s a s d i v ine p or ten t s , c ommon ly b u t n o t a lw ay s p red ic t ing w ide sp read c a l am i ty ( G l en i s te r , 1 964 : 1 6 -18 ; Sm i th , 1 986 : 1 6 ; P a rk a nd D a s ton , 1 98 1 : 2 3 ; B r a ido t t i , 1 996 : 1 39 ) . I n t h i s r o le t h e mon s te r a ppea r s a s a mba s sado r f o r t h e ' d a rk s i de o f t h e s a c red ' , a f i gu re t h a t r ev ea l s h idden o r o cc luded a spec t s o f t h e u n iv e r se ( t he L a t in r oo t o f mon s te r , m on s t r a r e , mean s ' t o s how f o r th ' ) ( W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 4 ) . I n t h i s s en se t h e d ef o rmed a nd o b scene m igh tb e s e en a sb e long ing t ot h e d iv ine . A s embod imen t s o f t h e t h r e sho ld , mon s te r s t h e refo re r e p re sen t ' t he i n b e tween , t h e m ixed , t h e amb iv a l en t a s i mpl i ed i nt h e a nc i en tG reek r oo t o ft h e wo rd m on s t e r s , t e r a s , wh i ch m ean s b o th h o r r ib l e a nd w onde r fu l , o b jec t o f a be r ra t ion a nd a do ra t ion ' ( B r a idot t i : 1 994 : 7 ) . T h i s l i m ina l f o rm i su sefu l , f o r i ta low s as ymbol i c p o in t o fc onnec t ion w i th o the rne s s . S ome s t r and s o f m ed iev a l t hough t r e cogn i sed t h i s c apac i ty a nd t h e wo rk o f o ne a nonymou s a u tho r p rov ided a c ohe ren t , a nd u l t im a te ly , e no rmou s ly i n f luen t ia l , t r ea t i se . T he w r i t ing s o fP seudo -D iony s iu s w e re f i r s ti n t roduced t ot h ew e s ti nt h e s i x th c en tu ry a nd a r e n ow s e en t o r ef l ec t ac omb ina t ion o f S y r ian C h r i s t i an i ty a nd A then i an N eop l a ton i sm .7 I n t h e n in th c en tu ry t h e

7

O r ig ina l ly , t h e a u tho rw a s b el i eved t ob e , a sc l a imed , D iony s iu s t h e

O the r l o ca t ion s i d en t if i ed w i th w i lde rne s s i n c luded t h e f o re s t a nd

A r eopag i te , t h e d i sc ip le o fP au l m en t ioned i nA c t s 1 7 : 3 4 . How eve r , n i ne t een th -cen tur y s cho la r s n o ted a ma rked i nf luence i n t h e w o rk s f r om t h e A then ian N eop la ton ic s choo l o fP roc lu s w h ich d a ted t h em

t h e s e a , b o th o f wh ich w e r e p e r ce ived t ob e i nhab i ted b y mon s t rou s b e ing s ( s ee c hap te r7 ) .

t ot h el a t e f i f th c en tur y ,p rov ing t h a tt h e a t t r ibu t ion o fa u tho r sh ip w a s f a l se . U n t i l t h en , h ow ev e r , a nd c e r ta in ly t h roughou t t h e M idd le Ag e s ,

6

2 1

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s f o rt h e ' mo re u nwon t ed a nd b i za r r e t h e s i gn ,i tw a s t hough t , t h el e s s l i ke ly w a s t h eb eho lde rt oe qu a t e i tw i th t h e r e al i t yi t r ep re sen ted ' ( i b id . 4 ) . T he d ange rp o sed b y t h e m a t e r ia l i ty o f i mag e sw a s h encefor th c on s ide r ab ly r e duced . D eny s s t a ted :

a u tho r sh ip w a s a t t r ibu t ed t o S t D en i s wh i l e t wo c en tu r i e s l a te r A bbo t S ug e r w ou ld f i nd t h e i n sp i r a t ion f o r h i s own a r ch i tec tu r a l s chem e s i n t h e se t e x t s ( Von S im son , 1 956 ) . R ef e rence t o o r c omm en ta r y u pon D iony s ian t hough t w a s u b iqu i tou s a mong m ed iev a l w r i te r s i n c lud ing T homa s Aqu ina s , ' t h roughou t who se w o rk h e i s c i ted , a f te r A r i s to t l e , mo re t h an a ny o the r a u thor i ty ' ( W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 2 3 ;B oei ng , 1 997 : 3 6 -37 ) .

H igh f l own s hape s c ou ld w el m i s l ead s omeone i n to t h ink ing t h a t t h e h eav en ly b od ie s a r e g o lden o r g l eam ing m en , g l amo rou s , w ea r ing l u s t rou s c l o th ing ,g i v ing o f ff l ame s wh i ch c au se n o h a rm , o r t h a t t h ey h av e o the r s im i la r b eau t ie s w i th wh ich t h e w o rd o f God h a s f a sh ioned t h e h eaven ly m ind s . I t w a s t o a vo id t h i s k i nd o f m i sunde r s t and ing a mong t ho se i n capab le o fr i s ing a bov e v i s ib le b eau ty t h a t t h e p iou s t h eo log ian s s o w i se ly a nd u pl i f t ing ly s t ooped t o i n cong ruou s d i s s im i la r i t ie s , f o r b y d o ing t h i s t h ey t ook a c coun t o f o u r i nhe ren t t e ndency t owa rd t h e m a te r i a l a nd o u rw i l l ingne s s t ob e l a z i ly s a t i sf i ed b yb a se i mag e s . A tt h e s ame t ime t h ey e nab led t h a tp a r to ft h e s ou l wh i ch l ong s f o r t h e t h ing s a bove a c tua l ly t o r i se u p . I ndeed t h e s hee r c r a s sn e s s o f t h e s i gn s i sa g oad s o t h a t e v en t h e m a te r ia l ly i n c l ined c anno t a c cep t t h a t i tc ou ld b e p e rm i t ted o r t r ue t h a t t h e c e l e s t i a l a nd d i v ine s i gh t s c ou ld b e c onv eyed b y s u ch s ham efu l t h ing s ( P seudo -D iony s iu s , 1 987 : 1 50 , 1 4 1A 14 1C ) .

T he my s t i ca lv i ew t h a t h um an c ogn i t ion i si n adequa t e when f a ced w i th ' t he l im i t le s sne s s o ft h e r e a l ' ( W i l l i am s , 1 996 : 6 ) w a s c ha r ac t e r i s t ic o f N eop l a ton ic t hough t . P seudo D iony s iu sw ro te : J u s t a s t h e s en se s c an n e i the r g r a sp n o r p e rce iv e t h e t h ing s o f t h e m ind , j u s t a s r ep r e sen ta t ion a nd s hape c anno t t a k e i nt h e s imp le a nd t h e s hape le s s , j u s t a s c orpo r ea l f o rm c anno t l a y h o ld o f t h e i n t ang ib le a nd i n co rpo rea l , b yt h e s ame s t anda rd o f t r u th b e ing s a r e s u rpa s sed b y t h e i nf in i ty b eyond b e ing , i n t e l l ig ence s b y t h a t o nene s s wh i ch i s b eyond i n t el ig ence . I ndeed , t h e i n scru t ab le One i s o u to fr e ach o fe v e ry r a t iona lp roce s s . No rc an a ny w o rd s c ome u p t o t h e i n exp re s s ib l e Good , t h i s One , t h i s S ou r ce o f a l u n i ty , t h i s s up r a -ex i s t en t B e ing . M ind b eyond m ind , w o rd b eyond s peech , i t i sg a the r ed u p b y n o d i scou r se , b y n o i n tu i t ion , b y n o n ame ( P seudo -D iony s iu s , 1 987 : 4 9 -50 , 5 88B )

W i th in s uch a f r am ewo rk t h e i mage w a s n o l ong e r a t a ng ib l e o b jec t b u t as i gn , ap o in t e r t owa rd s t h e i n ef f ab le r e a lm c oncea l ed b y s emb l ance ( Cam i l le , 1 989 : 1 3 ) . I n t h i s w ay , t h e n ega t iv e s t a tu s o f m a t e r i a l f o rm e ndem ic t o C h r i s t i an mo ral i ty w ho se m an ipu la t ion i n to a r t o r a r ch i tec tu r e ' i mpl i ed a n i n app ropr i a te f a i th i n t h e p e rm anence o f m a t e r ia l t h ing s i n t h i s w o r ld ' m igh t b e t r an sfo rmed i n to a' w i tne s s t o ah i ghe r t r u th ' ( On i an s , 1 988 : 12 ) . D iony s i an a e s the t i c s , i n e mp loy ing ' t he mo s t i n app rop r i a te a nd u nna tu ra l r e la t ion b e tween s i gn a nd s i gn if i ed ' t h e r efo re a im ed t or ev ea l , t h rough ' t he d efo rm ing o f t h e b ond b e tw een l i ke a nd l i ke ' t he ' t rue b u t h idden p roce s s o f m ean ing ' ( W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 4 0 ) . We m ay r e g a rd t h i s b reak ing a pa r t o f t h e c onven t ion s g ov e rn ing h uman u nde r s tand ing a s ' t he t h eo re t i ca l b a s i s o f t h e g ro t e sque ' ( i b id . ) .

P seudo -D iony s iu s ' s t hough tp rov ided f o rt h eM idd le Ag e s a me thod o fw o rk ing t owa rd t h a t wh ich i sb eyond c ogn i t ion , b eyond h uman r ep r e sen ta t ion s a nd c oncep t s , a nd t h e r ef o re , t h a t wh ich c anno t b e a pp roached t h rough i n tel ec tua l d emon s t ra t ion . A t i t s c o re i st h e p e r cep t ion t h a t n am ing s om e th ing ,i nd i f f e ren t ia t ing i tf r om o the rt h ing s ,i mpo se s a l im i tt h a t s epa ra te s i tf r om i t s d i v ine u n i t yw i th o the rb e ing s a nd w i th o the r t h ing s . H ence t h e D iony s ian p ro jec t a im s a t t h e d i sm an t l ing o f l a nguag e v i a a ' s t ra tegy o f d i sa r rang emen t ' i n o rde r t o s t ep b eyond i t s l im i t a t ion s ( Tu rne r , 1 995 : 8 ) . T h i s s t r a tegy c en t red a r ound n eg a t ion s i nce ' p o s i t iv e a f f i rm a t ion s a r e a lway s u nf i t t ing t o t h e h iddenne s s o f t h e i n exp re s s ib le ' ( P seudo -D iony s iu s , 1 987 : 1 50 , 1 4 1A ) . S uch a f undamen t aly n eg a t ive t h eo log y l e g i t im a te s g ro t e sque i m age ry s i nce , a s D eny s p u t i t , ' man if e s ta t ion t h rough d i s s im i la r s hape si s mo re c o r r ec t ly t o b e a ppl i ed t o t h e i n v i s ib le ' ( i b id . ) . I n t h i s s en se n on d i f f e ren t i a t ion a nd ' d i so rde r , s i nce t h ey a r e p rope r t o t h e d i v ine , h av e p recedence o ve r o rde r a nd d i f f e r en t ia t ion , a nd i n t h e a e s the t i c e xp r e s s ion o f t h e i d ea , t h e mon s te r f unc t ion s t o s i gn if y t h i s f undamen ta l r e a l i t y ' ( W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 8 4 ) . I n D eny s i an t hough t mon s t rou s i m ag e s a r e t h e l e a s t i n app rop r i a te v i sua l e xp re s s ion o f God ; t h ey a r e t h e c l o se s t t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le t o g e t t o r ep r e sen t ing t h e n um inou s .

C onc lu s ion Th i s c hap t e r h a s e xp lo red l i t n in al i ty a nd i t s v i sua l m an i f e s t a t ion s , o f wh i ch t h e g ro te sque i s o ne s t r and . G ro t e sque i mag e s , t h rough r ep r e sen t ing t h a t wh ich w eak en s a c cep ted c a tego r i e s , d r aw a t ten t ion t ime a nd a g a in t ot h e i d ea o ft h e b oundar y , t h e p a r adox o f wh i ch i st h a t i t i s at h re sho ld a sw el a s al im i t . A s t h e v i sua l r e p re sen ta t ion o fs u ch p a r adox t h e g ro t e sque i sb o th m a rg ina l a nd l i rn ina l a to nce , d e f in ing t h e e dg e s o fc u l tu re a sw el a sp rov id ing a t h re sho ld i n to t h e f o rb idden , t oo the r ( unknown ) m ean s o f o rde r . H ence t h e g ro t e sque p red ica te s u pon t h e m ed ium o f e ncoun te r : i t h e ra ld s t h e o the r . O the rne s s i s c u l tu ra l ly s pec if i c a nd m an ipu l a ted b y a u tho r i t y t o d e f ine w ha tev e r i s

Mon s t rou s a nd d ef o rm ed i mage r y a l so s e rv ed t or educe t h e d ang e r o fa s soc i a t ing t h e i m ag e w i th t h e c oncep t s i gn if i ed , t h ew o rk s c a r r ied t h e s t a tu s o fa po s tol i c a u tho r i t y a nd w e r e v ene ra ted a ss a c r ed .

2 2

T he G ro te sque a nd t he D ark S id eo ft he S ac red d eemed a c cep t ab l e i na l a r ea s o fl i f e , f o r e xamp le , r e l ig ion , s e xua l b ehav iou r , o r p repa ra t ion o f f ood . Ar epo s i tory f o r t h e a b jec t , e xpe r ienc ing t h e o the r i so f ten a c compan ied b y f e a r a nd r epu l s ion f o ri tp o se s t h e t h r ea t o fd i s so lu t ion , t h e d e s tab il i z ing o fc u l tu ra ln o rm s a nd i d en t i t i e s . A s t h r e sho ld s , b ounda r ie s p rov ide p o in t s o fc onnec t ion w i th t h e u nnamed a nd u nknown ; t h ey a r e d ang e rou s a nd p owe rfu l p l ace s f o r t h e v er y r e a son t h a ti nt he se z one s c u l tu ra l c onv en t ion s a r e

mon s t rou s f o rm s , a gg re s s iv e b ea s t s a nd s t a r ing h ead s s ugge s t t h a t t h e c hu rch i t se lf w a s i d en t if i ed a s al im ina l s i t e t h rough a s soc i a t ion , at h re sho ld b e tween p hy s ica l a nd s up ra -phy s ica l r e al i t ie s . T hu s a r ch i t ec tu ra l i mag e ry p l aced t h i s ' r e servo i r o f f o lk b el i ef , u noff i c ia l my tho logy , a nd c olec t iv e d r eam s ' ( Cohen , 1 994 : 1 ) a t t h e v e ry h ea r t o f

p e rm eab le a nd d i f fu se .

I nc onc lu s ion Is ugg e s t :

F o rm i si n ex t r i cab ly l i nked w i th m ean ing a nd mo r al i ty . S o c l o se a r e t h e c onnec t ion s , i nf a c t , t h a t a ny a l te ra t ion o fo ne

1 )

c u l tu ra ll i f e .

c a r r i e s s e r iou s r am if i ca t ion s f o rt h e o the rt wo . T he c r ea t ion o ff o rm i nm any c u l tu re s i sa s c r ibed t o ac r ea to rd e i ty a nd i s t hu s n o t o n ly a s imu l t aneou s c r ea t ion o f mean ing ( a r t i cu l a t ion o f d i f f e rence b e ing a p re requ i s i te o f a mean ing fu l wo r ld ) , b u t ac r ea t ion o f d i v ine m ean ing . I n f i gu r a t iv e t e rm sa ny t r an sg r e s s ion o ft h eb ounda r ie so ff o rm t h e refo re n o t o n ly r ende r s t h a t f i gu re m ean ing le ss o r a mb iguou s w i th in t h e c u l tu r a l s y s tem o f c l a s s if i ca t ion b u t

2 )

a l so e v i l f o r i th a s u ndone o r a dap ted t h e d i v ine o rde r o f t h ing s . T hu s f i gu re s o f e v i l i n w e s ter n a r t t y p ica l ly b ea r d i s to r ted f e a tu re s o r b od ie s , o r i ndeed c ompo s i te b od ie s . B ehav iou r c on s ide red mo ra l ly c o r rup t d i sf igu re s t h e f l e sh ; a c t iv i t ie s t h a tc on tor tt he p o s tu re a r e s i nfu l . Wha ti sa ts t ake i sh uman i d en t i ty , o r r a the r i t s c u l tu r a l c on s truct ion , a n i d en t i t y p e rpe tua l ly t h rea tened b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o f n on mean ing . Y e tj u s ta sm i s shapen f o rm sw e re e xc luded a sl ow a nd i mmo ra l , t h e i r v ery a l te r i t y a l igned t h em w i th t h e

3 )

4 )

s a c red .

T he i mage ry c ommon t o m ed i ev a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re i sl im ina l i n t h e s en se t h a t t h e se c a rv ing s r ep re sen t , t h rough v a r iou s m ean s ( e .g . d efo rm i ty , mon s t ro s i ty , e xce s s iv e l i f e f o rce ) , a s upe rna tu ra l p o tency o re ne rg y . S uch amb iguou s i mag e r y i s a pp rop r i a te t o s i te s o f h e igh tened s p i r i tu a l a c t iv i ty b ecau se , a s P seudo D iony s iu s s ugg e s t ed a nd f o lk lo r ic p r ac t ice a r t icu l a t ed , t he s a c red i s i t se lf i ndef inab le . Embedded i n t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e b u i ld ing , t h e i mag e s h encefo r th i d en t if y , t h rough a s soc ia t ion , t h e s pace o ft h e b u i ld ing a sl im ina l . L im ina l s pace i sp ow e rfu l b u t a l so d ange rou s f o r i ti s o u t s ide t h e c a tego r i e s a nd b ounda r ie s t h a t g ov e rn l aw a nd o rde r , f o rm a nd m ean ing . T hu s t h e i m ag e s a l so s e rv e a n a po t ropa ic f unc t ion , p ro tec t ing t h e u se r s o f t h eb u i ld ing f r om t h ed ange rou s e ne rgy o ft h e s a c red . I n terwov en w i th t h i s f o lk lo r ic a nd t r ad i t iona l u se o f i mage s , C h r i s t i an i t y a dd s amo r a l i n te rp re t a t ion o f t h e i mag e ry b a sed u pon t h e a s soc i a t ion o f amb iguou s f i gu re sw i th t h ed emon i c .

Med iev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s w e r e s i te s o f e ncoun te r w i th t h e mo s t p rofound , a nd p e rhap s t h e o the rne s s i m ag inab le t o c on tempo r a r ie s a nd t im e le s s wo r ld o ft he d i v ine . S e ti n to t h e c hu rch v i a a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re ,

B efo re p roceed ing t ol ook d i rec t ly a tt h ei m age s , h ow eve r ,i t i sc ruc i a l t h a t t h e i r s oc ia l c on tex t i se xp lo r ed , a nd i ti st o

mo s t i mpor tan t —t h e d i sca rna te t h ev e ry f a b r ic o f t h e c ha rac t e r i s t i c

t h i s t a sk t h a tt he f olow ing c hap te rn ow t u rn s .

2 3

C hap te r 3

The S oc ia lL if e o f Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra l S cu lp tu re

I n t roduc t ion s ou rce wou ld h ave b een c on s ide red p ag an t o m ed ieva l C h r i s t ian i ty wh ich p r e served a nd p erpe tua ted i t s i nf luence . I ndeed ,t h e c l a s s ica l wor ld w a s a ni mpor tan t r e f e rence p o in t t h roughou t t he M idd le Ag es , a nd p rov ided a p a th a l ong wh ich ag r ea t many o ther c u l tu ra l i nf luence s —H elen i s t ic ,

T he i mmed ia te c on tex t o fa r ch i tec tu ra l i mag e s —t he s t one a nd woodwo rk o fr e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s — mu s tb eg i ven l i f e b y a n a t temp t t o u nde r s tand h ow p eop le i n te rac ted w i th , p e rce ived , a nd u sed t h e se s pace s .T o t h i s e nd ,i ti sn ece s sa ry t o e xp lo re t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e i mag er y a nd t h e s oc ia l r o le p l ayed b y t h e b u i ld ing , n o t o n ly i ni t s f i n i shed f o rm b u t a l so d u r ing i t s c on s truc t ion a nd d ecora t ion . A ccord ing ly , t h i s c hap te r i sd i v ided i n to t h ree ma in s e ct ion s , e ach o f

Nea r E a s te rn , O r ien ta l , a nd E gyp t ian , f o r e xamp le — c ou ld b et r an sm i t ted i n to C h r i s t ian a r t ( Ba l traa i t i s , 1 955 ) .

wh ich e xp lor e s v a r iou s a spec t s o f t he s ub jec t . F i r s t I c on s ide r s ome o f t he i n f luence s u pon t h e s ub jec t ma t te r a nd s t y le o f t h e i mag ery . T h i s i sn o t t h e p l ace t o o f f er a c r i t ique o f t h e c oncep t o f s t y le i n a r t a nd a r ch i tectu r e , wh ich h a s i n a ny c a se b een d i scu s sed e l sewhere ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , Gomb r ich , 1 966 ; S ummer s , 1 982 , 1 989 ) ; c er ta in ly , my u se o f c onven t iona l a cadem ic t e rm s a nd s t yl i s t ic

C on tac t w i th n or thern E u ropean c u l tu re s , t h rough t r ade a nd m i s s iona ry a c t iv i ty , s aw t h i s p roce s s o f a b so rb ing a nd t r an sform ing p agan i n to C hr i s t ian a r t c on t inue . I n t h i s w ay Ge rman ic a nd o the r Nor the rn E u ropean s t y le s o fc a rv ing a s w el a s s ub jec t ma t te r e n te red C h r i s t ian s cu lp tu re , a j u x tapo s i t ion t h a t w a s n o t c on s idered d i s tu rb ing ( S auer l inde r , 1 991 : 6 75 -6 ) . R ec ip roca l n e twork s o fi nf luence b e tween C hr i s t ian c u l tu re s c on t inued t h i s p roce ss ( F e rn ie , 1 987 ) . T he Norman C onque s t , f o r e xamp le , e s tabl i shed c l o se r l i nk s b e tween E ng land a nd t h e c on t inen t wh ich a lowed t he F ranco -Norman s t y le o f R omane sque

c a tegor ie s i sn o e ndor semen t t h a t t h e se a r e a pprop r ia te t o t h e ma ter ia l . Wha t t h ey d o a f fo rd , h owever , i sr e cogn i t ion o f al oo se " a r t i s t ic" c on tex t o rb road work ing t r ad i t ion i n to wh ich m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re c an b e s i tua ted . T he f olow ing t wo p ar t s f o cu s more c l ose ly o n s oc ia l c on tex t , e xp lo r ing t h e u se o f med ieva l e cc le s ia s t ica l b u i ld ing s a nd t h e p a t ron s , c arv ing s .

s cu lp tor s ,

p a in te r s

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a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re , i t se lf a d eve lopmen t o f B yzan t ine a nd C a rol ing ian t r ad i t ion s ( wh ich h ad t h em se lve s b een i nf luenced b yS pan i sh ,A rab ic , a nd E a s te rn E u ropean s t y le s ) t o f u se w i th n a scen t E ng l i sh a r ch i tec tu r e . I n as im i la r

o f t h e

manner c er ta in E ng l i sh s t y le s p roved i n f luen t ia la nd c ro ssed t h e c hanne l t o t h e c on t inen t ( K ing , 1 986 ; s e e a l so Z a rneck i 1 951 ,1953 ,1966 ) .

I n f luences a nd S ty les T he d eve lopmen t o f med ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re mu s t b e v i ewed a ga in s t t wo s ynch ronou s p roce s se s : t h e d eve lopmen to f ar e cogn i sab ly C h r i s t ian a r ta nd a r ch i tec tu r e i ng ene ra l , a nd t h e d eve lopmen t a nd s p read o fC h r i s t ian i ty i t se lf . I n i t ia l ly o ne c u l t a mong many i nt h e R oman Emp i r e , s ucce s sfu l c onve r s ion i nvo lved ma in ta in ing a b a lance b e tw een c l a im ing s uper io r s p i r i tua l a u thor i ty a nd n o t

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e cc le s ia s t ica l b u i ld ing s w a s t he R oman b a s i l ica . E s sen t ia l ly a l a rge m ee t ing h a l l i n wh ich t ot r an sac t b u s ine s s a nd d i scu s s p ub l ic m a t ter s , t h e b a s il i ca b ecame t h e p ro to type f o r t h e f o rm o ft h e C h r i s t ian c hu rch u n t i lw e l li n to t h e l a ter M idd le Ag e s ( K rau the ime r , 1 965 : 1 9 -20 ) . I n c hoo s ing a R oman

a l i ena t ing p o ten t ia l c onver t s . T o t h i s e nd , c on t inu i ty o f t r ad i t ion a nd r i tua l w a s p a ramoun t , a nd a p roce ss o f d i sp lacemen t , o fi n corpora t ing t h e r e cogn i sab ly p ag an i n to t h e n ew b ody o f C hr i s t ian t hough t a nd b el ief o ccu r red . B o th t e x tua l a nd v i sua l s ou rce s w ere i nvo lved . F or e xamp le ,

s e cu la r b u i ld ing a s at emp la te f o r i t s a r ch i tec tu r a l p re sence , C h r i s t ian i ty c l ea r ly s epa ra ted i t se lf f r om c l a s s ica l p agan i sm a nd t emp le a r ch i tec tu re .

t h e Pe s i o l o gu s , t h e s ou r ce o fl a te r B e s t ia r ie s , w a s w r i t ten i n t h e s e cond c en tur y AD a nd i n teg ra ted c l a s s ica l a nd o r ien ta l b el i ef s a bou t a n ima l s a nd f a bu lou s c r ea tu re s i n to i t s C h r i s t ian m es sag e . L ikew i se , t h e v a r iou s w o rk s o fP seudo D iony s iu s , i nf luenced p rofound ly b y n eo -p la ton ic p h i lo sophy , wou ld b ecome a n i n sp ira t ion t o i n f luen t ia l c a thed r a lb u i lde r s s u ch a s Abbo tS uge ro fS tD en i s . Ne i the r

Wh i le i tw a s i mpo r tan t t o e s tabl i sh C h r i s t ian i ty a sd i f f eren t f r om p agan i sm , i tw a s e qua l ly i mpor tan t t o n o t a l i ena te p o ten t ia l c onver t s . Ou t o f n ece s s i ty t h e d eve lopmen t o f C h r i st ian l i tu rgy a nd i mag ery d rew c l o se p a rale l s w i th i t s p redeces sor i n o rder t o d i sp lace a nd r e loca te p ag an a s soc ia t ion s a nd a c commoda t ion t o ' c e r ta in e l emen t s o f p agan

2 5

c u l tu r e

w a s

c ommon

( t hough

n o t

u n iver sa l )

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s a s Ang lo -Saxon a nd med i eva l a r t ( W i t tkowe r , 1 942 : 1 59 ; Hu sband , 1 980 ;F r iedman , 1 981a , 1 986 ;H a s s ig , 1 999c ) .

m i s s iona ry p r ac t ice i n t h e e a r ly M idd le Ag e s ' ( K ieckhef e r , 1 989 : 4 4 ) . C la s s ica l a r ch i t ec tu r a l e l emen t s a nd i mag e s w e r e a l so r eu sed i n med ieva lc hu r che s ( Heck sche r , 1 938 ;K inney , 1 986 ) , l i k e ly a n a t temp t t o e n t e r p ag an a r t i n to ad i f f e r en t c on cep tu a l f r amewo rk s ot h a ti t s o r ig in a la s soc ia t ion s m igh t b e s ub t ly a l t e r ed . C am ile h a s c a l led s uch a p roce s s t h e ' c apac i ty o fC h r i s t ian a r t t o c onque rb y a s s im i la t ion ' ( 1 989 : 8 3 ) . Y e t t h e p r e sence o f c l a s s ica l i mag e s w i th in C h r i s t ian a r ch i tec tu re f r om i t s v e ry b eg inn ing m ay w el h av e e s tab l i shed at r ad i t ion o f " pag an" a r ch i tec tu ra l d eco r a t ion a s s u i tab le e cc l e s ia s t ica l i mag e ry . Wh i le t h e i r o r ig ina l m ean ing s may h av e b een l o s t o r c hang ed , s uch a s c ena r io w ou ld a c coun t f o r t h e f r equen t o ccu r r ence o f i mag e s u l t ima t e ly d e r iv ed f r om ap ag an s ou r ce s uch a s m e rma id s , s i r en s , c en tau r s a nd h a rp i e s w i th in m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re .

B e s t ia r ie sw e re r e po s i to r ie s o fc l a s s ica ll o r e . Anc ien ts ou r ce s ' we re i n co rpo r a ted i n to t h e l a te r m ed i eva l b e s t ia r ie s b o th d i r ec t ly a nd i nd i r ec t ly , b y w ay o f t h e a n ima l i mag e ry e s t abl i sh ed i nt h e e a r ly P h y s i o l o gu sm anu sc r ip t s a sw el a si n C la s s ica l i mag e ry i n d i f f e r en t m ed ia ' ( Whea t c rof t , 1 999 : 1 4 1 ) . T h i s C h r i s t ian iza t ion a nd d i s sem ina t ion o f p ag an ma t e r ia l n o t o n ly h e lp s u s i n t e rp r e t t h e p re sence o f p ag an c r ea tu r e s i n e cc l e s ia s t ica l c a rv ing s , b u t a l so h igh l igh t s t h e o f t en c on f l ic t ing i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f c e r t a in a n ima l s . T he s ame c r ea tu re m igh tw el r e p re sen t b o th g ood a nd e v i l , C h r i s t o r t he d ev i l , i n d i f f e ren t t e x t s f r om t h e B ib le . C onfu s ion o f t en e n su ed , a nd t h e w r i t e r w a s r educed t o a t t r ibu t ing t wo mean ing s t o t h e s ame b ea s t , o ne g ood a nd o ne e v i l , w i th s ev e ra l s hade s o fp robab l e m ean ing b e tw een t h e t wo e x t r eme s a s w el ( Ba rbe r , 1 992 : 8 ) .

Manu sc r ip ts A s Ih av ei l u s t r a ted i nc hap te r 1 ,t e x tu a ls ou rce s o fi mag e ry h av e o f ten b een i d en t if i ed a s s ou rce ma t e r ia l f o r m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e ; i nd eed , Mä l e c r ed i ted t h e r eb i r th o f monumen t a l s cu lp tu r e i n t h e e l ev en th c en tu ry t o t h e i nf luen ce o f manu sc r ip t i l u s t r a t ion s ( 1 978 [ 1 922 ] : C h . 1 ) . Mi le o b serv ed t h a t R omane sque a r t w a s , l i k e i t s Ang lo S axon p r edece s so r , ' a bov e a l mona s t ic a r t ' ; b y t h i s h e d id n o t m ean t h a t a l t h e a r t i s t s w e re monk s b u t t ha t i tw a s a lmo s t a lway s monk s who d i c ta ted t h e a r t i s t s ' s ub jec t s ( 1 978 [ 1 92 4 x xx -xxx i ) . I n i t ia l ly t h e se t e x tua l i mag e s w e re c op ied v e rba t im ; l a te r , amo re c r ea t ive s p i r i t p rev a i led . F o r Ma l e t h e e c l ec t ic n a tu r e o f R omane sque a r t w a s ad i rec t r ef l ec t ion o ft h e d i spa ra te s ou r ce s a nd p e r iod s f r om wh ich t h e se manu sc r ip t s h a i led : t h e Nea rE a s t , H elen i s t i c G r eece a nd E gyp t , B y zan t ium ; i n t e rm s o f d a te f r om t he E a r ly C h r i s t ian , C a rol ing ian , B y zan t ine , a nd r e cen t med iev a l p e r iod s .

T o c onfu se m a t te r s f u r the r , c l a s s ica l l o r e i t se lf o f t en s uppl i ed a mb iguou s i n te rp r e ta t ion s , n u r tu r ing b o th p o s i t iv e a s w e l l a s n eg a t ive i d ea s a bou t s nak e s , f o r e xamp l e ( Whea tc rof t , 1 999 : 1 43 -148 ) . B e s t ia ry s t o r ie s a nd i mag e s e n t e r ed v e rn acu l a r l i f e i nd i r ec t ly , t h rough ' a mu l t i tude o f s ou rce s , s om e t e x tua l , s ome v i sua l , s om e w o rd o f mou th ' ( Ha s s ig , 1 999a : x i ) . S e rmon s w e r e i n s t rumen t a l i n t h e i r d i s sem ina t ion ( Ow s t , 1 933 , 1 934 ;B ax t e r , 1 988 :2 09 ) .

O r ien ta lT ex t i les O the r c ommon R omane sque mo t if s s u ch a s t h e T r ee o f L if e , a f f ron ted a n ima l s a nd b i co rpo r a t e a n im a l s m ay a l b e f ound w i th r e gu la r i ty a mong t h e d eco r a t ive p a t t e rn s o f H elen i s t ic , S y r ian a nd B yzan t ine a r t , a nd f u r the r b a ck i n t ime , S ume r ian a r t ( M i l e , 1 978 [ 1 922 ] , C h . 2 ; F r ank f o r t , 1 954 ) . T he A s ia t ic E a s th a s a l so b een c r ed i t ed a s ap o ten t i a l s ou r ce f o r much e a r ly C h r i s t ian d eco ra t ion ( e .g . S t rzygow sk i , 1 923 ; 1 928 ) . T he t r an sm i s s ion o fs u ch d e s ign s h a sb een a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e i rc ommon a ppe a r ance o nE a s te rn t e x t i l e s wh ich w e r e g r ea t ly r ev e r ed i n t h e m ed ieva l We s t . I mpor ted I s lam ic t e x t i l e s , f o r e xamp le , w e r e u sed r egu l a r ly t ov e i l i mag e s o r t om ak e l u xu r iou s e c c le s ia s t ica l r obe s , t h e ' b eaut y o f t h e p a t ter n ' a ppa r en t ly c a r ry ing g r ea t e r i mpo r t ance t h an t h e d e s ign wh ich ' wa s , a t t ime s , q u i t e u n su i t ed f o rt h e p u rpo se ' ( E t t inghau sen , 1 975 : 1 6 ) . D e sp i te t he l i k el ihood t h a t t h e se d e s ign s w er e g i ven C h r i s t ian i n te rp r e t a t ion s t h e i rp r e sence a t t e s t s t ot h ei n co rpo r a t ion o f e a s ter n a nd n on -Ch r i s t ian i mag e s i n to t h e a r t o f t h e m ed i ev a l w e s t . I n t h e t w e lf th a nd t h i r t een th c en tu r ie s I s lam ic t e x t i le p a t te rn s w e r e t a k en o v e r b y E u ropean w eav e r s who u sed t h em f r ee ly .

Ih ave a l ready h igh l igh ted s ome o f t he p rob l em s w i th " sou rc ing" a r ch i t ec tu ra l i mag e s i n t e x t s a nd t h e f a i lu r e t o d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween a r ch i t ec tu r a l a nd t e x tua l c on t ex t s . S ome m ed i ev a l manu sc r ip t s , h owev e r , d o c oncern t h em se lve s w i th s im i la r i mag e ry a nd a r ew or th c on s ide r ing , n o t a sd i r ec t mode l s , b u t , a ss ou r ce s f o r s e rmon s , e x emp la a nd s t o r i e s , mo r e a s d i s sem ina to r s o f i mag e s t h roughou t m ed ieva l c u l tu r e . F ab le s , r omance s , t r av e l l i t e ra tu r e a nd b e s t ia r ie s a r e e xamp le s . C l a s s ica l mon s t e r l o r e w a s p opu la r a mong t h e e duca t ed i n t h e l a t e s ev en th a nd e a r ly e i gh th c en tu r ie s i n Ang lo -Saxon E ng land , a nd , c olec t ed t og e the r i n m anu sc r ip t s s u ch a s t h e L i b e r Mon s t r or um , p rov ed i n f luen t ia l u pon G e rman ic w r i te r s a nd t h e i r w o rk s , f o r e xamp le , t h e p oem B e owu l f ( He r ren , 1 998 : 1 0 1103 ; O r cha rd , 1 995 ) . T h rough t h e se w o rk s , t h e marv elou s c r ea tu r e s o f p ag an my th a nd t h e " mon s t rou s" r a ce s b el i ev ed t o d w el a t t h e l im i t s o f t h e w o r ld , o r ig in a l ly c ommen t ed u pon a nd c a ta logued b yc l a s s ica lw r i te r s s uch a s S ol inu s , K te s ia s , Meg a s then e s a nd P l iny , e n te r ed med iev a l c u l tu r e . T he i r i mag e s s oon b ecame ' s tock f e a tu re s o f t h e o cc iden ta l m en t a l i ty ' a nd w e r e c op ied a nd r epl i ca ted t h roughou t e ncy c loped iea s , h i s to r ie s a nd r omance s a sw el

2 6

T he S oc ia lL if eo f Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture P lan t S c rol a nd An ima lO rnamen t

R inge r ike a nd U rnes S ty les

I n as im i l a r m anne r , p l an t s c rol e n t e r ed t h e C h r i s t ian c anon . A mo t if c ommon t o t he E a s t e rn Med i te r r anean i t w a s b rough t t o t h e se s ho r e s w i th C h r i s t ian i ty a nd i so f t en s a id t or ep r e sen tC h r i s t ' s s t a temen tr e co rded i nt h eB ook o f J ohn ( XV , I )a s ' Ia m t h e [ t rue ] v ine ' ( Ba i ley , 1 996 : 5 2 -6 ) . How ev e r , t h i s s ymbol i sm i sd i ff i cu l t t op rov e a nd d oe s n o t ' h e lp u st oe xp la in why o nI r i sh a nd S co t t i sh s cu lptu r e si ti s a s r a re a s i ti sf r equ en t o n E ng l i sh c a rv ing s ' ( K i tz ing e r , 1 936 : 6 2 ) .B yt h ee i gh th c en tu ry t h ep l an t sc rol h ad b ecome as t anda rd mo t if o fs t on e c a rv ing i nE ng land ( W i l son , 1 984 :

I mpor tan t c on t r ibu t ion s t o t h e l a te r R omane sque i n t h e s ou th o f E ng l and a r e made b y t h e R ing e r ik e a nd U rn e s s t y le s , b o th o fw h ich d ev e loped d u r ing t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e e l even th c en tu ry . I n t h e R ing e r ik e t h e s em i -na tu r a l i s t ic a n ima l s , b i rd a nd s c ro l lwo rk mo t if s c ommon t o t e n th c en tu ry S cand inav ian a r ta r e n o t o n ly g i ven n ew s hape s b u t f u se , p rodu c ing b ea s t s w i th c ha r ac te r i s t ic s t em l ik e p ro jec t ion s t h a tt e rm ina te i ns t ubby s p i ra l s ( C lapham , 1 930 : 1 34 ) . T he U rne s s t y l e o v e r lap s w i th a nd g r adu a l ly i n co rpo ra t e s t h e R inge r ik e ( Fug le sang , 1 978 : 2 07 ) . An ima l s b ecome i n c r ea s ing ly r i bbon shaped , a nd t h e ' i n t e rpene t ra t ing mu l t i loop s a nd f i gu r e s -of -e igh t ' m ade p o s s ib le b y s e rpen t ine f o rm s d om ina t e t h e d e s ign s ( i b id . 1 986 : 2 28 ) . T he s p i r i ted b ea s t c a rv ed u pon a g rav e s l ab f r om S t P au l ' s C hu r chya rd , L ondon , e xempl if i e s t h e R ing e r ike s t y le ( Ba i l ey , 1 996 : 9 6 ) , wh i le t we lf th -cen tu ry c ap i ta l s a t R om sey Abbey ( Hamp sh i r e ) t e s t if y t o t h e i n teg ra t ion o f b o th R ing e r ik e a nd U rne s i n to t h e E ng l i sh

6 4 ) . Two m a in v a r ie t ie s o f s c rol a r e d i sce rn ib l e . T he f i r s t i sa p l a in p l an t sc rol , o f t en h eavy w i th f r u i to r ,a s at r ee , c a rv ed i n as ymme t r ica lp a t te rn . T he s e cond i st h e i nhab i ted s c rol i n w h i ch b i rd s , a n ima l s , mon s te r s a nd f i gu r e s a r e r e p r e sen ted a mong t h e f ol i ag e .T h i sl a t t e rf o rm i si mpor tan t t o t h e d ev e lopmen t o f a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e f o r t wo r e a son s . F i r s t , i tc omb ine s w i th G e rman ic z oomo rph ic a r t t o c r ea t e i n te r la ced v eg e t a l a n ima l b od ie s . H e re t h e a n ima l

R omane sque . B o th s t y l e s i nf luenced a nd c on t r ibu t ed t ot h e d ev e lopmen t o f c on t in en ta l R omane squ e a s w el ( Bay l e , 1 99 1 : 4 8 ) .

f o rm d i s so lv e s i n to t h e t w i s t ing s t em s o ft h e f ol i ag e . I nt h e s ou th o f E ng land a g ood e xamp l e c an b e f ound o n t h e t ympanum a t t h e c hu r ch o f S t Ma rg a r e t a t Knook ( W i l t sh i r e ) w he r e t h e r e a rl e go fo ne o ft h e t wo c onf ron t ed a n ima l st u rn si n to as c ro l l ing p l an ts t em ( Tay lo r , 1 968 ) .

Go th ic Go th ic a r ch i t ec tu r e f i r s t e me rg ed a s ac ohe r en t s t y l e i n We s te rn E u rope t owa rd t h e e nd o f t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e t we lf th c en tu ry . T he C a thed r a l o fS en s ( 1 130 1162 ) a nd t h e Abbey C hu r ch o fS a in t -Den i s ( c . 130 -40 a nd 140 -44 ) a r e t he t wo ' p r eem inen t e x amp le s o f t h i s e a r ly s t ag e o f d ev e lopmen t ' ( G rodec lr i , 1 978 : 2 3 ) . Def in ing Go th ic a r ch i tec tu r a l e l emen t s s u ch a s t h e p o in t ed a r ch , f l y ing b u t t r e s s a nd r i bbed v au l t i n i t ia l ly b eg an t o a ppea r w i th in a nd u pon b u i ld ing s t h a t w e r e e s sen t ia l ly R oman e sque i n c ha r ac t e r a nd i n E ng land t h i s p e r iod i s k nown a s T ran s i t iona l a nd p r eda te s E a r ly E ngl i sh Go th ic ( e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry ) . E x amp le s f o rm t h e We s sex r e g ion o f t h i s s h if ti n c lude t he s ou th d oo r o ft h e C hu rch o fS t . Ma ry t h eV i rg in i nD ev ize s ( W i l t sh i re ) whe r e a n o therw i se t y p i ca l R omane sque a r ch h a s b een b u i l t w i th ap o in t , a nd t h e e a s t w indow o ft h e c hu r ch a tL yd ia rd T r egoze ( W i l t sh i r e ) w he r e ac en t r a lp o in t ed a r ch i sf l ank ed b yt wo r ounded o n e s . L ik e t h e R omane sque t h e Go th ic g r ew o u t o fb o th w e s t e rn a nd O r ien ta li d ea s a nd s t y l e s ,t h ep o in t ed a r ch , f o re xamp le ,f i r s t w ide ly u sed i n S a s san id a nd t h en I s l am ic a r t , b ecom ing a k ey f e a tu r e i nt h e l a t t e r f r om t h e s ev en th c en tu ry o n ( i b id .

S econd , b y t h e l a te e i gh th c en tu ry f ol i a t e a n ima l s d eve lop . T he se o ccu ra s mo t if sd i s t inc tf r om t h ep l an ts c rol b u tw i th v eg e t a l t a i l s o r b od ie s a s i l u s t ra t ed b y t h e e xamp l e s a tS t Ma ry ' s ,S e lham ( S u s sex ) whe r e ac ap i ta lo nt h es ou th s i de o f t h e c han ce l a r ch d i sp lay s t wo s e rpen t s , o ne o f wh ich s p rou t s f ol i ag e f r om i t s t a i l ( Tay lo r a nd T ay lo r , 1 966 : 4 2 4 3 ) . Z oomo rph ic d eco r a t ion w a s ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e o ft h e a r to ft h eG e rman ic t r ibe s a nd i nt h i s c oun t ry i tr ema ined ' a mo r e s i gn if i can t e l emen t i n t he a r t r e su l t ing f r om t h e c onv e r s ion t h an i td id i n o the r p a r t s o fC h r i s t ian E u rope ' ( H ick s , 1 993 : 5 ) . T he G e rman ic s t y l e s h ad d eve loped a l ong t h e n o r ther n b o rde r s o f t h e R oman Emp i r e t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry . C ha rac t e r i sed b y a b s t r ac t ion o f f o rm a nd o rnamen ta l r epe t i t ion t h i s z oomo rph ic a r t h a s b een c l a s s if i ed i n to t wo m a in s t y l e s , o ne t u rn ing t h e a n im a l i n to amo sa ic o fs epa ra t eb i t s a nd p i ece s ,t he o the rs t r e s s ing t h e l i n ea r f o rm a nd m ak ing a r i bbon l ike , f r equen t ly i n te r lac ing p a t ter n ( i b id . 1 12 ) . T he l a t t e r b ea r s t h e mo s t i mpo r t ance h e re f o ri n te r laced , e l ong a ted a n ima lb od ie s a r e a n e s sen t i a l e l emen t o f Ang lo -Saxon r ep r e sen ta t ion a nd m ay b e f ound i n many e a r ly m ed ieva l c hu r ch s cu lp tu re s ( e .g . Monkw ea rmou th , C oun ty Du rham ; s e e T ay lo r a nd T ay lo r , 1 965 : 4 37 ) . I n c e r ta in i n s tan ce s t h e se i n te r la ced a n ima l f o rm s m ay h av e h ad a n a po t ropa ic s i gn if i can ce ( K i t z ing e r , 1 993 : 3 6 ; S peak e , 1 980 : 7 7 ) . I n t h e Ang lo S cand inav ian p e r iod z oomo rph ic a r t b eg an t o c omb ine b o th V ik ing a nd Ang lo -Saxon s t y le sa nd z oomo rph ic f o rm s d ev e loped i n S cand inav ia b egan t o b e t r an s la t ed i n to t h e ' d eco r a t iv e v ocabu la ry o fs t one s cu lp tu r e ' ( Ba i ley , 1 996 : 8 4 ; B l indhe im ,1 965 ) .T he se e n te red R omane sque a r t .

1 978 : 2 3 ) . T he c en tu r ie s d u r ing w h ich t he Go th ic s t y le p redom ina ted i na r t a nd a r ch i tec tu r e w e r e o ne s o fp rofound r e l ig iou s a nd s oc ia lc hang e . An umbe ro fw r i te r s n o t e t h eb eg inn ing s o fa s ub s tan t i a l s h if ti na t t i tude s t owa rd s a nd p e r cep t ion s o ft h e wo r ld d u r ing t h et h ir teen th c en tu ry ( f o re xamp le J o l ly , 1 996 : 1 68 ; W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 5 7 ; B a i ley , 2 00 1 : 9 64 ) . T he r i se o f l og ica l t hough t , t h e i nf luence o f t h e s cho la s t ic movemen t , a nd t h e d ev e lopmen t o f u n ive r s i t ie s i n c r ea s ing ly d i sp l aced t h e mo r e i n teg r a t ed , h ol i s t ic , a nd my s t ica lv i s ion o fl i f e t h a t h ad f o rmed t h e c on tex t i n w h i ch R omane sque a r t h ad

2 7

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s d ev e loped . S cho la r ly a c t iv i ty t e nded t o r a t ion a l i7e t h e wond rou s i n to c on t empo ra ry u nde r s tand ing s o ft h e n a tu r a l o rde r ( Bynum , 1 997 : 1 0 ) . N a tu r a l a nd s upe rna tu ra l m ean s ' we re g r adu a l ly s epa r a ted f r om o ne a no the r a nd e v a lua t ed a cco rd ing t o d i f f e ren t r a t ion a l i t ie s , h uman r e a son a nd s p i r i tua li n s igh t ' ( J o l ly , 1 996 : 1 68 ) .

a nd w o r sh ip o f God , ap l ace i n to w h ich s e cu la r a c t iv i t ie s s hou ld n ev e r i n t rude ; whe r e o n ly t h e p u r e s t t hough t s m igh t b e e xpr e s sed i n w o rd o r d eed . T ha t v i ew o f t h e c hu r ch a s ap l a ce f a r r emov ed f r om t h e c oa r sen e s s , t h e o b scen i t ie s a nd t h e c omme r c ial i sm o f d a i ly l i f e w a s a p o s t R efo rma t ion — s pec if i ca l ly a V ic to r ian — i nnova t ion . T he v i l lag e r d r ew n o c l ea r d i s t in c t ion , w ha teve r t h e l e a rned m igh t t h ink , b e tw een t h e s p i r i tua la nd t h eo the rwo r ld ly o nt h eo ne h and ,a nd t h e m a t e r ia l l i f e o f t h e p ea san t o n t h e o the r ( Pound s ,2 000 : 3 40 ) .

R e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s l i k ew i se t r an sfo rm . S pace w i th in t h e p a r i sh c hu rch b ecome s c on t e s ted b yd i f f e ren t s oc ia lg roup s ( G r ave s , 1 989 ) . Wea l thy l a y p a t ron s l a v i sh money o n ' l ong t e rm mor tua ry p rov i s ion s ' d e s igned t o d i sp lay t h e i r w ea l th wh ich , i n d o ing s o , k ep t t h e i r memo ry a l ive ( Duf f y , 1 992 : 3 28 ) . C o l l ec t ive g roup s s u ch a sg u i ld s a l so f i nan ced b u i ld ing p ro jec t s w i th in t h e s pa ce o f t h e p a r i sh c hu r ch a nd c ommemo r a t ed t h e i r d eed s w i th h e ra ld ic s h ie ld s a nd o the r i n s ign ia . C l e r ica l s pa ce b ecome s i n c rea s ing ly s e g rega ted , e l abo ra te s c r een s s e rv ing t o i n c r ea se t h e my s t e ry o f t h e p r ie s thood b y e mpha s iz ing t h e d i s t in c t ion b e tw een n av e a nd c hance l( Bond , 1 908 ;P l a t t , 1 981 : 1 35 ) .

The S oc ia l L ife o f Med ieva l Re l ig ious Bu i ld ings C er ta in ly , m ed ieva l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s w e re embedded i n c omp lex s oc i a lr e la t ion sh ip s .T he i rl a you ta nd u se ,e spec ia l ly a tt h e l e v e l o f t h e p a r i sh c hu r ch , d ev e loped a s much a s a r e su l t o f s oc ia l a c t ion a s o f l i t u rg ica l p ra c t ice , s ome th ing o f ten o v e r look ed wh en r e ly ing s o le ly u pon t e x tua l e v idence w r i t t en b y c l e r ic s ( G rav e s , 1 989 : 3 02 ; Dav ie s , 1 968 : 9 5 ; C am i l l e , 1 994b : 3 72 ) . Y e t j u s t a si ti sn ece s sa ry t o r e ad t h e t e x t t o w h ich Go th ic m a rg ina l i mag e s w e r e a ncho r ed a nd ' k now s ome th ing o f t h e c on tex t i n wh ich t h e m anu sc r ip t w a s u sed ' i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand i t s i mag e ry ( Cam i l l e , 1 993b : 1 ) , s oi ti sc ruc ia lt of o r eg round t h ec on tex ti n wh ich t h eb u i ld ing w a su sed i fw ea r et ou nde r s tand i t s s cu lp tu r e .

P e rcep t ions a nd U se o fS pace A s p ub l ic b u i ld ing s ,t h e s pace s a r t icu la ted b yc hu r che sw e r e n o t u n con t e s t ed . I n t h e l a te r M idd le Ag e s f o r e xamp le i t b ecame i n c r ea s ing ly c ommon f o r p a t ron s t o b e c ommemo r a t ed i ns t a ined g l a s s ,h e ra ld i c r oof b o s se s , o rt h e n ame o f ac hape l , t h e r eby a s soc ia t ing t h em se lv e s w i th t h e v ery f a b r i c o f t h e c hu r ch . T he d i v i s ion b e tween l a i ty a nd c l e rgy ,h owev e r , may b ec on s ide r ed t oh av e r un d eepe rt h an mo s t s e cu l a r i n equ a l i ty , a nd w a s i t se lf e mpha s ized b y t h e c u s tom r e l a t ing t o t h e u pk eep o f n ave a nd c hance l . T h i s g ran ted r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h e n ave t o t h e p a r i sh ione r s , a nd r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h e c hance l t o t h e r e c to r , v i ca r o r o v e ra l l p a t ron ( Be t tey , 1 987 : 6 1 ) . S uch d i v i s ion o f d u ty b ecame c ommonp lace b y t h e f ou r t een th c en tu ry ( s ee Hoey , 1 995 : 6 9 , n 22 ) a nd ' g av e a n a ppa r en t j u s t if i ca t ion t ot h e i d ea t h a t t h e f o rme r c ou ld b e t h e s c en e o fn on -l i tu rg ica l a c t iv i t ie s a s l ong a st h el a t t e rw a sp re serv ed i nv io la te ' ( Dav ie s , 1 968 : 3 9 ) . I ndeed ,

C er ta in ly c hu r che s w e r e r a r e ly e mp ty . I n t ho se t h a t p o s se s sed s h r ine s r enown ed f o rt h e i rh ea l ing p ow e r sp eop le c ommon ly s l ep t o v e rn igh t a nd o f ten e xpe r ienced c u r e s f o r t h e i r a i lmen t s ( s ee f o r e xamp le s Dav i e s , 1 968 : 4 1 ) . I n t h i s r e spec t t h e d i f f e r ence b e tween m ed iev a l h o sp i ta l a nd m ed i eva l c hu r ch b lu r r ed . Add i t ion a l ly , c hu r che s c ommon ly p rov ided a s pace i n wh ich t o b uy a nd s el g ood s . T ha t e cc le s ia s t ica l a u tho r i t ie s r egu la r ly c ondemn ed t h e m a rke t s s e t u p i nc hu r che s a nd c hu r chy a rd s t h roughou t t h e M idd l e A g e s t e s t if i e s t o h ow w ide sp r ead t h e p r ac t ice mu s t h av e b een . A t S a l i sbu ry ' ah o r se -f a i r w a s h e ld n o t o n ly i n t h e p rec inc t s b u t i n t h e c a thed ra l i t se l f ' w h i l e ' a t S t A ud r ey ' s F a i r b oo th s w e r e e r ec t ed i nE ly C a thed r a l f o r s a l e o fl a ce s m ade o fs i l k ' ( i b id . 5 6 ) . No to n ly d i d t h e l a i ty s e e l i t t l e a m i s s i n t h i s b uy ing a nd s e l l ing , t h ey a l so f ound i t as ou r ce o f i n come f o rt h e i r c hu r che s —p ed l a r s w e re o f t en c h a rg ed f o r t h er i gh tt os e lt h e i rg ood s o nc hu rch g round . Oppo r tun i t ie s f o r e a t ing a nd d r ink ing i n t h e c hu r ch a nd c hu r chya rd w e r e p l en ty a nd e mbedded i n c ommun i ty l i f e v i a t h e c hu r ch a l e . E s sen t ia l ly p a r i sh f e a s t s h e ld w i th t h e o b jec t o fm ak ing money , t h e se a l e s o f t en t ook p l a ce i nt h e n ave , w h ich , u nencumbe red b y p ew s u n t i l t h e l a t t e rp a r t o f t h e m ed ieva lp e r iod , a low ed f o r t h e e r ec t ion o fl ong t r e s t le t a b le s . E n ter ta ine r s a nd mu s ic ian s , t h e t r ad i t iona l a c compan imen t t o am ed iev a l f e a s t g a the r ing , w e r e o f t en p re sen t t oo , a s c hu r chwa rden s a c coun t s a t t e s t ( S took s , 1 905 : 1 3 ; C ox , 1 913 : 2 05 ) Danc ing p robab ly t ook p l ace a t c hu r ch a l e s , b u t i ta l so f e a tu r ed a s p a r t o f c l e r ica l r i tua l s t oo . D an ce s w e re a c ommon f e a tu re o f m ed ieva l r i tua l , o n ly r e g a rded w i th s u sp ic ion b y e c c l e s ia s t ica l a u tho r i t i e s w hen t h ey w e r e e ng ag ed i n b y t h e l a i ty , a nd n o t b y t h e c l e rgy a l one ( Ho row i tz , 1 989 ) . Y e td e sp i te t h ed e s i r e o ft h eh i ghe rc l e rgy t o s t amp o u t d anc ing , t h e c a thed ra l c anon s a nd v i lag e p r ie s t s ' w e re p r epa r ed t o t o le ra t e i t , e i the r i n o rde r t o c on t ro l i to r t o e ng ag e i n i t who lehea r t ed ly r e g a rd l e s s o f e p i scopa lo p in ion ' ( Dav ie s , 1 968 : 5 ) . T ha t med iev a l r i tua l p rov ided t h e c l e rg y w i th o ppor tun i t ie s f o r c a rn iv a le sque e x ce s s i s mo s t n o t ab l e i n t h e F ea s t o f F oo l s . P e rf o rmed a nnua l ly , t h e f e a s t w a s o r ig inaly s p r ead o v e r s ev e r a l d ay s f r om t h e e nd o f D ecembe r t o t h e b eg inn ing o f J anu a ry a nd i s r e co rded m a in ly i n F rance , s po rad ica l ly i nG e rmany a nd B ohem ia ,a nd i ns ome p a r t s o f E ng land ,e spec ia l ly a tL in co ln a nd B ev e r ley . P e r fo rmed ' i na

t h e med iev a l v i lag e r w ou ld n eve r h av e c once ived o fh i s c hu r ch a ss e t a par t f o r t h e e xc lu s iv e s e rv ice

2 8

T he S oc ia lL if eo f Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture mood o f a lmo s t u n l icen sed r e ve l ry ' t h e r u l ing i d ea o ft h e f e a s t ' wa s t h e i n ve r s ion o f s t a tu s a nd t h e b u r le squ e p e r fo rman ce b y t h e i n f e r io r c l e rgy o f f un c t ion s p rope r t o t h e h i gh e r g r ade s ' ( i b id . 8 1 , 5 3 ) . D e sp i te c on t inua l a t tack f r om e c c l e s ia s t i ca l a u tho r i t ie s t h roughou t t h e m ed iev a l p e r iod , t h e F ea s t o f F oo l s p e r s i s t ed u n t i l t h e f ou r t een th c en tu ry i n E ng land a nd t h e s i x t een th c en tu ry i n F rance ( B i l l ing ton , 1 984 : 1 ) . R epea ted a t temp t s t o b an t h e f e a s t m ean t h a t v i v id r e co rd s o f w ha t w a s i nvo lv ed h ave s urv ived , a s t h e f o l low ing e x t r a c t f r om a m id -f if t een th c en tu ry l e t t e r t o t h e b i shop s a nd t o t h e d ean s o f t h e c hap t e r so fF ran ce d emon s t ra te s :

a c t iv i t ie s c ou ld b e b enef i c ia l . I n 1 220 T homa s o fC hobham w ro t e :

P r ie s t s a nd c l e rk s m ay b e s e en w ea r ing ma sk s a nd mon s t rou sv i sag e sa tt h eh ou r s o ft h eo ff i ce s .T hey d an ce i n t h e c ho i r d re s sed a sw omen , p ande r s o r m in s t r e l s . T hey s i ng w an ton s ong s . T hey e a t b l ack

n o to therw i se c ome t os uch f e a s t si ft h ey c ou ld n o t p l ay g ame s ( c i t ed i nB il ing ton , 1 984 : 2 ) .

p udd ing a t t h e h o rn s o f t he a l ta r w h i l e t h e c e l eb ran t i s s a y ing ma s s . T hey p l ay a t d i ce t h e r e . . . .T h ey r un a nd l e ap t h rough t h e c hu r ch ( c i t ed i nD av ie s , 1 968 : 5 3 ) .

Med iev a l r e l ig iou s s pa ce s w e r e u sed a nd p e r ce iv ed i nw ay s a to dd s w i th c on t empo r a ry n o t ion s o fr e l ig io s i ty , a nd r a r e ly c onfo rm t o' t he n ea tc a t ego r ie s r i tu a l secu la rc on s t ruc t ed b y a r chaeo log i s t s ' ( Brück , 1 999 : 3 16 ) a nd o the r s . E xcep t when t h ey w e r e i s o la ted f o r r e a son s o f d ef ence , c hu r che s w e re

T he w ea r ing o fm a sk s b y t h e c l e rgy w a s b anned i n 1 300 , s ugg e s t ing t h a t i th ad b een c ommon p r ac t ice , b u t w a s i n c r ea s ing ly r e g a rded a s d ang e rou s ( P r i tcha rd , 1 967 : 7 2 -3 ) . T h i s f i t sw i th t h ee v idence t h a ts ugg e s t s ag r ea te r f e a ri nt h e l a te r m ed i eva l p e r iod o fc ro s s ing t h e b ounda r i e s p e r ce iv ed t os epa r a t eh uman sf r om a n ima l s ( S a l i sbu ry , 1 994 : 1 39 ) .

l o ca ted i nt h e c en t re s o ft own s a nd v i l l age s , c l o se ly r e l a t ed t o t h e s u r round ing h ou se s , monumen t s t o a n i n teg ra ted o u t look i n wh ich s a c r ed a nd s e cu la r w e r e n o t r i g id ly d i f f e r en t ia t ed .

I ti sw el k nown t h a t u n t i l n ow t h e r e h a s b een t h e p e rve r se c u s tom i nm any p l ace s , whe r eo na ny h o ly f e a s td ay w an ton women a nd y ou thfu l f oo l s g a the r t og e the r a nd s i ng w an ton a nd d i abol i ca l s ong s t h e w ho le n i gh t t h rough i nt h e c hu r chya rd s a nd i nt h e c hu r ch t o wh ich t h ey l e ad t h e i r r i ng d ance s a nd p rac t i se many o the r s hamefu l g ame s . A l l s uch a c t iv i ty i s t o b e p roh ib i t ed w i th t h e g r ea te s t d i l ig ence , i fi ti sp o s s ib l e . Howeve r , i ti s t o b e e ncou r ag ed i n many p l ace s f o r many men wou ld

S ymbol i sm a nd F o lk lore C lea r ly ,m ed ieva lc u l tu r e f a vou r ed a mb igu i ty a nd A l though s oc ia l f o r ce s a c ted u pon t h e f a b r i c a nd g ene ra l u se o f t h e c hu r ch , t h e ma s s p rov ided t he t emp la t e f o r i t s o rde r . W i th in t h i s c o smo log ica l s pace c e r ta in d i rec t ion s a nd a r ea s h ad s ymbo l ic s i gn if i cance a nd f o lk lo r e c onnec ted t o t he c hu rch b u i ld ing o f t en d rew u pon t h e se a s soc ia t ion s .

t h e i n te rpene t ra t ion o fl ud ic a nd s a c r ed s pace w a s c ommon . T h i s o ccu r r ed n o t o n ly o n t h e f e a s t o f f oo l s a nd i nt h eb oy b i shop f e s t iv i t ie s . .b u ta l so i n l i t u rg ic a l ly c on t ro l l ed r i t e s l i k e R og a t ion d ay s a nd e v en t h e n ew f e a s t o f C o rpu s C h r i s t i , wh ich a dm i t ted e l emen t s o f p opu la r r i tu a l i n to i t s p e rfo rmance ( Cam i l l e , 1 998a :2 63 ) .

N ine teen th -cen tu ry s cho la r sh ip w a s c once rned w i th e xp la in ing a l t h e p a r t s o f m ed iev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s v i a p rofound C h r i s t ian s ymbol i sm , at r ad i t ion t h a t d a t ed b a ck t o t h e t ime o f t h e E a r ly C hu r ch . I n t h e t h i r t een th c en tu ry s y s t ema t ic g l o s sa r ie s w e re c omp i l ed o n t h e s ub jec t . T he F rench c hu rchman W i l l iam Du rand ( 1 230 -1296 ) , f o r e xamp le , w en t i n to p rof ound d ep th c on ce rn ing t h e s ymbo l ic c ha ra c te r o f t h e ma t e r ia l f o rm o f t h e b u i ld ing , d evo t ing a t t en t ion t o t h e s p i r i tu a l s i gn if i cance o f t h e c on s t i tuen t s o ft h e c emen t , a sw el c ompa r ing t h e p i e r s o f t h e c hu r ch t ot h eb i shop s a nd d oc to r s ' who s pec ia l ly s u s ta in t h e C hu r ch o f God b yt h e i r d oc t r ine ' ( F r i sch , 1 987 : 3 5 , 3 7 ) . T heo log ica l s ymbol i sm o f s uch a n e x t r ao rd ina ry d eg ree , a l though i t may h av e c oncer n ed m any o ft h e h ighe r c l e rgy , w a s u n l ik e ly t o h ave b een f o r emo s t a mong t h e p r eoccupa t ion s o ft h e a v e rag e p a r i sh p r ie s t , h owev e r , w ho w a s t y p ica l ly ' i nad equa t e ly t r a ined i nt h e l o r e o ft h e c hu rch ' ( Young , 1 936 : 2 3 1 ) .

G ame s w e r e p opu la r . Mo s t o f t h e se h ad a l i t u rg ica l o r q ua s i -l i tu rg ica l s e t t ing ; o the r s w e re ' e n t i re ly a nd u na shamed ly s e cu la r ' ( Dav ie s , 1 968 : 8 1 ) . G ame s a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e l i t u rgy t ook p l a ce ma in ly i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e F ea s t o f F oo l s , a l though o the r o cca s ion s s uch a s L en t p rov ided o ppo r tun i t ie s ( i b id . 8 2 ) . I n mona s t ic s e t t ing s , b a l l g ame s o f t en t ook p l ace i n t h e s pace p rov ided b y t h e c l o i s te r , t enn i s , f o r e xamp le , p l ay ed u s ing t h e a ng le s o ft h e r oof s ( S t ru t t , 1 80 1 : 8 9 ) . O cca s iona l ly , t h ing s g o t o u t o f h and . I n 1 338 t h e c hap t e r o f Wel s C a thed ra l h ad t o s t op v a r iou s May g ame sb e ing p e r f o rmed i nt h e c l o i s te r sb ecau se o f d amag e b e ing d on e t o t h e i r p roper ty ( Cam i l le , 1 998a : 2 63 ) a nd t h e l a t e r med iev a l p e r iod s aw C hu r ch a u tho r i t ie s i n c r ea s ing ly h o s t i l e t os uch a c t iv i t ie s . Du r ing t h e f ou r teen th c en tu r y B i shop B a ldock o f L ondon c en su red ' g ame s , d ance s , w r e s t l ing s a nd o the r s por t s mee t ing s a tB a rk ing i n t h e p a r i sh c hu r ch a nd i n t h e c hu r ch o f t h e n unne ry ' . A s ucce s so r , B i shop B rayb rooke ( 1 382 -1404 ) , a t tack ed t h e c l e rgy o fS tP au l ' s f o r p l ay ing ' a t b a l l a nd o the r u n seem ly g ame s , b o th w i th in a nd w i thou t t h e c hu r ch ' ( Dav i e s , 1 968 : 8 4 ) . Nev er the le s s , s ome c l e r ic s r e a l i sed t h a t s uch c u s toma ry

Y e t b y t h e l a t e r M idd le Ag e s as ymbol i ca l ly l o aded s pa t ia l a r rang emen t w i th in t h e c hu r ch h ad c r y s ta l l ized , i t se lf ma in ta ined a nd p e rpe tua ted t h rough t h e c ol ec t ive r i tua l o f t h e ma s s . A s s t ud ie s o f memory h ave s hown ( e .g . Y a te s , 1 966 ; C a r ru the r s , 1 990 ) , r epea ted mov emen t t h rough

2 9

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s a r ch i t ec tu r a l s pace s , r e a l o r i mag ina ry , c an p rov ide s u cce s sfu l m ean s o f m emo r iz ing s equen t ia l i n fo rma t ion . T h rough r epe t i t ive a c t ion a n a u tho r i ta t iv e t emp la te o r d om inan t s ymbo l i sm i sg ene r a t ed wh ich n o t o n ly i n f o rm s t h e p o s i t ion ing o f b od ie s a c co rd ing t o t h e i r s oc ia l s t a tu s ( e .g . c l e r ic/ lay ) b u ta l so t h ep o s i t ion o fi mag e ry . I n t h i s w ay ' t he ma s sa c ted a st he m ed ium b y wh ich aw ho le c o smo logy w a sr e vea led '( G r av e s , 1 989 : 3 09 ) .

P o s i t ioned o n t h e n or th s i de o ft h e C hu r ch o f Ma ry a r e t h e mou th o f h e l l , t h e I nf e rn a l T hea t r e , a nd S a t an , w h i l s t p roceed ing e a s tw a rd s t h e s ou l p a s se s t h rough p u rg a to r i a l f i r e a nd w a te r , u n t i l ab r idg e c ondu c t s i tt o t h e Moun t o f J oy ( pu r if i ed s ou l s a r e l o ca ted o n t h e s ou th s i de , p u r if i ed b u t s uf f e r ing s ou l s c l u s te r o n t h e n o r th ) . F ina l ly , t h e s ou l e n t e r s t h e C hu r ch o f Go ld ( t he e a s te rnmo s tp o in t ) t h rough aj ew e l l ed g a t e .

T h i s n o to n ly a f f ec ted t h e o r ien ta t ion o fo ne se lf w i th in t h e b u i ld ing b u tt h eo r ien ta t ion o ft h eb u i ld ing i t se l f .A l ignmen t t owa rd t h e e a s t w a s al i t u rg ica l p r io r i ty a nd f r equ en t ly a ch iev ed d e sp i t e v a r iou s r e s t r ic t ion s ( Hoa r e a nd S w ee t , 2 000 ; C ave , 1 950 ) . T o t h e e a s tl a yt h e s p i r i tu a lh ea r t land o f C h r i s t ian E u rope , a nd i tw a s a t t h e e a s te rnmo s t , mo s t e nc lo sed a nd i n a cce s s ib le p o in t o ft h e c hu rch t h a t t h e a l ta r — t h e f o cu s o f t h e my s t e ry o f t h e ma s s , a nd t hu s t h e r edemp t ion o fh umank ind —w a s l o ca ted . S pa t i a lo r ien t a t ion w a s a ni mpor tan tp a r t o fm ed ieva l l i f e ( L e Gof f , 1 988 : 9 1 ) , a nd i nt h e s epa ra t ion o fc hance l f r om n av e n o t o n ly w e r e t h e d i f f e r en t f unc t ion s o f e a ch a r ea e s tabl i shed b u t s oc ia l h i e r a r ch ie sr e info r ced .

The S oc ia l L if e o f Med ieva lA rch i tec tura l S cu lp ture I f t h e p hy s ica l s pace o rde r ed a nd r e v ea l ed b y t h e a r ch i t ec tu r e o ft h e c hu r ch c on sequen t ly m e rg ed s e cu la ra nd s ymbol i c r e a l i t ie s , s e a son a l a nd l i t u rg ica l t ime , t h en a s f undamen t a l p a r t s o ft h e b u i ld ing a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re i s l i k e ly t oh av e s ha r ed t h e a s soc ia t ion s c a r r ied b yi t s d i f f e r en t a r ea s . A ga in s t t h i s b ackg round i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c on s ide r t h e i n f luence s u pon a nd mo t iva t ion s o fp a t ron s a sw el a s t h ep o ten t i a la ud ience s o ft h ec a rv ing s .

A t t h e s ame t ime a s t h e c hu r ch b u i ld ing a r t icu la ted s oc ia l s pace , s o i te s tabl i shed a nd p e rpe tua t ed a c o smo log ica l f r amewo rk . P a in ten C ow en , i n d i scu s s ing s ome o f t h e i c onog r aph ic p rog r amme s o f t h e e a r ly c a thed r a l s a r ound P a r i s , n o te s t h a t t h e p r edom inan ti mag e ry i nr o se w indow s t h a t f a ce n or th i st h e V i rg in Ma ry s u r rounded b y p r ie s t s , p rophe t s a nd k i ng s o f t h e O ld T e s tamen t , wh i l e i n t h e w indow st h a tf a ce s ou th C h r i s ti sn ea r ly a lway s p or t ray ed i n G lory a f t e r t h e R e su r r ec t ion ( 1 979 : 8 2 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion o f w omen a nd f em in ine r e l ig iou s s ymbol i sm w i th t h e n o r ther n p ar t s o f c hu r che s f i nd s e xp r e s s ion i n t h e a r ch i tec tu re o f m ed iev a l n unne r ie s , who se c l o i s te r s w e r e , u nu sua l ly , o f t en l o ca ted o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e c hu r ch ( G i lch r i s t , 1 994b : 1 28 -149 ) . T h i s d i spo s i t ion o f n or th a nd s ou th i n f u se s t h e s pace b e tween w i th t h e my s t e ry o ft h e C ru c if ix ion , l o ca t ed a r ch i tec tu r a l ly b y t h e d y ing C h r i s t c a rv ed i n to e v e ry r ood s c r een a nd c e l eb ra ted i n t h e o ff i ce o ft h e m a s s . Howeve r , s uch i d en t if i ca t ion o f O ld a nd New T e s tamen t s w i th t h e n or th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e c hu r ch c ou ld c o lou r i n te rp re ta t ion s : ' Thu s t h e n o r th w a s a s soc ia ted w i th e v i l , d a rkne s s , t h eJ ew s a nd t h e C ruc if ix ion ; w he r ea s t h e s ou th w a s a s soc ia t ed w i th g ood , l i gh t , t h e a po s t l e s a nd t h e R e su r r ec t ion ' ( G r av e s , 1 989 : 3 09 ) . I n to t h i s s ymbol i c t e r ra in w e r e i n teg ra t ed w ide r , p e rhap s f o lk lo r ic , a s soc ia t ion s , f o r e xamp le t ho se t h a t c onnec t t h e n or th d oo r w i th t h e d ev i l ( V al i en te , 1 973 : 2 50 -251 ) .1 A l though i mag e s m ay n o t h av e s uppor ted s uch ac o smo logy i ne v e ry b u i ld ing ,r i tua la c t iv i ty p robab ly d i d , a nd i n t h i s w ay a" r el ig iou s g eog r aphy" w a s p e rpe tua t ed . We m igh t s pecu la t e t o wha t e x t en t s u ch a c on cep tua l f r amewo rk i nf luenced t h e v i s iona ry e xper i en ce s o f m ed ieva l m en a nd w omen . T he V i s ion o fT hu rk i l l , f o r e xamp le , i sd e ta i l ed e nough t o a low t h e c on s truc t ion o fa m ap o f t h e o the rwo r ld ( s ee B a r t l e t t , 2 000 : 6 06 , f i g . 1 5 ) .

IS ee a l so ' Dev i l ' s Doo r s 'i nt h eS u s sex A r chaeo logy a nd F o lk lo r e w eb s i te a t www2 .p r e s te l .co .uk/a spen/ su s sex/dev i l .

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P a t ron s Med iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i sn o to r iou s ly d i ff i cu l t t o a s se s s i n t e rm s o f p a t ronag e . T he r e a r e f ew s pec if i c r e f e r ence s d i r ec t ly t o t h e a r ch i t ec tu r a l d eco r a t ion a nd a s s uch , t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f s cu lp tu ra l p a t ronag e m ean s i n mo s t c a se s i d en t if y ing t h e p a t ron o f t h e b u i ld ing w o rk i n g ene r a l . How ev e r ,e v en when ap a t ron c an b ei d en t if i ed i ti s u nc lea rh ow p a t ronag e a c tua l ly w o rk ed , a nd j u s th ow mu ch i npu t i n to t h e b u i ld ing a nd i t s d eco r a t ion w a s t h e i mpe tu s o ft h e p a t ron o r t h e r e su l t o ft h e m a son s a nd t h e t r ad i t ion s o f c a rv ing w i th in w h ich t h ey w o rked . T hu s t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fp a t ron s d oe s n o t s o lv e a ny p rob l em s o v e r wha t r e la t ion sh ip t h e p a t ron h ad w i th t h e b u i ld ing p roce s s . Mo r eov e r , w h i l e i ti s o f ten p o s s ib l e t o s k e t ch o u t t h e p o l i t ica l mot iv a t ion s o fp a t ron s , wh ich i ns ome c a se s c an b e e x t r ao rd ina r i ly i l um ina t ing ( e .g . Hun t , 2 002 ) , mo r e s p i r i tua l d e s i re s a r e o f t en o ve r look ed ( a l though R on B ax t e r [ 2 002 ] h a s i l u s t ra ted t h e c l o se i n t er tw in ing o fb o th i nt h e e x amp l e o f H en ry I a nd R ead ing Abbey ) . P a t ron s w e r e n o t , h ow ev e r , a mb iv a len t a bou t t h e p re sence o r a b sen ce o f a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e a nd c e r ta in ly t h e c ommon a s sump t ion t h a t s u ch c arv ing s w e re o fl i t t l e c on sequ ence i s u nf ounded : t h e se w e re d e s i rab le i mag e s , s t a tu s s ymbo l s e ven . B y t h e l a te r m ed ieva l p e r iod s uch i mag e ry c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed t h e ' v e ry h e igh t o ff a sh ion ' , a ppea r ing ' n o t o n ly o nm a jo re cc le s ia s t ica la nd s e cu la rb u i ld ing s b u ti na lm ed ia f r om e mb ro ide r ed a l b s f o r We s tm in s t e r Abbey t o ag i lded c up o wned b yE dw a rd I I ' ( Cam i l le , 1 998a :2 37 ) . A l though d ocumen ta ry o r o the rw r i t ten s ou r ce s w i th d i r ec t b ea r ing u pon a r ch i t ec tu ra l c a rv ing a r e r a r e , w he r e d ocumen t s d o r e co rd t h e b u i ld ing o r e x t en s ion o fa n a i s le o ro the r f e a tu r e i ti sf a i rt oa s sume t h a ta ny i ns i tu c arv ing s w e r e f unded b yt h ep a t ron o ft h a tb u i ld ing w ork .A tS t eep l e

T he S oc ia lL if eo f Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture A sh ton i n Wi l t sh i re , f o r e xamp le , a n i n sc r ip t ion o n ab ra s s t a b l e t a tt he w e s t e nd o ft h e c hu rch ( o r ig inaly w r i t ten o n a p a in ted b oa rd ) r e co rd s t h e p a t ron s o f t h e l a te m ed iev a l r e bu i ld ing ( 1 480 -1500 ) . T he n or th a i s le w a s b u i l t ' a t t h e C o s ta nd C ha rg e o fR obe r tL ong , a nd E d i th h i s W if e ' wh i le t h e s ou th a i s le ' f o r t h e mo s t p a r t w a s B u i l t a tt h e C o s t a nd C ha rge o f Wa l te r L euca s , a nd Maud h i s W if e . T he R e s t o f t h e C hu rch w i th t h e S t eep le w a s B u i l t a t t h e C o s t a nd C ha rg e o f t h e P a r i sh ione r s t h en l i v ing ' . S uch p i ecemea l p a t ronag e , i n wh ich af am i ly m igh t t a ke i tu pon t h em se lve s t of und o ne p a r to f ac hu rch i so f t en s e en i nt h ee s tabl i sh ing o f c han t ry c hape l s . T he f our teen th -cen tu ry B e t te s tho me

o ther d ocumen ta ry ma te r ia l p rov ide c ruc ia l e v idence h e re . T he a c coun t s f o r Y a t ton ( S ome r se t ) s how t h a t t h e e n t i re p a r i sh r a i sed money f o r t he c hu rch wh ich w a s s pen t o n t h e p u rcha se o fi mag e s f o r t h e r ood s c reen , s t one a nd l i me , t h e p aymen t o f ma son s a nd c a rve r s , a nd f o r t h e b u i ld ing o f a p a rape t a round t h e r oof o f t h e c hu rch w i th n ume rou s f i gu re s c arved u pon i t( i b id . ) . I n t h i s e xamp le , wh ich i s p robab ly b y n o m ean s u nu sua l , t h e e n t i r e c ommun i ty f i nanced t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l i mag e s wh ich s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey w e r e d eemed w or thwh i le , s ub s tan t ia t ing t h e i d ea t h a t t h ey w er e p re s t ig iou s . C e r ta in ly , r i v a lry b e tween n e ighbou r ing c ong r eg a t ion s c ou ld a nd d i d f i nd e xpr e s s ion i n t h e c omm i s s ion ing o f s cu lp tu re a s ac on t rac t o f 1 498 b e tween

c hape l o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l a t Me re ( W i l t sh i re ) a nd t h e m id -s ix teen th -cen tury S ha r r ing ton c hape l o n t h e n or th s i de o ft h e c hance l a tS t C y r iac ' s , L acock ( W i l t sh i re ) a r e g ood e xamp le s . I n b o th c a se s i ti sl i ke ly t ha t a l a spec t s o ft h e b u i ld ing wo rk n ece s sary t o c r ea te t h e se n ew s pace s , i n c lud ing a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re ,w e re f unded b yt h ep a t ron . I ndeed , i n s ome c a ses t h e o rna te c arv ing o n t h e e x te r io r p rov ide s ad rama t ic c on t ra s t t o t h e r e s t o ft h e c hu r ch , t hu s m a rk ing i to u t , a sf o r e xamp le t h e c hape l o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l a tS tJ ohn ' s , Dev ize s ( W i l t sh i re ) . I n a l t h e se c a se s mon s t rou s g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s a r e p rom inen t . A s C am i l le c ommen t s w i th r e ga rd t o t h e f i gu re s i n t h e m a rg in s o f t h e L u t t rel P sa l ter , t h e se i mag e s c ou ld h a rd ly h ave a ppea red a st a s te le s s t ot h e i rp a t ron , G eof f rey L u t t rel , ' who h ad t h is l a v i sh b ook i l um ina ted a tg r ea t e xpen se a sa s ymbo l o f h i s s t a tu s a nd p ower ' ( i b id . 2 34 -5 ) . S o i t mu s t h ave b een f o r t h e w ea l thy me rchan t s a nd a r i s toc ra t ic f am i l ies who f i nanced b u i ld ing wo rk .

t he p a r i sh ione r s o fS tJ ame s i nB r i s to l a nd t wo c arve r s f o r a n ew r e redo s s pec if i e s : t h e c a rv ing w a s t o b e ' a s g ood a s o r b e t ter t h an t h e r e redo s a tt h e n ea rby B r i s to l c hu rch o f S t S t ephen ' ( i b id . 9 ) . I n s ome c a se s p a t ron s h ad t h e f i na l s a y . When t h e s cu lp to r T ideman ' made an on t rad i t iona l C hr i s t f o r aL ondon c hu r ch i n 1 306 , t h e b i shop h ad i tr emoved a nd d emanded t h a t t h e s cu lp to r r e tu rn h i s f e e ' ( L ink , 1 995 : 3 5 ) .

S cu lp tors I fl i t t le i sk nown a bou t t h e i rp a t ron s , t h en t h e re i se ven l e s s t o b e g l eaned a bou t t ho se who p roduced t h e c a rv ing s . ' Chance r e f e rence s i nc on t rac t s a nd r ol s h ave p re served t h e n ame s o f af ew o ft h e m a son s a nd c a rve r s , b u t b eyond t h i s , i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e men t h em se lve s i sv e ry d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lor , 1 982 : 1 0 ) .

P a t ron s m igh t b e i d en t if i ed v i a o ther mean s . A t s ome s i t e s t h e p re sence o fh e ra ld ic d ev ice s i nt h e s cu lp tu re o rp a in t ing s e rve t o v a lo r ize a p ar t icu la r f am i ly , o f ten r e cord ing t h e i r f i nanc ia l a i d . Among t he r oof b o s se s i n t h e c hance l a tA l l S a in t s , Nor th S t ree t , Yo rk , may b e f ound t h e c oa t o fa rm s o ft h e f am i ly o fG i l l io t t o w h ich t h e r e c to r r e spon s ib le f o r t h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e r oof b e long ed ( Woodcock , 1 996 : 7 3 ) . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t s uch a n e cc le s ia s t ica l p a t ron , a nd o ne f am i l ia r w i th t h e b u i ld ing t h rough w ork ing t h e re , w a s c omfor tab le p l ac ing h i s h e ra ld ic s h ie ld a mong i mag e s t h a t a r e t oday p opu la r ly c on s ide red " pagan" — mou th -pu l l ing h ead s , l e on ine a nd h uman f ol i age d i sgo rge r s , ag r iff in — a s w el a sa ngel i c mu s ic ian s . T h i s e xamp le s t r eng then s t h e c a se f o r a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e b e ing a v al id p a r t o f m ed ieva l b u i ld ing t r ad i t ion s a nd n o t s ome th ing d one i n t h e a b sence o f c l er ica l s uperv i s ion . T he l a ck o f s im i la r b o sse s i n t h e n ave s ugge s t s t h a t t he p a t ron ' s r e spon s ib i l i t ie s i n t h i s c a se w er e l im i ted t o t h e c hance l a r ea . B y t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry

I n t h e e a r ly med ieva l a nd R omane sque p e r iod s t one c arv ing ' wa s n o t as epa ra te f unc t ion b u t w a s m ere ly o ne o f t h e ma son ' s t a sk s , s i nce c a rv ing s w e re g ene raly a n i n teg ra l p ar t o f t h e b u i ld ing o n wh ich t h ey w e re e mp loyed ' ( i b id . ) . I ti s l i ke ly t h a t mo s t a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re w a s p roduced i nt h i s w ay t h roughou t t h e M idd le Ag e s , ma son s b e ing e ngag ed i n b o th g ener a l c on s truc t ion a sw el a sc arv ing , a st h e Dun s te r c on t rac t s ugg e s t s ( s ee b e low ) . A l though ' i t i sd i ff i cu l t t o i s o la te t h e momen t a t wh ich s cu lp tor s eme rg ed a s s pec ial i s t s ' ( Co ld s t ream , 1 991 : 6 3 ) , t h roughou t t h e t h ir teen th a nd f ou r teen th c en tu r ie s c a rv er s b eg an t o o rg an ize t h em se lve s i n to g roup s , o pe ra t ing d i rec t ly a t t h e q ua r ry o ra t al odg e l o ca ted a tt he c on s t ruc t ion s i te i t se lf . A t Ham H il , f o r e xamp le , ma son s a nd c arv e r s ' p roduced t h e s t anda rd i sed p i l la r s a nd c ap i ta l s , w indow s a nd d oo r s o f H am s t one wh ich a r e t ob e f ound o ve rw ide a r ea s o fs ou th S ome r se t a nd w e s t Do r se t ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lor , 1 982 : 1 0 ) . F requen t ly , c arve r s w e re j ou rneymen t r av el ing f r om s i te t o s i te f o r wo rk a nd d i s t inc t g roup s h ave b een i d en t if i ed o n t h e b a s i s o f c a rv ing s t y le s , a s f o r e xamp le t he ' S a rum -

s u ch a d iv i s ion o f r e spon s ib i l i ty ( i n wh ich p a r i sh ioner s m a in ta ined t h e n ave a nd p a t ron s t h e c hance l ) b ecame i n c rea s ing ly c ommon a nd o f ten l e dt os t r ik ing d i f f e rence s i n a ppearance b e tween t h e t wo p ar t s o f t h e b u i ld ing ( Hoey , 1 995 : 6 9 , n 22 ) .

L ul ing ton ' b and r e spon s ib le f o r much o f t h e i magery a t b o th t h e se s i t e s a sw el a so the r s i n t h e a r ea ( S t a lky , 1 971 : 8 0 ; s e e a l so B r ak spea r , 1 931 ) . B y t he e nd o f t h e med iev a l p e r iod i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f a r ch i tec tu r a l c omponen t s a sw el a s f r ee s tand ing s t a tues w e re c arved a t o f f s i te wo rk shop s r a the r t h an a t t h e c hu r che s f o r wh ich t h ey w e re i n tended ( W r igh t , 1 982 : 3 -4 ) .

Y e t t he ma jo r i ty o fp ar i sh c hu rche s h ad f ew o r n o w ea l thy b enef ac tor s , a nd ' d epended e nt i re ly o n t h e e f for t s o f t h e who le b ody o fp ar i sh ione r s f o r a ny e x ten s ion s o r a dd i t ion s t o t h e f abr ic o r f o r t h e c omm i s s ion ing o fc a rv ing s ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lor , 1 982 : 8 ) .

C hu rchwa rden s ' a c coun t s , w i l l s a nd

3 1

S ec t ion I :C on tex t s C on t ra c t s s ugg e s tt h a t ' c on s ide rab l e l a t i tude w a s a low ed t o t h e c a rve ra st ot h e s ub jec t -ma t t e ra nd s t y l e o fm any o ft h e m ino r c a rv ing s o r a s t o t h e d e ta i l s o f c a rv ed wo rk o n c ap i t a l s mou ld ing s , t h e b a se s f o r s t a tue s a nd mu ch e x te r io r wo rk ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lo r , 1 982 : 1 ) . A l though ah andfu l o f t h e c on t r ac t s t h a t s u rv ive f r om t h e M idd l e A g e s a r e r e la t iv e ly s pec if i c w i th r eg a rd t o d e t a i ls , b y f a r t h e ma jo r i ty a r e u n c l ea r . T ha t d rawn u p i n 1 442 b e tw een t h e c hu rchwa rden s a nd p a r i sh ione r s o f Dun s t e r w i th J ohn Ma ry sf r om n ea rby S togu r sey f o rb u i ld ing ac en t r a lt ow e rt o t h e i r p a r i sh c hu r ch i s af i n e e xamp le . A l though i t i s s pec if i ed t h a t' t he s a yde J on Ma ryce s chal mak e ü jg a rgyly s i nt h re c o rne r s o ft h e s a yde t ow r e ' ( t he f ou r th c o me rb e ing o ccup ied b y as t a i r t u r r e t ) , t h e r e i sn o m en t ion o ft h e f o rm t ha t t h e g a rgoy l e s s hou ld t a k e ( Ly t e , 1 881 : 2 17 ) . R a the r , ' i t mu s t h av e b een l ef t t o t h e i nv en t ive i mag ina t ion o fJ ohn Ma ry s wha t h ideou s mon s te r s o r f e a rfu l d emon s h e c ho se t o c a rv e a sd eco r a t ive f i n i she s t o t h e w a te r s pou t s ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lor , 1 982 : 1 2 ) . I n af u r the r e xamp l e , t h e m a s t e r ma son W i l l iam d e H e lpe s ton , u nde r c on t r ac t t o b u i ld t w e lve c hape l s a tt h e e a s t e nd o ft h e c hu r ch a tV a le R oy a l Abbey i nC he sh i r e , i sg r an t ed a' f r ee h and o v e r t h e d e ta i l s ' ( S a lzmann , 1 952 : 4 39 ) . T he n a tu re o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e ma son s a nd t h e p a t ron o f t h e w o rk , a nd i n p a r t icu la rt h e e x t en t t o wh ich t h e i r d eco ra t iv e d e s ign s w e r e r e gu la t ed ,i su nc l ea r( Game son , 1 992 : 4 4 ) .

whe r e t h e r e co lou r ed i mag e h e lp s t og i ve s ome i d ea o ft h e e f f ec t am ed iev a lc hu rch i n te r io rm igh th ave h ad ( F ig . 3 .1 ) . T he c a rv ing a nd s e t t ing o fi mag e s i np l ace w a s n o t , i n mo s t c a se s , t h e f i na l s t ag e o f t h e i r p roduc t ion . O f t en a s much money w a s s pen to nt h e i rp a in t ing a si tw a s o nt h e i rc a rv ing ( Be t tey a nd T ay lo r , 1 982 : 1 3 ) . T h roughou t t h e M idd le Ag e s t h e r e e x i s t ed a c l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een s c u lp tu re a nd p a in t ing , a nd i ndeed , f o r much o ft h e p e r iod , i ti sp robab ly m i s lead ing t o t h ink o f t h e t wo a s s epa ra t e a c t iv i t ie s . No t o n ly i st h e r e ' s t rong e v idence t o s uppor t t h e p r e sump t ion t h a t c a rv ing w a s u su a l ly , i fn o t a lmo s t i nv a r iab ly , p a in ted ' , b u t p a in t ing a nd s cu lp tu r e w e re l i k e ly t o h av e b een i n teg r a ted a sp a r t o ft h e o v e ra l l d e s ign ( T r i s t r am , 1 944 : 6 5 ) . C e r t a in ly , u n t i l t h e s pec i a l i7a t ion o f t h e l a t e r m ed iev a l p e r iod ' i ti sb y n o mean s i mpo s s ib l e . .t ha t t h e p a in t e r a nd s cu lp to rw e r ei nf a c to ne a nd t h e s ame c r af t sman ' ( i b id . ) . I t i s i mpo s s ib le t o t e l l h ow mu ch p a in ted c on t ex t t h e mode rn o b serve r o f a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu r e i s m i s s ing . C ap i ta l s o rc o rbe l s may w el h av eb een b r igh t ly c o lou r ed ,o r p a in t ed w i th d e s ign s , a st h e c ap i t a l a nd c o lumn s h af t f r om t h e P r io ry o fS tN i cho la s , E xe t e r ( Devon ) s ugg e s t s ( i b id . ,p l . 9 0 ) . T he se m ay h av eb een i n t eg ra t ed i n to al a rg e rs cheme o f i mag e ry . A t E a s t Wenow ( Hamp sh i r e ) t h e e a s t w indow i s p a in ted w i th h ead s a nd r o se t t e s o n t he i nne r a r ch a nd r ema in s o fs ub jec t s o n t h e s p lay s ,w h i le t he c r own ed c o rbe l h ead s a r e t i n ted w i th t h e s ame p i gmen t s ( T r i s t r am , 1 950 : 3 84 ) . T he c r yp t a tC an te rbu ry C a thed r a l ( Ken t ) , f amou s f o r i t s R omane squ e c ap i ta l s , i s l i k e ly t o h av e b een p a in t ed e x t en s iv e ly , a s t h e f r agmen t i n t h e G ab r ie l c hape l a t te s t s . I ndeed , i ti si mpor tan t t ob ea ri nm ind t ha t ' s t r ik ing t hough t h e mo t if s t h ey b ea r a r e , t h e c a rv ed c ap i ta l s a tC an te rbu ry a r e i nf a c t b u t am ino r e l emen t i nt h e v i sua l a r t icu la t ion o f t h e c r yp t a s aw ho le ' ( Game son , 1 992 : 4 6 ) , f o rm ing p a r t o f a n o ve r a l l s cheme t og e the r w i th c arv ed a nd p a in ted c o lumn s a nd p a in ted v au l t s a nd w a l l s . A t t h e c hu r ch o fS t And r ew , S ou th T aw ton ( Devon ) , t h e p l a s te rwo rk b e tw een t h e w ooden r i b s s uppo r t ing t h e r oof w a s p robab ly o nce p a in ted , a s t h e c hu r ch w a rden ' s a c coun t f o r 1 557 r e co rd s t h e r emov a l o f' t he p yc t e r s o n t h e r owf f e o ft h e C hu r che ' ( Chu r ch l e af l e t , n o d a t e o r p ag e n umbe r ) . I ft h i s w e re t h e c a se t h en t h e u npa in t ed r oof b o s se s wou ld h av e b een t h rown i n to b o ld r e l ief , a nd t h e i r p re sen t ly d a rk a nd i n a cce s s ib le i mag e s may h ave b een mo r e e a s i ly v i ew ed .

Whe r ea s h igh s t a tu s p a t ron s , s u ch a s B i shop R og e r o f S a l i sbu ry ( 1 102 -1139 ) , c ou ld e mp loy a l a bou r f o rce o f c on s ide rab le s i ze ( S ta lky , 1 971 : 8 0 -81 ) , a t p a r i sh l e v e l b u i ld ing t e am s w ou ld h av e b een c on s ide rab ly s ma l le r . T he Dun s t e r c on t r ac t s t a t e s t h a t i fa ny o f t h e s t one s w e r e s o l a rg e t h a tJ ohn Ma ry s a nd h i s t wo o r t h r ee w o rkmen c ou ld n o t l i f t t h em , t h en t h e p a r i sh ione r s w e r e t o p rov ide a dd i t iona l mu sc l e -powe r ( Ly t e , 1 881 : 2 17 ; B e t t ey a nd T ay lo r , 1 982 : 1 2 ) . Wr igh t s ugg e s t s t h a tt h e b u i ld ing t e am a t p a roch i a ll e v e lw ou ld ' p robab ly h av eb een m ade u p o fs i xt o e i gh tm en u nde rt h ec on t ro lo f am a s te rm a son who w a s t h e a r ch i te c t . I t wou ld h av e c on s i s ted o fh and -p i cked m en w i th s pec ia l i s t e xpe r ien ce i n t h e s k i l l s r equ i red i n c hu r ch b u i ld ing , a nd i t i s l i k e ly t o h av e i n c luded t r a inee s o r a pp r en t i ce sl e a rn ing t h e se s k i l l s ' ( 1 982 : 2 ) . Ma jo r s cu lp tu ra l s chem e s s uch a s t ho se a t t h e g r ea t c a thed ra l s a nd a bbey s o r s pec ia l i sed w o rk s uch a s r oof b o s se s a s ide , i t mu s t b e a s sumed t h a t many o ft h e s ma l l e r c a rv ing s a nd c arv ed d eco r a t ion s o n t h e p a r i sh c hu r che s w e r e d one b y m a son s l i k e J ohn Ma ry s o f S togu r sey , m en ' who w e r e n o t s pec i a l i s t s a nd w ho c omb ined c a rv ing a nd b u i ld ing w o rk o n c hu r che s w i th av a r ie ty o fo the rw o rk o n s e cu la rb u i ld ing s ' ( Be t tey a nd T ay lo r , 1 982 : 1 3 ) .

T h i s b r ing s u s t o t h e u se o fc o lou r t o a i d v i s ib i l i ty . Ih av e a l r eady d r awn a t ten t ion t o o ne o f t he k ey p rob l em s i n s t ud ie s o f med iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e — t h a t i t i s f r equen t ly s i t ed i n p ar t s o f t h e b u i ld ing t h a ta r e d i s tan t f r om t h e o b serv e r a nd t h e r efo re m ak ing i td i ff i cu l t t o s e e ( c hap te r 1 ) . Howev e r , i ti sp o s s ib l e t h a t t h i s i sa n e n t i r e ly mode rn p henomenon :

P a in te r s A n umbe r o f b o s se s i n t h e mu seum a t H ay l e s Abbey s how g o ld a nd b r igh t c o lou r , a nd i n c onnex ion w i th t h e se i tm ay b e o b serv ed t h a t , when g i l t a nd c o lou r ed , s c u lp tu re b ecome s mo r e r e adab le a t ad i s tance . T ha t t h i s p ra c t ica l a spec t w a s t a k en i n to a c coun t b y t h e s cu lp to r , i se v iden t

T oday w e a r e u sed t o e n coun t e r ing r e la t ive ly c o lou r le s s i n te r io r s u pon v i s i t ing a m ed iev a l c hu rch , b u t t h i s w ou ld n o t h av e b een t h e c a se i nm ed ieva l t ime s . P a in t a nd g i ld ing w e r e u b iqu i tou s . Wa l l s o f t en f e a tu red f i gu r e s s u ch a s S t C h r i s tophe r ,a sa tO ak sey ( W i l t sh i r e ) o rP ough i l l ( Co rnwa l l )

3 2

T he S oc ia lL if eo f Med ieva lA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture

F igure 3 . 1T he r e s tored p a in t ing o nt he w a l l o ft he n or th n ave a i s le a t P ough i l l i nC ornwa l l . I mage s s uch a st h is w ou ld h ave b een ac o mmon s i gh t i n many m ed ieva l c hurche st hroughou tt he c oun try .

S ec t ion I :C on t ex t s f r om t h e f a c t t h a t o n h ead s i nb o s se s , s e t h i gh i n v au l t ing a nd t hu s f a r r emov ed f r om t h e s p ec ta to r , e y eb row s , e ye s , a nd mou th w e r e s ome t ime s e nfo rced o r d ef ined w i th d a rk l i ne s . T he u se o fa n e xpen s ive i t em s u ch a sg o ld , t oo , i n s u ch r emo te p o s i t ion s , may b e e xp la ined f o r t h e r e a son t h a t g o ld , a s p o s se s s ing a n e x cep t iona l p ow e r o f r ef l ec t ing l i gh t , i l um ina te s d a rk p l ace s a nd t h row s i n to r e l i ef w ha t wou ld o the rw i se b e v agu e a nd o b scu r e f o rm s ( T r i s t ram , 1 950 : 3 84 ) .

f r eedom w i th r e spec tt ol o ca t ion . T he t e ndency , h ow ev e r ,i s t om im ic t h e l o ca t ion o fg a rgoy le s , a nd o f ten t h e t wo o ccu r i n s equ ence s t og e the r w i th l i t t le t o t e l t h em a par t . M i se r ico rd s a r e p e rhap s t h e mo s t r e s t r i c t ed i n t e rm s o f v i sua l a c ce s s o fa l o ft h e c a rv ed m a t e r ia l , n o t o n ly l o ca ted i n a n a r ea o f t h e b u i ld ing f r om w h ich t h e l a i ty w e r e e xc luded , b u t , wh i l s t i nu se , o b scu r ed b y t h e b od ie s o ft h e o ff i c ia t ing c l e rgy . R oof b o s se s c an o ccu r t h roughou t t h e i n te r io r o f t h e b u i ld ing , a l though t h e i r h e igh t , t h e l a ck o f l i gh t , a nd t h e c l a r i ty o ft h e c a rv ing i t s e lf o f t en m ak e s t h em i mpo s s ib le t od ec iphe rw i thou tt h ea i do fa r t if i c ia ll e n se s .

A s ac oun t e rpo in t , t h e s ub jec t s o n t h e g i lded b o s se s t h roughou t S t Ma ry R edcl if f e , B r i s to l , a r e e x cep t iona l ly

R i tua l a c t iv i ty i n vo lv ed p roce s s ion s a r ound a nd t h rough b o th c hu r ch a nd c hu rchya rd , p o ten t ia l ly e xpo s ing t h e i mag e s o n t h e e x t e r io r t o a l . T ho se c oncen t ra ted a r ound d oorway s , h ow eve r , w ou ld h av e b e en mo re f r equ en t ly v i ew ed a nd w e r ep robab ly e a s i ly s e en i nd ay l igh t .

d i ff i cu l t t o p e rce ive . T h i s , h ow eve r , a ppea r s t o b e mo r e a r e su l t o f t h e a pp l ica t ion o f g i ld ing o ve r t h e e n t i r e b o s s t h e r eby r ende r ing i n con sp icuou s a ny d i f f e r ence s i nt e x tu r e a nd s hape , r a the r t h an a s ar e su l t o ft h e i r h e igh t f r om t h e g round . F ina l ly , a l though t h e ' o n ly d ef in i t e i n s tance o f e x t e r io r p a in t ing o ft we lf th -cen tu ry d a te t h a tm ay b e c i ted a sh av ing e x i s t ed i n t h i s c oun t ry , i st h a t a tW inchf i e ld ( Hamp sh i re ) , whe re a d r agon o r s a lamande r i sr e co rded t o h ave b een d ep i c ted o n t h e e x te r io ro ft h e t ow e r ' ( i b id . 1 944 : 6 8 ) i tm ay h av e a l so b een c ommon p ra c t ice t o p a in t t h e e x te r io r o f r e l ig iou sb u i ld ing s .

C onc lus ion A lmo s t c on s tan t ly o ccup ied o r u sed , m ed ieva l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s s a t a tt h e c en t r e o f ac omp l ex n e two rk o fs oc ia l r e la t ion s a tt h e s ame t ime a s t h ey o rd e r ed a nd g av e v i sua l e xpr e s s ion t o C h r i s t ian my tho logy . R i tua l u se o f t h e b u i ld ing p rov ided at emp l a t e f o r e xpe r ienc ing t h e d i v in e i n av ery p hy s ica l s en se , a s p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e d r ama o f t h e m a s s , p roce s s ion o r m y s t e r y p l ay . A t t h e s ame t ime t h e s pa ce p rov ided b y t h e c hu r ch h o s t ed p a r i sh f e a s t s , a l e s , mu s ic a nd d anc ing . A r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e mu s t b e v i ew ed w i th in t h i s v i b ran t c on tex t a sp a r t o ft h e s oc ia l l i f e o f t h e b u i ld ing i na li t sg u i se s .

C lea r ly , m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i n m any c a se s w ou ld n o t h av e b een t h e p l a in c a rv ing t h a t w e s e e t oday , n or w ou ld i t s i mmed i a t e s u r round ing s h av e b een wh i t ew a shed .T ow ha te x ten t s cu lp tu r e a nd p a in ted i mag ery w e r e i n t eg ra ted i ti si mpo s s ib le t o a s se s s ; t h a t t h ey w e re , h ow eve r ,i sl i k e ly .

I ti sn ow p o s s ib le , h av ing s i tua ted m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu r ew i th in v a r iou s c on t ex t s ,t o mov eo nt ol o ok a tt h e i mag e ry i n mo r e d e t a i l . T he w ea l th a nd r a ng e o f t h e s cu lp tu r e h a s n ece s s i ta t ed a n a pp roach wh ich f o cu se s o n c e r t a in a spec t s o f t h e s ub jec t m a t t e r . T hu s t h e f olow ing s e c t ion e xp lo r e s t h e i mag e ry o f t h e h ead a nd r e l a t ed t h eme s ; S ec t ion I I t h en t u rn s t o l o ok a t e x amp le s o f c omp le te f i gu r e s .

Aud iences I n c on s ide r ing t h e a ud ien ce s o fa r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e i ti s n ece s sa ry t o a s se s s t h e v i sua l a c ce s s ib i l i ty o f t h e c a rv ing s . P o ten t ia l r e s t r i c t ion s i n c lude l a ck o f l i gh t , t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e i mag e o u t o ft h e r ang e o fn a tu ra l e y e s igh t , a nd s qu in t s a nd s c r een s . O the r v i sua l m ed ia m ay h av e s e rv ed a n a c cen tua t ing r o l e , s u ch a sp a in t . Many i mag e s w e r e l i k e ly t o h av e b een v i ewed b y s e l ec t a ud ience s d u e t o t h e i r p l acemen t i n p a r t s o f t h e c hu r ch t h a t w e re r e s t r ic ted t o c l e r ic s .B u ti ti sa l so i mpor tan tt ob ea ri nm ind t h a tm any o f t h e se i mag e s m ay n o t h av e b een i n t ended f o r v i ew b y a h uman a ud ience , b u tw e r e p a r t o ft h e b a t t er yo fa po t ropa ic d ev ice s e mp loy ed b y t h e c hu rch t op ro t ec t t h e b u i ld ing a nd i t su se r s f r om m a levo len ts p i r i t s . E ach s t ruc tu ra lc ompon en th a s as p ec if i c r o le a nd a ss u ch ,a s pec if i c l o ca t ion . C ap i ta l s a ppea r s uppo r t ing t h e a r che s o f d oorw ay s ,a r cade s ,b l ind a r cade s , a nd c r o s s ing s . C o rbe l s c an a ppea rp ro jec t ing i n to i n te r io r so rp ro t rud ing f r om e x t e r io r s whe reve r aw a l l m ee t s t h e e dg e o f ar oof . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s o ccu r o n t h e e x t e r io r o f b u i ld ing s o n ly : t h e f o rme r , i nt h e i r f unc t ion o ft h row ing r a inwa te r c l ea r o ft h e b u i ld ing t e nd t o o ccu r i n s im i la r l o ca t ion s t o c o rbe l s ; t h e l a t t e r h av ing n o f unc t iona l a spec t t e nd t owa rd s g r ea te r

3 4

C hap te r4

The S evered Head a nd t he Ev i l Eye

I n t roduc t ion a p se s a nd n or th n ave a i s le a tR om sey A bbey ( Hamp sh i re ) , t h e n ave a tS tud land ( Do r se t ) , a nd t h e n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l a t S tJ ohn , D ev ize s ( W i l t sh i r e ) . E xamp le s o f t h e l a t t e r e x i s t o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e n av e a t P r i s ton ( S ome r se t ) , t h e t ow e r a tM i lfo rd -on -Sea ( Hamp sh i re ) , t h e i n te r io r o f t h e n av e a t Ma iden N ew ton ( Do r se t ) , a nd t h e e x te r io r o f t h e c hance l s a tS tok e sub -Hamdon ( S ome r se t ) a nd S t Ma r y ,D ev ize s ( W i l t sh i re ) .

C arv ing s o fh ead s a r e u b iqu i tou s i nm ed ieva l s cu lp tu r e . A s w el a s ab a s ic t emp la t e , t h e r e per to i r e e ncompa s se s ' s ku l l s , s t y l i sed f a ce s , m a sk s a nd o the r r ep r e sen ta t ion s w he r e t h e h ead o r f a ce i sg i ven a ni mpo r tance f a rg r ea t e rt h an t h e r e s t o ft h eb ody ' ( B i l l ing s ley , 1 998 : 5 ) . I nt h i sc hap te r Ip rov ide a g ene ra l i n t rodu c t ion t o t h e c a rved h ead t h roughou t m ed iev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s , c oncen t r a t ing o n l o ca t ion a nd a po t ropa ic p o t en t ia l . C hap t e r s 5a nd 6t h en t u rn t ol ook a t s pec if ic t h eme s c ommon t ot h e i mag e a nd r e la ted f i gu r e s i n t h er e g ion .

L oca t ions o f t he C a rved Head i n Med ieva l A rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re R oof l ine Images One o ft he mo s t f a vou r ab le l o ca t ion s f o rc a rved h ead s , a nd i ndeed , a r ch i tec tu ra li mag e r yo n med ieva lr e l ig iou sb u i ld ing s i n g ene r a l , i st h e s pace w he re a n e x te rna l w a l l mee t s t h e e dge o f t h e r oof . Med ieva l c a rv ing s p l a ced i n s u ch a r oof l ine l o ca t ion i n c lude c o rbe l tab le s , c o rn ice s , f r i eze s , g a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e squ e s .

R oman e squ eC o r b e l t ab l e s A c o rbe l i s ab lock o f s t one w h ich p ro jec t s f r om aw al , o r ig ina l ly t o t a ke t h e w e igh t o f a n a r ch i t ec tu ra l f e a tu r e a bov e , c ommon ly b u t n o t a lway s t h e b eam s t h a t s uppor t t h e r oof ( A rm i , 2 000 ) . C o rbe l s r a r e ly o ccu r o n t h e i r own b u t a s p a r t o f as e r ie s , k nown a s ac o rbe l t ab le , t y p i caly f ound t u ck ed b enea th t h e e ave s o fc hu r che s a nd c a thed ra l s o r o n t h e i n te r io r o f m ed i eva l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s b enea th r oof b eam s . Of t en , h ow ev e r , a ny w e igh t -d i s t r ibu t ing f unc t ion i ss e conda r y t o ad eco ra t iv e o ne a s c o rbe l s a r e f r equen t ly c a rv ed . S t ry zygow sk i s ugg e s t s t h a t t h ey d eve loped f r om ap o s s ib le t r ad i t ion o fc a rv ing t h e e xpo sed b eam -end s o fw ooden s t ruc tu r e s t h a t w e r e l a t e r i m i ta t ed i n s t one ( 1 928 : 7 8 ) .

T he mo s tc ommon s ub jec t s c a rv ed o n R omane sque c o rbe l t a b l e s i n t h e r e g ion a r e h ead s ( F ig . A 2 . 1 ) . S i ng le h uman , a n ima l , o r c ompo s i t e h uman/an ima l h ead s p r edom ina te . None o ft h e s i t e s i nt h e s amp le l a ck c o rbe l s c arv ed w i th a s i ng le h ead o f s ome s o r t , a l though o the r i mag e s —p a i r ed h ead s , b a s ic g eome t r ic mo t if s s uch a s c hev ron s a nd c y l inde r s , a nd h uman o ra n ima l f i gu r e s —m ay b e a b sen t . A t P r i s ton a nd Ma iden N ew ton , f o re xamp l e , t h e r ei sn oi mag e o the rt h an t h e h ead . T hu s , f o rt h i s r e g ion a tl e a s t , t h e s i ng le h ead a ppea r s t o b e t h e mo s t b a s ic e l emen t i n ac a rv ed c o rbe l tab le . D e sp i te t h e i r u b iqu i ty , t h e se c a rved h ead s a r e r a r e ly i d en t ica l . W inche s te r C a thed ra l , f o r e xamp l e , p o s se s se s a d i ve r se r a ng e o f e a r ly tw e lf th -cen tu r y c a rv ed c o rbe l s o n b o th n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s . T h i s s i t e i sl i k e ly t o h av e h ad s ome i mpac t o n t h e s u r round ing r e g ion a nd p o s s ib ly p rov ided mod e l s f o rl a t e rc a rve r s t ow o rk f r om . One i mag e i np a r t icu la r —t h e p a i r o fh uman h ead s a ng led s o t h a t e a ch l ook s a way f r om e a ch o the rb y a bou t n i ne ty d eg r ee s — may b e f ound e l sewhe r e . T he d i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o f t h e p a i r i s t h e i r h eadg ea r , r e p r e sen ted a s ag rooved a nd p eak ed c ap , e a ch c ap j o iaed t og e the r a tt h e b ack o f t h e h ead . C o rbe l s c a rv ed w i th t h i s d e s ign a ppea r o n t h e n o r th t r an sep t o f W inche s te r C a thed ra l a nd t h e c o rbe l t ab le s u r round ing t h e c hance l a t R om sey , w he r e i ti su sed a s at emp la te f o r a n umbe ro fc a rv ing s ( F ig .4 .1 ) . I ndeed , n ume rou s v a r ia t ion s u pon t h e s ev e red h ead mo t if e x i s t ,p a r t icu la r ly a tt h el a rg e r s i t e s ( F ig sA 2 . 2 ,A 2 . 3 ) . B ea s t h ead s a r e t ho se c a rv ing s t h a t a r e i mpo s s ib le t o i d en t if y a s a ny p a r t icu l a r s pec ie s o f a n ima l w i th c e r ta in ty . T he se t e nd t o b e f o rmu la ic , t y p ica l ly c omb in ing o r d raw ing u pon e qu ine a nd f e l ine c ha rac t e r i s t ic s t o p rodu ce a h ead c ompo sed o f as nou t , p o in t ed e a r s , o va l e y e s a nd o f t en a n o pen mou th l i ned w i th t e e th . T he b ea s t h ead t emp la t e a low s e nd le s s v a r ia t ion , a st h e e xamp le s a tR om sey Abbey t e s t if y ( F ig . 4 .2 ) . A l te rna t ive ly i tc an a ppea r i n as e r ie s a s t h e mo s t s imp l e , r epe t i t iv e i mag e , a st h e s e r ie s o n t h e s ou th

C o rbe l tab le s m ay d i sp lay ad i v e r se r a ng e o fc a rv ed f i gu r e s o r f olow as imp le , f r equ en t ly r e pea t ed t emp la te ( u sualy t h e h ead ) , c ommon ly i n te r spe r sed w i th p l a in c o rbe l s o r c o rbe l s c a rved w i th g eome t r ic d e s ign s . I n t h e s ou th o f E ng land e xamp le s o f t h e f o rm e r i n c lude t h e s ou th t r an sep t a t W inche s te r C a thed r a l ( Hamp sh i r e ) , t h ec hance l ,t r an sep ta l

3 5

S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 4 . 1E xamp le s o fd oub le -headed c orbe l s f r om t he c orbe l tab le a tR omsey Abbey . V ar ia t ions u pon t h is t heme p ro l if era te among t he s cu lp ture s a tt h i s s i te .

F igure 4 . 2B eas th eads f r om t he e as te nd o ft he c ho ir a tR omsey . L ike t he d oub le -head c orbe l s a bove ,e normous v ar ia t ion e x i s t st hroughou ta nd b e tween t he se c arv ing s .

F igure 4 . 3B eas th eads o n t he e as tf a ce o ft he s outh t r ansep ta tS tJ ohn 's , D ev ize s .

3 6

T he S evered Head a nd t he E v i lE ye

F igure 4 . 4C arved h ead so nt he we s ts i de o ft he s ou th t ransep ta t Winche s ter C a thedra l .

F igure 4 . 5Heads a nd g eome tr ic mo t if s f rom t he c orbe l tab le o nt he n or th s i de o ft he n ave a t Wor th Ma traver si n Dorse t .

3 7

S ec t ion I : Head s s i de o ft h e c hance l a tS tJ ohn ' s , D ev ize s , i l u s t r a t e s ( F ig . 4 . 3 ) . I nm any c a rv ing s , h owev e r ,e mpha s i si sp l aced u pon t h e mou th w h ich c an a ppea r o f e xagg e r a ted s i ze , l i ned w i th s ha rp t e e th , e ngu lf ing h uman h ead s , f i gu re s o r a n ima l s a nd s ome t ime s p u l led o pen b y at i ny p a i r o f f o r el imb s . A l so i n c luded i n t h e c a tegor y " bea s t" a r e t ho se c a rv ing s t h a t r e p r e sen t r e cogn i sab le a n ima l s s uch a st h eb oa r ,b ea r , h o r se a nd a pe , a l o f wh ich f e a tu re i n t h e c o rbe l tab le s i n t h e r e g ion , a l though t o al e s se r d eg ree t h an t h e g ene r ic b ea s t h ead s .

w e r e u sed o n ly o n t h e i n te r io r o fr e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s , o f t en i nt h e n ave a nd n ave a i s le s a ss uppo r t s t or oof b eam s . S uch as h if t i nl o ca t ion i sp a rale l ed b y t h e i n c r ea sed f o cu s u pon t h e h uman h ead a s a pp rop r ia te s ub jec t m a t te r . T h i s t e ndency t owa rd s r e p r e sen t ing t h e h uman h ead a t t h e e xpen se o fa ny o the r s ub jec t c an b e s e en a mong e x t e rna l ly l o ca ted e a r ly t h ir t een th -cen tu ry c a rv ed c o rbe l t ab l e s , f o r e xamp le t ho se a t B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( W i l t sh i r e ) a nd M i lfo rd -on sea . Go th ic c o rbe l tab le s l o ca ted o n t h e i n te r io r c on t inue t h i s p a t t e rn , a s t h e s equence s i n t h e n ave s i n a n umbe r o f W i l t sh i r e c hu r che s i l u s t r a te ( e .g . O ak sey , W i l sfo rd , N e the ravon , B i shop ' s C ann ing s , D ev ize s ( S t J ohn ) ,B road C ha lk e a nd Ca ine ) .T he c a r v ing s v a r yf r om t h e mo s t s imp ly e xecu ted ( e .g . N e the r avon ) t o t h e mo r e d e ta i led a nd e xp r e s s iv e ( e .g . S tJ ohn ' s , D ev ize s ) . T yp ica l ly t h e c a rv ing s r e p re sen t t h e h ead s a nd s hou lde r s o f f a sh ionab ly a t t i red l a ymen a nd w omen ( e .g . N e the r avon , D ev ize s [ W i l t sh i r e ] , A l ton [ Hamp sh i r e ] ) , a l though m any f olow a s t anda rd f o rmu l a o f a l te rna t ing c rowned a nd m i t red h ead s . I ti sl i k e ly t h a t t h i s s e l ec t ion o f i mag e r y i s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e i n c r ea s ing ly p ow e r fu l r o le p l ay ed b y t h e w ea l th ie r l a y m embe r s o f t h e p a r i sh a s p a t ron s o f c hu rch b u i ld ing , w h i ch f ound e xp r e s s ion i nt h e d eco r a t ion o ft h e i rs pace w i th i mag e s e xp r e s s ive o ft h e i rh i gh s t a tu s .

T he r e p r e sen ta t ion o fh uman h ead s v a r ie s f r om ar e la t iv e ly b a s ic s t a r ing h ead w i thou t a ny f a c ia l e xp r e s s ion w ha t soev e r t o t h e mo re e l abo r a te g r imac ing o r c on tor ted h ead s . S ome o ft h e b e s t e xamp le s o ft h e l a t t e r m ay b e f ound a mong t h e c a rv ed c o rbe l s o n t h e s ou th t r an sep t a t W in che s te r C a thed ra l . T he se h ead s a r e i n t r ica te ly c a rv ed , b u ta r e n o t s o d e ta i led t h a t t h ey p rove o b scu r e t o a n o b se rve r o n t h e g round ( F ig . 4 .4 ) . A s ucce s s ion o fg r imac ing a nd s m i l ing h ead s a l so s t a r e o u t f r om t h e e a s tw a l l o ft h e w e s t t ow e r a t M i lfo rd -on -Sea ( F ig . 6 .7 ) , a sw el a sf r om b o th s i de s o ft h e n av ea t Wor th Ma t rav e r s ( F ig .4 .5 ) . L ik e t h e b ea s t h ead s , h uman h ead s a r e c ommon ly c arv ed w i th ap a i r o fa rm s . T he se a r e o f t en i mpo s s ib ly s l ende r a nd t h e h ead r ema in s v er y much t h e f o cu s o fa t ten t ion . H ead s w i th a rm s a nd h and s a r e o f ten s hown m an ipu la t ing t h e i r f a ce i ns ome w ay , i np a r t icu la r t h e mou th , f o r e xamp le b y p u l l ing i to pen ,p u sh ing e a ch s i de s ot h a tt h el i p s c on to r t ,o r t w i s t ing t h ec h in ( s ee , f o re xamp le s ,F ig s 6 .6 ,6 .1 , 6 .1 2 , 7 . 9 ,7 .1 0 ) . E v en w hen f ul f i gu re s a r e c a rv ed t h e e mpha s i s u pon t h e h ead i s o f ten a ppa r en t , c a rv ed s o t h a t i ti s d i sp ropor t iona t e ly l a rg e i n c ompa r i son t o t h e r e s t o f t h e b ody .

C or n i c e s , F r i ez e s , G am y l e sa nd G r o t e squ e s T he t r ad i t ion o f r oo f l ine c a rv ing s e xempl if i ed b y R omane sque c o rbe l t ab l e s f i nd s e xp r e s s ion i n t h e Go th ic p e r iod i nc a rved c o rn ice s , f r i eze s ,g a rgoy l e s a nd g ro te squ e s .

H ead s d i sp lay ing b o th h uman a nd a n ima l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r e e v iden tt h roughou tt we lf th -cen tu r yc o rbe l tab l e s .T he l a rg e r s i te s s u ch a s W inche s t e r C a thed ra l h av e s ev e ra l s u ch i mag e s . I n t h e m a jo r i ty o fc a se s t h e h uman h ead p rov ide s t h e t emp la te t o w h ich a r e a dded p o in t ed a n ima l e a r s o r h o rn s . T h roughou t t h e t w e lf th c en tu r y t h e re e x i s t s a mong t h e R omane sque s i t e s i nt h e r e g ion ag ene r a l b a l ance b e tween c o rbe l s c a rved w i th h uman h ead s a nd c o rbe l s c a rv ed w i th a n ima l h ead s . T h i s b eg in s t oc hang e i nt h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu r y ;b yt h el a t e rm ed iev a lp e r iod c o rbe l tab l e sn o l ong e r f e a tu r e a n ima lo rc ompo s i te h uman/an ima li mag e ry b u t a r e c a rv ed w i th h uman h ead s o n ly . A t t h e s ame t ime c o rbe l s m ig ra t e t o t h e i n te r io r o fr e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s t ob e r e p laced o nt h ee x t e r io rb yg a rgoy le sa nd g ro te sque s . T o a c coun t f o r s uch c hang e i ti sn ece s sa r y t o c on s ide r a n umbe r o f c l o se ly r e l a t ed f a c to r s . F i r s t , t h e r oo f l ine o f m ed iev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s w a s s ub jec t t o c hang e s i n a r ch i tec tu r a l f a sh ion , i np a r t i cu la r t h e Go th ic d ev e lopmen t o f t h e p a rape t . C o rbe l t ab l e s , w h ich h ad s uppo r t ed t h e e av e so ft h e r oof o rt h eb a se o f ap a r ape tw e re u sed l e s s a nd l e s s a si tb ecame t h e n o rm t o c oncea l r oof -l ine s b eh ind a p a r ape t s uppor ted b y t h e w al b enea th . I nc r ea s ing ly c o rbe l s

3 8

C o rn ice s a r e mou lded l e dg e s t h a t p ro jec t h o r izon t a l ly a l ong t h e t op o f ab u i ld ing . T hey a r e f r equen t ly c a rv ed w i th g eome t r ic d e s ign s , h ead s a nd f i gu re s , ac on t inuou s b and o f wh ich i s k nown a s af r i eze . R omane sque f r i eze s w e r e p robab ly f a r mo re c ommon i nt h i s c oun t r y t h an t h e l i m i ted r ema in s s ugg e s t ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , K ahn , 1 992 ) ; i ti sl i k e ly t h a t t h e l a te r m ed ieva l f r i eze -l ik e c a rv ing s r ep r e sen t mo r e a d eve lopmen t o f e s tabl i shed t r ad i t ion t h an a ny s udden i nnova t ion ( Goodal , 1 995 : 3 15 ) . C e r ta in ly , t h ey a r e d ep loy ed w i th s ome e f f ec t a t an umbe r o fs i t e s s uch a st h e c hu rche s a tB ra i le s a nd A lk e r ton ( Oxfo rd sh i r e ) w he r e t h e c o rn ice s b e low t h e p a r ape t c rown ing t h e s ou th , e a s t , a nd w e s te nd s o ft h e s ou th a i s le a tt h e f o rme ra nd t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e a tt h e l a t t e r a r e c r owded w i th c a rv ing s o fh ead s f o rm ing a h i gh ly o rna te a nd t i gh t ly s t ru c tu r ed f r i eze ( s ee K ey se r , 1 924 : f i g s 1 5 ) . O the r e xamp le s i n c lud ing f u l l f i gu r e s a sw el a sh ead s a nd g eome t r ic mo t if s o ccu ra tP i l ton ( Nor thamp ton sh i re ) , C ogg e s , B loxham , H anw e l l a nd Adde rbu ry ( Oxfo rd sh i r e ) , a nd C r ick ( Wa rw ick sh i re ) ( K ey se r , 1 924 ; Goodal , 1 995 : 3 14 ) . Amb i t iou s f r i eze s s u ch a st h e se a r e ,h ow eve r , u n common f u r ther s ou th . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e squ e s a r e f ound i n as im i la r l o ca t ion , a l one o r i n c on junc t ion w i th a d eco ra t ed c o rn ice o r f r i eze .A l though t h e r e m ay b e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween g a rgoy le a nd g ro te sque i n t e rm s o f f o rm a nd s ub jec t ma t te r , t h e r e i s ac l ea r d i f f e r ence i nf unc t ion : ag a rgoy l e i s aw a t e r s pou t d e s igned t o t h row t h er un -of f f r om t h e r oof c l ea ro ft h e

T he S e vered Head a nd t h eE v i lE ye p an theon o ff e roc iou s look ing h yb r id l e on ine f o rm s a ng l ed t ol ook o u tf r om t h ec o rne r so ft ow e r s o rn av ea i s l e s ,u n i t ed i n t h e i r a r t icu la t ion o f ab a s ic t emp la te c ompo sed o f a l e on ine b ody w i th m emb ranou s w ing s a t tached a t t h e s hou lde r s ( F ig . 4 .7 ) .

b u i ld ing , w h i le a g ro t e sque h a s n o a r ch i tec tu ra l f unc t ion w ha t soev e r . T h e t wo a r ec ommon ly f ound t og e the ra nd a r e i n m any c a se s d i ff i cu l t t o t e l a pa r t . T h i s i se spec ia l ly t h e c a se i ft h e re h a s b een b u i ld ing w o rk i n t h e p o s t -med ieva l p e r iod t ha th a s a l te red t h e r oof l ine : d i su sed g a rgoy l e s o f t en d i f f e r l i t t le f r om t h e i r r e so lu t e ly n on -func t iona l c oun te rpa r t s . B o th g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s a r e o f t en mo re e l abo ra t e ly c a rv ed t h an R oman e sque c o rbe l s ( s ee , f o r e xamp l e s ,B r idaham , 1 969 ; B en ton 1 992 , 1 995 ; 1 996 ; 1 997 ) . T h i si sl a rg e ly d u et ot h eg r ea t e rp o s s ib i l i t ie s a f fo rded b yt h e d i f f e ren t a r ch i tec tu ra l d emand s , f o r f r eed f r om t h e c on s t ra in t s o f as uppo r t ive e l emen t d e s ign s c ou ld e vo lv e i n to l a rge a nd ,i ns ome c a se s ,c omp lex i mag e s . F o re xamp le , a t S t C y r iac ' s , L acock ( W i l t sh i r e ) t h e r e a ppea r s o n t h e s ou th -w e s t c o rne r o f t h e n ave a mon s te r c ha ined b y t h e n eck t o t h e w a l l o f t h e c hu r ch , d evou r ing wha t may h av e o nce b een f i gu re s ( F ig . 6 .5 ) .T he s c a le o ft h ec a rv ing a nd i t s e x ten s ion a r ound t h ec o rne ro ft h eb u i ld ing l e nd s i taf r i eze l i k e q ual i t y . T h i s t e nden cy t owa rd s l a rg e r s cu lp tu re s i s t y p ica l o f l a te m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e ; s ome s e quence s o f c o rbe l s , f o r e x amp l e , f olow a s im i la r r ou t e ( f o re xamp le t ho se i nt h e n av e s a tA l ton a nd Ho lybou rne i n H amp sh i r e ) .

One n o tab le t r end w i th in l a t e r m ed i eva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i s t h e d i v i s ion o f h uman f r om a n ima l o r c ompo s i te i mag e s , t h e f o rme r g a the r ing o n t h e i n t e r io r o f r e l ig iou s b ui ld ing s , t h e l a t te r o n t h e e x te r io r . Wh i l e g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s d o r ep r e sen t h uman h ead s a nd f i gu r e s t h ey o f ten a ppea r i n s ign if i can t i n c ompa r i son t o t h e i rc ommon ly mo r e n ume rou s f a n t a s t ic b ea s tn e ighbou r s , a s t h e c hu rche s a t B ren t Knol , L a cock ( S t C y r iac ) , E d ing ton , Mappowde r , S he rbo rne , a nd S yd l ing S tN icho la s d emon s t ra te c l ea r ly . T he e x t e r io r i sa l so t h e l o ca t ion w he r e h yb r id h uman/an ima l f i gu re s m ay b e f ound , s u ch a s t h e b i rd -man a tS yd l ing S tN icho la s ( F ig . 7 .9 )a nd t h e h o rned a nd h oof ed d em i -f igu r e a tE d ing ton ( F ig . 7 .8 ) .

A rches Wh i l s tu b iqu i tou s a mong s tc o rbe l tab le s , c o rn ice s ,g a rgoy l e s a nd g ro t e sque s t h e c arved h ead i sn o t r e s t r ic ted t o s u ch r oof e dg e l o ca t ion s i n m ed ieva l a r ch i t ec tu re . A r che s i n p ar t icu l a r , whe the r a s a r cade s , e n t r ance s o r w indow s , a r e f a vou r ed l o ca t ion s f o r av a r ie t y o f c a rved m ed ia . T he d i sembod ied h ead i sw el r e p r e sen ted u pon m any o ft h e se .

R eg iona l s t y l e s o f c a rv ing g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s a r e o f ten c l ea r . P a r t i cu la r t o S ome r se t a nd p ar t s o f Do r se t f o r e xamp le a r e c a rv ing s k nown a s " hunky p unk s ," a t e rm p robab ly d e r iv ed f r om t h e c omb ina t ion o f " hunk e r s" a nd " punchy ," t h e f o rme r m ean ing s qua t t ing o n t h e h aunche s , t h e l a t t e r mean ing s ho r t o r s qua t , ' c ha rac te r i sed b y as hor t t h ick s e t b ody a nd s hor t l e g s ' ( W r igh t , 1 982 : 1 ) . T he s t y le l e nd s i t se lf w el t oi mag e s o fb ea s t s , wh ich t y p ica l ly a ppea r w i th p uf f ed o u t c he s t s a nd h ead s s e t b ack u pon c rouch ing b od ie s , i ne x t r eme c a se s a ppea r ing h a lfway o r f u r the r a l ong t h e b ack o ft h e c r ea tu r e ( F ig . 4 .6 ;s e e a l so Wr igh t , 1 982 : 6 P l . 3 1 ) . F or e l imb so f ten a ppea rs e ta ta wkwa rd a ng l e s .

V ou s s o i r s T he w edg e shaped s t one s t h a t f o rm t h e c u rv e o ft h e r ound h eaded R omane sque s ty le a r ch a r e k nown a s v ou s so i r s ( a c omp le t e a r ch o f v ou s so i r s i s k nown a s av ou s su re ) . E spec i a l ly w hen t h ey f o rm p a r t o f ad oorway , v ou s so i r s a r e f r equen t ly c a rv ed . I n t ho se r e g ion s whe r e R oman e squ e c hu rche s a r e n ume rou s , s uch a sY o rk sh i r e a nd Oxfo rd sh i r e , c a rved v ou s su re s a r e many ( S a lmon , 1 947 ; H en r y a nd Z a rn eck i , 1 957/58 ; Wood , 1 994 ) . T he We s sex a r ea c on ta in s f ew e r e xamp le s a l though whe r e t h ey d o o ccu r , f o r e xamp l e a t G la s tonbu ry A bbey a nd Ma l rne sbu ry A bbey , t h e f i gu r a t iv e c a rv ing i si mp r e s s iv e ( Hope , 1 890 ; Wood , 1 998 ) .

L ik e t w e lf th -cen tu r y c o rbe l tab l e s , Go th ic g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s i nt h i s a r ea a ppea r t o m a in ta in ab road b a lance b e tw een t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o fh uman h ead s a nd a n ima l o r b ea s t h ead s ( F ig . A 2 . 4 ) . A l though t h e t a b l e s ugg e s t s a g r ea t e r empha s i s u pon h uman h ead s t h an a ny o the r , t h e r e su l t s f r om t h e se s i te s mu s tb eb a lanced a g a in s tt ho se s uch a sB r en t Knol ( S ome r se t ) a nd S he rbome ( Do r se t ) a t wh ich b ea s t h ead s a nd t h e i r v a r ian t s o u tnumbe r h uman h ead s b y s ome d eg r ee .

Apa r t f r om g eom e t r ic p a t t er n s s u ch a sc hev ron s ( s ee B o rg , 1 967 f o r d e ta i l ) v ou s so i r s a r e f r equen t ly c a rv ed w i th wha t a r e t e rmed " beakhead s" . Ab eakhead i sa n o rn amen t t a k ing t h e f o rm o f t h e h ead o f ab i rd , b ea s t , mon s t e r o r h uman , t h e b eak o r j aw o f wh ich a ppea r s t o g r ip t h e mou ld ing a c ro s s w h ich i ti sc a rved ( C lapham , 1 934 : 1 30 ) . U sua l ly f ound a s ar e pea ted f o rm a r ound t h e c u rv e o f ad oorway , b eak h ead s m ay a l so b e f ound a s as i ng le mo t if o n c ap i ta l s a nd c o rbe l s . E xamp l e s f r om t h e s ou th o fE ng land i n c lude B i shop ' s S u t ton ( Hamp sh i r e ) , whe r e t h e v ou s su r e o f t h e s ou th d oo r f e a tu r e s as i ng le , r e pe t i t iv e b eak mo t if ( a l though t h e i mag e s v a r y c on s ide rab ly i n s i ze a nd t r ea tmen t ) , L u l l ing ton ( S ome r se t ) , T or t ing ton ( S u s sex ) a nd S hebbea r ( Devon ) , t h e l a t t e r f e a tu r ing a m ixed r ang e o f v ou s so i r s c arv ed w i th b ea s t ,b i rd a nd h uman h ead s ( F ig . 4 .8 ) .

T he re i sc on s ide rab l e i nnov a t ion , h ow ev e r , when i tc ome s t o c a rv ing s t h a t r e p re sen t f u l l f i gu r e s . T he mo s t c ommon a n ima l r e pr e sen t ed i st h el i on , a nd c ompo s i te a n ima l f i gu r e s a r e t y p ica l ly modeled u pon i t s b ody c omb ined w i th b a t ' s w ing s , b i rd ' s t a lon s , a nd a n a bundance o f s haggy h a i r . T o u ndoub t ed ly o v e r s impl i f y m a t te r s t h i s m igh t b e r eg a rded a s a no u tg row th o ft h eR omane sque c o rbe lc a rv e r ' s f a sc ina t ion w i th f e l ine look ing b ea s th ead s . How ev e r ,w ha td oe sa ppea r t o b e h e ld i n c ommon b e tw een R omane sque a nd Go th ic r oof l ine i mag er yi st h e d e s i r e t od ep ic tp ow e r fu la n ima l s . I n t h e l a t te r t h i s i so f t en a c compl i shed b y a dd ing e l emen t s o f o the rp owe r fu la n ima l s t ot h e b a s i cl e on ine b ody t oc r ea t e a c r ea tu re o f i n t en se , s upe rna tu ra l f o r ce . T he r e su l t i s a

3 9

S ec t ion I : Head s L i n t e l sa nd T ympana T he s em ic i r cu la r f i e ld b e tween t h e l i n te l , t h e h o r izon ta l b eam b r idg ing t h e o pen ing o f ad oorway , a nd t h e a r ch a bov e i t ,i sk nown a s at ympanum ( p lu ra l : t ympana ) . B o th t ympanum a nd l i n t e l m igh t b e c a rv ed , a sa tL i t t le L ang fo rd ( W i l t sh i r e ) ( Pow el , 1 909 ) , a l though mo r e f r equen t ly c a rv ing i sa ppl i ed t ot h e t ympanum o n ly ( s ee , f o re xamp l e s , K ey se r , 1 927 ) . A pa r t f r om g eome t r i c d e s ign s t ympana w e re o f t en c a rv ed w i th a n ima l s , my th ica l c r ea tu r e s a nd o the r f i gu ra t ive s c ene s ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s , A l l en , 1 887 ; K ey se r , 1 927 ) . H ick s s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e s pa ce s p rov ided b y l i n t e l s a nd t ympana w e r e u s ed t o a r t icu la t e d i f f e r en t m ean ing s . C on t r a s t ing t h e h un t ing s c ene s f ound c a rv ed u pon t h el i n t e l s a ts ev e ra l s i t e s ( e .g . K ed le s ton [ De rby sh i r e ] ; C l if ton H amden [ Oxf o rd sh i r e ] ;L i t t le L ang fo rd [ W i l t sh i r e ] ) s h en o te s t h a ti t i si n te r e s t ing t h a t s uch s e cu la r s c ene s a r e c onf in ed t ot h e l i n t e l , a sw e re t h e h un t ing s c ene s a nd a n ima l g roup s o n t h e I r i sh h i gh c r o s s b a se s ; t h i s d i f f e ren t ia lp l ac ing s ugg e s t s a n o ppo s i t ion b e tween t h en a r ra t iv e s c ene a nd t h e mo r e s ymbol i cf unc t ion o f t h e c r ea tu r e s o n t h e t ympanum a bov e ( H ick s , 1 993 : 2 67 ) . Wood ( 2 001 ) a l so s t r e s se s t h e s ymbol i c c ha rac te r o f t ympana , s ugg e s t ing t h a t t h e g eome t r ic d e s ign s c ommon ly f ound u pon t h em w e r e u sed t o a r t i cu la te C h r i s t ian c on cep t ion s o f God a s l i gh t a nd p u r e f o rm , a nd c onnec t t h em w i th t h ea c to fe n t e r ing t h eb u i ld ing . T he s ev e r ed h ead mo t if d oe s n o t a ppea r t o b e p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th e i the r l i n t e l s o r t ympana . T h i s m ay b e b ecau se o ft h e c l o se p rox im i ty o fa r ch i tec tu r a l f e a tu r e s t h a t a r e , s uch a sv ou s so i r s a nd c ap i ta l s , o r d ue t ot h e se f e a tu r e s b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th d i f f e r en t mode so fi mag e ry a l tog e the r .

z oomo rph s w e r e c omb ined f r ee ly , r e su l t ing i n av a s t r ang e o fc omp l ex d e s ign s ( s ee B a l tru ga i t i s , 1 986 ) . T he c ap i ta l s i n t h e c hance l a t R om sey A bbey p rov ide s ev e ra l e xamp l e s ( F ig s 5 .5 ,5 .1 2 ) .T hough c l ea r ly ah i gh s t a tu s s equence t h e i r e c l ec t ic i sm p o in t s t o t h e i n co rpo r a t ion a nd a s s im i la t ion o f n a t iv e z oomo rph ic d e s ign s i n to t h e C h r i s t ian c anon a sw el a st h e d ev e lopmen to fn a r ra t iv e s equences i nvo lv ing h uman f i gu r e s . B y t h e t we lf th c en tu ry s u ch av i sua l r e per to i r e w a s w el e s t abl i shed . T he s e v e r ed h ead mo t if c an b e f ound c a rv ed o n c ap i ta l s i n v a r iou s a r ch i tec tu r a l l o ca t ion s . A t B er e R eg i s ( Do r se t ) h uman a nd a n ima l h ead s l ook o u t f r om t h e c o rne r s o ft h e b road s c a l lop c ap i t a l s t h a t f o rm p a r t o f t h e s ou th a r cade . A l ton a nd S togu r sey f e a tu re h ead s c a rved i n to t h e c ap i ta l s b enea th t h e c r o s s ing t ow e r s ( F ig s 5 . 9 , 5 . 1 3 ) . C ap i t a l s f r am ing t h e e n t r ance s a tB roadw ey ( Dor se t ) a nd l U i lbo rn e P or t ( S ome r se t ) a l so f e a tu r e t h e d e s ign . T he c ap i ta l s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s ou th d oo r t h a t f o rme r ly l e d f r om t h e c l o i s t e r t o t h e n av e a t R om sey A bbey b ea r G r een B ea s t h ead s d i sgo rg ing s c rol ing f ol iag e ( F ig . 5 . 1 2 ) w h i le t h e R omane sque w e s t d oo r a t Newnham , a l so i n H amp sh i r e , f e a tu r e s ac ap i t a lc a rved w i th as im i l a rd e s ign . T he c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e R omane sque c a rv ed c ap i ta l g r adu a l ly c onceded t o n ew d ev e lopmen t s f o r i n t h e e a r ly Go th ic p e r iod h i gh ly i n t r ica te s t y l e s o f f o l iag e c a rv ing d eve lop , p rov id ing t h e v i sua l m a t r ix f o r a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e M idd l e Ag e s ( Ga rdne r , 1 927 ; P ev sne r , 1 945 ) . I n s ome c a se s t h e c a rved l e av e s e x t end s ome d i s tance f r om t h e s u rf ace o f t h e c ap i ta l t o s ugg e s t t h ick f ol i ag e , a s e x empl if i ed b y t h e w o rk a t s i t e s s u ch a s O ak l ey ( Hamp sh i r e ) a nd S a l i sbu ry C a thed r a l ( W i l t sh i r e ) . I n t h i s p e r iod , a l though f i gu ra t ive w o rk b ecome s r a r e r i td oe s n o t c omp l e te ly d i sappea r . G en e ra l ly , h ow ev e r , t h e s pa ce a va i lab le f o r c a rv ed w o rk d ec r ea se s , l a rg e ly a s a c on sequ ence o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e mou lded o r c ompo s i te c o lumn . L a te med iev a l c ap i t a l s a r e o f t en l i t t le mo re t h an s t r ip s o ff i gu ra t iv ew o rk ( e .g . t ho se i nt h e n av ea t O t te ry S t Ma ry ,D evon ; s e ea l so F ig s 5 .2 8 a nd 7 .6 ) .

C ap i t a l s T he l a te c l a s s ica l c ompo s i t e c ap i ta l p rov ided R omane sque c a rve r s w i th s ome o f t h e i r k ey mo t if s . B o rn o u t o f t h e f u s ion o ft h e s p i ra l l ing v o lu t e s o ft h e I on ic c ap i ta l w i th t h e l u sh , s t yl i zed v eg e ta t ion o f t h e C o r in th ian c ap i ta l t h e C ompo s i te h ad , b y t h e R omane sque p e r iod , u nde rgon e a p rofound m e tamo rpho s i s . G eome t r ica l ly p e rf ec t v o lu t e s n ow c a r ee red i n to a s ymme t ry ; c onv e r se ly , v eg e t a t ion b ecame i n c r ea s ing ly g eome t r ic ( F ig . 4 . 9 ) . F rom t h e l a te e l ev en th c en tur y t y p ica l R oman e sque c ap i ta l s w e re c a rv ed w i th ' av o lu t e b e low e a ch c o rne r o f t h e a ba cu s , a nd t h e s pace s b e tw een t h ev o lu t e s d eco r a t ed w i th u p r igh tl e av e s i n r ow s , o r w i th f i gu r e s , a n ima l s o r m a sk s ' ( Bala rd , 1 992 : 7 ) . O f ten , t h e f ol i ag e i sr e p la ced b y f i gu r e s o r h ead s , a s t h e s ou th c ap i ta l t o t h e r e se t w e s t d oo r a t W ickham ( Hamp sh i r e ) i l u s t ra t e s . A s t h e t w e lf th -cen tu ry p rog r e s sed t h e r e pe r to i r e o f v o lu te s , v eg e t a t ion , g eome t r ic p a t ter n s , h uman h ead sa nd f i gu re s ,a n ima lh ead s a nd f a n ta s t ic

4 0

Ap ex e s Many R omane sque a r che s d on o tp o s se s se l abo ra t e ly c arv ed v ou s su r e s b u t a r e n o t e n t i re ly d evo id o f s cu lp t ed f e a tu r e s . I n t h e se e xamp le s i ti so f t en t h e c a se t h a t ac a rv ing w i l l b e l o ca ted a t t h e a pex o f t h e a r ch , a nd s ome t ime s a t i t s t e rm ina t ion s a sw el ( s ee b e low ) . C ommon ly t h e se i mag e s a r e o f h ead s s u ch a s t ho se u pon t h e n av e a r cade s a t W imbo rne ( Do r se t ) . T he n av e a r cade s a t Ma lme sbu r y Abbey ( W i l t sh i re ) f e a tu r e a pex c a rv ing s t h a t r e duce t h e h ead t o am a sk -l ik e p a i r o f e y e s w h i le t h e e x t e r io r o f t h e n or th d oo r a t N a t e ly S cu r e s ( Hamp sh i re ) a l so f e a tu r e s a c en t ra l ly l o ca t ed ,p l a in h uman h ead , c rown ing av ou s su r e o f z i g zag or namen t . T he p o s i t ion ing o fl a t e rm ed ieva l r oof l in e i mag e ry o f t en a ppea r s t oh av e f olow ed s im i la rp r inc ip le s ,i n t h a tg ro te sque s m ay b el o ca ted d i r ec t ly a bove t h ep o in to fa w indow .

T he S evered Head a nd t he E v i lE ye

F igure 4 . 6A d e tached c arv ing o f al i on i n t he S omer se t " hunky p unk" s t y le — i nver ted b ody , c he s t p u shed f orward , a nd h ead a ng led b ack s o t ha t i t a ppear s l e ve l w i th t he h indquar ter s . F if teen th c en tury , s ou th p orch , C ombe S t N icho la s .

F igure 4 . 7H ybr id c rea ture w i th m embranous w ing s a nd p ar t ia l ly l e on ine b ody . T he c en tra l p ar t o f t he h ead h a s b roken a way , a l though o ne e ye a nd a n e ar a re s t i l l v i s ib le . L oca ted o n t he t ower a tS toke s ub Hamdon i nS omer se t .

F igure 4 . 9G eome tr ic mo t if s a nd s t y l ized f o l iage c harac ter ize t he e l even th -century c ap i ta ld e s ign s a tA l ton .

F igure 4 . 8S ec t ion o ft he s ou th d oor a tS hebbear c arved w i th av ar ie ty o fd i f f eren t b eak h ead d e s ign s .

4 1

S ec t ion I :H ead s T e rm i na t i on s C arv ing s a t t h e t e rm ina t ion o f t h e a r ch , a t t h e p o in t a t wh i ch i tm ee t s t h e a bacu s o f t h e c ap i ta l o r , i nt h e c a se o f l a be l s t op s , s imp ly e nd s , w e r e s pace s c ommon ly p rov ided w i th i mag e s . A l a be l s t op o ccu r s a t t h e e nd s o f ah ood mou ld o r l a be l , t h e p ro jec t ing mou ld ing a bov e a n a r ch o r l i n te l . Hood mou ld s o ccu r i n b o th i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r l o ca t ion s , a bove a r cad e s , d oorw ay s a nd w indow s , b u t a r e p e rhap s mo s t c ommon a bove w indow s — e spec ia l ly i n Go th ic c a rv ing — d ue t ot h e i r a b i l i ty t od ef l ec t w a t e r . E a r ly e xamp l e s m ay b e f ound i n A ng lo -Saxon a nd Ang lo No rman w o rk a t D ee rhu r s t ( G lou ce s te r sh i r e ) , S he rbo rne a nd Ma l rne sbu ry , a nd f e a tu r e b ea s t a nd s t y l i sed h uman h ead s a s s t op s . T he l a t e r e xamp le s t y p ica l ly b ea r f a i r ly u n ifo rm h uman h ead s ( e .g . t h e e x te r io ro ft h e s ou th s i de o f t h e n av e a tC h r i s tchu r ch P r iory ) , a l though b y t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry t h e i r c ommon p l a in a nd r e pe t i t ive f o rm i so f ten e l abo r a t e ly w o rk ed t o p roduce f i gu r e s f ul o f mov emen t ( f o re xamp l et ho se a tS t eep le A sh ton ,W i l t sh i r e ) .

h eadg ea r , a r e c ommon a s b o th c en t r a l a nd s uppor t e r i mag e ry . F ol i a t e h ead s , g r imac ing h ead s a nd t h e h ead s o f h a rp ie s w i th s ma l l t a lon s p eep ing o u t f r om b enea th t h e i r c h in a r e a l so c a rv ed ( Ca l le , 1 994 ) . A l l t h e s uppor t e r s i nt h e s equence a t Wel s C a thed ra l r e p r e sen t f ol i ag e a nd t h e r e i s o n ly o ne c en t ra l i mag e r e p r e sen t ing a h ead — t h a t o f a h uman w i th a s se s e a r s . T he r e s t o ft h e c a rv ing s a r e f i gu r e s o fa n ima l s , mon s te r s o r h uman s . As im i la r p i c tu r e e me rg e s f r om t h em i se r ico rd s a tC h r i s tchu r ch P r io ry ( Do r se t ) ,w he re t h e e mpha s i s i s p l aced u pon f u l l f i gu r e s o f h uman s o r mon s t e r s r a the rt han j u s tt h eh ead . I mage ry c ommon t o m i se r ico rd s a l so o ccu r s o n r oof b o s se s . R oof b o s se sa r e c a rved w ooden o rs t one p ro jec t ion s p l aced w he r e t h e r i b s i n av au l t i n t e r sec t w ho se s y s t ema t ic s t udy o we s much t o t h e w o rk o fC ha r l e s C ave . I n t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry C ave p ubl i shed e x t en s iv e ly u pon t h e t op ic ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , C av e , 1 927 , 1 932 , 1 934 , 1 948 ) i l u s t ra t ing h i s w o rk w i th h i gh q ua l i ty i mag e s . R ecen t w o rk h a s c on t inued i n C ave ' s p ho tog raph icaly d e ta i l ed m anne r ( e .g . R o se a nd H edg ecoe , 1 997 ; H awa rd , 1 999 ) wh i le p opu la r i n te r e s t i nt h e i r i mag er y m ean s t h a t a tm any s i t e s w i th r oof b o s s s e quence s a n i l u s t r a ted g u ide t o t h e c a rv ing si sa va i lab le ( e .g . S wan ton , 1 979 ; Sm i th , 1 996 ) .

R e v e a l s C a rv ing s s e t i n to t h e r e vea l o fa n a r ch ( t he p a r t o f aj amb b e tw een t h e d oo r o r t h e g l a s s o f aw indow a nd t h e o u t e r w a l l s u rf a ce ) m ay a l so f e a tu r e i mag e s o f h ead s . E xamp l e s a r e c ommon a te n t r ance p o in t s , s u ch a st h e s ou th d oo r a t D i t te r idg e ( W i l t sh i r e ) ( F ig s 5 .4 a -b ) a nd t h e n o r th d oo r s a t Dumfo rd ( W i l t sh i r e ) a nd B a rf r e s ton ( K en t ) . I n a l c a se s t h e h ead s a r e s e to ne o n e a ch s i de s o t h a t t h ey f a ce e a ch o the r , a ppea r ing t o s c ru t in ize whoev e r e n te r s a nd l e av e s t h e b u i ld ing .A t Du rnfo rd t h eh ead sd i sgo rg e f ol i ag e .

A l though t h e c on tac t p o in t s o f s t one v au l t s h ad b een c a rved i nt h e R oman e sque p e r iod ( e .g . t h e a p se a tK i lpeck , H e ref o rd sh i re ) t h e c r ea t ion o f r oof b o s se s a nd t h e i r e l abo r a t e c a rv ing b eg in si ne a rne s tw i th t h e d ev e lopmen t o f t h e Go th ic s t y le . An e a r ly s equence m ay b e f ound w i th in t h e t owe r a t B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( W i l t sh i re ) . T he se e a r ly t h ir t een th -cen tu ry r oof b o s se s a r e c a rv ed i n s t on e a nd r ep re sen t s ub jec t s t y p ica l o f R omane sque m a rg ina l i c onog raphy , a l be i t i n amo r e r e s t r a ined m anne r ( s ee f i g s ) . A s t h e Go th ic d ev e lop s s o r oof b o s se s b ecome mo r e e l abo r a t e . S ome s i t e s p re serv e a n e no rmou s n umbe r o f c a rv ed b o s se s . L a cock A bbey ( W i l t sh i re ) f o r e xamp l e h a s o v e r2 00 i nt h e s urv iv ing c l au s t ra lr ang e s a l one . T yp i ca ll a te m ed ieva l s ub jec t s i n c lude h yb r id a nd my th i ca l c r ea tu r e s s uch a s s i r en s , h a rp ie s , m e rma id s , c en t au r s , d r agon s ; r e cogn i sab le a n ima l s s u ch a st h e l i on , b ea r , f ox , e ag l e , o w l ; h uman h ead s a nd f i gu r e s , b o th e c c l e s ia s t a nd l a y ; d ance r s a nd t umb le r s ; G r een Men ;h e ra ld ic s h i e ld sa nd o the rs e cu la r l i very , a nd p u r e ly f ol i a te d e s ign s .

Mise r ico rd s a nd R oof B osses M i se r ico rd s a r e a n e n t i re ly Go th i c d ev e lopmen t . F i r s t a ppea r ing i nt h e e a r ly t h ir teen th c en tu ry ( e a r ly e x amp l e s i n t h e s ou th o ft h e c oun t ry o ccu r a tE xe t e r C a thed ra l , D evon , a nd C h r i s t chu r ch P r iory , Do r se t ) t h ey a r e e s sen t ia l ly u nde r s e a t l e dg e s d e s igned , w hen t h e s e a t i t se lf i sf o lded u p , t o s uppor t al e an ing b ody . M i se r ico rd s a r e h igh ly c on tex t s pec if i c ; t h ey o ccu ro n ly i nt h e c hance l a r ea o f ac hu r ch a nd w e r e u sed s o l e ly b yc l e r ic s . I n te r e s t f o cu s se s u pon t h e a r ea b en ea th t h e l e dg e whe r e i ti sc ommon t o f i nd a c a rv ing , t y p ica l ly a m a in s c ene i n t h e c en t r e w i th t wo s ma l l e r " suppor t e r s" o n e i the r s i de . T he w ide v a r ie ty o f s ub jec t s a nd s c ene s c a rv ed u pon m i se r ico rd s m ak e s t h em ap opu la r s ub jec t f o r a cadem ic a nd p opu la r e nqu i r y a l ike ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s s pann ing t h e l a s t c en tu ry , C hu r ch , 1 907 ; S w ann , 1 917 ; Ow s t , 1 934 ; Ande r son , 1 954 ; R emnan t , 1 969 ; Moo r e , 1 992 ; G ro s s ing e r , 1 989 , 1 997b , 1 997c ;H a rd ing , 1 998a ) .

Apo t ropa ic Heads a nd O ther Images T he u b iqu i ty o ft h e i mag e o ft h e h ead t h roughou t m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re i so f s ome i n t e re s t f o r i ti so ne o f m any i mag e s t h a th av el ong b een a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e p owe r t op ro tec t f r om h a rm . I mag e s o ro the r o b jec t s p e r ce ived t o b e e f f ec t ive i ns uch aw ay a r e k nown a sa po t ropa ic ; t h ey a r e o f ten a s soc ia t ed w i th t h ep owe rt or e pe lt h e " ev i le y e" .

H ead s a r e r e p r e sen ted f r equen t ly a mong s t s ome s equen ce s o f m i se r ico rd s , a l though t h ey a r e u sua l ly o u tnumbe r ed b y f i gu re s . A l te rna t iv e ly t h e h ead m ay s e rv e a so ne o r b o th o f t h e s uppor te r s , t ho se i mag e s t h a t o ccu r e a ch s i de o f t h e ma in c a rv ing . A t W inche s te r C a thed ra l a n ima l a nd h uman

Du r ing t h e M idd le A g e s t wo ma in t h eo r i e s o fh ow t h e e y e f unc t ion ed w e r e c u r r en t . E x t rom i s s ion ' v iew ed t h e e y e a sa l amp t h a t s en t o u t f i er y v i sua l r a y s , w h i ch l i t e r a l ly l i gh t ed u pon a n o b jec ta nd m ade i tv i s ib l e 'w h i le i n t rom i s s ion h e ld

h ead s , t h e l a t te r o f ten i n c on t empo ra ry a nd h i gh s t a tu s

4 2

T he S evered Head a nd t he E v i lE ye t h a t t h e i m ag e r a the r t h an t h e e y e s en t f o r th r a y s ( Cam i l l e , 1 996a : 2 2 ) . T hu s t h e e y e , a s aw indow t ot h e i n t e r io rw o r ld o f t h e b ody , a f f o rded e a sy a cce s s f o r e mana t ion s f r om w i thou t a nd t o e mana t ion s f r om w i th in . E v i l s p i r i t s , f o r e xamp le , m igh t e n t e r t h rough t h e e ye a nd b e e xo rc i sed v i a t h e s am e o rgan ( Mo s s a nd C apanna r i , 1 976 : 3 ) . T h e d ang e r o ft h e v i sua l w o r ld e x tended t o t h e i mag ina t ion w h ich w a s u nde r s tood t ob e n o to n ly ' ac ogn i t ive f a cu l t yl odg ed i nt h e f r on t o ft h e b r a in , n ea r e s t t h e e y e s a nd t hu s c l o se ly l i nked t o v i s ion , b u t af o r ce t h a t c ou ld a c tua l ly c r ea t e f o rm s ' ( Cam ile , 1 992 : 9 0 ) . A s a n i n te rmed ia r y b e tw een m ind a nd m a t t e rt h ei mag ina t ion w a sw ha ta lowed d emon s

T he f o cu s u pon e nvy a st h e m ed ium i n wh ich t h e e v i l e y e o pe r a te s f i rm ly g round s i t i n to t h e w o r ld o f h uman b ehav iou r ; wha t mu s t n o t b e o v e r look ed , h owev e r , i st h a t t h e e v i l e ye i sb u t o ne e mbod imen t o f t h e s ou r ce o f e v i l w h ich may b e p e r ce iv ed t o h ave ah uman o r d i v ine o r ig in ( Mo s s a nd C appana r i , 1 976 : 2 ) . I n c hap t e r 2Is pen t s ome t ime e xp lo r ing t h e p o s s ib i l i t y t h a t m ed i eva l u nde r s tand ing s o f t h e s a c r ed r e cogn ized w i th in i t at e r r ib l e a nd l i f e t h r ea t en ing , a s w el a s l i f e s u s ta in ing , p owe r . I n o rde r t o p ro t ec t f r om t h e m a levo l en t a spec t s o f t h e s a c red t h a t w ou ld l i k e ly b e e ncoun te r ed b y s p i r i tua l a c t iv i t y , i mag e s w e r eu sed a sa r ch i tec tu ra la mu le t s a nd t a l i sman s .

t o c oup le w i th h uman b e ing s , s i nce wha t w a s p e r ce ived i nt h ep ban t a s i aw a s , i ns ome c a se s , r e a l . I tw a s f o r t h i s r e a son t h a t p regnan t w omen w e r e u rg ed n o t t ol ook a t monk ey s o r e ven t o t h ink o f mon s t rou s t h ing s , l e s t t h e i r i mag ina t ion s i mp r egna t e t h e i r o f f sp r ing w i th h id eou s f o rm s . S im i la r ly , i tw a s am ed ica l c ommonp lac e t h a t i fa n a du l t e re s s t hough t o f h e r h u sband d u r ing t h e s e xua l a c t h e r c h i ld w ou ld r e semb l e n o t h e r p a r tne r , b u t t h e a b sen t h u sband . V i s ion w a s b o th f e cund a nd d ang e rou s ( i b id . ) .

I n g ene ra l , a po t ropa ic i mag e s wo rk a cco rd ing t o t wo ma in m e thod s . I nt h e f i r s ti n s t ance t h ei n ten t ion may b e t oa t t rac t a nd/o r t r ap m a levo l en t p owe r , a nd t h e r eby r ende r i t h a rm l e s s . A l t e rna t ive ly t h e i mag e m ay w o rk t o r e pe l i t c omp l e te ly . T he se a im s a r e a ch iev ed i n an umbe r o fw ay s a nd o f ten w o rk s imu l taneou s ly . T he a n th ropo log i s t A lf r ed G el s ugg e s t s t h a t c omp l ex p a t te rn s p r e sen t t o t h e m ind ' u nf in i shed b u s ine s s ' ( 1 998 : 8 0 ) .T h i si s ab ind ing f o r ce . P a t t e rn s ' s l ow p e r cep t ion d own , o r e ven h a l t i t , s o t h a t t h e d eco r a t ed o b jec t i sn ev e r f u l ly p o s se s sed a ta l , b u t i sa lway s i n t h e p roce s s o f b ecom ing p o s se s sed ' ( i b id . 8 1 ) . I n t e rm s o f a po t ropa ia t h i s " adhe s iv ene s s" i s ap owe rfu lp r inc ip l e : ` Apo t ropa ic p a t t e rn s a r e d emon t r ap s , i n e f f ec t , d emon ic f l y -pape r , i n w h ich d emon s b ecome h ope le s s ly s t uck , a nd a r e t hu s r ende r ed h a rm le s s ' ( i b id . 8 4 ) . G el i l u s t ra t e s h i s a r gumen t w i th a n umbe r o f e xamp le s , i n c lud ing s ou the rn I nd ian k o l am d e s ign s , C r e tan ma ze s , a nd C e l t ic k no two rk . A bou t t h e l a t t e rG el s ugg e s t s :

I ti sw i th in s u ch a n " a c t iv e" c on tex t t h a t m ed ieva l i mag e s mu s tb ec on s ide r ed . T h i si sa l so ac on t ex ti nw h ich b el i ef i n t h ep ow e ro ft h ee v i le ye f l ou r i she s . D e sp i t e r e g iona l v a r ia t ion s a nd s pec if i c c u l tu ra l c i rcum s t an ce s ( M ig l io r e , 1 997 : 1 2 -13 ) t h e e v i l e y e ' i s af a i r ly c on s i s t en t a nd u n if o rm f o lk b el i ef c omp l ex b a sed u pon t h e i d ea t h a t a n i nd iv idua l , m a l e o r f ema l e , h a s t h e p owe r , v o lun ta r i ly o r i n vo lun t a r i ly , t o c au se h a rm t o a no the r i nd iv idua l o r h i s p roper ty m e r e ly b y l o ok ing a to r p ra i s ing t h a t p e r son o r p rope r ty ' ( Dunde s , 1 981 : 2 58 ) . Ma loney n o te st h ec ommon f e a tu re s a sf olow s :

Kno two rk l i k e t h i s w a s r e g a rded a s p ro t ec t ive i n t ha t a ny e v i l s p i r i t wou ld b e s o f a sc ina ted b y t h e e n tw in ed b ra id s a st os uf f e r f r om ap a r a ly s i s o ft h e w i l l . L o s ing i n t e r e s t i n wha t ev e r m a l evo len t p l an i t h ad e n ter t a ined p rev iou s ly , t h e d emon w ou ld b ecome s t uck i n t h e c o i l s o f t h e p a t ter n a nd t h e o b jec t , p e r son , o r p l ace p ro t ec ted b y i tw ou ld b e s av ed ( i b id . ) .

( 1 ) p ow e r e mana t e s f r om t h e e ye ( o r mou th ) a nd s t r ike s s ome o b jec t o r p e r son ; ( 2 ) t h e s t r ick en o b jec t i so fv a lue , a nd i t s d e s truc t ion o r i n ju ry i s s udden ; ( 3 ) t h e o ne c a s t ing t h e e v i l e y e m ay n o t k now h e h a s t h e p ow e r ; ( 4 ) t h e o ne a f f ec ted may n o tb e a b l e t oi d en t if yt h e s ou r ce o ft h e p owe r ; ( 5 ) t h e e v i l e y e c an b e d e f lec ted o r i t s e f f ec t s mod if i ed o rc u r ed b yp a r t i cu la rd ev ice s , r i tua l s ,a nd s ymbo l s ; ( 6 ) t h e b el i ef h e lp s t o e xp la in o r r a t ion a l ize s i ckne s s , m i sf or tune , o r l o s s o f p o s se s s ion s s u ch a sa n ima l s o r c rop s ; a nd ( 7 ) i na t l e a s t s ome f unc t ion ing o f t h e b el i ef e v e rywhe r e , e nvy i s af a c to r( Ma loney , 1 976 :v i i -v i i i ) .

A s w el a s i n t r ica t e p a t t e rn , G el s ugg e s t s t h a t r e pe t i t ion c ou ld h ave t h e s ame e f f ec t f o r ' t he i n t e rm in ab l en e s s o f l a rg e n umbe r s a nd c ompl i ca ted p a t t er n s w o rk i nt h e s ame w ay ' ( i b id . ) . T o r epe l e v i l a s o ppo sed t o e n sna r ing i tr e qu i r e s d i f f e ren t s t ra teg ie s . No t ing t h a t t h e g a ze o ft h e e v i l e ye c on s i s t en t ly e f f ec t s ag ene ra l d ry ing u p ( e .g . f r u i t t r ee sw i the r , c ow s s t op p roduc ing m i lk , f e v e r i sh s i ckne s s g r ip s c h i ld r en a nd a du l t s ) , Dunde s s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e a s soc ia t ed a po t ropa ia a im t o p ro tec t t h e v i ta l w a t e r s t h a t c r ea t e a nd s u s ta in l i f e . H e w r i te s : ' L if e d epend s u pon l i qu id . F rom t h e c oncep t o ft h e " wa t e r o f l i f e" t o s emen , m i lk , b lood , b i le , s a l iva , a nd t h e l i k e ,t h e c on s i s t en t p r inc ip le i st h a t l i qu id m ean sl i f e wh i l e l o s s o f l i qu id m ean s d ea th ' ( Dunde s , 1 981 : 2 66 ) . C on sequen t ly , r ep r e sen ta t ion o f t h e l i f e f o rce i s o f t en c ruc ia lt oa ne f f ec t iv e a po t ropa ic i mag e .T he s e xua lo rg an s ,

F o rt h ep u rpo se so ft h i s t h e s i s i ti sp o in tn umbe r5 ,t h a tt h e e v i le y e c an b ed ef l ec t ed o ri t se f f ec t s mod if i ed b yp a r t icu la r d ev ice s , r i tua l s , a nd s ymbo l s , i np a r t i cu la r , i mag e s , w h ich i s o f t h e mo s t i n te re s t ( f o r d i scu s s ion o f t h e o the r a r ea s s e e E lwor thy , 1 958 [ 1 895 ] ; Go rdon , 1 937 ; D iS ta s i , 1 981 ; M ig l io r e , 1 997 ) .

4 3

S ec t ion I : Head s t h eme t h roughou t a l a spec t s o fC e l t ic l i f e , R o s s c on c lude s t h a t ,

f o r e xamp l e , o r i mag e s t h a t a lude t o s e xua l u n ion h av e b een p opu l a r i n t h i s c apac i ty s i nce a t l e a s t t h e R oman p e r iod ( J ohn s , 1 982 : 6 1 -75 ) .

I n c ommon w i th t h e i r c on t in en ta l n e ighbou r s , t h e i n su la r C e l t s v ene r a t ed t h e h ead a s as ymbo l o f d i v in i ty a nd t h e p owe r s o f t h e o therwo r ld , a nd r e g a rded i ta st h e mo s ti mpo r tan ti mpor t an tb od i ly m embe r , t h e v e ry s e a t o f t h e s ou l . .t h e h uman h ead s e em s t o h av e b een u sed b y t h em a s a n a t t emp t t op or t ray t h e c on cep t o fd i v in i ty a nd t h e my s te r iou s p owe r s o f t h e o the rwo r ld w h ich c once rned t h em s od eep ly ( 1 967 : 1 24 ) .

A t ad eepe r l e v e l , p e rhap s , r e cogn i t ion t h a t t h e s a c red i s i n comp r ehen s ib le a nd t h e r ef o r e r e s i s tan t t o t h e c a tego r ie s u pon wh i ch h uman s y s tem s o fk now ledg e a nd m ean ing a r e b a sed , m ean s t h a t t h e c l o se s t t h a t i ti sp o s s ib l e t o g e t t o p i c tu r ing t h e s a c red , a nd t hu s c r ea t ing a n e f f ec t iv e a po t ropa ic i mag e , i sb y e n t e r ing t h e g ap s o r t h r e sho ld s b e tween m ean ing s . I nde t e rm inab i l i t y h a s l ong h e ld a n e s t eemed p o s i t ion i ns ome c u l tu r e s a sa ne f f ec t iv em ean s o f p ro tec t ion a ga in s t a t tack s o f s upe rna tu r a l o r o ccu l t o r ig in ( H i ldbu rgh , 1 944 , 1 945 ) ; t h i s m ay b e d ue t ot h e p r inc ip le o f l i ke r epe l s l i k e . S uch l im ina l z one s c an b e r e p r e sen ted b y h yb r id a nd c ompo s i t e b e ing s t h a t m ix t og e the r p a r t s o f d i f f e ren t s pec ie s ; t h ey c an a l so b e r ep r e sen t ed mo r e s ymbol i ca l ly b yp a r t s o ft h e b ody , s u ch a st h e mou th , e ye s , o r g en i t a l ia , a l o f wh ich c an b e c on s ide r ed s oma t ic t h re sho ld s . Ma sk s a nd d i sgu i se s , i nc oncea l ing i d en t i t y , a l so e n t e r as ub jec t i n to s im i la r t e r r i tory ( Cam i l le , 1 998a : 2 39 2 52 ) w h i l e t h e r eper to i r e o f t h e g ro t e sque , a s w el a s t h e d i sembod ied h ead a r ea l so s u i tab le .

A cco rd ing ly , t h e h ead w a s s u i ted f o r u se a s ap ro tec t iv e i mag ea st h en ume rou s f i nd so fa n t ef ix ad emon s t ra t e . An tef ixa a r e d eco r a ted t e r ra co t ta p l aque s t h a t w e re u s ed t o c on cea l t h e e nd s o f t h e r oof t i l e s o n c l a s s ica l t emp l e s . S im i la r a r ch i t ec tu r a l t e r raco t ta s w e r e u sed t h roughou t t h e b u i ld ing s o f t h e a nc ien t E a s t e rn Med i t e r ranean t o p ro t ec t t h e e xpo sed e nd s o ft h e r a f te r s o rb r ick s f r om t h e e l emen t s a sw el a st o h i de a ny i mpe rf ec t ion s t h a t m igh t e x i s t i nt h e b r ick o r w oodwo rk . An tef ixa m ay t hu s b e r e g a rded a s r e l ig iou s a r ch i t ec tu ra l s c u lp tu r e . Much l i k e R omane sque c o rbe l tab le s , t h e d e s ign s f r equen t ly r e pea ted t h em se lve s a l ong t h el e ng th o ft h eb u i ld ing .

B i l l ing s ley n o te st h a tt h ei mag eo ft h eh ead , c on t inualy i n t roduce s t h e o b serve rt ot h e i n t e rf ace o f t h e e ve r yday wo r ld w i th o the r d imen s ion s . . T he i r ra t iona l a nd mag ica l e l emen t i si mpl i c i t i n v o t iv e h ead s . . a nd c anno t b e d i sm i s sed f r om c on s ide ra t ion ; t h ey a r e , i n t h e l a s t r e sor t , w edd ed t or e l ig iou s r i tua la nd b el i ef ( B i l l ing s ley , 1 998 : 6 ) .

I t i s c ommon ly a cknow ledg ed t h a t a n t ef ix a s e rved a s ymbol i c p ro t ec t iv e r o l e a s w el a s a s t ruc tu ra l o ne , ' c onf e r r ing p ro t ec t ion o n t h eb u i ld ing i n to w h i ch t h ey w e re i n co rpo ra t ed ' ( Ro s s , 1 967 : 9 9 ; s e e a l so S t rong , 1 914 : 1 64 -5 ; V an B u r en , 1 914 : 1 92 ) . T h i s ' d i s t inc t ly a po t ropa ic s i gn if i cance ' w a s c l o se ly c onnec t ed w i th p a r t icu l a r i mag e s : t h e Go rgon ' s h ead f e a tu red p rom inen t ly , a nd t h e ' s ame p ro tec t ive f unc t ion a t tached t o t h e f i gu r e s o f S i r en s o r o f H a rp ie sw i th h and s a nd a l so f e e th e ld o u twa rd s i n ag e s tu re o f a ve r s ion ' ( Van B u r en , 1 9 14 : 1 92 ; S t rong , 1 914 : 1 64 ) . An ima l ma sk s , f i gu r a t iv e s c ene s , a nd , i n p a r t icu la r , t h e h uman h ead , w e r e a l so c ommon d e s ign s ( Ro s s , 1 967 : 91 03 ) .

T h i s i sb ecau se t h e h ead i sc ommon ly r e g a rded a st h e p o in t a t wh ich t h e s ou li sc onnec ted mo s t s t rong ly t ot h e m a t e r ia l b ody , ab el i ef t h a t h a s i n fo rmed m any s upe r s t i t ion s a nd c u s tom s ( Sm i th , 1 962 , 1 963 ) . I n m ed ieva l a r t t h i s c onnec t ion i sc l ea r i n i l u s t r a t ion s o f t h e T r ee o f L i f e i n w h ich h uman s ou l s a r e r ep r e sen ted a s h ead s e nc lo sed i n l e av e s ( s ee d en H a r tog , 1 996 : f i g s 8 10 ) . I n t h e i l u s t r a t ion f r om t h e H or t u sD e l i c i ar um E ve i sc r ea t ed wh i le A dam s l eep s b en ea th t h e T r ee o f L i f e , w h ich , i n e a ch o fi t s f i v e f l e shy l e ave sb ea r s ah uman h ead .T he e mpha s i s o ft h e s c ene u pon t h e c r ea t ion o fl i f e r e inf o r ce s t h e c onnec t ion b e tw een t h e h ead a nd t h e s ou lo rr a the r t h e h ead a ss ymbo l f o rt h e s ou l . C arved c ap i ta l s a t S t S erv iu s i n Maa s t r ich t a nd R om sey Abbey a l so d ep ic t h uman h ead s a mong l e av e s . T h i s c l o se a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e h ead , t h e s ou l , a nd f ol i ag e i sl i ke ly t o i n fo rm t h e s ymbo l i sm o f t h e G r een Man a nd o the r f ol i a t eh ead s ,a sd i scu s sed i nc hap te r5 .

G eo me t r ic Des igns a nd Head s

An tef txa a nd Ro mano -B r i t ish Heads

T he s e r ie s o f a n tef ixa f r om C ae r l eon i l u s t ra ted b y R o s s ( 1 967 : p l . 3 7 ) f e a tu r e g eom e t r ic d e s ign s a s w el a s h ead s . T he se t r i angu la r t i l e s d a te t oa bou t 7 0 110 AD a nd i ne a ch c a se t h e i mag e i se xecu t ed i n h i gh r e l i ef . A c r o s s shape , f ou r p o in ted s t a r s , a nd a n e i gh t spok ed w hee l a s w el a s v a r iou s s t r ia t ion s a nd s t y l i sed f o l i ag ep a t t e rn sa ppea rn ex tt o o ra bove t h e h ead s . B ea r ing i nm ind G el ' s c ommen t s u pon a po t ropa ic p a t t e rn s , t h e se a b s t r ac t d e s ign s l e nd f u r the r c r edence t o t h e c oncep t o fa n t ef ixa a sp r ima r i ly p ro t ec t iv e ( s ee a l so S t rong , 1 914 ;V an B u r en , 1 9 14 ) .

R o s s ( 1 967 ) d evo te s c on s ide rab le s pace t o r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f t h e h uman h ead i n I r on A g e c a rv ing a nd o the r a r t i s t i c m ed ia , d i scu s s ing t h e o ccu r rence s o f , v a r ia t ion s o n a nd r e v e rence p a id t o t h e h ead , t og e the r w i th i t s a s soc ia t ion w i th r e l ig iou s t emp le s a nd s a c red s p r ing s . A p e r s i s t en t

A l though g eom e t r ic d e s ign s w e r e o f t en u s ed a sa po t ropa ia a l one ( Me r r if i e ld , 1 987 : 1 25 ) , i nc omb ina t ion w i th t h e h ead t h ey m ay h av e b een r e g a rded a s p a r t icu la r ly p o t en t . T he i n c i sed p rof i le c u t o u t h ead f ound b e s ide a n e l ev en th c en tu ry w oodwo rk e r ' s s hop a tC h r i s t C hu r ch P l ac e , Dubl in ,

4 4

T he S e vered Head a nd t he E v i lE ye i t s p o in t s o f c onnect ion w i th t h e wo r ld p l ay s u pon c a tego r i ca ld ef in i t ion s a nd t hu s e n te r s t h e f i gu re i n to l im ina l t e r r i to ry ( s ee Wace , 1 903 -1904 ; B akh t in , 1 984 : 3 17 ) ; 4 )t h e c oncen t r a t ion o f d i f f e ren t g eome t r i c d e s ign s ( Gel ' s ' u nf in i shed b u s ine s s ' o r ' d emon i c f l y -pape r ' ) ; a nd 5 ) t h e

p rov ide s a n e x amp l e f r om o u t s ide o f a n a r ch i tec tu ra l c on tex t . T he h ead , c u t f r om a n a n t le r b l ade , h a s h i gh ly s t y l i zed f a c ia l f e a tu re s a nd i se ng rav ed w i th ap en t ag ram o n o ne s i de a nd a t r ique t ra o n t he o the r . Wh i l e t h e se c ou ld h ave s e rv ed a s m ake r ' s ma rk s ' t hey a r e mo r e l i ke ly t o c on s t i tu te s ymbo l ic g r aff i t i , s i nce b o th t h e se mo t i f s w e re t h e mo s t p opu la r d i v ine a nd a po t ropa ic s ymbo l s o f t h e M idd le Ag e s ' ( 0 ' Meadh r a , 1 991 : 5 3 ; s e e a l so Me r r if i e ld , 1 987 : 1 25 ) . T he i r c onnec t ion w i th t h e h ead i nt h i s e xamp le i so v e r t .

h i gh ly v i s ib le l o ca t ion a bov e t he ma in e n t rance t o t h e b u i ld ing . Al s ugg e s tt ha tt h i si s as t rong ly p ro tec t iv ei mag e .

F ounda t ion S ac r if ices a nd O ther R i tua l Depos i t s T he c on s i s ten t u se o f t h e h ead a s af ounda t ion d epo s i t l e nd s f u r the r w e igh t t o i t s a po t ropa ic c r eden t ia l s . R i tua l d epo s i t s f o r t h e p ro tec t ion o f b u i ld ing s w e re c ommon i n R om an t ime s a nd t he p rac t i ce c on t inued t h rough t h e med i eva lp e r iod . An ima l d epo s i t s a r e much mo re c ommon t h an h uman r ema in s i na s soc i a t ion w i th b u i ld ing s , a l though t h e R oman s d i d b u ry h uman s ( Me r r if i e ld , 1 987 : 5 0 -51 ) . A l though t h i s p rac t ice w a s i n c rea s ing ly r ep l aced b y a n ima l s a cr if i ce s a nd i mag e s , i tm ay h av e c on t inued i ns o me p l ace s ( Loewen tha l , 1 978 : 7 ) . G ene ra l ly , h ow ev e r , t h roughou t Ang lo -Saxon a nd l a te r t ime s a n ima l s o r p ar t o f a n a n ima l w e re u sed , p a r t icu la r ly p a r t s o f t he h ead s uch a s t h e s ku l l o r j awbone ( Me r r if i e ld , 1 987 : 17 ) . T he s ymbo l ic p o ten t i a l o f t h e h uman h ead a s a n a pp rop r ia te a po t ropa i c d ev ice f o r i n c lu s ion w i th in t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l f r amewo rk o f ab u i ld ing p e r s i s ted a mong med iev a l wo rk . B i l l ing s ley n o te s t h a t t h e

F igure 4 .1 0 T he s hee la n ag ig a tB a l inderry C as t le .

ma in r ou te o fd ev e lopm en t o ft h e s eve red h ead mot i f ; ' a nd t h e o ne b y wh i ch i t s c u s toma ry r e l a t ion sh ip t o r i tu a l s pace c on t inued t ob e o b serv ed , w a s i n s cu lp tu re , p a r t i cu l a r ly t h e s t one s cu lp tu r e o ft he med i ev a lc hu rche s ' ( B il ing s ley , 1 998 : 3 8 ) . A s f ounda t ion d epo s i t s t e st if y , i ti st h e p re sence r a the r t h an t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f s ome th ing c on s ide red a n e f f ec t iv e a po t ropa ic d ev i ce t h a t i si mpor tan t . T h i s m igh t g o s ome w ay t ow a rd s e xp la in ing t h e d i scove ry , i n 1 959 , o f ac o rbe l c a rv ed w i th ah uman h ead a mong t h e r ubb l e u sed t ob lock at we lf th -cen tu ry w indow a t t h e c hu r ch o f S t Ma ry i n B edf o rd ( now i n B edfo rd Mu seum ) ( Ga rd ine r , 2 003 ) . A l though t h i s m igh t s imp ly h av eb een h andy f i l l ma te r i a l ,i t s p re sence e choe s a l ong t r ad i t ion o f r e a l o r s ymbo l i c i n te rmen t s w i th in t he s t ruc tu re s o f b o th r e l ig iou s a nd s e cu l a rb u i ld ing s .

S t ay ing i n I r e l and a f u r the r g ood e xamp l e o f g eome t r ic d e s ign s i nc onnec t ion w i th af i gu r a t iv ei m ag e m ay b e f ound o n t h e k ey s tone c arv ed w i th a s hee l a -na -g ig a tB a l inde r ry C a s t l e , C oun t yG a lway . T he c en t r a lf i gu re w i th a no v e r s ized h ead i s s u r rounded b y av a r i e ty o f d i f f e ren t mo t if s , i n c lud ing t wo t h a t m im i c t h i ck b ra id s o n e i the r s i de o ft h e h ead , o ne a ppea r ing a s ap l a i t , t h e o the r a s as t r i a ted i n te r lace d e s ign . Two c i r cu l a r p a t te rn s a r e c a rv ed o n e ach s i de o f t h e f i gu r e . On t h e f i gu re ' s r i gh t t he se a r e a n i n te r l aced t r ique t ra a nd as i x p e ta l l ed f l owe r mo t if ; o n t h e f i gu re ' s l e f t a ppea r at r i sk e le w i th in ac i rc l e a nd a n i n t r ica te p a t ter n b a sed u pon e i gh tfo ld s ymme t ry . T he se d e s ign s h i gh l igh t t h e c en t raly p l aced , s t and ing s hee l a who h a s a h ead a bou t t h e s ame l e ng th a s h e r t o r so a nd b e tw een h e r l e g s wha t ' a ppea r s t ob e ar u sh o fl i qu id , p e rhap s i nd i ca t ing u r ine o r m en s t rua t ion , o r s ome o the r u n iden t if i ed o b jec t ' ( McMahon a nd R ober t s , 2 00 1 : 14 ) ( F ig . 4 .1 0 ) . S hee l a -na g i g s a r e c o mmon ly r ega rded a s a po t ropa ic f i gu re s ( s ee J one s , 2 000b : 9 14 ) a l though d e ta i l s a st o why t h i s s hou ld b e s o a r e r a re ly g i v en . I n t h i s e xamp l e an umbe ro fa po t ropa i c t e chn ique sa r eu t i l i sed : 1 )t h e em i s s ion o fb ody f l u id s , wh ich r e la te s t o Dunde s ' e v i l e y e t h eory ( body f l u id s/w a t e r a st h e s t uf fo fl i f e , t h e r efo re c oun te r t ot h e " d ry ing" e f f ec t o ft h e e v i l e ye ) ; 2 )t h e empha s i s o n t h e h ead a nd g en i t a l s , b o th o f wh i ch a r e l i m ina lp a r t s o ft h e b ody a nd e x ten s iv e ly u sed a s a po t ropa i a i n R om an a nd C e l t i c c on tex t s ;1 3 ) g ro te squ e d i sf igu r a t ion , wh i ch b yd i s tor t ing t h e b ody a nd e mpha s iz ing

C onc lu s ion T he h ypo the s i s t h a t much med iev a l s cu lp tu re ' m ay b e a mu le t ic , when i ti sn o t t e l l ing a s imp le s t ory , b i b l i ca l o r f a bu lou s ' ( Loewen tha l , 1 978 : 3 ) h a s b een p re sen t i n t h e l i t e ra tu re s i nce t h e m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry a tl e a s t . I n t h e l a t te r h a l f o f 1 859 d eba te w a s s pa rked b y a n a nonymou s q ue ren ti nt h e j ou rna l No t e sa nd Qu er i e s who a sked w he re a n e xp l ana t ion o f ' t he g ro te sque f i gu r e s o f t en s e en i n o ld c hu rche s ' m igh tb e f ound ( 'Que r i se , 1 859 : 1 30 ) . Af l u r ry o f r e spon se s t h roughou t s ucce s s iv e v o lume s e l i c i ted v a ry ing a n sw e r s r ang ing f r om t h e d i dac t ic t o t h e s u rv iva l o fp ag an f e s t iv i t i e s . One c ommen ta to r , h owev e r , s t a ted t h a t' Ih av e

II na dd i t ion t ot h ea bove d i scu s s ion o na n tef ixa s e e ,f o r mo r e R oman e xamp le so fa po t ropa i ci mag e r yi nv a r iou sc on t ex t s ,C la rk e , 1 996 ; Dunbab in a nd D ick ie , 1 983 ; Dunbab in , 1 989 : e spec ia l ly 3 3 -46 ; a nd K elum , 1 996 .

4 5

S ec t ion I : Head s a lway s u nde r s tood t h a t t h e d e s ign o ft h e g ro t e squ e s , w h ich a r e s oo f ten s e en i nc hu r che s a nd i no the ro ld b u i ld ing s ,i st o d r i v e a 2 v g y e v i ls p i r i t s ' ( Boy s , 1 859 : 2 75 ) . T he i d ea i ss t il v e ry much c u r r en t ( S ü t t e r l in , 1 989 ) . C er t a in ly , i t i s n o t d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd a mong m ed i eva l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i mag e s t h a t f i t t h e c r i te r ia o f a po t ropa ia . R omane sque c o rbe l s a r e f r equ en t ly r e pe t i t iv e i n t h e i r i mag er y a nd o v erwhe lm ing i n n umbe r . T he p a r i sh c hu rch o f S t N icho la s i n Wor th Ma t r av e r s ( Do r se t ) , f o r e xamp le , f e a tu re s at o ta l o f6 4 c a rv ed c o rbe l s a l ong j u s t t h e n or th a nd s ou th w al s o f t h e n ave a nd c hance l . A l though g eome t r ic mo t if s a r e p re sen t , b y f a r t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e se a r e c a rv ed w i th s t a r ing b ea s t o r h uman h ead s . A t R om sey Abbey t h e n umbe r o f c a rved c o rbe l s e n t e r s t h e h und r ed s , a nd a g a in , a s m en t ioned e a r l ie r , h ead s a r e p rom inen t . T he h yb r id b a t -w ing ed l e on ine b ea s t s o r s hagg y -ha i red g r y l l i c ommon a sl a t e m ed ieva l g a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e sque s a ts i t e s a s d i ve r se a s W inche s te r C a thed ra l o r t h e r u ra l c hu r ch a t L e igh ( Do r se t ) m ay a l so b e r e ad a sa po t ropa ic , p r e sen t ing a r e s t le s s e n e rg e t ic f o rm a nd o f ten f e roc iou s v i sag e . I n m any o ft h e se e x amp le s t oo , t h e c a rve rh a s e mpha s ized t h e h ead , t y p ica l ly b ye n la rg ing i to u to fp ropor t ion t ot h e o the rb ody

4 6

p a r t s . L oewen tha l d ocumen t s an umbe ro fi mag e s t h a tw e re i n co rpo r a t ed i n to m ed iev a l a r t f r om t h e a nc ien t N ea r E a s t , a mong t h em o f f en s iv e g e s tu r e s a nd t h e s i gn s o ft h e Z od ia c , t h e l a t te r ' c r ed i ted w i th a po t ropa i c p ow e r ' s i nce t h e e a r l ie s t t ime s ( Loewen tha l , 1 978 : 4 ; s e e a l so G r een , 1 983 ) . T ree s a nd t ho rny p l an t s , t h em se lve s c onnec t ed t o ag r ea t d ea l o f m ag ica l l o r e , w e r e v i ew ed i n as im i la r l i gh t t h roughou t O r ien ta l a nd G reek c u l tu r e a nd i ti sn o tab le t h a t t h e G reek A can thu s , t h e p l an t d ep ic t ed u pon t h e C o r in th ian c ap i t a l a nd i t s R omane sque d e r iva t ive s , i sa l so s p iny ( Loewen tha l , 1 978 : 8 ) . Apo t ropa ic i mag e ry q ue s t ion s t h e a r t -h i s to r i ca l a s sump t ion t h a t a li mag e s a r e n ece s sa r i ly i n tended f o rv i ew b y ah uman a ud ience . Wh i l s t t h i s d oe s n o t m ean t h a t t h ey a r e b eyond f a sh ion , t h e r e a son s f o rt h e i rc r ea t ion a r e l i k e ly t ob e r oo ted i n at r ad i t ion a lv i ew o ft h en a tu ra lw o r ld a sc on t ing en tu pon a nd i n t er tw ined w i th t h e s upe rna tu r a l , t h e m a l evo len t a spec t s o fw h ich m ak e i tn ece s sa ry t ot a k e p r ecau t ion s . No t o n ly d oe s t h i s h e lp t oe xp la in t h e t y p ica l ly o b scu r e l o ca t ion o f t h e se i mag e s b u t t h e i r c on t en t a sw el . I ti ss ome th ing t h a t mu s t b e b o rn e i n m ind t h roughou t t h e c hap te r s t h a t f olow .

C hap te r5

F o l iage D isgo rge rs a nd F o l ia te C rea tu res

I n t roduc t ion a n im a l t u rn s i t s h ead b ackwa rd t o b i te a t i t s t a i l . A t S togu r sey ( S ome r se t ) t wo o ft he l a te e l ev en th - o rv e ry e a r ly t w e lf th -cen tu ry c a rv ed c ap i ta l s b enea th t h e c ro s s ing t ow e r a r e c a rved w i th T ree o f l i f e d e s ign s , b o th o f wh ich f a ce t owa rd s t h e n ave . T he s ou th -ea s t c ap i ta l d i sp lay s t wo p a i r s o fc onf ron ted w yv e rn s ( ad ragon w i th o ne p a i ro fw ing s a nd o ne p a i r o fl e g s ) who se b od i e s f r ame s m al s t y l i sed f r ond s . T he n or th -ea s t c ap i t a l p re sen t s amo re c hao t i c g roup , t h e

F ol i ag e i s u b iqu i tou s a mong s t m ed i eva l s cu lp tu re . R om ane sque i n co rpo ra t ion o ff ol i a te d e s ign s f r om O r ien t a l , C l a s s ica l a nd G e rman i c c u l tu re s s uch a s t h e v ine s c ro l l , s t y l i sed a can thu s l e af , a nd i n te r lace mo t if s d ev e loped t h roughou t t h e Go th i c p e r iod , r e su l t ing i n as u cce s s ion o f n ew s t y l e s a nd f e a tu r e s ( Ga rdne r , 1 927 ) . One p ar t icu l a r a spec t o f med i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l f ol i a te i mag e ry i st h e c l o se c onnec t ion o fc e r t a in a n ima l s , a nd i ndeed , t h e b l end ing o f a n im a la nd h uman e l emen t s ,w i th v ege ta t ion . S uch i m ag e s— h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e , t og e the rw i th a n ima l sw i th p a r t ia l ly f o l i a te b od i e s —a r e t h e f o cu s o f t h i s c hap te r , wh ich i s d i v ided i n to f ou r s e ct ion s . Two o f t h e se i n t roduce a nd d e sc r ibe t h e i mag e ry a nd i t s l o ca t ion s i n t h e R omane sque a nd l a te r m ed iev a l p e r iod s . T he o the r t wo s e c t ion s w eave t h e se i n to ad i scu s s ion a r ound t h e t h eme s o f r e su r rec t ion a nd c o r rup t ion , p e rhap s t h e t wo mo s t p rom inen t i d ea s e ncap su la t ed b yp a r t i a l ly v ege ta li mage s .

c en t ra lT r ee a ppea r ing a s as l ende r c o lumn t h a t d i v ide s i n to t wo s p i ra lb ranche s a ti t s t i p a nd f r om who se t r unk s p rou t s t wo p a i r s o fs ymme t r i ca l ly p l aced s p i r a lb ranche s ( F ig . 5 .2 ) . T he b a se o ft h e c ap i ta li sa l so c arv ed w i th s p i r a l mo t if s a nd o n e a ch s i de o f t h e T ree a r e t wo v er t ica l ly p o s i t ioned q uadruped s . T he s ou the rnmo s t i mag e i s i mpo s s ib le t o d ec iphe r b eyond t h i s , h av ing s uf f e r ed s o me d amag e , b u t i s l i ke ly t o h av e m i r ro r ed i t s c oun te rpa r t . T h i s t w i s t s i t s l ong n eck b ackwa rd o v e r t h e b ody a nd e x tend s at ongue o f s ub s t an t ia l l e ng th , t h e e nd o f wh ich t r a i l s u pon i t s h indqu a r t e r s . N ex t t o e ach b ea s t , o n t h e n or th a nd s ou th f a ce s o ft h e c ap i ta l , a r e c a rv ed t wo a mb iguou s f e l ine/equ ine b ea s t s i np rof i l e w i th t h e i r h ead s t u rned t o o ne s i de . F rom t he s hape o ft h eb od ie s a nd t h e a b sence o fh oove s t h e se a r e mo s t l i ke ly l i on s r a the r t h an h o r se s , d e sp i t e l o ca l f ame a s s uch ( Bala rd , 1 992 : 3 2 ) , t h e m ane r ende red i n s uch aw ay t ha t i tr e semb l e s t h a t o f ah o r se . T he t a i l o ft he o ne o n t h e s ou th f a ce s p rou t si n to aR ing e r ike s ty le f o l i a t e t i p .

R o manesque C a rv ing s The T ree o fL if e T he T ree o fL if e f l ank ed b ya n ima l s o rb i rd sw a so r ig ina l ly a N ea r -Ea s te rn mot i f , a l r eady a nc ien t b y t h e t ime o f i t s i n co rpo ra t ion i n to R om ane sque s cu lp tu re ( J ame s , 1 966 ) . T he p opu la r i ty o f t h i s o r i en t a l p agan s ymbo l a mong C h r i s t ian c ommun i t ie s o ft h e e l ev en th a nd t w e lf th c en tu r ie s may b e e xp l a ined b y t h e e a se w i th wh i ch i tl e n t i t se l f t o C h r i st ian my tho logy . T ree s f i gu re p rom inen t ly i n s o me o f t h e ma jor e v en t s i n b o th O ld a nd N ew T e s tamen t s , f o r e xamp le , t h e a w aken ing t o k now l edge i n t h e G a rden o f E den a nd t h e r e al i sa t ion o f i mmor ta l l i f e t h rough t h e C ruc i f ix ion . C er ta in ly , ac l o se r e l a t ion sh ip b e tw een t h eT ree a nd t h ec ro s s o ft h ec ruc if ix ion a nd b ye x ten s ion C h r i s ta nd t h e r e tu rn t o P a rad i se w a s c u r ren t i n m ed i ev a l a r t a nd t hough t( Wood , 1 997 : 5 ; Doe la nd Doe l , 2 00 1 : 5 8 -59 ) .

F igure 5 . 1T he T ree o f L if e w i th a t tendan t b eas t s f r om a l a te e l even th -cen tury c ap i ta l ( c 1070 ) a tA l ton i n Hampsh ire .

I n R omane sque a r t t he T ree o fl i f e i st y p i ca l ly r ep re sen ted a s as t em f r om wh i ch s p rou ts p i ra l l ing ,v o lu te l ike b ranche s , a nd i su sua l ly a ccompan i ed b y ap a i r o fa n ima l s o r f a bu lou s c r ea tu re s a nd/o rb i rd s . C ap i ta l s a nd t ympana a r e t h e t y p ica l med ia . F o re xamp le , a mong t h e c a rv ed c ap i ta l s b enea th t h e c ro s s ing t ow e r a t A l ton t h e T ree o f l i f e a ppea r s a s a p a lm e t te -c rowned c o lumn w i th v o lu te s a ccompan i ed b y a p a i r o f c onf ron t ed , h oov ed q uadruped s ( F ig . 5 .1 ) . E ach

T ympana c a rv ed w i th t h e T ree o fl if e a nd a t tendan tb ea s t s o ccu r a t an umbe r o fs i t e s . An e a r ly e xamp le ( l a te t en th o r e a r ly e l ev en th c en tu r y ) m ay b e f ound a t Knook ( W i l t sh i r e ) ( Tay lo r , 1 968 : 5 4 ) . H e r e t h e T ree c omp r i se s t h ick s c ro l l ing f ol i ag ee nc i rc l ing ap a i ro fc onf ron t ed b ea s t s t h a tb i te u pon

4 7

S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 5 . 3T he t ympanum a tL u l l ing ton .Ag r if f in a nd al i on f l ank t he c en tra l T ree o fL if e , b i t ing t he e nds o fi t s b ranche s .

F igure 5 . 2 One o f t he c ap i ta ls b enea th t he c ro ss ing t ower a t S togur sey ( Somer se t ) . A l though d amaged , t he i mage o f a c en tra l s t y l ised T ree a nd a t tendan t b eas t s i ss t i l l d i scernab le .

Fol ia te Crea tures

t he s t em s ,o ne o fw h i ch i s al i on , t h eo the r ap a r t i a l ly f o l i a te c r ea tu re w i th ab eak . 1A t L u l l ing ton ( S ome r se t ) t h e p ar t i a l ly d eco ra ted m a in s t em o ft h eT ree d i v ide si n to t h r ee b r anche s a nd o ccupy ing s im i la r p o s i t ion s t ot h e b ea s t s a t Knook , o n t he v i ewe r ' sr i gh tt h e re i s al i on , t ot h ev i ewe r ' sl e f t , ag r iff in ( F ig . 5 . 3 ) . B o th c r ea tu re s d om ina te t h e s pace o f t h e c arv ing , t h e T r ee u pon wh i ch t h ey f e ed t i ny b y c on t r a s t . I n s om e c a se s t h e c l o se c onnec t ion e s tabl i shed b e tween c onf ron ted s e rpen t ine a nd l e on ine b ea s t s ( d ragon s , g r if f in s , l i on s ) a nd t h e T ree o fL i f e a low ed f o r t h e c onf ron t ed p a i r

F ol i a t e C rea tu re s a r e t ho se c a rv ing s t ha t d ep i c t i nd iv idua l b ea s t s , p a r t s o f who se b od ie s b ecome f ol i ag e ( u su a l ly t h e t a i l o r r e a r l e g s ) . T he se i mag e s m ay a l so b e G r een i n t h e s en se d i scu s sed b e low — d i sgo rg ing v ege t a t ion f r om t h e mou th o r e x t rud ing i tt h rough t h e f a ce , a l though t h i s i sb y n o m ean s a lway s t h ec a se . I n Ang lo -Saxon a nd Ang lo -No rman R omane sque s cu lp tu re t h e r ep r e sen t a t ion o f a n ima l s a nd b ea s t s who se b od ie s b ecome f ol i age i sf a i r ly c ommon a nd may d e r ive l a rg e ly f r om t h e t r ad i t ion o f i nhab i ted p l an t s c rol a nd i t s d eve lopmen t s . L ike t h e c r ea tu re s t h a t a t tend t h e T ree o f L i f ei nt h i s p e r iod t h em a jo r i ty o ff o l i a te c r ea tu r e s a r e b a sed o n f e l ine a nd s e rpen t ine f o rm s ( e .g . l i on s , g r i ff in s , a nd a l f o rm s o fd r agon s ) , ab i a s t h a t p e r s i s t s t h roughou t t h e l a te r M idd le Ag e s a sw el .

t o b e c a rv ed a l one , w i thou t ac en t r a l t r ee , a nd w i thou t a ny l o s s o f p o ten t i a l s i gn if i cance ( Wood , 1 997 : 4 ) . T he r e se t t ympanum a t Wynf o rd E ag l e ( Do r se t ) d i sp l ay s s u ch a c onf igu ra t ion , c arv ed a s i ti sw i th a p a i r o f c onf ron t ed wyv e rn s ( A lfo rd , 1 984 : 8 9 ) wh i le t h e t ympanum a bov e t h e s ou th d oo r t o t h e n av e a tM i lbo rne P o r t h ou se s ap a i r o f l i on s ( Wood , 1 997 ) . I n s o me i n s tance s d ragon/l ion p a ir s , f am i l i a r f r om t h e i r T ree o f L if e c on t ex t s o n t ympana , a l so o ccu r o n c ap i ta l s t ha t a ppea r e i the r s i de o fd oorw ay s , f o r e xamp le , t h e s ou th d oo r s a t B roadw ey a nd D i t te r idge ( F ig . 5 . 4 ) . I n t h e se e xamp le s , b o th w i thou t f i gu ra t iv e t ympana , t h e d oo r i t se l f t a k e s t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e T r ee o f L i f e . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s e rpen t ine a nd l e on ine c r ea tu re s f l ank ing e n t rance s i ns u ch am anne r may h av e f e a tu r ed a n i n tended s ymbol i sm t h a t s e rved t o c onnec t t h e i n te r io r s pace o ft h e c hu r ch a nd t h e

A pa r t f r om s ome o f t h e c a rv ing s o n t he t ympana a l r eady men t ioned , f ol i a te c r ea tu re s m ay b e f ound o nc ap i ta l si nt h e r e t rocho i r a tR om sey Abbey ( F ig . 5 . 5 ) . H e re , a s w el a s d i sgo rg ing s c ro l l ing f ol i age , t h e t a i l s o f t h e t wo p a i r s o f a ddo r sed2 l i on s s p rou t i n to v ege t a t ion . L ike o the r c a rv ing s o fl i on si nb o th R omane sque a nd Go th i cp e r iod s ,t he b ea s t s h e re p o s se s s c u r iou s ly h umano id f a ce s . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t d ue t o l i on s b e ing e xo t ic c r ea tu re s m ed iev a l s cu lp to r s ' h ad n o i d ea wha t l i on s r e a l ly l o oked l i ke ' a nd c on sequ en t ly b a sed t h e i r h ead s u pon h uman mode l s , may n o t b e a l t h a t f a r f r om t h e t r u th ( Ha r t e , 2 00 1 : 1 3 ) . C e r ta in ly , i n s ome c a se s l i on s a ppea rt ob e a s semb led f r om o the rc r ea tu r e s ,t h e e qu ine c ha rac te r o ft ho se o n t h e c ap i ta l s a tS togu r sey b e ing ac a se i np o in t . How ev e r , many l e on ine r ep r e sen ta t ion s i n t h i sp e r iod d o n o tc onfu se h uman a nd a n ima lc ha rac te r i s t ic s s ugg e s t ing t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e R om sey c a rv ing s , a sw el a sh umano id l i on s e l sewhe re ,w e r ei n ten t iona l ly a mb iguou s .

a c t o f e n te r ing i n to i tw i th t h e a s soc i a t ion s o f r enewa l c a r r ied b yt h eT ree ( s ee a l so B r ad ley , 1 988 ) .

1

T he t w i s t ing b ody o f t h i s c r ea tu re h a s c au sed c onfu s ion , b e ing

r ep r e sen ted d i f f e r en t ly b y d i f f e r en t w r i te r s . H . M . T ay lo r ( 1 968 : 5 ) d ep i c t s ab eaked b ea s t w i th ac u r iou s , s ma l l w ing l ike p ro trube rance j u s t b eh ind i t s s hou lde r w i th o ne o f t h e r e a r l e g s c u r l ing a r ound t o b ecome at h in f o l ia t e s t em e nd ing i n as t ubby v o lu t e . I n c on t ra s t ,R i ta Wood ' s d raw ing ( 1 997 : 2 ) p r e sen t s ad og l ik e c r ea t u r e w i th a s nou t

T he t a i l s o ft h e R om sey l i on s c u rve t i gh t ly u pwa rd b e tween t h er e a rl e g s t os p rou t i n to t wo s p i r a l f o l ia t e s t em s o ve rt h e

w i thou t r e a r l e g s a ta l , t h e b ody t e rm ina t ing i na n u nequa l ly d i v ided t a i l . T he s t ubby w ing s p r e sen ted b y T ay lo r h ave b ecome p a r t o f t h e s c ro l l ing f ol i ag e . Wood c a l l s t h i s a n ima l a' s o r t o f s e rpen t ' ( 1 997 : 4 ) ; I n p rof i le , b od ie s r ough ly s ymme t r ica l , t h e h i ndqua r te r s o f e a ch

t h ec r ea tu r e a ppea r s t oc omb ine l e on ine ,a v ian a nd s e rpen t ine f e a tu r e s

2

—ak i nd o fd ragon/g r iff in .

a n ima lc l o se s tt og e the r .

4 8

F ol iage D i sgorger s a nd F o l ia te C rea ture s

1

F igure 5 .4 a T he i mage f r om t he w e s t s i de o ft he s ou th d oor a t D i t ter idge i n W i l t sh ire , d ep ic t ing a w yvern w i th t he t i p o f i t s t a i l i ni t s mou th . Wh i ls t c arved o n as o l id b l ock o fs t one s e t i n to t he w a l l t he i mage m im ic s ad ecora ted c ap i ta l , b o th i n i t s l o ca t ion b e low t he l i n te l a nd i ni t s i n corpora t ion o f av o lu te l ike s p ira l b enea th t he w yvern .

F igure 5 .4 b T he m o t if t ha t a ppear s c arved o n t he o ppos i te s i de o f t he s ame d oor a t D i t ter idge r epre sen t s a l e on ine l ike c rea ture w i th o ne p aw i ni t s m ou th . T he c omb ina t ion o fd ragon a nd l i on i sc ommon i nR omane sque w ork i nt he r eg ion .

F igure 5 . 5One o ft he t wo p a ir s o ff o l ia te l i ons c arved o n c ap i ta ls a tR omsey A bbey .

4 9

S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 5 . 7 The s ou th c ap i ta l o f t he w e s t d oor a t N e theravon (W i l t sh ire ) . A f e l ine b ea s t i ss t i l l v i s ib le i n o u t l ine , w i th i t s t a i l p o in t ing s harp ly u pward s b e tween t he r ear l e g s . T he t wo s p ira l s i n t he c en tre may r epre sen t as t y l i sed T ree o f L if e ; c er ta in ly , f o l iage i sa pparen t .

F igure 5 . 6 One o f t he l a te med ieva l c arved b ench e nd s a t B radf ord Abba s ( Dor se t ) . T h i s e xamp le i sc arved w i th ag r iff in who se s p l i t t a i l t i p e choe s R omane sque t rad i t ion s o f c arv ing l i on s a nd p ar t ia l ly l e on ine b ea s t s w i th a f o l ia te o r s t y l i sed

F igure 5 . 8T he w e s t c ap i ta l o f t he s ou th d oor a t B roadwey ( Dor se t ) , i lu s tra ted h ere r o ta ted b y n ine ty d egree s t o s how t he l i on u pr igh t i n s tead o f i nver ted . L ike t he c arv ing a t

f o l ia te t a i l .

N e theravon , t he l i on i sr epre sen ted w i th i t s t a i l a ng led u pr igh t t hrough t he r ear l e g s .

5 0

F o l iage D i sgorge r sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s Amph i sbaena , ad ragon w i th ah ead o n t h e e nd o fi t s t a i l , a l so f i gu re a mong s t R om ane sque a s w el a s l a t e r w o rk , a t wo ta i l ed a nd t h e refo re t h ree -headed e xamp l e c a rv ed o n a c ap i ta l a tB roadw ey ( F ig . 5 . 1 ) . T he f ou r l egg ed d r agon , l i ke t h ew o rm ,a ppea r st ob e mo re c ommon t ol a te m ed iev a l c a rv ing t h an R omane sque wo rk .

h indqu ar te r s o f e ach . T h i s r ep re sen t a t ion o f t h e t a i li sb yn o mean s u ncommon a nd , i n b o th R om ane sque a nd l a te rp e r iod s , s e em s t o b e p a r t i cu l a r ly a s so c i a ted w i th l e on ine o r p a r t l e on ine c r ea tu re s ( F igu r e 5 .6 ) . I n s o me c a se s t h e t a i l d oe s n o t s p rou t i n to f o l i a g e a t a l , a s i l u s t r a t ed b y t h e g r iff in o n ar e se t v ou s so i r a t m im ic s t he s hape o f t he d roop ing B in s tead o nt h eI s l eo f v ege ta t ion d i sgorged b y a h uman W igh t . I n o the r s t h e h ead o n a l a te e l even th -cen tury t a i l a ppea r s a s a c ap i ta l a tA l ton . b u lbou s c l ub s uch a s t h a t p o s se s sed b y t h e l i on s o n c ap i ta l s a t Ne the ravon a nd B roadwey ( F ig s 5 . 7 a nd 5 .8 ) . I ti ss i gn if i can t t h a t t h e L a t in wo rd f o r t a i l , c a ud a , a l so a luded t o t h e p en i s a nd i n t h e se F igure

5 .

9 A

w inged

s erpen t

F igure 5 .1 0 C onf ron ted a nd i n ter tw ined wyverns f r om a c ap i ta l a tR omsey ( c 1120 -50 ) .

i m ag e s i n wh i ch t h e t a i l n o t o n ly a ppea r s t h rough t h e r e a r l e g s b u t a l so e r ec t , i ti s d i ff i cu l t t o a vo id mak ing t h e c onnec t ion ( Cav ine s s ,2 001 : c hap te r3 ,n o te 6 8 ) .

G reen F igu res Un l ike t h e f ol i a te c r ea tu r e s who se e x t r em i t ie s d i s so lv e i n to f o l i age t h e i m age s r e f e r r ed t o a s " G r een" a r e h e re d e f ined a st ho se wh ich d i sgo rg e f ol i age f r om t h e mou th , o r wh ich s p rou t f o l i ag e f r om n o se , e ye s , e a r s , o r t h rough t h e f a ce i n s om e o the rw ay . T he f o cu s o fa t ten t ion , e ven when af i gu re i sr ep re sen t ed i n i t s e n t i re ty , t h e ref o re r ema in s u pon t h e h ead a nd t h e o rgan s o f s en sory p e r cep t ion . A l though t h e t e rm G reen Man i s f am i l ia r t oday , f i gu re s o r h ead s t h a t d i sgo rge f ol i ag e c an b e a n ima l , o r , i n s ome c a se s , h ybr id mon s te r s ,a sw el a sh uman .

I n a dd i t ion t o l i on s , d ragon s a r e o f t en r ep re sen t ed a s p ar t ia l ly f o l i a te . Manu sc r ip t s d a t ing b ack t o t h e t e n th c en tu ry t e rm ina te t h e i r s c ro l l ing b od ie s w i th f o l i ag e a nd t h e c onnec t ion c on t inu ed i n a v a r ie ty o f o the r med i a t h roughou t t h e M idd le A ge s ( Ha r te , 2 001 : 1 2 ) . H e te rog eneou s c o mb ina t ion s o f s e rpen t ine , r ep t i l ian a nd a v i an c ha r ac te r i s t i c s , d ragon s i n m ed i ev a l s cu lp tu r e t a k e a v a r ie ty o ff o rm s . T he s imp le s t f o rm i st h ew o rm , e s sen t i a l ly as e rpen t w i th ar ep t i l i an h ead , l ong s nou t a nd p rom inen t e a r s . W inged e x amp le s m ay b e f ound i n R omane sque c a rv ing s s uch a st h a t a tA l ton e xha l ed f r om t h e mou th o fa G reen Man ( [ F ig . 5 . 9 ] t h e r eby r e info rc ing t h e d r agon/vege ta t ion c onnec t ion ; s e e a l so t h e t en th -cen tu ry f on t a tS tE dmund ' s , Do l ton [ Devon ] u pon wh i ch a ppea r a p a i r o f s e rpen t ine c r ea tu re s p a r t ia l ly c augh t i n t w i s t ing i n te r l ace f ol i ag e em e rg ing f r om t h e n o s t r i l s o f ah uman h ead ) . T he wyv e rn , h owev e r , i sb y f a r t h e mo s t p opu l a r R om ane sque r e p r e sen ta t ion . H e re t h e d r agon f o rm mov e s c l o se r t o t h e r ep t i l ian t h an t h e s e rpen t ine , a cqu i r ing a n i d en t if i ab le b ody r a the rt h an b e ing t h e s ame t h i ckne s s f r om n o se t o t a i l a s w el a s p o s se s s ing o ne p a i r o f l e g s a nd f r equen t ly a p a i r o f w ing s a s w el .1 C onf ron ted p a i r s o f w yv em type d r agon s may b e f ound o n c ap i ta l s a tR om sey a nd S togu r sey ( t he R om sey p a i r s , h ow ev e r ,w i thou tw ing s — s e e F ig . 5 . 1 0 ) a nd o n t h e t ympana a t Wynfo rd E ag l e ( Do r se t ) . Ac o rbe l o n t h e e x te r io r o ft h e n o r th s i de o ft h e n ave a tL u l l ing ton d i sp l ay s an on -conf ron t ed c oup le wh i le t h e w e s te rnmo s t c ap i t a l o f t h e s ou th d oo r a t D i t ter idg e f e a tu re s as i ng l e w yv em ( F ig . 5 .4 a ) . V a r i an t s s uch a s t h e

T he c o in ing o ft h et e rm G r een Man t or e f e rt ot h ei mag eo f af o l i a te h ead o r h ead d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e i sc r ed i ted t oL ady R ag l an , w ho , i n 1 939 w ro te t h e f i r s t a r t i c le o n t h e s ub jec t ( Rag lan , 1 939 ) . C onv inced t h a t t h e i m ag e w a s ' am an a nd n o t as p i r i t ' who se i mag e w a s t a ken f r om r e a l l i f e , R ag l an c onnec ted i tw i th s e a sona l f o lk c u s tom s a s soc i a ted w i th g r eene ry a nd i np ar t i cu la r ' t he f i gu re v a r iou s ly k nown a st h e G reen Man ,J ack i nt h e G reen , R ob in Hood , T he K ing o f t h e May , a nd t h e G a r l and , who i st h e c en t ra l f i gu re i n t h e May -Day c e leb r a t ion s t h roughou t Nor the rn a nd C en t ra l E u rope ' ( 1 939 : 4 5 , 5 0 ) . C av e , i n a n a r t i c l e o n t h e r oof b o s se s o f E ly C a thed ra l p ubl i shed s ev en y ea r s p rev iou s ly h ad made s im i la r c onnec t ion s , s t a t ing t h a t , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e ' g rea te rp a r to ft h eg ro t e sque f i gu re s ' , Ic anno th e lp t h ink ing t h a tt h e se f o l i a te h ead s mu s t h av e h ad s ome mean ing b eh ind t h em . T he mo t if i s s od ef in i te , a nd s ow ide ly s p r ead ,b o th i np l ace a nd t im e , t h a ti ts e em s t o me t oh av e s ome s i gn if i cance . . [ many ] r em ind me o f t h e J ack in the -G reen wh i ch w a s s t i l l t o b e s e en i n L ondon f i f ty y ea r s a go , a nd o ne w onde r s whe the r t h ey may n o t , l i ke t h e J ack in the -G reen , b e s ome s u rv iv a l f r om p re -Ch r i s t ian t ime s ( 1 932 : 3 6 ) .

Du r ing t he l a t e r m ed ieva l p e r iod t h e w ing s o f d ragon s a nd o the r h yb r id c r ea tu r e s a r e u n ifo rm ly r ep r e sen t ed a s m emb ranou s ; t h i s w a s n o t s o f o r t h e e l ev en th a nd t w e lf th c en tu r ie s . I n t h i s p e r iod f e a the red w ing s a r e c a rv ed o n c r ea tu r e s s uch a s g r iff in s ( B in s t ead ) , w yve rn s ( S togu r sey ) ,a nd w ing ed s e rpen t s ( A l ton ) .

5 1

S ec t ion I :H ead s A s i n te r e s t i nt h e i mag e ry b eg an t o i n c r ea se ( Cave , 1 947 ) , t h e t e rm G r een Man b ecame f i rm ly e s t abl i shed , n o t ab ly b y i t s u se t h roughou t N iko lau s P ev sne r ' s B u i l d i n g s o fE n g l and s e r ie s b u t a l so v i a o the r a u tho r s ( Ande r son , 1 951 : 2 0 -25 ; C a r t e r a nd C a r te r , 1 967 ) . I tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 97 ,h ow ev e r , t h a t t h e f i r s t f u l l leng th s t udy o f t h e i mag e —K a th leen B a sfo rd ' s T h e G r e en Man — w a s p ubl i shed . T h i s m a rk ed a d epa r tu r e f r om p r ev iou s s cho la r sh ip i n t h a t i tc on s ide red t h e o r ig in s o ft h e i mag e t ol i e i nc l a s s ica l a r t , d e r ived f r om t h e r e l ig iou s i c onog raphy o f g od s s u ch a s B a cchu s a nd Ok eano s .B a sfo rd i st h e f i r s tt on o te t h e a mb iva lence o ft h e i mag et h a ti sr e g ene ra t iv e ,l i k et h eJ a ck in the -G r een ,a sw el a sh o r r if i ca nd s i n i s te r , a ni mag eo fd ea th . R econ c i l ing t h e se e x t r eme s , h ow eve r , l e d h e r i n to p rob l ema t ic a t temp t s t o i d en t if y " d emon ic" h ead s , t h e e x i s t ence o f wh ich s imu l t an eou s ly q ue s t ioned t h e p u r e ly b enevo len t i mag e o f S p r ing t ime r enewa l . I n sp i r ed b yt h e r e su rg ence o fe co log ica l a nd s p i r i tua l i n te re s t i n t h e i mag e t h e p oe t W i l l iam Ande r son t ook a mo r e p sy cho log ica l a pp roach t o t h e s ub jec t , e xp lo r ing t h e i d ea o f t h e G r een Man a s a n a r che type e xp r e s s iv e o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een h uman s a nd n a tu r e ( Ande r son a nd H i ck s , 1 990 ) . R ecen t p ubl ica t ion s h ave e i the r b u i l t t h e G r een Man i n to n eo p ag an s p i r i tual i ty ( e .g . Ma t thew s , 2 00 1 ) o r r e tu rned t o e xp lor e t h e f o lk lo r ic c onnec t ion s a nd a s soc ia t ion s i n mo r e d e t a i l ( e .g . Doe la nd Doe l ,2 00 1 ) .

d i sgo rg e a b s t ra c t i n te r la ced f o l iag e wh i le t h e r e t rocho i r c a rv ing i s mo r e a k in t o t h e e x te rna l p a i r d i sgo rg ing s c rol f ol i ag e . S im i la r h ead s c an b e f ound o n c ap i ta l s f r am ing d oorway s e l sewhe r e , f o r e xamp l e , N ewnham a nd Mi lbo rne P or t . D e sp i te t h e e f f ec t s o f w ea the r ing , t h e N ewnham c arv ing a ppea r s v e r y s im i la r t o t ho se o n t h e s ou th d oo r a t R om sey ,w i th l ong p o in ted e a r s a nd s l ende rs c ro l l ing f ol i ag e s p i l l ing f r om t h e mou th . A t M i lbo rne P or t t h e i mag e d i sgo rg e s b road l e av e s , t h e t i p s o fs ome e nd ing i nf l eu r -de l y s p o in t s . C omp le te f i gu re s , a l so w i th f ol i a t e t a i l s , a ppea r o n t wo c ap i ta l s a tR om sey i nt h e f o rm o fp a i r s o fa ddo r sed l e on ine q uad ruped s ( F ig . 5 .5 ) . T he t ympanum a t Mi lbo rne P o r ti sc a rv ed w i th ac onf ron ted p a i ro fl i on s , o ne o fw h ich e i the rd i sgo rg e s f ol i ag eo re x t end s al e af yt ongue .

E a r ly e xamp l e s o fG reen c a rv ing s i nt h e s ou th o fE ng land o ccu r i n t h e l a te e l ev en th a nd e a r ly t we lf th c en tu r ie s . I n a lmo s ta lo ft h e e xamp le s f r om t h i sp e r iod t h ea r ch i tec tu ra l m ed ium f o r t h e i mag e i s t h e s t on e c ap i ta l ; i mag e s o n c o rbe l s , a l though t h ey d o e x i s te l sewhe r e ,4 a r e a b sen t ( Doe l a nd Doe l , 2 00 1 : 4 2 ) . L ik ew i se , a l though t ympana d o r e p r e sen t G r een h ead s e l sewhe r e ( Ba sfo rd , 1 97 :p l s . 1 9a 2 0b ) f ew e xamp le s o ff i gu re s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e o ccu ri nt h e r e g ion a l though o ne o f t h e l i on s a bov e t h e s ou th d oo r a t M i lbo rne P or t may d i sgo rg e af l eu r -de ly s l ik e s t em ( Wood , 1 997 ) . T h i s c l o se c onn ec t ion b e tw een G r een i mag er y a nd t h e d eco r a ted c ap i ta l i nt h e e l ev en th a nd t we lf th c en tu r ie s m igh t s ugg e s t t h a t t h e se i mag e s a r e c l o se ly l i nk ed w i th t h e d ev e lopmen t o f t h e R omane squ e c ap i ta l , i t s e lf a d ev e lopmen t o f t h e R oman c ompo s i te c ap i ta l . I n e s t abl i sh ing at r ad i t ion o fi n t e rm ing l ing f i gu re s w i th f ol i ag e e a r ly o n i n t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod c ap i t a l s m ay h ave i n i t ia l ly p rov ided t h e mo s t a pp rop r ia t e p l a ce s f o r G r een i mag e ry t o b ec a rved .

A l l t h e e xamp le s o f G r een h uman h ead s o f R omane squ e d a t e i nt h e a r ea o ccu r i n s ide b u i ld ing s . A t A l ton t h e re a r e t wo e xamp l e s c a rv ed i n to t h e p a l e l i me s ton e o ft h e c ap i ta l s b en ea th t h e l a t e e l ev en th -cen tu ry c r o ss ing t owe r ( c . 1070 1 090 ) . B o th a r e s im i la r , a ppea r ing a s g ho s t ly o u t l ine s o f s t a r ing h ead s d i sgo rg ing b road leav ed , d roop ing f ol i ag e f r om t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th . 5 On t h e c a rv ing f u r the s t w e s t f ol iag e e x tend s f r om o ne s i de o ft h e mou th o n ly , t h e o the r s i de b e ing t a k en u p b y ac urved w ing ed s e rpen t t h a t m im ic s t h e s hape o f t h i s v eg e t a t ion ( F ig . 5 .9 ) . S i x o f t h e e i gh t c a rv ed c ap i ta l s b enea th t h e c ro s s ing t ow e r a t S togu r sey d a t e t o t h e l a t e e l ev en th o r e a r ly t we lf th c en tu r y ( c . 1090 -1105 ) ( Bay l e , 1 9 0 ; B ala rd , 1 992 : 7 ) . Among t h e v a r iou s d e s ign s h e r e , i n wh ich i ti sn o t d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd r ep re sen ta t ion s o fp o t en t , r e g ene r at iv e f ol iag e ( f o re xamp l e , t h eT r ee o fL i f e w i th l i on s a nd o th e rb ea s t s a nd c onf ron ted f ol i a te w yv em s ) a ppea r s a G reen Man w i th n ea r ly r e c tangu la r h ead , s t a r ing e y e s a nd e x t ended t ongue ( F ig . 5 . 1 3 ) . Two t h in s t em s , e a ch b ea r ing as i ng le l e af , e me rg e f r om t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th . E v en t h e t r ad i t ion a l ly a b s t r ac t v o lu te s m im ic t h el i n e s o ft h e s t em sa nd c u r led u nde rl e av e s b enea th t h em , s p r ing ing f r om t h e s i de s o f t h e h ead a nd e x t end ing t ot h e t op c o rne r s o ft h e c ap i ta lw he r e t h ey f o rm l oo se , w ide s p i r a l s . T he o n ly c a rv ing o f aG r een Man a t R om sey A bbey o ccu r s i n t h e s ou th t r an sep t , c a rved o n a c ap i ta l .

Un l ike t h e l a t e r m ed ieva l p e r iod h uman h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e f o rm ar e la t ive ly s mal p a r t o ft he G r een a nd F o l ia te r eper to i r e a nd a r e g ene ra l ly o u tnumber ed b y b ea s t h ead s , d ragon s , l i on s , a nd a n ima l s a s soc ia ted w i th T r ee o f L i f e i mag e ry . T h i s d oe s n o t , h ow ev e r , m ean t h a t t h e re i s' n o e v idence o f e c c le s ia s t ica l c a rv ing s o f t h e G reen Man i n B r i ta in b ef o r e t h e l a te No rman p e r iod ' ( Doe l a nd Doe l , 2 00 1 : 3 7 ) . On t h e c on t r a ry , m any o ft h e e xamp le s f r om t h e s ou th o fE ng land c an b e d a t ed t ot h e l a te e l ev en th c en tu ry a nd w ou ld h av e b een c a rv ed s oon a f t e r t h e C onque s t , p o s s ib ly b y No rman m a son s .

R oman e sque c a rv ing s o f G r een s ub jec t s i nt h i s a r ea f o cu s u pon t wo m a in mode l s : t h e a b s t ra c th uman h ead d i sgo rg ing t wo s p r ig so fs l ende ro rp rofu se f ol i ag e f r om e a ch c o rne ro f t h e mou th , a nd t h e b ea s t h ead d i sgo rg ing i n t e r laced o r s c ro l l ing f ol i ag e . G r een b ea s th ead s ,s ome w i th f e l in e c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s ,o ccu ri n t h e n o r th a nd s ou th c hance la i s le s , r e t rocho i r , a nd o n e i the r s i de o ft h e e a s te rnmo s t e n t r ance i n to t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n av ea tR om sey Abbey ( F ig . 5 .1 2 ) .T h et wo c han ce lc ap i ta l s

4

5

T he p rox im i t y o f t h e s t y le o f t h e f o l i ag e t o w ing s h a s l e d s ome

c ommen t a to r s t o i n t e rp r e t t h e se i mag e s a s ' w ing ed c he rub f a ce s ' ( Coupe r , 1 995 : 7 ) . How ev e r , w ing ed c herub ic h ead s p rope r ly b e long t o t h e R ena i s sance o fc l a s s ica l f o rm s a nd i mag e s t h a t b eg an t o a f f ec t E ng l and i nt h e e a r ly s i x t een th c en tu r y ,n ea rby e xamp le s o f wh i ch m ay b e f ound c a r ved o n t h e m i se r ico rd s a tC h r i s tchu r ch P r io r y ( Do r se t ) , d a t ing t oc . 15 15 .

F o re xamp le ,o nt h e s ou th w a l lo ft h en ave a tA ven ing

( G louce s t e r sh i r e ) .

5 2

F o l iage D i sgorger sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s

F igure 5 .1 2 B eas t h ead d i sgorg ing f o l iage , e x ter ior o ft he s ou th d oor t ot he n ave a tR omsey .

F igure 5 .1 T he e as t c ap i ta l o ft he s ou th d oor a t B roadwey i n D or se t i s c arved w i th a n Amph isbaena , ad ragon w i th a n a dd i t iona l h ead a tt he t i p o ft he t a i l . I n t h is e xamp le t he d ragon i s awyvern ( two legged ) a nd h as t wo t a i ls , e ach w i th o ne h ead . T he t a i ls w ind a round e ach l e g .

F igure 5 .1 4 T h i s m id -twe lf th -cen tury c ap i ta l a tR omsey Abbey i s r are ly v i s ib le t o t he p ub l ic , l o ca ted a s i ti s i n t he s ou th t r ansep ta l a p se c urren t ly i nu se a s av e s try . F igure 5 . 1 3 A l a te e l even th -cen tury c ap i ta l f r om S togur sey c arved w i th a h uman h ead d i sgorg ing f o l iage f r om t he c orner s o ft he mouth .

5 3

S ec t ion I : Head s a nd f i na l ly a tr e s t u nd e r av i ne — as equen ce c o r r e spond ing t o d ea th , r e su r r ec t ion a nd e t e rna l b l i s s i n P a r ad i se ( F e rgu son , 1 990 : 5 0 1 ) . T he t w e lf th t o t h e f ou r t een th c en tu r ie s s aw s im i la r i mag e ry r e i t e ra t ed i n m anu sc r ip t s , s t a in ed g l a s s , p u lp i t s cu lp tu re s , a nd mo sa ic s t h roughou t E u rope ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 93 ) . T he p a ra l l e l s b e tween t h e m ed ieva l h el -mou th a nd t h e mou th o f t h e " wha le" t h a t s w a l low s a nd r e gu rg i ta te s t h e p rophe t w e r e s t r eng thened f u r the r b y r e p r e sen t a t ion s t h a t d ep ic t t h e s e a c r ea tu r e a sa d ragon -l ike mon s t e r w i th l a rge s nou t , t a pe r ing e a r s a nd a l ong , w ind ing , s e rpen t ine t a i l . T h i s i st h e k e t o s , ac l a s s ica l b ea s t , w h ich , t h rough m i s t r an s la t ion , b ecame t h e " g r ea t f i sh" o ft h e K ing J ame s B ib l e ( i b id . 2 96 ; s e e a l so B oa rdman , 1 9 7 ) . T he s e a -mon s te r , a s o ppo sed t o t h e w ha le , c an b e f ound d ep ic ted i n m ed iev a l a r t u n t i l t h e t we lf th c en tu ry ( Law r ence , 1 962 : 2 96 ) . L ik e t h e G r een Man J onah w a s a s soc ia ted w i th f une r a r y monumen t s f r om a n e a r ly p e r iod , c a rv ed i n to R oman s a r cophag i o f t h e t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s a s w el a s p a in ted f r equen t ly t h roughou t t h e c a tacomb s i nR ome ( i b id . 2 91-293 ) .7

P rofu se f ol i ag e i s sue s f r om o u t o ft h e mou th a nd e x t end s t oc ove r mo s t o ft h e c ap i ta l ( F ig . 5 .1 4 ) . A t t h e c hu r ch o f S tJ ohn ,D ev ize s , aG r een Man o ccu r s o nt h e s ou the rnmo s t c ap i ta l o f t h e c hance l a r ch f a c ing i n to t h e n av e , t h e h ead d i sgo rg ing as i ng le s t em f r om t h e c en t r e o ft h e mou th t h a t s p i l l si n to c o i l sb e low .

R esu r rec t ion/Cor rup t ion T he s i gn if i cance o f t h e h ead d i sgo rg ing f o l iag e i n t h e R oman e sque p e r iod m ay b e g r a sped b e s t i fv i ewed w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e i n c r ea s ing ly c o rpo rea l s p i r i tua l i ty o ft h e e l ev en th a nd t we lf th c en tu r ie s . B od ie s n o t o n ly p rov ided t h e p hy s ica l m ed ium t h rough wh ich t h e s ou l a c ted , a nd a s s uch , w e r e r e adab le i nt e rm s o f s p i r i tu a l h ea l th o r s i ckne s s b u t w e r e t h e t emp la t e f o r o the rwo r ld ly g eog r aphy . W ith in s u ch a s e t t ing b od i ly p roce s se s s u ch a s s w alow ing a nd r egu rg i t a t ion c ou ld a nd d i d a cqu i r e p rofound s ymbol i c i mpor t ance .

I f r e gu rg i ta t ion c a r r ied b ea t if i c c onno ta t ion s t h en s o d i d e xha la t ion a nd c o r re spondence s b e tw een t h e w o rd s s ou l , s p i r i t , l i f e , a nd b rea th a r e c l o se i n t h e L a t in , G r eek a nd H eb r ew l a nguag e s ( Wood , 2 000 : 1 0 ) . H av ing s pok en t h e wo r ld i n to e x i s tence , God b rea the s l i f e i n to A dam , as c en e i l u s t ra t ed i n t h e t w e lf th -cen tu ry H o r t u s D e l i c i ar um ( He r r ad o f Hohenbou rg , 1 979 : f o l . 1 7 r , p l . 1 0 , 1 6 ; P a ta i , 1 990 : 2 30 ; s e e a l so C am i l le , 1 9 5 a : 3 0 -31 ) . T he b r ea th o f l i f e , f i r s t g i ven i n E den a nd f o r sak en t h rough t h e t r an sg r e s s ion o f d i v ine l aw , w a s r e s to r ed b y C h r i s t ' s t r iumph o ve r d ea th . B e s t ia r y a n ima l s t h a t c an r ep r e sen t C h r i s t e xude s w ee t b rea th s u ch a st h e p an the r , o r , l i k e t h e l i on , h ave l i f e -g iv ing b r ea th w i th wh ich t h e i rs t i l lbo rn c ub s a r ev i v if i ed t h r ee d ay s a f te r b i r th ( S yme , 1 999 : 1 64 -165 ) . C onv e r se ly , b r ea th ing p rob lem s a r ea s soc ia t ed w i th d emon i c a c t iv i ty ( i b id . ) .

Wh i l s t d amna t ion c on s i s ted o f e t e rna l d i smembe rmen t t h rough t h e p roce s se s o f d i g e s t ion , s a lva t ion , j u s t a s v i sce ra l , w a s c once iv ed o f a s r egu rg i ta t ion . T he t we lf th c en tu ry a bbe s s H e r rad o f Hohenbou rg d e sc r ibe s C h r i s t ' s d ea th o n t h e c ro s s a sv i c to ry o v e r t h e mou th a nd s t oma ch o fL ev ia than ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 92 ) . T he H a r row ing o f H el , t h e s t o ry o f C h r i s t ' s d e scen t i n to a nd l i be ra t ion o f s ou l s f r om t h e u nderwo r ld , i t se lf c once iv ed o f a s t h e b ody o fa mon s t e r , w a s p opu la r t h roughou t m ed ieva l a r t ( Hu lme , 1 907 : l x iv ; B abcock , 1 990 : 4 11-4 12 ) . I mag e s o f t h e H a r row ing r e gu la r ly f e a tu re C h r i s t f o r c ing o pen t h e mou th o ft h e h el -bea s t a nd p lung ing t h e e nd o f as t af fo r ac ro s s i n to i t s t h roa t i n o rde r t o i nduce v om i t ing .6 F o r e xamp l e , t h e t we lf th -cen tu ry p sa l t e r MS Douce 2 93 ( Bod le ian L ib ra ry , Oxfo rd , f o l . 1 4 r ,c . 170 -11 3 )p i c tu r e st h eh e lp le s s mou th o f t h e h el -mon s t e r s pew ing f o r th s ou l s a s C h r i s t r am s t h e c ro s s i n to i t s g ul e t ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 92 a nd p l . 1 3 ; s e e S chm id t , 1 995 f o r n ume rou s o the r e xamp le s ) . I n te r e s t ing ly , t h e m a rg in a l f i gu r e s s u r round ing t h i s i mag e i n c lude t wo b ea s t s d i sgo rg ing l u sh f ol i ag e .

A cco rd ing ly t h e mou th a sw el a st h e n o se w e r el i m ina l s i t e s i nw h ich b ody a nd s p i r i t m ing led a nd c on jo ined . B r ea th , i n

T he e a rl i e s t k nown e xamp le o ft h e G r een Man ( i . e . ah ead e m i t t ing f ol i ag e ) o ccu r s o n t h e t omb o f S t A b r e i n S t H i la i re le -G r and , P o i t ie r s , a nd d a t e s t o c . AD400 . T he h ead i sr i ng ed w i th l e av e s a nd t wo f ol i ag e s t em sg row f r om e a ch n o s t r i l ( Ande r son a nd H ick s , 1 990 : 4 6 , f i g . 3 1 ) . T he a s soc ia t ion b e tween G r een h ead s a nd t omb s tone s c on t inued t h roughou t t h e l a t e r M idd le A g e s a s t h e t we lf th -cen tu ry e xamp le s f r om S t P e t e r ' s , C on i sb rough ( Yo rk sh i r e ) , S t P e t e r ' s , No r thamp ton ( Nor thamp ton sh i r e ) a nd Gund rada ' s t omb s tone f r om t h e P r ior y o fS tP anc r a s , L ew e s ( S u s sex ) i nd ica t e ( P ev sne r , 1 959 : 1 67

7

O the r p opu la r i mag e s o fs a lva t ion d r ew u pon t h e s t ory o f t h e p rophe tJ onah . J on ah , ' swalowed b u t n o t d i g e s t ed b y t h e w ha le , w a s a s ymbo l o f d ea th a nd r e su r rec t ion t h roughou t t h e M idd le A g e s ' a nd a s e a r ly a s t h e t h i rd c en tu ry , ' s erv ed a s as ymbo l o f t h e r i sen C h r i s t ' ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 93 ) . F o r e a r ly C h r i s t ian a r t J onah ' s s t o r y w a s t h e mo s t f r equ en t ly d ep ic t ed O ld T e s tamen t s c ene a nd o f t en c on s i s ted o f at h r ee -par tc y c le t h a td ep ic ted t h e f i gu re b e ing s wa l low ed b y t h e s e a -mon s t e r , s pew ed o u t o f i t s mou th ,

6

a nd p l . 3 ;Z ameck i e ta l , 1 9 4 : 10 1 1 ,i t em s 1 42 a nd 1 45 ) . Go th i c e xamp le s c an b e f ound o n t h e t wo c a s t ela ted s t one c and le s t ick s o n a t omb a t S t N icho la s ' , W i thycombe ( S ome r se t ) d a t ing t o c . 1 300 ( P ev sne r , 1 95 b :3 49 -350 ; Ma le t , 1 994 ) ; t h e e a r ly t o m id -f ou r t een th c en tury s l ab a t S t G i le s , B redon ( Wo r ce s t e r sh i r e ) u pon w h ich t h e f i gu r e o f C h r i s t u pon a d ec ided ly t r ee -l ik e c ro s s w i th l o pped -of f b r anche s i sa l so r ep r e sen t ed ( P ev sne r , 1 96 :9 6 -97 a nd p l . 3 1 ; Doe l a nd Doe, 2 00 1 :49 ) ; a nd t h e t omb o fG er va se A la rd , c .1 322 , i nt h e c hance l o f t h e c hu r ch o f S t T homa s , W inche l sea ( Ea s t S u s sex ) ( Co ld s t r eam , 1 994 : 1 56 ) . B a sf o rd a l so n o te s an umbe r o f e xamp le s ( 1 97 :2 1 , a l so p l s . 5 2a a nd b ) a nd t h e t omb o fL ou i s d e F r ance ( d . 1 260 ) i n t h e A bbey C hu r ch o f S t . -Den i s b ea r s f ol i a t e h ead s o n t h e c o rne r s o ft h e s l ab ( P anof sky , 1 964 : p l . 2 46 ) .

Wa l l p a in t ing s , f o r e xamp le , t h a t o n t h e w e s t w al o f t h e n ave a t

C ha ldon ( S u r r ey ) ( c . 1 200 ) a nd s c u lp ted t ympana a s a t B eckf o rd ( Wo r ce s t e r sh i r e ) a nd Quen ing ton ( G louce s t e r sh i r e ) a l so d ep ic t ed t h e i mag e ( T r i s t r am , 1 94 4 : 1 0 1 09 a nd p l . 4 ; P ev sne r , 1 96 :7 6 ; V e rey , 1 970 : 3 74 ) .A tC ha ldon t h eH a r row ing o ccu r sa sp a r to f amuch l a rge r s c ene i l u s t r a t ing t h e t o rmen t s o f t h e u nderwo r ld , t h e h el -bea s t r e p l aced b y ar e cumben t , b ound h uman f i g u r e w i th d i s to r t ed f a c ia l f e a tu r e sa nd s u r rounded b yf l ame s .

5 4

F o l iage D i sgorger sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s A l though b o th l e on ine a nd s e rpen t ine f o rm s c a r r ied n eg a t iv e a sw el a sp o s i t iv e a s soc ia t ion s i nC h r i s t ian a n ima l l o r e , t h e f r equen t a s soc ia t ion o fb o th w i th t h e T r ee o fL i f e a nd o the r v eg e ta l i mag er y s ugg e s t s t h a t i n t h e se c a se s t h e p redom inan t i d ea s c once rned r e su r r ec t ion , s t r eng th , a nd r enewa l , r a the rt h an a ny d i abol i ca l mo t iv e s .

a n ima t ing t h ep hy s ica lb ody , p rov ided ap e rpe tua l r em inde r o f t h e p r e sen ce o f t h e s upe rna tu r a l p owe r b y w h ich h uman i ty l i v ed . R egu rg i ta t ion c ou ld l i kew i se e vok e s p i r i tua l i d ea s , s p i r al ing a r ound t h e t h eme s o f r en ew a l a nd r e su r r ec t ion . F o l iag e m igh t i n sp i r e s im i la r r e f lec t ion s . D rawn f r om c l a s s ica l a nd o r ien t a l s ou r ce s , t h e v i ne h ad b een i n co rpo ra t ed i n to C h r i s t ian a r t f r om a ne a r ly p e r iod ,i n i t ia l ly a s as imp le s c rol , l a te ri nhab i ted b y a n ima l s a nd b i rd s . T he T r ee s o f t h e P a r ad i se g a rden c a l led f o r th a s soc ia t ion s b e tw een f o l iag e ,C h r i s t , a nd t h e r e su r r ec t ion . A s i th a s b een s hown i mag e s o ft h e T r ee o fL i f e a r e f r equen t t h roughou t R oman e sque a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e a nd o f t en a c compan ied b y p a r t icu l a r a n ima l s . C h r i s t ' s d ea th u pon t h e c r o s s , wh ich h ad m ade p o s s ib le t h e r e tu rn t oP a r ad i se , c emen t ed f u r the r t h e a r bo rea l a nd f ol i a te w i th t h e a f te r l if e —i ndeed , t h e l i nk b e tw een t h e c r o s s a nd t h e t r ee w a s m ade i nt h e v e r y f i r s t s e rmon s t h a t t h e a po s t le s p rea ched a nd p e r s i s ted t h roughou t t h e M idd le A g e s ( Wood , 2 000 : 9 ; Doe l a nd Doe l ,2 001 : 5 7 -63 ) . D ec iduou s f o l iage r a the rt h an e v e rg r een n o t o n ly c omb ined t h e t h eme s o f d ea th a nd r e su r r ec t ion b u t l o ca ted t h em s e a sona l ly , t h e E a s te r c e l eb ra t ion s m ade a lt h e mo r ep o ten t s ymbol i ca l ly b yt h e r e tu rn o fv eg e ta t ion . T he a nonymou s a u tho r o ft h e t r ea t i se " P ic to r i nC a rm ine" s ugg e s t s t h e u s e o f f ol i ag e a s a mo t if t o c onvey i d ea s o f r e su r r ec t ion f o r t h e se r e a son s ( J ame s , 1 951 : 1 66 ) w h i le t w e lf th -cen tu r y mona s t ic w r i te r s c ommon ly d e sc r ibed t h e s ou l ' s g row th t owa rd God i n t h i s l i f e , a nd a f t e r , ' a s f l owe r ing o rg e rm ina t ion ' ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 57 ) .

T h i s m ay b e s ub s tan t ia t ed b y t h e t wo mo s t c ommon a c t iv i t ie s i n wh ich t h e se c r ea tu re s e ngag e —c u rv ing t h e t a i l u p b e tween t h e r e a r l e g s , a nd b i t ing t h e t a i l . I n t h e f o rme r , c ommon t ol e on ine f i gu re s , t h e t a i li t se lf o f t en s p rou t s i n to f ol iag e ( e .g . R om sey ) m ak ing t h e c onnec t ion e xpl i c i t . T he a f o remen t ioned e t ymo log ica l a s soc ia t ion i n L a t in b e tw een t a i l a nd p en i s s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e se p o se s w e r e n o t i n s ign if ican t , l i nk ing t h e s p rou t ing o ff ol iag e t o t h e f e cund , r eg en e ra t iv e p ow e r o fa n a n ima l i t se lf s ymbol i ca l ly c l o se t o C h r i s t . T he d r agon b i t ing i t s t a i l i s a n a nc ien t i mag e c onnec ted w i th c oncep t s o f i mmor tal i ty ( Hou l t , 1 9 7 :5 1 5 2 ; C oope r , 1 97 : 1 23 124 , " Ou robo ro s" ) , a nd b ea s t s c onnec ted w i th T r ee o f L i f e i mag ery m ay a l so b i t e t h e i r t a i l s , s uch a s t h e e qu in e p a i r a t A l ton . A l though n ow s i ngu la r , t h ev ou s so i rr e se ti n to t h e e x te r io ro ft h ew e s tw al o ft h e n ave a tB in s tead d ep ic t ing ah o r se b i t ing i t s t a i l , m ay h av e o nce b een a s soc ia ted w i th o the r i mag e s s ugg e s t iv e o f r e su r r ec t ion a nd i mmor tal i t y . T he a ppea r ance o ft h e f l eu r d e ly s , s a c r ed t o Ma r y , i n p l ace o f f ol i ag e o n t h e t a i l s o f l e on ine c r ea tu r e s e vok e s f u r the r c onnec t ion s b e tw een C h r i s t ian f i gu re s a nd t h e t h eme s o fr enew a l a nd e t er na l l i f e e vok ed b y f ol i ag e ( P r i tcha rd , 1 967 : 1 75 -76 ) . Mo s t o ft h e R omane sque e xamp le s o ff ol i a te c r ea tu re s a nd G r een Men o ccu r i nh igh ly v i s ib le l o ca t ion s . T he se i mag e s w e r e m ean t t ob e s e en a nd t hough t a bou t , a nd b y av a r i e ty o fa ud ience s . T ympana , c a rv ed a nd s e t a bov e d oorw ay s , a r e o f a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l c a rv ing s t h e e a s ie s t t o s e e , n o t o n ly i n p hy s io log ica lt e rm s ( c lo se t oh ead h e igh t , p l en ty o fd ay l igh t ) b u t a l so i n t e rm s o f s oc ia l u se o f s pace ( v i s ib le t o a nyone u pon e n te r ing t h e c hu r ch , n o t s e t i n ar e s t r ic ted a r ea ) . T he s ame a ppl i e s t o a ny c a rved c ap i ta l s s uppor t ing t h e a r ch o f t h e e n t r ance d oo r . S i t e s t h a t p o s se s s T r ee o f L i f e , G reen h ead s , f ol ia te , s e rpen t ine a nd/o r l e on in e c r ea tu r e s i nt h e se l o ca t ion s a r e n ume rou s ( s ee a bove ) , a nd w ou ld h av e s e rv ed t o r e i te ra te t h e i d ea o f r e su r r ec t ion t h rough t h e i r f r equen t u se , a s w el a s p e rhap s i d en t if y t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f r e su r r ec t ion w i th e n te r ing t h e c hu r ch . A t R om sey A bbey t h e f o rme r d oo rway f r om t h e c l o i s t e r i n to t h e c hu r ch h a s f ou r c ap i ta l s , t wo o f w h ich a r e c a rved w i th G r een f e l ine h ead s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ts u ch a s soc ia t ion s p e r s i s t ed t h rough t o t h e l a te m ed ieva l p e r iod , f o r L acock A bbey p o s se s se s a n umbe r o fG r een h ead s c a rv ed i n to t h e r oof b o s se s o ft h e n o r th c l o i s te rw a lk , wh ich w ou ld h av e b een t h eo n e c l o se s t t o t h e c hu r ch . T he se b o s se s a r e l ow t o t h e g round ( no h i ghe r t h an f i f t een f e e t ) a nd , e ven i n t h e g l oom o f t h e c l o i s te r ,g ene ra l ly e a sy t os e e .

F l ank ing t h e T r ee o f L i f e a nd/o r o f ten p a r t ia l ly f ol i a t e t h em se lve s , s e rpen t ine a nd l e on ine c r ea tu re s w e r e c l o se ly c onnec t ed w i th f ol i age a nd i t s p o ten t ia l m ean ing s . T he se i n c lude g r iff in s ( c ompo s i t e e ag le/ l ion ) a nd a l f o rm s o f d r agon s , i np a r t icu la r ,w yv em s . F el ine c r ea tu r e s s u ch a st h e l i on a nd t h e p an the r h av e a l r eady b een m en t ion ed i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e r e su r rec t ive p ow e r o fC h r i s t . L e s s w el k nown , p e rhap s , i st ha tt h e s e rpen t a nd d ragon c ou ld e n joy s im i la r s t a tu s a nd w e r e n o t ' a lway s d i abol i ca l ' r e p r e sen ta t ion s o f t h e d ev i l a s many w r i te r s b el i ev e ( f o r e xamp le , H a r te , 2 00 1 : 1 2 ; G rö s s ing e r , 1 997b : 1 3 ) . B e s t ia r ie s h ad i n corpo ra ted much c l a s s ica l a n ima l l o r e a r ound w h ich t h e C h r i s t ian a u tho r ( s ) w o rk ed t h e i r mo ral i za t ion s a nd i n t h e R oman w o r ld s nak e s h ad h ad a p r edom inan t ly p o s i t ive r e pu ta t ion , a s soc ia ted w i th f e r t i l i t y , h ea l ing , a nd p rophecy , a s w el a s b e ing r e g a rded a s t h e b en ef icen t s p i r i t s o ft he d ead ( Whea tc rof t , 1 999 : 1 44 -145 ) . Mo r eov er , t h e Pe s i o l o gu s , t h e c o r e o f a l l a t e r b e s t ia r ie s , a s soc ia t ed t h e s e rpen t ine a b i l i ty t o s hed o l d s k in w i th t h e p hy s ica l a nd s p i r i tua l r e juvena t ion b rough t i n to t h e w o r ld b y C h r i s t ( i b id . 1 43 ) . T he w yv e rn , a s w el a s t h e c ro s s , a ppea r s o n No rman s h ie ld s i n t h e B ay eux T ape s t r y s ugg e s t ing t h a t ' t he f o rme r w a s t hough t o fi n af a vou r ab le l i gh t a s as ymbo l o f s t r eng th a nd p owe r ' ( Wood , 1 997 : 5 ) . L e s ley Ko rdeck i ' s s t udy o fd ragon s i nt h e m ed ieva l p e r iod n o t e s t h e p rog r e s s ive n a r row ing o f a n e s sen t i a l ly p o ly semou s s ymbo l , t h e e nd r e su l t o f w h ich w a s , b y t h e l a t e r p e r iod , t h e e qua t ion o f d ragon w i th d ev i l ( 1 9 0 : 6 ) .

I n s ide t h e c hu r ch , d e sp i t e i t s a ppea r ance o n c ap i ta l s i nt h e s em i secu la r s pace o f t h e n ave ( e .g . C h r i s tchu rch P r ior y ; C ombe S t N i cho la s ) , h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol iag e a s w el a s f ol i a te c r ea tu r e s o ccu r f r equen t ly i n t ho se a r ea s o f t h e

5 5

S ec t ion I : Head s f i f teen th -cen tu ry r oof b o s se s r e i te ra te t h e c onnec t ion ( s ee , f o re xamp le ,F ig s 5 . 1a nd 5 .1 9 ) .

c hu rch r e s t r ic ted t o t h e c l e rgy . A t R om sey Abbey a l t h e G reen a nd f ol ia te c a rv ing s a r ei nt he r e s t r ic ted s pace s o ft h e c hance l , r e t rocho i r , s ou th t r an sep t , a nd t he s ou th d oo r t h a t

I n many r e spec t s t h e l a te med iev a l f ol i a te d ragon s c on t inue o n f r om R omane sque t r ad i t ion s t h a t a s soc ia ted d ragon s w i th v eg e ta t ion . T he re a r e d i f f er ence s , h oweve r , n o t s o

l e d f r om t h e c l o i s te rt ot h e e a s te rn e nd o ft he n ave . B ea r ing i n m ind s e lec t ive s urv iva l a nd d i f f er en t b u i ld ing a nd r e s to ra t ion p rog r amme s t h i s i ss i gn if ican t f o r i ts how s t ha t t he se i mage s w e re p r ima r i ly i n tended f o r a n a ud ience o f e duca ted r e l ig iou s women . Mor eover , t h ey a ppea r t o

much w i th t h e f o rm o ft h e d ragon i t se lf b u t r a the rw i th t h e c on tex t s i n wh ich t he f ol iag e a ppea r s . T he t wo i n ter tw ined d ragon s a t L acock d o n o t d i sgo rge f ol i age b u t d evou r i t f e ve r i sh ly ; a no ther d ragon p l ay s t h e h a rp . B o th i mag e s

d ema rca te t he s pace u sed s o le ly b y t he n un s : t wo G r een f e l ine h ead s a ppea r o n t h e c ap i ta l c l u s ter s t ha t s epa ra te t r an sep t s f r om c hance l a i s le s , o ne i nt he n or th a i s le , o ne i n t he s ou th ; o n t h e c ap i ta l s o ft he r e t rocho i r a no ther G reen f e l ine h ead , t wo p a i r s o f a ddor sed l i on s w i th f ol i a te t a i l s

q ue s t ion t he p o ten t ialy b enevo len t a s soc ia t ion s p r ev iou s ly a s sumed b y t h e R omane sque f ol i a te d ragon , e n te r ing t h e i mag e i n to t h e c omp lex f i e ld s o f a s soc ia t ion s c on ju red b y i mage s o f d evou r ing ( s ee c hap te r 6 ) a nd mu s ic ian sh ip

( who a l so d i sgorge f ol i ag e ) , a nd a p a i r o f i n ter tw ined wyvern s ; i n t h e s ou th t r an sep t a no ther p a i r o fi n ter tw ined wyv ern s a nd aG reen Man . T oday , t h e L ady c hape l i nt h e r e t rocho i r n o l onge r e x i s t s , b u t t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f s uch i magery a r ound t h e e n t rance s t o i tr ema in s . I n p a r i sh a nd

r e spec t ive ly . A f u r ther b o s s a t L acock f e a tu re s ah yb r id h uman/an ima l c r ea tu re w i th af ol i a te t a i l c urved t i gh t ly u p t h rough t h e r e a rl e g s . T he h ead i st h a t o f aw oman w ea r ing ah eadd re s s , t he b ody t ha t o f aq uad ruped . A ga in , t h e c onno ta t ion s a ppea rs a t i r ic .

c oleg ia te c hu rche s s im i la r i mage s o ccu r i n l o ca t ion s t h a t s e rve t o f r ame t h e c hance l a r ea s u ch a s c ro ss ing t ower s o r c hance l a r che s a s i fs t reng then ing t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e c l ergy a nd t h e i d ea o fr e sur rec t ion ( c ro s s ing t ower s a tA l ton a nd S togu r sey ; t h e c hance l a r ch

G reen B irds

c ap i ta l c a rved o n t h e s i de t h a t f a ce s i n to t h e n ave a t S t J ohn ' s , Dev ize s ) . T he l a s t e xamp le i sp l aced i n ap rom inen t

B i rd s d i sgo rg ing f ol iage o r em i t t ing i tf r om o the r p ar t s o f

l o ca t ion a nd c ong rega t ion .

wou ld

h ave

b een

v i s ib le

t o

t h e

t h eb ody o ccu ro nt h er oof b o s se s a tB i shop ' s C ann ing s a nd L acock Abbey , b o th i n W i l t sh i re ( F ig s 5 . 2 0 a nd 5 . 2 1 ) . B i rd s a r e c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th f ol i ag e i nt h e R omane squ e p e r iod , c ommon ly a ppea r ing a mong t h e b ranche s o f t h e T ree o f L if e a s t h e c arved t ympana a tS toke sub -Hamdon

l a y

T he c l o se a s soc ia t ion b e tween v ege ta l i mag ery a nd t h e r e su r rec t ion i n to e t e rn a l l i f e o f f ered b y t h e i n s trumen t o f

a nd L i t t le L angfo rd a t te s t ( A l len , 1 7 :2 55 ; P owel , 1 909 ) ( F ig s 5 .2 2 a nd 5 .2 3 ) . I n t h e f our teen th -cen tu ry , b i rd s c an

God ' s w i l l o n e a r th , i n t h e f i r s t i n s tance C h r i s t , l a te r , t h e C hu rch , r e tu rn u s t o t h e i d ea o ft h e p hy s ica l b u i ld ing a s a s pace b e tween ma te r ia l a nd n um inou s r e a l i t ie s . T he p r ime n av iga tor s t h rough t h i s a mb iguou s t e r r i tory w e re o fc ou r se t h e c l ergy who se s t a tu s a s med ia to r s b e tween h uman s a nd t h e d i v ine wo r ld may h ave b enef i ted f r om t h e a s soc ia t ion s made b yf ol i a te i magery .

a ppea ru pon g r ave s l ab s s uch a st h a ti n s ide t h e c hu rch o fS t G i le s , B redon ( Wo rce s te r sh i re ) , a c company ing t h e d onor s r eborn i n to i mmor ta l l i f e ( s ee f oo tno te 7 a bove f o r r e f erence s ) . Due t o t h e i r a s soc ia t ion s w i th T ree o f l i f e i mag ery b i rd s i n s uch c on tex t s a r e l i k e ly t o h ave c onno ted r e su r rec t ion a nd b i rd s d i sgo rg ing f ol i age m igh t b e s e en t o s ub s tan t ia te s uch a n i d ea . Howev e r , l i k e t h e f ol i a t e d r agon s , t h e p o ten t ia l a s soc ia t ion s o f t h e i mag ery i n t h i s p e r iod a r e n o t s o c l ea r -cu t , o ne o f t h e i mag e s a t L acock Abbey

L a ter Med ieva lC arv ings

p re sen t ing ab i rd em i t t ing f ol i age f r om i t s a nu s . F ol ia te C rea tu res G reen Mons te rs

T he a s soc ia t ion o fd ragon s w i th f ol i age c on t inue s t h rough t o t h e l a te med ieva l p e r iod . E a r ly m i se r ico rd s a r e o f ten d eco ra ted w i th l a ce -l ike c omb ina t ion s o f d ragon s a nd f ol i age ' , t h e c ho i r a tC h r i s tchu rch P r iory p rov id ing ag ood

T he a ppea rance o f mon s t rou s f i gu re s d i sgo rg ing g r eenery f r om t h e mou th i s al a te med ieva l d ev e lopmen t . C ompo s i te

e xamp le ( G rö s s inge r , 1 975 : 9 7 ) . H ere , t wo i n te r tw ined wyvern s w i th s l ender b od ie s b i te e ach o the r ' s f o rel imb a nd

a n ima l s a nd c ompo s i te h uman/an ima l s a r e b o th f e a tu r ed i n t h i s w ay . A t S t in sford ( Dor se t ) ag a rgoy le o n t h e s ou thwe s t

w ing wh i l s t t h e i r s c ro l l ing t a i l s d i sso lve i n to f o l iag e ( F ig . 5 . 1 5 ) . T he c arv ing d a te s t o c .1 220 . S im i la r i mage s may a l so

c orne r o f t h e s ou th a i s le i sc a rved i n to a f r own ing h ead f r om who se o pen mou th s p rou t t wo t h in p l an t s t em s , e a ch o f wh ich b u r s t s i n to p rofu se l e af y f ol i age ( F ig . 5 .2 4 ) . T h ick w avy h a i r c rown s t h e h ead a s w el a s a ppea r ing f r om t h e n eck . T he c hu rch o f S t Mary , D ev ize s , f e a tu re s as im i la r c a rv ing o n t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r o f t h e s ou th a i s le , o n ly w i thou t a ny s ugg e s t ion o fh uman f e a tu re s ( F ig . 5 .2 5 ) . T he g a rgoy le r epre sen t s t h e f o repa r t s o f ac ompo s i te c r ea tu r e w i th t h e h ead a nd mane o f al i on , memb ranou s w ing s , a nd

b e f ound c arved o n r oof b o s se s a t B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( W i l t sh i re ) a nd M i l ton Abba s ( Do r se t ) ( F ig s 5 . 1 6 a nd 5 . 1 A t t h e l a t ter , t h e b od ie s o ft h e d ragon s a r e s o s l ender i ti s e a sy t o m i s s t h em c omp le te ly , a ppea r ing a t ad i s tance l i t t le d i f f eren t f r om p l an t s t em s . A t L acock Abbey an umbe r o f

s haggy f o rel imb s . C reep ing o u to f e a ch s i de o f t h eo pen

5 6

F o l iage D i sgorger sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s

F igure 5 .1 5 Two w yvern s w i th f o l ia te t a i l s c arved o n a n e ar ly t h ir teen th -cen tury m i ser icord a t Chr i s tchurch P r iory . T he a s soc ia t ion o fd ragons w i th v ege ta t ion , a l ready e s tab l i shed i n t he R omanesque p er iod , b ecome s c onven t iona l i sed i n l a ter a rch i tec tura l c arv ing s t ha tp re sen t d ragon s w i th s l ender b od ie s a nd s w ir l ing t a i l so ff o l iage ( s ee a l so F ig s5 .1 6a nd 5 .1 7 ) .

F igure 5 . 1 6 R oof b o s s i n t he c ro ss ing t ower a t B i shop 's C ann ing s c arved w i th as w ir l ing w orm type d ragon who se b ody b ecome s f o l iage .

F igure 5 . 1 8 A w orm type d ragon whose b ody t e rm ina te s i n l e ave s c arved o n af i f teen th -cen tury r oof b o ss i nt he c l o i s ter a t L acock Abbey , Wi l t sh ire . F igure 5 . 1 7 R oof b os s i n t he c hance l a t M i l ton Abba s . T h i s d e s ign h as o bv iou s p ara l le l s w i th t he m iser icord a t C hr i s tchurch P r iory ( F ig . 5 .1 5 ) . F igure 5 .1 9 Two i n ter tw ined d ragon s am id f o l iage a tL acock Abbey ( t he h ead o f t he s e cond d ragon a ppear s o n t he o ppos i te s i de o f t he b os s ) . A l though c arved i n t he l a ter m ed ieva l p er iod , t here i s much i n c ommon w i th t he R omane sque i mage i lus tra ted i nF ig . 5 .1 0 .

5 7

S ec t ion I : Head s f e a the r y s t em s f r om t h e f o r ehead w h i le t h e i mag e f u r the s t e a s t , f a c ing i n to t h e n ave , i s sue s s im i la r s t em s f r om e a ch s i de o f t h e mou th a s w e l l a s s t i ck ing o u t t h e t ongu e . S togumbe r f olow s as im i la r p a t ter n , t h e c ap i t a l b and t ot h e r e spond o f t h e n or th n ave a r cade c a rv ed w i th a h ead d i sgo rg ing r i ch f ol iag e w h i le t h e t op s o ft h e c o lumn s o ft h e s ame a r cade i nt h e n av e a r e c a rv ed o n ly w i th f o l i a t e d e s ign s . I n t h e se e xamp l e s d i sgorg ing h ead s d o n o t a ppea r t o b e c a rv ed r a ndom ly , b u t a r e l o ca t ed f olow ing a p a r t icu l a r p a t ter n , i . e . a t t ho se p o in t s w he re t h e a r cade b eg an o r e nded . S uch p o s i t ion ing , h owev e r , i sn o ta lway s t h e c a se , a s t h en av ea r cade sa tO t te ry S t Ma r ys ub s tan t ia t e .

mou th a r e s t r and s o f f ol i ag e , w h ich , a l though w ea the r ed l i ke t h e r e s t o ft h e s cu lp tu re a r e n one the l e s s e a s i ly v i s ib l e . Apa r t f r om l e on ine c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s , t h e se f e a r some , u nnameab le c r ea tu r e s d i sgo rg ing f ol iag e s ha re l i t t le w i th a ny R oman e sque a n teceden t s . Two f u r the r c a rv ing s t a ke t h e d i sgo rg ing i mag e i n to n ew t e r r a in . Ar oof b o s s i nt h e n or th a i s le a tS t eep l e L ang fo rd ( W i l t sh i r e ) d ep ic t s t h e c on to r ted b ody o f ad og a mong s t f ol i ag e , f r om w ho se s nou t i s sue s at h ick s t em t h a t d i v ide s a nd c u r l s b ack a r ound t h e f i gu r e ( F ig . 5 .2 6 ) . T he d og w ea r s aw oman ' sh eadd r e s s . Mo r e r a d ica l s t i l l ,a l though s t y l i s t ica l ly v er y s im i la r , i st h e c ompo s i t e m e rma id f i gu re c a rv ed o n a r oof b o s si nt h en or th c l o i s te rw a lk a tL acock Abbey ( F ig . 5 . 2 7 ) . T he h ybr id i t y o f t h e m e rma id i s e nhanced b y t h e a dd i t ion o f ab ea s t ' s h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s a nd l a rg e e ye s t h rough w ho se s nou t al ong t e nd r i l e me rg e s , d i v id ing i n to t wo s t em s a tt h e e dg e o ft h e b o s s . T ha t b o th s equence s o f i mag e s p o s se s s o the r s a t i r ica l , m i sog yn i s t f i gu r e s ( among s t t h e o the r s even b o s se s a tS t eep le L ang fo rd t h e r e i s ah a rpy , wh i l s t t h e c l o i s t e r a tL acock c on ta in s t wo o the r me rma id s a sw el a sa tl e a s t o ne h a rpy ) i ss i gn if i can t a nd m ay s ugg e s t t h a t t h e se t wo G r een f ema le c r ea tu r e s s ha r e t h e i r a s soc ia t ion s ( s ee c hap t e r f o rf u r the rd i scu s s ion o fs i r en s ) .

C o rbe l s c a rved w i th G r een h uman h ead s a r e c o mmon ly f ound i n t h e n av e . A t Ho lybour n e i n H amp sh i r e a nd Mappowde ri n Do r se tt h e c o rbe l s a r e s e ti n to t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r o f t h e n av e , a t i t s p o in t o f c onnec t ion w i th t h e c hance l , a nd e a ch f i gu r e i sa ng l ed t ol ook i n to t h e b ody o f t h en av ei t se lf ( F ig s 5 .2 9 a nd 5 .3 0 ) .T he f i gu r ea tA l ton , s e t i n to t h e n or th -ea s t c or n e r o ft h e c hance l i sl i k ew i se a ng led a t f o r ty -f ive d eg r ee s . T he A l ton a nd Ho lybou rn e c o rbe l s equence s a ppea rt oh av e b een c a rved b yt h e s ame g roup o f m a son s w ho w e r e a c t iv e i nt h e l o ca l i t y a r ound 1 400 f o rt h e G r een Men i ne a ch a r e v e ry s im i la r , d i sgo rg ing t wo w r ea th l i k e s t em s t h a t g row u p e a ch s i de o f t h e f a ce s . T he Mappowde r c a rv ing i s sue s b road leav ed f o l i ag e f r om e a ch n o s t r i l a nd i sl i k e ly t o h ave s uppor t ed a s t a tue o r s ome o the r f e a tu r e . O the r e xamp l e s o f G r een Men s uppo r t ing f i gu ra t ive i mag e s m ay b e f ound i n t h e n av e a t E x e t e r C a thed r a l o n t h e c o rbe l s i n t h e s pand re l s o f t h e a r cad ing , wh i le o u t s ide t h e d oo r c onnec t ing t h e c hu rch t ot h e f o rme r c l o i s te ra tR om sey A bbey t h e r ei s as i ng le h eav i ly w ea the r ed c o rbe l o f am a l e h ead u pon w h ich t r ace s o ff o l iag e i s su ing f r om t h e mou th a nd f o r ehead a r ej u s td i sce rn ib le .

G reen Men I n t h e l a t e rM idd le A g e s t h e n umbe r o fG r een Man i mag e s i n c r ea se s ub s tan t ia l ly . A pa r t f r om t h e s ma l l h ead s a tB road C ha lk e ( W i l t sh i r e ) a nd W inche s t e r C a thed ra l , f ew o ccu r o n t h e e x te r io r o f b u i ld ing s . B y t h i s p e r iod t h e e x te r io r o f c hu r che s a nd c a thed r a l s t e nd t ow a rd t h e d i sp lay o f p redom inan t ly h ybr id mon s te r s cu lp tu r e s i n t h e f o rm o f g a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e sque s . I n c on t r a s t , n av e i n te r io r s b eg in t o c r owd w i th h uman h ead s a s t h e c o rbe l s equence s o f a l te rna te b i shop s a nd k i ng s a t C a lne , W i l sf o rd , a nd B i shop ' s C ann ing s , a nd f a sh ionab ly a t t i r ed l a i ty a tA l ton , Ho lybou rne a nd N e the ravon a t te s t .

R oof b o s se s c a rv ed w i th t he i mag e o ccu ra t Do r che s t e ra nd S he rbo r n e A bbey ( Do r se t ) , a nd L a cock A bbey a nd Me r e ( W i l t sh i r e ) . F u r the r w e s t , E xe te r C a thed r a l c on t a in s n ume rou s e xamp le s . A t Do r che s te r t h e c a rv ing s a ppea r i n t h e n av e a nd n or th n av e a i s le ; a tS he rbor n e , a tt h e mo s t e a s te r na nd c en t ra l p o in t o ft h e n av e . T he l a t t e r , d e sp i t e i t s p rom inen t p o s i t ion i na n u n re s t r i c ted p a r t o ft h e c hu r ch i s n ev e r the l e s s d i ff i cu l tt o s e e —a sa l t h e b o s se s a tS he rbo rn e a r e —d ue t ot h e g r ea t h e igh t o ft h e n av e r oof . A t Me r e t h e c a rv ing s a ppea r i n t h e r oof o f t h e B e t te s tho rne c hape l o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e c hance l ( c . 1 330 ) a nd w ou ld h av e t h e r ef o r e b een v i ewed b y ac l e r ica l , o rw ea l thy l a y a ud ience o n ly . L acock Abbey p r e sen t s as im i la r s c ena r io w i th i t s c l o i s te rb o s se s . I ndeed , t h e c a rv ing o fG r een M an i mag e s i n r e s t r ic ted p a r t s o ft h ec hu r ch i sb yn o m ean s u n common , a s t h e s t alwo rk a nd m i se r ico rd s i n t h e c ho i r a tW inche s t e r C a thed ra la t t e s t .

I n t h i s p e r iod h uman h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol iag e o ccu r o n e ve r y i n te rna l a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e t h a t b ea r s c a rv ing — c ap i ta l s , c o rbe l s , m i se r ico rd s , s t a l l s , a nd r oof b o s se s . I ndeed , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o p e r ce ive a ny p a r t icu la r i mpe tu s b eh ind t h e i r d i s t r ibu t ion f o r n o p a r t o f t h e i n s ide o f r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s i n t h i s p e r iod a ppea r s u nd i s tu rbed b y t h e i rp r e sence . T he c ap i ta l b and s o n t h e n ave a r cade s a tU pw ey ( Do r se t ) , H a l se , S togumbe r ( S ome r se t ) ( F ig . 5 . 2) ,a nd O t te ry S t Ma r y ( Devon ) , a l p rov ide e xamp le s . A t U pwey o n ly t h e r e spond s o ft h ea r cade sb ea rh ead s , t h e f r ee s tand ing c ap i ta l s b e ing c a rved w i th f ol i a te d e s ign s o n ly . O f t h e t h r ee r ema in ing r e spond s o n ly o ne b ea r s ah uman h ead t h a t d i sgo rg e s g r eene ry , t h e o the rt wo c a rv ed w i th h ead s a mong f ol i ag e . A s im i la r p a t te rn i sa ppa r en t a tH a l se . H e r e , o n ly t h e r e spond s o f t h e n o r th n ave a r cade a r e c a rv ed w i th G r een h ead s , t h e f r ee s tand ing c o lumn s c r owned w i th a b s t r ac t d e s ign s . T he h ead f u r the s t w e s t a ppea r s t o s p rou t

Co rrup t ion! R esur rec t ion A l though I h ave d i scu s sed t h e f ol iag e d i sgo rge r s a nd p a r t i a l ly v eg e ta l b ea s t s o fR oman e sque d a te l a rg e ly i nt e rm s o ft h e i rp ow e rt os i gn if yc oncep t s r e la t ing t os a lva t ion a nd

5 8

F o l iage D i sgorge r sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s

F igure 5 .2 1 Two b i rds d i sgorge f o l iage o n af i f teen th -cen tury r oof b oss a tL acock Abbey .

F igure 5 . 2 0 R oof b os s i n t he c ros s ing t ower a t B i shop 's C ann ing s c arved w i th t wo b i rds d i sgorg ing f o l iage . T he c arv ing d a te st ot he f i r s t h a lf o ft he t h ir teen th c en tury .

F igure 5 . 2 3 T he t ympanum a bove t he s ou th d oor a t l i t t le L angf ord (W i l t sh ire ) . T o t he r i gh t o f t he c arv ing a s praw l ing T ree o f L if e s uppor t s t hree b i rd s , wh i le o n t he l e f t ac l er ic r a ise s h i s h and i n ag e s ture o fb l e s s ing .

F igure 5 .2 2 T he t ympanum a bove t he n or th d oor a tS toke s ub Hamdon ( Somer se t ) . T hree b i rds s e t t le o n t he c en tra l T ree , wh i le t he l i on a nd c en taur a re i d en t if ied w i th t he ir r e spec t ive z od iaca ls i gns .

F igure 5 . 2 4 L a te m ed ieva l g argoy le a t S t insf ord i n D or se t . F o l iage g row s f r om t he mou th t o b ecome p rofuse o n e ach s i de o ft he h ead .

F igure 5 . 2 5 F if teen th -cen tury g argoy le o n t he e x ter ior o f S t Mary 's , D ev ize s , c arved a s ah ybr id b eas t w i th m embranous w ing s . F o l iage h ang s f r om t he s i de s o ft he mou th .

5 9

S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 5 .2 6 Wooden r oof b os s i nt he n or th a i s le a tS teep le L angf ord (W i l t sh ire ) r epre sen t ing ad og d i sgorg ing t h in s t em s t ha te nd i nl e ave s .

F igure 5 .2 7 An u nusua l m erma id c o mpo s i t ion — b ea s t h eaded a nd d i sgorg ing t h in s t rand s o ff o l iage i n as im i lar manner t oF ig . 5 .2 6 . T h i s e xamp le c o me s f r om t he c l o i s ter s a t L acock Abbey , n o tf ar f r om S teep le L angf ord , who se c arv ing p re -da te s t h is merma id b y ac en tury .

6 0

F o l iage D i sgorge r sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s whe rea s t h e t y p i ca l ly a b s t rac t , d i spa s s iona te ly g az ing R om ane sque h ead s a ppea r d i st inc t ly o the r t h an h uman , p e rhap s h in t ing a tt h e i nva r i ab i l i ty o ft h e a f t e r l i f e , t h e l a te r m ed i ev a l e xamp l e s f o reg round t h e p hy s i ca l i ty o f d ea th . Many g i v e t h e i mp r e s s ion o f ac o rp se i na dv anced s t ag e s o f d ecay . A t O t te ry S t Ma ry ( Devon ) , ac o rbe l i nt h e c hance l d ep ic t s ah ead w i th f ol i age i s su ing o u t o f t h e s i de s o f t h e mou th , n o s t r i l s a nd e ye s . E l sewhe re i n Devon , e xamp le s o f c adave rou s h ead s w i th f ol i ag e eme rg ing f r om e ye s a nd mou th o ccu r o n b o s se s a t S ou th T aw ton , S ampfo rd C ou r t enay a nd S p rey ton ( Ba sf o rd , 1 978 : p l s . 7 1b -75b ; Doe l a nd Doe l , 2 00 1 : 4 0 ,2 4 ) .

F igure 5 . 2 8 D isgorg ing h ead c arved o n af i f teen th -cen tury c ap i ta l a t S togumber ( Somer se t ) . P rofuse f o l iage e x tends f r om t he mouth t of i l lt he a va i lab le s pace .

L a te m ed ieva l r e l ig iou s s en s ib i l i t ie s w e r e a t tuned t o i m ag e s o f s uf f e r ing . B y t h e f ou r t een th c en tu ry , d ep ic t ion s o f t h e d y ing C h r i s t , h i s b rok en b ody am a s s o fb l eed ing wound s , b eg an t o o u tnumbe r r ep re sen ta t ion s o ft h e m a je s t ic C h r i s t o f r e su r rec t ion a nd j udgemen t ( Ro s s , 1 997 ) . C hu rchgoe r s w e re s u r rounded b y v i v id r ep re sen ta t ion s o ft he P a s s ion i n an umbe r o f med ia i n c lud ing w al -pa in t ing s , s t a ined g l a s s , a nd r ood s cu lptu re . Memo r i a l s u pon wh i ch t h e d ecea sed w a s r ep re sen ted a s ad ecompo s ing c o rp se , h a lf -d ige s ted b y w o rm s , a l so g a ined i n p opu la r i ty d u r ing t h e s ame c en tu ry ( P anof sky , 1 964 : 6 4 a nd p l s . 2 58 -263 ; H ad ley , 2 001 : f i g . 7 7 ) a nd i mag e s o f t h e G reen Man , b y t h i s t ime a n i mpo r t an t p a r t o f t h e r eper to i r e o f C hr i s t i an c a rv ing , m i r ro red t h e se d ev e lopmen t s . T he Doe l ' s c ommen t u pon t h e s i gn if i cance o ft h e i mag e f l ou r i sh ing ' i n e c c l e s i a s t ica l b u i ld ing s a f t e r t h e B lack D ea th ' ( 2 00 1 : 3 7 ) , t h e e p idem ic t h a t , e v en f o r t h e d ea th -con sc iou s M idd le A g e s w ou ld h av e b rough t t h e p hy s i cal i ty a nd s uf f e r ing o fd y ing i n to i mmed i a te f o cu s . A s a n i mag e p owe rfuly e voca t iv e o f r e su r rec t ion a nd i mmor tal i ty t h ei n c r ea se o fG reen Man c a rv ing si nf a r mo r e h uman g u i se t h an t h e i r R om ane sque p r edece s so r s , l i k e c on tempo ra ry i m ag e s o fC h r i s t , a t t e s t t o t h e a gon i e s o ft h e w o r ld a tt h e s ame t ime a st h ey p o in tb eyond i t .

F igure 5 .2 9 G reen Man i nt he s ou th e as t c orner o ft he n ave a t H o lybourne i n H ampsh ire . F o l iage g row s f r om t he mou th i n t wo s t rands t of o rm aw rea th l ike f r ame f o rt he f a ce .

C on sequen t ly , whe rev e r t h e G reen Man a ppea r s w e mu s t b e a wa re o ft h e p r e sence o fa n i n exp l icab le o the r , whe the r t h i s i st h e o the rne s s o fd y ing t o t h i s wo r ld t ob e r ebo rn i n a no the r , o f t h e f am il i a r y e t my s te r iou s f o rce t h a t a n im a t e s a l l i f e , o r o f o the r u ncha r ted r e a lm s . T he i m age i si t se l f l im ina l , e voca t iv e o f p roce s se s u nknown a nd u nknowab le , l o ca ted a tt h eo u te rmo s te dg e s o fe xpe r ience . G reen i s ap redom inan t c o lou r i n s o me m ed iev a l a ccoun t s o fo the rwo r ld ly b e ing s . I n t h e r e ign o fH en ry I , wh i l s t o u t c u t t ing r e ed s f o r t h a tch ing , t h e s e rv an t R i cha rd , o f Nor th S unde r l and i n Nor thumbe r l and , e ncoun t e red t h r ee h and som ey ou th s n o to n ly c l ad i ng r een b u t who r ode g r een h o r se s . One o ft h em p uled R icha rd o n to t h e h or se h e w a s r i d ing a nd c a r r ied h im o f f t o ab eau t i fu l m an s ion c rowded w i th p eop l e , p r e s ided o v e r b y ak i ng . R icha rd , h av ing d ec l ined a l o f f e r s o f f ood a nd d r ink , w a s e v en tu a l ly r e tu rned t o t h e s po t f r om wh ich h e h ad b een t a ken ( Ba r t l e t t , 2 000 : 6 86 -687 ) . One o f t h e mo re f amou s s t o r ie s r e coun t s h ow , a t t h e mou th o f ac av e n ea r Woo lp i t i n S uf fo lk , t he l o ca li nhab i tan t s f ound t wo g r een c h i ld ren who s pok ea ni n comp r ehen s ib le l a nguag e . ' B rough tt ot h e h ou se

F igure 5 .3 0 H ead e m it t ing f o l iage f r om t he n os tr i l s , c arved o n ac orbe l a t Mappowder i nD or se t . T he c orbe l , l i ke 5 .2 9 a bove , w ou ld h ave b een v i s ib le t o t he c ongrega t ion i n t he n ave a nd may h ave b een u sed t os uppor tt he r ood l o f ts t ruc ture .

r e su r rec t ion i t mu s t n o t b e f o rgot ten t h a t i tw a s d ea th t h a t made s uch c oncep t sv i ta li nt h e f i r s tp l ace . T he se a r ei mag e s s u i ted t o f une r a r y c on t ex t s , a st h e i rp r e sence o n h i gh s t a tu s t omb s t h roughou t t h e m ed iev a l p e r iod t e s t if i e s . B u t

6 1

S ec t ion I : Head s o f an e ighbou r ing k n igh t , t h e c h i ld r en l i v ed o n ad i e t o f b ean s , b u t t h e b oy s oon p ined a way a nd d i ed . H i s s i s te r , h ow eve r , t h rov e . A s s he g r ew a c cu s tomed t o amo r e v a r ied d i e t , h e r s k in t u rned f r om g r een t o p ink , s he l e a rned t o s peak E ng l i sh , a nd w a s b ap t ized ' ( i b id . 6 ) . A l l t h e i nhab i tan t s o f t h e r e g ion f r om w he r e s he a nd h e r b ro the r h ad c ome w e r e g r een , s he r e la ted , a nd t h e i rw o r ld w a s o n e l i tn o t b y s un l igh t b u t b y ak i nd o ft w i l igh t g l ow . H ea r ing t h e r i ng ing o f b el s w h i l s t t e nd ing t h e i r f l ock s , t h ey h ad f olow ed t h e s ound u n t i l i tb rough tt h em o u to ft h e c av e w he r e t h ey h ad b een f ound , ' a lmo s t u ncon sc iou s f r om t h e b r igh tn e s s o ft h es un a nd t h ew a rm th o ft h ea i r ' ( i b id . ) . O the r g r een f i gu re s a r e man if e s t i n m ed ieva l l i t e ra tu r e . T ow a rd s t h e e nd o f t h e f ou r teen th c en tu r y a n u nknown a u tho r i n No r thwe s t E ng land c ompo sed t h e p oem S i r G aw a i n a nd t h e G r e en K ne t . T he G reen Kn igh t , ag i an t , i mp r e s s ive f i gu re , a ppea r s u pon ag r een h o r se a tA r thu r ' s c ou r t d u r ing t h e m idw in te r f e s t iv i t ie s w i th ac ha l leng e —a g ame o f b ehead ing . I n a c cep t ing t h e c ha l l eng e G aw a in mu s tb ehead t h eg i an tk n igh tw ho w i l lr e tu rn i n ay ea ra nd a d ay t or e tu rn t h e f a vou r . T he p oem i sr i ch w i th s ymbol i sm t o s u i t t h e g r eenn e s s o f t h e k n igh t , t h e a c t ion p i vo t ing a r ound t h e l i m ina l t ime s o f t h e y ea r ' s t u rn ing a s w el a s t a k ing p l ace i na mb iguou s l o ca t ion s ( Doe l a nd Doe l , 2 00 1 : 6 5 - 3 ) . A l though a ny i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e Kn igh t w i th t h e G r een Man o f e c c le s ia s t ica l c a rv ing s w ou ld b e t e nuou s a t b e s t i ti sh a rd t o d eny t h a t t h e mo s t p owe rfu l e l em en t s i n t h e p oem , l i k e t h e c a rv ing s , c once rn ' t he c e l eb r a t ion o ft h e l i f e -f o r ce a nd p rom i se o f r enewa l ' ( i b id . 2 ) . A t t h e s ame t ime , t h e a s soc ia t ion s o ft h e c o lou rg r een w i th o the r r e a lm s a nd i n be tween t ime sl e n ti tad ang e rou s a mo r a l i ty .T he d ev i l i nC hauce r ' s F r ia r ' sT a le , f o re xamp le ,w ea r sg r een s oa sn o t t oc au se a l a rm a mong t h e b ea s t s h ei sp u r su ing i nt h e f o r e s t ( Robe r t son , 1 954 :4 70 -472 ) . T he l im ina l n a tu re o f g r eenne s s i sp r e sen t i n i t s v i sua l r e p r e sen t a t ion s . On R omane sque t ympana , f e l in e h ead s d i sgo rg ing v eg e ta t ion c an a ppea r w i th C h r i s t i n m a je s ty , t h e i r f ol i ag e o f ten e x tend ing a r ound t h e e dg e s o ft h e s em i c i rcu la r s cu lp tu r a l f i e ld a nd t h e reby c on t a in ing t h e i mag er y . T h i s p o s i t ion l e nd s f u r the r c r edence t ot h e l im inal i ty o ft h e i mag e a s i t p rov ide s a c l ea r b oundar y b e tw een t h e r e p r e sen ta t ion o fC h r i s to log ica l s pace a nd t h eh uman w o r ld o ft h ev i ewe ro ft h e t ympanum ( s ee B a sf o rd , 1 97 :p l s . 1 9a , 2 0a , 2 0b f o r e xamp le s ) . I n l a t e r p e r iod s t h e G reen Man o ccu r s w i th o th e r s a c r ed f i gu re s . L ady R ag lan p uzz led o v e r t h e a ppea rance o f ac r owned G r een Man i n as t a ined g l a s s w indow a tS t Ma ry R edc l if f e ( B r i s to l ) , c onc lud ing t h a t t h e i mag e , p l aced a bov e t h e s un a nd b e low t h e f i gu r e o f Ma ry , mu s t h av e b een ' e qu a l ly v en e rab le w i th t h e V i rg in ' t o t h e p r ie s t s w ho o rde r ed i t( 1 939 : 5 6 ) . I n t h e n ave a t E xe t e r C a thed ra l , c o rbe l s s uppor t ing c a rv ing s o fa ng el i c a nd s a c red f i gu r e s s uch a st h e V i rg in a nd c h i ld a r e c a rv ed w i th G r een Men . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t s im i la r ly c a rv ed c o rbe l s a t Mappowde ra nd R om sey A bbey ,t h e f o rme ri nt h e n av e ,t h e l a t t e r o u t s ide t h e d oo r f r om t h e c l o i s t e r t o t h e n av e , m ay h av e s uppor ted f r ee s tand ing s t a tu e s o f s im i la r s a c r ed f i gu r e s . T he t h r e sho ld s t a tu s o f t h e G r een Man m ay h av e

c a l led a t ten t ion t o t h e s anc t i t y o ft h e f i gu r e s w i th wh ich i t w a s a s soc ia t ed , a nd i nt h e p roce s s h igh l igh ted t h e f a c t t h a t t h e se w e r e h i gh ly r e v e r ed s p i r i tu a lf i gu re s . How ev e r , a si sb ecom ing c l ea r ,i nt h e med ieva lp e r iod o the r w o r ld s w e r e c once iv ed o f a s p o ten t ia l ly d ang e rou s s pace s h aun ted b y f a e ry f o lk , s a in t s a nd d emon s a l ik e . I fg r een c ou ld b e t h e c o lou r o f t h e d ev i l t h en t h e mu tab i l i ty o f f ol i ag e , i t s r e s t le s s g row th a nd d ecay , a l so m i r ro red t h e u ncea s ing ly c hang eab le p hy s ica l w or ld a nd i t s t emp ta t ion s . F rom t h e t w e lf th c en tu r y o nwa rd s r edemp t ion w a s i n c r ea s ing ly c once iv ed o f a s ' t r iumph o ve r f r agmen ta t ion , d i g e s t ion a nd r o t —o v e r t h e n a tu ra l p roce s s i t se l f ' ( Bynum , 1 995 : 16 ) . S im i la r ly , i fb od i ly i n t eg r i t y p rov ided t h e i mag e o f s p i r i tu a l a nd mo r a l i n teg r i ty t h en d i s in t eg ra t ion a nd f r agmen ta t ion c ou ld b e p e r ce iv ed t o m i r ro r s p i r i tu a l a nd mo ra l c o r rup t ion . T he ' l i v ing c adave r ' o f t h e l e pe r ' s b ody w a s ap a r t icu la r ly u sefu l i mag e w i th wh ich t o m ak e t h i s c onnec t ion , f o r e xamp le , ' b ecau se i t s d i sea se , a nd t h e d i sea se o f o r ig ina l s i n , w e r e s e en a s s e xua l ly t r an sm i t ted ' ( i b id . 3 27 , n 31 ) . F ol i ag e , i ni t s s e a sona l a l te r i ty a nd g row th v i a d i v i s ion a nd p a r t i t ion w a s i mpl i ca ted . T he H aw thor n , o f t en d i sgo rg ed b y G reen Men , f o r e xamp le t h a t a tS u t ton B eng e r ( W i l t sh i r e ) , w a s p e r ce iv ed b y t he C hu r ch a st h e t r ee o f d e s i r e , c apab l e o f a r ou s ing l u s t ( Ande r son a nd H ick s , 1 990 : 1 20 ) . I ti sp e rhap si ns uch ac on tex tt h a tt h ei mag e so f t h e m e rma id d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e a tL acock Abbey , a nd t h e d og w ea r ing aw oman ' s h eadd r e s s a nd d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e a t S t eep le L ang f o rd , m ay b e mo r e f u l ly u nde r s tood . T he m e rma id o r s i r en w a s c ommon ly a s soc ia t ed w i th p ro s t i tu t ion b y m ed iev a lw r i te r s w h i l e o the r s a t i r ica l f i gu r e s s uch a s h a rp ie s a nd mon s t rou s w omen c ou ld b e d ep i c t ed w ea r ing f a sh ionab l e h eadd r e s se s ( Ha s s ig , 1 999b : 7 9 - 2 ;s e e a l so c hap t e r ) .T he h yb r id b ody o ft h e me rma id , h owev e r , m ay h av e b een v i ewed a s ap a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia t e o ne w i th wh ich t oa s soc ia t et h ed i sgo rg ing o ff ol iag e c a r ry ing a si td i d c onno ta t ion s o f s upe rn a tu r a l d ang e r a s w el a s b enevo l en t p ow e r s , a nd t h e r eby l o ca t ing t h e i mag e i n ad i s t inc t ly o the r z one i n w h ich a mb igu i t y , a nd t h e refor e , t h e s a c r ed , w a s m ade m an if e s t .

C onc lu s ion T oday t h e G r een Man a ppea r s a s af i gu rehead f o r n eo p ag an s p i r i tua l i ty , a n i mag e t h rough wh ich t h e d ynam ic f o r ce s o f n a tu r e a nd h uman i ty m ay b e s e en t o me rg e a nd s u s ta in e a ch o the r i n a s ymb io t ic , c y cl i ca l , a nd c ompa s s iona t e e mb r ace ( H ick s , 1 997 , 2 000 ; H a rd ing 1 99 b ) . A l though s u ch c on t empo rane i ty i sv i v id t e s t amen t t o t h e s t reng th a nd a dap tab i l i t y o f t h e i mag e i ti su n l ik e ly t h a t m ed ieva l p eop l e w ou ld h ave u nde r s tood i ti n e xa c t ly t h e s ame w ay . R edo len t w i th c on cep t s o f r e su r rec t ion a nd r enewa l t h e d i sgo rg e r o ff ol i ag e i nt h e R omane sque p e r iod g ene ra l ly a c compan ied s a c r ed f i gu r e s o r c r ea tu r e s a s soc ia ted w i th t h em , s u ch a s t h e l i on a nd t h ed ragon . T he T r ee o f

R i ta Wood s ugg e s t st h a tf e l ine h ead sd i sgo rg ing a s ymme t r ica l f ol i age i nR omane sque a r ta r ei mage s o fe v i lo nt h i sb a s i s ( 2 000 : 1 2 ) .

6 2

F o l iage D i sgorger sa nd F o l ia te C rea ture s d ang e rou s ly u n s tab le z one s o f t h e mou th a nd o the r o pen ing s , t og e the r w i th i t s a s soc ia t ion s w i th t h e f e cund , mu tab le v eg e t ab le w o r ld a l d raw a t t en t ion t o t h e e pheme ra l i ty o f t h e b ody . A s c adav e r o r d i sgo rg e r , t h e h uman f a ce d i s tor t s w i th t h e f o r ce o f i s su ing s t em s , d i s so lv ing t h e h uman a mong t h e l e ave s . O rgan ic p roce s se s s uch a s e a t ing , i n wh ich s ub s t ance s w e r e a b so rbed i n to o ne ' s b ody , w e re my s te r iou s a nd t h r ea t en ing f o r s im i l a r r e a son s , b r eak ing d own t h e b ounda r ie s b e tw een s e lf a nd o the r , i n s ide a nd o u t s ide ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 36 ) . I n g en e ra l , ' g r een s ymbo l i se s g row th , a nd g row th s ymbol i sm c an r e f e r t o a ppa r en t ly i r r econc i l ab l e p o s i t iv e a nd n eg a t iv e f e el ing s a nd e mo t ion s ' ( Hu t ch ing s , 1 997 : 6 1 ) .

L i f e a nd o the r f ol i ag e i n c e r ta in c on t ex t s a l so p o in ted t owa rd s t h e a f t e rl i f e made p o s s ib le b y t h e i n ca rna t ion a nd d ea th o fC h r i s t a nd t h e se c onnec t ion s p e r s i s ted t h roughou t t h el a te rm ed ieva lp e r iod . I ndeed t h ei mag ei sc l o se ly r e la t ed t om ed iev a lc once rn s w i th t h e r e su r r ec t ion o ft h e b ody a nd f ound f a vou rab le l o ca t ion s o n t omb s f r om t h e t w e lf th t h rough t ot h ef i f teen th c en tu r ie s . Whe r ea s R omane sque i mag e ry t e nded t owa rd s a b s t r ac t ion , h owev e r ,l a t e rm ed ieva lG r een Men d o n o t s h r ink f r om t h e p r e sen ta t ion o f p hy s ica l s uf f e r ing a nd d ecay . L oca t ed i n s u ch l im ina lt e r r i tor y , u n i t ing b o th l i f e a nd d ea th , t h e i mag e i sc apab l e o f p o in t ing t owa rd t h e g l or y o f t h e a f t e r l if e a s w el a sh i gh l igh t ing t h e p a in o ft h e p hy s ica l w o r ld . C lo se ly r e la ted i s t h e c e s sa t ion o f c a rv ing s o f f e l ine h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e , o n ce p rom inen t i n t h e R omane sque p e r iod , a s t h e f o cu s s h if t s t owa rd s r e p re sen ta t ion s o f i n d iv idu a l h uman s . C r ea tu r e s t h a t h ad t r ad i t iona l ly b een a s soc ia ted w i th g r eenery — t h e l i on a nd t h e s e rpen t/d ragon —n ow c on t r ibu te mo r e t ot h e mon s t rou s f o rm s t h a tg a the r a r ound t h ee dg e so fb u i ld ing s .

S uch d r ama t ic v i sua l iza t ion o ft h e b ody — t h e f am i l ia r m ade s t rang e ,t h e s t r ang ea sf am i l ia r —i swholy g ro t e squ e , s e rv ing a s a f o r cefu l r em inde r o f t h e i n s tab i l i t y a nd i n t e r connec t edne s s o fl i f e . F o r t h e l a t e r m ed ieva l p e r iod i n p a r t icu la r , t h e " g ap s" b e tw een h uman a nd o the r , t h e p o in t s a t wh ich t h e h uman c onf ron ted t h e o the rn e s s o ft h e d i v ine a nd d i abol i c , w e re f i rm ly l o ca ted i n a nd e xp lo red t h rough t h e p hy s ica lb ody . W i th in t h e se g ap s a ppea r ed t h e i mag e o f t h e G reen Man , a l chem icaly b l end ing t og e the ro therwo r ld ly e c s ta sy w i th p hy s ica ls uf f e r ing .

T he a mb igu i ty o f t h e i mag e , c olap s ing t h e t h eme s o f r e su r r ec t ion a nd c o r rup t ion a nd f o cu s s ing u pon t h e

6 3

C hap te r6

Devou r ing a nd D is to r ted Mou ths

I n t roduc t ion a t B road C ha lk e a nd i n t h e s ou th t r an sep t a t Ame sbu ry , b o th c arv ing s d a t ing t o t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry ( F ig . 6 . l a ) . A l so i n t h e s ou th t r an sep t a t Ame sbu ry i s aw a l l -p l a te s cu lp tu re o f amon s te r d evour ing a h uman h ead -f i r s t , t he v i c t im g r ipped a tt he w r i s t s b y t h e b ea s t ' s h and s ( F ig . 6 . l b ) , a n i mag e wh ich c an b e a l so b e f ound w i th m ino r v ar ia t ion s a s ag ro te sque o n t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e t ow e r a t B ren t Knol . S he r idan a nd R o s s h av e p ubl i shed ap i c tu re o f

G reen Men wou ld a ppea r t o s ub s tan t ia te B akh t in ' s s t a temen t t h a t t h e mou th i s ' t he mo s t i mpor tan t o f a l h uman f e a tu re s f o r t h e g ro te sque ' ( Bakh t in , 1 984 : 3 17 ) . I n t h i s c hap te r Iw i sh t oc on t inue t oe xp lo re t ho se c a rv ing s i n wh i ch t h e mou th f e a tu re s h eav i ly , b u t whe rea s t h e p rev iou s c hap t e r t ook d i sgo rg ing o r r egu rg i ta t ion a si t s ma in t h eme t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s o ne w i l l l o ok a t i t s o ppo s i te — d evou r ing . T he s e cond p a r t w i l l t h en t u rn t o l o ok a t f i gu ra t iv e c a rv ing s c ha rac te r ized b y ad i s tor ted mou th , e xemp l if i ed b y mou th -pu l l e r c arv ing s b u t a l so t ongu e e x tende r s a nd g r imac ing h ead s .

t he Am e sbu r y d evou re r a nd s ugg e s t t h a t i tr ep r e sen t s a g i an t ( 1 975 : 3 0 ) , a n a s ser t ion s ub s tan t i a ted i n p a r t b y a c a rv ing a t n ea rby Me lk sham i n W i l t sh i re . H e re , o n t h e e x te r io r s ou th s i de o f t h e n av e i s a f i f teen th -cen tu r y w indow a r ound wh ich o ccu r t h ree c arv ing s —t wo a sl a be l s t op s t o t h e h ood -mou ld a nd o ne a bov e t h e a pex o f t h e a r ch a s ag ro t e sque . T he l a be l s t op s a r e c arv ed w i th a n im a l s — af ox r unn ing w i th ad ead g oo se h e ld i ni t s mou th b y t h e n eck a nd ad og among b i rd s —b u t t h e c a rv ing s i t ed a bov e t h e a pex i st h a t o f ah uman f i gu re w i th r o tund b e l ly a nd p o in ted t e e th g naw ing al a rg e b one , a n i mag e t h a t m ay w e l l r ep re sen t ag i an t .

The Devou r ing Mou th T he a c t o f d evou r ing i s r ep re sen ted i n m any w ay s i n m ed i ev a l c a rv ing s . Ih ave s e lec t ed f ou r b road g roup s o f i mag e s f r om a mong t h e ma t e r i a l i n t h e r e g ion i n o rde r t o p re sen t ac a se f o r ad eep roo ted a nd l ong l a s t ing t r ad i t ion o f c a rv ing s uch i mage s , y e t o ne i n wh ich a dap ta t ion a nd d i v e r s i t y t h r iv ed . T he se a r e : b i t ing b ea s t h ead s , Go th ic g i an t s , a n im a l s e a t ing o the r a n im a l s , a nd h um an s i n t h e mou th so f mon s te r s .

T he d evou r ing t h eme c on t inue s i n t ho se c arv ing s t h a t r ep re sen t a n ima l s b e ing e a ten b y o r a ppea r ing i n s ide t h e mou th s o f o the r a n ima l s ; f e a r som e p r eda tor y a n ima l s o r

R om ane sque c o rbe l s f r equen t ly d ep ic t b ea s t h ead s c hew ing o rb i t ing u pon s o me th ing s uch a s as t i ck , t h e e nd s o f wh ich p ro t rud e f r om e ach s i de o f t h e mou th . T h ree e xamp le s f r om t h e c o rbe l tab le a t S tud l and a r e s ugge s t iv e o f s uch a c t iv i ty a l though a l h av e b een d e sc r ibed d i f f e ren t ly b y L undg r en a nd T hu r lby who b el i ev e t h a t t h e p ro t ru s ion s i n t h e se c a se s a r e e i the r s hor t t u sk s o r s t y l ized h um an h ead s , t h e l a t t e r r ep re sen t ing ' t he d evou r ing o f h uman s ou l s ' ( 1 999 : 4 ) . T h i s may b e t h e c a se , a l though a l i mage s b ea r c l o se s im i l a r i t i e s t o o the r c a rved c o rbe l s a nd c ap i ta l s i nt h e r e g ion t h a t a ppea r t o r ep r e sen t b ea s t h ead s b i t ing o r c hew ing u pon a s t i ck , a s a t Ma iden N ew ton ( Do r se t ) a nd E ng l i sh combe ( S ome r se t ) , t h e f o rme r ah or se h ead , t h e l a t te r ac ap i ta l c arv ed w i th a h uman -an ima l h ead . A t S t J ohn ' s , D ev ize s , o ne o ft h e b ea s t h ead s i nt h e c o rbe l tab le o nt h en or th s i de o ft h ec hance lb i te su pon al e ng th o fr ope .

b i rd s s uch a s l i on s , f oxe s a nd e ag le s a r e c ommon ly r ep re sen ted i n s uch a m anne r . Among s t t h e R omane sque c o rbe l s o n t h e e x te r io r n or th s i de o f t h e n av e a tR om sey , f o r e xamp le , t h e re i s af e l ine b ea s t h ead i n who se o pen mou th a ppea r s ar oden t i np rof i le ( F ig . 6 .2 a ) w h i le o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e n av e a tL ul ing ton a no the r R omane sque c o rbe l c a rv ed w i th a f e l ine h ead a ppea r s t o d evou r o r d i sgo rge f i v e b i rd h ead s o r s e rpen t s ( F ig . 6 . 2 b ) . T he d evou r ing a n ima l i se a s i ly f ound t h roughou t l a te r med iev a l

Du r ing t h el a te r med i ev a lp e r iod av a r i a t ion u pon t h i s s t i ck b i t ing t h em e o ccu r s a t an umbe ro fl o ca t ion s i nW i l t sh i re i n c a rv ing s t h a t r ep re sen t h um an h ead s g naw ing a b one o r h o ld ing a b one b e tw een t h e t e e th . E xamp l e s o f t h e l a t te r m ay b e f ound o nt h ee x te r io ro ft h es ou th s i de o ft h et owe r

J u s ta sc ommon a r ei m ag e s t h a td ep ic th uman f i gu re si nt h e mou th s o fa n im a l s o r mon s te r s . T he R omane sque c o rbe l s a t R om sey Abbey p re sen t an umbe r o f e xamp le s o f s uch c a rv ing s a mong t h e c o rbe l s o n t h e e x te r io r o ft h e t r an sep t s , c hance l a nd n av e a i s l e s . Al a r e b a sed u pon a b ea s t h ead

a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e t oo , whe the r i nt h e f o rm o ft h e f ox w i th ag oo se i ni t s mou th , t y p ica l ly h e ld b y t h e n eck a s a t Me lk sham a nd among t h e f i f teen th -cen tu ry r oof b o s se s a t L acock Abbey ; a s al i on a t tack ing o the r c r ea tu r e s , s uch a s t he s uck l ing s ow c a rv ed o n af ou r teen th -cen tu ry b o s s i nt h e s ou th n av e a i s le a tW inche s te r C a thed ra l ( Cav e , 1 934 : 5 0 ) , o ri no the rc omb ina t ion s o fp reda to ra nd p rey .

w i th i t s mou th o pen w ide , w i th in wh i ch a ppea r s e i the ra n

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S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 6 . 1( a a nd b ) Two c arv ing s f r om t he f i f teen th -cen tury w ooden r oof i n t he s ou th transep t a t Ame sbury (W i l t sh ire ) . On t he l e f t ( 6 . l a ) a h uman h ead g r ip s ab one b e tween t he t e e th ; o n t he r i gh t ( 6 . l b ) ah umano id mons ter d evour s ah uman b ody h ead f i r s t .

a

F igure 6 . 2 ( a a nd b ) R omane sque b eas t h eads w i th a n ima l s i n t he mouth . On t he l e f t ( 6 . 2 a ) a

h ead

f r om

R omsey

Abbey c arved w i th a r oden t i n i t s j aw s ; o n t he r i ght ( 6 . 2 b ) a c arv ing f r om L u l l ing ton w i th f i ve b i rd 's

h eads

p ro trud ing

f r om t he c rea ture 's j aw s .

a

F igure 6 . 3 ( a a nd b ) R omane sque f r om R omsey

c orbe l s Abbey

c arved w i th b eas t h eads i n whose j aw s a ppear h uman f i gure s . T he i mage o n t he l e f t ( 6 . 3 a ) a ppear s o n t he s ou th t r ansep t ; t he f i gure o n t he r i gh t ( 6 . 3 b ) i s l o ca ted o n t he n or th t r ansep t .

a

6 6

D evour ing a nd D i s tor ted Mou ths t h e mou th t h a t t h e s p i r i tm igh te n te r a nd l e av e t h eb ody . I n c hap te r 5 I men t ioned a n i l u s t ra t ion i n He r r ad o f Hohenbou rg ' s H or tu sD e l i c i ar um i n wh ich God a n ima te s t h e f r e sh ly c r ea t ed f o rm o f Adam b y b rea th ing i n to h i s mou th ( 1 979 : F o l . 1 7r ( P l . 1 0 ) , 1 6 ) . Wel i n to t h e s i x teen th a nd s ev en t een th c en tu r ie s t h e mou th w a s p opu la r ly c once iv ed o f a s t he p o in t o f e x i t f o r t h e s ou l , wh ich m igh t t a k e o n a n ima l f o rm . C a r lo G inzbe rg c i te s p ar to ft h e t e s t imon ia lo f a n o ld w oman , C r ez i a o f P i ev e S an P ao lo , a ccu sed o f w i t chc raf ti n1 589 : ' For ty y ea r s o r more a go , Ik new aw i tch c aled G i anna , a nd o nce when s he f e l a s l eep Is aw amou se c ome o u to fh e r mou th ;i tw a s h e r s p i r i ta nd Id o n o tk now whe re i tw a s g o ing ' ( c i ted i n G inzbe rg , 1 983 : 1 9 -20 ) . T he mou th , c once iv ed o fa sb o th p o in t o fe n t ry a nd/o r e x i t f o r t h e s ou li n to o r o u t o ft h e b ody , m igh t t hu s b e r eg a rded a s ' o ne o ft h e p r inc ipa lt h re sho ld s o ft h e b ody a nd t hu s o ft h e s e lf , ab o rde rb e tween t h ei n s ide a nd t h e o u t s ide ' ( W i ll i am s , 1 996 : 1 4 1 ) . T he i mag e o ft h e mou th o f f e red ar e a l i za t ion o f t h e c onnec t ion s b e tween b ody a nd s ou l a nd c on sequen t ly r e l a ted a c t iv i t ie s s uch a se a t ing a nd s peak ing w e re i nv e s ted

u p r igh th uman h ead o r af u l lf i gu r ei n ah or izon t a lp o s i t ion . F ou r c o rbe l s may b e f ound h e re c a rv ed w i th s u ch d e s ign s , t wo w i th h uman h ead s a nd t wo w i th h um an f i gu re s , o n e o f wh i ch h a s a rm s c ro s sed a t t h e w r i s t s ( F ig s 6 . 3 a -b ) . A v a r ian t u pon t h i s t h eme may b e f ound a t S t J ohn ' s , Dev ize s , whe re ac o rbe l o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l p or t ray s a n emb rac ing c oup l e w i th in a c av e rnou s b ea s t mou th . Wh i l s t t he se i mag e s r ep re sen t f i gu re s t h a t a r e a l ready l o ca ted w i th in t h e mou th s o f b ea s t s , o the r med iev a l c arv ing s d ep i c t f i gu re s e n te r ing t h e mou th o ri nt h e p roce s s o f b e ing e a ten . Two f e a tu re s c h a r ac t e r i ze t h e se i mag e s . F i r s t , t h e h uman f i gu re e n te r s t h e mou th h ead -f i r s t a nd i s t he refo re o f ten d ep i c ted o n ly f r om t h ew a i s td own . S econd , t h e f i gu re may b e h e ld b y t h e mon s te r a si tc l o se s i t s j aw s o ve r t h e v i c t im ' s h ead a nd u ppe r b ody . Ih av e a l ready i l u s t ra ted a n e xamp l e f r om Ame sbu ry ( F ig . 6 .l b ) ; f u r the r e xamp le s c an b e f ound a t R om sey Abbey , B i shop ' s C ann ing s a nd B ren t Knol . T he c a rv ing a tR om sey o ccu r s o n am id twe lf th -cen tu ry c ap i ta l i n t h e s ou th c hance l a i s l e a nd d ep i c t s t he l ow e rp a r t o f at un i c -c lad f i gu re f a l l ing i n to t h e j aw s o f ag ap ing l e on ine h ead . T he i mage s f r om Ame sbu ry a nd B ren t Knol ,t h el a t te rc arv ed i nt h er ound a s ag ro te sque o n t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e w e s t t ow e r , b o th r ep re sen t a mon s t rou s c r ea tu re w i th l e on ine o r g ene r i c b ea s t f e a tu re s ( e .g . s haggy h a i r/mane , c l aw s , a n ima l e a r s ) a s w el a sa n o v e r s i zed h ead , h o ld ing ah uman b y t h e a rm s o r w r i s t s wh i le t h e mou th c l o se s o v e r t he v i c t im ' s h ead a nd u ppe r b ody . T he se t wo c a rv ing s a ppea r i n l a te f i f teen th -

w i th n um inou s c ha rac t e r i s t i c s . I n c l o i s te red c ommun i t ie s w o rd s w e re ' s avou red a sp a r t o f t h e s l ow a nd d e l ibe ra t e r epe t i t ion s i n ad a i ly d i ge s ted d i e t ' ( Cam ile , 1 985a : 2 9 ) . I ndeed , t h e a c to fr e ad ing ' i sv e ry o f ten e xp re s sed b yt h en u t r i t iv em e taphor s o fe a t ing a nd d r ink ing : c ommen t a to r s b i t e , d r ink , c hew , r um ina te a nd d i ge s t ' ( Sm i th , 1 994 : 2 29 ) . T he c onnec t ion b e tween r e ad ing a nd e a t ing may b e s e en a s b ibl i ca l ly i n sp i r ed f o r much o f ' t he ma te r i a l o n e a t ing b ook s c ome s f r om c omm en ta r ie s o n R eve la t ion 1 0 .9 -10 , whe re a n a ng e l g i ve s ab ook t oJ ohn a nd t e l s h im t oe a t i t .T he w o rd u sed i sn o t s imp ly c om ed i t e ( e a t ) b u td e v or a ( d evou r ) ' ( i b id . ) . T o d evou rt h e wo rd o f God mean t t o b u i ld i ti n to t h e v e ry f a b r ic o f o ne ' s b ody , t o b ecom e al i v ing B ib le . T hu s t h e d a i ly med i ta t ion s o n s a c red s c r iptu re w ou ld , o v e r t ime a nd t h rough t h e e ye s a nd t h e mou th ,i mp r in tt h ed i v ine w o rd i n to t h ev e ry f l e sh .

c en tu ry c on tex t s . I n a dd i t ion t o l e on ine mon s te r s d evou r ing h uman f i gu re s , t h e f i f teen th -cen tu r y r oof b o s s b enea th t h e c r o s s ing t owe r a tB i shop ' s C ann ing s s how s ad ragon i nt h e s ame r o le ( F ig . 6 .4 ) . H e re t he u nfor tuna t e h uman i sh e ld i nt he d r agon ' s t a lon s wh i le t he b ea s tb i te s i n to t h eh ead . On t h e s ou thw e s t c o rne r o f t h e n av e a t S t C y r iac ' s , L acock , aq uadrupeda l b ea s t w i th a t a i l a nd d ragon l ik e s nou t b u t l a ck ing w ing s a ppea r s c ha ined t o t h e c hu r ch , e a t ing as ucce s s ion o f wha t may h ave b een h uman f i gu re s ( F ig . 6 . 5 ) . Howev e r , w ea the r ing h a s u nfo r tuna te ly e roded t h i s p a r t o ft h e i mag e b eyond r e cogn i t ion a nd a cco rd ing ly a ny i d en t if i ca t ion o f h uman f o rm s mu s tr em a in c on jec tu r a l .

R ead ing w a s o f c ou r se a n a c t iv i ty o f c l o i s te red c ommun i t ie s , o r s e cu l a r men a nd women w i th s o me w ea l th t o s pa r e . Y e t as im i la r c oncep t —o f a b so rb ing t he d i v ine p re sence i n to o ne ' s b ody v i a t h e mou th a nd d i ge s t iv e p roce s s — wou ld h av e b een f am i l i a r t o e v e ryone a t tend ing ma s s , l i t e ra te o rn o t . I n t h e r i tua lo ft h e ma s s , ' t he r e cu r r en t m i rac l e o fr e su r run on ing o ft h e i n ca rna t e h i s to r i ca l b ody o f C h r i s t ' i n to t h e c ommun ion b read a nd w ine , med i ev a l v i l l age r s n o t o n ly w i tne s sed t h e c on ju r ing o f God a t t h e a l ta r b u t p ar took i n t h e e a t ing o f God ' s b ody ( Rub in , 1 992 : 5 0 ) . A ga in , l i k e med i ta t iv e r e ad ing , t h e empha s i s i s u pon t h e d i ge s t iv e a b so rp t ion o f C h r i s t t o e f f ec t t r an sfo rma t ion w i th in , t o g row n ea re r t o God b o th p hy s i caly a nd s p i r i tua l ly . I fo ne c ou ld d i ge s ta nd a b so rb t h e d i v ine p re sence o f God v i a t h e w r i t ten wo rd a nd t he m a s s , s o o ne c ou ld i nt u rn b e d i ge s ted a nd a b so rbed . T h roughou t t h e l a t e r M idd le Ag e s t h e d ev e lopmen t o ft h e i mage o ft h e h el mou th g av e v i sua l e xp re s s ion t o t h e e f f ec t s o f d amna t ion i n ap rof ound ly v i sce ra l manne r , h el b e ing p re sen ted a so ne l ong p roce s s o fd evou r ing a nd d i g e s t ion i n wh i ch s ou l sw e re g r adua l ly b rok en d own . T h i sw a s d i f f e ren t t ot h ed ea th o f t h e p iou s , who se s ou ll i v ed o n : e n t ry i n to

I n many o f t he se i mag e s t h e l i on a nd t h e d r agon ( a nd l e on ine a nd s e rpen t ine f e a tu r e s ) a ppea rt ob eu sed i ns im i la r w ay s i n o rde r t o a r t i cu la te a f e a r some a nd d ange rou s e ne rgy . Th i s c onnec t ion b e tween t h e t wo c r ea tu re s a nd t he i r d e r iv a t iv e s h a s a l ready man i f e s ted i n v ege ta t iv e i mag e ry ( c hap t e r 5 )a nd w il b e s e en t ob e p re sen t among s t s i ren i magery ( c hap t e r 8 ) , d ue i n p a r t p e rhap s t o t h e r e la t ion sh ip s i ren sh av ew i th f ol i age .

The Me taphy s ic s o f Appe t i te C lea r ly , med iev a l c u l tu re r e g a rded t h e mou th a s a n e no rmou s ly s i gn if i can tp a r t o ft h e b ody a nd o ne l a den w i th s ymbol i sm , s o me a spec t s o f wh i ch Ih av e e xp lo red i n t h e p r eced ing c hap te rw i th r ega rd t od i sgo rg ing . I tw a s t h rough

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F igure 6 . 4A d ragon d evour ing ah uman f i gure h ead f i r s t , c arved o n o ne o ft he f i f teen th -cen tury r oof b osse s i nt he t ower c ro ss ing a tB ishop 's C ann ing s i n Wi l t sh ire .

F igure 6 . 5Mons ter c ha ined t ot he s ou th -we s tc orner o ft he c hurch a tS tC yr iac 's , L acock (W i l t sh ire ) , p oss ib ly e a t ing h uman f i gure s . T he c arv ing d a te st ot he f i f teen th -cen tury .

D evour ing a nd D i s tor ted Mou ths t h e h e l l -mou th m ean tt h el o s s o fo ne ' s s ou l ,i ns hor t , at o ta l a nn ih i l a t ion o f s e lf . T he t o rmen t s o f h el i n t h e H or t u s D e l i c i a r um a r e a s soc i a ted w i th t h e r i pp ing a pa r t , ma s t ica t ing , a nd s w alow ing o f t h e b od ie s o f t he d amned . ' An t i ch r i s t ' s t h rone e a t s s i nne r s ,a nd d ecap i ta t ed h ead s a r ep re s sed u nde r i t s c l aw s ; ad e mon f o rce s money i n to t h e mou th o f ag r eedy m an ; J ew s a r e b o i l ed i n ac ook ing p o t ; aw om an e a t s h e r c h i ld ' ( Bynum , 1 995 : 1 92 ) .

The D is tor ted Mou th G r imac ing Heads a nd P ro t rud ing Tongues G r imac ing o r f a ce -con tor t ing h ead s may b e f ound w i th r egu la r i ty a mong med iev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lptu r e a nd a r e a p a r t icu la r f e a tu re o f many R omane sque c o rbe l tab l e s i nt h e r e g ion . A t R om sey Abbey t h e re a r e t h ree c o rbe l s c a rv ed w i th h ead s w i th a n a rm t h a tg r ip s t h e c h in t op u l lt h e l owe r h a l f o f t h e f a ce t o o ne s i de , t he reby d i s tor t ing t h e mou th ( F ig . 6 . 6 ) . Many o f t he c o rbe l s o n t h e w e s t s i de o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t a tW inche s te r C a thed r a l a r e s im i la r ly c a rv ed w i th g r imac ing h ead s a l though t h e se e xamp le s a r e e xagg e ra ted t o s uch ad eg ree t h a t t h e mu sc l e s i n t h e n eck s t and p roud . Mov ing i n to t h e t h i r teen th c en tu ry b u t s t i l l v e ry much i n t he R omane sque t r ad i t ion a r e t he i mage s c a rved o n t h e c o rbe l t ab le s s u r round ing t h e t ow e r s a t M i lfo rd -on sea a nd B i shop ' s C ann ing s . L ike t he c a rv ing s a t R om sey a nd Winche s te r g r imac ing h ead s c an b e f ound t h roughou t t h e se o f ten h i gh ly r epe t i t iv e s equence s a nd a ppea r among s t s m i l ing h ead s , b ea s t h ead s , m a sked h ead s a nd h yb r id f i gu re s ( F ig . 6 .7 ) .

T he h e l l -mou th d rew u pon f ou r p r inc ipa l i mage s —' h el p i c tu r ed a sa n o pen p i t t h a t s walow s t h e u nbe l iev e r , S a tan p i c tu r ed a s ar oa r ing l i on s e ek ing s ou l s t o d evou r , S a tan p i c tu r ed a s ad r agon s pou t ing i n f e rna lf l ame s ,a nd L ev i a than t h e g r ea t s e a b ea s t ' ( S chm id t , 1 995 : 3 2 ) . T he c onnec t ing t h read b e tween t h e se i mag e s w a s ' t he c ommon s t re s s o n d amna t ion a nd i t sa wfu ls p i r i tua le f f ec t s ' : T he h o r ro ro fb e ing s w alowed , t h e t e r ro r o fb e ing c hew ed ,t h e f e a ro fb e ing e t e rna l ly c u to f ff r om a ny s ympa the t i c c r ea tu r e , t h e c l au s t rophob i c s en se o f e nc lo su re , t h e t o rmen t s o f f i r e a nd d a rkne s s —a l a r e c ommon e l emen t s o f t h e p i t , t h e l i on , t h e d r agon ,a nd L ev i a than ( i b id . ) .

L a te r med i ev a l g r imace r s may b e f ound i n s im i la r a r ch i tec tu r a l l o ca t ion s . A t L e igh ( Do r se t ) t h e p iou s f i gu re l o ca ted o n t h e s ou thwe s t c o rne r o f t h e w e s t t owe r who h o ld s h i s h and s t og e the r b e low h i s c h in i n a n a t t i tude o f p raye r g r imace s h eav i ly , a s d o many o f t h e g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s t h a t l i ne t h e e x t e r io r n o r th s i de o f t h e n or th c hape l a t O ld B a s ing ( Hamp sh i re ) . A t B road C ha l i ce a g r imac ing f a ce l ook s o u t f r om t he s t r ing -cou r se t h a t r un s b enea th t h e c r enela ted p a r ape t o n t h e e a s t f a ce o f t h e t owe r . Al t h e se e xamp le s o ccu r i n f i f teen th a nd s i x t een th c en tu ry c on t ex t s a nd p rov ide f u r the r e v idence o f t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tween g r imac ing h ead a nd e x te r io rl o ca t ion .

Wh i l s t t h e v a r iou s c ha r ac te r i s t i c s o f t h e se c r ea tu r e s c oa l e sced i nt h eh el -mou th , o n a ni nd iv idua ll e v e le a ch o ne w a s a b l e t o c a r ry t h e h el -mou th m e t apho r . L ion , d r agon a nd s e a -mon s te r w e re p ar t o f ' a n i mag ina t iv e f r amewo rk t h a t c onnec ted t h e n o t ion o fb e ing s w alowed w i th t h a t o f mov ing i n to h el , o fb ecom ing h el ' s p rey o r f ood , o fb e ing d amned ' ( i b id . 4 4 ) . T he i mage s t h a t Ih av e p re sen ted a bov e f r om b u i ld ing s i n t h e s ou th a nd w e s t o f E ng land o f t en f e a tu re l e on ine o r s e rpen t ine c r ea tu re s a s t h e d evou r e r s , p e rhap s t o d e l ibe ra t e ly a r t icu la te t he se h el -mou th a s soc i a t ion s . I n t h i s s en se t h e re i s ac a se t o b e m ade f o r med i ev a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re a s a mo ra l i z ing med ium . Y e t , a l though t h e se i mage s m igh t v i sua l i ze ad readfu l s ou l l o s s t h e h el -mou th a nd a s soc i a ted i mage ry g oe s b eyond a s imp l ed i da c t ic i sm t oc onv ey ,

Mo re w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t med iev a l e cc le s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s i st h e h ead o r f i gu r e e x tend ing t h e t ongue . T h ree ma in s t y l e s a r e d i sce rn ib l e : s ho r t , p ok ing -ou t t ongue s ; l ong t ongu e s t h a td roop o v e rt h ec h in ;a nd s p l i tt ongue s .

t h e r e l en t l e s sne s s o f c hange a nd d i s so lu t ion , t h e d ev a s ta t ing p owe r o f t ime , t h e i n ev i t ab i l i ty o f d ea th . I n t h e h e l l -mou th f i gu re , h uman s a r e God ' s v i c t im ; t h e i n f e r io r s pec ie s h a s b ecome f ood , i n g e s t ed a nd d i g e s ted , d i sappea r ing f o rev e r d own t h e t h roa t o f a n i n sa t iab le a nd i mp lacab le p owe r ( W i l l i am s , 1 996 : 1 44 ) .

E xamp le s o ft h e f i r s t c a tego ry a r e c ommon t h roughou t t h e p e r iod . An e a r ly e xamp le o ccu r s b enea th t h e l a te e l ev en th c en tu ry c r o s s ing t owe ra tA l ton , c arved i n to o ne o ft h e p a l e l ime s tone c ap i ta l s . H e re t h e i mage i st h a t o f as ma l l f a ce w i th a n e x tended t ongue , e a sy t o m i s s a mong t h e v o lu te s a nd f o l i ag e s p r ig s t h a t c ha rac te r ize t h e d eco r a t ion h e re — i ndeed , t h e i mag e o ccu r s whe re a v o lu te m igh t w el b e e xpec ted . Smal h ead s c arv ed among g eome t r ic d e s ign s a nd a b s t r ac t f ol i ag e a r e as t anda rd f e a tu re o f t h e r eper to i re o f R omane sque c ap i ta l i m age ry a nd i nt h i s i n s tance t h e c a rv e r h a s e l abo ra ted o n t h e s t anda rd f o rmu l a . R om ane sque c o rbe l tab le s i n t h e a r ea o nce a g a in p rov e t o b e v a lu ab l e s ou rce s o f i mage ry , b ea s t h ead s w i th e x t ended t ongu e s e a s i ly f ound a mong t he c a rv ing s a tS tud land , R om sey a nd W inche s te r . F i f teen th -cen tu ry e xamp l e s o ccu r a mong t h e r oof b o s se s a t S he rbo rne a nd Ame sbu ry i n t h e f o rm o f l e on ine h ead s ( F ig . 6 .8 ) .

J u s t a s l e on ine a nd s e rpen t ine c r ea tu re s w e re c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th v eg e ta t ion , i t se lf a n a mb iguou s s ymbo l i n C h r i s t ian my tho logy b u t o ne o f ten s ugge s t iv e , a s Ih av e s hown i nc hap t e r5 ,o fp o s i t iv ea s soc i a t ion s s uch a ss p i r i tua l r enewa l , s o b o th c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th s w alow ing a nd d amna t ion v i at h ei mag e ry o ft h eh el mou th .

6 9

S ec t ion I I : Head s

F igure 6 . 6C orbe ls f r om R omsey Abbey : ad em i f igure c on tor t st he l ower p ar to ft he f a ce b yt w is t ing t he c h in a nd ac a t , p a ired w i th ah uman h ead , c hew s i t s r i gh tf o repaw .

F igure 6 . 7G r imac ing h eads a nd c on tor ted f a ce s p eer o ut f r om t he c orbe l tab le o n t he t ower a t M i lf ord -on sea i n Hampsh ire .

7 0

De vour ing a nd D i s tor ted Mou ths C a rv ing s t h a t f e a tu re l ong d roop ing t ongue s o ccu r o n R omane sque c o rbe l s a t R om sey a nd S tud land . A t t h e f o rme r t h e i mag e i sl o ca ted o n t h e e a s t e nd o ft h e c hance l a nd i s ap a i r ed f i gu re c o rbe l , t h e t wo h uman i m ag e s p o s se s s ing h ead s o fu nequa l s i ze . T he f i gu re w i th t h e l a rge r o ft h et wo h ead si st h eo ne t h a te x t end s t h e t ongue o v e rt h e

Among t h e c o rbe l t ab l e t h a t r un s t h e l e ng th o fb o th s i de s o ft h e n av e a tS tud l and a r e t h ree mou th -pu l le r i mag e s , t wo o n t h e w e s te r n c or n e r s o f t h e n ave a nd o n e o n t h e s ou th

c h in . T he t wo c a rv ing s a tS tud l and a r e a l so p a i red h ead s , o ne b ea s t a nd o ne h um an , t h e l a t te r t h e c l o se s th ead t ot h e c o rne r o ft h eb u i ld ing a nd a ng led a tf o r ty -f ive d eg ree s t oi t s p ar tne r . Un l ik e t h e r e la t iv e ly s imp ly c arv ed b ea s t h ead t h e h uman h ead i s aw i ld c ompo s i t ion w i th l a rg e s t a r ing e ye s , a mou th p u l l ed a par t b y i t s t wo s k inny a rm s a nd f r om t h e mou th al ong t ongue s p i l l ing o u t o v e rt h e c h in ( F ig . 6 .9 ) . I

o ft h e n av e a l so f e a tu re s ap a i r o fh ead s . On ly o ne o ft h e se i s amou th -pu l l e r b u t b o th a r e a ng led a tf o r ty -f iv e d eg ree s

s i de o f t h e n av e . T he f o rme r a r e e ach p a i red w i th ab ea s t h ead a nd a r e t h em se lv e s a ng led a tf o r ty -f ive d eg ree s t ol o ok o u t d i rec t ly f r om t h e c o rne r ; t h e c arv ing o n t h e s ou th s i d e

s hal r e tu rn t ot h e se i mage s i nt h e s e c t ion o n mou th -pu l le r s ( b e low ) b u t h e r e i t i s w or th n o t ing t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l

f r om t h ew al s ot h a tt h e i rg aze s weep s t h e e n t i r e s ou th s i de o f t h e b u i ld ing . T he c arv ing s a tB road C ha lke d a te t o t h e s i x teen th c en tu r y a nd o ccu r o n t he s ou th p o r ch , a g a in , o n e ach c o rne r . H e re t h e r e i s ar a re e xamp le o f af u l l f i gu re e ngag ed i n mou th -pu l l ing a s w el a s t h e mo re c ommon s i ng le h ead . ( Fur the r e x amp l e s o f b o th R omane squ e a nd l a te rm ed iev a ld a te a r e s umma r ized i nF ig . A 2 . 8 ) .

l o ca t ion , t h e s pec if i c a ng le o f t h e h ead s o t h a t i t s g aze s weep s r ound t h e c o rne r o f t h e b u i ld ing , a nd t h e

Ana ly s i s o f as amp le o ft h e R omane sque i m ag e ry r ev ea l s a

c onnec t ion o f mou th -pu l le r a nd d roop ing t ongu e . L a t e r med ieva l e xamp l e s o ccu r o n t h e f i f teen th -cen tu ry b o s se s a t Ame sbu ry ( W i l t sh ire ) a nd B eau l i eu ( Hamp sh i re ) e ach o f wh i ch d ep ic t s ah uman f a ce w i th a l ong t ongu e e x tended o v e r t h e c h in ( F ig . 6 .1 0 a b ) . T he c a rv ing s a tb o th s i te s a r e s o s im i l a r t o e ach o the r t h a t i tr a i se s t h e q u e s t ion o f whe the r t h ey w e re p roduced b y t h e s ame t e am o f

n umbe r o f d i s t inc t iv e p a t ter n s ( F ig s A 2 . 5 ,A 2 . 6 ,A 2 . 7 ) . F i r s t , t h e se a r e i m ag e s t h a t t e nd t o o ccu r i n a n e x t e r io r p o s i t ion . S econd t h e t y p ica l a r ch i t ec tu ra l m ed ium d u r ing t h i s p e r iod i st he c o rbe l wh i ch mean s t h a t t h e se i m ag e s a r e mo s t f r equen t ly f ound a l ong r oo f l ine s . F u r th e r , o ve rh a l fo f t h e s amp le i m age s d i sp l ay s o me b ea s t a spec t , e i the r a s h ybr id h uman -an ima lf o rm s , h uman s p a i r ed w i th a n ima l s o r

c r af t smen .

b ea s t h ead mou th -pu l l e r s . T he l a te r med i eva l i m ag e s a r e s im i l a ri nm any r e spec t s . Ag a in t h e p redom inan t p o s i t ion i s a n e x te r io r o ne , p a r t i cu la r ly a sr oo f l ine c a rv ing s —g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te squ e s . T he a n ima l a spec t i ss t i l l c u r ren t a l though l e s s d rama t ic t h an t h a to ft h eR om ane sque i m age s .

S pl i tt ongu e s a r el e s s f r equ en ta mong med iev a la r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re t h an t h e c a rv ing s d e sc r ibed a bov e , b u t t wo e xamp le s o fw ide ly d i f f er ing d a te e x i s t a tS tJ ohn ' s , Dev ize s a nd M i l fo rd -on sea . T he i mage a t D ev i ze s i sc arv ed a s a c o rbe l i n t he c hu rch o f S tJ ohn o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e c hance l , i t se lf f o rme r ly o n t h e e x t e r io rb u t n ow e nc lo sed b y t h e a dd i t ion o f af i f teen th -cen tu ry c hape l . T he c a rv ing , l i k e t h er e s to ft h e s equ ence o nt h i sp a r to ft h ec hu rch ,i s ab ea s t h ead c a rved i n as imp le , r ounded manne r w i th t h e mou th o pen e nough t op e rm i tv i ew ing o f as pl i tt ongue . T he i mag e a t M i lfo rd o ccu r s a s am id sev en teen th -cen tu ry r oof b o s s a nd f e a tu r e s t h e f a ce o f aw oman who se d i v ided t ongue e x tend s f r om h e r mou th . T he t ongu e s ha re s m any o ft h e a s soc i a t ion s c a r r ied b y t h e mou th b u t i n p ar t icu la r , d ue t o i t s v i ta l r o l e i n t h e p roduc t ion o f s ound s , i sl i nked t o s peech a nd l a nguag e . Empha s i s p l aced u pon t h e t ongue b y e x tend ing i t s n a tu r a l l e ng th o r b y d i v id ing i ti n to t wo p a r t s t e nd s t o b e , i n t h e C h r i s t i an t r ad i t ion , s ugg e s t iv e o f v i ce a nd d ecep t ion ( Gel r ich , 2 000 : 1 07 ) , c ha r ac te r i s t i c s o f ten a s c r ibed t o mou th -pu l le r s .

F igure 6 . 8L eon ine h ead w i th e x tended t ongue , c arved a s a r oof b oss i nt he f i f teen th -cen tury n ave a tS herborne ( Dor se t ) .

Mou th -pule r s

P redom inan t ly , mou th -pu l le r c arv ing s a r e f ound o n med iev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s a s e x t e r io r r oof l ine c a rv ing s s uch a s c o rbe l s , g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s . A s n o ted i n c hap te r4 ,r oof l ine i mag e ry h a s l ong b een a s soc ia ted w i th a n a po t ropa ic f unc t ion a nd t h e p e r s i s tence o f t h i s mo t i f i n s uch a l o ca t ion o v e r s ev e ra l h und red y ea r s m igh t s ugg e s t t h a t t h i s i m age w a s p e r ce iv ed t ob e e f f ec t iv e i ns u ch ar o l e . T he a n ima l a spec t t o t h e c arv ing s m igh t h av ea c cen -

Mou th -pu l le r s a r e c a rv ing s o fh ead s o r f i gu re s who se h and s p u l lt h e c o rne r s o rt op a nd l owe rl i p s o ft h e mou th a pa r tt o c r ea te a d i s tu rb ing g r imace . T he se i m ag e s a r e c ommon t h roughou ta lp e r iod so fm ed iev a la r ch i tec tu ra ls c u lptu re . C a rv ing s a tS tud l and , O ld B a s ing a nd B road C hal i ce s e rve a s g ood i n t roduc t ion s t o t h e mo t i f ( F ig s 6 . 9 ,6 . 1 , 6 . 1 2 ) .

7 1

S ec t ion I : Head s

F igure 6 . 9 ( l ef t ) Mou th p u l ler w i th l o ng d roop ing t ongue , l o ok ing o u t f r om t he n or th -we s t c orner o f t he n ave a t S tud land ( c 1125 140 ) .

F igure 6 . 1 0 ( a a nd b ) F if teen th -cen tury r oof b os se s f r om Ame sbury ( l ef t ) a nd B eau l ieu ( r igh t ) d ep ic t ing h uman h eads w i th l o ng d roop ing t ongue s .

i lek l it , , . . .

F igure 6 . 1 ( l ef t ) Mou th -pu l ler p a ired w i th a s im i lar , a l though n on -mou th -pu l l ing h ead , o n t he s ou th s i de o ft he n ave a t S tud land . B o th h eads a re c arved t o l o ok o u t f r om t he c orbe l a ta bou tf o r ty -f ive d egree s , a l low ing t he ir " gaze" t oc over aw ider r ange t han w ou ld b e p o ss ib le i ft hey w ere s imp ly f a c ing o ut f r om t he w a l l a t a more c onven t iona l a ng le . F igure 6 . 1 2 ( above ) H orned m ou th -pu l ler a nd f o rmer g argoy le i n a l a te m ed ieva l c on tex t a t O ld B as ing i n H ampsh ire . T he a s soc ia t ion b e tween h ybr id b e ing s a nd m outh -pu l l ing i sn o t ac o inc iden ta l o ne f o r i ti sa r t icu la ted b y an umber o fi mage s i nt he r eg ion .

7 2

De vour ing a nd D i s tor ted Mou ths Whe the r d e r ived f r om G e rman i c o r Or ien ta l s ou rce s o r b o th , c onf ron ted a n im a l s o r mon s te r s a r e as t ock mo t i fo f R om ane sque c arv ing . Th i s t r ad i t ion o f r ep r e sen t ing b ea s t s i n s uch amanne r i sl i ke ly t o h ave h ad s om e b ea r ing u pon t h e d ev e lopmen t o fb i co rpo ra te mon s te r s , wh ich a r e a g a in w el r ep re sen ted t h roughou t med iev a l s cu lp tu re . B ico rpo ra te mon s te r s me rge t h e c onf ron ted b ea s t s t og e the r s o t h a t o ne h ead i ss ha red b y t wo b od i e s , a st he e x amp l e s o nt h ee a r ly t w e lf th -cen tu ry c ap i t a l s a tS togu r sey a nd a mong t he s i x teen th -cen tu ry s t alwo rk a t C h r i s t chu rch P r iory i l u s t r a t e w el ( F ig . 6 .1 5 ) . T he se i mage s a r e p e rh ap s mo re c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e h ead b e tween f i gu re s t h an w e m igh t r e a l i ze : af i f teen th -cen tu ry g ro te sque o n t h e e x t e r io r s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e o fS tJ ohn ' s i nF rome ( S ome r se t ) a ppea r s f r om ad i s tance t ob e ah ead b e tw een f i gu re s b u ti si na c tua l f a c t ab i corpo ra t e mon s te r .

t u a ted t h i s p ow e ro rp e rhap s i d en t if i ed t h e mou th -pu l le r a s a n o u t s ide r , l i ke t h e w i ld rn an , c l o se r t o t h e w o r ld o fb ea s t s t h an t h a to fh uman s .

T h eH ead B e tw e en F i g u r e s Av a r i a t ion o n t h e mou th -pu l le r mo t i fi st h e h ead b e tween f i gu re s , a n i m age wh ich t y p i ca l ly a ppea r s a s ac en t ra l h ead w i th af i gu r eo ne ach s i de , e ach f i gu re p u l l ing o pen t h a ts i de o f t h e c en t ra l h ead ' s mou th . T h i s h ead c an b e h um an o r b e s t ia l a nd i n s ome c a se s i s i d en t if i ab l e a s ap a r t i cu l a r c r ea tu re , f o r e xamp le , al i on . T he re a r e an umbe r o f v a r ia t ion s o n t h i s b a s ic f o rma t : o ne o f t h e c arv ing s a t S t in sfo rd o n ly h a s o ne f i gu re a tt h e s i de o ft h e h ead ; o ne o f t h e c arv ing s a t C e rne Abba s , a l so i n Do r se t , h a s at h i rd f i gu re eme rg ing f r om t h e o pen mou th . ' L eon ine o r s e rpent ine c r ea tu re s may a l so a ppea r o n e ach s i de o f t h e h ead i n s tead o fh uman f i gu re s , a st h ee xamp le s a tC ombe S t

De sp i te t h i s r e ady c on tex t o f r e la ted i mag e s , t h e mou th p u l led h ead b e tween f i gu re s i s ah igh ly s pec if i c c a rv ing , i n t e rm s o f g eog r aph ica l a nd a r ch i t ec tu ra l l o ca t ion a s w el a s d a te . O ft h e t w e lve e xamp le s d i scov e red d u r ing t h e c ou r se

N icho la s , L acock ( S t C yr i ac ) , a nd S yd l ing S t N icho la s i l u s t ra te ( s ee F ig . 6 .1 3a -g f o ri l u s t ra t ion sa nd F ig .A 2 . 9f o r as umma ry o ft h ec a rv ing si nt h ea r ea ) .

o f t h i s r e sea rch n ine a r e o n b u i ld ing s i n Do r se t , t wo i n S ome r se t a nd o ne i n W i l t sh i re . Th i s p a r t icu l a r i mag e t h e r ef o re a ppea r s t ob e o ne t h a t f ound f a vou ri n Do r se t o r w a s p e rhap s d ev e loped h e re , a nd may r ep re sen t al o ca l ized t r ad i t ion . Al t h e c a rv ing s a r e t o b e f ound a s g a rgoy le s o r g ro te sque s a nd a s s u ch a ppea r a s r oof l ine i mag e ry o n t h e

B efo re e xp lo r ing s ome o ft h ec ha r ac te r i s t ic s o ft h e se i mag e s i n mo re d e t a i li ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a tt h e h ead b e tween f i gu re s may b e r e l a ted t o an umbe r o f o the r mo t if s i n med iev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re . P e rhap s t h e mo s t o bv iou s a r e t ho se c a rv ing s i n wh ich a n o b jec t a ppea r s b e tween t wo

e x te r io r o f t owe r s , a i s le s o r o the r a spec t s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu re . A l d a te t ot h e f i f teen th c en tu ry . N ine o ft h e se t w e lve c a rv ing s a r el o ca ted o nt he c o rne r s o ft he se b u i ld ing s wh i ch i sp a r t icu l a r ly i n te re s t ing when s ome o f t h e mo re d rama t i c mou th -pul e r s d i scu s sed i nt h ep rev iou s s e c t ion d o l i kew i se — t he S tud l and a nd B road C ha lk e c arv ing s a r e p a r t i cu l a r ly g ood e xamp le s h e r e . P e rhap s t he se i mag e s r ep re sen t ad ev e lopmen t o ft h e mou th -pu l l e r mot if i n to a n e x t reme ; t h e mou th n o l onge r d i s tor ted e nough when

c onf ron t ed a n ima l s o r mon s te r s . T h i s i n c lude s t h e T ree o f L if e , t he h uman f i gu re o rt h e h um an h ead . E xamp l e s o ft h e T ree o f L i f e o r s t y l ized t r ee b e tw een a n ima l s h av e b een d i scu s sed i n t h e p reced ing c hap te r wh i le a h uman f i gu re b e tw een c onf ron ted b ea s t s m ay b e f ound c a rv ed o n a t we lf th -cen tu ry c ap i ta l o n t h e s ou th d oo r o f t h e r u r a l c hu rch a tL i t t le L ang fo rd . H e re t he m a le f i gu re c l ad i n a t un ic a nd w ea r ing a l a rg e mou s t ache h o ld s a l of t t wo s e rpen t s , o ne i n e ach o u t s t r e tched h and ( F ig . 6 . 1 4 ) . T he s t y le o ft h e c a rv ing s ugge s t s s ome G e rm an i c i nf luen ce a nd i ndeed t h e mo t if h a s p a ra l l e l s i n e a r ly S cand inav i an a r t . H ick s i l u s t r a te s s ome i m age s f r om t h e G al ehu s h or n s o f c . 400 AD , o ne o f wh ich i s ak nee l ing f i gu re w i th a rm s r a i sed , f l ank ed b y t wo u p r igh t s p i ra l ta i l ed s e rpen t s ( H ick s , 1 993 : 1 3 , f i g 1 . 1 ) wh i le p ane l s f r om c ro s s shaf t s a t Whal ey a nd K ippax i n t h e n o r th o f E ng land a l so s how f i gu re s b e tw een s nake s ( Ba i ley , 1 980 : 1 58 ) . I n I r e land a h uman h ead b e tween b ea s t s a ppea r s o n o ne o f t h e R omane squ e c ap i ta l s i n t h e r u inou s n av e a t B oy le A bbey ( Coun ty R o scommon ) a nd t h e mo t i f i s f ound t h roughou t R omane sque a r t o n t h e c on t inen t ( Ba l tru ga i t i s , 1 986 : 1 00 1 05 ).

1

p u l led o pen b y i t s owne r b u t r equ i r ing t h e s t reng th o ft wo f i gu re s o r b ea s t s . Once a g a in t h e t h eme o ff o rce e n te r s t h e p i c tu r e a nd i ti s e xce s s iv e f o rce t ha t h a s a l ready b een moo ted a s o ne o f t h e k ey f e a tu re s o fg ro te sque . No t o n ly t h a t , b u t t h e emph a s i s u pon t h e mou th i se xagg e ra t ed . I n c omb ina t ion w i th i t s l o cat ion o n t h e e x t e r ior o f b u i ld ing s a nd i n p a r t icu la r u pon t h e v a r iou s j unc tu re s whe re w al s mee tt of o rm ac o rne r , t h e se i mage s , o fa lt h e i m age s t ob e f ound t h roughou t m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re , p rov ide s om eo ft h eb e s te v idence f o ra na po t ropa ic f unc t ion .

C onc lu s ion : C on to r ted Mou th s a nd Mean ing s Mou th -pule r s h av e a t t r ac ted v a r iou s i n te rp re ta t ion s . One o f t h e mo s t c ommon i st h a t t h ey a r e r ep re sen ta t ion s o f p eop l e s uf f e r ing f r om t oo thache , a n i n te rp re ta t ion mo s t f amou s ly a t t ached t o a n i m age o n ac a rv ed c ap i ta l i n Wel s C a thed r a l ( Ga rdne r , 1 956 ) . O the r s h av e n o ted s im i l a r i t ie s b e tw een mou th -pule r s a nd c e r t a in p e r son if i ca t ion s o f t h e v i ce s , i n p a r t i cu l a r t h a t o f I r a o r Ange r , o f ten d ep i c ted i n

T he s e r ie s o f c a rv ing s a t S t in sfo rd a nd C e rne A bba s d i sp lay a

r ema rkab le d eg r ee o fs im i la r i t ie s , b o th i nt e rm s o fs ub jec t ma t t e r b u t mo re n o t iceab ly i n t e rm s o f t h e m anne r i n wh i ch t h ey a r e c a rv ed , b o th s equence s c ha ra c t e r ized b y af l e shy r oundne s s a nd s impl i c i t y o f d e ta i l . T he f a c t t h a t b o th s i t e s a l so p o s se s s t wo e xamp le s e a ch o ft h e mou th -puled h ead ,i nb o th c a se s o ne s t anda rd o ne a nd o ne v a r ia t ion u pon t h e n o rma t iv e , s ugg e s t s t h a tb o th s equence s w e r e c a rved b yt h e s ame t e am o f ma son s .

med i ev a l m anu sc r ip t s w i th o ne h and o n t op o ft h e f o re h ead t e a r ing t h e h a i r ( ar e f e rence t o I r a ' s w i ld d i spo s i t ion )

7 3

S ec t ion I I : Head s

d

a

e

b

f

F igure 6 . 1 3 ( a -g ) H eads b e tween f i gure s . T he b as ic t emp la te a ppear s t o b e t ha t o f ac en tra l , o ver s ized b eas t h ead f l anked b y s quat t ing h uman f i gure s , e ach u s ing o ne h and t o g r ip t he c orner o f t he c en tra l h ead 's mou th . E xamp le s : a ) s ou th -eas t c orner o f t he s ou th a i s le a t S t insf ord ; ba nd c ) n or th -we s t a nd s outh -we s t c orner s o f t he n ave a i s le s a t C erne Abbas ; d ) s ou th c ho ir a i s le a t S herborne : e ) s ou th -we s t c orner o f t he s ou th a i s le a t Mappowder ; 0 s ou th -we s t c orner o f t he t ower a t L ongbur ton ; g )s ou th -eas tc orner o ft he t ower a tS toke sub c

7 4

D evour ing a nd D i s tor ted Mou ths

F igure 6 . 1 4 . F igure b e tween s e rpen t s c arved o n a n e ar ly t we lf th -cen tury c ap i ta l a tL i t t le L angf ord (W i l t sh ire ) .

Hamdon . F ur ther e xamp le s o ccur a tS t C yr iac , L acock ; C ombe S t N icho las a nd S yd l ing S t N icho las . I n t he se e xamp le s ( no t i lus tra ted ) d ragons a nd l i ons .

t he

f l ank ing

f i gures

a re

F igure 6 .1 5 B icorpora te mons ter c arved o n t he s t a l lwork a t Chr is tchurch P r iory i nD or se t . T he c arv ing d a tes t o 1 515 a nd o ccur s among aw ide r ange o f mons trous f orms .

7 5

S ec t ion I : Head s a nd t h e o the r h and n ea r t h e mou th ( Abe r th ,1989 : 4 1 ) . L u s t h a s a l so b een s ugg e s ted ( W e i r a nd J erman , 1 986 ; P enn ing ton , 1 991 ) . Wh i l s t t h e re m ay b e s o me t r u th i nt h e se s ugge s t ion s s uch i d ea s a r e d i ff i cu l t t o v al ida te b eyond c on jec tu re . T he w ide sp read c r ea t ion a nd i n s t al a t ion o ft h e mou th -pu l le r mo t i fa nd i t s v a r i an t s p o in t s t owa rd ag r ea te r c i rcu la t ion t h an a ny p o ten t ia l manu sc r ip t mode l wh i ch s ugge s t s t h a t t h e i mag e w a s n o t s imp ly av i su a l i za t ion o fa t e x tua l i d ea . R a the r , i tm igh t b e b e s t t o s e e t h e se c a rv ing s a r t i cu l a t ing d eep sea ted c u l tu ra l a nx ie t ie s a nd b el i ef s e xp re s sed t h rough t h e m e t apho r o ft h e mou th . I th a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h e d efo rm ing o f t he mou th s i gn if i e s a d ef o rm a t ion o ft h e l o cu s o fs peech a nd c ohe ren t l a nguag e a nd a s s u ch b e token s a n i r ra t iona l n a tu re ( W i l l iam s , 1 996 : 1 4 1 -143 ) . T he h yb r id o r a n ima l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f m any mou th -pu l le rc a rv ing s w ou ld a ppea rt o s ub s t an t ia t e s uch a n i n te rp re t a t ion a nd w ou ld f i t w el w i th t h e n um e rou s a r ch i tec tu r a li m ag e s t h a tp l ay w i th c oncep t s o fr a t ional i ty , a s t he f olow ing c hap te rw i l le xp lo re i n mo re d e ta i l . Y e t t h i s d oe s n o t a dd re s s t h e l im ina l i ty o ft h e mou th . A s I h av e a l r eady i n t ima ted t h e mou th w a s l o aded w i th s ymbo l i sm t h a t d rew a t t en t ion t o i t s i n -be tw een s t a tu s ,

7 6

wh ich , a s B akh t in w a s r i gh t t o p o in t o u t , m ade i ta n i d ea l s ub jec tf o rg ro t e sque i m ag e r y . P e r ce iv ed t ob eb o th p o in to f e n t ry a nd e x i t f o r t h e s ou l a sw el a st h e p a r t o ft h e b ody i n to wh i ch t h e d i v ine p r e sence , whe the ri nt h e f o rm o fh o ly b read o rw r i t ten w o rd , c ou ld b e i n g e s ted a nd a b so rbed , t h e s ymbol i c mou th c a r r ied a n a i r o f s om e my s te r y . I n m any r e spec t s i tw a s az one i n wh i ch u n seen s p i r i tua l f o r ce s w e re b e l iev ed t om ing le w i th t h em a te r i a ll i f e o ft h eb ody a nd t h e s en se s . C hap t e r s 5a nd 6h av e e xp lo r ed t h e c o mp lex i mag e r y o ft h e mou th i n med iev a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e , a n i mag e t h a t p e rfo rmed av a r ie t y o fs ymbol i c t a sk s a sb o th s ou rce o fl i f e a nd e n t rance t o h el , a s at h re sho ld i n wh i ch s p i r i tua l r e al i t i e s m ing led w i th p hy s ica l p roce s se s . T he c a rv ing s t h a t empha s i ze o r d raw a t ten t ion t ot h e mou th h ave a c co rd ing ly b een i d en t if i ed a s p a r t i c ipa t ing i n d eep n e two rk s o f mean ing , a r t icu la t ing i d ea s c onnec t ed w i th r e su r rec t ion , d ea th , t h e p a s sage t ot h e a f te r l if e , a ppe t i t e , l a nguage , s peech a nd s e xual i ty . An a po t ropa i c p u rpo se i sl i k e ly f o r many i mag e s a nd p a r t icu l a r ly v i s ib l e w i th r e g a rd s t o t h e mou th p ule r c a rv ing s who se l o ca t ion a nd med ium s how s d e l ibe ra t ep a t te r n s o rt r ad i t ion sw i th r e g a rd t op l acem en t .

C hap te r 7

The F a l len Wo r ld a nd t he D iv ine Wi ld : An i ma l Hu mans a nd Hu man An i ma l s

I n troduc t ion s equen t ly a s p i r i tua l ly d ang e rou s p u r su i t a s t h e f olow ing t e x tw il e xp lo r e .

Ih av e a l ready d r awn a t ten t ion t ot h e m ed ieva l e qua t ion o f a bno rma l f o rm a nd b ehav iou rw i th g eog r aph ica l s pace st h a t a r e b e s t d e sc r ibed a s w i lder n e s s a nd l o ca ted a t t h e v e r y e dg e s o ft h e k nown w o r ld ( c hap te r 2 ) . D e se r t s , f o re s t s a nd s e a s w e r e a l c on s ide r ed w i lde rne s s a nd b el i ev ed t oh a rbou r n ume rou s mon s t e r s ( L e Gof f , 1 988 : 4 7 -59 ) w h ich w e r e t y p ica l ly p e r ce iv ed a s c oun te rpo in t a nd e xemp la r t o " c iv i l ized" h uman s .

Wi ld a nd I r ra t iona l Be ings An ima l s h av e l ong s e rved h uman p u rpo se s , a nd o u r r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h em mu s tb e c on s ide r ed n o d i f f e r en t . H . W .J an son , f o r e xamp l e , s how s t h a t t h e i c onog raphy o ft h e a pe i nt h e M idd le A g e s h ad ' l i t t le i nc ommon w i th b o na f i d e a n ima l s ' b u t w a s m an ipu la ted f o r mo r a l a nd s oc i a l r e a son s ( 1 952 : 5 0 ) . T he u se o ft h e a pe a s av i sua l s i gn o fa n imal i ty p o in t s t o aw ide r t r ad i t ion i n w e s t e rn t hough t i n wh ich a n ima l s s e rve t o p rov ide c ommen ta ry u pon h uman b ehav iou r . One o ft h e mo s tc ommon w ay s o fd ef in ing w ha t i ti st o b e h uman i st o d raw c ompa r i son s w i th t h e a n ima l k i ngdom t h rough i mpo s ing o n i t c ha rac te r i s t i c s ' d iame t r ica l ly o ppo sed t o t ho se r e g a rded a s d i s t inc t iv e t o t h e h uman c ond i t ion ' ( K ing , 1 995 : 1 38 ) . When a n ima l s a r e u sed f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f a r t icu la t ing h uman i d en t i ty t h ey a r e i n va r iab ly c a s ti n an eg a t iv e r o l e , wh ich m ay t h en e x tend t o g roup s o f p eop le s im i la r ly i d en t if i ed a s " d if f e r en t" ( Bak e r , 1 993 : 7 8 -81 ) . T hu s t h e w e s te rn t r ad i t ion o fd ef in ing o ne se lf a g a in s t a n ima l o the r s m ean s t h a t a ny i d en t if i ca t ion o f h uman s w i th a n ima l s a wak en s ' a l t h e a s soc ia t ion s o f i mpu r i t y c ommon ly a t t endan t u pon s u ch b lu r r ing o f b ounda r ie s ' ( Cohen , 1 994 : 6 1 ) .

When r e a son i s h e ld a s t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic t h a t d ef ine s h umann e s s , l o s s o f r e a son b ecome s t h e p r e r equ i s i t e f o r e n t ry i n to t h i s l i m in a l , g ro t e sque w o r ld . T h i s i ss p i r i tua l ly d ang e rou s t e r r a in f o r i t r e p r e sen t s t h e s a c r ed i n i t s u nmed ia ted , mo s t r aw f o rm i mag inab le .T he s ub jec t s o ft h e f olow ing t h r ee c hap t e r s — h yb r id b e ing s , s i ren s , a nd e n t er t a in e r s a nd e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu r e s —m igh t b e c on s ide r ed h e ra ld s o f s uch a s t a te . A s r ep re sen ta t ive s o f t h i s s upe rna tu r a l ly d a rk a nd c hao t ic e ne rgy t h a t b eg in s whe r e " humanne s s" e nd s t h e se i mag e s c an b e r e ad a sa t temp t s t o d ef ine w ha t i s a c cep tab le h uman b ehav iou r a nd i n deed , wha t d ef in e s h uman , v i a t h e a r t icu la t ion o f t h e n eg a t iv e o the r . A t t h e s ame t ime , h oweve r , t h ey a r e p o t en t f i gu re s , f o r o u t s ide h uman n e two rk s o fr a t iona l u nde r s tand ing t h ey a r e s imu l taneou s ly b eyond c l a s s if i ca t ion , a nd c on sequen t ly , k now ing . S uch a mb igu i ty i sw el r e p r e sen t ed b y f i gu re s t h a t b lu r t h e b ounda r ie sb e tw een h uman s a nd a n ima l s ,t h e s ub jec to ft h i s c hap t e r . V i sua l ly t h e s t rong e s t i mpa c t i sa ch iev ed t h rough t h e j u x t apo s i t ion o ft ho se c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s t h a ta r e c ommon ly d eemed t o d ef ine h uman s f r om a n ima l s ( Bak e r , 1 993 : 9 1 ) . I n m ed iev a l a r t f o r e xamp le , a n ima l s m igh t b e r e p r e sen ted w ea r ing c l o the s , r e ad ing b ook s , o r p l ay ing a mu s ica l i n s trum en t . C onv e r se ly , h uman s m igh t b ecome " an imal i zed" t h rough t h e w ea r ing o fa n ima l m a sk s , l a ck o f c l o the s , p o s tu r e , v i a a s soc ia t ion , o r t h rough t h e d i sp lay o f a ny i n s t inc tua ld r ive o re mo t ion t h a tb ypa s se s t h e p roce s se s o f r a t iona l t hough t , f o r e xamp le s e xua l d e s i re , a ng e r o r l a ugh t e r . D r aw ing u pon t h e se v i sua l r e sou r ce s a low s t h e c r ea t ion o f amu l t i l aye r ed i mag e ry i ns ome c a rv ing s , a sa n e a r ly t w e lf th -cen tu r y c o rbe l o n t h e e a s t f a ce o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t a tW inche s te rC a thed r a la t t e s t s . H e r e , t wo d og s a r e e ng ag ed i n s e xua l i n t e r cou r se f a ce t o f a ce , t h e r eby m im ick ing t h e s e xu a lp o s i t ion m ed i ev a lt h eo log ian s d eemed mo s t s u i tab le f o r h uman p roc rea t ion a s w el a s d raw ing a t t en t ion t ot h es e xua l a c t i t se lf , a n " i r r a t iona l" a nd c on -

T he r oo t s o fs u ch c oncep tua l u se s o fa n ima l s c an b e t r aced b a ck t oe a r ly C h r i s t ian i ty . C h r i s t ian t hough t , b a sed o nt h e s c r ip tu ra lr e v e la t ion o fa na l -w i se a nd a l -pow e rf u l D iv ine C r ea to r who m ade m an i nH i s o wn i mag e a nd h e ld o u tt h e p rom i se o fe t er n a ll i f e i fH i s c ommand s w e r e o beyed , w a s s oon f a ced w i th t h e t a sk o fe s tabl i sh ing c r i te r ia b y wh ich m an , i . e . t h e d e scendan t s o f Adam , c ou ld b e d i f f e ren t i a t ed f r om h i s ' p oo r r e la t ion s ' o r s i m i l i t ud i n e s s u ch a s t h e h yb r id r a ce s o r t h e a pe s O an son , 1 952 : 7 4 ) . T he n eed t o d ef ine h uman s w a s t h e r efo r e n o a c adem ic e x e r c i se : s a lva t ion d epended u pon i t . T he p r edom inan t f a c to r s u sed t o d i s t ingu i sh h uman f r om a n ima l t h roughou t t h e M idd l e A g e s w e r e t ho se e s tabl i shed b y Augu s t ine — mor tal i ty a nd r e a son . Whe r ea s t h e f o rme rw a s p e r ce iv ed t o

7 7

S ec t ion II : F igure s w a s e s sen t ia l ly a C h r i s t ian o ne a nd m ay b e f ound t h roughou t R omane sque a nd Go th ic a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e o n t h e c on t inen t a nd i nB r i ta in ( Bond , 1 9 10 : 1 6 ; E l l i s , 1 9 12 ; D ruce , 1 9 15 : 1 59 -169 ; C av e , 1 948 : 2 09 ; T cha lenko , 1 990 ; Moo re , 1 992 ) , a sw el a si no the r m ed ia s u ch a sm anu sc r ip t i l um ina t ion s , i v or y c a ske t s , a nd t a pe s t r ie s ( Hu sband , 1 980 : f i g s 3 5 ; R u sh ing , 1 998 : 5 8 ;J one s ,2 000c : 1 040 ) .

d i s t ingu i sh h uman s f r om d emon s o r a ng e l s t h e l a t t e r s e t h uman s a pa r t f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e a n ima l w o r ld — i ndeed , f o r t h e m ed i eva l p e r iod h umanne s s w a s l a rg e ly d ef ined b y t h e c apa c i t y f o r i n telec tu a l u nde r s tand ing . Mo r eov e r , r a t ional i ty w a s c l o se ly b ound w i th s p i r i tua l i ty ; h uman s w e r e c r ea ted i n t h e i mag e o f God , a n ima l s w e r e n o t . An ima l s t h e r ef o r e l a ck ed r e a son a nd i n l a ck ing r e a son t h ey a l so l a ck ed a n i mmor ta l s ou l . H ence t h e d i f f e r ence b e tw een a n ima l s a nd h uman s p r ed ica ted u pon t h e d i f f e r en ce b e tw een mor ta l a nd i mmor t a l s ou l s w i th r e a son t h e d e t e rm in ing f a c to r ( S o rab j i , 1 993 : 2 0 1-2 ; C ohen , 1 994 : 6 1 ; S al i sbu ry , 1 994 : 5 6 ; B a r t l e t t , 2 000 : 6 8 1 ) . S uch c l o se c on cep tua l c o r r e sponden ce s b e tw een h uman f o rm ( t he i mag e o f God ) , r e a son , a nd i mmor ta l s ou l s m ean t t h a t a ny th ing p e rce iv ed t ow eak en t h e r e a son ing a b i l i ty i n man s imu l tan eou s ly t h r ea ten ed t o " def o rm" h i s i mag e a nd i n d efo rm ing h i s i mag e t h e i mmo r ta l s ou l w a s i n p e r i l . T hu s t h ei ra t iona lo rm ad w e r e mo r e a n ima lt h an h uman .

C ompan ion t o t h e w i ld m an w a s t h e l e s s f r equen t ly d ep ic ted w i ld w oman , ' af i gu re w ho p u shed t h e p a rame t e r s o f m ed ieva l f ema l e o the rne s s t o t h e l i m i t ' ( S tock , 2 000 : 1 04 1 ) . A s h i r su te a sh e r c on so r t s he w a s l i k ew i se i n capab le o fr a t iona l t hough t a nd t h e r ef o r e l e s s t h an h uman , k i nw i th t h ew i ld b ea s t s . C lo se ly r e la t ed t ot h e s ame f o lk lo r ic i mag e p oo l o fa r cha ic g odde s se s a nd l i b id inou s s he -demon s f r om wh ich t h e s i r en a nd o the r mon s t rou s f ema l e s d rew t h e i r f o rm a nd c ha rac te r ,2 t h ew i ld w oman p e r son if i ed t r ad i t iona l m ed iev a l a nx ie t ie s a bou t w omen , i n p a r t icu la r woman a s t emp t r e s s ( s ee C hap t e r 8 ) . T he h ag l ike w i ld woman c ou ld a ppea r a s t h e mo s t e n t ic ing o f w omen i no rde r t o s educe t h e u nwa ry k n igh t o r s hephe rd , o n ly ' r ev ea l ing h e r a b id ing u g l ine s s d u r ing s e xua l i n te r cou r se ' ( Wh i te , 1 972 : 2 1 ) . T h i s m ag ica l a b i l i ty t os hape sh if t s ugg e s t s t h a tt h e f i gu re b ecame i d en t if i ed w i th af a e ry n a tu r e o r s upe rna tu r a l p owe r i nt h e f o lk lo re o ft h eM idd l eA g e s .

An ima l c ha r ac te r i s t ic s w e r e u sed t h roughou t t h e v i sua l a r t s t o h e lp a r t icu la t e s u ch c oncep t s . A r t i s t s b e tw een t h e e l ev en th a nd s i x teen th c en tu r ie s c ommon ly d i s to r ted t h e h uman b ody b y a ddd ing t a i l s , h o rn s , f u r , c l aw s , w ing s a nd o the r a n ima l f e a tu r e s i n o rde r t o r e p r e sen t d emon s a nd d ev i l s ( L ink , 1 995 : 3 8 ; L o r enz i , 1 997 : 2 4 -26 ) . L ik e t h e d ev i l t h e a pe w a s p e r ce ived t op a rody h uman s a nd t h e t wo w e r e a s soc ia t ed i n a r t a nd t hough t f r om t h e s i x th t o t h e f ou r teen th c en tu r ie s ( J an son , 1 952 : 2 0 , 5 0 -51 ) . How ev e r , f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R omane sque p e r iod t h e i d ea o f t h e d i abol i c a pe w a s o ve r shadow ed b y a much b roade r i n te rp r e ta t ion t h a t p i c tu r ed t h e a pe a s ' a g ro t e squ e c a r ica tu r eo fm an 'o rm an i n as t a te o fd eg ene racy :

I tw a s n o t j u s t w i ld w omen t h a t b ecame i d en t if i ed w i th t h e a n ima lw o r ld b u tw omen i ng ene r a l ,l o ca ted i nt h e h i e r a rchy o fr e a son ing b e ing s s omewhe r e b e tw een a n im a l s a nd m en . T h i sw a s p e rce iv ed t ob eb i o log ica l ly d e t e rm in ed . Med iev a l t hough t u pon s e xua l i t y w a s c l o se ly l i nk ed t o t h a t o f g ende r a nd d r ew m any i d ea s f r om t h e G raeco -Roman w o r ld , p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h e G r eek p hy s ic ian Ga l en ( c . AD 1 30 -20 1 ) . G a l en , l i k e A r i s to t l e b ef o r e h im , h ad p ropo sed t h a t t h e h uman b ody w a s m ade u p o f f ou r b a s i c e l emen t s t h a t a l so made u p t h e u n ive r se : f i r e , w a te r , e a r th a nd a i r . A l though a b a lance o f t h e se e l emen t s o r h umou r s w a s r e g a rded a sn ece s sa ry f o r t h e g ood h ea l th o ft h e i nd iv idua l t h e r ew e re c r i t i ca ld i f f e r ence sb e tw een m a l e a nd f ema le w i th r e g a rd s t o t empe ra tu re . On e o f t h e ' mo s t f undamen t a l f a c to r s i nt h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween f ema l e s a nd ma le s ' i nt h e M idd le A g e s w a s h ea t ( Cadden , 1 993 : 2 80 ; s e e a l so B u l lough , 1 973 ; C adden , 1 996 ) ; t h e m a l e b ody w a s c on s ide r ed t o b e h o t a nd d r y , a nd t h e f em a le c oo l a nd mo i s t . I tw a s h ea t t h a t d e te rm ined p hy s io log ica l d i f f e r en ce b e tween t h e s e x e s : h a i r ine s s , e x t e rn a l g en i ta l ia a nd b road s hou lde r s a l r e su l ted f r om t h e g r ea te r h ea t o f t h e m a l e b ody . S emen w a s a l so b el i ev ed t o b e f o rmed o u t o fb lood a nd t h i s l i k ew i se r equ i r ed h ea t . I n c on t ra s t , t h e i n t e rna l g en i t al ia a nd g ene ra ll a ck o fb ody h a i rt h a tc ha rac t er i sed t h e

I fw e r e f u se t o a c cep t God ' s o f f e r o f s a lva t ion ; i f w e r e pud ia te t h e s p i r i tua l a spec t o fo u r n a tu r e a nd u n r ea son ing ly a bandon o u r se lve s t ot h e s i n s o ft h e f l e sh ;i ns ho r t ,i fw el e to u ra n ima li mpu l se sg e tt h e b e t te r o fu s , t h en w e s i nk t o t h e l e v e l o ft h e a pe , h uman i nf o rm b u t l a ughab l e a nd c on temp t ib le i n a lo fo u ra c t ion s b ecau se w eh av e c u to u r se lv e s o f f f r om t h es ou rce o fd i v ine w i sdom ( i b id . 1 4 , 2 9 ) . A l though t h e w i ld a n ima l c ou ld b e t h e c r i te r ion o ft h e l ow a nd s uppl i ed t h e v er y i mag e r y f o r p i c tu r ing i r r a t iona l a nd t h e r ef o r e d eba sed a ng el i c o r h uman b e ing s i tw a s a l so c l o se ly i d en t if i ed w i th t h e u nknown , t h a t wh ich s t ood b eyond t h e l aw s a nd c u s tom s o f h uman s oc ie ty . I n t h i s s en se w i ld a n ima l s a nd a ng e l s s ha red c ommon g round f o r b o th i nhab i t ed n on -human w o r ld s i nv e s ted w i th s upe rna tu ra l p ow e r s . T h i s p a radox w a s e mbod ied mo s t d i s t inc t iv e ly t h roughou tt h eM idd le A g e si nt h e f i gu r e o ft h e w i ld m an , as hagg y -ha i r ed b e ing t h a t d w e l t i nf o r e s t ed a nd moun ta inou s r e g ion s .1 C ommon ly r e p r e sen ted c a r ry ing a r ough c l ub a nd w ea r ing aw r ea th o fl e av e s t h e w i ld m an , l i ke t h ec l a s s i ca ls a ty rt ow hom h ei sr e la ted ,p o s se s se s s em i d i v ine c ha rac t e r i s t ic s ( J one s , 2 000c : 1 038 ) . Y e t d e sp i t e t h e s im i la r i t ie s t oa n c ien td e i t ie s a nd w ood land s p i r i t s t h e f i gu r e

2

S tock n o t e s t wo f i gu r e s o f i mpo r t ance f o r t h e i mag e o f t h e w i ld

w oman , Ma ia , t h e R oman g odde s s o f f e r t i l i ty , a nd L am ia , t h e t r ag ic f i gu r e o f G reek my tho logy who se c h i ld ren ( b y Z eu s ) a r e k i l led b y j e a lou s H e r a ( S tock , 2 000 : 1 042 ) . T he b eau t if u l p r ince s s t a ke s h e r r e v eng e b y d e s t roy ing t h e c h i ld r en o fo the r s , a nd b ehav ing s o c r uely t h a t h e r f a ce t u rn s i n to an i gh tma r i sh m a sk . E v en tualy s he b ecome s i d en t if i ed w i th t h e Empu sae , s uccuba l d augh t e r s o fH eca t e , s educ ing y oung m en a nd s u ck ing t h e i r b l ood wh i le t h ey s l eep ( G r av e s , 1 960 : 2 05 ; s e e a l so Hu rw i t z , 1 999 : 4 3 ;B egg , 1 996 : 4 0 ;L e inw ebe r , 1 994 : 7 7 ) .

1 I n d ep th c ommen t a r ie s u pon t h e f i gu r e a nd h i s s oc ia l c on t ex t c an b e f ound i nB e rnhe ime r , 1 952 a nd B a r t r a , 1 994 .

7 8

An ima l Human sa nd Human An ima l s s ub jec t ion woman i s n a tu r a l ly s ub jec t t o m an , b ecau se n a tu ra l ly i n m an t h e d i sc r e t ion o f r e a son p redom ina t e s ( c i ted i nB ulough 1 996 : 2 25 ) .

f ema le b ody w e r e u nde r s tood t or e su l t f r om a n i n suff i c ien t a moun t o f h ea t d u r ing t h e p roce s se s o f c oncep t ion a nd g e s ta t ion . Women w e r e l i t e ra l ly ' c o ld m en ' w ho se d ev e lopmen t i n to t h e n o rma l m a le b ody h ad b een a r r e s ted d ue t o i n suff i c ien t t empe ra tu re . C o ldne s s n o t o n ly d e te rm ined f o rm ,h owev e r , b u tc ha r ac t e r i s t ic s t oo . Whe r ea s t h ee s sen t ia lb ody h ea to fm en m ean tt h a ta ny f ood t h ey a t e w a s q u i ck ly b u rn tu p , t h e c oo lne s s o fw omen a lowed t h em t o s t o re f ood a s f a t , m en s t rua l b l ood a nd m i lk , e nabl ing t h em t o c a r r y a nd n ou r i sh c h i ld r en . T h i s c o ld mo i s tne s s a l so p r ed i spo sed t h e f ema le b ody t od ecay a nd p u t r ef ac t ion a nd a s ar e su l tw omen w e r ep e r ce iv ed a s mu ch c l o se rt ot h e e a r th a nd h ad t ow o rk t w ice a sh a rd a sm en t od ev e lop t h e i r s p i r i tua l i ty .

S uch o p in ion s w e r e n o t e xcep t iona l i na n a g e t ha t e qua t ed a c t iv e s e xua l i ty w i th r e l ig iou s d ev ia t ion a nd h e r e sy ( i b id . 1 982 : 2 17 ) . I ndeed , t h e c oncep tua l l i nk b e tween s e xua l d ev iance a nd s p i r i tua l d ev iance w a s w el e s tabl i shed f o r ' b o th w e re p e r ce iv ed a s w i lfu l c hal eng e s t o t h e n a tu ra l o rde re s tabl i shed b y God a nd n a tu re ' ( Mu r ray , 1 996 : 2 03 ) . I n s umma ry , t h en , d i f f e ren t d eg ree s o f r e a son w e r e p e rce ived t o d i s t ingu i sh a ng e l s f r om h uman s a nd m en a nd w omen f r om a n ima l s , t h e l a t t e r b e ing t h e mo s t i r ra t ion a l . T o t h i s mu s t b e a dded t h e q u e s t ion o f mor t a l i ty : a ng e l s a r e i mmor ta l , h uman s p o s se s s a n i mmor t a l s ou l a nd mo r ta l b ody , wh i le a n ima l s a r e p u re ly c o rpo r ea l , mor ta l a nd s ou l le s s . T hu s t h eh i e ra rchy o fr e a son ing b e ing s ,w i th a ng e l s t h e c l o se s t t o a nd a n ima l s t h e f u r the s t f r om t h e d i v ine , i s b onded t o c oncep t s o f c on t inu i t y , a ng e l s e t e rna l a nd t ime le s s , h uman s e t e rna li ns p i r i t , a nd a n ima l s b ound t ot h e e a r th a nd i t s r hy thm s . Any l o s s o f r e a son r e su l t s i n a ' d e scen t ' — a ng e l s b ecome mo re h uman , m en b ecame e f f em ina te a nd w omen mo r e l i k e a n ima l s . T he i n s t inc tua l d r ive s a nd d e s i r e s o f t h e b ody , w i th wh ich a n ima l s h ad b ecome i d en t if i ed i n med iev a l t h eo log y ( b e ing a st h ey w e r e n o th ing e l se b u t b ody ) w e r e c on sequ en t ly p o t en t ia l ly h aza rdou s a nd t o b e mode r a ted o r , i fp o s s ib le , a vo ided a l tog e the r , l e s t o n e l o se o ne ' s i mmor ta l s ou l . T hu s a n ima l i mag e r y c an s e rv e t o i n d ica te f a l len a ng e l s a nd f a l l en h uman s .

o r t h e M idd le A g e s t h en , b i o logy w a s d e s t iny . T he n o rm s o fm a le a nd f ema le s e xua l i ty w e r e ' d e te rm ined b yt h eg en i ta l o rgan s w i th wh ich o ne w a s b o rn ' ( S a l i sbu ry , 1 996 : 8 1 -82 ) a nd w h ich w e r e d eemed t oh av e ac o r r e spond ing e f f ec t o n ma le a nd f ema l e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s . C o ld s uppo sed ly m ade w omen f e a rfu l , u n in te l l ig en t , m e r e t r ic iou s a nd s e da te w h i le h ea t made m en i n te l l ig en t , i ndependen t , a c t ive a nd f o r th r igh t . Women w ho p u shed a g a in s t t h e l im i t s o f t h e i r " s eden ta ry" s e x b y e ng ag ing i n v i go rou s p hy s ica l a c t iv i ty w e r e s a id t o r un t h e r i sk o f b u rn ing u p t h e i r f a t a nd m en s t rua l b l ood a nd b ecom ing m a scu l in e i n n a tu r e . I n a s im i la r m anne r , m en w ho e ng ag ed i n t oo much s e xua l a c t iv i ty r an t h er i sk o fl o s ing t h e i rm a scu l in i ty .T h i sw a s d u e t o t h e c l a s s ica l i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e s ou r ce o f ma lene s s i n s emen , wh i ch , a s T homa s Aqu ina s p u t i t , c on t a in ed ' t he h ea t o f t h e f a the r ' s s ou l ' ( J a cqua r t a nd T homa s se t , 1 988 : 5 7 ) . C on sequen t ly , b o th c l a s s ica l a nd t o al a rg e e x ten t , m ed ieva l , v i ew s o fm a le s e xu al i t yw e r e ' j o ined w i th f e a r s o f l o s ing t h a tm a scu l in i ty ' ( S al i sbu ry , 1 996 : 8 2 ) .

A t t h e s ame t ime , h owev e r , i ti si mpo r tan t t o r emembe r t h a t t h e w i lde rne s s w a s a c t iv e ly s ough t b y h o ly men a nd w omen t o f a c i l i ta te e xpe r ience o f t h e s a c r ed i n i t s r aw e s t s t a t e , u nmed ia ted a nd u nf i l te red . T he se r e c lu se s , l i k e w i ld m en a nd w omen , c ame t o e mbody t h e w i lde rne s s , f o r e xamp le , b y b ecom ing e xce s s iv e ly h i r su te ( s ee c hap t e r 2 ) . C on sequ en t ly , l i k e a l l im ina l a r t , t h e a n ima l a nd h yb r id a n ima l i mag e ry f ound t h roughou t a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e o f t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod p o in t s i n o ppo s i t e d i rec t ion s s imu l taneou s ly , t owa rd s o the r m ean ing s a nd u nde r s tand ing s .

L o s s o fm a scu l in i ty w a sp e r ce ived a s as imu l taneou s l o s s o f r e a son . One t h eo ry p o s i ted b y t h e a nc ien t G r eek s a nd c u r ren t i nm ed iev a l E u rope l o ca ted t h e o r ig in o fs emen i n t h eb r a in b e l iev ing t h a ti td e scended t h rough t h e s p ina lc o rd t o t h e t e s t ic le s , at h eo ry t h a t h i gh l igh ted t h i s r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een m a scu l in i ty a nd r a t iona l i ty ( S al i sbu ry , 1 996 : 8 9 ) . No t o n ly w a s i td e s i rab le f o r m en t o a b s ta in f r om s e xu a l i n te r cou r se i f t h ey w e r e t o p re serv e t h e i r r e a son a nd i n telec t b u ti tw a s a l so c on s ide r ed n ece s sa ry t oc on t ro l t h e ' p rof ound ly s e xu a l ' w omen w ho se s uppo sed ly i n sa t iab le a ppe t i te s c a r r ied t h e p o t en t ia l t o u n l ea sh d i so rde r a nd m adne s s ( i b id . 8 4 ) . C e r ta in ly , w omen ' s b od ie s w e r e c ha r ac te r i sed ' a s mo r e n a tu ra l ly g i ven t o s i nfu lne s s , r e qu i r ing t am ing a nd c on ta inmen t ' ( G i l ch r i s t , 1 999 : 14 ) . E v e ' s my tho log ica l a b i l i ty t o w r eck h i e ra r ch ica l o rde r w a s s e en a st h e i nhe r en t c apac i ty o fe v e rywoman a nd f r om t h e f ou r th t o t h e f our teen th c en tu r ie s i n f lu en t ia l c l e r ic s a nd t h eo log ian s r e pea ted ly m ade t h e p o in t : w omen w e r e ' w eak , i ra t iona l , e mo t iona l , g ov er n ed b y p a s s ion a nd a lw ay s r e cep t iv e t oe v i li nf luen ce s ' ( G rö s s ing e r , 1 997a : 4 ) . T homa s Aqu ina s ( 1 225 -74 ) w ro te :

A ssoc ia t ion a nd Mim ic ry T h roughou t m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e h uman a nd a n ima l f i gu re s a r e r e p re sen t ed t og e the r i n n ume rou s w ay s a nd t h i s s e c t ion c an d o l i t t le j u s t ice t o t h e r ang e a nd d i ve r s i ty o ft h e i mag ery . Howev e r , i np r e sen t ing as e lec t ion o f i mag e s Ia im t o i l u s t r a te s ome o f t h e v a r ie ty o f h uman/an ima li n te rac t ion s a nd h ow t h e se m ay h av e s e rv ed t oa r t icu la t ei d ea s c onnec ted t ow i ldne s s .

T h eS t r u g g l ew i t ht h eL i on

o r g ood o rde r w ou ld h ave b een w an t ing i n t h e h uman f am i ly i fs ome w e r en o tg ov e rned b yo the r s w i se r t h an t h em se lv e s . S o b y s u ch a k i nd o f

O f a l t h e a n ima l s r ou t ine ly d ep ic t ed i n m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e i ti s t h e l i on a nd t h e s e rpen t o r

7 9

S ec t ion II : F igure s d ragon t h a t t e nd t o a ppea r a s p e r son if i ca t ion s o f s up reme f o rce a nd p owe r . L ike t h e n a tu ra l w o r ld t h e se a mb iva len t f i gu re s c ou ld b e p e r ce iv ed a s at h r ea t t o h uman s oc ie ty , s ome th ing n eed ing c l o se c on t ro l o r c onque s t ; y e t a t t h e s ame t ime t h i s r aw p ow e r m igh t s ugg e s t as uper n a tu ra l p re sence o rd iv in i ty , s ome th ing b eyond t h e h uman o rde r . I h av e a l r eady d i scu s sed t h e c l o se c onnec t ion s e s tabl i shed t h roughou t m ed iev a l s cu lp tu r e b e tw een l e on ine a nd s e rpen t ine c r ea tu r e s a nd f ol i ag e ( c hap te r 5 ) , e xp r e s sed v i sua l ly v i ap a r t ia l ly f o l ia te b od ie s ( o f ten t h et a i l ) ,a ss i nuou s s t em -l ik e b od ie s ( d r agon s ) , o r a s c a t m a sk s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e . S uch c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e v i go rou s r e g ene r a t iv e p o t ency a nd s e a son a l d ecay o fp l an t l i f e m ean t t h a t b o th c r ea tu r e s a nd t h e i r d e r iv a t ive s b ecame c on cen t r a ted i mag e s o ft h e n a tu ra lw o r ld a nd s ub jec tt ot h e s ame a mb iva l en t r e spon se s m ed ieva l c u l tu r e h ad t owa rd s n a tu r e . S i nce f o r mo s t o f t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod n a tu r a l a nd s uper n a tu r a l w e re w ov en t i gh t ly t og e the r t h e u se o f b o th c r ea tu r e s t o s i gna l t h e p r e sence o f s upe rna tu ra l b e ing s i s p e rhap s u n su rp r i s ing . C hap te r 8e xp lo r e s t h e i r c onnec t ion w i th s i r en s , t h em se lv e s o f ten r e p r e sen ted a sp a r t ialy f ol i a t e a nd a c co rd ing ly i d en t if i ed w i th t h e mu tab i l i ty o f t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld a sw el a sh e ra ld ing t h e o therwo r ld a nd t h e u nknown . C er ta in ly , t h e l i on i s a n a mb iva l en t f i gu re i n m ed ieva l a r t , c apab le o f s i gn if y ing d i v ine b e ing s o f a p o s i t iv e c ha r ac te r s u ch a s C h r i s t , o r o f m a levo l en t i n ten t , s uch a s t h e d ev i l ( Row land , 1 973 : 19 -120 ; Moo r e , 1 992 : 1 35 136 ; T i sda l l , 1 998 : 1 58 -16 1 ) . T he se t wo e x t r eme s a r e b o th r e la ted t o t h e s up reme p ow e r o f t h e a n ima l : t h e Abe rdeen B e s t ia r y n o t e s t h e ' f o r ce w i th w h ich t h ey r a g e ' ,3 a nd i ti st h i s w i ldne s s t h a t i st h e s ou rce o f t h e i r v a r y ing s ymbol i cs i gn if i cance .

a t t ack ed b y t h e c r ea tu r e , h e i st h e o n ly o ne o ft h e t wo t h a t i sa l so c ommon ly r e p r e sen t ed i nc on t ro l o ft h e l i on , l e ad ing i tb y ac ha in . T he p a r adox , t h a t o n ly t h e p ar t ia l ly w i ld t h em se lve s c an c on t ro l t h e mo s t p ow e r fu l o f b ea s t s ( a s o ppo sed t o k i ll ing t h em ) e choe s t h e f i gu r e o f t h e d e ser t r e c lu se w ho , i nt h e q ue s t f o r God , e nd s u p m im ick ing t h e v er ya n ima ln a tu r eh ei sf i gh t ing a ga in s t( Moo r e , 1 992 : 1 39 ) .

T he a s soc ia t ion o ft h e l i on ( a nd t h e d r agon ) w i th t h ew i ld i s s t reng thened b y i t s c onnec t ion w i th t h e w i ld m an . R emnan t ' s c a ta logue o fm i se r ico rd s p rov ide s ap a r t icu l a r ly g ood e xamp l e o f t h e r ang e o f t h e l a te m ed ieva l i mag e ry . O f ten t h e f i gu re a ppea r sw i th o rr i d ing l i on s , c ha ined b yt h e n eck , a s a t C he s te r C a thed ra l , L inco ln M in s te r , No rw ich C a thed r a l , a nd Ho ly T r in i ty C hu r ch , C ov en t ry ( R emnan t , 1 969 : 2 5 , n o . 2 3 ; 9 0 , n o . 1 2 ; 1 06 , n o . 1 ; 1 6 1 , n o . 4 ) . T he w i ld m an f i gh t ing l i on s o r p a r t l e on ine c r ea tu re s s uch a s g r iff in s a ppea r s o n t h e m i se r ico rd s a tH e r ef o rd C a thed r a l , S t Ma r y o f C ha r i t y i n a v e r sham ( K en t ) , S t B o to lph ' s i n B o s ton , a nd L inco ln M in s te r ( i b id . 6 1 , n o . 7 ;7 1 , n o . 1 ;8 6 , n o . 5 ;8 9 ,n o . 3 ;9 0 , n o . 2 2 ) . T he f i gu r e m ay b e d evou r ed b y t h e l i on , a sa tS t And r ew ' s , No r ton ( S uf fo lk ) ( i b id . 1 47 ) . A n umbe r o f i mag e s p r e sen t t h e w i ld m an w i th d r agon s o r b o th d r agon s a nd l i on s , a s t h e m i se r ico rd s a tS t G eo rg e ' s C hape l i n W ind so r ( Be rk sh i r e ) , C a r l i s l e C a thed ra l , Manche s te r C a thed ra l , B eve r ley M in s te r a nd S t Ma r y ' s , B ev e r l ey ,i l u s t r a te ( i b id . 7 ,n o . 3 ;3 0 , n o . 1 4 ; 8 3 ,n o . 1 2 ; 1 76 , n o . 1 4 ; 1 77 ,n o . 5 ;1 78 ,n o . 1 0 ) .A l though t h ew i ld m an d oe s a ppea rw i th o the ra n ima l s a nd h uman f i gu r e sa mong B r i t i sh m i se r ico rd s , t h e l i on a nd d r agon a ppea r t o b e t h e mo s t c ommon a c company ing b ea s t s . I t i s i n te r e s t ing t h a t a l though t h e w i ld m an o f ten a ppea r s l i t t le d i f f e r en t f r om t h e s t anda rd i sed f i gu re o f S am son , a nd c an h im se lf b e

An ima lM im i c sa nd An ima lM im i c° ,

3

T he i mag eo f ac l o thed h uman f i gu r e e i th e r s e a ted u pon t h e b ack o f o r s t and ing n ex t t o al i on a nd f o r c ing i t s mou th o pen w i th t h e h and s i sa l so af a i r ly c ommon c a rved s ub jec t . E xamp l e s o f R omane sque d a te m ay b e f ound o n t ympana ( S t r e t ton S ugwa s , H e r ef o rd sh i re ) , c o rbe l s ( Eng l i shcombe , S ome r se t ) (i g . 7 . l a ) , a nd c ap i ta l s ( b l ind a r cad ing , n or th s i de o f t h e n av e a t C h r i s t chu r ch P r io ry , Do r se t ; o n t h e c on t in en t , ac ap i ta l i nt h e n ave a tV eze lay ) . L a te r m ed ieva l e xamp le s o ccu ro nr oof b o s se s ( M i l ton A bbey , Do r se t ) (i g . 7 . l b ) , m i se r ico rd s ( No rw ich C a thed r a l , No rf o lk ) a nd a s g a rgoy l e s ( Mappowde r , Dor se t ) . Av a r ia t ion r e p r e sen t s t h e f i gu r e a t ta ck ing t h e c r ea tu re w i th w eapon s . B ibl i ca l e xp lana t ion s f o r t h i s i mag e a r e n o t d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd , t h e s t rugg le w i th t h e l i on b e ing a s soc ia t ed w i th b o th S am son a nd D av id ( Bond , 1 9 10 : 1 8 ) . H e r e t h e c onqu e s t o ft h e l i on i so f ten r e ad a s as imu l taneou s c onqu e s t o fb e s t ia l h uman n a tu r e . T he l i on f o rm s am a jo r i ng red ien t o fm any h yb r id b od ied l a te r m ed iev a l g a rgoy le s , wh ich a r e l i k e ly , i n t h e i r r ep r e sen ta t ion o f f o r ce , t o h av e c on t inu ed i nt h e t r ad i t ion o f a r ch i tec tu r a l a po t ropa ia a l ready w el e s t abl i shed b y t h i s t ime ( Loewen tha l , 1 978 ) . E xamp l e s m ay b e f ound a mong f i f teen th -cen tu ry w o rk a t S he rborne A bbey a nd Mappowde r ,b o th i n Do r se t (i g s 7 .2 7 .3 ) .

Whe r ea s t h e a pe i nR omane sque a r tw a s ad i abo l ic c ha rac te r b e long ing t o t h e w o r ld o f b e s t ia l d emon s a nd n ak ed t umb le r s t h e a pe i n Go th ic a r t t a k e s o n amo r e p a rody ing r o l e , t r av e s ty ing h uman b ehav iou r . I n t h i s g u i se t h e a pe b ecome s o ne o f t h e f a vou red s a t i r ica l a n ima l s o f t h e l a te r M idd le A g e s a nd n ume rou s s im ian b u r le squ e s c an b e f ound a mong a r ch i t ec tu ra l a r t ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s , J an son , 1 952 : 1 65 -17 1 ; R emnan t , 1 969 : 2 13 ) . T he m i se r ico rd s a t W inche s te r C a thed ra l p rov ide p l en t y o f e xamp le s . H e re , a pe s a r e r e p r e sen ted h o ld ing ac r ock o fe gg s ,p l ay ing ah a rp , h o ld ing f o rwa rd a n o w l , a nd d r e s sed i nw omen ' s c l o th ing ( Ca l le , 1 994 : 6 , N24 ; 7 , N22 ; 8 , N 19 ; 2 9 , S 28 ) , i mag e s s ugg e s t ive o ff o l ly , t h e s en su al i ty o fs e cu la r mu s i c , i d o la t ry , a nd v an i ty . I fi tc an b e s a id t h a t t h e l i on a nd t h e d r agon o f ten r e p r e sen t t h e p r ima l f o r ce o ft h e w i ld a nd t h e a n ima l w o r ld , t h en t h e a pe i n Go th ic a r t i n mo s t c a se s r e p r e sen t ed v i ce . T he a s soc ia t ion m ay h ave b een s t rong e nough f o r t h e f i gu re t op o in t t os u ch i d ea s e v en w h en n o t e ng ag ed i na ny p a r t icu la r a c t iv i ty , a so n t h e t op o f ab ench e nd a tB radf o rd Abba s (i g .7 .4 ) . A pe s w e r e n o t t h e o n ly a n ima l s t o p a rody h uman s i n m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu r a l a r t , h ow eve r . Goa t s , d og s a nd p i g s w e r e c ommon ly u s ed , a mong o the r s , t o i n t roduce t h e i d ea o f b e s t ia l h uman i ty . T h i s c ou ld t a k e v a r iou s f o rm s a nd

S ee www .abdn .a c .uk/be s t ia r y

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An ima l Humans a nd Human An ima l s

F igure 7 . 1( aa nd b )T he f i gure w i th l i on o n( l ef t ) aR omane sque c orbe lo nt he s ou th s i de o ft he c hance l a tE ng l i shcombe a nd ( r igh t ) af our teen th -cen tury r oof b o ss f r om t he s ou th c hance l a i s le a tM i l ton Abba s .

F igure 7 . 2One o ft he many l e on ine g argoy le st ob ef ound among t he f i f teen th -cen tury w ork a tS herborne . T h i sp ar t icu lar o ne a ppear s o n t he n or th s i de o ft he n ave .

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S ec t ion II : F igure s

F igure 7 . 3F if teen th -cen tury g argoy le f r om t he n or th s i de o ft he n ave a t Mappowder i nt he f orm o f al i on w i th at h ick mane a nd t a i l c urved u pward s b e tween t he r ear l e g s .

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An ima l Humans a nd Human An ima l s

F igure 7 .4 . Ape s a dorn t he t op o f al a te med ieva l b ench e nd a tB radford Abba si n Dor se t .

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S ec t ion II : F igures b o rne Wh i techu rch i n Do r se t (i g . 7 .6 ) .

s i tua t ion s , b u t o ne o f t h e mo s t c ommon i mag e s i st h a t o f t h e a n ima l mu s ic ian , a l ready e ncoun te red a bove among t h e W inche s te r m i se r icord s i n t h e i mage o f t h e mu s ica l a pe . T he s ame s e r ie s f e a tu re s o ther mu s ica l f i gu re s — ap i g p l ay ing a v i o l , as ow p l ay ing a d oub le p ipe , a nd h uman mu s ic ian s a ss uppo r ter s o n e a ch s i de o ft h e a pe s d r e s sed a s w omen ( i b id . 6 , N25 ; 2 9 , S 28 ) . I n R omane sque c arv ing s a t B a rf re s ton a nd C an terbury C a thed ra l ( K en t ) i ti sp os s ib le t of i nd o the re xamp le s ; a tt h e f o rme r av ou s so i rc a rved w i th af ox p l ay ing t h e h a rp , a t t h e l a t te r , c ap i ta l s f e a tu r ing v a r iou s mu s ica l a n ima l s a nd h ybr id b e ing s ( K l ing ende r , 1 971 : 3 16 f i g . 1 97 ; 3 18 f i g . 2 00 ) . A t L acock Abbey , a f i f teen th -cen tury r oof b o s s i n t h e s ou th c l o i s ter w a lk r epr e sen t s awyve rn w i th al ong c o i l ing t a i lp l ay ing t he h a rp (i g . 7 .5 ) . T he f r equen t o ccu r rence o f t h e mu s ica l a n ima l t h roughou t med ieva l a r t , i n c rea s ing i n t h e Go th ic p e r iod , may w e l l b e d ue t o t h e d i sr epu te i n to wh ich t he t r ave l l ing m in s t r e l h ad g ene ra l ly f a len b y t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry ( Va r ty , 1 967 : 7 9 ) . Y e t i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h e i mag e c a r r ied b roade rc onno ta t ion s . r om i t sv ery b eg inn ing s ' Ch r i s t ian i ty h ad t a ken i t s s t and i n f a vou r o f v oca l mu s ic a nd s ha rp ly o ppo sed t o i n s t rumen t a l mu s ic ' ( Buchne r , 1 958 : 2 3 ) . Un t i l t h e a r r iva l o ft h e t r oubadou r s who w e re o f t en o ft he s ame

F igure 7 . 5A wyvern p lay s t he h arp o n af i f teen th -cen tury r oof b o ss i nt he c l o is ter a tL acock Abbey .

c l a s s a s t ho se t h ey e n te r ta ined , mu s ic ian s , a n ima l t r a ine r s , a c roba t s a nd e n ter ta iner s w e re a l c l o se ly a s soc ia ted a nd r e ga rded a s l ow c l a s s , n o th ing more t h an ' r ogue s a nd v ag abond s ' ( Mon tagu , 1 976 : 1 9 ) . I ndeed ,t h e r ei ss ome t ime s ' mor e t h an s a t i re i n t h e se r ep re sen ta t ion s o f mu s ica l a n ima l s , e spec ia l ly t hose wh ich d ance o r i n c i t e p eop le t o d ance , f o r t h e m ed ieva l c hu rch c on s ide red d anc ing t o b e s i nf u l ' ; t h e se mu s ica l a n ima l s a r e ' p e rhap s mean t t o b e a r em inde r o f t h e d ang er s h idden i n mu s ic ' s c ha rm s ' ( Va r ty , 1 967 : 7 9 ) . Human s d r e s sed a s a n ima l s a l so f e a tu re a mong m ed ieva l a r ch i tectu r a l s cu lp tu re . D i sgu i se s o fv a r iou s f o rm s w e re a n i n t r in s ic p a r t o fm ed ieva l f e s t iv i t ie s a nd v i ewed w i th v ary ing d eg ree s o f a pp rehen s ion b y e cc le s ia s t ica l a nd s oc ia l a u thor i t ie s . A s l a te med ieva l s ump tua ry l aw s c l a r if i ed c l o the s w er e i n ex t r icab ly l i nked w i th a nd d ef ined o ne ' s i d en t i ty a nd s t a tu s ; t h e w ea r ing o f ma sk s o r d i sgu i se s t r an sg r e s sed t h e se s oc ia l c ode s a nd t h e r eby c on s t i tu ted a t h rea tt oo rde r ( s ee S pon s le r , 1 997 : 3 24 -328 ; C am i l le , 1 998a : 2 46 -247 ) . D re ss ing a sa n ima l s w a s ap ar t icu l a r ly d eep sea ted t r ad i t ion c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th s e a sona l c e lebra t ion s s uch a s t ho se c onnec ted w i th t h e New Y ea r ( P iponn ie r a nd Mane , 1 997 : 1 43 ) . An ima l d i sgu i se , h oweve r , w a s j u s t o ne e l emen t w i th in ap anop ly o ft r an sg re s s iv e a c t s a nd r ev e l s i n wh ich b ounda r ie s o fa l k i nd s w ere w i lfu l ly d i srup ted . T he se

F igure 7 . 6One o ft he l a te med ieva l f o l ia te ma sk s c arved o n t he c ap i ta l s b enea th t he c ro s s ing t ower a t Win terbourne Wh i techurc h .

i n c luded t h e o ver th row o f' s pa t ia l p a rame te r s ( b y i nvad ing , p ene t ra t ing , a nd t r e spa s s ing ) , s oc ia l s t a tu s n orm s ( t h rough r o le r e ve r sa l s a nd p l ay w i th s t range r -hou seho lde r r e la t ion s ) , g ender c on s truc t s ( t hrough c ro ss -d re s s ing a nd s e xua l i n ve r s ion ) , a nd r a c ia l d iv i s ion s ( w i th t h e u se o f b l ackf ace ) ' ( S pon s ler , 1 997 : 3 26 ) . A t a d eeper l e v e l , d i sgu i se m igh t b e c on s ide red a s i n i s ter mag ic , ' a nd ma sk s , wh ich d i sgu i se r e a l i ty , a s p a rad igma t ic o f t h e f a l sene s s o f p e rcep t ion '

Hybr id i ty I ft h e l i nk b e tween h uman a nd a n ima l c ou ld b e e voked v i a ma sk s a nd d i sgu i se s , i tw a s m ade e ven mo r e e xpl i c i t i n h ybr id f i gu re s . T he se o ccu r f r equen t ly i n m ed iev a l a r ch i tectu ra l s cu lptu re a nd t a ke n ume rou s f o rm s . i r s t , t h e h uman b ody may p rov ide t h e t emp la te f o r t h e a dd i t ion o f

( Cam ile , 1 989 : 6 2 ) . Ma sked f i gu re s may b e f ound a mong t h e t h i r teen th -cen tury c o rbe l s o n t h e t owe r a t B i shop ' s C ann ing s a nd t h e c ap i ta l s o f l a te m ed ieva ld a te a tW in te r -

r e cogn i sab le a n ima l p a r t s , f o r e xamp le h o rn s , e a r s , h a i r ,

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An ima l Human sa nd Human An ima l s E x amp le s o fh uman h ead sw i th h o rn s m ay b e f ound a mong t h e R omane sque c o rbe l s a t P r i s ton ( S ome r se t ) , a s al a be l s t op o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e t ow e r a tC amer ton ( S ome r se t ) , a nd a s ag a rgoy le o n t h e w e s t e nd o f t h e c hu r ch a tO ld B a s ing i nH amp sh i re (i g . 6 .1 3 ) . T he O ld B a s ing f i gu re i s a l so a mou th -pu l le r . Ho rned f i gu r e s i n m ed ieva l a r t d r ew u pon v a r iou s c l a s s ica l p ro to t ype s , s uch a s t h e s a ty r s a nd r u r a l d e i t ie s s uch a sP an , b u t w e re mo s t c l o se ly c onnec ted i nt h eM idd le A g e sw i th d ev i l s a nd d emon s .T he c onnec t ion e x t ended t o a ny i m i ta t ion o f h o rn s , f o r e xamp le t w in p eak ed h eadd r e s se s ( s ee c hap t e r 8 , ) . I ndeed , t h e h o rn ed f i gu re i nt h e s e r ie s o fc o rbe l s a tP r i s ton a ppea r s n ex t t ot h e h ead o f aw oman w ea r ing ah o rned h eadd r e s s , i l u s t ra t ing a p a i red m im ic ry t h a t o ccu r s i n o the r e xamp le s t h roughou t t h es equence .

h oov e s , p aw s , t a lon s , a nd t a i l s . S econd , h uman a nd a n ima l b od ie s m ay b e r e p r e sen ted i n r ough ly e qua l m ea su r e : m y tho log ica l c r ea tu r e s s u ch a s m e rma id s a nd c en tau r s a r e p roduced i nt h i s w ay . i n aly , t h e a n ima l b ody c an p rov ide t h e t emp la te f o r t h e a dd i t ion o f h uman p a r t s , a s t h e e xamp le s o f h a rp ie s ( b i rd b ody , h uman h ead ) i n t h e m i se r ico rd s equ ence s a tW inche s t e r a nd E xe te r C a thed ra l i l u s t r a te w el , s ome o f t h e f i gu re s a mong t h e l a t t e r a l so p o s se s s ing h uman h and sr a the rt h an t h ec u s toma r yt a lon s . I n v i o la t ing t h e b ounda r ie s b e tween h uman a nd a n ima l , a s e s t abl i shed b y e a r ly C h r i s t i an t h eo log ian s , h yb r id b e ing s a cknow l edg ed a nd e xp lo r ed t h e s im i la r i t ie s b e tween h uman s a nd b ea s t s ( S a l i sbu ry , 1 994 : 1 38 ; Ko rdeck i , 1 997 : 2 8 ) . A cco rd ing ly t h ey o ccup ied a p r eca r iou s p o s i t ion i n m ed ieva l t hough t . I n s ome c a se s t h ey w e re v i ew ed a s n ece s sa r yp a r t so ft h eC r ea t ion f o r' t he m arv elou sw a s s e en a sa n i n t eg ra l p ar t o ft h ew o r ld , p rov ing t h e p owe r o f God t om ake s u ch o dd c r ea tu r e s ,a nd r em ind ing p eop le t h a t God r ema in s i nc on t ro l ' ( K ing , 1 995 : 1 40 ) . A s t h e M idd l e A g e s p rog r e s sed , h ow ev e r , t h e i d ea t h a t c ro s s spec ie s i n te rb reed ing b e tw een h uman a nd a n ima l w a s r e spon s ib le t ook h o ld . Wh i l s t c l a s s ica l my tho log y p r e sen ted ' s o l i t t l e d i s t inc t ion b e tw een h uman s a nd a n ima l s , t h a t h a lf h uman/ha lf -an ima l b i r th s w e r e u n r ema rkab le , a nd t h e God s c ou ld a ppea r a s a n ima l s w i thou t d im in i sh ing t h e i r p ow e r a nd s t a tu re ' , t h e J udeo -Ch r i s t ian a t t i tude d i f f e r ed s ub s tan t ia l ly ( S a l i sbu r y , 1 991 : 1 74 ) y e t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e i d ea t h a t d emon s c ou ld i nhab i t p hy s ic a l b od ie s w a s t a ken s e r iou s ly t h a t r e a l f e a ro ft h e h yb r id t ook h o ld . P r io r t ot h e t we lf th c en tu r y , d emon s w e r e p e rc e iv ed t o b e t oo i n sub s tan t i a l a nd e t he r ea l t o h av e t h e a b i l i ty t o i n te rf e r e w i th e mbod ied h uman s b u t w i th t h e d ev e lopmen t o f c oncep t s s u ch a s p u rg a to ry , i n wh ich s ou l s c ou ld s uf f e r p hy s i ca lt o rmen ta tt h eh and so fc o rpo rea ld emon s , e v i lw a s n o l ong e r ' a n i d ea t om ed iev a l p eop l e . I tw a s r e a l a nd h ad b od ie s ' ( Cam ile , 1 989 : 6 3 ) .

H and s a nd f e e t , t h e e x t rem i t i e s o ft h e h uman f o rm , m igh t a l so b e r e p r e sen ted d i s so lv ing i n to a n ima l o r b i rd f o rm . A t W inche s te r C a thed r a l , o ne o f t h e e a r ly t we lf th -cen tu ry c o rbe l s o nt h ew e s t s i de o ft h e s ou th t r an sep ti sc a rv ed w i th af i gu re p o s se s s ing a n o ve r s ized h ead w i th aw ide , s nou t l i ke mou th a nd t wo l e g s t h a te nd i nh oov e s . Human f i gu r e s w i th a n ima lh ead s o rh ead s d i sp lay ing a n im a l c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s a r e n o t u nu su a l i na r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re , a nd f r equen t ly i t i sd i ff i cu l t t o i d en t if y w he the r ah ead i sw ho l ly h uman o r who l ly a n ima l . I n s ome c a se sh uman f i gu re s a r e c a rved w i th a n a n ima l h ead , a sf o re xamp le t h e ma l e e xh ib i t ion i s ti nt h e B e t te s tho rne C hape l a t Me r e ( W i l t sh i re ) (i g . 7 . 7 ) . A t E d ing ton ( W i l t sh i r e ) , t h e r e i s ac a rv ing o f af i gu r e o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e s ou th c han ce la i s le t h a th a s h oov e s i n s tead o fh and s (i g . 7 .8 ) . B i rd s ' t a lon s a r e s ub s t i tu t ed f o r f e e to n af i gu r e a tS yd l ing S t N icho la s (i g . 7 .9 ) , w h i le p aw -l ik e h and s a ppea r o n amou th -pu l le r a tE ng l i shcombe (i g . 7 . 1 0 ) A s n o ted a bov e , h uman f i gu r e s w i th a n ima l e a r s o ccu r t h roughou t b o th R oman e sque a nd Go th ic a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e a nd a r e b y f a rt h e mo s tc ommon a n ima lp a r tu sed i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e h uman b ody . Twe lf th -cen tu r y e xamp le s m ay b e f ound a mong t h e c o rbe l s equ ence s a t W inche s te r C a thed ra la nd R om sey Abbey , Ma iden N ew ton , E ng l i shcombe a nd P r i s ton . I ndeed , i n R omane sque a r t i n t h i s a r ea t h e f i gu r e r a re ly a ppea r s c a rv ed o n a ny o the r m ed ium . T he se t w e lf th c en tu ry i mag e s a r e a l so d i s t ingu i shed b y t h e p o in t ed s hape o ft h e e a r s c ommon t o c a rv ing s o f f e l ine b ea s t h ead s , whe r ea s l a te r m ed ieva l i mag e s t e nd t o d ep ic t t h e e a r s a s r ounded a nd e l ong a t ed , l i ke a s s ' s e a r s . E xamp le s o f t h e l a t te r c an b e f ound a t i d d ing ton a nd Wel s ( S ome r se t ) , a nd Ame sbu ry a nd B road C ha lk e ( W i l t sh i re ) . T he p opu la r i ty o f t h e mo t if o f a n ima l e a r s i sl i ke ly t o b e c onnec t ed t o t ha t o f t h e f oo l , l ong a s soc ia ted w i th a n a s s -ea r ed h eadd r e s s a nd h im se lf al i m ina l f i gu re ( G if fo rd , 1 974 : 3 40 ) .

S i nce c hap t e r 8e xp lo r e s r e p r e sen t a t ion s o fh yb r id b e ing s i n wh ich a n ima l a nd h uman b ody p a r t s a r e e qualy m ixed , o r t ho se f o rmed b y t h e a dd i t ion o fh uman p a r t s t o a n a n ima l t emp la t e , t h e f olow ing s e c t ion t a ke s ac l o se r l ook a tt ho se i mag e s i n m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e i n wh ich t h e h uman b ody p rov ide st h ef r amewo rk .

Human B od i e sw i t h An ima lF ea t ur e s Among t h e m ed iev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e o ft h e s ou th o f E ng land , c a rv ing s i nw h ich t h e h uman b ody p rov ide s t h e t emp la t e f o rt h e a dd i t ion o fa n ima lp a r t sa r e f a i r ly c ommon . I ti se v iden t t h a t a l though av a r ie ty o f a n ima l p a r t s w e r e u s ed i n t h e se i mag e s —h o rn s , e a r s , h oove s , p aw s , f o r e xamp le — o ne f e a tu r e a bove a l o the r s d om ina te s t h roughou t b o th R omane sque a nd Go th ic c a rv ing s : a n ima l e a r s . B efo r e l ook ing a t t h e se i mag e s , h ow eve r , Iw i sh t o e xp lo re t h e o the r a n im a l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s t h a t w e r e u sed t o c r ea t eh yb r id h uman s .

C e r ta in ly , g ro t e sque b ody i mag e h a s b een n o t ed a s p a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te t o t h e f oo l , af i gu r e c l o se ly r e la ted t ot r i ck s t e r c ha rac te r s who a l so e mbody v a r iou s p a r adoxe s , f o r e xamp le , b e tween t h e n a tu ra l a nd t h e a r t if i c ia l , s t a tu s a nd l a ck o fs t a tu s ( Koepp ing , 1 985 : 2 12 ; G if fo rd , 1 974 : 3 39 ; S ou thwor th , 1 998 : 1 9 ) .T h i s t e n s ion i sw el e xp re s sed i nt h e

8 5

S ec t ion II : F igure s

F igure 7 .7

F igure 7 .9

F igure 7 .8

F igure 7 .1 0

F igure 7 . 7E xh ib i t ion i s t f i gure f r om t he s ou th ( Bet te s thorne ) c hape l a t Mere , f ormed f r om a h uman b ody w i th t he h ead o f ab ea s t( f our teen th -cen tury ) . F igure 7 . 8A h ybr id c rea ture f rom Ed ing ton b a sed u pon t he h uman f orm b u t w i th h oove s i n s tead o fh and s , a n ima l e ar s a nd aw ing l ike p ro truberance s prou t ing f r om b eh ind t he h ead ( f our teen th -cen tury ) . F igure 7 . 9S qua t t ing h u man f i gure w i th b ird 's t a lons i n s tead o ff e e t , s ou th s i de o ft he n ave a t S yd l ing S tN icho la s( f i f teen th -cen tury ) . F igure 7 . 1 0 Gr imac ing h uman h ead w i th a n ima l e ar s a nd a t a lon l ike h and r e s t ing o n t he l ower p ar to ft he f ace , n or th s i de o ft he c hance la t Eng l i shcombe ( twe lf th -cen tury ) .

An ima l Humans a nd Human An ima l s God a nd s ha r ing r e a son a nd i n te l lec t w i th t h e a nge l s , w a s n ow i n t roduced ' ab e st ia l a spec t ' wh ich , c on t ra ry t o God ' s o r ig ina l i n ten t ion , made t h em ' k in t ot h e r e s t o ft h e a n ima l w o r ld ' ( i b id . 9 2 ) . T hu s t h e F a l l , s i n , t h e b ody a nd a n imal i ty w e r e i r revocab ly l i nk ed , c onnect ion s wh i ch w e re w el e xp lo i ted v i sua l ly .

h ybr id i mag e o ft h e h uman w i th a n ima l e a r s , af i gu r e w ho a l though n o t p hy s ica l ly h ybr id i sa s soc ia ted w i th ah yb r id a ppea rance a nd t hu s w i th a mb iguou s c ha rac te r i s t ic s . F rom t h el a t te rp ar to ft h e f our teen th c en tu ry t h e re i sa ni n c rea sed e mpha s i s u pon t h e d emon ic c ha rac te r o f t h e f oo l , wh ich w ou ld b e i n k eep ing w i th t he c ommon a s soc i a t ion s c onnec ted t oh yb r id a ppea rance s a nd d i sgu i se b yt h i sp o in t .

Y e t a tt he s ame t ime , med i ev a l i mag e s o f h uman f i gu re s w i th a n ima lc ha r ac te r i s t i c sc ou ld w o rk t os i gn if yh o l ine s s . I n e a r ly C h r i s t i an a r t t h e e v ang el i s t s , t h r ee o f whom c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed b y a n ima l s ymbo l s ( t he o x , e ag l e a nd l i on ) m igh t b e p or t rayed a sh yb r id b e ing s , h av ing f u l ly i n teg ra ted t h e i r a n ima l c ha rac te r i s t i c i n to t h e i r h uman f o rm . T he h uman a n ima l h yb r id f i gu re s i n m ed i ev a l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re r e ad i ly i l u s t r a t e t h a t a mb iguou s m ean ing s a nd amb iguou s f o rm s a r e c l o se ly c onnec ted . Women , o f ten s e en a s l e s s r a t iona l a nd t h e ref o re c l o se r t ot h e a n ima lw or ld t h an m en , c ou ld b ep o r t r ayed i n al i ke m anne ra sh yb r id h uman -an ima l b e ing s w i th s imi l a r ly a mb iguou s c ha r ac t e r i s t i c s , a s t h e f olow ing c hap t e rn ow t u rn s t oe xp lo re .

C onc lu s ion F o r t h e M idd le A g e s w i ldne s s w a s a we som e a nd s ome th ing t ob ef e a red a sw el a ss ough to u t . How ev e r ,f e a ro ft h ew i ld m ean t t ha t , f o r m ed iev a l C h r i s t ian i ty , t h e n a tu ra l a nd t h e d emon ic w e re c l o se ly c onnec ted . A l though m ed i ev a l t h eo logy n ev e r f u l ly s ucceeded i n s e t t l ing t h e q ue s t ion o f wh i ch s pec if i c s i n h ad c au sed t h e F al , t h e re w a s l i t t l e d i sag reemen tt h a tt h ee a t ing o ft h ea pp l e ' r ep re sen ted a bov e a l av i c tory o fs en sua la ppe t i t e o v e rl aw ' ( J an son , 1 952 : 9 1 ) . I n to t h e E den i c c oup le , c r ea ted i n t h e s p i r i tua l i m ag e o f

8 7

C hap te r 8 S i rens

I n t roduc t ion I n c on s ider ing t he s i r en , t h en , awho le h o s t o fc r ea tu r e s — me rma id , h a rpy , d ra conopede , s ph inx — mu s t b e t a ken i n to a c coun t . Y e t t h e c hap t e r w i l l r ef l ec t t h e m ed ieva l b i a s t owa rd t h e m e rma id who se f o rm w a s t h e mo s t c ommon o f a li na r ch i t ec tu ra ls cu lp tu r e .

S i r en s f r equen t ly a ppea ra mong s tm ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l a r t , a nd h e r e t h e s ou th o fE ng land i sn o e xcep t ion . Howev e r , w h i l s t c l a s s ica l e x amp le s o f t h e f i gu r e h av e l ong a t t rac t ed a c adem ic a t t en t ion ( e .g .H a r r i son , 1 903 ;P ola rd , 1 949 , 1 952 , 1 965 ; A a sv ed , 1 996 ) , a s h a s t h e i mag e a nd r e l a ted f i gu r e s a mong c on t inen t a lm ed iev a l a r t ( J a laber t , 1 936 ; F a ra l , 1 953 ; B ae r , 1 965 ; G a ig -nebe t a nd L a joux , 1 985 : 1 42 -50 ; L ec le rq Ma rx , 1 997 ) , s t ud ie s o f t h e i mag e i n E ng l i sh m ed iev a l a r t a r e s i gn if ican t b y t h e i r a b sence . I n s ha rp c on t r a s t i st h e w o rk p roduced b y s cho la r s o f m ed iev a l l i t e ra tu r e ( d e R a chew i l tz , 1 983 ; Holande r , 1 983 ; Houw en , 1 997 ) a nd d r ama ( Ha ro ian , 1 989 ;B e t che r , 1 996 ) .

S i rens i n Med ieva l A rch i tec tu ra l S cu lp tu re i n t he S ou th o f Eng land R o manesque C a rv ing s De sp i te t h e w ea l th a nd v a r ie t y o f R omane sque a nd e a r ly Go th ic a r ch i tec tu r a l c a rv ing s o f s i r en s o n t h e c on t inen t ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s ,J a l aber t , 1 936 ; B a l tru ga i t i s , 1 986 : 6 8 -73 ; K ahn , 1 987 ; L ec l e rq - Ma rx , 1 997 ) , e l ev en th - a nd t w e l f th c en tu ry w o rk i nt h e s ou th o fE ng land a t t e s t s t o ap auc i ty o f s i ren i mag ery . T he m a jo r s i t e s o fR omane squ e a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu r e i n t h e a r ea , f o r e xamp le , R om sey Abbey , Ma lme sbu ry A bbey , W inche s te r C a thed r a l , S tud land , a nd Dev ize s ( S t J ohn ) , d o n o t f e a tu re a ny c arv ing s o f s i ren s .1 A cco rd ing ly , f o r t h i s c hap t e r I h ave e x t ended t h e b ounda r ie s o f my r e sea rch t oi n c lude o the r c oun t i e s i nt h e s ou th o ft h ec oun t ry s uch a sD evon , S u s sex a nd K en t .

I n i t s s t r ic t e s t s en se t h e t e rm " s i ren" r e f e r s t o t h e c l a s s ica l c r ea tu r e o f c ompo s i t e f o rm w i th a n a v ian b ody a nd a w oman ' s h ead , a nd o cca s ion a l ly b r ea s t s a nd a rm s . C lo se ly r e la ted i s a r ang e o f c ompo s i t e b e ing s w ho se f o rm c omb in e s aw oman ' s ( o r , i n s ome c a se s , a man ' s ) u ppe r b ody w i th a v ian a nd/o r p i scean c ha rac te r i s t ic s , s e rpen t ine o r l e on ine f e a tu r e s . I n o rde r t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h em y e t a t t h e s am e t ime n o t l o se s i gh t o f t h e s i r en c ha r ac te r i s t ic s t h a t t h ey h o ld i n c ommon , t h roughou t t h i s c hap t e r Ih ave a dop t ed t h e f olow ing t e rm ino logy : •

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F i sh s i r en s o r m e rma id s/me rmen d eno te s t h e mo s t p opu la r m ed iev a l v i su a l e xp r e s s ion o f t h e s i r en , t h a t o f aw oman ( o r m an ) f r om t h e h ead t o t h ew a i s t ,a nd af i sh b e low . B i rd s i r en s a r e v i sua l ly i nd i s t ingu i shab l e f r om h a rp ie s , a nd i n m ed iev a l l o r e t h e t wo a r e c on s ide r ed s im i la ri nm any r e spec t s . T he b i rd s i r en o r h a rpy t a k e s t h e f o rm o f ab i rd w i th a h uman h ead a nd o cca s iona l ly u ppe rb ody ,u sua l ly f ema le .

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B i rd -f i sh s i ren s a r e p e rhap s mo r e f r equen t i n m anu sc r ip t i l u s t ra t ion s t h an a r ch i t ec tu r a l s c u lp tu re , t y p ica l ly a ppea r ing w i th t h e h ead a nd u ppe r b ody o f aw oman , af i sh t a i l , a nd b i rd ' s w ing sa nd/o rf e e t .

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B i rd se rpen t s i r en s a dd a l ong , o f ten c o i l ing , s e rpen t t a i l t ot h e b i rd s i r en f o rm . S ome e xamp le s h ave m emb r anou s w ing s r a the r t h an f e a the r ed o ne s a nd l ook r a the rl i k e ah uman -headed w yve rn . C lo se ly r e l a t ed i s t h e d ra conopede o r h uman h eaded s e rpen t .

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T h r ee c a rv ing s o f R omane sque d a t e m ay b e f ound a tt h e r u r a l c hu rche s o fB a rf re s ton ( K en t ) , L u ll ing ton ( S ome r se t ) , a nd N a te ly S cu r e s ( Hamp sh i r e ) .

B a e s t on , S tN i c h o l a s S ome o ft h e r i che s t R omane sque a r ch i tec tu r a l s c u lp tu r e i n t h e s ou th o f E ng land a do rn s t h e r u ra l c hu r ch o f S t N icho la s , B a rf r e s ton ( Ken t ) . T he s imp le t wo -cel s t ruc tu r e o f n av e a nd c hance l f e a tu r e s a n e x ten s ive c o rbe l tab l e , c arved v ou s so i r s s u r round ing t h e w hee lw indow a tt h e e a s t e nd o ft h e c hance l , c a rved c ap i t a l s t ot h e b l ock ed u p n or th d oo r a nd af r i eze o fv a r iou s b ea s t s o n t h e i n s ide n o r th w a l l o ft h en av e . Howev e r , p e rhap s t h eg r ea te s tc oncen t r a t ion o f i mag e ry o ccu r s a r ound t h e s ou th d oo r . H e r et h e r ol -mou ld -

R omane sque c a rv ing s o f s i r en s m ay b e f ound e l sewhe r e i n t h e c oun t ry o n t h e t ympana a tS tow L ong a ( Hun t ingdon sh i r e ) a nd L ong Ma r ton ( Cumb r ia ) , o n c ap i ta l s a t Du rham C a s t l e C hape l ( Du rham ) a nd A ln e ( Yo rk sh i r e ) , a nd o n ac o rbe la tA u s t er f ie ld ( A l len , 1 887 : 1 26 ; B enw e l l a nd Waugh , 1 96 1 : 1 35 136 ; H i ck s , 1 993 : 2 6 1 -262 , 2 69 ; Druce , 1 9 15 : 1 75 ) . At w in t a i led m e rma id -l ik e f i gu r e c an b e f ound o n ac ap i t a l a t R ock ( Wo r ce s te r sh i r e ) w h i le t w in ta i l ed m e rmen a r e c a rv ed o n t h e c o rn e r s o f t h e s qua r e f on t a t S t P e t e r ' s , C amb r idg e ( P ev sne r , 1 954 : 1 82 ;S e r ra , 1 969 : 3 62 a nd f i g .4 0 ) .

B i rd -l ion s i r en s c omb ine t h e b ody o f al i on w i th t h ew ing so f ab i rd a nd t h eh ead a nd u ppe rb ody o f ah uman , a ga in , u sua l ly f ema l e . S ph inxe s a r e c l o se r e la t ion s .

8 9

S ec t ion II :F igure s

F igure 8 . 1D e ta i lo ft he c en tra ls e c t ion o ft he t ympanum a tB arf re s ton s how ing t he f i gure o f Chr i s t w i th in t he v e s ica a nd a th i s f e e t , af o l ia te ta i led h arpy ( l ef t )a nd t he m erma id ( r igh t ) , b o th e nc irc led b yt he f o l ia te s t em st ha tg row f r om t he e dge o ft he v e s ica i t se lf .

F igure 8 . 2T he v ou s so ir s a round t he whee lw indow a tt he e a s te nd o ft he c hance l a tB arf re s ton a re c arved w i th n umerou sc rea ture s , among t hem s evera l b i rd s iren s .

9 0

S i rens T he h i gh q ua l i ty o f t h e c a rv ing c on t inue s i n s ide t h e b u i ld ing , o n t h e f on t a nd t h e c hance l a r ch a nd i ti st h e c a rv ing a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a t te r t h a t b ea r s t h e i mag e r e levan t h e r e . T he c hance l a r ch o f t h r ee o rde r s t e rm ina t e s i n t wo c l u s te r s o f c ap i t a l s . A l l c ap i t a l s a r e c r owned w i th t h ick p l a in a bac i , a pa r t f r om t h e i nne rmo s t o ne s t h a t s uppor t a bac i b ea r ing r e pe t i t iv e l e af mo t if s . T he n or the rnmo s tc ap i ta lo nt h e n or th s i de o ft h e a r ch i sc arv ed w i th t wo c onf ron ted b i rd se rpen t s i ren s , t h e i r h ead s mee t ing o n t h e c o rn e r . B o th a r e n ea ri d en t ica l . E ach h a s a n o ve r s ized h uman h ead w i th al ong p l a i t t r a i l ing h o r izon ta l ly f r om i t s t op , ap a i r o f l a rg e u pw a rd p o in t ing f e a the r ed w ing s , t wo t i ny f o r el imb s a nd at w i s t ed , b eaded , s e rpen t ine t a i l t h a tc o i l s u pw a rd ( F ig . 8 .3 ) . ( S im i la rt a i l s f e a tu r e o nt h e t wo c onf ron ted w yv e rn s o n t h e c o r re spond ing c ap i ta l o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e a r ch ) . T he c ap i ta l n ex t t oi tf e a tu r e s a c a t -head d i sgo rg ing t h ick f o l iag e .

i ng s o f t h e a r ch o f t wo o rde r s d i sp lay c a rv ing s o f f i gu r e s e ng ag ed i nv a r iou s c r af t s w h i l s t c a rv ed i n to t h e f l a t s u rf ace o ft h e w al a bove i s as e r ie s o fm eda l l ion s a r rang ed i n to a n a r ch , e a ch o f wh ich e nc lo se s af i gu ra t iv ei mag e . T he c ap i t a l s a r e c a rved i n d e ta i l —e ven t h e a bac i a r e d eco r a t ed w i th s ma l li mage so fb ea s t s . B u t f o rt h ep u rpo se s o ft h i s c hap t e r , i ti st h et ympanum t h a ti so fg r ea t e s ti n t e r e s t . T he d om inan t i mag e o f t h e t ympanum i st h e f i gu r e o f a s e a t ed C h r i s th o ld ing ab ook o pen o nh i sl e f tk nee a nd w i th h i s r i gh t h and r a i sed i n b l e s s ing ( F ig . 8 .1 ) . T he f i gu re i s e nc lo sed w i th in a v e s i c a p i r c i s t h a t s p rou t s , a t v a ry ing i n te rva l s , i n to s i nuou s , s c ro l l ing f ol i ag e . W i th in t h e s pace s made b y t h e t e nd r i l s a ppea r s m a l le r f i gu re s a nd i ti sa mong t h e se t h a t t h e s i r en a ppea r s . T he se s male r f i gu r e s d o n o t a ppea rt ob er andom ly l o ca ted . A tt h e t op o ft h et ympanum a r e c a rv ed t wo a ng el i c f i gu r e s , o ne o n e a ch s i de o fC h r i s t ' s h ead , b e low w h ich a ppea r f ou r mo r e f i gu r a t iv e i mag e s , t wo o n e a ch s i de o f C h r i s t ' s w a i s t . Two o f t h e se a r e a ng e l s h o ld ing s c rol s ( t he t wo c l o se s t t o t h e b ody o fC h r i s t ) ; t h e o the r t wo a r e c rowned h ead s , o ne f ema le a nd o ne m a le . B e low t h i s r ow o fi mag e s , a tt h e l ow e s t p o in t o ft h e v i sua l f i e ld a f fo rded b y t h e t ympanum a nd f l ank ing C h r i s t ' s f e e t , a r e f ou r mon s t rou s c r ea tu r e s ,a g a in ,t wo o ne a ch s i de . F rom t h e v i ew e r ' s l ef t t o r i gh t t h e se a r e : as ph inx -l ik e c r ea tu r e w i thou t w ing s o r r e a r l e g s , w ho se h indqua r t e r s t w i s t i n to a t h ick v eg e t a l t a i l ; as e cond , s im i la r c r ea tu r e , s omewhe re b e tween as ph inx a nd ah a rpy , w i th l ong s t ra igh t h a i r , t wo a v ian f o r e l imb s , a nd af o l ia te t a i l ; am e rma id w i th as i ng l e t a i l c u rv ed u pw a rd s w h i ch s he g r a sp s w i th h e r r i gh t h and

T he L u l l ing ton c a rv ing b ea r s m any s im i la r i t i e s i ni t s f o rm , e spec ia l ly t h e r end i t ion o ft h e w ing s , t oo the r R omane squ e c a rv ing si nt h e s ou th o ft h ec oun t r y .T he se i n c lude t h eb i rd s e rpen t s i ren s a r ound t h e w hee l w indow a tt h e e a s t e nd o f t h e c hance l a t B a r f r e s ton a nd t h e G r iff in c a rv ed i n to a v ou s so i r n ow s e t i n to t h e w e s t w a l l o f t h e c hu r ch a t B in s t ead o nt h e I s le o fW igh t .

Na t e ! ) ,S c u r e s , S tS w i t hun T he c hu rch o f S t S w i thun i s ap a r t icu la r ly s ma l l a nd u ncompl i ca ted b u i ld ing b u i l t f r om f l i n t a nd c ompo sed o fa n ave a nd a p s ida l e nded c hance l w i th n o s t ruc tu ra l d i v i s ion b e tw een t h e t wo . T he r e i so n ly o n e d oo rway , a nd t h i s i so n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e n av e . T he a r ch f o rm ing t h e d oo r i s c a rved w i th c hev ron s a nd d a te s t o b e tween 150 -1200 ( Key se r , 1 915 : 9 ; P ev sne r a nd L loyd , 1 967 : 3 43 ) . T h i s o r ig ina l ly f e a tu r ed ac ap i ta l c a rv ed w i th am e rma id , w h ich h a s n ow b een r emov ed t ot h ei n s ide o ft h ec hu r ch a nd i ss e t u pon ac o rbe l i nt h e s ou thw e s t c o rne r o ft h e n ave ( F ig . 8 . 4 ) . A modem c arv ing o f am e rma id b a sed u pon t h e t we lf th c en tu r yi mag e r e p la ce s t h e c ap i ta l , a nd i ss e ti n to i t s o r ig ina l l o ca t ion o n t h e e a s t s i de o f t h e n or th d oo r ( B rough e ta l , 1 911b : p l a te f a c ing p l5 4 ) . A l though t h e r e i ss ome d amag e t ot h e s t one , wh ich h a s a l so b een w h i t ewa shed , t h e c arv ing o n t h e t we lf th -cen tu r y c ap i ta l c an s t i l l b e m ade o u t . T h i s c on s i s t s o f ar a the r c hunk y b ody a nd o ve r s i zed h ead w i th f ew f a c ia l f e a tu re s ( a pa r t f r om amou th ) , a nd s k inny a rm s , t h e l ef t o ne b en t a tt h e e l bow t o r e s t t h e h and u pon h e r w a i s t . T he s i ng le t a i l c urv e s u p a nd t o h e r l e f t , a nd f ol iag e s p r ig sa r ev i s ib le i nt h e b ackg round . D iff i cu l t t o m ak e o u t n ow a r e t h e t wo l ong s t rand s o f h a i r wh i ch t h e f i gu re g r a sp s i n e a ch h and , b u t t h e se a r e c l ea r f r om a n e a r ly t wen t ie th -cen tu ry p ho tog r aph ( Cof f in s , 1 913 : p l . 5 6a ) . A c u r iou s l o l l ipop shaped i t em a ppea r s n ex t t oh e rl e f t e l bow ; t h i sm igh tr e p re sen t am i r ro r .

a nd w ho h o ld s a n o b long s hape u nde r h e r l ef t a rm ; a nd a g r iff in i np rof i le . C o l l in s n o t ed t h a t s ph inx e s d o a ppea r i n c ompa r ab le m ed ieva l c on tex t s , f o r e xamp le , o n m ap s s u ch a st h e Mappa Mund ih ou sed a tH e r efo rd C a thed r a l , w i thou t w ing s a nd w i th o n ly as i ng le p a i ro fl e g s ( Cof f in s , 1 933 : 1 ) . I th a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h e w ea the red s hape h e ld b y t h e me rma id i s af i sh ( Druce , 1 9 15 : 1 76 ; 1 938 : 2 8 ; B enw el a nd Waugh , 1 96 1 : 1 35 ;K l ing ende r , 1 971 : 3 15 ) . A f u r the r s even b i rd s i r en s , s ome w i th f ol i a t e t a i l s , a r e c a rv ed o n t h e v ou s so i r s a r ound t h e e x t e r io r o f t h e whee l w indow a tt h e e a s t e nd o f t h e b u i ld ing , a l ong w i th o the r b ea s t s ( s ee F ig . 8 . 2a nd S he r idan a nd R o s s [ 1 975 : 6 1 ] f o r i l u s t r a t ion ) .

L u l l i n g t on , Al lS a i n t s L ike S tud land i n Do r se t , t h e v i lag e c hu r ch o fA l l S a in t s a t L ul ing ton i sl i t t le a l te r ed f r om i t s l i nea rp l an o fn av e , a x ia l t owe r a nd c hance l , t h e o n ly l a te r m ed ieva l a dd i t ion c on s i s t ing o f as ou th c hape l a d jo in ing t h e n av e . T he re i sa c arv ed c o rbe l tab le o n t h e e x t e r io r o ft h e n or th s i de o ft h e n ave , b e low wh ich a ppea r s ah i gh ly o rna te a nd p e rhap s F r ench o r S pan i sh i n sp i r ed n or th d oo r w i th a t ympanum d ep ic t ing t h e T r ee o f L i f e f l ank ed b y b ea s t s . A bov e t h i s a ppea r s av ou s su r e o f b eakhead s , w h i le i n t h e s pace b e tw een t h e t op o f t h e d oo r a nd t h e e ave s o f t h e r oof a s em ic i r cu la r a r ch f r ame s an i che e nc lo s ing t h e f i gu re o f a s e a ted a nd n imbed C h r i s tw i th o ne a rm r a i sed i nb l e s s ing .

9 1

S ec t ion II : F igure s

: e se

F igure 8 . 4T he t we lf th -cen tury c ap i ta l f r om N a te ly S cure s n ow r e s ide s w i th in t he s ou th -we s t c orner o f t he n ave r a ther t han i t s o r ig ina l p o s i t ion o n t he e as t s i de o f t he s ou th d oor . Wea ther ing h a s r emoved much d e ta i l b u t t he f i gure o ft he merma id i ss t i l l c l ear , w i th a s pray o ff o l iage a ppear ing f r om b eh ind t he t i po ft he t a i l .

F igure 8 . 3One o ft he b i rd serpen t s iren s a tL u l l ing ton . T h is p i c ture c l ear ly i lus tra te st he p la i ted h a ir t ha t f l ie s o u tward s f r om t he b ack o ft he h ead .

F igure 8 . 5T he merma id f r om am i ser icord a tE xe ter C a thedra l ( m id th ir teen th c en tury ) .

9 2

S i rens L a ter Med ieva l S i ren C a rv ing s I : M i se r icord s a nd S talwork

e a r s o ft h e h ead . E a ch i sn ak ed t ot h e w a i s t a nd a ppea r s t o h ave at a pe r ing , p i sc ifo rm -l ik e t a i l , a l though i ti si mpo s s ib l e t o t e l f o r s u r e s i nce t h e v e ry t i p s o f e a ch r ema in h i dden i n s ide t h e e a r s o f t h e h ead . R ing s o f w ha t m ay b e s c a l e s e nc i r c le t h ew a i s to fe ach ,a l though i ti se qua l ly p o s s ib le t h a t

B y f a rt h e m a jo r i ty o fs i r en i mag e s i nt h e a r ea o ccu ri nl a te r m ed ieva l c on tex t s , i n p a r t icu la r u pon m i se r ico rd s a nd a s soc ia ted s t alwo rk ,a nd r oof b o s se s . E xe te r C a thed r a l i n Devon p o s se s se s t h e o l de s t c omp le te s e t o fm i se r ico rd s i nt h e c oun t ry ( c . 1238 -1244 ) . T he se a r e n o t ab le f o r t h e i r ' many c a rv ing s wh ich c on s i s t e n t i r e ly o f f o l i ag e o r g ro t e sque b ea s t s b u r s t ing i n to l e af a nd t hu s s t r add l ing t h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e a n ima l a nd p l an t w o r ld s ' ( G la scoe a nd S wan ton , 1 978 : 1 ) . Numbe r 4 6 i n G la scoe a nd S wan ton ' s s y s tem i s ac a r v ing o f am e rma id w i th s i ng l e t a i l a nd n ea t ,w avy h a i rt ot h e s hou lde r s ,h o ld ing a l of t af i sh i nh e r l ef t h and ( F ig 8 .5 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s he m ay h av e o r ig ina l ly h e ld a no the r f i sh i nh e rr i gh t h and b u t t h e e nd o f h e r o u t s t re tched a rm h a s b een b rok en o f f . An i n t r ica te ly c a rved f i sh t a i l i sp a r t ia l ly o b scu r ed b y t h e v i go rou s f o l i ag e o ft h e ( v iew e r ' sr i gh t ) s uppor te r .

F igure 8 . 6T he c onf ron ted p a ir o fm er l ike c rea ture s c arved o n a m iser icord a t E xe ter C a thedra l . N o te t he f o l ia te s prays i n s tead o ff i sh t a i l s .

t h e se a r e f ol i a t e , l i k e t h e w a i s t b and o n t h e t w in ta i led m e rma id a tC h r i s tchu r ch P r io ry , c on s ide r ed i n mo r e d e ta i l b e low . Wh i l s t B a sfo rd t e n t a t iv e ly s ugg e s ted t h a t t h e se w e r e ' b el ig e r en t m e rmen ( ? ) ' ( 1 978 : 1 26 ) , a mo re r e cen t c ommen ta to rh a s n o ted t h a t t h e " s ca le s" o n t h e t wo f i gu re s a r e c ompa r ab l e t o t h e h a i r o n t h e G r een Man ' s h ead , a nd mu s t t h e r efo r e r ep r e sen t l e av e s ( Cen terwa l l , 1 997 : 3 3 n 5 ) . T h i s w ou ld m ake t h e t wo f i gu r e s c ompa r ab le t o ` wh if f le r s ' , f ol ia te f i gu r e s a s soc ia ted w i th p ag ean t s a nd p roce s s ion s t h roughou tt h el a te r med iev a la nd e a r ly moder np e r iod ( i b id . 2 9 -30 ) . T hu s t h e i mag er yw i th in t h e s e quence o fb ench e nd c a rv ing s a ppea r s t o c onnec t m e rmen o r m e r -l ike f i gu r e s w i th f ol i ag e a nd f i gu r e s a s soc ia ted w i th p ag ean t s . T h i s v i sua l c omp l ex o f a s soc ia t ion s , h ow ev e r , c anno t b e e xp lo red i na ny d e ta i lh e r e .

A f u r the r m i se r ico rd ( no . 3 3 ) i s c a rv ed w i th a p a i r o f c onf ron t ed m e r -f igu re s , d i s t ingu i shab le a sm a l e a nd f ema le o n ly v i a t h e i r d i f f e r en t h eadg ea r ( F ig . 8 . 6 ) . T hey h o ld b e tw een t h em at ambou r ine a bov e ag r imac ing h uman h ead w i th a n ima l e a r s , a nd t h e t a i l s o fe a ch s p lay o u t i n to s t if f l e af s t y le f ol i ag e . A cco rd ing t o G la s scoe a nd S wan ton t h i s c a l l s i n to q ue s t ion ' t he i r i d en t i t y a sm e rmen o r s i ren s . T he t e x tu r e o f t h e i r t a i l s i s c ompa t ib le w i th t h e c a rve r ' s r e nde r ing o f b o th p lumag e a nd s c a l e s a nd t h e se c r ea tu r e s t hu s s e em t o d ef y p r ec i se d ef in i t ion ' ( 1 978 : 2 2 ) . I mag e ry t h a t a s soc ia t e s m e rmen , f ol i ag e , a nd mu s ica l i n s t rumen t s o r p ag ean t r yi s ,h ow eve r , f ound a to the rs i t e si nt h e s ou thw e s t . A t S t And r ew ' s , S u tcombe ( Devon ) ar i ch y e t s ad ly d e te r io ra t ing s e t o fl a te f i f t een th - o r e a r ly s i x teen th -cen tu ry b en ch e nd s f e a tu r e s am e rman c a rv ed o no ne o ft h ep ew si n t h e c en t r e o ft h e n av e ( F ig . 8 .7 ) . H e h a s ab ea rd a nd w ea r s ah ood a nd l ong s leeved t op w h i le t a s se l -l ike o b jec t s h ang f r om h i s u ppe ra rm s . I nh i s r i gh th and h e a ppea r s t oh o ld a b one ; i nh i sl ef th and , h e ld u p i nt h ea i r , t h e o b jec th e o nce h e ld i sd i ff i cu l t t o d ec iphe r . T o h i s l ef t t h e r e i sa no the r h yb r id f i gu r e , c ompo sed o f a n u ppe r b ody w i th s hagg y , m ane -l ik e h a i r a nd a r e p t i l ian t a i l t h a t e nd s i n ad ragon h ead . T he f i gu re i t se lf h a s a n a n ima l h ead a nd w ie ld s a s wo rd a nd s h ie ld . B o th t h e m e rman a nd t h i s f i gu r e a r e p l aced u pon i nd iv idua l s h ie ld s , s ugg e s t ing a p o s s ib le h e ra ld ic i mpe tu s , a l though mo s t o ft h e f i gu r e s i nt h e s e r ie s a r e r ep r e sen t ed i n as im i la r f a sh ion a nd many o f t h e se a ppea r t ob e f a r f r om t h e c r ea tu r e s o fh e r a ld ry . T he r e s t o f t h e s e r ie s a r t icu la t e s c onnec t ion s b e tw een s e rpen t ine f o rm s , t h ej e s te ro rp ag ean tf i gu r e ,f o l iag e , a nd p i scean s c a l e s .

A t W inche s te r C a thed ra l t h e m i se r ico rd s equ ence d a t e s t o 1 308 . T he c onnec t ion b e tw een b i rd s i r en a nd f i sh s i r en i s m ade e xpl i c i ti no ne c a rv ing l o ca ted o nt h en or th s i de o ft h e c ho i ri nw h ich t h e c en t ra l f i gu r e o f ah a rpy , c l ad i n ah ood , i sf l ank ed b y am e rma id a nd am e rman ( Ca l l e , 1 994 : 1 5 , N8 ; R emnan t 1 969 : 5 6 , 8 ) . T he m e rma id h a s l ong s t ra igh t h a i r a nd h o ld s ac omb i nh e r r i gh t h and wh i l s t u s ing h e r l e f t t o s uppor t t h e m i se r ico rd l e dg ei t se lf ( F ig 8 .8 a ) ; m i r ro r ing h e r p o s i t ion , t h e m e rman h o ld s af i sh i nh i s l ef th and a nd u s e s h i s r i gh t h and t o s uppor t t h e l e dg e . T h i s i s t h e o n ly o ccu r rence o f a m e rma id i n t h e e n t i r e s equence o f m i se r ico rd s . A l so o ff our teen th -cen tu ry d a te a r e t h e m i se r ico rd s a t Wel s C a thed ra l ( c 1325 1340 ) . Two o f t h e se a r e c arv ed w i th m e rma id s , a nd b o th a ppea r o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e c ho i r ( R emnan t , 1 969 : 1 36 , n umbe r s 5a nd 1 5 ) ( F ig s 8 . 8 b -c ) . Numbe r f i v e i sp a r t i a l ly u nf in i shed , h e r a rm s h e ld s o t h a t t h ey a r e b en t a t t h e e l bow s w i th t h e f o rea rm s p o in t ing d ownwa rd s , h av ing y e t t ob e p rope r ly s moo thed o f f . T h i s m e rma id a l so h a s s ho r t w avy h a i r , b r ea s t s , a nd a s c a le le s s t a i l , a g a in p e rhap s u nf in i shed . T he l a t te re xamp l e ( n o . 1 5 ) i s c omp le ted a nd i ss t r ik ing f o rt h e f a c tt h a t s he s u ck l e s al i on . T he m e rma id s u ck l ing a l i on o ccu r s c a rved u pon

F u r the re xamp l e s o ccu ro nt h e b ench e nd s i nt h e c hu r ch o f t h e Ho ly Gho s t a tC rowcombe ( S ome r se t ) . D a t ing t o 1 534 a nd t hu s o f as im i la rd a t e t ot ho se a tS u t combe S t And rew , t h e c a rv ing s h e re i n c lud e at w in ta i led m e rman w ho se t a i l s s p rou t i n to f ol iag e a nd ac omp lex i mag e b a sed a r ound a h ead d i sgo rg ing b e r r y laden s t em s ( t he l a t t e ri si l u s t r a ted i n B a sf o rd , 1 978 : p 1 .92 ) . Two ma le , c l ub -w ie ld ing f i gu re s , w ho a l so h o ld s ma l l r o se t t e -l ik e s h ie ld s , e me rg e f r om t h e

9 3

S ec t ion II :F igure s

F igure 8 . 7B ench e nd f r om t he c hurch a tS u tcombe i nD evon c arved w i th amerman a nd c ompo s i te f i gure . T he a ssoc ia ted p rops c arr ied b y e ach s ugge s t ac onnec t ion w i th l a te med ieva lp agean t s o rd ramas .

S i rens

a

F igure 8 . 8( a -g ) F i sh a nd b ird s iren s ( or h arp ie s ) c arved o n m i ser icord s f r om a ) Winche s ter ; ba nd c ) We l l s ; d ) H ighwor th ; e ) Chr is tchurch ; f and g )E xe ter .

9 5

S ec t ion II :F igure s m i se r ico rd s a to the rs i t e si nt h ec oun t r y2 a nd i sc oncep tua l ly r e la t ed t o t h e i mag e o f T e r ra o r L uxu r ia , a s e xp lo r ed i n mo re d e t a i l f u r the r o n i nt h i s c hap te r . S he h o ld s t h e t i p o f h e rf i sh t a i li nh e rl e f th and . F i f t een th - a nd s i x teen th -cen tu ry e xamp le s m ay b e f ound u pon t h e m i se r ico rd s a nd s t alwo rk a t H ighwo r th i n W i l t sh i r e a nd C h r i s tchu r ch P r iory ( F ig s 8 . 8 d -e ) . A t t h e f o rme rt h em e rma id h o ld s a l of t al a rg ec i r cu la rm i r ro ri nh e r r i gh t h and a nd h a s l ong s t r a igh t h a i r t h a t d i sappea r s d own h e r b ack . H e rl ef th and r e s t s u pon h e rt a i l . A t C h r i s t chu r ch P r ior y t h e l a t e med ieva l c a rved d o s s ie r s ( t he p ane l s b eh ind t h eb ack r ow o fs t a l ls ) d a te t o1 515 a nd f e a tu r e at w in ta i led m e rma id w i th e ach a rm o u t s t r e t ched t o g r a sp t h e e nd o f e a ch t a i l . A th e rw a i s ti s af ol i a te b and , a nd h e r s t r a igh th a i r i sn ea t ly p inn ed b enea th a d eco ra t ed c ap ( Rober t s e ta l , 2 000 : 1 0 ) .

a

B i rd s i r en s o r h a rp i e s a r e a c ommon i mag e u pon m i se r ico rd s i n t h e a r ea , a ppea r ing i n t h e s e quence s a tt h e c a thed r a l s o f E xe te r , Wel s a nd W inche s t e r .3 I ndeed , t h e p opu la r i ty o ft h e f i gu r e i n s ome m i se r ico rd s equence s ( f o r e xamp le t h e 6s i ng le i mag e s a nd 2 p a i r s a t W inche s te r ) m igh t s ugg e s t t h a t t h e i mag e a ppea led t o t h e c l e r ic s w ho w ou ld h av e u sed t h e se s pace s a nd f o r w hom t h e c a rv ing s w ou ld h av eb een m ade .T ha tt h e f i gu r eb ecame i d en t if ied i n t h el a te rM idd le A g e s , a sd i d t h e s i r en ,w i th p ro s t i tu t ion a nd f em in ine a lu r e i n g ene ra l m igh t g o s ome w ay t owa rd s e xp la in ing s u ch ab i a s . T he t y p ic a l f o rm t h a t h a rp ie s a s sume i n t h e se c a rv ing s i s t h a t o f t h e b ody o f ab i rd w i th a h uman h ead . T he d i f f e r en ce b e tw een m a le a nd f ema l e h a rp ie s i st h e ref o r e r e p r e sen t ed b y g ende r ed h eadg ea r o r s e conda ry s e xu a l c ha r ac te r i s t ic s s u ch a s ab ea rd . When o n ly a s i ng le h a rpy a ppea r s i ti si n va r iab ly f ema le b u tw hen t wo a ppea rt h ey a r e u sualy af ema le a nd am a le c oup le . P a i r ed h a rp ie s o ccu r a t E xe te r a nd W inche s te r ( F ig . 8 . 9a b ) . A t t h e f o rme r , t h ey a r e t h e c en t ra l i mag e f l ank ed b y f ol i a t e s uppor te r s ; a tt h e l a t te r , t h ey a r e t h e s uppor te r s f l ank ing i mag e s o f af i gu r e i n c ha in m a i l , a nd o n as epa r a t e m i se r ico rd t h e d em i -f igu r e o f a ni nv er ted m an . V a r ia t ion su pon t h i s f o rm a r e n ume rou s .T he E xe te ri mag e s a r e c u r iou s f o r t h e f a c t t h a t s ome o f t h e h a rp ie s h av e h uman h and s r a the r t h an t a lon s . One m a le a nd f ema le p a i r e ven h o ld h and s w h i le a no the r s i ng le h a rpy u s e s t h em t o g r ip t h e s p r ig o f f ol i ag e u pon wh ich i tp e r che s ( F ig . 8 .8 1 ) . L ike o the r mon s t rou s c r ea tu r e s i nm ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l a r t t h ey c ou ld b e r e p r e sen ted i n b i co rpo r a t e f o rm a s a no the r m i se r ico rd f r om E xe te ri l u s t r a te s .T he a s soc ia t ion w i th f o l -

2

F igure 8 . 9Harp ies f ro m m iser icords a t Winches ter Ca thedra l .

i a g e i s p a r t icu la r ly s t rong i n t h i s s e r ie s a s w el , t h e b i corpo ra te h a rpy , o ne o ft h e p a i r s a nd t h e h a rpy p e r ched u pon a b r anch p o s se s s ing t a i l s t h a t s p rou t i n to f l e shy g r eene r y , s im i la r t o t h e p a i r ed m e r -fo lk i nt h e s ame s e r ie s a nd t h e m e rma id r oof b o s se s a tS tood l e igh . On e s e rpen t ine a nd f ol i a t e ta i led p a i r f l ank ac en t r a l f l eu r -de ly s ( F ig . 8 .8 g ) . H a rp ie s i n t h e se m i se r ico rd s a t E x e te r a nd W inche s t e r r a r e ly a ppea r w i thou t h eadd r e s se s , c on te s t ing t h e s imp le e qua t ion o ff ema le mon s t e r sw i th l o o se h a i ra nd i mmo ra l i t y t h a ti so f t en p o s i t ed f o r t h e i r c l o se r e la t ion s , t h e f i sh s i ren s . On e o f t h e i mag e s a t W inche s te r p l ay s u pon t h i s c onnec t ion o fh eadd r e s s a nd h a rpy , r e p r e sen t ing t h e b ound h a i r o n e i the r s i de o f t h e h ead n o t w i th an e t b u t a s t h e

R emnan t n o te s t he e xamp les a t S t Mary t h e V i rg in , E d le sbo rough

( Buck ingham sh i r e ) , He r efo rd C a thed ra l ( He refo rd sh i re ) a nd Norw ich C a thed ra l ( Nor fo lk ) ( 1 969 : 1 , 6 2 , 1 07 ,a nd i l u s t ra ted i nP l a te 8a c ) . T he r e levan t m i se r ico rd s f r om t h e se t h ree s i te s a r e a s f olow s ( numbe r ing a f te r R emnan t 1 969 ) : E xe te r C a thed ra l 4 , 6 , 7 , 3 2

3

( Remnan t ,

1 969 :

3 4 -37 ;

G la sscoe

a nd

Swan ton ,

1 978 :

2 2 -24 ) ;

W inche s te rC a thed ra l n or th s i de 3 ,8 ,l owe r s ou th s i de 2 ,3 ,s ou th s i de 1 2 ? ,1 6 , 2 4 , 2 9 ( Remnan t , 1 969 : 5 6 -59 ; G ale , 1 994 : 1 5 , 1 7 , 1 9 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 9 ) ; Wel s C a thed ra l 3 4 ( Remnan t , 1 969 : 1 37 ) .

9 6

S i rens T he b i rd -f i sh s i ren f r om t h e c hance l a tS tB a rnaba s , Queen C ame l ( S ome r se t ) i s mo s tu nu sua l f o rt h e p er iod a nd u n l ike t h e m a jo r i ty o f a r ch i tec tu ra l c a rv ing s m ay b e c onf iden t ly a s c r ibed t o t h e d i rec t i nf luence o f ab e s t ia ry ( F ig . 8 . 1a ) . T h i s i sb ecau se t h e b o s se s i n t h e c hance l a r e o f ah i gh q ual i ty a nd f e a tu re al a rg e n umbe r o fd e ta i l ed a nd u nu sua l s ub jec t s , s uch a s t h e u n i co rn , A ip id o C h e l on e o r wha le , t h e P e r id ix ion T ree w i th d ov e s a nd d r agon , t h e t i g re s s a nd m i r ro r , a nd e l ephan t a nd c a s t le . T he se a r e f am i l i a r f r om

f r on t p a r t o ff e a the red w ing s ( F ig . 8 .9 c ) . T he f a ce a ppea r s b e tw een t he se " w ing s" ,a nd b e low , o ne ach s i de o ft h ec h in , a r e l ong t a lon s . T he i mag e i sr ema rk ab le f o r c oncen t r a t ing i n as imp l e f o rm t he i d ea o f t h e h a rpy w i th t h e f o rm o f b ound h a i r , wh ich , e l abo ra te ly d i sp layed o r v e i l ed b enea th h eadd re s se s a t t r ac ted s co rn a nd c en su r e f r om e cc le s i a st i ca l a u tho r i t i e st h roughou tt h el a t e rm ed i ev a lp e r iod . O the re xamp l e s o f mon s t rou s f ema le c r ea tu re si nt h er e g ion i n c lude a c rowned h a rpy f i gu re o n a m i se r i co rd a t W inche s te r , a p a i r o f h a rpy l ik e mon s te r s a t Wel s C a thed r a l , a g a in , o n am i se r ico rd , a nd t h e e x t rao rd ina ry b ench -end d ep ic t ing as ph inx a tC he r i ton B i shop ( Devon ) ( F ig . 8 .1 0 ) ( on s ph inxe s s e eS caf ela , 1 987 ; McCal , 1 995 ) .

b e st i a ry m anu sc r ip t s a nd t h e p a t ron s o ft h e l i v ing w e re t h e C i s te rc i an monk s o f C leeve A bbey , who , l i ke many mona s t i c c ommun i t i e s , w e r e l i ke ly t o b e f am i l ia r w i th b e s t ia ry c r ea tu re s ( Bax te r , 1 998 ; Dmce , 1 937 ) . T h i s m igh t s ugg e s t t h a t t h e se w e re i mag e s mean t t o b e v i ew ed , a l though t h e i r h e igh t f r om t h e g round ( c . 3 0f t ) wou ld m i t ig a te a g a in s tt h i s . Among t h e b o s se s a r e t wo me r -fo lk —am e rman who h o ld s h i s l ong b ea rd w i th o ne h and a nd h i s t a i li nt h e o the r , a nd a s i r en . T he s i ren c a rv ing c omb ine s p i sc i f o rm a nd a v ian c ha r ac te r i s t ic s ; b e low t h e w a i s t h e r f i sh t a i l i sf o rmed f r om s p ine s a nd s c a le s o fd i f f e r ing s i ze s , wh i le j o in ing b eh ind h e r s hou lde r s a r et wo l a rg e f e a the red w ing s t h a t f i l lt h e s pace o f t h e r e s t o f t h e b o s s . S he h a s l ong f l ow ing s t ra igh t h a i r t o h e r w a i s t , a nd i n h e r r i gh t h and s he h o ld s am i r ro r wh i l e w i th h e r l e f t h and s he c omb s h e r h a i r . No t o n ly i st h e c omb ina t ion o fb i rd a nd f i sh c ha rac te r i s t ic s u nu sua lb y t h i s p e r iod ,1 b u t t h e a c t o fc omb ing t he h a i r o r r unn ing ah and t h rough t h e h a i r , r a the r t h an s imp ly h o ld ing ac omb a s a n a t t r ibu te , i sv e ry r a re . I n t he l a te r med iev a l p e r iod f o r a wom an t ou nb ind h e rl ong h a i r a nd c omb i ti np ubl i c c ou ld b e r e g a rded a s i mmode s t ( d e R achew i l t z , 1 987 : 10 ) . T he f ou r teen th -cen tu ry t a pe s t ry made i n Ang e r s , f o r e x amp l e , r ep re sen t s t h eG rea t Who r e o fB aby lon f r om t h eR eve la t ion o fS tJ ohn ( R ev . 1 7 . 1 )s a tu pon ar ock , g az ing i n to am i r ro r a nd c omb ing h e rl ong h a i r ( s ee B a rb , 1 966 : 1 ,a ) . F u r the r e xamp l e s o f s i ren s o n r oof b o s se s o ccu r a tE xe te r C a thed ra l , i n t h e c ho i r , a nd i n t h e c l o i s t e r s a t L acock Abbey . T he i mage a t E xe te r i si n many r e spec t s af a i r ly c onv en t iona l me rm a id w i th l ong w avy h a i r a nd s i ng l e t a i l g r ipped i nh e r r i gh t h and : u nu sua l ly , h ow ev e r , h e r g en i t a l s a r e p a r t i aly v i s ib le ( F ig . 8 . 1b ) . A t L acock t h e r e a r e t h ree c a rv ing s o f me rma id s , t wo o f wh ich a r e s im i l a r t oe ach o the r , t h e t h i rd av e ry i nnov a t iv e c ompo s i t ion t h a t r ev ea l s much a bou t h e r r o le i n l a te r med i ev a l a r t . Two a r e b o th c onv en t iona l r ep re sen ta t ion s o f t h e f i gu r e , d ep ic t ing h e r w i th l ong s t r a igh t h a i r t o t h e w a i s t , s m a l l b rea s t s , a nd h o ld ing a l of t ac omb a nd m i r ro ri ne ach h and ( f o r e xamp l e F ig 8 . 1c ) . T he f i sh t a i l , l i ke many o ft h e c a rv ing s i n t h i s s e r ie s , c u rve s a r ound t h e s i de o f t h e b o s s . T he t h i rd b o s s , h owev e r , r ep re sen t s aw i lde r a spec t . T h i s f i gu re h a s , i n a dd i t ion t o t h e p i sc ifo rm t a i l a nd u ppe r b ody o f awoman , t h e h ead o f ab ea s t w i th al ong s nou t , l a rge o v a l e ye s a nd p o in ted e a r s ( F ig 5 .2 7 ) . F rom t h e mou th e me rg e s as i ng le

F igure 8 . 1 0 Mo t if f rom a l a te med ieva l b ench -end f r om Cher i ton B ishop n ear E xe ter . A l though t he i mage i sa s t r ik ing o ne t here a re p ara l le ls w i th o ther c arv ing s i nt he v i c in i ty , f or e xamp le t he b road f e a thered w ing s o f t he f o l iate ta i led h arp ie s a tE xe ter C a thedra l ( F ig . 8 .8 g ) .

L a te r Med ieva lS i ren C arv ing s I : R oof B osses R oof b o s se s a r e u b iqu i tou s t h roughou t l a te r med iev a l c hu rche s , mona s t e r ie s a nd c a thed ra l s a nd p rov ide n ume rou se xamp l e s o fs i ren s a nd r e la t ed f i gu r e s . Un l ike t h e c arv ed m i se r i co rd s a nd s t alwo rk t h e se d o n o t a ppea r t ob e r e s t r ic ted t o a ny p a r t i cu la r l o ca t ion w i th in t h e b u i ld ing b u t may b e f ound i nc hance l ,c l o i s te ra nd n av ea l ik e .

1

O the r

e xamp le s

o f b i rd -f i sh s i r en s

i n m ed i eva l

a r ch i t ec tu ra l

s c u lp tu r e o ccu r o n m i se r ico rd s a t C a r l i s le C a thed ra l ( Cumbe r land ) a nd H e r efo rd C a thed ra l ( He refo rd sh i r e ) , a nd o n ar oof b o s s a tS e lby A bbey ( Yo rk sh i re ) . T he H e r efo rd c a rv ing d a t e s t ot h e m id -four teen th c en tu r y ;t h eo the re xamp le s a r e f i f teen th c en tu r y .

9 7

S ec t ion II :F igur e s Ap o s t -med iev a l s equence o fr oof b o s se s i nt h e c hance l o f A l lS a in t s 'c hu r ch ,M i lfo rd -on sea a l so f e a tu r e s ac a rv ing o f as i r en . H e r e s h e a ppea r s o n ly f r om t h e w a i s t u p a s a d em if igu re o f an ak ed w oman w i th l ong , c u r ly g o ld h a i r s t ream ing d own h e r b ack . S he h o ld s h er f l i ppe r -l ik e h and s t og e the ri np r aye r ,a nd a th e rw a i s tt h e re a r e s c a le s o rs ma l l f i sh s hape s . T he s e quence o fb o s se s d a t e s t o t h e m id -17 ' h c en tu r y .

s t em o f f o l iag e t h a t d i v ide s i n to t wo b r anche s t h a t c urv e b ack a r ound t o e nc i r c le t h e f i gu r e . H e r a rm s h ave t h ick , s haggy h a i r h ang ing f r om t h em a nd s he h o ld s am i r ro r i n h e r l e f t h and a nd g r a sp s h e r t a i l w i th h e r r i gh t . T he c onnec t ion w i th t h e b ea s t , f ol i ag e a nd t h e m i r ro r , b u t n o t t h ec omb ,i sa ni n te re s t ing o n e t h a ta r t icu la t e s an umbe ro f c onnec t ion s . B i rd se rpen t s i r en s m ay a l so b e f ound a mong t h e se r oof b o s se s . T he se a r e n o tab le f o r t h e i r m emb ranou s ,r a the rt h an f e a the r ed w ing s ,w h ich p rov ide a mo r ed r agon -l ik ea ppea rance ( F ig . 8 .1 2 ) .

Wa l l -Pa in t ing s I n t h e c l o i s t e r a tC an t e rbu r y C a thed r a l ( K en t ) , t h e r e i sa b o s s i n t h e s ou th r ang e c a rved w i th t h e i mag e o f a c r owned m e rma id w i th l ong h a i r , t w in t a i l s , a nd w i th a c i rcu la rm i r ro ri nh e rl e f th and a nd ac omb i nh e rr i gh t ( s ee S he r idan a nd R o s s , 1 975 : 8 4 f o r i l u s t ra t ion ) . P a le b l ue l i ne s o ccu r a bov e h e rh ead , wh i le t h e t h r ee -po in ted c r own i sp a in t ed g o ld . T he c l o i s te r d a t e s t o t h e l a t e r m ed iev a l p e r iod ( f i f teen th — e a r ly s i x teen th c en tu r y ) a nd f e a tu r e s c a rv ing s o f f ol i a te h ead s a nd o the r f i gu r e s i n t h e s ou th w a lk , w h i le t h e b o s se s i n t h e o the r t h r ee r a ng e s a r e a l c a rv ed w i th h e ra ld ic d ev ice s . A c u r iou s f e a tu r e o f t h e b o s se s i nt h e s ou th w a lk i st h e i r s i ze — m any a r e n o l a rg e r t h an t h e w id th o f t h e s t one r i b s u pon w ho se c on ta c t p o in t s t h ey a ppea r . T h i s m igh t i nd ica te t h a t t h ey a r e mo r e d eco ra t iv e t h an s t ruc tu ra l , y e t , p a r adox i caly , t h e h e igh t f r om t h e g round ( c . 1 8f t ) m ak e s m any o f t h e i mag e s d i ff i cu l tt os e ew i th t h en aked e y e .

I ti si mpor tan t t or emembe r t h a t t h e c ommon a ppea rance o f E ng l i sh m ed iev a l c hu r ch i n te r io r s t oday i sb u t ap a l e r ef l ec t ion o ft h e i r w o rk ing l i f e s e v e ra l c en tu r ie s a go w hen t h e w al s w ou ld t y p ica l ly h av e b een p a in t ed w i th f i gu r e s a nd s c ene s . A t f ew s i t e s d oe s e nough p a in ted i mag e ry r ema in t o g i v e a n a dequa te i mp r e s s ion o f t h e p o t en t ia l v i sua l e f f ec t , a l though w he re i mag e s h av e b een u ncov e red a nd c on served o r r e s to r ed i ti sp o s s ib le t o r e a l i se h ow d rama t i c t h i s e f f ec t mu s th av eb een .

E labo r a t e v au l t ing s uch a s t h a t i nt h e n av e a tt h e f o rme r A bbey o f S he rbo rne ( F ig . 8 . 1 3a ) , o r i n mo re r u ra l c hu r che s s u ch a st h a ta tS t Ma rg a r e t ' s ,S tood le igh ( Devon ) , m igh t a l so f e a tu r e b o s se s c a rv ed w i th m e rma id f i gu r e s . T he i mag e f r om t h e f o rme r s i t e i si l u s t r a ted o n t h e c ov e r o f J . H . P . G ibb ' s b ook l e t ( n .d . ) a nd a ppea r s u pon a b ackg round o ff ol i ag e . S he h o ld s am i r ro r a nd c omb a l of t i nh e rr i gh ta nd l e f t h and s r e spec t ive ly w h i le t h e s c a led t a i l c urv e s u p t ot h el e f to fh e rb ody . T he se b o s se s d a t e t ot h e v e r y e nd o ft h e f i f teen th c en tu r y . O f s im i la r d a te a r e t h e f ou r m e rm a id b o s se s i nt h e n ave r oof a tS tood le igh , e a ch o fw h ich h o ld s a l of t ac i r cu la r m i r ro r a nd as qua r e shaped c omb ( f o r e xamp le s e e F ig . 8 .1 3b ) . T he t a i l a r r ang emen t s o f a l a r e c u r iou s ; o n t wo c a rv ing s t h e t h in w a i s t c u rv e s i n to r ound ed h i p s a nd a s c a le le s s , f i sh shaped t a i l t h a t b u r s t so pen a tt h ee nd i n to at i gh td i sp l ay o ff l e shy f ol i ag e .

a

Two s p r ay s o ff ol iag e a l so s p rou t u pwa rd s f r om e a ch s i de o ft h e t a i l . T he t a i l s o ft h e se c a rv ing s m ay b e c ompa red t o t ho se o f t h e m e r -coup le o n t h e m i se r ico rd a t E xe te r C a thed ra l ,w h ich a l so f e a tu r e f ol ia te e nd s t ot h e i r f i sh t a i l s . T he o the rt wo i mag e sd i v ide t h e s k ir t -l ik eu ppe rh a lf o ft h e f i sh t a i l i n to t wo f l i ppe r -ended l e g s , a g a in ,w i th t wo s p ray s o f f o l iag e e me rg ing f r om b eh ind t h e t a i l t og row u pwa rd a nd o u twa rd . T he f ol ia te t h eme i s c on t inu ed i n t h e c on t inuou s w al -p l a te c a rv ing s o n e a ch s i de o f t h e n av e t h a t f e a tu r e h uman h ead s d i sgo rg ing t h ick s t em s o fb e r r y l a den g r eene ry . F igure 8 . 1 Merma id s o n r oof b o sse s f rom a ) Queen C ame l a nd b ) E xe ter .

9 8

S i rens

F igure

8 .

1c

( above )

Merma id r oof b os s f rom L acock Abbey c l o i s ter s . F igure 8 . 1 2 ( l ef t ) Harpy c arved o n a f i f teen th c en tury r oof b o ss i n t he c l o i s ter s a tL acock Abbey . A s erpen t 's t a i l a nd membranou s w ing s a re n o tewor thy f ea ture s .

9 9

S ec t ion II :F igur e s T he m e rma id f r equen t ly a ppea r ed i n m ed i eva l w a l l p a in t ing s , u sua l ly w i th S t C h r i s tophe r . T he s a in t w i th t h e C h r i s tc h i ld u pon h i s s hou lde ri st y p ica l ly s hown s t and ing i n t h e f u l l s t r eam o f ar i ve r , t h e m e rma id a ppea r ing a mong s t t h e f i she s , a s a t O ak sey i n W i l t sh i r e ( F ig . 8 . 1 3c ) a nd P ough i l l i nD evon ( F ig . 8 .1 4 ) . A t b o th s i t e s t h e m e rma id a ppea r s i n t h e w a te r b e tw een t h e g i an t ' s l e g s . Wh i l s t t h e f i gu re a tO ak sey c an b e t r u s ted a s am ed iev a l r ep r e sen ta t ion t h e f i gu re a tP ough i l l , h owev e r , mu s t b e v i ewed w i th c a r e . R ed i scov e r ed b enea th t h e wh i tew a sh i n 1 894 a c on tempo ra r yw a t e rco lou r s k e tch o ft h ei mag e n ow h ung i n t h e c hu rch s how s an umbe r o f d i f f e r ence s t o t h e r e s to r ed p a in t ing . I n t h e s k e tch t h e m e rma id h a s s hor t d a rk h a i r , h o ld s am i r ro r i n h e r r i gh t h and a nd e x t end s h e r l e f t a rm h o r izon t a l ly . I n t h e i mag e t oday s he a ppea r s w i th l ong g o lden h a i r , b rea s t s , h o ld ing ac i rcu la rm i r ro rw i th h and le i n h e r r i gh t h and , a nd h o ld ing h e r l e f t h and u p , p a lm o u t , a t t h e s hou lde r . Al a rg e f i sh ta i l c u rve s r ound t oh e r l e f t , a nd t h e r e a r e v a r iou s f i sh i n t h e w a t e r a r ound h e r . T he r ef l ec t ion o fh e r f a ce i sv i s ib le i nt h e m i r ro r . ( B enw el a nd Waugh , 1 96 1 : 1 39 , 1 79 n o . 8 2 ; B e tche r , 1 996 : 6 7 ) . O the r e xamp le s o f t h e m e rma id w i th S t C h r i s tophe r e x i s t a t B aun ton a nd B r eag e ( Co rnw a l l ) , B ram l ey ( Hamp sh i r e ) , a nd d i d e x i s t u n t i l t h e n in e t een th c en tu r y o n t h e n or th w al o f t h en av ea tD i t te r idg e ( W i l t sh i r e ) .

a

Cha rac te r i s t ics o ft he S i ren Image T he a bove e xamp l e s h av e i n t roduc ed a v a r i e t y o f s i ren f o rm s a nd r e la t ed f i gu r e s t h a t m ay b e f ound a mong s t m ed ieva l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu re . S i nc e t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e e xamp le s a r e f i sh - o r b i rd s i r en s Ih av e c oncen t r a t ed u pon t h e se t wo f o rm si nt h e f olow ing a na ly s i s .

b

R omane squ e c a rv ing s o f s i r en s a r e , c ompa r ed t o l a t e r m ed ieva l e xamp le s , v er y mu ch i nt h e m ino r i t y , e v en w hen c on s ide r ed w i th e xamp le s f r om e l sewhe r e i n t h e c oun t r y ( s ee f oo tno te 1 , p . 8 9 ) . T aken a s a w ho le , t h e se R omane sque i mag e s a r e f a i r ly c oh e r en t i n t h a t n one o f t h em h o ld e i the r am i r ro r o r c omb b u t s imp ly r a i se t h e i r h and s ( S tow L ong a , L ong Mar ton , Du rham C a s t l e C hape l ) , l ow e r t h e i r h and s ( Na te ly S cu r e s ) o r g r a sp a f i sh ( Ba rf re s ton ) . T he c a rv ing a tN a t e ly S cu r e s d oe s a ppea rw i th a n i t em t h a t c ou ld b e am i r ro r , b u t t h i s i sc a rv ed s o t h a t i t a ppea r st os p rou t f r om h e rt a i l . R omane sque c a rv ing s o f m e rma id s f r om t h e c on t in en t s ugg e s t t h a t t h e g r a sp ing t h e t a i l p o se w a s p opu la r , p ar t icu la r ly w i th t w in t a i l s c urved u p e i the r s i de o ft h eb ody ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s , L ec l e rq -K adane r , 1 997 : 2 16 , 2 22 -24 , 2 48 , 2 5 1-52 , 2 58 , 2 60 , 2 66 , 2 69 -72 ) , ap o s tu r e a l so a dop ted b yt h em e rmen o nt h e f on ta tS tP e t e r ' s , C amb r idg e .

C F igure 8 . 1 3 R oof b o s se s f r om a ) t he n ave a t S herborne a nd b ) t he n ave a t S tood le igh . T he wa l l -pa in t ing ( c ) i sf r om t he s ou th s i de o ft he s ou th a i s le a t Oak sey a nd d ep ic t s a merma id i n t he wa ter b e tween t he f e e to fS t Chr i s topher .

As amp le o f2 3 i mag e s o fl a t e r m ed ieva l ( m id th i r t een th t o e a r ly s ix teen th c en tu r ie s ) m e rma id s f r om t h e s ou th o f E ng land r ev ea l s t h a t t h e c ommone s t a t t r ibu t e s a r e t h e m i r ro r a nd c omb a nd t o al e s se r e x ten t t h e m i r ro r h e ld o n i t s own ( s ee F ig . A 2 . 1 0 ) . T h i s s ub s t an t ia t e s t h e a s se r t ion t h a tt h em i r ro ra nd c omb d i dn o tb ecome as t anda rd f e a tu r e

1 00

S i rens

F igure 8 .1 4 D e ta i l o ft he r e s tored wa l l p a in t ing a tP ough i l l i nC ornwa l l .

1 01

S ec t ion II :F igure s b u t h av e s c a ly f i she s ' t a i ls , w i th wh ich t h ey a lway s l u rk i nt h e s e a ( Bk 1 . 6 ,O r cha rd , 1 995 : 2 63 ) .

o f me rma id i c onog r aphy ' u n t i l t h e f ou r teen th c en tu r y ' ( G i lbe r t , 2 000 : 6 59 -660 ) . I n t h i s s amp l e t h e c omb d oe s n o t o ccu r a l one . I n te re s t ing ly n one o ft h e e xamp le s o fm e rmen f r om t h e r e g ion h o ld e i the r m i r ro r o r c omb w h ich s ugg e s t s t h a tb o th w e r e c l o se ly i d en t if i ed w i th t h e f ema le r a the r t h an t h e ma le f i sh s i r en .5I mag e s o fm e rmen a r e f a rl e s s f r equ en t t han t ho se o f me rma id s a nd t y p ica l ly p a r tn e r m e rma id s o r o the rf i gu re s .

B y t h e t e n th c en tu r y s i r en s w i th p i sc iform c ha r ac t e r i s t ic s w e r e b ecom ing i n c r ea s ing ly c ommon i n m anu sc r ip t i l um ina t ion s a nd s ome t ime s t h ey a ppea red a l ong s ide a v ian S i r en s . O the r S i ren s c omb in ed f e a the r ed w ing s a nd t a lon s w i th s c a l ed t a i l s a nd f i n s , a s f o r e xamp le t h e t r io i n t h e Mo rg an B e s t ia ry o r t h e i mag e i n t h e e a r ly t we lf th -cen tu r y b e s t ia ry o f P h il ip d e T haun , t h e l a t te r , h ow ev e r , w i thou t w ing s ( Ben ton , 1 992 : 1 9 ; Dn ice , 1 9 15 : 1 7 1 , s e e a l so p l a te V I I I ) . T h i s f l u id i t y o f b i rd a nd f i sh a t t r ibu te s m ean t t h a t w h i le s ome b e s t ia ry m anu sc r ip t s p r e sen ted i mag e s o fs i ren s w i th f i sh t a i l s , t h e a c company ing t e x t d e sc r ibe s t h e i r f o rm a s h uman f r om t h e h ead t o t h e n ava l , wh i l e t h e i r ' l owe r p a r t s d own t o t h e i r f e e t a r e l i ke b i rd s ' ( Ba rbe r , 1 992 : 8 , 1 50 ) . B o th t y pe s a r e f ound a mong R omane sque a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e ( J a laber t , 1 936 ; B a l tru ga i t i s , 1 986 : 6 8 7 3 ) . A l though s i r en s w i th b i rd w ing s a nd f i sh t a i l s p e r s i s ted i n e cc l e s ia s t ica l a r t t h roughou t t h e m ed ieva l p e r iod ( f o r e xamp le t h e f i f t een th -cen tu ry r oof b o s s i nt h e c hance l o fS t B a rnaba s , Qu een C ame l , S ome r se t ) , i n g ene ra l , f r om t h e m id - t o l a t e twe lf th c en tu r y o nw a rd s t h e f i sh -woman s i r en b ecame t h e n o rm i nw e s t e rn c i v i l i sa t ion ( Druce , 1 937 : 9 4 ; F a r a l , 1 953 : 5 02 -506 ;L uc ie -Sm i th , 1 99 1 : 2 52 ) .

I n c on t r a s t t o t h e c on t inen ta l s cu lp tu r e s o f R omane squ e d a t e t h e f o rm a s sumed b y l a te r m ed iev a l m e rm a id s a nd m e rmen i n t h e s ou th o f E ng land i sp r edom inan t ly s i ng l e t a i led . Tw in ta i l ed f i gu r e s d o o ccu r b u t t e nd t o d a t e t o t h e e a r ly s i x teen th c en tu r y ( e .g . C an t e rbu r y , C h r i s tchu rch , C rowcombe ) . T he mo s t u sua lw ay f o r t h e m e rma id t ow ea r h e r h a i r i sl oo se a nd l ong , t y p ica l ly t o t h e w a i s t . S hou ld e r l e ng th o rb ound h a i ri s much l e s s f r equen ta nd n o h a i ra ta l i sr a r e . C rown s o n ly a ppea r o nv e r y l a te m ed ieva l e xamp le s ( e .g . C an te rbu ry ) . I n c on t r a s t , l a te r m ed iev a l e xamp le s o f b i rd s i r en s a r e t y p ica l ly p or t r ay ed w i th t h e i r h a i r b ound o r w rapped , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e i r R omane sque p r edece s so r s . P a r t i a l ly f o l ia te b od ie s m ay , h ow eve r , b e f ound w i th b o th f i sh -a nd b i rd s i r en f o rm . T he m erma id i st h e r efo r e n o t as t a t ic i mag e i n m ed ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e . Wh i l e b o th R omane sque a nd l a t e m ed ieva l c a rv ing s c ommon ly d ep ic t t h em w i th l ong h a i r a nd r a i sed h and s o n ly t h e l a te re xamp l e s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th m i r ro r a nd c omb . S i ng le t a i l s c ha r ac te r i se t h e l a te m ed ieva l E ng l i sh e xamp le s w h i le d oub le t a i l s a r e mo r e ac on t in en ta l R omane sque a nd t h en aR en a i s sance mo t if .

Da rk S i s ters : C lass ica l a nd Med ieva l S i rens i n A r ta nd L ore G iv en t h e m ed ieva l p ropen s i ty t o d ep ic t t h e s i r en i ns em i f i sh f o rm i ti sp e rhap s s u rp r i s ing t h a t i tw a s o n ly t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e 7th c en tu ry t h a t t h e f i gu r e r e a l ly b eg an t ob e a s soc ia t ed w i th p i scean c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s ( F a ra l , 1 953 : 4 33 ) . I n I s ido r e ' s Eüm o l o g i e s ( 7 t h c en tu ry AD ) , " s i r en" s t i l l d eno te s a c r ea tu r e t h a t i s p a r t -woman , p a r t -b i rd , w i th w ing s a nd c l aw s . S i r en sw i th t h e f o rm o f af i sh r a the rt h an ab i rd mak e o ne o f t h e i r f i r s t a ppea r an ce s i n t h e L i b e r Mon s t r o r um , a n Ang lo -La t in w o rk d a t ing t ot h e c en tu ry c . 650 -c .750 AD a nd p robab ly t h e p roduc t o f aWe s sex s choo l i nt h e p e r iod o f A ldhe lm ( He r r en , 1 998 : 1 0 1 ; O rcha rd , 1 995 : 8 6 -7 ) . E s sen t ia l ly ac a ta logue o fa lmo s t 1 20 mon s t ro s i t ie s d i v ided i n to t h r ee b ook s ,t h eL i b e r Mon s t r or um d e sc r ibe s s i r en s a s s e a -g i r l s , w ho d ece iv e s a i lo r s w i th t h e o u t s tand ing b eau ty o f t h e i r a ppea r an ce a nd t h e s wee tne s s o f t h e i r s ong , a nd a r e mo s t l i ke h uman b e ing s f r om t h e h ead t ot h e n av e l , w i th t h e b ody o f am a iden ,

5

C la s s ica l w r i t e r s w ho d e sc r ibed t h e s i r en s , h ow eve r , a lw ay s g av ea v ian c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s a nd i ti si nb i rd f o rm t h a tt h e s i ren may b e f ound i nt h e w o rk s o fA po l lodoru s , A el ian , Ov id , H yg inu s , E u s ta th iu s , a nd P au san iu s ( Be rman , 1 987 : 1 48 ) . T h i s w a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly a lway s i n t h e f o rm o f ah uman h ead o n t h e b ody o f ab i rd ; A polodo ru s , f o r e xamp le , d e sc r ibe s t h e s i r en s a sa v ian f r om t h e t h igh s d own ( i b id . ) . I n e a r ly r e p r e sen ta t ion s b o th m a le a nd f ema le s i r en s e x i s t ed , b u t f r om t h e s i x th c en tu ry BC o nw a rd i mag e s o f f ema l e s i ren s b eg an t op r edom ina te m ak ing i ta lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh t h em f r om h a rp ie si n much c l a s s ica la r t . I n c l a s s ica l my tho logy t h e s i ren s w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th i r r e s i s t ab le mu s ic a nd d ea th . T he s ong o f t h e s i r en s w a s p e r ce iv ed a s m e sme r ic , l u r ing s a i lo r s t owa rd s t h e p e r i lou s w a te r s a nd r o ck s s u r round ing t h e i ri s l and w he re t h e s h ip s w ou ld p e r i sh .6 T he s i r en s m igh t t h en f e a s t u pon t h e d ead a nd t h e i r r o cky i s l and w a s s uppo sed t o b e l i t te r ed w i th h uman r ema in s . I n o n e o f t h e i r e a r l ie s t l i t e r a ry r e p r e sen ta t ion s , Home r ' s O d y s s e y ( c . 7 20 BC ) , Ody s seu s ' s c r ew p lug t h e i r e a r s w h i le Ody s seu s i sh im se lf t i ed t o t h e m a s t o ft h e s h ip s o t h a t h e may h ea r t h e s i r en ' s s ong a nd n o t b e d r iv en t o d i v e i n to t h e d ead ly w a te r s ( bk .12 ) . I n A polon iu s o f R hode s ' A r g onau t i c a , c ompo sed i n t h e t h i rd 3r d c en tu r y BC , J a son a nd h i s c r ew a r e s a ved b yO rpheu s

6

Ar a r e e xamp le o f am e rman h o ld ing am i r ro r o ccu r s c a rved o n a

m i se r ico rd a tt h e P r io r y C hu rch o fS t Ma r y a nd S tM ich ae l i nG r ea t Ma lve rn ( Wo r ce s t e r sh i r e ) . How eve r , t h e f i gu r e i s p a i red w i th a m e rma id who h o ld s ac omb ( R emnan t , 1 969 : 1 68 ) .

1 02

I t

i ss ugg e s t ed t h a t t h e n ame s i r en d e r ive s f r om ' t he o r ien ta lr oo t g i r

m ean ing f a sc ina t ion , a nd i ti si n t e r e s t ing t o n o te t h a t S imon ide s i s r e pu t ed t oh av e d e sc r ibed P i s i s t r a tu s a s aS i r en b ecau se h e l u r ed m en t ot h e i r d oom ' ( Pola rd , 1 965 : 1 43 ) . T h i s c onnec t ion w i th f a sc ina t ion m ay w el g o s ome w ay t ow a rd s e xp la in ing t h e u se o ft h e s i r en a sa n a po t ropa ic i mag e u pon R oman t emp le s ( V an B u r en , 1 9 14 : 1 92 ; S t rong , 1 9 14 : 1 64 ) a nd a sp o r tab le a mu le t s ( E lwo r thy , 1 958 : 3 56 -357 ; B e r r y , 1 968 : f i g . 3 ; D iS t a s i , 1 98 1 : 4 2 ) . R e la t ed f i gu r e s s uch a s t h e h a rp ie s a nd t h eh ead o f Medu sa w e r e s im i la r ly u sed .

S i r ens w ho d rown s o u t t h e s i r en s ong b y p l ay ing h i s l y r e . T he c l o se a s soc ia t ion b e tween s i r en s a nd mu s ic m ean s t h a t c l a s s ica l r e p re sen ta t ion s o f s i ren s c ommon ly p l ay mu s ica l i n s t rumen t s t oa ccompany t h e i rs ong , ar e f e r ence t h a t s ome m ed ieva l i mag e s a l so i n co rpo r a ted ( am i se r ico rd a tB o s ton [ L inco ln sh i re ] , f o r e xamp le , d ep ic t s am e rma id p l ay ing a s i ng le p ipe t o af i gu re i n ab oa t [ Druce , 1 9 15 :p l .X I , f i g . 1 ] ) . Y e t s i ren mu s ic w a s n o t w o r ld ly mu s ic , a s t h e m ed iev a l mo r a l i s t s wou ld l e ad u s t ob el i ev e . P l a to e qua ted t h e i rs ong w i th ' p u re k now ledg e , t h e mu s ic o f t h e s phe r e s ' t h a t s u s ta ined t h eu n iv e r se ( K ing , 1 995 : 1 48 ) .H ence t h e p ow e r o f t h e i r mu s ic i s n o t i nhuman o r d e s truc t iv e ; a s s ou l s d epa r t f r om t h i s w o r ld t ot h e n ex t , s o i ts e em s , a nd d r if t u ncer ta in ly a f t e r d ea th , i t c r ea t e s i n t h em a p a s s iona te l ov e f o r t h e h eav en ly a nd d i v ine ,a nd f o rg e tfu lne s s o f mo r ta l i t y ; i tp o s se s se s t h em a nd e nchan t s t h em w i th i t s s pel , s ot h a ti nj o yfu lne s s t h ey f olow t h e S i r en sa nd j o in t h em i n t h e i r c i r cu i t s ( P lu ta rch , c i ted i n d e R achew i l t z , 1 987 : 1 46 ) .

w ide ly p opu la r a sa n e mb lem o fl i b id inou s p a s s ion ( Luc ie Sm i th , 1 991 : 2 52 ) . T h i s c a r r ied d i abol i c o v er tone s . Ma rbod o fR enne s ( c . 1035 -1123 ) w ro te t h a t t h e s i r en ' e n t ice s f oo l s b y s i ng ing l o v e ly m e lod ie s , d r aw s t h em t ow a rd s h e r o nce t h ey a r e e n t iced , a nd when t h ey a r e d r awn i n s he p l ung e s t h em i n to t h e a nn ih i la t ing a by s s ' ( B lam i re s , 1 992 : 1 02 ) . H e c au t ion s m en t o ' b ew a r e t h e h on ied p o i son s , t h e s w ee t s ong s a nd t h ep u l lo ft h ed a rk d ep th s 't h a tt h e s i ren a nd h e r e v eryday c oun t e rpa r t , woman , e mbody ( i b id . ) . B y t h e l a te r M idd le A g e s t h e m e rma id h ad b ecome a s soc i a ted i n l i t e ra tu re w i th t emp ta t ion , f l a t t e ry a nd p r ide ( Be t che r , 1 996 ; Houwen , 1 997 ) . T he c ou s in s t o t h e s i ren s , t h e h a rp ie s , s uf f e r ed a s im i la r f a te .8 H a rp ie s w e r e f ema le s p i r i t s i n t h e f o rm o f w ing ed w omen , s ome t ime s w i th t a lon s f o r f e e t , o r w i th a v ian b od ie s a nd t h e h ead o r h ead a nd b r ea s t s o f aw oman , a nd o cca s iona l ly a rm s . E t ymo log icaly t h e n ame d e r iv e s f r om t h e G r eek v e rb h aeaz e i n , t o s na tch , wh ich r e la te s t o t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s a st h e s p i r i t s o fs t o rm w ind s , c a r ry ing o f fa nyone ' whom t h e g od s w i shed t o c au se t o d i sappea r ' ( Row l and , 1 987 : 1 55 ) . Ove rwhe lm ing ly , h a rp ie s a r e p o r t ray ed a s n eg a t ive , a n i n te rp r e t a t ion g i v en w id e c i r cu la t ion v i a t h e R oman p oe tV i rg i l . G lu t tony w a s t h e f o remo s t q ua l i t yw i th w h ich h a rp ie s w e r e a s soc ia t ed i nt h e f i r s t c en tu ry BC a nd t h e h a rpy s t ood a s a n e mb lem o f i n sa t iab le a ppe t i te t h roughou tt h eM idd le A g e s ,p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s i n s o fg r eed a nd a va r ice .

T o t h e l i v ing , h ow ev e r , t h e mu s ic i s ad ang e rou s m e lody , d r aw ing o u t t h e s ou l i n to d i r ec t e xpe r i ence o ft h e s ub l ime c o r e o ft h e c o smo s . H ence t h e s i r en s p e r son if y t h e k i nd o f mu s ic ' t ha t c ou ld o n ly b e h ea rd b y a dep t s i n as t a t e o f e c s ta sy ' , a n a s soc ia t ion wh ich p robab ly e xp la in s t h e i r p r e sence o n t omb s a nd o the r f une r a r y monumen t s , a n a l iance w el e s t abl i shed b y t h e e nd o ft h e f i f th -cen tu ry BC ( Pola rd , 1 952 : 6 3 ) . C e r ta in ly , s i r en s c ou ld r e p r e sen t ak i nd o fc h thon ic d i v in i ty .T ha tt h ey ' w e re s ome t ime s r e g a rded a s r e p r e sen t ing e m i s sa r ie s o r omen s o r a s t ok en s o r f am il i a r s o fo th e r w o r ld p owe r s s e em s c l ea r f r om t h e i r a s soc ia t ion s w i th d i v in i t i e s i n g ene ra l , b u t w i th t h e mo r e s i n i s t e r a nd p r imev a l g odde s se s i n p a r t icu la r ' s uch a s A r t em i s , H e r a , A thena , a nd P e r sephone ( i b id . 1 965 : 1 40 ) . S i r en s , l i k e h a rp ie s ,w e r eo therwo r ld ly b e ing s ,c onv eyo r s o fs ou l s t ot h e n ex tw or ld .

A spec ts o f S i ren Image ry i n Med ieva l A rch i tec tu ra l S cu lp tu re

C h r i s t ian i t y e mpha s ized t h e s i ren ' s i r r e s i s tab i l i t y a nd s e t a bou tt r an sfo rm ing t h e s uper n a tu r a le l emen t s o ft h e my tho s i n to w o r ld ly o ne s , p a in t ing h e r a s f a ta l s educ t r e s s a nd e xagg e ra t ing h e r s exual i ty . B y t h e t w e lf th c en tur y , t h e c l a s s ica l my tho logy o ft h e s i r en h ad b een f u l ly C h r i s t ian i sed a nd i n co rpo r a t ed i n to e c c le s ia s t ica l a r t v i a b e s t ia r ie s ( McGu i re , 1 997 : 1 00 ) . I n b e s t ia ry n a r r a t iv e s , s i ren s w e r e ' d ead ly c r ea tu r e s ' who se s w ee t s ong l u r e s s e af a r ing m en t owa rd s t h em ( Ba rbe r , 1 992 : 1 50 ) . Hypno t i sed t hu s , t h e s i r en s f o rce t h em se lve s u pon t h e s a i lo r s ,w ho ,i ft h ey f a i l t o r e c ip roca te , a r e r i pped a pa r t a nd d evou red ( Ha s s ig , 1 999b : 7 9 ) . F o r t h e b e s t ia ry mo r a l i s t s s i r en s r e p re sen t ed t h e p e r i lou s p l ea su re s o f p hy s ica l l i f e w ho se t emp ta t ion s , f o r t h e s ak e o f o n e ' s i mmor ta l s ou l , mu s t b e r e s i s t ed . S i gn if i can t ly , b e s t ia ry t e x t s o f t en i d en t if i ed s i r en s a sa qua t ic h a r lo t s ( t he w o rd u sed i sm e r e t r i c e ) ,7 a nd t h e m e rma id w a s

Ha i r

7

Wh i l s t t h e o r thodox n a r ra t iv e s ugg e s t s t h a t s i r en s i n m ed ieva lc u l tu r ew e re w a rn ing s a g a in s tl u s ta nd s en sual i ty i n g ene ra l , c l o se a na ly s i s o f t h e f i gu r e s i n a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re s ugg e s t s t h a t much o ft h e s upe rna tu ra l a spec t o f t h e s i r en w a s p r e served . A t t h i s p o in t i ti sw or th e x am in ing s ome c ru c ia la spec t s o ft h ei mag ei n mo r ed e ta i l .

I n m any c u l tu re s h a i r i sr e g a rded a s ac a r r ie r o fp o ten t ia l ly d ang e rou s m ag ica l p ow e r s ( L each , 1 958 : 1 57 159 ) . Abundan t a nd l oo se h a i rl i k e t h a to ft h e m e rma id ' i su sua l ly ac ha ra c t e r i s t ic o f " w i ld" s upe rn a tu ra l b e ing s ,a nd c o r r e s -

wo rd s s uch a s m e r e t r ix ( t he mo s t c ommon L a t in w o rd t h a t i s g ene ra l ly t r an s la t ed a s" p ro s t i tu t e" ) ' ( K a r r a s , 1 996 : 1 ) . How eve r , i ti s c l o se ly r e la t ed t o s e xua l a c t iv i ty o u t s ide o fm a r r i ag e , o r b y u nma r r ied women . 8 I n m any r e spec t s s i r en s a nd h a rp ie s a r e s im i la r — b o th h av e k now l edg e o f t h e f u tu r e a nd b o th h ave l i nk s w i th t h e u nde rwo r ld , s i r en s t h rough t h e i ra s soc ia t ion w i th P e r sephone ,h a rp i e sb ecau se t h ey ' s na tch ' t h e s ou l a nd t a ke i t t o H ade s . Y e t i n o the r s t h ey a r e d i ame t r ica l ly o ppo sed , d e sp i t e t h e i r s im i la r b i rd -woman f o rm , s i r en s b e ing a s soc ia t ed w i th b eau t if u l s ong a nd p e r f ume , h a rp ie s w i th d i sco rdan ts c r eech ing a nd af ou l s t ench . L ink sb e tw een h a rp ie s , s i ren s a nd o the r mon s t rou s f ema le b e ing s a r e c ommon i n c l a s s ica l my tho logy ( e .g . G r ave s , 1 960 : I ,1 27 -130 ) . S uch c l o sene s s a low ed a c on s ide rab le d eg r ee o f f l u id i ty i n v i sua l r e p re sen t a t ion ( Ha r r i son , 1 903 : 1 79 ) .

T he re w e r e m any m ean ing s a t t ached t o t h e wo rd m e r e t r ix , a nd t o

s imp ly t r an s la te t h e t e rm a s" p ro s t i tu te" om i t s much o ft h e m ed ieva l w ay o fl ook ing a tt h ing s . ' Med ieva l w r i t e r s d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly m ean " one who e x ch ang e s s pec if i c s e x a c t s f o r money" when t h ey u se

1 03

S ec t ion II :F igur e s p ond s i n p a r t t o t h e f e a the r -d r e s s o ft h e S wan -ma iden , i n t h a t i t r ep r e sen t s a c r uc ia l l i nk t o t h e " w i lde rne s s"/o therwo r ld ' ( d e R achew i l t z , 1 987 : 1 09 110 ) . Unbound h a i r w a s a l so c on s id e r ed i mmo r a l a nd w a s c ommon ly u sed t o p or t r ay s im i la r ly p e r ce iv ed c ha rac te r s s u ch a st h eG rea t Who r e o fB aby lon ( W r igh t , 1 997 ) .

1 26 ) . W i th in t h e s ame s e r ie s i sa n i mag e R emnan t d e sc r ibe s a s a' B i rd s i r en w ea r ing ah enn in ' , o n e i th er s i d e o fw h ich a ppea r s ad r aconopede C a s nake w i th f ema l e h ead w ea r ing a h enn in , p e rhap s a na lu s ion t ot h eV i rg in -headed S e rpen to f t h e F a l l o f Man ' ) ( R emnan t , 1 969 : 7 3 ) . I n t h i s i mag e t h e c onnec t ion i sp l a in , t h e h eadd r e s s a ppea r ing a sp a r t o ft h e i c onog r aphy o f t h e F al a sw el a s a do rn ing t h e h ead o f a b i rd s i r en o rh a rpy .

A s Ih av e a l ready e s tabl i shed , c on t ra ry t o m e rma id s , b i rd s i ren s i n t h e r e g ion a r e u sua l ly d ep i c ted i n m ed iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu r e n o t w i th f l ow ing h a i r b u t w ea r ing h eadd re s se s . E labo ra te a nd i n p a r t icu la r t w in -peaked o r h o rned h eadd r e s se s , l i k e l ong u nbound h a i r , w e re b el i ev ed t ob ec ondu c iv et oi mmo ra l i ty a nd w e re s a t i r ized a l ong w i th o the r ' d ang e rou s ' w omen ' s f a sh ion s s u ch a sl ow n eck l ine s , e xpo sed m id r if f s , a nd l ong t r a in s ( J on e s , 1 990 : 6 9 ) . Wr i t ing i n t h e e a r ly s i x teen th c en tu ry , t h e p oe t A l exande r B a rc l ay c onnec t s t h em w i th p r ide a nd f oly ( S ca t t e rgood , 1 987 : 2 67 ) wh i le s e rmon s w e r e o f ten d i r ec t ed a g a in s t t h em a nd f a sh ionab le c l o the s i n g en e ra l ( Ow s t , 1 933 : 3 93 -404 ) . G raff i t i o n ap i l la r i n t h e n or th a i s le o f t h e c hu rch o f S t P e te r i n S t e tchwo r th ( Camb r idg e sh i r e ) s how s t h e u ppe r b ody o f aw oman w i th a n e xagg e r a t ed h eadd r e s s a nd l ow c u t n eck l ine , p l ac ing h e r r i gh t h and u pon h e r l ef t b r ea s t . T he h eadd re s s , c on s i s t ing o ft wo o ve r s ized b ound c o i l s o f h a i r o n e a ch s i de o ft h e h ead , i so ft h e t y pe a luded t o b y t h eE x e t e rh a rpy m i se r ico rd m en t ioned a bove . C o r robo r a t ing t h i s c onnec t ion b e tween f a sh ionab l e h eadg ea r , w omen , a nd p r eda tory b i rd s , af u r the r g r aff i to a t S t e t chwor th d ep ic t s a n o w l i n a n e no rmou s t w in p eak ed h eadd re s s ( P r i tcha rd , 1 967 : 5 8 -59 ) .T he c ho ice o ft h e o w la s mode l f o rt h e h eadd r e s s m ay b e r a ndom ; y e t a s an oc tu rna l p reda to r i th ad b een c onnec ted w i th t h e h a rpy -f igu re f o r c en tu r ie s . O r ig inaly a n a mb iv a len t c r ea tu re c onnec t ed w i th t h e s t o rm w ind s a nd t h e p a s sag e f r om d ea th t o n ew l i f e , c l a s s ica l l i t e r a tu r e e mpha s ized t h e s edu c t r e s s/ sna t che r a spec t so ft h eh a rpy ,a nd i tw a sa s ad i abol i ca v ian t emp t r e s s t h a t t h e f i gu r e e n t e r ed C h r i s t ian f o lk lo r e . C lo se p a ra l le l s e x i s t w i th t h e S em i t ic d e i t ie s/demon s L ama sh tü a nd t h e " s c r eech -ow l" L i l i th a sw el a st h e G r aeco -Roman S t r ing e s o r S t r ig e s , c h i ld s tea l ing , m ag i ca l , b l ood suck ing f ema le d emon sw i th t h eb ody o f ab i rd a nd t h eh ead o f as e duc t iv e w oman ( Hu rw i tz , 1 999 : 4 5 ) . T he o w l i sc onnec ted t o t h e se d i abol i c f i gu r e s . Hu rw i t z c ompa r e s t h e n ame s f o r t h e o w l t og e the rw i th t h e i rv a r iou sa l te rna t ive m ean ing si n an umbe r o fE u ropean d i a lec t s ,c onc lud ing t h a t ' i n a ll a nguag e s , s ot o s peak , t h e w o rd m ean s aw i tch o n t h e o ne h and a nd a p r eda to ry n i gh t o w l o n t h e o the r ' ( i b id . 4 7 -48 ) . I f t h e g r aff i to a t S t e t chwor th i sa ny th ing t o g o b y t h e f o l ldo r ic a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e o w l a nd d ang e rou s f ema le b e ing s e x tended t o w ha t w e r e p e r ce iv ed a s s ymbo l s o f f ema l e s edu c t iv ene s s ,s u ch a st h eh eadd r e s s . I nm ed ieva la r ch i tec tu r a ls cu lp tu r et h ep re sence o fe l abo r a t e h eadd r e s se s i s o f t en a c compan ied b y i mag er y t h a t e mpha s ize s s i n o r t h e d emon ic . On t h e n or th s i de o f t h e c ho i r s t a l l s a t S t Ma ry ' s i n M in s te r in -Thane t ( Ken t ) a m i se r ico rd c a rv ing r e p r e sen t s a d emon b e tween t h e e xagg e r a ted h o rn s o f t h e h eadd r e s s w o rn b y aw oman , g r a sp ing e a ch s i de w i th i t s c l aw s ( G rö s s ing e r , 1 997b : 8 9 , p l .

1 04

T he t h eme i sr e i t e ra ted a mong an umbe ro fs cu lp tu r e s f r om s i t e s f u r the rw e s t . Ar oof b o s s i nt h e m id -f i f teen th c en tu r y c ro s s ing t owe r B i shop ' s C ann ing s d ep ic t s af ema l e h ead w ea r ing at w in -peak ed h eadd re s s , b e tween t h e " ho rn s" o f w h ich a nd t oo ne s i de a r e d emon ic g r inn ing h ead s ( F ig . 8 . 1 5 ) . A t S t Ma ry ' s , D ev ize s , ag a rgoy l e o n t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r o f t h e l a t e m ed iev a l s ou th p o r ch p r e sen t s ad em i f i gu re o f aw oman i n al a rg e s qua r i sh h eadd r e s s w h ich i s s e ized f r om t h e s i de b y af e roc iou s , h a i r y q uad ruped b ea s t w i th i t s mou th o pen ( F ig . 8 . 1 6 ) . A l though e x t en s iv e ly d ev e loped i nt h e l a te r M idd le A g e s t h e a s soc ia t ion b e tw een a t t r ac t iv e h eadg ea r a nd d ev i l ry w a s n o t an ew o ne , a s t h e R omane sque c o rbe l tab le a t P r i s ton i l u s t ra te s . H e r e , a s equence o ft h ir teen c o rbe l s a bov e t h e e n t rance t ot h e n ave i s d i s t ingu i shed b y wha t a ppea r s t o b e a d el ibe r a t e p l acemen t —t h e re a r e t h r ee " pa i r s" o fc arv ing s t h a t m im ic e a ch o the r . One o ft h e se p a i r s i s ac oup le o fh or n ed h ead s , t h e f o rme r b e ing t h e h ead o f h uman f i gu re w i th a n o pen mou th , t h e o the r t h e h ead o f aw oman i n ah o rn ed h eadd r e s sw i th h e r mou th o pen .

T h eR a i s ed Hand sG e s t u r e Up ra i sed a rm s i s o ne o f t h e c r u c ia l g e s tu re s h e ld i n c ommon b y R oman e sque a nd l a t e r m ed ieva l s c u lp tu r e s o f m e rma id s . T h i s i s ap o se s ha r ed w i th a n umbe r o f o the r f i gu r e s . I nd i scu s s ing t h e c ha rac te r i s t i c r a i sed a rm g e s tu r e o f t h e c l a s s ica l f i gu re B aubo ,L ubel s t a t e s : T he p o s tu r e o f w omen s t and ing w i th u p r a i sed a rm s , t h e g e s tu r e o f mou rn ing , i sv e ry a n c ien t a nd i su nde r s tood t h roughou t t h e Med i te r ranean a r ea a s as i gn o f r e v e r ence f o r t h e d ead . I ti sa l so a n a nc ien t g e s tu r e s i gn if y ing t h e a ppea r ance o f a d i v ine o r s upe rna tu r a l b e ing , a n e p iphany ( 1 994 : 8 4 -85 ) . I mbu ed w i th m ag ica l s i gn if icance t h i s p o s tu r e c an b e f ound i nm any a nc ien ti mag e s t o' p e r son if ye i the r ad i v ine b e ing , a b l e s s ing , o r s imp ly a g r ee t ing b e tween a d i v in i t y a nd a w o r sh ippe r ; b u t i n s ome a r cha ic c u l tu r e s [ f o r e xamp l e t h e S ume r ian a nd B aby lon ian ] i tw a s u sed t oi d en t if y ag odde s s ' ( i b id . 8 5 -86 ) . Wh i l s t t h e g e s tu re a ppea r s a mong t h e e a r l ie s t c a rv ing s o f m e rma id s ( e .g . Du rham C a s t le C hape l ) i ti sa l so c ommon i n l a t e m ed i eva l e xamp le s , e spec i a l ly t ho se t h a t h o ld b o th m i r ro r a nd c omb . V e ry f ew e xamp le s o f m e rma id s w i th t h e se t wo a t t r ibu te s a r e a c tu aly d ep ic ted u s ing t h em ; i n s tead t h e p o s tu r e s s ugg e s tt h a t t h e m i r ro ra nd c omb a r e

S i rens

F igure 8 . 1 5 ( above ) R oof b os s i n t he c ro s s ing t ower a t B i shop 's C ann ing s c arved w i th a woman w ear ing a t w in -peaked h eaddre ss w i th t ra i l ing s t reamer s . D emon ic h ead s a ppear t o t he l e f t a nd i nt he c en tre . F igure 8 . 1 6 . ( l ef t ) A d emon g rab s a woman 's h eaddre s s . Gargoy le o n t he s ou thea s t c orner o f t he s ou th p orch a t S t Mary 's , D ev ize s .

10 5

S ec t ion II :F igure s l i nk b e tw een b an shee a nd s i r en b y p r e sen t ing a s e rpen t s i ren i nt h e b an shee ' s r o le o fh e ra ld o fd ea th . A l l t h e s t o r ie s c onnec t ed w i th Me lu s ine o r Me lu s ina , t h e m e rma id o f L u s ignan , w e r e c olec t ed a nd c omp i l ed b yJ ean d 'A r ra s a nd p ubl i shed i nh i s C hr on i c l e o f 1 387 . T he m a in l e g end r e la t e s h ow

s imp ly a dd i t ion s t ot h i s e s tab l i shed p o se o ft h em e rma id .

M i r r or , C omb a nd C r own Ih ave a l ready d rawn a t ten t ion t o t h e a ppa r en t a b sen ce o f m i r ro r a nd c omb a sa t t r ibu te s o fm e rma id s i nR omane sque a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu re a nd t h e p opu la r i ty o f b o th b y t h e l a te r m ed iev a lp e r iod . I n t h i s s e c t ion Iw an t t oa dd re s s t h i s c hang e i n i mag er y b y e xp lo r ing t h e a s soc ia t ion s o f t h e se o b jec t s . T ha t t h e m i r ro r a nd c omb w e r e s o c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m e rma id b y t h e f i f teen th c en tu r y s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e m ean ing s t h ey a r t icu la t ed w e re t hough t a pp rop r ia te .T h i sm igh tb e b ecau se o ft h e i ra s soc ia t ion w i th p ow e rf u l s upe rna tu r a l b e ing s ; y e t t h e c onnec t ion w i th v an i t y a nd l u xu ry i sj u s t a sl i ke ly f o r d e sp i t e b e ing i n t ima t e t oken s o f l ov e ( Cam i l l e , 1 998b : 5 4 -6 1 ) b o th m i r ro r a nd c omb w e r e c ommon ly i n te rp r e t ed a s n eg a t iv e e mb lem s d eno t ing e xce s s iv e v an i ty ( Ko sme r , 1 975 : 1 ; F r iedman , 1 977 ;B a rb , 1 966 :P l . l a ; Wr igh t , 1 997 ) .

R aymond ,t h e a dop t ed s on o f Emme r ich , C oun to f P o i tou , l o s t h i s w ay , a nd h i s c ompan ion s , w hen h un t ing i n t h e f o r e s t , a nd c ame u pon a f oun t a in , b e s ide w h ich s a t t h ree b eau t if u l m a iden s . H e p romp t ly l o s t h i s h ear t t o t h e l o v el i e s t , Me lu s ina , a nd s e cu r ed h e r p rom i se t om a r r y h im , w h ich s he g av e o n t h e c ond i t ion t h a t s he s hou ld s pend e a ch S a tu rday i n c omp le te p r ivacy . T o t h i s u nu su a l r eque s t R aymond w i l l ing ly a g r eed , a nd Me lu s ina , w ho p o s se s sed g r ea t p owe r a nd w ea l th , m a r r ied h im i n t h e m agn if i cen t c a s t le w h ich w a s h e r w edd ing g if tt oh e rh u sband , r em ind ing h im o fh i s p rom i se n ev e r t o i n t rude u pon h e r o n S a tu rday s ( Benw el a nd Waugh , 1 96 1 : 7 9 ) .

M i r ro r s a r e c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th a n umbe r o f p ag an d e i t ie s ( Hu tch in s , 1 968 : 6 ) b u t b o th m i r ro r a nd c omb a r e e xpl i c i t ly c onnec ted w i th o n e , t h e R oman Godde s s o fl o ve , V enu s . D ru ce n o t e s t h a ti nt h eg al er yo fc a s t s a tt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum t h e re i s amo sa ic p av emen t f r om aR oman v i l la a t H al i ca rna s su s ,p robab ly o ft h e t h i rd c en tu r y BC t h a t ' s how s V enu s r i s ing f r om t h e s e a s uppo r ted b y ap a i r o f f ema le t r i ton s o rm e rma id s , who h av ec u r l ed f i sh t a i l s .V enu s h o ld s am i r ro ri no ne h and , h e rl o ck s i nt h e o the r ' ( Druce , 1 915 : 1 74 -175 ) . I t i sn o t f a r f r om t h i s c ol ec t ion o f i mag e s — V enu s h o ld ing h e r h a i r a nd am i r ro r , w i th a c company ing m e rma id s —t o t h e m ed ieva l m e rma id w i th l ong l oo se h a i r w ho h o ld s am i r ro r a nd ac omb . T he G reek w o rd f o r o ne o f t h e a t t r ibu te s o f V enu s , t h e s c alop s hel , K l e i s , m ean s ( l i k e t h e L a t in P e c t en ) c omb , a nd w a s u sed f o rv a r iou s o the r o b jec t s w i th p ro jec t ing t e e th a s w el a s f o r t h e f ema l e g en i ta l s ( Ba rb , 1 953 : 2 05 ) . I n c l a s s i ca l a r t t h e s c alop s hel a ppea r s w i th i mag e s o f V enu s mo re f r equen t ly t h an h e r s a c r ed a n ima l , t h e d o lph in , a nd E gyp t ian t e r r aco t t a s o f G r aeco -Roman d a te s how V enu s h o ld ing t h e s hel o v e rh e r g en i tal i a ( i b id . ) . A c l o se c onnec t ion b e tw een V enu s ian a nd m e rma id i mag e r y p e r s i s ted t h roughou t t h e l a te r m ed i eva l p e r iod ( Tw y c ro s s , 1 972 : 8 9 -96 ) .

Many y ea r s p a s sed i n m a r i ta l h a rmony u n t i l R aymond , r e spond ing t o r umou r s c once rn ing Me lu s ina ' s w eek ly s e c lu s ion , s t o le i n to h e r c hambe r o ne S a tu rday ; ' The r e i n t h e b a th s a t Me lu s ina , a nd t h e h o r r if i ed m an s aw t h a t h e r s l ende rl e g sh ad c hang ed i n to t h e t a i lo f amon s t rou s f i sh o r s e rpen t ' ( i b id . ) . A l though R aymond c oncea l ed h i s k now l edg e f r om h i sw if e s he e v en tu aly f ound o u ta bou th i s p r y ing a nd f l ed t h rough a w indow . F o r m any y ea r s ' t he F r ench b el i ev ed t h a t Me lu s in a w a s t ob e h ea rd w a i l ing o v e r t h e r ampa r t s o fL u s ignan j u s tb efo r e t h e d ea th o fo ne o fi t s l o rd s . When t h e f am i ly b ecame e x t inc t , s h e t r an sf e r r - e dh e r a t t en t ion s t o t h e r oy a l f am i ly a nd a ppea r ed when ev e r a K ing o fF r an ce w a s a bou tt od i e ' ( i b id . ) .

T he s i r en i n c l a s s ica l l e g end c ou ld b e c on s ide r ed a s upe rna tu ra l d ea th m e s seng e r , much l i k e t h e B an shee i n I r i sh f o lk lo r e . T he B an shee i sc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c omb ; i ndeed , t r ad i t iona l b el i ef i np a r t s o f I r e land s ugg e s t t h a t t h e c omb i s' h e r mo s t c he r i shed p o s se s s ion ' ( Ly sagh t , 1 986 : 1 54 ) . D e ta i l ed s t udy o fI r i sh f o lk lo re s how s t h a t t h e v a s tm a jo r i ty o fc omb l e g end s c onnec ted w i th t h e f i gu r e a r e r e co rded i n t h e c en t r a l a nd s ou th -ea s te rn a r ea s o f t h e c oun t r y , t h e c omb mo t if l a ck ing i n t h e s ou th -w e s t a nd n or th -we s t .T he se l a t te ra r ea s a r e ,h ow ev e r , r i ch i nm e rma id l e g end s , wh ich a l so d o n o t o ccu r i n t h e a r ea s w he re t h e b an shee c omb mo t if d oe s ( i b id . 1 59 , 1 62 ) . T hu s t h e t wo f i gu re sc o -ex i s tt o ar ema rk ab le d eg r ee .

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e c r own a s a n a t t r ibu te o f t h e s i ren c ame f r om e a s te rn E u rope , w he r e b i rd s i r en s h ad b ecome i d en t if i ed w i th t h e p hoen ix a nd o the r f i r eb i rd s w ho h av e a s a na t t r ibu t e an imbu s o r ac r own ( d e R a chew i l tz , 1 987 : 1 08 1 09 ) . Ano the r p o s s ib i l i t y i st h a t i ti sc onnec t ed t o ' t he n ega t ive s ymbol i sm o f t h e c r own o f s u p e r b i a ' ( i b id . ) . A l lego r ica l r e p r e sen ta t ion s o ft h e S ev en D ead ly S i n s u s e t h e c r own a s s ymbo l o fp r id e a nd ' wo rn b y t h e m e rma id , t h i s c r own p robab ly s t and s f o r t h e o ve rw ean ing p r ide o f t h e h e r e t ic ' ( i b id . 1 09 ) . Y e t t h e p o s i t ive s ymbol i sm o ft h e c r own s ugg e s t s s ov e re ign ty a nd p owe r a nd w hen w o rn b y Ma r y , f o re xamp le , s i gn if i e sh e rr o le a s Queen o fH eav en ( Coope r , 1 978 : 4 7 ; H al , 1 994 : 16 ) . I ti si n te r e s t ing t o n o t e t h a t t h e a nc ien t S y r ian g odde s s A ta rg a t i s ( a l so k nown a s D e r ce to ) w a sw o r sh ipped a s Qu een o fH eav en a nd E a r th i nt h e f o rm o f am e rma id ( Lu rke r , 1 987 : 4 4 ; J ohn son , 1 994 : 1 40 ) . Me rma id s w ea r ing c rown s t y p if y R ena i s sance a r t a nd m ay w el b ec onnec t ed t oa l chem ica l s ymbol i sm .

T h eL i on , t h eS e r p en ta nd t h eT r e e C a rved m i se r ico rd s i n t h e c a thed r a l s a t Wel s ( S ome r se t ) , H e r ef o rd ( He r efo rd sh i r e ) , Norw i ch ( No rf o lk ) , a nd t h e

Aw el -known m ed ieva ll e g end f r om F r ance s t r eng then s t h e

1 06

S i rens c hu r ch o fS t Ma r yt h eV i rg in , E d le sbo rough ( Buck ingham s h i r e ) d i sp l ay t h e i mag e o f am e rma id s u ck l ing al i on . T h i s h a s p roved t o b e av ex ing i mag e f o r a r t h i s to r ian s w ho se t r ad i t iona l s ou r ce o fi n fo rma t ion o n a n ima l s i nm ed ieva la r t —b e s t ia r ie s —r ema in c u r iou s ly s i l en t w i th r e g a rd t o s u ch a j u x tapo s i t ion . S cho la r s h ave a cknow ledg ed t h e i r b ew i lde rmen t b ef o re a dv an c ing t e n ta t ive i n te rp r e t a t ion s . T ak ing h er c ue f r om b e s t ia ry mode l s ,G rö s s ing e rs t a te s : A sw eh ave s e en ,t h el i on s t and s f o rb o th g ood a nd e v i l , C h r i s t o rt h e d ev i l . H e r e , h e i sb e ing n u r tu red b y t h e m e rma id , a c r ea tu r e h a lf -an ima l , h a lf h uman , a nd as ymbo lo fp r ide . Un le s s i ti sa no the r i mag e o f t h e w o r ld u p s ide -down , t h e l i on mu s t s u r e ly b e s uck ing i n n eg a t ive q u a l i t ie s , s u ch a s v an i t ya nd p r ide ( G rö s s ing e r , 1 997b : 1 4 1 ) . Wr i t ing i n1 949 B u rnel a dv anced t h ei d ea t h a tt h e p re sence o f t h e l i on a s w el a s t h e f i sh m ay b e ' m i sunde r s tood s urv iva l s f r om a v e ry a nc ien t a r t t rad i t ion i n c onnec t ion w i th A r t em i s ' ( 1 949 : 2 05 ) . B u rnel ' s g ue s swo rk , h ow ev e r , c a r r ie s s ome d eg r ee o ft r u th . Wh i l s tA r t em i s m ay w el b e a d i s t an tr e l a t ion T e r ra o rT elu s , t h eR oman e a r th g odde s s o r p e r son if i ca t ion o ft h e e a r th , i s ,i nt e rm s o fi mag er y a tl e a s t , much c l o se r . T yp i ca l ly r ep r e sen t ed n ak ed o r o n ly p a r t ia l ly c l o thed , s uck l ing t wo h uman f i gu r e s o ra n ima l s a nd h o ld ing f ol i ag e o r a s soc ia ted w i th t r ee s , t h e i mag e o f T e r r a , l i k e m any o the rp ag an d e i t ie s ,e n te r ed m ed ieva la r t ( d en H a r tog , 1 996 : 3 8 -4 1 ; 1 999 :3 25 -327 ) . A s g odde s s o ft h e e a r th T e r r a w a s c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th v eg e ta t ion a nd b ea s t s s ymbol i c o f t h e l i f e f o r ce o f t h e n a tu ra l w or ld . S uch c onnec t ion s m ean t t h a t T e r r a b ecame c l o se ly a l igned w i th t h e i mag e -poo l o ft h e T r ee o fL i f e ( s ee c hap t e r 5 ) . S e rpen t ine a nd l e on ine c r ea tu re s , a s w el a s f ol i ag e , a r e a t t r ibu t e s o f T e r ra . T he i mag e a mong t h e t we lf th -cen tu r y c ap i t a l s i n t h e w e s two rk g a l l er y o f t h e c hu r ch o f S t S erv iu s i n Maa s t r ich t r e p r e sen t s T e r r a a s ' a mo r e o r l e ss n ude w oman i na n a wkwa rd p o s tu r e , c l a sp ing i ne a ch a rm ab ranch o ff ol i ag e ,w h i le s u ck l ing t wo s e rpen t s ' ( d en H a r tog , 1 996 : 3 8 ) . On a no the r c ap i ta l , a l so i n Maa s t r ich t ( t he c hu rch o f Ou r L ady ) , T e r r a i sr e p re sen ted e n tang l ed i n f ol i ag e a nd s u ck l ing aw yv e rn a nd al i on ( d en H ar tog , 1 999 : 3 26 ) . We m ay c on s ide r s u ch c a rv ing s a s s t rong ly r e gene r a t iv e i mag e ry r e sonan t w i th t h e p o tency o f n a tu r e , a nd i ndeed , b o th l i on a nd s e rpen t w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r e su r r ec t iv e p owe r o f C h r i s t i n b e s t ia ry m anu sc r ip t s ( Wh i te , 1 984 [ 1 954 ] : 1 87 188 ; Whea tc rof t , 1 999 : 1 43 ) . I n a dd i t ion t h e w yv e rn a s w el a s t h e c ro s s a ppea r o n No rman s h ie ld s i n t h e B ayeux T ape s t ry s ugg e s t ing t h a t ' t he f o rme r w a s t hough t o fi n af a vou r ab le l i gh ta s as ymbo lo fs t reng th a nd p ow e r ' ( Wood , 1 997 : 5 ) .

c r ea tu r e s i s l i k e ly t o h av e r e su l t ed f r om c on s id e rab le c onfu s ion i nt h e m ind s o fm ed ieva l a r t i s t s w hen f a ced w i th e xamp le s o f T e r ra i n c l a s s ica l a r t ( L ec l e rq -Kadan e r , 1 975 : 3 9 ) . A s p e r son if i ca t ion o ft h e e a r th , T e r ra , a c compan ied b y as e rpen ta nd c o rnucop ia ,o f ten p a r tn e r ed Ok eano s ,t h eg od o f t h e s e a . B u t Okeano s c ou ld a l so b e r e p r e sen ted w i th T e thy s , t h e p e r son if i ca t ion o ft h e f e r t i l e o cean a nd mo the r t o t hou sand s o f c l oud , m i s t a nd r i v e r ine n ymph s . T he p o s tu r e s a nd a t t r ibu te s o f T e r r a a nd T e thy s a r e t h e refo r e l i k e ly t o h av e b een c omb ined ; c e r t a in ly t h e m e rma id s u ck l ing s e rpen t s o r l i on s s ugg e s t s af u s ion o fT e r r an a nd T e thy s ian c ha rac te r i s t ic s , a s d o t ho se m e rma id s w ho se b od ie s a r e p a r t ialy f ol i a te ( a s t he e xamp le s a tS t ood l e igh , E xe t e r ,L acock , a nd C he r i ton B i shop d emon s t ra te ) . A s w el a sb e ing c l o se ly l i nk ed w i th t h e m e rma id s u ck l ing a l i on , t h e f i gu r e o fT e r ra i st h e l i ke ly p ro to type o ft h e n ak ed w oman s uck l ing s nake s , o r , a s i th a s b ecome k nown , t h e f emm ea ux s e r p en t so rl u x ur i a( J an son , 1 952 : 6 4 , n 83 ;L ec le r cq K adane r , 1 975 ) . T he d eve lopmen t o f s u ch a f i gu re i n t rodu ced a d i f f e ren t p e r cep t ion s t il : t h e se a n ima l s w e r e n o t s o much b e ing n ou r i shed b u t d evou r ing t h e ' s inf u l ' p a r t s o f t h e b ody . T h i s v i ew p ropo se s t h a t t h e p u rpo se u nde r ly ing t h i s i mag e ry , i n i t s man if o ld v a r ie t ie s , i s ' t o e xpo se t h e mo r a l v i ew t h a t s e xua l l a x i ty i se v i l a nd w i l l b e v i s i t ed b y t h e mo s t d i r e p un i shmen t s ' ( We i r a nd J e rman , 1 986 : 6 1 ) . T ho se ' who f olow V enu s ' a r e h en cef or th p un i shed ' t h rough t h e o rgan s b y w h i ch t h ey s i nned ' ( Ko sme r , 1 975 : 4 ) . Wh i l e t h i si s ap e r sua s iv e a r gumen t ,w i th p l en ty o f s uppor t ing e v idence t h a t u nde r l ine s t h e n eg a t ive o p in ion o f s e rpen t s a nd i n c r ea s ing - l y mo rb id a t t i tude t ow a rd s e xua l i ty t ha t c on tempo ra ry c hu r chmen h ad ( e .g .W e i r a nd J e rman , 1 986 : 6 4 -66 ; Ko sme r , 1 975 : 4 ,n n 14 1 6 ) ,i tm ay w el b e f a rt oo s impl i s t ic .J an son n o te st h a t wh i le t h e i mag e o ccu r s i n v i sua l f o rm f r om t h e l a te e l ev en th c en tu r y , t h e r e a r e n o d i r ec t r e f e r ence s t o i t u n t i l t h e t h i r t een th : T he e a r l ie s tw r i t t en m en t ion o fi tt h a t Iw a s a b l e t o f i nd i s i n t h e S p e c u l um l a i c or um , w he r e S a in t G e rma in o f Auxe r r ei ss a id t oh av et r ack ed as n ak e t ot h e t omb o fa n a du l te re s s . Af ou r t een th c en tu ry i n te rpo l a t ion a mong t h e e x em p l a o f J acque s d e V i t r y t e l s o f am an w ho i n av i s ion s e e s h i s d ead mo the rw i th t wo s nak e s b i t ing h e rb r ea s t s ; s h e t e l s h im s he i sb e ing p un i shed f o ra du l t ery . I nt h e G e s t a R oman or um . .t h e r e i sa no the r v e r s ion o f t h i s t a l e e xp la in ing t h e s nak e a s t h e t wo i n f an t s mu rde r ed b y t h e i r mo the r . A l l t h i s a f f o rd s a n e xcelen t i l u s t ra t ion o f t h e f r equen t ly n eg lec t ed f a c t t h a t i c onog r aph ic mo t if s i n m ed ia ev a l a r t d o n o t n ece s sa r i ly p re suppo se a l i t e ra r y s ou r ce b u t c an t hem se lv e s b ecome a s ou r ce o f l i t e r a ry t h eme s ( J an son , 1 952 : 6 6 n 102 ) .

T h i s r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een T e r ra a nd t h e T r ee o f L i f e a nd a t t endan tb ea s t si si mpor t an tf o ri th a s c on s ide r ab le b ea r ing u pon t h e f i gu re o ft h em e rma id s uck l ing s e rpen t s o rl i on s i n R omane sque a nd Go th ic a r ch i t ec tu r a l c a rv ing . I th a s b een s ugg e s t ed t h a t t h e m e rma id e ng ag ed i n n u r s ing t h e se

T he i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h ef emm e a ux s er p en t s a sa n a du l te r e s s i sp o s s ib ly al a te r m ed ieva l d eve lopmen t , t h e mo t if i n i t ia l ly a no the r i n co rpo ra t ion o f a p ag an f i gu re i n to t h e R omane sque r e per to i r e .

1 07

S ec t ion II :F igure s T ex t -ba sed i n te rp re ta t ion s s ugg e s t f u r the r n ega t iv e p o s s ib i l i t ie s . T he i mag e s o f T e r ra o n t h e c ap i ta l s i n t h e c hu r che sa t S tS e rv iu sa nd Ou rL ady i n Maa s t r ich ts e em ' t o h ave b een c once iv ed a s ad el ibe ra t e a n t i type t o C h r i s t , f o r w he r ea s H i s t r ampl ing o f t h e b ea s t s [ t he r e f e r ence i st o P sa lm 9 1 : 1 3 ] p er ta in s t os a lv a t ion , t h e s uck l ing o ft h e v er y s ame c r ea tu r e s i sl i ke ly t or e f e rt ot h e v ery o ppo s i te , i . e . t h e F al o f Man ' ( d en H ar tog , 1 999 : 3 26 ) . D e R achew i l tz n o te s t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o f b i rd s i r en s i n R omane squ e a r t h ave a s e rpen t ' st a i l , ' wh ich l i nk s t h em t ot h et emp t ing s nak e i nt h e g a rden o f E den ' . B y t h i s m ean s , ' t he C hu rch p roduced a p ow e r fu l s ymbo l f o rt h e d ange ro fs educ t ion i ng ene ra l b u t p ar t i cu la r ly o f av e rba l s o r t ' ( d e R a chew i l tz , 1 987 : 9 8 ) . T he E den s e rpen t w a s o f t en d ep ic t ed i n m ed ieva l a r t i n d r aconopeda l f o rm —i . e .w i th t h e h ead a nd u ppe rb ody o fa h uman a nd t h e b ody o f as e rpen t f r om t h e w a i s t d own . Mo r e i mpo r tan t ly f o r t h i s d i scu s s ion , t h e u ppe r b ody w a s o f ten r e p r e sen ted a st h a t o f ab eau t ifu lw oman , l i k e as i r en . Anc ien te xamp le s o fh yb r id f ema le h uman se rpen t s e x i s t i n G reek m y tho logy i nt h e f i gu re s o fE ch idne a nd L am ia , t h e f o rme r f amed f o r h e r e a t ing o f m en a nd p roduc t ion o f mon s t rou s c h i ld ren ( i nc lud ing C e rbe ru s , t h e H yd ra a nd t h e S ph inx ) , t h e l a t te r ac h i ld -k i l l ing d emon s im i l a r t o L i l i th . B o th E ch idne a nd L am ia a r e d e sc r ibed a sb eau t ifu l w omen f r om t h e h ead t ot h e w a i s t , wh i le f r om t h e w a i s t d own t h ey t ook t h e f o rm o f as p eck led s e rpen t . A l t e rna t iv e ly L am ia w a s d ep ic t ed a s ac r ea tu r e w i th t h eb ody o f as n ak e a nd t h e h ead o f ab eau t ifu l w oman ( G rav e s , 1 960 , I : 1 30 , 2 05 ; Hu rw i t z , 1 999 : 4 3 ; B egg , 1 996 : 4 0 ; L e inw ebe r , 1 994 : 7 7 ) . Y e t i t i s a s L i l i th , S em i t ic p rodu ce r o f d emon s , p e r son if i ca t ion o f t h e d i abol i c E den s e rpen t a nd t h e t emp t r e s s o f t h e t emp t e r E v e , t h a t t h e d ra conopede f i nd s i t s w ay i n to med ieva l a r t , c o i led a r ound t h e t r unk o f t h e T ree o f Know ledg e ( K emp - We l ch , 1 902 : 9 84 -986 ; F lo r e s , 1 996 : 1 75 ,f i g . 1 ) .

1 08

T he c omp lex i mag er y o f t h e t emp t r e ss i s p e rhap s b e s t e xp re s sed i n t h e s educ t iv e , s i nuou s b ody o f t h e f ema l e E den s e rpen t w ho se s i s te rhood i n c luded t h e s i r en ( h e r se lf o cca s ionaly s e rpen t ine , a sa tL ul ing ton a nd B a rf re s ton ) a nd t h e s ph inx , t h e l a t te r a p o ten t ia l i n f lu ence u pon t h e w oman ized E den s e rpen t a nd o f c ou r se , a c co rd ing t o H e s iod , d augh te r o f E ch idne h e r se lf ( K e l ly , 1 97 1 : 3 13 ) . D r aconopeda l f o rm h e lped t o e xp l a in a p hy s io log ica l d i ff i cu l ty i nt h e b ook o f G ene s i s , n ame ly h ow t h e s e rpen t c ou ld t a lk t o E ve , wh i le t h e i mag e o f as e rpen t w i th a h uman f a ce p rov ided ' o n t h e mo s tg ene ra ll e v e l , aw ea l th o f a s soc ia t ion s w i th f r aud a nd t emp t a t ion ' ( F r iedman , 1 966 : 2 5 ; 1 972 : 15 ) . Y e t a sJ an son c au t ion s ( a bov e ) , w e mu s t b e w a ry o fa pp ly ing t e x tua l i n te rp re ta t ion s t o t h i s i mag er y , f o r i n d o ing s o t h e a r ch i t ec tu ra l a nd s oc ia l c on tex t s a r e o v e r look ed .

C onc lu s ion C lea r ly , t h e m ed ieva l s i r en a r t icu la ted ac omp lex n e two rk o f a s soc ia t ion s . An i mag e i nhe r i ted f r om c l a s s ica l my tho logy v i a b e s t ia r ie s a nd e p ic s , t h e s i r en r e sona te s w i th H elen ic , O r ien ta l , a nd R oman p ag an c ha r ac te r i s t ic s a s af i gu r e c l o se ly c onnec t ed w i th t h e p a s sag e f r om d ea th t ot h e p l a ce o fn ew l i f e . Ove r ly ing t h i s d a rk d i v in i ty i s an eg a t iv e mo r a l d i a logue a c cen tua ted b y C h r i s t ian c once rn s w i th a pp rop r ia t e s e xual i t y a nd t h e d ang e ro ff em in ine a lu r e . Y e t t h e s i r en a nd h e r r e la t ion s a r e t oo a mb iguou s t o b e n ea t ly e xp la ined a sw ho l ly s e cu la r , e ven w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o f m ed iev a l C h r i s t ian i t y , t h e i mag e p r e serv ing m any a spec t s t h a t p o in t t owa rd s h e r n um inou s , i f t e r r ib l e , s t a tu s . I n t eg r a t ing d ea th a nd l i f e , h uman a nd f i sh o r b i rd , s e rpen t o rl i on i n to o ne i mag et h e s i r en e mbod ie s t h el i m ina l i ty t h a t i st h e h a l lma rk o f t h e g ro te sque ; t h ey a r e ' t he mon s t rou s man if e s t a t ion s o f r e l ig iou s n ot ion s n o to r iou s ly h a rd t o e xp r e s s ' ( Pola rd : 1 965 : 1 37 ) .

C hap t e r9

En ter ta iner s a nd Exh ib i t ion is ts

I n t roduc t ion r ema in s t o s ugg e s t t h a t t h i s w a s o nce ama l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re .

T he f i na l s e c t ion t o t h i s t r i ad o f c hap te r s c on s ide r s t h e e n te r ta ine r a nd e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s t ha t a r e f ound t h roughou t m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu re . Wh i l e t h e p a i r ing o f t h e t wo may s e em a n u nu sua l o ne t h i s w a s n o t t h e c a se i nt h e med iev a lp e r iod : f oo l s c ommon ly p e rf o rmed i nt h en ude ,a sd id a c roba t s a nd t umb l e r s .

F ema le p a rale l s t o t h e se f i gu re s h av e b een c l a s s if i ed a s s hee la -na -g ig s , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t s hee la s i n t h e h ead b e tw een l e g s p o se a r e r a re , i fn o t n on -ex i s ten t , t e nd ing i n s tead t o b e c a rv ed i n as qu a t t ing p o s tu re . T hu s t h e t wo r oof b o s se s i nt h ew e s tc l o i s t e rw a lk a t Wel s C a th ed ra lt h a t h av e b een i d en t if i ed a s s hee la -na -g ig s ( Mc Mahon a nd R obe r t s , 2 00 1 : 1 67 ) a c tua l ly b e long mo re t o t h i s t umb le r/ac roba t t r ad i t ion , o ne o f wh ich i sc arv ed i n t h e h ead b e tw een l e g sp o se , t h eo the ra s an ak ed g ymna s tf i g -

A c roba t s a nd Tumb le r s One o ft he mo s t c ommon w ay s o fr ep re sen t ing a c roba t s i n m ed i eva l a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re i st h e f e e t to -ea r s p o s tu re : t h e b ody i sc on to r ted s o t h a tt he l e g s m ak e a' V ' s hape , a nd t h e h ead o f t h e f i gu re a ppea r s b e tween t h em . We i r a nd J e r rnan s ugge s tt h a tf e e t to -ea r s a c roba t s a r e' ad ev e lopmen t o ft h e s qua t te r , f o rt h ey s imp ly s t ra igh ten t h e l e ga nd t h ru s t i tu pwa rd s , h e ld b y t h e h and i fn ece s sa ry ' ( 1 986 : 4 3 ) . T h i s p o stu re i s c ommon i n R om ane sque c o rbe l tab le s ( f o r e xamp le , R om sey Abbey a nd W inche s te r C a thed ra l ) a sw el a sl a te r med iev a lc a rv ing s s uch a st h e f i f teen th -cen tu ry r oof b o s se s a tL a cock Abbey i nW i l t sh i re ( F ig . 9 .1 ) . S uch a p o se i s i d ea l ly s u i ted f o r t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s a nd i s o f ten u sed a cco rd ing ly , t wo p a r t i cu la r ly c l ea r e xamp l e s e x i s t ing o n t h e e x te r io r s o f t h e c hu rche s a tS op ley i n H amp sh i re a nd S t in sf o rd i n Do r se t . A t t h e f o rme r t h e s cu lp tu re a ppea r s o n ac o rbe l p l aced o n t h e n or th -we s t c o rne r o f t h e t h i r teen th -cen tu ry n o r th t r an sep t a nd i sc a rv ed s o t h a t t h e b ody i sh o r izon t a l a nd o n ly t he h ead , p l aced o n t h e c o rne r , t u rned u p r igh t ( F ig 9 . 2 ) . T he f i gu re h a s l ong s t r a igh t h a i r a nd ab ea rd u pon t h e c h in , ad am ag ed b road n o se a nd e a r s t h a t s t i ck o u t f r om e ach s i de o ft h eh ead . T he l e g s a r eh e ld u p r igh ta nd c l o se t o t h e b ody , t h e f e e t b eh ind t h e h ead a nd e a ch h and g r ipp ing t h e b ack o fe ach t h igh . A l a rg e s c rotum h ang s d ownw a rd o v e rt h eb a ck o fh i sr i gh tt h igh a nd t h ep en i si se r ec ta ga in s t t h e l ow e r p a r t o fh i s b e l ly . On t h e o ppo s i te c o rne r o ft h e t r an sep t t h e re i s ah eav i ly d amag ed f ema l e f i gu re t h a t w a s o nce p o s s ib ly e xh ib i t ion i s t a sw el ( d i scu s sed b e low a nd s e e F ig 9 .1 6 ) . A t S t in sfo rd t h e c a rv ing i s mo re s qua re ly w i th in t h e R om ane sque t umb le r t r ad i t ion , c a rv ed a s i ti su p r igh t a nd a sp a r to f as equence o ff i f teen th -cen tu ry g a rgoy l e s a nd g ro te squ e s p l aced u pon t h e e x te r io r o ft h e s ou th n av e a i s l e ( F ig . 9 . 3 a ) . T he h ead o f t h i s g r inn ing t umb le r a ppea r s b e tween t h et wo u p tu rned l e g s , t h e l e f th and v i s ib l eh o ld ing t h e u nde r s ide o f t h e l e f t t h igh . T he b u t tock s a nd g en i ta l a r ea h av e b een b ad ly d amaged , b u te nough s c a r ma te r ia l

F igure 9 . 1R oof b os s c arved a s at umb ler i nt he s ou th c l o i s ter w a lk a tL acock Abbey .

F igure 9 . 2 Ma le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gure c arved a s ac orbe l o n t he e x ter ior o ft he n or th t r ansep t a tS op ley i n Hampsh ire .

1 09

S ec t ion II : F igure s t i r e . R e l a ted f ema l e f i gu re s a r e t h e t w in ta i led m e rma id s who h o ld e ach t a i l u p o n e i the r s i de o ft h e i r b od ie s o f ten e xpo s ing t h e i r g en i tal i a , e xamp l e s o f wh ich a r e c ommon i n c on t inen t a l R om ane sque a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re ( s ee , f o r e xamp le s ,L ec le rq -K adane r , 1 997 ) . A l though t h i s p o s tu re i s a c ommon w ay o f c arv ing t umb le r s , i ti sb y n o m ean s t h e o n ly o ne a nd f i gu r e s m ay a ppea r i n av a r i e ty o f c on tor ted p o s i t ion s . R omane sque c o rbe l tab le s a r e o nce a ga in a mong t h e mo s t p rof i tab l e l o ca t ion s i n wh i ch t o l ook a nd t wo e xamp l e s a r e w o r th men t ion ing h e re . T he f i r s t i s ac a rv ing o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e n av e a tS tud l and i n Do r se t ( F ig . 9 .3 b ) r ep re sen t ing a f ema l e t umb le r who i sb en t s o f a r b ackwa rd s t h a t t h e h ead a ppea r s u p s ide -down b e tw een t h e k nee s ( one o ft h e Wel s C a thed ra l b o s se s men t ioned a bov e m ay b e r ep r e sen t ing s om e th ing s im i l a r ) . H e rg en i t a l s a r ec l ea r ly v i s ib l e a bov e h e r h ead , a nd t h e c arv ing i sp o s i t ioned c l o se t o a t l e a s t o ne s hee l a -na -g ig . T he s e cond e xamp le m ay b e f ound o n t h e e x te r io ro ft he n or th n ave a i s le a tR om sey A bbey a nd e i the r r ep re sen t s t wo t umb l e r s t og e the r , o r af i gu re g i v ing b i r th , t he h ead o ft h ec h i ld v i s ib le b e tween t h el e g s ( F ig . 9 .4 ) . T he s qua t t ing p o s i t ion o ft h e ma in f i gu re e choe s t h e p o s i t ion o f s hee la -na -g ig s a nd i ndeed , t h i s c o rbe l i s s i t ed i n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e R om sey s hee l a o n t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e n o r th t r an sep t( s ee b e low ) .

Ma le Exh ib i t ion is tF igu res R om ane sque c o rbe l t ab l e s , p a r t i cu la r ly t ho se o n t h e c on t inen t , o f ten f e a tu re ma l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s among t he i r r e per to i re o fc a rv ed i mag e s . I n t h e s ou th o fE ng land e xamp le s may b e f ound a tS tud l and a nd S tJ ohn ' s , D ev ize s . A t S tud l and t he i mag e i sl o ca ted o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e n ave a nd a ppea r s a s as qua t t ing f i gu re w i th a s c rotum o f g ene rou s p ropor t ion s , h i s h and s r e s t ing a tt h e b a se o f h i s ( m i s s ing ) p en i s i t se lf ' f orme r ly o f h e ro ic d i am e te r ' ( Lundg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 6 ) ( F ig . 9 .5 a ) . T he h ead o f t h e f i gu re ,i nc ommon w i th R omane sque wo rk e l sewhe re , i s d i sp ropor t iona t e ly l a rge i n c ompa r i son t o t h e r e s t o f t h e b ody a nd l i ke t h e f i gu re b e tw een s e rpen t s a tL i t t le L ang fo rd ( F ig . 6 .1 5 ) w ea r s amou s tache . T he Dev ize s e xamp le m ay

g en i ta l i a ; a tD ev ize s , a n e r ec t ion , a nd a tL i t t le L angf o rd t h e b rand i sh ing o f s e rpen t s t h a t c o i l t h e i r b od i e s a r ound t h e f i gu re ' s t h igh s . T he u se o f t h e p halu s a s a n a mu l e t i c ( w a rd ing o f f e v i l ) a nd t a l i sman i c ( a t t rac t ing g ood f o r tune ) mo t if w a s p rom inen t i n R oman l i f e a nd e xp re s sed i n n ume rou s m ed ia s uch a s s cu lp tu re , j ew el er y , mo sa i c , a nd w al -pa in t ing ( f o r r e f e rence s s e e c hap te r 4 n o te 1 ) . R omane sque a r t i s t s a r e l i ke ly t o h av e b een a wa re o f t h i s e ve ryday u se o ft h e p ha l lu s i nc l a s s i ca l a r t a nd a r ch i tec tu r e , f o r a po t ropa ic a s soc ia t ion s r em a ined w i th b o th m a le a nd f ema le g en i ta l ia t h roughou t t h e M idd le A g e s ( J one s , 2 000a : 9 9 ) . P a i r ed e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s l i ke t ho se o n t h e c o rbe l a t Dev ize s , a l though r e l a t iv e ly u ncommon , a r e n o t u nknown e l sewhe r e . A t t h e c hu rch o f S t Ma ry a nd S t M i chae l a t Wh i t t le sf o rd i nC amb r idg e sh i re t h e re i s as hee la a nd am a l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re c a rv ed u pon t h e i r regu la r s haped b l ock o fs t one t h a t f o rm s t h e a r ch o f ar ound -headed w indow o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e c ro s s ing t owe r . T he ma l e f i gu r e i s r ep re sen ted i np rof i l e o n a l f ou r s w i th a n e l ong a ted t o r so , s ho r tl e g s b en ta tt h ek nee s , a nd a ne r ec tp en i s . T he h ead o f t h e f i gu re a ppea r s d i rec t ly a bov e t h e l e f t s hou lde r o f t h e s hee la , a si fwh i spe r ing i nh e re a r . T h i s p o s i t ion i ss ha red b y ac a rv ed m a le f i gu re a t t h e c hu rch o f S t J am e s , A b son ( G lou ce s te r sh i r e ) , s e t i n to t h e e a s tw al o ft h e c hance l ( F ig . 9 . 6 ) . J u s t l i ke t h e Wh i t t le sfo rd i mag e t h e Ab son f i gu re r ep re sen t s am a le i np rof i l e o n a l f ou r sw i th a n e r ec t p en i s , o n ly i n t h i s e xamp le t h e re i sn o e xh ib i t ing f ema l e f i gu re p a i red w i th h im . D a te s f o r t h e se t wo i mag e s a r e d i ff i cu l t t o a s cer ta in . A l though t h eb lock o fs t on e t h a t f orm s t h et op o f t h e w indow a t Wh i t t l e sf o rd may w el b e c on t empo raneou s w i th t h e s t y le o f t h e a r ch wh ich c u t s t h rough i t a nd t h e ref o re R omane sque , i ti se qua l ly p o s s ib l e t h a t t h e b lock i so fl a te r d a te a nd i n se r t ed i n to t h e t owe r t or ep lace e a rl i e r s t onewo rk . T he f i gu r e a t Ab son i s mo re s e cu re ly i n s i tu , c arved f r om t h e s ame r ed s and s tone f r om wh i ch mo s t o f t h e c hance l i sb u i l t . F rom t h i s c on tex tu a l e v idence i ti s p o s s ib l et oa s s ign at h i r t een th -cen tu r yd a te t ot h ef i gu re . C oup l e s m igh t a l so b e r ep re sen ted o n R om ane sque c o rbe l s a s emb r ac ing o rc opu l a t ing p a i r s , e xamp le s o f wh i ch may b e f ound i n t h e r e g ion a mong t h e c o rbe l tab le s a t S tud l and , Dev i ze s ( S tJ ohn ) , L ul ing ton a nd W inche s te r . I n te re s t ing ly , t h ree e xamp le s m ake v i sua l r e f e rence t o a n ima l s . A t W inche s te r t h e c o rbe l d ep ic t s t wo d og s c opu la t ing f a ce t o f a ce .

b e f ound o n t h e e x te r io r n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l o f S t J ohn ' s c hu rch a nd i s p a i r ed w i th a s hee l a -na -g ig , b o th f i gu re sp o s i t ioned f r on ta l ly t ot h ev i ewe r ( a l though t h e m a l e i s s l igh t ly a ng led a w ay f r om h i s p a r tne r ) . D e sp i te s ome d am ag e t o t h e s and s tone t h rough w ea the r ing a nd p o l lu t ion t h e f a ce i sr em a rk ab ly w el p re serv ed ; l e s s p r i s t in e i st h e l ow e rh a lf o ft he b ody a l though t h e f i gu re c l ea r ly g r a sp s h i s e r ec tp en i si nh i sr i gh th and ( F ig . 9 .5 b ) .

T he q uadrupeda lp o stu re o ft h e m a l ee xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s a t Wh i t t le sf o rd a nd Ab son m igh t h av e b een i n tended t o i n t roduce a n a n ima l a spec t i n to t h e c a rv ing s , t o l i nk s e xua l i ty w i th a n i rnal i ty . I n s ome l a te r med iev a l ma l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s t h i s b ea s t a spec t i se v en mo re e xpl i c i t . Two c a rv ing s —o ne a t Me re ( W i l t sh i re ) ( F ig . 7 .7 )a nd o ne a t B r en t Knol ( S ome r e s t ) —r ep r e sen t e xh ib i t ing h yb r id h uman -an ima lm a le f i gu re s . T he p a t t er nf o rb o th c a rv ing si s s im i la r : t h e t o r so o f ah uman m a l e i sc omb ined w i th t h e h ead o f ab ea s t c a rv ed i nt y p ica l f l amboyan t l a te r med iev a l s t y l e w i th s haggy h a i r , w ide s t a r ing e ye s a nd e no rmou s g ap ing mou th . I nb o th c a se s t h eh ead i su nna tu r a l ly l a rg ei n

T he re a r e n um e rou s s im i la r i t i e s b e tw een t h e se f i gu r e s . A l ready men t ioned i n r e la t ion t o t h e f i gu re a tS tud l and i s t he o v e r s ized h ead i n p ropo r t ion t o t h e r e s t o f t h e b ody wh i ch e n te r s t h e f i gu re i n to t h e a s soc ia t ion s c a r r i ed b y t h e s ev e r ed h ead mo t if d i scu s sed i nc hap te r4 . One o ft h e m a in q ual i t i e s a s soc i a ted w i th t he s ev e r ed h ead i si t s a po t ropa i c p owe r , wh ich i nt h e se f i gu re s i sf u r the r e nhanced b y o the r c ha r ac te r i s t ic s : a t S tud land , d i sp ropo r t iona te ly l a rge

10

E n ter ta iner sa nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s

F igure 9 . 3( aa nd b ) E xh ib i t ion is t a croba t f i gure s f r om ( a ) t he e as t e nd o ft he s ou th a i s le a t S t insf ord ( t op l e f t ) , a nd ( b )t he n or th s i de o ft he n ave a tS tud land ( t op r i gh t ) . F igure 9 . 4( m idd le l e f t ) Two t umb lers t oge ther o r af i gure g iv ing b i r th? C orbe l o n t he n or th s i de o ft he n or th n ave a i s le a tR omsey Abbey . F igure 9 . 5( aa nd b )C arved c orbe ls f r om ( a ) S tud land ( m idd le r i gh t )a nd ( b ) S tJ ohn 's , D ev ize s ( l ower l e f t ) . F igure 9 . 6( l ower r i gh t ) C rouch ing ma le f i gure s e t i n to t he e as te nd o ft he c hance l a t Abson .

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S ec t ion II :F igure s c ompa r i son t ot h e b ody , af e a tu re c ommon t og a rgoy le a nd g ro te sque c arv ing s i nt h e s ou th o fE ng l and wh i ch s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e se c a rv ing s a r e r e la t ed t o t h e e a rl i e r c o rbe l tab l e s a nd t h e c oncep to ft h e s ev e red h ead a nd i t s a s soc i a t ed p oo l o f i d ea s . F u r the r , b o th e xamp le s d o n o t a ppea r t o d i sp l ay t h e i rp en i se s l i ke a l t h e f i gu re s men t ioned s o f a r , b u tr a the r c l oak t h em b eh ind o the r f e a tu re s : t h e f i gu re a t Me r e , l o ca ted o n t h e i n te r io r n o r th w al o f t h e s ou th ( Be t te s tho rne ) c hape l e x tend s al ong t ongu e t o l i ck h i s t e s te s , t h e t ongue t h e r eby t a k ing t h e p l ace o ft h e p en i s ; t h e c a rv ing a tB r en t Knol , l o ca t ed o n t h e e x te r io r e a s t s i de o f t h e w e s t t owe r a l ong w i th o the r g ro te sque f i gu re s h a s a s ma l l s e rpen t o r w ing l e s s d ragon ( wo rm ) e x tend ing f r om t h e mou th , i t se lf w i th i t s mou th o pen a nd e x t end ing i t s t ongue t o l i ck t h e f i gu re ' s t e s t ic l e s . I n b o th e xamp l e s t h e p en i s i sh idden o r r ep l aced b y s ome th ing e l se — ab ea s t ' s t ongu e o r as e rpen t/ se rpen t ' s t ongue . Undoub ted ly t h e re a r e s ub t l el e v e l s o fm ean ing b e ing e xp lo red h e r e a sw el a sa c rude j o cu l a r i ty who se d ep th a nd r i chne s si sn ow d i ff i cu l tt o g r a sp . T he l a s te xamp le Iw an tt oi n t roduce h e re i st ob ef ound o n t h ew e s t f a ce o ft h en o r th t r an sep ta tt h ec hu rch o fS t Ma ry , S tK a the r ine a nd Al S a in t s , E d ing ton ( W i l t sh i re ) ( F ig . 9 .7 ) . A g a in , t h e c a rv ing r ep re sen t s am a le e xh ib i t ion i s t , b u t o ne u n l ike a ny s o f a rp re sen ted : h e re t h en aked f i gu re r e c l ine si n c l a s s ica l f a sh ion , h i s g en i t a l s o n f u l l d i sp l ay . Un l ike e a r l ie r f i gu re s t h e E d ing ton i mag e d oe s n o t d r aw a t ten t ion t o h i s g en i tal i a w i th h i s h and s o r t h rough o the r g e s tu re s , a nd i ndeed , t h e re i sn o e r ec t ion o r d i sp ropo r t iona t e b ody p ar t s , s uch a st h e h ead . T he o v e ra l li mp r e s s ion i ss imp ly o ne o fa n ak ed m a le f i gu re c op ied f r om l i f e , c a rv ed a nd s e t i np l ace s ome t ime d u r ing t he f our teen th c en tu ry . C u r iou s ly , a nd t h i s m igh t b e l i t t l e mo r e t h an c o inc idence , t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e f i gu re o nt h ew e s tf a ce o ft h en or th t r an sep tp a ra l le l s t h a to f t h e R om ane sque S hee l a o n t h e B ened i c t ine n unne ry a t R om sey , t h e i n s t i tu t ion t h a t owned E d ing ton b e tween 9 68 a nd 1 539 . Whe the r t h i s c onnec t ion e x tended t o a ny i nf luence u pon d eco ra t iv e s cheme s i t i s , h ow eve r , i mpo s s ib le t os a y .

S hee la -na -g ig s T he f i gu re k nown a s t h e s hee l a -na -g ig h a s a l r eady b een m en t ioned i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e m a l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s a tD ev ize s a nd Wh i t t le sfo rd a s w el a s w i th s ome o f t h e a c roba t o r t umb le r c a rv ing s w i th wh i ch t h ey a r e o f t en c onfu sed . Ih av e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e s hee l a -na -g ig s , ' c arv ing s o f n aked f em a le s p o sed i n am anne r wh i ch d i sp lay s a nd e mpha s i se s t h e g en i ta l i a ' ( K ely , 1 996 : 5 ) , m ay b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h e p o s i t ion s a s sum ed b y t h e t umb l e r s a nd a c roba t s b y t h e i r t y p ica l f r on t a l s t and ing o r s qua t t ing p o s i t ion w i th o ne o r b o th h and s p l aced o n o r n ex t t o t h e v u lv a . F u r the r , wh i le e xh ib i t ion i s t t umb l e r s m ay b e p a r t ia l ly c l o thed a nd w ea r ing ac on tempo ra r yh a i r s ty le t h e s hee l a -na g i g i sa lway s n aked a nd w i th f ew e xcep t ion s , c o mp l e te ly b a ld .

B eyond t h i s , s hee l a s f o rm av e ry d i s t inc tc a tegor yw i th in t h e b roade r s cheme o f e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s a nd m ay b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h em i n av a r i e t y o f o the r w ay s . F i r s t , wh i le t h e a c roba t s a nd o the r e xh ib i t ion i s t c arv ing s o f t h e R om ane sque a nd l a te r Go th ic p e r iod t e nd t ob e c onf ined t o a r ch i tec tu r a l m ed ia s u ch a s c o rbe l tab le s o r g a rgoy le s , s hee l a -na -g ig s , w h i le o f t en m ing l ing w i th t h e se f i gu re s , j u s t a s c ommon ly o ccu r o n t h e i r own , c a rv ed o n as epa ra te s t one t h a t h a s b een i n se r ted i n to t h e w al o f t h e b u i ld ing . T h i s i s ac ommon f e a tu re o ft h e c a rv ing s i nI r e l and a nd t oa l e s se r e x ten t i nE ng l and w he re t h e i m age h a s u nde rgone a much g r ea te r a b so rp t ion i n to t h e r eper to i re o fR omane sque c a rv ing . S econd , a nd r e l a ted t o t h e a bov e , i t i s o f ten i mpo s s ib le t or e l i ab ly d a te s hee la -na -g ig c a rv ing s . I t mu s tb e a s sum ed t h a t t ho se f i gu re s i n c o rbe l t ab l e s a r e t h e s am e d a te a s t h e r e s t o f t h e s equence b u t t h e s epa ra te i mag e s , wh i le t h ey m ay b e c on tempo r a ry w i th t h e w al i n to wh ich t h ey a r e i n ser ted a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly s o —t h e i m ag e m ay h ave b een i n co rpo r a ted a t al a t e r d a t e a nd c ome f r om e l sewhe re . T he se i mag e s p rov e t h e mo s t r e s i l i en t t o e v en t h e b roade s t c h rono log i ca l f r amewo rk s . Th i rd , u n l ike a ny o the r mo t if t h e i m ag e i sn o t r e s t r ic ted t oe cc l e s i a s t i ca l s i te s , a ppea r ing a s i td oe s i n I r e land o n l a te m ed i ev a l t ow e r h ou se s , c a s t l e s a nd a s soc i a t ed b u i ld ing s , t own w al s a nd r e l ig iou s s i t e s . S ome o f t h e se l o ca t ion s a r e l i ke ly t o b e s e conda ry c on tex t s s ugg e s t ing t h a tt h i s f i gu re ,u n l ik eo the r s , h a s a cqu i red s ome d eg r ee o fi mpor tance w i th in t h e f o lk lo re a nd l i f e o fn um e rou s I r i sh c ommun i t i e s , s ome th ing t h a t i t h a s n o t d one i nE ng l and . T hu s t h e r e a r e d i f f e ren t p a t t e rn s o fs hee l a -na -g ig u se i nd i f f e ren t a r ea s o fB r i ta in i nd i f f e ren t p e r iod so ft ime . Wr i te r s h av e l ong r e cogn i sed t h i s r e l a t iv e i ndependence o f t h e s hee la mo t if w i th in med ieva l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu r e a nd a c co rd ing ly , wh i le t h e re a r e n o s t ud i e s k nown t ot h e a u tho r t h a t c oncen t ra te u pon s t ock f i gu re s o f c on tempo ra ry c a rv ing s uch a sa c roba t i c f i gu re s o r mou th -pu l le r s , t h e re a r e m any a r t ic l e s a nd a f ew b ook s o n t h e s hee l a -na -g ig . T h roughou t t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry a n t iqua r i an s h ad b een a w a re o f t h e se c arv ing s b u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e 1 920 s a nd 1 930 s when med i ev a l c hu rche s a nd m ed i ev a l a r ch i tec tu re b ecame a f a vou r ed t op i c a mong a r chaeo log i s t s t h a t t h e c a rv ing s r e a l ly b eg an t oa t t r ac ts cho l a r ly a t t en t ion . T o t h i s p e r iod b e long s ome o f t h e f i r s t s y s t ema t i c a na ly se s o f t h e f i gu re s t h en c u r ren t ly k nown a s w el a s r e po r t s o f n ew ly d i scov e red c a rv ing s ( s ee , f o re xamp l e , Mu r r ay , 1 934 ; Gue s t , 1 936 , 1 937 ; H emp , 1 938 ) . L i t t le w o rk o n t h e f i gu re s w a s p ub l i shed i nt h e m idd l e o ft h e c en tu ry , t h e n ex t r e su rg ence o fi n te re s tb e ing i nt h e l a te s i x t ie s a nd s ev en t i e s . T he a r t i c le b y Hu tch in son a nd Hu tch in son ( 1 969 ) c ol a ted i n f o rm a t ion o n t h e E ng l i sh f i gu re s wh i l e t h e f i r s t f u l l leng th b ook t o a ppea r , av e r s ion o f t h e a u tho r ' s o r ig ina l P hD t h e s i s , a dv anced t ow a rd e ngag ing a p opu la r r a the r t h an a p u re ly a c adem i c a ud ience ( Ande r sen , 1 977 ) . Now l ong o u to fp r in t t h i s i ss t i l l o f ten r e f e r r ed t o a s t h e d ef in i t iv e w o rk o n t h e s ub jec t a s mo re r e cen t p ub l i ca t ion s ( e .g . We i r a nd J e rman , 1 986 ; McMahon a nd R obe r t s , 2 00 1 ) h ave a dded l i t t le t ot h e d eba te .

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E n ter ta ine r sa nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s I n t h e s ou th a nd w e s t o fE ng l and , s hee la s c an b e f ound a t B unc ton ( Su s sex ) ,1 R om sey Abbey ( Hamp sh i re ) , B in s tead ( I s le o fW igh t ) , Dev i ze s ( S tJ ohn ) , O ak sey a nd S t an ton S t Qu in t in ( W i l t sh i re ) , F idd ing ton a nd S toke sub -Hamdon ( S ome r se t ) , S tud land a nd Wo r th Ma t r ave r s ( Do r se t ) , a nd S ou th T aw ton a nd E xe te r C a thed ra l ( Devon ) . T hey a ppea r a mong s tt h e f i gu re si nc o rbe l tab l e s a nd e v en c a rv ed a sg a r g oy le s , b u t a l so o n t h e i r o wn a s s epa ra te s cu lp tu re s a s t h e f olow ing t e x tw i l ln ow e xp lo r e .

T he c hu rch o f S t N icho la s a t Wor th Ma t r ave r s i sa n e a r ly No rm an b u i ld ing c on s i s t ing o f aw e s t t owe r , n ave a nd c hance l , a lo f wh i ch d a t e t oc . 100 . T he c o rbe l tab le wh i ch c omp r i se s 6 4 c a rved c o rbe l s r unn ing u n in te r rup ted a l ong t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e n av e a nd c hance l , i s b el i ev ed t o b e a u then t i c t o t h e s i t e a nd d a te s t o t h e e a r ly t w e lf th c en tu ry l i ke t h e s upe r s t ruc tu re o f t h e r e s t o f t h e b u i ld ing . Howev e r , i ti sl i ke ly t h a t l a rge s e c t ion s o fc o rbe l s a r en o ti nt h e i ro r ig ina le a r ly t we l f th -cen tu ry p o s i t ion d ue t o t h e v a r iou s r ebu i ld ing s a nd r e s to ra t ion s t h a t h av e t a k en p l ace i n t h e l a te r m ed iev a l a nd mode rn p e r iod s ( RCH ME , 1 970a : 4 10 -4 11 ;A lf o rd , 1 984 : 6 ) . T he s hee la -na -g ig i sl o ca ted o n t h e e x t e r io r n o r th s i de o f t h e c hance l , c a rv ed u pon t h e s i x th c o rbe l i nf r om t h e e a s t a nd f l ank ed b y c o rbe l s c arv ed w i th b ea s t a nd b eak h ead s ( F ig . 9 . 8 ) ( Woodcock , 2 002 ) . T he f i gu re a ppea r s i n a c ha rac te r i s t i c s qua t t ing p o s i t ion w i th h e r l e g s p ar ted t o r ev ea lt h eg en i ta l s , wh i le h e rl e f ta rm r e ache s d own b e tween t h e l e g s a nd h e r r i gh t h and r e s t s o n t h e b e l ly . T he h ead o f t h e f i gu re i sd i sp ropo r t iona te ly l a rge f o r t h e b ody a nd t h e f e e t a r e b road , a lmo s t d i sc l ike . Wh i le t h e c o rbe l may h av e b een d i s tu rbed d u r ing t h e a f o remen t ioned r ebu i ld ing s i ti s l i k e ly t h a t p a r t s o f t h e n or th w al w e r e l e f t u n tou ched . H ence i ti se n t i r e ly p o s s ib l e t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e c o rbe l s o n t h i s s i de , o r a t l e a s t s ome o f t h em , r ep re sen t t h e i r o r ig ina ls i tua t ion .

F igure 9 . 7T he ma le f i gure o n t he n or th t r ansep ta tE d ing ton .

T he Wo r th Ma t rav e r s s hee la d i sp lay s a n umbe r o f s im i l a r i t i e s t oo ne o ft h e e x amp le s a tt h e c hu rch o fS tJ ohn i n Dev ize s ( s ee b e low ) ;b efo r e t u rn ing t ol ook a tt h i s i m age , h ow eve r , t h e re i s as hee la t ob e f ound o n ly af ew m i l e s a w ay a tt h e c hu r ch o f S t N icho l a s a t S tud land ( F ig . 9 .9 ) . T he b u i ld ing e choe s t h e t r ipa r t i te p l an o f Wo r th Ma t rav e r s — t ow e r ,n av e a nd c hance l —e xcep ti nt h i s c a se t h et ow e ri sa n a x i a l o ne , p o s i t ioned b e tween n av e a nd c hance l . T h e s ou th p o rch d a te s t ot h en ine teen th c en tu ry . T he c o rbe l tab le h e r e i sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h e R omane sque s upe r s t ruc tu re o ft h e b u i ld ing wh ich d a te s t ob e tween 125 a nd 140 ( Lundg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 1 3 ) . T he S tud land c a rv ing i sa n u nu sua l e x amp l e o f t h e s hee l a mo t if . T he f i gu re h a s n o b ody , t h e h ead , t i l ted t oo ne s i de , a ppea r ing a tt h e t op o ft h e l e g s —l i ke ag r ylu s . B e tw een t h e l e g s i ss cu lp ted a n e no rmou s b u lg ing v u lv a u pon wh i ch t h e f i gu re r e s t s h e r l e f t h and , p a s sed b enea th t h e t h igh o f h e r l e f t l e g . T he r e i sn o r i gh t a rm b u t r a the r ac u r iou s s p iny w ing l ike p ro jec t ion i n s t ead . A l though moder n s cho la r s a ccep t t h e i mage a s as hee la , P h i l l ip J ohn s ton , w r i t ing i n 1 918 , s ugge s ted t h a t t h e c arv ing r ep re sen ted ' t he c on tor t ion s o f a" t umb l e r" , who se h ead , w i th p ro t ruded t ongue ,i st w i s ted b e tween h i sl e g s ' ( J ohn s ton , 1 9 18 : 5 3 ) .

F igure 9 . 8T he s hee la -na -g ig a t Wor th Ma traver s .

S hee la -na -g ig s i nR o manesque C orbe l -Tab les E ng l i sh R omane sque c o rbe l tab l e s n o t o n ly p rov ide n ume rou s e xamp le s o f s hee l a -na -g ig s b u t p rov ide r e l i ab le d a t ing e v idence . I n t h e s ou th a nd w e s t o ft h e c oun t ry t h e re a r e f i ve R om ane sque e xamp l e s o ft h e i mag e a tf i ve s e pa r a te l o ca t ion s : Wor th Ma t rav e r s a nd S tud l and ( Do r se t ) , S t J ohn ' s , Dev ize s ( W i l t sh i re ) , E xe te r C a thed r a l ( Devon ) a nd t wo a tS toke -sub -Hamdon ( S ome r se t ) , o ne o f wh i ch i so f R om ane sque d a te ,t h eo the r ,f i f teen th -cen tu ry .

A t S tJ ohn , Dev ize s , t h e c o rbe l tab le o f s i x c o rbe l s ( one b ay ) o n t h e e x t e r io r n or th s i de o ft h e c hance l d a t e s t o t h e l a t t e r h a lf o f t h e t w e lf th c en tu ry , c on tempo r a ry w i th t h e b u i ld ing o f t h e c hance l i t se l f . O r ig ina l ly t h i s c o rbe l t ab l e p robab ly e x tended a c ro s s t h e a d jo in ing b ay a nd e a s t f a ce o f t h e n or th t r an sep t , n ow r emodeled b y t h e a dd i t ion o f a med i ev a ln or th c hape l .

1 T h i s f i gure n ow n ol o ng e re x i s t s , h av ing b een d e s t royed i n Novembe r2 004 .

13

S ec t ion II : F igure s u n iden t if i ab le q uadruped , a nd t h e s hee l a h e r se lf , r e p re sen ted i n c ha rac te r i s t ic f a sh ion w i th o v a l o v e r s ized

T he s equence i sa n i n te r e s t ing o ne f o r t h e c onnec t ion s i t a r t icu l a te s b e tw een d evou r ing , t h e mou th , a nd s e xua l i t y . T he f i r s tc o rbe li nt h e s equence , f u r the s te a s t ,i sc a rved w i th as qua t t ing mou th -pule r f i gu r e w i th a n e x tended t ongue a nd e no rmou s ly o v e r s i zed h ead . B e tween t h i s c a rv ing a nd t h e p a i red b ea s t h ead s w i th g r inn ing , t oo th -f i l led mou th s a ppea r s t h e c o rbe l c a rv ed w i th t h e s hee la -na -g ig a nd t h e m a le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re ( F ig . 9 .5 b ) . T he s hee l a a ppea r s i n t h e s qua t t ing p o s i t ion s im i la r t o t h e i mage a t Wor th Ma t rav e r s a nd s imi l a r ly p ropor t ioned ( t he m a le f i gu re h a s a l ready b een d e sc r ibed ) . T he f our th c o rbe lf r om t h e e a s ti sa f ema l e e xh ib i t ion i s t a nd b ea s t -head p a i r , t h e f i gu r e s j o ined t og e the rb y al e ng th o fr ope f r om mou th t o mou th ;t h en ex t c o rbe li sc arv ed w i th ab ea s th ead w i th aw ide o pen mou th

h ead , s qua t t ing p o s tu r e a nd a rm s t h a t r e ach d ownw a rd b eh ind h e r l e g s t o r e s t t h e h and s u pon t h e b u t tock s . T he i mag e i ss im i la r t ot ho se a l ready m en t ioned a t Dev i ze s a nd Wo r th Ma t rav e r s .

The B in s tead S hee la -na -g ig Wh i l s t t h e g ene r a l c onfo rm i ty i n t r ea tmen t o f t h e s hee l a mo t if i n t h e se R omane sque c o rbe l t a b l e s i sn o tewor thy , t h e re i so ne p a r t i cu l a r ly u nu sua l e xamp le t ob e f ound i nt h e a r ea , a tB in s tead o n t h e I s le o fW igh t . C arv ed o n ak ey s tone s e tw i th in a n a r ch t h a t n ow f o rm s a n e n t rance g a te i n to t h e c hu rchya rd f r om t h e s ou th -ea s t t h e f i gu re k nee l s w i th h e r s p ind ly l e g s a pa r t u pon t h e h ead o f a n a n ima l , h e r a rm s c om ing d own t ow a rd s h e r g en i ta l s . T he a n im a l h ead r e semb le s t h a t o f ab ea r a nd a ppea r s t o b e mu zz l ed . T he f o repaw s r e s to ne a ch s i de o ft h e s nou t ( F ig . 9 .1 2 ) .

a nd s mal h and s t h a t g r ip t h e l ow e r j aw . T he f i na l i m ag e i n t h e s e r ie s i st h a t o f a n emb r ac ing c oup le i n t h e e no rmou s o pen j aw s o f ab ea s t h ead . Wh i le t h e t h eme s t h i s s e r i e s h i gh l igh t s w i l l b e d i scu s sed i n g r ea te r d e ta i l b e low i ti s p o s s ib l e t h a t s uch a n u nu sua l s e t o f i mag e s w i th f ew r epe t i t iv e e l emen t s ( wh i ch e v en when s i x o r s o c o rbe l s c on s t i tu te a c o rbe l tab l e i s c ommon — s e e f o r e x amp l e S toke sub -Hamdon ) i so fs ome s t a tu s , wh i ch w ou ld f i tw i th t h e d i s t ingu i shed s e t t ing o f t h e c hu r ch w i th in t h e o u te r b a i ley w al so ft h ec a s t le . A t E xe te r C a thed r a l t h e c o rbe l c a rv ed w i th as hee la -na -g ig o ccu r so nt h en or th s i de o ft h e s ou th t owe ra nd d a te s t ot h e t h i rd q uar te ro ft h et w e lf th c en tu ry . T he f i gu re i sc a rv ed i na h unched o r c rouch ing p o s i t ion w i th r emnan t s o f s p ind ly l e g s , ap a i r o f l ong a rm s a nd aw ide , f l a t o v e r s ized h ead . C o rbe l tab le s , c a rv ed i n S a lcombe R eg i s o rang e -yelow s and s tone , c rown t h e t op s o fb o th R omane sque t r an sep ta l t owe r s a t E xe te r b u t a r e d i ff i cu l t t o o b serv e w i th c l a r i t y f r om t h e g round d ue t o t h e i r g r ea t h e igh t ( a pp rox . 1 20f t ) . H ence t h e c a s t s m ade o f m any o f t h e c o rbe l s f r om t h e s ou th t owe r d u r ing r epa i r w o rk b e tween 1 984 a nd 1 990 p rov ide a ne xcel en tr e sou rce , a low ing ar a re o ppor tun i ty t o s t udy t h e s ub jec t s o ft h e c a rv ing s a tc l o se r ange ( F ig . 9 .1 0 ) . A n umbe r o f t h e se f i b r eg l a s s c a s t s a r e o n d i sp lay i n t h e R oya l A lbe r t Memo r i a l Mu seum i n E xe te r , i n c lud ing t h e s hee l a -na -g ig ( no . NB 1 099 , a c ce s s ion ed a s4 1/1990 .14 ) a nd p re sen t ad iv e r se , i f b ad ly w ea the r ed , r ang e o f i mag e s c on s i s t en t w i th h i gh s t a tu s s i t e s i nt h e r e g ion , f o r e xamp l e t ho se a tD ev ize s a nd R om sey . T he se i n c lude a v a r ie t y o f b ea s t h ead s , ad oub l e h ead c a rv ed n eck t on eck a nd am a le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re . C a thed r a l a r chaeo log i s t a nd i n s t ig a to r o ft h ec a s t s ,J ohn A lan , s ugg e s t s t h a t as e cond s h ee l ac o rbe l m ay w el e x i s to nt h e s ame t owe r .2

Wr i te r s s i nce t h e n ine teen th c en tu ry h av e b een u n su r e whe the r t h e p re sen t p o s i t ion o f t he i mag e a bov e t h e r e loca ted n o r th d oo r r e p re sen t s i t s o r ig ina l o ne ( e .g . G r een , 1 969 : 1 3 ; E ng lef i e ld , 1 816 : 9 5 ) . Eng le f i e ld ' s a c coun t i s v a luab le b ecau se i td ocumen t s t h e c hu r ch b ef o re t h e m a jo r o v e rhau l i n 1 844 , a nd s how s t h a t b efo re t h e a r chw ay w a s r emov ed f r om t h e f a b r ic o f t h e b u i ld ing t h e i mag e w a s a bov e i t s a pex . F igu re s , a l though r a re ly o f s uch as i ze , c an b e f ound a t t h e a pex o f a r che s i n o the r R om ane squ e e cc le s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s , f o r e xamp le i n t h e n av e a t W imbo rne M in s te r ( Do r se t ) . E ng lef ie ld s t a te s , h owev e r , t h a ti t' d oe s n o ta ppea r t oh av e b een o r ig ina l ly i ni t s p re sen t p o s i t ion ' ( 1 8 16 : 9 5 ) . J ohn A lb in ' s h i s tor y o f t h e I s le o f W igh t p ubl i shed i n 1 795 d i f f e r s h e re . H e d e sc r ibe s t h e i mag e a s ' av e ry r ude b u t a nc ien t p i ece o f s cu lp tu re , o v e r t h e k ey s tone o f t h e n o r th d oor . . .p robab ly o ne o f t ho se u ncou th f i gu re s , wh i ch t h e S axon a nd No rman a r ch i tec t s w e re i n ah ab i t o fp l ac ing o n k ey s tone s a nd f r i eze s ' b efo r e r e l a t ing t h e f olow ing :

T he f i na l e xamp l e i st h e s hee l a i nt h e R omane sque c o rbe l t a b l e a tS toke sub -Hamdon i n S ome r se t ( A shdown , 1 993 ) ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) . H e re t h e c a rv ing a ppea r s w i th in a s e r i e s o f s ev en c a rv ed c o rbe l s b enea th t h ee av e s o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l , f ou r o f wh i ch a r e c a rv ed w i th g eome t r i c o r a r ch i tec tu ra l mo t if s , t h e o the r t h ree w i th h uman o r a n ima l f i gu r e s . T he se i n c lude t h e d em i -f igu re o f ah uman h o ld ing t wo c one shaped i t em s , t h e p o in ted e nd s o f wh i ch r e s t a g a in s te i the rs i de o ft h e c h in ; ah i gh ly e r oded a nd t h e r efo re

2

P e r s . c omm . ,

4 t h

A l though s ome w r i te r s h ave s ugge s t ed a l te rna t iv e i n te rp re ta t ion s o f t h e f i gu re , f o r e xamp le P ev sne r a nd L loyd ' s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e p a i ra s' ab ea s t ' s h ead a nd as ma l l k nee l ing m an ' ( 1 967 : 7 33 ) , t h e i mag e i sc l ea r ly a n e xh ib i t ing f ema l e . H eav i ly w ea the red , t h e a n ima l h ead i ss ugg e s t ive o f R om ane sque wo rk , s im i la r e xamp le s o f wh i ch may b e f ound a tS tud l and . T h i s wou ld i mp ly as im i l a r d a te f o r t h e i mag e a bov e ( i n c on t r a s t G reen [ 1 969 : 1 3 ] s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e c a rv ing i s o f l a t e r m ed ieva l d a te ) . S ome a u tho r s h av e s ugge s ted t h e p re sence o f ab ea rd ( e .g . W in te r a nd W in te r , 1 987 : 2 0 ) . S uch a n i n te rp r e ta t ion i sl i ke ly t o d e r ive f r om P e rcy Godda rd S tone ' s l a te n ine teen th c en tu r y i l u s t r a t ion wh i ch d oe s i ndeed s how t h e h ead o f t h e f i gu re a sb ea rded ( 1 89 1 : P l a te V I ) . T h i s , h owev e r , i sc l ea r ly ' a n u n ju s t if i ab l e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e l ow e r p a r t o ft h e v e ry w ea the r ed f a ce ' ( Hu tch in son a nd Hu tch in son , 1 969 : 2 39 ) .

F eb rua ry 2 005 .

14

E n ter ta iner sa nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s

F igure 9 . 9 C orbe l c arved w i th a s hee la -na -g ig e x ter ior o ft he n or th s i de o ft he n ave a tS tud land .

o n

t he

F igure 9 . 1 S hee la -na -g ig w i th in t he R omane sque c orbe l tab le o n t he n or th s i de o f t he c hance l a t S toke suh -Hamdon .

F igure 9 .1 0 C as to ft he E xe ter C a thedra l s hee la f r om t he s ou th t ower , i nt he R oya l A lber t Memor ia l Museum i nE xe ter .

15

S ec t ion I II : F igures

F igure 9 .1 2 T he s hee la -na -g ig a tB ins tead . T he f i gure s i t s u pon ab eas th ead r em in i scen to ft hose f ound o n c orbe l tab le s i nt he r eg ion .

F igure 9 .1 3 S hee la -na -g ig w i th s t af fc arved o n as t one s e t i n to t he w e s tw a l l o ft he n or th t r ansep ta t R omsey Abbey .

E n ter ta ine r sa nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s T he f i gu re s a t O ak sey a nd S t an ton S t Qu in t in , l i ke t h e R om sey s hee l a , a r e a l so c arv ed u pon s t one s t h a t a ppea r t o b e s e t a t r andom i n to t h e f a b r i c o f t h e i r r e spec t iv e b u i ld ing s . A t Oak sey , t h e c arv ing i ss e t i n to t h e e x te r io r o f t h en or th n av ew a l le a s to ft h en o r th p o rch ; wh i le t h i s i sn o t i t s o r ig ina l p o s i t ion i t' i s s a id t o h av e b een r emov ed f r om t he n o r th s i de a tt h e r e s to r a t ion ' a nd s o c an b e a s sumed t o h ave b een n or th f a c ing , much l i ke t h e c a rv ing a tB in s tead ( Godda rd , 1 906 : 1 56 ; B u t t , 1 906 ) . T he f i gu re s t and s w i th h e r l e g s a pa r t d i sp lay ing a n e no rmou s , a lmo s t a nk le leng th v u lv a , t he s i de s o f wh ich s he g r a sp s w i th l ong f i ng e r s t h readed b eh ind h e r t h igh s ( F ig 9 . 1 4 ) . P endu lou s b rea s t s a ppea r o n e ach s i de o f h e r c he s t a s i fh ang ing f r om h e r a rmp i t s ( Mu r ray a nd P a s smo re , 1 923 ; Dob son , 1 931 :3 ) . T he c a rv ing a tS t an ton S t Qu in t in i sl e s s e a sy t o v i ew , l o ca ted h i gh u p o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e t owe r . Ab sen t f r om t h e l i t e ra tu re u n t i l r e cen t ly ( J o rdan , 2 000 : 4 8 ) t h e f i gu re w i th o v e r ly l a rge h ead s t and s u pon at i ny p a i r o fl e g s , h e r h and s r e s t ing o n e ach s i de o f t h e g en i ta l s . Two l ong o b jec t s a ppea rt ob eh e ld i ne ach h and a nd a ng l eo u twa rd s f r om t h e b ody a ta bou t f o r ty -f iv e d eg ree s . Smal i n c i sed c i rc l e s a r e u sed t o i nd ica te b r ea s t s a nd n ume rou s h o l e s h av e b een d r i l led i n to t h e b ody o f t h e f i gu re — t wo o n t h e s t om ach , a nd o ne b enea th t h ev u lv a .

A r epor t i sr e la ted t h a t t h i s f i gu re w a s r emov ed s ome y ea r s a go , when t h e c hu rch w a s u nde rgo ing s ome r epa i r s ;b u t t h a ti tw a s r e s to r ed t oi t s a nc i en t s i tu a t ion o n i t s b e ing p roduc t iv e o fd i sp lea su r e t o t h ei nhab i t an t s ( 1 795 : 5 2 1-522 ) I t s e em s r e a sonab l e t o c onc lude , a s Hu tch in son a nd Hu t ch in son h av e d one , t h a t ' t he re s e em s t o b e n o i ndependen t e v idence t h a t i tw a s o r ig ina l ly n o t o v e r t h e n or th d oo r ' ( 1 969 : 2 37 ) . Hum an f i gu re s s e a ted u pon a n im a l s o ccu r i n a r ch i t ec tu r a l c on tex t s t h roughou t m ed i ev a l a r t a nd c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th d e rog a tory c onno t a t ion s — r i d ing b ackw a rd s , f o r e xamp l e , w a s ah um i l i a t ing p un i shmen t f o r s e xua l o f f ence s ( Me l inkof f , 1 973 ;s e ea l so J one s , 1 991 ) .T he B in s te ad s hee la , s e a ted u pon t h eh ead o fa n a n ima l , may h av ea r t icu la t ed t h e i d ea t h a t w omen a nd a n ima l s w e re c l o se ly c onnec ted a nd s im i la r ly i r ra t iona l , d r iven b y i n s t inc tua l a ppe t i te s r a the r t h an r e a son ,a se xp lo red i nc hap te r7 .

S hee la -na -g ig so n Quo in S tones a nd o the rI nse tS tones A l though t h i s r e g ion h a s s ev e r a l s hee l a -na -g ig s i n R omane sque c o rbe l tab le s , b y f a r t h e mo s t c ommon med ium f o r t h e i m ag e , b o th i nE ng l and a nd p a r t icu l a r ly i n I r e l and ,i su pon i nd iv idua l ly c a rv ed s t one s s e ti n to t h e f a b r i c o f ab u i ld ing . F ou r s u ch e xamp l e s e x i s t i n t h e a r ea , a t R om sey Abbey , S t an ton S t Qu in t in a nd O ak sey i n W i l t sh i re ,a nd a tF idd ing ton i nS ome r se t . T he R om sey s hee l a i sc a rved u pon a s t one s e t i n to t h e e x te r io r o f t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e n or th t r an sep t a nd h a s a d i sp ropor t iona te ly o v e r s ized h ead , w ide , s qua t b ody , s hor t , s p read l e g s a nd a ngu l a r a rm s ( F ig 9 . 1 3 ) . H e r l e f t h and r e ache s t ow a rd s h e rg en i ta l s a nd i nh e rr i gh th and s he h o ld s ac r oz i e r l ik e s t af f , a n u nu sua l f e a tu r e wh i ch h a s a t t r ac ted c omm en t ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , Mu r ray , 1 934 : 9 8 ; Ande r sen , 1 977 : 1 28 -129 ) . McMahon a nd R ober t s s ugg e s t t h a t t h e f i gu re i sa l so h o ld ing a ' smal u n iden t if i ab l e o b jec t ' i n h e r l e f t h and ( 2 00 1 : 1 64 ) . B e tw een t h e l e g s t h e re i s ac u r iou s c u rv ed o b jec tt h a th a s g i v en r i se t o at e nuou s i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e f i gu re a s S t C ec i l ia , s t and ing a bov e h e r mu t i l a ted b rea s t s ( Godw in , 1 969 : 2 22 ) . S t y l i s t i ca l ly t h e i m ag e s ugge s t s p a ral e l s w i th s ome o f t h e t w e l f th -c en tu ry f i gu r a t ive c o rbe l s o n t h e Abbey , i n p a r t i cu la r , t h e s hape o fa nd t h e empha s i s g i v en t ot h e h ead wh i ch i nd i ca te s a l i k e ly t we lf th -cen tu ry d a te f o r t h i s s cu lp tu r e . T he i m ag e f o rm s p a r t o f t h e w al t h a t w a s i n co rpo r a ted i n to t h e p a r i sh c hu rch i nt h e f i f t een th c en tu ry ( t he p a l imp se s t o fw indow s b enea th t h e i mag e , a s w el a s t h e t wo b ay s i mmed i a te ly e a s t o ft h e n o r th p o rch , a t te s t t o t h e a dd i t ion a nd l a te r r emov a l o fa n a i s le , wh i ch , t og e the r w i th t h e p r e -ex i s t ing n or th a i s le o ft h e Abbey a nd i t s n o r th t r an sep t f o rmed t h e l a te med iev a l p a r i sh c hu r ch o f S t L aw r ence ) . A cco rd ing t o Ande r sen t h e s hee la w ou ld h av e b een t u cked a way i nt h e a t t i c o ft h e n ew ly c r ea ted a i s le a nd t hu so u to fv i ew f r om t ho se i nt h ec hu rch ( 1 977 : 1 29 ) .

F igure 9 .1 4 T he s hee la -na -g ig a tO ak sey , c arved o n as t one s e t i n to t he n or th w a l l o n t he e as ts i de o ft he p orch .

17

S ec t ion II : F igure s t h e n av e a t Ame sbu r y . A l though t h i s i s ab road t r end i t d oe s p rov ide ar ough c on tex t i n wh ich t op l ace t h e S hee l a a nd i sf u r the rw e igh t b eh ind ap ropo sed l a te rm ed iev a l d a te f o rt h e f i gu re . H e re i ti sa ppo s i t e t or e tu rn t oc on s ide rt h e m ed i ev a li m ag e o f t h e f oo l f i r s t d i scu s sed i nc hap te r 7 . One m an i f e s t a t ion o ft h e c hang e s e xpe r i enced b y t h e f i gu re o ft h e f oo l i nt h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry i st h e t e ndency t o a ppea r c l o thed . P r io r t o t h e m id -f ou r teen th c en tu ry f oo l b ehav iou r c ommon ly i nvo lv ed s t r ipp ing o ne se lf n aked , o rw ea r ing o n ly t h e v i su a l s i gn s o f o ff i ce s uch a s t h e t wo -ea red h ood o r p o in t ed P h r yg i an s ty le h a t w i th a t t ached b el s ( B i l l ing ton , 1 984 : 4 ; Me l inkof f , 1 993 : 8 9 ) . I n 1 306 , f o r e xamp l e , p aymen t i s r e co rded t o ' B e rna rd , t h e F oo l , a nd 5 4 o fh i s c ompan ion s c om ing n aked b efo re t h e K ing ,w i th d an c ing r ev e l ry ' a sp a r t o f t h e Wh i t sun t ide c e leb ra t ion s i n L ondon t h a t y ea r . B il ing ton n o te s t h a t t h i s g roup v i s i ted t w i ce a nd ' t he i r b ehav iou r w a s c l ea r ly n o t t hough t i ndecen t o r a bno rm a l ' ( 1 984 : 5 ) . I lu s t ra t ion s i n m anu sc r ip t s a t t e s t t o t h e f oo l a s c on s i s ten t ly n ak ed u p t oc 1350 a nd t h e reaf te r c l ad i nh ood , t un ic a nd h o se , a nd b y t h e e nd o ft h e c en tu ry t h e c l o thed a nd d eco ra t ed f oo l w a s t h e mo s t c o mmon ( i b id . 5 7 ) . E xagg e ra ted b ody p a r t s , i n p a r t i cu la r t h e s e xua l o rg an s , F igure 9 . 1 5 S hee la -na -g ig c arved o n a q uo ins tone a t F idd ing ton . I n t he t op l e f t c orner o f t he i mage o ne o f h er a n ima l e ar s i sc l ear ly v i s ib le .

h ave a l so b een i d en t if i ed a s a pp rop r ia te t o t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f f oo l s a nd t r i ck s te r f i gu r e s ( Koepp ing , 1 985 : 2 12 ) .

T he F idd ing ton s hee la i sa no the r u nu su a l e xamp l e a nd a c h rono log ica lp rob l em ( F ig . 9 .1 5 ) . T he c hu r ch o fS t Ma r t in u pon wh ich t h e f i gu re , c a rv ed i n l ow r e l i ef o n ar e d s and s tone q uo in s tone s e ti n to t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r o ft h e s ou th n av e a i s le ( t he i mag e f a c ing s ou th ) , w a s h eav i ly r e s to r ed i n 1 860 . T he V ic tor ian i n ten t ion w a s ar e s to ra t ion a moun t ing t o n ea r -comp l e te r ebu i ld , l e av ing a l b u t t h e f i f teen th -cen tu ry w e s t t owe r u n touched . S uch a p ro jec t , h ow ev e r , mu s t h ave b een a bandoned f o r m ed iev a l a nd J acobean m a te r ia l s u rv iv e s i nv a r iou s p l ace s —t h e c hance l a r ch i sf ou r teen th -cen tu ry , a nd t he r oof s p robab ly d a te t o t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry . I th a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h e s ou th w a l l s o f t h e n av e a nd c hance l c on t a in a n a r ea o f p o s s ib le h e r r ingbone m a son ry wh ich i so f ten a s soc i a ted w i th l a te S axon a nd e a r ly No rm an b u i ld ing wo rk ( A s ton , 1 978 -79 : 13 ) . Howeve r , p o s i t iv e i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h i s p a r t o f t h e w al a s a u then t ic med iev a l h e r r ingbone i s d i ff i cu l t ; i r regu la r ly l a id c ou r se s a r e c ommon h e re a nd i ndeed , o n c l o se i n spec t ion t h e ma son ry i nt h ew al a ppea r s t ob e mo r e ar andom c o inc idence o f a ng led s t one s t h an a n i n t ended p a t ter n .

T hu s t h e F idd ing ton i mage i s c on s i s ten t w i th r ep re sen ta t ion s o fm ed iev a l f oo l s u p u n t i l t h e m id - t ol a t e r f ou r teen th c en tu r y , wh ich m igh t c o r re spond w i th t h e d a te o ft h e s cu lp tu r e . I nt h i s s c ena r io ad a te s om ewhe r eb e tw een t h e l a s t t h i rd o f t h e t h i r t een th c en tu ry a nd t h e e nd o f t h e f ou r teen th i ss ugg e s ted f o rt h ec a rv ing o ft h e f i gu r e .

C lo se a na ly s i s o ft h e f i gu re r ev ea l s f u r the r p rob l em s w i th a R om ane sque d a te . Om i t ted f r om t h e d raw ing p ub l i shed b y A s ton a r e t h e l ong o v a l e a r s t h a t a ppea r o n e i the r s i de o f t h e f i gu re ' s h ead , t h e l e f t o ne r a i sed h i ghe r t h an t h e r i gh t . A s d i scu s sed i nc hap te r 7 ,t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic w ay a n ima le a r s w e r e c a rv ed o n b o th h uman a nd a n ima l f i gu re s i n R omane sque c a rv ing s w a s a s s ho r t p o in ted t r i ang l e s , l i ke c a t ' s e a r s . I n l a te r med iev a l wo rk a r ch i tec tu ra l c a rv ing s f a vou red t h e mo re o v a l a s s ' s e a r s f am i l ia r t o f oo l s , s uch a s t ho se f ound o n t h e f ou r teen th -cen tu ry c o rbe l c a rv ing s i n

F ew s i t e s p o s se s s t wo s hee la -na -g ig c a rv ing s3 a nd f ewe r s t i l l p o s se s s t wo c a rv ing s o f d i f f e ren t d a te . S t ok e sub -Hamdon m ay w el b e u n ique i n t h a t i th a s aR omane sque c o rbe l s hee la o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l a nd a f i f teen th c en tu ry s hee l a c a rved a s ag a rgoy le o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e ( F ig . 9 . 1 6 ) . S hee l a s c a rv ed a s g a rgoy le s a r e u ncommon . T he f i gu re i sd amag ed , m i s s ing h e r r i gh t l e g a nd r i gh ta rm f r om t h e f o rea rm t ot h e s hou lde ra nd t h e

L a te r Med ieva lS hee la -na -g ig s a nd R e la ted F igu res Wh i l s t d ef in i te l a te med i ev a l c on tex t s a r e c ommon f o r t h e I r i sh s hee la s , m any o f wh i ch o ccu r o n t owe r h ou se s t h a t d a te t ot h e f i f teen th a nd s i x teen th c en tu r ie s , i nE ng l and t h e p e r spec t iv e d i f f e r s . Ih av e a l r eady m en t ioned t h e d i ff i cu l ty o fd a t ing t h e c a rv ing s o fs hee l a s t h a to ccu ro u t s ide ar e l i ab l e s cu lptu ra l c on tex t s uch a s aR om ane sque c o rbe l tab le , a nd h av e i l u s t ra ted t h i s t h rough e xp lo r ing s ome o f t h e p rob lem s e ncoun te r ed w i th a t temp t s t of i x ad a te u pon t h e F idd ing ton i m ag e . I n s ome c a se s , h owev e r , t h e re a r e E ng l i sh e xamp le s w i th in ar e l i ab le l a te m ed i ev a l c on t ex t , a s i st h ec a se w i th t h e s e cond s hee la a tS toke sub -Hamdon .

3

18

A no the re xamp le i sT ug fo rd i nS h rop sh i re ( Ande r sen , 1 977 : 1 44 ) .

E n ter ta iner sa nd E xh ib i t ion i s t s

F igure 9 .1 6 F ormer g argoy le c arved a s as hee la -na -g ig o n t he s ou th s i de o ft he n ave a tS toke sub -Hamdon

F igure 9 .1 7 T he c arv ing o n t he e as ts i de o ft he n or th t r ansep ta tS op ley . I ti sp os s ib le t ha tt h is f i gure w as f o rmer ly a n e xh ib i t ion is t .

19

S ec t ion II : F igure s

T h i s c a rv ing e xh ib i t s an umbe r o fp a ra l le l s w i th t h e f ema l e

g eome t r i c d e s ign s , s i ren s , h a rp ie s , a nd s mal f i gu r a t iv e s c ene s . R omane sque c o rbe l s a nd l a t e r m ed i ev a l g a rgoy l e s a nd a s soc i a ted c a rv ing s a r e v e r y much a p a r t o f s u ch a t r ad i t ion a nd a r e l i k e ly t o h av e b een p e rce iv ed t o h av e p o s se s sed a po t ropa ic p ow e r . B o th i m age s a r e r e l a ted i n o the r r e spec t s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e i r s ub jec t m a t te r , f o r b o th s hee la s a nd mou th -pu l l e r s e ngag e i nd r aw ing a t ten t ion t oo r p u ll ing a pa r ta no pen ing i n to o ro u to ft h eb ody .

f i gu re a t S op ley i n H amp sh i re ( F ig . 9 . 1 7 ) . C a rved o n a c o rbe l s e t i n to t h e n or th -ea s t c o rne r o ft h e n or th t r an sep t t he i mag e f a ce s t h e f oo tpa th t h a t r un s t o t h e n o r th d oo r . T he h ead , a ng led u p r igh t w h i le t h e b ody r e c l ine s , h a s l ong s t ra igh t h a i r t h a t b ecome s w av y a si tg e t s l ong e r a nd f l ow s d own t h e s i de s o ft h e b ody . T he r i gh t a rm i ss l i gh t ly b en t ,

T he l o ca t ion o fs hee la -na -g ig si nt h i sr e g ion i sq u i t e s pec if i c . On ly t wo o f t h e e l even e xamp l e s — t h e s hee l a -foo l a t F idd ing ton a nd t h e s hee la s i r en a t S tok e sub -Hamdon — o ccu ro nt h e s ou th s i de o ft h eb u i ld ing . Mo re t y p i ca ls hee l a s a ppea r o n t h e e x te r io r n o r th s i de o f t h e i r r e spec t iv e

mou th i so pen w ide a s i fs c ream ing , as t one n ow l odged i n s ide i ts ugge s t ing f o rme r u se a s aw a te r spou t . J o ined t o t h e s i de o ft h e c hu r ch a l ong o ne s i de o fh e r b ody ( v iewe r ' s r i gh t ) s he i sn ak ed a nd h a s l ong s t ra igh th a i r a nd p endu lou s b rea s t s . H e rl ef th and r e s t s u pon h e rb ody a tt h e t op o ft h e g en i t a l s ;h e rr i gh th and h o ld s t h es i de o ft h eh ead .

t h e h and r e s t ing o n t h e r i gh t t h igh j u s t a bov e t h e k nee , wh i l e t h el e f t a rm h a s b rok en o f fa bove t h e e l bow . T he re i s much d amag e t o t h e l owe r b ody b u t wha t s u rv iv e s o f t h e s t onewo rk s ugge s t s t h a t t h e l e f t l e g w a s b en t a tt h e k nee a nd a ng led a w ay f r om t h e r i gh t o ne wh ich w a s e x tended i n ar e l a t iv e ly s t r a igh t l i ne . T h i s w ou ld h av e s e rv ed t o e xpo se t he g en i ta la r ea . C on s ide r ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e f i gu re o n t h e o ppo s i te c o rne r ( t he ma l e e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re d e sc r ibed a bov e ) i ti sh i gh ly l i ke ly t h a t t h i s w a s af ema le e xh ib i t ion i s t c arv ing . T he re i sd amag e t o t he c he s t a r ea a s w el b u t a r ounded f e a tu re j u s ta bov e t h e b rok en l e f t a rm m ay s ugg e s t t h a t t h e f i gu re o r ig inaly h ad b rea s t s . T he f a ce i si n g ood c ond i t ion w i th w e l l -def ined e ye s , n o se , e yeb row s a nd c l o sed mou th . P ev sne r a nd L loyd d a te t h e f i gu re t o t h e m id f ou r teen th -cen tu ry a tt h e e a rl i e s t ( 1 967 : 5 09 ) a l though t h e i mage o ccu r s i n at h i r teen th -cen tu ry c on tex t ( t he t r an sep t i t se l f ) . T he t wo c arv ing s ( S tok e sub -Hamdon a nd S op ley ) a r e d i f f e ren t f r om t y p ica l s hee l a -na -g ig s d ue t o t h e p r e sence o f l ong s t ra igh t h a i r , wh ich , a s Ie xp lo red i n c hap te r 8i sa c ha r ac te r i s t ic f e a tu r e o f f i sh s i ren s o r me rma id s . B o th i mage s s ugg e s t t h a t i n s ome i n s tance s ap a r t ia l me rg ing o f t he s hee l a -na -g ig i m ag e w i th c ha rac te r i s t ic s d r awn f r om o the r mon s t rou s f ema l e f i gu re s o ccu r red i n l a te r med i ev a l a r ch i tec tu ra ls cu lptu r e .

b u i ld ing s : a tS t an ton S t Qu in t in o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e a x i a l t ow e r ; a tO ak sey o n t h e n or th s i de o ft h e n av e ; a nd a t R om sey o n t h e n o r th t r an sep t ( a l though s e t i n to t h e w e s t f a ce ) . T he R om ane sque c o rbe l s p re sen t a n e v en mo re a r t icu la te p a t t e rn i n t h a t f ou r e xamp le s a r e p l aced o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c hance l ( Dev ize s , Wor th Ma t rav e r s ,S tok e s ub -Hamdon ) , wh i l e t h e o ne a t S tud land a ppea r s o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e n av e . A l a r e l i ke ly t ob e i nt h e i r o r ig ina l s i tua t ion a nd a s s uch p rov ide c ompe l l ing e v idence f o r t h e a s soc i a t ion o ft h e s hee la -na -g ig i nt h i s r e g ion w i th t h en or th s i de o ft h ec hu rch . Wh i l s t med i eva l l o re a s soc i a ted t h e n or th er n p a r t o f t h e c hu rch w i th d a rkne s s a nd m a levo l ence d ue t o t h e c onnec t ion s w i th t h e O ld T e s tamen t , t h i s a r ea w a s a l so i d en t if i ed w i th women a nd f ema le r e l ig iou s i mage ry ( G i lch r i s t , 1 994b : 1 28 -149 ) . T he c l o se a s soc i a t ion i n t h i s r e g ion b e tw een t h e n or th s i de o f m ed iev a l c hu rche s a nd s hee l a -na -g ig s m igh t s ugg e s t t h a t t h e se c a rv ing s w e r e v i ewed a s e f f ec t ive a po t ropa i a a sw el a s a r t i cu l a t ing o the r a s soc i a t ion s c onnec t ed w i th f em a le i c onog raphy . T he c l a s s ica l t r ad i t ion o f u s ing mon s t rou s f em a le b e ing s a s a r ch i tec tu r a l a po t ropa i a s uch a s s i r en s a nd t h e Go rgon ' s m a sk , wh i ch a ppea r s t oh av e b een r e v iv ed o r c on t inued v i a R om ane sque a nd l a te r a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re , wou ld h av e p rov ided as u i t ab l e c on t ex t f o r t h e s hee la -na -g ig a nd m igh t g o s ome w ay t ow a rd s e xp la in ing t h e m e rg ing o f s i r en a nd s hee l a c ha r ac te r i s t ic s t h a t a r e t o b e f ound i nt h e c a rv ing a t S toke sub -Hamdon .

C onc lu s ion I ti sp a r t icu l a r ly s i gn if i can t t h a t , o f a l t h e i mag e s t o b e f ound t h roughou tm ed iev a la r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re ,o n ly t wo —t h e h ead b e tween f i gu re s a nd o the r mou th -pu l l e r t y pe c arv ing s ( d i scu s sed i n c hap te r 6 ) a nd t h e s hee la -na -g ig — a ppea r t o f olow a ny d i sce rn ib le p a t te rn s o f p l acemen t . De sp i t e t h e v a r i e ty o f p o t en t i a l l o ca t ion s i n wh ich t o s i t e c a rv ing s i ti sr a re t of i nd e i the r mou th -pul e r s o r s hee l a s o n a ny th ing o the r t h an c o rbe l s , i n se t s t one s o r g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t b o th i mage s w e re c on s ide red mo re s u i ted t o t h e l o ca t ion a f fo rded b y t h e se m ed ia a nd p l ayed al e s s s i gn if i can t p a r t i nt h e d eco ra t iv e r epe r to i re o f c ap i ta l s , m i se r i co rd s , r oof b o s se s a nd o the r c arv ed s t ruc tu ra le l emen t s . Ih ave p rev iou s ly s ugg e s ted ( c hap t e r 4 ) t h a t med iev a l r oof l ine i mag e ry — c o rbe l tab le s , c o rn ice s , f r i eze s , g a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e sque s — c l o se ly r e semb le s a po t ropa ic a r ch i tec tu ra l c a rv ing s o f t h e R oman p e r iod , i n p a r t icu la r t ho se a n tef ixa c a rv ed w i th t h eh ead o f Medu sa , 1 20

T o s umma r ize , t h e s hee l a -na -g ig s i nt h e s ou th a nd w e s t o f E ng l and a r e c l o se ly a s soc i a ted w i th e x te r io r l o ca t ion s , p a r t i cu la r ly c o rbe l s , i n se t s t one s a nd g a rgoy le s , ap a t t e rn s ha red b y i mage s t h a t b e long t o t h e mou th -pu l l e r p oo l o f i mage ry . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t b o th i mage t y pe s w e r e p e rce iv ed a s e f f ec t ive a po t ropa i c d ev ice s a nd l o ca ted a t a r ch i tec tu r a l " weak" s po t s s uch a s c or ne r s a nd t h e n o r th s i de o f b u i ld ing s . T he s hee r a po t ropa ic f o rce o f t h e i mag e ry m ay h ave b een e xagg e ra ted f u r the r i n t ho se c a rv ing s t h a t c onnec t s hee l a s a nd i ndeed , o the r e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s ,w i th a na n ima lo rb ea s t . Wh i l s ti ti sp o s s ib le t or e ad t h e se i mag e s a s ac ommen t u pon t h e a n imal i t y o f h uman s a nd t h e a t t endan t d ang e r s t oo ne ' s s ou l , i ti se qualy p o s s ib le t of i nd a l ter n a t ive m ean ing s i n wh i ch a n a n im a l p re sence w ou ld s e rv e t oe nhance t h e w i ldne s s o ft h e f i gu r e a nd i ns o d o ing i n c rea se i t s p owe r a nd t h e reby i t s e f f ec t iv ene s s a s a n a po t ropa ic i mag e .

C onc lu s ion

w i th in t h e a r ch i tec tu r e o f e cc le s i a s t i ca l b u i ld ing s , b o th t o i d en t if y t h a t s pace a s b e tw een h uman a nd d i v ine a nd t o s ymbol i ca l ly p ro tec ti tf r om t h e mo re ma l evo len ta spec t s o f t h i s o therwo r ld ly e ne rg y .

T h i s b ook r ep re sen t s amov e t owa rd s a n u nde r s tand ing o f med iev a l a r ch i tec tu r a li m age ry a sp a r t o f ar i ch t r ad i t ion o f c arv ing e n t i r e ly s u i ted t os i t e so fs p i r i tua la c t iv i ty . Aw a r ene s s o fc on tex t i sc ruc i a l i n s uch a n e ndeavou r . T o t h i s e nd , c hap te r s 1 3 t a ck led d i f f e ren t c on tex t re l a ted i s sue s . I n c hap te r 1Id emon s t r a ted t h a t t h e i mag e s f ound t h roughou t med iev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lp tu re f r om t h e e l ev en th t o t h e s i x teen th c en tu r i e s a nd t y p ica l ly c a rv ed o n r oof b o s se s , c orbe l s , a s f r ieze s , g a rgoy l e s o r g ro te sque s a s w el a s u pon i n te r io r w oodwo rk s uch a s m i se r i co rd s a nd b ench e nd s h av e l ong b een i n te rp re ted a sp u re ly d idac t ic i n t h e i r i n ten t a nd c op ied f r om i mag e s i n t e x t s . U n l ike w al p a in t ing s o r f i gu re s o f s a in t s , h ow ev e r , t h e se i m ag e s a r e c on s i s ten t ly d i ff i cu l t t o s e e a nd a ppea r t o f o l low n o p a r t icu la rp rog ramme ,c ha rac te r i s t ic s t h a tr u le o u t ad idac t i c i mpe r a t iv e a s t h e i r m a in p u rpo se . Mo reov e r , t h e d a ta s ugge s t s t h a tw e mu s td i s reg a rd t h ei d ea o fm ed iev a lc a rv e r s me t icu lou s ly c opy ing d e s ign s f r om o the r m ed i a t o a r ch i tec tu ra lc on tex t s . T he re i sc on s ide r ab l e i nnov a t ion a nd v a r i a t ion n o t o n ly b e tween s i te s b u t b e tw een i nd iv idua l c a rv ing s a t ag i v en s i te , a st h e R om ane sque c o rbe l tab le s a t W inche s te r C a thed ra l a nd R om sey Abbey r ev ea l s o c l ea r ly . On t ho se f ew o cca s ion s when d i rec t c opy ing f r om a no the r s ou rce c an b e a s ce r ta ined , f o r e xamp le among t h e r oof b o s se s i n t h e c hance l o f S t B a rnaba s , Queen C ame l ( S ome r se t ) wh ich a r e l i ke ly t o h av e b een i n sp i r ed b y a b e s t ia ry , t he i mage s s t and o u t , n o t o n ly i nt h e i ri n c lu s ion o f u nu sua l a nd p e rhap s mo re e rud i te s ub jec t s s uch a s t h e P e r id ix ion T ree b u t i n t h e r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e f i gu re s wh ich a ppea r s o u t o f s t ep w i th c on tempo ra r y c a rv ing s e l sewhe re . T hu s t h e s i ren a t Queen C ame l ( F ig . 8 . 1a ) i s r ep re sen t ed w i th h ug e f e a the red w ing s a s w el a s at a i l , a manne r o f r ep re sen ta t ion t h a t , i n t h i s c oun t r y , i sr a re i n a r ch i tec tu ra l wo rk b u t n o t i n b e s t i a ry m anu sc r ip t s . T h i s e xamp le a l so i l u s t r a te s t h e d ange r o fa pp roach ing med i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l i mage s v i a t e x t s , f o r o n ly i n af ew c a se s c an t e x tua l i nf luence b e d e te rm ined . A rch i tec tu r a l c a rv ing d ev e loped a l ong d i f f e ren t t r a jec tor i e s t o m anu sc r ip t i l um ina t ion s a nd c anno tb ec on s ide red s e conda ry t ot h em . I n c hap te r 2 Is ugg e s ted t h a t w e mu s t c on s ide r t h e g ro te sque a s e ncap su l a t ing a s e t o f i d ea s p er t inen t t o o u r u nde r s tand ing o fm ed i ev a la r ch i tec tu r a li mag e r y .A s av i su a l e xp re s s ion o f t h e l im ina l t h e g ro te sque r ep re sen t s t h e u nknown a nd u nknow ab le — i ti s av i su a l iza t ion o f t h ing s b eyond h uman s t ruc tu re s o fu nde r s tand ing . L oca t ing t h e se i d ea s w i th in m ed i ev a l c u l tu re i t i s p o s s ib l e t o f i nd c o r re spondence s — mon s t ro s i ty a nd o b scen i ty a s " da rk" a spec t s o ft h e s a c red ; t h e s a c red a sd i smembe rmen t o ft h e f am i l i a r . B y c oncen t ra t ing u pon a r ang e o f c a rv ing s f r om e cc le s ia st i ca lb u i ld ing s i nf ou rc oun t ie s ( Do r se t , H amp sh i re , S ome r se t a nd Wi l t sh i re ) Iw a s a b l e t o s ub s t an t ia te t h e i d ea , f i r s t d ev e loped h e r e , t h a t m ed i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu ra l s cu lptu r e w a s p ar t o f at r ad i t ion o f c arv ing n ece s sa r i ly embedded

C hap te r 3 c on t inued t h i s e xp lo ra t ion o f c on tex t b y i nv e s t ig a t ing t h e s oc ia l a nd r i tua lu se s o f med iev a l c hu rche s a s w el a s t h e i r c on s t ruc t ion a nd p a t ronag e . My r e sea rch s ugge s ted t h a t t h e m ed iev a l a t t i tude t ow a rd r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s h e ld l i t t l e d i s t inc t ion b e tw een s a c r ed a nd p rof ane , r ev ea l ing t h e c hu rch s t and ing a tt h e c en t r e o f av a r ie ty o f s oc ia l e v en t s . T he i m ag e ry t y p ica l ly f ound a mong a r ch i tec tu r a l s cu lp tu re m i r ro r s as im i la r f l u id i ty o fo u t look , o f ten i n te rm ingl ing s e cu l a r a nd s a t i r ica l i mag e s w i th mon s te r s a nd d i s to r ted f i gu re s , a sc an b e f ound a mong t h e m i se r io rd s a tW inche s te r C a thed ra l o r t h e r oof b o s se s a t B i shop ' s C ann ing s ( W i l t sh i re ) . I n t he f o l low ing t wo s e c t ion s ( c hap te r s 4 -9 ) It u rned t o e xp lo re d i f f e ren t f e a tu r e s o f a r ch i tec tu ra l i mag e ry , l oo se ly g rouped u nde r h ead s ( c hap te r s 4 -6 ) a nd f i gu r e s ( c hap te r s 7 9 ) . T he mo s t n o tab l e c onc lu s ion d r awn f r om t h e se e xp lo ra t ion s w a s t h a t t h e i mage ry d i sp lay s ar ang e o f p o t en t i a l m ean ing s . G reen Men , f o r e xamp l e , m igh t f o reg round t h e p hy s i ca l i ty o f d ea th , a c cen t t h e p rom i se o f r e su r rec t ion , o r h e ra ld t h e o the rne s s o f t h e s upe rna tu ra l . T h i s i s e n t i r e ly c on s i s ten t w i th l i t n ina l s t a tu s . My i d en t if i ca t ion o f b road s ub jec t g roup s — f o r e xamp le d i sgo rg ing h ead s , s i ren s , e xh ib i t ion i s t s —o n t h e b a s i s o f s ha red f o rma l c ha rac t e r i st i c s , w a s r epea ted ly d i srup ted f o r many i mag e s b e long ed t o t wo , o r e v en t h ree , g roup s a t o nce . T hu s s i ren s m igh t a ppea r a s p a r t i a l ly f o l i a te o r a s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e ; e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re s m igh t b e a n im a l h uman h yb r id s ; mou th -puf f ing h uman h ead s o f ten f e a tu r ed a n ima l e a r s o r h o rn s , a nd wha t a ppea r ed a tf i r s t g l ance a sa G reen Man o f ten , w i th c l o se r i n spec t ion , r evea led i t se l ft o b e aG reen An im a l . L ion s , s e rpen t s a nd t h e i r d e r iv a t iv e s ( d ragon s , g r iff in s e t c ) w e re p a r t icu l a r ly a mb iguou s a nd a ppea r ed i nm any d i f f e r en tg u i se s a nd c on tex t s , a sc hap te r s 5 ,6 , 7a nd 8 h av e i l u s t r a ted . I n s ho r t , t h e i m ag e s r ema in u nc la s s if i ab l e . F o r t h e se r e a son s i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t oc olec t d a t a i na ny r egu l a ted m anne r ( Ih ad b egun w i th p ro f o rm a s hee t s b u t t he se q u i ck ly p rov ed t oo r i g id t ob e o fa ny u se ) ; e ach s i t e p re sen ted n ew c a rv ing s a nd n ew p rob l em s o f c l a s s if i ca t ion . I nc r ea s ing f am i l i a r i ty w i th t h e amb iguou s a nd p a radox ica l wo r ld o f t h e g ro te sque l e d me t o e xpec t s uch p rob lem s , h ow ev e r , a nd wha t If e l t a t f i r s t a s af a i lu re t o a r rang e t h e i m ag e ry i n to a ny w a te r t igh t g roup s b ecame t h e mo s tc onv inc ing a r gumen tf o ri t sp e rmeab i l i ty . T h i s h a s i mpor t an t r am if i ca t ion s . Med i ev a l a r ch i t ec tu r a l s cu lp tu re i sn o t ar i g id ly d ef ined v i sua l a r ena a nd m any i mag e s a r ei n as t a t e o ff l ux t h roughou tt h e p er iod . I n s o me c a se s t h i s m ay b e d ue t o t h e v a s t v i sua l a nd f o lk lo r ic i nhe r i t ance o f ac er ta in mo t if —med iev a lr ep r e sen t a t ion s o f

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C onc lus ion t h e me rma id , f o r e xamp le , i n co rpo ra ted e l emen t s f r om

c a rv ing ; c e r ta in ly , t h e i mag e mu s t h av e b een f a vou r ab l y v i ew ed i n t h e r eg ion t o h av e b een c a rved s o f r equen t ly . F u tu re w o rk m igh t e xp lo re s uch a spec t s i n mo re d e ta i l , f o r e xamp le b y f o cu s s ing more c l o se ly u pon s im i la r l o ca l ized i mag eg roup s .

p ag an g odde s se s s uch a s A ph rod i te a nd V enu s , o the r s upe rna tu r a l c ha r ac te r s s u ch a st h e b an shee , a nd f i gu re s o f C h r i s t i an s i n s u ch a s t h e G rea t Who re o f B aby lon a nd L uxu r i a . S uch a p oo l o f i mager y a low ed n ume rou s a t t r ibu t e s t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f i gu re : f ol i ag e , l i on s , d o lph in s , f i sh , c omb a nd m i r ro r a mong t h e mo s t o bv iou s . T h i s d i v e r s i ty a ppea r s t o t h r ive a mong s t a r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lptu re . I n as im i la r m anne r w e mu s t b e w a ry o f a s soc i a t ing p a r t i cu l a r i m ag e s w i th p a r t icu l a r a r ch i tec tu ra l l o ca t ion s . Wh i l s t i ti sp o s s ib le t o n o te t h e g ene r a l t r end s o fd i f f e r en t med i a i nd i f f e ren t p e r iod s i nt h e s t udy r e g ion , f o r e xamp l e , t h e a b sence o fG r een Man i mage s o n R omane sque c o rbe l t a b l e s , o r t h e b i a s t ow a rd c ompo s i te l e on ine c r ea tu re s d i sp layed b y l a t e m ed iev a l g a rgoy l e s , n o i mag e s ( med ium a s ide ) a ppea r t ob e s t rong ly i d en t if i ed w i th ap a r t i cu l a r p a r t o f med i ev a l r e l ig iou s b u i ld ing s . P rog ramme s o f i mag e ry — s hou ld t h ey h av ee x i s t ed i nt h e f i r s tp l ace —a r ev e r yd i ff i cu l t t o a s cer t a in ; n o t o n ly h av e mo s t m ed iev a l c hu rche s a nd c a thed ra l s b een p a r t i a l ly r ebu i l t o r r e s to r ed , t hu s i n te r rup t ing a ny i n tended d e s ign , b u t t h ew ea l th o fp o t en t ia l mean ing sw em igh ta t t r ibu t e t ot h e se c a rv ing s p rec lude s a ny c ohe ren t me s sage . T he re i so ne i mag e , h ow ev e r , t h a t d oe s s ugge s t a mo re t h an a r b i t r a ry p o s i t ion ing a nd t h a t i st h e mou th -pu l le r a nd i t s v a r i an t s , m any o f wh i ch a r e l o ca ted a t a r ch i tec tu ra l j unc tu r e s —t h e c o rne r s o ft h e n ave o r t owe r , f o r e xamp le . T h i s i s ap a t ter n f ound i nR omane sque w o rk , s uch a sa tS tud l and i n Do r se t , a nd t o amuch g r ea te r e x ten t i nl a te r m ed iev a l g a rgoy l e s . A s Ih av e s ugge s ted i nc hap te r 6 ,t h e c oncen t r a t ion i n Do r se t o ft h e h ead b e tw een f i gu re s , t h e f i gu re s p u l l ing o pen t h e mou th o ft h e c en t ra lh ead , m ay w el r ep re sen t al o ca l ized f i f teen th -cen tu ry t r ad i t ion o f

1 22

T he i d en t if i ca t ion o f med i ev a la r ch i tec tu ra l s cu lp tu re a sp a r t o ft h e s ame c on t inuum o fr ep re sen ta t ion t h a ti n c lude s mor e r e cogn izab ly " s ac red" i mag e ry i s , Ih ope , ap rog r e s s ive o ne f o r med iev a l s t ud i e s . T o c on s ide r t h e g ro t e squ e a s a n a t temp t t o v i sua l in t h e u n r ep re sen tab le p rov ide s af r e sh p e r spec t ive ; t h e se i mag e s a r e n o t p ag an o dd i t i e s l e f t h igh a nd d ry b y a C h r i s t i an t i de b u t r a the r h ead -on c onf ron ta t ion s w i th t h e u nknown t h a t m ed ia te b e tw een t h e h uman a nd n on -human r e a lm s i n t h e s ame w ay t h a t s a in t s a nd a nge l s d o —i ndeed , t h a t t h e mon s te r s a nd g ro te squ e c onf igu ra t ion s a r e s ome t ime s r ep re sen ted i n te rm ing l ing w i th s uch C h r i s t i an f i gu re s t e s t if i e s t ot h i s . T he se a r ei mag e s p a r t i cu la r ly s u i t ed t o t h e i r e cc l e s i a s t ica l s e t t ing , e f for t s t o r ep re sen t t h e s a c red i n i t s f u l le s t s en se : ma levo l en t , d a rk , c om i c , l um inou s , a lway s c omp le te ly o the r b u t n ev e r who l ly u n recogn izab l e . A rch i tec tu ra l i mag er y n o t o n l y c aled a t ten t ion t o t h e p re sence o f t h i s p ow e r , a nd t hu s t o t h e s pace o f t h e c hu rch o r c a thed ra l a s p ow e rfu l , b u t a t t h e s ame t ime p l ay ed a n a po t ropa ic r o l e i n p ro t ec t ing p eop l e f r om i t s p o ten t ia l d ange r . I n w a rd ing o f f o r t r app ing h a rmfu l s p i r i t s , a po t ropa ic i mage r y w a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly i n tended t o b e v i ew ed o n ly b y ah uman a ud i ence , a c ha r ac te r i s t i c t h a t h e lp s t o e xp la in t h e t y p ica l ly o b scu r e l o ca t ion o f t h e se c arv ing s a s w el a s t h e i r s ub jec t ma t te r . I n terwov en w i th t h e se a spec t s , a nd a s t h i s b ook h a s s uppo r ted , s uch l im ina l ma te r ia li sc apab le o fs ub s tan t ia t ing a mu l t ip l ic i ty o f mean ing s . I n f a l ing t o r e cogn i ze t h i s p o ly semy w e d o l i t t l e j u s t ice t o t h e d ep th , s ub t le ty a nd r i chne s s o ft h e med iev a lv i sua l wo r ld .

Append ix 1 C a ta logue o f A rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re f r om S e lec ted S i tes i n Do rse t , Ha mpsh i re , S o merse t a nd Wi l tsh i re 3 a , 3 b a nd 3 d a r e i l u s t ra ted i nt h e R oya l C omm i ss ion v o lume 1 970a : P l a te 7 ) .

Do rse t B ere R eg is S tJ ohn t h e B apt i s t . Ap o s s ib le S axon f ounda t ion , t h e c hu rch w a s l a rge ly r ebu i l t i n t h e t we lf th c en tu ry a nd

B radford Abbas S t Ma ry t h e V i rg in . A l though t h e c hance l d a te s t o t he t we lf th c en tury t h e c hu rch t ook mo s t o f i t s

s ub sequen t ly a l te red a nd e n la rged t h roughou t t h e l a te r m ed ieva l p e r iod . R e s to red i n t h e n ine teen th c en tury , t h e

p re sen t f o rm d u r ing t h e m id -f if teen th c entury a nd w a s c omp le te b y t h e 1 480 s . T h i s wo rk c on s i s ted o fr ebu i ld ing a nd

c hu rch n ow c on s i s t s o f an ave , c hance l , w e s t t owe r a nd n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s . T he n ave a r cade s a r e i n t h e t r an s i t iona l No rman s t y le w i th p o in ted a r che s wh i le t h e n ave r oof d a te s t o 1 486 a nd c on ta in s f i gu re s o ft h e Apo s t le s . T he f l in t a nd s t one c heque red t owe r d a te s t o c . 1 500 RCH M E ) , 1 970a : 1 2 ; N ewman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 8 9 -91 ; DHCT , 1 988 : 1 0 ) .

a dded a nd t h e a r ch b e tween i t a nd t h e c hance l i n ser ted . E x ten s ive r e s to ra t ion t ook p l ace i n t h e m id la te n ine teen th c en tu ry : i n 1 858 t he w al a bove t h e r ood s c reen w a s r emoved a nd t h e p re sen t c hance l a r ch i n se r ted ; i n 1 890 t h e w a l l s w e re c omp le te ly s t r ipped o fp l a s t e r . L i t t le med ieva l f a b r ic r ema in s i n

S cu lpture I .

C ap i ta l s , s ou th a r cade , c . 1160 .

I .F ou r b road c o lumn s w i th n a r row c ap i ta l b and s . F rom w e s t

s i tu RCH ME , 1 952 : 3 1-34 ; N ewman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 1 06 1 07 ) .

t oe a s tt he se a r ec arved a sf olow s : 1 )S calop d eco ra t ion . 2 ) Two h ead s p ro t rude f r om t h e S E a )a nd NE b )c o rne r s o f t h ec ap i ta l ; a ) Ma le h ead w i th a rm s a nd h and s t h a tp u l l o pen t h e mou th . b )

S cu lp ture I . B ench e nd s ,n ave r e se ti nn o r thea s tc o rne r ) , l a te 1 5 t h/ea r ly 16 th c en tury .

H ead w i th mou s tache , b ea rd , No rman h a i rcu t a nd l e f t h and o n t h e f o rehead . S t y l ized s p r ig s o ff ol iag e a ppea r o n e i the rs i de .

I .L ike s o much e l se i nt h e c hu rch t h e t wo b ench -end s a r e n o l onge r i n t h e i r o r ig ina l med ieva l p o s i t ion b u t h ave b een c olec ted t og e the r t o f o rm p a r t o f ap a r son ' s p ew j u s t i nf r on t

3 )F ou rh ead s ,o ne o ne ach c o rne r ; a ) NW ) Ho r se h ead w i th t he f u l l f i gu re o f as mal b ea s t i n p rof i le b i t ing i t s r i gh t e a r . T he l a t te r i sd eco ra ted w i th c i rc le s whe re t h el e g s j o in t he b ody . b ) SW ) C rowned h ead w i th amou s tache . c ) d )

l e ng then ing t h e n ave , b u i ld ing t h e s ou th c hape l , s ou th p o rch a nd t h e t wo b ay s o f t h e n o r th a i s le . S hor t ly a f terw a rd s t h e n or th a i s le w a s e x t ended w e s twa rd s a nd t h e w e s t t owe r b u i l t . T owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e f i f teen th c entu ry t h e s ou th v e s t ry w a s

o ft h e c hance l s c reen .T he i mage s c arved o nt h e s i de s a r e ; 1 ) A s e a ted g r iff in i n p rof i le , o ne w ing e x tended a nd w i th d e ta i led c a rv ing t o t h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e b ody f e a the r s ) F ig . 5 .6 ) . 2 ) Af i gu re o f as a in t , p robab ly S tP au l , h o ld ing as wo rd a nd ab ook . O the r d eco ra t ive mo t if s h e re i n c lude ' o g ee t op s , p oppy h ead s a nd p ane l s c arved w i th e l abo ra te v ine a nd i v y f ol i ag e , e l bow r e s t s a nd b ack p o s t s c arved w i th b ea s t s a nd a n ow l ' RCH ME ,

NE ) G r imac ing a pe h ead . S E ) S im i la r i mag e t o 2 b — ah ead w i th amou s tache a nd

b ea rd , a nd a l e f t h and o n t h e f o rehead . F o l iage r un s b enea th t h e h ead . 4 ) T h i s c ap i t a l h a s s h ie ld s o n t h e c o rne r s a nd f ol iag e i n b e tw een .

1 952 : 3 3 -34 ) .T he b ea s t s a r e s e a ted a pe s F ig . 7 .4 ) .

T he R oya lC omm i s s ion make t h e f olow ing o b serva t ion s : E qualy e x t rove r t [ t o t h e c o rbe l s a tS tud land ] a r e t h e c arv ing s o n t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h e S .a r cade a tB e re R eg i s o f c . 1160 wh ich t oge the r c ompr i se t h e o n ly R omane sque a r ch i tec tu ra l s cheme i n S . E . Do r se t

B roadwey S t N icho la s . Neo -No rman c hu rch o f 1 874 w i th a r e se t ) t w e lf th -cen tu ry s ou th d oo r N ewman a nd P ev sner , 1 972 : 15 ) .

s how ing a n a t temp t a t d eco ra t ive e l abo ra t ion o f a f i gu ra t ive a s o ppo sed t o af o rma l k i nd . Of p a r t icu la r i n te r e s t i st he o ccu r rence t h e re in o fi r re levan t d e ta i l s wh ich a r e e xpl i cab le o n ly a sd eba sed f o rm s o f Ang lo S cand inav ian s p i ra l j o in t s o f t h e k ind s e en o n a n umbe r o fp re -Conque s t c arv ing s i nE ng land 1 970a : x l v i ) . S im i la r s p i ra ll e gj o in t s a r e c arved o n ab oa r o n t h e t ympanum a tS tN icho la s ,I p sw ich Z a rneck i e ta l , 1 984 : 1 64 ) . C a rv ing s 2 a ,

1 23

S cu lp ture I .

C ap i ta l s , s ou th d oo r e x t e r io r ) , 1 2 t hc en tury .

I .B o th c ap i ta l s a r ec arved i n ap a le s t one : 1 ) We s t c ap i ta l ; A v a r ie ty o f a mph i sbaena — a s c a led a nd w ing ed c r ea tu re w i th a l ong n eck who c l u tche s t h e r ol mou ld a t t h e b a se o f t h e c ap i ta l w i th i t s f o rel imb s a nd b i te si tw i th i t s mou th . I t sb ody t e rm ina te s i nt wo s c ro l l ing s e rpen t ta i l s , e ach w i th ah ead , e ach h ead w i th i t s mou th o pen F ig . 5 .1 ) .

Append ix 1 2 )

s uppor t t h e b a se o f ap innac le t h a t r e ache s u p t o t h e b a se o f t h e w indow d i rec t ly a bove . On t h e s t r ing -cou r se b e low t h e c r enela ted p a rape t a tt h e t op o ft h e t ower , i mmed ia te ly a bove t h et i p o ft h ew indow ,t h e re i sa no the ri mage b ) . 1 ) S ou th f a ce a ) s qua t t ing l i on ; b ) h uman d em i -f igu re w i th

E a s t c ap i ta l ; am ix tu re o fi n te r lace , ab ea rded h ead o n t h e a ng le , a nd a n i n ver ted l i on w i th i t s t a i l c urved t i gh t ly b e tw een i t sl e g s F ig . 5 .8 ) .

T he s t y le o fr ep re sen tat ion o ft h e a mph i sbaena ,i np a r t icu la ri t s t a i l , i ss im i la r t o t he t a i l o f t h e h yb r id h o r se/se rpen t a tL i t t le L angfo rd I ) a nd s ome o ft h e d ragon s a tR om sey I 7b , I 20a ) . T h i s m igh t s ugg e s t ad a te s omewhe re i n f i r s t h a lf o f t h e 1 2 t h c en tu ry f o rt h e c a rv ing sh e re .

2 )

a rm s t h a tr e s to ne i the r s i de o ft h e b ely . E a s t f a ce a )e no rmou s s haggy h ead w i th f ou r c l aw -ended l e g s ; b ) f ema le f i gu re w i th l ong d re s sed h a i r a nd h o ld ing a

3 )

s h ie ld . Nor th f a ce a )h uman h eaded e qu ine b ea s t w i th f e a the red w ing s a nd o ve r s ize h ead w i th d eep s e t e ye s a nd f l e shy

C er ne Abbas S t Ma ry . L a te med ieva l c hu rch b u i l t f r om f l in t a nd s t one a nd c on s i s t ing o f aw e s t t owe r , n ave , n ave a i s le s , s ou th p o rch a nd c hance l RCH ME , 1 952 : 7 4 ) .

4 )

S cu lp ture I . G ro t e sque s , w e s t e nd o f n ave a i s le s , 1 5 t h

T he se c arv ing s , a sw el a st ho se o n t h ew e s t f a ce s o ft h e a i s le s , s ha re m any s t y l i s t ic a nd t h ema t ic s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e c a rv ing s o n t h e s ou th a i s le a tS t in sfo rd , a l so i n Do r se t . T he empha s i s u pon mou th -puf f ing f i gu re s , f i gu re s h ang ing o r eme rg ing f r om

c en tu ry . G ro te sque s ,t owe r f a ce s , 1 5 t h c en tu ry . H ead , s ou th a i s le ,p robab ly 1 5 t hc en tu ry .

mou th s , t h e p a i r o f p ipe r s , a nd t h e r ounded , f l e shy s t y le o f c arv ing a l p o in t s t rong ly t o t h e C e rne a nd S t in sfo rd i mag es b e ing c arved b yt h e s ame t e am o fm a son s o r s cu lp to r s .

I .T he w e s t f r on t a l so t h e ma in e n t rance t h rough t h e d oo r i n t h e t owe r ) f a ce s t h e r oad l a id o u t a round 1 400 a nd f e a tu re s t h ree c arv ing s o n e ach e nd o f t h e n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s . A c r enela ted p a rape tr un s j u s ta bove t h em .

I I . On t h e s ou th a i s le , b e tween al a te med ieva l w indow a nd t h e w e s t w al o f t h e s ou th p o r ch , i s ah uman h ead w i th e no rmou s y awn ing mou th , c u r ly h a i r a nd s ma l l h olow e ye s s e t i n to t h e w al . T h i s i s ' s a id t o h ave b een t h e o r if i ce o f a

No r th a i s le ,n o r th t os ou th : 1 ) C en t ra l b ea s t h ead w i th f o rel imb s who se mou th i sb e ing

2 )

f a ce ;b )l e on ine l ook ing h ead . We s t f a ce a )a n ima l -ea red h uman f i gu re p l ay ing t h e p ipe s ; u pon h i s l e f t s hou lde rt h e re i sa no the r much s male rp ipe r w i th s im i la r f e atu re s ;b )h uman f i gu re h o ld ing as h ie ld .

p u l led o pen b y t wo s qua t t ing a nd g r imac ing h uman f i gu re s , o ne o n e ach s i de . T he se f i gu re s e xh ib i t s ome d i s tor ted c ha rac te r i s t ic s —t h e o ne o n t h e s ou th s i de h a s a p ronounced c he s t l i ke many o ft h e " hunky p unk" a n ima l c arv ing s i n S ome r se t —a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h ey w e re i n t ended t ob e s l igh t ly a n ima ll i ke . G r imac ing h uman h ead w i th s mal a rm s f r om who se mou th h ang s as male r h uman f i gu re . T he l a rg e h ead h a s d eep l i ne s i nt h e f a ce a nd a ppea r s t oh ave a n ima l e a r s a nd h a i r . T he s ma l le r f i gu re a l so h a s i t s mou th o pen , a nd i s

c h imney ' D icke r , 1 908 : 7 )b u tt h e a s ser t ion i st enuou s .

Che tno le S t P e ter . T he med ieva l p a r t s o f t h e c hu rch o f S t P e te r c on s i s t o f an ave b u i l t o r r ebu i l t l a te i n t h e t h i r teen th c en tury a nd aw e s t t owe r a dded e a r ly i n t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry a l though t h i s may h ave b een r ebu i l ti n1 580 ) .T he s ou th p o rch i sp o s t -med ieva l s i x teen th o r s even teen th c en tu ry ) . B e tw een 1 860 a nd 1 866 e x ten s ive r e s to ra t ion t ook p l ace , t h e c hance l

h e ld b yo ne o ft h eh ead ' s a rm s . 3 ) Wea the red l e on ine b ea s th ead w i th w ing s . B e low t h e se t h ree f i gu re s i s aw indow c omp le te w i th a h ood mou ld t h a t t e rm ina t e s i n l a be l s t op s c arved w i th m a le a nd

b e ing r ebu i l t a nd t h e n o r th a i s le a nd a r cade a dded . F u r the r r e s to ra t ion wo rk o ccu r red i n 1 897 A lmack , 1 918 : 1 20 ; RCH ME , 1 952 : 9 1-93 ; Newman a nd P ev sner , 1 972 : 1 49 ) .

f ema le h ead s . S ou th a i s le , n o r th t os ou th : 4 ) G r imac ing h uman f i gu re w ie ld ing ac l ub . 5 ) S qua t t ing a nd h ooded h uman f i gu re h o ld ing a n a xe w i th

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s ,w e s tt owe r , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

6 )

I .F ou rl a rge g a rgoy le s o ne ach c o rne ro ft h e t owe r .

b o th h and s . V a r ian t o n t h e c en t ra l b ea s t h ead w i th t wo f i gu re s p u ll ing o pen t h e mou th . H e re , r a the r t h an p u l l o pen t h e mou th t h e t wo a t tendan t f i gu re s o n e ach s i de o ft h e h ead p ul a t h i rd h uman f i gu re o u t o f t h e mou th o f t h e h ead , e ach o ne h o ld ing a n a rm . T he e me rg ing f i gu re g r ip s t h e f o re l imb s o ft h e b ea s t h ead . T he t wo f i gu re s o n e ach s i de a r e c l o thed a nd g r imace , t h e i r b od ie s i n s qua t t ing p o s i t ion s s im i la rt ot ho se o nc a rv ing n o . 1i nt h i s s e r ie s .

1 )

2 )

T h i s s e r ie s o f c a rv ing s a r e a l e a s i ly v i s ib le a nd f a ce t h e r oad t h a t i sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h e i r c r ea t ion . T h i s s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e se w e re i n tended t o b e s e en b y ah uman a ud ience . T he a b sence o f s im i la r c arv ing s o n o the r p a r t s o f t h e c hu rch a ta s im i la rh e igh t b e tween t e na nd f i f teen f e e th i gh ) s uppo r t s t h i s .

3 ) 4 )

I . Abou t t wo t h i rd s o ft h e w ay u p t h e t owe r r un s ab and o f modern q ua t refo i l s . I mmed ia te ly a bove t h i s , c en t ra l ly p o s i t ioned o n e ach f a ce , i s ac arv ing a ) . T he se c a rv ing s e ach

1 24

NW ) Mou th -pu l le r w i th f i gu re s . Two f u l l h uman f i gu re s w ea r ing l ong s leeved , k nee leng th t un ic s s t and o n e i the r s i de o f al a rg e h ead o f ab ea s t . E ach f i gu re u se s o ne a rm t h e o ne f u r the s t f r om t h e c en t ra l h ead ) t o p u l l o pen i t s mou th ,t h rough wh ich al e ad p ipe e x tend s . SW ) H yb r id B ea s t . T he f i gu re i s c ompo sed f r om t h e b ody o f aq uad ruped w i th l e on ine f o rel i mb s t h a ta ppea rt o b e a ng led s l igh t ly b ackwa rd s , ah ead w i th a l a rge o pen mou th , a n ima l e a r s , a nd i n b e tween t h em , t u f t s o f t h ick c u r ly h a i r . Memb ranou sw ing s s p rou tf r om j u s tb eh ind t h e h ead wh ich i si t se lf s e t b ack u pon t h e b ody i nt h e h unky p unk t r ad i t ion . S E ) Human f i gu re w i th l a rge b ely , t h ick h a i r , a nd h and s o ne i the rs i de o fo pen mou th .T he f i gu re a l so w ea r s ah a t . NE ) F ron t p ar t o f ah yb r id b ea s t w i th b ack to -f ron t f o rel imb s t h ey r e semb le t h e r e a r l e g s o f a n a n ima l ) a nd l a rg e f l a t w ing s . T here i s aw ide o pen mou th t h rough

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture w h ich al e ad p ipe p ro t rude s . An ima l e a r s a nd t uf t s o fh a i r a ppea ru pon t h e t op o ft he h ead .

S cu lpture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , n o r th n ave a i s le , 1 5 t hc en tu ry .

Ch r is tchu rch C h r i s tchu rch P r iory . A s ub s tan t ia l b u i ld ing h a s

I .S even i mage s , f r om e a s tt ow e s t ;

e x i s ted h e re s i nce t h e l a te r s even th c en tu ry when a M in s ter c hu rch w a s e s tab l i shed . I n t h e l a te e l even th c en tury t h e se b u i ld ing s w e re p u l led d own a nd amuch l a rg e r c hu rch e r ec ted . B y 150 ac ruc ifo rm s t ruc tu re w i th a n a p s ida l e a s t e nd a nd a c en t ra l t owe r t opped b y as p i re h ad b een c omp le ted . I n t h i s y ea r t h e e x i s t ing c anon s w e re r ep laced b y ac ommun i ty o f Augu s t in ian C anon s who d iv ided t he b u i ld ing , t u rn ing t he n ave i n to a p a r i sh c hu rch wh i l s t r e ta in ing t h e c ho i r f o r t h e i r own s e rv ice s . T hey a dded t he r ang e o fb u i ld ing s c ha rac te r i s t ic o f mona s t ic e s tab l i shmen t s — c l o i s te r , r e f ec tory , d o rm i tory , k i tchen , l i bra ry a nd s o o n —a l o f wh ich w e re d e s t royed a tt h e

1 )

R efo rma t ion . T oday t he b u i ld ing c on s i s t s o f aw e s t t owe r , a n ave w i th n or th a nd s ou th a i s le s ) o f s even b ay s , n or th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , c ho i r , n o r th a nd s ou th c ho i r a i s le s , r e t rocho ir a nd l a dy c hape l P ee r s , 1 912 ; S t anna rd , 1 985 ) . S cu lpture I . C ap i ta l s , n ave a r cade s ,m id -12 th c en tury . M i se r ico rd s , c ho i r , ma in ly 1 6 t h c en tu ry b u t w i th t wo e a r ly 1 3 t h a nd t wo m id 14 t h c en tu ry e xamp le s ) .

3 )

4 ) 5 ) 6 )

Human h ead w i th w ide o pen mou th g a rgoy le ) , b a r re l u nde rt h el e f ta rm a nd ab ea s to nt h er i gh ts hou lde r . Human h ead w i th e x tended t ongue .

L e igh S t And rew . L ike n ea rby C he tno le t h i s c hu rch w a s a l so a f o rme r c hape l o f Y e tm in s te r . T he c hance l , n ave , w e s t t ow e r a nd s ou th p o rch w e re a l b u i l t i n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e f i f teen th c entury b u t much o ft h e f a b r ic w a s h eav i ly r e s to red i n t h e m id -n ine teen th c en tu ry . I ndeed , t h e c hance l w a s l a rge ly r ebu i l t , a nd t h e n o r th a i s le w i th i t s h uge g a rgoy le s w a s i t se lf a dded a round 1 840 A lmack , 1 918 : 1 24 ; RCH ME , 1 952 : 1 30 1 31 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 2 51 ) .

I .T he c ap i ta l s h e re h ave s uf f e red ag r ea t d ea l f r om t h e e f f ec t s o fs a l tw a ter , wh ich , h av ing s e eped i n to t h e s t one o n i t s c ro s s c hanne l j ou rney h a s s l ow ly l e ached o u t a nd i n t he p roce s s c au sed t h e s t one t od e ter io ra t e . T h i s h a s , s ad ly , made many o f t h e c a rv ing s i mpo s s ib le t o d ec iphe r . T he f i gu ra t ive o ne s t h a t a r ev i s ib le ,h oweve r ,i n c lude t h e f olow ing : 1 )

2 )

Ah uman h ead embedded i nt h e s t r ing -cou r se a nd l ook ing o u t f r om t he NE c o rner . G a rgoy le w i th al i on -l ike h ead , o pen mou th a nd t wo p aw s b enea th t h e c h in . Human f i gu re p l ay ing t h e b agp ipe s . T he b ody h a s a n o ve r s ized h ead a nd b end s a round t h e mou ld ing o f t he s t r ing -cou r se . G a rgoy le w i th a l i on -l ike h ead , o pen mou th , t wo s ma l l f o re leg s , t h ick c u r ly h a i r ,a nd b a tw ing s a tt h e s hou lde r s . G r imac ing h uman h ead w i th a n ima l e a r s a nd s mal l imb s . T he l ower p a r to ft h e c a rv ing i sm i s s ing .

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s ,t ow e r , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

No r th s i de o f t h e n ave , 3rd c o lumn f r om t h e w e s t , e a s t f a ce : af i gu re i np ro f i le o fa n e x ten s ive ly d amag ed w ing ed b ea s t ,p robab ly aG r iff in .

I . F ou r c arv ing s o n e ach c o rne r o f t h e t owe r , b e low t h e c r enela t ion s . 1 ) NW ) B i rd -l ike c r ea tu re w i th f e a the red c he s t a nd b a t

2 )

S ou th s i de o f t h e n ave , 6 t h c o lumn f r om t h e w e s t , n o r th f a ce : f e l ine b ea s th ead d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e ? ) . 3 ) S ou th s i de o f t h e n ave , 4 t h c o lumn f r om t he w e s t , w e s t f a ce : t h eh ead s o ft wo c onf ron ted b ea s t s . T he b l ind a r cad ing o n t he s ou th s i de o f t h e s ou th n ave a i s le h a s w ea the red b e t t e r , a nd h e re c an b e f ound r i ch a nd v a r ied g eome t r ic a nd f ol ia te d e s ign s c arved i n to t h e c ap i ta l s . F igu ra t ive i mage s a mong t hem i n c lude

w ing s . 2 )

3 )

4 )

SW ) G r imac ing h uman d em i -f igu re c l o thed i n v o lum inou s r obe s a nd w i th h and s h e ld t og e the r b enea th t h e c h in . S E ) Hybr id c r ea tu re w i th t h e b ody o f ab i rd , l e on ine h ead , memb ranou s w ing s , g r imac ing e xp re s s ion , a nd l a rg e e a r s . NE ) Hyb r id f i gu re w i th d i s t inc ta v ian c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

4 )

Ah uman f i gu re i n ab e l ted t un ic a s t r ide t h eb ack o f al i on . T he f i gu re p u l l s t h eh ead o ft h e b ea s tb ack w i th h i s h and s .

I mag e n umber 2 h a s b een w rong ly i d en t if ied b y P e te r Kn igh t a nd M ike P owe r a s aS hee la -na -g ig . T hey w r i te t ha t l a ] tt h e

5 )

Al i on w i th i t s t a i lc u rved u p b e tween i t s r e a rl e g s .

c hu rch o f S t And rew a r e s ome f e a tu re s o f i n te re s t . . .One c arv ing i s aS hee la -na -g ig , o ne o f o n ly a h andfu l k nown i n Do r se t . . .O the r s c an b e f ound a tS tud land a nd S op ley , n o r th o f C h r i s tchu rch ' Kn igh t a nd P owe r , 2 000 : 5 0 ) . T he m i s take may h ave r e su l ted f r om i d en t if y ing t he s hape made b y t h e h and s o f t h e f i gu re a sf ema le g en i ta l s .

I . Af u l l l i s t o ft h e m i se r ico rd s a nd o ther c a rved s t alwo rk c an b e f ound i nR emnan t , 1 969 : 5 4 -56 a nd R ober t s e ta l ,2 000 .

H i l ton A l l S a in t s DORS07 ) . F i f teen th -centu ry c hu rch c ompo sed o f aw e s tt ow er ,n ave ,n ave a i s le s a nd c hance l . I th a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t he n o r th n ave a i s le w indow s w i th p ane l t r acery a nd t h e i r b u t t re sse s w i th g a rgoy le s a r e f r om n ea rby M i l ton Abbey a nd , a l though p l aced h e re a f te r t h e D i s so lu t ion i n t h e s i x teen th c en tury , a r e o f f i f teen th c en tury d a te L ee , 1 908 ; RCH M E ) , 1 970b : 10 -112 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 2 28 ; DHCT , 1 988 : 2 7 ) .

1 25

L ongbu r ton S t J ame s . L a te m ed ieva l c hu rch b u i l t f r om i r regu la r c ou r se s o fs and s tone b lock s a nd c on s i s t ing o f aw e s t t owe r w i th b u t t re s se s o n e ach a ng le , c r enela ted p a rape t a nd p ronounced s t r ing c ou r se b e low w i th ag a rgoy le a te a ch c o rne r , n av e w i th s ou th p o rch , n or th a i s le , a nd a c hance l w i th n or th c hape l . T he t owe ri sa bou t3 5 f e e th igh RCHME , 1 952 : 6 1 ) .

Append ix 1 D . S ou th s i de o fc hance l 1 ) L eon ine b ea s t . E .T owe r , c a rv ing s o ne ach c o rne r NE ) h uman f i gu re b en t a t t h e w a i s t , c a rr y ing a p o t o r 1 )

S cu lp ture 5 t h I . G a rgoy le s , e ach c o rne r o f t h e t owe r , 1 c en tury . I .E ach g a rgoy le l ook s o u tf r om t h ec orne r . 1 ) S E ) B ea s t o r h uman h ead b etween t wo h uman f i gu re s ,

2 )

e ach o f whom u se s o ne a rm t o p ul t h e c o rne r s o f t h e c en t r a lb ea s t ' s mou th o pen F ig . 6 .1 4 f ) . SW ) B ea s tw i th l a rge e a r s , a nd f i ne ly c arved memb ranou s

4 )

b a r re lo n o ne s hou lde r . NW ) mu s ic ian ; d em i -f igu re o f ah uman p l ay ing ap ipe . SW ) h ead o f af e roc iou s l ook ing b ea s t w i th l o t s o ft e e th

4 )

a nd t h ick c u r ly h a i r .Ad ra in i s sue s f r om t h e mou th . o ne w ing m i s s ing ) , w i th S E ) w ing ed h yb r id

t wo

f o rel imb s . h e f i gu re s o n t h e t ow e r a s T he R oya l C omm i s s ion d e sc r ibe t ' t wo mu s ic ian s a nd t wo mon s te r s ' 1 970b : 1 46 ) .

w ing s f o lded a tt h e s i de s o ft h eb ody . 3 )

2 ) 3 )

NW ) B ea s t w i th l a rge h ead , s haggy h a i r , memb ranou s w ing s a nd s qua t t ing b ody . T he l e g s e nd i nh umano id f e e t e dged w i th s eve ra lt o e s o rc l ump s o fh a i r . NE ) S qua t t ing h uman f i gu re w i th o ve r s ized h ead .

Mi l ton Abbas Abbey C hu rch o f S t Ma ry , S t S am son a nd S t B ranwa lade r . F ounded i n9 35 b yK ing A the l s t an a nd r ebu i l ti n h e re d a te s t ot h e f i f teen th c en tu ry t h i s i n c lude s t h e n ave ,w e s t t ow e r , s ou th p o rch a nd s ou th a i s le ) . T he c hance lw a s r ebu i l ti n

t h e No rman p er iod , o n t he s e cond o f S ep t embe r 1 309 t h e wooden s t eep le w a s s t ruck b yl i gh tn ing a nd t h e c hu rch a lmo s t e n t i re ly d e s t royed b y f i re . T he p ar t o f t h e a bbey t h a t s t and s

1 868 RCH M E ) , 1 970b , 1 45 -147 ; Newman a nd P ev sner , 1 972 : 2 69 ; Mo r shead , 1 975 : 6 2 ) .

t oday c hance l , c hance l a i s le s , c ro s s ing t owe r a nd n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s ) r ep re sen t s t he f ou r teen th -cen tu ry r ebu i ld ing

Mappowde r S tP e te r a nd S tP au l . F o r t h e mo s tp a r tt h e f ab r ic

a pa r t f r om t h e n o r th t r an sep t wh ich d a te s t o t h e f i f teen th c en tury ) . T he mona st ic b u i ld ing s l a y t o t he n or th o ft h e a bbey c hu rch ; a l b u t t h e a bbo t ' s h a l l w e re d e s t royed i n t h e l a te e i gh teen th c en tu ry b y t h e E a r l o f Dorche s te r i n o rde r t o

S cu lpture I . C orbe l , i n ter io r o f s ou th a r cade , n o r th s i de o fe a s tr e spond , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x te r io r o f c hance l , n ave , t owe r a nd s ou th a i s le , 1 5 t h

c on s t ruc t an ew man s ion . B e tween 1 771 a nd 1 790 t h e ma rke t t own t h a t h ad g rown u p b e s ide t h e a bbey w a s c l ea red a way i n o rde r t o c r ea te a s u i t ab ly p i ctu re sque s e t t ing f o r t h e h ou se . T h i s w a s c omp le te w i th l a nd scaped " ru in s" m ade o u t o f ma ter ia l s g a ined f r om t he d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e t own a nd c onven tua l b u i ld ing s P en t in , 1 905 : 1 94 -198 ) . I n 1 954 t h e a r i s toc ra t ic h ou se b ecame a b oy s s choo l C a l th rop , 1 908a ;

c en tu ry . I .B racke tc a rved w i th ah uman h ead f r om who se n o se s prou t s l a rg e , b road leaved f ol iag e . T he t i p o ft h e n o se i sm i s s ing , a nd t h e mou th o f t h e h ead i ss l igh t ly o pen . T he p o s i t ion o f t he c a rv ing m igh t s ugg e s t t h a ti to nce f o rmed p a r t o ft h e r ood l o f t

G lynne , 1 924 : 3 8 -40 ; RCH M E ) , 1 970b : 1 45 -147 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 2 85 -293 ) .

s t ruc tu re ; c er ta in ly i tl ook s c apab le o f s uppo r t ing a f a i r ly s i zeab le wooden b eam . T he p re sence o ft h e a r ch i mmed ia te ly

S cu lp ture I . R oof b o sse s , c hance l a nd c hance l a i s le s , 1 4±

a bove m i t iga te s a g a in s t t h e b racke t s uppo r t ing a s t a tue i l u s t ra ted i n RCH M E ) , 1 970b : P l a te 1 6 ; s e ea l so F ig . 5 .3 0 ) .

c en tu ry . I .T he s even b ay s o f t h e q uad r ipa r t i te v au l ted c hance l a nd

A . No r th s i de o ft h e c hance l 1 )B ea s tw i th s p iny r i dge a l ong t h e c en t re o fi t s b ack a nd i t s t a i l

c hance l a i s le s b ea r o ne c en t ra l b o s s e ach . T he v au l t s a nd b o s se s a r e c on s t ruc ted f r om H am s t one .

b e tween t he l e g s . B . No r th s i de o fn ave ,e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) B ea s th ead ,u pon wh ich s i t s a no the r , s ma l le rb ea s t . 2 ) L ion w i th av o lum inou s m ane a nd f a i r ly h uman f a ce . T he 3 )

t a i lw rap s i t se lf o ve rt h e r e a ro ft h eb ody . L ion i np rof i le , h ead t u rned o ve r i t s r i gh t s hou lde r . T he re i s at h ick c u r ly mane a nd at i gh t ly c u rved t a i l t h a t s p rou t s u p t h rough i t s r e a r l e g s t or e s tu pon t h e b ack . Ad r a inp ipe

A . 1 ) 2 ) 3 )

No r th c hance l a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t C rowned d em i -f igu re h o ld ing a l of ts p r ig s o ff ol iage . Ange lt h ru s t ing as pea ri n to t h e mou th o f ad ragon . B i shop h o ld ing a s t af f a nd r a i s ing h i s r i gh t h and i n

4 )

b l e s s ing . G reen Man .T he h ead i sc rowned , a nd at h ick b ea rd g row s f r om t h e c h in . Two l e ave s s p rou t f r om e a ch s i de o f t h e

p ro trude s t h rough t h e w ide ly o pened mou th . A lmo s t

mou th ,t he i r f ol iag e f i l l ing u p t h ec ap i ta l .

d i rec t ly b e low i s ar e se t c o rbe l c a rved w i th t h e h ead o f a b ea rded m a le F ig . 7 .3 ) . C .S ou th a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) On t op o ft h e SW c o rne r b u t t re s s , t wo g r imac ing f i gu re s o n e i the r s i de o f al a rge b ea s t h ead , e a ch f i gu re p u l l ing a pa r t t h e b ea s t ' s mou th . A s ho r t p i ece o f l e ad p ipe p ro t rude s f r om t h e c en t ra l b ea s t h ead ' s mou th , a nd s mal t a lon -l ike f o rel imb s a ppea r f r om i t s l owe r j aw . T he re i s s o me s o r t o f c r e s t o n t h e h ead — t h i s i sp robab ly t h ick 2 )

s p iky h a i r . Above S E b u t t re s s , h yb r id c r ea tu re w i th b a t w ing s a nd t a lon e nded l imb s .

1 26

5 ) 6 )

F ol iag e . Two s i nuou s w ing ed s e rpen tt y pe d ragon si nf ol iag e .T he i r b od ie s d i s so lve i n to t he s t em s .

7 )

F ol iage .

B .

C hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t

1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

F ol iag e . Two s l ende ri n te r tw ined d ragon s i nf ol iag e F ig . 5 .1 7 ) . F ol iage . F igu re o f ab i shop .

5 ) 6 ) 7 )

B ea rded h ead a mong f o l iag e . F ol iag e . F ol iag e .

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 2 ) C . 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

S ou th c hance la i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t Ang e lw i th o u t s t re tched w ing s . B i rd a mong s tf ol iage . C on to r t ed b ody o f al i on , t h e h ead t w i s ted a round t ol ook o ver i t sb ack . F igu re o n t h e b ack o f al i on p u l l ing t he mou th o f t he

5 )

c r ea tu re o pen F ig . 7 .l b ) . t o7 )F ol ia t e b o s se s .

Hyb r id b ea s t .

3 ) Human f i gu re , o ne h and h o ld ing o pen t h e mou th . 4 ) a nd 5 ) Hyb r id b ea s t s . Nume rou s c a rv ing s o fl i on s w i th t h e i r t a i l s b e tween t h e i r l e g s a ppea r a l ong t h e t op o ft h e n or th a nd s ou th s i de s o ft he n ave s e e , f o r e xamp le , F ig . 7 .2 ) . W ing ed l i on s o ccu r o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c hance l . I . A f u l l d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e m i se r ico rd s c an b e f ound i n R emnan t 1 969 : 3 8 -39 . I lu s t ra t ion s a ppea r i n R emnan t , 1 969 : p l s . I d ,2 0a ,2 0b , 2 0c , a nd H a rd ing 1 998a : 5 8 -59 .

S he rborne Abbey C hu rch o f S t Ma ry . I n 7 05 S he rbo rne w a s made t h e s e e o ft h e B i shop o f We s sex . Unt i l 1 075 , when t h e a dm in i s t r a t ive c en t re w a s moved t o O ld S arum , t h e c hu rch r ema ined a c a thed ra l . S i nce 9 98 i tw a s a l so t h e c hu rch o f a

I I . T he f an v au l t s t h roughou t t h e b u i ld ing a r e d eco ra ted w i th n umerou s b o s se s , mo s tc arved i n to f ol iage . S ome b o s ses i nt he n ave b ea r f i gu ra t ive wo rk a nd t h e se i n c lude t h e f olow ing : 1 )

mona s t ic e s tabl i shmen t t he c l o i s te r w a s o n t h e n or th s i de o f t h e n ave a nd n ow f o rm s p a r t o f ab oy ' s s choo l ) a nd r ema ined

R ed d ragon . T he c r eatu re h a s t wo w ing s , f ou r l e g s , a nd p a r t ialy h ide s b eh ind i t s f o repaw s . The t i p o fi t s t a i l r e s t s

s t il b e s e en , h oweve r , i n t h e t r an sep t s , c ro s s ing , n or th t r an sep ta l c hape l , n o r th c hance l a i s le a nd p a r t s o f t h e n ave .

3 )

T en th -cen tu r y f a b r ic i sa l so s t i l l v i s ib le i n t h e e x terna l w a l l a t t h e w e s t e nd o f t h e n ave . I n ten s ive r e s to ra t ion t ook p l ace i n t h e n ine t een th c en tu ry . I n 1 849 t h e n ave a i s le s a nd t r an sep t s w e r e r e s to red a nd t h e s ou th p o rch b u i l t ; 1 865 -8 s aw t h e e a s t e nd o ft h e b u i ld ing r enova ted wh i le t h e t owe r w a s r e s to red i n 1 884 -5 . T oday t h e c hu rch c on s i s t s o f an ave a nd c ho i r w i th s i de a i s le s , ac ro s s ing t owe r w i th n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , a r e t rocho i r a nd L ady C hape l , a nd a s ou th p o rch C a l th rop ,

4 ) 5 )

i ni t s mou th . Ange l t r ampl ing a w yve rn u nde rfoo t , t he t a i l o f w h ich c u r l s u p i n to ak no t . A s w el a s t wo f e a the red w ing s , t h e b ody o ft h ea nge li se n t i re ly c ove red i nf e a ther s . Two d og s i n f ol i ag e , t h e l a rg e r o ft h e t wo w i th ab one i n i t s j aw s . L ion h ead w i th t ongue e x tended F ig . 6 .8 ) . Two w yve rn s ,n o se t ot a i l .

6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 )

Two a pe l ike b ea s t s ,n o se t ot a i l . Ow l mobbed b yb i rd s . P el ican i nh e rp i e ty . S i x -headed d ragon , t h e l ong n eck s s p rou t ing f r om e ach

s o u n t i l 1 539 . De sp i te s uch a nc ien t o r ig in s mo s t o ft he v i s ib le f a b r ic d a t e s t ot h e m id -f if teen th c en tu ry when t h e c hu rch w a s r ebu i l t a f ter a d i sa s t rou s f i re t h a t o ccu r red d u r ing a r i o t i n 1 437 . P a r t s o ft h e o lde r , e a r ly t w e lf th -cen tu ry b u i ld ing may b e

2 )

1 908b ; G lynne , 1 924 : 5 4 ; RCH ME , 1 952 : 2 00 -209 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 3 68 -374 ; Mo r shead , 1 975 : 6 3 ; DHCT , 1 988 : 4 2 ) .

e nd o ft h e b ody . 1 0 ) Merma id w i th w avy h a i r t o t he s hou lde r s . I n h e r h and s s he h o ld s u p am i r ro ra nd c omb . 1 ) B i rd a mong s tf ol iag e . 1 2 ) F ou rl i on h ead sw i th t he i rt ongue s e x tended . 1 3 ) Two f i gu re s . One p u l l s h i s t un ic u p a nd b end s o ve r , t he o the r a im s h i s l o aded c ro s sbow a t t h e f o rme r ' s e xpo sed r e a re nd . 1 4 ) G reen Man . Two b e r ry laden s t em s o f f ol iage eme rg e f r om e ach s i de o ft h e mou th .

S cu lpture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e sque s , e x ter io r o fn o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f n ave a i s le s a nd s ou th c hance la i s le , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . M i se r ico rd s ,c ho i r , 1 5 t hc en tury . R oof b o s se s ,n ave , 1 5 t hc en tury .

E x te r io ro fs ou th s i de o fc hu rch ,w e s tt oe a s t B ea rded h ead w i th o pen mou th , s e t u pon t wo l e g s a g ry l lu s ) . L ion w i th o pen mou th , f l ow ing mane , a nd f o rel imb s r e s t ing u pon t he mou ld ing . Human -headed , b a t -w ing ed a nd t a lon -foo ted b ea s t . T he f o rehead i sh eav i ly r i dg ed a nd t h e re a r e a n ima le a r si n s tead o fh uman o ne s .T he mou th i so pen a nd r evea l s t e e th . On t h e s ou thwe s t c o rne r o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t ; l i on h eaded , b a t -w ing ed b ea s t w i th s mal f o rel imb s a nd o pen mou th . C hance l a i s le ; f i erce look ing w inged l i on . T he w ing s a r e f e a the red r a the r t h an m emb ranou s , a nd t h e mou th i s o pen .

S t insfo rd S tM ichae l .T he c hu rch c on s i s t s o f as ho r tn ave w i th n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s , aw e s tt ow e ra nd ac hance l . T he c hance l a nd n o r th a r cade s o f t h e n ave d a te t o t h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry ; t h e w e s t t ow e r w a s a dded i n t h e e a r ly f ou r teen th c en tury . A t as im i la rt ime t h e w e s tw a l lo ft h e n ave w a s r ebu i l t . T he s ou th a i s le , h ow eve r , w i th i t s d i s t inc t ive c r enela ted p a rape t , i s f i f teen th c en tu ry . V a r iou s p o s t -med ieva l b u i ld ing a nd r e s to ra t ion wo rk h a s t a ken p l ace o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c hu rch G lynne , 1 924 : 5 8 -59 ; RCH M E ) , 1 970b : 2 52 -253 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 3 98 ) . S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x ter io r o f s ou th n ave a i s le , 1 5 t h c en tu ry . I .We s tt oe a s t : 1 ) SW c o rne r o f a i s le ) H ead d i sp lay ing b o th h uman a nd a n ima l f e a tu re s , f ol iage s p rou t ing f r om t he c o rner s o ft h e w ide o pen mou th t os p read i np rofu s ion o ver t h e s i de s o f

Two l e on ine f i gu re s o n e i ther s i de o f ab ea s t ' s h ead , p u ll ing o pen t h e mou th b yi t s c o rne r s F ig . 6 .1 3d ) . W ing ed l i on .

t h eh ead F ig . 5 .2 4 ) .

No r th s i de o fn ave a i s le ,e a s tt ow e s t R am ' sh ead a nd f o repaw s .

1 27

Append ix 1 2 )

H ead , a lmo s te n t i re ly t a ken o ve rb yi t se no rmou sy awn ing mou th . E ye s a nd r ound e a r s a r e , h ow eve r , v i s ib le . T he c a rv ing a ppea r s t o b e mo re w ea the red t h an t h e o the r s , w h ich , a sw el a sb e ing c u ti n to t h e s t r ing c ou r se s ugg e s t s t h a ti tm ay n o tb eo r ig ina lt ot h i ss e r ie s . 3 ) F igu r e em e rg ing f r om t h e mou th o f al a rg e rh uman f i gu re , t h e l a t te r w i th a d i sp ropo r t iona t e ly o ve r s ized h ead a nd b ea s t l ike f e e t .T he d i sgo rg ed f i gu re i sh e ld b yt h ea rm s . 4 ) P l a in h uman f a ce w i th b u lg ing e ye s , c u t i n to t h e s t r ing c ou r se i n as im i la rm anne rt on umbe r2 . 5 ) Two f i gu re s , o ne o f w h ich i s al a rg e h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd s ho r t s t ocky a rm s ; t h e o the r t ot h e w e s t ) i sa f u l l f i gu re who se l e g s b end b enea th t h e c h in o ft h e h ead t ob e g r ipped b y t h e d em i -f igu re ' s l e f t h and . T he u p r igh t f i gu re p u l l s o pen t h e n ea re s t c o rn e r o f t h e l a rg e h ead ' s mou th . 6 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide o pen mou th a nd t u f t s o f h a i r b e tween s ma l lp o in ted e a r s . S E c o rne r o f a i s l e ) Human h ead w i th af i gu re o n e i the r s i de , e a ch p u l l ing o ne s i de o f t h e c en t r a l h ead ' s mou th o pen F ig . 6 .1 3a ) . 8 ) Ef a ce o f Sa i s le ) Two mu s ic ian s ; t h e l a rg e r o ft h e t wo p l ay s b agp ipe s , t h e s ma l le r o ne a ppea r s a bov e t h e l e f t s hou lde ro ft h eb agp ipe ra nd p l ay s ap i pe . 9 ) Ag r inn ing t umb le r who se h ead a ppea r s b e tw een t h e t wo u p tu rn ed l e g s . T he l ef t h and i s v i s ib le h o ld ing t h e u nde r s ide o ft h el e f tt h igh . I t may b et h ec a se t h a tt h i sw a s o nce a n e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re a s t h e b u t tock s a nd g en i ta l a r ea h ave b een d amag ed F ig . 9 .3 a ) . C a rv ing sn umbe r 1 , 3a nd 5a r ea li l u s t ra t ed i nt h ea pp rop r ia te R oy a l C omm i s s ion v o lume o n Do r se t RCHM E ) , 1 970b : P l a t e 1 8 ) .

6 )

S tud land S tN icho la s . B u i l tb e tw een 125 a nd 140 , S tud land h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s ' o ne o f t h e b e s t e xamp le s o f p a r i sh c hu r ch a r ch i t ec tu re i n No rman E ng land ' L undg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 1 3 ) . S tud land p r e se rve s i t s o r ig ina l t h r ee -ce l l p l an o f c hance l , c en t ra l t ow e r , a nd n ave ; t h e s ou th p o r ch i s n ine teen th c en tu ry G lynne , 1 924 : 6 0 -6 1 ; L undg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 ) .

1 8 ) 1 9 ) 2 0 )

2 ) 3 )

4 )

5 )

1 0 ) 1 ) 1 2 ) 1 3 )

1 4 )

1 5 )

1 6 ) 1 7 )

2 1 ) 2 2 ) 2 3 )

S cu lp ture I . C o rbe l s ,e x te r io ro fn or th a nd s ou th s i de so f t h en ave , 1 2 t hc en tu ry c . 1125 -1140 ) . I . A . 1 )

8 ) 9 )

No r th s i de o fn ave ,e a s tt ow e st P l a in b ea s th ead w i th p o in ted e a r s . I nJ ohn s ton ' s d raw ing 1 9 18 : 5 2 ,F ig . 1 0 )i ta ppea r st ob e ap i g . P l a in ,e xp re s s ion le s sh uman h ead . B ea s t h ead w i th p o in t ed e a r s a nd t h in n o se . J ohn s ton p i c tu r e si tc homp ing o n as t i ck ; f o rL undg ren a nd T hu r lby t h e p ro t rud ing e nd s o ft h e ' s t ick ' a r e a c tua l ly s ho r t t u sk s J ohn s ton , 1 9 18 : 5 2 , F ig . 1 2 ; L undg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 6 ) . F a i r ly p l a in h uman h ead who se h a i r h ang s c l o se t o t h e f a ce ' ah e lme t -l ike h a i r s t y le ' a c co rd ing t oL undg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 6 ) . A h o r izon ta l c y l inde r s hape w i th ac ro s s d e s ign o n e ach

B . 1 )

2 ) 3 )

e nd .

1 28

Ap a i r o fb ea s t h ead s w i th p o in ted e a r s , n ea r -cy l ind r ica l , d ownw a rd -po in t ing s nou t s , l ong , t h in p ro t rud ing t ongu e s a nd t e e th i n ac i rc le p a t t e rn a r ound t h et ongue s . G eome t r ic d e s ign s . S imp ly c a rv ed h uman h ead ,v e r yp l a in i na ppea rance . B ea s t h ead ; p l a in f a ce , m a s s iv e mou th w i th w ide p ro t rud ing t ongue . G eome t r ic d e s ign . H ead w i th e x tended t ongue . Two h ead s s i de b ys i de ,o ne a n ima l p i g ? ) a nd o n eh uman . B o th h av et h e i r mou th s o pen . F igu r e w i th a n a n ima l h ead a nd r ounded e a r s ; t h e e xac t f e a tu r e s o f t h e b ody a r e d i ff i cu l t t o d i sce rn w i th a ny c l a r i ty . C rouch ing f i gu re w i th h ug e h ead t i l t ed t o o n e s i de a nd e no rmou s b u lg ing g en i t a l s b e tw een h e rl e g s . H e rl e f t a rm p a s se sb enea th h e rl e f tt h igh a nd aw el -def ined h and r e s t s j u s t t o t h e l e f t o f t h e v u lva . T he r e i sn o r i gh t a rm b u t r a the r ac u r iou s w ing -l ik e p ro jec t ion . A l though i t i s a c cep ted t oday a s aS hee la -na -g ig McMahon a nd R obe r t s , 2 000 : 1 65 166 ) a ne a r l ie ri n te rp r e ta t ion c onc luded t h a tt h e f i gu r e r ep re sen t s ' t he c on to r t ion s o f a" t umb l e r ," w ho se h ead , w i th p ro t ruded t ongue , i st w i s t ed b e tw een h i s l e g s ' J ohn s ton , 1 918 : 5 3 ) F ig . 9 .9 ) . S qua t t ing f i gu re w i th s t a r ing h ead , s p r ead l e g s a nd a rm s t h a t a ppea r t o r e s t u pon t h e k nee s . T he p o s tu r e i s s ugg e s t ive o f a n e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu r e , a l though t h e s pace b e tw een t h e l e g s h a s e i the r b een l e f t u nf in i shed o r t ampe red w i th a ts ome p o in ti ni t sh i s to ry . Human h ead w i th l a rg e r ound e y e s , at a pe r ing f a ce a nd t r i angu la r mou th .T he h and so ft h ef i gu r ec up t h ec h in . A t umb le r/ac roba t . T he f i gu re i sb en t s o f a r b ackw a rd s t h a t t h e h ead a ppea r s u p s ide -down b e tween t h e k n ee s . H e rg en i ta l sa r ec l ea r ly v i s ib le F ig . 9 .3 b ) . H ead o f ab oa rw i th al a rg e s t i ck i ni t s mou th . F ou r -po in t ed s t a rd e s ign . P a i red f i gu r e c o rbe l . T he e a s t e rnmo s t i mag e i s o f a s qua t t ing m an w i th t h in t a pe r ing h ead ; t o h i s l e f t i st h e h ead o f ah o r se w i th b r id le ,o rt h eh ead o f amuzz led b ea r . G eome t r ic d e s ign ; ac i rc le e nc lo s ing a d i amond shape . T he p a t t e rn a ppea r s o ne ach f a ce o ft h ec o rbe l . Muzz led b ea rh ead . Two h ead s . T he e a s t e rnmo s t o ne i s af a i r ly p l a in b ea s t h ead w i th l ong d ownw a rd p o in t ing s nou t a nd p o in t ed e a r s . T he h ead o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e c o rbe l i s ah uman h ead a ng l ed a t4 5 d eg ree s t oi t sp a r tne r s o t h a ti t sg aze i s m e ti ft h ec hu rch i sa pp roa ched f r om a na ng l e )w i th h and s t h a t p u l l a t t h e s i de s o f t h e mou th . A l ong t ongu e p ro t rude s ; t h e e dg e s o f t h e mou th a r e l i ned w i th t e e th F ig . 6 .9 ) . S ou th s i de o ft h en av e ,w e s tt oe a s t : S im i la r c a rv ing t o A 23 ; ap a i r o f h ead s , t h e o ne o n t h e c o rne r i s ah uman h ead a ng led a t 4 5 d eg r ee s . I t t oo d i sp l ay s a n o pen mou th l i ned w i th t e e th , t i ny h and s o n e i the rs i de ,a nd al ong d roop ing t ongu e . T he o the rh ead i s t h a t o f ab ea s t w i th p o in t ed e a r s , o pen mou th a nd e x t ended t ongue . A muzz led b ea s th ead p o s s ib ly ab ea r ) . A s qua t t ing m a l e f i gu re w i th a s c ro tum o f g ene rou s p ropo r t ion s . H i s h and s r e s t a t t h e b a se o f h i s n ow m i s s ing ) p en i s , i t se lf ' f o rme r ly o f h e ro ic d i ame te r '

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture

4 )

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x ter io r o fn or th p o rch , n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e n ave , t owe r , 1 5 t hc en tury .

L undg ren a nd T hu r lby , 1 999 : 6 ) . H eh a s amou s t ache a nd h i sh ead i st i l ted b ackwa rd s F ig . 9 .5 a ) . B ea s t h ead c ha rac te r i st ic o f t h i s s e r ie s l ong , a lmo s t c y l ind r ica l - s haped s nou t w i th f l a t e nd , p o in ted e a r s a nd a lmond e ye s )w i th as ma l l , s e a ted h uman b ody t ha th o ld s a c y l ind r ica lo b jec ti ni t sl a p .

5 ) 6 )

8 ) 9 )

I . A . F ou r c arv ing s p ro jec t f r om t he t owe r

Ape -l ike h ead w i th r ound b u lg ing e ye s , o pen mou th w i th w ide l o l l ing t ongue , a nd at y pe o fc ap o rt h ick h a i r . G eome t r ic d e s ign — ac i rc le e nc lo s ing ad i amond s hape . Two c y l inde r shaped b ea s t h ead s . J ohn s ton c a l l s t h e se a p a i ro fd r agon ' sh ead s 1 9 18 : 5 4 ) . Ho r se h ead b i t ing u pon as t i ck . An ima l h ead w i th l a rg e p o in ted e a r s l i ke h o rn s . T he t ongue p ro trude s t h rough a s l i t -l ike mou th l i ned w i th t e e th . A p a i r o f s ma l l h and s r e s t u pon t h e s i de s o f t h e

2 ) 3 )

h and s . B ea s t h ead f l anked b y t wo l i on/demon f i gu re s , e ach o f wh ich p u l l s o ne s i de o ft h e c en t ra lb ea s t ' s mou th o pen . B . No r th p o rch a nd n or th s i de o fn ave c 1480 ) : 1 ) NE c o rne ro fp o rch ) B ea s tw i th w el -def ined b a tw ing s . 2 )

3 )

C . 1 )

P l a in ly c a rved h ead o f ap i g . G eome t r ic d e s ign . P l a in ly c a rved h uman h ead . A c opu la t ing c oup le . T he f i gu re f u r the s t e a s t a ppea r s t o h ave t h eh ead o fa na n ima l ,a nd l ook s o ve rt h e s hou lde r .

2 ) 3 )

4 )

1 8 ) P a i r o f h uman h ead s l ook ing o u t i n d i f f e ren t d i rect ion s . B o th h ave l ong t h in mou s tache s , r ound e ye s a nd a n o pen

1 9 ) 2 0 ) 2 1 ) 2 2 )

b ody , f o repaw sw i th c l aw s a nd w ide o pen mou th . L ion w i th p rofu se mane . S qua t t ing h uman f i gu re p u l l ing o pen h i s mou th w i th h i s

4 )

f a ce . 1 0 ) A r am ' s h ead c arved i n t h e s t y le o f m any o f t h e b ea s t h ead s i n t h i s s equence , i . e . w i th a l ong c y l ind r ica l s nou t a nd f l a t mou th . Two s p i ral ing h o rn s a ppea ra tt h e s i de s o f t h eh ead . 1 ) Ap a i ro fp l a in h uman h ead s . 1 2 ) V iew ed s t ra igh t o n , ag eome t r ic d e s ign c ommon t o t h i s s equence a c i rc le e nc lo s ing a d i amond ) . V iewed f r om b enea th , t wo g r imac ing h uman h ead sw i th b a red t e e th . 1 3 ) De s t royed . 1 4 ) 1 5 ) 1 6 ) 1 7 )

c 1430 ) , o ne f r om

e ach c o rner : 1 ) NW ) Hyb r id b ea s t w i th b a t -l ike w ing s , s haggy h a i red

mou th . T he h ead f u r the s t e a s t p ul s a t t h e s i de s o f h i s mou th w i th s ma l lh and s . De s t royed . Human h ead . B ea s t h ead w i th l a rg e o pen mou th , e x tended t ongue a nd l ong p o in ted e a r s . B ea s th ead .

NW c orne r o f p o rch ) B ea s t w i th l a rge e a r s a nd s haggy f u r -cove red b ody . I t s h eavy p aw s a ppea r t o p u l l t h e s i de s o ft h e a l ready g ap ing mou th . A t j unctu re o f t ow er ) B ea s t h ead w i th p uf f y c heek s , u p r igh t e a r s a nd t h ick h a i r . Ad ra inp ipe c ome s o u t o ft h e o pen mou th . S ou th s i de o ft he s ou th a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t c 1500 ) S E c o rner , o n t op o f t h e b u t t re s s ) P row l ing b ea s t w i th o pen mou th ,l a rg e e a r s ,r i dg ed h ead a nd b u lg ing e ye s . S im i la rc r ea tu re t oC l . S ea ted h uman f i gu re w i th b i rd ' s f e e t , a n ima l e a r s a nd w ide o pen mou th . T he f i gu re r e s t s h i s h ead i nh i s h and s F ig . 7 . 9 ) . F e roc iou s look ing h ybr id w i th a ngu la r e a r s , l a rge o va l e ye s ,o pen mou th ,b a tw ing sa nd f e a the red f o re leg s .

Upwey S t L aw rence DORS16 ) . T he c hance l , v e s t ry , s ou th a i s le a nd s ou th a r cade o f t h i s c hu rch a r e mode rn ; t h e n o r th a r cade , n o r th a i s le a nd t owe r d a te t o t h e f i f teen th c en tury G lynne , 1 924 : 6 6 -67 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 4 33 -434 ) . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , r e spond s a t e ach e nd o f n or th a r cade a nd e a s t e nd o f s ou th a r cade , 1 5 t h c en tury . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x ter io r o fn or th a i s le , 1 5 t h c en tury .

2 3 ) De s t roy ed . 2 4 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign . 2 5 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign . D e sc r ipt ion s o ft h e c o rbe l t ab le c an b e f ound i nt h e a r t ic le s b y J ohn s ton 1 918 : 3 3 -68 ) a nd L undg ren a nd T hu r lby 1 999 : 1 1 6 ) . Many o ft h e c a rv ing s o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e n ave w e re s k e tched b y J ohn s ton a nd a r e u sed t o i l u s t ra te h i s a r t ic le 1 9 18 : 1 4 , 6 15 ) . L undg ren a nd T hu r lby i l u s t ra te B 18 , B 17 , B 3 , B 1 , A 14 , A 21 i n f i gu re s 8 13 1 999 : 7 ) . T he R oya l C omm i s s ion a l so p ubl i sh p ho tog raph s o f c a rv ing s B 3 , B 9 , B 17 ,B 18 RCH M E ) , 1 970a : P l a te 7 ) .

I .A rcade o ff ou r b ay s w i th f ol ia te c ap i ta l b and s a nd mou lded c o lumn s . 1 ) 2 )

S yd l ing S tN icho las S tN icho la s . S t and ing t o t h e s ou th w e s t o ft h e v i l lag e t h e c hu rch c on s i s t s o f aw e s t t owe r , n ave , n o r th p o rch , s ou th a i s le a nd c hance l . T he t ow e r i st h e o lde s t p a r t o f

3 )

t h e b u i ld ing , d a t ing t ot h e m id -f if teen th c en tury . T he n ave a nd n o r th p o r ch w e re b u i l ts oon a f te r , wh i le a round 1 500 t h e s ou th a r cade a nd s ou th a i s le w e re a dded . T he c hance l i s ap o s t m ed ieva l r ebu i ld m id -e igh teen th c en tu ry ) RCH ME , 1 952 : 2 30 -233 ) .

1 29

W r e spond ) G reen Man ; a s imp le h ead d i sgo rg ing s i nuou s o ak f ol iage f r om e ach c o rner o ft h e mou th . Er e spond ) F ol ia te h ead ; as ma l l h ead a mong s t t w i s t ing b e r ry laden f ol iage . T he s t em s a ppea r t o s p rou t f r om b eh ind t he h ead . Er e spond , s ou th a r cade ) S im i la rt ot h e a bove .

I .T h ree c arv ing s ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) F igu re u pon t h e b ack o f al i on ' s h ead . T he mou th o ft h e l i on i so pen a nd l i ned w i th r ounded t e e th . T he f i gu re s i t s a s t r ide t h e n eck o ft h e a n ima l a nd h o ld s e ach s i de o f t h e mou th . 2 ) H ead a nd f o repa r t s o f ac r e s ted , w ing ed a nd s c a led c r ea tu re ,p o s s ib ly ad ragon .

Append ix 1 3 )

an o se d eco ra ted w i th t h ree s pher ica l l ump s . A ga in , t h e re a r e t wo s phe re sw i th b a tw ing s o ne i the r s i de o ft h e f a ce . P e te r Kn igh t i l u s t ra te s t h e se c arv ing s 1 998 : 8 0 , P l a te 3 1 ) a nd b el ieve s t h a t t h ey a r e p ha l l ic s ymbo l s ; ' Fou r d ragon -w ing ed

NW c o rne r ) C rouch ing l i on i n p rof i le . T he mou th i s o pen a nd t h e mane i sc arved i n s t r ia ted l i ne s c ompa re w i th Mappowder g a rgoy le s ) .

b al s a r e v i s ib le . T he l ong , b ea rded C e l t ic s ty le h ead s w i th p ha l l ic n o se s r i se u p f r om b e tween t h e se s phe re s ' 1 998 : 7 9 ) . Howeve r , t h e h yb r id b ea s t f i gu re w i th b a l l jo in t w ing s c an b e f ound e l sewhe re , f o r e xamp le , o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave a t S he rbo rne Abbey . Any p hal ic s i gn if i cance i st e nuou s .

Win te rbou rne Wh i techu rch S t Mary . A f l i n t a nd r ubb le c hu rch w i th a sh la r d re s s ing s c on s i s t ing o f a n a i s led n ave , c hance l , c en t ra l t ow e r a nd s ou th c hape l . T he c hance l d a te s t o t h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tury . T race s o ff o rme r n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s s ugge s t ac ruc iform s t ructu re o nce e x i s ted . T he c ro s s ing w a s r ebu i l t i nt h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry a nd t h e p re sen t c en t ra l t owe r d a te s t o t h e f i f teen th c en tury . T he s ou th i so n t h e s i te o f t h e f o rme r s ou th t r an sep t a nd d a t e s m id -f if teen th c en tu ry . I n 1 844 t h e n ave w a s c omp le t e ly a nd t h e n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s a dded . T he d a te o ft h e

Wor th Ma t ravers S tN icho la s . No rman c hu rch c on s i s t ing o fa

c hape l t o t h e r ebu i l t a r che s

w e s tt owe r , n ave a nd c hance l , a l o f wh ich d a te t oc . 100 ,w i th al a te m ed ieva l s ou th p o rch . I n t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry as ou th c hape lo rt r an sep tw a s b u i l to n to t h e n ave ;t h i sw a s d emol i shed i nt h e e i gh teen th c en tu ry . I n t he t h i r teen th c en tu ry t h e c hance l w a s r ebu i l t , e xcep t f o r p a r t s o f t h e n o r th w al . T he e a s t w al

b enea th t h e t owe r h a s p roved t o b e a n a r t h i s to r ica l p rob lem . I n 1 910 P en t in s ugge s ted t h a t t h ey w e re l a te No rman ; s i x ty y ea r s l a ter t h e R oya l C omm i s s ion s ugg e s ted t h a t t h ey a r e f ou r teen th c en tury w i th s i x teen th -cen tu ry c ap i ta l s P en t in ,

w a s r ebu i l t i n t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry . E x ten s ive r e s to ra t ion o ccu r red b e tw een 1 869 a nd 1 872 , wh ich m ay c omp rom i se t h e a u then t ic i ty o f t h e e x ten s ive c o rbe l tab le o n t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e n ave a nd c hance l . I ndeed , t h e R oya l

1 910 : x xxv il i -xxx ix ; RCH M E ) , 1 970b : 3 09 -311 ; Newman a nd P ev sne r , 1 972 : 4 88 -489 ) .

C omm i s s ion s ugge s t s t h a t t he c o rbe l tab le s a r e r e se t a l though t h e p i ece s t h em se lve s a r e o r ig ina l t o t h e s i t e RCH M E ) ,

S cu lpture I . C ap i ta l s , i n te r io r o f c en t ra l t owe r , 1 3 t h a nd 1 6 t hc en tury ? )

1 970a : 4 10 -4 11 ) . S cu lp ture I . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f

I . T he c ap i ta l s , o r mo re p rope r ly r e spond s n one o f t h e c o lumn s a r e f r ee s tand ing ) , a ppea r b enea th t h e c hance l a r ch a nd a n a r ch t o t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e c hance l t h a t o pen s o u t i n to as ou th c hape l/a i s le . T he c a rv ing s b e long ing t oe ach a r ch

t h en ave a nd c hance l , 1 2 t h c en tury . O the r c a rv ing s : A ) t ympanum ; B ) v a r iou s f r agmen t s ; C ) t owe rc orbe l s .

a r e s t y l i s t ica l ly v ery d i f f e ren t . T he f ou r c arv ing s b enea th t he c hance l a r ch e ach d ep ic t t h e h ead o f aman o r ma sk , t h e e dge s

I .S ou th s i de o ft h e n ave ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) Two h uman h ead s c a rved o n t h e s ame c o rbe l , n o t p l aced a tt h e v ery e dg e o ft h e w al b u t t u cked b eh ind ab u t t re s s c on t ra s tw i th t h ep a i red h ead s a tt h e NW a nd SW c o rne r s o ft h en ave a tn ea rby S tud land ) . E a ch f a ce l ook si ns l igh t ly

o f t h e f a ce d i s so lv ing i n to b road leaved f ol iage F ig . 7 . 6 ) . A l te rna t ive ly t h e se m ay b e ma sk s . T he t omb o f W i l l iam S ha r r ing ton i n t h e n o r th c hance l a i s le o f S t C y r iac , L acock , W i l t sh i re , b ea r s s im i la r h ead s i np rof i le , t h e e dg e s o ft h e f a ce s d i s so lv ing i n to l e ave s . T he t omb d a te s t o c . 1566 . T he c ap i t a l s b enea th t h e o ther a r ch s ugg e s t t h i r teen th -cen tu ry wo rk , t h e c a rv ing o ft h e h ead s , f ol i ag e , a nd t h e p i la s t e r s o ft h e c o lumn s

2 ) 3 )

t h em se lve s a l v e ry d i f f e ren t . On t he se i mage s t h e f ol iage a ppea r s t os p rou to u to ft h e e a r s o ft h ey ou thfu lm a le h ead s .

4 ) 5 )

Wi tcha mp ton S t Mary , S tC u thbe rg a a nd A l S a in t s . R e s to red i n t h e n ine teen th -cen tu ry , o n ly t h e t owe r r ema in s a s g enu ine l a te m ed ieva l wo rk . Th i s d a tes t o t h e f i f teen th c en tury . T he

6 )

7 ) 8 ) 9 )

S cu lpture I . C o rbe l s ,i n te r io ro ft ow e r , 1 5 t h c entury .

h ead mo t if . A s a bove . A s a bove ,b u t much mo re w ea the r ed . C hunky b ea s t h ead w i th aw ide o va l mou th , e ye s a bove t h e c o rne r s a nd t h ick f o rel imb s s p r ing ing f r om b e low t h e

c o rne r s o ft h e mou th . 1 0 ) C y l inde r , e ach e nd c a rved w i th ac ro s s . 1 ) A s a bove ,b u tt h e c yl inde ri sa lmo s tt w ice t h el e ng th . 1 2 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w el d ef ined s nou t , w edg e shaped n o se w i th n o s t r i l s , a nd ar ow o fs mal i nden ted c i rc le s a l ong t h e

I . Two c o rbe l s b ea r ing s im i la r d e s ign s , e ach o ne s e t o ppo s i te t h e o the r o n t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e e a s te rnmo s t t ow e ra r ch .

2 )

Wea the red b ea s t h ead w i th mou th s l i gh t ly o pen . L ike t h e h uman h ead s i ti sr ounded a nd c hunky i ni t s a ppea rance . S imp ly c a rved b ea s t h ead w i th s nou t , f l a t n o se a nd p o in ted e a r s , t h e e ye s s e tl ow d own b enea th t h em . Human h ead w i th s imp le f e a tu re s a nd ac h in t h a tt a pe r s t o ap o in t —t h e c l a s s ic i nve r ted p ea r s hape o f t h e s eve red

s ou th t r an sep td a te s t o 1 832 , wh i le t h e c hance l ,n ave a nd n o r th t r an sep t w e re r ebu i l t i n 1 844 A lmack , 1 918 : 18 ; RCH M E ) , 1 975 : 1 04 105 ) .

1 )

o ppo s i te d i rec t ion s . P l a in , r ounded h uman h ead , s t a r ing s t ra igh t o u t f r om t h e w a l l . A s a bove ,b u tu pon aw ide rc o rbe l .

Ns i de ) B o ld ly c a rved g r imac ing h uman f a ce w i th p o in ted c h in a nd h eavy o va l e ye s . Two s phe re s , t o wh ich a r e a t t ached b a t -l ike w ing s ,a ppea ro ne i the r s i de . Ss i de ) B ea s t h ead c a rved i n as im i la r s t y le . T he f a ce i s c ha rac ter i sed b yp o in ted e a r s , aw ide g r imac ing mou th a nd

t op l i p t oi nd ica te t e e th . T he s equence c on t inue s o n t h e t h a ta l so m a rk s t h e c en t re o ft h e 1 3 ) P a i red h uman h ead s , b o th w al . One a ppea r s t o h ave s i de o ft h e h ead .

1 30

o the r s i de o f ab road b u t t re ss r oof o ft h e s ou th p o rch . l ook ing d i rec t ly o u t f r om t h e al a rge a n ima l e a r o n t h e t op

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 1 4 ) S ing le h uman h ead w i th l a rg e e a r s . 1 5 ) Human h ead w i th b ea rd a nd s t r ia ted l i ne s i nd ica t ing h a i r o nt he t op a nd s i de s o ft h e h ead . 1 6 ) B ea s t h ead w i th f l a t -ended s nou t , s im i la r t o many a t S tud land . Any o ther f e a tu re s a r e c oncea led b y l i chen a nd t h e e f f ec t s o fw ea the r ing . 1 7 ) S imp le r ounded h uman h ead w i th o va l e ye s , w edge n o se a nd t h in o va l mou th . 1 8 ) W ide ,w ea the red h uman h ead w i th c l o sed e ye s . 1 9 ) B ea s tw i th t h ick f o re l imb s b e tw een wh ich a ppea r s as ma l l h ead . 2 0 ) P robab ly ac omp lex c arv ing o r ig ina l ly b u tn ow r educed t o a n i n comp rehen s ib le ma s s o f l i chen a nd c rumbl ing i r regu la r ma son ry . 2 1 ) P a i r o f h uman h ead s , i n ap oo r c ond it ion . T he b a s ic f e a tu re s r ema in ,h oweve r .

3 9 ) B road f e l ine b ea s t h ead w i th g rooved p ro t rud ing t ongue a nd w ide mou th ,p o in ted e a r s a nd w ea thered f a ce . 4 0 ) S hee la -na -g ig . S qua t t ing f i gu re w i th o ve r s ize h ead a nd l e g s p a r ted t o r e vea l t h e g en i ta l s . H e r l e f t h and r e ache s d own b e tween t h e l e g s , h e r r i gh t h and r e s t s o n t h e b e l ly . T he f i gu re h a s r ounded ,b road ,d i sc -l ike f e e t F ig . 9 .8 ) . 4 1 ) B eak h ead w i th p o in t ed e a r s a nd s o me th ing h e ld i n i t s b eak .

2 2 ) Human h ead w i th o f fc en t re w edge n o se . 2 3 ) P a i r o f h ead s , b ad ly w ea the red . One may h ave b een a b ea s th ead . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o fn o . 1 3 , a l t h e c o rbe l s i n t h i s b ay h ave h ad p a r t s c u to u t o ft h e i r t op mo s t e dg e . T h i s p a r t o ft he n ave w a s o nce t h e l o ca t ion o ft he f ou r teen th -cen tury s ou th c hape l t h a t w a s t a ken d own i n t h e e i gh teen th c en tu ry , a nd wou ld s ugg e s t t h a t t h e c o rbe l s w e re c u ti n to t o t a ke t h e e nd s o fr oof b eam s o r r e l a ted s t ructu ra l woodwo rk . T h i s mean s t h a t t he c o rbe l sh e re a r ei nt he i ro r ig ina l med ieva l s i tu . S ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t : 2 4 ) P a i red b ea s t h ead s w i th s t ra igh t h o rn s a nd e a r s b enea th t h em ,l a rge o va le ye s , s t r ia ted f a ce , o pen mou th s a nd t e e th i nd ica ted b yl ong s t ra igh tg roove s . 2 5 ) W ide b ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd s l igh t ly p ro t rud ing t ongue , s ma l l p o in ted e a r s o n t h e t op c o rner s o ft h e h ead , l a rge e ye s s e tb enea th t h em a nd aw edg e n o se . 2 6 ) W ide a nd f l a tb ea s th ead w i th b road s nou t a nd mou th t ha t r un s c omp le te ly f r om o ne s i de o f t h e h ead t o t he o the r . T here i s ap ro trud ing t ongue , w edge shaped n o se a nd l ong p o in ted e a r s o nt he t op c o rne r s o ft h e h ead . 2 7 ) H ead w i th al e g o n e ach s i de — ag rylu s . L ine s a r e c a rved i n to t h e f a ce , a round t h e mou th . 2 8 ) L ion i np rof i le ,h ead t u rned t oi t sl e f tt of a ce t h ev i ew e r . A t h ick t a i lf o ld s o ve ri t sb ack . 2 9 ) B ea s t h ead i nt he s hape o f ab oa r ' s h ead b u t w i thou t t h e t u sk s . O the r t h an r ounded e a r s o n t h e c o rne r s o f t h e h ead ,f ew o the rf e a tu re s a r e d i sce rn ib le . 3 0 ) F el ine b ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd p ro t rud ing t ongue , l a rge o va l e ye s , s qua re n o se , a nd h a i r o n t h e t op o ft h eh ead b e tween t he r ounded e a r s . 3 1 ) P a i r o f h uman h ead s w i th s imp le f e a tu re s , o ne w ea r ing s o me f o rm o fc ap . 3 2 ) Human h ead w i th a n ima l l e g s o n e a ch s i de t ha t e nd i n h oove s .

4 2 ) H igh ly e roded b ea s t h ead w i th t a per ing s nou t , r e c tangu la r n o se a nd p o in ted e a r s . No r th s i de o ft h e n ave , e a s tt ow e s t : 4 3 ) S imp ly c a rved a n ima l h ead , f a i r ly c y l ind r ica l w i th f l a t e nded s nou t , t r i angu la r e a r s a nd s mal o va l e ye s d i rec t ly b enea th . 4 4 ) C y l inde rw i th ac ro s s c a rved i n to e ach e nd . 4 5 ) S imp le h uman h ead w i th s ma l l a rm s a nd t i ny h and s t h a t c ome f r om b enea th t h e c h in t og r ip t h e l owe r j aw . Wedg e n o se a nd s mal e y e s s e tv ery h igh u p o nt h e f a ce . 4 6 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign . 4 7 ) E roded h uman h ead , t h eb a s ic f e atu re s s t i l lv i s ib le . 4 8 ) G r imac ing h uman h ead , q u i te h eav i ly w ea the red . 4 9 ) Human h ead ,b ad ly w ea thered . 5 0 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign b a sed u pon i n te r sec t ing c y l inde r s . 5 1 ) Wea the red r ounded h uman h ead . 5 2 ) Human h ead w i th p o in ted c h in . 5 3 ) A s a bove . 5 4 ) R ound f a ced b ea s t h ead w i thou t e a r s , af l a t -ended s nou t a nd o pen mou th . 5 5 ) Human h ead , h igh ly w ea thered s o f ew f e a tu re s a r e d i sce rn ib le . 5 6 ) W ide b ea s t h ead w i th l ong p o in t ed e a r s , s nou t , a nd g r inn ing o pen mou th . 5 7 ) B ea s t h ead w i th s ma l l p o in ted e a r s , l a rge e ye s , l a rge a nd b road w edg e n o se w i th p ronounced n o s t r i l s , f l a t -ended s nou ta nd o pen mou th l i ned w i th t r iangu la rt e e th . 5 8 ) T h i s c arv ing may h ave b egun a s ab ea s t h ead , b u t t h e l owe r h a lf i s m i s s ing , p e rhap s i t b roke i n t wo? T he u nde r s ide whe re t h e j aw s hou ld b e h a s b een n ea t ly f i n i shed a nd c arved w i th ac i rc le e nc lo s ing ac ro s s . 5 9 ) Human h ead w i th p o in t ed c h in a nd w ea r ing s ome f o rm o f h eadd re s s . 6 0 ) Human h ead w i th b ig d i sc -l ike e a r s . 6 1 ) C y l inde rw i th ac ro s s d e s ign a te ach e nd . 6 2 ) Human h ead w i th b ig e a r s . 6 3 ) B ea s th ead w i th b road , t a pe r ing s nou tw i th af l a te nd , t h in w edg e n o se , e ye s p l aced v ery c l o se t og e the r , a nd l a rg e p o in ted e a r s . 6 4 ) B ea s t h ead s im i la r t o a bove b u t much l e s s b road a nd f ewe r f a c ia lf e a tu re s a r ev i s ib le .T he mou th i so pen . I . O the rc a rv ing s . A ) T he t ympanum i s c arved w i th t h e C o rona t ion o f t h e

3 3 ) Human h ead w i th t h ick a rm s o ne i the rs i de . 3 4 ) Human h ead w ea r ing at h ick r i bbed h a t . Nor th s i de o ft h e c hance l , e a s tt ow e s t : 3 5 ) P a i r o f b ea s t h ead s , o ne w i th p rom inen t e ye s , g r inn ing

B )

mou th a nd r ounded e a r s ,t h e o the rw i th p o in ted e a r s . 3 6 ) B i rd o rb a tf i gu re w i th w ing sp a r t ia l ly o u t s t re tched . 3 7 ) Damag ed b ea s th ead w i th p o in ted e a r s . 3 8 ) Human f i gu re c on s t ra ined b yt he w r i s t s a nd a nk le s a si fi n s o me f o rm o fs t ock s . T he i mage i st oo w ea the red t o make i to u tw i th a ny c e r ta in ty .

V i rg in w i th t wo a t tendan t a nge l s a nd i sb ad ly d amag ed , h av ing s pl i ti n to t wo p i ece s . F ragmen t s . I n t h e s ou th w a l lo ft h e c hance lt h e re i s ar e se t c o rbe l o f ah ead who se h eadd re ss i s made f r om t wo b ea s t h ead s . I n t h e s ou th p o rch a r e v a r iou s l a te med ieva l f r agmen t s o fc a rv ing t h a t may h ave c ome f r om t h e f o rme r s ou th c hape l .

C )

1 31

T he c o rbe l s o n t h e f ou rf a ce s o ft h ew e s tt owe ra r e f o rt h e mo s t p a r t p l a in o r c arved w i th g eome t r ic mo t if s s uch a s c y l inde r so rg roove s .

Append ix 1 J ohn Hope d e sc r ibed t h em a s ' r ude ly o rnamen ted c ap i ta l s , i n wh ich may b e s e en l i ng e r ing t r ace s o f t h e c l a s s ica l v o lu te ' 1 903 : 4 81 ) . P ev sne r a nd L loyd m en t ion t h em i nt h e B u i ld ing s

H amp s h i re A l ton S t L aw rence . E s sen t ia l ly a f i f teen th -cen tu ry c hu rch c on s t ruc ted f r om l o ca l s t one a nd f l in t s . S t ruc tu raly i tc on s i s t s

o f Eng land s e r ie s 1 967 : 7 6 ) . C a ro la H ick s s t a te s t h a t t h e ' c ap i ta l s o f t h e t owe r a r ch a tA l ton , H amp sh i re , c an b e d a ted t o c . 1 090 a nd w ere d e s igned a s as equence o f c onf ron ted , b ackwa rd tu rn ing , t a i l -b it ing f e l ine s , ab ackwa rd -tu rn ing b i rd wh ich b i te s a ti t s own w ing , s eve ra l b i rd s w i th e x tended w ing s ,

o f an ave a nd c hance lo fs even b ay sw i thou ta ny d i v i s ion ,a nd a s ou th a i s le o f t h e s ame l e ng th d iv ided m idway b y al a te e l even th -cen tu ry t owe r . O f p o s s ib le S axon d a te i st h e f on t i n t h e s ou th a i s le , c a rved f r om o ne s ol id b lock o f s t one a nd

a nd al i on w i th ap ro t rud ing t ongue a nd at a i l e nd ing i n al e af y t i p . O the rc ap i ta l f a ce s a r e d eco ra ted w i th f ol i ag e s p r ig s ' 1 993 : 2 64 ) . T he g u idebook a va i lab le a tt h e c hu rch t e l s u s t h a t ' M l le c arv ing s a t t h e t op o f t he p i l la r s , n o d oub t b y F rench c r af t smen , a nd a ga in a xe wo rk , a r e u n ique . T he s ub jec t s

w i thou t d eco ra t ion a S axon t own sh ip g r ew u p h e re f r om c . 5 00 ) ; t h e re a r e a l so f r agmen t s o f c arved s t one s e t i n to t h e s ou th w a l lo ft h e s ou th a i s le Hope , 1 903 ; C oupe r , 1 995 ) . S cu lpture I . C ap i ta l s , b a se o f c ro s s ing t owe r , c 1070 1 090 . n te r io r o f s ou th a i s le , n ave , C o rbe l s , i c hance l , a nd s ou th c hape l , 1 5 t hc en tu ry .

i n c lude awo lf d evou r ing ab one , ac ock w i th f e e t u pwa rd s , a p iou s p el ican , ad ove , t wo o r t h ree w ing ed c herub f a ce s , al i t t le d emon f a ce , a nd t wo d onkey s l y ing o n t h e i r b ack s a nd k i ck ing t he i rf e e tu pi nt h e a i ri nt he i re xuberance ' C oupe r , 1 995 : 7 ) . I . C o rbe l s , i n te r io r o f s ou th a i s le , n ave , c hance l , a nd s ou th

I .C ap i ta l s ,b a se o fc ro s s ing t owe r , c . 1070 -1090 . T he t owe r c ro s s ing c on s i s t s o f f ou r a r che s o f o ne o rde r s uppo r ted b y f ou r c l u s te r s o f b onded l ime s tone c o lumn s b ea r ing b o th c u sh ion a nd c ompo s i te t y pe c ap i ta l s . Due t ol a te r b u i ld ing wo rk n one a r e n ow f r ee s tand ing . E ach c l u s ter i s

c hape l , 1 5 t h c en tury . Ad i scon t inuou s s e r ie s o f w i th o ne e xcep t ion ) r obu s t ly c a rved b u s t s s e rve a s c o rbe l s t o t he r oof b eam s t h roughou t t h e c hu rch . T hey s ha re many s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e c o rbe l s a t Ho lybou rne wh ich s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e s equence s a t b o th c hu rche s w e re c arved b y t h e s ame t e am . P ev sne r a nd L loyd d a te t he Ho lybou rne c a rv ing s t oc . 1400 ; t h e se may w el b e o fa

c ar ved . A . No r thw e s tC lu s te r 1 ) S ou th c ap i ta l . T he b roade s t f a ce o f t h e c u sh ion c ap i ta l f a c ing s ou th ) i sc a rved w i th awo lf o r f ox h o ld ing as p r ig 2 )

o ff ol iag ei ni t s mou th .

s im i la rd a te . A . No r th s i de o fs ou th a i s le , f r om w e s tt oe a s t

E a s t c ap i ta l . S t y l i sed v eg e ta t ion a nd g eome t r ic d e s ign s ; f u r the s t n or th a b i rd o fp rey , p o s s ib ly a n ow l , o ne w ing t r a i l ing b eh ind i t s b ack , i t s l e g s o u t s t re tched , a nd h ead

2 )

1 )

h eadd re s s a nd s ome s o r t o fs hou lde rc ove r ing .

t u rned t ot h er i gh t .

3 )

H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f ama le w i th ab ea rd a nd t h ick w avy h a i rt h a tb u r s t s f r om b enea th ac ap . B . S ou th s i de o fn ave , f r om w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f ama le w i th s hor t c u r ly h a i r a nd a

B . No r thea s tC lu s te r 1 ) West c ap i ta l . S ca l lop c ap i ta lf l anked b ys imp le f ol i ag e s p r ig

2 )

d e s ign s . On t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e ma in c u sh ion c ap i ta l t h e re i s ar ep re sen ta t ion o f as mal b i rd . S ou th c ap i ta l . Two c onf ron ted h ooved q uad ruped s who se h ead s a r e t u rned 1 80 d eg ree s i n o rde r t o b i te t h e i r e r ec t t a i l s F ig . 5 .1 ) ,t h em se lve s c urved u pwa rd t h rough t h e i r

2 )

w avy g oa tee b ea rd . H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af ema le w i th h a i r c u r led a nd

n e t ted i n to t wo t h ick b un s o ne ach s i de o ft h e h ead . 3 ) Ma le h ead a nd s hou lde r s . C . No r th s i de o fn ave , f r om w e s tt oe a s t

r e a rl e g s . B e tween t h e t wo b ea s t s i s as mal , s t y l i sed f ol iag e s p r ig w i th v o lu te s . T he w e s te rnmo s t c o rne r f a c ing w e s t ) b ea r s ah yb r id w ing ed f i gu re n ex tt o ap l an t .

1 )

C .S ou thea s tC lu s te r T he se c ap i ta l s a r e a lmo s t e n t i re ly d eco ra ted w i th v o lu te s a nd g eome t r ic d e s ign s . A s i ng le h uman h ead w i th t h e t ongue e x tended a ppea r s t owa rd s t he t op o f t h e e a s t f a ce o f t h e

Mou th -pu l le r . Human h ead w i th d i sembod ied h and s , t wo f i nge r s o f e ach h and p u l l ing a pa r t t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th . T ee th a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le . T he h ead h a s a lmond s haped e ye s a nd s ho r t c u r ly h a i r . T h i s i sa n o dd c a rv ing i n c ompa r i son t ot h e r e s t o ft he s e r ie s wh ich s ugge s t s t h a ti t i sr eu sed . E v idence t o s uppo r t t h i s i d ea may b e f ound i n t h e d amage a round t he e dg e s o f t h e c o rbe l , i t s c ompa ra t ive ly s mal s i ze , t h e l ow r e l ief c a rv ing o ft h e f a ce

c en t ra lc ap i t a l . D . S ou thwe s tC lu s te r T he c arv ing s h e re a r e n o tewor thy f o r t wo r ep re sen ta t ion s o f G reen Man h ead s : 1 ) F ur the s t e a s t , t a k ing t h e w e s t e nd o f t h e w e s t/ea s t a r ch , t he h ead h a s t wo l a rge a nd a bundan t s p r ig s o f f ol iage

2 )

H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af i gu re w i th a n e x tended t ongue t h a tr e s t s u pon t h ec h in . H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f a s m i l ing woman w ea r ing a

i n c ompa r i son t o a l t he o the r i mag es i n t h i s s equence wh ich p ro jec t f r om a nd h ide t he i r c o rbe l b lock s ) a nd t h e R omane sque s t y le o ft h e c arv ing . A l l o f wh ich s ugg e s t s a l a te 1 2 th o r 1 3 th c en tu ry o r ig in f o r t he i mage ; ap o s s ib le r ema inde r f r om t h e w e s twa rd e x ten s ion o f t h e n ave t h a t

g row ing f r om i t s mou th . T he f ol i ag e d roop s d ownwa rd g i v ing t h e a ppea rance f r om ad i s tance ) o fw ing s . A lmo s t n ex t t o t h i s i mag e , a mong t h e c ap i ta l s t a k ing t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h e n o r th/sou th a r ch a s im i la r h ead a ppea r s . Y e tt h e re a r e s i gn if i can td i f f e rence s —f ol iag e o n ly g row s f r om t h e l e f t s i de o f t h e mou th ; o n t h e r i gh t a

w inged s e rpen t s c rol s r ound , i t s u p s ide -down ) mou th i n t h e mou th o ft h e G reen Man F ig . 5 .9 ) . T he se c ap i ta l s h ave b een c ommen ted o n b y an umbe r o f w r i te r s t h roughou t t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry . I n 1 903 W . H . S t

2 )

o ccu r red i nt h e t we lf th c en tu ry C oupe r , 1 995 : 9 ) . H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f n o p a r t icu la r ly c l ea r g ende r ,

w ea r ing at h ick h ood a nd c ap . D No r th -ea s tc o rne ro fc hance l 1 ) G reen Man . H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af i gu re a ng led t ol ook i n to t h e c hance l a t a bou t f o r ty -f ive d eg ree s . F rom t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th eme rg e t wo s t em s o f f ol iage t h a t g row u p e ach s i de o ft he f a ce . A s w i th mo s to ft h e i mag e s

1 32

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture i n t h i s s equence t h e s t y le i ss imp le a nd b o ld w i th f ew i n c i sed l i ne s . V e ry s im i la r i n s t y le t o t ha t a t n ea rby Ho lybou rne . E . S ou th s i de o fc hance l , f r om e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f am a le w i th t h ick w avy h a i r , w ea r ing ac rown a nd w i th ag oa tee b ea rd . 2 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f ama le . T he c o rbe l i ss p l i t i nt wo , b u t s t i l l c l ea r e nough t o make o u t — ah ead w i th t h ick w avy h a i r , ag oa t ee b ea rd , a nd w ea r ing ac ap . F . Nor th s i de o fs ou th c hape l 1 3 ) . As e r ie s o ft h ree s t r ik ing ly s im i la rc o rbe l s , e ach o ne b ea r ing t he h ead a nd s hou lde r s o f a ma le f i gu re w i th s ho r t w avy h a i r p ro t rud ing f r om b enea th at y pe o fc ap .

R ib I B o ss 2 )H ead o f am i t red c l e r ic . B o ss 6 )H ead o f awoman w ea r ing aw imp le . R ib J B o ss 2 )C rowned a nd b ea rded ma le h ead . B o s s 6 )C rowned f ema le h ead w i th l ong f l ow ing h a i r . R ib K B o ss 2 )H ead o f am i t red c l e r ic . B o ss 6 )C rowned ma le h ead R ib L B o ss 2 )Ab ea rded h ead . B o ss 6 )H ead e x tend ing al ong d roop ing t ongue F ig . 6 .1 0b ) .

G . S ou th s i de o fs ou th c hape l , f r om e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f a ma le w i th w avy h a i r t o t h e s hou lde r s a nd at a s se le nded s c a rf t u cked i n to ac oa t . 2 )

B ins tead , I s le o f Wigh t

Ho ly C ro s s . P a r i sh c hu rch n ea r t o

Qua r r Abbey w i th an ave a nd c hance l c hu rch w a s p robab ly b u i l t f o r t h e q ua r r ie s c 1150 . How eve r , f olow ing 1 844 i n wh ich t h e n ave w a s p u l led

H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f a ma le w i th a p lump f a ce , w avy h a i r a nd w ea r ing at h ick -cola red g a rmen t .

b u i l t o fl o ca l s t one . T he u se o f wo rke r s i n t he ad ra s t ic r e s to ra t ion i n d own a nd r ebu i l t , l i t t le

med ieva l wo rk s u rv ive s S tone , 1 912 ) . B eau l ieu B le ssed V i rg in a nd Ho ly C h i ld . T he p re sen t c hu rch i st h e f o rme rr e f ec tory o ft h e C i s te rc ian a bbey b u i l ti nt h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tu ry , h ence t h e u nu sua l o r ien ta t ion t he a l t a ri sa t t h e s ou th e nd ) . T he re i sn o a r ch i tec tu ra l d iv i s ion b e tw een n ave a nd c han ce l n o r a ny a dd it iona l c hape l s o r a i s le s 1 911 ; P ev sne ra nd L loyd , 1 967 : 9 6 ) .

S cu lp ture I .

B rak spea r ,

Two v ou s so i r s , e x te r io r w e s t w al o f t h e n ave , 1 2 t h c en tu ry . C arved k ey s tone , a r ch f o rm ing t h e e n t rance t o t h e c hu rchya rd f r om t h e s ou th -ea s t , 1 2 t h c en tury ? )

S cu lp ture I . R oof b o s se s , t h roughou t t h e l eng th o f t h e b u i ld ing , 1 5 t hc en tu ry .

I . Two v ou s so i r s , e x te r io r w e s t w al o ft h e n ave , 1 2 t h c en tu ry . E ach v ou s so i ri sr e se ta bove t he a pex o f al a nce tw indow . 1 ) NW ) G r iff in a mong s t f ol i ag e . Al ong t a i l c u rve s t h rough t h er e a rl e g s .

I . One l ong b a r re l v au l ted r oof r un s t h e l e ng th o ft h e b u i ld ing a nd b ea r s 8 4 wooden r oof b o s se s . Mo s t o ft h e se a r e m ed ieva l i nd a te . T hey h ave b een p a in ted t h i s c en tu ry . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e b o s se s d ep ic t f ol i a te p a t te rn s o r h e ra ld ic s h ie ld s ; af ew a r e f i gu ra t ive . T he s t y le o fc arv ing o f much o ft h e f i gu ra t ive wo rk ,

2 )

SW ) I nve r ted h o r se w i th s p layed l e g s , t w i st ing i t s h ead b ackw a rd s o ve ri t s b ody t ob i te t he t a i l . P . G . S tone s ugg e s t s t ha t t he se c arv ing s w e re o r ig ina l ly f r om t h e n ave t h a t w a s r ebu i l t i n 1 844 1 912 : 1 54 ) . C ox i s mo re s pec if i c , b el iev ing t h e s cu lp tu re s t o b e f r om t h e o r ig ina l

e spec ia l ly t h eh ead s , t oge the rw i th t h ep reponde rance o fT udo r r o se s t y le f l ow e r a nd l e af d e s ign s s ugge s t s f i f teen th c en tu ry wo rk — s e e t h e b o s se s i n t h e s ou th a i s le a t S t Mary a nd S t Me lo ri n Ame sbu ry f o rc ompa r i son .

c hance l a r ch t ha t w a s d e s t royed i n t h e V ic to r ian r emode l l ing 1 911 : 3 7 ) . Howeve r , S tone a l so n o te s t h a tl a te e i gh teen th - a nd e a r ly n ine teen th -cen tury r e co rd s s how t h a t ' t he c hu rch o r ig ina l ly c on s i s ted o f an ave a nd c hance l , s epa ra ted b y ap l a in

T he re a r e t we lve r i b s o r ien ta ted e a s t/we s t ) e ach w i th s even b o s se s i nd iv idua lb o sse s a r e n umbered a l ong t h e r i b o n wh ich t h ey a ppea r f r om e a s t t ow e s t ; r i b s a r e r e co rded a l phabet ica l ly f r om n or th t o s ou th ) . On ly t h e f i gu rat ive b o s se s a r e r e co rded b e low . R ib E

s em ic i rcu la r a r ch s p r ing ing f r om r ough ly c arved R omane sque i mpo s t s ' 1 912 : 1 54 ) . T he c hance l a r ch d oe s n o t , t he refo re , s ound l i ke t h e l i ke ly s ou rce f o r t h e se t wo v ou s so i r s . I ndeed , t h ey may n o t h ave c ome f r om t h e c hu rch i t se lf , b u t may h ave b een t a ken f r om Qua r r Abbey .

B o s s 2 ) Human h ead w i th al ong p ro t rud ing t ongue . R ib F

I .

B o s s 2 )Al i on i np rof i le w i th i t s h ead t u rned o ve ri t s s hou lder . T he t a i lc u rve s u pb e tween i t sh ind l e g s . B o s s 3 ) A s t ag i n p rof i le who se t a i l c urve s t i gh t ly u pwa rd b e tw een i t s h ind l e g s .

C a rved

k ey s tone ,

a r ch

f o rm ing t he

e n t rance

t o t h e

c hu rchya rd f r om t h e s ou th -ea s t , 1 2 t h c en tu ry ? ) Above t h e o ld n o r th d oor t ha t n ow f o rm s a n e n t rance g a te i n to t h e c hu rchya rd f r om t he s ou th -ea s t i s ac arv ing o f a S hee la -na -g ig F ig . 9 . 1 2 ) . The f i gu re k nee l s w i th h e r s p ind ly l e g s a pa r t u pon t h e h ead o fa n a n ima l , h e r a rm s c om ing d own

B o s s 6 )T h ree f i sh ,i n ter tw ined l i ke ak no two rk mot if . R ib G B o s s 2 ) A b ea rded h ead t h e b ea rd i s t h ick a nd g row s v o lum inou s ly f r om t h e c h in ) w ea r ing a h a t u pon wh ich i sa S t a ro f Dav id s ymbo ls u r round ing ah ea r t . B o s s 5 )A s e a ted s t ag i np rof i le t u rn ing i t s h ead t ol ook a tt he v i ew e r . B eh ind i t s h indqua r te r s t h e re i s af l ou r i sh ing t r ee . R ib H B o s s 2 )Ab ea rded h ead a ga in , t h e b ea rd ag oa tee ) w ea r ing a n o rna te c ap .

t owa rd s h e r g en i ta l s . T he a n ima l h ead a ppea r s t o b e muzz led a nd r e semb le s ab ea r . I tr e s t s i t s f o repaw s o n t h e s i de s o fi t s s nou t . T he h ead o f t h e f i gu re b ea r s r ema rkab le s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e h ead o ver t h e a pex o f t h e No rman s ou th d oo r a t Y ave r land , a l so o nt h eI s le o fW igh t .

Ho lybou r ne Ho ly R ood . R u ra l c hu rch c on s i s t ing o f a t h i r teen th -cen tury c hance l w i th mode rn n o r th c hape l , t we lf th -

1 33

Append ix 1 c en tury n ave w i th mode rn n or th a i s le r ep lac ing o ne o f t h e

9 )

f i f teen th c en tu ry , a nd a t we lf th -cen tu ry w e s t t owe r w i th s h ing led wooden s p i re . I n t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry t h e n ave w al s w e re h e igh tened a nd t h e n o r th a r cade o ft wo b ay s b u i l t P ee r s ,

1 0 ) B lank . 1 ) S Ec o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : s ou th h ead .

1 903 ) . S cu lpture I . C o rbe l s ,i n te r io ro fn ave , e a r ly 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

B . E a s tf a ce , s ou th t on o r th F ig . 6 .7 ) 1 ) S Ec o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : e a s th ead . 2 ) 3 )

S t a r ing h ead . H ead w i th t ongue s t uck o u t .

4 ) 5 )

S ke le ta lh ead . G r imac ing h ead .

I .A s e r ie s o fs i x c a rved c o rbe l s b ea r ing ma rked s im i la r it ie s t o

6 ) Sm i l ing h ead . 7 ) Sm i l ing h ead . 8 ) Sm i l ing h ead . 9 ) B lank . 1 0 ) NE c o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : e a s th ead . C . Nor th f a ce , e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) NE c o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : n o r th h ead .

t h e s e r ie s a tA l ton . A . No r th s i de o fn ave ,w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) Damaged . 2 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f aman w i th s ho r t , c u r ly h a i r a nd w ea r ing ac ap . 3 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f awoman . H e r h ead i sa ng led t o l ook i n to t h en ave . B .S ou th s i de o fn ave , e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) G reen man . F ol i age g row s f r om h i s mou th t o make a 2 )

w rea th l i ke s hape a round h i s f a ce F ig . 5 .2 9 ) . H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f aman w i th s hor tc u r ly h a i r . Wea r s ac ap .

3 )

M i s s ing .

Mi lfo rd -on -sea A l l S a in t s . P a r i sh c hu rch d a t ing f r om t h e

S cu lp tu re I . C o rbe l tab le , e x te r io r o ft owe r , c . 1200 -1250 . R oof b o s se s , e a s t e nd o f b u i ld ing , m id -17 t h

I .C o rbe l tab le , e x te r io ro ft owe r ,c . 1200 -1250 . A s e r ie s o f c arved a nd b l ank c o rbe l s s u r round t h e t op o f t h e

C ann ing s . A . S ou th s i de o ft owe r ,w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) SW c o rne r ) Doub le -head . Ac o rbe l o n t h e c o rne r c arved i n to t wo h ead s , e ach h ead a t n ine ty d eg ree s f r om e ach o the r i no rde r t ol ook o u t f r om i t s r e spec t ive w a l l . T he se d oub le h ead c o rbe l s a r e t ob e f ound o n e ach c o rne ro ft h e

H ead w i th b ig l i p s a nd o pen mou th , t ongue o u t . De s t royed . An ima lh ead w i th p o in ted e a r s . B ea s th ead w i th b i go pen mou th . B lank . NW c o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : n o r th h ead , w i th

w e s t

h ead ,

w i th

B lank . B lank . F rog -l ike h ead ,w i th t e e th . B lank . H ead l ook ing d own t ot h eg round ,w i th s ho r th a i r . B lank .

I . R oof b o sse s , c hance l , e a s t e nd o f n av e , n or th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s ,m id -17 t hc en tury . F i f ty -fou r b o s se s , t wo o f wh ich b ea r t h e d a te s 1 639 a nd 1 640 . Numbe r ing r e f e r s t ot h e p l an s e e F ig .A l . 1 ) . 1 ) B ea rded h ead w i th b i g c u r led h a i r a nd o rna te h eadd re s s , a ng led t ol ook i n to t h e c hance l .

t owe r . T he c l o se s t p a rale l s a r e w i th t h e c hu rch o f S t . N icho la s i n S tud land Do r se t ) wh ich , a l though i th a s n o t owe r d oe s h ave d oub le h ead c o rbe l s o fR omane sque d a te o n t h e NW a nd SW c o rne r s o ft h e n ave . A t S tud land t h ey a r e a n ima la nd h uman h ead s , t h e h uman h ead i ne ach c a se c l o se s t t o t h e c o rner o f t h e b u i ld ing a nd t u rned 4 5 d eg ree s . T he M i lfo rd h ead s o n e ach c o rne r c o rbe l , a l though u n ique i n e ach c a se , a r e b o th h uman a nd mo re s e rene t h an t h e w i ld , mou th -puf f ing , t ongue lo l l ing R omane sque c a rv ing s a tS tud land . 2 ) B lank .

G r inn ing h uman h ead . B lank .

6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 ) 1 0 ) 1 )

9 ) F a th ead . 1 0 ) B lank . 1 ) SW c o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l :w e s th ead , mou th o pen .

t ow e r . A l l t h e c arved c orbe l s a r e p l a in ly c a rved i n to h uman o r a n ima l h ead s —c ompa re w i th t ho se o n t he t owe r a tB i shop ' s

7 ) 8 )

B lank . B lank . B lank . G r imac ing h ead .

3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 ) 8 )

c en tu ry .

Human h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd t ongue s t uck o u t . B lank . Human h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd t ongue s t uck o u t . B lank .

2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

t ongue o u t . D . We s tf a ce ,n o r th t os ou th 1 ) NW c o rne r ) Doub le -head c o rbe l : c on tor ted mou th . 2 ) H ead c r y ing o u ta st hough i np a in .

t we lf th c en tu ry a nd c on s i s t ing o f aw e s t t owe r , a i s led n ave o f t h ree b ay s , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s a nd c hape l s , a nd al ong c hance l H a r ley a nd L ocke , 1 912 ) .

3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 )

B ea s th ead , q u i te h eav i ly w ea the red .

2 ) 3 )

F ema le h ead w i th r ed a nd g o ld h eadd r e s s a bove a l ta r ) . H ead w i th o rna te a nd r i ch ly c o lou red h eadd re s s . L ong

4 ) 5 )

mou s tache s o rf ol iage ? ) . O rna te f ol i ag e d e s ign . Ma le h ead w i th g o ld a nd b rown b ea rd , w avy h a i r , a nd a

r ed a nd g o ld t u rban . B lue a nd g o ld f ol i age d e s ign . S t a r ing f ol ia te h ead w i th a r row tongued s e rpen t i s su ing f r om t h e mou th . 8 ) Ma le h ead w i th mou s tache a nd b lue h eadd re s s . 9 ) F ema le h ead w ea r ing ab lue h eadd re s s o n t h e b ack o fh e r h ead ; l ong , w avy g o ld a nd o range h a i r h ang s t o h e r s hou lder s . 1 0 ) S t a r ing ma le h ead w i th af r og e me rg ing f r om t h e mou th .

6 ) 7 )

1 ) G reen Man w i th as t em e n te r ing a nd l e av ing t h e mou th .

1 34

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 1 2 ) 1 3 ) 1 4 ) 1 5 )

A co rn s a nd f ol iag e . R ed c a th ead . C rowned f ema le h ead . G reen Man , o ne s t em eme rg ing f r om t h e c en t re o f h i s

1 6 ) 1 7 ) 1 8 ) 1 9 )

mou th . B ea rded h ead p l ay ing ap ipe . H ead w i th s l igh tb ea rd a nd b lue h eadd re s s . H ead w i th b ea rd a nd s t ra igh th a i rt ot h e s hou lde r s . F ema le d em if igu re w i th ag r een r ep t i le o n h e r h eadd re s s . On h er b od ice t he d a te 1 639 a ppea r s .

i nB rough , 1 911b : p l a te f a c ing p 154 ) , c an b e f ound i n s ide t h e c hu rch s e ti n to t h e s ou th -we s tc o rne ro ft h e n ave F ig . 8 .4 ) . T he re i ss o me d amage t ot he s t one b u t t h e i mage i s s t i l l c l ea r ; a me rma id w i th h e r l e f t h and u pon h e r w a i s t a nd h e r s i ng le t a i l b en t u p b eh ind a nd t oh e r l e f t . F ol iage

2 )

2 0 ) F ema le h ead . 2 1 ) Me rma id : s he a ppea r s a s ad em if igu re o f an aked w oman w i th l ong , c u r ly g o ld h a i r s t ream ing d own h er b ack . S he h o ld s h e r f l i ppe r -l ike h and s t og e the r i n p raye r . A t h e r 2 2 ) 2 3 ) 2 4 ) 2 5 ) 2 6 ) 2 7 ) 2 8 )

Newnham S t N icho la s . P a r i sh c hu rch d a t ing t o t h e t we lf th c en tu ry a s s ugge s ted b y t h e c hance l a r ch , w e s t d oo r o f t he

w a i s t , s c a le sb eg in . F ema le h ead . G reen Man . F ema le h ead w ea r ing ar ed c ap . H ead w i th g o ld , c u r ly h a i r ,d oub le c h in a nd o pen mou th . F i e rce look ing l i on . G reen Man w i th mou th w ide o pen . T he l e ave s t h a t g row o u to fh i s f o rehead h ave b een p a in ted g o ld . G reen Man w i th mou th w ide o pen a nd t ongue l o l l ing o u t .

n ave , a nd t he s ou th a nd e a s td oorway s o ft h e t owe r ) . I n 1 846 -8 ma jo r r e s to ra t ion wo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t wh ich d e s t royed much o f t h e e v idence o f t h e h i s tory o f t h e b u i ld ing . I n t h i s p er iod t h e n o r thwe s t t owe r w a s a dded t o t h e n ave a nd c hance l B rough e ta l , 1 911c ;B el , 1 993 ) . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , e x te r io r o f w e s t d oo r , l a te 1 2 t h c en tu ry .

L ike n umbe r2 6 t h el e ave s a r ep a in ted g o ld . 2 9 ) B o ss b ea r ing t h ed a te 1 640 . 3 0 ) B ea rded h ead i nf ol iage . 3 1 ) F ol iage d e s ign .

I .Two c ap i ta l s . 1 ) NW ) F ol iage . 2 ) SW ) G reen b ea s t h ead . K ey se r d e sc r ibe s t h e i mag e a s a ' h uman h ead w i th l ong e a r s o n t h e a ng le ,a nd s c rol f ol iage c om ing f r om t h e mou th a nd s p read o ve r t h e n or th a nd w e s t f a ce s o ft h e c ap i ta l ' 1 915 : 5 ) . S im i la rh ead s o ccu r o n t h e s ou th d oo r a nd c e r ta in a mbu la tory c ap i ta l s a tR om sey

3 2 ) S t a r ing f ol ia te h ead w i th mou s tache . 3 3 ) C rowned f ema le h ead a nd l i l ac c a scad ing h eadd re s s . 3 4 ) R ec tangu la rg eome t r ic d e s ign . 3 5 ) F ema le h ead i nb lue h eadd re s s . 3 6 ) H ead w i th l ong b ea rd . 3 7 ) R ec tangu la rg eome t r ic d e s ign . 3 8 ) H ead w i th s ho r tw avy h a i r ,p l ay ing ap ipe . 3 9 -43 ) R ec tangu la rg eome t r ic d e s ign . 4 4 ) 4 5 ) 4 6 ) 4 7 ) 4 8 )

Abbey .

O ld B as ing S t Mary . R ec tangu la r i n p l an s i nce t h e e a r ly

G reen Man . R ec tangu la rg eome t r ic d e s ign . S o ld ie rw ea r ing ame ta lh e lme t . H e a ppea r s t ob el a ugh ing . C rowned t h i s t le . B ea rded h ead w ea r ing a no rna te b lue a nd g o ld h eadd re s s .

s i x teen th c en tu ry t h e c hu rch o f S t Mary h a s m ixed b r ick a nd a sh la r ma sonry a nd c on s i s t s o f an ave , c en t ra l t ower a nd c hance l f l anked o n e ach s i de b y a i s le s a nd c hape l s B rough e t a l , 1 911a ) .

4 9 ) B ea rded h ead w ea r ing aj e s t e r s t y le h eadd r e s s . 5 0 ) G reen Man ; f l ow er ing p l an t sg row f r om h i s n o se . 5 1 ) Ma le h ead w ea r ing ab lue a nd wh i te s t r iped t u rban . 5 2 ) F ol iag e . 5 3 ) Ma le h ead w ea r ing ar ed a nd g o ld t u rban a nd al ong b ea rd . 5 4 ) F ema le h ead w i th as pl i tt ongue s t i ck ing o u to fh e r mou th . I n s ide t h e c hu rch t h e re i s ap ho tog raph o f e ach b o s s a nd a c ommen t ary a bou tt hem w i th in ap i ctu re f r ame u pon t h e n o r th w a l l .T h i si sn o t ,h ow eve r , a ccu ra te .

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x ter io r o fn or th a nd s ou th c hape l s a nd w e s te nd o fn ave ,l a te 1 5 t h/ea r ly 1 6 t hc en tury . I . A . We s te nd o ft h e n ave a nd n ave a i s le s , t wo l a rg e a nd p o s s ib ly r e se ts t one c arv ing s . 1 ) NW ) Mou th -pu l le rg a rgoy le w i th h o rn s F ig . 6 .1 2 ) . 2 ) SW ) G ro te sque ;b ea rded man i nc ap a nd r obed g a rmen t . B .S ou th s i de o fs ou th c hance la i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t

Na te ly S cu res S t S w i thun . Sma l l , t w e lf th -cen tu ry c hu rch c on s i s t ing o f an ave a nd a p s ida l c hance l w i th n o s t ructu ra l d i v i s ion B rough e ta l ,1 911b ) .

1 ) 2 ) 3 )

S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , e x te r io r o ft h e n o r th d oo r , c . 1150 -

4 )

1 200 .

1 )

s p r ig s a r e v i s ib le i n t h e b ackg round . A c u r iou s l o l l ipop s haped i t em a ppea r s n ex t t o h e r l e f t e l bow ; t h i s m igh t r ep re sen t am i r ro r . P ev sne r a nd L loyd d a te t h e d oor t o c . 1 200 1 967 : 3 43 ) . K ey se r s ugg e s t s a n e a rl ie r d a te o f s oon a f te rt h em id twe l th c en tu ry 1 915 : 9 ) . D amaged .

T h i s c ap i ta l , o r ig ina l ly i n t h e p o s i t ion n ow o ccup ied b y a mode rn r ep lacemen t t h e e a s t s i de o ft h e d oo r , a s s hown

1 35

G ro te sque ; s m i l ing f a ce . G ro te sque ;h ead a nd s hou lde r s o f man w i th b ea rd . G ro te sque ; h ead a nd s hou lder s o f man w ea r ing a h igh c ola red g a rmen t . G ro te sque ; f e l ine h ead w i th mou th o pen .

5 ) G a rgoy le ; s imp le h ead . 6 ) G ro t e sque ;h ead o f al i on . 7 ) G a rgoy le ;b ea s th ead . C . No r th s i de o fn o r th c hance l a i s le ,e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) G ro te sque ; d em if igu re w i th h a ir t o t h e s hou lde r s , w ea r ing ac ap a nd j a cke tw i th p uf f ed s l eeve s .

Append ix 1 2 )

V .

G a rgoy le ; b a ld h uman h ead w i th h eavy j ow l s a nd c l o sed mou th . T he h o le f o r t h e w a te r c u t s t h rough h i s c h in a nd n eck . G a rgoy le ; h uman h ead w i th mou th s t re tched w ide o pen .

V I .

3 )

V I I .

4 )

Wea r s s o me f o rm o fc ap . G a rgoy le ;h ead o f al i on w i th w ide o pen mou th .

5 ) 6 )

G a rgoy le ; h uman h ead w i th o pen mou th . G ro te sque ; d amag ed h uman h ead w i th p rom inen tl i p s a nd

7 )

t e e th . G ro te sque ; d em i -f igu re o f aman i n al ong s leeved t op .

f a ce ,m id -12 t hc en tu ry . C a rved s t one , s e t i n to t h e e x t er io r o f t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e n o r th t r an sep t , p o s s ib ly 1 2 t h -cen tu ry .

I . C ap i t a l s ,

n o r th a nd

s ou th

t r an sep t s

a nd c ho i r

a i s le s ,

r e t rocho i r ,c . 1120 1150 . F o rp rec i se l o ca t ion o fc ap i ta l s r e f e rt ot h ep l an F ig . A l . 2 ) .

T he s i ze o f t h e se c a rv ing s i s s t r ik ing ; s ome o f t h e f i gu re s e spec ia l ly n o . 1 0 ) a r e mo re l i ke f r ee s tand ing s cu lp tu re s t h an

l a ) S c rol f ol iag e . l b ) Two r ep t i l ian c r eatu re s b i t ing u pon s w i rl ing p l an ts t ems .

a r ch i tectu ra lo ne s .

1 c ) G reen a n ima lh ead a nd i n te r laced f ol iag e . 1 d ) Ow l . 2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 :A l lp l a in s c alop c ap i ta l s .

Ro msey Abbey C hu rch o f S t Ma ry a nd S t E the lf l aeda . E dw a rd t h e E lde r , s on o fA lf red t h e G rea t f i r s t e s tabl i shed a

7 a ) S cene s e to n ab a t t lef ie ld . B ody p a r t s a r e l i t te red a l a round . I n t h e c en t re aw a r r io r p u l l s t h e b ea rd o f ak i ng . E ach f i gu re h o ld s as wo rd , t h e b l ade o fe ach r e s t ra ined b y a n a ng e l . A t t h e e dg e s o f t h e c a rv ing b i rd s a nd a s t rang e

s mal n unnery h e re i n9 07 . S ome y ea r s l a te r , E dga r 9 59 -975 ) r eo rgan ized t h e n unne ry a cco rd ing t o t h e r u le o fS tB ened ic t . Howeve r , ar a id b yt h e Dane s i n9 94 l e d t ot he b u i ld ing s b e ing d e s t roy ed a nd t h e c ommun i ty f l ee ing t oW inche s te r . A round 1 000 t h e n unne ry w a s r ebu i l t . Two c arved s t one r ood s s t i l l e x i s t f r om t h i s s e cond p ha se o f S axon b u i ld ing . T he c hu rch t h a t s t and s t oday t hough i st h e p roduc t o f ac omp le te r ebu i ld t h a t c ommenced i nt h e e a r ly t we lf th c en tu ry . T h i s f a l l s i n to t wo b road p ha se s . F i r s t , t h e c ho i r a nd t r an sep t s w e re

h o r se -l ike c r ea tu re f l ee w i th h uman b ody p a r t s . 7 b ) Two d ragon s w i th t h e i rn eck s i n te r tw ined . Above t h em a r e l i on -l ike c r ea tu re s ,o ne w i th ah uman h ead . 8 a ) A l i on a nd a h uman f i gu re a mong s c ro ll ing s t em s . T he f i gu re a t tack s t h el i on w i th as wo rd h e ld i nh i s r i gh th and . T he l i on h a s aw el -def ined mane a nd at a i lt h a tc u rve s u p b e tween h i s r e a rl e g s t os p rou ti n to f ol iag e . 9 a ) Two G reen An ima l s , a ddo r sed . On e ach , t h ick s t em s c u r l

c omp le ted b e tween 120 a nd 140 . O r ig ina l ly a t w in -celed L ady c hape l s t ood a tt h e mo s t e a s te rn p o in t , a cce s s ib le f r om t h e r e t rocho i r t h i s w a s d e s t royed i n t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry ) .

o u t o f s m i l ing , a lmo s t h uman f a ce s . T a i l s a r e c urved t i gh t ly u p t h rough t he r e a r l e g s a nd s p rou t i n to f l eu r -de l y s . As t r ip h a s b een c u t f r om t h e c en t re o ft h e c arv ing a t

T he s e cond s t age o fR omane sque b u i ld ing f a l l s b e tween 150 a nd 180 . T he wo rk c omp le ted i n t h i s p ha se i n c lude s t h e e a s te rnmo s t f ou r b ay s o f t he n ave wh i le t h e e a r ly t h i r teen th c en tury w i tne s sed t h e c omp let ion o f t h ree a dd i t iona l b ay s a t t h ew e s te nd . E ssen t ia l ly , t h i si st h eb u i ld ing t h a ts t and s t oday . Up u n t i l 1 400 t h e p eop le o fR om sey h ad u sed t h e n o r th a i s le

s ome p o in t , p o s s ib ly t o t a ke o ne e nd o f as c reen . V ery s im i la rt oc ap i ta l 1 0b . 1 0a ) G reen An ima lh ead d i sgo rg ing s c ro l l ing s t em s . 1 0 1 D ) Two G reen An ima l s , a ddo r sed . F ol iage s p rou t s f r om t h e mou th a nd t h e t i p o ft h e t a i l o fe ach c r ea tu re F ig . 5 .5 ) .

a nd t r an sep t a s t h e i r p a r i sh c hu rch . Howeve r , i n t h e e a r ly f i f teen th c en tu ry t h i s w a s e n la rg ed ; an ew a i s le w a s a dded t o

c ) F igu ra t ive s c ene , p o s s ib ly o ne o f t h e ' l abou r s o f t he mon th ' S ep tembe r ? ) . Two men a ppea r t o b e r e ap ing c o rn . One o ft h em c a r r ie s ab u she lo nh i s b ack . 1a ) Af i gu re c a r ry ing ab ag u pon h i s b ack h o ld ing t h e t a i l o fa

t h e n or th w al o f t h e n ave a nd t h e p rev iou s ly e x te rna l w al p i erced w i th a r che s . T he n or th t r an sep t , w i th i t s a p s ida l e a s t e nd , f o rmed t h e c hance l a nd s anc tuary o f t h i s n ow s i zeab le c hu rch wh ich c ame t ob e k nown a sS tL aw rence . I n 1 539 t h e Abbey w a s s upp re s sed a nd t h e c ommun i ty o fn un s d i sper sed . I n 1 544 t h e e n t i re b u i ld ing w a s b ough t b y t h e t own f o r u se a s ap a r i sh c hu rch a nd t h e e x t ra a i s le t h a t h ad o nce s e rved t h e t own speop le w a s d emol i shed . Howeve r ,b yt h e m id -

s add led h o r se .T he h o r se l ook s o v er i t s s hou lde r . 1 2a ) F igu ra t ive s c ene i nt h ree p a r t s . F ur the s tw e s t as e a ted k i ng a nd a n a nge l h o ld aV shaped s c ro l l wh ich r e ad s ' Robe r t m e f e c i t ' R obe r t made me ) . I n t h e c en t re as t and ing k i ng a dm i re s a n e l ong a ted p y ram id wh ich h e h o ld s i n h i s h and . I n t h e mo s t e a s te r ly p a r t t wo s e a ted a nd c l oaked f i gu re s h o ld a V shaped s c rol wh ich m ay r e ad ' Robe r t t u te c on su le 'a l though t h ei n sc r ipt ion i so b scu re . B e tween

e i gh teen th c en tu ry t h e b u i ld ing h ad f a len i n to ar u inou s s t a te , a nd i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e i n cumbency o ft h e R eve rend E dwa rd L yon B e r thon V ica r f r om 1 860 1892 ) t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s r e s to red . T he r e s to ra t ion wo rk c a r r ied o u t i n c luded r e roof ing t h e e n t i re n ave H ea rn , 1 975 ; Wa lke r , 1 988 : 1 4 16 ) .

t h e a rm s o ft h e ' V 'i s ag r inn ing h uman h ead . 1 3 C o r in th ian s t y le c ap i ta l . 1 4 Apa r t f r om o ne c ap i ta l c a rved i n to s c ro l l ing f ol i age a l h e re a r ep l a in s c alop s . 1 5 S ca l lop c ap i ta ld eco ra ted w i th f ol iage a nd a n ima l s .

S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , i n te r io r o f n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s a nd c ho i ra i s le s ,r e t rocho i r ,c . 1120 150 . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f s ou th t r an sep ta l a p se , s ou th , e a s t , a nd n o r th s i de s o f c ho i r , n o r th

I V .

C ap i ta l s , e x te r io r o ft h e s ou th d oo r , m id la te 1 2 t hc en tu ry . C o rbe l s , e x t er io r o f n or th t r an sep t , w e s t

1 6a ) Two h o r se s , c onf ron ted 1 6b ) F ol iage . 1 7 S ca l lop c ap i ta l d eco ra ted w i th f ol i age , ap rofu se ly -maned l i on ' s h ead d evou r ing ah uman , a nd ah o r izon ta l h uman f i gu re . 1 8a ) G r een a n ima lh ead d i sgo rg ing i n te r laced f ol iag e . 1 9a ) S calop c ap i ta ld eco ra ted w i th f ol iage , t wo l i on ' sw i th t h e i r t a i l s c urved u p b e tween t h e i r l e g s , a nd t wo b i rd s w i th

t r an sep ta la p se ,c . 1120 -1150 . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o fn ave a i s le s , m id la te 1 2 t h c en tu ry . C o rbe l s , e x ter io r o f n o r th s i de o f n ave , t h e f ou rb ay s f u r the s te a s t ,l a te 1 2 t h c en tu ry .

t h e i rw ing s e x tended .

1 36

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 4 ) 5 )

B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th ,q u i t eb ad ly e roded . Doub l e -head ; t h e t wo h ead s a r e a ng led o u t a t f o r ty -f ive d eg ree s . 6 ) B oa r ' sh ead . B ea s t h ead w i th w ide ly o pened mou th , s ha rp t e e th , p o in ted t ongue a nd p o in t ed e a r s . 8 ) B ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th , v i s ib le t e e th a nd p o in ted e a r s . 9 ) B ea s th ead w i th l ong p o in ted e a r sa nd o pen mou th . D . No r th s i de o fc hance la i s le ,e a s tt ow e s t 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th . 2 ) C hev ron o rnamen t . 3 ) B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th w i th in w h ich a ppea r s a h uman h ead . 4 ) B und le o fs t i ck st i ed t og e the rb y ar ope . 5 ) H yb r id mou th -pule rh ead w i th p o in t ed e a r s . 6 ) F ace -con to r t e r ;h ead w i th al e f th and t h a t p u l l s i t s c h in t o o ne s i de . 7 ) H eav i ly e roded i mag e o f ab a to ro w l . 8 ) Ow l . 9 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide ly o pen ed mou th w i th in wh ich a ppea r s ah uman h ead . 1 0 ) B lemya t y pe i mag e . 1 ) Doub le -head t y pe c a rv ing , o n ly h e re t h e f i gu r e o n t h e w e s t h a lf o f t h e c o rbe l i s n o t ac o r re spond ing h ead l o ok ing o u tb u t as im ian e a t ing as phe r ica lo b jec t . 1 2 ) B ea s th ead w i th g ap ing mou th ,b road t ongue ,w el -def ined t e e th a nd p o in t ed e a r s . 1 3 ) B ea s t h ead s t y le c a rv ing b u t w i th d ec ided h uman c ha rac t e r i s t ic s —as t y l i sed mou s t ache a nd b ea rd . 1 4 ) B ea s th ead w i th l ong p o in ted e a r s a nd h eav i ly r i dg ed f a ce . T he mou th i s ,u nu sualy ,c l o sed . 1 5 ) C hev ron o rn amen t . 1 6 ) B ea s t h ead w i th b road mou th a nd t wo h and s h o ld ing t h e l ow e rj aw . 1 7 ) Human h ead w i th l ong t h in mou s t ache a nd b ea s t -head s t y le p o in t ed e a r s . E . No r th t r an sep t ,e a s te nd o fa p se s ou th t on o r th ) 1 ) D em if igu re p u ll ing i t sb r a ided h a i r . 2 ) Doub le -head c o rbe l . ea s t h ead w i th l a rg e o pen mou th a 3 ) B nd s t rong ly d ef ined t e e th . 4 ) B und l e o fs t i ck st i ed b y ar ope . 5 ) P l a in ly c a rved b ea s th ead . 6 ) R am ' sh ead w i th p ro t rud ing t ongu e . B ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th , t e e th a nd i n c i sed l i ne s a r ound t h ee y e s . 8 ) B road b ea s t h ead w i th l a rg e t e e th a nd a h uman f i gu r e w i th in i t sg ap ing mou th F ig . 6 .3 b ) . 9 ) B ea s th ead ,q u i t eb ad ly e roded . 1 0 ) R ep t i le a mong f ol i ag e ? 1 ) Doub le -head s im i la r t o 5 0 b u t c a rved i n amuch s imp le r m anne r ;t h ea n ima lh ead h a sl a rg el i p sa nd p o in t ed e a r s . 1 2 ) B ea s th ead . 1 3 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th .

1 9b ) S calop c ap i ta l d eco ra t ed w i th a n ima l s a nd f ol i ag e . c ) G reen Man F ig . 5 .1 4 ) . 2 0a ) Two d ragon sw i th t h e i rn eck si n t e r tw ined . 2 0b ) F ol i ag e d e s ign i n co rpo ra t ing c onf ron ted G reen a n ima l h ead s . I . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f s ou th t r an sep ta l a p se , s ou th , e a s t , a nd n or th s i de so fc ho i r ,n o r th t r an sep ta la p se ,c . 1120 1150 . A . S ou th t r an sep t a la p se s equen ce r un s s ou th t on o r th ) 1 ) Two f i gu re sc on s t ra ined b yt h en eck a si fi no ne g a rmen t . 2 ) H ead w i th s ma l la rm s ,p l ay ing t wo p ipe s . 3 ) Doub le -head h uman ) ; e a ch f a ce i st u rned n i ne ty d eg r ee s f r om t h eo the r . 4 ) B ea s th ead sw i th w ide o pen mou th a nd f e l ine e a r s . 5 ) A sa bove . 6 ) P a r t ly f i n i shed a n ima lh ead a nd f o r e leg s . 7 ) H ead w i th l ong t h in p o in ted b ea rd g row ing f r om t h e c h in , mou th s l i gh t ly o pen . Two h and sr e s to nt h ec heek s . 8 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide o pen mou th a nd f e l ine e a r s . I t s h and sg r ip t h el ow e rp a r to fi t sj aw . 9 ) H ead b e tw een t wo l e g s a c roba t ? ) . T he mou th i ss l i gh t ly o pen a nd at h in mou s t ache i sv i s ib le . T he c h in i ss h a rp ly d i v ided i n to t wo p o in t s . 1 0 ) H ead w i th ar i gh ta rm ,t h eh and o f wh ich g r ip si t sc h in . 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th h ug e j aw s w i th in wh ich a ppea r s ah uman f i gu re w i th c r o s sed a rm s F ig . 6 .3 a ) . 1 2 ) M i s s ing . 1 3 ) C hev ron o rn amen t . 1 4 ) B ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th . T he c a rv ing i sq u i te b ad ly d amag ed . B .S ou th s i de o fc hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide o pen mou th a nd l a rg e t ongue . F el ine look ing . 2 ) Ar am ' s h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s , o pen mou th a nd s l i gh t ly p ro t rud ing t ongue . I n i t s h uman look ing r i gh t h and i t h o ld st h ef i gu re o f am an . 3 ) B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th ,t e e th a nd p o in t ed e a r s . 4 ) B l emya ; t h i s i s ah uman mon s te r w i thou t ah ead w ho se f a ce a ppea r s o ni t sc he s t . 5 ) Human/an ima l h ead w i th o pen mou th , mou s t ache a nd p o in t ed f e l ine e a r s . 6 ) H ead w i th s l i gh t ly o pen mou th , l ong t h in mou s tache a nd d oub l e -po in t ed c h in . 7 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide ly o pened mou th , n ume rou s t e e th , p o in t ed t ongue a nd p o in t ed f e l ine e a r s . 8 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th ,l a rg ee y e sa nd p o in t ed e a r s . 9 ) H eav i ly e roded c o rbe l ; e nough r ema in s , h ow eve r , t o s ugg e s tt h a ti tw a so nce ad oub le -head . 1 0 ) Mode rn . 1 ) B ea s t h ead w i th o pen mou th , p o in t ed t ongue , t e e th a nd f e l ine e a r s . 1 2 ) F igu re o f amu s ic ian . 1 3 ) Mode rn . 1 4 ) Doub le -head ; t wo h ead s a ng led o u t f r om t h e c o rbe l a t f o r ty -f ive d eg ree s . 1 5 ) D amag ed . 1 6 ) Doub le -head ,t h eh ead s s t ra igh to nr a the rt h an a ng led o u t . C .E a s te nd o fc hance l , s ou th t on or th 1 ) Ab und le o fs t i ck st i ed t og e the rb y ar ope . 2 ) C hev ron o rnamen t . 3 ) Two f i gu re s ; o n e h a s al a rg e rh ead t h an t h e o the ro ne a nd a ne x t ended t ongue t h a tf l op sd own o ve rt h ec h in .

I I . C o rbe l s ,e x t e r io ro fn ave a i s le s ,m id la t e 1 2 t hc en tu ry . A . No r th n av e a i s le . On ly t h e t wo b ay s f u r the s t e a s t h ave c a rved c o rbe l s . T he o th e r b ay s s how s i gn s o f e x t en s ive l a te r m ed ieva l a l t e ra t ion s . F rom e a s t t ow e s t t h e s equence r un s a s f olow s ; 1 ) B und le o fs t i ck s t i ed t og e the rb y ar ope .

1 37

Append ix 1 2 )

3 ) 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 ) 8 )

9 )

1 4 ) H ead w i th s ugg e s t ion s o ff ol iag e a round t h e f o rehead .

One l a rg e a n ima l h ead n ex t t o t h e f u l l f i gu re o fa n a n ima l s t and ing u p o n i t s r e a r l e g s . T he h ead s o fb o th a r e s im i la r a nd q u i te f e l ine i na ppea rance . B ea s t h ead w i th h uge o pen mou th a nd w el -def ined t e e th i n c lud ing c an ine s )w i th in wh ich a ppea r s ar oden t . Two t umb le r s . B ea s th ead w i th h ug e o pen mou th ,w el -def ined t e e th a nd t ongue e x tended t ot ouch t h e t i p o fi t s n o se . C hev ron o rnamen t . B a t . Doub le -head .T he h ead o nt h e e a s te rn s i de o ft h e c o rbe li s t h a t o f ac a t w i th i t s r i gh t p aw i n i t s o pen mou th ; t h e o the r h ead i s amo re c onven t iona l h uman h ead a ng led a t f o r ty -f ive d eg ree s . H ead w i th s m il ing o pen mou th a nd w ea r ing a h igh c ola red g a rmen t ;i t s r i gh th and g r ip s a nd t w i s t si t s c h in .

4 )

5 ) 6 )

c ap i ta l sw i th t r a i l s ,a r ch w i th z i g zag ,r ope , ak i nd o fr a spbe r r ie s , a nd p a te rae b e tween a r ch a nd h ood -mou ld ' [ P ev sne r a nd L loyd , 1 967 : 4 80 ] ) . F ou r c arved c ap i ta l s , w e s t t o e a s t a s

f o rehead . Doub le -head ; b o th h uman h ead s w i th d eep ly i n c i sed l i ne s o nt h e i rf a ce s . A c omb ina t ion o f t h e a r ch i tec tu ra l w i th t h e a n ima l —a p l a in c yl inde r s e t h o r izon t a l ly w i th t h e l owe r h a lf o f a n a n ima lh ead w i th a no pen mou th b e low .

f olow s ; 1 ) G reen b ea s th ead w i th s c rol . 2 ) I n te r lace mo t if . 3 ) G reen b ea s th ead w i th s c rol f ol iag e F ig . 5 .1 2 ) . 4 ) S t y l i sed f ol iage . C a rv ing 3 b ea r s many s im i la r i t ie s t o t he i mage o n t he s ou th c ap i ta lo ft he w e s td oo ra t Newnham . Nea r t h i s d oo r , i n t h e c o rne r b e tween t h e w e s t w a l l o f t h e

Human h ead ,l a ugh ing . B ea s t h ead . A l l t h e c l a s s ic f e atu re s d i sp layed — p o in ted f e l ine e a r s , l a rge o va l e ye s , a lmo s th uman n o se ,w ide o pen mou th w i th p rom inen tt e e th a nd v i s ib le t ongue .

s ou th t r an sep t a nd t h e w a l l o f t h e s ou th n ave a i s le , t he re i sa h eav i ly w ea the red c o rbe l . E nough r ema in s o f t h e f a ce t o s ugge s t t ha t i ti s aG reen Man c a rv ing , o r ig ina l ly w i th s t em s s p rou t ing o u t o f t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th a nd f r om t h e f o rehead . I t s p o s i t ion s ugg e s t s t h a t i t o nce h e ld a s t a tue , p e rhap s i n as im i la r manne r t o t h e c arv ing i n t h e c ho i r o f E xe te r C a thed ra l wh ich s uppor t s a n i mag e o f t h e V i rg in a nd c h i ld , o r t h a t o n t h e s ou th f a ce o ft h e t owe r a t Ab son , s ou th G louce s t e r sh i re , wh ich n ow h a s a n emp ty n i che a bove i t .B o th t h e se e xamp le s a r e l a te med ieva l . T ha t i ti ss o w ea the red m ay s ugge s t t h a ti t s c u r ren tp o s i t ion i s as e conda ry o ne i . e . i ti sn o t

w e s tt h e s equence r un s a sf olow s 1 ) G eome t r ica ld e s ign . 2 ) Ho r izon ta l p l a in c yl inde r , q u i te a c ommon a r ch i tectu ra l

8 ) 9 ) 1 0 ) 1 ) 1 2 ) 1 3 )

p i g . Doub le h ead . C hev ron o rnamen t . B ea s th ead w i th av ery w ide mou th a nd n o t e e th . R ec tangu la rg eome t r ic d e s ign . C y l inde rd eco ra ted w i th c hev ron o rnamen t . C y l inde rd eco ra ted w i th f i sh s c a le p at te rn . Mu s ic ian f i gu re . Doub le h ead . B ea s t h ead w i th h eav i ly r i dg ed s nou t a nd o pen mou th b u t

R ich ly o rnamen ted d oorway o f t wo o rde r s , o r ig ina l ly c onnec t ing t h e c l o i s te rw i th t he c hu rch ' Two o rde r s o fs haf t s ,

a l though mo s t o f t h e se a r e t oo w ea the red t o make o u t w i th a ny c l a r i ty a nd a r e t h e refo re n o t r e co rded h e re ) . F rom e a s t t o

6 ) 7 )

2 0 ) 2 1 ) 2 2 ) 2 3 ) 2 4 ) 2 5 ) 2 6 ) 2 7 ) 2 8 )

V . C ap i ta l s , e x te r io ro ft he s ou th d oo r ,m id la t e 1 2 t hc en tu ry .

I V . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f n o r th s i de o f n ave , t h e f ou r b ay s f u r the s te a s t ,l a te 1 2 t h c en tury . A . I n as im i la r m anner t oi t s c o r re spond ing n ave a i s le c o rbe l s , t h e c a rv ing s t ha t a ppea r o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h e n ave h ave b een h eav i ly r e s to red . Un l ike t h e s ou th n ave a i s le , h oweve r , t h e s equence i n co rpo ra te s s ome o r ig ina l m ed ieva l c arv ing s ,

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

C y l inde r made i n to af a ce . S calop d e s ign . B ea s th ead w i th mou th o pen b u tn o t e e th o rt ongue . B und le o fs t ick s t i ed b y ar ope . An ima l h ead w i th o pen mou th .T he s hor ts nou t s ugge s t s a

n ov i s ib le t e e th . 2 9 ) An ima l h ead . I t s mou th i sc l o sed a nd t h e re i s as e rene l ook a bou ti t s f a ce . 3 0 ) S t a r t led a n ima lh ead .

1 0 ) B und le o fs t ick s . 1 ) B ea s t h ead w i th h ug e o pen mou th a nd w el -def ined t e e th i n c lud ing c an ine s ) w i th al ong e x tended t ongue . B . S ou th n ave a i s le . On ly o ne b ay f u r the s t e a s t ) o f i n s i tu med ieva lc a rved c o rbe l s r ema in sh e re .T he r e s to ft h e s equence i ss ugge s t ive o fV ic to r ian r e s to ra t ion wo rk . F rom w e s t t o e a s t t h e med ieva l s equence r un s a sf olow s : 1 ) B ea s t h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s a nd h and -l ike p aw s r e st ing o nt op o fi t sl ong s nou t . I t s mou th i so pen . 2 ) Human h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s o n t h e c o rne r s o f i t s 3 )

1 5 ) 1 6 ) 1 7 ) 1 8 ) 1 9 )

i ns i t u ) . V I . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f n o r th t r an sep t , w e s t f a ce , m id -12 t h

mot if t h roughou tt h i s s equence . H ead t h a ta ppea r s t ob ew ea r ing ama sk . C y l inder . C y l inde rd eco ra ted w i th c hev ron o rnamen t .

c en tu ry . F i f teen c o rbe l s . F rom n or th t o s ou th t he s equence r un s a s f olow s 1 ) B ea s t h ead , v e ry s imp ly c arved a nd f e l ine i n a ppea rance .

C y l inde r . C y l inde r . F rom t h e u nde r s ide as mal b ea s t h ead eme rg e s , i t s r i gh t h and s uppo r t ing i t s l owe r j aw a s im i la r i mage o ccu r s o nt h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave a tt h e e a s te nd ) . B und le o fs t i ck s t i ed t og e the rb y ar ope . C yl inder . B ea s th ead . C y l inde r . C y l inde rd eco ra ted w i th c hev ron o rnamen t . A rch i tec tu ra lp i ece .

1 38

2 )

No t e e th o rt ongue v i s ib le . Doub le h ead , c omp r i s ing ah uman h ead l ook ing o u t a ta f o r ty -f ive d eg ree a ng le a nd a n a n ima l f i gu re l ook ing

3 ) 4 )

s t ra igh to n . A rch i tec tu ra l d e s ign . H ead w i th h eav i ly r i dg ed f a ce t ha t s how s s i gn s o fd i s t re s s . Two s k inny a rm sh o ld e ach s i de o ft h e f a ce .

5 )

B und le o fs t ick s t i ed t og e the rb y ar ope .

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture e a r l ie r ,a st h e re i s as im i la rc a rv ing o nt h ei n s ide o ft h et r an sep t wh ich i sf i rm ly d a ted t ot h et h i r t een th c en tu ry s e e Ib e low ) . 1 ) NE c o rne r o ft r an sep t ; h o r izon ta l f i gu re w i th h ead a ng led u p r igh t a nd p l aced c l o se s t t o t h e c o rne r o f t h e b u i ld ing F ig . 9 .1 7 ) . T he h ead h a s l ong s t ra igh t h a i r t h a t b ecome s w avy a s i tg e t s l ong e r a nd f l ow s d own t h e s i de s o f t h e b ody . T he r i gh t a rm i ss l igh t ly b en t , t h e h and r e s t ing o n t h e r i gh t t h igh j u s t a bove t h e k nee . T he l e f t a rm h a s b roken o f fa bove t h ee l bow .T he re i s much d amag e t ot h e l ow e r b ody b u t w ha t s u rv ive s o f t h e s t onewo rk s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e l e f t l e g w a s b en t a t t h e k nee a nd a ng led a w ay f r om t h e r i gh t o ne wh ich w a s e x t ended i n ar e la t ive ly s t ra igh tl i n e . T h i s w ou ld h ave s e rved t oe xpo se t h e g en i ta l a r ea . C on s ide r ing t h e n a tu re o ft h e f i gu r e o n t h e o ppo s i t e c o rn e ri ti sh igh ly l i ke ly t h a tt h i sw a s af ema le e xh ib i t ion i s t c a rv ing . T he re i sd amag e t o t h e c he s t a r ea a sw el b u t a r ounded f e a tu r e j u s t a bove t h e b roken l e f t a rm m ay s ugg e s tt h a tt h e f i gu r e o r ig ina l ly h ad b rea s t s .T he f a ce i si n g ood c ond i t ion w i th w el d ef in ed e y e s ,n o se ,e y eb row sa nd c l o sed mou th . 2 ) NW c o rne r o f t r an sep t ; ma le e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re i n a h o r izon ta l p o s i t ion w i th t h e h ead p l aced t o t h e c o rne r o f t h e t r an sep t a nd a ng led u p r igh t F ig . 9 .2 ) . H e h a s l ong s t ra igh t h a i r a nd ab ea rd u pon t h e c h in , ad amag ed b road n o se a nd e a r s t h a t s t i ck o u t f r om e a ch s i de o f t h e h ead . T he l e g s a r e h e ld u p r igh t a nd c l o se t o t h e b ody , t h e f e e t b eh ind t h e h ead a nd e a ch h and g r ipp ing t h e b ack o fe a ch t h igh . A s c ro tum o f g ene rou s p ropo r t ion s h ang s d ownw a rd o ve r t h e b ack o fh i s r i gh t t h igh , a nd t h e p en i s i se r ec ta g a in s tt h el ow e rp a r to fh i sb e l ly .

6 )

B ea s th ead w i th v e ry p o in ted e a r s , w ide o pen mou th a nd t e e th . 7 ) C hev ron o rn amen t . 8 ) C y l inde r/bea s th ead w i th t h in ,t e nd r i l -l ik e mou s tache s . 9 ) C y l inde rw i th c hev ron o rnamen t . 1 0 ) B ea s th ead . 1 ) A r ch i tec tu r a ld e s ign . 1 2 ) R ec t angu l a rg eome t r ic d e s ign . 1 3 ) C yl inde rw i th ab ea s th ead e me rg ing f r om b enea th . 1 4 ) B und le o fs t i ck st i ed t og e the rb y ar ope . 1 5 ) C y l inde r w i th a h ead a t t ached t o t h e b a se . T h i s h a s b i g e y e sa nd ah eav i ly r i dg ed f o r ehead . T he se c a rv ing s a r e much p l a ine r i n s t y l e t h an t h e c a rv ing s a r ound t h e e a s t e nd o f t h e b u i ld ing c han ce l , t r an sep t s ) . C ompa rab le m a te r ia l m ay b e f ound a tD ev ize s S tJ ohn s ou th s i de o ft h ec han ce l ) . V I I . C a rv ed s t one , s e ti n to t h e e x te r io r o ft h ew e s t f a ce o ft h e n o r th t r an sep t ,p o s s ib ly 1 2 ' h -cen tu ry . T he c a rv ing p re sen t s a n aked f ema le f i gu re w i th d i sp ropo r t ion a t e ly o v e r s ized h ead , w ide , s qua t b ody , s ho r t , s p read l e g s a nd a ngu la r a rm s . H e r l e f t h and r e ache s t ow a rd s h e rg en i ta l s . I nh e rr i gh th and s he h o ld s as t af f F ig .9 .1 2 ) . S t yl i s t ica l ly t h e i mag e s ugg e s t s p a ra l le l s w i th s ome o f t h e t w e lf th -cen tu r y f i gu r a t ive c o rbe l s o n t h e Abbey . I n p ar t icu la r t h e s h ape o fa nd t h e e mpha s i s g i ven t ot h eh ead i sc ompa rab le t o an umbe ro fc a rv ing s , i nd ica t ing a1 2 t h c en tu r y d a t e f o r t h i s s c u lp tu r e . How ev e r , t h e i mag e f o rm s p a r t o ft h e w al t h a t w a s i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t h e p a r i sh c hu rch i n t h e f i f t een th c en tu ry . T he p a l imp se s t o fw indow s b enea th t h e i mag e , a sw el a st h e t wo b ay s i mmed ia t e ly e a s t o f t h e n o r th p o rch , a t t e s t t o t h e a dd i t ion a nd l a t e rr emova l o fa na i s le , wh ich , t og e the rw i th t h e p re -ex i s t ing n o r th a i s le o f t h e Abbey a nd i t s n or th t r an sep t f o rmed t h e p a r i sh c hu r ch o f S t L aw rence ) . I t i s e n t i re ly p o s s ib l e t h a tt h e i mag e , a l though c a rved a ta n e a rl i e rd a t e , m ay h ave b een i n se r t ed d u r ing t h e se p e r iod s o fb u i ld ing .

S op ley S tM ichae l a nd A l l Ange l s . B u i l t f r om i r on s ton e r ubb le w i th d r e s s ing s o fI s le o fW igh t s t one , t h e c hu rch c on s i s t s o fa c han ce l , n av e w i th n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s a nd a i s le s , w e s t t ow e r o v e r t h e w e s t b ay o f t h e n ave , a nd a n o r th p o rch . T h i r teen th -c en tu ry w o rk m ay b e f ound i n t h e w a l l s o f t h e c hance l a nd s ou th t r an sep t e a r ly ) a nd t h e n o r th t r an sep t l a t e r ) . T he w e s t t ow e r a nd n ave w e re b u i l t i nt h e f ou r t een th c en tu r y D a combe a nd R ow e , 1 975 [ 1 969 ] ) . S cu lp ture I . No r th t r an sep t , c o rbe l s , l a t e 1 3 ' h o r e a r ly 1 4 t hc en tu ry . O the r c a rv ing s , n o r th t r an sep t e x t e r io r , l a te m ed ieva ld a t e . I .Two c a rved c o rbe l s a r ep l aced o nt h e n o r th t r an sep t , o ne o n t h ee a s tf a ce o ft h en o r thea s tc o rne r ,t h eo the ro nt h ew e s tf a ce o ft h e n o r thw e s t c o rne r . B o th c o rbe l s a r e a bou t t h e s ame s i ze a nd b o th p o r t ray s im i la r f i gu re s ; i n deed , t h ey a ppea r t o b e a p a i r . T hey a r e l o ca ted i n ah i gh ly v i sua l ly a cce s s ib le l o ca t ion b e ing n o mo r e t h an 1 5f t h i gh a nd o n t h e s i de o ft h e c hu r ch f a c ing t h e f oo tpa th t h a t r un s t o t h e n o r th d oo r . P ev sne r a nd L loyd d a t e b o th f i gu r e s t o t h e m id -f ou r t een th -cen tu r y a tt h e e a rl i e s t 1 967 : 5 09 ) ; h ow eve r , i ti sq u i t e p o s s ib le t h a t t h ey a r e

1 39

I . O the rc a rv ing s . On t h e n o r th f a ce o ft h e n or th t r an sep t a r e t wo r e se t c o rbe l s , p robab ly o n ce c a rv ed b u t n ow w ea the r ed b eyond a l r e cogn i t ion p l aced e i the r s i de o f af i l led i nw indow . B e low , t h e l a be l s t op s t o t h e m a in n or th w indow a r e c a rved f r om a p a le s and s ton e w h ich h a s d e te r io r a ted , a l though e nough s u rv ive s t on o t e t h a tt h e se w e re s t y l i sed b ea s t s o rf a ce s c ompo sed f r om f ol iag e . T he re i s ac a rv ing i n s ide t h e n o r th t r an sep t i n av ery s im i la r s t y le t o t h e t wo e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu r e s o nt h e o u t s ide .T h i si s as ma l lh ead w i th p ro t rud ing t ongue a nd l ong s t ra igh th a i r a tt h e e nd o f ah o r izon t a l mou ld o nt h ew e s t w al .

Wickham S t N icho la s . F olow ing a s e ve re " r e s to ra t ion" i n 1 862 -3 , t h e c hu rch i sa lmo s t e n t i re ly mode rn , b u i l t f r om f l i n t a nd r ed b r ick w i th s ome a sh la r m a son ry . S ome o l d f e a tu r e s s u rv ive i nt h e w e s t d oo r o f t h e t ow e r , t h e n o r thea s t a ng le o f t h e n ave a nd t h e n o r th d oo rw ay o ft h e c hance l . T h e c hu r ch c on s i s t s o f ac hance l w i th s ou th c hape l , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s ,n ave ,a nd w e s tt ow e r H endy , 1 908 :2 33 -236 ) . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s ,w e s td oo r r e se t ) , 1 2 t hc en tu r y . I .R oman e sque a r ch c a rved f r om r ed s and s tone a nd c on s i st ing o f o ne p l a in r oled o rde r w i th t r ip le c hev ron d e s ign o n t h e o u t e r f l a t f a ce . Two c a rved c ap i ta l s ,a pp rox ima te ly s i xt os e ven f e e t f r om t h e g round a nd q u i t e b ad ly e r oded , o ccu r o n e a ch s i de . 1 ) N c ap i ta l , W f a ce ; c en t au r w i th b ow a nd a r row t h e s ymbo lo fS ag i t ta r iu s ) , d oub led b ack o ni t se lf a nd f i r ing a n

Append ix 1 1 4 ) Doub le c on to r ted h uman h ead c o rbe l . E ach h ead l ook si n o ppo s i te d i rec t ion s ; b o th h ead s h ave f e a rfu l e xp re s s ion s a nd d i s to r ted mou th s . 1 5 ) S t a r ing h ead . 1 6 ) G r imac ing h ead t u rned t ot h e s ou th . 1 7 ) H ead w i th s hoked e xp re s s ion — w ide e ye s a nd o pen mou th — w i th s mal s t ick a rm s a nd h and s t h a t g ra sp t h e s i de s o ft h e f a ce .A l so h a s ap a i ro fs k inny l e g s . 1 8 ) G r imac ing h ead t u rned t o l ook t ow a rd s t h e s ou th . H a s a

a r row o ve r h i s e qu ine b ody t owa rd s t h e t op r i gh t c o rne r o ft h e c ap i ta l . Sf a ce ; l i on s t and ing u p u pon t he r e a r l e g s a nd t w i s t ing a round s ot h a tt he h ead f a ce s t h e o ppo s i te d i rec t ion t ot h e b ody . T he t a i l c u rve s t i gh t ly u pwa rd b e tween t h e r e a rl e g s a nd e nd s i n af ol ia te t i p . T he h ead h a s s hor t p o in ted e a r s a nd at h ick mane c ove r s t h e n eck . C arved o nt h ec o rner o f t h e c ap i ta l a nd c on t inu ing o n to t h e w e s t f a ce t h e re a ppea r s t ob e s ome th ing b e ing d i sgo rg ed f r om t h e mou th ; t h i s m igh t h ave b een as ho r t s p r ig o ff ol iage . Howeve r , i t i si mpo s s ib le t ov e r if yt h i sw i th a ny d eg ree o fa ccu racy d ue t o t h e e x ten s ive d amag e t h i s p a r t o f t he c arv ing h a s s uf f e red . 2 )

h eav i ly c on to r ted mou th a nd v i s ib le t e e th . 1 9 ) Ho rned f i gu re p u l l ing a tt h e c o rne r so fi t s mou th . 2 0 ) Human h ead w ea r ing s ome k i nd o fr e s t ra in ing d ev ice t h a t s e em s t of o cu s o nt he mou th , wh ich ,d e sp i te t h i si so pen . 2 1 ) F rom h e re t ot h e e nd o ft h e s e r ie s o n t h i s s i de t h e s t y le o f t h e c a rv ing s c hang e s t o amo re u nf in i shed , l e s s r ounded t y pe o fh ead a nd f i gu re . T he f i r s t c o rbe l o ft h i s d i f f e r en t

Sc ap i ta l ;A can thu s f ol i ag ew i th as mal p ro jec t ing h ead f o r av o lu te . T h i s i sd amag ed s o may h ave b een h uman o r a n ima l .

s t y le d ep ic t s ah ead w i th s t ocky h and s t h a th o ld b o th s i de s o fi t s f a ce . T he mou th i ss e t a tr i gh t a ng le s t o t h e r e s t o f t h e h ead , a ti t s b a se , s im i la r t o s ome o f t h e c a rv ing s a t S tud land Do r se t ) . 2 2 ) D i s to r ted h ead w i th mou th o pen . T he f a ce i sv ery p l a in a nd a symme t r ica l . 2 3 ) Doub le f i gu re c o rbe l ; t h e n o r the rnmo s t f i gu re i ss male r t h an i t s p a r tne r . S t y le i sv ery s imp le .

Winches te r C a thed ra lC hu rch o ft h e Ho ly T r in i ty , S a in t s P e te r a nd P au l a nd S t S w i thun . A c a thed ra l h a s s t ood o n t h i s s i te s i nce t h e m id seven th c en tu ry . T he c u r ren t b u i ld ing i s t h e t h i rd , a nd w a s d ed ica ted i n1 093 . E x ten s ive l a te r med ieva l a nd modern a l te ra t ion s h ave c hang ed t h e l e ng th a nd a ppea rance o f t h e R omane sque c a thed ra l , wh ich n ow c on s i s t s o f an ave w i th n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s o f e l even b ay s , n or th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , ac en t ra l c ro s s ing t owe r , ac ho i r a nd r e t rocho i rw i th L ady c hape l P ee r s a nd B rak spea r , 1 912 ; C rook a nd Ku saba , 1 99 1 ) .

2 4 ) 2 5 ) 2 6 ) 2 7 )

aw ide s nou t -l ike mou th a nd t wo l e g s t h a te nd i nh oove s . 2 8 ) Doub le f i gu re c orbe l . 2 9 ) A rch i tec tu ra l p i ece , l a rg e ly o b scu r ed b y a mode rn d ra inp ipe . 3 0 ) 3 1-39 ) T h i s b ay h a s b een r e s tored a ts ome p o in t . Mo s to f t h e c o rbe l s a r e med ieva l a r ch i tec tu ra l p i ece s . T he re i so ne mode rn c a rv ing , a d oub le h ead , b o th f i gu re s w i th

S cu lpture I . C o rbe l s , e x ter io r o f t h e n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , e a r ly 1 2± c en tu ry . G ro te sque s a nd Ga rgoy le s , e x ter io r o fn ave a nd n ave a i s le s , 1 4 t h/15 t hc en tu ry . R oof b o s se s ,i n te r io ro fn ave a i s le s . I V . M i se r ico rd s ,c ho i r , 1 4±/1 5 t h c en tu ry . V .

G ro te sque s a nd G a rgoy le s , e x te r io r c hance la i s le s , 1 4 t h/15 t hc en tury .

g r imac ing mou th s 3 7 ) ; a n a r ch i t ectu ra l/human h ead c arv ing 3 5 ) ; a nd amed ieva ld oub le f i gu re c o rbe l 3 9 ) . S ou th t r an sep t , e a s ts i de , s ou th t on o r th C o rbe l s 1 8 , l i ke t ho se o n t h e c o r re spond ing s i de , h ave b een r e se t a nd d i sp lay a m ix tu re o f c a rv ing s w ea the red b eyond r e cogn i t ion , o ne modern c a rv ing — ah i gh ly a b s t rac t h ead 6 ) ,

o f

I .C o rbe l s , e x te r io ro ft h e n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , c . 1100 -10 . S ou th t r an sep t ,w e s ts i de ,n o r th t os ou th F ig . 4 .4 ) 1 )

B ea s t h ead w i th o pen , d uck -l ike b i l l a nd p ro t rud ing

5 )

t ongue . G r imac ing h ead . H ead t u rned t o t h e s ou th w i th b ig , s t a r ing e ye s a nd c on tor ted mou th . H ead w i th s ma l l , t h in a rm s a nd h and s t ha t p u l l a t t h e c o rne r s o fi t s mou th . H ead t u rned t o t h e s ou th s im i la r t o 3a bove ) w i th o ne

6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 )

a n ima lt y pe r i gh te a r . H ead w i th d i v ided c h in . H ead t u rned t ot h en or th w i th g r imac ing mou th . S t a r ing h ead w ea r ing s ome f o rm o fh eadd re s s . G r imac ing h ead t u rned t o t he s ou th d i sp lay ing n ume rou s

2 ) 3 ) 4 )

H ead h o ld ing i t s f a ce w i th c hunky t h ree -f ing e red h and s . A rch i tec tu ra lp i ece ,w ea the red . H ead h o ld ing i t s f a ce i ni t s h and s ;i t s mou th i so pen w ide . Human a n ima l h yb r id . H a s t h e h ead o f ah uman b u tw i th

a nd o ne o r ig ina lb ea s th ead 5 ) . 9 ) Doub le f i gu re c o rbe l , s im i la r t o 2 3 a bove b u t n o t a s s imp ly c a rved . T he a n ima l f i gu re t o t h e p e r son ' s r i gh t a ppea r s t oh ave h o rn s ;c er ta in ly ,i t s mou th i so pen . 1 0 ) Human h ead , v ery p l a in . I n te re s t ing ly , t h e f e a tu re s o ft h e f a ce a r e c a rved i n n eg a t ive r e l ief i n s tead o f s t and ing p roud . 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th p o in ted e a r s a nd o pen mou th . 1 2 ) Human h ead w i th a s ymme t r ica l ly s e t , s p i ra l -l ike e ye s a nd o pen mou th a tt h eb a se . 1 3 ) H ead w i th e no rmou s ,e x tended o pen mou th . 1 4 ) S qua t t ing a n ima l/human f i gu re w i th g i an t h ead , h uman f a ce a nd p o in ted e a r s . 1 5 ) Doub le h uman a nd a n ima l c o rbe l .

H ere t h e a n ima l

t e e th . 1 0 ) H ead s t a r ing s t ra igh to n . 1 ) R am ' s h ead w i th c u r l ing h o rn s . 1 2 ) Ang ry look ing h ead t u rned t o t h e n or th w i th h eav i ly

a ppea r s t ob e ad og . 1 6 ) A rch i tec tu ra lp i ece . 1 7 ) Unu sua l l ook ing b ea s t h ead , q u i te a r ch i tec tu ra l i n i t s

c on to r ted mou th a nd v i s ib le t e e th . 1 3 ) Doub le b ea s t h ead c o rbe l . B o th h ead s h ave o pen mou th s a nd s ma l lp o in ted e a r s .

e xecu t ion . L a rge f e l ine e a r s a nd h eav i ly e mpha s ized n o se . I t s mou th i so pen . 1 8 ) S qua t t ing f i gu re w i th l a rg e h ead p o s s ib le e xh ib i t ion i s t ? ) a nd c on to r t ed mou th .

1 40

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 1 9 ) P l a in look ing h ead w i th amou s tache . 2 0 ) Human/an ima l h ead w i th h eavy j ow l s a nd p o in ted f e l ine e a r s . 2 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th l ong o pen j aw s a nd e x tended t ongue .

6 ) 7 ) 8 )

Doub le h ead c o rbe l , b o th h ead s l ook ing i n o ppo s i te d i rect ion s . B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th a nd p ro t rud ing t ongue . G eome t r ic d e s ign .

2 2 ) R oden t -l ike a n ima l ,u p s ide -down .

9 ) 1 0 ) 1 ) 1 2 )

H ead w i th mou s tache s . G eome t r ic d e s ign . S qua t t ing f i gu re . T umb le r ,h ead a ppea r s t h rough u p tu rned l e g s .

1 3 ) 1 4 ) 1 5 ) 1 6 ) 1 7 ) 1 8 ) 1 9 )

P l a in h ead . H ead w i th l ong b ea rd . S t a r ing h ead . B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th . Wea the red . B ea rded , s qua t t ing f i gu re . B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th .

2 0 ) 2 1 ) 2 2 ) 2 3 ) 2 4 ) 2 5 )

Wea thered . Human h ead . H ead w i th b ea rd . G eome t r ic d e s ign . B ea s th ead c homp ing o n as t ick . H ead w i th s mal h and sp u ll ing a ti t s mou th .

2 6 ) 2 7 ) 2 8 ) 2 9 ) 3 0 )

Mode rn Mode rn Mode rn D e s t royed . Damaged

2 3 ) Two a n ima l sc oupl ing f a ce t of a ce . 2 4 ) H ead , f a i r ly p l a in f e a tu re s . 2 5 ) 2 6 ) 2 7 ) 2 8 ) 2 9 )

H ead w i th h and s p ul ing i t s mou th o pen b yt h el owe rj aw . H ead w i th d roop ing mou s tache s . H ead w i th l a rge e y e s a nd w el -def ined f a ce . H ead w i th c rooked mou th . H ead ,t oo w ea the red t o make o u tc l ea r ly .

3 0 ) B ea s t h ead w i th s hor t s nou t , w ide o pen j aw s a nd p o in ted e a r s . 3 1 ) B ea s t h ead , v ery s im i la r t o i t s n e ighbou r 3 0 ) b u t w i th a w ide rf a ce . 3 2 ) H ead w i th s t a r ing e ye s ,o pen mou th a nd l ong mou s tache s . 3 3 ) E xp re ss ive , s m i l ing h uman h ead w i th a n ima le a r s . 3 4 ) C o i led s e rpen t . 3 5 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen j aw s . 3 6 ) H ead o f amuzz led a n ima l ,p o s s ib ly ab ea r . 3 7 ) B ea s th ead . No r th t r an sep t ,w e s tf a ce , s ou th t on o r th Twen ty th ree c o rbe l s a c ros s t h ree b ay s , a l o f wh ich a ppea r t o b e r e se t t h e R omane sque wo rk h a s b een t r an sformed b yl a t er m ed ieva l b u i ld ing wo rk o n t h i s f a ce o f t h e n o r th t r an sep t ) . Mo s t o f t h e c o rbe l s h e re a r e p l a in o r c arved i n to s imp le

3 1 ) Damaged 3 2 ) Human h ead .

a r ch i tectu ra l s hape s o r g eome t r ic d e s ign s . A s o n t h e o the r

3 3 ) 3 4 ) 3 5 ) 3 6 )

f a ce s t h e c o rbe l s a r ep l aced b enea th ap l a in p a rape t . 1 ) P a i r o f h uman h ead s l ook ing i n o ppo s i te d i rec t ion s , a nd v ery w ea the r ed . 2 ) C y l inde r . 3 ) P l a in . 4 ) P la in . 5 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign ,h igh ly w ea the red . 6 ) P la in .

I . A mou lded s t r ing c ou r se r un s a l ong t he t op o f t h e n ave a i s le s a nd t he n ave , a nd s uppo r t s n ume rou s i mage s , many o f w h ich , p a r t icu la r ly t ho se o n t he n or th s i de o ft h e b u i ld ing , a r e e x t reme ly w ea the red a nd n ea r i mpo s s ib le t o d ec iphe r .

7 )

P a i ro fh uman h ead s l ook ing o u tf r om t h ew al i na tn ine ty d eg ree s f r om e a ch o the r . 8 ) P l a in . 9 ) P l a in . 1 0 ) P la in . 1 ) B und le o fs t ick st i ed b y ar ope . 1 2 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign b a sed u pon i n te r sec t ing c y l inde r s .

Howeve r , an umbe r o fs im i la r t y pe s o fr e cu r r ing i mag e c an b e d i scerned . On t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave a nd t h e s ou th n ave a i s le t h e p redom inan ti mag e i st h a to ft h eg g l l u s — af a ce , o f ten o fa na n ima l , s e tu pon t wo l e g s C am i l le , 1 992 : 3 7 -40 ) . I I . T he p u re ly f ol ia te o rh e ra ld ic b o s se s a r e n o tl i s ted b e low ) . A . No r th a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t B ay 5 )A l ong -ha i red d em i -f igu re p l ay ing b agp ipe s ; amou th -

1 3 ) Ho r izon ta lr i bb ing . 1 4 ) P l a in .

p u l le r . B ay 6 ) Human h ead w i th l ong , c u r ly h a i r a nd e nc lo sed b y a

1 5 ) P l a in ,b u tp o s s ib ly a ne roded g eome t r ic d e s ign . 1 6 ) P la in . 1 7 ) V e r t ica l r i bb ing . 1 8 ) P l a in . 1 9 ) P la in . 2 0 ) Wea thered a r ch i tectu ra ld e s ign . 2 1 ) A s a bove . 2 2 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign . 2 3 ) A s a bove . No r th t r an sep t ,e a s tf a ce , s ou th t on o r th 1 ) H ead w i th a rm s t ha t s p rou t f r om j u s t a bove t h e e a r s . T he r i gh t h and r e s t s u pon t h e r i gh t e ye , t h e l e f t h and p u l l s a t 2 ) 3 ) 4 ) 5 )

G eome t r ic d e s ign G eome t r ic d e s ign . Two h ead s . G eome t r ic d e s ign .

f r ame o fl e ave s . B ay 9 )H ead o f ab ea s tw i th p ro t rud ing t ongue a nd t u sk s . B ay 1 ) A s a bove ; mou th -pu l le r w i th p ro t rud ing t ongue . I n p l ace o fh a i r t h e c rown o ft h e h ead i sc ove red w i th o ak l e ave s a nd a co rn s . B ay 1 2 ) L owe rv au l t ing ) g reen man , l e ave s s p rou t ing f r om t he mou th ; u ppe rv au l t ing ) mou th -pu l le r , t ongue p ro trud ing . B .S ou th a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t : B ay 4 )A s ow w i th t h ree s uck ing p ig s . T he s ow i sh e ld i nt he mou th o f al i on ; ah ead w i th af o rked b ea rd a nd l ong ,d roop ing mou s tache s . B ay 5 ) Human h ead w i th b ea rd a nd l ong , c u r ly h a i r ; g reen man , t wo l a rge o ak l e ave s s p rou t ing f r om h i s mou th , t wo mo re

t h ee dge o ft h ew ide o pen mou th . B ea s th ead . S ea ted f i gu re , s mal a rm sh o ld ing i t s m a s s ive h ead . Human h ead w i th p o in ted ,c a t -l ike e a r s . B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th .

l e ave s c om ing f r om t h e t op o ft h e n o se ; af a ce s u r rounded b y f ou r f l owe r s wh ich h ide a l t h e h ead e xcep t t h e n o se , e ye s ,

1 41

Append ix 1 f o rehead a nd p a r t o f t he mou th ; g r een m an , p rot rud ing ; ah ead w i th f o rked b ea rd a nd l ong h a i r .

S ome r se t

t ongue

B ay 6 )L ion w i th ap ro t rud ing t ongue ; awoman ' sh ead , ac l o se f i t t ing h eadd re s s make s o n ly t h e f a ce v i s ib le . H e r f a ce i s s u r rounded b yf ol iage ; ah ead w i th ab ea rd a nd l ong w avy h a i r .

B eck ing ton S tG eo rg e . P ev sne r d e sc r ibe s t h e w e s t t ow e rh ere a s ' t he mo s t a mb i t iou s No rman t ow e r o fa ny S ome r se t p a r i sh c hu rch , b i g , b road , p rom inen t , a nd v i go rou s ly d eco ra ted a tt h e b el s tage ' 1 958a : 1 4 1 ) . T he c hu rch c on s i s t s o f aw e s t t owe r , n ave w i th w ide n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s , n or th p o rch , a nd a

B ay 7 ) Human h ead w i th b ea rd a nd l ong w avy h a i r . C ave 1 934 : 5 0 ) s ugg e s t s t h a t i ti st h e h ead o fC h r i s t o r o f God t h e F a the r b ecau se i ti sr ep re sen ted o n ac i rcu la r d i sc r em in i scen t o f ah a lo ; d em i -f igu re o f a n a nge l p l ay ing a c i to le ; a n e ag le h o ld ing a l amb i n i t s b eak a nd t a lon s ; al i on i n c rouch ing p o s i t ion w i th i t s h ead t ouch ing o ne o fi t s h ind l e g s ;g r een m an ,

c hance lw i th s ou th c hape l . S cu lp ture x te r io r o f w e s t t ow er , 1 2 t h I .C o rbe l s/G ro te sque s , e c en tu ry .

o ak l e ave s f o r h a i r , o ak l e ave s s p rou t ing f r om t h e c o rne r o f e ach e y e . B ay 8 ) Ma le h uman h ead s u r rounded b y f ol i ag e . H e h o ld s t wo a co rn s i nh i s mou th ; g r een man ; awoman ' s h ead w i th ac l o se -

I .A l though t h e se c arv ing s a r e s im i la r t o R omane sque c o rbe l s n one o f t h em h ave a s uppo r t ing f unc t ion ; i n f a c t , t h ey m igh t b e c on s ide red p ro to -g a rgoy le s o r g ro te sque s . I n p a r t icu la r , t he

f i t t ing h eadd re s s w i th in ac i rc le o fl e ave s ; ah a r t a t tached b y a c ha in t o as ma l lo ak s t ump . B ay 9 ) Two d em i -f igu re s c l o thed i n a n ima l s k in s . Adam a nd E ve ?T ha tt h e man c a r r ie s a n a pp le wou ld s e em t os ugg e s t t h i s i st h e c a se ; ad em i -f igu re p l ay ing o n ad oub le -p ipe . On e a ch s i de o ft h e b o ss i s ah ead , a tt h e b a se a r e s heep . C ave s ugg e s t s t ha t t h i s i s mean t t o r ep re sen t o ne o f t h e s hephe rd s a t t h e Na t iv i ty 1 934 : 5 1 ) ; ad em i -f igu re s u r rounded b y f ol iage ; a h ooded d em i -f igu re w i th ab ea rd ; ah ead w i th ab ea rd a nd l ong h a i r ; t wo b ea s t s , o ne o f wh ich i sw ing ed , a nd o ne i sb i t ing t h e o the ro nt h eb ack . B ay 1 0 ) Two monk s w i th h ood s w i th t h e i r h and s o n ab ook wh ich i s b e tween t h em o n ab ook re s t . B e tw een t h e t wo f i gu re s i s ad og w ea r ing a h ood , who r e s t s o ne p aw o n t h e b ook ; f ou r b i rd s , o ne t w ice t h e s i ze o ft h e o the r s ; d em i -f igu re o f aman d re s sed i n ah ood . H e h o ld s ar ope a t tached t o t h e h o rn s o f ab u l l ; h ead o f ab ea rded , l ong -ha i red m an a round who se h ead i s ap l a i ted g a r land . C ave s ugg e s t s t h a t t h i s m ean t t h eh ead o fC h r i s tw i th ac rown o ft ho rn s 1 934 : 5 2 ) ; ah ooded h ead ; f ol ia te h ead ; g r een m an , l e ave s g row o u t o f t h e mou th ,

c a rv ing s o n t h e c o rne r s h ave much i n c ommon w i th l a te med ieva lg ro te sque i mag ery . 1 ) NE c o rne r ; mon s ter h ead w i th o pen mou th . 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

N f a ce ; h ead a nd f o rel imb s o f ah o r se w i th a n o pen mou th . NW c o rne r ;r am ' s h ead . W f a ce ; c a t h ead w i th f l a t e nded s nou t , o pen mou th a nd

5 )

t e e th . SW c o rne r ; d ragon -l ike mon s te r w i th f o rel imb s , o pen

6 )

mou th ,p o in ted t e e th ,a nd s ma l lp o in t ed e a r s . Sf a ce ;c a th ead w i th b ea rd .

7 )

S Ec o rne r ;d ragon h ead w i th w ide s m i le a nd r ow s o ft e e th . Sma l l f o rel imb s g r ip t h e s t one .

B ren t Knol S tM ichae l . L a te med ieva l c hu rch b u i l t f r om b lue l i a s a nd No r th S ome r se t f r ee s tone s i tua ted o n t h el owe r s l ope s o fB ren t Knol . T he c hu rch h a s aw e s t t owe rw i th h i ghe r s t a i r t u r re t o n t h e n o r thea s t c o rner , n ave w i th n o r th a i s le , s ou th t r an sep t , s ou th p o rch ,a nd c hance l P ag ea nd W inga t e , n .d . ) .

f r om t h e o u te rc o rne r s o ft he e ye s , a nd f r om t h e m idd le o ft h e f o rehead ; ad emon w i th b a t ' s w ing s ; ad em i -f igu re o fa n a ng e l h o ld ing a v io l a nd b ow ; am an w i th b ea rd a nd l ong h a i r h o ld ing a s t em o f av ine f r om w h ich c l u s te r s o fg r ape s h ang ;

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro t e sque s , e x ter io ro ft owe r ,

t h e h ead o f aman w i th b ea rd a nd l ong h a i r ; a no the r h ead w i th ab ea rd a nd l ong h a i r ; s im i la rh ead s u r rounded b yo ak l e ave s . B ay 1 2 ) T he g a teway o f ac a s t le f l anked b y t wo t owe r s , i nt h e c en t re o f t h e c ou r tya rd o f wh ich t h e re i s ad ragon ; h ead o fa man w i th l ong h a i ra nd ab ea rd .

I . T he t ow e r p o sse s se s a n o rna te p a rape t p i e rced w i th q ua t refo i l s i nl o zeng e s ,w i th p innac le s r i s ing f r om e a ch c o rne r .

I V . M i ser ico rd s . Af u l l l i s t o ft h e m i se r ico rd s c an b e f ound i n R emnan t , 1 969 : 5 6 -59 a nd C a lk , 1 994 , t h e l a t te r w i th a n a ccompany ing p ho tog raph ic r e co rd .

E leven d i s t inc t ive g a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s o ccu r b enea th t h e p a rape t . A . E a s tf a ce ,n o r th t os ou th ; 1 . H ead w i th b u lbou s e ye s b e low p ronounced b row s , a

V . G ro te sque s a nd g a rgoy le s ,e x te r io ro fc hance la i s le s . V a r iou s f i gu re s m ay b e f ound i nt h i s a r ea , m any o f wh ich a r e b ad ly w ea the red . G a rgoy le s i n c lude l i on h ead s , g ry l l i , a nd a s t and ing b i rd w i th s p read w ing s . G ro te sque s i n c lude s mal

l a te 1 4 t h c en tu ry . B ench e nd s , n ave , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

2 .

h uman h ead s , g ry l l i , ag r een m an s ou th s i de ) a nd f ol i a te d e s ign s . L abe l s t op s d ep ic t i mag e s o f e cc le s ia s t ic s , l i on s a nd b i rd s s t and ing e r ec t , many o f wh ich a r e mode rn .

d i s to r ted n o se a nd g r imac ing mou th . S l ende r t w i s t s o fh a i r s p rou tu pwa rd f r om t h e t op o ft h eh ead . B ea s t h eaded e xh ib i t ion i s t f i gu re w i th d i sp ropo r t iona te ly l a rg e h ead . T he h ead , wh ich h a s h uge u p r igh t a n ima l e a r s , b u lg ing e ye s a nd s haggy , mane -l ike h a i r t h a t g row s d own i t s b ack , a ppea r s t h rough t h e ' V ' made b y t h e t wo u p tu rned h uman l e g s , b e tween wh ich t e s t ic le s a nd a na nu s a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le . Ou t o f t h e w ide o pen mou th o f t h e h ead awo rm -l ike c r ea tu re w i th p o in ted e a r s a nd a n o pen mou th a ppea r s , e x tend ing i t s t ongue t o l i ck t h e t e s te s

3 .

1 42

c ompa re w i th t h e f i gu re a t Me re ,W i l t sh i re ) . H ead o f ab ea s t w i th s haggy h a i r , p rom inen t e ye s , o pen mou th a nd t ongue e x tended o ve rt h e c h in .

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture 4 .

S E c o rne r , a ng led t o f a ce o u t a t4 5° : ar e c tangu la r b ea s t h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s , a n o va l s haped mou th l i ned w i th t e e th ,a nd p rom inen te ye s . B .S ou th f a ce ,e a s tt ow e s t ; I . H ead a nd f o rel imbs o f ah o rned g oa t w i th s t r ia ted b ody a nd o pen mou th . 2 . Hyb r id b ea s t mou th -pu l le r w i th l a rge h ead , s mal , memb ranou s w ing s o n t h e s hou lde r s , b u lg ing e y e s b enea th p ro m inen te yeb row r i dge s , a nd a n ima le a r s o n t h e t op c o rne r s o f t h e h ead . T he f o rel imb s a r e s p ind ly a nd e nd i n p aw -l ike h and s , e ach p u l l ing a par t t h e c o rne r s o f t he mou th . B ig v e r t ica ll i ne s o nt he n eck . 3 . SW c o rne r o f t ow er , a ng led t o f a ce o u t a t f o r ty -f ive d eg ree s : h yb r id h uman/an ima l mou th -pu l le r v ery s im i la r t ot h ea bove . T he f i gu re h a s al ong s nou t ,e ye s t h a tp ro jec t

C a me r ton S tP e te r . Of l a te med ieva l d a te a r e t h e w e s t t owe r , n or th w al o f t h e n ave a nd t h e n o r th p o rch . T he r e s t o f t he c hu rch f a b r ic r ep re sen t s p os t -med ieva l b u i ld ing P ev sner 1 958a : 1 50 -151 ) . S cu lpture I . L abe l s t op s a nd g ro te sque s , e x te r io r o fw e s t t owe r , 1 5 t h/16 t hc en tu ry . I . A . Nor th s i de o fw e s tt ow e r : 1 ) H ighe s ta r ch , Es i de ;d amag ed h yb r id b ea s t . 2 ) H ighe s t a r ch , W s i de ; q uad ruped w i th g r inn ing h uman f a ce , w ide o pen mou th , r ow s o f t e e th , a nd a t ongue e x tended o ve rt h el owe rl i p . 3 ) M idd le a r ch , Es i de ; h ead a nd s hou lde r s o f ab ea s t w i th a

o u t f r om t h e h ead o n s t a lk s , al umpy f o rehead p robab ly h a i r ) , e r ec t a n ima l e a r s o n t he t op c o rne r s o f t h e h ead , memb ranou s w ing s j o ined t o t he s hou lde r s , h uman a rm s a nd h and s t h a t p u l l o pen t he c o rne r s o f i t s o va l shaped mou th . T he f i gu re a ppea r s t o b e c l o thed i n al ong s leeved t un ic . C . We s tf a ce , s ou th t on o r th ; 1 . H ead a nd f o repa r t s o f ab ea s tw i th w ide o pen mou th l i ned w i th t e e th , p rom inen t e ye s , s ma l l e a r s , a nd f o rel imb s t h a t t e rm ina te i nt h ree toe s . 2 . Ab ea s t d evou r ing ah uman f i gu re h ead f i r s t . T he h uman

mou th f u l l o f s ha rp t e e th a nd f o re l imb s r em in i scen t o f a l i on . 4 ) M idd le a r ch , W s i de ; h uman d em i -f igu re h o ld ing a c y l ind r ica lo b jec t . 5 ) L owe s ta r ch , Es i de ;h ead o fa n e l ephan t 6 ) L owe s t a r ch , W s i de ; h ead o f ar h inoce ro s . T he se t wo c arv ing s A 5 ,A 6 ) a ppea rt ob ep o s t -med ieva lc arv ing s t he s t y le , s t one a nd s ub jec t ma t te r d i f f e r f r om t h e r e s t o ft he s e r ie s ) . B . We s t s i de o fw e s tt owe r : 1 ) H ighe s t a r ch , N s i de ; a )C rouch ing q uadruped b ea s tw i th i t s mou th o pen a nd t ongue o u t . D i rec t ly a bove t h i s , o n t h e s t r ing c ou r se b e low t h e c r enela ted p a rape t , t h e re a ppea r s ab )g r inn ing h o rned h ead . 2 ) H ighe s ta r ch , Ss i de ; a )c rouch ing q uad ruped b ea s t , a bove

f i gu re i sv i s ib le f r om t h e l owe rb ack d own , a nd a ppea r s t o b e ma le . T he a nu s i sc l ea r ly c arved . T he b ea s t h ead i s c a rved i n s im i la r d e ta i l , w i th s t r ia ted c heek s , b u lg ing , d r i l led e ye s , s p i ra lt u f t s o fu pwa rd p o in t ing h a i ro nt h e t op o ft h eh ead , t e e th l i n ing t h e o va l mou th , a nd memb ranou s w ing sj o ined a tt h e s hou lde r s . C ompa re w i th t h ew al -p la te c arv ing a t Ame sbu ry W i l t sh i re ) . 3 . NW c o rner : h ead a nd s p iny f o rel imb s o f ab ea s t w i th o pen mou th l i ned w i th t e e th . T he o ve ra l l s t y le i sp l a ine r t h an t h er e s to ft h e s e r ie s . D . No r th f a ce : 1 .

3 ) 4 ) 5 )

H ead a nd f o rel imb s o f ab ea s t e xempl if y ing t h e s e r ie s : b u lg ing e ye s , t u f t s o f h a i r o n t h e t op o f t h e h ead , s mal e a r s , membranou s w ing s , s p ind ly f o rel imb s w i th t a lon s , a nd a no pen mou th l i ned w i th t e e th .

6 ) C . 1 ) 2 )

B ren t Knol i sj u s t if iab ly f amou s f o r i t s l a te med ieva l c a rved b ench e nd si nt he n ave ,i np a r t icu la r t h e s equence o ft h ree t ha t f e atu re R eyna rd t h e f ox , as a t i r ica l f i gu re p opu la r i nm ed ieva l f o lk t a le s . T he f i r s t i n t h i s s equence d ep ic t s t h e m i t red a nd r obed R eyna rd p reach ing t o t he a n ima l s a nd b i rd s i n t h e wood land , wh i le i n ap ane l b e low t h i s ma in p i ctu re t wo a pe s s p i t r oa s t t h e c a rca s s o f ap ig . T he s e cond b ench -end i sa l so d i v ided i n to t wo p ane l s , b u t h e re t he l owe r o ne i sw el o ve r t wo th i rd s o ft h e s i ze o ft h e u ppe r . The l a t te r d ep ic t s R eyna rd

3 )

wh ich , o n t h e s t r ing c ou r se ,i sa b )g r inn ing b ea s th ead . M idd le a r ch ,Ns i de ; d og w i th aw ide g r in . M idd le a r ch , Ss i de ;c rouch ing mon s te rw i th ar i dg ed s p ine a nd g r inn ing t oo th -f i l led mou th . L owe s t a r ch , N s i de ; 1 ) d em i -f igu re w i th ah ead o ft h ick h a i r a nd who h o ld s as t r ing o f r o sa ry b ead s i n t h e l e f t h and . L owe s ta r ch , Ss i de ; h uman f i gu re p l ay ing al u te . S ou th s i de o fw e s tt owe r : S t r ing c ou r se d i rec t ly a bove t h e h i ghe s t w indow , o ne c a rv ing ;t h e h ead a nd f o repaw s o f ad og . L abe l s t op t ot h e m id leve lw indow , W s i de ; h uman d em i f i gu re c r adl ing as mal p ackag e . L abe l s t op t o t h e m id leve l w indow , E s i de ; i nver ted q uad ruped w i th h uman f a ce ,w ide g r in a nd l a rg e t e e th .

D . E a s t s i de o fw e s tt owe r : 1 ) S t r ing -cou r se b e low p a rape t , Ss i de ; mou th -pu l l ing h ead s e t u pon t h e b ack o f a n i nve r ted b ea s t ' s b ody t he h ind l e g s a ppea rt oc ome o u to ft h et op o ft h eh ead ) . 2 )

s e a ted , h i s l e g s b ound t oge the r , b enea th t h e b en t b ranch o fa t r ee . I n t h e t r ee a r e s eve ra l g ee se a nd a h uman f i gu re w i th a b ook o r s c rol . T he l ower p ane l s how s R eyna rd w i th h i sl e g s i n t h e s t ock s wh i le a f i gu re s t and s g ua rd . T h i s i st h e " t r ia l" o f R eyna rd . T he f i na lb ench -end i sa ga in d i v ided i n to t wo s im i la r s i zed p ane l s , t h eu ppe ro ne s how ing t h e h ang ing o fR eyna rd b y t h e g ee se , t h e l owe r o ne d ep ict ing t wo d og s w a tch ing P ag e , n d ; s e ea l so V a r ty , 1 967 ) .

3 )

S t r ing -cou r se b e low p a rape t , N s i de ; d amag ed b ea s t h ead w i th a s im i la r b ody a r rangemen t t o i t s n e ighbou r . T he mou th i sm i ss ing b u tb ig a n ima le a r s a r ev i s ib le . L abe l s t op s t ot he h i ghe s tw indow d i rec t ly b e low D 1 a nd

D2 ) ; t wo s imp le h uman h ead s . L ack o f w ea ther ing s ugg e s t s t ha tt he se may b ep o s t -med ieva lp i ece s . T he b a s i s f o r many o f t h e c arv ing s h e re i st h e b ody o f t he q uad ruped e . g . B 1a ,B 2a , B 3 ) . T h i si sa lway s c arved s ot h a tt h e b ody i sc rouched a nd f a c ing d ownwa rd s . Nume rou s v a r ia t ion s u pon t h i s mode l e x i s t — mon s t rou s B 4 ) , h uman h eaded A 2 , C 3 ) , a nd , a ti t s mo s t e x t reme , w i th h uman h ead s a ng led b ack

1 43

Append ix 1 Eng l ishco mbe S t P e ter . O r ig inaly a No rman p a r i sh c hu rch c ompo sed o f n ave , a x ia l t owe r , a nd c hance l s im i la r t o S tud land a nd L u l l ing ton ) . I n t h e l a ter m ed ieva lp e r iod ac hape l w a s a dded t ot h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave P ev sne r , 1 958a : 1 89 -

s o f a r , t h ey a ppea r t o b e a t tached t o t h e b ack o ft h e b ody o f t h e a n ima l D 1 , D2 ) . T h i s c ha rac te r i s t ic s hape — t h e b ody o f ac rouched q uadruped o f ten h yb r id ) w i th i t s h ead s e t b ack o n i t s b ody s o t h a t t h e c he s t s t ick s o u t t o a n u nna tu ra l d eg ree i sc ommon i nt h e a r ea

1 90 ) .

s e e Wr igh t , 1 982 ) .

C o mbe S t N icho las S tN icho la s . T he f i r s t c hu rch a tC ombe w a s f ounded i n 9 70 . T h i s b u i ld ing w a s s upe rceded b y a Norman c on s t ruc t ion a round 170 a nd i nt h e f i r s t h a lf o ft he t h ir teen th c en tu ry t h e c hu rch w a s r ebu i l t a ga in . Howeve r , t h e c hu rch i ni t s p re sen t f o rm d a te s l a rge ly t ot h e f i f teen th c en tu ry a nd c on s i s t s o f an ave w i th n or th a nd s ou th a i s le s ,w e s t t owe r , c hance la nd n o r th a nd s ou th p o rche s . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l ,i n te r io ro fn ave , 1 2 t hc en tury . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , n o r th a nd s ou th

I . On t he i n s ide o ft he n or th w a l l o ft h e t owe r a r e t h e r ema in s o f ab l ind a r cade o ft wo b ay s . T he c en t ra l c ap i ta l 1 )i sc arved w i th ah umano id h ead w i th p o in ted a n ima l e a r s o n t h e c o rne r s a nd d eep l i ne s s u r round ing t h e mou th a nd i n c i sed o n t h e f o rehead . Ou t o f t h e c o rner s o f t h e w ide mou th a ppea r t h e e nd s o f as t ick . T he h ead h a s s ho r t s p iky h a i r . T he o the r c a rv ing 2 ) i so n t he n o r th s i de o f t h e c hance l a r ch a nd i s s im i la r i nt h eme a nd e xecu t ion , a l though h ere al i ne o ft e e th i s c l ea r ly v i s ib le a tt h e b a se o ft h e c ap i ta l .

s i de s o f c hance l a nd s t a i r t u r re t s , 1 5 t h c en tu ry . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , w e s t t owe r 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

I . T en c o rbe l s o n b o th t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t he c hance l . On ly t h ree c o rbe l s o n t h e n o r th s i de a r e c a rved ; t h e r e s t a r e p l a in o r mode rn r ep lacemen t s . A l l t e n c o rbe l s o n t h e s ou th s i de , h oweve r ,l ook o r ig ina l . A . No r th s i de o fc hance l ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) P l a in . 2 ) P a r t ia l ly d amaged h uman mou th -pu l le rh ead w i th p aw -l ike h and s F ig . 7 .1 0 ) . 3 ) P l a in . 4 ) Human h ead w i th p o in ted a n ima l e a r s o n t h e t op c o rner s a nd a l ong b ea rd t h a t g row s f r om t h e c h in . A c l aw -l ike h and s uppo r t s t h e h ead . l a in . 5 ) P i s s ing . 6 ) M

I .T he r ema in ing c ap i ta l f r om t h e l a te r 1 2 t h c en tu ry c hu rch a ppea r s o n t h e n o r th s i de o f t h e n ave , i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t he 1 5 t h c entu ry n or th a r cade . T he c arv ing r ep re sen t s aG reen b ea s th ead , em i t t ing s l ende r f ol i age f r om t h e mou th . I . Two s mal o c tagona l t owe r s —s t a i r t u r re t s —a r e a t tached t o t h e n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e c hance l . C arv ing s o ccu r o n t h e f ou ra ng le s mo s tv i s ib le f r om t h eg round . No r th s i de o fc hance l ,e a s tt ow e s t ; 1 ) B ea rded a nd g r imac ing h uman h ead . 2 ) Human h ead ,p l a in ly c a rved . 3 ) C rowned h uman h ead . 4 )

S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , i n t e r io r o f c en t ra l t owe r , 1 2 t h c en tury . C orbe l s , e x te r io r n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f c hance l , 1 2 t h c en tury .

Hyb r id c r ea tu re f o rmed f r om t h e h ead o f h uman w i th b u lbou s e ye s a nd o pen mou th , a nd a b ea rd o f f e a the r s wh ich morph i n to t h e t o r so o f ab i rd . T he re a r e t wo s mal b i rd f e e t .

7 ) P l a in . 8 ) P l a in . ed b ea s th ead . 9 ) Damag 1 0 ) P l a in . B .S ou th s i de o fc hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) Damaged . 2 ) Damaged . 3 ) P a r t ia l ly d amaged b ea s th ead . 4 ) Human h ead w i th s t a r ing e ye s , l i ned f o rehead , h a i ry f a ce

S ou th s i de o ft h ec hance l , e a s tt ow e s t ; 1 ) T he h ead o f awoman w i th l ong h a i r . 2 ) Quad ruped ,t h el ow er h a lf o ft he c arv ing d amag ed . 3 ) M i s s ing . 4 ) Ma le h ead w ea r ing ah eadd re s s . A c a rv ing o f ah yb r id b i rd/ l ion , p o s s ib ly ag r iff in , o ccu r s o n t h e S Ec o rne ro f wha ti sn ow t h ev e s t ry . On t h e c o r re spond ing c o rne r o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c hance l NE ) i s ac arv ing o fa n a pe -l ike c r eatu re w i th f o rel imb s .

5 ) 6 )

7 ) 1 )

NE c o rne r ; h eav i ly e roded mou th -pule r w i th f i gu re s . A

l i ned f o rehead . An ima l h ead e qu ine? ) w i th o pen mou th a nd e x t ended t ongue . S ome d amag e t ot h e t oo ft h ec o rbe l . 9 ) Human h ead w i th g eome t r ic n o se , s l eepy e ye s a nd l i ned f o rehead . 1 0 ) Muzz led b ea r h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd p ro t rud ing 8 )

c en t ra l b ea s t h ead w i th l e on ine f o rel imb s a nd t u f t s o fh a i r a nd a n ima l e a r s o n t h e t op o ft h e h ead , i sf l anked b y t wo l e on ine/ serpen t ine c r ea tu re s , e ach o f wh ich p u l l s o ne s i de o ft h e mou th o pen . 2 )

3 ) 4 )

a nd s l igh t ly o pen mou th . C a th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th . F igu re o n t h e b ack o f aq uadruped , r e ach ing o ve r t h e t op o fi t s h ead t op ul o pen t h e mou th b y t h e u ppe r j aw F ig . 7 .1 a ) . Human h ead w i th s t a r ing e ye s , f o rked g oa tee b ea rd a nd

S E c o rne r ; c on to r ted h uman f a ce w i th p o in ted n o se . Two l e g s c ome o u t o ft h e s i de o ft h e h ead , e ach w i th at a lon l i ke f oo t . SW c o rne r ;l e on ine h yb r id w i th memb ranou s w ing s .

t ongue .

NW c o rne r ; h yb r id c r ea tu re w i th m emb ranou s w ing s a nd h o rn s o nt h e t op o ft h e h ead t h a tc urve b ackwa rd s .

F idd ing ton S t Ma r t in . R u ra l c hu rch c ompo sed o f ac hance l w i th n o r th v e s t ry , n ave w i th n or th a i s le a nd s ou th p o rch , a nd a

1 44

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture w e s t t ow e r . A l though t h e r e s to ra t ion i n 1 860 i n tended t o r ebu i ld a lb u tt h e f i f teen th -cen tu ry w e s tt owe r ,p re -n ine teen th c en tu ry ma t e r ia l s u rv ive s — t he c hance l a r ch i s f ou r teen th

p e r iod a nd d ep ic t G reen Man h ead s . Howeve r , wha tm ake s t he

c en tury , a nd t h e r oof s p robab ly d a te t o t h e s i x teen th c en tury . I ndeed , t h e s ou th w al s o f t h e n ave a nd c hance l ' a ppea r t o b e med ieva l a nd i n c lude a n a r ea o fp o s s ib le h e r r ingbone ma son ry ' Dunn ing , S i rau t a nd B agg s , 1 992a : 1 03 ) . H e r r ingbone

" ea r ly" l ook t o t he c arv ing s i s ap uzz le , e spec ia l ly w i th t he mou lded c o lumn s b enea th . Howeve r , t h e i r a r ch i tec tu ra l

c arv ing s h e re e xcep t iona li st h e i r s t y le — t h ey a r er em in i scen to f R omane sque wo rk i n t h e i r b o ld ly c arved , f l u id l i ne s . T h i s

ma son ry , c ha rac te r i st ic o f e a r ly m ed ieva l a nd R omane sque b u i ld ing wo rk i s , h owever , u n l ike ly ; t h e f i r s t r e co rd o f t h e c hu rch i sn o t u n t i l 1 272 a nd o n c l o se i n spec t ion t h e ma son ry i nt h e w al a ppea r s t ob e mo re ar andom c o inc idence o fa ng led s t one s t h an a n i n tended p a t te rn . T h i s d oe s n o t m i t iga te i t s m ed ieva l s t a tu s b u t r a the r s ugg e s t s t h a t p a r t s o f t h e w a l l may d a te t ot h el a te rm ed ieva lp e r iod i n s tead o ft h e e a rl i e r .

c on tex t t h e n o r th a i s le ) i su nque s t ionab ly f i f t een th c en tu ry s qua re h eaded e x te rna l w indow s , c hamf e red a r che s ) . Un le s s t h e se a r e r eu sed p i ece s t h en t h ey t oo mu s tb e o f as im i la r d a te . T ha t t h e s ub jec t ma t te r i sc ommon t o c ap i ta l s o f s im i la r l a te med ieva l d a te i nt h e v i c in i ty s ugg e s t s t h a tt he c arv ing s h e re a r e i ns i tu . I . S ou th a r cade o ft h ree b ay s : o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e a r cade , i n t h e s pand re l s o f t h e a r che s a nd a lmo s t i mmed ia te ly a bove e ach c o lumn a r e t wo i n se tc arved p i ece so fs t one wh ich a r e n o t

S cu lpture I . C arved q uo in s tone , S E c o rne r o f Sa i s le , u nce r ta in d a te . I .T he f i gu re c arved i nl ow r e l ief o n r ed s and s tone i st ha t o fa S hee la -na -g ig F ig . 9 . 1 5 ) . L a rge o va l a n ima l e a r s a ppea r o n e ach s i de o f t he r ound h ead om i t ted f r om t h e d raw ing i n A s ton , 1 978 -9 : 12 ) , t h e f i gu re ' s r i gh t e a r s l igh t ly h i ghe r t han t h e l e f t . T he l e f t a rm i sr a i sed , t h e r i gh t i sb en t a tt h e e l bow , t h e h and r e s t ing u pon t h e i n s ide t h igh o f t h e r i gh t l e g . B o th l e g s a r e b en t a tr i gh t a ng le s , e ach f oo t f a c ing a way f r om t he o the r . T he g en i ta l a r ea i sb ad ly d amag ed . T he s t y le o fa n ima l e a r s s ugg e s t s am id - t o l a ter med ieva l d a te f o r t h e c a rv ing , wh ich may mean t h a tt h e f i gu re i si ns i tu .

wh i tewa shed l i ke t h e r e s t o ft h e a r cade . T he f u r the s t e a s t i sa r ounde l c arved w i th ap rofu se ly f ol ia te G reen Man h ead . T he s t y le o f c arv ing s ugg e s t s E a r ly E ng l i sh wo rk . T ha t o ver t he w e s te rnmo s tc o lumn i s aq ua t refo i l . T he o dd i ty i nb o th s ub jec t ad e ta i led G reen Man a nd as imp le q ua t refo i l ) a nd c on tex t s ugge s t t ha tt h ey h ave b een p l aced h e re i nt he p o s t -med ieva l p e r iod , p o s s ib ly t a ken f r om e l sewhe re . A r ounde l s e t i n to t h e w a l l a bove t he t owe r a r ch a tt h e w e s t e nd o f t h e n ave c a r r ie s t h e i n i t ia l s W H TB CW a r ranged i n a c o lumn a nd t h e d a te 1 758 . T h i s m igh t s ugg e s t as im i la r d a te f o rt h ep l ac ing o ft he o ther t wo p i ece s .

Lul ing ton A l l S a in t s . No rman c hu rch l i t t le a l te red f r om i t s l i nea r p l an o f c hance l , a x ia l t owe r a nd n ave c ompa re w i th S tud land , Do r se t ) . T he re i s al a rge s ou th c hape l a nd a s ou th p o rch a d jo in ing t h e n ave C le rk , 1 851 : 8 6 -92 ; P ev sne r , 1 958a : 2 22 -223 ) .

Ha l se S tJ ame s . V i l lage c hu rch b u i l t f r om l o ca l s and s tone a nd H am s t one . T he re i s ac hance l w i th n o r th c hape l , n ave w i th n o r th a i s l e a nd s ou th p o rch , a nd aw e s t t owe r . T race s o f i t s No rman p a s ta r e e v iden ti nt h e r e a ra r ch o ft h e s ou th d oo r , t h e f on t , a nd ac a rved s t one b enea th t h e e a s t w indow ; t h e se d a te t o t h e t w e lf th c en tu ry . T he r e s t o f t h e c hu rch a ppea r s t o b e l a te med ieva l , a nd t h e n or th a i s le w a s b u i l t i n 1 546 . I n 1 900 a t ho rough r e s to ra t ion b egan P ev sne r , 1 958b : 1 87 188 ; Dunn ing , 1 985 : 8 0 ) . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , n o r th a r cade o fn ave , 1 5 t h c en tury . R ounde l a nd q ua t refo i l , s ou th s i de o f s ou th a r cade ,r e se t ,p o s s ib ly o f 13th c en tu ry o r ig in .

S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s ,c hance la r ch ,l a t e 11th c en tu ry . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f n o r th s i de o f t h e n ave , l a te 1 t h c en tu ry . E x te r io r o f n or th

I V .

d oo r

t ympanum ,

v ou s so i r s , c ap i ta l s , r ounde l s , i n se t f i gu re ) , l a te 1 t hc en tu ry . O the r c arv ing s : A ) f on t , 1 t h c entury ; B ) g ro te sque s a nd l a be l s t op s o n t h e t owe r , 1 5 t h c en tury ; C ) c arv ing s i n t h e s ou th t r an sep t , 1 3 t hc en tu ry .

I .T h ree b ay n o r th a r cade w i th mou lded p i e r s a nd c arved

I . P l a in R omane sque c hance l a r ch o ft h ree o rde r s , t e rm ina t ing i nt wo c l u s te r s o fc ap i ta l s . T he o u te r a r ch i sf l u sh w i th t h e w a l l a nd c arved w i th c hev ron s . A l l c ap i ta l s a r e c rowned w i th t h ick p l a in a bac i , a pa r t f r om t h e mo s t c en t ra l o ne s wh ich s uppo r t a bac ib ea r ing r epe t i t ive l e af mo t if s . No r th s i de ,n or th t os ou th : 1 ) Two c onf ron ted s i ren s , t h e i r h ead s mee t ing o n t h e c o rne r

c ap i ta l b and s . T he c ap i ta l s t ot he t wo c o lumn s a r e c a rved w i th f l u id w ave l ike p a t te rn s ; t h e t wo r e spond s a r e e ach c a rved w i th aG reen Man . 1 ) E a s te rnmo s t r e spond ; h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd p ro trud ing t ongue . F rom t h e c o rner s o ft he mou th s p rou t t h in f e a the r l ike s t em s t ha t f i l l t h e n or th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h ec ap i ta l . 2 ) We s t e rnmo s tr e spond ; h ead a nd f ol iage c a rved i n as im i la r s t y le t oI 1 , e xcep t h e re t h e f ol iag e a ppea r s t og row o u t o f t h e t op o f t he h ead , j u s t a bove t h e n o se . T he mou th i s c l o sed . T he f e a thery s t em s a r e c urved a nd h ung w i th b e r r ie s .

o ft h e c ap i ta l F ig . 8 .3 ) . B o th a r e n ea r i d en t ica l . E ach h a s a n o ve r s ized h uman h ead w i th a l ong p l a i t t r a i l ing h o r izon ta l ly f r om i t s t op , ap a i r o fl a rg e u pwa rd p o in t ing f e a the red w ing s s im i la r t o t ho se s por ted b y t h e S i ren s a round t h e whee lw indow a tt he e a s te nd o ft h e c hance l a t B a rf re s ton , K en t , a nd t h e G r iff in v ou sso i r s e t i n to t h e w e s tw al o ft h e c hu rch a tB in s t ead o n t he I s le o fW igh t ) ,

T he se c a rved c ap i ta l b and s h ave much i nc ommon w i th t ho se i nt h e c hu rche s a t Upwey Do r se t ) , S togumbe r S ome r se t ) , a nd O t t ery S t Ma ry Devon ) , a l o f wh ich d a te t o t h e l a te m ed ieva l

t wo t i ny f o rel imb s a nd a t w i s ted , b eaded , s e rpen t ine t a i l

1 45

Append ix 1

2 )

3 )

4 )

A c en tau r w i th a b ow f i r ing a n a r row a tt h e c onf ron ted b ea s t s o nt h e n e ighbou r ing c ap i ta l . T he e n t i re a r ch i se nc lo sed b y al a rg e p o in t ed a r ch t h a t s p r ing s f r om t h e s ame p l ace a s t h e s em ic i rcu la r o ne , t h e t i p o f wh ich t e rm ina te s a tt h e c o rbe l tab le . I n t h e s pace b e tw een t h e t op o f t h e s em ic i rcu la r a r ch a nd t h e t i p o f t h e p o in t ed o ne t h e re i sa

t h a t c o i l s u pwa rd . S im i la r t a i l s f e a tu re o n t h e t wo c onf ron ted w yve rn s o nt h e o ppo s i te c ap i ta l ) . F el ine h ead p l aced o n t h e c o rne r o f t h e c ap i ta l a nd d i sgo rg ing a s i ng le t h ick s t em t h a t b ranche s i n to s evera l s t a lk s , e ach t e rm ina ted b y ah a lf -c lo sed l e af . T he c o lumn s uppo r t ing t h i s c ap i ta li sc a rved t og i ve as p i ra l l ing e f f ec t . S calop c ap i ta l w i th l e af p a t te rn s 5l ong l e ave s e ach ) o n t h e a bacu s .

r e c tangu la r n i che w i th ar ounded a r ch t op , i n s ide o f wh ich i s p l aced a f i gu re o f as e a ted a nd n imbed C h r i s t w i th o ne a rm h i s r i gh t ) r a i sed i nb l e ss ing . Two b eaded r ounde l s a r e p l aced

S ou th s i de ,n o r th t os ou th : 4 ) A s n o . 3a bove , b u t w i th mo re a nd s male r l e af mo t if s 3 l e ave s e ach ) . 5 )

6 )

o n e ach s i de o f t h e n i che . A t t h e a pex a nd t e rm ina t ion p o in t s o f t h i s a r ch a r e p l aced v ery w ea the red c a rved h ead s . T he e a s t e rnmo s to ne h a s ah o le d r i l l ed i nt h e f o rehead .

B icorpo ra te l i on , t h e h ead l ook ing d i rec t ly o u t f r om t he c o rne r o f t h e c ap i ta l , e ach b ody t o e i the r s i de a nd b o th f e a tu r ing t a i l s t ha t e nd i n al e af y t i p s im i la r t o t h e l e ave s o n c ap i t a l n o . 2 . S uppor ted b y ac o lumn c arved w i th a

N. O ther c arv ing s . A ) I n s ide t h e n ave t h e re i s aR omane sque f on t c arved w i th a s e r ie s o f b ea s t a nd h uman h ead s a t t h e r im , s ome o f wh ich d i sgo rge s t yl i sed f ol iag e . I mmed ia te ly b e low t h e se i s a n i n scr ip t ion wh ich r e ad s ' Hoc f on t i s s a c ro p e reun t d el i c ta l a vac ro ' I n t h i s h o ly f on t s i n s p e r i sh a nd a r e w a shed a way ) . B e low t h e i n sc r ip t ion i s ab and o f f l ow e r d e s ign s , a nd t h e l owe s t l e ve l f e a tu re s i n te rl inked b l ind a r cad ing . T he f on t d a te s

s p i ra l l ing d e s ign . Two c onf ron ted b i rd -l ike w yvern s w i th s c a ly t a i l s t h a tr i se u pwa rd . E ach a ppea r st ob i te t h e o the r ' s n eck .

I . Th i r teen c o rbe l s , e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) Two g r imac ing h uman f i gu re s emb rac ing . 2 ) A c rowned m a le h ead w i th p a r t ia l ly d amag ed f a ce , t he n o se m i s s ing . Af ul b ea rd h ang s i nc u r l s . 3 ) C a t h ead w i th f i ve b i rd -l ike s e rpen t s i n i t s mou th , t he i r h ead s s p i l l ing o u ta c ro s s t h e c orbe l F ig . 6 .2 b ) . 4 ) Damag ed h ead . 5 ) B i rd h ead w i th s o me th ing i ni t s mou th . 6 ) Al a rge w yve rn w i th f e a the red w ing s a nd l ooped c en t ra l ly b eaded t a i l h o ld ing a v er t ica l ly p o s i t ioned l i on i n i t s f o re l imb s .T he d ragon a ppea r s t ob i te t h el i on ' s h ead . 7 ) T h i s c o rbe l i sv ery e roded , b u t e nough r ema in s t o s ugge s t

t ot h el a te e l even th c en tury . B ) T he u pper s t age s o f t h e t owe r w e r e r e con s t ruc ted i n t h e f i f teen th c en tury . F ormu la ic g ro t e sque s o fv e r t ica l ly p o s i t ioned h ead s d ownwa rd ) q uad ruped b ea s t s , t wo o n e ach f a ce , a r e s e t i n to t h e s t r ing c ou r se b e low t h e p a rape t . I mmed ia te ly b e low e ach p a i ri s aw indow w i th ah oodmou ld a nd l a be l s t op s c a rved w i th s im i la rb ea s t s o r s imp le h uman h ead s . C ) T he s ou th c hape l w a s a dded i nt h e l a te r t h i r t een th c en tu ry . T he re a r e s t u rdy s t if f leaf c ap i ta l s a nd l a be l s t op s t o t h e e n t rance a r ch f r om t h e n ave ) , a nd w i th t h e e a s t a nd s ou th w indow s l a be l s t op s c arved w i th t h eh ead so fm en a nd w omen .

t ha t i tw a s c arved w i th a b ackwa rd l e an ing d ance r o r t umb le r f i gu re . 8 ) Damag ed . P o s s ib ly al e on ine b ea s t . 9 ) Damaged . 1 0 ) F a in t o u t l ine o f af i gu re w i th s p read l e g s a nd o u t s t re tched a rm s — ap o ss ib le S hee la -na -g ig ? R em in i scen t o ft h e f i gu re o n t he f on t a t W in te rbou rne Monk ton , W i l t sh i re 1 2 h

Mi lborne P or t S tJ ohn t h e E vangel i s t . B u i l t o f r ubb le a nd a sh la r t h e c hu rch i sc ompo sed o f ac hance l w i th n o r th v e s t ry a nd c hape l , c en t ra l t owe rw i th n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , a nd a n ave w i th n or th a i s le . T he c hance l , c ro s s ing a nd p a r t s o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t s u rv ive f r om ap re -Conque s t c ruc ifo rm c hu rch who se n o r th t r an sep t a nd o r ig inaly u na i s led n ave w ere

c entu ry ) . 1 ) B ea rded h ead w i th s t a r ing e ye s . 1 2 ) R am ' s h ead w i th c u r ly h o rn s .

d e s t royed i n1 867 . T o t h e t we lf th c en tu r y d a te t h e m id s t ag e o f t h e t owe r a nd s ou th d oorway w i th c a rved t ympanum ; t h e s ou th p o rch a nd g ab led w al o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t a r e f ou r teen th -cen tu ry , wh i le t h e t op o f t h e t ow e r i so f f i f teen th c en tury d a te . T he n ave w a s c omp le te ly r ebu i l t b e tween 1 867

1 3 ) W ing ed b ea s t h ead , t h e f e a thered w ing s s p rou t ing f r om e ach s i de o ft he h ead . I I . No r th d oo r f e a tu r ing an umbe ro fc arved d e ta i l s . A rch o f t wo o rde r s , t h e i nne rmo s t c a rved w i th t h ick z i gzag s ,

a nd 1 869

S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s a nd t ympanum , e x te r io r o f s ou th d oo r , 1 2 t hc en tury . C ap i ta l s , i n te r io r o f c r o s s ing t owe r , 1 2 t h

A round t h e s em ic i rcu la r e dg e a ppea r as e r ie s o f n ine c i rc le s w i th aw av y s qua re s hape w i th in e ach . Two o f t h e se a r e a l so p l aced a tt h e f oo to ft h e d oo r , o ne o ne ach s i de . C ap i ta l s : Two o n e ach s i de o f t h e d oo r . F rom e a s t t o w e s t t h e se a r e : 1 ) F a in t ly c a rved s c alop d e s ign . 2 ) On t h e n o r th f a ce o ft h e c ap i ta l t h e re i s af i gu re w i th l ong s t ra igh t h af t a nd w ea r ing al ong t un ic s a t o n t he b ack o fa

c entury . O the r c arv ing s : g a rgoy le s , c orne r s o f t h e t owe r , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . I .R omane sque d oorway o ft wo o rde r s , a l though much a l te red i n 1 843 when i tw a s h e igh tened a nd p rov ided w i th a n o u te r o rde r a nd as mal s t ruc tu re t op ro tec ti tf r om t h e w ea the r . T he t ympanum i s c arved w i th t wo c on f ron ted l i on s , t h e w e s te rnmo s to ne t u rn ing t he h ead b ackwa rd s t ob i te a ti t s o wn t a i l wh ich e x tend s u pwa rd s b e tween t h e r e a r l e g s , w h i le t h e

l i on . T he f i gu re r e ache s o ve r t h e t op o ft h e l i on ' s h ead t o p u l l o pen t h e mou th . A b i rd o n t h e w e s t f a ce o f t h e 3 )

Dunn ing , S i rau t a nd B agg s , 1 999b : 1 54 ; Wood ,

1 997 ) .

t h e o u te r f e a tu r ing ac on t inuou s s e r ie s o fi r regu la rb eakhead s . T ympanum : t wo c onf ron ted b ea s t s l i on a nd a g r iff in ) e i the r s i de o f aT ree o fL if e F ig . 5 .3 ) . B o th a n ima l s e a t t h e f ol iage .

c ap i ta la t t ack s t h el i on ,p eck ing a ti t sh ead . Two c onf ron ted q uad ruped l e on ine b ea s t s .

1 46

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture e a s te rnmo s tl i on e x t end s af o l ia t e t ongue . As em ic i rcu la r b and o f f ol i ag e f r ame s t h e t wo b ea s t s . T he c ap i ta l s s uppo r t ing t h e o u t e r o rd e r d a te t o t h e n i n e teen th c en tu ry , a nd a r e c op ie s o f R oman e sque s t y l i sed f o l i ag e . T he t wo c ap i ta l s s uppo r t ing t h e i nne r o rde r a r e o r ig in a l a nd a r e c a rved w i th 1 ) af e l ine m a sk d i sgo rg ing b road l e ave s w e s t c ap i ta l , s ou th f a ce ) ; 2 ) af ol i ag e d e s ign w e s t c ap i ta l , e a s t f a ce ) ; 3 ) ah uman f i gu r e w ea r ing a k nee leng th t un ic b e l ted a tt h e w a i s ta nd w ie ld ing as wo rd a nd h o ld ing a s h ie ld e a s t c ap i t a l , w e s t f a ce ) ; a nd 4 ) ag r iff in i n p rof i le e a s tc ap i t a l , s ou th f a ce ) . T he a bacu s a bove t h e c ap i ta l s i sc a rved w i th b i l le t o rnamen t a nd d a t e s t o t h e n ine t een th c en tu ry . I . A l l f ou r o r ig ina l p i e r s o ft h e t ow e r a r che s s u rv ive t og e the r w i th t h e R oman e squ e n o r th a nd s ou th a r che s . T he R omane squ e a r che s f e a tu r e t h e s ame b road r ol mou ld t h a t a ppea r s a r ound t h e t ympanum o n t h e s ou th d oo r . T he a r che s a tt h e e a s t a nd w e s t w e re r e p laced i nt h e f ou r t een th c en tu ry w i th p o in t ed o n e s . A cco rd ing t ot h e c hu r ch g u ide t h e c ap i ta l s o ft h ew e s t a r ch a nd t h ew e s tp a r to ft h e n o r th a r ch a r e s t one , w h i le t h e r ema inde r a r e o fp l a s te r . T he d e s ign s o n a l f olow a c ommon t h eme ; b i g f l a t p l an t s t em s a nd i n t e rl ink ing l e af mo t if s . On t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e c r o s s ing o ne o ft h e c ap i ta l s f e a tu re s af e l ine m a sk w i th f o l i ag ee n t e r ing a nd l e av ing t h rough t h ee a r sa nd mou th . I I . A l l f ou r g a rgoy le s o n e a ch c o rne r o ft h e t ow e r a ppea r t o f olow t h e s t anda rd l a t e m ed ieva l f o rmu la i n t h i s a r ea f o r e x te r io rt ow e r c a rv ing s —a l a r e h yb r id l e on ine b ea s t s w i th b a t w ing s . T he se a r e p l aced u pon t h e s t r ing -cou r se b e low t h e c r en ela ted p a rape t .

i mag e ry .T he re a r e t h r ee ' p a i r s 'o fc a rv ing s : n umbe r s 1a nd 2 ,4 a nd 5 ,a nd 1 a nd 1 2 . I ne a ch p a i r t h e c a rv ing s s h a re an umbe r o fs im i la r i t ie s a nd o ne g l a r ing d i f f e r ence . F o re xamp le ,n umbe r 1r e p re sen t s ad ev i l i sh h o rned h uman h ead w i th i t s mou th o pen ;i t sp ar tne r ,n umbe r 2a l so h a s a no pen mou th a nd h o rn s o n t h e h ead , b u t t h ey a r e t h e ' h o rn s ' m ade b y a n e l abo r a te h ead -d re s s . T he n ex t t wo p a i r s , l i ke m any h yb r id a r ch i t ec tu ra l c a rv ing s , s ugg e s t t h a t " human" a nd " an im a l" a r e i nd i s t inc t c a t ego r ie s . C a rv ing n umbe r f ou rr ep re sen t s t h eh ead o f ab ea s t w i th l a rg e e y e s a nd a c on to r t ed s nou t , wh i le n umbe r f i ve d i f f e r s o n ly i n t h a t i ti st h e h ead o f ah uman . I n as im i la r m anne r n umbe r 1 s how s ab ea s t h ead w i th p o in ted e a r s a nd n umbe r 1 2 ah uman h ead w i th p o in t ed e a r s o nt h ea ng le o ft h e h ead .

Queen C ame l S t B a rnaba s . T he c hu rch c on s i s t s o f a c l e r e s to r ied n av e w i th n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s , c han ce l ,w e s t e rn t ow e r a nd v e s t ry . T he s t and ing f a b r ic i sn o e a r l ie r t h an t h e t h i r t een th c en tu ry , a l though t h e re h a s b een a n e a r l ie r c hu r ch o n t h e s i t e . B y t h e l a t e r m ed ieva l p e r iod t h e l i v ing o f t h e c hu rch b e long ed t oC leeve A bbey . S cu lp tur e I . R oof b o s se s ,c hance l , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . I .T h i r ty -f ive w ooden b o s se s f i ve b eam s r unn ing w e s t/ea s t , e a ch b ea r ing s e ven b o s se s ) a ppea ri nt h er oof o ft h ec hance l . B eam A f u r th e s tn o r th ) ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) F ol i ag e . 2 ) V ine w i th f r u i t . 3 ) Me rman ; i nh i s r i gh t h and h e h o ld s h i s l ong b ea rd , i nh i s l e f th and h eh o ld sh i s t a i l . 4 ) A s h ip w i th t wo s a i lo r s b enea th w h ich , i n t h e w a t e r , a ppea r s al a rg e f i sh o rw ha le . 5 ) P hoen ix i nt h e f i r e . 6 ) O ak f ol i ag e . 7 ) F ol i ag e . B eam B ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) F ol i ag e . 2 ) C ame lw i th t wo h ump s a nd at a i l t h a t c u rv e s u p b e tw een t h e r e a rl e g s t o s p rou t i n to f ol iag e . T he f r on t l e g s a l so g o i n to f ol i ag e . 3 ) F igu re o nh o r seback . T he r i de rw ea r s at un ic b e l t ed a tt h e w a i s ta nd h a s s pu r s o nt h eh ee l s . 4 ) Me rma id w i th l ong s t ra igh t h a i r t h a t f l ow s d own t o h e r w a i s t . I n h e r r i gh t h and s h e h o ld s am i r ro r , w i th h e r l e f t h and s he c omb s h e r h a i r . B e low t h e w a i s t h e r f i sh t a i l i s f o rmed f r om s p in e s a nd s c a le s o f d i f f e r ing s i ze s . Two l a rg e f e a the red w ing s a t t ach b eh ind h e r s hou lde r s a nd f i l l t h e s p ace o ft h er e s to ft h eb o s s F ig . 8 . 1a ) . 5 ) D ragon n ex tt o at r ee i nw h ich t h e re a r ed ove s . 6 ) F ol i ag e . 7 ) Amph i sbaena w i th s c a led b ody . B eam C ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) F ol i ag e . 2 ) F ol iag e . 3 ) F ol i ag e . 4 ) Ang e l . 5 ) Quadruped i nf ol i ag e . 6 ) G r iff in i np rof i le ,s u r rounded b yf ol i ag e . 7 ) V ine a nd g r ape s .

P r is ton S tL uke . T he c hu r ch c on s i s t s o f aNo rman n ave w i th s ou th p o r ch , c en t ra l t ow e r a nd c hance l . T he t ow e r d a t e s t o 1 751 ;t h ec han ce li sn in e teen th c en tu r y P ev sne r , 1 958a : 2 47 ) . S cu lp ture I . C o rbe l s ,e x te r io rs ou th s i de o ft h en ave , 1 2 t h c en tu ry . I .We s tt oe a s t : 1 ) Ho rn ed h uman h ead w i th o pen mou th . 2 ) F ema le h ead w i th t w in -peaked h ead -d re s s a nd o pen mou th . 3 ) D am ag ed h uman h ead . 4 ) B ea s th ead w i th h ug ee y e sa nd c on to r t ed s nou t . 5 ) P l a in h uman h ead w i th l a rg e e y e s a nd c on to r t ed mou th . T he r e i s al i ne a r ound t h e t op o f t h e f o r ehead wh ich m igh ts ugg e s ts ome k i nd o fc ap . 6 ) P l a in ,s imp le h uman h ead . 7 ) A sa bove . 8 ) Ho rn ed a n ima lh ead . 9 ) G r im ac ing b ea s th ead . 1 0 ) Human h ead w i th l a rg ee y e sa nd p o s s ib le c ap o rh a t . 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th a nd p o in ted e a r s o nt h e c o rne r s o ft h eh ead . 1 2 ) Human h ead w i th p o in t ed a n im a l e a r s o n t h e c o rne r s o f t h eh ead . 1 3 ) E roded b ea s th ead . T he d i s t ingu i sh ing f e a tu re o ft h i s s e r ie s o fc a rv ing si sn o tt ob e f ound i n t h e s t y l e o r s ub jec t m a t t e r b u t i n t h e p l acemen t o f

1 47

Append ix 1 I . E igh t c a rved c ap i ta l s , f ou r o f wh ich i n c lude f i gu ra t ive

B eam D ,w e s tt oe a s t : ol iag e . 1 ) F ol i age . 2 ) F ion i nf ol iage . 3 ) L t ag i nf ol iage . 4 ) S ruped — t h eg u idebook s ugg e s t s am an t icho re . 5 ) Quad heep i nf ol iag e . 6 ) S D ragon . B eam E ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) I vy . 2 ) P el ican i nh er p i e ty . 3 ) F ol iage . 4 ) 5 ) 6 ) 7 )

c arv ing s . 1 ) S E c l u s t e r , w e s t f a ce ; t wo p a i r s o f c onf ron ted w yve rn s a bove s p r ig s o f s t yl ized f ol iag e . T he i r h ead s mee t o n t h e NW a nd SW c o rne r s o ft h e c ap i ta l i n deed , t h ey m igh t b e b i co rpo ra te ) . E ach h a s t wo l e g s a nd a n u p r igh t w ing c ompa re w i th t h e w ing ed s e rpen t c a rved o n o ne o f t h e c ro s s ing c ap i ta l s a tA l ton [ ID2 ] , a l so t h eg r iff in a tB in s tead pp . I n t h e c en t re o ft h e w e s t f a ce o ft h e c ap i ta l t h e t wo t a i l s o ft h e w yve rn s j o in a nd w ind r ound e ach o the r . T he t a i l s o ft h e c r ea tu re s o n t h e n or th a nd s ou th s i de s o ft h e c ap i ta l s p rou t i n to f ol iag e . T he re a r e v o lu te s o n t h e NW

E lephan tw i th c a s t le u pon i t s b ack . An te lope . Un ico rn w i th af i gu re . E ag le .

2 )

T he r e spon s ib i l i ty o f t h e c hance l a r ea b e long ing t o C leeve A bbey b y t h i s d a te i sr ef l ec ted i nt h e s im i la r i ty o f t h e c hance l r oof t ot h a t o ve r t h e h a l l a tC leeve B uck le , 1 890 : 4 4 ) . S uch a n e cc le s ia s t ica l b enef ac to r h e lp s t o e xp la in t h e s t rong i nf luence o f ab e s t iary manu sc r ip t i n t he s e lect ion o f t h e d e s ign s s e e D ruce , 1 937 ) .

3 )

c arved i n ad a rke r l ime s tone a nd w i th much l e s s d e ta i l . T he w ing s o ft h e c r ea tu re s o n t h e s ou th f a ce a r e b ack t o f r on t . I t h a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t t h i s i s p o s t -med ieva l wo rk B ay l, 1 980 ) . NE c l u s te r ,w e s t f a ce ;i nt h e c en t re o ft h ew e s t f a ce o ft h e c ap i ta l i s as t y l i sed T ree o f L i f e w i th s p i ra l b ranche s , o n e i the r s i de o f wh ich a ppea r t wo p a i r s o f c onf ron ted b ea s t s , t h e i rh ead s m ee t ing o n t h e NW a nd SW c o rne r s o f t h e c ap i ta l F ig . 5 .2 ) . T he N W p a i ri n c lude n o r th f a ce ) a h o r se -l ike a n ima l w i th i t s h ead t u rned o ve r i t s r i gh t

S togursey S t And rew . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f Dun s te r , S t And rew ' s i st h e l a rg e s tp a r i sh c hu rch i n We s t S ome r se t . T oday i tc on s i s t s o f as anc tuary w i th n o r th v e s t ry , c ho i r w i th n or th a nd s ou th a i s le s , ac ro s s ing t owe r w i th n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , a nd an ave w i th n o r th p o rch . T he b u i ld ing d i sc lo se s

s hou lde r t o g r ee t t h e o n looke r f a ce o n . I t s p a r tne r i sa n u p r igh t q uad ruped w i th al ong a r ch ing n eck a nd t w i s ted b ack h ead f r om who se mou th s p i l l s al ong t ongue t h a t r e s t s o n t h e b ack o f t h e b ea s t . T he SW p a i r i n c lude a s ou th f a ce ) l i on -l ike h o r se . T he s ou the rn p a r t o ft h e w e s t

a n i n te re s t ing h i s tory . An a l i en p r iory s e rv ing t h e c el o f a l a rg e r B ened ic t ine h ou se t h e Abbey o fL on lay i n No rmandy ) i tw a s s upp re ssed w i th o the r a l ien p r io r ie s i n 1 4 14 . A s w el a s b e ing mona st ic u n t i l t h i s d a t e i tw a s a l so p a roch ia l , s e rv ing a s t h e c hu rch f o rt h ep a r i sh . W i l l iam d e F a la i se a nd h i s w if e G eva p re sen ted t h e C hu rch o f S t And rew t og e the rw i th n umerou s t i the s a nd f o re s t ry r i gh t s t o t h e Abbey o f L on lay f ounded i n 1 026 ) s o met ime b e tween 100 a nd 107 . I ft h e b u i ld ing w a s c omp le te a tt h e t ime o fi t s p re sen ta t ion t h en t h e o lde s tp ar t s a r en ol a te rt h an 107 . T he se i n c lude t h e c ro s s ing , t h e t r an sep t s a nd mo s t o f t h e t owe r , wh ich o n s t y l i s t ic g round s a r e g ene ra l ly a g r eed t o b e o f l a te e l even th c en tu ry d a te . T he e a s t e nd o f t h e c hance l a nd t r an sep t s e ach t e rm ina ted i na n a p se . B y a bou t 120 monk s f r om L on lay h ad e s tabl i shed ap r iory a t

f a ce o f t h e c ap i ta l i st oo b ad ly d amaged t o d ec iphe r . A r ow o f s p i ra l s o ccu r a tt h e b a se o ft h e d e s ign , a bove t h e c ab le wo rk t h a tj o in s o n to t h e c o lumn . 4 ) NW c l u s te r , e a s t f a ce ; aG reen Man w i th s c rol ing l e ave s c r eep ing o u t o ft h e c o rne r s o ft h e mou th F ig . 5 .1 3 ) . . H i s t ongue i se x tended . T he t wo v o lu te s o n t h e t op o f t h e c ap i ta l a l so e x tend f r om t h e mou th o ft h e h ead . T he re i s a b s t rac tf ol iag eb enea th t h e f a ce . R icha rd B ala rd n o te s t h a t t h e c ap i ta l s b ea rm any s imi l a r i t ie s t o t ho se a t Du rham c 1072 ) a nd C an te rbu ry c 1075 ) , s ugg e st ing a s im i la r d a te f o r S togu r sey . B ay le 1 980 ) c on s ide r s t h em t o b e s u rp r i s ing b o th b y t h e i r l i nk s w i th No rman a r t a nd b y t h e i r o r ig ina l i ty , r ep re sen t ing a u n ique e xamp le o f ar ema rkab ly h e te rog enou s m ix tu re o f No rman a nd S axon c omponen t s . S i x c ap i ta l s a r e i n ap a le l ime s tone a s y e t u n iden t if i ed ) , b u t t h e

S togu r sey . A round 175 t h e l im i ted s pace o f t h e c hance l w a s e x tended e a s twa rd s t of o rm ac ho i r wh ich t h e monk s c ou ld u se f o r t h e i r o ff ice s s epa ra te f r om t h e p a r i sh ione r ' s s pace i n t h e n ave . T he t h ree a p se sw er e d emol i shed t of o rm ac ho i r f l anked b y t wo s i de a i s le s , t h e a p se s b e ing r ep laced b y t h e a r che s e i the r

t wo o nt h e c hance la r ch a r ei nH am s t one ad a rker l ime s tone ) . T he w ide sp read u se o ft h i s m a t er ia l i nt h e l a s t c en tury a nd t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e s u rf ace s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e se a r e l a ter s ub s t itu te s , p robab ly d u r ing t h e V ic to r ian r e s tora t ion . B ayM s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s i x p a le l ime s tone c ap i ta l s a r e f r om t h e s ame

s i de o f t h e c ho i r . T he c hance l a i s le s w e re r e s to red i n t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry , t h e n o r th o ne c omp le te w i th c r enela t ion s . T he b u i ld ing u nderwen t a' d ra s t ic a nd d i sa s t rou s ' r e s to ra t ion ' i n1 865 ' E e le s , 1 94 1 : 7 ) , m any a spec t s o f wh ich w e re r emoved i nt h e m id t wen t ie th c en tu ry e . g t h e l a rg e s t one p u lp i t a tt he e n t rance t o t h e c ho i r ) G re swel , 1 897 ; E e le s , 1 94 1 : 7 10 ; P ev sne r , 1 958b : 2 99 -301 ; B ay l, 1 980 ; B a l la rd , 1 992 ; Dunn ing , S i rau ta nd B agg s , 1 992b : 1 55 -156 ) . S cu lp ture I . C ap i ta l s , c en tu ry .

a nd SW c o rne r s o ft h e c ap i ta l . NE c l u s te r , s ou th f a ce ; t wo p a i r s o fc onf ron ted wyve rn s . T he i mage i sa lmo s t e xac t ly t h e s ame a sn umbe r 1 ,t hough

wo rk shop , a nd d a t e s t h em t o t h e l a s t d ecade o f t h e e l even th c en tu ry o r c e r ta in ly b efo r e 106 , t h a t i s , b y t h e t ime t h e g ran t t oL on lay w a s m ade B ala rd , 1 992 : 7 ) .

S toke -sub - Hamdon ( Eas t S toke ) S t Mary t h e V i rg in . R u ra l c hu rch b u i l t f r om H am s t one . T he n ave a nd c hance l a r e No rman , t h e l a t te r p o s s ib ly o nce a p s ida l e nded . A t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e t h i r t een th c en tury t h e b a se o ft h e n o r th t ow er

c ro s s ing

t owe r ,

l a t e

e l even th

wh ich f o rm s as t one -vau l ted n o r th t r an sep t w a s ba t . A t t h e e nd o f t h e s ame c en tury t h e s ou th t r an sep t w a s a dded . T owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e m ed ieva l p er iod t h e w al s o ft h e n ave

1 48

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture a nd s ou th t r an sep tw e re r a i sed i nh e igh ta nd r oof so fs ha l lowe r p i tch c on s t ruc t ed . T he d ed ica t ion o f t h i s c hu rch h a s s h if ted t w ice i n mode rn t ime s ; i n 1 840 a nd 1 859 i tw a s s a id t o b e d ed ica ted t o S t D eny s , w h i le b e tw een c 1866 a nd 1 89 1 S t And r ew Dunn ing , 1 974 : 2 47 -248 ;A shdown , 1 993 ) .

I V . On t h e e a s t a nd w e s t f a ce s o f t h e s ou th t r an sep t a ppea r t wo g a rgoy le s , e a ch o f wh ich h a s al e ad d ra inp ipe p ro trud ing f r om t h e mou th . B o th a ppea r t o b e h uman h ead s w i th p rom inen tb row s , l a rg e e y e s , a nd s hagg yh a i r . T he h ead o n t h e e a s t f a ce 2 )f e a tu re s t wo h and s t h a tp u l l o pen t h e s i de s o ft h e mou th .

S cu lp ture I . T ympanum , n or th d oo r t o n ave , 1 2 t h c en tu ry . C a rved h ead t oR omane sque w indow , n o r th s i de o fn ave , 1 2 t hc en tu ry . C o rbe l s , n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e c han ce l , 1 2 t hc en tu r y . r v . G a rgoy le s ,s ou th t r an sep t , 1 3 t hc en tu ry . G a rgoy le ,s ou th s i de o fn ave , 1 5 t hc en tu r y . V . G a rgoy le s , c o rne r s o f t h e t ow e r , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

V . T he s ou th s i de o f t h e n ave f e a tu re s af o rme r g a rgoy le c a rved a s af ema le e xh ib i t ion i s tf i gu re F ig . 9 .1 6 ) .T he f i gu re i s d amag ed ,m i s s ing h e rr i gh tl e ga nd r i gh ta rm f r om t h e f o r ea rm t ot h e s hou lde r . H e r mou th i so pen w ide a si fs c r eam ing a nd a s t one i sl odg ed i n s ide i t ,s ugg e s t ing f o rme ru se a s aw a t e r spou t . J o ined t o t h e s i de o f t h e c hu rch a l ong o ne s i de o f h e r b ody v i ew e r ' s r i gh t ) s he i sn aked a nd p o s se s se s ap a i ro fp endu lou s b rea s t s . H e r l e f t h and r e s t s u pon h e r b ody a tt h e t op o f t h e g en i ta l s ; h e r r i gh t h and h o ld s t h e s i de o ft h e h ead A shdown , 1 993 : 7 2 -3 ) .

I . Above t h e n or th d oo r t o t h e n ave i s ac a rved t ympanum c a rved w i th aT ree o fL i f ew i th t h ree b i rd s a mong i t s b r anche s , o n e i the r s i de o f wh ich a ppea r t wo b ea s t s F ig . 5 .2 2 ) . T he se a r e : o n t h e v i ew e r ' s l e f t , ac en tau r f i r ing a n a r row , t o t h e s i de o fw h i ch t h e r e i sa n i n sc r ip t ion t h a t r e ad s S AG ITAR IUS ; t o t h ev i ewe r ' sr i gh t aq uadruped w i th o vo id e a r so nt h e t op o fi t s h ead a nd a s t y l ized m ane , b en ea th w h ich a ppea r s t h e i n sc r ip t ion L EO .A bove t h el i on t h e re i sa nA gnu sD e i . I . On b o th n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o ft h e n ave t h e re a r e t h in w indow s w i th c ar ved a r ch -head s . T he w indow h ead o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e i sc a rv ed w i th g eome t r ic d e s ign s , w h i le t h a t o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e n ave p r e sen t s as c ene i nw h ich a w yve rn w i th al ong t a i l a nd t wo s ma l l w ing s i st w i s t ing r ound t of a ce i t sh uman a t t acke r ,w ho s t and s u pon i t s t a i la nd a t tack s i tw i th as p ea ra nd as wo rd . I I . T he c o rbe l tab le b enea th t h e e ave s o ft h e c han ce l d a te s t o t h e 1 2 t hc en tu ry .T he i mag e sa r ea sf olow s : A . No r th s i de ,e a s tt ow e s t ; 1 ) C ab le o rnamen t . 2 ) Sm i l ing d em i -f igu re h o ld ing t wo c on e shaped i t em s , t h e p o in t ed e nd so f wh ich r e s ta g a in s te i the rs i de o ft h ec h in . 3 ) S hee la -na -g ig . S qu a t t ing f i gu re w i th l a rg e o vo id h ead w ho se a rm s r e ach b eh ind h e r l e g s t o r e s t u pon h e r b u t tock s ,e i the rs i de o ft h ee xpo sed g en i t a l s F ig . 9 .1 ) . 4 ) C y l ind e r ,t h inne ri nt h em idd le t h an a tt h ee nd s . 5 ) G eom e t r i c d e s ign f e a tu r ing l a ye r s o fi n c rea s ing ly s ma l le r s qu a re s . 6 ) Quad rup ed . T he w ea the r ing h a s m ade a ny i d en t if i ca t ion d i ff i cu l t . 7 ) P l a in . B .S ou th s i de ,w e s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) C ab le d eco ra t ion . 2 ) Angu l a rg eome t r ic d e s ign . 3 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign b a sed u pon i n t e r sec t ing c y l inde r s . 4 ) G eome t r i c d e s ign f e a tu r ing l a ye r s o f i n c rea s ing ly s ma l le r s qua re s . 5 ) Two b ea s t s , aq u ad ruped w i th l a rg e e a r s f a ce o n ) a nd a b i rd o no ne s i de ) . 6 ) L ozeng ed e s ign . 7 ) G eome t r ic d e s ign b a sed u pon i n t e r sec t ing c y l inde r s .

1 49

V I . T he t ow e r p o s se s se s f ou r g a rgoy l e s p ro jec t ing o u t f r om e a ch c o rne r : 1 ) SW c o rne r ; s e a t ed l e on ine c r ea tu re w i th o pen mou th , f l ow ing m ane a nd m emb ranou s w ing s j o ined a t t h e s hou lde r . 2 ) NW c o rne r ; h yb r id q uad ruped w i th v e ined m emb r anou s w ing s a nd ab ody c ove red i n s haggy h a i r . T he h ead h a s b rok en a pa r t . 3 ) NE c o rne r ; h yb r id q uadruped w i th m emb ranou s w ing s a nd ab ody c ove r ed i ns haggy h a i r . 4 ) S E c o rne r ; t wo h uman f i gu r e s w i th l ong h eadg ea r c l ad i n l ong s leeved t un ic s o n e i the r s i de o ft h e h ead o f ab ea s t p u l l ing i t s mou th o pen b y t h e c o rne r s . T he b ea s t h a s f o rel imb s , as haggy b ody a nd c r e s t s o f h a i r o n t h e h ead F ig . 6 .1 3g ) .

Wels C a thed ra l . T he c a thed ra l i sm a in ly t h e w o rk o f t wo p e r iod s , c . 1180 1240 a nd c . 1290 1340 . T he s i t e b eg an e a r ly i n t h e e i gh th c en tu ry a s ac oleg ia t e c hu rch b efo re b ecom ing t h e s e e o f aB i shop i n 9 09 . T he re a r e n o v i s ib le r ema in s o f t h e S axon c a thed r a l . I n t h e t w e lf th c en tu r y t h e e a s t e nd , s t ra igh t e nded c hance l , c ro s s ing a nd t owe r , t r an sep t s , n ave a nd w e s t f r on t w e re b u i l t . T he s e cond p ha se o f b u i ld ing a dded an ew e a s t e nd w i th e a s t t r an sep t a nd e a s t L ady C hape l , a sw el a s s e e ing t h ec omp le t ion a nd s t ru t t ing o ft h ec ro s s ing t ow e r . S cu lp tur e I . C ap i ta l s , n ave , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , c ho i r , 1 3 t hc en tu ry . M i se r ico rd s ,c ho i r ,m id 14 t hc en tu ry . I .A f u l l d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e c a rved c ap i t a l s c an b e f ound i n G a rdne r 1 956 . S ub jec t s i n c lude ab i co rpo r a te l i on , f o l ia t e b i rd l i k e d ragon s , c onf ron t ed b ea s t s , f ol i a t e h a rp ie s a nd o the r c omb ina t ion s o f h uman a nd b ea s t h ead s w i th b i rd b od ie s ) , a h uman h ead w i th a n ima l e a r s , amou th -pu l le r , a nd g r imac ing h ead s . G a rdne r s t a t e s t h a t i n ' t he se l i t t le s c u lp tu re s t h e re i s n o d ef in i t e r e l ig iou s o f t h eo log ica l s cheme s u ch a s e x i s t s i n t h e mo re i mpor t an t c a rv ing s o ft h ew e s t f r on t . B ibl i ca l f i gu re s l i ke Mo se s ,A a ron , a nd E l i jah a ppea r b e s ide b i rd s , b ea s t s , d r agon s , c a r ica tu re s , r u ra l s c ene s , d ev i l s , ac obb le r , a nd h umo rou s i n c iden t s l i ke t h e r obb ing o ft h e v i ney a rd . T he s cu lp to r s s e em

Append ix I 6 )

t oh ave b een g i ven af r ee h and , a nd t oh ave b een a low ed f u l l s cope f o rt he i ri mag ina t ion ' 1 956 : 1 ) . I .Af u l l d e sc r ip t ion o ft h em i ser ico rd s i sa va i lab le i nR emnan t 1 969 : 1 36 -138 s e e a l so F ig s 8 .8 b -c ) .

8 ) 9 )

Amesbury S t Mary a nd S t Me lo r . F ounded a s aB ened ic t ine n unnery i n 9 80 . B y 177 , h oweve r , t h e n unnery h ad b een r e l o ca ted n ea rby a nd t h e s i te w a s r e -founded a s aP r iory o f t he O rde r o f F on tev rau l t f o r men a nd women a l though t he f ema le o r ien ta t ion o f t h e h ou se r ema ined ; s e e P ev sne r , 1 975 : 8 9 ) . F rom t h i s t ime o n t h e c hu rch w a s a l so u sed b y t h e p a r i sh P a rke r a nd C hand le r , 1 993 : 1 45 ) . Now d ed ica ted t o S t Ma ry a nd S t Me lo r t h e c hu rch c on s i s t s o f an ave , c hance l , c en t ra l t owe r , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s a nd as ou th a i s le .

2 )

H i s e ye s a r ec l o sed a nd h i s mou th s l i gh t ly o pen . Dem if igu re b ea r ing ah e ra ld ic s h ie ld . H e h a s s ho r t , t h ick

3 )

h a i rt h a ts t ick s o u tf r om h i s h ead . Dem if igu re o f aman w i th t he t on su r ed h a i rcu to f amonk .

4 )

Wea r s ap added j a cke ta nd as ad e xp r e s s ion . Dem if igu re b ea r ing a s c rol wh ich r e ad s " Ale lu ia"

S cu lpture

I V .

C o rbe l s , e x te r io ro fn or th a nd s ou th s i de s o f n ave , 1 t h c en tury . C o rbe l s ,i n te r io ro fn ave , 1 5 t h c en tury .

5 ) 6 )

R oof b o s se s , s ou th a i s le , s ou th t r an sep t , 1 5 t h c en tu ry . Wal -p la t e c a rv ing s , s ou th a i s le , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

7 )

a

p o s t -med ieva l a dd i t ion ) . H e r h a i r h ang s i n t h ick b ra id s d own t h e s i de s o f h e r f a ce a nd i sf a s tened b eh ind h er h ead . Dem if igu r e b ea r ing as h ie ld , s im i la rt on o .2 i nt h i s s e r ie s . Dem if igu re o f awoman w ea r ing al oo se -f i t t ing d re s s . H e r h and s a r e r a i sed i n f r on t o fh e r c he s t . B ra ided h a i r h ang s o ve rh e re a r s . S he h a s as o r rowfu lf a ce . Dem if igu re b ea r ing a s h ie ld , t h e l owe r p a r t o f wh ich h a s b een c u t a way . H e r h a i r h ang s i nt h ick r ol s o ve r h e r e a r s .

S he t oo h a s as o r rowfu le xp re s s ion . S ou th t r an sep t 8 ) B u s to f af ema le h ead w ea r ing ah eadd re s s a nd g o rg e t . 9 ) B ea s t w i th h ug e mou th d evou r ing a h uman f i gu re h ead f i r s t F ig . 6 .l b ) .

I .T he s e r ie s i s h igh ly w ea the red a nd a s s uch d i ff icu l t t o d ec iphe r . T he c arv ing s o n t he s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave a r e a l so p a r t ialy c oncea led b yt h er oof o ft h e 1 5 t h c en tu ry s ou th a i s le .

1 0 ) C rowned d em if igu re w i th s hor t h a i r a nd h and s b enea th t he c h in .

A . S ou th s i de o fn ave ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) Hooded h ead w i th p o in ted a n ima le a r s . 2 ) H ead w i th l ong t h ick h a i r . 3 ) C rowned h ead . 4 ) Ange lb ea r ing as h ie ld .

1 ) Dem if igu re b ea r ing as h ie ld . 1 2 ) Sm i l ing d em if igu re h o ld ing a t wo -headed b i rd b y i t s o u t s t re tched w ing s . 1 3 ) Dem if igu re b ea r ing a no rna te c rown .

5 ) 6 )

M i t red h ead . D em i -f igu re o f a man w i th a f ul b ea rd a nd w ea r ing a h ood . L a rge a n ima l e a r s p ro t rude f r om t h e s i de s o f h i s h ead . B . No r th s i de o fn ave ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) Ho r izon ta l d em if igu re , p o s s ib ly o f a n a ng e l w i th h and s h e ld i np raye r . 2 ) H ead w ea r ing aw ide -b r immed h a t . 3 ) Ang e lb ea r ing as h ie ld . 4 ) F ema le c en tau ra nd ah uman f i gu re . 5 ) 6 )

t h e t e e th F ig . 6 . Ia ) . H ead w i th p ro t rud ing t ongue . H ead w i th t h ick w avy h a i ra nd b ea rd ,a nd f u l lc heek s .

I V . C arved wooden i mag e s t h a t s p r ing f r om t h e w al -p la te b eam ; s omewhe re b e tween ar oof b o s s a nd ac o rbe l . T he o ne s i nt h e s ou th a i s le ,l i ke t h eb o s se s t h e re ,a r ep a in ted . S ou th a i s le 1 ) Dem if igu re o f a ma le . H e w ea r s as t r iped r obe a nd a t u rban s ty le c ap . Al ong , w avy b ea rd g row s f r om h i s c h in .

Wi l tsh i re

I .

Head w i th l ong h a i r ,h ead -d re s s a nd a s ymme t r ica le ye s .

S ou th t r an sep t 7 ) H ead w i th t h ick c u r ly b ea rd a nd h a i r ,w i th ab one b e tw een

H ead w i th at h ick b ea rd o nt h e c h in a nd h a i rs w ep tb ack . Ob scu red b y s c af fo ld ing .

Nor th t r an sep t 1 4 ) 23 ) Ang e l sb ea r ing s h ie ld s . I n t h e n ave t h e re i so ne w al -p la te c a rv ing o f ah uman h ead t h a t i sv ery g oa t -l ike i n i t s a ppea rance . O therw i se t h e f i gu re s a r e f a i r ly s t anda rd c a rv ing s o f s e cu la r men a nd women . S he r idan a nd R o s s i l u s t ra te n umbe r 9i nt h i s s e r ie s 1 975 : 3 0 ) . T he t wo -headed b i rd mo t if 1 2 ) may a l so b e f ound a s ar oof b o s s i nt h e c l o i s te r s a tL acock Abbey ,W i l t sh i re , a nd o ng l azed t i l e s a tC leeve Abbey a nd G la s tonbu r yA bbey S ome r se t ) , a nd F oun ta in s Abbey Y o rk sh i re ) E ame s , 1 980 : C a t . No s . 1 728 1 733 ) . T he mu seum a tG la s tonbu ry Abbey s ugge s t s t h a tt h i s i s ah e ra ld ic mot if c onnec ted t ot he f am i ly o fR icha rd I .

B ishop 's C ann ing s S t Ma ry t h e V i rg in . L a rg e c ruc ifo rm

F ol ia te r oof b o s se s a r e n o tr e corded . S ou th n ave a i s le 1 ) H ead w i th o pen mou th , p rom inen t t e e th a nd l a rg e t ongue e x tended o ver t h e c h in F ig . 6 .1 0a ) . 2 ) Two h ead s c onf ron ted . 3 ) H ead w i th o pen mou th a nd p rom inen t t e e th , l a ugh ing h ea r t i ly . 4 ) H ead o f awoman w ea r ing ah eadd re s s . 5 ) H ead o f al i on w i th p ro trud ing t ongu re .

c hu rch c on s i s t ing o f an ave w i th n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s , s ou th p o rch , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , c r o s s ing , c hance l , s a c r i s ty a nd s ou th c hape l . A l though o r ig inaly b u i l t i n t h e l a te t w e lf th c en tu ry , much o f t h e v i s ib le f a b r ic t oday d a te s t o t he t h ir teen th -cen tury . T he s p i re a nd s t a i r t u r re t o n t h e c ro ss ing t ow er a r e f i f teen th c en tury P ow el a nd T i l lo t , 1 953 : 1 04 -105 ; P ev sne r , 1 975 : 11-114 ; Annab le , 1 99 1 ) .

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S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture S cu lp ture I . C o rbe l s , e x t e r io r o f t ow e r , e a r ly 1 3 t h c en tu ry . R oof b o s se s , i n te r io r o f c r o s s ing , m id 15 t h c en tu ry . I . A . S ou th s i de ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) G r im ac ing h ead w i th l i ned f a ce . 2 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af i gu r e w ea r ing s ome s o r t o f h ead -d re s s o r c rown . L ik e an umbe r o fo the r c a rv ing s i n t h i s s e r ie s t h e f i gu r e e me rg e s o u t o f ar ol -mou ld r a the r t h an f i ti n to t h ec u rve o f ac onven t iona lc o rbe l s e e a l so 7 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 6 , 2 0 ; a nd s e e 1 3 15 f o r e xamp le s o f n on f i gu r a t ive p i ece s ) . 3 ) G r imac ing h ead w i th l a rg ea lmond shaped e y e s . 4 ) R e la t ive ly s mal a nd f a i r ly e xp r e s s ion le s sh ead . 5 ) G r imac ing h ead w ea r ing am a sk . 6 ) B lank h ead w i th r i dg ed c heek s . 7 ) H ead s e tu pon ag rooved b a ckg round . 8 ) H ead w i th mou s t ache a nd l ong s t r a igh th a i r . 9 ) Ho r izon t a l ,g r inn ing m a sked d em i -f igu r e . 1 0 ) B lank e xp re s s ion le s sh ead w i th l a rg ee y e s . 1 ) G r imac ing h ead w i th ah eav i ly r i dg ed f a ce u pon ag rooved a r ch i t ec tu r a lp i ece . B .E a s ts i de —n oc ar ved c o rbe l s . C . Nor th s i de ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af i gu r e u pon ab ackg round s im i la r t on umbe r2 . 2 ) P l a in c o rbe lw i th ar ol -mou ld b e low ah o r izon ta lg roove . 3 ) A sa bov e . 4 ) A sa bov e . 5 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f a f i gu re u pon a g roov ed b ackg round . 6 ) H ead w i th o pen mou th . 7 ) H ead e m e rg ing o u to f ap l a in b ackg round . 8 ) S im i la rt oC 2 . 9 ) H ead e m e rg ing f r om ar ol -mou ld p i ece . 1 0 ) S im i la rt oC 2 1 ) Ma sk ed g r imac ing h ead w i th i n c i sed f a ce . S e t u pon a mou lded b a ckg round . D . We s tS i de ,n o r th t os ou th : 1 ) P l a in mou lded p i ece . 2 ) H ead a nd s hou lde r s o f af i gu re s e t u pon a mou lded a r ch i t ec tu ra lb ackg round . 3 ) A sa bov eb u tw i th at h inne rf i gu re . 4 ) Human h ead p o s s ib ly w ea r ing am a sk ; o r ah uman/an ima l h ead . 5 ) P l a in mou lded p i ece . 6 ) R omane sque s t y le h ead w i th b i ga lmond shaped e y e s . 7 ) Ap a i r o fh uman h ead s , t h e o ne f u r the s t n o r th a ppea r s t o w ea r ah o rned h ead -d re s s ; t h e h ead o n t h e s ou th s i de o f t h ec o rbe li sf a i r ly p l a in . 8 ) Human h ead w ea r ing a na n ima lm a sk . R omane sque i nf luence s a r e v i s ib le i nm any o ft h e se c a rv ing s — i n c i sed , r i dg ed f a ce s , h ead s w i th mou s tache s a nd l ong s t ra igh t h a i r , a nd t h e p a i red -head c o rbe l o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e t ow e r m any e xamp le s e x i s t t h roughou t t h e t w e lf th -cen tu r y w o rk a t b o th R om sey a nd W inche s te r ) . H av ing s a id t h i s , t h e s e r ie s s how s am a rked t e ndency t owa rd a b s t rac t ion . T he c o rbe l s o n t h e t ow e r a tM i lf o rd -on sea a r e s im i la r . F ew b ea s th ead s o ccu r

1 51

i n e i the r s e r ie s ; r a th e r , t h e c a rv ing s a c cen t t h e h uman h ead , u sua l ly r ep re sen ted i na ss imp le am anne ra sp o s s ib le . Ano the r i n t e r e s t ing f e a tu r e o f t h e B i shop ' s C ann ing s s e r ie s i s t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o f f i gu re -wo rk w i th a r ch i tec tu ra l mou ld ing s , a l though t h i si sb yn om ean s a ni n nova t ion e . g . R om sey ) . T he re a ppea r s t o b e ab i a s i n t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e c arv ing s t ow a rd s t h e s ou th a nd w e s t f a ce s o ft h e t ow e r . On t h e s ou th s i de a l e l even c o rbe l s a r e c a rv ed i n to h ead s o fv a r iou s k i nd s . On t h e w e s t s i de s i x o u t o f t h e e i gh t c o rbe l s a r e l i kew i se c a rved . How eve r , t h e e a s t f a ce o ft h e t ow e r h a s n o f i gu ra t ive c a rv ing s , a nd o n t h e n o r th f a ce o n ly s i x o ft h e e l even c o rbe l s a r e c a rved w i th h ead s , t h e r e s tb e ing p l a in . Mo reov e r , whe r ea s t h e c o rbe l s o n t h e s ou th a nd w e s t f a ce s o f t h e t owe r b ea r a d i ve r se r ang e o f f i gu ra t ive r e p re sen t a t ion s v a ry ing h uman h ead s , o ne p a i ro fh ead s , ah o r i zon ta lf i gu r e , a nd s ome m a sked i mag e s ) , t h e n o r th f a ce b ea r s o n ly t wo t y pe s o fc o rbe l —p l a in o r ah uman h ead s e tu pon amou lded b ackg round . T h i s b i a si n t h e l o ca t ion o f f i gu ra t ive c a rv ing s s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e c o rbe l s w e re d el ibe ra t e ly p l aced t of a vou r t h e s ou th a nd w e s t s i de s o f t h e c hu r ch . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e se i mag e s w e re p o s i t ioned t hu s i no rde r t o b e s e en o r g l imp sed b y a n a ud ience , d e sp i te t h e h e igh t o ft h e t ow e r . I n s uppo r t o ft h i s t h e e n t rance t ot h e c hu rch , v i a t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e n av e , w ou ld h ave m ean t t h a t t h e s ou th a nd w e s t s i de s o f t h e t ow e r w e r e t h e s i de s mo s t f r equen t ly v i ew ed b y p eop le e n t e r ing a nd l e av ing t h e b u i ld ing . T h i s m igh t b e c onn ec t ed mo re w i th p re s t ig e t h an a ny d i dac t ic c once rn s : B i shop ' s C ann ing s , a l though p a r t o f t h e B i shop o f S a l i sbu ry ' s e s t a t e , w a s , u n t i l t h e n ine t een th c en tu r y , e xemp t f r om t h ej u r i sd ic t ion o ft h eb i shop i nc e r ta in m a t te r s . I . T he v au l t ing f o rm s t wo o c tagon a l r i ng s a r ound t h e c en t ra l o pen ing i n to t h e u ppe r s t ag e s o f t h e t ow e r . E igh t b o s se s a ppea r o n e a ch , wh i le t h e re a r e f ou r a dd i t ion a l b o s se s w he re t h en o r th sou th a nd e a s t -we s tr i b sj o in t h ew a l l . A . Ou t e ro c t agon 1 ) N ) Two c onf ron ted G r een b i rd s . T he i r n eck s a r e e n tw ined a nd p rofu se f ol i ag e s p il s f r om t h e i rb eak s . 2 ) NW ) F ol i ag e —f ou r b road l e ave s g row f r om t h e s i de s o f t h eb o s st om ee ta tt h ec en t re . 3 ) W ) Af i gu r e w i th ac rooked s t af f . As mal a n ima l h ead i s v i s ib le n ex tt oh i sl e f tl e g . 4 ) SW ) F ema le f i gu r e i n av o lum inou s d r e s s who se l e g s b end u p p a s t h e r w a i s t . S he g r a sp s a n a n lde w i th e a ch h and . I ti sd i ff i cu l t t o a vo id m ak ing t h e p a ral e l b e tween t h i s i mag e a nd t h e mo t if o ft h e t wo ta i led Me rma id w ho g r a sp s h e r t a i l s i ne a ch h and f o r e xamp le s o ft h i s i mag e o nt h e c on t inen t s e e We i ra nd J e rman , 1 986 : f i g s 1 8a , 1 9a , p l a te 2 2 ; amo re l o ca l e xamp le c an b e f ound i nt h e 1 6 t h c en tu ry s t a l l sa tC h r i s t chu rch P r io ry , s e eF ig . 8 .8 e ) . 5 ) S )S ymme t r ica lf l ow e ra nd f ol i ag ed e s ign . 6 ) S E ) F ema le h ead w ea r ing a n e l abo r a ted t w in -peak ed h ead -d r e s s . I n b e tw een i t s t wo ' h o rn s ' a nd t oo ne s i de o f t h e f a ce a r e d emon ic look ing g r inn ing h ead s . S im i la r i mag e sc an b e f ound a tD ev ize s S t Ma ry ) . 7 ) E ) D ragon w i th s c a ly b ody a nd l a rg e c l aw s i n w h ich a ppea r ah uman f i gu r e , u pon who se h ead t h e b ea s t i s b i t ing . 8 ) NE )T ree/b ran ch w i th l a rg el e ave s . B .I nne ro c tagon 9 ) N ) D amag ed . 1 0 ) NW ) D amag ed .

Append ix 1 1 ) 1 2 )

W ) D ragon who se b ody s w i r l s r ound t o b ecome f ol iage c f . L acock Abbey , e a s tc l o i s te r ) . SW ) Two c onf ron ted G r iff in s , o ne o f whom h o ld s a

h ea r t . 1 3 ) S )F ol iage . 1 4 ) S E ) F ol iage . 1 5 ) E ) Whee lo r s t a ra mong f ol iage . 1 6 ) NE ) Damag ed . C .B o s se s a te nd o fn o r th -sou th a nd e a s t -w e s tr i b s 1 7 ) N ) F ol iage . 1 8 ) E ) B a t . 1 9 ) S ) Human h ead w i th f e a the red w ing s . 2 0 ) W ) F ol iage .

4 ) 5 )

Ang e lp l ay ing as t r ing ed i n s t rumen t . Ange lp l ay ing af o rm o fk eyed i n s trumen t .

A . 1 ) 2 ) 3 ) 4 )

E a s tt ow e s t : D e s t royed . Smal w ea the red h uman h ead . G a rgoy le w i th mou th o pen ing i n to ad ra in . Wea the red b eyond r e cogn i t ion .

5 ) 6 ) 7 ) 8 ) 9 )

A s a bove . Dem if igu re o f aman . S wan o rg oo se . H yb r id b ea s t . Ab i rd h o ld ing as ma l l a n ima l b y t h e t a i l , o ri si t as p r ig o f

f ol i ag e? 1 0 ) G reen Man , t wo l a rge l e ave s e x tend ing e i the r s i de o ft h e B road Cha lke A l l S a in t s . A 1 3 ] ig , a sh la r -f aced c hu rch w i th

mou th . Af i sh . L a rge w ea the red c o rbe l . Th i s i sl i ke ly t ob e ar eu sed p i ece . R abb i t . W inged h ead . F ol iag e s c rol . C o rbe l s im i la r t o n o . 1 2 . I tb ea r s t h e i mag e o f ar am ' s h ead . T he re i sn o th ing p a r t icu la r ly r egu la r a bou t t h e d i st r ibu t ion o f t h e i mage s h e re , n o r t h e i r s t y le o f c arv ing — s ome a r e s ma l l 1 ) 1 2 ) 1 3 ) 1 4 ) 1 5 ) 1 6 )

t r an sep t s a nd ac ro s s ing t owe r ' P ev sne r , 1 975 : 1 45 ) . T he wo rk h ere m a in ly d a te s t o t wo p e r iod s , t h e l a te t h i r t een th c entu ry a nd t h e m id la te f ou r teen th c en tu ry . T he l a te t h i r teen th c en tury wo rk i n c lude s t h e n o r th t r an sep t , w e s t d oorway a nd t h e c hance l ; t h a t o f t h e l a te r f ou r teen th -cen tu ry i n c lude s t h e n ave a nd s ou th t r an sep t . C er ta in ly , b y 1 500 mo s t o f t h e n ave h ad b een r ebu i l t . T he s ou th p o rch d a te s t o t h e e a r ly s i x t een th c en tury i b id . , 1 45 -146 ; F reeman , 1 987 ;T re thowan , n .d . ) . S cu lpture I . C o rbe l s , i n te r io r o f t owe r c ro s s ing , 1 4 t h c en tu ry . C o rbe l s ,i n te r io ro fn ave , 1 4 t h c en tu ry .

r v . V .

s en s i t ive r ep re sen ta t ion s o f b i rd s o r a n ima l s wh i le o the r s a r e l a rg e g a rgoy le s o r c o rbe l t y pe h ead s . Qu i te p o ss ib ly t h e re i s s ome r eu se o f c arved p i ece s . Numbe r s 3 ,6 ,1 2 a nd 1 6 a r e a l b i g p i ece s o f s cu lptu re t h a t b reak t h rough t h e s t r ing c ou r se u pon wh ich t h e c arv ing s o ccu r , s ugge s t ive o fl a te r a l te ra t ion s . S ome o f t h e i mag e s a r e w ea the red t o l i t t le mo re t h an

G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x te r io r n o r th s i de o ft h e n ave , 1 4 t hc en tury . G ro te sque s , s ou th p o rch ,e a r ly 1 6 t h c en tury . G a rgoy le s a nd g ro te sque s , e x t er io r o ft owe r , e a r ly 1 6 t hc en tu ry .

s and s tone l ump s . I V . 1 )

I .F ou rc o rbe l s , e ach o ne i n ac o rne ro ft h et ow e r . 1 )

2 ) 3 )

4 )

NW ) G r inn ing h uman h ead w i th a n ima l e a r s a nd t h ick c u r ly h a i r , h uge a lmond shaped e ye s , w el -def ined e y eb row s ,w ide n o se a nd v i s ib le t e e th . NE ) C olec t ion o f a n ima l s —t wo d og s , ar abb i t a nd a r oden t . S E ) G r inn ing h ead w i th c u r ly h a i r , b ig l i p s , b road n o se a nd p rot rud ing t ongue . T he s hape o ft h e h ead t a pe r s t oa p o in ted c h in . SW ) B ea rded p i g .

2 )

V . B enea th t h e c r enela t ion s a ppea r s ar ol -mou ld p unc tua ted b yi mag e s o ne ach c o rne ra nd i nt h e c en t re o fe ach f a ce . 1 ) SW c o rne r :w inged h ybr id . 2 ) Sf a ce : h uman h ead w i th ab one i n i t s mou th . T he re a r e 3 ) 4 )

A . No r th w a l l ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) Ang e lh o ld ing t h roa tw i th r i gh th and . 2 ) Ange lp l ay ing b agp ipe s . 3 ) Ang e lp l ay ing ap ipe . 4 ) S t a r ing h ead w i th a n o pen mou th a nd p ro t rud ing t ongue . P o s s ib ly amode rn r ep lacemen t , f o r t h e s t y le o fc a rv ing i s p l a in a nd t h e f e atu re s s ha rp . L ike i t s n e ighbou r B 5 ) i ti s p l aced s l igh t ly h ighe rt han t h e r e s to ft h e s equence . 5 ) Mou th -pu l le r ; h ead w i th a rm s t h a t s p rou t f r om n ea r i t s

S ou thwe s tc o rner ) F u l l f i gu re ,o ne h a lf o fh i s b ody o n t h e w e s t f a ce , t h e o the r h a lf o n t h e s ou th f a ce o f t h e p o rch . H ep ul s h i s mou th o pen w i th h i sh and s . S ou thea s t c o rne r ) Human h ead who se t i ny h and s p u l l a pa r tt h ec orne r s o ft h e mou th .

5 ) 6 )

8 )

t wo s mal h ead s a sl a be l s t op s t ot h ew indow mou ld ing . S Ec o rne r : ah o rned h yb r id f i gu re . Ef a ce : v ery s imp ly c a rved f a ce w i th t wo b ig e ye s w i th in a t h ick h ood . P o s s ib ly ab aby . A s o n t h e s ou th f a ce , t h e re a r e h ead s a sl a be ls t op s o n t h ew indow b e low . NE c o rne r : ah yb r id h uman -an ima l mou th -pu l le r . N f a ce : h yb r id mon s te r . H ead s a s l a be l s t op s t o t h e w indow b enea th . NE c o rne r : t h ei mage n ol onge re x i s t s . Ef a ce : ag r imac ing h uman f a ce . T he re a r e h ead s a sl a be l s t op s t ot h ew indow b enea th .

t op a nd s t re t ch d own i t s s i de s t op u l lt h e mou th o pen . Dev izes S tJ ohn t h e B ap t i s t . O r ig ina l ly aNorman c ruc iform c hu rch c on s i st ing o f ac hance l , n ave , t r an sep t s a nd c ro s s ing t ow e rw i th s t a i rca se ) wh ich w a s a l t e red i nt h e f i f teen th c en tu ry b y t h e a dd i t ion o ft wo c hape l s a nd t h e r ebu i ld ing o f t h e n ave

B .S ou th w al , e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) Ang e lp ray ing . 2 ) Ang e lp l ay ing af i dd le . 3 ) Ang e lp l ay ing ah a rp .

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S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture a nd n ave a i s le s 1 975 )

6 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th a nd s pl i tt ongue . 7 ) B und le o fs t i ck st i ed w i th ar ope . B .O r ig ina ls ou th s i de o fc hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) S imp le f e l ine b ea s th ead . 2 ) B und le o fs t i ck st i ed b y ar ope . 3 ) P a r t ia l ly o b scu red b y t h e i n ser t ion o f af i f t een th -cen tu ry a r ch , b u t t h e i mag e r e semb le s al i on w i th i t s h ead t u rned b ackw a rd s a nd i t s t a i l c u rved u pw a rd s t h rough i t s h ind l e g s . 4 ) P a i red h uman a nd a n ima lh ead s . 5 ) B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th . 6 ) F o rme r c a t h ead — t h e c o rbe l h a s b een c u t a w ay l e av ing o n ly i t so u t l ine . Human h ead w i th o pen mou th . a i red h uman a nd b ea s t h ead s , e a ch a ng led o u t a t 4 5 8 ) P d eg ree s . 9 ) B ea s th ead w i th p ro t rud ing t ongue . 1 0 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th . 1 ) P l a in . 1 2 ) B und le o fs t i ck st i ed b y ar ope . 1 3 ) P l a in .

Gu idebook ; P ev sne r , 1 975 : 2 05 -207 ; P ugh ,

S cu lp ture C ap i ta l s ,i n t e r io ro fc hance l , 1 2 t hc en tu ry . I . C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f n o r th s i de o f c hance l , 1 2 t hc en tu ry . C o rbe l s , i n t e r io r o f c hape l , s ou th s i de o f c han ce l , 1 2 t hc en tu r y . I V . G a rgoy le s , e x t e r io ro fn av e a i s le s n o r th a nd s ou th ) , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . V . C o rbe l s , i n t e r io r o f n ave a i s l e s n o r th a nd s ou th ) , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . I .I n te r l inked b l ind a r cad ing r un s a l ong t h e i n t e r io r w a l l s o f t h e c hance l . T he a r che s a r e d eco ra t ed w i th c hev ron s a nd s c a le o rnamen t a ppea r s i n ac on t inuou s b and a bov e a nd i n t h e i n te r s t ice s whe re t h e a r che s i n t e r sec t e a ch o the r . T he c ap i ta l s a r e a l c a rved w i th g eome t r ic mo t if s . S calop o rf ol i ag e p a t t e rn s m ay a l so b e f ound . T he t wo c ap i ta l s t h a t s uppo r t t h e c hance l a r ch a r e s im i la r ly c a rved . T ha t o n t h e s ou th s i de , h ow eve r , o n t h e w e s t f a ce , b ea r s a n i mag e o f ah uman h ead d i sgo rg ing s t rap -l ike f ol i ag e . T h i s i st h e o n ly f i gu r a t ive c a rv ing i n t h e c hance la r ea .

I V . T he n av e a i s le s a r e c apped w i th ap l a in p a rape t b enea th w h ich r un s as t r ing c ou r se p unc tua ted b yg a rgoy le s . No r th s i de ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) S qua t t ing l i on w i th o ve r s ized h ead a nd t h ick m ane . T he mou th i so pen . 2 ) L ion f i gu r e w i th s haggy b ody a nd g ene r a l a ppea r ance s im i la rt ot h ea bove . 3 ) Human/an ima l f i gu re . T he f i gu r e s qua t s u pon t h e s t r ing c ou r se , t h e h and s h o ld ing t h e b ack o f t h e n eck . T he mou th i so pen w ide a nd t h e e y e s a r e h a lf -c lo sed . S haggy l i mb s , r ounded a n ima l e a r s a nd t a lon -l ike f e e t c omp le t e t h e i mag e . T he re a ppea r s t o b e s ome th ing a r ound t h e n eck ,l i ke ac ol a r . S ou th s i de ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) S qua t t ing l i on w i th m emb ranou s w ing s a t tached a t t h e s hou lde r sa nd s hagg yb ody h a i r . 2 ) P a r t ia l ly d amag ed l e on ine b ea s t w i th b a t w ing s a nd s t r ia t ed b ody . 3 ) S qua t t ing b ea s tw i th b a tw ing s . 4 ) S qua t t ing l i on w i th e x t en s iv em ane a nd e x t ended t ongue .

I . T he s equence o fc o rbe l s i sa pp rox ima te ly 2 5 f e e t f r om t h e g round . E a s tt ow e s tt h e s equence r un s a sf olow s : 1 ) Ab s t r ac t s qua t t ing f i gu re w i th o ve r s ized h ead a nd l a rg e a lmond shaped e y e s . T he h and s r e s t u pon t h e k nee s a nd a ppea r t o p u l l o pen t h e mou th , o u t o fw h ich t h e t ongue p ro t rude s . 2 ) E xh ib i t ion i s t c oup le . On t h e v i ew e r ' s l e f t af ema le f i gu re s qua t s ,h e rg en i t a l sc l ea r ly v i s ib l e . H e rf o r ea rm s a nd h and s a r e m i s s ing . On t h e r i gh t am a l e f i gu re , h i s b ody s l i gh t ly a ng led a w ay f r om t h e f ema le , h o ld s h i s e r ec t p en i s i nh i s r i gh th and F ig . 9 .5 b ) . 3 ) Two b ea s t h ead s w i th s t a r ing e y e s a nd g r inn ing , t e e th f i l led mou th s . 4 ) B ea s t h ead a nd an aked f ema l e f i gu re w i th l e f t h and o n h e rb ody .B o th b i t eu pon t h es ame l e ng th o fr ope . 5 ) B ea s t h ead w i th w ide s nou t a nd o pen mou th l i n ed w i th t e e th . Sma l la rm s a nd h uman h and s a ppea r f r om e a ch s i de o f t h e f i gu re , a nd t h e h and s g r ip t h e l ow e r j aw o n e ach s i de o ft h e mou th . 6 ) An e mb r ac ing c oup le i n s ide t h e o pen j aw s o f ab ea s th ead w i th b u lg ing e ye s .

V . S ou th s i de o fs ou th n av ea i s le ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) C rowned m a le h ead w i th w avy h a i r a nd b ea rd , t h e l a t t e r f a l ing o ve rt h e s h ie ld h e ld o ve rt h ec he s tb yt h el e f th and . 2 ) D em i -f igu r e w ea r ing a m i t re a nd c l oak f a s ten ed a t t h e n eck b y ac l a sp . T he f i gu re h a s s hou lde r l e ng th s t ra igh t h a i r a nd r a i se s t h e r i gh t h and a si ft ob ru sh i ta w ay f r om t h e s hou lde r .T he e a s ts i de o ft h ec o rbe li sd amag ed . 3 ) D em i -f igu r e w i th t h ick w avy h a i r a nd h and s c l a sped b enea th t h e c h in , w ea r ing al ong s l eeved t un ic b u t toned u pc en t ra l ly . 4 ) C rowned m a le f i gu re w i th l ong w avy h a i r a nd b ea rd , h o ld ing as h ie ld a c ro s st h ec he s tw i th b o th h and s . 5 ) D em i -f igu re w ea r ing al ong s l eev ed t un ic s im i la r t on o . 3 a bove ) . T he f i gu r e h a s t h ick w avy h a i r a nd h o ld s t h e h and st og e the r ,f i ng e r s s t ra igh t ,b en ea th t h ec h in . 6 ) C rowned f ema l e d em i -f igu re w i th l ong w avy h a i r a nd a rm s h e ld u p r igh t , t h e h and s h o ld ing t h e h a i r b y t h e s i de o ft h eh ead .

I I . O r ig ina l ly t h e se c o rbe l s w ou ld h ave b een o n t h e e x t e r io r s ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l a nd t h e e a s t e nd o ft h e s ou th n ave a i s le ,b u ta r en ow i n s ide h av ing b een e n c lo sed b y a1 5 t hc en tu ry c hape l . T he s equence i s much p l a ine r a nd mo re r e pe t i t ive t h an t h a to nt h ee x t e r io ro ft h en o r th s i de o ft h ec han ce l , s ugg e s t ing t h a ti tw a s c a rved b yd i f f e r en tm a son s , p o s s ib ly a ta n e a r l ie ro r l a te r d a t e . T he re a r e s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e c o rbe l s equence o n t h e e x te r io ro ft h ec hance la tS t Ma r y ' so nt h eo the rs i de o ft h e t own . A . O r ig ina le a s te nd o fs ou th a i s le , s ou th t on o r th : 1 ) Open mou thed b ea s th ead w i th v i s ib l et e e th . 2 ) B und l eo fs t i ck st i ed w i th ar ope . 3 ) Two h ead s ,o ne h uman ,o ne b ea s t . 4 ) B ea s th ead w i th w ide o pen mou th . 5 ) P l a in .

1 53

Append ix 1

8 )

Ma le d em i -f igu re w i th s hou lde r leng th w avy h af t , mou s tache a nd b ea rd o n t h e c h in . T he f i gu re w ea r s ac ap a nd h o ld s h i s h and s t og e the rb enea th t h e c h in . Ma le h ead w i th t h ick b ea rd a nd s hou lde r leng th h a i r b enea th a d eco ra ted c ap . T he h and s g r ip t h e t op o f t h e

3 ) 4 )

Ss i de o f a i s le ; c rouch ing f ul f i gu r e o f al i on i n p rof i le ,

5 )

w i th ad amaged h ead t u rned t oo ne s i de . S E c o rne r o f a i s le ; l e on ine b a t -w inged b ea s t w i th o pen mou th , s haggy h a iry b ody a nd h a iry f o re l imb s , d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e f r om e a ch s i de o ft h e mou th .

E x te r io ro fn o r th n ave a i s le ,e a s tt ow e s t 6 ) Wea the red , s qua t h yb r id l e on ine b a t w ing ed b ea s t w i th

t un ic . No r th s i de o fn o r th n ave a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) F ema le d em i -f igu re w i th t h ick c o i l s o f s t ra igh t h a i r , a nd w ea r ing s ome f o rm o f c rown . T he a rm s a r e h e ld u p , t h e h and s r e s t ing o nt h e h a i ra tt h e s hou lde rl e ve l . 2 )

4 )

7 )

s haggy b ody . H ead o f a woman i n a n e l abo ra te h eadd re s s w i th t wo

p o in t s o n e a ch c o rne r , s e ized b y ab ea s t . T he l a t te r a ppea r s t o o ne s i de , c l ing ing o n t o t h e woman ' s f o rehead w i th i t s f o rel imb s . C ompa re t oc arv ing n o . 3i nt h i s s e r ie s . 8 ) Wea thered q uad ruped w i th m emb ranou sw ing s . 9 ) D em i -f igu re w ea r ing ah ood a nd h o ld ing ah olow o b jec t t ot h e l e f te a r . 1 0 ) W ing ed l i on i n p rof i le . T he w ing s a r e f e a the red a nd t h e

Ma le d em i -f igu re i n as u i t o fa rmou rh o ld ing ap l a in s h ie ld b efo re t h e c he s tw i th b o th h and s . D em i -f igu re w i th s ho r tw avy h a i r a nd c ap , h o ld ing ap l a in s h ie ld b efo re t h e c he s tw i th b o th h and s . C rowned ma le f i gu re w i th l ong w avy h a i r a nd f o rked b ea rd e x tend ing f r om t h e c h in t o f a l l o ve r t h e t op o ft h e

h ead i sp a r t ia l ly d amag ed . 1 ) L ion i n p rof i le , h ead t u rned t o t he l e f t , w i th a f i e rce e xp re s s ion . T he mou th i so pen a nd af l ow ing mane h ang s

s h ie ld h e ld b efo re t h ec he s tw i th b o th h and s . C rowned f ema le d em i -f igu re w i th l ong w avy h a i r a nd a rm s h e ld u pwa rd s , t h e h and s c upp ing t h e h a i r o n e ach s i de o ft h eh ead . le d em i -f igu re w i th t h ick c u r ly h a i r a nd f u l l b ea rd . T he 6 ) Ma h and s a r eh e ld a pa r tj u s tb enea th t h e c h in . Ma le d em i -f igu re w i th w avy h a i r a nd f u l l b ea rd , t h e h and s g r ipp ing t he t op o ft h e t un ic . T he se f i gu re s a r ea l d i s t ingu i shed b y ar e al i sm g ene ra l ly l a ck ing 5 )

f r om t h en eck . 1 2 ) W ing ed l e on ine b ea s t , s im i la rt on o . 6i nt h i s s e r ie s .

S ou th s i de o ft h en ave ,e a s tt ow e s t : 1 ) H ea r ti nf ol iag e .

i ne a rl ie r c o rbe l c a rv ing s . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e s i ze o f t h e h ead i s i np ropor t ion t ot h e r e s to ft h e b ody .

2 ) 3 ) 4 )

S ing le H aw tho rn s t y le l e af . C rown . W ing ed l i on .

5 )

Two c onf ron ted l e on ine b ea s t s , s t and ing u p r igh t o n t h e i r h ind l e g s . No r th s i de o ft h e n ave , e a s tt ow e s t : 6 ) H igh ly w ea the red c arv ing ;i mpo s s ib le t od ec iphe r . 7 ) B ea s ta nd f i gu re ,a ga in h igh ly w ea the red . 8 ) D amag ed . 9 ) Human h ead w i th a n a rm t h a t h o ld s ap ipe i n t h e r i gh t

Dev izes S t Mary t h e V i rg in . B u i l t i n 143 , o n ly t h e c hance l a nd p ar t s o ft h e s ou th p o rch r ema in f r om t h i s f i r s t p ha se , t he n ave , n ave a i s le s a nd w e s t t owe r a l c omp le te ly r ebu i l t a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e f i f teen th c en tu ry P ev sne r , 1 975 : 2 07 -208 ; P ugh , 1 975 ). S cu lpture I .

C o rbe l s , e x te r io r o f c hance l n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s ) , 1 2 t hc en tu ry . G a rgoy le s a nd G ro te sque s , e x te r io r o fn ave a i s le s a nd s ou th p o rch , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . G a rgoy le s a nd G ro t e sque s , e x te r io r o fn ave , 1 5 t hc en tury .

I .R omane sque c o rbe l tab le o n b o th n o r th a nd s ou th s i de s o f t h e c hance l , mo s t c o rbe l s p l a in o r f e a tu r ing v ery s imp le g eome t r ic mo t if s . On t h e n o r th s i de o ft h ec hance lt h e re a r e2 0 c o rbe l s , o n t h e s ou th s i de t h e re a r e 1 9 . T he c o rbe l tab le o n t h e s ou th s i de f e a tu re s t wo b ea s t h ead s , v ery s imp ly c a rved . T hey b o th p os se s s s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e c arved c o rbe l s o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e c hance l a nd e a s t e nd o ft h e n ave a i s le a tn ea rby S t J ohn ' s .

3 )

Ed ing ton S t Ma ry , S t K a the r ine a nd A l l S a in t s . I n 9 68 K ing E dg a rg ave t h e e s ta te o fE d ing ton t ot h e h ou se o fB ened ic t ine n un s a t R om sey i n Hampsh i re , i n who se owne r sh ip i t r em a ined u n t i l t h e d i s so lu t ion i n 1 539 . T he f i r s t c hu rch o n t he s i te , p rov ided b y t h e n un s f o r t h e i r t e nan t s , p robab ly d a t e s t o b efo re t h e C onque s t . No th ing o ft h i s r ema in s t oday , h oweve r , f o ri nt h e m id -fou r teen th c en tury W i l l iam o fE d ing ton d ec ided t o t u rn t h e c han t ry c hape l h e h ad r e cen t ly e s tabl i shed w i th in t h e c hu rch i n to a r egu la r r e l ig iou s h ou se . H ence t h e c hu rch b ecame amona s t ic h ou se o f Augu s t in ian c anon s . Mo s t o ft h e f a b r ic d a te s t o t h i s p e r iod , t h e c hu rch t oday c on s i s t ing o f a c hance lo ft h ree b ay s , c en t ra l t owe r , n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s , c l e re s to r ied n ave o f s i x b ay s w i th n o r th a nd s ou th a i s le s , a nd s ou th p o rch w i th p arv i se . C renela ted p a rape t s a nd o rna te p innac le s d i s t ingu i sh t he b u i ld ing R og e r s , 1 997 ) .

I . On t h e s t r ing -cou r se b enea th t h e c r enela ted p a rape t , e x te r io ro fs ou th n ave a i s le a nd s ou th p o rch ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) SW c o rne r ; l e on ine b a t -w ing ed b ea s t w i th o pen mou th , s haggy b ody h a i r , h a i ry f o rel imb s , a nd c r e s t o f t h ick h a i r 2 )

c o rne ro ft h e mou th . 1 0 ) B ea s th ead w i th s t r ia ted s nou t .

u pon t h e t op o ft h eh ead . SW c o rne r o f s ou th p o rch ; d amag ed d em i -f igu re w ea r ing ah ood . S E c o rne r o f s ou th p o rch ; d em i -f igu re o f awoman i n a l a rg e s qua re h eadd re s s , t h e l a t t e r s e ized b y af e roc iou s q uadruped b ea s tw i th h a iry b ody a nd o pen mou th .

1 54

S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s

a nd

G ro te sque s ,

N

a nd

S

t r an sep t s a nd c hance l , 1 4 t hc en tu ry . I .T he c arv ing s a r e p roduced i n t h e s ame o ol i t ic s t one a s t h e ma in f a b r ic o f t h e b u i ld ing a nd a r e p os i t ioned a tt h e b a se o f t h ep a rape t , t y p icaly o ne i ther s i de o f ab u t t res s .

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture A . No r th t r an sep t ,w e s tf a ce , NW c o rn e r ; 1 ) R ec l in ing n aked m a l e f i gu re F ig . 9 .7 ) . B . No r th t r an sep t ,n o r th f a ce ,w e s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) Wea the r ed h ead w i th o pen mou th , c u r l ing h o rn s , a nd t wo s ma l lf o r e l imb se nd ing i nc l ov en h oove s . 2 ) Human h ead w i th s m a l l h o rn s a nd a n ima l e a r s . T he mou th i so pen . C . No r th t r an sep t ,e a s tf a ce ,n or th t os ou th ; 1 ) W ing ed b ea s t w i th t wo c l aw -ended f o rel imb s a nd d i sc s h aped h ead . 2 ) D am ag ed c a rv ing , b u t t h e r ema in s o f al a rg e h ead , f e a the red w ing sa nd ap a i ro f t a lon -ended l i mb s a r ec l ea r . D . No r th s i d eo fc hance l ,w e s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) W ing ed l i on w i th o pen mou th a nd n ea tm ane f r am ing t h e f a ce . T he t wo f o rel imb s g r ip t h e s t on e . T h i s i s ap o s t m ed ieva lp i ece . 2 ) Hum an h ead w i th l ong s haggy h a i ra nd o pen mou th . 3 ) Hum an h ead a nd a rm s . T he h and s a r e p l aced u pon t h e f o reh ead a nd t h e mou th i so pen w ide .T he e ye s a r et u rned t ot h ev i ew e r ' sl e f t . 4 ) Hooded h uman h ead w i th o pen mou th . 5 ) L ion h ead w i th o pen mou th a nd t h ick m ane . 6 ) H yb r id b ea s t s qua t t ing u pon t h e s t r ing c ou r se , i t s mou th o pen t h el ow e rj aw i sm i s s ing ) . T he b ody a nd h ead a r e o f a nu n iden t if iab le a n ima l ,t h e f e e ta r eb i rd ' s t a lon s . E .S ou th s i de o fc hance l ,e a s tt ow e s t ; 1 ) B ea s tw i th w ide o pen mou th . 2 ) D r agon w i th w ing s a nd t a lon -ended f o r e l imb s . 3 ) I nv e r t ed l i on w i th w ide o pen mou th a nd s p layed l e g s . 4 ) Dog c u r ved u pa si fa s leep ,i t sh ead b enea th i t st a i l . 5 ) C rouched q uadruped w i th c r e s t r unn ing a c ro s s t h e t op o f i t sh ead f r om e a rt oe a r . 6 ) F ron t p a r t o f ab ea s t w i th o pen mou th a nd c l aw -ended f o re l imb sg r ipp ing t h e s t one . F .S ou th t r an sep t ,e a s tf a ce ,n o r th t os ou th ; 1 ) D em i -f igu r e f ema le ) w i th l ong s t r a igh t h a i r , w ea r ing a g a rmen t w i th b u t ton s v e r t ica l ly a l ong t h e m idd le . T he f i gu re s uppo r t sh e rh ead w i th h e rr i gh th and ; t h e l e f th and r e s t s a th e r s i de . L i te r a tu r e i n s ide t h e c hu rch s ugg e s t s t h a t t h i s al o ca lw oman o fi l r epu t e . 2 ) Hum an h ead m a le ) a nd a rm s . T he a rm s s p r ing f r om s ome w ay b eh ind t h e h ead . T he h ead h a s l ong h a i r a nd a w ide b ea rd g row ing f r om t h e c h in . T he e dg e o ft h e r i gh t s l eeve i ss e r r a t ed ,w h ich m igh ts ugg e s tb u t ton s . G .S ou th t r an sep t ,s ou th f a ce ,e a s tt ow e s t ; 1 ) Hum an/an ima l f i gu re w i th h uman f a ce a nd o pen mou th , a n ima l e a r s , a nd ac r e s t o fh a i r a l ong t h e t op o ft h e h ead . T he a rm st e rm ina te i nc l oven h oove s . 2 ) B a t g a rgoy l e w i th b roken s nou t , w ing s , l a rg e e a r s a nd c l aw s t h a t g r ip t h e l ow e r r im o f t h e s t r ing c ou r se . T he c a rv ing i sw ea the r ed .

L acock A bbey . Hou se f o r A ugu s t in ian C anone s se s f ounded i n 1 229 . T h e b u i ld ing s w e r e m a in ly c omp le ted b y t h e m id t h i r t een th c en tu ry . Unu sua l ly t h e c l o i s t e r l a y t o t h e n o r th o f t h e c hu rch a l though n ea rby e xamp le so f as im i la ra r rang emen t i n c lude Ma lm e sbu ry , O ld S a rum B raden s toke a nd I v ychu rch ) . A t t h e R ef o rma t ion t h e c hu rch w a s d e s t royed a nd t h e r ema in ing mona s t ic b u i ld ing s w e r e c onve r t ed i n to a m ano r h ou se . T h i s h a s e n su r ed t h e s u rv iva l o f ag r ea t d ea l o f t h e c l au s t ra l b u i ld ing s a sw el a st h e c l o i s t e r w h ich w a s r e bu i l t i n

1 55

t h e f ou r teen th a nd f i f t een th c en tu r ie s a nd C he r ry , 1 975 : 2 84 -289 ) .

C hew , 1 956 ; P ev sne r

S cu lp tur e I . R oof b o s se s , s ou th , e a s t , a nd n o r th c l o i s te r r ang e s , 1 5 t hc en tu ry . I .T he n umbe r a c company ing e a ch b o s s i nt h e d e sc r ip t ion t h a t f olow s r e f e r s t o t h e p l an F ig . A l . 3 ) . P u r e ly f o l i a t e a nd h e ra ld ic b o s se s a r e om i t ted . B ay A : 2 ) Two e ag l e s a nd t wo o w l s ,e ach p a i r ing o ppo s i t e t h eo the r . 4 )Ag roup o ff ou rh ead s , a l o fw hom a ppea r t ob e n un s . T he h eadd r e s se sv a r y . 5 )G r een m an d i sgo rg ing as i ng l e s t em o ff ol i ag e . B ay B 2 )G roup o ff ou rh ead s : a )m a le h ead w i th b ea rd ; b )m a le h ead w ea r ing ac ap ; c )h ead w ea r ing ah ood ; d )f ema le h ead w ea r ing ah eadd re s s a nd g o rg e t . 3 ) Human h ead s u r rounded b yr ed f ol i ag e .T he mou th i so pen . 4 )F ou ri mag e s —t wo g r een m en a nd t wo l e av e s . 6 ) G roup o f f ou r h ead s . T h ree o f t h e se a r e h uman a nd d i sgo rg e as i ng le b road l e af f r om t h e mou th , t h e o the r h ead i s amon s t e rw i th i t s mou th o pen a nd t ongue o u t . 7 )F ace w i th f i ne ly c a rv ed b ea rd a nd h a i r . 8 ) Two h ead s a nd t wo l e ave s . One o f t h e h ead s h a s ah and w rapped a round h i s h eadd re s s ,t h eo the rh a sh i s mou th o pen . 1 0 ) A g a in s t t h ew a l l : Two h ead s , o ne o fw h ich a ppea r s t ob i te s ome th ing ,t h eo the rs t i ck s t h e t ongu eo u t . B ay C 4 ) G reen m an . Two s p r ig s o f l u sh f ol i ag e s p rou t f r om t h e c o rne r s o f t h e mou th a nd g row u p e a ch s i de o f t h e s e rene l o ok ing f a ce . 7 ) Two s i nuou s i n t e r tw ined d r agon s d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e F ig . 5 . 1 9 ) . B ay D 3 ) A f ol i ag e b o s s w h ich , o n o ne s i de , h i de s as ma l l h ead d i sgo rg ing g r eenery . 4 )Ah uman h ea r tf r om wh ich s p rou t s f ol i ag e . B ay E 1 )B i rd w i th h ead b e tw een i t s l e g s a nd f ol i ag e s p rou t ing f r om i t sr e a re nd . 2 )S w i r l f ol i ag ed e s ign w i th af e ed ing b i rd a tt h ee dg e . 3 ) Ow li nf ol i ag e . I ni t sb eak i th o ld s as mal r oden tb yt h e t a i l . 6 ) Two h eaded e ag le w i th o u t s t r e tched w ing s . 7 ) B ea s t -headed m e rma id h o ld ing a m i r ro r a nd d i sgo rg ing f o l iag e t h a td i v ide si n to t wo s t em s F ig . 5 .2 7 ) . 8 ) Human t umb le r who se f a ce a ppea r s t h rough t h e u p tu rned l e g s F ig . 9 .1 ) . B ay F T h i si s ac omp l e t eb ay o fh e ra ld ic s h ie ld b o s se s . B ay G 7 ) Wyve rn p l ay ing ah a rp .T he r e a re nd o ft h eb ody c o i l s r ound b en ea th t h e h a rp a nd s p rou t s i n to f ol i ag e . T he l ong s nou t a nd a n ima le a r s a r e s im i la rt ot h e c r ea tu re o n ab o s si nt h e c r o s s ing t ow e ra tB i shop ' s C ann ing s . A l lt h eo the rb o s se s a r e f ol i a t e . B ay H 1 )A d og e me rg ing f r om t h e n eck o f aq uadruped p o s s ib ly a h o r se ) a nd l e an ing f o rwa rd t oh o ld t h e t a i l o ft h e h o s t a n ima l . A round i t s t h ick n eck i s ab e l t ,s h ie ld a nd s wo rd .

Append ix 1 4 ) Hyb r id b i rd/mon s te r , t h e f r on t h a lf o f a n e ag le w i th f e a the red w ing s , t h e r e a r h a lf c on s i s t ing o f at h ick , r i dg ed a nd c o i led r ep t il i an t a i l . 6 ) Goa t .

2 ) T he i n i t ia l " q" b e ing e a ten b y a mon s te r . T he r e a r o f i t s b ody t u rn si n to af o l ia te s t em t ha tg row s t h rough t h el e t ter . 3 )Ab ea rded f e l ine w ie ld ing as wo rd a nd d i sgo rg ing ah uman h and wh ich g r ip s as t af f . 4 ) Human/an ima l f i gu re . T he h ead i st h a to f awoman w ea r ing

8 ) Hyb r id s wan o rg oo se w i th f i sh t a i l . B ay Q 2 )A f ol iag eb o s sw i th b i rd s a tt h e s i de s . 8 ) H a rpy w i th l ong s i nuou s t a i l a nd m emb ranou s w ing s . T he

ah eadd re s s t h a t h ang s t o t he n eck . T he b ody i st h a t o f a q uad ruped w i th s haggy l e g s . T he t a i l c urve s b e tween t h e r e a r l e g s a nd s p rou t si n to f ol iag e . 5 )A f ox s t and ing u pon a n o pen b ook . T he h ead o ft h e f ox i s

f i gu re w ea r s ah ood a nd i ss u r rounded b yf ol i age F ig . 8 .1 2 ) . B ay R 2 ) Hyb r id g oa t/f i sh . 4 )G r iff in . 6 ) Dog a mong s t f ol i age . B ay S 2 ) Me rma id w i th l ong g o lden h a i r t o t h e w a i s t . S he h o ld s a c omb a nd m i r ro r F ig . 8 . 1c ) .

n ow m i ss ing . 6 )S wan a nd f i she s . 7 ) G r imac ing c en tau r w ea r ing ah ood a nd d i sgo rg ing a s i ng le t h ick s t em t ha t d i s so lve s i n to p rofu se f ol iag e . W i th t he l e f t h and t h e c r ea tu re h o ld s o n to f ol i age g row ing b e s ide . 8 ) Two b ea s t s , o ne o f wh ich s w alow s o r d i sgo rge s ) at h ick r ope -l ike c ab le , p o ss ib ly a n i n i t ia l T . T h i s c r ea tu re h a s ad og ' s

6 )S t ag . 8 )F i sh e a t ing ar abb i t . B ay T

h ead , l ong n eck , f e a the red w ing s a nd t wo l e g s l i ke ab i rd . One o f t h e w ing s p i e rce s t h e c ab le . T he o the r b ea s t h a s as i nuou s b ody l i ke a d ragon , t wo memb ranou s w ing s , n o l e g s a nd a s mal b ea rd o n t h e c h in . I tb i te s a t t h e o ppo s i te e nd o f t h e

4 ) Human -an ima lh yb r id i n spec t ing au r ine f l a sk . 8 )P el i can i nh e rp i e ty . B ay U 2 )S wan/goo se . 4 ) Human f i gu re o n t h e b ack o f ah o r se , h o ld ing b o th t he

c ab le . B ay I 3 ) Two b i rd s b eak t o b eak , f ol iag e s p rou t ing f r om b e tween t h em F ig . 5 .2 1 ) . 4 ) Ma le h a rpy type mon s te r . T he h ead i sh ooded a nd w ea r s a b ea rd . T he b ody f e a tu r e s memb ranou s w ing s , b i rd ' s l e g s a nd a l ong c o i led t a i l . 8 ) Human f i gu re l ook ing t h rough a h oop . A d og a ppea r s b e s ide h im . B ay J 2 ) An ima lh o ld ing ag oo se b yt h en eck .

mane a nd t h et a i l . 6 ) Agnu s D e i . 8 )B ea rw i th as e a ts t rapped t oi t s b ack . Twen ty -one b ay s , e ach b ay w i th a m in imum o f n ine c a rved b o s se s o f wh ich mo s t a r e p a in ted ) m ake s t h i s a n i n c red ib le r e sou rce . Wha ti ss t r ik ing a bou tt h e se i mag e s i st h e i rc a rv ing i n t h e r ound . T o v i ew a b o s s h ead o n i st o m i s s much o f t he d e ta i l t h a t o ccu r s a round t h e s i de s o f t h e p i ece a nd wh ich

6 ) Wo rm t y pe d ragon — n ow ing s o rl e g s . T he re i s al ong s nou t a nd o pen mou th a nd t he r e a r o f t h e b ody s p rou t s i n to t wo l e af yf ol iag e s t em s F ig . 5 .1 8 ) . 8 )Ab i rd f r om who se mou th s p rou t s f ol iage .

l ook s o u t mo re d i rec t ly a tt h e c a sua lo b serve r s t rol ing b enea th . T h i s i sp ar t icu la r ly t h e c a se w i th t h e h ead s f ound a mong t he t wo l a te -fou r teen th c en tu ry b ay s A a nd B ) . F u r the rmo re , t he

B ay K A l lt h e se b o s se s a r e f ol i a te . B ay L 2 ) Me rma id . L ong s t ra igh t t r e s se s f a l t o t he w a i s t . I n h e r l e f t h and s he h o ld s a l of t ac i r cu la rm ir ro r ,i nh e r r i gh t s he h o ld s u p ac omb . Al a rg e f i sh t a i l c u rve su pt he s i de o ft h eb o s s . 6 ) Hyb r id h o r se/f i sh . 8 )S wan/goo se . B ay M 1 )A rche rw ea r ing at un ic a nd s u r rounded b y f ol iag e . 4 ) Quadruped d evou r ing f ol iag e . 8 )B i rd i nf ol iage . B ay N 2 ) F igu re l ook ing t h rough a c r e scen t shape , h e ld b enea th t h e c h in . 4 )F ox w i th l ong p o in ted e a r s ,c a r ry ing ag oo se b yt h e n eck . 6 )F igu re a s t r ide ag oa t , a round t h e n eck o f wh ich i sc ha ined a f l a sk . T he f i gu re h o ld s o n to t h e c ha in , r e s t ing i to ve r h i s s hou lde r . 8 )F igu re b reak ing as t ick w i th h i s s h in . B ay 0 A l lt h eb o s se s h e re a r e f ol i a te . B ay P 2 ) C en t au r w ea r ing ah ood a nd t un ic d eco ra ted w i th r ed l i ne s u pon awh i te b ackg round . W i th o ne h and h e h o ld s t h e t a i l .

b o s se s i n t h e se t wo b ay s a r e c u r iou s i n t h a t t h ey a r e n o t s o much r oof b o sse s p rope r b u t mo re i n f i l l s t o t h e a ng le s m ade b y t he v au l t ing . T he o n ly c hange i ns t y l e t h roughou tt h e e n t i re s equence i sb e tw een t h i s l a te f ou r teen th -cen tury wo rk a nd t he f i f teen th -cen tu ry wo rk b ay s C —U ) . I n e a ch g roup t h e s t y le i s c on s i s ten t t h roughou t . On ly t wo b o sse s b ea r a ny o ve r t r e l ig iou s m ean ing . C u r iou s ly e nough t h e se a r e i nb ay s Ta nd U wh ich a r e d i rec t ly a bove t h e l a va to ry w he re t h e n un s wou ld h ave w a shed t h e i r h and s . One i s a' p el i can i nh e r p i e ty ' i mage , t h e o the r a n Agnu s D e i . O therw i se t h e s e r ie s d i sp lay s a r ema rkab le r ange o fg r een men , m e rma id s 3i n t o ta l ) , h ybr id mon s t e r s a nd a n ima l s . F ol ia te a nd h era ld ic b o s se s a r e c ommonp lace t oo b u t om i t ted f r om t h e a bove l i s t .

L acock S tC y r iac . Apa r t f r om t h e n o r th a nd s ou th t r an sep t s c . 1 300 ) a n e n t i re ly l a te m ed ieva l c hu rch . T he h igh , c r enela ted n ave w i th c l e re s tory , n ave a i s le s , w e s t t ow e r a nd c hape l o n t he n or th s i de o f t h e c hance l a l d a te t o t h e f i f t een th c en tu ry P ev sne r , 1 975 : 2 83 -284 ) . S cu lp ture I . G a rgoy le s , g ro te sques a nd l a be l s t op s , i s le , n ave , t owe r , e x te r io r o f n o r th n ave a s t a i r t u r re t , n o r th a nd s ou th c hape l a nd c hance l .

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S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture

A . L abe ls t op s ,w e s tf a ce n o r th n ave a i s l e : 1 ) No r th s i de o ft h ew indow ; c a t -l ik e a n ima l h ead w i th o pen mou th , t e e th a nd e x tended t ongue . 2 ) S ou th s i de o ft h e w indow ; mon s t e rw i th ab u lbou s b ody , t wo s c a ly f o r e leg s , a nd ah ead w el b e low i t s s hou lde r s . I t s mou th i so pen r e v eal ing as ho r tp o in t ed t ongue . B .L abe ls t op s ,n o r th f a ce n o r th n ave a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) T he f i r s tw indow h a s t h r ee c a rved f i gu re s ,t h e u sua lt wo a t t h e t e rm ina t ion o ft h e mou ld a nd o ne d i rec t ly a bove t h e w e s t e rnmo s t i mag e : a )w e s t l a be l s t op — w ing ed mon s t e r ; b )a bove a ) , c a r ved i n to t h e mou ld — d amag ed c a rv ing o f a ne ag le -l ike b i rd ;c )e a s tl a be ls t op —g r imac ing ow l . 2 ) S econd w indow , f ou r c a rved f i gu r e s : a )e a s t l a be l s t op — b ea rded h ead w i th ar i gh t a rm t h a t h o ld s ab l ank l a be l ; b ) a bove a ) , c a rved i n to t h e c ou r se o f t h e h ood -mou ld — b i rd w i th c l oven h oove s ; c ) o ppo s i t e b ) , a nd l i k ew i se c a rved i n to t h e c ou r se o ft h e h ood -mou ld — d amag ed ; d ) e a s tl a be ls t op —o w lw i th ah eav i ly r i dg ed f a ce . 3 ) T h i rd w indow , t wo c a rved f i gu re s : a )w e s t l a be l s t op — d amag ed , p o s s ib ly a b a t ; b ) e a s t l a be l s t op — c r ea tu r e s c r a t ch ing i t sh ead w i th o ne o fi t sl ong l e g s . C .G ro t e sque s ,n o r th f a ce n o r th n ave a i s le ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) B ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th . 2 ) B ea s t h ead w i th t wo d r agon s o n e i the r s i de . T he d ragon s e a ch p u l l ac o rn e r o f t h e mou th o pen a nd c hew o n t h e h ead ' se a r s . 3 ) Mon s t e rw i th w ing s . 4 ) Two c r ea tu re s , o n e o f wh ich p rey s u pon t h e o the r . T he p reda to r i s al i on w i th i t s t a i l c u rved u pw a rd b e tw een i t s r e a r l e g s . T he l i on h o ld s t h e h ead o f t h e o the r c r ea tu r e b e tween i t s f o repaw s a nd b i t e s i n to i t s h ead . T he p rey ed u pon d em i -c rea tu re i sc a rved i nl e s sd e ta i lt h an t h el i on . D . G a rgoy le sa nd g ro t e sque s ,n o r th s i de o fn ave ,w e s tt oe a s t : 1 ) F ol i ag ed e s ign . 2 ) R omane sque s t y l e h ead w i th o pen mou th , t e e th i n c i sed u pon t h e l i p s , b l ank , a lmond shaped e y e s a nd a t ongue t h a ts t i ck s s t r a igh to u t . Ab i gl e af a ppea r st oo ne s i de . 3 ) H ead w i th ap i pe h ang ing f r om o ne c o rne r o ft h e mou th . Wea r s ah a tt h a tf l op st oo ne s i de . 4 ) D amaged . 5 ) F ou r leav e s . 6 ) Two d ragon s , t h e i rh ead s f l op o ve rt h e r ol -mou ld .T h i si s t h e l a s t i mag e b efo r e a ny mo re t h a t m igh t e x i s t a r e o b scu red b yt h er oof o ft h en o r th t r an sep t . E .G a rgoy le sa nd g ro te sque s ,s ou th s i de o f n ave ,w e s tt oe a s t 1 ) On t h e s ou thw e s t c o rne r a ppea r s a mon s t e r c h a ined b y t h e n eck t o t h e c hu rch i n to w ho se mou th f i l e p o s s ib le f i gu r e s t h i s p a r ti sh eav i ly e roded ) . B e low t h i s , o nt h e t op o f t h e b u t t r e s s , a r e t wo e mb rac ing f i gu r e s a nd w ha t a ppea r s t ob e al a rg ep o t ? ) . 2 ) H ead l ook ing t h rough a nu p tu rn ed c r e scen t . 3 ) Two c onf ron t ed mon s te r s . 4 ) W ing ed c r ea tu re ,q u i t eh eav i ly w ea the red . 5 ) S h ie ld o nf ol i ag e . 6 ) F ol i ag e . 7 ) Mou th -pule rg a rgoy le . F .G a rgoy l e s ,t ow e r : 1 ) NE c o rn e r ;b ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th . 2 ) NW c orn e r ;h eav i ly w ea the r ed b ea s t . 3 ) SW c o rne r ; mou th -puf f ing h ead . 4 ) S Ec o rne r ;b ea s th ead w i th o pen mou th .

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G . G ro t e squ e s , s t a i rt u r re t : T he re a r e c a rv ing s a tt h e b a se a nd t h e t op o fi t s b l ind a r cade s . T he l a t t e ra r e s imp le b ea s th ead sw i th o pen mou th s . S t a r t ing a t t h e j u n c t ion o ft h e t u r re tw i th t h e n o r th f a ce o ft h e t ow e r a nd p roceed ing a n t i -c lockw i se t h e c a rv ing s a t t h e b a se a r e a s f olow s 1 ) G r inn ing b ea rded h ead . 2 ) Two c onf ron t ed h a rpy -l ik e f i gu r e s ? A l though h eav i ly d amag ed — t h e i r h ead s a r e m i s s ing — t h e b od ie s s ugg e s t t wo c r ea tu re s , e a ch w i th t wo l e g s a nd al a rg e a v ian b ody t a pe r ing i n to at a i l . 3 ) H ead w i th i t s mou th o pen a nd t ongue e x t ended . T h r ee s ma l le rh ead sg row o u to ft h et op o fi t sh ead . 4 ) H ead w i th s k inny a rm s a nd h and s t h a t r e s t u pon t h e c o rne r so ft h e mou th . 5 ) E roded . H . G a rgoy le s , n o r th f a ce o fn o r th c hape l : Two r e se tg a rgoy le s ,e a ch o ne ah yb r id c r ea tu r e . I .G a rgoy le , s ou th c hape l : W ing ed h yb r id o nt h es ou th -ea s tc o rne r . J .G a rgoy le s , s ou th s i de o ft h ec hance l : Two h yb r id mon s t e r s ,t h e o the ra no w lt h a ta ppea r s t ob i t ei t s l ow e rb eak .

L i t t le L ang fo rd S tN icho la s . R u ra l c hu r ch o f f l i n t a nd s t one c hequerwo rk c on s i s t ing o f ac hance l w i th n o r th v e st r y a nd a n ave w i th s ou th t r an sep ta l c hape l . L a rg e ly r e bu i l t i n 1 864 . A R omane sque d oorw ay c omp le te w i th t ympanum , c a rved l i n t e l , a nd o ne o rde r o f s haf t s w i th c a rved c ap i t a l s h a s b een i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t h e s ou th w a l l o f t h e n ave P on t ing , 1 908 ; P ow el , 1 909 ; C row l ey , 1 995a ) . S cu lp tur e I . C ap i ta l s a nd t ympanum , s ou th d oo r , f i r s t h a lf o ft h et w e lf th c en tu ry .

1 )

2 )

3 )

We s t c ap i ta l ; a n a s so r tmen t o fb ea s t s ; ah yb r id c on s i s t ing o ft h e f r on t h a lf o f ah o r se w i th at h ick , b eaded s e rpen t ' s t a i lf i l s t h e s ou th f a ce o ft h ec ap i ta l , wh i l eo nt h ee a s t f a ce a n i n v e r t ed s t ag a nd t h e h ead o f ab i rd a ppea r . T he s t y le o ft h e c ap i ta l c a rv ing s b ea r s s im i la r i t ie s w i th t ho se o n t h e c ap i ta l s t h roughou t t h e e a s t e nd a nd e x t e r io r s ou th d oo r a t R om sey A bbey . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e h yb r id b ea s t ' s t a i l s hou ld b e c ompa r ed w i th t h e d ragon ' s b od ie s o n t h e c ap i t a l si nt h e s ou th t r an sep ta nd r e t rocho i rw h ich a r e a l so b eaded R om sey I 7b ,I 20a ) . E a s t c ap i ta l ; am a le f i gu re w i th p rom inen t mou s tache h o ld s u p t wo s e rpen t s w h i ch c u r l t h e i r t a i l s a r ound t h e f i gu re ' so u t s t re t ched l e g s F ig . 6 .1 4 ) . D iagona ll i ne s a c ro s s h i s b ody i n d ica t e at un ic -l ike i t em o f c l o th ing . U n t i l t h e r e s to r a t ion o f t h e c hu rch i n 1 864 t h i s c ap i ta l w a s c oncea led b y t h ew e s tw a l l o ft h e s ou th t r an sep t . H en ce i t i si n much b e t t e rc ond i t ion t h an t h eo ppo s i t ec ap i ta l . T ympanum a nd l i n te l . T he t ympanum i sc a rved w i th a v e r t ica l r ow o f g eome t r ic d e s ign s c on s i s t ing o f ac ro s s w i th t h ree s phe r e s i ne a ch d i v i s ion , t h e f i gu r e o f ab i shop , a nd as c rawny t r ee o fl i f e w i th b i rd s i nt h e b ranche s . T he c a rv ing s a ppea r t oh ave b een d one o nt wo s e pa r a t e p i ece s o f s t one t h a t h ave b een i n se r t ed i n to t h e f i e ld o f t h e t ympanum , a nd t h e s u r round ing g ap s f i led i n . T he l i n t e l

Append ix 1 o f t h e d oo r i sc arved w i th a h un t ing s c ene — a b oa r i s a t t acked b y h ound s wh i le a f i gu re w i th a s pea r w a t che s f r om t h e e a s te rnmo s t s i de . G eome t r ic mot if s a r e s e ti n to

c arved o ne s o ccu r o ppo s i te e a ch o the r i n t h e c en t re o f t he w a l l ) .T he se a r e ; 1 ) No r th w a l l ) A h uman f i gu re w i th a n o ve r s ized r ept i l ian

t h e w al a bove t h e a r ch . T he re a r e t h ree f ou r leaf ed p e ta l d e s ign s , a nd o ne c a rved s t one f e a tu r ing as im i la r d e s ign t o

h ead who b end s h i s l e g s b ack a nd u p t o e xpo se h i s a nu s a nd g en i ta l s . Ou t o f ab a re ly muzz led s nou t a n e normou s t ongue e x tend s o n to h i s t e s te s F ig . 7 .7 ) . 2 ) S ou th w al ) A h uman/an ima l f i gu re w i th a mon s t rou s h ead v ery s im i la r t o i t s o ppo s i te . T he f i gu re a ppea r s t o r e c l ine a nd p l ay w i th ar ope . S t y l i s t ica l ly b o th c arv ing s a r e d i ff icu l t t o p l ace . T he s i ze i s t y p ica l o fl a te med ieva l wo rk mo re t y p ica l o ft h e f i f teen th a nd s i x teen th c en tu r ie s , r a the r t h an t h e f ou r teen th , s o t h ey a r e

t ho se w i th in t h e t ympanum i t se lf — a c ro s s w i th t h ree s phe re s i ne ach d i v i s ion .

Me lk sha m , S t M ichae l a nd A l Ang e l s . L a rge , l a te m ed ieva l c hu rch w i th c l e re s to ry , w e s t t owe r , c hance l , n o r th a nd s ou th c hape l s a nd c r enela ted n ave a nd n ave a i s le s . T he t owe r w a s o r ig ina l ly ac ro s s ing t owe r b u tw a s r emoved t ot h e w e s t e nd i n 1 845 when t h e c hu rch w a s r e s to red . T he c hance lw a s r e s to red i n1 881 C he t t le a nd T i l lo t , 1 953 : 1 04 -105 ; P ev sne r , 1 975 : 3 42 3 43 ) .

p o s s ib ly r e se t o r r eu sed ) y e t t h e i r s t y le d raw s c l ea r p a rale l s w i th R omane sque c a rv ing , i np a r t icu la r t h e e no rmou s e ye s a nd t h e d eep g roove s i nt h e h ead a nd f a ce . T he s ub jec t s a r e mo re t y p ica lo fe a r l ie r wo rk t oo . B . We s tT ow e r . Two l a rge s t one c o rbe l s , b o th s e t i n to c o rner s a nd q u i te s im i la r i n s t y le a nd s ub jec t t o t h e t wo i n t h e B et te s tho rne c hape l . 1 ) SW c o rne r ) A h uman/l ion h ead w i th a p ro t rud ing t ongue . 2 ) NW c o rne r ) Ah uman h ead w i th a n ima le a r s .

S cu lpture I . L abe l s t op s , e x te r io r s ou th s i de o ft h e n ave , 1 5 t hc en tury . G ro te sque s , e x te r io r s ou th s i de o f c hance l , 1 5 t hc en tury . I . On ly o ne w indow i sa s soc ia ted w i th c arv ing s . F rom t h ew e s t , t h ei mag e s a r e a sf olow s ; 1 ) Af ox r unn ing w i th ad ead g oo se wh ich i th o ld s i ni t s j aw b y t h e n eck s e e r oof b o s s i n L acock Abbey f o r c ompa r i son ) . 2 ) Above w indow ) A g i an t w i th a h ug e b e l ly a nd p o in ted t e e th g naw ing b one s s im i la ri mag e s . 3 ) A d og w ea r ing s ome k i nd o f c ola r a nd t h ree b i rd s s wan/goo se a nd d uck s ) . I . We s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) As t ar t led b ea s t h ang ing o n t o t h e s t r ing -cou r se t o wh ich i ti sc ha ined b yt h en eck . I tl ook s o ver i t sr i gh ts hou lde r . 2 ) I nve r ted w inged q uad ruped .

Mere S t M ichae l t h e A rchang e l . F ou r teen th - t o f i f teen th c en tu ry ' H igh Go th ic a ti t s b e s t ' P a rke r a nd C hand le r , 1 993 : 1 57 ) . T he c hu rch o f S t M ichae l t h e A rchang e l c on s i s t s o f a d i s t inc t ive w e s t t ow e r w i th f ou r c o rne r p innac le s , an ave w i th n or th a nd s ou th a i s le s , a nd ac hance lw i th c hape l s t ot h e n o r th a nd t h e s ou th . T he c hance l may d a te t ot h e t h ir teen th -cen tury . T he n o r th c hape l w a s o r ig ina l ly b u i l t a s ac han t ry c .1 325 a nd e x tended l a te r i n t h e s ame c en tu ry . T he s ou th c hape l w a s l i kew i se ac han t ry ,b u i l tc .1 350 P ev sne r , 1 975 : 3 45 -347 ) .

I . T he s ou th r ang e o ff i ve e a r ly f i f t een th c en tu ry s t a l l s r un a s f o l low s e a s tt ow es t ) : 1 ) C en t re : h ead w i th t ongue e x tended a nd f ol iage c r eep ing f r om b o th s i de s o ft he mou th a l though t he e a s te rnmo s t s p r ig h a s b een d amag ed ) . L ef t a nd r i gh t s uppo r te r s : f ol iag e . 2 ) C en t re : T udo r R o se d e s ign . L ef t a nd r i gh t s uppor te r s : 3 )

f ol iag e . C en t re : h ead w i th t h ree -p rong ed b ea rd

c h in o n ly ) . L ef t

a nd r i gh ts uppo r te r s : f ol iag e . 4 ) C en t re : f o l iage . L ef ta nd r i gh t s uppor t e r s : f ol iag e . 5 ) C en t re : Ang e l b ea r ing as h ie ld . L ef t a nd r i gh t s uppo r te r s : f ol iage . A l though t h e re a r e t w e lve m i se r ico rd s i nt h e c hance l , o n ly t he s ou th s i de b ea r s g enu ine med ieva l wo rk . T he n or th r ang e o f f ou r s t a l l s d a te s t o c . 1 948 wh i le t h e M in i s t e r ' s i nd iv idua l m i se r ico rd s t a l l s o n b o th s i de s a r e e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu ry C hu rch l e af l e t ) . R emnan t , h owever , s t a te s t h a t t h e n o r the rn r ange o fm i se r ico rd s d a te t ot h e 1 6 t h c en tu ry 1 969 : 1 66 ) . I I . R oof b o s ses ,i n te r io ro ft h e B e t te s tho rne c hape l , s ou th s i de o ft h ec hance l , 1 5 t hc en tu ry F ou r s qua re wooden b o s se s , e ach c arved w i th s im i la r h ead s d i sgo rg ing f ol iag e f r om t h e i r mou th s .

S teep le L angford A l l S a in t s . B u i l t o f f l in t a nd a sh la r t he c hu rch c on s i s t s o f ac hance lw i th n o r th v e s t ry , n ave w i th n o r th

S cu lp ture I . C o rbe l s , i n te r io r o f B e t te s tho rne C hape l , s ou th s i de o f t h e c hance l , a nd t h e w e s t t owe r , m id -14C . M i se r ico rd s , c ho i r , e a r ly 1 5 t h c en tu ry . R oof b o s se s , B e t te s tho rne C hape l , 1 5 t h c en tu ry .

a i s le a nd s ou th p o rch a nd a w e s t t ow e r . A l though l a rg e ly r ebu i l t i n t h e f ou r t een th c en tu ry t r ace s o f e a rl i er w o rk t h ir teen th -cen tury ) a r e s ugg e s ted b y t h e c hance l a nd t owe r a r che s C row ley , 1 995b ) . A c on sec ra t ion d a te o f 1 326 i s r e co rded f o r t h e n or th a i s le P on t ing , 1 908 ; P ev sne r , 1 975 : 4 83 ) . S cu lp ture I . R oof b o sse s ,n o r th n ave a i s le , 1 4 t h c en tury .

A . B e t te s tho rne C hape l . A l though s i x s t one c o rbe l s m ee t t h e p o s t s o ft h e wooden r oof o n ly t wo a r e s cu lp ted i n to f i gu ra t ive s ub jec t s t h e f ou r c o rbe l s i n t h e c o rne r s a r e p l a in , t h e t wo

1 58

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture I .E igh t s qua r ew ooden b o s se s , f ou ro ne a ch E -W b eam ,m any o f wh ich a r ed amag ed a nd s ome b l ackened . A . Nor the rnmo s tb eam ,w e s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) Quadruped ( b ea r ? ) a ga in s t af o l ia te b ackg round . 2 ) B oa ri nf ol i ag e . 3 ) H a rpy — t h e h ead o f aw oman w i th w avy h a i r u pon t h e 4 )

B .S ou the rnmo s tb eam ,w e s tt oe a s t ; 1 ) Damag ed c a rv ing o fl e av e sa nd s t em s . 2 ) L ion w i th t h ick s p i ra l l ing mane , s u r rounded b yf ol i ag e . 3 ) Dove b i t ing as p r ig o ff ol i ag e . 4 )

Dog w ea r ing a h eadd re s s a nd d i sgo rg ing f ol i ag e s t em s ( F ig . 5 .2 6 ) .

b ody o f ac h icken l i ke b i rd . Humano id h ead e i the r b i t ing o n o r r e gu rg i ta t ing s ome th ing .T he c a rv ing i sq u i te b ad ly d amag ed .

( No te : P l an sa r en o tt os c a le ) .

4 3 4 4

4 5

4 6

4 7

4 8

4 9

5 0

5 1

5 2

5 3

5 4 " bI" -

r —

-1

(2

D-

_

-1

—

i 2 8 1 I2 9

2 5

2 61 '2 3

2 0

1 7

1 4

1

13 0

2 7

2 1

1 8 1 I 1 5

1 2

t2 2

2 4

1 9

1 6i I 1 3 1

1 0

7

4

1

8

5

2

9

6

3

3 1

3 2 3 3

3 4

3 5 3 6

1

3 7

3 8 3 9r

4 0

4 1 4 2

F igure A l . 1P l an o ft h ec hurch a tM i lf ord -on sea t os how t h ep o s i t ion o ft h er oof b o s se s .

F i gure A l . 2P l an o fR om sey A bbey t os how t h ep o s i t ion o ft h ec ap i ta l si nt h ee a s te nd o ft h eb u i ld ing .

1 59

A ppend ix 1

N umbe r ing s t a r t s f r om t h en or the rnmo s tb o s s i ne a ch b ay a nd p roceed s i n ac l ockw i se d i r ec t ion .

A

F igure A l . 3P lan o ft he c l o is ter a t L acock Abbey t os how t he p o s i t ion o ft he r oof b os se s .

1 60

S e lec tC a ta logue o fA rch i tec tura lS cu lp ture

F igure A l . 4P os i t ion o ft he s t udy a rea i nr e la t ion t oE ng land a nd Wa le s .

F igure A l . 5L oca t ion o fc oun t ie sw i th in t he r eg ion . D or se t , H ampsh ire , S omer se ta nd Wi l t sh ire p rov ided t he b u lk o ft he ma ter ia l ,w i th a dd i t iona l d a ta c o l lec ted f r om n or th e as tS omer se ta nd p ar t so fe as tD evon .

Append ix 2

Tab les

Winches ter

6 3

7

8

( Heads a nd f i gure s d eno te s h uman a nd a n ima l o r b eas t h eads o r f i gure s . ) T he c har t c l ear ly s hows t ha t h eads a re t he p redom inant i mage c arved u pon R omane sque a nd e ar ly G o th ic c orbe l tab le s . E ven i nt hose s equence s c harac ter ised b y ad iver se r ange o f i mage s , f o r e xamp le , Winche s ter C a thedra l , R omsey A bbey , S tud land , a nd D ev ize s ( S t J ohn ) , t he s i ng le h uman , b eas t , a n ima l o r c o mpos i te h uman /an ima l h ead i ss t i l l t he mos t n umerous . A t o n ly o ne s i te ( S toke sub -Hamdon ) i st he h ead mo t if i n t he m inor i ty , i n t h is c ase o ver shadowed b y g eome tr ic d e s igns . As im i lar e xamp le i st he c hurch o fS t Mary , D ev ize s , u pon whose c hance l t he c orbe l t ab le f e a ture s m os t ly p l a in c orbe ls among w h ich a f ew b eas t h eads m ay b e f ound . A t t hose l o ca t ions where t here i s l e s s d iver s i ty i n t he i magery t he c arved h ead i ss t i l l p redom inan t . T here a re n o s i te s w i thou t ac arved h ead . I ta ppear s t o b e t he b as ic c ons t i tuen t o fc arved c orbe l tab le s i nt he r eg ion . A t t wo s i te s ( Ma iden N ew ton a nd P r is ton ) t he h ead i s t he o n ly i mage c arved o n t he c orbe ls .

To ta ls

Non -f igura t ive 5

1 5

9 8

3 3

1 26

Ro msey

6 4

4 1 0

3

S tud land

2 0

7

2

6

1

8

4 4

Dev izes

1

4

1

1

1

7

2 5

1

3

2

7

3

2

S toke -sub -

1 2

Des ign o rP la in

P a ired F igures

S ing le F igu res

a nd S ing le

S ing le Head

S ing le Heads

P a ired Heads

F igu re A 2 . 1C orbe l tab le Imagery f r om a S e lec t ion o fS i tes i nt he S ou th o f Eng land

1 0

1 6

Ha mdon L u l l ing ton

1 2

Ma iden New ton

1 0

1 0

P r is ton

1 3

1 3

Eng l ishco mbe

1 0

B ishop 's C ann ing s

2 1

1

Mi lford -on -sea

1 9

4

To ta l s

1

2 39

3 5

1 7 3 2

1 5

6

1 7

7

3 0

1 5

3 8

1 01

4 29

F igu re A 2 . 2Va r ia t ion s u pon t he Head mo t if i n Ro manesque a nd Ea r ly Go th ic C orbe l tab les

Winches ter

1 7

1

Ro msey

3 5

4

S tud land

19

Dev izes

3 1 1

4

6

5

1

1

S toke -sub -

To ta ls

F ea tu res

8

5

6 2

5

4

6 4

1

2 0

7

8

w i th An i ma l

Hu man Head

w i th A rms

Hu man Head

Hu man Head

O rnamen t

w i th

G eo me t r ic

B eas t Head

Mou th

F igure i n t he

Head o r

B eas t Head

w i th Hu man

t he Mou th

w i th An i ma l i n

B eas t Head

A rms

F ore l i mbs o r

w i th

B eas t Head

B eas t Heads

i n t he S ou th o f Eng land

1

1

1

1

Ha mdon 2

Lu l l ing ton

9

Ma iden New ton

4

P r is ton

5

6

Eng l ishco mbe

5

3

3

1

B ishop 's C ann ings Mi lford -on -sea To ta l s

7

3 1

2

1 0

2

1 3

1

2 1 4 9 2

1 5 6

3

5

1 63

6

9 5

1 0 2 1 1 9

1 6

1 5

2 28

Append ix 2

( Prev ious p age , l ower t ab le ) T he c har t s how s t ha t a l though v ar ia t ions b e tween s i te s e x i s t , i ng enera l t here i sa b a lance b e tween t he r epre sen ta t ion o f h uman a nd a n ima l h eads o n c orbe l s d ur ing t h is p er iod . Moreover , c ompos i te h uman a nd a n ima l h eads a re f a ir ly c ommon , b e ing f ound a t s i x o f t he s a mp le s i te s . However , t h i s a ppear s t o c hange i n t he l a te R omane sque o r e ar ly Go th ic p er iod , a s i lus tra ted b y t he t wo e ar ly t h ir teen th c en tury s equence s a t M i lf ord -on -sea a nd B i shop 's C ann ing s , e ach o f wh ich emphas ize t he h uman h ead a bove t he b eas t h ead . T here a re n o c ompo s i te h eads a tt he se t wo s i te s e i ther . T h i s i si nd ica t ive o fl a ter med ieva l c orbe l c arv ing t r ends , s uch a s t he s equence s o fc arved c orbe ls a tA l ton , t he i n ter ior o ft he n ave s a t B i shop 's C ann ing s , D ev ize s ( S tJ ohn ) , Oak sey , Wi l sf ord , a nd C a ine , wh ich r epre sen tt he h eads o fh uman f i gure s o n ly . S ome o ft he se s er ie s a re f ormu la ic : Oak sey , Wi l sf ord , C a lne , a nd B i shop 's C ann ing s f or e xamp le s imp ly a l terna te t he h ead o f ac rowned ma le f i gure w i th t ha t o f am i tred e cc le s ias t ic . Ano ther f e a ture o fl a ter med ieva l c orbe l s equence s i s t ha tt hey t end t oo ccur i n s ide b u i ld ing s . Gargoy le sa nd g ro te sque sc arved w i th mons ter sa nd a n ima l f i gure st end t oo ccur o n t he e x ter ior o fb u i ld ing s i nt h i s p er iod .

Winches ter

1

Ro msey

2

S tud land

2

2

Dev izes

1

3

To ta l s

P a i red F igu res Humans

3

1 2

3

1 9

2

1

1 0

1

1

6

1

2

1

3

B ea s t/ Human _

1

6 1 0

P a i red F igu res -

P a ired F igu res B eas t s

F igu re

Human Head w i th Human

Human Head

w i th B eas tF igu re

B eas t Head w i th Human F igu re

B eas t Head w i th B eas tF igu re

P a ired Heads -. Human

B ea s t/ Human

P a i red Heads -

B ea s t

P a i red Heads -

F igu re A 2 . 3P a i red Head s a nd F igu res i n Romanesque a nd E a r ly Go th ic C orbe l -Tab les i nt he S ou th o f Eng land

1

3

S toke -sub - Hamdon Lu l l ing ton

1

Ma iden New ton P r is ton Eng l ishco mbe

1

1

B ishop 's C ann ings

1

1

Mi lford -on -sea

4

4

To ta ls 6

5

2 4

1

3

3

0

2

2

9

5 5

T h i s c har t c omp lemen t s t he p rev iou s o ne o n h eads a nd r edre s se s a n i mba lance a t s ome s i te s . R omsey , f o r e xamp le , d i sp layed a g rea ter amoun t o fs i ng le b eas t h ead s t han h uman h eads i nt he p rev ious c har t . H ere i ti s p o s s ib le t os e e t ha t i ti sR omsey w h ich h a s t he g rea te s t amoun t o fp a ired h uman h ead c orbe l s . A ga in , t he s i te s w i th t he g rea ter d iver s i ty o f c arv ing s s t i l l r e ly u pon t he h ead f o r t he ir i magery . T he l a ter s i te s , M i lf ord a nd B i shop 's C ann ing s ,s t and o u ta ga in f o rt he ir r epre sen ta t ion o fh uman h eads o n ly .

1 64

T ab le s

B ren tK nol

2

5

1

1

4

2

1

2

Co mbe S t Nicho las

To ta l s

Human Head w i th Human F igu re (s )

Head

Human/An ima l

a rms o rl eg s

Human Head w i th

Human Head

B eas t Head w i th Human F igu re (s )

B eas t Head w i th B ea s tF igu re (s )

B eas t Head w i th F ore l imbs

B eas t Head

F igu re A2 . 4Head Imagery Amongst Ga rgoy les a nd G ro tesques

8

5

5

E d ing ton H i l ton L acock ( S tC y r iac )

3

O ld B a s ing

4

Mappowder

1

1 1 2

S t in sf o rd

2 1

T o ta l s

1 4

1 0

1

4

1

1 2

1

1 2

8

S he rborne S yd l ing S tN icho la s

7

2

3

1 1

4

1 2

3

1 2

3

7 2

1

1

2 8

4

2

3

6 7

C arved h eads among g argoy le s a nd g ro te sque s f r om a s e lec t ion o f s i te s i n t he s ou th o f E ng land . Ar ough b a lance e x i s t s b e tween b ea s t h eads a nd t he ir v ar ian t s a nd t he v ar ie ty o f h uman h eads a tt he se s i te s . I n t h i s r e spec t l i t t le h a s c hanged f r om t he R omane sque p er iod , g argoy le sa nd g ro te sque st ak ing o ver t he f i gura t ive r o le so fe x ter ior c orbe l s .

F igure A2 . 5A rch i tectu ra l Med iu m a nd L oca t ion o f Mou th p u l ler Images f r o m aS e lec t ion o f Ro manesque S i tes i n t he S ou th o f Eng land E x te r ior c o rbe l Winche s te r

I n te r ior

E x te r io r

I n te r io r

c orbe l

c ap i ta l

c ap i ta l

5

S tud land

3

Rom sey

2 1

B e re R eg i s 1

Ma iden New ton Eng l i shcombe

1 1

To ta ls

1

1

0

F igu re A2 . 6Va r ie t ies o f Mou th -pul ing Heads f r o m aS e lect ion o f Ro manesque S i tes i nt he S ou th o f Eng land Human

Winche s te r

4

S tud land

1

Human

Hybr id

a ccompan ied

h uman -

b yb ea s t

a n ima l 1

2 1

Rom sey B e re R eg i s

B ea s t

1

1 1

Ma iden New ton Eng l i shcombe To ta ls

1 6

2

3

1 65

2

Append ix 2

F igu re A 2 . 7A rch i tec tu ra l Med ia a nd L oca t ion o fL a te r Med ieva l Mou th -pule rC a rv ing s f r om

A l ton B road C ha lk e

I . ) › , 0

G ro tesque

R oof b oss

I n ter io rc o rbe l

E x ter ior c o rbe l

S e lec ted S i tes i nt he S ou th o f Eng land

1 1

C . 7 .

2

W inche s te r S yd l ing S t N icho la s L acock ( S t C y r iac ) C ame r ton

2

1 1 2

1

O ld B a s ing 2

T o ta l s

2

0

2

6

3

F igu re A 2 . 8Examp les o f Mou th -Pule rC a rv ing s i nt he Med ieva lA rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re o ft he S ou th o f Eng land S i te

Da te

Med ium

T IE

L oca t ion

C a rv ing

W inche s te r C a thed ra l

e 12C

C o rbe l

E

St r an sep t ,W

Head w i th s k inny a rm s p u l l ing o pen c orne r s o f mou th .

s i de

Ho r n ed h ead . St r an sep t ,E

Head ,h and s p u l lt he mou th o pen b yt he l ow e r

s i de

j aw .

Nt r an sep t ,E

Head ,r i gh th and r e s t s o nr i gh te ye ,l e f th and

s i de

p u l l s a te dge o fo pen mou th . Head w i th s ma l lh and s .

S tud land ,S t N icho la s

e -m 1 2C

C o rbe l

E

NW c o rne ro f

Human mou th -pu l le rw i th d i s tor ted f a ce a nd

n ave

l ong d roop ing t ongue . P a i red w i th b ea s th ead .

SW c or ne ro f

A s a bove .

n ave Ss i de o fn ave

Two h uman h ead sl ook ing o u ti no ppo s i te d i rect ion s ,o ne p u l l s o pen t he mou th w i th s k inny a rm s .

N s i de N

Head w i th p o in ted a n ima le a r s .

c hance la i s le

B ea s th ead ,b o th h and sh o ld ing l owe rj aw .

I

Ss i de o fn ave

Ma le h ead w i th a rm s a nd h and s p u l l ing mou th f r om c o rne r s .

I

N s i de o fn ave

B ea s th ead w i th p aw si nt he c or ne ro fi t s

E

e -r n 1 2C

C o rbe l

B e re R eg i s , S tJ ohn

1 2C

C ap i ta l

Ma iden New ton ,S t Ma ry

1 2C

C o rbe l

E ng l i shcomb

1 2C

C orbe l

E

N s i de o f c hance l

Human h ead w i th p aw l ike h and s t ha tp u l lt he

?

C o rbe l

I

NW c orne ro f

R eu sed i mage ,p o s s ib ly 1 2C ,n ow i n1 5C

n ave

c on tex t . Human h ead .

C orbe l

I

Nw al o fn ave

Head w i th a rm s s prou t ing f r om n ea rt h e t op o f

R om sey Abbey

mou th .

e ,S tP e te r A l ton , S t L aw rence B road

1 4C

c or n e r s o ft he mou th .

t he c arv ing .

C ha lke , Al S a in t s

1 66

T ab le s W inche s te r C a thed ra l

1 4C

R oof B o s s

I

Na i s le o fn ave

Human h ead w i th p ro t rud ing t ongue ( two b o s se s ) .

S yd l ing S t N icho l a s ,S t N icho la s

1 5C

G ro te sque

E

S Ec o rne ro f t ow e r

S qua t t ing h uman f i gu re ,p u l l ing o pen t h e c o rne r so ft h e mou th .

L acock ,S t C y r i ac

1 5C

G ro te squ e

E

S t a i rt u r re tt o t ow e r

Human h ead w i th s k inny a rm st h a tr e s tu pon t h ec o rne r s o ft h e mou th .

C ame r ton ,S t P e t e r O ld B a s ing , S t Ma ry

1 5 -16C

G ro te sque

E

Es i de o ft ow e r

1 5 -16C

G a rgoy le

E

Wend o fn ave

Human mou th -pu l l ing h ead s e tu pon t h eb ack o fa ni n ver ted q uadruped ( 2c a rv ing s ) . P o s s ib ly r e se th ead w i th h o rn s .

B road C ha lke ,A l l S a in t s

1 6C

G ro te sque

E

SW c o rne ro fS p o rch

Ho r i zon ta lh uman f i gu re .

NW c o rne ro f Sp o rch

Human h ead .

Key : FE = I n ter ior /Ex ter ior ; e ,m ,o r 1i nt he D a te c o lumn s i gn ify e ar ly , m idd le o rl a te .

F igu re A 2 . 9Mou th -Pu l le r s F lanked b yF igu res S i te

Da te

Med ium

T IE

L ocat ion

C arv ing

C er ne A bba s , Do r se t

1 5C

G ro t e sque

E

NW c o rne rN n ave a i s le

B ea s th ead f l anked b yp a i ro fh uman f i gu re s .

SW c o rne rS n ave a i s le

A sa bov e ,b u tw i th at h i rd f i gu re e me rg ing f r om t h eo pen mou th .

C he tno le , Do r se t

1 5C

G a rgoy le

E

NW c o rne ro f t ow e r

Two f u l lh uman f i gu r e sw ea r ing l ong s leeved k nee leng th t un ic s f l ank ac en t ra lb ea s th ead .

C ombe S t N icho la s , S ome r se t

1 5C

G ro te sque ?

E

NE c o rne ro f t ow e r

B ea s th ead f l anked b yp a i ro f l e on ine/se rpen t ine c r ea tu re s .

L acock ,S t C y r iac , W i l t sh i re

1 5C

G ro te sque

E

Ns i de o fN n av ea i s le

C en t ra lb ea s th ead f l anked b yt wo d ragon s .

L ongbu r ton , Do r se t

1 5C

G ro te sque

E

S Ec o rne ro f t ow e r

B ea s th ead b e tw een t wo h uman f i gu re s .

Mappowde r , Do r se t

1 5C

G a rgoy le

E

SW c o rne rS a i s le

Two g r imac ing h uman f i gu re s f l ank ac en t ra l b ea s th ead .

S he rbor n e , Do r se t

1 5C

G a rgoy le

E

Ss i de S c hance la i s le

Two f i gu re s f l ank al e on ine h ead .

S t in sf o rd , Do r se t

1 5C

G ro te sque

E

Ss i de Sn av e a i s le

Human h ead w i th s i ng le h uman f i gu re .

S Ec o rne ro fS n ave a i s le

B ea s th ead f l anked b yt wo h uman f i gu re s .

S toke sub H amdon , S ome r se t

1 5C

G a rgoy le

E

S Ec o rne ro f t ow e r

B ea s th ead f l anked b yp a i ro fh uman f i gu re s .

S yd l ing S t N icho l a s , Do r se t

1 5C

G ro te sque

E

NE c o rne ro f t ow e r

B ea s th ead f l anked b yt wo g r inn ing b ea s t s .

Key : FE = I n ter ior /Ex ter ior

1 67

Append ix 2

F igu re A 2 . 1 0A t t r ibu tes o ft he Me rma id i nt he A rch i tec tu ra lS cu lp tu re o ft he S ou th o f Eng land c 1250 -1550 M i r ror/Comb

Ha i r/Headgea r

F lo ra/

O ther

Hampsh i re S ome r se t

u : .

4

S u ssex Ken t

Y

Y

B reage

WP

K i lkhamp ton 1

BE

Y

Y

K i lkhamp ton 2

BE

Y

Y

K i lkhamp ton 3

BE

Y

P ough i l l

WP

Y Y

Y

Z enno r

BE

Y

Down S t Ma ry

BE

Y

E xe te rC a thed ra l 1

M

Y Y

Y Y

Y Y

Drum

E xe te rC a thed ra l2

M

E xe te rC a thed ra l3

RB

E xe te rC a thed ra l4

RB

Horwood

C

S tood le igh 1

RB

Y

Y

Y

S tood le igh 2

RB

Y

Y

Y

S tood le igh 3

RB

Y

Y

Y

S tood le igh 4 C h r i s tchu rch P r iory

RB

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y Y Y

S he rborne Abbey

RB

Y

M

Y

Y

Y

Y Y Y

Queen C ame l

RB

Wel s C a thed ra l 1

M

Wel s C a thed ra l2

M

L acock Abbey 1

RB

L acock Abbey 2

RB

Y

Y

L acock Abbey 3

RB

Y

Y

O ak sey

WP

Y

H ighwor th

M

Y

C h iche s te rC a thed ra l

M

Y

C an te rbury C a thed ra l

RB

F ave r sham

SK 3 0

S h ie ld

Y

SK

W inche s te rC a thed ra l

To ta l s

O the r a t t r ibu te

Ha i rt o wa is t

Ha i rt os hou lder s

S hor th a i r

. = c o Z

Headd ress o rb ound h a i r

c E o c . )

F o l iage

Med ium Cornwal Devon

Dor se t

M i r ro r

S i te

C oun ty

Mi r ror + C omb

F auna

W ing s

Y Y Y

Y

L ion B ea s th ead

n /a

Y Y Y Y

Y

C rown

Y 5

0

1 6

2

7

3

3

Th is s a mp le o f3 0 l a ter med ieva l i mage s s hows t hat t he mos t t yp ica l f orm t aken b y t he merma id i nt h is p er iod s hows h er h o ld ing b o th a m irror a nd ac omb , w i th u nbound , wa is t leng th h a ir , a nd w i thout f o l iage o ra n ima ls . The m irror a ppear s t o b e f avoured a bove t he c o mb .

1 68

6

1 7

KEY

WP Wal P a in t ing BE B ench E nd M M i se r ico rd RB R oof B o s s CC ap i ta l SK S t alwo rk

R ef e rence s

A a sv ed , M . J . , 1 996 . The S i r en s a nd C a rgo C u l t s ' , C l a s s i c a l W or l d8 9 (5 ) : 3 83 -392 .

Abb rev ia t ion s : AB ; Ar tB u l l e t i n All ; Ar tH i s t og A HR ; Am er i c an H i s t o r i c a lR e v i ew AJA ; Am er i c an J ou r na lo fA r c ha e o l og y An t i q .J . ; An t i quar i e sJ ou r na l Ar c h . C ; Ar c h a e o l o g i aC an t i ana Ar c h .J . ; Ar c ha e o l o g i c a lJ our na l ASE ; An g l o -Sax on E n g l and J BAA ;J our na lo ft h eB r i t i sh Ar c ha e o l o g i c a l As s o c i a t i on L indah l , McNama ra a nd L indow F o lk l o r e ; L indah l , C . , McNam a ra ,J .a nd L indow ,J . , ( e d s ) 2 000 . Med i e va l F o lk l or e : An E ng c l op ed i a o f My t h s , L e g end s , T a l e s , B e l i ef r a nd C u s t om s 2v o lume s S an ta B a rba ra a nd Denv e r : ABC -CL IO . JMH ;J ou r na lo fM ed i e va lH i s t og J RS ;J our na lo fR oman S t ud i e s J RSAI ;J our na lo ft h eR o ya lS oc i ee o fA n t i qua r i e so fI r e l and JWC I ;J ou r na lo ft h e Wa r bu r ga nd C our t au l dI n s t i tu t e s . PD NHAFC ; P r o c e ed i n g s o f t h e D or s e t Na t ur a l H i s t og a nd An t i quar i an F i e l dC l ub PD NHAS ; P r o c e ed i n g s o f t h e D or s e t Na t u r a l H i s t og a nd Ar c ha e o l o g i c a lS o c i e t y PHFC ;P r o c e ed i n g so ft h e Hamp sh i r eF i e l dC l ub P I WNHAS ;P r o c e ed i n g so ft h eI s l e o fW i gh t Na t u r a lH i s t og a nd Ar c ha e o l o g i c a lS o c i eü P SANHS ; P r o c e ed i n g s o f t h e S om e r s e t sh i r e Ar c ha e o l o g i c a l a nd Na t ur a lH i s t og S oc i e t y SANH ; S om e r s e t Ar c ha e o l og y a nd Na t u r a l H i s t og ( T h e P r o c e ed i n g s o ft h e S om er s e t Ar c ha e o l o g i c a la nd Na t u r a l H i s t og S o c i e t y ) . S ou th ( e d . ) F abu l ou sC r ea tu r e . r , S ou th , M . , ( e d . ) 1 987 . My t h i c a l a nd F abu l ou s C r ea t u r e s :A S ou r c e B o ok a nd R e s ea r c h G u id e , N ew Y o rk : G reenwood P re s s . S P ;S t ud i e si nP h i l o l og y VHCE /D or s e t ;W . P ag e ( e d . ) 1 908 T h e V i c t or i aH i s t og o ft h e C ou n t i e so fE n g l and :D or s e tv o l . 2 ,L ondon :A r ch iba ld C on s tab le a nd C o . VHCE /Han t s & 1 . 0 . W . ;T h e V i c t o r i aH i r t og o ft h e C oun t i e so f E n g l and : Hamp sh i r ea nd t h eI s l eo fW i gh t , 5v o l s ( 1 900 1 912 ) , We s tm in s te r :A rch iba ld C on s tab le a nd C o . VHCE /S om er s e t ;T h e V i c t o r i aH i s t og o ft h eC oun t i e so fE n g l and : A H i s t og o f S om e r s e t , 7 v o l s ( 1 906 -1999 ) , We s tm in s t e r : A rch iba ld C on s tab le a nd C o a nd L ondon : Oxf o rd Un iv e r s i ty P re s s . VHCE /W i l t s ;T h e V i c t or i aH i s t og o ft h eC oun t i e so fE n g l and :A H i s t og o f Wi l t sh ir e , 1 6 v o l s ( 1 953 -1999 ) , L ondon : Oxfo rd Un iv e r s i ty P r e s s . WI ; W ord a nd I ma g e WANHM ; W i l t sh i r e Ar c ha e o l o g i c a l a nd Na tu r a l H i s t og Ma g az i n e YAJ ;Y ork sh i r e Ar c ha e o l og i c a lJ ou r na l ZFK ;Z e i t s c h ef i i rK un s t g e s c h i c h t e

T he

A be rdeen B e s t ia ry ( Abe rdeen MS24 ) , p ubl i shed www .abdn .ac .uk/be s t ia ry , 1 /4/2005 .

Un iv e r s i ty L ib ra ry o n l ine a t l a s t a c ce s sed

Aber th , J . , 1 989 . ' The S cu lp ted H ead s a nd F igu re s I n s ide t h e C hap te r Hou se o fY o rk M in s te r ,J B .AA 1 42 : 3 7 -45 . A lb in ,J . , 1 795 .A N ew , C or r e c ta nd Mu c h impr ov ed H i s t og o ft h e I s l e o f W i gh tf r om t h e E a r l i e s t T im e s o f Au t h en t i c I n f orma t i on t ot h e P r e s en t P er i od , N ewpor t : p r in t ed b yJ .A lb in . A l fo rd , S . , 1 984 . ' Romane sque A rch i tec tu r a l S cu lp tu re i n Do r se t : AS e lec t ive C a t a logue a nd C ommen ta r y ' , PD NHAS 1 06 : 1 22 . A len , J . R . , 1 886 . ' On t he No rman Doorw ay a t A lne C hu rch i nY o rk sh i re ' ,J BAA 4 2 : 1 43 -158 . 1 887 . N orman S c uO tu r ea nd t h e Med i a e v a lB e s t i ar i e s , ( f ac s im i le r ep r in t f r om E a r l yC h r i s t i an S , ymb o l i sm i n G r ea tB r i t a i n a nd I r e l and b e f o r e t h e T h ir t e en t h C en t ug , L ondon : Wh i t ing a nd C o . ) L ampe t e r : L l ane rch P re s s . A lmack , A . C . , 1 918 . ' No te s o n Dor se t C hu rche s ' PD NHAFC 3 9 : 9 7 124 .

" Re s to red"

Ande r sen , J . , 1 977 . T h e W i t c h o n t h e Wa l k Med i ev a l E r o t i c S cu l p tu r e i nt h e B r i t i sh I s l e s , L ondon : G eo rg e Alen a nd Unw in . Ande r son , M . D . , 1 935 . T h e Med i e v a l C a rv er , C amb r idg e : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s . 1 938 . An ima l C a r v i n g s i n B r i t i sh C hur c h e s , C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un iv e r s i ty P re s s . 1 95 1 . L o ok i n g f o r H i s t og i n B r i t i sh C hu r c h e s , L ondon :J ohn Mu r ray . 1 954 . M i s er i c or d s : M ed i e va l L if e i n E n g l i s h W o od c ar v i ng H a rmond swor th : P engu in . 1 969 . The I conog raphy o fB r i t i sh M i se r i co rd s ' i n G . L . R emnan t A C a t a l o gu e o fM i s e r i c ord s i n G r ea tB r i t a i n , Oxfo rd : C la rendon P re s s ,x x i i i -x l . 1 971 . H i s t og a nd I ma g eg i n B r i t i sh C hur c h e s , L ondon :J ohn Mu r ray .

1 69

L im ina lI mage s B a ra sch , F . , 1 971 . T h e G r o t e squ e :A S t u c l y i n Mean i n g s , P a r i s : Mou ton .

Ande r son , W . a nd H ick s , C . , 1 990 . G r e en Man : T h e Ar c h e t yp e o fo u r O n en e s s w i t h t h e Ear t h , F akenha rn : C ompa s s B ook s .

B a ra sch , M . , 1 976 . G e s tur e s o fD e ipa i r i n Med i eva l a nd E ar l y R ena i s san c e Ar t , New Yo rk : N ew York Un ive r s i ty

Annab le , F . K . , 1 991 . T h eP a r i sh C hur ch o fS t . May t h e V i rg i n B i sh op ' s C ann in g s , B i shop ' s C ann ing s : P a roch ia l C hu rch C ounc i l .

P re s s . B a rb , A . A . , 1 953 . ' D iva Ma t r ix : A F aked Gno s t ic I n tagl io i n t he P o s se s s ion o f P . P . R uben s a nd t h e

A rm i , C .E . , 2 000 . ' The C o rbe lT ab le ' , G e s t a3 9 (2 ) : 8 9 -116 .

I cono logy o f aS ymbo l ' , JWC /1 6 : 1 93 -238 . A shdown , P . , 1 993 . Two S he i lanag ig s Hamdon ' , SANH , 1 37 : 6 9 -74 .

a t S toke s ub 1 966 . ` An tau ra : T he Me rma id a nd t h e Dev i l ' s G randmo the r ' , JWC /2 9 : 1 23 .

A s ton , M . A . , 1 978/1979 . ' A S he i lanag ig a t F idd ing ton ' , SA NH , 1 23 : 11-113 .

B a rbe r , R . , ( e d . a nd t r an s . ) 1 992 . B e s t i ag : B e in g a n E n g l i sh V er s i on o ft h e B od l e ian L ib r ag , Ox f ord M .S . B od l ey 7 64 w i t h a l l t h e O r i g ina l Mi n ia tu r e s R epr od u c ed i n F a c s im i l e ,L ondon : T he F ol io S oc ie ty .

B abcock , B . , 1 978 . ' I n t roduc t ion ' , i n B . B abcock ( e d . ) T h e R ev er s ib l e Wor l d : S . _ y mb o l i cI n v er s i on i n Ar ta nd S oc ie ) , L ondon : C ornel Un ive r s i ty P re ss , 1 3 -36 .

B a r t le t t , R . , 2 000 . E ng l and u nd er t h e Norman a nd Ang ev in K i ng s 1 075 -1225 , Oxford : C la rendon P re s s .

B abcock , W . S . , 1 990 . ' Ha r row ing o fH el ' , i n E . F e rgu son ( e d . ) , M . P . McHugh a nd F . W . Nor r i s ( a ssoc .

B a r t ra , R . , 1 994 . W i l d Men i nt h e L o ok in g G l a s s : T h e My t h i c O r i g in s o f Eu r op ean O t h er n e s s ( t ran s . C . T . B e r r i sford ) , Ann A rbor : Un ive r s i ty o f M ich igan

e d s ) E ng c l op ed ia o f Ea r l y C hr i s t ian iü , C h icago a nd L ondon : S tJ ame sP re s s , 4 11-412 .

P re ss .

B ae r , E . , 1 965 . S ph inx e s a nd Ha rp i e s i n Med i e va lI s l am i c Ar t : An I c on og r aph i c a lS lue , O r ien ta l No te s a nd S tud ie s

B a sford , K . , 1 978 . T h eG r e en Man , I p sw i ch : D . S .B rewe r .

9 ,J eru sa lem : T he I s rae lO r ien ta lS oc ie ty .

B a t a i l le , G . , 1 979 . ' The P sycho log ica l S t ruc tu re o fF a sc i sm '

B a i ley , M . D . , 2 001 . ' F rom S orcery t o Wi tchc raf t : C le r ica l C oncep t ion s o f Mag ic i nt h e L a te r M idd le Age s ' , S p e c u l um 7 6 (4 ) : 9 60 -990 .

( t ran s . C . R . L ov i t t ) , N ew G erman C r i t i qu e 1 6 : 6 4 8 7 . 1 985 [ 1 929/30 ] . The U se V a lue o fD . A . F . De

B a i ley , R . N . , 1 980 . V ik i ng Ag e S cu l p tu r e i n Nor t h er n En g l and , L ondon : C o l l in s .

S ade ( An Open L e t te r t o my C u r ren t C om rade s ) ' i n G . B a ta i l le V i s i on s o f Ex c e s s : S e l e c t ed W r i t i n g s

1 996 . En g l and ' s Ea r l i e s t S cu l p t or s , T o ron to : P on t if i ca lI n s t i tu te o f Med iaeva lS tud ie s .

1 927 -1939 ( e d . A . S toe ld ; t r an s . A . S toek l , C . R . L ov i t t a nd D . M . L e s l ie J r ) , M inneapo l i s : Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P re s s , 9 1-102 .

B ake r , S . , 1 993 . P i c tu r i ng t h e B ea s t : An ima l s , I d en t i t y a nd R epr e s en t a t i on , Manche s te r : Manche s te r Un ive r s i ty

1 985 [ 1 939 ] . ' The S ac red ' i n G . B a ta ile V i s i on s o fEx c e s s :S e l e c t ed W r i t i ng s 1 927 -1939 ( e d . A . S toek l ; t r an s . A . S toe ld , C . R . L ov i t ta nd D . M . L e s l i eJ r ) ,

P re s s .

M inneapol i s : Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta P re s s , 2 40 4 5 .

2 000 . T h e P o s tm od er n An ima l , L ondon : R eak t ion B ook s . R ab e l a i s a nd H i s Wor l d ( t ran s . H . B loom ing ton : I nd iana Un ive r s i ty

B ax te r , R . , 1 998 . B e s t iar i e s a nd T h e i r U s er s i nt h e M idd l e Ag e s ,

B ala rd , R . , 1 992 . T h e P r i og C hu r c h o fS t . And r ew , S t ogur s e y , ( 2 n de d . ) E xe te r : P apy ru s .

Hen ry I ' , p ape r d e l ive red a t R ew ley Hou se , Oxford , S unday 1 3 t h Oc tobe r , a s p ar t o f t h e c onf e rence T he R omane sque A ch iev emen t : P a t ron s a nd t h e i r C hu rche s i n E ng l and a nd

B akh t in ,

M . , 1 984 . I swo l sky ) ,

S t roud : S u t ton .

P re s s . 2 002 . ' The A rch i tec tu ra l P a t ronage o f K ing

B a l tni ga i t i s , J . , 1 955 . L e Mo y en Ag e F an t a s t iqu e : An t i qu ia s e t Ex o t i rm e s d an s LA 'r t G o t h iqu e , P a r i s : A rmand

I r e land , 1 -13 t h Oc tobe r .

C ol in . B ay le , M . , 1 980 . ' L e s C hap i teaux d e S togu r sey ( S ome r se t ) Anc ien P r ieu re d e L on lay L 'Abbaye ' , B u l l e t in

1 986 . F orma t i on s , D ef orma t i on s : L a 4 I l i s t iqu e O r n em en t a l e d an s l a S c u l p tur e R oman e , P a r i s :

Monum en ta l , 1 38 : 4 05 -4 16 .

F l amma r ion .

1 70

R ef erence s B il ing ton ,S . , 1 984 .A S o c i a lH i s t og o ft h eF o o l ,B r igh ton : T he H arve s te rP re s s .

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