Limatambo: Archaeology, history and the regional societies of Inca Cusco 9780860548294, 9781407349527

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
FIGURES
TABLES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1: INCA LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY: SOCIETY, STATE AND TA WANTINSUYU
CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENT, SETTLEMENT AND LANDUSE IN LIMATAMBO
CHAPTER 3: SITE SURVEY, MATERIAL CULTURE AND CHRONOLOGY
CHAPTER 4: LATE PREHISTORIC LIMATAMBO: SITES FROM AD 1000 TO THE EMERGENCE OF THE INCA STATE
CHAPTER 5: THE INCA ARCHAEOLOGY OF LIMATAMBO
CHAPTER 6: ETHNOHISTORY OF THE LIMATAMBO VALLEY
CHAPTER 7: ETHNOHISTORY OF THE APURIMAC QUEBRADAS
CHAPTER 8: LATE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT AND LAND-USE PATTERNS IN LIMATAMBO
CHAPTER 9: INCA TERRACES IN SOCIAL LANDSCAPES SURROUNDING CUSCO
CHAPTER 10: TILKA AND MOUNTAIN-SUMMIT INCA SITES: SITES AS SYMBOLS
CHAPTER 11: SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV
PLATES

Citation preview

Limatambo Archaeology, history and the regional societies of Inca Cusco

Ken Heffernan

BAR International Series 644 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 644 Limatambo © Ken Heffernan and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548294 paperback ISBN 9781407349527 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548294 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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CONTENTS Chap ter 1

1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 5

I nca Landscape Archaeo logy : S oc iety , S tate a nd Tawant insuyu

1

Q ue s t ions , Ob jec t ive sa nd App roache s P o l i t ico -Econom ic Mechan isms o fI nca P rov inc ia l S t a te craf t P rov inc ia l P o l i t ica lG eog raphy o fT awan t insuyu I n ca A cqu i s i t ion o fL abou ra nd L and App roach t oa nI n ca C u l tu ra lL and scape

Chapter 2

Env iron men t , S et t lemen t a nd L anduse i n L imata mbo

1 1

2 . 1 T he S e t t ing 2 . 2G eo logy a nd L andfo rms 2 . 3F lo ra a nd F auna 2 . 4L ima tambo R eg ion L ife Z one s 2 . 5 P re sen tP opu la t ion a nd S e t t lemen t s 2 . 6 Ag r icu l tu re 2 . 7A g r icu l tu ra l S y s tems a nd Ag roc l ima te 2 . 8P a laeoenv ironmen ta lP e r spec t ive i nt h eL a s tM i l lenn ium 2 . 9 C onc lus ion Chap ter 3 3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 6 3 . 7 3 . 8

S i te S urvey , Mater ia l Cu lture a nd Chrono logy

2 1

L oca t ion , F unc t ion a nd T i me S i te S u rvey a nd R e co rd ing C u sco R eg iona lP o t te ry S e r ia t ion a nd Ch rono log ica l I n f e rence C u sco I n ca P o t te ry a nd C usco I nca A rch i tec ture C o lon ia l a nd Mode rn P o t te ry Apu r imac , Ayacucho a nd V i lcabamba i nL a te P reh is to ry R eg iona lB ur ia ls a nd F une ra ry S t ruc tures C onc lus ions

Chap ter 4

L a te P reh is tor ic L imata mbo : S i tes f rom AD 1 000 t o t he Emergence o f t he I nca S ta te

3 3

4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 4 . 2C i r cu la r -E l l ip t ica l Above -G round S t ruc tu re sa nd A r te f ac t s [ S i te s AL28 , AL29 , AL30 , AL46 , AL39 , AL41 , AL37 , AL45 a nd AL42 ] 4 . 3C i r cu la rS t ruc tu re sW i thou tA r tef ac t s ,a nd A r tef ac tS ca t te r s [ S i te s AL21 , AL43 , ALA , ALS , AL 19 , AM2 , AL34 a nd AL38 ] 4 .4 S i te so fS tone Wa l led T e r races [ S i te s AL40 , AL49 , AL33 a nd AL31 ] 4 . 5C y l ind r ica l , S ub te r ranean , S tone -L ined P i t s [ S i te s AL27 , AL26 , AL44 , AL47 , AL48 , AL23 a nd AL24 ] 4 . 6 C onc lus ion Chap ter 5

The I nca Archaeo logy o f L ima tambo

5 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 5 . 2P ampaconga S ub reg ion [ S i te s AL! , AL2 , AL3 , AL6 a nd AL7 ] 5 . 3 L ima tambo S ub reg ion [ S i te s AL8 , AL9 , AL10 , AL 11 , AL 12 , AL13 , AL 14 , AL15 , AL 16 , AL17 , AL 18 , AL20 , AL22 , AL25 , ALSO a nd AL51] 5 . 4 C hon ta S ub reg ion [ S i te s AL32 , AL35 , AL36 , A LA -5 , AL39 a nd AL41 ] 5 . 5 Mo l lepa ta S ub reg ion [ S i te s A MI , AM2 , AM3 , AM4 , AM5 a nd AM6 ] 5 . 6C h inchaypuqu io S ub reg ion [ S i te s AC1 , AC2 , AC3 a nd AC4 ] 5 . 7I n ca R oad s 5 . 8R econna i ssance i nA d jacen tA rea s

6 0

Chap ter 6 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6

E thnoh is tory o f t he L ima tambo V a l ley

9 8

I n t roduc t ion : S oc ia l S pace o fT ambo so nt h eR oad t oC h inchay suyu T he T ambo o fL ima tambo I n ca s ,Y anacona ,M i tmaqkuna a nd L laq ta runa T he O u te rC o re o ft h e T ambo S yn the s is C onc lu s ions

Chap ter 7

E thnoh is tory o f t he Apur imac Que l dradas

1 16

7 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 7 . 2 C hon ta 7 . 3C a l la racay a nd P iv i l 7 . 4 P an t ipa ta 7 . 5C h inchaypuqu io 7 . 6T he I n ca i n Apu r ima cQ ueb rada sN ea rC u sco Chap ter 8

8 . 1 8 . 2 8 . 3 8 . 4 8 . 5 8 . 6

1 30

I n t roduc t ion S i te F unc t ion ,L if eZ one a nd T opog raphy S e t t lemen tT opog r aphy a nd t h eD iso rde r ly Wo r ld I n te rac t ion o fL oca la nd I nca S e t t lemen t sa nd P roduc t ion S y s tem s D i re c tI nca L andu se C on t ro li nL ima tambo a nd C h inchaypuqu io C onc lu s ions

Chap ter 9 9 . 1 9 . 2 9 . 3 9 . 4 9 . 5

L a te P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t a nd L and -Use P a t terns i n L ima tambo

I nca T erraces i n S oc ia l L and scapes S urround ing Cusco

1 45

I n t roduc t ion I n ca T e r race Wa l lF ea tu re s E xp la in ing A rch i tec tu ra lV a r ia t ion i nI n ca T e r race S cheme s I n s ide E l i te L andscape s : H uaca sa nd S pa t ia lD iv is ion C onc lus ion

Chap ter 1 0

T i lka a nd Moun ta in -Summ i t I nca S i tes : S i te s a s S ymbo ls

1 52

1 0 .1 I n t roduc t ion 1 0 .2 T opog raphy a nd S i te T ype 1 0 .3 T i lka a nd t h eC on cep tua lG eog raphy o fC u sco 1 0 .4 D ef in ing C h inchay suyu :C usco ,C h incha a nd P achaca r nac 1 0 .5 C onc lu s ion Chap ter 1 1 1 . 1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4

S ynthes is

a nd

Conc lus ions

1 57

L a te P reh is to r ic S e t t lemen ta nd S ub s is tence S y s tem s I n ca O ccupa t ion i nt h eL ima tambo V a l ley I n ca I mpac to nL oca l E conomy S oc ia lI mp l ica t ions o fI n ca P re sence i nL ima tambo

B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 60

Append ix I

Mea suremen t o f I nca T errace - Wa l l F ea tures

1 69

Append ix I

A r tefac t S urface C o l lec t ion s a nd I l lus tra t ion s

1 74

Append ix I I

T he Que swawayqo Co lumn S amp les

2 03

Append ix I V

T ranscr ibed Documen tary S ource s

2 05

PLATES

2 32

F IGURES 1 : 1 2 : 1 2 :2 2 : 3 4 : 1 4 :2 4 : 3 4 :4 4 :5 4 :6 4 :7 4 :8 4 :9 4 : 10 4 : 11 4 : 12 4 : 13 4 : 14 4 : 15 5 : 1 5 :2 5 : 3 5 :4 5 : 5 5 :6 5 : 7 5 : 8 5 : 9 5 : 10 5 : 11 5 : 12 5 : 13 5 : 14 5 : 15 5 : 16 5 : 17 5 : 18 5 : 19 5 :20 5 :2 1 5 :22 5 :23 5 :24 5 :25 5 :26 6 : 1 6 :2 7 : 1 7 :2 7 : 3 7 :4 8 : 1 9 : 1 I : 1 1 : 2 I : 3 1 1 :1

T awan t insuyu B ounda ry a nd Ma jo rS i te sa nd P l ace s Men t ioned i nT ex t . T he C usco R eg ion i nS ou the rn H igh land P er u . L if e -Zone s i nt h eF i e ld a r ea . P re sen t S e t t lemen t s i nt h e S tudy R eg ion . L a te P reh is tor ic T rad i t ion S i te s i nt h eL ima tambo V a l ley . Wamanma rka R idge S i te s ,L ima tambo : AL28 a nd AL29 . Wamanma rka A l ( S i te AL28 ) :C ana lE xcava t ion . Qopa A l ta S i te s : AL39 , AL40 a nd AL4 1 . Qopa A l ta E a s t( S i te AL39 ) . Qopa A l ta E a s t( S i te AL39 ) : L a rge S tone I mp lemen tS u r f ace D is t r ibu t ion . L la l c ta ld S i te s : AL37 a nd AL45 . L lak tabamba S i te s : AL42 a nd AL49 . P u l la S i tes : AL43 a nd AL44 . T ambow i lka S i te s : AL4 a nd AL5 . Waqayoqpampa S i te s : AL33 a nd AL34 . C ruzpa ta -Qe rabamba ( L lama tay ) : S i te AL27 . Ch ikch ie ra : S i te AL26 . Wi lka ray P ampa ,R idge a nd P eak : S i te s AL22 a nd AL23 . Qe chu loma : S i te AL24 . I nca S i tes i nt h e S tudy R eg ion . Cha ld lanka : S i te AL2 . S uqowayqo : S i te AL6 . Runkuwa s i -Ch 'ancho : S i te ALS . S ondo r : S i te AL IO . Co lo rado R ive rC ana l iza t ion ( Sondo r ) . T a rawa s i a nd Q u i l labamba : S i te AL 11 . T a rawa s i ( De ta i l ) : S i te AL 11 . R io ja Andenes , L ima tambo : S i te AL 12 . Ch inchaybamba a nd Way ronqa : S i te s AL 13 a nd AL 14 . Wi lka ray P ampa ,S t ruc tu re s 1a nd 2 :S i te AL22 . Mauka l lak ta , L ima tambo : S i te AL25 . S ec to r so f Ma rkawa s ia nd Qor iwa ir ach ina :S i te s AM 1a nd AM2 . Ma rkawa s i ( Ca s t i luyoq ) : S i te AM I ,S ec to r s Aa nd B . Ma rkawa s i S ec to rC : S i te AM I . Ma rkawa s i S ec to rC : N iche T e rrace : S i te AM I . Qo r iwa irach ina : S i te AM2 . T i lka Moun ta in P eak (Mo l lepa ta ) : S i te AM3 . T i lka Andene s : S i te AM3 ( De ta i l ) . C hoquechu rqo : S i te AM4 . S ec to r s o fL uc re , P an t ipa ta : S i te AC 1 . L uc re Andene s : S i te AC1 ( De ta i l ) . Qo lmay ,N eg ropuqu io a nd Wanka r i r i : S i te s AC2 , AC3 a nd AC4 . Qo lmay : S i te AC2 ( De ta i l ) . N eg ropuqu io : S i te AC3 ( De ta i l ) . Wanka r ir i : S i te AC4 ( De ta i l ) . H is to r ic B ounda r ie sa nd T oponyms o ft h eT ambo o fL ima tambo . S chema t ic R ep resen ta t ion o f Mode rn T oponym s ,H is tor ic D a ta a nd S i te sN ea rL ima tambo . C hon ta 1 595 : D i s t r ibu t ion o fA y I lu Membe r s P lo t s i nF ie lds . Chon ta 1 595 : D is t r ibu t ion o f Mode rn E qu iva len t so fH is to r ic T oponym s . P an t ipa ta 1 595 : D is t r ibu t ion o f Mode rn E qu iva len t so fH i s to r ic T oponym s . C h inchaypuqu io a nd S uma ro 1 595 / 1689 : D is t r ibu t ion o f Mode rn E qu iva len t so fH is tor ic T oponyms . Mode rn C hoquema rka V i l lage :C u r ren tU se o fS t ruc tu re s . D is t r ibu t ion o fI n ca T e r race sw i th Wa l lF ea tu re s . RPS Mea su remen t s . WS Mea suremen t s . WD Mea su remen t s . Que swawayqo :E roded T e r race P rof i le a nd C o lumn .

TABLES 2 : 1 2 : 2 2 : 3 4 : 1 4 :2 4 : 3 4 :4 4 : 5 4 :6 4 :7 5 : 1 5 : 2 6 : 1 6 : 2 7 : 1 7 : 2 7 : 3 7 : 4 7 : 5 7 :6 7 : 7 7 : 8 7 : 9 8 : 1 8 : 2 8 : 3 8 : 4 8 : 5 8 : 6 8 : 7 8 : 8 8 : 9 8 . 10 8 : 11 8 : 12 8 : 13 9 : 1 9 : 2 9 : 3 9 :4 9 : 5 I : 1 1 : 2 1 : 3 1 : 4 1 : 5 1 :1 1 :2 1 :3 I :4

L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io R eg ion L if eZ one s : F lo ra D is tr ibu t ion . O b se rved A l t i tude R ange o f Ma jo rL ima tambo V a l ley C rop s . C l ima t ic V a r iab le si nL ima tambo L i f eZ one s . P re Inca T rad i t ion S i te si nt h eL ima tambo A rea . S i t e AL28 :F requency D is t r ibu t ion o fS t ruc tu r eA re as . S i te AL39 : F requency D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t ruc tu r eA rea s . S i te AL39 : P o t te ry i nD e co ra t ion G roup s . S i te AL4 1 : P o t te ry i nD eco ra t ion G roup s . S i te AL37 : F requency D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t ruc tu r eA rea s . S i te AL21 :F requency D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t ruc tu r eA rea s . I n ca P e r iod S i te si nt h eL ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io R eg ion . C on ten t so f AL 12 1 C o lumn i n1 0c m S p i t sa nd L aye r s . T ambo L i s t so f 1 543 a nd E a r ly 1 7 th C en tu ry . AB ounda ry o fY lpa ( 1 584 1756 ) . I n ca N ob le N ame -E lemen ts i nC hon ta A n th roponym s ( 1595 ) . T opo so fL and o fI n ca a nd H uaman ru ro A y l lu sh e ld i nN amed F ie ld s ( e xc lud ing p ep ina le s ) : 1 595 C hon ta R epa r t ic idn . Mode rn C hon ta T oponyms R e la ted t o1 595 T oponym s . I n fo rma t ion i n1 595 C hon ta R epa r t ic iön w h ich R e la te sT oponym s . P an t ipa ta T oponym so f1 595 a nd Mode r nC o r re la te s . C h inchaypuqu io A y I lu L is t so f1 595 a nd 1 689 . C h inchaypuqu io H anansaya A y I lu F i e ld T oponym s ( 1595 ) ,a nd Mode rn T oponyms . C h inchaypuqu io H u r in saya A y I lu F i e ld T oponym s( 1595 ) ,a nd Mode r nT oponym s . C h inchaypuqu io F i e ld s :A l loca t ed A rea sa nd A g r icu l tu ra l U se ( 1595 ) . L a te P reh i s to r ic T rad i t ion S i te s : F unc t iona lA na ly s i so fS i te A rea s . L .P .T .S e t t lemen t sa nd S e t t led A r ea si nL ima tambo A rea L if eZ one s . L .P .T . S e t t lemen t sa nd S e t t led A r ea si n4 00m A l t i tude R ange s . I n ca S i te s : F unc t iona l A na ly s i so fS i te A rea s . L if eZ one D i s t r ibu t ion o fI nca S i te s : L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io . L i f eZ one D i s t r ibu t ion o fI nca O ccupa t ion s : L ima tambo A rea . L i f eZ one D i s t r ibu t ion o fI nca O ccupa t ion s : L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io . L i f eZ one D i s t r ibu t ion o fI nca T e r r ace s :L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io . Mea su r emen t so fT e r ra ce R e ta in ing Wa l ls :L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io . R e la t ive T opog r aphy o fL .P .T .a nd I n ca S i te s i nL ima tambo . L .P .T . a nd L .P .T . f Inca S e t t lemen t s : R oof ed S pace E s t ima te s . I n ca O ccupa t ion s :R oof ed S pa ce E s t ima t e s . L .P .T .S e t t lemen t sa nd I nca O ccupa t ion s : S i te A rea a s%o fL ima tambo L if eZ one s . Wa l lF ea tu r e si nS e lec ted I n ca -S ty le T e r r ace S cheme s . Mean R PS Mea su remen t sf r om L ima tambo a nd t h eC u sco R eg ion . WS -Se tD i r ec t ion o fA scen t : AM 1a nd Mo ray . WS -Se tH e igh t ,B a t te ra nd S tep P ro je c t ion : AM 1a nd Mo ray . Mean WD Mea su remen t sf r om L ima tambo a nd t h eC u sco R eg ion . R PS S t a i rway Mea su remen t si nL ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io S i te s . Wa l l S t ep Mea su remen t si nL ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io S i te s . Me a su red Wa te rD rop si nL ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io S i te s . Mea su red Wa te rD rop sa t Mo ray A ndene s ,U rubamba . Wa l lS t ep Mea su remen t sa t Mo ray A ndene s ,U rubamba . S u r f ace P o t te ry O b se rva t ion s . S u r f ace C o l le c t ion U n i t s : S he rd D en s i ty a nd V e s se l P ar t . S u r f ace C o l lec t ion U n i t s : Max imum D imen s ion A na lys is . S u r f ace C o l le c t ion U n i t s : S he rd T h ickne s sA na ly s is .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Id ed ica te t h is v o lume t o my p a ren t s , K ev in a nd P a t , w i thou t whose s uppo r t t he t h e s is u pon w h ich i ti sl a rge ly b a sed w ou ld n o th ave c ome a bou t . S pec ia l t h ank s a r ed ue t oP rof e sso rJ ohn Mu lvaney , who s uppor ted t he p ro jec t 's i n i t ia t ion i nt h e t h en D epa r tmen to fP reh is to ry a nd An th ropo logy a tA .N .U . , a nd t o I an F ar r ing ton who i n t roduced me t o S ou th Ame r ican a r chaeo logy a nd , a s t hes is s upe rv iso r f r om 1 984 t o 1 989 , p rov ided c ons tan t s t imu lus t o my work . S ome o f t he c ompa ra t ive d a ta i nc hap te rn ine w e re c o l lec ted wh i le a s s i s t ing h im i nt h eV i lcano ta V a l ley i n 1 982 . D u r ing L ima tambo f i e ld s ea son s , f r om Decembe r 1 984 t oJ u ly 1 986 a nd A pr i l t oJ une 1 988 , a s s is tance w as g iven b y many p eop le . F ie ld t r ips , s urvey ing , p re l im ina ry map -d raw ing a nd f i nds a na lys is a l l b ene f i t ted f r om t he h e lp o f An iba l C a r r ion B e l lo ta o fS ondo r a nd I van Gonza lez N ava r ro o fL ima tambo . I n i t ia l s u rvey w a s a s s is ted b y Wa l the r Va rgas o f L ima . J u l inho Z apa ta a nd s t uden t sa nd g radua te so fC usco U n ive r s i ty h e lped t oe s tab l ish t h ef i e ld -ba se a nd c a r ry o u tr econna issance ,a r tef ac ts o r t ing a nd r e cord ing . T hey i n c luded E l iana G ama r ra C ,w ho a l so h e lped i na r ch iva l s ea rche s , E dua rdo Z ava le ta , Ma r ia S a la s , C a rmen J u rado a nd Wi lber th Ve ra . D r . A lf redo V a lenc ia Z . , F e rnando A s te te a nd R uben O re l iana o ft h eI n s t i tu to N ac iona l d eC u l tu ra i nC usco g ave u sefu l a dv ice a nd s uppor t t o t h e s t udy , a sd id I t a lo O be r t io ft he Un ive r s idad N ac iona lS an A n ton io A bad d e l C usco . G u idance , d i scuss ion a nd f r iendsh ip w e re a lways a va i lab le i nt he c ompany o fD r . J ohn E a r ls , H i lda A r rau jo a nd E l ia s Mu j ica i nL ima a nd S r . Manue l O r ihue la o fU rubamba . A ndean i s tc o l league sp rov ided a s s i s tance a nd i mpo r tan ti n -f ie ld c onve r sa t ion a t v a r ious t imes , i n c lud ing F rank a nd B ev Medden s a nd Ma r ten v an d e Guch te . L i sbe t B eng t s son s ha red h e r e xpe r t ise o n I nca s tone q ua r ry ing i n 1 989 . I ti s n o t p o ss ib le t ot h ank i n d iv idua l ly a l l t ho se w ho p rov ided l o g is t ic s uppo r t o ft h e mos t v ar ied k inds i nC usco a nd L ima tambo . I h ope t h a t t h ose Iom i t k now t ha t t h e se t h ank s a r e d i rec ted t o t hem .

v ii

T hey i n c lude J ose M igue l Z apa ta H . a nd f am i ly a nd V e ron ica V e ra o f C usco , Dav id , E nr ique a nd J o rge A raoz V . , T omä s H ua rancca , G ab r ie l Hua rancca a nd o ther membe r s o f t h e f am i ly , J u l io S amanez a nd P ed ro C unza o fT a rawa s i , S e rg io D iaz , B e rnabe Qu ispe a nd E s teban P a lom ino o fS ondo r , J o rge G ueva r aa nd B lanca Ugar te d e Gueva ra , Dom ingo Mo ra le sa nd f am i ly , a nd P ad re s C a r los Mora le s a nd A r tu ro F er re ro o f L ima tambo , A lc ides H uay l las a nd Doro tea Huamän d e H uay l la so fC hoquema rka ,A lf redo Mendez o fS auceda ,E dua rdo Y a f iez o f C hon ta , And re s Huar iac a nd S a lvador P acheco o f Ma rkawa s i , V ic to r Me sa a nd f am i ly , And res T oncach i a nd Ma r iano Huamän o f P ampaconga , Dan ie l I nfan tas o f C h inchaypuqu io a nd Ma rc ia ] R ik ra o fP an t ipa ta . T he p resen t v o lume h a sa l so b ene f i t ted f r om d i sse r ta t ion c ommen t s b y D r . I nga C lend innen , P rof e s so rT om Z u idema a nd P rof e sso rC ra ig Mor r is . T he D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd An th ropo logy a t t h e A us t ra l ian N a t iona l Un ive rs i ty p rov ided t he e nv ironmen t n ece s sa ry t o c omp le te t h is r e sea rch . A ss is tance w a s a lways f o r thcom ing f r om t he s t af f a t t he Ch if ley , Menz ies a nd H anco ck l i b ra r ie s a tA .N .U . , A rch ivo Gene ra l d e l aN ac iOn i n L ima a nd t h eA rch ivo A rzob ispa l , A rch ivo D epa r tamen ta l a nd D irecc iön d e Comun idades C ampes inas , M in is ter io d e A g r icu l tu ra i nC u sco . P ho tog raphy b ene f i t ted f r om t h e wo rk o f Wa r ren H ud son a nd B ob D owhy , a nd d i ag rams f r om t h ea dv ice o fR o land A ronsen a nd J oan Goodrum . H e lp i np repa r ing a nd c o r rec t ing e a r ly d raf t s w a s g iven b y J u l ie D a lco , T e ssa R aa th , a nd D ebo rah B owman , a nd t h e f i na l v o lume w a s e nhanced b y J an K lave r 's c r i t ique . A ny s ho r tcom ings a r e o f c our se , my r e spon s ib i l i ty . F i e ldwo rk i n 1 984 -6 w a s f unded b y t h e F acu l ty o fA r t s o ft h e A us t ra l ian Na t iona l U n iver s i ty , w i th t he s uppo r t o f a C ommonwea l th P o s tg radua te R esea rch Awa rd . A l l r e sea rch i n P e ru w a s e xecu ted w i th s uppor t o f t h e I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d e C u l tu ra u nde rc r eden t ia l n umbe r0 56 -84 -DPC M a nd r e newa ls .

ABSTRACT T h i s v o lume i sm a in ly b a sed u pon my d oc to ra l d i sse r ta t ion , c omp le ted i n1 9 89 .T he a dvance o fC u sco a r chaeo logy a nd t h a t o f T awan t insuyu l e d m e t o a ugmen t s ome d i scu ss ions t o i n co rpo ra te t h e mo s t r e levan t n ew ma ter ia l a nd t od eve lop s ome i d ea s f u r the r , mo s t ly i nC hap te r s O ne , T h ree a nd T en . T he s t udy i ss e ti n te rmed ia te ly b e tween t h eI n ca c o r e t e r r i to ry o f t he C uzco V a l ley a nd t he e xpanse o f p rov inc ia l T awan t insuyu .I tf i r s t ly a im s t oc on s t ruc t ac l ea ri mage o ft h e s pa t ia lo rgan isa t ion o fl a te p reh i s to r ic Q u ichua s oc ie ty , a nd o f t h es oc ia lg eog r aphy w h ich e me rged i no ne o ft h ef i r s ta r ea st o b e a f f ec ted b y I n ca e xpan s ion . T he se s oc ia l l a nd scape s w e re c l o se e nough t o I nca C usco t o h ave p a r t ic ipa ted i n i t s f o rma t ive a nd s ub sequen t s oc ia l p roce s se s , a s w e l l a s t h e d eve lopmen t o f i t s e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c ha ra c te r . T he r e sea rch f o rmed t h e f i r s t s ys tema t ic r e co rd ing o fs i te s i n t h e L ima tambo s t udy a r ea . I tt h us c oncen t ra ted o n s ur face a r chaeo logy a nd t h e w ider c on tex t r a the r t han d e ta i led e xcava t ions . I tc omb ine s t h e r e su l t s o fa r chaeo log ica l s u rvey a nd t h e a na ly s i s o fe a r ly c o lon ia l d ocumen t s t oe xam ine t h e i n te rac t ion o f t h e I nca p o l i ty a nd l o ca l p eop le s i n t h e L ima tambo r e g ion f r om a bou t AD 1 000 t ot h e a r r iva l o ft h e S pan ia rd s i nC u sco d u r ing 1 533 . T he r e spec t ive r o le s a nd l im i ta t ions o ft h e t wo s ou rce s o f i n forma t ion a r e ac ons tan t t h eme . T h i s g i ve s r i se t o ag roup ing o fc hap te r s w h ich f i r s t d ea ls w i th a r chaeo log ica l a nd h i s to r ica l d a ta s epa ra te ly , a nd t h en r e comb ine s t h e r e su l t s i n as e t o fp a r t icu la r s yn the se s . T he se t a ke d i f f e ren t t h eo re t ica l p e r spec t ive s a nd e mpha s ize d i s t inc tc u l tu re -eco log ica l ,s oc ia l a nd i d eo log ica l a spec t so ft h e a r chaeo log ica la nd h i s tor i ca lr e co rd s . C hap te r O ne d e sc r ibe s t h e s t ruc tu re s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s o fI n ca C u sco a nd t h ec i r cum -Cu sco r e g ion a nd u se s ab r ief r e v iew o f T awan t insuyu t oi l u s t r a te d if e ren t mode sa nd d eg re e so fI n ca p r e sence k nown f r om r e sea rch t h roughou t t h e A nde s . I ti s c once rned w i th h ow I n ca i nf luence i sm an if e s ted a nd c an b e m ea su red a nd c ompa red .T he e nv i ronmen ta lb ackg round o ft h e s t udy r eg ion i sc on s ide red i nC hap te r Two .T h is a im st oa s s is t p e r cep t ion o ft h es e t t ing o fc omp lex h i s to r ica l s oc ia l d a ta a nd a r chaeo log ica lp a t te rn s ,a nd e qua l ly t os imp l if yt h e i ra na lys i s .

C hap te rT h ree d e cr ibe s t he s y s tem o fs i t e s u rvey a nd t h e l a te p reh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy o fs u r round ing a r ea s ,a s ab a s i sf o rt h e i n f e rence o f s i t e f unc t ion a nd c hrono logy , a s w e l l a s f o r c ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s . C hap te r s F our a nd F ive d e sc r ibe t h e r e co rded a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a nd s ur f ace c o l lec t ion s . T hey p re sen t many n ew a nd d e ta i led s i te p lan s a nd mea su remen t s , s ome f o r v e ry l a rge a nd c omp lex p reh is to r ic t e r raced l a nd scape s . H is tor ica l i n forma t ion i ss yn the s ized i n C hap te r s S ix a nd S even .T he c hap t e rn o tes a nd a ppend ice si n c lude t r an sc r ip t ion s o fm any p rev iou s ly u npub l ished 1 6 th c en tu ry r e co rd s w h ich d ea l p r ec ise ly w i th L ima tambo a nd i t s r e g ion . T he s o c ia l d a ta t h ey c on ta in , f o rs p ec if ic r e sea r ched l a nd s cape s , i se v idence o f a n i n t r ica te v a r ie ty o f I nca loca l r e la t ions a t t h e e nd o f p reh is to ry t h a t i sn owhe re a ppa r en t i nt h es t anda rd c h ron ic le s . P a r t so ft h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd a r ed rawn i n to t h is d i scu s s ion t o d eve lop a s t rong s pa t ia l c on tex t f o r d ocumen ta ry i n f o rma t ion . T he f i na l c hap te r s u se t wo d i f f e ren t a pp roache s t o a s se s s c u r ren tp ropo s i t ion s a bou tt h en a tu re o fI n ca e xpan s ion w h ich h ave h i ther to b een l a rge ly d er ived f o r t h is a r ea f r om d ocumen ta ry g ene ra l iza t ions . Chap te r E igh t e mp loy s a r chaeo log ica ld a t ai n al a ndscape c on tex to rh uman -eco log ica l f r amewo rk t oi n f e r s i te f unc t ion a nd t oc ompa re p a rame te r s w h ich m ay h ave a f f e c ted t h ec ho ice o fs i te l o ca t ion b e fo r ea nd d u r ing t h e ' t ime o ft h e I nca ' . I te xam ine s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t t lemen t s a nd o f e ne rgy i n pu t s i n t e r race c on s t ruc t ion a s mea sures o f I n ca a nd l oca l leve l i n te re s t i n d i f f e ren t L ima tambo e nv i ronmen t s d ur ing l a te p reh i s to ry . C hap te rN ine u se sd ocumen ta ry d a ta i nc omb ina t ion w i th a r chaeo log ica ld a ta t oe l abo ra te as o c ia l a nd t e rr i to r ia l h ypo the s is t oe xp la in t h e r e co rded v a r ia t ion i nI nca t e r race s cheme s . C hap te rT en i sa s im i la r a na lys is o f moun ta in summ i t I n ca s i tes i nt h e s t udy r eg ion , s e t i n t h e mo re c ha l leng ing c on tex t o f i d eo log ica l s ys tem s , s ymbo logy a nd c oncep tua l g eog raph ies . E a ch o ft h e s yn the se s h a s c ompa ra t ive i mp l ica t ions a td i f f e ren t l e ve l s , f r om t h e r eg iona ls o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion o fC u sco t ot h ep o l i t ica l , e conom ic a nd r e l ig iou ss t ruc tu re o fT awan t in suyu .

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CHAPTER 1

I NCA LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY : SOCIETY , S TATE AND TA WANTINSUYU 1 . 1 QUESTIONS , OBJECTIVES AND APPROACHES E xpand ing p reh is to r ic p o l i t ies g rew f r om l o ca l ized Uppe r H o locene s oc ie t ie sa t many p l ace si nt h ew o r ld a nd t empo ra r i ly r e ta ined t h ep owe rt oe x t rac te ne rgy a nd r e sou rce sf r om d ive r se a r ea s a nd p eop les . T he e x tens ion o f I nca s oc io -econom ic o b jec t ive sa c ro s st h ew e s tern S ou th Ame r ican Ande si su sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t ot h e f i na lp reh is tor ic c en tu ry b efo re c ap tu re o ft h e I n ca r u le r , A tawa l lpa , i n 1 532 . P lacemen t o ft h ese e ven t s o n t h e b ounda ry o f p reh is tory a nd h i s tory o f fe r s as pec ia l o ppo r tun i ty t o d ef ine a nd c ompa re s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd i d eo log ica l mechan isms w h ich o pe ra ted i n l a te p reh is tor ic C usco , w he re d i s t inc t ive a r chaeo log ica l i nd ica to r s o f I nca c u l tu re e me rged a nd i nT awan t insuyu , t h ea r ea o fi t s u l t ima te i nf luence ( F ig . 1 : 1) . T h is s t udy a im s t o mode l s oc ia l a nd e conom ic s ys tems b efo re a nd d ur ing t h is e xpans ion , u s ing i n forma t ion f r om s ur face a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey a nd d ocumen ts r e levan t t o N a t ive Ame r ican h i s to ry i nt h e l a nd scape a r ound L ima tambo , a bou t 5 0 km f r om Cusco . I t a l so e va lua tes e xp lana t ions o f p reh is to r ic s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange . Empha s is i sp l aced u pon e s tab l ish ing t he l i ke ly ma ter ia l c or re la tes o f e t hnoh is to r ica l ly d ocumen ted p henomena , p r ima r i ly b ecause t h is p erm i t s t h e ir e xam ina t ion t h rough l onge r t imesca le s ( Tr igge r 1 978 :155 ) . I ti s a l so r e cogn ised t ha t ar eg iona l a pp roach i sn ece s sa ry t oe xp la in many p henomena o pe ra t ing a t s t a te o ri mpe r ia l s ca le s ( Che r ry 1 987 ) . T he L ima tambo s e t t ing i sa mong t h e f i r s t t o h ave e xpe r ienced C usco 's t e r r i tor ia l e xpan s ion a nd i se spec ia l ly a ppropr ia te f o ru nde r s tand ing h ow t h e i n s tr umen t s o f t h a t e xpans ion w e re i n i t ia l ly a pp l ied a nd e vo lved . I nca s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i s t he a na ly t ica l f undamen t i n s t ruc tu ra l e t hnoh is to r ic s t ud ie s o fC usco a nd i t s i mmed ia te ly s u r round ing t e r r i to ry ( Zu idema 1 964 , S herbondy 1 977 , P oo le 1 984 :1-24 ,85 -98 ) . S uch mode ls d ep ic tb u reauc racy a nd p o l i t ic s i n s oc ia l t e rms a nd r e cons t ruc t c oncep tua l s ys tems wh ich i n teg ra te s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd s pace . T hey a na lyse t he s t ruc tu re o f my th -h is to ry i nc h ron ic le s ( e a r ly C o lon ia l w r i t ten a ccoun t s ) a nd i lus t ra te i t s i n adequacy a s t he f oun ta in o f a nswe r s f o r d ynam ic n a r ra t ives o f p reh is tor ic e ven t s , b u t f o rmu la te i t s v iab i l i ty f o r r econs t ruc t ion o f e thnocen t r ic c on tex t s w i th in wh ich t h e l a te a r chaeo log ica l r e cord wa s f o rmed . T he c h ron ic le rs , mos t ly S pan ish i n e a r ly c o lon ia l t imes , r e corded t he ir o bserva t ions a longs ide o f ten j aund iced i n te rp re ta t ion s o f i nd igenous t e s t imony . A ccoun t s o f o r ig in w e re g ene ra l ly r ega rded b y t h em , a con tex tua l ly , a s f abu lous . H oweve r , mo s tc h ron ic le r sa ccep ted o re mpha s ised a nd r epea ted t h e p resen ta t ion o f p re Inca p opu la t ions a s u nc iv i l ized , d i sagg rega ted a nd i nc on s tan tc on f l ic t , av i ew wh ich p rov ided s t a te sw i th ac l ea rr edeem ing f e a tu re .L if es t o r ie so fe ar ly r u le r s w e re p a r t ia l ly a ccep ted , a l ong w i th t h e m i l i ta ry s uccess , b u i ld ing w o rk sa nd n ew r i tua la nd a dm in i s t ra t ive o rd er i mpo sed b y P achacu t i I nca , T opa I nca a nd H uayna C apac , a nd t he s ubsequen t c onf l ic t b e tween H ua sca r a nd A tawa l lpa ( C ieza 1 985 :Ch s .4 -8 ,31-74 [ c a . 1 550 ] ; B e tanzos 1 880 :Chs .1-18

[ 1 551] ; S an t i l lan 1 968 :377 -383 [ 1 563 ] ; P o lo 1 916 :49 ,51-60 [ 1 57 1] ; S ar rn ien to 1 943 :Chs .6 -69 [ 1 572 ] ; C o l lap if ia e t . a l . :22 4 3 [ ? 1542 -1608 ] ; S an tacruz 1 927 :131 ,192 [ c a . 1 613 ] ) . S e lec ted e l emen t so fs uch n a r ra t ive a r ee choed i n many mode rn d iachron ic s yn theses i n a rchaeo logy , w h ich a l so h ave a f r amewo rk p unc tua ted b ya nd o f ten f o cus sed u pon t h ei mpe r ia l o r e xpans ive e p isode s o f t he A ndean p a s t . T he c h ron ic le s ource s a re l e ss a menab le t o i n te rna l a s se ssmen t t h an o ra l t r ad i t ion ( Vans ina 1 965 :x i ,3 ) a nd a r e o pen t oi n te rp re ta t ions w h ich d im in ish t h e ir u t i l i ty a sr e co rd so fe ven t s i nl i nea rt ime ( Zu idema 1 964 :11-14 ; Wed in 1 966 ; D uv io ls 1 979 ) . Wh i ls t We s tern h i s tor iog raph ic m a rg ina l iza t ion o fN a t ive l i t e ra tu re s d e serve s c r i t ique ( eg . B ro the r s ton 1 993 ) , t h e A ndean c on tex t a nd s i gn if icance o f m any c hron ic les i s n o t s uper f ic ia l ly a ppa ren t . S uch a ccoun t s , o r my th -h is to ry , r e qu i re a na lys is i n b o th c u l tu ra la nd h i s tor ica lc on tex t s( Ur ton 1 990 ) . R ecen t e thnoh is tor ic a nd a rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies o f T awan t insuyu p r ima r i ly e xam ine t h e i n te rac t ion o fI nca s t a te o rgan iza t ion a nd p rov inc ia l c u l tura l c omp lexes . T hey empha s ize t he I nca s t a te 's f l ex ib le b u t d om inan t i n te rac t ion w i th r e s i l ien t a nd v a r ied r eg iona l p o l i t ie s ( Mur ra 1 982 :257 ) . T he ir s e t t ing i s d i s tan t f r om t h e r eg ion o f I n ca s oc ia l f o rma t ion a nd t h is s ha rpens t h e f o cu s u pon t h em echan isms o f s t a te e xpans ion . An a pparen t ly r ap id c ons t ruc t ion a nd a bandonmen t o f p rov inc ia l i n s ta l la t ions a l so f a c i l i ta tes a c t iv i ty -pa t tern s t ud ie s . A c tor s i n s uch s yn the se s a r e s t a te o ff ic ia ls o rd ependen t i n s t i tu t ions , l o ca l e l i te a nd p roduce r s a t t h e l eve ls o f c ommun i ty ( ay l lu ) , c h iefdom ( curacazgo , c ac icazgo a nd s ei zor io) o r e t hn ic g roup ( e tnia) . T he c ompos i t ion a nd t e r r i to r ies a t tr ibu ted t os uch g roup s b y e a r ly C o lon ia l d ocumen t s c anno t b e a s sumed a s s t a t ic o ve r l o ng p reh is to r ic t ime sca les , n o rc an t h e ir f o rm i nC o lon ia l t i mes b e s een a s t he s imp le r eve r s ion t o ap re Inca i d en t i ty ( Pea se 1 982 :174 -176 ; 1 89 -190 ) . A rcha ic s t a te s t yp ica l ly c omp r ise ' mosa ics ' o f d i f f e ren t s oc ie t ies , s uch a s t ho se w i th d ife ren t d eg ree so fs t ra t if ica t ion , a nd t h e se s t ruc tu re so f ten c hange , f o r e xamp le a s ar e su l t o f c u l tura l r e s is tance t o d om ina t ion ( Pa t te r son 1 987 ) . I n T awan t insuyu s t ud ie s , c h ron ic les a r e u sed t o f o rmu la te g enera l q ues t ions r a the r t han r e so lve s pec if ic o ne s , b u t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a r e o f ten c omb ined w i th e a r ly C o lon ia l a dm in is tra t ive d ocumen ta t ion , i n te rp re ted i n t h e l i gh t o f a n th ropo log ica l mode ls o fA ndean s oc io econom ic s y s tems ,t o p or t ray I nca loca l r e la t ions ( Mur ra a nd Mor r is 1 976 :271) . A dm in is t ra t ive r e cords p rov ide mo re u n iform q uan t i ta t ive i n fo rma t ion i n ac l ea re rs pa t ia l s e t t ing t h an c h ron ic le sa nd t h e t e s t imon ies a r e c l o se r t oi n d iv idua l memor ies . N eve r the le ss , t h ey s t i l l l a ck t empo ra l i mmed iacy t or emo te r e ven t s a nd t h e d e t a i led l a ndscape c on tex to ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . 1 .2 POLITICO-ECONO MIC MECHANIS MS I NCA PROVINCIAL STATECRAFT

OF

T he c on tro lo ve rh uman e ne rgy a nd r e sou r ce s , wh ich s a t i sf ied I n ca s o c ia lo rs t a te d emand s , i sg ene ra l ly c ha rac te r ized a sa p roduc to ft h ep owe rt oe f ec t ive ly t h rea ten w a r f a re ,c omb ine d w i th p o l i t ica l ,e conom ic a nd i d eo log ica l t e chn ique st oa ch ieve c onsensus o ra l l iance ( Gode l ie r 1 977 :69 ; S chaede l 1 978 :289 ) . 1

I n ca S oc ie ty , S t a t ea nd T awan t in suyu

I ns t ud ie so fb o th t h ef o rma t ion a nd e x tens ion o ft h eI n ca s t a te , t h e re i sc ons ide rab le v a r ia t ion i nt h e empha s is p l aced u pon t h e se f a c to r s .

a bundan t s p ind le w hor ls f o r t e x t i le manufac ture (Mor r is 1 974 ;53 ) , o r i n av i l lage e nc lave c on tex t , b y p roduc t ion o f p o t te ry n ea rL ake T i t icaca ( Spu r l ing 1 993 ) .

S pan ish o f f ic ia ls , who s ough t t e s t imony a bou t l o ca l c on t r ibu t ions t ot h eI nca s t a te ,p ref e r red t or e cord s t a temen t so f t r ibu te . H oweve r , e a r ly C o lon ia l a dm in is t ra t ive d ocumen t s i nd ica te t ha t t he p reh ispan ic e xp ress ion o f t r ibu te w a s i n l abour u n i t s o ve r t ime a nd t ha t r o ta t ing l abour o b l iga t ions ( m i t 'a )w e re t h ep r inc ipa l s ource o fe ne rgy f o rc rea t ion o fs t a te w ea l th (Mu r ra 1 982 :245 -246 , 2 57 ) .

L oca l p roduc t ion d ive rs i ty a nd i n te rzona l e xchange o f s ubs is tence p roduc t s , b e low t h e l e ve l o f p rov inc ia l s t a te c on t ro l , p robab ly r educed t h e r o le o f ma rke t s i n mos t o f T awan t in suyu .D ocumen ted e xchange s among l a rge c rowd s i n C u sco c i ty m ay h ave b een e nac ted a sp a r to fs t a te r i tua l ( Mu r ra 1 978 ;198 -210 ) . L oca l leve l e xchange i s u n l ike ly t o h ave h omogen ized d i e t s i ns e t t lemen t s w i th in d i s t inc t p roduc t ion e nv i ronmen t s ,a si n d ica ted b ya r chaeobo tan ica l r e sea rch i nt h e Man ta ro r e g ion ( Ea r le 1 987 :67 ) . L oca l c e ram ic d i s t r ibu t ion s y s tems may a l so h ave s ur v ived , n o to n ly whe re t h ey w e re t h e p rov inc ia l m a in s tay w a re , b u t e ven w i th in 8 0 km o f C uzco ( e g . L un t 1 987 ) . A t t h e n or the rn f r on t ie r o fI nca e xpans ion , m a rke tp lace s a ppea r t oh ave b een a bundan t i nl a te p reh is to ry ( Sa lomon 1 986a :97 -102 ) . O n t he o the r h and i th a s b een s ugges ted t h a t t h e g rea te r p e rva s ivene ss o fI nca c on t ro l n ea r C u sco m igh t r e su l t i nI nca e l i te c on t ro l o fe xchange i ne ven s ub s is tence g oods ( Mo r r is 1 986 :65 ) .

Unde r t h e s t a te a dm in is t ra t ive i d ea l l a nd f o r s t a te f i e ldcrop s , woo l f o r s t a te w eaver s a nd o the rr e source s , w a s v e s ted i nt h e s t a te b enef ic iary i n s t i tu t ion ( Moore 1 958 :49 -50 ; Mur ra 1 962b :715 , 1 965 -203-5 , 2 08 -9 ; S a lomon 1 986a :170 ) . I n f i c t iona l r e c ip roc i ty f o rm i t 'a t h es t a te d i sbu r sed r i gh t s t ol o ca l c ommun i t ie st o wo rk t h e i rs ub s is tence l a nds (Mur ra 1 965 :203 2 04 ) . T r ibu te o b ta ined b y h un t ing a nd g a ther ing c ou ld b e f r amed a s l a bour t r ibu te b y d eem ing r e sources , s uch a s w i ld b i rd s , t o h ave b een v es ted i n t h e s t a te (Moore 1 958 :46 -47 ) . T h is s ys tem may b es een a ss e rved b y t h ec on t inuance o fs e lf s uff ic ien t l a bour f o rces a nd h ence , t he c on t inu i ty o f t he ir s ub s is tence b a ses .

O ne q ua l i ta t ive i n d ica to r o f e conom ic c on t ro l b y C usco i s d ocumen ta ry e v idence o fg roup s wh ich w e re d ependen t u pon s t a te s t o re s f o r s ub s is tence . H oweve r , af u l le r c ompa r ison o f I n ca p resence i nT awan t insuyu a nd C usco r u ra l l a ndscapes r e qu ire sq uan t i ta t ive i n fo rma t ion o n t h ep ropor t ions o fl a bou r a nd p roduc t ion z one s p l aced u nde r s t a te c on t ro l . T h is c an b e f r amed a s aq ues t ion o f i mpe r ia l e xpans ion ( eg . D 'A l t roy 1 981 :110 ) o r i n t ra -soc ie ta l d i f fe ren t ia t ion . Howeve r , Mur ra ( 1962a ; 1 966 :39 -40 ; 1 970 :11-12 , 1 7 ; 1 979 :285 ) h as e mpha s ized t h e i mpo r tance o fa t tach ing p hys ica l e v idence t o d ocumen ta ry i mage s ,e spec ia l ly t h eq uan t i ta t ive a spec t so fl a nd t e nure i n l a te p reh is tory . U se o f d e ta i led 1 6 th c en tury a dm in is t ra t ive s ou rce sa l one h a sn o te nab led t h is d e te rm ina t ion ( Mur ra 1 982 :257 ) .

S to rage o fp roduce f r om t he h i n te r land o f s t a te i n s ta l la t ions w a s af ounda t ion o ft h e I nca s t a te 's a b i l i ty t oe xpand . Mo r r is ' r e sea rch o n Huänuco P ampa a nd e thnoh is to r ic d a ta f r om T awan t insuyu s ugge s t t h a t s t o rage c apac i ty f o rs t a te p u rpose s w a s much g rea te r t han t h a t a t l o ca l l e ve l , t ha t p rov inc ia l s t o rage w a sp r ima r i ly o fs ub s is tence g oods o rs pec ia l g ood s f o r p roce ss ing a tp rov inc ia l I nca i n s ta l la t ions a nd t h a t r i tua l o r l uxu ry i t ems , s uch a s c lo th a nd f e a ther s , we re t ho se mos t l i ke ly t o b e moved o ver l ong d i s tances t o o ther c en t re s o r C usco ( 1967 :170 , 1 982 :168 -169 , 1 986 :63-66 ) . H ence , t h e C usco r eg ion i s s een a s t he ma in p roducer o f i t s own s ubs is tence r e qu i remen t s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fs ome s pec ia l f oods s uch a s ma ize , ap roduc t o f e normous r i tua l i mpo r t (Mu r ra 1 960 ) . T he a rchaeo logy o fC usco r eg iona l s t o rehouse s h a sy e tt or e ce ive c ompa rab ly d e ta i led a t ten t ion . T he re i sa l so r eg iona l v a r iab i l i ty i ns t o rage a r rangemen ts . T he l a ck o fI nca s t a te s t orage f a c i l i t ie s i nc oa s ta l T awan t insuyu , c ompa red t o t he h igh land s , may r ef lec t p o l i t ica l c i rcums tances wh ich e ncou raged t h er ap id t r anspor to fp roduce d i rec t ly t oh igh land c en t re s( Snead 1 992 :85 ) .

T he q ue s t ions o f e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l c on t ro l d emand i n ter reg iona l c ompa r isons a nd a l a ndscape a pp roach wh ich p rov ide s d a ta o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd a r ea o fl a te p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s a nd l a nd -use p a t terns . I n a h igh ly v a r ied e nv i ronmen t , s uch a s L i ma tambo , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s t a te i n s ta l la t ions may b e a mea su re o f i t s a b i l i ty t o r egu la te p roduc t ion a nd movemen t o f g oods . However , b o th e t hnoh is to r ic a nd a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i lus t ra te a v a r ie ty o f mode sa nd d eg r ee so fI n ca p re sence .

H igh c oncen t ra t ions o fI nca j a r s a nd c u l ina ry p o t te ry i nl a rge b u i ld ings a t Huänuco P ampa r epresen t t he r o le o f r i tua l g ene ros i ty i nI nca a dm in is t ra t ion t h rough l o ca l e l i te ( Mo r r is 1 982 :163 -167 ) . T he f l ow o f s t a te s t o res t o l o ca l c h ief s i s a ppa ren t i n e a r ly d ocumen ta t ion f r om d iver se r eg ions o f T awan t insuyu (Mor r is 1 986 :65 ; S a lomon 1 986a :170 ) . S to re s w e re u sed t of e ed , r ewa rd a nd b o ls te rt he p re s t ige o fm i l i ta ry f o rce sa nd a l l ied l o ca le l i te a nd t h e i rv a lue c ou ld b ea ugmen ted b y t r ansf e rt op laces whe re t h ey w e re mos t e s teemed ( Mur ra 1 962 :717 -721 ; Mo r r is 1 986 :65 ) .

1 . 3 PROVINCIAL POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TA WANTINSUYU 1 . 3 .1 The S outhern Andes I n ca i nf luence e x tended s ou th i n to a r ea s o f l e ss p o l i t ica l ly i n teg ra ted p eop le s , a sa tt h ee l eva ted C e r ro C hena a nd C a ta rpe I nka s i te s i n C h i le , a nd t h e s i tes o f R anch i l lo s a nd F uer te Q uemado i n n or thwes tern A rgen t ina ( Hys lop 1 990 ) . An e ndur ing l i ngu is t ic l e gacy r ema ined i n many p laces a nd a r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le I nca e lemen t s t ook t h e f o rm o f m i l i ta ry o r a dm in is tra t ive s i te s , r oad s , i nf luence s u pon t he a r ch i tec tu re o fL a te P er iod s i tes o r t h e a t t r ibu te s o f a r tefac t a s semb lage s ,a nd t h ep l acemen to fI n ca c u l ts i tes o ne x t reme ly h i gh moun ta in s ( Raff ino 1 981 ; O tone l lo a nd L o rand i 1 987 ; H ys lop 1 990 ) . M i tmaqkuna w ere a n i mpor tan t a spec t o f d om ina t ion i nt h i sp o l i t ica le nv i ronmen t ,a sd ocumen ted a l ong. t h e Ma ipo R ive rn ea rC e r ro C hena ( S i lva G a ldame s 1 977 -78 ) o r t h rough a r chaeo log ica l p a t terns o f c eram ic s t y le a nd

T he c ons t ruc t ion a nd ma in tenance o f a n e x tens ive r oad n e two rk ,a nd a t tendan tf a c i l i t ie s ,p rov ided t h ec ommun ica t ion s i n f ra s truc tu re f o r e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry a spec t s o f a dm in is t ra t ion i nT awan t insuyu ( Hys lop 1 984 ) . T he c r ea t ion o f n ew w ea l th b y s pec ia l is t a r t isans , c ha rac ter is t ic o f s t a te l e ve l o rgan iza t ions ( Peeb les a nd Kus 1 977 :432 ) , a ppa ren t ly g rew a s ameans t or e info rce s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion a nd p o l i t ico r e l ig ious i n s t i tu t ions ( Ea r le 1 987 :67 -75 ) . S uch p roduc t ion i s e v idenced i np a r t so f Huänuco P ampa a dm in is t ra t ive c en t re b y 2

I n ca S o c i e t y , S t a t ea nd T awan t in suyu manuf ac tu re , a sa tP o t re ro -Chaqu iago ( e g . L o rand i ,C remon te a nd W i l l iam s 1 991) . A g r icu l tu ra l t e r race so fp re Inca d a te a r e k nown i nt h er eg ion ( Hys lop 1 976 :87 )b u tn one a r er e po r ted t o h ave e l abo ra te I nca s ty le ma sonry . F ive t e r race s cheme s i n C h i le a nd A rgen t ina a r e s im i la r a nd i n c lude s ome w i th i n se t w a ter d rops wh ich a r e a l so c ommon n ea r C u sco ( F ie ld 1 966 :472 ,4 82 -483 ) . T he w a rm C ochabamba V a l ley o fB o l iv ia w a s as pec ia lc a se i n I nca c on t ro lo fa g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t ion .L a rge n umbe r so fI n ca p laced m i tmaqkuna a nd m i t 'a l a bou re r sa ppa ren t ly d i sp laced i t s p opu la t ion (Wach te l 1 982 ) . I nc on t ra s t ,s ome l ow land ( y unga ) p eop le so n t h ee a s te rn s i de o fL ake T i t icaca w e re n o tr e se t t led a nd w e re p robab ly f a vou red b y t h e g ran t o fa cce s s t oc e r ta in r e sou r ce z ones ( Sa igne s 1 986 :317 ) . Ma ss ive s t a te s t o rage f ac i l i t ie s w e re c ons t ruc ted a t C o tapach i i n C ochabamba , p re sumab ly f o r a gr icu l tu ra l p roduc t s , a nd o ne o f t h e l a rge s t I nca b u i ld ings i n e x is tence i sl o ca ted n ea rby , a tI nka l laq ta ( Hy s lop 1 984 :139 ; G a spa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :199 , 2 08 ) . Documen t s i nd ica te t h a t t h eC ochabamba V a l ley w a sd i v ided i n to a r ea s w h ich w e re w o rked b y l a bou r f o rce s d rawn f r om h igh a l t ip lano g roup s a nd t h e ma in p roduc t m ay h ave b een ma ize t os uppo r tt h eI n ca a rmy i ni t ss ou ther nc onque s t( Mu r ra 1 986 , Wach te l 1 982 ) .

1 . 3 .2 T he L ake T i t icaca B as in I n t h e T i t ica ca B a s in , H a tunqo l la s e rved a s t h e m a jo r I nca a dm in is t ra t ive c en t re o f t he Qo l lasuyu r eg ion , b u t a r chaeo log ica l e v idence d oe s n o t s uppo r t i t s d ocumen ta ry d e sc r ip t ion a s p rev iou s c ap i ta l o f t h e Qo l la e t hn ic p o l i ty ( J u l ien 1 983 :3 ,107 )Copacabana ,o nt h es ho re o fL ake T i t icaca , r e ce ived m i tmaqkuna ( t ransp lan ted g roup s ) f r om C u sco a nd s u r round ing a r ea sa sw e l l a s many o t he rp a r ts o fT awan t in suyu ( Ramos G av i län 1 988 :84 -85 [ 1621]) . Chucu i to w a s h i s to r ica l ly c i ted a st h ec h ief s e t t lemen t o ft he L upaqa p o l i ty . H oweve r ,H y s lop ( 1976 :224 -233 , 1 977 )f ound t h a ti ta nd o the r p r inc ipa l L upaqa s e t t lemen t s w e re e s tab l ished a f te r I nca d om ina t ion a nd s ugge s t st h a te l abo ra te b u r ia l s t ruc tu re s , w h ich c omb ine l o ca l s ty le f e a tu re sa nd I n ca s ty le ma son ry , r e p re sen t s t a te r e info rcemen to ft h e l o ca l e l i te . I n fo rma t ion f r om al a te p r eh i s to r ic k h ipu ( kno t ted -s t r ing r e co rd ) , r e ad i n to t h eS pan ish c o lon ia l r e co rd so ft h eL upaqa t e r r i to ry i n1 567 , i n d ica ted t h a t 1 53 h ou seho lds w e re m i tmaqkuna f r om C h inchaysuyu ( n o r the rn T awan t in suyu ) a nd 2 0 w e re f r om C ana s , s ou th o f C u sco ( Mu r ra 1 975 :195 ) .

0

500 km

F IG . 1 : 1 T awan t insuyu a nd S ome Ma jor S i tes a nd P lace s Men t ioned i n t he T ex t ( af t e rH y s lop 1 990 ) . 1 . Qu i to 2 .C uenca ( Tomebamba ) 3 .C hachapoya s 4 .C a jama r ca 5 .C han C han 6 . Huänuco P ampa 7 . Ha tun X auxa 8 .L ima ( R imac V a l ley ) 9 .P acha camac 1 0 .L aC en t ine la ( Ch incha V a l ley ) 1 .H uay ta rä 1 2 . V i lca shuamän 1 3 . S a ihu i te 1 4 . C u sco 1 5 . H a tun Q o l la 1 6 . C hucu i to 1 7 .A requ ipa 1 8 . C ochabamba 1 9 . 1 nka l laq ta 2 0 .C a ta rpe 2 1 .F ue r te Q uemado 2 2 .P o t re ro -Chaqu iago 2 3 . R anch i l lo s 2 4 . C e r ro C hena .

1 0 • 1 1

3

1 2 •

.14 • 1 3

I n ca S oc ie ty , S t a t ea nd T awan t in suyu V a l leys b e twe en t h eL ake T i t icaca a l t ip lano a nd t h e Amazon ian l ow lands c on ta in e v idence o fI nca i nf luenced s e t t lemen t s a nd e x tens ive a g r icu l tura l t e r race s , s ome w i th p ro jec t ing s t one s t ep s ( Thomp son 1 968 :114 ) , ac ommon f e a tu re i nt hose n ea r

w i th e l abo ra te s t ep so rs t a ir ca se s , l ow p lacemen ta nd f unc t ion s i n c lud ing s acr if i c ia l a l ta r a nd f on t ( Zu idema 1 980 ; H ys lop 1 990 ) . T he s ma l l Q aracha V a l ley n ea rby c on ta ins L a te I n termed ia te P e r iod s i tes i nh i gh a nd d ef ens ive p os i t ions i n a cco rdance w i th t h ec en t ra lA ndean p a t te rn .D e sp i te p l acemen t s o fm i tmaqkuna i nt h e g ene ra l a rea , i th a s n o s i tes w i th I nka a r ch i tec tu re ( Va ldez a nd V ivanco 1 994 ) . I nca o ccupa t ion i nt h e s ma l l C a rahua ra zo V a l ley o fs ou thern Ayacucho w as p robab ly a ne x t rac t ive i mpo s i t ion o n al o ca l p opu la t ion n uc lea ted o nt h e m a ize /po ta to p roduc t ion e co tone ,s i nce I nca e v idence c omp r ise s s ma l l s t orage e s tab l ishmen t s ( 91 s t ruc ture s ) , ar oad a nd a s soc ia ted b u i ld ing o f e labo ra te ma sonry , o ne o the r I nca b u i ld ing a nd ap o ss ib le m i tmaq v i l lage ( Sch re ibe r 1 987 :277 ) .

C usco . 1 . 3 .3 S ou th Coas t o f P eru S ou the rn c oa s ta l P e ru c on ta ins a n umbe r o f p robab le s t a te a dm in is t ra t ive s i tes . Menze l ( 1959 :128 ) d emons t ra ted t h a t t h e ma in I nca i n s ta l la t ion i nt h eC h incha V a l ley w a sa t tached t oa n e x is t ing monumen ta l c en t re ( La C en t ine la ) whe rea s T ambo C o lo rado a nd L ima L aV ie ja , i nt h e m idd le a nd l owe rr e ache s o ft h e P isco V a l ley , w e re p laced b eyond p rev iou s c ent re s a nd H ua i ta rä l a yo n t h eu ppe r -va l ley r ou te t oC u sco . S he p ropo sed t h a t a n e x is t ing p owe r s t ruc ture wa s r eused b y t he I nca i n C h incha , b u t t h a t d ecen tra l ized I nca c on t ro l w a s a pp l ied t o P i sco i nt h ea b sence o fp r io rp o l i t ica l u n i ty ;I nca o ccupa t ion i n t h eN a sca ,A ca r fa nd Y auca V a l ley s w a ss im i la rt oP i sco a nd i n I c a t he p a t tern r e semb le s t h a t o f C h incha ( 1959 :128 -129 ) . C o lon ia l Ch incha w a s k nown f o ri t s g o ld a nd s i lve rm ine sa nd m e ta lsm i ths (Menze l a nd R owe 1 966 :68 ) . C on t inu i ty o f e x is t ing p owe r s t ruc tures d id n o t p rec lude m itmaqkuna e x t rac t ions , s i nce s i lve r sm i ths f r om C h incha , I c a a nd t h e c en t ra l a nd n or thern c oa s t s w e re s en t t o C usco i n l a te p r eh is to ry ( Ro s two row sk i 1 977 :92 , 1 988 :112 ) .

1 . 3 .5 C entra l C oas t o f P eru C en t ra l P eruv ian c oas ta l v a l leys , Huaura , C hancay , C h i l lön , R imac a nd L u r in , a nd t he i r a d jacen t h ighe r s l ope r eg ions o f Y auyo s ,C an ta a nd H ua roch ir i ,f e a ture i nd e ta i led e thnoh is to r ic r e sea rch . Av i s i ta o f 1 553 i n d ica tes t ha td i spe r sed s ma l l p lo t s w e re d ed ica ted t os t a te p u rpo ses , d i rec t c on t ro l wa s t a ken o f g o ld a nd s i lve rm in ing , a nd t h ec uraca ( l oca l l e ade r ) g ave t h e I nca f i f ty men f o r t h e a rmy , ah undred a s c ar r ie r s a nd t e n y anacona ( spec ia l s ervan t s ) ( Ros tworowsk i 1 978 :177 -179 ) . T he C hac l la g roup , f r om Y auyo s , we re p laced b y t h e I nca a s u nwe lcome m i tmaqkuna i nc oa s ta lc oca f i e lds p e r ta in ing t ot h e C an ta p o l i ty , b u t t h ec uraca o fH uaura p laced m i tmaqkuna i n t h eC hancay V a l ley t op rov ide s e afood t ot h eI nca ,r ef lec t ing a l o ca l p o l i t ica l h i e ra rchy i nw h ich Chancay l e ader s p a id t r ibu te t o Huaura ( Ros tworowsk i 1 978 :127 , 1 74 -175) . C hac l la m i tmaq w e re a l so p l aced i nc o ca f i e lds o fC o l l ique c uraca zgo i n t h e C h i I lön V a l ley , a nd a n I n ca a ppo in tee p l aced a s l e ade r , p robab ly p o l ic ie s e ncou raged b y Co l l ique r e s is tance t os t a te c on t ro l ( Ros two rowsk i 1 977 :33-35) . C o lon ia l d ocumen t s s ugge s t t ha t a ccusa t ions o f c onsp iracy a nd s ubsequen t ma ssac re s b y t h eI n ca w e re u sed t oo b ta in s ome c oca l a nd s f o r m i tmaqkuna emp lacemen t s( Ro s tworowsk i 1 977 :92 )

I nkawa s i i nt h eC a i ie te V a l ley , as i te o fs t o rage f a c i l i t ie s , e l i te a nd n on -e l i te r e s idence s a nd p robab ly a n I nca g a r r ison o f c onque s t a ga ins t t h e G ua rco c oa s ta l p o l i ty , w a s l o ca ted a bove t h e mos td ense ly p opu la ted l owe r -va l ley a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd sa nd n ea r a n i mpo r tan t r i ve r c ross ing ( Hys lop 1 985 ) . D ef ea t o f G ua rco p aved t h e w ay f o r l a rge p lacemen t s o f m i tmaqkuna f r om t he n e ighbou r ing C oay l lo a nd C h incha v a l leys a s w e l l a s C h imu t e r r i to ry . Documen ta ry s ou rce s i nd ica te t h a ts ome w e re r i va ls o f Gua rco a nd t h a t s uch p lacemen t c ou ld h ave b een a r ewa rd , i ns ymbo l i fn o t w ea l th , t og roup s w h ich a s s is ted t h e I nca a nd p rev ious ly h ad a n i n teres t i n Gua rco r e source s ( Ro s two row sk i 1 988 :109 ) .

P a r t ia l a r chaeo log ica l s urvey o f t he Ch i l lön V a l ley r e vea led l i t t le e v idence o f I nca c on t ro l a t mos t l a te p reh is to r ic s i te s ( D i l lehay 1 977 ) . Two l owe r v a l ley s i tes we re p robab ly a dm in is t ra t ive a nd o ne o ft h em , Co l l ique , o ve r l ies ap rev iou s c en t re . Ma jo rs t o rage c apac i ty w a s s i tua ted n ea rc oca g row ing l a nd s i nt h e m idd le v a l ley , a tH uancayo A l to , a nd s ma l l I n ca s e t t lemen ts a nd l o ca l s e t t lemen ts w i th I nca c e ram ic a nd a r ch i tec tura l i nf luence s w e re more c ommon i n u ppe r -va l ley l o ca t ions , o n t h e r ou te t o h igh land I nca c ent res . I nca d om ina t ion o ft h em idd le a nd u ppe r v a l ley p rov ided c on t ro l o f i r r iga t ion w a te re s sen t ia l f o rc u l t iva t ion b e low a nd may h ave g iven s t ra teg ic a dvan tages o ve r t h e d ense ly p opu la ted l owe r v a l ley ( D i l lehay 1 977 :402 -404 ) .

S eve ra l I nca s t ruc tu re s w e re b u i l to n u noccup ied p romon to r ie s b e s ide t he o cean i n Gua rco t e r r i to ry a nd e ven e l abo ra te I n ca s t y le ma sonry i sp resen t , a l though I nca p o t te ry i ss ca r ce b y c ompar ison t o t h a t a t L a C en t ine la a nd C h incha (Ma rcus 1 987 :94 -105 ) . 1 . 3 .4

S outh -Cen tra l

P eruv ian

H igh lands

L a te p reh is to r ic t e r race s i n t h e Co lca V a l ley o f A requ ipa g ene ra l ly l a ck t h e e l abo ra te ma sonry f ound i nt e r race s o ft h e V i lcano ta V a l ley n ea r C usco ( Denevan 1 987 :21) . Howeve r , o the r s h ave c hanne ls b u i l t i n to t he s t one w a l ls ( Gu i l l6 t 1 987 :199 ) a nd l owe r l e ve ls o ft e r race s n ea rC o rporaque h ave e nd -wa l ls , a n o rder l ine ss o f l a you t a nd l a ck o f o therw ise a bundan t M idd le H o r izon p o t tery , a l l o fw h ich a r e c ons is ten t w i th a n I nca p e r iod d a te f o r t he ir c ons t ruc t ion (Ma lpa s s 1 987 :57 -58 ) . S ome t e r race s n ea r t he Co lca v a l ley f l oo r w e re f ound ,d u r ing av i s i ti n1 989 , t oh ave C uzco l ike w a l l s t ep s .

1 . 3 .6 Nor th Coa st o f P eru I n n or the rn c oa s ta l P e ru , I n ca r e la t ions w i th t he C h imu k i ngdom a r e t e nuou s ly r ep re sen ted i nt he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ( Rowe 1 948 :45 ) . C h imu p o t te ry c on t inued i nu se d u r ing t h e I nca p e r iod i n t h e C asma V a l ley , a nd mos t s i tes w i th I nca p o t te ry a ppea rt ob ec a se s o fc on t inued o ccupa t ion ( Thomp son 1 964 ) .A t Ch iqu i toy V ie jo ,i nt h e Ch icama V a l ley ,I nca r e la ted p o t tery w a s mos t a bundan t n ea r e labora te a r ch i tec tu re , a nd C h imu p o t te ry n ea r' r e ta ine rl i v ing a reas ' , s ugge s t ing i tw a s a n I nca f ac i l i ty ( Conrad 1 977 :14 -15) . However , C h imu a r ch i tec tu re a nd t h e o ve ra l l p auc i ty o fI nca p o t te ry a tt h e s i te l e aves i to pen t o i n terp re ta t ion a s t he c en t re o f l ow -o rde r C h imu n ob i l i ty , l o ya l t ot h eI n ca s t a te ( Ne the r ly 1 977 :325 ) .

V i lcashuamän , o n t he C usco -Huänuco r oad , r epu ted ly c on ta ined 7 00 s t o rage s t ruc tu re s f o r ma ize ( C ieza 1 984 :252 [ 1 553 ] ) , b u t o n ly t h e u shnu a nd e l abo ra te ma son ry a r e n ow p re se rved a nd t h e s t o rage a nd n on -e l i te r e s iden t ia l s ec to r i s p robab ly b enea th a p resen t -day t own ( Gonzä lez C ar ri e t .a l . 1 981) . U shnu i ss hor thand f o r ap la tform o r p yram id i n a n o pen p laza , b u t e t hnoh is tor ic r e sea rch n o te s a n a s soc ia t ion 4

I nca S oc ie ty , S ta te a nd T awan t insuyu

Documen ta ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch c onf i rms t h a t I nca p resence w as n o t s t rong ly man if es ted a t Chan C han , t he Ch imu c ap i ta l , b u t f ou r p laces w e re o f s pec ia l c oncern ( Ne the r ly 1 977 :310 -328 , 1 988 :274 ) .F i r s t ly ,d ocumen ta ry d a ta s ugge s t ad i rec t i n te res t i nc oca p roduc ing l a nd s , p o s s ib ly t h e f o rme r l a nds o f C h imu n ob i l i ty s i nce l o ca l g roup s d id n o t r e c la im t h em i mmed ia te ly a f te r S pan ish c onque s t . S econd ly , C h imu b l ackwa re p o t te ry a tg rave s n ea r t h e s ea f e a tu re s I nca s t y l is t ic t r a i ts , c ons is ten t w i th r e f e rence s t o I nca c on t ro l o f n ea rby l a nd s . T h ird ly , I nca p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ions a r ound t h e l a rge s t Moche P e r iod t emp le ,H uaca d e lS o l , i nd ica te ap a ra l le l w i th t h e s pec ia l t r ea tmen t g iven b y t h e I nca t o t h e c en t ra l c oa s ta l s h r ine a t P achacamac , r ef lec t ing i n co rpo ra t ion o f p owe r fu l e x tan t b e l ief s ys tem s . F ina l ly , c en t re s o fo ver t I nca a r ch i tec tu re , s uch a sR anchoc , s e cu red ar ou te t oC a jama rca i n t h eh i gh lands . 1 . 3 .7 T he Centra l P eruv ian H igh lands T he I n ca i n s ta l la t ion a t Huänuco P ampa c overed a lmos t 2 s q .km o n ab road h igh -a l t i tude f l a t . I tc omp r ised a bou t 4 97 s t o rage s t ruc tures , as ec tor o fe l abo ra te C usco I nca ma sonry , l o ng r e c tangu la r b u i ld ings ( ka l lanka ) a round ap l aza w i th a c en t ra l p l a tform ( u shnu ) a s w e l l a s a bou t 4 000 s u r round ing s t ruc tures a r ranged a round c ou r tya rds , p oss ib ly f o r m i t 'a l aboure r s (Mor r is a nd T hompson 1 970 , Mo r r is 1 971 , T hompson 1 972 , Mur ra a nd Mor r is 1 976 , Mor r is a nd T homp son 1 985) . T here h ad b een n o p rev ious ma jor s e t t lemen ta tt h is l o ca t ion ( Thomp son 1 968 :113 -114 ) . V i s i ta s i n1 549 a nd 1 562 f ound t h a t l o ca l Y acha , Wama l i a nd Chupachu p eop les w e re a ccompan ied b y m itmaqkuna o ve r see r s , s ome f r om t h e v i c in i ty o f C usco (Mur ra 1 962a ) . A r chaeo log ica l s u rvey b y T homp son ( 1968 :108 -112 , 1 972 ) i d en t if ied i mper ia l I n ca s i te so nt h eb a s is o fa r ch i te c tu re , l a you t a nd a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e I nca r oad a nd p o t te ry s t y le . O the r s e t t lemen t s we re o f l oca l g roups , whose t e r r i to ry w a s a pprox ima te ly a scer ta ined b y c o l lec t ion o f t oponym ic s urv iva ls , a nd m i tmag s e t t lemen ts . L o ca lH uänuco s e t t lemen t s w e re mo s t ly o nr i dges , f o rd ef ence o r t oc onserve c rop l a nd , a nd t h e i r a r ch i tec ture ( c ir cu la r a nd r ounded rec tangu la rd we l l ing s )w a su nchanged b yI nca p re sence . C usco I nca p o t te ry w a s r a re , e xcep t i n l a rge a nd e l abo ra te r e s idence s , b u t s ome I nca v e s se l f o rms w e re made i n l o ca l p a s te s ( Thompson 1 967 , 1 968 :115 -119 ) . O n ly o ne o r t wo m i tmag s e t t lemen t sw e re i d en t if ied a nd s eve ra l f a c to r sa f fec t ing t h e ir v i s ib i l i ty w e re r a ised . M i tmaqkuna may h ave o ccup ied p r e -ex i s t ing v i l lage s o rh ave o b ta ined l o ca l p o t te ry r a the rt h an p roduce ma ter ia l w h ich c ou ld r ef lec t t h e i r c u l tu ra l o r ig in , o r t h e i rs e t t lemen t s may h ave b een d i spe r sed n ea rt ov a l ley -f loo r f i e ld s r a the r t han n uc lea ted o n c r e s t s a nd r i dge s ( Thomp son 1 968 :111) . C en t ra l h i gh land I n ca a dm in is t ra t ive c en t res , l i ke H uänuco P ampa , a ppear t o h ave b een t h e e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry a ncho r so fI n ca e xpans ion . C oa s ta l c on t ro l w a sf i rm ly b a sed o n u ppe r -va l ley i n s ta l la t ion s a nd ma in tenance o fr ou te s t oh i gh land c ent re s . T h ree l a rge c en t re s l i e n o r thwa rd o n t h e ma in h i gh land r oad , a t P umpu , T a rma a nd H a tun Xauxa . P umpu h a s al a rge p l aza , c en t ra l u shnu , n on -e l i te r e s iden t ia l s ec to r a nd c on ta ins 3 25 s t o rage s t ruc tures w i th 6 2% o f Huänuco 's s t o rage c apac i ty ( LeV ine 1 985 :182 -203 ) . Sma l le r r oad s ide s t o rage o r l o dg ing i n s ta l la t ions ( t ampu ) o ccu r i nt h e v i c in i ty o f Huänuco a tT unsucancha a nd T apa raku a nd n ea r

P umpu a t L a C ima a nd T e larn io j , c over ing 1 . 0 a nd 2 .4 h a r e spec t ive ly ( Thompson 1 968 :114 , Mor r is 1 967 :51-54 , 1 982 :157 ; L eV ine 1 985 :236 -244 ) . H a tun Xauxa , f u r the r s ou th , i nt h e Man ta ro V a l ley , c on ta in s 1 069 s t a te s t o rage s t ruc tures a nd a f ur ther 8 83 l i e w i th in 1 7 km ( LeV ine 1 985 :317 -320 ) . No e v idence o f w eav ing c ompound s o r l a rge n on -e l i te r e s iden t ia l a rea s i sr e por ted , b u t I nca p o t tery w a s c ommon a t many l o ca l s e t t lemen ts i n t h e Y anama rca a nd ma in Man ta ro V a l leys , a nd s t a te s ty le s t o rage c omp lexes w e re d i spe r sed o ve r 5 2 s i tes , s ome e ven o n t h e p e r iphe ry o f l o ca l Wanka v i l lages ( D 'A l t roy 1 981 :209 -24 1 , 2 55 -259 ; D 'A l t roy a nd Ha s to r f 1 984 :F ig .1) . T he Y anama rca V a l ley i st hough t t o h ave u nde rgone r i s ing t e ns ion s , a l l iance f o rma t ion a nd w a r f a re b e tween t h ed ec l ine o f Wan ia nd t h eI nka P e r iod ( Ha s tor f 1 993 :46 -67 ) . I th ad a n e a r ly p a t tern o ff o r ty t h re e w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted s e t t lemen t s , ma in ly o n l ow r i dge sa nd s l ope s , b u tt h e se l a te rr educed t ot wen ty k no l l top w a l led s i te s a ggrega ted ma in ly i n a n u p land p ar t o f t he v a l ley . T he c ong rega t ion o fp os tu la ted r i va l c en t res w i th in 4 km o fe ach o the r i sc u r iou s , a l though may b e e xp l icab le i n as up ra -va l ley c on tex t . Mo s tl o ca l Man ta ro dwe l l ings w e re c i rcu la r ,b u ta na s soc ia t ion b e tween s t ruc tu res w i th s qua red c orner s a nd I nca p o t te ry s ugge s t sI nca i n f luence o nl o ca l a r ch i tec tu re ( LeB lanc 1 98 1 :78 7 9 ) . L a te p reh is tor ic a g r icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s a r e r ep re sen ted b y d ra ined l a cus t r ine b a s in f i e lds , c ana ls , r i dged f i e ld s a t h igh a l t i tude ,e a r th b anked l y nche tf i e ld sa nd s t one -wa l led t e r race so n s l ope c on tou r s , b u t n one a re r epor ted t o h ave e l abo ra te I n ca ma sonry o r a r ch i tec tura l embe l l ishmen t s ( Ha s to r f 1 983 :139 1 66 ) . I n ca a r r iva l i nt h e Uppe r Man ta ro d oes n o tc o r re la te w i th a ny i n crea se i n p opu la t ion s i ze , a s mea su red b y s i te a r ea , d esp i te h i s to r ic e v idence f o r p lacemen t o f Y auyo s , C af ia r i , L lagua s a nd C hachapoya s m i tmaqkuna . Howeve r , l o ca l leve l s e t t lemen t p a t te rns b ecame l e ss n uc lea ted a nd t h ere w a s a ppa ren t ly s ome movemen t t owards v a l ley -f loo r ma ize p roduc ing a rea si nt h is p e r iod ( Ea r le e t .a l . 1 980 :35 -43 ) . 1 .3 .8

Northern P eruv ian Nor theas tern S lopes

H igh lands

a nd

I n ca c on t ro l o ft h e C a jama rca -Huamachuco r eg ion a ppea r s t o h ave b een a ch ieved b y g overno r sh ip o ve r e x is t ing l e ade r sh ip s ys tem s , p lacemen to fm i tmaqkuna f r om t h eC usco r e g ion a nd t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f a ma jo r c en t re i n t he v i c in i ty o f p resen t C a jama rca c i ty , a no ther b enea th modern Huamachuco a nd n ume rous t ampu ( Hys lop 1 984 :56 -67 , R av ine s 1 985 :71) . Sma l l I nca s i te s h ave b een r epo r ted i nC hachapoya s P rov ince t ot h ee a s t , w e l lp l aced f o rc on t ro lo fj ung le p roduc t sa nd c oca , a s w e l l a s I nca p o t te ry i n l a rge d omes t ic s t ruc tu re s a t l o ca l v i l lage l e ve l ( Sch je l lerup 1 984 ) . T he 1 549 v i s i ta o f Huänuco r e co rded t h a tt h es t a te p l aced 4 00 C hupachu I nd ians a sg ua rd s i n C hachapoya s a nd Qu i to (Mur ra 1 982 :241) . C hachapoya s r e ce ived Quechua s peak ing m i tmaqkuna b u t i t s p eop le a l so w e r e s ub jec tt op l acemen ti nC ar ia r i t e r r i tory a nd o t he rp a r t so f T awan t insuyu , p robab ly b ecau se o f ac on t inued o ppo s i t ion t o I nca c on t ro l w h ich c u lm ina ted i n t he ir a ss is tance t o t h e S pan ish c onque ro r s( Mur ra 1 982 :181-183 , 1 979 -80 :301) . 1 . 3 .9 The F ar Nor th T omebamba a nd Qu i to w e re ma jo rI nca c en t re s m en t ioned b y c h ron ic le s i nf a rn o r ther nT awan t insuyu , n ow E cuado r . Uh le ' s r e sea r ch ( 1969 :82 , 8 8 -9 1) o f 1 923 r evea led s eve ra l s ma l l s i te s o f I n ca r e c tangu la r a rch i tec tu re n ea r mode rn C uenca . H e 5

I nca S oc ie ty , S ta te a nd T awan t insuyu

i d en t if ied i ta st h es i te o fT omebamba , b a sed o n t oponymy ,t h e t housands o f s haped s t ones r eused i n p a r t o f t h e c i ty a nd e xcava t ion s o fI nca b u i ld ing f ounda t ions a nd t e r race s . L a rge o u twa rd -f ac ing t r apezo ida l n i che s , l i ke t hose k nown a tI n ca s i te s i nC u sco , Ayacucho a nd Huancave l ica D epa r tmen t s , a r e r epor ted i n C uenca , b u t n ea rby s i tes a re s ma l l , p robab ly s t ag ing p o in t so rt ambos a l ong t h eI nca r oad ( Hys lop 1 984 :28 3 4 ) .

1 .4 I NCA LAND

ACQUISITION

1 .4 .1 Ver t ica l E cono my , T err i tor ia l P ower

OF

LABOUR

Mit maqkuna

AND

a nd

Ag r icu l tu ra l m i tmaqkuna p l aced b y t h e I n ca am ids t f o rme r r i va ls , o r o n l a nds p rev iou s ly w orked b y o t he r g roup s , r e l ied u pon s t a te p owe r f o r s e cu r i ty , b u t a ppea r t oh ave r ema ined s ub jec t t og ene ra l m i t 'a a nd t oh ave g ene ra l ly p rov ided t h e ir own s ubs is tence ( Mur ra 1 978 :248 ) . Mur ra p o s i ted t h a t t h e e conom ic i d ea lo fl a te p r eh is to r ic Andean s o c ie t ie s , b e low s t a te l e ve l , w a s t oo b ta in c on t ro l o fr e sou rce s i n amax imum r a nge o fv e r t ica l ly d i f f e ren t ia ted e cozones , p a r t icu la r ly b y means o f p ermanen t , b u t n o t n ecessa r i ly c on t iguou s , l a nd h o ld ing s e t t lemen t s ( 1972 , 1 985a ) . S im i la r c once rn s a r e r epor ted i n E u ropean A lp ine a nd H ima layan p ea san te conom ies , a l though t h e mechan i sms e mp loyed i n c lude e x tended e xchange n e two rk s a nd c yc l ica l m ig ra t ion ( Bru sh 1 976a ; 127 128 ) .

T he h igh land I nca r oad f r om T omebamba t o Qu i to p a ssed t h rough I ngap irca ( Hys lop 1 984 :32 ) , as i te o fe l abo ra te I nca ma sonry a nd b o th I nca a nd C af ia r i s t ruc ture s a t3 150m n ea r C a f ia rc i ty ( R ive ra 1 973 , Ga spar in i a nd Ma rgo l ies 1 980 :289 3 00 ) . O cca s iona l I nca s he rd s , among l o ca l C a sha loma p o t te ry a tt h e s i te , a r e s i gn if ican t am ids t r eg iona l r a r i ty o fC usco I nca o rm ixed I nca -Caf ia r i w a re s( R ive ra 1 973 :236 ) . I tw as af o rme r c en t re o f C a sha loma s e t t lemen t a nd b ur ia l a nd i th a s b een p roposed t h a tt he c en t ra l p la t form , o fe l abo ra te I nca ma sonry , w a sp laced o n aC af ia r is hr ine ,p e rhap st h eo u tc rop u pon w h ich i tw a se rec ted ( A lc ina 1 978 ) .

P o l i t ica l i mp l ica t ions o ft h ev e r t ica l i ty mode l w e re b a sed u pon e t hnoh is to r ic r e co rds o fd i s tance s o ve r w h ich more p ower fu l p o l i t ie s o b ta ined d i re c t a cce ss t o r e sou rce s . A m id -a l t i tude n uc leus o fv i l lage s e t t lemen t i nt h e Hua l laga - Ma raf ion b a s in u sed c o lon ie s w i th in af ew d ays w a lk t or e ta in f i e lds o fc oca , c o t ton , p eanu t , c h i l i a nd s wee tp o ta to b e low , a nd p as tu re s a nd s a l t m ine s a bove . T he L upaqa p opu la t ion , c en t red o n t h e r i ch T i t icaca b a s in , m a in ta ined l a rge c o lon ie s o ve r 1 0 d ays w a lk a way , i n e a s te rn j ung le s f o r c oca p roduc t ion , a nd o n t h e s ou thwes te rn c oa s t f o r c o t ton , ma ize a nd m a r ine p roduc t s ( Mu r ra 1 972 :430 -443 ) .

T housands o f C af ia r i m i tmaqkuna w ere p laced i n C usco , r e ta ined t r ad i t iona l f o rms o fd ress , a nd p rov ided s pec ia l a rmed s e rv ice t o t h e I nca r u le r a nd t o t h e S pan ia rds f o l low ing t h e c onque s t , a l ong w i th C hachapoya , Qu i to a nd C ayambe I nd ians f r om t he f a rn or th ( Oberem a nd H a r tmann 1 979 ) . T e s t imon ies o f 1 574 s t a ted t ha t 1 0 C ar ia r is who f ough t f o r A tawa l lpa a ga ins t Hua sca r c ame a s s o ld ier s t o C usco a nd d ec ided t o r ema in w i th e x tan t C a f iar i n z i tmaqkuna i nt h e Yucay V a l ley ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :111-114 , 1 25 ) . M i tmaqkuna , i n c lud ing C u sco p eop le a nd p o t te r s , w e re p laced a tC o j i tambo , b e tween T omebamba a nd H a tun C af iar ( I ngap irca ) ( Be l lo G ayoso 1 965 :274-275 ) .

I nca m i tmaqkuna may b e s een a s t he v a s t e x tens ion o f a p a t te rn r ecog izab le a t v i l lage l eve l i n 1 6 th c en tury d ocumen ta t ion . T he e l abo ra t ion o f p o l i t ica l a r rangemen t s b e tween d i s t inc t s e t t lemen t n uc le i t o e s tab l ish r i gh t s o ve r d i s tan t r e sou rce s , a nd o f t h e p owe r a nd mob i l i ty t o e nfo rce t h em ,c an b ep o s i ted a sd ynam ic p rocesse sw h ich a ccompan ied t h e me thod o f t e r r i to r ia l o n -s i te r e source c on t ro l wh ich p robab ly eme rged p r io r t o I nca e xpans ion . H is tor ica l d a ta s ugge s tt h a ts ub s ta te c o lon is t s w e re s t i l lc oun ted i nt h ec ensus o ft h e ir o r ig ina ln uc lea rs e t t lemen t ,a nd p rov ided g oods t ot h e ir n uc lea r s ponso r i n to t h e C o lon ia l p er iod ( Pea se 1 982 :177 1 79 ) . Howeve r , t he l a rge d i s tances o ve r wh ich I nca m i tmaqkuna w e re moved , a ccord ing t o Mur ra ( 1985b ) , a ccen tua ted t h e d i f f icu l ty o f ma in ta in ing t h e i r k insh ip t i e s o r l a nd c l a ims , a nd t hus p roduced s ome g roup s w i th g rea te r d ependence u pon s t a te s pon so r sh ip .

Q u i to l a y b e s ide t h e n or thern I nca f r on t ie ra tS pan ish c onque s t a nd i si mpo r tan t t ot h e s t udy o ft h e mechan isms o fI nca loca l i n te rac t ion ( Sa lomon 1 986b :89 ) . N ever the le ss , t he a r ea w a s n o ts i gn if ican t ly i nf luenced b y p re Inca s t a te l ike p o l i t ie s a nd i st h e refo re d i s t inc t f r om much o fc en t ra l T awan t insuyu . 1 6 th c en tu ry c h ron ic le s d e scr ibed Qu i to a s t h e s i te o f ma jo r I nca l o dg ings a nd t h is i ss uppor ted b y r e f e rence s t oI nca b u i ld ing s i nc i ty c ounc i l b ook sb e tween 1 534 a nd 1 537 a nd I nca p o t te ry wh ich o ccur s a ts eve ra l s i te s i na nd a round t h e c i ty ( Sa lomon 1 986a :147 -148 ) . C ayambe m i tmaqkuna w e re p laced i n H uänuco , a nd C a ranqu i a nd P a s to p eop le f r om Q u i to w en t t o L ake T i t icaca , whe rea s m i tmaqkuna e n te red Qu i to f r om s ur round ing Uyumb icho , C af ia r i , C hachapoya a nd O tava lo t e r r i tor ies , b u ta tl e a s to ne emp lacemen t i n c luded Wanka sa nd Y auyos ( Sa lomon 1 986a :158 -167 ) .

T he f o rma t ion o f t h is s o c io -econom ic p a t te r n i sp a r t o f t h e p reh is to ry o f t h e I nca s t a te , a l though i tt r anscends t he t ime sca le o f i t s a r chaeo log ica l ma rker s . O nuk i ( 1985 :346 ) p roposes t ha t a round 3 500 BP h igh land Andean p una e conom ies , b a sed o n c ame l ids a nd h igh land c rops , w e re s epa ra ted f r om l ow v a l ley ma ize -man ioc s ub s i s t ence c omp lexe s a nd t h a t l a rge s c a le v e r t ica l -con t ro l s ys tem s eme rged l a te r , a ccompan ied b y as h if t o f p opu la t ion t o t h e m id -a l t i tude q uechua z one . Ma jo r Wa r i o ccupa t ion i n t h e C a rahua razo V a l ley ( AD 6 00 -800 ) a ppea rs t oh ave b een a ccompan ied b y a g r icu l tu ra l t e r ra c ing a nd as h if to fl a rge s e t t lemen t s f r om t h e p o ta to /pa s tu re p roduc t ion e co tone t ot h ep o ta to /ma ize e co tone ( Sch re ibe r 1 987 :271 , 2 76 -281) . S e t t lemen t -pa t ter ni n fo rma t ion i si n suff ic ien t f o r e a r ly t ime p e r iods i n mo s t h i gh land a r ea s , i n c lud ing t h e C u sco r e g ion , b u t g row ing n umbe r s o f L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod s i te s u rvey se nab le c ompa r i son o fI nca a nd l a te p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ta nd l a nd -use p a t te rn s .

N or thern f r on t ie r h i l l top f o r t s ( pucar c i ) i n O tava lo h ave a s pa r tan a ppea rance a nd ma te r ia l c u l tu re . S ur f ace c o l lec t ions a t 1 3o f3 7 i d en t if ied O tava lo p ucard f ound s ca rce I nca p o t te ry i n 3s i te s , b u t s t one p ro jec t i le s a nd o the ra rms a r e w e l l r e co rded ( Schu l ler 1 976 :86 -88 , 1 06 -107 ) . Mos t a re o n h i l ls w i th mod if ied b reak s o fs l ope o rr i ng -d i tche s , b u tn oe l abo ra te I nca a r ch i tec tu re i s r epor ted i n t hem a nd o n ly o ne c on ta ins s ub s tan t ia le v idence o fs e t t lemen t . S urvey i nC a ranqu it e r r i to ry l o ca ted t e ns i te s , s i xo ft h em p ucard s , w i th c l a s s ic I nca p o t te ry , w h i ls t s t ud ies o f t r adewa re i nd ica te I nca r ep ress ion o f l ong d i s tance t r ade n e two rk si nt h ea r ea ( Bray 1 992 ) .

6

I nca S oc ie ty , S ta te a nd T awan t in suyu

T he emergence o f r n i tmaq -s ty le c o lon iza t ion o r s e t t lemen t wou ld , a tf i r s t , s eem r e ad i ly e xam inab le i nt h e ma te r ia l r e co rd ( T r igge r 1 978 :158 ) , b u t a t temp t s h ave me t d i f f icu l t ie s . T he ir a r chaeo log ica l i den t if i ca t ion w a se ven p rob lema t ic f o rt h eL a te Ho r izon i nH uänuco ,w he re d ocumen ta ry d a ta w a sa va i lab le t o n a r row d own t he l i ke ly l o ca t ion s . Wha ta r chaeo log ica le v idence d i s t ingu ishe s t he p ermanen t a g r icu l tu ra l c o lon ie s o fh igh land c ent re sf r om s e t t lemen t st i ed b yt r ade o re xchange s ys tems? L ong e xchange n e two rks a nd e xpe r tt r ad ing c ommun i t ie s h ave b een p os i ted a s t he p rac t icab le means o f a ccess t o e x t ra r eg iona lg oods f o rt h er e la t ive ly f l a tB o l iv ian a l t ip lano , amode o fe conom ic i n tegra t ion wh ich may h ave s uppo r ted t h e4 00 h a u rban c en t re o fT iwanaku a s al o cu so fc r a f ts pec ia l iza t ion ( AD 3 00 -900 ) a nd wh ich g ave w ay t ov er t ica l c on t ro l a sT iwanaku t r ad ing i n f luence d im in i shed ( AD 9 00 a nd AD 1 250 )( Browman 1 984 ) . Mu j ica ( 1985 :112 -114 ) a r gues t ha t c er ta in T iwanaku c oa s ta l s e t t lemen ts w i th c eme te r ie s , l a rge a moun t so fa l t ip lano p o t te ry a nd g oods w h ich w e re n o t s pec ia l e xchange i t ems , r ep re sen tp e rmanen ta g r icu l tu ra lc o lon ie s . Th is mode l r equ ires t ha t l uxury e xchange g oods b e d i s t ingu ished f rom d ome s t ic c u l tura l b aggage . M i tmaqkuna p laced b y t h eI nca w e re o n ly i ns ma l lp a r tf r om t h es ponsor ing n uc lea rc en t re , Cusco ,a nd t h ea na logy b e tween l o ca l leve l a nd I nca c oncep ts o ft r ansp lan ta t ion i ss t ra ined i n sof a ra se x te rna l c oe rc ion o rs t a te l a rge sse w e re e mp loyed t oa ch ieve i t .H ence , i ti s p robab le t ha t t h e c u l tu ra l m a rke r s o f p ermanen t I nca m i tmaq s e t t lemen t s w ou ld i n c lude b o th t h ose o ft h e I nca s t a te a nd t h es e t t le r s ' p lace o fo r ig in . S ch re ibe r( 1987 :277 )i d en t if ied aC a rahua razo Va l ley s e t t lemen t o f l oca l l a te p reh is tor ic a rch i tec tu re a s av i l lage b ea r ing t h e e t hn ic n ame Wanka i na 1 540 s ource a nd n o te s t h e p re sence o fl o ca l , C usco I nca a nd o therw ise u nknown p o t te ry s t y le s . 1 .4 .2 I nca Dependent P eop les C e r ta in g roups h ad f a rg rea te rd ependence u pon t h e I nca s t a te t han m i tmaqkuna a t E uropean c on tac t . T he C usco e l i te , membe r s o f r oya l l i neages , h ad n o m i t 'a l abou r o b l iga t ions ( E sp inoza 1 977 ) . P eop le d ependen to n t h es t a te o rI nca p r iva te e s ta te s f o r p rov is ion o f s ubs is tence i n c luded g roups o f y anacona ( p er sona ls e rvan t s ) ,a c l lacona ( c hosen women )s ome a r t isans a nd s pec ia lg ua rds ,a l though a rm ie s w e re mo s t ly u nde r m i t 'a o b l iga t ions ( Mur ra 1 978 :215 , 1 986 :54 ; Obe rem a nd Ha r tmann 1 979 :376 -377 ) .

g roup s l i s ted i n 1 549 , c ompr is ing 3 30 o u t o f4 108 t r ibu ta ry u n i t s , i nt wo g roup s o f 1 50 p e r son s , o ne o f2 0 a nd o ne o f 1 0 , a nd o n ly t wen ty y anaconas w e re r e qu ired a cco rd ing t o t h e C an ta d ocumen t ( op .c i t . ; J u l ien 1 982 :138 ) . T he se l ow f i gu re s may r ef lec t t h e p ermanency o f y anaconas p lacemen ts i n c on t ras t t ot h e t r ans ien t a nd r e cur ren t n a ture o f l a rge m i t 'a a s s ignmen t s . C la ims w e re made i n 1 552 , b y p e r sons a l leg ing t h e s t a tus o f l e g i t ima te g randch i ldren o f T upa I nca , f o r s ma l l g roups o f b e tween 2a nd 3 0y anaconas a t tached t ol and s i nt h e C usco , U rubamba , P auca r tambo a nd A n ta V a l leys , g iv ing a t o ta l o f 2 40 p e r son s i n 1 9 n amed p lace s ( Ro s tworowsk i 1 962 :154 ) . T he t e rm g randch i ld c ou ld r ep re sen td e scen t f r om ac ommon h uaca ( s ac red s i te ) ,o r ac ommon l i neage , r a the rt h an ap rec ise d eg ree o fr emova l f r om a n a c tua l a nce s to r( Zu idema 1 964 :73 , 1 62 ) . T he c l a iman t ss t a ted l a te rt h a t t h ey w e re d e scendan t s o f b o th T upa I nca a nd h i s s on , H uayna C apac , i n ap oss ib le c once ss ion t ot h e n eed t oe s tab l ish l i nea r ma le s ucce ss ion i n S pan ish l a nd l aw ( Ro s two rowsk i 1 962 :159 ) . U nfor tuna te ly , t h e t e rm y anacona w a s u sed i nc o lon ia l t ime s t og ener ica l ly d esc r ibe t r ibu te -f ree s e rvan t s a nd c ame t o i n co rpo ra te many p eop le d i s loca ted f r om t h e ir c ommun i t ie s (Mu r ra 1 978 :240 2 4 1 ,247 ;G lave a nd R emy 1 983 :7 -9 ) .T he i den t if ica t ion o fI nca i n s t i tu t ion sa nd t h e ir r e f lec t ions i ne a r ly C o lon ia l d ocumen t s i s a s d ependen t u pon c on tex tua l f ac tor s a s i t i s o n t he t e rm ino logy u sed . Y anacona w e re n o ti n t r in s ica l ly o fl ow s t a tu s . Ac ommon 1 6 th c en tu ry t r ans la t ion o ft h et e rm ,c r iado ,c onno ta ted t h e mean ing s on , d isc ip le o r s ervan t i n l a te med ieva l S pan ish ( Rowe 1 982 :98 10 1) a nd a g r icu l tu ra ly anacona o fA tawa l lpa i n Qu i to i n c luded h i s r e la t ive s a nd l o ca l l e ade r s ( Sa lomon 1 986a :171) . T he re i s as t r ik ing d i f f e rence b e tween t h e l a rge a y l lu g roups wh ich w e re n amed y anacona i na dm in is t ra t ive s urveys a f te r T o ledo ' se x tens ion o ft h ei n c idence o ft r ibu te i nt h e 1 570 s , a nd t h es ma l lg roup so fy anacona w i th s pec ia l ized s e rv ice f unc t ions wh ich a ppea r i n l i s ts d e r ived f r om p reh ispan ic l abour a s s ignmen tr e co rd sa nd i nl a nd l i t iga t ion .

I n ac a refu l ly o rde red r ep ly t ot h e 1 549 S pan ish e nqu iry a bou t Chupaychu l abour o b l iga t ions t ot h e I nca , I nd ians f o rm i l i ta ry s erv ice i nC hachapoya a nd Qu i to w e re l i s ted am ids tg roups o f m i t' a -exemp t s ervan t s , t he y ana o f Guayna C apac , y ana t o g ua rd t h eb ody o fT upa I nca Y upanqu i( d ecea sed ) ,y ana t og ua rd T upa 's w eapons , a nd i nd ians t o g ua rd t he b ody o f Huayna C apac a f te rh i sd ea th ( Mur ra 1 982 :241) .

A cco rd ing t ol e ss s pec if ic s ou rce s ,I n ca y anacona w e re g ran ted t oC u sco a nd p rov inc ia l s h r ine s , s uch a s 5 00 p l aced w i th 2 00 a c l la i ns e rv ice o fl a nd so ft h eC u sco s un t emp le ,2 000 g ran ted b y T upa I n ca t o aT i t icaca I s land p i lgr image c en t re , s eve ra l h und red g r an ted t ot h eP achacamac t emp le o n t h ec oa s ta nd 5 0 g ran ted t oP a r iacaca , d iv in i ty o fH ua roch ir i (Mur ra 1 978 :239 2 40 , 2 54 ) . T hey w e re a l so t h e m a jo r s ource o f l a bou r o n t h e l a nd so fI n ca r u le r s ,b o th l i v ing ,a nd d e cea sed ,a sr ep re sen ted b y t h e i r l i neage s ( panaqas o r r oya l a y l lus ) a nd t h e c u l t o ft h e ir mumm if ied c o rpse ( C ieza 1 985 :52 [ c a .1550 ] ; R o s two rowsk i 1 988 :224 -226 ) . D ocumen ta ry s ou rce s i nd ica te t h a ty anacona s t a tu sc ou ld b ei n he r i ted . I na n i n te re s t ing c a se , c i ted b y R owe ( 1982 :100 ) , s e rv ice w as f i r s t ly g iven b y ay anacona t o a b ro the ro fT upa I n ca , a nd t h en b y t h ey anacona a nd h i s s on t o H uayna C apa c .

T he t e rm y anacona , u sed t od e s igna te l a bour a s s ignee s i ne a r ly Huänuco a nd Can ta v i s i tas , i sa lways r e la ted t o t h e s e rv ice s r ende red t o ad ead o r l i ve I nca r u le r , a nd a lmos t c er ta in ly i mp l ied r e l ief f rom g enera l m i t 'a o b l iga t ions (Mur ra 1 978 :242 ,245 ; 1 982 ) . Many r ema ined f r ee o ft a xa t ion a f t e rt h e S pan ish c onques t . T o ledo e x tended t h e e xac t ion o ft r ibu te i n t he 1 570 s a nd t h is a f ec ted 4 29 y anacona sa nd v acan tI nd ians f r om Y ucay , a s we l l a s 1 404 y anaconas a nd 1 494 o the rC u sco p eop le w ho p rev ious ly e n joyed e xemp t ion ( To ledo 1 975 :210 2 12 ) . T he Chupaychu y anacona s w e re among t he s ma l le r

M i t rnaq a nd y ana d e s igna t ions w e re n o t mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive a nd t h ed i s t inc t ion i sp a r t icu la r ly d i ff i cu l tt o make i nu sages o ft h e t e rm s i nd ocumen t so n t h e Y ucay V a l ley . V ice roy T o ledo h ad a dv ised t h eL ima A ud ienc ia , t oh e lp t h em a d judge ap rope r ty c l a im b y D o t ia B ea t r iz , ad e scendan to f Huayna C apac , s ay ing t h a tt h e Y ucay V a l ley wa s ar e t rea to fH uayna C apac a nd t h a t b o th i t sn a tura le s( n a t ive s )a nd m i tmaqku r za w e re y anacona so f t h e I nca , f o r t h e b enef i t o f h i s f i e lds a nd o ther t a sk s ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :94 ) . Wach te l ( 1982 :219 -221) c onc lude st h a t m i t r r zaqkuna t r ans la ted t o t h e C usco r eg ion o f ten wo rked o n 7

I n ca S oc i e t y , S t a t ea nd T awan t in suyu p r iva te r a the r t h an s t a te l a nd s a s wa s u sua l i nt h e p rov ince s , a nd w e re t hus y anacona u nde rt i e so fp e r sona ld ependence .T he f a c t t ha t m itmaq p laced o n l a nds f o r s t a te p urpo ses i n Cochabamba a nd Abancay l e f t f o r h ome a f te r S pan ish c onques t ,o rb ecame t h eo b je c to fd i spu ted r i gh t sb e tween t h e i r h ome land c h ief s a nd S pan ish e ncomendero s i nt h e i rp l a ce o f r e se t t lemen t , s ugges t s t ha t s ome r e ta ined t i es w i th t h e ir a nce s tra l l a nd s , a nd c ont ra s t s w i th t ho se i nt h e Y ucay V a l ley who mos t ly r ema ined i np lace (Wach te l 1 982 :200 -20 1 , 2 20 2 21 ;E sp inoza 1 973 :251-252 ) .

d iv ided t h e y ea r ' s w ork i n to t h ree mon ths f o r p e r sona l f i e lds a nd t h er e s tf o rf i e ld so ft h es un ,h uaca sa nd I n ca . T he t r ipa r t i te l a nd tenure mode l i sa n i d ea lo ra bs t rac t ion w h ich may r ef lec t am ix tu re o fI nca a nd S pan ish l og ic . O the r f o rm s o fl a nd t e nu r ec an b ee x t rac ted f r om d ocumen ta ry s ou r ce sw h ich c on ta in t h er e levan ti n fo rma t ion o n p ar t icu la rl and s , w ho t o ok c on tro l o f t h e ir h a rves t , who worked u pon t hem a nd t h e s uccess ion o fb enef i c ia r ie s .B u rkhe ime r( 1985 :73 -74 )c on t ra s t s f i ve p r inc ipa l t e nur ia l p a t te rns i n I nca C usco b y r e f e rence t o b enef ic iar ie s . T he se a re t h e s t a te , c u l t ( s un o r h uaca ) ,a y l lu , s e rv ice g roup ( m i tmaq o ry ana ) a nd n ob i l i ty . O the r s ub -s ta te t e nur ia l a r rangemen t s r ema in a dd it iona l t o t he se ( Mur ra 1 979 :274 ) .

A c l lacuna , mamacona so ri n t iwarm i( cho sen w omen o rw omen o ft he s un ) i n c luded d augh te r s o ft h e e l i te , t h e ir b ro the r s a nd s i s te rs i n Cusco a nd t h e p rov ince s . T hey w e re r enowned f o r p roduc t ion o fc l o th a nd ma ize b ee rf o rs o ld ie r sa nd l a bou re r so f l a nds o f t he I nca a nd s un ( C ieza 1 985 :80 -81 [ c a .1550 ] ; S an t i l lan 1 968 :396 ; [ 1 563 ] ; P i za r ro 1 978 :94 -95 [ 1 57 1] ) . S ome mamaconas b ecame w ive so fp rov inc ia l c h ie f sa nd r e la t ive so f t he I nca r u le r , m i l i ta ry l e ade r s , y anacona o f t h e s un , o r s econda ry w ives o f t he r u le r ( Po lo 1 917 :83 ; Z u idema 1 964 :224-225 ; Mur ra 1 978 :244-245 ; R os tworowsk i 1 988 :227 ) . T he ir s ub s is tence w a s p rov ided f r om t h e s t o re s o f v ar ious s t a te i n s t i tu t ions w h ich t hey s e rved ( San t i l lan 1 968 :396 ; P izar ro 1 978 :94 -95 ; Ga rc i laso B k .4 , C h . i v , 1 960 :13 , 1 8 ) . A t E u ropean c on tac t , a c / la o ft h es un i nC usco o ccup ied t h eA tunkancha c ompound n ea rr e s idence so fs un c u l t o ff ic ia ls ( E s te te 1 938 :390 -39 1 [ 1 535 ] ;P iza r ro 1 978 :92 -94 )a nd may h ave n umbe red s eve ra l t housand i n t h e c i ty ( Mur ra 1 978 :244 ) . S ome ,l i ke y anaconas ,s e rved t h ec u l to f ad ecea sed r u le r( P iza r ro 1 978 :94 )a nd t h e i rh i e ra rch ica l g roup ing a ppea r s t o h ave r e semb led t h a t u sed i n d ocumen ta ry r e f e rence s t o y anacona s( Zu idema 1 964 :225 ) .

I nca l a nds i n c luded t r ac t s p e r ta in ing t o r oya l b enef ic ia r ies , p r ima r i ly l i neage s ( r oya l a y l lus a nd p anaqas) , r u le r s , t h e i r w ives a nd c lose r e la t ive s ( Ros tworowsk i 1 962 ; V i l lanueva 1 970a ) . T hese a r e d i s t ingu ished f r om s t a te l and b y t h e ir c on t inued d e s igna t ion a sp rope r ty o f an amed p er son ,f o l low ing d ecea se , a s w e l l a sb y t he ir a g r icu l tura l y anacona w o rkfo rce ( Ros two rowsk i 1 968 :33 -34 ) . T hey we re p oo r ly d escr ibed i n c h ron ic le r s 'a ccoun t so fI nca l a nd d i s tr ibu t ion , b u ta re i n d ica ted b y r efe rences t o e s ta tes a nd h ouses f o r e n joymen t o r i n memo ry o fn amed r u ler s i na nd a round C usco , a nd a ppea r i n s pec if ic d ocumen t so ne a r ly C o lon ia l l a nd t e nu re :S uch s ou rce s i n d ica te t h a tl a nd sw e re d ed ica ted t ot he p e r sonage V ira co cha i n C aqu ia J aqu i jahuana a nd P auca r t ica , P achacu t i i n T ambo ( u sua l ly mean ing 0 1 1an tay tambo ) a nd P i saq , Tupa I nca i n C h inche ro , Gua i l labamba a nd U rcos , Huayna Capac a tQ u isp i Guanca n ea r Y ucay a nd Huascar a t C a Ica a nd Muyna ( Sa rm ien to 1 943 :162 ,164 ,179 -80 ,234 [ 1 572 ] ; U r ie l G a rc ia 1 959 :146 ; R o s two rowsk i 1 968 :32 )

1 .4 .3 Land o f I nca I ns t i tut ions F o l low ing F lanne ry 's i nv i ta t ion t o i n teg ra te c u l tura l e co logy a nd h uman ism i na pp roache st ot h es o -ca l led c omp lex s oc ie t ie s ( 1972 :399 ) , a nd t h e r ea sser t ion o fc u l tu ra l f a c tor s i ns y s tem ic o r mu l t i-causa l mode ls o f s oc ia l e vo lu t ion , Conrad a nd D ema re s t ( 1984 ) p os i ted i d eo logy a s ap r inc ipa l d r iv ing f o rce o fI nca s t a te f o rma t ion , e xpans ion a nd d e s truc t ion . T hey a r gue t h a t as ys tem whe reby e ach I nca r u ler 's p roper ty wa s d evo ted e n t ire ly , p os t mor tem , t ot h e a nce s tor c u l t ma in ta ined b y h i s d e scendan t s ,' wou ld f orce e ach s ucceed ing r u ler i n to ac ons tan t s earch f or a gr icu l tura l l and ' , t h a t ' e ver g rea ter amoun t s o f f arm land b ecame t i ed u pi nt he h and so fd ead men ' a nd t h a t' t he p roper ty r i gh t so ft h ed ead f or ced I nca r u ler st oa dop t ap o l icy o f c on t inuous t e r r i tor ia l g row th ' ( 1984 :121-122 ,126 ) . T he A ndean a nce s to r c u l t i sa rgued t o h ave b ecame a f a na t ica l , p ropagand is t ic f o rce w h ich p rov ided a n a dvan tage t ot h e I n ca s t a te , among t h e g roups e ngaged i n p e t ty w ar fa re a f te r t h e c o l lapse o fT iwanaku i nf luence ( Conrad 1 992 ) .

B u tze r ( 1982 :313 -314 ) p rov ides t h e a na ly t ica l me tapho r o f s oc ie ty a sa ne co sy s tem a nd q ue s t ions t h ed eg ree t ow h ich s t a te b u reauc rac ies w e re t op -heavy i nc ompa r ison t op roduce r s a nd t hus p rone t od e s tab i l is ing f o rce s . S uch a na ly s is d epend s u pon mea su remen to fp reh is to r ic t r end si nt h er e la t ive d i s t r ibu t ion o f w ea l th , p r ima r i ly l a nd . T h is p rob lem p a ra l le ls t ha t o f i d en t ify ing a r chaeo log ica lc o r re la te so fs t a te l ike c ha rac te r i s t ic s , s uch a s g row th o fh e red i ta ry i n equa l i ty , s t rong t e r r i to r ia l i ty , c oerc ive l aw a nd h i e ra rch ica la dm in is t ra t ion ( Se rv ice 1 975 :66 , 7 4-90 , 1 01-102 ) . As t ruc tu re o fl a te -p reh is tor ic l a nd t e nure i ss ugge s ted b ye a r ly C o lon ia l a ccoun t s . A cco rd ing t oP o lo d eO ndega rdo ( 19 17 :50 6 0 [ 1571]) , at r ipa r t i te s cheme w a s u sed b y t h e I nca f o r d iv is ion o f l a nd a nd a n ima ls f o l low ing i n corpo ra t ion o f a p rov ince . C e r ta in l a nds w e re d ed ica ted t ot h es t a te s un c u l t , o r o the rs t a te a nd l o ca l s h r ine s , a nd v a r ied i na moun t f r om p l ace t op lace . As econd p a r t w en t t of i l l I nca s t o re s , a l though t h e amoun t d es t ined f o r C usco v a r ied a cco rd ing t o r eg iona l r equ iremen ts t o f e ed f i e ld w o rke r s , a rm ie s a nd n ob i l i ty o n t r ave ls i n T awan t insuyu . T he t h ird p a r t w as c u l t iva ted b y c ommun i t ies f o rt h e i r own s ub s is tence . S ome s t o re sc on t inued t ob e f i l led a f te rc onque s t , a cco rd ing t ot h e o l d s un s ta te l a nd d iv is ion ( Po lo d e Ondega rdo 1 917 :68 -69 ) . H ernando d e S an t i l lan , al awye r who s ough t e lde r ly I nd ian i n forman t s ( 1968 :377 ,386 ,404 [ 1 563 ] ) ,p re sen ted t h et r ipa r t i te s cheme a nd n o ted t ha to ld p eop le r emembe red w h ich f i e ld sw e re p r ev iou s ly d ed ica ted t ot h eI n ca a nd t h es un d e sp i te s ub sequen tl a nd g r an t s t o S pan ia rds . P ed ro S arm ien to ( 1943 :17 , 2 30 -231 [ 1 572 ] ) , who r eached P e ru i n a bou t 1 557 , g ave a n a l te rna t ive p e r spec t ive o n t h e i s sue w hen r e coun t ing t h a t T upa I n ca

C ieza ( 1985 :29 [ c a .1550 ]) s t ressed av iew t h a t t he w ho le o fa r u le r 's p roper ty f o l lowed h i s c u l t i na l ienab ly a f te r d ea th . H oweve r ,t h ep anaqa o fr u le r s ,o f ten p re sen ted i nc h ron ic le sa s t h ec u l t -ma in ta in ing d escendan t s o f ar u le re xc lud ing t h eh e i r , w a s p robab ly a c ons t ruc t i n l a te p reh is tory c ompr is ing p o l i t ico -re l ig ious i n s t i tu t ions , l ed b y a ppo in tees o f t h e p res id ing r u le r , b u t w i th a my th ico -h is tor ic r u le r -ances to r embod ied i n ah i e ra rchy o fr ega l mumm ie s( Zu idema 1 964 :12 , 1 983 :49 -50 ) . P a t t er n s i nd yna s t ic a ccoun t s i nd ica te t h a t p a i r s o f' e a r ly ' ( Lowe rC usco ) r u le r s a nd ' l a te r ' ( Upper Cusco )r u le r s s ha red p a r t icu la r p e r sona l c ha rac ter is t ic s , s uch a s ma r t ia l o r r e l ig iou s t a len t so rr o le s ( Zu idema 1 964 :126 158 ) .

8

I n ca S oc ie ty , S ta te a nd T awan t insuyu

C r i t ica l e l emen t s i n t h is e xpans ion mode l a r e a menab le , i n s ome i n s tance s , t oa r chaeo log ica le va lua t ion .T he se i n c lude t h e p o s tu la ted p opu la t ion e xp lo s ion a r ound C usco a ccompany ing i mpe r ia l s uccess , t h a t a g r icu l tu ra l t e r races w e re ar e spon se t o l a nd s ho r tage s a nd r e p resen t' a ma jo rc omm i tmen tt o ma rg ina l l a nd ' r e su l t ing i n i n crea sed r i sk o f c rop f a i lu re , a nd t h e a s sump t ion t ha t p r iva te l a nds w e r e o f g rea t e x ten t : ' t he t o ta l wa s o bv ious ly l arge : v ar ious s ource s n ame e n t ir e h igh land v a l ley s t h a t w ere t h e p er sona l p roper ty o fI nca s over e igns ' ( Con rad a nd Dema res t 1 984 :120 , 1 29 -130 ) . D ocumen ta ry s ource s a r e l e ss u nequ ivoca l a nd Mur ra h a s n o ted t h a t t h e p ropo r t ion o fI nca p r iva te a nd s t a te l a nd st ot o ta l l a nd , a sw e l l a s t h e i r l i ke l ihood o f r ea l iena t ion , r ema in u nce r ta in d e sp i te p rog re s s i n wo rk o n s pec i f ic C o lon ia l a dm in is t ra t ive r e co rd s ( Mu r ra 1 982 :257 , 1 978 :215 ) .

l i neage a nd b e ing t h e f i r s t I nca r u le r t o b u i ld h i s o wn p a lace a par t f r om t h a t o fh i s f a the r ( t he h ouse o f t h e s un ) . Ano the r ' I nca Roca ' , i n as t o ry r e co rded b y S a r rn ien to ( 1 943 :180 -181) , a s s is ted P achacu t i I nca t ok i l l h i s b ro the r , I nca U rcon , b y t h e t h row ing al a rge s t one a th i s t h roa tw hen i nt h e v i l lage o fP aca i nt h eY ucay V a l ley .P acachaca ( Paca b r idge )a ppea r sa sl a nd o f H uayna C apac i nt h e 1 552 Y ucay V a l ley s urvey ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :53 ) . I ti sp o ss ib le t h a tp e r sons d ed ica ted t ot h e memo ry o f t he my th ica l p e r sonage w ere b enef ic ia r ie s o f t ho se f ou r t opos . T he a r ea so ft h ir teen b lo ck sw e re s pe c if ied i nt o pos , r eg iona l ly v a r iab le l a nd u n i t s o f a round 0 .25 t o 0 .35 h a ( Tab le 7 :2 ; B enne t t 1 949 :604 -605 ; R owe 1 946 :324 ) . T he l a rge s t h e s pec if ied w a so ne h und red t opos o ft h e s un , t wo w e re o ft h i r ty t opos , o ne o f t e n t opos , t h ree o f e igh t t opos , t wo o f f our t opos , t h ree o ft wo t opos a nd o ne o f as i ng le t o po ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :51-53 ) .T he t h i r ty t o po f i e lds w e re d escr ibed a st e r race s , b u t t he o the r s w e re g ene r ica l ly d es igna ted p lo t s o f l a nd o r c hacaras ( c u l t ivab le f i e lds ) .D imens ions we re n o ts pe c if ied f o r a ny o ft h e f i ve p lace sd e scr ibed a s f o res t s /wood s o rb rush land ( arbo ledas , mon te ) . F ou r f i e ld s w i thou t s pec if ied a r ea s w e re s imp ly c a l led c hacaras b u t a no ther f our w e re t e r raced . A cco rd ing t od e scr ip t ions a nd t oponym s urv iva ls ,t wo o ft h e se w e re b lock s o ft e r race s o n a l luv ia l f ans o fU rco sbamba ( now U rqu i l lo s )a nd Yucay a nd w e re p robab ly i nt h eu ppe rr ange o f s pec if ied s i ze s ( op .c i t :13 , 3 7 , 4 6 , 5 2 -53 ; V a lenc ia 1 982 ; F a r r ing ton 1 989 ) .

S a rm ien to ( 1943 :179 -180 [ 1572 1 ) r e la ted a t r ad i t ion t h a t P achacu t i , t h e n in th r u le r i n h i s l i s t , d epopu la ted C usco a nd c e r ta in p l aces w i th in 2 l e ague s ( c a 1 0 km ) a round i t ,g ave i t o ve r t ot h e b enef i t o f C usco 's p eop le a nd t ook t h e v a l ley o f T ambo ( 0 1 1an tay tambo )f o rh i sr e t rea tC ton y 6p ara s ur e c c imara e lv a l le d e T ambol I ti sn o tk now n whe the rP a chacu t i w a sa n i nd iv idua l p e r son , b u t t h e p e r sonage i sc ha rac te r ized i n 1 6 th c en tu ry I n ca s t o r ie sa s ar e fo rme ro fi d ea sa nd c a ta ly s to f ma jo r I nca e xpans ion , ar o le r ef lec ted i n h i s n ame w h ich means c a tac lysm o r ' wo r ld c hange ' ( Zu idema 1 964 :36 ) . J uan d e B e tanzo s ( 1880 :72 -74 [ 1551]) , w ho u nde r s tood Q uechua , r e co rded e l emen t s o f as im i la ra ccoun to fP achacu t i , i nw h ich h e i ss a id t oh ave c a l led amee t ing t og ran t l o rds a nd p r inc ipa l p e r sons o ft h e v i c in i ty , a nd t h e i rd e scendan t s , p e rpe tua l r i gh t s t ot h e i rl a nd s .

AC u sco I n ca w i tne ss t e s t if ied t h a tU rcosbamba w a sw o rked b y p eop le f r om C h inche ro a nd t h a t t h e p roduce w a s t a ken t o C usco o r w he reve r t h e I n ca o rde red ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :35 ) . T h is d oe s n o te xc lude as t a te d ed ica t ion , b u tt h e w i tne ss a dded t h a t T upa 's w if e h ad dwe l l ings t he re , wh ich a cco rds w i th r e fe rence s e l sewhe re t o h i s l a nds i n U rcos a nd C h inche ro ( Ro s two rowsk i 1 968 :32 ) . Mo reove r , ap r inc ipa l c h ief o f Ma ra s i n 1 557 t e s t if ied t h a t t h ed ecea sed T upa owned n ea rby ma ize l a nds c a l led T iobamba w h ich w e re p lan ted a nd h a rve s ted b y T upa 's y anaconas f r om C h inche ro ( Ros two row sk i 1 962 :140 1 41) . U rco sbamba w a sd ep ic ted i nt h e 1 551 s ur vey ' s map a nd t o day r ema ins a sa nI n ca s ty le t e r race c omp lex .

S uch a c coun t sr evea l ac oncep to fl a nd t e nu re i nl a te p reh i s to ry b u t i ti si mpo ss ib le t os e lec ta n a d jec t ive o fs i ze f o rt h e v a l ley d eno ted i n S arm ien to 's s t a temen t . S pan ish t r ans la t ions o f Q ue chua g eograph ica l t e rm s , a cco rd ing t oT ay lo r ( 1987 :32 ) , o f ten h ave d imens iona l i mp l ica t ions w h ich a r e n o t i n he ren t i n t h e o r ig ina l , s o t ha t c ocha c an r e f e r t o ap ond o rt h e s ea , a nd p ampa t ot h e l e ve l s pace f o r ar i tua l d ance , o rt o av a s tp l a in . Huayco i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry Hua ro ch ir iQ uechua m anu sc r ip t , i s t r ans la ted a sv a l ley ( Tay lo r 1 987 :159 ) , b u t a l so o ccur s i n1 6 th a nd 1 7 th c en tury l a nd t i t le s equences f o r f e a tu re s w h ich h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e f i e ld a nd w h ich a r e n ow c a l led q uebrada ( r av ine o rg u l ly ) .

T he l oca t ions o f t he se l a nds may r ef lec t t h e S pan ia rd s ' s e lec t ion o fp roper ty . H oweve r , t h ep rocedure o ff i nd ing t h em , t he ir d escr ip t ion a nd s i zes , s t rong ly s ugge s t t ha t I nca l a ndho ld ing w a sd i scon t inuou s ,e ven i fe spec ia l ly w ide sp read i n t he V i lcano ta Va l ley . I nca a gr icu l tura l f a c i l i t ies a nd d ocumen ted l a ndho ld ing s i nt h e c i rcum -Cusco a r ea o fP aru ro w e re a l so a ppa ren t ly s ca t te red a nd t h e ma jo r i n s ta l la t ion w a s p l aced a pa r t f r om l o ca l leve l s e t t lemen tc oncen t ra t ions ( Poo le 1 984 :95 ; B aue r 1 987 ) . D ef in ing t h e e x ten t o fs t a te wood land s i s b eyond t he s cope o f a r chaeo logy a lone , a nd e qua l ly p rob lema t ic f o r u n ter raced s t a te c ropf ie lds a nd p a s ture s , a l though s ome w e re i r r iga ted ( She rbondy 1 982 :11) a nd s t a te c ana l s ys tem s may p erm i t i d en t if ica t ion a nd mea suremen t o f i r r igab le a r ea s .

I n 1 551 ,C o r reg ido rA lva rado u nde r took as u rvey i nt h e Y ucay V a l ley s e c t ion o ft h e V i lcano ta R ive r V a l ley i no rde r t of i nd l a nd so ft empe ra te c l ima te f o rr e s iden t so fC usco ( U r ie l G a rc ia 1 959 :145 ; V i l lanueva 1 970a :21-54 ) . P roof t h a t l a nds h ad b e longed t ot h eI nca o rt h es un w a ss uff i c ien tt oe s tab l ish t h e i r r eve r s ion t o t he C rown a nd h ence , a va i lab i l i ty f o r g ran t ( Ma t ienzo 1 967 :30 , 5 7 -58 [ 1 567 ] ;P o lo 1 9 17 :54 ) . C usco I n ca s w ere t a ken a long a nd r e s iden t i n forman t s w e re s ough t t o i d en t if y p r ior l and owne r sh ip ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :11) . T he o ff ic ia l w a s a b le t oi d en t ify 2 6 b lock s o fl a nd , o fw h ich t h ree p e r ta ined t o t he s un , t wo t o u n s ta ted b enef ic ia r ie s , o ne t o mamaconas , o ne ( U rcosbamba ) t o p a s t I n ca s , t h ir teen t o Huayna C apac , o ne e ach t oh i s w if e a nd u nc le a nd t wo t oh i s mo the r ,o ne t oT upa I n ca a nd a no the rt oT upa 's n ephew .

T he re i st h e refo re ab a s is t op os tu la te t h a t mode s o fI n ca l a nd a nd l a bou rc on tro l c o r re la te w i th p hys ica l e v idence , i n sofa ra s t e r raced o r r e c la imed l a nd s w e re a n e labora te c ore i n t h e l a ndscape o f Yucay r oya l e s ta tes . T he o ve ra l l l a ndscape , i n c lud ing s ur round ing s oc io -econom ic p a t te rns , i s l e ss u nders tood a nd r equ ires a n a pproach wh ich c omb ines p reh is tor ic l a nd -use a nd s e t t lemen te v idence w i th d ocumen ta ry l a nd -use a nd t e nu r ia ld a ta w h ich c an b ef i xed i ns pace .

T he m ean ing o fI nca n ames a nd S pan ish t r ans la t ions o fI n ca k insh ip t e rms i sn o t s t ra igh tforwa rd . H uayna C apac 's u nc le , who h ad f ou r t opos i n t h e Yucay s urvey , w a s n amed I n ca R oca . T h i s i sa l so t h en ame g i ven i n many g enea log ie so fI n ca r u le r s , a nd i st he s i x th r u le r i n S arm ien to 's l i s t ( 1943 :144 1 46 ) , a t t r ibu ted w i th b eg inn ing t h e H anan ( Uppe r ) C usco 9

I nca S oc ie ty , S ta te a nd T awan t insuyu

1 . 5 APPROACH LANDSCAPE

TO

AN

I NCA

CULTURAL

T he u se o ft oponym ic c on t inu i t ie s , d e sc r ip t ive d ocumen t sa nd o b se rva t ions t ol i nk d o cumen ta ry s oc ia l i mage s a nd ap hy s ica l l a nd scape , p o in t s t o l a nd t i t le s equence s a s am ean s o f t r ave r s ing t h e h a lf m i l len ium wh ich s epara te s r e g iona l p reh i s to ry f r om t h e p re sen t . D ocumen ta ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l i mage s a re n o t t o ta l ly c ommensurab le . N ever the le s s , t h e c o r re la ted p a t te rns o f I n ca i n f luence r ef lec ted i n e a ch , f o r s pec if ic l a nd scap e s ,p e rm i tt h ed eve lopmen to fw ide rm ode l si n w h ich a r chaeo logy a l one m ay a mp l if yu nde r s tand ing o ft e nu r ia l mode si nu ndo cumen ted a r ea s( Chap te r9 ) .

T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s a nd mod if ied l a ndscape s a s e v idence o f r e source c on t ro l r equ ires a c l a ss if ica t ion o f p roduc t ion z ones i n l a te p reh is tor ic e nv i ronmen t s .T h i s i sp u r sued i nC hap te r2 . R eg iona l a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey sp rov ide a no ve rv iew o fI nca l o ca l s pa t ia l r e la t ions , w i thou t t he u neven p a t te rn o f e t hnoh is to r ic d ocumen ta t ion c aused b y i s o la t ion o f s oc ia l c omponen t s a nd t h e v aga r ie s o f d ocumen t p re serva t ion a nd a va i lab i l i ty . H oweve r , i ti sn ece s sa ry t oa s se s s d i f f e ren t ia l s i te p r e serva t ion a nd v i s ib i l i ty , a nd t oe s tab l ish c h rono logy w i th in t h e r eg iona l ma te r ia l c u l tu re s equence a nd i t s a s soc ia ted r a d ioca rbon c h rono logy ( Chap te r3 ) .

S tud ie s o f t h e d i ach ron ic f o rma t ion o ft h e I n ca s t a te a nd i t s mechan isms o f e xpans ion h ave d rawn l a rge ly u pon p owe r t heo ry , t he i n te rp lay o f v i o lence a nd c onsen t i n r e la t ions b e tween s oc ia l o r s t a te i n s t i tu t ions a nd l o ca l o r p rov inc ia l g roup s , a nd c u l tu re e co logy , i nw h ich a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i sp r ima r i ly as ymbo lo ft h ee conom ic o ra dap t ive r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en p eop le a nd t h e ir e nv ironmen t . T hey a s sume t h a t s e t t lemen t s i np a r t icu la r p roduc t ion z one s i n d ica te a n i n te re s t i n c on t ro l o f t h e ir a cce s s ib le r e sour ce s a nd h ence , t h a t s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion i s l a rge ly d e te rm ined b y r e sou rce r e qu i remen t s .

A rchaeo log ica l i n forma t ion o n p re Inca a nd l o ca l leve l I n ca P e r iod a r chaeo log ica l s i te s( Chap te r4 )a nd I n ca s i te s( Chap te r 5 ) i s a menab le t o d i rec t q uan t i ta t ive a nd q ua l i ta t ive c ompa r ison s , e spec ia l ly i n s pa t ia l a nd f unc t iona l t e rms ( Chap te r 8 ) . E thnoh is to r ic d a ta o n s oc ie ty a nd e conomy a r e d i ff icu l t t o e x tend t o t h e p re Inca p a s t w i thou t p r io r c on s ide ra t ion i n ac r i t ica l f r amewo rk . T hey p rov ide i mpo r tan t d e ta i l f o r s ynch ron ic mode ls o f l a te p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty , e spec ia l ly w hen c omb ined w i th a r chaeo log ica le v idence a nd t h e p hys ica l s e t t ing ( Chap te r s 6a nd 7 ) . T he se p rov ide a f i rm b a se l ine f o ru nde r s tand ing d i ach ron ic p roce s se s , a nd f a c i l i ta te t h e r eg iona l c ompa r ison o f L ima tambo a nd o the r p ar t s o f C u sco a nd w ide rT awan t in suyu .

T he l a t te r a s sump t ion m ay p a r t ly e xp la in t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a bou r i nves tmen t i nt e r rac ing o r l a nd r e c lama t ion , b u t s u ch e xp lana t ions m u s t a l so a cknow ledge t h e e l abo ra te s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f C usco . C oncep tua l o r i d eo log ica l f a c to r s p robab ly h ad ar o le t op l ay i nt h e l o ca t ion a nd f o rm o f a l l a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , b u t t h e e t hnoh i s to r ic d a ta o n I n ca c oncep t s o f s pace , s e t i n t h e l a s t momen t s o f p reh is to ry , e nab le s af u r the r p a ra l le l a pp roach t ot h e a d junc t ive i s sue o f s i te sa ss ymbo ls i nc oncep tua l s y s tems ( Chap te r 1 0 ) .

1 0

CHAPTER 2

ENVIRON MENT , SETTLE MENT AND LANDUSE I N L I MATA MBO 2 . 1 THE SETTING T he s t udy r eg ion c ompr ise s a n e x t reme ly moun ta inou s a nd e co log ica l ly d iver se p ar t o f An ta P rov ince b e tween t he A pur imac R ive ra nd C usco ( F ig 2 . 1) . F ie ldwo rk c en t red u pon t h e ' L ima tambo A rea ' , 4 56 s q . k m w i th in L i ma tambo a nd Mo l lepa ta d i s tr ic ts ( F ig . 2 :2 ) . T he se f o rmed a s i ng le d i s t r ic t u n t i l 1 929 , i n a n a rea k nown i n C o lon ia l d ocumen t s a s t he ' L ima tambo Va l ley ' . L im i ted s urvey w as e x tended i n to t he a d jacen t 3 17 s q . km o f w es tern C h inchaypuqu io D is t r ic t a s w e l l a ss e lec ted l o ca t ions i na d jacen tp rov ince s . C usco a nd t he V i lcano ta V a l ley l i e b eyond t h e moun ta in r im o fA n ta P ampa , ab road , h igh a nd p oor ly d ra ined v a l ley o r p la in . T he V i lcabamba r eg ion a nd L owe rU rubamba V a l ley a r e s epa ra ted b y t he V i lcabamba C o rd i l le ra a nd t h e p ermanen t ly g lac ia ted p eak s o f H uman tay a nd S a lkan tay . T he Apur imac R ive r i sa b orde ro f Apur imac Depa r tmen t , c rea ted o u to fC usco i n1 873 ( Gade 1 973 :4 1) . 2 .2 GEOLOGY

AND LANDFOR MS

A ndean s ur f ace s t r unca ted b y e ros ion a tm id -Ter t ia ry s ea l e ve l w e re u p l if ted i n t he u ppe r -M iocene t o t h e P e ruv ian p una a t a l t i tudes a round 4 200 m ( C lapper ton 1 983 :84 ) . Undu la t ing p una t opog raphy o ccur s a tt h e b a se o f S a lkan tay a nd ma ture moun ta in f o rma t ions s epa ra t ing A n ta P ampa f r om m inor s t reams wh ich f o l low s t eep r av ine s t o t he Apur imac R iver . G lac ier s d e scended t o 3 600m d u r ing t h e P le is tocene , g iv ing r i se t o h ang ing v a l leys , mora ines a nd g lac ia l l ake s , w he rea s a cce le ra ted p o s tg lac ia l r i ve rd own -cu t t ing f o rmed d eep c anyon s ( S laupa s 1 984 :26 -29 ) . T he p re sen tg l ac ie ro fN evado S a lkan tay r i se s f r om a bou t 4 600 m ( Pu lga r 1 98 1:148-149 ) t o as now s p ire a t 6 271 m ( C lea re 1 979 :137 ) . Wi th in t wen ty f i ve k i lome tres t h eh o ta nd d ry Apu r imac C anyon r eache s 1 850 m . T he g eo logy o f t he r eg ion l a cks d e ta i led s t udy . T he n or theas tern L ima tambo V a l ley , f r om n ea r Hu i lque p a ss t o L ima tambo , i sc ha rac ter ized b yC re taceous P er iod s ed imen ta ry r ock o f c on t inen ta l o r ig in . F rom L i ma tambo , a long t he C o lorado R iver t o t he Mo l lepa ta r eg ion , T r ia ss ic ma r ine s ed imen ta r ie so ft h eP uca rä G roup p redom ina te ( I .G .M . 1 975 ) . I n L ima tambo t hese c ompr ise l ime a ccumu la t ions f ormed w hen t he a r ea l a y o n ac oas ta l s t r ip b o rdered b y l a goons a nd t h e eme rg ing Andes (Ma rocco 1 978 :75 ) . J ura ss ic ma r ine s ed imen ta ry r ock o ccu r s a t t h e d eep ly c u t c onf luence o f t h e B lanco a nd Apur imac r i ve r s ( I .G .M . 1 975 ) . R ed s ands tone sa nd c l ays , a nd c ong lomera tes i n L ima tambo , a re a r e su l t o f c on t inen ta l s ed i men ta t ion d ur ing t he u ppe r -Cre taceous ( Ma rocco 1 978 :85 ) . P lu ton ics , i n c lud ing C re taceous g ran i te a nd d ior i te , o ccu rt ot h e s ou th a nd e a s to fL ima tambo a s f a ra s C o tabamba s i n Apur imac D epa r tmen t ( I .G .M . 1 975 ) . Wh i te g ran i te o u tcrops a re c ommon o n r i dges o f t he v i c in i ty . V o lcan ic i n t rus ions , o fi mpo r tance t op reh is to r ic a nd h i s tor ic s t onema sonry , i n c lude a ndes i te o u tc rop s n ea r Hu i lque p a ss , L ima tambo a nd Ma rkawa s i . G eo log ica l ly r e cen t v o lcan ism g ive s r i se t oh o ts pr ing s . T hese o c cu ra tS auc ,eda a nd Queswawayqo ,b e s ide t h eC o lo rado R ive r , a nd a t Conoc , o n t he l e f t ma rg in o f t h e Apur imac R ive r . A s t eam b low -ho le l i es o n t h e s l ope s o fC ocha Q ueb rada b e low P iv i l . S auceda s pr ings a r e v ery s a l ty b u t a r e u sed , l i ke t ho se o f

1

C onoc , f o r b a th ing . L ands l ippage i n r e cen t d ecade s h as d amaged Q ueswawayqo s p r ing s , a l though t h ey w e re o nce i mpor tan tb a th s( Göh r ing 1 935 :293 ; O r tega 1 948 :4 -5 ) . L ands l ips a nd r ocks l ide s c ommon ly c ause i nver s ions o f g eo log ica l s t ra ta a nd d amage t oa r chaeo log ica l s i tes a nd f i e ld s . T hey a re t hough t t o b e p romp ted b y i n crea sed s o i l w e igh t d u r ing t h e w e ts ea son a nd b y e a r th t r emo r s . Al a nd s l ip o n t h e r i gh t ma rg in o f t h e C o lo rado R ive r n ea r Q ue swawayqo , i s r epor ted t o h ave o ccur red i n t h e 1 950 s , c aus ing e x tens ive p ond ing o ft h er i ve r . S o i ls g enera l ly c onfo rm t o t he Andean moun ta in p a t tern ( D rosdof fe t .a l . 1 960 :99 10 1) . A n ar row s t r ip o f a l luv ium i s b ounded b y c o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l t e r race s o n o ne o rb o th s i de s o f v a l ley f l oor s , i n te rm i t ten t ly b roken b y a l luv ia l f ans a nd t e r races o ft r ibu ta ry s t reams . S teep h i l ls ide s a r e o f ten e roded a nd s t ony , b u t s o i ls a r e d eepe r a nd w e l l d ra ined o n h i l ls ide b enche s o f l e s se r g rad ien t . P una g ra s s lands a th igh a l t i tude h ave g rea te ro rgan ic c on ten tb u tt h is d ecompo se s s l ow ly . S o i ls a bove 4 000 m a r e p redom inan t ly s t ony , s ha l low o r p oo r ly d ra ined . 2 .3 FLORA AND FAUNA Ma rked v a r ia t ions i nv ege ta t ion c omp lexe s a r e i n d ica ted i nt h e o bserved a l t i tud ina l d i s t r ibu t ion o f l a rge a nd d i s t inc t ive f l or is t ic e l emen t s i nT ab le 2 : 1 . O n ly p l an t sr e co rded f r equen t ly a r e i n c luded h e re a nd l e s s i n d ica t ive o ne s o fw ide d i s t r ibu t ion a r e e xc luded . S eve ra l b rome l iaceous p l an t s , a l l l o ca l ly c a l led a chupa ( Puya s pp . ) , g row o n r o cky l o ca t ions f r om 1 800 m t o 3 800 m . S ome w ide ly d i s t ibu ted f l o ra ( e g . l au l l ik i ska , c h ' i lka , mo l le , o qe p akpa a nd t una ) a r e o n ly a bundan t i np a r t o f t he o bserved r ange . C h ' i lka a nd I l aul l ik iska a r e o f ten t he p redom inan t t a l l s h rub s a tt h e i r h ighe s t a l t i tudes . Mo l les a t l ow a l t i tude s a r e s t ragg ly a nd u ncommon a nd O qe p akpa i s mo s ta bundan ti ni t sm idd le t ou ppe rr a nge . S ome p lan t sf ound ' w i ld 'a r ea l so u sed a nd t e nded i ng a rdens o r n ea r f i e lds . Mex ican b lue a gave ma rk s f i e ld b o rde r s , a nd t h e s p iny p 'a tak i ska r e info rce s t h e b ound ing e f f ec to fa dobe w a l ls . P i sonay , w i th d eco ra t ive r e d f l owe r s , a nd a lgarrobo , a r e mos t c ommon i n a s soc ia t ion w i th d we l l ings . Mo l les a r e l e f t t o g row o n f i e ld m a rg ins a nd p rov ide s hade f o rr e s t ing a g r icu l tu ra l w o rk g roup s . T una ( p r ick ly p ea r ) i sa n e ncou raged i n vade ro n many s t eep u ncu l t iva ted s l ope s a nd i sp l an ted o n s ome f i e ld ma rg ins . I t s f r u i t i sc o l lec ted i nt h e w e t s ea son a nd t h e c ac tus i sh o s tt oc o ch inea l d ye i n sec t s( Dac ty lop ius c occus ) w h ich a r e a l so c o l lec ted . T arw i ( Lup inus mu tab i l is ) i sc ommon i n u ncu l t iva ted c on tex t s b u t i sa n i mpo r tan t f i e ld c rop a t h igh a l t i tude . A s t and o f c h ir imoya t r ee s ( Annona c her imo l ia ) , b e s ide Yu raqmayo s t ream ( 2 170 m ) , i st h e s ou rce o f s ma l l f r u i tc o l lec ted b y r e s iden t s o fP iv i l ( 3400 m ) i nJ u ly . E uca lyp t s w e re i n t roduced t oC u sco i nt h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry ( Gade 1 975 :193 ) a nd a r e c u l t iva ted f o r c on s t ruc t ion ma ter ia l a nd f ue l . T hey o ccu r n ea r h ouse s , v i l lage s a nd i nc ommun i ty f o re s t s s uch a s t ho se e s tab l ished i n t h e e a r ly 1 960 s b y t h e M in is try o fA g r icu l tu re a tP ampaconga a nd Mamako .

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An a t ive h a rdwood , c hachacomo , i so n ly a bundan ti nt h ed en se h um id f o re s t s o f t h e n or thwe s te rn L ima tambo V a l ley , f r om a bou t 3 100 m t o 3 700 m i n t he S a lkan tay f oo th i l ls . Occa s iona l o ld t r ee s r ema in i nh i gh g ra ssed l a nds , b u t t h e ir d i s tr ibu t ion h a s b een a f fec ted b y a gr icu l tura l c l ea rance , u se a s c ook ing f ue l a nd manufac tu re o f c ha rcoa l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t s . T a l l f o re s t s o fd i f f e ren t s pec ie s t h r ive a tt h e b a se o fr av ine s s uch a sQ ueb rada T inco c o fC hon ta , b e low 2 800 m , a nd a l ong t h e Yuraqmayo o fP iv i l . U ncu l t iva ted l owe ra l t i tude s l ope s o f t h e wes tern L i ma tambo v a l ley h ave f ew t a l l t r ee s , mos t ly p ha t i , b u t c on ta in d en se u nde rg row th o fs p iny p l an t s i n c lud ing k i ska w arango , q ' e l lo p akpa a nd a chupa .T he se p l an t s h ave i n vaded p ar t s o fI nca t e r race s a t Ma rkawa s i . E normous c o lumna r c ac t i a re c ommon i n d ry t horny f o re s t n ea r t h e Apur ima c .

R eg ion .

1 975 :183 ) . U sefu l u np lan ted h e rb s a re a s soc ia ted w i th h ouse g a rden s a nd d i s tu rbance . Waka tay ( Tage tes m inu ta ) t h r ives b e tween 2 200 ma nd 3 400 m d ur ing t h e w e t s ea son , b u tr ema ins f o r al o nge r p er iod n ea rc ana ls a nd o the rd amp p lace s . I ti su sed t op repa re r oa s tg u inea p ig a nd g reen c h i l i s auce c a l led u chuku ta . H ierba b lena ( Men tha s p . ) , a no the r ' m in t ' , mu i ia (M in thos tachy s s p . ) a nd i n t roduced f e nne l h ino jo ( Foen icu lum v u lgare ) a r eu sed a s c ond imen t s . Med ic ina l h e rbs i nc lude I l antgn ( P lan tago h i r te l la ) ,p inco p inco o rc o la d e c aba l lo ( Ephedra amer icana ) a nd y awar c hunka ( Oeno thera r osea ) . C ham inko ( Da tura s t ramon ium ) i su sed i ns o rcery . O range f l owe r s o fc h iwanway ( Crocops is f u lgens ) a nd l a rge w h i te f l owe r s o f h amancav ( Ama ry l l idaceae ) a re u sed a s d eco ra t ion i nw omen 's h a t s . T he f o rme r a ppea r w i th t h e f i r s t p e r s is ten t r a ins o f S ep tembe r a nd t he l a t te r i n Decembe r a nd J anua ry w hen t h e s o i l i sv e ry d amp a nd when t he h a l lmay f e s t iv i t ie sa ccompany t h e f i r s tw eed ing a nd mound ing o f ma ize f i e ld s .

R ope o f q ' e l lo p akpa f i b re i sm ade a t C hon ta a nd s o ld a t L i ma tambo , a nd s t r ip s o fl e a fa r e u sed t ot i et oma to p l an t s . I t s t a l l f l owe r s t ems i nt h e l a te w e t s ea son p rov ide al i gh t w ood b u ta r ea l so t h e a bode o f af l y ing b o re rc a l led w ayronqa w h ich i sd e s t ruc t ive i n woodwo rk . F le shy a chupa l e ave sa r e r e ga rded a s g ood f odde r f o r g u inea p ig s ( Cav ia p orce l lus ) . I chu a nd r e tama a r e b o th e mp loyed a s r oof t h a tch a nd c ombus t ib le ma te r ia l . T horny l au l l ik iska a nd k i ska w arango b ranche s a r e u sed i n f e nces t o p ro tec t f i e ld s f r om l i ve s tock . Mo l le a nd c hamana a r e u sed a s f ue l b u t s p iny t r unked t ara a nd s of t p isonay a r e r a re ly s o u sed . P od s o f t h e t ara t r ee p rov ide a s ubs tance u sed i n t a nn ing , a nd as t one t r ough a tH uay ronqa w a s i d en t if ied b y t h e owne ra sh av ing o nce h ad t h is f unc t ion . H iguer i l la ( R ic inus c ommun is ) , a c ommon r oads ide i n t roduc t ion ,o nce p roduced o i l f o rs uga rm i l lm ach ine ry ( Gade

F auna l o b se rva t ions o n ly i nd ica te c onsp icuous c omponen t s o f r eg iona l w i ld l if e . T he s ma l l g rey d ee rc a l led t aruka , l u ichu o r v enado ( H ippocame lu s a n t isens is ) w a s s een w i ld i nt h e h um id f o res t o f t he n or thwes te rn L i ma tambo Va l ley a t 3 300 m . C u l t iva tor s o f Mamako moun ta in c omp la in t ha t i te a t s y oung c rop s i n f i e lds a t2 700 -3000 m a nd C hoquema rka r e s iden t s n o te t h a t i ti nhab i t s s t eep v ege ta ted s l ope s o f P ampahuay J la Q ueb rada a t3 200 -3500 m . I tw a s r epor ted b y a n a s s is tan t i n f o res ted Apur imac V a l ley s l opes b e low 2 300 m , ap l ace a l so 1 3

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

s a id t ob e i n hab i ta ted b y t h es pec tac led b ea r . T h is i s av e ry l ow a l t i tude o ccur rence i n t h e P eruv ian -Bo l iv ian d i s t r ibu t ion o f t aruka b u t a cco rds w i th i t s d eba ted p refe rence f o r v ege ta t ion c ove r( Roe a nd R ee s 1 976 :724 -725 ) . Wi ld g u inea p ig w a ss een i n t h e h igh h um id f o re s t o n t he s ou the rn s l ope o f Wi lka ray moun ta in a t3 580 m , a nd i n forman t s a t Ma rkawa s i r e la te t h a t t h ey i nhab i to ve rg rown t e r races t he re . P uma ( Fe l is c onco lor ) a nd v i zcacha ( Lag id ium p eruanum ) a re r epor ted t oi nhab i t t h e n or thwe s ter n h e igh t s o ft h e v a l ley . Z orr inos ( s kunk s ) a r e n o t u ncommon i nt h e m idd le a l t i tudes a nd b a t s f r equen t ly w ound h o r se s l e f t o u t o vern igh t n ea r L i ma tambo . No s nakes w e re s een ,o n ly t h es l ough o f as ma l l g reen v a r ie ty i n ama ize f i e ld .

a nd l o ng s e r ie s d a ta , s o p o ten t ia l e vapo t ransp i ra t ion i su sua l ly e s t ima ted . T he z ones , d e te rm ined b y a c tua l a nd e s t ima ted mac ro -c l ima t ic v a r iab les , c an b e c hecked i n t he f i e ld b y c or re la t ion w i th al i s t o fa s soc ia ted f l o ra . A pp l ica t ion o ft h is s cheme t o a n a r ea r e qu ires f i e ld o bse rva t ions o f l o ca l f l o ra l d i s t r ibu t ions . T he z one so ve r lap i na l tud ina l e co tone sa nd o t he r f a c to r s c on t r ibu te t ov ege ta t ion p a t terns w h ich d o n o t f o l low a l t i tude i n as imp le r e la t ion ( Brush 1 976a :126 1 27 ) . H oweve r , i n a rea s o f c omp re ssed a l t i tud ina l v a r ia t ion , a l t i tude r a nge s p rov ide ar e 2sonab le a pp rox ima t ion o fl i f ez one s . T he a l t i tude d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l or is t ic c omponen t s i n t h e L i ma tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io r eg ion i ss umma r ised i n T ab le 2 : 1 . T he t e rms u sed t o d escr ibe z ones a r e b a sed o n a r e cons t ruc t ion o f c l imax v ege ta t ion , w h ich i s r a re i n t h e p re sen ts t udy a rea a nd e l sewhe re i nt h e h i gh lands . Z one s i nt h e s t udy r eg ion , i n d ica ted i nF igu re 2 :2 , a r e :

G round dwe l l ing p erd i ze s ,q ' en te ( sma l l h oneyea te r s )a nd l o ros ( g reen p a r ro t s )a r e t h e mos ta bundan ta v if auna .L oro sa ppea ri n l a rge n o isy f l ock s d ur ing t h e ma ize h a rve s t i n May -June a nd many t e chn ique sa r eu sed t ok eep t h em f r om c rop s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h ep lacemen to f ag ua rd ian w i th ah onda ( s l ingsho t ) . T hey a r e o f ten c ap tu red a sp e t s . T he mayupa to , as ma l l r e d -b i l led d uck w i th b l ack w ings , b rown u nde rbody a nd d ef ens ive s p ine s o n w ing j o in t s , i sf ound o n t he C o lo rado R ive r i ne a r ly Augu s t . T he h uamän ( Bu teo p oec i lochrous )o cca s iona l ly a ppea r so n t h e v a l ley f l oo r n ea r L i ma tambo . A c ondor ( Vu l tur s p . ) w a s o bse rved f r om 3 740 m i nS ondo r c ommun i ty l a nds . F i sh a r e n o t s i gn if ican t i nL i ma tambo d ie t s b u t t r ou t a r e o cca s iona l ly t a ken w i th l i ne a nd h ook f r om t he Co lo rado ,P a rqo -Sondo ra nd P i s t i w a te rcou r se s . Ac a tf i sh ( s uche ) i ss im i la r ly o b ta ined f r om t h e Apur ima c R ive r .

I .T ho rny Wood land ( ' TW ' , c a . 1 800 -2000 m ; 4 .8% o f t h e L inreambo A rea ) c or responds t o T os i 's s ub t rop ica l mon te e sp ino so ( m te -S ) a nd o ccu r so n t h e l ow a l t i tude ma rg ins o ft h e Apu r imac a nd C o lo rado r i ve r s , c ha rac te r ized b y a bundan t t a l l c o lumna rc ac t i ,a c ac ia sa nd F our croya ; 2 . D ry F ores t ( 'DF ' , c a . 2 000 -2400 m ; 1 .8 % o f t h e L i ma tambo A rea ) c or responds t o t he b osque s eco ( b s -S ) c ha rac te r ized b y s p iny a cac ia s a nd F our croya o n s l ope s a nd d ense s t ands o n f l a t te r g round , a s w e l l a s d i spe r sed t r ee s , e spec ia l ly B ombax . C o lumna r c ac t i a r e f ound a t t h e l owe r l im i t b u t a re n o t c ommon , a nd E ry thr ina b eg ins t o a ppea r a t t h e u ppe r a l t i tude l im i t ;

V a r iou s i n sec t s a ppea r a t2 600 m o n t he v a l ley f l oo r i n May J une , a t t h e o nse t o f t he d ry s ea son . T hey i n c lude a w h i te b u t te rf ly ,a pa sanqa ( t a ran tu la ) , al a rge w a sp a nd k ach ik ach i( a d ragonf ly ) . L ima tambo i s i n famous f or s ma l l b i t ing f l ies . T hey a r e p reva len t i n t he d ry s eason f r om May t o Augus t , b e tween t h e l owe r l im i t o ft he s t udy a rea ( 1800 m ) a nd 2 500 2 800 m , a nd a r e mos t b o the r some o n s t i l l d ays . S and f l ie s i nhab i t t h e b ank s o f t h e Apur imac R ive r a nd mo squ i toes a r e s een u p t oa bou t 2 600 m .

3 .D ry Mon tane F o re s t ( ' D MF ' , c a . 2 400 -3200 m ; 2 4 .8% o f t h eL ima tambo A rea )c or re sponds t ot h eb o sque s eco - Mon tano B a jo ( bs - MBS) , a nd i n c ludes mos t v a l ley f l oor f l a t s i n L i ma tambo a s w e l l a s s l opes a bove t h e C o lorado a nd Apur imac r i ve r s . T he c ha rac te r is t ic v ege ta t ion c omp lex i s S ch inus mo l le , S par teum j unceum , C ae sa lp in ia s p inosa a nd Dodoneae v i sco sa ;

L a te l a s t c en tury f eve r w a s c ommon i n t he Apur imac V a l ley ( Squ ie r 1 877 :553 ) . S r . P ed ro C unza , l ong t ime owne r o f Moyoq s uga rc ane , f r u i to rcha rd a nd c a i iazo e n te rpr ise a t2 150 m , r e ca l ls t h a t ma la r ia w a s r i f e i nt he l owe r v a l ley u n t i l ah o s t e r ad ica t ion p rog ramme a f te rt he S econd Wo r ld Wa r . DDT w a s e x tens ive ly u sed u n t i l t he m id 1 960s i n t he l ower i n te rmon tane v a l leys o ft h e Apur imac r eg ion ( Gade 1 973 :43 ) .

4 . H um id F ores t ( 'HF ' , c a . 3 200 -3800 m ; 5 1 .7% o f t h e L ima tambo A rea )c o r re spond st ot h eb osque h umedo - Mon tano ( bh - MS ) a nd b osque m uy h umedo - Mon tano ( bmh - MS ) , h um id f o res t l i f e z one s w h ich e x is t a ts im i la r a l t i tude s i nt he e a s t er n a nd w e s tern s i de s o f t he a rea r e spec t ive ly , d iv ided o n t h e C o lo rado R ive r a x is . T he l a t te r , i sc ha rac te r ized b y g r ea te r h um id i ty a nd t h e e x is tence o fh i gh c anopy f o r e s t s . T he e a s ter n a r ea i sn ea r ly a l l g r a s s land w i th o ccas iona lE sca l lon ia t r ee sa nd s hrub s i ns t eep o rs t ony l o ca t ions .

2 .4 L I MATA MBO REGION L IFE ZONES L i ma tambo v ege ta t ion a nd a g r icu l tura l p a t te rns c o r re spond t o f our o f P u lga r V ida l 's e igh t n a tura l r eg ions o f P eru ( 1981 :60 ,79 ,102 ,119 ) . T he se a re t h ey unga ( o ft h e Amazon ian B a s in ) b e tween 1 000 m a nd 2 300 m , t he q uechua ( 2300 - 3 500 m ) , s un i ( 3500 -4000 m ) a nd t he p una a bove . T he t e rm ino logy d e r ive s f r om f o lk g eog raphy a nd t oponymy a nd e ach z one i s c ha rac te r ized b y s ome r e la ted f auna a nd f l o ra , r a inf a l l a nd t empe ra tu re r a nges , b u t a l so c rop c omp lexe s a nd a g r icu l tura l s ys tems .

5 . We t Up land ( 'W U ' , c a . 3 800 -4200 m ; 6 .9% o f t h e L ima tambo A rea ) c o r responds t ot he p äramo muy h umedo S uba lp ino ( pmh -Sa ) a nd p äramo p luv ia l -Suba lp ino ( pp -Sa ) i n t h ee a s tern a nd w e s te r n s i de so ft h ea rea r e spec t ive ly . T he se a r e c o ld , s uba lp ine g ra ss land s , w e t te ro n t he w e s te rn s i de . S h rub s a nd s ma l l t r ee s a r er e s tr ic ted t ot h e mos tp ro tec ted l o ca t ion sa t t h e l owe r ma rg in . Above t h e se z one st h e We tA lp ine T und ra ( c a . 4 200 -4800 m ) , o rt undra p luv ia l -A lp ino ( t p -A ) w i th p er ig lac ia l f l o ra , a nd t h e S now o r G lac ia l Z one ( up t o 6 271 m ) , o r n iva l ( N ) , l i e e f f ec t ive ly b eyond t h es cope o ft h ef i e ld s u r vey .

T he p a rame ter s o f z ona t ion a re c lea rer i n J oseph T os i 's a pp l ica t ion o ft h e H o ldr idge ' L ife Z one ' s ys tem t ot h e e co logy o fP eru , as cheme u sed i ne l abo ra t ion o ft he E co log ica l Map o f P eru ( 1 :1000000 ) ( 0 .N .E .R .N . 1 976 ) . I th a s t h e a dvan tage o f s ys tema t ic o rgan iza t ion a nd wor ldw ide a pp l icab i l i ty a nd i s b a sed u pon l o ng t e rm t empe ra tu re a nd e f fe c t ive p rec ip i ta t ion r e co rds . I n p rac t ice t h e re a r e t oo f ew me teoro log ica l s t a t ions 1 4

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

TABLE 2 :1

L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio Region L ife

Zones:

F lora Distribution.

A ltitude R ange 1 .8

N ame i chu ' pillow c actus' t arwi l laulli kiska c h 'ilka c hachacomo m utuy p 'atakiska r etama c hamana t ara m olle p isonay o qe p akpa t una q 'ello pakpa k iska warango s alvaje phati g igantön w anarpo a lgarrobo

S tipa

i n K M a bove s ea

l evel

2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2

i chu

O puntia s p. L upinus s p. B arnadesia h orrida B accharis l anceolata E scallonia r esinosa C assia s p. O puntia s p. S parteum j unceum D odoneae v iscosa C aesalpinia s pinosa S chinus m olle E rythrina f alcata A gave a mericana Opuntia f icus. i . F ourcroya a ndina A cacia s p. T illandsia u sneoides B ombax s p. C ereus s p. J atropha c iliata. P rosopis s p.

2 .5 PR ES E NT SETTLE MENTS

POP ULA TI O N

S even teen l a rge s e t t lemen t s , t ho se c omp r is ing b e tween 5 0a nd t he max i mum o f 3 00 dwe l l ings , a ccoun t f o r 4 0% o f p opu la t ion i nL ima tambo , Mo l lepa ta a nd C h inchaypuqu io , t h e l a rge s t b e ing C h inchaypuqu io ( 892 p e r sons ) , Mo l lepa ta ( 884 ) , L ima tambo ( 627 ) , C hon t a ( 449 ) a nd P ampaconga ( 4 19 ) . T he r e s tc on ta in b e tween 1 99 a nd 3 82 p e r sons ( 1 .N .E . 1 981 : M729 7 35 ) . S ome a re v e ry d i spe r sed a c ross c ommun i ty l a nds , s uch a sT omacaya ,C hak l lanka ,C h in l lawachu a nd H ue r tawayqo , a nd a l l l i e b e tween 2 550 m a nd 3 850 m . Abou t 9 4% o f t he ir i nhab i tan ts l i ve i n s e t t lemen ts o f t he D MF Z one ( 3037 p e rsons i n 5s e t t led u n i t s n amed i nt he 1 981 C ensu s ) a nd HF Z one ( 3326 i n 1 u n i t s ) , a nd 6% i nU ra ta r i a bove .

AN D

T he s t eep A pur imac g o rge p reven t s l i nea r r i ve r s ide t r ave l . On ly t wo u nsurf aced v eh icu la r r oads p erm i t a cce ss t ob r idge c ross ing s . O ne p a sse s t h rough L ima tambo w i th a b ranch t o Mo l lepa ta . The o the r , c omp le ted i n 1 962 -63 ( Gu i l le t 1 979 :140 ) , r eaches C o tabamba s v i a C h inchaypuqu io ( F ig . 2 :3 ) . T hey a re l i nked b y b us a nd t r uck s erv ices t o C usco . I mproved s urfac ing o f t he L ima tambo r oad , p ar t o f t he h ighway f r om Cusco t oL ima , b egan i n 1 987 . At h ird b r idged r ou te a c ross t he Apur imac , s u i ted t o n on -veh icu la r t r ave l , t r ave r se s Qopachaka s uspens ion b r idge b e low P iv i l . H o r se s , mu le s a nd d onkeys a r e i mpo r tan t f o r t r an spor t t h roughou t t he r eg ion .

T he f i ve l a rges t s e t t lemen t s , c omb ined w i th P an t ipa ta ( 274 p e r sons ) , P iv i l ( 200 ) a nd S uma ro ( 199 ) , r e ta in t h e n ame s ( o r c an b e t r aced t o t h e v i c in i ty ) o f t he r educc ion v i l lage s , e s tab l ished b y t he S pan ish t o c oncen t ra te p opu la t ion d ur ing t h e 1 570 s ( F ig . 2 : 3 ) .T hey a r e n uc lea ted v i l lage s w i th ac hu r ch a nd l e ve l led p laza s ur rounded b y ar ec tangu la rg r id o fs t ree t s . T he ir i nhab i tan t s ( 3944 p e r sons ) f orm 2 3 .5 % o ft h e r eg iona l p opu la t ion , s omewha t l e ss t h an t h e f i gure o f 3 0% c a lcu la ted b y G ade a nd E scoba r f o rr educc iones i nt h e a d jacen ts ou ther n p rov ince so fC u sco ( 1982 :446 ) .

A cco rd ing t o t he 1 981 C ensu s , t h e t h ree Apu r imac ma rg in d i s tr ic t s o f An ta c on ta in 1 6 ,767 p e r sons . 1 4 .5% ( 2431) o f t h em r e s ide i n L ima tambo , Mo l lepa ta a nd C h inchaypuqu io , t he d i s t r ic t c ap i ta ls . T he o the r f i ve A n ta d i s t r ic t s c on ta in 3 1 ,685 p e r sons , 3 0% ( 9 366 )o fw hom r e s ide i nd i s t r ic tc ap i ta ls o n f l a t te r l a nd c lose r t o C u sco ( I .N .E . 1 981 : 1 :51-57 ) . A n ta P rov ince c overs a bou t 1 858 s q . km ( Peru 1 969 -70 :24 ) , s o o ve ra l l p opu la t ion d ens i ty i s2 6 p e r son s p e rs q . km . H oweve r , t h e Apur imac g o rge i s v ery s pa r se ly p opu la ted a nd l a rge s e t t lemen t s l i e o n moun ta in s i des r a the r t h an n ea r t h e v a l ley f l oor . T h is c on t ra s t s w i th s e t t lemen t i n t h e w ide V i lcano ta V a l ley ( E scoba r 1 973 -672 ) , C usco V a l ley , An ta P ampa a nd w ide s tp a r t so ft he L ima tambo V a l ley .

Sma l l S unday ma rke t s a tt h e d i s t r ic t c ap i ta ls a r e a t tended b y p eop le f r om s u r round ing v i l lages , f or s a le , e xchange a nd p u rcha se o fp roduce , a nd b y v endo r s o f manufac tu red g ood s f r om C usco . T he g a the r ing f a c i l i ta tes c ommun ica t ion a nd a dm in is t ra t ion .

1 5

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

TABLE 2 :2 Observed Altitude R ange of M ajor L imatambo Valley Crops.

A ltitude R ange i n M etres a bove s ea l evel 1 800 2 200 2 600 3 000 3 400 3 800 4 200

C ROP F IELD C ROPS y uca p lätano* c amote c al la d e a zucar* m aiz t omate* z apallo c alabaza f rijol t rigo* p apa q uinoa t arwi h aba* o ca u llucu F RUIT T REES c hirimoya p akay p alta l ucma h igo* c itrus* C ONDIMENTS r ocotto F ORAGE a lfalfa* O THER t una* s okos* e ucalipto*

M anihot e sculenta M usa s p. I pomoea b atatas S accharum o fficinarum Z ea mays S olanum l ycopersicum C ucurbita m axima C ucurbita m oschata P haseolus v ulgarus T riticum s pp. S olanum t uberosum C henopodium q uinoa L upinus m utabilis V icia f aba O xalis t uberosa U llucus t uberosus A nnona c herimolia I nga f euillei P ersea americana P outeria l ucuma F icus c arica C itrus s pp. C apsicum p ubescens M endicago s ativa O puntia f icus i ndica P hragmites c ommunis E ucalyptus s pp.

* = i ntroduced s pecies

T he l a rge s t ma rke ti nt h es ur round ing r eg ion i sa tA ncawa s io n A n ta P ampa , w he re s ome f o rms o fC hoquema rka p o t te ry f r om L ima tambo a r e t a ken f o r s a le o r e xchange . I ta t t rac t s l a rge n umbe r s i n c lud ing p eop le o n h o r seback f r om P an t ipa ta a nd P iv i l .T he m a jo r ma rke tc en t re a tI z cuchaca , b e s ide A n ta , may b ev i s i ted f o rs pec ia lr e asons ,s uch a sc ha rg ing c a rb a t te r ie sf o r r e cord p layer s . More s ubs is tence g oods a ppea r t o move b e tween h ou seho ld s o u t s ide t h e ma rke t s ys tem a s i sc ommon i n v a l leys o f h or izon ta l ly c omp re ssed a l t i tud ina l v a r ia t ion ( Brush 1 976b ;F a r r ing ton 1 984b ; Maye r 1 985 :43 ) .

D is t r ic t c ap i ta ls h ave v a ry ing n umbe r s o f n on -commun i ty r e s iden t s , b u t o the r t owns a r e e s sen t ia l ly n uc lea ted c en t r e s o f a n i nd igenous ( c ampes ino ) c ommun i ty w ho se membe r s w o rk i ns u r round ing l a nd s . S ome h ou seho lds p r ef e ri s o la ted h ouse s o rh am le t sn ea rp a r t icu la rf i e ld so rp a s tu r e s .T he se a r ec ommon a th igh a l t i tude s ,o f ten i na s soc ia t ion w i th a na n ima l c o r ra l . Mode ra te c oncen t ra t ions o fd we l l ing s a r e a l so c ommon n ea r f ormer h ac ienda b u i ld ings , a s a t T a rawas i , S ondor , Hue r tawayqo ,C hak l lanka ,U r aca a nd Ma rkawa s i .T he se p e r ta in t o r ecogn ized p ea san t c ommun i t ies , p ea san t g roup s a nd c oope ra t ive s . O ld h a c ienda e s tab l ishmen t sc en t re u pon al a rge dwe l l ing w i th a t i l ed r oof , c a rpen ter -bu i l t d oo r s , w indow f r ames a nd s hu t te r s . Many o f t h e se b u i ld ing s a r e r eu sed a s s choo ls . Sma l l c hape l s a r eo f t en l o ca ted n ea rby a nd i n du s t r ia l f a c i l i t ie s i n c luded k i lns f o r l ime a nd r oof t i l e s , c ar iazo p l an t s a nd w a te r -d r iven g r a in m i l ls . P r iva te o r n on -commun i ty l a ndho ld ings a r e c ha rac ter is t ic o fv a l ley -f loo ro r l ow a l t i tude ' f l a t lands l o ca ted n ea rr oadway s . Much o ft h is l a nd i si r r iga ted ,

L a rge t own s may h ave s ma l l s hop s , al owe rs econda ry s choo l , ah ea l th o ff i ce r ,s ma l ld i spensa ry ,r e s iden tp r ie s ta nd p e r son s s k i l led i n b l acksm i th ing , c a rpen t ry , b u i ld ing a nd c lo th ing r e pa ir s .T he n ea re s th o sp i ta l i sa tC u sco . On ly L ima tambo h ad e l ec t r ic i ty , u nre l iab le a nd o fl ow a nd v a r iab le v o l tage f o rf i ve h our s i nt h e e ven ing , f r om a s ma l l t u rb ine b es ide t h e P a rqo R ive r .

1 6

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t s ome t imes i n corpo ra tes t he s i te a nd f a c i l i t ies o f af o rmer h ac ienda c omp lex ,a nd p roduc t ion i sl a rge ly d e s t ined f o rs a le i n C u sco . 2 .6

( Hordeum v u lgare ) i sl e ss c ommon b u t p l an ted i n s im i la r l o ca t ions . H igh a l t i tude f i e ld c r op s f o rl o ca l c onsump t ion a r ep r inc ipa l ly p o ta toe s , b road b ean s ,q u inoa ,u l lucu ,o ca a nd t a rw i ,o f wh ich o n ly t h eb eans a r ei n t roduced .T hey a r eu sed i ns oup s , t o a s ted t o make b ean k ancha , o r b o th t o a s ted a nd b o i led t o make p huspu . U l lucu i sc ommon ly g r a ted o r f i ne ly c u t f o r u se i n s oup sa nd o ca sa r eb o i led a nd e a ten w i thou tp ee l ing . T arw ii s b o i led t or emove b i t ter ne s s , c au sed b y q u ino l iz id ine a l ka lo ids c oncen t ra ted i ns eed s( McBa r ron 1 976 :87 ) .B o th p l an t ing s eed , f o r e xchange , a nd p repa red c ome s t ib le t arw i i sb rough t t o L ima tambo ma rke t .

AGRICULTURE

O b served c rop c omp lexes v a ry w i th a l t i tude ( Tab le 2 :2 ) , b u t t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f c rops i s a n e f fec t ive r e su l t o f c omp lex d ec is ion mak ing a s much a s a b so lu te g row th l im i t s ( Gade 1 975 :95 ) . H a c iendas i nt h e l owe r s ou thwe s te rn L ima tambo v a l ley w e re r e nowned f o rs uga rc ane p roduc t sp r io rt oa g ra r ian r e fo rm sa f te r 1 969 . C a t iazo ( s uga rc ane l i quo r )i ss t i l lp roduced o n as ma l le r s ca le .L ack o fw a te ra t Ma rkawa s ih a sl e dt ot h ed e c l ine o fc ane p lan t ings . C rops i n c lude b anana , o ranges a nd a chokcha ( Cyc lan thera p eda ta ) . O ther s , s uch a s s wee t p o ta to , man ioc , c h ir imoya ,p akay , l ucma , s a iw in to ( P s id ium g ua java ) a nd a vocado ,h ave b een u sed i nP eru s i nce t h eP rece ram ic ( Bonav ia 1 982 :313 -345 ) . L a rge a vocado v a r ie t ie sw e re i n t roduced t ot h e l owe rv a l ley f o rs a le i nC usco . B amboo , u sed f o rc ons truc t ion , i sc u l t iva ted i nd ense s t ands b e s ide t h e C o lorado , B lanco a nd Apu r imac r i ve r s .

P a r t o f t h e v a l ley f l oo r p o ta to c rop i st r anspo r ted t o C usco , a nd i n c lude sl a rge v a r ie t ies , s uch a s mar iva a nd r e vo luc iön a s w e l l a sm icae la ,s i ka a nd s a lomd . P o ta to i sn o t s i gn if ican t i n l owe rv a l ley a g r icu l tu re ,p robab ly ar e su l to ff a c to r s i n c lud ing f unga ld i sea se w h ich ,a cco rd ing t oG ade ( 1975 :209 ) , i n crea se s i np reva lence t h e re . O ld v a r ie t ie s , q ' omp i sa nd y ungay , o ccu r i n b o th v a l ley f l oo r a nd h ighe r s l ope f i e lds . P o ta toe s o f C hoquema rka ( 3480 m ) i n c lude w ayru ,y ungay ,p apa b lanca , q ' omp i sa nd o r r e l lone s .Q ' e l lo r un tu ( ye l low e gg )c ome s f r om Q 'e l lwacocha i nt h e h e igh t s o fS ondo r . S uway l lu i sg rown a t C h ' i l lkaga sa ( 3585 m )n ea rP an t ipa ta . P o ta toe sd ug f r om f i e ld s p lan ted w i th ma ize a tt wo l o ca t ion s a bove L ima tambo ( 2800 ma nd 3 345 m ) w e re c a l led a r raq p apa b y t h ec u l t iva to r s , a nd w e re s a id t ob eu np lan ted . T hey t o ok s eve ra l f o rms , a nd s uch ' w i ld ' v a r ie t ies a r e r e por ted e l sewhe re i n C usco ( Her rera 1 923 :32 ; V a rga s 1 936 :224 ) .

M idd le a l t i tude sa r ed om ina ted b y ma ize c u l t iva t ion .I ti se a ten b o i led ( mo te ) ,t o a s ted ( k ancha ) ,g round a nd b aked ( hum i raa ) ,i n t h ick s oup sa nd i nt h ef o rm o f ma ize b ee r( aqa o rc h icha ) . T he mo s t c ommon v a r ie ty b e low 2 300 m i sC hunchusara wh ich h a s s ma l l y e l low k e rne ls . I ti so cca s iona l ly s een u p t o 2 600 m . D ry f l in t ma ize s o ft h is k ind a r e mo re r e s is tan t t od i sea se i nh o ta nd h um id e nv ironmen t st h an l a rge k er ne l f l ou rv a r ie t ie s ( Gade 1 975 :120 ) .A nu n iden t if ied d i sea se i nL ima tambo d u r ing 1 985 -86 a f fec ted ma ize f i e lds b e low 3 000 m mo s t s e r ious ly , b u th ad l i t t le i mpac to n c hunchusara .

F ro s t s a nd i n so la t ion d u r ing t h e d ry s ea son a r e u sed i n t h e p roduc t ion o fc hu i io , f r eeze d r ied p o ta to , a tU ra ta r i ( 3825 m ) . Wh i te f r o s t s a tQ a sakancha , i nT omacaya c ommun i ty l a nds , w e re n o tr e ga rded b yr e s iden t sa ss u i tab le f o rc hur zo a l though i t l i e s a ta bou t t h e s ame a l t i tude . P o ta toe s w e re s t o red t h e re i n s t raw c ove red mound s b ounded b y ab rushwood f ence a f te r h a rve s t . O ca , u l lucu a nd r ed a nd w h i te s eeded v a r ie t ies o f q u i rwa a r ec u l t iva ted o nh i gh v a l ley s i de f i e ld s .

T he o u ts tand ing ma izes f o r mo te a nd c h icha f r om 2 400 t o 3 000 m a re y e l low uw ina a nd mo t t led y e l low -cr imson l unkuchanka . H arve s t s a l so c on ta in s ome w h i te p araqay f o r mo te o rs pec ia lb ee r ,s ma l l c ob so fp u rp le -b lack k u l l i sara ,u sed t o c o lour c h icha a nd g rey -wh i te h ankasara f o r t oa s t ing . D if f e ren tv a r ie t ie sa r ec u l t iva ted a tT a l ca ranayoq i nC ha ld lanka ( 3355 m ) . T hey i n c lude c hanku , c hanku b lanco , c hembar , w ayrasara , u chuku l lu , ma tar iF zu a nd w akamu l lu . H er rera ( 1923 :24 ,26 ) r e co rded u chuku l lu a nd w ayra sara e l sewhe re i n C usco , b u t o the r s may b e l oca l ized . A t t h is h igh a l t i tude , ma ize i so n ly g rown o n t h e f l a t , p ro tec ted a nd i r r iga ted v a l ley f l oo rf i e lds a nd i su sua l ly i n te rc ropped w i th h aha ( i n t roduced b road b ean ) o r t arw i . F ros t s o n A nt s P ampa a t3 300 -3400 m i n 1 984 -5 b urn t ma ize c rops b u t l e f t i n te r spe r sed t arw i a nd h abas u nsca thed . C u l t iva tors s a id t h e l a t te r p ro tec t ma ize p l an t sf r om c o ld w ind s .

T ree c r op s a r e ma in ly f ound a ta l t i tude s b e low 3 000 m . T hose l i s ted i n T ab le 2 : 2 a r e , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f c omme rc ia l o range sa nd a vocado s( p a l ta ) ,g rown i ng a rden so rn ea rh ouse s t o p rov ide a n i n te re s t ing a dd i t ion t o t h e d ie t . Avocados i n s ome L ima tambo g a rdens a r e as ma l l e gg -shaped a nd s moo th s k inned v a r ie ty w i th as t rong f l avou r . P akay p i th p rov ides a n o cca s iona lj u icy s nack .F ig s , l emons a nd p eache sf r om g a rdens a r e s o ld i ns ma l l q uan t i t ie s a tL ima tambo ma rke t . T he n a t ive t r ee t oma to ( s acha t oma t e , C yp iwmandra c ra s s if o l ia ) ,i sg rown f o r as ma l l L ima tambo j am p roduc t ion b us ine ss b u t r a re ly s een e l sewhe re . E xpe r imen ta l p l an t ings o fg raf ted E ry thr ina s pp . , i nv i ew o fh i gh p ro te in s e ed p roduc t ion , w e re c onduc ted i nt h e v a l ley u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o fC u sco U n ive r s i ty a nd t h e Agr icu l tu re M in is t ry . A lf a lf a i st h e o n ly c rop s pec if ica l ly p lan ted a s f o rage f o r g u inea p ig s , h or se s a nd c a t t le a nd i s l im i ted t op a r t so fs ma l lho lde r ' si r iga ted v a l ley f l oo rl a nd s .

C rop s c ommon i n t h e m idd le a l t i tude s o f t h e v a l ley i n c lude z apa l lo ( pumpk in ) a nd t oma to . I n 1 985 -86 t h e h igh p ro te in g ra in ama ran th k iw icha ( Amaran thus c auda tus ) , mos t ly t h e O sca r B lanco v a r ie ty , w a s e xpe r imen ta l ly p romo ted b y t h e M in is t ry o f Ag r icu l tu re i nL i ma tambo a nd Mo l lepa ta d i s t r ic ts . U se o ft he c ome s t ib le l e af o fu ncu l t iva ted a ma ran th s ( ha taku ) w a sa l ready k nown .

Gu inea p ig s ( cuy ) a r e r a ised i n mo s t r u ra l h ouseho lds . T hey dwe l l o n h ouse f l oo r s a nd c onsume f ood s c rap s . T hey a r e ma in ly p repa red f o r r e l ig ious f i e s tas , i mpo r tan t f am i ly d ay s a nd g ues ts . D ogs a r e a l so c ommon ly k ep t p e t s a nd h ouse g ua rds . A ndean c ame l ids a r e n o t r a ised i n t h e L ima tambo V a l ley , b u t a r e p a s tu red o n b unch -g ra ss s t ands i n t h e p una a bove 4 000 m b e tween A nt sP ampa a nd C h inchaypuqu io .

O ld Wo r ld c rop s f ound i nc en t ra l v a l ley f i e lds i n c lude g a r l ic ( A l l ium s a t iva ) , o n ion ( Al l ium c epa ) , c abbage ( Brass ica o l eracea ) a nd c h ick p ea s( C icer a r ie t inum ) . Whea ti sc ommon o n u n ir r iga ted v a l ley s l opes ( t emporales) , b u t i s mos t e x tens ive ly p lan ted n ea r t he u ppe r e f fec t ive l im i t f o r ma ize , s uch a sr o l l ing h i l ls ide sa round S uma ro ,a bove 3 400 m .B a r ley

H ouseho lds o f ten h ave c h ickens a nd p igs f o r o ccas iona l 1 7

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

c onsump t ion . A t v a l ley f l oo r l o ca t ions c a t t le a r e l a rge ly h e ld b yp r iva te l a ndho lde r s . Commun i t ie st e nd t od evo te s uch l a nd s t of i e ld c rop s , a l though b u l lock sa r ek ep tf o rp l ough ing . Sma l l h e rds o f c a t t le a nd s heep a r e mo re f r equen t ly r e ta ined b y c ommun i ty h ouseho lds t ha t l i ve n ea r h igh a l t i tude l a nd s w i thou t w ide c ropp ing p o ten t ia l . Goa t s a r e r a ised i ns eve ra l s t eep p a r t so fL ima tambo . An ima l r a is ing i su sua l ly c omb ined w i th f i e ld c u l t iva t ion . T hose w ho c hoo se t or a i se s t ock a th i gh a l t i tude sa ppea rt oe a t mea ta nd m i lk p roduc t sm o re f r equen t ly . Mea ti sd r ied ,a nd c heese made ,o cca s iona l ly f o rl o ca l s a le a nd e xchange w i th v a l ley f l oor h ouseho lds . Much p roduce i s c a r r ied o np eop le ' sb ack s , b u tt h ed i spe r sed n a tu re o ff i e ld sa l so c on t r ibu te st o ap eak d emand f o rp ack a n ima ls d u r ing t h e ma in c rop h arve s t . S tu rdy h or ses a r e a bundan t i nC hon ta , P iv i l a nd P an t ipa ta .

DF a nd TW ) s uf f e r a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion d ef ic i t s ( Tab le 2 : 3 ) . T he d ef ic i t i ss p read u neven ly t h rough t h e y ea r . P ub l ished i n fo rma t ion f o rC a Ica i nt h eV i lcano ta V a l ley , a t2 926 m a nd a na lagou s t ot h e DMF z one , i n d ica te s ad ef ic iency o n ly f r om Apr i l t o O c tober ( 0 .N .E .R .N . 1 976 :18) . Hence , a gr icu l tu ra l is t sm ay t a ke a dvan tage o ft h es ea sona l ly s uf i c ien t r a inf a l l ,e mp loy i r iga t ion o rd o b o th . C l ima t ic o bserva t ions w e re r ecorded o n aL i ma tambo I nca t e r ra ce a t2 595 m , t op rov ide s ea sona l a g ro c l ima t ic d a ta i nt h e l a rge s t ( D MF ) z one f o rc o r re la t ion w i th a gr icu l tura l p rac t ice s ( Hef f e rnan 1 989 : A pp I ,T ab le 2 :4 ) . Ad ry s ea son o ccu r sf r om May t oS ep temb e r ,c en t red u pon t he d r ie s ta nd c o lde s t mon th s o fJ une a nd J u ly . P rec ip i ta t ion d ef ic iency p robab ly p reva i ls a t a bou t t h e s ame t ime a s i nC a Ica . R a in o ccur red o n h a lf o r mo re o ft h ed ay so b se rve dd ur ing t h e w e ts ea son mon th sf r om O c tobe r t o Apr i l . T h is p e r iod i sa l so t h e wa rme s t o ft h e y ea r , w i th f r equen t ly o ve rca s t mo rn ings . R a ins a re mo s tf r equen ti n D ecembe ra nd J anua ry a nd t e nd t of a l l g en t ly . Howeve r ,r i ve r s r i se a nd l ow b r idge s o n t h eC o lorado a re p rone t ob e w a shed a way .W ind sa r et y p ica l ly g en t le a nd a re n o tc ons ide red at h rea t t oc rop so nt h ec en t ra l v a l ley f l oor .

P r iva te l a ndho ld ing s a r ec oncen t ra ted o n v a l ley -f loo r i r iga ted l a nds a nd mos tr e ly o np a id l a bou r . F o r ma jo rt a sk sc ampe s ino h ouseho ld s a r range am inka . I nv i ted n e ighbou r s a r e p rov ided w i th f ood , c h icha a nd u sua l ly c af iazo a nd t h e w o rk h a s a s t rong ly s oc ia l f l avou r . S t ronge ro b l iga t ion s t og i ve r e c ip roca l p e rsona l a s s is tance i n a gr icu l tu re e x is t b e tween r e la t ive s . C ommun i ty membe r s a re e xpec ted t op a r t ic ipa te i nc ommuna l p ro jec ts , s uch a sc ana l o rr oad d igg ing , o rc u l t iva t ion o fc rop s i n tended f o r ac ommun i ty p u rpo se . 2 .7 AG RICULT U RAL AGROCLI MATE

SYSTE MS

C or respond ing a g r icu l tura l a c t iv i t ies o bse rved a t d i f f e ren t a l t i tude sw e re a l so r e co rded ( Hef f ernan 1 989 : T ab le 2 : 5 ) . F i e ld c rop c u l t iva t ion i sr a re a t a l t i tude s o ve r 3 900 m , a l though p a s tu re sa r eu sed .P lan t ing a tl ower a l t i tude s ,f o rt h e ma in c r op w h ich u se s t h e w a rm w e ts e a son mon th s f o rg row th , o ccu r sa s t h e f r equency o f r a ins i n c reases b e tween S ep tember a nd J anua ry . T he se c rops a re h a rves ted a s r a ins a ba te b e tween Ma rch a nd J u ly .

AND

A l t i tud ina l v a r ia t ion a nd a b sence o f ame teo ro log ica l s t a t ion i n t h e s t udy r eg ion h i nde r g ene ra l isa t ion a bou t t h e a g roc l ima t ic b ackg round f o r s ea sona l c u l t iva t ion p rac t ice s . T he e s t ima ted r a nge so fc l ima t ic v a r iab les u sed i nt h ed ef in i t ion o fl i f ez one s , a s a pp l ied t o t he a rea , p rov ide a s pa t ia l o ve rv iew o f t h is v a r ia t ion ( Tab le 2 : 3 ) .

T he v a s t ma jor i ty o ff i e lds a bove 3 400 m a r eo n ly c u l t iva ted d ur ing t h e w e t s e a son , a nd t h e h ighes t a r e r e s ted f o r many y ea r s a f te rh arve s t . N ew f i e lds a re p repa red w hen t h ee a r th i s d amp e nough f o r p lough ing , s ome t ime s w i th t h e c hak i tak l la ( f oo tp lough ) . I nC hoquema rka t h is wo rk i sd one i ng roup s o f t h ree , z wo men w i th f oo tp lough s a nd at h ird d owns lope u s ing h and s , ap i ck o rr aukana ( l ampa o rh ooked -hand le b road -b lade i mp lemen t ) t o t u rn c hampas ( s ods ) a nd r emove v ege ta t ion . S ome w oody b ranche s a r et a ken f o rf ue l , a nd s ma l le r ma te r ia l i sl e f t t od ry f o r l a te r b ur n ing o n t he f i e ld . As moke h aze i s c ommon i nt h es ky d ur ing t h ed ry s ea son mon ths .

O ccu r rence o ff r o s t s a nd t he a va i lab i l i ty o fw a te rf o ri r r iga t ion a r e c r i t ica l p a rame ter s i n t h e s e lec t ion o f c r op s a nd a nnua l c u l t iva t ion s t ra tegy . Obse rva t ions a nd i n te rv iew s i n d ica te t h a t f r os ts a re v i r tua l ly a bsen t a t 2 600 m b u t b ecome c ommon a bove 3 000 m , i n t h e u ppe r p a r t o f t h e D ry Mon tane F o re s t Z one , d ur ing t h e d r ie s tp er iod f r om m id - May t om id -Oc tobe r . H a i l s t orm s a r e n o tr ega rded a s s ea sona l ly r e s t r ic ted , a nd c an o ccu ra t much l owe r a l t i tude s . T he l ow a l t i tude z one s ( D MF ,

TABLE 2 :3 C limatic Variables

i n L imatambo L ife Z ones.

F ield Zone

ONERN Z one

A .T.A.P. ( 1)

Wet Upland

( after ONERN 1 976)

mm

M .A .B ( 2)

°C

A .P.E. ( 3)

%

( west)

pp-SaS

1 000-2000

3 -6

1 2.5-25

( east)

pmh-SaS

5 00-1000

3 -6

2 5-50

Humid

( west)

bmh-MS

1 000-2000

6 -12

2 5-50

F orest

( east)

bh-ms

5 00-1000

6 -12

5 0-100

F orest

b s-MBS

5 00-1000

1 2-17

1 00-200

Dry Forest

b s-S

5 00-1000

1 7-24

1 00-200

Thorny Woodland

m te-S

2 50-500

1 7-24

2 00-400

Dry Montane

Notes:

( 1)

Average Total Annual

( 3)

Annual

P recipitation R ange;

P otential Evapotranspiration ,

( 2)

M ean Annual B iotemperature Range;

a s % o f A .T.A.P.

1 8

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

L owe r a l t i tude u n ir r iga ted f i e lds ( t empora les ) a r e u sed i na s im i la r s ea sona l p a t tern ;b u t a r e n o t l o ng f a l lowed . Many a r e o n ly r e s ted d ur ing t h e d ry s ea son a f te r h a rve s t . A t t h is t ime a n ima ls a r e l e f t t oe a t f i e ld s t ubb le .P lough ing b eg ins w i th t h e f i r s t r a ins ,a nd i s ma in ly d one b y b u l lock p lough .

a nd 1 , 300 a nd 1 , 100 BP . T he o ccur rence o f aL i t t le I c e A ge t h roughou t t h e Andes f r om a bou t t he 1 4 th c en tury u n t i l t h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry , a nd f o rg lac ia l r e cess ion b e tween t h e 1 930 s a nd 1 960 s , i ss t rong ly s uppor ted . T he s t ar t ing d a te f o r t h e mo s t r ecen t r eadvance i st he refo re i mpo r tan t t o t he r e sea rch t ime sca le .

I r r iga t ion i sc ommon i nt e r raced , l owe r v a l ley f l oo ra nd f l ank l oca t ions . C ana ls a r e d rawn f r om s i de s t reams a nd m a in c ou rse s o f t he Co lo rado a nd B lanco r i ve r s . S uff ic ien t ly f l a t l a nds a r ec hosen f o re f f ec t ive i r iga t ion . C ons t ruc t ion o fs ho r t c ana l st of i e ld s n ea r as i de s t ream i sn o tt e chn ica l ly d emand ing a nd i sd one b y h ou seho ld membe r sa nd t h e ir n e ighbou r s .B o th s t one w a l led t e r rac ing a nd a n i r r iga t ion s upp ly w a s o rgan ized i nt h i sw ay o n av a l ley s i de f l a tn ea rL ima tambo d u r ing t h ed r y s ea son o f 1 985 . L ong c ana ls , o r t h ose r e qu ir ing r o ck c u t t ing , a re ama jo rp ro jec t f o rc ommun i ty o rp r iva te l a ndho lde r s a nd may t a ke s eve ra ly ea r st oc omp le te .

I n t h e C en t ra l P eruv ian Co rd i l le ra B lanca a m inor g lac ia l a dvance i n t h e e a r ly 1 4 th c en tu ry i sr epor ted t o h ave k i l led t r ee sa nd b u r ied s o i ls ,b u tg rea te rr eadvance i sd a ted f r om ' a f t e r t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry ' u n t i l a bou t 1 850 ( C lapper ton 1 983 :127 ) . C ores f r om Que lccaya i c e c ap n ea r t he Cusco -Puno d epa r tmen ta l b o rde r( 13° 5 6 ' S ,7 0 ° 5 0 ' W) h ave b een a na ly sed i nd e ta i l a nd c omb ined w i th f i e ld i nves t iga t ions o ft h e c ap 's p rope r t ie s ( Ha s tenra th 1 978 :86 ) . C o re d a t ing i sb e l ieved t ob e a ccura te t oa bou t ± 20 y ea r s b efo re AD 1 600 , y ea r o f ad u s t e ven t c o r re la ted w i th av o lcan ic e rup t ion , a nd a bou t± 2 y ea r s t h e reaf t e r( Thomp son e ta ' . 1 986 ) .

Cana l i r r iga t ion i s ad i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o f many c u l t iva ted t r act s b e tween a bou t 3 400 m a nd 2 400 m , a s soc ia ted w i th ma ize a g r icu l tu re i nt h el owe rH um id F o re s ta nd D ry Mon tane F o re s tZ one s , a nd o fn ea r ly a l l f i e ld a g r icu l tu re b e tween 2 400 m a nd 1 800 m , i na s soc ia t ion w i th s uga rc ane o rf r u i t s i nt h e D ry F o re s t a nd T horny Wood land Z one s . T h is i sc ons is ten t w i th t h ec u l t iva t ion r e qu iremen t sw he re t h es o i lw a te rd ef ic i ti s h igh a nd p robab ly e x tends o ve r al o nge r p e r iod o f t h e y ea r ( Tab le 2 : 3 ) .

I nt h e 1 , 000 y ea rQ ue lccaya r e co rd , t h ep e r iod AD 1 530 t o AD 1 900 i sd i s t ingu ished f r om t h ep rev ious 5 00 y ea r sb yg ene ra l ly l ow a l8 0 v a lues .T he p a t te rn o fd ecada la l 8 0v a lue sf o l lows v e ry c lose ly t he Nor thern h em isphere p a t tern o f d ecada l t empe ra tu re d epar tu re s f r om t he 1 881-1975 mean b e tween 1 580 a nd 1 975 . I t may , t he refo re , r epresen t ac oo l ing i n s ou thern P eru ( op . c i t . :363 , F igs 2 , 4 ) . Decada l a ve rage i c e a ccumu la t ion r o se a bove t h e 1 , 000 y ea r mean f r om AD 1 500 t o AD 1 720 , r ega rded a s t h e w e t tes t i n terva l i n t he p e r iod , w he reas 1 720 t o 1 860 i st hough t t oh ave b een v e ry d ry . H igh m ic ropa r t ic le c oncen t ra t ions c on t inued t h roughou t t h e L i t t le I c e Age , a bove t h e ir a ve rages f o r t he 1 4 th , 1 5 th , a nd 2 0 th C en tu r ie s . H ence ,t h e se a re a t t r ibu ted t oi n crea sed a tmo sphe r ic l o ad ing r a the r t han s l owe r i c e a ccumu la t ion . S ince p a r t ic les w e re o fs im i la rk i nds t h roughou t , t h ey may r ef lec th ighe rw ind v e loc i t ie s a cross t h e P eruv ian a l t ip lano ( op .c i t . :363 -364 ) . T he Q ue lccaya d a t ing o fr e cen tp a laeoc l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions s ugge s t s t h a t t h e mode rn c l ima te i s , i nb road t e rms , more l i ke t h a t o f AD 1 300 t o AD 1 500 t han t ha t p reva i l ing f o r mos t o f t h e C o lon ia l P e r iod .

Whe re b o th r a infa l l a nd i r r iga ted c u l t iva t ion a r e a n o p t ion f o r f i e ld s , a g r icu l tura l o rgan isa t ion i s mo re c omp lex . I r r iga t ion wa te ri sa pp l ied d u r ing t h e m idd le o ft h ed ry s e a son t oe nab le p lough ing , s ow ing a nd i n i t ia l g row th . A ne a r ly h a rve s tc an b e o b ta ined o f ac rop w h ich i so the rw ise s ca rce . ' E a r ly p o ta to ' ( maway ) w a s f r equen t ly s own u nde r i r r iga t ion o n v a l ley f l oo r f i e lds b e tween 2 400 m a nd 3 000 m i nt h e d ry s e a son mon th s o f May , J une a nd J u ly . T he s ame f i e lds , e spec ia l ly w i th manu re ,c an p rov ide as ucce s sf u l w e ts ea son a nd i r r iga ted d ry s ea son c r op . T im ing i so ft h ee s sence f o rd oub le c ropp ing . A n a ccep ted g u id ing d a te f o r t h e l a te s t t ime t os ow aw e t s ea son ma ize c rop a ta round 2 600 m i st h e f e a s to fL a V i rgen d e l a C oncepc iön ( 8 Decembe r ) , b ecau se i ti se s sen t ia l t oa l low f o r t he c rop 's g row ing s ea son a nd h ave i tr e ady f o rh a rve s tb efo re r a ins c ommence a ga in ( c aus ing r o t t ing a nd f unga ld i sea se ) .

I ft h e re w e re e a r l ie r s i gn if ican t f l uc tua t ions , a s i nd ica ted f o r c en t ra l P eru , t h en i ti sn ecessa ry t o mode l t h e ir e f fec t s . T o c onver to xygen i s o tope r a t io v a r ia t ions t ot empe ra ture c hange s i sn o t s t ra igh tfo rwa rd ( G ray 1 981 :53 -61) . I ft h e g loba l f i gu re o fa bou t a1 2 °C d rop i n mean a nnua l t empe ra tu re i sa s sumed ( G rove 1 988 :364 ) ,i ti sf u r the rn ecessa ry t oc ons ide rt h er a te o f i mpac t u pon o ther s ys tems . F ores ted l im i ts may h ave d e scended s l ow ly a to nse t , a nd e l eva ted r ap id ly a f te r g l ac ia l r e cess ion ( op .c i t . :379 ) , a nd h uman r esponses t o s uch p henomena c an b e mea surab le i n d ays o r mon ths (McGhee 1 981 :163 ) , a nd v a ry a cco rd ing t oc omp lex t e chno log ica l a nd o the r c u l tura l f a c tor s (Mackay 1 981:373) . R isk -reduc ing c u l t iva t ion s t ra teg ies , s uch a s i n terc ropp ing a nd mu l t i leve l l a ndho ld ing f o r d ive r se c rop s , w i l l h ave b een a dvan tageous . T he e fec t ive b ounda r ie so ff i e ldc rop c u l t iva t ion g ene ra l ly ,a nd f o r p ar t icu la r c rops , w i l l h ave s h if ted . I t i s p oss ib le t h a t c hanged t empe ra tu re a nd h um id i ty c ou ld p rove u sefu l i ns ome l o ca l i t ie sa nd d i sa s t rous i no the r .

T he e a r ly d ry s ea son i s ab u sy t ime . C rop s a r e h a rve s ted , s o r ted a nd t r anspor ted ,a nd ma ize i sd ehusked a nd s e to u tt od r y f o rs t o rage . B eans , w hea t a nd b a r ley a r e t h re shed ,o f ten u s ing h o r se s . G ra in t h re sh ing i ss ome t ime s d one o n p aved c i rcu la r p la tf orms , a bou t 1 0md iame te r , l o ca ted o n l e ve l g round n ea r f i e ld s . S tone wa l ls o f t e r race s a r e r epa ired a nd v ege ta t ion c l ea red f r om t hem , u sua l ly b y b u rn ing . I ti sa l so at ime f o r b u i ld ing ,r oof t ha tch ing , a nd p o t te ry p roduc t ion b y t h ew omen o fC hoquema rka v i l lage ,s i nce v e s se ls c an b ed r ied a nd d ry f u e l i sa va i lab le . 2 .8

RECENT

PALAEOENVIRON MENTS

Mode l l ing l a te p reh is tor ic l a nd u se a nd s e t t lemen t f o r t h e r eg ion r e qu ires a n e xp l ic i t a s se s smen t o ft h e a pp l icab i l i ty o f mode rn e nv ironmen ta l a nd l a nd u se p a t terns . As yn the s is o f r e sea rch o n l a te Ho locene A ndean c l ima te b y C lappe r ton ( 1983 :87 -90 , 1 26 -133 ) i nd ica te s t h a t ap e r iod w a rme r t h an p resen t e x tended f r om a bou t 1 ,000 -10 ,000 BP u n t i l 6 , 500 BP . E v idence f o rw ide sp read g l ac ia lr e advance s i nt h ep e r iod s 4 ,700 -4 ,200 BP a nd 2 , 700 -2 ,000 B P i sc ons ide red r e a sonab ly g ood ,b u td ub ious f o rt hose p ropo sed b e tween 8 , 000 -5 ,000 B P

O ne me thod t o mode l e f fec t s o f p reh is tor ic c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions i s t o u se h is tor ic r ecords o f e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ion sd ur ing s im i la re ven t s , b u ts pec ia lc au t ion i sr equ i red t o a sce r ta in t h e i r mean ing , s pa t ia l e x ten t a nd t empo ra l a nd q uan t i ta t ive s i gn if icance ( C lax ton a nd Hech t 1 978 ; I ng ram e t .a l . 1 981) . D e sc r ip t ions o ft h e L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io r e g ion i n1 586 ,d u r ing t h ee a r ly l i t t le i c ea ge , p rov ide ag ene ra l 1 9

L ima tambo E nv ironmen t

p i c tu re ( Fo rnee 1 965 :17 18 [ 1 586 ] ) . R e s iden t so fA n ta P ampa d e sc r ibed f o u rt own st h e re ( a l l a bove 3 390 m ) a sc o ld , s ub jec t t of r os t s b e tween A p r i l a nd A ugu s t a nd w i th g r ea te s t r a inf a l l b e tween O c tobe r a nd Ma r ch . I tw a s s ea sona l ly i n unda ted , a s t o day , a nd t h e f l a t l a nd s s u s ta ined c a t t le , s heep , p igs a nd m a re s , a nd p roduced w hea t , b a r ley , ma ize , p o ta toe s , o ca sa nd q u inoa ,a l lp a r to fi t sp r e sen tc r op c omp lex .

S ome f o re s t i nt h e s ubhum id A pu r imac g o rge s may a l so b e v e ry o ld , b u t i n p lace s h a s g rown o ve r l a te p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s . B y t h e e a r ly 2 0 th c en tury t h e C usco V a l ley d epended o n s u r round ing v a l ley s f o r w ood ( Ha rdy 1 9 14 :502 5 03 ) b u t f u r the r a r chaeobo tan ica l a nd g eomo rpho log ica l e v idence i sn eeded t o mode l t h e e nv ironmen ta l l e gacy o f p r eh is to r ic C o lon ia l h i gh land l a ndu se .

T he s u rvey r e a ched L ima tambo i n Ma r ch 1 586 a nd i n fo rma t ion w a s s ough t a bou t P ampaconga , P a ta l lac ta ( nea r mode rn L i ma tambo ) , C hon ta a nd Mo l lepa ta . I n c onform i ty w i th e xpec ta t ion s ,b a sed o nt h e i rp re sen ta l t i tude s ,P ampaconga a nd C hon ta w e re d e sc r ibed a s c o ld a nd w e t a nd c o ld a nd d ry r e spec t ive ly w he rea s P a ta l lac ta a nd Mo l lepa ta h ad g ood c l ima te s . R a in s e x tended f r om S ep tembe r t o Ma rch b u t t h e c l ima te w a s s a id t ob e o the rw ise d ry . W ind s , a s t oday , w e re n o td amag ing o rp owe r fu l , b u tt h e i n fo rman t s w e re m e t a tt h e v a l ley f l oo r .T he s ame a n ima l s a nd c rop s a sA n ta w e re l i s ted , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f c h i l is a nd f r u i ts o f w arme r c l ime s ( i nc lud ing p akay ,g uava , l ucma a nd p a s s ionf ru i t ) . T he c o ld , w e t a nd w indy c ond i t ions o f S uma ro , P iv i l a nd P an t ipa ta v i l lage sw e re j ux tapo sed i nt h e 1 586 s u rvey w i th t h et empe ra te c l ima te o f C h inchaypuqu io . C rops g rown i n t h is C h inchaypuqu io r e g ion i n c luded ma ize a nd t h eh i gh land t u be r s , b u t a l so w a rm c l ima te c rop s o f t h e A pu r imac r i ve r ma rg in ( swee t p o ta to , man ioc a nd p eanu t ) ( op .c i t .: 20 -25 ) . T he s ub reg iona l c rop c omp lexe s o f 1 586 a r e n o t d i s t ingu ishab le f r om p re sen to ne s , a nd a va i lab le i n fo rma t ion d oe s n o t p e rm i t g r ea te rf o cu so nz ona lm ic ro sh if t sw h ich c ou ld b ea t t r ibu ted t o c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion sa l one .

Ma la r ia v ec to r s a ppea rt oh ave e x is ted i np r eh i s to r ic Ame r ica , b u t a ppa ren t ly t h e mo s t d ange rous v a r ie ty o ft h e p a ra s i te d i d n o t ( Na j ja r 1 976 :330 -333 ) . N ever the le ss , d eb i l i ta t ing i nd igenous d i sea se s p reva len t i n w a rm l a nds i n c luded l e ishman ia s is , c hagas a nd v erruga ( Do l lfu s 1 981 :92 ) . L e ishman ia s is ( k ' epo ) i st r an sm i t ted b y r i ve r ine s and f l i e s i n g o rges b e low 2 000 m , s uch a s t h e Apu r imac i n t h e f i e ld r eg ion , b u t i s mo s t v i ru len t i n t he e a s te rn Amazon ian l ow land s( Gade 1 9 73 :4 1) .

I th a sb een p ropo sed t h a tt h ed ome s t ica t ion o fA ndean c ame l id s o ccu r red a r ound 5 000 -6000 B P , a nd t h a tt h el a rge p opu la t ions o f t h em i n s ou the rn P e ru , c on t r ibu ted t o t h e e x tens ion o f g r a s s land i n to f o re s ted r eg ion s( C ra ig 1 985 :26 -27 ) .T he e x ten t o fd ense f o r e s tw i th o l d n a t ive h a rdwood s i ss ma l l i nt h e f i e ld r e g ion ,a nd c oncen t ra ted o nt h en o r thwe s te rn v a l ley s ide ( 3200 3 700 m ) . H ighe r h um id i ty may h ave i mpeded a gr icu l tu ra l c l ea rance , b y c ompa r ison w i th t h e d enuded l a nd scape o ft h e d r ie r s ou thea s te rn v a l ley a nd C h inchaypuqu io a t t h e s ame a l t i tude .

H igh a l t i tude s , i nt h e u ppe r HF a nd WU , c on t a in v i l lage a nd d i spe r sed h ouseho ld o rh am le ts e t t lemen t , b u ta r eg ene ra l ly o f l ow p opu la t ion d ens i ty . L and s a r e mos t ly c u l t iva ted w i thou t i r iga t ion , u s ing i n d igenou sc r op s pec ie s .

2 .9

CONCLUSION

M idd le a l t i tude s c on ta in t h e m a jo r c u r ren t s e t t lemen t s o ft h e L ima tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io r e g ion , c o r r e spond ing w i th t h e DMF a nd l owe rh a lf o ft h e HF l i f ez one s .I r r iga t ion a g r icu l tu r e i s as i gn if ican tp a r to fl a nd -u se i nt h e DMF a nd l owe r HF . L ow a l t i tude TW a nd DF l i f e z one s h ave a v e ry s ma l l p ermanen t p opu la t ion . T hey a r e c ons ide red u nhea l thy b y r e s iden t so fa d ja cen t z one s b ecau se o ft h eh i gh e rt empe ra tu r e , a nnoy ing i n sec t s a nd , i nt h e r e cen t p a s t , m a la r ia . I r r iga t ion i s a lmo s tu n ive r sa l w he re c u l t iva t ion t a ke sp l a ce .

T he c omp lex r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e L i ma tambo e nv ironmen t a nd c on tempo ra ry l a nduse a nd s e t t lemen t h a s r e su l ted i nv a r ied p a t tern s w h ich , w i th a pp rop r ia te a l lowance f o r t e chno log ica l , g eog raph ic a nd c u l tu ra l c hange , h ave r e levance t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t a nd l a nduse p a t te rn s .

2 0

CHAPTER 3

S ITE SURVEY , MATER IAL CULTURE AND CHRONOLOGY 3 .1 LOCATION , FUNCTION AND T I ME T h is c hap te rd escr ibe s t he s i te s urvey a nd r e co rd ing s t ra tegy wh ich w a s e mp loyed a nd s umma r ize s p rev iou s r e sea rch . I t a l so r e v iew st h e r eg iona l a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o fs i te t ype s a nd t h ec h rono log ica l s equenc ing o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re wh ich i s n eeded f o r d iachron ic a na lys is o f s urface s urvey d a ta . D iscu ss ion i st hen e x tended t ot h e i s sue o fd i s t ingu ish ing t h e f unc t ion so fa r chaeo log ica l s i te sa nd ma te r ia ls .

A l la va i lab le a e r ia lp ho tog raph sa nd p ub l ished m ap so ft h ea r ea w e re o b ta ined . A n o l d 1 : 200 ,000 m ap s e r ie s w a s t h eo n ly o ne t o c ove r t h e w ho le f i e ld a r ea . Mo re a ccura te 1 : 100 ,000 a nd 1 : 25 ,000 map s w e re i n comp le te f o r t h e L ima tambo V a l ley , a l though 1 : 10 ,000 d ye l ine s c ove r an a r row s t r ip o f i t .A e r ia l p ho tog raphs o ft h e w ho le a r ea w e re s t ud ied f o r s i gns o fI nca a nd p re Inca t e r rac ing o ro the r s i te s . A n i n i t ia l f i e ld w a lk ing p rogramme w a s s e t u p t ov i s i t a l o ft h ese l o ca t ions , u sua l ly a f te rp r io rd i scu s s ion w i th c ommun i ty r e s iden t s .

3 .2 S ITE SURVEYS AND RECORDING ( i ) An teceden tS tud ie si nL ima tambo a nd C h inchaypuqu io : E phra im S qu ie r 's b r ief d escr ip t ion o fI nca r u ins a tT a rawa s i i s t h ef i r s to fa ny d e ta i l f o rt h es t udy r eg ion ( 1877 :535 ) . H es pen t an igh ta t' T arahuasa h ac ienda ' a nd p roceeded t o Mo l lepa ta , d e scr ibed a s' ac o l lec t ion o fw re tched h u t s , o n ah i gh s he lf o f t h e moun ta in s (op .c i t . :535-536 ) . No men t ion w a s made o ft he l a rge I nca s i te o f Ma rkawa s i b e low t ha t t own , a l though t he l o ca t ion w a s ma rked o n al a te r map b y B ingham ( 1922 :203 ) . S qu ie rl ef t Mo l lepa ta ,c i rc led T i lka moun ta in ,c ro ssed ar av ine a nd c l imbed t oL a B anca p o s t -house h av ing p a ssed a n I nca t ambo o n t h e a scen t . H e d escended t o as uspen s ion b r idge a cros s t h e A pur imac a t wh ich n o d ef in i te s i gns o f I nca h and iwo rk w e re f ound ( 1877 :536 -537 ) . B ingham 's r ou te o f 1 912 ( 1 922 : 133 ) , o n t h e w ay t ol owe rV i lcabamba , s how s t h a t h e w en t f r om L i ma tambo t oL a E s t re l la , p re sumab ly p a ss ing Ma rkawa s i , a nd d own t o ad i f f e ren t Co lon ia l s uspens ion b r idge ,p robab ly n ea rt h e mode rn s t ee lo ne ma rked ' 1 938 ' . I n 1 934 a r chaeo log ica l wo rk w a s d one a tT a rawa s i b y J o sé F ranco a nd A le jand ro Gonza lez ( 1937 ) , u nde rs upe rv is ion o f L u i s V a lcä r ce l . I tc omp r ised t h e r emova l o fr u s t ic b u i ld ings f r om I n ca m a sonry a nd t he e xcava t ion o ft wo l a rge t r enche s t o f o l low w a l ls o f Cusco s t y le ma son ry w h ich h ad b een c ove red b y ma ss ive s o i l d epos i t ion f r om a n ea rby s l ope . No i n forma t ion o n a r tef ac t s w a s p ub l ished . T e r rac ing a nd r i ve r c ana l isa t ion n ea rby , a nd a no the r s i te o f Cusco s t y le ma sonry i nt h et own , w e re n o ted ( op .c i t . :68 ) . Apa r t f r om d ra inage wo rk t op re se rve t h e wa l ls , n o f u r the r e xcava t ion i sr epor ted a tt he s i te ( Va lcä r ce l 1 946 :178 ;V e la sco 1 972 :279 ) . C hoquechu r co ( S i te AM4 ) w a s f ound b y F ide l R amo s o ft h e I n s t i tu to N ac iona ld eC u l tu ra ( Beauc le rk 1 980 :30 ) ,a nd ar epor t e x is ts o n Q o lmay ( AC2 ) , b y s t uden ts o f C usco U n ive r s i ty ( A lva rez e t .a 1 .1984 ) . Ar e conna issance , s eek ing l i nks w i th t h e C us ichaca a r ea , w a s made b y K enda l l w i th R amo s o n t h e w e s te rn s l ope s o ft h e L ima tambo V a l ley . K enda l l p o s tu la ted f o r t h e a r ea ap a t tern o fl a te p reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t s im i la r t o t h a t o f C u s ichaca , w i th s ome e v idence o f War t o ccupa t ion ( 1979 :139 -140 ) . ( i ) L oca t ing S i te s : T he s i te s u rvey c an b ed iv ided i n to t wo ma in a r ea s( F ig s . 5 : 1) . T he L ima tambo A rea ( of 4 56 s q .km ) was t h e s ub jec t o f g enera l f o o ts u rvey w i th g ood c ove rage f o ra l l a r chaeo log ica l s i te t ype s . T he Ch inchaypuqu io A rea ( 3 17 s q .km ) w as t h e s ub jec t o f s u rvey w h ich w a s t a rge t ted f o r c ompa ra t ive p u rpo se s , u s ing a er ia l p ho tog raphy t o i d en t ify t h e p robab le s i te s o f s t and ing a r ch i tec tu re , i n c lud ing I nca t e r race s ys tem s s e t t lemen t s o ri n s ta l la t ions .

2 1

S urvey w a s f i r s t c onduc ted f r om L ima tambo t os u r round ing a rea s . F oo t r oads w e re u sed a nd v i r tua l ly a l l s ur round ing h am le t s a nd v i l lage s w e re v i s i ted . T he L ima tambo t e r race s w e re t horough ly w a lked i n t h e s ame p er iod . T he f i e ld e nv ironmen tc on ta ins much s t eep u n s tab le l a nd a nd r e la t ive ly f ew l a rge l e ve l e xpanse s . Mo s t o f t he f l a t te r l a nds a re c u l t iva ted o r h ave s ome d eg ree o f s e t t lemen t . S urveys e ssen t ia l ly i n c luded f l a t t o mode ra te s l ope s w he re c l imb ing w a su nne ce s sa ry a nd e v idence o fs e t t lemen tc ou ld r ema in .T h is i n t roduces a s i te r e cove ry b i a s ( Sch if f e r e t .a l . 1 978 ) b u t t r ansec t s u rvey i n d ica ted t h e u nsu i tab i l i ty o f v e ry s t eep a nd e roded s l opes f o r s uch s i te s w h i ls t v a l ley s i de b enche s a nd r i dge s d id p roduce s i te s d u r ing t h e i n i t ia l s u rveys . B u r ia l s i te s o n c l if f l ike l o ca t ions c ou ld b e u nde r rep re sen ted a s ar e su l to f t h is s t ra tegy , b u t c ove rage w a s e x tended t h rough i n te rv iews w i th c ommun i ty r e s iden t s a bou t t h e p resence o f r u in s , o ld c eme ter ies o rp l ace s w i th p o t te ry i nt h e i r l a nds . T h is t e nd s t o r evea l u nu sua l o r c l us te red s i te s s uch a s t ho se w i th s t and ing a r ch i tec ture o r c eme te ry s i te s w he rea s p o t te ry s ca t te r s a nd t e r races , e spec ia l ly e roded a nd l ow w a l led o ne s , a r e r a re ly men t ioned . S urveys w e re s ubsequen t ly e x tended t o t he Mo l lepa ta , C hon ta , P iv i l , S uma ro , P an t ipa ta a nd A pu r imac ma rg in r eg ions . S eve ra l t a rge t ted s i te s urveys w e re made t h en i nC h inchaypuqu io . B r ief v i s i t s w e re m ade d u r ing at wo w eek p er iod t ot h eb o rde r ing a r ea so fA pu r imac D epa r tmen t , t op a r t s o fP aru ro P rov ince , i n c lud ing t h e Mo l le Mo l le R ive r V a l ley , Huanoqu i te , P aqa r iq tambo , H uaynacancha , Mauka l lac ta a nd C o lcha a sw e l la sA comayo P rov ince a r ound P i l lp in to . Du r ing i n i t ia l s urvey s , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion , v a r ie ty a nd a bundance o f s ur face a r tef ac ts w a s n o ted , a nd ap re l im ina ry c o l lec t ion f r om v a r ious p ar t so fs i te s w a sm ade .T h is w a s b i a sed t owa rds t h e mos t i n forma t ive p o t tery , e mpha s iz ing r im , b a se , a nd d eco ra ted b ody s he rd s , t oi n d ica te t h er a nge o fm a te r ia lp r esen t . L a rger s u rf ace a r tef ac t c o l lec t ions w e re made f o l low ing t h e p roduc t ion o f s i te p l an s o r i ns ub sequen t v i s i t s t os i te s . T he s he rds ( n =2 411) f r om p re l im ina ry a nd g r idded c o l lec t ions a r e s umma r ised i nA ppend ix I ( Tab le I : 1) . T he s i te s c ho sen f o r g r idded c o l lec t ion o fs ur f a ce a r tefac t s w e re s e lec ted f o r t h e ir r e la t ive ly h igh a r tef ac t d ens i ty , t h e a s soc ia ted p re sence o f a r ch i tec tu re a nd r e la t ive l a ck o fd i s tu rbance . T he s e lec t ion a l so a imed t or ep re sen t s i te s w i th a ppa ren t ly d i f f e ren t h i s to r ie s o f o ccupa t ion , a nd t h u st or e p re sen tt h er a nge o fa r tef ac tt y pe so f t h e a rea . As ub sequen t p e r iod w a s u sed t o mea su re a nd d raw d e ta i led p lans o f a l l ma jo r v a l ley f l oo r I nca p e r iod t e r race s ys tems a nd o f s e lec ted e xamp le s o f o the r s i te t y pe s . T h is o f ten e n ta i led v ege ta t ion c l ea rance f r om w a l ls o fs i te s i nt h e DMF a nd DF z one s . F ina l ly , s i x mon th s w e re u sed f o r c omp le t ing a nd c heck ing s i te p l ans a nd f o r d ocumen ta ry r e sea rch , t r an scr ip t ion ,a nd a r tef ac ta na lys i s i nC usco .

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

ap ermanen t s t ream o r r i ve rc ou r se , a nd c one shaped a l luv ia l c o l luv ia l f a ns wh ich s p read o ve rt hem a tt h e mou th so fd eep ly c u t s i de s t ream s a nd s ea sona l w a te r c ou r se s ( quebradas ) . T he t e r race s u sua l ly h ave ag rad ien t o fl e ss t h an 1 5% , b u t t h e f a ns m ay b e i n c luded u p t o3 3% . S uch l and s u sua l ly s uf f e re ros ion f r om r i ve r meande r a nd u nde rcu t t ing , a nd f r om g radua l o r l a nds l ide d epo s i t ion a tt h eb ounda ry w i th s t eepe rs l ope s .

( i i ) S i tes a nd S i te S epa ra t ion : I s o la ted p o r tab le a r tef ac t s w e re n o ted b u tn o tr e ga rded a s as i te i f r ecen t movemen t was l i ke ly , s uch a s i n t h e c a se o f o cca s iona l p o t she rds o rh amme rd re ssed b u i ld ing s t one sr e used i n modern w a l ls . A n ea rby p rovenance w a s i n s ome c a se s i n d ica ted b y t h e s i ze , n umbe ra nd u n l ike l ihood o fm echan ized movemen t o fs t one i n r ecen t t ime s , o r b y p rox ima te a r te fa c t s o rf e a tu re s .

2 . S lope ( S ) : av a l ley s i de l o ca t ion e xceed ing a g rad ien t o f 3 3% , e i the r o pen o r e nc losed i n ar av ine . S uch l a nd s a re c on s tan t ly b e ing e r oded .

V ery l a rge a reas c on ta ined e v idence o f t e r rac ing b y t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f s t one wa l ls , b ackf i l l ing a nd l e ve l l ing . S ome w e re c on t iguous w i th o ther p reh is tor ic f e a tu re s . T hey w e re c l a ssed a s a r chaeo log ica l a rea s wh ich t e rm ina te w he re t h e c on t inu i ty o f s uccess ive wa l ls a nd r e la t ive ly l e ve l l a nd s i s b roken . A l a nds l ide o r e ros ion g u l ly , w h ich b reak s w ha t o the rw ise a ppea r s t o h ave b een a c on t inuous a r chaeo log ica l a r ea , w a s n o tc ons ide red t oc r ea te as epa ra te s i te . D if f e ren t ia ted a r ea s o f a r ch i tec ture w i th in t h em a nd a r ea s s epa ra ted b y c on tempo ra ry r oads o rc ana l i sa t ion ( wa l led w a te rcou r se s ) , w e re u sua l ly d e s igna ted a s ' s ec to r s ' . R ive r s a nd s t reams a r e t a ken a s l im i t s o fa r chaeo log ica l s i tes u n le ss t he w a te rcou r se b e twe en s uch a rea s w a sw a l led . As i te w i th in ap reh i s to r ic t e r raced a r ea , s uch a s ac oncen t ra ted a r tefac ts ca t te ro rs t ra t if ied d epo s i t , w a s n umbe red a s as ub -s i te ' c omponen t 'o ft he l a rge rs i te .

3 .V a l ley S ide P ampa ( VSP ) : a n a rea o fl e sse r g rad ien t t h an t h e s l ope s o n av a l ley f l ank , o r p erched a bove a d eep ly c u t r av ine . VSP a r e s ub jec t t od epo s i t ion a tt h e u ppe r ma rg in a nd e ro s ion a tt h e l owe r . 4 . R idge ( R) : a n e longa te a rea , p rone t o e ros ion o n t he ma rg ins , e l eva ted a bove t he s ur round ing l a ndscape i n mo s t , b u t n o ta l l , d i rec t ions . 5 . Moun ta in o r H i l l P eak ( P ) : a n a rea e l eva ted a bove t h e i mmed ia te s ur round ing l a ndscape i n a l l d i rec t ions . S ome a r e l ow h i l lock s w h i l s to the r s a re ma jo rp eak s . ( v i i i ) R ecord ing S i te A rch i tec ture : S t ruc ture s , ma in ly s t one b u i ld ing s a nd r e t a in ing w a l ls , w e re d e scr ibed i nt h e f i e ld , a nd a l l o r as amp le m ea sured a s t o as e t o f b a s ic d imens ions . I n forma t ion o n a l s t one w a l ls i n c luded t h ep a t te rn o fc ou r s ing a nd c o rne r b ond ing , t h e n a ture a nd u n iform i ty o fs t one u sed , a ny ma te r ia l u sed i nb ond ing o rf i l l ing i n ter na l s pace s , t h e s i ze r ange o f s t one emp loyed a nd whe the r i t was u nshaped ( f ie lds tone ) , s hap ed ( by p er cus s ion ) o rd re s sed ( by p ound ing ) . A rch i tec tura l f e a ture s i n t e r races , s uch a s c ana ls o r d ra ins , s t a i r s a nd n i che s , w e re r e co rded a nd mea su red , a nd as pec ia l s ea rch m ade f o re roded p rof i le s wh ich p rov ided i n forma t ion o n c ons t ruc t ion m e thods . A rch i tec tura l f e a tu re s o fa bove -g round b u i ld ings , s uch a s w indows , d oor s , n i che s a nd e v idence o f i n terna l s ubd iv i s ion o r s t oreys , we re a l so r ecorded a nd mea su red i nt h e w ho le o rp a r to f as i te .T he t ime a nd r e sou rce s n eeded t oc l ea rd ense f o res ta nd u nde rg row th p roved t h e ma jo r o b s tac le t oc omp le te s urvey a nd s t ruc tu re r e cord ing a ts eve ra l s i te s . Mo s ts i te sh ad v ery p oo r ly p reserved s u r f ace a r ch i tec tu re .

( i v ) S i te N umbe r s a nd Name s : R eco rded s i te s w e re g iven n ames c ur ren t ly a pp l ied b y t h e n ea res t r e s iden t s t ot he l a ndscape f ea tu re s w i th in w h ich t h ey o ccur . A l l s i te s w ere g iven a n umber p ref ixed b y l e t te r s d e s igna t ing t h e P rov ince w i th in C usco D epa r tmen t ( a l l ' A ' f o r A n ta ) a nd D is t r ic t ' L ' f o r L i ma tambo w i th 5 1 s i te s , ' M ' f o r Mo l lepa ta w i th 6 s i tes a nd ' C ' f o r Ch inchaypuqu io , w i th 4 s i te s ) . ( v ) P lans a nd E s t ima t ion o fS i te E x ten t : P lans w e re made o f many s i tes a cco rd ing t ov a r iou s m e thod s a nd d eg ree s o f p rec is ion . T he b e s t o f t h e se , a pp ropr ia te f o r l a rge a nd c omp lex a r chaeo log ica la r ea s , emp loyed a ne l e c t ron ic d i s tance mea sure r a nd t heodo l i te ( s ee p lans ma rked ' EDM & T heod ' ) . T he t h eodo l i te a lone ( Theod ' ) w a su sed i ns ome c a se s f o r sma l le r s i tes o r c omponen ts . L ess p rec ise p lans w e re m ea su red b y t a pe , c ompa ss a nd c l inome te r ( Tape & C omp . ' ) , p ace a nd c ompa s s ( ' F ie ld S ke tch ' ) o r ac omb ina t ion o f t h e se m ea su remen t si nf i e ld -checked a er ia lp ho tog raph i n te rp re ta t ion s ( ' FCAP S ke tch ' ) . T he a rea o fu nmapped s i te sw a se s t ima ted b y p ac ing d ur ing s i te r e conna issance a nd , i nt h ec a se o fl a rge s i te s w i thou t at h ick c anopy o f v ege ta t ion , w i th t h e a i d o f a e r ia l p ho tog raph s .

( i x ) E xcava t ions a nd S ur face Co l lec t ion : Ma jo r e xcava t ions w e re b eyond t h es cope , r e sou rce s a nd p l an so ft he p ro jec t . O ne s i te w a s s pec if ica l ly e xcava ted t o s a lvage i n forma t ion . Q ue swawayqo , w h ich i sc omponen t 1o fs i te AL12 , f e a tu red a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly C usco I nca p o t tery a nd w a s a s soc ia ted w i th I n ca s t y le t e r rac ing . AL 12 -1 , as t ra t if ied d epo s i to fp o t te ry a nd c a rbon 1 . 4mb e low t h es u rface , h ad b een e xposed i na ne roded t e r race p rof i le , w a s s uf f er ing d i s turbance b y e ros ion , c asua l d igg ing a nd c o l le c t ing a nd wa s t h rea tened b y r oadwo rk s . F u l l e xcava t ion w ou ld h ave t i ed u pt h e g ene ra ls ur vey , b u t ag r id o n t h e s l umped e ro s ion mound wa s c o l lec ted i nS ep tembe r 1 985 a nd an a r row p rof i le w a sc l eaned f o re x t rac t ion o fs o i ls amp le s a nd c a rbon f o rd a t ing ( Append ix I I ) . B y 1 988 i th ad e scaped t h er oad c ou r se b u tn o ta dd i t iona l d i s tu rbance .

( v i ) E nv i ronmen ta l A ssoc ia t ion : P lacemen to fs i te s w i th in t he T o s i -Ho ldr idge l i f e z one s y s tem w a s a ch ieved b y c ompa r ison o fo bserved f l o ra l c omponen t s a t s i tes w i th i nd ica to rs pec ie s . ( v i i ) R e la t ive T opography : T he i mpor tance o fs e t t lemen t l o ca t ion i n mode ls o fp reh i s tor ic c u l tu re c hange i nt he Andes r equ i re s as ys tema t ic a pp roach t o t h e r e la t ive t opog raphy o f s i tes . A q ua l i ta t ive s cheme i s e mp loyed wh ich d i s t ingu ishe s s i te l oca t ion c a tego r ie s i nt h e f i e ld a rea , a lbe i t s ub jec t ive i n ma rg ina l c a se s . T he s i te p l ans h ave b een f r amed t od emons t ra te t opograph ic p l acemen t . T he c a tego r ie sa r ea sf o l lows :

S i te sc ho sen f o ra dd i t iona l s ur f ace a r te f ac tc o l lec t ions i n c luded s eve ra l w i th a r ch i tec tu re a nd p o t tery ( AL28 , AL37 a nd AL4 ) , b u t a ppa ren t ly w i thou t t ha t o f Cusco I nca s t y le . A s e cond g roup l a cked e l abora te Cusco I nca s t y le a rch i tec tu re b u t c on ta ined s uch p o t tery ( AL45 , AL39 a nd AL4 1) . O ne s i te ( AL25 ) , w i th I n ca a r tef ac t s a nd p o t te ry a nd al a rge amoun t o f C o lon ia l p o t te ry , w as a l so c hosen f o r f u r the r c o l lec t ion

1 . Va l ley F loo r ( VF ) : c omp r ise s t he l and n ea res t t o l e ve l i n t h ea rea , mo s t ly o ld r i ve rt e r race s a l ong o ne o rb o th ma rg in so f 2 2

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

b e cau se d ocumen ta ry s ource s i n d ica ted t h e l a t te r p e r iod a nd s o c ia l c i rcums tance s o f i t s o c cupa t ion , a nd i tc ou ld p rov ide d a ta o ne a r ly c o lon ia l p o t te ry i nt h ev a l ley .

o fu se b u t d eep o rc omp le te b lacken ing ( o r g rey c o re ) o ft h e f a br ic w a s n o ted a s t he p oss ib le r e su l t o f f i r ing ( i ncomp le te o x id isa t ion ) .

P re l im ina ry a na lys is o f t hese c o l lec t ions i nd ica ted s he rd d ens i t ie s o fb e tween 0 .76 / sq .m ( AL4 ) a nd 2 90 / sq .m ( AL39 ) , a l though o pen a rea s we re s e lec ted t o g ive h i gh n umbe r s o f s he rd s a nd d ens i ty w a s a f f ec ted a t mo s t s i te s b y g ra s s c ove r , l e af l i t te r o r r ubb le f r om c o l lapsed s t ruc tu re s ( Tab le 1 :2 ) . T h ick ma ts o f h a rdy g reen g ra ss , c ommon a th i gh a l t i tude , a ppea red t oe xc lude g round o b se rva t ion mo re t h an s t and so ft a l l g ra s se s a tl ower a l t i tude . No p o t te ry w a s o b servab le o n t h e s u r f a ce o f s ome s i tes o f p reh ispan ic a r ch i tec tu re w i th t h ick g ra s sc ove r ( Tab le I :1) . P a tchy g ra s s w a s c ommon a te roded a nd s t ony p laces w i th t h in s o i ls a nd u sua l ly p e rm i t ted s ur f ace o b se rva t ion . E xposed e ar th w a s ar e su l t o f c u l t iva t ion o r e ros ion t h roughou t t he s t udy r eg ion . L ow f o res t o r s h rubby v ege ta t ion p roduce s at h ick o rgan ic s ur face c ove r a nd a l so r e s t r ic t ss i te r eco rd ing b ecause o ft h eo ccu r rence o fd ense s p iny c omponen ts . S i te s a r e mos t c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h e d r ie r l ow a l t i tude a reas a nd i n a l l a rea s d ur ing t h e d ry s ea son . H igh c anopy f o re s ta lone i sn o to ve r ly r e s t r ic t ive o fg ene ra l s urvey , d e sp i te l i t ter a nd s ome u nde r s to rey . H ighe s t s he rd d ens i t ie s o ccu r red a ts i tes r emo te f r om p re sen tn uc lea ted s e t t lemen t sa nd w h ich a r e n o t u sed f or f i e ld a g r icu l tu re ( AL39 , . AL41 a nd AL28 ) . S urfaces o fs t one -wa l led t e r race s d i s tan t f r om a bove g round a rch i tec ture c on ta ined l i t t le p o t te ry , w he the r t he s u r f a ce sw e re p re sen t ly c u l t iva ted o ra bandoned .

3 .3 CUSCO REGIONAL POTTERY SERIATION AND CHRONOLOGICAL I NFERENCE

R im s he rds f ormed a s ma l l p a r t o f e ach s amp le ( l e ss t h an 9 .2% ) , b ases a nd h and les u sua l ly l e ss , a nd b ody s he rd s t h e b u lk o f ma te r ia l ( Tab le 1 :2 ) . O the r b aked c l ay ma te r ia l o n s i tes i n c luded s t raw -ho led l umps a nd S pan ish r oof t i le f r agmen ts ( AL 12 a nd AL25 ) . T he o n ly m e ta l a r tefac t f ound w a s ac oppe rt opo f r om S i te AL25 .

T he e a r l ie s t r eg iona l C e ram ic P e r iod s i te i sa t Ma rcava l le , 4 k m f r om C usco . F ive a s soc ia ted d a tes o n c ha r coa l a nd o ne o n b one d a te Marcava l le p o t te ry t ob e tween 3 000 a nd 2 600 BP ( Moh r 1 982 :1-2 , 1 977 :91 , 142 -44 ) . O ccupa t ion i si n d ica ted b y d ense p o t te ry , p o ss ib le a dobe s t ruc tures a nd f ood r ema ins i n c lud ing b eans ( Phaseo lus v u lgar is ) , ma ize i nu ppe r l e ve ls , c ame l id b ones , d ee r , w i ld c a t , d og , g u inea p ig , b i rd s a nd t o ad ( Moh r 1 977 :1085 -88 ) . D eco ra t ive t e chn ique s o n b ow l f o rms a nd j a r s i n c luded p unc ta t ion , g roov ing a nd a pp l ica t ion o f s pecu la rh aema t i te p a in t , a l though o pen c ook ing v e sse ls w e re u ndeco ra ted . G roove s w e re o f ten u sed t od e l im i tp a in ted a r ea s o n e a r ly p ha se p o t te ry , wh i ls t ' c ream o n b rown ' p a in t ing a ppea r s a f te r i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion a nd p redom ina tes t h e reaf te r . I nc ised wa re w i th p os t -f i r ing p a in t , a nd ' b lack o n c ream ' m a te r ia lo ccur sl a te i nt h es equence ( Moh r 1 977 :1069 -78 ) .

S i te f unc t ion a nd c h rono logy a r e k ey p a rame te r s i nt h e u se o f r eg iona l a rchaeo log ica l i n fo rma t ion t o e xam ine s oc io e conom ic f o rma t ions . S ur face s urvey o n ly p e rm i t s ag ene ra l d eg ree o fc on t ro lo ft h e se v a r iab le s ( Pa r sons 1 972 :142 -3 ) . T he c h rono logy f o r L ima tambo s i te s i sl a rge ly d ependen t u pon s im i la r i t ie sw i th a r ch i tec tu ra la nd a r tefac ta s semb lages s e r ia ted i n t h e V a l ley o fC usco a nd s ur round ing a rea s . A r ev iew o f r e g iona l a r chaeo logy i su sed t oa s cer ta in t h et y pe so fs i te sa nd m a te r ia ls a nd t h ef i rmes ts equence s wh ich a r ek nown . 3 .3 .1 The P recera m ic . N o p re ce ram ic s i tes h ave b een d a ted i n C usco b u t t h e h igh a l t i tude me se ta o fE sp ina rP rov ince c on ta ins r o ck she l te r s w i th f l aked s t one i mp lemen ts i n c lud ing ' l aure l l e af a nd o the rs ma l l p o in t s ( A s te te 1 983 ) . L a rge amoun t s o f f l aked s t one a l so s u r round Mo l lok sawa , aw a l led I nca i n s ta l la t ion i n E sp ina r , v i s i ted i n 1 988 . T he se a rea s c on t ra s t w i th t h e d eep ly i n c ised v a l ley s t y p ica l o fC usco . 3 .3 .2 Marcava l le a nd Chanapata .

T he m ean max imum d imens ion o fs he rds f e l l b e tween 2 . 8 cm a t AL41 , a nd 5 .2 c m a t AL 12 ( Tab le 1 :3 ) . T he l a rge m a ter ia l a t AL 12 -1 r ef lec ts i t s s t ra t if ied o r ig in a nd t h a ti tw a sp robab ly d umped t here r a the r t han l i ved u pon , a s a t mo s t o the r s i te s . T he g ene ra l ly s ma l l s i ze o fs he rd s a nd l im i ted n umbe ro fr im s r e s tr ic ted t he d egree o f v esse l r e cons t ruc t ion p oss ib le . A t temp t s t o f i t s he rds i nd ica ted t h a t a ta l l s i te s b u t AL 12 1 , a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t AL39 a nd AL28 , s u rf ace ma te r ia l w a s h igh ly m ixed . T he m ean wa l l t h ickness o f s he rds w a s f r om 0 . 6 t o 0 . 9 c m , e xc lud ing t i le s ,h and le sw i thou ta ny b ody a t tached a nd d amaged s he rd s ( Tab le I :4 ) . Moda l t h ickne ss w a s i nt wo c a se s0 . 51-0 .6 cm , i ne i gh t 0 .61-0 .7 cm , i nf ou r 0 . 71-0 .8 c m a nd o nce w a s b o th t h e l a t te r a nd 0 . 81-0 .9 cm . V e ry r e s t r ic ted r ange s o n ly o ccu r i n sma l l s amp les ( AL43 , AL39 -R 12C4 , a nd AL4 1QP2C7 ) . Very t h in -wa l led v esse ls ( unde r 0 .4 cm ) a r e n o t iceab ly a bsen t f r om t he p re Inca s i te s AL28 a nd AL37 , wh ich p rov ided a ve rage s amp le s i ze s .V e ry t h ick w a l led v e s se l s ( ove r 1 . 2 cm ) a re r ep resen ted i n a l l o the r c a se s . I n f u r the r a na ly s is , p resen ted i nt he f o l low ing t wo c hap te r s , t h in -wa l led s i gn if ie s l e ss t han 0 .61 cm , m ed ium w a l led f r om 0 . 6 1 t o0 . 8 cm a nd t h ick wa l led t h eh ighe rr a nge .

C hanapa ta , o n t h e o u t sk ir t s o fC usco , w as e xcava ted b y J ohn R owe i n 1 941 ( 1944 :13 -19 ) . A rch i tec ture w as l im i ted t o a r e ta in ing w a l l , p oss ib ly p a r t o f as t ruc tu re . S ubs tan t ia l o ccupa t ion w a sr ep re sen ted b y ac a rbon r i ch r e fu se c on ta in ing f l aked o b s id ian , as t one p o in ta nd many b one i mp lemen t s . T he p o t te ry w a s d iv ided i n to g roup s p ref ixed b y C hanapa ta a nd P aca l la rnocco , a f te r as i te a t Ma ra s whe re t h e ma te r ia l o ccu r s o n t h e s u rface . I tw a s i d en t if ied a s p re Inca b ecause i tw a s o ve r la in b y C usco I nca , g lazed a nd K illke s he rds ( op .c i t . :18 ,60 ) . P aca l lamocco p o t te ry a tt h e Ma rcava l le s i te h a s t wo a s soc ia ted d a te s o n c ha rcoa l wh ich c a l ib ra te t o t h e r a nge 3 90 BC t o AD 1 5 (Moh r 1 977 :1142 ; K le in e t .a l . 1 982 ) . I n Moh r 's a t t r ibu te a na lys is i tw a sc l ose rt o Marcava l le p o t te ry t h an t h eo the rC hanapa ta t ype s , b u tp os t -da ted i t( 1977 :1006 ) .

S ur f ace c o l lec t ions w e re s ma l l c ompa red t o s i te s i ze s , a nd d ens i t ie s were a f f ec ted b y g round c ove ra t mo s ts i te s i ns uch a w ay t h a t i n t ras i te a c t iv i ty d i f f e ren t ia t ion w a s o b scu red . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o fs i gns o f b urn ing a nd k i tchen u se i ns ur f ace p o t te ry i sd iff icu l t . C a rbon w a s r a re ly p re sen t . B lacken ing o f t h eo u te rs ur f ace o f as he rd w a sg ene ra l ly r e ga rded a st h er e su l t

T he C hanapa ta S er ies ( Rowe 1 944 :16 -19 ) i n c ludes P la in , a t h in c oa r se w a re w i th i n te r io r a nd s ome t ime s e x te r io r b rush s t roke s , p robab ly f r om p la te s , b o t t le s a nd g lobu la rf o rms w i th l ow , v er t ica l n eck s a nd v er t ica l b ody -moun ted s t rap h and lp s . I nc i sed P la in h a s f i ne g eome t r ic i n c is ions . P unc ta te s he rd s h ave e l onga te e xc is ions . P a t tern B urn ished i sl i ke P la in e xcep t 2 3

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

a ssoc ia t ion w i th a s t y le n amed Qo taka l l i a t as i te w i th in Cusco , b u t t h e re i sn o i nd ica t ion o f Wan o ccupa t ion i nt h e l owe rU rubamba V a l ley ( Kenda l l 1 976 :91 ; E sp inosa 1 983 :16 2 2 ) . T he l i ke l ihood o f s u rf ace o ccur rence m ay b e l ow , g i ven t ha t i nt h e w e l l k nown a nd a ccess ib le c a se o fP ik i l lac ta , t h e n a ture o f Wa ni o ccupa t ion w as u nc lea r b efore ma jo r e xcava t ion s .

t h a tt h eb ru shed s u rf ace w a sf l a t tened i nu neven ly s paced l i ne s i na pp rox ima te ly t h es ame d i rec t ion .P o l i shed B lack c omp r ise s m a in ly b ow ls w i th r im t h icken ing a nd h igh ly p o l ished b lack s u r face s . I n c i sed B lack f e a tu re s t h ick , i n c ised , mo s t ly s t ra igh t l i ne s ,z one sf i l led b y p a ra l le l h or izon ta l l i ne sa nd o ccas iona l ly i n c ised s t y l ised a n ima ls o ra pp l ied o rnamen t . P o l i shed R ed a nd I n c ised R ed a r e f i r ing c o lou rv a r ian t s , a l though t he l a t te r may h ave r ed o rw h i te p a in ted d eco ra t ion . P aca l lamocco Wh i te o n R ed c on s is t s o f p o l ished p la te s a nd b ow l f orms w i th r ed i n te r io rs l ip a nd b road , l u s t re le ss w h i te l i ne s f o rm ing z i gz ag s o np l a te m a rg ins ,c ro sse sa nd ' S 's haped f i gu re s . P aca l lamocco R ed o nB uf ff e a tu re s ac on t ra s t ing c o lou ru sage . B lack a nd r ed p o l ished w a re o ccu r s a tP aca l lamocco , b u t P la in a nd P a t tern B urn i shed w i thou tP o l i shed B lack w a s r epor ted a t Wimp i l lay , 5 km f r om C usco ( Rowe 1 944 :23 ) . O the r C hanapa ta s i te s w e re f ound w i thou t P o l i shed B lack , b u t w i th p o t te ry wh ich w a sp r edom inan t ly r ed f i r ed w i th ar edd i sh o rb rown i sh s u rf ace ( Rowe 1 956 :143 ) . B lack w a re d ec rea sed i n u ppe r l e ve ls a t C hanapa ta a nd t h i sD er ived C hanapa ta p o t te ry w a sp ropo sed a s mo re r e cen t( Rowe 1 956 :143 ; 1 944 :18 ) .

L uc re b a s in p o t te ry s t y le s f r om t h et ime o f Wan i n f luence a r e k nown a sL ucre a nd Qo taka l l i . T he f o r me r , i lu s t ra ted b u tn o t f o rma l ly d e scr ibed , h a s b een d iv ided i n to t wo v ar ian t s b y McEwan ( 1984a :165 ,24 1-3 ) .L ucre B i n co rpo ra te se l emen t so f Wa n id eco ra t ive t e chn ique , mo t if s a nd c o lou r , o ccur s i n d epos i t s i n b u i ld ings a tP ik i l lac ta a nd i sc on s ide red a l o ca l i m i ta t ion o f Wa r i p o t te ry . L ucre A a ppea r s t ob e d eco ra t ive ly r e la ted t o K i l lke , as t y le c ommon t herea f te r i nt he n or the rn p a r to ft h eC u sco V a l ley . Qotaka l l i p o t te ry w as a s soc ia ted w i th Wan i p o t te ry a t P ik i l lac ta , b u t t h es t y le i sn o tc ons ide red t os how s t rong Wa n i i nf luence ( McEwan 1 984a :165 ) . E xcava t ions a t Wimp i l lay a ppea r t oh ave l o ca ted Qo taka l l i ma te r ia l s t ra t if ied b e tween C hanapa ta a nd K i l lke p o t te ry a nd a s soc ia ted w i th Wan p o t te ry ( Ba r reda 1 982 :14 ) . Qo taka l l is he rdage , w h ich w as i n spe c ted a t Cusco U n ive r s i ty , h as b een d escr ibed a nd i lus t ra ted f o r Wimp i l lay a nd e l sewhe re i nt h ec i r cum -Cu sco a r ea b yB a r reda ( op .c i t .14 -22 ) . T he f abr ic i sd escr ibed a s l i gh t c r eam o rp a le r ed , w e l l f i red , w i thou t m ica , s l igh t ly p o rous a nd w i th w h i te i n c lus ions . E x te r io r s ur face s a r e p a le c ream , i n te r ior s a r e t h e s ame o rp a le r e da nd b o th h ave as e lf -same s l ip .E x ter io r sh ave t r ace s o f p o l ish a nd i n te r io r s a r e b rushed o r c lo th -w iped . Deco ra t ion c omp r ise s p a in ted p a ra l le l o rc r o ss ing l i ne so n t h e e x te r io ra nd s ome t ime s i n ter io r , i nb l ack a nd r e do rr ed a l one . Mo t if s i n c lude v e r t ica l o ro b l ique p a ra l le l l i ne s mee t ing o t he r l i ne s , b l ack d o t s , p a ra l le l o rc ro ss ing l i ne s f i l l ing t r iangu la ro r d iamond -shaped s pace s a nd a l ter na t ing b l a ck a nd r ed p a ra l le l z i g -zag o rw avy l i ne s .

S u rf ace s i te s a nd e xcava t ions i nt h e U rubamba V a l ley , many l e ss t han 5 0 km f r om L i ma tambo , c on ta in C hanapata , C hanapa ta t y pe o rC hanapa ta r e la ted p o t te ry ( r e la ted o n t h e b a s is o f f a b r ic a nd t empe r a lone o r c omb ined w i th s ur face t r ea tmen ta nd /o rf i r ing ) .I te xp re ss ly i n c lude sP a t te rn B urn i shed s he rds , p l a in b rown , h aema t i te -and -cream p a in ted b urn ished r e d -s l ip w a re a nd a n i n c ised , s t ra igh t -s ided v e r t ica l b ow l f orm ( Kenda l l 1 976 :47 -52 , 6 9 -70 ; 1 985 :295 -299 , 3 19 ;L un t 1 987 ) . Ma te r ia l e xcava ted b y C havez B a l lön i n 1 952 a tB a tan U rqo , 4 0 km s ou thea s t o fC u sco a re r epo r ted b y R owe ( 1956 :142 ) . H e n o ted t h a tp o t te ry i n ar e fuse d epos i t i n c luded C hanapa ta o ve r la in b y Waru ( as t y le n o t y e td escr ibed ) , i nt u rn o ve r la in b y L ucr e s t y le a s soc ia ted w i th Wan it ype s , a nd e a r ly a nd l a te I n ca p o t te ry o n t h es u r f ace . S he rd sf r om B a tan U rqo ,s hown t o m e b y J u l inho Z apa ta , i n c luded p o l ished r ed , i n c ised r ed a nd p a t te rn b u rn ished C hanapa ta s t y les , a s w e l l M idd le Ho r izon ma te r ia l .

3 .3 .4 P os t Wan i Cusco T he L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod ( Rowe 1 962 , L ann ing 1 967 :25 ) , b e tween w i thd rawa l o f d i rec t Wa n ii nf luence i n t he C u sco Va l ley a nd t h ee me rgence o fd i s t inc t ive I n ca a r ch i tec tu re a nd p o t te ry a s semb lage s , i sc ha rac ter ized b y af a rg rea te rp re sence o fs ur f ace r ema ins o fa r ch i tec tu re a nd p o t te ry . C hoquepu ldo , d a ted f r om m a ter ia l i nt h e w a l ls o fs t ra igh ts i ded s t ruc tu re st o AD 8 60±60 ( McEwan 1 984a :210 ) a nd AD 1 255±59 ( Kenda l l 1 976 :97 ) ,c a l ib ra ted t ot h er a nge s AD 8 55 1040 a nd AD 1 2 35 1 345 r e spec t ive ly ( K le in e t .a l . 1 982 ) , r ep re sen t s t h e f i r s tp a r t o f t h is p ha se i n t he a rea mos t d i rec t ly a f f ec ted b y Wa n i o ccupa t ion .

3 .3 .3 Wan i Occupat ion T he s i te o f Wan, 2 50 k m t ot h e w e s to fC usco , h ad a n a r ea o f s imu l taneou s o ccupa t ion c ove r ing p e rhap s 5 00 h ao ve rh a lf a m i l lenn ium b efo re I n ca e xpans ion ( I sbe l l 1 984 ) . Wa i l p o t te ry a tB a tan U rqo w a s a s soc ia ted w i th s t one s l ab t omb sl i ke t hose a t Wan ( Rowe 1 956 :142 ) . P ik i l lac ta i s al a rge s i te o f Wan s t y le a r ch i tec tu re i n t h e L ucre B as in 3 0 km s ou thea s t o f C usco . I tc on ta in s s ome 5 08 s t ruc tu res wh ich a ppea r t oh ave b een c on s t ruc ted a nd o ccup ied b e tween 1 350 a nd 1 050 BP ,o n t h eb a s i so fr a d ioca rbon d a te sa nd a l so t h ep r e sence o fs e r ia ted Wa r i ( Okros s t y le ) p o t te ry o f M idd le Hor izon E poch 1 B o r e a r ly 2 A ( McEwan 1 983 ; 1 984a :131-133 , 2 27 ) . Abundan t p o t te ry , b one , g r ind ing s l abs a nd h ea r ths u near thed i n e xcava t ion d emons t ra te t ha t i tw a s ac en t re o f o ccupa t ion , p oss ib ly o rgan ised o n m i l i ta ry l i nes , w i th d if fe ren t ia l a r ch i tec tu ra l e l abo ra t ion s ugges t ing b o th c ommone r a nd e l i te r e s idence ( McEwan 1 983 ; 1 984a :153 -162 ) .

S eve ra l s i te s , f ound b y R owe d ur ing 1 942 i nt h e e nv iron s o f C u sco , f e a tu red ap o t te ry s t y le f i r s t l o ca ted i nt h e t he g round s o fS an to Dom ingo c hu rch , c a l led C anchon a nd l a te rr enamed K i l lke ( 1944 :60 -61) . O f ten m ixed w i th I n ca p o t tery o n t h e s u rface , b u t n o t w i th g lazed C o lon ia l p o t te ry , K i l lke w a s a t tr ibu ted al a te p r e Inca d a te . R owe d iv ided t h e ma te r ia l f r om s eve ra l s i te s i n to f i ve g roup s ma in ly b y d eco ra t ion , d ef in ing c omponen t s o f a s semb lages r a the r t han as i ng le s t y le . K i l lke P la in h a s as of t a nd c oa r se r ed p a s te a nd b ru shed b u t n o t s moo thed s u r face s , c ompr is ing o f ten b lackened s he rd s f r om w ide -mou thed j a r s w i th at a per ing f oo t a nd p a ired h or izon ta l s t rap h and les o n t h e b ody , a s w e l l a s s ma l le r g lobu la r f l a t b a sed j a r s a nd b o th d eep a nd s ha l low p l a tes . T he o the r f o u r g roups a l l s ha red a f i ne r p a s te w i th a c ha lky t e x ture , m o re

War i p o t te ry o ccu r s e l sewhere i n t he L uc re B a s in . I tw a s a s soc ia ted w i th e a r ly c ons t ruc t ion a t R aya l lac ta a nd a ccompan ie s s ome l o ca l c on tempo ra ry a nd l a te rp o t te ry s t y le s i n r e fu se a tC hoquepuk io , as i te f e a tu r ing h igh w a l ls w i th Wanl ike c on s t ruc t ion a t t r ibu te sb u tw i th t r apezo ida l I nca l ike g round p l an s a nd l o ca l n i che f o rms (McEwan 1 984a :17 ,33 3 4 ,211 ; 1 984b :12 ) . Wa nip o lych rome p o t tery i sr epor ted i n 2 4

S urvey , Ma ter ia l C u l tur e a nd C hrono logy

ma ter ia l . P ha se A c on ta ins a l l o f t h e d e s ign e l emen t s a nd mo t if so f:P ha se B w i th v a r ia t ions i no rgan iza t ion . Wavy b l ack l i ne s b e low t h e i n te r io rl i po fS hape B b ow ls o ccu ri nP ha se A b u t n o t P ha se B . P ha se A b uf fw a re j a r s c a r ry l e s s d e co ra t ion ( Dwye r 1 971 :118 -124 ) . C usco I nca p o t te ry , c ompa red w i th ' K i l lke CD ' , w a s f ound b y Dwye r( 1971 :128 129 )t ob eh a rde r a nd s moo the r , t o emphas ize c e r ta in K i l lke mo t if s a nd c ompo s i t ion r u le s a nd t o d i sp lay r epe t i t ion o f e xac t d e s ign s a nd c ons is tency o f s hape , f i n ish a nd f i r ing w h ich a r e n o t a t t r ibu tes o fK i l lke p o t ter y .

e ven ly f i r ed a nd l i gh t i nc o lou r . K i l lke B uf fw a s u ndeco ra ted b u t p o l ished o n t he e x ter io r w i th ab lun t t oo l , a nd j a r s he rd s a r eb ru shed o nt he i n te r io r .K i l lke B lack o nB uf ff e a tu re s l i nea r p a in t ing a nd d o t s i n l u s t re le ss b lack . K i l lke B lack o n Wh i te h a s s im i la rp a t terns o n wh i te s l ip , a nd i n c lude s c up a nd b ow l f o rms . K i l lk e P o lychrome f e a tu re s b o th r ed a nd b l ack l i nea r p a t tern s ,a nd r ed u sed t of i l la r ea s .A s soc ia ted ma te r ia li n c lude s s l a te k n ive s , p o t te ry f i gu r ine s , s p ind le w ho r ls , wo rked s he l l , a nd w a l ls o f f i e lds tone i n mud mor ta r ( op .c i t . ) . Good i lus t ra t ions o f 1 2 who le museum s pec imens o f K il lke P o lychrome a nd B lack o n B uf fv e s se ls h ave b een p ub l ished ( Baue ra nd S t an ish 1 990 ) .

A rch i tec tu re i sr a re ly p re se rved a tt h e C usco V a l ley K i l lke s i te s . E xcava t ions a nd s ur f ace s u rvey i nt h eU rubamba V a l ley h ave d emons t ra ted ap a t ter no fa s soc ia t ion b e tween r ound a nd e l l ip t ica l s t ruc tu re s a nd p o t te ry i d en t if ied a s K i l lke o r ' K i l lke r e la ted ' . O f t e n s i tes w i th r ound , o va l o r r ounded s t ruc tu re s o n ly t wo l a ck s ur f ace p o t te ry o ft h i s k i nd a nd t h e se w e re w he re n o th ing d i agno s t ic w a s f ound ( Kenda l l 1 976 :44 -88 ,91) . * K i l lke r e la ted ' i n c lude s s he rds w h ich s ha re d eco ra t ive e l emen t s o r s hape w i th K i l lke p o t te ry ( s ee K enda l l 1 976 :52 -58 ,61 ,63 ,65 6 6 ,68 ,84 -86 ,92 ) . ' K i l lke o r K i l lke r e la ted ' ma ter ia l i sa l so r epor ted f r om t wo s urface s i te s , c a l led C anchacancha a nd C hacamoqo , s i tua ted n ea r L ake P iu ray b e tween C usco a nd U rubamba ( R ive ra 1 971) . T he d raw ings a r e o f u nde scr ibed s herds s o t ha t t h e r e la t ionsh ips w i th K i l lke c an o n ly b e s u rm ised f r om d eco ra t ive f e a tu re s .

F ur the r w o rk b y Dwye r ( 1971) i n t h e C usco V a l ley t r aced t e chn ica l a nd s t y l is t ic a n teceden t s o ft he a s semb lage , a nd i t s ma jor c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e I nca p o t tery i n u se a tt he t ime o f E u ropean c on tac t . At e n ta t ive t empo ra l s cheme o fs ubd iv is ion w a s a ch ieved b y c ons ide r ing s epa ra te ly a s ma l l s amp le o f p o t te ry f r om al owe r e xcava ted u n i t a tS acsaywaman , c a l led ' K i l lke A ' , al a rge rc o rpus f r om t h e u ppe ru n i t , ' K i l lke B ' , a nd t h e ma te r ia l w h ich p r edom ina ted o n s ur f ace s i te s , ' K i l lke CD ' , a s w e l l a st h e e xam ina t ion o f who le v es se ls i n mu seums a nd p r iva te c o l lec t ions . T he t op s t ra tum o f t he l owe r e xcava ted u n i t p rov ided c a rbon d a ted t o AD 180±140 , w i th in t he c a l ibra ted r a nge o f AD 1 020 -1405 ( Dwye r 1 971 :140 ; K le in e ta l . 1 982 ) .

S ur face K i l lke s i te s i n t h e C usco V a l ley w e re o n h i l ls a nd s l ope s a bove t h e p resumab ly a g r icu l tu ra l v a l ley f l oo r , b u t r a re ly i n d ef ens ib le p laces ( Dwye r 1 971 :24 ,43 ,145 ) . A l l c on tempo ra ry s i te s i nt h e U rubamba V a l ley w e re l o ca ted o n e l eva ted p os i t ions , s uch a s p romon to r ie s e x tend ing i n to t h e v a l ley , r i dge s pu r s a nd moun ta in t o p s ( Kenda l l 1 976 ) . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t s ome h i gh d ef en s ive Mike s i te s b eyond C usco m igh t h ave b een r e t rea ts r a the r t h an p ermanen t s e t t lemen t s ( Dwye r 1 971 :146 ) . A n a l te rna t ive h ypo thes is m igh t b e d rawn f r om o b se rva t ion o f p re sen t s e t t lemen t s i n s uch r e la t ive ly h igh l o ca t ions w h ich r ef le c ta ne conom ic b a s i s t i ed t o ah igh a l t i tude c rop c omp lex a nd p a s tu re s f o rl i ve s tock , c omb ined w i th o u t ly ing p roduc t ion z one s a nd e xchange r e la t ions w i th s e t t lemen t s a tl owe ra l t i tude s .

' K i l lke B ' p l a in b rown w a re w a s p robab ly b urn ished w i th a s t one , l e av ing g roove s a nd s h iny s t reak s ( Dwye r 1 971 :87 ) . I t i n c lude s ar i ng p ede s ta l v esse l ( op .c i t . :86 ,101 ,f ig .128 ) , a p os s ib le p r o to type f o r a n I n ca c ook ing v e sse l . C ommon ' b uf f w a res 'i n c lude s t ra igh ts i ded b ow ls , p a in ted o n t h e i n te r io rb u t n o te x te r io r s u rface s , f e a tur ing b lack p a in ted t r iang le s o n t h e l i p , l a rge rt r i ang le s f i l led w i th c ross h a tch ing , t h in b l ack l i ne s c omb ined w i th w ide rb and s ,o rs o l id b l ack c i rc le sc onnec ted b y l i ne s t ot h ea pex o fs o l id o rc ros s h a tched t r iang le s ( op .c i t . :87 9 0 ) .T h in c urved b ow ls ( Bow l S hape A )o f ten h ave ar ed b and w i th at h in b l ack o u t l ine o n t h e i n te r io rr im . S ha l lowe r b ow ls ( Bow l S hape B ) , o f 1 0 -16cm d iame ter , s t and 3 -4cm h igh . I n curv ing b ow ls , o f 1-19cm max imum d iame te r , a r e mo re f i ne ly f i n ished t han o the r f o rm s a nd u sua l ly f ea tu re e x te r io r d ecora t ion a nd ab l ack b and o n t h ei n ter io rr im ( op .c i t . :90 -92 ) . A v e ry w ide ( 18 .5cm d iame te r ) s ha l low p la te f orm w i th s moo th a nd p o l ished s u r face s h a s ar im -bu lge o r l u g w i th a3 mm d e ep h o le i nt h e t o p ( op .c i t . :99 ) .

T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween K i l lke p o t te ry a nd a r ch i tec tu re i s s ugge s ted b y U rubamba V a l ley e xcava t ions . T he 5 7 cm d eep f l oor d epos i t o f o ne o f o ver 2 00 c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re s a t A nca sma rca p roduced c ha rcoa l d a ted t o AD 1 290±60 a nd AD 1 468±91 ( Kenda l l 1 976 :82 -83 , 9 7 ) . I ti sp robab le t h a t t h e se r ep resen td a te s i nt h e r a nge s o f AD 1 250 -1395 a nd AD 1 320 1 605 r e spec t ive ly ( K le in e t .a 1 .1982 ) .A tA nca sma rca a nd i nt h e 6 0 cm f l oo r d epo s i t o f a n o va l s t ruc tu re a tH u i l lca R accay , I nca a nd K i l lke o r K i l lke r e la ted ' p o t tery o ccur red o n t h e s u rface a nd t h e l a t te r i n c rea sed a t l owe r l e ve ls ( Kenda l l 1 976 :52 -54 ) .

C ha ra c te r is t ic f e a tu re s o fa l l K i l lke d eco ra ted p o t te ry a r e t h e c omb ina t ion o ft h in b l ack l i ne s ( 2 -3 mm ) a nd r ed b ands ( 1 -3 cm ) , i n w h ich wa shy a pp l ica t ion o f r ed f a i ls t o mask t he u nde r ly ing f ab r ic c o lou r , a nd l i ne s w h ich r a re ly mee t w i th p rec is ion . Mo t if s i n c lude t r iang le s f i l led w i th a c r iss -cross p a t te rn o ft h in b lack l i nes , c ommon o n b ow l i n te r io r s , c r iss c ro ss ing b l ack l i ne s b e tween t wo p a ra l le l l i ne s a nd s t r ing s o f c r iss -c ro s s f i l led d i amond o u t l ines , c ommon o n j a r n ecks [ Dwye r 1 971 :102 -113 ] . O the r f o rms i n c lude c ups , t o wh ich w h i te p a in ted b ackg rounds a re r e s t r ic ted , j a r s w i th s l igh t ly f l a r ing n eck s a nd u n th ickened o r s l igh t ly t h ickened r ims a nd s p ar se ly d e co ra ted b od ie s , ap i tche r( mu seum s pe c imen )w i th a s i ng le v e r t ica l h and le a t tached t ot h e r im a nd b ody ( J a r S hape A ) , as t ra igh tn ecked j a r( J a rS hape B )a nd af l a red r im v e r s ion ( J a r S hape C ) , wh ich s ome t ime s h a s ar o l l o fc l ay a dded a s a t h icken ing t ot h e o u te rl i p ( op .c i t . :94 -104 ) .

U rubamba s i te s w i th h ighe r p e rcen tage s o f l a te r p ha se s o f K i l lke o r i t s r e la ted p o t te ry h ave b een r epo r ted t o s how a n i n c rea sed d i s t r ibu t ion a tl owe r a l t i tude s o n v a l ley s i de s n ea r a rab le l and , l i ke t he I nca s i te p a t tern ( Kenda l l 1 976 :99 ) . Howeve r , t h ed a ta a r e s t i l l n o tc onc lu s ive . O ft h e f ou rs i te s s o d escr ibed , o ne p roduced n o d i agnos t ic p re Inca p o t tery ( op .c i t . :46 ) , as e cond c on ta ined p o t te ry s im i la r t o t h a t o f a no ther s i te o n ar i dge s pu r ( op .c i t . :66 -68 ) a nd a t h ird c on ta ined s ur f ace p o t te ry f r om a l l p ha se so f' K i l lke a nd K i l lke r e la ted ' i n t h e a r ea o f r ound -ova l s t ruc tu re s ( op .c i t .: 4 4 -45 ) . S uch movemen to fs e t t lemen t n uc le i f r om h i l l top s t on ea r t h e v a l ley f l oo r , i nt h e l a te p a r t o ft h e L a te I n te rmed ia te P er iod ,

' K i l lk e A ' , p la in b rown j a r s h ave t a l le r a nd s t ra igh te r n eck s t h an t h o se o fP ha se B . B ow ls w i th a n i nf lec ted b ody p rof i le o n ly o ccu ri nP ha se A a nd b l ack l i ne s a r e t h icke rt h an i nl a te r 2 5

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

c on tra s t s w i th t h e p a t tern r epor ted i n t h e Man ta ro V a l ley ( Le B lanc 1 981 ; P a r sons a nd H as t ings 1 988 :224 ) . E ven K i l lke P ha se A p o t te ry i sw ide sp read i nC usco V a l ley s ur f ace s i te sa t l oca t ions w h ich a re g ene ra l ly n o t c ons ide red a s d ef ens ib le

3 .4 CUSCO I NCA POTTERY AND CUSCO I NCA ARCHITECTURE T he a r ch i tec tu re a nd p o t te ry w h ich w e re t h ep roduc to ft h eI n ca p o l i ty , w hen i th ad a cce ss t oc ons iderab le l a bour o f a r t i sans a nd a g r icu l tura l is t s a nd n a tura l r e source s , a nd a mu l t i t ie red b u reauc racy ,a r ec ons ide red t or ef lec td i s t inc t ivene ss a nd ah i gh d eg ree o fs t anda rd isa t ion , a tl e a s ti nt he C u sco r eg ion a nd l a rge I nca i n s ta l la t ion s ( Rowe 1 944 ; L un t 1 987 ) .

( Dwye r 1 971 :140 -141 ,145 ) . I ft h e K i l lke p ha ses a re a ccura te a nd K i l lke A p o t te ry i n d ica te s a n e a r ly d a te , t hen t he s e t t lemen t p a t tern o f a' s ecu re s o c ie ty ' wa s e s tab l ished i n t he Cusco Va l ley , a s Dwye r n o ted ( 1971 :148 ) , l ong b efore mos t e s t ima ted d a te s f o r t h e s t a te o rgan isa t ion a nd e xpans ion o fI nca s oc ie ty a nd t h ep ax i n ca ica . E qua l ly , t h e c on t inued o ccupa t ion o f h igh p o s i t ions i n to t h e p e r iod o fI nca s t a te c ont ro l may b e s een a sp a r to f ac on t inued c omp lemen ta ry s ys tem o fl a ndscape e xp lo i ta t ion r a the rt h an a me re ly d ef ens ive r esponse . Sma l l n umbe r s o f C usco I nca s he rds o ccu ra ts uch h igh s i te s i nt he Un ibamba V a l ley w he re o ver t I nca a r ch i tec tu re i sa bsen t ( Kenda l l 1 985 :312 ,331-332 ) . L im i ted I nca p o t tery h e re i sc ons is ten t w i th amode l o fl im i ted a ccess b y l o ca l s e t t lemen t s t o p res t ige w a res o f t h e s t a te . N ever the le ss , t he c on tex t s o f I nca p o t te ry t ypes a ts i te s l i ke t hose o f t h e C us ichaca Va l ley , b es ide t h e U rubamba R ive r , p rov ide n o b a s is f o r i t s c ons idera t ion a s p re s t ige w a re t h e re ( Lun t 1 987 :107 ) .

3 .4 .1 The A ssoc ia t ion a nd L andscape s

o f I nca

P o t tery ,

S tructures

Wha t i sk nown a bou t t h ec i r cums tance so fp roduc t ion a nd u se o fI n ca p o t te ry a nd a r ch i te c tu re d er ive s f r om l im i ted s pec if ic e a r ly o b se rva t ions a nd g ene ra l s ource s , e t hnograph ic mode ls a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta o fp hys ica l a t tr ibu te s , c on tex t a nd a s soc ia t ion . B r ief c o lon ia l d e sc r ip t ions o fe l abo ra te , h amme r -dres sed a nd c l o se ly -f i t ted C u sco I nca s t y le masonry o n b u i ld ings i nC u sco ( Sancho 1 9 17 :193-4 [ 1 534 1 ;E s te te 1 938 :390 [ c a .1535 ] ; C ieza 1 985 :148 [ 1 553 ] ) , a nd v a ry ing i nd ica t ion s o ft h e ir manne r o f c ons t ruc t ion a nd p u rpose i n I nca s oc ie ty , p rov ided t h e f i r s t s t a temen t sa bou t wha tr ema ins a n i den t if iab le c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h e c en t re o f t h e I nca s t a te a t E uropean c on tac t a nd m any d i s tan t s i te s w here i t s i nf luence r eached ( Ga spa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 ) .

K i l lke s he rds f r om Wimp i l lay a nd t wo s i te s n ea r C h inche ro s how c on s ide rab le f abr ic v a r ia t ion b e tween l o ca t ion s a nd g r ea t v ar ie ty w i th in t he ma ter ia l a s awho le , s ugge s t ing p roduc t ion a t l oca l o r h ouseho ld l eve l ( R ivera 1 976 :86 ) . T he re a r e d if fe rence s b e tween t he f ab r ics o f p la in a nd p a in ted ' K i l lke S e r ies ' p o t te ry a t Cus ichaca ( Lun t 1 984 :314 -315 ) . F ur the r p o t te ry w a res o f C us ichaca h ave b een d escr ibed i nt e rms o f f ab r ic a na lys i s w i th f orma l a nd d eco ra t ive c or re la t ions ( Lun t 1 987 :147 -196 ) . T h is h a s e s tab l ished as ys tema t ic r e la t ionsh ip b e tween s e t s o f w a res a nd t he c ommon a na ly t ica l c a tego r ie s ( nonI nka p l a in a nd p a in ted , C usco -K i l lke p a in ted , a nd C usco I nca p a in ted a nd Cusco I nca s hapes ) . E igh t w a re s ( a nd t h ree s amp les ) c ha rac ter ised n on I nka p o t tery a nd f our e x is t f o r C usco K i l lke p a in ted w a re s . T here w ere p robab ly v a r iou s p roduc t ion c en t res f o rK i l lke p o t tery ( Kenda l l 1 985 :342 ) . L un t i mpor tan t ly h igh l igh t s t h e v a r ie ty o fe xchange o rt r ade a tl o ca l l eve l wh ich e x is ted i n s uch g oods , n e two rk s w h ich w e re n o t r emoved b y t h e a rea 's e ssen t ia l ly p rov inc ia l I nca o ccupa t ion ( 1987 :62 , 1 28 ) .

T he s t a te r o le i nc ons t ruc t ion a nd p lacemen t o f monumen ta l a r ch i tec tu re i si n f e r red f r om t h is w ide d i s tr ibu t ion a nd t h ev e ry l a rge l a bou rf o rce sn eeded t o move i nd iv idua l e no rmou sb lo ck s a nd t of i t t h em t oge the r a tl a rge s i tes , l i ke S a csaywaman a nd 0 1 1an tay tambo , a s w e l l a s 1 6 th c en tury r e cords o f o ra l t r ad i t ion . C o lon ia l a dm in is t ra t ive d ocumen t s r e co rd l a bour o b l iga t ions ( m i t 'a ) o wed b y p eop le h und red s o f k i lome t re s a way t o t he I nca f or c ons truc t ion i n C usco ( J u l ien 1 982 :137 ,139 ; Mur ra 1 982 :240 -241) . R ad ioca rbon d a te s f o r p o s t - Wa n iC usco s i te s a r e i n suff ic ien t ly b ounded t o s ugge s t mo r e t h an t h a t C usco I nca m a sonry b egan t ob e p roduced i n t h e 1 5 th c en tury . T he re a r e t e chn ica l b u t n o t c ompo s i t iona l a n te ceden t s a tT iwanaku a nd C hav in . Whe reve r i to ccu r s , i ti s a s soc ia ted w i th p o t te ry w h ich p os t -da te s a l b u t c on tempo ra ry l o ca l p reh is tor ic a nd h i s to r ic s t y les . T he s t onema sonry t e chn ique s h ave o n ly r e cen t ly b een s ub jec ted t o r ep l ica t ive e xpe r imen t( P ro tzen 1 983 : 1 985 ) .

B aue r 's r e cen ts urveys i nP aqa r iq tambo , Y aur isque , P a ru ro a nd Co lcha l o ca ted b o th K i l lke p o t tery a nd ar e la ted s t y le w i th a d i s t r ibu t ion f r equency t e nd ing t owa rds A raypa lpa ( Co lcha p o t tery ) . Dwye r 's s ugges t ion o f as t ab le C usco V a l ley i n K i l lke -po t tery -us ing t imes i s s t rong ly d emons t ra ted b y s e t t lemen tp a t ter n s h e re ( Baue r 1 990 :98 -125 ) . O n ly o ne s ma l l h igh a l t i tude s i te o u t o f 1 6 K i l lke p o t tery s ca t te r s i n P aqa r iq tambo w a sa bandoned i nt he I nca P e r iod ,a nd n one w e re f or t if ied ( a l though s ome w e re o n r i dges ) . T he re w e re 3 3 I n ca s i te s b u t o n ly t wo h ad e labora te I nca a r ch i tec ture . Y au r isque p roduced 1 7 K i l lke s i te s , 1 3 o f wh ich c on t inued i nI n ca t ime s , wh i ls t t he re w e re 2 2 I nka s i tes . P a ruro p roduced 2 1 K i l lke s i te s , a l l o ccup ied i n to t he I nka P er iod wh ich h ad at o ta lo f4 0 a r tefac t s ca t te r s . Co lcha h ad 3 1 K i l lke s i tes , 2 8 l a rge r o ne s c on t inu ing i n to t h e I nca P er iod wh ich h ad 3 6s i te s . T he re w e re g ene ra l ly n o ma jo r s h if ts i nt h e r e sou rce z ones o fs e t t lemen t s i nt he t wo p er iods , a l though t he l a rge P aca r iq tambo I nca s i te s w e re a l l i nt h e ma ize z one .

T he f i r s t l a rge a s semb lage o fI n ca p o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th I n ca a r ch i tec tu re , s t ud ied t od eve lop af orma l t y po logy a nd i d ea o f v e sse l f unc t ion , c ame f r om Machu P icchu ( B ingham 1 9 15 : 1 930 ) . T he t ypo log ica l t r end c on t inued , p rov id ing m any i lus t ra ted a nd d escr ibed w ho le v esse ls ( Pa rdo 1 938 ; 1 939 ; 1 957 ) , a ugmen ted b y ma ter ia l f r om e xcava t ions o n s i te s o f monumen ta l I nca a rch i tec ture a t S acsaywaman a nd 0 1 1an tay tambo ( Va lcä rce l 1 935 ; L lano s 1 936 ; F ranco a nd L lano s 1 940 ) . T he v ar ied a r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lexes a tt h e se s i te s i n c lude n o t o n ly t h e C usco I nca s t y le ma sonry b u t a l so s t ruc ture s a nd s t one -wa l led d ry t e r race so fl e s se l abo ra te s t onewo rk . D if f e ren t d eg ree so fh amme rd re s s ing , a nd u nd re ssed b l ock s , may o ccu r i n d i f f eren t p a r t s o f t h e s ame s t ruc tu re . R owe ( 1944 :25 ) d e sc r ibed r egu lar c our sed a nd p o lygona l s t y les w i th in C u sco I n ca s t y le i nC usco i t se lf a nd made t h e o b serva t ion , u sef u l f o r . s t udy o fi n comp le te b u i ld ing s , t h a t t h e l a t te r , w hen emp loy ing l a rge s t one s ,w a su sed f o rt e r race s a nd t h e f o rme rw a s g ene ra l ly 2 6

S urvey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

r e s tr ic ted t oa bove -g round s t ruc tu re s . T he a r ch i te c tu ra l t o ta i i ty o fI nca t e r race a nd b u i ld ing i n s ta l la t ions f e a tu red i np l ans o f Machu P i cchu ( B ingham 1 930 ) a nd n ea rby s i tes ( Fe jo s 1 944 ) . T he d e ta i ls , c ompos i t ion a nd d e s ign o f a bove -g round I nca a rch i tec tu re h ave b een d escr ibed a nd a na lysed i nt h e C u sco r eg ion b y K enda l l ( 1985) a nd mo re w ide ly b y H ys lop ( 1990 ) . T hey r e qu i re n of u r the rs pec if i cc ommen th e re .

1 . Wa l l S teps (WS) , r ows o f s t ones wh ich p ro tude f r om i n c rea s ing ly h igh p o in t s o n t h e w a l l f a cade , as hor t d i s tance o ne f r om t h eo t he r( Append ix I ,F igu re 2 ) ; 1 Wa ter D rop s (WD ) , n a r row v e r t ica l c hanne ls r e ce ssed i n to t h e t e r race w a l l f a cade , emp loy ing mo re s qua red b lock s , l i ke c o rne r s( Append ix I ,F igu re 3 ) ;

P reh i s to r ic s t one wa l led t e r race s cheme s me r i tf u r the ra t ten t ion s i nce mo s t d e scr ip t ions o f t h em a r e i n comp le te a nd b ecau se d a t ing a nd f unc t iona l q ues t ions r ema in w hen t h ey a r e n o t a s soc ia ted w i th v i s ib le p o t te ry o rs t ruc tu re s( A lc ina 1 976 :137 ; F a r r ing ton 1 980 ) . D is t inc t ive e l emen t s o fI nca t e r rac ing w e re a sce r ta ined b y ar ev iew o f p ub l ished r epor ts o f s i te s w he re t e r ra ce s a r e i n teg ra l w i th C usco I n ca s t y le ma son ry o rs ur f ace a rch i tec ture o f I nca d es ign . T hese w e re c omb ined w i th o b se rva t ions o f t e r races made s i nce 1 982 i n t h e V i lcano ta Va l ley , t h e p re sen t s t udy r eg ion a nd s ur round ing P rov ince s . F u r the rd e ta i ls o ft h ese t e r race sa r ep re sen ted i nA ppend ix I ,i n s i te d e sc r ip t ions a nd i n Chap te r9 .A t t r ibu te s o fI n ca t e r race s w i thou t C usco I nca s t y le ma son ry , f ound t od i s t ingu ish t h em f r om o t he ro ccu r rence si nt h er eg ion ,a r e :

3 .R ecessed P ara l le l S ta irways ( RPS) , c on t iguous s t eps r e ce s sed i n to at e r race w a l l , wh ich a scend i n ad i rec t ion p a ra l le l t ot h ew a l l i np l an ( Append ix I ,F igu re 1 ) ; 4 . R ece ssed S ta irca se s ( RS ) , c on t iguous s t eps w i th w a l led s i de s wh ich a s cend o ne o r an umbe ro ft e r race s i n ad i rec t ion p e rpend icu la rt ot h e w a l l i np lan ( e g . a tT i lka , F ig . 5 : 19 ) ; 5 . S ta ired R ou teways ( SR) , c on t iguous s t eps wh ich p a ss t h rough o ra r ea t tached t ot h es i de o ft e r race s ys tems b u tw h ich d o n o t f o l low as i ng le c our se p e rpend icu la r o r p a ra l le l t ot h e t e r race w a l l s( F ig . 5 : 19 ) . 3 .4 .2 I nca P ot tery : t he S ta te a nd S tatus .

a .F ie lds tone f or c ons truc t ion i ss or ted s o t h a t l a rge r b lock s t e nd t oo ccu ri nl owe rc ou r ses ;

Chrono logy ,

S ite

Funct ion ,

T he p o r tab i l i ty ,w ide o ccu r rence a nd a bundance o fI nca p o t te ry makes i tt h e mo s t f r equen t ly u sed i n d ica to r o fI nca i n f luence b eyond ma jo r c ons t ruc t ion wo rk s . I t s d ef in i t ion i st h e refo re c r i t ica l t os i te i n te rp re ta t ion , a s a r e t h e f unc t ions i ts e rved a nd t h es y s tems o fi t sp roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion .

b . S tone s u sed i no ne l eve l o f t h e w a l l t e nd t o b e o f s im i la r s i ze ; c . Sma l l w edge l ike s tones a r e r a re ly e mp loyed i n v i s ib le ( above -g round ) c our ses t o h o ld l a rge r o nes i n p l ace , ( bu t u sua l ly h o ld p ro jec t ing s t one s t ep s i np lace ) ;

C usco I nca p o t te ry i n c lude s v esse ls o ft h e s hapes , d eco ra t ion s t y le s a nd s u r f ace t e x tu re , b u t n o t n e ce ssar i ly t h e s ame f a b r ic a s t ho se i nR owe 's ( 1944 :47-49 ) c a tegor ie s d i s t ingu ished b y d eco ra t ion s t y le ( Cusco P o lychrome , C usco R ed a nd Wh i te , C usco F igur ed P o lychrome , Q or ipa ta P o lychrome , Hua tanay P o lychrome a nd U rcusuyu P o lychrome ) a nd C usco B uf fw h ich c ou ld i n c lude s he rds f r om u ndeco ra ted p a r t s o f t h e s ame v e sse ls . T he C usco I nca p o t te ry d epos i t a t S an to Dom ingo , a l though u nd is turbed b y Co lon ia l p o t tery , a l so c on ta ined K i l lke ma te r ia l ( 38% o fd eco ra ted s he rds ) ( 1944 :49 ) . S hapes w i l l b e r e f e r red t o a cco rd ing t o t h e l e t te r s g iven i n R owe ( 1944 :F ig .8 ) .D eco ra ted f o rms i nt h ec l a s s if ica t ion w e re f l a r ing r im j a r s w i th n a r row n eck s ( a , da nd h ) , a nd o ther s o f l e ss r e s t r ic ted n e ck s ( ba nd c ) , p la te s ( g ) , d eep d i shes ( f ) , a n o pen c on ica lb a sed p o t( e )a nd c up s( i ) .D 'A l t roy ( 1981) h a sp rov ided ac l a ss if ica t ion o f r im f o rms o f t h e se a nd u ndeco ra ted I n ca v e sse ls .

d .E ro s ion b reak sr evea l t h a ts ma l le rs t one sa r ec oncen t ra ted i n t he s pace i mmed ia te ly b eh ind a w a l l , e i the r l o o se o r i n a c l ay ish m a t r ix ; e .B lock sa r ep laced t of o rm a ne ven f a cade f r om w h ich t h ey d o n o ta b rup t ly p ro t rude ; f . Wa l ls u r faces a r eb a t te red i na nu p s lope d i re c t ion ; g . Wa l l b a t te r i so f ac ons is ten t a ng le , n o t i n f lec ted e xcep t b y t r ee r oo t s ,s l ump ing o rr econs t ruc t ion ; h .T e r race wa l ls a r e s egmen ted , i . e . t h ey h ave c orne r s o re nd wa l ls , u sed t o c lo se t he e nd o f p l a tforms o r t oc hange w a l l d i rec t ion ; i . Co rne r s a re a brup t , c lose t o r i gh t a ng les , ' s ha rp ' k t nd c a ref u l ly b onded w i th t h ea d jacen tw a l ls t one s ;

B ingham ( 1915 :257 ) r ega rded t h e Machu P icchu I nca p o t te ry a s h and c ons t ruc ted a nd t he h and c ons truc ted e l emen t s a r e d i scus sed a nd i lus t ra ted b y L un t ( 1987 :44 -46 , 2 04-205 ) . N o k i ln f o r C usco I nca p o t tery h a s b een f ound i n C usco b u t a s t one s u r rounded k i ln f o r I nka p o t tery h a s b een r epor ted a t T omebamba ( Leona rdo Agu ir re , p e r sona l c ommen t , C uenca 1 993 )a nd a no the r manufac tur ing c en t re h a sb een s t ud ied n ea r L ake T i t icaca ( Spur l ing 1 993 ) . T he I nca p a lace o f Huayna C apac a t Qu ispeguanca may h ave h ad a n e l i te p o t tery manuf ac tur ing e nc lave o f i t s own . T he a na lys is o f p o t tery f r om e xcava t ions b y I an F a r r ing ton i n 1 989 u near thed 6 5 d efo rmed a nd b l i s te red w a s te rs he rd s ,a l li d en t if iab le o ne sb e ing o f C usco I nka s t y le ( Hef fernan 1 990 :18) . M ine ra l t r ansfo rma t ion s i nC h inche ro s he rdage s ugge s t f i r ing a bove 8 00 °C ( Ga lvän e t .a l . 1 976 ; R ive ra 1 976 :34 ) a nd r ef i r ing t e s t s o n p reh ispan ic C us ichaca p o t te ry d emons t ra te t h a t n one w a s f i red a to ve r 9 00°C a nd e ven f i ne C usco I nca p o t tery w a s

j .S tone su sed f o re x te r io rc orne r s a r e c ons i s ten t ly c l o se r t oa s qua red f o rm t han t hose i n w a l ls a nd a r e o f ten p e rcuss ion s hap ed ; k .I n p l an , wa l l l i nes a re e i the r v e ry s t ra igh t o r t r ace s moo th c urve s ; 1 .A r e ta ined s o i l s ur face u sua l ly h a s av e ry s l igh t g rad ien t t owa rd st h ep e rpend icu la rw a l lr e ta in ing i t . C er ta in f e a tures o ccu r i n w a l ls o f I nca t e r race s cheme s , a s d ef ined a bove , wh ich d o n o t o ccu ri no the rt e r race s ,e xcep t i n r a re i n s tances whe re t he mode l i se mp loyed i n modern w a l ls . T he mo s tc ommon a r e : 2 7

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

p roduced i nb onf i re k i lns ( Lun t 1 987 :238 -239 ) .T he c l ima te o f C usco i sn o t o f t h e k ind h igh ly a dvan tageous f o r f u l l t ime p o t tery p roduc t ion ( Arno ld 1 985 :92 -96 , F ig . 3 . 8 ) , b u t t h e e x ten t o f p o t te ry e xpor t f r om C usco t o d i s tan t p lace s , b y c ompa r ison t os t y l is t ic i n f luence a nd p rov inc ia l manuf ac tu re , may h ave b een r e la t ive ly l im i ted (Menze l 1 976 :67 -68 ; D 'A l troy 1 981 :50 -51 ,138 ) . Af ab r ic c ompo s i t iona l a na lys is o f 1 73 s he rd sf r om C usco , L ake T i t icaca a nd t h e Uppe r Man ta ro f ound t ha tI n ca p o t te ry f r om e ach w as c l us te red d i s t inc t ive ly , i nd ica t ing r e g iona l i ty o fp roduc t ion c en t re s , w i th o n ly af ew c a se s o fp o s s ib le e xpo r t f r om C u sco o rb e tween n e ighbou r ing r eg ions ( D 'A l t roy a nd B ishop 1 990 ) . C u sco I nca p o t te ry f r om d i f fe ren t p l ace s v ery n ea r C usco , n o t j us t i n t he f a r f l ung p rov inces , a l so a ppea r s t oh ave l o ca l p a s te v a r ia t ions d esp i te u n iform e l emen t s i n t e chn ique o f manuf ac ture , f orm a nd d eco ra t ion ( R ive ra 1 976 :86 ) .

p lacemen t i n al a rge v esse l f or f ermen ta t ion ( N icho lson 1 960 :296 -297 ; N iue l le 1 978 :247 ) . Cook ing a l so o ccu r red i n i t s 1 6 th c en tury p roduc t ion ( Acos ta 1 979 :17 1 [ 1590 ] ) . S uch u sage i s n o t c omfo r tab ly a t t r ibu ted t o e l abora te ly p a in ted v esse ls . T he C usco I nca f orms d id n o t i n c lude c oa r se u ndeco ra ted w a re , ap o in t n o ted b y Meye r s ( 1 975 :17 ,f n .7 ) . I n a n a ddendum , R owe n amed ac a tegory C usco P la in , b r ie f ly d e scr ibed a sL a te I n ca c ook ing w are , w h ich h a s ac oar ser p a s te a nd i sl e ss w e l lf i r ed t han C usco B uf f( 1944 :62 ) , f ound i nt h e i lus t ra ted f o rms o fS hape ' ja nd S hape ' k , av esse l w i th p a r t ly c ove red , h o led t o p , a n o f f -c en t re o pen ing a nd t r ipod b a se . I t s f unc t ion i s u nknown . B ingham c a l led i ta' b raz ie r ' a nd s ugges ted me ta l w o rk ing ( 1930 :174 ) . P a rdo a s sumed i tw a sf o r t o a s t ing ( 1939 :14 -15 ) . T h is i ss uppor ted b y c ompa r ison w i th t h e k ana l la v es se l s hape s t i l l manuf a c tured a nd u s ed i n L ima tambo a nd e l sewhe re f o r t oa s t ing m a ize a nd c onf orms w i th e v idence t h a t aS hape ' k v esse l a t Machu P icchu w a s b l ackened o n t h e i n te r io r a s w e l l a s b a se a nd s i des ( B ingham 1 930 :173 ) .

I n ca p o t te ry a s semb lage v ar ia t ion h a s b een i mpor tan t i nt h e f unc t iona la na lys is o fa s soc ia ted I nca b u i ld ings ,a sa tH uänuco P ampa whe re i tw a s f a c i l i ta ted b y u se s o f r e la t ive ly s hor t d u ra t ion ( Mo r r is 1 967 ) . A tC u s ichaca , a r tef ac ta s semb lage so f a r ch i tec tu ra l ly s im i la rI nca b u i ld ings w e re n o t f ound t ob et h e s ame o rd i s t inc t ive ( Lun t 1 987 :107 ) .

T he p re sen t d ef in i t ion o f C usco P la in , b a sed o n f ab r ic a nd s ur face t e x tu re , i sn o t d e ta i led e nough t od i s t ingu ish i tf r om K i l lke P la in B rown e xcep t t ha t S hape s ' k a nd T e n te r t h e f o rme r . Ar i ng -ba sed p ede s ta l p o t may a l r eady o ccu ri nK i l lke P la in B rown s i nce ad i s t inc t ive s he rd w a sf ound b y Dwye ri n t h e' K i l lke B 'u n i ta tS acsaywaman ( 1971 :f ig .128 ) .

S he rds f r om l a rge S hape ' a 'j a r s c omp r ised 9 0% o fp o t te ry i n c i rcu la r p aved s t orage s t ruc tures , a ssoc ia ted w i th ma ize r ema ins , a t Huänuco P ampa (Mor r is 1 971 :139 ) . N ine e xamp le s o fs ma l l r e c tangu la r , mo s t ly t wo d oo red s t ruc tu re s a r ranged i nc ompounds , a lmos t c er ta in ly r e s iden t ia l a r ea s , c on ta ined 2 5 t o4 0% l a rge j a r s he rds , a s w e l l a s av a r ie ty o f g l obu la r , n eck le ss f o rms w i th f r equen t ly s oo ted e x te r io r s ( 3 5 5 0% ) a nd S hape ' g ' p la tes ( op .c i t . :141) . S eve ra l v e ry l o ng r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re s , s ome w i th b enche s o n t he r e a r w a l l , p robab ly u sed f o r r eg iona l a dm in is t ra t ion a t t he c en t re , c on ta ined s ome 6 0 t o8 0% S hape ' a 'j a r s m ixed w i th av ar ie ty o fo the r f o rm s i n c lud ing p o t te ry u sed b y c on tempora ry l o ca l g roups ( op .c i t . :142 ) .

N e i the r o ft h e C u sco P la in c ook ing wa re v e s se ls s eem s t ob e l a rge e nough f o r b o i l ing l a rge q uan t i t ies o f ma ize b ee r , a l though t h ep roce ss may h ave b een b a tched . S hape ' kv e s se ls a r e r a re , s ha l low a nd u nsu i tab le f o r b o i l ing l i qu ids ( B ingham 1 930 :f ig .125 ; P a rdo 1 939 ;f ig .6b ) . S hape ' jv e sse ls , f o rw h ich t h e re a r e p ub l ished mea su remen t s , a re r e la t ive ly s ma l l . T h ree f r om b ur ia l c aves a t Machu P i cchu , d esc r ibed a sc ook ing p o t s d ue t o t he f r equency o f f i re b lacken ing ( B ingham 1 930 :149 ,151 ,153 ) , w e re f r om 1 t o 2 0 .5 c m h igh , a nd 1 5 .5 t o2 5 c mw ide . A no the r , u np rovenanced w i th in Machu P i cchu , w a s 2 3 cm h igh a nd 1 6 cm w ide ( B ingham 1 915 :261) . F ou r , f r om 0 1 1an tay tambo , w e re f r om 7 .7 t o 1 0 .8 c m h igh w i th r im d iame ter s b e tween 5 .3 a nd 8 . 1 cm ( L ianas 1 936 :156 , p l s . I I I ,V ) . T hey w e re n o t a s s ma l l a s t h e m in ia tu re s f r om T omb ' U ' a tS acsaywaman ( F ranco a nd L lanos 1 940 :30 -31) . F unc t iona l i n f e rence s f o r av e sse l t ype d o n o t a lways e x tend t h roughou tT awan t insuyu , s i nce I nca S hape ' jp o ts i nI c a Inca r e fuse d epo s i t s s how n o s i gns o fc ook ing ; s ome a re c a re f u l ly f i n ished a nd may h ave b een p re s t ig ious w a re s i nt h is c on tex t ( Menze l 1 976 :74 ) .

T he v a r ie ty o f f unc t ions o f I nca p o t te ry s t i l l r equ ire mo re d e ta i led s t udy ,s uch a sr e s idue a na lys is . Mo s tc l ue st of unc t ion a r er e la ted t of o rm ,c on tex ta nd a t tached ma te r ia ls .T he c on ica l b ase o ft h e l a rge j a r s i sr epo r ted t of a c i l i ta te e x i t o fl i qu id i n p ou r ing ( Meye r s 1 975 :11) , a nd w ou ld a l so p rov ide ap ivo tt o f a c i l i ta te t h a ta c t ion w i thou tl i f t ing . T he u se o fs uch aj a ra nd c ups o f I n ca s hape f o r l i qu id s i sd ep ic ted i n d raw ings b y Guaman P oma ( 1980 :220 [ 1615 ]) . S hape ' a 'j a r s c ou ld b e c a r r ied o n t h e b ack , a n a c t ion p robab ly f a c i l i ta ted b y r ope p l acemen t a r ound t h e u b iqu i tous n ubb in o n t h e v esse l b ody ( op .c i t . :204 ; B ingham 1 930 :121 , 1 27 , F ig .79 ) . C o lon ia l r e f e rence su s et h eS pan ish t e rm sc an tar i l lo f o r av e s se l u sed t o c a r ry ma ize b ee ri nq uan t i ty o ve r ad i s tance ( Mo l ina 1 943 :53 5 5 [ 1573 ] )o rt op rov ide ag ene rous s e rve t od ecea sed r e la t ive s o n A l l S a in t s Day ( Av i la 1 987 :423 [ c a .1608 ] ; T ay lor 1 987 :16 ) , a nd c an tar icos p equei zos f o r v es se ls i n to wh ich i t w a s s erved f o r c onsump t ion ( Mo l ina o p .c i t . :49 ) . Ma ize b ee r a nd d r ink ing a r e f r equen tt h eme s i n Mo l ina ' s b r ief a ccoun to f I n ca r i te s a nd f e s t iv i t ie s i nC u sco . T he se i n c luded e normous q uan t i t ie sb r ough ti n to C u sco p l aza f o rd ays o ff ea s t ing d u r ing c i tua , t he p rov is ion b y r e ta ine r s o f ad a i ly s upp ly t o t h e munun if ied c o rpses o f t h e e l i te a nd t he f e a s t ing o f r e cen t ly i n i t ia ted y ou th i n t he ir c ompany ( 1943 :44 ,48 ,61) . A t s t a te l e ve l i ts moo thed t h e d emand s o fa l leg iance a nd l a bou r made b yt h eI nca o nl o ca le l i te i n te rmed ia r ies (Mo r r is 1 979 ) .

Many s he rd s f r om K i l lke P la in v esse ls w e re r epo r ted a sf i r e b l ackened o rw i th b u rn to rgan ic ma ter ia l ,o fw h ich t h el a rge s t w e re f r om w ide -mou thed j a r s w i th a t a per ing f oo t a nd t wo h or izon ta l s t rap h and les ( Rowe 1 944 :60 ) . D iff icu l t ie s i n s epa ra t ing K i l lke P la in B rown f r om C u sco P la in i n t h e t y pe s i te s ,p a r t icu la r ly s ma l l s he rds , may a ccoun tf o rt he ir u nce r ta in d i s t inc t ion . T he p r inc ipa l i s sue a tt he t ime w a s t o e s tab l i sh a c l ea r c hrono logy , a l though f abr ic a na lyse s c ou ld r e so lve t h e d i s t inc t ion . Undeco ra ted p o t te ry f r om s i tes p roduc ing C u sco I nca p o t te ry t e nds t o i nd ica te a mo re l i ke ly a ssemb lage f o r l i v ing s i te s , a l though d e sc r ip t ions o fp la in o r r ough ly f i n i shed p o t te ry a r e s ca rce . D e sc r ibed p o t te ry f r om S acsaywaman T omb ' U ' w a s p o l ished , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f a worn p o t l i d ( F ranco a nd L lanos 1 940 :30 -31) . P o l ished p la te f o rm sa nd v a ry ing s i z e so f f l a r ing -r im j a r s ( 8 .8 t o 3 1 .5 cm h igh ) p redom ina te i n 0 1 1an tay tambo p o t tery d escr ip t ions , a pa r t f r om a c r ude ly

Manufac tu r e o f ma ize b ee r i n moder n P eru r e qu i re s e x tended p er iods o f b o i l ing , s ome t ime s i n s eve ra l b a tches b efo re 2 8

S urvey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

s haped a nd u npo l ished S hape ' j 'p o t , a nd as im i la r ly f i n ished w ide -mou thed a nd d eep v es se la bou t 1 6 cm.h igh w i th a 1 2 cm r im d i ame te r( L lanos 1 936 :156 , I -X ; I1 1 -5 /681 ,X -5 /686 ) . Machu P i cchu p o t te ry i n c luded t wo v e ry f i re b l ackened , t a pe red -ba se , g lobu la ra nd f a ir ly o pen -necked v esse ls , o ne 2 7 cm h igh a nd 1 9 c m w ide a nd w i th t wo v e r t ica l h and le s a t tached t ot h e r im , a nd t h e o the r 1 5 cm h igh a nd 1 4 .5 cm w ide , w i th t wo h o r izon ta l h and le s o n t h e b ody a nd t wo v e r t ica l , r im -a t tached o nes ( B ingham 1 915 :263 ,f ig .48 -7A ,9A ) . Meye r s ' I nca s hape g roup s i n c lude aw ide -mou thed j a r f o rm w i th c urved -con ica l b a se , a l so c ommon i n S acsaywaman , o f ten b lackened a nd a ve rag ing a bou t 1 0 cm h igh , a l though h e t hough t o ther s m igh th ave b een b igge r( 1975 :F ig .1 , S hape 9 ) .

ar e g iona l t r ad i t ion , a nd t h e C u sco I nca d eco ra ted c a tegor ie s . C usco I n ca p o t te ry , a s as e to fs hape ,d eco ra t ion t e chn ique a nd s t y le e l emen t s , i s p resen ted i n b road s yn these s a s t h e r e comb ina t ion a nd t o s ome e x ten t s t anda rd iza t ion o fc e r ta in v e s se l s hape s , mo t if sa nd t e chn ique so fd eco ra t ion w h ich h ave c l ea r a n teceden t s i n K i l lke a nd t h e C usco Va l ley d eco ra ted p o t tery s equence ( Dwyer 1 971:135 -137 ,149 ; McEwan 1 984 :165 -167 ) . Cusco I nca p o t tery c ons t i tu te s a n h or izon ma rke r i n ag ene ra l s ense ( Rowe 1 962 :10 ) a nd i t s r e la t ive p os i t ion i n t h e Cusco s e r ie s a nd t hose o f T awan t insuyu i s a ppa ren tf r om t h el a te p re sence o f' Impe r ia lI nca 'a nd Im i ta t ion I nca ' p o t tery a nd v e sse ls i n wh ich C usco I nca a nd l o ca l e l emen t s a r e m ixed (Meye r s 1 975 :8 -9 ; Menze l 1 976 :67 -77 ; R ive ra 1 976 :69 -84 ) .

R ive ra ' s ( 1 976 :F ig .43 ) u nsea led o u t l ine s o fI nca v e sse l s hape s i n crea sed R owe 's 1 f o rms t o 2 8 . T hese a re b a sed o n i lus t r a t ions f r om P a rdo ( 1939 )r a the rt han ma ter ia l e xcava ted a t Ch inche ro . Mo s to ft h eo r ig ina l v e sse ls f o rt h e se a r e C usco I nca ,o nd eco ra t ion a nd t e x tu re a t t r ibu te s . S hape n umbe r s 7a nd 9a re , h oweve r , b a sed o n m in ia tu re o r ig ina ls ( Pa rdo 1 939 :9 1 0 ,P 1 .4a ,P 1 .3a ) . S hape s 1 9 t o2 6 a r e s ha l low o r d eep b ow ls w i thou t h and le s o r w i th v a r ied h and le a nd l ug c omb ina t ions , p a in ted a nd u npa in ted ( op .c i t . :P 1 .8 ) . S hape s 6 , 8a nd 1 2 a re n a r row n ecked , e l abo ra te ly p a in ted v esse ls ( op .c i t . :P ls . 2 b , l a a nd 7 a ) . T he o ther s c ons is t o f ah igh ly d eco ra ted r e s tr ic ted s hape ( op .c i t . :21 , P 1 .11d ) , i n cu rv ing b ow ls , o ne p a in ted ( op .c i t . :P 1 .11e ) a nd t he o ther u npa in ted w i th a pp l ied d ecora t ion , i n ag roup d e scr ibed b y P a rdo a s s ma l l ( c a . 9 cm h i gh a nd I l cm w ide ) ( op .c i t . :11 ,P 1 .4f ) . Av ar ian to ft h e S hape ' jp o th a st r ipod f e e t ( op .c i t . :P 1 .6a ) .

T he i mp l ica t ion o ft h is r ev iew i st h a tf o l low ing Wan p re sence i n t h e C usco Va l ley t h e re w as a t r ad i t ion o f d eco ra t ive t e chn ique , mo t if s a nd c o lour s w h ich w a se x tan tt h e re a nd i na r eg ion i n c lud ing t h e U rubamba V a l ley a nd P ampa d eA n ta , a s w e l l a so the rl o ca l p o t te ry d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk s .C ompa r i son s o fL ima tambo p o t te ry w i th t h e r eg iona l s equence c an t h u s b e made o n as he rd t o s he rd b a s is a ccord ing t o t h e d escr ibed a t t r ibu tes , a nd w i th a ssemb lages whe re t hese h ave b een d escr ibed , p end ing s ys tema t ic a t tr ibu te a na lys is a nd c ompa r ison o fa l l C usco r eg iona l p o t te ry s t y le s . 3 .5 COLONIAL AND M ODERN POTTERY E a r ly C o lon ia l p er iod p o t te ry w i th I nca a t t r ibu tes h a s b een r epor ted f r om museums a nd e xcava t ions a t C h inche ro a nd 0 1 1an tay tambo ( R ivera 1 976 :29 -30 , F igs .44 ,45 ; B enaven te 1 982 :176 ; G iba ja 1 984 :235 , F ig .4 ) b u t i lus t ra ted e xamp le s l a ck d e ta i led d escr ip t ion . T he f oo t -dr iven whee l a nd g l az ing w e re i n t roduced a nd s ome r e su l tan tw a re s , d a ted p rov is iona l ly t o t h e 1 6 th a nd 1 7 th c en tur ies , h ave b een d escr ibed f r om C h inche ro e xcava ted c o l lec t ions (Ma r t inez -Cav i r6 1 976 :103 1 05 ) . C h ine se p o rce la ins a l so a r r ived i n P e ru , d e sp i te 1 6 th c en tu ry p roh ib i t ions o n t h e i r i mpor t ( Tschop ik 1 950 :204 ) , b u t t he ir r u ra l d i s tr ibu t ion w as p robab ly l im i ted . V i l lage s c on t inued t op roduce p o t te ry f o rl o ca l u se a nd wo rk shop su sed S pan ish t e chn iques i n C o lon ia l s ou the rn P e ru ( T schop ik 1 950 ) .

C h inchero L lano ( p la in ) ( R ive ra 1 976 :35 -39 ) i sr epor ted t o c omp r ise d ome s t ic w are a nd t oi n c lude n o to n ly C usco P la in S hape s Ta nd ' k ' , t he t r ipod v a r ian t o ft he f o rme r , u npa in ted o pen a nd i n curv ing b ow ls , a nd u npa in ted p la tes a nd m in ia tu re s , b u t a l so S hape ' a 'j a r s a nd ac on ica l b a sed v esse l w i th a w ide mou th ( op .c i t . :36 ) . T h is i mp l ies t ha t s ome v esse l s o ft h e l a t te rs hape s c ou ld h ave b een f o rc ook ing l a rge q uan t i t ie sa tI n ca i n s ta l la t ion so ft h eC usco a r ea .C la ss if ica t ion a sC h inchero L lano w a s s t rong ly i nf luenced b y p resence a nd a bsence o f p a in t ing o n s he rd s . I ti n c luded a w ide r ange o f f a b r ic s ,b o th s moo th -g lossy a nd u npo l ished t e x tu re sa nd c ou ld i n corpo ra te u ndeco ra ted p ar t s o f Cusco I nca v esse ls . No i n d ica t ion i sg i ven o fr im d iame te r s o r t h e v esse l f o rms w i th s i gns o fu se i n af i re a tC h inche ro .

T he p o t te ry mos t c ommon ly u sed i np resen t -day v i l lage s o f t h es t udy r eg ion i sp roduced i nC hoquema rka ,n ea rL ima tambo [ F ig . 2 : 3 ] . C o l lec t ion o f ma ter ia ls , manufac tu re a nd b onf i re k i ln c ons t ruc t ion i sd one b y a bou tt h ir ty w omen d u r ing t h ed r y s ea son . V a r ious c l ays a r e d ug f r om a n e roded g u l ly w i th in a k i lome t re a nd wa ter i s b rough t f r om a s p r ing b e low t h e v i l lage . C lay i s m ixed o n s k ins a nd v esse ls a re c o i l c on s t ruc ted , s ome i n s ec t ions , w i th t h e a i d o f c l ay d i sc s f o r r o ta t ion o n as t one , t r uck ty re s pa tu la s , w ooden s c rape r s a nd r ag s f o rw ip ing . K i lns a r e made w i th ar i ng o fs t one s , a bou t 2 md iame te r , o n af l a t p lace . A sh , s t o red i nt r unca ted c on ica l b a s in s , may b ep laced o n t h es o i l s u r face . D ry g ra ss a nd s ma l l s t ick s ,f r om s t eep a d jacen ts l ope s ,a r eu sed a sf ue l .G reen g r a s s i sa dded t os ea l t he t op a nd a bou t 2h ou r s a f te r l i gh t ing t h e r emova lo fv e s se ls c ommence s .

I f Cusco I n ca a r ch i tec tu re c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o ap owe rfu l p o l i ty , h ow i sC usco I nca p o t te ry t o b e c ha rac ter ized? I t s s ymbo l ism a s w e l l a s i t s f unc t ion s p robab ly v a r ied g rea t ly b e tween c on tex t s i n T awan t insuyu . Rowe i n te rp re ted C usco P o lych rome , t h e ma in c omponen t o f C usco I nca , a s t yp ica l p o t tery o ft h e l a ter o rI mper ia l I n ca p er iod a nd C usco a s t h e c en t re o ft h eI n ca r u l ing c l a s s , w he re t h e ir p o t te ry s t y le c ou ld mo s t p robab ly b e i s o la ted a nd d ef ined ; t h e K i l lke S er ies wa s s een a se a r l ie r b u t s ome d eg ree o fo ve r lap w a s n o t e xc luded ( 1944 :43 ,47 ,61) . R ivera s ugges ted t ha t r e sea rch i n t he h i n ter land o fC usco m igh tf i nd K i l lke t ob e an on-e l i te o rr u ra l a s semb lage e x tend ing i n to t h e I n ca p er iod ( 1972 :119 -120 ) . T h i s m igh tb e t h e c a se f o rp a r to fi t s a ssemb lage , s uch a s t h e p l a in w a re .I tr ema ins t ob ed emons t ra ted whe the rs t anda rd ised , ma s s p roduced a nd s t a te r e la ted ' Cu sco P la in 'p o t te ry r ep laced K i l ike P l a in B rown p o t te ry n ea rC u sco ,o rw he the rt h e re w a sa c on t inu i ty a nd i n te rm ing l ing o fd ome s t ic w a re s .

F requen t ly made v esse l f o rms a r e k ana l la ( t oa s t ing p o t s ) , manka ( c ook ing p o t s w i th w ide mou th a nd e ve r ted r im ) a nd r ak i( open -mou thed c h icha c ook ing , f e rmen ta t ion a nd s e rv ing v es se ls ) . L a rge r ak i a re a l so u sed i nC hoquema rka f o rs t o rage o f c lo thes a nd b roken o nes f o r s t o rage o f w a te r o u t s ide dwe l l ing s . Maka , w i th n a r row n eck s , a r e f o rc a r ry ing l i qu id s . P u i l iu ( j ug s ) a r e u sed t o s e rve l i qu ids . S ha l low b ow ls a r e

T he U rubamba v a l ley e xcava t ions s uppor t a t empora l d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h eK i l lke D eco ra ted s t y le s , s een a sp a r to f 2 9

S urvey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

made , b u te name l p la te sa r ec ommon i nt h e ir p l ace . M in ia tu re manka a dorn t he C hoquema rka c ros s a tt h e C ro ss F ie s ta i n May a nd s ma l l p a ir so ft h em ,j o ined w i th ah o l low h and le ,a r e made f o rc oup le st ob ew ed .

t h e i ra r cha eo log ica lm an if e s ta t ion f o l lowed ,a l though h ampe red b y l a ck o f s pec if ic i ty a bou t s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion i n t h e t r ad i t ions ( Gonza lez 1 979 :61-62 ) . C hanca s t y le p o t te ry i s r epor ted a t 1 22 s i te s i n t h e P ampa s R ive r B a s in ; mos t a r e s e t t lemen t s w i th c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re s u p t o6 .0 m d iame te r o n moun ta in t o p s . T he p o t te ry i so f ten m ixed w i th I nca ma te r ia l a nd i sd e scr ibed a s l i t t le v a r ied , t e chn ica l ly d ef ic ien t , w i th i n c ised d eco ra t ion o ra pp l ied f a ce d e s ign so nu p r igh tj a rn e ck s , a nd o cca s iona l ly h a s ad i lu te r e dw ash ( op .c i t . :6 1 ,71) .

A l l h and les a r e v e r t ica l s t rap s . T hey a r ea t tached a tt h er im o n r n anka ,k ana l la a nd p la te sa nd a tt h ec en t ra l b ody o f maka , r ak i a nd i t s s ma l l v a r ian t , t h e r ak icha . P u if iu h ave a n e l onga te h and le a t tached t o t he r im a nd b ody . D ecora t ion c ompr ise s a pp l ied ' S -shaped , l i nea ro rh a lf -moon c o i ls , w i th ' V ' - s haped i nden t s , p r imar i ly o n manka a nd r ak icha . V e sse l w a l ls a r e g ene ra l ly t h ick , a round 6 -15 mm . S ur face s a re s moo th t o s l igh t ly a b ra s ive , o fv a r iab le d a rk b rown t oo range c o lou ra nd a r eo f t en p a r t ia l ly b lackened f r om f i r ing . F abr ic i n c lus ions a r e ma in ly q ua r tz o rg ran i te p a r t ic le s u pt o 1 . 5 mm .

F av re ( 1973 :11-13 )u sed d ocumen ta ry s ou rce st op os tu la te t h e e x is tence o f ap re Inca c h ief dom ,A s to , i nH uancave l ica .I tw a s p os i ted a sp a r to ft h el a te p reh i s tor ic C hanca C onf ede ra t ion b y v i r tue o ft h ep re sen tp eop le s 'u se o f Ayacucho Q ue chua W ED , a so ppo sed t o Que chua B / I o ft h e Wanka e t hn ic g roup . B o th C u sco -Bo l iv ian a nd A yacucho Q uechua a r er e ga rded a sd i a le c t s o f t he C h inchay Me r id iona l l a nguage g roup ( Q I IC ) , t h e A yacucho d ia lec t b e ing s poken i n Ayacucho Depar tmen t , H uancave l ica a nd t h e w e s te rn h a lf o f A pur imac D epa r tmen t ( Cerrön P a lom ino 1 987 :242 -243 ,247 ) . Twen ty s even p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s l i eo n s ca rp s o rm oun ta in t op s a t3 600 mt o4 400 m i nt h e A s to a r ea a round t h e V i lca a nd Man ta ro R ive r so fH uancave l ica . T he e a r ly p ar t so fo ccupa t ion a tf ou r a r ed a ted t ob e tween AD 9 80 a nd AD 1 200 ( Leva l l6e a nd J u l ien 1 973 :29 ) .

T he p o t tery i sd i s t r ibu ted b y e xchange w i th v i l lages i n t h e moun ta ins s ou thea s t o f C hoquema rka a nd i sa l so s o ld a nd e xchanged a tL i ma tambo . Ma in ly k ana l la a re t a ken b y f oo t , h orse a nd t r uck t o Ancawa s i ma rke t , 2 0 km e a s t o n An ta P ampa . Obse rva t ions i nd ica te t h a tt h e se ,a sw e l la s manka a nd r ak i , a r e c ommon i n t he L ima tambo V a l ley . C hoquema rka p o t te ry i sr a re ly t aken t oC usco a nd i so ne o fs eve ra l r eg iona l w a re s( Kenda l l 1 983 :59 ; L un t 1 987 :250 -266 ) . 3 .6 AP U RI M A C, AY A C U C H O V ILCABA MBA I N LATE PREHISTORY

AN D I nt h eC h icha /Sor a s V a l ley o fw e s ter n A pu r imac D epa r tmen t , t h e P os t - Wa n is equence i sf i r s t r ep re sen ted b y C h icha s t y le p o t te ry , a nd l a te r , i na s soc ia t ion w i th ac hange i n s e t t lemen t p a t terns t oh i l l t o p s , t h e S oras s t y le ( Meddens 1 985 :227 ) . S ora s a s semb lage s c on ta in s mudged y e l low b rown w a res , s ome f e a tu r ing r ough ly a pp l ied f a ces w i th p ronounced l i p s o r c h ins ,a sw e l la so ve r f i red ( c inde red a nd o cca s iona l ly v i t r if ied ) p o t te ry ( op .c i t . :f ig .16 1) . T he s i tes o fA uk ima rka a nd P ukya , o n h i l ls a ta bou t 4 000 m , r e p resen t v a s t ly d i f f eren t s ca le s o f s e t t lemen t .T he f o rme r , w i th S o ra sa nd I n ca p o t te ry ,c omp r ise s o ve r 1 000 c i rcu la ro ro va l s t ruc ture s a s soc ia ted w i th g r ind ing s t ones , w he reas t h e l a t te r c on ta ins o n ly 3 0 s t ruc tures ( op .c i t . :97 -99 ,104 ) .

A rchaeo logy i n a rea s s ou th a nd w es t o f t h e s t udy r eg ion , i s s ke tchy . P o s t - Wa n is i te s i nt h e A yacucho B a s in , 1 50 km w e s t o fL ima tambo [ F ig 2 : 1] a r ep oo r ly d a ted ( MacNe ish 1 981 :199 2 04 , 2 17 -2 18 ) . Wan c up s ,r epor ted 2 8 km f r om L ima tambo a t Curahua s i , were r epu ted ly f r om a n ea rby b ur ia l a rea a nd Waywaka s t y le i n Andahuay la s , w i th b l ack a nd r ed p a in ted d es igns o ve r o range wa sh , i st hough t t o s how Wan s t y l is t ic i n f luence ( Rowe 1 956 :143 ) . I nca my th -h is to ry r e la te s t ha tp eop les n amed C hanca c ro ssed t he Apu r imac R ive r t o t h rea ten C usco p r io r t o i t s i mpe r ia l e xpans ion . Ga rc i la so s a id n ac iones c a l led H ancohua l lo , U tunsu l la ,U roma rca ,V i l lca a nd o the r sw e re i n co rpo ra ted u nde r t h is n ame , a nd t ha t t he ir a nce s to rs c ame t o Antahua i l la p rov ince whe re t hey f ough t a nd d efea ted t he Quichuas ( 1960 :Bk .2 C h .15 ) . Hancohua l lo r e semb le s t h e n ame o f a l e genda ry w a r r io r ,A ncoa l lo , n o ted b yC ieza a sf amous a mong Chanca p eop le o f Andahuay la s ( 1984 :254 [ 1553 ] ) . C ieza a l so r e co rded a ccoun t so ft h eC hanca d om ina t ion o fQ u ichuas .

I nca s t y le r ock s cu lp ture ( eg . a t S a ihu i te a nd C oncacha R um iwa s i ) , a r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lexe s a nd s u r face s ca t ter s h ave b een r epo r ted i nA pu r imac D epa r tmen t( Squ ie r 1 877 :555 -556 ; R owe 1 956 :143 ; P a rdo 1 957 :471-487 ; V an d e Guch te 1 990 ) . T he s t eep f o res ted l a ndscape o f t h e V i lcabamba r eg ion , n or thwe s t o f L ima tambo , h a s b een t h e s ub jec t o f w iden ing e xp lo ra t ion a nd r e sea rch s i nce B ingham ' s d escr ip t ions o f C hoquequ irao , ( 1910 :523) , a nd E sp i r i tu P ampa ( 1914 ) . R eco rd ing o fo the rI n ca i n s ta l la t ions a nd /o rc l u s te r so fc i rcu la r o r o vo id s t ruc tu re s , i s g radua l ly p rov id ing a p ic tu re o f o ccupa t ion w h ich t r anscends t he h i s to r ic s ources ' g rea t emphas is o n i t s f ew d ecades a s ab a se f o r Co lon ia l I n ca i n su rgency ( Savoy 1 970 ; D rew 1 984 ; Wh i te 1 987 ) .

P os t - Wa n ic eram ic ' c hrono types ' i n Ayacucho g ive t h e ir n ame st ot h e' Huamanga P ha se 'a nd t h eC hanca P ha se ,g ue ssed t o s pan t he p er iods AD 9 00 -1200 , a nd AD 1 200 -1500 r e spec t ive ly (MacNe ish 1 981 :203 ,218 ) . ' Huamanga ' i st hough t b y L umb re ras t o p o ss ib ly c omp r ise d omes t ic p o t te ry o f t h e WaniP er iod , t h e p roduc t ion o f wh ich s u rv ived t h e e l abo ra te V i i iaque P o lychrome f o r s ome t ime ( 1981 :196 ) . O f t h e ' Chanca P ha se ' , MacNe ish s t a te s a l l w e h ave . .i s as er ie s o f r a ther p la in p o t tery t ypes c a l led A rqa l la , Qu inoa b lack -on y e l low , A yaorqo a nd Qach isgo . . t here i s much t o b e d one ( 1981 :225 ) .R owe ( 1956 :143 )a s se ssed t h eC u rahua s i v a l ley a s h ome o f at r ad i t ion o f d rab u npa in ted p o t te ry , a nd a b r ief r econna issance i n w es tern L ima tambo r epor ted c i rcu la r s t ruc tu res a ssoc ia ted w i th l oca l ly p roduced , p robab ly u ndecora t ed p o t te ry ( Kenda l l 1 979 :139 ) .

3 .7 REGIONAL STRUCTURES 3 .7 .1

BURIALS

AND

FUNERARY

L a te P reh i s tor ic B ur ia ls

B ur ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th C hanapa ta p o t tery a t t h e t ype s i te f e a tur es e a ted a nd f l exed b ody p l acemen tw i thou tg rave g ood s , i ns ha l low , c i rcu la r , u n l ined p i t s d ug i n to o ccupa t ion r e fuse ( Rowe 1 944 :13 ; Y äba r 1 972 :2 15 ) . Two f l exed u pr igh t b ur ia ls i ns ha l low e a r th p i t sw i thou tg r ave g ood s ,e xcava ted a tH u i l lca R accay i nt h e U rubamba V a l ley , may b e o fs im i la r a n t iqu i ty ( Hey 1 984 ) . Wa ns ty le s t one s l ab t omb s w ere r epo r ted a t

A t temp t st of i nd l i ngu is t ic c o r re la te so fg roup sw h ich f o rmed a C hanca C onf ederacy d a te t oa tl e as t 1 912 a nd s t ud ie s t of i nd 3 0

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

B a tan U rqo n ea r C usco ( Rowe e t .a 1 .1950 :123 ,125 ; R owe 1 956 :142 ; McEwan 1 984 :183 -190 ) .

s t o rage s t ruc tu re s e x is ts . I n s i x H uancave l ica s i te s o f t h e p er iod , 3a t o ve r 4 000 m a nd 3 a t3 500 t o 3 700 m , s ma l l c i rcu la r o r h or seshoe -shaped , s t one l ined c av i t ies w e re c on ta ined w i th in s ome c i rcu la r s t ruc tu res o f 3 . 5 t o 4 .0 m d iame te r , a lways a t t h e h ighe s t p a r t o f s i te s ( Levan & a nd J u l ien 1 973 :53-57 ) . T he c av i t ie s w e re 0 . 7 t o 0 .9 m i n max imum d imens ion , a nd a bou t 0 . 9 m d eep , much s ma l le r t h an mode rn p o ta to s t o rage p i t so ft h a tr eg ion .

Nume rou s s urface s i te s a re a t t r ibu ted t o L a te I n termed ia te P e r iod f u ne ra ry p rac t ice s , b u tt h ec omb ina t ion o fh uman b one , p o t te ry a nd a r ch i tec tu re i sr a re . Sma l la bove -g round s t ruc tu re s o f s t one , mos t ly c i rcu la r a nd s ome r e c tangu la r t ower s ( chu l lpa s ) , w i th as ma l ld oo ro no ne s i de ,a r ec ommon ly f ound i nc l u s te r sa tr e la t ive ly h i gh o rv a l ley s i de l o ca t ions t ot he e a s t a nd s ou theas t o f C usco , i nc lud ing t he p rov inces o f P auca r tambo , Qu isp icanch is , C ana s a nd E sp ina r , a nd a l so i n Co tabamba s P rov ince o f Apur imac D epa r tmen t ( Pa rdo 1 957 :493 -501 . T hose a t Mo l lok 'awa , E sp ina r , i nc lude e xamp le s i n Cusco I nca s t y le ma sonry , b e t te r k nown a t S i l lus tan i i n P uno D epa r tmen t t o t h e s ou th a nd n ea r L ake T i t icaca ( op .c i t . :420 -424 , Hys lop 1 976 :222 ) . T he se p robab ly r ep re sen tc on t inua t ion o f ac hu l lpa b u i ld ing t r ad i t ion i n to t h e I nca P e r iod .

3 .7 .2 I nca P er iod Bur ia ls T he d a ta a l ready d i scus sed i n d ica te t h a t c hu l lpa b ur ia ls may h ave c on t inued f r om e a r l ie r t ime s i n to t h e I nka P e r iod . D if f e ren tb u r ia ls c on ta in ing I nca p o t te ry w e re l o ca ted o u t s ide t h e s t ruc tura l a rea o f Machu P icchu . T hey w e re p r inc ipa l ly l o ca ted u nde rb ou lde r s ,o ve rhang so rr o ck s he l te r s ,s ea led b ya w a l l o f s t one ( B ingham 1 930 :99 , F igs .66 ,68 ) . B od ie s w e re c ommon ly s ea ted w i th k nee sr a ised ,o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th I nca S hape ' jp o t s , t wo -hand led d eep d i she sa nd o cca s iona l b ronze a nd b one i mp lemen t s ( op .c i t . :99 -102 ,109 -111) . B ur ia l c aves w e re s ome t ime s p a r t i t ioned b y r ock w a l ls , a nd s ome g rave s w e re u nderg round i n s ide c aves w i th a l ow w a l l o r t e r race d e l im i t ing t h ee n t rance . As t one l ined g rave o rc y s tc on ta ined b one s o f a woman a nd b eads ( op .c i t . :102 ,107 ,111) . S ome u nd is turbed b ur ia ls o f f ema les c on ta ined n o p o t te ry o r o ne c ook ing p o t , b u t o the r s c on ta ined a v a r ie ty o f d ecora ted v e sse ls , me ta l t opos ( c loak p ins ) , s poons , m ir ro r s , t weeze r s , a nd e ven r ema ins o f ad og . O ne y oung a du l t 's g rave c on ta ined n og oods , b u ta no the rc on ta ined s i lve rt o pos ( o p .c i t . :110 ) .

Ag roup o f2 2 c on ica l c hu l lpa s , f r om 0 . 2 t o 1 . 35 m d iame te r , w i th l ow t r apezo ida l d oo r s , a re l o ca ted o n Mu rkhapa ta r i dge b e tween t h e V i lcano ta a nd P auca r tambo r i ve r s . A cco rd ing t o F ranco ( 1937 (a ) :256 -257 ) a s soc ia ted l o o te r s ' s po i l c on ta ined ' f i ne I n ca 'p o t te ry . A no the rc hu l lpa i nQ u isp icanch i sc on ta ined h uman b one ( op .c i t . :264 ) , a nd s im i la r s t ruc ture s w e re l o ca ted a tC up i a mongs t r ema ins o f3 14 c i rcu la r dwe l l ing s ( f rom 3 . 7 t o 5 . 1 md i ame te r ) , a s w e l l a s b u r ia ls s ea led i nn ea rby c l if f c ra ck s( o p .c i t . :260 -263 ) . S qua re c hu l lpa s ,p acked w i th r ema ins o f m any i n d iv idua ls , a r e r epor ted i nl ow land s n or th o fL ake T i t ica ca ( I sbe l l 1 968 :110 ,113 ) . C o rbe l roofed c hu l lpas a t 0 1 1e r iayoc T rancapa ta i n C us ichaca a l so c on ta ined h uman b one , a nd a c omp le te K i l lke S hape ' B ' j a r h e ld b y al o ca l r e s iden t i sr epor ted t o h ave c ome f r om t he s i te ( Kenda l l 1 985 :312 ) . Two g roups o fc hu l lpa s , w i th a s soc ia ted h uman b one ,h ave b een i nve s t iga ted a tI C ach iqha ta I nca q ua r ry a r ea a nd o n t h e o ppos i te s i de o f t h e V i lcano ta R ive r a t Ma rkaqocha , n ea r0 1 1an tay tambo .T hese s t one a nd mud c hu l lpa so fc i rcu la r a nd s qua r e f o rm h ave p roduced t wo r a d ioca rbon d a te s o ft h e L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod a nd t h ree r e p re sen t ing t h ef i r s th a lf o f t h e 1 5 th c en tury . T he v a s t ly p redom inan t c e ram ic ma te r ia l a t b o th s i te s i sC usco I n ca , a nd o ne w a s b u i l to n t o po fa n I nca s t y le s t one b lock ( Beng t s son 1 991) . R e c tangu la r a nd c i rcu la r c hu l lpa s i n t he C h icha /Soras V a l ley o f w es tern Apur imac Depa r tmen t a re a l so a s soc ia ted w i th I n ca p o t te ry ( Meddens 1 984 :139 ) . H e re b u r ia ls i nr ock c r ev ice s a nd h o le sd ug b e low b ou lde r s w e re a s soc ia ted w i th l a te M idd le Ho r izon a nd L a te I n termed ia te P e r iod p o t te ry s t y le s .

Two I nca b ur ia ls i n C usco a ppea r t o h ave b een p l aced i n t e r races s ur round ing t h e o ld c en t re . O ne i nH uaynapa ta w a s s ur rounded b y aw ide r ange o f I nca p o t tery v e sse ls , b one i mp lemen t s , s he l l o rnamen t s , me ta l p ins a nd ak n if e ( Pa rdo 1 959 ) . Ano the r i nT oqokach i w a s p l a ced i n ap i t , s ome 3 . 9 m d iame te ra nd 1 . 2 md eep , f i l led w i th s ma l l s t one s a nd al a rge r ock p laced o nt op ;t h ed ecea sed w a sm a le ,a bou t3 0y ea r so l d , p l aced i na nu p r igh ts i t t ing p o s i t ion w i th k nee sr a i sed ,a nd w a s a ccompan ied b y t wo p a in ted p i ece s o fp o t te ry , al o ng n e cked j a r a nd a f l a r ing l i pj a r ( 1 36 ja r 1 976 ) . T he I n ca b ur ia l c a l led T omb ' U ' w a s p laced i n a0 . 4 m w ide , 0 . 4 md eep p i t i nt h e f l oor o f ar ec tangu la r s t ruc ture w i th in t h e I n ca s i te o f S acsaywaman ( F ranco a nd L lano s 1 940 ) . I tw a s o f a5 0 y ea r o ld ma le a ssoc ia ted d i rec t ly w i th as im i la r r a nge o fg ood s t o Huaynapa ta . Wh i le t h e p i t w a s n o t a r ch i tec tu ra l ly e l abo ra te , t h e l o ca t ion i n as t ruc tu re f l oo r m ay h ave b een o f e qua l s i gn if icance . M igue l d e E s te te , o ne o ft h e f i r s t E u ropeans i nC u sco , w ro te t h a tt h e re w a s ab u r ia l p lace o fp r ince s al e ague f r om t h ec i ty , o n ac r ag ' l i ke af o r t re ss ' , w he re t h ee mba lmed a nd w e l ld r e s sed b od ie sw e re p i led u p( 1938 :393 [ c a .1535 ] ) .T h i sc o inc ide sw i th t h e v iew o f B 6 ja r ( 1976 :151) t h a t o rd ina ry p eop le w e re p robab ly b u r ied i nt e r race s , a sa tT oqokach i , a nd t h e e l i te h ad t h e ir b od ie s t a ken t oh igh a nd i n acce s s ib le p l ace s .C ieza n o ted t h a tt h ed ead i nC usco w e re i n te r red s e a ted o n ' p r ince ly s t oo ls ' c a l led d uhos , d re ssed a nd a do rned i nt h e b e s t t h ey p o s se ssed ( 1984 :196 -197 [ 1553 ] ) . Mumm if ied c o rpse s i nC usco w e re r egu la r ly b rough t o u t t op ar t ic ipa te i nr i tua ls , c e r ta in ly t ho se o f t h e d eceased r u le r s a nd e l i te ( Mo l ina 1 943 :33 ,58 ,61 ,64 [ 1 573 ] ) . T h is make s i tu n l ike ly t h a tt h e mumm if i ed e l i te w e re b u r ied i ne a r th wh i ls tt h ey r ema ined i nc e remon ia ls e rv ice .

E igh t p r e sumab ly l o o ted t omb s i nV i lcabamba a ppea r t o b e l ow , s ub ter ranean , s t one l ined p i t s , s ea led w i th s t one j us t a bove g r ound l e ve l ( Beauc le rk 1 980 :20 ,29 ) .R epo r ted p a ra l le ls f o rs u ch f e a tu res o ccu r i n Ayacucho . L a rge n umbe r s o fs t one c i rc le s , a bou t 1 . 0 m d i ame ter , w e re l o ca ted o n p l a tforms a t i I aw inpukyo , b u t t e s t e xcava t ion r evea led n o p o t tery ( Lumb re ra s 1 981 :184 ) . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd p o t te ry s e r ia t ion a t n ea rby p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t s s ugge s t ad a te a nywhe re b e tween 2 250 a nd 1 250 BP ( MacNe ish 1 981 :249 ) . T una sn iyoc , 4 km n o r th o f Ayacucho ,c on ta ins p i tb ur ia ls a nd ab u r ia li n as t one l ined c y l ind r ica l h o le c apped w i th r ock s b u t w i thou t g r ave g ood s , a l though a s soc ia ted p i t s w e re d a ted t o Wan a nd H uamanga P ha se s ( Lumb re ra s 1 981 :186 -188 , F ig .7 3 2 ) . L oca l l e ve l b u r ia l so ft he I nca p e r iod i n Huänuco i n c lude b o th s ub terranean s t one l ined c ys t s a nd b eeh ive s haped s t ruc tu re s( Thomp son 1 971 :118 ) .

P o lo d e Ondega rdo , who a c t ive ly s ough t mumm ies i n t h e C o lon ia l P er iod , r a ises t h e p rob lema t ic p o in t t h a t i n d igenous p eop le t h en d i s in te r red t h e i rd ead f r om c eme te r ie sa nd c hu rche s

Ap o s s ib i l i ty o f c onfus ion o f f une ra ry s t ruc tu re s w i th s ma l l 3 1

S ur vey , Ma ter ia l C u l ture a nd C hrono logy

s o a s t o r ebury t h em i n s h r ines , moun ta ins , f l a t s , a nc ien t t omb so ri nt h ed eceased 's h ou se ( 1916 :194 ) .

I n forma t ion o n s u rf ace s i te s a nd e xcava t ions i n s ur round ing a r ea s i n d ica ted t h a t mo s t s u r f ace a r tefac t s a nd a rch i tec tu re a r e l i ke ly t ob eo ft h ep o s t - Wan ip e r iod , o fp r ima ry c once rn t ot h e s t udy . E a r l ie r p o t te ry , e spe c ia l ly t ha t o f t h e c ha rac ter is t ic i n c ised a nd p a t tern b urn ished C hanapa ta s t y les , wou ld b e u n l ike ly t o r e la te t o s urface a rch i tec ture . S ha l low a r chaeo log ica l d epos i ts may c on tr ibu te t o t he s u rface a s semb lage so fp o s t - Wan is t ruc tu res c on ta in ing p o t te ry r e la ted t o t h e p r ima ry o ccupa t ion o r c ons truc t ion p ha se . T he L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod p o t te ry mos t l i ke ly t oh ave r eached t h e s t udy r eg ion w ou ld b e K i l lke a nd i t s v a r ian t s a nd p e rhap s m a te r ia l f r om t h eC hanca a r e a .

3 .7 .3 S u m mary o f Bur ia l P ract ices I ti st oo e a r ly t od ef ine t i gh t s pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l p a t terns f o rl a te p reh is to r ic s ou the rn A ndean b ur ia l t r ad i t ions ,b u ts ome t e n ta t ive c onc lus ions a re s ugge s ted . P i t b ur ia ls a ppea rt oh ave al ong u sage t h roughou t t h e r eg iona l s equence . S tone l ined s ub ter ranean p i t s h ave b een d iff icu l t t o d a te . T hey a r e u ncommon a t I nca s i tes i n C usco a nd may b e al a te Wan i p e r iod p rac t ice i n Ayacucho . T he b ur ia l t owe r t r ad i t ion i n C usco a nd Apur imac Depa r tmen t s a ppea r s t od a te f r om a bou t t h e s ame t ime a nd c on t inue s t h rough t he I nca P er iod , a sd oe s t h e u se o f r ock c r ev ices a nd c aves f or s t one -sea led b ur ia ls . C rev ice a nd c ave b u r ia la ppea r st ob e v e ry c ommon i nt h eI n ca p e r iod . Adu l t I nca b ur ia ls n ea r ly a lways c on ta in s ome g r ave g oods , t he q uan t i ty a nd v a r ie ty o f wh ich v a ry g rea t ly a nd m ay r e f lec td i f f e rence s i ns t a tus . T he r o le o ft he d ecea sed I n ca e l i te i nr i tua ls s ugge s t s t ha t t hey w e re s t ored r a the r t h an b ur ied i n C usco . 3 .8

C u sco I nca p o t te ry o ccur s i nv a r iab le a bundance i ng raves . I t f r equen t ly r e ached s i te s o fe a r l ie r i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion a nd I n ca p e r iod s i te s w h ich l a ck I nca a r ch i tec tu re . T he p o t tery o ft h e C usco e l i te a l so a ppea r s t o h ave r eached a g rea t r ange o f p eop le . I t s a bsence , i n s i te s where p o t tery i s o therw ise a bundan t a nd o bse rved s amp les a re l a rge , may i nd ica te e xc lu s ive ly p r e Inca o ccupa t ion . S pec if ic h i s tor ic d ocumen t s a nd C o lon ia l p o t te ry a s s is t i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e s i tes o ccup ied u p t oh i span ic t ime s .

CONCLUSIONS S ur f ace s i te s w i th o n ly u npa in ted p o t tery w ou ld , o n c u r ren t d a ta , b e mo s t l i ke ly t od a te t ot h e p os t - Wa r i P er iod , b u t t h e ir a t tr ibu t ion t ot h e p re Inca o r I nca p er iod r e l ies u pon v e s se l r e con s t ruc t ion p e rm i t t ing i d en t if ica t ion o fC usco P la in f o rm s , d i s t inc t ive f o rms o f K i l lke P la in B rown o r o the r l a te p r eh is to r ic p l a inwa re s . F une ra ry a rch i tec tu re w i thou t p o t te ry w ou ld o n ly p rov ide v e ry b road c h rono log ica ld a ta .

T he a r chaeo log ica ls i te s urvey w a sb ased u pon amu l t i s t randed a r chaeo log ica l a nd e thnograph ic s t ra tegy , w i th d e ta i led c ove rage i n t h e L i ma tambo A rea , t a rge t ted s urvey i n t h e C h inchaypuqu io A rea a nd b r ief r e conna issance i ns u r round ing r e g ions . S ur face a r tefac t c o l lec t ions a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l r e co rds w e re made f o r s i te c hrono log ica l a nd f unc t iona l a na lyse s , w h i ls te xcava t ion w as l im i ted t o af ew s pec if ic c i rcum s tance s ( Queswawayqo t e r race , Wamanmarka c ana l a nd s ome a r ch i tec tura l f e a ture s o f t e r race wa l ls ) . D e ta i led p lans w e re made o f ar ep re sen ta t ive s e to fp re Inca s i te s a nd o fa l m a jo r I n ca t e r race s ys tems i nt he L ima tambo A rea .

T he s i te d e scr ip t ions i nt h ef o l low ing t wo c hap te r s a re d iv ided i n to I n ca s i te s a nd L a te P reh is to r ic T rad i t ion s i te s . T he l a t te r i n c lude b o th L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod s i te sa nd l o ca l l e ve ls i te s o ccup ied d ur ing t h eI nca p e r iod .F ine rc h rono log ica l i n f e rence s a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ionsh ip sa r ed eve loped b yc ompa r ison w i th t h e s e quen t ia la r te f ac ta nd a r ch i tec tu ra l a ssemb lage so ft he r e g ion .

3 2

CHAPTER 4

LATE PREHISTOR IC L I MATA MBO : S ITES FRO M AD 1 000 TO THE EMERGENCE OF THE I NCA S TATE 4 .1

I NTRODUCTION

A l l s t one c ons t ruc t ion emp loyed u nshaped wh i te g ran i te w h ich o u tc rop s o n t h e s i te . Wa l l t h ickne ss i sb e tween 0 . 35 a nd 0 . 75 m ( n =8 ) . App rox ima te s t ruc tu re a r ea s w e re c a lcu la ted f o r c i rc le s o r e l l ip se s , a s s ub jec t ive ly a s sessed f r om s urvey d a ta . T he mean a r ea f o rc i rc le s i s1 0 .5 s q .m ( n =2 1 , r ange = 4 . 7 t o 1 2 .6 s q .m ) a nd t h e mean a rea o fe l l ip t ica l f o rm s i s1 2 .8 s q .m ( n =2 2 , r ange = 4 .7 t o 1 8 .8 s q .m ) . E x ter io r d iame te r s o f c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re s a r e b e tween 2 .0 a nd 4 .0 m . T he l o nge s t e l l ip t ica l s t ruc tu re i sa bou t 6 . 5 b y 3 .0 m , t ha t o fg rea te s t a r ea i s6 . 0 b y 4 .0 m a nd t h a t w i th s ma l le s t a rea a nd t h e n a r rowe s t s i de i s3 .0 b y 2 . 0 m . S ize d i s tr ibu t ion f or d i f f e ren t f o rm s i s g i ven i nT ab le 4 :2 .

T h is c hap te rd e scr ibe ss i te si nt h eL ima tambo A rea w h ich h ave p o t te ry o ra r ch i tec tu ra l a s semb lage si nd ica t ing o ccupa t ion , u se o rc ons truc t ion p r io rt ot he a dven to fC u sco I nca p o t te ry ,o ri n t he t r ad i t ion o fr eg iona l L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod s i te s . T he se L a te P reh is tor ic T rad i t ion ( LPT ) s i te s a r e a l so a na lysed i n t e rms o ft h e ir g ene ra l f unc t ion a nd c h rono logy ,a si n d ica ted b y t he r e la t ionsh ip o ft h e ir ma ter ia l c u l tu re t ot h er eg iona lp o t te ry s e quence . Twen ty e i gh t LPT s i tes w e re l o ca ted ( F ig . 4 : 1) . I nT ab le 4 : 1 t hey a r e l i s ted i n g roups wh ich c or re spond t o s ub reg ion s n amed a f te r t he n ea res t l a rge c on temporary s e t t lemen t . I t s umma r ize st h e i re nv i ronmen ta lz ona t ion a sd ef ined i nC hap te r 2 , a l t i tude , a rea , ' r e la t ive t opography ' a ccord ing t o t h e c a tego r ie sd ef ined i n Chap te r3 ,a sw e l la st h eg ene ra l t y pe so f e v idence p r e sen ta te ach s i te .T he se t ype sa r e :

T he l a rge s ts t ruc tu re sa r ee l l ip t ica l , i ns ome c a se sb ecau se t h ey c ou ld b ee x tended a l ong n a r row t e r races , b u t n ea r ly t h e s ame p e rcen tage o ft h em o ccu r i nt h e f l a t te r S ec to r A( 12 o f2 4 , o r 5 0% e l l ip t ica l ) a si nS ec to r B( 9o f 1 9 , o r4 7% e l l ip t ica l ) . T he moda l s i ze r a nge f o r b o th s hapes i si n t he 1 0 .5 t o 1 4 .4 s q .m r a nge , n o t s ugge s t ive o f s hape d i f f e ren t ia t ion f o r s t ruc tu res w i th p u rpo se s r e qu ir ing d i f f e ren t f l oo r a reas . No n i che s w e re f o und i np re se rved t e r r ace s ide w a l ls o fs t ruc tu re s . Doo rs pace s , w he re v i s ib le , o ccur i nf ounda t ions o fb o th f l oo rp lans . Doo r s t e nd t of a ce l e ve l o pen s pace s . Sma l le r s t ruc tu re s , wh ich t e nd t ob e c i rcu la r , c ou ld h ave h ad d if f e ren t f unc t ions , p e rhap s a s h ou seho ld c ook ing o r s t orage a rea s , wh ich i sc ons is ten t w i th t h e i rd i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou tt h e s i te ( F ig . 4 :2 ) .

( a )A r tef a c tC oncen t ra t ions ( A ) , ( b )S tone -wa l led T e r race s( T ) , ( c )C i r cu la ro rE l l ip t ica l Above -g round S tone S t ruc tu re s( CS ) , ( d )S t and ing S tone Wa l ls (W ) , ( e )C y l indr ica l S ub te r ranean S tone l ined P i t s( CSP ) ,a nd ( f )C ana l s( S ) . 4 .2 C IRCULAR -ELLIPTICAL , ABOVE -GROUND STONE STRUCTURES ( CS ) AND ARTEFACTS ( A)

N o b one w a s f ound t oi nd ica te ab u r ia l f unc t ion . Two c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re si nS e c to rAc on ta in as ha l low c en t ra ld ep re ss ion ( 1 .1 a nd 1 . 2 md i ame te r s ) , p os s ib ly f r om p o t -ho l ing .

N ine s i te s h ave CS ( AL28 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 7 , 3 9 ,4 1 , 4 2 , 4 5 a nd 4 6 ) : ( i )S ec to r Aa nd B T e r race s : S i te AL28 , Wa manarka A I T e r race w a l ls a r es t eep ly a ng led a nd u p t o2 . 5mh igh i nS ec to r B( P la te 3 ) .T hey w e re c on s truc ted i ns ho r ti n te r leav ing l e ng th s w h ich e x tend b e tween o u tc ropp ing g ran i te o re nd i na n u ps lope c urve . S ome a r e b u i l t o n o u tcrops . G ran i te b lock s o f 0 . 2 t o 0 . 5mw e re u sed t ob u i ld r e ta in ing w a l ls o fs i ng le s t one .T he se a r en e i the rh amme rd re s sed n o ro bv iou s ly s haped . Wa l ls u r f ace s a r e u neven , a l though f l a t f a ce t s o f t en a ppea r o n t h e f a cade . J u t t ing s t one s a r e n o t p laced i n s uch a w ay a s t o f unc t ion a s s t ep s .A cce s st h rough t h es i te i sb y z i gz agg ing p assage a r ound t e r race sa nd o u tc rop s .B e tween s t ruc tu res 3 0a nd 3 1 i nS ec to rB t h e re i sa n e n t rance w i th s i de wa l ls p e rpend icu la r t o at e r race w a l l . T h is m ay h ave b een a s hor t r amp s i nce n o s t ep s w e re f ound . O n ly as ma l l a r ea ,a bou t0 . 12 h ao n t h e n or thern s i de o f S ec to rB ,p rov ide st e r raced l a nds b e s ide s t ruc tu re sw h ich m igh t h ave b e en c u l t iva ted . T h is a r ea i sm inu te i nc ompa r ison w i th t h ec u l t ivab le s l ope sd e scend ing n o r thwa rd f r om t h es i te .O the r t e r races a r e i n r ocky t e r ra in o r l a rge ly c overed b y c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re s .

Wamanarka i st h e n ame g iven b y C hoquema rka v i l lage r st oa r i dge w i th in t h ec ommun i ty 's l a nd s , 2km w e s to ft h e i rp r e sen t s e t t lemen t ( P la te 1 ) . I ta l so r e fe r s t o a n a r chaeo log ica l s i te ( AL28 )a tt h en a r row w e s te rn e nd o ft h er i dge .O ld r e la t ive so f t h ec ommun i ty p re s iden tc a l led i tQ o lqemarka . AL28 c ompr ise s t h e s t one f oo t ing s o f4 3 c i rcu la ro r i regu la r e l l ip t ica l s t ruc tures ( F igure 4 :2 ) . O f t hese , 2 4 a r e c l o se ly g rouped o n an a r row f l a t a rea ( Sec to r A ) . N ine teen o ccu r i n s ma l l c l us te r s o n s t one -wa l led p la tforms o n ar ocky r i dge e x tend ing e a s twa rd ( Sec to rB )t o an a r row s add le ( Se c to rC ) .O n e ve ry a pp roach , e xcep t f r om t he s add le , t h es i te i ss u r rounded b ye x t reme ly s t eep g rad ien t s . As t one l ined c ana lo nce s upp l ied ar e servo i ri nS ec to rC . ( i )S ec to r Aa nd B S t ruc tu re s : S tone r ubb le i sn o t mounded i n o r a round s t ruc tu re s . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t wa l ls w e re o fp e r ishab le ma ter ia l a bove t h eo ne o rt wo c ou r se d oub le -s tone f ounda t ion n ow v i s ib le .R a i sed s o i l b es ide w a l ls g ive s ac ra ter l ike s urface f orm w h ich m ay r ep re sen td ecay o fa dobe so rs ods ( P la te 2 ) . Wa l ls a r eh i ghe ro n t h es i de o fs t ruc tu res wh ich b ack o n to ar e ta in ing w a l l . T h is i s c ommon i ns ec to rB .

( i i )T he Wamanma rka C ana la nd S ec to rC : A s ma l l e xcava t ion ( 1 m s qua re ) c onf irmed t ha t al i ne o f p a ra l le ls t one sd e scend ing t o Wamanma rka s add le w e re r ema in s o fa n a bandoned c ana l ( F ig . 4 :2 ) . L ow d oub le s t one w a l ls o f g r an i te f i l led w i th g rave l ly c l ay , 0 . 65 t o 0 . 8 m w ide , w e re b u i l to ne ach s i de o f as t one b edded c hanne l .T he s ou the rn s i de

3

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

F IG . 4 :1 L a te P reh is tor ic T rad i t ion S i tes i n t he L i ma ta mbo Va l ley . Key : A LA Ha tun T ambow i lka , AL5 Huchuy T ambow i lka , AL 19 Kuch io rqo , AL21 E xcu r s ionayoq , AL23 Wi lka ray ( T ic 1 1a )R idge , AL24 Qe chu loma , AL26 Ch ik ch ie ra , AL27 Q e rabamba , AL28 Wamanma rka A l , AL29 Wamanma rka AL30 Wamanma rka B , AL31 P is t ibamba , AL33 Waqayoqpampa A , A L34 Waqayoqpampa B .

AL37 L lak ta l c i , AL38 Cochabamba . , AL39 Qopa A l ta E , AL40 Qopa A l ta W , AL4 1 Qopa P laya , AL42 L lak tabamba E , AL43 P u l la R ayanqa sa , AL4 -4 P u l la R idge , AL45 L la l c tak i NW , AL4 -6 P akchak , AL47 P akchak L omada I , AL48 P akchak L omada AL 4 -9 L lak tabamba W , AM2 Qo r iwa ir ach ina . 3 4

L a te P reh is tor ic L i tna tan zbo

TABLE 4 :1 No.

L ate P rehistoric Tradition S ites

N ame

Pampaconga

i n t he L imatambo Area.

Z one

A lt.(m )

Area ( ha)

F eatures

Sub-Region

AL4

H atun Tambowilka

H F

3 450-3480

1 .200

T +A

AL5

H uchuy Tambowilka

H F

3 420

0 .400

T +A

AL21

E xcursionayoq

H F

3 700

0 .140

T +CS

AL23

' Wilkaray

WU

3 860

0 .003

C SP

R idge

AL43

P ulla Rayanqasa

H F

3 320-3460

6 .000

T +A

AL44

P ulla R idge

H F

3 460-3500

0 .010

CSP

Limatambo

VSP S ,R

Sub-Region

AL19

K uchiorqo

DMF

2 700

0 .040

A

AL24

Q echuloma

H F

3 740

0 .020

CSP

AL26

C hikchiera

DMF

2 820

0 .150

CSP+A

AL27

Q erabamba

H F

3 470

0 .450

CSP

AL28

Wamanmarka A l

DMF

3 080-3160

1 .160

T +CS+A+S

AL29

W amanmarka A II

D MF

3 140

0 .050

CS+A

AL30

W amanmarka B

H F

3 255-3270

0 .100

CS+A

AL31

P istibamba

DMF

2 800

0 .100

AL46

P aqchak

DMF

2 980

0 .450

CS+A

AL47

P aqchak L omada I

DMF

3 085-3100

0 .020

C SP

AL48

P aqchak L omada I I

D MF

3 125

0 .001

C SP

Chonta

R

V SP VF

Sub-Region

AL33

W aqayoqpampa A

D MF

3 000

1 .040

AL34

W aqayoqpampa

DMF

3 000

4 .000

T W+A

AL37

L laktaki

TW-DF

1 930-2010

1 .070

T +CS+A

PS P

S E

V SP

AL45

L laktaki NW

D F

2 130

0 .160

T +CS+A

AL38

C ochabamba

DMF

2 820

0 .060

A

AL39

Q opa Alta E

D F-DMF

2 300-2520

3 4.400

T +CS+A

AL40

Q opa A lta W

D F-DMF

2 250-2350

8 .800

AL41

Q opa P laya

TW-DF

1 950-2020

2 .925

AL42

L laktabamba E

D F

2 190-2350

3 .470

AL49

L laktabamba W

D F

2 025

1 .190

D MF

2 510

1 .000

Mollepata AM2

T opog.

V SP

P ,S V SP

T +W+CS+A

VF P , VSP

Sub-Region

Q oriwairachina

2 8 S ites

A

6 8.409ha

wa s p a r t ia l ly c o l lap sed , b u t t h e e a s tern c ross -sec t ion s hows t ha t t h ec hanne l w a s 0 .41 m w ide , 0 . 34 m d eep , a nd f i l led b y b e tween 0 . 03 a nd 0 . 15 m o fb l a ck l o amy s o i l w i thou ta r tefac t s ( F ig . 4 : 3 ) .

Wa te r v e loc i ty a t t h e e xcava ted p o in t wou ld b e r educed b y t u rbu lence f r om t h eu neven p l acemen to fb edd ing s t one a nd t h e r e duc t ion o fg rad ien tt o2 4% i nt h ep receed ing 8m . B e low t h ee xcava t ion , t h e c ana l d rop s a bou t 2m o ve r as ma l l o u tc rop a nd ac hanne l o fl e sse rg rad ien t l e ad s t ot h e s add le . A s ho r t b i fu rca t ion c onnec t s t o as t one -and -ea r th b unded h o l low b e s ide a n o u tcrop i n te rp re ted a s as ma l l r e se rvo i r . B e low , t h e c ana l c on t inues i n z i g -zag f a sh ion f o r a bou t 3 0 m w he re i t d i scha rge si n to ag u l ly .

T he c hanne lp l a tfo rm ( P la te 4 )a nd i t sc on tou ra r ea w a sw a lked f o r 2k m ,a r ound t h es ou the rn s i de o f Wamanma rka r i dge a sf a r a s ap re c ip ice s ou th o f ar i dge s e c t ion n amed Machuma chupa ta . No p l a t fo rm c ou ld b e s een b eyond 0 . 5 km , a nd s hou ld h ave b een o bv ious i fn o t c omp le te ly c o l lapsed . T he s t eep s l opes n ea r C hoquema rka w e re a l so e xam ined w i thou t r e su l t . I ti s p o ss ib le t h a t w a te r w a s d ropped t ot h e c ana l a long an a r row r av ine f r om a s pr ing . Sma l l a moun t s o f s pr ing w a te r a re a va i lab le w i th in 1 . 5 km e a s twa rd f r om t h e AL28 s add le , a long Wamanma rka r i dge .

T he r e se rvo ir ( P la te 5 ) i so f r ough ly e l l ip t ica l e x te r io r a nd r e c tangu la r i n te r ior p lan . Wi thou t e xcava t ion , i te nc lose s a s pace 1 . 4 b y 2 .2 m i n p lan a nd 0 . 7 m d eep , i nd ica t ing a c apac i ty o fa bou t 2 160 l i t re s . An o u tc rop , f o rm ing i t s S E a nd NE s i de s , h ad b een r a ised 0 . 5 mb y at wo -cou r se g ran i te w a l l . T he r ema in ing i n ter io r i s l i ned w i th g ran i te . T he e x te r io r c ons is t so f amounded e a r th a nd s t one b ank , a bou t 1 . 4mw ide a tt h eb a se .

T he c ana l w a s mapped f o r3 45 m a bove t he s add le . T he u ppe r 1 30 m l e ng th i s mode ra te ly s t eep , d e scend ing s ome 5m a s i t r uns a l ong t h es ou the rn s i de o ft h er i dge . I tt hen d e scends a bou t 8m i n1 00 m a s i tc r osse s t ot h e n or thern s i de , s ubsequen t ly c hange sd i re c t ion , a nd p lunge s4 7 mi n 15 m t ot h e s add le . I n t h is f i na l 15 m i t s g r ad ien td ec rea se s f r om 4 4% i nt h e u ppe r h a lf , t o3 2% b e low . S ur face f e a tu re s i nd ica te t h e w id th o ft h e c ana l i sn a r rowe r a tt h e t op ( 0 .33 m ) a nd m id -po in t o n t h is d e scen t ( 0 .30 m ) , t h an a t t h e p l a ce o f e xcava t ion ( 0 .41 m ) .

T he s ma l l s i ze o ft h ec ana l a nd r e se rvo ir ,a nd i t st e rm ina t ion a t t h e r i dge s add le , s uppo r t t h e i n f e rence t h a t i tw a s p a r t o ft h e AL28 s i te c omp lex .

3 5

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

( i v )S u r f ace A r tef ac ts :

( b ) U npa in ted P o t te ry :

Abundan t p o t tery f r agmen t s i nd ica te t ha t AL28 w as a s e t t lemen t . S he rds c o l lec ted d ur ing p re l im ina ry r e conna issance ( G M1-15 ) w e re a ugmen ted b y c o l lec t ions f r om t h ree c i rc le so f 4m d iame te r c en t red u pon s u rvey s t a t ions HBA , HCB a nd HCC ( F igu re 4 :2 )T hese p l ace s w e re f l a t , o pen a nd s uff ic ien t ly f r ee o ft a l l g ra s s t op lace t h e t h eodo l i te a nd w e re l e ss l i ke ly t o c on ta in ma ter ia l m ixed b y s l ope p rocesses o r c overed b y s t ruc tu re w a l ld eb r is .

T h is ma ter ia l , f r om a l l c o l lec t ions , p e rm i ts a p a r t ia l r e cons t ruc t ion o ft h e o the r v e sse ls i nu se . E ve r ted r im v e s se ls a r eu ncommon a nd k nown e xamp le s a r en o tw e l l f i n ished . O ne i s ma ss ive a nd h i gh -necked , a no the r t h in w a l led ( App . I I F igs . l g , i ) . Ah a lf r e cons truc ted d eep b ow l w i th mode ra te ly s moo th f i n ish h a s e x te r io r b l acken ing , b u t t h is w a s p robab ly d one i n t h e k i ln ( App . I I F ig . 3 1 ) . W ide -mou thed , f l a r ing , t h ick -r im ' j a r s ' w i th r im d iame te r s ( RD ) o f 1 5 -24 c m a r e c ommon i na l l c o l le c t ions ( App .I IF igs . l h ,2d -h ,k ) . S ome , i fn o t a l l o ft h is v e sse l f o rm , may h ave h ad s ma l l v e r t ica l p i e r ced lug sa t tached t ot h er im ( App . I IF ig s . 3 a c ) . I n t wo c a se s t h e h o le i st oo s ma l l f o r af i nge r , b u t c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r s uspend ing t he v e s se l w i th ar ope . Many s he rds h ave ag r ey c o lou red c o re i n t h e f a b r ic , a nd af ew a r e e ven ly f i red . F abr ic i n c lus ions a r e b lack , u p t o 1mm , s ma l le r w h i te a nd o cca s iona l ly g reen o ne s . S u r f ace s a re mode ra te ly s moo th t or ough ,o f ten w i th s hape i r regu la r i t ie sa nd f i ne c r ack s o r p i t s .

HBA l i es af ew met re s e a s twa rd f r om t h e d oo r o f as t ruc tu re b u i l ti n to t h es l ope o f we s tern s e c to rB . HCB a nd HCC o ccupy o pen s pace s b e tween s eve ra l s t ruc tu res i n S ec to r A . S he rd d ens i ty v ar ied f r om 2 .3 t o 1 0 .6 p e r s q .m a nd b e tween 8 7% a nd 9 0% o f e ach s amp le w e re b ody s he rds ( App . I , T ab le 1 :2 ) . T h icke r g ra ss p robab ly a ccoun t s f o r t h e c ompa ra t ive ly s ma l l s amp le s f r om HCB a nd HCC . T he a rea c o l lec ted w as 2 8 .3 s q .m , o ro n ly 0 .24% o ft he t o ta l s i te a rea . ( a )P a in ted P o t te ry : No Cusco I nca p o t te ry w a s f ound i na ny c o l lec t ion a nd f u r the r a na lys is o f 1 33 s he rds f r om t h el a rges t s amp le ( HBA )r evea led t ha t 1 3 .5 % w e re p a in ted . T he se a r ed iv ided i n to ' A"geome tr ic ' ( ' i ' monoch rome a nd ' i ' b i ch rome ) a nd ' B"cur v i l inea r ' d e s ign g roups .

S tub b a ses ( App . I I F ig s . 1 j ,2f ) w e re f r om v e s se ls w i th aw ide o r g lobu la r b a sa l b ody s hape . O ne h ad 2 3 mm w ide v er t ica l s c rap ing b and s o n t h e e x te r io r , l i ke m any p a in ted s he rds . P la s t ic a pp l ica t ions w e re u sed o n t wo s he rds , o ne a s ma l l p ro jec t ing l ug ( App .I I F ig . 2 g ) a nd t h e o the r a n i n c ised h or izon ta l l ug f r om a t h ick -wa l led i nf lec ted v esse l o f o n ly mode ra te ly s moo th s ur face t e x ture ( App . I I F ig . 1f ) . S t rap h and le sw e re a l so f r om t h ick -wa l led v e s se ls ( App . I IF ig . 2 h ) .

Des ign g roup ' A i i ' s he rds ( n =4 ) a re p a in ted w i th t h ick d a rk b rown l i ne s , s ome t i mes f o rm ing c r iss -c ro ss f i l led t r iang le s , a s w e l l a s r ed l i ne s o r b ands o n s moo th s c raped c onvex s u r f ace s w i th b rown ( App . I I F igs . 1 a , d ,e ) o r o range ( 2 .5YR 4 /8 ) s l ip . T hey a re 0 . 71 t o0 .9 cm t h ick , i nne r s ur f ace s a re mode ra te ly s moo th a nd b rushed a nd a l l h ave a g rey ish b rown o r d a rk b rown f abr ic .

U npa in ted b ody s he rds o f HBA ( n =9 8 ) i n c luded 1 0 w i th e x te r io r s c rap ing b and s , a l l t h ick ly s l ipped ab rown , r e dd ish , o range o rc r eam ( 10YR 7 /4 )c o lour . Two o t he r s h ad ac i nde red a nd a lmos t v i tr if ied s t one l ike e x ter io r s u r f ace , a l so s e en o n o ne g roup ' A i ' g eome tr ic d e s ign s he rd . T he r e s tw e re u n s l ipped o r l i gh t ly s l ipped i n ac o lou r s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e f a b r ic . Many w e re g rey c o red . N ine o ft h em , w i th mode ra te ly s moo th t o r ough a nd o f ten p i t ted o r c racked s u rf aces , w e re a l so b lackened o n t h ee x ter io r . Two o the r s , o fs im i la rt e x tu re , w e re w e l l f i red b u t b l a ckened o n t h e e x ter io r , a sw as a n u npa in ted s t rap h and le f r agmen t .

De s ign g roup ' A i ' s he rds h ave t h e s ame d a rk b rown d es igns a s ' A i i ' , b u t w i thou t r ed . A w ide r r ange o fd a rk b rown c o lou r s i s p resen t ( mos t ly 5YR 3 /3 , s ome 5YR 3 /2 a nd 5YR 4 /3 ) , o n s moo th b rown -s l ipped ( a s ' A i i 'o r 5YR 6 / 8 )c onvex s ur face s ( n =3 ) , as im i la r o range ( 2 .5YR 5 /8 ) s l ip ( n =8 ) ( App . I I F ig . 1b ) , o r , i no ne c a se , g rey s l ip ( 7 .5YR 5 /2 ) . T hey a re 0 .58 c m t o 0 .94 cm t h ick . Mos t c oncave s u rfaces a re mode ra te ly s moo th , s ome s moo th , c ommon ly w i th e x te r ior s c rap ing a nd i n te r io rb ru sh ing . T hose w i th b rown o rg rey s ur f aces may h ave ag rey c o re i nt h ef abr ic . O the r sa r eo range a nd e ven ly f i red .

( v )C ompa r isons a nd C h rono logy . T he s h iny -s t reak e x te r io r b u rn ish ing a nd i n te r io r b rush ing t e chn ique s c ommon i np a in ted g roup ' A i a nd ' A i i ' s he rd s a r e d ef in i t iona l c ha r ac te r is t ics o f K i l lke p o t tery s t y les , a nd t h e ir d es igns a nd p robab le s hape s f a l l w i th in t h e k nown r a nge . T r iangu la r z oned c r is s -c ros s d es igns i nd a rk b rown o r b l ack o ccu r i n s he rdage f r om s eve ra l p re Inca s i te s w i th r ounded s t ruc tures i n t h e U rubamba V a l ley a nd i n An ta ( Kenda l l 1 976 :F ig . 2 0c ,57a ,68e ) . A n ubb in o n ap a in ted s he rd f r om H u i l lca R accay i sa lmo s ti d en t ica l t oa n u npa in ted o ne a t AL28 ( App . I I F ig . 2 8 ) a nd t h e b ow l f o rm ( App . 1 1 F ig . 3 1 ) r e semb les t hose f r om A nca sma rca , 0 1 1e r iayoc L eon iyoc a nd H u i l lca R accay ( op .c i t . :F igs . 2 3d ,29c ,38b , 4 1a a nd 6 1c ) . T h ick r immed j a r s w i th p i e rced v er t ica l r im l u g so ccu ra tC hoquepa ta P iscaycucho i n t h e U rubamba V a l ley ( op .c i t . :F ig . 4 8f ) , b u t o the rw ise d o n o t f ea tu re i n K illke o r o the r r eg iona l a s semb lage s .

De s ign g roup ' B ' s he rds ( n =2 )h ave b rown c urv i l inea rd e s ign s o n s moo th t o v ery smoo th c onvex s ur f ace s w i th b rown s l ip ( App .I I F ig . l c ) . T hey a r e 0 .68 a nd 0 .74 cm t h ick , w i th s moo th o rv e ry s moo th c oncave s ur face sa nd ag rey f ab r ic c o r e . No p a in ted HBA s he rd h a s b l acken ing f r om u se i n f i re . A r e s tr ic ted n eck ' j ug ' may b e r ep resen ted b y t wo ' A i i ' g roup s he rd s ( App . 1 1F ig . l a ,e ) .T he GM c o l lec t ion i n c luded an a r row n e cked ' j a r ' o r' c up ' s hape w i th b l ack p a in ted i nne rl i p , a nd r im t h icken ing c ha rac ter is t ic o f as im i la r K i l lke f orm ( App . HF ig . 3 i ) . GM a nd HCC a l so c on ta ined ' A i ' s he rds ( App .I I F ig . 2 a c , e , j) , a n ' A i i ' e xamp le ( App . I I F ig . 2 i ) , aK i l lke l ike t h in b lack l i ne d e s ign ( App .I I F ig . 2 d ) a nd a b i ch rome d es ign ( App .H F ig . 2 k ) s im i la r t o t h a t s een o n H a tun T ambow i lka ( AL4 )s he rdage .

T he a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a ture s , c ommon i nd a ted s i te s e l sewhe re i n t he r eg ion , a s w e l l a s p o t tery e v idence , s ugges t t ha t. Wamanma rka w a s o ccup ied d ur ing t h e p o s t - Wan p er iod a nd p robab ly a bandoned b efo re t h ea dven to fC u sco I nca p o t te ry . 3 6

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

F IG . 4 .2 Wa manmarka R idge S i tes , L ima tambo : AL28 a nd AL29 .

3 7

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

TABLE 4 :2

:

S ite A L28:

F requency D istribution o f S tructure A reas. AREA

( square metres)

4 .5-

6 .5-

8 .5-

1 0.5-

1 2.5-

1 4.5-

1 6.5-

1 8.5-

6 .4

8 .4

1 0.4

1 2.4

1 4.4

1 6.4

1 8.4

2 0.4

TOTAL

3

2

1

2 2

S HAPE C ircular

2

4

3

0

1 2

E lliptical

1

1

1

8

5

A ll

3

5

4

8

1 7

3

2

1

4 3

S tructures

7 .0

1 1.6

9 .3

1 8.6

3 9.5

7 .0

4 .7

2 .3

1 00%

2 1

C ro s s s ec t iona l A rea

y Man -

N E

SW

NW

S E

0

0

Up r igh t S tone B ed S tone

• • G rave l & S o i l

W A MAN MARK A ( A l ) ( S ITE A L 2 8 ) : C ana l E xcavat ion

0 im ig

=n

1 00 cm P I IM M

F IG . 4 .3 Wamanmarka A l S ite AL28 ( Cana l E xcava t ion ) .

T he a bundance a nd v a r ie ty o f s he rdage , i n c lud ing l a rge a nd p robab ly u t i l i ta r ian v e sse ls , c omb ined w i th w a te r s upp ly i n f rast ruc ture , i nd ica tes t ha t AL28 w a s mo re t han a n o cca s iona l ly v i s i ted r edoub t .

a nd 1 50 h o r izon ta l me t re s t o t he w es t ( F igu re 4 :2 ) . I ti sn o t d ef ens ib le a ga in s ta na pp roach f r om t h ee a s t .T he s t ruc tu re sa r e i d en t ica l i n c on s t ruc t ion a nd s ur face a ppea rance t o t h o se o f AL28 . No w a l ls a r e h ighe r t han 0 .4 m . A we l l p rese rved d oub le s tone w a l lo fg ran i te i s0 .48 m w ide . Two s t ruc tu re sa r e c i rcu la rw i th e x te r io rd iame te r so fa bou t 3m a nd 4 m ,a nd t wo a r e r ough ly e l l ip t ica l , 5b y 3m a nd 4 b y 3m , g iv ing s t ruc tu re a r ea s o f 7 , 1 2 , 9 . 5 a nd 1 2 .5 s q .m r e spec t ive ly . Mean a r ea i s 1 0 .2 s q .m , w h ich l i es i n t h e l ower t o m idd le s i ze r ange f o r• s uch s t ruc tu re sa t AL28 .

S i te AL29 , Wamanmarka A II AL29 c omp r ises t he s t one f oo t ings o f 4s t ruc tu res a nd a s soc ia ted a r tefac t s o n ar i dge . I t o ve r looks t h e s add le d enom ina ted S ec to r Co f AL28 , 6 2 me t re s i na l t i tude b e low ,

3 8

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

O n ly as ma l l n umbe ro fe roded a nd u nde co ra ted p o t te ry s he rds , s im i la r i n a ppea rance t o t hose o f AL28 , w e re s een o n t h e s u r face i n t h e v i c in i ty . L ow g ra ss c ove r ( r educed v i s ib if l ty ) may a ccoun tf o rt h is . B o th s ur f ace a r tef ac t sa nd s t ruc tu re s a l so s uf fe rf r om u se o ft h en a r row r i dge a r ea f o rp a s tur ing c a t t le . N o s urface c o l lec t ion w a s made . I tl i es w i th in 1 5 m o f t h e Wamanma rka c ana l . T h is , a nd t h e s im i la r i ty o f s urface e v idence t o AL28 , i nd ica te s t h a t i tw a s b u i l ta nd p e rhaps u sed i nt h es ame p er iod a st h a tn e ighbou r ing s i te .

3 . 1 m . S truc tu re a rea s a r e a bou t 2 9 .2 s q .m a nd 1 5 .2 s q .m , t h e f o rme rs i gn if ican t ly l a rge rt han a ny a t AL28 . A f ew p o t she rd s ( n =5 ) w e re c o l lec ted f r om a n e r oded t r ack b e tween s t ruc tu res 1a nd 2a nd a no the rt r ack a round t h eb a se o f t h e s i te . T hey i n c lude aC usco I nca s ha l low p l a te f o rm ( App .I I F ig . 4 g ) , t h e a lmos t v er t ica l a nd s qua re r im o f av e s se l w i th d a rk b rown f abr ic ( App .I I F ig . 4 e ) a nd a p a in ted b ody s he rd ( App .I I F ig . 4 0 w i th s l ip a nd p a in tc o lou r , d e s ign a nd e x te r io r s ur f ace t r ea tmen t w i th in t h e r ange o f AL28 D e s ign G roup ' A i ' p o t tery . AL46 i sp robab ly al oca l s e t t lemen t w h ich c on t inued t ob eo ccup ied d u r ing t h eI nca P e r iod .

S i te AL30 , Wa manmarka B AL30 ( F ig . 4 : 1) c omp r ise s g ran i te f i e ld s tone f oo t ings o f 8 s t ruc tu re s , ac oncen t ra t ion o fs ma l le roded p o t te ry s he rd sa nd a s t one -wa l led o u tc rop . I tl i e s a bou t 1km w e s to fs i te AL28 , o n a5 7 m l o ng e l eva ted s ec t ion o f t h e s ame r i dge , b enea th a p a s tu r ec a l led Way l lwaqa sapa ta .

S i te AL39 , Qopa A l ta E AL39 i sa t l ow a l t i tude , a bou t 1 2 km s ou th o f L ima tambo ( F ig . 4 :1) . S ec tor ' A ' ( 2 .68 h a ) c ompr ises 3 2 s t ruc tu res , a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t sa nd t e r race sa l ong ar i dge s add le o ve r look ing t he c onf luence o f t h e d eep ly i nc ised T incoc s t ream a nd Apur imac R ive r a s w e l l a s wa l led t e r races e x tend ing a k i lome t re n o r thwa rd a l ong t he g u l l ied r av ine f l ank ( Sec to r B , 3 1 .72 h a ) ( F ig . 4 :4 , P la te 8 ) . A s hor t l e ng th o f s t and ing w a l l s epa ra te s S e c to r Bf r om aw a l led p la tform o ve r look ing S e c to r A .

T h ree s t ruc tures ( 5 , 6a nd 7 ) w e re p laced i n ar ow o r ien ted WN W o n t h e h ighes t p ar t o f t h e d e scend ing r i dge , a nd t he o the r s w e re b u i l to n p la tforms d ug i n to t h e s u r round ing s l ope . F loo r p l ans o f t he f orme r s t ruc tu re s h ave t h e ' c ra te r l ike ' a ppea rance n o ted a t AL28 a nd AL29 , b u ta r ep oo r ly p re served ( P la te 6 ) . R ea r w a l ls o ft h e l a t te rr e ta in t h e s l ope , a nd s ome o f t h e ir f r on t p la tforms s urv ive t o ah e igh t o f 0 .5 m . A l l a re c i rcu la r e xcep t s t ruc ture 5 , a n e l l ip t ica l f o rm . No e n t rance s w e re d i scer ned . S t ruc tu re 7i st h eb e s tp re served a nd t yp ica l o f t h e c i rcu la r s t ruc ture s p resen t . I t s e x ter io r d iame te r i s3 . 7 m , g iv ing a n a r ea o f 1 0 .8 s q .m , a nd w a l l w id th i s0 . 5 m . S t ruc tu re 5i sa bou t h a lf t h is a rea , w i th a d oub le -s tone w a l l w id th o f 0 .46 m .

( i ) S ec to rA , t h es t ruc tu ra l a r ea : AL39 s t ruc tu re s a r e a pp rox ima te ly c i rcu la r , a s i n d ica ted b y a p l an b a sed o n 5o r mo re p o in t s p e re d if ice ( F ig . 45 ) . S t ruc tu re No . 2 3 w as s qua red o n o ne s i de i no rde r t o f i t i n to an ar row t e r race , a nd ac o rne r w a s b onded i n to ah igh t e r race w a l l . T he s ame a ccommoda t ion i sa ppa ren t i nt h e s hape s o fN o s . 5a nd 1 9 . Many ( n =2 3 ) w e re b u i l ti n to t e r raced s l ope s .

A t t h e e a s tern e nd o ft he g roup o fs t ruc tu re s t h e re i s as ma l l r ock o u t c rop o fc i rcu la rp l an ,6 . 8 mi nd i ame te ra nd l e ve l led o n t op . Ad oub le f i e lds tone r e ta in ing w a l l ,0 . 45 m w ide , e nc ir c le s t h e o u tc rop a nd f i l ls s pace b e tween t h e r ock . No p o t te ry w a s c o l lec ted a tt h e s i te , b u t a l l s een w a s t yp ica l o f u ndeco ra ted AL28 s he rdage , w i thou t C usco I nca ma ter ia l . AL30 i s p robab ly a no the r s ma l l e xamp le , l i ke AL29 , o ft h e s e t t lemen t t ype d e scr ibed a t AL28 . Aga in , t h e amoun t o f w a l l r ubb le i s n o ti n d ica t ive o ff u l ly s t one c on s t ruc t ion .

E x te r io rd iame te r so fs t ruc tu re s r ange b e tween 4 . 75 a nd 9 . 88 m ( mean 6 . 51 m , SD = 1 . 0 1 , n= 3 2 ) , g iv ing a r ea s b e tween 1 7 .7 a nd 7 6 .7 s q .m ( mean 3 4 .1 s q .m , SD = 1 .2 ) a nd at o ta l r oof ed a rea o f 1 090 s q .m . More t han h a lf o f t h e s t ruc tures a re b e tween 2 6 .5 a nd 3 6 .4 s q .m ( Tab le 4 :3 ) . T h is i sl a rge r t han a ny s t ruc tu re a t AL28 , AL29 o r AL30 . O n ly f ou rs t ruc tu re s a t AL39 ( No s . 4 , 5 ,15 a nd 2 9 ) a re s ma l l e nough t oe n te r t he l a rge s t a rea r a nge a t AL28 ( 18 .5 -20 .4 m ) .

S i te AL46 , P aqchak AL46 ( F igu re 4 : 1) c ompr ise s c i rcu la r s t ruc tu res , s t one -wa l led t e r race sa nd a na s soc ia ted c oncen t ra t ion o fs u r f ace p o t tery . I ti s l o ca ted o n l owe rs l ope so f ar i dge ,a bou t2 0 ma bove t h eb road , c u l t iva ted v a l ley f l oo ra tS ondo r( P la te 7 ) .

S t ruc tu re 2 5 i sb y f a rt h e l a rges t o n t h e s i te , ap o in tr e info r ced b y c ompa r ison o fi t s i n ter io r a rea ( 53 .8 s q .m ) w i th t h a t o ft h e s ma l les t s t ruc ture , No .4 ( 10 .2 s q .m ) . T he f i ve l a rges t ( 14 ,17 ,25 ,27 a nd 2 8 ) a l l l i e o n t h e n or thea s te rn r i se . Two o f t h em h ave a d jacen tp a t io s w i th l ow w a l ls ( No s . 1 7a nd 2 7 ) .

D ense a nd t h orny v ege ta t ion c ove r s t h es t ruc tu ra l a r ea a nd i ti s l i ke ly t h a t u p t o 1 5 s t ruc tu re s c ou ld b e l o ca ted w i th c l ea rance . T he s i te a r ea , a bou t 1 50 m a round t h e c on tou r a nd 3 0 m u p s lope , w a s e s t ima ted b y s ea rch ing n a r row t r ack s t h rough t h e u nde rg row th f o rt h ep re sence o fp o t te ry . Two s t ruc tu re s , a bou t 2 0 m a pa r t , l i e o n f l a t a r ea s w h ich a r e s epa ra ted b y b reak s o f s l ope . T he se s l opes a re i n te rm i t ten t ly r e ta ined b y l a rge a moun t s o ff i e lds tone p i led a ga in s t t h em a nd t h e t e r race r i se r s a r en o ts t eep .

Wa l l w id ths o fs t ruc tu re s r ange f r om 0 . 5 t o0 . 8 m( mean 0 . 6 , SD = 0 . 1) . Doo r s o r e n t rances h ave a lmos t v er t ica l s i de s a nd , i n many c a se s , o ne o r b o th i sc o l lapsed . P re se rved umb ra ls r ange f r om 0 . 54 m t o 1 . 00 m w ide ( mean 0 . 79 m , SD = 0 . 13 , n= 1 7 ) . T hose i n t h e 1 6 s t ruc tures o f s ma l le s t a r ea h ave a mean d oo r w id th o f 0 .77 m ( SD = 0 . 12 , n= 7 ) , a nd t h o se among t he 1 6 l a rge s t h ave amean d oo r w id th o f0 . 81 m ( SD = 0 . 14 , n= 1 0 ) .T he re i sn oe v idence o fd i f fe ren t ia l i mpedence o f a ccess t o l a rge a nd s ma l l s t ruc ture s . Among s t ruc tu re s w i th p reserved umb ra ls , t h e t h ree l a rges t ( w i th in t h e 7o f g rea te s t a r ea ) h ave amean d oo r w id th o f0 .90 m a nd t h e t h ree s ma l le s t ( w i th in t h e 5o fs ma l le s ta r ea ) h ave amean d oo rw id th o f0 . 74 m .

T he w e s ter n s i de o fs t ruc tu re 1w a s b u i l t a ga in s t t h e s l ope . I t h as a n i n te r io rd iame te ro f4 .8 m a nd ad oub le s tone w a l l 0 .65 m w ide w h ich r i ses t h ree c ou r se s t o ah e igh t o f 0 .45 m . C ons t ruc t ion i so f u nshaped , h a rd g rey a nd r ed s ed imen ta ry r ock s u p t o a bou t 0 .60 m d iame te r , p laced i n mud mor ta r . S t ruc tu re 2 i s b u i l t i n to t he s l ope , o f t he s ame masonry c ons truc t ion b u t b ad ly c o l lap sed , w i th a n i n ter io r d iame te r o f 3 9

L a te P r eh is tor ic L ima tambo

de.

A L39 S ec to r B ••• ' •

• • ••••

/

rr A Pu r i / M ac

A L39 S ec to r A, I 6 ,

.-

R ive r

V.

A L41 • •

V.

Qopa P laya 0

met res

S OO

K .H . :AP S ke tch

F IG . 4 :4 Qopa A lta S ites : AL39 , AL40 a nd AL4L

D oo r s t e nd t o f a ce l e ve l a nd o pen s paces , e i the r ap laza o r a n a r row l e ng th o ft e r race .F ive e n t rance sf a ce n o r th ( 3 15°-45° ) ,8 f a ce e a s t( 45° -135° ) , 1 2f a ce s ou th ( 135° -225° )a nd 7f a ce w e s t ( 2 25° -315° ) . Many f a ce t h es ou th q uad ran ta nd t h is r ef lec t st h a t mo s t s t ruc tu res o n s l ope s a re o n t hose wh ich r i se t owa rd s t h e n or th a nd t h e refo re b ack o n to r i s ing r e ta ine r w a l ls . E n t rance s w h ich f a ce n or th a r ei ns t ruc ture s b u i l t u pon s ou th o rs ou thea s t r i s ing s l ope s ( No s . 1 , 3 ,7 ,11 a nd 1 6 ) .

0 . 15 m w e re u sed b u t mo s t w a l l b lock s a r e 0 . 2 t o0 .5 m l o ng a nd s ome r e ach 1 . 2 m . T hey w e re p r inc ipa l ly o fa ngu la r g rey v o lcan ic ,r e dd ish b rown m e tamo rpho sed s ed imen ta ry r ock a nd w h i te g ran i te . O cca s iona l a r ea s o f w a l l w e re made o f s ma l l s t one s . F la t s i de s o ff i e ld s tone u sua l ly a ppea ro n w a l l f a cade s ( P la te 9 ) . D oorways a r es qua red w i th s t re tche r -heade rb ond ing ( P la te 1 0 ) . ( i )T e r race so fS ec to r Aa nd B :

S t ruc tu re w a l ls s urv ive t o h e igh ts b e tween 0 .4 a nd 1 . 35 m . T he re i s e nough s t one f r om w a l l c o l lapse t o s ugges t t h a t c on s t ruc t ion w a s p r ima r i ly o fs t one . No e v idence w a s s een o f a dobe s o r o fc en t ra l p os t h o le s . I n many i n s tances t he o u te r c our se h a s c o l lapsed wh i le t he i n ter ior r ema ins , p e rhaps i n d ica t ive o f f o rce s e xer ted b y o b l ique r oof b eams o n w a l ls w i th l i t t le b a t te ra ng le .

Ap e rpend icu la rt e r race -end ing w a l ls epa ra te sp a r to ft h et e r race s wh ich s uppor t s t ruc tures i n S ec to r A f r om t h e ir e a s tern e x tens ion w i thou t s t ruc tu re s ( F ig . 4 :5 ) . A f r ee s t and ing w a l l a l so d iv ides S ec to r A f r om S ec tor B . E nd w a l ls a r e a c ha rac ter is t ic o fI n ca t e r rac ing . Wa l l b a t te ro n t h ree S e c to r A t e r race s , f r om 1 . 2 t o 1 . 35 m h igh , v a r ied b e tween 2 0 .3% a nd 2 5 .4% .T he w a l ls w e r ee i the rs i ng le o rd oub le s tone .

I n te rna l w a l l n i ches w e re n o tf ound . S t ruc tu re 6c on ta ins al ow i n ter io r p la t form r e ta ined b y ad oub le wa l l , 0 .42 m h igh a nd 0 . 6 m w ide a nd n o t b onded i n to t he o u te r wa l l . A s im i la r f e a ture w a s i nd ica ted b y s u rface f orm i n s t ruc ture 1 7 , b u t i n mos t c ase s w a l l c o l lapse made s urface o bserva t ions i n conc lu s ive .

S ec to r Bt e r race sc omp r ise o ve r5 0 n a r row l e ve ls , many o n ly 3 t o 5m w ide , o n as l ope o f a bou t 6 0% . N o s t ruc tu re s n o r c ana ls c ou ld b el o ca ted d e sp i te l e ng thy r e conna issance b y f i e ld c r ew . D r ink ing w a te r w a s o b ta ined f r om t h e d eep ly i n c ised T incoc s t ream a nd f r om r a inf a l ld u r ing f i e ldwo rk .T he s l ope so f C e r ro S i l laqa sa t ot h ee a s ts hou ld p rov ide g ood c ond i t ions f o ra . s pr ing .

Wa l ls a r e a l l d oub le s t one w i th l im i ted u se o f amud mor ta r c on ta in ing s ma l l a ngu la rs t one s . Wedge s t one s o fu p t oa bou t 4 0

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

F IG . 4 :5 Qopa A lta E as t ( S i te AL39 ) . 4 1

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tombo

TABLE 4 :3

S ite AL39:

F requency D istribution o f C ircular S tructure Areas. AREA

( n )

%

( square metres)

1 6.5-

2 6.5-

3 6.5-

4 6.5-

5 6.5-

6 6.5-

7 6.5-

2 6.4

3 6.4

4 6.4

5 6.4

6 6.4

7 6.4

8 6.4

5

1 7

8

1

0

0

1

3 2

1 5.7

5 3.1

2 5.0

3 .1

3 .1

1 00%

S ec to r Bt e r race w a l ls a r ei nt h ef o rm o fs ho r ti n te r leav ing a r cs w h ich t e rm ina te b yc urv ing i na nu p s lope d i rec t ion . B a t te rw a s n o t g rea t a nd v e ry u neven . A l l o b se rved w e re o fs i ng le s tone c ons t ruc t ion , u s ing 0 . 10 t o 1 . 4 m b locks o f u nshaped c ong lomera te o r g rey v o lcan ic r ock w i th w h i te i n c lu s ions . L a rge r ock s w e re f r equen t ly p laced o n t o p o f s ma l le r o ne s . S ome r ock s a r e p laced s uch t h a tp o in ted ma rg ins p ro jec tf r om t h e f a cade ( P la te 1) . E roded t e r race p rof i le s s how v e ry l i t t le s t ony f i l l b eh ind w a l ls , i nd ica t ing t h a t t h ey may h ave b een c ons t ruc ted a ga ins tl a rge ly e x tan tb reak so fs l ope .

TOTAL

a r e f r om 1 7 t o 3 9 cm , w i th amean o f3 0 c m ( SD = 6 ) . T he l e ng th : w id th r a t io i sf r om 1 . 2 :1 t o2 .7 :1 a nd t h e mean r a t io i s 1 . 6 :1 ( SD = 0 .5 ) . T h ickne s so fc ross s ec t ion v a r ie s b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 7 cm a nd t h e mean i s 1 2 .9 cm ( SD = 1 . 9 ) . Unb roken o b jec t so fd i ff icu l t manuf ac tu re a nd s ma l l s i ze wou ld b e mo s t l i ke ly t ob et aken f r om as i te d ur ing a bandonmen ta nd b y l a te r v i s i to r s . L a rge rs pec imens c ou ld t he refo re b eo ve r -rep re sen ted i nt h is s amp le . A l l i n t he measu red s amp le a nd t hose s e en e l sewhe re w e re b a sed o n r ounded w h i te g ran i te c obb le s , s u ch a s t hose w h ich a bound o n t h e Apu r imac R ive r b ank , ah o r izon ta l k i lome t re a way , b u t 4 50 m b e low i n a l t i tude . On ly a ngu la r g ran i te o f t h is k ind i sf ound i nw a l ls a t AL39 . Mo s tp r e sen t h ou seho ld s u se o n ly o ne b a tan a nd t unau , s o t ha t 1 2 w ho le s pec imen s f o r as e t t lemen t o f 3 2 s t ruc ture s a ppear s , o n t h e e thnog raph ic p a ra l le l ,t ob e ah i gh r e cove ry r a te f or p u re ly s ur face f i nd s .T he c oncen t ra t ion o ff r agmen t s i nt he c en t ra l f l a t a r ea o ft h e s i te ( F ig . 4 :6 ) may i n d ica te t h a tt h is wa s t he s i te o f much g r ind ing a c t iv i ty , a l though i ti sa l so al e s s e roded l o ca l i ty .

( i i )A r tef ac t s : AL39 h a s al ow t r ee c anopy a nd s ur f ace c ove rage o fs h rub s , h e rbaceous p l an ts a nd l e af l i t te r . F ou r 1m s qua re sw e re c l ea red o fl e af l i t te rf o r s u r face c o l lec t ion ( F ig . 4 : 6 ) . T h ree o n aS SW l i ne w i th in S truc tu re 2 8 , t h e s econd l a rge s t s t ruc ture o n t h e s i te , w e re l a be l led C l ,C 2a nd C 3 a cco rd ing t ot h e ir i n c rea s ing d i s tance f r om t h ed oo rway . As qua re b e tween t h e l a t te rt wo i s o ccup ied b y as ma l l t r ee a nd w a s n o tc o l lec ted . Ar obbe r ' sp i t o n t he e a s tern s i de o f t h e d oo rway may h ave c on t r ibu ted t o s ome m ix ing o f s ub -su rf ace ma te r ia l w i th t h a t o n t h e n ea rby s u rf ace . As i ng le s qua re me t re ( C4 ) w as c o l lec ted i nt h ec en t re o fS t ruc tu re 2 9 , o ne o ft h es ma l le s to n t h e s i te . S tone a r tef ac t s w e re n o t f ound i nt h ese c o l lec t ions , b u td esp i te g round c ove r , l a rge p i t ted o r g round s t one a r tef ac t s b a sed o n r i ve r rounded c obb le s w e re v i s ib le e l sewhe re o n t h e s u r f ace . T hey w e re n o t c o l lec ted b u t we re n umbe red , s ke tched a nd measu red b y a s s is tan t s i nt he f i e ld . T hose mea su red a nd o the r s pec imens f ound a s mapp ing p rog ressed w e re p lo t ted o n t h e s i te p l an ( F ig . 4 :6 ) .

B .G r ind ing B a se S l ab so r Maran T he o ve ra l l f o rm o f maran d epends o n t h a t o f t he u sua l ly ma ss ive s l ab u pon w h ich t h ey a re b ased . T he d i s t ingu ish ing c ha rac te r is t ic i s af l a tu ppe rs ur face w i th ac en t ra l , s ha l low a nd w o rk -smoo thed o va ld ep re s s ion o fa round t h el e ng th o f at u nau ( c a . 0 . 4 m o r mo re ) . O n ly o ne , o f l oca l g r ey s t one , w a s s e en p a r t ia l ly b ur ied . I ti sl i ke ly t h a to the r s a r ea ts ubsu rface l e ve ls . Maran o rb a tane sw i th t h ese c ha rac ter is t ic s a r e t oday u sed a s t h e b a se f o r at unau , i n c rush ing ma l ted ma ize f or c h icha , m a ize f o r c orn c ake s , t h e i ng red ien t s o fc h i l i s auce a nd m any o t he rf ood s .

( a )L arge S tone A r tef ac t s T he se mo s t ly h ave f orms a nd w ea r p a t te rns s im i la r t op r e sen t d ay h ouseho ld u tens i ls i n t h e r eg ion . F our c la sse s w e re d i s t ing ished o no ve ra l l f o rm , b u tt h e se a r es ubd iv ided i ns ome c a se sa cco rd ing t ot h es i ze a nd n a tu re o ft h eu t i l ized a r ea .

C . U t i l ised P ebb le s o rC obb le s ( F ig . 4 :6 ) T he se i n c lude h and -s ized r i ve r -worn r ock so fv a ry ing f o rm w i th e v idence o f ( I ) u se p o l ish o r s moo th ing ( Qo l lo t ga) , o r ( I I ) p i t t ing /ba t te r ing d amage , o r b o th ( I ll ! ) o n t h e e xt rem i t ie s o r l o ng m arg ins ( P la te 1 3 ) . Wo rk ing a rea s a r e c or respond ing ly much s ma l le rt h an o nG roup A a r tefac t s . O ne w ho le C Ia r te f ac t m ade f r om wh i te g r an i te w a s 1 8 cm l ong , 8 . 7 cm w ide a nd 4 c m t h ick , f l a t tened a nd p o l ished o n b o th e x t rem i t ies ( f o r 8c m a l ong o ne e nd a nd 4 c m o n t h e o ther ) . B a t te r ing d amage w a s s e en o n p ebb le s o fb o th wh i te g ran i te a nd av e ry d ense b rown r o ck . O ne CH g ran i te a r tef ac t mea sured 1 2 .3 cm l ong , 6 . 5 c m w ide a nd 4 .2 cm t h ick a nd h ad d eep p i t sa tt h et wo e x treme so f i t s l e ng th . AC l / I Ia r te f ac t , 1 0 .8 cm l ong , 7 . 3 cm w ide a nd 2 . 3 c m t h ick , h ad o ne 7 . 5 cm l o ng f l a t tened a nd s moo th e x t rem i ty , a nd a 1 . 5 cm d i ame te r a r ea o f d eep p i t t ing o n t he o ppo s i te e x t rem i ty .

A . G r ind ing T op S tones o rT unau ( F ig . 4 :6 ) T he se a re e l onga te -ova l c obb le so fp iano -convex c ro s s s e c t ion wh ich h ave o ne , o r o cca s iona l ly b o th , o f t h e n a r row l e ng th ma rg ins f l a t tened a nd wo rn s moo th f r om u se . T hey a r e l a rge a nd w e re p robab ly o pera ted u s ing t wo h and s i n t h e r o ck ing mo t ion b yw h ich i d en t ica l mode rn t unau a r eu sed ,a ss ugge s ted b y t he p resence o f w ea r i n ab road a r c a round t h e n a r row ma rg in ( P la te 1 2 ) . O f 2 8 mea sured S hape A e xamp les , 1 2 w e re who le . T he i r l e ng th s r ange f r om 4 0 t o5 2 cm , w i th amean o f4 4 c m ( SD = 4 ) . Wid ths , a pp rox ima te ly p e rpend icu la rt ot h e w o rk ing e dge , 4 2

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

F IG . 4 :6 Qopa A lta E as t ( S ite AL39 ) : L arge S tone Ar tefac t S ur face D is tr ibut ion .

4 3

L a t e P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo D . Sma l l Mor tar o r Mu t 'ka ( F ig . 4 :6 )

c o re . T he mo s tc ommon mo t if i s ag r id p a t te rn o fl i ne s f r om 2 t o 6 mm w ide , a nd a l so a n o va l , s em ic ircu la r o r w avy l i ne . Geome t r ic a nd c urv i l inea r mo t if s o ccu r t o ge the r o n s ome s he rd s ( App .I I F igs . 9 c -p , r ,s ,u ,z ,aa ) . T he MSTS o f QA s he rd s f r om C 2 ( n =2 ) a nd C 3 ( n =2 8 ) i s6 . 0 a nd 5 .4 r e spec t ive ly . T hey a r e f r om 0 . 53 t o0 . 80 cm t h ick , f r om t h in t o m ed ium w a l led v e s se ls .

T he se a r e b a sed o n r ounded p or tab le c obb le s o fv a ry ing f o rm r a the rt h an l a rge s l ab s a nd h ave ac ha rac ter is t ic o va lo rc i rcu la r d ep re s s ion o n ab road s ur f ace .T hey a r ep o ss ib ly f o ru se w i th a q o l lo t 'a , l i ke t h e i r modern c oun te rpa r ts ( c a l led mu t 'ka ) . N ine b roken , b u t n o c omp le te e xamp les , we re f ound . An a lmos t c omp le te o ne , w i th a v e ry s ha l low p ecked d ep re ss ion , w a s p robab ly s t i l l b e ing manufac tured . O n o the r s t h ed ep re s s ion i s s moo th a nd u pt o 5cm d eep ( P la te 1 5 ) .

4 . Qopa B P a in ted ( QB) c omp r ise s 3 . 4% o f t h e C 1-4 c o l lec t ion , ma in ly i nC 3 . I ti sp robab ly r e la ted t o t h e QA d eco ra t ion g roup , s i nce i t s ha res s ome d ecora t ion a nd b ackg round c o lou r so f QA ,o cca s iona l b r u sh ing o ft h ec oncave s ur face a nd t h e i n c idence o fg rey ing f r om u neven f i r ing , b u t n o t mo t if so fc ur v i l inea rf o rm .

( b )P a in ted P o t te ry : B e tween 9 1% a nd 9 5% o fs he rd sf r om e ach s qua re ( Cl ,C 2 ,C 3 a nd C 4 ) a r e b ody s herds ( App . I , T ab le 1 :2 ) . S ur face c o l lec t ions p roduced 7 92 s he rds , 8 4 .7% o f t h em u npa in ted ( Tab le 4 :4 ) . No p a in ted s herds h ave a t tached c a rbon o r b lacken ing a t t r ibu tab le t o c ook ing . P a in ted s he rds o f a l l c o l lec t ions w e re d iv ided i n to 5 g roups o n t he b as is o f d eco ra t ion . Two a r eC usco I n ca g roup s( C ID a nd C IP ) ,t wo a r e l o ca l d eco ra t ion s t y les ( QA a nd QB ) a nd af i f th e ncompa sse s o the rp a in ted p o t te ry ( OP ) .

D es igns a r e b and s a nd /o r c r iss -cro sse s o fd u l l o r w a shy r e d b rown a bou t0 .3 t o2 . 0c m w ide o n t h ec onvex s ur f ace o ft h in t o med ium w a l led v e sse ls ( 0 .52 t o0 . 70 c m ) ( App .I I F ig s . 6 h , 9 q , t -y ) . T he b ands a nd s pace s b e tween t h em a r e n o t o fe ven w id th . T he ir c o lour i so f ten f a in t , b u t c an b e a s d a rk a s QB g roup d ecora t ion , a r ound 5YR 4 /3 t o5 YR 3 /3 o n al i gh t ly s l ipped o r p la in b ack round s ur face o fl i gh t o range ( 5YR 5 / 4 ) e xcep t w he re g rey ish -b lue p robab ly r e su l ted f r om f i r ing . T he MSTS o f QB s he rds f r om CI( n =1 ) , C 2 ( n =4 ) a nd C 3 ( n= 2 2 ) i s6 . 0 , 2 . 5 a nd 5 . 0r e spec t ive ly .

1 . Cusco I n ca D e s ign ( C ID ) s he rds h ave p a in ted d es ign s a nd s ur face f i n ish c ha rac ter is t ics t yp ica l o f Cusco I nca p o t te ry ( App . I I F ig s . 5 a -h , 6 a -c , 7 j , 9 a -b ) . T hey f ormed 2 .9% o ft h e C 1-4 c o l lec t ion . B lack l i nea re l emen t s a re s ha rp a nd s t ra igh t , t he ' f ern ' mo t if ( Rowe 1 944 :47 ) i s p resen t a nd many a re p o lych rome . B lack p a in ti sd ense , r ed i sg los sy a nd t h ep a in ted s u r f ace i su sua l ly v e ry s moo th a nd o fp o l ished a ppea rance .T he Mean S u if ace T ex ture S core s ( o r MSTS , s ee A pp . I ) f o r t h e C l , C 2a nd C 3 c o l lec t ions a r e2 . 7 , 3 . 6 a nd 3 . 4 r e spec t ive ly .

5 . T he ' O the r P a in ted ' c a tego ry ( OP ) i n c lude s o n ly 5 s he rd s ( 0 .6% o ft h e d-4 c o l lec t ion ) . As he rd f r om C l , f r om n ea r a v esse l b ody i n f lec t ion , h a s e x te r io r r e d p a in t ( 10R 3 / 6 ) , l i ke t h e I nca c o lou r b u t t h e r e d i sd u l l , a s w e l l a s b lack c r o s s ing l i ne s w h ich d ef ine d i amond s haped a r ea s w i th s p la shed b l ack d o t s , o n o range s l ip ( 2 .5YR 5 /6 ) ( App . I I F ig . 5m ) . Two f r om C 2 a nd o ne f r om C 4 h ave d eco ra t ion i nd u l l r ed a nd b l ack o r d a rk b rown o n p a le o range s l ip . T he s l ip i sg l o s sy a nd i t so u te r s ur face p o l ished a si nC u sco I nca p o t te ry ,b u tt h ed e s ign e dge s a r e n o t s t ra igh t . L ine s a l so v a ry i nt h ickne s s , c o lou r s a r e n o t i n tense a nd o ne s he rd i n c lude s ag r id p a t ter n n o t t yp ica l o f C usco I nca p o t te ry ( App . I I F igs . 6 f ,g , 5 q r e spec t ive ly ) . A n e ve r ted -r im g lobu la rv e s se l h a s at r ace o fI n ca l ike r ed p a in to n t h e r im , b u t l a ck s I n ca s ur face f i n ish a nd p rec ise p a in t ing ( App .I I F ig . 8 j ) .

F o rms i n c lude as ha l low p l a te ( App .I I F ig . 7 j ) , t h ick s he rd s o f h igh ly d eco ra ted e x ter io r a nd s l igh t c oncav i ty , p oss ib ly f r om l a rge j a r s ( App . I I F igs . 5 e -g ) , a nd ad eep d i sh f r om ap lo t ted l o ca t ion o n t h e s t eep n o r thwe s tern ma rg in o ft h e s i te ( Appi l F ig . 1 00 ) . 2 . C usco I n ca P a in ted ( C IP ) s he rds h ave p a in t c o lour s a nd e xecu t ion e qu iva len t t o t ha t o f C ID s he rd s b u t l a ck t he d e s igns .T hey a r eo fs im i la rs u r fa ce t e x tu re a nd may c ome f r om d if e ren tp a r t s o fC ID v esse ls . ( App I F igs . 5 i ,p , 6 d ,e , 7 ia nd 8 f ) .T hey c omp r ise 3 . 8% o ft h eC 1-4 s amp le .

( c )U npa in ted P o t te ry T h is ma te r ia l p rov ides u sefu l i n forma t ion o n t he s hape s o f p robab ly u t i l i tar ian p o t te ry f r om AL39 . S u rf ace t e x tu re s a r e g ene ra l ly c oa r se r t h an o n d eco ra ted p o t te ry . T he MSTS f o r u npa in ted p o t te ry i n C1( n =1 72 ) , C 2 ( n =2 55 ) , C 3 ( n =2 29 ) a nd C 4 ( n = 1 5 ) i s6 . 3 , 7 . 6 , 7 . 3 a nd 5 . 2 r e spec t ive ly . F ou r ma in v e s se l s hape sc an b ei n f e r red f r om t h es he rdage :

T he MSTS f o r C IP s herd s f r om C l , C 2 , C 3 a nd C 4 a r e 3 . 9 , 3 . 9 ,4 .0 a nd 1 . 0r e spec t ive ly . T he l ow f i gure f o rC 4 i sb ecau se t h e re w a so n ly o ne c r ps he rd a nd b o th o fi t ss u r f ace sw e r ev e ry s moo th a nd p o l ished . L ike ly I nca v e sse l f o rms a r e as ma l l f l a red r im j a r w i th r im l ugs , as ma l l s l igh t ly f l a red n eck f o rm , p robab ly aj a r , ac up a nd a n e ve r ted r im d eep d i sh ( App .I I F igs . 8 f , S i , 5 p a nd 7 i r e spec t ive ly ) .

1 .T he I nca S hape ' jp o t i sr ep resen ted b y as he rd i ne ach o f s qua re C 2 a nd C 3 i nS t ruc tu re N o .28 . T h i s v e s se l t ype i so f ten n o ted f o r t he p re sence o f a dhe r ing c a rbon , b u t i tw a s n o t p re sen to n t h e se ( App .I 1F ig s . 6 1 ,9 cc ) .

3 . Qopa A P a in ted ( QA ) i s al o ca l s t y le o fp re Inca t r ad i t ion . I tc omp r ise s 3 . 8% o fs he rds i nt h eC IC3 c o l le c t ion . Mo s t a r e f r om C 3 , s or e la t ive ly f ew v e sse ls may b er ep re sen ted o ve ra l l . S he rd c on jo ins w e re n o t a ch ieved . D es igns a re e xecu ted o n c onvex s ur f ace s i n ad u l l a nd wa shy d a rk b rown ( 5YR 2 . 5 /2 , 5YR 3 /2 -3 , 2 . 5YR 2 . 5 /2 , o r2 . 5YR 3 /4 whe re v e ry t h in ) , w i th s ome v a r ia t ion o nd if e ren tp a r t so ft h es he rd . B ackg round s l ip c o lou r s i n c lude c r eamy g rey -b rown ( 5YR 4 /2 -3 ) , a n o range ( 5YR 5/ 3) ,ag rey ish b lue ( 7 .5YR 3 /0 t o 7 . 5YR 4 /2 ) a nd 2 . 5YR 5 /6 . T h is v a r ia t ion i sa ppa ren t ly t he r e su l t o f u neven f i r ing . Many s he rds h ave ab l ack ( i ncomp le te ly o x id ized )f a br ic

2 . Open mou thed ,e ve r ted r im v e sse ls a r er e p re sen ted b ym any s he rd s i nS t ruc tu re 2 8 , i na l l s qua re s ( App . I I F igs . 5 j , 6 m ,p , 7 g ,h , 8 c ,h , i ) . T ho se mo s t l i ke ly t o p er ta in t o S hape ' jp o t s h ave a na cu te r im a ng le ( App .I IF ig s . 5 ja nd 6 p ) , o ne o fw h ich h a s a dhe r ing c a rbon . R im d i ame te r s v a ry f r om 1 t o2 6 c m , many a r e o fo n ly mode ra te ly s moo th s u r face t e x tu re a nd a r e f r om r obu s t , t h ick w a l led v e s se ls .

4 4

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

TABLE 4 :4

S ite AL39:

S tr.28/Sq.C1

S tr.28/Sq.C2

S tr.28/Sq.C3

S tr.28/Sq.C1+C2+C3

( %)

S tr.29/Sq .C4

( n )

S tr.29/Sq.C1-4

P ottery S herds

i n Decoration Groups.

C ID

C IP

QA

QB

OP

1 3

1 7

6 .3

8 .2

0

1

0

0 .5

U P

D amaged

TOTAL

1

1 72

4

2 08

0 .5

8 2.6

1 .9

1 00%

5

7

2

4

2

2 55

2

2 77

1 .8

2 .5

0 .7

1 .4

0 .7

9 2.1

0 .7

9 9.9%

5

5

2 8

2 2

1

2 29

0

2 90

1 .7

1 .7

9 .7

7 .6

0 .3

7 9.0

0

1 00%

3 .0

3 .7

3 .9

3 .5

0 .5

8 4.6

0 .8

1 00%

1

1 5

0

1 7

0

5 .9

8 8.2

0

1 00%

1

0

( %)

0

5 .9

0

( n )

2 3

3 0

3 0

2 7

5

6 71

6

7 92

( %)

2 .9

3 .8

3 .8

3 .4

0 .6

8 4.7

0 .8

1 00%

3 , F la r ing r im , r e s tr ic ted n eck v e sse ls o ccu r i na l l c o l lec t ion s qua re s o fS t ruc ture 2 8 . T he se h ave r im d i ame te r s b e tween 1 5 cm a nd 2 2 cm , s ur f ace t e x ture s f r om s moo th t or ough a nd a r e a l so f r om t h ick wa l led v esse ls ( App . I I F igs . 7 c ,d , 8 b ,d ,g ) . T he e thnoh is to r ic d a ta a nd p re sen t u se o fn a r row n ecked v esse ls i n L ima tambo wou ld s ugges t f o r t h ese t h e f unc t ion o f s t o rage , t r anspo r to rs e rv ing o fl i qu ids .

s ugge s ted t h a t o n ly u npa in ted p o t te ry o fn on Inca w a re s w a s l i ke ly t ob ef ound ( Rowe 1 956 :143 ) . T he QB d eco ra t ion s t y le i sn o t h igh ly d i s t inc t ive , b u t t h e c omb ina t ion o f g eome t r ic a nd c u rv i l inea r o r f i gura t ive e l emen t s i n QA p e rm i t s c ompa r ison w i th p ub l ished ma ter ia l a nd c o l lec t ions . QA d e co ra t ion i ss im i la rt ot h a tr e po r ted f r om t h e s ur f ace a tC hoquepa ta P i scaycucho , as i te o fc i rcu la r , o va l a nd s t ra igh t s ided s t ruc tu re s( b u tn oC u sco I nca a r ch i te c tu re ) , i n t he n e ighbou r ing U rubamba V a l ley ( Kenda l l 1 985 :313 -314 , F ig . 6 10 . T he re a r e s im i la r i t ies t o K i l lke g eome tr ic mo t if s ( s ee App . I I F ig . 9 c ) , a nd e x te r io r r im t h icken ing o n f l ar ing n eck v e s se ls ( App . I I F ig . 7 c ) . T he p o t te ry i sn o t o u t o fp l ace amongs t t ha t o f t h e L a te P reh is to r ic T rad i t ion . I t i s n ever the le s sd i s t inc tf r om t h eC okha s t y le p o t te ry r epor ted f o r t he L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod i nt h e A pur imac V a l ley a r ea o f P a ru ro ( Baue r 1 990 ) .

4 . Open c urv ing v e s se ls h ave as ma l le rr a nge o fr im d iame te r s , f r om 1 0 t o 1 5 cm , a nd a re f r om med ium t o t h ick w a l led o b jec t s ( App .I I F igs . 6 o , 7 k ) . T he se c ou ld b e p l a tes o r p o t l i d s . S eve ra l t y pes o f b a se a re p re sen t . O ne f l a t b a se ( App .I I F ig . 5 n ) i sp o l ished o n t h ee x ter io ra nd s moo th o n t h e i n te r io r a nd i sp o s s ib ly f r om a d eep I nca d i sh . Two t h ick c on ica l b a se s f r om C 2a r e s moo th t o mode ra te ly s moo th o n t h e i n te r io r , b u t g rade t or ough o n t h e e x te r io r w h ich p robab ly r e s ted o n t h e g round ( App .E I F ig . 6 j ,k ) . Mos t h and le s w e re l o oped , a nd o f f l a t t o s l igh t ly c urved c ross s ec t ion , w i th s moo th t o r ough s u r f ace t e x tu re ( App .I IF igs . 5 k , 6 r , 7 I -n ) .

S e t t lemen ta tS ec to r Aa nd c ons t ruc t ion o ft e r race so fS ec to rB p robab ly p re -da te I n ca i nf luence i nt h is a r ea . I ti sp os s ib le t h a t t he s t ruc ture s a nd s ome t e r race s i nS ec tor A d a te t ot h e I nca P er iod . I t s I n ca P e r iod o ccupan t s w e re s uff ic ien t ly t i ed t ot h e s t a te t oh ave h ad a cce s s t o al a rge r a nge o fI nca p o t te ry v esse l f o rms ,i n c lud ing d e co ra ted a nd d ome s t ic ( undeco ra ted )v e s se ls .

App l ied d eco ra t ion o ccur s o n t wo s pec imens . As ma l l s he rd f r om at h in w a l led v e s se l w i th ap o l ished b l ack e x te r io rs ur tace h as ar a ised b e l t w i th i n c is ions made b efo re f i r ing ( App .I IF ig . 9 bb ) . A no the r h as a n o va lo id n ubb in w i th f i ve s ha l low h o le s made w i th ap o in ted i n s trumen t ( App .I I F ig . 5 1 ) . A lmo s t 7% o ft h eu ndeco ra ted s he rd sh ave s uperf ic ia lb l acken ing c on s is ten t w i th c ook ing . On many o ther s , u neven f i r ing make s s uch u se d if i cu l tt oa sce r ta in .

S ite AL41 , Qopa P laya AL4 1 i sl o ca ted o n ar i ve rt e r race w i th c o l luv ia l d epos i t ion o n t h er i gh tb ank o ft h eA pur ima cR ive r ,s epa ra ted f r om AL39 b y as ho r t h or izon ta l d i s tance b u t a l so a s t eep moun ta in s i de ( P la te 8 ) . I t c omp r ise s a n e s t ima ted 4 5 t o 6 0 c i rcu lar s t ruc tu re s ,t e r race s ,w a l led f i e ld b ounda r ie sa nd ac en t ra ls e c to r w i th 4 r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu res , s epa ra ted b y n a r row w a l led s t ree t s , o n t wo s i de s o f al e ve l a r ea o r p a t io . T he d enses t s t ruc tu ra l z one c ove r s a bou t 1 . 43 h a ( F ig . 4 :4 ) b u t a s soc ia ted t e r race sa nd w a l ls e x tend o ve r af u r the r 1 . 5 h at ot h es ou thwe s t .

( d ) AL39 S umma ry AL39 w a s c l ea r ly a f ocus o f o ccupa t ion a nd o f a gr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s . I t s t ands i n s harp c on t ra s t t o t h e s po rad ic a nd m in ima lc on tempo ra ry u se o ft h el owe r Apu r imac a r ea . C u sco I nca p o t te ry c ompr ise s4 6% o ft h ep a in ted p o t te ry ( C ID +C EP ) i nt h e d-4 c o l lec t ions a t AL39 . T he C usco P la in v es se l mo s t c ommon ly r epor ted , t h e S hape ' j 'p o t , w as w e l l r ep re sen ted b y d i s t inc t ive s herd sa nd p robab ly an umbe ri nt h eu npa in ted b ody s he rd s g roup . Qopa p o t te ry ( QA a nd QB ) c ompr ise s 5 0% o f p a in ted s he rds . I ti si mpo r tan t i nt h e Apur imac r eg ion b ecau se p rev iou si n fo rma t ion f r om t h en ea re s tr epo r ted a r ea ( Curahua s i )

( i )S t ruc tu re s T he l a rge s t r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re ( RS -1) i sl o ca ted o n t h e e a s tern s i de o f t h e p a t io . I t i s 1 8 m l ong , h a s i n terna l b ipa r t i t ion , w a l ls a r e e x tan t t o ah e igh t o f2 . 1 m , c orne r s a r e l oose ly b onded a nd t wo d oo r sw i th s l igh t ly i n cur v ing s i de sf a ce 4 5

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

( b )P a in ted P o t te r y :

S SW t ot h ep a t io .A no the rr e c tangu la rs t r uc tu re ( RS -2 ) ,o n t h e s ou the rn s i de o f t h e p a t io , a l so h a s as i ng le d oo r f a c ing t h e p a t io .

Among t h e 3 17 s h e rd s f r om t h e C 5 , C 6 a nd C 7 c o l le c t ion s a t AL4 1 , 1 4 .2% a r ep a in ted . T he se a re d iv ided i n to t h ree g r oup s s i nce t h e QA a nd QB d eco ra t ion s t y le s a r e n o t r ep re sen ted ( Tab le 4 : 5 ) .

C i r cu la rs t ruc tu re s( P la te 1 4 ) a r ed i spe r sed a mong t e r ra ce sa nd f i e ld w a l ls . One e xamp le ( CS -1) , w i th a d oo r f a c ing t h e A pu r imac R ive r , mea su red 7 . 95 m i nd i ame te r( a nd t h ei n te r io r 6 . 65 m ) , g iv ing a na r ea o f4 9 .6 s q .m . T he se c i rcu la rs t r uc tu re s a ppea r t ob e l a rge r t han a t AL39 . C ons t ruc t ion m a te r ia l s a r e g rey v o lcan ic r ock , ac ong lome ra te a nd o cca s iona l ly a ngu la r g ran i te si n mud mo r ta r . S tone f i t t ing i st e chn ica l ly t h es ame a s a t AL39 b u tf ewe rs t ruc tu re sa r eb u i l ti n to s l ope s .

1 .C ID s he rd sc ompr ise 4 . 1% o ft h e s amp le ( App . I IF i g s . 1 0a d , f ,g , i , j , l ,m , 11 c , d ) . T hey a r e f r om t h in o r med ium w a l led v e sse ls ( 0 .38 t o0 . 78 cm ) e xcep t o ne i nC 7 ( 1 .14 c m ) , a nd u sua l ly v e ry s moo th o n t h e p a in ted s ur f ace . T he MSTS i s b e twe en 3 . 4a nd 5 . 1 f o rC ID ma te r ia l i ne a ch s qua re . 2 .C IP s he rd s , c omp r ise 4 .4% o f t he s amp le ( App . I I F ig s . 1 0h , 1 j ,k ) a nd i n c lude ( f rom C 7 ) af l a r ing r im w i th p i e r ced l ug s , p robab ly f r om aj a r , a nd a t a l l , s l igh t ly f l a r ing a nd s qua r e l ipped r im , p o ss ib ly f r om a n I nca c up . T he MSTS i s b e tween 2 . 0a nd 3 . 8 .

( i )T e r ra ce s T e r race w a l ls w e re b u i l to fa ngu la rs l ab so ft h e s ame s t one a s s t ruc tu re s , b u t t h e s i ze r ange i sf r om a f ew c en t ime t r e s t o a bou t am e t re . L a rge s t one s o f ten l i e a bove s ma l le r o ne s a nd s ome b lock sj u to u t .

T he p r e l im ina ry c o l lec t ion ( n =1 7 ) a l so c on ta ined s he rd sf r om av a r ie ty o fC u sco I nca v es se l f o rms , i n c lud ing s ha l low o pen v e s se l s ( App . I I F i g s . 1g , i ) , aS hape ' a 'j a r ( App . I I F ig . 1a ) , p o s s ib ly ac up ( App . 11 F ig . 1e ) a nd t yp ica l d eco ra t ive m o t if s ( App . I IF ig . 1b ) .

( i i )A r te f ac t s Two c on t iguou s 1m s qua re s w e re c o l le c ted f r om t h ec en t re o f s t ruc tu re CSI . S qua re C 5 w a s 2 .45 m f r om t h e d oo r a nd C 6 w a s b e s ide i t ,f u r the rf r om t h e d oo r . S u r f ace d epo s i t so fw a l l r ubb le m ade i ti mpo s s ib le t oc o l le c t f r om w i th in ar e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re ,s o as i ng le me t re s qua re ( C7 )w a sp l aced i nt h ep a t io a r ea , 4 m NW ( 345° ) f r om t h e d oo ro fs t ruc tu re R S -2 . L a rge s t one a r tef ac t sw e re a l so v i s ib le o nt h es u r f a ce d e sp i te l e a fl i t te r f r om at r e ec anopy a nd h e rba ceou sg round c ove r .

3 .O the r p a in ted s he rds ( OP ) c omp r ise 5 . 7% o f t h e s amp le . Two e ach f r om C 5 a nd C 6 a r e p a in ted w i th d u l l , t h in a nd i mp re c i se b rown l i ne s a nd /o r r ed b and s o n as moo th s u r f ace ( App . I I F ig s . 1 0e ,k ,n ) . S eve ra l e x t reme ly s ma l l r im s h e rd s i n C 6 h ave t r ace s o fr e d p a in t , a nd c ou ld b e m in ia tu re v e s se ls ( w i th 1 0 t o 1 2 c m r im d iame te r ) w i th in t h e C IP c a tego ry ( App . I I F ig s . 1m ,o ,p ) . At h in l i pped , e ve r ted r im v e s se l , o f 1 8 c m r im d iame te r , h a s f a in t t r aces o fr e d o n t h e u ppe r l i p ( App . I IF ig . 1 2g )

( a )L a rge S tone A r tef ac t s T he se b e long t ot h eS hape - Wea rg roup s' A ' ,' B 'a nd ' D '( d ef ined a t AL39 ) . T hey i n c lude w ho le s pe c imens o ft u nau a nd m u t 'ka ( P la te 1 5 ) , a nd as ma l l , f l a t p ebb le w i th ah amme red c on ica l d ep re s s ion o no ne f a ce .A l l a r eo fw h i te g r an i te .

( c )U npa in ted P o t t e ry : T h i s i n c lude s m any c oa r se r t e x tured s he rd s . T he MSTS f o r c o l lec t ion s i s7 . 2 a tC 5 ( n =8 6 ) , 6 .7 a tC 6 ( n=1 56 ) a nd 8 . 6 a tC 7 ( n =3 0 ) . O ft h e se , 4% r e ta in s ur f ace b l acken ing l i ke ly t o h ave b een t h er e su l to fc ook ing .

TABLE 4 :5

C irc.

c irc.

S tr.

S tr.

S ite AL41:

C 5

C 6

Pottery i n D ecoration Groups. C ID

C IP

QA

Q B

O P

UP

Damaged

TOTAL

5

4

0

8 6

0

9 8

4 .1

0

0 0

3

5 .1

3 .1

8 7.8

0

1 00.1%

6

3

0

1 56

0

1 75

1 .7

0

0 0

1 0

3 .4

5 .7

8 9.1

0

9 9.9%

4 .0

2 .6

0

0

4 .8

8 8.6

0

1 00.0%

0

5

3 0

0

4 4

1 1.4

6 8.2

0

1 00.0%

c irc.

S trs.C5+C6

( %)

R ect.

S tr.

( n )

2

7

0

( %)

4 .5

1 5.9

0

1 3

1 4

0

0

1 8

2 72

0

3 17

4 .1

4 .4

0

0

5 .7

8 5.8

0

1 00.0%

A ll AL41

P atio C 7

( C5+6+7)

4 6

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

z z

A LAS

•

4.

' , 0 A il

Apt i r i l ltaC R iver

e 1 1 1uV

/

„ . , . ,

AL37

0 =

1 00 me t re s am.»

c t s

K .H . :AP S ke tch

F IG . 4 :7 L lak tak i S ites : AL37 a nd AL45 .

c ompr ise s c i rcu la r s t ruc tu re f oo t ing s , w i th s ur round ing a nd d i r ec t ly a s soc ia ted t e r race sa nd s u r f ace a r te f ac t s .

Two s he rds a re f r om e ve r ted r im v e sse ls ( App . I I F ig . in , 1 2 i ) . T h ick f l ar ing r ims f r om C 4 , s moo th o n t h e i n te r io r s ur f ace ,p robab ly c ome f r om l a rge j a r s ( App . 11 F ig . 1 1 ,12e ,h ) . Coa r se r t e x tured f l ar ing r im v e sse ls a l so o ccur i nC 5 a nd C 7 ( App . I I F igs . 1 2a -c ) a nd a n i n curv ing b ow l w i th e x te r io r r im t h icken ing w as r ep re sen ted i nC 5 .

( i )T he S t r uc tu ra lA rea Ac oncen t ra t ion o f 9s t ruc tu re s i ss i ted o n a nd a round t h e h i l l p eak , i na n a r ea o fa bou t 6 0 b y 4 5 m , a l igned ENE , o n t h ree p a r t ia l ly l e ve l led p l a tforms w i th s t one r e ta in ing w a l ls . I ti s p ro tec ted b y v e ry s t eep s l ope s o n a l b u t t h e NW s i de w he re t e r races e x tend f o r 0 .8 h a o ve r ac o l luv ia l f an . T hey a r e s epa ra ted f r om t h er i ve rf l a tb y a4 0mh igh c l if f( F ig .4 : 7 ) .

As he rd f r om C7 , w i th a pp l ied d eco ra t ion , i sa lmo s t i d en t ica l t o i lus t ra ted b ody n ubb ins f r om l a rge I nca S hape ' a j a r s ( App . I I F ig . 1f ) . S tub b ases , c on ica l b ase s ( App . I I F ig s . 1 2q ,r )a nd s ome s t rap h and le s ( App . I IF igs . 1 2 j1 ) i ns t ruc tu re C S -1 c ome f r om t h ick -wa l led , f a ir ly c oa r se tex tu red v e s se ls .

S t ruc ture s w e re p oo r ly p re se rved . A l l a r e o f a pp rox ima te ly c i rcu la r f l oo r p lan e xcep t w he re f l a t tened f o r c ons t ruc t ion a ga ins t at e r race . F ou r , ( Cl , C 2 , C 3 a nd C 4 ) , s i t o n t h e p eak p l a t form . T he f i r s t t h ree h ave r e spec t ive e x ter io rd iame te r s o f 5 . 3 , 5 .0 a nd 5 . 7 m , b u t d amage l e aves C 4 i nde term ina te . A no the r f ou r ( C5 , C 6 , C 7 a nd C 8 ) a r e b u i l t i n to t h e s l op ing t e r race b e low a nd h ave d iame te r s o f 3 . 7 , 5 . 5 , 4 .9 a nd 5 . 8 m r e spec t ive ly . S t ruc tu re C 9 , w i th ad i ame te r o f6 .0 m , i sb u i l t i n to t h e r i s ing w a l l o ft h e l owe s tp l a t form .

( d ) AL41 : S umma ry a nd c ompa r isons : AL41 p a in ted p o t te ry i sd om ina ted b y C usco I nca ma te r ia l . T he re i so ne c en t ra l a r ea w i th s t ruc tu re s wh ich a r e o f Sma l l S tandard -Rec tangu lar -C losed -One o r Two Door I n ca t ype ( Kenda l l 1 985 : 1 3 ,25 ) , b u t C usco I n ca p o t tery i sn o t c onf ined t o t h a t a r ea . T he a r ch i tec ture i sp r ima r i ly o f l a te p reh is to r ic t r ad it ion . T he d i spe r sa l o f s t one a r tefac t s among s t c i rcu la r s t ruc tu res a nd t he p o t tery f r om l im i ted s ur face c o l lec t ions s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey w e re dwe l l ings i n as e t t lemen t . S ome s he rds h ave d e s ign c ha rac ter is t ics o fI . a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod ma ter ia l ( eg . App . I I F ig . 1 0e ) , b u t t h e s ur f ace p o t te ry i s ma in ly e i the r c oa rse wa re ( j a r s a nd b ow ls ) o r i sc l ea r ly Cusco I nca a nd i nd ica t ive o fI nca P er iod o ccupa t ion .

T he r a nge o fd i ame te r s i s3 . 7 t o6 . 0 m , w i th amean o f5 . 2 m ( SD = 0 . 7 ) . S t ruc tu re a r ea sr a nge b e tween 1 0 .8 a nd 2 8 .3 s q .m , w i th amean o f 2 1 .9 s q .m ( SD = 5 . 5 ) . I fC 4 i sa t t r ibu ted a n a ve rage a r ea f o r t h is s i te , t h en t h e t o ta l s t ruc tu ra l s pace i s a bou t 1 97 s q .m , w i th in a s t ruc tura l s ec tor o f 0 .27 h a . S t ruc tu re s i n c lude o ne o fv e ry s ma l l a r ea b u t mos t f a l l w i th in t h el owe rr a nge sp r e sen ta t AL39 ( Tab le 4 :6 ) .

T he t e r ra in i ss uch t ha t a ccess t o AL41 f r om C usco w ou ld v i r tua l ly n ecess i ta te p assage t h rough AL39 , a nd t he a r ch i te c tu re o fc i rcu la rs t ruc tu res a tb o th s i te s i st h es ame .

( i )T e r race s : T e r race sr e ach a bou t 1 . 5 mh i gh , b u tt h eb e s tp re se rved s e c t ion a mongs t t h e s t ruc tures i s a bou t 0 .85 m . T hey a r e a l l i r egu la r ly c urved a nd e nd i nt h es l ope . Wa l l s t one sr a nge f r o.m

S i te AL37 , L laktak i SE AL37 i sl o ca ted o n as ma l l h i l l a tl ow a l t i tude , a bou t 10 m a bove a n o ld r i ve rt e r race o ft h e Apur imac R ive r( P la te 1 6 ) . I t

4 7

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

TABLE 4 :6

S ite AL37:

F requency D istribution o f S tructure A reas. AREA

( square m etres)

1 0.5-

1 4.5-

1 8.5-

2 2.5-

2 6.5-

1 4.4

1 8.4

2 2.4

2 6.4

3 0.4

TOTAL

( n )

1

1

2

1

8

( %)

1 2.5

1 2.5

2 5.0

3 7.5

1 2.5

1 00.0%

i n te r io r s l ips . O ne i sl i ke t h e f l ar ing r im s he rd , w i th o range o u te ra nd l i gh tb rown i nne rs l ips . T he o the r 1 9c oa r se r s he rd s ( MSTS = 1 4 .8 , SD = 7 . 1) i n c lude 7 wh ich a r ee roded , 9w i th a c r acked o range s l ip o ff ab r ic c o lou r , a nd 3w h ich a re u ns l ipped . A l la r eu neven ly f i red .

s ma l l w edges u p t o b locks o fa bou t 0 . 7 m a nd i n c lude b o th a ngu la r a nd r i ve r -rounded wh i te g ran i te s . L a rge s t one s a r e m ixed w i th s ma l l o nes a nd w e re o f ten p l aced o n t o p o ft h em . T hose t o t he n or thwe s t a re o f s im i la r c ons t ruc t ion a nd c ompr ise s ho r t i n te r leav ing a r cs b e tween p a r t ia l ly l e ve l led p l a tfo rms , mo s t ly l e ss t h an 1 0mw ide .

( d ) AL37 S umma ry ( i )A r tef ac t s

A r tef ac tua l a nd s t ruc tura l e v idence i nd ica tes t h a t AL37 w a s a s e t t lemen t w i th a d jacen t a g r icu l tura l l a nds s im i la r t o t h o se b es ide t he Apur imac R ive r a t AL39 a nd AL41 . The s ma l l c e ram ic c o l lec t ion t e n ta t ive ly i nd ica tes t h a t , i nc on t ras t t ot h e o t he rs i te s ,t h e re w a sn oI nca P er iod o ccupa t ion o rn oa cce s st o C u sco I nca p o t te ry b y t h e o ccupan ts . Mean s t ruc ture a r ea i s s ma l le r t h an a t t h e o the r s i tes . S ome p o t te ry h as s t y l is t ic s im i la r i t ie st ot h a to ft h eL a te I n termed ia te P er iod i nt he C u sco V a l ley .

T he s i te i sf o re s ted a nd t h es ur f ace i ss t rewn w i th l e a fl i t te rb u t l a rge s t one a r tefac ts a r e v i s ib le . Ac o l lec t ion a r ea o f 1s q .m ( LLS ) w a sp laced b e tween t h ee dge o fr ubb le o u t s ide s t ruc tu re C S -4 a nd as t eep d e scen tt owa rd st h e Apu r imac R ive r . ( a )L a rge S tone A r tef ac t s : T hose o n t h e s ur face i n c lude S hape - Wea rG roup s Aa nd D i n w h i te g ran i te .

S i te AL45 , L laktak i NE ( b )P a in ted P o t te ry : AL45 c omp r ises c i rcu la r s t ruc tures , a ssoc ia ted s t one -wa l led t e r race s a nd a r tef ac t s o fs t one a nd p o t te ry . I ti sl o ca ted af ew h und red me t re s n or thwes t o f AL37 , u pon ar i dge p eak a bou t 3 00 m a bove t h e A pu r imac R ive r ( F ig . 4 :7 , P la te 1 6 ) . E xcep t f o rt h ea pp roach f r om as add le a tt h e n or th , i ti ss ur rounded b y a b rup tc l if f sa nd s l ope s .

T he LLS c o l lec t ion c on ta ins 6 0 s he rd s , b u t o n ly t h ree h ave t r ace s o f p a in t . Two j o in a s p a r t s o ft h e f l a t b a se o f al a rge , t h ick w a l led v e sse l , p a in ted r ed o n t h ee x ter io r b u t n o to n t h e p i t ted b asa l s ur face ( App .I I F ig . 1 3n ) . T he o the r h a s t h ree p o in ted p a ra l le l l i ne s i nd a rk b rown , o ve r av e ry s moo th l i gh t b rown e x te r io rs l ip a nd al e n t icu la re xc ised a nd mode l led a rea w h ich i sp a r t ly b roken a way ( App .I I F ig . 1 3 j ) . T he f a br ic i s f i ne a nd h a rd , e ven ly f i red b u t o fl i gh t g r ey c o lou r a nd w i th o paque wh i te i n c lus ions s ma l le rt han 0 . 25 mm .T he d eco ra t ion r e semb les K i l lke mode l led e ye s ( R ive ra 1 972 :94 ; c f . K enda l l 1 976 :f ig . 5 4a ) , a nd t h e s ame f abr ic w a s u sed i n ab ow l f o rm w i th K i l lke c ha rac te r is t ics a t t he n ea rby S i te AL45 . One p a in ted s he rd ,a mong t h ree c o l lec ted f r om a ne r oded p a r to ft h e NW s l ope ( LLSP ) , c ou ld b e f r om aC usco I nca v e s se l , b ased o n i t sd es ign e xecu t ion , s ur face t e x tu re , e ven f i r ing a nd b r igh t o range f abr ic a nd s l ip ( App .I IF ig . 1 3m ) .

( i )S t ruc tu re s : S eve ra l s ec t ions o f l ow s em i-c ircu la r f oo t ings , b u i l t i n to s l ope s , a r e a l l t h a t r ema in o f s t ruc tu re s a t AL45 . None w a s w e l l e nough p re served t op e rm i t measu remen t o r o bse rva t ion o fe n t rance s . V ege ta t ion c l ea rance a nd e xcava t ion may f u r the r c l a r ify t h en umbe rp re sen t , b u ta n e s t ima te o ft e n wou ld n o tb e u nrea sonab le g i ven t h e a r ea o f r ubb le a nd p o t tery wh ich i s p r e sen t . ( i )T e r race s :

( c ) Unpa in ted P o t te ry : L LS u npa in ted s he rd s i n c lude a s t rap h and le f r om a t h ick w a l led v esse l ( App .I I F ig . 1 3g ) , a no the r i n t h e LLSP c o l lec t ion ( App . I I F ig . 1 30 , a nd t h e f l a r ing t a l l r im o f al a rge , t h ick -wa l led v e s se l ( App . I IF ig . 1 3a ) U npa in ted b ody s he rd s ( n =5 3 ) i n c lude 8w i th av e ry s moo th c onvex s u rface (MSTS = 3 , SD = 0 .8 ) a nd 4 w i th i d en t ica l s l ip , f abr ic , t e x tura l f ea tures a nd s im i la r t h ickess t o t h e m ode l led -eye s he rd . F ou r h ave a n o range e x ter io r s l ip a nd a g rey o r b rown f abr ic c o re . None a re c l ea r ly I nca . Smoo th e x te r io r s a r ep re sen to n 2 6 (MSTS = 6 . 7 , SD = 1 . 4 ) . E leven o f t h ese h ave e x ter ior o range s l ip a nd 5 h ave e x ter io r s c rap ing /bu rn ish a sw e l l . S even h ave o n ly a ne x te r io rc r eam o r l i gh t b rown s l ip , a nd 7 h ave o range e x te r io r a nd c r eamy g rey 4 8

T he r i dge i ss u r rounded b y i n te r leav ing t e r raced p la tforms w i th s i ng le -s tone w a l ls u p t o a bou t 1 . 5 m h igh . Wh i te g ran i te o u tc rops w e re i n corpo ra ted i n to s ome w a l ls , a nd t he a ngu la r s t one s l abs u sed w e re p redom inan t ly o f t he s ame ma te r ia l . Wa l ls f e a tu re am ix tu re o fs t one s i zes u p t oa bou t0 .8 m , w i th l i t t le a t ten t ion t ot h e p lacemen t o ff l a t s u r face s o n t he f a cade ( P la te 1 7 ) . P o t te ry a bound so n t e r race s ur f ace s ,s ugges t ing t h a t t h ey w e re p r ima r i ly f o rt h es uppor to fs t ruc tu re s . ( i i )A r te fac t s ( a ) Two l a rge s t one a r tef ac t sl o ca ted o n t h es u rf ace we re m ar a n ( Shape - Wea rg roup ' B ' ) , b o th b a sed u pon a ngu la r wh i te g r an i te s l ab s .

L a t e P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo ( b )P a in ted P o t te ry

l owe rt e r race s w he re t h e ir w a l ls a r e b u i l t i n to t h e s l ope . T hey n umbe ra bou t 2 0 t o3 0 , b a sed o n t he d ens i ty o bse rved d ur ing b r ief r e conna issance . Two i nt h eu ppe rt e r raced s l ope s , a t2 300 m , w e re mea su red . One ( CS -1) h a s a n e x ter io rd i ame te ro f6 . 4 ma nd i n te r io ro f4 .7 m ; t h eo the r( CS -2 ) i s6 . 35 m a nd h a s a n i n te r io ro f4 . 9 m( P la te 1 9 ) . T he a rea s a re 3 2 .2 a nd 3 1 .7 s q .m r e spec t ive ly .

O n ly as ma l l s e lec t ive c o l le c t ion o fs he rd s ( n =1 8 ) w a s made f r om t e r race s ur face s a t AL45 . F ou r w e re p a in ted . Two h ad s ha rp b l ack l i nes a nd t h ick r ed d e s igns o n av e ry s moo th , p o l ished o range e x ter ior s l ip , a nd a w e l l f i red f a b r ic r i ch i n m ica s peck s ( eg . App . I I F ig . 1 3k ) . T hey a r ec l ea r ly w i th in t h e I nca ' C ID 'c a tego ry .

S tand ing s t ruc tu re w a l ls a r e d oub le , w i thou te v idence o f mud mor ta r o ra dobes , a nd r each a bou t ame t re h igh . T he s t one i s a ngu la r g ran i te u p t o a bou t 6 0 cm d iame ter , b u t o f h igh ly v a r iab le s i ze .

As ma l lb ow l , d eco ra ted o nt h ei n te r io rl i p w i th ab and o fd a rk r ed p a in to fv a ry ing w id th o ve r ac r eam g rey s l ip , i sp o l ished b u th a s s l igh t ly i r regu la r s ur f aces ( App . 11 F ig . 1 3q ) . I t s f abr ic i sh a rd a nd e ven ly f i red t ol i gh tg r ey .I tf ea tu re s ar im l u g , w i th asma l l i mp res sed b u tn o tp i e rced h o le .T h is d oe sn o tr e semb le t h e I nca p unc ta ted p la te l ug , b u t s uch a n o rnamen t i sa l so r epor ted i n K i l lke b ow ls . T he Q opa B d e co ra t ion g roup i s r ep re sen ted b y as he rd w i th in i t s r ange o f d e s ign , p a in t ing e xecu t ion , s urface t e x ture a nd s l ip a nd p a in t c o lou r ( App . I I F ig . 1 3 1 ) .

T he re a r e n o a ppa ren t n i ches b u ts qua re s i ded e n t rance s o pen o n to l e ve l a r ea s . O ne s t ruc tu re w a l l i nt h eu ppe rr i dge a r ea ,o n t h e s i de b u i l t i n to as l ope , c on ta ined a n emp ty s t one -s ided p i t a bou t6 0c ms qua re a nd 8 5 cm d eep ( P la te 2 0 ) . ( b )S ec to r AT e r race s

( c )U npa in ted P o t te ry

T e r race w a l ls i nS ec to r ' A ' w e re b u i l t i ns hor t l e ng th s , e nd ing i n t h e s l ope o r a t ma ss ive g ran i te b locks s t rewn a bou t t he s ec to r( P la te 2 1) . T hey a re s t eep , r each 2 m h igh , a nd c on ta in g ran i te b lock s o f l a rge r s i ze t h an t hose u sed i n s t ruc tures . R ock sj u t f r om t h e f a cade a nd s ma l l s t ones w e re u sed t o f i l l g ap sb e tween l a rge b lock s . Mo s tr e ta in ing wa l ls a r eo fs i ng le s t one c ons t ruc t ion .

T h is i n c ludes ad i s t inc t ive s he rd w i th a n a pp l ied b and o n t h e e x te r io rs u r face a nd t h ree i mp ressed c i rc le s o n t h e o t he r . I ti s mode ra te ly s moo th o n e ach s i de , h as a n e ven b rown f ab r ic c on ta in ing wh i te i n c lus ions a nd o cca s iona l s pe ck s o f m ica ( App . I I F ig . 1 3 i ) . A no the r s he rd h as a s im i la r e x te rna l a pp l ica t ion , w i thou t i mp re s s ions ( App .I I F ig . 1 3h ) . As im i la r i mpre s s ion i si lus t ra ted o n as he rd f r om t h e u ppe r 1 5 cm o f e xcava t ions a t H u i i lea R accay i n t h e U rubamba V a l ley , i n a s soc ia t ion w i th am ix ture o fI nca , K i l lke re la ted , C hanapa ta a nd C hanapa ta -re la ted p o t te ry ( Kenda l l 1 985 :F ig . 2 4 i ) . T he i mp re ssed c i rc le mo t if i sk nown i np o t te ry f r om t h eC hanapa ta t ype s i te i nC usco ( Yäba r 1 972 :F ig s .4 a , 8 c ) .

( c )S ec to r AB ur ia l A na du l th uman b ur ia l i sl o ca ted i n as ma l l r ock c rev ice w i th in at e r race w a l l .T he o pen ing i sh a lf c l osed b y s ma l l , u nmor ta red g ran i te r o ck s( P la te 2 2 ) . T he b one i si ng ood c ond i t ion a nd a l l , e xcep t t h e u ppe r c ran ium , a ppea r s t o b e p resen t . P a ra l le l p l acemen to ft h el e f tf emu r , t i b ia a nd f i bu la a nd t h ep os i t ion o f t h er i b s ,i n d ica te st ha tt h eb ody w a sp laced i n ar e c l ined s i t t ing p os i t ion , h ead u p a nd w i th l e g s r a ised a nd d rawn t owa rds t h e c hes t . No g rave g oods a re a ppa ren t b u t t he l owe r p ar t o f t h e c r ev ice i sf i l led w i th d ry h um ic s o i l .

U npa in ted v esse l f o rms a r er ep re sen ted b y ar obu s te ve r ted r im ( App . I 1 F ig . 1 3b ) , at h inne r f l a r ing r im ( App . I I F ig . 1 3c ) , a t h in-wa l led , i n curv ing , p robab ly g l obu la r v e sse l ( App . I I F ig . 1 3p ) , as t ra igh t -s ided o pen b ow l ( App . I I F ig . 1 3d ) , a nd t h e b a se o f ac urve s i ded v e sse l ( App . I I F ig . 1 3o ) . A t h ick , t r unca ted c on ica l b a se i sf r om al a rge v e sse l ( App . 11 F ig . 1 4a ) , a s i s as t rap h and le o f s em i -ova l c ross s ec t ion ( App . I I F ig . 1 3e ) .

( i )T e r race si nS ec to rB S ec to r ' B ' i si nl e s s r ocky t e r ra in t h an t he S ec to r ' A ' h i l l . T he t e r race sf o rm s hor t ,i n te r leav ing a nd i n te rm i t ten t ly b roken a r cs . Wa l ls a r eo fa ngu la rf i e ld s tone ,o fs i ng le -s tone t h ickne s sa nd o f s im i la r f i t t ing t o t hose i n S ec to r ' A ' . T hey r each a bou t 2m h igh , b u t t h is v a r ies g rea t ly a l ong t he wa l l l e ng th . T hey t e rm ina te i nt h e s l ope o r a tc o l lap sed a rea s . Many r e ta in o n ly p a r t ia l ly l e ve l led s u rf ace s , a nd w e re p robab ly b u i l t a ga ins t b reak so fs l ope . No i r r iga t ion c ana l p la tform c ou ld b e s een o n t h es l ope s a bove o rw i th in t h es e c to rb u t as t one l ined c hanne l w a s f ound a t l owe r a l t i tude , t a ken f r om t he Yu raqmayo , a C ocha s t ream t r ibu ta ry .

( d ) AL45 S umma ry AL45 c on ta ins p o t te ry o fI nca , l o ca l ' QB ' a nd p o ss ib ly K i l lke s t y le s , l i ke AL39 , b u t may a l so h ave b een t h es i te o fp r e - Wa r i o ccupa t ion o n t h e b a s is o f s can t c eram ic a s soc ia t ion . T h is , c omb ined w i th s t ruc tu ra le v idence ,t e r race sa nd s t one a r tef ac t s , i s e v idence c ons is ten t w i th a L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod o ccupa t ion e x tend ing i n to t h eI n ca P e r iod . S ite AL42 , L lak taba mba E

( i i )A r tef ac t s AL42 c omp r ise sc i rcu lar s t ruc tu re s ,a s soc ia ted t e r race s , ab u r ia l a nd s u r f ace a r tefac t s , l o ca ted o ve r a n a rea o f a bou t 0 . 47 h a ( Sec to rA ) o n a nd a r ound ar i dge p eak s ome 2 50 m a bove t h e Cocha S t ream -Apu r imac R ive rc onf luence . Ac on t iguou s a r ea o ft e r race s ( Sec to r B ) c ove r s 3h a o ft he C ocha v a l ley f l ank ( F igu re 4 : 8 , P la te 1 8 ) .

Sma l l s ur fa ce a r tefac t sa r ep a r t ia l ly o b scu red b y l e a fl i t te ra nd h um ic e a r th d eve lop ing b enea th t he l i gh t ly f o res ted a rea o f S ec to r' A ' ,b u tl a rge s t one a r te fac t sa nd p o t te ry a r ec oncen t ra ted am ids tt h es t ruc tu re s . Many l a rge s t one a r tefac ts o fS hape - Wea r G roup s ' A ' , ' B ' a nd ' C ' w e re s e en . One h and -s ized r e c tangu la r s t one o fg roup C l / I I ( 1 1 b y 7 . 3 b y 4 . 3 cm ) w a s f ound t oh ave af l a t tened a nd a braded a r ea ( 3 .5 b y 9 .5 cm o n al o ng n a r row ma rg in a nd h amme r ing p i t s ( over 5 .5 b y 2 .0 c m o n o ne e x t rem i ty ) .

( a )S ec to r AS t ruc tu re s A l l o ft h e l a rge s t ruc tu re s a r ec i rcu la r . Mos ta r e n ea rt h e p eak o f L lak tabamba r i dge b u t s ome a r e a l so d i spe r sed a mong s t 4 9

L a te P r eh is tor ic L ima tambo

S ec to r B

S ec to r A r

/

\

I I‘

Api r i . 0 4 2

l t 1 a l• IM M

ce v er

/ S uspens ion f oo tb r idge

0

2 00 me t res K .H . :AP S ke tch

F IG . 4 :8

L laktaba mba S i tes : AL42 a nd AL49 .

4 .3 C IRCULAR STRUCTURES WITHOUT ARTEFACTS , AND ARTEFACT SCATTERS

O n ly t wo s he rds w e re c o l lec ted f r om S ec to r' A ' . O ne i s as t rap h and le o f ar ough s ur f aced , t h ick -wa l led v es se l . T he o the r i s f r om t h e t a l l n eck o f ah igh ly d ecora ted v e sse l ( App .I I F ig . 1 4 f ) . T he i n te r io r i ss l ipped i ny e l low ish c ream , o ve r af abr ic o f p a le o range w i th s ma l l b lack i n c lus ions ( l ess t han 0 . 25 mm ) .T he e x te r io rl i p , a nd u ppe ri n ter io r , a r ep a in ted . D e s igns i n c lude b and s a nd l i ne s o ff aded r ed -b rown a nd b l ack o ve ra n a r ea o f c ream . T h is r im f orm o ccu rs i n U rubamba V a l ley c o l lec t ions , a tC hoquepa ta P i scaycucho , a nd i nA n ta P rov ince , a t Hua ta ( Kenda l l 1 976 :F igs . 4 9a , 5 0e ,56a ,b ) . T he p a in ted d e s ign i s mos t s im i la r t o t ha t o n aj a r f r om H u i l lca R accay e xcava t ion l e ve l ' c 'a nd wh ich i sd escr ibed a sp a r to f a' K i l lke a nd K i l lke re la ted 'c a tego ry ( op .c i t . 1 976 :49 , f i g . 1 56 ) .

T he f o l low ing g roup o fs ur face s i te sh ave e i the r( i )n or e co rded s t ruc ture s wh ich c an b e d e scr ibed a s d we l l ings , b u t h ave a r tefac t s a nd o f ten r e ta in ing w a l ls wh ich a r e s ugge s t ive o f s e t t lemen t s a nd r e la ted l a nd u se ; o r ( i ) e v idence o fs t ruc tu re s wh ich l a ck a r tef ac tua l a s soc ia t ions . E igh t s i te s , AL21 , AL43 , AL4 , AL5 , AL19 , AM2 , AL34 a nd AL38 , b e long t o t h e se c a tego r ie s . S i te

AL21 ,

' Excur s ionayoq '

AL21 c ompr ise s 9c i rcu la r p l a tforms a nd s ec t ions o f a r e ta in ing w a l l s ur round ing t h e r i dge u pon w h ich t h ey a r e l o ca ted ( Sec to rA ) , a nd as ma l l s e t o f 3c r o s s -d ra inage t e r race w a l ls i n ag u l ly 2 0 mb e low a nd t ot h e s ou th ( Sec to rB ) . T he n o r thern , w es ter na nd s ou the rn s i des o fs e c to r' A ' a re p ro tec ted b y s t eep s l ope s , b u ti t se a s te rn s i de i s ab roade rr i dge a s cend ing f r om i t( P la te 2 3 ) .

( i v ) AL42 S umma ry T he a r tef ac t sa nd s t ruc tu re s i nd ica te t h a t AL42 w a s as e t t lemen t w i th s u r round ing a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd s , o f t he L a te I n termed ia te P e r iod i nt h e A pur imac V a l ley . S t ruc tu re a r ea s a r e w i th in t h e moda lr ange o ft h o se i nt h el a rge rs amp le a t AL39 , a nd t h es i te l o ca t ion i s v ery s im i la r t o AL39 a nd t he L lak tak i s i tes . H oweve r , an umbe r o f f ea tu re s s e t i ta pa r t . S tone w a l ls a r e m ass ive i nt h e s t ruc tura l a rea . T h is c ou ld b e af unc t ion o ft h e a bundance o f s t one i n S ec to r A . R ec tangu la r , s ub ter ranean , s t one l i ned p i t s a nd w a l l c r ev ice b ur ia ls a r e n o t k nown w i th in s t ruc tu ra la r ea sa tt h eo the rs i te s .

( i ) S t ruc tu re s T he p l a t fo rm s w e re e xcava ted i n to mode ra te s l ope s a round a n o pen l e ve l a r ea o f4 6 b y 3 0m . A rcs o fr e ta in ing w a l l o ccu ro n t h e u ps lope s i de o f 4p la tforms , b u t n o w a l l s t and s a bove g round . E x te r io r p l a tform d iame te rs , f r om C S -1 t o C S -9 r e sp ec t ive ly , a r e 5 . 15 , 4 . 90 , 6 . 30 , 5 . 15 , 7 . 20 , 4 . 60 , 4 .90 , 4 . 45 5 0

L a te P reh is tor ic L ima tambo

TABLE 4 :7

S ite AL21:

Frequency

D istribution of AREA

Structure Areas.

( square metres)

1 0.5-

1 8.5-

2 6.5-

3 4.5-

1 8.4

2 6.4

3 4.4

4 2.4

TOTAL

2

5

1

9

2 2.2

5 5.6

1 1.1

1 00.0%

( i )A r te f ac t s

a nd 5 . 80 m , w i th amean o f5 .38 m . A rea s r a nge f r om 1 5 .6 t o 4 0 .7 s q .m , w i th amean o f 2 3 .3 s q .m ( SD = 8 . 1) . T o ta l b u i l t s pa ce i sa bou t2 10 s q .m . S t ruc tu re s a r e , o n a ve rage , l a rge rt han t h o se a t AL28 b u t s ma l le r t han a t AL39 . O n ly o ne i sb e low t h ea r ea r ange p re sen ta tt h e l a t te rs i te ( Tab le 4 :7 ) .

P o t te ry i sc oncen t ra ted i nS ec to rA , p r ima r i ly o n t h e r i dge t o p , a nd i nl e s se rd ens i t ie so na d jacen ts ou thwe s ter nt e r raced s l ope s . I t w a s c o l lec ted f r om p a ths r unn ing t h rough t h is s ec tor ( co l lec t ion ' PR ' , n= 3 3 ) .

( i )T e r race s T he t e r race s a r e n a r row , u nde r 1m h igh a nd a l l l e ss t han 1 0m l o ng . Agr icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s w e re p robab ly b a sed o n t h e l a rge r s u r round ing s l ope s w h ich a r e n ow u sed f o rp a s tu re . ( i i )A r te fac t s N o a r tef ac t s w e re o b se rved o n t h e s urf ace a t AL21 . T h is i s p robab ly a n e f fe c to ft h e t h ick ma to fg ra ss c ove r . ( i v ) AL2 1 S umma ry W i thou t f ur the ra r tef ac tua l d a ta t h is s i te c an o n ly b ec ompa red o na r ch i tec tu ra l c ha rac te r is t ics , l a you ta nd p l acemen tw i th o the r s i te s i nt he a r ea . I tw a s p robab ly as ma l l s e t t lemen t a nd h a s t y p ica l L PT s t ruc ture f o rms a nd l a you t . S i te AL43 , P u l la Rayanqasa AL43 c omp r ise s ap o t te ry c oncen t ra t ion a nd t e r race s c ove r ing a bou t ah ec ta re o n t h e f l a t o f ar i dge a nd i t s w e s tern s l ope s ( P la te 2 4 ) . T he s l opes a nd r i dge , b o rder ing t h e P ampaconga c ommun i ty l a nd sl o ca l ly k nown a sP u l la ,a r ed e s igna ted S ec to r A . F u r the r t e r race s e x tend w e s t a nd n o r th o ve r a bou t 5h a o f s l ope s ( Sec to rB ) ( F ig . 4 :9 ) . ( i )T e r race s T he s l opes o fS ec to r' A a r e t h ick ly v ege ta ted a nd t h er i dge f l a t i sd i s tu rbed b y a gr icu l tu re . As ho r ts e c t ion o fs t ra igh t w a l l l i es b e s ide a p a th o n t he r i dge a nd a no the r p iece o n av ege ta ted w e s te rn s l ope t e r race i n S ec to r A , b u t n o f u r the r s t and ing a r ch i tec ture i s p re served . T he c ommun i ty p res iden t , Don Ma r iano H uamän ,r e f e r red t ot h es i te a sR ayanqa sa . T he l owe rt e r race s o fS ec to r' A ' a r et h eo n ly o nes f r ee o ff o re s t c ove r ,a nd a ppea rt oh ave c on t inued i nc u l t iva t ion . Wa l ls a r eo f u n shaped r ed m e tamo rpho sed s ed imen ta ry r o ck , i nb lock so fu p t o0 . 7m . T e r race s o fb o th s ec tor s a r ea bou t 4t o 6m w ide , a nd a r e a r ranged a s i n te r leav ing l eng ths wh ich t e rm ina te i n t he s l ope . F IG . 4 :9 P u l la S i tes : AL43 a nd AL44 .

5 1

L a te P r eh i s tor i cL ima tambo

( a ) P o rous C lay L umps

( i i ) S umma ry

Two PR s pec imens a r e c l ay l umps w i th e l onga te h o les , p robab ly f r om a h igh c on ten t o f p a ra l le l g ra ss s t a lk s . T he f abr ic i sr e d ( 2 .5YR 5 /8 ) a nd c on ta ins med ium s ized w h i te i n c lus ions ( u nde r 1mm ) . S uch p ieces , f r om h e re a nd a tS i te AL25 , h ave f l a t f a ce s l i ke as he rd a nd a r e 1 0 t o2 2 mm t h ick . S im i la r ma te r ia l i sr epo r ted a ta nU rubamba V a l ley e xcava t ion i na s soc ia t ion w i th ' K i l lke a nd K i l lke r e la ted 'p o t te ry ( Kenda l l 1 985 :305-306 ) a nd i n Cusco Va l ley s i te s where R owe ( 1944 :46 , 5 0 -52 ) t hough t t hey may b e f r om t h e l i n ing o f s t ove s l i ke t h o se s t i l l u sed i nr u ra l dwe l l ing s .

AL43 i s i n terp re ted a s as i te o f o ccupa t ion i n t h e L a te I n te rmed ia te ,p robab ly I nca a nd C o lon ia lP e r iod s .

( b )P a in ted P o t te ry

T he se a r e i n term i t ten t , f i e ld s tone r e ta in ing w a l ls b u i l t a ga ins t s ha rp b reak s o fs l ope b e tween a rea s o fl e s se r g rad ien t o n t h e h i l l f l ank s ( F ig . 4 : 10 ) .

S i te AL4 , Ha tun T a mbow i lka AL4 c omp r ises s t one -wa l led t e r races a nd a n a r tefac t c oncen t ra t ion o n al ow h i l l a bou t ak i lome t re e a s t o f P ampaconga . ( i )T e r ra ce s

C onvex s u r f ace so fe l even s he rd sw e re p a in ted . Two c on jo ined o nes a re p robab ly C o lon ia l P er iod s pec imens . T hey h ave p a tchy r ed p a in t ( 10R 4 /8 ) o n as moo th e x te r io r , a nd l i gh tr e d s l ip ( 2 .5YR 6 / 6 ) o n t h e b rushed i n ter io rs ur f ace . T he f ab r ic i s h a rd , p la ty o n f r ac ture , a nd o f mo t t led a ppea rance b ecause f l a t i n c lus ion f a ce t s s how i nt he ma t r ix ( 10R 5 / 8 ) . I nc lus ions a r e g reen o rb l u ish -g rey ( a ngu la ro rs ub -angu la ra nd u nde r 2mm ) , r ed ( of s im i la r s hape ) , w h i te ( unde r 1mm ) a nd mo re r a re ly b lack ( m inu te ) . S he rd s o f s im i la r ly t h in -wa l led v e sse ls w i th t h is f abr ic o ccur w i th g laze a t s i te AL25 , w he re h i s tor ic o ccupa t ion n e cess i ta tes c a refu l d if fe ren t ia t ion o f I nca a nd c o lon ia l p l a inwa re s .

( i )A r tef ac t s T he se a r ec oncen t ra ted o n ap l a tform o n t h ep eak a nd a l so , i n l ower d ens i t ies , o n o the r c ur ren t ly c u l t iva ted f i e lds o n t h e s ou theas tern f l ank . T herefo re , t he ir wa l ls may h ave o nce s uppor ted d we l l ing s . As ur f ace -co l lec t ion a r ea ( co l lec t ion ' J T ' , ac i rc le o f 6m d iame te r ) wa sc en t red u pon as urvey s t a t ion o n t h e c u l t iva ted p eak ( P la te 2 5 , F ig 4 : 10 ) . Af r agmen to f al a rge s t one a r tef ac t( Shape - Wea rG roup D ' o r mu t 'ka ) w a s r e co rded o n af i e ld s u r f ace a bou t2 0mn or th o ft h eJ Tc o l lec t ion . ( a )P a in ted P o t te ry :

O the r p os s ib ly c o lon ia l s he rd s a r e o ne w i th t h e s ame i n te r io r s l ip b u t ar e d( 10R 5 /4 )o n t h ee x ter io ra nd ad a rk b rown f a b r ic ;a nd t wo ( c on jo ined ) w i th t h es ame r ed s l ip a nd af a br ic w h ich i s2 . 5YR 6 / 6 , l i ke t he s l ip o n mo t t led -pa s te s he rds .

T he J Tc o l le c t ion c ompr ised 3 7 s he rds . Sma l l s he rd sw e re v e ry e roded a nd w e re n o t c o l lec ted , a s r e f lec ted i n t h e s he rd s i ze a na lys is ( App .I ,T ab le 1 :3 ) .T en b ody s he rd sa r ep a in ted :

One s he rd h a s c ream p a in t o n t h e p o l ished e x ter ior ( 7 .5YR 7 /4 ) , ah igh ly m icaceous , o range ( 2 .5YR 6 / 8 ) f ab r ic w i th g los sy b lack i n c lus ions , l i ke much C usco I nca p o t te ry , b u t t h e i n te r io r s l ip i s2 . 5YR 6 /6 a s o n t h e c o lon ia l ma ter ia l . P o t te ry o fe a r l ie rt r ad i t ion i n c lude s :

( A ) S ix s he rd s a r e p o lych rome ( App . I I F igs . 1 4g , i , j , l , 1 5c ) . T hey h ave b l ack o r v e ry d a rk b rown l i nes o r b ands , a nd r e d b ands , o ve r a n o range o r c reamy -orange s l ip . A l l o f t h e ir s u r face s a r es moo th o r v e ry s moo th (MSTS = 2 . 3 , SD = 0 . 8 ) . A l l h ave w h i te i n c lus ions a nd m ica f l ecks i na n e ven ly f i red o range p a s te , e xcep t o ne ( App . I I F ig . 1 5c ) , w h ich h a s ag rey c o re ( and n o v i s ib le m ica f l ecks ) . Sma l l b lack i n c lu s ions ( F ig s . 1 4g , l , 1 5c ) o r r ed o ne s ( F igs . 1 4 j , l ) may b e p re sen t . O ne ( F ig . 1 4g ) ,d eco ra ted o nt h ec oncave s u r f ace , may b ef r om ab ow l f o rm . S eve ra l h ave b rushed i n te r io r s ur face s ( F igs . 1 4 i , j , 1 ) .

( A ) Two s he rd sw i th g rey f abr ic ,a nd l i nea ro rc r ies -c ro s sb l ack d e s igns ( 10R 4 /2 t o 1 OR 3 / 1 w he re f aded ) o n as moo th g rey s ur face ( App . I I F ig . 4 a ) . T he l a t t iced b and mo t if o ccu r s o n s ur face s he rd s f r om Ancasma rka ( Urubamba ) , w he re i ti s t hough t t or e semb le L ucre s t y le ( Kenda l l 1 976 :86 , f i g . 7 2b ) . T he mo t if a l so o ccur s o n K i l lke P ha se C -D j a r s ( Dwye r 1 971 :F ig . 3 15 ) ;

T he d es ign o f t h ree ( F igs . 1 4g , i , l ) i ss im i la r t o C usco I n ca , b u t l i ne s a r e n o t s ha rp , a r e o fu neven t h ickne ss , a nd l i ne s a nd b and s o ve r lap o r f a i l t o mee t . C o lou r s a re n o t d ense a nd o ne s he rd h a s e x te r io r s u rf ace s c rap ing -burn ish b ands ( F ig . 1 41) . T hese a r e K i l lke l ike t e chn ica l a nd s t y l is t ic c ha rac te r is t ics ( Dwye r 1 97 1 : 8 7 ,120 ,128 ,134 ) .

( B )T h ree s he rd so fe ven ly f i red f a br ic ( 2 .5YR 6 / 8 ) , w i th w a shy b rown ( 5YR 4 / 3 ) b and s , 4t o 6mm w ide , o n as moo th o rv e ry s moo th b u t c r acked o range s l ip ( 5YR 4 /3 ) ( App .I I F ig . 4 b ) . T h is i ss im i la ri nd e s ign e xecu t ion t ot h e Q opa B s t y le , a nd i s i d en t ica l i np a in ted d e s ign a nd s l ip c o lou r ,t o aP aqchak ( AL46 ) s he rd ( s ee A pp . I IF ig .4 0 ;

( B ) F ou rs he rds h ave f aded b l ack o rd a rk b rown l i ne so rb ands o n o range s l ip . A l l h ave s moo th o r v e ry s moo th c onvex s ur face s ( MSTS = 3 . 5 , SD = 1 . 9 ) . Two ( eg . Appi l F ig . 1 4n ) , w i th t h in b l ack p a in ted l i nes , h ave t he s ame f abr ic c o lour , w h i te i n c lus ions a nd f i r ing a s t he ma jor i ty o f p o lych rome s he rds . O ne ( F ig . 1 4n ) h a s a n i d en t ica l p a s te t o ap o lych rome s he rd ( F ig . 1 4 j) . T he i r d e s igns a re t yp ica l o f K i l lke p o t te ry ( Dwyer 1 971 :105 ) . T he o the r t wo a r e n o t e ven ly f i red . O ne h a s ag rey -co red o range f abr ic ( App . I IF ig . 1 4m ) a nd t h eo t he r ad a rk b rown f ab r ic ( App .I IF ig . 1 4k ) .

( C ) One s he rd i n wh ich b rown a nd b l ack a r ec omb ined , o ve ra l i gh tb rown s l ip ( App .I I F ig . 4 c ) . ( c ) Unpa in ted P o t te ry T h is i nc lude s ac on ica l -s tub b a se w i th ab l ack f ab r ic , f r om a t h ick -wa l led v e sse l ( App .I I F ig . 4 d ) , a s w e l l a s s t rap h and le s f r om med ium t ot h ick w a l led v e s se ls .

5 2

L a te P r eh i s to r i c L ima tambo

F IG . 4 :10 T ambow i lka S i tes : AL4 a nd ALS .

( b ) Unpa in ted P o t te ry

S i te ALS , Huchuy T ambow i lka

T he u npa in ted g roup ( n =2 7 , MSTS = 5 . 7 , SD = 4 .7 ) , i n c ludes : ( A ) T en w i th a v ery s moo th s u r f ace ( MSTS = 2 . 4 , SD = 1 . 2 , n= 1 0 ) , o ne o ft h e se w i th C hanapa ta l ike g eome t r ic i n c is ions ( App . ! ' F ig . 1 4h ) a nd o ne b a se ; a nd ( B ) S even teen c oa rse r s he rd s (MSTS = 7 . 5 , SD = 5 . 0 ) , i n c lud ing 2 r im s , 3 h and le sa nd 3b a ses .

AL5 c omp r i se s as ma l l t e r raced h i l l a nd a r tefac t c oncen t ra t ion o n al e ve l a r ea o f t h e p eak , l o ca ted b e s ide AL4 ( F ig . 4 : 10 , P la te 2 6 ) . ( i )T e r ra ce s S ec t ion s o ff i e ld s tone r e ta in ing w a l l d iv ide s l op ing a r ea s , n ow c u l t iva ted , o n t h e n or thern , s ou thern a nd e a s tern s i des o ft h e h i l l . Many p i eces h ave c o l lap sed l e av ing o n ly b reak s o fs l ope . Ar e ta in ing w a l lo ft h ep eak p l a t form i sp a r t ly i n tac t .

F our teen u npa in ted s he rd s , 5o f v e ry s moo th t e x tu re a nd 9 c oa r se , a r e e ven ly f i red t oo range c o lou r , w i th t h in o range o r l i gh t b rown s l ip . T hey i n c lude ar im ( App . I I F ig . 1 5b ) , af l a t b a se ( App . I I F ig 1 4q ) a nd as t ub b a se w i th e x te r io r s c rap ing b ands ( App .I IF ig . Hp ) .

( i )A r tef ac t s

Twe lve s he rd s h ave g rey o r g r ey -b rown f ab r ic c o re s . T he se i n c lude ar im ( App . 11 F ig . 1 5a ) , f l a ta nd r ounded b a ses ( App .1 1 F ig s . 1 4o ,r ) a nd t h ree s t rap h and le s ( App . I I F ig s .15d -f ) . T he s t rap h and le sa nd r ounded b a se h ave l a rge rp a s te i n c lu s ion st h an a ny o the rJ Ts he rd ( 2 -3 mm ) a nd a r ec oa r se t e x tu red . T hey a r e p robab ly f r om c ook ing w a re .

An i n spec t ion , a f ter p lough ing o f t h e s i te , i nd ica ted t h a t p o t tery w a s c oncen t ra ted o n t h e p eak p l a tform . I tw a s l e ss a ppa ren t d ue t o at arw i c rop a nd g ra ss when t h e s urvey a nd p o t te ry c o l lec t ion ( HT , a6m d iame te rc i rc le ) wa s made t h e re ( F ig . 4 : 10 ) . F u r the r p o t tery w a s f ound b e s ide ap a th c u t i n to t h ee r oded w e s te rn s i de o ft h eh i l l ,p robab ly e xposed b yp a s se r s b y .T h is w a sc o l lec ted a nd l a be l led HTP .

( i i ) AL4 S umma ry HT p roduced o n ly 1 0 s he rd s , o ne p a in ted . T he l a t te r i sa s l igh t ly i r regu la rr im s he rd wh ich a ppea r s t ob ef r om as ha l low o pen v e sse l o fa bou t 2 6 cm d iame ter , w i th g rey -cored f a br ic ( App .I I F ig . 1 5h ) .

T he s t one a nd p o t tery a r tefac t s i n d ica te t h a t AL4 w a s a n o ccupa t ion s i te . I ti sp oss ib le t h a t t h e re w a s aC hanapata o ccupa t ion , b u tc e ram ic a s soc ia t ion sa r e ma in ly p o s t - Wan . N o f i nds o f C usco I nca p o t te ry w e re m ade o n t h e h i l l i t se lf b u t s eve ra l w e re r e co rded w i th in 4 0 mo fi t ,i nt h ed eb r i s r a ised b y c ana lc l ean ing b e s ide t h eC ha ld lanka -Pampaconga c ana l wh ich p a s ses b e low t h e s i te ( F ig 4 : 10 ) . Am in ia tu re I n ca s t y le t e r race g roup i sl o ca ted b es ide t h es ame c ana l af ew h und red m e t re s t o t h ee a s t( S i te AL3 ) .

H 'TP p roduced ar im o fa n i nf lec ted o pen v esse l ( App .1 1 F ig . 1 5g ) , o f l i ke p a s te a nd s im i la r s hape t o o ne a t AL4 ( App .I I F ig . 1 5b ) ; aj a r f o rm ( App .I I F ig . 1 5 1 ) , af l a r ing r im ( App . 11 F ig . 1 5m ) w i th e x te r io rr im th icken ing w h ich i sc ha rac ter is t ic o fK i l lke ' S hape C Med ium J a r s ' ( Dwye r 1 971 :98 ) , a nd ab ody 5 3

L a te P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo

( i ) AM2 S umma ry

s he rd w i th c omp lex b l ack p a in ted d e s igns ( App .I I F ig . 1 5o ) , a l l f e a tu r ing aw e l l -f i red l i gh t o range p a s te . Two s he rd s w i th b r igh to r ange a nd r e dp a s te h ave s c rap ing /burn i sh b and so n t h e e x ter io r ( App .I I F ig s . 1 5 i ,n ) , a s d id a n u npa in ted s t ub b a se s im i la r t oo ne a t AL4 ( Appi lF ig . 1 5k , c f . 1 4p ) .

AM2 w a s p robab ly al a te p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s i te o ccup ied p r io rt ot h ec ons t r uc t ion o fI nca t e r race so n t h ep eak . S i te AL34 , Waqayoqpampa B

( i i ) AL5 S umma ry AL34 c omp r ises t e r race w a l l s a mong b r eak s o f s l ope a nd a n a s soc ia ted a r tef ac ts c a t te ro ve ra bou t4 00 s q .m o n al ow h i l l . I t a l so i n c ludes a c on t inuous a r ea o f a bou t 4h a c on ta in ing s t and ing s t one w a l l s a nd l i nea rb unds o fs t ony s o i l w h ich f o rm i r regu la r ' h o r seshoe ' s haped a nd c l o sed a r ea s ( F ig . 4 : 11) . I ti s l o ca ted i na ni n te r rav ine a r ea o fr e la t ive ly mode ra te d ec l iv i ty .

AL5 w a s p robab ly a p o s t - Wa n is e t t lemen t s i te . L ike t h e a d jacen tS i te AL4 , i td oe s n o ta ppear t oh ave h ad aC u sco I n ca p o t te ry -u s ing o ccupa t ion . S i te

AL19 ,

Kuch iorqo

( i )T e r race s :

AL 19 i s as ca t te r o fp o t tery s he rd s o n ah i l l top a nd i t s e a s ter n s l op ing f i e lds , l o ca ted a t t h e e nd o f ar i dge o f Mamako moun ta in , o ver look ing t h e c onf luence o f t h e C o lorado a nd A chaku r i ve r s ( F ig . 4 : 1) . I ti ss u r rounded b y s t eep s l ope s o n a l b u tt h ee a s ter na pp roach .

T er race w a l ls a r e i n term i t ten t , a ppa ren t ly b u i l t a ga ins t i n ter leav ing b reak s o f s l ope . Wa l ls a r e s i ng les tone , s t and a bou t 1 . 0 m h igh a nd w e re b u i l t w i th b l ock s o f f i e ld s tone u p t o a bou t 0 . 5 m m ax imum d imens ion . S ome l owe r l e ve ls t o t h e n o r thwes t a r e c u l t iva ted , a nd h e re u p s lope b ounda r ie s a r e b reak s o fs l ope w i th s ome l oo se s t one p i les n ea rby .

( i )P o t te ry O n ly af ew s he rd s w e re c o l lec ted ( KUP1-4 f r om t h e p eak a nd KUS1-4 f r om t h e e a s tern s l ope ) . A KUP r im i sf r om an a r row n ecked ( 8 cm ) v es se l ( App . I I F ig . 1 4v ) . O ne b ody s he rd i s p a in ted i n ad a rk b rown l a t t ice d es ign o ve r av ery s moo th b rown -o range s l ip ( App .I I F ig . 1 4 t ) , ad e s ign f ound o n AL28 s he rd sa nd c ommon i nK i l lke v e sse ls . Unpa in ted s he rd si n c lude 2s t rap h and le s ( e g . A ppil F ig 1 4s ) , o ne o f t h ese f r om KUP h a se x te r io rb l acken ing . Two a r ee r oded s pec imen sa nd o ne h a s as im i la r t e x tu re a nd p a s te t ot h e p a in ted s he rd . Ap o rou s r e d c l ay l ump w i th h o les f r om s t raw c on ten t b efo re f i r ing , a s d e sc r ibed f o r AL43 ,w a sl o ca ted o nt h ee a s ter ns l ope .

I 1/ A L34

/ 1

( i ) AL19 S umma ry AL19 a ppea ls t oh ave b een as ma l l o ccupa t ion s i te . I t s c l o se s t p o t tery s e r ies a s soc ia t ions a r e p os t - Wanib u t n o C usco I n ca m a te r ia li sr e p re sen ted . S i te

/

AM2 , Qor iwa irach ina

AM2 i s ah i l l w h ich r i se s 1 50 m a bove Ma rkawa s i f l a t s , a n a r ea o fe x tens ive I n ca t e r rac ing ( P la te 2 7 ) , a nd i sp ro tec ted o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de b y v ery s t eep d e scen t o fa bou t 5 00 m t ot h e C o lo rado R ive r . I nca s t y le w a l ls a l so e nc i rc le t h e p eak o ft h e h i l l . Al a rge n umbe ro f mo s t ly e r oded s he rd s a r e c oncen t ra ted a r ound t h e p eak t e r races a nd i nl e sser d ens i t ie s i mmed ia te ly b e low t h em o nt h en or ther nd e scen t .

\ /

( i )P o t te ry

met res

As ma l l c o l lec t ion o fs he rd s ( ' QW ' , n= 1 3 ) w a s made w i th in t h e p eak a nd 5 0 mb e low i to n t h e n or thern s i de . Two s he rd s w e re p a in ted . O ne o f t h ese w a s h igh ly p o l ished o n b o th s u r f ace sa nd d eco ra ted o n t h ec onvex s ur f ace w i th d en se C u sco I n ca r ed p a in t . I tc ame f r om at h ick w a l led v e sse lo fl a rge b ody c i rcumf e rence . O ne o ther s herd i n QW h a s av ery s moo th , p o l ished ( c oncave ) s ur face , b u t i su ndeco ra ted . T he s e cond p a in ted s he rd h a s ab r i t t le b r own f abr ic , d eco ra ted i n al o o se g r id d e s ign w i th s p la shed d o t so nc r eam s l ip ( App .I IF ig . 1 4u ) . I ti sn o t C u sco I nca , a nd t h e u se o f s p la shed d o t e l emen t s i s o n ly s een e l sewhe re i nt h e v a l ley a t AL4 ( App . I I F igs . 1 5h ,o ) .

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F IG . 4 :11 Waqayoqpampa S i tes : AL33 a nd AL34 .

( i ) S tand ing F ie ld Wa l l s : T he w a l ls a r e 1 . 5 t o2 . 0 mt h ick , u p t o 1 . 5 mh igh , f i l led w i th g rave l ly s o i l ( P la te 2 8 ) a nd f a ced o n e ach s i de w i th w e l l -f i t ted s i ng le -s tone f a cade s . I n s ome p lace s t h ey a r e c o l lap sed a nd g rade i n to h igh , g rave l ly -so i l b und s . B o th w a l ls a nd b und s a ppea rt ob ep a r to ft h es ame s y s tem o ff i e ld d i v i s ion a nd s ome 5 4

L a te P r eh is tor ic L ima tambo

C ochabamba s add le . None h a s f a b r ic c ha rac te r is t ics o fC u sco I nca w a re s ,n o ri sa ny g l azed .

a c t t o r e ta in s o i l . T he ir s t ony n a ture i mpedes v ege ta t ion g row th a nd makes t hem h igh ly v i s ib le o n a e r ia l p ho tog raphs . S eve ra lf i e ld sb ounded b yt h em a r ec u l t iva ted .

( i ) AL38 S umma ry ( i i )A r tef ac t s AL38 w a s p robab ly as ma l l s e t t lemen t o ccup ied p r io r t ot h e a r r iva l o fC usco I nca p o t te ry i nt h e v a l ley . I ti sl o ca ted a ta p a ss o n ar ou te b e tween t h e ma in L ima tambo V a l ley a nd s i te s wh ich a re o n t he Apu r imac R ive r ma rg in ( i e . AL39 a nd A IA5 ) .

As ma l lc o l le c t ion o fs herd s( ' HU ' , n= 1 0 )w a s made i na na r ea o ft h e i rc oncen t ra t ion o n l owe rs l ope so ft h et e r raced h i l l a tt h e s ou the rn e nd o ft h es i te . S ome e roded , u ndeco ra ted s he rds w e re a l so s e en o nt h es u r f ace o ff i l li nf i e ld d iv id ing w a l ls .

4 .4 S ITES OF STONE - WALLED TERRACES

One HU s he rd b e longs t o ag l azed c o lon ia l b ow l f o rm w i th b lock s a nd l i nes i n g reen a nd d a rk b rown o ve r p a le g reen u nde rg laze . I th a s a we l l f i red , e x t reme ly f i ne f ab r ic ma t r ix c on ta in ing o n ly a s i ng le l a rge , r ounded , r ed s t one ( 4 mm ) i n c lus ion .

T he o n ly e v idence f r om a f ew s i te s c ompr ises t e r ra ces w i th s t one r e ta in ing wa l ls . Two a r el a rge ( AL40 a nd AL49 )a nd t wo a re s ma l l ( AL33 a nd AL31) . S uch s u r f ace s i te s a r ed i ff icu l tt o d a te e xcep tb yr e f e rence t od i s t inc t ive c on s t ruc t iona l a t t r ibu te s , a s soc ia ted a r tef ac t so ra r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lexe s .F o rt h i sr e a son t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re o n I n ca t e r rac ing , w i th d i s t inc t ive s t one ma sonry a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l a t t r ibu te s , i s mo re a bundan t t han t ha t o n e a r l ie r o r l o ca l l e ve l t r ad i t ions o f a g r icu l tura l l a nd scape mod if ica t ion .

S even o the r s he rds c on ta in o n ly i n c lus ions o fw h i te ( unde r 1 mm ) , a nd 2 h ave wh i te a nd b l ack ( unde r 0 . 5 mm ) o r b rown ( unde r 2mm ) .T hey i n c lude t h ef l a r ing s l igh t ly i regu la rr im o f as ha l low o pen v e s se l w i th s moo th s ur face s a nd ag rey -co red f ab r ic ( App . I IF ig . 1 4d ) . T h is i ss im i la rt or ims f r om A LA a nd AL5 ( App . 1 1 F igs . 1 5b ,g ) a nd r e semb les s hape s f r om H u i l lca R a ccay , f ound i n s ha l low f l oo r d epos i t s o fa n I nca s t ruc tu re , a nd f r om l a te p reh is tor ic s ur f ace s i te s a t0 1 1e r iayoc L eon iyoc a nd C hoquepa ta P i scaycucho ( Kenda l l 1 985 :240 ,f i g s . 1 2 , 1 7d , 50 c , 5 9c ,d ) . H and le s a re s t rap s ( App .I I F ig . 1 4c ,e ) a nd af l a t b a se h a s ap o l ished i n ter io r b rown ish -o range s l ip a nd e roded e x ter io r( App . I IF ig . 1 4b ) .

I nt h eL ima tambo V a l ley t o day t h er e pa i ro fo ld t e r race w a l ls i s n o tu ncommon . C ons t ruc t ion o f an ew r e ta in ing w a l l w a ss e en a to n ly o ne p l ace ,w he re i tw a s u sed t ob ound an ew ly i r iga ted f i e ld a bou t 1km f r om L ima tambo t own . L a rge s t one si nf i e ld s a r eu sua l ly p i led i n mound so rt h rown t o af i e ld b ounda ry .T h i s b ounda ry may b e ab reak o fs l ope b u t t h er e su l t i sn o t as t eep w a l l . T he p lan t ing o fa gave o rn on -c lea rance o fo the rp l an t so n d owns lope f i e ld ma rg ins a l so g i ve s r i se t o at e r race f o rm ing p roce ss ,a i ded b y s o i l l oosen ing f o rc u l t iva t ion . S uch u nwa l led t e r races s ur round mos t h igh land a gr icu l tura l c ommun i ty s e t t lemen t sa nd a r ed i ff icu l tt oi n c lude i n amode l f o rd e te c t ion o fp reh is to r ic l a nd -use .

( i v ) AL34 S umma ry AL34 w a s p robab ly b o th c on t inuous ly c u l t iva ted a nd t h e s i te o f s ma l l a reas o f o ccupa t ion i n l a te p reh is to ry . I tr ema ins d i f f icu l t t od a te c ons truc t ion o f t h e wa l ls w h ich c ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace o ve r al o ng p er iod .

F ie ld o b se rva t ions i n d ica te t h a t s t one r e ta in ing w a l ls a r e mo s t l i ke ly t o b e f ound o n s t ony s l ope s , b u t t h a t n o t a l l s t ony s l ope s a re t e r raced . R ecen t r epa ir s t o w a l ls , o r n ew ly b u i l t o ne s , a r e u sua l ly a ppa ren t f r om t h e v a r ia t ion i nl i chen c ove r , w ea ther ing a nd t h es t y le o fs t one p l acemen t . S ome s uch w o rk may a l so b e r emembe red b y t h e r e s iden t s . N ever the les s , t h e a t tr ibu t ion o fn on -e labo ra te t e r rac ing t op reh is to ry mu s tr ema in t e n ta t ive e spec ia l ly w he re t h e re i s al i ke l ihood o fc on t inu i ty i n l a nd u se d u r ing t h e h i s tor ic p er iod , e ven i ft h e re i sn o p r e sen t c u l t iva t ion .

T hey c ou ld b ei n te rp re ted a sa n a l te rna t ive t ot e r race w a l l s , f o r t h e p urpose s o f s t one r emova l a nd g radua l f i e ld l e ve l l ing . However , t he q ua l ity , s t eepness a nd h e igh t o f w a l l c ons t ruc t ion , u se o ff i ne g rave l i n av e ry t h ick w a l l f i l l a nd t h e p re sence o f w a l ls p e rpend icu la r t o c on tour s , s ugge s t s o t he r f unc t ions t oo . E nc lo sed a rea s a r e p ro tec ted f r om a n ima ls a nd o pen o ne sc ou ld h ave b een c lo sed w i th b rush t ok eep t h em i n . T he a l t i tude i s3 000 m , n o t a s h igh a s t he ma jo r a rea s o f c ame l id p a s tu re i np resen t C usco , b u t t h e a r ea i ss uf f ic ien t ly e x ten s ive a nd mode ra te ly s l oped t oh ave p rov ided p as tu re .

S ite AL40 , Qopa A l ta W T he p o t te ry f r om t h e t e r raced h i l l s ha re s af o rm w i th AL4 a nd ALS . S i te l o ca t ion i ss im i la r t ot h ese a nd o the r s i te s o f l a te p reh i s to r ic t r ad i t ion .

AL40 c omp r ises a bou t 3 0 l e ve ls o fi n te r leav ing t e r race w a l ls o n as ma l l c o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l f a n p e rched a bove t h e s t eep ly c u t T incoc S t ream . P a r t ia lr e conna issance a nd mapp ing f ound t h em t o b e o f s im i la r c ons t ruc t ion a nd d e s ign t o t hose o n t h e o ppos i te s i de o f t h e r a v ine ( AL39 ) . S t ra igh t w a l l l i ne s i n a s ma l l s ec to ro ft h e g roup , n o t v i s i ted o n t h e g round , a r e mo re c ha rac ter is t ic o f I nca t e r rac ing t h an t h a t o f AL39 ( F ig . 4 :4 ; P la te 2 9 ) .

S i te AL38 , Cochaba mba R idge AL38 c omp r i se s as u r face p o t te ry s ca t te rc oncen t ra ted p r ima r i ly i na n a r ea o fg en t le g rad ien t mea sur ing 3 0 b y 2 0m . T h is a r ea f e a tu re s a bundan t s t one r ubb le w h ich may h ave p e r ta ined t o d i s in teg ra ted a r ch i tec ture . S ome o fi ti sp i led n ea r ap o s s ib le s t ruc ture -p la tform . E roded a nd u ndecora ted s he rds a ppea r s po rad ica l ly d owns lope f o ra bou t5 0m .

S ite AL49 , L lac tabamba W AL49 i s as e t o f 1 3 t e r race s o n ac o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l f a n a tl ow a l t i tude o n t h e r i gh t ma rg in o ft h e A pu r imac R ive r ( F ig . 4 : 8 ) . T ime d id n o t p erm i tr e conna is sance o ft h e s i te b u t s t one w a l l s w e re o b se rved w i th f i e ld g l a s se sf r om AL42 .T he w a l ll i ne sa r e p a ra l le l a nd s t ra igh t i n t h e g rea te r p a r t o f t h e s cheme ( P la te 3 0 ) , u n l ike t ho se o f AL39 a nd A LAO .

( i )P o t te ry A s ma l l c o l lec t ion f r om t he s i te ( CB , n= 1 5 ) p roduced n o p a in ted a nd mos t ly e roded s he rd s . T h is may b e af unc t ion o f s i te p rox im i ty ( 350 m ) t o as ma l l mode rn s e t t lemen t a t 5 5

L a te P r eh is tor ic L i rna tambo

S i te AL33 , Waqayoqpampa A

S i te AL27 , Q 'erabamba

AL33 c omp r ise s ag roup o f 4r ough ly p a ra l le l s t one r e ta in ing w a l ls o n t h e s l opes o f al ow h i l l n ea r AL34 ( F ig . 4 : 11) . U n ir r iga ted f i e lds b e low t h eh i l l t e r race sr ema in i nu se , a nd t h e a b sence o ft h ick v ege ta t ion o n t h eo ld t e r race si nd ica te sr e gu la r b u t n o ta nnua l u sage .

AL27 c omp r ise s 6 2 s ma l l c i rcu la r d ep res s ions b ounded b y s t one r i ng s ,o rs t one l ined p i ts o n a n e l onga te r i dge o fr o ck a nd as t one -wa l led p l a tfo rm b e low i t( F ig . 4 : 12 , P la te 3 1) . T h is s i te i sr e ga rded b yr e s iden t so fa na d jacen td i sper sed s e t t lemen t ( t he L lama tay s e c t ion o fC hoquema rka c ommun i ty )a sw i th in a l a nd a r ea c a l led C ruzpa ta ( c ro ss -he igh t ) . Aw ooden c ro s s a nd t h e p re sen t c eme te ry o ft h is n ame a re a bou t 1 50 m a way . I t b o rde r sh i gh a l t i tude s l opes c a l led Q 'erabamba a nd i sb e s ide a p a th l e ad ing f r om T a rawa s it oY lpa .

Wa l ls a re a bou t 1m h igh b u ta re e roded a nd c o l lapsed i n many p lace s , l e av ing o n ly b reaks o f s l ope o r r ubb le . T he g round s ur face b e tween t hem i sa bou t 1 0 m w ide . Cons t ruc t ion i s s i ng le -s tone , o f g ran i te b locks u p t o 0 .5 m , a ma te r ia l a bundan t i n f i e ld s a nd o u tcrops n ea r t h e s i te . T he ir f i t t ing s hows s ome t e ndency t o t he p lacemen t o f f l a t s i des o n t h e f a cade b u tl a rge s t one sw e re p laced o ve rs ma l le ro ne s . S i te

AL31 ,

P ist iba mba

AL31 i s as ma l l a r ea o ft e r races l o ca ted o n s t ony l owe rs l ope s b e low Wamana rka r i dge , a t t he e dge o f af l a t a nd p re sen t ly c u l t iva ted b u t u n i r r iga ted f i e ld . T he s l ope s a re n o t p re sen t ly c u l t iva ted a nd h ave l ow p a tchy v ege ta t ion . T he t e r race s a r e o f i n te r leav ing a nd i n term i t ten t f o rm , w i th s i ng le -s tone f i e lds tone w a l ls u p t o 1m h i gh . S tone s a r e0 . 1 t o 0 .8 m i n t h e max imum d imens ion a nd l a rge s t one s w e re o cca s iona l ly p l aced o ve rs ma l le r o ne s . T hey a r e b ad ly e roded a nd c o l lap sed i n many p l ace s . 4 .5 CYLINDRICAL , L INED P ITS ( CSP )

SUBTERRANEAN ,

STONE -

S even s i te s w i th CSP w ere l oca ted i n t h e f i e ld a r ea ( AL27 , AL26 , AL4 4 , AL47 , AL48 , AL23 a nd AL24 ) .

r o

T he s ur face d ep ress ions w i th in s t one c i rc le s a ppea r t o b e s ub te rranean p i t s wh ich h ave c o l lapsed i nwa rd . Dep re s s ions w i thou ts t one w e re n o tc oun ted s i nce t h ey may b e l oo t ing p i t s . F ive C SP a r e v i s ib ly d eep p i ts , a nd t h ree r e ta in p a r t ia l s t one s l ab a nd e a r th c ove r ing sn ea rs ur f ace l e ve l ( P la te 3 2 ) . Mea su rab le d ep th s , w i thou ta ny e xcava t ion o fi n f i l l ing d ebr is , a r e u p t o 1 . 06 m ( n =5 ) . Wa l ls emp loy l o ca l ly a va i lab le g ran i te a nd r ed m e tamporphosed s ed imen ta ry r ock a nd a r e d oub le -s tone a t t h e s u rf ace where w e l l p re served . E x te r ior d i ame te r s a nd w a l l t h ickness w e re d i ff icu l t t o a sses s d ue t o c o l lapse . D iame te r s o f t h e b es t p rese rved e xamp le s r a nge b e tween 0 . 98 a nd 1 . 89 m ( n = 1 3 , mean = 1 . 44 m , SD = 0 . 26 ) . Wa l l w id th o n t h ese a nd a f ur ther 2 2 e xamp les i s b e tween 0 . 27 a nd 0 .6 m ( n =3 5 , mean = 0 .4 1 m , SD = 0 . 09 ) . Wa l ls a round t h e P laza ( F ig . 4 : 12 ) r e ta in t h e s l ope , b u t a l so r i se 0 . 5 ma bove g round i ns eve ra l p l ace s . T hey a re d oub le s t one , 0 . 76 m t h ick a nd o f t he s ame s t one a s t he C SP . N o a r tef a c t sw e re f o und i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h ese f e a ture s , n o ro n a p a th p a s s ing t h rough t h e s i te .

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S ite

AL26 ,

E x te r io r d i ame te r s a r e 0 . 92 m a nd 1 . 64 m ( mean = 1 . 03 m ) , a nd w a l l w id ths a re 0 .25 a nd 0 .48 m ( mean = 0 . 34 m ) r e spec t ive ly . S ome h ave s i ng le s tone w a l ls . No a r tef ac t s w e re f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e C SP .

Ch ikch iera

AL26 c on ta ins 2 2 CSP o n a nd a round a r o ck o u tc rop a nd o ver look s t he T a rawa s i I nca S i te ( F ig . 4 : 13 ) . A r av ine s epara te si tf r om t h e p re sen tb u r ia l a r ea o ft h eT a rawa s i s e c to r o f Choquema rka c ommun i ty .

S i te AL47 , P aqchak L omada I AL47 c ompr ises 7 CSP u pon a r i dge -peak , a bou t 4 0m l ong a nd 5 m w ide , o n a 15° a l ignmen t . T he e a s tern e nd o f t h e r i dge i sa bou t 5 0 m f r om s t ruc ture C S -1 o f S i te AL46 a nd s epa ra ted f r om i tb y a6 5% g rad ien t ( P la te 7 ) . T he f e a tu re s a r e n umbe red f r om CSP -1 t oC SP -7 ( f rom w es t t oe a s t a l ong t h e r i dge ) . T he b e s tp re served ( CSP -1) h a s ad oub le -s tone w a l l o f g r ey red m e tamo rphosed s ed imen ta ry r ock w h ich o u tc rop s o n t h e r i dge . C SP 1 h a s a n e x te r io r d iame te r o f 1 . 55 m a nd w a l l w id th o f0 . 30 m . I n te r io rd i ame te r s o n t h is a nd C SP -2 , C SP -3 a nd CSP -4 w e re b e tween 0 . 95 a nd 1 . 2 m . No a r tef ac t s w e re f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e C SP .

We l lp re se rved CSP w a l ls w e re a l ld oub le -s tone ,o fl o ca l w h i te g ran i te . S ome a re p e rcuss ion s haped . T he b es t p re se rved e xamp le h a s c app ing s t one s a nd i s 1 . 05 m d eep ( P la te 3 3 ) . E x te r io rd i ame te r sr ange b e tween 1 . 0a nd 2 . 6 m( n =1 5 ,m ean =1 . 8 m , SD = 0 .45 ) a nd w a l l w id ths a r e b e tween 0 . 33 a nd 0 .64 m ( n =1 8 , mean = 0 .46 m , SD = 0 . 09 ) . T he o n ly a r tefac ts f ound n ea r t h e C SP w e re t h ree p o t she rd s w i thou td e s ign , l o ca ted o n as ma l l r i se b e tween t wo p i t s . T hey a re t h in ( 0 .44 -0 .48 cm ) a nd t wo h ave s moo th o rv e ry s moo th o range o r l i gh t b rown s l ip a nd aw e l l f i red p a s te w i th s ma l l b lack a nd w h i te i n c lus ions ( unde r0 . 25 mm ) .O ne h a s ag r eyed e x ter io rf a b r ic b u t t h e s ame i n c lus ions , ap o l ished e x te r io rb u t e roded i n te r io ra nd t r ace so fe x te r io rr e dp a in t .

S i te ALAS , P aqchak L omada I O ne C SP w a s l o ca ted o n ar i dge r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t h a t o f AL47 , a bou t 2 00 m t ot h e n o r th a nd 2 0 mi na l t i tude a bove i t ( P la te 7 ) .N oo the rC SP w e re f ound d ur ing r e conna is sance f o ra f u r the r 1 00 m i n a l t i tude a l ong t h e r i dge . C SP -1 a t AL48 i s b u i l t o f s t one s im i la r t o t h a t o f AL47 , w h ich a l so o u tcrop s h e re . T he i n te r io rd iame te ri s0 . 95 m a nd i t sd oub le s tone w a l l w id th i sa bou t 0 .40 m . D ep th i s0 .65 m , o n as i de b u i l t a ga ins tt h es l ope . No a r tef ac t sw e re f ound i na s soc ia t ion . •

S ite AL44 , Puna R idge ALA4 c ompr ises 9 CSP a t 7h igh s po t s a l ong a9 5 m l e ng th o fs e r ra ted r i dge w i th ad e scen to f6 0m . Ab roade ra nd l owe r p ar t o f t h e s ame r i dge s e rve s a s t h e u ppe r s ec to r o f t h e s e t t lemen ta tS i te AL43 ( F ig . 4 :9 ) . CSP -5 a nd CSP -9 , n umbe red f r om t h a t a th ighe s t t o l owe s t a l t i tude , w e re s uff ic ien t ly p re served t op erm i t m ea su remen t . 5 7

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1 : . 11 . :AP S ke tch

F IG . 4 :14 Wi lkaray P ampa , R idge a nd P eak : S i tes AL22 a nd AL23 .

• • •

•

•

• • •

• •

• •

To Wi lkaray P eak •

• •

• QECHULO MA ( Sondor ) O

2

4

6m .

N

(t)

•S tone-L ined P i t T ape & Comp . 1 986

F IG . 4 :15 Qechu loma :

S ite AL24 .

5 8

L a t e P r eh i s tor ic L ima tambo S ite AL23 , Wi lkaray R idge

g iven t h e l im i ted n a ture o ft ime d evo ted t os t udy o fa ny o ne s i te a nd t he n eed f or e xcava t ion a t s i te s s uch a s AL21 . O ccupa t ion may h ave b een e a r l ie r a t AL4 a nd ALS , b u t n o c oncen t ra t ions o f Wa n ia r ch i tec ture o r p o t te ry w e re l o ca ted . P resen tp o t te ry d a ta s ugge s tt ha t n ine s i te s ( AL4 , AL5 , AL 19 , AL28 , AL29 , AL30 , AL37 , AL38 a nd AL42 ) w e re e i the r n o t o ccup ied n uc le ii nt h e I n ca P e r iod o rh ad v e ry r e s t r ic ted a cce s s t o C usco I nca w a res . AM2 may h ave b een a bandoned a s a r e su l to ft h e l a te rI nca c on s t ruc t ion . I t s h igh l o ca t ion w a s a l so o f i n te re s t t o t h e I nca , b u t p robab ly n o t f o r s e t t lemen t . S i te AL28 w a s s uff ic ien t ly e xam ined t o s ugges t t h e t empo ra l s i gn if icance o f i t s l a ck o f C usco I nca p o t te ry . S i te s AL28 , AL29 a nd AL30 h ave d i s t inc t ive a r ch i tec tu re b y c ompa r i son w i th s i te s o fr ound s t ruc tu re s wh ich h ave b o th L PT a nd I n ca p o t te ry m ixed o n t h e s ur f ace ( eg . AL39 ) . T hey may b eo fe a r ly L a te I n termed ia te d a te . F ive L PT s e t t lemen t s ( AL39 , AL41 , AL45 , AL46 a nd p e rhap s AL43 ) w e re o ccup ied i n to t h e I n ca P er iod a nd AL4 a nd ALS a re v ery c lose t o l a te r I nca c ons t ruc t ion s i te s .

AL23 c ompr ises a t l e a s t t wo CSP , w i thou t a r tefac t s , o n a r i dge n ea rt h ef i na la s cen to fW i lka ray moun ta in . I tl i e so n t he e a s te rn s i de o f as ma l l l a ke a nd i sw i th in 5 0 m o f s i te AL22 , ap a i r o f r ec tangu la r I nca s t ruc tu re s ( F ig . 4 : 14 , P la te 3 4 ) . S eve ra l d ep res s ions o n ar i dge t ot h ew e s to ft h e l a ke may a l so b e r ema ins o fC SP . C SP -2 i sr ound ( i n te r io r d iame te r = 1 . 23 m , w a l l w id th = 0 .47 m ) . CSP -1 i so va l ( 2 .14 b y 1 . 72 m , w a l l w id th = 0 .47 m ) a nd s ha l low ( P la te 3 5 ) , a nd t hus s t and sa pa r tf r om t h eo the r sr epo r ted . S ite AL24 ,

Qechu loma

AL24 c omp r ises 2 0 CSP , w i thou t a r tefac t s , l o ca ted a th igh a l t i tude o n t h e f l a to f ar i dge o ve r look ing t h e L eche r iayoq a nd Qayw incha b ranche s o ft he u ppe r S ondo r V a l ley ( F ig . 4 : 15 ) . E x ter io rd i ame te r s o fC SP r a nge f r om 1 . 03 t o2 . 2 m ( n =1 8 , mean = 1 . 46 m , SD = 0 . 33 ) , a nd w a l l w id ths a r e f r om 0 . 32 t o 0 .58 m ( n =2 0 , mean = 0 .43 m , SD = 0 .07 ) . 4 .6

CONCLUSION

S ix teen s i te sr ep resen tn uc le io fs e t t lemen to ccup ied d ur ing t h e L a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod ,a l though t h is mu s tr ema in t e n ta t ive

5 9

CHAPTER 5

THE I NCA ARCHAEOLOGY OF L I MATA MBO 5 .1

I NTRODUCTION T he t e r races a r e c u l t iva ted , b y f am i l ies o f P ampaconga C ommun i ty , e xcep t t ho se c ove red b y s t ony l a nds l ide d epos i t s i ns ub se c to rA l a nd l owe r S ec to rB . T he t e r races a re t he o n ly p l ace a tt h is a l t i tude b e s ide t h e r i ve r whe re ma ize c an b e s een g row ing .D on A nd re sT onkach i ,c u l t iva tor o fS ec to rA ll ,n o ted t h a t i r r iga t ion e nab le s e a r l ie r p l an t ing f o r al onge r g row ing s ea son a nd s eed i sn o tl o s t w i th d ownpour s a so n s u r round ing s l ope s . Ma ize i si n te rcropped o r s ur rounded w i th h abas o r t a rw i .

T h is c hap te r d e scr ibes s i te s wh ich h ave s u rface a r ch i tec tu re a nd /or c eram ic e v idence o f o ccupa t ion , c ons t ruc t ion o r u se d u r ing t he I nca P er iod i n t he L i ma tambo -Ch inchaypuqu io R eg ion . T h is c ompr ises t h e L i ma tambo A rea ( 456 s q .km ) a s w e l l a s t he Ch inchaypuqu io A rea ( 317 s q .km ) . T he s i te s i n c lude t hose o f L a te P reh is to r ic T rad i t ion w i th I nca P er iod o ccupa t ion p ha se s .T h ir ty s even I nca s i te sw e re l o ca ted ( F igu re 5 : 1) .T he d e scr ip t ions a r ed iv ided i n to f i ve s ub -reg iona l g r oup s ( Tab le 5 : 1) .T he t ype so fe v idence i n c lude :

S ec to r A I c ompr ise s s i x b road l e ve l led t e r race s a nd an a r row b ench a tt h e t op o f t h e g roup , p robab ly i n tended t o r e ta in a c ana l . Two RPS t y pe s t a irways a r ee x tan t i nt e r race w a l ls ( F ig . 5 : 2 , N o s . 1a nd 2 , Append ix I :T ab le 1 ) . T he s ec tor i sd eep ly i n c ised b y aw a te rcour se wh ich c hanged d i rec t ion a f te r a l a nd s l ide .T h is t o ok p l ace b efo re a i rp ho tog raphs w e re t a ken i n 1 956 , b u t t h e g u l ly w a s n o t t hen f u l ly c u t . T he s t ream w a s p rev iou s ly d i re c ted b yt h eI nca t e r race s cheme t of l ow b e tween c ana l iza t ion w a l ls .

( a ) A r tefac t s ( 'A ' i n T ab le 5 : 1) o r B u i ld ing S tone ( M ) C oncen t ra t ions ; ( b )S tone R e ta in ing Wa l ls o fT e r raced L ands ( T ) , ( c ) S tone R e ta in ing Wa l ls o f R ive r o r S t ream C ana l iza t ion ( C ) ; ( d ) S tone R e ta in ing Wa l ls wh ich r i se a bove t he l e ve l o f r e ta ined s o i l ( 0 ) ; ( e ) E labora te Wa l ls o f' Cusco I nca ' h amme r -dressed m a son ry ( B ) ; ( f ) S tone S t ruc tu res o fR e c tangu la r ( R ) o rC ircu la r( CS ) F loo r P l an ;a nd ( g )S cu lp tu red ( hamme r -d re ssed )o u tcrops o rb ou lde r s( L ) .

T he c hanne l w a l ls a r e s t eep a nd we l l b u i l t o f l a rge s t one b l ock s .T hey a r e2 . 9 md eep n ea rt h e Co lorado R iver a nd b a sa l c hanne l w id th i s1 . 85 m . A l e ng th o f n ar row t e r race , w i th in t h e w e s te rn c hanne l w a l l , may h ave s erved a s ap a th o r f o r a dd i t iona l s t ream c on ta inmen t . E n trance o f wa te r t o t h e c hanne l i sn ow b l o cked b ys eve ra l m e t res o fl a nds l ide d ebr i s .

R econna issance o fI nca t e r race s cheme s w a s e x tended t op a r t s o fP a ru ro a nd A comayo p rov ince sa sw e l l a so the rs u r round ing a r ea s . R e levan ts i tes t he re a r eb r ie f ly d e sc r ibed a tt h ee nd o ft h e c hap te r .I nca r oad sf o rm a no the rc a tego ry .T hey a r ed e sc r ibed a s a ni n teg ra lp a r to fs i te sa nd a l so d i scus sed . 5 .2 PA MPACON GA S i te

AL1 ,

S ec to rA I Ic omp r ise s 6l e ve l led s ur f aces . Wa l ls a r es egmen ted a nd t h ree c on ta in p a i r s o f RPS t ype s t a irways ( App . I :T ab le I ) . T he s e cond -h ighe s t p l a tform i sn ar row , a nd s e rve s a s a p a th . T h is m ay h ave b een d es igned a s ar oad t h rough t h e s cheme b ecause ,o n t h ee a s te rn s i de o ft h is s ub sec to r , t h e w a l l r e ta in ing i tc ea se s t oa l ign w i th o the r t e r race w a l ls . T h is p a th c on t inue st o av a l ley f l oo rn a r row ing a tE s tre l layoq a nd u pt h e v a l ley s i de , t o ap o in t n ea r Hu i l lque Ch ico s e t t lemen t o n t h e e dge o f t h e P ampa d e An ta . T h is h a s t he a ppea rance o f a r egu la r ly u sed p a th b u t d oe s n o t h ave w a l led p la tforms o r p av ing .

SUB-REGION

K i l laventanayoq

AL I c omp r ises as ma l l s e t o fs t one -wa l led t e r race s o n e i the r s i de o f aC o lorado R ive rt r ibu ta ry ,i nt he b o rde rr eg ion b e tween P ampaconga a nd Hu i l lque c ampe s ino c ommun i t ie s .T he s t ream i sc ana l ized f o ra bou t2 0mo ft he l e ng th b e tween t e r r ace s ,o na 3 20 ° a l ignmen t . T h ree n a r row l e ve ls a re l o ca ted o n t h ee a s te rn s i de , a nd a tl e a s tf ou ro n t h ew es t . T he w a l l s a r ed oub le s tone , u p t o 2m h i gh , o f we l l -f i t ted f i e lds tone w i th f l a t f a ce s o n t h e f a cade , a nd a re s e t i n s t ra igh t l e ng ths w i th s egmen t c o rne r s . S ome p a r t sa r ec o l lap sed a nd many a r ec ove red w i th v ege ta t ion .

T he h i ghe s tl e ve l i so n ly 2 . 25 m w ide , w i th n o s o i l s ur f ace . I t c on ta ins ac ana l , 0 . 7 m w ide a nd 0 .2 m d eep b e tween r i se r w a l ls . T h i s p rov ide s w a te rt ot h e t e r races , b u tc on t inues a sa n e a r th c hanne l i n aw e s te r ly d i rec t ion d own t h e v a l ley . A t t wo p o in t s a l ong t h e f o l low ing 5 47 m , i n p lace s p erched o ve r g r ad ien t so fu pt o 10% , t h ec ana l c o l lec t s w a ter f r om g u l l ie s d ur ing t h ew e ts e a son a nd t h e refo re a l so f unc t ions a s ad ra in .

S i te AL2 , Chak l ianka AL2 i s al a rge a nd c omp lex s e t o f t e r race s , r i ve r a nd s t ream c ana l iza t ions a nd t wo c ana ls . T he t e r race s w e re b u i l t o n t h e v a l ley f l oo r l a nd s o fl e a s t g rad ien tb es ide t h eC o lo rado R ive r . T hey a r ed iv ided i n to s ec to r s A , B , Ca nd D , f r om w es tt oe a s t ( F ig . 5 :2 , P la te 3 6 ) .

f o l lows t h e r i ve r meande r a nd i nd ica tes t h a t t he C o lo rado R ive r , d eep ly i n c ised a t t h is p o in t , wa s c ana l ized b u t n o t s t ra igh tened . S ec to r A I I I c omp r ise s 7t e r race s o n ac o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l f a n a bove t h e c ana l b ench o f S ec to r A I I . An RPS s t a irway i s l o ca ted i nt h er i se ro ft h e t h ird l e ve l , b u t n o ti nw e l l -p re se rved w a l l s a bove a nd b e low . T he t e r race s ur face a bove i tf ea tu re s a v e ry l a rge ,u n scu lp tu red r o ck ( P la te 3 7 ) .

S ec to r sAa nd B a r ed iv ided b y an a r row ing o ft h ev a l ley a nd a g ap i nt e r race w a l l c on t inu i ty c aused b y al a nds l ide . B reak so f s l ope i nd ica te t ha tS ec to r Cw a sc onnec ted b yc on t inuou sw a l ls t oS ec to rB . S ec to r Ct e r race sb ound an a r row a r ea o fr e la t ive ly l e ve l v a l ley f l oo r a nd i n c lude as e c t ion o fr i ve r s t ra igh ten ing . S ec tor D c ompr ises a s ma l l s ec t ion o f I nca r e ta in ing w a l l b e s ide ap a th o n t he o ppos i te s i de o ft h e r i ve r a nd v e s t ige s o f r i ve r -cana l iza t ion w a l l .

6 0

I nca L ima tambo

F IG . 5 :1 I nca S i tes i n t he S tudy R eg ion . Key . AL 1 K i l laven tanayoq , AL2 C hak l lanka , AL3 I nkaqonqor ina , AL6 S uqowayqo , AL7 Mayupampa , AL8 R unkuwa s i , AL9 T ambopa ta , AL IO S ondo r , AL 11 T a rawa s i -Qu i l labamba , AL 12 L i ma tambo R io ja , AL13 C h inchaybamba , AL 14 Way ronqa , AL 15 P achapachayoq , AL 16 L uruwachana , AL 17 Qor im ina sn iyoq , AL18 Mamako , AL20 L lak ta l lak tayoq , AL22 W i lka ray P ampa , AL25 Mauka l lak ta , AL32 U raca , AL35 P ich iuma rka , AL36 Moyoq , AL39 Qopa A l ta E , A LA I Qopa P laya , AL45 L lak tak i NW , AL50 A chaku , AL51 H igo spampa /Sondo r , AM! Ma rkawa s i , AM2 Qo r iwa irach ina , AM3 T i lka , AM4 C hoque chu rqo , AM5 L a E s t re l la , AM6 N awpachaka , AC 1 L uc re ( Pan t ipa ta ) , AC2 Qo lmay , AC3 N eg ropuqu io , AC4 Wankar ir i ,

I nca L ima tambo

TABLE 5 :1 No.

I nca P eriod S ites

i n t he L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio R egion.

Z one

Name

A lt. ( m )

Area ( ha

( a.s.1.) Pampaconga

I nca

Topog.

F eatures

Sub-Region

AL1

K illaventanayoq

HF

3 600

0 .500

T +C

VF

AL2

C hakllanka

H F

3 300-3430

8 .685

T +C+S

VF

AL3

I nkagongorina

HF

3 450

0 .008

AL6

S ugowaygo

HF

3 230

0 .250

AL7

Mayupampa

DMF

2 910

0 .390

Limatambo

VF

Sub-Region

AL8

R unkuwasi

D MF

2 810-2850

3 .300

AL9

TaMbopata

DMF

2 740

0 .200

A

VF VSP

AL10

S ondor

DMF

2 625-2660

1 7.895

T +C

VF

AL11

T arawasi

DMF

2 550-2675

2 4.215

E +T+C

VF

AL12

L imatambo-Rioja

DMF

2 450-2600

4 7.300

E +T+C+A

AL13

C hinchaybamba

D MF

2 425

1 .150

VF

AL14

W ayronqa

D F-DMF

2 345-2425

7 .030

VF

AL15

P achapachayoq

DMF

2 650

0 .015

VSP

AL16

L uruwachana

DMF

2 600

0 .250

VSP

AL17

Q oriminasniyoq

D MF

2 650

0 .060

A

VSP

AL18

Mamako

D MF

3 050

0 .001

A

VSP

T +R

+ 0+A

Quillabamba

AL20

L laktallaktayoq

HF

3 710

0 .200

AL22

W ilkaray P ampa

WU

3 860

0 .018

AL25

M aukallakta

DMF

2 725-2800

1 .000

AL50

A chaku

DMF

2 640

0 .004

AL51

H igospampa/Sondor

DMF

2 620-2680

1 .540

Chonta

VF

T +A

VSP VF

Sub-Region

AL32

U raca

DMF

2 805

0 .850

AL35

P ichiumarka

D F

2 390

0 .020

AL36

M oyoq

D F

2 170-2200

0 .180

AL45

L laktaki NW*

D F

2 130

0 .160

A

AL39

Q opa A lta E *

D F-DMF

2 300-2520

2 .680

A

P ,S

AL41

Q opa

TW-DF

2 000

1 .425

A +R

VF V SP

Mollepata

P laya*

VSP A

V SP

Sub-Region

AM1

M arkawasi

D F-DMF

2 340-2420

6 .320

E +T+A+0

AM2

Q oriwairachina*

DMF

2 510

0 .045

T +A

AM3

T ilka

H F

3 780

0 .750

T +R+CS

AM4

Choquechurqo

H F

3 500

0 .300

T +L

P

AM5

L a E strella

D F

2 245

3 .000

A

V SP

AM6

ü awpachaka

TW

1 850

0 .250

A

VSP

Chinchaypuquio

Sub-Region

AC1

L ucre

DMF

3 275-3350

2 .250

AC2

Q olmay

H F

3 450

1 .570

T +R+L+A

AC3

N egropuquio

DMF

3 005

3 .920

T +L

AC4

W ankariri

DMF

2 830

0 .910

3 7

( Pantipata)

S ites

V SP VSP V SP

1 38.641ha

( * means t he s ite h as e arlier o ccupation phase which i s d iscussed i n Chapter 4 )

T he l owe s tw a l l i st h eo n ly c urved o ne i nt h es y s tem . I tS ec to r Bc omp r ise s s even n or th -sou th t e r race w a l ls a nd 3e a s t -we s t w a l ls , wh ich w e re p robab ly a l l j o ined t oge the r p r ior t o l a nd s l ide a c t iv i ty . Af u r the r t e r race w a l l , a nd o ne ' L -shaped ' j unc tu re o fw a l ls ,a ppea ri na e r ia lp ho tog raph so f 1 956 .

a c ro ss at empo ra ry b r idge . T h is may i n d ica te t h a t t h e re w a s a b r idge n ea rby a tt h et ime w hen I nca l a nd scape mod if i ca t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t . T he C hak l lanka -Pampaconga C ana l

S ec to r Cc on ta ins s eve ra l t e r race w a l ls , b u t t h e s cheme i s p oo r ly p r e se rved a nd l a rge ly i n d ica ted b y b r eak so fs l ope . T he r i ve ri sc hanne l led b y aw a l l a t ap l ace w he re i ti sn o td eep ly i n c i sed .

T h is p resen t -day c ana l t a ke s w a ter f r om t h eC o lo rado R ive ra t t h es i te o fa ne no rmou sa nd s po rad ica l ly c on t inu ing r o ck s l ide . I tc rosse s t h e v a l ley f l oo r a nd w i th in 1 000 m i sc u t i n to t h e s t eep s ou thern v a l ley f l ank ( F ig . 5 :2 ) . G raff i t i a nd l o ca l m emory d a te c emen t r e furb ish ing h e re t o 1 972 -3 . I tc o l lec t s w a te rf r om f i ve g u l l ie s a l ong i t s l eng th a nd c an t h us s e rve f o r d r a inage .

S ec to r Dc ompr ise s al e ng th o fw a l l b e s ide ap a th l e ad ing t o t h e P ampaconga c ommun i ty a nnexe s n amed P akara a nd K unkaway l la , o n t h e n o r the rn s i de o ft h eC o lo rado R ive r a nd 6 2

I n ca L ima tambo

F IG . 5 :2 Chak I lanka S ite AL2 .

6 3

I nca L ima tan zbo

Many l e ng ths a r e c u t i n to r ock f a ces o r c ons truc ted o f d ry s t one , i n c lud ing al e ng th o f v e ry g ood , p robab ly I nca P e r iod , s t onework a t 2 547 m f r om t h e i n take . A t t h is p o in t , n ea r h a lfway , t h e c hanne l i s 1 . 45 m d eep a nd 0 . 7 m w ide a nd i s p o s i t ioned b enea th ama ss ive b ou lde r( P la te 3 8 ) . A t3 427 m i t p a sse s w i th in 2 5 mo f am in ia tu re g roup o fI nca t e r race s ( S i te AL3 ) . A t4 000 m i tv ee r s s ou thwa rd t op a s s b e tween t wo h i l ls ( S i te s AL4 a nd AL5 ) . O n ly e a r th c ana l s i de s a r e e x tan t b u t C u sco I nca s he rd so ccu ri nc ana lc l ean ing d eb r is a t4 189 m .

5 .3 S ite

L I MATA MBO SUB -REGION AL8 ,

Runkuwas i -Ch 'ancho

AL8 c on ta ins s ec t ions o f 5a lmos t p a ra l le l t e r race w a l ls o n r i ver s ide l a nds o f r e la t ive ly mode ra te g rad ien t ( F ig . 5 : 4 ) . Mach ine ry h a sb e en u sed t od ig ar e servo i rb eh ind Wa l li ,a nd Wa l l i vi s mo s t ly c o l lapsed . Wa l l i i st h e h i ghe s t ( r each ing 3 .9 m ) . Wa l l v , a t t he t op o f t he s cheme , i s l ong , v e ry s t ra igh ta nd c on ta ins a n RPS s t a irway ( App . I :T ab le 1 ) .T he i r c ons t ruc t ion emp loyed b lock s o fc ong lome ra te measu r ing u p t o 0 .7 m a nd af ew l a rge r b locks a t t h e b a se o f h igh w a l ls . T hey a r e w e l l f i t ted b u t n o t t i gh t ly j o in ted o rd r essed ( P la te 4 1) .

T he c ana l e n te r s al a goon a t Mo tuypa ta ( 50 15 m f r om t h e i n take ) . D ra inage o f t h e l agoon i s a f fec ted b y h ighway c on s t ruc t ion , b u t o verf low , a s t oday , p robab ly w en t d own a s t eep g u l ly , b es ide t h e o ld C usco -L ima tambo f oo t r oad . T h is l e ad st ot h ev a l ley f l a t sa tC ha l labamba w he re d i scha rge c ro s se s t h ev a l ley f l oo rf r om L uc re P ampa t ot h eC o lo rado R ive ra l ong ar ema rkab ly s t ra igh t ,b u tu nwa l led , s t ream b e s ide I nca t e r race s ( S i te AL8 ) .

S ite AL9 , Tambopata AL9 i s ac oncen t ra t ion o fs u rf ace p o t te ry o n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld s epa ra ted f r om t h eC o lo rado R ive r b y ac l if f . I to ve r look s t h e e as tern e nd o f t h e S ondo r t e r races ( S i te AL 1 0 , F ig . 5 : 5 ) . C usco I nca p o t te ry i st he ma jo r c omponen t o f t he m a te r ia l p re sen t . O n ly o ne s he rd , f r om t h e l i p o f al a rge I nca j a r , w a s c o l lec ted ( App .I IF ig . 1 6a ) .

T e r race Wa l ls a t AL2 Mo s tt e r ra ce w a l ls i ng ood p re se rva t ion a r eb e tween 2a nd 3m h igh , b u t r each 4 m i n S ec tor A I I I . T he s tone i s p redom inan t lya p a le a ndes i te , a bundan t i n t he a rea a nd p r e sen t ly q ua r r ied a t ar oad c u t t ing o n H u i l lque Moun ta in h igh a bove . T he w a l l b locks a re t i gh t ly f i t ted , u nshaped o r p e rcus s ion s haped a nd mea su re u p t oa bou t5 0 cm . S ome RPS c o rne r sa r em ade o fs qua red h amme r -d re ssed s t one s .

No s t ruc tura l r ema ins a re e x tan t a bove t h e f i e ld s ur face . Howeve r , B ernab6 Q u ispe ( 78 y ea r s , 1 986 )a nd a no the rs e n io r S ondor r e s iden t w ho wa s me t o n t he s i te i n 1 985 ( E s teban P a lom ino ) r e ca l led t h a t r u ined b u i ld ing s w e re e x tan t t h e re s ome 3 0o r4 0y ea r sa go a nd t h ef o rme rs a id ac ap i l la ( c hape l ) w a sr emoved t om ake f i e ld s pace .

S i te AL3 , I nkagonqor ina I nkagonqo r ina ( ' whe re t h e I nca k ne l t ' ) i s as ma l l g roup o f5 t e r raced s u r f ace s , b e tween 1 . 4 a nd 2 .0 m w ide , c over ing o n ly 8 0 s q .m o n a 12% s l ope ( P la te 3 9 ) . T he w a l ls a r e b e tween 1 . 5 a nd 2 . 2 mh igh , b u i l t o fp e rcuss ion shaped s t one a nd a r e f i t ted w i th s u r f ace e venne s sa nd t i gh tne s sc ha rac te r is t ic o fI nca m asonry . T hey c on ta in n o s t a irway f ea ture s a nd a r e n o t p r e sen t ly c u l t iva ted b u tl i eb e s ide t h eP ampaconga -Chak l lanka C ana l .

S ite AL10 , S ondor AL10 c omp r ise s al a rge s cheme o f I nca t e r races , r i ve r c ana l iza t ion a nd r oad p la tforms o n ac o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l f a n a nd o n t he v a l ley f l oo r a t t he C o lo rado -Pa rqo c on f luence ( F ig . 5 :5 ) . S ec tor A i s b ounded b y as l op ing f i e ld i n t h e n o r th , t h e r e ta in ing w a l l o f a n i n c l ined r oad p la tform i nt he e a s t , t h e c ana l ized C o lorado R ive r i nt h e s ou th , a nd t h e P a rco /Sondo r R ive rt ot h ew e s t .I tc on ta ins 4t e r raced l e ve ls ,w i th s egmen ted w a l l l i ne s .T he h ac ienda b u i ld ing so fS ondo ra r el o ca ted o nt h e h ighe s to ne . As ma l l l e ng th o fw a l l f o rs t ra igh ten ing t h eP a rco R ive rr ema ins , b u t t h a to ft h e C o lo rado i sb e t te rp rese rved o n b o th s i de s o f t h e r i ve r . I r r iga t ion wa te r i sa va i lab le f r om a c ana l w i th a n i n take o n t he P a rqo R ive ra bou t 1km u p s t ream .

S i te AL6 , S uqowayqo AL6 i s as ma l lt e r race g roup w i th s t ra igh ta nd s egmen ted w a l ls u p t o 2m h i gh ( F ig . 5 : 3) . T he s t one i sp a le a ndes i te a nd f a cade s a r e p e rcu ss ion -shaped a nd h amme r -d re ssed . F i t t ing i s v e ry p re c ise b u tt h e w a l ls a r ei np oor r epa i r( P la te 4 0 ) . B reak s o fs l ope i n d ica te t h ef o rme re x ten s ion o ft e r race sa no the r4 0m o n t h e n o r the rn s i de o ft h e e x tan t w a l ls . I ti su sed t oc u l t iva te m a ize .

S ec to r Bc on ta ins 7a g r icu l tu ra l t e r race s w i th s t one r e ta in ing w a l ls . I ti sb ounded b y t h ee a s ter nr e ta in ing w a l lo ft he S ondo r r oad , n a r row t e r races a tt h e n or the rn v a l ley f l oo r ma rg in , t h e r i se t oT ambopa ta i nt h e e a s t a nd t he C o lo rado R ive r i nt h e s ou th . T he se a r e c u l t iva ted a nd p r ima r i ly i r iga ted b y c ana l w a te r d rawn f r om t h e Co lo rado R ive r , b u t l owe r l e ve ls c an a l so r e ce ive w a te rf r om t h eP a rqo R ive r .

S i te AL7 , Mayupampa AL7 i s a n a r ea o f l e ve l led a nd c u l t iva ted l a nd w i th t wo p a r t ia l ly e x tan t f i e ld s tone w a l ls , l o ca ted a t t h e e x i t o f t h e C o lorado R ive r f r om i t s p a ssage t h rough a r av ine b e s ide A paqch i ray Moun ta in .

T he S ondo r r oad i s ar amp w i th s t one r e ta in ing wa l ls . I ti s p aved f o r a bou t 1 50 m b e tween t he r i ve r a nd h ac ienda . Con t inuous u se i n t he h i s tor ic p er iod h a s l e d t o much r e cons t r uc t ion a nd ma in tenance i na l l S ondo rt e r races , s oi ti s u nce r ta in w he the r t h is wa s o r ig ina l ly a r amp o r s t epped r ou teway . I tc on t inues u p v a l ley a s a n u npaved p a th , b u t i s r e ta ined b y i n term i t ten t l e ng th s o fw a l l i nI n ca s t y le m a sonr y a s f a r a s an a r row ing o f t h e v a l ley f l oo r b e s ide f ur the r I n ca t e r race s ( S i te AL51) . T he l e ng th e x tend ing 2 00 m n o r th o f S ec to r s Aa nd B i sw e l l p re served .

T he t e r race w a l ls a r e s t ra igh t a nd a lmo s t p a ra l le l ( 255° a nd 2 57° ) . Many p a r t s a r er e cons t ruc ted u s ing r ounded o rs ma l le r s t one o ve rl a rge ra nd a ngu la ro r ig ina l b lock so fg rey v o lcan ic r o ck . T hey a r ec u tb y ameande ro ft h eC o lo rado R ive ro n t h e w e s ter ns i de .

6 4

I nca L ima tambo

A

S UQO WAYQO I n ca T e r race Wa l l -:F r r .

Mode rn Wa l l

C on tou r s 1 0m

O ld H ighway

S ca le 0 1 8 18 1 1 1 8

2 0 =B 8• 8

4 0 me t res = 1

K . J .H . : E OM & T heod . 1 986

F IG . 5 :3 S uqoway t io : S i te AL6 .

s o i l l e ve l . B e low , ah a rde rr ed c l ay w i th s ma l l s t ones ( 20 c m ) o ve r lay f l a ts t one s . T he se w e re n o tc a refu l ly b onded b u tc ou ld h ave b een t h e b a sa l s t ep o fa n RPS . T he ir l e ve l i sa t 1 . 3 m a bove t h ep re sen tr oad s u r f ace .H oweve r ,t h er oad h a sp robab ly e r oded b ecause w a l l ma son ry b e low t he s t ep l e ve l i s ma rked ly l e s s w e l l f i t ted t h an t h a ta bove . Ar ea rr e ces s w a l l w a s l o ca ted 1 . 18 m b eh ind t he w a l l f a cade . E xcava t ion t o l o ca te r i s ing s t eps w a s n o t c on t inued s i nce t r ee g row th h ad d es t royed t h e w a l l f u r the rn o r th .

E xcava t ion o fP o ss ib le RPS F ea tu re Av e r t ica lc ons t ruc t ion l i ne , 1 . 25 m h igh , w a sr e co rded o n t h e e a s te r nr i se rw a l l o ft h e S ondo rR oad a bou t 1 00 m n or th o fi t s i n te r se c t ion w i th t h ep a th t oT ambopa ta . T he w a l l , o n t he n o r thern s i de o f t he l i ne , w a s f i l led w i th c u l tu ra l ly s t er i le s o i l . T h is w a s e xcava ted f o r 1m n or th o ft h e l i ne i no rde r t od e te rm ine w he the r a n RPS w as p re sen t . T he f i l lc omp r i sed a n u ppe rc ap o fb l ack s o i l w i th r oo t s a nd l e ave s ( 40 c m d eep ) o ve r ly ing l oose b rown s o i l w i th h igh o rgan ic c on ten t( 4 0c m ) .T he se h ad p robab ly s l umped f r om t h er e ta ined 6 5

I nca L ima tambo

e l ° R UN KU WAS I -C I ANCHO -

I n ca T e r race Wa g

Modem Wa g =

S ca le 0 C on tou r s 1 0 rn

F IG . 5 :4 Runkuwas i -Ch 'ancho :

5 0

1 00

R oad 1 50 me t re s k j .H . E DM & T heod . 1 985

S ite AL8 .

Wa l l C ons t ruc t ion

S i te AL11 , T arawas i -Qu i l laba mba

Wa l ls i nb o th s ec to r s a r e d oub le -s tone i n t h e u ppe r c ou r se s . Unshaped s ubangu la r f i e lds tone w a s u sed , p r inc ipa l ly ar e d me tamo rphosed s ed imen ta ry s t one i nb lock s measur ing u p t o a bou t 0 . 5 m . S eve ra l e ro s ion p rof i le s s how t h e p lacemen t o f r ubb le b eh ind t h e f a cade . Wa l l h e igh t s r each amax imum o f a round 3m .

AL 1 c on ta ins a n a r ea o f I n ca t e r races , s ome o f e l abo ra te C usco S t y le m a sonry , a sw e l l a sl e ng th so fc ana l iza t ion o ft h e C o lo rado R ive r a nd o f as i de s t ream ( F ig . 5 :7 ) . T he se a r e l o ca ted o n t h e v a l ley f l oo r . T he t e r raced a r ea i s mos t ly c u l t iva ted a nd t r ee sa r ep l an ted n ea rb ound ing t e r race w a l ls .I t c on ta ins s ub s tan t ia l h ouse s a nd h a s b een c u t b y h ighway c on s t ruc t ion a nd w iden ing ( P la te 7 9 ) . T e r race w a l ls a r ep oo r ly p r e se rved ,e xcep tt h e mo s te l abo ra te o ne si nS ec to rA .

C o lo rado R ive rC ana l iza t ion L eng ths o f r i ver -cana l iza t ion w a l l , u p t o 4m h igh , a r e p re se rved b e s ide t h ew e s te rnmo s tt e r race o fS ec tor B .T hey a r e r a re ly s t ra igh t f o r l ong d i s tance s a s many t e r race w a l ls a r e . E a s twa rd , w he re t he r i ve r i s 5t o 1 2 m b e low t he t e r race s ur face , t h e re i sn o r i ve r s ide w a l l . E xcep t iona l ly b ig s t one b lock s w e re emp loyed i nt h e ir c ons truc t ion . T he f i r s t t e r race w a l la bove t h eo ne f o rr i ve rc ont ro l w a sd eep ly f ounded ( P la te 4 2 ) . A cce le ra ted c o l lapse o fs uch w a l ls i sp romo ted b y r i ve r m eande r( F igu re 5 :6 )

S ec to r Ai sb ounded b y Wa l l I ,t he f oo t road , t h e c ana l ized C h 'ak imayo s t ream a nd t h e C o lorado R ive r . A d e scr ip t ion , p l an a nd m ea su remen t so ff e a tu re si nt h is s e c to rw e re p rov ided b y a r chaeo log is t s e ngaged i nt h e p a r t ia l e xcava t ions o f 1 934 ( F ranco a nd Gonza le s 1 937 ) . F ur the r d e ta i ls a nd a n a ccura te s i te p l an a r ep rov ided i nt h is d escr ip t ion .

6 6

I n ca L in za tambo

F IG . 5 :5 S ondor : S ite AL10 .

6 7

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,

Co lo rad C o an R a ive r (S ondo r ) l i za t ion

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F IG . 5 :6 Co lorado R iver Cana l izat ion ( Sondor ) .

Wa l l Ir e ta ins ar ough ly r e c tangu la rp la tform . I ti sc ons t ruc ted i nt h e s ame ma te r ia l a nd s t y le a s Wa l l I .T he u ppe r 0 . 5 mo f t h is w a l l i sh amme rd r essed o ve ra l l s ur face s ,a nd wa st h e r ef o re p robab ly i n tended t o r i se a bove t he r e ta ined p la tform l e ve l ( P la te 4 4 ) . T h is b a lus t rade e f fec t w as a l so a ch ieved b y t h e w a l ls r e ta in ing t h e c en t ra l p la tform ( ushnu) a t H uänuco P ampa ,b u tt h ey h ave t r apezo ida l n i ches o nt h e ir i n te r io rr i se r s (Mor r is a nd T hompson 1 985 ) . A t T a rawa s i , t wo e l abo ra te s t a irca se sp erm i t ted a cces st ot h ep la tform r e ta ined b y Wa l lI . T he b e s t p reserved s t a irca se n ow h a s f ou r r i ser s a nd w a s r evea led b yt he e xcava t ions o f1 934 o n t h en o r ther ns i de ( P la te 4 5 ) . S pace s o r i n den t s f o r t h e p rec ise f i t t ing o f af u r the r 6 h ighe r s t ep l e ve ls , a l l n ow m iss ing , a re h ammered i n to t h e f a ce o f s t ones o n Wa l l I . T hese wou ld h ave g iven i ta p yram ida l f orm . S uch s paces a re a l so s een b es ide a s ub sequen t ly -f i l led o pen ing f o r as im i la rb u t s ma l le rs t a i rca se o n t he w es tern s i de . T he e a s te rn a nd w es tern s i de w a l ls c on t inue b e low e xcava ted g round l e ve l a tt h e i r s ou ther n e nd s . P la tforms o r p yram id f o rm s w i th a tl e a s t o ne ma jo r s t a i r ca se

T a rawa s i Wa l l Ic rosses t h e v a l ley f l oo r . I ti so f d oub le p o lygona l s t one c ons truc t ion , 1 60 .5 m l o ng , u p t o 4m h i gh a nd b u i l t e xc lus ive ly o f h o rnb lende a nde s i te , as t one wh ich d oes n o t o ccu r i nn ea rby f i e ld s ( P la te 4 3 ) . I ti sb roken a tt h e n or ther n e x t rem i ty b y t h e h i ghway , b u t d id n o t e x tend mo re t h an 5 t o 1 0 mf u r the r b ecau se t h e re i s as t eep d escen t t ot h e r i ve ra tt h i sp o in t . No e nd w a l l r ema ins o n t h is b r eak o fs l ope , p robab ly o b l i te ra ted o r o b scu red b y ma te r ia l d umped t h e re d u r ing r oad c ons t ruc t ion t h is c en tu ry . T he re a r e r emnan t s o f l e ss e labo ra te w a l l whe re t h e r oad t u rns s ou thwa rd . T he s ou thea s ter n f a cade i so fl e s se r h e igh t b ecause ad epos i t iona l f a nh a sr a i sed t h et e r race s o i ls u r f ace l e ve l . T he f a cade i sc omp le te ly h amme r -d re ssed . T igh tj o in t ing o f s t one w a s a ch ieved b y p a r t ia l d re ss ing o fl a te ra l a nd b edd ing s u r face s . U ppe rc our ses o f Wa l l Ia r em is s ing . S uch s t one w a s u sed i n c ons t ruc t ion o f t h e o ld T a rawa s i c a sa -hac ienda b u i ld ing sn ea rby .

6 8

I n ca L ima tambo

a r e c ha rac te r is t ic o f c en t ra l u shnu c omp lexes t h roughou t T awan t insuyu ( Hys lop 1 990 :69 -10 1) . T he c omb ina t ion o fa n e x ter io rs t a i rca se a nd b a lu s t raded p l a t fo rm a tH uänuco P ampa i sc ompa rab le t o t he T a rawa s i a r ch i tec tu re ( Ga spa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :F ig s . 9 4a nd 9 5 ) .

Above T a rawa s i t he f oo t road r i ses i n af a ir ly s t ra igh t l i ne o n t he v a l ley f l oo r ma rg in , p a s t L a F lo r ida ( F ig . 5 : 5 ) a nd t h e R unkuwa s i t e r races ( S i te AL8 ) . I tt h en a b rup t ly a scend s t o f o l low a b ounda ry b e tween t h e l a nds o f P ampaconga a nd Ayav ir i c ommun i t ies o n t he r ou te t oC usco .

Wa l l I I r e ta ins a p la tform a bove t ha t o f Wa l l I . I t i s c on truc ted o f t h e s ame ma te r ia l a nd h a s t h e s ame f i n ish a s Wa l ls Ia nd I , b u t t h e s t one i sp l aced i n mo re l i nea rc ou r se s a nd f a cade s u r f ace sa r e f l a t te r . T he u ppe rc ou r se s a r em is s ing , b u tb o th t h ei n ne ra nd o u te rs t one s u r f ace sa r et i gh t ly f i t ted . I t i sp o s s ib le t h a t Wa l l D I r o se a s af r ee s t and ing w a l l a bove t h e l e ve l o ft h er e ta ined s o i l . T he s ou the rn a nd e a s ter ns i de s w e re c ove red w i th s eve ra l me t re s o fl a nd s l ide d epo s i t . T he c o lour a nd m ixed n a tu re o f t h is s t ony d epos i t , a nd t h e p a t tern o f t opog raph ic s urface c on tour s , i nd ica te t ha t t h e l a nds l ide ma te r ia lo r ig ina ted a t ac l if fi nL a r nbranwayqo t ot h es ou thea s t o ft h es i te . O n ly t h ee as tern s i de w a l l w a s p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted i n 1 934 . T he s ou thwe s tern c or ne r c on t inue s b enea th g round l e ve lw h i ls tt h ee a s te rn w a l l t e rm ina te sa b rup t ly .

A r tef ac t s w e re n o td escr ibed i nt h er epo r to f 1 934 e xcava t ion s a t AL 11 S ec to rA . Howeve r ,o ld e xcava t ion p rof i le sa nd a1m w ide s t r ip a round t he b a se o f Wa l l I I , k ep t c l ea r b y as i te c a re take r , c on ta in g lazed c o lon ia l p o t te ry a nd h i gh ly p o l ished s he rds w i th am icaceous s l ip ,p robab ly f r om I n ca v e sse l s . S i te

AL12 ,

R io ja

AL 12 c omp r ise s I nca t e rrace s , s ome o fe l abo ra te C usco I n ca s t y le ma sonry , l eng ths o f r i ver -con t ro l w a l l ing a nd s eve ra l s i tes o f a r tef ac t c oncen t ra t ion , o ne c l ea r ly s t ra t if ied ( F igu re 5 :9 ; n b . r oadwo rk s i n 1 987 -88 , a f te r map c omp le t ion , c u ta nd f i l led as t r ip t h rough t he n or thern s i de so ft h eb road t e r race so f t h is s cheme ) .T hey a re c en t red u pon v a l ley f l oo rl a nd so fl e s se r g rad ien t( P la te 4 7 ) .

Wa l l L I I c on ta ins t wen ty e igh t o u twa rd -fac ing n i che s , e ach a bou t2 . 2 mh i gh ( P la te 4 6 ) . E igh tw e re p laced o n t h ee a s te rn a nd w e s te rn s i de s , a nd t we lve o n t h e n o r thern w a l l ( F ig . 5 : 8 ) . T hey a r e s paced a ta pp rox ima te ly e ven i n terva ls b u tt h o se o n t h e e a s te rn w a l l c ommence a t ag rea te r d i s tance f r om t h e n o r thea s ter nc o rne r .T he umb ra l s t one so fs eve ra l n i che sr e ta in p ro tr ud ing k nob s .T he se a r eh amme rd r e s sed l i ke t h er e s to ft h e f a cade a nd w e re t h us ,a ppa ren t ly ,d e l ibe ra te ly s cu lp ted f e a tu re s . T h ree c ros ses w e re p ecked o n u ppe r f a cade s t one s o n t h e c o rne r s o ft h e w a l l i nc o lon ia l t ime s ( F ig . 5 : 8 ) , a nd ap ecked c i r c le i sp a r t ia l ly r e ta ined o n s t one s o ft h e e a s te rn w a l l n ea r C ros s 1 .

T he t e r race s a re c u l t iva ted a nnua l ly , e xcep t s ome n a r rowe r l e ve ls o n t h e s ou thern s i de wh ich h ave b een i n vaded b y s p iny u nde rg row th . T h ree t e r race s , al a rge a r ea b e tween t h em a nd a g u l ly a tt h e e a s tern l im i t o f t h e s cheme , a r e t h e s i te o f t h e d i s t r ic t c ap i ta l , L ima tambo . T er races o n t h e n o r the rn a nd w e s te rn d e scen t f r om t he t own a r e c u l t iva ted a nd s pa r se ly h oused . A4 0 m l o ng t r ench f o r ad ra in , a bou t 1m d eep , w a s d ug o n t h ew e s tern s i de o ft h et own p l aza i n1 988 .I tu nea r thed n oI nca a r tefac ts , a nd i ts eems l i ke ly t h a tt h ea r ea w a st e r raced f o r a gr icu l ture . Al a rge t e r race b e low , c a l led L imacpampa , i s u sed a s t h e s choo l s por tsg round . Ad jacen t l owe r l e ve ls a r e c u l t iva ted e i the rb yp r iva te p ropr ie to r so rb yt h eR io ja A nd ene s s ec to ro ft h eq uadr ipa r t i te C hoquema rka P ea san t Ag r icu l tu ra l E n te rp r ise .

F u r the rI nca c ons t ruc t ion a lmos tc er ta in ly e x is ted t ot h e s ou th o f Wa l l I I , b u t i sc ove red b y s o i l d epo s i t . O ne s ma l l s e c t ion o fI n ca t e r race w a l l , n o to fe l abo ra te ma son ry , w a s l o ca ted i n t h i s a r ea . T he ma in b u i ld ings o ff o rme rh ac ienda T a rawa s i s i t o n t h e w es te rn h a lf o f p la tfo rm 2 ,a nd c on ta in many r e used h amme r -d re s sed s t one sf r om t h eI n ca c on s truc t ion .

( i )T e r ra ce s ( a ) T he c en t ra l t e r races a r e r e ta ined a tt h e l owe r ma rg in b y s even teen n o r th -sou th r i se r s , e ach 2 t o3 . 5 mh i gh (Wa l ls A i t o Axv i i ) . Ab reak o fs l ope i nd ica te s t h e p robab le l o ca t ion o f a no the r t e r race wa l l i n t he l owe s t t e r race . Mo s t w a l ls a r e p oo r ly p re served b u t t wo RPS s t a irway s w e re l o ca ted ( Av i -1 a nd A v i i i 1) .

T he C h 'ak imayo r i ve r -s t ra igh ten ing w a l l r e ta ins an umbe ro f l e ng th so fo r ig ina lI n ca s t y le c ons t ruc t ion ,d e sp i te c ons ide rab le d amage i nt h ea r ea n ea rL amb ranwayqo a nd r e cons t ruc t ion n ea r i t s c onf luence w i th t he C o lo rado R ive r . T here a re s ma l l s ec t ions o f a b ench t e r race w i th in t he ma in w es te rn c ana l iza t ion w a l l wh ich may h ave b een ap a th o rt os t ren then t h ec on ta inmen t , a si nS i te AL2 S e c to rA l /A IL

( b ) T he n a r row s ou thern t e r race s a r e h i gh ly s egmen ted a nd s t ra igh tw a l ls w e re u sed t h roughou t . C on tou r t e r rac ing w ou ld h ave p robab ly r equ ired l e ss e a r th movemen t . T hey c on ta in s even s e t s o f a l igned RPS s t a irways o n c onsecu t ive t e r ra ce l e ve ls ( F ig . 5 :9 , RPS s e t s B I , Bi l , B I I I , B IV , By , BV I a nd BV I I ) . A l l w e re c l ea red o fv ege ta t ion t op e rm i t m ea su remen t a nd p lo t t ing i nt he f i e ld p lan ( App . I :T ab le 1 ) . S ome w a l ls w e re p oo r ly p reserved a tp lace s w he re s uch s t a irca se s w e re e xpec ted o nt h eb as is o fa na l ignmen t .

S ec to r Bo f T a rawa s i i sb ounded b y Wa l l I ,t h e C o lo rado R ive r , t h e s t eep s ou thern v a l ley s i de , a nd u n te r raced l a nds b e low a s t ra igh t g u l ly wh ich c rosse s t he v a l ley f l oo r . I t c omp r ise s s i x b road p la tforms a nd an a r row o ne , s epa ra ted b y b reak s o fs l ope , w a l ls a nd l e ng ths o fr i ve r c ana l iza t ion . O ne l ow b r eak o fs l ope , a tt h eb ase o ft h es e cond l e ve l b e low Wa l l I ,w a s p robab ly n o to n at e r race w a l l l i ne . S ec to r Bw a l ls a r e b u i l t o f c ong lome ra te o r r ed me tamo rphosed s ed imen ta ry f i e ld s tone . N one emp loys h amme r -d re ssed a nde s i te . Mo s t r ema rkab le i s a2 00 m l ong I nca t e r race w a l l , p a ra l le l t ot h e r i ve r , wh ich r i ses t o b e tween 5 a nd 6 m h igh i n i t s s ou thwe s te rn p a r t .

( c ) T he n o r thern t e r race s c ompr ise n a r row l e ve ls o n as t eep g rad ien t a nd w ide r f i e ld s ur faces w h ich b ound t h e C o lo rado R ive r . Many o ft h e se w e re d amaged b yr oadwo rk s .T he w e s ter n e nd i sc omp le te ly d es t royed . Al a nd s l ide a bou tf o r ty y ea r sa go l e d t o t h e d amm ing o f t h e r i ver n ea r t h e Q ue swawayqo C o lorado c onf luence , e ros ion o f t he o ppos i te b ank a nd s ubsequen tr ed i rec t ion o ft h eh i ghway a c ro s st h et e r race s . P a r t s o ft h e o ld r oad r ema in d owns t ream , n ea r t h e l e f t b ank o ft h e r i ve r .

An a r row p aved t r ack b e tween f i e ld s tone w a l ls r uns a l ong t h e s ou thea s tern s i de o fb o th s ec to r s . I t sc ou r se f u r the ro n , b e low t h e b i fu rca t ion o ft h e h ighway , w as p robab ly t h e s ame a st h a t t a ken b y t h e mode rn b ranch r oad l e ad ing t oL ima tambo t own . 6 9

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c ana l ized . T he c ana l iza t ion w a l ls a r e i n ap oo r s t a te o fr e pa ir . T he c hanne l i sa l so u sed a s ar ou teway b e tween t he l owe ra nd u ppe r moder nr oad s .

( d ) I r r iga t ion w a te r i sa va i lab le t oa l l R io ja t e r race s . Ac ana l f r om t h e C o lorado R ive r n ea r t h e C h 'ak imayo c onf luence o f T a rawas i r eaches t h e l owe r c en t ra l a nd n o r the rn t e r race s . Ano the rc ana l , n amed C h 'ancho a f te rl a nd sn ea r AL8 ,s upp l ie s a l l o f t h e h igher a nd s ou the rn t e r race s a nd d i scha rge s i n to Que swawayqo a t Du ra sn iyoq . N e i the rh a sd ef in i te I n ca f e a tu re s .

( c ) Queswawayqo S t ream c ons truc ted r e ta in ing w a l l s t ra igh tened f o r 2 00 t o3 00 w a l l ing o n b o th s i de so ft h e

( e ) T er race w a l l c ons t ruc t ion i s , w i th s pec ia l e xcep t ions , o f u nshaped f i e lds tone . C or ne r s o fR PS a nd s egmen tc orne r s a r e s o me t ime s o f r ough ly s haped b lock s . T he ma te r ia l i sv ar ied , i n c lud ing c ong lome ra te , ar ed m e tamorpho sed s ed imen ta r y , g rey v o lcan ic r ock a nd w h i te g ran i te . B e s t p reserved o r ig ina l ( ba sa l ) c our ses a re f i t ted c a refu l ly t or e duce s pace s b e tween b lock s , b u ta re n o tt i gh t ly j o ined o rd re s sed .

h a s i n term i t ten t l eng ths o f w e l l i nd ica t ing t ha t i t wa s o r ig ina l ly m . O ne s ma l l p i ece r ema ins w i th s t ream ( P la te 4 8 ) .

( i i )E labo ra te Ma sonr y Z one s a nd A r tef ac tC oncen t ra t ions ( a ) AL12 -1 , c omponen t 1o f Que swawayqo ( No . 1i nF igu re 5 :9 ) , c ompr ises as ur f ace c oncen t ra t ion o fp o t tery a nd a n ima l b one , a s w e l l a s t h e s o i ls c on ta ined b e tween t wo o f f i ve c o l lap sed t e r race w a l ls c on ta in ing s t ra t if ied a r tef ac t s .T he w a l ls h ave b een s ec t ioned b y u nde rcu t t ing o f t h e Que swawayqo s t ream a nd p er iod ic s l ump ing i n to a n e ro s ion mound .

( i ) R ive rC on t ro l a nd S t ream C ana l iza t ion Wa l ls ( a ) R iver s ide wa l ls o f t he n o r thern t e r races , b es ide Waska rpampa ( F ig . 5 : 9 ) , a r e c ons truc ted o fv e ry l a rge b lock s a nd r each o ve r 4m h igh .T he r i ve rm ay h ave b een p e rm i t ted t o meande r f r ee ly o n t h e r i gh t b ank s i nce w a l l ing w a s a bsen t t h e re .

Ap re l im ina ry c o l lec t ion o f s he rds ( co l lec t ion ( P )E M n = 4 ) f r om t h is l o ca t ion c on ta ined o n ly C usco I nca ma te r ia l ( App . I I F igs . 1 7b ,c , 1 8a ) . A g r id o f me t re s qua res ( 12 s q .m ) f o r s u rface c o l lec t ion w a s l a te r p laced o ve r t h e e ro s ion mound ( co l lec t ion AL12 -1) . F ur the r s herds w e re l oca ted d u r ing mapp ing o n Q ueswawayqo P ampa , af i e ld 3 0me a s to f AL 12 1 .S ome w e re l o ca ted b es ide a mode rn w a l l , a nd may h ave

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b een c o l lec ted f r om AL 12 -1 b y ap a sse r -by , b u t o the r s w e re s ca t te red o ve r af i e ld s u r face o f4 00 s q .m . S ome w e re c o l lec ted a nd t h e ir l oca t ions r eco rded i n s i te p lan mea su remen ts ( co l lec t ion AL12 -1 .1 , QP p ref ix , n=9 ) . T he QP p o t te ry w i th v e ry s moo th s ur face s( n =6 )i n c luded l a rge s he rd sf r om t h ick w a l led I n ca j a r s( App .I IF ig s . 1 6b ,c ) ,o ne f r om ap l a te ( App .I I F ig . 1 6d ) a nd a t r unca ted c on ica l b a se f r om a l a rge v esse l ( App . I F ig . 1 6h ) . C oa r se r w a re s a re r ep re sen ted b y t he c en t ra l c o re f r om a n I nca S hape ' j 'p o t ( App .I I F ig . 1 6e ) , a s w e l l a sa ne ver ted r im a nd e l onga te s t rap h and le ( 2c on jo ined s he rds )p robab ly f r om t he s ame v e s se l( App .I IF ig s . 1 6f ,g ) .

b ounda ry . L aye r Fi sp robab ly a f i l l , a nd G t he l e ve l u pon wh ich t h e u ppe r r e ta in ing w a l l wa s b u i l t . G ras s p hy to l i ths w e re v e ry l ong a nd o fh ighe rd ens i t ie s a tt h e b a se o fc u l tu ra l l a ye rDt h an i ns p i t s ame tre a bove a nd b e low ( Bowde ry 1 988 ) . T h is i sc ons is ten t w i th t h e p resence o f l u sh g ra ss , p e rhaps t h a tch , u pon t he u nf i l led t e r race s ur f ace , b u t c onc lu s ions a r e t e n ta t ive g i ven t he n eed f o ro pen a r ea e xcava t ion . A l l d i agnos t ic p o t tery b e low l a ye r Ci sI nca , mos t ly C usco I nca . R ad ioca rbon d a te s o n l ayer E h ave b road r a nges o f p robab i l i ty , b u t i ti su n l ike ly t op re -da te t h e l a te 1 5 th o re a r ly 1 6 th C en tur ies AD ( App .1 [ 1 ) .

T he AL12 -1 c o l lec t ion f r om R io ja c on ta ined 9 7 p iece s o f p o t tery , 2 3 f r agmen t s o f c ame l id b one a nd 2 c on jo ined S pan ish r oof t i le s he rd s . One s he rd w a st h ick ly g l azed o nb o th s i de s( y e l low , 5Y 8 / 2 -3 ) ,o ve r av e ry f i ne r e dp a s te ( 10R 4 /8 ) . Many o ft h er ema in ing 9 4 s he rd s w e re f i ne ly f i n ished ( MSTS =3 . 6 , SD = 32 ) a nd 6 2 w e re v e ry s moo th o rp o l ished o n o ne o rb o th s u r face s .

( b ) AL 12 -2 Du ra sn iyoq E labo ra te w a l l AL 12 -2 c omp r ises t h e b a sa l c our se s o fa n a lmos t c omp le te ly r e cons truc ted SW -NE l e ng th o ft e r race w a l l , l o ca ted b e s ide a c ana l as hor td i s tance f r om t h e AL12 -1 p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ion . I ti st h e l owe s t o ft h e g roup o f t e r race w a l ls e xpo sed b y t h e Que swawayqo s l ump ing p rof i le . T he b a sa l t wo c ou r se s a r e o f t i gh t ly f i t ted a nd h amme r -d re ssed g rey a ndes i te b lock s . T he c our se s a r e l i nea r a nd o fs ma l l ( 25 cm b y 2 5 -35 cm ) s qua red b lock s . T h is s pec ia l e l abo ra t ion i sd i ff icu l t t oe xp la in w i thou t f u r the re xcava t ion .

T he v e ry s moo th g roup c on ta ins mo s t p a in ted s he rd s : 1 9 a r e C usco I n ca Decora t ed s he rd s( MSTS = 1 . 8 , S D =1 . 0 ) . T he se i n c lude az oomo rph ic d eco ra t ive p i ece ( App . I IF ig . 1 7a ) ,b ody s he rd so fl a rge j a r sa nd t h in v e sse ls ( App . I IF ig s . 1 7d -k ) , t h e f l a r ing r im o f al a rge j a r ( App . I I F ig . 1 7 1 ) a nd t wo p la te s ( App . I I F igs . 1 8b ,c ) . T h ree monoch rome s he rds (MSTS = 2 . 7 , SD =0 . 6 )b e long t ot h e C u sco I nca P a in ted g roup .

( c ) AL 12 -3 R io ja R ive r s ide E labo ra te Wa l l AL 12 -3 c ompr ises t h e e xposure o f a4 m l ong , 0 . 7 m h igh p i ece o f C usco S ty le ma sonry w a l l w i th l i nea r c ou r ses o f r e c tangu la ra ndes i te b lo ck s ( up t o4 5 b y 3 0 cm ) . I t s f oo t ing i s b u i l t o f r ough ly f i t ted f i e lds tone . T he s econd c ou r se r e ta ins s ca r sf r om p e rcus s ion c h ipp ing a sw e l l a sp a r t ia l d re ss ing .T he u ppe r r ema in ing c our se h as a who l ly d ressed f a cade . I t c on t inue s b enea th g round l e ve l i nt h e e a s t , b u t h a s c o l lap sed i n to t h eC o lorado R ive ro nt h ew e s tern s i de ( P la te 4 9 ) .

U npa in ted s he rds ( n =7 1) i n c lude f o r ty w i th s moo th t e x tu re . E igh teen h ave o range s l ipped e x te r ior s a nd w e l l f i red f ab r ic ( MSTS = 1 . 8 , SD = 0 . 9 ) , i n c lud ing a n e ve r ted r im v e s se l a nd as t rap h and le ( App . I I F ig s . 1 7n ,p ) . E igh teen h ave a l i gh t b rown s l ip (MSTS = 2 . 1 , SD = 1 . 2 ) . F ou r a r e e n t ire ly b l ackened o n t h e e x te r io r s ur f ace a nd i nt h e f a br ic ( MSTS = 2 . 3 , SD = 0 .5 ) .

( d ) AL 12 -4 A r tefac tC oncen t ra t ion

C oa r se r t e x tured s he rds ( n =3 2 ) i n c lude o ne e roded C ID s pec imen ( App .I I F ig . 1 7m ) . E x te r io r o range s l ip i sp resen t o n e i gh t , i nc lud ing a f l a r ing r im ( App .I I F ig . 1 7o ) . S even h ave a l i gh t b rown s l ip a nd 9 a r e u ns l ipped o r h ave ad a rk b rown s l ip e qu iva len tt ot h ep a s te c o lou r . E igh ta r eb l ackened o n t h e e x ter io r , s ome w i th a t tached c a rbon . B urn t s he rds i n c lude as t rap h and le ( App .1 1F ig 1 7q ) .

T h is i s as ma l l p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ion ( abou t 1 00 s q .m ) n ea ra n u nscu lp tu red wh i te g ran i te r o ck o n at e r race s u r face .I ta l so l i e s a tt h e h igh p o in t o ft h e B I s e t o f RPS s t a irca se s . C usco I nca p o t te ry w a s n o ted a tt h e s i te b u t n o c o l lec t ion wa s made . A l a rge r g ran i te b ou lde r l i e s h ighe r o n t he s ame l i ne , b u t n o s upe rf ic ia lp o t te ry w a sa s soc ia ted w i th i t .

AL12 -1 C o lumn S amp les ( e ) AL 12 -5 A r tefac tC oncen t ra t ion : T he p o t te ry o r ig ina te s i n ar e fu se s t ra tum i nt e r race f i l l , a bou t 1 . 4 b e low p resen t t e r race s u r f ace l e ve l a nd 1 . 2 m a bove t h e e ros ion mound . An a r row p rof i le w a s c l eaned a nd s amp le so f s o i l i n c lud ing a r tef ac ts w e re e x t rac ted . S o i l a nd c ha rcoa l s amp le sf o rd a t ing w e re t a ken a t2 0 cm v e r t ica li n terva ls f r om t h e r ea r o ft h e c o lumn ( Append ix I I ) . T he p rof i le w a s f i r s t t r owe l led b ack t ou nd is turbed s t ra ta . T he a r te f ac tua l ma te r ia l , h e re m ixed o n t h e s l ope , w a s n o t s epa ra ted b y l e ve l ( p rof i le c l ean ing s amp le s L P 1 a nd L P2 , c on ta in ing 3 4 s he rds a nd 5 b one f r agmen t s ) . S o i l a nd a r tefac t s w e re t h en e x t rac ted f r om t op t ob o t tom i n b l ocks o f t h e c o lumn w id th ( 25 c m ) i n 1 0 cm d ep th s a nd i nwa rd 1 0 -20 cm , t o a ch ieve av er t ica l r e a r s u r f a ce .T he c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l i ss umma r ized i nT ab le 5 : 2 .

A no the r p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ion i sc en t red a bou t 6 5 ms ou th o f AL 12 -4 ,o n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld s u r f ace o f mode ra te g rad ien t .T he a r tefac t s a r e s ca t te red o ve r a bou t 9 00 s q .m a nd i n c lude b ig s he rd so fI n ca l a rge j a r sa nd r i ng -ba sed p ede s ta lp o t s( Shape D . N oc o l lec t ion w a s made . ( f ) AL 12 -6 E labo ra te Wa l lL eng th : AL 12 -6 c ompr ise s a3 m l e ng th o fC usco I nca ma son ry w a l l e xposed a t af i e ld ma rg in o n t he s l opes 3 0 m s ou th o f L imacpampa T e r race .I th a s ar ough ly f i t ted f ounda t ion c ou r se a nd t wo t i gh t ly f i t ted a nd h amme r -dre ssed c our ses o f g rey a nde s i te . Un l ike AL12 -2 a nd AL12 -3 , t he b lock s a r e i n p o lygona l s hapes w i th p i l lowed o u te r f a ce s . T he u p s lope e nd i sb ur ied i nt he s l ope , a nd t h e l owe r a ppea r s t o b e d amaged ( P la te 5 0 ) .

L aye r Bc on ta ins l a rge s t one sw h ich h ave f a l len f r om t h ew a l l . I ti so fs im i la r s o i l ma tr ix t ol a ye r C . T i le s i nu ppe r l a ye r C may h ave e n te red i td ur ing t h ep roce s so fw a l lc o l lap se . L aye r Di s af i l l w i th s ome a r tefac t s , a nd E i s ac oncen t ra ted d epo s i t o fp o t te ry , c a rbon a nd b one . I ts i t s u pon h a rd , mos t ly s t e r i le l a ye r s , b u t af ew s herds l a y j us t b e low t h e s t ra tum F IG 7 3

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F IG . 5 :9 R io ja Andenes , L i matambo :

=

4 1 (DM l ; need

S i te AL12 .

7 4

1 9 4 15

I nca L ima tambo

F IG . 5 :9 R io ja Andenes , L imatambo : S ite AL12 ( con t inued ) .

7 5

I nca L ima tambo

TABLE 5 :2

Contents o f AL12-1 C olumn i n 1 0 c m S pits a nd L ayers.

L ayer

Contents

D epth ( metres)

A -C

0 .0-0.7

C

0 .7-0.8

n il. 2 s herds o f S panish r oof t ile w ith p aste s ame a s

s pecimens

i n s urface

collection. •

0 .8-0.9

n il.

•

0 .9-1.0

1 s herd f rom a C ID l arge f laring j ar.

1 b one

f ragment.

n il. •

1 .1-1.2

1 orange-slipped body s herd

D -E

1 .2-1.3

7 s herds c omprising 3 C ID p late s herds i n 1 .4-1.5);

•

•

1 .3-1.4

1 .4-1.5

( ST=3/4). ( 2 c onjoin ,

a nd 1 f its a pair

3 C IP b ody s herds a nd 1 o range-slipped sherd

9 s herds c omprising 2 C ID s herds

( including one

( ST=1/2).

f rom a f laring-rim j ar );

4 very smooth l ight brown o r orange s lipped s herds

( one f its

i n 1 .2-1.3);

f ragment.

3 5

2 are d ark brown c oarse ware.

sherds comprising 1 0 C ID s herds,

s herds which are

1 b one

1 C IP s herd and 2 o range

f rom t he s ame v essels a s t he

d ifferent p late or s hallow b owl

f orms;

f ormer;

3 s herds

everted-rim vessel w ith a 3 6cm-wide mouth ;

the C ID pair

s lipped

3 s herds

f rom t wo

f rom a t hick-walled

1 1 a re o range-slipped s herds and

5 a re l ight brown s lipped s herds w ith a s mooth o r v ery smooth s urface t exture;

7 are b lackened o n : . he e xterior ,

t hick-walled c oarse-ware vessel. F -G

1 .5-2.1

n il.

•

2 .1-2.2

3 body sherds o f dark brown ware

•

2 .2-2.6

n il.

4 b one

i ncluding p late/bowl

f orms a nd a

f ragments.

( all c onjoin );

1 b one

f ragment.

p o s t -ha rve s t o bse rva t ion . S ome p o l ished s he rd s w i th o range p a s te a nd s ma l l b l ack i n c lu s ions a re p robab ly f r om Cusco I n ca v e sse ls . O the r ma te r ia l i n c ludes r oof t i les , c o lon ia l g reen g l azed t h ick w a re a nd t h in s he rd sw i th mo t t led -speck f ab r ic .

( g ) AL 12 -7 Wa l lpawa s iE labo ra te Wa l lZ one a tR io ja AL 12 -7 i s af i ve -s ided t e r raced p la tfo rm b u i l to n t h e s ou ther n v a l ley f l oo r ma rg in . I tf e a tu res t h ree p a ra l le l r e ta in ing w a l ls i n C usco I nca p o lygona l masonry . A s ha rp b reak o f s l ope , c on ta in ing ar ubb le l e ns , i nd ica tes t h e l o ca t ion o f af u r the r r e ta in ing w a l lo n t h ew e s te rn s i de .

S i te AL13 ,

Ch inchaybamba

AL 13 i s as ma l l a r ea o fl e ve l led l a nd b ounded b y t wo p a ra l le l a nd s egmen ted I nca t e r race w a l ls ( F ig . 5 : 10 ) . T he w a l ls a r e 2 t o2 . 5 mh i gh ,o ff i e ld s tone ,a nd a re p oo r ly p re served .

T he s t one i s d ressed g rey a ndes i te , b u t l a rge b locks o f f i e ld s tone a nd p e rcus s ion -shaped u nd re ssed a nde s i te o ccu r i n f ounda t ion s ( P la te 5 1) . Abou t h a lf o f t h e w a l l l e ng ths a r e c ove r ed w i th s l ope w a sh o rd e s t royed b yr oad c ons truc t ion .T he f u l l h e igh t i sn o tr e ta ined i na ny e xpo sed s ec t ion . Wa l lpawa s i i st h ep robab le s ou rce o fh und red s o fd re ssed a nde s i te b lock s wh ich n ow ma rk s t ree t c orne r s a nd a dorn l owe r c our ses o f a dobe b u i ld ing s a nd s t a i rca se s , e spec ia l ly t h er ea re n t ry o ft h e o l d C a sa B o l i var , i nL ima tambo .

S i te AL14 , Wayronqa AL 14 c omp r ises s t one -wa l led t e r rac ing o n an a r row s t r ip o f v a l ley f l oo r a nd u pon c o l luv ia l -a l luv ia l d epo s i t s i nt he r a v ine o f P i s t i R iver ( F ig . 5 : 10 , P la te 1 ) . S ec to r A i sa n a r ea o f l e ve l led l a nd b e s ide ama s s ive a nd v e ry s t ra igh tI nca wa l l( P la te 5 2 ) . I tw a s o r ig ina l ly a s i ng le l e ng th o f a bou t 5 60 m b u t i s n ow c u tb y ameande ro ft h eC o lorado R ive r .F ounda t ions a nd t h e b r eak o fs l ope o f ah ighe rp a ra l le l t e r race w a l l a re e v iden t 4 . 1 t o 5 . 6 m b eh ind t h e n or thea s tern l e ng th o f t h is w a l l f o r a bou t 1 04 m . Wa l ls a re o f u nshaped c ong lomera te , r ed m e tamo rphosed s ed imen ta ry r ock a nd r i ve r r ounded g ran i te . Mo s t a r e 0 . 4 t o 0 . 7 m i nd iame te r . Max imum w a l l h e igh t i s a bou t 4m .

T he r e ta in ing w a l ls h ave a s i ng le s t one d re ssed f a cade , a r ubb le in -c lay b ack ing a nd s t one l e nse s i nf i l l . A n e xpo su re o f f i l l i nt h el owe s tt e r race c on ta ins t h in a ngu la rs t one f r agmen t s , p robab ly f r om t h es hap ing o ff a cade b l ock so ns i te . T he t op p la tfo rm o ve r look s t he l a rge t e r race u pon wh ich L ima tambo p l aza i sl o ca ted . I ti s ac u l t iva ted a r ea a nd r e ce ive s d epo s i t ion f r om s l ope so n t h es ou ther ns i de . No s t ruc tu re sa nd f ew a r tefac t s o ccu r o n t h e p la tform s ur face , d e sp i te c a refu l 7 6

I n ca L ima tambo

F IG . 5 :10 Ch inchaybamba a nd Wayronqa : S i tes AL13 a nd AL14 .

7 7

I nca L ima tambo

S ec to r Bo f Way ronqa i s ac omp lex g roup o fI nca t e r race s o n t h e r i s ing ma rg in o f ar i ve r s ide f l a t , a nd a l e ng th o f r i ve r c on t ro l wa l l ing wh ich i s a pprox ima te ly a l igned w i th t h e m a s s ive w a l l o f S ec to r A . T he p redom inan t c ons t ruc t ion ma te r ia ls a re u nshaped o r r ough ly s haped a ngu la r r ed m e tamo rpho sed s ed imen ta ry a nd g ran i te r ock s ,o fu pt o 1m i n max imum d imens ion . T h is ma ter ia l i s s een o n a d jacen t s ou the rn s l ope s .F i t t ing w a se xecu ted t or educe g ap s b u tn o ti n t h ev e ry t i gh tn a tu re o fC usco I nca s t y le .

R eg ion ,e xcep to nt h es l ope sa nd e spe c ia l ly u ppe rp eak a r ea o f Mamako Moun ta in . Aq ua r ry a nd w o rk ing a r ea f o r a nde s i te , w i th l ong d owns lope s t r ip s o ff r agmen ta ry s t one , i sl o ca ted a t S uy tukura o n t h e n o r ther n s i de o f Mamako P eak . I tc on ta ins i n comp le te s t one s t ep s , r ounded p i l la r s a nd a r ch s t one s , o ft h e k i nd sc ommon ly s e en i no ld h ac ienda b u i ld ing s . M i l l s t one sa t h i s tor ic s i te s i nL ima tambo ( F ig . 5 :7 ) w e re a l so made o ft h e g r ey a nde s i te . T he s t one c oncen t ra t ion i n L u ruwachana i sg rea te r , a nd o f l a rge r b lock s , t han t h a t p resen t o n o the r f i e lds o f l owe r Mamako . G iven t h e s t one i nL uruwachana q uebrada a nd t h e o the rw ise r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e h o rnb lende a nde s i te , i t i sp robab le t h a t L uruwachana w a s as ou rce a r ea o rt h e s i te o f s t one s t ockp i l ing f o rp a r to ra l l o ft h ee l abor a te c on s t ruc t ion a t AL 11 a nd AL 12 .

As ma l la nd mos t ly b u r ied t e r race wa l lc orne rl o ca ted a t ah i gh p o in to nt h en o r thea s te rn e nd o fS e c to rB , w a so fb e t te rq ua l i ty f i t t ing a nd s t one p repa ra t ion t h an o the r p ar t s o f t h e s cheme . T he s t one , al ime s tone n o tu sed e l sewhe re , w a sl i gh t ly d r e ssed . S im i la r l imes tone i sa va i lab le i n a n o u tcrop o n t h e v a l ley f l oo r ma rg in b e tween S ec to r s Aa nd C . S ec to r Ci s as e to fs egmen ted a nd c ro ss -s lope r e ta in ing w a l ls a s cend ing f r om t h e r i ve rf l a ta nd a l ong t h er i gh t ma rg in o ft h e P i s t i S t ream . Mo re g ran i te a ppea r s i nS ec to r Cw a l ls , s t one s a r e l a rge r t han i no the r s ec tor s a nd many a re r i ve r r ounded ( P la te 5 3 ) . L a rge g r an i te b ou lder s a r e a va i lab le i n t h e P i s t i c hanne l . S ome o f t h ese b ou lde r s ma in ta in t he s t ream b ank s b u tt h e re i sn od ef in i te e v idence o fc ana l iza t ion .

T he L uruwachana r a v ine m ay h ave b een u sed t od rop r ock s f r om t h e a r ea o ft h e i r s u r f ace c oncen t ra t ion a r ound Mamako P eak ,p e rhap sr ep l ica t ing o n as ma l le rs ca le t h em e thod u sed t o b r ing mass ive b lock s f r om o ne v a l leys ide t o a no the r a t 0 1 1an tay tambo ( Beng t s son 1 988 ) . Af u r the rp rob lem i sd e te rm in ing w he the rt h ee v idence o fs t one w ork ing d a tes t o p reh is to ry . S ome e ven ly p ropo r t ioned p a ra l le l ip iped b lock s , a nd s ome c u t t ing n o tche s , h ave e dge s p robab ly p roduced w i th a s ha rp me ta l t oo l . S im i la r f e a ture s w e re o b served o n m a te r ia l b e ing w o rked a tt h e mode rn q ua r ry o fp a le a ndes i te a bove C hak l lanka ( S i te AL2 ) . O the r n o tche s a r e s ha l lowe r a nd b roade r , p l aced a l ong g rooves o n n a tura l c l eavage p l ane s . S uch f e a tu re sc ou ld h ave b een p roduced w i th s t one t oo ls , a s s ugge s ted b y P ro tzen ( 1983 :187 , f i g s . 1 ,12 ; 1 985 :175 , f i g .24 ) .

A l l s e c to r s a r e n ow c u l t iva ted . S ec to r s Aa nd B r e ce ive c ana l i r r iga t ion f r om aC o lo rado R ive r i n take n ea r Queswawayqo . S ec to r Cr e ce ive s w a te r f r om ap ar t ia l ly s t one -s ided c hanne l d r aw ing w a te rf r om t h eP i s t i R ive r . T he l a t te rc hanne l m ay b e a nI n ca f e a tu re . S i te AL15 , P achapachayoq AL 15 i s as hor t p a ir o fs t ra igh t t e r race w a l ls l o ca ted u pon t h e o therw ise u n ter raced Mamako mounta in s l opes o f s ou thea s te r ly a spec t( F igu re 5 : 7 ) .

T he e x ten to ft h e u se o fb ronze t o o ls f o rI nca s t one ma son ry i s s t i l l e qu ivoca l ( Hef f ernan 1 987 ) . C usco I nca s t y le b lock p repa ra t ion c an b es u cce ssfu l ly a ch ieved w i th s t one h amme r s , a r tef ac t s w h ich a r er e po r ted f r om s eve ra l q ua r ry s i te s ( P ro tzen 1 983 , 1 985 ) . M ic ro s t ruc tu ra l d amage a nd u se -wea rs t ud ie s o f I nca b ronze t oo ls h ave f ounded s ugges t ions o f t h e i r u se i n c h ipp ing a nd a ss p l i t t ing w edge s( Go rdon 1 985 ) ,b u tc on t ro l led e xpe r imen ta l c ompa r i sons w i th t oo ls o f s im i la r a l loy a nd c ons is tency a re l a ck ing . A cu teness o f i n te r ior a ng le s i s c a refu l ly a vo ided i nI n ca s t one s cu lp tu re , al i ke ly r e su l to ft h e u se o fs t one r a the rt h an s ha rp m e ta l t oo ls .

S i te AL16 , Luruwachana AL 16 i s af l a t f i e ld e l eva ted a bove t h e r i gh t ma rg in o f t h e C o lo rado R ive r a nd o ve r look ing t he s ou thwes tern e nd o ft h e AL 11 t e r races ( F ig . 5 :7 ) . T he r ea r s l ope s c on ta in a r ea s w i th c oncen t ra t ions o fl a rge g rey a nde s i te b ou lde r s a nd b lo ck s , a nd o t he ri s o la ted b lock s a to the rp l ace s d own t ot he e a s ter n f i e ld m a rg in . Many o ft h em f e a tu re s ha l low h amme red g roove sa nd s ome h ave d eepe r , i n te rm i t ten t w edge -shaped g roove s w i th in h amme red l i ne s .

S i te

A n a r ea b e tween s eve ra l l a rge b ou lde r s a nd ab reak o fs l ope w a s f i l led i nr e cen t t ime s t ob u i ld at h resh ing p la tfo rm ( e ra ) . P av ing o n t h e p l a tfo rm i n co rpo ra tes as qua red a nd h amme r p e cked a nde s i te b l ock . O ne o ft h e l a rge r e ta in ing b l ock s h a s a s ma l lc r o s sp e cked o n as u r f ace , w ea the red t ot he s ame r e dd ish g rey c o lour a s t h e r e s t o f t he s ur face , p oss ib ly a c o lon ia l b ounda ry ma rke r o r memo r ia l . A d eep a nd n a r row r av ine a s cend s s t eep ly t ot h e n o r thwes t f r om L uruwachana . I t s b a sa l c hanne l c on ta ins n ume rous l a rge b lock s o f g rey a ndes i te c oncen t ra ted a ts eve ra l l o ca t ions ( P la te 5 4 ) . De sp i te l i chen a nd w ea the r ing o ne xposed s ur face s ,c l ose i n spec t ion o fu nde r s ide s r e vea led t h a ts ome o ft h e se h ad b een f l aked .

AL17 ,

Qor im inasn iyoq

T h is p o t te ry s ca t te rc ove r s 2 0b y 3 0mo n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld o f mode ra te d ec l iv i ty o nt h el owe rs l ope so f Mamako . No s u r fa ce a r ch i tec tu re i se v iden tb u td ome s t ic o ccupa t ion i ss ugge s ted b y s he rdage c o l lec ted a l ong f i e ld f u r row so ve r3 0s q .m ( Co l lec t ion QO , n= 7 5 ) . A l l 1 5 p a in ted s he rd s h ave p o l ished s u rface s . T h ree a r e C ID s he rds . One i s f r om a t h ick a nd n a r row -necked v e sse l i s d eco ra ted w i th b l ack d i amonds ( 10R 2 . 5 / 1) o n r e d p a in t ( 10R 4 /4 ) . Ano the rh a s b l a ck l i ne s ( 7 .5YR 2 . 5 /0 ) o nc r eam ( 7 5YR 7 / 4 )a nd t h et h i rd h a sb l ack d i amond s ( 10R 2 . 5 / 1 )o n r e d ( 10R 4 /6 )a nd r ed c r i ss -c ro s sed l i ne -pa i r so ve rw h i te . Twe lve p a in ted s he rd sh ave r ed p a in to fI nca d ens i ty a nd c o lou r sa nd t h u se n te r t h eC IP g roup . S ix ty s h e rd sa r eu npa in ted .

T he L u ruwachana a r ea w a sc e r ta in ly u sed a ts ome t ime f o rt h e p r epa ra t ion o fa nde s i te o f t h e k ind u sed i ne very o ne o f t h e mo s t e l abo ra te C usco I nca w a l ls i n t e r race s cheme s o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o ft h er i ve r . Mo reove r , t h e a ndes i te i sn o tf ound i nf i e ld s o r o rd ina ry t e r race w a l l ing o f t h e L i ma tambo S ub -

T he C ID s he rd s h ave a f i ne , h a rd , w e l l -f i red , o range f a br ic ( Fab r ic G roup 1 / 2 ) . M ica a nd s ma l l g lossy b l ack i n c lus ions a bound ,b u t wh i te i sa b sen to rs ca rce . O the rs he rd so ft h es ame 7 8

I n ca L ima tambo p a s te a r e p o l ished a nd e i the r C IP ( n =7 ) o r u npa in ted b u t o range s l ipped ( n =3 ) . Two a r ee r oded .

Wa l l t h ickne s s i sc ons is ten t ly a bou t 0 . 8 m , o fd oub le o rt r ip le s t one c ons t ruc t ion i n mud mor ta r T he ma ter ia l i s p redom inan t ly c ong lome ra te , l i ke t he l a rge b ou lde r , w i th w e l l b onded c or ne rs . B locks r a re ly e xceed 0 . 5 m a nd t ho se o n w indows a nd c orne r s a re r ough ly s qua red . T he max imum p reserved w a l l h e igh t i s2 . 8 m , o n t h e e a s te rn w a l l o f t h e h ighe s t n o r the rn s t ruc ture . T he e x te r io r i sl owe r s i nce i tw a s p a r t ia l ly b u i l t a ga ins t t h e s l ope . A t 2 . 2 ma bove g round t h e re i sa n i n ter io r r e cessed l edge o n t he s ame w a l l , p robab ly t o s uppor t as econd s t o rey . No a r tefac t so ccu ro nt h es u r f ace .I ti s c ove red w i th at h ick l e a fl i t te ra nd w a l lr ubb le .

A l l o t he r C IP s he rds f a l l i n to o ne F ab r ic G roup ( G roup 3 ) . T h i s i ss im i la r t o t h e f o rme r , w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f a bundan t s ma l l o paque wh i te i n c lu s ions a nd f r equen t ly ag rey c o re o r i nne r s u r face . Twen ty t wo u npa in ted s he rds , 7o f t hem p o l i shed , s ha re t h is f abr ic . E x te r io r s ur face s a r e e roded i n7 c a se s , o range s l ipped i n 1 , b l ackened i n 3a nd b rown i no ne c a se . Twen ty o ne u npa in ted s he rd ss ha re ah a rd ,r edd ish -o range p a s te ( G roup 4 ) . I tc on ta ins m ica , b l ack , wh i te , g reen -g rey a nd o cca s iona lr ounded r ed i n c lus ion s .E x te r io rs u r face sa r eb rown s l ipped ( n =1 4 ) , b l ackened ( n =6 ) o r e roded ( n =1 ) . One s pe c imen i st h ec en t ra lc o re o fa n I n ca S hape i j "p o t . T en h ave s ome s u r f ace p o l ish . T h ree o the r f a br ic g roup s a r e s of te r , o f d a rk b rown ma t r ix , w i thou t p o l ish a nd c on ta in l i t t le o r n o m ica . O ne c on ta ins t he s ame i n c lus ions a s G roup 4 a nd c omp r ise s 1 0 s he rds . T h ree o f t h e se a re b lackened o n t h e e x t er io r ( one f r om at h ick -wa l led , e ver ted r im v esse l ) a nd 7 h ave s l ip st h ec o lou ro ft h ef abr ic .A no the ri so fp la ty f r ac ture , w i th l a rge w h i te i n c lus ion s a nd e x te r io rb rown o ro range s l ip ( n =2 ) .O ne s herd i sd i s t ingu ished b ya na bundance o fs of tr ed s t one i n c lus ions .

S ite AL22 , Wi lkaray P a mpa AL22 c ompr ise s ap a ir o fc losed r e c tangu la r I n ca s t ruc tu re s l o ca ted i nt h e h o l low o f ab road r i dge e x tend ing n or thwa rd s f r om Wi lka ray s umm i t , a nd o ve r look ing a s ma l l l a ke ( P la te 5 8 , F ig . 4 : 14 ) . T h is i s c a l led T ic l la Moun ta in i n r e cen t mapp ing ( IGN 1 993 1 : 100 ,000 2 7r ) . L ong a xe s a r e o r ien ted a long 2 58° . T he s ou ther n l o ng -wa l l l owe r c ou r se s a r e b u i l t i n to t h e s l ope . As ma l l r e ta in ing w a l l c onne c t s t h e b u i ld ing s a tt h is s ou ther n e nd o f a1 . 8 m w ide p a ssage b e tween t h em ( F ig . 5 : 11) . S truc ture 1i s 1 3 .5 b y 6 .6 m o n t h e e x te r io r ( 89 .1 s q .m ) . S t ruc ture 2i sa lmos ti den t ica l ( 13 .2 b y 6 . 7 m , g i v ing a n a r ea o f 8 8 .4 s q .m ) . P re served wa l ls a re d oub le -s tone w i th s t ony mud mor ta r a nd a bou t 0 .85 m t h ick . C ons truc t ion e mp loyed u nshaped r e d me tamo rphosed s ed imen ta ry r o ck w h ich o u tc rop s n ee ry . C o rne rs t one sa r es qua red a nd b l ock s a r e b e twe en 0 . 3 a nd 0 . 5 m max imum d imens ion .

S i te AL18 , Ma mako AL 18 i st h e s i te o f al a rge a nde s i te b lock , a bou t 1b y 1m a nd 0 . 6 m h i gh , w ith a c i rcu la r b a s in p ecked f r om t h e u ppe r s u r f ace ( P la te 5 5 ) . I ti sl o ca ted o n af a ir ly l e ve l a r ea o n t h e Mamako moun ta in f l ank , d i s t ingu ished b y a n a bundance o f a ndes i te b l ock s o n f l a t s s epa ra ted b y l ow , s ha rp b reak s o f s l ope . T h is a rea i s u sed a s p a s ture r a the r t han f o r f i e ld a g r icu l tu re , p robab ly b ecause o ft h e s t ony s o i ls . U ndeco ra ted a nd e roded p o t tery s he rds a re s pa r se ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e Mamako r i dge a nd n o g rea te r c oncen t ra t ion o r s t ruc tura l r ema in s w e re a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is o b jec t . I t may h ave b e en i n t h e p roce ss o f manufac tu re . S im i la r s t one a r tefac t s w e re r e por ted i nt h eI nca s t ruc tu ra l z one o f Machu P icchu ( B ingham 1 930 :82 , f i g . 5 6a ) , a nd i tmay b e long t ot ha tt r ad i t ion . S i te AL20 ,

Mos t w a l ls a r e c o l lapsed a nd s t one s a r e r eused i n r e cen t a d jacen t c or ra l w a l ls . Howeve r , t he SW a nd S E c or ne r s o f S t ruc tu re 2 r i se t o ah e igh t o f2 . 25 m . T rapezo ida l e n t rance s ( 0 .87 m w ide a tt h e b a se ) o ccu r o n t h e n o r thern s i de o fb o th s t ruc tures . I ti s l i ke ly , i f d es ign w a s a s s ymme t r ica l a s d imens ions , t h a t e ach h ad t wo e n t rance s . Wa l l c o l lap se a nd r ubb le d id n o t p erm i t s urface v er if ica t ion o f t h is . D ense v ege ta t ion a nd r ubb le o ccu r w i th in t h e s t ruc tu re s , a nd g ra s s c ove r s t h e o u t s ide g round s u rf ace . N o s u r face a r tef ac t s w e r e f ound .

L lakta l lak tayoq S ite AL25 , Mauka l lak ta

AL20 c on ta in s t wo s e t s o f t h ree n a r row , g ab le r oofed , I nca r e c tangu la r b u i ld ings . T hey a r e l oca ted o n c onsecu t ive p l a tf o rm s o n t he n o r the rn a nd s ou thern s i de s o f a7 m w ide p a s sage a nd a r es epa ra ted b y n a r row p a t io a r ea s( P la te 5 6 ) .T he p a s sage c on ta ins a n u nscu lp tu red b ou lde r a bou t 6m h igh , b e tween t h ec en t ra ls t ruc tu re o ft h en or the rn s e ta nd t h eh i ghe s t o ft h e s ou the rn g roup . I ti sl o ca ted o n t he l owe r s l ope s o f a n a r row a nd d ense ly f o re s ted r a v ine a th igh a l t i tude b e s ide t h e A cop ia S t ream , 7 . 5 km f r om L ima tambo .

AL25 i s as ur f ace c oncen tra t ion o fI n ca a nd c o lon ia l a r tef ac t s o n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld o f mode ra te d ec l iv i ty o ve r look ing t h e t own o f L ima tambo ( P la te 5 9 ) . No b u i ld ings o f I n ca c ons t ruc t ion r ema in o n t he s urface . S ome r e ta in ing a nd s t and ing w a l ls a nd t wo b u i ld ings may d a te t o t h e c o lon ia l p er iod ( F ig . 5 : 12 ) . S t ruc ture 1 ,k nown a s t he c ap i l la , l i e s i n t h e c en t re o f t h e f l a t tes t p a r t o f t h e s i te . I ti sr e c tangu la r , mea su r ing 2 7 .8 b y 1 5 .4 m , w i th t h e l ong a x is o r ien ted a t 3 35° . T he w a l ls , o f f i e ld s tone i ns t ony mud mor ta r , a r e 0 . 7 m t h ick a nd s t and t o 2 . 3 mo n t h en o r the rn s i de . S tone s a r e b e tween 0 . 2 a nd 1 . 0 m d iame te r , mo s t ly 0 . 35 m . One s t one i nt h e n o r ther n w a l l i sa C u sco I nca d r e ssed b lock ( P la te 6 0 ) . T he u ppe rw a l l s u r f ace i s f l a t . O the r w a l ls a r e t oo p oo r ly p reserved f o r o b se rva t ion o f a r ch i tec tu ra l d e ta i ls . I ti sl i ke ly t h a te n trance w a sm ade o n t h e w e s tern s i de s i nce t he o ppos i te l ong w a l l i sb u i l t i n to t h e s l ope . L a rge n umber s o f r oof t i le s he rds o ccu r o n t h e s ur round ing f i e ld s u r face , i nd ica t ing t h a t i tw a s a n i mpor e t ( t i led , n o tt h a tched )b u i ld ing .

T he s t ruc tu re s a re 1 5 .8 t o 1 5 .9 m l o ng , o n 1 49° a xe s , a nd a r e 3 . 7 t o3 . 8 m w ide , b a sed u pon e x te r io r mea suremen t o f t h e c en t ra l o ne s f r om e ach s e t . T o ta l s pace c ove red b y s t and ing s t ruc tu re s i st he refo re a bou t 3 57 s q .m . T h ick moss a nd p lan t c ove rage w a s r emoved f r om t h e w es tern l ong w a l l o f t he c en t r a ln o r the rn s t ruc tu re .T h is r e vea led n od oo rways ,b u tt h ree o f p robab ly s i x e ven ly-spaced t r apezo ida l w indows a r e p r e se r ved . T hey a r e a pp rox ima te ly 1m w ide a tt h e b a se a nd 1 . 1 m h i gh , b u t l i n te ls a re a bsen t ( P la te 5 7 ) . T he l owes t s t ruc tu re i nt h e n or thern g roup i se n te red b y a0 .4 m w ide g ap b e tween t h e n or thern s i de w a l l a nd t h e r e ta in ing w a l l w h ich f o rm s al o ng s i de . 7 9

I nca L ima ta rnbo

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Wi lkaray P a mpa (S i te A L 2 2 )

10 m .

F IG . 5 :11 Wi lkaray P ampa , S tructures 1 a nd 2 : S i te AL22 .

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F IG . 5 :12 Mauka l lakta , L imatambo :

S i te AL25 .

8 0

3

I n ca L ima tan zbo S t ruc tu re 2 i sb u i l t a ga ins t ar e ta in ing w a l l . I ti s6 . 3 m l o ng , o r ien ted a t 2 58° , 3 . 5 m w ide a nd s t and s 2 . 0 m h igh . A n e n t rance , 1 . 2 m w ide , i sl oca ted o n t h e s ou thern w a l l b e s ide t h e S Ec orne r . Wa l ls a r e 0 .6 m t h ick a nd f e a tu re g ran i te s a nd c ong lomera tes b e tween 0 .06 a nd 0 . 5 m d iame te r i n mud mo r ta r .F ou ru nf i t ted I n ca d re s sed b l ock sl i ei n ap a r t ly b ur ied r ow p a ra l le l t o t h e t e r race b e s ide i t s e a s tern w a l l . Ano the r b lock w a s among t h o se u sed t of i l l t h e e n t rance . F ou r n i che s o n t h en or thern w a l l i n te r io ra r e s qua re o rr e c tangu la r ( 32 b y 3 4 , 3 1 b y 4 0 , 2 2 b y 3 3 a nd 2 6 b y 3 7 c ms , f r om e a s t t ow e s t ) . R oof t i l ef r agmen t sl i t te rt h ef l oo r .

mm ) a nd f ewe r w h i te ( unde r 2mm ) i n c lus ions . I ti n co rpo ra te s 3s he rd s w i th r ed a nd o range p a in t , i n c lud ing aw hee l tur ned e ver ted r im , ab rown a nd wh i te p a in ted p la te s he rd a nd a n u npa in ted s pe c imen . Wa l ls a r e0 . 59 t o0 .77 cm t h ick . F ab r ic 6 i sc omp le te ly b lack , f ound i n o ne s he rd w i th g reen g la ze . F abr ic 7 i ss of t , s andy , w i th p redom inan t ly w h i te a nd b l ack i n c lus ions ( unde r 2 mm ) a nd n o m ica . T he ma t r ix i su sua l ly r edd ish b rown b u t v ar ie s g rea t ly w i th f i r ing a nd many a r e b l ackened o n t h ee x ter io r . I ti n co rpo ra tes 1 26 s he rd s b e tween 0 . 34 a nd 1 . 5 cm t h ick . S i te ALSO , Achaku

A r te f ac t s ALSO c omp r ise s r ema ins o f 5b ur ia l s t ruc tu re s , t h e ir c on ten t s a nd s u r round ing s u r f ace a r tef ac t sa nd b one .T hey w e re e xpo sed b y ar oadcu t t ing o n ah i l ls ide o ft h en a r row A chaku V a l ley .

Two s u r f ace c o l le c t ion a r ea s w e re s e to u to n t h e f i e ld s ur f ace a f te rh a rves ti np l ace sf ound i nr e conna i ssance t oh ave ah ighe r d ens i ty o fs u r face p o t te ry w i th in t h es i te a r ea .T h ree 2m b y 1 6 ms t r ip sw e re l o ca ted a l ong f i e ld f u r row so n t h es ou ther ne dge o f t h e s i te ( AL25 -1-1/2 ,3 /4 ,5 16 ) a nd t wo 5 m s qua re s w e re p laced a tt h e we s te rn ma rg in ( AL25 -2 -A 1 /A2 ) . Mos t s ur f ace a r tef ac t sa r ep o t she rd s b u to the r ma te r ia l i n c luded h o r seshoe s , h amme red n a i ls a nd a n I nca s t y le h o led c oppe r t upu ( s haw l p in )f r om AL25 -1-1/2 .

( i )T he B ur ia l S t ruc tu re s C ons t ruc t ion i so fu n shaped s t one i nr ed c l ay mor ta r , ac o lou r d i s t inc t f r om t h a t o fs u r round ing s o i ls ( P la te 6 1) . I te n ta i led e xcava t ing o va lo id c hambe r s i n to as t eep f a ce o fg rave l ly s o i l w i th aN W a spec t . R ed c l ay a nd s t one wa s u sed t o s ea l t h e o pen ing a nd p rov ide al i n te l .I td oe s n o tl i ne t h ei n te r io ro ft h e c hambe r .

As e le c t ive s urf ace c o l lec t ion i nt h ew e ts e a son ( n =2 4s he rd s ) i n c luded 1 3 s he rd s f r om t he f i e ld a r ea s ou th o f AL25 -2 . T h ree a r e OD ,w i th f er n lea fa nd t r iang le d e s ign sa nd 4a r eC IP . O ne i so range s l ipped a nd p o l ished , p robab ly I n ca . Ano the r i s t h ick ly g l azed i ny e l low o n g r een . U npa in ted s he rd s c ompr ise 2f r om b l ackened m ed ium -wa l l v esse ls a nd 2 f r om c oa r se t h ick -wa l led v e sse ls , o ne f orm ing t h e r o unded b a se o f al a rge v e s se l w i th c rumb ly p a s te .

Two w e l l p re served c hamber s( BS -2 a nd BS -3 )w e re p robab ly b u i l t a tt h e s ame t ime b ecause a n a r ch o ff i l l , o ft h e a mb ien t s o i l b u t l oose rt e x tu red , c over s b o th . Mo reove r , t h ey a r e o n ly s epa ra ted b y aw a l l o fr ed c l ay a nd s t one . BS -2 i s1 . 2 mh i gh a nd 0 . 5 m w ide a nd B S -3 i s1 . 23 b y 0 .49 m . T he o the r t h ree c hamber se x is to n ly a sd ep re ss ions w i th t r ace so fr ed c l ay .

P re l im ina ry a na lys is o f s he rds f r om AL25 1-3 /4 ( n = 1 7 1) i nd ica te s al a rge p e rcen tage o fd ome s t ic a nd c o lon ia l p o t tery , a l though o ne o ff i ve p a in ted s he rd s i sC IP . T h ree a r e p o rou s c l ay l umps , l i ke t h o se a t AL43 a nd AL 19 , a nd o ne i s ar oof t i le f r agmen t . T he h i s tor ic o ccupa t ion o n a n I nca s i te z nd much u npa in ted s he rdage ( n =1 50 ) n e ce s s i ta te s s epa ra t ion b y f a b r ic a na lya is .

( i )C on ten t s ( a ) B one : O n ly B S -2 c on ta ins h uman c ran ia l a nd p o s tcran ia l f r agmen t s , c ons is ten t w i th b ur ia l o f as i ng le i nd iv idua l . T he s ke le ton i si n comp le te a nd f r agmen ta ry . B one o n t h e s ur f ace b e low i sv e ry l i gh ta nd f r ag i le . None s hows s i gns o fb u rn ing . ( b ) P o t te ry : B S -2 a l so c on ta ins p o t te ry b u t much i ss ca t te red o n t h e s u r round ing s ur f ace . No c o l lec t ion w a s made f r om t h e t omb , b u t ar im s herd t he re in wa s e xam ined f o r f ab r ic c ha rac te r is t ics a nd t h ef o rm r e co rded . I ti ss ha rp ly e ve r ted a nd h igh ( 3 cm ) ,o f 1 cm r im d iame te rw i th an eck o pen ing o f 78cm . T he f ab r ic i su neven ly f i red , mos t ly b l ack o r g r ey a nd r edd ish b rown , c on ta in ing c onsp icuous wh i te i n c lu s ions . T he i n ter io r i ss l ipped i nt h e f abr ic c o lou ra nd c a rbon i sd epo s i ted o n t h e e x te r io r . A na s soc ia ted s he rd , w i th t h es ame f a br ic , h a s i n te r io rc a rbon d epo s i t s .

S even f a b r ic g roup s a r e r ep resen ted i nt h e 1 67 v e s se l s he rd s . F ab r ic 1i s at yp ica l I nca t ype w i th af i ne ma t r ix , m ica a nd b l ack i n c lus ions ( unde r 0 .5 mm ) a nd c on ta ins o n ly t he C IP s pec imen . F ab r ic 2 h a s a n e ven ly f i red f i ne c l ay ma t r ix w i th p la ty , a ngu la r , o paque wh i te i n c lus ions u p t o 2 mm . I t c on ta in s t h ree s he rd s w i th g reen e x te r io r g l aze a nd o range i n te r io r s l ip , a s w e l l a s 1 2 u npa in ted s pec imens . Wa l l t h ickne sse s r ange f r om 0 .3 t o 0 . 98 c m . F ab r ic 3 ( mo t t led s peck f abr ic ) f e a tu re s p la ty , a ngu la r w h i te , r ed a nd p ink i n c lu s ions ( up t o 2 mm ) a nd o f ten h a s ad a rk b rown f ab r ic c en t re . V e sse l w a l ls w e re 0 . 38 t o 0 . 82 c m t h ick a nd a l l 8 s pec imens w e re u npa in ted , 6o f t hem b l ackened . A f ab r ic s im i la r t og roups 2a nd 3 ,w i th l a rge p l a te l ike i n c lus ions o n t h e s u r f ace , i sr epo r ted i n ag lobu la r v e s se l f r om I n ca P e r iod e xcava ted d epos i t s a nd i n ap robab ly E u ropean j a ra s soc ia ted w i th g l azed p o t te ry i nt h e U rubamba V a l ley ( Lun t 1 984 :313 ) . I t may p rove u sefu la s ama rke ro fe a r ly h i s to r ic o ccupa t ion i n t h e c i r cum -Cusco r e g ion a nd o ccu r s e l sewhe re i nL ima tambo a t AL 12 -7 a nd AL43 .

S even b ody s he rd sw e re c o l lec ted f r om t h es ur f ace b e low B S -2 , p robab ly f r om t h es ame v esse l .T hese w e re t h ick ly c oa ted w i th c a rbon o n t h e i n te r io r , f r om a v esse l w i th i r regu la r i t ie s o f s u r face f o rm , a nd 0 . 5 t o0 .83 cm t h ick . T he f ab r ic i s2 . 5YR 4 /8 whe re w e l l f i red a nd c on ta ins a ngu la r c l ea r q ua r tz ( 0 .5 mm ) , g rey/b lack ( under 1 . 5 mm ) , a nd s ubangu la r r ed i n c lus ions ( 0 .5 mm ) . T he e x te r io rs ur f ace i ss moo th , i r regu la r , h a s ab rown s l ip ( 5YR 3 /3 ) a nd s i gns o f b rush ing a nd s c ra tches . I tr e semb les a w ide r r immed v e sse l a t AL 12 -1 ( App .I I F ig . 1 60 i nr im f o rm , p re sence o f an eck j o in ing l i ne , s l ip c o lour , s ur face t e x tu re , f ab r ic c o lou r a nd i n c lus ions . T he c l ea ra s soc ia t ion o f AL 12 w i th C u sco I nca p o t te ry s ugge s t s a n I n ca P e r iod d a te f o rt h is v e s se la nd t he b u r ia l .

F abr ic 4 i s e ven ly f i red , r ed a nd f i ne w i th n o v i s ib le i n c lu s ions . I ti n co rpo ra te s 8s he rd s w i th g l aze so fg r een , g r een a nd b r own , b rown a l one o r w i th w h i te i n te r io r p a in t , a nd p u rp le -b lue . T h ree a r e u ng lazed a nd w a l ls a r et h in , f r om 0 . 25 t o0 .44 c m . F ab r ic 5i se ven ly f i red , c on ta ins b l ack ( unde r 1 8 1

I nca L ima tambo

S i te

AL51 ,

H igospampa -Sondor

S i te AL45 , L laktak i NW ( Ch .4 , F ig . 4 :7 )

AL51 i s at r iangu la rf i e ld a r ea w i th t wo s t one r e ta in ing wa l ls . I ti sl o ca ted o n t h el e f ts i de o ft h eP a rqo R ive r , b ounded b y t h e S ondo rr oad i nt h e e a s t a nd al ong s l op ing f i e ld i nt h e s ou th . T he l a t te r f i e ld s epa ra te s AL51 f r om AL10 S ec to r A . I t may o nce h ave a l so c on ta ined t e r race s s i nce t wo b reak s o fs l ope , r ough ly p a ra l le l t ot h e AL51 a nd AL10 -A t e r race s , c ross t h e f i e ld s ur face . A l i ne o f l a rge t r ees i s v i s ib le i n t he s ame l o ca t ion o na no ld p ho tog raph o fS ondo r( c a . 1 940 ) . Wa l ls a r e 1 . 5 t o2 . 0 m h igh a nd a r e r e cons t ruc ted i n many p lace s . T he w a l led a nd u nwa l led a rea s h ave a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame f i e ld g r ad ien t( 7 -9% ) . 5 .4

CHONTA

T he p re sence o fC ID p o t te ry a t AL45 i n d ica te sa nI nca P e r iod u se o ft h e s i te a l though a l s t one c ons t ruc t ion a nd s ome o t he r a r tef ac t sb e long t ot h eL a te P reh is to r ic T rad i t ion . S i te AL39 , Qopa A l ta E as t ( Ch .4 , F ig . 4 :4 ) T e rrace w a l ls i n s ec to r B , a nd t h e a gg rega t ion o f c i rcu la r dwe l l ing s i nS ec to rA , h ave l i t t le i nc ommon w i th I nca s t y le f a c i l i t ie s o ft h eC usco a nd U rubamba v a l leys . T he a bundance o f C usco I nca p o t te ry i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s t ruc tu re s o f S ec to r 1r e qu i re st h a ti t so ccupa t ion b er ega rded a sp ar to ft h a t c ha rac te r is ing t h e I n ca s t a te p re sence i n L ima tambo . T he p a in ted p o t te ry i n s u r f ace c o l lec t ions c omp r ised 4 4% I nca ma te r ia l .

SUB -REGION .

S i te AL32 , Uraca S i te AL41 , Qopa P laya ( Ch .4 , F ig . 4 :4 ) AL32 c omp r ise st wo l a rge r e c tangu la rt e r race s u pon w h ich t h e f o rme rh ac ienda b u i ld ing a nd c hape l o fU raca a r ec ons t ruc ted . T he u ppe r l e ve l i sa bou t 1 50 b y 5 0 m . T he l owe r , w i th t h e ma in h ac ienda s t ruc ture a ga ins t i t s r ea r w a l l , i s6 0 b y 4 0 m . Mos t r e ta in ing w a l ls a re p oor ly p reserved . T he b e s t s t one s e c t ion i sl o ca ted o nt he w e s te rn s i de o ft he h ac ienda b u i ld ing , c ons t ruc ted o f u nshaped g ran i tes f r om 0 .4 t o 0 .8 m i n m ax imum d imens ion .

T he e l emen ts o f d e s ign a nd a rch i tec ture a t AL41 a re p rodom inan t ly o f L a te P reh is tor ic T rad i t ion . R ec tangu la r a r ch i tec tu re ( P la te 6 2 ) a nd t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fC ID p o t te ry i n t h e s t ruc tura l z one i n d ica tes o ccupa t ion a nd s ome b u i ld ing d ur ing t h e I n ca P e r iod . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t t h e l o ca l Qopa A a nd B p o t te ry o f AL39 i sa bsen t f r om t h is n ea rby s i te . Wh i ls t o the r n onI nka p a in ted p o t te ry w a s i d en t if ied i n t h e s ur f ace c o l lec t ions h e re , 6 0% o ft h e p a in ted p o t te ry i so fC usco I n ca s t y le .

Ar e con s t ruc ted o r mode rn r e ta in ing wa l l , 3 00 m s ou th o f U raca , f e a tu res a s t a irca se o f RPS f orm . Howeve r , i th a s a d eepe rr e ce ss t h an k nown e xamp le si nI nca t e r ra ce s . S i te AL35 ,

5 .5

P ich iu marka

M OLLEPATA SUB-REGION

S i te AM1 , Markawas i

AL35 i s as urface p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ion o n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld l o ca ted i n av a l ley s i de s add le a bove t he l e f t ma rg in o f t he C o lo rado -B lanco R ive r . Obser ved p a in ted p o t te ry w a so fC usco I n ca s t y le . Af ew s he rd sw e re c o l lec ted f o re xam ina t ion ( n =3 ) . Two a r eC ID s t y le ( App ." ' F ig . 1 8d ,e ) , t h eo the rp o l ished a nd o r ange s l ipped ,p robab ly I n ca .

AMI i s al a rge c omp lex c omp r is ing t e r race s , C usco I nca ma sonry , p robab le s i te s o f s t and ing a r ch i tec tu re a nd s ur face a r tefac t c oncen t ra t ion s . I ti sl o ca ted o n t h e g en t le s l ope s o fa v a l ley -s ide s add le 1 4 km f r om L ima tambo , a nd i sd i v ided i n to 4s ec to r s f o ra na ly s is ( F ig . 5 : 13 ) . ( i ) S ec to r s Aa nd B ( F ig . 5 : 14 , P la te 6 3 )

S i te AL36 , Moyoq S ec to r s Aa nd B a r et e r race l e ve ls wh ich g ene ra l ly f o l low l a nd c on tour s . S egmen ta t ion a nd s e t -back s o ft e r races , r a the r t h an s ha rp c urve s , w e re u sed i n S ec to r A t o r e shape t h e n a tu ra l t opog raph ic i regu la r i t ie s . Wa l ls a b rup t ly e nd a t an a r row s t r ip o f l a nd w he re a c emen ted s t one i r r iga t ion c hanne l h a s b een p l aced .

AL36 c omp r ise s 7s t one w a l led t e r races o n av a l ley -f loo r m a rg in s l ope a tl ow a l t i tude b e s ide t h e Co lo rado -B lanco R ive r . T he w a l ls a r e n umbe red 1t o6 ,f r om l owe s tt oh ighe s t . Wa l l 1 c urve sw i th t h ec on tou r , i s 2m h i gh ,a nd c omposed o fa ngu la r g ran i te a nd r ed me tamorphosed s ed imen ta ry s t one , mo s t ly i n 0 . 4 t o 0 . 6 m d iame ter b lock s . N ea r a n e n t rance t o Moyoq H a c ienda b u i ld ing s , t h e w a l l c on ta in s aWa te rD rop (WD ) a nd Wa l l S t ep s o fI nca f o rm . T he w a l l a tt he l o ca t ion o ft he WD a ppea r s t oh ave b een r e cons t ruc ted b ecause i t s w e s tern s i de i n co rpo ra te s many s t one so fl e sse rs i ze ( ca . 1 0 cm ) .

T er race s h ave as i ng le w a l lo fl a rge s t one b l ock s w i th a ngu la r r ubb le a nd mud f i l l b eh ind . S ome b lock s , e spe c ia l ly t hose o n s egmen t c orne r s a nd c orne r s o f WD w a l l f ea tures , a r e p e rcu ss ion s haped . F la ts t one s ur face s f a ce o u twa rd . Wa l l sa r e e ven ly b a t te red t ob e tween 5 °a nd 2 2° i nS ec to r A( mean = 1 2 ° , n= 8 1 ; A pp . I :T ab le s 2a nd 3 ) .

Wa l l 2i sl o ca ted o n as t eep s l ope a nd i sp oo r ly p rese rved . B e tween Wa l l 2a nd Wa l l 3 , amode rn c emen ted s t one w a l lh a s b een c on s t ruc ted t or e ta in ac ana l . Wa l l 3r i se s 3 . 5 mf r om t h e l e ve l o ft h ec ana l . T he w a l l i se ven ly b a t te red a nd b u i l to f0 . 3 t o0 . 7 mb lock so fs t one i n as i ng le f a cade c our se wh ich i s0 .6 mt h ick . Sma l l r ubb le p iece s l i e b eh ind t he w a l l . T he l owe r t e r race s a r e o n a7 8% s l ope , b e tween 3 a nd 6 m w ide a nd e x tend a bou t 6 0 me a s twa rd t o an a r row r av ine . Wa l ls 4 t o7 a r e s ho r te r , o n b roader f i e lds a nd r i se 2 t o 3 . 5 m . T he ir c ons tuc t ion i si d en t ica l t ot h a to f Wa l l 3 .

T he s t one u sed i nw a l l s a t AM 1 i s ma in ly f i ne g ra ined g r ey v o lcan ic r o ck , b u t l ime s tone o ccur s i nS ec to r B . T he f o rme r o ccu r sa sl a rge b ou lde r so nt h et e r race s ,a nd t h el a t te ro u tc rop s o n t he r oads ide w i th in a f ew h undred me t re s . A t r ip le c hambe red s t ruc tu re b u i l t a ga ins t Wa l l B x i i i w a s p robab ly a c o lon ia l l ime k i ln a s soc ia ted w i th Ma rkawa s i h ac ienda . I th a s t h ree l ow a r ched e n t rance so nt h ee a s te rn s i de a nd i ss u r rounded b y s of t a nd b ur n t l ime . S tone f r om n ea rby t e r race w a l ls w a s u sed i n i t s c ons t ruc t ion . T he u se o f t r ac to r s a t AM1 m ay e xp la in ag ap i nt e r race w a l l ing b e tween Wa l l s A v i i i (b ) a nd Ax i i i . 8 2

I nca L ima tambo

S ec tor A c on ta ins 2 2 Wa te r D rop s (WD ) a nd 6 2 s e t s o f p ro jec t ing -s tone s t ep s (WS ) . T h ir ty WS a scend t ot h e l e f ta nd 2 4 t o t h e r i gh t . E igh t a r e r ep re sen ted b y as i ng le s t ep , b u t 6 r ema in i ns ome c a se s( App . I :T ab le s 1a nd 2 ) .

c l o se ly b onded , s o i ti sn o t aWD c losed b y l a te ra l p re ssu re s . F ou r b asa l e a s ter nc ou r se s w e re b u i l t t o as qua red c orne ra nd o ne w e s tern -s ide s t one r e l ie s f o r s uppor t u pon t he e a s tern c orne r . T h is a ga in c onfo rms w i th t h e wo rk o ft e r race b u i ld ing h av ing p rog re s sed f r om e a s tt ow e s t .

S ec to r Bw a l ls c on ta in 5 WD f e a tu re s b u t n o WS f o r i n te r t e r race a cce s s .T he u ppe rp a r to ft h is s e c to r( c omponen t AM 11 ,o n t h e s u r face s r e ta ined b y Wa l ls B x i , B x i i a nd B x i i i ) c on ta ins as u rface c oncen t ra t ion o fp o t te ry , i n c lud ing C u sco I nca ma te r ia l . One s ma l l s ou thern p a r t o f Wa l l B x i i i r i se s a bove t h e s o i l s urface , i nd ica t ing t h e l i ke ly l o ca t ion o f s t and ing a r ch i tec tu re .S ome d eep p i t sh ave b een d ug b e s ide i t .

T he e as tern b u i lder sb rough tt h e i rw a l l t o as qua red e nd o ft h e k i nd u sed i n aWD .T he l o ca t ion d oe s n o ta l ign w i th o the r WD a bove o r b e low , b u t a lmos t p e rfec t ly b i sec t s t he d i s tance b e tween t h e l owe r s t eps o ft h e WS t ot he e a s t a nd w e s to fi t ( 9 .0 a nd 9 .25 m , r e spec t ive ly ) .T he b u i lde r s may h ave t hough t aWD w a sr e qu i red b e tween t h e WS o ne i the rs i de .

P o t te ry a t AM1-1

Wa te rD rop sa nd Wa te rD is t r ibu t ion

Af ew s he rd s ( n =9 ) w e re s e lec ted f r om t h e AM 1-1 s u r face . F our f r om t h e w es te rn e nds o f Wa l ls B x i i a nd B x i i i a r e t he s t rap h and le a nd b ody s he rd so f ap o l ished ,t h ick -wa l led v e s se l , p robab ly a nI n ca S hape ' a 'j a r .T he p a s te i se ven ly f i red ,o range a nd c on ta in s s ma l l b l ack i n c lu s ions . F ive C ID s he rd s c ome f r om t h e w e s tern e nd o f Wa l l B x i ( App .I I F igs . 1 8 f j ) . T hey i n c lude a ne ve r ted r im d eep d i sh a nd t h ef l a r ing r im o fa nI nca S hape ' a 'j a r a nd h ave a n o range f a b r ic w i th s ma l l b l ack o r wh i te i n c lu s ions .

WD f e a tu re s w e re l o ca ted o ns i x l i ne st h rough S ec to r Al e ve l s ( numbe red 1t o6 ,f r om w e s tt oe a s t ) , a nd as even th o n S ec to r B w a l ls . T he c omp lex s egmen ted a rea c on ta in ing WD a l ignmen t s 3 , 4a nd 5 i st he h ighe s t p a r t o fS ec to rA , whe re w a te rf i r s te n te red t h et e r race s . Av e ry n a r row b ench t e r race i s a t tached t o Wa l l Av i . T he b ench s ur face d e scends 0 .59 i n b e tween t h e w a l l b a se a tf ea tures Av i i (b )-4 a nd Av i i (b ) -3 . I t p robab ly r e ta ined a c hanne l wh ich c a r r ied wa ter w e s twa rd , f r om WD l i ne 4o ft h es egmen ted a r ea ,t ot h et e r race b e low .

Wa l l S tep A l ignmen t , A scen tD ire c t ions a nd T e r race S cheme P lann ing

T he l owe r w es te rn w a l ls o f S ec to r A a nd e a s tern wa l ls o f S ec tor B r un u pwa rd . Wa te r wou ld n o t h ave d ra ined o f f t h e t e r race si nt h ose d i rec t ions .I th ad t ob ec hanne l led t h rough t h e s ys tem . WD Av -1 a nd A i i i-1 w e re n eeded w i th in a s ho r t d i s tance o f WD a l ignmen t 2b ecause u ps lope t e r rac ing p reven ted t h e l a t te r f r om p rov id ing w a te r t ot he w e s tern e nd . T he e a s tern l e ve ls o fS ec to r Bc ou ld n o th ave b een i r r iga ted b y w a te r p ass ing t h rough W D a l ignen t 7 . T hey a re mo re v ege ta ted ,e roded a nd s t ony t han t h eo the rh a lf o fS ec to r Ba nd a r es epa ra ted f r om i tb y as t and ing r ubb le w a l l .

WS w e re c l ea r ly a l igned f r om l e ve l t ol e ve l i nS ec to rA . T he d i rec t ion o f a scen t a l ter na tes f r om o ne l e ve l t o t h e n ex t , a s w e l l a s a l ong l e ng th s o fw a l l . WS a ppea r t oh ave b een p u t i n p l ace a sw a l l c ons truc t ion p roceeded . N od i f f e rence i nm a sonry s ugge s t s o the rw ise . T he t ime t a ken t o b u i ld t he s cheme i s u nknown , b u tt h es ame r u le s f o r WS p l acemen tw e re f o l lowed f r om s t a r tt of i n ish

( i ) Ma rkawa s i S ec to r C( F ig . 5 : 15 )

T he a l ter na t ing -d irec t ion r u le f o r WS i sb reached b y t h e l e f t o r ien ta t ion so ft wo s i de -by -s ide WS ,n umbe r sA x i -2 a nd A x i -3 ( wa l l f e a tu re sa r en umbe red c onsecu t ive ly f r om w e s tt oe a s to n e ach w a l ll i ne ) . Howeve r , b o th c o r rec t ly o ppo se t h e WS o nt h e l e ve lb e low t h em . T he l i nea re r ro rw ou ld h ave b een a vo ided i f Wa l lA x i h ad t a ken ac hange o fd i rec t ion o rs egmen ta t ion l i ke t h e t e r race w a l ls b e low . I fi th ad , t h e WS f o l low ing t o t he w es to fA x i -3 wou ld h ave b een A ix -8 ( ar i gh t WS ) .T he re w a s i n suff ic ien t v e r t ica l d i f fe rence b e tween Ax i -1 a nd A x i -3 t o p rov ide a s egmen t w a l l o f f u l l h e igh t , a l though i tw a s v e ry l i ke ly ap a r to ft h eo r ig ina lt e r race s c heme p l an .

K ey e l emen t s o f S ec tor C a re a r e ta in ing wa l l w i th s ma l l n i che s( r ef e r red t oh e re a st h eN iche T errace ) ,a nd ar e c tangu la r s pace o f 0 .32 h a b ounded o n t h ree s i des b y a n e x t reme ly e l abo ra te s t one r e ta in ing w a l l ( Kancha ) . T he r oad b e tween S ec to r s A a nd B , a nd S ec to r Ch a s r e ta in ing w a l l l e ng th s b e low a nd a bove . One w a l l c on ta ins a WD o f s haped a nd p ar t ly d re ssed s t one . Many h ouse s o f Ma rkawa s i C oope ra t ive member s , t he f ormer h ac ienda b u i ld ings a nd s uga r c ane p roces s ing f a c i l i ty a r el o ca ted i nt h is a r ea .

L a rge R ock sa nd Wa l lA l ignmen t

( b )T he K ancha ( Componen t AM1-3 )( F ig . 5 : 15 )

L a rge r o ck sa r ei n co rpo ra ted i ns e ve ra l t e r race w a l ls . Wa l lA v i i a ppea r s t oh ave a k i nk a tt h e l o ca t ion o f aWD ( Av i i (b ) - ) , r ed i rec t ing i tt owa rd s al a rge r o ck r a the rt h an t r y ing t oa vo id i t .

AM1-3 c omp r ise s ar e c tangu la r d ep re ss ion f a ced w i th C u sco I n ca ma son ry o n t h ree s i de s . T he o pen e nd f a ce s t h ep eak o fa l ow moun ta in ( Qor iwa irach ina ) . I t i s b u i l t o f t he mos t t h o rough ly d re ssed a nd c a refu l ly f i t ted ma son ry f a cade a t AMI , o fu n iform ly g rey -co loured v o lcan ic r ock i nb lock s u p t o0 . 75 m .T he s pace b eh ind t h ef a cade i sf i l led w i th r ubb le ( P la te 6 6 ) . T he d ep re ss ion i si n ad ra inage f e a tu re a nd as ha l low w e l l i n t h e c en t re o f t h e K ancha i su sed t oo b ta in s ma l l amoun t s o f d r ink ing w a te r .

S equence o fC ons truc t ion T he l i ne o f ab a t te red c orne rw i th s qua red b l ock sa ppea r s i na c on t inuou s w a l l o fI nca c ons truc t ion a tt h e m ee t ing o f Wa l ls Ax a nd A ix ( P la te 6 4 , a nd ma rked a s ac ons truc t ion l i ne i n F ig . 5 : 14 ) . T he b a t te r i n c l ina t ion i st owa rd s t h e e a s t , a nd s t ones o f t h e w es te rn c on t inua t ion r e s t u pon i t . H ence , t h e w es ter nl e ng th o f Wa l l Ax w a s al a te ra dd i t ion . T he a dd i t iona l w a l l , l i ke A v i i , p a s se st h rough al a rge b ou lde r .

( b )T he N iche T e r race Z one ( Componen t AM1-2 )( F ig . 5 : 16 ) AM1-2 c on ta ins t h ree r e ta in ing w a l ls ( numbered 1 , 2a nd 3 f r om l owe s t t o h ighe s t ) . T hey d ef ine ar ec tangu la r p la tform ( c a . 6 00 s q .m )c on ta in ing amoder n dwe l l ing . Wa l ls 2a nd 3

Twen ty me t res f u r the r e a s t t h e re i sa n a lmo s t v er t ica l j o in t l i ne , b e tween f e a tu re sA x -3 a nd A ix -3 . S u rround ing s t one sa r e 8 3

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a r e l e ss t h an 1m h igh , mos t ly r educed t of ounda t ion c ou r se s o fd re ssed a nd v e ry c a refu l ly f i t ted s t one s . Wa l l 1i su p t o3 . 2 mh igh a nd c on ta ins 1 8 s ma l l t r apezo ida l n i che s , i n aw e s te rn g roup o f 6a nd a ne a s te rn s e to f 1 2 . T he f o rme ra r ec ove red b y ah ouse b u i l t a ga ins t t h e w a l l ( r emoved i n 1 985 b u t s i nce r e p lac ed ) .

V i lcashuamän w here e x te r io r n i che s w e re p l aced o n t e r race l e ve ls b e low t h e p resen t c hurch s i te , a n a r ea w h ich a l so s uppor ted I nca s t ruc tu re s( Gonza lez e t .a l . 1 981 :66 ) . T he s ou ther nf a cade o f Wa l l 1f e a ture s an a r row l e dge r e ce s sed 2 3 cm b eh ind t h e l owe r c ou r se s a t ap re sen t h e igh t o fa bou t 1 . 3 m a bove g round l e ve l ( F ig . 5 : 16 ( a ) ) . S uch l e dge s a r e v i s ib le a t h igh l o ca t ions o n w a l ls o f w e l l p rese rved I n ca b u i ld ings a t0 1 1an tay tambo , Machu P icchu a nd o the rs i te s ,a nd t h ey p robab ly s e rved t os uppo r t t h e f l oo ro f as econd s t o rey . Wa l l 1may h ave b een t h er e a rw a l l o f as t ruc tu re o rs t ruc tu re s e x tend ing s ou thwa rd i nt h ea r ea o fd epo s i t ion .

T he e a s tern n i che s h ave mean u ppe ra nd l owe rw id th s o f3 5 .5 cm a nd 4 2 .5 c m r e spec t ive ly , a nd amean h e igh t o f7 6 .3 c m . T hey a r e mo re d eep ly r e ce ssed a tt h e b a se ( mean = 3 8 .9 c m ) t h an a t t h e t o p ( mean = 3 6 .1 cm ) . N iche b a se s c ommence a bou t4 0 cm a bove g round ,b u tt h ee a s ter na r ea i sp a r t ly b ur ied b y s l ope w a sh d epos i t ion . O ne n i che w a s e xcava ted t o 1 5 c m f o rt h ep u rpo se so f mea su remen t .

( c ) S cu lp tu red S tone

F acade b lock s o f Wa l l 1a r e p e rcuss ion s haped a nd p a r t ly d re ssed .B edd ing a nd l a te ra lj o in t sa r ec a re fu l ly ,b u tn o tt i gh t ly , f i t ted ( P la te 6 5 ) . E xam ina t ion o ft h e u ppe rc ou r se s s hows t h a t t h e w a l l r o se a bove p la tfo rm l e ve l . I ti sd oub le -s tone i nt h e u ppe r c ou r se s . T he l ow r ema in ing c our ses o f t he n or thern f a cade a re w e l l f i t ted . An I nca b u i ld ing o r b a lus t rade , a s a t T a rawa s i Wa l l I , may h ave r i sen a bove t h e t e r race w a l l . A b a t te red c on s t ruc t ion l i ne o fs qua red b lock s , l o ca ted i nu ppe r c ou r se s 5m w es t o f t h e S E c orne r , i sc ons is ten t w i th t h e p l acemen t o f ab u i ld ing i nt h e d i rec t ion o fb a t te r i n c l ina t ion ( F ig . 5 : 16 ( b ) ) . An a na logy i s t he I nca i n s ta l la t ion a t

A l a rge h amme r d res sed r ock w h ich s i t s o n af i e ld s u r face b e tween S ec tor s Aa nd C i sk nown t o Ma rkawa s i r e s iden t s a s I n t iwatana . I ti sr ough ly r e c tangu la r , 1 . 62 m l ong , 1 . 22 m h igh a nd 0 .67 m w ide . T he w id th i sp i e r ced b y ah o le o f0 . 27 m d iame te r , b u t wh ich w idens 0 . 1 m o n e ach e nd . T h is i nd ica te s t h a t i tw a s p e cked o u t f r om e i the r e nd , t of o rm t wo c ones wh ich mee t i m t h e c en t re . Two s ea t l ike d ep re s s ions w e re a l so p ecked o n o ne s ur f ace . T he p e ck ing s po t s a ppea rt o b ef r om as t one h amme rr a the rt h an am e ta lc h ise l .

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F IG . 5 :14 Markawas i ( Cas t i luyoq ) : S i te A M1 , S ec tor s A a nd B .

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F IG . 5 :15 Markawas i S ec tor C : S i te AM1 .

Wa l l 1( t he l owe s t ) i sp oo r ly p re se rved , b u t t h eo the r s a r e 1 . 9 m t o 2 . 5 m h igh , o f p o lygona l v o lcan ic s t one b lock s u p t o 0 . 5 m i n d iame te r . T hey a r e s haped o r p a r t ia l ly h amme r d r essed , a nd w e l l f i t ted . Two s e t s o f w a l l s t ep s we re p l aced a l ong t h eu ppe rw a l l .

T he s t one i ss a id t oh ave b een moved b y t r ac to rf r om as i te i n t h e Kancha . An o ld r epor t s t a tes t ha t s even c on ica l s t one s , c a l led I n t iwa tana b y Wagne r ( 1937 :239 -240 ) , w e re l o ca ted a t t h e c as t le o f Marcahuas i i n t he v a l ley o f t h e A pur imac . Wagne r 's r epo r tc on ta in s n o p roper l o ca t iona l i n forma t ion a nd o n ly a r ough p en s ke tch o f ac on ica l s t one . Howeve r , t h e S ec tor B t e r races a r e n amed Cas t i luyoq ( c a s t le p l ace ) a t Ma rkawa s i , s oh e may h ave b een t a lk ing a bou tt h es ame s i te .

S i te AM2 , Qor iwa irach ina ( F igs . 5 : 13 a nd 5 : 17 ) AM2 i ss i te o f ar o ugh ly c i r cu la r moun ta in top p la tform w i th f ou rs t one r e ta in ing w a l ls a nd s ur face p o t tery . I to ve r look s a l s e c to r s o f S i te AM 1 , a nd t h e c onf luence o f t he C o lo rado B lanco a nd A pu r ima cr i ve r s .

( i i ) S ec tor D ( F ig . 5 : 13 a nd P la te 2 7 ) S ec tor D c omp r ise s t h ree c on tour t e r races a t t h e b a se o f Qor iwa irach ina . T he l owes t r e ta ined l e ve l , wh ich c on ta ins a f unc t ion ing c ana l , i s 3m w ide . T he u ppe rt wo a r e 1 5 mw ide . 8 6

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Wa l ls a re p oor ly p reserved a t t he l ower l eve ls o f Qo r iwa irach ina , a nd w e re n o t o r ig ina l ly a s w e l l c ons t ruc ted . T he t op w a l l i s 1 . 7 m h igh a nd 0 .85 m t h ick , b u i l t o f f i ne g ra ined v o lcan ic b lock s a bou t 0 .25 t o 0 .4 m d iame te r . T hey w e re p ar t ly s haped o r s e lec ted t of a c i l i ta te g ood f i t t ing ( P la te 6 7 ) . T he t e r race b e low i s2 .7 m h igh , 0 .7 m t h ick a nd o f s im i la r s t one . B locks a r e 0 . 35 m t o 0 .50 m i nd iame te r , l e ss w e l l f i t ted a nd w ith l e ss a t ten t ion t oe venness o f t h e f a cade . T he t h ird w a l l i s0 . 8 m h i gh , o fl e ss u n iform s t one s i ze s ( 0 .2 m t o0 .8 m ) , p oo r ly f i t ted a nd o fu neven f a cade . T he l owe s t

( a )S ec to rA T h is c on ta in s ac i rcu la rp l a tfo rm a bou t 6m i nd i ame te r ,r a ised a bove al i nea rg r an i te o u tc rop ( P la orm 2 ) . I ti ss ur rounded b y t h ree r e ta in ing w a l ls , a nd o ve r looks a 1 00% d e scen t o n t h e s ou thern s i de . T he l owe s t w a l l i s1 . 7 m h i gh , t he s econd 1 . 2 ma nd t h a to ft h ep l a t form , 1 . 2 mh igh . ( b )S ec to r B( T i lka P ampa ) T h is i s as he l te red f l a t b ounded b y g ran i te o u tcrop s t ot he n or th , w e s t a nd s ou th . I ti se nc lo sed b y s t and ing wa l ls o n t h e e a s te rn s i de b u t a n e n t rance w a s p rov ided t o ap o in t a l ong a S t a ir ed R ou teway ( SR ) .

w a l l i s2 . 5 mh igh , a l so p oo r ly c ons truc ted . T he u ppe r t wo l e ve ls a r e w i th in t he r ange o f I nca wa l l c ons truc t ion q ua l i ty b u tt h el owe ro ne sa r en ob e t te rt h an w a l ls i n S ec tor A o f AL39 a nd o the r L a te P reh is to r ic T rad i t ion s i tes . B o th C usco I nca a nd LPT p o t te ry i sl o ca ted o n t h e s u r f ace o ft h es i te ( Chap te r4 ) .

( c ) S ec to r C( P la te 6 9 ) . S ec to r Ci st h e mo s t c omp lex p a r t o f AM3 . I tc omp r ise s t h e h i ghes t p a r t o f t h e r i dge ( P la tform 1 ) , b ounded b y e i gh t r e ta in ing w a l ls f o rm ing t h eN or thern T erraces a nd f i ve o t he r s o ft h e S ou th T erraces . T he s i de w a l ls o f t h e SR d ef ine i t s w e s ter nb ounda ry . T he g ran i te r i dge c on t inue s a tl owe r l e ve l s t ot h ee a s t .

S i te A M3 , T i lka AM3 i sl o ca ted a th igh a l t i tude o n t he s umm i t o f amas s ive moun ta in ( F ig . 5 : 18 , P la te 6 8 ) . A cce ss i so n ly p o ss ib le f r om t h e l e ss a brup t n or thern s i de . I ti sd iv ided i n to f ou r s ec tor s ( F ig . 5 : 19 ) .

0 Contours B ase: M in.

500 m 1 00 m. Ag.

1 8-760/5-8505 ( I )

T ILKA M OUNT A IN

F IG . 5 :18 T i lka Moun ta in P eak (Mo l lepata ) : S ite AM3 .

8

P EAK — Mo llepata

I nca L in za tambo

F IG . 5 :19 T i lka Andenes :

S i te A M3 ( Deta i l ) .

T he N o r th T er race w a l ls , f r om l owe s t t oh ighe s t , a scend 0 . 5 , 2 .6 , 1 . 9 , 2 . 8 , 28 ,2 . 5 , 2 . 1 a nd 2 .0 m . An in th l e ve l m ay h ave o nce e x is ted a tt h e t op o ft h e g roup , b u to n ly al i nea rb reak o f s lope i sn ow v i s ib le . T he w a l l b e low c on ta ins a R ecessed S ta ir ca se ( RS ) w i th s t eps a bou t 2 9 cm w ide a nd 2 2 c m h igh . I t s e n t r ance i so ft r apezo ida l f orm a nd n a r row s f r om 1 . 35 m n ea r t h e b a se t o 1 . 24 m a tt h e t op o fr ema in ing c our ses ( s ee Hef f e rnan 1 989 :p la te 4 ) . L eve ls 5 t o 8a r e s t ra igh t , b u t t h e l owe ro ne s h ave s l igh t c urve s . Wa l l 1r e ta ins as ur f ace w h ich d e scend s t owa rd t h e n or thea s t . I t may h ave b een a r amp b e tween t h ee nd o ft h e SR a nd S e c to rD .

r ema in ing h e igh t i s 0 .85 m a nd w a l ls a re 0 . 55 m t h ick , c omposed o f d oub le g ran i te f i e ld s tone i n mud mor ta r . I ti s p oo r ly p re se rved a nd n e i the re n t rance sn o rn i che s w e r e l o ca ted . B u i ld ing 2 i sr e c tangu la r , measur ing 9 . 7 b y 4 .7 m , w i th g ood c or ne r b ond ing i nt h e SW c orne r . I t s w a l ls r ema in t o ah e igh t o f 1 . 1 m a nd a re 0 .85 m t h ick . T hey c ons is t o f f i e lds tone g ran i te s , b e tween 0 .2 a nd 0 . 8 m d i ame te r , i n mud m or ta r . I ti s a l so p oo r ly p re se rved . No s ur face a r tef ac t s w e re f ound , b u t v i s ib i l i ty i sr educed b y v ege ta ted g round a nd r ubb le .

T he S ou th T er race s a r e v ery n ar row , mea sur ing b e tween 1 . 7 a nd 2 . 2 m . Wa l ls a scend 2 .8 , 2 .6 , 2 .6 , 2 .5 a nd 3 .2 m , r e spe c t ive ly f r om t h e b a sa l t ot h e t o p t e r race . T he b a t te r a ng le i sa round 2 4 ° .

T he re i sl i t t le v a r ia t ion i n t he s t one w a l ls a t AM3 . S tone i s i nva r iab ly aw h i te g ran i te wh ich o u tcrops o n t h e s i te . I tw a s f i t ted c l o se ly b u t n o t i nt he mos t e l abora te C usco I n ca s t y le . F acade s u r f ace s a re e ven a nd w i thou tj u t t ing s t one s . B lo ck so n t e r race o r s t a irca se c o rne r s a re s qua red b u t n o t d r es sed . N o RPS , WD o r WS w a l l f e a ture s w e re c ons t ruc ted .

( f ) S tone Wa l l C ons truc t ion

( d )T he S t a i red R ou teway

S ite AM4 , Choquechurqo

S ta ir s i nt h e l owe r h a lf a r e a bou t 1 . 24 m w ide . T he w es te rn wa l l c on ta ins f ou r d ra in h o le s a tt h e b ase , e ach a bou t 2 5 cm s qua re . T he u ppe r s t a i r s a r e 2 . 3 m w ide , r e ta ined b y a0 . 57 m t h ick w a l l b e s ide a n o u tc rop o n t h en o r thern s i de a nd a 1 . 24 m t h ick a s cend ing w a l l o n t he s ou the rn s i de ( Hef fe rnan 1 989 :p la te 5 ) . (e ) S ec to rD

AM4 c omp r ise s at e r raced p la tform a nd t wo s cu lp tu red r o ck s o n ar i dge 4 km NNE o fT i lka Moun ta in ( F ig . 5 : 20 ) . S cu lp tured R ock I i s al imes tone o u tcrop . S ha l low r e ce s se s w e re h amme red o n t h e n or thern a nd s ou thern s i de s , b u t t h e mos t s t r ik ing f ea tu re i s ad eep t r apezo ida l n i che h ammet ed i n to t h e e a s tern f a ce . I ti s2 .2 m h igh , 2 . 7 mw ide a nd r e ce s sed t o ad ep th o f 1m i nt h e u ppe rp a r t ( P la te 7 0 ) . S cu lp tur ed

Th is c omp r ises t he f oo t ings a nd l ower c our ses o f t wo b u i ld ing so n ap ro tec ted s l ope b e tween o u tc rop s . B u i ld ing Ii s a pp rox ima te ly c i rcu la r , o f 6 . 1 m d i ame te r . T he max imum 8 9

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F IG . 5 :20 Choquechun io : S ite AM4 .

S i te AM6 , Nawpachaka

R ock 2 i s a l so l imes tone , w i th a n or th f a c ing t r apezo ida l n i che a bou t 2 . 5 m h igh . T er race wa l ls s u r round ing a n o pen a r ea ( t he p laza ) a re o n ly a bou t 1m h igh . T he n or the rn w a l ls b e low p laza l e ve l r each 2 .5 m h igh a nd a r e c ons t ruc ted o f c a re f u l ly f i t ted a nd d re ssed b lock s .

AM6 i sa n a r tef a c t c oncen t ra t ion o n av ege ta ted l e dge a bove t h e r i gh t ma rg in o f t h e Apur imac R ive r ( P la te 7 1) . I tl i es b e s ide a r u inou s s t one a nd l ime mor ta r p i l la r o fa n h i s tor ic p er iod s u spens ion b r idge . P reh is tor ic a r ch i te c tu re wa s n o t l o ca ted b u tp o t te ry a bound s ,p robab ly d ue t oe x tens ive l oo t ing p i ts . A v a r ie ty o f s he rd s ( n =1 9 ) w e re c o l lec ted f r om t h e m a rg ins o ft h e se .

S i te A M5 , L a E stre l la AM5 i sa n a r tefac t s ca t te ro n ac u l t iva ted f i e ld o fL aE s t re l la H ac ienda . P o t te ry i s mos t a bundan t n ea r al ow u ncu l t iva ted mound o n t h e e dge o f ag u l ly , b u to ccu r so ve r al a rge a r ea o f c u l t iva ted g round b e tween t h e mound a nd af i e ld ma rg in w h ich o ve r look s t h e Apur imac R ive r . S ome r ounded p ebb le s o n t h e mound a ppea ro u to fn a tu ra lc on tex t ,b u tn os t ruc tu ra lr ema ins a r ev i s ib le . A modern w a l l n ea rt he h ac ienda b u i ld ing s , 5 00 m a way ,i n co rpo ra te ss ome d re ssed b lock so fC u sco I nca s t y le .

C ID s he rd sc omp r ise f i ve f r om t h ef l a r ing n eck o f as ma l l I n ca S hape ' aj a r ( App .I I F ig . I 9 a ) , o ne f r om ah i gh ly d eco ra ted C u sco I n ca p l a te ( App . I I F ig . 1 9d ) a nd 2b ody s he rd s ( App . I I F ig s . 1 9b ,c ) . Ar e d p a in ted s pec imen i sC IP a nd a no the r 2 h ave I n ca o r ange s l ip . A l l o ft h e se h ave a n o range f abr ic w i th e i the rs ma l l w h i t e o rs ma l l b l a ck a nd w h i te i n c lu s ions . S ome a l so c on ta in m ica . O ne o range s l ipped s he rd h a s ag reyed f a b r ic a nd l a rge r i n c lus ions o f t he s ame c o lours . Two , i n c lud ing a n i n cu rv ing v e s se l , h ave s ma l l i n c lu s ions o f wh i te , b l ack a nd r e ds t one s , ( App . 11 F ig . 1 9g ) .

S u r f ace p o t te ry w i th in 2 5 mo ft h e mound i n c lude s many C ID a nd C IP s he rds . O n ly af ew we re c o l lec ted ( n =3 ) . One i sC ID f r om at h ick -wa l led l a rge v esse l , w i th a n e ven ly f i red o range p a s te c on ta in ing s ma l l wh i te ( unde r0 . 5 mm ) a nd b l ack ( unde r 0 . 25 mm ) i n c lus ions ( App . 11 F ig . 1 8k ) . A CT s t rap h and le i s o fi d en t ica l f ab r ic ( App . 11 F ig . 1 8m ) a nd at yp ica l C u sco I nca p l a te h and le h a s a who l ly g rey p a s te w i th o n ly s ma l l wh i te i n c lu s ions ( App .I I F ig . 1 8 1 ) .

Two a r es t rap h and le so fc oa r se rt e x tu re , c on ta in ing m ica a nd l a rge r w h i te i n c lus ions , e i the r c ha lky a nd u p t o 3 mm i n d i ame te r ( App . I I F ig . 1 9e ) o r i n g ran i te c l a s t s ( App .I I F ig . 1 90 . Ar im , w i th p a le g reen g l aze o n t h e c oncave s ur face , i s f r om ac o lon ia l p l a te . I t sf a br ic c on ta ins s ma l l b l ack a nd wh i te i n c lu s ion s , l i ke I n ca w a re , w i thou tm ica . Two a r ec l ea r -g lazed p o r ce la in . 9 0

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F IG . 5 :21 S ec tor s o f Lucre , P ant ipa ta : S i te AC! .

5 .6

CHINCHAYPUQUIO

A s ma l l t r apezo ida l n i che f a ce s o u twa rd f r om r e ta in ing w a l l A i . I ti s0 .6 m h igh , 0 . 36 m w ide a tt h e b a se a nd 0 .26 m a t t h e t op , a nd i sr e ce ssed t o amax imum o f 0 . 38 m b eh ind t h e f a cade .

SUB -REGION

S i te AC! , Lucre ( Pan t ipata ) AC1 i s at e r race s cheme l o ca ted o n t h e n a r row v a l ley f l oo ro f t he S amanca R ive r a nd b e s ide ar a v ine ( F ig . 5 :2 1 , P la te 7 2 ) . T he u ppe r g roup i sd es igna ted S ec tor A , a nd t h e r i ve r s ide g roup , S ec to r B ( F ig . 5 . 22 ) . T e r race s o f S ec to r A a nd t h e r i ve r ine f l a t so fS ec to r Ba r ec u l t iva ted .

As ma l l d ra in h o le w a s l e f t a s ag ap 0 . 3 m w es t o f as egmen t c orne ro n w a l l Av . I ti s0 . 24 m h igh , 0 . 17 m w ide a tt h e b a se a nd r e ce ssed a tl e a s t 0 . 43 m . S tones a r e c lose ly f i t ted a tt h is l o ca t ion a nd t h is m ay i mpede d ra inage a nd c on t r ibu te t o d e s truc t ive p re s su re s . D ra ins a r ec ommon i nt i gh t ly f i t ted I n ca ma sonry i nC u sco , Mauka l lak ta o fY aur isque ,T a rawa s i a nd i n t he T i lka s t a ircase w a l l wh ich w a s b u i l t a ga ins t ar ock o u tcrop . F ou r RPS s t a irca se s o ccur i nS ec to r Aw a l ls ( App . I T ab le 1 ) .

( i ) S e c to rA c ompr ise s 8s egmen ted t e r race w a l ls b e tween 1 . 5 a nd 3 . 5 m h igh , i ns t ra igh t l e ng th s r e ta in ing l e ve l led l a nds . Wa l ls a r e s i ng le o r d oub le -s tone w i th r ubb le f i l l b eh ind . F acades w e re b u i l t o f u nshaped , p e rcuss ion s haped a nd o cca s iona l ly d re ssed g r ey a nde s i te b l ock sb e tween 0 . 3 a nd 0 . 5 m . T he a nde s i te o ccu r so n s l ope so f Wa tapa ta moun ta in t ot h e n or th , a s n odu la r p i e ce s o n t h e s l ope b e tween s ec to r s a nd a s s em i -angu la r b ou lde r s o n a nd n ea r t h e t e r races . L a te ra l a nd b edd ing j o in tf a ce so fb l o cks n ea rs egmen ta nd f e a tu re c o rne r s a re s haped t oe nab le c l o se , b u tn o t t i gh t , f i t t ing .

T he f i na l s ou the rn t e r race s egmen t s a r e n o t f i l led b e tween Wa l ls Av i a nd A v i i , a nd b e tween Wa l ls Av i i a nd A v i i i . T he e a s tern s i de o f Wa l l A v i i , w he re ar e ta ined s o i l s u r f ace w ou ld b ee xpe c ted , s t and sf r ee ly t o ah e igh to f 1 . 7 m .

9 1

I nca L ima tambo

F IG . 5 :22 Lucre Andenes : S i te AC! ( De ta i l ) .

9 2

I nca L ima tambo

T he s ur face d rops a way t o t h e s ou th . V ege ta t ion g row th i s d ense h e re ,p robab ly b ecause t h es u r face i ss t ony a nd d if i cu l t t o c u l t iva te . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t h e s ur f ace e roded i n to t h e s ou the rn r a v ine , b u t as im i la r f e a tu re o ccu r s i n amo re s t ab le p a r to fS ec to rB .

e xam ined . O ne i sC ID , w i th r e d a nd b l ack p a in ted l i ne s o n o range s l ip . I ti s0 . 52 cm t h ick , w i th s ma l l w h i te a nd m ica i n c lus ion s a nd p robab ly c ome s f r om t h e r im o f al a rge I nca S hape ' aj a r . Two s he rds a r e C IP , o ne p a in ted r ed a nd t h e o t he r , as t rap h and le f r om a0 . 82 c m t h ick v e sse l , i sp a in ted b l ack o nt h ee x te r io r .

( i ) S ec to r Bh a s wa l ls wh ich a r e o f s im i la r c ons t ruc t ion t o t hose o f S ec tor A . T hey a re 1 . 5 t o 3m h igh . T he f i na l n or thwe s te rn s egmen to f Wa l l B iv r e aches t h es ame h e igh ta s t he s ou thern l eng ths b u t i s n o t af i l led r e ta in ing w a l l . I t c on ta in sl a rge b ou lde r sa nd r ubb le a nd i sn o tw e l l f a ced o nt h e i n s ide . I t i s t herefore u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a b u i ld ing c on s truc ted a ga ins tt h e t e r race w a l l . No d igg ing mach ine ry i s u sed i nt h e v i c in i ty a nd n o r oad y e te x is t s f o ri tt oh ave b een b rough tt ot h e s i te . I fe ros ion w e re t oh ave r emoved t h e f i l l , i t i su n l ike ly t oh ave l e f tt he w a l l s t and ing . U n le s s t h e f i l l w e re d ug o u t manua l ly , t h e e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t e r race i s h a lf -f in i shed .

B o th C IP s he rd sh ave ah a rd f ab r ic ,t h ef o rme rw i th ag rey c o re a nd s ma l l b l ack a nd m ica i n c lu s ions , t he l a t te r o n ly s ma l l w h i te i n c lus ions . F ive h ave a n o range s l ip w i th s ma l l wh i te a nd /o r b l ack i n c lus ion s a nd m ica s peck s . T he f ab r ic i sh a rd , w e l l -f i red a nd h a s ag r ey c o re i no ne c a se . O ne s he rd h a s ar ed b rown s l ip w i th t h e s ame f ab r ic . Two h ave a c rumb ly d a rk b rown f ab r ic , o ne w i th s ma l l w h i te i n c lu s ions a nd t he o the r w i th l a rge r e ds t one i n c lu s ions a nd m ica . S i te AC3 , N egropuqu io AC3 i s as i te o fs t one -wa l led t e r race sa nd ac a rved r ock o n t h e o u t sk ir t s o fC h inchaypuqu io t own ( F ig . 5 :23 ) . T he s cheme i s d i v ided i n to t h ree s e c to r s( F ig .5 : 25 ) .

As ma l l s he l ter , u nde rb ou lde r sa nd s l ab s a tt h e n or the rn e nd o f Wa l ls B i i i a nd B iv , c on ta ins n o s ur face a r tefac t s o r b one . An RPS s t a i rcase l i e so n Wa l l B i i ,j us tb e low t h er ock s he l te r a nd al a rge b ou lde r( App . IT ab le 1 ) .T he n o r the rn e nd o f Wa l l B i i sc u tb yt wo c hanne ls f r om ar u ined w a te rm i l l . S ite

AC2 ,

( i ) S ec to r Ac omp r ise s as e to fs even c u l t iva ted t e r race l e ve ls w i th s t ra igh t a nd s egmen ted w a l l l e ng ths ( P la te 7 5 ) . I ti s b ounded b y as ma l l s t ream o n t h e n o r thwe s tern s i de , as t one l i ned s t r eam f o r am i l lo n t h es ou the rn s i de a r id b ou lde r -s t rewn s l ope st ot h en or thea s t .

Qo l may

AC2 i s a sma l l c omp lex c omp r is ing I nca t e r races a nd s t ruc tu re s , many o fC usco I nca m a son ry , as cu lp tu red r o ck a nd a n a r tef ac t s ca t ter . I tl i es o n ar i dge b e s ide a s add le , 4 km n or thwe s t o f Ch inchaypuqu io ( F ig . 5 :23 ) . T he w es te rn a nd c en tra ls e c tor s a re l o ca ted a tt h eb a se o f ag ran i te o u tc rop a nd r ockf a l l z one . T hey a r e s epa ra ted b y as t eep a nd v ege ta ted s l ope f r om a n e a s te rn s ec to rw i th f ou rt e r race s ( P la te 7 3 , F ig . 5 :24 ) .

I t i s l i ke ly t ha t c ons t ruc t ion o f t he m i l l s t ream a t N eg ropuqu io h a s s hor tened w a l ls o f S ec tor A . Two RPS s t a i rca ses w e re l o ca ted o n t e r race Wa l ls A iv a nd Av ( App . I T ab le 1 ) . B reakou t s a l ong o the r w a l ls may h ave o bscured f u r the r R PS . O r ig ina l w a l l l e ng th s h ave p ronounced b a t te r a nd r e ach 3m h igh . T hey c ons is t o f l o ca l v o lcan ic p orphyry i n b locks a r ound 0 . 2 t o0 . 75 m max imum d imens ion . S ome b ou lde r so f t h is s t one r ema in o n t e r race s ur face s . C a re w a s t a ken t op u t f l a t s i de s o n t h e f a cade . S egmen t a nd f e a tu re c or ne r s a r e o f c a re fu l ly s haped b l ock s .

( i ) T he Wes ter n S ec to r c omp r ise s ap l a tform b u i l t a ga ins t a g ran i te r o ck f ace . L a rge b ou lde r s a re i n corpo ra ted i n to i t s r e ta in ing wa l l o f Cusco I nca p o lygona l ma sonry . S pace s b e tween o ve rhang ing r ock sa r e w a l led o n t wo s i des t of o rm a c hambe r( Rock S he l te r 1 )w i th at r apezo ida le n t rance , a bou t2 mh igh ( P la te 7 4 ) . I tc on ta ins ar o ck w i th s cu lp tu red s t ep sa nd as ma l lc hanne l . As qua re s t ruc tu re r i se sa bove r e ta in ing w a l ls a t t h e s ou thern e nd o f t he p la tform . I tc on ta ins t wo s ma l l t r apezo ida lw indow s .

( i ) S ec to r Bc omp r ise s 5l e ve ls w i th s t ra igh t b u t s egmen ted w a l l l e ng th s . T he s t ream b e tween s ec to r s Aa nd B i sf a ir ly s t r a igh ta nd m ay h ave b een c ana l ized a l though n oc hanne l w a l l r ema ins .

( i) T he C en t ra l S ec to r i ss epa ra ted f r om t h e Wes ter n S ec to r b y a n e l abora te t e r race wa l l . I tc omp r ises a p l a tform w i th S truc tur e s 2a nd 3o n i t s n o r the rn a nd e a s ter ns i des .T he re i sa d rop b e tween t he s ou thern s i de o ft h is p l a tform a nd ap a ra l le l wa l l t o t h e s ou th . T h is d oes n o t a ppea r t o b e a no the r s t ruc tu re ,b u t may h ave s uppo r ted ap a s sage o re n t rance .

( i i )S e c to r Ci sb ounded o n t h es ou thea s tern s i de b y ac on tou r t e r race w a l l . I tc on ta in s as ma l l p l a t form w h ich i sr e ta ined o n o ne s i de b y t wo l a rge r ock s . O ne o f t h e se h a s h ad s t eps h amme r -s cu lp ted o nt h ew e s te rn s i de ( P la te 7 6 ) .

R ock she l ter 2 , b enea th f a l len b ou lde r s o n t h e n or thwe s tern c orne ro ft h ep la tfo rm , i sp a r t ia l ly c l o sed b ya n e l abo ra te w a l l . T he w a l l h a s aw e l l f i n ished e nd ing c o rne ra nd w a s t h e refo re p robab ly n o t ap ermanen t ly c l o sed t omb c hambe r .

AC4 i s as ma l l t e r race s cheme l o ca ted 1 . 5 km f r om C h inchaypuqu io a nd 2 50 m e a s t o f t h e C co lpa R ive r ( F ig . 5 : 23 ) .T he l a nds a r ec u l t iva ted a nd l i ea tt h eb a se o f ab ou lde r s t rewn s l ope ( P la te 7 7 ) . I ti sd iv ided i n to t wo s ec tor s b y a p a th ( F ig . 5 : 26 ) .

S i te AC4 , Wankar ir i

( i i ) T he E a s tern S ec to r t e r race s a r e p oo r ly p re ser ved , a bou t 1 . 5 t o 2m h igh a nd 4 m w ide . S ome h ave b een c u l t iva ted i n r e cen ty ea r s .

( i ) S ec to r A c omp r ises 7 t e r race l e ve ls w i th s t ra igh t a nd s egmen ted r e ta in ing w a l ls . C ons t ruc t ion i s o f v o lcan ic p o rphy ry i nb l ock sb e tween 0 . 3a nd 0 .6 m d i ame te r , b u t s ome b a sa lc ou r se si n co rpo ra te s t one su pt o 3m .T he se a r ec a ref u l ly f i t ted . S e le c ted f l a to rp e rcu ss ion s haped s i de s f a ce o u twa rds . S egmen ta nd f e a tu r ec or ne r sa r es qua red .A ngu la rr ubb le i n

( i v )P o t te ry P o t te ry s he rds w e re e xposed b y p lough ing o n af i e ld t o t h e n o r th o f t he b u i l t a r ea . A s ma l l s e lec t ion ( n = 1 ) w e re 9 3

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mud o ccur s b eh ind t h e f acade c ou r se . RPS w e re f ound o n Wa l ls A i ia nd Av i . WD f ea tu re so ccur i nt he f ou ru ppe rl e ve ls o ft h eg r oup ( App . IT ab le s 1a nd 3 ) . Two h uman c r an ia r e s ti n c r ev ice s l e f tb y f a l len s t ones i n Wa l l A iv . T hey f a ce t h e f i e ld s ur f ace . No s pec if ic e t hnog raphy w as o b ta ined a bou t t h em , b u t Maxwe l l ( 1966 :56 ) r ecords t h e u se o fh uaca s ku l l s f r om o ld b u r ia l sa sf i e ld g ua rd ians i nt h eC usco r eg ion .

v eh ic le r oad c ons t ruc t ion h ad j u s tb egun i t sd e s truc t ive i mpac t o n t h is l a ndscape ( Göh r ing 1 935 :303 ) . T he r oad d e scended g radua l ly f r om Hu i l lque P a ss b e tween Ayav ire a nd P ampaconga l a nds a nd t h en z i gz agged d own t h e s t eep L ima tambo c ue s ta t ot h eu ppe rv a l ley f l oo rn ea rC ha l labamba . P a r to ft h e s t eep p la t form , a bou t 3m w ide , i sv i s ib le a t3 365 ma m ids t moder n t r ack sa nd t h e g radua l c urve s o fs ucce ss ive h ighways . I t s c ou r se s t ra igh tens a l ong t h e e a s tern ma rg in o f t h e v a l ley f l oo r . I ti sa bou t 2t o 3m w ide a nd d eep ly c u t b e tween C ha l labamba a nd t h e e a s te rn ma rg in o f AL8 . S tony s e c t ions , 3t o 4m w ide , a r ep reserved b e tween S i te s AL8 a nd AL l I.I ti ss t i l l u sed b y f oo t a nd h or se t r af f ic . A b ranch e x tends n o r thwa rd f r om AL II ,a c ro ss t h eC o lo rado R ive ra nd i n to t h e AL 10 t e r race s( F ig . 5 : 5 ) .

( i) S ec tor B c on ta ins t e r races wh ich a re g en t ly c urved , s egmen ted a nd o f s im i la r c ons t ruc t ion t o t ho se i nS ec to r A . An R PS w a s f ound o n Wa l l B i i i . P oo r w a l l p re serva t ion may e xp la in t h e i ra bsence a bove a nd b e low . 5 .7 I NCA ROADS F erdon ( 1978) d escr ibed t he I nca r oad f r om C usco t o L ima tambo a nd t he Apur imac R ive r a s i t wa s i n 1 938 w hen

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Mo reove r , as ma l l s ec t ion o fr oad p l a tfo rm 4 0me a s to f AL6 , a nd a l so t h e r oad b e s ide t he AL2 t e r race s ( F ig . 5 : 2 ) , i n d ica te t ha t as epa ra te r ou te p robab ly r o se f r om C ha l labamba t o Hu i l lque . T h is wa s f o l lowed t o w i th in s i gh t o f t h e p a ss , b u t d oe sn o tf e a tu re p av ing .

c en t ra l L ima tambo V a l ley . No d ef in i te I nca t e r race s w e re f ound d u r ing b r ief r e conna issance , b u tt h el a nd i ss haped a si f f o r s t ra igh t -wa l led t e r rac ing . S eve ra l s chemes l i e a l ong t h e Mo l le Mo l le R ive r Va l ley wh ich d e scends s ou thwa rd t ot h e Apur imac b e tween P aruro a nd t he s tudy r eg ion . Manchaybamba , s ou thea s t o f t h e Mo l le Mo l le -Yaur isque c onf luence , i s al a rge t e r race g roup a t2 950 m w i th r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t a nd w e l l b u i l t w a l ls i nc ompa r ison w i th i n te r leav ing t e r race so na d jacen ts l ope s .

B e low AL 11 , Wa l l Ir e s t r ic t s p a ssage t o a4 00 m l e ng th o f r oad , w i th a r us t ic w a l l , a long t h e e as te rn ma rg in o f t h e t e r race s ( F ig . 5 :7 ) . I ti sd e troyed b y amode rn r oad f r om t h e re t o AL 12 . I tp robab ly f o l lowed t he l e f t b ank o ft h e C o lo rado R iver p a s t AL12 ( F ig . 5 :9 ) a nd t h e s t ra igh t w a l l o f AL 14 S ec to rA( F ig . 5 : 10 ) u n t i l c ross ing t ot h e r i gh t b ank n ea r t h e Co lo rado -P i s t ic onf luence . A sr epo r ted b yF e rdon ( 1988 :646 ) , i tp robab ly r o se f r om n ea rt h eC o lo rado -B lanco c onf luence t o AMI , p a s t t he S ec to r A a nd B t e r races ( F ig . 5 : 14 ) , t h en d escended t h e f o ld so fr av ine s t oL aE s t re l la a nd Huamanpa ta b efore z i gzagg ing d own t o as uspens ion b r idge . T he s uspen s ion t owe ra t AM4 i sn o tI nca , b u tt h er i ve rn a r row ing , i t sc onven ience t o AM1 a nd a ssoc ia ted I nca s i te s ugge s tt h a ti t wa sp robab ly ab r idge l o ca t ion .

L laspay ( i n H uanoqu i te D is t r ic t ) i s ad ef in i te ly I n ca t e r race g roup s i tua ted a t3 000 m a nd a bove t h e w e s te rn b ank o ft h e Mo l le Mo l le R ive r . I t s l imes tone a nd a ndes i te w a l ls a r e s t ra igh ta nd s egmen ted i nt h e l owe rp a r t ,b u tc on t inue u pwa rd a s c on tou rt e r races w i th WS . S lop ing f i e lds w i th c r ude w a l ls o ccu r d own s t ream a tT oc tohuay l la a nd C o l lpa v i l lage s . I n ca t e r race s o ccu r a ga in a tn ea rby T ' ikahuer ta , o ve r look ing t h e Mo l le Mo l leApur imac c onf luence f r om a n a r row r i dge a t 3 180 m . T he se c on ta in WD f e a tu re s . Wa l ls o n ap rom inen t a d jacen tr ock o u tcrop a r e o fC u sco I nca ma sonry . O the rI n ca t e r race s cheme s b e low T ikahue r ta c an b es een f r om Q ueroro 0r qo o n t h e o ppos i te s i de o f t h e v a l ley . Que ro ro O rqo , a h i l l top a t3 650 m a nd 1 . 5 km n o r thwe s to fP aqa r iq tambo , i sa p re Inca a r tef ac ts ca t te r wh ich h a s s ome i n te r leav ing t e r ra ce s w i th c ong lome ra te w a l ls i ni r regu la rl i ne s .

T he p a th b e tween AC1 S ec to r s Aa nd B a tC h inchaypuqu io ( F ig . 5 : 26 ) i sp robab ly o n t he r ou te o fa n I nca r oad , a s a r e b road p aved s ec t ion so ft h ef oo t road b e tween AC 1 a nd t h ep a s s t o A n ta P ampa ( F ig . 5 :21) . Roads o f t he d i s t inc t ive a nd v i s ib le f o rms l o ca ted i n many a rea s b y Hys lop ( 1990 ) d o n o t g ene ra l ly s u rv ive i nL ima tambo .

S eve ra l l a rge t e r race g roup s l i e w i th in 1km o fC o lcha , f r om 2 800 t o3 180 m o n t h e w e s te rn s i de o ft h e Apu r imac R ive r a nd 1 km f r om P aruro . T hey a r e o f t he i r regu la r a nd i n te r leav ing t y pe a nd n one h ave I n ca t e r race w a l l f e a tu re s .

5 .8 RECONNAISSANCE I N ADJACENT AREAS : VILCANOTA , ANTA PA MPA , HUANOQUITE , PARURO, AC O MAY O AND APURI MAC DEPART MENT

I n A comayo P rov ince , l a rge a r ea s o fu nwa l led t e r race s l i e i n Queb rada H uach in ja a t3 000 m , 7k m s ou thwe s to fA comayo o n t h ee a s ter ns i de o ft h e Apu r imac R ive r .

Var iou s I n ca t e r race s cheme s a l ong t he V i lcano ta V a l ley b e tween S i cuan i a nd Machu P icchu ( F ig . 2 : 1) w e re v i s i ted t o e xam ine a r ch i tec tu ra l f ea tures , i n c lud ing e xamp les f r om R aqch i , R um ico lca , T ipön , P isaq , U rco , Y ucay , Mo ray , 0 1 1an tay tambo , Uppe rT anccac a nd Machu P icchu , a sw e l l a s Z ur i te a nd Qu i l la rum iyoq o n An ta P ampa ( F ig . 5 : 1) . B r ief v i s i t s w e re a l so made t o l e sse r k nown t e r race s i te s i n t h e Apu r ima cB a s in .

S tone -wa l led t e r races a l so e x tend a l ong a3 . 5 km l e ng th o ft h e we s te rn Apur imac R ive r ma rg in , a ta n a l t i tude o f 2 950 m b e tween P i l lp in to a nd C capa , 1 0 k m s ou thwe s t o fA comayo . T hey a r ei regu la ra nd i n te r leav ing . I n Apur imac D epa r tmen t ( F ig . 2 : 1) , s eve ra l b r ief t r ips a l ong t he C u rahua s i V a l ley r oad r evea led n o l a rge t e r race s cheme s . T er race p la t forms a t t h e I nca s i te o f S a ihu i te d o n o t h ave RPS , WS o r WD f ea tu res , a l though r e ce ssed s t a i rca se s w e re u sed among s t ruc tu re sb e s ide t h ec en t ra lc a rved r o ck .

I nP a ru ro P rov ince , WS f e a tu res w e re l o ca ted i nI n ca t e r race s i nQ ueb rada Huaynacancha a t3 070 m ,b e s ide ar o ad l e ad ing t o t h e I n ca s e t t lemen t a t Mauka l lac ta ( Yaur isque D is t r ic t ) . T he Y aur isque Va l ley a t 3 100 m , n ea r H ac ienda s S an J uan d e T a ray a nd Manzana re s ,h a s at opog raphy r e semb l ing t h eb road

9 7

CHAPTER 6

ETHNOHISTORY OF THE L I MATA MBO VALLEY 6 .1 I NTRODUCTION : S oc ia l S pace o f T ambos o n t he Road t o Ch inchaysuyu .

w hen o ne e a r ly c o lon ia lt o ponym wa sa dop ted a st he n ame o fa h ac ienda a nd o t he ra r ea sw i th n ame sw e re s ub sumed u nde ri t .

T h i sc hap te rs u rvey sd ocumen ta ry i mage so fL ima tambo i nt h e e a r ly 1 6 th c en tu ry . I ts eek s t h e a s soc ia t ion o fl a nd scap e s n ea r P ampaconga , L ima tambo a nd Mo l lepa ta , w i th s oc ia l g roup s a nd I nca i n s t i tu t ions a tt h et ime o fE u ropean c on ta c t .

6 . 1 .2 Encom iendas L and

P ropr ie tary

I nteres t s

i n

T he e ncom ienda o rr epar t im ien to , a n a dm in i s t ra t ive g roup ing o fI nd ian p eop le sf r om w hom t r ibu te w a so b ta ined f o rS pan i sh e ncomendero s , C hu r ch a nd C rown , mus tb ed i s t ingu ished f r om l a ndho ld ing s( e g .h ac ienda s , e s tanc ias , c ha cara s , s o lar e s )o ft h e s ame n ame .T he a r e ao fl a nd i nw h ich p eop le o fa ne ncom ienda r e s ided w a s u sua l ly m a s s ive b yc ompa r i son w i th t he b lo ck s i n w h ich p ropr ie ta ry i n te re s t s w ere g ran ted b y t he C rown . T ransac t ions a nd t e s tamen ta ry d i spos i t ion s e ven tua l ly l e d t o t h eg r ow th o fs om el a rge h ac ienda s .

T he f i r s t s ec t ion e mp loys p ub l ished c hron ic le s a nd v i s i ta s t o e s tab l ish t h ee a r ly h i s to r ic , g eog raph ic a nd s oc ia l s e t t ing o ft h e L ima tambo V a l ley . T he s econd u se s b o th a r chaeo logy a nd d o cumen t s t ol o ca te t h e t ambo o fL ima tambo . T he t ambo i s u sed a s ap o in t o fr e f e rence i n ac a se s t udy m ade t oi d en t if y p l ace sa nd t h e i rl a te p reh is to r ic o ccupan t si ns u r round ing l a nd s . 6 .1 .1

a nd

Toponyms 6 . 1 .3 I n terpre t ing R ecords

D ocumen ta ry s equence sa nd p re sen tt oponym sa r eu sed t ot r a ce s pa t ia l c on tex t s t h rough f ou ra nd ah a lf c en tu r ie s . T oponym s , t he w r i t ten o r s poken s ymbo ls emp loyed t o d es igna te g eog raph ica l f ea tu re s , a s s is t t he a t t r ibu t ion o f g eog raph ic m ean ing t oh i s to r ic n a r ra t ive ( Dycke rhof f 1 984 :233 ) .I nC u sco t h ey h ave b een u sed t ol o ca te t h e p robab le l o ca t ion o fs a c red s i te s w i th in t h e I n ca c eque s y s tem ( Zu idema 1 981 ; Z u idema a nd P oo le 1 982 :87 ) . G iven t h e s ca rc i ty o f e a r ly E u ropean t opog raph ic m ap s , l a nd t i t le p ape r s p rov ide s ome o ft h e b e s t i n forma t ion f o r t h is p rocedu re . S urv iva l o f t oponyms i sa p roduc t o f t h e ir i n co rpo ra t ion i n to s c r ip t , map s a nd o ra l t r ad i t ion .

A dm in i s t ra t ive d o cumen t sa r el e s s emo t ive t h an c h ron ic le sb u t a r e n o t f r ee o f i nf luence f r om t h e w r i te r ' s p u rpose , p o s i t ion , p e r spec t ive o r e ven f a ls if ica t ion ( S tern 1 982 ; Bo rah 1 984 ) . S i nce many l i s t s o f b ounda ry t oponym s a r e c on ta ined i n l i t iga t ion r e co rd s , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o c on s ide r whe the r t h a t a spec t w a s c on ten t iou s a nd t o a ssess p a r t isan c la im s o r a lega t ion si ns uch s ou rce sf o rw ha tt hey a r e .A dve r sa r ie sc ho se t op re sen t t h e i n forma t ion w h ich s u i ted t h e i r p os i t ion a nd c ho se w i tne sse s a cco rd ing ly . J ud ic ia l a nd a dm in is ta t ive o ff ic ia ls c anno t b e a s sumed t oh ave b een i mpa r t ia l a nd w e re p robab ly l e a s ts ow hen s e le c ted f r om l o ca l r e s iden t s f o rm ino r j ud ic ia l o re xecu t ive r o le s . N eve r the less , m uch o ft he d a ta i n t h e c h ron ic les a nd l a nd l i t iga t ion i s d escr ip t ive a nd u ncon ten t iou s .

L and scape f e a tu re s , l i ke k h ipus , c an o pe ra te a sd ev ice s w h ich a s s is t t he memory o f at oponym a nd a s soc ia ted t r ad i t ion ( Vans ina 1 965 :38 ) . T h is o ccu r s f r equen t ly i n t h e f i e ld a nd p robab ly h appened when c hron ic ler s w e re c o l lec t ing i n forma t ion a bou t p lace s i n t h e t ime o ft h e I nca . G rea tes t t oponym ic d ive r s i ty i s ma in ta ined b y t he r e s iden t s o f a l o ca l i ty . Ac ommun i ty l a ndho ld ing h a s , a mong i t s r e s iden t s , a mu l t i tude o f n ame s o f r i ve r s ec t ions , moun ta in s , r av ine s , f i e ld s , v i l lage s , r u in s a nd r ock s . O n ly s ome e n te rd ocumen t s , b u t t h e re a r e c l ea r r e a sons f o r t h e r e ten t ion a nd t e ach ing o f t ho se w h ich d e s igna te t h e l a nd scape wh ich s u s ta in s p e r sona l a nd c ommun i ty l i f e .

6 . 1 .4 The S e t t ing o f Two T a mbos T he c h ron ic le s c on ta in a n a bs t rac t g eog raphy i n w h ich s e quen t ia l t oponym s a ccompany e ven t s i nt ime . A S pan i sh o ff ic ia l , C r i s t6va l V a ca d e C a s t ro , s t ayed i nL ima tambo l o ng e nough t o w r i te al e t te r d ur ing Novembe r 1 542 , o n ly n i ne y ea r s a f te r t h e S pan ia rd s ' a r r iva l i n Cu sco ( Po r ra s 1 959 :489 4 90 ) . H i s O rd inance sf o rt h er e -e s tab l ishmen to ft ambo so ft h e t i me o f H uayna C apa c , l i s ted t h e t ambos , c ommenc ing w i th C u sco , X aqu ixaguana ( i . e . J aqu i jahuana ) , L ima tambo a nd A pu r ima ( o r G ua r ina ) 1,a l ong t h e r ou te t oL o s R eye s ( L ima ) v i a G uamanga ( Ayacucho ) ( 1908 :427-430 , 4 42 -445 [ 1 543 ] ) . T h i s l i s t c an b e c ompa red w i th ac or respond ing l i s t o fP oma ( 1 980 :1005 [ c a .16 13 ] )i nt h ee a r ly 1 7 th c en tu ry ( Tab le 6 : 1) .

D iff icu l t ie so fl i nk ing o ra l a nd d ocumen ta ry t o ponym s a r e n o t c onf ined t oo r thog raph ic c onfu s ion o f Q uechua t e rm s i nt h e h and so fS pan i sh s c r ibe sa nd e r ro r si nc opy ing .T he se a r ed ea l t w i th a s t hey a r ise . Many t oponyms a re r epea ted , u sua l ly b ecau se t h ey d e sc r ibe a c ommon t opog raph ic f o rm . S e t s o f t oponyms f ound i n b ounda ry d ocumen t s a re t he refo re i mpo r tan t , p a r t icu la r ly w hen t h e r e co rde rv i s i ted a nd w ro te a d e scr ip t ion o f t h e l a nd scape . I ti s a l so i mpor tan t t o s e ek e v idence f o r t h e c on t inued u se o f at oponym f r om t h e e a r ly p e r iod o fi n te re s t t h rough t ot h e p re sen t . C omp le te l a nd t i t le s a r er a re , b u to the rd ocumen t so ft h e 1 7 th t o1 9 th C en tu r ie s a r e u sefu l i nt h is r ega rd . Many b ounda ry ma rke r s w e re t r ee s o r o the r f ea tu res w h ich c anno t b e p rec ise ly i d en t if ied . T he o b jec t ive i st oo b ta in p o in ts o fr e f e rence f r om w h ich t ou se t h e d i r ec t iona lc l ue sa nd d i s tance se xp re ssed i nt h es ou r ce . Mode rn t o ponym s ,e ven w hen t h ey a ppea rt oh ave s ur v ived c en tu r ie si n a na r ea ,c an n eve rb ea s sumed t oa pp ly t ot h ee xa c ts pa ce t h ey s ymbo l i sed i n a n h i s tor ic d ocumen t . A c ommon e xamp le i s

Mo s t t oponym s i n T ab le 6 : 1 e x is t a s t own n ames i n t h e s ou ther nP e ruv ian h i gh land s ( F ig . 2 : 1) . T hey p rov ide as pa t ia l f r amewo rk f o re a r l ie rr e f e rence s .B o th Vaca a nd P oma c l a s s if ied t h ep l ace sr e p re sen ted b yt oponym s .V aca s epa ra ted t h ec i udad , t h et ambo w i th ap ueb lo a nd t h e s imp le t ambo . P oma o rde red t h em a s c i udad , t ambo r ea l w i th ap ueb lo , t h a t w i thou t a p ueb lo , a nd f i na l ly t amb i l lo . G onza lez Ho lgu in ( 1952 :337 ,690 [ 1 608 ] ) u sed t h e a na logy o fa n i n n ( yen ta om e sön ) t o d ef ine t ampu ( t anbo o rt ambo ) .T he Q ue chua wo rd t ampu wa sa dop ted i n to S pan i sh a nd i t s u sage g ene ra l ized . Ab e t te r d ef in i t ion o f t h e I n ca t ampu i so p en e nded , l i ke t ha t o fH ys lop ( 1984 :277 ) w ho d ef ine s i ta s as t a te i n s ta l la t ion o n ar oad , w i th l odg ing s a nd s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s a nd w he re many a c t iv i t ie s t ook p l a ce .

9 8

E thnoh is tory o f L ima tambo

TABLE 6 :1

Tambo L ists o f

1 543 and E arly 1 7th C entury,

Cusco t o V ilcashuamän.

L ist b y V aca de Castro:

L ist by Guaman P oma d e A yala:

P LACE

P LACE

DESCRIPTION

D ESCRIPTION

Cuzco

( c)

( Cuzco )

( c)

X aquijaguana

( t,p )

Xacxa Uana

( tr )

L imatambo

( t)

L ima

( tr )

Apurima

( t)

( Guarina ) ( Apurimac R iver )

( Aporima bridge )

Curaguasi

( t)

Curi Guaci

Abancay

( t)

Amancay

( tr,p ) ( tr,p )

C abana

( t)

C ochacajas

( t)

Cocha Caxas

( tr )

Curamba

( t,p )

( Curimba ) P ingos

( to)

Andaguaylas

( t,p )

Anda Guayllas

( tr,p )

Uramarca

( t)

Oran Marca

( Guanbo bridge) ( tr,p )

Lurun Marca V ilcas c . c iudad t o=

( t,p ) ( city);

t ambillo

t r= t ambo r eal

V ilcas Guaman ( royal

t ambo);

p= pueblo

( to) ( tr,p )

( village);

t = t ambo;

( small t ambo);

6 .1 .5 T ambos i n t he L ima tambo Va l ley

J aqu i jaguana ( J aqu i jahuana ) , L ima tambo , C uraguas i ( Cu rahua s i )a nd A bancay w a st or e s ide ( 1908 :459 [ 1 543 ] ) .T he r educc iön p o l icy h ad y e tt ob es y s tema t ica l ly e xe cu ted ,b u tt h e d iv is ion o f i nd igenou s p opu la t ions i n to r epar t im ien tos h ad p ro l if e ra ted ( Ma t ienzo 1 967 :48 -50 ; L ockha r t 1 968 :11-48 ; C ook 1 975 ; H ampe 1 975 :75 -77 ) . Many o l d i n s ta l la t ion s w e re a l ready i n d i sa r ray s i nce V aca o rde red t ha t w he re t ambo b u i ld ing s w e re d e s t royed , t h e m a te r ia ls b e u sed t ob u i ld n ew o ne s .L ima tambo w a ss pec if ied a sh av ing t o of ew I nd ian st ob e a b le t oo f f e rt h ef u l ls e rv ice sr e qu i red o fo t he rt ambo s( Va ca d e C a s t ro 1 908 :489 -490 [ 1 543 ] ) .

A ccoun t s o f F ranc isco P iza r ro 's e n t ry i n to C usco a s s is t t h e p l acemen to f mo re d e ta i led t oponym ic s equence s . A na dvance p a r ty w i th d eS o to m e tI nd ian r e s i s tance a tB i lca sa nd a ga in a t amoun ta in w i th a n i d o l n amed B i lcan inca . T h i s l a y a bou t 5 l e ague s f r om C usco , i . e . a bou t 2 5 km ( Hy s lop 1 984 :296 ) . F rom h e re t h ey w en t t o al a rge t own c a l led X aqu i X aguana ( J aqu i jahuana ) o n ap la in , 4l e ague s f r om C u sco ( E s te te 1 938 :389 [ 1 535 ] ) . T he Apu r ima c R ive r w a s c rossed u s ing l o ca lr a f t sb ecau se t h eb r idge h ad b een b u rned .P ed ro S ancho d e l a H oz ( 19 17 :165 [ 1534 ] ) s upp l ied t h e f i r s t r e f e rence t o a s e t t lemen to nt h eC u sco s i de o ft h e Apu r imac , ap ueb lo c a l led R imac , o ne l e ague f r om t h e r i ve r . T he moun ta in c amp o f d e S o to , n ea rB i lcan inca , w a s 2l e ague s f r om t h e l a rge ' t own ' o f J aqu i jahuana ( t rans la ted i n t h is s ource a s S ach isagagua ) ( Sancho 1 917 :165 [ 1 534 ] ; P iza r ro 1 978 :78 [ 1571] ) . P ed ro P iza r ro w ro te h i s a ccoun t o f t h ese e ven t s d ecade s l a te r , p robab ly w i th g rea te r e xpe r ience o f t he mean ing a nd c on s t ruc t ion o fQ uechua t oponyms . H e n amed t h e moun ta in p a s s l o ca ted o n t h e e dge o f t h e p la in b efo re C u sco a s V i lca C onga .D eS o to i ss a id t oh ave r e ached t h eb a se o f amoun ta in a nd t h en t o h ave c omp le ted h a lf o f t h e o ne league c l imb t owa rd s ap a ss b ef o re e ngag ing i nb a t t le ( P izar ro 1 978 :77 -79 [ 1571 ] ) . A s i n E s te te 's a ccoun t o f B i lcan inca , t he g roup s ub sequen t ly l e f t V i lca C onga f o r J aqu i jahuana a nd C usco , a l though t h e p as s w a s p l aced 1 0 l e ague s r a the r t han 5 f r om C usco ( op .c i t . :84 ) . T he p a ss b e tween A n ta P ampa a nd L ima tambo i sn ow c a l led H u i l lque a nd ap ea san t c ommun i ty a l ong t h ef oo tr oad t h e re i sn amed Huam4n C haccona d e S an C r i s töba ld e V i lcaconga . V i lcaconga w a st h en ame o f as h r ine wh ich r e ce ived c achau i ( t he c apacocha s acr if ice o r i t s me s senge r ) f r om a l l o ve r P e ru ( A lbornoz ( 1984 :204 -215 [ 1 584 ] ) .

T he a ccoun to fa no rac le a t ap l ace c a l led A pur ima p a s t V i lca s , b y P ed ro P iza r ro , i so f s uff ic ien t d e ta i l t o s ugge s t d i rec t o b se rva t ion ( 1978 :81-82 [ 1 571 ] ) . A n a s soc ia ted my th w h ich P iza r ro c ou ld h ave c o l le c ted a ta ny t ime b e fo re w r i t ing ,r e la te s t h a t t h e s i te g ua rd ian w a s as i s t er o ft h e I n ca s c a l led A sa rpay w ho t h rew h e r se lf i n to t h e A pu r ima R ive r n ea r t h e A pu r ima B r idge . A s ide f r om t h is g ene ra l a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e r i ve r , n o i n d ica t ion w a s g i ven o ft h e o r ac le ' s p rox im i ty t ot h et ambo o f A pur ima . C ieza , u pon c ro ss ing t h e A pu r ima c R ive r , r e por t s h av ing s e en t h ep l ace w he re a po sen to s ( l odg ing s )o ft h e I n ca s w e re , a nd s t a te s t h a t i tw a s t h ep l a ce w he re a n o r ac le u sed t o b e . H et h en w en tt ot h ea po sen to so fL ima tambo , t h eS i er ra d e B i lcaconga ( i .e . V i lcaconga ) a nd J aqu i jahuana V a l ley ( 1984 :256 [ 1 553 ] ) . H is u se o ft h e p a s t t e n se s ugge s t s t h a t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e r u ins w a s b a sed u pon i ndependen t i n f o rma t ion , p o s s ib ly o ra l t r ad i t ion a tt h ep l ace . L a te rc h ron ic le s a dd l i t t le l o ca t iona le v idence t ot h a tc on ta ined i n t hose w r i t ten b efore 1 560 . T he c h ron ic le o f t h e Q u ipukamayoq c onf i rms t h a t F ranc i sco P iza r ro a r r ived a t L ima tambo p r io r t o a scend ing V i lca conga . T he t oponym ic u sage sa r ec h rono log ica l ly u nce r ta in s i nce t h ei n i t ia lr e la t ion o f I nca r e co rd k eepe r s , w h ich t o ok p l ace i n 1 542 , w a s e d i ted i n 1 608 b y F ray A n ton io Ma r t inez ( Co l laph ia e t .a l . 1 974 :56 ) . P oma , w ho se w r i t ing d a te s t ot h e e a r ly 1 7 th c en tu ry , d i d n o t

T he t ambo o f Apu r ima w a si n tended , u nde rV aca ' so rd inance s , t o b e t h e p r inc ipa l t ambo , w he re in t h e o ff ic ia l i nc ha rge o f

9 9

E thnoh i s to ty o fL ima tambo

i n c lude t h et ambo d eA pur ima among t ho se h e l i s ted b e tween X acza U ana a nd C ura G uac i( i . e .J aqu i jahuana a nd C u rahua s i ) ( Tab le 6 : 1) . I t a ppea r s t o h ave b ecome u n impo r tan t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e t wo ma in I nca i n s ta l la t ions f ound b y e a r l ie r w r i te r s i n t he L ima tambo V a l ley . Mo reove r , t h e ir t oponyms w e re s im i la r . T h is may h ave c au sed c onfus ion . P iza r ro t r an s la ted A pur ima , t h e o rac le , a st h e S pan ish f o r t h e l o rd w ho s peak s( 1978 :81 [ 1 57 1 ] ) .G a r c i la so ,w ho w a sa bou t4 y ea r s o ld w hen V aca ' s wo rk w a s w r i t ten , u sed t h e t e rm R imac tampu ( t ampu t h a ts peak s )t od e s igna te t h et ambo o ft h e L ima tambo V a l ley ( 1960 : B k .1 , C h .xx ; 1 -xx i i i ; 3 -xv i i i [ 1609 ] ; Du rand 1 960 :20 ) .H eh ad r a t iona l ized amean ing f o rt h e t oponym L ima tambo f r om h i s k now ledge o fC u sco Q ue chua ( r imay , t o s peak ) , a nd s t a te s e xp l ic i t ly t h a t S pan ia rd s o f ten p ronounced o rw ro te t h el e t te r T whe re h ec on s ide red ' r ' mo re a pp rop r ia t e( 1960 :Bk .7 ,C h . iv ) . T he l i nea r a b s t rac t g eog raphy , a l ong t h e m a in r ou te t h rough t h e L ima tambo V a l ley i n c o lon ia l a ccoun t s , i sd i s t i l led a s f o l low s : a .T he Apu r ima cR ive ra nd i t sb r idge , b .A n o rac le o r c u l t s i te n ea rby , c onnec ted t o t h e A sa a rpay my th ; c .T he t ambo o f Apur ima o rR imac , a bou t al e ague f r om t h e r iv er , d .T he t ambo o fL ima tambo ;a nd e .A s t eep a scen t o r moun ta in n amed V i lcaconga , w i th a n a s soc ia ted i do l , b e tween L ima tambo a nd a p a ss i n to t h e J aqu i jahuana v a l ley o rp la in . 6 .1 .6 The P eop le a nd Huacas R e la t ions w ith Cusco

o f

L imata mbo ,

a nd

C h ron ic le s a nd v i s i tas p erm i t ap re l im ina ry e xpan s ion o ft h e l i nea r g eog raphy i n to o ne o fp eop le i nh i s to r ica l s pace . I ti s p robab le t h a t s oc ia l a nd p hys ica l s pace w a s c apab le o f r ep re sen ta t ion i nt h ea r rangemen to fh uaca si n aw ay s im i la rt o t ha t d e sc r ibed f o r I nca C usco b y Z u idema ( 1964 ) . S uch o rgan iza t ion w a sn o tc onf ined t ot h a tp l ace ( Po lo d eO ndega rdo 1 917 :52 [ 1571 ] ) . S ome h uacas i n t he s t udy r eg ion w e re d escr ibed , a l though t he re i s n o d e ta i led l i s t ing t o e nab le r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e i rc oncep tua la r rangemen t . T he Apu r ima o rac le a nd B i lcan inca i do lc an b ec ompa red w i th a d e sc r ip t ion o fk nown h uaca so ft h e P rov inc ia d e Q u ichuas i n c a se s whe re t h e l o ca t ion i ss uff ic ien t ly i n d ica ted . C r is t6ba l d e A lbo rnoz , i nh i sg u ide t od i scove ry o fi nd igenou ss ac red s i te s , t h e i rc a re take r sa nd l a nd s ,a dv i sed t h a tt h ep l ace sb ev i s i ted a nd d e s t royed .H uaca sh el i s ted i nQ u ichua si n c lude : a .C orau ir e , ac ave o n t h ef l ank o fV i lcaconga , d e sc r ibed a sa h uaca o ft h eP u l lacayra I nd ian s ; b .S a lcan tay , av e ry h igh , s now -capped moun ta in , w h ich w a s g r ea t ly r e ve r ed ;a nd c .A por imac , ar o ck o fg rea ts upe r s t i t ion ( 1984 :206 -207 ,217 2 18 [ c a .1584 ] ) . S a lkan tay , ap eak r i s ing t o 6 271 m , mus t h ave b een mo s t i mp rac t icab le t o v i s i t . C orau ir e a nd A pur imac c onfo rm , b y l o ca t ion ( B i lcan inca ) a nd n ame ( Apu r ima ) , t o s ac red s i te s men t ioned i nt h ee a r l ie s ts ou r ce s .T he d e ta i l a dded b yA lbo rnoz i sn o t s u rp r i s ing , s i nce h e k new t he v a l ley w e l l e nough t o h ave p u r cha sed l a nd s t h e re i n 1 588 2.P rev iou s ly u npub l i shed d ocumen t s s how t ha t t h e P u l lacayra I nd ian s r e s ided o n t h e n o r the rn s l ope s o f t h e L ima tambo V a l ley . T he n ame R io d e

P u l la C ayra w a s g i ven t ot h eC o lo rado R ive rn ea rL ima tambo i n1 579 3.D u r ing t h e l a nd s i n spec t ion b y D iego d eA lcaza r , i n 1 645 , i tw a s n o ted t h a t t h e a y l lu P o l la C a ira c ame f r om P ampaconga v i l lage& P u l la i s ac u r ren t t oponym u s ed b y P ampa conga r e s iden t s f o r ac u l t iva ted a r ea b es ide S i te AL43 ( F ig . 4 : 9 , P l a te 2 4 ) . C orau ir e i sn o t a n e x tan t t oponym b u t a h ac ienda i n t h e 1 960 s , b e tween P ampaconga a nd A yav ir i c ommun i ty l a nd s , w a s c a l led C urav ir e . I n 1 646 , C ura -M ir e w a s am oun ta in o ft h eP ampaconga v i l lage I nd ians 5. A lbo rnoz d i d n o tl i s ta ny o ft h e se a sh uaca sg enera le s , at e rm h er e se rved f o rt h o se w h ich w e r ep rov ided t oo ri mpo sed u pon p eop le s b y t h e I n ca ( 1984 :194 ,198 ) . C o rau i re a nd A pu r imac m ay h ave b e en h uaca s o fl o ca l s oc ia l g roup s , l i ke t h ey l lapa s ( mumm ie s )r e ve r ed b y ap ar c ia l idad ( s oc ia ld i v is ion o ra y l lu o f d e scendan t s ) ,o rp acar i sca s ,( huaca sw h ich w e r e my th ica lp l a ce s o fo r ig in ) ( op .c i t . :196 197 ) . T he s ame a u tho r d e sc r ibe s I n ca l e g i t ima t ion o f c on t ro l b y t h e r ebu i ld ing o r a do rn ing o f p acar i sca s a nd h ow m i t imae s p laced b y t h e I nca t os e cu re t e r r i to ry , w e re t h en g iven t o t he s e rv ice o f t h e h uaca ( op .c i t . :198 199 ) . T he a ccep tance o fn ewcome r s t h rough t h e i r s uf i c ien td evo t ion t ol o ca lh uaca si sn o ta nu nu sua lc oncep ti n A ndean e t hnog raph ic l i te ra ture ( Ba s t ien 1 978 :xx iv ) . T he m i tmaqkuna may t h us h ave b een s ymbo l ica l ly a t t r ibu ted t oa n ew I n ca o r ig in -p lace a l though t h e p owe r o f ah ome land p c icar isca c ou ld a l so h ave b een t r ansf er red t o t h is h uaca ( A lbo rnoz 1 984 :197 199 ) . T h is i n teg ra t ive i mage ry i sa ppa ren t i n af ounda t ion m y th a bou t I n ca C usco a nd i t s p e r iphe ry c on ta ined i n ah i gh ly s t ruc tu r ed p a r to ft h e Q u ipucamayoq r e la t ion , l i ke ly t od e r ive f r om e a r ly 1 6 th c en tu ry o ra l t r ad i t ion . T he f i r s t I n ca l o rd , Manco C apac , i ss a id t oh ave r u led t h ea r ea w i th in t e n l e ague s o fC u sco .T h i sd oma in w a sc r ea ted b ya ccep tance o f Manco ,a s s on o f t h e s un , a nd o f h i s i do l a nd s econd p er son n amed G uanacaur e , ac h ie f moun ta in s h r ine o fC u sco ( Co l lap i f ia e t .a l . 1 974 :29 ) . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t L ima tambo b e longed t o t h i s c o re c oncep tua ld oma in o ft h eC u sco r eg ion . 6 .1 .7 T he Mo l lepata

C i tua

Doma in

a nd

T i lka

Moun ta in ,

D u r ing t h eI n ca c i t ua c e remony ,d e sc r ibed b y Mo l ina ( 1 943 :30 3 1 ,143 [ 1 573 ] ) , i tw a s f i r s t r equ i red t h a t , a l l f o re igne r s , a l l t h o se w i th p hy s ica l d efe c t s a nd a l l w ho se e a r s w e r e b r oken l e ave t h ea r ea w i th in t wo l e ague so fC usco . T h i s i se qu iva len t t o t h e a r ea w h ich , i n a my th r e co rded b y S a r rn ien to , w a s d epopu la ted b y I n ca P achaku t i s o t h a t l a nds c ou ld b e a pp rop r ia ted f o r t h e i n hab i tan t s o fC usco ( 1943 :179 [ 1 572 ] ) . F ou rg roup sa s semb led i n aC u sco p l aza a nd e a ch ma r ched o u t i n ad i f f e r en t d i re c t ion . T ho se w ho w en t i n to C h inchay suyu d rove e v i l t o S a lp ina , al e ague f r om C u sco , w he re t h e p i lg r image w a sa s sumed b y m i t imae sf r om J aqu i jahuana .T hey i n t u rn h anded o ve r t o t h e m i t imaes o f T i lca . T i lca w as d e sc r ibed a sb e ing a bove Mar cawa s ia nd a bou tt e nl e ague sf r om C u sco a nd i t s m i t imaes r i tua l ly d i spo sed o f t he e v i l b y w a sh ing i nt h eA pu r imac R ive r( Mo l ina 1 943 :31 [ 1 573 ] ) . T i lka s umm i t l i e s 2 . 5 k m n o r thwe s t o f Mo l lepa ta , 4k m f r om Ma rkawa s i s e t t lemen t a nd S i te AM 1 a nd 6 km f r om t h e A pu r imac R iver a t S i te AM6 ( F igs . 2 : 3 a nd 5 : 1) . C o r re spond ing t ot h e d ocumen ta ry d e scr ip t ion , i ti sa bou t 6 0 k m w e s to fC u sco a nd c on ta in s amonumen ti nI n ca s t y le ( S i t e AM3 ) . T he t o ponym Mar l cawas i i sn o t ar e cen ta t tachmen t t o t h i s l a nd scape . I n t h e 1 560 s i tw a s u sed t od e s igna te ap l ace

1 00

E thnoh i s tor y o fL ima tambo

a t tacked d ur ing t he r e s is tance o fT i to C u s i Y upanqu i a nd a p la ce p roduc ing g rape s ,a bou tn ine l e ague s f r om C u sco , a l ong t h e r oad t o L ima (Ma t ienzo 1 967 :302 [ 1 567 ] ; G a r c i la so 1 960 :Bk .3 , C h .x ix [ 1609 ] ) . I ti sa pp rop r ia te ly p o s i t ioned i na map o f1 786 ( Apa r ic io V ega 1 970 : m ap 9 ) . T i lka i sa n u ncommon t o ponym w h ich i sn o t s pec if ied i nt h e e a r ly Q uechua a nd A yma ra d i c t iona r ie s . Q uechua p hone t ic s s ugge s ti ti sd i s t inc t f r om t h ec oncep tua l ly r e la ted t e rm st i c l la , a no b je c t' b lack o no ne s i de a nd w h i te o nt h eo t he r ' ,o ra t i l lcha , ' c on t ra ry c ompan ion s , o ppo sed i ng ame s a nd t e s t s ' ( Gonza lez Ho lgu in 1 952 :36 ,340 -341 [ 1608 ]) . T i c l la w a s an ame e l emen t f o r aC hanka c ap ta in c ha rged w i th c onque s to fA n t i suyu , i na my th r e p re sen t ing p r inc ip le s o fs oc ia l o rgan iz a t ion ( Zu idema 1 964 :103 -106 ) . T i lka d oe s h oweve r a ppea r i nt h e n ame o fa s on o fH uayna Capac , P au lo T i lca Y upangue , p robab ly D on C r is t6ba l P au I lu Ynga ( C ieza 1 985 :200 [ c a . 1 550 ] ) a nd i nt h e n ame o f as on o f P achacu t i I nca w ho w a s c o -cap ta in a nd g ene ra l i nt h e s t o ry o fT opa I nca 's c onque s t o fC h inchay suyu ( Sa rm ien to 1 943 :213 -2 18 [ 1572 ]) . P e rhap s t h en , i tw a s a n h ono r i f ic r e la ted t ot h et e rm t i l laycachan i mean ing ' t og oa bou t f r ee ly '( Gonza lez Ho lgu in 1 952 :342 [ 1608 ] ) T he I n ca i n s ta l la t ion a t Ma rkawa s i may b e t h e R imac p ueb lo men t ioned b y S ancho , a nd t h e t ambo o f A pu r ima l i s ted b y V aca d eC a s t ro . I tl a yo nt h eI n ca r oad f r om L ima tambo a nd i s t h ee qu iva len to fa bou t al e ague f r om al i ke ly b r idge s i t eo nt h e Apu r imac R iver ( A M6 ) . I ti st h e o n ly I nca s i te o f as i ze , c omp lex i ty , a nd d eg ree o fe l abo ra t ion c ompa rab le w i th m a jo r t ambo si nt h er eg ion , e . g . a tV i lca shuamän . T i Ica w a sm en t ioned i nV aca d eC a s t ro ' s l i s to fn amed i n d io sy p ueb lo sr e qu i red t os e rve i nt h e t ambo o fA pu r ima ( 1908 :443 [ 1543 ] ) .I fV aca 's o rd inance s f o l lowed t h e i rs t a ted i n ten t ion t o r ep l ica te t h e I nca s y s tem o ft ambo s e rv ice , t h en t h em i t imaes o f T i lka p rev ious ly s e rved a t Apu r ima ( S i te AM 1) . T he S pan ish i n va s ion h ad t h en o n ly d i s rup ted t h e s ys tem f o r a d ecade a nd Vaca , l i ke o the r e a r ly c o lon ia l o ff ic ia ls i nP e ru , p robab ly g a the red t h e i n fo rma t ion f o rh i sp l an s f r om t h e l o ca l p eop le s . 6 .1 .8

L imata mbo -Cusco

R e la t ions

My th ico -h is tor ic a ccoun t s o f L ima tambo r e a ff i rm i t s s t rong t i es t o Cusco . Garc i laso i den t if ied Mayu , Z ancu , C h inchaypuqu io a nd R imac tampu a st own sf ounded b y Ma , lc° C apa c ( 1960 :Bk .1 ,Ch .xx ) . C obo r e co rded at r ad i t ion t h a t t h e n in th I n ca , P achaku t i , b u i l t t emp le s , f o r t s a nd p a la ce s i n V i lca s , H ua rco , L ima tambo a nd C u sco o n t h e mode l o ft h o se s een d u r ing c onque s t o ft h e T i t icaca r eg ion ( 1964 :82 [ 1 653 ] . On ly G a r c i la so men t ions t h a t t h e R imac tampu n ac iön w as g ran ted ap a r t icu la r p r iv i lege b y t h e I nca , t h a t o ft h e r i gh t t o w ea re a rp lug s made f r om c huchau ( ap l an tc ommon i nt h el ow a nd h o tp a r t s o fL ima tambo ) ( 1960 :Bk .1 ,Ch .xx i i i ) . G a r c i la so m igh th ave s een t h is a do rnmen to n h i s w ay t oL ima i n1 560 . Howeve r , i t may h ave b een men t ioned t o e xemp l if y t h e r eg iona lh i e ra rchy o fr oya l a nd n on roya lI n ca s . Guaman P oma i n c luded t h e Qu ichua sa mong f ou r teen g roup sr e ga rded a sI n ca s b y -P r iv i lege w i th t h e r i gh t t oi n i t ia t ion b y t h e p i e rc ing t h e i r e a r s , t h u s mak ing t h em o r e jone s ( ' b ig e a r s ' ) i ne a r ly c o lon ia l p a r lance ( 1980 :66 ,690 ;Z u idema 1 983 :55 ) . T he c or r eg idor o f Abancay v i s i t ed t h eL ima tambo v a l ley ,A n ta , C h inchaypuqu io a nd C u rawa s i i n1 586 .H ew a sc ha rged w i th a d u ty t oe nqu ire a s t o w hom t h e i nhab i tan t s b e longed , a nd t o n o te t h e i r c us tom s a nd t h e ir n a tu re o f g over nmen t i n I n ca 1 0 1

t ime s ( J imenez d e l aE spada 1 965 : 1 :87 -88 ) . T he a n swe r s w e re a pp l ied g ene ra l ly t ot h eI nd ian s l i v ing i nt h e r educc iön t owns o f e ach v i c in i ty . I n L ima tambo t h e t own s w e re S an J uan d e P a ta l lac ta , S an S eba s t iän d e P ampa conga , S an ta A na C hon ta a nd S an t iago Mo l lepa ta , a nd t h er e sponse s w e re g iven b y t wo S pan ia rd s o f l o ng t e rm r e s idence 6.L ima tambo I nd ians w e re s a id t oh ave b een o ft h eI n ca a nd t h es un , g ove rned b y ah ead m an i ne a ch v i l lage . T r ibu te t ot h e I nca i n c luded c h i l i , ma ize a nd s e rv ice s i n c lud ing c a re o fI nca l i ve s tock f or t h e h uacas . T hey h ad a l so ' f ough t t h e I nd ian s o fQ u i to ' ( Fornee 1 965 :23 2 6 ) , p robab ly ar e f e re r ence t ot h e ir s uppo r t o f H ua sca r I nca o ve r A tawa l lpa . T he S ie r ra o f V i lca s , s a id t o l i e b e s ide L ima tambo a nd 7l e ague s f r om C u sco , w a s at r ad i t iona l p l ace o fb a t t le b e tween t h e se c on tende r s( Cobo 1 964 :94 [ 1 653 ] ) . S ome c h ron ic le r s r e coun t t h a t t h ieve s f ound a rmamen t s i n b a ske t s o fc oca s t o len w h i le o n t h e w ay t h rough L ima tambo a nd a r e s a id t oh ave i n f o rmed t h e g ove rnor o fC h inchaysuyu ( Apu A chach i ) a bou t ap lo t a ga ins t I nca Guayna C apac ( Cabe l lo V a lboa 1 951 :358 -359 [ 1 586 ] ; C obo 1 964 :88 ) . S uch a ccoun t s m ay r e f lec t t h e b u reauc ra t ic a nd o the r r o le s o f Q u ichua p eop le s o fL ima tambo , a sI n ca s -by -P r iv i lege , i nt h e I n ca s t a t e . S pec if ic e a r ly m anu sc r ip t s r e f e r t ol a ndho ld ing s o f t h e I nka g ove r no ro fC h inchaysuyu , Apop i lco A roxe , l o ca ted b e s ide C ir ca v i l lage i nt h e J aqu i jahuana V a l ley ( Pampa d e A n ta ) 7.A lso , Q u ichua sw e re ap rom inen ts ou rce o fp r iv i leged m i tmaqkuna s e t t led t h roughou tT awan t in suyu . P eop le f r om t h e C uzco a r ea , i n c lud ing o re jones , w e re p laced a t l o ca t ions i n c lud ing T omebamba ( Be l lo 1 965 :275 [ 1582 ] ; C obo 1 964 :Bk . I I C h .16 [ 1653 ] ) , H uänuco ( O r t iz d e Z üf l iga 1 967 [ 1 562 ] ) a nd C opacabana s anc tua ry ( Ramos G av i län 1 988 [ 162 1 :84 -85 ] ) . I ns ome p l ace st h ey m ay h ave f unc t ioned a st h e e ye s o ft h e g ove rno r ( t ukuyr ikuq , o r ' o ne w ho s ee s a l l ' ) . T he i mpac to ft h i sp roce s s o n t h ec i rcum -Cusco p opu la t ion h a sy e t t cb ec omp r ehen s ive ly a s se s sed . 6 . 1 .9 M i tmaqkuna a nd Y anacana G a rc i la so , i nt h ep robab le a dd i t ion o fa no ra l o rw r i t ten s ou r ce t oh i so wn m emo r ie so ft opog raphy , a s se r t s t h a t i nt h e t i me o f t h e f i f th I n ca p eop le f r om t h e c oa s ta l n ac iön o f N azca w e re c hosen t op opu la te h o t l a nd s b e s ide t h e Apur imac R ive r . H e s a id f ew w e r es os e t t led b ecau se o ft h es t eepne s sa nd s c a r c i ty o f l a nd o n t h e r i ve rs i de s , a l though i t s v a lue f o r f r u i t p roduc t ion w a se xp l ic i t ly n o ted ( 1 960 :Bk .3 ,C h .x ix ) . T h i s i sr e info r ced b y t h e r epo r to fC o r reg ido rF o rnee t h a tI nd ian s i nt h e r educc iön t own s o fC h inchaypuqu io , S uma ro , P an t ipa ta a nd P iv i l w e re c r iado s o ft h e I n ca w ho h ad b e en b rough t i nf r om o the ra r ea s ( Fo rnee 1 965 :22 [ 1 586 ] ) . T he t e rm c r iado i n i t s 1 6 th c en tu ry u sage w a s c ommon ly a pp l ied t ot h ey anacona w ho p rov ided p e r sona l s e rv ice t ot h e s un , t h e I n ca n ob i l i ty a nd c u l t o f t h e d ecea sed I nca r u le r s . H oweve r ,y anacona w a sr e ad i ly a dop ted a s at e rm f o rs e rvan t s o rs e r f so fS pan ia rd s( Zu idema 1 964 :225 ; R owe 1 982 :98 10 1) . H e re i ti sa s soc ia ted w i th t r an sp lan ted p eop le s , u sua l ly k nown a sm i tmaqkuna . E sp inoza ( 1973 :233 ) i n te rp re t s t h i sp a s sage a s ar e f e rence t o y anacona ( yanayacos ) , s ugges t ing t ha t m i tmaqkuna d e s igna ted t ow o rk o n I nca s t a te o r o the r l a nd s c ou ld b ea l so s od e sc r ibed . H oweve r , Mu r ra d ef e r s t ot h e n eed f o r c l a r if i ca t ion w i th m o re s pec if ic s ource s ( 1978 :247 -248 ) . Wach te l p o in t s o u t t h a ti nY ucay , b u t n o t t h e C ochabamba o r A bancay v a l ley s ,f u r the rr emoved f r om C u sco a nd s i te so fs t a te l a nd s , m i tmaqkuna w e r e r e f e r red t oa sy anacona i nc o lon ia l d ocumen t s .Y ucay c on ta ined n ume rou se s ta te so fI n ca n ob i l i ty

E thnoh i s tory o f L ima tambo

(Wach te l 1 977 :169 , 1 982 :219 -221) . T h is i mp l ies t ha t m i tmaqkuna w ho w o rked o n s uch e l i te p rope r ty may h ave b een r e ga rded a sy anacona _ G rea te r s pa t ia l c on t ro l i s r equ ired t o e xam ine w he the r a l l i nhab i tan t s o f t he r eg ion w e re a s d i rec t ly t i ed t o I nca i n s t i tu t ions a s t h e 1 586 i n qu iry s ugge s t s . I th a s b een p o s s ib le t o p os i t ion t he P u l lacayra I nd ians a nd t he ir h uaca n ear P ampaconga a nd t h e T i lka m i t imaes a nd t ambo o f A pu r ima n ea r Mo l lepa ta . T he s t udy r eg ion , a sf a ra st h e Apur imac R ive r n ea rT i lka moun ta in , p er ta ined t o ar i tua l p e r iphe ry o fC u sco . T he t ambo o fL ima tambo i sd e scr ibed w i th l i t t le s pec if ic i ty i n s t anda rd s ou rce s . 6 .2 THE TA MBO OF L I MATA MBO E a r ly b ackg round f o r t he a rea s ur round ing t he t ambo o f L ima tambo i sc on ta ined i n t h e l i s t o f I nd ian p ueb los w h ich w e re r equ ired t o s erve i n t he r e sur rec ted t a mbo 8.S ome t oponyms s urv ive i n much t h e s ame f o rm t oday ( e g . P a rco , C hon ta a nd C a l la racay ) a nd o the r s c an b e t r aced t h rough d ocumen tary s ources ( eg . Gua l lua , P a ta t i , Guama rur u a nd P icoy ) . F o l low ing t he T o ledo v i s i ta o f 1 572 , v a l ley p eop le s w e re f o rced t o o ccupy f ou r L ima tambo r educc ione s n amed P a ta l lac ta , P ampaconga , C hon ta a nd Mo l lepa ta ( M i randa 1 925 :167 -168 [ 1583 ]) . Wi th t h e e xcep t ion o f P a ta l lac ta , a 1 586 d escr ip t ion o ft h e i rc l ima te a nd t opog raphy f i t s w e l l w i th t he c ur ren t l o ca t ion o f t owns w i th t h e s ame n ame s ( Fornee 1 965 ) . 6 .2 .1 I dent if ica t ion o f T ambo S pace I n 1 560 t he c ab i ldo ( counc i l ) o fC usco d ec ided t op romo te t h e r euse o fI nca t ambo s b y a nnounc ing t h e p ub l ic s a le o f t h ose wh ich l a y a long t h e r oad b e tween C usco a nd L i ma ( Gonza lez P . 1 981:266 ) . L and t i t le a nd l i t iga t ion d ocumen t s a bou t t h e v i c in i ty o fT a rawa s i s hed l i gh t u pon t h e c o lon ia l t oponymy , owne r sh ip a nd l o ca t ion o ft h e t ambo o fL ima tambo a f te r t h is d a te9. T he f i r s t t ambero ( t ambo k eepe r ) k nown i n t he a r ea w a s A lonso Dav i la , a ccused i n 1 574 o f t r e spa s s u pon as i x t opo l a nd h o ld ing o f Do t ia C a ta l ina T oc to U s ica i n t he V a l ley o f L i ma tambo l° . S he w a s t h e w if eo f Don C r is toba l P au l lu I n ca , a s on o f I nca Huayna C apac ( Temp le 1 940 :57 -60 ,73 ; 1 948 :136 -139 ; 1 949 -50 :639 ,647 ) . A s im i la r c omp la in t w a s made a ga ins t t ambero J oan B a lsa i n1 577 , w hen t h et r e spa s sed l a nd s , c a l led H i lpa , w e re s t a ted t ob ound w i th t h e t ambo o f

v i s i ta o f Ma ldonado d e T or res i n 1 594 , when t he l a nds m ea su red at o ta lo ft wo endra s , a bou t 1 . 93 h a1 5 . B y 1 631 , t h e p roper ty w a s p ar t o ft h a td e sc r ibed a s t he l and s a nd h ouses b es ide t he t ambo o f L ima tambo , n amed T arayguas i1 6 . I tw a s s o ld i n 1 631 , b y t h e s ucce sso r s o f Do t ia L u isa Gomez , t o L icenc iado P edro Gomez d e E sp inoza . H e r e ta ined i td ur ing t h e l a nd i n spec t ion s o f D iego d e A lcaza r ( 1646 ) a nd F ray Dom ingo d e C abre ra L a r taün ( 1656 ) . I tw a s s ub sequen t ly d ona ted t ot h e c onven to f Nue s t ra S ef lo ra d e l o s R emed ios i n C u sco 1 7 .C ons ide red t oo s ma l l f o r p rof i tab le r en t ing , T araguas i w a s s o ld i n 1 668 t o L icenc iado Ma rco A n ton io F ernandez d e An tezana , who p roceeded t oc ons truc t s ome b u i ld ing s o n t h e s ma l l p laza o ft h e s i te .1 8 U n t i l 1 668 t h e s ma l l b lock a round t h e t ambo was u nder s epa ra te owne r sh ip t o s ur round ing a rea s e xcep t f o r ap er iod b e tween 1 582 a nd 1 586 w hen B a lsa b ough t t e r race s a nd v a l ley s i de l a nds f r om U s ica . H e l a te ra g reed t os e l l t hem b ack t oh e r s uccessor s1 9 .F e rnandez i n corpora ted t h e a d jacen t h ac ienda c a l led L lama tay -Lucre i n to T araguas i , e x tend ing i tt o a b oundary w i th l a nds o ft he I nd ians f rom S an J uan d e P a ta l lac ta 2° . R eco rd s o ft h e t a k ing o fp os ses s ion b y F ernandez i n c lude t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f as t ruc ture w i th n i che s , l i ke c upboard s , t ot h e l e f to ft h e r oad a so ne e n te red f r om t h e d i rec t ion o fC u sco . O n t h is o cca s ion , t h ree c ro sse so fd i f fe ren td e s igns , d ep ic ted i nt h e ma rg in o ft h e d ocumen t , w e re h amme red i n to s t one s o n t h ree c o rne r s o f t h e s t ruc ture a nd measuremen t s w e re t aken 2 1 . C ro sse s o ft h e f o rms p ecked i n 1 668 a r e s t i l l v i s ib le o n s t one s a tt h ec orne r s o ft h e e l abora te a nd n i ched r e ta in ing w a l l (Wa l l I I ) a tt h e c en t re o ft h e I nca s i te ( AL 11 , S ec to rA ) a tT a rawa s i ( F igs . 5 :7 , 5 : 8 , P la te 4 6 ) . T he t wo l a rge w a l ls o f I nca t ime s , men t ioned i n e a r ly d ocumen ts a s s i tua ted a t t he t ambo o f L ima tambo , c an t h e refo re b e i d en t if ied a s Wa l ls I a nd I I a t T a r awa s i . 6 .2 .2 H istor ic T arawas i

Me lch io r C a r lo s Y nga ( U s ica 's g rand son )1 4 . T he se c ompr i sed l and s , a n a lf a lf af i e ld a nd h u t s b e low t h e h igh t e rrace o ft h e r oya l t ambo o fL ima tambo . H e w a s s t i l l owne r d u r ing t h e

Phys ica l

Ev idence

a t

W e t hen p roceeded t o e xam ine t he r u ins o fL ima tambo . T he se c ons is te n t ir e ly o ft e rrace s , b u i l tu p i nt h e manner o f o ther s t ha t h ave b een d escr ibed . T hey a re c yc lopean i n s t y le ,f aced w i th f i ne ly c u ts t one , a dm irab ly f i t ted t oge ther ; t h es u tf ace se ven w i th t h et e r races b e ing a ccura te ly c u ta nd l e ve l led . Wha t h as b een s poken o fb y s ome t r ave l ler s a s a p a lace o rt emp le i sr ea l ly o n ly at e r race , w i th an i ched w a l l ; t hough a t emp le o r s ome s t ruc tur e may o nce h ave b een b u i l tu pon i t ;b u to ft h i st h er ea re n ow n o t r ace s . T he o u ter t e r race i s2 0f ee t h igh a nd 8 00 f ee t l ong , c ommand ing t h e v a l ley , w h ich i sh ere v ery n arrow , s o t ha t i tw a sp robab ly i n tended f or af or t if ica t ion ( 1877 :535 ) .

t h em a nd aq uad ra o fa d jacen tl a nd 1 2 .

t ime o f t he I nca s1 3 .B a lsa , s on o f R od r igues , w a s p u t i n p os se ss ion o f mo s to ft h ec l a imed l a nd i n 1 582 , a nd o ft h er e s t i n1 588 f o l low ing a n a g reemen tw i th t h el e ga l g ua rd ian o fD on

o n

A 1 9 th c en tury d e sc r ip t ion o fT a rawa s i w a s g iven i nS qu ie r ' s j our na l :

L ima tambo 'l • T wo y ea r s l a te r , i n af o rma l g ran to fp o s se s s ion t ot ambera Y sabe l R odr igues , t he t ambo w a s s a id t oc ompr i se t wo l a rge , a nc ien tw a l ls o ft he t ime o ft h eI nca s , ah u tb u i l to n

T o r e so lve t he d i spu te b e tween U s ica a nd t he t ambero s , t he c ac iques o f P a ta l lac ta , P ampaconga a nd o the r p lace s i nt h e v a l ley w e re c a l led t ot e s t ify a bou to wne r sh ip o fl a nd s n ea rt h e t ambo . T hey a r er e co rded a sh av ing s a id t h a tt h et e r race s ,q uad ra a nd w a l l s h ad b een b a ld ias ( vacan t o r u ncu l t iva ted ) s i nce t h e

Impact

AL 11 r ema in s much t h es ame , a pa r tf r om t h es t a i rca se r evea led b y e xcava t ions ( F ranco a nd Gonza lez 1 937 ) . I tw a s p robab ly n o t af o r t , s i nce i to ccup ie s l ow g round w it hr e spec tt oa d jacen t v a l ley f l ank s , b u t i td oes l i e a t t h e t op o f ad i scre te a rea o f t e r race s .T he l owe s tw a l l o f AL 11 w ou ld h ave i mpeded v a l ley f l oo rt r aff ic b y a ny r ou te e xcep t t h e I nca r oad . T he a b sence o f I n ca b u i ld ing s o r f oo t ings i nt h e a r ea i sc onf irmed b y s u rf ace' s ur vey .

1 02

E thnoh i s to ry o fL ima tambo

D ecay ing b u i ld ing s o f T a rawa s i h a c ienda a re l o ca ted i nt h e n o r thwe s tc o rne ro ft h et e r race r e ta ined b y Wa l l Ia nd r u in so f o the r E u ropean s t ruc tu re s a re l o ca ted i n t he s ou thwe s te rn c orne r . T he se c ou ld o ve r l ie I nca c on s t ruc t ion . T he w e s te rn s t a i rca se o f Wa l l Ir i se s t o al e ve l n ow c ove red b y h ac ienda b u i ld ing s . Wo rked s t one s f r om t h e I n ca s i te w e re r e u sed i n t h em , e spec ia l ly i n a n a r ched e n t ranceway a nd t o f i l l t h e w e s te rn s t a i rca se . At wo sec t ion E u ropean s t ruc tu re , l i ke t h e d e s ign o ft h e p re sen t b u i ld ing s , w a s r e po r ted i n 1 668 b e s ide Wa l l Io nt h es ou ther ns i de o ft h er oya lr o ad2 2 . I t sd i lap ida ted s t a te i sd e ta i led i n ad ocumen to f 1 693 2 3 . A r chaeo log ica l wo rk i n1 934 c omp r i sed r emova lo fv ege ta t ion a nd r u s t ic b u i ld ing s f r om t h eI nca w a l l sa nd e xcava t ion o f a5 mw ide , 2 4ml ong t r ench t ou ncove rt h e s ou thea s te rn s i de o f Wa l lr [( F ranco a nd Gonza lez 1 937 :67 ) .T h is h ad b een b u r ied t o ad ep th o f 3m . T he e a s te rn a nd n or ther n s i de s o f Wa l l I w e re a l so u ncove red f r om ad epo s i ta bou t 2m d eep b y at r ench 8m w ide a nd 1 02 m l ong . T he e v idence i sc ons is ten tw i th t h e s o i lc ove rage h av ing d e r ived f r om t h e r e g ion o f ac l if fo fr e d e a r th a bou t 1 50 m s ou thea s t , o n t h e s i de o fL amb ranwayqo . T he e a s te rn s i de o f Wa l l I I i st h e mo s t d amaged , a nd t h e s ou thea s te rn e nd o f Wa l l Ia ppea r s t oc on t inue b enea th t h e d ep th o fe xcava t ion . Much m ay h ave a l ready b een c ove red b y 1 668 , b ecau se o n ly t h ree c or ne r so f Wa l l I I w e re ma rked w i th c ro sse s i no rde r t o d e s igna te ar e c tang le . T he s ou thea s ter n ( bu r ied? ) c or ne r w a s me re ly i mpu ted .E a r thquake si nC u sco d u r ing Ma r ch a nd A p r i l 1 650 c au sed l ands l ide s a nd r oad c l o sure , b u t p ub l ished d ocumen t sd o n o tr e f e rs pe c if ica l ly t oL ima tambo ( V i l lanueva 1 970b ) . 6 .2 .3 P reh istor ic Records

F eatures

i n

T arawas i

H is tor ic

T he i mpa c to fd epo s i t ion a nd c o lon ia l u se o fT a rawa s i p l a ce s i mpo r tance u pon e a r ly l a nd t i t le d e sc r ip t ion sa ss ou r ce so fs i te i n fo rma t ion . I n 1 579 , Y sabe l R od r igue s t o ok p o s se s s ion o fa b uhi ob u i l to n t he s i te o ft h et wo I nca p ar edone s (Wa l l s Ia nd I I ) .B uh i oa ppea r sf r equen t ly i n 1 6 th c en tu ry d ocumen t s f r om Cu sco , u sua l ly d escr ib ing h u ts o ri n sub s tan t ia l dwe l l ing s . H e r l a nd , f ound t o h ave b een a bou t 2h a i nt o ta l , w a s b ounded by2 4: ( a ) as t ream o n t h e C u sco s i de ( t he p r e sen t C h 'ak imayo , a t oponym w h ich f i r s ta ppea r si nt i t le sd a ted 1 756 )2 5 ; ( b ) s t ony l a nd s o n t h e b ank o ft he v a l ley ' s l a rge r i ve r , c a l led P u l la cay ra ( t he C o lo rado R ive r ) ;a nd ( c ) al a rge s t one w a l l s epa ra t ing i tf r om t he l a nd s o f D on Me lch io rY nga (Wa l lI ) . T h i s i sw i th in AL I1S ec to r A ( F ig . 5 : 7 ) . B a lsa , R od r igue s ' s on , t o ok p os sess ion o f ac asa ( s ubs tan t ia l h ou se? ) d u r ing 1 582 , i nt h e c ercado d e L imabamba ( L imabamba e nc lo sur e , wh ich a p t ly d e scr ibe s Wa l l I wh ich r i se s a bove t h e t e r race l e ve l )2 6 . A cco rd ing t oU s ica 's s c r ip tu re o fs a le ( 1584 ) , h ou se s o fB a l sa l a y ah arquebus s ho t ' s d i s tance f r om ac l if fl o ca ted b e tween h i s l a nd a nd h e r own . T he c l if fi sp robab ly t h e s t eep s ou thwe s te rn s i de o f L amb ranwayqo r av ine . H ence , U s ica ' s l a nd w a so nt h ev a l ley f l ank a bove t h es ou thea s te rn s i de o ft h e t ambo . B a l sa ' sl a nd e x tended , i no ne d imens ion , f r om t h er i ve r o f t h e L ima tambo V a l ley t ot h e h ou se s a nd l a rge w a l l s t ha t w er ei na nc ien tt ime so ft h eI nca I nd ian st h a ta r eo n t o po ft h e

t ambo . I n t h e o t he r d imens ion , t h ey w en t f r om ab ounda ry p a s s ing t h rough s ome a nc ien t b ur ia l s , h ou se s t h a t u sed t ob e o fC o l la m i t imae s a nd ap o in to n t h e r o ad ( i n t h e d i rec t ion o f C u sco , i . e . n o r thea s t , a nd a c ro s s t o ab ounda ry w i th l a nd s o f Ma r t in D o lmo s a nd Me lch io r I nca ( i n t he d i rec t ion o f A pu r ima c b r idge ,i . e .s ou thwe s t )2 7 . B a lsa ' sl a nd i n c luded t h ree t e r race s b ound ing w i th t h ree t e r ra ce s o f Me lch io r ( i n AL11 S ec to rB ) , l a nd s a nd t e r race s o fD o lmo s ( o n t h e s ou thea s ter n s l ope s )a nd t h er o ya lr o ad . L and p u r cha sed f r om U s ica i n 1 584 e xpanded B a l sa 's t ambo h o ld ing o n to s ou thea s te rn f l ank s a bove t h e r oya l r oad . I t s b ounda ry f o l lowed t h er o ad t o as t one c a l led Morocuxana ,t h en w en tu ph i l lt oo t her b oundary m ar ker sa nd e d if ice s , c on t inu ing t o ad eep r a v ine w h ich d e scended t ot h et ambo b e low t h eg arden o fU s i ca . . A f te rc r o s s ing t h is r av ine ,t h eb ounda ry r o se t or e ach o ld h ou se s a nd b u i ld ing so ft h eC o l la m i tmaqkuna , r e f e r red t o a s ap ob lac iön ( s e t t lemen t ) . Ad e s cen t w a st h en m ade p a s tt h e b u r ia ls t ot h er o ya lr o ad a nd s ub sequen t ly a l ong t h er oad t ot h e e nc lo su r e ,a l f a lf af i e ld s ,g a rden a nd h ou se sb u i l tb yB a l sa . I mpo r tan t ly , t h e re a ppea r t oh ave b een I n ca h ouse s , n o tj u s t t e r race s o n t h e T a rawa s i s i te i n 1 584 , a s w e l l a s am i tmaq s e t t lemen t a nd ac eme te ry wh ich w e re u sed a s l a ndma rk s o n a d ja cen tv a l ley s l ope s . T he P u l la C a ira R ive r s epa ra ted l a nd o f C ap ta in D iego Ma ldonado f r om t h et ambo p l a tfo r rn 3° .H i s l a nd i n c luded I nca t e r race s a tt h e c onf luence o f t h e C o lo rado a nd P a rqo r i ve r s , o ppo s i te T a rawa s i ( F ig . 5 : 5 )3 1 .B a lsa ' s h ouse s w e re p robab ly n ea rt h ep re sen tb u i ld ing s a nd r u in s w i th in AL11 Wa l l 1 .T he h ouse s a nd w a l ls o f t h e I nca I nd ian s w e re s a id t o l i e i n a d i rec t ion o ppo s i te t h er i ve r , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ey o ccup ied t h e e x t r eme s ou th o fB a ls a ' st e r ra ce s ,n ea r Wa l lH I . B yt h ee a r ly 1 800 s ,T a r awa s i w a si nd i spu ted p o s se s s ion o ft h e p o s ta l s e rv ice 3 2 . T h i sa c coun t s f o r t h e t o ponym C or r eocucho r e co rded b yF r anco a nd G onza lez ( 1 937 :68 ) .T he t e rm T arawa s i e me rged a r ound 1 631 ,a nd a l though af u l ly Q uechua t oponym , may h ave d e r ived f r om S pan ish i n te r e s t i nt h e n a t ive t a ra t r ee ( Cae sa lp inea s p .) f o rt a nn ing . B y 1 693 t a ra g rove s c ou ld b e s een f r om t h e a r ch a nd p i l la r s o ft h e h o r se s t ab le e n t rance a t T a rawa s i3 . 6 .3 INCAS , Y ANACONA , LLAQTARUNA

MIT MAQKUNA

and

T h i s a na ly s i s e xam ine s t h e e a r ly h i s to r ic s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o fi n d igenou ss o c ie ty s u r round ing t h et ambo a nd i t sr e la t ion t o a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om l a te p r eh is to ry . 6 .3 .1 I nner S pace o f t he T ambo : Y lpa a nd T errace s C la im s t ol a nd b o rde r ing t h ee a s te rn a nd s ou thea s ter ns i de s o f t h et ambo a r e w e l l r e p r e sen ted i nt h eT a rawa s i T i t le s f r om t h e m id 1 6 th c en tu ry o nwa rd . I nS ep tembe r 1 559 , U s ica r e ce ived v i ce r ega l s uppo r t f o r ac l a im t oI nd ian s a nd l a nd s , e xecu ted a y ea rl a te rb yC or r eg idor P o lo .O ne c l a im w a st o ac hacara ( f ie ld o r l a nd h o ld ing ) f o r c h i l i p roduc t ion , c a l led Y l pa , a nd t o a p ueb lo o ft h es ame n ame w i th i t sy anacona s . T he se n umbe red a bou t t e n ( a du l t m en? ) a nd t h e p r inc ipa l o ne w a s n amed Y arochayco 3 4 . S uch v i l lage s h ad y e t t ob e I r educed '3 5 . U s ica a l leged t h a tt h e l a nd s w e re a n i n t er v i vo s g i f t f r om P au l lu ( i . e . m ade b efo re h i s d ecea se i n 1 549 ) , a nd t h a t P au l lu d id n o t d ec la re t h e g i f t i nh i s w i l l b e cau se i tw a s n o t c u s toma ry f o r

1 03

E thnoh is to ry o f L ima tambo

I nd ians t o make s c r ip tu re s r e co rd ing s uch t r ansac t ion s a mong t h emse lves . Y lpa i s n o t at oponym i n c luded i n P au l lu 's p ub l ished w i l l ( Temp le 1 949 -50 :643 ) , b u t D on C a r lo s I nca , s on o fP au I lu a nd U s ica , i n c luded ag a rden a nd l a nd s b e s ide t h e t ambo o fL ima tambo i nh i s t e s tamen ta ry e s ta te o f 1 582 . I tw a s o ve r 1 5 t opos i n a rea a nd b ounded w i th f i e ld s o f Mar t in D o lmos a nd w i th a s tone b ounda ry ma rke r ( op .c i t . :646 ) . C a r lo s i sk nown t oh ave d i spu ted U s ica 's t i le t oY lpa 3 6 . U s ica 's p o ssess ion w a s f orma l ized i n 1 560 a tt h e v i l lage a nd h u t s n amed Y lpa , b y h av ing Y arucha ico , t h e c ac ique , o bey o rde r si nr e cogn i t ion o fe ncom ienda . T he a d ja cen tl a nd so fY lpa w e re d escr ibed b r ie f ly 3 7 . T hey b ounded t h er oya l r o ad , l a nd so f H e rnän B rabo ( i .e . B ravo ) i no ne d i rec t ion , a nd t h o se o fD o i ia Ma r ia , w ife o f ' J oan ' d e O lmos ( i .e . Do lmo s ) , i n t h e o the r . B r avo was e ncomendero o fP icoy , i n tended t ob es e t t led i n to a S pan ish t own o f t h e L i ma tambo V a l ley a f te r t h e 1 572 v i s i ta g enera 13 8 . P icoy p ueb lo w a s p l aced i ns e rv ice o fL ima tambo s ome t h ir ty y ear s e a r l ier 3 9 .A s at oponym o r e ncom ienda n ame , P icoy i st i ed t ot he d i re c t ion n or thea s to ft h e t ambo , t h e u ppe rv a l ley a nd A n ta p la in '. T he D o lmo s l a nd sw e re l o ca ted s ou thea s t o ft he t ambo 4 1 . T hey c or re sponded t ot h e l a nds a nd t e r races o f Do lmo sa nd Me lch io rI n ca t ha tw e re i nt h ed i re c t ion o ft h e Apur imac R ive r , b y r e f e rence t o l a nds o fU s ica w h ich l a y a bove t he r oad4 2 .T he refo re t h ey mus t h ave i n c luded t h e b road I nca t e r race s b e tween t h eC o lo rado R ive ra nd f oo t road , d e s cend ing f r om T a rawa s i Wa l lI . Me lch ior 's t e r race s b ounded Wa l l I .D o lmo s ' b ound ing l a nd s mu s th ave b een t hose o n s l ope s a bove . S ince D o lmo s w a s s a id t oo wn l ands a nd t e r races b ound ing t h e e n la rged B a lsa t ambo h o ld ing i n 1 584 4 3 ,i t may b e t h a t h i s p roper ty e x tended d own v a l ley t oi nc lude l owe rt e r race so f AL 11 o re ven t h et e r race so f R io ja ( S i te AL 12 ) . F rom 1 584 t he s ou thwes tern b ounda ry o f Y lpa , s epa ra t ing l a nds o f t he P a ta l lac ta I nd ians , c an b e t r aced c l o se ly t o t h e p re sen t l andscape . Documen ta ry r e cords o f t oponyms a nd b ounda ry-ma rk s equences a r e s umma r ized i nT ab le 6 :2 4 4 a nd h i s tor ic n ames a nd b ounda r ie sa r e ma rked o n F igu re 6 : 1 .

T he b ounda ry s t one n amed Murucusma w a sp robab ly ah uaca o fp reh ispan ic t ime s . Muru muru means s ome th ing o fd i f f e ren t c o lou r s ( Gonza lez H o lgu in 1 952 :252 [ 1608 ] ) , a pp ropr ia te t o d escr ibe mo t t led c ong lomera te r ocks b es ide t he h ighway c u t t ing a tt h e I n ca t e r race c a l led Qu i l labamba , n ea rT a rawa s i . C usma r e f e r s t o at ype o f c lo th ing (Mo l ina 1 943 :53 [ 1573 ] ) . O the rs ac red r ock s w i th n ames i n co rpo ra t ing c usma a r e k nown ( He rnandez P r inc ipe 1 923 :29 [ 1621]) a nd A lbomoz n o ted t h a t i n d igenous h uacas h ad c lo th ing o fc umbe ( f ine c lo th ) , c a l led c apaccocha s ( 1984 :217 [ c a .1584 ]) . T he l a t te rt e rm w a s mos t ly u sed t od e scr ibe ac e remony s im i la r , i fn o t i d en t ica l t oc i tua ( Duv io ls 1 976 ; Z u idema 1 982 , 1 983 ) . C le rgy w e re i n s truc ted i nt h e l a te 1 6 th c en tury t o d e s t roy a nd r ep lace h uaca s w i th c r o sse s o rc hape ls ( Ma rza l 1 969 :95 , 9 9 100 ) . T he c ro s s p laced a t Q uebrada H onda i n 1 671 may h ave b een more t han a b ounda ry ma rke r . T he s ou thea s te rn b ounda ry o fl a nds a t tr ibu ted t oU s ica r a n f r om T a ru ibamba a long S inqu i l lay r i dge ( 1656 -1671) i n a n o r thea s te r ly d i re c t ion t owa rd s P ampaconga4 6 .T he n or thern b o rder d escended a r av ine t o n ear t he s i te o f t he o ld C ha l labamba h ac ienda a nd c hape l , b es ide t h e p resen t r oad4 7 . T he n o r thwe s tern b ounda ry w a s t h er oya lr oad4 8 . One h und red a nd t wen ty f anegada sw e re a t tr ibu ted t oU s ica ' sd ecea sed e s ta te i n1 603 4 9 . T he se w e re a lmos te n t ire ly v a l ley s ide s l ope s . T he c h i l i f i e ld , v i l lage a nd y anacona p roper ty c a l led Y lpa c l a imed b y U s ica i n 1 559 , c ou ld b e t he s ame a sa n u nnamed 6 t o po h o ld ing w i th y anaco ru 2 s wh ich s he a l leged w a s t r e spassed b y at ambero i n 1 574 5 0 ,a nd p erhaps i n c luded h er g a rden s epa ra ted b y ac l if f f r om B a lsa 's l a nds a bove t h e t ambo i n 1 584 5 1 . U s ica ' sy anacona , A taopoma i nd io , r e s ided i nt h eg a rden b eh ind t h e t ambo 5 2 .T h is i sc ons is ten t w i th t he p re sen ta t ion o fY lpa i nt h e e a r l ie s t d e scr ip t ion a s af i e ld f o r s pec ia l p roduc t ion o fa c r op w h ich p ref e r sl owe ra l t i tude s . T he 1 5 t opo s i nD on C a r lo s ' w i l l b ounded Do lmo s ' l a nd sa nd a s t one b ounda ry ma rker , p erhaps Murucusma . T hey w ere p robab ly t e r race s b e low Wa l l Io f T a rawa s i . T h ree o f t hese

T he a rea t oday c a l led Y lpa i sa th igh a l t i tude , n o t s u i tab le f o r t h e c h i l i p roduc t ion w i th wh ich t h e n ame w a s a s soc ia ted i n 1 560 . T h is p lacemen t c onform s t o d ocumen ta ry r e f e rences

t e r races w e re l a te r a t t r ibu ted t o h i s s on , Me lch io r5 3 .F ou r t e r race s b e longed t o A lbornoz i n 1 603 , a nd e x tended b e low Wa l l Ia sf a ra s Murucusma a nd l a nds f o rme r ly o f Do lmo s .T he

made a f te r 1 656 4 5 . A yaguayco a nd Murucusma a r e n ame s w h ich a re n o l onge r u sed . F or tuna te ly , t h e 1 671 b ounda ry i n spec t ion s t a te s t ha t Quebrada H onda d e A yaguayco i st h e r av ine a l so c a l led Y erbabuena . I n l o ca l t oponymy t oday , Y erbabuenayoq i s al a nd a rea a nd s ma l l s e t t lemen t b e s ide a p l ace where t he v a l ley f l oo r b e come s n a r row . I ti sw he re t h e t e r race s cheme o fT a rawa s i ( S i te AL11) c ome s t oa n e nd . I n 1 67 1 ac ross wa sp laced a tt h eb a se o fQ uebrada H onda n ea rt h e r oya l r oad . Today t h e Y erbabuenayoq c hape l o ft o day s t and s 1 0m f r om t he u ppe rr oad t oL ima tambo a nd a tt h e mou th o fa s t ra igh t g u l ly wh ich b i sec t s t h e v a l ley f l oo r . I ti sr e s t ing p l ace o f ac ross t ha t n earby r e s iden ts c ar ry i n p rocess ion t o L ima tambo d ur ing t h eF ies ta o ft h eC ross i n May . T aru ibamba r ema in s t he n ame o f ah igh a l t i tude f i e ld a l ong t h e t o pr i dge o f t h e s ou thern v a l ley f l ank , o n ar ou te b e tween T a rawa s i a nd C hoquema rka . P i lcopuqu io d e s igna te s af i e ld a r ea b e tween L ima tambo t own a nd Choquemarka , b es ide t he f l a t o f Mauka l lak ta a nd t he s i te o f a wooden c ro s s o ve r look ing L ima tambo .

l a t te rb ounda ry w a s t h ec ana l o f am i l l , b e s ide at e r race w a l 15 4 . R ema ins o f aw a te r m i l l a rchway a nd c i rcu lar a ndes i te m i l ls tone l i e n ea r t h e r i ve r b es ide t he s ou thwe s te rn r e ta in ing w a l l o f Qu i l labamba f i e ld ( F ig . 5 .7 ) . F ou r t e r race s h e r e w e re m ea su red i n 1 645 a t 1f anega r in a nd 6 t opo s ( w i th 1 t o pos t o t h ef anegada ) , i . e . 1 7 t opos . T hey b ounded w i th a m i l l o n a f i f th t e rrace 55 . Twe lve y ears l a ter t he a rea , n amed G uaychapampa , c on ta ined h ouse s , ag a rden a nd f ou r t e r race s w h ich t o ta l led f i ve t e r races . T he b ounda ry t owa rd s C uraguass i ( Cu rahua s i ) w a s s t i l l am i l l-cana l5 6 .F i r s t ly i ti sn o ted t h a t t h e a r ea o f f our t e r races a t 1 7 t opos i s s im i la r i n magn i tude t o C a r lo s ' 1 5 t opo h o ld ing . I fC a r los h ad t h ree t e r races l i ke h i s s ucce sso r , Me lch io r , t hen t he 2 t opo d iscrepancy may b e t h e a r ea o ft h e a dd i t iona l t e r race . B y t h e t ime t h e h o ld ing b ecame k nown a s Guaychapampa , t he h ouse p la tform may h ave b een r e fer red t o a s a no ther , f i f th , t e rrace w i th in t he s ame

b o u n d a r i e s5 7.

1 04

E thnoh is to ry o f L ima tambo

TABLE 6 :2

A B oundary o f Y lpa

D ate

P lace Described

1 584

Y lpa

( Toponymic Change,

1 584-1756).

T oponymic S equence on Southwestern B oundary r oyal

r oad - M orocuxana

( rock i n q uebrada n ear r oad )

- u p t o

b oundary marks a nd unnamed edifices 1 603

1 645

L lamatay e tc.

L lamatay,

Lucre

( & o ther names i ncl.

r oyal r oad - M orocusma

( rock a bove r oad - t o

b ordering t he l ands of

t he P atallacta I ndians

royal r oad b elow tambo

- Morocusma d eep quebrada bounding

P atallacta l ands

' heights',

- puna o f T aruipampa

Ayaguaico,

b eyond t itles) 1 656

L ucre, Y lpa,

Llamatay, Guaichapampa

A yaguayco e tc.

r oyal r oad C uzco-Lima Quebrada)

L ucre, Y lpa,

L lamatay ,

( rocky c rag i n Ayaguaico - up t o the puna o f

T aruipampa a nd t he pass bounding t he l ands o f P atallacta I ndians,

1 668

- Morocusma

- u p t o end o f t he q uebrada and s econdly,

( essentially t he same a s

f irstly,

t he

Montedoy

1 656)

Guachopampa

e tc. 1 671

L ucre,

L lamatay,

Taruipampa puna

( heights)

- d own ,

w ith l ands o f Montedoy t o l eft

Quebrada Honda

- down t o p lace where a c ross was p ut,

Y erbabuena

Quebrada H onda - d own t o t he I ndian s ettlement

where t here i s a p ath i n ( 'ranchos d e v ivienda')

- d own Quebrada H onda t o t he r oyal r oad where another c ross was put up t he r oyal 1 698

P atallacta V illage

r oyal r oad t o C uzco

l ands

a s

( inspection

o f one boundary)

- Murucusma

two m olles a long t he r idge i n a s traight

- up q uebrada

r oyal

l ine f rom Murucusma

- up t o

b ounding f irstly t he l ands o f t he I ndians and

s econdly t he l ands that were H acienda Taraguasi

( stone a t r oadside )

f ar a s a molle t ree on t he r oad t o P atallacta V illage - up between

the t op o f T aruypampa,

1 756

-

r oad t o Morocusma

f ormerly o f M ontedoy

r oad t o L ima - Quebrada A yahuaco w ith Murucusma s tone a t

i ts s tart

- u p t o the end o f t he quebrada - a long t he s ame l ine t o

P ilcopucio - u p t o Tardepampa.

I ti sa ppa ren tt h a tb o th al a rge a r ea o fs t eep l a nd t ot h ee a s ta nd n o r thea s to ft h eT ar awa s ir u ins ,a nd v a l ley f l oo rt e r ra ce so fI nca c ons t ruc t ion t o t he s ou thwes t , w e re a l l c l a imed a s p e r sona l p rope r ty b y c o lon ia l I nca n ob i l i ty t h rough t h e o r ig ina l owne r sh ip o f C r is toba l P au l lu ( Topa ) I nca . I ti ss t ressed , h oweve r , t h a t t h e d i spu te s w e re e nac ted o n t he s t age o f 1 6 th c en tu ry S pan ish c o lon ia l l a nd l aw . P au l lu c ou ld s e tu p ar i gh t a s s on o f Huayna C apac t o s pec ia l l a nd o r e ncom ienda p r iv i lege s , b u t h i s s ucce ss i n h av ing a ny g ran ted w ou ld h ave b een p r ima r i ly af unc t ion o fh i s u sefu lne s sa sp e r ce ived b y t he n ew s t ruc tu re o f p owe r . I n d ocumen ted i n s tance s h e h ad r ece ived s uch p r iv i leges f r om a u thor i t ie s f o rt h e s ame r e a sons o fr ewa rd , f o r s erv ice s t ot h e c onque s t , u pon wh ich c l a ims o f E u ropean c onque ro r sw e re f ounded ( e g .T emp le 1 940 :45 -48 ,55 5 6 ,65 ) . On t h eo t he rh and , U s ica 's c l a im t oY lpa w a si n con s is ten tw i th t h e S pan ish s t y le r i gh t so f mayoarazgo ( l ike a ne n ta i led e s ta te ) c l a imed b yC a r los a nd Me lch io ri ns ucce s s ion . S he h ad a rgued t ha t i tw a s a n I nd ian t r ansac t ion , w i thou t r e co rd s , ac l a im u n l ike ly t o h ave i mpressed h er p rogeny who b e longed t o a g ene ra t ion wh ich o n ly k new c o lon ia l s oc ie ty . I ndeed , t h e w ife o f D on C a r los ( Do t ia Ma r fa d e E squ ive l ) w a s S pan ish , a n u nu sua lc i rcums tance f o rt h e t ime . T he re a r e s eve ra l a r ea s o f l a nd o re ncom ienda s wh ich w e re r e co rded a sh av ing b e longed t o 1 05

P au l lu b u t f o r wh ich t h e re i sn o m en t ion i np ub l ished S pan i sh g ran t s t o h im ( eg . L ima tambo , E p isca ra a nd C opacabana ) ( Temp le 1 940 :47 ) . H oweve r ,t h el a nd so fE p isca ra w e re s poken o f a s t ho se o f t he s un i n a n e a r ly d ocumen t , w i th t h e s t o rehou se s o fE p i scaraco lca f o rt h e p roduce s o d ed ica ted 5 8 . T h i s i n d ica te st h a tt h o se l a nds w e re d ed ica ted t ot h ec u l tr a the r t h an a l i v ing I nca n ob le p r io r t o P au l lu 's p o sse ss ion . P roof t h a tl a nd s h ad b e longed t ot h eI nca o rt h es un w a sc u s toma r i ly a rgued b y S pan ia rd s t oe s tab l ish t h e i rr eve r s ion t ot h e C rown a nd h ence a va i lab i l i ty f o r g ran t . P au l lu 's c l a im t os un l a nds mu s t b e s e en i n t h e s ame l i gh t a s c on tempora ry c onque ro r 's c l a im s , r a the r t h an a sc l a ims b a sed u pon a nce s t ra l r i gh t s o fa n ob le m embe rt ol a nd so fh i sp anaqa . Y a rochayco o r s ome o ft h e o the ry anaconas o f 1 574 , o re ven A taopoma o f 1 585 , may h ave b een a t tached t ot h es ma l lg a rden b es ide t he t ambo b y ac on t inua t ion o r i nhe r i tance o f p r eh i span ic y anacona s t a tus .N e i the ro ft h en amed y anacona o f U s ica w e re men t ioned u s ing a S pan ish b ap t isma l n ame , d i s t ingu ish ing t h em f r om a l l o the r I nd ians r e f er red t oi nt h e d ocumen t s a t t h is t ime . A p oss ib le r eason i s t h a t t h e y anaconas e xemp t ion f r om t r ibu te o b l iga t ions , p r io r t o T o ledo 's r e form s , a nd s e rv ice t ot h e c o lon ia l I nca r a the r t b an S pan i sh e l i te ,r e l ieved t h em o fd oc t r ina l i n f luence s .G ene ra l

E thnoh i s tory o f L ima tambo

F IG . 6 :1 H istor ica l Boundar ies a nd T oponyms o f t he T a mbo o f L ima ta mbo . K ey : 1 . T a rawa s i t e r races ( s haded ) a bove Wa l l I( t he t ambo ) ; 2 . T a r awa s i t e r rac e s b e low Wa l l Ia nd t h e r oya l t ambo ( Guaychapampa 1 657? ) ; 3 . C h 'ak imayo S t ream ; 4 . P re sen t -day L ima tambo t own a nd R io ja t e r race s ; 5 . Y e rbabuenayoq R av ine a nd C hape l ( Queb rada H onda -Ayagua ico a nd p robab le l o ca t ion o ft h e Mu rucu sma s t one ) ; 6 . Mauka l lak ta -S i te AL25 ( San J uan d e P a ta l lac ta -1 572 ) ; 7 . P i lcopuqu io l a nd a rea ( P i lcopuc io -1 756 ) ; 8 . T a ru ibamba l a nd a r ea ( Ta ru ipampa -1 645 ) ; 9 . C hoquema rka V i l lage ; 1 0 . Murusayhua Q 'a sa Kno l l ; 1 . I lpa l a nd a rea ( Y lpa -1 559 ) ; 1 2 . T 'a s tachayoq P ampa ( p robab ly o n S inqu i l lay R idge 1656 ) ; 1 3 . L lama tay s e t t lemen t ( L lama tay -1 603 ) ; 1 4 . Mo l lema rka s e t t lemen t ; 1 5 . C o lorado R ive r ( R io d e P u l la C ayra - 1 579 ) .

s e rvan t s o f S pan ia rds wou ld b e e xpec ted t oh ave c ome u nde r s t rong i nf luence t o a dop t t h e i r w ays . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f y anacona i ng roup sc la imed b y U s ica i sc ompa rab le t ot hose o f f r om t wo t ot h ir ty p er sons c l a imed i n 1 552 b y d e scendan t s o f T opa I nca Yupanqu i i n o ther p laces a round Cusco ( Ros two rows l c i 1 962 :153 -159 ) . 6 .3 .2 Mi t imaes

CoI las

T he s i te o f Co l la s e t t lemen t , men t ioned b y U s ica , i sd i ff icu l t t ol oca te s i nce i ti su nknown e xac t ly w ha t p ropor t ion o f t h e 1 20f anegada sa t tr ibu ted t oh e rw e re i n c luded i nt h el a nd s s o ld t oB a lsa ( Baesa o r B aessa ) i n 1 584 . T he C ola o ccupa t ion o f t h e h ouse s w a s p u t i nt he p a s t t e nse , a nd t h e h ou se s d e scr ibed a so ld , s o i tw a s n o t a n o ccup ied v i l lage i n 1 584 5 9 . T he a r ea

w a s r e so ld t o Ma r i a d e E squ ive l w i th in amon th o fp u rcha se , b efo re a ny s epa ra t em ea su remen tw a s made 6° . T h ree b ound ing s i de s , t h e s ou thwes tern b o rde rw i th P a ta l lac ta , t h e r i dge a bove a nd t h e r oad b e low , r ema ined t he s ame d ur ing e ach t r ansac t ion . T he refo re t h e s ma l ler b lock w a s i n c luded i n t he l a rge r o ne l e f t b y U s ica t o t hree s uccesso r s i n h e r t e s tamen ta ry memor ia l o f 1 585 6 1 .A lbornoz b id 1 500 p e so s f o rt h e w ho le a r ea a t as a le i n 1 588 , f o l low ing U s ica 's d ea th 6 2 . B a lsa h ad p a id o n ly 2 30 p e sos f o r t he s ma l le r w e s tern p a r t i n 1 584 , wh ich i nd ica te s ac ons ider ab le d if fe rence i n q ua l i ty o r l e ss t han af i f th o ft h e a rea . B y 1 589 , i n ac omp rom ise w i th c l a ims b y E squ ive l , A lbo rnoz w a s a d jud ica ted t wo t h ird s a nd E squ ive l o ne t h i rd o f t he 1 20 f anegadas 6 3 .T he b ounda ry b e tween t h e se t wo b l ock s w a s n o t t he s ame a s t ha t s epa ra t ing t h e s ma l l a r ea o f 1 584 wh ich h ad t he Co l la s e t t lemen t o n i t s

1 06

E t hnoh i s to ry o fL ima tambo

p eop le so f Do lmo s ' r epar t im ien to h ad l a nd s w h ich e x tended i n t he o ppos i te d i rec t ion , t owa rd s U ra ta r i a nd C hon ta 6 8 .T he mona s te ry l a nds w e re p robab ly t h e s ame wh ich b ounded w i th L ucre -L lama tay -Y l lpa a bove t h e t ambo i n 1 657 , 1 668 a nd

b ounda ry . I no the rw o rds , A lbo rnoz t o ok L lama tay a nd l ad s a bove t h e t ambo f r om t he P a ta l lac ta b orde r a cros s t o t h e Queb rada o f L lama tay . T he l a t te r b ounda ry o f A lbornoz i n c luded s ome c orra lones ( co r ra l w a l l s )o ft he t ime o ft h eI nca , a cco rd ing t o t he f i na l a rb i t ra t ion o f 1 603 6 4 .T he 1 584 b ounda ry o n t h is s i de d id n o t f o l low aq uebrada ; r a the r , i t c rossed o ve r t h e h igh p ar t o fo ne , t h en r ose t o t h e o ld C o l la h ous e s ,a nd d e scended f r om t hem t owa rds t h eb u r ia ls a nd t h en d escended t o t he r oya l r oad b efo re g o ing t o t he h ouses o f

1 671 6 9 . I n 1 603 t h is l a nd w a ss a id t ob e long t oH e rnän B ravo , p erhaps r eference t o p r ior o wne r sh ip b y t he d ecea sed e ncomendero o fP i coy ,o rh i sn ame sake 7° . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e C o l la s e t t lemen t a nd A yma ra v i l lage o f t he 1 6 th c en tu ry , a nd t he p a s t a nd p resen t t oponym /an th roponym , A yav ir i , i sa ppa ren t i ns pace a round t h et ambo a nd i sc ons is ten tw i th t h em i tmaqkuna h av ing c ome f r om ad i s tan t r eg ion . I n t h e 1 570 v i s i ta , a n a dm in is t ra t ive g roup ing o fI nd ians a nd at own c a l led A yav ir i f e l l w i th in t h e C orreg im ien to o fU rcosuyu i nC o l lao , i . e . i nt h e I nca r eg ion o f C o l lasuyu a round L ake T i t icaca t o t h e s ou th o f C usco (M iranda 1 925 :152 -153) . P eop le f r om t h is g roup w e re d escr ibed f o r t r ibu te p urpose s a s A yma ra a nd U ro ( To ledo 1 975 :100 ) . Ayav ir i , a cco rd ing t o Ma t ienzo , w a s n ea r t h e n or ther nl im i to ft h e t e r r i to ry o ft h eC o l la I nd ian e thn ic g roup ( 1967 :274 ) .

B ah a6 5.

Two a r chaeo log ica ls i te sa re l o ca ted i nt h ea pp rox ima te a r ea o f t h is b o rde r .B o th l i eo nt he n o r thea s te rn s i de o fL amb ranwayqo a nd c omp r ise c oncen t ra t ions o fs t one l ined p i t s . T he c l o se s t , w i th in 1k m o fT a rawa s i , i sa t2 820 m o n C h ikch ie ra P ampa ( F ig .4 : 1 ,S i te AL26 ) .T he T a rawa s is i te a nd S ondo rV a l ley a r e v i s ib le f r om h e re a nd s t one sa re mounded o n t h ep eak o f ah i l l 7 5 m t ot h e e a s t , p robab ly a s ab ounda ry ma rk ( F ig . 4 : 13 ) . T he s e cond s i te ( AL27 ) i s 4 km f r om T a rawa s i , 2 00 m f r om L lama tay s e t t lemen ta nd a t3 470 m b e s ide C ruzpa ta o n at r ack t oQ e rabamba a nd C huru ( F ig . 4 : 12 ) . C lea r v i ews a r e h ad t o S a lkan tay , W i lkaray a nd T i lka s umm i t s , b u t T a rawa s i i s h idden i nt h ev a l ley b e low .

T he A ymara , r e s iden t i n L ima tambo b efo re 1 543 , may h ave b een C o l la p eop les f r om Ayav ir i i nC o l la suyu who s e t t led i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he p resen t a r ea t o wh ich t h e n ame o f t h e ir o r ig in -p lace a pp l ies . S ome may h ave r e s ided i nt h e h ouse s o f C o l la m i tmaqkuna b rough t t o o u r a t ten t ion b y U s ica . T he l a nds s ur round ing t h e ir s e t t lemen t w e re l a te r a cqu ired b y P au l lu .

U s ica h ad a t tached t h e e thn ic t e rms C o l la a nd I nca t oo the r r u ins i n t h e 1 584 d ocumen t , b u t t he b u r ia ls w e re s imp ly d esc r ibed a sa nc ien t . T ha t s he i n te rp re ted t h em f unc t iona l ly a s b ur ia l sc ou ld b e am e re g ue ss o ri n f e rence f r om c on tempo ra ry o ra l t r ad i t ion . P e rhaps b one w a s o bse rvab le i n t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry .T he se s i te sm e r i tf u r the ra r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion .

6 .3 .3 E i the rs i te c ou ld h ave b een t h ea nc ien tb u r ia l p lace r e f e r red t o b y U s ica b ecause t h e i rd i rec t ion f r om T a rawa s i , p lacemen to n t he v a l ley f l ank , r e la t ion t o r av ines , a nd d i s tance n or thea s t f r om t h e o ppos i te P a ta l lac ta b oundary a re i n g ene ra l c onfo rm i ty w i th t h e e xpec ted b ounda ry l o ca t ion . AL27 i s c lo se r t o t h e t op r i dge b ounda ry a nd , s i nce t he f o l low ing b ounda ry -corne r w a so n t he r oad , i ti sp robab le t h a tt h is p o in t c ou ld b e s e en f r om t h e b u r ia ls , mak ing AL26 t h e mo s t l i ke ly c and ida te .T he Co l la s e t t lemen t , w h ich d ocumen ts i n d ica te w a s h ighe r o n t h e n or thea s te rn s i de o f ar av ine , h a s n o t b een l oca ted . AL27 h a s n o a rch i tec tu re o r s uperf ic ia l a r tefac t s c ons is ten t w i th a s i te o f h ab i ta t ion , a l though i t mus t b e c on s ide red p oss ib le t h a t t he s e t t lemen t w a s d i spe r sed , l i ke t h e p resen t n ea rby s e t t lemen t o f L lama tay . I tc er ta in ly l a y o n a b o rde ro ft h e b lock s o ld b y U s ica i n 1 584 , a nd w a s i n s ide t h e l a rge e s ta te a t t r ibu ted t oh er i n1 603 . T h is w a s r ega rded b y a l l c l a iman t s a si n i t ia l ly t h e p rope r ty o fP au l lu . T he refo re , P au l lu mus t h ave t aken c on t ro l o f l a nd s wh ich , i n t he p reh ispan ic p e r iod ,h ad s u r rounded t h em i tmaq s e t t lemen t .

Gua l lua

Gen t ly s l op ing a nd s t ony l a nds e x tend n or theas t f r om C h 'ak imayo s t ream , b e tween t h eo ld r oad a nd C o lo rado R ive r t o t h e s t ar t o f as t eep a scen t t oP ampaconga . T hey w e re n o t t e r raced l i ke v a l ley -f loo r l a nds o f s im i la r g r ad ien t a t AL10 ( Sondo r ) , AL !! ( Ta rawa s i )a nd AL 12 ( R io ja ) . As ma l l a r ea o f e roded I nca t e r race l a nd i sl o ca ted w he re t h eC o lo rado e me rge s f r om ag o rge b e tween W i lka ray a nd Apaqch i ray moun ta ins , a t Hue r tawayqo ( S i te AL7 ) . B e t te rp re se rved w a l ls , w i th a n I nca s t a irca se f ea tu re , a r e f ound n ea r t h e l a nd s n amed C h 'anchu , R unkuwa s i a nd C ha l labamba ( S i te AL8 ) . T hese a r ea s p re sen t s ome p rob lems b ecause o f t h e s ca rc i ty o f 1 6 th c en tury r e f e rence st o owne r s b ound ing C h lak imayo . T he s t a r t ing p o in t i s a ga in t he T a rawa s i T i t les , b u t t h is t ime t h e s pa t ia l s i gn if icance o ft oponym sw a s am a t te ro fd i spu te . C a r lo sI n ca p u rpo r ted t oc ede al i f ee s ta te t oU s ica , h i s mo the r , d u r ing 1 562 . I tc ompr ised av i l lage o f I nd ian s a nd e s tanc ia ( sma l l -ho ld ing )c a l led G ua l lua ( Gua l la )a nd w a sl o ca ted n ex tt o V i lcaconga , at oponym w h ich h a s b een s hown t o p o in t

F rom e a r ly d a ta , t wo I nd ian p ueb los i ns e rv ice o ft h et ambo o f L ima tambo w e re c a l led A ymara a nd G ua l lua ( Vaca d e C a s t ro 1 908 :443 ) . B o th w e re o ft he s ame e ncomendero a nd may h ave

n o r thea s t( up -va l ley ) f r om t h et ambon . B yt h ec e ss ion ,C a r los h oped t o s ecu re f o r h imse lf t h e r eve r s ion i n l a nd s t h a t h e c omp la ined h i s mo the r h ad g iven t o F e l ipe Mango tupa , h i s

o ccup ied c on t iguou s t e r r i to r ie s6 6 .G iven t h e p lacemen t o f Gua l lua , d i scussed s hor t ly , t h e A yma ra p robab ly o ccup ied a s ec to rn o r thea s to ft h e t ambo . I n t h is p lace t oday , t h e l a nd s o f ap ea san t c ommun i ty c a l led A yav ir i -N inamanch i b ound w i th t h e e a s tern s i de o f P ampaconga c ommun i ty a long t h e o ld L ima tambo -Cusco f oo t -road a nd w i th C ha l labamba o n t he v a l ley f l oo r . I n 1 656 ah ac ienda c a l led C ha l labamba -Ayav ir i , wh ich b e longed t oS an to Dom ingo mona s te ry , b ounded w i th t h e r oya l r oad t o Cusco . I t s b oundary -marke r , c a l led C h inchaypoya , d e l im i ted t h e l ands o f I nd ians i n t he

b ro the r7 2 . D e sp i te t h ea ppa ren tl im i ta t ion o fU s ica 's e s ta te t oa l i f ei n te re s t , s he i n c luded G ua lgua w i th L lama tay a nd Y lpa i na t e s tamen ta ry d i spo s i t ion , s o t h a t i tb ecame t h e o b jec t o fs a le b y h e rh e i r s t oA lbo rnoz i n 1 588 7 3 . Me lch io rI nca , a sC a r lo s ' h e ir , t ook p osse ss ion o f G ua lgua a f te r 4 more y ea r s o f d i spu te 7 4 .A lbornoz t h en s e t a bou t d i s t ingu ish ing G ua l lua , wh ich h e c onceded m igh t h ave p e r ta ined t o Me lch io r , f r om Y lpa , wh ich h ea r gued w a si n deed o fU s ica 's d e cea sed e s ta te .H e empha s ized t h a t Gua l lua w a s n ex t t o V i lcaconga , o ver t wo

r epar t im ien to o f C ap ta in Ma r t in O lmos ( Do lmo s )6 7 .T he

1 07

l e agues f rom t h e L ima tambo V a l le y7 5 . I ft a ken a s 1 0 km u p v a l ley f r om t h et ambo , t h is a r ct o uche st h ev a l ley e n t rance n ea r

E thnoh is tory o fL ima tambo

H u i l lque p a ss , ma rk ing a n a rea t ha t c ou ld i n c lude t h e I nca t e r race sa tC hak l lanka ( S i te AL2 ) . T he re i sa l so s ome t oponym ic e v idence t ha t G ua l lua i n c luded u ppe rv a l ley f l oo rl a nd sc l o se rt oT a rawa s i . I n 1 602 , A lbornoz l i s ted t he n ames o ft h e e s tanc ia , g a rdens , l a nd s a nd t e r race s c l a imed b y h im . T hese w e re C ha l labamba , R ocuguac i , L ucr igua l la , a s w e l l a s Y lpa -L lama tay 7 6 .T he f i r s t t wo t oponyms a r e k nown f r om L ima tambo Doc tr ina i n 1 689 ( i .e . C ha l labamba a nd R uncoua s i )( V i l lanueva 1 982 ) .T hey s urv ive a st oponym si nf l a tl a nd sl i ke t hose d e scr ibed i nt h ed ocumen t . L ucr igua l la may c omb ine t he t oponym G ua l lua w i th a t oponym mo re c ommon i n l a te r y ea r s i . e . R ucr i , L ucr i , o r L ucre . T he s equence o f u sage o f t oponyms s ugges ts t h a t Gua l lua w a s i np a r t s ub s t i tu ted b y t he .n ame s G ua l labamba , R ocuguac i a nd L ucr igua l la 7 7 .L ucre i so n ly u sed n ow t o d es igna te l a nd s a tt he b a se o ft h e a scen t f r om C ha l labamba t o P ampaconga .

w a s e ncomendero o f t wo I nd ian v i l lage s l i s ted b y V aca d e C as t ro i nt h e s e rv ice o fL ima tambo , c a l led P a ta t i a nd P arco . E l sewhe re h e i sl i s ted a s f i r s t e ncomendero o fS a l lauparco r epar t im ien to , w h ich p a s sed t oh i s w if e , a nd l a ter r eve r ted t o t h eC rown u pon h e rd ea th ( To ledo 1 975 :115 ,207 -208 ) . I nd ian s o f t h is r epar t im ien to w e re r ese t t led b y T o ledo i n to a L ima tambo V a l ley r e ducc i6n 8 1 . Desp i te t h eC rown r eve r s ion , T o ledo s uppor ted i t s i nher i tance b y J oan f rom D iego Ma ldonado 8 2 . T he t oponym P a rqo h a s s urv ived i n much t h e s ame l o ca t ion f o r f ou ra nd ah a lf c en tu r ie s . Ad ocumen to fs a le , p roduced i n 1 870 , c on ta ins c op ies o f a nd r eference s t o much e a r l ie r d ocumen ta t ion o n S ondo r8 3 . D ur ing t h e Ma ldonado d eT o r re s v i s i ta i n 1 594 i n fo rma t ion w as g iven a bou t l a nds o f t h e Mayorasguia D iego A r ias Ma ldonado . T he a dm in is t ra to r , C ap ta in Na to d e Mendoza ,s t a ted : A no ther t he s a id mayorasgo h as a nd p ossesses i n L ima tambo , s ome l a nd sa nd e s tanc ia sa t ap lace t hey s ay i s t h e s ea to ft h em acaconas a nd l and s d ed ica ted t ot h es un . T h is h ac ienda h a s i t s own e xc lus ive e n trance , b ranch ing f rom t h er oya lr oad t ot h er i gh t , s t ra igh t , t oc ome o u ta tt h e a l leyway o ft h e e n t rance t o t he h ac ienda h ouses , o ft e n v ara sw id th w i th t h ea ppropr ia te f ence sa tt h es ide sa nd i t s s t one b r idge o nt h eB erme jo R iver [ my t r an s la t ion ] .

I t i s s ugges ted t ha t t h e p resen t a rea n ea r C ha l labamba , R unkuwa s i a nd L ucre w a s w i th in t he Gua l lua o f t he 1 6 th c en tu ry . T he L ucr i/Ruc r i t oponym , wh ich d a te s t oa tl e a s t t h e f i r s t d ecade o ft h e 1 7 th c en tury , w a s a pp rop r ia te t od e s igna te t h e a r ea o f t e r races a tC h 'anchu -Runkuwa s i . E a r ly Q uechua d i c t iona r ie s c on ta in n o r e fe rence t oL ucre o rL ucr i , b u tR ucr i w a s d esc r ip t ive o ft e r race s a nd t h e l e ve l l ing u sed t oc ons truc t t h em 7 8 . T he l an l ong s t r ip o fl a nd a scend ing t h e v a l ley f l oo r f r om Ch 'ak imayo , b e tween t h e o ld r oad a nd C o lo rado r i ve r , i s a ppa ren t ly l e ve l led b u tf e a tu res e a r th c ana l -ho ld ing b ank sr a the r t h an s t one r e ta in ing w a l ls . Gua l lua c anno tb e t r aced w i th a ny d e ta i l t ob efo re t h e owne r sh ip o fP au l lu I nca b u tw a sp robab ly t h el o ca t ion o ft h eI nd ian p ueb lo c a l led Gua l lua t h a tw a sl i s ted i ns e rv ice o fL ima tambo b y Vaca d e C as t ro i n 1 543 . H is to r ic t oponymy c an o n ly s ugge s tt ha tt h ey r e s ided w i th in a n a rea o f 2t o 3l e ague s ( 10 -15 km ) f r om t h et ambo , o n t h e n or thea s te rn s i de . 6 .3 .4 P arqo a nd S ondor H is to r ic d a ta a r es ca rce f o r l a nds a d jacen t t ot h et ambo o n t h e r i gh t ma rg in o ft h eC o lo rado R ive r , e spec ia l ly t ot h e s ou th o f P a rqo s t ream . T ha t a rea n ow c on ta ins s ma l lho ld ings a t t h e P a rqo -Co lo rado c onf luence , l a nds o f Mamako p ea san t g roup a nd t hose o f T omacaya c ommun i ty o n t he s l opes a bove Mamako moun ta in . G rey a ndes i te f rom Mamako w as emp loyed i nt h e mos t e l abo ra te I nca s t ruc ture s o ft h e v a l ley a nd t h is mus t h ave e n ta i led s pec ia l I nca r e source r i gh t s . Howeve r , I n ca s e t t lemen t i ss pa r se ly r ep re sen ted i nt h e a rea . O nt h en o r the rn s i de o fS ondo rs t ream ,t e r raced l a nd sp er ta in t o t h e S ondo r h ac ienda ( AL 10 S ec to r Aa nd AL51 , a l ong a bou t 1 . 5 l an o ft h ev a l ley f l oo r , b e tween S ondor s t ream a nd a n I nca r oad ) , a sw e l l a st ot h eS ondo rp ea san tc oope ra t ive ( S i te AL 10 S ec tor B ) ( F ig . 5 :5 ) . T he I nca r oad b e tween t hem i s a pp rox ima te ly p a ra l le l t ot h e S ondo rs t ream a nd i sp a r t o ft h e I nca t e r race s cheme . I ta s cend s t oL echer ia P ampa ,Q uew incha a nd p a s tS a lkan tay t ot h eL owe rU rubamba V a l ley . S ondo ra nd T a rawa s i a r ec onnec ted b y as ho r tr oad w h ich l e ad s t o ab r idge a c ross ac ana l ized s ec t ion o f t h e C o lo rado r i ve r . Documen t s f r om 1 756 men t ion a n a l leyway ( ca l le jön ) o f C h lak imayo s t ream , i n 1 668 t h e q uebrada o rc a l le jön t o t h e h ac ienda s o fS ondo ra nd i n1 631 ar oad t owa rd s t h eh ouse so f t h e s uccesso r s o f Don J oan F ranc isco A r ia s Ma ldonado ( d ecea sed )7 9 . H i sf a the r ,D iego Ma ldonado ,h ad b een r ewa rded

Mendoza s a id t h e l a nd s w e re g ran ted t oD iego Ma ldonado b y F ranc isco P iza r ro f o rh i s s e rv ice s t ot he c onque s t , a s r e co rded i n ad ocumen to f 7A pr i l 1 540 a nd ag ran to fp o ssess ion o n 1 5 May o ft h a t y ea r . T h i s d ocumen ta t ion i st h e p robab le s our ce f o r t h e a s ser ted d ed ica t ion o fp a r t o ft he S ondor l ands t ot h e c u l t o f t h e s un . T he r e f e rence t o macaconas i sp robab ly a n e a r ly c opy ing e r ro r f o r mamaconas . T he mode rn t oponym Mamako may b e ad e r iva t ion f r om t h e l a t te r word 8 4 .T he m amacona sm ay h ave s e rved t h es un a sp roduce r so fc l o th a nd ma ize b ee r f o r u se i nI n ca c e remony , e conomy a nd s t a tecra f t ( Es te te 1 938 :390 -391 [ 1 535 ] ; S an t i l lan 1 968 :396 [ 1563 ] ; Mo l ina 1 943 :27 [ 1 573 ] ; Mur ra 1 962 ; Mor r is 1 974 ) . S ondo r p rov ide s r e la t ive ly l a rge a rea s o f i r r iga ted ma ize l a nd . T he s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip o fs un l a nd s a nd mamaco r za s i sl og ica la nd t h e i r p l acemen t a c ro s s t h e C o lorado R ive r s ugges ts t ha t t h e t ambo w a s ad i spe r sed c omp lex c on ta in ing t h e i n s t i tu t ion s c ha rac te r i s t ic o fC u sco a nd o the r ma jo rI nca c en tres . 6 .4 THE OUTER CORE OF THE TA MB O 6 .4 .1 S an J uan d e P a ta l lacta a nd Mauka l lak ta B eyond t h e i mmed ia te b ounda r ies o f t h e t ambo , t h e f i r s t o b jec t ive i st ol o ca te S an J uan d e P a ta l lac ta v i l lage a nd s hed s ome l i gh t o n i t s I nd ian i nhab i tan ts . . No t own o f r educc iön g r id -de s ign c a l led P a ta l lac ta e x is t s i nt he D is t r ic t so f Mo l lepa ta o r L ima tambo a nd t h e p a t ron o f p resen t L ima tambo t own i s t h e V irgen d el aA sunc ión . N eve r the le ss , S an J uan B au t is ta d e L ima tambo w a s t h e n ame o ft h e P a r ish i n c lud ing L i ma tambo a nd Mo l lepa ta u sed i nL ima tambo b ap t isma l r e cords d a t ing f r om 1 890 t om id -1922 , a nd o cca s iona l ly i no t he rp ape r s u n t i l a s r e cen t ly a s 1 958 8 5 . Au n ive r s i ty e ssay b y as t uden t f r om t h e V a l ley ( O r tega 1 948 :2 ,14 ) r e co rded t h a t t h e s t a tue o fS an J uan a ccompan ied t h e p a trona d ur ing a p rocess ion o f 1 5 A ugus t , a nd a c on t inu ing o ra l t r ad i t ion i n t h e t own w h ich p o in t s t o ap l ace c a l led Mau l ca l lac ta ( o ld t own ) a s t he s i te o f p rev iou s s e t t lemen t .

f o rh i se f fo r t si nc onque s tw i th e ncom iendas b efo re 1 542 8 0 . H e

1 08

E thnoh is to ry o fL ima tambo

P a ta l lac ta w a s a bou t t he s ame d i s tance a s P ampaconga f r om t h eC o lo rado R ive r( aq ua r te rl e ague ,o rj u s to ve r 1 cm )a nd w a s o n as l ope ( Fornee 1 965 :24 -25 [ 1 586 ] ) . P re sen tL ima tambo i s s i tua ted o n ly a bou t 1 50 m f r om t h e C o lo rado R ive r o n a r e la t ive ly f l a t a rea o f I nca t e r race s o n t h e v a l ley f l oo r ( F ig . 5 :9 ) .T e r race sb enea th t h et own w e re p robab ly a g r icu l tu ra ll a nd i nl a te p reh i s to ry a l though e l abo ra te C u sco I nca m a son ry w a l l s o n t he t own o u t sk i r t s a t Wa l lpawa s i ( S i te AL 12 -7 ) i n d ica te a s i te o fi mpor tance , b u tn o t al a rge s e t t lemen t . Mauka l lak ta ( S i te AL25 ) i s ag en t ly s l op ing c u l t iva ted a r ea w i th in o the rw ise s t eep l and s 1 km s ou thea s t o f L ima tambo t own ( F igs . 5 :1 , 5 : 12 ) . I t c onforms w e l l w i th t h e l i ke ly l oca t ion o f P a ta l lac ta I nd ian l a nd s s pec if ied i nt h e T a rawa s i T i t les a nd w i th t he d i s tance f r om t h e r i ve r s t a ted i nt h e 1 586 d escr ip t ion b y F ornee . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t a n e a r ly c o lon ia l S pan ish t own w a s p l aced o n t h e l o ca t ion o f a n I nca p o t te ry -us ing s e t t lemen ta tt h es i te . I n t he T a rawa s i T i t le s r e fe rence s t o S an J uan d e P a ta l lac ta c ommence i n 1 579 a nd c ea se i n1 698 8 6 , b u tt h et e rm w a ss t i l l u sed d ur ing av i s i ta o f 1 712 8 7 .B y 1 746 r e f e rence s a r e o n ly made t o L ima tambo 8 8 .I ft he n ame c hange c o r re spond s t oa c hange i n s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion , t h en a bandonmen t o f AL25 d a tes t ot h ef i r s th a lf o ft h e 1 8 th c en tu ry . 6 .4 .2 C ol lanas Pata l lacta

a nd

Chullanis:

The P eop les

v i s i ta 9 4 . P u icon 's mo the rw a s aY anacona A y l lo l a ndho lde r i n U r a ca . O nce r e se t t led i nP a ta l lac ta , t h et wo g roups w e re i d en t if ied b y u s ing t h e v i l lage n ame , a l though t h ey w ere s epa ra ted w hen c onven ien t t o t h e c o lon ia l a dm in is t ra t ion . F o r e xamp le , t h e 1 589 m i t 'a o rde rd emanded t wo p eop le f r om P ampaconga , t wo f r om P a ta l lac ta a nd o ne e ach f r om C hon ta a nd Mo l lepa ta9 5 . T he p e r son f r om Mo l lepa ta w as n o tp rov ided a nd b y 1 591 t h e C or r eg idor c hanged t h eo rde rs oa st oe xc lude t h a tt own ' sq uo ta , b u t r equ i red t h ree t oc ome f r om t he I nd ians o fP a ta l lac ta a nd t h e I nd ians o f C huyane . T he o rde r wa s g iven t o Ga spa r T ambo 9 6 , c ac ique o f t h e C hu l lan is , b u t s econd p e r son b y r e fe rence t o Don F e l ipe o f Co l lana . T he Chu l lan i h ad a s epa ra te i d en t i ty , b u t i tmu s t h ave b een t h e C o l lana w ho w e re s poken o fa sI nd ians o fP a ta l lac ta . We re t h eC hu l lan ig roup , i n s ome w ay ,l e s sa s soc ia ted w i th t h a tp l ace? P resen t C hoquemarka c ommun i ty r e ta ins t h e n ame o f t h a t w h ich i n1 862 c l a imed l a nds a tP i lcopuc io n ea rt h es i te o fo ld P a ta l lac ta . T he v i l lage o f U ra tar i l i es 3 km e as t o f C hoquema rka , o n ar i dge a t 3 900 m , a c ro ss t h e P i s t i R ive r r av ine . I th a s as im i la r n on -g r id l a you t a nd c on ta ins mos t ly a dobe a nd t ha tch r oof ed dwe l l ings o fr ec tangu la r f l oo r -p lan . C hu & ( d r ied p o ta to ) made t h e re i ss a id t oh ave b een e xchanged f o rC hoquema rka p o t te ry .

o f

L and s c a l led C hoqquemarca a nd P i lcopuc io w e re c l a imed b y C hoqquemarca A y l lu i n 1 862 8 9 . P i lcopuqu io i st h e n ame o f l a nd sa s cend ing t ot h ee a s to f AL25 . C hoquemarka i st h es ma l l s e t t lemen t o f ap ea san tg roup w i th t h e s ame n ame , a t3 600 m . a nd s ome 3 . 5 km s ou thea s t o fL ima tambo t own ( 2 500 m . ) . I t i sp e rched i n as add le b e tween s t eep r av ine s a nd i t s d e s ign i s f r ee f r om t h e r ec tangu la r g r id l a you t o f t h e r educc iön ( F ig . 6 :2 ) . Dur ing t h e C ab re ra L a r ta t in v i s i ta o f t h e m id 1 7 th c en tu ry , l a nd sc a l led C hoquemar ca w e r ec l a imed o nb eha lf o ft wo a y l lo s b y Don F e l ipe Qu iqu in , r e fe r red t oa s P r inc ipa lo ft h eA y l lo C o l lana s . P ossess ion w as c onf i rmed t o Don F e l ipe o f t h e A y l lo C hu l lan i i n h i s n ame a nd t ha to ft h e c ommun i ty o ft h e t own o fP a ta l lac ta o ft h eA y l lo C hu l lan i9° . Two I nd ian s oc ia l g roup s i nP a ta l lac ta a tt h is t ime w e re t h e refo re t h eC o l lana a nd Chu l lan i a y l lus . Don F e l ipe , i na n a ppa ren tc on t rad ic t ion , w a s a scr ibed t o t he Co l lana s b u t r ep re sen ted b o th a y l lus . T h is i s e xp l icab le i n t e rms o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re . T he d ua l d iv is ion o f Andean c ommun i t ie s w a s r e cogn ized i nt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry . F o r c o lon ia la dm in is t ra t ion ,t h eh ead ( c ac ique/ curaca )o ft h eu ppe r ( hancu z )d iv is ion w a s made t h ep r inc ipa lo fb o th t h eu ppe ra nd l owe r ( hur in ) d iv is ions . T he h ead o f t he l owe r w a s l a rge ly a u tonomou s , b u t k nown a s s econd p er son ( Ma t ienzo 1 967 :20 [ 1567 ]) . Don F e l ipe , a s h ead o f t h e C o l lana a y l lu , c ou ld r ep re sen t t h e Chu l lan i a y l lu i ft h e f o rme r i sc ons ide red u pper a nd t h el a t te rl ower o ft wo d iv is ion so fI nd ians i nP a ta l lac ta9 1 . Two p r inc ipa ls o f P a ta l lac ta , Don F e l ipe P u ique a nd Don Gaspa rT ambo , t e s t if ied a bou tt ambo o wne r sh ip i n1 5829 2 a nd were t h e c ac iques o f P a ta l lac ta n o t if ied i n 1 589 o f a n o b l iga t ion t o p rov ide t wo I nd ians f o r m i t 'a l a bour t o t h e t ambero9 3 . P robab ly t h e s ame t wo p eop le , F e l ipe P u icon a nd Ga spa rT ambo , e n t i t led c ac ique p r inc ipa la nd s egunda p er sona r e spec t ive ly , h e ld l a nd s w i th in t h e t e r r i tory o fd i f f e ren ta y l lus a t U raca n ea r Chon ta i n t he l owe r v a l ley d ur ing t h e 1 595 1 09

D ur ing t h e A lcaza r v i s i ta o f 1 646 , l a nds a nd p unas i nU ra ta r i w e re s o ld b y t h eC rown t oA lonso B aes . I n 1 689 t h ey f o rmed t h e H ac ienda U ra ta r i a nd b y 1 712 w e re p a r t o f t h e l a nds o f U ra ta ry , C huyan ia nd l pa o fJ o sé d el aH ermo sa yC i sne ro s9 7 . B aes i n tended t o u se t h e l a nds f o r l i ves tock p a s ture , w h ich c onfo rm s w i th t h e h igh a l t i tude o fp re sen t U ra ta r i . T he l a nds mu s th ave b ounded w i th t ho se o ft h eP a ta l lac ta I nd ians b e cau se t h e ir c ac ique wa s s u mmoned t o b e p resen t a tt h e p o sse ss ion p roceed ings . I t wa sa l so ac ond i t ion o ft h es a le t h a tn ot r e spa ss b e made o n P a ta l lac ta l a nd s9 8 . When U ra ta r i c ommun i ty w as o ff ic ia l ly i n scr ibed i n 1 977 , i t s n ame w a s A y l lu C hu l lan i P a ta l lac ta d e U ra tar i . I ts e ems l i ke ly t ha t t h e ir s oc ia l h i s to ry s t em s f r om t h a to ft h eA y l lo C hu l lan i o ft h e 1 6 th c en tu ry . I ti st e n ta t ive ly p roposed t h a t , a round 1 533 , t h e C o l lana a y l lu o ccup ied t he p lace k nown t oday a s Mauka l lak ta ( AL25 ) a nd s u r round ing l a nds , a nd h ad a cces s t o Cusco I nca p o t te ry . T he f i r s t S pan ish v i l lage o f 1 572 may h ave t a ken t h e n ame o ft h e C o l lana s 'p rev iou sc en t re o fs e t t lemen t , P a ta l lac ta . I tw a sb u i l t o n t h e s ame l o ca t ion , r e la t ive ly l ow a nd n ea r t h e t ambo . T he C hu l lan i a y l lu w a s f r om a n a r ea a d jacen t t o , b u t a l so h ighe r a nd f u r the r f r om b o th P a ta l lac ta a nd t he t ambo a nd w a s p robab ly n ea r p resen t U ra ta r i . T hey w e re r ep re sen ted a t P a ta l lac ta a s ar e su l t o f r educc iön p o l icy . B y t h e m id 1 8 th c en tury , n e i the r g roup l i ved o n t he o ld s i te o f P a ta l lac ta , a l though i ti sn o tc l ea r wha tp re c ip i ta ted i t sa bandonmen t . D isea se h ad d ep le ted t h e i nd igenou s p opu la t ion o f a l l f our L ima tambo r educc iones b y 1 586 , b u t e spec ia l ly t hose o f P a ta l lac ta a nd P ampaconga ( Fornee 1 965 :24 -25 ) . T h is , c omb ined w i th d eve lopmen t o f n umerous , d i spe r sed a nd r e la t ive ly s ma l l h ac ienda e n te rp r ise s d u r ing t h e 1 7 th c en tury , e ach d emand ing a n I nd ian l a bou rs upp ly , wou ld h ave a f fe c ted t h e v i ab i l i ty o fr educc ione s i nb o th i nd igenous a nd E u ropean t e rm s . H oweve r , mos t a ppea r t or ema in , i nc omb ina t ion w i th s ma l l n on -Span ish s e t t lemen t s w h ich p resen t a n i n te re s t ing a venue f o rh i s to r ica la r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch .

E thnoh is to ry o fL ima tambo

6 .4 .3 P a mpaconga , S ondor a nd P arqo P a ta t ia nd P a rco p ueb los o f 1 543 w e re f ound t ob et i ed t ol a nd s o f Ma ldonado Mayorazgo i n t h e a rea o f p resen t S ondo r . Mayorazgo l a nd c l a ims i n 1 594 w ere e x tens ive . B ounda r ie s r o se a l ong t h e B erme jo ( Co lo rado ) R ive r f o r s i x a nd t h ree q ua r te r so f al e ague t oi t so r ig in , t h en a l ong as nowy moun ta in r i dge f o r s i x a nd ah a lf l e ague s t oT omacaya Moun ta in , t h en f i na l ly d e scended ar i dge f o rs even a nd aq ua r te rl e ague st or e ach t h eS ondo r /Pa rqo -Co lo rado r i ve rc onf luence" . When c ac ique so fP ampaconga p re sen ted t i t le s t ot he A lcaza r v i s i ta o f 1 645 , t h e p rev ious r epar t ic iön w a s h e ld t oh ave l e f t l a nd s t ot h eI nd ians o ft h eA y l lu I nqu i lpa ta , P a ta to a nd T oma C ajasi N. L and measuremen t was p os tponed b ecause Ma ldonado m ayorazgo a l so c l a imed t h em . I nqu i lpa ta w a s e i gh th o ft h e t we lve n amed l a nd a r ea s o ft h is c l a im wh ich l a y o n t h er i gh t s i de o ft h eC o lo rado r i ver b e tween t h ec onf luence a nd i t s h eadwa te r s 1°1.I n 1 689 i tw a s t h e n ame o fa n a s ien to c or to a d jo in ing h ac ienda R uncouas i ( V i l lanueva 1 982 :210 ) . P a ta to m igh t h ave b een a v e r s ion o f t h e t oponym P a ta t i . T oma -Ca jas p robab ly r efe r s t o r e s iden t s o f T omacaya moun ta in , at o ponym l i s ted i n 1 594 1 02 .T omacaya n ow d es igna tes h i gh l a nd s a nd ap ea san t g roup t ot h e n or thwe s to f t h eS ondo r -Co lo rado c onf luence . T he n or thea s te rn s l ope s o f L ima tambo V a l ley w e re a l so p redom inan t ly u n ter raced , w i th t he ma rked e xcep t ion o f C hak l lanka ( S i te AL 2 ) , o n t h e u ppe r C o lo rado v a l ley f l oo r n ea rP ampaconga .I n 1 582 , t h ree p e r son sf r om t h ev i l lage w e re s ummoned t o g i ve e v idence a bou t t h e t ambo : Don J uan ( a lca lde ) , Ma r t in A r rna ( r eg ido r ) a nd Don J uan Y acha i 1°3.I n 1 645 t h ere w e re s i x c ac iques i n t he v i l lage , who w i th 8 9 t r ibu te p ay ing m en h ad b een g ran ted 3 73 t o pos o f l a nd . T he t own p opu la t ion i n c luded t h e A y l lu P o l la C a ira l °4 .V i l lage I nd ian l a nd s w e re t h en r emea su red a t8 56 t o pos , 5 56 o fw h ich w e re r emoved t ot h e C rown . W i th in t h e r ema in ing a r ea , f r om w h ich c ac ique sc ou ld s e lec tl a nd s , t h eA y l lu C hancas wa sa l so s a id t o h ave l a nd s l° S . I ti sp o ss ib le t ha t t h e s i x c ac iques r e p re sen ted s oc ia l u n i ts o ra y l lus c a l led P o l la C a ira , C hanca s , I nqu i lpa ta , P a ta to a nd T oma -Ca jas , g roup s ' r educed ' i n to P ampaconga .T he g roup mo s tc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h et own w a sP o l la C a i ra ,a nd t h e C hancas a ppea ra sa n a d jacen ta y l lu , f r om t h e e a s te rn s ec tor o f u ppe r P ampaconga . B i l lque w as l i s ted a s h ac ienda o f C hanca I nd ians i n ap a r ish r epor t f r om Z u r i te i n 1 690 , al i s t ing wh ich f o l lowed t h a to fT ucucaca ( i .e . t h e T oqoqaqa l ime s tone o u tc rop w i th c ave s b es ide Hu i lque moun ta in ) ( V i l lanueva 1 982 :200 ;G lave a nd R emy 1 983 :320 ) . R e f e rences t ot h e C hanca Ay l lu h e re a re p o s t 1 6 th c en tu ry a nd i ti su nknown i ft h ey w e re i na ny w ay r e la ted t ot h ep eop le s s o d e s igna ted i nI n ca t r ad i t ion . H is tor ic a y l lus o ft h e s ame n ame a r e k nown i nH uanoqu i te a nd d i s tan t C hucu i to ( D iez d e S an M igue l 1 964 :317 ; P oo le 1 984 :134 ) . I nka t r ad i t ion d ema rca te s t h e c oncep tua l b ounda ry o f C hanka i n f luence a s a l ong t h e A pu r imac R ive r a tt h e o ppos i te e nd o fL ima tambo V a l ley t o H u i lque .I tw a sa t Apu r ima t h a tt h eC han l ca sw e re s a id t oh ave made s acr if ice s d ur ing t h e i r ma rch o n C u sco , a nd a tn ea rby C uraguax i ( Cu rahua s i ) t ha t I nga Yupangue ( Pachacu t i ) g ave T upa Va sco , C ap ta in o f t he C hanka s , ap a l la ( I nca n ob le w oman ) f o r aw if e w hen p eace w a s made ( C ieza 1 985 :137 ) . T he c apacocha s a cr if ice sc om ing t oC usco f r om t h ep rov ince s , i n c lud ing c h i ld ren , w e re a l so f i r s t me tb yp eop le f r om C u sco a t t h e Apur imac R ive r ( Hernändez P r inc ipe 1 923 :62 -63 [ 162 1] ) . T he r i tua l s u ic ide o f t h e g ua rd ian o f t h e A pur imac o rac le ,

A sa rpay , i sr epea ted i nO c ro s i nt h e s u ic ide o f as o rce re rw ho h ad t he o racu la r v o ice o f ad ecea sed c apacocha ( Zu idema 1 978 :146 -148 ) . T he t oponyms a nd a y l lu n ame u sage s o f c hanka may r e f lec tt h a tt he I chupampa , o n t h eP ampa d eA n ta b e tween V i lcaconga a nd C usco ( bes ide Hu i lque ) , w a s a t r ad i t iona l p l ace o f ab a t t le b e tween t h e I nca a nd t h e C hanka ( Sa r rn ien to 1 943 :192 -196 ; C ieza 1 985 : 1 30 -133 ) . 6 .5

SYNTHESIS

E a r ly c o lon ia ld ocumen ta ry d a ta a nd a r chaeo log ica le v idence a r e d rawn t oge the r s chema t ica l ly i nF igu re 6 :2 . Appa ren t a xe so f t ambo s pace a r ef i r s t ly t he t h ree w a te rcou r se sw i th e v idence o f c ana l iza t ion ,t h eC o lo rado R ive ra nd t he C h 'a l c imayo a nd P a rqo s t reams . T he t ambo w as a l so a t t he i n te r sec t ion o f t wo r e la t ive ly b road v a l leys a nd wa s p laced a long t h e I n ca C h inchaysuyu r o ad . T he c en t ra l i ty o f t h e e l abo ra te s ec to r o f S i te AL 11 t o t h e c oncep t o ft h e t ambo may b e i nd ica ted b y t h e a r ch i tec tu re o f t h e t h ree -s ided s t a ircase o n Wa l l I , b es ide t he p l aza a t T a rawas i .A sa l ready a rgued ,i t sr e cons truc ted f o rm w ou ld b ea r g rea ts im i la r i ty t ot h eu shnu d ep ic ted b y Guaman P oma ( a lbe i t i n sp ired b y V i lca shuamän p yram id ) . I ta l so r e semb le s t h e s t a i rca se l e ad ing i n to t he e normous k a l lanka o f I nka l lak ta ( Bo l iv ia ) , w h ich Z u idema ( 1980 :344 -351) a r gue s w a s p a r to f a n u shnu c omp lex l i ke t he C uyusmanco b u i ld ing o n t h e s i de o fC usco p l aza .T h is may q ua l ify t h ec a se d eve loped b yH ys lop ( 1990 :69 -71) t ha t , e xcep t f o r Cusco c i ty , u shnu w e re p rov inc ia lc e remon ia la nd s ac r if ic ia lc omp lexe sl o ca ted b eyond t h eC usco r e g ion . P u td i f fe ren t ly , t he e l emen t so ft h e u shnu a s p rov inc ia lc en t re so fs a cr if ice a nd t h er oya l -commone ri n te r f ace w e re p re sen t ( a nd p robab ly d eve loped ) i n t h e p e r iphe ry o f C usco . E a r ly l a nd c l a ims i nL ima tambo b y b o th S pan ish c onque ro r s a nd c o lon ia l I nca n ob i l i ty c en t red u pon v a l ley -f loo r t e r raced l a nds , i n co rpo ra t ing t hose o ft h e f o rme r s un c u l t , mamacona s a nd m i tmaqkuna . E v idence a l so s ugges t s t h a ts ome l a nd sw i th y anacona s may h ave b een f o rme r ly e s ta tes o f I nca n ob i l i ty . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween a y l lus , a s l oca l g roups w hose i n tegra t ion wa s p robab ly e xpressed i n k i nsh ip t e rms b y r e f e rence t o ah uaca o rt opograph ised a nce s tor ,a nd t h eI n ca so f C usco , i ss een i nt h e i r p hys ica l d i s tanc ing f r om t h e c en t re o f I nca -s ty le c ons t ruc t ion a t t he t ambo . Unfor tuna te ly , s u r round ing g roup sa r eu neven ly d ocumen ted . P eop les o f C o l lana Ay l lu , t h e p robab le i nhab i tan t s i n l a te p reh is to ry o f ap l ace l a te r t o b ecome P a ta l lac ta v i l lage , w e r e l o ca ted c l ose t ot h et e r raced v a l ley -f loo rl a nd sa nd e l abo r a te I n ca c ons t ruc t ions a tt h eh i gh l im i t so fT a rawa s i a nd R io ja t e r ra ce s . T he ir l a nds w e re c on t iguous w i th t hose o f C hu l lan i A y l lu , o ve r whose c ac ique t he Co l lana c oun te rpa r t ma in ta ined p recedence .B o th w e re j o ined w i th a y l lus o ft h eC hon ta a r ea t o f o rm t h er epar t im ien to c a l led C hu l lan i . C o l lanan i sd ef ined i nQ uechua d i c t iona r ie s o ft h e p er iod a sf i r s t a nd p r inc ipa l , mos tp r inc ipa l t h ing i n wh a tever c l as s a nd e qu iva len t m ean ings ( San to T omä s 1 951 :192 ,267 [ 1 560 ] ; Gonza lez H o lgu in 1 952 :642 [ 1608 ] ) . C huyan i ( i . e . C hu l lan i ) a ccord ing t oS an to T omä s means a l i qu id w h ich b ecomes c l ar if i ed . t ob e w i thou t s ed imen t a nd C hu l la i so dd , o ppo s i te o fp a ir s ( op .c i t . :272 ) . C hu l la i iau i r e fe r s t o ap er son b l ind i no ne e ye . C hu l la C hu l la t ot h e u neven a nd C hhu l la t o at h ing w i thou t c ompan ion amongs tp a ired t h ings ( San to T omä s o p .c i t . : G onza lez H o lgu in o p .c i t . :119 ) .

10

E thnoh i s tor y o fL i n za tambo

F IG . 6 :2 S che mat ic Represen tat ion o f Modern T oponyms , a nd H is tor ic D ata a nd S i tes ( i n b rackets ) N ear t he T a mbo o f L i mata mbo .

E xp rop r ia t ion o fa y l lu l a nd s f o r t e r race b u i ld ing , p l acemen t o f a n I nca i n s ta l la t ion a nd p roduc t ion t o b enef i t I nca p urposes , w a s s ome t ime s f a c i l i ta ted b y r emova l o f t h e o r ig ina l owne r s a nd t h e i r r ep lacemen t w i th p eop le who h ad n o t r ad i t iona l t i es t o e xp rop r ia ted s e c t ions o f l a nd . T h is i s s hown i n t h e 1 555 t e s t imony o f ac ac ique a bou t l ands r ec la imed b y r i ve r c ana l iz a t ion n ea rC a Ica i nt h e V i lcano ta V a l ley . H e s a id t ha t I nca T opa C u s i Gua lpa o rde red t h a tp rov inc ia lI nd ians c a r ry o u tt h e wo rk s , a f te rw h ich t h ey , r a the r t h an l o ca l i nhab i tan ts , p lan ted a nd h arves ted

Chu l lan i Ay I lu i s , s eman t ica l ly , a n o dd c ompan ion f o rC o l iana Ay I lu . An e xp lana tory p oss ib i l i ty i s r a ised b y t he i d en t if ica t ion o fl a nds a d jacen tt ot ho se o fb o th t h eC o l lana a nd Chu l lan i a s h av ing s ur rounded aC o I la m i tmaq s e t t lemen t . T he l a nds a r e s t eep b u t c ove red w i th r e la t ive f l a t s a nd c ou ld b e p resumed t o h ave b een c u l t iva ted p r ior t o I nca p l acemen t o f m i tmaqkuna . I f al oca l g roup , e x t rac ted t o make w ay f o r m i tmaqkuna , w e re amo ie ty d iv is ion o ft h e g roup k nown t ou s a s C hu l lan i , t h e d es igna t ion m ean ing w i thou t c ompan ion wou ld make c on s ide rab le s ense .

1 1

E thnoh is to ry o fL ima tambo

p roduce f o r t h e I nca s o f C usco ( Ro s two rowsk i 1 962 :140 ) . C ana l iza t ion h a s b een a r chaeo log ica l ly r e co rded i nt h is a r ea ( Fa r r ing ton 1 983 :223 ) . C o l lana o ccu r sa sa na y l lu n ame ,o rp a r to fo ne , w i th s uf i c ien t r e gu la r i ty t or ega rd i ta s ag ene r ic t e rm , r a the rt h an ar epea ted t oponym . Z u idema h a s a na lysed s uch u sage s i nm any c a se s f r om t h ep a s ta nd p r e sen to fC u sco a nd A pu r ima cD epa r tmen t s , a l ong s ide i t s o ccu r rence i n at r ipa r t i te mode l o f s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia ld i v i s ion i nI n ca C u sco ( 1964 :81-84 , 14 122 , 1 990 ) . I n t h e C usco c eque s ys tem , 4 2 l i nes w e re c once ived o f a s r ad ia t ing f r om Qo r icancha , t h e s un t emp le , e ach w i th as t r ing o fn amed s a c red s i te sc a red f o rb y ap a r t icu la rg roup f r om t h e s e t t lemen ta c co rd ing t o ar i tua lc a lenda r .N ine l i ne sp e r ta ined t o e a ch o ft h re eo u to ff ou rd i v i s ion sc a l led s uyu ,a nd 1 5p e r ta ined t oC un t isuyu . A n i n he ren t ly s t ruc tu red c o lon ia l a ccoun to ft h e l i ne sl i s ted t h em a l te rna te ly a cco rd ing t ot h eg ene r ic a s c r ip t ion s C o l lana , P ayan o rC ayao ( o rc oncep tua l ly c on s i s ten t s pec if ic n ame si n af ew c a se s ) .T h ree g roup so f1 4l i ne sw e r es od ef ined ( Zu idema 1 964 :1-2 ; 1 983 :54 ) . T he f i r s t l i ne o fC h inchaysuyu i n ac o l lana ( f ir s to rp r inc ipa l ) p o s i t ion i nt h e s equence w a s c a l led C apac ( r oya l ) ( op .c i t . 1 964 :4 ,76 ) . I nS a rm ien to ' s v e r s ion o fI n ca o r ig in m y th , t h ree o ff ou rb ro the r sf ounded a y l lu s , t h eC apac I n ca o rr o ya ld ynas ty b e ing a t t r ibu ted t o t h e o f ten m en t ioned a r che type , Manco C apac . Z u idema ' st h eo re t ica lr e cons t ruc t ion o ft h es i gn if icance o ft h e se t e rm s i nI n ca my th , p o s i t s P ayan a s s e conda ry o r i n m idd le p l a ce i nt h eh i e ra r chy , a s soc ia ted w i th a s s i s tan t so ft h e C o l lana , p rogeny o fC o l lana m en a nd C ayao w omen , a nd w i th p re Inca p opu la t ions o f c onque red r eg ions . C ayao i s r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e n on Inca o r n on -a r is toc ra t ic p opu la t ion a nd o f am a r r iage c l a s s f r om w h ich C o l lana m en c ou ld t a ke s e conda ry w ive s( op .c i t . 1 964 :4 1-42 , 7 6 ) .T he re fo r e , t h et e rms e xp re s s k i n sh ip , s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d eg ree s o fd i s tance f r om t h e h ighe s t r a nk s o fC u sco . C olana i n d ica te s t h e m ax imum s t a tu ss epa ra t ion f r om t h el o ca la y l lu l e ve l . Z u idema ( 1983 :54 )h a sp o s tu la ted t h a tt h et e rm m i t imae su sed b y Mo l ina f o r p eop le s i nt h e c i r cum -Cu sco c i tua a r ea ( u sed w i thou t r e f e rence t o ap l ace o fo r ig in ) , m ay h ave d e s igna ted p eop le g ran ted p r iv i lege s o f r ank b y t h e I n ca , a nd t ha t m i tmaqkuna a round p rov inc ia l c ap i ta ls w e r eo ft h es ame c l a s s ( 1983 :54 ) . E thnoh i s to r ic a na ly s i so ft h eP a ru ro r e g ion f ound a t r ipa r t i te s oc ia l a nd s pa t ia l d iv is ion t o a pp ly ( c omp r is ing I ncacona ( nob i l i ty ) , I nca s -by -p r iv i lege a nd d i spe r sed l o ca l a y l lu s ) ( Poo le 1 984 :97 -98 ) .

Y anacona w e re mo s t c l o se ly a ssoc ia ted w i th v a l ley -f loo r t e r raced l a nd s n ea r T a rawa s i , f o l lowed b y ma rnacona s , C o I la m i tmaqkuna a nd t h e C o l lana A y I lu . T he s oc ia l l a ndscape r a p id ly c hanged a sS pan ia rd sa nd c o lon ia l I n ca n ob i l i ty c l a imed b lock s o ft e r raced a nd i r iga ted l a nd . S ome o ft h e se a r ea sm ay h ave b een e s ta tes o f C u sco I nca n ob i l i ty , b u t o the r s w e r e d ed ica ted t ot h eS t a te r e l ig iou sc u l t . T he l o ca l p opu la t ions r e s id ing n ea res t t he t ambo o f L ima tambo h e ld l a nd s o n t h e s ou ther n v a l ley f l ank b ound ing t e r raced l a nd s . T a rawa s i w a s c en t re o f ad i sper sed t ambo c omp lex , w h ich i n c luded t h e c o l lana s e t t lemen t o n t h e s i te c a l led Mauka l lak ta . A y l lus s u r round ing L ima tambo c on t r ibu ted s e rv ice st ot h eI n ca S ta te a nd c u l t . I nca s t y le c ons t ruc t ion o n t he ir l a nd s w a s r e s t r ic ted i na r ea a nd c oncen t ra ted i nl owe ra l t i t i tude a nd v a l ley f l oo r l o ca t ions . T owa rd sC usco , t h e P u l la C a i ra A y I lu r e ta ined as a c red p l ace ,p o s s ib ly al o ca lo ri ndependen th uaca .T owa rd s t h e Apu r imac R ive r , T i lka moun ta in w a s p a r t o f al a nd scap e r i tua l ly t r ea ted a s ap r ima ry p e r iphe ry o fC u sco i nt h e C i tua c e remony .

Footnotes t o Chapter 6 . ( NOTE: * i n f ootnotes s ignifies t hat t he document c ited i s transcribed i n Appendix IV ) 1G ua r ina i su sed i nt h is r e f e rence a si fi tw e r e as ynonym o f A pur ima : yd e ld i cho T ambo d eL ima tambo s et i ene d e i ra lt ambo d e G uar ina Yd e ld i cho T ambo d eA pur ima s et i ene d ej ra l T ambo d e C uragua s i ( Vaca d e C a s t ro ( 1543 ) 1 908 :443 ) T h is u sage m ay b ea n e r ro r . H oweve r ,t h e re w a s aG uar ina i nt h e P rov ince o f Oma suyo , L a P az , w i th in t h e C or reg im ien to o fL la xca ( M iranda 1 925 :146 ; T o ledo 1 975 :XL ; C ieza 1 984 :285 ) , a nd a R epar t im ien to o fI nd ian sc a l led ' L lu sco a ymarae s eh uar ina y m arae s ' [ g ua r ina a yma rae s? ] i nt h e C o r reg im ien to o fC onde su io a nd C humb iv i lca s ( M iranda 1 925 :159 ) . C o tabamba s y Omo sayo s w a s a l so aR epar t im ien to [ Sa rm ien to 1 943 :258 ; T o ledo 1 975 :118 ] . P e rhap s s ou the rn Oma suyo m i tmaqkuna r e s ided n e a r C o tabamba s , a nd w e re f r om G ua r ina? V aca n o ted t h a t p eop le o f C o tabamba P rov ince w e re t os e rve i nt h et ambo o f Apur ima ( Gua r ina ) ( 1908 :443 ) .

* T .14 1 ; A lbo rnoz p u rcha sed l a nd s n ea rt he t ambo o fL ima tambo f o l low ing t h e d ea th o fD o i ia C a ta l ina T oc to U s ica .

2

* T .18 , f . 2 :3 -4 ; Men t ioned i nt h e d e sc r ip t ion o f l a nd s g ran ted t o t amber a Y sabe l R odr igue s b y C uzco c ab i ldo . 3

A .M .A . :Pampaconga 1 96 1 , d ocumen t s t r anscr ibed b y V a len t ino G a ray A . , p a laeog raphe r , L ima : E n e lv a l le d eL ima tambo , e n t r e in ta d ias d e lm e sd ed ic iembr e d e m i l ys e i sc ien tos yc uaren ta yc i nco a i io s . - E l C ap i tan D on D iego d eA lca zar h ab iendo v i s to e ll i bro d e r epar t ic iön r epr e sen tado p or l o sc a s ique s , d e lp ueb lo d e P ampaconga y e s tos a u to s yd ec larac iön d e lm ed idor , d igo q ue p or c uan to : h ab iendo h echo l ac uen ta t o po p or t opo d et oda sl a st i er ra sq ue s e r epar t ieron al o si nd io sd e lA y l lu P o l la -Ca ira d e ld icho p ueb lo d el ae ncom ienda d eD on D igo [ s ic ] N u r le zd e C ampoverd e , p ar ece h aber se r epar t ido yd ado o chen t inueve i nd io s d e ld icho a y l lu yas e is c ac ique s y . . .

T he s t a tu s o f t h e C o l lana A y I lu b y c ompa r i son w i th C usco I n ca n ob i l i ty i su nce r ta in .H oweve r ,t h e i rr e s idence c l o se t ot h e I nca t e r race s a t R io ja a nd t h e t ambo i nd ica te s as pec ia l r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e I n ca i n s t i tu t ion r ep re sen ted t h e re . T he d ocumen ta ry d a ta a r en e i the ra bundan tn o rs pe c if i ca bou tR io ja , b u t i t s a r chaeo log ica l c ha rac te r i s t ic s a r e a menab le t oa na lys is o n ar eg iona l l e ve l . T he r ap id E u ropean t a keove r o ft e r raced l a nd sa nd t h ea r chaeo logy o ft e r race s y s tem sa r ound L ima tambo s how p a r t icu la rs im i la r i ty t op a t te rn s i nt h eY ucay V a l ley a nd t ot h eh i e ra r ch ica lt e r r i to r ia l i ty o fC u sco i t se lf .

4

6 .6

5

CONCLUSIONS

I t h a s b een p oss ib le t o i d en t ify t wo i mpo r tan t I nca i n s ta l la t ions , d e scr ibed i n e a r ly d ocumen ta ry s ou rce s a s t ambos , a l ong t h e I nca r oad t o A pu r imac b r idge i n t h e L ima tambo V a l ley .T hey a r ek nown a st h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te s a tT a rawa s ia nd Ma rkawa s i .

I nJ anua ry 1 646 l a nd s o ft h e P ampaconga i nd ian s w e re o ff ic ia l ly m ea su red , i n c lud ing t e n a nd ah a lf f anegadas o nt h ef l ank o fa m oun ta in c a l led C u ra -M i re , p e rhap s at r an scr ip t ion e r ro r f o r C o rau ire [ A .M .A . :Pampaconga ] . T hey w e re A lon so V aez a nd J uan V e läzquez .T he f o rme r may h ave b een r e s iden t i nt h e V a l ley a tl e a s t 1 2 y ea r s e a r l ie r [ *T .167 , f . 1:13 ,26 ] .

6

12

E thnoh i . : tory o fL ima tambo

D ocume nt ] .S a l loc P a sco , m en t ioned i n 1 689 p a r ish r epo r t s ( V i l lanueva 1 982 :2 10 ) , m ay b e ac o r rup t ion o f S a l laupa rco . T he t oponymn s u r v ive s a sd e s igna t ion o f as t r ip o f l a nd b e s ide t h e S ondo r ( o rP a rqo ) R ive r , n ea rt h e C o lo rado c onf luence .

7 I n 1 572 ab l ock o f6 0 t opos b e s ide C irca v i l lage w a s t h e s ub jec t o fd i spu te . T he c ac iques o fC irca s a id i tw a s l a nd o fA pop i lco A roxe , g over no r o fa l l C h inchay suyu , t o w hom t h ey w e re g iven b y T opa I n ca Y upanqu i . T hey s ub sequen t ly p a s sed t o Apocondo r , p r inc ipa l l o rd o fC irca w ho d ied b e fo re t he S pan ia rd s c ame . T hey t hen p a s sed t o Apocondo r 's d augh te r , Doha L eono rP a I la C haqu i . T he l a nd s w e re ' v acan t a tt he t ime o fc onque s t a nd w e re t hus t a ken o ve rb yC i r ca A y I lu t op l an tm a ize . H oweve r , D oha L eono r w a s g iven l a nd s i nc ompen sa t ion a t' T ocouaca ' ( i .e . p robab ly t he n ea r t he T oqoqaqa o u tc rop ) ( s ee AGN ( L ima ) TP 1 632 L . 16 , C .337 , f . 4 f . 5v ) .

3 2 T . 100 : D i spu te b e tween Mae s t ro d eP o s ta sd e lT ambo d e l p ueb lo d e L ima tambo a nd D oha F r anc isca S ed i l lo y B a rona , 5 S ep tembe r , 1 807 .

AR oya l P rov is ion o f 1 549 ,d i r ec ted t ot h e Aud ienc ia o fP e ru , r e qu i red r educc iön o fI nd ian p eop le s , ap rocedure s t rong ly r e commended b y Ma t ienzo ( 1967 :48 [ 1567 ] ) . N ece s sa ry i n f orma t ion w a s c o l le c ted i nt h e 1 550 ' s i nY ucay [ V i l lanueva 1 970 a : 15 ] , b u t s y s tema t ic e xecu t ion o f t h e p o l icy a wa i ted V ice roy T o ledo ( 1 569 -8 1) ( Cook 1 975 ) . A s l a te a s 1 668 t he o wne r o f L uc re -L lama tay -Y lpa s ough te xe cu t ion b y t h ec o r reg ido ro fa v i ce r ega l o r de rf o rr educc iön o fI n d ian s t h a t w e re p rev iou s ly o f ' O s ica C oya ' [ 1 . 125 ] . T h i s m ay r ef lec t ap o s t -To ledan d i spe r s ion o ft ho se p eop le , o r p e rhap s t h e n eed t oa dm in is t ra t ive ly a l loca te d e scendan t so fy anacona .

T he se w e r et he P ueb lo sn amed A ymara yGuaRua o fP ad re Ma r t in S anche zd eO lave ,P a ta t i yP ar co o fD iego Ma ldonado ,P ueb lo Chon ta yG uamaruro yS ur in ta oMa tara o f Macue la s ,C a l laraca o f J uan J u l io ( d eO jeda ) , P icoy o fT e so re ro A lon so R ique lme a nd Maran io fR ique lme o rD iego Ma ldonado . S ee n o te o nT a rawa s i T i t le s i nA ppend ix I V .

1 0

* 1 . 167 , f . 1 :9 .

1

* T .169 , f . 1 :1-11 .

1 2 S ee d ocumen t * T .18 , f . 1 :15 -20 ; f . 1v :40 -42 ; f . 2 :394 .2v :2 ; T h i s c on ta in s ac opy made i n 1 594 o ft he d ocumen t r e co rd ing t h e t ak ing o f p o s se ss ion i n 1 579 . 1 3

* T .18 , f . 3 :20 -f .3v :17 .

1 5 T .4 c on ta ins t h e t ambe ro 's t i t le p resen ta t ion a nd s pec if ie s t h e n a tur eo fm ea sure s t ob e u sed i nt h e l a nd i n spec t ion . * T .23 c on ta in s t h e 1 594 v i s i ta d e scr ip t ion a nd mea su remen t o f l a nd s . A q uad ra ,a sd e scr ibed i nT .4 , w a sa na r ea o f 1 44 b y9 6v ara s , s a id t o b eo ne t h i rd o f ah anegada . A s sum ing t he C a s t i l l ian v ara t ob et h e u sua l o ne o fa bou t 0 .835 m e t re s , t h eh anegada c omp r ise s 2 . 89 h a . H enc et h eq uadra i s0 . 96 h a ,a nd t h et wo o ft h em m ea su red i n* T .23 t o ta l led 1 . 93 h a .

T .24 .

1 7

T .75 , T .79 , T .45 , T .46 .

1 8

T .46 a nd T .50 .

1 9

* T .19 , * T .16 1 , * T .162 a nd * 1 .163 .

2 0

T .130 -136 .

* 1 .55 , f . 2 :29 -30 . * 1 .65 .

2 4

* T .18 , f . lv :42 -f .2 :11 .

N oJ uan d eO lmo si sm en t ioned a sa ne ncomende ro b y V aca d e C a s t ro i n 1 543 , n o r i nM iranda ' s c opy o ft h e T o ledo v i s i ta . Ma r t in D o lmo s , s e cond h u sband o fD o i ia Ma r ia A r ia s , o b ta ined t he e ncom ienda o fC huyan i b y s ucce s s ion f r om Ma r ia ' s f i r s t h u sband [ s ee f . n . 6 7 ; T o ledo 1 975 :209 ] . T he l a nd o ft h e p eop le i n co rpo r a t ed i nt h e R epa r t im ien to d eC huyan i w a s f a r i ne xce s s o f t h e l a ndho ld ing o ft h e e ncomend ero .

* T .1 a nd * T .18 , f . 3v :36 -37 .

2 7

* T .160 , f . 3 :24 -f .3v :11 .

2 8

* 1 .162 , f . 6 :1 3 -20 .

2 9

* 1 .162 , f . 6 :19 -f .6v :6 .

3

* T .19 , f . 2 :14 19 .

V aca d e C a s t ro ( 1 543 ) 1 908 :443 .

4 1

T .9 1 : P o sse ss ion a nd b ounda ry d e l im i ta t ion f o r D oha J uana d e Oquendo , o n 8 May , 1 756 . 2 5

2 6

* 1 . 153 a nd * 1 . 154 , f 4v : 18 -26 .

3 9

* T .55 , f 2 :23 -f .2v :31 ; T he d ocumen ted mea su remen t s w e re 4 1 v aras b e tween t he f i r s tc ro ss ( i n ar i ng ) a nd t h e s econd c ros s ( on a p ede s ta l ) ; A t S i te AL 11 , t h is s i de i s3 6 .06 me t re s l o ng . B e tween C ros s 2a nd C ros s 3( a ma l te se c r o s s ) , 2 8 v aras a nd ah a lf w e r e mea su red . T h is mea su re s 2 4 .96 m e t re s o n t h e g round a tt h e s i te . T he v ara u sed w a s t hu s a bou t0 . 876 me t re s l o ng . W i th ah a lf -vara ma rg in o fe r ro r o ve r t h e d i s tance s m ea sur ed , a nd d i f f e ren t p o s s ib le mea su remen t p o s i t ion s ( a t b a se o rt o p ) t h is i sv e ry c l o se t o t h e f i gu r eo f0 . 835 m f o r t h e C a s t i l l ian v ara . 2 3

* T .149 , f . 1 :28 -37 .

3 7

4 0 P i coy P ampa , c l a imed b y Y unga s i lve r sm i ths f r om t h e P a r ish o fS an t iago , C u sco i n 1 595 , c omp r i sed a7 0 t opo h o ld ing o ff l a t l a nd [ A .G .N . T .P . 1 585 L .23 C 43 1 ] . I n 1 690 ah ac ienda P ecoy w a s i nt h e D oc t r ina o fZ u r i te ( o n t h e A n ta P la in ) ( V i l lanueva 1 982 :20 1) . I n 1 7 12 t h ec z s ien to d e E p i scara b ounded w i th as t ream c a l led Y anama o n Y anama P ampa ,w i th l a nd so f Don Agu s t in X a r a a nd w i th H a c ienda P eco i ( Pe coy ) [A .G .N . T .P . 1 577 L . 1 C .11] . X a ra w a so wne ro fH ac ienda T ucucaca i n1 690 ( V i l lanueva 1 982 :200 ) . T oqoqaqa ( ' cave c r ag ' ) i st h ee x tan t n ame o f al a rge l ime s tone o u t c rop w i th c ave s i ni tl o ca ted o n t h e w e s te rn ma rg in o ft h e P ampa d e A n ta , n ea rt h e h i ghway p a s s i n to t h e L ima tambo V a l ley . P ecoy i st h e p r e sen t -day n ame o f al a ndho ld ing o n t h e s ou the rn m a rg in o fA n ta P la in , 4km f r om Z u r i te . An ea rby c ommun i ty i sn amed Y anama ( P e ru , M in . Ag r ic . Map 2 7 rI I S E ) .

2 1

2 2

3 6

3 8 I nd ian so fs e ven R epar t im ien to s w e r e r e se t t led i n to t h e f ou r T o ledan r educc ione s i nt h e L ima tambo V a l ley . T h is b ecome s e v iden t i n ar e v iew o ft wo d i f f e r en tc op ie s o ft he T o ledan v i s i ta m ade b y C r i s t6ba l d e M ir anda i nt h e 1 6 th C en tury . T he f i r s t ( M ir anda 1 925 : 168 ) s t a te s t h a t t h e re w e r e 2 376 p e r son s , 4 47 o f w hom w e r et r i bu te p aye r s o fd i f f e ren te ncomenderos , s e t t led i nt h e t own s o fP a ta l la ta ( i . e . P a ta l lac ta ) , P ampaconga , Mo l lepa ta a nd H on ta ( i . e . C hon ta ) . A l l w e r e l i s ted a st own s o ft h e C o r reg im ien to d e A bancay . T he s e cond c opy s umma r ize s t a xa t ion d a ta f o r 2 1 r epar t im ien to s i nt h a t a dm in is t r a t ive u n i t ( Cook 1 975 , T o ledo 1 975 ) . T he o n ly c omb ina t ion o fr epar t im ien tos t h e re w h ich h ad p r ec ise ly t h e s ame s um n umbe ro fb o th t r ibu te p aye r s a nd t o ta l p opu la t ion i s ag roup o fs even w h ich w e re l i s ted c on secu t ive ly i n t h e t e x t ( To ledo 1 975 :207 -2 10 ) . T he se w e re : P ampaconga ( popu la t ion 3 95 a nd 7 0 t r ibu ta r ie s ) , S a l laupa rco ( 4 15 a nd 8 0 ) , P i coy ( 1 53 a nd 3 4 ) , C onno ( 8 5 a nd 1 5 ) , C huyan i ( 942 a nd 1 64 ) , Mo l lepa ta ( 3 53 a nd 7 9 ) a nd 0 1 1oguanca ( 33 a nd 5 ) .

* T .18 , f . 3v :19 -f .4 :25 ; * T .18 c op ies e a r l ie r d ocumen t s , b u t * T . 1 i st h e 1 582 d ocumen t w h ich w a s c op ied i n * T .18 , f . 3v :36 f . 4 :25 ;T he 1 586 a g r eemen t b e twe& I B a lsa a nd Ma r ia d e E squ ive l , a s Me lch io r ' s l ega l r ep r esen ta t ive , i si n * T .19 . B a l sa ' s p oses iön o f 1 588 i si n* T .20 a nd * T .2 1 . 1 4

1 6

* T .65 , f . lv :16 -17 . * T .149 , f . 1 :18 -25 .

3 5

8

9

3 3 3 4

I n1 543 t h ep ueb los P a ta t i a nd P a rco w e re i ns e r v ice o ft h e t ambo o fL ima tambo a nd w e re o ft h e Ma ldonado e ncom ienda [ s ee f n . 7 ] . Among s t r epar t im ien to s s e t t led i nT o ledan r educc ione so f t h e V a l ley w a s S a l laupa rco , w h ich h ad b e en o fD iego Ma ldonado ( To ledo 1 975 :207 -208 ; M iranda 1 925 :167 -168 ) . T he t oponym P a r co w a su sed i nr e co rd s o f av i s i ta d ur ing 1 594 [ Sondo r 3 1

4 2

* T .160 a nd * 1 .162 .

4 3

* T .162 , f . 6 :15 -16 .

1 . 173 , 1 .38 , T . 137 , 1 . 136 , 1 .36 , T .72 , T .91 ( i n o rde r o fd a te b e twe en 1 603 a nd 1 756 ) a s w e l l a s * 1 .162 o f 1 584 .

4 4

13

4 5

1 . 137 , 1 . 136 , 1 .36 , T .72 a nd 1 .9 1 .

4 6

( s e e f o o tno te 4 4 ) .

E t i znoh i s to ry o fL ima tambo

( s ee f oo tno te 4 4 ) : T he a bb rev ia ted a r gumen t i sa s f o l low s : - I n 1 603 t he n o r thea s te rn b ounda ry w a s w i th l a nd s o fH eman B r avo , a nd i td e scended t ot h e v i c in i ty o fC ha l labamba . I n 1 645 t h e l a nd s i n c luded Mo l loma rca ( po s s ib ly n ea r t h e p r e sen t h am le t c a l led Mo l lema rka ) ,P a rcaopuqu io a nd L uc r a( c f . al a nd s t r ip c a l led L uc r e b e tween C ha l labamba H ac iend aa nd w he r et h eo l dr oad b eg in s a s t eep a scen t t oP ampaconga a nd A yav i r i v i l lage s ) . T he l owe r n or thea s te rn b ounda ry w a s w i th N ico la s V aez . B y 1 656 t h e u ppe r n or thea s te rn b ound ing l a nd w a s a tY lpa n ea rl a nd s o ft h e S an to Dom ingo Mona s te ry , c onf o rm ing t ot h e mode rn p l acemen t o ft h e n ame Y lpa .T he b ounda ry d e scended a l ong P u tu rgua ico ( Pu tu r r av ine ) ,a round L lama tay moun ta in u n t i l as t r eam ( wh ich w a s a b ounda ry o fB aez a nd w h ich c r o s sed t oR uncogua s s i ) .T he B ae z ( Vaez ) l a nd s w e re d e sc r ibed i nt h ed ocumen to f 1 656 a sf l a tw h ich i nd ica te s t h e ir l o ca t ion a s h av ing b een o n t h e v a l ley -f loo r , b e tween t h eR oya l R oad a nd t h eC o lo rado R ive r . 4 7

4 8

( s ee f oo tno te 4 4 ) .

T .173 ;' T he se f anegado s w e re s t a ted t ob e2 88 b y 1 44 v ara s . U s ing av ara o f0 .835 m , 1 20 f an egada s i s3 47 h a . I n 1 645 h ac ienda L lama tay -Luc re m ea su red 1 3 1f anegada s 3t o po sa nd 1 s i /co , i n c lud ing 1f anegada a nd 6t opo so fh ouse a nd g a rden o n4 t e r race sc a l led Guachapampa ' b e low t h et ambo ' [ T .38 ] . T he re w e re 1 t opos t ot h ef anegada a nd 2s i /co st ot h et opo i nt h a t p a r t icu la r c ase ( c f . s i lku a s aq ua r te r , n o t ah a l f , i nG onza lez H o lgü i n ( 1952 :32 1) ) . I n 1 656 t h e l a nd s w e re m ea su red a t1 28 f anegada s f o rc u l t iva t ion , a bou t ah a lf o fw h ich w a s r e ga rded t ob e ' o fl i t t le u se ' [ T .137 1 .

4 9

5 0

* T .149 , * T .154 a nd * T . 167 .

5 1

* T .160 .

* T .14 1 : U s ica ' s m emo r ia l o f3 1 O c tob e r 1 585 w a s c op ied i n to t h is d ocumen t d a t ing t oc a . 1 588 .

5 2

I n 1 579 t h el a nd b e low Wa l l Iw a sc a l led c hacara sa nd g a rden o f Don Me lch io r , s on o fD on C a r lo s , a nd w a s s a id t oh ave p r ev ious ly b e longed t o U s ica [ *T .18 , f . 2 :4 -6 ] . Me lch io r w a s t h en o n ly a bou t 8y ea r s o ld , s o t ha t f r om 1 582 t o 1 594 t h e t e r race s b o rde r ing t h e l owe rs i de o ft h e t ambo w e r e s a id t ob e p r ope r ty o f Me lch io ro rh i s mo the ra nd g ua rd ian ( Dof ia Ma r ia d eE squ ive l ) [ *T . 162 , * T .160 , * T .19 , T .22 a nd * T .23 ] . 5 3

5 4

T .173 ; T he m i l l o fF ranc isco R am iro C o r a jo .

5 5

T .38 ; T he m i l l o fD of ia B ea tr iz d e l o s A nge le s .

T .137 ;T he c ana l o ft h e m i l l s epa ra ted o f ft h e l a nd so fD iego d e l aH e rmo sa .

5 6

T .137 ; H ouse s o n G uachapampa i n 1 657 b e longed t oJ uan P e rez C o r te s . Documen tT .36 a l so r e f e r s t of i ve t e r race s f o rm a ize c u l t iva t ion o n t h e r oad s ide b e tween t h e t ambo a nd Mu rucu sma . 5 7

5 8

A .G .N . T .P . 1 577 L . 1 C .11 .

* TA60 , f . 3v :4 -5 ; * T .162 , f . 6 :29 -31 ; T he b ounda ry p a s sed t h rough t h e m idd le o ft h eo l d h ou se s , w h ich w ou ld h ave b e en u nusua l a nd i n conven ien t w e re t h ey s t i l l o ccup ied . 5 9

6 0

* T .19 .

6 1 * T .14 1 . i . e . D on Me lch io ra nd t wo d augh te r s o fU s ica ' s s on ( Fe l ipe Mango tupa ) , n amed D of ia P au la C u s igua r cay a nd D of ia Ma r ia Mamaoc l lo . 6 2 * T .14 1 6 3

6 4 6 5

* T .142 . T .173 .

* T .162 , f . 6 :15 -f .6v :6 .

C hon ta a nd Guama ru ro w h ich w e r eo ft h es ame e ncomend ero i n V aca d eC a s t ro 's t ambo l i s t , a r e f ound t ob e s pa t ia l ly r e la ted t e rm s [ s ee n ex t c hap te r ] . P a rco a nd P a ta t i p robab ly w e r e ( t h is c hap te r ) . 6 6

6 7

A .M .A . : Ayav ire -N inamanch i , a s f o l low s : . . z in mo jän q ue s e l ama C h inchaypoya , q z ie p ar t e l o s mo jone s c on l o s I nd ios d e l C ap i tän Mar t i n O lmo s . . .

Ma r t in d eO lmo s w a s e ncomend ero o fC huyan i R epar t im ien to i n 1 572 a nd h ad o b ta ined i tf r om Macue la s , h i s w if e ' s f i r s t h u sband who w a sa ne ncomend ero o fL ima tambo V a l ley i n1 543 ( Vaca d e C a s t ro 1 908 :443 ; H ampe 1 979 :90 ; T o ledo 1 975 :209 ) . T he

6 8

Macue la s r epar t im ien to i n c luded C hon ta a nd G uama ruro p ueb lo s . T he r epar t im ien to o fD o lmo s w a s c a l led C a i l lohuano -Chayane U raca i n 1 595 [ A .M .A . : C hon ta ] . 6 9

T .137 , * T .55 a nd T .36 .

T .173 ; H eman B ravo d e L aguna s , f i r s t e ncomend ero o fP i coy , h ad d i ed b e fo re T o ledo ' s v i s i ta ( To ledo 1 975 :208 ) , h oweve r t h e p l ace i si no rn ea rt h e r epar t im ien to a r ea ( s ee f n . 4 1) . 7 0

7 1

* T .164 , f . 3 :2 -12 ; On V i lcaconga s ee t e x t i nt h is c hap te r .

7 2 * T .146 , f . 1 :3 -6 ; ( i e . g ua l lgua ) . 7 3

* T .14 1 .

7 4

* T .143 , T .144 a nd T .145 .

7 5

T .193 , d a ted 2 6J une 1 603 .

7 6

T .18 1 .

T .170 ; [ 1 578 ] U s ica ' s L ima tambo V a l ley l a nd s w e re c a l led Y lpa -L la matay -Gua l lua . * T .147 ; [ 1 583 ] U s ica a l leged p o s se s s ion o fi n d ian s a tY l lpa a nd G ua lua * T .14 1 ; [ 1 588 ] P ub l ic s a le o f V s ica e s ta te l a nd s c a l led Gua l loa L la matay -Y l lpa ( H i lpa ) . T . 145 ; [ 1 592 ] Ma r ia D e squ ive l t ook f o rma l p o s se s s ion , o n b eha lf o f Me lch io r , o f Y lpa a nd Gua lgua n ex t t ot h e t ambo . T . 181 ; [ 1602 ] A lbomoz c l a im s h i s p u rcha se a ta uc t ion w a s o f l a nd s c a l led Cha l laba mba , Rocuguac i , L ucr igua l la , Y lpa-L la matay . 1 . 191 , 1 93 ; [ 1603 ] Y l lpa a nd Gua l lua r ema in t oponym s i n t h e D e squ ive l -A lbomoz d i spu te . 1 . 199 ; [ 1 609 ] J uan B au t is ta C ama rgo a l lege s h i s p urcha se o f R ucr i e s ta i ic ia i n t he L ima tambo V a l ley . T . 156 ; [ 1609 ] C ama rgo d i spu te w i th l e ga l r e p r e sen ta t ive o fD of ia P au la a nd D of ia Ma r ia o ve r Rucr i , L lama tay a nd Gua lgua . T . 180 ; [ 16 11] Ma r t in d eL ica racu c l a ims as ha r eo ft h e H ac ienda i n L ima tambo c a l led Gua l lgua . T .24 ; [ 163 1] S a le o fl a nd s a nd h ouse s n ex t t ot h e t ambo o f L ima tambo c a l led T araygua s i f o r 8 00 p e so s . 1 .38 ; [ 1645 ] Measu remen t o f H ac ienda L lama tay -Lucre a nd o ther n a mes . 1 .29 ; [ 1646 ] R e su l t s o fD iego d e A lcaca r v i s i ta a tL la ma tay L ucre . T .79 ; [ 1647 ] C onf i rma t ion o f T araguas i t i t les . 1 .74 ; [ 1656 ] V i s i ta o fC ab re ra L a r taün a tA s ien to d e Roncoguas i i n L ima tambo V a l ley . 1 .137 ; [ 1657 ] Mea suremen t o f A s ien to d e L ucre , L lama tay , Y lpa , Gua ichapa mpa , Ayaguayco . 7 7

D iego G onza lez H o lgü in ( 1952 :3 19 [ 1608 ] ) m ade t he f o l low ing e n t r ie s : Rukr in i . L imp iar a l lanar d esmon tar a rbo l e sd e r ay z ye n m ina ss ocauar g u i tar d e smon t es , op ara e d if i car oh azer c a sa , o c hacra . R ukr i r ukr i sca c hacra . E l l ugar a l lanado d e smon tado p ara c a sa , oc hacra . Rukr i sca , or ukr i c oya . M ina d esmon tada .

7 8

7 9

T .91 , * T .55 , T .24 a nd T 2 6 .

8 0

H emm ing 1 983 :260 «

8 1

( s ee f oo tno te 3 8 ) .

8 2

H emm ing 1 983 :455 .

S ee S ondo r D ocumen t i nu npub l ished s ou r ce s b i b l iog raphy . T he r e levan t p a s sage i s : [ f ilv : 18 ] . . E n l aC iudad d e l C u zco e n v e in t ed ia sd e l l /[ f . 12 ] m es d eA go s to d e m i l q u in ien tos /n oven ta yc ua t ro a r io s h ab iendo/ s i do p r egonada sp or m andado d e l /S er zor A lon so Ma ldonado d e T orr e s / [ f . 12v :3 ] .e lC ap i tan N ur zo d e Mendo za s e p r esen t6 /J ap e t ic iön s i gu ien t e :/ . . . [ f . 14 :14 ] O tro s ie ld icho / mayora sgo t i ene yp o see e n L ima/ tambo u na s t i er ra s ye s tanc ia sä /d o [nd el d i cen e la s ien to d el a sr n acaco / na s yt i e r ra sd ed icada sa lS o l . E s ta h ac ienda t i ene s ue n trada p rop ia / ye sc lu s iva t omando d e l c am ino/ /[ f . 14v ] r ea l äl a d er echa r e c tamen te äs a l l ir a tC a l le jön d el ae n t rada al a s /c a sa s d e l ah ac ienda , d ed i e z v ara sd ea ncho , c on l o sr e spec t ivo s 8 3

14

E thnoh i s tory o f L ima tambo

c erco s/ ä l o s l ados , c on s up uen te d ec a l i/ can to e n e lr i o v erme jo . . . . 8 4 T he Q uechua wo rd maca ( he re w i th t h e p l u ra l s uf f ix kuna ) h a s b een t h e s ub je c t o f as t udy b y R o s two rowsk i ( 1970 :63 -65 ) .

Ma t ienzo ( 1967 :50 [ 1567 ] ) d ep ic ts t h e mode l r educc iön l a you t . Mo l lepa ta D is t r ic t wa s o n ly s epa ra ted o u t o f L ima tambo D is tr ic t i n 1 929 ( Bo le t in d e l aS oc iedad G eogräf ica d e L ima , Vo l 4 7 :2 3 , :119 ) . P a r ish r ecord s i n L i ma tambo w e re k i nd ly made a va i lab le f o r i n spe c t ion b y P ad res C a r lo s Mar t in Mo ra le s C lave le s a nd C a r los A r tu ro F er re ro Amuchä s tegu i . 8 5

8 6

T .17 a nd T .67 .

8 7

A .M .A . : Ur a ta r i 1 977 . T ransc r ip t ion s b y H i lar io G a l indo G .

8 8 e g . T .80 [ 1746 ] a nd T .9 1 [ 1756 ] . 8 9 i n A .M .A . : C hoquema rca 1 956 ; T ranscr ip t ions b y J osé P acheco B . 9° A .M .A . :

C hoquema rca ; t h e d ocumen t i st r an scr ibed i nt h e f i l e ; my t r ans la t ion . s ee d i scuss ion o ft e rms c o l lanan , h anan , h ur in i nt h is a nd t h e f o l low ing c hap te r .

9 1

9 2

* T .18 , f . 3 :25 -26 .

9 3

* T .12 a nd * T .13 , f . 1v :7 -10 .

9 4

A .M .A . :Chon ta ( s ee n ex t c hap te r ) .

9 5

* T .12 .

9 6

* T .1 , f . lv :5 -7 .

On t h e h ac ienda s o f L i ma tambo D oc tr ina i n 1 689 , s ee t h e d ocumen t s t r anscr ibed b y V i l lanueva [ 1982 :209 -2 15 ] . F o r 1 646 a nd 1 7 12 d a ta , s ee A .M .A . : U ra ta r i .

9 7

A .M .A . : U ra tar i . 9 9 S ondor D ocumen t ( s ee f . n . 8 2 ) ; n i ne o f t h e 1 594 t oponyms a r e 9 8

e qu iva len t t o modern o ne s w i th in t h e a r ea d ef ine d b y t h e o ld b oundar ie s . T he l e gua u sed i n 1 595 w a s s a id t om ea sure 6 666 v ar a s . U s ing t h e v a ra o f 0 .835 m e t re s , t h e l e ague i s5 566 .1 me tre s , 3 .459 s t a tu te m i les , o r 3 . 003 n au t ica l m i le s . 1° °

A .M .A . : P ampaconga .

1 01

s e e t n . 8 2

1°2

s e e f . n . 8 2

1°3

* T .18 , f . 3 :41-f .3v :7 .

1° 4

A .M .A . : P ampaconga .

1°5 A .M .A . : P ampaconga : S ix n amed f i e ld a r ea s s e lec ted b y t h e c ac ique s c an b e i den t if ied i n mode rn t oponymn s i nP ampaconga C ommun i ty l a nds , w i th in a f ew k i lome t re s o ft h e s e t t lemen t . T he l a nd s t a ken b y t he C rown w e re b e low t h e t own , o n t h e s l ope s b e tween i ta nd t he L ima tambo v a l ley f loo r . S ome w e re a l so n ea r H u i lque P a ss .

15

CHAPTER 7 ETHNOHISTORY OF THE AP UR IMAC QUEBRADAS 7 . 1 I NTRODUCTION : Chonta , S umaro a nd Ch inchaypuqu io

P iv i l ,

P an t ipa ta ,

T he r a v ine s b e tween C hon ta a nd t h e C h inchaypuqu io V a l ley l a y b eyond b o th t h e I nca r oad t oC h inchay suyu a nd t h e m a in c o lon ia l r oad f r om C u sco t oL ima . T hey a ppea r mo r e r emo te i ne a r ly c h ron ic le st han t h eL ima tambo A rea ,b u ta r er e la t ive ly c l ose t o t he I nca c ap i ta l . T he C hon ta S ub -Reg ion o f L ima tambo c on ta ins s ub s tan t ia l I nca p e r iod s e t t lemen t s b u t l i t t le I nca t e r rac ing . I nca t e r race s a nd s t ruc tu ra l c omp lexe s o ccu r i n t h e C h inchaypuqu io A rea , b u t t h e t e r race w a l ls c omp r ise o n ly 1 2% o ft h e t o ta l 3 8 km l e ng th r e co rded i nt h e s t udy r eg ion . Wha tw a st h es t a te i n te re s ti nt h i s r e g ion o fs t eep e co log ica l g rad ien t a nd h ow d id i t s i n f luence d i f f e r f r om t h a t a l ong t h e ma in C u sco -Ch inchay suyu r o ad? 7 .2 CHONTA 7 .2 .1

S oc ia l

Un its

I n 1 543 t h e p ueb lo n amed C hon ta y G uamaruro yS ur in ta o Ma tara w a st h ee ncom ienda o fo ne Mazue la sa nd w a sl i s ted b y V aca d e C a s t ro among t ho se i n s e rv ice o f t h e t ambo o f L ima tambol . D u r ing T o ledo ' s v i s i ta o f 1 572 t h i s e ncom ienda p e r ta ined t o Ma r t in Do lmos . I tc omp r ised 9 52 p eop le , w i th 1 64 t r ibu te p aye r s , a nd w a s n amed C huyan i 2 .A l lo ca t ions o f l a nd s t o t h e I nd ians o f C a i l lohuano -Chayane , U raca w e re r e co rded d u r ing t h e v i s i ta a nd r epar t ic iön b y Ma ldonado d e T o r re s i nF ebrua ry 1 595 .T hey b e longed t ot h ee ncom iendas o f D o lmo s ( Chuyan i o rC hu l lan i ) a nd P ed ro C isne ro s 3.C isne ro s w a s l i s ted i nt h e 1 572 v i s i ta a st h e e ncomendero s u cceed ing J uan D iez t ot h e s ma l l 0 1 1oguanca R epar t im ien to w h ich t h en h ad m e re ly 5t r ibu te p aye r s , n ol e ade re xemp tf r om t r i bu te a nd at o ta l o f 3 3 p e r sons& T he i r p opu la t ion s w e re a mong t h o se r e duced i n to t h eL ima tambo V a l ley r educc iön t own s 5,a lmo s t c e r ta in ly t ot h et own o fC hon ta . T he s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o fp eop le i nC hu l lan i R epa r t im ien to w ho w e re p l aced i n to C hon ta i se v iden ti nr e co rd so ft h e 1 595 v i s i ta6 .I tl i s t s o n ly l a ndho ld ing i n d iv idua ls b y n ame , w i th in n amed s oc ia l g roup s , i nt h eo rde ro fc ac ique s , t r ibu te p ay ing m en , b oy s ,o ld men , w idow sa nd o l dw omen . I ta l so n ame st h e l a nd a r ea s w he re e ach o ne h ad f i e ld s , t h e f i e ld a r ea i nt opo u n i t s , a nd t h e n ame s o ft h e o wne r s o n t h e i r b ounda r ie s . T he s oc ia l g roup s a nd t h e i r n umbe r o f membe r s , i nt h e o rde r o f l i s t ing a nd i nt h eo r thog raphy o ft h et yped t r ansc r ip t( s ince n o o r ig ina lo ft h i sd ocumen tw a sf ound ) ,w e r e : 1 .( Y )A y l lo sY anacona s -Su te loy H uaman ru ro ( a ni n comp le te l i s to f 5w omen ,p lu s 1 7b ound ing owne r sw ho w e r en o t m en t ioned i no the rl i s t s ) ; 2 .( IA )A y l lo I nga Amansaya ( 33 p e r son s ) ; 3 .( IC )A y l lo I nga C hahu in ( 3 1 p e r son s ) ; 4 .( IU )A y l lo I nga U r insaya S u t ic ( 5 1 p e r son s ) ; 5 .( HA )A y l lo H uaman ru ro H anan saya ( 39 p e r son s ) ; 6 .( HU )A y l lo H uaman ru ro U r insaya ( 34 p e r sons ) . T he re w e re 1 88 p e r son s e n t i t led t o l a nd p lu s a n u ncer ta in n umbe r i n t h e Y anacona g roup . B lock s o f c ommuna l l a nd s w e re a l loca ted t o 3g roup ing s : T he A y l lo s Y anacona s , A y l lo s I nga s a nd t h e H uamanru ro s ( Hawk S eed s ) . A lso , as pec ia l l i s t

o fa loca t ion s w e re m ade o f l a nd s i nt h e p ep ina le s o fU raca H uay l la ,t o3 0H anan(= Aman =U ppe r )H uaman ru ro membe r s a nd t o3 0 Hur in ( = U r in = L owe r ) H uamanru ro membe r s . T he se g ran t s w e re s ma l l , g iven i ns i / /co u n i t s e qua l l ing o ne q ua r te ro f at o po e a ch . T he l a nd sg r an t ed d u r ing t h e 1 595 v i s i ta w e r ea l ready c u l t ivab le l a nd s o f t h e c ommun i t ie s . T he l i s t ing a cco rd ing t o Andean s o c ia lc a tego r ie s ( Hanan = Uppe r ; C hahu in = M idd le ; Hu r in = L owe r ) s how s t h a t i n fo rma t ion w a s o b ta ined b y t h e S pan ish r e g i s t ra rf r om l o ca l k now ledge , e ven i ft h ea va i lab i l i ty o fl a nd t oc hoo se w a sl im i ted b ye x te rna ld ec ree . 7 .2 .2 The S tructure o f Re lat ions C hon ta a nd P a ta l lac ta Ay I lus

b e tween

t he

T he p r inc ipa l c ac ique i n 1 595 , o fa l l a y l lu h ead s p laced i n C hon ta , w a s D on P ed ro I la tupa o f t h e I nga Aman saya . T he s e cond p er son o ve ra l l w a s Don A gu s t in I ncacha I nca ' ) , c ac ique o fH uaman ru ro H anansaya . T hu s , t h e u ppe ra y l lu o f t h eI nga a nd H uamanr u ro g roup ing s t ook t h e se c h ief p o s i t ion s . T he C o l lana a nd C hu l lan i o fP a ta l lac ta w e re a l so i n c luded i n t h e S pan ish R epar t im ien to n amed C hu l lan i . T he 1 595 v i s i ta i n c luded as e c t ion w h ich s pec if ied l a nd s i nt h e C hon ta r eg ion f o rt h ec ac ique so fb o th C hon ta a nd P a ta l lac ta . N o tab ly , f o rt h e R epar t im ien to a s aw ho le , Don F e l ipe P u icon , o f C o l lana A y l lu i nP a ta l lac ta , w a s n amed a sp r inc ipa l c ac ique a nd D on G a spa rT ambo o fC hu l lan i A y l lu i nP a ta l lac ta w a s t h es econd p er son . I nC hu l lan i R epar t im ien to a s aw ho le , t h e h i e ra rchy o fa y l lus a nd c o r re spond ing r a nk ing o f p r inc ipa l c ac iques a nd s econd p er son si n1 595 c an t h u sb er e con s truc ted a sf o l low s : ( 1 )C o l lana ( Pa ta l la c ta ) , ( a )D on F e l ipe P u icon ( 2 )C hu l lan i( Pa ta l lac ta ) , ( b )D on Ga spa rT ambo ( 3 )I n ga ( Chon ta )a nd ( c )D on P ed ro I la tupa a nd ( 4 )H uaman ru ro ( Chon ta ) . ( d )D on A gu s t in I n ca cha . T he r ea r en ov e ry e a r ly d a ta t ov e r if y t h a tt h ep r ecedence o ft h e P a ta l lac ta c ac ique s ,a nd t h e i rh o ld ing o fl a nd s i nC hon ta ,a bou t 1 0k mf r om P a ta l la c ta ,w e re p reh ispan ic p henomena . H oweve r , t h e r e i ss ome i n d ica t ion o f amo re l o ng -s tand ing i n teg ra t ion o f t h e t wo a r ea s . D on F e l ipe P u icon 's mo the r , Ma r ta C a r luca , w a sl i s ted a s al a ndho lde rb e long ing t ot h e Y anacona A y l lu o f C hon ta . A l so , t h e w if e o f aMo l lepa ta c ac ique r e ta ined r i gh t s t ol a nd a s am emb e r o ft h a t Y anacona A y l lu . Member sh ip o f t h i s Y anacona g roup ing t h us a ppea r s t oh ave b een ama t te ro f h i gh s t a tu s i nt h el o ca l s phe re . A 1 791 d ocumen t f r om P a ru ro P rov ince , p rov ides s ome c ompa ra t ive d a ta o n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fa y l lus c a l led C o l lana a nd Y ngacona7.T he re w e re 1 2C o l lana a nd 4Y ngacona a y l lu s i n t h e 9r epa r t im ien tos o f P a ru ro . F ou r r epar t im ien tos c on ta ined aC o l lana -named a y l lu , 3i n c luded a n Y ngacona n amed a y l lu b u tn oC o l lana , a nd o ne h ad b o th a nY ngacona

16

E thnoh i s tor y o fA pur imac Q uebra c las

TABLE 7 :1

Inca Noble Name-Elements

Ayllu

i n Chonta Anthroponyms

( 1595).

Number o f P ersons w ith t he N ame E lement Topa

Yupanqui

O cllo

C himbo

Total Names

% ' Inca' 4 8.5

Hanan I nga

9

3

4

0

3 3

Chahuin I nga

0

4

0

1

3 1

1 6.1

Hurin I nga

1

1

3

0

5 1

9 .8

Hanan H uamanruro

0

0

0

0

3 9

0 .0

Hurin H uamanruro

0

0

0

0

3 4

0 .0

TOTAL

1 0

8

7

1

1 88

1 3.8

( excludes Yanaconas,

who were i ncompletely l isted;

n one o f t he

5 l isted had a name e lement)

COPAYLLO / COPA ILLO F I ELD A Y

• -m i. •

b

A A V ' I •e l. . 1 0 . -•

t

A.or -A 4 u ) . -

e

. 4 ) , -A . 4 7 .•

A

1.

S 4

a A

C

A4

•

en r . . . .0. ••4) . -•4)- A 4 r. A

d

K EY

H a n a n s a y a

R e l . t o N e ighbou r

A

I n ga C hahu in

T anca r R oad

•

I n ga l i tr insaya

T a ma R av ine

•4 r

•

•

a

1 ,›

Quenon R av ine

TAUMA / TANCAR F I ELD • » . • f • « ) . - A«

A

A

V

A

g

A1

A

A43. •-on i. •

•

h

A

1 . -9 . 4 » .. . . .a.o. , . . -•

4)- A-4

A

. -•

1

•

4 4 4

A . -«

A-4)- A

A •

F IG . 7 :1 Chonta 1 595 : D istr ibu t ion o f Ay l lu Member s P lo ts i n Na med F ie lds . No te s : 1 .L e t te r s ' a 't o' i 'a r ea d jacen tp l o t -ho lde r sw ho se n ame sd on o ta ppea re l sewhe re i nt h e Ay l lu p lo t -ho lde rl i s t sa nd t hus c anno tb ea t tr ibu ted t o as pec if ic a y l lu . 2 . R e f e rence s w e re i n suff i c ien tt od e term ine t h ep o s i t ion o fo ne I nga H u r in saya a y l lu m embe ri n Copay l lo f i e ld w hose l a nd sb ounded w i th t h o se o f' e( u nknown )a nd t h es ob ra s( exce s s l a nd s ) .

17

E t hnoh i s to ry o fA pur imac Q ueb radn s

TABLE 7 :2 T opos* o f L and , of

I nca and Huamanruro Ayllus h eld i n Named F ields

( excluding p epinales):

1 595 C honta R epartici6n.. Topos o f Ayllu Groups

T opos o f Ayllu Groups F ield Name

I A

I C

I U

Acanca

HA

HU

F ield Name

I A

7. 0

4 .0

Huascay

-

/Canca Anccaipahua

-

Antabamba

2 .0

2 .0

I C

IU

HA

HU

-

-

1 .0

-chaca I nchipampa

-

4 .0

-

-

-

Luhuaycha

-

-

-

1 .0

-

-

2 3.0

2 1.5

-

1 .0

-lenmitiasca

( Cerro) Antacarlina

-

1 .0

Antacirca

4. 0

Auca Oda.

1 .0

Cabaniso

1 .0 0 .5

C apichan

-

1 .0

3. 5

4. 5

L luichusaico

-

-

Hollepata

-

-

N inapampa

1 0.0

6 .0

Paccha

-

-

-

-

5 .5

6 .0

-

1 .0

-

/Ppaccha P escoya

tianca Casaca

1 3.0

pampa -

-

-

1 .0

P illaoccasa

-

-

1 .0

8 .5

4 .25

/ -pampa

Pillaohura

-

-

1. 0

-

-

/Cerca

P illauchuqui

1 .5

1 .0

4 .0

7 .0

2 .5

Pucara

-

1. 5

2. 0

C caccapampa

Pillao

1 .0

Circa

3 .0

1 .0

1 .0

C ocapata Collcam

-

1 .0

C ollchaco

-

1 .0

huayco Copayllo

6 .0

11. 0

16. 0

-

-

2 .0

1 5.0

1 2.0

Quellon

7. 0

11. 5

22.5

-

1 .0

Qquichu

-

-

-

1 .0

-

Saunapata

1 .0

-

-

S ayhuapata

3 .0

6 .0

1 2.0

-

1 .0

/ -hura Sinchi

-

-

3. 0

2. 0

-huaman Tauma

3 .0

4 .5

3 .0

-

Tancar/

-

1 .0

2. 0

-

T tancarpata

1 .0

4 .0

7 .0

-

Tauri- /

8 .5

14. 5

18.5

-

-

sayco

/Copaillo C orca / -pata

-

2 .5

7 .0

/ -pampa Cota -huaycco C otaya

4 .0

-pampa P ucyupampa

-

Cotayaco

1 .0

C ullcate/

-

1 .0

2 .0

-

2. 0

30. 5

-

2 .0

18. 0

-

2 .0

-

Tauma-Tancar

/ Ccolccati 1. 0

Curca

2 .0

chuque Curca

5 .0

8 .0

8 .5

9 .5

2 .0

Tarhui-

2. 5

2 .0

U racapampa

-

/-pampa

/ -pampa/-Oda

1 .0

-

-

-

C urcayuqq-u i

0 .5

Urubamba

-

-

-

3 .0

4 .0

Cusca

6 .0

V illumpe/

2 .0

-

-

-

1 .0

3 .5

2. 5

3. 5

2 .0

1 .0

8 3.75

9 1.5

1 52.5

1 26.5

9 9.75

Curcapata

-

0 .5

V illampe ( Unknown

-

1 .0

Name)

0 .5

0 .5

TOTAL

-pampa C hacaorcco

-

1 .0

Chacar -huque C hacaura

1 4.75

7 .0

1 7.5

/ -pata/-Oda *T he v isitador a t Chonta i n 1 595 u sed a t opo o f w as t hree C astillian s quare metres; a bove l ist

( 554

f eet

( ca.

3 3

i nches)

7 2

or about

v aras b y 7 2 v aras; 0 .835 m .

h ence ,

the C astillian v ara

t he t opo used was a bout

t he t otal area o f cultivable l and a llocated t o t he 5 a yllus t opos)

3 614.4

i n the

was 2 00.2 hectares.

a nd a C o l lana a y l lu , s e t t led i n d i f fe ren t v i l lage s l i ke t h e C o l lana o f P a ta l lac ta a nd I nga o f Chon ta i n C hu l lan i R epa r t im ien to . I ts eem sr e a sonab le t oc ons ide rt h ea y l lu n ame s a s i n d ica t ive o f ar ank ing s ys tem wh ich w a s r e la t ive ly w ide sp read ,a l though t h ep rac t ica ls i gn if icance o ft h et e rm si sa q ue s t ion f o rf u r the rc on tex tua li n fo rma t ion i ne ach c a se . 7 .2 .3 D istinctions Anthropony my

i n

Ayllu- Me mber

A n a pp roach t ot h e I n cane ss o fa y l lu d iv is ions i sb a sed u pon t h e n ame s o f t h e ir m embe r s i n t h e 1 595 v i s i ta . T h is i so n ly t e n ta t ive a s soc ia t iona ld a ta b ecau se t h ep rocedu re f o rn am ing i s

n o tk nown a nd d a ta o n i n d iv idua lh ou seho ld membe r s ,l i ke t h a t i nt h eH uänuco v i s i ta o f 1 562 , a r el a ck ing . C er ta in ma le n ame -e lemen t s , T opa a nd Y upanqu i , a nd t h e f ema le n ame e l emen t s , O c / /o a nd C h imbo , a ppea ra sr e cu r ren t g ene r ic n ame s o r t i t les o f n ob i l i ty i n I nca my th -h is to ry ( Zu idema 1 964 :129 , 1 32 ,2 36 -238 ) .T he i rp re sence a se l emen t s i n n ames l i s ted u nde r a y l lu g roup ings a t C hon ta s hows a d i s t inc t ive p a t tern ( Tab le 7 : 1) . I n ca n ame sa r ep re sen ti na l la y l lus d e s igna ted I nga a nd a b sen t i na l H uaman ru ro l i s t s .T he ir a bundance a l so c o r re la te sw i th

18

E thnoh i s to ry o fA pur imac Q uebrada s

F IG . 7 :2 Chonta 1 595 :

D istr ibut ion o f Modern E qu iva len ts o f H is tor ic T oponyms .

Modern Chonta Toponyms

TABLE 7 :3

R elated t o 1 595 Toponyms.

( Located by number in F igure 7 :2) No.

Source ( s)

Modern

No.

Modern

S ource(s)

Toponym

Toponym 1 .

Moyoc

A , B,C, D

1 5.

Cerro Antasirca

2 .

Uraca

A , B,C, D

1 6.

Cerro Chonta

3 .

P ichuy Marca

1 7.

Tauma P ampa

A

/ Pichiumarca

A ,B ,C, D

1 8.

( Fundo )

4 .

R io Bermejo

A , C, D

1 9.

Taunacopa

C copa A

5 .

Quebrada

2 0.

P uquioccopa

A

Huaychahuaylla

2 1.

Quellomayo

A

2 2.

Quebrada Pumapuquio

A

A ,D

2 3.

Ayrampo

A

2 4.

Hacienda

6 .

P aco Samba

7 .

L laktaki

8 .

I nchic

9 .

R io Apurimac

A , B,C, D

1 0.

P uquiopampa

A

1 1.

Curcapampa

A

2 5.

( Fundo)

1 2.

Taulipampa

A

2 6.

P iaccasa

1 3.

Chonta

A , B,C, D

2 7.

P ucara

1 4.

Antabamba

A

Notes: A .M.A.

A=

I GN

Chonta,

Pampa

( 1:100,000) 1 944;

D=

2 8r and 2 8q ,

F ield Survey,

Callaracay

1 967-70; l ocal

B =

I GN

i nformants,

t h eh i e ra rchy i nd ica ted b yt h et e rm sf o ru ppe r ,m idd le a nd l owe r a y l lu s ubd iv is ions . T he a s soc ia t ion b e tween a y l lu a nd p e r sona l n ame s i sa l so f ound i ne a r l ie r s ou rce s f r om t h e C u sco r e g ion . Documen ts f r om Yucay i n 1 558 , l i s t n ames o f I nd ios ( p robab ly a l l men ) i n 1 5 a y l lu g roups w i th in t h ree v i l lage s ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :59 -81) . T he t wo a y l lu sc a l led C uzco i nt h e v i l lage so fY ucay a nd U rqu i l lo s h ad t h eh ighe s tp ropo r t ion so f n amed membe r s w i th I nca n ame e l emen t s ( 8 o f4 9 , o r 1 6 .3% , a nd 3 o f4 0 , o r 7 . 5% r e spec t ive ly ) .An th roponymy h a s b een

19

( 1:200,000)

A ,B

Quellon C ,D

Anta,

1 946;

C=

Sketch Map,

1 985-1986.

u sed i np rov inc ia l c on tex t s , t o e xam ine I nca loca l r e la t ions w he re l a nguage s o the r t han Quechua e x is ted ( Sa lomon a nd G ro sbo l l 1 986 ) . T he u se o fm i tmaqkuna c ou ld a l so mean t h a t a n th roponymy i s ar e f lec t ion o fe t hn ic o r ig in o r am ix tu re o f e t hn ic i ty a nd s t a tus ( s uch a s t ha t o f I nca s -by -P r iv i lege ) . I n H uänuco P rov ince i n 1 562 , o n ly 2 o f 8 15 l o ca l Y acha a y l lu m embe r s h ad t h e se n ame e l emen t s ( 0 .25 % ) , whe reas 4 1 o f 1 053 ( 4 .0% )o ft h em i tmaqkuna , f r om t h e Cusco a nd Qu ichua s r e g ion s , h ad t h em ( b a sed o n a na lys is o fd a ta l i s ted i nO r t iz d e

E thnoh i s tory o fA pur imac Quebrodns

Z ün iga 1 972 : 1 1 :66 -244 ) . T he n ame -e lemen t s w e re a b sen t i n n ames o f m embe r s o f 3 7 a y l lus a nd 3 v i l lage s o r o the r u n i ts l i s ted i n A ca r f R epa r t im ien to o f A requ ipa i n 1 593 ( Pease 1 973 :137 -188 ) . 7 .2 .4 F ie ld A rrange men t o f Ayl lu P lots i n 1 595

Me mber s

1 595 d escr ip t ion s o fp lo t b ounda r ies ( Tab le 7 :4 ) . T he se a s s is t t h e p lacemen t o f e x t inc t t oponyms . F our ma in a r ea s c an b e d i sce rned f r om s p a t ia l ly r e la ted f i e ld n ame s . ( 1 ) T he f i r s t a rea c on ta ined C a saca , U rubamba , C o tahuaycco a nd Co tayaco . T he se p laces w e re d escr ibed b y r e f e rence t o t oponyms wh ich s urv ive i n t he s ou thwes te rn q uad ran t o f C hon ta (Moyoc , L lak tak i a nd t he B erme jo -Apur imac r i ve r c onf luence ) . T he f i r s t t h ree f i e lds c on ta ined o n ly t opos o f H uamanruro membe r s a nd 9 4% o ft opos i nt h e l a s tf i e ld w e re a l so Huaman ru ro .

L and

Wa s s oc ia l a r rangemen t a cco rd ing t o t h e I nga -Huamanru ro d iv is ion , o r t h e H anan -Chahu in -Hu r in d iv is ion s i gn if ican t i n p hys ica l s pace? S ince t h e b ound ing o wner s o fa l loca ted l a nd b lock s w e re u sua l ly l i s ted , i tw a s p o s s ib le t or e cons truc t t h e r e la t ive p lacemen t o f i nd iv idua l 's c on t iguous p lo t s w i th in s o me n amed f i e ld a r ea s ( F ig . 7 : 1) . T he o u tcome i st ha t t he p lo t s o f H u r in , H anan a nd C hahu in d iv is ion membe r s w e re i n te rm ing led .

( 2 ) T he s econd a r ea c on ta ined C opay l lo , Q ue l lon , T auma , T anca r , N inapampa ,T aur ipampa , S ayhuapa ta H u ra ,A n tac i rca , A n tabamba a nd C hacaura . T hese w ere a ssoc ia ted w i th t oponyms wh ich r ema in t oday i nt h e s ou thea s ter n q uad ran to f C hon ta .T hey w e r ed iv ided e xc lu s ive ly a mong s tI nga m embe r s , e xcep t f or Chacaura , whe re 9 8% o f t he t opos w e re I nga . I nch ipampa a ppea r s t ob e ab o rde r l ine I nga f i e ld o ro u t l ie ro n t h e Apur imac R ive rb ank .

I n c on t ra s t , n amed f i e ld a r ea s h ad a s t rong a s soc ia t ion w i th e i the r t he I nga o r t h e H uamanru ro d iv is ion , b u t r a re ly b o th ( Tab le 7 :2 ) . A l l o ft h ek nown Y anacona A y l lu l a nd a l loca t ions w ere i nU raca . We re t h e f i e lds a r ea s a s so c ia ted i d en t if ied f o r e ach o ft h e se s oc ia l g roup s i n te rm ing led , o rd id t h ey c l us te r i n s epa ra ted t e r r i to r ie s? 7 .2 .5

3 )T he t h ird a rea c omp r ised f i e ld s n amed P i l lao / -cca sa / -hu ra / c huqu i , P ucyupampa , Curca / -pampa i -pa ta / -queb rada f -yuqqu i , S inch ihuaman a nd P uca rabamba . T he se n ame s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t oponyms w h ich s u rv ive b e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond a r eas . T hey w e re n ea rC hon ta v i l lage , p a r t icu la r ly t h e w e s te rn o u t sk ir t s , a s w e l l a so n t he moun ta in c a l led P iacca sa o rP uca ra w h ich l i es a tt h e h i ghes t p o in t o fC hon ta c ommun i ty t e r r i to ry . I n 1 595 e ach o f t hese f i e lds c on ta ined b o th I nga a nd H uamanru ro p lo t s . Two f u l ly Huamanruro f i e lds , P accha a nd C urcachuque , w e re a l so i nt he v i c in i ty o fC hon ta v i l lage .

Locat ion o f 1 595 F ie ld A reas

Modern t oponyms w e re o b ta ined f r om f i e ld i n forman t s , t he 1 : 200 ,000 a nd 1 : 100 ,000 map s a nd as ke tch p l an made i n1 944 f or t he o ff ic ia l i n scr ip t ion o f C hon ta C ampes ino C ommun i ty 8.T ho se w h ich a r e s im i la r o r e qu iva len t t o 1 595 t oponym s a r e l i s ted i nT ab le 7 : 3 a nd t h e i rl o ca t ions a r e ma rked o n F igu re 7 :2 . F ur the r l o ca t iona l d e ta i ls a r e c on ta ined i n t h e

TABLE 7 :4

Information

Named Field

in

1 595

Chonta

Reparticiön which L inks

Boundary of descent

CASACA

P lot(s)

towards

i n

Toponyms.

t he Named

Moyoc;

descent

Field to

( or Field Description*)

Huancahuaylla

Quebrada;

r idge

of Casaca Mountain. CHACAURA

slopes

CURCACHUQUE

-base o f

and base

CURCAPAMPA

-base o f

COPAYLLO

Tancar

of

Mount

Antabamba;

Sayuaurco Mountain Road

COTAHUAYCCO

Llactaqui

COTAYACO

slopes

and base

pata a s

f ar as Apurimac R iver;

Road

Bermejo

R iver and desc ' ent

of

Sayhuacunca Mountain;

MAYCHA

below end of

NINAPAMPA

Quellon Road;

PACCHA

Callespucyo Quebrada; Huamanruro;

PUCARABAMBA

descent

to Apurimac

L lactaqui

t o Apurimac

Road; R iver;

L lactaqui pata of

R iver.

Uracahuaylla pepinales. Cabaniso Mountain.

( next

d escent

to

to old t own of

Chacaura Quebrada; Quebrada

Curcapampa;

pata

at

exit

f rom

Huamanruro).

Pumapuquio Quebrada;

Ynchisba/Inchisba

and road;

-Rio Quellon which delimits

QUELLON

P illau Quebrada.

P accha Mountain.

l and of

Callaracay;

P ivil

Road;

Quellon

R iverbank. SAYHUAPATAHURA

Tauma

S INCHIHUAMAN

descent

TTANCAR

l ands. to Chacaura;

descent

to Curca Quebrada.

( or)

/ TTANCAR OR TAUMA

Ttancar Road.

TAUMA

Ttancar Road;

TAURIPAMPA

Pivil descent

Road;

end of Tauma

to Ninapampa;

Cabanisco

URACA

Huancahuaylla Quebrada.

URUBAMBA

(pata,

* Field d escriptions

are placed

towards

Pomapucyo Quebrada;

between

two

quebradas,

i n brackets

1 20

big

Quellon Quebrada. quebrada

that

goes

Ridge. that

descends

to Moyoc).

to Quellon;

E thnoh i s tor y o fA pur imac Q uebradas

( 4 ) U raca , t he n or thern p a r t o fC hon ta w i th in e a s ie s t r e ach o f L ima tambo a nd T a rawa s i , w a s t h e f our th a rea . Al a rge b l ock ( 50 f anegada s ) p er ta ined t ot he e ncomendero , Ma r t in D o lmo s , a nd o the r p lo ts w e re a l loca ted t ot h eP a ta l lac ta a nd C hon ta I nga c ac ique s a nd 5women o fY anacona Ay l lu . H uaman ru ro p ep ina le s w e re a l so h e ld i nU racahuay l la .

V i l laca rba b ounded w i th a p a ta ( bench? h igh f l a t? ) wh ich d e scended t oC u rcapampa . C urcapampa i s at oponym wh ich s u rv ive so n t h e w e s ter n s i de o fC hon ta v i l lage . F ou rd ay so fr e conna is sance a nd l a nd m ea su remen tw e re c a r r ied o u tb y D iego E nr r iquez d e Mo ra le sd u r ing t h eA lca za rv i s i ta i n 1 647 1 7 .H e n o ted t h a t t h ere w e re a nc ien t s t one w a l ls n ea r S ayhuaconga -o rcco , ap l ace h e d e sc r ibed a s l y ing b e tween a r i dge a nd p a ss , a nd P acobamba ( Tab le 7 :3 ) . J uan P e rez d e V a rga s m en t ioned r edondes a nd ' r ings o fs t one o ft h e t ime o f t h e I ncas ' d u r ing h i s i n spec t ion o f H ac ienda C o tayaco i n

T he p lace o fU raca a s a n e nc lave o f S pan ish l a nd o wne r sh ip s ugge s t s t h a t i t may h ave b een c l a imed a s v acan t s un o r I n ca l and , b u t t h e re a re n o i ndependen t h i s tor ic d a ta o n t h is p o in t . T he p lacemen t o f Y anacona A y l lu l a ndho ld ing s n ea rby i sa l so s ugge s t ive o ft he p re sence o fI nca y anacona . H oweve r , a tt h is l a te d a te , c ons t i tuen t s o f s uch ag roup w ere p robab ly d ive r se a nd a ny p eop le who w e re a du l t y anacona i n l a te p reh is tory wou ld h ave b een a tl e a s te igh ty y ea r so ld . 7 .2 .6

1 595

1 650 1 8 . T hey l a y n ea r ap a ss w h ich l e d t o t h e Moyoc R iver , d own A ccopa ta r a v ine , a nd t o t h e Apur imac R ive r , b eyond P acopa r npa .T he a r chaeo log ica l f e a tu res d e scr ibed b yE n r r iquez a nd P e rez w e re p robab ly t h e w a l led f i e lds i n S i te AL34 b u t t h ey g i ve n o i n d ica t ion o ft h e ir u se a tt h e t ime .

Land -Use

I nga a nd H uamanru ro t e r r i tor ies r ad ia ted o u t f r om t h e h i ghe s t p a r t o f C hon ta . T he i r c ommon b ounda ry p a ssed t h rough t h e v ic in i ty o ft he r educc iön t own o fC hon ta a nd d e scended t oh o t r i ve r ine ma rg ins . T he 1 595 v i s i ta s pe c if ied l i t t le l a nd c u l t iva ted a tl ow a l t i tude , o n t he Apur imac a nd B erme jo r i ve r ma rg ins . P i ch iuma rca , a s uga rc ane h ac ienda t h is c en tury , w a sa f fec ted b yc hucho ( f eve r , p robab ly ma la r ia ) d ur ing a l a nds i n spec t ion o f 1 646 9 . I n t roduced d i sea se p robab ly h ad as i gn if ican t e f fe c t u pon t h e c ho ice o fs e t t lemen ta nd l a nd -use l o ca t ions , a l though c ane -f ie ld l a bou r w o rked t he re . C opa , i nC hon ta j ur isd ic t ion , w a s t h e s i te o f a n e n terp r ise ( i ngen io ) i n 1 629 1° a nd c e r ta in ly p roduced s uga r c ane b y 1 690 1 .I t a ppea r s t ha t i r r igab le l ow lands , s u i tab le f o r s uga rcane , w e re among t h ef i r s te xp rop r ia ted f r om C hon ta a y l lu t e r r i to ry i nt h e C o lon ia l P er iod .

g ua ja va )a nd p ep ino ( So lanum m ur ica tum )1 3 . T he s ma l l s i ze o f 1 595 p lo t s a tt h ep ep ina les o fU racahuay l la s ugge s t st h ey w e re as p ec ia lr e sou r ce . U raca r e f e r st o ab i rd a nd h uay l la t o a n u n t i l led g rass land o r meadow 1 4 .G onza lez Ho lgu in ( 1608 ) t r an s la ted p ep inar a s' c achunchacra '( c achun f i e ld ) . C achun i i st o e a t g reen t h ings , f ru i t s , o r t ha t w h ich s ound s i nt he mou th . C achhucun ii st oh ar ve s to rc o l lec th erb s a nd c achhu means t h ef orage a nd f ood o fa n ima l s , ( or ) y uyo ,

w h ich a r e k nown i n t h e C hon ta o r Apur imac a r ea s1 9 .T he I nga s a nd H uamanru ro s o fC hon ta h ad a ccess t ot h e f u l l r a nge o fl o ca l p roduc t ion z one s , a l though t h el owe ro ne s w e re r ap id ly e xprop r ia ted f o l low ing c onques t . Cusco I nca p o t tery i s c ommon a tl a te p r eh is to r ic v i l lages o fC hon ta s i tua ted i nl ow a l t i tude r e source z ones n ea r t he w es te rn ma rg in o f I nga t e r r i to ry . On p resen t d a ta , i t a ppea rs t o b e s ca rcer i n H uaman ru ro t e r r i to ry .

t ha t o f m en 1 5 .Y uyo n ow u sua l ly means B rass ica , a n i n troduced p lan t w h ich i sc o l lec ted f o rf ood b u t n o tc u l t iva ted . I t may h ave a pp l ied mo re w ide ly t o' c a sua l ly 'c o l lec ted h e rbage i n t h e 1 6 th c en tury . H oweve r , y uyochacara w a s at r ans la t ion g iven b y S an to T omä s , i n 1 560 , f o r t he S pan ish w o rd f o r g arden 1 6 .T he p ep ina les w e re p robab ly f o r c u l t iva t ion o f v ege tab le so rf r u i t s . I nfor mat ion

a nd

La te

S u m mary

T he C hon ta a nd G uama ru ro p ueb los ( peop les o r v i l lages ) i n t h e s e rv ice o fL ima tambo i n 1 543 w e re p robab ly a nce s t ra l t o t h eI nga A y l lus a nd H uamanru ro A y l lus wh ich w e re d i s t inc ta t t h e e nd o ft h e 1 6 th c en tury . T he o the rp ueb los o f Mazue la s ' e ncom ienda , c a l led S ur in ta o Ma tara , a re n o t t r aceab le a t p re sen t i nt he C hon ta r eg ion . T hey may b e t e rms f o r p eop le s o fC hu l lan i r epar t im ien to w ho o ccup ied t h ee a s ter n s i de o ft h e B erme jo -Co lo rado R ive r b e tween t h e b e t te rd ocumen ted a r eas o fC hon ta a nd L ima tambo . An a l terna t ive i st h a t t h e n ames a r e o r thog raph ic v a r ian t so rt r ansc r ip t ion e r ro r s f o rg roups o r l a nds

Y nch ic l Inch ik means p eanu t1 2 .O ther w a rm c l ima te c rops p roduced i nt he L ima tambo Va l ley i n 1 586 i n c luded t h e f r u i t s o fp akay , l ucma , p a ss ionf ru i t , g uayaba ( guava , P s id ium

H istor ic

T he a va i lab le d a ta a r e p robab ly t oo l a te t o i d en t ify i n d iv idua l I nca m i tmaqkuna i n C hon ta , b u t i ti s p oss ib le t ha t s ome d escendan ts r ema ined . I nch ipampa w as worked b y M igue l N apu te Y unga , o f I nga C hahu in A y l lu i n 1 595 . T he n ame N apu te i sv e ry u nu sua l f o rt h ea r ea , a nd y unga i s at e rm w h ich w a s c ommon ly a pp l ied i nt h e 1 6 th c en tury t ot h e h o t l ow lands a nd i t s i nhab i tan t s , p ar t icu la r ly t ho se f r om t h e c oas t o f P e ru ( C ieza 1 984 :124 , 1 42 ) . 7 .2 .8

One n a t ive c rop c u l t iva ted n ea rt h eA pu r imac R ive ri si n d ica ted b y t he t oponym I nch ipampa . P re sen t I nch icpampa i s as ma l l f l a t o n t h e b anks o f t he Apur imac r i ve r , n ea r S i te AL37 .

7 .2 .7

T he L lak tak i s i te s ( AL37 a nd AL45 ) l a y w i th in H uamanru ro l a nds i n 1 595 . AL40 , a t Qopa , w a s w i th in I nga A y l lu l a nd . S i tes AL39 a nd AL41 w e re i n C a l laracay . U nfor tuna te ly , C a l la racay w a s s epa ra ted b y t h e Q ue l lon R ive r f r om t h e l a nds w h ich w e re d e sc r ibed b y t h e 1 595 v i s i ta . T he I nga A y l lu may a l ready h ave b een d i ve s ted o fl a nd s w h ich w e re d i s tan tf r om t h e r educc iön , e spec ia l ly g i ven t h e e a r ly S pan ish i n te re s t i n Qopa f o rs uga r ,o rh ave a bandoned i td ue t o ma la r ia .

7 .3 CALLARACAY AND P IVIL T he I nga 's e a s tern n e ighbou r s , ag roup c a l led C a l laraca i n 1 543 , w e re a l so p laced i n s e rv ice o f L i ma tambo 2° . T he e ncom ienda o ft h e se p eop le h ad p a s sed f r om O jeda t o Gomez d e

P reh is tor ic

S ett le ment F ranc i sca P a s i ia a nd P ed ro T ic l lab i l lca w e re a l lo ca ted t opo s i n 1 595 b e s ide t he o ld v i l lage o f Huamanruro , i nP accha f i e ld .A l l P accha c u l t iva to r s w e re Huamanru ros . T he p lo t o f J uana 1 2 1

T o rdoya b efo re t h eT o ledan v i s i ta o f 1 572 2 1 . I tw a s t h en c a l led C a l laracay a nd h ad ap opu la t ion o f 1 23 p e r sons o f whom o ne c ac ique w a s e xemp ted f r om t r ibu te o b l iga t ions . T h is s i ze a nd

E thnoh i s to ry o fA pur imac Quebradas

a r rangemen t s ugge s ts i tw a s ag roup s im i la r t o t h e I nga o r H uamann i ro o fC hon ta .

7 .5 7 .5 .1

M i randa 's s umma ry o ft h e T o ledan v i s i ta s t a te s t h a tp eop le o f P an t ipa ta a nd C a l la racay r epar t im ien tos w e re r e se t t led i na t own n amed Nues tra S er iora d e l a E ncarnac iön d e C h inchaypuqu io 2 .P eop le f r om t h e n ea rby A pu r imac Va l ley r epar t im ien to o fC h inchaypuqu io w e re r e se t t led i nt wo t owns c a l led S an tA n ton d e Ch inchaypuqu io a nd N ue s t ra S er io ra d e l a V is i tac id en d e S uma ro 2 3 . T he re a r e n o l o nge rt wo t own s c a l led Ch inchaypuqu io . L a E nca rnac i6n C h inchaypuqu io was p robab ly r enamed P an t ipa ta b ecause t h e p a t rona l p ref ix L a E ncarnac iön h ad b een t r an sfe r red t o P an t ipa ta v i l lage b y 1 586 2 4 . C a l la racay i nhab i tan ts w e re p robab ly n eve r r e se t t led i n P an t ipa ta . An ew S pan ish r educc iön , S an t iago P iu i l , w a s n o t c once ived b yt h eo r ig ina lT o ledan p l an b u th ad i n deed eme rged b efo re 1 586 2 5 . I tw a s much c l ose r t ot h e l a nd s o fC a l la racay , a ss ugges ted b y t h e l o ca t ion o f ar e cen t h ac ienda o ft h e s ame n ame a nd b y r e f e rence t o i t s p lacemen t o n t h e b ounda ry o f C hon ta t e rr i tory i n t he 1 595 v i s i ta . I n 1 690 P iv i l v i l lage c omp r ised 1 50 o r ig inar ios ( l oca l p eop le ) a nd 2 63 f oras teros ( peop le f r om o the rp a r t s ) . Hac ienda C a l laraca ip roduced w hea t a bou t al e ague f r om t h et own ,H uancar ir iw a sc rop a nd p as tu re l a nd a bove ,a nd C ocha w a s as uga rcane h ac ienda b e low 2 6 S i tes AL49 a nd AL42 w e re p robab ly l o ca ted w i th in t h e l a nd s o f t he C a l la racay g roup i n 1 543 . T he l a t te r s i te d oes n o t c on ta in c e ram ic o r a rch i tec tu ra l e v idence o f s t rong I nca i nf luence i nl a te p reh is to ry . 7 .4

PANTIPATA

P an t ipa ta R epa r t im ien to w a s n o t men t ioned b y V aca i n 1 543 a nd was p robab ly b eyond t he c a tchmen t f o r s e rv ice a t L ima tambo . I t s 1 572 p opu la t ion w a s 8 23 a nd t wo c ac iques w e re e xemp ted f r om t r ibu te 2 7 . O n ly a v e ry i n comp le te c opy o ft h e 1 595 v i s i ta , as umma ry d a t ing t o 1 697 , w a se xam ined . I tn amed t h ec ac ique p r inc ipa l o fP an t ipa ta t own ,a nd 9o the r sc a l led c ac ique so fp ar c ia l idad e s a nd a y l lus o ft h eP a lom ino e ncom ienda 2 9 . T he r e w a s aH anan Hur in d iv is ion , s i nce t he p l ace n amed C ancaocassa w a s d e scr ibed a s c on ta in ing al a rge b ounda ry s t one o ft h e i nd ios Hanasayas . P an t ipa ta w a s o f as i ze a nd c omp lex i ty o f o rgan iza t ion c ompa rab le w i th C hu l lan iR epa r t im ien to . T he 1 595 v i s i ta l i s ted 2 8 b ounda ry ma rke r s o r b oundary t oponyms a nd 1 f i e ld n ame s . S ome o ft h e se a r e s uff ic ien t ly s im i la rt oe x is t ing t oponym s t op e rm i t ag ene ra l a s se s smen to f P an t ipa ta t e r r i to ry a tt he t ime ( Tab le 7 :5 , F igu re 7 : 3 ) . S pan ish owne r sh ip h ad a lmo s tc e r ta in ly r educed P an t ipa ta l a nd s b y 1 595 . No S pan ia rd s w e re r epor ted b y t h ep a r ish p r ie s t t ob e r e s iden t s o fP an t ipa ta i n 1 690 , b u t Yv inbamba , as uga rcane h ac ienda n o tab le f o rf r u i tg a rden s , wa s s a id t ob et h er e s idence o fa ne n t i re I nd ian p ar c ia l idad ( g roup ) 3° . I nca S i te AC1 l a y i n t h e c en t re o f P an t ipa t a t e r r i to ry , a t a n i n te rmed ia te a l t i tude f o r t h e a r ea . B road v a l ley f l oo r l a nd s a t h ighe r a l t i tude w e re n o t t e r raced . S uch f l a t l a nds we re u nava i lab le a l ong t he n a r row s ec t ion o f t h e P an t ipa ta r i ve r g o rge a tl owe ra l t i tude .

CHINCHAYPUQUI0 S oc ia l

Un its

C h incha y P uqu io R epa r t im ien to h ad a p opu la t ion o f 2 758 p ersons i n 1 573 a nd w as t he s econd l a rges t i n t h e C orreg im ien to d eA bancay . S ix c ac ique s w e re e xemp ted f r om t r ibu te 3 1 .I th ad b een e ncom ienda o ft he Mona s tery o fS a n to Dom ingo ( Cusco ) b u t w a s v e s ted i n t he C rown more t h an a d ecade b efo re T o ledo 's v i s i ta 3 2 . The t owns o f r educc iön f o r t hese p eop le , S an t An ton Ch inchaypuqu io a nd S uma ro , w e re e s tab l ished b y 1 586 3 .T he l a rge p opu la t ion a nd n umbe r o f t r ibu te e xemp t ion ss ugge s tt h a tt h is r epar t im ien to i n co rpo ra ted s evera l ma jo r t e r r i to r ia l g roup s o ft he k inds f ound i n Chu l lan i R epa r t im ien to . T he d oc tr ina ( pa r ish ) o f C h ichaypuqu io a nd S uma ro w a s s ub jec t o f ar epo r t i n 1 689 3 4 .C h inchaypuqu io c on ta ined 7 S pan ish h ac ienda s3 5 , 8e s tanc ia sd eI nd io s( de scr ibed a sp una s f o r p o ta toe s a nd p a s ture )3 6 ,a nd 1 2 a y l lus . T he l a t te r w e re d iv ided i n to p arc ia / i r la z i P so f 6Ha r lan a nd 6Hur in a y l lus .T he r e w e re 7 more h ac iendas i n S uma ro , w i th n ame s i nd ica t ing p lacemen t o n t h e b ounda ry w i th P an t ipa ta l a nds 3 7 ,a nd 2 p unas o f I nd ian s w i th p a s tu re s3 8 .F ou r a y l lus w ere l i s ted i n S uma ro , w i thou t i n forma t ion o n t he ir s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion 3 9 . Ap e t i t ion w a s p re sen ted i n 1 699 b y t he c ac iques o f S uma ro a nd C h inchaypuqu io t ot h e l a nd s i n spec to r , Don F ranc isco d e E lso yA rb izu e T hey c la imed t ha t T ambo rada H ac ienda h ad e ncroached u pon t he ir t e r r i tory . The H ac ienda b ased i t s c oun te rc la im u pon c hange s i n owne r sh ip a l leged ly c onf i rmed i nt he v i s i tas a nd r ev i s i tas u nde r F ranc isco R am ire s d e l S az , D iego d e A lcaza r a nd Dom ingo d e C ab rera . T he c ac iques f ounded t he ir p os i t ion u pon t he e a r l ier r epar t ic iön b y Ma ldonado d eT o r r e sa nd t h e re fo re p resen ted t h a ti n forma t ion . T he c ac ique s 'p e t i t ion o f 1 699 c on ta ins as umma ry o ft he l a nd s a l lo ca ted t ot h em b y Ma ldonado d eT or re sw h ich h ad s i nce b een a f ec ted b yt h ee xpan s ion o fh ac iendas .T he a y l lus t h a tr e ce ived t h e a l loca t ions w e re l i s ted . C ompar ison o f t he i n forma t ion f r om 1 595 w i th t h ea y l lus l i s ted i n 1 689 s hows t ha tt he f o rme r l i s to fl a nds w a so rde red i n to H anan a nd Hur in a y l lu h o ld ing s , a l though t ha ts oc ia l d iv is ion w a s n o te xp l ic i t ( Tab le 7 :6 ) . 7 .5 .2 Locat ion o f s u m mary o f 1 699 )

1 595

L ands

( accord ing

t o

t he

D escr ip t ive i n forma t ion o n t h ea y l lu f i e ld t oponyms a nd t h e i r a ssoc ia t ions w i th mode rn t oponymy i nd ica te t he p robab le d i s tr ibu t ion o fI nd ian l a nd s i nt h e l a te 1 6 th c en tu ry ( Tab le 7 : 7 , T ab le 7 :8 a nd F igure 7 :4 ) . No o bv ious s pa t ia l d iv is ion eme rges f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f modern t oponym s r e la ted t o t h e H anan a nd H u r in d iv i s ions a nd f i e ld n ame s ( F igure 7 : 4 ) . T h is wa s a l so f ound i nC hon ta a tt he s ame t ime . T er r i tory w a s n o t d ef ined b y H anan o r H u r in s t a tus , b u t r a the r , a cco rd ing t o s up ra -ay l lu g roup sc on ta in ing u n i ts o fb o th d es igna t ions . I fp eop le f r om b o th H anan a nd Hur in d iv is ions wo rked t h e s ame f i e ld s ,a sa tC hon ta ,c o r re spondence w ou ld b ee xpe c ted i n t h el i s ts o ff i e ld t oponym sa s so c ia ted w i th a y l lus f r om d i f f e r en t d iv is ions . T h is i s n o t a ppa ren t , a s ide f r om t he p oss ib le c or respondence o f S eancar ir i o f Ch inchaypuqu io Ay l lu a nd V ankar ir i o f Hu r insaya /Puma ta Ay l lu ( Tab le s 7 :7 , 7 :8 ) . T oo f ew t oponyms a r ep re sen t ly k nown t op rec ise ly a s sess t h e

1 22

E thnoh i s to ry o fA pu r imac Q u ebrain s

TABLE 7 :5

P antipata Toponyms of

1 595 and Modern C orrelates.

( Located by number i n F igure 7 :3) No.

1 595 Toponym

P osition i n

Modern Toponyms

L ist o f B oundaries

( source:

I GN 2 8r )

1 .

Cancao Cassa

( 1)

C erro C ancaro

2 .

Acocalla

( 2)

C erro A cocalla

3 .

Vaina P incollana

( 9)

C erro P inculina

4 .

T incoc

( 13)

T incoc

5 .

Chivairu

( 15)

Q uebrada C hihuaurco

6 .

Rocotto

7 .

( 18)

R ocoto

Carcoc Cassa

( 20)

C arco

8 .

Vaman Ruro

( 21)

C erro H uamanruro

9 .

O scolla Cassa

( 22)

O scollocasa

1 0.

Samanca

( separate

F IG . 7 :3

P ucyo

f ield n ame)

S amanca

P ant ipa ta 1 595 : D istr ibu t ion o f Modern E qu iva len t s o f H is tor ic T oponyms ( Numbers a re t hose g iven i n Tab le 7 :5 )

1 23

E thnoh is tory o f Apur imac Quebra r las

TABLE 7 :6 Ayllu

i n

Chinchaypuquio Ayllu L ists o f 1 595

( in order o f

a nd 1 689.

Ayllu i n 1 689

Reparticidn l isting,

1 595

a t o m )

( originally

P arish Report

l isted f rom A t o

L )

a .

Aylloapucuna Ayllochinchaypuquio

G . Apocona * ?

( Hanansaya)

b .

I .

Chivaco

( Hanansaya)

C .

Ayllochivaco

d .

Ayllococha

e .

Ayllomisca

* ?

( incl.

Hanan

* ?

s egunda persona) f .

Ayllo Ancaraquispa

K .

Ancara

( Hanansaya)

g .

Ayllo P or navanca

L .

Pumaguanca

( Hanansaya)

h .

Ayllo Hurinsaya

A .

Pumata

( Hurinsaya)

i .

Ayllo Coto

E .

Coto

( Hurinsaya)

j .

Ayllo Chalas

F .

Chalas

( Hurinsaya)

k .

Ayllo U sno

B .

U zno

( Hurinsaya)

1 .

Ayllo

D .

( ?)

i n .

Ayllovaillaro

C .

Guayllaro

Pumapata

*Ayllus

( including

l ands)

( donde d icen )

o f

P arcosiqui

1 689 which are not

( J)

Quesua Ayllo.

( 0 )

Sunchubamba and

I n 1 689, ( P)

identified i n the

ayllus o f

Sumaro

P arcati

1 595

( Hurinsaya) are

j urisdiction were

( H) ( M )

Tuparimachi Chacha,

Ayllo and

( N )

Guata,

Cumbi.

t e r r i tor ia l a r rangemen t o f i nd iv idua l C h inchaypuqu io s o c ia l g roups . T he s amp le o f t oponym s , l i s ted f o r t h e p urpose s o f p a r t icu la rl i t iga t ion , may b e s ma l l i nc ompa r ison t ot h e t o ta l . I n s eve ra l c a ses t h e 1 595 a y l lu n ame i st h e s ame a s t h e f i r s t f i e ld t oponym l i s ted f o r i t( M isca , C o to , C ha la s , U sno U snobamba ) . T h is f o rmed t he b as is o f my t en ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion o f Hur insaya A y l lu i nt h e Ma ldonado v i s i ta w i th P umata A y l lu i n t he 1 689 r epo r t ( on t he a s sump t ion t h a t P uma ta w a s r epre sen ta t ive o ft h e t oponym o ft h e f i r s t l i s ted Hu r insaya Ay l lu l a nds ,c a l led P umapa ta )( Tab le s 7 : 7 a nd 7 : 8 ) . T he f ou ri ndependen tc a se s may i n d ica te at e r r i to r ia lc oncep to f t he a y l lu , o r t ha t g ener ic a y l lu n ames ( l ike A pucuna , a nd t h e macro-d iv is ion , Hur insaya ) w e re s imp ly b e ing r ep laced b y t oponyms o f p a r t icu la r p lace s w he re t h e p eop le wo rked o r l i ved . An u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep r imacy o ft h e se p lace s c an b e o b ta ined f r om i n fo rma t ion a bou tl a nd -u se . 7 .5 .3

l ist

( Hurinsaya)

Land-Use

Ag r icu l tu ra l l a nds a l loca ted i nt h el a te 1 6 th c en tury w e re l i s ted i na n a ppa ren to rde r : I r r iga ted m a ize l a nd c ame f i r s t , f o l lowed b y u n ir r iga ted ma ize l a nd a nd t h en p o ta to l a nd s . I n t roduced c rops w e re g rown o n b o th ma ize a nd p o ta to f i e ld s ( Tab le 7 : 9 ) . T he h igh a l t i tude o fp o ta to l a nd s i si nd ica ted i ns ome c ases b y t oponyms w h ich r ef lec t h igh z ona l v ege ta t ion ( t as ta , at r ee , I l o l locha , l u l lucha t e r re s t r ia l a l gae , a nd y cho , b unch g ra ss ) . Ma ize l a nd sw e re s pec if ied f o rf i ve a y l lu s ,p o ta to l a nd sf o rf ou r a yllus , a nd b o th c rops f o r t he r ema in ing f our . T he c o r respondence b e tween a y l lu n ame a nd t h e f i r s t t oponym o f i t s l i s ted l a nd s t e nds t oo ccu r w hen t h e l i s t s t a r t s w i th ma ize l a nd s , a nd n eve r o ccur s when i ts t a r t s w i th p o ta to l a nd s . T he ma ize l and s o f s ome a y l lus may b e m iss ing f r om t h e l i s t . H ac ienda sh ad a cqu i red s ome a r ea s . T he p re sen td i s t r ibu t ion o ft oponym sa s soc ia ted w i th h ac iendas l i s ted i n 1 689 i nd ica tes a rea s o f l and l o s t t o t he l o ca l s ubs is tence b a se ( F igu re 7 :4 ) . L ands c a l led U na sgua i l la a nd Ma rcanca h ad b een d e c la red v acan tb y A lcaza ri n 1 647 . T hey w e re l a te r s o ld t o t h e owne r o f T ambo rada H ac ienda a nd

r eg is te red b y h im d ur ing C ab re ra 's v i s i ta i n 1 657 4 1 .Un os G uay l la , l a nd s l o ca ted b e s ide ac ro ss ing o ft h e Apur imac R ive r o n t h er ou te f r om S uma ro t oC o tabamba s , h ad b e en t he s ub jec t o fs a le b e tween E uropeans a s e a r ly a s 1 6 13 4 2 .I n 1 619 U sno A y l lu w a sd ive s ted o fl a nds n amed U sno a nd C ur ipurqu i .T he se a bu t ted ar oad t o P a rco t iqu i , p robab ly P a rco t ica , a bou t 6 km n or th o fC h inchaypuqu io4 3 . D a ta o n a gr icu l ture a re c on ta ined i n a 1 586 r epor t o n C h inchaypuqu io , Z uma ro , P an t ipa ta a nd P iv i l v i l lages . I t s i n forman t s w e re ac ac ique p r inc ipa l , Don G e ron imo Quepqu i , t he C h inchaypuqu io p r ies t , who h ad s pen t 1 6 y ea r s i n t he d octr ina a nd a no the r S pan ia rd . 44 F oods o f t he I nd ian p opu la t ion w e re s a id t oi n c lude h igh land c rop s( po ta to , q u inoa , o ca) , y uyo , ma ize a nd c h i l i , a s we l l a s c l ea r ly l ow land c u l t igens ( swee t p o ta to , man ioc a nd p eanu t s ) . F ru i t s , l i ke p akay a nd g uayaba , w e re p lan ted a long t h e Apur imac R ive r . T he l ow land c rop sc ou ld a l l h ave b een g rown i nl a te p reh is to ry a tt e r raced s i te s b e low P iv i l ( ALA9 ) a nd C hon ta ( AL37 , AL41 a nd AL45 ) . 7 .5 .4 I nca Archaeo logy Ch inchaypuqu io

a nd

Land

T enure

i n

Don C a r lo s I nca , g rand son o f Huayna C apac , c l a imed i nh i s w i l l o f 1 582 t o own t wen ty t opos o f l a nd a nd s even o r e i gh t y anaco r za sa tP oma G uanca i nC h inchaypuqu io 4 5 . T he s i ze o f t h e h o ld ing a nd n umbe r o fy anacona a re s im i la r t o t he I n ca r oya l l and h o ld ings c la imed i n t he Yucay Va l ley . T h is p re sen t s a n i n te re s t ing p o ss ib i l i ty b ecause t h e t e r races a t AC3 a r el o ca ted b e s ide ac a rved r ock ,( p robab ly ag uanca )a nd t h ey , l i ke t e r race sa t AC4 ,i n co rpo ra te s t a i rca se f ea tu re sa nd s t ra igh t w a l led d e s ign l i ke t h eI nca -s ty le t e r race so ft h eY ucay Va l ley . P omavanca lPun zaguanca A y l lu o n ly h ad p o ta to l a nd s i nt h e l a te 1 6 th c en tury l i s t ( Tab les 7 :6 -9 ) . T he q ue s t ion eme rges w he the r i t s ma ize l a nds h ad f a l len i n to t he h ands o f t h is membe ro ft h e c o lon ia l I nca n ob i l i ty o r whe the rt hey wo rked t h e se a s e l i te I nca l a nd s . T he l o ca t ion o f Don C a r lo s h o ld ing i sy e tt ob ep rec ise ly i d en t if ied .

1 24

E thnoh is to ry o fA pur imac Q uebra g in s

TABLE 7 :7 Chinchaypuquio H anansaya A yllu F ield T oponyms ( 1595), ( ayllu l etter codes and f ield r i mbers a re u sed i n F igure 7 :4) Ayllu 1 595

Associated F ield 1 595

and Modern Toponyms.

Modern Toponym

( in o rder o f l isting ) No. a .

Name

Name

S ource

Apucuna 1 .

P arobamba

( near

( Chinchaypuquio)

I GN 2 8r

t he r educci6n ) b .

Chinchaypuquio 2 .

Chinchaypuquio town

I GN 2 8r F ield Survey

S ocomarca

3 .

S eancariri

? Wankariri

4 .

A cavirai

Akavirar

5 .

P anca

P anca

( land )

P ancapampa

c .

d .

6 .

V asuro

7 .

P anpaf ta

8 .

P ongoura

9 .

Amantoy

Chivaco

Chivaco

Cocha

( land )

( mountain )

( many, Amantuy

IGN 2 8r IGN 2 8r

( hamlet)

( river )

I GN 2 8r

I GN 2 8r

t oo common ) ( quebrada

IGN 2 8r

and hamlet)

1 0. N uüunya e .

Misca

1 1. M isca

M isca Huayco ( nb.

f .

Ancaraquispa

g .

P omavanca

1 2.

H aimap I ncan

1 3.

M achamacha

1 4.

V illcabamba

1 5.

C hucanbamba

1 6.

T anamachay

1 7.

T astapata

1 8.

C oyocvailla

1 9.

V ayllaquepa

2 0.

L lollocha

2 1.

M ollopongo

2 2.

Q uimara

2 3.

C hampacancha

V ilcabamba

L and s w h ich we re e xp l ic i t ly s t a t ed t ol i e n ea rt h e t own w e re i r r iga ted ma ize f i e lds c a l led P arobamba , a l loca ted b y Ma ldonado t o Apucuna Ay l lu ( Tab le s 7 . 7 a nd 7 : 9 ) . T he w o rd Apucuna i st he Quechua p lura l o fa pu , a nd t h u s m eans g rea t l ord s , o rc h ief j us t ice s , o rf i r s t c h ief s a cco rd ing t oG onza lez Ho lgu in ( 1952 ( 1608 ]) . T he t oponym o f S i te AC4 (Wankar ir i ) i si den t if iab le i nl a nd t oponym s o ft h e l a te 1 6 th c en tury Hur insaya A y l lu a nd may b e r ep resen ted i n Ch inchaypuqu io A y l lu l ands b y at oponym m ispe l led o r m iscop ied ( Seanca r ir i , awo rd m ak ing n o s en se i nQ uechua ) ( Tab le 7 . 7 ) . T he Ma ldonado r epar t ic i6n a l so made as pe c ia l a l loca t ion o ft h ree t o pos a tC o lpa i n Ch inchaypuqu io t oD on Ga r c ia S ap i tupa , s a id t ob eg r ea tg rand son o fV a ina C apac4 6 . T he k insh ip t e rm may i nd ica te r ank ing i n t h e I nka sby P r iv i lege s y s tem . Two t o po s w e re a l loca ted t oJ uan Yupanqu i , e n t i t led c ac ique d ep achaca ( l eade ro fo ne h und r ed ) , ad e s igna t ion a dop t ing t h e I nca d ec ima l n omenc la ture4 7 . T hese w e re i nC hauca l la , a p lace s a id t ob o rde r w i th P umapa ta Queb rada , p o s s ib ly n ea r P umapa ta moun ta in ( F igure 7 : 4 , No . 2 4 ) . C ur ren t ly , t h e P umapa ta P easan t G roup h ave l a nds wh ich b ound w i th t h e P a rco t ica r a v ine o nt h ee a s te rn s i de o fS i te AC2 . 1 25

( Ida.)

I GN 2 8r

? common )

( mtn )

I GN 2 8r

T he 1 586 r epor t s t a tes t ha t t he f our pueblos o f C h inchaypuqu io , Z uma ro , P an t ipa ta a nd P iv i l w e re o ft h e I nv , g overned b y ac ap ta in p l aced b y t h eI nga , t h a tt h ey w e re c r iac los o ft h eI nga , b rough tf r om o the rp laces , a nd h ad f ough t f o r t he I nca i n Qu i to . T hey s erved t he I nca a s l i ves tock p a s to ra l is t sa nd a sc u l t iva to r so ff r u i tc hacara s4 9 . C r iado sc ou ld r e fe r t o y anacona a nd t he re i s a l so c or robo ra t ion f o r t h e p resence o f m i tmaqkuna i n t he t e s t imony d u r ing T o ledo ' s v i s ita b y a n o ld c ac ique p r inc ipa l o f Ch inchaypuqu io , Dom ingo C a rqu in 5° .H e s t a ted t ha t h i s g randfa the r h ad b een b rough t f r om C hachapoya s a nd h ad r e ce ived l a nd s f r om T opa I nga . C h inchaypuqu io c on ta ined ag uaca g enera l( guaca p l aced b yt h e I nca ) , c a l led Apoguanic , d escr ibed a s ac ave b e low C h inchaypuqu io t oward s t he Apur imac R ive r i n Qu ichua s P rov ince 5 1 .A r av ine o f s im i la r n ame , d escend ing f r om S uma ro t ot h eC heche R ive r , i sl o ca ted 3k i lome t re s s ou thwe s t o fC h inchaypuqu io 5 2 . T he ma son ry -e labora ted c ave a nd I n ca a r ch i tec tu re a tS i te AC2 wou ld s eem t o f i t t h e e t hnoh is to r ic i mage o fs uch ap l ace . Howeve r , AC2 o ve r look s

E thnoh i s tor y o fA pur imac Quebrado s

TABLE 7 :8

Chinchaypuquio Hurinsaya Ayllu F ield Toponyms

( 1595),

a nd Modern Toponyms.

( aylli i l etter codes and f ield numbers are u sed i n F igure 7 :4) A yllu 1 595

M odern Toponym

Associated F ield 1 595 ( in order o f l isting) No.

h .

i .

j .

Name

Name

S ource

Hurinsaya 2 4.

P umapata

Pumapata

2 5.

Vancariri

Wankariri

2 6.

Marancucho

2 7.

Rocococha

2 8.

Calaoyo

2 9.

Coto

3 0.

Vuayllabamba

( mountain )

I GN 2 8r

( land )

F ield S urvey

Coto ? Hda.

P aucarcoto

? Pacopata

3 1.

P acocancha

3 2.

L lamac Racay

3 3.

Vayunca

3 4.

Huchuncui

3 5.

Chalas

Challas

3 6.

Vantarro

Hda.

3 7.

Vsnobamba

I GN 2 8r

( hamlet)

I GN 2 8r

Chalas

k .

U sno

1 .

Parcosiqui

( land )

I GN 2 8r

Huantaro

P arcotica

I GN 2 8r

( village

and r iver s ection )

I GN 2 8r I GN 2 8r

3 8.

P ancapuquio

P anca

( land )

3 9.

Sumchobamba

Sunchumarca

4 0.

S iquerracai

S iquipampa

4 1.

Ycho Collpa

4 2.

Churavailla

( hamlet)

I GN 2 8r I GN 2 8r

( hamlet)

Churcuhuaylla

( qda.

and hamlet) m .

4 3.

A llacbamba

4 4.

S umchobamba

I GN 2 8r

Vaillaro

C h inchaypuqu io t own a nd l i es t o t he n o r th o f p re sen t Q uebrada A pohuane j . T h i s i sa way f r om t h e A pu r imac R ive r b yr e f e rence t oC h inchaypuqu io . 7 .5 .5

S ummary

H is to r ica l d a ta c on ta in c lue s t h a t s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion o fl a nd h o ld ing i nl a t ep reh i s to r ic C h inchaypuqu io w a s s im i la rt ot h a t i nY ucay a nd L ima tambo . T he a r ch i te c tu r eo fI nca t e r ra ce sn ea rC h inchaypuqu io r edu cc iön i sa l so s im i la r t o e xamp le s i n t ho se v a l ley s , a l though o n a s ma l le rs ca le . Documen ta ry r e f e rence s p o in t t ot h ev i c in i ty o f t h e t own a s s i te o fp r ime i r r iga ted ma ize l a nd s o fA pucuna A y l lu , a s soc ia ted s eman t ica l ly w i th l o rd s a nd h igh c h ief s . S ome l o ca ll a ndho lde r si nt h el a te 1 500 sc l a imed d escen tf r om H uayna C apac I nca . AI z anan a y l lu , wh ich t ook t h e n ame o f t h et own , a sw e l la st h e Hur in saya A y l lu , t h ef i r s tl i s ted h ur in a y l lu i n 1 595 , h ad l a nd s w h ich a ppea r t os ha re t h e t o ponym n ow a pp l ied t oa n I nca t e r race s cheme (Wanka r i r i ) . E labo ra te I n ca t e r race c omp lexe s w e re p laced i n m id -va l ley l o ca t ion s . T r ibu ta ry o b l iga t ion s emphas ised f r u i tp roduc t ion , i nt h ed e ep r a v ine o ft h eA pu r imac R ive r ,a nd c ame l id h e rd ing ,i nt h el e s s b roken t e r ra in o fb unch g ra s s p a s tu re s a th igh a l t i tude w he re t h ey a r eh e rded t o day .

Sunchumarca

( hamlet)

7 .6 THE I NCA NEAR CUSCO

I N

I GN 2 8r

APURI MAC

QUEBRADAS

S oc io -spa t ia l i n fo rma t ion u sed f o rt h e A pur ima c q ueb rada s i s n o t a sd e ta i led a nd e a r ly a st h a t f o r t h e L ima tambo V a l ley . I t w a s n o tu n t i l t h e 1 590 s t h a tS pan ish l a nd s i n spe c to r s b egan t o c a r ry o u tm a jo rf i e ldwo rk i nI nd ian l a ndho ld ing s ,a sp a r to ft h e p rocess w h ich a l loca ted l a nd s o f d ep le ted c ommun i t ie s t o h ac iendas . L and c l a ims b y I nca n ob i l i ty , a s w e l l a s e a r ly S pan ish l a ndho ld ing s a s soc ia ted w i th y anacona , p o in t t o l o ca t ions o f s un a nd I n ca l a nd s a nd p o s s ib ly e s ta te s o fI n ca n ob i l i ty . T he se i n c lude h o ld ing s a tU raca i nC hon ta a nd a t C h inchaypuqu io . I nca t e r race s cheme s a tC h inchaypuqu io , P an t ipa ta a nd i n p oo re r p re serva t ion a tU raca a r e s ma l l a nd l i e i nr e la t ive ly s ca rce t e r ra in o f m ode ra te d ec l iv i ty a nd mode ra te a b so lu te a l t i tude .M i t r naqkuna w e re p l aced i nt h er eg ion b u tt e r ra ce so f t h e a r ch i te c tu ra ls t y le f ound a t Ma r cawa s i ,a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m i t imae so fT i lka ,d on o tf e a tu re i nt h el o ca lr e co rd . H oweve r , Ma rkawa s i w a s o n t h ep r inc ipa l h i gh land I n ca r oad . T he t wo Q opa s e t t lemen t s ' m a t e r ia l c u l tu re i n d ica t e s s t rong t i e s t ot h e s t a te . T h i sw ou ld b ee xpec ted i ne nc lave so fm i tmaq o rI n ca s b y -Pr iv i lege . A n t lu-o ponymy o ft h e I nga A y l lu s i sm a rked ly I nca b y c ompa r i son w i th t h e H uamanru ro o fC hon ta , b u t i t r ema ins u ncer ta in w he the r t h ey w e re m i tmaq , I ncas -by P r iv i lege o rb o th , o rw he the ra ny o ft h e ir n umbe rc ou ld h ave e xp re ssed r e la t ion s t oC u sco I nca n ob i l i ty i nc l ose k i n sh ip t e rm s .

1 26

E thnoh i s tory o fA pur imac Quebradas

TABLE 7 :9 Reparticiön ,

Chinchaypuquio F ields: in order of original

A llocated Areas and Agricultural

HANANSAYA Ayllu

F ield

Code

Name

a .

P arobamba

b .

C .

d .

( from 1 595

HURINSAYA Area

Agric.

Ayllu

F ield

( topos)

U se

Code

Name

( topos)

U se

7

M , I

h .

Pumapata

8

M , I

Vancariri

5

Area

S ocomarca

8

Marancucho

8

Seancariri

4

Rocococha

4

Acavirai

8

Calaoyo

2

P anca

4

Vasuro

3

P anpaf ta

3 2

P ongoura

8

Amantoy

6

üuhunya

2 2 7

( of Anton

Misca

3 5

Agric.

M , S F i .

W , P ,N I

M , I

Coto

4 0

M ,W , NI

Vayllabamba

2 0

M , NI

P aco Cancha

1 0

L lamac Racay

1 0

Vayunca

2 0

Huchuncuy

2 0

Chalas

1 2

Vantarro

8

M , NI

k .

Usnobamba

2 0

M ,W ,I

1 .

Quispe) e .

Use

l isting).

HaimapIncan

6

P ancapuquio

3

Machamacha

6

Sumchobamba

1

Villcabamba

3 0

S iquerracai

1 5

Chucanbamba

1 0

Ycho Collpa

8

Tanamachay

2 0

Churavailla

2 0

Tastapata

1 0

A llacbamba

8

Coyocvailla

1 0

Vayllaquepa

1 0

Sumchobamba

1

f .

Mollopongo

2 0

g -

Quimara

2 0

m .

Champacancha Notes:

M= maize,

2 0 P = potatoes,

W= wheat,

S F=

Spanish F ruits,

I =

i rrigated ,

NI= not

F IG . 7 :4 Ch inchaypuqu io a nd S umaro 1 595 /1689 : D istr ibu t ion o f Modern Equ iva len t s o f H is tor ic T oponyms .

1 27

i rrigated.

E thnoh i s to ry o fA pur imac Q uebradas

T he f a c t s t h a t o ld Huamanruro t own e x is ted w i th in t e r r i tory a l loca ted t ot h e H uamanru ro a y l lus o fC hon t a i nt he l a te 1 6 th c en tury , a nd t h a t l o ca l s oc ia l t e rm ino logy w a s u sed f o r l a nd a l loca t ion , s ugge s t t h a t t h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa y l lu l a nds f o l lowed ap r eh ispan ic p a t ter nd e sp i te t h ee xc is ion o ft r ac t s f o r h ac iendas . T he H uamanru ro we re c er ta in ly a s oc ia l u n i t o f s epa ra te n ame i nt h e l i s to fV aca i nt h e 1 540 s .

t h an e xp rop r ia t ion o fl a nd s f o rI nca t e r race s cheme s . I n ca a nd s un l a nds w i th y anacona r e ta ine r s a nd l i ve s tock w e re p r obab ly d i spe r sed w i th in c ommun i ty t e r r i tor ies o fl o ca l g roup s , I n cas b y -P r iv i lege a nd mitmaqkuna . P roduce c ou ld h ave b een t r anspo r ted t on ea rby C usco s t o rehouse s i nt h e manne r t h a t i t w a s t a ken t op rov inc ia l a dm in is t ra t ive c en t res . I ti sn o t c l ea r h ow much w en tt ot h e t ambos o ft h e L ima tambo V a l ley .

L oca l s oc io -econom ic u n i t s r e ta ined c on t ro l o f aw ide r a nge o f a t t i tud ina l p roduc t ion z one s p r ior t o h ac ienda f o rma t ion . I n C hon ta , a nd p robab ly C h inchaypuqu io , t h e t e r r i tor ia l mac ro s oc ia l u n i t s w e re s ubd iv ided i n t he h anan /chahu in /hu r in t e rm ino logy .I n ca a c ce ss t or e souces o ft h ea r ea a ppea r st oh ave r e l ied ma in ly u pon l o ca la nd m i tmaq l a bou ra nd t e r r i to ry ,r a the r

A pur imac s e t t lemen t s p robab ly a i ded s e cur i ty a long an a tu ra l f r on t ie r i n t h e r eg ion o f t h e I nca c ap i ta l a nd p erm i t ted c u l t iva t ion o f c er ta in c rops , u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th w arm c oa s ta l a nd mon ta i ia v a l ley s , w i th in e a sy r e ach o fC u sco .

Footnotes

C achhucun i . C oge r or ebusca r y e rua s ; C achhu . L a y erua yc om ida d e l o s a n ima les . Y uyo l a s d e l o s h ombres ; C achhu c achhu . Y erua a l ot o da s l a s y e rua s d e l c ampo ( Gonza lez H o lgu in ( 1952 :44 ,624 [ 1608 ] )

t o Chapter

7

V aca d e C a s t ro 1 908 :443 [ 1 543 ] . 2

T o ledo 1 975 : 209 .

A .M .A . :Chon ta : E xped ien te d e R econoc im ien to e I n scr ipc iön d e l aC omun idad d e C hon ta , 1 959 ; D ocumen t s t r an sc r ibed b y J o sé A le jand ro I z qu ie rdo , N o tar io P üb l ico , C usco , 1 943 : C op ia d e l o s T i tu los d e l P ueb lo d e C hon ta yP lano d e l M i smo , [ con ta in ing t h e ] . .acomodac ione s yr epar t ic ione s d e l a s t i er ras d e l o s i nd ios d e C a i l lohuano -chayane , U raca d e l o s r epar t im ien tos d e Mar t in D o lmos y P edro C isneros . . . . . 3

T o ledo ( 1975 :210 ) ; C ook ( 1982 :102 ) l i s t s C huyan i a nd C o l loguanca . T hus 0 1 1oguanca , C o l loguanca a nd C a i l lohuano r e f e r t ot h e s ame g roup . T he p r ef ix ' o / /o ' i sb e s t t r an sc r ibed a s ' u / /u ' ( p en is ) i nQ uechua o r thog raphy , a nd t hus r e fe r s imp ly t oo r ig in g roup ( ay l lu ) . T he re a r e n o d a ta t os ugge s t t h e re w a s a n a y l lu o f G uanca e t hn ic o r ig in n ea r C hon ta , b u t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f m i tmaq s t a tus i si n te re s t ing g i ven t h e u nusua l ly s ma l l s i ze a s a r epar t im ien to .

1 6 D ic t iona ry e n t r ie s a r e : J ard in -y uyoc iu 2cara ; a nd a l so y uyo h or ta l i za g enera lmen te ;y uyo c amayoc h or to la r zo , d e h or ta l i za ( San to T omä s 1 95 1 :152 ,303 [ 1 560 ] ) . 1 7

4

5

1 8

S ee p rev ious c hap te r , f oo tno te 3 8 .

A .M .A . :Chon ta : A comodac iön d e l o s i nd ios d e l r epar t im ien to d e C huyan i r educ ido s e n e lp ueb lo d e C hon ta b y D on F e rnando P o r toca r re ro , C or reg ido r a nd J u s t ic ia Mayor o fA bancay , a nd J uez V i s i tado ro ft h e P a r t ido f o r L icenc iado A lonso Ma ldonado d e T o r re s ,O ido ro ft h eR ea l A ud ienc ia a nd J ue zp ara l ar epar t ic iön , y en ta y c ompos ic iön d e t i er ra s ; A u to o f Ma ldonado d e T or re s , d a ted i nL os L ucma s E s tanc ia , V a l ley o fC urahua s i , 1 4 Novembe r 1 595 . 6

A .G .N . D . I 1 79 1 C .452 . T es t imon io d e l p ad rön d e l o s i nd io s t r ib taar ios m a tr icu lados e n l o s a y l lu s d e l o s r epar t im ien tos d e P aruro , Y aur isque , Gua r zuqu i te , C ap i ,A ccha -Ur in saya , Omacha y P an zpacucho e n e lP ar t ido d e C h i lques yMasques . . .

7

A .M .A . :Chon ta : T he r e levan t p a ssage i s : . . .as im ismo d z jo h aber med ido l a st i erra sn ombroda s C urcapucyo yC urcapampa , P ucyupampa , P i l laoccasa , L lu ichu sa ico -casa , A snaccpucyo , S ayhuaconya [ s ic? ] yo t ro [ s ic] n ombres q ue e r np ie zan d esd e u na a bra al ac uch i l la al at or na d on ombrada S ayhuaconga o r cco d ond ee s tan t aws p ar edes d ep i ed r a sa n t igua s yd e sd el ad i cha a bra yp ar ed es b a jos [ s ic ]e lt i nder° p or u na q uebada s eca n ombrada P acopampa ad ar a lr i oA pur imac . . A .M .A . :Chon ta : ( Hac ienda d e C o tayaco , 4A pr i l , 1 650 ) . T he r e levan t p a ssage i s : . . . ye s tar l a s d i chas t i er ras d eba jo d e l o s l i nderos s i gu ien te sd e Ha ira inca a t rav iesan aS ayhuaconca o r cco c l ond ee s tan u r zos r edonde sd ep ied ra d e lt i empo d e lI nca p or u np or tachue lo b a ja a lr i od e Moyoc p or u na q uebrada A ccopa ta yp or o t ra d esd ee lm i smo p or tachue lo q ue i v a a lr i o d eA pur imac b a ja p or u na q uebrada d e sde e lm i s tno p or tachue lo s eco n ombrado P acopampa h as ta d ar a tr i od eA pur imac yp or ambos l ados l i nda c on l o s d o s r i o s d e Moyoc -Apur imac yp or l i nderos r e c lean l a sd ichas t i er ra sb ar rancos q ue m iran al o s d i cho s r i os .

1 9 F o r e xamp le , v a r ian t s o f ' S ur in ta o Ma ta ra ' m igh t b e ' h ur in t a oma ta ra ' ( t he T auma -Tanca r l a nd s? ) . 2 0

V aca d e C a s t ro ( 1908 :443 [ 1 543 ] ) .

2 1

T o ledo 1 975 :177 .

I .G .N . 1 : 200 ,000 , A nt s , 1 946 ; I .G .N . 1 : 100 ,000 , 2 8q , 1 978 ; 2 8 r , 1 970 -1971; A .M .A . :Chon ta .

2 2

M iranda 1 925 :168 [ 1583 ] .

2 3

M iranda 1 925 :168 [ 1583 ] .

A .M .A . :Chon ta : Mea suremen t o f l a nds o f C hon ta i nd ian s b y D iego E nr r iquez d e Mora le s ( a ccompan ied b y D on J uan P uma p r inc ipa l yg ober r zador a nd o t he rc ac iques ) f o r C ap i tan Don D iego d e l A lcaza r ,J ue z V i s i tador d e V en ta y C ompo s ick 5n d e T ier ra sd e e s ta P rov inc ia d eA ba r zcay , d a ted E l V a l le d e L ima ta rnbo , 2 4 Ma rch , 1 646 ; T he r e levan t p a s sage i s : yd ea l l iv a l i nea r ec ta c omo q u ien s a le al a s t i erras d e U ranca d e C onven to d eS an to Dom ingo h as ta d ar c on u n h uaycco n ombrado u ncahuay l la yma sa ba jo s el ama Huanan m arca yp or d i cho h uaycco ya guas v er t ien te sd e v a l le l i ndero h as ta d ar e nu r za st i er ra se nf ermas d ec hucho n ombradas P ichuymarcay ma sa dP lan te v a ad ar al a sh uer ta sd e Moyo cc q ue n o e n tran e n e s ta . . .

2 4

F ornee 1 965 :2 1 [ 1 586 ] .

2 5

F ornee 1 965 :20 -23 [ 1586 ] .

8

9

1 0 A .D .C . L . 1 898 , e scr ibano D om ingo d e O ro , 1 629 . 1

D ocumen t i n V i l lanueva 1 982 :204 .

1 2

G onza lez H o lgu in ( 1952 :368 ,580 [ 1608 ] ) .

1 3

F ornee ( 1965 :25 [ 1 586 ] ) .

1 4

S an to T omä s ( 1951 :283 [ 1 560 ] ) .

P ep ina r . C achunchacra ; C achun i . C o rne rc osa s v e rde s , of m ta s ol oq ue s uena e n l ab oc ,a ; 1 5

2 6

V i l laueva 1 982 :204 .

2 7

T o ledo 1 975 :176 .

A .M .A . : P an t ipa ta , 1 952 ; T he f i l e c on ta in s d ocumen ta ry t r anscr ip t ions b y J o se P acheco , p a laeog raphe r , o f C usco . T he se i n c lude t h e t r anscr ip t ion o f ad ocumen t w r it ten i n 1 697 w h ich w a s i nt h e p o sses s ion o f aC hon ta c ac ique p r inc ipa l , D on Me lcho r N aw incama sca . T he 1 697 d ocumen t w as as umma ry a nd p a r t ia l c opy o f e a r l ie r d ocumen t s , i n c lud ing r epar t ic iones d a t ing t o 1 595 a nd 1 608 . 2 8

T he c ac ique p r inc ipa l w a s D on Mar t in Manya r i , a nd o t he r s , D on D iego P inco , S ancho C u s iguaman , S euas t ian V uayr ac , F ranc isco C ondor v i lca , Don C h r is tova l A cho , R odr igo Y upar i , C hr is toba l Qu ispe , Mar t in C ancha r i a nd G e rön imo C am l la . 2 9

3 0

V i l lanueva 1 982 :206 .

3 1

T o ledo 1 975 :152 .

3 2

H ampe 1 979 :9 1 .

3 3

F o rnee 1 965 :20 -23 [ 1586 ] .

1 28

E thnoh i s to ry o fA pur imac Q uebrada s

3 4

V i l lanueva 1 982 :188 .

P aca s , G uamancha rpa , G uanucpampa , F ' umau r co , P auca rco to , Guambomayo a nd C ocha . 3 5

P a ro , G uanoc , Aman tu i , G uanuc racay , C hu r cohuay l la , S iqu iracay , P a rco t iqu i a nd R ayanpa ta .

3 6

3 7 A saguana , C oncoay l la , T ambo rada , C a r co , R oco t to , C umu l i ( ) a nd O sco . 3 8

T o to r a a nd Z ep i l lo .

3 9

C ha cha , Gua ta , S unchubamba a nd C umb i .

4° A .G .N .

D . I . 1 699 , C .181 . T he c ac ique s w e r e D on L äza ro Chachon , C a s ique p r inc ipa l yG obe rnador d e l o sP ueb lo sd e C h inchaypuqu io yS umaro , D on J uan T upa , C a s ique ys egunda p e r sona d el ap arc ia l idnd d eH anan saya a nd D on G r ego r io C apqu in , C as ique ys egunda p er sona d el ap ar c ia l idad d eH ur in saya 4 1

A .G .N . D . I . 1 699 , C .181 .

4 2

A .G .N . T .P . 1 6 13 , L .5 , C .104 , f . 14 . 1v .

4 3

A .G .N . T .P . 1 6 19 , L . I4 , C .308 , f . 10v -f .11v .

4 4

F o rnee 1 965 :20 ,22 -23 [ 1 586 ] .

4 5

D unba r T emp le 1 949 -50 :642 -643 .

4 6

4 7

4 8 4 9

A .G .N . D . I . 1 699 , C .18 1 : . .Jun to a l a s t i er ra s d e D on G erön imo/ C apqu in , d i yr epar t it r e st o po sd et i er ra s/ aD on G ar s ia S ap i tupa v i sn ie to d e V a i r za c apac 3t o po s [ f .4 . f . 4v ] / A .G .N . D . 1 . 1 699 , C .18 1 , f . 4v : . .d ,ond e d i sen c hauca l la p ar e se q ue J uan Y u / pangu iC a s ique d ep achaca d ee s t ed i cho p ueb lo / t i ene d os t opos d e t i er ra q ue l o s ap o se ido /m ucho t i empo l i ndan c on t i er ra sd e /D on G erön imo C apqu in yp or o t ra p ar te / c on e la r royo q uebrada l amada p uma / pa ta v no yc on s i er to s a l i sa les q ue a l l i e s tan A lva rez e t .a l . 1 984 :2 . F o r me ( 1965 :22 [ 1586 ] ) n o te s : . e s to s c ua tro p ueb lo s e ran , e n t i empo d e s ug en t i l idnd , d e l i n ga , yq ue t e n ia d es e r ior i os obr ee l lo sd et oda ss u s h ac ienda s yt i er ras , yq ue t u v ieron e n r opa yc om ida ; yl es e rv ian d e p a s tor es p ara g uardar s ug a r zado yt amb ign d eh or t e lano sp ar a l a s c häcara s d e s us f ru ta s s eg ober r zaban e s to sp ueb lo s p or u n c ap i tän q ue li n ga p on i a , yq ue e s to sp ueb lo se ran c r iado sd e li nga t r a ido sd eo t ra sp ar te s

5° M ur ra

1 978 :248 .

A poguan ic , g uaca g enera l , e su na c ueba d ebaxo d e lp ueb lo d e C h inchaypuqu io h az ia e ln ' od eA por ima . . (A lbomoz 1 984 :206 [ ca .1584 ] ) . 5 1

5 2

Q ueb rada Apohuane j i nI . G .N . 1 : 100 ,000 2 8 r , 8 4 -88 N /7 -96E .

1 29

CHAPTER 8

LATE PREHISTOR IC S ETTLE MENT AND LAND -USE PATTERNS I N L I MATA MBO 8 .1

mu l t ip le u se s , a sd o s ome p re sen t v i l lage s t ruc tu re s v i s i ted i n L ima tambo .

I NTRODUCTION .

T he a pp roach s of a rh a sb een t oe xp lo re t h ec omp lex i ty o fl a te p reh i s to r ic s oc ie ty a nd e conomy i nL ima tambo a nd i t s r e g ion i n ag ene ra l ly s ynch ron ic f o rm t h rough ac omb ina t ion o ff i e ld a r chaeo logy a nd e t hnoh i s to r ic i n fo rma t ion . R econ s truc t ions a re i n suff ic ien t i n t hemse lve s t o e xp la in s oc ia l c hange ( eg .Renf rew 1 984 :3 -19 ) b u t d o a ss i s t t h e f o rmu la t ion o f e nqu i r ie s w h ich c an b e b a sed u pon t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd a l one . Mo s tr e sea rch o nt h eL a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod a nd e a r ly I nca P e r iod w i l l i n ev i tab ly b e o ft h is k ind . T he i n i t ia l r e v iew o fs oc ia l c hange i nl a te p reh is to r ic C u sco a nd T awan t in suyu r a ised p rob lem s o f e xp lana t ion wh ich a re n ow p u r sued , e spe c ia l ly i n sof a r a s t h ey a r e a menab le t o c l a r if ica t ion b y q uan t i ta t ive a na ly s i so ft h el a ndscape a r chaeo log ica ld a ta i nt h e a b sence o fl a rge s c a le e xcava t ion s .T he se a r e : ( a ) T o w ha t e x ten t w a s L ima tambo p r io r t o I nca s t a te f o rma t ion ,c ha r ac te r ized b yc h ron ic c on f l ic ta nd i n s tab i l i ty? ( b )T o w ha te x ten t w e re l o ca l s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s , p opu la t ion s i ze s a nd s ub s is tence s ys tems d i srup ted b y I nca p o l i t ica l i n co rpora t ion , s t a te l a bour d emands f o r a g r icu l tu re o r c on s t ruc t ion w o rk s a nd s t a te o r e l i te l a nd o r o the r r e sou r ce a cqu i s i t ion? 8 .2 S ITE FUNCTION , TOPOGRAPHY

L IFE

8 .2 .1 L a te P reh istor ic T rad i t ion L if e Z one a nd T opography .

ZONE

S i tes :

AND

F unc t ion ,

T he s um o fL a te I n te rmed ia te P e r iod a nd l o ca l L a te H o r izon ( L .P .T . ) s i te a r eas i s 6 8 .4 h a , o r a bou t 0 . 15% o f t h e L ima tambo A rea . ( a ) L .P .T .

S i te F unc t ions .

L .P .T . s i te s a r e d iv ided i n to t he v ery b road f unc t iona l c a tego r ie s o f s e t t lemen t , b u r ia l a nd a g r icu l tu ra l s i te s . T he i r a r ea sa r es ubd iv ided i fmu l t ip le f unc t ion sa r er e p re sen t ed ( Tab le 8 : 1) . ( i ) S e t t lemen t s : S e t t lemen t s a r e r e ga rded a s s i te s c on ta in ing e v idence o f t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f s he l te r s o r l ong t e rm p repa ra t ion a nd p re sen ta t ion o f f ood . S i te s w i th a bundan t a r tef a c t s , e spe c ia l ly c ook ing p o t te ry , a nd /o r l a rge c i rcu la r o r r ounded s t ruc tu re s( CS )a r ei n c luded .T he se c omp r ise o ve rh a lf o ft h e r e co rded s i te s , b u t r ep re sen t o n ly 1 5 .5% o ft h e s um o f s i te a r e a s . T he re i se v idence t h a ts ome C S w e re b u i l ti nw ho le o rp a r to f s od , mud b r ick o ro the rp e r i shab le ma te r ia l s( e g . AL21 , AL28 , AL29 a nd AL30 ) . A g r icu l tu ra l l a nduse a nd p lan t g row th u sua l ly r educe t h e v i s ib i l i ty o f s uch s i te s , whe rea s p l ace s w h ich a r ec ove red w i th o l db u i ld ing s t one a r el e s sa trac t ive t o mode rn c u l t iva to r s . S tone u sed t ob u i ld C S i sa lways l o ca ted n ea rby .T he a moun tu sed a nd h ence t h ev i s ib i l i ty o fs i te s ,m ay b e a f f ec ted b y i t s a va i lab i l i ty i ns u i tab ly s i zed b lock s . I nt h e b e s tc ond i t ion s o fp re se rva t ion a nd v i s ib i l i ty , C S w e re f ound i n a s soc ia t ion w i th d ome s t ic p o t te ry a nd u t i l ised s t one a r tef ac t s . Sma l l C S m ay h ave h ad a s t o rage f unc t ion o r

H a lf o ft h e 1 6r e co rded s e t t lemen t sw e re b e twe en 0 . 45 a nd 2 . 68 h a ( AL4 , AL28 , AL39 , AL4 1 , AL42 , AL43 , AL46 a nd p robab ly AM2 ) . J udg ing f r om t h e b e s t p re se rved s i te s , t h ey c on ta ined f r om 1 5t oa r ound 5 5 C S . Ano the r 5s e t t lemen t s c ove r b e tween 0 . 1 a nd 0 . 44 h a ( AL5 , AL21 , AL30 , AL37 a nd AL45 ) a nd mo s t a ppea r t o h ave c on ta ined a bou t 8t o 1 0 C S . Sma l l s e t t lemen t s , u p t o0 . 1 h a i n a r ea , o ccu r i nt h ree p lace s ( AL 19 , AL29 a nd AL38 ) a nd c on ta ined u p t o 5C S . ( i i ) B u r ia l S i te s : C y l indr ica l s t one l ined s ub te r ranean p i t s ( CSP ) a r e t e n ta t ive ly i n te rp re ted a sp lace s o fb u r ia l . C u r ren t s t orage t r ad i t ion s a nd f ood -p roce s s ing t e chno logy i nC u sco p rov ide n oh ypo the t ica lp a ra l le lf o rt h eu se o fs u ch s t ruc tu r e s . C h icha ma l t ing d ep re s s ions s een i nL ima tambo a r e s ha l low a nd a s soc ia ted w i th h ou se s , n o ti s o la ted a nd i nc l u s te r s . S tone s t ruc tu re s f o r manu f ac ture o f moraya ( wh i te f r eeze -dr ied p o ta to ) , a r e ma in ly a bove g round a nd l o ca ted i nw a te rcou r s e s . Many C SP a re a t a bso lu te a l t i tudes t oo l ow f o r i t s manuf a c tu re , a l though n o t f o r i t s s t o rage . C SP a r e n o t p l a ced w i th in l a rge rc i r cu la rs t ruc tu re so rs e t t lemen t sa nd t h e re fo re d o n o t r e semb le h ouseho ld s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s . Many C SP a r e s o c l o se ly s paced t h a tt h e re i sn or oom f o r ac oncen t r ic s t ruc tu r e . T he s t one c o rbe l l ing u sed t o s ea l t h e b e t te r p r e se rved C SP e xamp le s i sn o t d e s igned t op e rm i t r egu la r r emova l o f i t em s f r om w i th in . At o ta l o f 1 23 C SP o ccu ra tt h e 7s i te s i ng roup so fb e tween 1 a nd 6 2 .I s o la ted C SP w ou ld h ave p rov ided av e ry s ma l l s t o r age v o lume b y c ompa r i son t o t he s i ze o f modern s i ng le f am i ly p o ta to h arves t s s een i n h ighe r p a r t s o f L ima tambo . P o ta to s t o rage i su sua l ly i n s t raw c ove red c l amp s n ea r f i e ld s a nd h ouse s , c ommon t o many p a r t s o ft h e wo r ld ( Na sh 1 978 :188 1 90 ) . F ie ld s ide c l amp sa r e o f ten g ua rded b y t h eo ccupan to fa t empo ra ry s he l te r . I nc on t ras t , C SP a r er a re ly a c compan ied b y o ccupa t ion r e fuse a nd a r e u sua l ly a ts ome d i s tance a bove t h e n ea re s te v idence o fp r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t . T he o n ly a s soc ia ted p o t te ry c ons is t so f af ew s he rd sf r om v e ry t h in w a re i na n u nce r ta in s ur f ace c on tex t ( AL26 ) . T he se m ay b e f r om m in ia tu re v e s se ls , k nown a s o f fe r ing s i nb u r ia ls a t S acsaywaman i n C usco . C SP a r e a l so l o ca ted i nr e la t ive ly h igh l o ca t ions , l i ke t hose u sed f o r c ur ren t c ommun i ty c eme te r ie s , a nd a r e s ome t ime s i n te rp re ted a s b u r ia l p l ace s b y n ea rby r e s iden t s . I ft h i s i n te rp re ta t ion i sc o r rec t , b u r ia l s i te s r ep re sen t 0 .9% o f t h e s um o f L .P .T . s i te a r ea s a nd 2 5% o f t h e i rn umbe r . ( i i ) Ag r icu l tu ra l F a c i l i t ie s : T he w o rk ing d i s t inc t ion b e tween s t one -wa l led t e r race s a t t r ibu ted a n a g r icu l tu ra l f u nc t ion , a nd t ho se r ega rded a ss e t t lemen t p la t fo rm s ,i sb a sed u pon t h ep re sence o fs t ruc tu re so ra bundan t p o t te ry o nt e r race l e ve l s .

1 30

P r eh i s to r i cS e t t lemen ta nd L andu s e P a t te rns

TABLE 8 :1

Late P rehistoric Tradition S ites: S ite No.

Area

( ha)

W ithin Functional C ategories

S ettlement AL4

1 .200

AL5

0 .400

AL19

0 .040

AL21

0 .136

F unctional Analysis o f S ite Areas.

Burial

Agriculture

0 .004

AL23

0 .003

AL24

0 .020

AL26

0 .150 0 .450

AL27 AL28

0 .160

AL29

0 .050

AL30

0 .100

AL31

0 .100

AL33

1 .040 4 .000

AL34 AL37

0 .270

AL38

0 .060

AL39

2 .680

0 .800 3 1.720 8 .800

AL40 AL41

1 .425

1 .500

AL42

0 .470

3 .000

AL43

1 .000

5 .000 0 .010

AL44 AL45

0 .162

AL46

0 .450

AL47

0 .020

AL48

0 .001 1 .190

AL49 1 .000

AM2

TOTALS TOTAL No.

( ha )

S ites

1 0.601

0 .654

5 7.154

1 5.50

8 3.55

1 00.0%

1 6

0 .96 7

6 8.409

1 1

2 8

0 .663

0 .093

5 .196

2 .443

Mean Area ( ha)

T he s t a r t ing p ropo s i t ion may b e t ha t t he re w a s a n e qua l p re f e rence f o rs e t t lemen ti na l le nv i ronmen t so ft h eL ima tambo A rea d ur ing t h a t p e r iod . I f s o , s i te o ccur rence s hou ld b e p ropo r t iona l t ot h e s i ze o fe ach l i f e z one i nt h e s t udy r e g ion ( F ig . 2 :2 ) . T hese a rea s a re e s t ima ted f r om t he n a t iona l e co log ica l m ap ( ONERN 1 976 ) . T he e xpec ted n umbe r s a nd s um a r ea so ft h es i te se xpec ted i ne ach z one a r ec ompa red w i th t h e f i e ld s u rvey r e su l t si nT ab le 8 : 2 .

A g r icu l tu ra l t e r race s a nd f i e ld w a l ls c omp r i se 5 7 .2 h a o ft h e L .P .T . s i te s , o r a bou t 8 3 .6% o f t h e s um o fL .P .T . s i te a r ea s . A s i n t he c a se o f s t one b u i ld ings , L .P .T . t e r races a r e c ons tuc ted o fl o ca l ly a va i lab le s t one . A pa r t f r om au n iver sa l a s soc ia t ion w i th s l op ing l a nd s ,a bundance o ff i e ld s tone m ay b e af a c to r i nt h e i rd i s tr ibu t ion . T e r race s d o n o t , h oweve r , o ccu r o n a l l s t ony s l ope s . Many a re c lose t o s e t t lemen t s ( AL2 1 , AL37 , AL39 , AL41 , AL42 a nd AL43 ) . T h is p robab ly i nd ica te s b o th a s pec if ic i n te re s t i n i mp rov ing l a nd n ea r s e t t lemen t s a nd l a bou ra va i lab i l i ty , a l though t h et ime sca le f o r t h e i r c on s t ruc t ion i su nknown . S ome , e spec ia l ly t h o se n ea r s e t t lemen t sw i th a bundan tI n ca p o t te ry ( AL39 a nd AL4 1) ,m ay h ave e xpanded d u r ing t h eI n ca p e r iod . ( b) Env iron menta l S ett le ments .

A ssoc iat ions

o f

We t U p land s l o ca t ion s a re u nde r rep re sen ted i n t h e a c tua l f i gu r e s .H um id F o re s ts e t t lemen t sa r ef ewe ra nd c ove rl e s sa r ea t h an p r ed ic ted . Mo re s i te s o ccu r i n t h e D ry Mon tane F o r e s t t h an p red ic ted b u t s i te a r ea i sn ea r ly a s e xpec ted . T he D ry F o r e s tZ one i so ve r rep re sen ted i nt o ta l s i te a r ea , a l though n o t i n s i te n umbe r s . T he T ho rny Wood land Z one i s o ve r r e p re sen ted i nb o th i t sn umbe ra nd t o ta la r ea o fs i te s . T he C h i S qua red v a lue o fo b se rved a nd e xpec ted s e t t lemen tf r equenc ie s i nl i f e z one s i s3 . 5 , w i th 4 d eg rees o f f r eedom . T h is n e i the r c onf i rm s n o r d en ie s t h e p os s ib i l i ty o f c hance d i f f e rence s b e tween e xpec ted a nd o b se rved L .P .T . s i te f r equenc ie s i nl i f e z one s .

L .P .T .

C e ram ic a nd a r ch i te c tu ra le v idence a ts u r f a ce L .P .T .s i t e si nt h e L ima tambo r eg ion i nd ica te s o ccupa t ion ma in ly d u r ing p o s t Wanip reh i s to ry . T he c omb ina t ion o fL .P .T . s e t t lemen tp a t te rn d a ta t h e re fo re r e p re sen t sa na gg rega te o fa bou t3 00 t o5 00 y ea r s o fa c t iv i ty a nd d e c is ion mak ing .

I fe qua l r a nge so fa l t i tude a r ee xam ined ( Tab le 8 : 3 ) , t h e 3 000 3 400 r a nge c on ta in s mo s ts i te s . H oweve r , t h es um o f 1 3 1

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t tern s

TABLE 8 :2

L .P.T.

S ettlements and S ettled Areas

L ife Z ones a s

% o f L imatambo

Expected S ite

Z one A rea

Actual

D istribution

Area o f the F ield R egion Z one

i n L imatambo Area L ife Z ones.

Area

( sq.km .)

S ite Numbers/Site Area D istribution

Area

A rea

( ha )

( ha )

Area

WU

3 1.7

6 .9

1

0 .7

0

0

0

0

H F

2 35.8

5 1.7

8

5 .5

6

2 .9

3 7.5

2 7.4

D MF

1 13.0

2 4.8

4

2 .6

6

3 .2

3 7.5

3 0.2

D F

5 3.7

1 1.8

2

1 .3

2

2 .8

1 2.5

2 6.4

TW

2 2.0

4 .8

1

0 .5

2

1 .7

1 2.5

1 6.0

TOT.

4 56.2

1 00.0

1 6

1 0.6

1 6

1 0.6

1 00.0

1 00.0

TABLE 8 :3

L .P.T.

S ettlements and S ettled Areas

i n 4 00m A ltitude R anges.

Metres above s ea l evel 1 800-

2 200-

2 600-

3 000-

3 400-

2 200

2 600

3 000

3 400

3 800 TOTAL

S ites over 0 .4ha

1

3

1

2

1

8

2

0

2

2

2

8

3

3

3

4

3

1 6

1 8.75

1 8.75

1 8.75

2 5.00

1 8.75

1 00.0

( ha )

1 .855

4 .150

0 .550

2 .310

1 .736

1 0.60

( %)

1 7.5

3 9.1

5 .2

2 1.8

1 6.4

1 00.0

0 .62

1 .38

0 .19

0 .58

0 .58

( n )

S ites 0 .4ha o r l ess

( n )

A ll S ites ( n )

A ll S ites Area

Mean S ite Area

( ha)

s e t t lemen ta r ea s i ne a ch a l t i tude r ange s how sc oncen t ra t ion i n t wo r ange s . T he f i r s t i sa t a bou t 3 000 -3400 m , a c ro s s t h e DMF -HF e co tone . T he s econd f ocu s i si nt h e 2 200 -2600 m r a nge , o ve r t h e DF -D MF e co tone . Mo re l a rge s e t t lemen t s ( e xceed ing 0 . 4 h a ) o ccu r i nt h e se a l t i tude r a nge s t h an i na ny o the r . ( c ) The R e la t ive T opograph ic P lacemen t o f L .P .T . S ett lements . O f t h e 1 6 s e t t lemen t s , 1 3 a r e l o ca ted w ho l ly o r i n p a r t o n r i dge so rp eak s ( Tab le 4 : 1) . O n ly t h ree o ft h e se a r ec ons ide red r e ad i ly d e f en s ib le .T he se sa r es i te s AL28 , AL45 a nd AM2 .S i te AL28 p robab ly p reda t e sC u sco I n ca p o t te ry , AM2 w a sa f f ec ted b y I nca c ons t ruc t ion a nd w a s p robab ly a bandoned a s a s e t t lemen ti nt h eI n ca p e r iod a nd AL45 c on ta in s e v idence f o r L a te I n t e rmed ia t ea nd I n ca p e r iod o ccupa t ion . S ix o t he rr i dge o rp eak s e t t lemen t s w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een mo re d i ff icu l t t o d ef end , b ecau se t h ey a r e o n b road a nd r e la t ive ly l ow h i l l s ( AL4 , AL5 , AL37 a nd AL42 ) o r p l ace s w i th al e s s -s teep o rd e scend ing a pp roach ( AL43 a nd AL 19 ) . N one a ppea r st oh ave h ad much I n ca i n f luence . AL4 a nd AL5

w e re n o t C u sco I nca p o t te ry -us ing s e t t lemen ts . AL43 c on t inued i no ccupa t ion f r om t h eL a te I n te rmed ia t et ot h eI n ca p e r iod s . F ou r a r e l o ca ted o n r i dge s o r l ow p eaks w i th ad e scend ing a pp roach o r l ow p o s i t ion w i th r e spec t t o n ea rby t opog raphy . T h ree o f t h e se a ppea r t op reda te C u sco I nca p o t te ry ( AL29 , AL30 a nd AL38 ) . AL39 h ad r e ady a cce s st oi t ,a l though i n i t ia l o ccupa t ion p r eda t e st h eI n ca P e r iod . T h ree s i te sa r el o ca ted i np l ace sw h ich s how l i t t le c once rn w i th d ef ence . Two a r e o n v a l ley f l oo r l o ca t ions . O ne h a s s ome e v idence o fI nca P e r iod o ccupa t ion ( AL46 ) , t h e o t he r a mp le e v idence o fi t ,i nb o th p o t te ry a nd s ome a r ch i te c tu re ( AL4 1) . AL2 1 i so n av a l ley s ide f l a tw i th ad e scend ing a pp roa ch . T he mo s td ef en s ib le L .P .T . s e t t lemen t ( AL28 ) m ay h ave b e en a bandoned b efo re t h e I nca P e r iod . T he t wo s e t t lemen t s w i th mo s t e v idence f o r c on t inued o ccupa t ion i n to t h e I n ca p e r iod w e re n o t a ppa ren t ly d ef ens ib le o n t h e a pp roach f r om C u sco ( AL39 a nd AL4 1) .

1 32

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t terns

TABLE 8 :4

I nca S ites i n L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio:

S ite N o.

O ccupation

B urial

Areas

( ha)

i n Functional Categories.

Agriculture

AL1

0 .500

AL2

8 .685

AL3

0 .008

AL6

0 .250

AL7

0 .390

O ther

3 .300

AL8 0 .200

AL9

1 7.895

AL10 AL11

0 .600

3 .460

2 0.155

( 1)

( 2)

4 6.970

AL12 AL12-1

0 .002

AL12-1.1

0 .040

AL12-4

0 .010

AL12-5

0 .090

AL12-7

0 .188

( 3)

AL13

1 .150

AL14

7 .030

AL15

0 .015 0 .250

AL16 AL17

0 .060 0 .001

AL18 AL20

0 .200

AL22

0 .018

AL25

1 .000 0 .004

AL50

1 .540

AL51

1 -

0 .850

AL32 0 .020

AL35

0 .180

AL36 AL45

0 .160

( 4)

AL39

2 .680

( 5)

AL41

1 .425

( 6)

AM1

0 .180

( 7)

AM2

0 .045

( 9)

AM3

0 .018

( 10)

5 .820

0 .320

0 .119

( 8)

0 .613

( 11)

0 .300

AM4 AM5

3 .000

AM6

0 .250 2 .250

AC1 AC2

0 .225

1 .345

AC3

3 .905

AC4

0 .910

TOTAL

1 1.531

0 .015

1 22.147

0 .004

4 .959

TOTAL:1 38.641 h a

Notes:

( 1)

Area c ontained by AL11 W alls

Chiakimayo , ( 5) plus ( 9)

f oot r oad and modern r oad ;

S ector A only

( also i n ' , FT );

( 6)

t erraces o nly;

( 10)

AL12-7

( 2)

S ector B ( 0.12ha);

S tructural

a rea

( Sector D );

S ites :

Funct ion ,

L ife

Zones

( 4)

( 7)

( 8) ( 11)

I ,

A lso i n L PT area;

N iche T errace

( 0.06ha)

K ancha i n S ector C ; T erraces o f S ector C .

( a ) I nca S i te F unct ions .

Howeve r , s e t t lemen t s i nr e la t ive ly p oo r s i te s f o r d ef ence , b u t l o ca ted n ea r e xpan se s o fr e la t ive ly l e ve l g round , a l so a ppea r among s i te s w i th n o C u sco I nca p o t te ry ( AL29 , AL30 , AL4 a nd ALS ) . 8 .2 .2 I nca Topography

Area between AL11 Wall

t op p latform ;

S ector A ( also i n L PT );

s herd s catter o n upper 3 l evels o f Summit

I I a nd I II; ( 3)

F o r c ompa r ison , I nca s i te s a r e p laced i nf unc t iona l g roups o f s im i la rd ef in i t ion t ot h o se u sed f o rL .P .T . s i tes ( Tab le 8 : 4 ) . ( i ) O ccupa t ion s : I nca o ccupa t ions a r ed ef ined a ss i te s ,o rp a r t s o f s i te s , c on ta in ing C usco I nca o r p la in I nca p o t te ry a nd /o r b u i ld ing so fI nca r e c tangu la ra r ch i tec tu re .

a nd

T he s um o f I nca s i te a r ea s i s 1 38 .6 h a , w h ich amoun t s t o 0 . 18 % o f t h e s t udy r eg ion . C or re spond ing f i gu re s f o r t he L ima tambo A rea a nd C h inchaypuqu io A rea a r e 1 30 h aa nd 8 . 6 h a ,o r0 .29% a nd 0 . 03% o ft h e i rr e spec t ive s u r f ace a r ea s .

1 33

T he 2 1 s i te s o rc omponen t s i nt h is g roup c on ta in 8 . 3% o ft h e s um o f I nca s i te a reas . T h ir teen a re p r ima r i ly a r tefac t c oncen t ra t ions , b e tween 0 .002 a nd 3 h a ( AL9 , 1 2 -1 , 1 2 -1 .1 , 1 2 -4 , 1 2 -5 , 1 7 , 2 5 , 3 5 , 3 9 , 4 5 , AM2 , 5a nd 6 ) . F ive c on ta in r ec tangu la r b u i ld ing s ( AL20 , 2 2 , 4 1 , AM3 a nd AC2 ) , t wo i n

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L anduse P a t tern s

a s soc ia t ion w i th C usco I nca p o t tery . T hese p robab ly a l so e x is ted a t AM! ( Sec to rC ,N iche T e r race ) . C usco I nca p o t tery i sa ssoc ia ted w i th r e ta in ing w a l ls wh ich r o se a bove t he l e ve l led s urface a t AL 11 , AM 1( Se c to r B ) a nd AC2 . T he u pper p la tform a t AL12 -7 i s c o l lapsed b u t s u r round ing wa l ls a r e a s e l abo ra te a s t hose a t AL 11 a nd AC2 . D res sed a nd s e lec ted s t one wa s a l so u sed i n p a r t o f AL 14 . T hese e l abora te ma sonry z one s a re a th igh p laces o ve r look ing I nca t e r races , a l though t hey a re f ew a t AC2 . P o t te ry s ca t te r s a t AL9 , AL 12 -4 a nd AL12 -5 a re s im i la r ly l o ca ted . T he a s soc ia t ion o fe l abo ra te ma son ry a nd C usco I nca p o t te ry i s e v iden t a t 5s i te s o r c omponen t s ( AL12 -1 , 1 2 -1 .1 , 1 2 -7 , 1 a nd AC2 ) a nd p robab ly a t AL25 a nd AM5 whe re e l abora te b lock s a re n o t i n t he ir o r ig ina l f i t ted w a l ls . A p o t tery c oncen t ra t ion a t AL12-4 i s s ur rounded b y t e r race s b u t n o t b u i ld ings . I t s p rox im i ty t o al a rge r ock i sp a ra l le led b y t h e p la cemen to f RPS s t a irways o n t e r race s n ea rs uch r o ck s ( AL2 , AL 12 a nd Ad ) . T he se a re r ega rded a s s i te s o fr i tua l a t ten t ion r a the rt han o ccupa t ion . Wi thou t e xcava t ion i t i s a n a bs t rac t ion t o c ompa re t he o ccupa t ion o f L .P .T . b u i ld ing c lus te r s w i th t ha t o f t he f ew b u i ld ings i n L ima tambo I nca i n s ta l la t ions . B o th I nca a nd L .P .T . a rch i tec tu ra l s t y les o ccur a t AL41 a l though L .P .T . a r ch i tec ture p redom ina tes . S i tes AL20 a nd AL22 a r e s ma l l b u i l t c omp lexes u na ssoc ia ted w i th t e r raced l a nds a nd o n ly s ma l lt e r raced a rea sa ccompany AC2 a nd AM3 . ( i i ) B ur ia l : One b ur ia l a rea was f ound ( ALSO ) . Wa l led c hambe r s a t AC2 may h ave b een mummy -s to rage p l ace s b u t t h i sc anno tb ed emons t ra ted a ta ny o ft h e s i te s d i scus sed . C SP o ccu rn ea r b o th L .P .T . s i te s ( AL46 w i th r e spec t t o AL43 ) a nd I nca s i tes ( AL23 t o AL22 , a nd AL26 t o AL 1 ) b u t l a ck t h e p o t te ry c ommon i nI nca r ock -c rev ice b u r ia ls . ( i i ) Ag r icu l tu re : T er race r e ta in ing w a l ls o ccu r a t2 1 s i te s , i n g roup s c over ing b e tween 0 .008 a nd 4 7 h a . T he i r t o ta l a rea ( 122 .1 h a ) i s 8 8 .1 % o f t o ta l I nca s i te a rea . T hey f ea tu re c a refu l ly f i t ted h igh wa l ls , i n p a ra l le l , c on t inuous a nd s egmen ted wa l l l i nes . F ie ld s urface s a re more l e ve l t han i n L .P .T .t e r race s . Ag ene ra lp lan f o rc on s t ruc t ion w a s ma in ta ined o ve rl a rge a rea s a nd i na l ignmen t s o fl ong a nd ma ss ive w a l ls , d esp i te o bv ious a dd i t ions ( A M1 S ec tor A ) a nd c a se s o f i n comp le t ion ( AC I ) . F orma l ly s im i la r w a l l f e a tu re s o ccur i n

TABLE 8 :5 L ife Z ones

L ife a s

% of

Zone D istribution o f the

F ield

S tudy Region Z one

Zone Area

Inca

S ites:

many s cheme s a nd t h e se a r e a l igned i na l te rna t ing p a t te rns i n w a l ls s epa ra ted b y l e ve l led f i e ld s . A l l p rov ided c u l t ivab le s ur f ace s b u te l abo ra t ion o ft h es cheme s i sd i ff icu l tt or ega rd a s w ho l ly n e ce ssa ry f o r l a nd i mp rovemen t b y s t one r emova l , l e ve l l ing , s o i l r e c lama t ion a nd w a te r managemen t . F ou rs cheme s( AL3 , AL6 , AL I5 a nd AM3 )a r ev e ry s ma l l a nd d i s tan t f r om o the rI nca s i te sa nd a r e s ur rounded b y u n te r raced l a nd s o fs im i la r g rad ien t . T e r race s a s soc ia ted w i th a r tef ac t s a t AM2 a r ea l so u nusua l . S i te s AM2 a nd AM3 a r eo n u n ir r igab le a nd s t ony p eak s w i th s ha l low s o i ls . Mo s t r e ta in ing w a l ls w e re b u i l t o fs t one a va i lab le n ea rby , b u t t he ma te r ia l w a s o b ta ined w i th g rea te re f for tf o r mo s te l abo ra te C u sco I nca w a l ls ( AL 11 , 1 2 -2 , 1 2 -3 , 1 2 -6 , 1 2 -7 ) . ( i v ) O the r S i te s T ype s a nd F unc t ion s : Two s i te s e v idence t h e p rocu remen t a nd wo rk ing o f a nde s i te ( AL 16 a nd AL18) . E labo ra te c ons truc t ion a t AL 1-A d i s t ingu ishes t h e a rea b e tween Wa l l Ia nd t h e C h 'ak imayo c ana l iza t ion f r om o the rt e r race s o n t h e v a l ley f l oo r . As im i la r c a se e x is t s a t AMI Kanc h a . Wa l led o u tcrops , w a l ls s ur round ing T i lka P ampa a nd t h e s t a ired r ou teway a t AM3 , e vade i n c lus ion i n t h e p re l im ina ry f unc t ion g roups , a s d o c a rved r o ck sa nd p l a t fo rms o rb ounded p laza sa t AM4 a nd AC3 . T he se s i te s a nd c omponen ts r ep re sen t 3 .6% o f t h e t o ta l I n ca s i te a r ea . I nca a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t sc l ea r ly a s soc ia ted w i th s t o rage a r e a b sen t , a l though t h is w a s p robab ly af unc t ion o f mo s t t ambos . T h is i s sue a wa i t s s y s tema t ic e xcava t ions a ts i te s l i ke T a rawa s i a nd Ma rkawa s i . T he re a r e n os i te s w i th t he d i s t inc t ive s t o rage a r ch i tec tu re o fp rov inc ia l h igh land T awan t insuyu ( e g . L eV ine 1 992 ) . T he p rox im i ty o ft h e a r ea t oC usco ( two o rt h re e d ay s w a lk ) may h ave l e d t or e la t ive ly d i re c t t r anspo r t o f p roduce f r om m i t 'a l a bou rt ot h ec en t re . ( b) Env iron menta l A ssociat ion Occupa t ions a nd T errace s .

L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio. A ctual

D istribution

D istribution

Area

I nca

( i ) I n ca S i te s o fA l l T ype s : I nca s i te s a re u nde r rep resen ted i n h igh a l t i tude z one s (We t Up land a nd Hum id F o r e s t )i nt e rm so f b o th s i te f r equency a nd t o ta ls i te a r ea ( Tab le 8 : 5 ) .T he o ppo s i te o ccur s i nt h e D ry Mon tane F o re s t . T he D ry F o re s t i ss l igh t ly o ve r r ep r e sen ted i nf r equency a nd t o ta la r ea o fs i te s .

Expected S ite

( sq. km .)

o f

S ite Numbers/Site Area

Area

Area

( ha)

( ha)

Area

WU

1 09.97

1 4.2

5

1 9.7

1

0 .018

2 .7

HF

3 79.57

4 9.2

1 8

6 8.1

8

1 2.263

2 1.6

8 .85

DMF

1 62.33

2 1.0

8

2 9.1

1 9

1 05.295

5 1.4

7 5.95

0 .01

DF

9 9.10

1 2.8

5

1 7.7

7

1 9.390

1 8.9

1 3.99

TW

2 2.02

2 .9

1

4 .0

2

1 .675

5 .4

1 .21

TOT.

7 72.99

1 00.0

3 7

1 38.6

3 7

1 38.641

1 00.0

1 00.0

1 34

P re lü s tork S e t t lemen ta nd L anduse P a t tern s

T he T ho rny Wood land c on ta in s mo r e s i te s t h an e xpec ted b u t t h ey c ove rl e s st han t h ep red ic ted a r ea .T he C h i -Squa r ed v a lue f o r t h is s i te d i s tr ibu t ion i s2 5 .7 , w i th 4 d eg ree s o f f r eedom . T he d i sp ropor t iona te s e lec t ion o f DMF l o ca t ions i sh i gh ly s i gn if ican t .

r ep resen ted . T h is f o l low s t he t r end i n L .P .T . s e t t lemen t l oca t ion , a l though t he v a r ia t ion was n o t s t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if ican t . C h i -Squa red v a lues f o r I nca o ccupa t ions i n L ima tambo a nd t h e s t udy r e g ion ( Tab le s 8 :6 a nd 8 :7 ) a r e 1 a nd 1 0 .1 . T he re i sl e s s t h an a 5% p robab i l i ty t ha t t h is i s c hance v a r ia t ion f r om t h ee xpec ted s i te d i s t r ibu t ion .

( a ) I nca O ccupa t ion s : T he s ame g ene ra l t r end i sr e pea ted i n t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fo ccupa t ion s i nb o th t h e L ima tambo A rea ( Tab le 8 : 6 ) a nd s t udy r eg ion a s aw ho le ( Tab le 8 : 7 ) . T he n umbe r o f DMF s i te s i s mo re t h an e xpec ted , b u t t h e i r t o ta l a rea i ss l igh t ly l e s s . L owe r a l t i tude z one s a r e g rea t ly o ve r -

( i i )T e r race S cheme s : Mo s tI nca t e r race s cheme s , a nd 8 1% o f t h e i rt o ta l s u r f ace a r ea ,a r ei nt h e D MF z one . None o ccu ri nt h e h ighe s to rl owe s tz one s( Tab le 8 : 8 ) .T he C h i -Squa red v a lue f o r

TABLE 8 :6

L ife Z one D istribution o f I nca O ccupations:

L ife Z ones a s

% o f L imatambo

Area Zone

Z one Area

L imatambo Area.

Expected S ite

Actual

D istribution

D istribution

Area

( sq. km.)

S ite Numbers/Site Area

Area

Area

( ha )

( ha )

Area

WU

3 1.7

6 .9

1

0 .7

1

0 .018

6 .3

0 .18

HF

2 35.8

5 1.7

8

5 .3

2

0 .218

1 2.5

2 .14

DMF

1 13.0

2 4.8

4

2 .5

6

2 .235

3 7.5

2 1.94

DF

5 3.7

1 1.8

2

2 1.2

5

6 .040

3 1.3

5 9.30

TW

2 2.0

4 .8

1

0 .5

2

1 .675

1 2.5

1 6.44

TOT.

4 56.2

1 00

1 6

1 0.2

1 6

1 0.186

1 00

1 00.0

TABLE 8 :7

L ife Z one D istribution o f I nca O ccupations:

Life Z ones a s

% o f t he F ield

S tudy R egion Zone

Z one Area

L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio.

Expected S ite

Actual

D istribution

D istribution

Area

( sq. km.)

S ite Numbers/Site Area

A rea

A rea

( ha )

( ha )

Area

WU

1 09.97

1 4.2

2

1 .6

1

0 .018

5 .9

HF

3 79.57

4 9.2

8

5 .7

3

1 .563

1 7.6

0 .16 1 3.55

DMF

1 62.33

2 1.0

4

2 .4

6

2 .235

3 5.3

1 9.38

DF

9 9.10

1 2.8

2

1 .5

5

6 .040

2 9.4

5 2.38

TW

2 2.02

2 .9

1

0 .3

2

1 .675

1 1.8

1 4.53

TOT.

7 72.99

1 00

1 7

1 1.5

1 7

1 1.5

1 00

1 00.0

TABLE 8 :8

L ife Z one D istribution o f

I nca T erraces:

L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio.

L ife Z ones a s % o f t he F ield

Expected S ite

Actual

S tudy R egion

D istribution

D istribution

Zone

Z one Area

Area

( sq.km.)

S ite Numbers/Site Area

Area

Area

( ha )

( ha)

Area

WU

1 09.97

1 4.2

3

1 7.3

0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .00

HF

3 79.57

4 9.2

1 0

6 0.0

6

9 .8

2 8.6

8 .01

DMF

1 62.33

2 1.0

4

2 5.7

1 2

9 9.3

5 7.1

8 1.32

DF

9 9.10

1 2.8

3

1 5.6

3

1 3.0

1 4.3

1 0.67

TW

2 2.02

2 .9

1

3 .5

0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .00

TOT.

7 72.99

1 00

2 1

1 22.1

2 1

1 22.1

1 00

1 00.0

1 35

P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L anduse P a t te rn s

TABLE 8 :9

Measurements o f Terrace Retaining Walls:

L imatambo-Chinchaypuquio.

S ite

F ieldstone

Cusco I nca

P artly Dressed

No.

Wall

Wall

Wall

( m )

L ength

L ength

( m )

( m )

Terrace W idth C ategory

L ength Broad ( sq.m )

N arrow ( sq .m )

P ampaconga AL] .

4 00

AL2

3 163

5 000 8 6850

AL3

3 2

AL6

2 60

AL7

8 9

3 900

AL8

5 51

3 3000

8 0 ( 260)

2 500

L imatambo AL10

3 187

AL11

1 728

( 425)

2 42150

AL12

1 5543

( 184)

4 05500

AL13

2 97

AL14

1 914

AL15

1 6

ALS] .

2 04

1 5400

AL32

1 80

8 500

AL36

2 80

1 78950 6 7500

1 1500 ( 13)

5 9100

1 1200 1 50

Chonta 1 800

Mollepata AM] .

5 296

AM2

1 45

AM3-C

3 79

AM4

5 08

( 131)

( 91)

6 320 4 50 1 190 3 000

Chinchay puquio AC] .

1 614

A C2

5 70

( 315)

1 9400

3 100

1 3400

2 300

AC3

6 61

3 9200

AC4

1 245

4 500

4 600

TOTAL

3 8262

1 124350

1 06190

( 1055)

( 364)

t h e se d a ta i s2 1 .6 ,w i th 4d eg ree so ff r eedom , w h ich i n d ica te sa 9 9 .9% p robab i l i ty t ha t t h e d if e rence b e tween o b se rved a nd e xp ec ted t e r race d i s t r ibu t ion i sn o tt h e r e su l to fc hance . T he re w a s t hus a v e ry s t rong empha s is u pon t he DMF i n t h e s e lec t ion o fs i te sf o rI nca t e r race a g r icu l tu re . ( c ) R e la t ive T opography o f I nca S i te s . ( i ) O ccupa t ion s : O ft wen ty o ne o ccup ied s i te s o rc omponen t s , f ou r a re l o ca ted o n s umm i t s . Two a ppea r t o b e e a s i ly d ef en s ib le a nd o ve r look a n e x ten s ive a rea ( AM2 a nd AM3 ) . AL45 s t and s b e low a n a d jacen t r i dge , b u t p rov ide s e xce l len t v i ew so ft h eA pu r ima cg o rge u p s t ream a nd d own s t ream . AL39 a l so h a s ad e scend ing a pp roach . Two s i te sa r eo nr i dge s( AL22 a nd AC2 ) .T he f o rme ri si nt h eh o l low o f ab road r i dge a nd t h e l a t te rh a s ad e scend ing a pp roa ch . S even s i te s ( AL9 , AL 17 , AL25 , AL35 , AMI , AM5 a nd AM6 ) , a nd t wo c omponen t so f AL 12 ( 4a nd 5 ) , a r eo n v a l ley s i de f l a t s . AM6 l i e s o n an a r row l e dge a t ar i ve r -na r row ing b e s ide t h e r u in so fa n h i s to r ica l s u spens ion b r idge a nd i tmay h ave b e en t h el o ca t ion o f ap rev ious b r idge .T he o the r sa r ea l l b e s ide c u l t iva ted l a nd so f mode ra te d ec l iv i ty . Two s i te s ( AL 11 a nd ALAI) a nd t h ree c omponen t s o f AL 12 ( 12 -1 , 1 2 -1 .1 a nd 1 2 -7 ) , a r e l o ca ted o n t h e v a l ley f l oo ro r i t s m a rg in . A l l a r e a d jacen t t oe x ten s ive l a nd so fg en t le g rad ien t b e s ide t h eC o lo rado o rA pu r ima cr i ve r s .

( i i ) T e r race s : E leven o f 2 1 t e r raced s i te s a r e l o ca ted o n a l luv ia l -co l luv ia l v a l ley f l oo r s ( AL 1 , 2 ,7 ,8 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 3 6 a nd 5 1) . T hey c ove r 1 07 .8 h a , o r 8 8 .3% o f t e r raced l a nd s . S ix i n co rpo r a te r i ve r o r s t ream c on t ro l w a l ls . S even s cheme s ( AL 15 , 3 2 , AM! , AC 1 , 2 , 3a nd 4 )a r eo n v a l ley s ide f l a t so rt h e i r mode ra te ly s l op ing m a rg in s . T hey c ove r 1 4h ao r 1 .4% o ft e r r aced l a nd s .T he se f e a tu re sp rov ide t h e mo s tl e ve l l a nd i n n a r row v a l ley s ec t ions a nd r av ine s , s uch a s t h o se s u r round ing ACS a nd AC4 o fC h inchaypuqu io . T h ree s ma l l s i te s ,c ove r ing 0 .03% o ft e r ra ced a r ea ,a r el o ca ted o n mode ra t e t os t eep s l ope s ( AL3 , AL6 a nd AM3 ) . O n ly AL6 i sp re sen t ly c u l t iva ted . I nca t e r race s a r e t h e r efo re o ve rwhe lm ing ly c oncen t ra ted o n v a l ley f l oo r s o r f l a t s o f r e la t ive ly mode ra te d ec l iv i ty a nd a t mode ra te a l t i tude i nt h e DMF Z one . ( d ) L abour I nve s tmen t i n I nca T errace s . F ie ld d a ta p e rm i t a n o rde r o fm agn i tude t ob e c a lcu la ted f o r l a bou r i nve s tmen t i nI nca t e r ra ce c ons t ruc t ion i n t h e s t udy r eg ion . I tc anno t b e a s sumed t h a t l o ca l w o rk forces w e re e mp loyed ,a st h e r ea r ea bundan th i s to r ica ld a ta o nl a bou rt a ken t ot h e Cu sco a r ea f r om e l sewhe re i nT awan t in suyu .T he l a bou r f o rce s i ze i s ,h oweve r ,g ene ra l ly r e levan ti n sof a ra si tmay h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h e s e t t lemen tr e co rd o ft h e a r ea a nd may h ave d rawn u pon i t s f ood s upp ly o r l a nd s . T he t a sk s i n vo lved i n

1 36

P r eh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L anduse P a t te rn s

c ons t ruc t ion a r ei n f e r red f r om f i e ld o b se r va t ion so fp r eh is to r ic t e r race s ,and o fc on tempo ra ry t e r ra ce b u i ld ing .

Wa l l I Ia nd l a rge rb l ock s i n Wa l ls Ia nd I a r ep robab ly i nt h e r ange o f4 50 t o 1 300 k ge ach . L e s s t h an aq ua r te rw ou ld b ea s l i gh t a s 2 5 k g . Movemen t o f at on o n mode ra te ly s l op ing g round r e qu i re sc oo rd ina t ion o f mo re w o rke r s ,p e rhap s 8t o1 0 a t at ime ( A tk in son 1 961 :297 ) .

( i )D igg ing T e r race Wa l lL ine s : E roded t e r ra ce p rof i le si n d ica te t ha t a n a r ea b eh ind t e r race w a l ls w a s b ackf i l led a nd t ha t e xcava ted r ubb le w a ss o r ted a nd p l a ced i nl e n se s .T h i s i sd one i np re sen t t e r race c on s t ruc t ion o n s t ony s l ope s i nL ima tambo ( P la te 7 8 ) . I nca t e r race w a l l l i ne s a r e s t ra igh t o r v e ry e ven ly c urved ,a r ec on t inuou s ,c on ta in m uch f i l la nd w e re d e s igned t o ma in ta in a p lan . T h is i se v iden t i n t h e c oncen t r ic c i r cu la r t e r race s i nk a r s t d o l ine s a t Mo ray i nU rubamba w he r e s ome wa l ls w e re b u i l t a ga ins t r ock a nd i nt h e m apped L ima tambo t e r race s . T he v o lume d ug t oe s tab l ish w a l ll i ne s i se s t ima ted a st h a to fa r i gh t t r iangu la rp r i sm wh ich e x tend sb eh ind t h et e r ra ce w a l l f o r ad i s tance e qu iva len t t o w a l l h e igh t . Mea su remen t s f r em 1 : 1000 s i te p lans a nd f i e ld e s t ima te s s how t h a t a3 8 ,262 m l eng th o fI nca t e r r ace w a l l ing r ema ins i nt h e r e g ion ( Tab le 8 :9 ) . Wa l l h e igh tm ea su remen t st h roughou tt h e se ( Append ix I : T ab le s 2a nd 5 ) i n d ica te t h a t a n a ve rage f i gu re o f2 . 5 m i s r ea sonab ly r ep re sen ta t ive . T he c ro ss -sec t iona l a r ea o f t h e a ve rage t r iang le i s3 . 1 s q .m a nd t h e v o lume b eh ind t h e t o ta l w a l l l e ng th i st h e re fo re 19 ,569 c u .m o fs t ony s o i l . E ra smu s ( 1985 :285 ) f ound t h a t 2 . 6 c u .m o f s o i l c ou ld b e e xcava ted w i th ad i gg ing s t ick a nd p u t i n to c an s i n a5h ou r man -day , wh ich i st h el e ng th o fw orker -day s( w /d )u sed i nt h i s a na ly s i s . H is f i gu re i sa ccep tab le a sa n e s t ima te f o rw o rk w i th t he A ndean c hak i tak l la , b u t r ubb le w a s t h rown a nd s o i l man ipu la ted w i th in a s ma l l a r ea r a the r t h an p l aced i nc an s . T h i s w o rk t hu sc on sumed 4 5 ,988 w /d . ( i) Ob ta in ing Wa l l S tone : Mo s t I n ca t e r race w a l l s w e re o f f i e ld s tone . P e rhap s h a lf o f t h i s w a s o b ta ined i ne xcava t ion a l ong w a l l l i ne s .I n ca t e r ra ce s u r f ace sc on ta in l i t t le o rn o l a rge s t one . I ti sr ea sonab le t o a s sume o t he r s t one c ame f r om t h e d igg ing a nd l e ve l l ing o f t e r race s u r f ace s a nd i ns u rround ing l a nd sa ta na ve rage d i s tance o f5 0m . S ing le -s tone f a cade t h ickne s s i s am in imum o f 0 . 3 m a nd a bou t 7 0% i ss o l id r ock a nd 3 0% r ubb le a nd s o i l . O rd ina ry w a l ls a re 3 7 ,207 m l ong , 2 . 5 m h igh a nd 0 . 3 m t h ick , o r 2 7 ,905 c u .m i n t o ta l v o lume . R ock i s 1 9 ,534 c u .m o f t h is . U s ing t he s pec if ic g rav i ty o f a nde s i te ( 2650 k g /cu .m ) ( Pozo r sk i 1 980 :103 ) , t h e r o ck w e ighed a bou t 5 1 ,764 ,239 k g . T oc a r ry h a lf ( 2 5 ,882 ,119 k g )o ft h i sf o r5 0 mw ou ld r e qu i re a m an -day f o re ach 3 . 5t o nne s( E ra smu s 1 965 -F ig .2 )o r at o ta lo f 7 , 395 w /d . ( i i ) Mov ing S pec ia l S tone : C u sco I n ca s t y le a nde s i t ef a cade s a t AL 11 a nd AL 12 a r e 6 09 m l o ng a nd a ve rage a bou t 2 . 5 m h igh . T hey c an b e a s sumed t ob e s o l id s t one f o r am in ima l t h icknes s o f 0 .4 m , g iv ing a v o lume o f 6 09 c u .m . T he a ndes i te s t one ma ss i s 1 , 613 ,850 k g . T h is h ad t o b e t r anspor ted a bou t 4 00 m f r om Mamako moun ta in o n t h e o ppos i te s i de o f t h e C o lo rado R ive r . R aw b lock s w e re p robab ly l a rge rt h an t h o se i nt h ef a cade s i nce a nde s i te c h ip si n f i l l a t AL12 1 a nd AL12 -7 i n d ica te t h a t s ome s hap ing w a s d one o ns i te . E ra smus f ound t h a t5 20 k go fs t one c ou ld b ec a r r ied e a ch man d ay o ve rt h a td i s tance , c a lcu la ted f o r ac on s tan th a l f t ime l o ad o f2 5 k g ( 1965 :287 , F ig .2 ) . Movemen t o fa nde s i te t h u s a dd s 3 , 104 w /d . T h i s i sv e ry c on se rva t ive , g iven t h e L ima tambo t e r ra in a nd s i ze o fa nde s i te b lo ck s u sed . N iche l i n te l sa tA I . 11 1 37

( i v ) F ie ld L eve l l ing a nd T op so i l Movemen t : N a r row t e r race s o n s t eep s l ope s u sua l ly c on ta in ah igh p ropo r t ion o f r ubb le f i l l . B road t e r race so nt h e v a l ley f l oo rc on ta in f i l l n ea rt h ew a l l b u t n o t t h roughou t . T op so i l w i thou t l a rge s t one s i sa bou t 0 . 3 t o0 . 8 md eep ,a nd 0 . 4 wou ld b e ar e a sonab le a ve rage . U n f i l led t e r race s a t AC 1 i nd ica te t ha t f i l l w a s b rough t i n , a sd o r ubb le p i le s b es ide a s ma l l t e r raced s ec to r a t Mo ray . A h ighe r p ropo r t ion o fc app ing s o i l w a s p robab ly o b ta ined f o r n a r row t e r ra ce so ns t eep a nd s t ony s l ope st h an f o rv a l ley f l oo ro ne s . I ti sa s sumed t h a t h a lf o ft h et o p so i l o fn ar row t e r race s ( l e s s t h an 1 0mw ide ,p e rpend icu la rt ot h ew a l ll i ne )w a s moved ,a nd 1 0% o ft h a to fb road t e r ra ce s ,o ve ra na ve rage d i s tance o f2 5m . A 4c m d ep th o ve r b road t e r race s c ove r ing 1 , 124 ,350 s q . m ( Tab le 8 :9 ) i s 4 4 ,974 c u . m , o r 6 0 ,715 t onnes ( a t 1 350 k g / cu .m ) . A2 0c md ep th o n n a r row t e r race sc ove r ing 1 06 ,190 s q .m ( Tab le 8 : 9 ) i s2 1 ,238 c u .m , o r2 8 ,67 1 t o nne s o ft op so i l . T o d ig t h e t o ta l o f6 6 ,212 c u .m o fs o i l a t2 .6 c u .m p e r man d ay ( E ra smus 1 965 :285 ) w ou ld r e qu ir e 2 5 ,466 w /d . B a ske t s may h ave b een u sed t oc a r ry s o i l . T he i rm anuf ac tu re i sn ow a v i l lage i ndus t ry a tH uanca H uanca , o n s l ope s o ft h e A pur imac V a l ley b e tween L ima tambo a nd P a ru ro . Mov ing 8 9 ,386 t o nne s o fs o i l 2 5 m c ou ld b e d one a tt h e r a te o f 5t o nne s e ach w /d , g iv ing 1 7 ,877 w /d . T h is w ou ld i n c rea se e xponen t ia l ly w i th i n c rea ses i n a ve rage d i s tance o f movemen t . Ac onse rva t ive e s t ima te f o rd igg ing a nd s o i lc a r r iage d u r ing t e r race l e ve l l ing i s 4 3 ,343 w /d . ( v ) R a i s ing Wa l ls : T he v o lume o fo rd ina ry I nca t e r race w a l ls i s2 7 ,905 c u .m , a s sum ing s i ng le -s tone c ons t ruc t ion , f a cade t h ickne sse s o f0 . 3 m , al e ng th o f3 7 ,207 m a nd a ve rage h e igh t o f2 . 5 m . E ra smu se s t ima ted t h a tw a l l r a i s ing u sed f r om 2t o8 man -days p e rc u .m ( 1965 :291-292 ) . F ou rw /d i sr e a sonab le f o r o rd ina ry I nca d ry s tone w a l ls ,g i v ing at o ta lo f 11 ,621 w /d . E xpe r imen ta l wo rk o n C usco I nca ma son ry s uppor t s t h e h ypo thes is t ha t t i gh t f i t t ing w as a ch ieved b y r epea ted p lacemen t a nd r emova l o f s t ones d u r ing h amme r -d re ss ing ( P ro tzen 1 985 :177 -180 ) . F ou r t ime s a s l ong , o r 1 6 w /d p e r c u .m , w ou ld s eem a pp rop r ia te f o r s uch w o rk , p end ing f u r the r r ep l ica t ive e xpe r imen t s . Af u r the r4 46 m l e ng th o fC u sco I n ca w a l ls a t AM! a nd AC2 , o r 34 .5 c u .m o f w a l l ( 2 .5 m h igh a nd 0 . 3 m t h ick ) c an b e a dded t ot h e 6 09 c u .m a t AL I a nd AL 12 . T he 9 43 .5 c u .m o f e l abo ra te w a l l r ep re sen t s 1 5 ,096 w /d ,g iv ing at o ta l o f 1 26 ,7 17 w /d f o rw a l l r a i s ing . ( v i ) S hap ing a nd D re ss ing : I n t h e e xpe r imen t s o f P ro tzen ( 1985 :174 ,179 ) s t one h amme r s w e re u sed t os qua re a nd d re s s a u a nde s i te b lock ( mea su r ing 2 5 b y 2 5 b y 3 0 cm ) o n t h ree s i de s , i n 9 0 m inu te s . A f u r the r 9 0 m inu te s w e re u sed t o h amme r -d re ss at i gh t b edd ing j o in t i n to a no the r b lock . I ft h e d re s s ing o fl a te ra la nd b edd ing j o in t so fe ach s t one , t og i ve t h e s emb lance o f at i gh t f i t , t ook a sl o ng a sf a cade d re ss ing , a2 5 b y 2 5 cm f a cade c an b e t a ken t or e p re sen t4 50 m inu te s w o rk . W i thou ta d ju s tmen t sf o rd if e r ence si nd re s s ing l a rge rb l ock s , 1 s q .m o ff a cade r ep re sen t sa bou t 1 20 h ou r so r2 4f i ve -hou rw /d . E ra smu se s t ima ted 3 0e i gh t -hou rm an -days f o rd re s s ing 1s q . m o ff a cade a tU xma li nY uca tan ( 1 965 :293 ) .

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t terns

A c onserva t ive e s t ima te f o r d ress ing a 1 055 m l e ng th o f e l abo ra te w a l l , 2 . 5 m h igh ( 2637 .5 s q .m ) , i s6 3 ,300 wo rke r d ays . A f u r the r 3 64 me t res o f w a l l , e xc lud ing d re ssed s t one c orne r s b eyond t e r race s , i sp a r t ly d re ssed . T h is i sa bou t 9 10 s q .m o ff a cade a nd p robab ly r e qu ired a bou t 1 2w /d p e rs q .m ,o r a n a dd i t iona l 1 0 ,920 w /d . T hu s , 7 4 ,220 w /d a r e a t t r ibu ted t o h amme r -d re s s ing .

p l u s s uperv iso r s m igh th ave c a r r ied o u t t h ep ro jec t s i na bou t7 y ea r s , o r 1 00 i n1 4y ea r s . I t i s a l so p oss ib le t ha t w ho le f am i l ie s c on t r ibu ted t o c ons truc t ion t h rough a s soc ia ted t a sk s s uch a sf ood s upp ly a nd p r epa ra t ion . T he f i gu re i sc onserva t ive a nd o n ly i nd ica t ive o f a n o rde ro fm agn i tude f o rl a bour i nve s tmen ti nI n ca t e r race so f t h e r eg ion . O ve ra l l , t h e f i gu re s s ugges t t h a t v e ry l a rge l a bou r e ncampmen t s may n o t h ave b een n ecessa ry , e ven i ft e r ra c ing w a s c oncen tra ted i nr e la t ive ly s ho r tp er iod s . T he b u rden c ou ld h ave b een s p read o ve rs oc ia l u n i t so ft h es i ze sl o ca l ly r e co rded i n t h e T o ledan v i s i ta b u t l a bour c ou ld h ave c ome f r om e l sewhe re . No l a rge t own o fI nca a r ch i tec tu re a ppea r s t oh ave e x is ted f o rt h e i ro ccupa t ion , e ven n ea r t h e g r ea tc oncen t ra t ion o ft e r rac ing a round L ima tambo . Howeve r , v a l ley s ide p o t te ry c oncen t ra t ions , w i thou t much e v idence o f s t ruc ture s , m ay r e p re sen t s e t t lemen t s o ft r ans ien t w o rkfo rce s ( AL 17 , AL9 a nd AL 12 -5 ) .

( v i i ) S pec ia l Wa l l F ea tures : C a refu l f i t t ing o f s t one a t 6 2 WS , 3 1 WD a nd 1 9 s ma l l n i che s i n t e r race w a l ls may h ave a dded 1w o rke r d ay i ne ach c a se , o r at o ta l o f 12 w /d . T he a l ignmen to fc orne r sa nd c ons t ruc t ion o fs i de w a l ls f o r2 8 l a rge n i che s a nd 7 4 RPS , a s w e l l a s b edd ing o fs t ep s i nt h e l a t te r , m ay h ave a dded 5d ays a n i n s tance t oc on s t ruc t ion ,o r at o ta l o f 5 10 w /d . ( v i i i ) S umma ry o f T e r race C ons t ruc t ion L abou r I nves tmen t : T he c ons t ruc t ion o f t e r races a l ong e x tan t I n ca w a l ls i n t h e s t udy r eg ion may h ave r e qu ired t h e f o l low ing t a sk sa nd l a bou r i n vestmen t : d igg ing a l ong w a l l l i nes ( 45 ,988 w /d ) , o b ta in ing f u r the r w a l l s t one ( 7 ,395 w /d ) , mov ing s pec ia l s t one ( 3 ,104 w /d ) , t e r race l e ve l l ing ( 43 ,343 w /d ) , r a is ing w a l ls ( 126 ,717 w /d ) ,s hap ing a nd d re ss ing ( 74 ,220 w /d )a nd a dd i t ion o fs pec ia l w a l l f e a tures ( 622 w /d ) . T he t o ta l i s 3 0 1,389 w /d o r 8 26 w o rke ry ea r s .

8 .3 SETTLE MENT TOPOGRAPHY D ISORDERLY W ORLD?

Relative Topography of

Topography Abrupt

Ridge/Peak

1

L . P. T.

and

I fh i l l top a nd r i dge l o ca t ions w e re c hosen f o r s e cu r i ty , t h en i t w a s amo re i mpor tan t f a c to r i nL .P .T . s i tes w i thou t e v idence o f ac oncen t ra ted I nca p e r iod o ccupa t ion . T he o n ly p robab le p r eh is tor ic w eapons s een d ur ing s u rvey w e re r i ng -shaped c l ub h eads o fd ense s t one ( c f . Mo r r is a nd T homp son 1 985 :F ig .8 ) . A cco rd ing t oF ornee ( 1965 :25 [ 1 586 ] ) , macana s ( c lub s ) w e re a mong a rms u sed b y L ima tambo w a r r ior s . O ne h ad b een f ound b y ap loughman 2km s ou thea s t o f AL 11 a nd t h eo t he r l i e s o n t h es u rf ace a t AL39 S ec to rA .

Inca

S ites

in the L imatambo Area.

LPT

LPT/Inca

Inca

S ite(s)

Site(s)

S ite(s)

AL28

2

AM2

1

AM3

1

AL22

P eriod

& AL45 H ill

( broad descending

5

approach ) R idge

3 7

( with descending

3

approach ) Valley-side

AL4,5,19,

2

AL39

& 4 2

AL29,

3 0

& 4 3

0

0

0

1 0

& 3 8 Bench

1

AL21

AL9,

1 2-1,

1 2-5, 2 5,

1 7,

3 5,

2 0,

AM1,

5 & 6 Valley F loor

2

AL41

4

& 4 6 TOTAL

1 0

THE

Mos t L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s a r e o n r e la t ive ly h i gh t opog raph ic f e a ture s a nd mos t I nca o ccupa t ions o n v a l ley -s ide b enche s o r t h e v a l ley f l oo r . N one i ne i the rg roup a r e i nf o r t if ied p os i t ions , u n le ss t e r ra ce p la t forms s e rved t h is - f unc t ion . A l l v a l ley -f loo r L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s w e re o ccup ied i n t he I nca p e r iod ( Tab le 8 : 10 ) .

D es truc t ion o ft e r race w a l ls c ou ld b ei nt h eo rde ro f2 0% ,a nd i t i su n l ike ly t h a t w a l l b u i lde r s w e re e xc luded f r om p a r t ic ipa t ion i nc e remon ie sd ur ing t h ey ea r . Modern e nv i ronmen ta l a nd l a nd u se d a ta s ugge s t t h a t many t a sks wou ld a l so h ave b enef i t ted f r om s easona l s chedu l ing , e g . b urn ing a nd c l ea rance o f v ege ta t ion , o r c ross ing r i ve r s w i th s t one i n t h e d ry s ea son . R a in w ou ld h ave s of tened t h e g round f o r d igg ing b u t a l so i n c rea sed w e igh t f o r s o i l c a r r iage . S ince t h e w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u ta t many d i f f e ren t s i te s , l a rge rg roup s i nl a bou r f o rce s may h ave b een n eeded t oc a r r yo u tj ob sr e qu ir ing many p eop le a tt h e o ne t ime , a s w e l l a s f u r the r s upe rv iso r s o r p lanner s i f wo rk w a s s imu l taneou s w i th t h a to ft h e many o the rI n ca p ro jec t s . I f aw o rk ing y ea rw a s2 70 d ays a nd 2 0% d e s truc t ion i sp re sumed , t h e f i gu re o b ta ined i s1 340 w orke r -yea r s . T hus , 2 00 wo rke r s

TABLE 8 :10

AND

6

1 38

AL11,

1 2-1,

1 2-1.1, 1 6

1 2-7

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t terns

D efens ive a spec ts o f t he h igh s i tes a r e o n ly t h e n a tu ra l t opog raphy a nd t e r race wa l ls . None h ave t h er i ng -d i tch d ef ence s k nown i n l a te p reh is tor ic f or t if ica t ions o n t h e E cuado r ian f r on t ie r o f T awan t insuyu a t t h e t ime o f c onque s t . T he h igh l oca t ions a re a l so w e l l-dra ined , u n l ike ly t o b e a f f ec ted b y l a nd s l ide d epo s i t ion a nd o ve r look f i e ld sa nd t h e movemen t so f l i ves tock . E x is t ing v i l lages a re s im i la r ly p o s i t ioned a nd d ef ence c anno t b e r ega rded a s t h e o n ly c ons ide ra t ion i nt h is c ho ice o fs i te p lacemen t .

L ima tambo p opu la t ion . T he L ima tambo f i gure o f 2 511 p e r sons i n 1 572 i nd ica te s ap opu la t ion o fa bou t 8 337 i n 1 520 . T he r ough ly c o r respond ing d is t r ic ts o f Mo l lepa ta a nd L ima tambo n ow h ave 1 ,094 r e s iden ts ( I .N .E . 1 981 :1 :55 ) . ( b )R oof ed -Space R equ iremen t so fL a te P reh is to r ic P opu la t ion :

Mos t L .P .T . s e t t lemen ts a nd I nca o ccupa t ions l i e n ea r r e la t ive ly l a rge t r ac t s o fc u l t ivab le ( mode ra te ly s l op ing ) l a nd . I nca o ccupa t ions u sua l ly h ave mo re r e s t r ic ted v i ews t han t h e f orme r b u t mos t a re o n t e r raced l a nd s , o r o n a d jacen t f l a t s o ve r look ing t hem . On ly f i ve s uch s i te s a r e f u r the rt han 2 k m f r om l a rge I nca t e r race s cheme s . AM6 w a s o n t h e ma in I n ca r oad . AL20 a nd AL22 a r ew e l la bove t h ef l oo ro ft h ev a l ley a nd may h ave r egu la ted i n te r -va l ley movemen t a nd ma in ta ined a s t a te p re sence i nh igh a l t i tude p roduc t ion z one s . E v idence f o r p ermanen t o ccupa t ion a t AM2 a nd AM3 i su nce r ta in . B o th c on ta in s ma l l t e rrace f l igh ts a nd p rov ide o n ly s ma l l dwe l l ing a rea s . T he a r ch i tec tu ra l c omp lex i ty o f AM3 , o nT i lka s umm i t , a s w e l l a s t he e thnoh is tor ic r o le o f T i lca s o c ia l u n i t , r e s iden t t he re i n1 543 ,e ncourage f ur the ra pp ra isa lo fs i te f unc t ion . 8 .4 I NTERACTION OF LOCAL AND I NCA SETTLE MENTS AND PRODUCTION SYSTE MS L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s , whe the r l o ca l o r m i tmag , r ep resen t a d i f f e ren t l e ve l o f s oc io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion t o t h a t o fs t a te i n s ta l la t ions i n e thnoh is tor ic s ou rces . T he l a te p reconque s t p opu la t ion a nd l a ndscape d i s t r ibu t ion o fe ach l e ve l p rov ide s a me thod f o r a ssessmen t o f I nca p re sence i n t h e L ima tambo A r ea . 8 .4 .1

L ate

P reh istor ic

P opu lat ion

E st ima t ion

( a )H is to r ica lI nforma t ion :

H ow much s he l te r wou ld as e t t led p opu la t ion o f 8 337 p eop le r e qu ire? A m in imum i sp robab ly t ha t n eeded t o s l eep a nd p repa re f ood , p e rhap s 2s q .m p e r p e r son . T h is w ou ld mean a r e qu iremen t o f 1 . 67 h a f or t he h is tor ica l ly-der ived 1 520 p opu la t ion . R oofed s pace p e rp e r son i n av i l lage o f2 9 p eop le i nP auca r tambo , C usco , w a s f ound b y L yon t o b e 9 .4 s q .m ( c i ted i nC ook 1 981 :32 ) . T h is wou ld l e ad t oa n e xpec ted 7 . 84 h a o f r oofed s pace f o r L ima tambo i n 1 520 . T he s amp le f o r c ompa r ison w a s i n crea sed b y i n forma t ion o b ta ined w i th t he a s s is tance o f r e s iden t s a tC hoquema rka v i l lage , L i ma tambo , d ur ing 1 986 . A map w a s made o f t he 6 6 b u i ld ings i n C hoquema rka s e t t lemen t ( F ig . 8 : 1) . T he se h ave a mean r oofed s pace o f2 8 s q .m . , o r 2 7 .3 s q .m e xc lud ing a s choo l b u i l t b y t he c ommun i ty ( 72 s q .m ) . A cco rd ing t oa n i n fo rman t , 1 0o ft h em , i n c lud ing t h e t wo s ma l les t , w e re o n ly u sed f o r s t o rage ( mean r oofed s pace o f2 1 .3 s q .m ) .E igh t w e re u sed a sc ook ing a r ea so r f o r b o th c ook ing a nd s t o rage , b u t n o t s l eep ing ( mean 2 8 .8 s q .m a nd s t anda rd d ev ia t ion o f9 . 8 ) .F ive w e re a bandoned ( mean 2 0 .3 s q .m a nd SD 2 . 7 ) . T he o the r 4 2 w e re a l l d we l l ings u sed f o r s l eep ing a nd u sua l ly c ook ing a nd s t o rage a s w e l l ( mean 2 9 .3 s q .m a nd SD 7 . 2 ) . I n 1 981 , C hoquema rka s e t t lemen t h ad ac ensu s p opu la t ion o f 1 80 p e r sons a nd 4 2 o ccup ied dwe l l ings ( I .N .E . 1 98 1 :1 1 :732 ) . On t he 1 981 f i gure s , o ccup ied dwe l l ings p rov ided 6 . 8 s q .m p e r p er son . I ft he v i l lage w e re t r ea ted a s a s i te o f6 5 s im i la r s t ruc tu res ( exc lud ing t h e s choo l ) , t h en 1 80 p e r son s u sed 6 5 s t r uc tu re s w i th ar oofed s pace o f 1 776 .6 s q .m , o r9 . 9 s q .m p e rp e r son . T he C hoquema rka e t hnography i so n ly av ery g ene ra l g u ide f o r a r chaeo log ica l mode ls , b u t p rov ides a g l impse o f t he c omp lex i ty o f a mode rn v i l lage . Choquema rka s t ruc tu re s a re s ma l le ro n a ve rage t han t h e p reh is tor ic s t ruc tu re s a t AL39 , b u t a r e much l a rge r t han t ho se a t t he n ea rby s i te AL28 ( Tab le 8 : 11) . T hey s ugge s t ap reconque s t p opu la t ion r equ iremen t o f 8 . 3h ao fr oofed s pa ce .

T he s t udy o f t opony m ic s urv iva ls i nd ica ted t ha t t h e L ima tambo Va l ley w a s o ccup ied i n 1 572 b y 7r epar t im ien tos wh ich w e re r e se t t led i nP ampaconga ,P a ta l lac ta , Mo l lepa ta a nd C hon ta v i l lage s , a sw e l l a sC a l la racay r epar t im ien to w h ich w a s p laced i n P iv i l . T he ir c omb ined p opu la t ion w a s 2 499 i n T o ledo 's v i s i ta . T h is i sa d ju s ted t o2 511 b ecau se o fd i sce rn ib le e r ro r s i n t he r e co rd . T he c a tegor ie s f o r d i f fe ren t c l a s se s o f p opu la t ion w e re u nde r -coun ted f o rP ampaconga ( 2p e r sons )a nd C huyan i ( 10 p er sons ) . S a l laupa rco w as l i s ted w i th a h i ghe r p opu la t ion t han t he s u m-of -ca tegor ies , b u t t h is i sp robab ly c or rec t . I t c an b e t r aced , b y c ompa r ison w i th o the r c a tego ry / to ta l p opu la t ion r a t io s , t ot h e e xceed ing ly l ow f i gu re f o rt h e b oys c a tegory ( p robab ly 16 r a the r t h an t h e 1 6 s t a ted ) ( To ledo 1 975 :157 -210 ) .

( c )R oofed S pace i nt h eA rchaeo log ica l S amp le : T he t o ta l r oofed s pace o f L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s i se s t ima ted a s 7 918 s q .m , a nd c e ram ic e v idence i nd ica te s t h a t s i x L .P .T . s i te s , w i th 4 817 s q .m o f r oofed s pace , w e re o ccup ied i n t he I n ca p er iod ( Tab le 8 : 11) .

Ar e v iew o fp opu la t ion e s t ima tes f o r l a te p reh is tor ic P er u h a s b een p roduced b y Cook ( 1981 , 1 982 ) . A ssum ing t ha t p opu la t ion c hange b e tween 1 520 a nd 1 570 m i r ro red t h a tf ound i n1 5 70 1600 c ensus d a ta , Cook ( 1981 :93 -96 )f i r s t ly p ro je c ted a d e c rea se o f p opu la t ion f r om 1 , 131 ,820 t o 5 95 ,528 b y 1 570 , f o r aS ou the rn H igh land s a r ea wh ich i n c lude sL ima tambo . T he i n c idence o fe p idem ic s , c iv i l w a r , r ebe l l ion a nd c onque s t l e d h im t o p os i t ar a te t w ice a s h igh , g iv ing a r eg iona l d ec l ine f r om 1 , 977 ,220 i n 1 520 t o t he 1 570 c ensus p opu la t ion . P e r iod ic p opu la t ion f l uc tua t ions w e re n o t me re ly a c o lon ia l p henomenon ( Sm i th 1 970 :460 ) , b u t t h e p ropo r t iona l r eg iona l d ec l ine i st he b es t a va i lab le means t oe s t ima te l a te p reh is to r ic 1 39

S i te d e s truc t ion a nd u nce r ta in ty a bou t f unc t ion , i nt h e a b sence o f e xcava t ion d a ta , p resen t d i ff icu l t ies f o r t h e e s t ima t ion o f r oofed s pace a tI nca s i tes . T he s ma l l p o t te ry s ca t te ra t AL12 -4 may o n ly b e as h r ine a s so c ia ted w i th al a rge s t one h uaca . My i mp re ss ion i st ha tl a rge s ca t te r so fC u sco I nca p o t tery r ep re sen t s e t t lemen t s s im i la r i nb u i l t d ens i ty t oL .P .T . s i te s o ccup ied i n t h eI nca P er iod ( AL39 , AL41 , AL45 a nd AL46 ) w h ich h ave a n a ve rage b u i l t d ens i ty o f9 27 s q .m p e r h ec ta re o fs i te , b u t w i th l e s se r d i spe r sa l o f a r tefac t s o n f l a t ter s i te l o ca t ions ( a round 1 400 s q .m p e r h a , a nd t hus i n t he u ppe r r ange f o r L .P .T . s i te s ) .

P reh is tor ic S e t t lemen t a nd L andu se P a t terns

0 . ) 35 65

( )

Mode rn C hoquemarka V i l lage ( L imatambo )

Con tou r s Sm . 1 0

0

1 0

S ca le

2 0

3 0

4 0 m .

ED .M . & T heod 1 986

F IG . 8 :1 Modern Choque marka V i l lage : Current U se o f S truc ture s . K ey t o S t r uc ture U se : Occup ied Dwe l l ings ( open r e c tang le ) , c ommun i ty b u i l t s choo l ( d iamond ) , s t o rage o n ly ( open t r iang le ) , s t o rage a nd c ook ing a r ea ( s o l id t r iang le ) , a bandoned s t ruc ture ( do t ) .

I ti sa ssumed t ha t aq ua r te r o f t h e h igh e l abo ra te ma sonry p l a tforms w as o ccup ied b y b u i ld ings . T hese a re AL I 1 -A , w he re h i s to r ic d a ta i n d ica ted ab u i ld ing , AM I C N iche T e r ra ce , w here a c ons t ruc t ion l ine s ugges t s as t ruc ture , a s w e l l a s AL12 -7 , b y a na logy w i th p lacemen t a nd a r ch i tec ture o f t h e f o rmer t wo . T he a ssumed r a t io i s n o t u nreasonab le i n c ompa r ison w i th t h e r e cons t ruc ted r oof ed -space r a t ios o fo the r p l a t forms w i th l a rge e x te r io rn i che sl o ca ted a tt h et op o ft e r race s cheme s .F o re xamp le t h e s un t emp le a tV i lca shuamän ( 134 1 s q .m o f6 128 s q .m , o r2 1 .9% r oof ed ) ( Gonza lez e ta l . 1 98 1 :66 6 7 , F ig . D 16 -H5 ) a nd o n t h e ' a t r ium t e r race a tC h inche ro ( 445 s q .m o f 120 s q .m r oof ed ,o r3 9 .7% ) ( A lc ina 1 976 :I I :F ig s . 2 3 , 2 5 ) . T he L ima tambo e s t ima te s g ive a t o ta l r oofed s pace o f 8 0 17 s q .m ( Tab le 8 : 12 ) . T o ta l r oofed s pace f o rt he I nca p er iod i s1 2 ,104 s q .m , i n c lud ing t h e a rea s o f 6c on t inuous ly o ccup ied L .P .T . s i te s a nd t h e I n ca p er iod c omponen ta rea o f AM2 . T h is i s1 4 .6% o ft h ee s t ima ted r oof ed -space r e qu i remen to ft h e 1 520 p opu la t ion . Many f a c to r sa r el i ke ly t ol e ad t ou nde r rep re sen ta t ion o fs i te s , s uch a s s u r face d i s turbance i n moun ta inous e rod ing a nd d epos i t iona l t e r ra in . T he re a re a l so d iff icu l t ies i n t he c ompa r ison o fo ccupa t ion a tI nca i n s ta l la t ions a nd c ommun i ty s e t t lemen t s . C an t h e o ccupan t s o fI nca g overn ing i n s ta l la t ion s b e e s t ima ted i n t he s ame w ay , o r w ere t hey a lways r e p resen ta t ive o fa dd i t iona l a dm in is t ra t ive o ro ther f unc t ions? Wh ich c omp lexes o f I nca a rch i tec ture c an b e t r ea ted a s s e t t lemen t s? S ome I nca p o t tery s ca t te r s c ou ld b e e v idence o f t r ans ien t m i t 'a l a bou r e ncampmen t s a nd t h e re i se v idence o f s ma l l h am le t s w h ich a r e mos tl i ke ly t ob eu nde r -rep resen ted i n s i te s u rveys .

( d ) P re Inca L .P .T . a nd I nca P e r iod P opu la t ion s : T he t o ta l r oof ed s pace o f L ima tambo A rea L .P .T . s i te s i s 9 8 .7% o f t h e f i gu re f o r I nca o ccupa t ions a nd 6 5 .4% o f I n ca p e r iod s e t t lemen t s i n c lud ing c on t inuous ly o ccup ied L .P .T . s i tes . T he s t ab le o r e xposed a nd e rod ing l oca t ion s o f L .P .T . s i te s may h ave i n crea sed t he i rr ep re sen ta t ion b y c ompar ison t oI n ca s i te s i nl owe r d epos i t iona l z ones a nd a long I n ca r oad s w h ich w e re u sed i nc o lon ia l a nd mode r n t ime s . O n t h e o the r h and , g rea te r a ge , c ruder c ons t ruc t ion a nd t he i mpac t o f I nca e a r thwo rk sw ou ld h ave r educed t h es uper f ic ia lr e p re sen ta t ion o f e a r l ie r s i tes . T he r aw d a ta d o n o t s ugges t a n i n c rea se i n p opu la t ion d u r ing t h eI nca p e r iod i nt h is a r ea . 8 .4 .2

Changes

i n

Zona l

S et t le ment

D is tr ibu t ion

B o th o f t h e L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s i n l ow v a l ley f l oo r p o s i t ions h ad e v idence o fa n I nca o ccupa t ion p ha se ( Tab le 8 : 10 ) . T h is i s c ons is ten t w i th t h e o bserva t ion o fl owe r l a te K i l lke s e t t lemen t i n t he U rubamba Va l ley ( Kenda l l 1 976 :99 ) , a s i tm ay m ean t h a t l o ca l s e t t lemen t s o ccup ied s uch p o s i t ions a tt h e t i me w hen Cusco I nca p o t tery r eached t he v a l ley . A n a l te rna t ive h ypo the s is , t h a tr e loca ted l o ca l c ommun i t ie sr e ta ined p a r t so fa p r io r a r tef ac t a s semb lage , r e qu ires r e so lu t ion b y s t ra t ig raph ic e xcava t ion . C hange i n a bso lu te a l t i tude o f s e t t lemen t a nd l a nduse i sa s epa ra te i s sue . I nca i n te re s t i np a r ts o ft h e L ima tambo V a l ley e nv i ronmen t , r ep resen ted b yt h el o ca t ion o fs i te a r ea ,c an b e

1 40

P r eh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L c u zdu se P a t te rn s

TABLE 8 :11

L .P.T.

and L .P.T./Inca S ettlements:

R oofed Space E stimates.

L PT

B uilt

S tructure

Mean

No.

S ite

A rea

Area Range

S tructure

S tructures

N o.

( ha )

( sq. m )

of

Area

Roofed

R oofed

Space

Area

( sq.m )

per h a.

( sq .m ) AL4

1 .20

-

-

-

( 888)

A L5

0 .40

-

-

-

( 296)

( a )

A L19

0 .04

-

-

-

( 30)

( a )

AL21

0 .14

1 5.6-40.7

2 3.3

9

2 10

1 498

AL28

1 .16

4 .7-18.8

1 1.7

4 3

5 02

4 33

AL29

0 .05

7 .0-12.5

1 0.3

4

4 1

8 20

AL30

0 .10

c a.5.0-10.8

7 .9

8

6 3

6 30

( b )

( a )

AL34

0 .04

-

-

-

( 30)

( a)

AL37

0 .27

1 0.8-28.3

2 1.9

9

1 97

7 30

AL38

0 .06

-

-

-

( 44)

( a)

AL42

0 .14

-

c a.32.0

ca.25

8 00

1 702

AL39

2 .68

1 7.7-76.7

3 4.1

3 2

1 090

4 07

AL41

1 .43

-

( c)

ca.50

1 705

1 192

AL43

1 .00

-

-

-

( 740)

( a )

AL45

0 .16

-

( d )

ca.10

2 19

1 369

AL46

0 .45

c a.15.2-29.2

2 2.2

ca.15

3 33

7 40

AM2

1 .00

-

-

-

7 30

( d )

L PT & I nca S ite

( b )

TOTAL Notes:

7 918 ( a )

R oofed Area per h a.

observed s ize r ange;

( c)

a t a t AL46,

s ite a t s imilar a ltitude;

S ize observed i s s imilar t o AL39;

( d )

( b )

Median f igure o f

A ssumed t o b e a s a t

t he n earby

s ite A L37.

TABLE 8 :12

I nca O ccupations:

R oofed S pace E stimates.

I nca S ite

S ite C omponent

No.

No.

Area

S tructures

AL9

0 .200

( 280)

( a )

AL11

0 .600

1 500

( c)

( ha)

o f

R oofed Space

R oofed Area

( sq .m )

per h a.

AL12-1

0 .002

( incl

AL12-1 1

0 .040

5 6

AL12-4

0 .010

A L12-5

0 .090

( 126 )

( a )

A L12-7

0 .188

( 470)

( c)

AL17

0 .060

( 56)

( b )

AL20

0 .200

6

3 57

1 785

A L22

0 .018

2

1 78

N /A

A L25

1 .000

AL35 AN ] . AM2

^

( a )

( 1400)

( a)

0 .020

( 28)

( a )

0 .180

( 318)

0 .045

AM3

0 .018

AM5

3 .000

AM6

0 .250

( 42) 2

( a)

f or 0 .12ha.

( b )

f or 0 .06ha.

( b )

7 5

_ 1

TOTAL Notes:

i n AL12-1.1)

( 2781)

( b )

( 350)

( a)

8 017 ( a )

A ssumed 1 4400 s q.m/ha;

p latform a rea.

( b )

Assumed 9 27

s q.m/ha;

( c)

A ssumed one quarter o f

P r eh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t terns

Table 8 :13

LPT S ettlements and I nca O ccupations:

S ite A rea a s % o f L imatambo L ife Z ones.

LPT S ettlements

ZONE Z one Area

S ite Area

( sq.km )

( ha)

I nca O ccupations

n

% o f Z one

S ite Area

( x 0 .01)

( ha )

n

% o f Zone ( x 0 .01)

WU

3 1.7

0 .00

0

0 .00

0 .18

1

0 .57

HF

2 35.8

2 .89

6

1 .23

0 .22

2

0 .09

DMF

1 13.0

3 .18

6

2 .83

2 .24

6

1 .98

D F

5 3.7

2 .84

2

5 .21

6 .04

5

1 1.25

TW

2 2.0

1 .70

2

7 .73

1 .68

2

7 .61

TOT.

4 56.2

1 0.61

1 6

1 0.36

1 6

c ompa red w i th t h a t o fL .P .T . s e t t lemen t s ( Tab le 8 : 13 ) . B o th s how a n e mpha s is u pon t h e DMF a nd l owe r a l t i tude z one s . T he L .P .T .g roup i n c lude s many s ma l l s i te sa th ighe ra l t i tude s a nd t he I nca p a t te rn i nd ica te s as pec ia l i n te res t i n t h e D ry F o re s t . E a r ly h i s to r ic r e co rd si nd ica t ing c ommun i ty t e r r i to r ie sa nd t h e i r s ubs is tence c rops i n L ima tambo , a s w e l l a s t he z ona l d i s t r ibu t ion o fs i te s , s uppo r t t h e p ropo s i t ion t h a t mu l t i -zona l a g r icu l tu re w a s t h e n o rm a tl o ca l l e ve l i nl a te p reh i s to ry . T he I nca s ha red t h e L .P .T . i n te re s t i n l owe r e nv i ronmen t s , b u t l i t t le I nca o c cupa t ion -a rea i sa th igh a l t i tude sa bove t h e DMF .

( v )T he s ou thea s te r n v a l ley a nd A pur ima cr a v ine sc on ta in l i t t le I nca s ty le a r ch i tec tu re , b u t n uc lea ted s e t t lemen t s i nt h e l o ca l t r ad i t ion r e ce ived aw ide r a nge o fC usco I n ca p o t te ry v e s se l s . T he s e t t lemen t sw e r en e i the rt r an s i to ry , n o ra ppa ren t ly d i re c ted t om a jo r I n ca s t y le t e r race c on s truc t ion . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t t h ey w e re t i ed t ot h e I nca m i t 'a r e sou rce -acqu i s i t ion s y s tem a nd i n c luded l o ca l a y l lu s ,m i tn zaqkuna a nd I nca s -by p r iv i lege .T h i s i n d i r e c tr e sou rce c on t ro li sr e p re sen ted a ts i t e s AL39 , AL41 a nd p robab ly AL45 . A l l a r e a tl ow a l t i tude s i nt h e TW , DF a nd l owe r DMF z one s , a s so c ia ted w i th w arm c l ima te c rop s i nt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry . 8 .4 .4 S pec i f ic R e source s : S a l t a nd S tone

8 .4 .3 The S tructure o f L ima ta mbo Env ironmen ts

I nca

P resence

i n

T he d a ta o ns e t t lemen td i s t r ibu t ion a c ro s se nv i ronmen ta l z one s i sn o t i ni t se lf a menab le t oe nqu i ry a bou t t h e e x ten t t ow h ich d ife ren t r e sou rce z ones w e re c on t ro l led b y t he I nca a nd r emoved f r om l o ca l leve l s ub s is tence . A rchaeo logy c anno t p rov ide ad e ta i led m ea su re o fl a bou ri n ve s tmen ti nc u l t iva t ion o fI nca l a nd sw i thou tk now ing t h e i re x ten t ,n o rc an i tg ene ra l ly r e cons t ruc tt h ef l ow o fg ood st ot h es t a te ,e spec ia l ly w hen I n ca s t o rage s t ruc tu re s a r ea b sen t f r om t h er e co rd . S i te c on tex ta nd c on ten t d o e nab le a s se s smen t o ft h e d if e ren t mode s o fI n ca r e sou rce c on t ro l : ( i ) T he mo s t c omp lex a nd e l abo ra te ly c ons t ruc ted I nca s i te s , t ambos , w e re p laced a l ong t he I nca r oad f r om C usco t o C h inchaysuyu ( AL I 1a nd AM1 , i n t h e DMF a nd u ppe r DF z one s ) a nd l a rge I nca p o t te ry -u s ing s e t t lemen t s l a y n ea rby , i n t h e DMF , DF a nd TW z one s( AL25 , AM5 a nd AM6 ) . ( i ) G rea te s t l a bou r f o rI nca t e r race c ons t ruc t ion w a s i n ve s ted o n v a l ley -f loo rl a nd s a l ong t h e s ame r ou te ( AL2 , AL8 , AL IO , AL11 , AL 12 a nd AL 14 ) . A l lb u t AL2 a r ei nt h e DMF z one o r DF -D MF b ounda ry . ( i i ) Sma l l I nca i n s ta l la t ion s w e re p l aced a th i gh a l t i tude o nt h e n or thwe s te rn s i de o ft h e v a l ley , i s o la ted f r om t h e ma in I n ca r oad a nd w i thou t t e r raced l a nd s i n t he HF a nd ' WU z one s ( AL20 , AL22 a nd AM3 ) . ( i v ) One l a rge t e r race s cheme ( AL2 ) , t h e C hak l lanka P ampaconga c ana l a nd s eve ra l s ma l l t e r race s cheme s ( AL ! , AL3 a nd AL6 )w e r es ca t te red a r ound t h en o r thea s ter ns l ope so f t h ev a l ley , n ea rr oad sf r om C u sco .T hey m ay r ep re sen t am o re d i rec tb u td i spe r sed I nca c on tro lo fh igh a g r icu l tu ra ll a nd st h an i nt h en o r thwe s te rn HF z one .

Two g roup so fI n ca s i te sw e r ep robab ly t h er e su l to f ad e s i re t o c on t ro lo ro b ta in s pec if ic l o ca l r e source s . P i ch iuma rka ( AL35 ) l i e s b e s ide ap l a ce n ow r e nowned a s as ou rce o f r ock s a l t , a l though i tw a s r e por ted i n 1 586 t h a t s a l t h ad t ob e b rough t f r om C u sco t oL ima tambo ( Fo rnee 1 965 :26 ) . S ome s a l tf i e ld s i nt h e Y ucay v a l ley w e re s a id t oh ave b e longed t o t h e s un ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :40 ) . T he h o rnb lende a nde s i te u sed i nc ons truc t ion o fC usco I n ca w a l l sa t many s i te sn ea rL ima tambo w a s n o tf o und t on a tu ra l ly o ccu r o n t h e s i te s t h em se lve s o r o n a d jacen t s l opes ( AL I1 S ec to rA , AL 12 -2 , 1 2 -3 , 1 2 -6 a nd 1 2 -7 ) . I to ccu r s i no u t c rop s a nd a s b ou lde r s o n t h e s l ope s o f Mamako m oun ta in , o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o ft h eC o lo rado R ive r( Hef f e rnan 1 987 ) . Mamako c on t a in sl i t t le e v idence o fI n ca t e r r a c ing , a pa r tf r om AL 15 ,b u t AL 16 ,a nd AL 18 w e re p robab ly s i te so fs t one p rocu remen ta nd s t onewo rk ing a nd AL 17 m ay h ave b een a s e t t lemen t f o r p e r son sa s soc ia ted w i th s u ch w o rk . 8 .5 D IRECT I NCA LANDUSE CONTROL L I MATA MBO AND CHINCHAYPUQUIO

I N

I n ca t e r ra ce sc omp r is e 1 22 h ao ft h et o ta l o f 1 39 h ao fI nca s i te a r ea i n t h e s t udy r e g ion . L abou r i nves ted i n t e r race s f a r e xceeded t h a t f o r o th e r I n ca c ons t ruc t ion . Ove r 8 0% o ft h e i r s u r f a ce a r ea w a sc oncen t r a ted i nt h e DMF z one a nd a lmos t9 0% w a s l o ca ted o n v a l ley f l oo r s . T he e v idence i so ve rwhe lm ing ly a ga in s t t h e p ropo s i t ion t h a t t h e se t e r race s w e r e b u i l t f o r t h e p urpo se o f r e c la im ing l a nds wh ich we re ma rg ina l o r u ncu l t ivab le b ecau se o f ar e la t ive ly s t eep g rad ien t . T h is d oe s n o tm ean t h a tt e r ra c ing ,r i ve rc ana l iza t ion a nd i r iga t ion c ana l s d i dn o ti mp rove a spec t so ft h ec ho sen l a nd s . 8 .5 .1 F unc t ion o f I nca L and Mod if ica t ion Works F unc t ion ss ugge s ted f o rt e r r a ce si n c lude :

1 42

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L anduse P a t terns

( i ) I mp rovemen t o f f i e ld w a te r r e ten t ion o n s l ope s i np l ace s w i th ap ronounced d ry s ea son a nd r e du c t ion o fe ro s ive r un -o f f o n p lan ted f i e ld s ( Reyno ld s a nd C o ldwe l l 1 938 :95 ; K ee ley 1 984 :325 ) .T h i s make s t h ep rov is ion o fi r r iga t ion w o r thwh i le , o r mo re e ff i c ien t . ( i) I mp rovemen to fd ep th , s t ruc tu re a nd c ompo s i t ion o fs o i ls . A l luv ia l -co l luv ia l t e r race s a nd s i de s t ream a l luv ia l f a n s a r e c ommon ly s t ony a nd s t e ep s l ope s a r et h in ly -so i led . T e r rac ing c an b e u sed t o r e lega te s t one t o l owe r f i l ls a nd w a l l s a nd c oncen t ra te b e s t s o i ls o n t o p ( D ro sdof f e t .a l . 1 960 :99 -100 ; Wr igh t 1 962 :97 ; F ie ld 1 966 :427 -429 ) . Wo rk w i th t he c hak i t ak l la i si mpeded b yp r e sence o fl a rge s t one s . ( i i )R e ten t ion o ft h ea dvan tageou sp rope r t ie so fw a te ra nd c o ld a i r d r a inage o n s l ope s ( Kee ley 1 984 :332 ) a nd p romo t ion o f m ic ro c l ima t ic e f f ec t ss uch a sf r o s t inh ib i t ing a i rt u rbu lence a nd f i e ld t emp e ra tu re c hange st h rough r e rad ia t ion f r om w a l l s( F ie ld 1 966 :430 ;E a r ls 1 978 , 1 989 ) . ( i v )P rov i s ion o fb ound s t o as t ab le l o cu s o fa g r icu l tu re w h ich r e s t r ic t s t h e e n t ry o f w eed s a nd a n ima ls ( F ie ld 1 966 :440 ; P a t r ick 1 977 :290 ) . I nca r i ve rc ana l iza t ion s cheme s f a c i l i ta te b o th r e c lama t ion o f p oo r ly d ra ined v a l ley f l oo r sa nd p ro tec t ion o fa d jacen tt e r race s f r om r i ve r meande r( Fa r r ing ton 1 983 :227 -228 ) .T he s e cu r i ty o f c rop s a nd a bso lu te p roduc t ion w e re p robab ly i n c rea sed b y t e r ra c ing i n c omb ina t ion w i th i r r iga t ion a nd c ana l iza t ion . I r r iga t ion i nL ima tambo t o day e nab le s d oub le a nnua l c ropp ing a nd p r ov ides s e cu r i ty b yd e c rea s ing d ependence u pon r a inf a l l . T he c oncen t ra t ion o f s t udy r e g ion I nca t e r race s i nt h e DMF z one , w h ich i st h e p re sen t a nd 1 6 th c en tury f ocu s o f m a ize p roduc t ion , i sc on s is ten t w i th t h er i tua l , s oc ia l a nd e conom ic i mpo r tance o ft h a tc r op i nt h eI n ca v a lue s y s tem ( Mu r ra 1 960 ) . I tc anno t b e a s sumed t oh ave b een t h e o n ly c rop o ft e r raced l a nd s a nd p a r t icu la r i n te re s t a t taches t o t h e p rob lem o f v e r if y ing t he p reh is tor ic c r op c omp lexe s a tL .P .T . a nd I nca t e r ra ce si nt h es t udy r eg ion .

8 .5 .3 Agr icultural I ntens if icat ion

I nfrastructure

a nd

T he re i sn o e v idence f o r al a rge I n ca p e r iod i n c rea se i nt h e L ima tambo V a l ley p opu la t ion . I nca t e r ra ce sd i d n o te x t end f a r o n to v a l ley s i de s b eyond t h e I nca r oad . S uch a g r icu l tu ra l i n f ra s t ruc tu re d oe s n o ta ppea rt ob e i n ten s if i ca t ion i nr e spon se t ol o ca l ly g ene ra ted p re s su re u pon l a nd s .I ti sb e s tc ha ra c t e r i sed a s t h e i mp rovemen t o fl a nd w h ich s upp l ied t h e n eed s o fs t a te i n s t i tu t ions , i n c lud ing t he t ambos o fL i ma tambo a nd Apur imac a nd p robab ly C u sco t oo . T he s pec if ic c r op s w h ich L ima tambo V a l ley r e s iden t sw e re r epo r ted t oh ave p rov ided t o t h eI n ca a r em a ize a nd c h i l i ( Fo rnee 1 965 :25 [ 1 586 ] ) .B o th a r e p roduc t so ft h e DMF z one . 8 .6

CONCLUSIONS

T he t opog rapy o f L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s i sc ons is ten t w i th a g rea te r i n t e re s t i ns ecu r i ty t h an a tI n ca o ccupa t ion s . E nc lo sed o r w a l led s e t t lemen t s a r e n o tp re sen ta nd mo s t a r ea d ja cen t t o r e la t ive ly l a rge c u l t ivab le l and a reas . H ence , t he c ha rac te r iza t ion o f p opu la t ions a t t h e t ime o f I n ca s t a te f o rma t ion a sc ons tan t ly i nc onf l ic t i si mba lanced a nd f a i l s t o a pp rec ia te s t ab le e l emen t s i nt h es oc io -e conom ic l a nd s cape o f L ima tambo . T he re w as p robab ly as ma l l s h if t i np opu la t ion t o l owe rr e la t ive t opog raph ic l o ca t ion s ,a nd t ol owe ra l t i tude s ,b u t mu l t i -zona l e xp lo i ta t ion r ema ined t h e l o ca l leve l n o rm . T he re a r e n o i n d ica t ions o fs i gn if ican to ve ra l l i n c rea se i np opu la t ion s i ze i nI n ca t ime s . H is to r ic d a ta d e sc r ibed t h eL ima tambo p opu la t ion a sb e ing ' o f t h eI n ca a nd t h es un ' . A r chaeo logy , a nd s pec if ic h i s to ry t i ed t o t h e l a nd scape , s how h ow l i t t le t h a tr e f le c t st h e v a r ied n a tu re o f I nca p re sence i nd i f f e ren t p a r t s o f af a i r ly s ma l l v a l ley n ea r C u sco . Mo s tI n ca s e t t lemen t ss t radd led t h eC h inchay suyu r o ad , a s d id t h e i r h igh ly v i s ib le a g r icu l tu ra l p ro jec t s . T he l a t te r , wh ich c ons t i tu te l and s mo s t t ho rough ly r emoved f r om t h e l o ca l leve l s ub s is tence b a se , w e re r e la t ive ly s ma l l i nt h e t o ta l l a nd scape .T he e x ten to fI n ca t e r race si nt h eL ima tambo A r ea i s o n ly 0 . 25% o fi t ss ur f ace a r ea .

8 .5 .2 T errace s a nd S ymbo l ism A g roeconom ic f a c tor s a r e ap a r t ia l e xp lana t ion o f I nca t e r ra c ing . Mo s t o f t he a dvan tages d escr ibed a re e qua l ly a pp l icab le t ol e s se l abo ra te s t one -wa l led t e r ra c ing r e co rded a t L .P .T . s i te s ( AL39 , AL40 a nd A LAI ) , a l though t h es t ony f i l l s b eh ind I nca t e rrace w a l ls a ppea r t op rov ide d ra inage w h ich c on t r ibu te s t o t h e i r b e t te r p r e se rva t ion t han L .P .T . t e r race s . T he i rc on t inuou sw a l ls a l so f o rm g r ea te rb a r r ie r st o movemen t . H igh ly d i s t inc t ive a r ch i tec tu re i nI n ca t e r race l a you t a nd w a l l b u i ld ing s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey w e re a n o ve r t e xp re ss ion o fI n ca i d en t i ty o rc oncep t s . I n ca t e r race sa nd t h e i rp roduc t ion a lmo s tc e r ta in ly p e r ta ined t o s o c ia l , p o l i t ica l a nd r e l ig iou s i n s t i tu t ions o f t h e I nca s t a te , w ho se a r ch i tec tu ra l s ymbo l s w e re b u i l t i n to t h em . When S pan i sh a nd t h ec o lon ia lI n ca n ob i l i ty b egan t oc l a im I n ca a nd s un l a nd s a s e xc lu s ive p rope r ty u nde r c o lon ia l S pan i sh l a nd l aw ,t h et e r ra ced l a nd so fL ima tambo a ppea rt oh ave b een t a uen mo s tr ap id ly . T h i s may n o tm e re ly r e f lec t t h e c ho ice o fl a nd s i na r ea s o f b en ign c l ima te ( V i l lanueva 1 970a ) , b u t a l so t h e c ho ice o fl a nd sl e a s tl i ke ly t ob ed i spu ted b yc ommun i t ie sw i th t h e i rs ub s i s tence b a se i ns u r round ing t e r r i to ry . I no the rw o rd s , l a nd s w e re c ho sen w h ich h ad , f o r s ome t ime , b een d ive s ted f r om c ommun i ty c on t ro l b yI n ca s t a te i n s t i tu t ions .

1 43

I t i s u nknown wha t r e la t ive a gr icu l tura l v a lue s l o ca l c ommun i t ie sp l a ced u pon t h ev a l ley f l oo rl a nd sc ho sen f o rI n ca t e r race c on s t ruc t ion . W i th c hak i tak l la p lough t e chno logy , s t ony v a l ley f l oo r s may h ave o f f e red f ew a dvan tage s o ve r v a l ley s ide f l a t s a l though t h e p reh is to r ic v a r ia t ion o fs o i l s i s u nce r ta in . C ana l sa r e n ow r ega rded a se a s ie rt ob u i ld a nd m o re s t ab le o n v a l ley f l oo r s t h an o n s t eep s l ope s . A lso , l a rge a r ea s o fv a l ley f l oo r i nt h e L ima tambo A rea w e re a ta l t i tude s w i th w ide l a nd -u se o p t ions . R e la t ive ly b road r i ver ine f l a t s n ea r P an t ipa ta a nd S uma ro a r ea th igh a l t i tude , w i th f ewe rc r opp ing o p t ion s ,a nd w e re n o tt e r ra ced . I nca c on t ro l i n mo s t r e sou rce z one s p robab ly d epended u pon t h en ego t ia t ion , e nfo r cemen ta nd e ncou ragemen to fl o ca l m i t 'a q uo ta s t ow o rk t h em a nd b r ing g ood st ot h es t a te ,m i tmaqkuna w i th s ome d ependence u pon t h e s t a te , a nd I ncas -by -pr iv i lege , w ho se s t a tu sd epended u pon t h es t a te . O ne o ft h em o s td i ff icu l t i s sue s i st h a t m i tmaqkuna e x t rac t ions a nd p l acemen t s m ay h ave h ad as ub s tan t ia l s oc ia l i mpac t u pon t h e r e g ion , y e t n o t b e r e ad i ly v i s ib le i n s e t t lemen t p a t te rn c hange . T h i s mu s t a wa i t f u r the r h i s to r ica l r e sea rch , d e ta i led a r chaeo log ica l mode l l ing a nd e xcava t ion s .

P reh i s tor ic S e t t lemen ta nd L andu se P a t terns

p ro jec t s s ugge s t s a n a t temp t t o s a t isfy s t a te r equ iremen t s w h i le T he e x igenc ie s o f I nca r e la t ions w i th l o ca l c ommun i t ies , o n e duc ing t h e a b so lu te a r ea s w h ich we re n eeded t o o b ta in ap a r t icu la r t he o ne h and , a nd t h e d emands o f s t a te e ndeavou r s a nd e l i te , r l e ve l o fp roduce f o rI nca s t o re s . T h is may h ave r educed t h e c onsump t ion , o n t h e o the r , may h ave b een b a lanced b y s t a te p o l i t ica l c o s t o f t h e e xp ropr ia t ion s t ra tegy i n t e rms o f t h e e xp rop r ia t ion o f w e l l-def ined a r ea s t ob e made h igh ly a nd /o r r e ac t ions o fc i r cum -Cusco c ommun i t ies . T he e xp ropr ia ted s e cu re ly p roduc t ive .T he e f fec to fc oe rc ive l abour d emand sa nd l a ndscap e s w e re c ho sen f o r l a bour -cos t ly s a tura t ion w i th I n ca movemen to fc ommun i t ies f r om a nce s t ra l l a nds c an r a re ly h ave a r ch i tec tura l s ymbo ls . b een c ompensa ted b y s t a te r ed is t r ibu t ion . Howeve r , t h e e x ten t t o wh ich c oe rced l a bou r w a s u sed i ns t a te l a nd i mp rovemen t

CHAPTER 9

I NCA TERRACES I N SOCIAL LANDSCAPES SURROUNDING CUSCO 9 .1

I NTRODUCTION

I nca t e r race s c omp r ise o ve r 8 8% o ft h e t o ta l I nca p er iod s i te a rea i nt h e s t udy r eg ion . T hey o ccu r i nm in ia tu re s cheme c o f u nde r 1 00 s q .m t o v a s t a nd c on t inuou s ly t e r raced l a ndscape s r each ing 4 69 ,700 s q .m . F ie ld s tud ies e l sewhere i n T awan t in suyu i nd ica te t h a ts uch a r ch i tec tu ra l ly d i s t inc tt e r race s a re p r ima r i ly ap henomenon o ft h ec i rcum -Cu sco v a l leys a nd a sma l l n umbe r o f o the r h igh land Andean l oca t ions . T he i r e labo ra te w a l ls a nd d e s ign a r en o tf u l ly e xp la ined a si nves tmen t i na g r icu l tura l i n f ra s t ruc tu re . I ti sp ropo sed t h e refo re t of ur the r e xp lo re t h e ir a rchaeo logy a nd i t s i mp l ica t ions f o r s oc ia l p reh is to ry i nt h eC usco r eg ion . 9 .2 I NKA TERRACE W ALL FEATURES 9 .2 .1 D istr ibut ion P attern F eature s i n t he S tudy R eg ion

o f

T errace

Wa l l

Mo s tI nca t e r race s a ppea r t oh ave b een i r r iga ted . T he i r w a l ls o f ten c on ta in v er t ica l c hanne ls (WE ) ) wh ich r evea l ap lan f o r wa te r d i s t r ibu t ion f r om l e ve l t o l e ve l , a s d e scr ibed f o r AM 1 S ec tor s A a nd B . T he r i se r s f orm s ub s tan t ia l b a r r ie r s t o movemen t , u n l ike t h ew ide sp read i n ter leav ing a nd i n term i t ten t t e r race s . Ap lan f o rh uman a cce s s b e tween l e ve ls i sr ep re sen ted i n many s cheme s b y v a r ious s t a irca se t ype s , p r inc ipa l ly w a l l s t eps (WS ) , R ecessed P a ra l le l S ta irca ses ( RPS ) , R ecessed S ta i r ca se s( RS )a nd S ta ired R ou teways ( SR )( Append ix I ) . WS a nd RPS w e re p ub l ished i nf i gu re se a r ly t h i sc en tu ry ( Bandel ie r 1 910 :226 , 2 6 1-2 , P l s . LXX IV , LXVI I I ) a nd WS a nd W D w e re p ho tog raphed b y R owe ( 1944 :P l . V I I ) . WS w e re ma rked i n d e ta i l o n map s b y F e jo s ( 1944 :37 , F igs .10 ,12 ) who c ons ide red t he i r g rea t f r equency a tI n ty P a ta a s b eyond u t i l i ta r ian n eed s . Va lenc ia ( 1982 :74 -76 )d i s t ingu ished b e twe en v a r ious s t a i rca se t ype sa tY ucay , i n c lud ing RPS . D iscre te t e r race s cheme s i nt h e s t udy r eg ion a r e d i s t ingu ished b y d if fe ren t c omb ina t ions o f t h e se f e a tu re s : ( a ) O n ly WS a nd WD a re p re sen t a t AM I a nd AL36 , i n t h e w e s te rn L ima tambo V a l ley . ( b ) RPS a r eo n ly p re sen ta t AL2 , AL8 , AL 12 , AC 1 a nd AC3 .

AL7 , A 1 , 11-B , AL 13 , AL 14 , AL 15 , AL32 , AL51 a nd AM2 ) . ALI a nd AL3 a re d i s t ingu ished b y t he ir sma l l s i ze , h igh a l t i tude l o ca t ion a nd l a ck o fe nd ing w a l ls . 9 .2 .2 T errace Access Tawant insuyu

Arch itecture

i n

Cusco

a nd

R ece ssed s t a irca se s( RS )a nd s t a i red r ou teways ( SR )a ts ou ther n h igh land I nca s i te sf r equen t ly p a ss t h rough t e r race st os t and ing I nca b u i ld ing s w i th in t h em , l i e b e tween b u i ld ing s ( s t ree t s ) o r g ive e n try t o t hem a nd r i se t o p la tforms w i th e l abora te ma sonry p l aced c en t ra l ly i no pen s pace ( u shnu ) . L ong R S a nd SR f e a tu re sa t0 1 1an tay tambo , r i se b e tween Manyaraccay p l aza a nd t h ef or ta leza -r e l ig ious s ec tor . A tV i lca shuamän R S a r ep a r t o f t he u shnu a nd s un t emp le c omp lex ( Ga spa r in i a nd Margo l ies 1 980 :F igs .52 , 9 8) . Bo th RS a nd SR r i se t o b u i ld ings a t P huyu P a ta Marca , S ayac Ma rca , I n ty P a ta , Chachabamba a nd C hoque suysuy ( Fe jo s 1 944 :F ig s .3 ,9 ,10 ,11) , E sp ir i tu P ampa ( B ingham 1 914 :186 , 1 92 ) , T ampumachay , P uka ra a nd K enko ( F ranco 1 935 :212 -230 ) , a s w e l l a s L akko a nd L an lakuyo j ( F ranco 1 937b :212 -230 ) . Many R S a nd S R w e re u sed a t Machu P icchu , t o g ive a cce ss t o b u i ld ing s a nd t e r races a nd t o H uayna P icchu moun ta in top ( B ingham 1 930 :F ig .2 19 ) . SR a nd RS r i se t h rough t he mount a ins ide t e r race g roup sn amed H u im in a nd Q or iwa irach ina a tP i saq ,o na r ou te t o r i dge top e l abo ra te b u i ld ing s a nd ama son ry -enc i rc led r ock . Wa l l s t ep s (WS )a nd r e ce ssed p a ra l le l s t a irca se s( RPS )w e re , i n c on t ra s t , r a re ly emp loyed b eyond t e r race w a l ls . WS o ccu r o n t he u p s lope w a l ls o fI nca b u i ld ings w i th v ery s ma l l e n t rance s , p robab ly u sed f o rs t o rage ( Kenda l l 1 985 :35 ) . E xamp le si n c lude Huayhuakunka , as i te o f e l even s uch s t ruc ture s v i s i ted n ea r Hua raypa ta i nt h e u ppe rV i lcano ta Va l ley . S ome u nu sua l RPS i nc lude a p a ir u sed i n t he r e ta in ing w a l l o f t he e l abo ra te ma son ry p la tfo rm a t I ngap irca i n E cuado r ( Ga spar in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :F igs .285 -289 ) , ap a ir , a t S a lapunku o n t h e V i lcano ta Va l ley b e tween 0 1 1an tay ta rnbo a nd C us ichaca , w h ich h ave as t one -vau l ted r oof , a nd t wo d oub le -RPS a tY ucay w h ich a r ed eep ly r e ce ssed a nd e nc losed b eh ind t e r race w a l l s . RPS a nd WS i nt h eC u sco r eg ion w e re r e co rded b e tween J une a nd De cembe r 1 982 ( Hef f ernan 1 984 ) . S i te s i n Ant s ,t h eU ppe r V i lcano ta a nd Apur imac V a l leys w e re s urveyed a nd r e co rded b e tween D ecembe r 1 984 a nd J u ly 1 986 ( Hef f ernan 1 987 ) a nd t e r race s i no the rp a r t so ft h e V i lcano ta a nd C usco v a l leys w e re t a rge t ted f o rs t udy i n1 988 . T hese i nve s t iga t ions c onf i rmed t h a t d i sc re te t e r race s cheme s g ene ra l ly f ea tured e i the r RPS o r WS ( Tab le 9 : 1) , l e av ing a s ide , f o r t he momen t , s cheme s w i th n e i the r .

( c ) RPS a nd WD o ccu ra t AC4 . ( d ) T e r races w i th R S a nd SR a cce ss o ccu ra t AM3 , b u t u n l ike t he s chemes a bove , a r e v ery s ma l l i n a r ea , s how n o s i gns o f h av ing b een c u l t iva ted i n t h e r e cen t p a s t , a re i mposs ib le t o i r r iga te b yc ana la nd a r ea tr e la t ive ly h igh a l t i tude . ( e ) AL 11 S ec to r A , T ar awa s i , h a s t wo u n ique a nd e l abo ra te e x te r io ra nd r e ce s sed s t a i r case so nt h eb a lu s t raded Wa l lI ,f ound t ob ec ompa rab le t ot h ose i nu shnu c omp lexe so the rI nca s i te s . Al e ng th o ft h eI n ca r oad a l so l a yb e s ide t h et e r race s .

RPS a nd WS o ccu rw i th in t h e s ame c on t inuous t e r race s cheme a t t h ree r e co rded s i tes , b u t a re o n ly k nown t o o ccu r o n t h e s ame w a l l l e ng th sa tU rco , whe re t h e w a l l f ea tur ing b o th t ype s l i e s b e tween t e r race r i se r s w i th RPS f r om t hose w i th WS .

( f ) T er race s w i th n o v i s ib le w a l l f e a tu re s a r e n ume rous ( AL 1 , AL3 , AL6 , AL7 , AL IO , AL 11-B , AL13 , AL14 , AL 15 , AL51 , AL32 , AC2 a nd AM2 ) .T e r race sw i th n ow a l l f e a tu re sc ou ld i n s ome c a se s b e e n te red f r om t e r raced r amp s o rr oads b u i l t i n to t he s cheme ( AL 1 0 , AL11) . Many t e r race w a l ls a re p oo r ly p re served , s o a bsence f r om t h e r e co rd i sn o t d ef in i t ive ( AL6 , 1 45

WS s e t s a ppea r t o b e f a r mo re n ume rou s t han RPS a nd mo re l i ke ly t o o ccur i n s chemes a t g rea te r d i s tance f r om C usco , e xcep t ing o u t l ie r s a t K oa t i I s land o n L ake T i t icaca a nd a t I ngap i rca ( F ig . 9 : 1) .

I nca T er race s , S oc ia lL and scape s

T ABLE 9 :1

Wall

F eatures

i n S elected I nca-Style Terrace S chemes.

TERRACE WALL FEATURES

L OCATION

WS

R PS

R S

LOCATION

T ERRACE WALL FEATURES

WD

URUBAMBA

PAMPA D E

VALLEY

ANTA-UPPER

1 .

P isaq

URUBAMBA

2 .

Urquillos

2 8.

3 .

Urco

4 .

Yucay

2 9.

Moray

5 .

Urubamba

3 0.

Chinchero

Chic6n

3 1.

Zurite

7 .

P orr6n

8 .

Pumawanka

( 4)

o p.cit.

WD

L IMATAMBO

9 . Yanawara 1 0. P isonayniyoq

3 2.

Chakllanka

3 3.

Runkuwasi

1 1.

P achar

3 4.

R ioja

1 2.

Chiallaraccay

3 5.

Markawasi

1 3.

Chogana

1 4.

0 11antaytambo

1 5.

P atakancha

3 6.

Negropuquio

1 6.

S imapuquio

3 7.

Wankariri

1 7.

Ch 'ilka

CHINCHAYPUQUIO

1 8.

Machu Q 'ente(1)

P ARURO

1 9.

Wayna Q 'ente(2)

3 8.

2 0.

Q 'ente-Media

Huaynacancha

HUANOQUITE

( 3)

2 1.

Tunasmoqo

( 4)

3 9.

T 'ikahuerta

2 2.

I nty P ata

( 5)

4 0.

L laspay

2 3.

Choque suysuy

R S

( 7)

6 .

2 4.

RPS

Huchuy Qosqo

Luna

W S

V ILCABAMBA

( 6)

4 1.

Machu P icchu

Choque quirao

( 8)

C USCO VALLEY

T ITICACA I SLAND

2 5.

Raqchi

4 2.

2 6.

T ip6n

2 7.

Tampumachay

Chucaripu

KOATI 4 3.

Notes: ( 5)

c omm .; ( 10)

( 1)

Farrington 1 980:54-55;

F ejos 1 944:33, ( 8)

F ig.10;

( 6)

B ingham 1 910:517;

op.cit. : 261-262,

( 2)

op.cit.;

o p.cit. : 37,

4 1,

Julinho Z apata R .

I SLAND

I f tak Uyu

( 3)

Farrington pers.

4 8,

F igs.

1 1,

pers . c omm;

( 9)

1 2,

( 9)

( 10) c omm .;

p 1.73;

( 7)

F arrington pers.

Bandelier 1 910:226,

p l.LXVIII;

pl.LXXIV.

9 .2 .3 Comparab i l i ty o f Access F ea ture T ypes T he m ean R PS l e ng th s , i n as amp le o f 9o u to f 1 4s i te s ( Tab le 9 : 2 ) , o ve r lap a t o ne s t anda rd d ev ia t ion . Mean RPS r e ce s s d ep th s , a t 7o u to f 1 3 s i te s , o ve r lap a to ne SD . Many s amp le s a r e s ma l l . F or 7 s i tes , e ach w i th o ve r 5 RPS , o n ly S imapuqu io l e ng th ss t and a pa r ta tt wo s t anda rd d ev ia t ion s . Wa l l S tep s a t AM1 a r e s im i la r i n n umbe r t o a who le s i te s amp le f r om Mo ray t e r race s cheme i n U rubamba D is t r ic t ( Tab le 9 : 3 , App . I :Tab le 5 ) . Bo th s i te s s how t h e a t temp t o f b u i lde r st oa l te rna te t h ed i rec t ion o fa s cen to f WS ,o n b o th t h e s ame w a l la nd r i s ing l e ve l s .

I ti sr e a sonab le t oc onc lude t h a t , w i th f ew e xcep t ion s , WS a nd R PS w e r er epea ted t y pe so fa r ch i te c tu ra l f e a tu re sb u i l ti n to t h e r e ta in ing w a l ls o f d i sc re te l a nd s ur f ace s . T he ir r e spec t ive d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn i nt h e l a ndscape d oes n o t a ppea r t o b e a l ea to ry . O the ra t t r ibu te st e nd t od i s t ingu i sh t e r ra ce sw i th RPS a nd WS t o o . T he t e r ra ce w a l l s w h ich c on ta in R PS a r e v e ry s t ra igh t , i nh o r izon ta l p l an , b y c ompa r i son t ot h os e w i th WS . S uch RPS -scheme s t e nd t ol i e o n v a l ley f l oo r s , a l luv ia l f an s a nd v a l ley s ide f l a t s , r a the r t h an o n s t eepe r s l ope s . C on tou r t e r race s , o n s t eepe rs l ope s , t e nd t oh ave WS f e a tu re s . Ag ood e xamp le o f t h is c ome s f r om ac ompa r ison o f t h e AL 12 a nd AM 1 As i te p l an s ( F ig s . 5 : 9a nd 5 : 14 ) . 9 .2 .4 P reven t ion o f A cce ss

T h i s a l te rna t ing p a t te rn e xp la ins t h e s im i la r n umbe r o f s e t s r i s ing t o t h e l e f t a nd r i gh t a t e ach s i te . A c ons ide rab le d i f f e rence b e tween b a t te r a ng le s may b e t h e r e su l t o f l owe r o ve ra l l w a l lh e igh ta t Mo ray o ro the ru nmea su red e ng ine e r ing r e qu i remen t s ( Tab le 9 :4 ) . Howeve r , t h e e x ten t t o wh ich s t ep s w e re made t op ro jec t o u t f r om t h e t e r race w a l l i ss im i la r a t b o th s i te s .

Why d os ome t e r ra ce so fe qu iva len tw a l lc on s t ruc t ion ,s cheme d e s ign a nd s ome t ime s I n ca p o t te ry o rb u i ld ing s , h ave n o WS o r R PS? C lea r ly t h e re a r e c a se s w he re r oads a nd R S o r SR p rov ided a cces s t oa l l e ve l s , b u t i ns ome c a se s a b rup t t e r race r i se r s w e re p robab ly u sed t oe xc lude p eop le , o rt od i r ec tt h em ' t h rough s pe c if i cr ou te so fa c ce s s . 1 46

I nca T er races , S oc ia lL and scapes

7 2 °W

. 0

- 1 3 ° S

C 3 Ayacucho

4 4• 3 1

P e ru

CUSISO

5 0

1 00 km

A

R PS-Scheme

0 WS* R PS & WS S che rr be

F IG . 9 :1 D istr ibut ion o f I nca T errace s w i th Wa l l F ea tures . Key : 1 .C usco ; 2 .T ampumachay ; 3 .H uchuy Qo sqo ; 4 .P i saq ; 5 .U rco ; 6 .U rqu i l lo s ; 7 . Yucay ; 8 . Qu ispeguanca ( Urubamba ) ; 9 . C h ic6n ; 1 0 . P umawanka ; 1 . P or rön ; 1 2 . Y anawa ra ; 1 3 . P i sonayn iyoq ; 1 4 . P a takancha (W f l ank o f v a l ley ; 1 5 . 0 1 1an tay tambo ( be tween t own a nd V i lcano ta R ive r ; 1 6 . C h ' i lka ; 1 7 . Machu P icchu ; 1 8 . I n ty P a ta ; 1 9 . C hoque suysuy ; 2 0 . Machu Q 'en te ; 2 1 . H uayna Q 'en te ; 2 2 . Q 'en te Med ia L una ; 2 3 . T una smoqo ; 2 4 . S imapuqu io ; 2 5 . C hoqana ; 2 6 . C h 'a l la raccay ; 2 7 . P acha r ; 2 8 . Moray ; 2 9 . C hoquequ irao ; 3 0 . T ip6n ; 3 1 . R aqch i ; 3 2 . H uaynacancha ; 3 . L la spay ; 3 4 . Wanka r ir i ; 3 5 . N eg ropuqu io ; 3 6 . L uc re ; 3 7 . Z u r i te ; 3 8 . C hak l lanka ; 3 9 . R unkuwa s i ; 4 0 . R io ja ; 4 1 . Ma rkawa s i ; 4 2 . l iak U yu ; 4 3 . C huca r ipu ; 4 4 . I ngap irca ; 4 5 . C o lca V a l ley . N o t e s : S ource s a re f r om f i e ld o b serva t ion o r a s r e fe renced i nT ab le 9 : 1 a nd ( 1 ) F a rr ing ton ( pe r s . c omm ) ; ( 20 -23 ) d ep ic ted i n K enda l l 1 985 i i :map 3 ; ( 44 ) G a spa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :296 -298 .

V e r t ica l a l ignmen t s o f WS , a s w e l l a s a l ignmen t s o f WD f e a tu re s , a r e f a ir ly r egu la r ly s pa ced w i th r e spec t t oe ach o the r a nd t o t h e c orner s o f w a l ls . R egu lar ity i s r epor ted i n measuremen ts o f I nca t e r races i n t he V i lcano ta V a l ley ( Far r ing ton 1 984 :10 -11) s o t ha t d e ta i led q uan t i ta t ive c ompar ison , a s t he r epor ted s amp le i n creases , may p rov ide a f u r the r a venue f o r a na lys is o f t he ir r eg iona l v a r ia t ion , s t anda rd iza t ion a nd p e rhaps c h rono logy . I ti sa l so p o ss ib le t h a t t e r raced s pace w a sc oncep tua l ly d iv ided i n to b lock sd e s igna ted b y s e t so fs uch f e a tu re s .

AM 1 -B ( Cas t i luyoq ) i sa n e f f ec t ive ly d i v ided l a ndscape ( F ig . 5 : 14 ) . Once w i th in t h e t e r ra ce s , i ti sn ece ssa ry t os ca le h i gh t e r race w a l ls t or each a n a d jacen t l e ve l , o r t o make al e ng thy p a s sage a round w a l l l i ne s . I ti sd oub tfu l t h a t t h e t e r race s w e re d ef ens ive s i nce t he n a tu ra l s l ope b e low i sa tl e a s t a s s t eep a s t h e t e r race s t h emse lve s . A cces s i sp o ss ib le f r om e i the r s i de o f t he t e r race s , p a ra l le l t o t h e c on tour , a nd t h e t e r ra in o n t h e n o r thern s i de r i se s a bove t h e s i te . O ne h ypo the s is i st h a t t h e embod ied p l an wa s t or e s t r ic ta cce ss b yc u l t iva to r so no ne l e ve l t o t he a d jacen t t e r race s . I n c on t ra s t , f r ee movemen t w as f a c i l i ta ted f r om l e ve l t o l e ve l t h roughou t S ec to r A a t AM1 . 1 47

I nca T er race s , S oc ia lL and scape s

TABLE 9 :2

Mean RPS Measurements

S ite Name

L ength

D epth o f

W idth o f

Height

( m )

Recess

Column

( m )

f rom L imatambo and t he Cusco Region.

( m )

( if

D ouble R PS) SD

n

D

S D

S D

S D

ANTA R ioja

3 .2

0 .4

4 1

0 .86

0 .12

5 0

6

2 .4

0 .4

Chakllanka

3 .2

0 .2

3

0 .77

0 .08

7

0

2 .6

0 .7

Runkuwasi

-

-

0

0 .70

-

1

0

2 .2

1 .6

0 .2

4 7 9 1

N egropuquio

2 .7

0 .4

2

0 .78

0 .04

2

0

3 .0

0 .0

2

Wankariri

2 .4

0 .2

3

0 .55

0 .10

3

0

2 .2

0 .2

3

Lucre

3 .0

0 .5

3

0 .79

0 .05

4

0

2 .5

0 .8

5

Z urite

4 .5

1 .6

6

0 .70

0 .07

1 0

0

3 .4

0 .6

1 0

2

1 .8

0 .1

2

0

4 .3

0 .7

7

URUBAMBA U rquillos

3 .9

0 .1

2

0 .60

-

1

Urco

4 .6

0 .6

8

0 .92

0 .03

7

Y ucay

4 .2

1 .0

7 7

0 .68

0 .13

6 4

Quispeguanca

4 .1

1 .6

9

0 .55

0 .07

Oqepalpa

3 .6

0 .7

1 7

0 .63

0 .02

1 2

Chic6n

3 .4

1 .0

4

0 .67

0 .05

4

Pamaqchupan

3 .0

0 .5

3

0 .73

0 .18

2

S imapuquio

7 .1

1 .2

6

1 .11

0 .07

6

9 .3 EXPLAININ G THE ARCHITECTURAL VARIAT ION I N I NCA TERRACE SCHE MES 9 .3 .1

B o th RPS a nd WS w e re c on tempo raneou s f e a tu re s a ts ome t ime i nt h ep e r iod o fI nca s ty le t e r race c ons t ruc t ion s i nce t h ey a l terna te o n o ne w a l l a t U rco , w i th n o a ppa ren t c hange i n s t onewo rk . B o th o ccur i n w a l ls o f s t one w h ich h a s b een p a r t ia l ly h amme r -d r e s sed t oa ch ieve af a i r ly c l o se f i t . We re t h ey v i r tua l ly s imu l taneous i no r ig in?

S ite

D irection o f Ascent L eft

R ight

AM1

3 1

M oray

5 1

TABLE 9 :4 S ite

( n )

2 .3

0 .7

3 4

4 .0

0 .9

9 1

2 .8

0 .3

3

3 .3

0 .8

7

2 .4

1 .0

8

3 .3

0 .0

2

0

-

-

0

2

2 .8

0 .2

3

0

3 .3

0 .3

5

3 .1

0 .4

T he re a r e myt h ico -h is to r ic a ccoun t s o ft h er u le r so ra r ch i te c t s r e spons ib le f o r b u i ld ing t e r race s a nd a l so t e s t imon ie s b y w i tne s se s i ne a r ly c o lon ia lt ime sa bou t wo rk t h ey h ad d one f o r t h e I nca . B o th l a ck s pec if ic i ty a bou tt h e e xa c t s cheme s w h ich w e re b u i l t . When a r ch i tec t s a nd r u ler s a r e n amed i n t h e c h ron ic les , o r e ven g iven a g enea logy , t h e l i nea r tempo ra l h i s to r ic i ty o f t he s t a temen t r ema ins u nce r ta in . P a t ter ned g ene r ic c oncep t s a r e f r equen t ly c on ta ined i nl i s t so fn ame s i n r e co rded I nca my th -h i s to ry ( Zu idema 1 964 ) . T e s t imon ie s o f b u i lde r s o r t he i r r e la t ive s i n t h e C o lon ia l P e r iod a r e a l so u n l ike ly t o r e so lve t h e o u t s tand ing q ues t ion , w h ich i st h e t empo ra lp r io r i ty o fo ne o rt h eo t he rt e r race t y pe .

T he i n comp le te t e r race c ons t ruc t ion a t AC! , a n RPS scheme , i sn o t n ece ssa r i ly i nd ica t ive o f al a te d a te , a l though i ti s p robab le t h a tS pan i sh i nva s ion w a st h er e a son f o rc e ssa t ion o f w o rk . Mo reove r , p i les o f e ven ly -s ized r ubb le a nd u neven s u r f ace p lane s i no ne s ma l l s ec to r a t Mo ray , a WS scheme , s ugge s ti tw a sa l so u nf in ished i np reh is to ry ( Hef f e rnan 1 988 ) . I t s t wo c i r cu la r t e r race s a r e v i s ib le , b u t u n labe l led , i nt h e a i r p ho tog raph p ub l i shed b y Donk in ( 1979 :116 118 ) .R ad io ca rbon d a t ing f o ro ccupa t ion r e fu se i nt h e RPS -scheme a t AL 12 1 i s

WS-Set D irection o f A scent:

0 .1

c on s is ten tw i th al a t e 1 5 th o re a r ly 1 6 th c en tu ry d a te , w i th in a b road d a t er a nge ( Append ix I I ) .I n ca t e r ra ce sw i th WS a nd WD o ve r lap t h e l owe r p a r t o fl o ca l leve l o r p r e Inca i n te r leav ing t e r race s o n t h e w e s te rn P a takancha v a l ley f l ank , b e tween 0 1 1an tay tambo a nd P umama rka I n ca s i te c omp lexe s , b u t t h i s d oe sn o ta s s i s tr ef inemen to fi n t ra Inca c h rono logy .

Chrono logy

TABLE 9 :3

1 .6

AM1 and Moray.

Total Wall S tep s ets

I ndividual S teps

Unknown

( n )

( n )

2 5

8

5 6

1 75

5 3

2 3

1 14

2 14

WS-Set Height,

Mean H eight

Batter and S tep P rojection: Mean B atter Angle

( m )

( n )

SD

AM1

2 .5

5 5

0 .4

M oray

1 .5

1 17

0 .5

AM1 and Moray. Mean S tep P rojection

( n )

S D

( cm )

( n )

S D

1 9.3

5 2

4 .5

3 7.7

1 75

4 .2

9 .3

2 8

5 .2

3 8.7

2 14

6 .1

1 48

I n ca T e r race s , S oc ia lL and scape s

An a ge -a r ea mode l ,c en t red u pon C u sco a nd f o rt h eD epa r tmen t o f Cu sco a l one ,d oes s ugge s tt h ep r ior i ty o ft h e w ide sp read a nd a bundan t WS-schemes a s o pposed t o RPS-schemes , c oncen t r a ted w i th in 6 0 km o ft he c ap i ta l ( F ig .9 :I ) . H oweve r , t h is i s t empe red b y b o th t he n eed t o e xp la in o u t ly ing o ccur rence s o f b o th f ea tures a nd t h e f a c t t h a t t he s t a te w as u l t ima te ly i n ap os i t ion t o d i rec t c ons truc t ion o f i t s f am i l ia r s ymbo ls t h roughou t T awan t insuyu . B o th p robab ly d a te t o a t ime w hen i tc ou ld mob i l ise t h e l a bou rf o rce s n eeded f o r l a rge a nd e l abo ra te t e r rac ing p ro jec ts a nd w hen i td rew r e sou r ce sf r om f a rb eyond t h en uc lea rp or t ion o ft he C u sco V a l ley .

b road t e r race l e ve ls . WS a r e n o t e xc lus ive t ot h e f o rme r a nd e x is t i ns t ra igh t w a l ls a ts eve ra l s i te s .

One o u t come o fI nca d yna s t ic s ucce s s ion i st ha tt h es ame l a nd a rea sm igh th ave b een a t tr ibu ted t od i f fe ren tr u le r s a td i f f e ren t t ime s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn o f RPS t e r race s cheme s h a s a l so b e en u sed t oh ypo the s ize t h ec oncen tra t ion o fr oya le s ta tes i nt h e z one ,d ema rca ted b y t he e x ten s ion o fC uzco c eque l i ne s , r i tua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th Ha tun a nd C apac a y l lus , t h ea y l lus o f t h e i n cumben ta nd p enu l t ima te r u le r( Fa r r ing ton 1 992 ) .

9 .3 .3 S oc ia l A ssoc ia t ions o f T erraced L ands

A rchaeo log ica l r e sea rch h a s t h e c apac i ty t o e luc ida te t h e p roduc t ive f unc t ions o f t e r race s chemes a nd d ay to -day a c t iv i t ie sa tt h e i ra s soc ia ted s e t t lemen t s ,a nd t h eb road l im i t so f e ne rgy i npu t s i nc on s truc t ion . H is to r ica l r e co rd s r evea l e a r ly c o lon ia l p a t te rns o f l a nd t e nure a nd t e s t imony t o i t s l a te p reh is to r ic u se . T he se a re t h e n e cessa ry a dd i t iona l d a ta f o r mode l l ing l a nd t e nu re i nl a te p reh is to ry a nd i t s l i ke ly c o r re la te s i nt h ep hys ica l l a nd scape .

Documen ta ry i n forma t ion i sr a r e ly s ou nequ ivoca l ,p re c is ea nd e qua l ly d e ta i led f o rt h ee n t i re l a nd scape a st op e rm i ta t ta chmen t o fa ne ven to rs o c ia l f a c tt ob ounded s pace . Mode ls b a sed u pon c a se sw he re t h is c an b ed one a r ee s sen t ia l i fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta a re t o b e made c ommensu rab le w i th c e r ta in h i s tor ica l q ue s t ions . Do cumen ta ry s ou rce s a r ea l so v a r iab ly d i s tanced b y t ime f r om l a te p reh is to ry , s o t h e i mp l ica t ions o ft h e f a c t s t h ey c on ta in r equ ire c r i t ica l a pp ra isa l . T he s pa t ia l a na lys is o fe a r ly h i s to r ic d a ta , i n C hap te r s 6a nd 7 , ma in ta ins t h e f o l low ing c onc lu s ions :

9 .3 .2 A S tatus a nd Land T enure Hypo thes is T he s t rong p resump t ion i st ha t m i tayoq i nC u sco i nt h e f i na l p reh i span ic d ecades w e re e xpe c ted t o p u t e i the r RPS o r WS , b u t r a re ly b o th , i n t he t e r race w a l ls t hey b u i l t u nde r I nca d i rec t ion . One c lue t ot he u se o ft h e s ymbo ls i st ha t WS a nd RPS f e a tu res we re p r imar i ly a t tached t o i mp roved , c u l t ivab le l a nd s . I ti st hus r easonab le t hen t o s ugges t t ha t t h ey w ere r e la ted t ol andho ld ing p r inc ip les . C on t ro l o f l a nd a nd l abour ma in ta ined t he I nca s t a te a nd t h e s t ra t if ied s oc ie ty e ncoun te red i n 1 533 i n Cusco . Ar ud imen ta ry u nde r s tand ing o fe x tan t l a nd t e nu re w a s u sefu l t oS pan ia rd s i ne a r ly c o lon ia l P eru , w hen t he l i ke ly r e s is tance t ot he ir a t temp t s a tr e source a cqu is i t ion h ad s t i l l t ob e c a lcu la ted i n t e rms o f a mo re l im i ted c apac i ty t o e nf o rce t h em _

( a ) AL 11 -A ,c on ta in st h el a rge s ta moun to fe l abo ra te ma son ry , a s w e l l a s u n ique s t a i rca se f o rm s , i nt h e L ima tambo V a l ley . I t wa s r ega rded i nv e ry e a r ly h i s to ry a s at ambo o r i ns ome w ay c en t ra l t ot h a tc oncep t . ( b ) AL 1 0 l a y w i th in a n a r ea , n o t t i gh t ly d ef ined , a t tr ibu ted t o t h e p reh ispan ic I nca i n s t i tu t ions o f mamakuna a nd s un . I t s t e r race w a l ls a r e n o t k nown t oi n co rpo ra te RPS o r WS , b u t a n i n teg ra l r oad s ys tem p rov ided a cce s st ol e ve ls .

A t temp t s t o i n te rp re t t he s oc ia l s i gn if icance o f a rch i tec tura l v a r ia t ion n ecess i ta te t he a ssump t ion t ha t t he f orms w ere s ymbo ls , a nd s y mbo ls w i th s pec if ic a nd a scer ta inab le m ean ing s . Unea s ine ss w i th t h is a s sump t ion , a nd t he c ho ice o f as t ruc tu re f o rt h e mean ing o fs ymbo ls ,a re o bv ious r e a sons f o r t h es i tua t ion n o ted b y Hodde r( 1987 :139 )t ha ts t ruc tu ra l ism h a s ma in ly p rov ided mode ls f o ra r chaeo logy o fh i s tor ica l p e r iods . N eve r the les s ,s ys tema t ic r e sea r ch o fh ow s ymbo ls w e re u sed i s a n e ndu r ing o b jec t ive o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch ( Renf rew 1 994 ) . I ti sn o t d if f icu l t t o p os i t a l l I nca t e r races a s e v idence o f d i f f e ren t ia l a cce ss t o e ne rgy , a nd b road v a l ley -f loo r t e r races w i th RPS a s s y mbo l o f af u r the r d eg ree o f h igh s t a tus . An R PS wou ld h ave r equ ired mo re e ne rgy t o b u i ld t han as e t o f p r o jec t ing s t ep s . Mo re s t epp ing s t one s h ad t ob ep laced s i de b y s i de a nd f ur the r s qua red c orne r s w e re b u i l t f o r t h e r e ce s s . T he h i ghe s t wa l ls a re k nown i n RPS -schemes a nd as pe c ia l e f for t w a s made t o s t ra ighten t h e l a ndscape . S ome RPS o ccur i n w a l ls b e tween 5 a nd 6 m h igh a t Yucay a nd U rco . T e r race s w i th WS p robab ly r each t h e ir h ighes t , a bou t 4m , i n t he S unchupa ta s ec to r o f Yucay . I n g ene ra l , t he c ons truc t ion o f n ume rous n a r row t e r race s , w i th l ow w a l ls , r equ i re s l e ss s o i l m ovemen tf o rl e ve l l ing t h an b road t e r race s w i th h igh w a l ls o n t h e s ame s l ope . Howeve r , t h e c ho ice o f mode ra te ly s l op ing l a nds f or RPS -schemes f a c i l i ta ted t he l eve l l ing o f b road s u r f ace s .G rea te ne rgy wa sa l so i nve s ted i nn a r row I nca c on tour t e r races , w i th WS , t o ma in ta in t he r egu la r i ty o f c urve . C ompa ra t ive e s t ima tes o f p reh is tor ic l abou r i npu t a r e o n ly g ene ra l a nd RPS o ccur i n r i se r s s epa ra t ing b o th n a r row a nd

( c ) AL 12 , a n RPS scheme , i sn o t u nequ ivoca l ly d escr ibed i n a va i lab le s ou rce s , b u t an ea rby I nd ian s e t t lemen tw a s o ccup ied a tt h e t ime o fc o lon ia l r educc iön a nd p robab ly b efo re i t ,b y a g roup w i th a n ame i nd ica t ing h igh r ank . Wa s t h is r ank ing made b y r e f e rence t oI n ca e l i te o r al o ca l h ie ra rchy? I ti so n ly k nown t h a tI nca s ty le a r tef ac t s w e re a va i lab le t ot h em a nd t h a t t he i r c ac ique w a s t h e p r inc ipa l o ne a mong t h e v a r iou s a y l lus c on ta ined i nC huyan i R epa r t im ien to . AL 12 w a s a l so w i th in o r b e s ide l a nd s o fI nd ians o ft h e r epar t im ien to o f Do lmo s , b u t a l so i n t he v ic in i ty o f t e r raced l a nds k nown t o h ave c or responded t o Do lmo s h imse lf . D id t hey r each Do lmo s t oge the r w i th s ucce ss ion t ot h e C huyan i e ncom ienda f r om h i s w if e 's f i r s t h usband , Mazue la s , f r om a p re -To ledan c l a im t o I n ca a nd s un l a nd s? ( d ) L ands o n t h e p oo r ly p re served t e r race s o f AL 11-B w e re a l ready h e ld , c la imed a nd o b ta ined b y c o lon ia l I nca n ob i l i ty i n e a r ly h i s to ry , wh ich i n d ica te s t h e i r I nca e l i te s t a tu s o r a tl e a s t a va i lab i l i ty a st e r r i to ry o u t s ide c ommun i ty l a nd s . ( e ) L ands a t tached t o t h e t ambo o f L i ma tambo , p oss ib ly i t s t e r races , w e re t h e s i te o f y anacona i n e a r ly h i s tory . T h is s t reng thens t h e c a se f o r t h e i r r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e c oncep t o f I nca e l i te p rope r ty i nl a te p reh is to ry . ( f ) M i tmaqkuna r e s ided o n s l op ing , u n te r raced l a nds b e s ide AL 11 . ( g ) AM I t e r race sc on ta in WS f e a tu re s . I tw a s at ambo s e rved i n l a te p reh is tory b y p eop le c a l led T i lka a nd d es igna ted a s m i tmaqkuna . R e se t t led p eop le s p rov ided s ecur i ty e nc lave s a nd

1 49

I nca T er races , S oc ia lL and scape s

a l so w o rke r s f o rI n ca l a nd s . M i t tnaqkuna c ou ld p robab ly a l so b ed e s igna ted a sy anacona t o empha s ize t h e i rs e rv ice re ta ine r f unc t ion a nd i n dependence f r om t i es t o g roup s o fo r ig in , b u t h i s to ry s t i l l h a s much t od emons ta te o n t h e i n tr icac ie s o fs uch t e rm ino logy . T he w o rd c hosen t od es igna te t h eT i lka p eop le i n Mo l ina 's a ccoun t o f c i tua wa s m i t imaes , t hus e mpha s iz ing t h e i r r o le a s p eop le i n s e rv ice o f t he s t a te , r a the r t han a s p e r sona l r e ta ine r so ft h eI n ca e l i te o rl a bou re r so nt h e ir e s ta te s .

T he g ene ra l c onc lus ion i s t h erefore a s t rong h ypo the s is , e xam inab le b y t h e c omb ina t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a nd s pa t ia l ly c onf ined d ocumen ta ry s ource s , a st h ey a re b rough tt o l i gh t . T he R PS schemes c an b e e xp la ined a s t he c h ief e xp re s s ion o fe xc lu s ive e s ta te s w h ich s uppo r ted t h es ub s i s tence o fe l i te s oc ia l g roup s o fn uc lea r Cusco , a nd w e re l i ke ly t ob e d e s igna ted i nd o cumen t sw i th t h en ame o ft h e ir I nca -founde ro r r o ya l -pe r sonage . I tr ema ins t ob ed e term ined w he the rt h e re a r e a r chaeo log ica l d i s t inc t ions b e tween e l i te l a nds h e ld b y r u le r s u nde r ma le -founde rb a sed a y l lu d e scen t , f r om t h el a nd sh e ld b y p anaqa s , g roup s d ef ined b y s i s te r -bro the rr e la t ions ( Zu idema 1 964 :99 ,184 -5 ; S he rbondy 1 982 :19 ) . T he f a c t t ha t p r ima ry r oya l w ive s w e re c l a ss if ied a s s i s te r s may mean t ha t t h e d e s igna t ion o fe s ta te s b y t h e n ame o fI nca 's w ives i nc o lon ia l l a nd c l a ims w a s a n a t temp t t op resen t t h e p anaqa i n af o rm i n te l l ig ib le t ot h eS pan ia rds .

( h ) Sma l l t e r race g roups a t h ighe r a l t i tudes ( ALI , AL3 a nd AL6 ) a ppea r t o h ave b een i s lands , a nd w e re s u r rounded b y I nd ian c ommun i ty l a nd s i ne a r ly h i s to ry . ( i ) C i rcums tan t ia l e v idence l i nk s t e rraces n ea r t h e r educc iön t own o fC h inchaypuqu io ( known e xamp le s o fw h ich a r e RPS s chemes ) w i th a h igh ly -ranked s oc ia l g roup , b u t f u r the r h i s to r ic d a ta a r en eeded f o rs pa t ia lp rec is ion . Documen ta ry a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n forma t ion o n L ima tambo t e r race s cheme s l e ad s t o r ecogn i t ion o f s im i la r i t ie s w i th t h e I nca p re sence i nt h e V i lcano ta V a l ley . S ome t e r race s cheme s h ave b een i d en t if ied , b a sed o n t oponym ic s u rv iva ls f r om e a r ly d ocumen ta ry r e f e rence s f ounded i nf i e ld s urvey , a mong 1 551 c l a ims f o rl a nd s o ft h e I nca , s un , n amed I nca s a nd t h e ir w ive s ( V i l lanueva 1 970a :13 ,37 , 4 6 ,52 -53) . RPS t e rraces i n U rubamba t ownsh ip a ppea r t o b e a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f ar u ra l e s ta te a nd p a lace c omp lex w h ich b e longed t o I n ca H uayna C apac i nl a te p reh is tory ( Fa r r ing ton 1 986 ,1989 ) . R PS -scheme s r a ther t han WS -scheme s t e nd t o f i gure w i th in t h e s pec if ic c l a ims . C h ron ic le r e f e rence s t oe s ta te so rr e t rea t so fI n ca s , t h e i r mumm if ied c o rp se so rp anaga sa r e , i nc on t ra s t ,o f t en e qu ivoca l a nd a l ls pa t ia l ly a f loa t .

Z one s o fe l abo ra te ly f i n ished t e r race w a l ls o n t h e h igh p o in t s o f RPS s cheme s , l i ke AL 12 -7 a nd AL 14 , w e re p robab ly s i te s o fe l i te r u ra l r e s idence ,a na lagou st ot he Qu ispeguanca c omp lex o fU rubamba a nd Y ucay ( Fa r r ing ton 1 986 ;p e r s .comm .1989 ) . I nc on t ra s t , many WS -scheme st e nd t os ur round I n ca u rban l ike c omp lexe s a nd /o r c eremon ia lc en tres w i th c oncen tra t ion s o f s t and ing s t ruc tu re s .T h is p a t ter n e x is t s , f o re xamp le , a tP isaq 'a , 0 1 1an tay tambo , Machu P icchu , Mauka l lac ta ( Yaur isque ) , T ipön a nd R aqch i . T he se may h ave b een t h e c o re t e r r i to ry o f p roduc t ion f o rs t a te -ma in tenance a nd h ave b een r e s idence s o f I n ca e l i te i n sof a r a s a dm in is t ra t ion was t h e r o le o f p eop le a c tua l ly r e la ted t ot h e I n ca r u le r s , o rp erm i t ted t o e xpress t h e i r s t a tus b y r e f e rence t ot h em . R ecen t ly , t h e WS -scheme a tT ipön h a s b e en p o s i ted a s ap oss ib le s i te o f l a nds f o r I nca s t a te m a in tenance w o rked b y m i tmaq d e scr ibed i n ac o lon ia l l a nd d i spu te ( Bu rkhe ime r a nd L a L one 1 987 :55 -60 ) . A s s een i n L ima tambo ,t e r ra ce sa r en o tr ep re sen ta t ive o fa l l r e sou rce z one s w h ich w e re t a pped b y l a te p reh is tor ic I nca s oc ie ty , o n ly o ft h e l a nd s w he re l a bou r i n pu t w a s c oncen t ra ted a nd a bou t wh ich I n ca s e t t lemen t s w e re c en t red i nt h eC usco r eg ion .

Why a r e RPS t e r race s l o ca ted a tI t iak Uyu o n K oa t i I s land o f L ake T i t icaca? Mur ra , b a s ing h imse lf o n Murua ( 1590 ) , s ugges t s t h a t L ake T i t icaca s anc tua r ie s w e re v i r tua l ly u n ique a mong I nca e s tab l ishmen t s w i th m i tmaqkuna , i nt h a t p r ie s t s a nd o ff ic ia ls t h e re p er ta ined t ot h e d ynas t ic a y l lus o fC usco , r a the rt h an m e re ly f r om p r iv i leged g roups n ea rt h ec ap i ta l , w ho w e re s ome t ime s s poken o f a sf rom C usco ( 1978 :254 ) . I ti s s t i l l u nknown i fA tawa l lpa d i rec ted c ons t ruc t ion o fI nca s ty le l a ndscape wo rk s n ea r t h e n or thern c en tre o f h i s f a c t iona l i n f luence a t t h e e nd o f p reh is tory b u t Qu i to c on ta ined r e crea t iona lh ouses o fr u l ing e l i te , a nd A tawa l lpa ' sr e la t ive si n Qu i to d rew i n come f r om e xc lus ive e s ta tes ( Sa lomon 1 986a :147 ,169 -171) .

TABLE

9 :5

S ite Name

Mean WD Measurements D istrict

T he a s soc ia t ion o f WS -scheme s w i th l a rge I nca s e t t lemen t s c onform s w i th t h ee t hnog raph ic mode l o f Maye r( 1985 :66 ) , i n t h a t p re sen t v i l lage n uc le i o f s e t t lemen t a re l o ca ted n ea r t h e l a nd sn eed ing t h eg r ea te s tl a bou ri n pu t s .

f rom L imatambo and t he Cusco R egion.

Wall

Height

H (m )

SD

WD R ecess n

D (cm )

SD

D epth

WD Width W (cm )

SD

Markawasi

L imatambo

2 .2

0 .5

2 2

2 2

5

2 2

1 8

4

2 0

Wankariri

Chinchaypuq.

2 .2

0 .1

4

2 1

5

3

1 7

7

3

Huimin

P isac

2 .1

-

1

1 4

-

1

1 5

-

1

Urco Hda

Huayllabamba

3 .3

-

1

-

-

-

2 8

-

1

Yucay

Urubamba

4 .3

1 .1

1 8

3 1

8

9

2 7

5

2 5

Quispeguanca

Urubamba

2 .7

0 .6

2

2 3

6

6

2 9

9

6

Oqepalpa

Urubamba

3 .2

0 .6

2

3 5

-

1

2 9

1 1

5

Chicön Qda

Urubamba

2 .9

-

1

2 8

3

4

3 2

6

4 2

Yanawara

Urubamba

1 .9

0 .1

2

3 0

-

1

3 8

1 1

Moray

Urubamba

1 .3

0 .6

2 2

9

3

1 7

1 4

2

2 3

Chinchero

Urubamba

1 .9

0 .3

5

2 3

5

5

1 6

2

4

1 50

I nca T erraces , S oc ia lL and scape s

P resen t v a lue s ys tems l e ad t o ad ua l p a t te rn o fs e t t lemen t , o n t he ma ize -po ta to b oundary a nd o n t h e f i e ld c rop -pa s ture b ounda ry . T rans la ted t o t he I nca s t a te p a t tern , e ne rgy w a s d i rec ted t ot e r raced l a nd scape s i nt h e a r ea o f ma ize p roduc t ;on a nd s e t t lemen tw a sc oncen t ra ted n ea rby .

Wa te r D rops s how a g ene ra l c on s is tency i nd imens ions , b u t n o t g rea t s t anda rd iza t ion , i n v a r ious RPS , a nd WS t e r race s cheme s o ft h e C usco r eg ion ( Tab le 9 :5 ) . I dea l ly , t h ey a ppea r t of i x as ys tem o f w a te r p a s sage t h rough t e r race s . T he c eque s ys tem o fC usco a ppea r st oh ave h ad t h ei d ea lo fd iv id ing c ana l s ys tems o r i r r iga t ion d i s tr ic t s f o r s pec if ic a y l lus , a nd w a te r r i gh t s w ere i n teg ra l i n t h e l a nd t e nure s ys tem ( She rbondy 1 982 :80 ) . A l ignmen t s o f w a te r d rop s i n b o th RPS a nd WS t e r race s may t hu s i n d ica te s ma l l sca le l a nd d iv is ion .

B eyond t h ec o re l a nd s , b o th t h eI nca e l i te a nd s t a te -ma in tenance s ys tem r e l ied u pon t h e e x is tence o f c ommun i t ie s , whe the r l o ca l o r m i tmaq , t op rov ide t he l a bou r w h ich g ave a ccess t o c ame l id p as tures , h igh land c rops , woo l , l ow land a nd s e lva c rops a nd o the r d i spe r sed r e sou rces . C e r ta in p a s tures n ea r C usco w e re i mp roved b y i r r iga t ion ( She rbondy 1 982 :11) , a nd t he s ma l l t e r race s chemes a nd c ana l i n P ampaconga o f L ima tambo may r ep re sen tt h e s ame d i spe r sed a nd c ommun i ty r e l ian ta cce s st on on -ma ize p roduc t ion z one s . 9 .4 I NSIDE ELITE LANDSCAPES : AND S PATIAL D IVISION

9 .5

CONCLUSION

Mo s t I nca t e r race s i n t he L ima t ambo V a l ley a nd s ome n ea r C h inchaypuqu io , w e re a ppa ren t ly d ed ica ted t op roduc t ion f o r t h e Cusco e l i te . T h is a ppea r s s im i la r t o l a nd t e nu re i n l a te p reh is tor ic Yucay . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o fs uch i den t if iab le c o re l a nds , o ve rw h ich e xc lus ive r i gh t so fI nca a y l lus / panaqa s w e re e xe rc ised , d oe s n o t l e nd w e igh tt ot h e mode l t ha t t h eq ue s tf o r l a nds d ed ica ted t oe l i te -ance s to rw o r sh ip w as ap r inc ipa ld r iv ing f o rce f o r t h e e xpans ion o f T awan t insuyu . T hey a r e ama jo r c omponen t o f I nca s i tes i n c e r ta in p lace s , b u t a r e s ma l l i n c ompar ison t o t he t o ta l a gr icu l tura l l a ndscape , a s w e re t h e s pe c if ic c o lon ia lc l a ims t oI n ca r oya le s ta te s .

HUA CAS

S t rong e v idence t ha tI nca t e r race s w e re p roduc t s o fa n o ve ra l l p lan c a r r ie st h ei mpl ica t ion t ha tt h ey may b er e ad i ly r ega rded a s r epre sen ta t ions o f t h e I nca c oncep tua l wor ld . A s im i la r ly p lanned b ody o ft e r ra ce si na nA s ian l a nd scape h as b een n amed t he s acro -econom ic u n i t (Whea t ley 1 965 :135 -6 ,143 ) . Co inc idence o f s t a irca se f orms w i th a s oc io -econom ic d i s t inc t ion i n owne r sh ip o ft e r raced l a nd s i nI nca C usco d oe s n o t e xp la in t he p re c i se l o ca t ion o fw a l l f e a tu re s a cco rd ing t o t he ir p r ac t ica l f unc t ion . S cu lp tured r ock s a re f ound i n b o th RPS -schemes ( AC3 ) a nd WS -scheme s ( P isaq I n t iwa tana a nd C hogana i n t he V i lcano ta Va l ley ) . S eve ra l c a ses a re n o ted whe re RPS a l ign b enea th t he s i te s o f l a rge u nscu lp tured b ou lde r s ( AL 12 -4 a nd AL12 -s ta irca se r ow B I :1-5 ; AL2 , RPS 9 ; AC 1 , Wa l l B i i ) . T he se may h ave b een p ar t icu la r s hr ines w i th in t e r race s ys tem s , l i ke h uacas o n t h e c eque l i ne s o f C usco . T he re i sa l so a s uperf ic ia l r e semb lance o f r ad ia t ing a l ignmen t s o f w a l l f e a tu res , a ts cheme s l i ke Ma rkawa s i , w i th k no t s o n t he o pen k h ipu s t r ing reco rd . I ti su nknown i ft he c o lon ia l b ounda ry -ma rke r r o le o f t h e Murucu sma r ock n ea r L ima tambo c on t inued ap reh ispan ic b ounda ry f unc t ion , b u t i t s l i ke ly l o ca t ion a tt h ej unc t ion o f a n I nca r oad a nd a s t ra igh t g u l ly , w h ich d ef ined t h e e nd o f a n I nca t e r race , s cheme i s s t rong ly s ugges t ive o ft h is .

1 51

I nca t e r race sh ad n o tr eached at o ta l c ove rage e ven i nt h ep a r t s o f v a l leys w i th t opograph ic a nd e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions d emons t rab ly p ref e r red f o rt h e ir p l acemen t . T h is i sc ons is ten t w i th d ocumen ta ry s t ud ies b y Wach te l ( 1982 :229 -231) o n C ochabamba a nd E sp inoza ( 1973 :251-252 ) o n t h e Abancay V a l ley , whe re s uch e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions e x is t , b u t w he re t h ed a ta a r e i nd ica t ive o fm i t 'a o rm i tmaq r a the rt h an y anacona l a bou rf o rce s .

CHAPTER 1 0

T ILKA AND MOUNTAIN -SU M MIT I NCA S ITES : S ITES AS SY MBOLS 1 0 .1

I NTRODUCTION

Why w e re e x t rao rd ina ry a nd m in iscu le s e t s o f I n ca t e r race s b u i l t o n u n i r r igab le p eak s o fT i lka Moun ta in ( 3780 m ) a nd Q o r iwa irach ina H i l l ( 2510 m )? T he a nswe r s ca r ce ly l i e s i n t h e i rp o ten t ia l f o rs e t t lemen to ra g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion . E a r ly c o lon ia l d ocumen ta ry a ccoun t s f r om C usco a bound w i th r e f e rence st o moun ta in sa sh uaca s( s ac r ed p l ace s ) ,a sr e s idence s o fi do ls o rd e i t ies a nd a s f o c i o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty ( Mo l ina 1 943 [ 1 573 ] ; A lbo rnoz 1 984 :198 199 , 2 04 -206 [ c a . 1 584 ] ; C obo 1 964 :169 -186 [ 1653 ] ) . H oweve r , o the r t opog raph ic f e a tu re s w e re a l so s a c r ed p l ace sa nd t h ea r chaeo logy o fC u sco moun ta in s umm i t s h a s n o t r e ce ived s uff ic ien t ly d e ta i led a t ten t ion t o i n d ica te t h e a bundance a nd d ive r s i ty o f I n ca s i te s i n s uch l o ca t ions . T he s o -ca l led p o s t -proce s sua l a pp roach t o a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s ugge s ted t h a t f i nd ing s o fs t ruc tu red h i s to r ica l m ean ings a r e f a c i l i ta ted b y t he e va lua t ion o f c on tex t i n a r chaeo log ica l d a ta wh ich , i t i s a ssumed , embod ie s ( r e cogn izab le ) ma te r ia l e f f ec t so f mean ing ( Hodde r 1 984 :154 5 ) . P roce s sua l a r chaeo logy empha s ize s t h e f ormu la t ion o f p rocedure s f o r r e cogn iz ing o r l e a rn ing t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta f o r g ene ra l t h eo ry a bou t h uman b ehav io r ( B inford 1 988 :876 ) . I n p rac t ice , n e i the r a pp roach c an b e c on s ide red mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive ( eg .Renf rew 1 994 ) .T he d eg re e t o wh ich e t hnoh is to r ic d a ta c an i n form o n t h e m ean ing o f p a t te rned s t a t ic ma te r ia ls i sd ependen tu pon t h es ou r ce sd e ta i l , i t st empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l s pe c if ic i ty w i th r e spec tt ot h ep rob lem a th and a nd t h e i n te rp re ta t ion g iven t he f a c t s i tc on ta in s . A s t a r t ing p o in t i st oe xam ine t h e c ompa ra t ive a r chaeo logy o f s im i la r s i te s a nd e t hnoh is to r ic s ou rce s w h ich s hed l i gh t o n s t ruc ture s o f mean ing w i th in w h ich p a r t icu la r p l a ce s w e re c once ived . T h is a pp roach i sn o t e xc lus ive o f t h e n eed f o r a r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch t or ef ine a nd d eve lop d i a ch ron ic mode l s o ft h e f unc t ions o fs uch s i te s a nd t h e i rr o le i nw ide rp roce s se s o f c u l tura l c hange b eyond t h e r each o f e t hnoh is to ry ( e g . D ema re s t 1 992 ) . T he a rchaeo logy o f moun ta in s umm i t s i sb e s t k nown i nt h e s ou the rn A nde s .E x t reme ly h i gh a r chaeo log ica l s i te sh ave b e en r e po r ted n ea r ma jo rp eak s t h roughou tt h eA nde so fA rgen t ina , B o l iv ia , C h i le a nd s ou the rn P e ru . Many o ft h e se s i te s c on ta in t h er ema ins o fh uman c h i ld s a c r if ice ( capacocha )( Schob inge r 1 966 ) . T he f i r s t s i te a bove 6 000 m i n a l t i tude w a s f ound i n 1 905 a nd o ve r5 0a r en ow k nown a ta l t i tude sb e tween 5 200 m a nd 6 273 m ( Fe rnandez 1 982 :167 -169 , R e inha rd 1 985 :300 3 0 1) . C u sco s umm i t s a re e nv i ronmen ta l ly d i s t inc t f r om t h o se a t s im i la ra l t i tude si nt h es ou ther n Ande s ( Ha s ten ra th 1 967 :54 1) . T he h ighe s t , A uzanga te ( 6384 m ) a nd S a lkan tay ( 627 1 m ) , a r e p e ren ia l ly g l ac ia ted . T he l owe r g lac ia l l im i t o f S a lkan tay i s a bou t 4 600 m ( Pu lga r V ida l 1 981 :149 ) . T h i s i s mo re t h an 1 000 m b e low t h a to f moun ta ins i nA requ ipa a nd o ve r2 000 m b e low t h e h ighe s tu ng lac ia ted p eak w i th p reh i s to r ic s t ruc tu re s i nC h i le .T he a pp rop r ia te p a rame te rf o rc ompa ra t ive r e sea r ch i s t h e refo re t h er e la t ive t opog raph ic p lacemen to fs i te sr a the rt h an t h e i ra b so lu te a l t i tude .

1 0 .2 TOPOGRAPHY AND S ITE TYPE 1 0 .2 .1 H igh a nd L ow S i tes i n Mo l lepata . I n ca s i te s i nt h e Mo l lepa ta s ub reg ion o ft h eL i ma ta rnbo A rea c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo g roups . T he f i r s t a re o n f l a t s o r m ode ra te s l ope s ( AM1 , AM5 a nd AM6 ) a nd t he s econd o n s umm i t s o r r i dge s ( A M2 , AM3 a nd AM4 ) . T he f o rme r a r e b e tween 1 850 a nd 2 340 m a bove s ea l e ve l a nd t he l a t te r a r e h i ghe r ,b e tween 2 510 a nd 3 780 m . T he i rr e la t ive p lacemen t i n l o ca l t o pog raphy g i ve s r i se t or e s t r ic ted v i ew s f r om t h e l ow s i te sa nd e x ten s ive o ne sf r om t h el a t te rg roup . T he l ow s i te s l a y a l ong t h e I nca r ou te f r om L i ma tambo t o C u rahua s i . T he l a rge s t , AM 1 a nd AM5 , a r e d i s t inu ished b y t h e i rp rox im i ty t oe x ten s ive a r ea s o fi r r iga ted a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a ta l t i tude s s u i tab le f o r m a ize c u l t iva t ion . AM 1 S ec to r C c on ta in s t h e mo s t e l abo ra te I n ca s t y le ma son ry i n Mo l lepa ta . P o t te ry s c a t te r s a t AM1 S ec to r B , AM5 a nd AM6 s ugge s t s t h ey w e re ' l i v ing 's i te sa nd a r ch i te c tu ra ld if e r en t ia t ion a t AM 1 i n d ica te s ap o ten t ia l ly w ide r a nge o f a c t iv i ty p a t tern s . AM6 l i e s d eep i n t h e Apu r imac V a l ley , ap lace w i th l im i ted a g r icu l tu ra l p o ten t ia l b u t w h ich h a s b een al o ng te rm b r idge l o ca t ion . C omponen t s o ft h e h i gh s i te s a r e b u i l t o n o ra d jacen t t or o ck o u t c rop s .A l lh ave t e r ra ce sr e ta ined b ys t one w a l l sb u tt h e se a r e o fm ino re x ten t , r e la t ive ly n a r row a nd u n ir r igab le b y c ana l a t AM2 a nd AM3 . A cce s s f r om t e r race t ot e r race w a sp robab ly a m ino r c once rn i nc ons t ruc t ion , s i nce n o WS o ccu r o n t h e i r r e ta in ing w a l ls . Two s t a i r ca se s a t AM3 r i se t h rough t e r r ace s , f r om as t ruc tu ra l s e c to r t ot h e h ighes t p la tfo rm , a nd a t AM2 t h eh i ghe s tl e ve l w a sd i s t ingu i shed b y mo re e l abo ra te m a sonry . N o f o rma l r ou te o fa cce s s t ot h e t op o f AM2 w a s f ound , b u t c ou ld b e o b scu red b y r ubb le a nd w a l l c o l lap se o n t h e n o r thwe s te rn s i de o ft h es i te . AM2 , AM3 a nd AM4 a ppea r t o h ave h ad l i t t le t o d o w i th d i rec t a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion o rc omun ica t ions , a l though t h e h i gh g round , t e r race s a nd v i ew s w h ich c ha rac te r ize AM2 a nd AM3 a r e c ons is ten t w i th t h e p urposes o f d ef ence a nd o b serva t ion . H oweve r , AM3 i sw i th in c loud f o r much o f t h e w e t s ea son , ap o in t n o ted a tl e s s e l abora te h i gh -p la t form s i te s e l sewhe re i nC u sco (Wh i te 1 987 :135 ) . AM4 a l so g ive s w ide v i ew s o f t h e B lanco R ive r v a l ley a nd i sn ea r ap a th t o t h e a d jacen t U rubamba v a l ley v i a ah igh p a s s , b u t i tc an b e a pp roached f r om a bove a nd s cu lp tu red r ock s a r e n o t w e l l e xp la ined i n as t ra t eg ic mode l . 1 0 .2 .2 H igh Va l ley .

S ites

i n

t he

Upper

L i mata mbo

T he n o r thea s te rn L ima tambo V a l ley r ece ived much mo re e x ten s ive I n ca p e r iod t e r ra ce c on s t ruc t ion t h an Mo l lepa ta .O ve r 1 00 h a o fb road l e ve l led t e r race s r e ta ined b y s t one w a l l s a r e c oncen t ra ted o n ma ize l a nd so ft h eC o lo rado R ive rv a l ley f l oo r b e tween 2 400 m a nd 3 500 m , a vo id ing t he d ry h o t s ou thwe s te rn v a l ley f l oo r b e low Ma rkawa s i . T e r ra ce s cheme s w i th s t a i r s i nt h e u ppe rv a l ley ( AL2 , AL8 a nd AL 12 ) a l h ave R PS , r a the r t h an t h e WS k nown a t AM 1.N o RPS h ave y e t . b een f ound o n mounta in s umm i t t e rraces .

1 52

T i lka , S umm i t s , S ymbo l s

H igh a l t i tude s i te s o ft he u ppe r v a l ley i n c lude AL20 , s i te o fa g roup o fl o ng a nd n a r row r ec tangu la r I n ca s t ruc tu re s b es ide a l a rge r ock a t3 710 m . I ti sl o ca ted o n t h es i de o f ar av ine n ear a s t ream . S i te AL22 , a t 3 900 m , c omp r ises a p a ir o f I nca r e c tangu la r s t ruc tures n ea r as ma l l l a ke o n t he b road p a r t o fa r i dge wh ich r uns n or thwa rd f r om t h e p eak o f W i lka ray moun ta in ( 4067 m , a l so k nown a s T ic l la ) . Ap a i r o fs ha l low p i ts l i e o n al ow r i dge 5 0 m e a s t o f t he I nca b u i ld ings , p robab ly f o rb ur ia l l i ke t he o the rc y l ind r ica l s t one l ined p i t so f t h e u ppe rv a l ley . P o t te ry s ca t te r s o n l ow h i l ls n ea rL ima tambo a re ma in ly p re Inca ( AL4 , AL5 a nd AL 19 ) a s a r e r i dge t op v i l lage so rh am le t s( AL28 , AL29 a nd AL30 ) . 1 0 .2 .3 A Co mparat ive P erspec t ive S i tes i n t he Cusco Reg ion

o n

H igh

I nca

T i lka a nd Q or iwa irach ina a re e xamp le s o f aw ide ly r epea ted p a t ter n o f a s soc ia t ion b e tween s i te t ype a nd t opography . E lemen t s o f c ompar ison c an b e s pec if ied a t s eve ra l s i tes . Huayna P icchu f ea tu re sv e ry n a r row t e r race ss u r round ing ap eak o f r ock , s evera l h undred me t re s a bove Machu P icchu s e t t lemen t . T he I nt iwatana h e re ( Se c tor 6 ) c ompr ise s a r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing a nd a s cu lp tu r ed o u tcrop w i th a v er t ica l p i l la ro n at e r raced h i l l ( B ingham 1 930 :F igs .219 ,30b ,32 ) . T he I n t iwa tana c omp lex o f0 1 1an tay tambo c ons is t so f ar e c tangu la r b u i ld ing a nd a t e r raced p la tform c on ta in ing a n a ppa ren t ly u nmod if ied o u tcrop s ur rounded b y as t ruc ture w i th l a rge , o u twa rd -f ac ing n iche s . I tl i e s o n ar i dge em inence o ve r look ing 0 1 1an tay tambo I nca s e t t lemen t , t e r race s a nd r e l ig ious s ec tor ( Ga spa r in ia nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :69 ,f ig .52 ) . An em inence v i s i ted i n1 988 h i ghe ro n t h es ame r i dge i ss u rrounded b y p oo r ly f i t ted t e r race w a l l ing , p e rhaps a n e a r l ie r s i te . P isaq I nt iwa tana c omp r ise s ag roup o fr e c tangu la rb u i ld ing s a nd a n o u tc rop w i th as cu lp tu red v er t ica l p i l la r s ur rounded b y ac urved w a l l o r a p la tform ( Ga spa r in i a nd Ma rgo l ie s 1 980 :81 ,P 1 .66 ) . I t l i es a bove b o th t he b u i ld ing g roup c a l led P i saq 'a a nd WS te r race s cheme s . T ' ikahuer ta ( 3200 m ) , as i te v i s i ted i n Huanoqu i te i n 1 988 , i s at owe r ing r ock o n t h e l owe r e nd o f ar i dge a t t h e n o r thwe s tern c o rne r o f t he c onf luence o f t he Apu r imac a nd Mo l le Mo l le R ive r s . T h is i sd eco ra ted w i th n a r row m in ia ture t e r race so f Cusco I nca mason ry . T race so f as t a i rca se p la t form r ema in o n t he t a l le s tp a r to ft h eo u tcrop . L a rge r t e r race s , w i th WD f e a tu res , f l ank b o th s i de so ft h er i dge b e low t h er o ck . I ne ach c a se I nca t e r race s f l ank ap eak o rr i dge w i th n a tu ra l o r s cu lp tu red r ock a nd w i th v i ew s t ot h e V i lcano ta o r Apur imac r i ve r s . An SR a nd /o rR S l e ads t ot h e h igh s i te b u t t h e t e r race s n ea ri tr a re ly h ave a cce s s f e a tu r e s i nt h ew a l ls . T ho se b e low d o , h oweve r , h ave WS a nd /o r WD f e a tu re sb u tn o RPS a r ep re sen t . A t Ma rkawa s i , 0 1 1an tay tambo , Machu P icchu a nd P isaq , c omp lex s i te a r ea si n c lud ing C usco I nca ma sonry a r el o ca ted i n as add le b e low t he moun ta in top t e r races . P lacemen t o f b u i ld ings i n r i dge s add le s i s a mode l s een a t s ome p resen t v i l lage s a nd many p re Inca s i te s i nt h e C usco r eg ion ( Kenda l l 1 976 :99 ,106 ) .

c a l led Qo r iwa irach ina a nd I nca raccay , a bou t 1 00 m f r om a n e l abo ra te r ock c a rv ing ( Qu i l larum iyoq , 3 400 m ) , c on ta ins s eve ra l s cu lp tu red r ock s i n c lud ing as ma l l s cu lp ted p i l la ra tt h e t op o f ar o ck o n at e r raced p la tfo rm .T h is s i te l i e so n ab ou lde r s t rewn c o l luv ia l /a l luv ia l f an b e s ide t he I nca r oad f r om Z u r i te t o H u i l lque P a s s , a nd t hus a ppea r s t ob e r e la t ive ly l ow ( F ig . 5 : 1) . T he f i gu ra t ive ly s cu lp tu red b ou lde rc a l led S a ihu i te ( 3560 m ) , b e tween C u rahua s ia nd Abancay , l i e so n at e r raced p l a t fo rm o n a moun ta in s l ope . I n C a jama rca , ar ock s cu lp ted w i th s ea t s ( S i l la d e l I nca ) i sl o ca ted a tt he e dge o f ah i l l top a t2 700 m ( Rav ines 1 985 :53 ,92 ) . C hoque chu rco , w i th ap laza a nd s cu lp tu red o u tc rop so n ar i dge , c an b e c ompa red w i th t he mo re c omp lex e xamp le a tQ o lmay ( S i te AC2 ) o ve r look ing t he t own o f C h inchaypuqu io ( F ig s . 5 :20 , 5 :24 ) . AC2 ( 3450 m ) l i es b es ide a n e normou s o u tc rop a nd r ock f a l l a nd i n c lude s ac our tya rd b ounded b yt e r race sa nd r e c tangu la r b u i ld ings , at e r race b e tween t he o u tc rop a nd c our tya rd a nd a s ma l l s qua re b u i ld ing w i th t r apezo ida l w indows . Ac hambe r among t h e b ou lde r s i sp a r t ia l ly s ea led w i th C usco I nca masonry a nd c on ta ins a s cu lp tu red r ock . R u ins b e low t he s umm i t o f Guanacaure , o ne o f t h e mos t i mpor tan t moun ta ins i n Cu sco my ths o fo r ig in a nd r i tua l , w e re r epo r ted t o c ons is t o f s even r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re s a r ranged a bou t ac our tya rd , a l though n o s cu lp tu red r ock wa s f ound ( Rowe 1 944 :42 ) . S cu lp tured r ock s , i n c lud ing I n t iwa tana p i l la r s , a r e t h e re fo re f r equen t ly e l eva ted o n ap la tform o r p laza , b u t t h e p l a t fo rm r ock e l emen t may o ccu r i nv a l leys a s w e l l a so n s umm i t s . T he a s soc ia t ion b e tween e x t reme ly n a r row t e r race w a l ls o n r o cky moun ta in top s o r r i dges , a nd I nca o ccupa t ions s ur rounded b y WS ter races , a ppea r s t o f o rm a more c oheren t , b u t s t i l l p a r t ia l ly s ub jec t ive , l a ndscape mode l o f I nca r u ra l p re sence . Apa r t f r om t h ee l abo ra te C usco I nca ma sonry a nd a r ch i tec tu re , t h e re i s ac l ea ra na logy b e twe en t h eI nca s e t t lemen t ter race u n i t a nd t h e l a you to fs ome l a te p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t te r race u n i t s ( eg . S i te s AL39 a nd ALA -6 ) . 1 0 .2 .4 T i lka Co mpared S umm it S ites .

w ith

S outhern

T i lka s ha re s t wo b a s ic f e a tu res wh ich a r er ega rded i nR af f ino ' s r ev iew ( 1981 :137 -138 ) a s t yp ica l o f much h ighe rs umm i t s i te s i nt h es ou thern Andes . T he se a r e a r t if ic ia l ly f i l led p la tforms o f r e c tangu la ra nd c i rcu la r -e l l ip t ica l p lan ,a nd ac en t ra l mono l i th . T he l a t te r i s , h oweve r , ac ommon n a tu ra l f ea tu re o fs umm i t s i nt h e C u sco a r ea . Many o ft h e s ou ther n s i te s h ave b een d a ted b y a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd a r tefac tua l a ssoc ia t ions , a nd a f ew b y r ad ioca rbon , t o t he I nca p er iod , b u t o the r s l a ck e i the r ( op .c i t :137 ; R e inha rd 1 985 :30 1-302 ,314 ,f ig .11) . 1 0 .3 T IL KA AN D THE GEOGRAPHY OF CUSCO

CONCEPTUAL

1 0 .3 .1 Mounta in Huacas o f t he C eque R eg iona l Guanacaur is

F ou r r i dge s i te s , c ompr is ing b e tween o ne a nd t h ree p l a tforms a nd s ome t ime s i nv i ew o fs ma l l I nca b u i ld ing c omp lexe s , a r e r epor ted i nt h e P unkuyoq r a nge (Wh i te 1 987 :135 -136 ) . T he se l i e a t 3 800 -4350 m a nd a ppea r t o o n ly c omp r ise p la tforms w i th s t onewo rk r e semb l ing t h a t a t AM2 . S cu lp tu red v er t ica l p i l la r s o n r ock s a r e k nown e l sewhe re . A 9 cm h igh e xamp le o ccu r s o n t h e t op o f P umaorqo ( 3275 m ) , al ow l ime s tone o u tc rop a nd h i l l a d jacen t t ot h e e l abo ra te ly c ons t ruc ted I nca s e t t lemen to f Mauka l lac ta i nY aur i sque . B e low P umao rqo , t h e H uaynacancha Q uebrada c on ta in s WS te r race s . At e r race g roup

Andean

S ys tem a nd

T he c oncep tua l o rgan iza t ion o f t he l a ndscape i s aw ide ly a pp l icab le t h eme , f r om t he s t udy o f Aus t ra l ian Abo r ig ina l , Apache a nd Anc ien t Ch inese wor lds t o t ha t o f t h e I n ca (Whea t ley 1 971 :225 , 4 14-428 ; P r ince 1 971 :24 -44 ; S a l lnow 1 987 :11-12 ) . H und red so fh uacas i nt he v i c in i ty o fI n ca C u sco w e re n amed a nd b r ief ly d e scr ibed , a cco rd ing t ot h e i rp l a cemen t o n c eques o r l i nes c once ived o f a s r ad ia t ing f r om t h e m a in t emp le o f t h a t s e t t lemen t , i n a1 7 th c en tury c h ron ic le b y 1 53

T i lka , S umm i t s , S ymbo l s

' . . they l e f t m ak ing t h e s ame c r ie s , a nd t h e se w e re o f t h e l i neage C apa c A y l lu , H a tun A y l lu , V icaqu irao A y l lu , C hav i t eC uz co A y l lu a nd A rayraca A y l lu ,a nd o the r so fU ro [ h ur in? ] .T hey t o ok t h ec r ie sa sf a ra sS a lp ina , wh ich w ou ld b ej u s to v e r al e ague f r om C uzco ; a nd t h ey g ave t h em [ t he t a sk o fr i tua l c r ie s ] t ot h e m i t imaes o fJ aqu i jahuana ; a nd t h ey p a ssed t h em [ t he t a sk ] o n t ot h e m i t imaes o fT i lca , t h a t i sa bove Ma rcahua s i , a bou t t e n l e agues f r om C uzco ; t h e se [ p eop le ] c a r r ied t h em t o t h e A pu r imac R ive r , a nd t h e re t h rew t h em [se lve s ] i n , b a th ing t hemse lve s a nd w a sh ing t h e i rc l o the sa nd w eapons . . . ' [ my t r ans la t ion ]

B e rnab6 C obo ( 1964 :169 -186 [ 1653 ] ; Z u idema 1 964 ) . N ame s o fp a r ishe s u sed t od e sc r ibe p l ace s i nt h e l i s t s ugge s t t h a t t h e i n forma t ion w a s r eco rded b e tween 1 559 a nd 1 572 ( Rowe 1 981 :213 ) . Many o f t he s i tes w e re s p r ing s , r ock s a nd moun ta in s ( f requen t ly s a id t oh ave 1 ,2 ,3 ,5 ,o r 1 0 s t one s o n t o p ) , a sw e l la sc ave s , r av ine s , r ock f a l l s , f l a t s a nd e ven r oad s a nd b u i ld ing s . C r is t6ba l d e A lbornoz ( 1984 :205-206 [ 1584 1 ) p rov ided r ema rkab ly f r equen tr e f e rence s t oh uaca so u t s ide C u sco w i th t h en ame g uanacaur i ,s a id i ns ome c a se st oh ave b een h uaca si n m emo ry o ft h e i rn ame sake i nC usco . Mo s tw e re a l so r ock s o n moun ta ins , r ef lec t ing a t oponym ic p a ra l le l t o ap e rce ived t opogr aph ic r epe t i t ion i nt h e l a ndscape . G uaypon g uanacaur i , i nJ aqu i jahuana , w a s ar ock n ea r al a ke ,p e rhap sL ake H uaypo n ea r C h inche ro , whe re t he e a r s o f t h e i nd ios c uzcos w e re p i e rced ( op .c i t :206 ) . I t i s p oss ib le t h a t t h e t oponym w a s t r ansf e r red t o ah uaca w h ich s ha red a r o le i n t he i n i t ia t ion r i tua ls l e ad ing t o e a r -p ie rc ing o f t h e n ob i l i ty i n w h ich G uanacau r i o f C usco p layed a n i mpor tan t r o le ( Mo l ina 1 943 :47 [ 1573 ] ) . A s h r ine o f t h is n ame i n Huänuco h ad c u s tod ia l m amacona s (Mu r ra 1 982 :245 )a nd o the r sa r ek nown f r om Huanoqu i te a nd p lace s a sf a r n o r th a sQ u i to ( Se l igmann 1 987 :152 ; v an d eG uch te 1 990 ) . T he w ide r a nge o ft opog raph ic a s soc ia t ion s o fs ac red s i te s i n e t hnoh is to r ic s ou rce s , d e sp i te empha s is o n p a r t icu la r n a tu ra l f e a ture s s uch a s r ocks , s p r ings a nd moun ta ins , p re sen t s d i ff icu l t ie s f o r a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion e xcep t w he re a r tef ac t s o r monumen ta l s cu lp tu re a r ed i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h em a nd n o t r e a sonab ly e xp l icab le a s t h e man if es ta t ion o f o the r a c t iv i t ie s . Documen ta t ion c an a l so d emons t ra te t h e c on t inu i ty o f t oponym ic u sages n eeded t o l o ca te , w i th in v a ry ing b ound s o fp rec is ion , t h e p lace s r e f e rred t o i ne a r ly h i s to r ic s ou rce s o n h uacas . T h is a pp roach c ommenced b y l o ca t ing s i te si nt h ec eque s y s tem o fC u sco a nd h a sc on t r ibu ted t oc l a r if ica t ion o ft he I nca s y s tem o fr i tua l s pace a nd h o r izon a s t ronomy ( Zu idema 1 981 , 1 982 ; A ven i 1 981 ; v an d e G uch te 1 984 ) . T h is w o rk h a s b egun t oe x tend s ou th o fC usco ( Baue r 1 992 ) . S pec if ic d ocumen ta ry r e f e rence s t o t h e c e remon ia l p e r spec t ive o fi d en t if iab le s h r ine sa r en eve r the le s ss ca rce . 1 0 .3 .2 T i lka , Markawas i a nd t he Apur i mac R iver i n t he C i tua C ere mony C r i s t6ba l d e Mo l ina ( 1943 :29 -30 [ 1573 ] ) w ro te a n a ccoun t o f t h eI n ca c e remony c a l led c i tua ,s a id t oh ave o ccu r red i nA ugu s t a tt h e t ime o ft h e f i r s t r a in s , i no rde r t od r ive f r om C u sco t h e i lne sse s w h ich a ccompan ied t h em . P a r to ft h e r i tua l r e qu ired t h eg a the r ing o fs ome f ou rh und red membe r so fd i f f e ren tC u sco a y l lus , a rmed a s i ff o r w a r , i n aC usco p l aza . G roup s o fo ne h und red ma r ched o u ti nt h ed i rec t ion o fe a ch q ua r te ro ft h el a nd , m ak ing l oud s hou t s t ha t t h e i lne s se s g o a way . O ft ho se w ho w en tw e s twa rd t owa rds C h inchaysuyu , Mo l ina w ro te : s a l ian d ando l a s m i smas v oces , yi s tos e ran d e l a g enerac iön C apacay l lo , Awn a y l lo , V icaqu irao a y l lo , C hav i te C uzco a y l lo yA rayraca a y l lo , yo t ros d e U ro . Y d s to s I l evaban l a s v oces h as ta S a lp ina , q ue s er c id e l C uzco p oco m c i s d e u na l egua ; yd s tos l a s e n tregaban a l o s m i t imae s d e J aqu i jahuana , ye l los l a s e n tregaban a l o s m i t imae sd e T i lca , q ue e se nc ima d e Mar cahua s ic a s id i e z l e gua sd e l C uzco ; i s to s l a s I l evaban a ld od eA pur imac , y a l l il a s e chaban , b ahando se y l a vando l a s l ana s ya rmas . . (op .c i t . :31)

J uan d eB e tanzo s w ro te a bou tt wo c e remon ie s i nt h e mon th o f c i tua iqu i s , w h i ch h ep l a ced i nS ep tembe r ,o ne w i th t h ee l emen t o fb a th ing a nd a no the r i nw h ich s acr if ice s w e re made a tt h e j unc t ion o f t wo r i ve r s f l ow ing t h rough C usco ( 1880 :104 [ 1 55 1 ] ) . Two c a na l ised r i ve r s b ound t h es pace i nC u sco w h ich c on ta in s t h e g r e a te s tc oncen t ra t ion o fe l abo ra te I nca b u i ld ing s i nt h eC u sco V a l ley ( She rbondy 1 982 :8 ) . T i lca a nd Mar ca hua s ia r e ,a sp r ev ious ly d e te rm ined ,t oponym s t h a tc on t inue t od e sc r ibe t h e l o ca t ions o fs i te s AM3 a nd AM 1 . T i lca w a su sed a se a r ly a s1 543 t od e scr ibe p eop le i ns e rv ice o f Apu r ima T ambo , p robab ly S i te AMI . Mo l ina 's s ys tema t ic a ccoun to fc i tua a lmo s t c e r ta in ly d e r ive s f r om o ra l t r ad i t ion , a nd i ts pec if ie s t h e r o le o f m i t imaes d e T i lca i n t he r e lay p i lg r image . T hu s , i n te rp re ta t ions o f c i tua a r e p a r t icu la r ly r e levan tt oa n u nd e r s tand ing o ft h eT i lka s umm i ts i te . T opog raph ic s ymbo l ism i se v iden t i n t h e r i tua l , s i nce t h e ma r ch i ne ach d i r e c t ion e nded w i th w a sh ing i n al a rge r i ve r . T h is w a s d one t oc a r ry i l s a way t ot he s ea ( Mo l ina 1 943 :32 [ 1573 ] ) . T he o t he r d e s t ina t ions w e re t h e Q u iqu i jana R ive r ( Co l la suyu ) , t h e P i sa R ive r ( An t isuyu ) , a nd t h e C u s ibamba R ive r( Con t i suyu ) .T oponym ic c on t inu i t ie s i n d ica te t h a tt h e se a r e p a r t icu la r l e ng th s o f t h e V i lcano ta a nd A pur imac r i ve r s ( Zu idema a nd P oo le 1 982 :88 ) . T he r o le o fT i lka i nc i tua , i t s a r chaeo logy , a nd t h a t Mo l ina ' s a ccoun t h ad t h e C u sco a y l lu s c ommence t h i s p i lg r image b u t h and o ve r t om i t imaes o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o fC u s co i ne ach d i rec t ion , r a ise s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f a r chaeo log ica l s i t ec omp lexe s ,o n t h eT i lka -Ma rkawa s i mode l , a tt h e o t he r t h r ee p i lg r image e nd -po in ts . S eve ra l I nca s i te s b e s ide t h o se r i ve r s s ha re a s im i la r l a you t a nd t e r race w a l l f e a tu re s ,s uch a sP i saq . 1 0 .3 .3 T i lka , t he Apur i mac C apacocha C eremony

R iver

a nd

t he

I mpo r tan te l emen t so fc i tua a sd e sc r ibed b y Mo l ina ( 1943 :29 4 6 [ 1573 ] ) s ugge s t t h a t i tw a s s ymbo l ic o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween C u sco a nd o u t ly ing a r ea s o f i t s i n f luence . S ta tue s f r om s a c red p l a ce sa sf a rn o r th a sQ u i to a nd f r om C h i le i nt h e s ou th w e re r epo r ted ly b rough t t oC usco . O n ly n a t ive C usco p eop le w e re p e rm i t ted i nt h ec en t ra l a r ea o fC usco d u r ing mo s t o ft h ec e r emony .P r iv i lege sw e re g r an ted t op r inc ipa l l o rd sw ho h ad c ome w i th o f f e r ing s f r om d i s tan t p lace s , a nd g i f t s w e re g iven f o r t h em t ot a k e b ack , i n c lud ing s e rvan t s a nd w ive s . C i tua w a s a l so s a id t ob e c e leb ra ted c oncu r ren t ly b y I nca g ove rno r sa tp r inc ipa lp r ov inc ia lc en t r e s . T he I nca r i tua lo fc apacocha s ha red m any c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h e s ymbo l ism a nd p r ax i s o fc i tua . I tw a s c e leb ra ted o n o cca s ion s o fu nce r ta in ty a st ot h eh ea l th , p owe ro rs ucces s ion o ft h eI n ca r u le r ( Duv io ls 1 976 :1112 ) . V i l lage s o r s oc ia l u n i t s f r om t h e p rov ince s c ame t oC u sco w i th s a c r if ic ia l o f fe r ing s , s uch a s• f i gu r ine s o fg o ld a nd s i lve r , c l o th , c r ushed s he l l a nd , f o r t h e 1 54

T i lka , S umm i ts , S ymbo l s

s i te s a nd a r t is t ic r e p re sen ta t ions i nP e ru , f r om i t s h ab i ta t i n c oa s ta lE cuado r ,s e ve ra l t h ou sand y ea r sa go ( Pau l sen 1 974 :60 1 6 05 ) . I n Mo l ina ' s a ccoun t s o f I nca c e remony u s ing m u / /u i t w a s p a r to f as e to fo f f e r ing s w h ich i n c luded m a ize ,c oca a nd c ame l ids . O ne o ft h e se f e a s t s , l n t i R aym i w a s p l aced i n May , a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e d ry s ea son ; a no the r o ccu r red i nJ u ly , d u r ing t h e d r ie s t p a r t o f t h e y ea r ; a nd t h e l a s t w a s d u r ing c apacocha ,h e ld i nt ime so fu nce r ta in ty ( Mo l ina 1 943 :26 ,29 ,76 [ 1 573 ] ) . T he t im ing g ene ra l ly c o inc ide s w i th t h e d ry s ea son w hen c rop sn eed i r r iga t ion a nd w i th t h eh arve s to ft h ep r ev iou s w e ts ea son ( ma jo r )c rop .

mos ts ac red p l a ce s ,c h i ld ren . T he o f f e r ing s w e r et h en d iv ided , a l loca ted a nd r e turned i no rde r t o b e t a ken t ot h e p r inc ipa l s ac red s i te s o f T awan t insuyu . H uana cau r i i n C usco a nd p rov inc ia l moun ta ins w e re a mong s i te s w h ich r e ce ived h uman s a c r if ice s( Hemändez P r inc ip e 1 923 :62 -63 [ 1 622 ] ) . E lemen t s o f p lace i n t h e r i tua l movemen t s o f t he t wo c e remon ie s a r ea l so s im i la r . A s p rev iou s ly d i scu s sed , b a th ing i nt he A pu r imac r i ve rw a sp a r to ft h eg r ee t ing b yC u sco p eop le o ft he c apacocha s ac r if ice sw h ich c ame f r om C h inchay suyu t o t he c ap i ta l . R i tua l s u ic ide b y p lung ing i n to t h e Apur imac R ive rw a sa l so t h ed ea th a s c r ibed t oA sa rpay , t h es i s te ro ft h e I nca s w ho g ua rded t h e A pu r imac o ra c le d e sc r ibed b y P ed ro P iza r ro . H o t s p r ing p oo l s e x is t o n t h e s ou the rn b ank o f t h e Apu r ima cR ive ra tC onoc , as ho r td i s tance d own s t ream o ft h e c ross ing a t S i te AM6 , a l though t h e re i s n o s pec if ic i nforma t ion o n t h e ir r e la t ionsh ip t o t h e se c e remon ies . C apacocha of e r ing s w e re f i r s t t a ken b y p eop le o fC u sco t o S aca lp i i ia w he re t h ey w e re r e ce ived b yA n te I nd ian s ,a nd s oo n i n to t h e p rov ince s ( Mo l ina 1 943 :69 -70 [ 1 573 ] ) . T h is c ou ld w e l l b e t h e s ame p l ace a sS a lp ina , t h e f i r s t s t ag ing p o in t o n t h ee dge o fC u sco u s ed a l ong t h ec i tua r ou te t oC h inchay suyu . T he s ame t wo b ounda ry p o in t s a ppea r t ob e e mpha s ized i n t h e se c e remon ie s ,o ne o nt h ee dge o fC u sco a nd t h eo the ra tt h e Apu r ima cR ive r .

I ft h ee t hnog raph ic l i t e ra tu re o n moun ta in d e i t ie si sc on s ide red a s awho le , t h e re a r e n ume rou so the ra s soc ia t ion s w h ich c ou ld b ed e r ived . T he h i ghe s t moun ta in s i nt h eC u sco a nd A pu r ima c a r ea sa r eb e l ieved t ob et h ea bode o f ar oa l( c rea to rs p i r i t ) ,a nd S a lkan tay i sam a jo re xamp le ( Nu i iez d e lP rado 1 970 :144 146 ) . I n Qo tobamba c ommun i ty a lone , ma jo r moun ta in d e i t ie s ( apus ) i n c lude K u r ib ian , p ro tec to ro fl i ve s tock a nd e nemy o f r us t lers , I n t iwa tana , med ia tor o f h a rmony b e tween c ommun i t ie s u nde r i t s c on t ro l , K un turpu f iuna , r e la ted t o h ea l th , a nd t wo o the r s w h ich a re s a id t o b e u nspec ia l ized . S p i r i t s o fl owe r moun ta in s a r eo f ten c a l led a uk i( grand f a ther ) ( op .c i t . :1 52 154 ) .

C apacocha a ppea r s t o h ave b een b a sed u pon t he l i nea r movemen to f of e r ing s f r om c en t ra l C us co , f o l low ing c eque s , w i th t h e o b jec t t h a t d e lega t ion w ou ld e nsu re a l s ac red s i te s r e ce ived p a r to ft h es a c r if ice . I fs uch ap l ace w a s i n acce s s ib le , t h ed e lega te o rm e s senge r( c acha )w a st ou se as l ing t ot h row a p o r t ion o f t h e s a c r if ice t owa rd s i t( op .c i t . :72 ) . S a lkan tay Moun ta in , h igh ly s a c red a cco rd ing t oe a r ly h i s to r ic s ou r ces ( A lbo rnoz 1 984 :206 -207 [ c a . 1584 ] ) , p robab ly r equ i red t h is s ymbo l ic t r ea tmen t . C apaccocha w a s u sed b y A lbo rnoz t o d e sc r ibe t h e f i ne c l o th ing o fh uacas ( op .c i t . :2 17 ) . H oweve r , r epo r t sw h ich l i s ti n d igenou ss a c red s i t e st h a tw e re d i scove red i nc en t ra l P eru u sed t h et e rm s p ec if ica l ly f o rh uman s a cr if ice . T he se i n c lude l i s t so fp e r son s( o rp e r sonage sw ho h ad a cqu i red my th ica l s t a tu s ) s e n t f o r s a c r if i ce t oC u sco , Q u i to , H uänuco , T i t icaca a nd C h i le ( He rnändez P r inc ipe 1 923 :27 -30 ,32 ,34 ,4 1 [ 1 622 ] ) . T he se r i te s h ave b een f ound , i n mo re t h o rough a na lyse s , t o h ave empha s ized t h e r o le o fC u sco a sc en t re , t oh ave b een a s t age f o r t h e r i tua l d e f in i t ion o f s t a tu s b e tween t h e I nca , r e g iona l a nd p rov inc ia l e l i te , a nd a tt h e s ame t ime t o h ave g i ven t h e I n ca s t a te a n o ppo r tun i ty t os how g ene ro s i ty a nd t o p l an t h ep roduc t ion o ft r ibu t ei tw ou ld r e qu i re f r om p rov inc ia l s oc ia l g roup s ( Duv io ls 1 976 :11 ,23 -37 ; Z u idema 1 982 :428 4 32 , 1 983 :54 ) . 1 0 .3 .4

S ymbo l ism o f Andean S umm i t S i tes

E thnoh is tor ic a nd e t hnog raph ic s our ce s h ave f ounded t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t A ndean r i tua l a nd o f f e r ing s t o moun ta in d e i t ie s a r e l a rge ly e xp la ined b y ac on t inu i ty o rs ub s t ra tum o f b e l ief t ha tt h ey c on t ro l m e teo ro log ica l p henomena ( Maxwe l l 1 966 :55 ,62 ; R e inha rd 1 985 :314 ) . O ne o f t h e e ssen t ia l of e r ing si nI n ca c e remony a ts p r ing sa nd a f t e rp l an t ing t os e ek r egu la r i ty o fr a inf a l lw a s ,a c co rd ing t ot h eC obo ( 1964 [ 1 653 ] ) s ea s he l lc a l led m u / /u . T he p r e sence o fS pondy lus s he l l i nt h e ma te r ia l so fs t a tue sf ound i nm any v e ry h i gh S ou ther nA ndean s umm i t s i te sm ay s uppo r tt h ec a se o fc on t inu i ty o fa s soc ia ted b e l ief s y s tem s ( Re inha rd 1 985 :313 ) . T h is i n f e rence m ay n o t e xp la in a l l o ccu r rence s o ft h a t s pec ie s , w h ich b egan t oe n te r 1 55

S im i la rh i e ra r ch ie s o f moun ta in d e i t ie s e x is ti nA yacucho , a nd s ome moun ta ins c on ta in p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s a nd f une ra ry r u ins ( Ea r ls 1 981 :82 ) . C omp lexe s o f s ac red moun ta in s t a ke s pec ia l s i gn if icance a s p o in t s o n t h e e a r th -sky b ounda ry i n M ism inay c ommun i ty c o smo logy a nd o ne , A pu S aqro , i s r epor ted t o h ave ma sonry t e r race s o n t h e s umm i t ( U r ton 1 981 :129 ) . I n K aa ta c ommun i ty o fh igh land B o l iv ia , B a s t ien ( 1978 :xx iv ) f ound t h a t t h e moun ta in o f d i spe r sed s e t t lemen t w a sd e sc r ibed i nt h ea na tom ica l t e rm so f ah uman b ody ,w h ich r e qu i red r i tua l f e ed ing , a nd t h a t t h is me tapho rs ymbo l ized t h e s oc ia l a nd t e r r i tor ia l u n i ty o fK aa ta w i th s e t t lemen t sa bove a nd b e low . Af a ce to ft h e I n ca c oncep to ft h e moun ta in c on ta ined i ne a r ly h i s to r ic s ou rce s i si t s r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e l o ca l i n hab i tan t s a nd , i n mo s t c a se s , t h e i r s ubm iss ion t ot h e e xpand ing s phe re o fI nca i nf luence . T he n a r r a t ive o fI nca c onque s tb y S an tac ruz P achacu t i o f ten m en t ions g roups o f p eop le a longs ide t h e n ame s o ft h e i rs a c red s i te so r i do ls ; t h e I nca b u i l t u shnus , b u t s ome d e i t ie s h ad b een b an i shed i n my th ica l t ime t o moun ta in s umm i t s s uch a s S al lcantay ( Sa lkan tay ) , Aosancata ( Ausanga te ) a nd P i tos iray ( P i tus iray ) ( 1927 : 1 47 ,166 ,180 1 89 ,210 [ c a .16 13 ] ) . A lbo rnoz r e la te s t h a tt h eI n ca r ebu i l t many o ft h e s a c red s i te s c a l led p acar iscas a nd p l aced m i t imaes i n t h e i r s e rv ice . P acar i sca s w e re t h ep l a ce sf r om w h ich p eop le sc l a imed d e scen t a nd ad ef ea ted s a c red s i te w a sc a l led a t i sca ( 1984 :198 199 ,2 17 [ c a .1584 ] ) . A m a jo r r e a son g iven f o r t h e u nw i l l ingne s s o f I nd ian p eop le s t o move t o S pan ish t own s i n t h e e a r ly 1 7 th c en tury w a s t h a t t h ey w ou ld h ave t o l e ave t h e i r p acar ina ( pacar isca ) ( Ma rza l 1 969 :103 ) . I n I nca t ime s h ome land p acar i sqas , o rp a r t s o ft h em , w e re t a ken t ot h e n ew p l ace s o f s e t t lemen t ( A lbo rnoz 1 984 :197 -199 [ 1 584 ] ) . Mo l ina d e sc r ibed T i lka b y r e f e rence t o i t s d i s tance f r om Ma rkawa s i a nd p l acemen ta bove i t . We r et h eM i t imae sd e T i lca ,m en t ioned b y Mo l ina , i nt h e s e rv ice o fa n I nca b u i l t s i te o n t h e s umm i t o f T i lka moun ta in , a s w e l l a s i n s e rv ice o f t h e I n ca t ambo o f A pu r ima?

T i lka , S umm i t s , S ymbo l s

1 0 .4 CUSCO ,

CHINCHA

AND

PACHACA MAC

Ar e cen t s t udy o fc a rved r ock s d emons t ra te s t h e ir a bundance a r ound C usco , a s w e l l a s a n a l ignmen to fs uch s i tes e x tend ing a lmos td ue w e s t o fC uzco ( i nc lud ing S i te AL4 , n ea rT i lka ) a s f a ra st h eI nca s i te o fH uay ta rä ( van d e Guch te 1 990 :228 ) . T he e x tens ion o f t h is l i ne a cross t he l a te p reh is tor ic C hanka t e r r i to ry w ou ld r each t h e c oa s t a tC h incha a nd t h e I nca s i te o f L aC en t ine la , 4 00 km f r om C usco ( Hef f ernan 1 994 ) . L aC en t ine la i st h e o r ig in p o in t o ff ou r s t ra igh t , r ad ia t ing a nd p o ss ib ly c eremon ia l r oads . One o f t he se r uns d ue e a s t t o a no the rs im i la r , p a r t ly I nca , p la tform (Wa l lace 1 991) . C h incha w a s ap reh ispan ic c en tre o f l ong -d is tance t r ade a nd o ne o f s eve ra l p l aces ( i nc lud ing C usco a nd Andahuay la s ) w i th s ub s h r ine sr e la ted t ot h ea nc ien tc oa s ta l c u l tc en t re o fP achacama c b e s ide L ima ( Ro s two row sk i 1 992 :52 -53 ) . S i nce c o lon ia l t ime s t h e a spec t o f P achacamac wh ich a ppea r s t oh ave s urv ived i s t h a to ft h ed e i ty r e spons ib le f o re ar thquake s , i n ac u l tt op ro tec t L ima f r om t h e ir d evas ta t ion ( op .c i t . ) . T he s i gn if icance o ft h e w es tern l i ne o f h uacas w i l l u l t ima te ly b e d e term ined a s f i e ldwo rk i n tens if ie s i nt h e i n terven ing a r ea s o fA ndahuay la s a nd A yacucho , b u t t he re a re i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions o f t h e C u sco -Pachacamac l i nkage v ia Ch incha . T he f i r s t i st h e e f f ec t o fi d eo log ica l i n co rpo ra t ion o fP achacamac a s a n e l emen t o f t h e I n ca s t a te 's e xpans ion . T he s econd i st h e d eg ree t o w h ich t h e movemen t o f s pec ia l s acr if ic ia l g oods t h rough t h e c apacocha p eregr ina t ions c eremon ia l ly monopo l ized l o ng d i s tance e xchange i n as t a te whe re t h is i sl i t t le e v idenced . T he c o inc iden ta l ly e xcep t iona l t r ad ing r o le o fC h incha may h ave e mpha s ized t h ec apacocha p a th b e tween i ta nd C uz co . T he s umm i t o fT i lka i ss t i l l t he o b jec t o f ay ea r ly p i lg r image , a l be i to f al o ca l k i nd , f o rt h er e s iden t so f Mo l lepa ta v i l lage a nd s u r round ing v i l lages ( Hef fernan 1 991) . T he a s cen t i s made o n t h e d ay f o l low ing t he f ea s t o f t he c ross ( 4 May ) t o r e turn a l a rge wooden c ros s , f r om i t s v ig i l a t Mo l lepa ta c hurch , t o a r e s t ing p l ace b e s ide t h eT i lka r u ins a nd o ve r look ing Mo l lepa ta t own .

Al o ca l my th o fo r ig in a bou tT i lka C ro s s r e la te s t h a ti tb e came t oo h eavy t o move d ur ing i t s p a ssage f r om S pa in v i a L ima t o C usco ( Mo ro te 1 953 :89 -90 ) , much l i ke t i red s t ones i n e t hnoh is tory a nd c ur ren t s t or ies a na lysed b y v an d e G uch te ( 1984 ) . T i lka C ro ss , l i ke t h e ' Lo rd o f P achacam i l la ' , i sa l so r e la ted t ot h ee a r thquake c u l t . I tw a ss a id t oh ave t r ave l led w i th t wo o the r c r o s ses , o ne o f w h ich s t opped i nt h e J aqu i jahuana V a l ley a nd o ne w h ich b ecame t h e ' Lo rd o ft h e E ar thquake s 'o f C usco . 1 0 .5

CONCLUSION

D escr ip t ion so fI nca c e remon ie s i ne a r ly h i s tory c on ta in m any e l emen t s o fs ymbo l ism c ommon i n t h e e t hnog raph ic p re sen t o ve r al a rge a r ea o ft h e A nde s a nd l o ca l b e l ie f s w e re p robab ly a sc omp lex a nd v a r ied t h en a st h ey a r e t o day . H oweve r , i th a s b een a rgued t h a tt h e s pe c if i cc a se s o f monumen ta l a r ch i tec tu re i nI n ca s t y le o n moun ta in s umm i t s may b e b e t te re xp la ined b y r e f e rence t ot h ec oncep tua l s y s tem o ft h es oc ie ty w h ich d i re c ted l a bou r t o t h e i r c ons t ruc t ion . T he a ppropr ia te e t hnoh is to r ic e v idence f o rt h is i sc on ta ined i nd e scr ip t ion so fc e remon ie sa nd p o l i t ica l I nca my ths a bou t c onques t . I t r ema ins t o b e d e term ined w he the re l abo ra te I n ca moun ta in s umm i ts i te s ,s u ch a sT i lka , w e re c ons t ruc ted o ve rt h ec e remon ia lc en t re so fo the r c ommun i t ie s a nd t o i n ve s t iga te w ha t a c t iv i t ie s t o ok p l ace i n t h em . H ow c l o se ly w e re t h ey t i ed t oe ndur ing c u l t sl i ke t h a to f P achacamac? T he re a l so a ppea r s t ob e ap a t te rn o f I nca s i te s c omp r is ing m in ia tu re t e r race sa nd p l a tfo rm sb e s ide r ock o u tc rop so nc e r ta in h igh p o in t s o ve r look ing t h e V i lcano ta a nd A pu r imac R ive r s . T he T i lka c a se t e n ta t ive ly s ugge s t s t ha t s ome o f t h ese m ay h ave b een s h r ines i n ap a r t icu la r r i tua l a nd p i lg r image , i na r eg iona l o r s up ra -reg iona l c eque s y s tem o f s pa t ia l d iv is ion , w h ich b o th s ymbo l ised a nd r e inf o rced t h ea dm in i s t ra t ive p owe r o fC u sco .

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CHAPTER

1 1

SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSIONS 1 1 .1 LATE PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE SYSTE MS

SETTLE MENT

AND

i si n ac oo le re cozone . T he T ambow i lka s e t t lemen t s w e re n ea r a n I n ca r o ad ,c ana la nd t e r race g roup sa nd d on o ta ppea rt oh ave c on t inued a s o ccupa t ion n uc le i d u r ing t h e I nca p e r iod . T h is may r ef le c tI n ca s t a te induced p opu la t ion d i spe r sa l i nt h er e g ion o f P ampaconga t own , w here l o ca l g roups w ere r equ ired t o a gg rega te i n1 572 .

A t t he o nse t o f I nca e xpans ion , L a te I n termed ia te P er iod s e t t lemen t s w e re d ispe r sed o ve r mos t o ft he L ima tambo A rea f r om T horny Wood land t o Hum id F o re s te nv i ronmen t s . Mu l t i z ona l l a nd -u se p a t terns w e re p robab ly w e l l i np lace , a l though s oc ia l c onnec t ions b e tween a l t i tud ina l ly s epa ra ted s e t t lemen t s a re d i ff icu l t t o d emons t ra te f o r t he p er iod . T he o ccur rence o f Qopa B p o t te ry i nd ica tes l o ca l ly s ha red ma te r ia lc u l ture a tt wo s i tes a l ong t he Apur imac R ive r , b u t K i l lke l ike v e sse l f o rms a nd d e co ra t ive mo t if s w ere w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i np o t tery u sed t h roughou t t he v a l ley . L a rge l o ca l s e t t lemen t s o ccur red mo s t f r equen t ly i n t he 2 200 -2600 m a nd 3 000 -3400 m a l t i tud ina l r ange s , a tt he u ppe r a nd l owe r e nds o f t h e ma ize p roduc t ion z one .

I nca o ccupa t ion s i te s c lu s te r o n v a l ley f l oo r s o r v a l ley -s ide b enche s , p r ima r i ly a l ong t h e I nca r oad a nd o n t he ma rg ins o f e l abo ra te l a ndscape w o rk s .F ew o ccu ro nr i dge so rs umm i t s . O f t hese , Q opa A l ta w as a p rev ious ly e s tab l ished s e t t lemen t . AM2 a nd AM3 o f f e rl i t t le a r ea f o rs e t t lemen ta nd AM3 a ppea r s b e t te re xp la ined a s as h r ine d ur ing t h eI nca p e r iod . I nca p e r iod s e t t lemen t s i n t he L i ma tambo A rea c ove red a s im i la r t o ta l s i te a rea a nd h ad a s im i la r e nv ironmen ta l d i s t r ibu t ion t ol a te p reh is to r ic l o ca l s e t t lemen t s . H igh a l t i tudes ( 3200 -4200 m ) w e re s pa r se ly o ccup ied b y s ma l l i n s ta l la t ions , whe rea s 8 1% o f o ccupa t ion a rea w as c oncen t ra ted b e tween 2 000 a nd 3 200 m .T he D ry F o re s ta nd T hor ny F o re s tc on ta ined r e la t ive ly l a rge s i te n umbe r s a nd s i te s i ze s . T h is s ugge s t s t h a t I nca o ccupa t ion w a s a t tached t o t h e p re -ex is t ing p a t te rn o f s e t t lemen t a nd l a nd -use , b u t p l aced as pec ia l empha s is u pon ma ize a nd l ow land p roduc t ion z ones .

S e t t lemen ts were f ew a nd sma l l i nt he Hum id F ore s t ( 3200 3 800 m ) , b u t l ow n umbe r s may r ef lec t l e sse r a r chaeo log ica l v i s ib i l i ty , e spec ia l ly i n v iew o fe v idence f o r u se o fa dobe o r s od i nc on s t ruc t ion .T hey p robab ly r ep re sen t am ixed h igh land c rop /pa s to ra l a dap ta t ion . T he e f fe c t s o fp reh is to r ic l a nd -u se o n t he e nv ironmen t h ave n o t y e t b een c a refu l ly t r aced . F o re s t a t t h is t ime may h ave b een mo re e x tens ive i n t h e p re sen t HF g ras s land s o fe a s tern L ima tambo a nd h ave e x tended t ol owe r a l t i tude s i nt he S a lkan tay f oo th i l ls . S e t t lemen t s w e re f r equen t a nd r e la t ive ly l a rge i nt h eD ry Mon tane F o re s t ( 2400 -3200 m ) , a bou ta ve rage i nn umbe r b u t v e ry l a rge i nt h e D ry F o re s t , a nd b o th f r equen t a nd l a rge i n t he T ho rny Wood land . T he refo re n uc lea ted s e t t lemen t s g ave a cce ss t o b o th ma ize a nd p o ta to z one s , af am i l ia rp a t te rn i nt he r eg ion . Howeve r , a n a dd i t iona l s e t t lemen t f ocu s l a y o n t he ma ize / low land -c rop p roduc t ion e co tone .T h is z one wa s l a rge ly r emoved f r om l o ca lc ommun i ty c on t ro l d ur ing t he e ar ly Co lon ia l P e r iod , b u t h i s tor ic d ocumen ta t ion i nd ica te s i t s i mpor tance f o rp roduc t ion o fm any n a t ive p reh is tor ic d omes t ica te s , s uch a s man ioc , s wee t p o ta to , p eanu t ,g uava ,c h ir imoya a nd o the rf r u i t s . T he f unc t ion a nd c h rono logy o f c y l indr ica l s t one l ined p i t s r ema in t o b e t e s ted , b u t t he ir s ma l l s i ze , t h e s ma l l n umbe r p re sen t a ts ome s i tes , e v idence o fc app ing s t one s , s epa ra t ion f r om p reh is tor ic s e t t led l oca t ions a nd g ene ra l ly l oo ted a ppea rance , s ugges ts t hey w e re p r ima r i ly f o rb u r ia l r a the rt h an s t o rage . T hey w e re c ommon i n t he L ima tambo Va l ley s i te s urvey a nd may p rove u sefu l a s v i s ib le e l emen t s w i th in a d i spe r sed s e t t lemen tp a t te rn . 1 1 .2 I NCA VALLEY

OCCUPATION

I N THE L I MATA MBO

R idge s a nd p eak s b e s ide a rea so f mode ra te ly s l op ing l a nd w e re t he p refer red l oca t ion f o r s e t t lemen ts o f l a te p reh is to r ic a r ch i te c tu ra l a nd c e ram ic t r ad i t ion . L oca l -s ty le s e t t lemen t s w i th a bundan tC usco I nca s ur face p o t te ry w e re mo re o f ten s i ted o n v a l ley f l oo r s . I nca o ccupa t ion may h ave r e info rced p re -ex is t ing s e t t lemen ts i n s uch p laces , a s a t Qopa P laya ( AL4 1) a nd P aqchak ( AL46 ) . T he t h ree r i dge top Wamanma rka s i te s w e re a ppa ren t ly a bandoned a to rb efo re I nca o ccupa t ion a nd d o n o t f ea tu re t h e v a s t a d jacen t t e r raced l a nds k nown a t Qopa A l ta ( AL39 ) , n o rn ea t ly c i rcu la ra nd r e la t ive ly l a rge s t one dwe l l ing s . Howeve r , l oose s t one i sl e ss a bundan t a t Wamanma rka a nd i t

1 57

T he f i ve l a rge s t I nca s e t t lemen t s ( ove r 0 .4 h a ) a re b e tween 2 000 a nd 2 800 m i nt h e l owe r DMF a nd DF z one s . S eve ra l s t radd le t h e ma in I nca r oad ( AL 11 , AL25 a nd AM5 ) , b u t t wo w e re d i s tanced f r om i t( AL39 a nd AL4 1) . T he l a t te r c on ta in l o ca l v i l lage a r ch i tec tu re , e xcep t f o r o ne s ec to r o fr e c tangu la r b u i ld ings , b u t f e a tu re a r ema rkab ly h igh s ur face d ens i ty o f C usco I nca p o t te ry . T hey may r epresen t e i ther l oca l s e t t lemen t s w i th c lo se l i nk s t o C usco , m i tmaq o ccupa t ion o r r eoccupa t ion o fp re Inca s e t t lemen t s . C lose af in i ty w i th C u sco i sr ef lec ted i n t h e a n th roponymy o f t he l o ca l C hon ta a y l lu d es igna ted I nga i n 1 595 . T he m itmaq i n terpre ta t ion i s s uppor ted b y t h e w ide v ar ie ty o f I nca v e sse l f orms o f b o th C usco u t i l i ta r ian a nd p a in ted wa re p resen t i n t he s i tes . Documen ta ry s ources a l so i nd ica te t ha t t h is p ar t o f t he Apu r imac r e ce ived c o lon is t s . T he t o ta lr oofed -space o fL a te P r eh i s tor ic T rad i t ion s e t t lemen t s i sr ough ly t h e s ame a s t h e f i gure c a lcu la ted f o r s e t t lemen t s e s tab l ished i nt h eI nca p er iod , a nd a bou t 6 5% o ft h e f i gu re f o r a l l o ccup ied d ur ing t h ep er iod .D if f e ren t ia lp re ser va t ion o fs i te s i s af unc t ion o fg eomo rph ic p roce sse s a ts i te l o ca t ions a nd , f o r t h is a r ea , h igh t opography a ppea r s mo re l i ke ly t o p rov ide s upe rf ic ia l ly v i s ib le s e t t lemen t s t han l ow p lacemen t s . S ince f ew I nca o ccupa t ions a r e i nh igh t opog raphy , I nca o ccupancy may b e u nde re s t ima ted . Howeve r , I nca s t ruc ture s a nd p o t te ry a r e h i gh ly v i s ib le a nd a n i mpac t o fs ubsequen t I nca t e r rac ing wo rk s o n L .P .T . s e t t lemen t s c an b e i n f er red f r om t h e s ur fa ce d a ta ( eg . AM2 ) a nd k now ledge t ha t s ome L .P .T . s i tes d id o ccupy t h e ma rg ins o fv a l ley f l oo r s . I ti sa l so p robab le t h a tt h e a pp l ica t ion o f s e t t lemen t l ike o ccupancy f i gu res t o I nca b u i ld ing s i s a n o ve re s t ima te f o r e d if ices w i th p ub l ic o r i n term i t ten t o ff ic ia l f unc t ions . T he t ime s ca le f o r L .P .T . s i tes i sa pp rox ima te ly 5 00 y ea r s , c ompa red t o p e rhaps u nde r 1 00 y ea r s f o rI n ca o ccupa t ion .

S yn thes is

S u rveyed I nca s e t t lemen t sa r ec a lcu la ted t oh ave p rov ided l e s s t h an 2 0% o f t h e r oofed -space n eeded b y t h e l a te p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion , a s e s t ima ted f r om h i s to r ic d a ta a nd r e ve r se p ro je c t ions . O ve ra l l , t h e re i sn oc l ea re v idence o f as i gn if ican t i n c rea se i nt h e s t udy reg ion p opu la t ion n o r o f am a jo r s t a te i n duced u rban iza t ion p roce s sd u r ing t h eI n ca p e r iod . 1 1 .3 I NCA IMPACT ON LOCAL ECONO MY I nca t e r race s cheme s w e re ad i rec t i mpa c t o fI n ca e xpan s ion u pon t h ea g r icu l tu ra ll a nd scape a va i lab le t ol o ca lc ommun i t ie s . T hey w e re n o t a s d i spe r sed a ss t a te o rs t a te in f luenced l o ca l s e t t lemen t s a nd s how a s t rong c o r re la t ion w i th v a l ley f loo r l o ca t ions a nd t h e DMF z one b e tween 2 400 m a nd 3 200 m i n t h es t udy r eg ion . M id -a l t i tude c rop s , s uch a s ma iz e , w e r ea ppa ren t ly t h e p r ime t a rge t so fp roduc t ion .T e r ra ce l o ca t ion a l so i n d ica te st h a t mo s t w e re n o t s o much d e s igned t o r e c la im s t eep s l ope s a s t o i mp rove o the rc ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h el a nd so fl e a s tg r ad ien t ,s uch a s s t one c on ten t , w a te r i nf i l t ra t ion a nd d ra inage . I r r iga t ion c ana ls w e re i nva r iab ly i n co rpo ra ted i n m a jo r s cheme s a nd p robab ly e nab led i n c rea sed p roduc t ion a nd /o r g rea te r c rop s e cu r i ty . Wa te r w a s r ead i ly a va i lab le f o r v a l ley -f loo r f i e ld s f r om s i de s t ream so rr i ve r s . T e r race s cheme sa l so r e p re sen tt h eg r ea tb u lk o fl a bou ri n pu ti n r eg iona l I nca c ons t ruc t ion . A bou t 3 8 m o f r e ta in ing w al s , a ve rag ing mo re t h an 2 m h i gh , w e re o r ig ina l ly b u i l t . A bou t 1 22 h a o f l a nd w a s l e ve l led a nd o ve r 1 , 400 m e t re s o f w a l l c ompr ises e l abo ra te ly h amme r -dressed masonry . T h is r ep re sen t s p e rhap s ad ecade o f w o rk f o r 1 00 -200 f u l l t ime l a bou re r s a s w e l l a s p l anne r s , a l though i ti su nknown o ve r w ha tp e r iod t h et e r race sw e re b u i l t .D e ta i led mapp ing e nab led I n ca t e r race s cheme st ob ea na ly sed a sa n i n teg ra l p a r to fI n ca p re sence i nt h er eg ion , a nd a ss i te s m e r i t ing s pec if ic a na ly s i s . T he s ame b a s ic p lan w a sf o l lowed f r om s t a r tt oc omp le t ion o f s uch s cheme s . T h is c anno t b e s a id f o r t e r race a gg rega t ion s w h ich a d jo in l a te p reh is to r ic l o ca ls e t t lemen t s . I n ca a g r icu l tu ra lt e r race sc ove red af a rg r ea te rp e r cen tage o ft h e L ima tambo A rea ( 114 .9 h a , o r 0 .25% ) t han t he C h inchaypuqu io A rea ( 7 .29 h a , o r 0 . 02% ) . C h ichaypuqu io d oe s n o t c on ta in b road v a l ley f l oo r s i n DMF z one a l t i tude s . T he ma in I nca h igh land r oad a l so p a ssed t h rough t h e L ima tambo V a l ley , a nd w he the r t h is w a s al o ca t iona l p a rame te ro fe qua ls i gn if icance i n v i te s ar e g iona lc ompa r i son . T he C en t ra lV i lcano ta V a l ley f i t st h ep r ed ic ted r e qu i remen t so f p r ime l o ca t ion sf o rI n ca t e r race s .I td i dn o tl i eo n am a jo rt r unk r ou te i n to p rov inc ia l T awan t insuyu b u t a ppea r s t o c on ta in s chemes w h ich f a r e xceed t e r raced a r ea i n L ima tambo . Howeve r , t he ir p ropo r t ion i n t h e r eg iona l l a nd a r ea i s u nknown . I nca t e r race s a l so a ppea r t oo ccu r p r ima r i ly i nt h e h i n te r land o fC u sco ,a l though t h e re a r eo u t l ie r sa nd mo re c ou ld w e l l c ome t o l i gh t . T h is , c omb ined w i th t he a l t i tud ina l / topog raph ic mode l w ou ld l e ad t ot h ep r ed ic t ion t h a t a ny v a l ley w i th in a bou tt wo o rt h ree d ay sw a lk o fC u sco , w i th ab road v a l ley f l oo r i n t h e 2 400 -3200 m r ange , w ou ld b e h igh ly l i ke ly t oc on ta in s ub s tan t ia l a r ea so fI nca l a nd scap ing . T he p re sence o f t opog raph ica l ly s im i la r u n te r raced l a nd s a d jacen tt ot e r race si nL ima tambo a nd e l sewhe re c onf i rm s t h a t t h e l im i t s o f t e r race e x ten s ion h ad n o t b een r eached i nt h e C u sco r eg ion . T he d a ta f r om P aru ro s ugge s t s f a r l e s s I nca l a nd scap ing t h an i n t h e V i lcano ta a nd L ima tambo V a l leys . Wha t o the r f a c to r s g u ided t h e i n i t ia l c ho ice o f l a nd s f o r

t e r rac ing? S ome o f t h e se c er ta in ly l i e i nt h e i d eo log ica l o r c o smo log ica ls phe re . A b sence so ft e r rac ing i np r ime l o ca t ions c ou ld i n d ica te p ocke t s o fp r iv i leged e xc lu s ion f r om d i rec tI nca l a nd a cqu is i t ion a nd u se o f i t s i nd irec t mode o f a g r icu l tura l p roduc t ion . S ince p opu la t ion e x t rac t ions a nd m i tmaqkuna p l a cemen t s w e re u sed t of a c i l i ta te t h eI n ca a cqu i s i t ion o fa nce s t ra l c ommun i ty l a nd s , t h ey w ou ld b el o g ica l g roup st op os tu la te a si n hab i tan t sa r ound t e r raced l a nd scape s . C onve r se ly , r e s i l ien t l o ca l c ommun i t ie s , u nde rs t rong I n ca i nf luence i nt h ec i rcum -Cus co a rea ,w ou ld b e e xpec ted t ob e o n ly t e nuous ly i nc on t ro l o fu n te r raced p r ime l a nd s . 1 1 .4 THE SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS PRESENCE I N L I MATA MBO

OF

I NCA

I n ca c on t ro l w a s r ep re sen ted i n t he n o r thwe s tern s l ope s b y s ma l l i n s ta l la t ion s o fI nca a r ch i tec tu re . T he se w e re a b sen t i n t h e s ou thea s t , a l though p o l i t ica l t i es w i th l o ca l c ommun i ty s t ruc tu re sa nd p robab ly m i t r r iaq w e re s t rong ,e spe c ia l ly n e a rt h e A pu r imac R ive r . A r chaeo logy a nd d ocumen t s i nc omb ina t ion s how t h a t t h e s ou thwe s te rn v a l ley w a s c on t ro l led b y am a jo r t ambo , r oad s ide i n s ta l la t ions a nd s e t t lemen t s . M i tmaqkuna w ho s e rved a tt h et ambo o fA pu r ima h ad as pec ia l r o le i na n I n ca r i tua l -p i lg r image w h ich e mbod ied ac oncep to fc en tr ea nd p er iphe ry . Au se f u l i mage o ft h i s p a t te rn i s amosa ic o fl o ca l s oc ia l g roup s a nd m i tmaqkuna , r e spons ib le f o r t he ir o wn s ub s i s tence b u t s ub jec t t o av a r ie ty o fm i t 'a o b l iga t ion s . T h i s w ou ld i n c lude t h e d u ty t o move t he g ood s p roduced o n I nca p a r t s o ft h e i rl a nd st ot h e v a l ley t ambos f o rt h e i r ma in tenance a nd d i rec t ly t o C usco . I tr ep l ica te s t h e i nd irec t e conom ic c on t ro l c ommon ly u sed b y t h eI nca t h roughou tT awan t insuyu . I n te r zona l e xchange p robab ly c on t inued u naba ted a tl o ca l l e ve l a nd s ome d emon s t ra t ion o ft h i so ccu r sa tt h eQ opa s i te s . L a rge r ounded g ran i te s w e re t r anspo r ted f r om t h e A pu r imac R ive r , n ea rs i te AL4 1 ,f o rt h e manuf ac tu re o fa r tefa c t sa nd t h e i ru se a t s i te AL39 . T he C o l la m i tmaqkuna , p l aced n ea rt h e t ambo o fL ima tambo , p robab ly h ad as pe c ia l r o le i ns e rv ice t ot ha t i n s ta l la t ion , b u t t h is a l so p u t t h em n ex t t o b o th I nca t e r races a nd p r ime u n ter raced L ima tambo Va l ley l ands . S oc io -econom ic o rgan iza t ion o n v a l leys ide s a d jacen tt ot e r race s , s uch a s t h o se t ot h ee a s to fL ima tambo a nd R io ja w he re t h eC o l la sa nd h igh r a nk ing C o l iana A y I lu r e s ided , w a s p robab ly t r an sformed b y t h e I nca . T he d i spe r sed t ambo c omp lex a l so i n c luded l a nd s d ed ica t ed t o ma in tenance o fm amacona sa nd t h es un c u l t .I th ad c e r ta in a spec t s o f ac e remon ia l c en t re i n aw ide r c e remon ia l l a nd scape . F ew e l emen t s o ft h is c an b e c onv inc ing ly d rawn t o ge the ro rp u to n t h eg round , b u td o cumen ta ry a nd l a nd scape e v idence e nab le a na pp roa ch t ou nde r s tand ing t h er o le o fs ac red s i te s s uch a s Murucusma a nd t h e moun ta in s umm i t o fT i lka . T he a r chaeo log ica l a s soc ia t ions o fc er ta in l a rge r o ck s w i th in t e r race s cheme sa l so s ugge s t as pec ia l i mpo r tance w h ich i sn o t a ppa ren tf r om t h e i ru nmod if ied f o rm . F ina l ly , e a r ly c o lon ia l d o cumen ta t ion w a s a na lysed t oe x t rac t l a nd tenu re i n forma t ion i n i d en t if iab le l o ca t ion s a nd t hen c omb ined w i th k now ledge o f t he p hys ica l l and scape i n a n a t temp t t oe xp lo re t h e s oc ia l i mp l ica t ion s o f I nca t e r race s i n L ima tambo . T he se l a nds b enef i t ted I nca i n s t i tu t ions , b u t d i sc re te a r ch i tec tu ra l a nd l a you t a s semb lage s d i s t ingu ish s cheme t yp e s i nt h eC u sco h i n te r land . I ti su nce r ta in w ha tt h is p a t te rn r ep re sen t s , b u t t h ec o r re la t ion o fd ocumen ta ry i mage s. a nd l a nd scape e v idence s ugge s t s t ha t I nca t e r race s f e a tu r ing 1 58

S yn thes is

r ece s sed p ara l le ls t a irway s w e re a mong t h o se w h ich p e r ta ined t ot h e h i ghe s t r ank ing n ob i l i ty a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l g roup s i n l a te p reh is tor ic Cusco . T hey w e re o f ten w o rked b y s pec ia l s e rvan t s d e s igna ted y anacona . Mo s t t e r race s a round l a rge c omp lexe so fI nca s t ruc tu re s i nt h e C u sco r e g ion h ave s imp le w a l l s t ep s o rr ecessed s t a ircase s a mong b u i ld ing s . RPS s cheme s w e re d ispe r sed t h roughou t t h e s t udy r eg ion a nd v ar iou sc i r cum -Cusco v a l leys , e spec ia l ly t h eY ucay s ec t ion o f t he V i lcano ta Va l ley . T hey d o n o t o ve r l ie WS scheme s a nd t e nd t oo ccu r i n f l a t te r t opog raphy . R ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om R io ja A ndenes i n L ima tambo a r e c on s is ten t w i th l a te p reh i s to r ic c ons truc t ion o f RPS scheme s .

I nca o ccupa t ion i n L ima tambo a nd C h inchaypuqu io w a s p red ica ted u pon t h e r e ten t ion o f a y l lu p roduc t ion s ys tem s , d e sp i te t h el o ng d u ra t ion a nd p e rva s ivene s so fI n ca i n f luence .I t d i f f e r sf r om t h ec ommon T awan t insuyu p a t te rn i nt h a ts e le c ted t r ac t s o f l a nd w e re s ub je c ted t o l a rge c ons t ruc t ion p ro jec t s w h ich s uppo r ted o b jec t ive s o f t h e I nca s t a te , i t s u ppe r h i e ra r chy , p a r t icu la r i n s t i tu t ion s a nd a l l ied c ommun i t ie s . T he I n ca l a nd scape so fL ima tambo w e re e ndowed w i th d i s t inc t ive a r ch i tec tu r ea nd b e came v i sua ls ymbo ls o fI n ca i n f luence i nt h e p e r iphe ry o fC u sco .

1 59

B IBL IOGRAPHY PRINCIPAL ARCHIVAL SOURCES A .D .C . ( Arch ivo D epar ta men ta l d e l Cusco ) : L ega jo 1 898 ,e sc r ibano Dom ingo d eO ro , 1 629 . A .G .N . ( Arch ivo Genera l d e l a Nac iön , L ima ) : D e recho I nd igena : 1 637 C uader no 9 5 . ( F s .38 ) . 1 699 C uade rno 1 81 ( F s . 1 7 ) 1 791 C uade rno 4 52 ( F s . 5 6 ) . T i tu lo sd eP rop iedad : 1 577 L ega jo 1 ,C uade rno 1 . ( F s .36 ) . 1 585 L ega jo 2 3 , Cuade rno 4 31 . ( F s . 1 64 ) . 1 613 L ega jo 5 ,C uade rno 1 04 . ( F s . 6 ) . 1 619 L ega jo 1 4 , C uade rno 3 08 . ( F s . 2 5 ) . 1 632 L ega jo 1 6 ,C uade rno 3 37 . ( F s . 6 0 ) . A . M.A . ( Arch ivo d e l Min ister io d e Agr icu l tura , D irecc iön d e Comun idades Campe s ina s , Cusco ) : F i les p repa red f or t he o ff ic ia l i n scr ip t ion o f p ea san t c ommun i t ies wh ich c on ta in t r ansc r ip t ions o f h i s to r ic d ocumen t s .F i le d a te sa nd p a laeog raphe r sa r el i s ted i nt h ef i r s t f oo tno te p e r ta in ing t oe ach o ne i nC hap te r s 6a nd 7 . Docu ment Co l lect ions : S ondo r Documen t : ' T e s t imon io s acado d e l o s o r ig ina l e sq ue e sk in e l l a C ap i ta l d e L ima , c on t iene l a s c edu la s r e a le s e i n s t rumen to sd el a Mayora sgu ia D iego A r i a s Ma ldonado e ne l D epar tamen to d e l C uzco . . . ' T h i s d ocumen t w a s k i nd ly m ade a va i lab le i n 1 986 b y S r . S e rg io D iaz o fS ondo r , L ima tambo , f o rp ho tog raph ic c opy . T .1-T .200 ( The Tarawas i T i t le s ) . Ac o l lec t ion o fd ocumen t sd e sc r ibed a nd p a r t ia l ly t r an sc r ib ed i n A ppend ix I V . REFERENCES

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A bb rev ia t ions : I . E .P . I ns t i tu to d eE s tud io sP e ruano s . I FEA ,I n s t i tu to F rance sd eE s tud io sA nd ino s ,L ima . U .N .M .S .M . - Un ive r s idad N ac iona l Mayo r S an Ma rco s , L ima . U .N .S .A .A .C . Un ive r s idad N ac iona l S an A n ton io A bad d e l C u sco . A co s ta ,F ray J .d e 1 979 H i s tor ia N a tura l yMor a ld el a sI nd ia s . F ondo d eC u l tu ra E con6m ica , Mex ico . A lbo rnoz , C . d e 1 984 I n s t rucc iön P a ra D e scub r i r T oda s l a s Guaca s d e l P h i l yS us C amayo s yH az ienda s . I n P . D uv io ls ,A lbornoz ye le spac io r i tua la nd ino p r eh i spän ico . R ev i s ta A nd ina Vo l .3 Y ea r2 ( 1 ) :169 -222 .C us co . A lc ina F . , J . 1 976 A rqueo logia d e C h inchero 1 : L a A rqu i t ec tu r a . Mad r id . A lc ina F . , J . 1 978 I ngap i rca : A rqu i tec tu ra y A rea s d e A sen tan ien to .R ev i s ta E spano la d eA n t r opo log i a Amer icana 8 : 127 -146 . A lc ina F . , J . , M . R ive ra , J .G a lvän , M . G a r c ia , M . G u inea a nd o the r s , 1 976 A rqueo logi ad e C h inchero 2 :C eräm ica y O t ro s Ma ter ia le s . Mad r id . A lva rez ,J . ,G . Mon toya a nd E .D uer ia s 1 984 ( m s )I n fo rme d e l G rupo A rqueo le ico d e Q 'o l lmay . U .N .S .A .A .C . , C u s co . A pa r ic io V ega , M .J . 1 970 C a r tog ra f ia H i s tO r ica C uzquer ia : Mapa s d e l C uzco E x is ten te s e n e l A rch ivo G ene ra l d e

I nd ia s . R ev is ta d e l A rch ivo H is tör ico d e l C uzco 1 3 :185 2 02 . A rno ld , D .E . 1 985 C eram ic T heo ry a nd C u l tura l P roce ss . C .U .P . , C amb r idge . A s te te V . , F . 1 983 E v idenc ia s P re -Ce räm ica s d e E sp ina r . I n A .M . G iba ja 0 . ( ed )A rqueo logia A nd ina . p p .1-4 , I . N .C . , C u sco . A tk inson , J .1 961 N eo l i th ic E ng inee r ing . A n t iqu i ty 3 5 :292 2 99 . A ven i , A . 1 98 1 H o r izon A s t ronomy i nI nca ic Cuzco . I nR . W i l l iamson ( ed ) A rchaeoas tronomy i n t he Amer icas . p p .305 -318 , B a l lena P r e s s ,L o s A l to s , C a l ifo rn ia . A v i la , F . d e 1 987 R i tos y T rad ic iones d e Huaroch ir i : Manu sc r i to Q uechua d eC om ienzos d e lS ig lo XV I I ,V e r s ion p a leog räf ica , i n te rp re tac iön f ono l6g ica y t r aducc iOn a l c a s te l lano , b yG e ra ld T ay lo r . I . E .P , I FEA ; I . E .P E d ic ione s , L ima . A ya la , MJ .d e 1 988 D icc iona r io d e Gob ie r rw yL eg i s lac iön d e I nd ia s .E d ic ione sd eC u l tu ra H ispän ica , Mad r id . B ande l ie r ,A .F . 1 9 10 T he I s land so fT i t icaca a nd Koa t i .K rau s R ep r in t( 1969 ) ,N ew Yo rk . B a r r eda , L . 1 982 A sen tam ien to H umano d e l o s Qo taka l l i d e l C uz co . I nI .O be r t i ( ed )A rqueo logia d e l C u sco . p p .13 -20 , I .N .C . , C u sco . B a s t ien , JW . 1 978 Moun ta in o ft h e C ondor : Me taphor a nd R i tua l i na nA ndean A y l lu . We s t P ub l ish ing C o . B aue r ,B . 1 987 S i s tema s A nd ino sd eO rgan izac iOn r u ra l a n te s d e l E s tab lec im ien to d e r educc iones : E l E jemp lo d e P aca r iq tambo ( P en i ) .R ev i s ta A nd ina 5 ( 1) :197 -209 ,C u sco . B aue r , B . 1 990a S ta te D eve lopmen t i n t h e C u sco R eg ion : A rchaeo log ica l R e sea rch o n t h e I nca s i nt h e P rov ince o f P a ru ro . P h .D T he s is , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago , I l l ino i s . B aue r , B . a nd C . S t an ish 1 990b K i l lke a nd K i l lke -Re la ted p o t t e ry f r om C uz co , P e ru , i nt h e F ie ld Mu seum o fN a tu ra l H i s to ry . F ie ld iana A n thropo logy N .S . No . 1 5 :117 . B aue r , B . 1 992 R i tua l P a thways o ft he I nca : A n Ana lys is o f t h e C o l la suyu C eque s i nC uz co . L a t in Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 ( 3 ) :183 -205 . B eauc le rk ,J .1 980 L aC o rd i l le ra V i lcabamba : U l t imo R e fug io d el o sI nca s( p t .2 )B o le t i nd eL ima 5 : 1 8 -30 . B e ja r , R . 1 976 U ne n t ie r ro e nTo qokach i , C u sco . R ev i s ta d e l Museo N ac iona l( L ima )4 2 : 1 45 -151 . B e l lo G ayo so , 1 965 R e la c iön q ue e nb io amanda rs um age s t ad s eh i z ie se d e s ta c i udad d eC uenca yd et oda s up rov inc ia .I n J imenez d el aE spada ,M .R e lac ione sG eogräf i ca sd eI nd ia sP eru ,V o l .I :2 74 -278 .E d ic ione sA t la s , Mad r id . B enaven te ,T . 1 982 L aC e räm ica e ne lC usco .I nI .O be r t i( e d ) 1 982 :169 -176 . C u s co . B eng t s son , L . 1 988 S y s tem a nd V a r ia t ion i nB u i ld ing We l l F i t ted S tone Ma sonry . P ape r p resen ted a t t he 4 6 th I n te rna t iona l C ong r e s s o f Ame r ican is t s , Am s te rdam , J u ly 4 -8 , 1 988 . B eng t s son , L . 1 991 G rave Chambe r s a t K ach iqha ta a nd Ma rkaqocha i n t h e d i s t r ic t o f 0 1 1an tay tambo , C usco D epa r tmen t , P e ru . P ape rp re sen ted a tt he 4 7 th I n t er na t iona l C ong re s so f Ame r ican i s t s ,N ew O r lean s . B enne t t , W . C . 1 949 N umbe r s , Mea sures , We igh t s a nd C a lenda r s . I n J .H . S tewa rd ( ed ) Handbook o f S ou th Amer ican I nd ians V o l .V :2 9 -51 , B ureau o f Ame r ican E thno logy , N ew Y o rk . B enne t t , W . C . 1 953 E xca va t ions a t Wan, A yacucho , P eru . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P ub l ica t ion s i nA n th ropo logy , N o . 4 9 , 0 . U . P . , L ondon . 1 60

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B e tanzos ,J .d e 1 880 S u rm a yNarrac iön d el o sI nca s . I mp ren ta d e Ma nue lG . He rnandez , Mad r id . B info rd , L .R . 1 988 R ev iew o f I . Hodde r , R ead ing t h e P a s t . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 3 (4 ) :875 -876 B ingham , H . 1 910 T he R u ins o f C hoqquequ irao . Amer ican An thropo log is t N .S .12 :505 -525 . B ingham , H . 1 914 T he Ru ins o f E sp ir i tu P ampa , P e ru . Amer ican A n thropo log is t N .S .16 :185 -199 . B ingham , H . 1 915 T ype s o f Machu P icchu P o t te ry . Amer ican An thropo log is t N .S .17 :257 -271 . B ingham , H . 1 922 I nca L and : E xp lora t ions i nt he H igh land s o fP eru .B os ton . B ingham , H . 1 930 Machu P icchu : A C i tade l o ft he I ncas . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re ss , New H aven . Bonav ia ,D . 1 982 L os Gav i lane s : P r eceräm ico P eruano : Mar , Des ier to y Oas i s e n l aH is tor ia d e l Hombre . C o rpo rac iön F inanc ie ra d e Desaro l lo S .A . , COF IDE , I ns t i tu to A rqueo läg ico A lemän , L i ma . Bo rah , W . 1 984 S ome P rob lem s o fS ou rce s . I n Ha rvey H .R . a nd HJ . P rem ( ed s ) 1 984 :23 -39 Bowde ry , D . 1 988 ( ms ) P re l im inary R epor t o n P hy to l i th C on ten to f Que swawayqo S o i l S amp le s , L ima tambo , P eru . U npub l ished R epo r tf o rL ima ta rnbo A rchaeo log ica lP ro jec t , A .N .U . , C anbe r ra . B ray , T . 1 992 A rchaeo log ica l S urvey i n No r the rn E cuado r : I n ca I mpe r ia l ism a nd t he P a i sC a ranqu i . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 2 4 (2 ) :2 18 -233 . B ro the r s ton , G . 1 993 T he B ook o ft he F our th Wor ld : R ead ing t h eN a t ive Amer ica s T hrough T he ir L i tera ture . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , C ambr idge . B rowman , D .L . 1 984 T iwanaku : D eve lopmen t o f I n te rzona l T r ade a nd E conom ic E xpans ion i n t he A l t ip lano . I n D .L . B rowman e t .a l . ( ed s ) 1 984 :117 -142 . B rowman , D .L . , R .L . B urge r a nd M .A . R ive ra ( eds ) , 1 984 S oc ia l a nd E conom ic O rgan iza t ion i n t he P reh ispan ic A nd e s . BAR I n terna t iona l S er ie s 1 94 , O xfo rd . B r ush , S . 1 976a I n t roduc t ion t o S ympos ium o n Moun ta in E nv i ronen ts . Human E co logy 4 (2 ) :125 -133 . B ru sh , S . 1 976b Man ' s U se o fa n Andean E cosys tem . H uman E co logy 4 (2 ) :147 -166 . B u rkhe ime r ( La L one ) , M . 1 985 I nd ian L and T enure i n S ou thern C uzco , P eru : F rom I nca t o C o lon ia l P a t te rns . P h .D . T hes is , An thropo logy , UCLA , Un ivers i ty M ic rof i lm sI n terna t iona l . B u rkhe ime r , M . a nd D .E . L aL one 1 987 T he I nka S ta te i nt h e S ou thern H igh land s : S ta te Adm in is t ra t ive a nd P roduc t ion E nc lave s . E thnoh is tory 3 4 ( 1) :47 -62 . B u tze r , K .W . 1 982 A rchaeo logy a s Human E co logy : Me thod a nd T heo ry f or a C on tex tua lA pproach . C .U .P . ,C amb r idge . C ab e l lo Va lboa , M . 1 951 M isce länea A n tär t ica : U na H i s tor ia d e lP eru A n t iguo . U n ive r s idad N ac iona l Mayo rS an Ma r co s , I n s t i tu to d eE tno log ia , L ima . C e r rön P a lom ino , R . 1 987 L ingüi s t ica Quechua . C en t ro d e E s tud ios R u ra le s A nd inos " Ba r to lo rn6 d el a sC asa s " , C uzco . C her ry , J .F . 1 987 P owe r i n S pace : A rchaeo log ica l a nd G eog raph ica l S tud ie s o f t h e S ta te . I n J .M . Wags taf f ( e d ) L and scape a nd C u l ture : G eograph ica la nd A r chaeo log ica l P er spec t ives . B lackwe l l ,O xfo rd . 1 46 172 . C ieza d e L eon , P .d e 1 984 C rön ica d e l P erü : p r imera p ar te . P .U .C .P . F ondo E d i tor ia l , L ima . C ieza d e L eön , P . d e 1 985 C rön ica d e l P er i l : s egunda p an e . P .U .C .P . F ondo E d i tor ia l , L i ma . C lapper ton , C .M . 1 983 T he G lac ia t ion o f t he A ndes . Q ua ternar yS c ience R ev iew 2 :83 -155 .

C lax ton , R . a nd A . H ech t 1 978 C l ima t ic a nd H uman H i s tory i n E urope a nd L a t in Amer ica : An Oppo r tun i ty f o r C ompa ra t ive S tudy . C l ima t ic C hange 1 : 195 -203 . C lea re , J . 1 979 T he Wor ld Gu ide t o Moun ta ins a nd Moun ta ineer ing . Webb a nd B owe r ,L ondon . Cobo , P adre B . 1 964 H is tor ia d e l N uevo Mundo , V o l .I I . B ib l io teca d e A u to re s E spa i io le s , V o l .92 , E d ic ione s A t la s , Mad r id . C o l lap i i ia , S upno yo t ro s Qu ipucamayo s , 1 974 R e lac iön d e l a Descendenc ia G ob ierno y C onqu i s ta d e l o sI nca s . E d i tor ia l J uan J o sé V ega , L ima . C o l l ie r , G .A . , R . I . R osa ldo a nd J .D . W ir th ( eds ) 1 982 T he I nca a nd A z tec S ta tes 1 400 -1800 : A n thropo logy a nd H i s to ry . A cadem ic P re ss , N .Y . C onrad , G .W . 1 977 C h iqu i toy V ie jo : A n I n ca Adm in is t ra t ive C en te r i n t he C h icama V a l ley , P e ru . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 4 : 1-18 . Conrad , G .W . 1 992 I nca I mper ia l ism : T he G rea t S imp l if ica t ion a nd t h e A cc iden t o f Emp ire . I n D ema re s t , A .A . a nd G .W .C onr ad ( ed s ) 1 992 :159 -174 . C onrad , G .W . a nd A . D ema re s t 1 984 R e l ig ion a nd Emp ire : T he Dynam ics o fA z tec a nd I nca E xpans ion ism . C .U .P . C amb r idge . Cook ,N .D . 1 975 I n t roducc id en . I nT o ledo 1 9751X -XLL 1 1 . C ook , N .D . 1 981 Demograph ic C o l lapse : I nd ian P eru , 1 520 1 620 . C .U .P . C ambr idge . Cook , N .D . 1 982 P opu la t ion Da ta f o r I nd ian P eru : S ix teen th a nd S even teen th C en tu r ie s . H i span ic Amer ican H is tor ica l R ev iew 6 2 (1) :73 -120 . C ra ig , A .K . 1 985 C is -Andean E nv ironmen ta l T ransec t s : L a te Q ua te rnary E co logy o fN or the rn a nd S ou ther n P e ru . I n S . Ma suda e t .a l . ( e ds ) 1 985 :33 -44 . D 'A l t roy , T .N . 1 981 Emp ire G row th a nd C onso l ida t ion : T he X auxa R eg ion o f P e ru Unde r t h e I nca s . P h .D . T hes is , UCLA , Un ive r s i ty M ic rof i lms I n ter na t iona l . D 'A l troy , T .N . a nd R .L . B ishop 1 990 T he P rov inc ia l O rgan iza t ion o f I nka C e ram ic P roduc t ion . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 5 (1) :120 138 . D 'A l t roy , T .N . a nd C .A . H a s to r f 1 984 T he D is t r ibu t ion a nd C on ten ts o fI nca S ta te S to rehouse s i nt h e X auxa R eg ion o f P eru . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 9 (2 ) :334 -349 . D ema res t , A .A 1 992 A rchaeo logy , I deo logy , a nd P re C o lumb ian E vo lu t ion : T he S ea rch f o r a n App roach . I n D ema re s t , A .A . a nd G .W . C onrad ( e d s ) 1 992 :114 . D ema re s t ,A .A . a nd G .W .C on rad ( e d s ) 1 992 I d eo logy a nd P r e C o lumb ian C iv i l iza t ions . S choo l o f Amer ican R e sea rch P re ss , S an ta F e , N ew Mex ico . D enevan , W .M . 1 987 T er race Abandonmen t i n t h e C o lca Va l ley , P eru . I nW .M . D enevan e t .a l . ( e ds ) 1 987 :1-43 . D enevan , W .M . , K . Ma thewson a nd G . K napp ( ed s ) 1 987 P r e H ispan ic A gr icu l tura lF ie ld si nt h eA ndean R eg ion . ( Pa r t i ) . B .A .R . I n terna t iona l S er ie s 3 59 ( i ) ,O xfo rd . D iez d eS an M igue l ,G a rd 1 964 V i s i ta h echa al aP rov inc ia d e C hucu i to p or G ard D ie z d e S an M igue l e n e lA i io 1 567 . Ve r s iön P a leog rä f ica d e l a v i s i ta y u na b iog ra f ia d e l v i s i tador p o r Wa ldema r E sp inoza S or iano . Documen tos R eg iona le s p a ra l aE tno log ia y E tnoh is tor ia A nd ina , V o l . I . C a sa d e l aC u l tu ra , L ima . D i l lehay , T .D . 1 977 T awan t insuyu I n teg ra t ion o ft h e C h i l lon Va l ley , P eru : A C a se o f I nca G eo -Po l i t ica l Ma s tery . J ourna lo fF ie ld A r chaeo logy 4 :397 -405 . Do l lfus , 0 . 1 981 E l R e to d e l E spac io A nd ino , I . E .P . , L ima . Donk in , R .A . 1 979 A gr icu l tura l T er rac ing i nt h e A bor ig ina l N ew Wor ld . U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re ss ,T ucson .

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D rew , D . 1 984 T he Cus ichaca P ro jec t : A spec t s o f A r chaeo log ica l :R e conna is sance : T he L ucumayo a nd S a n ta T e r e sa V a l ley s .I nA . K enda l l( e d ) 1 984 :345 -375 . D ro sdof f , M . ,F .Q uevedo a nd C . Z amo ra , 1 960 S o i l so fP e ru . T ransac t ions o f t h e 7 th I n terna t iona l C ongre s s o fS o i l S c ience .p p .97 104 . D u rand , J .1 960 E s tud io P re l im ina r , I nG a rc i la so d e l aV ega 1 960 . Vo l . ! . D uv io ls , P . 1 976 L aC apacocha .A l lpanch i sP hu tur inqa 9 1 5 7 . C u sco . D uv io ls , P . 1 979 L a D ina s t ia d e l o s I nca s : Mona rqu ia o D ia rqu ia? J ourna ld e l aS oc id td d e s Amd r ican i s te s ( Pa r i s ) 6 6 :67 -83 Dwye r ,E .B . 1 97 1 T he E a r ly I nca O ccupa t ion o ft h eV a l ley o f C usco , P eru . P h .D . T hes is , U n ive r s i ty o f C a l ifo rn ia , B e rke ley . D ycke rhof f , U . 1 984 Mex ican T oponyms a s aS ou rce i n R eg iona lE thnoh i s to ry . I nH a rvey H .R .a nd HJ .P rem ( e d s ) 1 984 :229 -252 . E a r le ,T .K . 1 987 S pec ia l iza t ion a nd t h eP roduc t ion o f Wea l th : H awa i ian C h iefdoms a nd t he I nka Emp ire . I n E .M . B rumf ie la nd T .K .E a r le ( ed s )S pec ia l i za t ion , E xchange a nd C omp lex S oc ie t ie s . C .U .P . C amb r idge . E a r le , T .K . , T . D 'A l t roy , C .J . L eB lanc , C .A . H a s to r f , a nd T .Y . L eV ine , 1 980 C hang ing S e t t lemen t P a t te rns i n t h e Uppe r Man ta ro V a l ley , P e ru . J ourna l o f N ew Wor ld A r chaeo logy 4 ( 1) :1-49 . E a r ls ,J .1 978 E vo luc iön d el a Adm in i s t rac iön E co l6g ica I n ca . R ev i s ta d e l Mu seo N ac iona l( L ima )4 2 :207 -245 . E a r l s , J .1 981 P a t rone s d e J u r isd icc i6n y O rgan izac i6n e n t re l o s Q a racha Wanka s : U na R econs t rucc iön A rqueo l6g ica y E tnoh is tö r ica d e u na ü poca F lu ida . I n C a s te l l i , A . , M . K o th d eP a rede sa nd A . Mou ld d eP ea se ( e d s )E tnoh i s tor ia y A n . tropo log i aA nd ina 1 981 :55 -91 . L ima . E a r ls ,J .1 989 P lan if icac iön A gr i co la A nd ina : B a se sp ara u n ma r ze jo c i ber nd t ico d es i s tema sd ea ndene s . U n ive r s idad d e l P ac i f ico ,e d ic ione s CO ME , L ima . E ra smus C .J . 1 965 Monumen t B u i ld ing : S ome F ie ld E xper imen t s . S ou thwes tern J ourna l o f A n thropo logy 2 1(4 ) :277 -30 1 . E scoba r M . , M . 1 980 E s tud io C ompa ra t ivo d e l o s V a l le s d e U rubamba y e l Apur imac . A c tas y T raba jos d e l I I C ongr e so P eruano ' E l Hombr e yl aC u l tura A nd ina 'V o l . I V :657 -674 . L ima . E sp inoza M . ,H . 1 984 E v idenc ia C u l tu ra ld e lH o r izon te Med io (Wan) , A qomoqo , C usco . I n A . G iba ja ( c d ) A rqueo log ia A nd ina , I .N .C . , C u sco . p p .16 -22 . E sp inoza S . , W . 1 973 C o lon ia s d e M i tma s Mu l t ip le s e n Abancay , S ig lo s XV y XV I . R ev i s ta d e l Museo N ac iona l ( L ima ) 3 9 :225 -299 . E sp inoza S . , W . 1 977 L os O re jone s d e l C uzco o L a C la se O c iosa e ne lI mp e r io I nca .P roce so 6 ,U n ive r s idad N a c iona l d e lC en t ro d e lP e ru ,H uancayo . E s te te , M . d e 1 938 N o t ic ia d e l P erü . B ib l io te ca d e C u l tu ra P e ruana , S e r . 1 ,N o . 2 .D eB rouwe r ,P a r is . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 980 P reh i s tor ic Ag r icu l tu ra l F ac i l i t ie s i nt h e C u s ichaca V a l ley .L and U se a nd I r r iga t ion R e sea r ch R epo r t , A .N .U .C anb e r ra . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 983 P reh is to r ic I n tens ive Ag r icu l tu re : P re l im ina ry N o te s o n R ive r C ana l iza t ion i n t h e S ac red V a l ley o f t h e I n ca s . I n J .P . D a rch ( cd ) D ra ined F ie ld A gr icu l ture i n C en tra l a nd S ou th Amer ica , B .A .R . I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 89 :22 1-235 ,O xfo rd . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 984a T he Ver t ica l E conomy o f t h e C us ichaca V a l ley ( Cuzco , P e ru ) a nd i t s P reh is to r ic I mp l ica t ion s .I nD .L . B rowman e t .a l . ( e d s ) 1 984 :97 115 .

F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 984b Med ida s d e T ie r ras e n e l V a l le d e Y ucay ,C u s co .G ace ta A rqueo l6g ica A nd ina 1 :10 11 . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 986 T he I den t if ica t ion o fa n I nca P a lace a t U rubamba ,P e ru . A b s t rac t i nG .K . Wa rd ( cd )A rchaeo logy a t ANZAAS : P aper s P resen ted a t t h e 5 4 th ANZAAS C ongres s , May 1 984 , C anbe r ra A r chaeo log ica l S oc ie ty , C anbe r ra .p . 253 . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 989 ( m s ) T he P a lace a nd E s ta te o f I nca H uayna C apa ca tQ u i speguanca ,U rubamba ,P eru . F a r r ing ton , I . S . 1 993 R i tua l G eog raphy , S e t t lemen t P a t te rn s a nd t he C ha rac te r iza t ion o f t he P rov inces o f t h e I nka H ea r t land . W or ld A r chaeo logy 2 3 (2 ) :368 -385 . F av re , H . 1 973 I n toducc i6n . I n D . L ava l l6 e a nd M . J u l ien 1 973 :11-23 . F e jo s ,P . 1 944 A r chaeo log ica lE xp lora t ion s i nt he C ord i l lera V i lcabamba , S ou thea s te rn P eru . V ik ing F und P ub l ica t ion s i nA n th ropo logy , N o .3 , N ew Y o rk . F e rdon , E . 1 978 U nC am ino d e l aA l t ip lan ic ie P e ruana . I nR . R av ine s ( c d ) T ecno log ia A nd ina , I . E .P . , L ima . p p . 6 40 6 52 . F e rnandez , J . 1 982 H is to r ia d e l a A rqueo log ia A rgen t ina . A na le sd eA rqueo log i a yE tno log ia ( 1979 -80 ) Vo l . 3 4 -35 . U n ive r s idad N a c iona ld eC uyo . F ie ld , C . 1 966 A R econna issance o f S ou thern Andean Ag r icu l tu ra l T er rac ing . P h .D T hes i s , D epar tmen t o f G eography , UCLA . U n ive r s i ty M ic ro f i lm s , Ann A rbo r , M ich igan . F lannery , K . V . 1 972 T he Cu ltura l E vo lu t ion o f C iv i l iza t ions . A nnua l R ev iew o fE co logy a nd S ys tema t ic s 3 : 399 -426 . F o rnee ,N .d e 1 965 D e sc r ipc iön d el aT ier ra d e lC o r reg im ien to d e A bancay , d e q ue e sC o r reg ido r N icu lo so d e F o rne e . I n J imenez d el aE spada ,M .R e lac ione sG eogr c if i ca sd eI nd ia sP eru ,V o l .I : 1 6 -30 .E d ic ione sA t la s , Mad r id . F ranco I . , J . M . 1 935 J anan K o sko . R ev is ta d e l Museo N ac iona l( L ima ) 4( 2 ) :2 09 -233 . F ranco I . , J . M . 1 937a I nforme S ob re l o s R e s tos A rqueo l6g ico s d e l a s C abece ra s d e l P auca r tambo . R ev i s ta d e l Mu seo N ac iona l( L ima )6 (2 ) :255 -277 . F ranco I . , J .M . 1 937b J anan K o sko I . R ev i s ta d e l Museo N ac iona l( L ima )6 ( 2 ) :20 1-231 . F ranco I . , J . M . a nd A . Gonza lez 1 937 L os T raba jo s A rqueo l6g ico s e n e l D epar tamen to d e l C u sco b a jo l a D i recc iön d e l D r . L u i s EV ä lca rce l : I nfo rme s obre l a s R u ina s I nca ica s d e T a rawas i ( L ima tambo ) . R ev is ta d e l Mu seo N ac iona l( L ima )6 ( 1) :67 -80 F ranco I . , J . M . a nd L .A . L lanos 1 940 T raba jos A rqueo l6g ico se ne lD epa r tamen to d e l Cu sco : S a jsawaman . R ev i s ta d e l Mu seo N ac iona l( L ima )9 (1) :22 -32 . G ade , D .W . 1 973 E nv i ronmen t a nd D isea se i nt h e L and U se a nd S e t t lemen t o fA pu r imac D epa r tmen t , P e ru . G eof orum 1 6 :37 -45 . G ade , D .W . 1 975 P lan t s , Man a nd t h eL and i nt h e V i lcano ta V a l ley o f P eru . B iogeog raph ica Vo l .V I . , W . J unk , T he H ague . G ade , D .W . 1 979 I n ca a nd C o lon ia l S e t t lemen t , Coca C u l t iva t ion a nd E ndem ic D isea se i n t he T rop ica l F o re s t . J ou rna lo fH i s tor ica lG eography 5 ( 3 ) :263 -279 . G ade , D .W . a nd M . E scoba rM . 1 982 V i l lage S e t t lemen t a nd t h e C o lon ia l L ega cy i nS ou ther n P eru . T he G eograph ica l R e v iew 7 2 (4 ) :430 -449 . G a lvän , J . , M . G u inea a nd C . G a rc ia 1 976 Ap l ica c i6n d e l a s T 6 cn ica sd eM ic ro scop ia E lec t rön ica yD if ra cc iön d eR ayo s Xa lE s tud io d el aC e räm ica A rqueo l6g ica d eC h inche ro . I n. J .A lc ina e t .a l . ( e d s ) 1 976 :9 1-10 1 .

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