Leisure Education: A Person-Centered, System-Directed, Social Policy Perspective 9781571677143, 2013934028

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Leisure Education A Person-Centered, System-Directed,

Social Policy Perspective

Rodney B. Dieser

Prologue by Robert A Stebbins and Atara Sivan, members World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education

©2013 Sagamore Publishing LLC All rights reserved. Publishers: Joseph J. Bannon and Peter L. Bannon Director of Sales and Marketing: William A. Anderson Marketing Coordinator: Emily Wakefield Director of Development and Production: Susan M. Davis Technology Manager: Christopher Thompson Production Coordinator: Amy S. Dagit ISBN print edition: 978-1-57167-714-3 ISBN ebook: 978-1-57167- 715-0 LCCN: 2013934028 Sagamore Publishing LLC 1807 N. Federal Dr. Urbana, IL 61801 www.sagamorepub.com

DEDICATION AND RECOGNITION for Ricki Saxton-Dieser, Helen Dieser, Karen Fox, Jean Mundy, and Julia Dunn When I set out to write this book—my third textbook but first as a leading (and eventually sole) author—I knew I was going to dedicate it to the three most important women in my life. First, my wife, second, my mother, and third, my doctoral supervisor. However, as this book moved along, Joe Bannon (CEO of Sagamore Publishing) wanted me to work with Dr. Jean Mundy to write a book that merged Jean’s 1998 Leisure Education with the ideas I shared with Joe. We even talked about taking Jean Mundy’s book and updating it extensively and having it coauthored by Jean and me. Although Jean was interested, she was in the later stages of cancer and was too ill to write. Her hope was that her friend and colleague, Dr. Julia Dunn, could take her spot and coauthor the book with me. I agreed, and had many long e-mail and telephone conversations with Julia. I did not know her prior to writing this book, and we found some wonderful middle ground when discussing our ideas. At that point in time, Julia was healthy. Within a few months, Julia learned that she had a terminal and aggressive cancer and died within a month of our last conversation, even before Jean Mundy. Although Joe and I spoke about adding another author and bounced some names around, I wrote this book as a sole author. At the end of this four-year endeavor, with many sacred pauses due to Jean and Julie’s deaths, I struggled with whom to dedicate this book to. I was pulled in two directions; I wanted to dedicate it to Jean and Julia, but I also wanted to dedicate my first solely authored book to my wife, mother, and doctoral supervisor—three remarkable women who have helped me grow and become the person I am today. As such, this book is dedicated to these five women, and I will donate a portion of the royalties of this book to the American Cancer Society. I dedicate this book to my wonderful wife, Ricki Kristine Saxton-Dieser. She has borne the pressures, interruptions, stress, late nights, and last-minute schedule changes as I completed this book. More important, as a woman from an educated family, she married me close to 25 years ago and accepted my bluecollar, working-class, and uneducated background and taught me how to learn. The first day I attended the University of Utah, after I transferred from the Lethbridge Community College, I asked her to help me negotiate the campus and she walked around the massive University of Utah campus holding my iii

hand. In those early days, she proofread every paper I wrote and taught me how to write. This was no small task, as my writing was problematic because I struggled with a writing disorder (dyslexia). She has been holding my hand ever since in all sorts of life journeys. I dedicate this book to my mother, Helen Dieser. My mother was illiterate and could not drive. When I was a child, we had all sorts of adventures riding buses, and that is why one of my favorite books is Riding the Bus With My Sister by Rachel Simon and why I love the Bruce Springsteen song “Does this Bus Stop at 82nd Street?” My mother was ill with cancer throughout my childhood and died two weeks after I graduated from high school. Her graduation present to me was a roll of money—many $1 bills, some $5 bills, and even a few $10 bills, rolled together that summed to about $100. She hid it from my father and literally asked me to promise two things. The first was that I would use this money to go off to university. The second was to not tell my father she was hiding this money from him. Two years after she died, I used that roll-up money to buy a Papalia and Olds (1986) book titled Human Development as I took my first class at a small community college in my hometown of Lethbridge. From that experience of taking a human development class, I discovered leisure studies. That human development book still sits in my office and is one of the most sacred books I have ever read, because it was the book that my mother bought me, two years after she died. I dedicate this book to Dr. Karen Fox, a true mentor. Karen mentored not only a doctoral student, but she mentored my family in a holistic way. Grandma Karen—as my three young sons used to call her as she jumped on a trampoline with them or let them pick apples from her trees or walk her dogs—taught me not to turn away from an academic conflict and how to fight for those values that many academics hold tight to their hearts. She taught me how to be a qualitative researcher and how to be successful in academia. Before I moved from Edmonton (Canada) to take my first academic job at the University of Northern Iowa, Karen took me to lunch at the Olive Garden (in the city of Edmonton) and taught me how to create a seven-year research agenda, which was my road map to tenure, and more importantly, the joys of academia. The longer I am in academia, the more I realize how great a mentor she was. I dedicate this book to Dr. Jean Mundy and Dr. Julia Dunn. Their past academic labor and the conversations I had with both of them directed this book. One of the early books I read on leisure education was penned by Dr. Jean Mundy, and although I offered critique of her work, as I grew as a scholar, I also realized that her leisure education model examined the interchange of how leisure influences society and how society influences leisure. Dr. Julia Dunn influenced me to keep the leisure education activities in Dr. Mundy’s 1998 Leisure Education. They are located on the Sagamore website at http:// iv

www.sagamorepub.com/products/leisure-education under the resources tab. Although these activities are approximately 15 years old, they are still relevant and useful today and can be used in professional practice. I have used them in the classroom over the past 15 years. I am grateful to Jean for writing these activities and am grateful to Julia for persuading me to keep them.

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CONTENTS Dedication and Recognition............................................................................................iii About the Author.............................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................xi Preface.............................................................................................................................xiii Prologue..........................................................................................................................xix

1

Understanding Leisure Education from a Public Policy Perspective......................................................................... 1

2

Theories of Leisure..................................................................................... 15

3

The Positive and Negative Consequences of Leisure............................ 49

4

History and Overview of Person-Centered and System-Directed Leisure Education........................................................ 81

5

Connecting Leisure Education to Social Policy Development................................................................................ 127

6

A Short Overview Regarding Leisure Education Programming Stages and Group Facilitation and Structuring.......... 171

Index .................................................................................................................... 182

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Rodney B. Dieser, Ph.D., is an associate professor in the School of Health, Physical Education, and Leisure Services in the College of Education at the University of Northern Iowa. Rod currently serves as the chair of the Division of Leisure, Youth, and Human Services and program coordinator for the master’s degree in Philanthropy and Nonprofit Development. Dieser holds a bachelor’s and master’s of science degree from the University of Utah in Parks, Recreation, and Tourism, with a graduate level minor in educational psychology. He holds a doctorate of philosophy in physical education and recreation from the University of Alberta (Canada). Dieser is in the final year of completing a second master’s degree in mental health counseling from the University of Northern Iowa. His research and teaching interests include (1) cross-cultural therapeutic recreation and leisure practice; (2) therapeutic recreation as an adjunctive therapy for people with mental illness and people with disabilities; (3) historical and philosophical foundations of leisure, youth, and nonprofit human services, including Hull-House from 1889-1953; (4) the connection between leisure, sport, and physical activities with gender identity; and (5) the philanthropic labor and service of musician Bruce Springsteen. Dieser has coauthored two academic textbooks in leisure studies, has written over 60 academic articles, and has made countless national and international research and professional presentations. Although the bulk of Dieser’s academic writings are in the areas of leisure studies (e.g., American Journal of Recreation Therapy, Annuals of Therapeutic Recreation, Journal of Leisure Research, Leisure Science, Leisure Studies, Leisure/Loisir, Therapeutic Recreation Journal, World Leisure Journal) his research has appeared in other academic fields, including counseling psychology, education, human services, and physical education (e.g., Alberta Journal of Educational Research, Human Service Education, Journal of College Student Development, and Nonprofit World). Dieser has served as an associate editor for the Therapeutic Recreation Journal and Leisure/Loisir (Journal of the Canadian Association of Leisure Studies). Dieser has also served as an editor for the academic newsletter, the SPRE Professor, and was awarded a Presidential Citation by the Society of Parks and Recreation Educators for his work as the SPRE Professor editor. In 2006, he received the Outstanding Professional Research Award by the National Therapeutic Recreation Society in the United States. He has also received outstanding research and writing awards by the Alberta Therapeutic Recreation ix

Association and the Canadian Therapeutic Recreation Association, respectfully. In 2010, Dieser was inducted as a senior fellow in the American Leisure Academy as an outstanding scholar in the field of recreation and leisure in the United States. In 2012, Dieser was inducted as a senior fellow in the World Leisure Academy as an outstanding international scholar in the field of recreation and leisure.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have been fortunate to have the opportunity to work with colleagues at Sagamore Publishing. The staff at Sagamore Publishing provided continuous encouragement and support for this project. I appreciate their faith and efforts and value my relationships with several staff members. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Joseph J. Bannon, Peter L. Bannon, Susan M. Davis, and William Anderson. I would like to thank Dr. Charlie Sylvester and Dr. Linda Caldwell for reviewing early drafts of this book and providing reflective and critical feedback. They both did an outstanding job of outlining the early flaws of this book and provided needed direction. I appreciate Dr. Robert Stebbins and Dr. Atara Sivan for providing feedback and for writing an exceptional prologue for this book. I would like to thank Dr. Christopher Edginton for the mentorship he provided when he served as director of the School of Health, Physical Education, and Leisure Services at the University of Northern Iowa and in his leadership in creating time for faculty members to engage in research and scholarship. I am grateful to my colleagues at the University of Northern Iowa in the Division of Leisure, Youth, and Human Services, who have helped me develop my thinking over the years: Sam Lankford, Susan Hudson, Joe Wilson, Kathy Scholl, Christopher Kowalski, Heather Olsen, Juli Gassman, and Oksana Grybovych, along with Dean Dwight Watson. I am also grateful to faculty in the Mental Health Counseling program at the University of Northern Iowa who I partnered with over the years and who have also helped me develop my thinking: Dr. Darcie Davis-Gage, Dr. Jan Bartlett, and Dr. Linda Nebbe. I also want to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Mary Anne Layden, Codirector of the Sexual Trauma and Psychopathology Program, Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania, for providing me a substantial listing of academic literature pertaining to erotic pornography and how it contributes to violence against women and sexual abuse (see Chapter 3 of this book). I am grateful to Dr. Felice Yuen (Concordia University in Montreal, Canada) for sending me a series of research articles pertaining to the leisure education oriented Stride Night/ Circles program occurring at the Grand Valley Institution prison for women (see Chapter 5) and to Bob McCannon, president of the Action Coalition for Media Education for giving my permission to use the “Tackling the Beer Barons” media literacy activity located at the end of Chapter 5. I am appreciative of the good efforts of Andrew F. Kazmierski from Andrew F. Kazmierski Photography for his outstanding photo of Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth on the Ashbury Park boardwalk in New Jersey (located in chapter xi

2). I am also thankful to my three sons who helped me engage in leisure and play as I worked feverishly to complete this project. I remember receiving a phone call one evening from my oldest son after spending an entire day writing asking me if I wanted to go to the new Batman movie. I sure needed the break! I am also indebted to my furry four-legged friend, Louie, who also taught me to take breaks in writing this book in order to walk about and enjoy wonderful smells.

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PREFACE Although different leisure professionals and academics have outlined the importance of leisure education programming during the 1960s (e.g., Humphrey, 1964; Kraus, 1964; Rusk, 1960), Charles Brightbill is one of the first academics to provide a body of scholarly work devoted to leisure education. In 1960, in his book, The Challenge of Leisure, Brightbill dedicated an entire chapter to leisure education and argued that education for leisure is vital. In his next book Brightbill (1961) augmented this argument, and 5 years later Brightbill (1966) published one of the first books dedicated to leisure education, titled Educating for Leisure-Centered Living. Since Brightbill’s academic work, different leisure theorists have developed leisure education models that give voice to their creation, usually without acknowledging that there are many different leisure education theories and models. For example, McDowell (1975, 1984) created a theory of leisure counseling/ education that only speaks about his theory. When you read Holmberg, Rosen, and Holland’s (1997) leisure education model based on Holland’s (1973, 1992) six personality types designed to help in career development and satisfaction, you read nothing about other models of leisure education. Holmberg et al.’s leisure education model explains only their conceptual framework of leisure education. Although Mundy (1998) provides a small amount of attention toward different leisure education models, the overwhelming majority of her book outlines the leisure education model she created. Likewise, albeit Dattilo (2008) outlines different leisure education models, and does a very good job of providing research-based evidence of the effectiveness of leisure education, the bulk of his leisure education book outlines the model that Dattilo advances, which includes the leisure education components of leisure appreciation, awareness of self in leisure, self-determination in leisure, social interaction leisure resources, and decision making in leisure. Stumbo (1992, 1997) created numerous leisure education manuals that list all sorts of leisure education activities aligned to the Peterson and Gunn (1984) leisure education model with little overview of the many different leisure education models that have been developed. An incorrect and oversimplified view might be that these leisure education theorists and creators are self-maximizing people who only want to communicate their own academic work. However, professional fields grow—and areas of specialization develop—by “pioneers” who often have to work alone in order to develop new theories, sometimes embraced by colleagues, sometimes challenged by colleagues, and sometimes rejected by colleagues. That is to say, it is part of xiii

normal social science and professional development for pioneering researchers and thinkers to work alone on their ideas until a body of knowledge is created that brings together differing academic and professional theories, research, and services. Although collaboration is vitally important in all human service fields and can contribute to creativity, Cain’s (2012) recent scholarly summary regarding the power that introverts can cause in the world underscores that collaborative efforts can sometimes destroy creativity and that working alone can free people from the problem of groupthink and can be essential to creative developments. To underscore the importance of how working alone to develop theories and professional practice can be beneficial, I would like to draw on the field of counseling psychology. Many of the developing theories regarding mental health and therapy intervention were developed by pioneers who worked relentlessly in creating their theories, and sometimes those theories went against the common norms of academic and professional practice. For example, although Sigmund Freud was rooted in medical practice and science, the development of psychoanalytic therapy was at odds with the medical model of his era and he worked persistently in developing the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (circa 1902) and the International Psychoanalytical Association (1910), which created separation from medical practice (Winter, 1999). Talk therapy, in order to understand the unconscious, was the new intervention that Freud developed that challenged medical practice. After approximately 10 years of working in collaboration with Freud and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, Alfred Adler resigned as the President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society in 1911 and worked uncompromisingly to develop the Society of Individual Psychology in 1912, which not only challenged Freudian psychoanalytic practice but also developed a new type of counseling theory called Adlerian therapy. Adler’s disagreement with Freud on psychological determinance from sex and the libido to other environmental factors (e.g., family, birth order, sibling relationships) caused Freud to call Adler a heretic (Corey, 2005). Karen Horney also needed to work in separation from Freud and his cohorts, and her continuous work developed the seeds of feminist views to counseling psychology and psychoanalytic knowledge (Hitchcock, 2004). Drawing a parallel to leisure education, I see many of the early thinkers and pioneers of leisure education—people such as Charles Brightbill, John Dattilo, John Holland, Richard Kraus, Chester McDowell, Jean Mundy, Atara Sivan, Robert Stebbins, Norma Stumbo, and many, many others—as important thinkers who have worked relentlessly and passionately to develop different models and theories of leisure education. One of the chief aims of Leisure Education: A Person-Centered, System-Directed, and Social Policy Perspective is to provide a book that brings all of these leisure education voices together xiv

and provides a broad overview of the many different theories and models of leisure education. My humble hope is that this book propels the field of leisure education forward by helping readers (a) understand the history of leisure education, including the many theories and models of leisure education; (b) outline the progress and dynamic aspects of leisure education, such as the difference between person-centered and system-directed leisure education; and (c) move the leisure education field forward toward social policy development so that leisure education can have a voice related to preventing and remedying social problems. In regard to connecting leisure education to social policy, one of the unique features of this book, as Kleiber (2012) has recently suggested, is the integration of leisure education and media literacy (see Chapter 5). In the United States, leisure education is often associated with the field of therapeutic recreation. As outlined in Chapter 4, there is a solid body of research evidence that leisure education can help people with special needs that has its roots in therapeutic recreation practice. However, this book aligns with the thinking of Edginton, Hudson, Dieser, and Edginton (2004); Farrell and Lundegren (1991); Henderson (2007); and Sivan and Stebbins (2012) that leisure education can be part of leisure programs and services in different leisure settings (e.g., public, not-for-profit, commercial), with different leisure and human service professional orientations (e.g., community recreation, family recreation, park planning, therapeutic recreation, youth services, social policy planning, community development, urban planning, outdoor recreation, mental health counseling, social work, school-based education, tourism), and with diverse population groups (e.g., people with special needs, neighborhood groups, adolescents, special interest groups, members of city council, tourists). For example, community recreation professionals can partner with social policy planners to create TV or computer diets, a leisure education program offered at community recreation facilities to address the social problem of obesity. To this end, Leisure Education: A Person-Centered, System-Directed, and Social Policy Perspective is broken into six chapters. Chapter 1 provides a broad understanding of leisure education from a social policy perspective. Although this book aims to provide a broad overview of the many different theories and models of leisure education, from a social policy perspective this book is strongly linked to Mundy’s (1998) definition of leisure education as a developmental process through which an individual develops an understanding of leisure, of self in relation to leisure, and of the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society. Understanding the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society is a foundational concept in the development of social policy. For instance, understanding how the consumption of violent media can increase violence and aggression in society and how leisure education can help remedy the societal concerns of aggression is an example of understanding the relationship among xv

leisure, lifestyle, and society. Likewise, being aware that Internet-based leisure— which usually means sitting in a chair at a computer—can contribute to the social problem of obesity and providing leisure education programming toward changing passive types of leisure toward more active-living leisure to prevent obesity is another example of understanding the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society. Chapter 2 outlines that there are many different theories of leisure. This book departs from other leisure education books in that it does not present a single theory of leisure, but rather it suggests that leisure education specialists need to understand the many different theories of leisure. Too many American leisure education models are based on Neulinger’s (1981) leisure paradigm, and Leisure Education: A Person-Centered, System-Directed, and Social Policy Perspective suggests that leisure education specialists need to pick different theories of leisure based on differing settings and population groups. Chapter 3 outlines the beneficial aspects of leisure but departs from other leisure education books by positing that leisure can be destructive and can harm people and communities. The key is for leisure education specialists to augment the net benefits of leisure by preventing the negative outcomes of leisure. In order to do this, awareness of the dark side of leisure is needed. Chapter 4 provides a historical overview of the many different theories and models of leisure education and specifically outlines the difference between person-centered leisure education and system-directed leisure education. Chapter 5 might be the most unique contribution to this book. Although Chapter 1 posits that leisure education needs to move toward social policy development, Chapter 5 is an in-depth explanation of how leisure education can be linked to a social policy perspective. Furthermore, Chapter 5 provides an in-depth example of how media literacy leisure education can be integrated into a social policy perspective related to human and societal welfare. Chapter 6 is a very brief chapter related to leisure education programming. While there are many other outstanding books that articulate how to provide basic programming, this chapter simply identifies the most basic aspects of leisure education programming, such as how to write goals and objectives and how to be cross-culturally competent. References Brightbill, C. K. (1960). The challenge of leisure. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; PrenticeHall. Brightbill, C. K. (1961). Man and leisure: A philosophy of recreation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Brightbill, C. K. (1966). Educating for leisure-centered living. Harrisburg, PA: The Stackpole Company. Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can’t stop talking. New York: Crown. xvi

Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Dattilo, J. (2008). Leisure education program planning: A systematic approach (3rd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Dawson, D. (2010). Leisure and social policy. In H. Mair, S. M. Arai, & D. G. Reid (Eds.), Decentering work: Critical perspectives on leisure, social policy, and human development (pp. 9–34). Calgary, Canada: University of Calgary Press. Edginton, C. R., Hudson, S. R., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2004). Leisure programming: A service-centered and benefits approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Farrell, P., & Lundegren, H. M. (1991). The process of recreation programming: Theory and technique (3rd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Hall, A., & Midgley, J. (2004). Social policy for development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Henderson, K. A. (2007). Leisure education and the leisure industries. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education: Finding personal fulfillment in this century (pp. 131–152). State College, PA: Venture. Hitchcock, S. T. (2004). Karen Horney: Pioneer of feminine psychology. New York: Chelsea House. Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Holland, J. L. (1992). Making vocational choices (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychology Assessment Resources. Holmberg, K., Rosen, D., & Holland, J. L. (1997). The leisure activities finder. Odessa, FL: Psychology Assessment Resources. Humphrey, F. (1964). Recreation counseling for the institutional congress. Proceeding from the forty-sixth National Recreation Congress. Miami Beach, FL. Kleiber, D. A. (2012). Taking leisure seriously: New and older considerations about leisure education. World Leisure Journal, 54(1), 5-15. Kraus, R. G. (1964). Recreation and the schools. New York: Macmillan. McDowell, C. F. (1975). Leisure counseling: Selected lifestyle processes. Eugene: University of Oregon Press. McDowell, C. F. (1984). Leisure: Consciousness, well-being, and counseling. In E. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications (pp. 5–51). Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. Mundy, J. (1998). Leisure education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Sagamore. Neulinger, J. (1981). To leisure: An introduction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. xvii

Peterson, C. A., & Gunn, S. L. (1984). Therapeutic recreation program design: Principles and procedures (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Rusk, H. (1960, April). Therapeutic recreation. Hospital Management, 35–36. Segal, E. A. (2007). Social welfare policy and social programs: A value perspective. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. A. (2011). Leisure education: Definition, aims, advocacy, and practice – Are we talking about the same thing? World Leisure Journal, 53(4), 27–41. Smith, D. H., Stebbins, R. A., & Dover, M. A. (2006). A dictionary of nonprofit terms and concepts. Bloomington & Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press. Stumbo, N. J. (1992). Leisure education II: More activities and resources. State College, PA: Venture. Stumbo, N. J. (1997). Leisure education III: More goal-oriented activities. State College, PA: Venture. Winter, S. (1999). Freud and the institution of psychoanalytic knowledge. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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PROLOGUE by Atara Sivan, Hong Kong Baptist University Robert A. Stebbins, University of Calgary Members of the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education

To bring up the subject of leisure education is to raise the issue of the

importance of leisure. In other words, by engaging in the former we are arguing that the latter is worth promulgating. Such promulgation, such education, takes place at the formal level primarily in schools, institutions, and organizations. True, as Dieser shows in this book, leisure education can be—indeed often is— informal and self-directed, but it is its formal side that may lead to policy and to conscious decisions to inform various target groups about leisure. This, the formal side of the process, is where the question of the importance of leisure comes to a head. Most readers of this book will be either university students or specialists in leisure education. They will peruse the volume fueled by the conviction that leisure is important, very important, and therefore is badly in need of being described and explained to the general public. That public may be as broad as all primary and secondary students or all overworked adults or as narrow as people in rehabilitative therapy or those facing the abrupt surge of free time felt at retirement. As for the readers, they will see leisure as a main route to wellbeing and a decent lifestyle. Furthermore, they will hold that all people must be educated about such benefits. If only the general public understood leisure in at least some of the depth that leisure studies specialists do. Unfortunately, that public, especially in the United States, has labored for better than a century with a mixed sense of leisure (Stebbins, 2012, pp. 98–99). Thus the modern work ethic, a “dereligionized,” contemporary version of the old Protest Ethic, stresses a person should work, work hard, and avoid leisure as much as possible. Work is good and leisure is not (though today a little of it after a good session of work is acceptable). xix

Moreover, some people today see leisure as frivolous, as simply having a good time, or, in the language of leisure studies, as casual leisure and the quest for hedonic experiences. The image of frivolity fades into that of leisure as a waste of time because some people believe frivolousness leads to nothing substantial (even though several benefits of casual leisure have been identified by, among others, Hutchinson & Kleiber, 2005; Kleiber, 2000; Stebbins, 2001). A related image is that leisure is unimportant, in the sense that there is little need to plan for it, that what we do in free time can be determined on the spot. Finally, the larger community defines some leisure as deviant. This kind of activity, to the extent the larger society sees it in unfavorable terms while defining it as leisure, also carries a negative public image. Most people nowadays probably see leisure in both a negative and a positive light. They think about leisure in general as frivolous, insubstantial, unimportant, or deviant or as a combination of these evaluations, but they also see leisure in at least two positive ways. One, they commonly see it as fun, as manifested in participants smiling, laughing, and being at ease with what they are doing. Hence, the concentration of the serious leisure athlete or performing artist, for example, is incongruous for them, possibly not really leisure. Two, they look fondly on their own leisure as something positive. They want to pursue their personal leisure, for here they find satisfaction or fulfillment, if not both. This composite image has, to be sure, inconsistencies. So it is with common sense. In promoting leisure education to the public and to policy makers, we must contend with this complex, sometimes logically inconsistent, view of leisure. To be effective, leisure education programs in schools, at work, and for retirees, for example, will have to neutralize leisure’s negative side. The same strategy will be required when dealing with policy makers. In short, as long as an unfavorable image of leisure prevails among our target groups, leisure education will not get far. Leisure education, in this instance and in spite of the diverse ways of looking at it, is important to individuals and to their societies. Although the wide range of opinions about the whys and wherefores of leisure education might imply that it is everything and thus perhaps “nothing at all,” these opinions also indicate that it is an area of great interest and at times even of great concern to researchers and practitioners in leisure. Some attribute the wide range of opinions about leisure education to its roots in two significant multidisciplinary and all-encompassing areas (Sivan & Stebbins, 2011). Others examine it from a specialized perspective, a way that mirrors the growing trend toward specialization observed in all professions. In this book, Dieser addresses both perspectives, thereby offering a holistic view. His perspective is vitally important for anyone interested in understanding the place of leisure in life and especially for those who plan to undertake an active role in educating for leisure. xx

Even though the initial calls for leisure education were heard first in the West, they are now reverberating around the world as part of the international leisure agenda. Position papers from academics and professional practitioners have been advocating for implementation of formal and informal leisure education. They suggest a multitude of concrete ways to do this and stress the need for a more active approach by governments, international bodies, and local organizations than presently taken. Amid mounting recommendations to integrate the voices of leisure studies from around the world (Roberts, 2010), the calls for leisure education could also eventuate in the development of international and multicultural models that cross all political boundaries. Such models should be person- and system-centered. Leisure education, be it process, content, context, or a combination of these, requires personal active learning through facilitation and empowerment. Because they are the principal agents of formal education for all, the schools are enjoined to take on the role of leisure educator (Sivan, 2008). Success in this role is not solely determined by the schools, however, for there are external forces to be reckoned with, notably the different educational stakeholders and policy makers. This situation underscores the need to also pursue leisure education on the policy level. The examples Dieser provides attest to this need and, it is hoped, will inspire those embarking on a career in leisure education whatever their instructional level and sociocultural area. References Hutchinson, S. L., & Kleiber, D. A. (2005). Gifts of the ordinary: Casual leisure’s contributions to health and well-being. World Leisure Journal, 47(3), 2-16. Kleiber, D. A. (2000). The neglect of relaxation. Journal of Leisure Research, 32, 82-86. Roberts, S. (2010). Is leisure studies “ethnocentric”? If so, does this matter? World Leisure Journal, 52(3), 264-176. Sivan, A. (2008). Leisure education in educational settings: From instruction to inspiration. Society and Leisure, 31(1), 49-68. Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. (2011). Leisure education: Definitions, aims, advocacy, and practices – Are we talking about the same thing(s)? World Leisure Journal, 53(1), 27-41. Stebbins, R. A. (2001). The costs and benefits of hedonism: Some consequences of taking casual leisure seriously. Leisure Studies, 20, 305-309. Stebbins, R. A. (2012). The idea of leisure: First principles. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.

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chapter one

Understanding Leisure Education From a Social Policy Perspective

There have been many books and articles written regarding the con-

nection of leisure and education. Sixty years ago, for example, the well-known American philosopher Mortimer Adler (1951) wrote an article regarding labor, leisure, and liberal education, where he argued that the primary aim of education is the improvement of people and society. Adler concluded that the improvement of people and society can take place in two educational ways. The first, which he called vocational education, is training for labor and has a strong focus on external motivation, such as woodworking (carpentry) to create objects as commodities in order to sell and make profit. Vocational education is based on distinction and differences, such as a dentist developing skills (thus creating the betterment of a person) so that his/her work can be distinct from other vocations (e.g., medical doctors), in order to make profit. The second, liberal education, is aimed at the betterment of people, not in relation to their differences, but rather in respect to their similarities. Liberal education is training for life and has a strong focus in intrinsic motivation, such as woodworking (carpentry) for enjoyment. Regardless of whether one agrees with Adler’s distinction between vocational and liberal education, the most important idea is that the primary aim of education is the improvement of people and society. This connection of education for human and societal flourishing has been underscored by different leisure academic (e.g., most recently, Sivan & Stebbins, 2011), many of which connect it back to the thinking of Aristotle. The Greek word schole, which has been translated today to mean leisure, is also the etymological source for the modern word school (Hemingway, 1988; Hunnicutt, 2006; Russell, 2009). Arnold (1989) suggested that Aristotle was the first to outline a relationship between leisure and education, and the American philosopher John

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Dewey (1939) also wrote about the importance of connecting these two entities. Thirty-three years before Adler wrote his article on labor, leisure, and liberal education, the National Education Association published one of the most influential education documents of the 20th century—the 1918 Cardinal Principles Report—which outlined seven of the most important aims of public education; one of the seven was the worthy use of leisure (Kliebard, 1995). In the early part of the new millennium, Noddings (2003) examined the main purposes of education in the United States and concluded that the chief aims of formal K–12 education were (a) to keep the United States strong economically through a nondemocratic standardized model of education to compete against other nations (e.g., China) and (b) to give every child an opportunity to do well financially. That is why, according to Noddings, American schools have a strong focus on subjects such as math and science and not history, drama, music, or art; global domination lies in industry type curriculum, such as math and science, and not in drama or music education. Noddings concluded that many students fail in school because they are forced to do work they hate and are deprived of work they might love and that “there is more to individual life and the life of a nation than economic superiority” (p. 84). Her suggested action is that K–12 schools should reexamine their chief aims and should change economic superiority as the main goal of education. Noddings suggests that the primary aim of education should be to cultivate happiness and that the following curriculum areas would increase both personal and societal happiness and flourishing: (a) homemaking (e.g., communications, cooking, enhancing warm and loving personal relationships); (b) places and nature (e.g., leisure, such as outdoor recreation, music, art, biography); (c) parenting (e.g., birthing, nutrition, communication with teenagers); (d) character and spirituality (e.g., moral education, friendship development); (e) interpersonal growth (e.g., self-esteem, romantic love); (f) preparing for work (e.g., pursuit of intellectual interests, money management, development of personal talents); and (g) community, democracy, and service (e.g., sense of belonging, equality and respect for diversity, volunteerism). For Noddings, leisure is an important aspect in connecting education to happiness, which will have an end result of developing better people and better societies. Mortimer Adler and Nel Noddings are respected academics from outside of the field of leisure studies (Adler’s academic position was in philosophy, and Noddings is a contemporary professor in education). Within the modern field of leisure studies/services, Charles Brightbill is an early academic who provided a body of scholarly work devoted to leisure education. In 1960, in his book The Challenge of Leisure, Brightbill (1960) dedicated an entire chapter to leisure education and wrote the following: As we look at the relationship between leisure and education, let us think of the latter not in the narrow fact-cramming, diploma-directed sense, but rather in its deepest and best-meaning—the thinking and learning process . . . If we are to have a flood of leisure, we must be ready for it.

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Education for leisure is vital. If we do not learn how to use the new leisure in wholesome, uplifting, decent, and creative ways, we shall not live at all. Conversely, society need not be too concerned with the threats of leisure, if we are prepared to use it well. When we say education for leisure, we have in mind persons developing appreciation, interests, skills, and opportunities that will enable them to use their leisure in personally rewarding ways, plus understand why this way of life is essential to their well-being and to the survival of society. (pp. 92–93, italics in the original source) In his next book Man and Leisure, Brightbill (1961) dedicated another chapter to leisure and education, and 5 year later Brightbill (1966) published one of the first books dedicated to leisure education, titled Educating for LeisureCentered Living. Similar to Mortimer Adler, Brightbill saw education for leisure with a two-pronged focus: the development of individuals and the development of society. The common theme among Adler, Brightbill, and Noddings is that the principal aim of education is the improvement of people and of society. More recently, World Leisure (2008) has outlined that the principle aim of leisure education is to help individuals and communities (society) to achieve a suitable quality of life and good health by using leisure time intelligently. However, although there are many different models of leisure education (which will be explained throughout this book, and in particular, in Chapter 4), the overwhelming majority of leisure education models and programs have been focused on improving people as individuals through a person-centered approach and scant attention has been based on using leisure education for the betterment of society through a system-directed or social policy perspective (see Dieser, 2004, 2011, 2012; Dieser, Fox, & Walker, 2002). As Sivan and Stebbins (2011) recently observed, “In comparison with the ‘individual’ goals of leisure education, its societal goals have been less emphases” (p. 31), and Sivan and Stebbins go on to outline how Chinese scholars have shed new light on how leisure education can lead to great community development, such as creating a more harmonious society, forming social bonding, and seeing leisure as a way of addressing social affairs. From both a person-centered and a system-directed approach, leisure education should be linked to a social policy framework in order to improve human welfare and the well-being of society. A person-centered approach, sometimes called an individualistic approach, is when an individual person is placed at the center of a program or an intervention and human service workers look to the person to identify and express leisure needs, interests, goals, and strategies to meet goals (Bullock, Mahon, & Killingsworth, 2011; Shank & Coyle, 2002). Most human service workers, whether inside or outside of leisure services, attribute person-centered thinking to the humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers. To Rogers (1961, 1980), a personcentered approach is based on three core conditions. First, unconditional positive regard refers to human service workers who accept clients and participants

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unconditionally and nonjudgmentally. In leisure education, participants are free to explore all thoughts and feelings, positive or negative, without danger of rejection or condemnation. Second, empathic understanding refers to human service workers who accurately understand the thoughts, feelings, and meanings of clients or participants. Third, congruence refers to human service workers who are authentic and genuine. In short, the person-centered approach views the client as their own best authority on their own experience or future endeavors, and it views the client or participant as being fully capable of fulfilling their own potential for growth. As such, in person-centered human services, the self is more important than the group, thus it is highly individualistic. In contrast, system-directed change, also known as an ecological approach, occurs when strategies are put forth in order to improve communities or other environmental factors in providing human services to people (Mandell & Schram, 2008). (In this book, system-directed change and an ecological approach will be used interchangeably.) System-directed or social ecology models examine how environmental factors, such as neighborhoods, family members, peers, schools, and social services, need to change in order to help people with behavioral change (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 2005; Mandell & Schram, 2008). To this end, Bronfenbrenner (1979, 2005) identified four systems that human service workers need to understand and change. First, microsystems are a person’s immediate surroundings, such as family, school, work, and neighborhoods. Second, mesosystems are the connections between immediate environments, such as a recreation center or park (leisure resources) and the neighborhood. Third, exosystems are larger social systems that impact the person more indirectly than directly, such as community services, mass media, community policy, city council meetings, or extended family. Fourth, macrosystems are overarching systems comprising customs, cultural values, laws, and resources considered important in the individual’s culture, such as societal values, national economy, political ideology, or social class. Different leisure scholars and leisure education specialists have expressed concern regarding the lack of attention in leisure education toward changing social and environmental factors that influence leisure behavior (Hutchison & McGill, 1998; Scholl, Dieser, & Davidson, 2005; Sylvester, 1983). For example, over 20 years ago Witt (1991) suggested the following concern regarding leisure education: Of particular concern is the fact that, to date, most of the attention [of leisure education programs] has been focused on helping individuals change or modify some combination of their values, attitudes, skills, or knowledge concerning leisure. . . . Little attention has been given, however, to changing the basic social, economic and political conditions within the society that affect an individual’s ability to undertake personally meaningful leisure experiences. . . . In the case of leisure ‘problems,’ we tend to overestimate the ‘defects’ in an individuals values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge regarding leisure without giving proper attention

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to the service provisions and reinforcements provided by society which influence leisure choices and outcomes. Further, we fail to give proper weight to factors such as unequal distribution of income, social stratification, inequality of power, plus mechanization and urbanization as the source of significant portions of the ‘leisure problem’ for many individuals. (pp. 308–309) To understand the multiple social and environmental factors that affect an individual’s ability to experience leisure, Witt argued that leisure education should be based on a psycho-socio-educational model. Although a system-directed or an ecological approach to leisure education has been advocated for many years, when compared to person-centered leisure education, it is very clear that the majority of leisure education models are based on a person-centered approach (Sivan & Stebbins, 2011). The action part of both person-centered and system-directed change can lead to social policy development and the prevention or remedy of social problems (see Jenson & Fraser’s, 2011, edited book for multiple examples). Social policy is a plan of action adopted by a government, nonprofit, or business enterprise (or in partnership, such as government and nonprofit working together) in order to remedy or prevent a social problem or make society better (Hall & Midgley, 2004). Social policy is related to creating, maintaining, or improving living conditions and, as such, is always related to human welfare or the well-being of society (Dawson, 2010; Segal, 2007; Smith, Stebbins, & Dover, 2006). For example, Barton (2011) posited that social policy that addresses the following societal factors would help prevent the social problem of juvenile delinquency and help youth develop into healthy adults: positive school bonding, constructive use of free time, safe and interactive neighborhoods, pro-social community norms, family achievement and togetherness, and high self-efficacy and selfesteem. Building on Barton’s research synthesis of how social policy can prevent juvenile delinquency, any leisure professional or leisure education specialist can see how leisure education programming can play an important role in building healthy adolescents and adults. For example, a person-centered leisure education program can be developed by a local parks and recreation program to help youth use their free time in constructive ways. Although leisure education is often located within a therapeutic recreation framework, community parks and recreation programs have an important role to play in facilitating leisure education programs (Edginton, Hudson, Dieser, & Edginton, 2004; Farrell & Lundegren, 1991). Caldwell, Baldwin, Walls, and Smith’s (2004) evaluative study based on the leisure education middle school program titled “Time Wise: Learning Lifelong Leisure Skills” is a good example of a successful school-based leisure education intervention that helped youth use their free time in constructive ways and developed pro-social community norms in restricting leisure boredom, developing higher level leisure decision-making skills, and helping youth participate in new leisure interests, such as nature-based leisure. Taken together,

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these leisure-related skills increased positive free time use, which in turn can prevent the initiation of substance use and abuse (leisure boredom and lower level leisure decision-making skills can lead to youth substance use/abuse). Almost 50 years ago Kraus (1964) outlined how leisure education can aid in positive school bonding, and a recent study by Shannon (2012) underscored how system-directed leisure education can develop family bonding, togetherness, and achievement. Additionally, system-directed leisure education programs could be used to persuade a local city council to invest in safe and interactive neighborhoods, youth programs, and parks as a means to preventing juvenile delinquency. To this end, the World Leisure Organization’s (2008) recent strategic plan advocating that governments throughout the world set social policy in order to optimize leisure opportunities for the betterment of society is an example of a global organization attempting to improve the social welfare of people by persuading government about the benefits of leisure.

Leisure Education There are many definitions of leisure education based on a person-centered approach (and Chapter 4 will provide a historical overview of the different person-centered and system-directed leisure education models that have been developed in the past 40 years). For example, Johnson, Bullock, and AshtonShaeffer (1997) defined leisure education as a process of teaching recreation and leisure-related skills, attitudes, and values to individuals. Likewise, Robertson (2007) defined leisure education as a process of developing the attitudes, knowledge, and skills needed to make leisure choices and of understanding individual responsibility for leisure. In both of these definitions, leisure education begins and ends with the individual with scant attention directed toward other ecological factors, such as social policy or community development related to leisure resources. The concern with focusing leisure education squarely on a person-centered or individualistic framework is that little attention is then given to changing social, economic, and political conditions within society that affect a person’s ability to experience leisure (Witt, 1991). For example, the African American writer Quant (1993) reported that when she was a child (in the 1950s) she was involved in her first criminal acts of sneaking into White-only playgrounds to play, while her mother stood watch at the bus stop “ . . . trying to look natural, as if she was just another colored lady waiting for a bus on a dark corner” (p. 29). A person-centered leisure education approach would be to help Quant and her mother learn how to overcome racism as a barrier to leisure, where in fact, a better approach would be to make leisure education social policy change in the community to allow all children and people, regardless of race and ethnicity, to gather in a playground. To this end, from a system-directed perspective leisure education can be community development (Sivan, 2000) through which people of a community plan and undertake leisure actions (e.g.,

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creating an inclusive playground so that children with and without disabilities and children of all different ethnic backgrounds can play together) to improve their communities. To this end, in this book leisure education is based on the definition that Mundy (1998) provided approximately 12 years ago, which has elements of both a person-centered approach and an ecological or system-directed approach. Accordingly, leisure education is defined as a developmental process through which an individual develops an understanding of leisure, of self in relation to leisure, and of the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society (Mundy, 1998). Dividing Mundy’s definition of leisure education in half, the development of an understanding of leisure related to self and lifestyle is a person-centered or individualistic aspect of leisure education and can entail teaching leisure-related skills, attitudes, and values, such as helping people overcome leisure barriers or constraints (Chapter 4 in this book explains leisure barriers and constraints). However, the other part of Mundy’s definition of leisure education—understanding leisure and its relationship to society—is an ecological or social policy perspective. For example, understanding the relationship between consuming violent entertainment and societal aggression outlines a process of understanding leisure and its relationship to society. Likewise, understanding that the leisure activity of playing computer games—which usually means sitting in a chair—can contribute to the social problem of obesity is another example of understanding leisure and its relationship to society. Mundy’s (1998) definition of leisure education, as Adler (1951), Brightbill (1960, 1961, 1966), and Noddings (2003) suggested, is an educational process geared toward the simultaneous improvement of people and society. However, system-directed change and the social policy implication of Mundy’s leisure education model— understanding leisure and its relationship to society—has been an undeveloped aspect of Mundy’s framework. In fact, one of the chief aims of this book is to magnify and build the “understanding leisure and its relationship to society”— or societal aspects—of Mundy’s leisure education approach. Jean Mundy, with assistance from Linda Odum, developed a five-step leisure education model (Mundy & Odum, 1979), which was revised 19 years later (Mundy, 1998). The first component, leisure awareness, consisted of understanding leisure, the leisure experience, and the relationship of leisure to one’s life, quality of life, lifestyle, and society. The second step, self-awareness, focused on experiences, leisure goals, values, and needs. The third phase, decision-making skills, involved gaining data, alternative skill development, predicting possible outcomes, understanding comparability, and evaluation. The fourth phase, leisure skills, required process skills, planning skills, and leisure experience skills. The last component, social interaction, consisted of verbal communication, nonverbal communication, and interaction patterns in leisure experience. The Mundy model of leisure education is presented in Figure 1.1.

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Leisure Awareness Leisure 1.1 Relationship to one’s life 1.3 1.2 Relationship to one’s lifestyle 1.6

Leisure Skill

1.0

Leisure experiences 1.2 Relationship to quality of life 1.4

Leisure experience skills 4.3

Decision Making

Relationship to society 1.5

Data 3.1

5.0

Interest 2.1 Capabilities 2.2 Leisure Expectations 2.3 Values 2.6

2.0

Quality experiences 2.4 Leisure goals 2.5

Needs 2.7

3.0

Possible outcomes prices 3.3 Compatibility 3.4

Alternatives 3.2

Self-Awareness

4.0

Process skills 4.1

Evaluate 3.5

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

Planning skills 4.2

2.0

Social Interaction

2.0

Lines denote functional relationships

4.0

5.0

Verbal communication 5.1

Interaction patterns in leisure experiences 5.3

Nonverbal communication 5.2

1.0

Figure 1.1. Mundy’s Leisure Education Model. From Leisure Education: Theory and Practice (2nd. ed.), by J. Mundy, 1998, Urbana, IL: Sagamore.

Again, when Mundy originally developed her leisure education model (Mundy, 1998; Mundy & Odum, 1979), her conceptual framework was primarily a person-centered and individualistic model (Dieser, 2004). However, there are still areas—not many, but some—in Mundy’s leisure awareness stage (step 1) that look at how leisure can affect broader social aspects of communities and how environmental factors in the community can affect leisure. For example, in understanding how to influence quality of life, Mundy (1998, p. 150) presents leisure education activities that examine how environmental and psychosocial factors can contribute or detract from quality of life. Learning that a particular city lack parks and open spaces could motivate people to rally together, possibly to create a community coalition, in order to change social policy at the local level so that the city council will develop a park system to improve quality of life is an example of how leisure education fosters community development. Likewise, one of the subcomponents of leisure awareness (in Mundy’s model) is to understand the relationship of leisure to society, and although Mundy does not specify such leisure education actions, this could include developing a leisure-oriented social policy plan, such as the Stride Nights program created to help female prison inmates in Grand Valley Institution in Southwestern Ontario, Canada (see Fortune, Pedlar, & Yuen, 2010; Pedlar, Yuen, & Fortune, 2008). Stride Nights is a once-a-week evening of leisure provided for incarcerated women with community volunteers in order to help these women make transitions once released from prison and to remedy the social isolation that usually accompanies released inmates (and this isolation can often result in released criminals redevel-

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oping friendships with people who are involved in criminal behavior). The end goal of Stride Nights is to empower incarcerated women so that they will not return to criminal activities, thus simultaneously helping them as individuals and creating a leisure-oriented social policy for the betterment of society (more information is provided about Stride Nights in Chapter 5). In regard to leisure education, there is difficulty in creating a clear-cut distinction between leisure and leisure education. As Henderson (2007) noted, “. . . all leisure industries contribute in one way or another toward leisure education” (p. 132). A nonprofit organization dedicated to bird watching or fly-fishing or a for-profit sport tourism event can formally or informally provide leisure education. According to Sivan (2007), formal leisure education is an explicitly designed leisure education program (see Chapter 4 for examples), whereas informal leisure education is when participants learn about leisure and society or develop leisure skills secondarily or implicitly through leisure experiences, such as changing one’s attitude that leisure is not idle and wasteful time after participating in a ballroom dancing program. In regard to the overlap between leisure and leisure education, if a nonprofit organization were teaching fly-fishing skills (development of leisure skills), it could identify fly fishing (leisure) barriers and offer solutions to them, while also outlining fly fishing leisure resources (various lakes, streams, and rivers) and the development of a future fly-fishing leisure plan. Identifying leisure barriers and their solutions, identifying leisure resources, and developing a future leisure plan are some of the most common components and steps in leisure education (Dieser, 2011; Dieser, Fox, & Walker, 2002; see also Chapter 4 of this book). As such, a polarity exists between leisure and leisure education: Leisure experiences/programs and leisure education services stand as separate entities that can overlap, sometimes occasionally, but other times greatly (see Figure 1.2). As such, in this book, there will be times in which it is almost impossible to separate leisure education and the leisure experience, and there will be other times that a clear distinction is obvious.

What About Leisure Counseling, Avocational Counseling, and Recreation Counseling? During the 1960s and 1970s, terms such as leisure counseling (e.g., McDowell, 1977), avocational counseling (e.g., Overs, Taylor, & Adkins, 1977), and recreation counseling (e.g., Hayes, 1977; O’Morrow, 1977) were used interchangeably with leisure education. Beginning in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the term leisure counseling was primarily dropped from the broader term of leisure education by many leisure professions, including therapeutic recreation specialists. Whereas leisure counseling is more therapy oriented (attached to the field of therapeutic recreation or counseling psychology), leisure education employs an educational focus, uses greater instructional techniques, and is more focused on a broad concept of self-help (Stumbo, Kim, & Kim, 2011; Stumbo & Peterson, 2009). Furthermore, in the United States many states passed laws and credential-

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Leisure (Informal leisure education programs)

Leisure Education Formal programs

Figure 1.2. Overlap Between the Leisure Experience and Leisure Education ing qualifications that allow only professionals with master’s degrees in counseling psychology, or in similar fields such as social work, to engage in “counseling services”—whether it be career counseling, school-based counseling, mental health counseling, or leisure counseling. Leisure professions, including therapeutic recreation specialists, cannot legally provide “leisure counseling” services in some states. Because the term leisure education is a more broad-based concept, and also because education can include counseling techniques, leisure education became the prominent term in the 1980s and is the prominent term used in this book to subsume the concepts of leisure counseling, avocational counseling, and recreation counseling.

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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, U. (2005). Making human beings human. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bullock, C. C., Mahon, M. J., & Killingsworth, C. (2011). Introduction to recreation services for people with disabilities: A person-centered approach (2nd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Caldwell, L. L., Baldwin, C. K., Walls, T., & Smith, E. (2004). Preliminary effects of a leisure education program to promote healthy use of free time among middle school adolescents. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(3), 310–335. Dawson, D. (2010). Leisure and social policy. In H. Mair, S. M. Arai, & D. G. Reid (Eds.), Decentering work: Critical perspectives on leisure, social policy, and human development (pp. 9–34). Calgary, Canada: University of Calgary Press. Dewey, J. (1939). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan. Dieser, R. B. (2012). Leisure education research and the fundamental attribution error. World Leisure Journal, 54(1), 48–57. Dieser, R. B. (2011). A follow-up investigation of the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 45(3), 190–213. Dieser, R. B. (2004). Leisure education: Breaking free from individualistic notions. In M. A. Devine (Ed.), Trends in therapeutic recreation: Ideas, concepts, and applications (pp. 1–25). Ashburn, VA: National Park and Recreation Association. Dieser, R. B., Fox, K., & Walker, G. (2002). Recognizing the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Annual of Therapeutic Recreation, 11, 77–96. Edginton, C. R., Hudson, S. R., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2004). Leisure programming: A service-centered and benefits approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Farrell, P., & Lundegren, H. M. (1991). The process of recreation programming: Theory and technique (3rd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Fortune, D., Pedlar, A., & Yuen, F. (2010). Leisure and social development in the context of women who offend. In H. Mair, S. M. Arai, & D. G. Reid (Eds.), Decentering work: Critical perspectives on leisure, social policy, and human development (pp. 175–202). Calgary, Canada: University of Calgary Press. Hall, A., & Midgley, J. (2004). Social policy for development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hayes, G. A. (1977). Leisure education and recreation counseling. In A. Epperson, P. A. Witt, & G. Hitzhusen (Eds.), Leisure counseling: An aspect of leisure education (pp. 208–218). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Hemingway, J. L. (1988). Leisure and civility: Reflections on a Greek ideal. Leisure Science, 10, 179–191. Henderson, K. A. (2007). Leisure education and the leisure industries. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education:

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Shannon, C. S. (2012). Leisure education within the context of child obesity intervention programme: Parents’ experiences. World Leisure Journal, 44(1), 16–25. Sivan, A. (2000). Community development through leisure education: Conceptual approaches. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 31–42). New York: CABI. Sivan, A. (2007). Educating for leisure. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education: Finding personal fulfillment in this century (pp. 51–69). State College, PA: Venture. Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. A. (2011). Leisure education: Definitions, aims, advocacy, and practices – Are we talking about the same thing? World Leisure Journal, 53(1), 27–41. Smith, D. H., Stebbins, R. A., & Dover, M. A. (2006). A dictionary of nonprofit terms and concepts. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Stumbo, N. J., Kim, J., & Kim, Y. (2011). Leisure education. In N. J. Stumbo & B. Wardlaw (Eds.), Facilitation of therapeutic recreation services: An evidencebased and best practice approach to technique and processes (pp. 13–34). State College, PA: Venture. Stumbo, N. J., & Peterson, C. A. (2009). Therapeutic recreation program design: Principles and procedures (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. Sylvester, C. D. (1983). Leisure facilitation based on a systems approach: A conceptual alternative to leisure counseling for the therapeutic recreation profession. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 17(3), 20–28. Witt, P. A. (1991). Buckpassing, blaming or benevolence: A leisure education/ counseling perspective. In T. L. Goodale & P. A. Witt (Eds.), Recreation and leisure: Issues in an era of change (pp. 307–315). State College, PA: Venture. World Leisure Organization. (2008). Leisure: Enhancing the human condition: Priorities & strategies 2009–2014: A new strategic plan for the World Leisure Organization. Retrieved from http://www.worldleisure.org/template. php?id=111&Priorities+for+People+2004-2008

chapter two

Theories of Leisure

As explained in Chapter 1, it is difficult to provide a clear distinction

between leisure and leisure education. Sometimes leisure education can be a separate endeavor completely split from an actual leisure experience. For example, providing a leisure education program to people who just experienced a serious spinal cord injury in a hospital setting and helping them learn about inclusive sport options, such as the National Wheelchair Basketball Association, can be a distinct leisure education program with little or no involvement in a leisure experience. However, and drawing again from Chapter 1, if a nonprofit organization was teaching fly-fishing skills with an actual fly-fishing experience, and as part of the program identified fly-fishing leisure resources (various lakes and rivers) along with how to overcome financial barriers for people who had limited money (such as renting fly-fishing equipment), participants would experience leisure and leisure education simultaneously. Learning about leisure resources, identifying leisure resources, and learning how to overcome leisure barriers are some of the most popular and common components of leisure education (Dieser, 2011; Dieser, Fox, & Walker, 2002; see also Chapter 4 of this book). As such, a polarity exists between leisure and leisure education; at times, leisure experience and leisure education can stand as separate entities that do not overlap, but at other times leisure and leisure education can overlap, sometimes occasionally and other times greatly (see Figure 1.2 in Chapter 1). However, a central aspect of leisure education—if not the most paramount aspect—is a solid understanding of leisure theory and the leisure experience, including both the beneficial consequences and the harmful consequences of leisure. As such, this chapter will explain 13 different theories of leisure, which are summarized in Table 2.1, and the next chapter explains the valuable and damaging consequences of leisure.

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Table 2.1 Contemporary Theories of Leisure Psychological Theories:

The study of leisure behaviors and experiences of the individual

Neulinger’s Leisure Paradigm:

Perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation are the two core elements of leisure.

Flow Theory:

A state of being, often known as enjoyment, based upon skill and challenge level, in which a person becomes so involved in an activity or experience that nothing else seems to matter

Self-As-Entertainment Theory: The ability to fill free time or entertain oneself. It is based on three modes: self, environment, and mind-play. Sociological Theories: Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class:

The study of leisure within its broader social context (e.g., family, community, age, life course, gender, cultures)

Kelly’s Sociological Theory of Leisure: Postmodern Leisure:

Freedom and meaning are the two core elements of leisure.

The Serious–Casual–Project Leisure Conceptual Framework

Serious leisure: The systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer activity that is so interesting that people launch themselves on a career centered on acquiring special skills, knowledge, and experience



Casual leisure: Pleasurable activity that requires no special skills or knowledge

Leisure is a symbol of social class.

Leisure associated with consumerism, hedonistic pleasure, and the endless pursuit of experience, which is often, but not always, associated with fantasy and imagination

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Table 2.1 (cont.)

Project-based leisure: Short-term, reasonably complicated, one-shot or occasional (though infrequent) creative undertaking carried out in free time

Spillover Theory:

Workers participate in leisure activities that have similar characteristics (spillover) to their work-related tasks

Compensation Theory:

Deprivations experienced at work are made up for (compensated) during leisure.

Feminist Theories: Kelly’s Sociological Theory of Leisure: Wearing’s Feminist Theory of Leisure:

A set of beliefs and theoretical constructs regarding the nature of women’s oppression and the constraints imposed by the sociopolitical status to which women have been relegated Freedom and meaning are the two core elements of leisure (social meaning has greater relevance to women’s issues, such as relationships and family). Heterotopias: Freedom or personal space for both men and women to be or to become

Anthropological Theories: The study of people and culture, which paints a holistic picture of the human condition The Theory of Anti-Structure: Leisure rituals set people outside their norms, or the anti-structure parts of life. Philosophical Theories:

The inner search for understanding that is connected to daily life

Classical Leisure Leisure is contemplation of the good life. (Aristotle’s view of leisure):

Adapted from Edginton, C. R., DeGraaf, D. G., R., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2006). Leisure and life satisfaction: Foundational perspectives (4th ed). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Reprinted with permission.

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Theories of Leisure As Caldwell (2001) noted, the word theory usually makes people shudder because many theories seem esoteric and removed from everyday life and from professional practice. However, theories are around us all of the time and are very useful and practical—it’s just a matter of seeing theories in everyday life. As Lewin (1952) stated over 50 years ago, “There is nothing more practical than a good theory” (p. 169). Theory is important because it attempts to explain a phenomenon (e.g., leisure) and highlight its practical relevance. For example, if a leisure professional understands the conditions that develop leisure experiences, they are in a better position to provide leisure education so that people can seek rich and meaningful leisure. Drawing on the work of Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, and Edginton (2006), this chapter will explain various theories of leisure that have developed within different academic frameworks. Psychological and Social Psychological Theories of Leisure As Coalter (1999) outlined, most American theories of leisure are based on the psychological study of leisure, which positions leisure within cognitive theory, and are based on the concepts of personal freedom and choice. This is very different than European and British leisure studies that are more focused on the sociological aspects of leisure theory. Psychology is the study of human behavior and experience, along with the development of the individual, and the psychology of leisure is the study of leisure behaviors and experiences of the individual (Kleiber, Walker, & Mannell, 2011). The social psychology of leisure is the study of the leisure behavior and experience of individuals in social situations (Kleiber et al., 2011). Although there are many academics who helped develop the psychological approach to study leisure, the work of Seppo Iso-Ahola throughout the 1970s and 1980s, and his seminal book The Social Psychology of Leisure and Recreation (1980), was a giant step forward in understanding leisure from a psychological perspective. The following sections will explain various psychological and social psychological theories of leisure. Neulinger’s leisure paradigm. Neulinger’s (1981) leisure paradigm is clearly one of the most popular psychological theories of leisure in the United States. To Neulinger, the two core elements of leisure are perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation (with perceived freedom serving as the primary element and intrinsic motivation serving as a secondary element). Intrinsic motivation occurs when the rewards to participation are seen as coming from engaging in the activity itself (opposed to external pressure), and perceived freedom refers to a state in which a person feels that what he/she is doing is done by choice. Neulinger (1976) divided these two elements across a “state of mind” continuum to explain six types of psychological states of leisure:

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• pure leisure: perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation, • leisure-work: perceived freedom and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, • leisure-job: perceived freedom and extrinsic motivation, • pure work: perceived constraint and intrinsic motivation, • work-job: perceived constraint and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, and • pure job: perceived constraint and extrinsic motivation. Neulinger’s leisure paradigm is presented in Figure 2.1. Perceived Freedom Freedom

Constraint

Motivation

Motivation

Intrinsic

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Extrinsic

Intrinsic

Intrinsic and Extrinsic

Extrinsic

(1) Pure Leisure

(2) LeisureWork

(3) LeisureJob

(4) Pure Work

(5) Work Job

(6) Pure Job

State of Mind

Figure 2.1. Neulinger’s Leisure Paradigm. From “The Need for and the Implications of a Psychological Conception of Leisure,” by J. Neulinger, 1976, Ontario Psychologist, 8, p. 15. Reprinted with permission.

Flow. Another popular psychological theory of leisure is flow. Flow theory describes a state of being in which a person becomes so involved in an activity or an experience that nothing else seems to matter; hence, it is often known as the optimal experience or enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). As Gardner, Csikszentmihalyi, and Damon (2001) remarked: In flow we feel totally involved, lost in a seemingly effortless performance. Paradoxically, we feel 100 percent alive when we are so committed to the task at hand that we lose track of time, our interests—even of our own existence. (p. 5) In addition, Gardner et al. underscored that flow can happen anywhere, such as when listening to music, reading a book, or playing a good game of squash or chess. Flow is often referred to as “being in the zone” by athletes and often occurs in work environments.

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Csikszentmihalyi (1993, 1997) identified eight characteristics to flow. First, the activity has alignment between the person’s skill level and the challenge that the activity presents. That is to say, flow occurs when a person’s skills are fully involved in overcoming a challenge that is just about manageable. If the challenge level is too low, a person may experience boredom; if the challenge level is too high, a person may experience anxiety. Second, for flow to exist there must be clear goals; an objective is distinctly defined with immediate feedback regarding performance. Third, action and awareness merge. During flow a person’s attention is completely absorbed by the activity so intensely that there is no awareness to consider anything other than the activity at hand. Fourth, there is intense concentration on the task at hand. People in flow temporarily suspend their worries and concerns. Fifth, there is a loss of self-consciousness. When in flow there is no opportunity to think about oneself. Sixth, during flow there is a sense of control. Although it is possible to lose control during a flow experience (e.g., a rock climber can fall and break a leg), there is a perception of being in control. Seventh, during flow there is an altered sense of time, which usually seems to pass faster. People in flow will lose track of time and are often surprised that so much time has passed. Eighth, flow is an autotelic experience. The activity is worth doing or is done for its own sake instead of for some external benefit or reward. Although not using the theoretical words of flow theory, the following comments by musician Bruce Springsteen in a 2013 interview facilitated by Robert Sentelli (executive director of the GRAMMY Museum) regarding why fans connect so deeply to his music outline many (but not all) of the characteristics of flow, which occur during his concert performances: I think the best way to look at it is this way: onstage, it’s me and it’s this person in the audience, right now, not later, not tomorrow, right now. Our fans are immersed in a world that we’ve created. It’s the one place where people go to forget about their troubles. They let themselves go and trust someone. They come into the arena or concert hall and they feel safe and they reveal by their actions their hopes, their dreams, their fears, what’s hurt them, what’s given them joy. You get an opportunity to witness that on a nightly basis. I have an opportunity—and an honor—to witness that on a nightly basis. And I don’t take that lightly (http://www. grammy.com/news/bruce-springsteen-from-e-street-to-the-world). Beyond the obvious aspects of Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street band linking musical skill and challenge, the characteristics of clear goals (e.g., creating a place of trust with immediate feedback from audience members), action and awareness merging (e.g., fans and band members let themselves go), loss of selfconsciousness (e.g., revealing dream, fears, hurts, and joys), and altered sense of time (e.g., forgetting about troubles) are outlined in the above quotation.

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More recently, Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2009) located the eight characteristics of flow into two broad conditions. The first provision—the conditions for entering flow—includes (a) perceived challenges, or opportunities for actions, that stretch but do not overmatch existing skills and (b) clear proximal goals and immediate feedback about the progress being made. Under these conditions, a person enters into a second condition—a subjective state—with the following characteristics: (a) intense and focused concentration on the present moment; (b) merging of action and awareness; (c) loss of reflective self-consciousness; (d) a sense that one can control one’s action; (e) distortion of temporal experiences, typically a sense that time has passed faster than normal; and (f) experience of the activity as intrinsically rewarding. The following quotation by the American Poet Laureate Mark Strand regarding his poetic activities, as captured by Csikszentmihalyi (1996), underscores how flow is experienced in everyday life: Well, you’re right in the work, you lose your sense of time, you’re completely enraptured, you’re completely caught up in what you’re doing, you’re sort of swayed by the possibilities you see in this work . . . The idea is to be so . . . saturated with it that there’s no [perception of] future or past, it’s just an extended present in which you’re, uh, making meaning. And dismantling meaning, and remaking it. Without undue regard for the words you’re using. Its meaning carried to a higher order . . . When you are working on something, and you’re working well, you have the feeling that there’s no other way of saying what you’re saying. (p. 121) Flow theory is depicted in Figure 2.2.

High Arousal Flow

Anxiety

Worry

Apathy

Low

Control

Boredom

SKILLS

Relaxation

High

Figure 2.2. Flow Theory. From Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Finding flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: Basic Books. Reprinted with permission.

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Self-as-entertainment theory. Another psychological theory of leisure, that is, less known when compared to Neulinger’s leisure paradigm or flow theory, is self-as-entertainment (S-A-E) theory (Mannell, 1984). S-A-E theory attempts to characterize the way people differ in their ability to fill free time or entertain themselves. People who are high in entertaining themselves are less likely to be bored during leisure and tend to have leisure that is more fulfilling. People who have a high self-as-entertainment capacity know how to entertain themselves and do not perceive free time as hanging heavily on their hands. People who have a low self-as-entertainment capacity experience boredom often in their free time and feel there is nothing to do. S-A-E theory is based on three modes: self, environmental, and mind-play (Kleiber et al., 2011). The self-mode is the extent to which people perceive they could successfully structure their own free time instead of relying on others. That is, their self is the primary means of fulfilling free time. For example, someone who is high on self-entertainment will use inner thoughts and imagination, such as how he/she would like to learn astronomy, to structure free time, instead of external venues such as watching television or mindlessly surfacing the Internet. The environmental mode reflects the extent to which people fill their free time by going places or by seeking out other people. For example, a person who is bored would take the initiative to visit cultural sites or call people to set up a leisure activity, such as playing a game of racquetball or throwing a house party. The mind-play mode refers to the extent to which people are able to use fantasy and imagination to fill their time. Kleiber et al. have highlighted the importance of learning healthy mindplay and fantasy in early childhood through play and the influence of family. As Sutton-Smith (1975) stated over 30 years ago, high levels of fantasy improve a child’s mental health and can lead a child to become an outstanding scientist, a writer, a scholar, or even an international chess player. Healthy fantasies, imagination, and daydreaming help people find meaning and purpose in life and foster creativity (Michaelis, 1991). In regard to reading and other leisure pursuits, Spencer (2003) underscores how imagination joins cognition and effect as well as thinking and feeling and is at the very core of how people orchestrate different kinds of knowledge of life. Perhaps this is why imagination has been viewed as the global reach of the mind (Eagleton, 2000), a significant feature of good teaching of youth and adults (Green, 2000), enriching realistic thinking by liberating it from too close a dependence on immediate perception (Vygotsky, 1978), and developing the creativity process, which renews all experiences, hopes, wishes, feelings, and thoughts (Rorty, 2000). Dustin’s (2006) story of his rigorous hiking adventure in Southern Utah to the ancient lands of the Anasazi highlights the mind-play aspects of S-A-E theory: As I lie in my sleeping bag in a sweet state of tiredness, I can see the top of the alcove forming a semicircle against the night sky. As the sky darkens and stars begin to sparkle, I realize I am looking up from the same vantage point the Anasazi had hundreds of years ago. I wonder if they

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were filled with the same impression I am by the alcove’s circular outline, that the heavens and Earth must be round? (p. 66) The next day, after hiking to the actual Anasazi site, Dustin’s mind-play and imagination continue: And next to the grinding stone is a small circular stone that must have been the tool used to do the work [of the Anasazi hundreds of years ago]. I pick it up and hold it in my hand. I wonder what it must have been like? I envision the slope below us covered with grasses and people making their way to and from the stream. I imagine children playing games with sticks and adults going about their business. I imagine a lookout, a guardian with eagle eyes peering down on everything and everyone, vigilant against intruders. (p. 68) Although not using the language of S-A-E theory, recent biographies (e.g., Carlin, 2012; Kirkpatrick, 2007) and academic writings (e.g., Harde & Streight, 2010) on musician Bruce Springsteen1 outline how during his childhood he used self-mode (inner thoughts to entertain oneself), environmental mode (interacting with immediate environment), and the mind-play mode (fantansy, daydreaming, imagination) connected to writing and performing music. Bruce Springsteen grew up in poverty (even living with his mother’s parents due to financial hardships). Due to financial constraints, his parents could not afford to enroll him in youth and leisure programs. The only expensive leisure good that Bruce Springsteen ever received from his parents changed his life and put him on a trajectory to become one of the greatest musicians of all time. His mother purchased a used guitar for Springsteen when he was a child after he begged for the Christmas present (his mother actually took out a small bank loan to purchase the guitar; the Bruce Springsteen song “The Wish” from the 1999 Tracks album explains this Christmas gift and his gratitude to his mother). From that time forward, young Springsteen roamed the neighborhood and community of Freehold and Asbury Park (New Jersey) and sat on the roof of his childhood home with a mattress watching his environment, including what was occurring at gas sations with muscle cars crusing the streets, and writing songs based on his observations (many Bruce Springsteen songs are about cars and driving/ cruising, such as “Born to Run,” “Thunder Road,” and “Racing in the Streets”). For example, the song “Does this Bus Stop at 82nd Street?” (from his first album, Greetings from Asbury Park in 1973) was written from his observations while riding the bus. Likewise, the song “4th of July, Asbury Park (Sandy)” from his second album, The Wild, the Innocent, and the E-Street Shuffle in 1973 is replete 1 Bruce Springsteen, who is considered as one of the greatest American musicians, has achieved the following: 20 Grammy Awards, two Golden Globes, an Academy Award, and has had over 120 million albums sold (his most recently album is Wrecking Ball, which was named by Rolling Stone as the best album of 2012). Springsteen is tied with Elvis Presley for third most billboard number one hits (behind the Beatles and Jay-Z) and was elected into the Rock n Roll Hall of Fame 1999. Bruce Springsteen also performed at the inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th President of the United States at the Lincoln Memorial and National Mall in Washington, D.C. on January 18, 2009.

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with his childhood and adolescent images of the boardwalk in Asbury Park of fireworks, pier lights along the boardwalk, beach bums, pinball machines, south beach drag, and Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth/store. In the song “4th of July, Asbury Park,” Madam Marie is busted by the police for telling fortunes better than they can (see picture below of Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth on the boardwalk in Asbury Park, New Jersey). In his childhood and adolescent years, Bruce Springsteen combined his inner thoughts (self-mode) with his immediate environmental surroundings of boardwalk, gas stations, muscle cars cruising, poverty, and Madam Marie fortune telling booth on the Asbury Park boardwalk (environmental model) with fantansy, daydreaming, imagination (mind play) in the leisure pursuit of writing and playing music.

Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth on the boardwalk in Asbury Park, New Jersey (Copyright Permission gained from Andrew F. Kazmierski Photography, http://andykazie.com/)

A recent article about the importance of leisure in prison settings by Jeff Deskovic2 (2013) that appeared in Sports Illustrated outlines S-A-E theory related to leisure as coping and therapy. Jeff Deskovic, who was wrongfully convicted of rape and murder and spent 16 years in the New York State prison system was cleared and released in 2006. He shares the following thoughts about playing basketball, combined with an imaginative state, while in prison:

2 Jeff Deskovic established the Jeffrey Deskovic Foundation for Justice, a nonprofit organization that seeks to exonerate the wrongfully convicted, lobby for reform legislation, and help reintegrate exonerees as well as parolees (see http://www.thejeffreydeskovicfoundationforjustice.org/).

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Sports meant the most to me when I was in the yard or in the gym. When we played basketball—which was often—I envisioned myself as Michael Jordan. I don’t mean like Michael Jordan. I was Michael Jordan. I convinced myself that the games were being broadcast on television: When we played in the gym, it was a Bulls road game; in the yard, it was a home game. The inmates waiting for the next game were the audience. I’d call timeouts. I’d think of my teammates as Luc Longley or Will Perdue and scold them for not playing the passing lanes. Toward the end of games, I’d think about what I’d say to the media in the interview session. Now I realize that was an elaborate bit of self-delusion, a coping mechanism. But at the time, it enabled me to leave the prison for a while, if only in my mind. I was in another place, where I wasn’t weighed down by the constant struggle to establish my innocence (p. 68). Jeff Deskovic was combining his inner thoughts (self-mode) with his immediate environment of prison and fellow inmates (environmental model) with imagining himself as Michael Jordan and fellow inmates being Chicago Bull teammates Luc Longley and Will Perdue (mind play) in the leisure pursuit of playing basketball in the New York State prison system. Sociological Theories of Leisure Sociology attempts to understand human behavior by placing it within its broader social context (Henslin, 2010). To this end, Kelly (1999) underscored that any understanding of leisure should be located within a sociological framework that explores leisure in relation to family, community, age, life course, gender, cultures, national and political ideology, and so forth (location and context). In the field of leisure studies, there has been debate regarding the sociological and psychological aspects of leisure. As already mentioned, the study of leisure in most parts of Europe focuses on the normative or sociological aspects of leisure; hence leisure is more of a lens to understand culture. For example, Rogers (1999) underscored how children playing with Barbie dolls can be a factor in conditioning girls toward body image health problems. A recent report by the American Psychological Association (2007) underscored that massive exposure to media entertainment (free time activity or leisure) among youth, in which women are constantly being sexualized, conditions girls to internalize the normative societal message that girls and women are sexual objects for the male gaze. In regard to the debate over whether leisure is psychological or sociological, many sociologists of leisure would argue that the psychological aspects of leisure, such as the psychological elements of intrinsic motivation and perceived freedom, are too simplistic and marginalize the social conditions that contribute to the leisure experiences. For example, Rojek (2005) underscored: Most [psychologically oriented] leisure researchers would accept that the individual’s definition of leisure choice [freedom] is pivotal in interpreting leisure . . . However, this is very different from maintaining that

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individual choice is freely selected . . . location and context . . . [are] indispensable elements in leisure theory because they correlate individual choice with situated dimensions that influence action. (p. 14) Moreover, Rojek also explained: Students of leisure should learn to observe that [leisure] actions have roots, and to acquire knowledge that enables them to compare and contrast roots in different locations and contexts. They should also learn to examine how roots are influenced by economic, social, cultural and political forces and to reject theories of leisure which either assign unconditional freedom, choice, flexibility, and self-determination to leisure actors . . . (p. 14) Approximately 17 years ago when I moved from Alberta Canada to Utah in the United States, I realized that few people in Northern Utah followed the National Hockey League or played hockey. Rather, it seemed like the majority of people who liked sports in Utah were huge basketball fans who connected with the Utah Jazz (of the National Basketball Association) or who were affiliated with one of the university basketball teams (e.g., Brigham Young University, University of Utah, Utah State University, Weber State University). For example, the sport sections of local newspapers were saturated with basketball stories during the winter, which gave little voice to hockey. Even though I did find a few hockey fans when I lived in Utah, I never found a fan of my favorite hockey team, the Toronto Maple Leafs. The reason I liked hockey was because I was conditioned to like it growing up in Canada, and the reason I was a Toronto Maple Leafs fan was because my father and my older brother were huge Maple Leafs fans. When I was a child, I remember wanting to be like my father and my nine years older brother; they were Maple Leafs fans, and thus I became a Maple Leafs fan. Hence, although being a fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs was a free choice on my part, the context of living and being located in Canada, along with the context of my family, socialized me to become a Maple Leafs fan. While growing up in Canada, I rarely watched or played basketball. After moving to Utah and attending the University of Utah, I became a basketball fan and today am a die-hard Utah Jazz and University of Utah basketball fan because the community and context of Utah and the University of Utah, which I was located in, socialized me to genuinely like the sport of basketball. Today, I am also a University of Northern Iowa sports fan because it’s the University (context) at which I am now located. This is why Coalter (1999) suggested that sociological theories of leisure study leisure in society (examining how sociological factors such as family and community affect leisure) and that psychological theories of leisure study leisure without society (pretending that social factors have no relevance on people’s leisure). As Burton and Jackson (1999) noted, the modern era in the study of leisure began with Veblen’s (1899/1979) sociological study of leisure. This section will begin by explaining Veblen’s theory of leisure and the leisure class, followed by other sociological theories of leisure.

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Veblen’s theory of leisure and the leisure class (consuming leisure). Writing in 1899, Veblen (1899/1979) proposed a theory of leisure that was based on consumption and the display of status and wealth. That is, it was the ideology of presenting oneself as wealthy (the community context of consumption) that caused leisure to be a behavior of displaying wealth. Furthermore, Veblen suggested that leisure for the wealthy class revolved around attempts to signal their superior social ranking/class through three social/leisure behaviors: conspicuous consumption, conspicuous leisure, and conspicuous waste. Conspicuous consumption is the visible display of wealth, such as expensive homes and cars, or the purchase of expensive leisure goods, such as tennis rackets or television sets. Conspicuous leisure signals wealth through the nonproductive consumption of time and through being away from productive needs. This can include long and expensive vacations with accompanying souvenirs, but it can also include social and daily refinements, such as playing a musical instrument or going to an expensive restaurant to eat. Being removed or far away from production could also mean white-collar work, such as having a business meeting while playing a game of squash at an expensive health club. Conspicuous waste is the excessive display or disregard of goods, rather than the reuse or repair of something. An example is a wealthy person giving away an older (but very good) set of golf clubs to a poor family while in the process of purchasing a new and expensive set. Hence, the motivation for giving is more oriented toward a display of wealth than anything altruistic. The intrinsic motivation from conspicuous consumption, conspicuous leisure, and conspicuous waste does not come from the activity for which the leisure goods are purchased (e.g., enjoyment from playing tennis) but rather from the ideological and cultural display of one’s wealth (e.g., showing off the expensive tennis racket at the tennis club). Furthermore, although conspicuous consumption, conspicuous leisure, and conspicuous waste are separate terms, they often overlap and the theory of the leisure class is based on highlighting lavish spending on leisure goods and services acquired mainly for the purpose of displaying wealth and outlining one’s social status. That is, it is not enough to be socially superior; people need to display it and want to be gazed upon. In Veblen’s own words: In order to gain and hold the esteem of men [and women] it is not sufficient merely to possess wealth or power. The wealth or power must be put in evidence, for esteem is awarded only on evidence. And not only does the evidence of wealth serve to impress one’s importance on others and to keep their sense of his [or her] importance alive and alert, but it is of scarcely less use in building up and preserving one’s self-complacency. (pp. 36–37) Economic professor Juliet Schor has taken up Veblen’s work in the modern era and has outlined how the pursuit of social status via consumption—keeping up with the Joneses—has caused many Americans to focus their leisure on consumption of material objects (Schor, 1998). Furthermore, Schor (1992) un-

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derscored that most Americans chose spending time working so they have more money to consume for social comparison reasons, rather than working less and having more free time to follow their passions or to spend more time with loved ones. A negative health consequence of consuming leisure is its influence on the augmentation of mental illness and the burdens of financial debt, such as mortgage foreclosures (e.g., Schor, 1992, 1998, 2004). Freysinger and Kelly (2004) underscored how leisure activities in and of themselves also signify status. People who are poor typically do not engage in golf and skiing and tend to participate in working class leisure, such as bowling. To this end, ancillary activities to leisure can also signify status during leisure. Although not writing specifically about leisure experiences, Blum’s (2003) study regarding women who get cosmetic surgery clearly highlights that many (but certainly not all) women who get cosmetic surgery use their bodies in leisure as signifiers and enjoy creating envy as other people gaze on them.3 For example, Cindy Jackson, who has had over 27 cosmetic surgeries and is the owner of the Cosmetic Surgery Network in London, England, reports in her autobiography that before her 20-plus plastic surgeries she was a “no-body” often ignored in social leisure, and after transforming her body into a living Barbie doll she had increased control in society by having others envy her social status body image (Jackson, 2002). This is readily observable when Jackson states: There have been so many times in the past when I’d be walking down the street with a guy, and if a prettier girl walked by he’d turn and look her up and down. That really used to hurt. I was the sort of woman men would use . . . Nowadays, instead of me being the one trying to please men, men usually try to please me. Instead of the guy I’m with looking at other women, I’m the one men turn to look at. (pp. 222–223) Chapter 3 discusses the benefits and negative aspects of leisure, including the theory of the leisure class. Kelly’s sociological theory of leisure. The academic work of John Kelly has consistently outlined the dialectical relationship of leisure with sociological factors, such as work, time, family, community, age, life course, social and political policy, and so forth (Kelly, 1999). For example, Kelly (1993) underscored that wildland and outdoor recreation is based on sociological factors and agents in urban settings, such as cultural and ethnic customs, the role of parent within the family, and the role of schools and work in conditioning people toward outdoor recreation. This is why Kelly (1993) has stated in large print “RECREATION IS PROFOUNDLY SOCIAL” (p. 35). John Kelly’s work on developing a sociological leisure theory began in the early 1970s (e.g., Kelly, 1972) and developed throughout the 1980s (Kelly, 1983). 3 Blum’s study is specifically focused on cosmetic surgery, not reconstructive surgery. Whereas cosmetic surgery aims at enhancing social status by enhancing personal credibility based on physical attraction, reconstructive surgery restores health and physical functioning that resulted from illness, accident, or disease (Rogers, 1999).

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A core element of leisure for Kelly was the concept of meaning, which he argued could not be separated from social context (Kelly, 1999, 2012). To this end, Kelly, (1978, 1983) developed a theory of leisure that is based on the core elements of freedom and meaning. Freedom was thought of on a continuum from high to low. Meaning was also thought to exist on a continuum from intrinsic (self focus) to social (group focus). Kelly (1978, 1983) divided these two elements to explain four types of leisure: • unconditional leisure: high intrinsic meaning and high freedom, • recuperative (compensatory) leisure: high intrinsic meaning and low freedom, • relational leisure: high social meaning and high freedom, and • role-determined leisure: high social meaning and low freedom. A study of three American communities suggested that a slight majority of adults experience unconditional leisure (31%), followed by recuperative leisure (30%), relational leisure (22%), and role-determined leisure (17%) (Kelly, 1978). Kelly’s leisure paradigm has relevance to people who are collectivistic or group oriented (often referred to as people who have an interdependent construal of self). For example, Walker, Deng, and Dieser (2001, 2005) outlined how social and group meaning is an important aspect of leisure for people from collectivistic cultural backgrounds, such as people who are Asian or American Indian. In particular, Dieser (2004) stated: Kelly’s model extends the meaning of leisure beyond intrinsic motivation—social meaning of leisure may be relevant to people from collectivistic cultures where priority is given to group membership (e.g., family, ethnic group) . . . For example, a person from a collectivistic culture (Asian-American) may experience relational leisure from participating in an ethnic-oriented parade (e.g., Chinese New Year celebration). In this example a person may attain a high degree of freedom and experience social meaning . . . Further, a parent from a collectivistic culture may experience role-determined leisure via watching a son or daughter participate in swimming lessons. In this experience, the parent may experience a low degree of freedom (the activity is an obligation) but find social meaning from following an important family role (e.g., father or mother). (pp. 16–17) Likewise, Lankford, Dieser, and Walker (2005) outlined the importance of social meaning in leisure for members of the Church of Jesus Christ of LatterDay Saints (Mormons) involved in tourism. Henderson, Bialeschki, Shaw, and Freysinger (1996) specifically support the social meaning element of Kelly’s leisure paradigm as relevant to women involved in leisure. Although Kelly (1978, 1983) developed this theory of leisure, Dieser (2004) outlines the latest version of Kelly’s model of leisure and its application to individualistic and collectivist cultures in Figure 2.3.

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FREEDOM High Intrinsic (Individualistic oriented)

Low

1. Unconditional leisure

2. Compensatory leisure Recuperative leisure

3. Relational leisure

4. Role-determined leisure

MEANING Social (Collectivistic oriented)

Figure 2.3. Kelly’s Theory of Leisure. From “Leisure Education: Breaking Free From

Individualistic Notions,” by R. B. Dieser, 2004, in M. A. Devine (Ed.), Trends in Therapeutic Recreation: Ideas, Concepts, and Applications, Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. Reprinted with permission.

Postmodern leisure. Both modernity and postmodernity can be described as a grid that is imposed on life. Modernity, which has its roots in the Renaissance and Enlightenment that crystallized with the industrial revolution, is a societal belief in functionalism, positivistic science, and rationality. According to Rojek (1995), society and leisure during modernity was based on the following: • Order: Leisure is separate from other life domains and presents itself in observable time and space that has an observable functional outcome, such as recreation basketball leading to increased cardiovascular health. • Importance of the Self (conservative theory): Individuals pursuing self-interest is paramount, with choice and self-determination as additional dominant aspects of healthy people. • Moral Regulation: Prescribing certain behaviors as normal and universal, such as underscoring the importance of individualism and pursuits of the self in the culture of the United States. • Protestant Work Ethic: Work is valued as the central life interest and regards leisure as less important. • Conspicuous Consumption: Display and show are paramount aspects in everyday life. Today, society is moving (or some would argue has already moved) from a period of modernity to a period of postmodernity (Rojek, 1995).

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Postmodernity is a period of historical development that occurred after modernity, which outlines a fragmented society because of changes in information technology, particularly in the sphere of global communication and media (Usher & Edwards, 1994). As such, the postmodernism era in contemporary societies is oriented around flexibility, fragmentation, acceleration, diversity, challenging authority, irrationality, restlessness, and disengagement, and postmodern leisure remains a site for transgression, societal change, diversity, and challenging dominant social norms (Rojek, 1995). To this end, three paramount aspects of postmodern society and postmodern leisure are heightened consumerism (more so than in modernity) (Barker, 2006; Baudrillard, 1983), hedonistic pleasure (Rojek, 1989), and the endless pursuit of experience, which can be associated with fantasy and imagination (in both healthy and unhealthy ways). Regarding experience and pleasure, Usher and Edwards (1994) noted: . . . in postmodernity, sensibilities are attuned to the pleasure of constant and new experiencing, a desire which is its own end, unsubordinated to and therefore unconstrained by a hierarchy of foundational and transcendental reasons and values. Experiencing becomes its own justification . . . The pursuit of new experience is not confined to the realm of “good taste” but is part of the constant making and re-making of lifestyle. (p. 11) In many cases, consumerism, hedonistic pleasure, and the endless pursuit of experience go hand in hand. Recently, Attwood (2011) outlined how the increase in Internet technology (consumption of computer technology) has ushered a reconfiguration of sexual erotic leisure based on hedonistic pleasure and bodily experiences. , According to Rojek (1993), four types of leisure that increase fantasy and imagination and, at times, also a sense of bodily thrill/experience, such as an adrenaline rush, are (a) black spot leisure, (b) theme parks, (c) heritage sites, and (d) literary landscapes. Whereas black spot leisure and theme parks focus more on bodily thrill/experience and heritage sites and literary landscapes focus more on fantasy and imagination, all four types of leisure have overlap between bodily thrill/experience and fantasy. Black spot leisure is devoted to celebrating sudden and violent death. For example, the tourism organization Deadly Departed Tours (see http://www. dearlydepartedtours.com/) provides Los Angeles/Hollywood tours of where tragic events occurred, such as the house of serial killer Charles Manson (house of horrors), the site where Nicole Brown was murdered, the home where the Menendez brothers killed their parents, and so forth (see http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=L6InIf-ezBc). Likewise, in order to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic, in April 2012, the MS Balmoral Titanic memorial cruise ship retraced the original Titanic’s voyage by following the same route with the same number of passengers aboard, including a visit to the location where it sank on the night of this tragic event, 100 years prior. Furthermore,

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these black spot leisure organizers tried to recreate the onboard experience by departed Sunday, April 8, 2012, from Southampton, England, (where the Titanic embarked on its maiden voyage), and by serving the same food and having a band play music believed to be played on the original Titanic (see http://www. huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/11/titanic-anniversary-cruise_n_1418399.html). Feeling “creeped out” and scared, coupled with an imagination focused on tragedy, creates a bodily thrill/experience. Theme parks, which are also associated with bodily thrill/experience, focus on the fantastic and bizarre, such as sensational white knuckles rides where participants experience a bodily thrill/experience. For example, the Great Adventure Six Flags theme park in New Jersey houses one of the tallest and fastest roller coasters in the world, known as Kingda Ka. This roller coaster stands over 450 feet and can reach speeds of 128 miles per hour, and the Great Adventure Six Flags theme park openly boasts that its roller coaster is one-up on any other roller coaster in the world (see Levine, 2008). Heritage sites re-create events and ways of life of former times. Although focused on a strong educational component, sites such as Battle of the Little Bighorn/Custer’s Battlefield (see http://www.nps.gov/libi/), which include a reenactment, create sites of historical fantasy and imagination. Other leisure history sites, including private organizations, that also re-create events and ways of life of former times through historically accurate imagination include the Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village of Canada, where Ukrainian Canadian life in the late 1800s and early 1900s in central Alberta is represented (see http:// tapor.ualberta.ca/heritagevillage/) or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormon) pioneer town of Nauvoo (Illinois) in the late 1800s (see http:// historicnauvoo.net). Literary landscapes are leisure sites that are themed around characters from fiction (or novelists), such sites where Harry Potter and Sherlock Holmes become real (see http://www.universalorlando.com/harrypotter and http://www.sherlock-holmes.co.uk/, respectively). An excellent example of a literary landscape is how the small towns of Riverside, Iowa, and Vulcan, Alberta (Canada), have created their tourism strategies around the TV show/movies of Star Trek.4 In the original 1960s TV show Star Trek, Captain Kirk, the main actor, was scripted to be born in Riverside, Iowa, on the date of March 22, 2228. In 1985 Riverside City Councilman, Steve Miller, was able to gain approval from Paramount Pictures and Gene Roddenberry (producer of Star Trek) to market the town of Riverside as the “official” site of the future birthplace of Captain Kirk (Steve Miller, personal communication, June 26, 2010). Since then, every summer the town of Riverside, along with the (nonprofit) Riverside Area Community Club, presents Trek Fest, a weekend of Star Trek festivals, which usually includes a visitation from past actors (e.g., in 2010 Walter Koenig who played Pavel Chekov in the original Star Trek series, was the keynote speaker), a Star Trek parade, along The 1960s Star Trek shows are considered to be one of the most popular science fiction shows of all

4

time.

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with all sorts of community activities (see http://www.trekfest.com/). The City of Riverside has a community theme of “Where the Trek Begins” (see City of Riverside website at http://www.riversideiowa.org/). Likewise, the town of Vulcan (Alberta, Canada) also has an annual Star Trek community festival called “Spock Days” (see http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zh27yMnLQe4) in order pay tribute to Mr. Spock from the original Star Trek show. In the fictitious Star Trek show, Mr. Spock is from the plant Vulcan, and in Vulcan (Alberta, Canada), participants can have Vulcan space adventures, such as traveling to the Vulcan space station. Although not referring to postmodernity, almost 20 years ago Mannell (1991) predicted that leisure would move toward an “experience revolution” (p. 429) and cause acceleration in leisure. In regard to the “experience revolution,” Mannell (1991) wondered aloud whether an acute focus on bodily experience could develop human growth or cause experience/stimulation addiction. Stimulus addiction occurs when people expose themselves repeatedly to experiences that create fear, danger, and anxiety, such as high-risk recreation where participants balance on the edge of survival and death due to “. . . the endless search for novelty and experience . . .” (p. 435). Chapter 3 discusses the beneficial and negative aspects of leisure, including postmodern leisure. Suffice it to say, although there are benefits to a postmodern perspective, such as how healthy adult fantasy/imagination is connected to creativity (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1996), there can also be negative outcomes of postmodern leisure, such as how heightened consumerism has created commercialized childhoods, which are usually destructive to mental health (see Schorr, 2004). The serious–casual–project-based leisure conceptual framework. The serious–casual–project conceptual framework was developed over many years of research and scholarship by Dr. Robert Stebbins and other researchers.5 Stebbins developed the theory of serious leisure in 1982 when he authored a conceptual paper in the Pacific Sociological Review. Since that time the theory of serious leisure, along with the accompanying concepts of casual leisure and project-based leisure, has been developed with greater depth, breadth, and clarity (e.g., Stebbins, 2005, 2007, 2012). Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer activity that participants find so substantial, interesting, and fulfilling that they launch themselves on a (leisure) career centered on acquiring and expressing its special skills, knowledge, and experience (Stebbins, 1992). The key element of this definition is the development of special skills, knowledge, and experience, which can take years to develop. For example, learning to play a musical instrument well enough to be in a community orchestra or developing a cognitive knowledge base related to bird habitat and learning 5 It is important to note that Dr. Robert Stebbins calls this framework the serious leisure perspective. That is, serious leisure, casual leisure, and project-based leisure all fall under the serious leisure perspective. However, I have found that many students confuse the theory of serious leisure with the serious leisure perspective. As such, I have found that students understand these three modes of leisure—serious, casual, and project-based—with greater clarity when I call it the serious–casual–project-based conceptual framework.

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to track a bird by sound in a birding club can take years to develop. Such actions occur due to the development of specialized skills, knowledge, and experiences. Serious leisure can be divided into three types. First, amateurs are found in art, science, sport, and entertainment, where they are inevitably linked in many ways to a professional counterpart, such as tournament bass anglers or members of an amateur community theater. Second, hobbyists lack the professional ego of amateurs; however, they still have small publics who have similar interests. For example, a serious leisure hobbyist can join a small coin collection organization where local coin collectors can buy, sell, and have conversations. Similar to an amateur, a hobbyist has specialized skills and interacts with like-minded people; however, the professional ego and the structure of an amateur organization are missing. Third, career volunteering is when a person uses specialized skills as an uncoerced helping action not aimed at material gain. An example could be a retired carpenter who likes building kitchen cupboards and uses his/her specialized skills as a volunteer to help Habitat for Humanity build homes for people who are poor (see Stebbins & Graham, 2004, regarding how volunteering can be serious leisure). Serious leisure can also overlap (sometimes greatly) with occupational devotion, which is a strong and positive attachment to a form of selfenhancing work, where the sense of achievement is high and the core work tasks are endowed with such intense appeal that the line between work and leisure is blurred (Stebbins, 2004). Serious leisure remains rooted within a sociological framework that explores leisure in relation to family, gender, social class, work, and so forth (Stebbins, 2004, 2007). Furthermore, one of the sociologically distinguishing qualities of serious leisure is that serious leisure pursuits are connected to a unique ethos/social world that evolves and is characterized with within-group events, routines, practices and can often turn into social movements, such as an outdoor recreation or environmental movement (e.g., Blue Jay restoration project or the Canadian Alpine Club) or a new age movement that focuses on mystic religions (Stebbins, 2002). For example, the Mutual UFO Network (MUFON) in the United States is a social world where serious leisure participants can attend and present at state, national, and international symposiums and conferences; organize a UFO library and local chapter in their community; write articles in both the UFO Journal and the UFO newswire; and be trained as UFO hunters or specialists in helping people explain and communicate UFO sightings (e.g., see http://www.mufon.com). MUFON is a social world that has its own cultural ethos (e.g., events, policies, practices). Other distinguishing qualities of serious leisure are (1) participants in serious leisure tend to strongly identify with their chosen pursuits, (2) perseverance, (3) finding a career in serious leisure (either in paid employment or as a volunteer), (4) significant personal effort, and (5) durable benefits (which are outlined in the next chapter) (Stebbins, 2005, 2007, 2012). Casual leisure, which Stebbins’ defined a few years after serious leisure, is defined as immediate, intrinsically rewarding, relatively short-lived activities that require little or no specialized training to enjoy it (Stebbins, 1997, 2001). Prior to

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the development of casual leisure the term unserious leisure was used to contrast it with serious leisure (Stebbins, 1999). Casual leisure can include relaxation (e.g., napping in a hammock), passive entertainment (e.g., watching television), active entertainment (e.g., playing cards), sociable conversation (e.g., chatting outside of an ice cream parlor), sensory stimulation (e.g., eating and drinking), and casual volunteering (e.g., directing parking at a soccer tournament). Project-based leisure is defined as a short-term, reasonably complicated, one-shot, or occasional (though infrequent) creative undertaking carried out in free time (Stebbins, 2005). It lies between serious and casual leisure in that it requires considerable planning, effort, but is also relatively short lived activity. Examples include creating family reunions, planning an elaborate vacation or afternoon church fund-raising social. Spillover theory and compensation theory. Whereas Edginton et al. (2006) see spillover theory and compensation theory as work-related theories of leisure, I see these two theories of leisure as located within a sociological framework because leisure is influenced by the broader sociological force of work. Both theories are fairly simplistic and were developed in the 1960s and 1970s. Looking at leisure from an early industrial revolution perspective, Rojek (1995) underscored how leisure was valued in capitalistic America in an effort to improve worker productivity. For example, Henry Ford envisaged the work and leisure of the worker to be part of a comprehensive system of management control; he even employed social workers to go into the homes of factory workers to ensure that their leisure was morally sound and consistent with corporate expectations (Rojek, 1995). As such, spillover theory and compensation theory suggested that the nature of people’s work directly influenced their choice of leisure (Kando & Summers, 1971; Parker, 1971; Wilensky, 1960), thus outlining a sociological framework. Whereas spillover theory posits that workers participate in leisure activities that have similar characteristics (spillover) to their work-related tasks, compensation theory posits that deprivations experienced at work are made up for (compensated) during leisure (Mannell & Reid, 1999). For example, a person may become involved in high-risk outdoor recreation (e.g., bungee jumping, big game hunting) to compensate for a job that is indoors, is boring, and has little risk-taking adventures. On the other hand, a person who has mastered automotive skills may experience leisure by volunteering for a local stock car race and use his/her skills in helping stock car racing. However, it is important to be reminded that spillover theory and compensation theory can contribute to stereotypes about social status and leisure choices (Russell, 2005)—not all construction workers like weight lifting and bowling and not all corporate executives play golf at the country club or squash at a private fitness center. While spillover theory and compensation theory are not written about as much in the academic literature related to leisure, these two theories of leisure still have a voice in the field of contemporary career counseling (e.g., see Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2009). As explained later in this book (see Chapter 4), Holm-

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berg, Rosen, and Holland (1997) created a leisure education model based on Holland’s (1973, 1992) six personality types (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional) designed to help in career satisfaction and retirement planning. Holmberg et al.’s (1997) leisure activity finder lists over 700 leisure activities according to Holland’s two-letter Holland code, which helps a person find leisure that will compensate for unmet needs in careers or will help people (usually workers) experience similar types of leisure, as related to work, based on personality types. Likewise, Super’s “life-span life space” model of career counseling and development (Super, 1980; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) suggests that people have nine major life-span roles in their lives, (e.g., son or daughter, worker, citizen, homemaker), and one of these is the role of “leisurite.” In this career counseling and development model, which is called the Career Development Assessment and Counseling Model (Super, Osborne, Walsh, Brown, & Niles, 1992), career counseling is based on helping people understand how these nine life roles need to be balanced and aligned. As such, leisure spillover theory and compensation theory are core life-span factors in developing life satisfaction in this career counseling model. Feminist Theories of Leisure Feminism is a set of beliefs regarding the nature of women’s oppression and the constraints imposed by the sociopolitical status to which women have been relegated (Corey, 2005). A major goal of feminism is to remove oppressive practice against all people and to further develop the right of every woman to equity, dignity, and freedom of choice (Henderson et al., 1996). This is important because there is considerable research evidence that suggests that women are more likely to live in poverty and to be marginalized (Henderson & Shaw, 2006) and that women experience more and different constraints to leisure than men (Shaw & Henderson, 2005). In addition, feminist frameworks can also be used to understand how concepts of masculinity can cause men to think that “real” leisure should have elements of toughness and competition (e.g., boxing, football) that can be a constraint for men who want to pursue leisure that has not been viewed as traditionally male, such as cooking (Henderson & Shaw, 2006). There is significant overlap between feminist theories of leisure and sociological theories of leisure because gender is also a sociological agent that interacts with leisure. However, in order to bring more clarity and attention to how gender affects leisure—and how leisure has contributed to female oppression and can empower women—I believe that feminist theories of leisure should be distinct from sociological theories. Although there is a growing body of research that emerged in the 1980s focused on women’s leisure (e.g., Deem, 1982; Shaw, 1984, 1994, 1999), there only seem to be two defined feminist theories of leisure. Henderson et al. (1996) suggest that Kelly’s sociological theory of leisure (see Kelly, 1978, 1983), which was explained above in the sociological section of this chapter, is particularly relevant to understanding women’s leisure because it distinguishes intrinsic meaning from social meaning. In particular, women can identify with the social meaning aspects of leisure that revolve around family and relationships (e.g., re-

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lational leisure and role-determined leisure). To this end, there is debate regarding how mothering (as either relational leisure or role-determined leisure) can restrict leisure or be empowering. On the one hand, Wearing (1998) reported that some mothers feel guilty when they take time for themselves through leisure, thus rendering care of the other as a constraint to leisure. For example, Bialeschki and Michener (1994) examined the relationship between leisure and motherhood from life-span and family life perspectives and found that leisure and family were often perceived as competing spheres by the mothers as their leisure decreased. On the other hand, a study by Freeman, Palmer, and Baker (2006) found the opposite; they found that mothering contributed to feelings of entitlement to leisure, acting as a springboard so that women/mothers have rich leisure experiences. Likewise, Shaw and Dawson (2001) found that family recreation also was built on social meaning (relational or role-determined leisure) in which mothers (and fathers) found that family recreation was not intrinsically motivating, but rather family leisure was purposeful in order to achieve greater family functioning (e.g., increase family togetherness and communication). The academic labor of Betsy Wearing has cumulated into a second theory of leisure based on a feminist framework. Drawing on both sociological and psychological frameworks, Wearing (1998) suggested that leisure is heterotopias, which is defined as “. . . real existing places of difference which act as countersites or compensatory sites to those everyday activities . . . for struggle against and resistance to the domination [of gender] . . . a space for reconstituting the self and rewriting the script of identity” (p. 146). Simply stated, leisure is freedom or personal space for both men and women to be or to become. Similar to the womb in which a baby is safe and developing, leisure should be a safe place where people can develop and become. As such, a key aspect to Wearing’s theory of leisure is based on the traditional psychological concepts of choice and intrinsic meaning so that a person can become. For example, if interested, girls and women can participate in what traditionally have been masculine leisure activities (e.g., rugby, skateboarding) and boys and men can participate in traditional feminine leisure activities (e.g., cooking, scrapbooking). Furthermore, and relevant to heterotopia, Wearing suggests that leisure spaces need to provide resistance to rigid gender stereotypes, which include women being viewed as sexual objects (e.g., Barbie doll image) for the male gaze and men being viewed as rugged and muscular warriors/heroes (e.g., G.I. Joe image). Anthropological Theories of Leisure Although anthropology and sociology have many similarities (e.g., the study of people and culture), anthropology paints a more holistic picture of the human condition due to its interdisciplinary focus in blending aspects of differing academic fields, such as history, archaeology, and biology (Crapo, 2001). Chick (2006) reported that an anthropological study of leisure can underscore relationships of leisure with archaeology/pre-history (e.g., rubber-ball court games played in Central America and Mexico in 1400 BCE), with linguistics (e.g., different cultural definitions of leisure), with biology (animal play/leisure), and in

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cultural understanding (e.g., how the board games Monopoly and Stock Ticker in the United States and Canada, respectively, became immensely popular during the Great Depression of the 1930s, as it allowed people who may have had little money to behave, in a play world, as rich tycoons buying up property or playing the stock market). Although Huizinga’s (1950) seminal book in leisure studies titled Homo Ludens written almost 60 years ago examined play and leisure from an anthropological framework, and there has been a call for a greater focus on understanding leisure from an anthropological perspective (Chick, 1998; Fox, 2000; Hemingway, 1998; Kelly, 1998; Russell, 2005), to date there is only one solid anthropological theory of leisure (Edginton et al., 2006)—the theory of anti-structure. The theory of anti-structure, developed by Victor Turner (1969, 1982), posits that there are formal rituals that govern people’s behaviors both inside and outside of everyday life. The rituals that are outside daily life are “anti” the norm, or opposed to everyday structure. Leisure rituals set people outside their norms, or the anti-structure parts of life. Examples of anti-structure that are connected to leisure include • tailgating activities before football games (eating, drinking, socializing before the football battle), and yelling “Let’s kill them” or “Break their backs” during football games; • kissing strangers at a New Year’s celebration; • staying in one’s pajamas all day long on Christmas day; and • participating in historical reenactments, that is, being part of the past in the present. See the various examples that were presented under postmodern leisure (e.g., reenactment of the Battle of Little Bighorn/Custer’s Battlefield). The above examples underscore activities that are done in a ritualistic (repeated) manner, but are still anti-structure or outside normal life. Furthermore, during anti-structure leisure, a sense of community develops and social distinction disappears so that strangers work toward a common goal. Complete strangers, including people from differing cultures or social class, can cheer, hug, and celebrate together, for example, when gathered in a ritualistic manner to cheer on a football or hockey team. Another example of anti-structure can be observed from a story that Dan Dustin (2006) shares regarding how his two good academic friends (Geoff Godbey and Tom Goodale) have an annual three-day pool “ritual” in which these three men spend three days straight at Geoff Godbey’s house playing pool until the first person sinks 1,000 balls. The following quotation from Dustin underscores how this annual pool gathering is “anti” the norm or opposed to everyday structure: We shoot pool for three hours, pausing only for an occasional snack, a draft from the refrigerator, or a visit from Cassandra or Jimmy. There are

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also infrequent phone calls from curious others who have heard something “unusual” is going on at the Godbeys’. Apparently, what we are doing is odd, if not bizarre, for three grown men to sequester ourselves like this, to play like this. It is the masculine equivalent to a pajama party, a sleep-over. (p. 108) In regard to the ritual aspect of this annual gathering, Dustin adds: “By July of 1998 we will have met for the fifth year in Happy Valley. The annual shoot-out has become an important ritual [emphasis added] for each of us” (pp. 110–111). Holy leisure and pilgrimage tourism can also be seen as forms of leisure rooted in an anti-structure framework. Pilgrimage tourism is defined as travel where the tourist seeks out an authentic religious quest (Lankford et al., 2005; MacCannell, 1973), and holy leisure is defined as religious travel to formal religious sites of ritual behavior, which remind people of how their religious values shape their identity and their relationship to other people and God (Messenger, 1999). Holy leisure combines leisure and religious devotion. Messenger provides a historical case study of Ocean Grove (New Jersey)—how it was founded in 1869 by a group of Methodist clergy, in which the New Jersey seashore was specifically chosen as a religious summer camp similar to Jerusalem-by-the-sea. Although Ocean Grove was designated a State and National Historic District (as a 19th century planned urban community), today, the Ocean Grove Camp Meeting Association’s mission, which is still rooted in the Methodist heritage, is to provide opportunities for spiritual birth, growth, and renewal in a Christian seaside setting. Note how the following quotation that Messenger used to explain the purpose of Ocean Grove is based on the theory of anti-structure and how camping and summer residency at Ocean Grove create behaviors that are outside daily life or opposed to everyday structure: [Ocean Grove is] . . . a site for the faithful to come generation after generation to seek holiness . . . a stay in Ocean Grove was indeed a visit to the Holy. A summer lived in a community with fellow pilgrims was time out of time—a sacred, festival time—when the routines of everyday life were put aside for the pursuit of perfection. (p. 3) Other religious events outside the Christian faith, such as American Indian spiritual and symbolic healing ceremonies such as the sweat lodge, would also be a form of holy leisure rooted in an antistructure framework. Furthermore, Rojek (2001) outlined that celebrity figures, events, and spaces can also have a religious/holy leisure and pilgrimage experiences, connected to the theory of anti-structure. For example, every year thousands of tourists from around the world visit or make a pilgrimage to Graceland, which was the estate of Elvis Presley, and today is a museum and complex dedicated to Elvis Presley (located in Memphis Tennessee). On March 27, 2006, Graceland was designated as a National Historical Landmark and in recent years have had such notable visitors as Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi in 2006 and Prince Albert II, the reigning monarch of the Principality of Monaco in 2010. Cavicchi’s (1998)

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research studies on Bruce Springsteen fans outline pilgrimage experiences of traveling across the United States or world to experiences certain sites important to Springsteen’s life. Some pilgrimages consist of real-life events in Bruce Springsteen’s life, such as driving by the house he grew up in located on South Street in Freehold New Jersey or the house in Long Branch, another New Jersey shore town where Springsteen wrote one of his greatest hits, “Born to Run.” The Stone Pony (Asbury Park, New Jersey), considered as one of the most famous nightclubs in America, is another Springsteen pilgrimage site due to the fact that the musician has played in this nightclub over 90 times, when he was a young musician in the mid-1970s to recent gigs. Other pilgrimages consist of places mentioned in his songs, such as desert roads/highways south of Battle Mountain (Nevada), which inspired the lyrics behind the song “The Promised Land” or pilgrimages to the Asbury Park boardwalk to see Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth (an image and site of rock ‘n’ roll mythology so famous that many national news organizations, such as CBS News (see http://www.cbsnews.com/2100207_162-630363.html ), have actually featured stories on Madam Marie because of Springsteen’s famous song, “4th of July, Asbury Park (Sandy).” See a photo of Madam Marie’s fortune telling booth on page 24. In addition, Turner (1969, 1982) suggested that anti-structure events develop intense comradeship and smaller structured communities of equal individuals. For example, Edginton et al. (2006) point to the work of former vice president Al Gore as developing the leisure theory of anti-structure in his work on community gardens—and in the process developed community comradeship. Gore and Gore (1998) highlighted how a group of strangers in a run-down neighborhood in North Philadelphia initially developed a community garden so that strangers could move outside the norm of being unaware and unfriendly to their neighbors. This small community garden mushroomed into a large Village of the Arts, which has sculptures, murals, vegetable gardens, a theater, dance programs, a community newspaper, and a working tree farm. Leisure as antistructure is the medium to develop comradeship and friendships, build communities, and find meaning in one’s life. Philosophical Theories of Leisure: Classical Leisure Most students of leisure learn about Aristotle’s theory of leisure as contemplation of the good life and think that all people in ancient Greek life made the connection of leisure to contemplation. However, it is worth noting that it was a small group of people (students of Aristotle) who engaged in leisure as contemplation of the good life. As Davidson (1997) underscores, much of classic Athenian free time activities were based on pleasures of the flesh: eating, drinking and sex. “Aristotle described them as animal cravings: hunger, thirst and lust, base and servile urges with their true foundation, contrary to appearance, in the sense of pleasure” (Davidson, 1997, p. xvi). According to Dare, Welton, and Coe (1998), philosophy is the inner search for understanding that is connected to daily life. Leisure in Aristotelians ancient Greek was called skole, which referred to quiet or peace and to rest in order to think deeply without distraction (Dare et al., 1998). It was a life space for con-

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templation that required freedom from the necessity of work. The life space to contemplate in Aristotelians ancient Greek has been called classical leisure and is defined as an activity that involves the pursuit of truth and self-understanding (Gray, 1973). According to Pieper (1952), to contemplate “. . . means to open one’s eyes receptively to whatever offers itself to one’s vision and the things seen enter into us, so to speak, without calling for any effort or strain on our part to possess them” (p. 9). Contemplation can occur alone or in a group. In contemporary society, Kingwell (1998) suggested that people need to find a life space to contemplate regarding the good life (classical leisure) and that such reflection leads to eudemonistic happiness. Whereas hedonistic happiness refers to pleasures of the bodily kind, eudemonistic happiness is • a life of ethical action manifested in virtuous character associated with community, friends, and family; • virtue or conformity to a standard of right; and • rational satisfaction with one’s character via reflection on whether behaviors align to virtue or to the good life. In regard to finding life space to contemplate and having dialogue, the recent growth of philosophical cafés in Canada and Europe, according to Kingwell (1998), are examples of classical leisure in everyday life. As Kingwell noted: . . . [Philosophical cafés] quickly spread as part of an “applied philosophy” movement that captured the imaginations of ordinary people who wanted philosophical discussions (and even enlightenment) but weren’t interested in the scholasticism and elitism of traditional universities. In some way, this was a rather self-conscious attempt to re-create the kind of public forums that used to be more common: the coffee houses and salons of the eighteenth century, the clubs and self-improvement groups of the nineteenth and the sort of café society enjoyed by Proust, Wilde, de Maupassant, and Sarte. Like 1990s book circles, the “café-philo” idea speaks to a need to have intellectual discussion as a regular, and social, part of modern life. (p. 239) Finding time to contemplate about life can take many mediums, such as taking fishing and camping trips, being in solitude, looking at art, reading poetry, and sitting in a sauna at a health spa. For example, Dustin (2006) shares that, during a camping trip, while lying in his sleeping bag in his tent he began to think: My son, Adam, is asleep beside me. Where have the years gone? He’s so big now. A twelve-year-old who can pick me up when he hugs me, and who does just that on occasion for the pure joy of it. I wonder what he’ll do with this life? (p. 87)

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Edginton et al. (2006) suggested that debate forums and chat rooms that can be accessed through the Internet can also act as a life space for people to have dialogue and reflection so that they can search for inner understanding that is connected to daily life. For example, at the website called Online Debate (see http://www.onlinedebate.net/index.php), there are various topics related to debate and dialogue pertaining to philosophy, politics, equality, and social issues. Such topics—where there is respectful disagreement in order to reflect on issues related to life—include (a) if the universe is predispositioned for life, (b) selectively breeding for intelligence, (c) cultural devastation of American women, and (d) the societal and ethical impact of women who get breast implants through cosmetic surgery. Paddick (1982) bemoaned the insignificant amount of time contemporary Americans set aside for contemplation and lays a fair amount of blame on leisure education programs because such education overly stresses engaging in popular activities with scant attention devoted to contemplation of how leisure can link to deeply held personal values. To this end, Stebbins (2006) suggested that greater time should be devoted to connecting contemplation (classical leisure) and serious leisure.

Concluding Thoughts About Leisure Theories To help readers understand the different theories of leisure, Table 2.1 has been adapted from the work of Edginton et al. (2006) to bring clarity to the many different theories of leisure. Although it is common for students and professionals of leisure to want to explain and define leisure in simplicity terms—such as defining leisure as solely perceived freedom—the study of leisure is dynamic, multivariate, and interdisciplinary. There is not one single universal definition of leisure. Understanding the many definitions of leisure underscores the dynamic relationship of leisure in life and also the dynamic relationship of how leisure education is connected to one’s life and lifestyle and to society (Mundy, 1998). Furthermore, although each definition of leisure is presented as a separate theory, often there is great overlap between theories and leisure experiences. For example, a person pursuing the leisure activity of playing in a community orchestra can experience the display of serious leisure skills (serious leisure), social meaning (Kelly’s leisure paradigm), intrinsic meaning (Neulinger’s leisure paradigm), and flow (flow theory), simultaneously combining four different theories of leisure in a single leisure experience. Likewise, the case example of Ocean Grove as holy leisure (under the theory of leisure as anti-structure) can also be viewed as classical leisure (contemplation of the good life) or possibly even compensation theory, if a person was traveling to Ocean Grove to compensate for deprivations experienced at work.

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Davidson, J. (1997). Courtesans and fishcakes: The consuming passions of classical Athens. New York: HarperCollins. Deem, R. (1982). Women, leisure, and inequality. Leisure Studies, 1(1), 29–46. Deskovic, J. (2013, February). The most captive audience. Sports Illustrated, 118(4), 68. Dieser, R. B. (2004). Leisure education: Breaking free from individualistic notions. In M. Devine (Ed.), Trends in therapeutic recreation: Ideas, concepts, and applications (pp. 1–25). Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association. Dieser, R. B. (2011). A follow-up investigation of the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 45(3), 190–213. Dieser, R. B., Fox, K., & Walker, G. (2002). Recognizing the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Annual of Therapeutic Recreation, 11, 77–96. Dustin, D. L. (2006). The wilderness within: Reflections on leisure and life (3rd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Eagleton, T. (2000). The idea of culture. Oxford, England: Blackwell. Edginton, C. R., DeGraaf, D., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2006). Leisure and life satisfaction: Foundational perspectives (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Fox, K. (2000, October). Manawa Nanea: Native Hawaiian leisure. Paper presented at the National Recreation and Park Association Leisure Research Symposium, Phoenix, AZ. Freeman, P. A., Palmer, A. A., & Baker, B. L. (2006). Perspectives on leisure of LDS women who are stay-at-home mothers. Leisure Science, 28, 203–221. Freysinger, V. J., & Kelly, J. R. (2004). 21st century leisure: Current issues. State College, PA: Venture. Gardner, H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Damon, W. (2001). Good work: When excellence and ethics meet. New York: Basic Books. Gray, D. (1973). This alien thing called leisure. In D. Gray (Ed.), Reflections on the park and recreation movement (pp. 1–10). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. Green, M. (2000). Releasing the imagination: Essays on education, the arts and social change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Harde, R., & Streight, I. (2010). Reading the boss: Interdisciplinary approaches to the works of Bruce Springsteen. Boulder, CO: Lexington Books Hemingway, J. L. (1998). Culture, the basis of leisure? Commentary on Chick leisure and culture. Leisure Science, 20(2), 153–156. Henderson, K. A., Bialeschki, M. D., Shaw, S. M., & Freysinger, V. J. (1996). Both gains and gaps: Feminist perspectives on women’s leisure. State College, PA: Venture. Henderson, K. A., & Shaw, S. M. (2006). Leisure and gender: Challenges and opportunities for feminist research. In C. Rojek, S. M. Shaw, & A. J. Veal (Eds.), The handbook of leisure studies (pp. 216–230). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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MacCannell, D. (1973). Staged authenticity: Arrangement of social space in tourist settings. American Journal of Sociology, 79, 586–603. Mannell, R. C. (1984). Personality in leisure theory: The self-as-entertainment construct. Loisir et Societe/Society and Leisure, 7, 229–242. Mannell, R. C. (1991). The “psychologization” of leisure services. In T. L. Goodale & P. A. Witt (Eds.), Recreation and leisure: Issues in an era of change (3rd ed.) (pp. 429–439). State College, PA: Venture. Mannell, R. C., & Reid, D. G. (1999). Work and leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 151–165). State College, PA: Venture. Messenger, T. (1999). Holy leisure: Recreation and religion in God’s square mile. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Michaelis, B. (1991). Fantasy, play, creativity and mental health. In T. L. Goodale & P. A. Witt (Eds.), Recreation and leisure: Issues in an era of change (3rd ed.) (pp. 55–72). State College, PA: Venture. Mundy, J. (1998). Leisure education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2009). Flow theory and research. In C. R. Snyder and S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 195–206). New York: Oxford University Press. Neulinger, J. (1976). The need for and the implications of a psychological conception of leisure. Ontario Psychologist, 8, 15. Neulinger, J. (1981). To leisure: An introduction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2009). Career development interventions in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Paddick, R. J. (1982). Time on my hands: Hands off my time. Leisure Studies, 1(4), 355–364. Parker, S. (1971). The future of work and leisure. New York: Praeger. Pieper, J. (1952). Leisure: The basis of culture. New York: Signet. Rogers, M. F. (1999). Barbie culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rojek, C. (1985). Capitalism and leisure theory. London, England: Tavisock. Rojek, C. (1989). Introduction. In C. Rojek (Ed.), Leisure for leisure: Critical essays. (pp. 1–11). London, England: Macmillan. Rojek, C. (1993). Ways of escape: Modern transformations in leisure and travel. London, England: Macmillan. Rojek, C. (1995). Decentering leisure: Rethinking leisure theory. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Rojek, C. (2000). Leisure and culture. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Rojek, C. (2001). Celebrity. London, UK: Reaktion Books Rojek, C. (2005). Leisure theory: Principles and practice. New York: PalgraveMacmillan. Rorty, R. (2000, March 10). Being that can be understood is language. The London Review of Books, 23.

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Russell, R. V. (2005). Pastimes: The context of contemporary leisure (3rd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Schor, J. B. (1992). The overworked American: The unexpected decline of leisure. New York: Basic Books. Schor, J. B. (1998). The overspent American: Why we want what we don’t need. New York: HarperCollins. Schor, J. B. (2004). Born to buy: The commercialized child and the new consumer culture. New York: Scribner. Shaw, S. M. (1984). Gender and leisure: Inequality in the distribution of time. Journal of Leisure Research, 17(4), 266–282. Shaw, S. M. (1994). Gender, leisure, and constraint: Towards a framework for the analysis of women’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 26(1), 8–22. Shaw, S. M. (1999). Gender and leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 229–321). State College, PA: Venture. Shaw, S. M., & Dawson, D. (2001). Purposive leisure: Examining parental discourse on family activities. Leisure Science, 23(4), 217–231. Shaw, S. M., & Henderson, K. (2005). Gender analysis and leisure constraints: An uneasy alliance. In E. L. Jackson (Ed.), Constraints to leisure (pp. 23–34). State College, PA: Venture. Spencer, M. M. (2003). What more needs saying about imagination? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 47(1), 106–112. Stebbins, R. A. (1982). Serious leisure: A conceptual statement. Pacific Sociological Review, 25, 251–272. Stebbins, R. A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious leisure. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Stebbins, R. A. (1997). Casual leisure: A conceptual statement. Leisure Studies, 16(1), 17–25. Stebbins, R. A. (1999). Serious leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 69–79). State College, PA: Venture. Stebbins, R. A. (2001). The costs and benefits of hedonism: Some consequences of taking casual leisure seriously. Leisure Studies, 20(4), 305–309. Stebbins, R. A. (2002). The organizational basis of leisure participation: A motivational exploration. State College, PA: Venture. Stebbins, R. A. (2004). Between work and leisure: The common ground of two separate worlds. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Stebbins, R. A. (2005). Project-based leisure: Theoretical neglect of a common use of free time. Leisure Studies, 24(1), 1–12. Stebbins, R. A. (2006, March). Contemplation as leisure and non-leisure. Leisure Studies Association Newsletter, 16–18. Stebbins, R. A. (2007). Serious leisure: A perspective for our time. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Stebbins, R. A. (2012). The idea of leisure: First principles. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publications.

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chapter three

The Positive and Negative Consequences of Leisure

I am sure that many students in leisure services have had people question

their decision to study leisure. Comments such as “What do you do with a recreation and leisure degree?” or “It must be a fun major” are probably common. These comments implicitly suggest that the leisure profession is undervalued. Crompton’s (1999) historical analysis of the consequences of tax revolts to park and recreation programs, along with recent case examples of how community park and recreation programs are being reduced or even totally eliminated under the contemporary tax reduction social policy (e.g., Chase & Shannahan, 2003; Dolesh, 2005, 2008), outlines the unappreciated social consciousness of leisure services in contemporary society. There are many reasons why the park and recreation profession is undervalued. One reason is that compared to other human service professions, such as medicine, education, social work, or counseling psychology, the park and recreation profession does not have as long of a history. Another reason is internal conflict. For example, the history of the therapeutic recreation profession has a history of professional organizations working in conflict rather than in partnership (Dieser, 2008a). Despite these concerns, a paramount reason why the park and recreation profession and the study of leisure are undervalued is because the profession has not persuaded members of society, decision makers (e.g., members of city councils or congress), and allied professions about both beneficial and negative aspects of the leisure experience. In short, a leisure experience can contribute to positive human and social development, but it can also contribute to negative and unhealthy human and social development. It can also contribute to something in the middle ground of positive and negative outcomes.

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Leisure service professionals in different branches of professional work (e.g., outdoor recreation, tourism, community recreation, youth services) have focused considerable attention on articulating the beneficial aspects of leisure; however, there remains a mysterious silence regarding how leisure can also create harm to individuals, communities, and the environment. The first part of this chapter will look at the beneficial aspects of leisure, including a historical presentation regarding how leisure was used as social policy to deal with social problems in a positive manner. This will be followed by an examination of how leisure can equally create negative consequences or disbenefits. The conclusion section will briefly outline how leisure education can provide both positive and negative aspects of leisure in order to (a) help people see the need to professionalize leisure services, such as leisure education, by becoming aware that leisure can create harm at the individual and societal level and (b) help leisure professionals optimize net benefits of leisure.

The Beneficial Aspects of Leisure In many ways, the history of the park and recreation profession can be viewed as a history of social policy or social welfare development. Social welfare is defined as the well-being of society, and social policy is the collective response to social problems (Segal, 2007). Professional organizations develop in order to serve society in specific ways, such as to remedy a social problem (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006). For example, Winter’s (1999) historical study of the development and credibility of Sigmund Freud and the institution of psychoanalytic knowledge underscores that Freud positioned psychoanalytical knowledge and practice as the remedy for well-being against the widespread societal/social problem of neurosis. In referencing the Second Annual Psychoanalytic Conference in 1910, Winter outlines how Freud described . . . the momentous results for the society—suffering as a whole from neuroses when the riddle of the causes of the psychoneuroses is revealed by psychoanalysis and the secret of the neurotic’s gain from the illness is exposed to public view. The final outcome of the changed situation brought about the physician’s indiscretion can only be that the production of the illness will be brought to a stop. (p. 171) In many ways, the development of park and recreation programs in the United States, Britain, Canada, and in other parts of the world developed from groups of people using recreation, leisure, and play to remedy social problems, thus using leisure to promote social well-being. Jane Addams and the women at Hull-House, for example, developed public recreation, youth programs, and therapeutic recreation to remedy the social problems of poverty and discrimination by building cross-cultural understanding, community development, and human flourishing (Dieser, 2005a, 2008a; Dieser, Harkema, Kowalski, Osuji, & Poppen, 2004). Many other pioneers in leisure services—such as Fredrick Law

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Olmstead, Joseph Lee, Thorstein Veblen, Rachel Carson, Juliette Gordon Low, and Stephen T. Mather—were addressing social problems through leisure service delivery and scholarship. In order to change public values regarding the beneficial aspects of leisure, in the past 20 years leisure academics have developed an explicit benefits approach to leisure service delivery. According to Driver and Bruns (1999), the benefits approach to leisure is a broad philosophical framework that defines positive and negative consequences of delivering leisure services “. . . with the objective being to optimize net benefits—or to add as much value as possible” (p. 350). As such, benefits-based management (Allen, 1996), benefits-based programming (Rossman & Schlatter, 2000), and benefits-based repositioning (Crompton & Witt, 1997) are specialized uses of the benefits approach to leisure framework (Driver, personal communication, March 10, 2003). Two important reasons for the benefits approach to leisure framework are to increase political parity of leisure services and to refocus attention on the contributions of recreation and leisure to its historical contributions of aiding human welfare (Driver & Bruns, 1999). To this end, Rossman and Schlatter (2000) proposed a four-component, benefits-based programming model: • target social issues or problems: activities address protective factors (e.g., coping, internal expectations, personal responsibility, self-efficacy); • activity components: write performance objectives, identify activities to achieve goals and objectives, process activities with recreation participants, and monitor the achievement of objectives; • benefits outcome: summarize the achievement of target goals leading to increased personal resiliency; and • benefits-based awareness: communicate the successes (outcomes) to the general public, funding sources, and stakeholders. More recently, Moore and Driver (2005) argued that benefits-based programming should be replaced with the term beneficial outcomes approach to leisure (BOAL) because the term outcomes fits within contemporary societies’ focus on functional, beneficial results of human and leisure service delivery. Furthermore, Moore and Driver outlined additional advantages of BOAL, such as (a) promoting greater understanding and appreciation of the social significance of recreation, (b) justifying allocations of public funds to parks and recreation in the social policy arena, (c) helping managers develop clearer leisure service objectives, (d) facilitating more meaningful recreation demand analyses, (e) enhancing marketing, and (f) facilitating additional research. Table 3.1, adapted from the academic work of Driver and Bruns (1999), summarizes the multiple benefits of recreation and leisure experiences.

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Table 3.1 Benefits of Recreation and Leisure Experiences I. Personal Benefits 1. Psychological a. Better mental health and health maintenance i. Wellness ii. Stress management iii. Catharsis iv. Prevention of or reduced depression, anxiety, and anger v. Positive change in moods and emotions b. Personal development and growth i. Self-confidence ii. Improved cognitive and academic performance iii. Sense of control iv. Autonomy and independence v. Leadership c. Personal appreciation and satisfaction i. Sense of freedom ii. Self-actualization iii. Creative expression iv. Spirituality v. Appreciation of nature 2. Psychophysiological a. Cardiovascular benefits b. Reduce or prevent hypertension c. Decrease body fat and obesity d. Increase muscular strength e. Reduced consumption of alcohol and tobacco f. Reduced serum cholesterol and triglycerides g. Improved bone mass h. Improved functioning of immune system i. Respiratory benefits j. Increase life expectancy II. Social and Cultural Benefits 1. Community satisfaction 2. Cultural and historical awareness 3. Ethnic identity 4. Family bonding 5. Understanding and tolerance for others 6. Reduced social alienation 7. Pride in the community and nation 8. Social support 9. Enhanced worldview 10. Prevention of social problems by youth at risk III. Economic Benefits 1. Reduced health care costs 2. Increased productivity at work 3. Decreased job turnover 4. Local and regional economic growth 5. Contribution to national economic development IV. Environmental Benefits 1. Maintenance of physical facilities 2. Husbandry and improved relationships with natural world 3. Understanding human dependency on the natural world 4. Development of an environmental ethic 5. Environmental protection of biodiversity and ecosystems

Adapted from Driver, B. L., & Bruns, D. H. (1999). Concepts and uses of the benefits approach to leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 349-369). State College, PA: Venture. Reprinted with permission.

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Beyond the classification of beneficial aspects of leisure, different academics have provided additional lists of benefits to leisure. For example, Table 3.2 lists the benefits of serious and casual leisure that Stebbins (2002) has reported. Likewise, Kleiber, Walker, and Mannell (2011), drawing from a strict psychological paradigm, explain five psychological benefits of leisure. First, leisure activities can be selected to satisfy unmet needs in other life domains. For example, a person who belongs to a bowling group can develop friendship and social recognition that may be absent elsewhere, such as at work. Second, leisure causes personal growth or human development. Leisure provides opportunities for people to develop their skills and strengths and to experience achievement. For example, piano opportunities can allow a person to develop his or her creative skills and emotional intelligence. Third, leisure allows identity formation to develop. Leisure identities are salient to self-concept because they express individual talents, provide social recognition, and affirm core values and interests. For example, a person can be viewed as an “expert” in collecting baseball cards or comic books. Fourth, leisure influences health and wellness through its ability to facilitate coping behaviors in response to stressful life events. For example, during a life crisis, leisure pursuits (e.g., hiking, exercise) may cause a person to feel some control or to develop social support. Fifth, leisure can provide pleasure, relaxation, and fun—what is often referred to as psychological hedonism. In this regard, these relatively brief and transient experiences enhance meaning in life and overall psychological well-being. An example of this would be a family picnic in a park or playing a Wii console. Edginton and Chen (2008) have used the word transformations instead of benefits to outline the advantageous aspect of leisure, such as creating livable communities. Table 3.2 Benefits of Serious and Casual Leisure Serious Leisure Personal Rewards • Personal enrichment (cherished experiences) • Self-actualization (developing skills, abilities, knowledge) • Self-expression (expressing skills, abilities, and knowledge developed) • Self-image (thought of as a serious leisure participant) • Self-gratification (combination of superficial enjoyment and deep fulfillment) • Re-creation (regeneration of oneself) • Financial return (extra money from a serious leisure pursuit) Social Rewards • Social attraction (participating in a social world) • Group accomplishment (sense of helping as a group) • Development of a group (being altruistic in making a contribution)

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Table 3.2 (cont.) Casual Leisure Rewards • Accidental discovery (serendipity) • Regeneration in life and toward serious leisure pursuits (redeveloping energy) • Development of interpersonal relationships (sociable conversations with friends) • Well-being (e.g., relaxation) • Edutainment (becoming education through entertainment)

Although the benefits approach to leisure framework was designed to articulate both the positive and negative consequences of delivering leisure services, with the objective being to optimize net benefits (Driver & Bruns, 1999), many academics and professionals have rightfully questioned this framework for hyper-augmenting the beneficial side of leisure and providing scant attention to the negative aspects of leisure (e.g., Dieser, 2011; More, 2002; Rojek, 2010; Wearing, 1998). That is, there is no doubt whatsoever that benefits of leisure are pervasive; however, there is less voice and research directed toward negative or harmful aspects of leisure. As such, the next section will examine the negative aspects of leisure.

The Negative Aspects of Leisure For years, the academic work of Chris Rojek (e.g., 1985, 1993, 1995, 1999, 2001, 2005, 2010) outlined some of the cosmetic beneficial aspects of leisure and highlighted the harmful, destructive, and dark aspects of leisure. For example, Rojek (2001) noted the dark side of celebrity leisure: . . . members of the families of Jeffrey Dahmer’s victims planned to auction the serial killer’s instruments of torture and divide the proceeds. Although their plan was thwarted, public interest in owning the artifacts was considerable. In Britain similar controversy was aroused by plans to sell 25 Cromwell Street, Gloucester. This was the so-called “house of horror” in which the serial killers Fred and Rosemary West tortured and murdered their victims. The controversy turned on commercial [leisure] interest that aspired to memorialize the site as a “museum” to caution the public against the infernal wiles of transgression. The local council eventually decided to demolish the house. Disposal arrangements for the bricks, timber, and mortar were shrouded in secrecy so as to deter ghoulish souvenir hunters. (pp. 61–62)

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Although this example is somewhat extreme in highlighting troubling aspects of leisure, there is a dark side of leisure that seems to be hidden by the hyper-augmentation of the beneficial aspects of leisure. Other than academic work that outlines the negative impacts of outdoor recreation, such as impacts to soil, water and air quality, vegetation, and wildlife (e.g., Moore & Driver, 2005), there is a mysterious silence regarding how leisure can harm people, which few American leisure professionals or academics want to acknowledge exists. The articulation of the negative aspects of leisure is important for four reasons. First, troubling aspects and negative outcomes of leisure are a reality. For example, there are multiple research synthesis studies and literature reviews that clearly demonstrate that the consumption of violent media for leisure (e.g., watching violent movies, playing violent video games) contributes to human aggression and violence (e.g., Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Jackson, Rod, & Dieser, 2008; Kirsh, 2006; Paik & Comstock, 1994). Moreover, over 20 years ago Iso-Ahola (1980) explained how youth involved in little league baseball can develop learned helplessness (decreased mental health) when parents, coaches, and other players view winning as a supreme goal and then locate team failure (losing) on less skilled players. In summarizing the potentially detrimental consequence that can occur in little league baseball, Iso-Ahola created a theoretical attributional model of learned helplessness with particular reference to little league sports (see Figure 3.1) and stated, . . . the present author has witnessed numerous coaches who get angry at players after losing, and condemn the player as unable. Such behavior puts the main blame for failure on individual players, who consequently are faced with dispositional attributes and perhaps helplessness. (p. 122)

Team’s repeated failure or continous poor individual performance in Little League sport

Personal interference of uncontrollable outcome

Dispositional attributions (lack of ability) Feelings of helplessness

Situational attributions (poor teammates, poor luck, etc.)

Generalized helplessness (I am not able to do anything) External influences (by coach, parents, or teammates)

Discriminated helplessness (My poor performance is limited to Little League alone when playing with this team) Avoided helplessness (I did well but others screwed it up)

Figure 3.1. A Theoretical Attributional Model of Learned Helplessness Related to Little League Baseball. From Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1980). The social psychology of leisure and recreation. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Company. Reprinted with permission.

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White (1997) outlined youth who have died in an outdoor recreation wilderness therapy program, and Hunter and Green (1995) identified how tourism can have negative effects on geographical and cultural environments (e.g., increase in tourism-based illegal prostitution, loss of ethnic languages, depletion of ground and surface water, increase in surface erosion). Although leisure can produce many positive beneficial outcomes, it can also create many negative and troubling outcomes. The second reason for greater attention to be directed toward the problematic aspects of leisure is that such awareness helps leisure professionals optimize the beneficial aspects of leisure by minimizing negative outcomes. If leisure professionals are to optimize net benefits, considerable attention needs to be directed toward preventing negative aspects of leisure (Walker, Deng, & Dieser, 2005), whether it be the psychological aspects of developed learned helplessness during youth sports, preventing death during outdoor recreation outings, or preventing tourism dedicated to houses where serial killers have slain people. All leisure activities simultaneously produce negative and positive outcomes and being aware of the negative outcomes is the first step toward preventing them. Third, outlining how leisure activities can have multiple negative events can add to the needfulness and credibility of the leisure profession. If leisure can cause negative outcomes—such as how consumption of violent media can increase aggression and violence or how constantly sitting to play computer games contributes to obesity—it follows that leisure professionals are needed and should be trained in maximizing the beneficial aspects of leisure. For example, under the framework that leisure choices can create positive or negative outcomes for individuals and communities, school districts might be more accepting of leisure education-based afterschool programs to prevent youth-atrisk behavior or obesity rather than strictly academic-oriented afterschool programs. Fourth, leisure education is a powerful and needed programming strategy that can be used to prevent troubling aspects of leisure. Mundy (1998) outlined that leisure education should focus on leisure awareness, where participants learn how leisure influences one’s lifestyle, quality of leisure, and societal norms. For example, providing media literary leisure education programs to young women can help them become aware of how the media influence unhealthy body images (American Psychological Association, 2007). Likewise, a leisure education program can educate adults regarding how watching television can contribute to lower moods and higher obesity (Edginton et al., 2006) and how active or psychologically engaging leisure activities—flow experiences—can decrease obesity and increase positive moods. Throughout the body of knowledge related to leisure, and especially pronounced in the United States, there is a lack of research or professional focus on the negative aspects of leisure. To this end, Rojek (2005) disclosed that when leisure academics underscore the negative aspects of leisure, or how leisure has a dark side, they are often demonized for their thoughts, which suffocates reflec-

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tive/critical thinking. Rojek’s thoughts are captured well in the following quotation: In this way leisure activity and professionals are presented as forming a virtuous circle and the institution of leisure is identified with the triumph of humanity. The consequence of this [the focus on the benefits of leisure] is to stifle critical thought. Those who try to further the scientific understanding of leisure by investigating how leisure forms and practice contribute to harm of the self or injury to others run the risk of being demonized. (p. 195) More’s (2002) polemical explanation of how recreation and leisure services can cause harm (and can be filled with deceit) serves as an excellent case example of how leisure professions may respond to thinkers who suggest harm can occur in leisure. In regard to underscoring how leisure activities can provide disbenefits, More stated: In some situations, competition and its associated achievement are obvious benefits. In other cultural contexts, however, they can be seen as antithetical to the development of cooperation and altruism. And for every child who leaves the youth sports field victorious, at least one other goes home in defeat. If we [leisure professionals and academics] are anxious to accept credit for the benefits of recreation, shouldn’t we also accept the blame for hurt feelings, broken bones, and other negative consequences that occur so often during participation . . . (p. 68) After More’s fair-minded polemic was published, three pro-benefits of leisure academics (i.e., Crompton, 2002; Driver, 2002; Dustin, 2002) attempted to marginalize More via writing rejoinders, suggesting things such as More needing a reality check (Driver, 2002), stating he is a dog in for a kicking (Dustin, 2002), stating poignantly that the actions of “fraud” and “deceit” never occur in scientific endeavors or journals (Crompton, 2002)1, and even jeering More as being linked to Saint Thomas More who authored the book Utopia in 1516 (Crompton, 2002). Although parts of Crompton’s, Driver’s, and Dustin’s rejoinders are fair minded also, in critiquing More’s thoughts, these rejoinders highlight that the field of leisure studies has wrapped itself in a suffocating archipelago image of virtuous leaders and equates leisure with nothing but positive consequences, which stifles critical thinking and programming strategies to prevent the negative aspects of leisure. As a consequence to the thoughts that leisure is always equated to goodness, the need to professionalize the field of leisure services has also been stifled. Although there are many examples of fraud and deceit in scientific endeavors and journals, Healy (2004) clearly demonstrates how pharmaceutical research/science has a very dark and dubious side (e.g., covering up deaths as side effects in drug research), which is related to profit. Furthermore, see Schafer (2003) and Thompson, Baird, and Downie (2001) for additional case studies that underscore the growing corruption of pharmaceutical scientific endeavors linked to big business. 1

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In order to understand how leisure activity can simultaneously provide positive benefits in the immediate leisure activity and also harm other people or the environment in a delayed or unconscious manner, Rojek’s (2005) twopronged care ethic—care of the self (leisure to achieve personal well-being) and care of the other (how one’s leisure affects other people, communities, or the natural world)—is a helpful reflective thinking and programming framework. In short, this model suggests that leisure activity can be used to help care for the self, such as purchasing leisure goods such as a tennis racket in order to improve one’s fitness level by playing tennis (beneficial outcome of leisure); but when learning that the tennis racket was made by low-pay workers (even child labor) in developing countries, the purchasing of the leisure good is troubling because such leisure goods reinforce practices of child labor and exploitation of people who are poor (usually an unconscious and delayed negative outcome of leisure). According to Rojek (2005), care of the other casts a far-reaching net throughout the global community, and as such, Western-based leisure activities can be knowingly or unknowingly inextricably connected with the suffering of people condemned to lives of poverty, hunger, and illiteracy. To this end, the following section will underscore five examples where leisure contributes to individual and societal harm (care of the other), usually in a delayed or unconscious manner: (a) leisure activity contributing to pollution and global climate change; (b) leisure contributing to distorted body image and the sexual objectification of women; (c) erotic pornography contributing to violence against women and sexual abuse; (d) consumption of violent entertainment as leisure contributing to aggression and violence; and (e) leisure contributing to commercialized childhoods, which undermines mental health. The concluding section of this chapter will briefly argue that leisure education is needed to highlight how leisure choices can produce delayed and unconscious negative outcomes at both the individual and societal level and how leisure education can be a programming strategy to help people and communities minimize the negative aspects of leisure and maximize the net benefits. Leisure Activity Contributing to Pollution and Global Climate Change Writing right before the new millennium, Godbey (1997) outlined that one of the key challenges of leisure in the 21st century will be the relationship of leisure to the negative aspects of environmental problems, such as global warming and water scarcity. For example, Godbey outlined the ethical dilemma that in the year 2025 many American golf courses will continue to use massive amounts of water related to leisure, yet it is projected that in this same year of 2025 over 1 billion people worldwide will be living in areas subject to extreme water scarcity. Likewise, Bell (2009) explained how the theory of the leisure class (consuming leisure) has detrimental effects on the environment, including global warming, the ozone problem, and acid rain. Driving for pleasure is a popular leisure activity (Cordes & Ibrahim, 2003; Rojek, 2007) and is a frequent activity associated with seeing the beauties of nature as outdoor recreation (Ibrahim & Cordes, 1993). Survey research by the

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California Department of Parks and Recreation (1988) identified driving for pleasure as the second most popular outdoor recreation activity among Californians, and Roper (2000) also identified driving for pleasure as the second most popular outdoor recreation activity, behind walking. In fact, Zion National Park in Utah has begun using a shuttle system to eliminate car driving in the park. By replacing over 5,000 cars with 21 buses, this park policy will remove 13,926 tons (28 million pounds) of greenhouse gases emitted in the park, which is having a destructive effect on air quality, which then impedes the healthy development of flora and fauna (National Park Service, 2008). The relationship of driving for pleasure and environmental pollution is well documented. As Rojek (2007) underscored, Americans account for 5% of the world’s population, they drive 30% of the world’s cars, and they contribute to nearly 45% of the carbon dioxide pumped into the atmosphere each year (in contrast, emissions from light vehicles in Europe account for 27% of greenhouse pollution). Moreover, countries that often suffer the effects of pollution and global warming the worst are third world nations (Rojek, 2007). For example, Bell’s (2009) case study of the Ogoni (small African ethnic group living in Nigeria) sadly outlined how large American oil companies destroy cultures and land, and then the oil is used, in part, for Western leisure activities, such as car driving for pleasure. Whereas American oil companies gain millions of dollars, the Ogoni received only pollution (e.g., leaking pipelines, oil blowouts, fish kill, disrupted field drainage systems, and vital water sources so polluted that clothes washed in the water caused rashes). Even more tragic, when the Ogoni created a public protest to protect their culture and children, the corrupt Nigerian military government ransacked Ogoni villages and killed about 2,000 Ogoni (Bell, 2009). Furthermore, using environmental concerns, such as global climate change, Rojek (2006) outlined how national and leisure policy can create antiAmerican sentiment in other countries. In particular, Rojek (2006) underscored how former President George W. Bush’s unilateral environmental policies of not enforcing the Kyoto protocol on global warming contribute to anti-American sentiment throughout the global community. Although the Nigerian military government is primarily responsible for killing the Ogoni people, it is easy to see how the Ogoni people can have anti-American sentiment related not just to American oil companies but also to Americans who use such oil for personal pleasures. Leisure as Contributor to Distorted Body Image and the Sexual Objectification of Women In 2007 the American Psychological Association (APA) published a report on the sexualization of girls. The APA created this task force in order to respond to public concerns that girls and young female adults were being sexualized at a young age and that being sexualized has many psychologically destructive outcomes. In particular, this task force defined sexualization as when the person’s values come only from her sexual appeal/attributes or behavior, at the exclusion of other characteristics (e.g., sense of humor, intelligence). Sexual objectification

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is defined as being made into a thing for others’ sexual use rather than being seen as a person with the capacity for independent action and decision making (APA, 2007). Eating disorders are a paramount factor in women who are conditioned into sexually objectifying themselves because it is through disordered eating that women develop the sexualized thin Barbie-doll bodies (Moradi, Dirks, & Matteson, 2005). Beyond eating disorders, there are a myriad of mental health disorders that develop when women sexualize or sexually objectify themselves or when they are sexualized and objectified by others, such as clinical depression, appearance anxiety, and body dissatisfaction (APA, 2007; Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Moradi et al., 2005; Rogers, 1999). Although the APA Task Force (APA, 2007) did not specifically call out “leisure” as a contributor to the sexualization of girls, mass leisure is probably the biggest life space where women receive these societal messages.2 Although not classified as “leisure,” the primary cultural contributors of the sexualization of girls/women reported by the APA (2007) were television, music videos, music lyrics, movies, popular magazines, sports media, video/computer games, Internet, advertisements, dolls, and cosmetics. Most, if not all, of the listed cultural contributors of the sexualization of girls/women are mass leisure activities. Moreover, the APA report outlined how young girls are targeted through a play– sexual exploitation nexus, such as toy manufacturers producing highly sexualized dolls (e.g., Bratz Girls) wearing black leather miniskirts for 6-year-old girls and female clothing stores selling thong underwear sized for 7- to 10-year-old girls. Lamb (2001) articulated that a possible outcome of playing with sexualized dolls, such as Barbie dolls, is sexual play and sexual arousal in children, which results in fear, hostility, and anger in children: Barbie is sexually provocative. Everything about Barbie says “Undress me,” “fondle me” . . . Imagine what it is like to be a six-year-old . . . And to have in your hands every day a little woman whose breasts jut out at you, whose clothing fits so tightly you have to stretch the shirt over those firm, pointy breasts. Imagine the turn of her heel and, in the late fifties and sixties, what could only be called Barbie’s “bedroom eyes.” It has to be said: Barbie turned kids on. (p. 49) The APA report (2007) also identified sport and sports media (mass leisure activity of spectating) as another dominant area where women are represented as sexual objects (e.g., sexualized cheerleaders during football games). To this end, Fink and Kensicki’s (2002) content analysis research explored the coverage of female athletes in Sports Illustrated and Sports Illustrated for Women from 1997 to 1999 and found numerous photographs that were sexually suggestive (and quasi-pornographic) where female athletes were dressed provocatively or photographed in such a way as to focus on sexual attributes, such as photoAccording to Edginton et al. (2006), mass leisure reflects the everyday recreational activities of the majority of the population, which includes mass media (e.g., television, music, Internet, books/magazines), sports, tourism, and social/cultural activities. 2

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graphs framed on an athlete’s breasts. Sadly, one of the most known case studies that underscored the pervasive nature of sexualizing high-performance female athletes—rather than focusing on their athletic achievement—was when Sports Illustrated, Time Magazine, and Newsweek chose to portray Brandi Chastain taking off her jersey and falling to her knees in a black sports bra with her fists clenched in celebration on the cover of their magazines after she kicked the winning goal in the dramatic 1999 Women’s Soccer World Cup championship. Schultz (2004) underscored that by having these three magazine covers focus on Brandi Chastain’s sports bra and breasts rather than the achievement part, such as having an image of Brandi Chastain kicking the actual winning goal, one of the most important soccer achievements in the history of female sport in the United States was mocked, thus reducing the moment to an incident of sexual frivolity. Schultz’s concern regarding how important female sporting events are reduced into the sexualization of women in sports media is captured well in this quotation regarding an ESPN commercial that aired shortly after the 1999 Women’s World Cup: The commercial showed Chastain playing foosball with three men, including professional basketball player Kevin Garnett. When Chastain scored, all three men turned to her and waited. Finally Garnett broke the silence, asking Chastain “What’s with the shirt?” The men expected that Chastain would celebrate the foosball goal as she did the soccer goal in the World Cup—by taking off her shirt. It was not Chastain’s sporting abilities that the men seemed to admire, but her body. Such anticipation suggests that sport offers another venue in which men can look forward to a woman undressing. (p. 192) An Associated Press (2007) article that made national news regarding men jeering for women to show their breasts during Jets and Giants football games is another example of how women are sexually objectified during the mass leisure activity of sport spectating. The Associated Press noted that New Jersey Senate President Dick Codey called for an investigation by the heads of the State Police and the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority to crackdown on female sexual harassment that occurred during halftime in certain sections of Giants Stadium (where both the New York Jets and the New York Giants of the National Football League play). The Associated Press article reported that large groups of men would chant to urge women to expose their breasts while walking on pedestrian ramps, and when women oblige, which occurs in a somewhat frequent manner, the crowd roars with approval. Leisure activities, such as attending sporting events, reading popular magazines, and watching movies, contribute to the sexual objectification of women. Perhaps the most intriguing study that underscored the power of televised images on the development of sexualizing youth, including the eating disorder and sexualizing nexus, was the study by Becker, Burwell, Gilman, Herzog, and Hamburg (2002) that assessed the natural consequences when television was first introduced to Fijian adolescent girls. In comparison to girls who had less

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than one month of exposure to television, girls with 3 years of television exposure showed dramatic increases in purging behavior, with approximately 70% of girls reporting that they had started unhealthy dieting to have a body similar to what was observed on television (prior to the introduction of television, dieting was almost unheard of among Fijian girls). Furthermore, among girls with 3 years of television exposure, 11% reported self-induced vomiting to lose weight, whereas there was no self-inducing vomiting behavior among Fijian girls with little television exposure. Connected to the sexual objectification of women, mass leisure can also contribute to the early onset of sexual activity among youth. A recent national longitudinal survey concluded that teenagers who were exposed to high levels of television sexual content were twice as likely to experience a pregnancy (Chandra et al., 2008). Furthermore, other studies demonstrate that adolescents who are exposed to sexual content in the media report greater intentions to engage in sexual intercourse and activity (e.g., Brown et al., 2006; Collins, Elliot, & Berry, 2004; L’Engle, Brown, & Kenneavy, 2006). The American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Communication (2008) endorses the belief that exposure to sexual content in the media is a factor in the early onset of sexual intercourse and sexual activity among youth, and as Rounds, Huitron, and Ormsby (2011) underscored, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a significant health problem facing adolescents in the United States. In summarizing differing research studies, Rounds et al. highlighted that (a) almost half of the estimated 19 million new STI cases in the United States were among young people aged 15–24; (b) nearly 61% of gonorrhea infections reported in 2008 were among those aged 15–24; (c) in 2006 34% of all new HIV infections in the United States occurred among young people aged 13–29, the majority of which acquired the virus through sexual activity; and (d) the United States still has one of the highest rates of teen pregnancy among developed countries. In addition, there has been scholarship regarding how erectile dysfunction (ED) commercials during mass leisure televised sporting events can affect male youth behavior toward the early onset of sexual activity (e.g., Cole, 2007; Dieser, 2007). Dieser (2007) outlined typical sexual messages that occurred during typical ED commercials during typical television programming of sporting events: To understand the hidden messages of sexual activity in ED commercials I pay special attention to the advertisements that are aired on television during the regular sporting events and programs that I typically watch . . . In one Viagra commercial a voice states “Remember the one who couldn’t resist a little mischief ” while the man is gazing at black bras, panties, and negligee in a store window. Another Viagra advertisement uses phallic imagery, which has NASCAR driver Mark Martin racing and revving his race car—pistons pounding up and down—symbolic of sexual power. Enzyte commercials also use symbolic phallic imagery to mock men who have erectile dysfunctions (e.g., a man holding a limp garden hose with a trickle of water coming out—implying that

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he doesn’t use Enzyte) and to illustrate how Enzyte helps men develop larger and more powerful penises (e.g., long golf clubs, limos, and very tall glasses of ice tea). (p. 7) In a similar vein, UCLA Neuroscience Medical Director David Feinberg (2005) outlined a similar concern regarding the sexual messages that occur from ED commercials during televised sporting events: The other day, I was watching a sporting event on television with my 10-year-old son. One of the many direct-to-consumer (DTC) advertisements for erectile dysfunction was airing. To many, the novelty of these commercials promising to aid impotent men had faded. But the particular piece piqued the interest of my son. He wanted to know, “Why does the man on the commercial need medicine? and “Why does he look so happy?” We were not watching an adult program, and it was in the midafternoon. Needless to say, we spent the next few minutes talking about grown-up issues instead of enjoying the sporting event that we had intended to watch. (p. 866) As Dieser (2007) noted, millions of children and adolescents watch these hidden sexual messages when watching sporting events on television in their leisure time. ED television commercials are peppered throughout leisure time-oriented sport television programming because of the lucrative partnerships between sporting organizations (e.g., National Football League, National Hockey League) and pharmaceutical companies (Dieser, 2007). For example, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and Bayer Pharmaceuticals Corp. signed a sponsorship deal with the National Football League (NFL), which gives them exclusive rights to market the ED drug Levitra to an estimated 120 million viewers (in which they paid an estimated $6 million to the NFL) (see Gannon, 2003). Viagra has similar contracts with Major League Baseball and has sponsored NASCAR driver Mark Martin (Gannon, 2003). Erotic Pornography as Contributor to Violence Against Women and Sexual Abuse Erotic leisure and pornography is big business and a popular free time activity (Rojek, 2005). In the United States, the pornographic leisure market has an annual multibillion-dollar revenue base, which rivals the three major television networks (Kipnis, 1999). With the creation of the Internet, along with other electronic development (e.g., cell phones, podcasts), pornographic and erotic leisure has become common in mainstream society; pornographic imagery is part of mainstream society and mainstream media. Jenna Jameson, who is often dubbed as the world’s first true porn star, wrote the book How to Make Love Like a Porn Star, which became an instant best seller in 2004 and spent 6 weeks on the New York Times Best Seller list. The blurred aspects of erotic leisure, which include the blurred aspects of whether this type of leisure is truly associated with negative outcomes, is cap-

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tured well in Attwood’s (2011) academic writings related to erotic play and the new leisure culture. Attwood outlines that with the growth of the Internet has caused an increase in online sexual activity (cybersex) as erotic leisure. To this end, Attwood posits that on the one hand many people see cybersex as providing positive benefits, such as increasing sexual pleasure and meaning to their lives. On the other hand, there are many people who see cybersex as connected to the loss of childhood, to the loss of developing deep and caring relationships, and to the commodification of human bodies. In relation to whether erotic leisure, such as pornography or cybersex, is part of positive human development or part of social harm, Meaney and Rye (2007) outlined the distinction between private leisure (what one chooses to do at the individual level or what Rojek, 2005, calls care of the self) and social leisure (the consequences of personal leisure for other people and society in general or what Rojek, 2005, calls care of the other). While sexuality [and sexual activity] can be both healthy and leisurely, individual expression of sexuality has consequences for other people and society as a whole; therefore there has been a persistent need for some control of sexuality in all societies . . . Ethics of the community are based on the fundamental importance of society as a whole. (p. 136) Many (but not all) of the mental conditions related to sexual disorders classified by the American Psychiatric Association are related to the health consequences of other people, when someone has a sexual disorder. For example, the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (2000) classified sexual sadism—which is when a person, over a period of 6 months, experiences intense sexually arousing fantasies or participates in sexual behavior involving acts in which the psychological or physical suffering of the victim (e.g., humiliation, physical beatings) is sexually exciting to the person—as a mental disorder. For example, experiencing sexual arousal by watching another person being raped and physically beat up in one’s leisure time is troubling due to the obvious harm of the person being raped and beaten. Likewise, the sexual disorder of voyeurism—which involves the act of observing, over a period of 6 months, unsuspecting people naked, in the process of disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity—is also considered a mental disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Many people would feel violated knowing that they were being secretly watched while involved in intimate and private sexual activity. In part, both sexual sadism and voyeurism behavior is concerning and disordered because of how one’s leisure actions affect other people. As such, I acknowledge that for some people various and non-normative private sexual leisure can have positive human development consequences, but I have taken the position that from a historical and social perspective the erotic leisure activity of pornography provides a net harm to people and to society related to violence and sexual abuse against women. There are numerous studies that outline the human destruction of pornographic leisure, such as the relationship of pornography and violence/abuse

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against women (e.g., Shope, 2004). Shaw’s (1999) study in which she interviewed a diverse age group of 32 women regarding their individual experiences, meanings, and perceptions of pornography elicited reactions of fear, had a negative effect on women’s identities and on their relationships with men, and was seen to reinforce sexist attitudes among men. Furthermore, many of the women felt that their opinions about pornography were not “legitimate” and that overt resistance to pornography was often muted. Shaw outlines her research findings: Women’s negative reactions to pornography cannot be seen as a simple matter of personal taste or preference. Rather, the findings of this study indicate that such reactions were rooted in their perceptions of how pornographic materials impacted negatively on their lives and on the lives of other women. The women interviewed found violent pornography to be shocking and distressing, eliciting a fear reaction and heightening concerns about sexual violence. The “nonviolent” pornography, too, although less shocking to the women, was also a concern. This type of material was thought to affect women negatively by making them feel inadequate about their own bodies, thus exacerbating dissatisfaction with their appearance and a loss of self-esteem. Closely linked to this concern, and perhaps more disturbing to the women, was that they believed men’s attitudes to women were negatively affected by pornography, making men dissatisfied with their female sexual partners and perpetuating negative views about women as inferior to men. (p. 209) Court (1984) posited that when South Australia liberalized pornographic laws there was a 284% increase in rape; however, during the same period in Queensland (Australia), where pornographic laws were not changed, there was a 23% increase in rape. Simmons, Lehmann, and Collier-Tennison (2008) found that men who interacted with pornography engaged in more sexual abuse, and Bergen and Bogle’s (2000) study of women who were raped found that 28% reported that their abusers used pornography. Exposure to pornography increased callousness toward people and increased beliefs in pathological sex, such as sex with animals and sexual arousal from pain or spying on others (Zillmann & Bryant, 1984). Research with juvenile sex offenders outlined that 74% reported that pornography increased sexual arousal toward sexual offenses (Becker & Stein, 1991), and a study of 30 juvenile sex offenders by Wieckowski, Hartsoe, Mayer, and Shortz (1998) reported that 29 of these youth had been exposed to pornographic materials, with the average age of exposure being 7.5 years of age. Kingston, Fedoroff, Firestone, Curry, and Bradford (2008) found that pornography added significantly to recidivism rates of child molesters. Furthermore, research evidence suggests that some people working in the sex industry (e.g., actors or actresses in pornography, erotic dancers) often are dealing with posttraumatic stress disorder (and other mental health disorders) associated with past childhoods of sexual abuse. That is to say, being involved in pornographic leisure can be, in some cases, a manifestation of past abuses. For example, Ross, Anderson, Heber, and Norton’s (1990) study where psychi-

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atric medical staff interviewed exotic dancers found that most exotic dancers suffer from numerous psychiatric disorders. In this study, 35% of exotic dancers struggled with multiple personality disorders, 55% experienced borderline personality disorders, 60% suffered depression, and 40% struggled with substance abuse. Furthermore, 65% of exotic dancers had been sexually abused. Within the framework of seeing exotic dancers as people who have been sexually abused and dealing with posttraumatic stress and associated mental health struggles, the front-stage customer–dancer relationship—in which the dancer purposefully attempts to increase a sense of sexual arousal in customers to then purposefully resist being sexually objectified by them (see Spivey, 2005, research on front-stage customer–dancer relationship in nude dancing)—underscores Layden’s (2001) academic concern that exotic leisure can be a location where people with psychiatric disorders and symptoms get together to deal/cope with past sexual trauma in unhealthy ways. For example, Layden outlined how when the Erotica USA trade show was advertising its performance at the New York City’s Jacob Javits Convention Center in the spring of 1999 she did not interpret this leisure show as simply entertainment; instead, as a professor who studies sexual trauma and abuse, she interpreted this leisure gathering as numerous people who have numerous psychiatric disorders and symptoms getting together in an unhealthy way to deal with past sexual trauma. Layden outlined that Erotica USA entertainment promoted disordered fetishes and sadomasochism as healthy sexual expression and outlined that most workers in the sex industry have serious mental health disorders and are survivors of childhood sexual abuse. To this end, although Jenna Jameson’s (2004) book How to Make Love Like a Porn Star became a national best seller due to sexual stories, her book also underscores how her childhood was fraught with tragedy (her mother died when she was 3, her father went bankrupt) and how she was raped twice before she was 17 and was dependent on differing types of drugs, such as cocaine and crystal meth (methamphetamine). Beyond the social harm that pornography can cause related to violence and abuse toward women, there are other troubling aspects associated with pornography. In 2004 the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation (2004) asked four leading experts to testify on how pornography in various forms can be destructive and can lead to addiction. All four experts testified that pornography is highly addictive. In particular, Judith Reismann (President of the Institute for Media Education) stated that most pornography is an on-site sex-abuse manual. Furthermore, she reported that as pornography became more mainstream (since the 1950s), law enforcement reported a dramatic increase in sex crimes against women and children that mimicked pornographic acts. Jeffrey Satinover (Psychiatrist at Princeton University) outlined how pornography has powerful effects on the brain and that the brain of people with pornography addictions release opiate-like chemicals identical to heroin addiction. In regard to pornography being a “trivial” issue related to expression of art or freedom of speech, Satinover argued that pornography is mere expres-

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sion in the trivial sense that a fall from the Empire State Building is a mere stumble. James B. Weaver (Professor of Communication at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) summarized multiple studies that outlined that the consumption of pornography promotes sexual deviancy, sexual perpetration, and adverse sexual attitudes. Mary Anne Layden (Codirector of Sexual Trauma and Psychopathology Program, University of Pennsylvania Department of Psychiatry) argued that pornography is “toxic” to viewers, performers, and the spouses and children of viewers and performers. Consuming Violent Entertainment as Leisure Contributes to Aggression and Violence Within the past few years, various newspapers and popular talk shows have asked the question of whether consuming violent entertainment (as leisure) causes people to be more aggressive and violent. The concern over the influence of watching violent leisure has a long history. For example, writing in the early 1900s, Jane Addams felt that violent media socialized youth toward violence. Over 100 years ago, Addams (1909/1972) wrote: A series of slides which has lately been very popular in the five-cent theaters of Chicago, portrayed five masked men breaking into a humble dwelling, killing the father of the family and carrying away the family treasure. The golden-haired son of the house, aged seven, vows eternal vengeance on the spot, and follows one villain after another to his doom. The execution of each is shown in lurid detail, and the last slide of the series depicts the hero, aged ten, kneeling upon his father’s grave counting on the fingers of one hand the number of men that he has killed, and thanking God that he has been permitted to be an instrument of vengeance . . . Is it not astounding that a city allows thousands of its youth to fill their impressionable minds with these absurdities which certainly will become the foundation for their working moral codes . . . (pp. 78–80) In fact, the harmful effects of consuming violent entertainment and media have been known for some time, including reports and policy statements written by the American Medical Association (1996), the American Psychological Association (1993), the Surgeon General (1972), and the American Academy of Pediatrics (2006), along with scores of research studies (e.g., Bushman, 2002; Bushman & Huesmann, 2001; Grossman, 1996; Grossman & DeGaetano, 1999; Kirsh, 2006; Konjin, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007). In an extensive research synthesis on the topic of whether consumption of violent entertainment increases people to be more aggressive and violent, Kirsh (2006) noted, “The cumulative body of evidence suggests that violent media, in and of itself, can influence aggression and aggression-related constructs” (p. 271).

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Despite the media industry’s self-serving and money-making claim that the consumption of violent media does not harm people,3 perhaps one of the best studies was Paik and Comstock’s (1994) meta-analysis in which these authors reviewed 215 scientific studies and concluded that the consumption of violent entertainment increased different types of aggressive behaviors. Anderson and Bushman (2001) conducted a similar meta-analysis on more recent studies (reviewing 35 scientific studies) and found similar findings. Lynch, Gentile, Olson, and van Brederode (2001) stated, Youth who expose themselves to greater amounts of video game violence see the world as a more hostile place, are more hostile themselves, get into arguments with teacher more frequently, are more likely to be involve in physical fights, and perform more poorly in school. (p. 3) In fact, David-Ferdon (2007) argued that the increase in the consumption of violent entertainment as leisure is emerging as a public health problem. As Jackson, Rod, and Dieser (2008) outlined in a recent literature review on this topic, there are many mediating factors that affect the relationship between consumption of violence entertainment and aggression, such as genetics (e.g., temperament), mental health, gender, parenting style, home and neighborhood environments, and peer relationships, and there are 13 different motivators regarding why people interact with violent entertainment (Kirsh, 2006; see Table 3.3). However, Jackson et al. firmly believe that the body of scientific research, including the meta-analysis studies by Paik and Comstock (1994) and Anderson and Bushman (2001), along with the many policy statements by professional organizations such as the American Medical Association, clearly demonstrates that consuming violent entertainment as leisure does indeed contribute to increased aggression and violence in people. Leisure Contributes to Commercialized Childhoods and Adults, Which Undermines Mental Health As stated in the previous chapter, the theory of the leisure class (consuming leisure) suggests that leisure is based on consumption and the display of status and wealth through three social behaviors: conspicuous consumption, conspicuous leisure, and conspicuous waste (Veblen, 1899/1977). Again, conspicuous consumption is the visible display of wealth (e.g., boat parked in a driveway to show off wealth), conspicuous leisure signals wealth through the nonproductive consumption of time and being away from productive needs (e.g., vacations), and conspicuous waste is the excessive display of disregarded goods (e.g., giving away leisure goods, such as expensive golf clubs, as a sign of wealth). 3 There are many examples of media industry leaders claiming that violent entertainment does not affect aggression and violence. Bushman and Huesmann (2001) have underscored this debate. For example, they outlined how Lucie Salhany, former Chairman of Fox Broadcasting, has stated that no TV set ever killed a kid and how Jack Valenti, former President of Motion Picture Association of America stated that if all TV sets became silent there would still be no decrease in violence in America. Yet the TV industry charges hundreds of thousands of dollars for commercial airtime, claiming that TV can socialize people toward anything from canned goods to political candidates.

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Table 3.3 Motivators Regarding Youth Consumption of Violent Media Companionship Escape Learning Passing Time Sensation Seeking Identity Formation Empowerment Social Status Vicarious/Planning Aggression

Habit Relaxation Defiance of Restrictions Mood Management

Schor (1998, 2004) underscored how both adults and children are becoming more involved with consuming leisure due to pervasive marketing of leisure goods to people by large, profit-driven industries. Schor (2004) reported that mega organizations, such as Nickelodeon and Budweiser beer, hire child psychologists and marketing specialists to direct advertisements to children and that in 2004 total advertising expenditures directed at children reached $15 billion (a rise from the $100 million spent in 1983) and that children’s purchasing power has risen to $30 billion in 2002 (a 400% increase from 1989).4 For example, Davis (1997) observed how the parent organization of Sea World—Anheuser-Busch Corporation—covertly markets beer sales to adults and youth during the Sea World experience. Beyond Nickelodeon and Budweiser Beer, Schor underscored how large, profit-driven corporations (e.g., McDonald’s, Sports Illustrated, Phillip Morris) ruthlessly manipulate children and youth to purchase play and leisure goods by the age of 3 or 4, in which children start to believe that brands (such as Nike, Gatorade, NBA/WNBA merchandise) communicate their personal qualities and worth. In fact, Dieser (2008b) has even suggested that certain types of park and recreation programs that use philanthropy from profit-driven organizations, such as the National Basketball Association (NBA) and Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) sponsorship of local recreation youth basketball programs, can be viewed as recreation professionals unknowingly bringing youth together so that the NBA and WNBA can market directly to youth, thus possibly exploiting youth as objects for profit. In a personal narrative, Dieser recounts how after his son participated in a local recreation youth basketball program sponsored by the NBA/WNBA and Gatorade, his son would consistently ask him (and his wife) to purchase NBA television and NBA merchandise. Hofferth and Sandberg (2001) highlighted that youth are spending more of their free time shopping in malls for the purpose of consuming leisure. In particular, Hofferth and Sandberg’s weekly time diary comparison study reported that in comparing time usage in youth aged 6 to 8 in 1981 to 1997, youth in 1997 spent a little over 90 minutes shopping more (consuming leisure) 4 Talking lizards or Spuds Mackenzie the dog were marketing techniques so that children would have a favorable image of Budweiser beer so that when these children grow into adults they have come to believe that Budweiser is the beer of choice (or as the advertisements say, king of beers).

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and less time in certain types of leisure activities, such as sports, passive leisure, or simply playing (3 hours less playing per week). The troubling aspect of commercialized people, and particularly commercialized youth, is that consuming leisure undermines well-being and mental health (Kasser, 2002). For example, Schor’s (2004) research outlined that as consumer involvement increased so did depression and anxiety. She speculated that this was due to social comparison: “People who are more envious of others, worry more about how much they have, have stronger desires to acquire money and possessions, and place more importance on financial success are more likely to be depressed and anxious” (p. 172). Kingwell (1998) outlined that most advertisements are oriented toward one primary motive: to facilitate envy; that envy is a paramount factor related to consuming leisure and creating human unhappiness. Seligman, Reivich, Jaycox, and Gillham (2007) articulated that a key factor that has contributed to the epidemic of youth depression is the notion that consumerism becomes a way of life and an antidote to struggles in life. Seligman et al. argue that consumerism focuses on a “feel good” society rather than a “do-well” society and that the focus on self and feeling good leaves people with hollow and meaningless lives. One of their recommendations to build resiliency in youth, in order to safeguard children against depression, is to teach children to stop focusing on self and learn how to master both intrinsically and extrinsically oriented challenges in life, which will result in flow experiences and meaningfulness in life. Instead of using free time for consuming leisure and being conditioned into a comparison society based on envy, people would experience greater mental health and happiness by investing in endeavors larger than the self, such as volunteering in the community, church, family, or political causes (Seligman, 2002, 2011; Seligman et al., 2007). For example, developing one’s own signature/personal strengths through the framework of serious leisure, such as using carpentry skills in a volunteer setting of Habitat for Humanity, would increase meaningfulness in life and positive mental health, whereas simply roaming around shopping malls in somewhat zombie- and robot-like fashion spending money on consumption of materials within a framework of envy and social comparison results in the lack of meaningfulness (Kingwell, 1998). Samuelson (1995) argued that one of the chief reasons why people think of themselves as more miserable and depressed today than in previous generations (even though today’s standard of living is far higher than past generations) is because Americans have allowed their expectations of comfort and leisure to rise so high that almost any economic condition that falls beneath utter luxury begins to seem inadequate. Kasser and Ryan (1993) found that people with higher financial and consumer aspirations scored lower on measurements of self-actualization and vitality. Furthermore, Schor (2004) speculated that consuming leisure detracts from other beneficial activities, such as family or social contact. Schwartz (2004) suggested that with greater choice in a free market society people are spending extraordinary amounts of time focused on materialism, which then robs them of developing deep and meaningful relationships in life. Bell (2008) refers to this

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as the treadmill of consumption, in which market forces cause people to feel envy and think that happiness rests with consuming leisure, which then results in a loss of any sense of deep friendships and community. Schwartz (2004) summarizes it this way: . . . in modern societies we have more choice, and thus more control, than people ever had before. Put these two pieces of information together, and it might lead you to expect that depression is going the way of polio, with autonomy and choice as the psychological vaccines. Instead, we are experiencing depression in epidemic numbers . . . we are paying for increase affluence and increased freedom with a substantial decrease in the quality and quantity of social relations. We earn more and spend more, but we spend less time with others. More than a quarter of Americans report being lonely and loneliness seems to come not from being alone, but from lack of intimacy. We spend less time visiting with neighbors. We spend less time visiting our parents, and much less time visiting with other relatives. (pp. 109–110) The increased focus on choice created by radical market freedoms is eroding the very best things in life, including family, education, government, and leisure (Schwartz, 1994) and is a springboard to human unhappiness (Kingwell, 1998; Schor, 2004; Schwartz, 2004; Seligman et al., 2007). In short, consuming leisure contributes greatly to commercialized childhoods, where self-concept and worth is based on the collection of material items (which contributes to consumer debt), which ultimately results in undermining mental health (Schor, 2004).

Leisure Education Related to Understanding the Potential Positive and Negative Consequences of Leisure Although leisure can provide a host of positive and beneficial outcomes, it can also provide a host of detrimental and negative outcomes. To this end, leisure education is a powerful and needed programming strategy that can be used to prevent troubling aspects of leisure. As explained in Chapter 1 of this book, leisure education is defined as a developmental process through which an individual develops an understanding of leisure, of self in relation to leisure, and of the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society (Mundy, 1998). Outlining the relationship among self, leisure, lifestyle, and society is an excellent way of educating people how certain types of leisure activities, such as car driving for pleasure or constantly seeing the sexual objectification of women in popular culture (TV shows), can cause harm to others. For example, a leisure education program that is focused on showcasing the negative outcomes of how the diet industry manipulates adolescent young women by constantly using visual images of thin women involved in leisure activities (e.g., being at the beach) so that diet products can be sold (see Grogan, 2008, regarding how the diet indus-

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try does this very thing) is a leisure education program that would outline the relationship among self, leisure, lifestyle, and society. Such a leisure education program could empower adolescents to think critically about how society views gender and leisure and could also legitimize the leisure profession because it could be viewed as a profession dedicated to preventing and remedying social problems, such as global climate change, sexual objectification of woman, juvenile delinquent behavior as fun or flow producing (see Jenks, 2006), or the obesity problem. Likewise, community park and recreation programs can develop and implement TV diet leisure education programs where leisure professionals outline the problematic aspects of chronic television watching (e.g., obesity) and help participants to develop a serious leisure hobby that can result in flow experiences and better mental health or to engage in active leisure (e.g., recreational sports) as a mean to prevent and decrease obesity. Leisure education can be used to develop Stebbins’ (1998, 2000) notion of an “optimal leisure lifestyle,” which is the deeply rewarding pursuit during free time of at least one serious leisure activity, supplemented by casual and project-based leisure. Leisure education can be used to help people change from consuming leisure habits, which can contribute to environmental problems and mental health struggles, to helping people engage in meaningful leisure by developing and pursuing leisure interests, thus contributing to greater mental health. Leisure professionals can use leisure education frameworks to help people use leisure as a healthy coping response to stress or as a way to develop positive youth identity. Leisure education can be used to increase a sense of livability in communities, creating a more harmonious society, and can be used to address social affairs, perhaps through the development of nonprofit work or services. The key is for leisure professionals to use leisure education to decrease negative outcomes of leisure in order to optimize the net benefits of leisure.

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Mundy, J. (1998). Leisure education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. National Park Service. (2008). Zion National Park: Green transit – The Zion shuttle. Retrieved from www.nps.gov/zion/naturescience/green-transit-thezion-shuttle.htm Paik, H., & Comstock, G. (1994). The effects of television violence on anti-social behavior: A meta-analysis. Communication Research, 21, 516–546. Rogers, M. (1999). Barbie culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rojek, C. (1985). Capitalism and leisure theory. London, England: Tavistock. Rojek, C. (1993). Ways of escape: Modern transformations in leisure and travel. London, England: Macmillan. Rojek, C. (1995). Decentering leisure: Rethinking leisure theory. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage. Rojek, C. (1999). Deviant leisure: The dark side of free-time activity. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 81–95). State College, PA: Venture. Rojek, C. (2001). Celebrity. London, England: Reaktion Books. Rojek, C. (2005). Leisure theory: Principles and practice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Rojek, C. (2006, winter). The real lessons of terrorism for leisure and recreation educators in America. SPRE Professor, 3–4. Rojek, C. (2007). Leisure and neat capitalism. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education: Finding personal fulfillment in this century (pp. 15–32). State College, PA: Venture. Rojek, C. (2010). The labour of leisure. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Roper, S. (2000). Outdoor recreation in America: Addressing key societal concerns. Washington, DC: The Recreation Roundtable. Ross, C. A., Anderson, G., Heber, S., & Norton, G. R. (1990). Dissociation and abuse among multiple-personality patients, prostitutes, and exotic dancers. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41(3), 328–330. Rossman, J. R., & Schlatter, B. E. (2000). Recreation programming: Designing leisure experiences (3rd ed.). Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Rounds, K. A., Huitron, G. V., & Ormsby, T. C. (2011). Health policy for children and youth. In J. M. Jenson & M. W. Fraser (Eds.), Social policy for children and families: A risk and resilience perspective (2nd ed., pp. 195–235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Samuelson, R. J. (1995). The good life and its discontents: The American dream in the age of entitlement. New York: Vintage. Schafer, A. (2003, October). Bad Rx—Big pharma and medical research. Canadian Association of University Teachers Bulletin, 50, A13, A8. Schor, J. B. (1998). The overspent American: Why we want what we don’t need. New York: Harper Perennial. Schor, J. B. (2004). Born to buy: The commercialized child in the new consumer culture. New York: Scribner.

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Schultz, J. (2004). Discipline and push up: Female bodies, feminity, and sexuality in popular representations of sports bras. Sociology of Sports Journal, 21, 185–205. Schwartz, B. (1994). The costs of living: How market freedom erodes the best things in life. New York: W. W. Norton. Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. New York: Harper Perennial. Segal, E. A. (2007). Social welfare policy and social programs: A value perspective. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York: Free Press. Seligman, M. E. P., Reivich, K., Jaycox, L., & Gillham, J. (2007). The optimistic child: A proven program to safeguard children against depression and build lifelong resilience (Rev. ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Shaw, S. (1999). Men’s leisure and women’s lives: The impact of pornography on women. Leisure Studies, 18(3), 197–212. Shope, J. (2004). When words are not enough: The search for the effect of pornography on abused women. Violence Against Women, 10(1), 56–72. Simmons, C. A., Lehmann, P., & Collier-Tennison, S. (2008). Linking male use of the sex industry to controlling behaviors in violent relationships: An exploratory analysis. Violence Against Women, 14, 406–417. Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. A. (2011). Leisure education: Definitions, aims, advocacy, and practices—Are we talking about the same thing? World Leisure Journal, 53(1), 27–41. Spivey, S. E. (2005). Distancing and solidarity as resistance to sexual objectification in a nude dancing bar. Deviant Behavior, 26, 417–437. Stebbins, R. A. (1998). After work: A search for an optimal leisure lifestyle. Calgary, Canada: Detselig. Stebbins, R. A. (2000). Optimal leisure lifestyle: Combining serious and casual leisure for personal well-being. In M. C. Cabeza (Ed.), Leisure and human development: Proposals for the 6th World Leisure Congress (pp. 101–107). Bilbao, Spain: University of Deusto. Stebbins, R. A. (2002). The organizational basis of leisure participation: A motivational exploration. State College, PA: Venture. Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and Social Behavior. (1972). Television and growing up: The impact of televised violence [Report to the Surgeon General, U.S. Public Health Service]. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Thompson, J., Baird, P., & Downie, J. (2001). The Olivieri report: The complete text of the report of the independent inquiry commissioned by the Canadian Association ofUniversity Teachers. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer.

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United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. (2004, November 18). Hearing on the brain science behind pornography addiction and the effects of addiction on families and communities. Washington, DC: Author. Veblen, T. (1977). The theory of the leisure class. New York: Penguin Books. (Original work published 1899) Walker, G., Deng, J., & Dieser, R. B. (2005). Culture, self-construal and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Leisure Research, 37(1), 77–100. Wearing, B. (1998). Leisure and feminist theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. White, F. (1997). Wilderness therapy programs: What skills are needed to conduct therapy without serious injury. In D. M. Compton (Ed.), Issues in therapeutic recreation: Toward the new millennium (2nd ed., pp. 559–576). Champaign, IL: Sagamore. Wieckowski, E., Hartsoe, P., Mayer, A., & Shortz, J. (1998). Deviant sexual behavior in children and young adolescents: Frequency and patterns. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 10(4), 293–304. Winter, S. (1999). Freud and the institution of psychoanalytic knowledge. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1984). Effects of massive exposure to pornography. In N. Malamuth & E. Donnerstein (Eds.), Pornography and sexual aggression (pp. 115–138). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

chapter four

History and Overview of Person-Centered and System-Directed Leisure Education

As outlined in Chapter 1, a person-centered approach to leisure education is when an individual person is placed at the center of a leisure ed-

ucation program or intervention and leisure professionals look to the person to identify and express leisure needs, interests, goals, strategies, and personal change to meet goals. In a person-centered approach to leisure education, most, if not all, of the needed changes begin and end with the person. For example, a person-centered approach to leisure education could help at-risk youth change their leisure decision-making skills toward more positive types of leisure. This is in contrast to a system-directed leisure education approach, which occurs when leisure education strategies are put forth to improve communities or other environmental factors in providing leisure education services to people. Systemdirected change, also known as social ecology or an ecological approach, targets leisure education intervention on environmental factors, such as changing neighborhoods, family members, peers, schools, and social services, to help people experience leisure. For example, a leisure education program that uses persuasion techniques could target a neighborhood society to better understand how leisure resources, such as open spaces, can be used to help a neighborhood experience greater cohesion and livability. As Sivan and Stebbins (2011) recently observed in their analysis of leisure education, person-centered leisure education is much more widespread in comparison to system-directed approaches to leisure education. Furthermore, Sivan and Stebbins also underscored that leisure education has mostly been studied among people with special needs, such as people with physical or developmental disabilities or at-risk youth, to help them overcome leisure constraints and barriers.

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The purpose of this chapter is to provide a history and overview regarding person-centered and system-directed leisure education from the 1970s to the present time. However, because so much of person-centered and system-directed leisure education is based on helping people overcome leisure constraints and barriers, the first part of this chapter will explain leisure constraints and leisure barriers. This will be followed by a chronological history of leisure education from the 1970s up to the present time.

Leisure Constraints and Barriers The origins of leisure constraint research can be traced to the North American park and recreation movement in the 19th century (Goodale & Witt, 1989). For example, in order to help youth overcome stark and pervasive poverty and discriminatory constraints to leisure in the city of Chicago in the late 1800s— and to have these same youth experience outdoor recreation and a sense of imagination—Louise de Koven Bowen, Jane Addams, and the women of Hull House developed the Bowen Country Club1 and community theater groups. Hull House participants and residents (usually poor immigrants) experienced numerous leisure constraints and barriers that both limited their interest and prevented their participation in these leisure endeavors. First, Hull House participants were too exhausted from working in ruthless factories where wealthy capitalistic business owners did not allow vacation time so workers could participate in leisure. Many factory laborers worked 16-hour days 7 days a week without any weekend or sick or vacation time and, as such, were too brutally exhausted to participate in outdoor recreation or in a community theater. Second, most, if not all, Hull House participants lived in stark poverty with no disposable income to spend on leisure (see Addams, 1909/1972, 1910/1981; Residents of Hull House, 1905/2007, regarding the everyday life conditions of Hull House participants and the plight of immigrants in Chicago in the late 1800s and early 1900s). As such, Jane Addams and the women of Hull House spent a great deal of time understanding leisure constraints and barriers and then adapting programs. The Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC) studies of the 1960s formally planted the seeds toward the pursuit of research on leisure constraints (Goodale & Witt, 1989). The ORRRC (1962) was a presidential commission established in 1958 to assess the status of outdoor recreation in America, which published a report 4 years later. The ORRRC evaluative questions focused almost exclusively on external barriers to outdoor recreation participation. After the ORRRC studies, simple models were developed that examined barriers to recreation and structural constraints to leisure. To this end, Jackson (2005) outlined that systematic research on leisure constraints began as

1 The Bowen Country Club was a year-round outdoor camp for Hull-House youth and families (see Dieser, Harkema, Kowalski, Osuji, & Poppen, 2004, for more details).

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a distinct subfield of investigation within the framework of leisure studies in the early 1980s. Today, there is a solid body of research that marshals evidence that the hierarchical model of leisure constraints is a valid framework that outlines various factors that limit the formation of leisure preferences and inhibit the participation and enjoyment of leisure. The Hierarchical Model of Leisure Constraints The hierarchical model of leisure constraints (Figure 4.1) suggests there are three types of constraints (Crawford & Godbey, 1987; Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991; Jackson, 2005). First, intrapersonal constraints refer to psychological factors that arise internal to the individual, such as personality, temperament, attitudes, and moods. There has been considerable research on how personality affects behaviors in general, including leisure behavior. For example, Kleiber, Walker, and Mannell (2011) built on the “Big 5” personality theory that posits that the vast array of personalities can be explained to five fundamental factors associated with a physiological basis (extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience). They described how these five personality traits influence leisure behavior and leisure constraints (e.g., lack of interest): • Extroverts are high-energy people who participate in more adventurous and risk-taking leisure, whereas introverts will spend more time in leisure alone, such as playing computer games. • People high in agreeableness (e.g., altruism) can use the context of leisure to serve others in volunteer work (e.g., coaching youth sports), whereas people lower on agreeableness (self-centeredness) see leisure as a time for self-indulgence. • People high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and dutiful and participate in more self-disciplined leisure (e.g., amateur astronomer’s club), whereas people low in conscientiousness tend to be impulsive and oriented toward immediate gratification (e.g., recreational drug use). Interpersonal constraints

Leisure Preferences

Interpersonal constraints

Structural constraints and barriers

Interpersonal compatibility and coordination

Level of participation

Motivations (attractions)

Figure 4.1. The Hierarchical Model of Leisure Constraints. Adapted from Jackson,

E. L. (2005). Leisure constraint research: Overview of a developing theme in leisure studies. In E. L. Jackson (Ed.), Constraints to leisure (pp. 3-19). State College, PA: Venture. Reprinted with permission.

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• Neuroticism is explained by components such as anxiety, hostility, and depression, and people who struggle with anxiety or depressive disorders could find participating in certain types of leisure activity more difficult (e.g., a person with bipolar depression would lose interest in leisure activities during a depressive episode). • People who are high on openness to experience are open to new ideas, including experimenting with new leisure activities. Second, interpersonal constraints are those that arise out of interaction with other people, such as family, friends, community members, and other socialization agents, such as mass leisure and popular culture. For example, a person may develop an interest in softball because his/her coworkers have developed a softball team. Furthermore, there has been considerable research on how racial discrimination is an interpersonal constraint, which can lead to feelings of discomfort and can lower enjoyment or motivation of a leisure experience among people from ethnic minority backgrounds (Shinew & Floyd, 2005). Gobster’s (2002) study of urban parks in Chicago found that racial discrimination was highest among people who were African American and concluded that discrimination can lead to lower participation of leisure and in severe cases can lead to anger and physical violence, which can ultimately lead to stoppage of leisure altogether. Johnson, Bowker, English, and Worthen’s (1998) study concluded that small groups of African American people disclosed that they would not feel comfortable camping in isolated wilderness areas (with little or no security) because they were concerned about being hassled by groups of intoxicated White people. Likewise, Dieser’s (2003) study in therapeutic recreation also reported that various clients from ethnic minority backgrounds did not feel comfortable participating in both therapeutic and community recreation integration programs in settings with predominantly White people due to past racial actions on the part of White people. Third, structural constraints refer to external conditions in the environment that inhibit or block participation in a leisure activity. For example, the lack of money (financial constraint) can block an already existing desire to participate in tennis because the person cannot afford a membership to an indoor tennis club. Moreover, research on structural leisure constraints directed toward women (e.g., Deem, 1982; Henderson, Bialeschki, Shaw, & Freysinger, 1996) noted that poor street and parking lot lighting was a constraint and barrier that caused women to participate less in leisure due to safety issues (e.g., poor lighting can increase the probability of muggings or sexual assaults in parking lots of recreation facilities). Beyond the studies outlined above, there are scores of studies that illustrate the breadth of leisure constraints that fit within the hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure constraints can be imbedded in fear (Whyte & Shaw, 1994), lack of a sense of entitlement (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1991), body image (Frederick & Shaw, 1995), male lookism (Bialeschki & Henderson, 2000),

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maturation of children (Bialeschki & Michener, 1994), menopause (Parry & Shaw, 1999), death of a spouse (Patterson & Carpenter, 1994), and the boy code of hegemonic masculinity (Dieser, 2008; Henderson & Bialeschki, 2008). In regard to leisure constraint research, there has been academic debate relevant to whether barriers to leisure2 and constraints to leisure are similar concepts with overlap or barriers to leisure can be subsumed within the framework of constraints to leisure. Prior to the development of the hierarchical model of leisure constraints, most research that examined how people with leisure interests were blocked from leisure participation was located within a barriers to leisure framework. For example, the ORRRC was concerned with factors that influenced the demand for outdoor recreation and its evaluative questions focused almost exclusively on external barriers to outdoor recreation participation, such as proximity of parks and whether participants had the time and money to pay for outdoor leisure activities (ORRRC, 1962). After the ORRRC studies, simple models were developed that presumed that a person had a leisure preference, but fulfillment of this preference was blocked or compromised, which developed the body of knowledge in leisure barriers, which then evolved into the hierarchical model of leisure constraints (Jackson, 2005). As such, recreation barriers were defined as the blockage of goal-oriented leisure (Smith, Austin, Kennedy, Lee, & Hutchison, 2005). Although there is a solid body of research that validates the hierarchical model of leisure constraints, there still is research and scholarship focused on leisure barriers with no or little association to leisure constraint research or the hierarchical model of leisure constraints (e.g., Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006; Sylvester, Voelkl, & Ellis, 2001). For example, in writing about inclusive recreation and barriers to leisure that people with disabilities experience, Smith et al. (2005) outline five intrinsic barriers and seven environmental barriers, with scant attention directed toward the body of knowledge pertaining to leisure constraints. On the other hand, there are academics who believe that barriers to leisure can be subsumed within the framework of constraints to leisure. To this end, Jackson and Scott (1999) argue that barriers to leisure is subsumed within the structural component of the hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Jackson and Scott felt that the term constraints to leisure was a more inclusive term that captures a wide range of explanations of constrained leisure behavior, whereas the term barriers to leisure directs attention to one type of leisure constraints (structural constraints) and does not focus any attention on intrapersonal and interpersonal constraints. For example, factors such as body image that can cause women to be self-conscious of their bodies and thus become less interested or not motivated to participate in aquatic leisure (e.g., see James, 2000) could be an interpersonal constraint that would have little mention in the barriers to leisure literature. As such, leisure constraints has a wider reaching explanation regarding examining factors that limit the formation of leisure preferences and 2 In the academic literature, the terms barriers to leisure and barriers to recreation are used interchangeably. I am also using these terms interchangeably in this chapter and book.

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inhibit the participation and enjoyment of leisure, whereas leisure barriers presupposes that people have an interest in participating in leisure activity but are blocked in doing so (Kleiber et al., 2011). Although Jackson (2005) and Jackson and Scott (1999) view barriers to leisure as being subsumed by constraints to leisure and as such view all barriers as structural constraints and do not even mention barriers to leisure in the hierarchical model of leisure constraints, I still think that there is pragmatic wisdom in separating the terms barriers to leisure and structural constraints. As already mentioned, there is still scholarship and research that is focused on barriers to leisure with little or no mention of leisure constraints (e.g., Edginton et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2005; Sylvester et al., 2001). The hierarchical model of leisure constraints, with the explicit recognition of barriers to leisure, is presented in Figure 4.1. Table 4.1 outlines various types of leisure barriers. 54  

 

Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Overview of Structural Constraints and Leisure and Barriers Overview of Structural Constraints Leisure Barriers ____________________________________________________________________________ Types of Structural Constraint or Leisure Barrier Definition _____________________________________________________________________________ Economic

Lack of money to participate in leisure service Example: Person cannot afford membership to indoor tennis club

Attitudinal

A negative predisposition toward a certain type of person (e.g., American Indians) and recreationalist or leisure activity (e.g., skateboarders, jazz musicians) Example: Groups of people or individuals humiliating or making fun of students of the science club at a high school dance

Transportation

Lack of usable or affordable methods of transportation Example: Someone who is poor who does not have a car and cannot afford a taxi, and there is no community bus services

Architectural

Structures (e.g., building, walkways) that present obstacles for people to enjoy leisure Example: The lack of baby change areas in bathrooms for mothers/fathers or the lack of accessible lockers for people with disabilities

Ineffective Organization Policy

Policies (or the lack of policies) that inhibit leisure Example: The lack of a sliding scale fee to help people who are from lower socioeconomic backgrounds

Skill Limitation

Participant lacks leisure skills Example: A person interested in playing hockey lacks the physical skill of ice skating

Health

A health condition limits participation in leisure Example: A person with a heart problem cannot participate in recreation that causes acceleration of the heart, such as going on an extremely fast roller coaster

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Although the hierarchical model of leisure constraints presents intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints as three distinct areas, in everyday life there is considerable overlap between these three constraints, and it is difficult to distinguish among them (Henderson & Bialeschki, 1991, 2008; Scott, 1991). For example, James (2000) reported that body image is a factor, among many factors, that limits some women to participate in aquatic leisure, such as going to swimming pools in the summer to have fun. This could be an intrapersonal constraint, in the sense that a healthy woman may have an attitude that her body is “ugly” (due to healthy body fat) and she might feel embarrassed being seen in a swimsuit. Moreover, mass leisure, such as television and popular magazines, can play a paramount role in shaping female attitudes of body image via the constant bombardment of unrealistic Barbie doll body images of women who are very thin and have curvy bodies. (American Psychological Association, 2007). For example, there are many studies (e.g., Grogan, 2008; Henderson & Vickers, 1995; Thomsen, Bower, & Barnes, 2004; Waldron & Dieser, 2010) that underscore that women and men accept the unrealistic and unhealthy Barbie doll images of women (dangerously low body fat with small hips and large breasts) presented by the beauty and diet industry as normal and attractive rather than female body images that posit that healthy women should have approximately 20% body fat (Fahey, Insel, & Roth, 2003). As such, this is an interpersonal constraint because an attitude that one’s body is ugly (the intrapersonal constraint) arises out of interaction with other actors, namely, the socialization agents of the media and mass leisure. If the swimming pool facility design is one where the female locker rooms are far away from the pool so that women have to walk long distances to get into the pool, this a structural constraint that further adds to a female perception that they may be embarrassed being seen in a swimsuit at a pool (see James’, 2000, study and programming suggestion that to increase aquatic leisure among women aquatic facilities need better building design and need to place female locker rooms close to the entrance of the pool so that women who are body conscious can exit a locker room and move quickly into a swimming pool). Likewise, in a study of contract bridge players, Scott (1991) found that there is considerable overlap and reciprocal links between intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints: . . . intrapersonal constraints on the part of young people (i.e., an aversion to playing bridge) create structural constraints for others by limiting opportunities (not enough players to keep the groups going). Similarly, time commitments (a structural constraint) experienced by the individual may result in scheduling problems for group members as a whole (an interpersonal constraint). (p. 334) It is also important to note that there are other psychological and sociological factors and theories that can affect the three different leisure constraints of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural. For example, Harkema, Dieser, Lankford, and Scholl’s (2006) study on recreational exercise behavior based on the transtheoretical model of exercise behavior (see Prochaska, 1979; Prochaska

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& Marcus, 1994) found that non-exercise participants who wanted to exercise (people in the contemplation stage of exercise behavior) reported greater intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints than people who were intermediary and regular exercisers. Furthermore, intermediary exercise participants reported greater intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints than people who are regular exercisers. Thus, the theory of leisure constraints interacted with the transtheoretical model of exercise behavior in a dynamic and complex manner. This chapter now turns to providing a chronological historical overview of leisure education from the 1970s to the present time.

Leisure Education Models From 1970–1979 Although Overs developed one of the earliest models of leisure education— Overs’ avocational counseling models (Overs, 1971; Overs, Taylor, & Adkins, 1977)—and Hayes (1977) developed a nine-step leisure education model, Patricia Edwards, Chester McDowell, and Jean Mundy were the three prominent figures in developing leisure education during the 1970s. During the early and middle parts of the 1970s, Edwards (1975) published the leisure counseling manual Leisure Counseling Techniques: Individual and Group Counseling Stepby-Step. This step-by-step publication was revised two years later (Edwards, 1977a) and focused on the following four steps: interview, assessment, analysis, and referral. The interview consisted of a general history of the client intended to gather information about past and current leisure activities. The assessment phase focused on a detailed inventory of leisure interests and leisure activities. During the analysis step, the leisure education specialist studied assessment findings and then specified strategies for the client to pursue leisure activities. In the last step, referral, the leisure education specialists referred the client to community leisure-oriented facilities and opportunities. In the latter part of the 1970s and early 1980s, many leisure education scholars argued against Edwards’ pragmatically driven leisure education orientation and called for theory-based leisure education models. Tinsley and Tinsley (1981, 1984) criticized Edwards’ leisure counseling approach because scant attention was focused on theory or skill development. For example, Edwards’ (1977b) lack of regard for leisure education or counseling theory and method was expressed in her following thoughts: “For the leisure counselor, there is no substitute for the practice you get when you are eyeball-to-eyeball with a real live unpredictable human being. Your consciousness of counseling theory, research, process, and method go right out the window…” (p. 40). On the contrary, good counseling and education, whether in the leisure profession or in applied fields such as public education or mental health counseling, should always be rooted in theory. In fact, consciousness of theory (e.g., listening and interviewing techniques, role playing, foundational assumptions about human behavior, cross-cultural issues, counseling theories) should be a priority and part of counseling consciousness when you are face-to-face with a real live unpredictable human being (Corey, 2005; Cormier, Nurius, & Osborn, 2013; Okun & Kantrowitz, 2008).

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Osipow (1977) was concerned that Edwards’ lack of focus on leisure counseling/education theory could harm clients by “getting unsophisticated people involved in providing counseling services” (p. 157). Other leisure scholars agreed with Osipow’s position and argued that Edwards’ leisure education/counseling manual offered little help to practicing leisure education specialists (e.g., Barret, 1980; Dustin, 1978; Tinsley & Tinsley, 1981). In contrast to Edwards’ leisure counseling/education orientation, McDowell’s efforts in the mid-1970s were directed toward integrating leisure education practice with theory. McDowell (1977) argued that leisure theory and practice must be interlinked: Which has more impact on the future development and credibility of leisure counseling: theory development or practice? Can one be developed in spite of, or without, the other? As has been pointed out elsewhere, there appears to be little direct concern in the field about developing theoretical premises on which to base sound leisure counseling practice. Yet it can be shown that theory should play a major role in any leisure counseling orientation. (p. 27) McDowell (1977) advanced his ideas regarding leisure education and developed four theoretical orientations to integrate theory with practice: leisure-related behavioral problems, leisure lifestyle awareness, leisure resource guidance, and leisure skill development. In 1977, the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA, 1977) developed a leisure education curriculum for kindergarten through 12th grade called the Leisure Education Advancement Project (LEAP). The primary aim of LEAP was to raise the consciousness of public education in the United States toward the value of leisure education. LEAP was significant because the NRPA made a concerted effort for the integration of leisure education into American public schools. The major purpose of the LEAP curriculum was to help students learn to • appreciate the use of leisure time as an avenue of personal satisfaction, • understand the array of valuable opportunities available in leisure time, • understand the impact that leisure time has on quality of life and on society, and • make decisions regarding their own leisure time. Toward the end of the 1970s, Jean Mundy, with assistance from Linda Odum, developed a five-step leisure education model (Mundy & Odum, 1979). The first component, leisure awareness, consisted of understanding leisure, the leisure experience, and the relationship of leisure to one’s life, quality of life, lifestyle, and society. The second step, self-awareness, focused on experiences, leisure goals, values, and needs. The third phase, decision-making skills, involved gain-

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ing data, alternative skill development, predicting possible outcomes, understanding comparability, and evaluation. The fourth phase, leisure skills, required process skills, planning skills, and leisure experience skills. The last component, social interaction, consisted of verbal communication, nonverbal communication, and interaction patterns in leisure experience. Nineteen years later, this model was published in a second edition, with Jean Mundy (1998) being the sole author. The Mundy model of leisure education is presented in Chapter 1 (see Figure 1.1) and, again, is the foundational theory on which this book is rooted and aims to expand. Moreover, Mundy also created a multitude of leisure education activities that align to the five stages of her leisure education model, and these activities are located at http://www.sagamorepub.com/products/leisureeducation under the resources tab.

Leisure Education Models From 1980–1989 New leisure education models and theories were developed and expanded during the 1980s. Peterson and Gunn’s (1984) leisure education model, considered by many to be the most widely recognized leisure education model, was further developed during the middle of this decade (its most recent revisions are located in the academic work of Stumbo & Peterson, 2009). Peterson and Gunn (1984) argued that leisure education should focus on the “development and acquisition of various leisure-related skills, attitudes, and knowledge” (p. 22). This leisure education model consists of the following four components: • leisure awareness: knowledge of leisure, self-awareness, leisure and play attitudes, and related participatory and decision-making skills; • social interaction skills: duel, small group, and large group; • leisure activity skills: traditional and nontraditional activities and skills; and • leisure resources: activity opportunities, personal resources, family and home resources, community resources, and state and national resources. Peterson and Gunn’s leisure education model is used extensively in the profession of therapeutic recreation and leisure services. During this decade, two influential writings appeared: (a) The scholarly journal Counseling Psychologist dedicated an issue to leisure counseling in 1981, and (b) Thomas Dowd (1984) published the edited book Leisure Counseling: Concepts and Application. Both publications increased analysis and communication concerning leisure education from within and outside of the field of leisure services. To this end, an article by Tinsley and Tinsley (1981) in the Counseling Psychologist provided an extensive analysis of leisure education and developed a four-cell classification system for leisure education models. The first cell, leisure guidance, was based on the constructs of information giving and activity selection. The second cell, leisure education, was grounded in the constructs of

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information giving and personal growth. The third cell, leisure decision making, was rooted in counseling skills and activity selection. The last cell, leisure counseling, was based on counseling skills and personal growth. Moreover, Tinsley and Tinsley posited that the lack of theory in leisure counseling/education was problematic, and they concluded: First, most of the [leisure education/counseling] approaches have been primarily information giving in nature and have focused on helping clients select leisure activities in which to participate. Second, several writers have advocated the use of some techniques (e.g., values clarification, assertion training) in leisure counseling without relating the application of this technique to any comprehensive theory of counseling (p. 51). As a result of their observations, Tinsley and Tinsley argued that leisure education needed to focus more on theory construction. In the edited volume of Leisure Counseling: Concepts and Application, Dowd (1984) described differing leisure education models. For example, Loesch (1984) advanced triangulation leisure counseling, which was based on behavioral, cognitive, and affective change via leisure counseling. Likewise, Witt, Ellis, and Niles (1984) built on the conceptual foundation of psychological theories of leisure and proposed theory-based goals for leisure counseling in general. They concluded that leisure education should increase the following outcomes: perceived control in leisure experiences, perceived competence in leisure experiences, intrinsic motivation, depth of involvement, and playfulness. As well, McDowell (1984) built on his past work and fine-tuned and revised his leisure education model (Table 4.2).

Leisure Education Models From 1990–1999 The leisure education models of the 1990s were more complex and better developed than in the past two decades because they were built on past research, literature, and theory. Moreover, some leisure education models continued to advance and progress. For example, in the 1990s, Stumbo (1992, 1997, 1998), building on Peterson and Gunn’s (1984) leisure education model, published a series of leisure education manuals that contained numerous leisure education activities aligned to the four components of Peterson and Gunn’s model (e.g., leisure education activities related to leisure awareness, social interaction skills, leisure activity skills, leisure resource actions).3 In the early part of the decade, John Dattilo, with assistance from William Murphy (Dattilo & Murphy, 1991), presented a seven-component systematic approach to leisure education (its most recent revisions are located in the academic work of Dattilo, 2008). The first component, awareness of self in leisure,

3 It should be noted that the first leisure education manual that Stumbo developed was in the latter part of the 1980s (see Stumbo & Thompson, 1986). However, the bulk of her work in providing leisure education activities that align to the Peterson and Gunn leisure education model occurred throughout the 1990s.

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consists of an exploration of oneself in a leisure context. Learning components include • identify leisure preferences, • reflect on past participation, • reflect on current leisure involvement, • project future leisure,   • understand leisure-related skills,

55  

• examine leisure values and attitudes, and Table 4.2

• determine leisure satisfaction.

McDowell’s Leisure Education/Counseling Model __________________________________________________________________________

Table 4.2

McDowell’s Levels of Leisure Education/Counseling

McDowell’s Leisure Education Counseling Model

__________________________________________________________________________

Leisure-Related Behavioral Problems Help clients resolve behavioral leisure concerns, such as boredom, excessive TV watching, procrastination, obsessiveness, and nervousness. Clients develop effective coping skills and problem-solving abilities to deal with chronic or excessively expressed leisure-related behavioral concerns (e.g., obsession with the Internet). Leisure Lifestyle Awareness Orientation Help clients improve self-knowledge and understanding pertaining to leisure values, beliefs, and attitudes. Clients develop understanding regarding leisure and issues such as personal lifestyle, religion, family relations, and life transitions, such as retirement, vocation change, marriage, and so forth. Leisure Resource Guidance Orientation Help clients match leisure interests (past, present, and future) with community resources. Clients identify leisure interests and potentially matching leisure opportunities to those interests in the community. Clients also learn pertinent information regarding leisure opportunities, such as leisure settings, equipment, costs, and so forth. Leisure-Related Skills-Development Orientation Help clients develop the leisure-related skill and abilities that they lack. Clients develop skills in areas such as assertiveness, social skills, grooming, budgeting, transportation, and skills related to participation in leisure activities. From McDowell, “Leisure: Consciousness, Well-Being, and Counseling,” by C. F.and McDowell, 1984,IninE.E.T. From C. F. (1984). Leisure: Consciousness,Well-being, Counseling. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure Counseling: Concepts and Applications, Springfield, IL: Charles C ThomDowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. as. Reprinted with permission.

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The second component, appreciation of leisure, is oriented toward understanding leisure and the benefits derived from leisure. Learning components include • understand leisure, • consider leisure benefits, • realize flexibility of leisure, and • identify context for leisure. Self-determination in leisure is the third component, and its goal is to promote self-initiated independent use of free time. Learning components of this stage include • take responsibility for personal leisure, • make choices in regard to leisure opportunities, • learn when to terminate leisure involvement, and • become assertive in relation to leisure needs or opportunities. The next step, leisure decision making, is focused on the identification of leisure barriers and strategies to overcome these barriers. Many of the learning components in this stage are based on past components, which include • self-awareness, • appreciation of leisure, • development of self-determination, • ability to identify leisure goals, and • ability to solve problems. The fifth step, utilizing leisure resources, is aimed at acquiring a knowledge base regarding leisure resources. It includes the following actions: • identify people as leisure partners, • locate leisure facilities, • understand participation requirements, • match skill to activity requirements, and • obtain answers to questions. The sixth phase, social interaction skills, is oriented toward the development of social skills. Learning components of this stage include • learn to use verbal and nonverbal communication appropriately,

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• understand social rules of a leisure opportunity, • acquire social competence, and • develop friendships such as recreation partners. The last step, recreation activity skills, is focused on the selection and development of necessary recreation skills. Learning outcomes include • choose meaningful activities and • overcome fears. Albeit this leisure education model was developed to help people with disabilities experience leisure, any leisure practitioners can use it to educate individuals or groups for active leisure participation (Dattilo, 2008). Also in the early part of the 1990s, Berryman and Lefebvre (1993) presented the first cross-cultural leisure education model (Figure 4.2). Building on Mundy and Odum’s (1979) leisure education model, this model incorporated five basic components. First, leisure education focused on awareness of leisure, self, leisure skills, and leisure resources. Second, cultural self-awareness included an articulation of a personal history, personal values, and interpersonal awareness. Third, teaching–learning approaches and strategies incorporated the implementation of needs assessments, classroom instruction, field experiences, and guided selfstudy. Fourth, cultural knowledge concentrated on basic cultural concepts, geographic and historical perspectives, language/communication, cultural beliefs and values, and understanding cultural play, recreation, and leisure patterns. Fifth, cross-cultural competencies focused on cultural brokerage. Other leisure education models developed during the 1990s were designed for specific populations or distinct situations. For example, Bullock and Mahon (1997) advanced the Reintegration Through Recreation (RTR) leisure education model. RTR was distinct because it was conceptualized to be a community-based model of transitional therapeutic recreation and leisure services for people with disabilities to gain skills needed for independent or supported recreation and leisure experiences. Another leisure education model designed specifically for people with substance dependence was the attribution retraining leisure education model developed in the later part of this decade (Dieser & Voight, 1998). This model was based on attribution theory and cognitive theory and was rooted in Marlatt’s (1985) psychological model of the alcohol and substance relapse process (Figure 4.3). A different leisure education model that falls into the academic field of career counseling, rather than the academic field of leisure services, is Holmberg, Rosen, and Holland’s model based on Holland’s (1973, 1992) six personality types designed to help in career satisfaction (leisure involvement results in career satisfaction). According to Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2009), Holland’s theory of career development and person–environment interactions is based on four basic assumptions. First, most people can be categorized into one of six

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Module 4

Module 1

Cultural Knowledge

Leisure Education:

4.1 Basic Concepts 4.2 Geographic History 4.3 Language/Communication 4.4 Beliefs/Values 4.5 Patterns of Leisure, Recreation, and Play

1.1 Leisure Awareness 1.2 Self-Awareness 1.3 Leisure Skills 1.4 Leisure Resources

Module 3

Level of participation

Teaching/Learning Strategies: 3.1 Needs Assessment 3.2 Classroom Instruction 3.3 Field Experiences 3.4 Guided Self-Study

Module 5

Module 2 Cultural Self-Awareness:

Cross-Cultural Competencies:

2.1 Personal History 2.2 Personal Values 2.3 Interpersonal Awareness 1.4 Leisure Resource

5.1 Communication Skills 5.2 Personal Services 5.3 Advocacy Skills 5.4 Cultural Brokerage

Figure 4.2. Berryman and Lefebvre’s Cross-Cultural Leisure Education Model. From Berryman, D. L., & Lefebvre, C. B. (1993). Preparing professionals to conduct 51  

  cross-cultural leisure education program. In H. Ruskin & A. Sivan (Eds.), Leisure education: Figure Retraining Leisure Education Toward the 4.3. 21st Attribution Century (pp. 184-200). Provo, UT: Model Brigham Young University. Reprinted with permission.

____________________________________________________________________________    

   

→  

   

Coping skills

Increased self-efficacy

↓

→

Decreased probability of relapse

↑

↑  

Session 2

Awareness of high-risk leisure situations and current use of coping skills

 

Session 3

Awareness of assignment of causality during and after leisure activity

Session 4

Understanding locus of control

Session 5

Understanding stability

Session 6

Awareness of optimistic and pessimistic attributions

Session 7

Attribution retraining

Session 8

Actively challenging pessimistic attributions

Session 9

Actively challenging pessimistic attributions and termination

  High-risk leisure situation

↓    

 

No coping skills

Decreased self-efficacy

→→

→

 

→

Initial use of substance

→

Abstinence violation effect: self-attributions, guilt, perceived loss of control, anger, etc.

→

Increased probability of relapse

From “Therapeutic Recreation and Relapse Prevention Intervention,” by R. B. Dieser & A.

Figure 4.3. Attribution Retraining Leiusre Education Model From Voight, 1998, Parks and Recreation, 33(5), p. 78-83.

Amy Dagit 10/2/12 1:27 PM

Dieser, R. B., & Voight, A. (1998). Therapeutic recreation and relapse prevention in-Comment [22]: What  page  is  this  figure tervention. Parks and Recreation, 33(5), 78-83. Reprinted with permission.

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Leisure Education

personality types: realistic (doers, prefer activities that are orderly along with the systematic manipulation of tools and machines), investigative (thinkers, prefer activities that entail creative-thinking investigations), artistic (creators, prefer ambiguous, free, unsystematized activities), social (helpers, prefer activities that are connected to human interaction and relations), enterprising (persuaders, prefer activities that have an economic value), and conventional (organizers, prefer activities that entail being organized). Second, in regard to both career and leisure, there are the same six types of environments as there are personality types (i.e., realistic investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional). Third, in regard to both work and leisure, people search for congruency, or fit, between their personality types and work or leisure environments. That is, people search for environments—be it career or leisure surroundings—that will let them exercise their skills, abilities, attitudes, and values. Fourth, a person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and the characteristics of the environment. As such, the role of a career counselor or leisure education specialist is to ensure that there is congruency between one’s personality type and the work and leisure environment. In regard to career counseling, Holland developed career counseling assessments, such as the Self-Directed Search (SDS) (Holland, 1994) and the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) (Holland, 1985) that created three letter Holland Codes that are connected to the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996), which lists 12,860 occupational titles based on the Holland Codes. As such, when someone learns of their personality types they can then examine careers in which the environmental characteristics match their personality types. The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Information Network (O*Net), a free online database that contains thousands of occupational definitions to help match job seekers with jobs, uses the same Holland Codes (see http://www.onetonline.org).4 In regard to leisure education, Holmberg et al. (1997) created the Leisure Activities Finder (LAF), an assessment book that lists 760 leisure activities that are also connected to Holland Codes. For example, some of the leisure activities listed under the personality type of investigative include amateur archaeologist, amateur radio, hang gliding, and hot air ballooning. In an early study during the development of the LAF, Miller (1991) tested the effectiveness of the LAF by having students write down a leisure activity and then separately complete the Self-Directed Search and work out their leisure activities taken from the LAF. When the two codes were compared there was a high degree of agreement between the two sets of codes. If using the LAF model, the role of a leisure education specialist is to ensure that there is congruency between one’s personality type and the leisure environment. During the 1990s, leisure education gained greater international attention. In 1993, at an international seminar, the World Leisure and Recreation Association (WLRA) Commission on Education drafted and approved a WLRA Inter4 O*Net replaced the U.S. Department of Labor’s massive two volume publication The Dictionary of Occupational Titles, which contained descriptions of almost 13,000 occupations (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2009) 5 The World Leisure and Recreation Association changed its name to the World Leisure Organization in 2007.

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national Charter for Leisure Education (see Ruskin & Sivan, 1995).5 The purpose of the charter was to inform all education institutions and governments of the significance and benefits of leisure and leisure education. Furthermore, in 1998 delegates who attended the Fifth World Congress of WLRA in Brazil adopted the São Paulo Declaration Leisure in a Globalized Society that outlined that all private and public sectors ensure that policies are implemented to provide leisure education curricula and programs for school and community systems (see Rojek, 2007). The WLRA Charter of leisure further outlined that educational institutions must make every effort to teach the nature and importance of leisure and how to integrate this knowledge into personal lifestyle.

Leisure Education Models From 2000–Present Leisure education became more global at the beginning of the new millennium due to the academic labor of the World Leisure Organization (formally World Leisure and Recreation Association). World Leisure is a worldwide, nongovernmental association of persons and organizations dedicated to discovering and fostering those conditions best permitting leisure to serve as a force for human growth, development, and well-being (see http://www.worldleisure.org/). Although the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education began a major part of its work in the early 1990s, greater academic labor occurred on the topic of leisure and education in the new millennium. For example, within the first three years of the new millennium (2000–2003) the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education developed position statements on (a) physical fitness and activity in the context of leisure education; (b) an international task force on outdoor leisure education; (c) promotion of health, wellness, and leisure as major components of quality of life; and (d) roundtable discussions on focusing strategies to implement leisure education in public schools (World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education, 2012). Like all of the other 11 World Leisure commissions, the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education focused its work on developing a global platform related to the three main objectives: research, information dissemination, and advocacy. The purpose of the World Leisure Commission on Education was to encourage the training and development of leaders in leisure services worldwide and to develop leisure education programs and strategies through international exchange and joint partnerships. According to the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education (2012), the four program goals and two administrative goals of the World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education for the 2010–2012 biennium between the 11th World Leisure Congress (held in ChunCheon, Republic of Korea) and the 12th World Leisure Congress (held in Rimini, Italy) were (a) contribute leadership and expertise for advancing leisure education in the schools; (b) provide leadership for advancing outdoor leisure education; (c) provide leadership for advancing active leisure education; (d) actively participate in the 12th World Leisure Congress in Rimini, Italy; (e) expand membership in the World Leisure Com-

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mission on Education cooperatively with other World Leisure Commissions through the World Leisure Secretariat; and (f) improve communication for the World Leisure Commission on Education cooperatively with other World Leisure Commissions through the World Leisure Secretariat. Beyond this, one of the major developments of leisure education that occurred in the new millennium was critique and challenge regarding how leisure education was too focused on a person-centered approach. Although a system-directed or ecological approach to leisure education had been advocated for many years (e.g., Howe-Murphy & Carboneau, 1987; Sylvester, 1983; Witt, 1991), the edited book Leisure Education, Community Development, and Populations With Special Needs by Sivan and Ruskin (2000) created a collective voice to increase leisure experiences by focusing leisure education toward community development and system-directed change. In this publication, Sivan (2000) argued, “Leisure education can be best utilized for community development if it is implemented in school and school-related contexts in collaboration with other community agencies” (p. 40). Sadan (2000) proposed that leisure education could increase community empowerment and be used as a strategy to decrease community poverty. Levy (2000) argued that leisure education should be aimed at changing environmental and social systems, such as families, community organizations, schools, transportation systems, politicians, political shareholders, cultural entities, and ecological management systems. For example, family leisure education should embrace • positive parent–child attachment and interactions, • effective parenting, • family expectations regarding family leisure, • roles and responsibilities for all family members in family recreation, • participation in community recreation (e.g., volunteer, coach, church service), and • responsibilities to community recreation organizations (e.g., Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts). Grossman (2000a, 2000b) underscored that leisure education specialists should take on the role of advocacy and mobilization of leisure resources in the process of social intervention for community development by pressuring societal power structures for new and improved leisure programs. Furthermore, and continuing the analysis regarding how leisure education was too focused on a person-centered approach and needed to develop more system-directed work, Dieser, Fox, and Walker (2002) published an extensive historical content analysis study that looked at a 20 year history (1978–1998) of research in leisure education. They concluded that leisure education research was too focused on an individualistic person-centered approach and argued

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that leisure education researchers, as a collective group, committed the fundamental attribution error. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate dispositional or internal attributions of a person when explaining or modifying behavior and to underestimate or completely ignore the influence of the actual situation or other environmental factors (Alcock, Carment, & Sadava, 1991; Ross, 1977). That is, the fundamental attribution error—which was widespread in leisure education programs—was leisure education that was profoundly focused on having individuals make person-centered changes in their lives to experience leisure (e.g., people with disabilities developing individual adaption to experience leisure), with scant attention directed toward changing systems or environmental variables (e.g., crime in neighborhoods prevents leisure opportunities, and as such, leisure education could be focused on decreasing crime). In Dieser et al.’s (2002) historical content analysis research, they were able to identify 19 research studies, and from this clustered 121 leisure education learning components into 19 clustered themes. However, only two leisure education components focused attention on changing environmental factors, while a whopping 119 leisure education learning components focused on people with special needs necessitating personal change in order to experience leisure. In order to bring clarity to the fundamental attribution error, let’s repeat an example from Chapter 1: the African American writer Quant (1993) reported that when she was a child (in the 1950s) she was involved in her first criminal acts of sneaking into White-only playgrounds to play, while her mother stood watch at the bus stop. A person-centered leisure education approach would be to focus change within Quant and her mother, such as helping them explore alternative leisure resources/opportunities in the community or teaching them assertiveness training to speak out about racism. Simply focusing on changing the individual without any attention toward changing the environment is at the heart of the fundamental attribution error. In a literal sense, why should Quant and her mother have to make personal changes (or person-centered change) due to a racist society? Shouldn’t the locus of responsibility for change be the racist groups, which in this case would have been White policy makers who made community policy of White-only playgrounds? A different approach would be to make system-directed leisure education change in the community by persuading or pressuring city council to allow all children and people, regardless of race and ethnicity, to gather in a playground (changing the environmental factor that affected Quant’s play/leisure behavior) and by creating local nonracist social policy. Beyond this, understanding the fundamental attribution error in leisure education (and outside of it) is important because this thinking error can (a) lead to an illusion of control (Alcock et al., 1991), (b) lead to oversimplified and inaccurate explanations to complex social and human problems (Alcock et al., 1991), and (c) cause harm to people from collectivistic cultures, such as people who are Asian or American Indian (Sue & Sue, 2007). Ample research suggests that having an illusion of control via pervasive internal attributions (dispositional optimism) can contribute to (a) failure among people to engage

100 Leisure Education

in preventative behaviors and experience and (b) greater mood disturbances and distress after negative events (see Tennen & Affleck, 1987, for an excellent summary). In regard to providing oversimplified and inaccurate explanations to complex social problems, often fundamental attributional thinking leads people to think that negative human events (e.g., poverty, oppression, alcoholism, homelessness) happen because people deserve it. To this end, most human development models outline that human behavior and social problems develop from a combination of biological, individual, and environmental/social factors (see Jenson & Fraser, 2011). For example, poor family management and communication along with neighborhoods full of crime are risk factors that can increase the probability of youth getting involved in criminal behaviors (Barton, 2011), which contributes to deviant leisure activities (e.g., vandalism and crime). The pervasiveness of explaining and modifying behavior based on internal attributes, and expecting people to make person-centered change, can provide problematic consequences for people from collectivistic cultures, such as American Indians, Mexican Americans, and African Americans (Sue & Sue, 2007). For example, some American Indian populations adhere to collectivistic values, where the group supersedes the individual and interdependence or dependency is necessary (Sue & Sue, 2007). Assimilation and normalization into an individualistic lifestyle are possibly damaging consequences for people of differing cultures who maintain collectivistic values and live within the dominant norms of an individualistic society; such tension can lead to severe cognitive dissonance, along with a host of unhealthy behaviors such as suicide and drug and alcohol dependency (Red Horse, 1982; Waldram, 1997). The fundamental attribution error, however, is not confined just to leisure education; it is also a troubling cognitive thinking mistake in multiple professions, such as medical practice (see Crumlish & Kelly, 2009), clinical psychology (see Gilibert & Banovic, 2009), social work (see Saulnier & Perlman, 1981), and education (see Kennedy, 2010). In fact, Alcock et al. (1991) underscored, “This tendency to exaggerate the importance of personal factors and to underestimate the influence of other people and other aspects of the situation is called the ‘fundamental error’ because it is so widespread [in society]” (p. 88). Nine years later a second study by Dieser (2011), that paralleled the first study by Dieser et al. (2002) and also investigated the relationship of the fundamental attribution error and leisure education, found that leisure education research continued to make the fundamental attribution error. Dieser (2011) was able to identify eight research studies and, from this, clustered 38 leisure education learning components into nine clustered themes. However, only four leisure education components focused attention on changing environmental factors outside of the leisure education participants. Of the 38 leisure education components identified (e.g., leisure appreciation, identification of leisure resources, self-determination in leisure), 34 emphasized changing personal factors, with scant attention directed toward changing environmental factors. In

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a third article, that summarized these two studies together, Dieser (2012) remarked, It can be concluded from this review of research over the 30-year time period, 1978–2009, that leisure education research has committed the fundamental attribution error; the overwhelming majority of leisure education components overestimated people’s internal attributions and underestimated the significance of external variables when proposing actions to enhance leisure . . . Overall, over a span of approximately 30 years, there have been 159 leisure education learning components developed from 27 research studies in which leisure education was treated as an independent research variable. Of those 159 leisure learning components only six components—which equates to just under 4%—focused attention on changing environmental factors outside of the leisure education participants. (pp. 52–53) Taken together, these two studies suggested that leisure education research was too focused on having people with disabilities make personal and internal changes to experience leisure, and not enough focus was placed on changing environmental factors. The first of the six leisure education learning components that focused attention on changing environmental factors outside of the leisure education participants was the School–Community Leisure Link model used by Mahon and Martens (1996). Mahon and Martens had one objective, which falls under the leisure education component of decision making: teaching the family to incorporate choice into their child’s leisure time. The other 27 learning objectives in this leisure education model, which were derived from six leisure education components, focused on having the client change internal attributes, such as a combination of values, attitudes, skills, and knowledge regarding leisure. The second leisure education component that addressed changing social and external variables was the exposure to leisure-related games and materials by Schleien (1984). Schleien reported that a recreation partner’s play/leisure behavior, along with the client’s, was targeted to become aware and understand leisure in “cooperative type, leisure related games . . . [which] required at least two players for participation” (p. 30). Hence, this leisure education component went beyond changing the individual client to explicitly targeting external variables, namely, recreation partners. Ryan, Stiell, Gailey, and Makinen’s (2008) study, which outlined all four of the leisure education components (e.g., understanding leisure, participatory and decision-making skills, developing a positive attitude toward leisure expression, and knowledge and ability to utilize leisure resources), was aimed at teaching both the client and the family/spouses about leisure, thus moving beyond changing individuals to changing a family (social) component. Beyond outlining the fundamental attribution error concern related to person-centered leisure education, Dieser et al.’s (2002) and Dieser’s (2011) two historical content analysis studies that examined leisure education from a 30-year perspective (1978–2009) also provided an extensive and detailed ac-

102 Leisure Education

count of the (a) overall conceptualization of leisure education models, (2) overall view of leisure education learning components, and (3) descriptive data related to leisure education research. To this end, and in merging these two historical content analysis studies together, Table 4.3 presents a historical outline of how differing leisure education models were conceptualized from 1978–2009. Tables 4.4 and 4.5 provide a general accounting of leisure education learning components in the different time periods of 1978–1998 and 1999–2009. Table 4.6 provides descriptive data of leisure education research (1978–2009) that was published in the following seven mainstream leisure journals: Journal of Leisure Research, Journal of Leisurability, Leisure Science, Leisure Studies, Journal of Applied Recreation Research/Leisure-Loisir,6 Therapeutic Recreation Journal, and World Leisure Journal.7 Although the academic labor of Dieser (2011) and Dieser et al. (2002) was focused on outlining the fundamental attribution error and providing an accompanying call to the leisure education field to develop more system-directed leisure education work, the summary of the historical research done in leisure education reported in Table 4.6 clearly demonstrates that there is a significant amount of research done in the area of leisure education and that there is overwhelming evidence that leisure education programming creates positive and healthy change. For example, Backman and Mannell’s (1986) study reported that leisure education improved attitudes about leisure among older adults, which is a paramount step toward having people participate in leisure and gain the beneficial outcomes of leisure. When you examine Table 4.6, it becomes apparent that most of the research fosters well-being and that there is enough research evidence to argue that leisure education is an evidence-based practice. Another good source that outlines research-based evidence regarding the therapeutic effects of leisure education is Chapter 5 in Dattilo’s (2008) Leisure Education Program Planning. During the new millennium, there has been greater attention directed at system-directed leisure education. The Together We Play model (Figure 4.4) is an ecological leisure education model in which leisure education specialists function as leisure resource specialists to a multitude of community recreation leaders in order to help people with disabilities experience leisure (see Scholl, Dieser, & Schilling, 2005; Scholl, Smith, & Davidson, 2005). Although leisure education is still provided to people with disabilities (person-centered approach), the Together We Play program provides system-directed leisure education to (a) parents of people with disabilities, (b) community recreation agencies that provide community recreation (e.g., Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, YMCA, commercial bowling alleys, Lions Club), and (c) referral agencies (e.g., Department of Human Services, hospitals, area education centers).

6 In 1999/2000 the Journal of Applied Recreation Research changed its name to Leisure/Loisir. Although this journal had changed its name, it is still the academic journal published by the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies. 7 Because the Journal of Leisurability ended publication in 2000, Dieser added the World Leisure Journal to the second study (see Dieser, 2011, for greater details).

56  

  History and Overview

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Table 4.3

Table 4.3 Conceptualization of Leisure Education Models From 1978–2009 Conceptualization of Leisure Education Models From 1978-2009 Author

Conceptualization of leisure education models

Langford (1980)

Leisure education components: Resource guidance, leisure time use, leisure time planning, leisure counseling, and leisure counseling and companionship

Wolfe & Riddick (1984)

Leisure education components: Leisure values, recreation interests, and personal community interests

Schleien (1984)

Leisure education components: Leisure-related cooperative games, leisure skill instruction, and positive reinforcement

Backman & Mannell (1986)

Leisure education components: Personal leisure philosophy, explain leisure experiences, leisure barriers and solutions

Aguilar (1987)

Leisure education components: Leisure awareness, self-awareness, leisure skills, decision-making skills, and social interaction

Zoerink (1988)

Leisure education components: Personal recreation, recreation benefits and alternatives, leisure patterns and priorities, focus on change, overcoming barriers, planning for the future

Caldwell, Adolph, & Gilbert (1989)

Leisure education components: Leisure attitude, awareness of leisure values, articulation of leisure needs and interests, barriers to leisure and their solutions, leisure action plan

Lanagan & Dattilo (1989)

 

Zoerink & Lauener (1991)

Leisure education components: Benefits and rationale for leisure, barriers to leisure, sources of information for leisure involvement, and hobbies and recreation done at 57   home Leisure education components: Personally enjoyable recreation experiences, choosing leisure alternatives, affirming alternative leisure, exploring past events, consistent leisure actions, leisure benefits and alternatives, removing leisure barriers, planning for the future

Bullock & Howe (1991)

Leisure education components: Activity identification, motivation for recreation participation, activity adaptions, alternative or substitute activities, goal setting, identification of resources, recreation skill development, and coping with barriers

Mahon & Bullock (1992)

Leisure education components: Concepts of leisure, self-awareness, knowledge of leisure opportunities, leisure resources, and leisure barriers

Searle & Mahon (1993)

Leisure education components: Definition of leisure, leisure needs, leisure constraints and solutions, leisure preferences, review leisure needs and set leisure goals, community connections, decision-making skills, and leisure action plan

Activity identification, motivation for recreation participation, activity adaptions, alternative or substitute activities, goal setting, identification of resources, recreation skill development, and coping with barriers

104 Leisure Education Mahon & Bullock (1992)

Leisure education components:

Table 4.3 (cont.)

Concepts of leisure, self-awareness, knowledge of leisure opportunities, leisure resources, and leisure barriers

Searle & Mahon (1993)

Leisure education components: Definition of leisure, leisure needs, leisure constraints and solutions, leisure preferences, review leisure needs and set leisure goals, community connections, decision-making skills, and leisure action plan

Bedini, Bullock, & Driscoll (1993)

Leisure education components: Leisure awareness, self-awareness, leisure opportunities, community resource awareness, barriers, personal resources and responsibility, planning, planning an outing, the outing, and outing evaluation

Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdrolias, & van Dyck (1995)

Leisure education components: Potential benefits of recreation on physical and mental well-being, personal recreation interests, motivation regarding recreation interests, activity analysis, assess current and potential physical and mental capabilities regarding future recreation, activity adaption and equipment modification, explore barriers and solutions to overcome barriers, short- and long-term leisure plans, skill development, identify people who will support leisure goals/plans and assertiveness training, assess personal resources, assess community resources, and reassess any of stages of this program

Mahon & Martens (1996)

Leisure education components: Leisure awareness, leisure resource, leisure communication skills, decision making, leisure planning, and activity skill instruction

Mahon, Bullock, Luken, & Martens (1996)

 

Williams & Dattilo (1997)

Leisure education components: Leisure awareness, self-monitoring, behavioral contracting, problem 58   solving, skill mastery, and skill application Leisure education components: Leisure appreciation, self-determination, and social interaction

Dunn & Wilhite (1997)

Leisure education components: Leisure awareness, personal leisure participation evaluation, leisure activity participation, barriers and problem solving, identify leisure resources, and future planning of leisure

Searle, Mahon, Iso-Ahola, Sdrolias, & van Dyck (1998)

Leisure education components: Potential benefits of recreation on physical and mental well-being, personal recreation interests, motivation regarding recreation interests, activity analysis, assess current and potential physical and mental capabilities regarding future recreation, activity adaption and equipment modification, explore barriers and solutions to overcome barriers, short- and long-term leisure plans, skill development, identify people who will support leisure goals/plans and assertiveness training, assess personal resources, assess community resources, and reassess any stages of this program

Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams (1999)

Leisure education components: Leisure appreciation, social interaction and friendship, leisure resources, self-determination, and decision making

Dattilo, Williams, & Cory (2003)

Leisure education components: Understanding the meaning of community, identification of verbal behavior used during social interaction, identification of nonverbal behavior used during social interaction, identification of behaviors indicative of listening, meaning and understand assertive behavior, identification of actions needed to initiate a conversation, and identification of actions of a friend

barriers, short- and long-term leisure plans, skill development, identify people who will support leisure goals/plans and assertiveness training, assess personal resources, assess community resources, and reassess any stages of this program

History and Overview

Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams (1999)

Leisure education components:

Table 4.3 (cont.)

Leisure appreciation, social interaction and friendship, leisure resources, self-determination, and decision making

Dattilo, Williams, & Cory (2003)

Leisure education components:

105

Understanding the meaning of community, identification of verbal behavior used during social interaction, identification of nonverbal behavior used during social interaction, identification of behaviors indicative of listening, meaning and understand assertive behavior, identification of actions needed to initiate a conversation, and identification of actions of a friend Janssen (2004)

Leisure education components: Leisure appreciation, awareness of self in leisure, self-determination in leisure, decision making, leisure resources, and leisure and quality of life

Caldwell, Baldwin, Walls, & Smith (2004)

 

Cory, Dattilo, & Williams (2006)

Leisure education components: Self-awareness of time use and benefits of leisure, reasons for participating in free time activities, recognizing personal interests and managing boredom, active pursuit of meaningful activity (decision making and planning), managing free time for balance and variety, and integration of concepts 59   Leisure education components: Definitions and methods of communication, verbal and nonverbal behaviors used during social interaction, behaviors indicative of listening, meaning of assertive behavior, actions to initiate conversations, actions of a friend

Wu & Hsieh (2006)

Leisure education components: Exposure to various outdoor recreation activities (e.g., horse riding, sailing, canoeing, hiking, backpacking)

Ryan, Stiell, Gailey, & Makinen (2008)

Leisure education components: Understanding leisure, developing a positive attitude toward leisure expression, participatory and decision-making skills, knowledge and ability to utilize leisure resources

Whatley, Gast, & Hammond (2009)

Leisure education components: Transition and participation in leisure activity after inspecting a visual activity schedule/communication book

60  

106 Leisure Education

 

Table 4.4 Table 4.4 Clustering ofof Leisure Education Components From 1978–1998 Clustering Leisure Education Components From 1978-1998

______________________________________________________________________________ Identification of Leisure Barrier/ Increase Leisure Awareness and Constraints and Solutions Understanding

1. Leisure barriers and solutions (Backman & Mannell, 1986) 2. Leisure barrier (Zoerink, 1988) 3. Leisure barriers and solutions (Caldwell et al., 1989) 4. Barriers to leisure (Lanagan & Dattilo, 1989) 5. Coping with leisure barriers (Bullock & Howe, 1991) 6. Removing leisure barriers (Zoerink & Lauener, 1991) 7. Leisure barriers (Mahon & Bullock, 1992) 8. Leisure constraints and solutions (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 9. Leisure barriers (Bedini et al., 1993) 10. Leisure barriers and solutions (Searle et al., 1995) 11. Leisure problem solving (Mahon et al., 1996) 12. Leisure barriers and problem solving (Dunn & Wilhite, 1997) 13. Leisure barriers and solutions (Searle et al., 1995) Future Leisure Planning/Develop a Future Leisure Plan 1. Leisure time planning (Langford, 1980) 2. Planning for the future (Zoerink, 1988) 3. Develop a leisure action plan (Caldwell et al., 1989) 4. Leisure goal setting (Bullock & Howe, 1991) 5. Planning for the future ((Zoerink & Lauener, 1991) 6. Set leisure goals (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 7. Leisure action plan (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 8. Leisure planning (Bedini et al., 1993) 9. Planning the leisure outing (Bedini et al., 1993) 10. Short- and long-term leisure plan (Searle et al., 1995) 11. Leisure planning (Mahon & Martens, 1996) 12. Future planning of leisure (Dunn & Wilhite, 1997) 13. Short- and long-term leisure plan (Searle et al., 1998) Development of Leisure Skills 1. Leisure skill instruction (Schleien, 1984) 2. Leisure skills (Aguilar, 1987) 3. Recreation skill development (Bullock & Howe, 1991) 4. Skill development (Searle et al., 1995) 5. Skill mastery (Mahon et al., 1996) 6. Skill application (Mahon et al., 1996) 7. Activity skill instruction (Mahon & Martens, 1996) 8. Skill development (Searle et al., 1998)

1. Leisure values (Wolfe & Riddick, 1984) 2. Explain leisure (Backman & Mannell, 1986) 3. Develop a personal leisure philosophy (Backman & Mannell, 1986) 4. Leisure awareness (Aguilar, 1987) 5. Develop leisure attitude (Caldwell et al., 1989) 6. Leisure values (Caldwell et al., 1989) 7. Concepts of leisure (Mahon & Bullock, 1992) 8. Explore leisure definitions (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 9. Leisure awareness (Bedini et al., 1993) 10. Leisure awareness (Mahon et al., 1996) 11. Leisure awareness (Mahon & Martens, 1996) 12. Leisure appreciation (Williams & Dattilo, 1997) 13. Leisure awareness (Dunn & Wilhite, 1997) Articulation of Recreation/Leisure Needs and Interests 1. Recreation interests (Wolfe & Riddick, 1984) 2. Personal community interests (Wolfe & Riddick, 1984) 3. Personal recreation (Zoerink, 1988) 4. Leisure needs and interests (Caldwell et al., 1989) 5. Hobbies and recreation done at home (Lanagan & Dattilo, 1989) 6. Identify activities (Bullock & Howe, 1991) 7. Personally enjoyable recreation (Zoerink & Lauener, 1991) 8. Individual leisure needs (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 9. Leisure preference (Searle & Mahon, 1993) 10. Personal recreation interests (Searle et al., 1995) 11. Personal recreation interests (Searle et al., 1998) Identification of Leisure Resources 1. Leisure resource guidance (Langford, 1980) 2. Information for leisure (Lanagan & Dattilo, 1989) 3. Leisure resources (Bullock & Howe, 1991) 4. Leisure resources (Mahon & Bullock, 1992) 5. Leisure resources (Mahon & Bullock, 1992) 6. Leisure opportunities (Bedini et al., 1993) 7. Leisure resources (Mahon & Martens, 1996) 8. Leisure resources (Dunn & Wilhite, 1997)

From Dieser, R. B., Fox, K., & Walker, G. (2002). Recognizing the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Annual of Therapeutic Recreation, 11, 77-96. Reprinted with permission.

History and Overview

107

Table 4.5 Clustering of Leisure Education Components From 1999–2009 Development of Social Interaction and Social Support Social interaction/friendship (Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams, 1999) Verbal behavior in social interaction (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Nonverbal behavior in social interaction (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Behaviors indicative of listening (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Understanding assertive behavior (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Actions to initiate a conversation (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Understand actions of a friend (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Definitions and methods of communication (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Verbal and nonverbal behavior in social interaction (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Behaviors indicative of listening (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Understanding the meaning of assertive behavior (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Actions to initiate a conversation (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Understand actions of a friend (Cory, Dattilo, & Williams, 2006) Leisure Awareness / Understanding/Appreciation Leisure appreciation (Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams, 1999) Leisure appreciation (Janssen, 2004) Recognize personal interests and managing (Caldwell et al., 2004) Understand leisure (Ryan et al., 2008)* Decision-Making Skills Decision making (Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams, 1999) Decision making (Janssen, 2004) Active pursuit of meaningful leisure (Caldwell et al., 2004) Participatory and decision-making skills (Ryan et al., 2008)* Future Leisure Planning Managing free time for balance/variety (Caldwell et al., 2004) Managing boredom (Caldwell et al., 2004) Developing a positive attitude toward leisure expression (Ryan et al., 2008)* Identification of Leisure Resources Leisure resources (Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams, 1999) Leisure resources (Janssen, 2004) Knowledge and ability to utilize leisure resources (Ryan et al., 2008)* Awareness Awareness of self in leisure (Janssen, 2004) Awareness of time use (Caldwell et al., 2006) Reasons for participation in free time activities (Caldwell et al., 2004)

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Table 4.5 (cont.) Articulation of Leisure Benefits Quality of life (Janssen, 2004) Awareness of leisure benefits (Caldwell et al., 2004) Self-Determination Self-determination (Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams, 1999) Self-determination (Janssen, 2004) Other (Single) Leisure Education Components Meaning of community (Dattilo, Williams, & Cory, 2003) Integration of various leisure education concepts (Caldwell et al., 2004) Exposure to various outdoor recreation activities (Wu & Hsieh, 2006) Transition and participation in leisure activity after inspecting a visual activity schedule/communication book (Whatley et al., 2009) *Components included social and environmental variables From Dieser, R. B. (2011a). A follow-up investigation of the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Therapeutic Recreation Journal 45(3), 190-210. Reprinted with per65   mission.  

Table 4.6

Table 4.6 Descriptive Data of Leisure Education Research (1978–2009) Descriptive Data of Leisure Education Research from 1878-2009) Author

Journal Study Group

Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Research Design

Langford (1980)

7

1

Leisure counseling

Social self-esteem, social 4 situations, fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance and distress, leisure satisfaction and general health

7

Wolfe & Riddick (1984)

1

1

Leisure counseling

Leisure attitudes and selfesteem

1

6

Schleien (1984) 7

6

Leisure education

Levels of play

3

4

Backman & 1 Mannell (1986)

2

Leisure counseling & recreation activity

Attitudes toward leisure

3

1

Aguilar (1987)

1

5

Leisure education

Attitudes toward leisure & delinquency

1

6

Zoerink (1988)

1

6

Leisure education

Leisure functioning

1

3

Caldwell, Adolph, & Gilbert (1989)

1

6

Leisure counseling

Recreation patterns

6

1

Lanagan & Dattilo (1989)

1

3

Leisure education & leadership style

Activity involvement

2

1

Zoerink & Lauener (1991)

1

6

Leisure education

Leisure attitude, leisure 1 satisfaction, and perception of freedom in leisure

1

Bullock & Howe (1991)

1

4

Leisure education

Recreation participation, social interaction, positive

7

5

Results

Adolph, & Gilbert (1989) Lanagan & Dattilo (1989)

1

3

Leisure education & leadership style

Activity involvement

Zoerink & 1 6 Lauener (1991) Table 4.6 (cont.)

Leisure education

Leisure attitude, leisure 1 satisfaction, and perception of freedom in leisure

1

Bullock & Howe (1991)

1

4

Leisure education

Recreation participation, social interaction, positive self-concept, initiative, and positive affect toward the future

5

7

Mahon & Bullock (1992)

1

3

Leisure education

Leisure awareness, independent selfinstruction, & TR assisted instruction

2

7

Searle & Mahon 1 (1993)

2

Leisure education

Perceived leisure control, 1 perceived leisure competence, & self-esteem

6

Bedini, Bullock, 1 & Driscoll (1993)

3

Leisure education

Transition from school

6

5

Searle et al. (1995)

2

2

Leisure education

Perceived leisure control, 1 perceived leisure competence, life satisfaction, locus of control, & leisure boredom

1

Mahon & Martens (1996)

5

1

Leisure education

Leisure satisfaction, recreation-based community adjustment

1

1

Mahon, Bullock, 1 Luken, & Martens (1996)

6

Leisure education

Independent leisure development within the community

4

1

Williams & Dattilo (1997)

1

3

Leisure education

Self-determination, positive affect, & social interaction

2

6

Dunn & Wilhite 1 (1997)

2

Leisure education

Leisure participation 2 & psychosocial well-being

5

Searle et al. (1998)

2

2

Leisure education

Perceived leisure control, 1 perceived leisure competence, life satisfaction, locus of control, & leisure boredom

1

Hoge, Dattilo, & Williams (1999)

1

3&5

Leisure education

Perceived freedom

1

3

Dattilo, Williams, 1 & Cory (2003)

3& 5

Leisure education

Social skills

2

1

1

2

Leisure education

Quality of life

1

1

Caldwell, 2 Baldwin, Walls, & Smith (2004)

5

Leisure education

Positive free time use & prevent substance use/abuse

1

1

Cory, Dattilo, & 1 Williams (2006)

3& 5

Leisure education

Social knowledge & social skills

2

6

 

Janssen (2004)

2

1

History and Overview

109

66  

110 Leisure Education

67  

 

Table 4.6 (cont.) Ryan et al. (2008)

1

2&3

Leisure education

Caregivers perceptions of partner leisure, competence, leisure functioning of spouse and partner, community leisure pursuits

6

1

Wu & Hsieh (2006)

6

5

Leisure education as exposure to various outdoor recreation activities

Self-concept & life effectiveness

1

1

Whatley, Gast, 1 3& 5 Leisure education Independent transitioning 6 1 & Hammond (visual activity books) behavior on task (2009) ___________________________________________________________________________________________ Journal Code

Study Group Code

Research Design Code

Results Code

1 - Therapeutic 1 - Mental illness 1 - Experimental design 1 - Significant increase Recreation Journal 2 - Aged/older adults 2 - Single subject 2 - Significant decrease 2 - Journal of Leisure 3 - Development 3 - Field/participant observation 3 - No difference Research disabilities 4 - Survey research 4 - Descriptive findings 3 - Leisure Science 4 - Corrections 5 - Qualitative research 5 - Combined 1 and 2 4 - Leisure Studies 5 - Youth 6 - Mixed method 6 - Combined 1 and 3 5 - Leisure/Loisor 6 - Other 7 - Combined 1 and 4 (formerly called the Journal of Applied Recreation Research)* 6 - World Leisure 7 - Journal of Leisurability ____________________________________________________________________________________________

*In 1999/2000 the Journal of Applied Recreation Research changed its name to Leisure/Loisir. Although this journal had changed its name, it is still the academic journal published by the Canadian Association for Leisure Studies.

Project-based leisure education, a cross-cultural leisure education model, which has both person-centered and ecological underpinnings, was developed in the early part of 2000. In short, Dieser and Fox (2002), building on the academic work of Katz and Chard (2000), articulated a leisure education model that is based on a leisure professional working in collaboration with participants from diverse cultures in developing leisure experiences. Project-based leisure education is a comprehensive learning perspective focused on teaching leisure by engaging students in a collaborative process or investigation via an in-depth study of a particular leisure experience. Cross-cultural project-based leisure education moves the learning process away from a leisure expert teaching participants about leisure to a leisure professional learning about and constructing leisure with group participants. That is, the ecological aspect of this model is that leisure professionals and leisure service delivery organizations change (rather than individuals involved in leisure education) in the process of educating so that people from diverse population groups can experience leisure.

History and Overview

Children and youth with disabilities and special needs

Parents who have children with disabilities

Service to child 1. Assessments of appropriate activities 2. Assistance in finding recreation programs and activities 3. Leisure companions to assist child when appropriate

Service to parents 1. Information on community recreation activities 2. Education on services available for recreation and after-school programs including information on funding sources and getting the most from their child’s Individual Education Plan (IEP)

111

Together We Play (TWP) “A place for inclusion services” Directed by CTRS

Referral agencies

Recreation and after-school agencies

Partnership with referral agencies 1. Communication with agencies to identify various options that help pay for and facilitate the inclusion experience for the child 2. Work with university students to provide community therapeutic recreation (TR) field experience

1. 2. 3. 4.

Service to community agencies Inclusion trainings for agency staff Coordinates leisure companions Coordinates adaptive equipment needs Locates existing inclusion resources within the community

Two-way commuincation between individuals involved in the inclusion process

Figure 4.4. The Together We Play Program. From Scholl, K., Dieser, R. B., &

Schilling, A. (2005). Implementing an ecological approach to therapeutic recreation: A collaborative inclusion service model. Therapeutic Recreation Journal 39(4), 299-311. Reprinted with permission.

Using a project-based leisure education approach allows the leisure professional to collaboratively explore how leisure may be defined, framed, or operationalized within differing cultural groups. That is, cross-cultural projectbased leisure education supports cross-cultural efforts to construct pedagogues consistent with culturally oriented values and beliefs. Tables 4.7 and 4.8, both adapted from Dieser and Fox (2002), present the distinction between traditional person-centered leisure education and project-based leisure education. Project-based leisure education has three broad stages (Edginton, Hudson, Dieser, & Edginton, 2004). The first stage focuses on designing and planning a leisure project or experience. During this stage, an initial idea is developed and then the group plans appropriate actions. Constructing a topic web is one method to develop an initial idea and plan future actions. A topic web is a mapping of key ideas, topics, and subthemes related to the topic (Katz & Chard, 2000). In project-based leisure education, formal topics are directly related to leisure (e.g., trips, basketball, dances) and informal topics are any idea that may lead to potential leisure experiences. Edginton et al. (2004) provide an excellent example of an informal topic web on the topic of water that could be used by a family to plan possible leisure activities, such as fishing, bird watching, water sports, or traveling to famous rivers (p. 493). The second stage is oriented toward implementation and further development. A paramount aspect of this stage is discussion among group members. In essence, participants discuss the dimensions of the project work and decide on future actions. Project-based learning requires cognitive, flexible, and interpersonal skills so that participants can (a) provide

68  

112 Leisure Education

 

Table 4.7 Table 4.7

Distinction Between Traditional and Project-Based Learning

Distinction Between Traditional and Project-Based Learning Traditional Leisure Education

Project-Based Leisure Education

1. Participants’ willingness to work for instructor is a source motivation

1. Participants’ interest and involvement promote effort and motivation

2. Teacher selects learning activities with little or no student involvement

2. Participants suggest activities and choose from a variety of activities

3. Teacher is the expert

3. Participants are experts or quasiexperts

4. Teacher is accountable for learning

4. Participants share accountability for learning ________________________________________________________________________  

69  

Adapted from Dieser, R. B., & Fox, K. (2002). Cross-cultural therapeutic recreation: A projectAdapted fromeducation “Cross-Cultural Therapeutic Recreation: Project Based Leisure Education based leisure approach. American journal ofARecreation Therapy, 1(1), 21-24. ReprintApproach” by R. B. Dieser & K. Fox, 2002, American Journal of Recreation Therapy, 1(1), pp. ed with permission. Table 4.8 21-24.

Design 4.8 and Implementation of Cross-Cultural Project-Based Leisure Education Table

___________________________________________________________________________

Design and Implementation of Cross-Cultural Project-Based Leisure Education Role Change in Leisure Professionals

Practical Implications

1. Leisure professional moves away from expert and provider of knowledge to that of “student,” “listener,” “traveler,” and “explorer”

1. Leisure professional and participants learn about culturally appropriate leisure, along with ethnicity, diversity, oppression, and power

2. Leisure professional moves away from programming a leisure experience to being a member of a group who helps create a leisure experience

2. Leisure professional and participants share roles related to teaching, learning, and demonstrating knowledge and skills

3. Leisure professional discover culturally appropriate awareness, knowledge, and skills relevant to leisure programming within a cultural framework

3. Leisure professional may need to use specialized knowledge of leisure to assist participants in assessing the difference between Euro-North leisure and culturally different leisure

4. Leisure professional would move away from 4. Leisure resources and information providing teaching materials to joint development would be developed, organized, of instruction materials between leisure and evaluated collaboratively professional and participants 5. Leisure professional would move away from expert assessment and evaluation to an assessment/evaluation process constructed by the leisure professional and participants

5. Assessment and evaluation would include tangible accomplishments such as public display or other demonstrations of leisure-oriented knowledge and skills ________________________________________________________________________

Adapted from Dieser, R. B., & Fox, K. (2002). Cross-cultural therapeutic recreation: A projectbased leisure approach. American journal ofARecreation Therapy, 1(1), 21-24. ReprintAdapted fromeducation “Cross-Cultural Therapeutic Recreation: Project Based Leisure Education ed with permission. Approach,” by R. B. Dieser & K. Fox, 2002, American Journal of Recreation Therapy, 1(1), pp. 21-24.

History and Overview

113

feedback in a nonthreatening and supportive manner; (b) maintain a focus on group goals; (c) develop a flexible orientation to learning; and (d) sustain mutual trust among diverse people (McKeachie, 1999). Cross-cultural project-based leisure education will help members of a group learn cross-cultural differences, such as communication and behaviors. The third stage is concluding the project. In this stage, participants experience the leisure activity. In regard to evaluation, a public display or a performance of a leisure experience can occur in a culturally appropriate manner. For example, Kahakalau, Fox, and Dieser (2002), using project-based leisure education as a framework, highlighted that at the end of a Native Hawaiian youth project a large demonstration of the hula dance took place. This was the final project that developed from project-based leisure education. Shannon (2012) conducted a system-directed leisure education study related to the social issue of childhood obesity. However, instead of focusing the leisure education intervention on children who have obesity problems, Shannon targeted the parents of children with obesity. In particular, the six leisure education components were to assist parents in (a) assessing their (parents’) use of free time; (b) assessing their child’s use of free time; (c) exploring their child’s interests; (d) determining constraints their child faced; (e) determining constraints in facilitating more active leisure pursuits for their child; and (f) identifying strategies for negotiating the constraints. This study found that parents reported increased awareness about how their time and their child’s time was spent; awareness of their child’s interest, but also their child’s negative experiences in certain types of leisure (e.g., bully at past leisure programs); and an enhanced understanding of their role as leisure facilitators for their children. Beyond critique and challenge regarding how person-centered leisure education was too focused on changing individuals and was overlooking changing environmental factors in society, there was continued and well-conducted research dedicated to person-centered leisure education during the first decade of the new millennium. For example, Dattilo, Williams, and Cory’s (2003) study demonstrated that leisure education could increase social skills among youth with developmental disabilities. In a similar study repeated with similar research participants, Cory, Dattilo, and Williams (2006) showed that leisure education could improve social knowledge and social skills. Also conducting research with the population group of youth with developmental disabilities, Whatley, Gast, and Hammond (2009) underscored how leisure education could significantly increase independent transitioning behavior on various tasks. Perhaps one of the more intriguing person-centered leisure education models that developed during the new millennium was Dieser’s (2006) work presented at the Midwest/North Central Organization for Human Services Annual Conference, which linked positive psychology and serious leisure within a leisure education framework called Leisure Education Toward Happiness Model. Positive psychology is the scientific and applied approach to uncovering people’s strengths and to promoting positive functioning (Seligman, 2002; Snyder & Lopez, 2007). According to Seligman (2002), and in following the ancient

114 Leisure Education

wisdom of Aristotle, positive psychology can begin with a person asking oneself “What is the good life?” or “What is a life worth living for?” and answer it by identifying signature strengths, which are personal and positive trait that a person owns, celebrates, and frequently exercises (Peterson, 2006). For example, a person could have a signature strength of environmental justice and dedicate leisure endeavors and time toward the protection of birds and the environment (e.g., participating in blue jay restoration projects or local Earth Day events). As such, happiness in positive psychology is aligned with Aristotle’s view of eudemonia, which entails identifying one’s inner values, cultivating one’s personal strengths and virtues, and living in accordance with them (Peterson, 2006). Dieser (2005a, 2006) suggested that the beginning step toward eudemonia within a positive psychology leisure education framework is classical leisure, which is contemplation of the good life (Dare, Welton, & Coe, 1998), and then linking contemplation to identifying signature strengths and developing them through the lens of serious leisure. Again, if a person had a signature strength of environmental justice and dedicated it toward the protection of birds, the action of bird protection (e.g., ornithology, building wet lands, developing bird protection coalitions) could be serious leisure (see Chapter 2 for the definition of serious leisure). That is, it is the framework of serious leisure that allows people to develop their signature strengths into specialized skills and knowledge, which results in flow experiences (see Chapter 2 for the definition of flow theory). However, Dieser (2006) noted that the Leisure Education Toward Happiness Model also needs a casual leisure component because casual leisure provides pleasurable activity and a needed respite period to continue to engage in serious leisure pursuits, along with everyday life. Furthermore, a balance of serious and casual leisure (along with project-based leisure) leads to an “optimal leisure lifestyle” (see Stebbins, 1998, 2000). Dieser’s (2006) linkage of positive psychology with serious leisure, casual leisure, and classical leisure is presented in Figure 4.5. As such, the Leisure Education Toward Happiness Model consists of the following six leisure education components: • understanding the importance of classical leisure, that is, contemplation or reflection of the good life in order to develop signature strengths; • understanding eudemonic happiness and the importance of identifying signature strengths, which results in identifying one’s inner values, cultivating one’s personal strengths and virtues, and living in accordance with them; • understanding that serious leisure is a framework to develop signature strengths; • understanding that a consequence of serious leisure is flow, which results in fulfillment, enjoyment, and development of a meaningful life;

History and Overview

115

Figure 4.5. Conceptualization Map of the Leisure Education Toward Happiness Model. From Dieser, R. B. (2006, April). Leisure: A Force for Positive Social Change and Human

Healing. Paper presented at the Midwest/North Central Organization for Human Services Annual Conference, Dubuque, IA.

• understanding the importance of casual leisure and project-based leisure in order to develop non-serious leisure activities that are fun and hedonistic as a way to recharge for serious leisure pursuits, experience pleasure, and develop an optimal leisure lifestyle; and • continuing a process of contemplation (classical leisure) in order to continue the link between signature strengths and serious leisure. Another intriguing person-centered leisure education model that developed recently is Hutchinson, Doble, Warner, and MacPhee’s (2011) brief 3-hour leisure education intervention called Take Care that was specifically oriented toward caregivers of people who had chronic health problems that needed family to help take care of them. The Take Care leisure education program consisted of the following five content areas:

116 Leisure Education

• taking care of yourself: reinforcing the importance of taking time for oneself, reflecting on value-based leisure activities that help a person reenergize, and introducing of the idea of the “5-minute vacation”; • bridging goal setting, action planning, and problem solving: outlining goal setting, action planning, and problem solving as skill sets to reduce the gap between what caregivers want to do and what they actually do and overcoming leisure barriers and obstacles; • strengthening your circle of support: underscoring how a support system can help a caregiver with their own self-care and identifying strategies to use when asking others for help; • caregivers as coaches: introducing the idea of being a self-management coach and setting goals to care for others and self; and • resources and next steps: examining all types of resources available to take care of oneself, which would include leisure resources in the community. Hutchinson et al.’s study reported that there was a significant change in perceived self-efficacy related to helping caregivers set and achieve goals.

Conclusion In the 1970s, Chester McDowell and Jean Mundy created theory-based person-centered leisure education models, which were followed by solid leisure education models developed by Peterson and Gunn in 1984 and John Dattilo in the early part of the 1990s. Although person-centered leisure education models continued to develop and have an important role in helping people experience leisure, one of the major developments of leisure education that occurred in the new millennium was critique and challenge regarding how leisure education was too focused on changing individuals with special needs and lacked awareness and effort toward changing environmental factors within which people with special needs are situated. As such, greater development of system-directed leisure education occurred in the new millennium.

References Addams, J. (1972). The spirit of youth and the city streets. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. (Original work published 1909) Addams, J. (1981). Twenty years at Hull House. New York, NY: Signet. (Original work published 1910) Aguilar, T. E. (1987). Effects of a leisure education program on expressed attitudes of delinquent adolescent. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 21(4), 43-51.

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Alcock, J. E., Carment, D. W., & Sadava, S. W. (1991). A textbook of social psychology (2nd ed.). Scarborough, Canada: Prentice-Hall. Backman, S. J., & Mannell, R. C. (1986). Removing attitudinal barriers to leisure behavior and satisfaction: A field experiment among the institutionalized elderly. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 20(3), 43-56. Barret, T. C. (1980). Review of P. B. Edwards’ leisure counseling techniques [Review of the book Leisure counseling techniques: Individual and group counseling step-by-step. (2nd ed.)]. Journal of Leisure Research, 12(1), 92-93. Barton, W. H. (2011). Juvenile justice policies and programs. In J. M. Jenson & M. W. Fraser (Eds.), Social policy for children and families: A risk and resilience perspective (2nd ed., pp. 306-352). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Bedini, L. A., Bullock, C. C., & Driscoll, L. B. (1993). The effects of leisure education on factors contributing to the successful transition of students with mental retardation from school to adult life. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 27(2), 70-82. Berryman, D. L., & Lefebvre, C. B. (1993). Preparing professionals to conduct cross cultural leisure education program. In H. Ruskin & A. Sivan (Eds.), Leisure education: Toward the 21st century (pp. 184-200). Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. Bialeschki, M. D., & Henderson, K. (2000). Gender issues and recreation management. In M. T. Allison & I. E. Schneider (Eds.), Diversity and the recreation profession: Organizational perspectives (pp. 74-97). State College, PA: Venture. Bialeschki, M. D., & Michener, S. (1994). Re-entering leisure: Transition within the role of motherhood. Journal of Leisure Research, 26, 57-74. Bullock, C. C., & Howe, C. Z. (1991). A model therapeutic recreation program for the reintegration of persons with disabilities into the community. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 25(1), 7-17. Bullock, C. C., & Mahon, M. J. (1997). Introduction to recreation services for people with disabilities: A person-centered approach. Urbana, IL: Sagamore. Caldwell, L. L., Adolph, S., & Gilbert, A. (1989). Caution! Leisure counselors at work: Long-term effects of leisure counseling. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 23(3), 41-49. Caldwell, L. L., Baldwin, C. K., Walls, T., & Smith, E. (2004). Preliminary effects of a leisure education program to promote healthy use of free time among middle school adolescents. Journal of Leisure Research, 36(3), 310-335. Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. Cormier, S., Nurius, P. S., & Osborn, C. J. (2013). Interviewing and change strategies for helpers (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cory, L., Dattilo, J., & Williams, R. (2006). Effects of a leisure education program on social knowledge and skills of youth with cognitive disabilities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 40(3), 144-164. Crawford, D. W., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Science, 9, 119-127.

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Crawford, D. W., Jackson, E. L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Science, 13, 309-320. Crumlish, N., & Kelly, B. D. (2009). How psychiatrists think. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 15, 72-79. Dare, B., Welton, G., & Coe, W. (1998). Concepts of leisure in western thought: A critical and historical analysis (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Dattilo, J. (2008). Leisure education program planning: A systematic approach (3rd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Dattilo, J., & Murphy, W. D. (1991). Leisure education program planning: A systematic approach. State College, PA: Venture. Dattilo, J., Williams, R., & Cory, L. (2003). Effects of computerized leisure education on knowledge of social skills of youth with intellectual disabilities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 37(2), 142-155. Deem, R. (1982). Women, leisure, and inequality. Leisure Studies, 1(1), 29-46. Dieser, R. B. (2003). Understanding cross-ethnic interactions when using therapeutic recreation practice models in therapeutic recreation practice. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 37(2), 175-189. Dieser, R. B. (2005). Review of the book Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. M. E. P. Seligman, New York: Free Press. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 39(3), 241-246. Dieser, R. B. (2005b). Jane Addams and Hull-House: Understanding the role of recreation and leisure in bridging cross-cultural differences in human service work. Human Service Education, 25(1), 53-63. Dieser, R. B. (2006, April). Leisure: A force for positive social change and human healing. Paper presented at the Midwest/North Central Organization for Human Services Annual Conference, Dubuque, IA. Dieser, R. B. (2008). History of therapeutic recreation: In T. Robertson & T. Long (Eds.), Foundations of therapeutic recreation (pp. 13-30). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Dieser, R. B. (2011). A follow-up investigation of the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 45(3), 190-213. Dieser, R. B. (2012). Leisure education research and the fundamental attribution error. World Leisure Journal, 54(1), 48-57. Dieser, R. B., & Fox, K. (2002). Cross-cultural therapeutic recreation: A projectbased leisure education approach. American Journal of Recreation Therapy, 1(1), 21-24. Dieser, R. B., Fox, K., & Walker, G. (2002). Recognizing the fundamental attribution error in leisure education research. Annual of Therapeutic Recreation, 11, 77-96. Dieser, R. B., Harkema, R. P., Kowalski, C., Osuji, I. P., & Poppen, L. L. (2004). The portrait of a pioneer: A look back at 115 years of Jane Addams work at Hull House—Her legacy still lives on. Parks and Recreation, 39(9), 128-137. Dieser, R. B., & Voight, A. (1998). Therapeutic recreation and relapse prevention intervention. Parks and Recreation, 33(5), 78-83.

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Dowd, E. T. (Ed.). (1984). Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications. Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. Dunn, N. J., & Wilhite, B. (1997). The effects of leisure education program on leisure participation and psychosocial well-being of two older women who are home-centered. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 31(1), 53-71. Dustin, R. (1978). Review of P. B. Edwards’ leisure counseling techniques [Review of the book Leisure counseling techniques: Individual and group counseling step-by-step (2nd ed.)]. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 56, 650. Edginton, C. R., DeGraaf, D. G., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. (2006). Leisure and life satisfaction: Foundational perspectives (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Edginton, C. R., Hudson, S. R., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2004). Leisure programming: A service-centered and benefits approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Edwards, P. B. (1975). Leisure counseling technique: Individual and group counseling step-by-step. Los Angeles, CA: University Publishers. Edwards, P. B. (1977a). Leisure counseling techniques: Individual and group counseling step-by-step (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: University Publishers. Edwards, P. B. (1977b). Practice makes perfect leisure counseling. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 48(4), 40-42. Fahey, T. D., Insel, P. M., & Roth, W. T. (2003). Fit and well: Core concepts and labs in physical fitness and wellness (5th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Frederick, C. J., & Shaw, S. M. (1995). Body image as a leisure constraint: Examining the experience of aerobic exercise classes for young adults. Leisure Science, 17, 57-89. Gilibert, D., & Banovic, I. (2009). Effects of training in psychology on the causal interpretation of a clinical case. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 24, 373-385. Gobster, P. H. (2002). Managing urban parks for racially and ethnically diverse clientele. Leisure Sciences, 24, 143-159. Goodale, T. L., & Witt, P. A. (1989). Recreation non-participation and barriers to leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Understanding leisure and recreation: Mapping the past, charting the future (pp. 421-449). State College, PA: Venture. Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1996). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychology Assessment Resources. Grossman, A. H. (2000a). Mobility for action: Advocacy and empowerment for the right of leisure, play and recreation. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 55-64). New York, NY: CABI. Grossman, A. H. (2000b). Community vision and resources: Commitment, capacity and collective effort. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 75-84). New York, NY: CABI.

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Harkema, R., Dieser, R. D., Scholl, K., & Lankford, S. (2006). Exercise motivation, perceived constraint, and obesity. Journal of the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance, 62(1), 9-13. Hayes, G. A. (1977). Leisure education and recreation counseling. In A. Epperson, P. A. Witt, & G. Hitzhusen (Eds.), Leisure counseling: An aspect of leisure education (pp. 208-218). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Henderson, K. A., & Bialeschki, M. D. (1991). A sense of entitlement to leisure as constraint and empowerment for women. Leisure Science, 13, 51-65. Henderson, K. A., & Bialeschki, M. D. (2008). Gender issues and recreation management. In M. T. Allison & I. E. Schneider (Eds.), Diversity and the recreation profession: Organizational perspectives (Rev. ed., pp. 65-97). State College, PA: Venture. Henderson, K. A., Bialeschki, M. D., Shaw, S. M., & Freysinger, V. J. (1996). Both gains and gaps: Feminist perspectives on women’s leisure. State College, PA: Venture. Henderson, L., & Vickers, P. (1995). Health or beauty? A survey of Dundee women’s attitudes to body size. Health Education Journal, 54, 61-73. Hoge, G., Dattilo, J., & Williams, R. (1999). Effects of leisure education on perceived freedom in leisure of adolescents with mental retardation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 33(4), 320-332. Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Holland, J. L. (1992). Making vocational choices (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychology Assessment Resources. Holmberg, K., Rosen, D., & Holland, J. L. (1997). The leisure activities finder. Odessa, FL: Psychology Assessment Resources. Howe-Murphy, R., & Charboneau, B. G. (1987). Therapeutic recreation intervention: An ecological perspective. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Hutchinson, S. L., Doble, S., Warner, G., & MacPhee, C. (2011). Lessons learned from Take Care: A brief leisure education intervention for caregivers. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 45(2), 121-134. Jackson, E. L. (2005). Leisure constraints research: Overview of a developing theme in leisure studies. In E. L. Jackson (Ed.), Constraints to leisure (pp. 3-19). State College, PA: Venture. Jackson, E. L., & Scott, D. (1999). Constraints to leisure. In E. L. Jackson & T. L. Burton (Eds.), Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century (pp. 299321). State College, PA: Venture. James, K. (2000). You can feel them looking at you: The experiences of adolescent girls at swimming pools. Journal of Leisure Research, 32(2), 262-280. Janssen, M. (2004). The effects of leisure education on quality of life in older adults. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 38(3), 275-288. Jenson, J. M., & Fraser, M. W. (Eds.). (2011). Social policy for children and families: A risk and resilience perspective (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M., English, D. B. K., & Worthen, D. (1998). Wildland recreation in the rural south: An examination of marginality and ethnicity theory. Journal of Leisure Research, 30, 101-120.

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Kahakalau, K., Fox, K., & Dieser, R. B. (2002, May). Rethinking the leisure education process. Paper presented at the Canadian Congress of Leisure Research, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Katz, L. G., & Chard, S. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: The project approach (2nd ed.). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Kennedy, M. M. (2010). Attribution error and the quest for teacher quality. Educational Researcher, 39(8), 591-598. Kleiber, D. A., Walker, G. J., & Mannell, R. C. (2011). A social psychology of leisure (2nd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Lanagan, D. Y., & Dattilo, J. (1989). Effects of leisure education using different leadership styles on adults with mental retardation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 23(4), 62-72. Langford, N. (1980). Leisure counselling: Lessons my clients taught me. Journal of Leisurability, 7(3), 52-59. Levy, J. (2000). Leisure education, quality of life and community development: Toward a systematic and holistic coping and resilient model for the third millennium. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 43-54). New York, NY: CABI. Loesch, L. C. (1984). Leisure counseling with youths. In E. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications (pp. 129-156). Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. Mahon, M. J., & Bullock, C. C. (1992). Teaching adolescents with mild mental retardation to make decisions in leisure though the use of self-control techniques. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 26(1), 9-26. Mahon, M. J., Bullock, C. C., Luken, K., & Martens, C. (1996). Leisure education for persons with severe and persistent mental illness: Is it a socially valid process? Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 30(3), 197-212. Mahon, M., & Martens, C. (1996). Planning for the future: The impact of leisure education on adults with developmental disabilities in supported employment settings. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 21(4), 283-312. Marlatt, G. A. (1985). Relapse prevention: Theoretical rationale and overview of the model. In G. A. Marlatt & J. R. Gordon (Eds.), Relapse prevention (pp. 3-70). New York, NY: Guilford Press. McDowell, C. F. (1977). Integrating theory and practice in leisure counseling. Journal of Physical Education and Recreation, 48(4), 51-54. McDowell, C. F. (1984). Leisure: Consciousness, well-being, and counseling. In E. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications (pp. 5-51). Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. McKeachie, W. J. (1999). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Miller, M. J. (1991). Accuracy of the leisure activity finder: Expanding Holland’s typology. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 39, 363-368. Mundy, J. (1998). Leisure education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Sagamore.

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Mundy, J., & Odum, L. (1979). Leisure education: Theory and practice. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. National Recreation and Park Association. (1977). Kangaroo kit: Leisure education curriculum. Arlington, VA: Author. Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2009). Career development interventions in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Okun, B. F., & Kantrowitz, R. E. (2008). Effective helping: Interviewing and counseling techniques (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. Osipow, S. H. (1997). Review of Edwards’ leisure counseling techniques. Journal of Leisure Research, 9(2), 155-157. Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission. (1962). Outdoor recreation for America. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Overs, R. P. (1971). Avocational counseling inventory (Revised) (Milwaukee Media for Rehabilitation Research Report No. 5A). Milwaukee, WI: Recreation and AdultEducation Division, Milwaukee Public Schools. Overs, R. P., Taylor, S., & Adkins, C. (1977). Avocational counseling: A field trail. In A. Epperson, P. A. Witt, & G. Hitzhusen (Eds.), Leisure counseling: An aspect of leisure education (pp. 106-136). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Parry, D. C., & Shaw, S. M. (1999). The role of leisure in women’s experiences of menopause and mid-life. Leisure Science, 21, 197-212. Patterson, I., & Carpenter, G. (1994). Participation in leisure activities after the death of a spouse. Leisure Science, 16, 105-117. Peterson, C. (2006). A primer in positive psychology. New York, NY: Oxford Press. Peterson, C. A., & Gunn, S. L. (1984). Therapeutic recreation program design: Principles and procedures (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Prochaska, J. O. (1979). Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoretical analysis. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press. Prochaska, J. O., & Marcus, B. H. (1994). The transtheoretical model: Applications to exercise. In R. K. Dishman (Ed.), Advances in exercise adherence (pp. 161-180). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Quant, B. D. (1993). Cloak of darkness. African-American Review, 27(1), 29. Red Horse, Y. (1982). A cultural network model: Perspectives for adolescent services and paraprofessional training. In S. M. Manson (Ed.), New directions in prevention among American Indian and Alaska Native communities (pp. 173-184). Portland: Oregon Health Science University. Residents of Hull House. (2007). Hull House maps and papers. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. (Original work published 1905). Rojek, C. (2007). Leisure and neat capitalism. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education: Finding personal fulfillment in this century (pp. 15-32). State College, PA: Venture. Ross, L. D. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attributional process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10). New York, NY: Academic Press. Ruskin, H., & Sivan, A. (1995). Leisure education: Toward the 21st century. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University.

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Ryan, C. A., Stiell, K. M., Gailey, G. F., & Makinen, J. A. (2008). Evaluating a family centered approach to leisure education and community reintegration following a stroke. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 42(2), 119-131. Sadan, E. (2000). Community empowerment, poverty and leisure education. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 131-142). New York, NY: CABI. Saulnier, K., & Perlman, D. (1981). The actor–observer bias is alive and well in prison: A sequel to Wells. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 559564. Schleien, S. J. (1984). The development of cooperative play skills in children with severe learning disabilities: A school-based leisure education program. Journal of Leisurability, 11(3), 29-34. Scholl, K., Dieser, R. B., & Schilling, A. (2005). Implementing an ecological approach to therapeutic recreation: A collaborative inclusion service model. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 39(4), 299-311. Scholl, K. G., Smith, J. G., & Davidson, A. (2005). Agency readiness to provide inclusive recreation and after-school services for children with disabilities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 29(1), 47-62. Scott, D. (1991). The problematic nature of participation in contract bridge: A qualitative study of group-related constraints. Leisure Science, 13, 321-336. Searle, M. S., & Mahon, M. J. (1993). The effects of a leisure education program on selected social-psychological variables: A three month follow-up investigation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 27(1), 9-21. Searle, M. S., Mahon, M. J., Iso-Ahola, S. E., Sdrolias, H. A., & van Dyck, J. (1995). Enhancing a sense of independence and psychological well-being among the elderly: A field experiment. Journal of Leisure Research, 27(2), 107-124. Searle, M. S., Mahon, M. J., Iso-Ahola, S. E., Sdrolias, H. A., & van Dyck, J. (1998). Examining the long-term effects of leisure education on a sense of independence and psychological well-being among the elderly. Journal of Leisure Research, 30(3), 331-340. Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: Free Press. Shannon, C. S. (2012). Leisure education within the context of child obesity intervention programme: Parents experiences. World Leisure Journal, 44(1), 16-25. Shinew, K. J., & Floyd, M. F. (2005). Racial inequality and constraints to leisure in the post-civil rights era: Toward an alternative framework. In E. L. Jackson (Ed.), Constraints to leisure (pp. 35-51). State College, PA: Venture. Sivan, A. (2000). Community development through leisure education: Conceptual approaches. In A. Sivan & H. Ruskin (Eds.), Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs (pp. 31-42). New York, NY: CABI. Sivan, A., & Ruskin, H. (Eds.). (2000). Leisure education, community development and populations with special needs. New York, NY: CABI.

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Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. A. (2011). Leisure education: Definitions, aims, advocacy, and practices—Are we talking about the same thing? World Leisure Journal, 53(1), 27-41. Smith, R. W., Austin, D. R., Kennedy, D. W., Lee, Y., & Hutchison, P. (2005). Inclusive and special recreation: Opportunities for persons with disabilities (5th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2007). Positive psychology: The scientific and practical explorations of human strengths. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stebbins, R. A. (1998). After work: A search for an optimal leisure lifestyle. Calgary, Canada: Detselig. Stebbins, R. A. (2000). Optimal leisure lifestyle: Combining serious and casual leisure for personal well-being. In M. C. Cabeza (Ed.), Leisure and human development: Proposals for the 6th World Leisure Congress (pp. 101-107). Bilbao, Spain: University of Deusto. Stumbo, N. J. (1992). Leisure education II: More activities and resources. State College, PA: Venture. Stumbo, N. J. (1997). Leisure education III: More goal-oriented activities. State College, PA: Venture. Stumbo, N. J. (1998). Leisure education IV: Activities for individuals with substance addictions. State College, PA: Venture. Stumbo, N. J., & Peterson, C. A. (2009). Therapeutic recreation program design: Principles and procedures (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson. Stumbo, N. J., & Thompson, S. R. (1986). Leisure education: A manual of activities and resources. State College, PA: Venture. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2007). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Sylvester, C. D. (1983). Leisure facilitation based on a systems approach: A conceptual alternative to leisure counseling for the therapeutic recreation profession. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 17(3), 20-28. Sylvester, C., Voelkl, J., & Ellis, G. D. (2001). Therapeutic recreation programming:Theory and practice. State College, PA: Venture. Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (1987). The costs and benefits of optimistic explanations and dispositional optimism. Journal of Personality, 55(2), 377-393. Thomsen, S. R., Bower, D. W., & Barnes, M. D. (2004). Photographic images in women’s health, fitness, and sports magazines and the physical self-concept of a group of adolescent female volleyball players. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 28, 266-283. Tinsley, H. E. A., & Tinsley, D. J. (1981). An analysis of leisure counseling models. The Counseling Psychologist, 9(3), 45-53. Tinsley, H. E. A., & Tinsley, D. J. (1984). Leisure counseling models. In E. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications (pp. 80-96). Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. Waldram, J. B. (1997). The way of the pipe: Aboriginal spirituality and symbolic healing in Canadian prisons. Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press.

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Waldron, J. J., & Dieser, R. B. (2010). Perspectives of fitness and health in college men and women. Journal of College Student Development, 51(1), 65-78. Whatley, A. D., Gast, D. L., & Hammond, D. L. (2009). Visual activity schedules: Teaching independent transitioning during recreation and leisure. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 43(2), 27-42. Whyte, L. B., & Shaw, S. M. (1994). Women’s leisure: An exploratory study of fear of violence as a leisure constraint. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 19, 5-21. Williams, R., & Dattilo, J. (1997). Effects of leisure education on choice making, social interaction, and positive affect of young adults with mental retardation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 31(4), 244-258. Witt, P. A. (1991). Buckpassing, blaming or benevolence: A leisure education/ counseling perspective. In T. L. Goodale & P. A. Witt (Eds.), Recreation and leisure: Issues in an era of change (pp. 307-315). State College, PA: Venture. Witt, P. A., Ellis, G., & Niles, S. H. (1984). Leisure counseling with special populations. In E. T. Dowd (Ed.), Leisure counseling: Concepts and applications (pp. 198-213). Springfield, IL: Charles S. Thomas. Wolfe, R. A., & Riddick, C. C. (1984). Effects of leisure counseling on adult psychiatric outpatients. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 18(3), 30-37. Wu, C. C., & Hsieh, C. M. (2006). The effects of a leisure education programme on the self-concepts and life effectiveness of at-risk youth in Taiwan. World Leisure, 48(2), 54-60. Zoerink, D. A. (1988). Effects of a short-term leisure education program upon the leisure functioning of young people with spina bifida. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 22(3), 44-52. Zoerink, D. A., & Lauener, K. (1991). Effects of a leisure education program on adults with traumatic brain injury. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 25(3), 19-28.

chapter five

Connecting Leisure Education to Social Policy Development

So far in this book various aspects of leisure education have been discussed. Chapter 2 focused on understanding divergent theories of leisure, and Chapter 3 outlined both beneficial and troubling features of leisure experiences and behaviors. Chapter 4 sketched the history of leisure education, including differing person-centered and system-directed models. The purpose of this chapter is to integrate these previous chapters together to outline how leisure education (both person-centered and system-directed) can work toward the development of social policy to prevent or remedy social problems. As outlined in Chapter 3, some social problems in contemporary life have direct correlational and causal links to leisure planning, experiences, and behaviors. For example, with the increased use of computers for leisure and entertainment, more people are sitting at computers during their free time, which contributes to the obesity epidemic. The consumption of entertainment that is becoming more violent contributes to greater societal aggression and violence. Leisure education can play an important role in these social problems. Using Mundy’s leisure education framework to outline the relationship among leisure, self, lifestyle, and society, leisure education can explain how computer-based leisure can contribute to obesity. Furthermore, leisure education programming can also offer a healthy alternative by offering TV/computer diets to help encourage an active living component as part of leisure activity. Other social problems may not have an immediate link to leisure, but leisure education services can still be beneficial in preventing or remedying social problems. For example, the social problem of recidivism (repeating criminal behavior) may not seem to have a connection with leisure education; however, the services of leisure education programming in prisons have an important and powerful influence on this social problem. For

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example, leisure education programs in prisons can prepare incarcerated people to be involved in healthy and noncriminal leisure, which can have a direct influence on community reentry and recidivism rates. However, before connecting leisure education with social policy, this chapter will first explain social policy.

Social Policy As explained in previous chapters, social policy is a plan of action (adopted by a government, nonprofit, for-profit organization, or some type of mixed partnership) that increases human well-being by preventing or remedying social problems (Hall & Midgley, 2004). For example, to help with the social problem of homelessness, the federal government created the low-income housing tax credit in 1986, which was a federal program giving tax credits to states, which in turn gave the credits to developers of low-income housing so that more lowincome housing could be built to help homeless people make a transition toward home ownership (see Jimenez, 2010). Social policy is related to creating, maintaining, or improving living conditions and, as such, is always related to human welfare or the well-being of society (Dawson, 2010; Segal, 2007; Smith, Stebbins, & Dover, 2006). Edginton (2006) outlined five policy areas related to leisure: local (e.g., creating city parks and youth recreation programs as a means of preventing juvenile delinquency), state/provincial (e.g., developing leisure education programs in mental health counseling centers to help people with mental illness become healthier), national (e.g., creation of the United States Wilderness Act in 1964 to establish a National Wilderness Preservation System for the permanent good of people and environments, see Scott, 2005), binational (the two countries of Canada and the United States working together to create the Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park World Heritage Site), and transnational (the World Leisure Organization’s 1998 international position paper statement on leisure education calling on governments and public institutions to help people with disabilities experience leisure through leisure education programs). Leisure education, as a social policy, can occur when leisure professionals are able to persuade and influence policy makers that leisure programs can remedy or prevent important societal problems. In this regard, Grossman (2000a, 2000b) underscored that leisure education specialists should provide leisure education intervention to community stakeholders about the potential value of play, recreation, and leisure in community development. Leisure professionals can purposefully educate community stakeholders and policy makers about how leisure choices and opportunities can lead toward negative, beneficial, and neutral societal problems (e.g., spending larger amounts of leisure watching television and playing video games, coupled with a lack of community leisure infrastructure, contributes to obesity). To this end, leisure professionals need to provide leisure education programs to community groups and social policy decision makers to help them understand the importance of leisure opportunities, leisure areas and facilities, and how leisure affects community develop-

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ment. Grossman (2000a, 2000b) posited that leisure professionals should take on the roles of advocacy and mobilization in the process of leisure education for community development. As an advocate, leisure professionals should pressure societal power structures for new or improved leisure programs. This includes endeavors such as eliminating barriers to leisure opportunities or supporting the right to play or recreate in clean and healthy playgrounds, parks, camps, beaches, swimming pools, and other leisure community structures. Mobilization involves collaboration and support from other organizations regarding leisure opportunities, such as motivating community members (e.g., members of city council, local business and nonprofit leaders) to support leisure programs. Leisure education as social policy can take a person-centered or system-directed change framework; the key is to use leisure education (either by itself or coupled with other human service programs) as a means to remedy social problems in a reactive or preventative fashion. The benefits-based framework and the articulation of negative outcomes of leisure (see Chapter 3) should be used to persuade and influence social policy makers that leisure education can be used as a specific program to combat various social problems and create social justice (e.g., poverty, juvenile delinquency, drug use, obesity).

Examples of Leisure Education as Social Policy There are many examples of leisure education being used as social policy development or social well-being. The following section will outline various examples, beginning with the work of Jane Addams and the women of Hull-House from over 100 years ago and moving toward more contemporary examples, such as the Stride Night program that has been occurring over the past 5 years in one of Canada’s six regional prisons for women, Grand Valley Institution. Following these examples, this chapter will end by providing an in-depth example and call to leisure education specialists to use media literacy programs as leisure education to prevent and remedy the social problem of the sexual objectification of girls and women (along with boys and men). The Hull-House Labor Museum as Leisure Education to Remedy Discrimination and Hatred Dieser’s (2005, 2008) historical research described how the development of the Hull-House Labor Museum in the early 1900s was a community and systemdirected leisure education program, designed by Jane Addams and the women of Hull-House, to remedy the social problem of discrimination, stereotypes, stigmas, and hate acts that were directed toward poor immigrants who lived in Chicago. In September 1889, Jane Addams, along with Ellen Gates Starr and Mary Kersyer, opened Hull-House, a settlement house established in the worst section of Chicago. Hull-House workers provided human services and engaged in social action on behalf of extremely poor and homeless immigrants to create social change. This time period of the industrial era in America (1760-1840) has been described by some as the Social Darwinism era because rich capital-

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ists exploited the poor and immigrants in a ruthless manner with a survival of the fittest mentality (Mandell & Schram, 2008.) One of the social illness of this day was the crude, rigid, and inaccurate stereotypes that immigrants were “lazy filth” and “skill-less” people who deserved to be poor. To debunk this pervasive and destructive stereotype, Jane Addams created the Labor Museum, which was a leisure site in which immigrants displayed beautiful and highly complicated old world textiles and crafts, such as hand carved doors and door handles or blankets. When everyday residents of Chicago or other Americans, including the rich capitalists who were propagating the stigmas and stereotypes so they could continue to prey on poor immigrants for cheap labor, saw these incredible works of art and textiles and connected them to the productive skills of immigrants, it was obvious that immigrants were not “lazy filth” or skill-less.” In fact, when watching poor immigrants working hard and developing creative products, everyday American residents in Chicago viewed them as skillful and at times sought them for their old-culture skills. The Labor Museum, which also was a live working museum in which nonimmigrants (during their leisure time) watched immigrants work diligently to make beautiful items, caused everyday American residents in Chicago to realize that their preconceived notions were inaccurate stereotypes. The Labor Museum was a leisure education site that was used in a social policy manner as a plan to educate the American residents of Chicago about the skills of immigrants to remedy the social problems of stereotypes, stigmas, and acts of hatred. Active Living as Leisure Education to Remedy Obesity There are many active living programs, which have a leisure education component, that are used as social policy to combat the social problem of obesity. Obesity is a major social problem in the United States and around the world, with approximately 64% of the adult population in the United States overweight or obese (Morrill & Chinn, 2004) and over 300,000 deaths annually attributed to obesity (Mokdad et al., 2003). Furthermore, leisure choices such as watching television or playing consoles such as Xbox contribute significantly to obesity (Strasburger, Wilson, & Jordan, 2009). To prevent and remedy obesity, many active living programs have specific leisure education components. For example, the active living community model presented by Sallis et al. (2006) has an implicit leisure education component. On top of teaching social policy makers that system-directed change is needed to develop active living (e.g., creating safe parks and neighborhoods for active movement), these researchers educated home owners/families to change home environments to link active movement with leisure (e.g., gardening, decreasing electronic entertainment), along with school and neighborhood environmental changes (e.g., walk-to-school program, bike trails). Similarly, and as explained in Chapter 4, Shannon (2012) conducted a system-directed leisure education study related to the social issue of childhood obesity. Instead of focusing leisure education intervention on children who have obesity problems, the leisure education program targeted the parents of children with obesity. In particular, the six leisure education components were to assist

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parents in (a) assessing their (parents’) use of free time; (b) assessing their child’s use of free time; (c) exploring their child’s interests; (d) determining constraints their child faced; (e) determining constraints in facilitating more active leisure pursuits for their child; and (f) identifying strategies for negotiating the constraints. This study found that parents reported increased awareness about how their time and their child’s time was spent; awareness of their child’s interest, but also awareness toward their child’s negative experiences in certain types of leisure (e.g., bully at past leisure programs); and an enhanced understanding of their role as leisure facilitators for their children. Although more oriented toward traditional parks and recreation leisure programming than formal leisure education programs, the National Recreation and Park Association’s health initiative Hearts N’ Parks and Kino-Quebec, an active living lifestyle program in the province of Quebec, Canada, have informal system-directed leisure education aspects. The Hearts N’ Parks program, which runs through 11 states and over 50 parks and recreation programs, is specifically focused on remedying the social problem of obesity (see Spangler & O’Sullivan, 2008). In particular, the informal leisure education goal of the Hearts N’ Parks program is to educate community people and policy decision makers that parks are not a waste of tax payers’ money, but rather can be used for fitness activities and can be viewed as sites of cardiovascular health and human development. Moreover, by partnering with other health organizations, such as the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the Hearts N’ Parks program has greater credibility in its informal education endeavors to teach social policy decision makers outside of the profession of leisure services the importance of leisure in remedying obesity. In a similar manner, Thibault (2008) provided a case example of Kino-Quebec, which also used informal leisure education strategies to educate stakeholders and public policy decision makers outside of the leisure profession (e.g., public health, social services) about the importance of leisure as a social intervention to prevent and remedy obesity. Stride Night/Circles as Leisure Education to Remedy Criminal Recidivism and Contribute to Social Justice The academic and professional work of a number of female professors and human services professionals in Southwestern Ontario, Canada, in the creation and implementation of Stride Circles/Night at the Grand Valley Institution prison for women is a contemporary and excellent example of leisure and leisure education working hand in hand as social policy (see Fortune, Pedlar, & Yeun, 2010; Fortune, Thompson, Pedlar, & Yuen, 2010; Pedlar, Yuen, & Fortune, 2008; Yuen, Arai, & Fortune, 2012; Yuen, Thompson, & Pedlar, 2006). As these researchers underscore, many of these incarcerated women struggle with mental illness and grew up in poverty, along with having to deal with the debilitating impact of drug and alcohol addictions (Pedlar et al., 2008). Furthermore, . . . to be a woman who has committed a crime carries an enormous and enduring stigma—not only have they broken the law, an unwomanly act in itself, they are also women who, in many cases, are mothers . . . at the

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time of their arrest, most of these women were unemployed and possessed limited marketable skills . . . These facts, along with the removal of the women from mainstream society, increases their marginalization and makes virtually impossible their prospects of regaining membership in the community at large following incarceration. (Fortune, Pedlar, et al., 2010, pp. 175–176, italics in original source) Often when incarcerated women (and men) leave prison, they are literally thrown back to dead-end environments of high poverty, where their only friends are people involved in criminal behavior, and the devastating impact of drugs and alcohol continues. To change this, in 1990 the Canadian Task Force on Federally Sentenced Women (TFFSW) established a new prison policy for women focused on the goal of having them leave prison stronger than when they entered, with a sense of empowerment and access to resources to rebuild their lives. This “landmark document” is called Creating Choice (Fortune, Thompson, et al., 2010). The Stride program is connected to the Creating Choice policy and is a leisure/leisure education-based program held weekly at the Grand Valley Institution to improve opportunities for female prisoners to interact with each other and, most important, with noncriminal volunteers from the community. Leisure activities include making crafts, playing board games, exercising, playing volleyball (in the gymnasium), and showcasing the women’s talents of singing, playing musical instruments, and reading poetry1 in the coffeehouses. In a personal conversation (October 2, 2012) with one of the Stride Nights pioneers, Felice Yuen (assistant professor at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada) outlined that Stride Night is based on a framework of leisure education literature and processing occurs after each Stride Night activities with incarcerated women regarding leisure choices and future leisure environments. All of these activities occur with noncriminal volunteers from surrounding communities, and the presence of prison guards are at a minimum. There is research and evaluative evidence that this leisure/leisure education program is working in empowering these women and providing them access to resources to rebuild their lives as they reenter mainstream society. In particular, when released from prison these women have a circle of good friendships with noncriminal women who provide support in many ways beyond leisure involvement (e.g., emotional, employment), thus creating a sense of personal and community empowerment in these women (Pedlar et al., 2008; Yuen et al., 2012). The results of friendship as a way to resist past friendships and past criminal environments to which these women were accustomed is captured well in the following quotation: In each [Stride] Circle discussion the issue of friendship came up as being significant to all members. For the members who had come together to form a Circle, it was obviously important that the relationship had 1 To read some of the poetry created by these women, which is also connected to research poetry, see Yuen, Arai, and Fortune (2012).

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grown into something well beyond a volunteer activity . . . Friendship that had formed between Circle members were strong and able to withstand adversity of a sort that most do not have to face . . . It was evident in each Stride Circle that the [incarcerated] women had to get used to the idea that someone cared enough for them to choose to connect with them and seek out involvement in their Circle (Fortune, Thompson, et al., 2010, p. 27). The following lengthy quotation summarizes research results regarding how Stride Circles/Night helped with decreasing recidivism rates and simultaneously helped incarcerated women and the social well-being of society: In leisure studies, we often assume an inherently positive nature of leisure as we focus on individual choice and outcomes, rather than systemic issues, community structures, and the provisions of resources to people who are marginalized. As the findings suggest, federally sentenced women’s perceptions of leisure opportunities and their meaning of leisure in the community are limited due to marginalizing experiences of poverty, abuse, trauma, mental illness, and the stigma of being classified as an offender . . . For many women in the study, leisure was about addictions and loss of control. “Free time” carried an element of fear . . . [Federally sentenced] women expressed concern about reuniting with old friends and thus old habits, thereby increasing the potential of returning to prison. On the other hand, new supportive relationships also developed through opportunities, such as Stride. The relationship formed through Stride enabled women to move beyond the identity of prisoner and create connections which strengthened their network of social support . . . thus enabling women to find a place of trust, and the determination to redefine self-identities that had been reduced to the marginalized stereotype of the “female offender.” (Yuen, Arai, & Fortune 2012, pp. 291–292) In short, this leisure and leisure education program has direct social wellness implications. Research on the motivational factors of the noncriminal community volunteers reported that both personal and social wellness, along with social change for incarcerated women and social policy development, were on their minds as community women volunteered in Stride Circles (Yuen et al., 2006). In summarizing these research findings, Yuen et al. (2006) reported: Overall, Stride Night volunteers believe that people can change and they could help be a part of that change . . . Stride Night volunteers believe they could make a difference in the lives of FSW [Federally Sentenced Woman] and ultimately to the well-being of society. (p. 28)

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Furthermore, “Stride Night volunteers’ motivations for participating in the program consisted more specifically for a desire for social change and social justice which was reinforced by their actions with the FSW” (p. 31). In 2012, CNN provided a news story about the world nicest prison, which is Bastoy Prison, located in Norway (see http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/24/world/ europe/norway-prison-bastoy-nices). Bastoy Prison holds approximately 115 prisoners, all men serving time for murder, rape, and trafficking hardcore drugs. What makes this prison “nice” is the fact that incarcerated men have a host of leisure activities at their disposal. Bastoy Prison is located on a lush, onesquare-mile island of pine trees and rocky coasts, with an incredible view of the ocean. Furthermore, there is a beach where prisoners sunbathe in the summer; plenty of good fishing spots, a sauna and tennis courts, and horses roam. At first glance, this prison may seem misguided, but as the CNN article underscores, the criminal recidivism rate compared to incarcerated men in American prison is lower because leisure is used in a rehabilitation, therapeutic, and educational manner. This CNN article further highlighted that only 20% of prisoners who come through Norway’s prisons reoffend within two years of being released, according to a 2010 report commissioned by the governments of several Nordic countries. At Bastoy Prison, the criminal recidivism is even lower, hovering around 16%. In comparison to three-year re-offense rates for state prisons in the United States, the reoffend rate is approximately 43%, according to a 2011 report from the Pew Center. Older government reports put that number even higher, at more than 5 in 10. School-Based Leisure Education to Remedy Troubling Youth Behaviors The history of different leisure education advocates who have tried to locate leisure education in public school systems reflects Grossman’s (2000a) systemdirected change position that leisure education specialists should take on the role of advocacy and pressure societal power structures toward understanding the importance of leisure, including community infrastructure and resources that create leisure experiences, such as the creation of parks or trail systems. As such, the long history of trying to position leisure education in schools is another example of leisure education being used in a social policy manner. Over 50 years ago Kraus (1964), building on the 1918 Cardinal Principles Report developed by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary School Education of the National Education Association, outlined a proposal for leisure education in the schools to prevent and relieve social problems, such as preventing juvenile delinquency and counteracting the physical and psychological degeneration that comes with normative aging of elderly people. In regard to school-based leisure education programming, Kraus wrote: . . . Many of the problems that plague our modern society may be ameliorated by the imaginative provisions of [school-based leisure education and] recreation services, facilities, and personnel. It has frequently been pointed out that recreation is in itself no cure for juvenile delinquency, and to justify it on that sole basis would be fallacious. At the same time,

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however, it is widely recognized that attractive, challenging, and intelligently planned leisure time experiences, as an integrated part of total community effort, can effectively supplement the work of the school, home, and church in reducing delinquent behaviors. (p. 15) Kraus went on to propose five strategies, including a total curriculum approach to leisure education, to help youth develop the “. . . judgment, taste, and a pervasive system of moral values that are applied to all forms of leisure experiences” (p. 91). Moreover, Kraus argued that in the years ahead school-based leisure education will help ease the social problem of racial tension, in which both leisure and leisure education can be used to help people from diverse cultures improve intergroup understanding and cooperation. American Association for Leisure and Recreation’s (2003) leisure education position statement aimed specifically at persuading American schools about the importance of leisure is a modern day example of leisure education being used in a social policy manner. The primary goal of this position statement is to call on schools to make curriculum changes to create leisure education curriculum as part of the normal curriculum to prevent and remedy differing social problems. Likewise, the World Leisure International Charter for Leisure Education (see Ruskin & Sivan, 1995) aimed to educate and inform all educational institutions and governments of the significance and benefits of leisure and leisure education and is an example of leisure education advocacy done at the global level. Atara Sivan is one of the leading contemporary leisure education advocates and educators for leisure education being located in public schools (e.g., see Sivan & Chan, 2012; Ruskin & Sivan, 1995; Sivan & Stebbins, 2011). Sivan’s (2007) social policy philosophy behind leisure education being part of public school curriculum is captured well in the following quotation: As a major socializing agent within the society, schools play a significant role in the socialization process. In addition to teaching young people intellectual and technique skills, schools also teach them cultural values and attitudes which prepare them for their role as adults . . . Whereas the call for schools to undertake leisure education was mainly made in the U.S. a couple of decades ago, the last decade has seen a growing international recognition of the school as a socialization agent for leisure. This can be attributed to the growing recognition . . . for schools to provide an all-around education. The international trend toward lifelong learning has resulted in a growing number of countries deciding to include the need to educate for leisure in their statement of educational aims. (pp. 56–57) In short, many social problems, such as underage drinking, substance use, the sexualization of women, and leisure boredom could be counteracted if schoolbased leisure education was adopted because schools are a paramount socialization agent in society.

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Sivan (2007) then outlines that leisure education pedagogical approaches can include formal and informal channels. Formal channels of leisure education incorporate leisure education into a variety of subject areas. For example, physical education or health education teachers can spend a specific amount of time dedicated to a formal leisure education curriculum, such as using some of the leisure education models outlined in Chapter 4. Informal leisure education is primarily based on freedom of choice in which students participate in schoolbased social and extracurricular activities, such as the speech and debate club, a science club, or a sport-type activity, whether it is competitive or recreational. Sivan and Ruskin’s (2000) international survey regarding leisure education curricula in school systems suggests that some form of leisure education exists in schools in different places of the world (e.g., Canada, Germany, Israel, Lithuania, New Zealand); however, the most popular methods used in leisure education were from informal channels related to recreation and special activities, such as school clubs and social activities. The findings of this international study align to Kleiber’s (2012) recent thoughts: “With the exception of a few places, such as Israel, leisure education has not found its way into the mainstream public school classrooms” (p. 12). But with this said, Sivan and Stebbins (2011) believe there is hope that more countries (e.g., South Korea, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China) will change their curriculum toward “whole person development” and” lifelong learning” and that leisure education will play an important future role in school curriculum. Because American schools follow a “back-to-basics” education philosophy, which flows from the “No Child Left Behind” social policy that clearly positions the subjects of math, science, and reading above all else (and has caused schools to cut back on leisure-type curriculum, such as art and music education), it is unlikely that leisure education will become a mainstream subject area anytime soon in American schools. But with this said, this chapter argues that leisure education and media literacy should be integrated within a social policy framework. Kleiber (2012) believes that the greatest future area that leisure education can become a standard fixture in American public schools is in “. . . teaching children and adolescents to be critical in their considerations of leisure-related messages on television and computer screens and billboards . . .” (p. 12).

Integration of Leisure Education and Media Literacy Education According to Hobbs and Jensen (2009), media literacy education was introduced in the United States in the second half of the 20th century to protect children from disturbing influences of Hollywood by teaching them to understand how the cinema works. Hobbs and Jensen reported that during the 1970s and 1980s groups of media educators challenged the view that mass media are always destructive and began to acknowledge that film and television can be used in a literary and educational manner in relation to social inquiry. For example, Johnson’s (1970) How to Talk Back to Your Television Set highlighted the underrepresentation and negative stereotypes of African American’s on television and

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encouraged readers to demand racial changes from local and national media organizations. Although media literacy education will be explained with greater depth, breadth, and clarity later in this chapter, media literacy is defined as providing tools to help people critically analyze and interpret the meaning of media messages they encounter from both media source and how the media interact with societal norms (Potter, 2008). Because mass media are a powerful societal force that greatly influence leisure and society (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006; see also Chapter 2 of this book), it makes logical sense to use a leisure education framework to help people, especially children and adolescents, understand the relationship of mass media among leisure, lifestyle, and society, which links to Mundy’s (1998) definition of leisure education. Leisure education that examines how media consumption as leisure influences the overall leisure experience can propel people toward healthy human development and leisure that can become more meaningful and fulfilling. To this end, this chapter will attempt to fill this void and will argue that leisure education should include and incorporate media literacy leisure education within a social policy framework. For example, media literacy can be taught in the area of youth development, such as in after-school programs or at youth outdoor camps (e.g., comparing representations of nature on television shows with outdoor observations). Likewise, a public parks and recreation program could use a media literacy leisure education framework to offer TV diet programs (reducing television watching) and tourism organizations can use media literacy leisure education to provide accurate information about people and historical places to potential tourists (and debunk tourist-oriented stereotypes). Understanding Mass Media Mass media are a powerful societal force that greatly influences the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society (Edginton et al., 2006). Despite the many differing types of leisure endeavors, such as tourism, community recreation, and outdoor recreation, mass media are by far the most popular American pastimes (Edginton et al., 2006). Rowe (2006) noted, “The media makes many forms of leisure possible, and leisure is a key object of media attention” (p. 317). For example, millions of people use more than 125 online network services every day, such as MySpace and Facebook (Russell, 2009), and it’s common for people from different countries to play interactive Internet games where they become comrades or teammates. In addition, companies advertise on mass media sites to promote their leisure activities and trajectories, such as identifying exotic resorts when reading popular magazines or newspapers. According to Devereux (2007), the term mass media refers to all electronic or digital means and print or artistic visuals used to transmit messages. Devereux also highlights the complexity of mass media by defining mass media as agents of socialization, powerful sources of social meaning, and texts with social, cultural, and political significance. Mass media are forms of mass leisure, and mass leisure reflects the “every day, recreational activities of the majority of people (Edginton et al., 2006, p. 140). In this chapter, mass media will simply be called media or media leisure.

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Media include everything from reading newspapers and comic books, to watching television, to interacting on Facebook, to surfing the Internet. A study of media use found that approximately 30% of the waking day was spent with the media as the sole leisure activity, and another 39% was media use coupled with another activity (Ransford, 2005). Another study by Nielsen Media Research in 2007 (as cited in Potter, 2008) reported that the total average time a household has a television turned on per day in the United States is 8 hours and 15 minutes, the average individual watches approximately 4 and one-half hours of television a day, and there are over 111 million televisions in households. Table 5.1 outlines health concerns to which television watching contributes. Despite mass media being such a popular free time activity and a focus of attention in numerous leisure textbooks (e.g., Edginton et al., 2006; Russell, 2009), leisure education specialists spend scant attention on examining the relationship of how leisure and mass media are connected. Table 5.1 Health Concerns Regarding Television Watching TV Undermines Family Life • Time per day that TV is on in an average U.S. home: 7 hours, 40 minutes • Amount of television that the average American watches per day: over 4 hours • Time spent daily with screen media for U.S. children aged 6 and under: about 2 hours • Percentage of U.S. families with children aged 0–6 with at least one television: 99 • Percentage of U.S. households with three or more TVs (2003): 50 • Percentage of parents who say that if they have something important to do, it is likely that they will use the TV to occupy their child: 45 • Percentage of Americans who always or often watch television while eating dinner: 40 • Percentage of Americans who say they watch too much TV: 49 • Time per week that parents spend in meaningful conversation with their children: 38.5 minutes • Percentage of 4–6-year-olds who, when asked, would rather watch TV than spend time with their fathers: 54 TV Harms Children and Hampers Education • Average daily time American children under age 2 will spend in front of a screen: 2 hours, 5 minutes • Average time per week that the American child, aged 2–17, spends watching television: 19 hours, 40 minutes • Hours of TV watching per week shown to negatively affect academic achievement: 10 or more • Percentage of children aged 8–16 who have a TV in their bedroom: 56 • Percentage of television time that children aged 2–7 spend watching alone and unsupervised: 81

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Table 5.1 (cont.) • Percentage of total television time that children older than 7 spend without their parents: 95 • Percentage of parents who would like to limit their children’s TV watching: 73 • Percentage of day care centers that use TV during a typical day: 70 • Hours per year the average American youth spends in school: 900 • Hours per year the average American youth watches television: 1,023 • Percentage of self-professed educational TV that has little or no educational value: 21 • Chance that an American parent requires children to do their homework before watching TV: 1 in 12 • Amount of time children aged 6 and under spend daily, on average, reading or being read to: 41 minutes TV Promotes Obesity • Adults in the United States technically obese: 1 in 3, or 62 million • Percentage of American children who were seriously overweight in 1964: 5; in 2003: more than 15 • Amount of daily moderate physical activity recommended for children: 60 minutes • Percentage of young people who report having had no recent physical activity: 14 • Percentage chance that an overweight adolescent will become an overweight or obese adult: 70 • Economic cost of obesity in the United States in 2000: $117 billion TV Promotes Violence • Number of violent acts the average American child sees on TV by age 18: 200,000 • Number of murders witnessed by children on television by age 18: 16,000 • Percentage of youth violence directly attributable to TV viewing: 10 • Percentage of Hollywood executives who believe there is a link between TV violence and real violence: 80 • Percentage of children polled who said they felt “upset” or “scared” by violence on television: 91 • Percentage increase in network news coverage of homicide between 1993 and 1996: 721 • Percentage reduction in the American homicide rate between 1993 and 1996: 20 • Percentage of programs that show the long-term consequences of violence: 16 • Percentage of violent programs that emphasize an antiviolence theme: 4 Source: RealVision, an initiative to raise awareness about television’s impact on us, is a project of TV-Turnoff Network, www.tvturnoff.org.

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Beyond the concerns of television watching and mass media, an additional concern is that mass media have a pivotal role in shaping public opinion and that media do not reflect social reality but rather construct representations of social reality that people follow (Hall, 1982, 1993; Rojek, 2006). For example, Potter (2008) highlighted how mass media news (television news, newspaper) is not a reflection of actual events; it is a construction by news workers who are subjected to many influences in society, including association with political agendas and money from advertisements. Potter highlighted how in 1996 certain local CBS news affiliates ran numerous news stories on the Titanic (the ship that sank in 1912) prior to the CBS miniseries on the Titanic so that CBS could generate maximum revenue by combining a traditional “news” story with a miniseries. The more people who watched the Titanic miniseries, the greater revenue CBS gained from advertisement, thus blurring real-life events, fictitious show, news, and leisurely entertainment. Potter sums this up and argues: This news perspective shifts the goal of news workers from informing the public to entertaining as many people as possible, thereby generating the maximum revenue for the news organization. This has led to a focus on the sensational and superficial. News now asks only for our eyeballs, not our gray matter. (p. 191) This concern that mass media shape public opinion and construct representations of social reality that people follow should concern leisure professionals and educators because mass media shape leisure patterns (Rowes, 2006). Hutchinson and Kleiber’s (2000) study that examined portrayals of men’s recovery from spinal cord injury (SCI) in popular magazines demonstrated that such mass media representations of heroic masculinity (e.g., aggressively conquering the injury, win or lose mentality) can have a detrimental influence on men recovering from SCI because the representations these magazines highlight are quite rare in life and limit personal growth. Gerschick and Miller (1995) underscored that moving away from heroic masculinity media representations offers the most hope for change for men recovering from SCI. Hutchinson and Kleiber (2000) specifically suggested that leisure professionals use leisure education as a vehicle to address the falseness and fabrication of mass media representations of men recovering from SCI. Rojek’s (2006) academic work in the area of cigarette smoking further underscores how mass media can be a powerful force in changing leisure patterns. In the early to middle part of the 1900s, smoking cigarettes was linked to high fashion, sophistication, individuality, and high culture leisure. For example, during the 1950s and 1960s, numerous mass media images appeared of popular actors and actresses, such as James Dean and Marilyn Monroe, smoking in movies and on the cover of popular magazines. In the early James Bond movies in which Sean Connery portrayed the popular 007 British agent, such as the movies Dr. No (made in 1962) and From Russia With Love (made in 1963), James Bond is constantly smoking cigarettes, highlighting he is part of the wealthy

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leisure class (e.g., playing poker in casinos). However, James Bond rarely smokes in later movies, such as The Spy Who Loved Me (made in 1977), Moonraker (made in 1979), Quantum of Solace (made in 2008), and Skyfall (made in 2012). How mass media shape leisure can also be demonstrated in tourism behavior. Edensor (2005) enunciated how tourists misinterpret the historical actions of Scottish war and national hero William Wallace when they travel to the Wallace Monument (a heritage site) near Stirling Castle (Scotland). The overwhelming majority of historical inaccuracies regarding the life and actions of William Wallace are due to the way this historical figure is portrayed in the 1995 blockbuster movie Braveheart. Braveheart is known to be historically erroneous,2 yet visitors often think the representation of William Wallace at the Wallace Monument is inaccurate or too boring and mindlessly think that the Hollywood representation of William Wallace is accurate. In a similar fashion, Jackson (2005) outlines how her pre-trip planning travels to Los Angeles and Hollywood (her first trip to the United States from Britain) was based on fake illusions propelled by the mass media and her inability to be media literate. In regard to her excitement to experience Hollywood and the nightlife of Los Angeles, Jackson observed the following about downtown Los Angeles: Once bereft of those who work there [downtown Los Angeles in the daytime], it was clear that this is a place where poor people live . . . The only people on the streets after 6 p.m. were the homeless . . . In scenes comparable to post-apocalyptic films/TV programs about the end of civilization, where ragamuffin people live in sewers, emerging only at night . . . as dusk settles, the homeless appeared on street corners, and near pedestrian crossings . . . unaware of the huge problem beggars are in the USA, or, at least in Down Town LA, we hadn’t known this. Such material conditions are not part of its standard media (metaphorical) representations . . . Thus as our knowledge of LA, in contemporary USA, was fractional, biased and invariably downright wrong . . . Our understanding of Hollywood [and downtown LA], the place and society, proved inadequate, being based on screen images promoted by Hollywood, the culture industry. (pp. 184–185) Jackson shares the following about her much-anticipated visit to the famous Chinese Theatre tourism site in the Los Angeles area: Visiting the Chinese Theatre brought the realization that whenever this location is filmed, for instance, in the past for the Oscars Ceremony, we see the stars, the red carpet, and the adoring crowd. Yet, immediately adjacent was wasteland, fronted by old railings sporting tacky advertisements, a bleak contrast to the TV-transmitted glitzy glamour. Media se2 In the DVD audio commentary of Braveheart, director Mel Gibson acknowledges many of the historical inaccuracies.

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lection and editing conventions ensure that this image never reaches our screens . . . We made sense of most places by comparing them to screen images, being surprised at our won naivety, having failed to appreciate how extensive our imaginations had been fuelled by the metaphoric construction of idea and desires [based on the mass media]. (p. 186) At the end of Jackson’s personal narrative, she remarked that her motivation to visit Los Angeles was due to the pleasure she felt from mass media marketing and the ideology it manifested, with scant attention toward media literacy, which can debunk simulacra of experiences that mass media producers want to produce. As Rojek (2006) posited, usually the first contact a tourist has with a site is not the object of space itself but rather media representations thereof, and leisure professionals have an important role in educating leisure participants of the gap that can exist in what is portrayed or represented in leisure and what typical real-life experiences are like. Likewise, Wilson (1991) outlined that usually the first contact a person has with nature, wilderness, or wild animals is from watching television or movies, and as such, adults and youth do not understand nature and wildness in an accurate way, which can lead to inaccurate and destructive outcomes (e.g., destroyed ecosystems, children being taught that nature is an exciting and actionpacked place in which animals perform for humans, parents physically pushing a child toward a wild bear to take a photograph). Leisure education is a tool to help people realize potential gaps between perceived or imagined leisure experiences, such as false marketing by media leisure producers, and actual leisure experiences.

Media Literacy and Its Connection to Leisure Education: Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy In this book, Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy is used to define and explain media literacy, and as such, media literacy is defined as providing tools to help people critically analyze and interpret the meaning of media messages they encounter. Figure 5.1, from the academic work of Potter (2005, 2008), presents the Cognitive Model of Media Literacy.3 As outlined, this model of media literacy has four major factors: knowledge structures, decisions motivated, information-processing tools, and flow of information-processing tasks. Knowledge Structures The first area, knowledge structures, is defined as sets of organized information in a person’s memory. There are five areas of knowledge structure: media effects, media content, media industries, real world, and self. For example, people who understand that certain media industries spend a tremendous amount 3 The 2008 Potter reference is simply an updated and revised edition of the same book. However, the 2005 book provides a conceptualized figure of this model that is not presented in the 2008 version. Although the 2008 book has updated information and still advocates the Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, the graphical presentation of this media literacy model has greater precision and clarity in the 2005 book.

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Four major factors Flow of informationprocessing tasks

Meaning matching

Filtering

Informationprocessing tools

Competencies and skills

Decisions motivated

Knowledge structures

Meaning construction

Personal locus Media effects

Media Content

Media Industries

Real world

Self

Figure 5.1. Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy. From: Potter, W. J. (2005). Media literacy (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Reprinted with permission.

of time and effort in consumer research and hire consumer psychologists to persuade and exploit people are in a better position to question media messages. To this end, Schor’s (2004) study that consisted of interviewing youth marketing specialists reported that top advertising firms use themes of children empowerment, which includes children dictating to their own parents, to sell items such as snacks and cereals. Furthermore, Schor outlines that in marketing how soft drinks such as Pepsi and Code Red can “create a buzz” (p. 124), these youth-oriented marketing firms “. . . [come] dangerously close to a subtle association with drugs” (p. 124).4 Schor also underscores that Budweiser’s introduction of cute animal characters, such as the dog Spuds MacKenzie and clever talking frogs and lizards, is used purposefully to capture the attention of children so that these children can be socialized toward seeing Budweiser beer as fun and perhaps make an early life decision that Budweiser truly is the “King of Beers.” Likewise, in outlining how the media industry works and connecting it to self-understanding (the knowledge structure that Potter refers to as self), Blum (2003) posits that the American Society of Plastic Surgeons has combined with differing media industries (e.g., health and popular magazines) to augment body image flaws in women so that they will visit plastic surgeons—poor body image is good for business. Knowing how the media industry works including partnerships and linking that to self-understanding (such as women having poor body image and knowing that plastic surgery-oriented advertisements in mass media will make them feel that their body and possible self-esteem is “less than”) can help people in the second stage of Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy: the decision-making stage. Schor (2004) also underscores that these drinks are addictive due to caffeine amounts.

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Decisions Motivated The primary goal of the second factor of the Cognitive Model of Media Literacy is related to decisions motivated by a personal locus. A personal locus is engaged when a person decides to pay special attention to messages in the media and be active in the meaning making aspects of media exposure. A personal locus is weak when a person is exposed to the media in a mindless manner, which then causes media mind control. When a personal locus is weak, a person’s mind defaults to an automatic state where minds operate without any conscious effort. Potter (2008) summarizes: When we are not consciously paying attention and carefully evaluating our media exposure, the mass media continually reinforces certain behavioral patterns of exposure until they become automatic habits. For many of us, we turn on the radio every time we get in our cars, turn on the television as soon as we get home, and turn on our computers when we get up in the morning. Advertisers constantly program the way we think about ourselves. Advertisers program an uneasy self-consciousness into our minds so that we are on the lookout for products that will make us look, feel, and smell better… Advertising works by programming our automatic routines…other agents of [media] programming are trying to use you as a tool to achieve their goals, which are often very different from your own goals. (pp. 8–9) To increase or strengthen one’s personal locus, an individual must spend invested mental effort when consuming media, such as asking oneself the question “What is this advertisement (or media site) trying to get me to do or purchase?” and “What strategies are they using?” Information-Processing Tools The third factor of the Cognitive Model of Media Literacy is gaining media literacy competencies through information-processing skills. Many differing media literacy competencies and skills can be taught and learned. Brown, Schaffer, Vargas, and Romocki (2004) suggest that media literacy programs can take two approaches to teaching media competencies and skills. The first, the inoculation approach, teaches individuals media literacy skills (person-centered change). For example, the American Library Association’s “Guidelines for Evaluating Web Pages” (as cited in Teays, 2010) outlines five information-processing skills that individuals can learn to evaluate the credibility of websites: • Accuracy: Who wrote the page and can you contact them? What is the purpose of the document, and why was it produced? Is this person or group qualified to write this document—what type of credentials do they have? • Authority: Who published the document? What is the domain of the document? Is an institutional affiliation listed?

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• Objectivity: What goals or objectives does this page have? Who is the intended audience? How detailed is the information, and are references provided? Is the website a mask for advertising? Do you detect any biases? • Currency: When was the document written? Are there links to more detailed resources, and if so how up to date are the links? Are there any dead links? Is the information out of date? • Coverage: Is the information presented cited correctly? What function do the visual images (sound or video) serve? The second approach, liberation, is an activist strategy, which teaches individuals and groups to become active in reclaiming media space from controlling and powerful corporations (system-directed change). For example, to counter the stereotypes of how Arab American women are portrayed in the media, Bing-Canar and Zerkel (1998) created a yearlong media literacy youth program in which Arab American teenage girls produced a video titled Benaat Chicago (Daughters of Chicago): Growing up Arab and Female in Chicago, which created an alternative media representation of Arab American girls and women. That is, these young women devoted their leisure time to reclaiming media space about Arab American representations from powerful media corporations. Within the framework of the Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, Potter (2008) suggests that the following seven skills are most relevant to media literacy: • analysis: breaking down a message into meaningful elements; • evaluation: judging the value of an element—the judgment is made by comparing a message’s elements to some standards (such as real and everyday life); • grouping: determining which elements are alike in some way, determining which elements are different in some way; • induction: inferring a pattern across a small set of elements and then generalizing the pattern to all elements in the set; • deduction: using general principles to explain particulars; • synthesis: assembling elements into a new structure; and • abstracting: creating a brief, clear, and accurate description capturing the essence of a message. Flow of Information-Processing Tools The fourth and final stage of Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy is the flow of information-processing tasks, which has three foci: learn-

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ing to filter media messages, learning meaning matching, and learning meaning construction. In short, during this stage people learn (a) to make a decision about which media messages to filter out (ignore) and which to filter in (pay attention to); (b) to use competencies to recognize symbols (sometimes invisible or covert), locate definitions, and efficiently and effectively access previously learned meanings; and (c) to use media literacy skills to move beyond accepting the meaning that the media have constructed to construct meaning for oneself. Many differing types of media literacy programs attempt to help people move beyond meaning constructed by the media to construct meaning for oneself. For example, McCannon (2009) outlined that a popular media literacy technique is the counter-ad or anti-ad activity. Simply stated, this media literacy technique is based on teaching youth academic/science-based information (e.g., smoking cigarettes causes serious lung damage, such as cancer) and then having students create reversed and more truthful stories in advertisements. McCannon (2009) used the example of how Camel cigarettes have a highly sexualized woman smoking in one of its advertisements, with the words pleasure to burn on the cover. Students then create a counter advertisement of a woman smoking (which can be done using a highly detailed computer program or simply with a blank piece of paper and a pencil sketch) with the words lungs to burn or cancer your lungs to burn in place of the phrase pleasure to burn. Table 5.2, from the work of Jackson, Rod, and Dieser (2008), lists various types of agency media literacy programs.

Leisure Education to Remedy the Sexual Objectification of Women: A Case Study of Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy as Leisure Education To bring clarity regarding how Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy can be linked to leisure education, the following section will outline a leisure education media literacy model and accompanying activities that the author of this book has facilitated and taught with university students,5 who then facilitate leisure education media literacy in professional practice (e.g., Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, Boys & Girls Clubs, church youth groups, YMCA/ YWCA youth programs, youth sport camps).6 Before university students are introduced to Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, they learn about media literacy in general, its connection to leisure education, and applied critical thinking skills. After understanding media literacy and critical thinking, students then learn Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy. After they learn this model, students then follow a four-step process to apply Potter’s model to a 5 These are students at the University of Northern Iowa who are enrolled in the Leisure, Youth, and Service program. 6 Beyond facilitating the described leisure education media literacy to university students, the author of this book has directly facilitated the same leisure education media literacy model to youth groups. Furthermore, the author of this book has collected research data based on the described leisure education media literacy model and is in the process of analyzing it and publishing a series of research papers.

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real-world leisure setting and media site—that of Hooters sport restaurant (see http://www.hooters.com/). Table 5.2 Media Literacy Resources to Help Recreation Professionals Who Want to Develop a Media Literacy Program Organizational Name Website Action Coalition for Media Education

www.acmecoalition.org

Center for Media Literacy

www.medialit.org

Center for Media Studies

www.mediastudies.rutgers.edu

Discover Communications, Inc.

www.assignmentmedialit.com

Just Thinking Foundation

www.justthink.org

Kaiser Family Foundation

www.kff.org

Kidsnet www.kidsnet.org National Institute on Media & the Family

www.mediaandthefamily.org

New Mexico Media Literacy Project

www.nmmlp.org

Edward Zigler Center in Child Development and Social Policy (Dept. of Psychology at Yale University) http://ziglercenter.yale.edu/research/ elecmedia.html Source: Jackson, G., Rod, L., & Dieser, R. B. (2008). Recreational consumption of violent media contributes to youthful aggression. Parks and Recreation, 43(6), 22-27. Reprinted with permission.

The first step of gaining knowledge structures occurs when students read the 2007 American Psychological Association (APA) Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. The APA created this task force to respond to public concern and social problems that girls were being sexualized at a young age and that being sexually objectified has both physical and psychologically destructive outcomes (e.g., disordered eating, appearance anxiety, body dissatisfaction). The APA task force defined (a) sexualization as when the person’s values come only from her sexual appeal or behavior, at the exclusion of other characteristics, and (b) sexual objectification as being made into a thing for others’ sexual use (rather than being seen as a person with the capacity for independent action and decision making). Although the APA report does not use the word leisure, students learn that the primary cultural contributor of the sexualization of girls/women is the constant and pervasive bombardment of women in sexually

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objectified representations through the lens of leisure via the media industries and media content. This includes, from the APA report, how girls/women are represented in television, music videos, music lyrics, popular magazines, sports media and restaurants, advertisements, toys (e.g., dolls), and cosmetics. In regard to sports media and restaurants—both clearly aligned to the leisure service industry—students learn how women are sexually exploited at Hooters restaurant (a sports media restaurant used for leisure) by visiting the Hooters restaurant website (see http://www.hooters.com). That is, students learn that Hooters restaurant clearly aligns to the cultural contributors of the sexualization of girls/women that the APA report outlined. A quick view of the Hooters website clearly highlights that women are valued for their sexual appeal, pornographic positioning, and the visible and invisible sexual symbolism presented at the website. Furthermore, in normative society, the term Hooters is a slang term for breasts. Furthermore, and in regard to Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy knowledge structure of real-world happenings, students learn about cause-related marketing, a type of marketing involving the cooperative effort of a for-profit business and a nonprofit organization for mutual benefit, including how larger for-profit organizations can manipulate smaller nonprofit organizations in a cause-related marketing arrangement (see Berglind & Nakata, 2005; Young & Salamon, 2002, regarding the pressure and ethics of cause-related marketing). Students also learn that over the past few years Hooters restaurant has provided philanthropic activity by partnering with Special Olympics (and other types of nonprofit and for-profit sport and leisure organizations) to provide a positive public image—a type of cause-related marketing strategy (Dieser, 2011). Two recent Hooters restaurant philanthropic activities directed toward Special Olympics (recreation and sport for people with disabilities) include • Hooters Restaurant of Central Carolina creating a fund-raising strategy of raising a mile of quarters, ultimately donating over $20,000 to Special Olympics North Carolina (see http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-209775148. html), and • a Florida Hooters sponsoring the Eighth Annual Central Florida High School Football All-Star Game. During halftime, Hooters girls, along with administration, made a check presentation to Special Olympics Florida for over $1,100, and special presentations were made to three all-star football seniors who raised the most money for Special Olympics as part of their online fund-raising challenge (see http://www.specialolympicsflorida.org/ news/news-archives/8th-annual-all-star-football-game.html). The students also learn that in the process of fund-raising Hooters restaurant delivered a bombardment of publications outlining how they are a wonderful organization helping people with disabilities. For example, presented below are Internet links to two articles published in two different publications—PR News-

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wire and Disabled World—both published by Hooters of America, released on the exact same date with the exact same title “Hooters of Central Carolina Donates Over $20,000 to Special Olympics North Carolina” and content: • http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hooters-of-central-carolinadonates-over-20000-to-special-olympics-north-carolina-63486967.html • www.disabled-world.com/sports/special-olympics/hooters-special-olympics.php). Hence, the first step raised by Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy knowledge structure is to expose students to real-world happenings, to understand the motivation of media industries (profit driven), and to outline the media effect, the content of the sexualization of women, and how the media industry promotes this through a vehicle of leisure. In summary, students learn (a) the definition and real-world effects of women being sexually objectified within the framework of leisure at Hooters restaurant and (b) about cause marketing and how Hooters restaurant philanthropic activities aimed at helping people with disabilities participate in Special Olympics, may in fact be using, or even exploiting, people with disabilities to create a good public image. In the second and third stage of Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, students’ personal locus is engaged and strengthened as they gain media literacy competencies and skills. In particular, students are asked to pay special attention to both covert and overt messages and to develop critical thinking skills while visiting the Hooters restaurant website (http://www.hooters.com). In particular, students learn three important media literacy skills relevant to increasing their personal locus: critical thinking, action analysis, and encoding/ decoding. First, students learn critical thinking/critical viewing skills, which many media literacy experts consider to be the most paramount and core aspect of any media literacy training (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009; McCannon, 2009; Potter, 2005, 2008; Silverblatt, 2001; Teays, 2010). Critical thinking serves as a guide to evaluate information rooted in elements of thought and intellectual standards (Dieser, Magnuson, & Scholl, 2005; Hitchcock, 1983; Paul, 1995). To increase personal locus, students learn to identify nine fallacies of reasoning (e.g., statement ad hominem, slippery slope) and then are assigned to identify such fallacies in “About Hooters” (www.hooters.com/about.aspx), an article that the administration of Hooters restaurant wrote to explicitly argue against the claim that Hooters restaurant exploits and sexually objectifies attractive women. The nine fallacies of reasoning, drawn from Browne and Keeley (2010), include • statement ad hominem: insulting the person rather than addressing the person’s reasoning; • slippery slope: making an assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events;

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• appeal for a perfect solution: assuming that because part of a problem would remain after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted; • appeal to popularity: falsely assuming that anything favored by a large group of people is desirable and good; • appeal to a questionable authority: supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks special expertise on the topic at hand; • either-or thinking: assuming two alternatives when there are more; • glittering generality: using emotionally appealing virtue words so that we approve something without close examination; • straw person: distorting an opponent’s point of view so that it’s easy to attack; and • red herring: shifting attention away from the issues by presenting irrelevant information. Students (and later youth groups) are always able to identify various fallacies of reasoning after reading “About Hooters” (www.hooters.com/about.aspx). However, the most commonly identified fallacies are as follows: • Appeal to popularity: In the first paragraph of “About Hooters,” Hooters administration outlines that there are Hooters restaurants in over 43 states and 450 Hooters locations throughout the world (e.g., Argentina, China, Germany), thus falsely assuming that anything favored by a large group of people (such as sexually objectifying women) is desirable and good. • Glittering generality: In the second to last paragraph, Hooters administration outlines its involvement with differing charities, such as Special Olympics, and that it has raised millions of dollars. In paragraph five, Hooters administration uses the emotionally appealing virtue words that it is supporting the “women’s right movement” because it guarantees women have the right to choose their own careers, such as being a Hooters waitress. • Red herring: Through the “About Hooters” article, Hooters administration constantly shifts attention away from the topic at hand (that Hooters restaurant exploits and sexually objectifies attractive women) by presenting irrelevant information and distorting perceptions. For example, without outlining any statistical evidence, in paragraph six Hooters administration reports that women occupy various management positions throughout the Hooters restaurant chain.

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• Straw person: In the fifth paragraph, Hooters administration argues that the claim that Hooters exploits attractive women is as ridiculous as saying the NFL exploits men who are big and fast, which distorts real-life happenings by creating a poor analogy. First, NFL players, in general, are not sexually exploited. Second, the income gap is huge between what an average Hooters employee (e.g., waitress) and the average NFL player make. According to USA Today, the average NFL player’s pay surpassed $1 million (see www. usatoday.com/sports/nfl/salaries/average.htm), and although the average Hooters waitress income is relatively hidden, it is probably around minimum wage plus tips, which is not even close to $1 million. Second, drawing on the academic work of Rojek (2005), students learn how to conduct an action analysis and to move beyond critical thinking to decode the encoded messages of the Hooters restaurant website (and these skills are transferable to other media contexts). An action analysis is a process by which leisure experiences can be analyzed as economic, political, and social forces and by which encoding and decoding attempt to explain how ideology cuts into leisure behavior and experiences (Rojek, 2005). Simply stated, mass communication encodes or orders public discourse and decoding exposes the subliminal messages and the covert political dimensions. As such, students learn that leisure settings can identify power and power conflicts. After conducting an action analysis regarding why Hooters restaurant would partner with Special Olympics programs (and people with disabilities), students begin to wrestle and understand the following four potential invisible economic and political dimensions and reasons why Hooters restaurant wants to help Special Olympics programs: • Perhaps Hooters restaurant is using the framework of philanthropy toward Special Olympics programs to bolster a public image and is not being altruistic in helping people with disabilities. • Perhaps Hooters restaurant is actual using, and even exploiting, Special Olympics participants and people with disabilities to create a self-serving public image. • Although common practice, does sexual objectification of women at Hooters restaurant and website create further psychological and sociological harm to women and men? • By agreeing to this partnership, do Special Olympics programs further reinforce and spread the invisible sexual objectification of women ideology? In the fourth and final stage of Potter’s (2008) Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, students learn which media messages to filter out (ignore) and which to filter in (pay attention to), to use competencies to recognize symbols (sometime invisible or covert), and to use media literacy skills to move beyond media constructed meaning to construct meaning for oneself.

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The final aspect of the Hooters website leisure education media literacy assignment is for students to write a two-page paper outlining what they learned. A constant theme among students (and youth) when completing this media literacy assignment is that they learned the three components of the fourth stage of Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy. That is, students report they learned (a) to recognize invisible symbols used by the media to manipulate or persuade them, (b) to filter out (ignore) certain media messages, and (c) to use media literacy skills to move beyond media constructed meaning to construct meaning for oneself. Students also report that they can recognize invisible symbols at the Hooters restaurant website. This is exemplified in the following thought of a male student: [Hooter restaurant terms located on the website, such as] “more than a mouthful” and “that burger is humongous, it’s the biggest burger I’ve ever seen”…might seem like a normal comment mentioning that their burgers are the biggest. But when you have an attractive woman with large breasts saying this, your mind draws right to the breasts. Sure their burgers are big, but you know what is the bigger, your server’s breasts. This student outlined how this technique is based on the sex element of manipulating men to spend money at Hooters restaurant. Furthermore, this same student also outlined the hidden meaning behind a game that is played at the Hooters restaurant website called “Match the Hottie” (http://www.hooters.com/ FunStuff/Match.aspx ): This game makes lesser attractive women feel “less than” and implicitly communicates they should be excluded from the Hooters restaurant: The odd picture out [in the game “Match the Hottie”] is a girl with glasses, not attractive, and wearing nonattractive clothes. I think this is stating that girls like this don’t match up very well with Hooters [girls]. They [Hooters restaurant] are saying that unattractive girls have no place in the business of Hooters. This student realized that the hidden goal of this game is to communicate that “less attractive women” are “less than” the Hooters waitresses. Students also demonstrated the ability to filter out (ignore) certain media messages and use media literacy skills to construct their own meaning, rather than to mindlessly accept the message sent by Hooters restaurant. Instead of students accepting both obvious and hidden messages that Hooters restaurant outlines on its website (e.g., sexual objectification of women is acceptable, larger breasts are desirable, less attractive women are to be excluded), students constructed their own meaning, that is, usually different or the exact opposite of the Hooters restaurant message. For example, the male student quoted above clearly outlined that Hooters restaurant claims that it does not exploit attractive women “. . . are just ridiculous. How can they say that it isn’t? You have girls walking around in skimpy clothing . . . Hooters [restaurant] says, the

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women’s right movement is important because it guarantees women have the right to choose their own careers, be it a Supreme Court justice or a Hooter girl. What does sex appeal have anything to do with the women’s right movement? Other students clearly communicated that they would go out of their way to prevent others from going to a Hooters restaurant—obviously the opposite meaning that Hooters restaurant wants when a person views its website. One female student reported that, some years ago, after her high school volleyball games ended, the team (along with parents) would go and eat at Hooters restaurant. However, after learning more about Hooters restaurant through this media literacy leisure education activity, she reported: [After going to Hooters restaurants]…many of my [high school volleyball] teammates were concerned about how they looked. I found myself falling into this societal norm sometimes as well. Now as a coach, after doing this [media literacy leisure education] assignment, I will be more aware of the sexualization of women, how my teenage club volleyball players may fall into. I will make more of a point to eliminate that type of thinking from my players and their parents, and Hooters will definitely not be allowed. Another female student outlined how she constructed a differing meaning of the Hooters restaurant than the one intended by Hooters administration: All in all, this [media literacy leisure education] assignment was a valuable learning opportunity for me. I will now think more critically about the media that I am viewing each day. I will also advocate for change by discouraging people from eating at Hooters and inform them about what I observed on the [Hooters] website. The above quotations underscore a constant theme among students (and later youth) who completed this media literacy assignment—they learned which media messages to filter out (ignore) and which to filter in (pay attention to), to recognize symbols (sometime invisible or covert), and to use media literacy skills to move beyond media constructed meaning to construct meaning for oneself, rather than relying on the meaning and message that Hooters restaurant constructed on its website.

Research Evidence of Effective Media Literacy Programs Because media literacy is a fairly new area of study in differing academic and professional fields (e.g., English class, school-based education curriculum, youth services, media studies, popular culture, medicine, health studies, and now—hopefully—leisure education and leisure services), research evidence of its effectiveness is fairly new. For example, although thousands of studies exist about media effects (e.g., obesity, increased aggression after watching media

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violence), fewer than 100 media literacy studies demonstrate its effectiveness (McCannon, 2009). However, and although in its infancy, a good body of research exists that clearly suggests that media literacy programs create beneficial outcomes of helping people successfully change attitudes and behaviors connected to media consumption. As McCannon (2009) states, “Research strongly suggests that the content and skills of media analysis can be taught” (p. 526). The following section will highlight studies that underscore the effectiveness of media literacy programs. Hobbs and Frost’s (2003) large-scale, quasi-experimental design study demonstrated that media literacy improved students’ ability to identify main ideas in written, audio, and visual media. Statistically significant differences were also found for writing quantity and quality. Specific text analysis skills also improved, including the ability to identify the purpose, target audience, point of view, construction techniques used in media messages, and omitted information from a news media broadcast in written, audio, or visual formats. Building on the study mentioned above (Hobbs & Frost, 2003), Hobbs (2004) used the same data set to conduct a secondary study to analyze the effectiveness of media literacy on understanding of media advertising. Results demonstrated an increase in students’ knowledge of advertising preproduction techniques, ability to analyze a print advertisement, ability to identify target audience and manipulation techniques, and ability to identify message subtexts within the advertisement. Bing-Canar and Zerkel’s (1998) evaluative qualitative study on a yearlong critical media literacy program for Arab American girls achieved their goals of (a) developing critical thinking and critical consciousness and (b) providing a safe space to explore sensitive issues (e.g., Arab American stereotypes) among young Arab American women. During weekly discussions, these young women analyzed media content by using a “Home TV Critic” form, which directed them toward identifying ethnic stereotypes in their favorite shows. These young women “soon realized that they had not seen any representations of Arabs in the mass media that they considered positive” (p. 739). This motivated these young women to use their leisure time to create their own documentary, Bennat Chicago (Daughters of Chicago): Growing up Arab and Female in Chicago, which was used to combat and debunk Arab stereotypes and to provide viewers with an accurate understanding of their lives as female Arab American teenagers. Not only was this video production shown at the Arab-American Community Center (AACC) in Chicago, but also it was used by the AACC as an educational resource video that was given to certain groups in the community to provide awareness regarding real-life events of local young Arab American women. In fact, one of the young women who helped produce the video was honored as “Student of the Month” at her high school after a Chicago newspaper highlighted her participation in the video. Many more studies clearly outline that media literacy can create positive change in youth and adults. For example, Nathanson and Cantor (2000) found that a very brief introduction to a short cartoon clip asking children in Grade 6

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to consider the feelings of the victim of violence caused these children to identify and have empathy for the victim. Vooijs and van der Voort’s (1993) fiveweek media literacy program increased student perceptions of the seriousness of television violence. A number of studies have demonstrated the efficacy of media literacy strategies on youth perception of alcohol and tobacco advertisements and use. In just a single media literacy session, Austin and Johnson (1997) increased third and fourth graders’ understanding of the intent of alcohol advertising and decreased their desire to be like the cute and funny characters in these advertisements. This large-scale experimental design study examined the immediate and delayed effects of media literacy training on third grade children’s perceptions of alcohol advertising, alcohol norms, expectancies for drinking, and behaviors toward alcohol. The research participants who received the media literacy program had both immediate and delayed effects. Immediate effects included children’s increased understanding of persuasive intent, viewing of characters as less similar to people they knew in real life and less desirable, decreased desire to be like the characters located in the advertisements, and decreased likelihood to choose an alcohol-related product. Indirect effects were found on their perceptions of television’s realism and their views of social norms related to alcohol. Furthermore, this media literacy program was more effective among girls than boys. Of course, many other studies have demonstrated the efficacy of media literacy strategies on youth perception of alcohol and tobacco use. For example, Slater et al. (1996) reported that alcohol education based on beer advertisements among 12- to 18-year-olds increased counter arguing (also known as cognitive resistance) after they watched a 20-minute sports show that had four beer ads. Slater et al. found the ability to counterargue what beer advertisement producers wanted viewers to mindlessly absorb lasted months in some research participants and years in others. McCannon (2002, 2005) reported that a 6-day media literacy program with three booster sessions changed attitudes about alcohol and tobacco advertisements, increasing anger toward tobacco companies and increasing desire to live a healthier lifestyle. Furthermore, research has shown the effectiveness of using activism as a theoretical, motivational, and programming foundation to present antitobacco media literacy with youth (Austin, Pinkleton, & Funabiki, 2007; Austin, Pinkleton, & Hust, 2005). Media literacy research related to body image has also been completed. Neumark-Sztainer, Sherwood, Coller, and Hannan (2000) used the Girl Scouts program to implement a 12-week (six lessons biweekly) media literacy program specifically targeting body image struggles among young women. NeumarkSztainer et al. concluded this study “had a notable positive influence on mediarelated attitudes and behaviors including internalization of sociocultural ideals, self-efficacy to impact weight-related norms, and print media habits” (p. 1466). They also noted modest changes in body-related knowledge and attitudes (e.g., body size acceptance, perceived weight status). However, no significant changes were found in dieting behavior. A study organized by the Harvard Eating Disorder Center (Steiner-Adair et al., 2002), which evaluated a 10-session program

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to help young women deal with body image struggles, which included media literacy strategies, found significant positive changes in knowledge and weightrelated body esteem. However, and similar to the Neumark-Sztainer et al. study, this study found no significant differences related to dieting behavior, which underscores the pervasive and relentless nature of dieting and disordered eating among young women. Waldram and Dieser’s (2010) study highlighted the difficulties that both university-aged women and men have with healthy eating and the connection of disordered eating to maintain a media-created body image among women. Is Media Leisure Always Bad? Despite the many leisure opportunities in society, media-based leisure is the most popular leisure activity in North America (Edginton et al., 2006). As just explained, there are many problematic aspects of media as leisure, such as how media consumption can be a barrier to meaningful leisure and how media can actually have destructive outcomes (e.g., obesity as a health issue, sexual objectification of women, false perceptions of leisure and travel, creation of cultural and historical inaccuracies). However, media leisure is not all bad; it can be beneficial. For example, Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong (1993) noted in their study examining time usage of talented teenagers compared to average teenagers that talented teenagers watched more television than average students. They speculated that because talented teenagers focus intense effort into a chosen interest (e.g., musical instrument, sport, science club) television watching is used in a somewhat therapeutic fashion to relax and numb the mind, whereas average teenagers turn to television for arousal to combat boredom. Barad and Robertson (2000) use media—in particular various Star Trek shows (all the different television series) and movies—to help students learn about various ancient philosophers (e.g., Plato, Aristotle, Kant, and Kierkegaard) and philosophical/ethical frameworks, such as understanding hedonism, duty, responsibility, equity, and friendship. For example, they outline how the 1966 original two-part Star Trek episode “The Menagerie” exemplifies Aristotle’s thinking regarding three kinds of friendships—friendships of utility, friendships of pleasure, and friendships of goodness—and how the 1996 Deep Space Nine episode “Let He Who Is Without Sin” exemplifies Epicurus’ thinking regarding human desires. Also using the Star Trek television shows and movies in research, Stebbins (2002) outlined how Trekkies/Trekkers conventions create social worlds and networks, which can lead to the development of deep and rich friendships, along with serious leisure pursuits. The point is media can have beneficial outcomes; the media are not always problematic. With this said, however, although media leisure is not all bad, media as leisure can be highly problematic. Media literacy leisure education is a tool or strategy for leisure education specialists to help people understand what Mundy (1998) underscored to be a key aspect of leisure education: the relationship among leisure, lifestyle, and society. It can help people find greater meaning in leisure. Leisure education can be used to explore how media leisure affects

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people, such as body image among women or violence, and obesity levels in general. Leisure education can teach people, especially youth, how to become critical viewers and thinkers of media and how media create harmful stereotypes of people (such as Arab Americans) or how media techniques are used to persuade them to purchase products and make leisure choices. Media literacy leisure education teaches people how big media industries manipulate people and sometimes exploit people and harm them, such as encouraging leisure behaviors of underage drinking or sexually objectifying women. Media literacy leisure education can help people become aware of how the media contribute to the construction of gender identities, such as boys and men learning that the media help create unimodal dimensions that men are to be rough and tough (known as hegemonic masculinity), resulting in rough and tough leisure activities (see Wearing, 1998). Media literacy leisure education can teach people to go on TV diets and explore different types of leisure or activities, thus helping people pursue leisure activities that they have always wanted to learn, such as going fly-fishing, attending a book club, learning to sky dive, taking up the harmonica, collecting coins, going to a Star Trek convention, learning to play together as a family, or exercising at a local recreation center. In short, leisure education that examines how media consumption as leisure affects the overall leisure experience propels people toward healthy human development and leisure that can become more meaningful and fulfilling. Many media literacy activity resources can be used in leisure education settings (e.g., the counter-ad or anti-ad activity and the Hooters restaurant media literacy activities already mentioned in this chapter). Media exercises and activities are peppered through Potter’s (2008) book Media Literacy and Strasburger et al.’s (2009) book Children, Adolescents, and the Media. In particular, the following media literacy exercise (Strasburger et al., 2009) can be done in a leisure education setting designed to highlight the relationship among media, food, and body image: For 1 week, watch your normal television programs but keep a log of the commercials shown during the breaks. Try to show a link between the type of show and the type of advertising. What types of foods are being advertised? What types of body types are displayed in the advertising? (p. 414) Figure 5.2 is a media literacy lesson plan, “Tackling the Beer Baron,” used with permission from Bob McCannon, president of the Action Coalition for Media Education (http://www.acmecoalition.org/home), regarding being critical/reflective of beer commercials being aired during the National Football League Super Bowl telecast.

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The Action Coalition for Media Education: Lesson Plan Media Literacy “Tackling the Beer Barons” Goal: An investigative, goal-oriented lesson to stimulate critical thinking about the single most watched television show, the Super Bowl, and its most common ads—beer commercials—and their impact on youth. Rationale: If students don’t receive this information, children will know less about one of the most powerful media—TV ads and sports broadcasting. Then, the alcohol companies can continue their powerful influence upon the socialization of our kids. By Bob McCannon: Vice President, Action Coalition for Media Education This lesson is a project of the Action Coalition for Media Education (www. acmecoalition.org). It derives from the New Mexico Media Literacy Project’s 7-year “Targeting Children, Disrespecting Women, Ban Budweiser Campaign,” also developed by Bob McCannon during his 14 years as executive director. If you have questions, Bob can be reached at [email protected]. Peter DeBenedittis also contributed a small part of this content. Relevant Subject Areas: Social Studies/History Language Arts/English Health Communications Duration: (1 and a half class periods): 20 minutes on the last class day before the showing of the Super Bowl One class period on the Monday after the Super Bowl Critical Thinking Outcomes: Students will better be able to • analyze beer advertisements, • understand targeting techniques used in beer ads, • understand the effort the alcohol industry invests in beer ads, and • appreciate the importance of youth to beer companies. Health Outcomes: Students will better be able to understand • the biological consequences of beer drinking, • the addictive properties of beer drinking, • the social consequences of beer drinking, and • beer company attempts to divert attention from these effects. Figure 5.2 Media Literacy Lesson Plan (cont.)

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Preparation: “Tackling the Beer Barons:” (Before the Super Bowl) • 2–3 Log Sheets for every student. Distribute them during the last class before the Super Bowl. • Read and explain the log sheet instructions to the students. • Explain that the students will only use the sheets, that is, “work,” for 1 hour of the Super Bowl. During that hour and that hour ONLY, the students will LIST - any ad or reference to any alcohol or beer company, such as “brought to you by xxx alcohol or beer (A or B) company – ANY announcement or mention of any A or B company”; - any statistics or awards brought to the viewer by a beer company; - any beer “blimps, balloons, robots,” or other aerial shots; - any shots of beer signs in the stadium that the cameras show; and - any shots of fans drinking (count them) or shots of fans with beer logos on their apparel. • Very important: Note any ads that - have actors that could be under 21 years old, - have cartoon characters, - seem to have humor designed to appeal mostly to adolescents, or - seem to be PSAs (public service announcements about the problems of drinking) promoting “responsible” drinking or the “dangers” of drinking. • Ask for student volunteers to tape the beer ads and PSAs. Split them up into hours, half hours, or quarter hours of the game. Emphasize that they could also bring the examples to class with examples from above cued up and ready to play. Note that the prevention PSA is particularly important. • Teachers should also record the show and have several examples ready and bring them to class with some classic examples ready to play (cued up). Try to get the best Bud ads; there are usually 8–12 of them each game. Also, remember, the Bud prevention PSA is particularly important! • Print and copy student handout #1 to use in class. To save paper, it is designed to be cut in half. Figure 5.2 (cont.)

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• Optional preparation: This will extend this segment’s class time, but it is great education. Explain that in the past beer companies, especially have sought

After the Super Bowl—Media Literacy Monday: “Tackling the Beer Barons” 1. Cost (10 minutes): Ask several students to review the results of their logs and the totals from each category. Note the totals on the board. Are the students surprised at how often beer is advertised on this sports event? Multiply the total amount of time by $2.5 million per minute. How much is that?

Ask the students to figure out how much money Budweiser spent on just this one football game. Take the cost of the ads time ($xx million per ad) and then add in (guess at) the number of stadium signs and what they cost, announcements, $1–2 million to produce each ad, and hundreds of public relations and advertising people to push the campaign associated with the ad campaign right down to signs in stores all over the country. You probably cannot overestimate!

2. Targeting (10 minutes): Introduce the students to the concept of targeting. Different ads target different groups (age, ethnicity, wealth, profession, etc.). Which ads did the students think were the most humorous? The most memorable? Research shows that the more people like an ad, the more likely they are to buy the product. Ask the students if this is important to beer companies and why. Note that competition from other alcohol drinks is growing. Were there ads for other kinds of alcohol drinks other than beer? If the ads sell more beer, ad executives receive bonuses! How many other alcohol drinks advertised on the Super Bowl? What age groups do the students think the best ads targeted? 3. Information (2 minutes): Point out that on a per-minute basis, these ads cost more to make than movies. The average national TV ad costs approximately $1 million. That would be $2 million/minute! And the bulk of the money is spent to buy the time to play the ads. Thus, every detail in the ad is put there on purpose, and only after expensive experts give it a great deal of thought. 4. Deconstruction (10 minutes): Because ads are so carefully and expensively constructed, try to deconstruct or analyze a few.

Figure 5.2 (cont.)

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Why did they like the ad? Consider music, humor, animation, animals, attractive people, attention-getting scenes, celebrities, powerful symbols, cleverness, and other techniques of persuasion. • Were most of the actors in the ad having fun? Why? • Often, the ads use humor. What kind of humor was used? • Budweiser often uses animations. Most recently a Bud animation appeared in June 2004. What age group do the cartoons target? • Another frequent technique of beer ads is to use jokes that put down (disrespect) women (because men buy most of the beer) or other types of people who are portrayed as being “dumb.” Why? (The fact that we “get” the joke is meant to make us feel good. The better we feel, the more beer they sell.) Are these kinds of humorous stories good for little kids to watch? Could they get wrong or misleading ideas about drinking, women, or different groups? • Did the ad mention any of the negative consequences of drinking alcohol? Remind the students that the more students enjoy beer ads, the more likely students are to try beer drinking. Make a list of negative consequences of drinking. • Pick another of the most popular beer ads and repeat the analysis. Did the ad appeal less or more to some students in the class? Why? 5. Health consequences (10 minutes): Point out that the ads usually don’t mention any of the health consequences of drinking, such as the following: - After drinking there is less activity in the brain—less thinking. - Many researchers think that heavy drinking damages parts of the brain. - There are about 60 ads in a Super Bowl. Bud usually buys about 10. - That is about $25 MILLION just to buy the TIME! - The Super Bowl is the most watched TV show on earth. - About 15 million people under age 18 watched the last Super Bowl. - About 7 million were aged 12–17. - About 7 million were under age 12. - Out of 10 kids that start drinking before age 15, four will become alcoholics. - Beer companies make $5 BILLION per year from underage drinking. Why would Budweiser be willing to spend so much money on the Super Bowl? Figure 5.2 (cont.)

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- Ask students why they think that beer companies don’t mention the health effects of drinking? - Ask the students what group buys the most beer (alcoholics/heavy drinkers). - Could beer companies be interested in attracting their best customers (alcoholics/heavy drinkers) when they are young? - Ask the students what other negative health consequences arise from drinking beer. (driving, sex and pregnancy or STDs, less money to spend on other things). Make a list of other things on which most families need to spend money. 6. What Beer companies call “prevention” (8 minutes): - Usually Budweiser runs a “prevention” ad during every Super Bowl. It usually encourages people to use “designated drivers” or asks parents to “talk to their kids about drinking.” This part of the lesson is about this type of ad. If there is no Bud prevention ad, go on to the next section. - Play the prevention spot to the class. 7. Use the following questions as a guide for the discussion. - Why did Bud only play one prevention ad out of so many others? Does Bud, therefore, really value prevention? - Did the Bud prevention ad have the same kind of humor, cleverness, attractive people, music, attention-getting devices, and entertainment values of the other Bud ads? Why or why not? - Do you think that encouraging parents to talk to kids about drinking will affect many teens’ decisions to drink or how much teens will drink? Could this be a sneaky way for the beer companies to influence younger kids or to possibly transfer responsibility for teen drinking from the company and its advertising to the parents? - Because the PSA ad is usually bland and boring, and the other alcohol/Bud ads are so funny, sexy, and so forth, isn’t Bud just making the kids’ and parents’ jobs harder? - Did the ad say that the smartest, safest thing was to NOT drink? (It is.) - Did the ad mention the negative health consequences of drinking? If no, why not? If so, how few and why so few? - Did the ad encourage one person to not drink or to get someone else to drive a group, SO THAT MORE PEOPLE COULD GET SMASHED? Do you think alcohol companies like the idea of designated drivers? Figure 5.2 (cont.)

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- With $5 billion at stake, do you really think beer companies want less underage drinking? - Car crashes are the number one killer of teens. Alcohol is involved in most of these. Do you really think beer companies care about kids’ lives? If they were, wouldn’t they run more prevention PSAs? - Could they produce more effective prevention PSAs (like the ads they make to SELL beer)? - Do you think you could create a prevention ad that would be more effective at getting kids to not drink or to drink more responsibly and especially to not drive after drinking? - How would you go about it? Think of some ideas, some music, some humor, some attractive people, some celebrities, some dialogue, and some scenes. You could make a better prevention ad than Budweiser. • Grading: Students are graded on successfully filling out their log sheets and their participation in the class discussion. 8. Extension Activities: • Design posters illustrating the lesson and post them in hallways. • Make a video that “tells the untold story” about Super Bowl beer ads and Budweiser. Talk about the truth. Try to get the video played on the local cable access channel. • Write letters to the editor of your local papers, to the beer companies, to ABC Sports, to your local, state, and national representatives. Talk about the unfairness of beer companies making drinking problems worse, targeting kids, and putting down women.

Student Log Sheets: “Tackling the Beer Barons” Exact Time Brand Promoted Type of Promotion ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ ____________ __________________ ____________________ Figure 5.2 (cont.)

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Calculate the # of Alcohol Promotions Commercials = ______ Logos shown = ______ Sponsorship mentions = ______ Signs = ______ Blimps = ______ Other = ______ Calculate the # of Beer Brands That Are Promoted Budweiser = ______ Bud Light = ______ Coors Light = ______ Miller Lite = ______ Miller = ______ Other = ______ Other = ______ Calculate the # of Beer Brands That Are Promoted Budweiser = ______ Bud Light = ______ Coors Light = ______ Miller Lit = ______ Millers = ______ Other = ______ Other = ______ Calculate the Number of Alcohol Promotions Commercials = ______ Logos shown = ______ Sponsorship mentions = ______ Signs = ______ Blimps = ______ Other = ______ Figure 5.2 (cont.) Reprint permission given by author, Bob McCannon, president of the Action Coalition for Media Education, http://www.acmecoalition.org/

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Conclusion The purpose of this chapter was to outline and move forward how leisure education can be linked to social policy development to prevent or remedy social problems. Regardless of whether contemporary social problems have a direct or non-direct link to leisure planning, experiences, and behaviors, leisure education from a person-centered, system-directed, and mixed-person system approach can play an important role in averting and alleviating social problems and in improving social welfare. Leisure and leisure education is human and social development. Using Mundy’s leisure education framework to outline the relationship among media, leisure, self, lifestyle, and society, this chapter provided examples of leisure education being used within a social policy framework. The last part of this chapter sketched how leisure education could be integrated with media literacy as a way of addressing and counteracting how the media affect leisure and contribute to social problems, such as the sexualization of girls and women and body image problems. However, there are many more areas that leisure education can be part of social policy development, such as helping with antipoverty policies, with mental health policies, or even with the current political discussion that social policy should be directed toward developing national health based on happiness and well-being (e.g., Bok, 2010) as opposed to economic indicators such as the Gross Domestic Product.

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Sallis, J. F., Cervero, R. B., Ascher, W., Henderson, K. A., Kraft, M. K., & Kerr, J. (2006). An ecological approach to creating active living communities. Annual Review of Public Health, 27, 297-322. Schor, J. B. (2004). Born to buy: The commercialized child and the new consumer culture. New York, NY: Scribner. Scott, D. (2005). The wilderness act and its recent history. In H. K. Cordell, J. C. Bergstrom, & J. M. Bowker (Eds.), The multiple values of the wilderness (pp. 23-46). State College, PA: Venture. Segal, E. A. (2007). Social welfare policy and social programs: A value perspective. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Shannon, C. S. (2012). Leisure education within the context of child obesity intervention programme: Parents experiences. World Leisure Journal, 44(1), 16-25. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media literacy: Keys to interpreting media messages. Westport, CT: Praeger. Sivan, A. (2007). Educating for leisure. In E. Cohen-Gewerc & R. A. Stebbins (Eds.), The pivotal role of leisure education: Finding personal fulfillment in this century (pp. 51-69). Stage College, PA: Venture. Sivan, A., & Chan, D. W. K. (2012). Leisure education in schools from students’ perspectives: The case of Hong Kong. World Leisure Journal, 54(1), 26-37. Sivan, A., & Ruskin, H. (2000). Leisure education in the school systems—An international survey. Jerusalem, Israel: World Leisure and Recreation Association Commission on Education. Sivan, A., & Stebbins, R. A. (2011). Leisure education: Definitions, aims, advocacy, and practices—Are we talking about the same thing? World Leisure Journal, 53(1), 27-41. Slater, M., Round, D., Murphy, K., Beavais, F., Van Leuven, J., & Domenech-Rodriquez, M. (1996). Adolescent counterarguing of TV beer advertisements: Evidence of effectiveness of alcohol education and critical viewing discussions. Journal of Drug Education, 26, 143-158. Smith, D. H., Stebbins, R. A., & Dover, M. A. (2006). A dictionary of nonprofit terms and concepts. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Spangler, K., & O’Sullivan, E. (2008). NRPA’s health initiatives. In B. L. Driver (Ed.), Managing to optimize the beneficial outcomes of recreation (pp. 347374). State College, PA: Venture. Stebbins, R. A. (2002). The organizational basis of leisure participation: A motivational exploration. State College, PA: Venture. Steiner-Adair, C., Sjostrom, L., Franko, D., Pai, S., Tucker, R., & Becker, A. (2002). Primary prevention of risk factors for eating disorders in adolescent girls: Learning from practice. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32, 401-411. Strasburger, V. C., Wilson, B. J., & Jordan, A. B. (2009). Children, adolescents, and the media (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Teays, W. (2010). Second thoughts: Critical thinking for a diverse society (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

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Thibault, A. (2008). Public and civic leisure in Quebec: Dynamic, democratic, passion-driven, and fragile. Quebec, Canada: Presses de l Universite du Quebec. Vooijs, M. W., & van der Voort, T. H. A. (1993). Learning about television violence: The impact of a critical viewing curriculum on children’s attitudinal judgments of crime series. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 26, 133-142. Waldram, J., & Dieser, R. B. (2010). Perspectives of fitness and health on college men and women. Journal of College Student Development, 51(1), 65-78. Wearing, B. (1998). Leisure and feminist theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Wilson, A. (1991). The culture of nature: North American landscape from Disney to the Exxon Valdez. Toronto, Canada: Between the Lines Books. Young, D. R., & Salamon, L. M. (2001). Commercialization, social ventures, and for-profit competition. In L. M. Salamon (Ed.), The state of nonprofit America (pp. 423-446). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Yuen, F., Arai, S., & Fortune, D. (2012). Community disconnection through leisure for women in prison. Leisure Science, 34, 281-297. Yuen, F., Thompson, J. E., & Pedlar, A. (2006, May). Volunteering and engagement in leisure: A restorative justice approach to working with incarcerated women. Restorative Directions Journal, 2(1), 22-35.

chapter six

A Short Overview Regarding Leisure Education Programming Stages and Group Facilitation and Structuring

As stated in the preface of this book, the goal of Leisure Education: A Person-Centered, System-Directed, and Social Policy Perspective is to propel the field of leisure education forward by helping readers in a threefold way: (a) to understand the history of leisure education, including the many theories and models of leisure education; (b) to outline the progress and dynamic aspects of leisure education, such as the difference between person-centered and systemdirected leisure education; and (c) to move the leisure education field toward social policy development so that leisure education can have a voice related to preventing and remedying social problems. The goal of this book is not to explain leisure education programming; there are many other leisure education textbooks (e.g., Dattilo, 2008), as well as books in leisure programming (e.g., Edginton, Hudson, Dieser, & Edginton, 2004; Russell & Jamieson, 2008) and therapeutic recreation (Carter & Van Andel, 20011; Stumbo & Peterson, 2009; Sylvester, Voelkl, & Ellis, 2001), that explain programming structures and formats. However, I did not feel good ending this book without providing a brief overview about some of the most salient aspects of leisure education programming. Leisure education programming is defined as a process that enables individuals or groups to experience leisure education and ultimately leisure. Leisure education programming—whether it is a person-centered, a system-directed, or a mixed approach or strives toward social policy development—is organized by an agency, and such agencies need to provide core programming principles, such as writing a purpose statement or goals and objectives. The following section outlines four salient features of leisure programming: (a) format and structure for leisure education programs, (b) understanding the difference between goals and objectives, (c) teaching and learning, and (d)

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cross-cultural aspects of leisure education. However, the goal of this book and this last chapter is not to explain leisure education programming in an in-depth and broad manner; it only touches on leisure programming. As such, readers need to gain knowledge and understanding of the many other important aspects of leisure education programming and are strongly encouraged to learn more about leisure programming principles.

Format and Structure for Leisure Education Programs According to Dattilo (2008), all leisure education programs should have the following principles and structures: • Program Title and Purpose Statement: The title reflects the program purpose, and the purpose statement contains a one or two sentence description regarding the intent of the leisure education program from the perspective of the leisure education agency providing the program. • Program Goals: An outcome statement that specifies what the leisure education participants should gain from the program. • Objectives (sometimes also called behavioral objectives or enabling objectives): A specific, intended, measureable outcome that follows from a written goal. • Performance Measures: A statement of the behavior that will be evidence that the intent of the objective has been achieved. • Content Description: What must be done to achieve the intent of the objectives, including identification of materials or equipment needed. • Process Description: The way in which the material is presented, such as the teaching or instructional method. Furthermore, Dattilo (2008) also outlined the following structures in regard to facilitating or leading an actual leisure education session: • Orientation Activity: The first activity—usually in the first few minutes—is designed to create an atmosphere of learning and enjoyment. • Introduction: Familiarizes leisure education participants with the topic and objective to be covered in the session. • Presentation and Discussion: The presentation includes the act of communicating information to participants, and discussion encompasses a dialogue among people.

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• Learning Activities: Activities that allow participants to practice the information they learned during the presentation. • Debriefings: A sequence of questions that requires the participants to reflect, describe, analyze, and communicate about the learning activity. • Conclusion: An attempt to make sense of the entire leisure educational process by reviewing the major points, asking questions, and generating anticipation for the next leisure education session or future leisure participation.

Goals and Objectives Goals are general or broad statements of intent, and objectives are specific outcomes that are measurable (Edginton et al., 2004). Although different authors (e.g., Kennedy, Smith, & Austin, 1991; Melcher, 1999; Russell & Jamieson, 2008) use different terminology to explain how to write objectives, in essence, objectives usually contain three components. First, well-written objectives identify a behavior. All leisure programmers, including leisure education specialists, can identify a behavior by finishing this statement: I will know the individual is demonstrating the desired behavior when the person can _________ (fill in the blank). Second, the conditions under which the behavior will take place— sometimes known as the restrictions—are to be identified. Third, the criteria of a successful performance—the minimum standard of correctness—are to be identified. Objectives, the specific outcomes that are measured or learned, can be written within a psychomotor domain (e.g., developing soccer skills), a cognitive domain (e.g., knowledge of the rules to soccer), or an affective domain (e.g., valuing the concept of fair play and sportsmanship). If the goal of a swimming program is to develop swimming skills (broad statement of intent), a measureable objective to develop this goal could be as follows: After two months of lessons (condition), the participant will swim the backstroke (behavior) one length of the pool as judged appropriate by the swim instructor (criteria). In this example, the length of time involved in swimming lessons serves as the restriction (condition), the backstroke serves as the action or behavior, and performing the backstroke the length of the pool serves as the minimum standard or criteria of correctness. Drawn specifically from leisure education programs designed by Dattilo (2000) for people with disabilities, the following are examples of measurable objectives related to teaching camping, bowling, and painting education: • Given a pencil and paper, within 5 minutes (condition), the participants will demonstrate knowledge of camping as a leisure experience (behavior) by identifying in writing four benefits of leisure that can be experienced through camping (criteria).

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• Upon request and within 5 minutes (condition), the participant will demonstrate knowledge of common bowling courtesies (behavior) by verbally stating five of the following seven courtesies (criteria): (a) when two bowlers are ready to bowl at the same time, the bowler on the right goes first; (b) take turn immediately; (c) wait for the ball near the return rack; (d) respect foul line; (e) do not use powder on shoes; (f) refrain from conversation with bowlers preparing to deliver the ball; and (g) refrain from commenting on other bowlers’ style. • Given a paintbrush, within 2 minutes (condition), the participant will demonstrate the ability to hold a paintbrush correctly to paint by demonstrating the appropriate positions (behavior) as judged correct by the instructor (criteria).

Teaching and Learning Leisure education specialists should understand and be able to apply theories of personality and learning, along with methods of teaching. For example, a behavioral orientation to learning suggests that people learn from positive and negative reinforcement where a humanistic, person-centered belief of learning is based on reaching self-actualization. This chapter does not outline the different theories of personality development and learning theory. Readers are strongly encouraged to seek out learning related to human development (e.g., understanding human development in children, adolescents, and adults). In regard to instructional methods, Sylvester, Voelkl, and Ellis (2001), building on the academic work of Farnham-Diggory (1994), identified five different knowledge and instructional tactics relevant to leisure education: • declarative knowledge: knowledge that can be confirmed, usually in books and words (e.g., statistics regard how much television people watch in a day); • procedural knowledge: learning of action sequences and steps (e.g., how to hold and swing a golf club); • conceptual knowledge: mental representations of complex ideas, such as learning a theatrical script; • analogical knowledge: imagery used to correspond between the outside world and what a person has thought (e.g., visualizing sinking a ball in billiards); and • logical knowledge: a mental model of what is connected to what and what leads to what (e.g., learning a task and activity analysis before heading on a camping trip).

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Beyond this list, McKeachie (2010) presents teaching strategies, such as • how to facilitate a group discussion and effectively listen to students; • what to do when first meeting a new class or group of people in a learning environment; • how to use communication and information technologies effectively; • how to provide effective lecturing, experiential learning, peer learning, collaborative learning, project-based learning, and problem-based leaning; and • the importance of thinking about group and class sizes. Again, this book does not outline knowledge and instructional techniques and strategies. However, leisure education specialists need to learn about such knowledge and instructional techniques and strategies, as well as understand the stages of group facilitation or structuring (see Corey, Corey, & Corey, 2008; Gladding, 2012), because so much of leisure education programming takes place in group settings.

Cross-Cultural Aspects of Leisure Education According to the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2005–2007 community survey (as cited in Stodolska, 2010), less than 75% of Americans are Caucasian. Approximately 14.8% of the U.S. population is Hispanic, 12.4% is African American, 4.4% is Asian, 0.8% is American Indian, and 0.1% is Hawaiian/Pacific Islander. Moreover, the U.S. Census Bureau forecasted that in 2050—in the next 40 years—White people will account for barely half the U.S. population (approximately 52.8%) and Hispanic Americans will account for close to 25% of the U.S. population, with African Americans remaining at approximately 13% of the U.S. population. Recent comments by Morris (2010) reflect the importance of building cross-cultural competencies: There is a growing sense of urgency for citizens in the 21st century to increase their understanding of people from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. From misunderstandings to intercultural conflict, frictions exist within and between cultures . . . people find themselves in increased contact with people who are culturally different, working side by side with them. In the workplace and community, different cultural beliefs and values and communication styles are here to stay. It is not enough for people to become aware of and sensitive to cultural differences. Our changing world requires individuals as well as organizations to begin that visionary journey to becoming culturally competent. (p. 40) Without doubt, America is becoming more diverse with each passing day.

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Culture is defined as a learned system of beliefs, feelings, and rules for living in which groups of individuals organize their lives (Pedersen, 2000). Culture is the way people act and live their lives, which consists of shared assumptions, values, learned responses, and ways of being. Simply put, culture is the thing a stranger would need to know to behave appropriately in a specific setting (Pedersen, 2000). Diversity refers to the awareness and celebration of differences among people. Diversity encompasses the primary and secondary characteristics of individuals (Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser, & Edginton, 2006). Primary characteristics are the obvious impressions upon meeting an individual and are almost impossible to change (e.g., gender, age, physical abilities, race). Secondary characteristics reveal themselves after primary characteristics and generally are learned, are chosen, and can often change (e.g., religion, economic status, education, geographic location). Cultural encapsulation is the practice of ignoring cultures (Pedersen, 2000). Pedersen (2000) identified five features of cultural encapsulation. First, reality is defined according to one set of cultural assumptions and stereotypes. These assumptions and stereotypes become more important than what occurs in the real world. Second, people become insensitive to cultural variation and assume their view is the only legitimate one. Third, individual unreasoned assumptions are accepted without proof. Fourth, technique-oriented job definitions further contribute to cultural encapsulation. Last, self-reference techniques eliminate evaluation of other viewpoints; thus, there is no interpretation of behaviors of others except from one’s self-reference. This, in turn, blinds a person to the different behaviors that people from diverse populations have to achieve similar purposes. According to Cormier, Nurius, and Osborn (2012), all human services workers, including leisure education specialists and other leisure professionals, should be aware of the following five areas when working with clients from diverse cultural backgrounds: • the participant’s worldview: how the participant sees the world and through what perspectives and lenses; • the participant’s cultural and ethnic identity: how the participant makes sense of himself/herself culturally; • the participant’s level of acculturation: how the participant identifies with former and current cultures and how a participant moves through these cultures in regard to resources and barriers; • sources of cultural information: what information the participant reports or shares about areas of his/her life; and • stigmas associated with the participant: what cultural meaning the participants has of various life events, such as leisure.

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In regard to these five areas of cross-cultural knowledge, a solid body of research demonstrates that people from different cultural backgrounds have different leisure participation styles and patterns. For example, different studies have suggested African Americans participate less in outdoor recreation compared to White Americans (Shinew, Floyd, & Perry, 2004), and part of the reason is due to the history of violence that African American people experience in outdoor settings (Johnson, Bowker, English, & Worthen, 1998). Hispanic Americans have been shown to participate more often in larger and multigenerational family-oriented leisure compared to White Americans (Cronan, Shinew, & Stodolska, 2008; Gobster, 2002). In regard to religious diversity, Lankford, Dieser, and Walker (2005) found a similar research finding among members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons): outdoor recreation and tourism outings were oriented toward large and multigenerational families experiences. If leisure education specialists are to provide leisure education programming to people from different cultural backgrounds, they need to learn that different cultural groups have different values, norms, and leisure behaviors and patterns. A beginning step to help all leisure professionals, including leisure education specialists, gain cross-cultural competencies is training. Different authors (e.g., Bedini & Stone, 2008; Morris, 2010; Peregoy & Dieser, 1997; Peregoy, Schliebner, & Dieser, 1997) have suggested cross-cultural training is a developmental process designed to increase an individual’s understanding in three areas: to gain awareness of one’s personal values, biases, beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions related to multicultural experiences; to acquire knowledge about the history and the cultural backgrounds of diverse groups of people; and to learn specific skills that will help leisure professionals work more effectively with culturally different people. As outlined by Cormier et al. (2012), cross-cultural professionals in helping services should be aware of the participant’s cultural and ethnic identity. Ethnic identity is a set of self-ideas concerning one’s own ethnic group membership (Sue & Sue, 2007). Understanding ethnic identity development of individuals from different cultures who participate in leisure activities can help leisure professionals recognize ethnic differences, within group and between groups differences of an ethnic group, and individual differences when responding to culturally different clients (Dieser, 1997). This, in turn, can decrease stereotypes when leisure professionals provide leisure education. There are different ethnic minority models. Cross (1971, 1995) created a Black identity development model, Kitano (1982) created a Japanese American identity model, and Ruiz (1990) created a Hispanic American identity development model. However, the Minority Identity Development (MID) Model is a comprehensive ethnic minority identity model that cuts across different ethnic minority backgrounds (e.g., Asian Americans, African Americans) and has cross-cultural research support (e.g., Atkinson, 2003; Pederson, 2000; Sue & Sue, 2007). MID consists of five stages (Atkinson, 2003; Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1993):

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• Conformity is the first and lowest stage of minority/ethnic development, which consists of individuals from different ethnic backgrounds giving preference for values of the dominant culture over those of their own cultural group. Attitudes toward their own cultural group are self-depreciating, whereas attitudes toward the dominant culture are appreciating. • Dissonance consists of confusion and conflict toward dominant cultural systems and the individual’s own cultural systems. An individual’s attitude toward his/her cultural group and the dominant cultural group is marked by conflict between depreciating and appreciating. • Resistance (also called immersion) is the active rejection of the dominant culture and the active involvement of the individual’s own cultural customs and traditions. Attitudes toward one’s own cultural group are self-appreciating, whereas attitudes toward the dominant culture are self-depreciating. • Introspection consists of the individual questioning the values of both his/ her minority group and the dominant group. • Synergetic articulation and awareness is when the person develops a cultural identity that is based on both dominant and minority cultural group values. Obviously, the most balanced and healthy development stage is the synergetic articulation and awareness stage and is the last and highest stage of minority/ethnic development. Dieser (1997) provided a brief personal narrative regarding how an individual’s minority/ethnic identity had direct implications to leisure education when he worked with adolescents in a summer gang prevention program in a low socioeconomic neighborhood. Because program participants were from ethnic minority backgrounds, Dieser wanted to highlight ethnic diversity and help these young men and women have a sense of ethnic dignity/pride. Dieser reported that almost all 11 participants from diverse ethnic backgrounds belittled the cultural-based activities of the leisure education program with one individual stating, “It’s not cool to be Hispanic” (p. 36), and another participant calling ethnic leisure awareness “stupid” (p. 36). Although these comments could be a result of many different factors (e.g., boring programs, lack of leisure resources), Dieser wondered if the depreciating behavior could be a result of participants acting from the conformity stage of ethnic identity.

Conclusion The purpose of this last chapter was to provide a brief overview of four important aspects of leisure education programming: (a) format and structure for leisure education programs, (b) understanding the difference between goals and objectives, (c) teaching and learning, and (d) cross-cultural aspects

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of leisure education. The goal of this book and this last chapter was not to explain leisure education programming in an in-depth and broad manner; this last chapter only touched on leisure programming with a small synopsis. Other important aspects of leisure education programming are not contained in this chapter, such as evaluation, marketing and promotion, and how to make accommodations and adaptions when leading a leisure education program for people with special needs or disabilities. To this end, readers are strongly encouraged to learn more about general leisure programming principles and structures that can be obtained from taking additional coursework or from reading leisure programming textbooks within and outside the field of leisure education.

References Atkinson, D. R. (2003). Counseling American minorities (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Atkinson, D. R., Morten, G., & Sue, D. W. (1993). Counseling American minorities (4th ed.). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark. Bedini, L. A., & Stone, C. F. (2008). Training for diversity. In M. T. Allison & I. E. Schneider (Eds.), Diversity and the recreation profession: Organizational perspectives (Rev. ed., pp. 261-290). State College, PA: Venture. Carter, M. J., & Van Andel, G. E. (2011). Therapeutic recreation: A practical approach (4th ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press. Corey, M. S., Corey, G., & Corey, C. (2008). Group process and practice (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cormier, S., Nurius, P. S., & Osborn, C. J. (2012). Interviewing and change strategies for helpers (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cronan, M. K., Shinew, K. J., & Stodolska, M. (2008). Trail use among Latinos: Recognizing diverse uses among a specific population. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 26, 62-86. Cross, W. E. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversation experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20, 13-27. Cross, W. E. (1995). The psychology of Nigrescene: Revising the Cross model. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 93-122). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Dattilo, J. (2000). Leisure education specific programs. State College, PA: Venture. Dattilo, J. (2008). Leisure education program planning: A systematic approach (3rd ed.). State College, PA: Venture. Dieser, R. (1997). Pluralistic leadership and program planning: Understanding minority/ethnic identity development. Journal of Leisurability, 24(3), 33-37. Edginton, C. R., DeGraaf, D. G., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. (2006). Leisure and life satisfaction: Foundational perspectives (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill. Edginton, C. R., Hudson, S. R., Dieser, R. B., & Edginton, S. R. (2004). Leisure programming: A service-centered and benefits approach (4th ed.). Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill.

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Farnham-Diggory, S. (1994). Paradigms of knowledge and instruction. Review of Educational Research, 64, 463-467. Gladding, S. (2012). Groups: A counseling specialty (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Gobster, P. H. (2002). Managing urban parks for a racially and ethnically diverse clientele. Leisure Science, 24, 143-159. Johnson, C. Y., Bowker, J. M., English, D. B. K., & Worthen, D. (1998). Wildland recreation in the rural South: An examination of marginality and ethnicity theory. Journal of Leisure Research, 30, 101-120. Kennedy, D. W., Smith, R. W., & Austin, D. R. (1991). Special recreation: Opportunities for persons with disabilities. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. Kitano, H. H. L. (1982). Mental health in the Japanese American community. In E. E. Jones & S. J. Korchin (Eds.), Minority mental health (pp. 149-164). New York, NY: Praeger. Lankford, S. V., Dieser, R. B., & Walker, G. (2005). Self-construal and pilgrimage travel. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), 802-804. McKeachie, W. J. (2010). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. Melcher, S. (1999). Introduction to writing goals and objectives: A manual for recreation therapy students and entry-level professionals. State College, PA: Venture. Morris, P. V. (2010). Building cultural competencies. In Human Kinetics (Ed.), Inclusive recreation: Programs and services for diverse populations (pp. 3960). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pedersen, P. (2000). A handbook for developing multicultural awareness (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Peregoy, J. J., & Dieser, R. B. (1997). Multiculturalism in therapeutic recreation: Living in hamlets. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 31(3), 173-188. Peregoy, J. J., Schliebner, C., & Dieser, R. B. (1997). Diversity issues in therapeutic recreation. In D. M. Compton (Ed.), Issues in therapeutic recreation: Toward the new millennium (pp. 275-298). Champaign, IL: Sagamore. Ruiz, A. S. (1990). Ethnic identity: Crises and resolution. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 18, 29-40. Russell, R. V., & Jamieson, L. M. (2008). Leisure program planning and delivery. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Shinew, K. J., Floyd, M. F., & Parry, D. (2004). Understanding the relationship between race and leisure activities and constraints: Exploring an alternative framework. Leisure Science, 26, 181-199. Stodolska, M. (2010). Providing leisure services for diverse populations. In Human Kinetics (Ed.), Inclusive recreation: Programs and services for diverse populations (pp. 93-118). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Stumbo, N. J., & Peterson, C. A. (2009). Therapeutic recreation program design: Principles and procedures (5th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson.

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Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2007). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Sylvester, C., Voelkl, J. E., & Ellis, G. D. (2001). Therapeutic recreation programming: Theory and practice. State College, PA: Venture.

Index A active living to remedy obesity, 130–131 Addams, Jane, 50, 67, 82, 129, 130 Adler, Alfred, xiv Adler, Mortimer, 1–2, 2, 7 Albert II, Prince, 39 Alderian therapy, xiv American Association for Leisure and Recreation, 135 American Cancer Society, iii Anasazi site, 22–23 Anheuser-Busch Corporation, 69 anthropological theories of leisure, 17, 37–40 anti-structure, theory of, 17, 38–39 Arab American girls, women, 145, 154 Aristotle, 1, 17, 40, 114 attribution retraining leisure education model (fig.), 95 avocational counseling, 9–10 B Bannon, Joe, iii barriers to leisure, 85–88 Barton, W.H., 5 Bastoy Prison, 134 Battle of Little Bighorn/Custer’s Battlefield, 32, 38 Bayer Pharmaceuticals Corp., 63 beneficial outcomes approach to leisure (BOAL), 51 “Big 5” personality theory, 83 black spot leisure, 31–32 body image, 87, 155–156 Bowen, Louise de Koven, 82 Bowen Country Club, 82 Braveheart movie, 141 Brightbill, Charles, xiii, 2–3, 7 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 4 Bush, George W., 59 C Career Development Assessment and Counseling Model, 36 Carson, Rachel, 51 Challenge of Leisure, The (Brightbill), 2–3, xiii Chastain, Brandi, 61 childhoods, commercialized, 68–71 Children, Adolescents, and the Media (Strasburg), 157 classical leisure, 17 climate change, leisure activity contributing to, 58–59 Codey, Dick, 61 Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, 142–146, 146–153 commercialized childhoods, 68–71

compensation theory, 17, 35–36 Connery, Sean, 140 conspicuous consumption, 30, 68 constraints and barriers, leisure, 82–88 contemplation of good life, 40–41, 42 contemporary theories of leisure (table), 16–17 Cosmetic Surgery Network, 28 counseling: leisure, avocation, recreation, 9–10 Counseling Psychologist journal, 90 Creating Choice (Fortune, Thompson, et al.), 132 cross-cultural leisure education aspects, 175–178 model, 94, 110, 112 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 19–20, 21 cultural encapsulation, 176 culture defined, 176 D Dahmer, Jeffrey, 54 Dattilo, John, 91, 102, 116 Deadly Departed Tours, 31 Deskovic, Jeff, 24–25 Dewey, John, 1–2 Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes, 96 Dieser, Helen, iv Dieser, Rodney B., viii–ix, 101, 102, 114, 178 driving, 59 Dunn, Dr. Julia, iii, iv Dustin, Dan, 38–39 E eating disorders, 60 ecological approach, 4 Educating for Leisure-Centered Living (Brightbill), xiii, 3 education aims of formal K-12, 2 leisure. See leisure education Edwards, Patricia, 88, 89 Epicurus, 156 erectile dysfunction (ED) commercials, 62–63 erotic pornography, and violence against women, 63–67 Erotica USA, 66 ethnic minority models, 177–178 exercise behavior, recreational, 87–88 F Facebook, 137, 138 fallacies of reasoning, 149–150 Feinberg, David, 63 feminist theories of leisure, 17, 36–37 flow theory, 16, 19–20, 42 Fox, Dr. Karen, iv Freud, Sigmund, xiv, 54–72

Index

G Garnett, Kevin, 61 Gibson, Mel, 141 GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), 63 global climate change, leisure activity contributing to, 58–59 Godbey, Geoff, 38 Goodale, Tom, 38 Gore, Al, 40 Graceland, TN, 39 Great Adventure Six Flags theme park, NJ, 32 H health concerns regarding television watching (table), 138–139 Hearts N’ Parks, 131 Henderson, K. A., 8–9 heritage sites, 32 heterotopias, 17 hierarchical model of leisure constraints, 83–88 hockey, 26 Holland, J. L., 36, 94 Holland Codes, 96 Holmberg, K., 36 holy leisure, 39 homelessness, 128 Homo Ludens (Huizinga), 38 Hooters Restaurant, 148–153 Horney, Karen, xiv How to Make Love Like a Porn Star (Jameson), 63, 66 How To Talk Back to Your Television Set (Johnson), 136 Huizinga, Johan, 38 Hull House, 82, 129 Hull-House Labor Museum, 129–130 I individualistic approach, 3 Iso-Ahola, Seppo, 18 J Jackson, Cindy, 28 James Bond movies, 140–141 Jameson, Jenna, 63, 66 Johnson, Nicholas, 136 Jordan, Michael, 25 K Kelly, John, 28 Kelly’s sociological theory of leisure, 16, 17, 28–30, 42 Kersyer, Mary, 129 Kingda Ka roller coaster, 32 Kingwell, Mark, 41, 70 Kino-Quebec, 131 Koenig, Walter, 32 Koizumi, Junichiro, 39 Kraus, R.G., 6 Kyoto protocol, 59

183

L Layden, Mary Anne, 67 learned helplessness, 55 Lee, Joseph, 51 leisure beneficial aspects of, 50–54 benefits of experiences (table), 52 benefits of serious and casual (table), 53–54 constraints, barriers, 82–88 holy, 39 negative aspects of, 54–72 positive and negative consequences of, 49–50 serious, 34 theories of, 15–42 violent entertainment consumption, 67–68 Leisure Activities Finder (LAF), 96 leisure class, 16, 27–28, 58 leisure counseling, 9–10 Leisure Counseling: Concepts and Application (Dowd), 90, 91 Leisure Counseling Techniques (Edwards), 88 leisure education clustering of components from 1978-1998 (table), 106 clustering of components from 1999-2009 (table), 107–108 conceptualization of models from 1978-2009 (table), 103–105 cross-cultural aspects of, 175–178 descriptive data of research from 1878-2009 (table), 108–110 integration with media literacy education, 136–137 and media literacy, 142–146 models from 1970-1979, 88–90 models from 1980-1989, 90–91 models from 1990-1999, 91–97 models from 2000 to present, 97–105 Mundy’s model (fig.), 8 overlap with leisure experience (fig.), 10 person-centered approach, 6–9 programming. See leisure education programming related to understanding positive, negative consequences of leisure, 71–72 to remedy sexual objectification of women, 146–153 school-based, to remedy troubling youth behaviors, 134–136 as social policy, 128–136 from social policy perspective, 1–6, 165 and therapeutic recreation, xv Leisure Education Advancement Project (LEAP), 89 Leisure Education, Community Development, and Populations With Special Needs (Sivan and Ruskin), 98 Leisure Education Program Planning (Dattilo), 102

184 Leisure Education

leisure education programming cross-cultural aspects, 175–178 format and structure for programs, 172–173 goals, objectives, 173–174 introduction, 171–172 teaching and learning, 174–175 Leisure Education Toward Happiness Model, 114–115 lesson plan, media literacy, 158–164 literary landscapes, 32–33 little league baseball, 55 Longley, Luc, 25 Low, Juliette Gordon, 51 M Man and Leisure (Brightbill), 3 Manson, Charles, 31 Martin, Mark, 62–63 mass media, understanding, 137–142 Mather, Stephen T., 51 McDowell, Chester, 88, 89, 116 McDowell’s leisure education counseling model (table), 92 media, mass, 137–142 media leisure, 156–157 media literacy education connection to leisure education, 142–146 integration with leisure education, 136–137 resources for (table), 147 “Tackling the Beer Barons,” 158–164 Media Literacy (Potter), 157 media literacy programs, effectiveness, 153–156 Menendez brothers, 31 Miller, Steve, 32 moral regulation, 30 More, Saint Thomas, 57 motherhood, and leisure, 37 Mundy, Dr. Jean, iii, iv–v, 7–8, 88, 89, 90, 116 Murphy, William, 91 Mutual UFO Network (MUFON), 34 MySpace, 137 N Nakamura, Jeanne, 21 National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), 89 National Wilderness Preservation System, 128 Neulinger, John, 18 Neulinger’s leisure paradigm, 16, 18–25, 42 Noddings, Nel, 2, 7 O O*Net, 96 Obama, Barack, 23 obesity, 130–131, 139 Ocean Grove, 39 Odum, Linda, 7, 89 Ogoni people, and oil, 59 Olmstead, Frederick Law, 50–51 Online Debate website, 42 Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC), 82–83

P Perdue, Will, 25 personality types, 96 person-centered approach described, 3–4 to leisure education, 6–9, 81–82 philosophical theories of leisure, 17, 40–42 pilgrim tourism, 39 plastic surgery, 143 pollution, leisure activity contributing to, 58–59 pornography, and violence against women, 63–67 positive psychology, 113–114 postmodern leisure, 16, 30–33 postmodernity, 31 Potter, W. James, 142, 144, 157 Potter’s Cognitive Model of Media Literacy, 142–153 Presley, Elvis, 23, 39 project-based leisure education, 110–112 Protestant work ethic, 30 psychological and social psychological theories of leisure, 16, 18–25 psychology described, 18 Q Quant, 6–7, 99 R reasoning, nine fallacies of, 149–150 recidivism, 127–128, 133–134 recreation benefits of experiences (table), 52 counseling, 9–10 red herrings, 150 Reintegration Through Recreation (RTR) leisure education model, 94 Reismann, Judith, 66 Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (APA), 147–148 Riding the Bus With My Sister (Simon), iv Roddenberry, Gene, 32 Rogers, Carl, 3 Rojek, Chris, 25–26, 30, 39, 54, 56–57, 58, 142 roller coasters, 32 S Salhany, Lucie, 68 São Paulo Declaration Leisure in a Globalized Society, 97 Satinover, Jeffrey, 66 Saxton-Dieser, Ricki Kristine, iii school-based leisure education, 134–136 School--Community Leisure Link model, 101 Schor, Juliet, 27–28, 69, 70 self-as-entertainment (S-A-E) theory, 16, 22–25 Self-Directed Search (SDS), 96 Seligman, Martin, 70, 113–114 Sentelli, Robert, 20 serious leisure, 34–35 serious-casual-project leisure conceptual framework, 16–17, 33–35 sexual content in media, 62–63 sexual disorders, 64–65

Index

sexualization of girls, 59–62, 147–153 sexually transmitted infections (STIs), 62–63 Simon, Rachel, iv Sivan, Atara, 135–136 smoking, 140–141, 146 social policy described, 128 leisure education as, 128–136 social psychology of leisure, 18 Social Psychology of Leisure and Recreation (IsoAhola), 18 sociological theories of leisure, 16–17, 25–36 Special Olympics, 149, 151 spillover theory, 17, 35–36 spinal cord injury (SCI), and recovery, 140 sports, commercialized, 69–70 Springsteen, Bruce, 20, 23–24, 40 Star, Ellen Gates, 129 Star Trek TV show/movies, 32–33, 156 Stebbins, Dr. Robert, 33 Stone Pony nightclub, NJ, 40 Strand, Mark, 21 straw person, 151 Stride Nights, 8–9, 129, 131, 132–134 structural constraints, leisure barriers (table), 86 system-directed change, 4 system-directed leisure education, 113 T Take Care leisure education intervention, 115–116 television, health concerns regarding watching (table), 138–139 television violence, 155 theories of leisure anthropological, 17, 37–40 contemporary (table), 16–17 feminist, 17, 36–37 overview, 15–18 philosophical, 17, 40–42 psychological and social psychological, 16, 18–25 sociological, 16–17, 25–36 therapeutic recreation and leisure education, xv, 5 Titanic, 31–32 Together We Play model, 102, 111 tourism negative aspects of, 56 pilgrim, 39 Turner, Victor, 38

185

U UFO Journal, 34 Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village of Canada, 32 United States Wilderness Act, 128 University of Utah, 26 unserious leisure, 35 Utopia (More), 57 V Valenti, Jack, 68 Veblen, Thorstein, 26, 51 Veblen’s theory of the leisure class, 16, 27–28 violent media, 55, 67–68, 139 Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI), 96 W Wallace, William, 141 Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park World Heritage Site, 128 Wearing, Betsy, 37 Wearing’s feminist theory of leisure, 17 Weaver, James B., 67 websites, evaluating, 144–145 West, Fred and Rosemary, 54 Winter, Sarah, 50 Witt, P. A., 5 WLRA International Charter for Leisure Education, 96–97 women erotic pornography, and violence against, 63–67 leisure education to remedy sexual objectification of, 146–153 sexualization of girls, 59–62 Women’s Soccer World Cup 1999 championship, 61 World Leisure, 3 World Leisure and Recreation Association (WLRA), 96–97 World Leisure Commission on Leisure Education, 97 World Leisure Congresses, 97–98 World Leisure Organization, 6, 97 Z Zion National Park, UT, 59