Legacy of the Landscape: An Illustrated Guide to Hawaiian Archaeological Sites 9780824842666

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
PREFACE
PHOTOGRAPHER'S NOTE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
AN INTRODUCTION TO HAWAIIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
VISITING HAWAIIAN SITES
THE SITES
GLOSSARY OF HAWAIIAN TERMS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Citation preview

LEGACY of theLANDSCAPE

'S"" LANDSCAPE AN I L L U S T R A T E D G U I D E T O H A W A I I A N A R C H A E O L O G I C A L

Patrick Vinton Kirch Photographs by Thérèse I. Babineau

University of H a w a i i Press Honolulu

SITES

For Barbara Ver Kirch and Harold William Kirch

© 1 9 9 6 University of Hawai'i Press All rights reserved Designed by Brian Ellis Martin P r o d u c e d by M a r q u a n d B o o k s , Inc., Seattle Printed in Singapore 96

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Library of C o n g r e s s Cataloging-in-Publication Data Kirch, Patrick Vinton. L e g a c y of the landscape : an illustrated guide to Hawaiian archaeological sites / Patrick Vinton Kirch : photographs by T h é r è s e Babineau. p.

cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 - 8 2 4 8 - 1 8 1 6 - 4

(hardback)

0 - 8 2 4 8 - 1 7 3 9 - 7 (paperback) 1. Hawaiians—Antiquities. 2. Man, Prehistoric—Hawaii. 3 . Excavations (Archaeology)—Hawaii. 4. Hawaii—Antiquities. I. Babineau, T h é r è s e . GN875.H3K55

II. Title.

1996

996.g'l—dc20

95-4ifi37

University of Hawai'i Press books are printed 011 acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the C o u n c i l 011 Library Resources.

CONTENTS PREFACE

Vll

PHOTOGRAPHER'S NOTE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AN I N T R O D U C T I O N T O HAWAIIAN A R C H A E O L O G Y

i

The Polynesian Discovery of Hawaii

1

The Development of Hawaiian Society

3

Archaeology in Hawai i

7

V I S I T I N G HAWAIIAN S I T E S A Note on Site Location and Access THE SITES

11 12 13

Kaua i Island

15

O'ahu Island

29

Moloka i Island

43

Lana'i Island

57

Maui Island

63

Hawaii Island

77

G L O S S A R Y OF HAWAIIAN T E R M S

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

122

INDEX

126

t^lW'Vf

To the average visitor, the Hawaiian Islands are famous

other regions of the world have long sought out the

for their salubrious climate and inviting beaches. A

monuments and archaeological vestiges of other great

smaller number of visitors are attracted by the native wet

cultures. T h u s , while the native Hawaiian people must

and dry forests with their unique plants and fauna, and

always have the first say in contemporary efforts to pre-

those with a natural history background realize that the

serve and curate the archaeological legacy of Hawai'i,

Islands harbor more unique—and endangered—species

no single group can ever have an exclusive claim 011 the

than any other part of the United States. Even less well

past. Individual sites as property may be owned and

known to most, Hawai'i boasts a rich heritage of archaeo-

controlled, but the past is not a piece of real estate to be

logical sites, the legacy of hundreds of years of occupa-

bought or sold. No one " o w n s " the past, even though

tion by Polynesian people who were the first to discover

at certain times fierce social and cultural struggles may

and settle the archipelago. Many of these sites are acces-

rage over control and representation of the past. Some

sible to visitors and local residents alike, but authoritative

recent events—such as the highly emotional and public

guides to these ruins are sorely lacking. Archaeological

controversy surrounding sites at Halawa and Luluku in

information presented in standard tour guides is spotty

the path of the H - 3 Freeway corridor on O'ahu—make

and frequently inaccurate, and the task of seeking out

it clear that the archaeological landscape can be a highly

descriptions of sites in scholarly volumes published for

charged arena of cultural and political discourse in mod-

professional archaeologists will deter all but the most

ern Hawai'i.

diligent student.

Efforts to protect and preserve archaeological sites

Archaeological sites have varied meanings and sig-

in the Islands have a long history, resulting from the

nificance to different people; they are complexly linked to

efforts of various individuals and citizens' groups, of the

the contemporary cultural values of different sectors of

Territorial and later State of Hawaii government, and of

our multicultural society. To the native Hawaiian people,

the federal government (especially the National Park Ser-

these sites constitute geographic links with their history

vice). As a result, a substantial number of sites distributed

and cultural heritage, sacred places (wahipana)

over the main islands have not only been protected from

within

a landscape vastly transformed by two centuries of eco-

the incursions of land "development," but made acces-

nomic "development" that has more often than not rav-

sible for visitation and appreciation by the public. Public

aged the land. Edward Kanahele writes that such wahi

use of these places—whether for personal enrichment,

pana tell him " w h o I am and who my extended family is.

for school groups and classes, for native Hawaiian reli-

A place gives me my history, the history of my clan, and

gious practices, or similar purposes—has been increasing

the history of my people." Yet appreciation of archaeo-

in recent decades, as interest in Hawaiian history and

logical sites is certainly not limited to those of Hawaiian

culture has flourished. T h e present book is intended as

ancestry. Local residents of the islands—whatever their

a modest contribution toward this movement, for only

ethnic or cultural heritage—frequently have a strong in-

when sites are culturally as well as historically interpreted

terest in these places that have such great power to inform

will they be treated with the proper respect and apprecia-

and educate us about the past. Likewise, many visitors to

tion they deserve.

the Islands have a desire to learn and to be enriched by the archaeological heritage of Hawai'i, just as visitors to

Two principles have guided the choice of sites for inclusion in this volume. First, all sites must be accessible

to the p u b l i c , even if some restrictions apply. In most

of sites. Unfortunately, it has not been possible to include

cases, the sites are situated in National or State parks,

every site category. For example, w e were unable to find

or in some cases in "historic preserves" set aside by re-

an example o f a holua slide that was accessible to the

sorts or other d e v e l o p m e n t s for p u b l i c enjoyment. T h e s e

public.

sites generally incorporate facilities for visitors, such as

M o s t of the sites described and illustrated herein

parking areas and interpretive signs or exhibits. Because

are prehistoric;

of their significance, however, a few sites have been in-

prior to E u r o p e a n arrival in A.D. 1778. However, w e have

c l u d e d that require special permission or arrangements

also i n c l u d e d a few significant archaeological sites dating

in other w o r d s , they date to the period

to visit. W h e r e such arrangements are required, w e have

to the postcontact p e r i o d , such as the Russian Fort Eliza-

noted the current p r o c e d u r e s for seeking permission and

beth on K a u a i, and J o h n Y o u n g ' s h o u s e site on Hawai'i.

access in the text; however, the reader is cautioned that

T h e s e historic p e r i o d sites represent some of the major

s u c h arrangements may change in the future. O u r s e c o n d

social and political transformations that swept through

g u i d i n g principle was to select a range o f site types so that

the Islands d u r i n g the nineteenth century.

the total ensemble w o u l d provide the reader or the visitor

In some respects this b o o k may be used as a field

with a comprehensive overview of Hawaiian archaeology

c o m p a n i o n to my more comprehensive w o r k on Hawaiian

and prehistory. T h i s principle was the more difficult to

archaeology, Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An

achieve, because by far the greatest emphasis on site pres-

tion to Hawaiian

Archaeology and Prehistory

Introduc-

(University

ervation in H a w a i ' i has been on the impressive stone

of Hawai i Press, 1985). Feathered Gods and

temple foundations k n o w n as heiau. But heiau exemplify

w h i c h discusses most of the sites covered in the present

j u s t one aspect o f ancient Hawaiian culture—that o f ritual

b o o k , is a general synthesis of ancient Hawaiian lifeways

and r e l i g i o n — w h e r e a s w e wanted to incorporate sites

and cultural developments as revealed in the archaeologi-

that w o u l d illustrate the full range of Hawaiian lifeways:

cal record. Unlike this g u i d e b o o k with its site-by-site

agriculture, fishing, social organization, art, and so forth.

organization, Feathered Gods and Fishhooks

Fishhooks,

is themati-

W h i l e heiau d o figure prominently in this g u i d e b o o k —

cally structured, and includes a comprehensive bibliogra-

reflecting the long-standing interest in their preservation

p h y of primary sources on Hawaiian archaeology. T h e s e

— t h e reader will also find h o u s e sites and village com-

two b o o k s are designed to c o m p l e m e n t each other in

plexes, canoe s h e d s , fishponds, dryland agricultural field

p r o v i d i n g an overview of Hawaiian archaeology that is

systems, irrigation canals, terraced cultivation c o m p l e x e s ,

scholarly yet readable.

fortifications, p e t r o g l y p h s , stone trails, and other types

vin

PREFACE

PHOTOGRAPHER'S NOTE

All of the p h o t o g r a p h s were made with a 500 C / M Hasselblad medium-format camera. I used two Zeiss lenses, an 80 m m and a 50 m m , the latter of particular use for architectural details. A B o g e n tripod c a m e in handy for most of the shots; the camera had to be hand-held to get some o f the images. I did not use any filters. A Pentax digital spot-meter was my light meter of choice. A Sekonic incident light meter was used as a b a c k u p and to crossc h e c k e x p o s u r e readings. E x p o s u r e s for this project ranged from l/500th of a s e c o n d to 16 seconds. I used A g f a film (Agfapan 2 5 , 1 0 0 , and 400), w h i c h was d e v e l o p e d with K o d a k ' s D - 7 6 . 1 printed the p h o t o graphs on Oriental Seagull fiber-based paper, using grades 2 and 3, w h i c h I c h o s e for its rich tonal range and c o l d tone. K o d a k ' s Dektol was the developer. T o create the fine prints, I varied the developer's dilution ratio from the standard 1:2 (one part developer to two parts water) to 1:4, and for some prints, even 1:1. P h o t o g r a p h i n g archaeological sites on the beautiful Hawaiian Islands was a collaborative effort. W i t h o u t the help of my partner and h u s b a n d , Patrick V. K i r c h , the project w o u l d not have been actualized. We d e v e l o p e d an effective system, c o m b i n i n g our j o i n t k n o w l e d g e of arc h a e o l o g y and photography. O n c e on the Islands, w e had to w o r k with intense sunlight, vagaries of weather, and a tight schedule. A l t h o u g h p h o t o g r a p h i n g after 9:30 A.M. and before 4 or even 5 P.M. was not desirable, there were times w h e n our c h o i c e was either to " g o for it" or not to include the site in this b o o k . We o p t e d for the former.

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

During a vacation at Kllauea, Hawai'i, in December 1991, Thérèse Babineau and I visited Waha'ula Heiau, built according to Hawaiian tradition by the voyaging Tahitian high priest Pa'ao in the thirteenth century. Waha'ula had barely been spared from Pele's wrath in the recent lava flows, and I asked Thérèse if she would take some medium-format black-and-white photos of the site. We later hiked to the wonderful petroglyph field at Pu uloa, where Thérèse captured photographic images of some of the most intriguing glyphs. An illustrated guide to accessible Hawaiian archaeological sites—written for the intelligent and interested public—had long been a "backburner" project about which I would muse periodically. While hiking over the lava flows to Pu uloa, it occurred to us to combine my expertise in Hawaiian archaeology with Thérèse's photographic skills, to make the longdeferred archaeological guidebook a reality. We began to plan such a project, making a formal proposal to the University of Hawai'i Press the following year. With the Press' enthusiastic support, we spent the summer months of 1993 carrying out the necessary photographic fieldwork. All of the photos in this book were exposed specifically for this project, and the images reproduced here have been selected from among some 1,680 2.25-inch format negatives. Financial assistance to underwrite a significant portion of the costs of photographic fieldwork and photo processing was provided by a grant from the Stahl Fund administered by the Archaeological Research Facility, University of California at Berkeley. Sherry Parrish, A R F administrator, helped with accounting and provided other assistance.

X

Many friends and acquaintances provided assis-

for us to visit and photograph Pi'ilanihale Heiau, one

tance and support during our 1993 photographic field-

of the most stunning of all Hawaiian archaeological

work in the Islands. On Kaua'i, David Boynton guided

monuments.

me to several sites and shared his extensive knowledge of

On Hawai'i, Leimomi Lum of the Mookini Lua-

the island's natural and cultural history. Kent Lightfoot

kini Foundation discussed aspects of Mookini Heiau,

was a cheerful companion in the work both on Kaua'i

which she most lovingly curates. Laura Carter of the

and at Kalaupapa, Moloka'i. Nancy McMahon, State of

National Park Service gave us a personal tour of the

Hawaii archaeologist for Kaua i, answered numerous

Kaloko National Historical Park. Brian Meilleur, for-

questions about possible sites to include in our survey,

merly ethnobotanist in charge of the Bishop Museum's

and kindly supplied us with copies of Hawai'i Register

Amy Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden, gave us free

of Historic Places site files.

rein to photograph the Kona Field System remains situ-

Our stay on Molokai was made especially enjoyable through the gracious hospitality of Dave and Dorothe

ated within the Garden. At the University of Hawai'i Press, Executive

Curtis, who also loaned us their four-wheel drive vehicle.

Editor Iris Wiley enthusiastically embraced our book

Glenn and Mahealani Davis provided the highlight of our

proposal at an early stage, and helped to expedite con-

fieldwork with a boat excursion from Halawa to Wailau

tracts, advances, and editorial production. Others who

Valley; swimming ashore at HakaVano to reconnoiter

helped in crucial ways that they will recognize are

archaeological sites while Glenn caught supper with his

Michael H. Kirch and Barbara Dales. Mahalo!

throw net was an adventure to be long remembered.

I take this opportunity especially to thank my par-

Buddy Neller generously toured us around Kalaupapa,

ents, Barbara Ver Kirch and Harold William Kirch, who

leading us through dense undergrowth to sites he had

encouraged my early interest in Hawaiian culture and

only recently discovered.

history, provided me with the opportunity to study ar-

Our Lana'i fieldwork was aided by the use of Mike

chaeology in two of the world's finest universities, and

Pfeffer's delightful plantation house in Lana'i City. We

who over the years have always lent their support. To

also thank Mr. Saul Kahoohalahala for valuable informa-

them I dedicate this book.

tion on the current state of archaeological sites on the island.

Patrick Vinton Kirch

My longtime friend on Maui, Charlie Ke'au, guided

El Sobrante

us around Pihana and HalekTi Heiau, adding to the writ-

March 1995

ten sources on these sites with oral traditions handed down by his grandmother. Diane Ragone of the Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden kindly granted permission

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

AN INTRODUCTION TO HAWAIIAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Peaks of great submarine volcanoes rising tens of thousands of feet from the North Pacific abyss, the Hawaiian Islands are geographic marvels. Constructed of countless lava eruptions issuing from a "hot spot" on the mid-Pacific ocean floor, each successive volcano gradually became dormant, then extinct, as it moved along a relentless path of northwestern migration driven by the earth's tectonic engine. Youthful islands such as Hawai'i and Maui, with their barren lava fields and rocky shores, will in time weather into older islands such as O'ahu and Kaua'i, with their exquisitely sculpted mountains, fertile river valleys, and coral-reef rimmed coasts. At the rear of an earthenfloor e n c l o s u r e in Ho'al Heiau, a low s t o n e altar still receives o f f e r i n g s . (See p. 27.)

Detail: The isolated peninsula of Kalaupapa a f f o r d s spectacular views of the windward c o a s t of Moloka'i, indented by Waikolu, Pelekunu, and Wailau valleys. (See p. 47.)

Although the Hawaiian Archipelago is the most isolated on the planet, certain kinds of plants and animals managed to disperse and colonize these volcanic lands. From colonizing ancestral species there evolved thousands of species of trees, shrubs, herbs, birds, insects, and landsnails, most of which are endemic (found nowhere else on earth). This remote chain of islands, with its highly varied landforms and endemic plant and animal life, evolved ever so gradually over more than 40 million years. Throughout perhaps the last million years, when modern humans evolved in Africa and spread out first through Europe, Asia, and Australia, and later into the Americas, Hawai'i remained in total isolation. Only within the past two thousand years did Homo sapiens reach these island shores in sailing canoes of Polynesian origin. This event—the discovery and settlement of the Hawaiian Islands by seafaring Austronesian peoples—was to change forever the course of the archipelago's history, and to result in the rise of the most spectacular and vibrant of the Polynesian cultures.

T h e Polynesian Discovery of Hawai'i Precisely in w h a t year the first d o u b l e - h u l l e d v o y a g i n g canoes were hauled ashore after crossing t h o u s a n d s of miles of o p e n sea is a question that will p r o b a b l y never be a n s w e r e d . N o r are w e likely to ever determine the exact island that was the immediate departure point for these intrepid e x p l o r e r s , or 011 w h i c h of the H a w a i i a n Islands they first m a d e landfall. N o n e t h e l e s s , a r c h a e o l o g y and its allied disciplines of historical linguistics and biological a n t h r o p o l o g y have m a d e great strides in reconstructing in general terms the history of Polynesian settlement. T h e

discovery and colonization of H a w a i i was, indeed, part

i n g p e o p l e s e x p a n d e d e a s t w a r d t h r o u g h the i s l a n d s o f

o f a r e m a r k a b l e saga o f the h u m a n e x p l o r a t i o n a n d e x p a n -

the P h i l i p p i n e s a n d M o l u c c a s , a l o n g the n o r t h e r n c o a s t

s i o n i n t o the w h o l e o f the P a c i f i c I s l a n d s r e g i o n , c o v e r i n g

o f N e w G u i n e a (already i n h a b i t e d b y P a p u a n - s p e a k i n g

a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f the earth's surface.

p e o p l e s ) , a n d into the B i s m a r c k A r c h i p e l a g o . T h i s early

T h e islands o f the P a c i f i c — k n o w n collectively as

b r a n c h o f A u s t r o n e s i a n , called P r o t o - O c e a n i c b y the

O c e a n i a — a r e generally d i v i d e d b y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d

historical l i n g u i s t s , w a s eventually to give rise to the

g e o g r a p h e r s into three r e g i o n s : Melanesia,

n u m e r o u s l a n g u a g e s o f island M e l a n e s i a , P o l y n e s i a , a n d

including

central-eastern M i c r o n e s i a .

the vast t r o p i c a l island o f N e w G u i n e a a n d the e x t e n s i v e a r c h i p e l a g o e s o f the S o l o m o n s , V a n u a t u , N e w C a l e d o n i a , a n d Fiji: Micronesia,

l y i n g n o r t h o f the e q u a t o r a n d

Material e v i d e n c e o f this m o v e m e n t o f A u s t r o n e s i a n - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s into the B i s m a r c k A r c h i -

i n c l u d i n g the m a n y atolls o f the C a r o l i n e a n d M a r s h a l l

p e l a g o in the m i d - s e c o n d m i l l e n n i u m B.C. h a s b e e n

I s l a n d s , a l o n g w i t h v a r i o u s v o l c a n i c a n d u p r a i s e d coral

u n e a r t h e d b y a r c h a e o l o g i s t s at v a r i o u s p r e h i s t o r i c settle-

i s l a n d s ; a n d Polynesia,

m e n t s scattered t h r o u g h o u t these islands. A r c h a e o l o g i s t s

the great triangular r e g i o n w h o s e

a p e x e s are m a r k e d b y N e w Z e a l a n d , E a s t e r I s l a n d , a n d

h a v e c o m e to label these sites a n d the characteristic arti-

H a w a i i. T h e s e three g e o g r a p h i c r e g i o n s i n c o r p o r a t e

facts they c o n t a i n b y the term Lapita,

t h o u s a n d s o f islands a n d a great diversity o f p e o p l e s a n d

n a m e o f o n e o f the first o f these a n c i e n t settlements to

c u l t u r e s . D e s p i t e s u c h diversity, the m a j o r i t y o f these

be e x c a v a t e d , o n the island o f N e w C a l e d o n i a . L a p i t a

p e o p l e s share c o m m o n features o f b i o l o g y , l a n g u a g e ,

sites w e r e generally situated a l o n g c o a s t l i n e s o r o n off-

d e r i v i n g f r o m the

a n d c u l t u r e that p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t c l u e s to the c o m p l e x

s h o r e islets, a n d the earliest k n o w n c o m m u n i t i e s ( s u c h as

h i s t o r y o f h u m a n m i g r a t i o n s into this island realm.

T a l e p a k e m a l a i in the M u s s a u I s l a n d s ) w e r e clusters o f

A l l o f the i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e s w i t h i n O c e a n i a s p e a k

t h a t c h e d h o u s e s e r e c t e d o n stilts o r p i l e s o u t o v e r s h a l l o w

l a n g u a g e s classified as either P a p u a n o r A u s t r o n e s i a n .

tidal reef flats o r l a g o o n s . D e s p i t e a s t r o n g m a r i t i m e ori-

T h e P a p u a n l a n g u a g e s , h o w e v e r , are g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o n -

e n t a t i o n , h o w e v e r , the L a p i t a p e o p l e w e r e also h o r t i c u l -

fined to M e l a n e s i a , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r are c o n c e n t r a t e d

turalists w h o p l a n t e d a variety o f root a n d t u b e r c r o p s o n

o n N e w G u i n e a a n d to a limited e x t e n t o n n e a r b y islands

the a d j a c e n t h i g h islands. T h e y also m a d e a n d t r a d e d an

s u c h as N e w Britain. T h e a n c e s t o r s o f the P a p u a n lan-

e l a b o r a t e l y d e c o r a t e d e a r t h e n w a r e pottery, in w h i c h the

g u a g e s p e a k e r s p r o b a b l y m i g r a t e d into the N e w G u i n e a

intricately e x e c u t e d d e s i g n s f r e q u e n t l y p o r t r a y e d

area d u r i n g the late P l e i s t o c e n e era, forty t h o u s a n d o r

h u m a n faces a l o n g w i t h g e o m e t r i c motifs.

m o r e y e a r s ago. In contrast, the A u s t r o n e s i a n l a n g u a g e s

B e g i n n i n g a b o u t 1600 B.C., w h e n the first L a p i t a

are m u c h m o r e w i d e s p r e a d , i n c l u d i n g m o s t o f the lan-

sites a p p e a r e d in w e s t e r n M e l a n e s i a , the L a p i t a c u l t u r e

g u a g e s s p o k e n in M e l a n e s i a o u t s i d e o f N e w G u i n e a , a n d

e x p a n d e d r a p i d l y e a s t w a r d into the p r e v i o u s l y u n i n h a b -

all o f the l a n g u a g e s o f M i c r o n e s i a a n d P o l y n e s i a . M o r e -

ited islands o f M e l a n e s i a a n d o n into the P o l y n e s i a n

over, the A u s t r o n e s i a n l a n g u a g e family e n c o m p a s s e s

a r c h i p e l a g o e s o f T o n g a a n d S a m o a , w h i c h w e r e settled

the l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n in T a i w a n , the P h i l i p p i n e s , a n d In-

b y 1200 B.C. B y the b e g i n n i n g o f the first m i l l e n n i u m B.C.,

d o n e s i a . T h r o u g h m o r e than a c e n t u r y o f careful c o m -

L a p i t a settlements h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h o u t the

parative study, linguists have b e e n able to d e t e r m i n e the

c l u s t e r o f a r c h i p e l a g o e s i n c l u d i n g Fiji, the L a u G r o u p ,

g e n e t i c a n d historical r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n the m o r e

F u t u n a , "Uvea, T o n g a , N i u a t o p u t a p u , a n d S a m o a . It w a s

than o n e t h o u s a n d A u s t r o n e s i a n l a n g u a g e s , a n d to r e c o n -

in this r e g i o n — k n o w n collectively to a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s as

struct a " f a m i l y t r e e " for A u s t r o n e s i a n e x t e n d i n g b a c k

W e s t e r n P o l y n e s i a — t h a t the distinctive c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

six t h o u s a n d o r m o r e years. T h i s l i n g u i s t i c e v i d e n c e

Polynesian

u n e q u i v o c a l l y i n d i c a t e s that the original A u s t r o n e s i a n

f e w c e n t u r i e s . T h u s all P o l y n e s i a n c u l t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g

h o m e l a n d lay w i t h i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a , q u i t e p o s s i b l y in-

H a w a i i a n , trace their o r i g i n s b a c k to the eastern b r a n c h

c o r p o r a t i n g T a i w a n a n d a d j a c e n t parts o f the A s i a n main-

o f the L a p i t a culture.

l a n d . B e t w e e n p e r h a p s 4 , 0 0 0 a n d 2,000 B.C., a m a j o r

l a n g u a g e a n d culture d e v e l o p e d o v e r the n e x t

D u r i n g the first m i l l e n n i u m B.C., c o n t i n u e d c h a n g e s

diaspora of Austronesian-speaking peoples commenced,

in l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e in the W e s t e r n P o l y n e s i a n h o m e -

p r o b a b l y l i n k e d to their skills as o u t r i g g e r c a n o e m a k e r s

l a n d l e d to the e m e r g e n c e o f a distinctive ancestral Poly-

a n d seafarers. O n e b r a n c h o f these A u s t r o n e s i a n - s p e a k -

nesian c u l t u r e . C o n t i n u e d interisland v o y a g i n g f o r trade

2

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and exchange helped to encourage the refinement of

domestic animals (dogs, pigs, and chickens) necessary to

open-sea voyaging technology and skills, although these

establish their horticultural economy in these new lands.

people also continued to depend to a large extent upon

Even though the distances between Hawai'i and

their horticultural base for subsistence. One curious

the islands of central Polynesia (such as Tahiti and the

development was a gradual decline in the quality and fre-

Marquesas) are formidable, it appears that the Polynesian

quency of pottery manufacture, and the ceramic art even-

seafarers made a number of return voyages between these

tually was abandoned by Polynesians early in the first

archipelagoes. Certainly Hawaiian oral traditions speak

millennium A.D. Consequently, pottery sherds are absent

extensively and eloquently of great navigator priests

from Polynesian archaeological sites dating after this

and chiefs, such as Pa'ao, or Moikeha and his son Kila,

period, including those in Hawai'i.

who guided their double-hulled canoes safely between

T h e final phase in the exploration of the Polynesian

"Kahiki" (Tahiti) and the Hawaiian Islands. Recent ex-

islands probably began late in the first millennium B.C.,

perimental voyages using the reconstructed Polynesian

with eastward voyages leading to the discovery of the

voyaging canoe Hokulea have shown that such inter-

southern Cook Islands, the Society Islands, and the

archipelago sailing—while requiring considerable skill

Marquesas. Established settlements on these islands

and knowledge is not as daunting as once thought by

began soon thereafter, the date being a matter of current

some armchair scholars. 1 Nonetheless, at some point

debate among archaeologists. It was from these central

in Hawaiian history such long-distance voyaging did

Polynesian archipelagoes that the final diaspora took

cease, and became only a memory encoded in myth and

place to the most remote islands on earth: Easter Island,

tradition. Just when the voyages between Hawai'i and

New Zealand, and Hawai'i. Exactly when the Hawaiian

the central Polynesian homeland ceased is not certain,

group was first discovered remains a matter of debate,

although it may have been around the thirteenth century

although most scholars would agree that this event

A.D. From that time until A.D. 1778, when H.M.S. Resolu-

occurred no later than about A.D. 600, and some would

tion and Discovery under the command of Captain James

place the date several centuries earlier. The reason we

Cook pierced the horizon beyond Kaua'i, Hawai'i became

cannot be more precise is that finding the first coloniza-

an isolated world unto itself.

tion site is akin to the old "needle in the haystack" problem. Likewise, determining the immediate source island for the first voyaging canoes is difficult to pinpoint, al-

The Development of Hawaiian Society

though one of the Marquesan islands is the most likely 1. All authoritative yet highly readable account of these experimental

candidate. Although it is unlikely that the first settlement site

voyages and their anthropological

in the Hawaiian Islands will ever be located or excavated

While sharing features of language and culture in common

significance is provided by Ben

(indeed, it is probable that many early sites have been

with other Polynesian groups, the Hawaiian society that

destroyed through years of intensive agricultural, residen-

greeted Cook's ships in A.D. 1778 was in many respects

nesia, Berkeley: University of Cali-

tial, and commercial development in prime areas of the

unique and distinctive. In part, this was a result of the

fornia Press.

islands), archaeologists have succeeded in finding several

archipelago's isolation from other Polynesian island soci-

Finney, 1994, Voyage of Rediscovery: A Cultural Odyssey Through Poly-

sites dating to the early period of Polynesian settlement

eties, each of which had evolved along its own individual

2. More detailed discussions of pre-

of the islands. One such early hamlet was situated at the

path of cultural change. Understanding how Hawaiian

historic cultural changes in Hawai'i

mouth of the Halawa Valley on Moloka'i Island (Site 17),

culture and society developed and changed over the

while another early fishing settlement was located at

many centuries following initial discovery and settlement

South Point (Ka Lae), on Hawai'i Island (Site 47). These

is one of archaeology's primary goals. Describing the

ogy and Prehistory, Honolulu: Uni-

and other sites have yielded fishhooks, adzes, ornaments,

complex processes of cultural change is a difficult task,

versity of Hawai'i Press; and P. V.

and other artifacts with stylistic features linking them to

and the following is only a brief, skeletal outline of some

Kirch, 1990, " T h e Evolution of

sites of similar age in the Marquesas and Society Islands

of the main developments. 2 In order to describe cultural

of central Polynesia. These early Hawaiian settlements

change over time, archaeologists and prehistorians fre-

also provided archaeological evidence that the Polynesian

quently make use of what is called a culture-historical

colonizers brought with them both the crop plants and

framework or periodization scheme. Although cultural

are to be found in P. V. Kirch, 1985, Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian

Archaeol-

Socio-Political Complexity in Prehistoric Hawaii: An Assessment of the Archaeological Evidence,'"Journal of World Prehistory 4:311-345.

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.3

change is in reality continuous, the entire sequence of Hawaiian prehistory is subdivided for convenience into a series of periods, just as European history is often subdivided into such temporal categories as the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and so forth. For H a w a i i , the periods that have been defined and are used by most archaeologists are: the Colonization Period (A.D. 300-600); the Developmental Period (A.D. 6001100); the Expansion Period (A.D. 1100-1650); and the Proto-Historic Period (A.D. 1650-1795). T h e Colonization Period remains the least well documented or understood, because this phase of initial settlement and discovery is evidenced by only a handful of sites, such as those at South Point (Hawai'i) and at Waimanalo (O'ahu). Indeed, archaeologists actively debate the timing of initial Polynesian settlement of the islands, with estimates falling between about A.D. 300 or earlier and A.D. 750, although a few scholars would

arrive with the very first colonizers of Hawai'i, but was

Detail: "An Offering before

champion dates both earlier and later than this range. As

introduced later, during the Developmental or even early

Captain Cook in the Sand-

mentioned above, the source of the first voyagers to the

Expansion Periods, on one of the two-way voyages be-

wich Islands." (Courtesy

islands was certainly from one of the central Polynesian

tween Hawai'i and central Polynesia.) These and other

of the Bishop Museum)

archipelagoes, most likely the Marquesas or the Society

cultigens, along with domestic pigs, dogs, and chickens,

Islands.

were to provide the basis for an intensive horticultural economy.

Despite these ambiguities regarding the precise

T h e early settlers were also skilled fishermen, a

timing and immediate source of the Polynesian discoverers of Hawai'i, archaeologists have gleaned some un-

tradition they again inherited from their Lapita ancestors.

derstanding about this early time period. Given that

T h e early Colonization Period sites have yielded a variety

Colonization Period sites are extremely rare, we can infer

of fishhooks expertly manufactured from pearl shell and

that the initial population was quite small, perhaps lim-

bone, and adapted to fishing in a range of inshore and

ited to a few canoe loads of people, numbering at most

deep-sea habitats. These fishhooks were made in distinc-

a hundred or so. These intrepid explorers came fully

tive styles quite similar to those found in early Marquesan

equipped and supplied to establish a permanent settle-

archaeological sites, and provide critical evidence linking

ment in whatever lands they hoped to find, and carried

the first discoverers of Hawai'i with the Marquesas Islands

with them the essential biological basis for their survival,

of central Polynesia. Similarly, adzes of polished basalt

namely crop plants and domestic animals. T h e introduc-

stone found in these early contexts are also of forms

tion of crop plants was particularly important, because

related to early Polynesian adzes in the Marquesas and

the Hawaiian Islands—despite their rich endemic flora—

Society Islands.

sorely lacked food plants useful to humans. In the tradi-

T h e two known habitation sites of the Colonization

tion of their Lapita ancestors, the Polynesians carried

Period are both small settlements, hamlets rather than

with them root crops including taro (Colocasia esadenta)

villages in size, and were made up of clusters of pole-and-

and yams (Dioscorea (data), bananas (Miisa hybrids),

thatch houses, some of which were paved inside with

sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum),

fine river gravel (ili'ili).

and tree crops such

Their inhabitants continued an

as breadfruit (Artocarpiis altilis) and coconut (Cocos

ancient Polynesian tradition of burying their deceased in

nucifera). T h e y also brought the sweet potato (Ipomoea

graves under the house floors. Until more sites of this

batatas), a root crop of South American origin that had

remote time period are discovered and excavated, it will

been introduced prehistorically into central Polynesia.

be difficult to say much regarding the social and political

(There is some possibility that the sweet potato did not

organization of the first Hawaiian settlers, although some

4

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ARCHAEOLOGY

(See page 104.)

things can be inferred from linguistic and comparative

shapes and styles emphasizing a quadrangular cross-

ethnographic evidence. T h i s early society certainly was

section, distinctively different from those of the Coloniza-

organized around hereditary chiefs, for the Hawaiian

tion Period. Likewise, the fishhook kit also displays new

word for chief (alii)

and distinctive Hawaiian forms. And several kinds of

derives from the older Proto-

Polynesian word ariki. However, this early society—

uniquely Hawaiian artifacts make their appearance in the

made up of only a small population—probably would

Developmental Period, such as the stone bowling disc

not have been as highly stratified, nor its kapu-system

('ulu maika) and the tongue-shaped neck ornament

so pervasive, as in later times.

known as lei niho palaoa worn by chiefs and persons of rank.

O f the Developmental Period of Hawaiian prehis-

T h e succeeding Expansion Period, from A.D. 1100

tory (roughly A.D. 600 to 1100) we know considerably more, thanks to the excavation of a number of habitation

to 1650, was in many respects the most significant and

sites, including settlements at South Point (Site 47), in

critical phase for the emergence of classic Hawaiian cul-

the Halawa Valley (Site 17), and at a number of other

ture and society as known from the time of Captain Cook's

locations throughout the Islands. T h e significance of this

visit and after. Building upon the base of expanded popu-

period lies in the development of distinctively

lation and distinctively new cultural patterns that had

Hawaiian

cultural patterns. It was during the Developmental Period

emerged over the course of the Colonization and Devel-

that the descendants of the first central Polynesian dis-

opmental Periods, Hawaiian society was now to undergo

coverers introduced those cultural traits and patterns that

a highly dynamic phase of growth and intensification.

would eventually mark Hawaiian culture and society as

By the close of the Developmental Period, settle-

different from other Polynesian groups.

ments had been established throughout the most desirable windward zones of the Islands, and some movement

While the population density of the archipelago during this time remained relatively low in relation to

of people into the drier leeward regions had already be-

available land area, the numbers of people were increas-

gun. During the course of the 550-year-long Expansion

ing rapidly, as evidenced by the increased "visibility"

Period, the archipelago-wide population would expand

of archaeological sites. Sites dating to the Developmen-

geometrically to several hundred thousand people. T h i s

tal Period have been found on all of the major islands,

population growth was certainly one of the most impor-

although the preferred locations for settlements contin-

tant underlying factors leading to social and cultural

ued to be in the windward areas where there was an

change. As the numbers of people multiplied, the need

abundance of fresh water, fertile alluvial soils for farming,

for additional agricultural land grew and the leeward

and good fishing grounds. However, toward the end of

slopes and valleys were cleared of native forest as agricul-

the Developmental Period sites begin to appear in the

tural field systems were established. By the close of the

drier leeward areas, suggesting that the more desirable

Expansion Period, vast tracts of intensively cultivated

windward regions were already experiencing dense

land had been opened up on the dryland slopes of Maui

populations.

and H a w a i i Islands, and the traces of the garden walls are still visible today in Kohala (Site 29) and Kona (Site

Developmental Period settlements continued to be small hamlet-type clusters of pole-and-thatch houses,

43). In the already settled windward areas where stream

often situated along the coast or near good fishing areas.

water was abundant, the increased agricultural demand

In the Halawa Valley on Moloka i, one such hamlet (Site

was met by developing sophisticated irrigation works

17) was made up of round-ended houses with stone-lined

for cultivating taro in flooded pondfields, in which yields

hearths in the interior. T h i s house form is similar to

are much higher than for dryland plantings. One of the

round-ended houses in the Society and Tuamotu Islands

finest examples of such beautifully constructed, stone-

of central Polynesia, but this architectural style did not

wall-faced irrigation complexes can be found in the

persist in later time periods in Hawai'i.

Halawa Valley on windward Moloka i (Site 17). It was also during the Expansion Period that Hawaiian fishermen

T h e development of distinctive Hawaiian cultural forms is most evident archaeologically in the record of

began to construct substantial stone-walled

material culture. Basalt adzes, which were the main wood-

on the shallow reef flats, permitting them to raise prized

working tool of the Polynesians, were being made in new

mullet (Mugil cephalis) and milkfish (Chanos chanos) that

AN

INTRODUCTION

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HAWAIIAN

ARCHAEOLOGY

fishponds

5

thrived in brackish water. Examples of such

fishponds-

in elaborate and sumptuous ceremonies by the ruling

some of which are reputed in Hawaiian traditions to have

chiefs and their priests. T h e maka'ainana, on the other

been constructed by the legendary menehune—can

hand, worshipped primarily in smaller agricultural

also

be seen on Kaua'i (Site 4), O'ahu (Site 8), and Moloka'i

temples (heiau ho'oulu'ai), in fishing shrines (ko'a), and

(Site 16).

at family shrines within the men's eating house (mua).

Increased population also meant that the society as

T h e last stage of cultural change and development

a whole was capable of greater differentiation and hierar-

prior to the arrival of Europeans, and to the integration

chy. Ambitious chiefs with an eye toward aggrandizement

of the islands into the World System of colonial expan-

of power and territorial acquisition could draw upon a

sion and commerce, was the Proto-Historic, from about

plentiful populace for labor and warriors. T h e later part

A.D. 1650 to 1795. 3 By this time, Hawaiian society had

of the Expansion Period saw the crystallization of several

more or less emerged into its characteristic structures of

characteristic aspects of Hawaiian sociopolitical organiza-

organization, including the elaborate, hierarchical system

tion, among them the ahupuaa system of land tenure and

of chiefs, priests, occupational specialists, and commoner

use. Ahupuaa

farmers and fishermen. T h i s society was validated and

consisted of pie-shaped land segments—

often a river valley—that ran from the central mountains

held together by the equally elaborated kapu system of

out to the sea, and thus encompassed all of the critical

prescriptions and prohibitions; the penalties for trans-

ecological zones of the island. Originally, in the traditional

gressors could be severe, including death. In these and

Polynesian pattern found in other island groups, these

other respects, Hawaiian society had become quite differ-

radial territories were probably held as extended family

entiated from those of other Polynesian societies with

estates. During the Expansion Period, however, the

which it shared a common ancestry, dating back to the

Hawaiian chiefs began to assert their exclusive rights to

Lapita voyagers. With the development of highly sophis-

control these lands, and a new pattern emerged in which

ticated and intensive agricultural and aquacultural pro-

subchiefs were assigned individual ahupuaa following

duction, an elaborate political hierarchy and land tenure

the installation of a new paramount chief or island-wide

system, a religious ideology and ritual practice that in-

ruler (alii nui), often following a war of succession.

cluded war and fertility cults performed on massive stone

T h e commoners, or maka'ainana, were given rights to

temple platforms, and a highly stratified social structure,

3. T h e arrival o f C a p t a i n C o o k ' s

work their gardens and fields and build their houses on

the Proto-Historic Hawaiian culture can be closely com-

e x p e d i t i o n in A.D. 1778 technically

these ahupuaa lands in exchange for labor and tribute

pared with other emergent forms of "state-level" societies

marks the e n d o f " p r e h i s t o r y " and

to the chiefs.

elsewhere in the world (for example, the Olmec culture

In consort with this new and increasingly hierarchical sociopolitical system went changes in religion and ritual practice. Hawaiian traditions relate that around

the b e g i n n i n g o f the historic (or written record) era in the islands.

of Mesoamerica, the Pre-Dynastic Period of Egypt, or the

T h e terminal date o f A.D. 1795 for

Mississippian culture of North America).

the P r o t o - H i s t o r i c P e r i o d , however,

A great deal is known of Hawaiian life in the Proto-

reflects the continuation of traditional Hawaiian patterns o f political

the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, the practice of human

Historic Period, not only through the evidence of archae-

sacrifice and the cult of the war god Ku were introduced

ology (which is abundant because there are more sites

of O ' a h u by the great w a r chief

to the islands by a navigator-priest from Kahiki, Pa'ao

dating to this late time period), but from the oral tradi-

K a m e h a m e h a I. A f t e r A.D. 1795,

by name (see Site 50). Certainly during the Expansion

tions of the Hawaiian people themselves. T h e Hawaiian

the islands were effectively u n d e r a single g o v e r n m e n t , and the influ-

Period the Hawaiian chiefs were increasingly making use

chiefs and priests had developed a great interest in pre-

of religious ideology to cement their power and position

serving their own family and political histories. Experts in

in society. Archaeological excavations at a number of

the recitation of chiefly genealogies, of the political histo-

stone temple foundations (see Sites 12,21,25, and 46)

ries of the great ruling families, of the tales of the great

organization u p until the c o n q u e s t

e n c e o f foreigners b e c a m e increasingly p r o m i n e n t . T h e c h a n g e s that s w e p t t h r o u g h Hawaiian society in the late eighteenth and early

have demonstrated that major building episodes occurred

culture heroes of the past—of the collective mo'o'olelo or

nineteenth centuries are extensively

during the Expansion Period, as the temple or heiau sys-

history of the islands—held positions of high status and

d e s c r i b e d and d o c u m e n t e d in a

tem began to be elaborated. By the close of the Expansion

respect in Hawaiian society. After the arrival in 1820 of

Period, heiau had become extensively developed and

Protestant missionaries, who created an orthography for

differentiated into a system of major "state" temples

the Hawaiian language, a number of these highly learned

where the principal gods Ku and Lono were worshipped

Hawaiians began to set their knowledge down on paper.

6

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t w o - v o l u m e w o r k by P. V. K i r c h a n d M . Sahlins, 1992, Anahulu: Anthropology

The

of History in the King-

dom of Hawaii,

C h i c a g o : University

o f C h i c a g o Press.

written documentation) must come from the material traces left in the soil and on the landscape of the islands by generations of human occupants. T h i s material record ranges from such highly visible sites as the monumental stone temple platforms—heiau—that still dominate the landscape, to more subtle features, such as the low parallel ridges of ancient dryland garden fields that take a trained eye to detect. These sites, as well as the accumulations of ancient artifacts, bones, plant remains, and other detritus of human life found buried within sites, provide a richly textured and finely patterned record of Hawaiian life over hundreds of years. T h e discovery, study, and interpretation of such ancient sites and artifacts is the province of archaeology. Although questions and issues of Hawaiian prehistory began to be explored soon after European contact, archaeological research per se did not begin to develop in the Islands until the close of the nineteenth century. A Detail: Several human

From the writings of such men as Samuel Kamakau,

figures and a "crab-claw"

critical event was the founding in 1889 of the Bernice P.

J o h n Papa T i , and David Malo, among others, we can

sail motif on the sheer cliff

Bishop Museum in Honolulu. T h e museum's first direc-

relate many of the archaeological sites of the Proto-

face at Olowalu. Modern

tor, William T. Brigham, began to assemble a collection of

Historic Period to the events and actions of the great

ancient stone tools and implements, publishing in 1902

men and women of ancient Hawaii.

an important monograph on these artifacts under the title

graffiti have unfortunately marred the site. (See p. 64.)

Stone Implements and Stone Work of the Ancient

Hawai-

ians. Brigham was also fascinated by the ancient religion

Archaeology in Hawai'i

of the Hawaiians, and he reasoned that a detailed, scientific survey of the stone temple platforms and enclosures

Despite their numerous and sophisticated developments

throughout the islands could reveal much concerning

in agriculture, the material and dramatic arts, social orga-

Hawaiian prehistory. Brigham hired J o h n F. G . Stokes as

nization and politics—all of which rank with many of the

the Bishop Museum's curator of ethnology, and directed

"archaic states" or early civilizations of the Old and New

Stokes to survey and make accurate plans of heiau 011

Worlds—the ancient Hawaiians had not invented a writ-

Moloka'i and I lawai'i Islands. Although Stokes' H a w a i i

ing system prior to European contact. This does not

Island work was not published until 1991, long after his

mean that the Hawaiians were unconcerned with record-

death, he nonetheless laid the groundwork for modern

ing their history, for their accumulated knowledge was

archaeological research in the Islands. In addition to his

passed on to succeeding generations through oral tradi-

heiau surveys, Stokes conducted the first systematic sub-

tions. Fortunately, much of this ancient oral literature

surface excavation in the Islands, of a fishermen's shelter

has come down to us today through the works of the

cave and associated shrine on the island of Kahoolawe,

nineteenth-century bards who set their knowledge down

in 1913.

with pen and ink. T h u s , Hawaiian traditions continue

During the decades between the two world wars,

to provide an important source of information on the

much basic field survey work in Hawaiian archaeology

everyday life as well as the social and political history of

was carried out under the auspices of the Bishop Mu-

Hawai i in the centuries before Captain Cook broke the

seum. Scholars including Wendell Bennett (who later

Islands' isolation from the Western world.

became famous for his excavations in South America),

T h e other great source of information and potential knowledge about Hawaiian prehistory (that is, before

A N

I N T R O D UCTI O N

T ()

J . Gilbert McAllister, Winslow Walker, and Kenneth P. Emory diligently recorded hundreds of archaeological

H AW A I I A N

A R C H A E () L () G Y

7

sites throughout the Islands, focusing mostly on the

for the Hawaiian Islands based largely on radiocarbon

monumental and often elaborately constructed heiau.

dating, and also using changes in fishhook types, much

Despite Stokes' pioneering excavations on Kahoolawe,

as archaeologists elsewhere used pottery changes to

virtually no excavation was undertaken during this pe-

construct cultural sequences. It became evident that the

riod, primarily because it was thought that little would be

Hawaiian Islands were first settled some time in the early

gained from such tedious work. Most scholars believed

first millennium a.d., by Polynesians voyaging from one

that Hawaiian culture had not changed significantly prior

or more archipelagoes in central East Polynesia—quite

to European arrival, and thus the existing museum collec-

likely the Marquesas Islands.

tions of Hawaiian art and ethnographic artifacts, along

O v e r the past three decades, the study of Hawaiian

with the oral traditions recorded by native Hawaiians

archaeology has broadened to encompass a host of new

themselves, provided sufficient basis for understanding

research questions about ancient Hawaiian life, aided by

the ancient culture.

the application of increasingly sophisticated techniques, methods, and interpretative theories. Rather than focus-

T h e s e assumptions were eventually to be overthrown by Kenneth P. Emory, w h o in 1950 decided to

i n g j u s t on the architecturally impressive heiau, or on

thrust a trowel into the earth at Kuli o u o u rockshelter on

coastal rockshelters and middens rich in fishhooks and

the southeastern side of O'ahu Island. Emory's excava-

other artifacts, archaeologists today are interested in the

tion not only yielded a rich array of artifacts—including

entire range of sites, and in how these features are pat-

some types not previously represented in the Bishop

terned over the landscape. B y analyzing the arrangement

M u s e u m ' s collections—but provided charcoal that was

of sites, both in relation to geographic features such as

tested by the newly invented technique of radiocarbon

streams, soils, and rainfall, and to each other, archaeolo-

dating. Prior to the invention of radiocarbon dating by

gists have learned m u c h about ancient Hawaiian social

Willard C . L i b b y at the University of Chicago, there

and political organization, and their economy. Rather

was no direct means of assessing the age of a prehistoric

than using radiocarbon dating merely as a tool to deter-

occupation site. In other parts of the world, archaeolo-

mine the age of a site, archaeologists are accumulating

gists had developed sophisticated methods for determin-

and analyzing suites of hundreds of radiocarbon dates

ing chronologies based on changes in pottery types,

in order to assess changes in prehistoric population

correlating these ceramic sequences where possible with

growth and density. T h e effects of ancient Hawaiian

k n o w n historical events. T h e Hawaiians, however, did

forest clearance, agriculture, and hunting on the forests

not make or use pottery, and the problem of developing

and the unique bird life and other endemic biota of the

a cultural sequence or chronology for the Hawaiian past

archipelago are being studied through analysis of exca-

had seemed intractable. Libby's revolutionary method

vated bones and plant remains, through pollen analysis

permitted archaeologists in Hawai'i and other parts of

of sediment cores, identification of carbonized w o o d in

the Pacific to obtain accurate estimates of age based on

ancient hearths and oven pits, and other techniques.

the radioactive decay rate of carbon 14 in organic materi-

Archaeologists and anthropologists have come to realize

als (such as charcoal, w o o d , or bone). T h e sample of

that Hawaiian culture and society underwent many im-

charcoal from Kuli o u o u sent to L i b b y by Kenneth

portant changes and developments in the course of the

E m o r y p r o d u c e d an estimated date of a.d. 1004 ± 180

fifteen or so centuries between initial Polynesian discov-

years, considerably older than anticipated.

ery and settlement, and the arrival of Europeans and other foreigners beginning in 1778. W h i l e understanding

Inspired by these new results, E m o r y launched

this history is important and fascinating in its own right,

an ambitious program in Hawaiian archaeology during

comparison of Hawaiian prehistory with the developmen-

the 1950s, jointly supported by the Bishop M u s e u m and

tal sequences of other complex cultures and early civiliza-

the University of Hawai'i. In this work, w h i c h included

tions can tell us m u c h about general trends and processes

a series of systematic excavations throughout all of the main islands, he was soon j o i n e d by his students Yosihiko Sinoto and William Bonk. B y the early 1960s, Emory's

T h e practice of archaeology in Hawai'i has, in

research team constructed a prehistoric cultural sequence

8

AN

INTRODUCTION

of human societies.

TO

recent years, come to be dominated by what is sometimes

HAWAIIAN

ARCHAEOLOGY

called "contract a r c h a e o l o g y " or "cultural resource

there are negative aspects to this dominance 011 C R M -

m a n a g e m e n t " ( C R M ) . Although many of the underlying

f u n d e d archaeology. For example, the rate of accumula-

research questions—as well as the basic methods and

tion of new information has been so fast that there has

techniques—used by C R M archaeologists are identical

often been neither sufficient time nor f u n d s to assimilate,

to those in academically supported archaeological w o r k ,

synthesize, and interpret the new findings. M o r e disturb-

C R M archaeology is driven by the pressures of modern

ing, archaeologists have tended to b e c o m e linked in the

land development. Since it became the Fiftieth State in

public vision with land developers. T h u s archaeologists

1 9 5 9 , H a w a i ' i has undergone unprecedented economic

are increasingly viewed with suspicion by some p e o p l e ,

growth, largely spurred by the international tourism in-

especially native Hawaiians w h o are rightly concerned

dustry. With the construction of hotels, resort complexes,

with their land rights and with the preservation of their

and golf courses has c o m e the expansion of roads, air-

cultural heritage.

ports, harbors, water and electric lines, and other infra-

T h e world-wide recession of the late 1 9 8 0 s and

structure. M o s t of these development projects have taken

early 90s has brought a considerable s l o w d o w n to the

place on lands that included archaeological sites—not

pace of land development in H a w a i ' i , and with it a relax-

uncommonly, large numbers of sites—and most archaeo-

ation in the pace of C R M archaeology. O n e can only

logical work being undertaken in recent years has been

stress that p e r h a p s this is a good time for a rethinking of

f o c u s e d on the recording, study, salvage excavation, and,

the direction of archaeological work in the islands, and

sometimes, preservation of these features.

for a careful review and stocktaking of vast quantities of

T h e emphasis on C R M archaeology in Hawai 1 i

new data accumulated over the past f e w decades. Archae-

since the early 1 9 7 0 s has been something of a two-edged

ologists working in H a w a i ' i can be p r o u d of their many

sword. O n the positive side, substantially increased fund-

contributions to knowledge about the Hawaiian past,

ing for archaeological work has resulted in the accumula-

but this is no excuse for complacency. T h e r e is m u c h

tion of vast amounts of new information, ranging from

to be done to assure that this knowledge be used wisely

basic site records, to excavated materials, to radiocarbon

and to the benefit both of the native Hawaiian p e o p l e ,

dates. A l s o on the positive side, many important sites

and of all w h o share a concern for and interest in the

have been saved from destruction by archaeologists w h o

Hawaiian past.

have advocated their protection and preservation. But

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

HAWAIIAN

ARCHAEOLOGY

9

V I S I T I N G HAWAIIAN SITES

T h e sites described and illustrated in this book were

the use of mortar, and can easily tumble or collapse. T h e

specifically selected because they are accessible to the

walls enclosing heiau and house sites were never intended

public, although in some cases with restrictions. Most

by their makers to be walked upon, and visitors should

of the sites have been landscaped and modified so as to

keep off such constructions at all times. Many sites have

accommodate visitors, with parking areas, access trails,

foot trails designed for visitors—please stay 011 these and

and markers or interpretive trails. A few of the better-

observe all signs.

maintained national and state parks are staffed with rang-

• Petroglyph or rock art sites are especially fragile

ers or interpretive specialists, but in many locations the

and vulnerable to defacement, and many significant petro-

visitor is left unattended. Regardless of whether a site is

glyphs have already suffered irreversible damage. Never

supervised, there are a few basic rules that should govern

apply any substance to a petroglyph, not even chalk. Rub-

the behavior and activities of visitors to all Hawaiian

bings are also destructive, as these can stain and/or bruise

archaeological sites. • Above all, keep in mind that these sites represent

the fragile lava. T h e only responsible way to record a petroglyph is to take a photograph of it. Most petroglyph

the cultural heritage of the native Hawaiian people, and as

sites photograph well, especially in the oblique light of

such deserve great respect. This is especially so for reli-

early morning or late afternoon.

gious sites, such as the various heiau or places of worship

• Never remove anything from an archaeological

that make up a significant number of the sites included

site; removing stones or artifacts is not only immoral, it

in this volume. Prior to the abolition of the kapu system

is illegal as well. If you should happen to observe an arti-

and ancient religion by Liholiho (King Kamehameha II)

fact or other culturally significant material on a site (for

in 1819, many of these heiau were highly sacred places,

example, exposed by erosion), leave it in place and report

which only the high-ranking chiefs and priests would

your observation as soon as possible either to the ranger

enter. Even after the traditional rituals were no longer

or staff person in charge of the site, or to the local office

practiced, these sites continued to be regarded as wahi

of the State Historic Preservation Division (most islands

pana, or sacred places. They are imbued with mana, or

have State archaeologists in residence).

spiritual power, and continue to have great significance

• Do not rearrange or modify an archaeological site

The gently curving stone-

to the native Hawaiian people. Many sites continue to be

in any way. This includes the regrettable practice (increas-

walled arc of a prehistoric

actively used for religious observances, and visitors may

fishpond along the southern

ingly common) of wrapping stones in ¿«-leaves as informal

see recent offerings such as ¿¿-leaf bundles, fruits, or lei.

shore ofMoloka'i Island,

offerings (what one of my native Hawaiian friends deri-

T h e visitor should behave and act in these places as one

sively calls "pdhaku laulau"). Contrary to popular belief,

would in any other place of worship, including wearing

this practice is not a part of traditional Hawaiian ritual

constructed from thousands of basalt and coral boulders.

respectful clothing (it is hardly appropriate to visit a

(although the use of ¿f-leaves in ritual is an ancient Poly-

heiau dressed for a picnic at the beach).

nesian practice), and only leads to the rearrangement of

• Remember at all times that Hawaiian archaeological sites are fragile constructions. The stone walls and terrace facings that make up many sites were laid without

paving and wall stones, thus destroying the integrity of the archaeological remains.

A Note on Site Location and Access

At the time we carried out the field research for this book, all of the sites were accessible to the public, usually without any special permission or arrangements. In some cases, however, restrictions do apply, such as requesting prior permission to visit, making appointments, or signing written waivers of liability. Special conditions governing access to Sites 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 7 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 3 2 , 3 5 , and 43 at the time of writing are noted specifically in the text for these sites. The authors assume no responsibility for future changes in access to these, or other sites, made by landholders. It is the responsibility of all visitors to check with the relevant landowners or their agents as to current conditions of access before visiting any of the sites discussed in this book. The Hawaii Visitors Bureau, the State of Hawaii Parks Division, and the State of Hawaii Historic Preservation Division can also provide information with regard to site access. We have purposefully refrained from cluttering the text with the usual "guidebookese," especially since roads are continually being rerouted and developed in modern Hawaii. For those who intend this book to serve as a field guide, we recommend that it be used together with a set of the excellent Reference Maps of the Islands of

Hawaii,

compiled by James A. Bier, and published by the University of Hawai'i Press. All of the sites described herein are plotted on these maps (archaeological and historical sites are labeled in red ink). Most bookstores in the Islands carry these maps, or they may be purchased directly from the University of Hawai'i Press. The Hawaiian place names used in this book follow Pukui, Elbert, and Mookini's authoritative Place Names of Hawaii (1974).

12

KAUA11 ISLAND

Fourth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, Kaua'i lies at the

T h e r e are many aspects of Kaua'i archaeology and

western end of the archipelago, separated from O ' a h u

prehistoric culture that are distinctive from the rest of the

by a frequently turbulent ocean channel seventy-three

Hawaiian Islands, and w h i c h have long p u z z l e d scholars.

miles w i d e . Geologically, Kaua'i is the oldest of the main

For e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h o u t the other islands the stone

islands, its volcanoes last having erupted between a b o u t

p o u n d e r s used to make poi from taro c o r m s were of a

four and six million years ago. A f t e r the island m o v e d o f f

uniform conical shape with a k n o b at the top. O n Kaua'i,

the active volcanic " h o t - s p o t " (today o c c u p i e d by H a w a i ' i

however, two other styles of p o u n d e r were d e v e l o p e d ,

Island), weathering by w i n d and rain gradually sculpted

one with a ringlike handle and one shaped rather like a

the magnificent N a Pali and Halele'a valleys and ridges,

stirrup. Archaeologists have also f o u n d on K a u a i a kind

the d e e p gorge of Waimea C a n y o n , and deposited the

of " b l o c k g r i n d e r " made from basalt, o f uncertain func-

fertile alluvial soils in valleys s u c h as Wailua and Hanalei.

tion, that appears n o w h e r e else in the archipelago. T h e s e

Traditionally, Kaua'i was divided into five political

and other distinctive aspects o f the island's culture have

districts. O n the northwest is N a Pali (literally, "the

sometimes been cited as evidence that K a u a i was settled

cliffs'"), w h o s e d e e p valleys such as Kalalau are divided

independently from the rest of the islands, and that the

by razor-backed ridges, and are accessible only by sea or

legendary menehune

over treacherous trails. T h e valleys o f the Ilalele'a District

o f p e o p l e . M o r e likely, these differences between Kaua'i

— o n the northern, w i n d w a r d side o f the island—are more

and the other islands result from the considerable isola-

actually refers to this earlier g r o u p

readily accessible, and the a b u n d a n t streamflow here

tion o c c a s i o n e d by the distances between them, and

m a d e this an area rich in irrigated taro fields. T h e north-

infrequency of interisland voyages and contact. C r o s s i n g

eastern bulge c o m p r i s e d Ko'olau District. A t the core

the stormy channel between O ' a h u and Kaua'i by canoe

o f the island lay Puna District, with the vast and fertile

can b e perilous, and twice thwarted the w a r king K a m e -

Wailua and H u l e ' i a river valleys. T h i s was the great agri-

hameha I in his plans to subjugate the Kaua'i p a r a m o u n t

cultural " b r e a d b a s k e t " of Kaua'i, and not surprisingly

chief, K a u m u a l i ' i .

the island's chiefly families established their h o u s e h o l d s

Kaua'i is rich in archaeological sites, although only

at the m o u t h o f the Wailua River (see Site l). T h e dry,

a few have been made readily accessible to visitors, s u c h

leeward side of K a u a i c o m p r i s e d K o n a District. It was

as the six sites described on the following pages. A g o o d

here at the m o u t h of the Waimea River that Captain

introduction to the island's rich history and culture can

James C o o k , c o m m a n d i n g H i s Britannic Majesty's ships

also be obtained at the Kaua'i M u s e u m in L i h u e (4428

Resolution

R i c e Street).

and Discovery, first landed on January 20,1778.

Waimea w o u l d later be the setting for an aborted attempt Map of Kaua'i Island. by the R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n C o m p a n y to establish a fort and trading station in the Islands (see Site 5).

15

1. HEIAU

C O M P L E X AT W A I L U A

Popularly referred to as the " G a r d e n Isle." Kaua'i boasts extensive tracts of fertile soil and many large river valleys, all of w h i c h p r o v i d e d the natural resources to s u p p o r t a substantial p o p u l a t i o n in precontact tunes. T h e greatest of these river valleys is Wailua ( " t w o w a t e r s " ) , with two b r a n c h e s draining a vast inland region, today d o m i n a t e d by sugarcane plantations but formerly the agricultural core of the ancient Kaua'i c h i e f d o m . N o t surprisingly, a region so richly e n d o w e d with agricultural wealth was also the residential and religious seat of p o w e r f u l chiefs a n d their retainers. Within a radius of about one and a half miles f r o m the Wailua R i v e r mouth are six important temples and associated sites constructed u n d e r the aegis of these chiefs. T h e s e sites were officially designated a National Historical L a n d m a r k in 1 9 6 2 (a marker comm e m o r a t i n g this is affixed to a large b o u l d e r 011 the ridge s e a w a r d o f Poli'ahu H e i a u ) . O c c u p y i n g a c o m m a n d i n g position 011 the narrow ridge s p u r dividing 'Opaeka'a Stream and Wailua River, c e r e m o n i e s carried out at Poli'ahu H e i a u w o u l d have been w i d e l y visible f r o m the densely settled l o w l a n d s . T h e sheer cliffs of M a u n a K a p u ( " s a c r e d m o u n t a i n " ) — in w h i c h white-tailed tropic birds nest—loom over the site to the south. T h i s massive temple foundation is a fine, well-preserved e x a m p l e of a

luaknu heiau, a

class

of temple built by p a r a m o u n t chiefs and dedicated to the g o d of war, K u . Pioneering archaeologist Wendell

the terrain narrows, can be f o u n d a legendary " b e l l s t o n e , "

B e n n e t t , w h o m a p p e d the site 111 the late 1 9 2 0 s , accurately

o c c u p y i n g a spectacular v i e w over the Wailua River.

d e s c r i b e d it as " a p a v e d and walled enclosure roughly

L e a v i n g Poli'ahu I l e i a u and p r o c e e d i n g towards

rectangular with a 3 0 by 70-foot notch taken out of the southeast corner." Bennett gave the

heiau d i m e n s i o n s

the Wailua R i v e r mouth, one passes H o l o h o l o k u H e i a u as

and the adjacent " b i r t h i n g s t o n e s " site. ( O n the north

2 4 2 feet long by 1 6 5 feet w i d e . M o s t of the interior con-

side of the highway opposite these archaeological fea-

sists of a stone-paved court 011 w h i c h may be seen fallen,

tures is a c h a r m i n g small etlmobotanical garden). T h e s e

p r i s m a t i c - s h a p e d dikestone uprights; similar upright

" b i r t h i n g s t o n e s " actually consist of two large natural

stones were illustrated by C a p t a i n C o o k ' s a r t i s t , J o h n Webber, 111 his f a m o u s d r a w i n g of a

heiau at

Waimea.

stone-faced terraces, and there are a n u m b e r of pits and

also K u k a n i l o k o , Site to), this was a place to w h i c h high-

other architectural features 111 the northeast corner. Of

ranking chiefesses repaired to give birth to their royal

special interest is a large rectangular b o u l d e r that was set

o f f s p r i n g , and to deposit the afterbirth and umbilical

upright against the m i d d l e of the southern enclosure wall:

cord. Nestled against the two stone outcrops is a low,

such stones were usually set u p to represent particular

rectangular stone h o u s e f o u n d a t i o n , w h i c h p r e s u m a b l y

deities. B e l o w Poli'ahu H e i a u on the same ridge, w h e r e

s u p p o r t e d a/)f/f-grass thatched h o u s e in w h i c h the actual

I S I. A N I)

Heiau and surrounded by plantings of kl, probably represented one of the deities worshipped at this temple.

pdhaku ho'ohdiiau ( " s t o n e pdhaku pike ("navel s t o n e " ) . A s

with other such localities in the Hawaiian Islands (see

KAl'A'I

incorporated into the southern facing of Poli'ahu

stone o u t c r o p s , one called the of birth g i v i n g " ) and the

A l o n g the southern and western sides of the court are low.

i(i

A large upright boulder,

The sheer cliff face of Mauna Kapu stands sentinel across the Wailua River from Poli'ahu Heiau. A rectangular foundation for one of the temple houses is visible on the temple's court.

T h e seaward terrace retaining wall at Hikinaakala H e i a u incorporates a large basalt boulder with adzgrinding depressions.

T h e inland facing wall o f Kukui Heiau, partially

covered in naupaka and ki plants.

birth took place, the chiefess being surrounded and

of petroglyphs can be discerned on a group of boulders

assisted by her retinue. Just seaward of the birthing

lying in the Wailua River mouth not far from Hikinaakala

stones is Holoholoku Heiau, a stone-walled enclosure

Heiau.

built up against a low ridge with several terraces. Piercing

On the inland side of Highway 56' from Hikinaakala

the southern wall of the temple enclosure is a unique low

Heiau is Mana Heiau, a massive rectangular walled lua-

"doorway." By some accounts, Holoholoku was not actu-

hini heiau measuring 395 feet long, making it one of the

ally a temple at all, but a chiefly residence site.

largest architectural sites 011 Kaua'i. At the present time,

T h e other sites comprising the Wailua Historical

the site is not readily accessible to the public, although it

District are concentrated around the shores of Wailua

is owned by the State of Hawaii, and there are plans to

Bay. On the southern shore of the Wailua River mouth

preserve and interpret the structure in the future.

lies Hikinaakala Heiau ("rising of the sun"), also desig-

On the northern shore of Wailua Bay, 011 Alakukui

nated by some authorities as a place of refuge (pu'uhonua)

Point, is yet another temple: Kukui Heiau. (To visit this

known as Hauola. Set among coconut palms and Panda-

site, which has been donated to the State of Hawaii by the

nus trees, Hikinaakala was robbed of many of its stones

developers of the nearby condominium, follow the public-

in the past century, so that only the larger boulders origi-

access right-of-way between Lae Nani Condos and the

nally forming the wall bases remain intact. Nonetheless,

Kauai Sands.) T h e site was probably modified after the

one can readily make out the three distinct paved divi-

overthrow of the old religion in 1819, and today is heavily

sions that formed this structure. Firmly set into the best

landscaped. However, several impressive facing walls are

preserved of these walls—an outer terrace retaining wall

visible, and the temple foundation boasts a spectacular

facing the river mouth—is a large basalt grindstone with

perspective 011 Wailua Bay.

several smooth, polished facets produced by sharpening the bevels of stone adzes. That this grindstone was taken out of secular use and incorporated into the walls of a heiau suggests that it may have been imbued with great mana or spiritual power. At low tide, the faint outlines

18

K A U A' I

I S I. A N D

R e f e r e n c e s : Bennett ( 1 9 3 1 : 1 2 5 - 1 2 8 ) ; F o w k e (l()22:l ' A II I

I S L A N D

MO LOK A11 ISLAND

Less than Half the area of Kaua'i, the long but narrow

it is much closer to the latter), was under the political

volcanic shields formed the island some one and a half

domination of both O'ahu and Maui chiefs at various

to two million years ago, the larger and higher eastern

times in its prehistory. With a small population base, the

volcano rising to an elevation of 4,961 feet at Kaniakou.

Moloka'i chiefs could not outcompete the more powerful

These high mountains cause a rain shadow that creates

Maui and O'ahu forces. However, the Molokai people

much drier conditions on the lower western end, with

developed their own forms of resistance to domination,

its 1,381-foot summit of Pu u Nana. Long after the main

most notably the arts of sorcery. One of the most famous

mountains were formed and their volcanoes had become

of all kahuna, Lanikaula, made his abode deep within

extinct, a later eruption along the windward coastline

the kukiii grove at Puu-o-Hoku 011 the island's eastern

built the peninsula of Kalaupapa, location of the famous

tip. And, the greatly feared sorcery gods called the

leper colony and home of Father Damien for many years

Kalaipahoa were carved from the wood of trees taken

(see Site 14).

from the summit of Maunaloa in Kaluako'i District.

Adapting to the strong ecological contrasts between

Map of Moloka'i Island.

Moloka'i, lying between O'ahu and Maui (although

island of Moloka'i ranks fifth in size. Lava flows from two

In recent times, Moloka'i has been largely spared

the well-watered eastern and the arid western parts of the

the development that has transformed the landscapes of

island, the majority of the Hawaiian population in pre-

other islands. Ranching, and for a time, pineapple culti-

contact times lived in the east. T h e windward district of

vation, have been the island's main economic activities,

Koolau comprised the four great valleys of Waikolu,

and population stands at only a little more than six thou-

Pelekunu, Wailau, and Halawa. With their fast-flowing

sand people. Molokai—especially the east end—remains

streams and alluvial soils, these valleys boasted extensive

a strong center of traditional Hawaiian culture and values.

wet taro cultivation. Of these windward valleys, only

T h e relative lack of land development has preserved

Halawa is accessible by car. Halawa Valley is also the loca-

much of the island's rich archaeological landscape. How-

tion of the earliest known settlement 011 the island, dating

ever, most sites lie 011 private land and are not accessible

to the Developmental Period (ca. A.D. 600). T h e Kona

to the public. T h e few sites that are open, however, are

District was well populated, especially around Pukoo and

well worth visiting and include one of the most extensive

Wailua, and several massive heiau platforms still exist in

fishpond complexes in the islands (Site 16), and the vast

this region. T h e western half of Molokai was traditionally

stone-faced irrigation fields and habitation sites of the

known as Kaluako' i (literally, "the adz pit"), renowned

Halawa Valley (Site 17). I11 a dramatic setting high above

for its many sources and quarries of fine-grained basalt

the cliffs overlooking Kalaupapa Peninsula is also Kauleo-

rock prized for the manufacture of adzes and other tools. . .

nanahoa, the "phallic rock" (Site 15).

Sweet potatoes were cultivated 011 the summit regions of Maunaloa, but most people in Kaluako'i lived in smaller fishing hamlets dispersed around the coastline.

43

14. K A L A U P A P A

PENINSULA

Kalaupapa: the very name could strike fear into the

vation, and parallel stone rows resulting from intensive

heart of a nineteenth-century Hawaiian. For it was to this

gardening can be seen over much of this land. »Some of

remote, w i n d s w e p t peninsula on the northern Moloka'i

these fields date from the mid-nineteenth century, when

coast, lying under the shadow of forbidding 4.ooo-foot

Kalaupapa witnessed a " b o o m " 111 the export of sweet

high cliffs, that those w h o had contracted the dread

potatoes. 111 response to the demand for food from the

mai

pake, leprosy, were banished for life. T h e I Iawanan government established Kalaupapa as a leper colony in 1 8 6 5 .

San Francisco ( ¡ o l d Rush of 1N49. A detailed understanding of the prehistory of

and some sufferers of Hansen's disease remain there

Kalaupapa Peninsula must await more archaeological

todav (at their own will), although 110 new patients have

research. However, test excavations 111 one lava tube

been admitted since 1 ()()(). T h e story of Kalaupapa. and

habitation cave by a University of H a w a i i team in K)()()-

of Father Daniien—the Catholic priest w h o arrived 111

67 revealed that the peninsula has been occupied for as

1 8 7 3 and spent sixteen years of his life improving the lot

long as a thousand years. T h e many hrian. some quite

of the colony's occupants—has become world renowned

large, also offer mute testimony to Kalaupapa s former

through books and film. Kalaupapa is administered by

wealth and the extent of its population.

the State of Hawaii Health Department, while the peninsula and its unique historic and prehistoric sites are being

References: Daws (Kj71): Summers (U)7I:lSS

ujij).

transferred to the National Park Service (Kalaupapa National Historical Park was established by an act of C o n gress in 1980). At the present time. Kalaupapa can only be visited by making arrangements with one of the local tour operators authorized to escort visitors. Whereas the modern Hansen's disease settlement and clinic is situated on the western side of the peninsula (in the ahnpna'a

of Kalaupapa), the original settle-

ment in Father DaniieiTs time was 011 the eastern side, at Kalawao. (A third ahnpna'a.

Makanalua, occupies the

middle section of the peninsula, and includes the volcanic crater of K a u h a k o , from which the lavas creating file peninsula were erupted.) N o one lives at Kalawao today, but Damien's exquisite little church—Siloama—stands amidst a cluster of Hawaiian graves. Nearby are the ruins of the old settlement: stone enclosure walls, house foundations, and on the former grounds of the Baldwin H o m e for B o v s . the stone and lime-plaster foundations of the Four-thousand-foot cliffs provide a spectacular backdrop for the facing stones of an ancient heiau at Kalaupapa. Only the large foundation stones remain, the bulk of the temple foundation having been

kitchen. Although known to most people primarily through its historical connections with Father Damien and the A weathered gravestone in

leper colony, Kalaupapa also boasts a rich prehistory and

the cemetery behind Father

numerous archaeological sites. T h e area has yet to be

Damien's Siloama Church at

thoroughly surveyed archaeologically. but more than

Kalaupapa.

sixteen heiau and shrines, a hdhia slide, habitation caves,

robbed to construct pasture

numerous house sites, and extensive dryland agricultural

enclosures during the nine-

fields are recorded. T h e gently sloping lands surrounding

teenth century.

K a u h a k o (hater were ideally suited to sweet-potato culti-

\I () L O K . V I

I S

I. A X

I)

T h e isolated p e n i n s u l a of K a l a u p a p a affords spectacular views of O n e of several heiau

plat-

f o r m s to be f o u n d on the i n l a n d s l o p e s of K a l a u p a p a Peninsula.

the w i n d w a r d coast of Moloka'i, indented by Waikolu, Pelekunu, and Wailau valleys.

15. K A U L E O N A N A H O A , T H E PHALLIC S T O N E Perched just below the summit of Nanahoa Hill, and

were called pvhaku o Käue). Naturally elongated stones,

formerly visible prominently on the skyline for many

especially those of angular dykestone or of beach stone

miles distant, is the large stone Kauleonanahoa ("the pe-

that had been thoroughly rounded and polished by the

nis of Nanahoa' 1 ). Today a dense grove of ironwood trees

sea, were often set upright within shrines and heiau.

planted during a reforestation project shades the stone,

Archaeologist Stokes and other explorers m the

which is approached from a trail leading west from the

early 1900s found several small engraved stones near Kau-

Kalaupapa lookout parking area. T h i s rock is probably

leonanahoa that were carved to resemble female genitals.

the finest example in the archipelago of a class of "phallic

T h e great Hawaiian scholar Mary Kawena Pukui related

stones," usually natural rock formations with occasional

to Catherine Summers that these stones were taken to

artificial modifications. Kauleonanahoa appears to be a

Nänähoa to receive the mana or creative power of the

natural geological formation, although pioneer archaeolo-

place; they would then be taken home to make the land

gist J o h n F. G . Stokes detected traces of artificial working

fertile and crops productive (Summers 1971:30).

" o n the blunt ridge underneath the head." There is also

Boulders clustered to the north and northeast of

a female stone farther down the slope of Nanahoa Hill,

Kauleonanahoa are carved with more than twenty-four

for which at least three names have been recorded:

petroglyphs. T h e figures depicted are primarily human,

Kawahuna, Nawa'akaluli. and Waihu'ehu'e.

and are quite shallowly engraved into the stone.

Stones such as Kauleonanahoa were thought to embody the male creative principle, and were often asso-

References: Summers (l()71:28-;jl).

ciated with the creator god Kane (in which case they

x ^

Petroglyphs pecked into a boulder near Kauleonanahoa (Site 15), after S u m m e r s (1971)-

Kauleonanahoa thrusts skyward from the ridgeline overlooking Kalaupapa.

48

M () I . O K A ' 1

IS L A N D

16. S O U T H COAST F I S H P O N D S " F i s h p o n d s were things that beautified the land, and

fish with weirs. Hawaiian f i s h p o n d s , loko i'a. were prima-

a land with inanv f i s h p o n d s was called "fat."" In these

rily used to raise mullet or ]amtuima

w o r d s the nineteenth-century scholar S a m u e l K a m a k a u

milkfish KIV mva (CJuinos

( 1 9 7 6 : 4 7 ) captured the essence of aquaculture 111 H a w a i -

in brackish water. A species of small s h r i m p , 'opar. w a s

The wall of a small fishpond

ian civilization. N o land has more f i s h p o n d s , nor as many

also regularly harvested. T h e construction of p o n d s var-

near Puko'o. On the horizon

romantic coastline views of p o n d s , as the southern shore

ied d e p e n d i n g u p o n local t o p o g r a p h y and available mate-

the islet of Moku Ho'oniki

of Moloka'i. ( O ' a h u originally had more p o n d s in n u m b e r

rials. but most c o m m o n l y a semicircular wall of stones

than any other island, but a great many of these have been

w o u l d be constructed from one point on the shoreline

filled in or d e s t r o y e d . ) At least seventy-three p o n d s were

to another. S u c h loko knapu

c o n s t r u c t e d along this protected leeward shore between

ing from one u p to five h u n d r e d acres or more. Both

is silhouetted by the early morning sun.

The gently curving stonewalled arc of a prehistoric fishpond along the southern shore of Moloka'i Island,

chaiws).

(Mugil

ccpli(ilis)

and

both of w h i c h thrive

p o n d s e n c l o s e d areas rang-

K.0I0 in the west and Kanalia 111 the east. M a n y of these

volcanic stones from the land and large coral heads f r o m

f i s h p o n d s are readily viewed from K a n i e h a m e h a V H i g h -

the reef were used to construct the walls, w h i c h had to

way, running eastward f r o m K a u n a k a k a i town.

stand two or three feet above the high-tide level. In one or

A m o n g the indigenous p e o p l e of the Pacific Islands,

more places these walls were b r e a c h e d with sluice gates

constructed from thousands

onlv the H a w a i i a n s d e v e l o p e d true aquaculture by using

(makahd).

of basalt and coral boulders.

p o n d s to h u s b a n d fish, as o p p o s e d to merely trapping

with the tides. W o o d e n slats allowed the y o u n g frv to en-

permitting seawater to flow back and forth

ter the p o n d from the sea. but prevented the mature fish from escaping. Fish were periodically harvested, usually by hauling large s e m e nets. C o n s t r u c t i o n of a loko kuapa

required substantial

labor, and thus p o n d s were built u n d e r the aegis of chiefs w h o c o u l d c o m m a n d the p e o p l e to haul the t h o u s a n d s of stones necessary to form the long walls. O n c e constructed, however, p o n d s were efficiently o p e r a t e d bv a small g r o u p of specialists, often an e x t e n d e d family w h o w o r k e d the p o n d for the chief. T h e bulk of the harvest w a s reserved for use by the chief and his retainers, with a lesser portion g o i n g to the c o m m o n p e o p l e . M o s t of the Moloka'i f i s h p o n d s are of the loko kuapa

type. A few are still operational, although most

have fallen into disuse. At p e r i o d s of low tide, one can make out the rums of old p o n d s w h o s e walls have been broken d o w n by storm waves. T h e antiquity of f i s h p o n d construction 111 the H a w a i i a n Islands is not well understood by archaeologists, although it is believed that the majority of p o n d s were constructed d u r i n g the E x p a n s i o n and P r o t o - H i s t o r i c Periods (from about A.n. 1 1 0 0 to E u r o p e a n contact).

R e f e r e n c e s : Kiknclii ( 1 9 7 6 ) : K i r c h ( 1 9 8 5 : 211 2 1 4 ) : S u m m e r s (19(14: 1 9 7 1 ) .

M O I. ( ) K A " I

IS

I. A N 1)

17. H Ä L A W A V A L L E Y Descending the narrow, winding road from Pu u-o-Hoku

house sites, pig pens, and temples of various sorts. Sev-

Ranch on the eastern end of Moloka'i, the landscape of

eral house sites and agricultural terraces were excavated

lush Halawa Valley with its spectacular twin waterfalls

and radiocarbon-dated by our project in 1969-70, and

(Moa ula and Hlpuapua) is not soon forgotten. An early

proved to have been built during the Expansion and

haole explorer to the Islands penned his thoughts of this

Proto-Historic Periods. By the end of the Proto-Historic Period, Halawa Valley boasted one of the most intensive

panorama in 1853: The Valley of Halawa . . . is the finest scene on Molokai. T h e traveler stumbles on its brink un-

agricultural landscapes in the islands, with nearly seven hundred irrigated taro fields. Such great agricultural wealth (for food was truly

awares. At a depth of nearly twenty-five hundred feet below him, the whole scene is spread out be-

wealth in ancient Hawai'i) also fostered political power,

fore him like an exquisite panorama. Several large

and attracted the attention of mighty chiefs. In the Proto-

cascades were leaping from a height of several hun-

Historic Period, Moloka i became the political spoil of

dred feet at the head of the valley. Scores of taro

rival war chiefs from O'ahu and Maui, who fought each

beds, and a number of dwellings, and the romantic

other for control of the island. T h e local Moloka'i chiefs

river, are all seen at a glance (Bates 1854:274-275).

frequently turned to sorcery to defend themselves, giving

Halawa Valley was archaeologically investigated in 1969-70 by a team that I co-directed (see Kirch and Kelly 1975). Excavations in the coastal sand dunes near the stream mouth revealed an extensive settlement, radiocarbon-dated to the Developmental Period (A.D. 600-1100), the oldest archaeological site yet discovered on Moloka'i. T h e house foundations in this early village site were oval or round ended, and lined with low walls of water-rounded cobbles; inside these low huts were rectangular stone-lined hearths. T h e early Hawaiians who settled next to the Halawa stream mouth used highly polished stone adzes with shapes more like the adzes made by their Polynesian relatives in the Marquesas Islands, quite different from the adz types typical in later

the island a reputation (remaining to this day) for the practice of kahuna 'ana ana. In Halawa Valley, two large luakini heiau were constructed by conquering chiefs. Mana Heiau, high on the northern slopes, consists of a massive stone platform with a terraced facade rising thirteen feet high in places. Alapainui, a great war chief from Hawai'i Island, dedicated Mana Heiau following a war between the Kona and Koolau Districts, in which Alapainui came to the aid of the Kona chiefs. Papa Heiau, nestled in the side valley of Halawa Iki, is a complex arrangement of enclosures, platforms, and terraces; the Halawa people told archaeologist John F. G. Stokes in 1909 that Papa Heiau was a sort of "college" for the training of priests or kahuna.

Hawaiian prehistory. T h e y fished the offshore waters with nets and small bone fishhooks, gathered 1 opihi and hlhiwai shellfish, and raised pigs, dogs, and chickens for food. T h e y also cultivated the nearby hillsides, for

Note:

M o s t of t h e l a n d in H a l a w a is p r i v a t e l y o w n e d , b u t t w o o l d H a w a i -

ian G o v e r n m e n t t r a i l s ( a l a nni)

run u p the s o u t h a n d north sides o f the

v a l l e y as Far as M o a ' u l a F a l l s . ( A t t h e t i m e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , t h e r e w a s s o m e d i s p u t e b e t w e e n l a n d o w n e r s a n d v a r i o u s State a n d C o u n t y a g e n c i e s as

charcoal found in erosional layers near the early village

to p u b l i c a c c e s s to t h e s e o l d ala nui

site reveals the effects of clearing the valley's native forest

hike, c r o s s i n g over a n d past e n d l e s s walls a n d terraces, takes o n e

in order to plant crops.

t h r o u g h s o m e o f the m o s t i n t r i g u i n g a n d s p e c t a c u l a r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

Over the centuries, the population of Halawa grew

trails.) T h e t h r e e - m i l e r o u n d - t r i p

r u i n s in t h e i s l a n d s .

T h e sheltered bay at Halawa

to perhaps as many as one thousand people, nurtured by the rich agricultural lands. Gradually, the entire valley floor and slopes became densely covered in irrigation canals and taro pondfields, dryland agricultural terraces,

References: Kirch (1985:127-130): Kirch and Kelly (1975): S u m m e r s

(1971:159-171)-

Valley offered a convenient canoe

landing even in

stormy weather. Sand dunes at the valley mouth conceal the oldest known occupation deposits on Moloka'i Island.

52

M O L O K A ' I

I S L A N D

A massive boulder near one of the main irrigation canals in H a l a w a Valley displays n u m e r o u s smooth basin-shaped depressions, produced by grinding and sharpening the cutting edges o f stone adzes.

A pavement of mosscovered stone slabs o n c e w e l c o m e d visitors at the threshold of a h o u s e site in the interior of Halawa Valley.

Carefully constructed stone facing walls of ancient irrigated pondfields crisscross the floor of Halawa Valley.

LAN A'I ISLAND

With a land area of only 139 square miles, Lana'i is the

Throughout most of the twentieth century, Lana i

smallest of the accessible main islands (Kaho'olawe and

was operated by the Dole Corporation as the largest

Ni'ihau are smaller yet, but are not generally open to

pineapple plantation 111 the world. Pineapples are no

visitors). Formed of a single shield volcano, Lana'i rises

longer grown there, however, and the island is now being

to a height of just 3,370 feet at the summit of Lana'ihale.

developed as a major resort destination. T h e owners are

Because of its low elevation, and the fact that it lies in

working to preserve the island's rich archaeological

the rain shadow of Maui, Lana'i is a rather dry island. Its

legacy, which includes the major coastal village complex

windward slopes are sliced by a few deep gorges, but the

at Kaunolu (Site 18). This site is one of the finest ex-

streams in these run only intermittently after heavy rains

amples of a well-preserved, integrated settlement to be

in the uplands. Only on the mountain crest of Lana ihale

seen in the Hawaiian Islands, and includes numerous

can some remnant wet forest be found over a limited area.

house platforms (including one platform occupied briefly

Because of this overall arid climate, the prehistoric population of Larmi relied primarily on the cultivation

by King Kamehameha I), a massive heiau, petroglyphs, and other features. Also accessible 011 Lana'i are the

of dryland crops, especially sweet potatoes. These were

Luahiwa petroglyphs 011 the lower slopes of Lana'ihale,

grown mostly in the higher elevation areas, such as the

a cluster of large boulders with motifs dating to both pre-

broad expanse of the Palawai Basin with its fertile soils

historic and early historic times.

and greater rainfall and dew precipitation. Any archaeological sites on the floor of the Palawai Basin have been

Because the island of Lana'i is privately held, visitors to the island who wish to visit these sites should con-

thoroughly destroyed through years of intensive pine-

firm accessibility and arrangements with local authorities

apple cultivation ill this century, but heiau, petroglyphs,

prior to planning a trip.

an adz quarry, and habitation sites situated around the rim of the Basin indicate that it was formerly a main locus of prehistoric Hawaiian activity.

Map of Lana'i Island.

57

18. K A U N O L U V I L L A G E O n e of t h e b u s t p r e s e r v e d P r o t o - I I i s t o n c P e r i o d v i l l a g e

h o u s e platforms, p e t r o g l y p h s . and other features. Re-

s i t e s in t h e e n t i r e H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s lies at t h e s o u t h e a s t -

c e n t l y . t h e site c o m p l e x h a s b e e n r e s t u d i e d b y t h e B i s h o p

e r n t i p of L i m a 1. w h e r e K a u n o l i i B a y p r o v i d e d a s h e l t e r e d

M u s e u m , and with their assistance the L a i u u C o m p a n y

landing for fishing canoes. The archaeological rums

h a s e s t a b l i s h e d an i n t e r p r e t i v e trail to g u i d e v i s i t o r s

o c c u p y t h e s t o n y r i d g e s o n b o t h s i d e s of K a u n o l f i G u l c h ,

t h r o u g h the r u m s .

a n o r m a l l y d r y s t r e a n i b e d s u b j e c t to f l a s h f l o o d s d u r i n g

O n t h e w e s t e r n s i d e of K a u n o l u G u l c h . H a l u l u

o c c a s i o n a l r a i n s t o r m s in t h e u p l a n d s . W h a t a t t r a c t e d

I l e i a u s t a n d s p r o m i n e n t l y 011 t h e cliff e d g e , its m a s s i v e

p e o p l e to e s t a b l i s h a v i l l a g e in t h e s e p a r c h e d s u r r o u n d -

s t o n e w a l l s b u i l t u p h i g h 011 t h e n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n

i n g s w e r e t h e r i c h f i s h i n g g r o u n d s in t h e d e e p w a t e r s o f f -

s i d e s . T h i s t e m p l e p r o b a b l y f u n c t i o n e d as a huikini.

and

s h o r e . u n d e r t h e l e e of t h e t h o u s a n d - f o o t h i g h c l i f f s of

K a i i i e h a m e h a I is r e p u t e d to h a v e h e l d c e r e m o n i e s h e r e

the s o u t h e r n L a n a 1 coastline. Fresh water w a s scarce,

b e t w e e n 1778 a n d 1810. K a m e h a n i e h a e v i d e n t l y e n j o y e d

h o w e v e r , a n d h a d to b e o b t a i n e d f r o m a w e l l s u n k i n t o t h e

r e s i d i n g a n d f i s h i n g at K a u n o l u . a n d t h e k i n g ' s o w n

a l l u v i a l s e d i m e n t s of t h e g u l c h b o t t o m , t a p p i n g t h e f r a g i l e

h o u s e p l a t f o r m lies d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e g u l c h f r o m H a l u l u

brackish water aquifer.

I l e i a u o n the* e a s t e r n b a n k . A s t o n e kil'itla

o r fish g o d .

Plan o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l features at t h e K a u n o l u

w i t h t h e p r o p e r n a m e of K u n i h i . f o r m e r l y s t o o d 011 a

village site (Site 18), b a s e d

in 1 9 2 1 - 2 2 b y p i o n e e r i n g e t h n o l o g i s t K e n n e t h P. K m o r v .

s t o n e a l t a r 111 t h e g u l c h , d i r e c t l y b e l o w t h e liriait.

o n t h e m a p by E m o r y

w h o m a d e a d e t a i l e d s u r v e y of t h e hciaii

i m a g e w a s r e m o v e d a n d h i d d e n a w a v b y O l i u a . t h e last

K a u n o l u V i l l a g e w a s first s t u d i e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y

site, e i g h t y - s i x

This

(1924)-

OD EJJ Kaunolu

Kealiakapu 0

Kaunolu Village Site •

Petroglyphs 200 Ft

Halulu Heiau, perched on the western edge of Kaunolu G u l c h , w a s t h e setting for rituals p e r f o r m e d by K a m e h a m e h a I a n d other ruling chiefs.

man to live 111 Kaunolü Village, on the order of King

Dispersed over this terrain are numerous habitation com-

Kamehanieha V in l8(iS.

plexes. consisting of dwelling platforms and terraces.

N u m e r o u s petroglyplis pecked into boulder sur-

« ailed enclosures, and other structures. A small lava

faces can be seen m several areas on the western ridge,

tube shelter. I laula C.ave. is also located here, and was

both seaward and inland of Ilalulu I l e i a u . Many of these

archaeologicallv excavated bv Emorv in the 1950s, vield-

petroglvphs are finely executed, the anthropomorphic

ing a collection of bone trolling lure points of the kind

figures having " m u s c u l a r " limbs filled in bv peeking. A

used by the ancient I Iawaiians to catch 'alii. ukn. and

number of " b i r d - m a n " motifs, human bodies with avian

other pelagic game fish.

heads or beaks, are also present at Kaunolfi. West of I Ialulu I Ieiau. at the very edge of the precipice. is a notch m the lava ndge known as " K a h e k i l i ' s Lea])." Kahekili. the ruling chief of Maui and arch-rival of K a m e h a m e h a . controlled L a n a i in the late 1700s and

.\i>//: Aeeess to kaunolfi \ ilume is enntrolled he the I.ana'i ('nnipauv. wlikh ow ns the site (NuN-r^jr-i-joon). 'lours tnav he . 1 minted with either ol the two

hotels operated hv the La 1 KM (aHtipanv: the VERV rou^li r< iad

to the site is for four-wheel-drive vehieles onlv. and

is oil-limits to

am

rental vehieles.

is said to have made his warriors leap through this notch and plunge into the sea below as a test of their courage. T h e 111am village area lies on the eastern side of

References: Fjnnrv

p^i (in. tjy

in ;, pis.

fij;s. 1 tS. t((t)).

Kaunolü G u l c h , an area properlv known as Kealiakapu.

N u m e r o u s petroglyphs are shallowly pecked or incised on boulder faces at Kaunolü.

I. A \ A' I

IS I. A \ 1)

I\'. IX. X):

kirell (H)Sv>ri j.

19. P E T R O G L Y P H S AT L U A H I W A Lana'i Island resembles s o m e w h a t a gigantic stone mor-

m a n y e x a m p l e s of s t r a t i f i c a t i o n " ( 1 9 2 4 : 9 5 ) . B v " s t r a t i f i c a -

tar. w i t h an e x t e n s i v e c e n t r a l d e p r e s s i o n — t h e P a l a w a i

t i o n . " E m o r y r e f e r r e d to the c o m p l e x o v e r l a y e n n g a n d

Basin ("putrid water")

c r o s s - c u t t i n g of f i g u r e s e v i d e n t 011 s o m e of the b o u l d e r s .

w h i c h until r e c e n t l y f o r m e d the

l a r g e s t p i n e a p p l e p l a n t a t i o n in the w o r l d . S w e e t p o t a t o e s

C o x a n d S t a s a c k c a r e f u l l y a n a l y z e d the p a t t e r n of o v e r l a p -

w e r e the c r o p f a v o r e d b y the a n c i e n t H a w a i i a n s . a n d t h e y

p i n g figures on o n e large L u a h i w a b o u l d e r ( 1 9 7 0 : 5 0

e v i d e n t l y f l o u r i s h e d 111 P a l a w a i B a s i n ' s v o l c a n i c s o i l s .

fig. 7 3 ) . u n r a v e l i n g at least f o u r s t a g e s of p e t r o g l v p h c a n -

O n the s t e e p s l o p e s r i s i n g u p f r o m the P a l a w a i f l a t l a n d s

i n g . T h e e a r l i e s t f i g u r e s are m o s t l y t r i a n g u l a r - b o d i e d h u -

to the r i d g e c r e s t of L a n a i h a l e . a n u m b e r of a r c h a e o l o g i -

m a n f o r m s . L a t e r f i g u r e s that c u t i n t o a n d o v e r the e a r l i e r

51.

cal sites attest to H a w a i i a n o c c u p a t i o n a n d u s e of the

m o t i f s i n c l u d e t h e m e s d a t i n g to the p o s t c o n t a c t p e r i o d ,

area. T h e s e include a quarry for extracting fine-grained

s u c h a m a n m o u n t e d 011 a h o r s e a n d a n o t h e r f i g u r e h o l d -

b a s a l t f o r s t o n e a d z m a k i n g , a n d at L u a h i w a , a m a j o r

i n g a g u n . as w e l l as s e v e r a l d o g s w i t h c u r l y tails.

p e t r o g l y p h site. T h e L u a h i w a petroglyphs were c a n ed on a g r o u p o f t w e n t y l a r g e b a s a l t b o u l d e r s a r r a n g e d o v e r the h i l l s i d e . T h e u s e of b o u l d e r s u r f a c e s f o r p e t r o g l y p h s is c o m m o n 011 L a n a i (see S i t e 1 8 ) . as it is a l s o 011 M o l o k a 1. 111 c o n -

A f / c The Luahiwa petro^lvphs arc somewhat oil [lit- beaten track, accessible troin a dirt road that is passable l>v t ar when drv. The site lies mi the property ol the Lana'i (lompanv. and permission to visit the site should first he obtained from the Lana'i (aimpanv management (SoS-5(>5-;}tioo). 01' by inquiring at one of the two prineipal hotels on

trast w i t h the u s e o f v e r t i c a l cliff' f a c e s 011 M a u i a n d flat p a h o e h o e lava s u r f a c e s 011 I l a w a i ' i . P i o n e e r a r c h a e o l o g i s t K e n n e t h P. E m o r v . w h o s u r v e y e d the site in l7.

liK. , ,N).

s o u t h of the I I o n o k o h a u B o a t H a r b o r . ( F o l l o w the r o a d a l o n g the s o u t h s i d e of the h a r b o r all the w a v to the s h o r e

Two massive basalt slabs rise from the seaward face o f M a k a ' o p i ' o Heiau at Honokohau.

II A W A 1 ' I

I S

I. A X

1)

39. A H U ' E N A HEIAU In August of 1812, Kamehameha I—who had resided on

authored his memoirs of this period (Ti:l95g), described

O'ahu since his successful conquest and amalgamation of

Ahuena during the years that Kamehameha worshipped

the Kingdom in 1804—left Honolulu with his entourage

there:

for his ancestral island of Hawai'i. He made his home at the small cove of Kamakahonu ("eye of the turtle"), at the edge of Kailua Bay, and remained there until his death seven years later. After his wars of conquest, during which he worshipped his war god Kuka'ilimoku and built or rededicated several luakini heiau (see Sites 31 and 50), Kamehameha quietly put aside the worship of Ku and focused on the cult of Lono, god of agriculture and prosperity. Traditionally, Lono was worshipped during the makahiki—the new year's harvest ceremonial—when the Lono priests would make a right-hand circuit of the island, collecting tribute at each ahupuaa. At Kamakahonu, Kamehameha established a Hale

Ahuena house, which was a heiau, was enclosed with a fence of lama wood and within this fence, toward the front on the west and facing inland, there was an anu'u tower. A row of images stood along its front, as befitted a Hale o Lono. Images stood at the northwest corner of the house, with a stone pavement in front of them that extended as far as the western gate and as far as the fence east of the house. On the west side of the outer entrance was a large image named Koleamoku, on whose helmet perched the figure of a plover (1959:123). During Kamehameha's last years, his council met

o Lono ("house of Lono") heiau to hold the collection

regularly within Ahu'ena to discuss the affairs of state, and

of gods he had seized from his vanquished foes, and in

also to give instruction to his son Liholiho in history and

which to hold his ritual observances. The heiau, Ahu'ena

ways of the great chiefs, that he might rule wisely after his

("red-hot altar"), was built upon the foundation of an

father's death.

older temple, probably dating to the time of Hawai'i Is-

Kamakahonu is today part of the grounds of the

land chief Llloa. Fortunately, a number of accounts both

King Kamehameha Hotel in Kailua, Kona, and Ahu'ena

by native Hawaiians and by visiting Europeans offer a

Heiau was restored in the late 1970s as part of a hotel

good description of Ahu'ena Heiau and the role it played

refurbishing. The stone foundations were excavated and

in the daily life of Kamehameha's household. Also, the

rebuilt under archaeological supervision, and the wooden

French artist Louis Choris made a sketch of the temple,

and thatched superstructures, as well as the god images,

its thatched houses, and its god images in 1816. Choris'

were recreated primarily on the basis of the 1816 sketch

sketch provides one of the few firsthand depictions of

by Louis Choris. This site provides an excellent impres-

a Hawaiian religious site while in use, prior to the over-

sion of how a typical Hale o Lono temple must have

throw of the old religious order after Kamehameha's

looked during use.

death in 1819. The Hawaiian scholar John Papa T i , who served with the court of Kamehameha during his youth and later

96

H A W A I ' I

I S L A N D

References: Barrere (1975:7-9); 'I'i (1959:12.3-124); Kirch (1985:166, fig. 147); Stokes (1991:43-47, fig. 7).

A h u ' e n a H e i a u , reconstructed to c o n f o r m to an early historic d r a w i n g by C h o r i s , o c c u p i e s a stone platform built out over the water at K a m a k a h o n u , the r e s i d e n c e of K a m e h a m e h a I.

" T e m p l e d u Roi d a n s la baie Tiritatea." D r a w i n g by Louis C h o r i s of A h u ' e n a H e i a u in 1 8 2 2 . (Courtesy of the Bishop Museum)

40. K U ' E M A N U H E I A U Ancient Ilawaiians invented the sport of surfing on

and consequently good sport. The terraces were excellent

w o o d e n hoards (he,e uahi). a sport which has now become

points of vantage from which to watch the sport, and the

international. In precontact times, there were two kinds of

pool convenient for removing the salt on the return"

surfboard, a short form (about six to nine feet long) called

(i99i:7)-

alaia.

and a longer one called olo that measured as much

angular main terrace, with a low platform paved in fine

practiced primarily by chiefs.

water-rolled gravel. O11 the north side of the terrace arc-

Kahalu'u Bay is a favored surfing spot when the

The main platform of Ku'emanu Heiau affords an

Architecturally. Ku'emanu I Ieiau has a roughlv rect-

as fifteen feet (Buck U)57::384-'3cS6). Surfing was a sport

two walled enclosures ami a small pit that Stokes reported

southern swells surge into the bay. and situated on the

to have been a hiapa'n—a

northern point is the only documented surfing heian in

ings. South of the main terrace lies the freshwater bathing

the Islands. Ku'einanu I Ieiau lies immediately adjacent

pool, where surfing contestants reputedly rinsed off the

to Ali'i Drive, and is protected as a State historic site.

salt water, and a small well for drinking water.

depositorv for sacrificial offer-

Pioneer archaeologist J o h n F. G . Stokes, w h o carried

unimpeded view of Kahalu'u

out a survey of Hawai'i Island heian in K)o6, was told by

Bay, a favorite surfing spot in

the local Hawaiians that K u e i n a n u " w a s a heian for surf-

ancient times, as it is today.

riding. where they could pray for good surfing weather

Reference: Stokes (K)7 70. fiy;. 20).

The inner stacked-stone facing of Ku'emanu Heiau, a temple dedicated to the chiefly sport of surf-riding.

II A W A l l

I S I, A X n

41. H A P A I A L I ' I H E I A U . K A H A L I T U K o n a D i s t r i c t c o n t a i n s an a m a z i n g a r r a y of ht'Ktn sites,

L i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n h a s b e e n p r e s e r v e d a b o u t the

m o s t s i t u a t e d a d j a c e n t to the c o a s t l i n e . M a n y of t h e s e

t e m p l e o r t h o s e w h o c o n s t r u c t e d a n d u s e d it. P i o n e e r i n g

h a v e b e e n d e s t r o y e d o r are n o t r e a d i l v a c c e s s i b l e , b u t

a r c h a e o l o g i s t J o h n F. ( I . S t o k e s , w h o m a p p e d the site in

t w o p r o m i n e n t sites c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d t h r o u g h the

! / < : I ' l l o r t o s t l i i / d u l i n s j , a \ i s i t t o tliL- A i n v

special horticultural techniques and practices in o r d e r to

( i n i TIc-11. |)IL-;ISC c u l l tliL- n t l i i L' ( N O S - ; J : 2 J - J j l S ) I n ( l i ' t c r n 1 [ 1 R " p u b l i c IK n i l ' s

maintain high viekls. Menzies d e s c r i b e d h o w the gardeners he saw covered their fields " w i t h a thick layer of hay. m a d e from long, coarse grass or the tops of sugar cane,

and

llIL" a \ a l l a b i h l v o l g u i d e d

RCTL-R'IKVS:

(lf)Jo:7")

lours.

KC-llv ( U ) S ; ) : k i i v l l

7(1): N e w m a n

(]

(K(7o).

w h i c h continually preserves a certain degree of moisture in the soil that w o u l d othei wise be p a r c h e d up by the

H A W A I I

( itvctiWL'll h l l i n o h o u i u k

ISLAND

1()N):

Mt-ozits

.il

Ferns grow luxuriantly in the s h a d e of the m a s s i v e retaining wall of H i k i a u Heiau.

O n this '///'///-paved terrace at H i k i a u H e i a u , C a p t a i n J a m e s Cook was installed as the returning god Lono on January 18, 1779.

"An Offering before C a p t a i n C o o k in the S a n d w i c h I s l a n d s . " O r i g i n a l watercolor by John Webber, artist on C o o k ' s third voyage, depicts the f a m o u s navigator receiving an offering of baked pig at H i k i a u H e i a u . (Courtesy M H I B b

of the B i s h o p M u s e u m )

44. H I K I A U

HEIAU

In the early evening of January 17th. 1779—a Sunday—

signal distinction: Cook himself was treated as the L0110

Lt. William Bligli returned to 1 1 . M . S . Resolution after a

god would normally be. evidence that—according to

scouting foray in the ship's boat. Bligli reported to Cap-

anthropologist Marshall Sahlins—the Captain was being

tain James Cook that lie had found a "tolerable shelterd

installed as L0110 incarnate. Cook was made to sit between

bay, a good beach to land & behind it a pond of indiffer-

two wooden images with his arms held outstretched,

ent water." T h e bay was named Kealakekua ("pathway of

while the priests chanted their prayers and the crowd

the god"), in the Kona District (Lt. King, in Beaglehole

repeated the chorus of " ( ) Lono.'" T h e expedition artist.

1967:502). After weeks of ceaseless sailing, Cook and his

John Webber, sketched the scene that was later engraved

crew were eager to drop anchor for resupply and refresh-

for the official Admiralty account of the voyage. Some

ment. T h e Resolution and her sister ship Discovery en-

days after Cook's installation as L0110, one of the ship's

tered the bay 011 Monday morning, surrounded by such

gunners—William Watnian by name—passed avvav after

a throng of canoes as the English explorers had never

a long illness, and at the Hawaiian chiefs' request was

before encountered on their Pacific voyages. Lt. King

buried in the Hikiau Heiau platform.

estimated fifteen hundred canoes; the Discovery "had

T h e stone foundations of Hikiau Heiau lie at

such a number of people hanging 011 one side that she

Napo'opo'o, at the end of the road leading to Kealakekua

heal'd considerably" (Beaglehole 1967:504). Cook and his officers landed on the rocky beach,

Bay. Extensive architectural modifications to the heiau. both during the time of Kamehameha I and after, have

where they were "receiv'd by 3 or 4 men who held wands

changed the shape and details of the stone foundation

tipt with dogs hair, 8c who kept repeating a sentence,

from that of Cook's time. Nonetheless, the great rectan-

wherein the word Erono [L0110] was always mention'd"

gular platform of stacked lava rocks remains intact, with

(Lt. King, in Beaglehole 1967:504). Although the English

an impressive northern facing sixteen feet high. From

navigators were ignorant of this, Kealakekua Bay was

this platform one can look down 011 the sacred freshwater

the beginning and ending point for the annual circuit of

pool just north of the temple, which was surrounded In-

the island made by the L0110 priests during the makahihi

die houses of the priests. T h e surface of the Hikiau plat-

harvest season. Captain Cook, it would appear, was being

form is finely paved with 'ili'ili pebbles, and toward the

received as the manifestation or reincarnation of Lonoi-

eastern end of the platform is a stone-walled enclosure

kamakahiki, the god-chief who returned ritually each

that may have supported the thatched structure depicted

year to bring the kona rains and replenish the land. T h e

in John Webber's sketch. From Lt. King's journal, it

English had already noticed a temple (Cook called it a

seems clear that Hikiau functioned as a luakini

"morai"after

and that the main god image was that of Ku. deity of

the Tahitian word) situated at the southern

end of the bay, and to this "pile of stories" they were now

heiau.

war and conquest.

conducted by the Hawaiians. What ensued on the great stone heiau platform of Hikiau was the ceremony of hdnaipil,

the annual hom-

R e f e r e n c e s : Beagle]lole (l()(>7:f,(l4 5 0 7 : 5 1 7 . I'l. 5 5 ) : K i n li (ItjS^:li>41 (»(>): S a h l i n s ( 1 9 X 1 : 2 0 22): S t o k e s (lulupulu, 3 7

'ili'ih.

Ka]jawa, 3 5

See paving

image, temple, 3 8

K a p o u k a h i , 84

irrigation. See agriculture

kapu system, 5, 6 . 1 1 Ka'u, 7 7 . 1 1 3 . 1 1 4 . 1 1 9

J udii, Laura Fish, 8(j

Kaua'i Island. 1 5 , 3 0 Kaua'i M u s e u m , 15

I N I) E X

Kauliako Crater. 45

Kukaniloko. 2 9 . 3 4 . 3 5 , 3 5

K a u h o l a n u i m a h u , 69

kiikni. 43

Kaukonalma, 3 5

Kukui Heiau. 1 8 . 1 8

Kauleonanahoa, 4 8 . 4 9

Kula. 63

K a - u l u - a - P a a o Heiau. 20

Kuh'ou'ou rockshelter. 8

Kauniuali'i, 1 5 . 2 5

Kumaiea. 1 1 3

K a u n o l u , 57 kii'iila.

K a u p o , 63

5 8 , 6 8 , 9 5 . 1 1 3 . See also fishing shrines

K a w a h u n a , 48 Kawaihae. 84

Laa.35

Kawainui, 22. 3 2

Ladd, Ed. 3 8 , 4 0 . 1 1 0

Ke-ahu-a-Laka Halau Hula. 20. 2 1

Lahaiua. 29, 63

Ke'alwa Heiau. 41

Laka. 20

Kealakehe, 95

Lana'ihale, 5 7 , 6 1

Kealakekua Bay. 8 6 . 1 0 5

Lanai Island,57

Kealakomo, 1 1 7

Lanikaula, 43

Kealiakapu, 59

lapa'au.

Ke'anae, 70

Lapakahi, 81. 8 2 - 8 3

Keaweaheulu, 84

La Perouse. Admiral J e a n - F r a n c o i s G a l a u p , 69

K.eawe-1-kekahi-ali'i-o-ka-moku, 109

Lapita, 2

Keawe-ku-i-ke-kaai. 109

lava tubes, 90. See also caves

K e ' e . 20

lele, 3 8 , 7 8 , 8 4 , 9 8 , 1 0 1 , 1 1 4

Ke'eku Heiau, 101

Liholiho, 1 1 , 3 5 , ''7-

Kekaulike, 67

Liloa, 77, 9 6 , 1 0 5

41

u

9

Keku iapoiwa. 80

Lohi au, 20

Keli'imaika'i, 84

lo'i. See agriculture, irrigated

Keone'ele C o v e . 1 1 0

toko ¡'a. 5 1 . See also

K e o n e o ' i o , 63

loko knapa. 3 1 , 5 1 . See also

K e o n e o ' i o Archaeological District. (¡8-69. 6 8

L0110, 6 , 8 9 , 9 6 , 1 0 5 . 1 0 6 - 1 0 7 ,

Keopiiolani, 3 5

Lonoikamakahiki, 1 0 1 . 1 0 5

Keoua, 8 4 , 1 1 4

Lon])ele, 1 1 9

fishponds

Keoua Kupuapaikalani, 80

Luahiwa, 5 7 , 6 0 . 61

ki. 102

hiakiiu.

Ki'ihevva. 67

Mahukona, 83

Kikiaola. 22

Mailekini Heiau, 84, 8 5

See

fishponds

heiau

Kila. 3

Ma'ili-kukahi.35

Kilauea, 77. 84. 114, 1 1 9

maka'dinana.

KJlea. 64

Makaha, 3 8 - 4 0

Kipahulu, 72

makahiki.

Kiwala'o, 1 0 0 , 1 1 4

Makanalua. 45

koa. 6. 26, 6 8 . 7 1 . 9 5 . 1 1 3 . See also fishing shrines

Makaopi'o H e i a u . 9 5 , 9 5

Koai'e Village Site. 8 2 - 8 3

Malo. David, 7, 75

Kohala Field System. 8 1 . 83

Mamalahoa Trail. 8 7 . 9 1 . 9 2

Kohala Historical Sites State Monument. 78

/nana. 18

Koi. 69

Mana Heiau ( K a u a i ) , 18

K o l b . Michael. 67. 72

Mana Heiau (Moloka'i). 52

Kona Field System. 1 0 2 - 1 0 3

Manoa. 2 9 . 3 0

6,35 89,96.105-107.117

Konahuanui, 3 0

Marquesas Islands. 3 , 4, 8

Konanui, 117

masonry techniques. 100

Ko'olaupoko, 3 1

Maui Island. 63

K u , 6 , 1 6 . 3 7 , 3 8 . 71. 9 6 . 1 0 5 . 1 0 7 . 1 1 9

Maunaiki. 114

Ititaiwi. 8 1 . 1 0 2 . 1 0 3 . See also agriculture

Mauna Ka])ti. 16

Kuakini. Governor. 8 7 . 9 1

Maunaloa. 43

Kualoa. 2 9 . 3 1

mausoleum. 109

Ku'enianu Heiau. 9 8 , 99

McAllister. J . Gilbert. 7 . 3 1 . 4 1

Kiiliio, Prince J o n a h Kalanianaole, 26

medicinal plants, 41

Kuka'ilimoku. 80. 84, 96

Melanesia. 2

I N D E X

n

7

menehune.

6 . 1 5 . 23. 3 2 . 3 7

Menehune Ditch, 22

Poli'ahu Heiau. if). 1 7 Polulfi. 78

Menehune F i s h p o n d , 23

Polynesia. 2

Menzies, Archibald, 102

Polynesian settlement. 1

Metcalfe, Captain S i m o n . (¡4

pondfields. 5 5 . See also agriculture, irrigated

Micronesia. 2

POpO'alaea. 71

milkttsh. 5-,'Jl. 5 1 . 90

po])ulation. 1 lawaiian: density of. 5: in Fast Maui. 72: expansion

missionaries. 75. 92 Moa'ula. 52

of.

(). 8. 83: in Kohala. 83

priests. See

Moikeha. 3 . ;J5

kahuna

Proto-Historic Period. ( ¡ . 3 8 . 5 1 . 5 2 . 5 8 . 1 0 3 . io(j

Mokn I Io'oniki. 5 0

Puako Archaeological District. 8 8 - 8 9

Moku-lau. 75 Moku'ohai. battle of, 100 Moloka'i Island. 43. 51 Mo'okini Heiau. 7 8 - 7 9 . 1 1 9 Mo'okini Luakmi Foundation. 78 mullet. 5, 23. ;)1. 5 1 , 90 mythology. 117

Piiko'o. 4 3 . 5 0 Pukui. Mary Kawena. 48 Puna. 1 1 7 . 1 1 9 Piipiikea, 3 7 Pu'u Ali'i. 113 I»t'uhomw,

18.101.109-110

Pu'uhonua o Hönaunau. 1 0 8 - 1 1 1 Pu'ukapele. 22

Nanahoa. 48

Pu'u Kehena. 81

Nana'ulu, 3 5

Pu'ukoholä Heiau. 84. 8 5 . 1 1 4

Na Pali. 1 5 . 2 0

Pu'uloa Petroglypli Site. 1 1 6 - 1 1 7

Napo'opo'o. 1 0 5 . 1 0 6

Pu'u Nana. 43

National Park Service. 4 5 , 7 7 . 84. 8(j. 1 0 5 . 1 1 0 . 1 1 9

Pu'u-o-Hoku. 43. 52

Nawa'akaluli. 48

Pu'uomahuka Heiau. 3 6 . 3 7

Nawiliwili Bay, 23

Pu'u Wa'awa'a. 94

Niamalu Pond. 23 Nu'uanu. 2 9 . 3 0

(|uarrv. adz. (ii

O'alni Island. 29

radiocarbon dating. 8 , 4 0 , 5 2 , (17. 7 2 . 1 0 3

offering stand. See lele

refuge, place of. See

Olowalu, f>4-()5

religion, Hawaiian, (i. 119

oral traditions. 3 . (j. 7. (¡7. 7 2 . 7 7 . 7 8

residential sites. 26. 80. 8 2 . See also bouses

pu'iihonna

rock art. See petroglyphs Pa'ao. 3 , 6 . 3 5 . 7 8 . 1 1 9

Russian-American Company, 25

Pa'ina Point. 71

Russian Fort Elizabeth. See Fort Elizabeth

PakT. C h i e f Aimer, 31 P a l a w a i . 5 7 . (it

sacred places, ix. See also

Pali K a p u o Keoua. iofi, 1 0 7 , 1 1 0

sacrifice, human, 3 7 , 7 8 . 8 4 . 1 0 1 . 1 0 5 . 1 1 9

Palolo. 29

Sahlins. Marshall. 1 0 5 . 1 0 6

Papa Ueiau, 52

Sainwell, David. 109

Pauoa, 3 0

schools, 75

])aving, 4 . 5 4 , 1 0 5

shrimp, 51

Pearl Harbor. 29

shrines. See fishing shrines

Pele, 2 0 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 9

Siloama (church. 45

Pelekunu, 43

Sinoto.Y. H . . 8

petroglyphs. 1 1 . 1 8 . 4 8 . 6 0 . (¡1, 6 4 , 6 5 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 1 . 9 2 , 9 3 .

sorcery, 43, 52

hewn

South Point. See Ka Lae

116-117 phallic stone. 4 8 . 4 1 )

springs. 3 2

Pihana Heiau. 63, (¡7

Stokes. J o h n F. C . . 7 - 8 . 48. 52. 78. 84. 99. 100. 101. 1 1 3 . 119

Pi'ilani. 72

stone working, 22. 95

Pi'ilanihale Heiau. ()•}. 72. 7 3 - 7 4

sugarcane. 4 . 1 0 2

place names, 12

surfing. 99

pohtikn hoohanan.

See birthing stones

sweet potato. 4 . 4 3 . 4 5 . 57. (ji, 72. 8 1 . 1 0 3

pohakn 0 Kane. 48 Pi-1.5

taro. 4. 6 9 , 7 0 . 72. 8 1 , 1 0 3

Po'ipu. 26

temples. See heiau

I N 1) K \

T h r u m , T h o m a s G., 3 2 . 3 7 , 1 0 0 trails, 30, 69,71, 87, 9 1 , 9 3 , 1 1 7 Ulanla Cave, 59 '«/« maiha. 5 Ulupo Heiau. 3 a . 3 3 "Umi-a-Llloa, 77,109 University of California, Berkeley, 25 University of Havvai'i, 8,45, 81.83 upright stones, 16,41, 48,68, 69. 7 2 , 7 4 , 1 1 3 Vancouver, Captain George, 3 7 , 1 0 2 volcanic eruptions, 114,119 voyaging, Polynesian, 2 - 3 , 1 1 9 Wa'awa'a Point, 91 Waha'ula Heiau, 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 Waialua, 3 5 , 3 7 Wai'anae, 29,38 Wai'anapanapa. 71 Waiehu, 63,67 Waihe'e. 63. 67 Waihu'ehu'e, 48 WaikikI, 29 Waikolu, 43 Wailau, 43 Wailua ( K a u a i ) , 15,16-19 Wailua Historical District, 18 Wailuku, 63, 67 Wainianalo,4,29 Waimea (Kaua'i), 15,22 Wainiea ( 0 ' a h u ) , 37 Waipi o Valley, 106 Walker. Winslow, 7 warfare, 30, 67,69, 70, 80,84 war temples. See heiait. hmknii Webber, J o h n , 16,104, 105 wells, 58, 69, 75,99

type

yams. 4 Young, J o h n , 8 6

INDEX