Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom : Responding to Individual Needs [1 ed.] 9789888053926, 9789888139514

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Hong Kong Teacher Education General Series Editor: Kerry J. Kennedy, The Hong Kong Institute of Education The volumes in the series set out to provide contextualized reflections on issues that most teachers come across. Each volume will delve into discussions that will enhance and improve teaching skills. The series covers a wide range of topics including curriculum and assessment, understanding and managing diversity, guidance and counselling, and human development.

Also in the series: Classroom Management: Creating a Positive Learning Environment Hue Ming-tak and Li Wai-shing Assessment for Learning Rita Berry

Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Responding to Individual Needs

Shane N. Phillipson and Bick-har Lam

Hong Kong University Press 14/F Hing Wai Centre 7 Tin Wan Praya Road Aberdeen Hong Kong www.hkupress.org © Hong Kong University Press 2011 ISBN 978-988-8139-51-4 (Hardback) ISBN 978-988-8083-42-8 (Paperback) All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1 Printed and bound by Condor Production Ltd. in Hong Kong, China

To our teachers, past, present, and future

Contents

Foreword by John Chi-kin Lee

ix

Foreword by Kerry J. Kennedy

xiii

Preface

xv

About the authors

xix

1. The Contexts of Teaching in the Twenty-First Century

2. Constructivist Perspectives on Learning

175

Shane N. Phillipson

8. Language Development in Chinese Learners

145

Bick-har Lam

7. Motivation and Effective Learning among Chinese Learners

127

Shane N. Phillipson

6. Understanding the Development of the Self

95

Shane N. Phillipson

5. The Role of Creativity in the Diversity of Learners

63

Shane N. Phillipson

4. The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners

31

Bick-har Lam

3. Behavioural Models of Learning

1

Bick-har Lam

Shane N. Phillipson

203

viii Contents

9. The Social Context of Learning

Shane N. Phillipson

10. Teachers as Researchers and Teacher Development

265

Bick-har Lam

11. Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning

231

291

Bick-har Lam

Glossary

343

References

355

Index

383

Foreword

Chinese teachers and learners have become an increasingly fruitful focus for educational research, not least because Asia, especially China, has been drawing worldwide attention on account of the unprecedented economic and technological development. Beyond the classical Confucian Heritage Culture, there is a curious ‘paradox’ that, on the one hand, learners from East Asia are frequently seen as rote and passive learners but, on the other hand, international assessment studies, such as PISA and the TIMSS, show students from many of the countries within East Asia achieving consistently outstanding results. Hong Kong is a particularly interesting place within contemporary China and East Asia since it is where, distinctively, East meets West. Here, in what is one of Asia’s major world cities, there are obvious legacies of both the Confucian Heritage Culture and British colonialism. What actually happens in the context of learning and teaching in Hong Kong classrooms is an area that invites scholarly enquiry and ongoing critical reflection on successful practice. This book Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom has been written by two experienced scholars, Dr. Lam Bick-har, a specialist in curriculum studies, at the Hong Kong Institute of Education, and Dr. Shane Phillipson, a specialist in educational psychology at Monash University (Australia). A very readable and informative book, it provides a useful starting point for understanding the essence of learning and teaching in Chinese classrooms, including a range of thoughtful and insightful chapters on the following areas: the contexts of teaching in the twenty-first century; constructivist and behaviourist perspectives on learning; the role of intelligence in learning; creativity and learners; the development of the self in learners; motivation and effective learning; language development and the Chinese learner; the teacher as researcher and teacher development; lesson planning, assessment and learning; and the Chinese context of learning. Some of these chapters echo pertinent issues in curriculum, teaching and teacher development in the context of Hong Kong where the Curriculum Development Council promotes ‘learning to learn’ and the Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications (ACTEQ) (2003) has published Towards a Learning Profession, highlighting the role of teachers as continuous and lifelong learners

x

Foreword

with ‘the responsibility for promoting professional development within the education sector’ and being ‘change-agents of educational reform (p. 16). In this book, each chapter guides the reader from an initial statement of personal learning objectives or outcomes through the substantive content and concludes with a glossary and suggested activities, which provide vital and stimulating issues or questions for discussion and reflection. The reader is encouraged to read actively and to engage in an interactive way with the substance of each chapter. In the first chapter on the contexts of teaching in the twenty-first century, Bickhar Lam writes, ‘… should we justify that the new active approach to teaching is suitable for learners—the answer is “yes”… However, learning from the example of Confucian educational thought, we may wonder if this new approach, and the need to educate future generations to adopt a global perspective, can be implemented effectively in our schools.’ We seem to encounter a dilemma over whether adopting the active approach to teaching is feasible and desirable. However, regarding the Hong Kong context of teaching and learning, Chan’s (2009, 204) study on two expert teachers concluded that ‘… Chinese learners used seemingly contradictory approaches to make meanings that transcended polarized distinctions of learning approaches, given task demands and contextual dynamics. Similarly, the Chinese teachers developed a transformed pedagogy that took into account student cognition and social infrastructure, integrating Chinese and Western approaches in scaffolding student inquiry, collaboration and understanding’. Duffy (2010, 357), in his recent discussion of direct instruction and constructivist perspectives, comments that ‘we all agree that we learn from lectures and reading books as well as through active, situated participation, and that, at times, drill and practice is necessary’. It has also been found that a high level of teacher support and involvement are salient features of Hong Kong classroom environments and, in contrast to the Western findings, it was teachers rather than students who exert more influence on students’ self-regulated learning (Lee, Yin, and Zhang 2009). It is thus possible and, perhaps, practical to explore critically and creatively different forms of effective Chinese pedagogy that assimilate certain features of the Western teaching approaches and enhance student learning in Hong Kong classrooms and elsewhere. There is encouragement here for teachers to engage in action research and reflective practice to resolve these dilemmas in teaching and learning. In Chapters 6 and 9, both authors refer to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory in which different systems and contexts interact with each other and with individuals who grow and develop in complicated but fascinating ways. From an ecological perspective, perhaps we could consider placing greater emphasis and attention on the differentiated needs of students. Students are whole persons with a full range of needs and capacities (Sterling 2001).



Foreword

xi

It is pleasing to note that, while addressing the importance influence of Confucian culture on Chinese schoolchildren’s learning, Shane Phillipson concludes in Chapter 9 that ‘other important influences on a child’s learning include gender, parents, peers and teachers, some of which contribute positively to academic achievement, while others inhibit it. However, the picture is far from complete.’ Teaching is a learning and knowledge-based profession and, as you read this book, you will be helped to reflect on your own values and approaches towards learning and teaching and to think hard about different pathways to improve learning and teaching in your own classroom. Prof. John Chi-kin Lee Vice-President (Academic) Designate Chair Professor of Curriculum and Instruction Hong Kong Institute of Education

References Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications (ACTEQ) (2003). Towards a learning profession: The teacher competencies framework and the continuing professional development of teachers. Hong Kong: Government Logistics Department. Chan, C. K. K. (2009). Classroom innovation for the Chinese learner: Transcending dichotomies and transforming pedagogy. In C. K. K. Chan and N. Rao (Eds.), Revisiting the Chinese learner: Changing contexts, changing education (pp. 169–210). Hong Kong/The Netherlands: Springer and Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. Duffy, T. M. (2010). Building lines of communication and a research agenda. In S. Tobias and T. M. Duffy (Eds.), Constructivist instruction: Success or failure (pp. 351–367). New York: Routledge. Lee, J. C. K., Yin, H. B., & Zhang, Z. (2009). Exploring the influence of the classroom environment on students’ motivation and self-regulated learning in Hong Kong. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 18(2), 219–232. Sterling, S. (2001). Sustainable education: Revisioning learning and change. Devon, UK: Green Books Ltd.

Foreword

Teachers play a fundamental role in the social and economic development of any society. Their preparation as professionals to meet the challenges of post-modern living is a key priority for both governments and universities. Many changes have taken place in teacher education since the establishment of formal institutions of teaching training in Hong Kong over one hundred years ago. Today, the Hong Kong government is committed to an “all graduate, all trained” profession and university level institutions are now responsible for all teacher education across early childhood, primary and secondary education. It is against this background that the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series has been developed. The incentive behind the series is simple: the need for resources that reflect local values, professional contexts and cultures. The market for resources is dominated by Western materials that are either embedded in non-local contexts or that assume there is a general context that is relevant across cultural boundaries. Such resources, of course, can be useful but they do not help Hong Kong’s future teachers appreciate and understand the unique contexts that characterize Hong Kong’s schools. Thus the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series will provide culturally relevant resources that embed both theory and practice in local classroom contexts. Hong Kong’s aspirations to be a bilingual triliterate society will be reflected in the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series. Dual-language versions of the resource material will be produced for use in either Chinese or English teacher education contexts. This is recognition of the centrality of language in the lives of Hong Kong people. It places value on both English and Chinese in the teaching/learning process and will ensure that the resources are accessible to all teacher education students in Hong Kong. The initial titles that have been selected for this series reflect the needs of future teachers in Hong Kong’s classroom: classroom management, assessment for learning, managing and understanding diversity. Subsequent titles will deal with curriculum, human development, and school guidance and counselling. These professional areas will introduce teacher education students directly to the concepts, ideas and practices they will need as young professionals in Hong Kong’s classroom.

xiv Foreword

Case studies of actual school practice will bring the text to life as students engage with the realities of actual teachers and classrooms. This will help to prepare them in a realistic and practical way so that they are well prepared for their own students and classrooms. As important as the focus on practice is in this series, it does not mean that theory has been neglected. Concepts, ideas and issues are located in broader theoretical and cultural contexts but not in an abstract way. For teachers, classrooms and students provide the ultimate context against with theories can be tested and cultures can be better understood. In these challenging and demanding times, teachers need to be fully equipped with the latest thinking and ideas based on research and advances in understanding. Yet these must always be tested in the laboratory of practice so that teachers are not only knowledgeable but they also know how to translate this knowledge into action that can benefit students. In developing this series, I have been grateful for the dedication of my colleagues at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. They have taken up the challenge of writing and shown great commitment in providing meaningful and relevant resources for their students. I am also grateful to Senior Management at the Hong Kong Institute of Education since they supported this endeavour from the very beginning. I have also been encouraged by Hong Kong University Press which has seen the value of the series and the need to support Hong Kong’s future teachers. As is so often the case in educational matters, collaboration and cooperation can produce great outcomes, and I believe such has been the case in this instance. Hong Kong’s future is in no small way linked to the quality of its teachers and their capacity to support the learning of young people throughout this new century. Hopefully, the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series will contribute to this important objective. Kerry J. Kennedy General Series Editor The Hong Kong Teacher Education Series

Preface

This book is one of a number of volumes in the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series, published by Hong Kong University Press. Our aim is to bridge the gap between a number of theories in educational psychology relating to both learning and teaching, and the Chinese learner; and to do so, we rely on some of the relevant research in the areas of learning and teaching. We have written this book in a way that challenges readers’ understanding about the purpose and practice of teaching. We argue that professional teachers need to take into account the different potentialities and learning needs of each student, and that their teaching should be based on sound research findings. Although we avoid simple prescriptions for practice, each chapter will add to the teacher’s professional ‘toolbox’. Inherent in the book’s title is the notion that learning and teaching is contextual. In other words, research findings from the West should not be imported and applied directly in Chinese classrooms as there is a danger that the adoption of such practices will reduce the effectiveness of teaching. It is vital that teachers think broadly and critically about their own teaching and consider practices from all cultures in order to maximize student learning. The title of the book refers to the ‘Chinese classroom’ and we continually refer to the ‘Chinese student’. Chinese classrooms and Chinese students are found mainly, of course, in China, its Special Administrative Regions (SARs) Hong Kong and Macau, and countries such as Singapore and Malaysia. These countries and SARs share to a greater or lesser degree a common cultural heritage, which is often referred to as Confucian. In writing this book, we are aware of the problems associated with ‘… over-generalizing Asian learners under the Confucian aegis …’ (Lee 1996, 26). However, Lee also considered that their common cultural heritage, particularly in their conceptions of learning and teaching, permits their being grouped together. Because much of the research on the Chinese classroom focuses on the examples from Hong Kong, most of the findings cited in this book come from this city. This book will be useful for students in teacher education awards such as the bachelor of education and the postgraduate diploma in education. We believe that

xvi Preface

practising teachers will also benefit from reading this book because it describes examples of current research in the area. In addition, for teachers wanting to pursue research degrees in education, this book will serve as a useful starting point in their thinking about possible research topics. In approaching our task, we based our thinking and writing on a number of outcomes. After reading and being actively engaged in the learning activities, we expect readers to be able to: • draw links between theory and research; • access current research related to learning and teaching; • apply their knowledge in understanding the possible basis of student underachievement and help students to realize their learning potential; and • view teaching as an active process requiring ongoing and thoughtful personal development. This book draws on our many years of teaching in our respective fields at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. Very early in our teaching we realized that our students wanted to know how theory can be applied to contexts with which they were familiar. We encouraged our students to think about the influence of culture on effective learning and teaching; and, in turn, our students wanted examples that they could relate to rather than those that differed in time and context. Our separate research programmes complemented our teaching. This research helped us to examine the usefulness of theory in understanding learning and teaching in the Hong Kong Chinese classroom. As well as our own research, we are able to draw on a rich tradition of research that focuses on Chinese learners, their parents and their teachers. Much of this research has been conducted by scholars working within Hong Kong, complemented by the work of researchers outside Hong Kong who are interested in making cross-cultural comparisons. Clearly, Hong Kong is ideally placed for this type of research because of its international accessibility and progressive attitude towards research concerning the education of its children. The book’s contents are organized into 11 chapters. Chapters 1, 2, 6, 10 and 11 are written by Bick-har Lam and Chapters 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 are written by Shane N. Phillipson. This organization reflects our different areas of expertise and interests. Chapter 1 discusses the philosophical and cultural basis of education and teaching to help the teacher become a fully functioning professional. The central features of Confucianism as applied to education, and its influence and evolution in Hong Kong classrooms, are examined in this chapter. Chapter 2 outlines a number of constructivist approaches to learning and teaching in the Chinese context, including those of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky, and they are discussed against the background of education reform in the twentyfirst century. In contrast to constructivism, Chapter 3 introduces a number of behavioural



Preface xvii

models of learning—including classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social cognitive theory—and applies these models of learning in the Chinese classroom. Chapter 4 focuses on developing an understanding of ‘intelligence’ and how this understanding can be used for enhancing learning, while Chapter 5 is based on the notion that creativity and intelligence are different psychological concepts. The concepts of intelligence and creativity are both defined in many different ways, and Chapters 4 and 5 are based on the belief that it is important for the teacher to understand the differences between these definitions. Chapter 6, which is entitled ‘Understanding the Development of the Self’, explains how a person develops through the processes of socialization, environmental interaction and self-concept formation. Important psychological concepts such as self-esteem, self-concept, self-image and the ‘moral self’ are discussed. This important chapter describes the many environmental influences on the development of ‘the self’ within the Confucian context. The relationship between motivation and effective learning is the focus of Chapter 7. However, motivation can be understood in many ways and the teacher can use these models of motivation to understand and change student behaviour in order to maximize student achievement. Language is an important context for many Chinese students, either as a first language (L1) or when learning another language such as English (L2). Chapter 8 illustrates the various models of L1 and L2 learning, and the relationship between language learning and achievement. This chapter is particularly relevant for understanding the debate over the medium of instruction and student achievement. Chapter 9 places the Chinese classroom within a social context. Using Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory of human development as the theoretical framework, this chapter describes some of the important social and cultural influences on the academic achievement of Chinese children. Chapter 10 describes the roles of the professional teacher in the twenty-first century within the context of Confucian Heritage Cultures such as Hong Kong, including the importance of action research and reflective practice in teachers’ continuing professional development. Finally, Chapter 11 focuses on the important skills of lesson planning and assessment. This chapter is based on the premise that effective teaching depends on effective management of the learning environment. This chapter begins to integrate and apply the issues raised in earlier chapters, providing examples of lesson planning and assessment to illustrate some current good practices used in schools in Hong Kong. Clearly, a project such as this could not have been completed successfully without the contributions of a number of individuals. First, we would like to

xviii Preface

thank Professor John Chi-kin Lee and Professor Kerry J. Kennedy for writing the forewords and Professor Christine Halse for a number of critical comments on the manuscript. Professor Kerry Kennedy also sustained the project at various points and we appreciate his timely advice and encouragement. We also wish to thank Dr. Sivanes Phillipson and her students for providing the examples of responses to a number of learning activities in Chapter 10, and Ms. Windsor Pang and her students for sharing their learning and teaching artefacts in Chapter 11. We thank also Arthur Hoi Fai Yan for his administrative support and research assistance and Michael Kai Long Ma for creating the figures. In addition, we acknowledge the expertise of Michelle Reyes Raquel for her critical reading of Chapter 8, and Miss Cecilia Hiu See Tang, Miss Selena Siu Ying Yeung and Ms. Fanny Po Kwan Chik for their reading of the manuscript from a ‘student’s’ perspective. Finally, we wish to thank the parents who have generously permitted photographs of their children to be published. We also wish to acknowledge the generous financial support from the Faculty of Education Studies of the Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) through a Special Projects Fund grant. In addition, we would like to thank the many students from HKIEd who have used some of the material from this book and provided us with their comments and suggestions. We continue to learn from our students— perhaps more than we are able to teach them. Although we have sought the assistance of many people in writing this book, any errors are the responsibility of the authors.

References Lee, W. O. (1996). The cultural context for Chinese learners: Conceptions of learning in the Confucian heritage. In D. A. Watkins & J. B. Biggs (Eds.), The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp. 25–41). Hong Kong, China and Victoria, Australia: Comparative Education Research Centre, the University of Hong Kong and the Australian Council for Educational Research.

About the authors

Shane N. Phillipson is an associate professor at Monash University and previously at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. After obtaining a B.Sc. (Hons) and a graduate diploma in secondary education, he worked for many years as a mathematics and science teacher in New South Wales and South Australia. Shane Phillipson then obtained a graduate certificate in gifted education and a PhD from Flinders University (Australia). His PhD thesis was awarded the International Award (1999–2000) for best PhD thesis by the National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) in the UK, and the 2001 Flinders University nomination for the Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Doctoral Thesis Award. Currently, Shane Phillipson teaches educational psychology, research methods and gifted education, and his research interests include cultural conceptions of giftedness and models of achievement. He has been awarded a number of research grants, resulting in publications in many international peer-reviewed journals, including High Ability Studies and Educational Psychology, and he is also a reviewer of research articles for these two journals. His edited books include Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom: Contexts and practice for students with special needs (2007), and Conceptions of giftedness: Socio-cultural perspectives (with M. McCann, 2007). Shane is a member of the American Psychological Association (APA), the Association for Psychological Science (APS), the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children, and the European Council for High Ability. Bick-har Lam is an associate professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction and in the Centre for Learning, Teaching and Technology at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. She obtained her degrees of bachelor in education and master in education from the University of East Anglia in the UK, and her PhD from the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Bick-har Lam was a secondary school teacher before joining the Hong Kong Polytechnic University as an educational developer. She is currently involved in a number of research studies, which include a local study on ethnic minority students supported by the General Research Fund of the University Grants Committee, a series of studies on learner-oriented learning funded by the Teaching Development Grant, and an international project

xx About the authors

on adolescent’s art across cultural borders supported by the International Society of Education through Art. Her most recent books include Young people’s visions of the world (co-edited with T. T. Eca and R. Kroupp, 2010) and Curriculum integration: An institute–school partnership approach (2009). She developed a syllabus (1993) and courses on art and craft (1996) and primary school teaching (2002) for the Open University of Hong Kong, and has been a programme leader and developer for Hong Kong government-commissioned teacher professional development courses. She has also developed the Active Classroom (A Class) website (http://www.ied.edu.hk/ aclass/) as an exchange platform for teachers to promote teaching and learning. In 2010, Bick-har Lam was awarded the Excellence in Teaching Award by the Hong Kong Institute of Education.

1 The Contexts of Teaching in the Twenty-First Century Bick-har Lam

This chapter discusses: (a) the philosophical foundations of teaching in the East and West and their relevance to contemporary education; (b) the advantages and degeneration of Confucian education; and (c) the reform of classroom teaching in the twenty-first century in the context of Chinese culture. It aims to develop a solid grounding in the philosophical and cultural basis of education for teachers so that they can become fully functional professionals and make it more likely that the current reform initiatives will be successful. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • comprehend the major philosophies that guide teaching; • recognize the values behind various teaching philosophies; • develop a conceptual scheme for organizing various approaches to teaching; • situate teaching in the context of Hong Kong’s Chinese classrooms; • explain the influence of Confucian education on Hong Kong people; and • reflect on the historical degeneration of Confucian educational thought and develop a positive attitude to improving teaching in their cultural situation. This introductory chapter provides a foundation for understanding the teaching profession. The chapter first introduces the background to the present educational reform in Hong Kong, to set the context of teaching for teachers in general and specifically in a Chinese society. It then moves on to study various terminologies for understanding teacher thinking and action, including the philosophical foundations and beliefs about teaching, with reference to Confucian educational thought. It portrays how teachers’ thinking is guided by an array of values and preferences, and discusses educational ideas common across the East and West. The origins, development and degeneration in Chinese traditional educational thinking and ideas, and their current impact on Chinese societies, are examined. In the conclusion, readers are encouraged to think broadly about their practice in the classroom and contextualize themselves in their cultural environment and world trends, so that they can be professionals who play a crucial role in reforming and improving education.

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Educational Reform in the Twenty-First Century In Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and China, drilling became the predominant method of teaching because of their elitist and examination-based form of education. In Taiwan, China and Hong Kong, rote learning and drilling were cultural traditions (Biggs 1990), but a visionary set of educational reforms proposed in the late 1990s brought very significant changes to the focus of learning and teaching, with education being recast to address the development of human talent and ensure effective education for the betterment of students’ lives and the country’s future. Educational reform is a global phenomenon in this century, as can be seen in reform statements from several parts of Asia (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Excerpts from educational reform statements from several parts of Asia Hong Kong

To prepare our younger generation to meet the challenges of an ever advancing knowledge-based society and the dynamically changing environment, it is not enough to impart them with mere “knowledge”. Instead, we have to help them develop a global outlook, equip them with a repertoire of skills and the positive attitudes to respect knowledge and to learn how to learn’ (Curriculum Development Council 2001). ‘In the tide of changes, everyone has to meet new challenges. Adaptability, creativity and abilities for communication, self-learning, and cooperation are now the prerequisites for anyone to succeed, while a person’s character, emotional qualities, horizons and learning are important factors in achieving excellence. “Lifelong learning and all-round development” is our expectation from everyone in this era. Education is infinitely important for everyone’ (Education Commission 2000; emphasis added).

Singapore

‘The Singapore Ministry of Education aims to help our students discover their own talents, to make the best of these talents and realize their full potentials, and to develop a passion for learning through life’ (Singapore Ministry of Education 2006).

Taiwan

‘Innovative changes have been initiated to ensure equal access to education for all students, to relieve their pressure from examinations, to offer more room for school-based management, and to improve teaching quality. Many educationrelated regulations were overhauled to create a more liberal education environment … While the educational reform continues, the MOE (Ministry of Education) has been promoting a new four-year program for educational development since 2004 to accommodate new developments in society. With a vision for a ‘Creative Taiwan with a Global Perspective,’ educational policies in the next four years will be formulated in accordance with four directives: cultivating modern citizens, promoting Taiwan identity, fostering global perspectives, and increasing concern for society. Actions will be taken to encourage students to appreciate cultural diversity and to respect universal values as the government attempts to expand their knowledge about Taiwan’s unique traits, to increase their opportunities for interaction with international students, and to strengthen their character. An education system that better meets the needs brought forth by social, economic, and global trends is the key to upgrading Taiwan’s national competitiveness’ (Government Information Office 2005).



The Contexts of Teaching in the Twenty-First Century

3

The reforms in this century have been triggered largely by the effects of globalization. Globalization is a complex concept, which may be easiest to understand in terms of its economic aspects: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration and the spread of technology. With globalization, there is increasing contact across borders and faster communication between countries. To survive in this new economy, countries have to become more productive to remain competitive; and with the development of worldwide market networks, business firms need to upgrade their products and apply technological solutions. In this context, many governments have made significant changes in their educational systems aimed at developing a workforce that meets global requirements. This idea was captured in the 1997 policy address of the Hong Kong Chief Executive: I said on 1 July that education is the key to the future of Hong Kong. It provides a level playing field for all and the human resources for further economic development. Our education system must be firmly rooted in the needs of Hong Kong; it must enable us to contribute to the development of our country; it must give us an international outlook. It should be diverse, drawing on the strengths of East and West. It must inspire commitment to excellence. I will now set out our plans to achieve that. (HKSAR Government Secretariat 1997)

In 2000 the Hong Kong Education Commission commented that the qualities of a ‘global outlook’ include adaptability, creativity and abilities for communication, self-learning and co-operation. In the same year, curriculum reform was initiated, with curricular documents which promoted ‘learning to learn’ being publicized in schools, teacher education institutions and the media. The catchphrase ‘learning to learn’ signifies clearly an educational philosophy identified with the ‘constructivist’ model of teaching and learning (see Chapter 2) which, in brief, places the learners at the centre of the educational process, with teachers involving them as active agents in learning instead of rote learners.

Understanding Teaching and Learning To get a full understanding of the teaching-learning process, we recommend that you first consider questions such as: • What does teaching mean to you? • What do you expect students to learn when you teach? • What is the primary concern of teachers when they play a role in the community?

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

In addressing these questions, you should try to develop perspectives and concepts for explaining the process to justify your views and develop a philosophy that guides your classroom practice. If teaching is an ‘art’, then teachers should be creative in utilizing all the knowledge, methods and skills that can benefit learning. The questions above are important whether you are preparing to teach or are already a teacher or other practitioner in the field of education.

The Philosophical Foundations of Teaching There are many diverse viewpoints about teaching, which reflect the personal beliefs of individuals. Philosophical orientations to teaching refer to the nature of teaching, which includes its meaning, the content to be taught, the expected student behaviour and the role that teachers and students play. Holding particular teaching philosophies can make a difference to the lives of students. A summary of the prevalent philosophical orientations to teaching is given below.

Existentialism Existentialism developed from a philosophy that focuses on the subjectivity of individuals. Teachers who adopt an existentialist approach encourage students to develop their creativity and independence of mind in a context in which teaching is less directive and students are given freedom to make their own decisions. This philosophy stresses that students should take responsibility for their own actions and experience life in their own way, instead of allowing other people to decide what is best for them. This approach was championed by Alexander Sutherland Neill (1883–1973) (Neill 1995).

Marxism Based on a belief in the ever-changing nature of reality, Marxist teaching focuses on long-standing conflicts that exist in society, especially those that relate to economic and social inequality. Marxism seeks to create a better, more harmonious society in which people can relate to their work and to each other in a more humane way. Reflection and active engagement rather than passive reception of knowledge is encouraged; and students are urged to acquire knowledge and skills which will enable them to contribute positively to the transformation of society. Marxism aims to change the material conditions of society to produce a classless society. Jürgen Habermas (Habermas 1987) is an exponent of this orientation to education.



The Contexts of Teaching in the Twenty-First Century

5

Behaviourism Behaviourism contends that student behaviour can be managed effectively by careful control of the learning environment and manipulation of the kinds of reward and punishment used. Behaviourists assert that learning can be optimized by presenting the right stimuli to students. This philosophy, which is associated most often with Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–90), was the dominant research framework in psychology in the USA during the first half of the twentieth century (Epstein 1982). The effects of behaviourism are still felt today, with behavioural approaches such as conditioning, shaping and social learning being employed in designing teaching methods (see Chapter 3). Other behaviourist influences include giving timely feedback and using behavioural contracts. The behaviourist aims to maximize learning efficiency by engineering the environment.

Cognitivism Formed mainly in response to the limitations of behaviourism, cognitivism was influential in the latter half of the twentieth century. Cognitivism holds that recognizing unobservable cognitive elements, such as intent, motivation and cognitive complexity, is important for learning. Teachers who advocate this philosophy focus on trying to stimulate cognitive development by, for example, presenting to students concepts that are challenging but not too difficult for their level of cognitive development. Apart from subject knowledge, thinking and study skills are taught to students, enabling them to become independent, lifelong learners. One of the best-known cognitive psychologists is Jerome Bruner (1915–) who had a very significant influence on educational theory and practice in the 1960s and 1970s.

Perennialism Perennialism focuses on the unchanging nature of truth. Perennialists believe that the teaching and learning of great classical works enables students to acquire timeless principles and knowledge. The use of textbooks is discouraged, and students are instructed to use canonical works. The proponents of this philosophy argue that learning directly from the greatest minds and works in different areas is the best way for students to achieve holistic development. As perennialism aims at the acquisition of timeless principles of reality, truth and value, learning is essentially for its own sake. Robert Maynard Hutchins (1899–1977) wrote important treatises on perennialist education (e.g. Hutchins 1947) which, by promoting this philosophy,

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

contributed significantly to the structure of undergraduate degrees in the University of Chicago from the late 1920s to the mid-1940s.

Essentialism Essentialism stresses the teaching of basic and essential knowledge, as well as moral values, and maintains that ‘traditional’ ways of teaching through direct instruction, repeated practice and testing are effective. Teachers who espouse this philosophy believe that it is their duty to transmit knowledge and values that are important for students to become responsible, contributing members of society. William Bagley (1874–1946) was a renowned essentialist educator in the earlier part of the twentieth century.

Progressivism Progressivism proposes that knowledge should be constructed through experience, and that the main purpose of education is to develop individuals’ potential to the full. Viewing traditional subject knowledge as alienating, progressive teachers urge students to adopt an active, ‘hands-on’ approach to learning in handling real-life activities with others. Schools are regarded as a co-operative community in which students develop their capacities, satisfy their needs and prepare for their roles as active citizens in a democratic society. Progressivism is aligned with pragmatism, which focuses on practical knowledge and a democratic society. The writings of John Dewey (1859–1952) in the early twentieth century formed the bedrock of this teaching orientation.

Social reconstructionism Social reconstructionism aims to create a better world through education. Students are educated to see the problems that beset society (e.g. inequality, poverty and pollution), think critically about them and find creative solutions. Social reconstructionists believe that, to institute systemic changes and create a better society, the status quo must be broken. To solve society’s problems, the next generation is therefore urged to champion social movements. Theodore Brameld (1904–87), an important advocate of social reconstructionism in education, contributed to the development of this orientation throughout his working life.



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Teachers’ Beliefs about Teaching Table 1.2 shows the contrasting orientations to teaching of two teachers—one a behaviourist and the other an existentialist. As noted earlier, behaviourist teachers guide learners towards appropriate behaviours by conditioning them to learn in a preset, prescribed and programmed sequence; the teachers present a world that is determined greatly by externally defined outcomes. In contrast, existentialist teachers emphasize self-development and provide opportunities for self-exploration, helping students to realize their potential for making choices. Clearly, teachers with such differing orientations plan their lessons, interact with students and judge student performance according to their own views of knowledge, which depend heavily on their idealized conceptions of teachers’ roles. Nevertheless, such different philosophical orientations should be seen as inclinations rather than rigid, neat definitions for explaining one’s thinking and action. Table 1.2 Comparison between existentialist and behaviourist teachers The existentialist teacher

The behaviourist teacher

Jessica is an experienced art teacher in a secondary school. To an outsider, her classes may seem a bit chaotic. One moment you may find a student standing on his/her chair and next all the students cheerfully tearing up newspapers. She often sits with one group of students, listening and sharing ideas with them. Other students also discuss with one another in different groups. Instead of instilling norms and knowledge into the students, Jessica prefers her students to explore and make sense of things themselves. Existentialist teachers stress the individuality and responsibility of students for their own lives. They believe that students should learn to think for themselves and should exercise freedom of choice with responsibility. Existentialist teachers tend to use less direct instruction and prefer to discuss with students. They allow students to experiment with different ideas. In the words of Jessica, ‘Direct transmission of knowledge to students has a negative effect on them. They become indifferent to things and problems around them. In teaching, I want to develop their own understanding and also their thinking and feeling related to their self and realization of their existence. These are fundamental for any person living in the society.’

Leslie is an experienced art teacher in a secondary school. He starts the lesson by introducing the topic. Leslie usually goes on to give a well-planned lecture on the topic, focusing on the specific skills he intends to develop among his students. He attaches much importance to the clear demonstration of the skills. To facilitate learning, he breaks the movements involved down into smaller units. In class activities, Leslie makes sure to praise those who perform well and promptly corrects wrong behaviour, leading students to achieve the right outcomes in their work. He gives his students numerous exercises, believing that repeated practice helps them to retain what they have learned. Behaviourist teachers maintain that effective learning can be achieved by conscious manipulation of the learning environment, paying particular attention to the kind of reinforcements and punishments that are present or absent in the environment, and by measuring learning outcomes from student performance, which are often identified as observable. In the words of Leslie, ‘I make it as clear as possible to my students what behaviours are expected of them and what are not. I then focus my attention on providing them with timely feedback—rewarding good behaviours and punishing bad ones. This is very important.’

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Table 1.3 summarizes the research findings on the teaching beliefs of primary and secondary school teachers. These findings, which illustrate a range of conceptions about teaching, reflect various educational philosophies which have resulted in three typical approaches to classroom teaching. The first approach emphasizes the learning of subject knowledge; the second focuses on student development and recognizes that students are responsible for increasing their knowledge; and the final approach, which sees teaching as a means of training students for the benefit of society, stresses the acquisition of knowledge and skills essential for building the economy, for improving society and for other society-oriented reasons (e.g. respect for ecology for the survival of the society and its people). Subject-centred teachers are strongly attached to essentialism and perennialism, which view knowledge as unchanging, and therefore prescribe the content of learning. They may define learning simply as making learners achieve something that is believed to be important and right, such as learning the classics to become responsible, contributing members of the society. On the other hand, student-centred teachers are influenced mainly by cognitivism, progressivism and existentialism, which stress human development in terms of cognitive development, self-realization, life goals and values. Such teachers strive to support students in becoming independent learners with high intellectual ability who realize their full potential by being given opportunities to grow, achieve and excel. Learners are placed at the centre of the educational process as the aim of education is no longer simply the delivery of knowledge but the total development of individuals. Student- and society-centred teachers display a belief in the ideas of Marxism or social reconstruction. They view learners as participants in reconstructing society and involve them in critical thinking, debate, discussion and investigation to address social issues, such as the class struggle, racism, poverty, pollution and social inequality. These teachers argue that, through education, the younger generation can contribute to a better world. The above analysis underlines the important message that teachers teach in very different ways which have a different impact on the lives of students. For students, learning can be a very mechanical, controlled and boring task if teachers just focus on subject knowledge and limit their delivery methods to manipulation, drilling and mechanistic and impersonal programmed instruction. However, learning can be a challenging task for learners if teachers care about their students’ growth and development and allow them to explore authentic tasks that are meaningful to them. In addition, student-teacher interactions can add valuable support to learners, both academically and emotionally. Learning can also be related to the wider society, with students identifying themselves as responsible citizens who contribute to society by helping to solve societal problems.

Trainer

Development of skills/ Facilitation of understanding understanding

Social interaction

Disciplinary inquiry

Instructional

Transmission of content skills

Lam (2000)

Boulton-Lewis et al. (2001)

Facilitator of thinking and learning

Construction (building Group leader (acting the foundation and as coach or guide) adding up until it is built)

Shaper of children’s lives (instruct students to learn)

Performer (performing in the class to show clear instruction and guidance)

Authoritarian and disciplinarian Presenter of information

Christensen et al. (1995)

An anchor for children

Student-centred

Change agent

Selfactualization

Transformation

Sources of learning/ inspiration

Change (assist Enlightenment growth)

Empowerer

Idealistic

Orientations

Facilitator of thinking and lifelong learning

Bibik (1997)

Delivery change (effect radical transformation with teacher-centred manipulation)

Gurney (1995)

Scholar psychologist Friendly scholar (both concentrated on academic knowledge acquisition)

Learning process (realize knowledge through guided and instructive activities)

Inculcator

Bennet and Spalding (1991)

Constructivist

Experimentalistic

Ennis et al. (1997) Mastery of the discipline

Mechanistic

Experimental

Realistic

Subject-centred

Steven and Palincsar (1992)

Freire and Sanches Traditional (1992)

Proventzo et al.(1989)

Chapman (1979)

Authors

Parent and protector

The nurturing helper

Nurturer

Contextualistic (provision of environment for intellectual interaction)

Nurturer of things that grow

Table 1.3 Alignment of the categories of teaching beliefs

Personal

Humanistic

Friendly pedagogy

Personalistic

Ecological integration

 ocial S responsibility

Social

Student-society

The Contexts of Teaching in the Twenty-First Century 9

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

What should teachers note about these different teaching beliefs? They should be aware that certain teaching approaches limit the realization of some aspects of human potential. For example, overemphasizing subject knowledge and overlooking the cultivation of cognitive development may constrain student achievement. In the worst case, students may be conditioned to carry out extremely low-level cognitive activities, such as memorization and recitation, and may become passive, uncritical, uncreative and unintelligent. Student-centred approaches to teaching may also be harmful if there are no learning expectations to promote students’ intellectual growth. Also, while education can help to develop a generation with a bright academic future, we still need to be mindful of their character-building and personal development. Students should regard themselves as contributing members of the society, consider the meaning of life and develop their social skills for living and interacting with others in society and the world at large. Finally, it should be noted that while beliefs about teaching are shaped by a variety of factors, including previous learning experiences and the influence of significant persons and events (Mok 1994), the methods teachers actually employ may differ from their beliefs and conceptions about teaching due to contextual factors, such as school syllabi, assessment methods and student aptitudes (Lam and Kember 2006).

Branches of Thought that Guide Teaching Having introduced various philosophical orientations to teaching, this section aims to deepen your understanding of teachers’ thinking about teaching by exploring several branches of thought in the discipline of philosophy that govern how people think about the world. The section covers six areas that are relevant to classroom teaching, with each branch addressing key questions for everyone, such as: ‘What is the nature of reality?’; ‘What is the nature of knowledge?’; ‘Is there truth?’; ‘What should be the value of living?’; ‘What is good, and what is evil?’; ‘What is the nature of beauty?’ and ‘What kind of reasoning produces valid and consistent results?’

Metaphysics When growing up, you may have asked questions such as: ‘What is life?’, ‘What is the purpose of living?’ and ‘What is real?’ Metaphysics is concerned with the nature of being, and seeks to understand and explain the nature of reality, not only how it appears but also what it is, why it exists and how human beings value it. Teachers



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may think that metaphysics is not their concern, but it is an important foundation for contextualizing teaching. The school curriculum is influenced by our understanding of reality—for example, if reality is seen as serving the divine, religious studies would dominate the school life of children. In fact, the inclusion of any item in the curriculum reflects how we construct reality for children, and so it is fundamental for teachers to enquire into metaphysics in justifying the teaching curriculum and the school life of students: What is the purpose of delivering this curriculum? What do I want to achieve?

Epistemology Epistemology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It seeks to answer the following basic questions: • What is knowledge? • How is knowledge acquired? • What do people know? • How do we know what we know? • What distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false (inadequate) knowledge? • Is there a constant truth? • What kind of knowledge is most important? Teachers may need to answer such questions in deciding how to teach, and their responses will affect the content and teaching methods they consider to be appropriate. According to Parkay and Stanford (2007), there are five ways of knowing that are of interest to teachers when they decide on their curricula and teaching plans: 1. knowing based on authority (e.g. knowledge from sages, such as Confucius, poets, experts, rulers, textbooks or teachers); 2. knowing based on divine revelation (e.g. knowledge in the form of supernatural revelations from the Sun god of early peoples or from the gods of ancient Greece); 3. knowing based on empiricism (experience) (i.e. knowledge acquired through the senses, informally gathered empirical data that direct most of our daily behaviour); 4. knowing based on reason and logical analysis (i.e. knowledge inferred from the process of logical thinking); and 5. knowing based on intuition (i.e. knowledge arrived at without the use of rational thought).

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Axiology Axiology is concerned with values. A teacher should develop values related to the school, the curriculum and other school activities. What values should be held in teaching? What values should students be encouraged to adopt in lessons? Such axiological questions highlight the very important idea that the knowledge students acquire should improve the quality of their lives—knowledge is useful when it is applied in daily life. Hence, asking such questions provides support to teachers in developing their missions and career aspirations: teaching becomes meaningful as teachers are not merely completing routine tasks but are recounting the importance of what they have done in their students’ lives and are justifying the quality of life they have promoted in the school curriculum. There are three branches of values within the spectrum of axiology: 1. Ethics: Teachers may need to justify what is good and what is evil, what is right and what is wrong, and what is fair and what is unfair. Ethical values or knowledge of ethics can help teachers to overcome difficult classroom situations, especially when dilemmas arise. The choice of streaming or mixed-class policies is also an issue in which teachers should exercise ethical judgement to arrive at an acceptable solution. 2. Aesthetics: Although teachers may not be teaching art, music, literature or dance, teaching is itself an art. Aesthetics, which refers to judgement of the artistic standards of beauty and quality, can help teachers perform well in the classroom and other interactions with students. For example, teachers may present classroom rules as instructions, or they may describe them in a conversational tone close to the students: speaking in class is already an art. 3. Logic: Teachers constantly work with students on problem solving and often introduce them to the process of reasoning in finding answers or reaching valid conclusions. They frequently use two approaches to logical reasoning: deductive thinking and inductive reasoning. The former requires the thinker to move from a general principle or proposition to a specific conclusion, whereas the latter involves working on specific examples to discover generally accepted rules. The Socratic method of questioning is representative of inductive reasoning and is widely adopted in teaching.

How Knowledge Is Defined Makes a Difference to Teaching Epistemology is concerned with how people think about knowledge and how changes in thinking about knowledge affect teachers. This philosophical lens is



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concerned mainly with people’s views on knowledge (i.e. what is knowledge?), and this section tries to bring together what has been discussed so far by referring to the changing conceptions of knowledge. It also makes clear why people behave differently by examining their different perspectives on understanding knowledge. In the past, knowledge was conceptualized as both absolute and static, and the role of learners was described as passive. However, knowledge is now considered as situation-dependent, constructed by interactions between people and the world— and, over time, these conceptions continue to change. In the fourth century BC, Plato defined knowledge as ‘absolute, universal ideas or forms, existing independently of any subject trying to apprehend to them’ (Rorty 1991). Later, empiricism moved away from absolutism, considering knowledge as the product of sensory perceptions instead of an objective existence. In the eighteenth century, Kant denied the possibility of arriving at absolute knowledge and, by synthesizing rationalism and empiricism, he saw knowledge as the product of rational reflection, an idea which had a strong influence on thinking methodologies. According to Kant, knowledge comes from the organization of perceptual data based on inborn cognitive structures called ‘categories’ (Kneller 1971), which refer to space, time, objects and causality. This epistemology accepts the subjectivity of basic concepts, such as space and time, but rejects the idea of a purely objective representation of things in themselves. Another significant advance in considering knowledge was the emergence of pragmatism in the twentieth century, which influenced both cognitive science and artificial intelligence. In pragmatic epistemology, knowledge consists of models that attempt to represent the environment in a way that ‘maximally simplifies problem solving’ (Heylighen 1993). While it is believed that no model can ever capture all relevant information, the parallel existence of different models is acceptable despite contradictions between them, as any model that can solve problems can be regarded as a model for interpretation. The basic criterion is that the model should be precise and simple, and can produce correct (or approximate) predictions (which may be tested) or problem-solutions (ibid.). Pragmatic epistemology does not give clear answers to the question about where knowledge comes from: pragmatic knowledge can be built up by trial-and-error, by intuition and by testing empirical data. Constructivism has provided a radical answer to the challenge of the objectivity of knowledge. As implied by the term, constructivist epistemology assumes that all knowledge is constructed from scratch by individuals and so does not accept any ‘givens’, including objective empirical data or facts and inborn categories or cognitive structures (ibid.). In constructivism, it is argued that the only reality we can know is what is represented by human thoughts. It disapproves of knowledge from authority and from divine revelation; and it therefore is critical of objectivism and absolutism, and suggests that meaning or knowledge is always produced by

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human construction (Watzlawick 1984). Even the representations of physical and biological reality, such as species, cars, chairs and tables, are socially constructed knowledge (O’Neill 1981). Constructivism flourished in the history of philosophy and has developed into several streams which have been widely applied in psychology and education. Constructivists attempt to attain coherence among different pieces of knowledge and reject inconsistent pieces. In its radical form, ‘individual constructivism’, it is assumed that ‘concepts, models, theories, and so on are viable if they prove adequate in the contexts in which they were created’ by individuals (von Glasersfeld 1995, 7). In addition, this form of constructivism holds that knowledge is characterized by ‘viability’, which can be highly personal. On the other hand, in social constructivism, categories of knowledge and reality are seen as being created through social relationships and interactions, in which semiotic resources come to inhabit a shared form of life (Searle 1995). These interactions also alter the organization of scientific epistemology. Constructivist psychologists consider that human beings create systems that provide a meaningful understanding of their worlds and experiences. For instance, in psychotherapy, psychologists try to understand the worldview of their patients in an effort to expand the meaning of their patients’ lives. In education, constructivism supports a way of teaching that overcomes the limitations of the behaviourist teaching model, and of the positivist and rationalist models for organizing teaching that focus on external knowledge and scientific experiments. The constructivist approach to teaching stimulates educators to reflect on the different needs, cognitions and experiences of learning. It rejects a subject-centred approach to teaching and focuses on the learner who plays an active role in the construction of knowledge. Prominent among educators who favour the constructivist philosophy are John Dewey (1859–1952), Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) and Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Today, constructivism still influences cognitive science, linguistics, anthropology, neurophysiology and computer science. Constructivist approaches to teaching are discussed in Chapter 2. Another influential branch of epistemology is ‘evolutionary epistemology’, with Karl Popper (1902–94) as the representative figure. It applies the concepts of biological evolution to understand the growth of human knowledge and proposes that ‘knowledge is construed by the subject or group of subjects in order to adapt to their environment in the broad sense’ (Heylighen 1993). The construction is an ongoing process at different levels: biological, psychological and social. Evolutionary epistemologists argue that knowledge, especially scientific theories, evolve according to selection. In this case, a theory—such as the germ theory of diseases—varies in its credibility as the body of knowledge surrounding it changes (Popper 1972). Knowledge is not static; it evolves over time.



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The major epistemologies above have created disparate views on the nature of knowledge and of the world, mainly centred on the argument about whether there is an ontological world that exists independently (or there are objective principles and rules or inborn cognitive structures) or whether reality is independent of human thoughts and environmental changes. These two contrasting views result in significant differences in the conception of knowledge or learning. The absolutists and objectivists: … believe in the existence of reliable knowledge about the world. As learners, the goal is to gain this knowledge; as educators, to transmit it. Objectivism further assumes that learners gain the same understanding from what is transmitted. Learning therefore consists of assimilating that objective reality. The role of education is to help students learn about the real world. The goal of designers or teachers is to interpret events for them. Learners are told about the world and are expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking. (Jonassen 1991, 28)

However, absolutism and objectivism have been criticized for dictating a technocratic management model in which learners remain passive recipients of a prescribed curriculum, without necessarily developing ownership of learning based on their interests, abilities and needs. One may also wonder if students actually learn if they acquire knowledge without understanding it, such as when memorization and recitation are overemphasized. In contrast, constructivists believe that: … people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When we encounter something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask questions, explore, and assess what we know. (Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004)

Constructivism defines learning as the ‘active construction of knowledge’ (Siegler 2000), contending that a person’s cognitive development is a vital process in acquiring knowledge. In the last few decades, it has had a major influence on education, with teaching departing considerably from the previous behaviourist theories of learning that focused solely on the quantity of knowledge students gained. Constructivist pedagogies were developed to enhance human cognition and a constructivist classroom offers a very different scenario of learning. The spirit of the constructivist approach to teaching is highlighted in the following quotation (Educational Broadcasting Corporation 2004):

16

Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom In a constructivist classroom, teachers encourage students to constantly address how the activity is helping students gain understanding. By questioning themselves and their strategies, students in the constructivist classroom ideally become ‘expert learners.’ This gives them ever broader tools to keep learning. With a well-planned classroom environment, the students learn HOW TO LEARN. (emphasis in original)

Synthesizing the Different Views of Teaching Different values and beliefs have created a diverse range of ideas about teaching. For example, as indicated above, adherents of absolutism or objectivism may put a heavy emphasis on subject-matter knowledge and concentrate on arranging and delivering content in accordance with schedules to ensure that students gain knowledge. On the other hand, constructivists place learners at the centre of the educational process, arrange meaningful activities and promote the active participation of students. In fact, these philosophical orientations can be found in the history of education in the East and West. For instance, in ancient Greece, young people memorized great works such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey which teachers recited to them, and teachers and pupils also discussed the feats of the Greek heroes described by Homer. Also, in ancient China, the Four Books and Five Classics ( 四書五經 ) were central to education. During the Song Dynasty (960–1279), as literacy skills became more important, a stronger emphasis was placed on recording the number of characters or essays a child learned each day (Lee 2000). Both these examples illustrate respect for great works, which were believed to be authoritative sources of knowledge. In Hong Kong, some pieces written by famous scholars in China from the Spring and Autumn (770–467 BC) and Warring States (Disunity) (475–221 BC) Periods until the Sui and Tang Dynasties were included in the secondary school syllabus and in the previous Certificate Examination1 in the subject of Chinese Language. It seemed that everyone who studied in Hong Kong during that time memorized those pieces by heart. The idea of learning the great works was somehow considered to have a cultivating effect on young people, but whether these pieces were actually understood by learners is another matter. I attended secondary school in Hong Kong, during which I was frequently asked to memorize some Chinese poems. Often, I did not know the meaning and background of the pieces, but I was urged to memorize them by heart to avoid the shame of being unable to recite them when asked by my teacher. Towards the eighteenth century, more enlightened educational beliefs emerged. In the ancient Greek and Chinese civilizations, personal development



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was already acknowledged as an important value for teachers to hold while educating the youth. Athenian education placed value on educating individuals to perform their civic duties and for their own personal development; and in Confucian educational thought, education is for personal fulfilment and for developing the ‘ideal person’. Table 1.3 presents empirical studies on the educational philosophies mentioned above. In such studies, which characterize rigid teachers as applying instructional approaches that demand high control over students, absolutist or objectivist teachers are presented as ‘authoritarian and disciplinarian’, ‘presenters of information’ (Christensen et al. 1995), and ‘trainers’ (Proventzo et al. 1989) and as ‘mechanistic’ (Steven and Palincsar 1992). On the other hand, some constructivist teachers are perceived as ‘facilitators of thinking and lifelong learning’, ‘empowerers’ (Bennet and Spalding 1991) and sources of ‘enlightenment’ (Gurney 1995), suggesting the image of a friendly teacher who provides opportunities for student development. There are also types of teachers who promote ‘ecological integration’ and ‘social responsibility’ (Ennis, Cothrs and Loftus 1997), and who view teaching the next generation as a way of supporting society. The various epistemologies or educational philosophies seem to have come together to influence teachers across time and culture, and they remind us that, regardless of their career stages, teachers should reflect on their own beliefs about teaching and should assess whether their teaching approaches are appropriate for learners. The philosophical orientations introduced early in this chapter as guides to reflection on teaching beliefs also reflect the common epistemologies. Notably, perennialists, essentialists and behaviourists tend to agree with the authoritarian and objective nature of knowledge, while cognitivism, existentialism and pragmatism can be considered as, in varying degrees, to have developed from the orientation towards the personal development of learners. The social reconstruction orientation can be viewed as a society-oriented philosophy, which differs from the two previous groups of influential epistemologies. The mapping of these teaching philosophies can be conceptualized as a continuum (Figure 1.1) which ranges from the belief that knowledge is absolute and objective (and, hence, must be delivered to students) to concerns about learner development. Societyoriented conceptions are located at the middle because this type may or may not have a connection to either end.

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Figure 1.1 Conceptualization of different teaching beliefs The teaching philosophies can be conceptualized as a continuum, ranging from a belief in knowledge as absolute and objective and to be delivered to students, to concern about learner’s development and learning. The society-oriented dimension is located in the middle, indicating that this orientation may or may not have a connection to either ends.

Confucian Educational Thought Teaching is also culturally situated. It is natural that our decision making and beliefs about teaching are, to varying degrees, influenced by our culture. However, this does not mean that Chinese teachers have to conform to the Chinese style of teaching. On the contrary, it is crucial for teachers to examine the strengths and possible weaknesses of their own personal teaching orientations. A critical mind can guide us in exercising our professional roles in the classroom and, by improving education in our own countries, we can refine our cultures, given that improving education is an important step towards positive cultural change. With a recorded history of nearly 4,000 years, China is characterized by a unique culture. It is one of the world’s most ancient civilizations where economic activity developed the earliest. The Chinese people are well known for their determination and diligence, and China is recognized for its outstanding achievements in economic production. Over the long history of Chinese civilization, China has shaped its own culture by undergoing a long process of ‘making and finding’. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States (Disunity) Periods, philosophy and other branches of knowledge flourished, with various schools differing in their opinions about politics and society. The situation where a ‘hundred schools of thought contended’ ( 百家爭鳴 ) highlights the glory of this golden age in China, which included famous philosophers such Lao Zi ( 老子 ), Confucius ( 孔夫子 ), Mencius ( 孟子 ) and Xun Zi ( 荀子 ). Among the various branches of philosophy, Confucianism, which was founded by Confucius (551–479 BC), served as a paramount and respected philosophy



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that governed the behaviour of the Chinese. As the product of 2,000 years of development, Confucianism has unceasingly influenced education in China; and it continues to influence teachers in places such as Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore. In making an overall analysis of educational thought in China in this chapter, reference is made primarily to the central ideas of Confucianism, supplemented by the ideas of other scholars that complement Confucian views. Confucius was the first person in Chinese history to devote most of his life to teaching, and was called ‘the First Teacher’ ( 先師 ), ‘the Sage’ ( 聖人 ), and ‘the Model Teacher of a Myriad Ages” ( 萬世師表 ). The way Chinese students learn and how Chinese teachers teach have been heavily criticized (Biggs and Watkins 2001; Chan 2007; Ross 1991). However, in the essence of Confucian educational thought, there are several remarkable educational concepts that present the enlightened features of Chinese education, and are comparable to the most liberal educational ideas found in history. First is the notion of education as a form of personal enjoyment, which resembles the contemporary ‘personal development orientation’. This idea is reflected in the teachings of Mencius (372–289 BC), one of the most important of those who expounded the teachings of Confucius: … a gentleman steeps himself in the Way because he wishes to find it in himself. When he finds it in himself, he will find joy in it; when he finds joy in it, he can draw deeply upon it; when he can draw deeply upon it, he finds its source wherever he turns. That is why a gentleman wishes to find the Way in himself. (Mencius, as cited in Lee 2000, 3)

Another famous dictum from Confucius reveals the personal significance of education: ‘In ancient times one studied for one’s self; nowadays one studies for the sake of others. The gentleman’s learning (today) is meant to serve as a bribe to win attention from others’ (Hsun Tzu chien-shih, ibid.). This reflection, written thousands of years ago, recognizes personal moral perfection and the joy experienced from study as the primary purpose and goal of education. It suggests the deeper meaning of study that emphasizes moral rather than utilitarian goals. The intrinsic value of education for personal development—which is also reflected in the beliefs of modern teachers (e.g. Christensen et al. 1995; Proventzo et al. 1989)—remains the most important educational idea that has its roots in traditional Chinese education. Second, Confucian education implies the significance of education for society. Confucian educational thought is centred on personal enrichment rather than on vocation or securing recognition and benefit for oneself. However, in Confucian thought, the idea of personal fulfilment is inseparable from the society (i.e. carries social implications). According to Confucius, the ‘ideal person’ ( 君子 ) is the

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human being who is committed to a search for personal moral perfection, without forgetting that his/her personal moral growth has social implications. The social implications can be understood by the element of ‘community’ in a person’s education. As suggested in the Analects ( 論語 ), ‘the gentleman by his culture (wen, education) collects friends about him, and through these friends promotes humanity’ (the Analects, as cited in Lee 2000, 10). This adage means that the educated will attract friends, and being able to attract friends enables them to promote humanity. Promoting humanity is considered the social dimension of Confucian education; humanity is regarded as the completion of culture. The social implications of education are clearly illustrated in the Great Learning ( 大學 ): When things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order, there will be peace throughout the world. (The Great Learning, as cited in Lee 2000, 11)

The above eight steps of moral cultivation show how Confucian thinkers view the connection between personal learning and peace in the world. The ultimate goal of a person’s educational accomplishment lies in his/her contribution to a harmonious political order, which shows the inseparable relationship between a person’s moral uprightness and socio-political harmony. The ability to regulate family relationships is identified as the essential qualification for governing the world. In providing an accurate view of Confucian traditional educational values, one should not simplify the subtle ideas that illustrate the complexities of the social purpose of education, which is integrated into the personal moral accomplishments of learners. It is important to highlight a most easily mistaken point: in Confucian thinking, education makes a man’s place in the society meaningful—by being educated, man contributes to the social and political order of a country. In terms of social implications, Confucian educational ideas also encourage studying with friends because the presence of friends allows for intellectual exchange: ‘Studying alone without friends, he will be solitary and uninformed’ (Liu Hsiang, as cited in Lee 2000, 10). By learning from others, a man will develop and improve. In addition, the social implications of education for the family play a very significant role, and family support for education has evolved into an important aspect, just like the patriarchal family life of the Chinese (Lee 2000; Wu and Singh 2004). The third significant Confucian idea, which has been widely adopted in our educational system, is universal education. Confucius mentioned that education should be for everyone. Every normal individual should be included and have access



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to education because he/she can bring perfection to the socio-political order of the society through education. This idea was developed not out of the interests of society but of the individuals who build society. The curriculum Confucius proposed was one that can help man to live up to the ‘ideal of humanity’, by reaching which man can be called ‘superior’, and can be seen as ‘a gentleman’. Although both these terms have essentially the same meaning, ‘superior man’ carried an additional feature called ‘sagehood’, with a sage having the status of having achieved the ‘ideal of humanity’. Fourth, with regard to reaching ‘sagehood’, the curriculum proposed by Confucius was not predominantly composed of ‘book learning’ but of the Six Arts, namely, rites, music, archery, charioteering, writing and mathematics, including rituals and martial arts (Lee 2000). In addition to proposing a regular revision of the curriculum to ensure its appropriateness, Confucius was attached to the hermeneutic tradition in delivering the curriculum. For example, he mentioned that arithmetic is learned with the purpose of mastering the knowledge needed to manage issues of calculation confronting educated people and should, therefore, be taught by applying it to the study of heavenly phenomena. Learning to write could merely mean literacy, but in the Confucian curriculum writing should be learned from books, from book-like readings, or from reading for personal pleasure. Confucius also stressed the importance of studying with understanding. Based on the Confucian model, the purpose of learning the Six Arts is not to learn specific knowledge and skills, such as how to steer a chariot and memorize a poem, but to ‘tirelessly seek to comprehend knowledge, and use it to help integrate with the highest ideal of humanity’ (Lee 2000, 19). This helps students to handle human affairs and ‘participate in the moral exercise of seeking unity with the cosmic Tao (way)’ (Lee 2000). In fact, all these ideas are promoted in contemporary education where learning is now recognized as a set of meaningful activities for learners. Confucius also regarded learning as a form of personal pleasure and saw it as helping to connect learners to their lives and existence, which is related to ‘humanity (ibid.). As can be seen above, the Confucian model of education carries many insightful ideas. Education is oriented towards personal development, assuming that the development of each individual serves to support society, which has the advantage of producing harmony in family relationships, stability in the country and world peace. Also, equal access to education, as stressed in Confucian education, establishes a strong belief that everyone’s potential can be developed to serve society. In terms of pedagogy, as outlined above, Confucian education encourages the interpretation of written texts; learning is organized through authentic and contextualized activities, which cultivate higher-level intellectual abilities; learning is close to learners’ life experiences; and learning provides numerous opportunities for exchange, dialogue and reflection. The curriculum covers not only book knowledge but also disciplines

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related to languages, mathematics, music and other skills that can be generally applied to living. The stress on moral advancement and humanity establishes strong moral values, which help to produce a harmonious world. In fact, Confucian education offers remarkable ideas for global education: they are well established based on people and society, and they address the cognitive, spiritual, social, moral and aesthetic aspects of human development.

Historical Degeneration of Confucian Educational Thought However, despite all these very positive aspects, there are some specific features of Confucian educational thought that are unfavourable for the development of Chinese education. These features have been integrated into the Chinese examination system, and they continue to serve as barriers to educational improvement in Chinese communities, such as Hong Kong. For over a thousand years, Chinese education was dominated by the civil examination system, which was used to select officials to staff every level of the imperial bureaucracy. Confucius and most Confucian scholars approached education from the viewpoint of a person’s moral cultivation, but the government did not always subscribe to this approach. To Confucius, government education should be directed to an ethical end. However, since the establishment of the civil service examination system, the evolution of Chinese education has become complex in a variety of ways and has been compounded with certain traditional Confucian values. First, there were conflicts between the educational aims of the state and of individuals. The government usually had a narrower educational purpose because of its interest in staffing the bureaucracy. Over the history of China, the content of the civil service examination was criticized as being restricted to the memorization and recitation of texts (Lee 2000). The syllabus focused on reciting classical books, mainly the Four Books and the Five Classics; and candidates wrote essays in prescribed forms, in strict accordance with the ideas of the classics. Since the examinations became influential, this world no longer knows that there are books … The million of people over the hundreds of years are lured only to how to copy each other, and to figure out what the examination content could be like. These people are empty shells and rotten leather. They are no talents at all. (Hsuan-shih chih-tu, as cited in Lee 2000, 169)

It was often quoted, especially during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), that examinations used largely the same kind of questions. While studying the Four Books and the Five Classics as the basic texts for the examination, candidates could actually focus on only one of them, and they could concentrate on only one style and



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form. If argument was required in the examination, it should be in absolute accord with the interpretations accepted in the classics concerned, and imagination was not required. The examination thus reinforced a non-intellectual routine rather than genuine learning and ability testing. The topics were literally taken from the classics, especially the Four Books, and so there were many passages, sentences or phrases that could be used. Most candidates resorted to memorizing ‘ready-made’ essays and ‘… some candidates might not know who Emperor Han Kao-tsu or Tang Tai-tsung were and yet might pass the examinations with outstanding essays, which they had memorized beforehand’ (Jih-chih lu, as cited in Lee 2000, 160). Second, as the government took control of education ‘under the heavens’, examinations gradually became a mechanism for legitimizing and reproducing the monarch-subject power relationship. The self-interest of monarchs, as ‘sons of God’, was preserved because loyalty was expected from officials selected through the civil service examination (Smith 1991). Intellectuals believed that going to the halls and walls (the seat of official examinations) of Confucius would guarantee them a shortcut to financial gain. According to Wang Fu-chih (Sung-lun, as cited in Lee 2000, 168), ‘the stricter the government examines them; the more cunning they are in cheating in the examinations. The more successful candidates the government recruits, the more impostors there are … This is why the people of self-dignity do not wish to consider studying for the examinations a kind of serious learning. However, how else could one acquire genuine learning? Could they not pursue the position in the government as an erudite scholar, and place themselves in the service of the sons of heaven, in the hope that they assist him in the work of straightening the world?’ The examination system created a privileged elite, who shared a uniform tradition and sense of belongingness. Confucian traditional values gave way, and Chinese education became a perennial struggle between the state’s wish to manipulate the educational process for its own good and the resistance of intellectuals who sought liberation from this manipulation. Third, the education of individuals was intertwined with the fortune of their families, resulting in the degeneration of personal educational goals, which became utilitarian. Given that a government career could bring glory, splendour, wealth and rank to the whole family, the examination system led students to think that education was about the search for wealth. Even the Qianlong Emperor, in reflecting on the system, admitted this problem: The pursuit for a degree in the examinations creates a kind of person who is only interested in name and profit. The desire is deeply planted in their thinking. It is very difficult to lure them back [to the right way]. (Jin 2001, cited in Wu and Singh 2004)

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It is ironic that the excellent Confucian educational dictum of studying for personal enrichment was overridden by the purpose of gaining personal wealth. This was mainly caused by the social implications of education embedded in Confucian educational thought. In a patriarchal state, education serves to reinforce hierarchical power relations. Moral behaviour is governed by family relations and respect, and hierarchical power relationships are also exercised between families and the state, between families and sons, and between citizens and government leaders. People develop a strong attachment to their families, and a subservient relationship is also legitimized between subjects and monarchs (Ball 1990). As regards education, parents may develop a very strong desire for their children to succeed because families are beneficiaries of the purposes of education (Jin 2001). In ancient China, families relied on the success of their members in passing the examination. To conclude, because of state control over examinations and the features of a patriarchal society in China, education became a political means to reproduce the relations of knowledge and power between the elite members of society and their subjects. Due to its purpose of fulfilling the self-interest of monarchs, examinations were relegated to reproducing the works of sages, and memorization and recitation became the major methods of study in ancient China. Unfortunately, these themes still influence contemporary education in Chinese societies in China and other Asian countries. Chinese education is commonly seen as relying solely on rote learning with little understanding (Chan 2007; Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996; Lau and Yeung 1996). This can be seen as a result of the overemphasis on studying for examinations and the high level of compliance to authorities demanded by the Chinese culture. Furthermore, for many, education is still viewed as a means for attaining security and material benefits (Lee, Wong and Chow 2006). Teachers often ‘teach for the test’ and concentrate on drilling students to attain the best results for entry to universities. Many of these considerations contradict Confucian thought, which emphasizes the enjoyment of learning and the higher-order aims of education. Practitioners are responsible for instituting change, and should deliver quality education and reflect critically on the important aspects of our culture. Teachers should help students to make learning a means for their own advancement and development. This section has attempted to develop an understanding of cultural influences on teaching beliefs, particularly Confucian educational thought, which is summarized in Table 1.4.



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Table 1.4 Summary of Confucian educational thought Aims • • •

• •

Personal moral perfection and joy To become a sage (i.e. an ideal person) To reach the ‘ideal of humanity’ (i.e. the perfect mankind) and the ideal world Glory to the family Moral uprightness, and the social and political harmony of the world

Curriculum •

• • •

Catering for everyone and accessible to everyone in the society; hence, it brings perfection to the nation in terms of social and political order Supports the development of a person to reach the ‘ideal of humanity’ Includes book knowledge and skills, focused on application An integrated approach that stresses living, connecting learners to their lives and to their existence

Pedagogies • • • •

Promote learning with peers, not learning alone Encourage intellectual exchange Promote humanity and cultivate personal lives by studying with friends Authentic learning materials

Contextualizing Teaching in an Era of Educational Reform As introduced in the early sections of this chapter, in the intellectual world there are philosophical debates and movements that focus on particular educational ideologies. As demonstrated in recent education reforms, as a result of advances in cognitive science, psychology, educational psychology and neurophysiology, the importance of learners’ cognitive development is acknowledged. Education must develop peoples’ cognitive abilities to allow them to understand and discover knowledge and the world; and teachers should provide learning situations for students to explore and construct meaning. As individuals, learners are at the centre of the educational process and their motivation, self-concepts, and development in different domains should be considered. The aim of education is to help individuals to develop their thinking abilities, potentials and interests for living and enjoyment. To become true professionals, teachers should contextualize themselves in the philosophical dialogue of great thinkers and note that this is the direction we should take. In contemporary education, the student-centred teaching approach is believed to benefit learners because it considers them as active agents of learning. As argued earlier in this chapter, overemphasizing subject knowledge may overlook cognitive development. In this century, schools should no longer get students used to low-level cognitive activities, such as memorization and rote learning, and they should not serve as training centres for examinations. For a long time, education in Hong Kong has been criticized for using a didactic approach to teaching, and an overemphasis on the selection function

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of examinations. The educational process was dominated by preparation for examinations, and competition was rife (Cheng and Yip 2006). Evidence shows that this system has a detrimental effect on students’ interest in learning (Wong et al. 2001). As discussed earlier, such a system, with its heavy reliance on examinations and rote-learning has its roots in the Chinese tradition and has been influential in many Asian countries (Biggs and Watkins 2001). The current educational reforms aim to change this culture radically and move education to a student-centred approach—which is certainly not a straightforward task. Chinese parents, including those in Hong Kong, expect their children to have a positive attitude to their studies and fulfil their responsibility for performing well (Chen and Stevenson 1989; Lau and Yeung 1996; Phillipson and Phillipson 2007). Parental expectations are, therefore, a key factor influencing educational policies and practices. The Chinese proverb ‘wishing my son to be a dragon’ is still a strongly held sentiment among Hong Kong parents; and the current economic and social conditions in Hong Kong have reinforced the traditional Chinese belief in the importance of education and the concomitant role of examinations as a means for raising the socioeconomic status of individuals and their families (Lau, Chan and Lau 1999; Lau and Yeung 1996). While the reforms aim at reducing the level of competitiveness in the educational system, several factors impede progress in this direction. The declining birth-rate in Hong Kong has been accompanied by school closures, with, for example, a 14.1% reduction in the number of primary schools from 1994 to 2004 (Census and Statistics Department 2005). To ensure their survival, all schools are encouraged by the Hong Kong government to compete for students, and the academic achievement of their current students is their strongest selling-point. In addition, particularly in senior primary levels, the demand for high academic achievement remains very strong as this ensures that students have the widest possible choice for further education. Consequently, the primary responsibility of teachers is to enhance the academic achievement of their students by providing ‘remedial’ classes to low-achieving students and also extra tutoring to a substantial number of high-achieving ones, in addition to the regular curriculum. Table 1.5 lists some further criticisms of Hong Kong’s educational system. Recent research has discovered that a substantial proportion of students are underachieving relative to their intellectual potential (Lam 2008; Phillipson 2008; Phillipson and Tse 2007). However, the findings from several studies on the cognitive strategies of Chinese learners suggest that the previous criticisms of their passivity and rote-learning model should be reconsidered. For example, Grimshawa (2007), after reviewing the related literature over the past ten to twenty years, argues that Chinese learners’ cognitive-centred, listening-based approach can lead to as active engagement in learning as the more verbal approaches of Western



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students. Also, Leung, Ginns and Kember’s (2008) study showed that viewing Chinese students as rote and superficial learners is a misconception. Based on the revised Study Process Questionnaire, they found that Chinese students did not use a dichotomous ‘surface’ versus ‘deep’ learning style but displayed a range of intermediate approaches that combined surface and deep learning—that is, they used both memorization and understanding—in a similar way to the Australian learners in their sample. Dahlin and Watkins (2000) found that repetition in the process of memorizing can play an important role in improving understanding. Nevertheless, teaching may be dominated by passive and rote learning if teachers want to ‘fast track’ in an examination-oriented culture that encourages memorization without allowing the expression of diverse viewpoints and creative thinking. Only if there is a fundamental change in the school curriculum and examination system can the possibility of change in classroom practice be guaranteed. Table 1.5 Criticisms of Hong Kong education ‘The lessons we observed tended to be teacher-centered, with little use of aids beyond chalk and blackboard. In “non-exam” years, the atmosphere seemed fairly relaxed, but in the examination preparatory forms, all was deadly earnest and students were seen taking notes, laboriously completing model answers, and learning texts by rote (incidentally, this was equally evident at the college of education we visited) (Llewellyn Committee 1982). ‘Students spend too little time in critical or analytical thinking. A library is a symbol of a “learning-to-learn” system, but use and provisioning of libraries seem to reflect a lack of understanding of their potential and importance’ (Llewellyn Committee 1982). ‘The main characteristics of most lessons were very similar. The relationship between teachers and pupils was one which emphasized the transmission of information. Teachers spent most of the time lecturing and the pupils busied themselves recording the information presented’ (Morris 1984). ‘Education system in Hong Kong used to be highly academic and selective, focused mainly on inculcating knowledge in selected disciplines and selection of students with high academic abilities to go into the university. It is exam-and content-oriented’ (Lam 2004). ‘Tests and examinations have dominated student learning in Hong Kong for a long time. Examinations are norm-referenced and competitive’ (Lam 2004). ‘In Hong Kong at school level conceptions of teaching and assessment are separate, both conceptually and functionally. The role of teaching is to convey content, the role of assessment is to determine who learns better than who…This split between teaching and assessment is represented by the fact that two independent bodies look after each function: the Government Education Department is responsible for curriculum and teaching, while the autonomous and financially independent Hong Kong Examinations Authority is in charge of all public examinations’ (Biggs and Watkins 2001).

If you intend to become a teacher, will you just stick to the old models of teaching or will you persevere in using another method that you think can benefit students, although it may be more challenging? How will you survive in the classroom? This is another perspective that must be considered at the conclusion of this chapter.

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Teachers are agents of change. If a different method is implemented to reform schools, they should reflect on whether it is useful and the best approach for learners, and whether it is feasible given the current cultural constraints. They should persist in experimenting, participating in professional dialogue and conducting action research. Educational reform has become a major task for all schools and teachers in Hong Kong, given that at the outset Hong Kong’s educational culture was examination-oriented, there was keen competition among schools, and parents ‘wished their children to become dragons’ (Wu and Singh 2004). There are two ways of viewing reforms in schools. First, should we justify that the new active approach to teaching is suitable for learners—the answer is ‘yes’. As has been shown, the study of educational philosophies offers considerable support for this active approach to teaching advocated in the reforms (and Chapter 2 introduces further support for the direction proposed). However, learning from the example of Confucian educational thought, we may wonder if this new approach, and the need to educate future generations to adopt a global perspective, can be implemented effectively in our schools. Will schools take a short-cut to convince the public that they are instituting the educational reforms? Will schools, parents and teachers ‘repack’ the elitist educational model in schools and develop a new kind of elitism for the demands of the twenty-first century? Will the mission of schools to develop individuals for fulfilment in life, as enshrined in our educational reform policy, be forgotten? Teachers need to examine closely their beliefs about education for the next generation as they think about and decide on many issues they confront in educational reform. Although teachers cannot change government policies, the curriculum guidelines set for schools and the public examinations, they should exercise their independent professional judgement within the classroom and carry out reform at the right pace, on the right track and with appropriate action that support learners.

Conclusion By examining the different philosophical perspectives this chapter provides a comprehensive review of major theories that can be conceptualized as a continuum ranging from a belief in knowledge as absolute and objective and to be delivered to students, to concern about learner’s development. The introduction of societyoriented teaching has also emerged as a major theme that has or has no connections to the above ends. The Confucius values of teaching are also discussed; they reflect how meaningful values of teaching that support personal development are



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degenerated to more economic-oriented ends when a society places more emphasis on efficiency, productivity and achievement in monetary terms. The discussion in the chapter suggests the importance of teachers in developing an orientation to teaching that benefits student learning. The other chapters in this book examine further the knowledge and skills involved in teaching which, if analysed critically, will help teacher teach more effectively.

Note 1. The Certificate Examination was an external examination in secondary schools (at Secondary 5 level), based on the results of which students competed for entry into matriculation study. In the education reform in the early twenty-first century, this examination was replaced by the Diploma in Secondary Education in which more authentic assessment methods are used.

Learning Activities 1. As a prospective or in-service teacher, share your personal teaching beliefs. From your perspective, what is the aim of teaching? What assumptions about learners, knowledge and teachers does this involve? Given your assumptions and aims, how will you teach in classrooms? Compare your answers with one of your peers. Your beliefs

Your peer’s beliefs

Learners Knowledge Teachers Teaching methods

2. Itemize the differences between existentialist and behaviourist teachers in terms of the curriculum, learners and teaching methods (refer to Table 1.3). Which of the teachers holds beliefs closer to yours? Critically examine the beliefs these two teachers hold. 3. Having familiarized yourself with the primary educational ideas, how do you view them? To what extent do you agree with them? Use the table below to summarize your understanding of Confucian ideas about the curriculum, learning and teaching, and the purposes of teaching/learning.

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Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Summary of Confucian educational thought Concepts

Confucian educational thought

Curriculum Learning/Teaching Teacher-student relationships Purpose of teaching/learning

4. When you were a student, did you ever experience any educational reforms? What were they, and what were their causes?

2 Constructivist Perspectives on Learning Bick-har Lam

This chapter considers constructivist perspectives on learning, which involve a shift from viewing learners as responding to external stimuli to seeing them as ‘active in constructing their own knowledge’ and consider that ‘social interactions are important in knowledge construction’ (Bruning et al. 2004). For constructivists, learners develop knowledge directly by experiencing things and by reflecting on the consequences of such experiences; and they learn actively through cognitive processes, constructing an understanding of the world around them. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • understand various constructivist approaches to teaching; • explain various constructivist perspectives on learning, including the work of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky; • appreciate the strengths and limitations of various constructivist perspectives; • conceptualize various constructivist approaches; and • critically apply constructivist approaches to teaching in a Chinese context.

Constructivism and Learning Constructivist perspectives on learning originated from constructivist epistemology, and there are hints of constructivist pedagogies in psychology. To understand the underpinnings of constructivist approaches to teaching, and various criticisms of such approaches, this chapter turns to psychological studies. However, constructivist psychologists disagree on (a) what determines the processes at work in the human construction of knowledge and (b) what creates different constructivist learning theories. Woolfolk (2010) has suggested a way of aligning the different constructivist streams. From a psychological perspective, constructivism is best understood in terms of how individuals use information, resources and help from others to build and improve their mental models and problem-solving strategies (Woolfolk 2010). Constructivist perspectives on learning are evident in three main psychological

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models: the information-processing model, Piaget’s genetic epistemology and Vygotsky’s social constructivism model. Social constructivists have extended the traditional focus of individual learning from cognitive structures and processes to the involvement of culture and society, language and social interaction. They view learning as socially constructed and contend that knowledge can be developed by participating and interacting in activities that are culturally meaningful (Wood 1998). The chapter begins with a close examination of different constructivist perspectives and their application in teaching. It then discusses constructivist approaches to teaching and learning in the context of Chinese classrooms.

Information Processing In the information-processing approach, learners are seen as processors of information, and many studies have focused on understanding the cognitive processes learners use in processing information within their minds, such as perception, attention, memory and problem solving. This model has been conceived to link the behaviourist models of learning (which consider learning as a passive response-strengthening activity) to the constructivist theories of learning (which see learning as an active meaning-making process) (Mayer 1996). In explaining the information-processing model of learning, a comparison is often made with computer systems. Computers contain hardware, such as a central processing unit for carrying out the main processing of information, random access memory (RAM) for short-term storage of information and hard disks for longterm storage of information. The information-processing perspective suggests that similar structures can be found in our minds. For example, Atkinson and Shiffrin’s stage model of memory (1968) is a classic information-processing model that posits memory as information flowing through a system with distinct stages and different stores, much like the situation in a computer. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggested that information is first detected by our sense organs and stays in the sensory memory for a very brief period of time; and, if the information is attended to, it then enters the short-term memory. This memory works like a computer’s RAM: it stores information momentarily for processing. The processed information is transferred to the long-term memory where information may be permanently stored for later retrieval. While many amendments have been proposed for the stage model of memory, its description of the mind’s architecture remains a central tenet of information-processing psychology (Mayer 1996).



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Sensory memory Our bodies have a range of sensory receptors that change environmental stimuli into information that our brains can process. The sensory memory has a large capacity, which holds all our sensory experiences, but it can retain information for only a brief period of time (less than a second). Hence, information is lost quickly if it is not attended to.

Short-term (working) memory The working memory is the part of memory that corresponds to what we are thinking at the moment. It has a limited capacity; typically, adults can hold about seven chunks of information in the working memory, although this number is debatable and is dependent on factors such as task demands and individual differences (Cowan 2010). Children have shorter memory spans and so teachers are advised to adjust their instructional methods to take this into account. Also, young children can focus their attention for a shorter period of time and teachers therefore need to be careful not to overestimate the attention span of young pupils. More pieces of information can be stored in the working memory if they are organized properly (i.e. linked to our existing memory). For example, instead of remembering ‘c-a-t’ as three separate and individual letters, recognizing the word ‘cat’ helps in remembering the three letters more easily. Through the process of combining items into larger and more meaningful units, which is called ‘chunking’, the number of items the mind needs to hold is reduced. Another method for retaining information in the working memory is ‘rote rehearsal’, in which information in the brain is simply repeated—with no attention being paid to relating the information to pre-existing knowledge—so that it does not disappear from the short-term memory.

Long-term memory Long-term memory seems to have an unlimited storage capacity, and it can hold information for a lifetime. It can be subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory. Semantic memory contains information, such as facts and concepts, and all generalized information, such as different rules, statements and schemas. Episodic memory stores information concerned with personal experiences, and it often contains information in the form of stories.

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Other factors affecting memory and learning Craik and Lockhart (1972) developed the ‘levels of processing model’ in which the extent to which information is elaborated determines how well it will be retained and how successfully it will be retrieved. If information is processed only at a shallow level, such as how a word sounds, retention is likely to be poor; but when it is processed at a deeper level, for example by paying attention to how it relates to pre-existing knowledge, then it is likely to be remembered better. Teachers are therefore advised to activate the previous knowledge of students and help them to build meaningful connections between new and old information. Informationprocessing theories have provided important suggestions for enhancing teaching and learning, as seen in Table 2.1.

The Information-Processing Approach and Constructivist Perspectives The role of learners differs depending on how strictly we adhere to the computer metaphor. If we see cognitive processes as mental computations, such as those that take place inside a computer, then learners can be considered passive; they receive inputs and process them in a pre-programmed fashion. In this sense, learning is mechanistic: inputs from the outside world are processed and stored and, with varying degrees of success, information is transmitted from teachers to students. However, the computer metaphor can be understood from a constructivist standpoint, with learners being seen as active meaning-making agents. In this interpretation, mental processing becomes an active search for understanding. The pre-existing knowledge and biological dispositions of learners will have a heavy influence on which inputs are attended to and how they are reorganized and integrated to form coherent representations. In this way, the computer metaphor is adjusted to suit the constructivist model. Constructivist perspectives are concerned with the cognitive strategies that benefit student learning. For example, direct instruction can improve student performance in areas such as mathematics and science. The teaching of cognitive strategies should therefore be included in school curricula to help students organize, process and construct knowledge. To support school instruction, many studies now focus on cognitive strategies in relation to subject learning outcomes. The development of information-processing theories therefore acts as the entry point to understanding other different attempts to study the cognitive development of children.



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Table 2.1 Applying information-processing theories in classroom instruction (adapted from Huitt 2003) Principles

Examples

Gain student attention.

• •

Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin. Move around the room and use voice inflections.

Bring to mind relevant prior learning.

• •

Review the previous day’s lesson. Have a discussion about previously covered content.

Point out important information.

• •

Provide handouts. Write on the board or use transparencies.

Present information systematically.

•

Show the logical sequence of concepts and skills. Go from simple to complex when presenting new materials.

• Show students how to categorize related information.

• •

Present information in categories. Teach inductive reasoning.

Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information.

•

Connect new information with something already known. Look for similarities and differences among concepts.

• Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists.

• •

Provide for repetition of learning.

• • •

Provide opportunities for over-learning of fundamental concepts and skills.

• •

Make silly sentences using the first letters of each word in the list. Use mental imagery techniques, such as the keyword method. State important principles several times in different ways during the presentation of information (STM). Obtain items on each day’s lesson from the previous lesson (LTM). Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM). Use daily drills for arithmetic facts. Play forms of trivial pursuits using class-related content.

Adapted with permission from W. Huitt (2003), The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive (Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University). Retrieved 16 March 2010 from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/infoproc.html.

Piaget and the Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896–1980), a Swiss psychologist, made wide-ranging contributions to the field of education and school curriculum across the age levels. His work in genetic epistemology laid the foundations for the constructivist model of learning. Two key aspects of Piaget’s theory are considered in this section: the process of coming to know, which addresses the question of how humans develop knowledge, and the stages of cognitive development.

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The process of cognitive development With his training in biology, Piaget was interested in how organisms adapt to their environment, a capacity he called ‘intelligence’ (Piaget 1952). He concluded that there are two basic tendencies that guide intellectual growth and biological development among human species: organization and adaptation.

The organization and development of schemas ‘Organization’ refers to the tendency of human beings to organize their thinking processes into mental structures in a systematic building process. Simple mental structures can be combined and coordinated to form more sophisticated ones which function more effectively in processing information from the outside world. Woolfolk (2007) suggested the following example to illustrate how a simple behavioural structure can be combined with another to produce a higher-level structure. Very young infants look at and grasp objects that come into contact with their hands, but they do not coordinate looking and grasping at the same time. Infants can organize these two separate behavioural structures together into a higherlevel structure of looking at, reaching for and grasping an object while maintaining both structures separately. Piaget called these structures schemas. He believed that knowledge itself is a repertoire of actions, such as holding an object, looking at an object, categorizing something mentally as ‘a cat’, labelling something as ‘a cat’ and comparing a cat (that one perceives) with a dog. In infancy, our repertoire of mental schemas is limited as they are restricted to sensory-motor adaptation such as looking, tasting, touching, hearing and reaching. Babies define objects through simple schemas, such as the way objects taste, feel and appear (their special features or colours). As they grow, they develop schemas, create categories, compare one object with another, and learn the vocabulary for specific categories or types. Put in another way, schemas are organized systems of actions and thoughts that allow us to represent mentally the world and its designated actions. As our thinking processes become more organized, more schemas develop to guide our thinking: we move from those simple and naive sensorimotor schemas to more complex mental schemas. As schemas become increasingly more complex and are responsible for more complex behaviours, they develop into more mature mental structures; and as mental structures become more complex, they are organized in a hierarchical manner from the general to the specific.



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Adaptation: Assimilation and accommodation Adaptation refers to the process of adjusting schemas in response to the environment. It is achieved through two basic processes: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves understanding new experiences in terms of existing mental structures, which takes place when people use their existing schemas to make sense of things. The process of assimilation is active: the person who assimilates selects information from existing schemas that match with the new object being assimilated, and the very act of assimilating changes the information that is being assimilated. For example, when a child first sees an owl, he/she tries to fit ‘owl’ into an existing schema, by identifying ‘owl’ with the existing schema of ‘eagle’ because these birds have some common features. When the child assimilates ‘parrot’ into the schema of ‘birds’, his/her understanding of birds may change to include the ability to imitate human speech. Accommodation is the process of changing cognitive structures to accept something new from the environment. It involves altering the schema as a result of new information taken in through assimilation. In accommodation, the individual adjusts his/her thinking to fit the new information instead of adjusting the information to fit thinking. Children use accommodation when, for instance, they add the schema for recognizing owls to form a more specific structure under the bird category. Assimilation and accommodation are used simultaneously throughout life. As indicated above, they can be distinguished clearly: in assimilation, new information is fitted into existing schemas; and in accommodation, new schemas are created, or existing schemas are modified to fit the new information. For example, we are familiar with the computer keyboard, and have mastered it with both left and right hands, but are then faced with a PDA keyboard, for which we have to add new skills to our typing schema. We are assimilating the new experience into an existing schema, but the schema is changed through the process of accommodation. Both processes are used to refine the structure that guides people to a more complex and sophisticated understanding of the world with regard to events, actions and phenomena. For instance, young children may first note the features of cats by recognizing the sound of cats (a mental schema); and they may later recognize the fluffy look as another schema. However, they may learn that a dog barks (another schema), and will start to compare the schemas. In addition, they will be able to recognize similar animal features and will group them together as ‘animals’ (another schema). The restructuring of their mental structures reflects the basic cognitive processes of humans, which eventually develop into complex and higher-level intellectual abilities.

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Equilibration Equilibration refers to the biological drive to produce an optimal state of equilibrium between people’s cognitive structures and their environment. During all stages of development, people search for coherent, internal and consistent mental structures. If the external reality does not match their internal mental structures, people experience disequilibration. In this situation, they need to modify, change and reorganize the structure through assimilation and accommodation until they reach equilibration, the state in which they adopt more sophisticated internal mental structures. Equilibration, which happens through the stages of human development, promotes cognitive development and effective thought processes.

The stages of cognitive development Piaget identified four major stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational stages. These four stages of cognitive development are differentiated by three significant equilibrations: (a) at about eighteen months when there is an impressive shift from primary sensory and motor schemas to the first true mental schema called ‘internal representation’; (b) at about age five to seven when the child adds a whole new set of powerful schemas referred to as ‘operations’, which are related to abstract and general mental actions such as mental addition or subtraction; and (c) in adolescence when the child operates on ideas as well as events or objects. Piaget believed that all children pass through these various stages of cognitive development, in each of which they demonstrate new intellectual abilities and increasingly complex understandings of the world. Piaget also argued that the stages cannot be skipped: human intellectual development always follows the given sequence. The ages defined at each stage are averages (see Table 2.2). However, a child may exhibit the behavioural characteristics of more than one stage, showing the characteristics of one stage in one situation and of a higher or lower stage in another.

The sensorimotor stage The first of the four stages of cognitive development—the sensorimotor stage— takes place roughly from birth to two years. This stage is characterized by the child’s growth in simple perceptual and motor activities without the use of symbols, which involves, for instance, seeing, hearing, moving, touching and tasting. At this stage, children move from reflexive and instinctive actions

Figure 2.1 Summary of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development This figure summarizes the typical age-ranges for the different developmental stages and some representative cognitive characteristics exhibited at different stages of development.

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as newborns to more highly organized kinds of activities, and construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (e.g. seeing and hearing) with motor actions. Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with congenital reflexes such as sucking objects in the mouth, following moving objects with the eyes and grasping the objects that touch the palm. In other animals, these reflexes control behaviour throughout life. However, in human beings, infants use these reflexes to adapt to the environment. Within a few weeks after birth, infants begin voluntary actions that are developed from the reflexes, such as intentionally grasping things. As the child develops, the reflexes are quickly replaced with more and more complex schemas that guide human understanding of the environment. At the sensorimotor stage, children construct the following: • see themselves as different from the objects around them; • seek stimulation from the light and sound around them; • prolong interesting experiences; • define things by manipulating them; and • regard objects as constant, despite changes in their location or in their own points of view. At the sensorimotor stage, development is based on physical interactions and experiences, and knowledge is limited. Hence, infants must constantly experiment and learn through trial-and-error and, moreover, they cannot predict reactions. Such explorations can be seen in their attempts to put objects into their mouths. At as early as 12 months, they also engage in pretend play, such as using a toy spoon to pretend to feed themselves or a toy comb to comb their hair. Early language development begins during this stage. Also, by the end of this stage, at around 17 to 19 months, infants develop object permanence, which demonstrates the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched, which is one of the most important accomplishments of infants. Another development in this period is the onset of goal-directed actions. In the later phase of this stage, children are able to organize lower-level schemas and perform more complex actions, such as opening cupboard doors or container lids to pick out what they want.

The preoperational stage At about two years old, children start to represent objects through images, symbols, words, gestures, signs, pictures and actions. They form concepts, as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs. This moves children from the sensorimotor stage in



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which they simply act on objects to the preoperational stage where they gradually develop reasoning. Piaget identified this new kind of psychological functioning as appearing on average at two to seven years. During this stage, children learn primarily through imitation and play, and they create symbolic images through internalized activities. In the preoperational stage, there are two sub-stages: the symbolic function sub-stage and the intuitive thought sub-stage.

Symbolic function sub-stage (two to four years) Children start to use symbols: images, words or actions that stand for something else. The manipulation of these symbols internally enables their memory to improve and develop more systematically. Towards the end of the sensorimotor stage, children can already remember lost or hidden objects, and subsequent developments in the early years are dramatic. At the symbolic function sub-stage, children: • are markedly self-centred and are often incapable of putting themselves in another person’s shoes ( i.e. taking another person’s point of view in perceiving the physical world); • engage in ‘monologue’ and ‘collective monologue’ as forms of egocentric behaviour; they talk enthusiastically even if no one is listening to them, or talk on their own without actually communicating and receiving responses; • classify objects based on a single conspicuous feature (e.g. redness, all metal objects); • cannot see that objects are alike in one respect and different in others (e.g. green squares and green triangles are grouped together); • collect things according to a criterion; • arrange things in a series but cannot draw inferences about those that are not adjacent to each other in the series (e.g. they cannot infer that if John is taller than Joe and Joe is taller than Jim, John is taller than Jim); and • use transductive reasoning, which means that the logic transfers from a concrete event to another concrete event as opposed to deductive reasoning, which applies a general principle to arrive at a specific conclusion (e.g. if a child sees his Italian friend John eating spaghetti, he would think that people who eat spaghetti become Italian, or he will become an Italian if he eats spaghetti).

Piaget drew various conclusions about development at this sub-stage.

Inability to complete conservation: Children at this sub-stage cannot complete conservation, which distinguishes this sub-stage from the intuitive sub-stage, where they gradually grasp this concept. In a representative experiment, a child at this sub-stage is shown two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. If the experimenter pours the liquid from one of the beakers into a taller and thinner

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container, a child typically younger than seven or eight years would say that the two beakers now contain a different amount of liquid, and that the taller and thinner container has more liquid. The child in this experiment cannot understand that decreased diameter compensates for increased height because this would require taking into account two dimensions at once. Children cannot free themselves from their own immediate perception of how the world appears. Piaget called this ‘centration’, the act of focusing all one’s attention on a single characteristic. Egocentric behaviour: Egocentrism refers to the inability of children to distinguish between their own perspectives and those of others. In a very famous experiment (Piaget and Inhelder 1956), children were seated on one side of a display of three mountains, with a doll seated on the other side of the display. When asked to choose a picture that showed the scene the doll would see, they picked the view they saw rather than the doll’s view: they failed to see the view from a perspective other than their own. Semiotic function: Pretend play: At this stage, children continue to engage in pretend play, but unlike at the sensorimotor stage, those at the preoperational stage (aged two to three) perform substitute pretend play by using objects to stand for the things they refer to (e.g. using a bottle to comb the hair of a doll, taking the broom as a horse and building a castle with blocks). Pretend play is very significant in the cognitive development of children as it performs a semiotic function, which Piaget regarded as the first type of thinking separate from action. Animism: At this age, children believe in animism—that is, that objects, animals and plants may have souls and spirits. For example, they tend to blame non-living things when they are hit by some objects; and they sometimes ‘bite’ the furniture that hits them, and claim that some objects are ‘mad’. This behaviour diminishes as they grow towards the intuitive sub-stage.

Intuitive thought sub-stage (four to seven years) Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions, which marks the beginning of primitive reasoning. At the intuitive sub-stage of the preoperational stage, children reason about why things are the way they are. They realize that they have stored a vast amount of knowledge but are unaware of how they know things. Without the benefit of words, they form conclusions based on vague impressions and perceptual judgements. In the intuitive thought period, children: • form classes or categories of objects but are not necessarily aware of them; • understand logical relationships of increasing complexity; • work with the idea of numbers; • start to acquire the principle of conservation—that is, the idea that the amount of something stays the same regardless of changes in its shape or in the number of pieces into which it is divided; and



•

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develop schemas of conservation in order of priority, ranging from mass (age five), weight (age six), and then volume (age seven).

Children at this sub-stage are between intuitiveness in solving problems and true logical reasoning because they acquire some stable logical schemes. They show a decline in egocentrism, with advances in their play (at around five years) being shown in their ‘taking roles’. Pretend play develops into sociodramatic play in which many socio-communicative roles are adopted, e.g. ‘daddy and mummy’, ‘doctor and patient’, ‘teacher and student’ and ‘driver and passenger’. They gradually show an understanding of the differences in how things look from different roles. At six years, children can assign play roles. Instead of just playing for self-satisfaction, great advances are shown in their cognition of different views and perspectives. Such changes mark mature development into the next stage.

The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) In contrast to the previous stage, children at 7 to 11 years can recognize logic and appreciate the logical stability of the physical world. They understand that elements can be changed or transformed while conserving many of their original characteristics, and they understand that, generally, these changes can be reversed. Children at this stage develop operational skills, such as reversibility, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and serial ordering. In drawing conclusions from results, they think logically of the action being taken, and they manipulate results by operations rather than by detailed trial-and-error. Centration or reliance on perceptual characteristics is replaced by logical thinking and manipulation of subjects through reversibility, association and composition. Children at this stage also engage in complex games with specific rules (whether persisting or agreed rules), such as chess, jacks and ball games. However, they can only solve problems that apply to actual objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks. Abilities evident at this stage onwards include the following: • Seriation: the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape or any other characteristics. Children can also make colour gradients if they are given differently shaded objects. • Transitivity: the ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order. For example, if A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C. • Classification: the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristics, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

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•

Reversibility: the understanding that numbers and objects can be changed and then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to determine quickly that if 4+4 equals t, t−4 is equal to 4, the original quantity. Decentring: the ability to account for multiple aspects of a problem. For example, a child no longer perceives an exceptionally wide but short cup as containing less than a cup of normal width and taller. Conservation: the understanding that the quantity, length and number of items are unrelated to the arrangement and appearance of objects or items. Elimination of egocentrism: the ability to view things from another’s perspective, even if such a view is held incorrectly. For instance, a child is shown a comic book in which Jane puts a doll under a box and leaves the room. Melissa then moves the doll to a drawer before Jane returns. A child in the concrete operational stage will say that Jane will still think that the doll is under the box, although the child knows that it is in the drawer.

•

• •

The formal operational stage The stage of formal operations starts at the age of 12 and continues to emerge through adulthood. At this stage, a more powerful set of cognitive skills called ‘formal operational schemas’ develop, which involve the ability to apply complex operations to ideas and thoughts. Individuals now begin to think abstractly, not just based on concrete experiences. They reason logically and draw conclusions from available information and systematic observation. In addition, they can apply all these processes to hypothetical situations. Verbal problem-solving ability characterizes adolescents at the formal operational level, while children are more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion. The logical quality of adolescents’ thinking is shown in their ability to note ‘if-then’ relations and to generalize situations into higher-level scientific enquiries. By developing a hypothetico-deductive reasoning capacity, adolescents in the formal operational stage can develop hypotheses or reasoning guesses and devise plans to solve problems. Also, in the problem-solving process, they can test solutions systematically by deducing and drawing conclusions. By adopting formal operational thinking, people begin to think more like scientists. At this stage, young adults understand things such as love and identity, grey areas, logical proofs and values. They progress to becoming open-minded, and explore and expect answers and results from their investigations. Adolescent egocentrism governs the way adolescents think about social matters and their heightened self-consciousness is reflected in their presentation of personal uniqueness. Piaget asserted that adolescents are also changing cognitively; in specific situations, they think about social matters in the context of their roles



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(Inhelder and Piaget 1958). Adolescent egocentrism can develop into two types of social thinking: attention-getting behaviour and a sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility with a regulated sense of personal meaning.

The application of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Piaget’s observations and theories have proved to be of enduring value, with many of his studies continuing to be cited widely more than half a century after their publication (Bond and Tryphon 2007). However, his developmental theories, especially the stage theory of operational development, have received considerable critical attention. Few people now accept the existence of deterministic stages in development that broadly affect all types of cognitive tasks; instead, it has been shown increasingly that experience, including direct teaching, can have a strong effect on the pace of development (Gelman 2000). Nevertheless, Piaget’s studies still provide important inspiration for cognitive and developmental research today, spawning many neo-Piagetian theorists who have modified and extended his theories in various ways, for example by incorporating the dynamic interaction between person, context and culture in understanding development (Morra et al. 2008; Rose and Fischer 2009). Piaget’s ideas and observations have proved useful in educational settings. His theories, along with other constructivist theories, introduced the idea of focusing not only on the products of students’ learning, but also on their thinking processes; and this emphasis on cognitive processes and structures has led to a rich development in the teaching of transferable skills that benefit students’ cognitive development (e.g. Mascolo, Kanner and Griffin 1998; Schwartz and Fischer 2004). The importance of students’ active involvement in problem solving in development is also highlighted in Piaget’s theory, as is the importance of providing developmentally appropriate teaching that suits the individual. A notable educational theory inspired by Piaget’s work is the theory of conceptual change, which focuses on how children’s misconceptions can be altered through equilibration and accommodation (Posner et al. 1982). This approach suggests that the existing misconceptions must be deemed unsatisfactory, which creates disequilibrium in students’ schemas and makes them more likely to be changed. Misconceptions may be exposed through asking students to reflect on their reasoning and express it aloud (Crockett 2004); and then new concepts can be introduced, or the teacher can challenge students to come up with plausible hypotheses to accommodate the experience that challenged existing conceptions. If students can understand the new concepts, and associate them with real-world experience, they may be established successfully as new knowledge. Research evidence suggests that teachers can help students to correct misconceptions by such methods as questioning to reveal and challenge existing conceptions, and asking

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students to apply revised thinking to new situations (Yip 2004). It is also beneficial to provide opportunities for students to discuss and debate their conceptions, as a result of which conceptual change can occur through a mutually supported, interpersonal reflexive process (Niaz et al. 2002; Vosniadou 2007). However, teachers must realize that correcting misconceptions can be a complex and difficult process, requiring a high level of cognitive engagement from the learners that may not be easily available (Linnenbrink and Pintrich 2002). Teachers must make an effort to bring about a suitable context of learning for conceptual change to materialize. Table 2.2 suggests some strategies for supporting student learning based on Piaget’s theory. Table 2.2 Teaching according to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Teaching children at the preoperational stage (Toddler and early childhood, age 0+ to 7) Use concrete props and visual aids in illustrating • lessons; make children understand what is being • presented. •

Use physical illustrations. Use drawings and illustrations. Utilize miming.

Use short instructions with actions and words to • minimize confusion.

Ask a student to demonstrate the instructions you have given as a model for the rest of the class. Explain a task by acting out the part of a participant.

• Do not expect students to understand from someone else’s perspective because they are likely to be very egocentric.

•

Give children a great deal of physical practice with facts and skills that will serve as building blocks for later development.

• •

•

• Encourage the manipulation of physical objects that can change in shape while retaining a constant mass and support students in reaching an understanding of conservation and two-way logic needed in the next stage.

• • •

Provide opportunities for children to experience • the world for them to build a foundation for • concept learning and language. •

Avoid lessons about worlds too far removed from the child’s daily experience. In recalling their own experiences, encourage sharing among children. Use cut-out letters to build words. Prepare worksheets or work cards for specific tasks but not ordinary answer sheets for a range of different tasks. Avoid overusing workbooks and other paper-and-pencil tasks. Provide opportunities to play with clay, water, or sand. Ask comparison questions. Engage students in conversations about changes that they experience when manipulating objects. Hold field trips and site studies. Provide vocabulary that enable students to describe what they are seeing, doing, touching, tasting, etc. Discuss TV programmes and shows.

Teaching children at the stage of concrete operations (Middle childhood) Continue to use concrete props and visual aids, especially when dealing with sophisticated materials.

• •

Provide timelines for history lessons. Provide three-dimensional models for science lessons. (continued on page 47)



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Table 2.2 (continued) Continue to give students a chance to manipulate • objects and test their ideas. •

Make sure that lectures and readings are brief and well organized.

• •

Ask students to deal with no more than three or four variables at a time.

• •

Use familiar examples to help explain more complex ideas so that students will have a beginning point for assimilating new information.

• •

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Demonstrate simple scientific experiments in which students can participate. Show craftwork to illustrate daily occupations of people during an earlier period. Use materials that present a step-by-step progression of ideas. Have students read short stories or books with short, logical chapters, moving to longer reading assignments only when students are ready. Require readings with a limited number of characters. Demonstrate experiments with a limited number of steps. Compare students’ own lives with those of the characters in a story. Use story problems in mathematics.

• Provide opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas in increasingly complex levels. •

Give students separate sentences on slips of paper to be grouped into paragraphs. Use outlines, hierarchies and analogies to show the relationship of unknown new materials to already acquired knowledge.

Present problems that require logical, analytical • thinking. •

Provide materials, such as mind twisters, brain teasers and riddles. Focus discussions on open-ended questions, which stimulate thinking (e.g. ask if the mind and the brain are the same thing).

Teaching students at the stage of formal operations (Adolescence) Continue to use many of the teaching strategies and materials appropriate for students at the stage of concrete operations.

• •

Give students an opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions.

• •

Encourage students to explain how they solve problems.

•

•

Use visual aids, such as charts and illustrations, as well a simple but somewhat more sophisticated graphs and diagrams. Use well-organized materials that offer step-by-step explanations. Provide students with opportunities to discuss social issues. Consider discussions on hypothetical ‘other worlds’. Ask students to work in pairs with one student acting as the problem-solver, thinking aloud while tackling a problem, with the other student acting as the listener, checking to see that all steps are mentioned and that everything seems logical. Make sure that at least some of the tests you give ask for more than rote memory or one final answer; essay questions, for example, may ask students to justify two different positions on an issue. (continued on page 48)

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Table 2.2 (continued) Whenever possible, teach broad concepts, not just facts, using materials and ideas relevant to the students.

• •

While discussing a topic, such as the Civil War, consider what other issues have divided the country since then. Use lyrics from popular music to teach poetic devices to reflect on social problems and so on.

Adapted with permission from W. Huitt (1997), Cognitive development: Applications. Educational Psychology Interactive (Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University). Retrieved 2 March 2010 from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cogsys/piagtuse.html.

Bruner: Knowledge Construction through Discovery Jerome Seymour Bruner, a senior research fellow at New York University School of Law, was born in 1915. His major contribution to education relates to the concept of learning through discovery. As a leading constructivist, he asserted that learners find meaning by discovering the structure of subjects, that is, how different facts and ideas relate to one another. He highlighted discovery as the emphasis of active learning and as the basis of true understanding and inductive reasoning.

The structure of knowledge Bruner suggested that teaching and learning should focus on the construction of explanatory models for the ordering of experiences. The structure of a discipline or a subject is composed of the basic principles, theories and methods of the discipline or subject itself, such as history, biology and mathematics. According to Bruner, it is more meaningful, useful and memorable for students if they learn by knowing the structure of the subject being studied. In The Process of Education (1960, 12), Bruner stated that ‘if earlier learning is to render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general picture in terms of which the relations between things encountered earlier and later are made as clear as possible’. This is made possible when learners actively seek the principles by themselves, instead of relying on the exposition of teachers. In this instructional approach, which is called ‘discovery learning’, learners are given examples to work with and are expected to find inter-relationships in the structure of subjects. Bruner suggests that such an inductive approach, which starts with the exploration of specific examples and enables learners to generate principles behind things, is the way to learn. For instance, when we teach children about mammals, we can give examples, such as people, kangaroos, whales and cats, and non-examples such as chickens, fish, alligators, frogs and penguins.



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Discovery and learning by guided discovery Bruner highlighted the importance of intuitive thinking in discovery learning. In the process of discovery, learners have to make guesses based on available evidence; and they confirm, disapprove and verify hypotheses in a systematic fashion. This mode of learning also relates to Bruner’s theory of categorization. He believed that people interpret the world in terms of similarities and differences; and so categorization can help them to understand. The process of discovery involves intuitive thinking and logical operations. It requires time for exploration and encourages active responsibility among learners. They construct knowledge and develop the structure of disciplines, which help them to solidify what they will learn and consolidate what has already been learned. In discovery learning, teachers do not just get students to blindly commit results to memory, but instead help learners to engage in learning and establish knowledge and understanding by themselves. Guiding questions that lead students through a process of discovery are also important as they can delimit and shape learning through a more meaningful and manageable exploration of knowledge. To encourage intuitive guesses, teachers can model this and be themselves willing to guess at answers in front of students as this encourages students to provide creative solutions through intuitive thinking rather than just reciting correct answers.

Modes of representation used in learning Bruner believed that we do not store our experiences directly as memory; they must be coded and processed in order to be usable later, through a system he referred to as ‘modes of representation’. Unlike Piaget, he did not suggest a stage theory, but worked with children to find out how they code, manipulate, store and order information and argued that the modes of representation develop in a sequential manner. Bruner (1966) defined three stages of growth in the ways children come to represent the world around them in their minds. Rather than considering them as neatly delineated stages, Bruner’s modes of representation are integrated and are only loosely sequential as they ‘translate’ into each other. In the early years, the enactive stage, infants learn through action-based activities. Without thinking and imagining, they learn through their actions with objects, such as holding, moving, biting, rubbing and touching, which provide them with experiences and understanding of the world. Iconic representation, which is the second stage, shows significant advances in the modes of representation. In iconic representation, learning is image-based; with the development of visual memory, information is carried by imagery. At this stage, learning is determined

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by the perceptual capacities of children (e.g. their capacity to recognize brightness, vividness, smell and movement). Later, children enter the symbolic stage where learning is based on language, and where logic and mathematics come into play. The symbolic stage allows humans to translate experiences into formulas or semantically rich statements, enabling them to develop understanding by storing and retrieving information. Symbolic representation is the dominant mode of human understanding and learning in adult life, although the other modes are still used. In addition, the use of specific representations is highly related to a person’s interests and career development—for example, surgeons and athletes may have highly developed enactive representation systems. In contrast to Piaget, who proposed that parents and teachers should select learning materials that fit the cognitive levels of children, in Bruner’s view, ‘any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development (Bruner 1960, 33). This does not mean that we can teach a four-year-old to do calculus, but that important issues, principles and values can usually be introduced to children at a young age to aid learning and development later, when these materials are revisited in greater detail. This principle is at work when literary classics are presented to children in picture books.

Vygotsky’s View of Knowledge Construction The earlier discussion has examined the psychological stream of constructivism and presented several major theories on the construction of knowledge by cognitive structures and processes. The work of another major contributor to constructivist theories—the Russian psychologist Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896–1934)—is now considered. Vygotsky, a social constructivist, viewed the roles of culture and society, language and interaction as important for understanding how humans learn. His assumption that knowledge is cultural is central to his theory.

Assumptions about social interaction and culture Vygotsky took a sociocultural approach in his study of children’s development, the basic elements of which can be described briefly as ‘co-operative’ and ‘cultural’. He asserted that the development of individuals, including their thoughts, languages and reasoning processes, are a result of culture (Gallimore and Tharp 1992). These abilities are developed through social interaction with others (especially parents and teachers) and, therefore, represent the shared knowledge of a given culture. Vygotsky saw mental abilities and processes as similar in terms of the historical sequence of events that produced them. While Piaget and other cognitive psychologists studied



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cognitive-processing abilities that operate in the minds of children, Vygotsky studied the growth of children from the perspective of their environment and their interactions with others. For him, what is given and what happens in the social environment (e.g. dialogues, actions and activities) help children to learn, develop and grow.

Zone of proximal development and scaffolding One of the Vygotsky’s most important theories involves the ‘zone of proximal development’. He proposed that children, in any given domain, have actual developmental levels which can be assessed by testing them individually. He also contended that there is an immediate potential for development within each domain. The difference between the two is called ‘the zone of proximal development’, which is ‘the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Vygotsky 1978, 86). This indicates that tasks which are too difficult for children to master alone can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults, more highly-skilled children, or more knowledgeable others. In his seminal book Mind in Society, Vygotsky explained clearly that the upper limit in the zone of proximal development cannot ‘bear fruit’ without social interactive support from peers and teachers: The zone of proximal development defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state. These functions could be termed the ‘buds’ or ‘flowers’ of development rather the ‘fruits’ of development (ibid.).

Vygotsky suggested that, in the course of study, assistance from more skilled people changes the level of support provided and, as this support is adjusted to the child’s guidance needs, he/she may advance in terms of his/her zone of proximal development. The process of adjusting the support is called scaffolding, which refers to the assistance given to students in completing tasks they cannot complete by themselves. Effective scaffolding can be illustrated through the example of teaching toddlers to walk. In the beginning, the father provides scaffolding by walking behind the child and holding both his/her hands. The mother may be at the other side holding up toys as attractions, encouraging the toddler to move towards her side. After some time, as the toddler practises more and until he/she learns to walk, the father only holds the toddler’s hand on one side, catches him/her only when he/she seems to fall, and lends his hand when the toddler gets tired, to avoid a fall. Effective

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scaffolding does not involve helping students leap without grounding experience: it is responsive to the capabilities and levels of performance of learners. Table 2.3 describes some possible ways of providing scaffolding. Table 2.3 Examples of scaffolding strategies Scaffolding methods

Examples

Questioning

It is commonly used in solving abstract or conceptual problems after exploring and practising basic levels of understanding. For example, in reviewing what children are doing in their social and personal lives, teachers ask children critical questions, such as ‘What do you think is the meaning of life?’ to push their thinking beyond their limits.

Role-playing and demonstration

Show students the process by which skills and concepts are applied by highlighting critical aspects on which learners often fail. For example, a PE teacher demonstrates how eye-hand coordination can enhance one’s performance in playing tennis.

Hints and examples

Give cues, hints or guides at critical points to enhance learners’ self-inquiry.

Instruction

Prepare guided task instructions to address the different domains of understanding within a specific topic.

Graded assignments/materials adaptation

Prepare exercises that fit the individual interests and needs of learners.

Self-assessment and peer assessment

Ask learners to assess their own learning outcomes and to conduct peer assessment to develop understanding-based criteria.

The zone of proximal development illustrates the central idea in Vygotsky’s view of human cognitive development: learning and development arise directly from social interaction (Gindis 1996). This view contrasts sharply with that of Piaget, in which social interaction is seen primarily as a mechanism for promoting assimilation and accommodation in individuals. In Vygotsky’s interpretation, learning should be perceived as a social process in which children learn with others. This is also quite different from Piaget’s suggestion that children mature by exploring the world on their own. In Vygotsky’s social constructivism, social interaction is an important way in which children learn knowledge available in their cultures without needing to reinvent it by themselves. Parents, adults, caregivers, teachers and peers play important roles in children’s learning. For example, teachers give directions and instructions, comments and feedback to students; and these are not received passively by students as they also communicate with their teachers, conveying to them their problems or answers in



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an interactive manner. Children also use conversations in working with their peers in handling exercises, projects and problems. In this way, they exchange ideas and receive information, thereby generating understanding and developing knowledge. For Vygotsky, this process of learning is important because knowledge itself is developed through history, and should go through appropriation in a social environment. Learning is achieved through the process of development; and, hence, learners should be active participants in the learning process. Activity is important in learning and is also a key concept in sociocultural theories that explain the importance of ‘doing’. By engaging in meaningful activities, learners interact with their peers and more knowledgeable people; and, through interaction, children develop dialogues within the structure of activities and, as a result, learning and development occurs.

Language and thought Another aspect of Vygotsky’s theories, which has strongly influenced teachers and educators, is the importance he assigned to language. Apart from recognizing the value of dialogue in learning from others (for support in advancing within one’s zone of proximal development), Vygotsky saw the inter-relationship of language and thought as very significant. He considered that language, both silent inner speech and oral language, determines the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. Vygotsky recognized the importance of language as a means for regulating and reflecting on our own thinking (Vygotsky 1986). He saw language as operating in lines: in social communication for interaction and receiving information, and in inner speech for children to mediate and regulate their activities through their thoughts, which in turn are mediated by the meaningful signs of inner speech (i.e. semiotics). Thinking is mediated by language, and language helps to develop a much higher level of sophistication in understanding. Young children use self-talk or ‘thinking out loud’ as a tool for self-directed and self-regulating behaviour. They talk out loud when they try to solve problems and when they select options by trial-and-error in their individual engagement in games; and they talk about experiences they have enjoyed. This kind of talking to themselves marks the beginning of self-regulation among children and it forms the foundation for complex cognitive skills which serve to alert children in gaining attention and deciding actions for themselves. Self-talk gradually turns to ‘private talk’ when children enter primary school, but its function is important because it converts speech into inward thoughts. Children may use more self-talk when they face more difficult tasks, and this shows the mental process of problem solving. Vygotsky also suggested that inner speech becomes internalized and assists children in developing understanding.

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The importance of play in development Vygotsky also recognized play as a psychological phenomenon for child development (Vygotsky 1978). When children play, they develop abstract meanings separate from the objects in the world and this, according to Vygotsky, is a critical feature in the development of higher mental functions. Play is an imaginary, illusory realization of unrealizable desires and it is important for children to engage in play because it helps them to bring relationships into reality and understand social rules. By engaging in play, children recognize more clearly things that are usually unnoticed. For instance, while playing the roles of teachers and pupils, children develop a greater understanding of rules in the classroom, as well as their responsibilities in school. Games also help in self-regulation—for example, in running races, children may regulate their initial impulse and observe the signal that means they can ‘go’. Compared with Piaget, who recognized play as an indicator of cognitive development, Vygotsky observed the importance of play among children in developing their capacity for understanding, which inevitably supports learning. Vygotsky’s theories, including his concepts of the zone of proximal development, language and thought and play, describe how children develop and recognize the means by which they grow. He did not presume that cognitive processes are procedures, and his theory did not aim at reaching a clear cognitive development theory. Instead, he identified exposure to the environment and language as the basic communication tools that help children to grow. His theory complements the other constructivist theorists mentioned earlier in this chapter. Outlined below is a summary of how Vygotsky proposed children should be taught and how his theories are translated into classroom teaching (Gallimore and Tharp 1992; Hausfather 1996; Tudge 1992; Woolfolk 2010). • Teachers provide instruction, which has to proceed ahead of development. Instruction addresses the zone of children’s proximal development, recognizing and awakening those aspects that are maturing. Consequently, with help, children can reach their goals, and can move to a higher level of skills and knowledge. • Teachers assess students in identifying their zones of proximal development to match with instructional support (i.e. give individual assessment profiles as often as possible). • In the process of learning, teachers give attention to children and assist them, leading to a smooth learning sequence. They are offered encouragement in such a way that they can work and practise. • Teachers design meaningful activities so that learners can learn in a culturally authentic context.



• • •

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Teachers create learning settings that involve social interaction, such as group work and projects. Teachers use play and include games in the school curricula. Teachers assign more skilled peers as peer-teachers, and they place children in groups.

Alignment of Constructivist Learning Approaches The above discussion has presented four constructivist approaches: informationprocessing models, Piaget’s cognitive development theory, Bruner’s discovery learning approach and Vygotsky’s theory of development from a sociocultural perspective. Though all these theories have been influential, they are not without their critics. For example, the use of the computer metaphor for explaining human cognition has been subjected to criticism (Mayer 1996), as has Piaget’s rigid belief in stage development and his methodology for child study. Also, Bruner’s discovery approach has been seen as demanding to implement because generating hypotheses, and modifying them to accommodate newly gathered data, is difficult for learners. Finally, Vygotsky’s critics consider that his theory overemphasizes the role of language in thinking, and that reliance on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls. However, understanding the assumptions, and conceptions of knowledge and learning, underlying these constructivist theories is valuable as their various explanations help in understanding human development. In categorizing different constructivist assumptions about learning and knowledge, Woolfolk (2007) cited Moshman’s (1982) suggestion that there are three ways of viewing how knowledge is learned and two kinds of knowledge: • First, realities and truths about the external world direct the construction of knowledge. This means that individuals reconstruct external reality by building accurate mental representations, such as propositional networks, concepts and cause-and-effect patterns, to reflect what the reality is until they learn more and more to reflect the objective reality. This represents the information-processing perspective. • Second, new knowledge is abstracted (or mediated or generated) from old knowledge through ‘internal processes’ which do not mirror reality, but grow and develop with cognitive activity. Both Piaget’s and Bruner’s theories belong to this category. Piaget’s theory on organization, assimilation and accommodation deals with the internal processes of human learning, while Bruner’s theory of categorization suggests that the human mind actively discovers knowledge. • Third, both external and internal factors direct knowledge construction, which suggests that knowledge grows through the interaction of these factors—that is,

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cognition and the environment/society. Vygotsky’s explanation of development, including his concept of appropriation and the use of language, suggests this perspective. Table 2.4 presents the alignment of the different constructivist learning theories. Table 2.4 Alignment of constructivist theories related to conceptions of learning and knowledge (adapted from Woolfolk 2007) Representative Theories

Assumptions about Learning and Knowledge

Directions

Information processing

Knowledge is acquired by constructing a representation of the outside world; direct instruction is used to facilitate the cognitive processing of learners; and knowledge reflects the way things really are in the outside world.

External direction

Piaget

Knowledge is constructed by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge; exploration and discovery are teaching strategies that help learners in learning.

Internal direction

Vygotsky

Knowledge is constructed based on social interactions and experiences; knowledge reflects the outside world but is influenced by culture, language, beliefs and interaction with others in the community. Guided discovery, teaching, modelling and coaching, as well as the knowledge, beliefs and thinking of individuals affect learning.

Both external and internal

Though it has different branches, the constructivist model of teaching enables learners to construct knowledge, whether this construction reflects objective reality, is perceived as sharpening one’s cognitive development for acquiring higher-level intellectual development, or is viewed as happening in a social interactive setting with the mediation of individuals. The constructivist perspective has influenced modern learning theory. For example, the idea of ‘situated learning’, a model espoused by Lave and Wenger (1991), sees learning as contextualized in social relationships. It does not focus so much on the internal cognitive aspect of learning, but contends instead that learning often happens through direct, meaningful participation, and is embodied in the social relationships that provide the context for learning to take place. Applying this idea in schools means that the teaching of decontextualized knowledge irrelevant to students’ experience should be reduced and instead should be structured in ways which involve students’ meaningful participation in actual practice (Kimble and Hildreth 2008). Schools should not, therefore, be closed systems in which students acquire knowledge but should link up as much as possible with communities that enable students to learn from real-life experience. The concept of situated learning is applicable not just in schools but in a wide variety of settings, since effective sharing of knowledge is of great importance to many organizations, both commercial and non-profit (Wenger, McDermott and Snyder 2002).



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Constructivist principles have been successfully implemented in many curricula. Of special note is the series of ‘cognitive acceleration’ programmes developed by Adey and Shayer (2002) based on Piaget and Vygotsky’s work. These originate from CASE (Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education), a project that employed constructivist pedagogies to teach secondary-level science. It was special in that the students who were taught by using the system showed significant improvement not only in science scores, but also in English and mathemathics. In CASE, lessons were aimed directly at teaching thinking skills, and promoting students’ thinking from ‘concrete’ to ‘formal’, abstract thinking. Cognitive acceleration programmes adhere to the constructivist principle that concepts cannot be learned in the same way: learners need to ‘construct’ the meaning for themselves. Based on the Piagetian principle that cognitive conflict spurs cognitive development, CASE activities provide challenges for students to solve; and they are encouraged to collaborate in learning and reflect on their thinking processes. This reflection is promoted through asking students to explain their thinking processes and what they have learned. Finally, the lessons are linked to everyday life through thinking about actual applications of the ideas learned.

Constructivism in the Chinese Classroom Table 2.5 contrasts two different conceptions of teaching and learning: the constructivist model and the traditional one. If you reflect on your conception of teaching, you may find yourself agreeing partly with the constructivist conception and partly with the traditional view. It is normal, especially for new teachers, to hold inconsistent, even conflicting, conceptions of teaching and learning (So and Watkins 2005). This is natural since our conceptions of teaching are influenced by many sources of influence such as our own experience of learning, professional education and culture; and they are subject to change. However, since one’s conception of teaching influences how one teaches, teachers need to be aware of their own conceptions of teaching and reflect on whether their teaching practices are aligned with their beliefs (Ng and Rao 2008). Table 2.5 Constructivist pedagogies vs. traditional/behaviourist pedagogies Dimensions/Approaches Nature of learner

Constructivist learning Sees learners as unique individuals; the unique nature of learners is an integral part of the learning process.

Traditional learning Sees learners as a homogeneous mass defined by chronological age upon which learning targets and materials are designed in the curriculum; learners are expected to meet the nominal standard. (continued on page 58)

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Table 2.5 (continued) Dimensions/Approaches

Constructivist learning

Traditional learning

Responsibility for learning Resides with the learner; emphasizes the active role of learners in the learning process in looking for meaning.

Rests with the teacher; the learner is passive and receptive; learners present what they learn from teachers.

Learning motivation

Develops learners’ motivation through authentic experiences in handling problems; by being successful, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges; intrinsic.

Learners’ behaviours are reinforced by praise and rewards; learners increase motivation by conforming to standards and expected achievements; extrinsic.

Role of teacher

Usually asks, supports, provides guidelines and creates an environment for learners to arrive at their own conclusions; continuous dialogue with learners; teacher should challenge learners.

Often gives instructions from the front; gives answers and expects learners to be disciplined in receiving the content of the curriculum with the least distraction and disturbance; learners are under control in the learning process.

Interaction

Teachers and learners learn from each other; learners compare their version of truth with that of teachers and peers to arrive at a socially tested/socially negotiated version of truth; the learning task is the interface between teachers and learners, so both should develop awareness of each other’s viewpoints and should look at their own standards and values.

The learning experience is objective; learners receive truth and knowledge from teachers through given tasks; the teacher is an expert who gives expert advice and instruction to get learners to gain knowledge efficiently.

Collaboration

Learners collaborate to arrive at a shared understanding of truth in a specific field; through ‘scaffolding’, learners can extend beyond the limitation of physical maturation to the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process.

Learners should be attentive and disciplined to achieve the content set in the curriculum; they should try hard to fulfil expectations from teachers; students seek advice from teachers in their studies.

Context

Sees the context in which learning occurs as central to learning; learning is directly relevant to application; it acculturates students into authentic and complex practices through activities and social interaction.

Knowledge is de-contextualized; it may not give learners skills to understand authentic tasks; learning occurs when outcomes are measured.

Assessment

A two-way process involving interaction between teachers and learners; inextricably linked with the learning process to find out learning achievements and the quality of learning experiences; courseware; share possible ways in which learner’s performance may be improved.

A process carried out by the teacher; a separate process of measuring how much learners have gained and how far learners have reached at the end of the learning process.



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Curriculum reform in Hong Kong embraces the constructivist approach to learning (Curriculum Development Council 2001). Teachers must utilize the background knowledge of learners, set a learning context that students perceive to be relevant, lead students to take responsibility for their own learning and stress the importance of enquiry in learning various subjects. While these teaching methods have strong theoretical support, the change may present problems for local teachers. The examination-oriented culture of Hong Kong and the problems associated with it were explained in Chapter 1. With reference to the constructivist model of learning, there appears to be a serious conflict between the features of cognitive socialization and the Hong Kong learning environment. The cognitive socialization of Chinese children is marked by the importance of parental expectations and traditional values. Chinese children are socialized to achieve an early mastery of impulses, which is imperative for meeting the demands of social control; and keeping children under control is believed to be a prerequisite for teaching book knowledge (Hue 2006, 2008). Ho (1996) suggested a list of the characteristics of Chinese children which reflect the pattern of Chinese thinking embedded in their educational orientation: • They are socialized to respect and not to question the authority of teachers. • They regard the written word as an authoritative source of knowledge and wisdom. • In the learning process, they stress the need for memorization and repeated practice. • They believe that diligence holds the key to good academic performance. • They believe that good academic achievement is a route to personal success, bringing glory to the family. Many of these characteristics, such as the strong emphasis on academic achievement and respect for teachers, favour the use of memorization. Other studies have found that ‘emphasis on effort’ is common among Chinese children (e.g. Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996a; Dahlin and Watkins 2000; Salili, 1996). For Chinese students, studying seems to be strongly driven by external motives, such as ‘glory to the family’, ‘success based on collective values’ (Hau and Salili 1991), and ‘earning money and establishing outstanding careers’ (Lau and Yeung 1996; Salili and Mak 1988). Although these values, which are internalized by Chinese learners, may drive them to work hard and to achieve, they are a major source of frustration for many students. The constructivist perspectives on learning, as suggested by Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky, emphasize that readiness to learn is driven by interest in knowing, enquiry, discovery and problem solving, and the motivation should be intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Given that the Chinese culture attaches considerable

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importance to the utilitarian aspects of education, the educational reforms in Hong Kong can hardly be implemented without changing Hong Kong’s cultural environment. In addition, the constructivist model of learning suggests the importance of developing and realizing a strong sense of ‘self’ in the process of learning—as can be seen in the reference by Bruner to ‘developing the mind’, by Vygotsky to ‘mediation’ and ‘engagement in self-talk’, and by Piaget to ‘learning by doing’. For Chinese learners, self-development can be difficult because they seem to have a weak sense of self caused by inherited cultural traits and by Chinese child-rearing practices, such as impulse control and the suppression of spontaneity and expression, which are highly valued in the constructivist conception of learning. The above review indicates that Chinese students are trained to be obedient to their teachers and parents, and are pressurized to be successful in learning. Failure carries high costs, causing ‘loss of face’ for both the family and the students. Although these characteristics help Chinese students perform well in international tests of ability and provide for efficient teaching in Chinese classrooms (Biggs and Watkins 2001), they appear to be at odds with a constructivist approach to learning. Constructivism requires exploration and experimentation; and elements such as uncertainty and a sense of imbalance/disequilibration are expected to be crucial experiences for learners. In the classroom, students may want authoritative answers from teachers, and teachers may rush students to get the right answers, leaving time for recitation and drilling. The overly strong belief in diligence and effort, the tendency to rely on memorization and blind loyalty to book knowledge inhibit the implementation of constructivist teaching. If these features remain unchanged, it will be very difficult for Hong Kong students and teachers to adopt the constructivist learning approach. Also, selectivity in examinations is usually a barrier to reforms in Hong Kong (Biggs 1996). The failure of the Target Oriented Curriculum reform in the 1990s showed that a progressive educational reform can be distorted to mean regular testing in schools. This situation was repeated in the current territory-wide assessment implemented in Hong Kong’s primary schools where, in practice, this aptitude test mechanism produced tension in schools as also led to drilling children to attend examinations. Another serious feature of the Hong Kong education system is the enormous amount of time students spend on homework and the extent of parental involvement in students’ lives. The Chinese place a high value on education, which is regarded as the path to success and financial gain as degree-holders enjoy much higher salaries than those without higher education qualifications. Students are therefore put under heavy pressure to compete with each other. In the educational reforms, the importance of assessment for learning is stressed in an effort to alleviate this problem. However, it remains to be seen whether this can produce a



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significant change in teachers’ practices and reduce pressure on students. Recent studies on teaching and learning methods used in the Hong Kong classrooms suggest that teachers still rely heavily on drilling, tests and examinations (Ng and Rao 2008; Po and Lo 2008). This chapter has illustrated how a constructivist approach can support learners’ development and growth, allowing them to strengthen their capacity to learn, become interested in learning, and develop a strong readiness and motivation for learning. However, to accommodate this new approach to learning will require changes in the educational system. Teachers should try to initiate change in the classroom so that, hopefully, education can produce independent and active learners instead of mere containers of knowledge.

Learning Activities 1. Prepare 30 to 50 photos of different objects and then show them to your classmates, changing the photos every 30 seconds. How many objects can they remember? How can you improve their performance in this task? 2. Some experts do not recommend computer games for children in primary schools. Discuss whether their recommendation is supported by Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Based on Piaget’s theory, which games would you recommend for children in primary schools? 3. According to Vygotsky, what should you consider in your instructional design to help students learn? Select a topic, and based on your instructional objectives, develop the lesson and the teaching strategies to reflect Vygotsky’s theories. Give examples of scaffolding instructions that may be applied for the subject(s) you are teaching. 4. Piaget and Vygotsky both realized that play has a prominent role in learning. How should teachers use play to benefit learners? 5. Do you agree with Bruner’s theory of guided discovery learning? Do you think that it can be applied in the subject(s) you are teaching? Give an example that illustrates the pedagogy. 6. The literature suggests that Hong Kong Chinese students are used to ‘direct teaching’ and are ‘passive learners’. Should constructivist teaching methods be implemented in Chinese classrooms? Justify your view.

3 Behavioural Models of Learning Shane N. Phillipson

Among the earliest approaches to the study of learning were the observations of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1927) and American psychologist John B. Watson (1930). Pavlov was initially interested in the mechanisms of salivation, using dogs as his experimental animals. Inducing his dogs to salivate was easy—simply feed them. The relationship between meat and salivation can be modelled as:

meat

salivation

In this model, the meat acted as the stimulus (S) and salivation was the dog’s response (R). However, the dog’s response to the meat did not appear to depend on its learning to salivate: the response seemed to be immediate. A general model for all immediate stimulus and response pairs can be shown as:

S

R

Being a careful scientist, Pavlov noticed that other stimuli made the dogs salivate, including sounds (e.g. a bell) and visual stimuli (e.g. flashing lights). Clearly, the dogs learned to salivate as a result of the new stimuli. Pavlov’s observation became the basis of a new field of psychological research, behaviourism, and it continues to be an important basis for explaining a wide range of human learning. Like most theories, however, behaviourism cannot explain all aspects of human learning. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • distinguish contiguous learning, classical conditioning and operant conditioning in explaining human learning; • analyse simple changes in behaviours using classical conditioning and operant conditioning; • appreciate the importance of social contexts in operant conditioning; and • apply an understanding of behaviourism in Chinese classrooms. Pavlov’s work is called classical conditioning, the other behavioural models of learning being contiguity and operant conditioning. Modern extensions to the behavioural models of learning are based on the idea that people learn by observing

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what happens to others and that sometimes learning does not result in immediate changes in observable behaviour. These models are known by various names, including social cognitive theory or social learning theory. This chapter first outlines the basic assumptions behind the behavioural models of learning and then describes contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social cognitive theory as they relate to Chinese classrooms today. In doing so, the chapter discusses research that focuses on Chinese learners. As is the situation with all theories of learning, behavioural models can help explain learning in some student situations. However, other psychological theories can also be employed to explain the same changes in behaviour. Furthermore, classical conditioning and operant conditioning are sometimes more useful in explaining the motivational aspects of student behaviour than in describing the development of knowledge per se.

The Basic Assumptions of Behaviourism Behaviourism defines learning as a relatively enduring and observable change in behaviour. Given that the changes are observable, teachers need to give students opportunities to display their learning: merely asking students ‘Do you understand?’ is not enough. The behavioural models of learning are based on several assumptions: 1. The development of knowledge and skills depends on our interactions with the environment. Although we are born with some simple stimulus (S) and response (R) reflexes, all other behaviours are the result of our interactions with the internal and external environment. 2. Individuals differ in their environments, and therefore different students will show different responses to the same stimuli. Teachers can change the environment of students, helping them to alter existing behaviours and acquire new ones. 3. The most important aspect of learning is concerned with observable stimulus and response pairings, which reduce the importance of prior beliefs, thoughts and attitudes. In contrast, social cognitive theory views these beliefs, thoughts and attitudes as being just as important as stimulus and response pairings. 4. Learning is most likely to occur when new stimulus and response pairings are close together in time and space. Indeed, much research has focused on identifying the optimal relationship between stimuli and responses. 5. Across all animals, learning occurs in a similar way, which makes it possible to study learning using, for example, rats, pigeons and dogs, and apply the findings to humans.



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Contiguous Learning In behaviourism, the simplest type of stimulus (S) and response (R) pairing is called ‘contiguous learning’. In this process, a stimulus (S) produces an immediate response (R) in much the same way that a medical doctor tests muscular reflexes by tapping one’s leg just below the knee. For this reflex, tapping the tendon below the kneecap momentarily lengthens the muscle fibres in the upper leg, causing the muscles to contract. The lifting of the lower leg occurs without any thought at all. There are many other physiological reflexes in the human body. Contiguous learning is evident when a given stimulus immediately produces the same response. For example, a mathematics teacher spends much time on the multiplication table to produce an immediate response (R) of ‘12’ to the stimulus (S) ‘What is 3 × 4?’ This can be modelled as:

‘What is 3 x 4?’ (S)

‘12’ (R)

Other examples include the contiguous relationship between the hearing of a person’s name (R) and recalling an image of his/her face (S), and looking away (R) when teachers call one’s name (S). Being able to respond automatically to a stimulus in the classroom is very useful because it reduces the need to search actively for answers in one’s memory. If, for instance, the product of 3 and 4 is part of a larger mathematical problem, students who respond ‘12’ have a speed advantage over those who cannot. Contiguous learning may also involve affective (or emotional) responses to a stimulus, helping to explain why students feel anxious (R) when, for example, the teacher announces that there will be a mathematics test next week (S). Contiguous learning involves the repetition of the same stimulus–response pair over time. A teacher may therefore spend a few minutes at the beginning of each history lesson reviewing important dates and keywords, which are cues to more complex schemas in the long-term memory, helping students to recall important information later. It should be noted that contiguous learning occurs after stimulus and response pairings have been established. In the classroom, this may require considerable effort by the teacher over a substantial period of time. However, students learn very quickly that certain stimuli result in very unpleasant consequences and respond accordingly.

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning helps to explain learned responses to two normally unrelated stimuli. As noted earlier, Pavlov investigated mechanisms that allowed an initially

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neutral stimulus (NS), such as a flashing light, to produce the same salivation. After learning had occurred, the neutral stimulus also induced salivation. As a scientist, Pavlov focused his efforts on finding out how a neutral stimulus came to be active in producing a response. In classical conditioning there are several types of stimuli and responses. An unconditioned (or unlearned) stimulus (US) leads to an unconditional response (UR). This pairing is automatic and immediate, perhaps as a result of contiguous learning or a simple reflex (e.g. reacting to the pain from a bee sting). This pairing can be shown as:

US

UR

(Remember that although the term ‘unconditioned’ strictly means ‘unlearned’, the pairing of US and UR may have occurred through contiguous learning.) A neutral stimulus (NS) induces a response that is initially unrelated to the UR. In the case of the flashing light, the dog may have initially reacted with curiosity to the stimulus, but the light now induces no obvious response at all. Diagrammatically, this relationship can be presented as:

NS

no response

A conditioned stimulus (CS) produces a response that is similar to that produced by the US. This learned response is called a ‘conditioned response’ (CR), and this relationship can be shown as:

CS

CR

In classical conditioning, the process of interest is explaining the origin of the CS. To use Pavlov’s example, the following steps illustrates the transition from NS to CS. Step 1: The meat (US) is presented to the dog, and the dog salivates. The dog does not need to learn the response to the stimulus, hence the term ‘unconditioned response’ (UR):

Meat (US)

salivation (UR)

Step 2: A bell is sounded. (The bell rings with a musical pitch of middle C in the musical scale.) The bell attracts the attention of the dog, but it does not induce salivation. After a while, the ringing bell is ignored. The ringing bell is a neutral stimulus:

sound of bell ring (NS)

no response

Step 3: At the next meal time, the meat and the bell are presented at the same time. The dog responds to the meat as usual and hears the ringing bell:

meat (US) ringing bell (NS)

salivation (UR)



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Step 4: The meat and the ringing bell are presented together several times more. Step 5: The dog salivates to the sound of the ringing bell even without the meat. The dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell; hence, it has learned (or more correctly, has been conditioned) to respond to the bell. The bell is now the conditioned stimulus (CS), and salivation is the conditioned response (CR):

sound of bell ring (CS)

salivation (CR)

It must be noted that, in this example, the CR (salivation) is exactly the same as the UR (salivation). An important aspect of research involving classical conditioning is identifying whether the NS should be presented at exactly the same time as the US or a little before or after the US. It is also important to identify whether other bells with different pitches could induce the same effect, and how much time is needed before the dog’s response to the bell is extinguished.

Generalization, discrimination and extinction In the previous example, a bell sounding at middle C in the musical scale made the dog salivate. Bells of different tones were then tested to see if they induced the same effect. The researcher found that bells with a similar musical pitch (e.g. b and d) were able to produce salivation. In this example, the dog’s response was generalized to similar sounding bells. On the other hand, a violin playing at middle C was not able to induce salivation. The dog discriminated between bells and violins, a process referred to as ‘discrimination’. The dog’s learned response to the bell can be explained by a strong association between the meat and the bell. Over time, if only the bell is heard, the dog’s learned response to the bell will diminish, and at the point when the bell no longer stimulates salivation, extinction has occurred.

Classical conditioning in the classroom Classical conditioning can be used to explain many classroom situations. In these contexts, the teacher needs to identify both the initial US and UR as well as the development of the NS into the CS. However, the origin of the US–UR pairing is not always clear. Also, most classroom examples focus on emotional or behavioural responses to stimuli rather than on specific content knowledge and skills. Teachers need to be skilful in identifying examples of generalization and discrimination, and understand how to extinguish an undesirable CS–CR pairing. They also need to apply their knowledge of classical conditioning to promote active learning.

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Consider the following example involving a Chinese boy in Secondary 2 studying in an English-medium school in Hong Kong. Although he prepared diligently for two weeks for an important English dictation test, he unexpectedly failed. Knowing that his parents will be angry, he begins to feel upset and starts to cry, adding to his anxiety. Now, every time he takes a dictation test, he feels the same anxiety. The situation can be modelled as: failure (US) dictation test (CS)





anxiety (UR) anxiety (CR)

In line with Pavlov’s experiment, the boy’s anxiety about dictation tests (CS) occurs within a short period of time, particularly if the anxiety contributes to further failures in such tests. In contrast to Pavlov’s experiment, the teacher may be unaware of the original relationship between failure (US) and anxiety (UR). It is clear, however, that the new relationship between dictation tests (CS) and anxiety (CR) must be broken before the anxiety level becomes so bad that the boy’s ability to engage in dictation tests seems irrecoverable, adversely affecting his learning. This particular example involves the boy’s affective reaction to dictation, but there are many classroom examples of classical conditioning which involve the emotional reactions of students.

Generalization The boy’s problems are not limited to his dictation tests. When completing tests that involve writing of any sort, his anxiety increases. The boy has generalized the response to the dictation test (CS) to other similar stimuli (gCS). Using our model, this situation is represented as: anxiety (CR)



dictation test (CS)



English composition test (gCS)

anxiety (gCR)



Chinese composition test (gCS)

anxiety (gCR)

The boy’s Chinese teacher does not understand what has happened to this boy, noticing only that he is quickly changing from a confident student into an anxious one. His English teacher also sees that the boy’s grades are slipping and advises him to try harder.



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Discrimination Fortunately, the boy’s anxiety extends only to subjects that involve writing. His confidence in mathematics and science remains very high and he continues to achieve high grades. Based on classical conditioning, we can explain that the boy can discriminate between dictation tests (CS) and tests involving mathematics and science. His teachers and parents become increasingly puzzled about the changing patterns of his academic achievement, and begin to increase the pressure on him to study English and Chinese.

Extinction Although the situation has become quite complex, the basis of the problem continues to be the relationship between the dictation test (CS) and the anxiety (CR) it produces. The boy’s English teacher now realizes that the student’s problem is not related to a lack of effort or ability—something else must be happening. After asking the boy’s other teachers, it becomes clear that the problems seem to be confined to English writing. Looking back at the boy’s records, the teacher traces the problem to one test—a dictation test—and suspects that the boy has ‘learned’ to be anxious when faced with writing English under test conditions. Using a detailed knowledge of classical conditioning, the teacher attempts to extinguish the relationship between the dictation test (CS) and the student’s anxiety (CR) by helping the student to learn how not be anxious when faced with these tests. One way to do this is to introduce a dictation test deliberately when the student is feeling happy and relaxed. Also, one may introduce a spelling quiz rather than a dictation test using words that the student can already spell. The key to breaking negative emotional reactions to a specific conditioned stimulus is to ensure that students experience success at a pace that suits them. Clearly, this means providing opportunities that relate to student needs. Recent research in Hong Kong’s schools suggests that teachers prefer a ‘wait-and-see’ approach to student problems, hoping that they will simply fade away over time. In contrast, teachers from other cultures are more proactive in dealing with student problems. Why teachers in Hong Kong espouse this ‘waitand-see’ approach remains unclear, but it may be related to the Chinese cultural tendency to rely on peer influences to effect change among individuals or the tendency to reduce the possibility of unnecessarily embarrassing students.

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Operant Conditioning Despite the success of classical conditioning in explaining some aspects of learned behaviour, psychologists soon recognized that it is far too simplistic to explain all behavioural changes. In particular, humans actively manipulate or operate on the environment to achieve desired outcomes or to avoid undesirable ones. Operant conditioning asserts that in this process, individuals operate to alter an environment (hence the term ‘operant’). The study of operant conditioning marked a major research area for many psychologists, particularly Skinner (1968). In his work, Skinner used small animals such as rats and pigeons as the experimental model, but it soon became apparent that the research findings on the changes in behaviour of rats and birds could also be applied to humans. The key to understanding operant conditioning is to note the temporal relationship between two behaviours. In a temporal relationship, these two behaviours are related by time, and the frequency of a given behaviour (B) can either increase or decrease over this time. This change in behaviour occurs in response to a given stimulus (S). A familiar example of this in the classroom is a student paying more attention after being given a word of praise (e.g. ‘Well done!’) by the teacher. In this case, the behaviour is ‘paying attention to the teacher’, and the change in behaviour is ‘paying more attention to the teacher’. Together with the teacher’s praise ‘Well done!’, we can model the situation as follows:

‘Well done!’ (S)

paying more attention (B) paying attention (B) (time) The phrase ‘Well done!’ was said in the period just after the student was paying attention. In other words, the phrase was added to the context and the student interpreted the phrase as intended for himself/herself, and this changed something in him/her. This change could be an improvement in self-esteem or recognition that the teacher is finally giving him/her more attention. It should be clear that many behaviours can be interpreted in two ways. Using the previous example, another person observing the interaction between the teacher and the student may describe the change in behaviour as a reduction in inattention:

‘Well done!’ (S)

being less inattentive (B) being inattentive (B) (time)



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What remains constant, however, is that the phrase ‘Well done!’ is still added to the student. The differences in interpretation can be modelled clearly through the use of diagrams. The teacher’s praise ‘Well done!’ can be considered a stimulus (S), to which the student is responding by increasing (or decreasing) attention (inattention). Rather than using the term ‘response’ (R), operant conditioning refers to ‘behaviour’ (B). Furthermore, any changes in behaviour may only be small and more praise is needed to bring attention (or inattention) up to (or down to) the level desired by the teacher.

Key aspects of operant conditioning Changes in behaviour occur as responses to externally or internally presented stimuli. In the classroom, such changes occur only when the student is actively showing the behaviour. The stimulus should then be presented after the student displays the initial behaviour. In general, the closer in time the presentation of the stimulus is to the initial behaviour, the more effective it will be in changing the behaviour. Teachers are often concerned with increasing the frequency of desirable behaviour in class. For example, a teacher observes that a student is attentive to her teaching only for the first five minutes of a 40-minute lesson. The objective of the teacher is to increase the frequency of the student’s attention to ten minutes, then to 15 minutes and so on until the student is attentive for a satisfactory length of time. To do so, the teacher must first identify the specific behaviour, its initial frequency and the goal frequency—and then decide on the stimulus that will help to increase the frequency of this behaviour until the desired change occurs. In Skinner’s original experiments, the pigeon, for example, would purposely alter its behaviour in order to receive something it wanted (e.g. food), or avoid something unpleasant (e.g. an electric shock). Skinner and other behaviourists interpreted the pigeon’s behaviour in terms of its attempts to operate on (or control) its environment. Similarly, a student will alter his or her behaviour in order to obtain something he/she wants. If the teacher’s praise (‘Well done!’) is desired by the student and paying attention is how to get it, then the student will pay attention in order to receive the teacher’s praise.

Reinforcement and punishment In class, a teacher may be concerned with increasing the frequency or occurrence of a student’s desired behaviour (e.g. attentiveness), or decreasing the frequency or occurrence of an undesirable behaviour (e.g. inattentiveness). In operant conditioning, reinforcement occurs whenever the frequency or occurrence of a

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behaviour increases as a consequence of a given stimulus. To put in another way, the student increases his or her behaviour in order to obtain the reinforcement.

Consequence of stimulus Increase in frequency of behaviour

Decrease in frequency of behaviour

Positive Reinforcement Addition of Stimulus

Removal of Stimulus

S

Presentation Punishment

S B

B

Negative Reinforcement

Removal Punishment

S

S B

B

B

B

B

B

Figure 3.1 Relationship between changes in behaviour, and the presence and absence of stimuli (operant conditioning) In positive reinforcement, the stimulus (S) is added to the context in order to increase the frequency or likelihood of behaviour (B) occurring. In negative reinforcement, the stimulus (S) is removed from the context in order to increase the frequency or likelihood of behaviour (B) occurring. In presentation punishment, the addition of the stimulus (S) decreases the frequency or likelihood of behaviour (B) occurring. In removal punishment, the stimulus (S) is removed from the context in order to decrease the frequency or likelihood of behaviour (B) occurring.

Conversely, punishment occurs whenever the frequency or occurrence of a behaviour decreases as the result of a given stimulus. Also, both types of change in behaviour occur as a result of presenting (presentation) or removing (removal) a stimulus. Again, the student decreases his or her behaviour in order to avoid the punishment. The four different variations of operant conditioning occur because of the two different possible changes in any initial behaviour. This complex relationship can be represented simply using a model (see Figure 3.1). Note that reinforcements and punishments are defined in terms of the consequences of stimuli. The different types of reinforcements and punishments are then defined in terms of the relationship between the stimulus and the change in behaviour. Two points can be seen when Figure 3.1 is examined closely. First, both positive reinforcement and presentation punishment are similar in that a stimulus is ‘added’ to the environment. This is shown as an arrow leading to the behaviour:

S





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However, positive reinforcement and presentation punishment differ in terms of the consequences of the addition of the stimulus. There is either an increase (positive reinforcement) or decrease (presentation punishment) in the frequency of the behaviour. Similarly, negative reinforcement and removal punishment show the ‘removal’ of a stimulus from the environment. This is shown as an arrow leading away from the behaviour:



S

Again, negative reinforcement and removal punishment differ in terms of the consequences of the removal of the stimulus. There is either an increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease (removal punishment) in the frequency of the behaviour. (Note that we do not use the term ‘reward’ in our model.) Operant conditioning can be a powerful tool for analysing a student’s behaviour. Consider the following example: Wong is a Secondary 2 student in Mr. Lee’s mathematics class and he continually disrupts the class with his bad behaviour. Mr. Lee is particularly worried about Wong’s lack of respect for him. Despite repeated warnings, Wong continues to be disrespectful and Mr. Lee decides to send Wong outside the classroom to stand in the corridor. Instead of decreasing its frequency, Wong’s use of disrespectful language increases.

This example can be analysed and modelled easily using our understanding of operant conditioning. Mr. Lee’s intention is to reduce Wong’s frequency of disrespectfulness by removing him from the class. The intended change in behaviour can be shown as follows:

being less disrespectful (B)

being disrespectful (B)

Mr. Lee’s action intention is therefore an example of punishment. However, sending Wong outside the classroom, as the consequence of his being disrespectful, is much more difficult to define. Perhaps Mr. Lee thinks that sending him outside will deprive Wong of any chance to interact with other students in the class. The model can now be shown as follows:

being disrespectful (B)



freedom to interact (S) being less disrespectful (B)

This is an example of the teacher’s intended use of removal punishment, although other teachers may believe that sending Wong outside the classroom adds to Wong’s discomfort, making the model slightly different:

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discomfort



being disrespectful (B)

being less disrespectful (B)

This is an example of the teacher’s use of presentation punishment. As described in this example, Mr. Lee’s intention is to reduce this undesirable behaviour. However, he finds something unexpected: far from decreasing, Wong’s disrespectfulness has increased in frequency. The actual change in Wong’s behaviour is an example of reinforcement:

being more disrespectful (B)

being disrespectful (B)

But which type of reinforcement? Although Mr. Lee does not understand exactly what is happening, he thinks that Wong feels very upset in class and is being disrespectful in order to avoid this—and that removing him from the classroom might alleviate his negative feelings. Wong might feel upset because another student is bullying him, or he is generally unpopular with all his classmates, or he cannot keep up with the class work. In fact, Wong is being verbally bullied by his classmates, and avoids being upset by the taunts by being disrespectful to his teacher. The model can now be shown as:

being disrespectful (B)



anxiety (caused by bullying) being more disrespectful (B)

At this point, it is important to describe clearly the different types of reinforcers and punishers as well how they can be used effectively in the classroom.

Reinforcers A reinforcer is a consequence of a particular behaviour that increases the frequency or likelihood of such behaviour. It is shown as:

B

B

The reinforcer (or consequence) comes after the initial behaviour and can be of two types. A presented reinforcer increases the frequency or likelihood of the behaviour and, in such a case, the process is called ‘positive reinforcement’. Similarly, a removed reinforcer increases the frequency or likelihood of the behaviour, but this process is called ‘negative reinforcement’. Operant conditioning asserts that reinforcers differ from student to student. In other words, there are other important sources of individual differences across students, and a teacher must be aware that the same reinforcer may not be equally



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effective for all students. The following section describes some of the different types of reinforcers, particularly those that produce positive reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement It is possible to distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers within the classroom. Primary reinforcers satisfy basic human needs, such as hunger, thirst, warmth, security, relatedness and self-esteem (see Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in Chapter 7). Secondary reinforcers (e.g. a teacher’s smile, good grades and stickers) do not, in themselves, satisfy these basic human needs but, over time, they become associated with primary reinforcers. For example, a teacher’s smile and good grades may become strongly associated with feelings of security and self-esteem. Many educational psychologists (e.g. Eggen and Kauchak 2007; Woolfolk 2010) have noted that there are many possible types of positive reinforcers, including concrete reinforcers, social reinforcers, activity reinforcers, group contingencies, positive feedback and intrinsic reinforcers. Concrete reinforcers: These reinforcers can be touched (e.g. sweets, stickers, toys and certificates). Research suggests that such reinforcers are likely to be effective for young students, but a teacher who relies only on concrete reinforcers runs the risk of devaluing them, thereby reducing their effectiveness. Social reinforcers: Social reinforcers refer to gestures or signs used to acknowledge the behaviour of others (Ormrod 2008), including smiles, winks, nods and compliments (e.g. ‘Well done!’), and gestures (e.g. thumbs up). Although they are commonly used by teachers with the aim of shaping students’ behaviour, they also originate from students, who can shape the behaviour of their teacher by using such reinforcers. Activity reinforcers: Grandma used to say ‘You can have ice-cream only after you eat your vegetables.’ In this example, the desirable activity (eating ice-cream) is used to reinforce positively the (undesirable) behaviour of eating vegetables. Known informally as ‘Grandma’s rule’ or more formally as the Premack principle, activity reinforcers can also be used in the classroom. For example, the teacher may reward students who finish their class work on time (presumably an undesirable behaviour) with free time on the computer (a desirable behaviour). Group contingencies: Group contingency refers to the situation where the reinforcer is administered to a group rather than an individual. According to Ormrod (2008), the reinforcement is effective when all members in the group value and are capable of achieving the desired behaviour. For example, students in a secondary mathematics class are sometimes restless if their class begins immediately after lunch break on Wednesdays. Their teacher announces that if all students are able to complete their work before the end of the lesson, then the class will be given 15

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minutes free time during the last lesson on Friday. Group contingencies are effective if the class shows a high degree of cohesiveness resulting from peer pressure. However, group contingencies are often used in an attempt to reduce undesirable behaviour. This strategy involves attempting to change the behaviour of one or two students using peer pressure, for instance when a teacher threatens to keep the whole class in, in an effort to reduce the frequency of talking or leaving their seats by a few students. Such a strategy may work occasionally but is usually resented by students who are inconvenienced by one or two of their classmates. Positive feedback: Ormrod (2008) described positive feedback as an effective type of positive reinforcement. In positive feedback, the simple acknowledgement of success is sufficient to increase the frequency of a desirable classroom behaviour. Students enjoy success, and success itself is reinforcing. Providing students with opportunities to experience success and time to enjoy it are the hallmarks of positive feedback. Conversely, continually reminding students of failure and constantly showing them their mistakes quickly counter any effort to increase student motivation. Intrinsic reinforcers: Reinforcers are sometimes provided by the people themselves rather than by the external environment. Often, these self or intrinsic reinforcers are not visible to observers, apart from the obvious sense of achievement or pride that comes from such behaviour. As discussed in other chapters of this book, intrinsic motivation can be understood from a number of perspectives, particularly from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Punishers To reiterate, a punisher is a consequence that reduces the frequency of occurrence of a behaviour. Using a diagram, the relationship is:

B

B

As with reinforcements, punishments have two types—presentation punishment, which occurs when a stimulus is presented after the initial behaviour, and removal punishment, which happens when a stimulus is removed as a result of the behaviour. They have similar end-results: a reduction in the incidence of inappropriate or undesirable behaviour. Before discussing some types of punishers, the same caveat as before must be made: what is sometimes intended as a punisher may actually increase the frequency of the behaviour it is trying to reduce. Teachers must be aware of the unintended consequences of their strategies. The ‘value’ of a punisher is sometimes dependent on the individual student, and what produces a reduction in the frequency of an undesirable behaviour in one student may not be as effective with another.



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Ormrod (2008, 420) suggested that the best forms of punishers are ‘relatively mild’, as harsh punishments can lead to unwanted side-effects, such as resentment and hostility. Consistently harsh teachers will, in themselves, become associated with these side-effects in ways that can be explained by classical conditioning. Clearly, it is in the best interests of the teacher to be associated with positive classroom emotions, arising from, for instance, high achievement, interesting and valuable learning activities, and positive and caring relationships. A number of punishers have been shown to be effective in reducing the frequency of undesirable classroom behaviour, for example scolding, which refers to the use of verbal reprimands. However, the effectiveness of scolding depends on whether it is delivered in private or within earshot of other students, and on whether it is used frequently or sparingly. Sometimes, verbal scolding is ineffective because it meets the attention needs of the student despite the intentions of the teacher. When using response cost, the teacher is linking the punisher with a previously earned reinforcement. Teachers often give students points for a desired behaviour, with the possibility that a certain number of points can then be traded for a privilege of some type. The teacher’s strategy is to remove points when students display an undesirable behaviour. Linking the behaviour and the consequences in this way can be very effective, as shown in the following diagram:

point (desired activity)



paying attention (B)



being inattentive (B)

paying more attention (B)

point (desired activity) being less inattentive (B)

In the diagram, the desirable and undesirable behaviours and the consequences are converses of each other, with removal of a point as an example of removal punishment. Similarly, logical consequences link clearly the consequence with the undesirable behaviour. For example, students talking to each other are separated so that they cannot perform such undesirable behaviour. The consequence may be described in a number of ways, including the loss of proximity to each other and the lack of freedom to choose where they wish to sit. In attempting to reduce the frequency of undesirable activities, teachers may send students out of the classroom to stand in the corridor for a short period of time or in a special room designated as the ‘time-out room’ for a longer period. Teachers using this strategy may explain their approach in a number of ways, including making students feel uncomfortable or bored, or denying them the opportunity to interact with their classmates. Although all are examples of punishment, explanations for the punisher are different. By explaining the punisher in terms of

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comfort or boredom, the teacher intends to present discomfort or to induce boredom (hence an example of presentation punishment):

discomfort or boredom



talking in class (B)

talking less in class (B)

Alternatively, by explaining the punisher as denying opportunities (or freedom) to interact with classmates, the teacher is describing an example of removal punishment:

talking in class (B)



Interaction with other students talking less in class (B)

Extreme examples of time-out include in-school suspension of recess and afterschool detentions, both of which can be explained in similar ways. Most educational psychologists point out that some forms of punishers are ineffective at best and dangerous in the extreme (Eggen and Kauchak 2007; Ormrod 2008). Examples of ineffective forms of punishers include physical punishers, such as using a cane or implied threats such as forcing students to stand on a desk directly under and in close proximity to a revolving ceiling fan. Psychological punishers, such as the use of abusive, derogatory and humiliating remarks are defined in terms of their potential to cause damage to the self-esteem of students (Chapter 6). Of course, physical punishments may also lead to the loss of self-esteem. Sometimes, teachers use extra homework as a punisher, but this strategy is dangerous as it contradicts directly its original purpose in helping students to learn. If homework is used as punisher, students begin to associate all homework with something unpleasant, and eventually it may become ineffective as a way of helping students to learn; and the same argument holds true for some other learning strategies, such as copying passages from textbooks. Ultimately, the effectiveness of reinforcers and punishers is demonstrated by their impact on desirable and undesirable behaviours respectively. The following section deals with the strategies that maximize the effectiveness of these reinforcers and punishers.

Classroom strategies and operant conditioning Ormrod (2008) outlined at least nine strategies for making reinforcement as effective as possible: 1. Specify clearly the final terminal behaviour in terms of its form and frequency. This means that the final form of the desirable behaviour needs to be identified



2.

3.

4.

5.

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very specifically. The terminal behaviour may be described as, for instance, completing promptly 100% (five out of five) of the assigned homework each week. Accordingly, the baseline frequency of the behaviour needs to be firmly established. For one student, the frequency may be 20% (one out of five). Identify clearly the reinforcer that is appropriate for a particular student. Ormrod (2008) recommended that the teacher asks the student (and/or the student’s parents) what the reinforcer may be, rather than just guessing. A token system is then instigated where the student earns tokens for the reinforcer. This strategy will be effective if both the terminal behaviour and the reinforcer are achievable. To help the student achieve his/her goal of completing 100 percent of the assigned homework, the teacher may set an interim terminal behaviour of 80% (four out of five). Help the student to see clearly the relationship between the behaviour and the reinforcer. One way of achieving this is through the use of contingency contracts, which are discussed and agreed on by the student and the teacher. Ormrod (2008) recommended that the reinforcer should be administered after every occurrence of the desirable behaviour. If the contract states that a token will be given after every successful completion of homework, then it must be given. Alternatively, intermittent reinforcement can be effective if the student cannot make a reasonable prediction of when the behaviour will be reinforced. If the baseline frequency is essentially 0% (i.e. the desirable behaviour never occurs), then the teacher may use a procedure Ormrod (2008) described as shaping. In shaping, the teacher: a. reinforces any behaviour that remotely resembles the terminal behaviour and provides opportunities for the student to display this behaviour; b. selectively reinforces any behaviour that more closely resembles the terminal behaviour; c. continues this process, reinforcing behaviour that better resembles the terminal behaviour; and d. finally, reinforces only the terminal behaviour.

6. Students expect the same consequence for similar behaviours in similar contexts (generalization, within the context of operant conditioning). 7. Alternatively, students may learn that reinforcement occurs only within certain environmental contexts (discrimination). 8. Reinforcement is more effective when students are reminded or cued about it. For instance, the teacher may say, ‘Remember, those who complete their grammar exercise will have the first choice of which board game to play’. 9. Create environments that encourage terminal behaviours to occur naturally. A competitive classroom environment, for example, will not be conducive to behaviours that reflect co-operation among students.

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For reducing undesirable behaviours, Ormrod (2008) described extinction, cueing inappropriate behaviour and reinforcing incompatible behaviours as three possible strategies available to classroom teachers. The key step in extinction is for teachers to recognize when they are ‘inadvertently’ reinforcing a student’s undesirable behaviour. For example, a teacher may reinforce a student’s off-task talk in class by giving that student the attention that he/she desires. Ormrod (2008) reported that, when removing the attention that reinforces this behaviour, there may be a temporary increase in the frequency of off-task talk before the baseline frequency is reduced. Furthermore, all forms of reinforcement may need to be removed (there may be multiple reinforcers). Just as with desirable behaviours, teachers can resort to the cueing of undesirable behaviours. Put simply, this strategy reminds students that a certain type of behaviour is unacceptable. This can be achieved through verbal cues (e.g. combining a student’s name and the behaviour, such as in ‘Chan, please put away your iPod’), simple body language (e.g. a frown or an upturned finger) and physical proximity (e.g. moving closer to the offending student without necessarily breaking the continuity of the teaching).

Operant conditioning in the Chinese classroom So far, this chapter has focused on the general principles and guidelines that can be applied to all classrooms. In considering classroom management, Winter (1991) asked whether behavioural approaches are appropriate within the learning context of Hong Kong’s students, and his work paved the way for other research aimed at identifying the operationalization of operant conditioning in Hong Kong classrooms. This section discusses some of the effective reinforcers and reinforcement strategies, as well as punishers and punishment strategies, used by both teachers and parents in Hong Kong. It also challenges some of the assumptions of teachers, parents and students about both reinforcers and punishers. Although this section is based broadly on research conducted in Hong Kong and is about Hong Kong students, the findings may be relevant to the wider Chinese context.

Classroom behaviour in Hong Kong Winter (1991, 213) argued that at that time in the development of Hong Kong’s education system: … large classes, poorly prepared teachers, lack of attention to students with learning difficulties, and use of second language for teaching and learning



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may place strain upon pupils and teachers and act to increase levels of offtask, unruly, and disruptive pupil behaviour. On the other hand, traditional Confucian values relating to respect for elders, obedience, and hard work may serve to reduce levels of such behaviour.

Winter questioned the usefulness of rewards, the focus on the individual rather than on the group, and the emphasis on ‘social’ rather than ‘academic’ behaviours in classrooms (ibid.). Despite the many positive changes that have taken place in Hong Kong since 1991, discussing such issues remains highly relevant.

Incidence of off-task behaviours Defining off-task behaviour as any behaviour that is incompatible with work requested by the teacher, Winter (1991) cited previous research showing that students’ off-task behaviour averages 30% (range 3%–75%), with one-quarter of all classrooms showing greater than 40%. More recently, Hue (2007a) reported that, in some schools, the management of student behaviour still occupies half the time teachers spend in their classrooms. Clearly, being off-task remain a significant problem in Hong Kong’s Chinese classrooms. Salili (2001) cited research describing ideal students in terms of a number of desirable behaviours, which included honesty, healthiness, diligence, unselfishness, humility and obedience. According to Salili (2001, 79), these traits show the influence of traditional values. Defining desirable behaviour is not so straightforward. Hue’s research (2007a, 2007b) showed that Hong Kong’s Chinese teachers believe that their responsibility towards their students is based on Confucianism, Daoism and legalism. In the Confucian perspective, student behaviour is based on the premise that all individuals are born with a good nature, although there are individual differences in intelligence and abilities. Furthermore, all students can be educated, although some find it difficult ‘to live according to their good nature’ (Hue 2007a, 25). Hence, the role of teachers is to help students overcome these difficulties, and be the best they can be. Although teachers do not expect all students to achieve the same high academic standards, they do expect their students to live according to their inherent goodness and to demonstrate the personal attributes of ‘effort, hard work, and endurance’ (p. 27). These attributes, which are important for personal and social development, are just as significant for academic achievement. The precise nature of desirable behaviours within Hong Kong’s Chinese classroom does not seem to have been studied directly in the educational research literature. Nevertheless, Hue (2007a) outlined several broad areas of student behaviour that are highly valued by Hong Kong’s teachers, including being engaged in the learning task, enduring boredom in learning, paying attention to the teacher,

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demonstrating self-control, being polite to others (especially to the teacher) and being engaged in self-reflection. The ultimate aim of teachers is to help students become ‘perfect gentlemen or ladies’. In Winter’s (1991) research on desirable classroom behaviours related to the completion of classwork and the achievement of high grades, only 12% of Hong Kong secondary students believed that they should be rewarded all the time. In contrast, 53% believed that they should be rewarded sometimes, and 35% said never. Similarly, as regards being well-behaved, 8%, 46%, and 45% of secondary students believed that they should be rewarded all the time, sometimes and never, respectively. It seems, therefore, that secondary students do not always expect to be reinforced for their efforts or achievements. Possibly, the reinforcers used by their teachers were of limited value to most students, leaving open the likelihood that other forms of reinforcement (e.g. intrinsic reinforcers or reinforcers external to the classroom) are more effective. Other research has described the reinforcers that teachers and low-ability students judge as most effective for two different types of desirable behaviours, namely high academic standards and good classroom behaviour (Chan 1989, cited in Winter 1991). It was found that the most successful way to encourage poor students to work hard and produce better work was a private discussion with the teacher, and the least effective methods are being publicly scolded, after-school detention and bad remarks on report cards. For academically capable students, the most successful reinforcers for maintaining effort and good work were good reports, notes home to parents and merit marks, and the least successful was the use of a five-minute free-time. For well-behaved students, the most successful reinforcers to maintain this behaviour were notes home to parents, good report cards, merit marks, teacher’s public praise, and the head teacher’s public praise, while the least successful were private discussions with teachers, sitting near teachers and demerit marks. The least successful punishers were writing lines, being sent out of the classroom, after-school detention and being publicly scolded.1 Teachers’ responses to these different types of desirable behaviour have been found to be remarkably similar, except that teachers fail to mention notes home to parents in any of their responses. Also, it seems there was no broad consensus among teachers on what is least successful, the only area of agreement being that writing lines and sending pupils out of the class fall into this category. Wan and Salili’s (1996) research involving 372 secondary students in Hong Kong reported the perceived effectiveness of reward and punishment approaches. Using a questionnaire, they found that, for students, rewards are more effective than punishments in promoting improvements in both performance-related (i.e. improving



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school grades) and behaviour-related (i.e. reducing the frequency of poor behaviour) areas. Their findings also indicated that strategies that can be used as both rewards and punishments are more effective as rewards rather than as punishments. These strategies include positive feedback on schoolwork, good term reports, notes to parents regarding good performance, merits and teacher’s praises (p. 271). In contrast to studies from the West, Wan and Salili (1996) found that Hong Kong’s students regard term reports and certificates as the most effective reward strategies for performance, and that they regard their teachers’ written comments on term reports as the most effective strategy for improving classroom behaviour. In addition, this research showed that a teacher’s public display of approval was equally effective in both performance- and work-related situations, and that a note home to parents was also effective, although this strategy was used rarely by Hong Kong teachers. Rewarding students with responsibility was more effective in improving behaviour- related than performance-related behaviours. However, these strategies were less successful with high-achieving students, possibly because of the added burden that such a ‘reward’ imposed on them. Clearly, some students regarded ‘responsibility’ as a punishment rather than as a reward. In terms of punishments, high-achieving students viewed strategies that seek to address the root causes of poor performance—including private discussions with teachers and with parents and extra schoolwork—as the most effective. More important, extra homework was considered more effective for improving school performance than problem behaviours (p. 272). Seating a misbehaving student close to the teacher was also more effective than ‘referral to higher authorities’ (ibid.) (e.g. the discipline master) and seating a student away from his/her friends. Wan and Salili’s (1996) research also showed that performance-related punishments, such as poor term reports and demerit points, are ‘fairly ineffective’ (p. 273) and concluded that this is probably because these strategies are overused, hence reducing their potency. Another interesting study, which is yet to be replicated within the classroom, was carried out by Wang, Wiley and Chiu (2008). This work described interdependence-promoting praise as a typical behaviour among parents of Chinese immigrants. In interdependence-promoting praise, the praise is given before rather than after the desired behaviour. In this way, parental approval becomes intimately associated with the behaviour itself, and the purpose of praise is to express ‘parental expectations and to invite adherence’ (p. 18). This use of praise differs markedly from Western parents who use praise after the desired behaviour is observed. According to Wan, Wiley and Chiu, such different uses of praise reflect different socialization processes. Given that classrooms reflect cultural expectations, it is possible that Chinese teachers use praise in the same way.

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Hue’s (2007a) research suggested that for students with a low motivation for learning, the most common forms of punishment used by teachers are writing lines and copying passages from textbooks and other learning materials. Other similar forms of punishment included requiring students to complete their homework during after-school detention. The value of using learning materials and detention in this way has yet to be verified. The short-term goal of emphasizing the relationship between classroom behaviour and academic achievement may be achieved, but the long-term consequence for some students may be to reinforce the association between schoolwork/learning and unpleasantness. Some teachers require students to copy statements referring to their bad behaviour. For example, Hue described one teacher getting a student to copy 100 times the lines ‘Lazy me! Lazy me! Why should I be punished? I am punished. Why should I be so lazy?’ (p. 26). The teachers’ reason for doing this reflects the commonly-held hope that students can use self-reflection as a basis for improving their behaviour. According to Hue (2007a, 2007b), most teachers in Hong Kong believe that these forms of discipline are important components of their pastoral care. However, they also believe that they need to balance discipline with ‘genuine’ demonstrations of ‘empathy and care’ (2007a, 28). For example, one discipline teacher remarked that he spent twice as much time in demonstrating care as in punishing. Other student behaviours deemed undesirable by teachers are related to the breakdown of social norms and school rules (Hue 2007a). A student’s inability to maintain social norms within the school context was often interpreted as impoliteness and considered ‘a serious act of misconduct’ (p. 28). Students who were unable to maintain these norms were punished by serving two-day suspensions and by writing apologies.

Classroom Strategies and Behavioural Models of Learning Winter (1991) described a number of successful strategies based on the behavioural models of learning used by Hong Kong’s teachers. Although he mentioned Confucian values as important in understanding the school context, re-examining Winter’s examples in the context of Hue’s (2007a, 2007b) analysis is enlightening. Winter’s (1991) first example was a Secondary 3 boy (TL) from a poor family living in Chai Wan. TL had been disciplined from primary school through secondary school. At home, TL’s father punished him by beating; and in school, he was punished by scolding, copying school regulations and demerit marks. TL continued to engage in disruptive behaviour, such as disturbing other students, failing to



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complete homework or bring textbooks, and being disrespectful towards teachers. His teacher’s first trial was to initiate a class rule that punished anyone ‘engaged in unauthorized talking’ with extra homework. TL’s disruptive behaviour increased. TL’s teacher’s second attempt was to initiate a ‘rule, praise, ignore’ (RPI) programme, where rules reflecting acceptable classroom behaviours are displayed clearly in the classroom; praise is given; and off-task behaviours are generally ignored. The end-result was a general improvement in the behaviour of all students and, more particularly, in the behaviour of TL. According to Winter, the change in TL’s behaviour was caused by the following: 1. ‘Attention’ initially rewarded the undesirable behaviour. 2. Students were not generally aware of what behaviour was appropriate. 3. Appropriate behaviour, when it occurred, was not rewarded. In measuring the change in TL’s behaviour, the teacher first defined disruptive behaviour as ‘off-task behaviour’ and ‘disruptive talking’. The teacher then monitored TL’s behaviour using the momentary interval method, recording TL’s behaviour every three minutes. In this way, TL’s baseline frequency was measured and used to monitor the effectiveness of the strategies implemented by the teacher. Rather than focusing on ‘behaviours considered disrespectful’ (Winter 1991, 219), the teacher placed greater emphasis on off-task behaviour and disruptive talking. As a by-product of the teacher’s approach, it seems that all other behaviours improved, including a reduced frequency of disrespect towards teachers. TL’s case implies that focusing on each separate behaviour is not necessary; rather, all behaviours are linked, so that changes in one behaviour result in changes in all behaviours. This is consistent with a Confucian value (Hue 2007a, 2007b): to change student behaviour, teachers need to show students a loving heart, demonstrate genuineness, empathy and caring, and show them how to behave. Winter’s (1991, 220) second example involved a class of Secondary 2 students who were unwilling to speak English during their English lessons. The teacher hypothesized that their unwillingness was due to the ‘effort’ involved and ‘embarrassment’ in speaking English. The teacher tried to increase their motivation to speak in English by using a reinforcement strategy, as follows: 1. Any correct answer in English given voluntarily earned one merit mark. 2. Any correct answer given as a response to an instruction in English earned one tick, with three ticks earning one merit mark. 3. The total merit marks contributed to one-third of students’ total oral English marks in the next internal test. 4. The total possible merit marks per lesson was limited to two. 5. Initially, preference was given to students who previously were reluctant to speak.

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6. Any student answering in Cantonese earned a cross, with three crosses resulting in the loss of one merit mark. Although the teacher had difficulty in keeping accurate records, she found that the strategy generally improved the frequency of English use, and students became more attentive in class. In keeping with Confucian principles (Hue, 2007a, 2007b), the teacher’s strategy reflects the belief that the behaviour of students can be changed because they are inherently good. Accordingly, the teacher must not give up and must show a loving heart, which allows students to feel ‘cared for and accepted’ (Hue 2007b, 41). From a Daoist perspective, the strategy reflects the principle of allowing students to understand the mutually complementary and interdependent roles of teachers and students (ibid.) in the classroom. The strategy also used a soft rather than a hard option (pp. 41–42); in avoiding hard options such as punishments, teachers avoid antagonizing their students. From a legalist viewpoint, the teacher’s strategy builds a dual punishment-and-reward system (p. 42), where desirable behaviours are clearly articulated and rewarded.

Social Cognitive Theory Although classical and operant conditioning can explain many forms of student behaviour, they cannot explain them all. As the term implies, the social cognitive theory explains the relationship among students’ behaviour, their social environment and personal factors (Figure 3.2). The personal factors include such concepts as goals, self-efficacy, self-regulation, attention and motivation; the student environment includes aspects of classical and operant conditioning; and student behaviours refer to time spent on-task, performance on achievement tests, and attributions of success and failure. In integrating all these aspects, the social cognitive theory emphasizes the notion of reciprocal causation where each of the three components are essential for learning, and each directly influences the other components (Ormrod 2008). This section begins with the basic assumptions of the social cognitive theory and then discusses the roles of reinforcements, punishments and modelling. This is followed by a brief discussion on the roles of self-efficacy, self-regulation and the environment. The research and examples presented here relate to Chinese classrooms. (Other chapters in the book help to explain the details more fully.)

Attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation affect the degree to which one imitates modelled behaviour

Person

Feedback from others affects self-efficacy

Figure 3.2 Cognitive theory and reciprocal causation In social cognitive theory, a person’s behaviour is understood as a complex interaction between aspects of the person’s personality and the environment. Figure adapted from Ormrod (2008, 463).

Behaviour

Self-efficacy determines choices of activities and hence, environment

Experiences of past success and failure affect expectations for future performance

Type of behaviour determines if punishment or reinforcement is received

Reinforcement/ punishment affects future behaviour

Environment

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Basic assumptions of the social cognitive theory Social cognitive theory was initially described by Albert Bandura (1982, 1986) and others, and continues to be developed. Its success as a model of learning is due largely to its basis in behaviourism and its potential for incorporating new developments in cognitive modelling (Ormrod 2008). In terms of student learning, the basic assumptions of the theory are as follows: 1. Students can learn by observing the behaviours of others (e.g. other students, teachers and parents). Teachers and students need to display appropriate behaviours. 2. Learning is defined as a cognitive process and may not involve changes in observable behaviour. Whether or not a certain behaviour is observed depends on the presence of an appropriate environment. Consequently, teachers should create suitable classroom environments. 3. All student behaviour is directed towards a goal. These goals are not necessarily the same for every student, and a student may have a number of related goals. However, these goals depend on both the demands of the environment and individual needs. Teachers must help students to set appropriate goals. 4. Students’ behaviour eventually becomes self-regulated because of the consequences of their behaviour. In contrast to operant behaviour, however, the consequences can arise as internal reactions to their behaviour rather than as externally provided rewards or punishers. 5. Reinforcement and punishment play indirect rather than direct roles in affecting student behaviour. Nevertheless, they are important in helping to shape student expectations of the likely consequences of their behaviour based on what they see happening to other students, the current environment (e.g. new information, classroom activities and teacher demands) and personal preferences. Reinforcement and punishment, modelling and personal factors, such as selfefficacy and self-regulation, play special roles in the social cognitive theory, as explained below.

Reinforcement, punishment, modelling and personal factors Student expectations are shaped by their past experiences. They have been rewarded or punished for a certain behaviour in the recent past, and they expect the same consequences for the same behaviour in future. Teachers need to be aware that students sometimes form expectations based on unrealistic or incomplete evidence; and so they have to ensure that students are fully aware of the exact reasons for their past reinforcers or punishers, and can see the correct link between consequences and behaviours.



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Students learn by observing what happens to other students. The reinforcers and punishers used to shape other students’ behaviour form the basis of expectations for the same behaviour. Those who expect reinforcement for a particular behaviour because a teacher reinforced the same behaviour in another student will tend to demonstrate that same behaviour—a process called ‘vicarious reinforcement’. If these expectations are not fulfilled, then the student ‘learns’ that the consequences of that behaviour are not so predictable. In other words, when an expected consequence fails to occur, then the vicarious reinforcement (and punishment) may cease to exist. Students tend to exercise personal choice in whether to pay attention and study if they see the relationship between a particular behaviour and the expectation of being reinforced. Again, however, if after exhibiting this behaviour (or a series of behaviours) the expected reinforcement does not occur, then this behaviour is unlikely to happen again. Understanding the relationship between a behaviour and the expectation of success helps explain why some students give up demonstrating a particular behaviour(s) when the reinforcement is not directly linked to the behaviour itself. In some classrooms, for example, students are sometimes reinforced by their teacher for being top of the class, but this incentive can be effective for only a handful of students. If, on the other hand, the reinforcement is achievable by all students who display this behaviour, then they are all likely to engage in this behaviour.

Modelling An important aspect of the social cognitive theory is the concept of modelling, in which people learn by observing directly the behaviour of others (direct modelling) and by experiencing the behaviour of fictional characters (symbolic modelling). Eggen and Kauchak (2007) described two additional types of modelling, namely, synthesized modelling and abstract modelling. All these types can be seen in the classroom. In class, students learn by directly observing and imitating the behaviours (and thinking processes) of their teachers and their fellow students. For instance, a teacher who is giving a clear explanation of the thinking involved in solving a quadratic equation is displaying modelling. Research suggests that direct modelling, which is often used in the classroom, is effective when the model: • is successful and confident in what he/she does; • enjoys prestige within the classroom and is liked by the modeller; and • is similar to the modeller in terms of interests and perceived abilities. Within the Chinese classroom, big brother/big sister peer mentoring schemes are sometimes used to help younger students. In broad terms, the aim of these schemes is to provide appropriate role models for other students. Although the

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success of such schemes has not yet been tested empirically and reported in the literature, the social cognitive theory provides a solid basis on which to choose the dyads and explain the reasons for success or failure. Peer mentoring in the Chinese classroom was found to enhance English spelling-test performance in Form 2 students, particularly when supplemented with reinforcers that reward tutors who exhibit correct tutoring behaviours, with public displays of points earned by individuals and bonus point reinforcers (Cheung and Winter 1999). Symbolic modelling refers to imitating the behaviours of characters described in books or shown in films, and also, for example, algorithms outlined in textbooks used in the classroom. Synthesized modelling is related to the development of new behaviours by combining other behaviours. Finally, abstract modelling refers to a student’s ability to infer the rules of a behaviour by observing examples where the rules are used. A simple example from an English-language classroom would be when a student learns the correct way to express passive forms of sentences by observing the transformation of several examples of active forms of sentences to passive forms.

Self-efficacy and self-regulation An important component of the social cognitive theory is the impact of personal factors, such as self-efficacy and self-regulation, on behaviour and the environment, and how self-efficacy and self-regulation are, in turn, affected by behaviours and the environment. Bandura (1997) proposed that self-efficacy generally arises from four main sources: mastery experience, vicarious learning, verbal persuasion, and physiological and psychological feedback. Self-efficacy affects behaviour in ways that are easy to understand: in brief, students will be more likely choose a behaviour(s) if they feel capable of a certain level of success and avoid tasks where they believe they will fail—and they are likely to persist with this behaviour once they begin. Of course, self-efficacy depends on past successes and failures. Students who persistently experience failure will find it difficult to develop high self-efficacy. Teachers need to understand that success and failure are not absolute terms, and have to develop classroom systems that ensure that all students can experience success. As mentioned before, if success is defined in terms of being top of the class, then only one student can be successful. Self-efficacy also develops from explicit and implicit communication among students and between students and teachers. For instance, if a teacher says ‘Tong, I know you can do better’, this may momentarily boost Tong’s self-efficacy, but this must be followed up with some measures of success. The self-efficacy of students can also develop when they observe the success of other students, particularly if they are similar in terms of age and



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ability. The usefulness of direct modelling, for example, may include an increase in self-efficacy.

Self-efficacy and self-regulation in the Chinese classroom A recent research project by Chan and Lam (2008) investigated the relationship between the development of self-efficacy and vicarious learning in Hong Kong’s Chinese classes. The participants were Secondary 1 students studying Chinese, and they were assigned to either a competitive or non-competitive classroom. In this study, the students in the competitive class were told that their performance would be evaluated and used as the basis for dividing them into ‘ordinary’ and ‘outstanding’ groups, while students in the non-competitive class were informed that the most important outcome was an improvement in personal performance. The students were assessed on their written self-efficacy in composing similes and metaphors before and after attending lessons, as well as on performance in selfevaluations. In addition, independent raters rated the performance of each class objectively. To simulate the ‘vicarious’ context, outstanding examples of similes and metaphors were read to the students, and they were led to believe that these examples had been created by the students themselves. The results showed that self-efficacy decreased in the competitive classroom, but remained the same in the non-competitive classroom. Self-evaluations of performance did not differ between the two groups. In contrast, rater assessments of performance indicated that students in the competitive classroom created better similes and metaphors than those in the non-competitive classroom. Interestingly, students in the competitive classroom undervalued their performance, whereas those in the non-competitive classroom overestimated their performance. In discussing their results, Chan and Lam (2008) proposed that students in the competitive classroom did not receive direct mastery experience, and this contributed to the lowering of their self-efficacy, remembering that none of the students created the outstanding examples. In the non-competitive classroom, students focused ‘more on the similarities rather than on the differences between the exemplars and their own performance’, which contributed to a ‘more positive evaluation of their own performance’ (p. 104), and hence gained a greater sense of mastery and self-efficacy. Although there are limitations in simulation studies such as this, the results indicate that for competitive classrooms in Hong Kong using vicarious learning, students attain higher levels of performance but at the cost of decreasing self-efficacy. Self-regulation refers to the capacity of students to set appropriate goals and standards for themselves, monitor and evaluate their own behaviours in relation to these standards, and impose consequences for their success and failures

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(Ormrod 2008). These activities depend, in turn, on receiving information from the environment. Students are expected to be more self-regulated as they move through their formal schooling, and teachers should try to help students in this development. In terms of goals and standards, students are more likely to work towards and achieve the goals they have set themselves. In Confucian societies, however, goals and standards are shared responsibilities, and students are likely to work towards these shared goals. Short-term goals can be set by students in consultation with parents and teachers, but these must be realistic in terms of student ability. Lam and Phillipson (2009) showed that, when the goals of Chinese Hong Kong students are externally imposed and are consistently beyond their reach, there is an increase in student misbehaviour and in social-emotional problems. Although self-monitoring is an important component of self-regulation, few students seem capable of doing this accurately. Teachers can create self-monitoring checklists to help students understand their own behaviour during such important tasks as attending to the teacher during class and completing homework efficiently. As outlined in Chan and Lam (2008), it is possible for students to evaluate their own performance. Self-evaluation is an important teaching and learning tool, which both primary schools and tertiary institutions in Hong Kong are beginning to use. For primary schools, the technique involves giving students clear guidelines on the important elements of a task (i.e. a clear title, the main ideas, supporting evidence, clear written expression and a summary showing all main ideas) and giving them opportunities to evaluate their work as part of the development of the task. When submitting an assignment, students usually have a good idea of the grade they will receive. Finishing an assignment or classroom activity can evoke affective or emotional responses from a student. Completing a difficult task, particularly when much time and energy have been invested in it, is satisfying, but failing to complete a classroom activity may invoke feelings of shame and embarrassment. In terms of classical conditioning, it is easy to understand how this stimulus (task) and response (emotion) pairing may develop, and this is also one of the components of self-regulation.

Reciprocal Causation The key idea behind the social cognitive theory is the interdependence of its three components: environment, behaviour and the person (Figure 3.2). This interdependence, called reciprocal causation, means that each component affects the other components and, in turn, is affected by them (Bandura 1986). For example, changes in the environment lead to changes in both the cognitive and affective processes in the person, and in their behaviour; changes within the



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person lead to changes in their external environment and behaviour; and, finally, changes in a person’s behaviour affect both the environment and their cognitive and/ or affective state.

Conclusion Behavioural models of learning continue to be important tools for teachers to help shape student behaviour and to analyse the effectiveness of teaching strategies. An understanding of classical and operant conditioning will help teachers to analyse changes in their students’ behaviour as well as providing the basis for initiating environmental changes. On the other hand, the social cognitive theory helps teachers to realize the interdependence among student personality, student behaviour and the teaching environment. It reminds us, however, that changing the classroom is the key to changing student thinking and behaviour.

Note 1. It is now illegal for teachers in Hong Kong to force students to write lines, send them outside the classroom or use corporal punishment.

Learning Activities 1. Find a recent book on dog training, and identify the key behavioural principles involved in modifying the behaviour of dogs. Do dogs learn? How do you know when they do? 2. Prepare a 10-minute presentation on the work of Skinner for your students. What was his experimental model? How is conditioning used in classroom management? How is it used as an instructional tool? 3. Together with a friend, create a list of ten desirable classroom behaviours and ten undesirable ones. Describe each of these behaviours. 4. Individually, think of all of the reinforcers commonly used in the classroom and rate them according to their usefulness. Then classify them as primary or secondary reinforcers, and then as producing positive or negative reinforcement. Also classify them as concrete, social, activity, group, positive feedback or intrinsic reinforcers. Compare your answers with others in your class. What evidence do you have to prove that these reinforcers are effective?

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5. A ‘Certificate of Good Behaviour’ is sometimes used as a reward for good behaviour in the classroom. Classify this consequence as either a positive or negative reinforcer. Under which conditions is this certificate likely to be effective? 6. Think of the behaviours that a teacher performs during class. From a student’s perspective, which behaviours are desirable and undesirable? How can students reinforce the desirable behaviours? 7. Devise a list of desirable and undesirable classroom behaviours. Which of the desirable behaviours could be used as activity reinforcers for undesirable activities? What danger is there in using this approach? 8. Identify a desirable terminal behaviour in your next class. For three students, establish the baseline frequency for that behaviour. Devise a strategy (including the type of reinforcement and a reinforcement schedule) for changing each student’s baseline frequency of the terminal behaviour. Defend your strategies to a senior teacher. 9. Read again Winter’s (1991) description of the English teacher. Using diagrams, analyse the English teacher’s strategy in terms of operant conditioning. Identify clearly the behaviour, the reinforcer and the type of reinforcement. 10. Talk to your friends about their life aspirations. Ask them to identify what they will do to achieve them. Explain their responses in terms of the social cognitive theory. 11. Define vicarious reinforcement, using an example from a classroom you have observed. Define the converse, vicarious punishment, using a classroom example. When can vicarious punishment be used to suppress the desirable behaviour? 12. Categorize the four types of modelling in terms of their ‘cognitive difficulty’. Then observe a classroom and count the number of times each type of modelling occurs. What is the relationship between the ‘cognitive difficulty’ and the frequency with which each type of modelling is used? 13. Develop a set of teacher activities to develop self-regulated learning, including those related to goal-setting, planning, attention, choice of learning strategies, self-monitoring and self-evaluation (Ormrod 2008). 14. Follow the progress of one student over a period of several weeks. Prepare some brief notes describing the behaviour of this student, including punctuality, attendance, attitudes and achievements. Analyse the behaviour of this student in terms of reciprocal causation.

4 The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners Shane N. Phillipson

In response to the publication of The Bell Curve (Herrnstein and Murray 1994), an American Psychological Association taskforce published a review on the general field of intelligence (Neisser et al. 1996). They based their review on the following grounds: Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by taking thought. (p. 77)

This chapter focuses on some of the most important models of intelligence and how knowledge of these models can assist teachers to understand student diversity. As a full description of all the models of intelligence is not possible in one chapter, we emphasize those models that play a role in predicting the academic achievement of students. Research in intelligence can be very controversial and psychologists who study this area do not always agree on what it is they are studying. A good introduction to the controversies and lively arguments among psychologists on the nature of intelligence can be found in Brody (2000). After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • understand various theories of intelligence; • distinguish between low- and high-level models of intelligence; • explain the basis and limitations of different intelligence tests; and • apply their understanding of intelligence in supporting learners. In contemporary classrooms, students often compare themselves with others in terms of their academic ability. When asked about what academic ability means, they usually answer ‘being smart’, ‘having a good memory’, ‘able to think quickly’, ‘learns easily’ and ‘works very hard’. Each of these responses reflects a largely intuitive understanding of the nature of intelligence, which, in turn, can reflect the culture in which students live. When explaining the variation in students’ achievement, teachers often refer to differences in intelligence or creativity. To make informed judgements

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on the role of ‘intelligence’ and ‘creativity’ in achievement, teachers need to be familiar with the ways in which the scientific community understands these concepts and be able to apply the findings of relevant studies. For example, there are many books based on scientifically supported models which they can drawn on to enhance intelligence. Also, understanding the strengths, limitations, and sometimes misuse of intelligence tests is important for teachers as schools sometimes make important decisions on educational needs based on student IQ scores.

The Study of Intelligence Psychologists often disagree on the meaning of ‘intelligence’, and so it is imperative that researchers in this area explain clearly what they mean by the concept when reporting their findings. Anderson (1992) categorized the psychological models of intelligence as either low-level (or unitary) or high-level. Psychologists in the first category use tests to measure differences in intelligence and explain their origin by examining the physiological, biochemical, and behavioural differences in brain functions. On the other hand, some psychologists dismiss the biological basis of intelligence as being too simplistic, believing that the complexity of human intelligence requires a full understanding of the contexts in which people display their intelligence. In other words, people can demonstrate ‘academic intelligence’ when they are in school, ‘practical intelligence’ when solving real-world problems, ‘emotional intelligence’ when explaining their emotions and ‘social intelligence’ when interacting effectively with others. Anderson (1992) called these high-level models of intelligence. The study of intelligence continues to be an important and exciting area of research, in which many of the results are relevant to teaching. Indeed, many projects focus on understanding the basis of individual differences in intelligence with the aim of changing classroom practice to enhance learning.

Low-level Models of Intelligence Central to low-level theories is the idea that a very small number of traits lie behind all human thinking. These traits are referred to as ‘factors’ because their study is facilitated by factor analysis, a statistical procedure. Charles Spearman (1927) believed that all types of thinking depend on a single or ‘general’ factor: the g model of intelligence. Spearman referred to g as a mental



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energy that provides the force through which all thinking occurs, regardless of the tasks involved—that is, although different types of thinking can be measured by different tests, such as tests of verbal ability, memory and abstract reasoning, they all depend on g. Consequently, scores on these tasks can be explained by differences in g. The g model of intelligence was, and continues to be, controversial. Some of the disputes centre on the statistical procedures used as evidence to support the concept of g; and others have criticized claims that differences in g are dependent on geography (Lynn 2003), race (Jensen 1985, 1987, 1998b; Rushton and Nyborg 2003) and sex (Nyborg 2003). Arguments over the usefulness of appropriate tests—such as sensory-discrimination tests or tests of thinking (e.g. vocabulary and comprehension tests)—and analytic techniques have led to considering alternative models of intelligence (Brody 2000). For example, Thurstone (1938; Thurstone and Thurstone 1941) developed data analytic techniques which suggest that intelligence consists of a number of fundamental factors, including verbal comprehension, number facility, spatial reasoning, memory, and deductive and inductive abilities. Other multi-factor (also called hierarchical) models include those proposed by Burt (1949) and P. E. Vernon (1951), both of which were inspired by Spearman’s description of g. In Burt’s model, intelligence consists of both intellectual and practical (or behavioural) factors, which include mechanical and spatial abilities, with g being intellectual in nature. Each of these factors is further subdivided. Vernon’s model places g at the top of a hierarchy, which is then subdivided into a number of major group factors, minor group factors and specific factors. Verbaleducational (verbal, numerical and educational) and kinaesthetic-motor (practical, spatial, mechanical and physical) factors comprise the major group. Another influential low-level model of intelligence was proposed by Cattell (Cattell 1987; Horn 1966) in which intelligence depends on two components: fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). While gf is biologically determined, and its influence on thinking declines with age, gc is dependent on education and cultural influences, and its effect on thinking does not necessarily decline. Different views on the structure of intelligence are largely dependent on which intelligence tests are used and on how the scores on these tests are analysed. In a recent summary of studies, Carroll (2003) concluded that with the most appropriate data analytic tests and a comprehensive collection of tests, the best model of the structure of human cognitive abilities places g at the apex of a hierarchy of abilities (Davidson and Downing 2000) (Figure 4.1).

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LEVEL III

g

gf

gc

LEVEL II

QUANTITATIVE REASONING, KNOWLEDGE OF WORDS, ETC.

LEVEL I

Figure 4.1 Carroll’s structure of intelligence In this model, fluid g (gf) is highly correlated with g; and crystallized g (gc) is composed of general memory and learning, broad visual perception, broad auditory perception, broad retrieval ability, broad cognitive speediness and processing speed. (Figure derived from information in Davidson and Downing 2000, 38–39.)

Carroll (1996) described the structure of intelligence using a pyramid, ranging from very broad to highly specialized abilities. At the apex or Stratum III of the pyramid is g, the broadest of all abilities because it underlies all aspects of intelligent behaviour. Stratum II contains eight to ten more specialized abilities found in broad domains of behaviour, including gf. Stratum I contains 50 to 60 highly specialized skills or knowledge required in all domains. According to Carroll, gf is not the same as g, but it is correlated most with g. In the hierarchy of abilities, correlations between the abilities and g are weak, both within each stratum and from Stratum II to Stratum I. Other abilities may be found between each stratum, showing that the pyramid represents a range of abilities rather than three distinct levels. Although there is widespread support for Carroll’s three-stratum theory, whether g is separate from or identical to gf remains debatable (Davidson and Downing 2000). However, this has not discouraged researchers from trying to determine the precise nature of g. A survey of opinions among psychologists studying mental abilities showed a consensus that g is an important predictor of academic and job performance, and that tests of g are valid (Reeve and Charles 2008). Although these psychologists generally agree that there is more to intelligence than g, they also accept that g is very helpful in explaining intelligence.



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Psychometric Tests of Intelligence A wide variety of psychometric tests have been devised to measure intelligence, but before discussing them it is necessary to examine how ‘measurement’ itself is defined. In any classroom, it is clear that the students differ in many ways and this variability can be described using one of four measurement scales: nominal, interval, ordinal and ratio. The first obvious difference among these students is their gender: a student can be directly assigned the value ‘boy’ or ‘girl’. This simple variable is an example of a nominal measurement scale (boy or girl), and we can describe the number (or frequency) of boys and girls in the class in the form of a bar chart.

NUMBER OF BOYS AND GIRLS IN A CLASS

FREQUENCY (N)

25 20 15 10 5 0

BOYS

GIRLS

Figure 4.2 Bar chart showing a nominal measurement scale In this hypothetical class of 40 students, there are 22 boys and 18 girls.

Also differences in student height can be measured directly using, for example, a measuring tape, and the unit of measurement is decided beforehand [centimetres (cm) or, with greater precision, to the nearest millimetre (mm)]. The information obtained is based on a ratio measurement scale as it is theoretically possible (although a practical impossibility) to have a student with a height of 0 cm; and we know that a student with a height of 100 cm is twice the height of one 50 cm tall. After grouping students with similar heights, we can report the students’ heights using either a bar chart or a line graph.

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HEIGHT OF STUDENTS IN A CLASS 16 14

FREQUENCY (N)

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 60.5-62.4

62.5-67.4

67.5-72.4

72.5-77.4

77.5-82.4

82.5-87.4

HEIGHT (CM)

Figure 4.3 Line graph showing a ratio measurement scale In this hypothetical class of 40 students, 14 students have a height between 72.5 and 77.4 cm, 12 are between 77.5 and 82.4 cm, nine are between 67.5 and 72.4 cm and three are between 82.5 and 87.4 cm. The remaining two students have a height between 60.5 and 62.4 cm or 62.5 and 67.4 cm.

In the above examples, the concepts of gender and height are clearly understood, and usually there is no doubt about the category to which a student belongs. An interval scale, in contrast, has an arbitrary zero point, and although the difference between scores of 10 and 20, for example, are the same as the difference between 30 and 40, a measurement of 20 is not twice that of 10. Using the centigrade scale to describe temperature is an example of an interval measurement scale: a temperature of 0˚C does not mean the absence of temperature and 30˚C is not twice as hot as 15˚C. An ordinal measurement scale is often used in education research. For example, parents may be asked to rate their agreement with the statement ‘My son/daughter is good at mathematics’ using a scale ranging from 1 to 4 where 1= highly agree, 2 = moderately agree, 3 = moderately disagree and 4 = highly disagree. If we are interested in each student’s intelligence, we have to be clear about what we want to measure. If we consider that g is the best model of intelligence, then we need a test to measure it. However, g—whatever it is—cannot be measured directly, only indirectly by looking at behaviours that depend on g. If we believe that all thinking depends on g, then it is necessary to be clear about what ‘thinking’ is and then create a task that involves it. Different answers on this issue have led to different measures of intelligence. The measurement scale for measuring differences in intelligence in most tests is an interval scale, on which individuals can be ranked in terms of the scores they obtain, and the difference in intelligence between two people with IQs of, say, 120



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and 100 is the same as for two others with IQs of 80 and 100. However, this does not mean that a person with an IQ of 130 is twice as intelligent as someone with an IQ of 65. Intelligence tests consist of a set(s) of tasks that (are thought to) reflect intelligence. Psychologists decide on their definition of intelligence before they begin to design tasks to measure it; and if they disagree on what intelligence is, then their views on which tasks are the best measures will also differ. Despite these difficulties, a number of psychometric tests have been developed for measuring individual differences in intelligence, including the Stanford-Binet versions IV and V (SB-IV and SB-V), the Wechsler intelligence scales and the various versions of the Raven’s matrices tests.

The Stanford-Binet intelligence tests The Stanford-Binet versions IV (SB-IV) and V (SB-V) are designed as individual tests (rather than as group tests) for people aged two to 85 years. The StanfordBinet tests five factors: fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visualspatial reasoning and working memory, each of which is assessed in two separate domains, namely verbal and non-verbal. The tests are then scored to produce estimates of a person’s non-verbal IQ, verbal IQ and full-scale IQ. These estimates are reported using an interval measurement scale (M = 100; SD = 15). With a range of IQ test scores from 40 to 160, the SB-IV and SB-V tests can be used to identify gifted performance, where ‘gifted’ is defined as an IQ greater than 130, representing less than 2% of the population. The verbal and non-verbal sub-tests also consider individuals with limited language abilities as well as those with learning and mental disabilities. According to the designers of the tests, both the SB-IV and SB-V are designed to measure mental abilities important in school achievement. A teacher’s first contact with these tests is likely to be when parents report the results of their children’s psychological assessment. Usually, the SB intelligence tests are given by a clinical psychologist as many countries impose strict regulations on who can administer and interpret them. In interpreting individual scores, psychologists depend on norm tables, which are summaries of scores obtained from a large number of people across all age groups. When using such tables, psychologists need to know the age of the testee to make a direct comparison with others of the same age. It is also important that the norms are obtained from a large number of individuals from the same cultural background. With developments in research on intelligence, the various versions of the Stanford-Binet test have been updated. For example, in response to changing views on the importance of memory in intelligence, SB-V places more emphasis on working memory and short-term memory while retaining reliance on measures of gc

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and gf. In addition to reasoning abilities, both SB-IV and SB-V incorporate tests of knowledge, including verbal and non-verbal tests. SB-IV is based on a three-level hierarchical structure of intelligence with g at the apex. Below g are gc, gf and short-term memory. Moreover, gc is divided into verbal reasoning and quantitative reasoning, and gf into abstract and visual reasoning. In measuring intelligence using the SB-IV, psychologists use tests of verbal and quantitative reasoning, abstract and visual reasoning and short-term memory, although some suggest that this theoretical model of intelligence is not supported by research (Kaufman 2000).

Wechsler intelligence scales The Wechsler series of intelligence scales is designed to measure the intelligence of people of different ages. Currently, the revised Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-R) is used with children aged three to seven years; those aged six to seventeen years, are tested using the third version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III); and beyond this age, intelligence is measured using the third version of Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III). According to Kaufman (2000), the Wechsler intelligence scales are based on the idea that intelligence is a ‘global entity’ (p. 455) and that each of the tasks within the scales can provide only a brief reflection of intelligence. In contrast to the SB-IV and SB-V, the theoretical foundation of the Wechsler scales of intelligence is not viewed as a hierarchy of abilities, nor is it possible to test intelligence directly. The WPPSI-R contains two broad sub-sets: verbal and performance scales. The verbal scale sub-test includes tasks that involve general factual knowledge, comprehension, arithmetic, vocabulary, similarities and sentences; and the performance scale sub-test involves object assembly, block designs, mazes, picture completion, geometric designs and animal pegs. Each sub-test is scored separately, and the results are reported as scaled scores (M = 10; SD = 3). The scaled scores are then combined and reported as verbal, performance and full-scale IQ scores with a mean set at 100 (SD = 15). To arrive at these scores, a child’s test results are compared directly with tables of norms, consisting of test results obtained from a large number of children of the same age. The WISC-III also consists of verbal and performance scales. In the verbal scale there are four compulsory sub-tests (general factual knowledge, comprehension, arithmetic, and vocabulary and similarities) and one noncompulsory sub-test (digit span). The performance scale comprises five compulsory sub-tests (picture completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly and coding) and two non-compulsory sub-tests (mazes and



The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners 103

symbol search). As well as providing scale scores for each sub-test (M = 10; SD = 3) as well as verbal, performance, and full-scale IQ scores, scores from all the subtests, both compulsory and non-compulsory, can be combined to provide a score that reflects freedom from distraction, processing speed, verbal comprehension and perceptual organization. As in WISC-III, the WAIS-III provides verbal, performance, and full-scale IQ scores (M = 100; SD = 15) as well as scaled scores for all sub-scales. There are 14 sub-scales, with seven each for the verbal and performance scales. In design, the subscales are similar to those used in the WPPSI and WISC, but they include a new subtest called ‘matrix reasoning’. Also, the sub-scales can be rearranged to yield fullscale scores in verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, processing speed and working memory. The WAIS-III, which is designed to measure gf , and both visual and verbal working memory, provides full-scale IQ scores between 45 and 155.

Culture-fair and culture-dependent tests Many of the tasks in the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests depend on knowledge about one particular culture, and so answering questions in the tests depends not only on a certain level of intelligence but also on a level of familiarity with the culture concerned. For example, the vocabulary, picture completion and picture arrangement sub-tests developed for use by US students depend on testees being familiar with the context of the sub-tests. Tests that require adaptation to a specific culture are referred to as ‘culture-dependent tests’. If testees are unfamiliar with the cultural context of a test, low test scores may be attributed to their lack of experience with the context rather than their inability to answer the questions. Therefore, comparing the score of a Chinese student with the norm tables obtained from US students is inappropriate. To overcome this problem, both the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests have been adapted to the culture in which they are used, and there is a Hong Kong version of both tests (in Chinese), which contain questions that testees in Hong Kong are expected to be know about.

Raven’s tests of intelligence In contrast to intelligence tests such as the SB-IV, SB-V and Wechsler intelligence scales, the Raven’s tests of intelligence are usually described as ‘culture-fair’ as they do not assume that solving problems in the test needs familiarity with the items. Other than translating the instructions, Raven’s tests are not adapted for different cultures. Higher test scores among Asian students, however, are considered to reflect

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in part their use of ideograms to represent their written languages. In these tests, an ordered sequence of problems of increasing difficulty is considered to be a pure measure of g, the unitary trait underlying general intelligence. Raven’s tests have a number of forms, including Raven’s Coloured Matrices, the Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices (RPM), and the Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM).The first two versions are used with children, and the last with adolescents and adults. The three tests retain the same basic structure, with only slight differences in format. The testees examine the pattern of figures from columns left to right and then from the top to bottom row. The figure at the bottom right corner is missing, and they need to choose the correct figure from a number of possibilities (Figure 4.4).

? A

D

B

C

E

F

Figure 4.4 Example of item in a Ravens-like test For Raven’s tests, participants are instructed to look from left to right and from the top to bottom row in order to correctly identify the missing figure from the six possible figures, labelled A–F.

Again, the raw score obtained by a student is only meaningful when compared with a table of norms obtained from a large number of individuals of a similar age. Based on these tables, a raw score is converted into a percentile to compare directly the testee’s mental ability with that of other testees of the same age. This comparison uses a percentile or standardized score (z-score), although deviation IQ score can also be estimated if required.

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The Stanford-Binet, Wechsler and Raven’s tests are just three of the many tests that can be used to assess intelligence. Further information on these tests, as well as other tests of intelligence, can be found in Salvia and Ysseldyke (2001).

Interpreting IQ Scores Stern (1912, cited in Anderson 1992) defined IQ (intelligence quotient) initially as a ratio between mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA): IQ =

MA ×100. CA

SCORE ON TEST

To illustrate the relationship between MA and CA, consider Figure 4.5. The average score obtained from a large number of people across a range of ages increases with age, as represented by the curved line. Three different people scored X on the intelligence test. Depending on their age, three possible interpretations arise. An eight-year-old scored exactly the same as the average score of eight-yearolds — that is, the child’s MA = CA and the IQ is 100. A nine-year﹣old with the average score of eight-year-olds has an IQ of 89 (8/9 x 100), whereas an eight-yearold with the average score of nine-year-olds has an IQ of 113 (9/8 x 100).

AVERAGE SCORE LOW IQ X HIGH IQ

CHILD B

CHILD A

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

AGE (YEARS) MENTAL AGE

Figure 4.5 Relationship between mental age (MA) and chronological age (CA) Child A has a CA of seven years and Child B has a CA of nine years, and both achieve the same score (X) on a test of mental ability. This score is the average score obtained by eight-year-old children. The IQ of child A is more than 100, and the IQ of child B is less than 100. The figure is reproduced from M. A. Anderson (1992), Intelligence and development: A cognitive theory, Figure 1.1, page 7, with the kind permission of Wiley-Blackwell.

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Today, IQ scores are not calculated as a ratio between MA and CA, although the relationship between mental age and chronological age persists in the minds of many people. Instead, an IQ score is calculated as a deviation IQ, with a person’s IQ score being estimated as a deviation (or difference) from a mean score obtained from a large and representative sample of people of the same age. To do this, the raw scores obtained by this sample on an intelligence test are converted to standardized scores with a mean of 100 and an SD of 15. A normal curve, with the centre at 100 and an SD of 15, describes the distribution of IQ scores. When calculated in this way, it is possible to compare a student’s IQ score with the scores of other students in the same age group. For example, a student’s IQ score of 100 is ‘average’ as nearly 70% of the scores obtained by other students are between 85 and 115. Another student’s IQ score of 130 (two standard deviations above the mean score of 100) is unusual because only 2% of students obtain this score or higher. A score of 70 is also unusual, because again only 2% of students would obtain this score or lower. A number of studies have shown that IQ scores are stable from year to year. This means that a person’s mental ability in comparison with other people of the same age is stable across time. Although mental abilities increase as people become older, individual IQ scores do not differ significantly. The stability of a person’s IQ score over time supports the idea that IQ measures an important aspect of the intellectual abilities of children (Anderson 1992).

Intelligence and Education Psychometric tests of intelligence began with the earliest version of the StanfordBinet test. Alfred Binet, a French psychologist working in the early twentieth century, was interested in identifying students who would benefit most from schooling. Since Binet’s time, as noted below, studies of the relationship between intelligence tests and school achievement have shown that intelligence tests are strong predictors of academic success. Consequently, intelligence tests have been used to classify and select students for the purpose of educational placement. To establish the relationship between intelligence and school achievement often depends on how intelligence and academic achievement are defined. Nevertheless, the relationship between them is very well established (Jensen 1998a). In a recent review of existing research, Strenze (2007) concluded that intelligence, as measured by many different tests, is a ‘powerful predictor of educational, occupational, and financial success’. Similarly, Gagné and St Pere (2002) found that ‘cognitive abilities’ (p. 88), as measured by two psychometric tests of intelligence, strongly predict academic performance. Furthermore, Marjoribanks (1989, cited in Strenze

The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners 107



2007) found that the correlation between RPM scores and educational success ranged from 0.29 to 0.53, depending on the ethnic origin of students. However, Strenze also pointed out that the socioeconomic status of parents and school grades are almost as powerful as intelligence in predicting educational, occupational and financial success. A recent study of over 200 students in Primary 5 and 6 in a Hong Kong school estimated the relationship between intelligence, as measured by the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test, and school achievement (Phillipson and Phillipson 2008) (Figure 4.6). The students’ performance in mathematics, English and Chinese were reported on a scale ranging from 1 (lowest achievement) to 7 (highest achievement). The study showed that 51%, 9% and 33% of the variability in mathematics, English, and Chinese achievement scores, respectively, can be explained by the students’ IQ scores.

.51

ENGLISH

.72 .00 eriq

IQ

.31

ereng

.09

CHINESE

erchi

.57 .33

MATHEMATICS

ermath

Figure 4.6 Structural equation model showing the relationship between student intelligence and student achievement in Hong Kong Student intelligence was estimated using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test, and academic achievement was reported on a scale ranging from 1 (lowest) to 7 (highest). The model shows that 51%, 9% and 33% of the variability in mathematics, English and Chinese achievement scores, respectively, can be explained by student IQ (data from Phillipson and Phillipson 2008).

In the field of mental retardation (also called ‘intellectual disability’), researchers have often used intelligence tests to estimate the levels of intellectual functioning. For example, the Hong Kong Education Bureau recommends the use of psychometric intelligence tests to help identify students who may benefit from additional educational provision (Poon-McBrayer and McBrayer 2007). These students may be achieving below their potential, and intelligence tests may help to confirm their teachers’ or parents’ suspicions that there may be mental retardation

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(Detterman, Gabriel and Ruthsatz 2000). Although intelligence tests are still used to help identify students, modern definitions of mental retardation now include the absence of adaptive skills, such as communication and self-care skills (PoonMcBrayer and Lian 2002). Studies on mental retardation, along with studies on memory (very short-term memory, primary memory, rehearsal and long-term memory) have contributed to our understanding of intelligence (Detterman et al. 2000). These kinds of research have allowed the design of projects, such as the Abecedarian project (Ramsey and Campbell 1992) and Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment project (Feuerstein, Randi and Rynders 1988), which aim to overcome some of the environmental factors contributing to mental retardation. Apart from assisting in the identification of students with mental retardation, many education programmes for the gifted rely on the initial process of identifying giftedness through IQ test scores. Gross (1993) described the following levels of giftedness as defined by using IQ scores. A person with an IQ of 130, for example, is at least two SDs above the average score of others of the same age; and, by definition, an IQ score of 160 is achieved by less than 0.001% of the population, making the identification of these people literally one-in-a-million. In Hong Kong, giftedness is defined partly on the basis of scores obtained from tests of mental ability.

‘Intelligent’ Research Numerous research programmes have attempted to explain individual differences in intelligence (as measured by intelligence tests) by focusing on the correlation between performance in intelligence tests and in simple tasks (e.g. reaction time and inspection time), and between performance in intelligence tests and biological markers (e.g. glucose uptake, functioning of neurons and brain size). In broad terms, these programmes test the hypothesis that differences in intelligence can be explained by differences in the speed and efficiency of information processing— that is, high scores in intelligence tests depend upon increased speed and/or greater efficiency in the biological processing of information.

Intelligence and brain speed Reaction-time (RT) studies represent attempts to test ‘brain speed’ models of intelligence (Deary 2003). In typical experiments, participants place their preferred finger on a ‘home’ button (see Figure 4.7), surrounding which are ‘push’ buttons at equal distances from it.



The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners 109

HOME Figure 4.7 Reaction-time tasks The ‘home’ button is surrounded by ‘push’ buttons, each of which can be illuminated. As one ‘push’ button is illuminated, the participant reacts as quickly as possible in moving from the ‘home’ button to the ‘push’ button.

The experimenter controls which ‘push’ button is illuminated, and the participant is asked to push the illuminated button as quickly as possible. Jensen (1987, 1998b) considered that this task relied on the speed of processing information rather than on more complex thinking processes. However, other researchers believe that reaction time tasks are not as simple as first thought, with differences in RT being dependent, for instance, on attention and motivation. Despite these criticisms, there is some agreement that the correlation between RT and intelligence is around -0.2 to -0.3, and that, with increasing intelligence, there is a modest reduction in reaction time. To overcome problems in the interpretation of reaction time, inspection-time (IT) studies have been proposed. In IT studies, participants are asked to judge whether two vertical lines are of different or the same length (Figure 4.8), with the two lines usually being the legs of a smaller horizontal line. Participants are shown the target (a or b) for an increasingly shorter period of time, and are asked to judge which leg is shorter. For each time, the responses are marked as either ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ and the percentage of correct responses is calculated for a number of trials over the same length of time. A person’s IT score (in msec) is defined at the last point where the responses are 75% correct.

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STIMULUS

MASK

OPTION 1 TIME (ms)

OPTION 2 TIME (ms)

OPTION 3 TIME (ms)

Figure 4.8 Inspection time tasks For each option, the stimulus is shown for a decreasing amount of time, followed by the mask. Individuals are asked to judge whether the stimulus leg is longer on the right or left side. With decreasing time, the percentage of errors increases.

Given enough time, the task is very straightforward, and almost everyone can give correct responses 100% of the time. However, if the time given to view the figure is reduced to around 100 msec, the task becomes more difficult and errors are made. The correlation between IT and intelligence quotient (IQ) has been shown to range from -0.4 to -0.9 (Anderson 1992; Grudnik and Kranzler 2001; Nettelbeck 2003). This suggests that, as intelligence scores increase, the time it takes to inspect decreases. Nettelbeck, one of the many supporters of the IT approach to understanding the basis of intelligence, contended that inspection time reflects processing speed for very simple tasks. Specifically, research evidence shows that IT correlates well with an IQ sub-test that requires speed but not with sub-tests that require reasoning. Although these studies suggest that IT does reflect some aspects of intelligence, what these aspects are remains uncertain.

Intelligence as increased brain efficiency Many studies on the speed of processing information (i.e. the efficiency hypothesis of intelligence) have concentrated on measuring electrical activity in



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the brain (Davidson and Downing 2000). Using an electroencephalogram (EEG), the brain’s electrical activity can be measured when the person is active or quiet, thinking about complex problems, trying not to think at all, or responding to a simple stimulus (e.g. a flash of light). Electrical activities can be measured at different locations in the brain and at different times. The interest of researchers has focused on finding out if differences in intelligence are related to differences in EEG recordings. EEG recordings taken after people have been given a simple stimulus, such as a flash of light, show differences in the complexity of electrical activities (Blinkhorn and Hendrickson 1982; Eysenck 1986; Robinson et al. 1984). Called ‘evoked’ electrical potentials, a higher degree of complexity is related to higher IQ scores (Bates et al. 1995). More recently, Thatcher, North and River (2005), using the Wechsler intelligence tests, showed that there are strong relationships between different aspects of EEG patterns and IQ, including the amplitude of the EEG and the complexity of brain waves. Their findings support the hypothesis that there is a strong relationship between increased neural efficiency and both increased brain wave complexity and increased intelligence (Barry et al. 2005). In a review of the research in this area, Vernon et al. (2000) concluded that neurophysiological studies of intelligence focus on models of processing efficiency and on the errorfree processing of information, although links between experimental results and higher levels of intellectual tasks are not easy to make.

Intelligence and brain size Assessing the relationship between brain volume and intelligence depends on sophisticated (and expensive) brain imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computerized axial tomography (see Anderson and Nyborg 2003; Luders et al. 2009; Vernon et al. 2000). Studies show that correlations between brain volume and measures of intelligence range from 0.07 to 0.69, which means that brain volume can be explained by up to 47% of the variance in intelligence scores. Vernon et al. (2000) noted that the true relationship between brain volume and intelligence is probably no less than 0.4. Although the reasons behind the moderate correlation between brain size and intelligence are not yet known, Vernon et al. (2000) believed that it is neither because of an increased numbers of neurons nor other reasons such as better nutrition. Other studies, however, argue that there is little evidence linking brain size with g (Carey 2007).

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Intelligence and glucose metabolism Like any other organ in the body, the brain uses oxygen and glucose to power its metabolic activities. Although the brain has an extensive network of blood vessels, it has no significant glucose reserves to ensure a sufficient and continuous supply of oxygen and glucose. The constant availability of glucose and oxygen is vital because the brain uses approximately the same amount of glucose and oxygen regardless of whether the person is sleeping, resting or thinking. Consequently, blood supply to the brain is very fast, taking, for example, only around seven seconds for a drop of blood to enter and leave the brain. The patterns of blood vessels differ within different regions of the brain. For instance, the brain’s outer layer (grey matter) has a more extensive network than the inner layer (white matter) because of its higher metabolic rate—a distinction which is important as the grey matter is where more complex thinking occurs. The relationship between the brain’s metabolic activity and intelligence can be estimated using positron emission tomography (PET) scans. A radioactive version of glucose, and a PET scan of a person’s brain, will show where the glucose is being metabolized; and the rate of glucose metabolism in the brain, or cerebral glucose metabolic rate (GMR), can be correlated with scores obtained from intelligence tests. Some recent studies have shown that different thinking tasks require different amounts of glucose. For example, completing the Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices tests (RAPM) requires more brain activity than simply paying attention (Haier and Nyborg 2003; Haier et al. 1988). Interestingly, however, there is a negative correlation between GMR and Raven’s scores. Although the completion of Raven’s tests require more energy than a simple thinking task, the amount of required energy generally decreases as the person’s intelligence increases, which suggests that the brain becomes more efficient with increasing intelligence. These results are complemented by other studies (e.g. Haier et al.1992; Jensen 1998b) showing that, after practice, complicated thinking tasks also require less glucose. PET scan studies are generally interpreted in terms of the biological efficiency of the brain (Davidson and Downing 2000). In other words, variability in intelligence depends on differences in the physiological functioning of the brain neurons and of other supporting tissues. Additional studies with more sophisticated research techniques have shown that people with high RAPM scores have higher GMR compared with those with average scores on memory tasks, which are more difficult for them. According to Jensen (1998b), a higher GMR reflects a greater number of neural units used by individuals with a high IQ compared to those with an average IQ.



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Other research studies using advanced brain imaging techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have confirmed the relationship between the biology of the brain and intelligence. Such studies have shown positive correlations of 0.36 between total brain volume (including grey matter and white matter) and IQ scores, with most showing greater correlations between IQ and the grey matter of the frontal and prefrontal cortex of the brain. Luders et al. (2009) interpreted these findings in terms of the cellular arrangement within the brain. Grey matter consists mainly of dendrites and their surrounding cells, whereas white matter comprises mainly myelinated axons. High intelligence, therefore, reflects increased neuronal efficiency that depends partly on using few of the numerous possible neurons and their associated dendritic connections in the grey matter. Within the white matter, high intelligence may depend on the enhanced transmission of nerve impulses, reflecting the greater density of myelinated axons. Other studies are beginning to focus on other regions of the brain. For example, the positive correlation between the cross-sectional area of the corpus callosum and IQ can show that the transfer of information between the brain’s left and right hemispheres is better in those with a high IQ than those with an average IQ. The future development of this type of work is expected to focus on the relationship between specific cognitive tasks and the anatomical, physiological and biochemical correlates of intelligence.

Correlation studies and models of intelligence: A cautionary note In general, we need to be cautious when interpreting studies that measure correlations, particularly when trying to understand intelligence using biology-based models. In statistical terms, correlation and causality are not the same. Although correlation is a required condition for causality, it is not sufficient. In other words, without correlation, there can never be causality, but the correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean that a change in one variable directly causes a change in the other. For instance, consider the following study of the relationship between academic achievement and income. In surveying 100 children in a school, the researcher administers a test of mathematical achievement and gathers information about family income, and finds a positive correlation between achievement and income. Clearly, income does not directly cause a child to be better in mathematics, but high income may allow parents to hire private tutors for their children, particularly if they are very concerned about their children’s grades in mathematics. Likewise, in correlation studies relating intelligence and brain efficiency, the possibility that both vary because of a third unknown cause cannot be ruled out.

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Differences in Intelligence across Groups One of the most controversial aspects of low-level models of intelligence is the link between intelligence and various groups of people. For example, both Jensen (1969), and later Herrnstein and Murray (1994), reported evidence which they believed supported the conclusion that different races have different levels of intelligence. Controversy centred on whether these differences are genetic in origin or the result of different environmental conditions (Loehlin 2000; Lynn 2003; Rushton and Nyborg 2003). Both Lynn, Rushton and Nyborg, proposed that IQ differences between races occur because of differences in evolutionary history—for instance, East Asians have the highest average IQ because of their more frequent exposure to the effects of dramatic changes in climate conditions. These authors argue that environmental and genetic factors account for differences in IQ among different racial groups, and this helps scientists to make predictions about the IQ of members of these groups. Differences in intelligence in rural versus urban areas, occupations and, interestingly, generational differences (commonly referred to as the Flynn effect) have also been studied (Brody 2000; Nettelbeck and Wilson 2004). Should there be substantial differences in these groups, an important question is whether such differences are caused by genetic or environmental factors. Although modern intelligence tests have been designed to eliminate bias towards either sex, various cognitive tasks have consistently shown sex-based differences. As Nyborg (2003) and Loehlin (2000) pointed out, the study of sexbased differences in intelligence needs to focus on specific cognitive tasks rather than on overall test scores. Both Nyborg and Loehlin concluded that there are small average differences in intelligence that favour boys, although there are substantial differences between boys and girls in terms of specific cognitive tasks. For instance, mental rotation tasks favour boys (Masters and Sanders 1993), whereas verbal tasks favour girls (Hyde, Fennema and Lamon 1990). Differences in average intelligence that favour boys, as well as differences in specific cognitive tasks, help to explain the proportional over-representation of boys among students who demonstrate mathematical precocity (Benbow 1992; Lubinski, Benbow and Morelock 2000). In summarizing the large number of scientific studies in this area, Loehlin (2000) explained that studying these differences can lead to a better understanding of human evolutionary and social history and help to reduce the negative effects of stereotyping. On the other hand, Sternberg and Grigorenko (2005) argued that the concept of ‘race’ is ill-defined and it is therefore impossible to draw conclusions about ‘racial’ differences. Many scientists have studied group differences in intelligence. However, they do not always adopt the same research design or use the same tests, which have led



The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners 115

others to doubt their overall conclusions (Brody 2003). In addition, the results of these studies are not always ‘politically correct’ (Nyborg 2003) and are criticized on the basis of ideology rather than science. Other scientists argue that low-level models of intelligence do not fully reflect the full range of human intellectual potential. A number of more recent models define intelligence as being able to develop and use knowledge, with the usefulness of knowledge depending largely on the cultural context of the individual. Anderson (1992) called these high-level models of intelligence.

High-level Models of Intelligence As explained earlier, low-level models of intelligence are based on the idea that intelligence tests measure a small number of traits which are mostly attributable to differences in biology (i.e. differences in the characteristics of nervous systems). According to Anderson (1992, 2), studying individual differences in intelligence relies on measures that ‘require little or no knowledge, or ... [are] purely physiological’. Some scientists believe this view of intelligence is too simplistic and that to fully understand all the ways in which people can demonstrate intelligent behaviour, it is necessary to consider the cognitive processes that vary according to experience (knowledge) and culture (Anderson 1992). It is important to note that many supporters of high-level theories do not dismiss the g model of intelligence as incorrect, but merely find it to be incomplete. The following section outlines a number of high-level models of intelligence, including Guilford’s structure of intellect model, Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

Guilford’s structure of intellect Guilford (1977, 1985) proposed a structure of intellect (SOI) model of intelligence which contains up to 150 independent abilities, each derived from a unique combination of different operations, content and product. Because there are five types of operations (cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production and evaluations), five types of content (figural-auditory, figural visual, symbolic, semantic and behavioural) and six types of product (units, classes, relations, systems, transformations and implications), the possible combinations produce 150 unique abilities, each measured by its own test. Although the SOI did not receive much attention from other researchers, Meeker (1969) and others have used it as a framework for classroom teachers to understand and develop their students’ intellectual abilities.

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Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence Robert J. Sternberg, one of the most important figures in the field of intelligence, developed his triarchic theory of intelligence (1985, 1988, 2003) based on the idea that intelligent behaviour is not fixed but changes over time; and he also considered that definitions of intelligence differ across cultures (Sternberg 2004). Based on an information-processing perspective, Sternberg believed that there are three information-processing components of intelligence (a metacomponent, performance component and knowledge component) and that these can be applied in three aspects of intelligence (analytic intelligence, practical intelligence and creative intelligence). In broad terms, the information-processing components serve to solve problems and to produce a product through processes that selectively encode, combine and compare information. The metacomponent is responsible for the overall arrangement of the processing components in setting goals, and planning and monitoring progress towards the solution of a problem or final product. The information-processing components of the triarchic theory are most fundamental in the three aspects of intelligence he identified and their efficient application is important for an individual to achieve academic success. The metacomponents have eight functions: 1. to become aware that a problem exists; 2. to decide on the nature of the problem; 3. to select which performance and knowledge acquisition components will be used to solve the problem; 4. to select a strategy by which the performance and knowledge acquisition components can be combined; 5. to select mental representations of information that the components and strategies can utilize; 6. to allocate resources for the solution of the problem; 7. to monitor and modify processes 1–6; and 8. to evaluate the solution. The performance components execute the instructions of the metacomponents. In contrast to metacomponents, there are many more performance components, with most having specific focuses. Performance components include encoding, inference, mapping and application, which can be applied in inductive reasoning tasks (e.g. solving analogies and matrices and series completion). The efficiency of these performance components is commonly measured by intelligence tests, such as Raven’s and Wechsler tests. Knowledge acquisition components include the processes of selective encoding, selective combination and selective comparison. Working together, the three components select important from irrelevant information, and they combine



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the selected information to form a meaningful whole. Finally, selective comparison relates new information with information already stored in memory. The knowledge acquisition components are important in the development of the performance components and metacomponents. The overall application of processing components is called ‘analytic intelligence’. Sternberg (2003) believed that all three components are important in every culture, although the nature of the problems may differ across cultures, and that low-level intelligence tests reflect the processing components, which are significant in academic or analytic intelligence. Practical intelligence is exhibited when the processing components are applied in solving real-world problems. Individuals demonstrate practical intelligence when they either adapt to or change the environment. According to Sternberg (2003, 377), practical intelligence relies heavily on the development of tacit knowledge— knowledge that ‘is [neither] explicitly taught … [nor] usually … verbalized’ (p. 377)—and tacit knowledge does not appear to be related to IQ scores. The third part of Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence is concerned with the development of tacit knowledge and with the processes that enable people to benefit from real-world experiences. In solving novel problems, this component, called the experiential component, draws on the knowledge acquisition components to ‘extract and apply relevant information’ (Davidson and Downing 2000, 43). The experiential components can compare new experiences with existing knowledge to create new patterns of knowledge—an aspect of intelligence which is important in creativity. Intelligent people can subconsciously and automatically apply both analytic and tacit knowledge to new contexts, thereby reducing their reliance on attention and working memory (see Chapter 2). Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence is a theory of individual differences: individuals may be strong in one or more of the three aspects of intelligence. In other words, being strong in the processing components helps to explain analytic intelligence. However, an individual who is strong in analytic intelligence is not necessarily strong in practical or creative intelligence. Despite being convinced that the g factor is behind lower-level tests that commonly measure intelligence, including his analytic intelligence, Sternberg believed that g cannot explain the two additional and particularly important aspects of intelligence. This view, however, was challenged by Brody (2006) who cited evidence that tests of practical and creative intelligence in fact reflect a dependence on g. Sternberg is convinced that intelligence can be developed in the classroom and with his co-workers has developed practical activities that can be used in class to foster analytic, practical (or successful) and creative intelligence. These activities are described later in this chapter.

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Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences Perhaps the most widely known high-level model of intelligence is Howard Gardner’s (1993) theory of multiple intelligences (MI). However, Gardner has commented that there is widespread misunderstanding of the MI theory and it is being used in ways which were not originally intended. It should also be noted that, despite its popularity among teachers, most psychologists believe that there is no scientific evidence to support the theory. For Gardner, intelligence is ‘the ability to solve problems or to create products within domains that are valued within one or more cultural settings’ (Gardner 1993). This ability depends on the interactions of at least eight independent intelligences, namely logical-mathematical intelligence, verbal linguistic intelligence, musical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and naturalistic intelligence. Other studies have proposed the addition of spiritual (or existential) intelligence. Gardner (1993) based his theory on a number of different pieces of evidence, including: • neuropsychological studies showing the link between brain impairment and specific areas of brain function and abilities; • studies on exceptional individuals, such as the gifted and artistic; • developmental trajectories; • research on identifiable, culture-based notation systems; and • evidence of fundamental abilities from evolutionary and cultural studies. In developing the multiple intelligences (MI) theory, Gardner believed that the g factor model of intelligence, along with its associated tests, is related to his verballinguistic, logical-mathematical and spatial intelligences. However, he considered that the focus of the g factor model is too narrow, and human achievement can be better explained by postulating the existence of additional intelligences. Each intelligence in the MI theory needs to be measured in its original context rather than through pencil-and-paper tests. Thus, for example, musical intelligence is best measured in real-world contexts, such as in playing a musical instrument. Gardner maintained that to be a successful teacher, for instance, depends on the interaction of two or more different intelligences working together and that other professions depend on a combination of still other intelligences. Despite its widespread popularity, Gardner has warned of the potential misuse of his theory, explaining, for example, that an intelligence is not the same as a domain. Domains are organized sets of activities where it is possible to identify different levels of expertise, requiring the interaction of different intelligences. Gardner also pointed out that, while MI is an unproven theory, it has been successful in practical applications. Lastly, he viewed MI as not being



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incompatible with the g model of intelligence and considered that the value of the MI theory lies in its recognition that each person is different and that there are many ways of demonstrating intelligence. The scientific community has generally been critical of the MI theory. For instance, Anderson (1992, 67) criticized the theory because of its untestability which is linked to the lack of consistency in its theoretical basis: intelligence is ‘sometimes a behavior, sometimes a cognitive process, and sometimes a structure in the brain’. Furthermore, the link between these different conceptual levels has not yet been fully explained. At the fundamental level, the seemingly arbitrary choice of criteria used by Gardner as markers of intelligence has never been justified. In 2006, in a book Howard Gardner under fire (Schaler 2006), leading experts who disagreed with aspects of Gardner’s MI theory explained their reasons (to which Gardner responded). Many of Anderson’s criticisms are echoed in this book, including the arbitrariness of the selection criteria (White 2006) and the lack of any objective test for any of his intelligences (Brody 2006), again rendering the MI theory untestable.

Emotional intelligence Alongside Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Gardner’s MI theory, emotional intelligence is often described as an alternative model of intelligence (Mayer, Salovey and Caruso 2000). Although emotional intelligence is mostly associated with the work of Goleman (1995), there are, in fact, two other models mentioned below that share the same name. Goleman (1995) defined ‘emotional intelligence’ as self-control, zeal and resistance, and self-motivation. Those with high emotional intelligence show evidence of recognizing and managing their emotions; they harness their emotions to achieve. Emotional intelligence also involves the ability to recognize and empathize with the emotional states of others and to use this ability to manage relationships effectively. Bar-On (1997) viewed emotional intelligence as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that help a person to cope successfully with his/ her environment. Central to this model is a series of interpersonal skills, including self-awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, independence, social responsibility and empathy. In addition, Mayer and Salovey (1997; Mayer, Salovey and Caruso 2008) considered emotional intelligence to be a set of abilities that enable a person to ‘perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in self and in others’ (p. 11). Although these models have generated considerable enthusiasm in some quarters, their place as models of ‘intelligence’ is yet to be established. Also, the relationships between

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emotional intelligence, academic performance and adult success are yet to be fully explored (Zeidner, Roberts and Matthews 2008). In a recent study, Wong et al. (2007) proposed that the emotional intelligence of university students from Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan could be ‘nurtured’ by full-time parents. Also, based on Mayer and Salovey’s model of emotional intelligence (1997; Mayer et al. 2008), Chan (2006) noted that the risk of professional burn-out in Hong Kong teachers could be prevented by high levels of emotional intelligence, particularly when the burn-out is related to increased risks of depersonalization and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment.

Intelligence and the Chinese Culture The discussion on intelligence so far has focused on ideas and research originating from the West, but these Western perspectives may not reflect conceptions of intelligence originating from other cultures (Sternberg 2004; Sternberg and Grigorenko 2005). In the Chinese (Confucian heritage) culture, intelligence is concerned with the ‘power of understanding’ and of having a ‘quick’ mind (Chan 2007). Chan added that ancient Chinese scholars believed that: … intelligence was an attribute people were born with and an original gift from tian ( 天 ) (heaven). Hence, the concept of heaven is often included in the terms relating to intelligence. Tian cai ( 天才 ) (heavenly ability), tian fen ( 天分 ) (heavenly share), tian zi ( 天資 ) (heavenly capital), and tian fu ( 天賦 ) (heavenly endowment), tian cong ( 天聰 ) (heavenly brightness), and tian bing ( 天稟 ) (heavenly quality) all imply that these attributes came from heaven. Hence, an intelligent, gifted, or talented person is often described as de tian du hou ( 得天獨厚 ) (having a uniquely big share from heaven), implying that heaven has been more generous to the more intelligent people … [and that] everyone has his/her zhuan chang ( 專長 ) (specific ability) in addition to tian cai ( 天才 ), tian fen ( 天分 ), tian zi ( 天資 ), tian fu ( 天賦 ), tian chong ( 天 聰 ), and tian bing ( 天稟 ). All these terms refer to the mental resources given by heaven, whereas zhuan chang ( 專長 ) describes the results of learning through education and training. The influence of environment on intelligence has also been acknowledged in Chinese education for thousands of years since the beginning of ‘teaching’ at home and in school. Other Confucian sayings, such as zhi zhe li ren ( 智者利仁 ) (intelligent people would be able to facilitate a harmonious human relationship), wei zhi yan de ren ( 未智焉 得仁 ) (people without intelligence could not achieve a harmonious human relationship), and zhi zhe bu huo ( 智者不惑 ) (an intelligent person would not be perplexed), all point to the importance of intelligence in the human



The Role of Intelligence in the Diversity of Learners 121 society. Also, other sayings like tian sheng wo cai bi you yong ( 天生我才必 有用 ) (any talent given by heaven must be useful) and ren jin qi cai ( 人盡其才 ) (developing the talent of each person to the full) carry important educational and psychological implications.

According to Shi (2004a), Chinese conceptions of intelligence are embodied in four common idioms: ‘Diligence makes people smart’, ‘Where there is a will there is a way’, ‘Two heads are better than one’, and ‘Where there is an occupation there is a scholar’. Shi outlined unique views on intelligence that emphasized relationships between the biological, physical and chemical aspects of the mind. Intelligence is an energy source that integrates these three levels and powers creatively (Shi 2004b). Writing from the perspective of Chinese giftedness, Chan (2007) argued that a number of different aspects of Chinese culture (e.g. collectivism, harmony, sexuality and gender, feng shui and filial piety) could either enhance or inhibit the development of intelligence, creativity, and giftedness. Collectivism ( 集 體 ), for example, emphasizes the importance of maintaining the status quo for fear of upsetting the group and, consequently, individuals are unable to exercise independent thinking. Similarly, harmony ( 和睦 ) stresses the importance of peaceful coexistence between two people, reducing the possibility of asking questions and raising debates. In terms of gender ( 性別 ), females are considered to have lower intelligence and are subordinate to males. Feng shui ( 風水 ) helps to determine the success of people by attributing this to external forces, although these forces can be altered by individuals. Finally, filial piety ( 孝道 ) may prevent children from engaging in scholarly pursuits during a during a parent’s illness or death.

Education and the g Model of Intelligence The educational implications of the g model of intelligence are based on the ‘fundamental reality’ (Jensen 1998a, 112) that there is a very wide range of individual differences in cognitive abilities, and that educational systems must first acknowledge these differences before education can truly benefit all students. In reviewing studies that centre on the relationship of g with both academic achievement and success in different occupations, Jensen recognized the importance of personality variables, such as motivation. Nevertheless, he described what he viewed as the ‘six fundamental principles for educational practice’ (p. 124): 1. All children can learn, and initially want and like to learn. 2. Some children learn more quickly than others, and these differences are more pronounced than most educators are aware of.

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3. Children learn different things at different speeds and at different levels of ease. 4. Individual differences in motivation account for as many differences in learning as does g. 5. Not every individual will attain a mastery of concepts and skills beyond a certain level of complexity and abstraction despite their levels of motivation. 6. The best learning environment provides choices for students, allowing students to discover their interests and areas of talent. However, children need to learn to see the relationship between effort and achievement. Jensen supported the idea that schools should not try to eliminate variations in student abilities, but rather should design educational programmes that help students to acquire the skills and knowledge most necessary for success after school. In his view, progress in schools should not, however, proceed in ‘a uniform or lock-step fashion for any particular group of children, whether by chronological age or mental age’ (p. 125)—progress should proceed at a pace that reflects the performance of individual learners. For this purpose, schools therefore require more instructional diversity than currently shown, which will reflect ‘private tutoring [more] than classroom instruction’ (ibid.). Central to Jensen’s ideas is providing for students who ‘branch’ into areas as they become proficient. To use Jensen’s example (p. 127), ‘some students might branch into advanced algebra or calculus while some of the age peers top out (at least temporarily) at, say, mixed fractions …’ These students will ‘branch into programs on applied math useful in common everyday activities … [such as] weighing and measuring things accurately’.

Teaching for Successful Intelligence Intelligence is a thinking skill (Sternberg 1999). Based on their experiences when developing a person’s successful intelligence (SI), Sternberg and Grigorenko (2007) noted distinctions among analytical intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence. To be successful in life, people need to be able to use all these three thinking skills. Sternberg and Grigorenko also defined SI as an integrated set of abilities within an individual that together ensure future success in life. They argued that intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, does not predict life success; at best, these tests ‘predict adaptability to school systems’ (p. 17), whereas successful intelligence involves the ability of a person ‘to adapt to shape and select environments’ (p. 8). The definition of success, however, depends on how the individual and others around him/her define it and the socio-cultural context in which the person lives. Definitions of success vary from individual to individual; and, hence, an important



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aspect of teaching for SI is to help students focus on themselves, identifying and developing their true interests, setting priorities and developing their self-confidence. To strengthen the SI of students, Sternberg and Grigorenko arranged their teaching around each of the three intelligences. To promote analytic thinking, for example, lessons may focus on topics, such as identifying problems, formulating strategies and evaluating solutions. For creative thinking, topics may include generating ideas, tolerating ambiguity and delaying gratification. Lessons that enhance practical thinking include becoming motivated, completing tasks and setting priorities.

Teaching Multiple Intelligences One of the many books devoted to interpreting the MI theory for use in the classroom is Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences (Campbell, Campbell and Dickinson 2004). Aside from summarizing the MI theory, the book invites its users to self-assess their eight intelligences using a simple inventory that organizes strengths in each intelligence from novice to inventor. As previously mentioned, assessing MI in this way contradicts Gardner’s views. The book ‘offers practical classroom applications’ (p. xxv) of MI, beginning with an anecdote describing an individual who exemplifies one particular intelligence. The authors argue, however, that it is more meaningful to develop a number of intelligences within the context of the ‘schools’ academic disciplines’ (p. xxvi) — that is, recognizing that mastery of any given task depends on the effective combination of a number of intelligences. The chapters in the book describe instructional approaches that develop each particular intelligence, including characteristics of the school and of the teaching strategies. In developing intrapersonal intelligence, for example, Campbell, Campbell and Dickinson (2004) suggest a number of ‘creative approaches’, which include students drawing their emotions (visual art), listening to or composing music (music), performing mini-dramas (role-play), stream-of-consciousness journal writing (creative writing) and creating clay sculptures to represent emotions (sculpting). Intrapersonal intelligence is seen as being at the ‘heart of our inner world’ (p. 187), where we rely on ‘strengths’ to understand ourselves and other people, and on ‘qualities, such as motivation, determination, ethics, integrity, empathy, and altruism’ (ibid.). Other activities revolve around the development of intrapersonal intelligence by knowing one’s own self through others, with intrapersonal knowledge also being enhanced by simply reflecting upon what has been learned after interacting with others. Campbell, Campbell and Dickinson also suggest activities to develop reflections on the wonder and purpose of life (pp. 210–12) and to encourage self-

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directed learning strategies (pp. 212–14). Finally, each chapter concludes with activities that help readers to summarize, synthesize and reflect upon what has been learned.

Intelligence and Educational Policy Every government around the world has a department of education, which is usually responsible for designing and implementing educational policies. In this process, they often draw on educational research and have responded to changes in the understanding of intelligence by changing educational policies, with an impact on schools, including what and how they teach. In terms of low-level models of intelligence, the strong link between different levels of intelligence and academic achievement generally means that, if we know the level of intelligence of students, then we can predict their levels of academic attainment. Although academic achievement is influenced by many factors, including the self-esteem of students and the expectations of their parents, the link between intelligence and academic achievement has led many education departments to encourage the use of intelligence testing to determine students who may require additional resources because of either very low or very high levels of intelligence. Many education policies for gifted students, for example, use high measured intelligence as one of the definitions of ‘giftedness’. Governments also need to ensure that all students are treated equally. Unfortunately, intelligence testing can have the damaging effect of ‘labelling’, in which teacher and student expectations of success may change if the students’ intelligence scores are found to be low. Also, many people (including some psychologists) find it difficult to believe that low-level theories of intelligence reflect the full meaning of what it means to be intelligent. The popularity of the MI theory, for example, can be explained partly by the fact that it increases the likelihood that every student can be intelligent in at least one of the eight intelligences. In Hong Kong, for instance, the government policy on gifted education includes definitions of giftedness based on both MI theory and low-level models of intelligence. This policy encourages schools to nurture and develop all the multiple intelligences in their students.

Conclusion This chapter has described some of the ways in which intelligence is understood within the scientific community. Although there are many ways of understanding and studying intelligence, there is a general consensus that the g model is useful

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in explaining the nature of intelligence and some of the reasons for differences in academic achievement. Other useful models of intelligence for teachers include multiple intelligences and the triarchic theory of intelligence.

Learning Activities 1. Measure the height (cm) and mass (kg) of the students in your class. Tabulate your results using a table similar to the one below. Student



Mass (kg)

Height (cm)

Student

1

11

2

12

3

13

4

14

5

15

6

16

7

17

8

18

9

19

10

20

Mass (kg)

Height (cm)

Using the chart function of Excel, create two bar charts and one scatter graph for the above data. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these two types of charts? Which measurement scale is used to measure height and mass? Estimate the correlation between height and weight.

2. In groups of five, define ‘intelligence’ and then decide on the tasks you will use to measure it. How can you be sure that the tasks reflect your definition of intelligence? 3. A parent comes to you saying that his/her daughter achieved a score of 180 in an intelligence test. What questions should you ask the parent? 4. Sternberg described practical intelligence as adapting to or changing the environment. Tacit knowledge is the outcome of this intelligence. In small groups, identify the tacit knowledge necessary for success in being school students and in teaching. Are there any differences and similarities? 5. Discuss whether Jensen’s ‘six fundamental principles for educational practice’ should be supported in your community. What advantages does a school that follows the six principles offer students? Give some possible reasons why schools that follow the six principles may not obtain support from the community?

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6. Strenze’s (2007) meta-analysis showed that in predicting success, the socioeconomic status of parents and school grades are almost as powerful as intelligence. Why might this be so?

5 The Role of Creativity in the Diversity of Learners Shane N. Phillipson

Most psychologists consider that creativity and intelligence are very different concepts. However, there are many definitions of creativity and many different approaches to researching it, which sometimes makes it a confusing area to study—though several of the publications cited in this chapter can help to reduce some of the confusion. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • recognize the complexity of the scientific study of creativity; • explore various instruments that measure creativity; and • support and enhance the creativity of students.

All the following five descriptions capture many aspects of creativity: Creativity is the application of existing knowledge in new situations. Creativity cannot proceed without knowledge, but does not guarantee it. (Torrance 1989) Creative thinking is the process of sensing difficulties, problems, gaps in information, missing elements, something askew; making guesses ... formulating hypotheses about these deficiencies, evaluating and testing these guesses and hypotheses, possibly revising and retesting them, and communicating the results. (Torrance 1989) Creativity occurs inside your head. (Finke, Ward and Smith 1992) Creativity is the ability to make associations between information. (Mednick 1962) Creativity defies description … it is infinite, involving every sense—perhaps extrasensory. (Torrance 1989)

Clearly, there is no single definition of creativity, even by the same psychologist. However, rather than hinder study of the area, the various definitions can help to create a more complete picture of what creativity is. There are also many approaches to carrying out research on creativity (Finke, Ward and Smith 1992), including the following—the case study approach,

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psychoanalytic approach, psychometric approach, sociological approach, multiple components approach, pragmatic approach and artificial approach—to which Phillipson (2002) added the adoption of an information-processing perspective. Of these, the psychometric approach is the most useful for the classroom teacher. Research evidence supports four apparently contradictory conclusions regarding the relationship between creativity and intelligence: creativity is the same as intelligence; creativity is a part of intelligence; intelligence is a part of creativity; and creativity and intelligence are completely different (Sternberg 1999). It is possible to derive four such seemingly contradictory conclusions because researchers define both ‘intelligence’ and ‘creativity’ according to their own research paradigms. Some of the paradigms in creativity research are described in Sternberg (1999), Kaufman and Baer (2006), and Kaufman and Sternberg (2006).

The Study of Creativity As a result of the different definitions of creativity, there are literally hundreds of creativity tests. Cropley (2000) reviewed some of the available tests, such as Creativity Tests for Children (Guilford 1976), the Triarchic Abilities Test (Sternberg 1993), the Test of Creative Thinking (Divergent Production) (Urban and Jellen 1996) and the Creative Reasoning Test (Doolittle 1990). Measures of creative products include the Creative Product Inventory (Taylor 1975) and Creative Product Semantic Scale (Besemer and O’Quin 1987). Other tests of creativity include personality assessments, such as the Creativity Checklist (Johnson 1979) and Creative Behaviour Inventory (Kirschenbaum 1989), and assessments of motivation and attitudes, such as the Creativity Inventory (Byrd 1986) and Basadur Preferences Scale (Basadur and Hausdorf 1996). Cropley (2000) concluded that it is wise to consider all creativity tests as indicators of creative potential, rather than of creativity itself, because true creative achievement depends on many additional factors. This section outlines four of the many psychometric approaches to the study of creativity: the Geneplore model of creativity, the Remote Associates Test, the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking and the Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test. These approaches allow the measurement of individual differences in creativity, and are most relevant for teachers.

The Geneplore model of creativity The creative cognition approach proposes two broad groups of cognitive processes that generate and then explore creative structures—hence its name



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(Finke et al. 1992). The generative cognitive processes include memory retrieval, association, mental synthesis and transformation, analogical transfer and categorical reduction; and the exploratory processes include attribute-finding, interpretation, inference-making, context-shifting, hypothesis testing, and searching for limitations. These processes work iteratively until a final product is produced. Using an experimental approach to study creativity, Finke, Ward and Smith (1992) identified the conditions under which creativity is enhanced. In their experiments, students were asked to create something using three objects from a set of 15 (Figure 5.1), with the products confined to one of eight allowable categories, such as weapons and toys. Finally, the creative products were scored on scales measuring practicability and originality. A product was called a creative invention when it scored very highly on both these aspects.

Figure 5.1 Items used to test experimentally the Geneplore model of creativity (Finke et al. 1992) The set of objects used in experiments conducted by Finke, Ward and Smith (1992). Objects (from left to right) are a sphere, half-sphere, cube, cone, cylinder, rectangular block, wire, tube, bracket, flat square, hook, cross, wheels, ring and handle. The figure is reproduced from Ronald A. Finke, Thomas B. Ward, and Steven M. Smith (1992), Creative cognition: Theory, research, and applications, Figure 4.1, page 66, with the kind permission of the MIT Press.

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After conducting a series of experiments, Finke, Ward and Smith concluded that creativity is enhanced when both the objects and the category are chosen by the experimenters. In other words, creativity is greatest when people do not have complete freedom over what they are creating. This conclusion deviates from the generally accepted idea that creativity has neither boundaries nor constraints. The Geneplore model of creativity has been used to analyse the creative process involved in writing. For example, Ward (2001) proposed that the highly creative writing of Stephen R. Donaldson involves many of the processes described by this model, and argued that a convergence between the laboratory approach to creativity research and the use of case studies can enhance our understanding of the creative process. According to Finke, Ward and Smith (1992), creativity can be increased through training, for instance, practising the generation of creative structures and finding new uses for them. Creative structures can be based on physical objects (e.g. those in Figure 5.1), symbols (e.g. words or phrases), and concepts from different domains (e.g. biology and mathematics). Once the structures are created, they can then be explored for their practicability and usefulness within the context in which they were created.

The Remote Associates Test Mednick (1962) viewed creativity as the ability to make meaningful links between concepts. His Remote Associates Test assesses a person’s ability to connect three seemingly unrelated concepts by introducing a fourth linking concept; for example, what links ‘wheel’, ‘electric’ and ‘high’ is a chair. Although many psychologists agree with the idea that creativity depends on making links between concepts, a major criticism of the test is that Mednick insisted that there is only one correct link, rather than many possible mediating links. In addition, the test is culture-dependent, since a correct answer depends on an understanding of the concepts used in the test. Consequently, despite the attractiveness of Mednick’s view, the Remote Associates Test is not often used to measure creativity.

The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance 1999) are far more popular than the two tests described above. Torrance’s tests are based on the idea that creativity is essentially divergent thinking and that a game-like environment is essential for encouraging creative thinking. However, the TTCT is administered



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under timed conditions, thereby creating a ‘certain degree of pressure on the test taker’ (Khatena 1992, 130). The TTCT consists of two broad sections, namely, a verbal section (thinking creatively with words) and a non-verbal section (thinking creatively with pictures), each consisting of two parallel forms, A and B. The verbal section contains six activity areas: asking, guessing causes, guessing consequences, product improvement, unusual uses, unusual questions and ‘just suppose’. The non-verbal section contains three activity areas: picture construction, picture completion and lines/circles. In each of the six activities in the verbal test, the stimulus is a picture, and the testee is asked to respond in writing. The responses are scored on three creativity dimensions: fluency (the number of relevant responses), flexibility (the number of different categories of responses) and originality (the degree of novelty). In the non-verbal test, picture construction asks the testee to create a picture using a pear or a jelly bean shape; in picture completion, the testee constructs an object or figure using ten incomplete figures; and in lines/circles, the testee creates a picture based on three pages of lines or circles. The responses are scored based on four dimensions: fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration (the amount of detail). Scoring the responses of a person on the TTCT depends on a comparison with the responses of a large number of people of similar age and cultural background. The TTCT therefore requires the establishment of norms for the culture in which it is used. Also, administering and scoring this test requires a great deal of skill and effort, making it a costly and time-consuming exercise. The psychometric properties of TTCT have been investigated recently. For example, based on the idea that creativity is a multidimensional construct, Kim (2006) analysed the responses of 500 Primary 6 students using confirmatory factor analysis. Kim’s analysis revealed that creativity may involve only two dimensions: innovative and adaptive orientations. For Kim, innovative thinking requires fluency and originality in order to create change, while adaptive thinking is dependent on elaboration, abstractions of titles and creative strengths. In addition, both types of creative thinking require a resistance to premature closure. However, the subtests also correlate with each other and, in general, with intelligence tests (e.g. the Stanford-Binet IV and the WISC), showing that creativity and intelligence may depend on similar underlying factors. The TTCT is commonly used to complement tests of intelligence in order to identify gifted students, particularly from cultural minorities and those with limited English proficiency (Cramond et al. 2005). In Hong Kong, definitions of giftedness include creative abilities, and the TTCT is used to help identify creatively gifted students (Chan 2000a, 2000b).

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The Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test In referring to the Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test (WKCT), Cropley (2000, 73) argued that its ‘game like atmosphere and the absence of time limits’ (p. 73) make it particularly appealing. This test is also based on the view of creativity as divergent thinking, and it comprises verbal and non-verbal components. The verbal test consists of three sub-tests (instances, alternate uses and similarities), and the figural test involves two sub-tests (pattern meaning and line meaning). Examples of the three verbal sub-tests are as follows: • Name all the round things you can think of (instances). • Tell me all the different ways of using a newspaper (alternate uses). • Tell me all the ways in which a carrot and a potato are alike (similarities). In the figural tests, respondents are asked to provide as many possibilities for the lines and patterns they see. The responses are usually scored based on fluency, flexibility, usefulness and uniqueness. An interesting and now classic study of 151 Grade 5 students in the USA showed that there are four distinct personality types associated with different levels of creativity and intelligence. In this study, Wallach and Kogan (1965) measured intelligence using three sub-tests from the WISC, including one verbal (vocabulary) and two performance sub-tests (picture arrangement and block design), and measured creativity using a test that arranged the conditions for many unique associations. In arranging the students according to whether they scored low or high in creativity and low or high in intelligence, Wallach and Kogan identified a number of distinct personality traits (Table 5.1). For example, boys who are high in both intelligence and creativity show a high degree of interpersonal sensitivity compared with boys who are low in intelligence and creativity. Also girls who are high in intelligence and low in creativity display a ‘mechanical use of academic achievement to attain success’ compared with girls who are low in intelligence and high in creativity. Girls in the last group are precocious, typically shy and withdrawn, and they react negatively to school pressures. The WKCT has been used to investigate creativity in several Hong Kong studies. For instance, Cheung et al. (2004) reported the adaptation and norming of the WKCT for use with primary and secondary school students. Their test included one question on instances, two on uses, two on similarities, two on line meanings and two on pattern meanings. Their scoring system measured fluency, flexibility, unusualness and uniqueness. Although there were differences in the way the tests were administered, the results showed that the mean scores for all measures of creativity increased from Primary 1 to 3. However, the mean creativity scores for students in Primary 4 were generally lower than those in Primary 1; and although

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there were increases in the mean scores from Primary 4 to 9, the mean score in Primary 9 did not always match that in Primary 1 (Figure 5.2). Table 5.1 Personality types associated with different levels of creativity and intelligence High in creativity Intelligence

Low in creativity

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

High

High degree of interpersonal sensitivity; high awareness of one’s own identity and integrity; both warm and objective when dealing with others; ‘earnestness and seriousness in matters concerning human beings’; able to maintain contact both with being an adult and with being ‘boylike’

‘Display of strong powers of integration and structuring in combination with an ability to range freely and imaginatively with rich affect and enthusiastic involvement; sensitive to others’ emotions

Overly concerned with academic success; compete with others for status in the eyes of adults; ‘narrowing-down and rigidifying of intellective behaviour’

Mechanical use of academic achievement to attain status; work studiously as a way to prop up selfconfidence and to avoid criticisms; signs of affective restriction

Low

Awareness of and anger over one’s inadequacies; highly sensitive to signs of rejection; shattered confidence; engage in defensive and constructive maneuvers to establish selfworth

React negatively to school pressure; anger and resentment towards the school setting; ‘regressive listlessness’ and/or mischief-making; socially shy and withdrawn; free and wild imaginations tending towards the extremes

Simple avoidance or giving up in academic activities; sense of bewilderment that drives them to seek comfort by any means, such as melting into the peer group or making mischief

Unable to cope with academic tasks; they resort to imitating others’ surface behaviours; frustration, fear, and depression over academic failure in some cases; use of infantile defences, such as being cruel and vengeful towards weaker peers; may even develop psychosomatic symptoms

The tests of intelligence used by Wallach and Kogan included three sub-tests from the WISC: one verbal (vocabulary) and two performance sub-tests (picture arrangement and block design). Academic achievement was measured using the School and College Ability Tests (SCAT) and the Sequential Tests of Educational Progress (STEP). These provided measures of verbal aptitude and quantitative aptitude, and indices of academic achievement in various areas, respectively (from Wallach and Kogan, 1965).

These results suggest that there is a sudden drop in student creativity from Primary 3 to 4, and it never fully recovers. However, Cheung et al. (2004) warned that this drop in creativity scores may reflect a change in the ways the test was

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administered rather than a real decrease in the students’ creativity. This observation clearly needs to be investigated further, particularly since the Hong Kong government is trying to enhance student creativity as part of its education reforms.

CREATIVITY MEAN SCORE

VERBAL TEST

UNUSUALNESS UNIQUENESS FLEXIBILITY FLUENCY

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

GRADE

CREATIVITY MEAN SCORE

FIGURAL TEST

UNUSUALNESS UNIQUENESS FLEXIBILITY FLUENCY

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

GRADE

Figure 5.2 Mean creativity score (verbal and figural tests) at different grade levels (adapted from Cheung et al. [2004]) Note that Grades 1–6 correspond to Primary 1–6 and Grades 7–9 correspond with Secondary 1–3 in the current Hong Kong school system.

In another study, Lau, Li and Chu (2004) measured the relationship between perceived creativity, social status and self-concept among highly able Chinese Hong Kong students. Based on the assumption that perceived creativity may not reflect true creativity, the study showed that high peer-perceived creativity is strongly linked to the social characteristics of leadership, sociability and, surprisingly, with aggressive-disruptive, sensitive-isolated and social impact characteristics. In addition, peer-perceived creativity was negatively linked to the self-concept, a finding Lau, Li and Chu interpreted in terms of the disruptive influence that creative individuals may bring to groups. Such an influence is particularly disruptive within a culture that values social cohesion. In investigating Hong Kong classrooms, Forrester and Hui (2007) focused on whether or not teachers could adopt creative practices in their daily teaching. Their research was prompted by the Hong Kong government’s recognition that creativity is an important component of its education reforms, and since 2001 there have been



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substantial efforts to help teachers ‘reform’ (p. 31) their classrooms to enhance creativity in all subject areas. Focusing on Primary 4 students and their teachers, Forrester and Hui (2007) showed that creative activities were enhanced in Chinese Language discussions but not in general studies (e.g. mathematics). They also found that when teachers used techniques to enhance knowledge, the verbal and figural creativity of students was also enhanced. However, the teachers’ attempts to provide a creative environment achieved limited success in promoting flexibility in student thinking. Forrester and Hui (2007) concluded that these and other puzzling findings contribute to the idea that classrooms in Hong Kong reflect a non-Western view of creativity, where the enhancement of subject knowledge and student intrinsic motivation is a ‘componential priority’. Finally, Seng, Keung, and Cheng (2008) showed that trainee-teachers in Hong Kong differ from their counterparts in Singapore in their implicit understanding of the nature of creativity. For Hong Kong’s trainee-teachers, creativity is dependent on birth order, effort, health, logical thinking, a young age, and a critical period in the person’s development. On the other hand, Singaporeans consider that more people can be creative, although they also believe more strongly that intelligence is a ‘pre-condition’ (p. 83) of creativity. This study continues to focus on cultural differences—conceptions of creativity within Chinese societies and across Chinese and Western cultures.

Creativity in the Classroom The study of creativity is important for a variety of reasons. Many governments, conscious of their place in the global economy, are keen to develop the creativity of their citizens as one way of maintaining economic growth—the ability to ‘solve problems, especially new and unique problems [is a] critical competency for the 21st century’ (Beghetto and Plucker 2006, 328). These governments turn to their education departments to develop curricula that enhance the creativity of students.

Creativity and higher-level thinking When students use knowledge and reason creatively, they are operating at a higher level of thinking, thereby contributing to the intellectual development and the knowledge economy of their countries. The work of many researchers in the field of creativity has helped to explain the relationships among knowledge, reasoning and creativity. Weisberg (2006), for example, argued that domain-specific creative advances are dependent on domain-specific expertise. This takes time and, hence, highly creative advances also require time. He also asserted that domain-specific expertise

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is essential for insight into problem solving, which implies that creativity in classrooms comes only after the development of expertise. On the other hand, Guignard and Lubart (2006) argued that creative thinking and reasoning are two independent types of thinking that follow different developmental trajectories among children. In their view, creativity refers to the capacity to produce novel or original work and is the first type of thinking to emerge, but that reasoning ‘is concerned with inductive and deductive processes which appear later in life’ (p. 267). These two different trajectories leave open the possibility that the onset of reasoning in children may interfere with creativity. Studies that tested this hypothesis directly have shown that there is a slump in creativity from ages eight to nine, together with an increase in tasks that require logical thinking (Lubart and Lautrey 1996, as cited in Guignard and Lubart 2006). As mentioned earlier, Cheung et al. (2004) noted a similar decline in creativity in their study of Chinese Hong Kong students (Figure 5.2).

Creativity and learning Other studies have focused on the relationship between creativity and learning. Children are inherently creative when they begin schooling, and so early school experiences run counter to the expression of creativity (Beghetto and Plucker 2006; Gelman and Gottfried 2006; Paris et al. 2006). Creativity in children is not about creative advances but about the processes of discovering well-known concepts. These discoveries lead directly to the creation of complex and well-organized schemas. According to Gelman and Gottfried (2006), creative thought processes are necessary for the development of language and in building ‘theories’ that help children to organize their experiences, make predictions and infer causality. Creative thought is also important in children’s deliberate restructuring of reality, where, for example, bananas become telephones. This ability to transform reality, known as ‘pretence’, is well developed among young children but is lost as they become older. Some classrooms, however, discourage student creativity (Beghetto and Plucker 2006) despite the efforts of some teachers to encourage it. The marginalization of creativity in the classroom occurs when teachers adopt a teacher-centred approach to teaching to cover content; and it also happens when teachers define creativity in terms of novelty and usefulness rather than as interest in the process of learning.

Enhancing creativity in the classroom An important aspect of creativity which research seeks to discover is whether or not the creativity of students can be enhanced in classrooms and, if so, how? This



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question can only be answered, of course, if we are clear about the definition of creativity. When examining creativity in the classroom, a number of researchers have focused on the link between creativity and problem solving, and between critical thinking and the ability to make links between usually unconnected ‘frames of reference’ (Nickerson 1999). Nickerson suggested that the distinction between intelligence and creativity is important, and that potential creativity does not depend on high intelligence. Nickerson also argued that ethics should be taught along with creativity, given that high creativity can be used for evil purposes; and he also commented that creativity needs to be viewed from a personal perspective rather than from the perspective of other people. He went on to outline a number of approaches for developing creativity in classrooms, which continue to be popular in one form or another—though Sternberg and Lubart (1999, 6) warned that, while they may work, some of them lack ‘any basis in psychological theory, as well as serious empirical attempts to validate them’. Nickerson’s summary of the existing literature on promoting creativity includes a wide range of approaches: establishing a clear personal purpose and the intention to be creative; developing the basic skills of creativity; acquiring domain-specific knowledge; stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration; building internal motivation; encouraging confidence and willingness to take risks; focusing on mastery and self-competition; promoting supportable beliefs (self-efficacy) about creativity; providing opportunities for choice and discovery; developing metacognitive skills; learning the techniques and strategies of creative performance; providing balance; and teaching by example. A brief account of his recommendations is given below.

Personal purpose and intentions Creative expression depends on a ‘deep and abiding personal intention to develop your creative potential’ (Nickerson 1999, 408). The ultimate goal of creative expression can be achieved only if there is a deep personal commitment to achieve it. The classroom teacher needs to help students to become aware of this need and to provide opportunities for them to make this commitment. However, as its expression may require a considerable amount of time, students will need the ongoing support of their schools.

Building basic skills ‘A solid grounding in the skills that are generally considered fundamental to basic education … [are likely to be] essential to the development of creative potential’

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(Nickerson, 1999, 409). For this development, Nickerson (ibid.) recommended a ‘conceptual framework’ that depends on a three-level model. Level 1 is concerned with strengthening basic language and mathematical skills and with encouraging the use of imagination. Level 2 is related to learning a number of structured approaches to creative problem solving, and Level 3 involves the development of ‘independent self-directed projects.’

Acquiring domain-specific knowledge Although knowledge in any domain does not guarantee creativity, without it a truly creative expression of the type that extends knowledge or develops new insights is not possible. A deep commitment by teachers to helping students develop their domain-specific knowledge will not, in itself, stifle creativity, which means that students need to be able to develop both declarative and procedural knowledge—a time-consuming task.

Stimulating and rewarding curiosity Piaget studied the natural curiosity of children during play and believed in its importance for the acquisition of knowledge. ‘Intellectual playfulness’ (Nickerson 1999, 410) seems to be one of the defining characteristics of the personalities of creative adults. However, whether or not children retain their natural curiosity once they enter school is open to debate. As previously noted, creativity may be essential for learning in classrooms (Beghetto and Plucker 2006), but schooling may, in fact, stifle this creativity. Clearly, schools need to work very hard to ensure that children’s innate curiosity and creativity is encouraged, using strategies such as encouraging and rewarding students who exhibit creative behaviour.

Building internal motivation An essential component of creativity is maintaining the initial sense of personal purpose and intention over long periods of time. Citing mathematicians Carl Frederich Gauss and Isaac Newton as examples, Nickerson used the terms ‘passion’, ‘obsession’, ‘preoccupation’ and ‘hard work’ to describe some of the individuals who exhibited the highest forms of mathematical creativity. Nickerson also noted the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the expression of creativity, and considered that intrinsic motivation is more



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effective than external rewards for encouraging creativity, but that rewards can be effective if they are perceived as secondary reasons rather than the primary reason for becoming creative. The relationship between motivation, whether extrinsic or intrinsic, and creativity is central to many research projects. However, few studies seem to have focused on the relationship between motivation and creativity within the Chinese culture, considering that Chinese students respond to a number of different types of motivation. It is possible, therefore, that the lack of a clear distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation among Chinese students means that there is no difference in their effectiveness in promoting creativity. This is clearly an area in which there is a need for research.

Encouraging confidence and risk-taking Creativity requires courage. Creative expression needs a high degree of selfconfidence because inherent in it is the exposure of one’s self, including the results of one’s endeavours, to public scrutiny. Central to the development of self-confidence are experiences of past success and some degree of non-conformity. Although managing opportunities arising from earlier success requires a considerable degree of skill from the classroom teacher, a greater challenge for teachers is the tendency of creative individuals to be ‘unconventional, individualistic, nonconforming, and difficult’ (Runco and Nemiro 1994, cited in Nickerson 1999, 414).

Focusing on mastery and self-competition Creative individuals need to focus on the continuing development of their competencies (or mastery) through the process of competing against themselves rather than against others. This ‘mastery orientation’ (Nickerson 1999, 415), rather than focusing on outcomes, seems to be more effective in enhancing creativity.

Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity People hold different beliefs about their creative capabilities, and so high selfefficacy for creative production is an important determinant of creative success. Teaching students the link between self-efficacy and creative success is an important goal.

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Providing opportunities for choice and discovery Creativity is enhanced when people choose the areas in which they want to be creative, which reflects the natural tendency to enjoy self-selected activities rather than those imposed on them. Linked to the freedom to choose is the opportunity ‘to make real discoveries … [by] learning from personal experience’ (Nickerson 1999, 416). Again, this implies that teachers should provide opportunities for students to make active choices and learn through the process of discovery.

Developing metacognitive skills Given that creative pursuits require time, effective time-management is important. However, while it is necessary to learn to allocate sufficient time to becoming creative, time is only one of a number of resources available to students. They also need help to become active managers of their ‘cognitive resources’ (ibid.), which are relevant to their creativity. Thus, students must be able to identify for themselves the conditions under which they become most creative; and they must be able to change their thinking to enhance creativity.

Learning techniques and strategies for creative performance Nickerson (1999) cited a number of techniques promoted as ‘aiding thinking and problem solving’ (p. 417), many of which are already being used in classrooms. These include SCAMPER and IDEAL (acronyms for the tests), Future Problem Solving and De Bono’s ‘Thinking Hats’. However, despite their considerable public support, some of these techniques are not based on any scientific evidence (Sternberg 1999). SCAMPER refers to the thinking processes of substitution, combination, adaptation, modification, putting to other uses, elimination and rearrangement. For example, to facilitate the process of substitution, one should ask oneself questions such as ‘What can I substitute for this idea/thing/process to make it better?’; and for elimination, the questions might be ‘What would happen if this idea/thing/process were removed? ‘Could I still find a solution?’ and ‘How else could I achieve the same result?’ Some examples of classroom applications of SCAMPER can be found in Eberle (1987), Frangenheim (2005), and Norton and Land (2004). Eberle (1987) described a series of ‘games’ (p. 12) based on four thinking processes (i.e. fluent thinking, flexible thinking, originality and elaborative thinking) and four feeling processes (i.e. curiosity, taking risks, preference for complexity and intuition). The games require a creative classroom environment, a young adult, and at least one other. The adult



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reads a script, and the others respond using their imagination. For example, students are asked to use ‘think pictures’ to see ‘something crazy that could hardly ever be true’ (p. 37). The adult then says: ‘Once again I will ask you to think about something and to try to see what it is I am describing …’ ‘A green and a yellow donkey are climbing a rope …’ ‘Hands on the clock wave up and down.’ (Eberle 1987, 37, 38)

Frangenheim (2005) based his thinking strategies on a framework which includes a teaching philosophy and an external environment that allows creativity to occur. He also mentioned co-operative and individual thinking strategies, and both Bloom’s taxonomy of different thinking skills and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. In a chapter of his book (ibid.) which focuses on creative thinking, Frangenheim mentioned another five strategies similar to SCAMPER: word association; strategy, modify, add, size and change (SMASC); forced relationships; encouraging lateral thinking; and Y (why?), which are outlined briefly below. Word association uses an existing work or object as the ‘launch pad’ for the design of a new idea or solution to a problem, with the students having to use their imagination to find associations from the given word until they reach the point at which an association can be directly linked to the new idea or problem. SMASC is intended to assist students in ‘redesigning everyday products, familiar stories, or pieces of music’ (p. 74), with the steps involved allowing an existing idea or item to be selectively changed. Forced relationships gives students four or five normally unconnected items with which they have to create a story that links the items in a maximum of 10 minutes. Next, encouraging lateral thinking requires students to question their analytic (or left-brain) thinking and to ‘give permission’ for their creative (or right-brain) thinking to take place. Finally, Y (why?) is designed to enhance creative writing by giving a visual stimulus, such as cartoon-produced answers to the Y question, and additions to the visual stimulus produce additional answers, providing students with enough material to write creative stories easily. IDEAL refers to the steps that lead to problem solving and creativity, including identifying the problem, defining and representing the problem, exploring possible strategies, acting on the strategies, and looking back and evaluating (Nickerson 1999, 417). Some classroom examples of IDEAL can be found in Bransford and Stein (1993). In their IDEAL problem solver, Bransford and Stein organized critical thinking, learning and memory skills, and creative problem-solving skills into two parts: using knowledge more effectively and

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acquiring new knowledge. The second part of their book contains three chapters on improving memory skills, learning with understanding and instructions that facilitate problem solving. The Future Problem Solving Program (FPSP) was developed by Torrance in the 1970s as an enrichment activity for gifted students. Its original aim was to help these students to think positively about their future (Phillipson, Haerle and Volk 2003). Today, its focus has broadened to include students of all abilities. The goal of FPSP is to train students in the skill and practice of thinking creatively and of solving future problems. An important part of the training process leading to finding a solution to the future problem is the development of a six-step thinking process, which includes many elements of creative thinking (e.g. brainstorming challenges and problems and their possible solutions).

Providing balance In classrooms, there is a need to establish a balance among structure, discipline, self-restraint, and respect for tradition and freedom, spontaneity and risk-taking (Nickerson 1999, 418). To set up such classrooms, teachers are encouraged to provide supportive environments where effort is rewarded as much as success is.

Teaching by example Teachers’ attitudes and values concerning creativity play an important role in the development of creative classrooms. Without a teacher actively modelling creativity and being enthusiastically curious, encouraging creativity and curiosity in others is difficult.

Conclusion Creativity will continue to be an increasingly important part of learning and teaching in the classroom. In responding to curricular reforms across the world, teachers must be aware of the various ways in which creativity is defined, and how these different definitions help in both the development of creativity tests and the implementation of classroom strategies. It is clear, however, that considerably more research is needed to identify the best approach for enhancing creativity in the Hong Kong and Chinese classroom. Teachers need to be sensitive to the possibility of cultural differences in the ways creativity is defined.

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Learning Activities 1. Ask your classmates to complete a classroom version of the instances sub-test in the Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test. Rate the responses according to fluency, flexibility and originality. Which students showed high levels of creativity? 2. Ask one of your classmates to choose for you three objects from the set used in Finke, Ward and Smith (1992). Then ask them to choose a category from the list of toys, weapons, furniture, tools and utensils, and transportation. Close your eyes and imagine combining the three objects to make something useful from the category. Do not bend or deform the three objects (except for the wire), but you can vary the size, position and orientation of any part. The parts can also be of any material, and they can be placed within each other. Draw your invention and ask your classmates to rate your invention on two dimensions, practicality and originality, using a five-point scale, where VP = very practical and VO = very original. Then repeat the process, in this case choosing three items for your classmate. Compute the mean score of your invention and those of your classmates. What can you conclude about your and your classmates’ creativity? Do any of your classmates show evidence of exceptional creativity? How could this approach be adapted for use in the classroom?

Practicality? 1 2 3 4(P) 5(VP) Originality? 1 2 3 4(P) 5(VP)

3. Devise a lesson following Finke et al.’s (1992) suggestion that creativity training should include the generation of creative structures. For this activity, choose a topic with which you are familiar. 4. Examine Nickerson’s (1999) 12 recommendations for enhancing creativity. Which of these are difficult to adopt in the Chinese classroom? What should a Chinese teacher do to overcome this problem(s)? 5. Compare and contrast knowledge, reasoning and creativity. Are they the same or different? How are they related?

6 Understanding the Development of the Self Bick-har Lam

In psychology, self-development refers to a wide range of knowledge, encompassing physiological, psychosocial, psychoanalytic, personality and learning theories. This chapter aims to develop a general understanding of how learners perceive themselves through the processes of socialization, environmental interaction and self-concept formation. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • appreciate the complex process of student development in which environmental factors may exert both positive and negative influences to a person growth; • understand the subtle interactions between adults and children in the socialization process • develop strategies to support children and adolescents in building a positive self-concept that facilitate their growth in a healthy environment. • •

•

•

•

This chapter is organized around the following themes: The beginnings of the self come from primary inputs: auditory cues, physical sensations, body image cues and personal memories. With increased intellectual functioning and growth in experiences, people gain the ability to understand the outside world more fully. They become agents of experience (knowers and doers), and are aware of the social environment where they see themselves as objects in the outside world (to be known). This leads to the formation of the self-concept. The development of the self-concept is largely determined by the process of socialization, which communicates social norms, social expectations and culture-specific aspirations to individual members of society. Self-esteem refers to the feelings and evaluation of oneself; high and low self-esteem influence individual growth and development in both social and academic aspects. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, Freud’s psychoanalytic theories and Erikson’s psychosocial and moral development theories lead to further understanding of the environment, the self and the interaction between the two. This understanding will keep teachers informed of how the self is developed among students.

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• •

The self-concept, parenting styles and their implications, and Confucianism influence self-development among Chinese learners. Strategies should be adopted to enhance self-esteem in schools at the classroom and school policy levels.

Psychological Genesis of the Self You are asked to give a five-minute introduction about yourself to people you are meeting for the first time. Perhaps, you will tell them your name, your hobbies, your work and your educational background. You may also think more intelligently about what the audience would like to hear and what is appropriate or proper for you to say. In the end, you aim to deliver a relevant message and to achieve the purpose (your purpose as well as that of the audience) of this short introduction. In whatever way you handle the self-introduction, your conscious realization of the self, which represents or presents you, is at work. The self is a psychological construct referring to a person’s personality or the nature of which that person is aware. What contributes to the development of one’s self? What information about one’s self is relevant? Self-development is a complicated process, and it becomes even more complex as one grows from infancy to adolescence. However, how the self develops determines a person’s wellbeing; it has a strong influence on a person’s life (e.g. socially, emotionally and academically). Therefore, teachers or future teachers should know the intricacies of self-development because it will help them to create strategies for enhancing the self-development and well-being of their students. Prior to birth, biological influences, which are determined by the process of genetic transmission, set the conditions for self-development. Genes, which consist of specific DNA sequences, contain heredity instructions for individual characteristics and capabilities. They are inherited by children from their parents, and various genetic combinations cause different outcomes of inheritance (e.g. different features inherited from parents). In addition, embryonic development (two to eight weeks in the mother’s womb) is subject to critical adverse influences from the mother, such as maternal disease, drugs, diet and other circumstances, including maternal age, emotional stage and number of previous pregnancies. These influences affect the biological nature of individuals and, consequently, their self-development. When babies are born, they are subjected to various channels of primary inputs which contribute to the beginnings of self-development. Rice and Dolgin (2002) summarized the primary channel inputs as auditory cues, physical sensations, body image cues and personal memories. Auditory cues, which come from what babies hear, include their names (as mentioned by family members and caregivers),



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judgement opinions (descriptive adjectives, e.g. ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘cute’, ‘smart’ or ‘dumb’), tone of voice used when conversing with them and the frequency of being talked to. Physical sensations are derived from bodily movements (e.g. babies stretch, roll and crawl), from the feelings babies have when they are held (e.g. tenderly or roughly, stroked or spanked), and from whether they are frequently held or left alone for a long time. Body image cues come from what they see, touch and explore on their own bodies. The process of interacting with people, as well as with objects, enables babies to separate the self from everything else—they develop an ‘existential self’. This self later develops into a ‘categorical self’ when, as toddlers, they begin to become aware of themselves in terms of a series of categories, such as age, gender, size and skill (Lewis and Brooks-Gunn 1979). Initial early life experiences and their emotional meanings are registered in the personal memories of people. These memories can be negative or positive, loving or rejecting and affirming or disconfirming. When babies grow into young children, their self-awareness develops: they begin to recognize the distinction between the self and others, and between their bodies and the rest of their visual environment. Cognitive development also starts. They begin to understand that their existence depends on others; hence, they become less egocentric in their thinking and behaviour, accommodating new knowledge and developing logical thinking. With increased abilities in the social and intellectual domains, their language ability also develops (see Chapter 8). At this time, the environment continues to play a significant role in self- development.

Me and I: Self as Object and Self as Knower On the one hand, the self can be understood as an object of the outside world (i.e. the self as an object). We form an image of ourselves—the ‘me’ of ourselves— from others’ reflection and interpretation of how we look (physical), how we relate (social), how we feel (emotional) and how we think (intellectual). These attributes interact with our other self (i.e. the self as a knower and doer). As we grow and acquire more developed intellectual and cognitive functioning (e.g. perceiving, performing, thinking and remembering), our other self—the ‘I’ of ourselves—is formed. The component self, the knower, constitutes the ‘I’ or the ‘agent of experience’, whereas the known dimension of the self constitutes the ‘me’ or ‘the content of experience’. The two components of the self are in an interactive combination, leading to the development of two core ingredients of the self (i.e. the self-concept and self-esteem). George Herbert Mead suggested that each socialized person is a miniature society; the self is an internal conversation among perceived social roles. ‘I’ actively

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creates the self by taking and performing social roles (1934); and, as an object, ‘me’ performs what ‘I’ is socially expected by others to do. According to Mead, through ‘the generalized other’, individuals understand what kind of behaviour is expected and appropriate in different social settings. ‘The generalized other’ refers to one’s general notion of social roles. Therefore, the formation of the self becomes complicated because we choose to behave and we are behaving to receive a reflection of our behaviour. Cooley (1902) explained how the self is developed in a social environment. According to his ‘looking glass’ theory of the self, we imagine how we appear to others and at the same time interpret others’ reactions, developing feelings about ourselves (i.e. the self-concept). An internal conversation happens in the process of self-development. As a metaphor, the looking glass reflects the self in the mirror. This self acts towards social expectations and in accordance with social norms. When we look in the mirror, the self appears as the ‘I’, which reflects the socially formed self. The standard of ‘self’ is somehow socially constructed, and as members of society, we follow this standard. Teachers and educators believe that the self can be positively enhanced through education.

The Self-concept In psychology, the self is the conscious reflection of one’s own being. The selfconcept is the cognitive or thinking aspect of the self, which is related to self-image. According to Purkey (1988: web document, no page), the self-concept is: … the totality of a complex, organized, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes, and opinions that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence.

The self-concept is formed by ideas about ourselves. Hamachek (1985) suggested three categories of self-concept: perceived self, real self and ideal self. The perceived self comes from the way we see ourselves; the real self is the way we really are, as evaluated more objectively by clinical measurements; and the ideal self refers to what we would like to become. The self-concept can then be regarded as the sum total of a person’s internal self-perception or of the other person’s external perception, which influences strongly the growth of an individual. In simple terms, the self-concept refers to the beliefs that we hold about ourselves. It is our conscious and cognitive perception and evaluation of ourselves— our thoughts and opinions about ourselves. It is also called an individual’s ‘self-hypothesized identity’(Rice and Dolgin 2002). As mentioned earlier, the



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self-concept is first realized at infancy through primary input channels, but a differentiated self relies considerably on early socialization experiences that can bring evaluative aspects of the self; we are formed/we form. Older children and adolescents build their self-concepts based on different aspects they learn about themselves, such as their physical characteristics, personality skills, traits, roles and social statuses. People form self-images from these different aspects, and the totality of these images is called the ‘self-concept’. The self-concept is therefore made up of multiple self-conceptions. For example, one may have developed the concepts of being a teacher, a daughter, a wife and a friend. Self-concept is also multifaceted. It may include the academic self, physical (bodily) self, social self and transpersonal self. According to Huitt (2009), the physical aspect of the self-concept relates to that which is concrete: for example, what one looks like (e.g. one’s sex, height and weight), what kind of clothes one wears, what kind of car one drives and what kind of home one lives in. The academic self-concept relates to how well the individual performs in school or demonstrates the ability to learn academic content. The academic self-concept has two levels: a general or overall academic self-concept of how good one is and a set of specific content-related self-concepts that describe how well one performs in separate subjects (e.g. mathematics, science, language arts and social science). The social self-concept describes how we relate to other people, and the transpersonal self-concept describes how we relate to the supernatural or the unknown. Each of these categories of the self-concept can be broken down to address a more specific self (e.g. self as attractive to the opposite sex under the social self-concept). In this regard, the self-concept is built upon an array of specific self-concepts related to specific perceptions of one’s performance in each domain. There are two primary models that describe how the self-concept is organized. The hierarchical model suggested by Burns (1982) shows an organized structure of five self-concepts under the general self-concept category: bodily self, sporting self, academic self, spiritual (transpersonal) self and social self, all of which we may develop through our experiences in life. Also, we may have to choose from many opportunities for self-development and so may have to relinquish some of them. Our choices are sometimes intentional and sometimes determined by the opportunities themselves. For example, one may have to choose to work in sales or as a teacher, but not both, because the salesperson’s job would run counter to that of the teacher. In this way, we give up developing certain categories and identify ourselves with selected ones. The hierarchical model enables us to examine different specific categories of self-concepts, as well as the attributes and reasons that make us develop such concepts in the way they are. Being able to open opportunities and space for one to develop and coordinate the selection of categories has a positive influence on one’s total self-concept.

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In the concentric model (Rogers 1961), self-concepts that are close to the centre are regarded as more important for the individual concerned and are less subject to change. For instance, one can regard the social self as the most important area of development and perceive sports as a relatively less important area. As such, the social self-concept is placed at the centre of the concentric model, while the sporting self-concept may be at the outer circle. Purkey (1988) mentioned that failure in a highly regarded area lowers evaluations in all other areas as well, while success in a prized area raises evaluations in other seemingly unrelated areas, influencing one’s overall self-concept. If the society has high expectations for academic development, good academic achievement will certainly raise one’s total self-concept. Except in the case of the total self-concept that one develops as a whole, there is a transitory self-concept that exerts short- or long-term influences on individuals. Rice and Dolgin (2002) suggested that a recent failure may give a person a temporary feeling of reduced self-worth, and the feeling may last longer if the failure persists. The self-concept is vital in determining one’s drive to achieve.

Self-esteem ‘Self-esteem’ refers to the affective or emotional aspect of the self which, in turn, generally relates to how we feel about or how we value ourselves (one’s self-worth) (Huitt 2009). Although the self-concept can refer to the general idea we have of ourselves, self-esteem can refer to particular measures of the components of the selfconcept. Some authors, however, use these two terms interchangeably. Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one’s self-worth. How do we see ourselves? What value do we place on ourselves? Does this evaluation lead to selfacceptance and self-approval that lead to self-worth? In adolescence, students start to assess every aspect of themselves, such as their physical appearance, intellectual abilities and social skills, and compare their assessments with their peers. Selfesteem develops from the discrepancy between the value an individual places on some skill or quality and the amount of that skill or quality the individual sees himself/herself as having (Bee 1992). Self-esteem influences the psychological wellbeing, motivation and achievement of individuals: as suggested by Franken (1994, 439), ‘people who have good self-esteem have a clearly differentiated self-concept … When people know themselves they can maximize outcomes because they know what they can and cannot do’. People with high self-esteem are those who see themselves as meeting the standards, which are socially constructed as an evaluation tool for assessing one’s self-concept. Children with high self-esteem are satisfied with themselves; they like



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themselves. However, those with low-esteem find a great discrepancy between what they want to be and what they are. They are not satisfied, and are frustrated and anxious. An adequate self-concept and level of self-esteem is therefore important because it drives a person to achieve, develop positive social relationships and enjoy satisfaction in life. Bandura (1997) mentioned that self-efficacy, which is highly related to positive self-concept development, can determine one’s success in school. Self-efficacy, referring to one’s belief that one can perform a specific task, is the best predictor of success; it can enhance motivation in learning. Enhancing self-efficacy requires teachers to support the positive development of pupils’ self-concepts, to the benefit of their growth and development.

The Self-concept is Learned and can be Changed People’s views about themselves and their relationships with others are closely related to success or failure in different situations, or even to the total experience of living. Moreover, the self-concept is learned through the interaction of the ‘I’ and ‘me’ in particular events and life experiences that determine people’s self-worth. Purkey (1988) discussed some important implications of the self-concept that teachers should note: • The self-concept does not appear to be instinctive but is a social product developed through experience; hence, it possesses relatively boundless potential for development and actualization. • Individuals may perceive themselves in ways different from the ways others see them because of previous experiences and present perceptions. • Individuals perceive different aspects of themselves at different times and with varying degrees of clarity. Therefore, inner focusing is a valuable tool for counselling. • Any experience inconsistent with one’s self-concept may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these experiences there are, the more rigidly the selfconcept is organized to maintain and protect itself. When a person is unable to get rid of perceived inconsistencies, emotional problems arise. • Faulty thinking patterns, such as dichotomous reasoning (i.e. dividing everything in terms of opposites or extremes) and over-generalizing (i.e. drawing sweeping conclusions based on little information) create negative interpretations of one’s self. Rice and Dolgin (2002) asserted that the self-concept is organized with a generally stable quality, which results in a consistent personality. If the self-concept changes readily, individuals will lack a consistent and dependable self. Purkey (1988) suggested that the self-concept requires consistency and stability, and tends to resist

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change. If we have a particular belief about our performance in a specific area, we tend to act according to such a belief and are resistant to changing it. As mentioned before, we choose among different selves, and sometimes we need to make choices about which paths we should take and which actions we should perform (Burns 1982). It is therefore important to have an environment that can raise the selfconcept in generally acceptable ways. Education can help to enhance a broad range of abilities to support the development of the self-concept. A narrow focus and overemphasis on one particular self-concept may do more harm than good. According to Franken (1994, 443), ‘there is a growing body of research which indicates that it is possible to change the self-concept. Self-change is not something that people can will but rather depends on the process of self-reflection, through which people often come to view themselves in a new, more powerful way, and it is through this new, more powerful way of viewing the self that people can develop possible selves’. Social agents, such as schools, teachers, parents and significant others, play important roles in the process of self-change.

Research on the Self-concept and Self-esteem The self-concept has a strong influence on children’s development, affecting them not only emotionally but also academically. Research has found that the academic performance of adolescents has a reciprocal relationship with specific domains of the self-concept and self-esteem: enhancing the self-concept in a specific domain is beneficial to performance, and achievement in that domain has a positive effect on the subsequent self-concept (Marsh and Craven 2006; Marsh and O’Mara 2008). For teachers, this means that interventions aimed at improving the self-concept alone without paying attention to actual performance is likely to be unhelpful. Teachers should strive to achieve a constructive synergy between the self-concept and actual performance, with practices, such as giving constructive feedback and judicious praise, being likely to help in building students’ self-concepts and improving their actual performance. Adolescents with poor self-concepts are unwelcome in groups because they lack the social skills for making friends and meeting new people; and they also lack confidence and are not used to making decisions. High self-esteem is also positively related to upward mobility: people with high self-esteem possess a sense of selfworth that enables them to choose leadership roles, whereas people with low selfesteem may avoid leadership and supervisory roles as a way of avoiding criticism (Marsh and Craven 2006; Rice and Dolgin 2002). There is a positive relationship between the self-concept and academic achievement. Dicintio and Gee (1999), for example, found that successful students



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feel a great sense of personal worth and have high self-esteem. Low achievers, in contrast, were usually categorized as ‘at risk’ and had low self-esteem, and demanded great attention from schools and other support services. Continued failure in school is a source of frustration for low achievers who may easily develop a poor self-image. As suggested in a local Hong Kong study (Lee 1997), this is especially true for children who internalize their academic failures, reflecting on their self-perceptions of their lack of ability. Other studies have highlighted how low achievement is linked to truancy (Sommer and Nagel 1991) and early withdrawal from school (Brooks-Gunn, Guo and Furstenberg 1993). Students with low academic achievement do not necessarily engage in disruptive behaviour, but may engage in other forms of play and leisure to escape from the frustration of not being able to achieve at school (Lehr and Harris 1988). In studying the correlation between the self-concept and life satisfaction among Hong Kong students, Chang et al.(2003) found that the social self-concept is a stronger correlate of life satisfaction for adolescents than for younger children. This finding, which is similar to the results in Western countries, can be explained by the relative importance of the domain of friendship and social interaction among adolescents. Unlike in Western countries and other Asian regions, however, the sports-related self-concept was found to be uncorrelated with life satisfaction for both children and adolescents in Hong Kong, probably due to the lack of emphasis on sport here. However, among children and adolescents in Hong Kong, the academic self-concept was found to be correlated with life satisfaction. In a recent study, Cheng and Lam (2007) found that weaker students in a high-ability classroom could either ‘feel bad about themselves’ (i.e. not accepting their own behaviour) when comparing themselves with better-performing peers or develop increased self-esteem by basking in the reflected success of significant others. However, which effect is more prominent is dependent on whether students have strong bonds with social groups. If the group identity is strong, then weaker students can enjoy enhanced self-esteem by being in a strong team. The cultivation of good community relationships in schools can therefore help to develop positive self-concepts. As suggested by Cheng and Lam, educational practice in Hong Kong schools should de-emphasize competition and change the assessment culture and format in Hong Kong’s schools. They recommended that formative, criterionreferenced assessment and co-operative learning should be adopted to encourage the development of self-acceptance and self-worth among students. Based on Weiner’s attribution theory (1986) (see Chapter 7), local studies have reported that primary and secondary students with persistently low achievement attribute their failure to a lack of ability and an internal locus of control, whereas those with high achievement attribute their success to effort (Chung, Siu and Wong 1987; Hau and Salili 1991). Other studies in Hong Kong have suggested that low

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achievement is associated with pathological outcomes, which is highly consistent with Western studies. The link between low academic achievement and depression was also described in studies by Lane (1996) and Lau, Siu and Chik (1998), which showed that low achievers developed a poor self-image. The emphasis on filial piety in the Confucian heritage sets a specific cognitive socializing mechanism that influences academic learning and achievement; children are trained to regard the written word as the authoritative source of knowledge and wisdom, to stress the need for memorization, and to believe that diligence holds the key to good academic performance (Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996a). Also, examinations, which are considered the goals of studying, reinforce low cognitive abilities (Chow and Pong 2002). In this situation, reforming education by changing pedagogical practices in Hong Kong may present difficulties at present. An interesting theme which further substantiates the learning situation of Hong Kong students was found in a study by Lam et al. (2004) which showed that the competitive environment typical in Hong Kong schools induced the adoption of performance goals: students focused on demonstrating their competence relative to others, rather than on adopting learning goals related to task mastery. Also, such competition was found to have a negative effect on students with low confidence and those facing academic setbacks. Because of this environment, performance-oriented students avoided challenges when they lacked confidence. In contrast, learning-oriented students persisted in the face of obstacles regardless of their levels of confidence. In a competitive setting, students tend to make more ability attributions. In this situation, failure had more negative consequences for students’ self-esteem because they see failure as an indication of low ability. Furthermore, in terms of self-esteem, students in competitive situations suffer from lowered self-efficacy on subsequent tests and more negative self-evaluation after failure than students in non-competitive situations. Competition is associated with an external locus of causality for learning: learning is not seen as an activity with intrinsic value but as a means to gain positive evaluation and students become too concerned about their performance at the expense of seeking challenges. Lam et al.(2004) described the ‘paradox of the Chinese learner in which competition facilitates performance in easy tasks and rote memory in immediate tests—a facilitative effect which may explain the success of Chinese students in achievement tests. However, competition has detrimental effects on complex and difficult tasks that require conceptual understanding. As students focus on seeking positive evaluation by outperforming others, they may avoid challenges where they are not sure of winning. In the long run, this is harmful to their development because they may deprive themselves of opportunities to learn new things. In addition, although experiencing setbacks or failures is inevitable in the learning process, students in competitive contexts suffer a more negative self-evaluation after



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failure and this is likely to decrease their motivation to continue learning. Hong Kong’s education system is well-known for its competitive nature, as highlighted by practices such as reporting students’ relative examination ranks in report cards. Research on the effects of competition on achievement motivation suggests that this may be harmful to students’ motivation to learn.

Socialization Socialization plays a substantial role in self-development. The process of socialization is clearly illustrated in the constituents of ‘me’, the self as object (to be known), especially during the period of schooling during childhood and adolescence. Socialization refers to the process of transmitting norms, customs, values, traditions, ideologies, social roles, symbols and languages through agents, such as families, educational systems, religions, peer groups, mass media and other public institutions. Socialization is important because it helps to ensure social and cultural continuity by developing the skills and habits necessary for social participation: it ‘makes one fit for the society’, thereby promoting social stability and harmony. This process is built on the functional perspective in sociology. Also, socialization influences self-concepts, emotions, attitudes and behaviours. In the formation of one’s self-concept and self-esteem, socialization plays a key part because it suggests social expectations and social norms. (Socialization in Hong Kong families and schools, and its significant impact on learning styles, is discussed later in this chapter.) As suggested by several representative social psychology theories, understanding the possible conflicts during the process of human growth is important for school teachers as, on this basis, they can build strategies to enhance the self-development and well-being of students. The following section discusses Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model, which addresses how the environment contributes to self-development in the process of socialization. This is followed by examining Freud’s psychoanalytic theories and Erikson’s psychosocial theories, which describe self-coping processes in meeting society’s norm and expectations. Moral development is then introduced to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of self-development in the process of socialization.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model The ecological perspective conceptualizes a person’s growth as a process of complex reciprocal interactions between the person and the environment (Bronfenbrenner 1995, 2005). The theory asserts that to understand a child’s development, attention

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must be paid to his/her personal characteristics, immediate environment and the larger societal impact, such as culture and the historical epoch in which a person grows up. These factors are interrelated in a complex manner. As an active, developing organism, the growing person has many personal characteristics—such as age, physical appearance, intelligence and temperament—which affect his/her environment and are in turn affected by the environment. For example, a fathers’ level of involvement in childrearing has been found to be dependent on the sex of child, with fathers more involved with sons than with daughters; and the fathers’ involvement in turn significantly affects children’s development (Pleck 1997). This theory also asserts that development is mainly affected by interactions that occur on a regular basis over extended periods of time, such as how parents teach and play with their children and other interactions between children at school. Apart from the immediate environment, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model posits that many other aspects of the environment influence child development. He identified four systems that influence the development of individuals: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner 1995) (see also Chapter 9). The microsystem includes sources of immediate influence, such as family members, friends and school, and social groups to which people belong, such as religious groups and the neighbourhood. Usually, children are most influenced by their family, because this is where they spend most of their time. If the microsystems provide children with nurturing and encouraging relationships, they can get more support in their development. The mesosystem involves reciprocal relationships among microsystem settings. It considers how different sources of influence on children development work together. For example, whether what a child learns at school is reinforced or reversed at home has a different effect on a child’s growth. The exosystem refers to settings in which people do not take active roles but are nevertheless influenced by them. For instance, a father’s career change may have a direct influence on his children’s quality of interaction and relationship with others from childhood to adolescence. Community organizations also exert an influence of this kind because they determine one’s opportunities for leisure and social activities. Finally, the macrosystem includes the ideologies, values, customs and laws of a particular culture and sets people into a network of educational, economic, religious, political and social values. This system also develops standards of physical attractiveness and gender roles, and influences health practices. Cultures across or within a country may influence how a person grows—for example, rural life is different from modern city life, and the socioeconomic status of people influences the type of activities they engage in.



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Operated within the above systems, the chronosystem helps explain changes that occur over time. For example, parents may divorce and remarry, students move from Primary 2 to Primary 3, or there may be changes in the country in which students live. The ecological system explains that the process of self-development and growth is determined by a host of factors and that the self is centrally governed by socialization. Children learn to behave according to social norms, and they follow institutional rules while studying in schools, thus becoming behaviourally institutionalized. Also, they may experience struggles in the process of adjusting to norms, which may bring about positive or negative life experiences.

Managing Instinctual Needs in Socially Appropriate Ways Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic perspective (also called the ‘psychodynamic perspective’) on viewing human development, according to which human behaviour involves a dynamic interplay between conscious and unconscious mental processes. He proposed that mental events, including sensations and experiences, vary in accessibility to awareness, with those one is aware of being at the conscious level. However, Freud believed that this represents only a small part of mental life: apart from the conscious level, there are also the preconscious and unconscious levels of awareness. The preconscious level encompasses experiences we are not conscious of at the present moment but which can be retrieved easily into awareness. It acts as a bridge between the conscious and the unconscious. Most important is the unconscious level which, hidden deep inside our psyche, houses primitive instinctual drives, emotions and experiences that are threatening to the conscious mind. These unconscious psychological forces have a powerful effect on human thought and behaviour, and primarily originate from childhood and continue to be influential throughout a person’s life. In Freud’s theory, humans are driven by instincts that, in themselves, are neither good nor evil but have both kinds of effects: positively, they lead to cultural achievements, and negatively they bring war, crime, mental illness and other human woes. Growing up is a process of learning to manage instinctual needs through socially appropriate ways (Cloninger 1993). Freud described the tension between unconscious forces that seek ‘expression’ and conscious forces that try to hold unconscious forces back. He proposed a tripartite structure of personality composed of the id, ego and superego. The id, which is part of the unconscious forces, refers to the primitive source of biological drives. It functions according to the hedonistic (pleasure) principle

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and aims at satisfying its urges. The id wants whatever feels good at the moment without considering the reality of situations. For example, when a child is hungry, the id wants food and the child cries. When the child is uncomfortable or only wants attention, the id speaks up until the child’s needs are met. The id is a source of sexual energy called the ‘libido’, and Freud proposed that motivation in all aspects of personality is derived from this energy. However, the libido can be redirected through socialization. As Freud suggested, repression ties up one’s sexual energies, and when these energies are redirected, they lead to higher achievements. The ego, which is the rational and coping part of personality, begins to develop in the three years after birth and with more experience. It operates in accordance with the reality principle, adapting itself to the constraints of the real world. The ego understands that people have needs and desires, but that being impulsive or selfish can hurt them in the long run; hence, it delays gratification in favour of rationality. A strong ego is therefore necessary for people to defend themselves against anxiety and maintain mental health—the breakdown of ego may lead to psychotic episodes. By the age of five, the superego develops to regulate the behaviour of children. The superego consists of the rules and ideals of society that have been internalized by individuals. It is the moral part of personality, and it develops from the moral and ethical restraints imposed on us by our caregivers in the socialization process. The superego can be equated to the conscience because it dictates our belief in what is right and wrong. It generates feelings of guilt when we act contrary to the rules suggested by our family members and by society. Freud used driving as a metaphor to illustrate the three parts of personality: the motor is the id, the steering wheel is the ego, and the rules and regulations of the road are the superego. A person steers his/her life using the ego to regulate consciousness in observing the rules and regulations of society. According to Freud, the ego is the coping or regulating tool that brings about unity in a person. It can satisfy the needs of the id without upsetting the superego, and it still considers the reality of every situation.  If the id becomes too strong, impulses and selfgratification take over a person’s life.  On the other hand, if the superego becomes too strong, a person will be driven by rigid moral codes, and so become judgemental and unbending in his/her interactions with the world. Freud also developed a stage theory of psychosexual development. He believed that everyone goes through a biologically determined sequence of psychosexual stages. At each stage, instinctual need arises from a specific body part, and this body part thus characterizes each stage. During these critical stages, a person’s personality is formed based on how he/she experiences gratification or frustration of his/her bodily needs. For example, during the first year after birth, much pleasure accompanies the intake of food from the mother’s breast or the feeding bottle and

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the extent to which the baby’s need is satisfied determines various aspects of his/her personality. Freud’s theory is marked by its focus on children’s early experiences: a person’s personality develops from childhood, and this personality continues to influence the person throughout his/her adult life. Table 6.1 presents a brief summary of Freud’s stages of development. Table 6.1 Sigmund Freud’s stages of psychosexual development Freud believed that humans develop through stages, which are based on particular erogenous zones. During each stage, unsuccessful completion results in fixation on that particular erogenous zone. In turn, fixation results in over- or under-indulgence during adulthood. Stage

Age

Description

Oral stage

Birth to 12 months

During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in oral fixation or an oral personality, which is characterized by a preoccupation with oral activities. Individuals with this type of personality may have stronger tendencies to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat and bite their nails. In terms of personality, they may become overly dependent on others, gullible and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges, and develop pessimism and aggression towards others.

Anal stage

1 to 3 years

The child’s focus of pleasure at this stage is on eliminating and retaining faeces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child learns to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, anal fixation can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control (anal retentive). At the opposite end of the spectrum, anal fixation may lead to messy and disorganized behaviours (anal expulsive)

Phallic stage

3 to 5 years

The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. During this stage, a boy develops unconscious sexual desires for his mother. Hence, he becomes his father’s rival, seeing his father as competition for his mother’s affection. During this time, a boy also develops a fear that his father might punish him (e.g. castrate him) for his feelings. This group of feelings is known as the Oedipus complex (after the Greek mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother). Later, it was added that girls go through a similar situation; they develop unconscious sexual attractions towards their fathers. Although Freud strongly disagreed with this, it has been called ‘the Electra Complex’ by more recent psychoanalysts. According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to strong competition from his father, a boy eventually decides to identify himself with his father rather than fight him. By identifying with his father, the boy develops masculine characteristics, identifies himself as a male and represses his sexual feelings towards his mother. According to psychoanalysts, a fixation at this stage can result in sexual deviance (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual identities.

Latency

5 years to puberty

During this stage, sexual urges remain repressed. Children interact and play mostly with peers of the same sex. (continued on page 160)

160 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Table 6.1 (continued) Stage Age Genital stage

puberty to adulthood

Description This stage begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite-sex peers. The genitals serve as the primary focus of pleasure.

Adapted from C. L. Heffner (2001), Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. Heffner Media Group. Retrieved 1 April 2010, from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/sexual_development. html.

In short, Freud’s theory explains that humans need to repress the id, which is an unconscious biological drive to satisfy oneself according to the pleasure principle. Accordingly, humans need to develop a strong ego to maintain unity in personality development. Although Freud referred to sexual and erogenous zones of the body, the concept of ego is important in understanding the self-indulgent behaviour of young children and even adults. With an understanding of Freudian theory, school educators can help young children to undergo successful completion of each stage of human development.

Psychosocial Development of the Self Erikson (1963, 1982), who studied how children are socialized in relation to their sense of self, postulated that human development follows a predetermined sequence. In his theory of psychosocial development, he partitioned the life span into eight distinct stages, each of which is accompanied by a crisis—a problem in social development that must be addressed at that time. Each crisis can be viewed as having both a positive and negative component. If the conflict is resolved satisfactorily, the positive attribute supports healthy personality development by giving a positive quality to one’s personality, promoting a positive sense of self and well-being. Conversely, if the conflict in a stage persists or is resolved unsatisfactorily, one’s ego will be damaged and the negative component in the crisis will be incorporated into the person’s personality. The eight stages of development are described below. Trust vs. Mistrust: From birth to one year, children begin to learn the ability to trust others based on the consistency of their caregiver(s). Infants develop a sense of trust if their needs for food and care are met with comforting regularity and responsiveness. If trust develops successfully, the child gains confidence and security in the world around him/her and is able to feel secure even when threatened. Unsuccessful completion of this stage can result in an inability to trust, and therefore a sense of fear about the inconsistent world which may result in anxiety, depression and paranoia in adulthood. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Between the ages of one and three, children enjoy more freedom to explore the environment and to gain greater control of different activities in their own lives. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported by



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parents in gradually allowing them more freedom, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. However, if they are not allowed to assert themselves and are overly controlled by parents, they doubt their own ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent on others and lack self-esteem. Initiative vs. Guilt: From around age three up to age six, children assert themselves more frequently. They become more active in mastering new tasks and skills, and try to win approval from others by being productive. If given sufficient opportunities to undertake their own activities, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if children are not allowed the opportunity to complete tasks on their own, or are criticized or ridiculed for their behaviour, they develop a sense of guilt. They may also become fearful of asserting themselves and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative. Industry vs. Inferiority: From age six years to puberty, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments—they are in an active learning age. Gaining a sense of competence from educational achievements is crucial for healthy development. Feeling competent, children will have a desire to learn and be productive. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good about what they have achieved. During this time, schools play an increased role in children’s development. If children have ample opportunities to receive recognition from teachers and their peers through their work, they gain a sense of competence. If, however, they develop doubts about their skills or status among their peers, they may be discouraged from further learning. Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence marks the very important stage of transition from childhood to adulthood. Children are becoming more independent and begin to look at the future in terms of, for example, their careers, relationships, families and housing. During this period, adolescents search for their self-identity by exploring and experimenting with a variety of behaviours and attitudes, and experience confusion and doubt. If they pass through this stage successfully, they develop a well-integrated identity and adopt a sound value system. Otherwise, they may have widespread confusion about themselves and their role in the world. Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adults begin to develop intimate relationships with others, defined as the merging of one’s own identity with someone else’s without fear of losing one’s self-identity. Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety and care within a relationship. If unsuccessful, the person becomes fearful of commitment and relationships, which can lead to isolation, loneliness and sometimes depression. Generativity vs. Stagnation: During middle adulthood, people become concerned not only about the welfare of the next generation but also about the nature of society. This is expressed by the rearing of one’s offspring, as well as other activities such as

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being productive at work and becoming involved in community activities. Adults who fail to establish a sense of generativity feel unproductive and are impoverished in their interpersonal relations. Ego Integrity vs. Despair: The final stage, which covers age 65 to death, is the closing of a person’s life. During this period, people look back and review their life choices, and contemplate their accomplishments and failures. Those who can affirm what they have done in their lifetime and feel satisfied with it develop ego integrity. However, those who view their lives as unproductive, feel guilt about their past, become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and a sense of hopelessness. Table 6.2 summarizes the various stages of the model. Table 6.2 Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development Approximate Psychosocial age crisis

Description Babies learn either to trust or distrust others, depending on whether their basic needs are appropriately satisfied.

Virtue

Birth to 1 year

Trust vs. mistrust

Hope

1 to 3 years

Autonomy Children enjoy more freedom to explore the Will power vs. shame and environment and to gain more control of different doubt activities in their own lives. If successful, the child develops a sense of proper self-control; if hindered by parents with too little or too much control, the child develops self-doubt.

3 to 6 years

Initiative vs. guilt

Children begin to undertake self-initiated, planned Purpose activities. Success depends on whether parents allow them these opportunities and, if so, this gives children a healthy sense of purpose; otherwise, children are likely to be immobilized by feelings of resignation.

6 years to puberty

Industry vs. inferiority

Children are in an active learning age. Gaining a sense of competence from educational achievements is crucial for healthy development. Feeling competent, the child will have the desire to learn and be productive. However, if the child’s learning is constantly thwarted, he/she may be discouraged from undertaking further learning.

Adolescence

Identity vs. role confusion

Adolescents search for their self-identity, a sense Fidelity of who they are. The challenge at this stage is for adolescents to develop a well-integrated identity; otherwise, a personality crisis develops and results in the person lacking the ability to make important life decisions.

Young Adulthood

Intimacy vs. isolation

The young adult learns to develop intimate Love relationships, defined as the merging of one’s own identity with someone else’s without losing fear of losing one’s self-identity. Unsuccessful persons at this stage become self-absorbed or avoidant of intimate relationships. (continued on page 163)

Competency

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Table 6.2 (continued) Middle Generativity Healthy individuals become concerned not only Adulthood vs. stagnation with their self but also care about the guidance and betterment of the next generation. Inability to develop this sense of caring for others is likely to leave the person feeling that life is meaningless. Maturity

Integrity vs. despair

Care

Old people look back and review their lives. Wisdom Whether they are satisfied with the lives they have led determines their mental health. They may either be contented with what they have lived through or feel bitter about wrong choices and missed chances.

Adapted from C. L. Heffner (2001), Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Heffner Media Group. Retrieved 1 April 2010, from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/social_development.html.

Moral Self-development The development of morality, moral ethics and moral standards are an important part of the socialization process. This section introduces moral development from four main perspectives.

Cognitive perspective The cognitive perspective focuses on developing moral judgements and decisions when a person is asked to resolve moral problems (Power, Higgins and Kohlberg 1989). Proponents of this approach include Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Piaget proposed two distinct stages of moral development from childhood to adolescence: moral realism and autonomous morality (DeVries and Zan 1994). The former is characterized by strict adherence to rules and duties and by obedience to authority, while the latter illustrates the maturity of young children in considering rules critically and in applying these rules selectively based on the goals of mutual respect and co-operation. Kohlberg claimed the universality of his theory, asserting that all individuals in all cultures go through the same order and sequence of stage development, although differences may be found in the rate of development and how far one develops. Compared with Piaget, Kohlberg considered that the attainment of moral maturity takes a longer time and involves more gradual progress. He proposed that moral development involves six stages. Table 6.3 summarizes the characteristics of each stage.

164 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Table 6.3 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development Level I: Pre-conventional level (up to age nine): Self-focused morality 1. Morality is defined as obeying rules and avoiding negative consequences. Children in this stage see rules set typically by parents as the defining moral law. (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. That which satisfies the child’s needs is seen as good and moral. (What’s in it for me?) Level II: Conventional level (age nine to adolescence): Other-focused morality 1. Children begin to understand what is expected from them by their parents and teachers, among others. Morality is seen as achieving these expectations (social norms) (the good boy/good girl attitude). 2. Fulfilling obligations and following expectations are seen as the moral law (law and order morality). Level III: Post-conventional level (adulthood): Higher focused morality 1. Adults begin to understand that people have different opinions about morality and that rules and laws vary from group to group and culture to culture. Morality is seen as upholding the values of one’s group or culture. 2. Understanding one’s own personal beliefs allows adults to judge themselves and others based on higher levels of morality. At this stage, what is right and wrong is based upon circumstances surrounding actions. The basics of morality are the foundations, with independent thought playing an important role (principled conscience). Adapted from Heffner, C. L. (2001). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Heffner Media Group. Retrieved 1 April 2010, from http://allpsych.com/psychology101/moral_development. html.

Both Piaget and Kohlberg believed that through their interactions with the environment, children develop an understanding of moral concepts, such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Both rejected indoctrinating students with norms. Piaget recommended that schools should emphasize cooperative decision making and problem solving, nurturing moral development by requiring students to work out common rules based on fairness; and he proposed the creation of opportunities for personal discovery through problem solving. Kohlberg’s approach encourages the direct discussion of moral dilemmas and issues, and requires students to determine and justify what course the actor in a dilemma should take. Through discussion, and based on the principles of justice and fairness, students are forced to face the contradictions present in any course of action. Table 6.4 provides an example of a moral dilemma Kohlberg used in his research. Instead of moral indoctrination, a case study of this kind is recommended for enhancing moral judgements.

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Table 6.4 A Moral Dilemma (Kohlberg 1963, as cited in Crain 1985) Case Study: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe, a woman was near death due to a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging 10 times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only collect about $1,000, which is half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell the drug at a cheaper price or to let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” Thus, Heinz became desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done what he did? Was it actually wrong or right? This case study was used by Kohlberg to test 72 boys aged 10, 13 and 16 from both middle- and lower-class families in Chicago by interview. He later added to his sample younger children, delinquents and boys and girls from other American cities and other countries. The case study approach in presenting moral dilemmas was later recommended for use in developing children’s and adolescent’s moral judgements instead of indoctrinating them with moral codes.

Learning perspective The learning perspective postulates that a person’s moral reasoning is shaped by the process of reinforcement, punishment and modelling. Accordingly, cognitive development is influenced by the external environment rather than by inner advances in cognitive abilities, as suggested by the cognitive perspective. This perspective therefore proposes that virtues and vices are the bases of moral behaviour, and that teachers should therefore teach a ‘bag of virtues’, such as honesty, kindness, patience and strength through example and direct communication of their convictions. Students must be given the opportunity to practise these virtues, and their moral expression should be reinforced by rewards. This approach emphasizes the development of moral habits before that of moral reasoning. Its shortcoming lies in its mechanistic nature in deciphering human phenomena as well as the passive role of students in responding to the direct teaching method. Also, it minimizes the chances of encouraging learners to form personal standards, which may lead to weak moral reasoning.

Cognitive social learning perspective The cognitive social learning perspective views moral development from a person’s stage of cognitive development and the way in which he/she has been socialized. This approach sees empathy as an emotional response to other people’s unhappiness

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and makes use of motivational aspects in enhancing moral development. This perspective utilizes empathy training, peer counselling and role-playing in promoting moral development. From this viewpoint, the cultivation of a caring environment and the models offered by teachers can also provide moral education.

Psychoanalytic perspective The psychoanalytic perspective suggests that the feeling of guilt determines our moral behaviour. People feel guilty when they behave in ways which violate internalized moral standards and so they will try to control their behaviour and conform to moral norms. In this way, their superego is also formed. The psychoanalytic perspective regards parents as agents of moral socialization for children, and the development of the ego and superego is regarded as a coping tool to maintain healthy personality development. Parents should prohibit socially unacceptable behaviours and maintain a loving relationship with their children, as a result of which children will follow the behavioural standards set by their parents. The above theories suggest an array of diverse viewpoints on moral development. Kohlberg’s theory has provided an index of the cognitive levels of schoolchildren in terms of moral development. Based on this index, teachers can integrate different methods to develop moral habits and cultivate critical moral judgements. As moral development takes time, moral training should be included in the school curriculum and be carried out through classroom events and special guidance and counselling services, all of which can help to build positive selfconcepts and enhance the self-esteem of students.

Self-development in the Chinese Culture This chapter has focused so far on Western psychological theories that suggest ways of understanding the self and self-development—but are these theories universal? Do the Chinese, with their Confucian ideology, perceive self-development differently? As mentioned in Chapters 1 and 11, Confucian ideology plays a major role in the Chinese culture. Since the Warring States Period, the social, cultural, religious, moral, economic and political order of the Chinese people have been shaped by Confucianism and so a deeper understanding of Confucian ideas is necessary to understand the Chinese culture. In Confucian classical thought, ‘self’, ‘developing the self’, and ‘humanity’ (learning to be good) are part of the broader political system, and the importance of following and maintaining order within both the country and the family hierarchy



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is stressed. It is everyone’s duty to be loyal to the ruler and to follow one’s father’s orders. Confucius believed that social harmony could be achieved when each person understands his/her status and position in the social system. Confucianism promotes ren, which refers to human-heartedness, as a guiding principle for both personal perfection and social order. By exercising ren, man develops to become a jun zi (gentleman) and shen ren (sage), and can be united with heaven (union with God). Confucius believed in the innate goodness of children. By studying studiously and maintaining good discipline, moral character can be developed, and one may become a true gentleman. The most cherished moral characters include filial piety, brotherliness, loyalty, faithfulness, sincerity, benevolence and dutifulness (Doan 1991; Lee 2000). In the Chinese culture, the self is different from what has been identified in Western literature. In the West, as described by Maslow in his A Theory of Human Motivation, the self opens up opportunities for development and self-realization to serve self-actualization (Gleitman, Fridlund and Reisberg 2004). This selfactualization is based on the person’s interests and goal orientation relative to the social environment, and self-development is a means and an end in itself. The Chinese culture, however, suggests that there is a type of self that possesses a spiritual self-sufficiency, which renders a person independent of ‘popularity or dependence upon others’ (Doan 1991, 119). This type of self conforms to the universal character required by the Chinese society, which can be found in the character of a sage and is translated to the moral doctrines of the nation. As mentioned above, these characters refer to wisdom, responsibility, loyalty, politeness, filial piety and technical knowledge. A person’s self or character is therefore not defined in isolation but in relationship with others because moral character is defined by the roles that people play in a web of interpersonal relationships. From these snapshots of classical Confucian ideas, it is clear that understanding self-development in the Chinese culture differs from that in the West. Among the Chinese, self-development is confined within a predetermined framework, which plays a significant role in helping to keep social order, maintaining the status quo and uniting the nation (Wu and Singh 2004). Confucianism, as a dominant force that governs China, serves important political functions: it guides education and moral ethical values. Therefore, loyalty, obedience, the observance of rites and filial duty are norms for the Chinese people to observe. As suggested in Chapters 1 and 11, the identified behaviour of Chinese teachers and learners in Chinese societies includes the following (Biggs and Watkins 2001; Chao and Tseng 2002; Lau 1996a): • Students are socialized to respect, not to question, the authority of teachers. • Students regard the written word as the authoritative source of knowledge and wisdom. • In the learning process, teachers stress the need for memorization and repeated practice.

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• •

Teachers and students believe that diligence holds the key to good academic performance. Students believe that good academic achievement is a route to personal success, which brings glory to the family.

On the positive side, Chinese students generally have relatively high academic achievement compared with students in other countries. The high value that the traditional Chinese culture attaches to education and the belief that hard work is the key to academic success are some of the factors that contribute to this high performance (Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996a). Another important factor is that both Chinese parents and children generally have high levels of educational aspirations (Hau and Ho 2008). The stress on memorization and repetition in learning may seem mechanical and pointless, but attentive repetition can both strengthen memory and improve understanding (Dahlin and Watkins 2000). The active role that Chinese parents and teachers play in providing guidance and instruction for children’s development also offers the support that children need, helping them to become better prepared to benefit from school education (Kennedy 2002). On the negative side, a ‘without-question attitude’ in learning may restrict students’ cognitive strategies and critical thinking abilities—as argued by Piaget and Kohlberg in their discussion of moral development. The Chinese ideology of living may also minimize the general development of children’s abilities: when children are conditioned to obey the demands of those in authority, and try to accept and perform such demands, they become uncritical (Lam and Nizar 2009).

Chinese Parenting and Its Effects Parenting supports a person’s growth and has a strong influence on children’s personal development. Parenting styles affect the well-being of children, with lasting effects on many aspects of people’s lives, such as their academic motivation and relationship with teachers. Woolfolk (2010) mentioned four different parenting styles, each of which leads to certain behavioural characteristics among children. Authoritative parents are firm but caring. They explain the reasons for rules and apply them consistently, and they have high expectations for their children. This parenting style leads to high self-esteem among children: They feel confident and safe, and are willing to take risks and so become successful in schools. Authoritarian parents stress conformity. They are detached from their children and do not encourage verbal give-and-take exchanges. This results in a withdrawn personality, with children worrying more about pleasing their parents than solving problems. Children reared with this parenting style are defiant and lacking in social skills.



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Permissive parents give children total freedom; they have limited expectations for their children and make few demands on them. With this parenting style, children become immature, lacking in self-control, impulsive and unmotivated. Finally, uninvolved parents have little interest in their children’s lives and hold few expectations. Brought up in this way, children lack self-control and long-term goals, and easily become frustrated. Healthy parent-child relationships cultivate a sense of autonomy, competence and belongingness, which supports the development of personal responsibility and develops a sense of self-worth among children. Chinese parenting styles are typified by a high level of parental control and a demand for a high level of compliance from children (Chao and Sue 1996). In Western parental theories, these characteristics are deemed authoritarian and are associated with poor developmental outcomes, but such a pattern does not appear in the Chinese population (Chao and Tseng 2002). This is likely to be due to cultural differences in parenting concepts. While it is true that Chinese parents do have high levels of control over their children, this is just one aspect of their parenting style and there are important qualitative differences in other aspects of parenting. The notion of ‘child training’ may capture better the difference between Chinese and Western parenting styles (Chao and Sue 1996). Unlike the Western concept of authoritarian parents, which involves parents dominating their children in a negative way, Chinese parental control often goes along with a supportive parentchild relationship, characterized by parental warmth and intimacy. This type of high parental control therefore seems beneficial to the development of children because, at an early age, they are trained by their parents to become attentive and participative in the classroom. Such differences in parenting styles, coupled with other cultural differences (e.g. the high academic aspirations of Chinese parents, and the emphasis on effort and respect for scholars), explains why Chinese students consistently display a high level of academic achievement compared with their Western counterparts (Chao and Sue 1996; Watkins and Biggs 2001). It is dangerous to overgeneralize about the impact of parenting on children. Although overly harsh parenting—the kind that is typified by aggression, physical punishment and poor emotional regulation of parents—has been shown to have negative effects on both Chinese and Western children (Chang et al. 2003), research on which type of parenting is best for the development of children often produces contradictory results when conducted in different cultural environments. Teachers are therefore advised to exercise caution when applying research results in a crosscultural fashion. For example, Chinese parents, because of the belief that effort is essential for success, often de-emphasize children’s success and emphasize their failure (Ng, Pomerantz and Lam 2007). Thus, they are less likely to praise their children for their academic success, and even when they do praise them, the praise

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is likely to be process-oriented, not result-oriented, and used to foster not self-choice but compliance with parental expectations (Wang, Wiley and Chiu 2008). Such a pattern may be seen by Westerners as a cold and distant relationship but, in the Chinese context, it is part of a normal, warm parent-children relationship.

Enhancing Self-esteem in Schools This chapter has discussed the importance of cultivating a positive self-concept by addressing the psychological well-being of the self in the processes of socialization. The school can play a very significant role in supporting the growth of children and adolescents: a positive school experience can have a protective function, shielding students from stressful environments and low self-worth (Rodgers and Rose 2002). However, as agents of socialization, schools and teachers sometimes do not take selfdevelopment as an important aim. While teaching, some teachers may feel they do not have time to help students ‘view’ and ‘value’ themselves based on their behaviour and schoolwork. Such teachers may be very concerned about end-results, but they overlook the fact that the cultivation of self-worth supports students in attaining better results. From an educational point of view, opportunities for self-development are essential because they can help students to move towards a promising future of their own. These opportunities can develop students’ potential and, with confidence and support, more students can enjoy the satisfaction derived from self-realization, can recognize the paths towards self-actualization and enjoy school life. Some teachers may think that the task of enhancing a person’s self-worth should be left to parents, counsellors or special responsible units in schools. Woolfolk (2007), however, recommended that teachers should apply several principles for enhancing students’ self-concepts, especially the academic self-concept, without additional counselling time or extra work. In her view, teachers should: • help students to reflect on and review their progress and development during the learning process • communicate a caring and genuine interest in all students; • maintain an authoritative interaction style; • reward student initiative; • establish appropriately high expectations for all learners; • create learning activities where students can succeed on tasks that they view as challenging; and • design grading systems that enhance competence and avoid competition. To enhance self-esteem, teachers must ensure that all learners are included and that the learning environment is suitable for everybody. The following suggestions for planning lessons should be noted:



•

• • • •

• • • • • • •

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Expectations and lesson objectives should be encompassing, ranging from simple to complex and covering broad areas of development (e.g. academic, social and affective areas, as well as multiple intelligences). Teachers should be fair in treating students, in classroom management, and in marking student work. Teachers should avoid labelling students. Lessons must include more formative assessment, and criterion-referenced norms should be used for assessment. Teachers should consider low achievers, but should not integrate them into classroom groupings. Instead, a support system must be created, such as more individual attention and after-school consultation. Teachers need to model appropriate methods of self-criticism, perseverance and self-reward. Teachers should avoid making direct comparisons and should use praise for low-achieving and high-achieving students at all levels. Teachers should foster a community spirit by introducing group work and teamwork, and by acknowledging team effort. Teaching should encourage peer- and self-evaluation. Teachers should develop self-worth by allowing time for self-reflection through conversation or writing. Teachers must be concerned with individual development and must help students to set clear goals for planned achievements. To create an inclusive environment, teachers should eliminate groupings by culture and ability.

To support the holistic development of children, including their self-esteem, the new school curriculum in Hong Kong stresses the importance of catering for learner diversity (Curriculum Development Council 2001, 2002). When schools only care about developing the academic competence of students and put too much stress on competition, many students, especially those with special educational needs and low academic achievement, may suffer from constant frustration and develop poor self-esteem. The inclusive principles work together with a more holistic approach to student development which, in part, states that education should: … enable every person to attain all-round development in the domains of ethics, intellect, physique, social skills, and aesthetics according to his/ her own attributes so that he/she is capable of life-long learning, critical and exploratory thinking, innovating, and adapting to change, filled with self-confidence and team spirit; willing to put forward continuing effort for prosperity, progress, freedom, and democracy of their society, and to contribute to the future well-being of the nation and the world at large. (Education Commission 2000, 4)

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Nowadays, student guidance and counselling is viewed as a cohesive and integral part of the curriculum (Education Bureau 2009b). Emotional support, guidance and advice for the well-being of students are unquestionably regarded as the job of teachers, and schools are required to build a comprehensive and developmental guidance system to support students’ personal growth. Notably, personal growth education is offered to students to support their personal, social, academic and career development. In fact, personal growth education is scheduled in students’ timetables, with the aim of helping children and adolescents in the process of healthy self-development. At the same time, student support services are included in the accountability system as an important performance domain in the school external review exercise, and there are conscious efforts to make pastoral care a substantial part of school planning and self-evaluation. To facilitate these aims, in the school external review, schools have to produce not only academic results but also the results on the affective and social aspects of students. Schools are encouraged to use the Assessment Programme for Affective and Social Outcomes (APASO) (Moore 2001) to measure different aspects of student performance in the affective and social domains. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1995) ecological systems theory, APASO measures in particular students’ attitudes towards school, the self-concept, attitudes to learning, interpersonal competence and problem-solving strategies. [APASO is readily available from the Education Bureau’s website (http://apaso.edb.gov.hk).] To support schools in providing a wide range of guidance services to students with diverse needs, special student guidance teachers (SGTs) are assigned to all 24-class primary schools (Education Bureau 2009a). The SGTs offer individual and small group counselling support, diagnose student cases, make referrals for professional action, support school crisis management and set up a truant tracking system for student counselling. With a comprehensive school policy, it is likely that students can gain support from schools for both their learning and holistic growth. For this to be successful, a united workforce is required.

Conclusion Aiming at developing a comprehensive understanding about the development of self and the environment, various socio-psychological theories such as self-formation, socialization, self-concept, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological and ecological model of human development, Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, Erikson’s psychosocial theories, moral development and parenting styles are explored. Particular attention is given to the self-development of Chinese learners. The Chinese people tend to emphasize the moral doctrines modelled by the ‘sage’, including such virtues as



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responsibility, loyalty, politeness, filial piety and technical knowledge. In order to help learners develop self-esteem and a positive self-image, various principles and strategies are discussed.

Learning Activities 1. In planning lessons, what can you do to enhance the self-esteem of students? What strategies would you use to support learners in establishing positive selfdevelopment? 2. From your observations, are Chinese learners pressurized by Hong Kong’s education system and by Hong Kong’s Confucian heritage? Justify your answers. 3. With reference to Eric Erikson’s theory, is it difficult to overcome conflict in adolescents? Provide examples by referring to one of the stages. 4. It seems very difficult to adjust the ego to cope with situations where one is torn between one’s will and the rules of society. What are your views on this statement?

7 Motivation and Effective Learning among Chinese Learners Shane N. Phillipson

Think about how you would feel if you were asked unexpectedly to sing in front of a class of Secondary 2 students. Although you are taking singing lessons, you may feel a little nervous because you do not have much experience of singing in public. On the other hand, you are curious about how it would feel to sing in front of an audience. Also, singing in public is one of your personal goals, and to be invited to sing by your class seems to you to be a great honour. You also want to avoid disappointing your singing teacher or your parents. In considering your response, you remember the song you sang for your music examination last year, for which you gained a distinction after a great deal of practice. You begin to smile and agree to sing, expecting that you will be successful in delivering the song. When the song ends, your singing is much appreciated by the students, who clap enthusiastically. As you bow to acknowledge this, you begin to think about how good it would be to sing again in front of an audience. A number of motivation theories can be used to help explain the complex behaviours and feelings associated with the above task. These theories can also be useful to teachers for explaining the differences in student behaviour and in planning strategies to enhance their motivation. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • distinguish between the many models of motivation; • recognize and use a number of indicators of motivation; • apply an understanding of classroom motivation to maximize student achievement; • draw on motivation research that focuses on the Hong Kong Chinese student; and • understand the theoretical bases of tests of motivation. This chapter begins by exploring the common sense idea that motivation is determined by the value of a task and the expectation of success. It is then followed by an explanation of achievement goal theory, a modern theory of motivation that links a student’s academic goal orientations, with their cognitive processes and their subsequent academic achievement. The last section describes some of the ways that motivations can be assessed.

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Modern Views of Motivation Biggs (1995) proposed a commonsense view of motivation: students are motivated to learn when the task is important to them and when they expect success. This view can be conveyed in a simple equation—Motivation (M) = Value (V) × Success (S)— where a student’s motivation (M) for a specific task depends on the importance or value (V) of that task for that student and the student’s expectation of success (S) on that task. If a task has no value or there is no expectation of success, then motivation is ‘zero’. It would be very convenient if students were all similarly (and highly) motivated in the classroom, but clearly they are not. The above equation helps teachers to begin to understand the source of this variability: either students value the same task differently or they have different expectations of success, or both. The relationship between V and S is known as the expectancy-value theory of motivation (Feather 1982). Other psychologists have added cost (C) to the equation, believing that the value of a complex task is partly determined by its cost (i.e. the possible risks and the value of alternative tasks) (Wigfield and Eccles 2002).

Enhancing the value of a task Biggs (1995) suggested that there are four approaches teachers can use to enhance the value of the tasks they set for students and help students to expect success. Such approaches are based on many forms of motivation, including extrinsic motivation, social motivation, achievement motivation and intrinsic motivation. When students are motivated to act (or not) by external agents, such as reinforcers, their motivation is commonly referred to as ‘extrinsic’ motivation. On the other hand, when they are motivated to satisfy their needs, this is referred to as ‘intrinsic’ motivation. Students also have other needs, including physiological and psychological needs. The cognitive perspective on motivation focuses on the cognitive needs of individual students. Each of these perspectives is discussed in later sections of this chapter.

Increasing expectations of success Similarly, students’ expectations of success and failure arise from many sources, including the perceived difficulty of the task, their real or imagined beliefs about their own capabilities, teacher expectations, and their attributions of success and failure. The focus in this chapter is on the attribution theory of motivation since the other sources are dealt with in other chapters.



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Achievement goal theory Another influential view of motivation is achievement goal theory. This theory focuses not only on reasons why students choose one goal over another but also on the practical outcomes of situations where teachers reward some goals and not others. In discussing achievement goal theory, Covington (2000) acknowledged that motivation towards a goal can be explained either as an internal need or as the result of pursuing the goal, but considered that, for all practical purposes, this distinction is not important. Before exploring these perspectives in more detail, two points should be made. First, student behaviour is more often than not a consequence of many motivational ‘forces’ acting at the same time, and so it can be explained by more than one model of motivation. Second, although there are many ways to conceptualize motivation, Biggs’ (1995) view of motivation noted above is followed in this chapter. The discussion revolves specifically around studies within the Chinese context, to assess the various perspectives on motivation more directly. Biggs and Watkins (1995) concluded that Chinese students in Hong Kong are likely to be motivated by a ‘mixed motivational stream of personal ambition, family force, peer support, material reward, and … possibly … interest’ (p. 273). To understand Chinese learners, it is necessary to understand the various conceptions of motivation and then consider how they can be applied in the context of Chinese classrooms.

Motivation and the Value of the Task Using behavioural models of learning, motivation can be understood in terms of reinforcements and punishments (see Chapter 3). Students’ behaviour can be influenced when they expect to be reinforced (or punished) for that behaviour. Thus, behavioural models of learning also help to explain certain instances of immediate changes in behaviour. From the social cognitive perspective, students are motivated by their goals, expecting to receive the same reinforcers or punishers that follow their behaviour. Goals, expectations, and self-efficacy are key aspects of this perspective (Ormrod 2008).

Extrinsic motivation In broad terms, students who are extrinsically motivated complete a task for reasons unrelated to the task itself. For example, such students complete a mathematics worksheet because they expect to receive approval from the teacher or want to get a high grade in the subject. They are not interested in the worksheet itself.

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Alternatively, students may complete the mathematics worksheet because they want to avoid the unpleasant consequence of receiving the disapproval of their teachers or parents, or from fear of reducing their future options should they fail the subject. As outlined in Chapter 3, in behavioural terms, there are two types of reinforcement—positive and negative reinforcement—and two types of punishment: presentation punishment and removal punishment. The value of reinforcers (i.e. anything that when added to the context increases the likelihood of that behaviour occurring again) is determined by those completing the behaviours of interest. For instance, teachers may decide to use small gifts, such as pencils as reinforcers, believing that students will value them, but a student with a desk full of pencils may not value the offer of yet another pencil. In the same way, punishers, such as threats, may or may not lead to a reduction in the frequency of the undesirable behaviour, depending on whether or not students view such a threat seriously. Many psychologists warn that the value of punishments is unpredictable and teachers are encouraged to use positive reinforcements whenever possible. If positive reinforcement is the most desirable form of extrinsic motivation, what then are the most effective reinforcers? McInerney and McInerney (2006, 169) identified three types of reinforcers: material, token and social reinforcers. Material reinforcers include, for instance toys, candy and stationery; token reinforcers are items such as stamps, stickers and gold stars; and social reinforcers include teachers’ goodwill and competition. McInerney and McInerney also pointed out that there can be a mismatch between teachers’ beliefs about the value of these reinforcers and the values held by each student, which change according to year level, and that teachers must be aware that reinforcers may not act as intended and, in fact, may function as punishers. In discussing the negative aspects of extrinsic motivation, many educational psychologists point to the (often unintentional) misuse of extrinsic rewards by teachers. If extrinsic rewards are used to distinguish between activities, students receive the (perhaps unintended) message that some learning activities are more valued than others. More important, there is also a concern that if extrinsic motivation is used indiscriminately, then a student’s reason for learning moves from an internal to an external locus of causality. In other words, students may lose the sense of responsibility for their own learning, relying instead on external sources. As noted in Chapter 3, teachers need to determine which reinforcers are valued by each student. Although some reinforcers are common to all students in the same age group, others are more individualistic. Furthermore, students may be working for reinforcers that are provided by parents or other members of the family, and a frank discussion with parents may help to determine the motivational forces behind each student in the class. Praise, which is often used as an external reinforcer by teachers in Western classrooms, was also found to have positive effects in an experimental study on



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Chinese secondary students in southern China (Yeung et al. 2008), though this was less pronounced for low than high achievers. Yeung et al. suggested that teachers find it more difficult to praise low-achieving students, perhaps for reasons related to the Chinese culture. Apart from arguing that praise enhances student learning, they also advised teachers to assist students who need the most help. Overall, they recommended that teachers of Chinese students should implement the following strategies: • Praise generously, covering ability, effort and strategy. Teachers should spend time in preparing a list of possible statements to cover each of these categories. • Plan to introduce praising systematically in class. • Use the correct type of praise for different groups of students. For high-ability students, focus on ability and effort; and for low-ability students, concentrate on effort and learning strategies. • Be sensitive to the possibility of teacher bias when assessing student ability. When using praise, it is safe to emphasize effort, learning strategy, and the application of skills and knowledge. • Ensure that the weakest students experience praise. Provide them with opportunities to experience success. • Demonstrate sincerity in the use of praise. In doing so, avoid social comparisons and focus on the development of interest, locus of control, autonomy and attainable standards. • Take time to develop the sense of self-efficacy of students through selfreflection and professional collaboration. Within the Chinese classroom, however, it may not be easy to see direct evidence of extrinsic motivation. Using the Confucian tradition as the basis for understanding the contexts within which Chinese students approach education, Lee (1996) identified both extrinsic rewards and the need for self-realization as powerful forces behind learning. In contrast to Western views, both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are embedded deeply in the Chinese culture, comfortably coexisting together; and so the fact that deep approaches to learning can be accomplished through material rewards is not surprising (Watkins and Biggs 2001a).

Homework as punisher Another issue of importance in this context is the role of homework. Biggs (1995) warned teachers against the use of homework as a punishment, arguing that this makes ‘students hate the very thing you should be trying to make them like (p. 87). Also, according to the Basic education curriculum guide (Curriculum Development Council 2002), ‘homework is an important component of the learning process but can be easily abused’ (p. 1) … it must be set ‘meaningfully’ (p. 2) to aid student learning but should not be used as ‘punishment’ (p. 5).

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Social motivation Culture plays an important role in motivation. Within the Chinese culture, social forces place an individual within a ‘matrix of relationships’, in which he/she plays a number of roles to ensure that the ‘wheels of his social network turn smoothly’ (Sun 2008, 50–51). Examples of these roles include family orientations, relationship orientations, authoritarian orientations and other orientations related to conformity. These orientations work together, exerting pressure on Chinese students to meet their social responsibility over and above the needs of individuals (Hau and Salili 1996a; McInerney 2007; Salili and Lai 2003). Put in another way, Chinese students tend to value things that are valued by their parents, family members, teachers and the wider community. A Chinese student working within the Chinese culture is expected to expend effort in studying because effort is ‘important in the process of human perfectibility’ (Lee 1996, 32). This expectation is communicated to students in many ways, and its dual purpose is to ensure that individuals realize their full potential and meet their cultural obligations. As many psychologists have noted, these purposes are powerful social motivators.

Achievement motivation According to the achievement motivation perspective, some students are highly motivated by the need to achieve, and teachers can use their understanding of this perspective to analyse why students approach their schoolwork in the way they do. Central to achievement motivation is the link between a student’s need to achieve or to avoid failure and the maintenance of their self-esteem. Typically, Hong Kong’s schools are characterized by classroom climates that emphasize competition among students. In contrast to Western classrooms, achievement motivation in Hong Kong’s classrooms affects more than individual students. As Biggs and Watkins (1995) pointed out, the Chinese ‘collective’ culture emphasizes the close relationship of individuals to others within their social matrix. Achievement motivation is therefore likely to affect the self-esteem of parents and other close family members. This section describes the theoretical bases of achievement motivation and the studies that seek to apply these theories in the Chinese context.

High- and low-need achievers Achievement motivation is often referred to as one of the trait theories of motivation. Students who are motivated in this way do so because it is a relatively enduring

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part of their personality and ‘is the result of an emotional conflict between striving for success and avoiding failure’ (Covington 2000, 173). The emotional aspect of achievement motivation distinguishes two types of personalities. Students who hope for success and anticipate the pride that comes with winning or being more successful than others are referred to as success-oriented (or high-need) achievers. Conversely, those who expect shame or embarrassment if they fail are known as failure-oriented (or low-need) achievers (McInerney and McInerney 2006). Of course, students may experience varying degrees of each type of emotional state. The level of achievement motivation depends on an understanding of the likelihood of success: success-oriented achievers are maximally motivated when the perceived likelihood of success on any task is less than 100%; on the other hand, failure-oriented achievers maximally avoid tasks when the perceived likelihood of success on any task is less than 100%. The relationship between motivation and the perceived likelihood of success is shown in the diagram in Figure 7.1.

High-need achievers: those who desire success more than they fear failure

Approach task

Maximum

approach

Perceived probability of success

0

Competition zone 50%

100%

Avoid task Maximum

approach Low-need achievers: those who fear failure more than they desire success

Figure 7.1 Task behaviour and perceived likelihood of success for success-oriented and failureoriented achievers Reproduced with permission from McInernery and McInerney, Educational Psychology, © 2010 Pearson Australia, p. 211.

In class, success-oriented students show the greatest motivation when the chance of success is 50%. On the other hand, when success is certain, there is no enhancement of self-esteem, either for the students or for their families. In contrast, failure-oriented students do not care if they do not succeed; for them,

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the most threatening situation is a 50% chance of success. For these students, certain success or certain failure are attractive options because they maintain their self-esteem.

Gender and achievement motivation In exploring gender-related differences in achievement motivation among Chinese students, Cheung (1996) found that Chinese females tended to express a fear of success and were more likely to attribute achievement to luck and failure to lack of ability. Chinese females placed importance on career success as a personal goal. Chinese males, however, put greater emphasis on wealth. In terms of careers, fewer females aspired to graduate studies, preferring stable and secure jobs. They also had lower salary expectations and self-confidence. Males, in contrast, preferred jobs with opportunities for advancement and entrepreneurship.

Competitive classrooms and achievement motivation Classroom practices that create a competitive atmosphere, such as awarding prizes to ‘top’ students or simply bestowing the honour of being first in the class, encourage success- oriented students. For failure-oriented students, such competitive classrooms inhibit motivation. Teachers need to be aware, however, that students weigh the probabilities of success and failure, and the resultant achievement motivation then determines whether they will work towards the achievement of the goal (Schunk and Zimmerman 2006). As they expressed it (p. 253): … students high in resultant achievement motivation will select tasks of intermediate difficulty, or those [tasks] they believe are attainable and where outcomes are valued. Difficult tasks—for which success is unlikely—are apt to be avoided, as are easy tasks whose accomplishment holds little value … students low in resultant achievement motivation should be more likely to select either easy or difficult tasks … [because easy tasks] require little effort … [Difficult tasks] are virtually unattainable … [because] effort … is … unlikely to produce success and [thereby] a reason for not trying.

Schunk and Zimmerman cited many studies that tested this theory. With repeated classroom success, the greater the likelihood that students will choose more difficult tasks. Teachers therefore need to develop competitive practices that ensure a wider and more inclusive definition of success. Practices that define success as top performance in the class, for example, deny opportunities for other students to experience success.



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In extending the concept of achievement motivation, the achievement goal theory (Covington 2000; Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006) describes motivation as either a goal or a drive. Significantly, the theory emphasizes the relationship among goals, cognition and achievement. It also stresses the involvement of the affective self, including the expectation of success and the value of the task. In this theory, value is ‘multifaceted’ and includes attainment value, intrinsic value, enjoyment, utility and cost belief (Schunk and Zimmerman 2006, 354). The achievement goal theory is discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.

Intrinsic motivation In intrinsic motivation, tasks are valued if they meet some internal needs: it is a characteristic state of the individual, not of the external environment. For example, the need to achieve refers to a need to experience success and its accompanying sense of pride. The need to achieve motivates students to pursue tasks that help them to experience success or avoid failure.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Psychologists have identified a number of needs, including people’s need to preserve both their physical and psychological well-being. People are motivated to survive, to maintain safety, to establish a sense of belongingness and to preserve their selfesteem. In organizing these needs into a hierarchy, Maslow (1943) referred to these basic needs as ‘deficiency needs’ because they ‘energize or move people to meet them when these needs are unfulfilled’ (Eggen and Kauchak 2007, 303). Once met, an individual’s needs change to achieve personal growth—hence the term ‘growth needs’. These needs include the need to know and understand (intellectual need); the need for truth, beauty, and order (aesthetic appreciation); and, finally, the need for self-actualization. Recently, Kenrick et al. (2010) updated Maslow’s hierarchy to take into account research advances in biology, psychology and anthropology. Although retaining the basic physiological and safety needs, they removed self-actualization from the hierarchy, and their ‘renovated’ hierarchy included a greater emphasis on finding and retaining partners, and on parenting and the dynamic nature of needs. Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs has been used as the basis for establishing ‘breakfast clubs’ in some schools based on the idea that students are more likely to pursue their intellectual needs if their basic need for survival is first met. If students come to school hungry, then it is unlikely they will work towards a growth need. In

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addition, schools try to create an environment in which students feel safe, nurtured and valued to meet the need for safety, belongingness and high self-esteem. In broad terms, the implications of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for teachers and schools lie in their role in creating environments where students feel cared for and valued, and where they feel that their teachers are committed to ensuring that they learn (Eggen and Kauchak 2007, 2010). Schools need to develop policies that ensure that students have access to counsellors and that successfully prevent psychological or physical bullying.

Needs in the classroom In extending Maslow’s ideas, other researchers have identified a number of other needs that are particularly relevant in the classroom (Wiseman and Hunt 2008). These additional needs include the need for relatedness, the need for approval, and the need for reducing anxiety. The need for relatedness refers to a student’s need to feel part of a group. The classroom is a social environment, and students need to feel they are valued members of the class. A student who is isolated in class may feel unworthy and incapable of being loved and respected and, consequently, becomes unmotivated to learn. A sense of belongingness or psychological membership in a group is essential in promoting student motivation (Wiseman and Hunt 2008). The need for approval refers to a person’s need to be accepted and to receive positive affirmation from others (Eggen and Kauchak 2007). In some cases, students’ need for approval can lead them to act in ways that are in conflict with the aims of teachers. Approval can be understood in terms of operant conditioning, where it acts as a reinforcer. Teachers, therefore, need to be aware of how ‘approval’ can act as a reinforcer in shaping student behaviour. Lastly, the need to reduce anxiety arises from the discomfort felt by some students when completing tasks, such as important tests or class presentations. The nervousness that is felt may be so severe that it results in decreased motivation. For these students, the anxiety derives from a fear of failure or the potential loss of selfesteem. Ormrod (2008) described a number of situations that can induce anxiety in students, ranging from threats to self-esteem due to physical appearance to fear of public failure, new situations and excessive classroom demands. Students will protect themselves from potential failure or loss of self-esteem by not attempting to perform the task or by attributing their failure to external sources, such as being sick or having a poor teacher. A student’s anxiety also reduces the ability to pay attention to class activities and increases the likelihood of misunderstanding information they are receiving, which will certainly increase the chances of failure, thereby increasing their future anxiety.



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According to Eggen and Kauchak (2007), teachers can help students overcome anxiety by: • making expectations and standards clear and achievable; • modelling study strategies that increase understanding; • providing a variety of high-quality examples that illustrate the topics being taught; • requiring that all students be actively involved in learning activities; • providing specific feedback about the learning process; and • being available for help outside the class. A further extension to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is related to a person’s cognitive learning needs, such as the need for autonomy and to build competency. In broad terms, a teacher increases the value of a task if it allows students to increase both their control over their environment and their sense of achievement.

The need for autonomy The need for autonomy refers to an individual’s need to increase control over his/ her environment. As competency develops, the sense of control also increases, which help to explain why students should be allowed to develop a sense of competency in the tasks set by teachers. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2007), students’ sense of competency develops when they have a clear understanding of the tasks they are required to complete, when the tasks are challenging and when they experience success. In Hong Kong, students’ sense of competency seems to be independent of their achievement (Salili and Lai 2003). For example, the best students in Band 1 schools tend to feel less competent than other students (Marsh and Hau 2004; Marsh, Kong and Hau 2000). Perhaps this is because their teachers do not communicate a sense of achievement, believing that, in not praising students, they are helping them do even better. Marsh et al. speculated that students’ sense of competency (i.e. their academic self-concept) arises when they compare themselves with other students in their class. Lau and Chan (2003) conducted a study in Hong Kong which compared the motivation, reading strategies and reading comprehension of a group of good readers and a group of poor readers recruited from two secondary schools. They found that: (a) good readers were more skilled in using different reading strategies than poor readers; (b) good readers had higher self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation than poor readers; and (c) although only some motivational variables were correlated with reading comprehension, nearly all motivational variables were related to reading strategies. In particular, intrinsic motivation was found to have the strongest positive relationship with the ability to read.

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In a cross-cultural study, Wang and Guthrie (2004) did not find differences in the motivational processes of reading comprehension between American and Taiwanese children. Specifically, they showed that relationships among reading motivation, the amount of reading and reading comprehension did not differ and that, in reading and comprehension, intrinsic motivation was important for children from both cultural groups.

The need to develop a sense of competency Psychologists studying cognitive perspectives on motivation believe that people are driven by their need to make sense of the world and the information in it. Curiosity is a natural part of human nature, and we actively seek out puzzles and new events. Piaget described this drive in terms of the cognitive tension arising from disequilibrium and the need to resolve this tension to achieve cognitive equilibrium (see Chapter 2). Also, to make sense of their past successes and failures, students attribute reasons for them, and these attributions help to determine their future behaviour on similar tasks. (A fuller description of attribution theory is given in the next section.) According to these psychologists, high levels of self-efficacy and selfdetermination are important factors in determining future behaviour. As seen in Chapter 6, self-efficacy refers to the personal assessment of one’s competency in completing a specific task. Woolfolk (2007, 2010) described some students as being motivated by the need to achieve, by the fear of failure, or simply by the presence of an enduring interest in the subject. These students have personality characteristics or traits that make them different from others and, since these traits are relatively enduring because they are embedded in these students’ personalities, psychologists can also explain motivation by describing it as an aspect of personality. On the other hand, motivation can be a temporary phenomenon or state, reflecting the context of the current situation. In short, students are motivated when they either have an enduring need to achieve (a personal trait) or when, for example, they have a test tomorrow (a temporary state). Also, the motivation of some students can be explained on the basis of both their personality and the immediacy of situations. As a personality trait, motivation helps to explain individual differences among students (Ormrod 2008). Aspects of personality include the need for achievement, the need to gain other people’s respect or approval and the need to seek new experiences. According to Ormrod, students who have the need to achieve often enjoy the challenge of difficult tasks, set increasingly high standards for themselves and are willing to delay gratification. These traits are easily recognizable because they form part of one’s personality.

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Increasing Expectations of Success As mentioned in the introduction, student expectations of success come from many sources. Of these, a student’s attributions for past successes and failures will help to determine their future behaviour on similar tasks. .

Attribution theory Attribution theory focuses on the perceived reasons for past successes and failures (Pintrich and Schunk 2002; Weiner 1992). This theory provides teachers with a powerful tool with which to understand a student’s likely behaviour when attempting to perform a similar task. Attribution theory is based on the idea that the need to establish order and develop an understanding compels students to explain the reasons behind their successes and failures. These reasons may lie in one or more attributions, the most common attributions being ability, effort, luck and task difficulty; and other attributions include learning strategy, interest, teacher effectiveness and mood. In using the theory, teachers need to be able to understand students’ explanations for success and failure and be aware that these explanations may not reflect the true reasons. Attributions may change over time and be influenced by the teacher.

Locus of control, stability and controllability Weiner (1992) suggested that each attribution has three dimensions: (a) The locus (or place) of control, with the attribution located either within or external to the student; (b) stability, with the attribution being stable (unchanging) or unstable (able to change); and (c) control, which refers to whether students accept responsibility for or are able to take control of their learning. However, students may neither accept responsibility nor feel they are in control of their successes or failures and so may attribute their success to effort, which originates from them and is unstable and controllable.

Effects of attributions According to Eggen and Kauchak (2007, 2010), attributions affect students in a number of ways, including their emotional reactions, expectations of future success, future effort and future achievements. For example, a student who attributes failure

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to a lack of effort may feel anxiety or embarrassment, and is likely to expend greater effort next time on a similar task and expect to achieve as a result of his/ her greater effort. The emotional responses of students, their future behaviour and their expectations depend on whether they consider themselves to have succeeded or failed, their attributions of success and the value of each attribution dimension.

Sources of attributions It is important for teachers to understand where students’ attributions come from, which may involve both environmental and personal factors (Pintrich and Schunk 2002). In terms of environmental factors, students often have a good understanding of the relationship between cause and effect (e.g. ‘I failed because I did not study hard enough’). On the other hand, teachers can also communicate causal relationships through the comments they make when students experience success or failure. For instance, comments such as ‘I know you can do better if you try harder’ communicate effort attributions, while ‘You were just unlucky this time’ conveys the message that failure is attributable to luck. Similarly, if all students fail one particular test, a student may attribute his/her failure to the difficulty of the task. Personal factors also contribute to attributions. Pintrich and Schunk (2002) categorized these factors into the following four general groups: causal rules and schemas, attributional bias, prior knowledge and individual differences. • For causal rules and schemas, causes are linked to consequences, such as failure or success, when the cause is closely linked in time and space to the consequence, the preceding event is very unusual, the cause and consequence are of similar magnitude, or the current situation resembles one that the student has already experienced. • Attributional bias refers to an incorrect conclusion that success or failure is caused by personal factors rather than by other situational factors. Teachers, for example, may attribute failure to a student’s laziness rather than to poor teaching (which may be the true reason). • Prior knowledge and individual differences refer to the idea that attributions arise during unexpected events, such as when students experience an unexpected failure. In terms of individual differences, students are referred to as internals or externals (Pintrich and Schunk 2002). Internals have an internal locus of control, and they take responsibility for what happens to them, but externals have an external locus of control, thinking that their success or failure is caused by things or events beyond their control. These two different types of students have different personalities: internals are confident and enjoy risks whereas externals have higher levels of anxiety (Wiseman and Hunt 2008).

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Learned helplessness The learned helplessness model describes the development of a particular personality type who attributes failure to external forces, which he/she claims are uncontrollable and stable. Students with learned helplessness believe that no amount of effort will produce success. They are often in a state of depression, and are unmotivated and unable to practise and improve their skills and knowledge. With the development of these cognitive deficits, the downward spiral of failure continues, making it very difficult for these students to recover.

Attributional styles in Chinese students For students from the West, the most common attributions are ability, task difficulty, luck and effort. Thus, students from countries such as the US would be most likely to attribute success or failure to having or not having the required ability. In contrast, secondary students in Hong Kong are most likely to attribute success to effort, followed by interest in study, study skills, mood and then ability (Hau and Salili 1991). Student attributions can easily be determined by using questionnaires on attributional styles, and these have been employed successfully in Hong Kong with both primary and secondary school students and their parents. For example, in a study on Hong Kong Secondary 1 students (Lau and Chan 2001), no differences in the dimensions of attribution of academic performance among high achievers, low achievers and underachievers were found, except that high-achievers attributed failure more to stable causes than did underachievers. Also, high-achievers reported higher academic self-concepts and attainment values than lower achievers and underachievers. In another study, Law (2009) found that Primary 5 Hong Kong students who believe that ability and intelligence are under their own control and that effort leads to success are more motivated to use strategies in reading, leading to a better understanding of texts. However, students who consider intelligence and ability as predetermined show lower intrinsic motivation in text comprehension, thereby using fewer reading strategies. As Law (p. 89) pointed out: While Chinese parents and teachers generally put pressure on students to make great efforts to achieve better grades, and have high expectations of the children’s academic success, some Hong Kong students spend long hours and put great effort into studying maybe because of a desire to meet their obligations rather than because they are intrinsically motivated by the belief that effort can enhance ability. Consequently, those low achievers are also less likely to use a variety of reading strategies to solve reading problems.

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Also, Phillipson (2006) showed that Chinese Hong Kong parents attribute their children’s success in mathematics and language primarily to effort and effective learning strategies. On the other hand, expatriate families in Hong Kong (mainly of British background) attributed such success to ability; and British parents were more willing to say that their children lacked effort. This research also found that Chinese Hong Kong children’s attributions of success differ slightly according to the schools they attend. Children from higher socio-economic backgrounds attribute their success in their subjects more to effort compared with children from low socioeconomic backgrounds. These findings suggest that socioeconomic background may cause variations in attributions and that parental attributions are communicated to their children.

Achievement Goal Theory The achievement goal theory is a recent addition to the theories of motivation (Covington 2000; Ho, Hau and Salili 2007; Lam et al. 2004). This theory links academic goals, cognitive processes and achievement in a complex causal sequence, where the type and quality of goals that students set for themselves, in turn, determine the type and quality of the cognitive processes they engage in. The theory describes interactions among the social environment, student behaviour, student

Figure 7.2 Relationships among goal types, cognitive processes and different levels of achievement The four goal types are based on two learning goal orientations (learning-avoidance goal and learning-approach goal) and two performance goal orientations (performance-approach goal and performance-avoidance goal). Of these, learning-avoidance goal orientations are least understand. Figure derived from Chan (2009), Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006) and Wigfield et al. (2006).

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cognition and self-assessments of competency (Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006). In describing these interactions, the achievement goal theory has become one of the most important theories of motivation (Figure 7.2).

Academic goals In broad terms, academic goals are of two types, namely learning goals and performance goals. Cognitive processes refer to either deep-level, strategic processing of information or to superficial, rote-level processing. In turn, the two different pathways lead to two different achievement outcomes, with learning goals considered to produce better achievement outcomes. Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006, 490) defined ‘learning goal orientation’ as focusing on: developing one’s abilities, mastering a new skill, trying to accomplish something challenging, and trying to understand learning materials. Success is evaluated in terms of self-improvement, and students derive satisfaction from the inherent qualities of the task, such as interest and challenge.

In contrast, they defined ‘performance goal orientation’ as follows: demonstrating high ability relative to others, striving to be better than others and using social comparison standards to make judgments of ability and performance. A sense of accomplishment is derived from doing better than others and surpassing normative performance standards. (ibid.)

Learning goals There are two types of learning goals: learning-approach goals and learningavoidance goals (Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006; Ho, Hau and Salili 2007). Students with learning-approach goals concentrate more on wanting to ‘learn, master, and truly understand’ (Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006, 490), whereas students with learning-avoidance goals focus on ‘avoiding misunderstanding or not being able to learn from a specific task’ (ibid. 491). These two different types of learning goals have yet to be fully researched. Learning goal orientations, which are sometimes referred to as task goals or mastery goals, are believed to facilitate the positive development of a student’s self-efficacy, understanding and appreciation of what is being learned. In contrast, performance goals, which are sometimes referred to as ‘ego-goals’ or ‘self-

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enhancing goals’, lead students into unhealthy competition and comparison with other students. In reviewing the relevant literature, Covington (2000) and Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006) reported that students with learning goals possess a greater degree of self-regulation in their learning, including: • expending greater effort and persistence in their learning; • exercising greater control over their learning strategies; • employing better organizing strategies, such as paraphrasing, summarizing, understanding and recalling; • adapting better to occasional failure, believing that effort is the key to success, and being more likely to attribute failure to poor learning strategies rather than to the lack of ability; • developing a greater sense of pride and satisfaction with success and less anxiety with failure; and • developing a greater sense of self-efficacy and positive perceptions of academic ability.

Performance goals There are two types of performance goal orientations, namely, performanceapproach goals where students ‘focus on the attainment of favorable judgments of competence’, and performance-avoidance goals where they ‘focus on avoiding unfavorable judgments of ability’ (Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006, 490). Although the relationship between learning goal orientation and achievement is understood, Covington (2000) and Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006) reported that the relationship between performance goal orientations and student achievement remains unclear. Covington proposed that this is because of the distinction between performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals. Students with performance-approach goals invest considerable energy and intellectual resources, such as learning strategies, in contrast to students with performance-avoidance goals. Different cultures approach learning very differently. An important question is whether the relationship among goals, cognition and achievement is consistent in all cultural groups, or if there are significant differences across cultures. Also, recent research has shown that students may possess more than one of the three types of goals (Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006). The inter-relationships between learning goals and performance goals, and between learning goals and achievement for different groups of students, and for different tasks have yet to be fully understood.



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Social consequences of achievement and mastery goals As well differences in achievement, performance and mastery goals may have different social outcomes. Poortvliet and Darnon’s (2010) review suggested that performance-approach goals may be associated with negative social relationships, such as unwillingness to collaborate, and greater independence: other students are seen as adversaries and their behaviour reflects this view. On the other hand, mastery goals were seen to be associated more with positive social relationships, such as a greater willingness to learn from others, and to integrate alternate viewpoints. Also, as Poortvliet and Darnon pointed out, students may pursue both mastery and performance goals, leading to the possibility that they need to deal with conflicting social drives. Furthermore, the outcomes of these two goals may depend on their perceived social status. For example, Poortvliet and Darnon posited that mastery goals are more beneficial for students who believe they are in a low-power position and those who consider they are in a high-power position may benefit more from performance goals.

Classroom Strategies Based on the Achievement Goal Theory Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006) described the relationship between classroom practice and the different goal orientations developed by students, which helps in understanding the ‘goal structures’ teachers create within their classrooms. These structures, in turn, encourage the development of one or other of the different goal orientations. The causal link between classroom structures and student orientations is just one area of current research; other areas of research, including the relationships among gender, ability level, culture, existing goal orientations and classroom structures, are currently being developed. Students react to classrooms that emphasize effort and understanding. In these classrooms, they are more likely to adopt learning goals. However, classrooms that are focused on competition and social comparisons of ability are more likely to foster performance learning goals. Figure 7.2 shows that differences in classroom (and school) focus contribute to either learning or performance goals (Anderman and Wolters 2006; Meece, Anderman and Anderman 2006). In reviewing the current research, Meece, Anderman and Anderman (2006) concluded that classrooms which focus on learning goals reduce the incidence of disruptive behaviour. Moreover, performance-approach goals can directly affect the self-efficacy of students. In these classrooms, a condition of ‘motivations equality’ (Covington 2000, 189) is established where all students, regardless of their abilities, are given opportunities to demonstrate mastery of learning. In contrast, classrooms

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characterized by producing ‘failure-oriented (competitive) ability games, (ibid., 185) are not equitable because, by definition, top grades are available only to those who can demonstrate their superiority over other students. Also, ‘success’ in such classrooms is measured in terms of comparisons with other students, and ‘good grades [are] valued not because they [reflect mastery], but because they imply that one is able, whereas poor grades imply a lack of ability [triggering] feelings of worthlessness (Covington 2000, 185, italics supplied). The scarcity of top grades in these classrooms is meant to promote learning for all, but it places students at risk because the likely outcome for most students is failure, not success.

Strategies in the Hong Kong classroom Given cultural differences, the issue arises of whether the achievement goal theory is broadly applicable to Chinese Hong Kong students or needs to be adapted. Any differences in fine detail may help Hong Kong teachers to apply the model more effectively in their classrooms. As indicated in Chapter 1, the educational context in Hong Kong is complex. Here, education is set in a broadly Confucian context, which features collectivist values, an emphasis on education and willpower and a reliance on memorization (Ho et al. 2007; Lee 1996; Salili and Lai 2003). Using data collected from the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), Ho (2006b) concluded that the learning environment in Hong Kong, in comparison with all other regions in the world, has the highest Competitive Learning Index.

Ability grouping and medium of instruction Within this setting, the policies on ability grouping and the medium of instruction play a significant role. Based on the results of Primary 6 public achievement tests in mathematics, Chinese and English, students are placed in one of three bands: students with the highest achievement scores are placed in Band 1 secondary schools and those with the poorest achievement scores are placed either in Band 2 or 3 schools, depending on their levels of achievement. As regards the medium of instruction, students in primary and secondary schools are normally taught in Chinese. However, some students switch to English upon entering secondary schools, usually in Band 1 schools. For certain students, this sudden switch increases their reliance on memorization and changes their patterns of achievement (Salili and Lai 2003). In a three-year study involving nearly 3,000 Secondary 1 students, Salili and Lai (2003) investigated the effects of the medium of instruction and ability grouping



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on learning and achievement orientations, expectations of success, test anxiety and learning strategies. The results suggested that as students move from Secondary 1 to Secondary 3, there is a greater dependence on memorization as a learning strategy, regardless of the medium of instruction. However, students with the highest ability use more learning strategies than do students with the lowest ability. In terms of learning goals, all students showed a decrease in learning goal orientations from Secondary 1 to 2, although an increase was observed as they entered Secondary 3. Regarding performance goals, female students showed higher performance goal orientations than male students. In general, there was also a decline in performance goal orientation from Secondary 1 to 2, increasing again in Secondary 3. High-ability students also had higher performance goal orientations than low-ability students. High-ability students had higher levels of motivation in learning English compared with lower ability students. Similar patterns of differences were also found in terms of performance and learning goal orientations. Salili and Lai (2003) concluded that both goal and performance orientations are equally important for students, but for different reasons. Performance goals are important in Hong Kong’s competitive environment, and learning goals are important because they reflect the Chinese belief in the intrinsic value of education (Lee 1996). Significantly, Salili and Lai (2003) argued that, for some students, the medium of instruction plays a crucial role in determining whether they use one or more learning strategies. They found that students attending Band 1 (highest ability) schools were more likely to use more learning strategies, and they had higher self-efficacy, lower surface goals and higher attainment scores. Students in the (previous) Band 4 and 5 (lowest ability) schools, however, were more likely to show a ‘less positive attitude, lower levels of motivation and are more anxious in learning English’, which led the authors to conclude that learning in Chinese is beneficial for many students. Salili and Lai also drew a distinction between ability and achievement, warning that students in Bands 4 and 5 could be ‘late developers’ rather than of low ability, and that these students are at risk of not achieving their full potential because of undesirable models.

Causal attributions and goal orientations In reviewing the existing literature, Hau and Salili (1996a) noted variations in causal attributions and achievement goals among Chinese students. They identified four important cultural traits that are likely to influence both causal attribution and achievement goals, namely, collectivism rather than individualism, an emphasis on diligence rather than ability, high expectations of academic success and the importance attributed to education.

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Hau and Salili suggested that Chinese students are generally goal-oriented. They attribute their learning and their academic, financial and career success to effort rather than to ability, and consider effort always adds to achievement regardless of ability. In a later study involving 199 Hong Kong Chinese students in one school, Yeung and McInerney (2005) measured the differences in learning goals and performance goals, and the educational and career aspirations of Secondary 1, 3 and 5 students. Learning orientations were higher in Secondary 1, with scores decreasing in subsequent year levels. Also decreasing over time were scores in competition orientation, which is an indicator of performance goals, and praise orientations. Learning goals were the strongest of all orientations and had the strongest link with educational aspirations, while performance goals were found to be more strongly linked to career aspirations. Thus, it appears that different achievement goals are associated with different aspirations. Yeung and McInerney concluded, however, that there is an urgent need to help students to maintain both their learning and performance goal orientations. Research findings among Hong Kong students seem to extend to students in mainland China and Taiwan. Yeung et al. (2008), in testing the hypothesis that teachers’ praise had a positive effect on the learning goals and extrinsic motivation of students, found that the learning goals in the control group decreased over time in both low- and high-achieving students. Students in the intervention group received a differentiated curriculum as well as different instructional strategies from teachers trained specifically to use praise in their teaching. The learning goal orientations were maintained for high-achieving students in the study. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation was maintained throughout the intervention, regardless of the levels of achievement. Yeung et al. (2008) concluded that praise is positively linked to learning goal orientations, particularly for high-achievers and that praise is related positively to extrinsic motivation for all learners. Shih’s (2005) research, in this case with Taiwanese elementary school students, found that students with high mastery orientation and a high performanceapproach and students with high mastery orientation and a low performanceapproach possessed lower intrinsic motivation than students with a low mastery and a high performance-approach and those with low mastery orientation and a low performance-approach. In addition, students with high mastery and a high performance-approach and students with high mastery and a low performanceapproach reported less self-handicap than those with low mastery and a low performance-approach. In another study involving 6,539 Taiwanese students, Hardré et al. (2006) showed that the need of students for cognition and perceived ability predicted their perceptions of the classroom environment, including teacher support, peer support, the interpersonal styles of teachers and goal structures (i.e. learning goals,



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performance-approach goals, performance-avoidance goals and future goals). These classroom perceptions and goal structures, in turn, predicted motivational outcomes. To promote intrinsic motivation among students studying physical education (PE), Wang and Liu (2008) highlighted the links between attributions and mastery goals. Students with incremental beliefs saw ability as ‘malleable, controllable, and changeable’ (p. 131) and their beliefs were associated with learning goal orientations. Furthermore, students with incremental beliefs were more adaptive and more willing to expend energy to achieve their goals. However, students with entity beliefs were more likely to hold performance goals, and were less adaptive and chose ‘easy or very difficult tasks’ (ibid.). PE teachers should, therefore, help students to understand their choice of goals and the consequences of their choices, and design tasks and provide assistance to students who choose learning goals over performance goals. For Chinese students, however, research points to the importance of both goal orientations and extrinsic motivation in helping students to achieve academically. Given the complex inter-relationships among the various theories of motivation, further exploration of these inter-relationships among Chinese students is timely. In a study involving 1,950 Grade 7 students in Hong Kong, Ho, Hau and Salili (2007) showed that Chinese students approach learning contexts with both expectation of success and perceived value of success. These expectations and values arise from past experiences and from evaluations of the current task. In addition, value is judged more in terms of a task’s utility rather than whether or not it is interesting. In terms of achievement goals, Ho, Hau and Salili (2007) concluded that learning achievement goals arise when students value the academic task highly, and it does not matter how the value arises, or if perceived competence is low. Also, they considered that performance-approach goals depend more on the positive assessments of self-competency and perceptions that there is a good chance of success, regardless of whether the task is interesting or useful. For classroom teachers, this shows clearly that students with positive views of their ability and with positive expectations of success can develop learning approaches when they value tasks as important. Also, high self-efficacy is related positively to learning and performance-approach orientations. It is, therefore, more important to develop self-efficacy related to subject areas rather than developing positive self-concepts.

Goal orientations, perfectionism and high achievers A study in Hong Kong has emphasized the relationship between goal orientations and personality traits. Chan’s (2009) research investigated the relationship between goal orientations and perfectionism in Chinese gifted students. The students in the study were also participants in an enrichment programme for gifted students, after

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being nominated as ‘gifted’ by their schools, and so the students, who ranged in age from seven to 18 years, are best described as ‘high academic achievers’ (p. 15). Using self-report questionnaires to measure both perfectionism and goal orientations, Chan found that for these high-achieving students, learning and social goals were positively associated with positive perfectionism. On the other hand, students with performance and avoidance goal orientations were associated with negative perfectionism. Since negative perfectionism is considered a negative personality trait, Chan suggested that high-achieving students with performance and avoidance orientations should be counselled to adopt learning and social goal orientations, with teachers using, for example, collaborative learning strategies for this purpose. According to Chan, teachers should also avoid competitive classroom approaches, such as focusing on high test grades and avoiding mistakes in order to help these students. Clearly, this advice could be extended to their parents.

Classroom Applications of Motivation Theories Many textbooks on educational psychology offer guidelines on how teachers can help to motivate their students (Eggen and Kauchak 2007, 2010; McInerney and McInerney 2006; Ormrod 2008; Perry, Turner and Meyer 2006; Pintrich 2003; Pintrich and Schunk 2002; Stipek 2002; Wigfield et al. 2006; Wiseman and Hunt 2008; Woolfolk 2007). The general approaches can be related to each theory of motivation. However, one should consider the particular nature of Chinese learners. In terms of the general model of motivation, specific classroom strategies should be related to increasing the value of the task and the expectations of success. The value of the task is determined by its importance, intrinsic value and utility value, while expectations of success reflect the perceptions held by students that they possess the necessary skills and experience to ensure success. Self-efficacy is a measure of this expectation and, because it is very specific to the task at hand, developing self-efficacy for each task is more important than the global self-concept. Eggen and Kauchak (2007) suggested that rewards should be used to acknowledge genuine accomplishments and to increase competency, not just to participate, thereby increasing the value of both achievement and competency. Helping students to understand the reasons why they complete tasks can also increase the value of tasks and play a part in creating a supportive, empathetic and caring relationship between teachers and students (approaches that are typical in and outside the Chinese classroom) (Biggs and Watkins 2001). In applying an understanding of the role of needs and attributions in the classroom, Eggen and Kauchak (2007) recommended that teachers help students to



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meet their deficiency needs, model growth needs, promote feelings of autonomy and attribute success to effort and growing expertise. In the Chinese classroom, however, effort attributions need to be applied carefully because children may already be trying as hard as they can. In this case, more effective learning strategies may need to be developed, together with changes in attributions. However, ensuring that teachers and parents maintain high expectations for their students and identifying classroom and school practices detrimental to student motivation are more important. In the Chinese classroom, a competitive atmosphere can be highly effective, but only if success is defined in terms of mastery rather than as a ranking of students according to their grades. Improving student self-efficacy and increasing either the importance or the intrinsic value of tasks help to enhance motivation. The following section introduces how motivation can be assessed. As well as being important when conducting research, teachers can also use some of these techniques to understand individual differences in motivation and predict their students’ future behaviour.

Assessing Motivation Although there are many theories of motivation, it is generally agreed that it is inferred from a variety of indicators, including choice of tasks, effort, persistence and achievement (Pintrich and Schunk 2002). In choosing tasks, students are provided with options from which to select and their choices indicate their motivation for these tasks. Effort is measured in terms of the mental or physical effort students expend and persistence is based on the time they spend on the tasks. Finally, achievement is also taken as an indicator of motivation as highly motivated students tend to achieve more. Each of these indicators can be measured using different methods, such as direct observation of choices, rating scales and self-reports. Direct observation simply involves counting the number of instances of certain pre-determined behaviours—for example, which tasks are chosen by students, how often they change tasks and how much time they spend on each task. Although informative, this approach does not attempt to understand the reasons behind student behaviour. In the rating-scale method, teachers and researchers complete a checklist containing items that are considered to reflect one or more indicators of motivation. To estimate the level of engagement in a task, for instance, teachers may complete a scale that rates students on various types of class participation. These checklists rely on subjective assessments of student behaviour, often from memory, and often also neglect the cognitive and affective bases of the scores on each item. Nevertheless, checklists are commonly used in motivation research.

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There are five types of self-reports: questionnaires, interviews, stimulated recall, ‘think aloud’ and dialogues. In broad terms, each type of self-report is meant to ‘capture people’s judgements and statements about themselves’ (Pintrich and Schunk 2002, 17). For example, questionnaires may require students to respond to questions about indicators of motivation using a four-point scale (e.g. ‘never’, ‘sometimes’, ‘often’, ‘always’). Interviews typically involve structured conversations between the interviewer and the student, with questions revolving around different learning contexts. The interviewer may ask, for example, ‘When taking a test, do you have a particular method for obtaining as many correct answers as possible?’ (ibid.) Responses to these questions are then coded for later analysis. Stimulated recall requires the use of video recordings as students work on tasks. As students observe themselves on video, the researcher asks them to remember what they were thinking at various times while performing the tasks. ‘Think aloud’ asks students to describe their thoughts, actions and emotions as they work on tasks; and, similarly, dialogues among students are recorded as they work on particular tasks; and in both these cases, students’ responses are then coded and analysed. Although Pintrich and Schunk (2002) described these as techniques researchers can employ to measure motivation, teachers can also use them to assess students in terms of their motivational orientations. Understanding the way students approach tasks in the classroom can help teachers to predict the likelihood that students will attempt to perform similar tasks in the future. The key message is clear: teachers should listen to student conversations.

Conclusion The causal link between motivation and academic achievement is well established. Hence, an understanding of the many theories of motivation is important if we are to both explain differences in student learning and to implement classroom strategies that are designed to encourage student motivation. The motivation for a student to complete their classwork cannot be understood as an expectation of receiving a reward. Chinese students are motivated by a complex interaction of many forces that increase the value of the task and the expectation of success. When thinking about increasing the value of the task, teachers can employ strategies that, together, focus on extrinsic motivation, social motivation, achievement motivation and intrinsic motivation. In helping students expect success, teachers can focus on helping students develop appropriate attribution styles as well as build classrooms that encourage positive learning and performance goals.



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Learning Activities 1. Consider each of the activities below. How do you feel about each of them? Respond using the following keys: ‘Positive’, ‘Negative’, or ‘Don’t really care’, and share your responses with other members of your class. Consider different levels of threat, exposure, individual risk, difficulty and relevance in explaining the differences in responses. • running a 100-metre sprint • singing a song • reading aloud to an audience of 100 people • reciting the 8x table • listening to a talk • drawing a picture 2. List personality traits that are related to motivation. From these traits, create a checklist that you can use as an instrument to measure the levels of motivation of your students. Use a four-point scale (‘Never’, ‘Sometimes’, ‘Often’ and ‘Always’). After observing your class for two weeks, complete the checklist for each student. What did you find? 3. Observe a class teacher for one week. Analyse and calculate the frequency of different forms of extrinsic motivation being used in the class. Evaluate their effectiveness in terms of either increasing the frequency of desirable behaviours or decreasing the frequency of undesirable behaviours. Compare your results with other members of your group. What can you conclude? 4. In small groups, write three kinds of praise that cover ability, effort and strategy for high-, middle-, and low-achieving students. 5. Arrange the different methods for assessing motivation from the least to the most natural. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method? 6. Find out how a school in your local area actively promotes a safe learning environment. Explain the school’s policies in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. 7. The need for approval can be a strong motivation for some students. For gifted female students, the forced-choice dilemma refers to a choice between being gifted and being accepted (Gross 1998). Explain the dilemma in terms of the need for relatedness and the need for approval. 8. Identify a classroom situation where a student is being reinforced by his/her need for approval. Explain the situation in terms of operant conditioning. 9. Examine the list of six suggestions to help students overcome anxiety. Explain how each suggestion can help students to reduce anxiety.

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10. Observe four students (two experiencing success and two experiencing failure) over the course of one week. Listen carefully to what they say when they experience success or failure. For each of these students, complete the following table. Students

Results

Attribution

Locus of control

Stability

Controllability

A B C D Attribution – ability, effort, luck, task difficulty, learning strategy, other Locus of control – internal (I) or external (E) Stability – stable (S) or unstable (US) Controllability – controllable (C) or uncontrollable (UC)

11. Predict the emotional responses, future behaviours and expectations of success of the following students. Students



Results for maths test

Attribution

Locus of control

Stability

Controllability

Mack

Success!

Effort

I

US

C

Mary

Success!

Ability

I

S

UC

Evan

Failure!

Luck

E

S

UC

Peter

Failure!

Task difficulty

E

S

UC

If Mary believed that her result was failure rather than success, how would your prediction change?

12. Observe a classroom for a week and characterize it in terms of its ‘culture’. Does it emphasize learning orientations or performance orientations? Present evidence to support your conclusion. 13. Ho, Hau and Salili (2007) identified three value orientations: attainment value, intrinsic value and utility value. Observe a classroom for one week. How is value determined for each task in the classroom? Are different tasks associated with different value orientations?

8 Language Development of Chinese Learners Shane N. Phillipson

This chapter describes the development of first language (L1) and second language (L2), and the relationship that exists between language development and the acquisition of knowledge. Many textbooks on educational psychology include sections on the broad relationship between language and cognitive development, but the treatment of the topic is often superficial. As a consequence, readers usually need to consult other textbooks on language development. This chapter aims to bridge the gap between language development from the perspective of educational psychology and from the many texts that focus on language development itself. Also highlighted are strategies that all teachers can use to support L1 and L2 learning, particularly for the benefit of Chinese learners. Throughout this chapter, emphasis is placed on the theories of L1 development thought to be common across all languages, despite the fact that much of the research is related to L1 English development; but the learning of English (L2) for Chinese-speaking students is also considered. Since this chapter deals with the link between language development and knowledge acquisition, it will be useful for all teachers, not just teachers of language. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • contrast the terms used in the study of language; • draw distinctions between behavioural, nativist and interactionist models of language development; • understand the differences between the main models of L1 and L2 development; • note the link between language and thinking; • compare different methods of teaching English as a second language; and • devise broad strategies based on theories of L1 and L2 learning. This chapter is divided into four broad sections. The first discusses the nature of language and how it is studied, highlighting the relationship between language and thinking. Next, the models of language acquisition are described, including the terminology that defines this field of scientific research. The third section focuses on the development of English among Chinese speakers, and the final one is devoted to teaching strategies that support L1 and L2 learning.

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Contexts of Language Development In the modern era, more and more learners are encountering languages other than their first language. In Hong Kong, for example, government policies reflect directly the important roles played by bilingualism and trilingualism in economic development (Standing Committee on Language Education and Research [SCOLAR] 2003). These policies have resulted in changes in the way languages are used in classrooms, with public pressure ensuring that more capable students are taught in English despite Cantonese being their first language (Lai 2009). Many parents and schools also advocate the use of Putonghua, the national language of China, as the medium of instruction, aside from English. In broad terms, the educational system of Hong Kong is characterized by tensions between the government’s concern for mother-tongue teaching, the concern of parents for educational opportunities, the need for the wider business community to be competitive economically, and the students’ need for identity and power (Choi 2003; Lai 2009; Phillipson 2005). At the classroom level, however, the teacher’s primary concern is the relationship between language and effective learning, including the relationship between L1 and learning, and L2 and learning. Students differ in both L1 and L2 proficiency, and an understanding of the sources of individual differences will help teachers to implement more effective learning experiences for students.

What Is Language? In analysing language, Sternberg and Williams (2002) outlined five ‘properties’: communication, arbitrariness, meaningful structure, multiplicity of structure and productivity (Table 8.1). Also Harley (1995, cited in Long 2000) defined language as a ‘system of symbols and rules that enable us to communicate’, including both spoken words and (non-verbal) symbols. The rules of language vary according to language systems, but all languages involve the effective combination of words and symbols to communicate ideas clearly. Language systems allow for an infinite number of meaningful combinations. Language evolved as a tool that allows members of a social group to share ideas and to influence the behaviour of others (McLaughlin 2006). As a tool, language is successful because members of social groups agree to the rules governing the use of symbols, including those related to speaking, writing and gesturing. Speech, one form of language, differs across social groups separated by geography, socio-economic levels, cultural differences and ethnicity; and these differences in speech or dialect exist when the written language remains constant. Differences in dialects arise because of possible differences in pronunciations, word meanings, and grammar.

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Table 8.1 Five properties of language Properties

Definitions

Communication

The process of successfully sending and receiving information using a shared system of codes. It enables individuals to understand the thoughts of others.

Arbitrariness

The association between words and meaning is mostly arbitrary and needs to be learned. The exceptions in English include ‘buzz’, ‘splash’ and ‘crunch’.

Meaningful structure

Languages are structured in meaningful ways.

Multiplicity of structure

The structure of languages can be analysed at many levels.

Productivity

Languages can be applied creatively, allowing for an infinite number of (meaningful) possibilities.

Adapted from Sternberg and Williams (2002, 66), and McLaughlin (2006).

Spoken language is just one form of human communication, with other forms including facial expressions and gestures, which, although they cannot replace spoken language entirely, can enhance the richness and subtlety of language. For example, the spoken sentence ‘She is a pretty girl’ may convey a different message when spoken with a rolling of the eyes. The meaning of verbal language is enhanced through paralinguistic codes which are ‘melodic components of speech’, such as stress, rhythm and intonation, that modify the meaning of messages. Communicative competence, or the ability to communicate effectively, takes into account the social contexts of language (McLaughlin 2006). For instance, when students learn how to respond to and influence their teachers, their communicative competency is demonstrated by considering the classroom context and the desired outcome. A student requesting the postponement of an assignment deadline will modify the grammatical form, ambiguity, delivery style and tone of his/her speech to ensure that the request is more likely to be granted.

Language and the Brain The capacity for language lies in the brain. Studies on the neurological bases of human communication have identified an area within the brain that controls motor movements for speech production. This area, known as Broca’s area, is typically located in the lower region of the frontal lobe on the left side (hemisphere) of the brain (Fromkin, Blair and Collins 1999). Several areas on the left side of the brain are also important for learning, speech and language development. The primary auditory cortex receives and processes information from the cochlea before it sends the information to the surrounding auditory association area for interpretation. Also, near the cochlea is Wernicke’s

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area, which recognizes and interprets language and formulates and monitors speech (Fromkin et al. 1999). Interconnections in the brain, particularly a set of association fibres known as arcuate fasciculus, enable the transfer of information from Broca’s area to Wernicke’s area. Visual information is initially processed by the central area of the occipital lobe and the surrounding visual association areas attach meaning to the information—this is where written language is understood. From the brain, nerves run into areas associated with language. These nerves, which include those linked to sensory functions (e.g. smelling and seeing) and motor activities (e.g. eye, jaw, tongue and head movements), send to and receive information from the brain. Damage to these areas is known to affect the ability to acquire, process and use language.

Language and Cognitive Development Closely associated with the biological bases of language development is the link between the development of language and the development of thinking (cognition). Studies of this relationship have found that, as a child’s language increases in sophistication, there is also an increasing sophistication in cognition. Scientists have wondered whether the development of language facilitates the development of thinking and, if it does, how? If language development is important in the development of thinking, it is intriguing to contemplate that different languages lead to different types of thinking and, hence, speakers of two different languages view the world in very different ways. The relationship between language and thinking is discussed in greater depth later in the chapter when the various theories that explain language development are explored. At the most fundamental level, language is a tool that people use to access information: without language, the depth and breadth of information children can access is very limited. Also, limitations in spoken vocabulary limit the use of language. Being able to read, for example, allows children access to books and other resources such as the Internet (Adams 1990). From the perspective of Vygotsky, language is essential for cognitive development. When children interact with their social environment (i.e. with their peers and adults around them), their use of language becomes more sophisticated. Language is the vehicle by which knowledge, culture and behaviours are transferred to children. For Piaget, language provides a means of increasing the complexity of schemas (see Chapter 2) and the means by which these schemas can be accessed. Although other stimuli can both create and access schemas, language allows children to create



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and access schemas of abstract concepts and subtle ties (Berk 1997), and delays or problems in language development are thought to limit these developments. The study of language-related mental processes is called ‘psycholinguistics’. Information-processing (IP) models of learning (see Chapter 2) focus on the storage, transformation and retrieval of information. Although information can be derived from a number of sources, most meaningful information is encoded through language. IP models of learning are therefore primarily models of language processing. Access to long-term memory, for example, is facilitated through both written and spoken language. On the other hand, the language of thought is not likely to be English or Chinese but a language that is unique to the human brain—what Pinker (1994) referred to as mentalese. According to Pinker, there is sometimes a many-to-one relationship between English words and their mental equivalents and vice versa, and at times, there is no need for mental equivalents. Using an example from Pinker, listening to a conversation about ‘a man’ can invoke thoughts of ‘a tall blonde man with one black shoe’. On the other hand, information denoting pronunciation, word order and contractions are often unnecessary. In Pinker’s view, knowing a language requires the capacity to translate ‘mentalese into strings of words’ and then back again. Although, even without language, people still have simple mentalese, formal language enables the development of more complex thoughts. While IP models of learning are broadly concerned with the processing, storage, and retrieval of information, psycholinguistics helps us to understand the relationships between language and thought.

The relationship between language and thought The relationship between language and thought is an issue of fundamental importance. More specifically, how does the development of language affect the type and complexity of thought? Two related views provide different answers to this question.

Linguistic determinism Linguistic determinism is an extreme view which proposes that language completely shapes thought processes, so that the mentalese used by an English speaker is very different from that used by, for example, a Cantonese speaker. Known as the SapirWhorf hypothesis of linguistic determinism, this approach proposes that, because mentalese depends on language, speakers of different languages have different ways of looking at the world and of interpreting the same experience. According to this

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hypothesis, the greater the differences between languages, the greater the differences in worldviews and interpretations of the same experience. However, Boroditsky (2001) argued that there is no scientific evidence supporting this strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

Linguistic relativism There is a ‘weaker’ version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis known as ‘linguistic relativism’ which argues that language helps to shape thoughts, but does not determine them precisely. From this perspective, a close and extended experience of snow, for example, results in people having a greater number of words to describe snow. However, despite popular myths, the Inuits (Eskimos) do not have more words for snow than do English speakers. Given the same experience, all speakers can distinguish among snow, sleet, slush, blizzard, avalanche, hail, hard pack, powder, flurry and dusting (Pinker 1994). Also, there is no evidence proving that sexist language leads to sexist thoughts and actions. Pinker (1994) discounted both linguistic determinism and linguistic relativism, arguing instead that mentalese is independent of spoken or written language: people have the same mentalese regardless of their first languages. Although the precise code of mentalese remains unknown, Pinker suggested that images, numbers and logic can be represented in mentalese without the need for words, though clearly language provides access to the language of the mind and expands the possibilities of thinking.

Development of the First Language Given the importance of language and thinking, this section explores the broad principles of language development, including definitions and terminologies, how language is assessed and models of first language (L1) development.

How is language studied? While language is defined as the use of symbols and usage rules to enable effective communication, human communication may be understood on many levels. It can, for instance, be understood on the basis of its social significance, on the process of sending and receiving coded information, and from a psycholinguistic viewpoint where the goal is to understand rule-based systems that allow for the expression and understanding of human thinking.



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Spoken language is just one aspect of verbal communication. Other types include visual-graphics, for example written words, gestures and pictographs (McLaughlin 2006); and non-verbal communication (e.g. smiling, eye contact and body language) is defined by the absence of spoken or written words. To understand the way spoken language is studied, a brief description of the various components of language is given in this section. Although these components have a structural hierarchy, it is important to remember that the levels are inter-related with each other. Linguistics is the study of the structural system that enables thought to be translated into written and spoken forms, and it allows researchers to identify differences and commonalities among different languages, such as English and Chinese. The outcomes of such studies can help teachers to design and implement language learning strategies for L1 and L2 learners. In contrast, psycholinguistics focuses on the inter-relationships among thought, knowledge and meaning, including schemas, scripts and pragmatics (Long 2000; McLaughlin 2006). Psycholinguistic research centres on the mental organization of the human brain; but, as researchers cannot observe the human brain, the mental operations of the brain need to be inferred from experimental results. Although these experiments can be very clever in their design, psycholinguists often disagree on which mental operation is being studied and, correspondingly, on the interpretation of experimental results. As discussed earlier, for example, psycholinguists disagree over the existence of mentalese. The components of language include: Linguistics: The study of language begins with phonology, the speech sounds of language. There are 44 individual sounds or phonemes in all human languages, although the frequency of each phoneme differs across different languages (McLaughlin 2006). The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) uses symbols to represent these phonemes. To aid understanding of the IPA, in Table 8.2 (p. 210) English-word examples are used as guides. In using the table to identify the symbols, however, one has to bear in mind that the word examples are pronounced differently by different speakers of English, and so examples for each IPA symbol may differ from speaker to speaker, depending on the social context. Phonemes: Linguists who are interested in how phonemes are produced by the neuromuscular structure of the vocal tract study how movements in the jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate and vocal cords interact to form sounds and combinations of sounds. Different consonants are formed by modifying the slope of the vocal tract—the consonant /d/, for example, is formed by involving the vocal cords, by positioning the ‘explosive’ movement of the tongue from behind to top front teeth, and by using an open mouth. The various vowel sounds are formed by a specific position of the tongue and shape of mouth—the vowel /æ/, for instance, is formed

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with the mouth open and the tongue in a bottom flat position. Also, special vowels, such as /ɔɪ/, which are called diphthongs, are formed as the tongue moves from a bottom flat position to the top front of the mouth (Long 2000). For a more complete outline of the study of phonetics, refer to McLaughlin (2006) and Fromkin, Blair and Collins (1999). Table 8.2 International phonetic alphabet (IPA) for English IPA

Example

IPA

cat

b

Vowels æ

Example Consonants buy

eɪ

day

d

die

ɛər

hair

ð

thy jam

ɑː

father

dʒ

ɑr

arm

f

phi

ɛ

let

g

guy

iː

see

h

high

ɪ

city

j

yes sky

aɪ

pie

k

ɪər

near

l

lie

ɒ

pot

m

my

oʊ

toe

n

can

ɔː

caught

ŋ

singer

ɔɪ

boy

ŋɡ

finger

ʊ

put

θ

thigh

ʊər

tour

p

pie

uː

soon

r

rye

aʊ

now

s

sigh

ʌ

enough

ʃ

shy

ɜr

urge

t

tie China

ə

about

tʃ

ər

butter

v

have

ju:

pupil

w

swine

hw

why

z

zoo

ʒ

pleasure

Accents are produced mainly by modifications in vowel sounds which help to distinguish one dialect from another. Also, apart from causing systematic variations in vowel sounds, accents produce systematic differences in semantics (the meaning



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of words) and syntax (the relationships between words in a sentence), helping people to distinguish various dialects of the same language. Morphemes: When placed together, different phonemes form words. Spoken words that evoke meaning or sense—morphemes—can be distinguished from nonsensical words. Hence, all morphemes are composed of at least one phoneme, and a morpheme contains at least one syllable (syllables are combinations of phonemes). Finally, words are composed of at least one morpheme. Syntax: Word combinations are used to convey complex ideas. The study of the general arrangement of words to form these ideas is called ‘syntax’, while ‘grammar’ refers to specific rules that govern the arrangements of these ideas. Linguistics distinguishes between prescriptive and descriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar refers to the formal rules that are usually taught to speakers of the language, showing how the language should be used, and descriptive grammar describes the rules that speakers use when actually using the language. The term ‘grammar’ has also been employed in a number of other ways, including intuitive and formal grammar. Intuitive grammarians differentiate between the ability of speakers to distinguish correct from incorrect grammar and the ‘written summary of the hypothetical rules that describe’ the rules of the language (McLaughlin 2006, 31). Another important application of the term ‘grammar’ is in describing the relationship between the small number of rules that direct how language is constructed and the ability of humans to construct an unlimited number of sentences using these rules. Referred to as ‘generative grammar’, this ability is at the heart of nativist theories of language development. Nativist theories propose that the ability to acquire language reflects an innate and genetically determined language acquisition device (LAD), which allows all children to understand the rules governing speech and to use these rules when constructing their own sentences (Gerber and Wankoff 2010; Johnson 2008; Otto 2010). Metalinguistic awareness: This refers to a person’s increasing awareness of the components of language (Ormrod 2008). Metalinguistic awareness occurs when children begin to play with language by reciting rhymes and poems, and by cracking jokes. In using words for play, children develop an increasing awareness that words can have two or more meanings, and that words and phrases can have literal and figurative meanings. Metalinguistic awareness also develops when people begin to study a second language. Semantics: This is the study of the meanings associated with words, and linguists are interested in how words carry a ‘collection of meanings and associations’ (McLaughlin 2006, 32). Words help children to organize information into categories and relationships, and this organization increases in complexity as they mature. When used to organize information, words can be an efficient way to access complex schemas in both episodic and semantic memories.

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Pragmatics: Effective communication depends on a shared understanding of the contexts of conversations, not just on sound grammar, and in the field of pragmatics researchers try to understand how the contexts of conversations—for example, the underlying assumptions made by speakers, and the inferred intent and relationships among speakers—help in communication.

Assessment of first language proficiency Assessments of L1 proficiency are based on the idea that language abilities are necessary for the effective expression of thoughts and feelings; and, without this ability, being part of a social group can be very difficult. Also, language skills are developmental, and language proficiency assessments indicate the levels of language development, and delays in language development sometimes precede behavioural problems, learning disabilities and reading problems (Salvia, Ysseldyke and Bolt 2010). The four communication processes—oral expression, oral comprehension, written comprehension and written expression—are all measurable. A brief description of some of the tests used to assess proficiency in these four areas is now given, firstly for English and then for Chinese. For a more detailed description of various English L1 proficiency assessments, consult Salvia, Ysseldyke and Bolt (2010).

Assessment of oral language Oral English language, including listening and speaking, can be assessed using the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation (1986), which contains sub-tests on sounds-inwords, sounds-in-sentences and stimulability. The sounds-in-words sub-test assesses the ability to articulate consonant blends and single consonants; medial position h, w, wh and y; and final position th. The sounds-in-sentences sub-test requires one to retell a story, emphasizing some of the difficult sounds. In the stimulability sub-test, one is assessed on one’s ability to respond to the correction of previously misarticulated sounds (Salvia et al. 2010). There are many tests of oral language, including the Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, the Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test and the Test of Adolescent Language-3. These tests are designed for different age groups and for different oral abilities, such as vocabulary and the ability to use sentences with more complex grammatical structures. Phonological skills can be assessed using one-, two-, three- and four-syllable non-words that adhere to the (Cantonese) phonological system (Liu et al. 2010). In



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this assessment, these non-words can be given to children as young as three years. Other assessments of phonological skills include sentence-imitation tasks and Cantonese articulation tests using a combination of pictures of familiar items and their corresponding Cantonese words (ibid.). To assess listening comprehension, children as young as three years can be asked to answer questions about an illustrated story, where the questions can reflect the children’s knowledge of facts about the story and their emotional responses (ibid.).

Assessment of written language Written language tests assess one’s proficiency in both reading and writing. The Test of Written Language-3, for example, consists of eight sub-tests that assess one’s ability to use words in a sentence, spell, use punctuation, produce logical sentences and combine sentences. The next three sub-tests require one to write a story, which is assessed based on the correct usage of contextual conventions (e.g. spelling, grammar and vocabulary) and on the quality of the prose (Salvia et al., 2010). Other written-language tests include the Test of Written Spelling-4 (Larsen, Hammill and Moats 1999) and the Oral and Written Language Scales (Carrow-Woolfolk 1995). To assess a child’s Cantonese vocabulary, the Infants Communicative Development Inventory (short and Cantonese version) can be used by parents to identify which words can be used by their children; and for receptive grammar skills, children can be asked to match a picture with a sentence or phrase (Liu et al. 2010).

Origins of First Language The challenge for any theory of language development is to account for the rapid growth in sound systems, vocabulary and language structures. For example, by age six, children have typically mastered 8,000 to 14,000 words, increasing to 50,000 and 80,000 words at ages 12 and 17 years respectively (Long 2000; Ormrod 2008). Linguists also recognize developmental patterns in listening comprehension, communication skills and metalinguistic awareness (Ormrod 2008). As children develop oral communication skills, their understanding of the social conventions that govern verbal etiquette, as well as strategies for beginning and ending conversations, also increases, as does their ability to engage in conversations about abstract concepts and use words as elements of play (jokes, puns, and rhymes). Psychologists have developed four main theories to explain how human language begins and develops. While not all of these theories were developed specifically to explain the origins of language, it is likely that they can all help to explain different

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aspects of language development. With understanding of the origin and development of language, teachers can help to shape its development among learners.

Behavioural models of language development As discussed in Chapter 3 and 7, operant conditioning explains the role of reinforcers and punishers in shaping behaviour, including the development of language (Gerber and Wankoff 2010; Otto 2010). When children produce sounds that resemble desired words, the sounds are rewarded by those around them, usually their parents. The desired behaviour is the correct use of a word (in pronunciation and context), and the reinforcement is the parent’s smile or another reinforcer valued by the child. Within the behavioural models of language development, classical conditioning helps to explain associations between objects (conditioned stimuli) and words (conditioned responses). Sentences, then, are examples of increasingly more complex word associations (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). Behavioural approaches to language development assume that words come to be associated with meaning, similar to the association of words with objects. According to Gerber and Wankoff, ‘meaning … [is] the internal response that becomes paired with an initial response to an object or even … ultimately, the word or the conditioned stimulus could come to elicit a conditioned response or a meaningful response’ (p. 70). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, helps to explain the child’s increasingly more accurate representation of words and sentences as a consequence of appropriate reinforcements and punishments. Children, however, develop language far more quickly than can be explained using behavioural models of learning and such models also cannot explain how children learn to express words and sentences they have never learned. Nevertheless, teachers can encourage children to learn language by using appropriate reinforcements, such as enthusiasm, praise and attention, when students use language correctly, and by allowing opportunities for imitation and repetition (Otto 2010). Johnson (2008) advised teachers not to be overly concerned with teaching and correcting grammar, arguing that it is far more important to provide a languagerich environment where children are exposed to as many words as possible and where opportunities for linguistic creativity are available.

Using behavioural models to support L1 learners Although imitation helps to explain only some aspects of language development, it has been used as the basis of speech-language intervention programmes (Gerber



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and Wankoff 2010). For example, applied behavioural analysis is designed to help students with poor language development by focusing on skills, such as matching, imitation and play. Generally, these programmes require the identification of antecedent events and desired responses, effective reinforcers, reinforcement schedules, shaping, modelling and generalization. As an extension of the behavioural models of learning, the social cognitive theory proposes that language develops when children model the speech patterns of those around them. In observing what happens to others when using language, children learn when to use it correctly and what to expect as a consequence of using it incorrectly.

Nativist theories of language development According to nativist theories of language, the ability of children to acquire spoken language is a reflection of a biologically determined system that seeks to organize information from the external world. The purpose of the human intellect is to organize and process this information—that is, human beings are ‘hard-wired’ to acquire spoken language, including the rules that govern its use. The marvel of language acquisition is not often appreciated (Pinker 1994), except in the unusual cases when someone fails to acquire language, usually as a result of severe sensory and intellectual deprivation (Sternberg and Williams 2002). Even without direct instruction, children learn complex grammatical rules. Chomsky proposed the existence of a language acquisition device (LAD) in all infants, which facilitated the rapid development of knowledge about grammar. The sophistication of the LAD allows children to create an almost infinite number of unique utterances, an ability called ‘linguistic creativity’ (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). According to Chomsky, the LAD is flexible enough to allow English learners to learn that word order is particularly important for grammar and for Chinese speakers to listen for tone inflections (ibid. 2010). The LAD enables children to ascertain the common grammatical features of all languages, which Chomsky referred to as ‘universal grammar’. However, the LAD is not a unique part of the brain: as Pinker (1994) argued, the LAD and other aspects of language development reflect the way brain neurons are networked. Pinker (1994, 24) extended Chomsky’s view of innate language acquisition by arguing that language is an ‘evolutionary adaptation designed to carry out important functions’. In his book The language instinct, Pinker explained that the purpose of language is to communicate information. Some evidence for the biological origin of language lies in brain studies and in the sound recognition abilities of human infants (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). Pinker’s conclusion that language is an ‘instinct’ is not

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without controversy, and others (e.g. Sampson 2005) have argued that language is best understood as a cultural creation, not the result of instinct.

Using nativist theories to support L1 learners For psychologists, the nativist theories can be used to assess and propose interventions for language impairments (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). A child’s stage of language development can be estimated by measuring his/her linguistic abilities, such as the mean length of sentences, and by analysing his/her use of spontaneous language. Interventions are based on setting goals to develop the child’s vocabulary and his/her understanding of morphological and syntactic rules. The nativist theories of language development are concerned with providing students with language-rich environments, without teachers being concerned with enforcing grammatical accuracy. Also, Johnson (2008) argued that the use of ‘parentese’ (e.g. ‘mimi’ for ‘milk’ and ‘bye bye’ for ‘goodbye’) is to be encouraged as it helps infants to learn to vocalize vowels. Teachers can enhance the processing of language by providing verb forms in many different linguistic contexts. Further discussion on the nativist perspectives on language development can be found in Gerber and Wankoff (2010), Otto (2010) and Long (2000). Pinker’s books, The language instinct (1994) and Work and rules (1999), are also highly recommended.

Interactionist models of language development There are two broad interactionist models of language development: cognitive interactionist models and social interactionist models (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). Both these models are based on the idea that there are interactions between the child’s social environment and his/her innate capacities. However, in cognitive interactionist models, the environment is thought to play a smaller role in language development than in social interactionist models. To reflect the importance of the environment in supporting language acquisition, Bruner proposed the term ‘language acquisition support system’ to describe the complex interactions between speakers and listeners (Ho et al. 2004; Long 2000).

Cognitive interactionist models Cognitive interactionist models are based on the IP models of language and on cognitive constructivist models. Modern IP models use a research paradigm that is



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based on the idea that the processing of language can be modelled using computer simulations, which depend on networks that mimic processes that occur in the human brain. To date, these simulations can learn to generate rules for complex and irregular verbs, and to predict missing words.

Cognitive constructivist models Cognitive constructivist models, on the other hand, are based on Piaget’s general principles of knowledge development, including the processes of adaptation, assimilation and accommodation (see Chapter 2), the end-result of which is an increasing complexity and number of schemas. From Piaget’s perspective, language develops after children acquire concepts of object permanence, intentionality, causality, deferred imitation and symbolic play. In other words, language abilities are dependent on the development of these cognitive abilities (Ho et al. 2004; Long 2000). According to Piaget, the first schemas relate to the child’s immediate sensory experiences and physical activities. As children develop object permanence, they begin to represent activities and objects using symbols, helping them to build schemas that represent increasingly abstract representations of the world.

Social interactionist models Compared with cognitive interactionist models, social interactionist models, also known as ‘sociocultural theories’, place a greater emphasis on the environment. Vygotsky, for example, believed that cognitive development is highly dependent on interactions between a child’s innate cognitive skills and his/her social experiences. Dialogues between the child and his/her peers, teachers and parents as they collaborate on tasks develop the child’s knowledge. Language therefore has a social origin and is learned as a consequence of this collaboration and communication with others; and it serves as a tool that guides future activities. Bruner (1985) extended Vygotsky’s ideas in suggesting that adults facilitate language development among infants when they share a common focus of interest. Put simply, adults use three mechanisms that lay the ‘groundwork’ for language acquisition by infants, namely, indicating, using deictic terms and naming (Gerber and Wankoff 2010). When indicating, adults initially use physical gestures to gain attention, which change over time to more conventional symbols. Adults also use deictic terms, such as ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘you’, and ‘me’, together with spatial and contextual cues (e.g. pointing to the object). Finally, naming occurs when children associate labels with objects (ibid.). Social interactionist models

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emphasize that parents and teachers should adjust their speech patterns to meet the needs of children. In modern social interactionist models, the child’s ability to point to an object is seen as a necessary skill that precedes the development of more formal language skills. The ability of pointing is important for several reasons: it requires that two people attend to the same thing and it begins the process of learning to influence intentionally the thinking and behaviour of others. It also helps to bridge the gap between words and ideas—for example, a child will combine words and gestures before relying on words alone (ibid.). In social interactionist models, intentionality is particularly important as it helps children to develop new schemas and leads them to interact with others around them (Bloom and Tinker 2001). According to the intentionality model, interactions between the child’s emotional and cognitive development are of fundamental importance in language acquisition. The cognitive interactionist models imply that language-learning disabilities are dependent on deficits in the normal processing of information. Tests of language ability using an IP perspective are based on a component approach where there are different levels and modalities of language function (Gerber and Wankoff 2010).

Using interactionist models to support L1 learners From a Piagetian perspective, language disorders arise because of deficits in cognitive development. An important line of research has determined the developmental sequence of normal language learners to identify aberrations. Assessments of language focus on evaluating areas such as object permanence and causality, and depend on observing children when they are at play (ibid.). In terms of the social interactionist models, Otto (2010) and Gerber and Wankoff (2010) suggested that teachers and parents should work within the child’s zone of proximal development (see Chapter 2) and should provide as many opportunities for social interaction as possible, focusing on spoken and written language. According to Cambourne (1988, 1995, cited in Otto 2010), the environmental conditions for language acquisition in children include: immersing them in their language; demonstrating to them how to use language; engaging them in social interaction; allowing them to take responsibility for their responses; reinforcing their approximations of adult words and pronunciations; providing opportunities for them to employ language; and responding actively to children’s attempts at expressing themselves (pp. 37–38). In the intentionality model, language acquisition requires both effort and engagement. Effort refers to the complex interactions between cognitive processes and the effort required to acquire language, whereas engagement is related to the



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complex relationships between the child and his/her caregivers. Assessments of language disorders focus on these two aspects.

Development of a Second Language Many of the models of L1 learning can be used to explain second language (L2) learning, but L2 learning does not follow the same pathway in terms of development (Larsen-Freeman 1997, 2009a, 2009b). In simple terms, different people learn a second language with varying degrees of success, and researchers have identified many variables that contribute to success, including the original (L1) language, the target (L2) language, the learning context, age, motivation, personality, learning styles and teaching processes. Rather than identifying a single determining factor that will guarantee success in learning a second language, Larsen-Freeman suggested that interaction among these variables is important. For example, to increase the likelihood of success, teaching processes must be appropriate for the learning styles and motivations of learners. Research on the processes in L2 learning is based on those of L1 learning, including the behavioural, nativist, cognitive and social interactionist models. Of these models, Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development has been widely used to support L2 teaching strategies. According to Vygotsky, language is a psychological and cultural tool, and speech is fundamental to a child’s intellectual development. Accordingly, children should be encouraged to converse with themselves and with others in their second language as often and as early as possible. Children should also be assisted in learning a second language, with their parents and teachers working within the child’s zone of proximal development (see Chapter 2). An interactive, authentic and purposeful environment should be encouraged in which students discover for themselves the meaning behind language and where they are free to express themselves without fear of embarrassment. In such an environment, the grammatical rules of the new language are not taught explicitly, but children are expected to discover them as they use the language.

The cognitive basis of bilingualism In examining the cognitive basis of bilingualism, two very similar models have been proposed based on an IP approach to cognition (Padilla 2006). The first is called ‘the common-store model’, which states that all information is stored in a ‘common store’ together with its ‘tags’. These tags enable the cataloguing of information in many ways, one of which is the type of language. When a bilingual speaker uses one language, he/she locates information using the appropriate tag.

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However, according to the independence (or separate memory) model, different linguistic information is stored in different ‘language-specific memory stores’ (Padilla 2006, 582). Other researchers have focused on the processing of information related to the L2, by examining the components of input-centred processing and output. In terms of input, the processing ability of L2 learners is limited, and so it is important for language teachers to simplify both grammar and vocabulary, reduce sentence length, decrease the speed of language input, increase the clarity of their explanation and increase the frequency of repetition. In Padilla’s (2006) review of the extant literature, there are three stages of inputcentred processing: the encoding stage, the transformation stage and the storage stage. In the encoding stage, information is decoded from individual sounds within words and then words within sentences. At the same time, the learner attempts to make sense of the ‘big picture’ (p. 582) by using the context of his/her prior experiences. The sounds then confirm or deny the learner’s guesses. For L2 learners, context is often missing and there is greater reliance on obtaining information directly from sounds, words and sentences.

Using information-processing models to support L2 learners An understanding of the two ways that learners derive meaning from their second language is useful for teachers. Clearly, L2 learners do not have to understand all the grammar and the vocabulary of the second language, but they do need to be actively ‘engaged in developing accuracy in producing the target language’ (Padmilla 2006, 583). Such advice on L2 learning is clearly constructivist in its approach. In terms of the output component, L2 learners can only demonstrate their learning through oral and/or written abilities, including the correct use of grammar and vocabulary. Instructional programmes must, therefore, include opportunities for students to write or speak ‘persuasively’ or to ‘successfully negotiate complex meaning with native speakers’ (ibid., 583). Other teaching resources that focus on L2 learning include Hamers and Blanc (2000), and Heredia and Brown (2004).

How is English taught as a second language? Three approaches are commonly used to teach English to non-native speakers: bilingual programmes, immersion programmes and synthetic programmes (Sternberg and Williams 2002; Padilla 2006). These approaches are based on English teaching



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experience in the USA where the dominant language is English. However, the context on which they are based is clearly different from that in Hong Kong where the dominant language is Cantonese.

Bilingual programmes In bilingual programmes, students with the same first language (say Cantonese) are grouped together, and receive instruction in the core subjects and in English using their native language. This enables non-native English speakers to continue progressing normally in the core subjects. On the other hand, their progress in English may not match the standard in the core subjects. If the goal is bilingualism, bilingual programmes may not allow students to be competent in using English in the core subjects. In bilingual approaches, the key question is ‘When is the student ready for transition to an all-English program?’ (Padilla 2006, 575). In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau (EDB) recommends that this transition should take place when students enter secondary schools, but only for the most academically capable students. For all other students, schools can continue to offer bilingual programmes. Clearly, the transition is based on administrative needs, not on their progress in English.

Immersion programmes In immersion programmes, all the core subjects are taught in English. As noted above, full immersion normally occurs when children enter secondary school and is offered on the basis of their academic standing in the core subjects after being assessed using their native language. H ow eve r, Pa d i l l a ( 2 0 0 6 ) wa r n e d t h a t f u l l i m m e r s i o n , w h e n u s e d indiscriminately, places greater demands on students as they have to try to learn both academic content (e.g. mathematics) in the new language and the language itself. In this ‘sink-or-swim’ method (p. 574), students with access to extra help, such as a supportive home environment and tuition, have a considerable advantage. In Hong Kong, government policies on the medium of instruction in schools are often debated (Choi 2003; Lai 2009; Phillipson 2005; Wong and MacWhinney 2009), with some sections of the community arguing that a policy restricting opportunities for full immersion in secondary schools is elitist. To further complicate matters, Choi (2003) noted that the research evidence that results in restricting immersion to academically competent students is very weak. This issue will doubtless remain a subject of debate as English proficiency will continue to be linked to increased opportunities for social mobility.

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In Hong Kong’s schools, Chinese is the primary medium of communication. Based on Padilla’s (2006) criteria, Chinese students in these schools learn English as a foreign language, with their immersion experience being limited to the school environment and dependent on an adequate number of English-speaking teachers. Although some of these teachers are native-speakers, many are not. In such a context, opportunities to practise English outside the school and within authentic situations remain limited. Although Cummins (2008) did not specifically refer to Chinese students learning English, he concluded that there is no research to support the conclusion that teaching based on the ‘monolingual principle’ is successful (p. 65)—in other words, the strategy of teaching English using solely English as the medium of instruction is not yet proven. Rather, research evidence suggests that students’ prior understanding of concepts in their native language can be used to facilitate their learning through a second language.

Synthetic programmes Synthetic programmes are a combination of bilingual and immersion programmes.

How long does it take to learn a second language? The answer to this question depends on the expected outcomes and the type of programmes offered (Padilla 2006). If the requirement is to learn enough English in a social context rather than acquire an academic knowledge of English grammar, the answer will depend on how social context is defined and by the extent of grammatical knowledge needed. Secondary school education in Hong Kong will soon be reduced to six years, during which students are expected to acquire a level of English proficiency which will enable them to attend a local university or apply for admission to overseas universities. In reviewing the key findings on English enhancement among L2 learners, Wong (2006) argued that L2 learning attributes can be enhanced by focusing on the following five areas: developmental changes in language acquisition; languagespecific properties of the L2; the relationship between oral and written language; important ‘what-to-learn-first’ issues; and the quality of the language input. In broad terms, Wong recommended that L1 learning facilitates L2 learning rather than the two developing independently. In terms of language-specific awareness, Wong commented that the phonological complexity of English causes particular difficulties for Chinese (Cantonese) speakers and that it is therefore important to practise both listening and speaking (of English).



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As regards the relationship between oral and written language, Wong (2006) and Wong and MacWhinney (2009) recommended that the phonological awareness of students can be enhanced through the use of sounds and rhymes. For example, nursery rhymes provide many opportunities for rhyming pairs, and children should be encouraged to sing them rather than just to listen. However, the phonological teaching of English should match closely the developmental norms of Cantonese phonology (Wong and MacWhinney 2009). Wong (2006) also advocated the use of simple nouns and high frequency verbs, including ‘do’, ‘make’, ‘put’, ‘give’, ‘see’ and ‘hear’, rather than complete sentences; and sentence elaborations should come after children have mastered simple verb-noun forms. Wong advised that parents and teachers should use ‘one element addition’ to build complexity in accordance with Vygotsky’s principles of scaffolding, e.g. ‘a ball’ develops into ‘a red ball’ and then ‘give a red ball’. Lastly, Wong suggested that the quality of language input is enhanced when children respond to what they hear, as meaningful ‘two-way communication’ (p. 287) encourages children to develop a better understanding of spoken words as a means of communication.

When is a learner proficient in English? Judging when a learner is ‘proficient’ in English again depends on how the term is defined (Padilla 2006; Phillipson 2005). Also, the four different modes of communication—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—need to be taken into account. Padilla argued that proficiency assessments need to be both appropriate to the developmental level of learners and to their linguistic ability in their first language (p. 579). In assessing proficiency among Chinese students, a distinction needs to be made between the receptive skills of listening and reading, and the productive skills of speaking and writing. However, proficiency in English at the secondary school level is usually limited to the teaching and assessment of vocabulary and grammar. The distinction among these four skills was the basis of Phillipson’s (2005) research on the difficulties faced by Chinese Hong Kong tertiary students when using English as the medium of instruction. He found that these students believed their English language abilities generally increased over the period of the course; and they identified thinking and affective outcomes as the greatest problem areas. The skills of writing, speaking and listening were claimed to be important in overcoming difficulties in these areas.

224 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Is content knowledge transferred across languages? To date, as noted earlier, research evidence does not support the ‘monolingual principle’ (Cummins 2008), where knowledge gained in one language is not shared with the second language. Rather, the findings show that there is a strong interaction between L1 and L2 learning, although more research is needed to understand how the two languages support each other (Padilla 2006). Nevertheless, Cummins (2008, 72–73) suggested that school-based bilingual strategies should include the following elements: • creation of dual-language multimedia, books and projects; • exchanges with ‘sister classes’ where students with different languages use technology to allow them to share resources; • a focus on the commonalities of languages; • an active exploration and incorporation of new words from students’ L2 language as part of the development of multilingual dictionaries; • provision of opportunities for students to express themselves in the native language before working collaboratively in their L2 language; and • allowing students in bilingual or L2 immersion programmes to compare and contrast media reports on the same current topic that are written in different languages.

What is the role of intelligence in L2 learning? Padilla (2006) raised the question of the relationship between intelligence and L2 learning. Citing a number of early studies, Padilla concluded that the child’s level of intelligence may not play a role in L2 development, but that children who are able to acquire a second language outperform monolingual speakers in both verbal and non-verbal tests of intelligence, indicating the possibility that bilingualism adds a ‘dimension of flexibility’ (p. 581) to cognitive tasks. Interestingly, a number of cases of language savants have shown that intelligence and language are likely to be served by independent systems (Anderson 1992; Johnson 2008). For example, a student may have an IQ of around 50 and yet can speak 16 languages (Johnson 2008). Also, those with high IQs demonstrate greater achievement in traditional grammar, but this is not the same as demonstrating language proficiency (Johnson 2008).

What is the role of knowledge in L2 learning? The role of knowledge is closely linked to the role of cognition in L2 learning. From an IP perspective, knowledge is of two forms: declarative knowledge and procedural



Language Development of Chinese Learners 225

knowledge. Briefly, the former refers to knowledge of facts, definitions, procedures and rules, including those related to grammar, and the latter refers to knowledge of performing a certain task (Eggen and Kauchak 2007). Procedural knowledge is often difficult for a person to describe fully. These two independent systems also operate in L2 learners. Padilla (2006) described experiences with international students who have strong declarative knowledge of English grammar because of the grammar-based approach used in their instruction but are nevertheless unable to communicate fluently and accurately. Clearly, the two knowledge systems need to be integrated so that learners can acquire both sets of knowledge. Once the importance of grammatical features is recognized through repeated experiences, declarative knowledge becomes internalized as procedural knowledge. When teachers want their students to acquire procedural knowledge, the learning context should include opportunities for learners to ‘notice’ important input features. They should provide sufficient communicative practice to encourage the automatic and accurate use of language by learners. In considering whether grammar should be the focus for L2 learners, Cummins (2008) and Johnson (2008) recommended the following guidelines: 1. The teaching of grammar should be planned and systematic. 2. The level of grammar should be developmentally appropriate and flexible enough to allow the learner some choices in the forms of grammar used in their communication. 3. During the early stages of L2 learning, switching continually between the native language and the new language is appropriate for the learner. 4. The teaching of grammar should progress gradually and should be highly repetitive. 5. Language instruction requires the active involvement of the learner in problemsolving contexts. Li, Leung and Kember’s (2000) analysis of Hong Kong university students’ views on their use of English focused on the discrepancies between the university’s policy on English as the medium of instruction and the implementation of the policy. It also described some of the problems faced by students in the areas of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Although many students experienced progress in most of these skill areas, most revealed that their writing skills became worse, and also complained that there was limited access to English ‘contexts’ (p. 304) outside their English-medium classes. Other reasons were related to consideration of nonspeakers of English, negative perceptions of their English ability, nervousness and lack of courage.

226 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

What are the most important strategies in learning a second language? A number of strategies designed to help L2 learners have been mentioned. Padilla (2006) described some additional strategies suitable for learners, regardless of age and proficiency (see Table 8.3). Table 8.3 General teaching strategies for second language (L2) learning General teaching strategies

Details

Clearly organize information.

Maximize the separation of L1 and L2 in long-term memory by previewing main ideas and concepts, and planning the parts, sequences, and main ideas.

Promote students’ metacognitive strategies.

Help students to self-evaluate their progress and to selfmanage their learning environment.

Promote students’ use of cognitive Help students to plan time for learning and practice by strategies. summarizing any information gained through reading and listening, and linking new information with information already known (elaboration). Promote students’ use of Give students time to practise the use of information in a text deductive reasoning and inductive or speech in order to guess meaning, produce outcomes and reasoning to make inferences.* identify missing parts. Students should also be given time to explore the rules of the new language and apply the rules to produce language. Transfer learning between L1 and Teachers can help students to categorize new words in L2 L2, and use existing knowledge in using already established structures, extrapolate L1 concepts long-term memory to help acquire to new L2 information and use existing L1 skills with L2. new knowledge. Encode information in long-term memory using mental imagery and mnemonics.

Teachers can help students actively associate new words with images and link new words with their mnemonic equivalents.

*

Inferences are the conclusions that people make when they use either deductive or inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning allows people to infer generalizations from specific examples. Inductive reasoning occurs when people draw conclusions about specific examples based on general observations. Table adapted from Padilla (2006, 585–87).

SCOLAR’s (2003) recommendations for raising both English and Putonghua standards among Chinese Hong Kong students, some of which overlap with Padilla’s, are presented in Table 8.4. An extensive research project in Hong Kong, involving psychologists, neurologists, physiologists, paediatricians and learners, investigated the neurocognitive bases of language education (Yee et al. 2004). The researchers made a number of recommendations about the best age for Hong Kong students to begin their ‘systematic learning’ (p. 11) of English, the use of phonics, and the optimal instructional approaches and methods for learning English.

Language Development of Chinese Learners 227



Table 8.4 Broad strategies to enhance the language learning environment Increase student interest and motivation.

Teachers and schools should 1. provide more and varied learning activities; 2. take into account individual needs, interests, and abilities; 3. make language more relevant; 4. provide more English-speaking opportunities; and 5. make better use of mass media, particularly TV and radio.

Strategies should be based on a number guiding principles.

The general principles include the following: 1. Integrate listening, speaking, reading and writing. 2. The prerequisite skills of oral communication are listening and speaking. Hence, listening and speaking should be developed at an early age. 3. Proficiency in language includes appreciation of cultural background. 4. Instruction should be based on activities that students can do and enjoy. 5. Learning a language involves applying it in meaningful and purposeful contexts. 6. Extensive reading is very beneficial. 7. Intellectual ability and ‘analytic power’ are intertwined with the development of language ability.

Adapted from SCOLAR (2003, 28–32).

It was concluded that children in Hong Kong could begin to learn English as early as four years of age. It was also found that phonics training can be ‘particularly effective’ in learning English and language instruction is more effective when it is ‘conducted interactively’ (p. 11). English learning should begin with basic vocabulary, a finding which is in accordance with Padilla’s (2006) instructional strategy. The research findings also indicated that: the ‘semantic association method’ is ‘particularly effective’ (p. 12); repetition is ‘essential for language acquisition and retention’ (p. 14); and singing is the most effective means of repetition as singing and choral reading are highly motivating for Primary 3 and 4 students.

Conclusion The link between language and learning is fundamental to an understanding of good teaching. This chapter has focused on the development of language among Chinese learners, and has covered the development of L1, including the relationships between language development and cognitive development, and the broad principles behind our understanding of the development of language. For a growing number of students, learning a second language is becoming increasingly important. For Chinese students throughout the world, English is the most widely learned second language (Jia 2006), and it is likely that teachers of Chinese students will face challenges in teaching these students a second language.

228 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

An understanding of the development of L2 is therefore an important part of the education of new teachers and for those already in the service. The final section of the chapter, while recognizing that there is still much to be learned, described some of the principles and strategies that can guide teachers in designing classroom activities for L2 learning, particularly for Chinese students learning English.

Learning Activities 1. Find a diagram illustrating the left side of the human brain. Identify the frontal, temporal, and occipital lobes and, within these lobes, locate Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area. Label these two areas with their respective functions. 2. In groups of three or four students, create a list of three sentences that describe the physical characteristics of an imaginary person and three sentences that convey a command to another person. Change the spoken meaning of the six sentences through the use of facial expressions and gestures. How does the meaning of each sentence change? 3. Change the meanings of the six sentences through changes in stress, rhythm and intonation. What changes in meaning can you identify? 4. Give three examples for each of the following six types of non-verbal communication. For each example, identify the message being conveyed. Does the message differ from one social group (culture) to another? • facial expression • head movement • eye contact • body language • gestures • proxemics 5. Pragmatics is the study of how meaning depends on social contexts. Consider the sentence ‘Can you put the pencil down’. Explain its meaning in as many ways as possible, indicating clearly how the meaning changes with the speaker’s age, role, relationship, culture and number of people in the conversation. 6. Read the Activities plan to raise language standards in Hong Kong: Final review report (SCOLAR 2003). Devise some activities that meet the needs of pre-primary, primary, and secondary students. Justify the activities in terms of each of the guiding principles. 7. Record a mathematics lesson where Chinese is the students’ first language and the teacher is using Chinese to teach. Record another mathematics lesson where



Language Development of Chinese Learners 229

Chinese is the students’ first language and the teacher is using English as the medium of instruction. Over a ten-minute period in the lesson, identify the type of communication that occurs between teachers and students. What differences and similarities do you notice? What impact does this have on student learning?

9 The Social Context of Learning Shane N. Phillipson

To understand the complete range of factors that influence learning, it is important to consider the social context of learning—that is, the broad group of external factors that either contribute to or inhibit student learning, especially in relation to academic achievement. These factors are in the environment, external to the student. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • place the Chinese classroom within a social context (i.e. Chinese culture); • develop an understanding of the relationship between Confucianism and student achievement; • understand the interactions among various factors within the social context of learning; and • focus on the importance of family expectations for student achievement. The cultural context can be considered the broadest of all the external factors affecting learning. As one of its central themes, this book situates learning within the Chinese culture: ‘being Chinese’ is the overarching context within which Hong Kong’s students learn, and helps to determine the way in which all the other factors affecting learning are understood. The first section of this chapter discusses the cultural basis of learning, including the nature of culture, the unique features of the Chinese culture and the effects of these features on student learning. The discussion is based on recent research in cross-cultural studies and broad themes in Chinese psychology. Some relevant books on this area include The Chinese Learner (Watkins and Biggs 1996), Growing Up the Chinese Way (Lau 1996b), Teaching the Chinese Learner (Watkins and Biggs 2001b), Learning Diversity in the Chinese Classroom (Phillipson 2007) and Themes in Chinese Psychology (Sun 2008). The chapter discusses also other ‘contexts’, such as gender, exceptionality, family, peers, teachers, schools and socio-economic status. It outlines studies on sex-based differences in cognitive functioning and cultural expectations (gender). Learning difficulties, special needs, and giftedness are briefly considered (exceptionality). (For a more detailed discussion, refer to Phillipson [2007].) Also tackled are the impact of students’ relationships with their parents and siblings

232 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

on student learning (family), the influence of schoolmates on student achievement (peers), and the effects of different teaching approaches and school characteristics and policies on student achievement (teachers and schools). Finally, there is a brief consideration of the effects of recent reforms in Hong Kong, for example on the medium of instruction (MOI), on student learning.

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory of Human Development As noted in Chapter 6, Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory of human development (1995; Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998) is usually modelled as a series of concentric circles, with the child in the innermost circle. The microsystem represents the factors that directly influence a child’s development, including biological factors, the child’s family and other individuals (e.g. friends, classmates and teachers). The mesosystem covers the interactions among the components of the microsystem. The exosystem describes the links between the child’s immediate contacts and the social setting of these contacts and the macrosystem includes the ideologies, values, customs and laws of a particular culture. Although not represented as one of the concentric circles, the final level in the model is the chronosystem, which helps explain changes that occur over time. Overall, Bronfenbrenner’s model, which is influenced by Vygotsky’s social constructivist theories, focuses on the child and his/her interactions with the social context of learning—some of which encourage the child to learn, while others inhibit learning. Using this model as the conceptual component, this chapter is organized according to the various levels of the theory, beginning with the microsystem. Clearly, however, more research is needed to identify all the components of the theory.

The Nature of Culture Culture embodies a wide range of levels and influences, with each level relating to the patterns of behaviour, attitudes, values and customs that identify groups of people as distinct from other groups. The number of people in these groups can range from very small to very large, and so it is possible to identify many subcultures within a larger culture. People’s membership of a given culture and subculture has consequences for their daily behaviour, particularly in personally challenging situations when they usually revert back to culturally appropriate patterns of behaviour.

The Social Context of Learning 233



Culture helps people to establish personal identities. An important aspect of identity is ethnicity: within an ethnic group, individuals share a common history, geographical ancestry, language, customs, traditions and values. Many customs, traditions and values are associated with belief systems—for example, most Indians share the Hindu faith, which helps in identifying and distinguishing them from other ethnic groups. In 2006, Hong Kong students enrolled in primary and secondary schools came from one of 12 identifiable ethnic groups (Table 9.1). The highest proportion of students in primary schools was ethnic Chinese (97%), followed by students from Pakistan, Bangladesh or Sri-Lanka1 (0.4%), India (0.3%), the Philippines (0.3%), Japan (0.3%), Nepal (0.3%) and Korea (0.1%). All other ethnic groups accounted for less than 0.5% of the total enrolment. In secondary schools, the highest proportion of students was Chinese (98.5%), followed by Vietnamese (0.3%), Japanese (0.2%), Nepalese (0.1%), Pakistani, Bangladeshi or Sri Lankan (0.1%) and Indians (0.1%). Table 9.1 Distribution of ethnic groups in Hong Kong Ethnic group

Primary

(%)

Secondary

(%)

428235

97.1

512236

98.5

Mixed

3350

0.76

518

0.10

White

1974

0.45

54

0.01

Pakistani/Bangladeshi/Sri-Lankan

1729

0.39

685

0.13

Indian

1379

0.31

469

0.09

Filipino

1209

0.27

125

0.02

Japanese

1199

0.27

982

0.19

Nepalese

1124

0.25

722

0.14

Korean

370

0.08

134

0.03

Other Asian

140

0.03

447

0.09

Indonesian

108

0.02

122

0.02

Vietnamese

103

0.02

1356

0.26

Thai

97

0.02

0

0.00

Others

61

0.01

2099

0.40

Black

36

0.01

60

0.01

Total

441,114

100

520,009

100

Chinese

Source: Figures from the Hong Kong census of 2006.

The 2006 survey included only permanent residents, excluding non-resident students. However, regardless of their residency status, students are not necessarily evenly distributed across schools in Hong Kong as they prefer to be in schools where there are others who share their ethnicity. For these students, culture influences their

234 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

learning in four broad ways. First, some of them are in Hong Kong by choice, but others are not. In the former case, schooling will be viewed as an opportunity for rapid assimilation and integration into the local society—these students learn the local language and the expected behaviours and attitudes quickly, facilitating their assimilation and integration. On the other hand, students who have come to Hong Kong unwillingly may view schooling as a threat to their identity and resist the behaviours, values and customs of their host community. Second, there are cultural differences in adult-child relationships that may affect learning. In some cultures, for example, it is common and acceptable for children to call adults (other than their parents) by their first names. If schools require students to address teachers in formal terms, students who fail to do so may be deemed disrespectful and troublesome. In more extreme situations, religious beliefs may bring students into conflict with the school’s culture—simply consider the controversy that emerged when France prohibited female Muslim students from wearing the hijab. Third, the classroom culture may work against students from different cultures. For instance, students from cultures that value co-operation and collaboration may experience conflict in competitive classrooms. Also, in some gifted programmes, students from certain cultures may not be represented if giftedness is based on individual achievement. For example, among the Navajos, Maoris and other Australian aboriginal groups, giftedness depends on the group efforts of students and for them, in a way, it is undesirable for individuals to stand out. Lastly, culture may contribute to learning when cultural values place a high importance on school achievement. As highlighted in the next section, East Asian students generally outperform all other students because of the importance that their cultures place on autonomy, competition and effort and family pride. East Asian countries (China, Korea, Japan, Singapore and Taiwan) are generally viewed as Confucian societies, although Daoism and Buddhism also play important roles in defining the Chinese culture (Sun 2008), and hence are generally referred to as Confucian Heritage Cultures (CHC). According to Sun (2008), Confucianism is characterized by several tenets, including benevolence (ren, 仁 ), righteousness (yi, 義 ), propriety (li, 禮 ), filial piety (xiao, 孝 ) and loyalty (zhong, 忠 ) to one’s ruler. Other tenets refer to the development of a cultured or educated man (jun zi, 君子 ), the doctrine of the mean (zhong yong, 中庸 ), and the five cordial relationships (i.e., ruler and minister, father and son, husband and wife, older and younger, brother and friends). Each dyad in the five relationships requires different core values and behaviours. The mandate (tian ming, 天命 ) and concept of Heaven (tian ming guan, 天命觀 ), as well as the rectification of names (zheng ming, 正名 ), are also included in Confucianism’s basic tenets.



The Social Context of Learning 235

In a CHC, the ideal man observes all these tenets; the ultimate goal of selfactualization is becoming one with Heaven (tian ren he yi, 天人合一 ) (Sun 2008, 13). Significantly, the role of education is to help achieve self-actualization. Confucianism advocates that all people can be educated and that formal schooling plays an important role in this process. Furthermore, self-actualization necessarily requires human effort, arising from both the intrinsic and extrinsic importance of learning. In learning, Confucianism also adheres to a deep rather than surface approach, believing that reflective thinking and inquiry are essential (Lee 1996). Nevertheless, a CHC can both inhibit and enhance the thinking of the Chinese people (Chan 2007). From this brief overview of the cultural context of the Chinese learner, it is clear that within Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory, a CHC makes an important contribution to student learning.

Underachievement among Chinese Students The remarkable achievements of East Asian students in international tests of academic achievement, such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), are well documented. At the same time, however, there are growing concerns over chronic underachievement observed not only among Western students but also among East Asian students, including those in Hong Kong (Chan 1999; Lau and Chan 2001; McCall, Beach and Lau 2000; Phillipson 2008; Phillipson and Tse 2007). Poor school performance has implications for special education services, lost income and taxes, public service programmes and lost productivity (McCall et al. 2000). Given the broad framework of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory, underachievement occurs when the sum total of environmental factors inhibiting intellectual potential (P) is greater than the environmental factors that enhance P. One mathematical model describing this relationship is found in Phillipson (2008). In this model, the relationship between achievement (A) and potential (P) is A = PeE, where the overall educational environment (E) is the sum total of the enhancing components (∑e) minus the sum total of the inhibiting components (∑i). In other words, E = ∑e –∑i. Some students who perform poorly are functioning below their expected levels of achievement as indicated by their mental ability test scores. This discrepancy between their potential and actual performance is the theoretical definition of underachievement. The challenge for teachers and researchers is to put this definition to practical use.

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To operationalize fully the discrepancy model of underachievement, researchers usually need to measure both the mental ability (potential) of students and their academic performance (achievement). Mental ability is estimated using an intelligence test, and a standardized test of achievement is used to measure academic performance. There are various methods for estimating underachievement. The simple difference method: The measurement scales used in intelligence and achievement tests differ, and so test scores are converted to standardized (or z) scores. This requires knowledge of the performance of a large number of similarly aged students on the same tests. Using standardized scores with a mean value of 0 and standard deviation (SD) of 1, the difference (D) between P and A estimates the level of underachievement or overachievement (D = A – P). If A > P, then D has a positive value and the student is overachieving. If A < P, then D has a negative value and the student is underachieving. If A = P, the level of performance matches the student’s potential. This method of estimating D is called the simple difference method, and underachievement is defined as D < 1. A student is underachieving when his/her academic achievement is more than 1 SD below his/her expected level, which is based on his/her level of intelligence. The regression method: In this method, scores on standardized tests of intellectual ability and academic achievement are used; and when the achievement scores are regressed against scores of intellectual ability, students whose achievement scores are more than 1 SD below the regression line are defined as ‘underachieving’. The absolute split method: In this method, scores in standardized tests of intellectual ability and achievement are converted to percentiles. If a student’s intellectual ability places him/her, in, for example, the top 25% and his/her achievement is in the bottom 25%, then he/she is underachieving. The optimal achievement model: This method relies on the Rasch measurement model (Bond and Fox 2007; Phillipson 2008). In the optimal achievement model (OAM) (Phillipson 2008), student scores on tests of intellectual ability and mathematical achievement are converted to logits. The scores are directly compared, reflecting the assumption that scores in both tests are dependent on the same intellectual ability. When achievement scores do not agree with the predicted ability scores, students are considered to be achieving, overachieving, or underachieving.

Underachievement in Hong Kong Recent research has attempted to estimate the prevalence of underachievement among school children in Hong Kong. Using the regression method and based



The Social Context of Learning 237

on research conducted a number of years earlier, McCall, Beach and Lau (2000) estimated that the overall percentage of elementary (or primary) school students who underachieve in Chinese, English and mathematics is 13.6%, 14.2% and 13.9%, respectively. In Grades 1 and 2, there is a significant difference between the achievement of boys and girls in Chinese, with more underachieving boys (14.1%) than girls (6.6%), but this difference does persist in the following years. On the other hand, there is evidence that in Grades 5 and 6, more boys underachieve in English (21.7% of boys vs. 10.3% of girls) and in mathematics (17.7% of boys vs. 10.7% of girls). Also, anecdotal reports suggest that severe underachievers tend to underachieve in all academic subjects, not just one or two subjects. In analysing teachers’ attitudes towards underachievers, McCall et al. (2000) reported that teachers are more supportive of underachievers in Grades 1 and 2 than in later grades: in Grades 5 and 6, underachieving students are viewed as more ‘disruptive, impatient, and aggressive in school and perhaps at home’ (p. 800). These changes in student behaviour were found to be accompanied by decreasing teacher and parental support, adding to the difficulties faced by the students. Given the same level of mental ability, a ‘syndrome of underachievement exists’ (ibid.) among students who, for whatever reason, do not achieve their potential. This syndrome can be the result of poor motivation and changes in teacher and parental attitudes towards underachievement and, for these students, the external environment seems to work increasingly against their academic achievement. McCall et al. (2000) did not distinguish students of different levels of ability, though this is relevant in determining whether the proportion of students who underachieve varies at different levels of ability. McCall et al. (2000, 787) proposed that the bases of underachievement need to be understood within the context of the Chinese culture, where ‘Confucian philosophy … [places a] heavy emphasis on the importance and efficacy of effort and ‘academic accomplishments’. They view student underachievement, therefore, as a much more ‘serious child and family problem’, possibly leading to ‘major embarrassment … [and] family rejection and ‘contemplation of suicide’. Placing underachievement in a cultural context is consistent with Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory. More recently, using the optimal achievement model, Phillipson (2008; Phillipson and Tse 2007) estimated the prevalence of underachievement in mathematics in a representative cross-section of students in Hong Kong. Phillipson found that the proportion of students in Primary 3 and 5, and Secondary 1 and 3, who are underachieving in mathematics ranges from 10% at the 50–59 percentile band to 30% at the > 95th percentile (top 5%). The next section looks more closely at the Chinese context of learning, beginning with the influences and interactions in the child’s immediate

238 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

environment. There is also a brief consideration of learners with special needs, including those with behavioural problems, disabilities, learning difficulties and giftedness [see Phillipson (2007) for an in-depth coverage]. The section is based on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory of human development (1979; 1995; Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998).

Microsystems and Mesosystems The immediate environment of Chinese learners includes their parents, extended family, peers, teachers and schools. Although the learners are in contact with many other individuals, most research focuses on these four areas. There is some interesting research using structural equation modelling (SEM) to describe the causal relationships and interactions among factors found in the microsystem, but much research is still required.

Parenting style and the Chinese culture Parents influence their children’s academic achievement in profound ways. Chinese parents are, of course, important conduits of culture. Cultural norms, values, attitudes and expected behaviours are communicated largely by parents to their children, particularly during the early years of a child’s development. Parenting styles describe the way parents relate to and interact with their children. At least four types of parenting style have been identified: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles. Authoritative parents demonstrate the twin characteristics of being firm and caring. They have high expectations of their children in terms of their personal growth and academic achievement. Family rules are explained clearly and consistently enforced. As a result of this parenting style, children tend to exhibit high selfesteem and demonstrate high self-efficacy and security, and in school they willingly take risks and are generally successful. Authoritarian parents, on the other hand, stress conformity. They rarely stop to explain family rules nor do they encourage family discussions. Consequently, their children tend to be socially inept and withdrawn, and they worry more about pleasing their parents than about their academic achievement. Permissive parents allow their children total freedom, impose few demands, and have limited expectations. Consequently, their children typically demonstrate immaturity, poor self-control, impulsiveness, and absence of motivation. Finally, uninvolved parents demonstrate limited interest in their children’s lives. They hold few, if any, expectations in terms of academic achievement. Not surprisingly, the children of



The Social Context of Learning 239

such parents often lack self-control and self-direction; and, in addition to being easily frustrated, they are also disobedient. In a Confucian society, filial piety (xiao, 孝 ) plays an important role in maintaining harmonious family relationships (Sun 2008). As a complex interplay of cognitions and behaviours, filial piety is considered ‘the most important virtue’ (ibid., 74) in Confucian societies and children learn to be filial through the practices of Chinese parents. Sun (pp. 79–80) describes the role of a filial father in Chinese society educating his son in matters relating to the ‘prevalent codes of social and moral conduct’. Fathers enforce moral standards and strict discipline, and, accordingly, fathering is described as ‘authoritarian moralism’ with ‘patterns of over-control, over-protection, demands for proper behavior, and harsh discipline’. The cost of this fathering style is an ‘inhibition of independence, self-expression, and creativity in children’. Sun also noted that Chinese parents are still ‘alarmed’ by the aggressive behaviour of their children. Although Chinese mothers tend to the emotional and psychological needs of their children, they believe that academic achievement and the full development of a filial character require an authoritarian parenting style. They prefer the use of ‘power-assertive, prohibitive, and punitive strategies’ (p. 80). Chinese parents in Hong Kong describe the ideal child as possessing ‘filial piety, academic achievement, and proper behavior’ (ibid.), but in this process parents and teachers can place too much emphasis on the development of moral character at the expense of explaining thoughts and feelings. Furthermore, Sun contended that authoritarian moralism inadvertently discourages critical, creative and active attitudes towards learning and instead promotes rigid thinking, low cognitive complexity, interdependence and conformity. Clearly, more research is needed to establish the link between aspects of Confucianism and the classroom (Chan 2007; Lee and Mok 2008). Also, little is known about the influence of Daoism and Buddhism on student learning. Despite the negative connotations of Chinese parenting styles, it is paradoxical that students from Confucian Heritage Cultures (Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea and Singapore) generally outperform Western students. Watkins and Biggs (1996, 2001a) addressed this paradox and some of their findings and conclusions are described briefly in later parts of this book.

Parents and their children’s academic achievement To examine the link between parenting styles and academic achievement, Leung, Lau and Lam (1998) compared parents and their children from Hong Kong, the USA and Australia. Based on previous studies showing that authoritarian parenting styles are generally related to poor academic achievement of children, they focused on

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the ‘paradoxical’ finding that authoritarian parenting styles of Chinese Hong Kong parents have a positive effect on their children’s academic performance. Insights into this paradox (Chao and Sue 1996) can be provided by splitting authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles into two sub-types, with one related to parenting in general and the other to academic performance. Leung, Lau and Lam (1998) found that academic authoritarian parenting styles are negatively related to academic performance among students in the three places they studied. This parenting style was found to be reflected in parental responses to poor grades (e.g. getting upset, reducing the child’s allowance and grounding)— and to obtain good grades, academic authoritarian parents told their children to ‘do better’ and to compare these good grades with other ‘poorer’ ones. However, these researchers found that the incidence of this style was lower in Hong Kong than in the USA and Australia. In contrast, Leung, Lau and Lam (1998) found that the incidence of general authoritarianism is higher in Hong Kong than in the USA and Australia, and that this style was positively related to the academic achievement of Hong Kong students. It was characterized by parents telling their children not to argue with adults, that they will know better when they become adults, and that parents are correct and should not be questioned; they are all behaviours that are consistent with the tenets of filial piety. In a similar study, Chao (2001) compared the relationship between authoritative parenting styles and academic achievement and motivation. In particular, Chao’s study focused on first- and second-generation Chinese Americans and European Americans. Chao found that authoritative parenting styles predicted academic achievement and greater motivation among European Americans and greater motivation among second-generation Chinese Americans. However, such authoritative parenting styles did not predict academic achievement or academic motivation among first-generation Chinese Americans. To understand fully the link between authoritative parenting styles and academic achievement, Chao (ibid.) also measured ‘relationship closeness’, using two sub-tests that measure the cohesion of the relationship between parents and their children, and relationship satisfaction. Chao found that the beneficial effects of authoritative parenting can be explained through the closeness of relationships: the closer the relationship is, the more useful the effects of this parenting style. The role of parents in influencing their children’s academic achievement has been reported in a series of studies conducted in Hong Kong. For example, focusing on cultural variability across three Hong Kong schools, Phillipson (2006) showed that, in broad terms, Chinese parents attributed their children’s academic success to effort and learning strategies, while British parents attributed it to ability. However, the attributions of parents differed according to socio-economic status (SES). Low-



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income parents were more likely to attribute failure to lack of ability and success to effort, but middle- and high-income parents considered both effort and strategy as key reasons for their children’s success in both language and mathematics. Further research (Phillipson 2009, 2010; Phillipson and Phillipson 2007) in the same three schools as above showed that parental expectations of academic success differed according to cultural background. In this study, parents were asked to predict their children’s achievement in mathematics and language (either Cantonese or English) and to describe their level of involvement in their children’s schooling. The predicted score was called the ‘expected’ score. Chinese parents were also asked to state their ‘satisfied score’ in each subject. The researchers found that expected scores differed according to level of income, with highincome parents having higher academic expectations and higher ‘satisfied’ scores than those with a low income. More significant, parents’ expected scores were the most important predictors of children’s academic achievement. Phillipson and Phillipson argued that parents communicate their expected scores to their children, helping them to achieve; and this was supported by data showing that, as parents from Chinese schools become more involved in their children’s schooling, expected scores increase, particularly in Cantonese. Parents’ expected scores also depended on whether their children were male or female (Phillipson 2009), with these scores being higher for boys than for girls. To look more closely into the role of parents in the academic achievement of their children, Phillipson (2010) studied the involvement of parents in one Chinese primary school in Hong Kong. He found that, for students with low intellectual abilities, IQ scores did not predict academic achievement—parents’ expected scores and their home involvement were the most important predictors of academic achievement. For students with average and high intellectual abilities, IQ scores played an increasingly important role, but IQ was mediated by parental expectations, beliefs and involvement. In summary, these studies showed that although student ability is important, the involvement, expectations and beliefs of parents about their children’s ability play an important, if not greater, role in children’s academic achievement. A recent study by Ho (2006b)—which relied on data from the recent PISA project conducted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)—helps to explain the reasons behind the achievement of Chinese Hong Kong secondary school students. These reasons link the effects of family resources and family networks with parental involvement in their children’s academic success. Presumably, differences in the type of involvement help to explain differences in the academic achievement of children. Ho’s research tested the hypothesis that socio-economic status (SES), ethnicity, family structure and family networking are significant determinants of family involvement.

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Ho identified four dimensions of family involvement: cultural communication, social communication, homework supervision and cultural activities. Girls were found to score higher than boys in all four dimensions of family involvement: ‘girls tend to have more cultural and racial communication with their parents’ (p. 22). Furthermore, parents tended to provide more cultural activities and homework supervision to girls than to boys. Ho recommended that parents should pay greater attention to boys to promote their sons’ language development. Ho also found that family involvement depended on SES, with parents of high SES being more involved with their children. In contrast, parents of low SES tended to have weaker networks, reinforcing problems associated with poor cultural communication, social communication and cultural activities. Ho’s conclusion was that lack of family resources, family networks and parental expectations among disadvantaged families in Hong Kong give rise to lesser parental involvement. In another research project involving the achievement of 15-year-old students from 41 countries, Chiu and Khoo (2005) studied the broad relationship between resources and academic achievement. They showed that when students have greater access to resources, either from the family, school or government, they generally tend to have higher academic attainment than those with fewer resources. Chiu and Koo concluded that when provided with extra resources, poorer students would probably improve more than richer students. In this research, ‘resources’ was defined in terms of social networks, and financial and cultural opportunities. As regards social networks, they cited research showing that they help students and their parents to ‘access more social and cultural parenting resources’ (p. 577). Richer students also tend to attend schools with lower student-teacher ratios and with more qualified teachers, and the resources of students’ peers also exert a positive influence. As indicated earlier, parental attitudes vary according to grade levels and to whether their children are achieving academically. McCall, Beach and Lau (2000) showed that persistent student underachievement leads to changes in both student classroom behaviour and the ways in which their parents and teachers deal with them. In response to persistent underachievement, parents and teachers tend to focus on discipline and control of behaviour, becoming less supportive and more demanding. The next section explores the influence of teachers and peers on academic achievement.

The influence of teachers, peers and parents on academic achievement Chen et al. (2005), who carried out a longitudinal study involving 535 Grade 6 Chinese students from three randomly selected schools in Shanghai, examined specifically the role of school peers in the relationship between effective parenting and school achievement.



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They measured the sociability-leadership (S-L) and aggressive-disruption (A-D) of peers by asking students to nominate three classmates who showed behaviour related to S-L (i.e. makes new friends easily, helps others and is polite) and A-D (i.e. is involved in many fights, teases others and picks on other children). The students were also asked to nominate three classmates they would most like to become and three they would least like to become. This procedure enabled the researchers to calculate an index of peer preference, showing the ‘likeability’ of children in the class. In addition, various levels of student leadership were estimated using school data. The teachers in the school rated each student in terms of school-related social competency (e.g. participation in class discussions), acting out (e.g. being disruptive in class) and learning problems (e.g. having problems in studying academic subjects). To measure different parenting attitudes and practices, the mothers of the students completed a Child Rearing Practices Report. This report provided a measure of the level of support mothers gave to their children in terms of parental warmth and responsiveness, rational guidance, inductive reasoning, encouragement of achievement and parent-child communication. Finally, a composite social map was devised to show the natural social groups and networks of the children. Chen et al. found that pro-social peers strengthened the positive influence of maternal parenting, but this influence was weakened by anti-social destructive peers. In addition, children belonging to pro-social groups were likely to experience greater social approval and support from peers, which promoted their social and leadership skills. However, children in anti-social destructive groups did not benefit from supportive parenting and their group membership contributed to social and behavioural problems. Significantly, Chen et al. suggested that supportive parenting might be interpreted by children as ‘permission’ or ‘approval’ (p. 429) for their socially deviant behaviour and contributed to further behavioural problems. Moreover, these effects were more pronounced in boys than in girls. Finally, these researchers argued that, within the Chinese context, the one-child policy might contribute to parental indulgence, leading to the development of children with impulsive and egocentric behaviour. In another study, which used Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems model as the guiding framework, Chen (2005) explored the importance of the three types of perceived support—namely, parents, teachers and peers—on student academic engagement and subsequent academic achievement among secondary students from a ‘typical’ (p. 89) Hong Kong school. The students were asked for their perceptions of the level of academic support, including emotional support, instrumental support and cognitive support, given by their parents, teachers and classmates. They were also asked to estimate their level of academic engagement based on how they

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behaved in class, their attitudes towards schooling, their participation in classroom activities and self-reports on their academic achievement. Using structural equation modelling (SEM) Chen (2005) found that academic support from teachers, followed by parental support, contributed most significantly and directly to the academic achievement of students. However, students considered that, while teachers have a positive influence on their academic attainment, parents influence this ‘negatively’ (p. 107). These findings suggest that ‘the stronger the academic support from parents as perceived by students, the worse they tend to perform’ (ibid.). Chen proposed that parents should increase their level of academic support in response to their children’s academic performance and also reported that this reactive strategy was confirmed by an administrator from the school, indicating that parental involvement increases when the academic achievement and/ or engagement of children ‘worsen’ (p. 107). According to Chen, this behaviour is consistent with the Chinese view that parents are responsible for their children’s performance, although other explanations are also possible. Chen (2005) also found that academic support is mediated by the perceived academic engagement of students: increasing academic support translates into more meaningful academic engagement and this in turn facilitates high academic achievement. According to Chen, the primary role of teachers in academic achievement is not surprising given their role in the Chinese culture and their close proximity to and frequent interactions with students. In this regard, Chen (p. 110) stated: … [as] teachers are the ones who set and evaluate learning objectives, as well as determine what and how they teach the curriculum material, naturally they have more requisite skills than parents or peers to provide the kinds of support that would facilitate student achievement.

In contrast, the academic support of peers plays a ‘less powerful role’ (p. 111) in students’ academic achievement, possibly because of the competitive nature of Hong Kong classrooms. Although the above research relied on self-reports, Chen (2005) emphasized the vital role played by academic support systems in schools, particularly for students of low SES. It was recommended that Hong Kong teachers should continue to work towards building supportive academic environments and that parent education programmes should be implemented to improve the quality of parental involvement. In the next section, the specific role of teachers in supporting academic achievement and peer influence on attainment are explained more fully by citing a range of research studies, mainly on Hong Kong students.



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... more on teachers and peers In Teaching the Chinese learner, Ho (2001) asked the question ‘Are Chinese teachers authoritarian?’ in response to the ‘common perception’ (p. 99) that they minimize classroom disruption and maximize student achievement through authoritarian approaches in their classroom management and teaching. Ho concluded that Chinese teachers, including those from Hong Kong, are in fact student-centred as they focus on the way student misbehaviour damages the self-esteem of those who misbehave and compromises the norms and expectations of a ‘moral’ (p. 107) group. Also, in a Chinese context, punishment is effective not because it changes student behaviours but because it ‘reasserts norms of behavior’ (ibid.). Ho also argued that teachers are more likely to interact with students outside the classroom, which provides appropriate opportunities for them to display warmth, care, concern and mutual respect—that is, a teacher’s behaviour in and out of the classroom could and should be different. After observing one lesson, Mok et al. (2001) explained the relationship between teaching approaches and student learning. In their view, the lesson could be described as a carefully choreographed ‘dance’ (p. 170), where the teacher plays the leading role and students participate actively. Although students’ learning interactions are not made explicit, the teacher’s skill in engaging his/her students allows them to access both the ‘surface and deep meaning’ (p. 176) of the lesson content. Such approaches suggest that Chinese Hong Kong classrooms are constructivist in their approach, despite initial perceptions that suggest otherwise. Mok et al.’s (2001) analysis of a single lesson remains to be tested for its generalizability, but their research raises an important question about the relationship between effective teaching and student academic achievement. This question appears somewhat circular because the effectiveness of teaching, by definition, is determined by the academic achievement of students, and so the question should be about how teachers affect their students’ academic achievement. To estimate the impact of teachers on the academic achievement of US students, Rowan, Correnti and Miller (2002) analysed data from a large-scale survey and concluded that teachers play a ‘substantial’ role in the academic achievement of elementary (primary) school students. Rowan et al. also found that differences in teacher professional preparation, content knowledge, use of teaching strategies and patterns of covering contexts helped to explain differences in student attainment. Most significant, they concluded that the time teachers spend on ‘whole-class instruction’, where they become active agents in teaching, has the most influence on the academic achievement of students. In a study of German elementary (primary) classrooms, Staub and Stern (2002) found that teachers differ in terms of their beliefs about the origin of knowledge,

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with some teachers having a cognitive constructivist orientation, while others have a direct transmission view of learning and teaching. Teachers with cognitive constructivist beliefs were found to be more likely to be successful in developing mathematical achievement among their students regardless of the number of students in their classes and students’ IQ scores. According to Hau and Salili’s (1996b) experimental study in Hong Kong, when teachers focused on ‘ability feedback’, Primary 4 students demonstrated better learning performance in easy tasks than those who did not receive any feedback. However, Grade 10 (Secondary 4) students who were not given ability feedback by their teachers performed better on difficult items than those who were given such feedback. In addition, their study showed that effort feedback was not effective in producing better academic performance. Turning now to peer influence, two studies involving Chinese students, have demonstrated the important role played by other students in school and social adjustment as well as in academic achievement. For example, Chen et al. (2005) showed that, while pro-social constructive groups strengthen the positive influence of maternal parenting on the academic performance of students, anti-social destructive groups weaken this maternal influence. Also, supportive peers help to develop positive attitudes and increased self-confidence, but anti-social peers may encourage students to interpret their parents’ warmth and support as permission or approval for socially deviant behaviour. Similarly, Ding and Lehrer (2004) concluded that peer groups in Chinese secondary schools contribute positively to student performance, and that high-ability students benefit more from high-ability classrooms than do low-ability students. Clearly, parents (and teachers) need to communicate their disapproval of their children (and students) who are drawn towards anti-social groups and to encourage actively their children’s (and students’) involvement in groups that show pro-social constructive attitudes.

School contexts Schools are places where students come to learn. Behind this truism, however, lies a great deal of variability. In Hong Kong and elsewhere in Asia, parents are generally aware that some schools are ‘better’ than others and encourage their sons and daughters to study hard to gain admission to these schools. Students can also distinguish ‘good’ from ‘bad’ schools, and work hard to gain entry to the former. So intense is the competition for a place in one of the ‘good’ schools that students attend tutorial schools and other cultural activities, such as musical recitals, to gain a competitive advantage.



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However, it is not always clear what a ‘good’ school really means. Although judgements on the nature of such schools are largely subjective, there are several indicators that parents and their children look for. A school’s past record of high academic results is clearly a major criterion, as are factors such as small class size, the quality of the teaching staff and the breadth of the school’s alumni network. Another key indicator is the medium of instruction (MOI) as, for some parents, a school that uses English as the MOI is superior to one that uses Cantonese. In addition, parents may consider schools’ religious and cultural ethos. Schools may be associated with, for example, Confucianism, Buddhism or Catholicism, and may emphasize the ‘gifted and talented’, the ‘creative’ aspects of their curriculum, or their trilingual curriculum (English, Cantonese and Putonghua). Finally, consideration may be given to a school’s ‘international’ standing, allowing students greater access to foreign universities. Research on the nature of ‘good’ schools has centred on the academic achievement of students. As previously mentioned in this chapter, Chiu and Khoo’s (2005) research has focused on the relationship between resources and academic achievement in schools from 41 countries. Their analysis showed that students with access to financial or social capital generally have higher achievement in language, mathematics and science than those with limited resources. According to Chiu and Khoo, richer students live in ‘richer neighborhoods’ and attend schools with ‘superior physical, teacher, and student resources’ (p. 577). However, the distribution of additional resources to poorer schools was found to have a greater effect on student outcomes than the same distribution to richer schools—an effect that Chiu and Khoo called ‘diminishing marginal effect’ (p. 597). This effect supports the conclusion that students in under-resourced schools are likely to benefit more from government assistance than those in richer schools. The perception of parents that school environments contribute to their children’s academic success is supported by many studies. In the US, Zvoch and Stevens (2006) found that different school contexts contributed differently to students’ academic achievement in mathematics and that these contexts were very stable: ‘good’ schools were consistently ‘good’. On the other hand, teachers became more effective in helping students as they gained more experience and higher qualifications. In Chinese classrooms, the teachers often face large class sizes and limited resources. However, despite these ‘barriers’ (Cortazzi and Jin 2001, 118), Chinese students generally perform better than their Western counterparts. The class size and the emphasis on student achievement do not appear to be real barriers to academic achievement (Dahlin, Watkins and Ekholm 2001).

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The medium of instruction As outlined in Chapter 8, the MOI is a topical issue in Hong Kong and elsewhere. In an attempt to allay parental and business concerns, schools may choose to teach their curricula in English if they can demonstrate that their students can learn in English and their staff have the required qualifications. This policy is usually interpreted to mean that if students can demonstrate high levels of academic performance, they can study using English as the MOI. This decision is made even if the academic results of students were obtained using Cantonese as the MOI. The difficulties faced by Chinese Hong Kong students when using English as the MOI have been investigated in several studies. When Hong Kong Chinese students were asked what their difficulties in using English as the MOI were, their responses included all four language skills (Lam and Wong 2000; Li, Leung and Kember 2001; Tung, Lam and Tsang 1997). In terms of reading in English, students generally want clarification in Chinese, preferring to read in Chinese first before in English. Also, most students choose courses that do not depend on written skills, though they believe that content is more important than correct grammar or spelling. When speaking, most Chinese Hong Kong students find it difficult to express themselves accurately in English, and they believe that their peers have no ‘sympathy’ for those who have difficulty in using English. Finally, most students believe that English classes improve their listening skills. In a further investigation on the expectations and difficulties faced by tertiary students in teacher education courses, Phillipson (2005) found that although students’ self-assessments of their English language abilities in reading, writing and speaking improved over time, this was not the case for their listening skills. The students identified thinking outcomes (i.e. the ability to understand and apply knowledge) and affective outcomes (i.e. embarrassment) as their greatest problems. Lastly, reflecting the pragmatic nature of Hong Kong’s society, they believed that they would be better teachers as a result of learning and teaching in English. Lai (2009) found that Secondary 4 students held the same pragmatic view of the English language. Although they preferred Cantonese because it promoted their sense of local identity, both English and (to a lesser extent) Putonghua were seen to have a high instrumental value. Despite such difficulties, parents and students continue to value English as the MOI and so schools that offer education in this medium will continue to be preferred, ensuring their status as ‘good’ schools. Teacher expectations are also important aspects of the school context. Consider the case of a new student in class. If this student is a girl with a record of poor achievement in mathematics, how would a teacher expect her to behave? Would the



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teacher’s response be different if the girl’s previous attainment in the subject was impressive? Winter (1995) found that the expectations of student-teachers differed according to the prior achievement of students. For example, they expected ‘low performing’ (LP) students to be twice as disruptive as ‘high-performing’ (HP) ones; and they also expected HP students to be more willing to work hard. Other behavioural differences in expectations are related to obedience, intelligence, economic background, interest in the subject and speed in accomplishing school work. Teacher expectations are significant sources of information in the development of students’ self-efficacy (Chapter 6), and these expectations therefore should be framed positively as they can be self-fulfilling.

Students with Special Educational Needs in the Chinese Classroom Phillipson’s book, Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom (2007), makes an important contribution to the ongoing international discussion on the reform of inclusive and special education programmes by highlighting in particular its contextualization in the Chinese classroom. In other words, the successful implementation of such programmes requires a deep understanding of the specific needs of Chinese students, classrooms and schools. Within the framework of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory, inclusive and special education is best understood in terms of the complex interactions between the child and his/her environment. As the environment changes, interactions within the environment and the effects of these interactions on children also change. Forlin (2007) pointed out that most Asian countries have legislation against discrimination against individuals with disabilities. Consequently, schools are required to accept students with disabilities, although the rate of implementation varies from country to country. To cater for the needs of students with disabilities, Forlin advocated a whole-school approach (WSA), where schools create ‘cultures’ and ‘utilize practices’ that support children in learning about democracy. WSA aims to create a sense of belongingness and partnership and engages children in meaningful instruction. Although the role of special schools in providing specialized support still remains, they also act as resources for mainstream schools, helping them to support students with milder forms of disability. With a growing awareness of the needs of gifted students in East Asia, there is a recognition that, if it is to be successful, a wide range of aspects of gifted education must be culture-specific, including culturally sensitive conceptions of giftedness, the philosophical basis and implementation of gifted education, teacher education and support, research and government policies (Phillipson and Cheung 2007).

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Clearly, mainstream schools face a challenge in meeting the learning needs of a diverse population of students, including gifted students and students with disabilities, ranging across motor and health impairments, language and hearing impairments, visual and perceptual difficulties, intellectual disabilities, emotional and behavioural disorders, and learning difficulties. In helping schools to meet this challenge, Chinese perspectives on WSAs (Dowson 2007), guidance and counselling (Eng 2007) and classroom management (Hue 2007a) have been developed. The following section provides an overview of the approaches used to support students with diverse learning needs. For a more detailed description, refer to Phillipson (2007).

Students with motor disabilities and health impairments For students with motor disabilities and health impairments, the best approach involves using the cohesion theory (Chen 2007, 128–30). In this approach, a greater sense of cohesiveness is encouraged when teaching strategies are based on the inherent value of diversity. In supporting students with these impairments, Chen suggested that teachers must be adequately trained in understanding their cognitive, affective and physical needs.

Students with communication impairments As communication and language competency is essential for the sense of personal identity and how people are viewed by others (Dowson 2007), it is vital that a diagnosis of any language or hearing impairment is obtained as early as possible, particularly for Chinese speakers as they rely greatly on tones. Also, it should be noted that ‘deaf’ people often reject the popular ‘medical’ notion of their being sick and establish a culture complete with their own language and traditions.

Students with visual impairments Leung and Yeung’s (2007) outline of definitions, challenges and strategies for students with visual impairments is based on the observation that most learning depends on visual information. The term ‘visual impairment’ describes a broad range of visual problems, each with its own problems and solutions. In meeting the needs of these students, Leung and Yeung described a number of classroom challenges, including the use of three different braille systems (Cantonese, English, and Putonghua), the use of assistive technologies, the curriculum and social skills.



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In terms of strategies, teachers are encouraged to adapt their teaching materials, presentation styles, methods of assessment and assignment requirements.

Students with intellectual disabilities Students with intellectual disabilities pose particular problems in the Chinese classroom (Poon-McBrayer and McBrayer 2007). Confucian principles stress the need to teach students regardless of their abilities, and Poon-McBrayer and McBrayer argued that this principle does not preclude the use of specialists and the absolute need for inclusive settings. The same students should be taught in different settings and with different curricula specific to their needs, a viewpoint which is consistent with Confucianism.

Students with emotional and behavioural disorders Phillipson (2007) presented a uniquely Chinese perspective on viewing students with emotional and behavioural disorders, with these children posing particular difficulties in a society where rigid boundaries of accepted behaviour are set. As a result, children with emotional and behavioural disorders are ‘either misunderstood, ignored, or hidden’ (p. 308) and, in Chinese society, their behaviour can aggravate the ‘guilt and shame’ (p. 308) of their parents. Included in this group are children with autistic spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Teachers need to be concerned with the emotional, behavioural and academic challenges these pupils face and, using two core studies as the organizing framework, Phillipson provided a series of instructional strategies that could meet the educational needs of these children.

Students with learning disabilities Ho (2007) gave a full description of the needs of students with learning disabilities, in which ‘learning disability’ was viewed as the result of a mismatch between normal intellectual functioning and actual achievement, presumably because of some dysfunctions in the individual’s central nervous system but without having any obvious disabilities. Ho also described various assessment issues and strategies within the Chinese context, paying particular attention to strategies for overcoming reading and writing difficulties in the Chinese language.

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Students with giftedness Phillipson and Cheung (2007) highlighted major differences between Western and Chinese conceptions of giftedness and described the cognitive and affective needs, as well as the moral development, of gifted students. They argued that giftedness should not be equated with high performance, saying that a significant proportion of potentially gifted students was underachieving (Phillipson 2008; Phillipson and Tse 2007) and that aspects of the CFC inhibited the expression of giftedness (Chan 2007).

Gender Gender-based differences in Chinese societies have been studied in relation to behaviour, stereotypes, self-esteem, values and aspirations, societal attitudes and patterns of socialization by parents and schools (Cheung 1996). Within Chinese societies, there are clearly differentiated gender roles (Cheung 1996; Sun 2008). Gender roles, which describe different sex-based patterns of behaviour, values and motives, are central in the socialization process for both males and females. Also, these roles often dictate the ways parents and their children approach education and ultimately influence children’s academic achievement. Teachers’ and parents’ expectations of certain gender-based behaviours, values and motives can result in stereotyping which, in severe situations, inhibits the intellectual and social development of children. In traditional Chinese societies, females are generally considered inferior to males. According to Cheung (1996), females suppress their individualities for the sake of ‘their fathers when young, husbands when married, and their sons when widowed’ (p. 47). Consequently, the education of females is considered secondary to the education of their brothers, particularly when financial resources are scarce. The socialization of gender roles begins at a very young age, in general with the child’s interactions with his/her parents and extended families. However, the influence of mothers and fathers is likely to be restricted to play activities and the choice of toys (Cheung 1996). In traditional Chinese societies, however, parents have different career aspirations for their children, seeking professional careers for their boys because of the associated status and likely financial benefits associated with such careers. It should be noted, however, that the proportion of 15-year-old males and females in Hong Kong seeking white-collar (highly-skilled) occupations is about the same (OECD 2003). In schools, gender role socialization can take place through the textbooks used and the attitudes expressed by teachers. Some possible strategies for



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overcoming the stereotyping of gender roles include gender balance in textbooks, the avoidance of gender stereotypes and ensuring equal proportions of male and female teachers. The study of differences in the cognitive abilities of males and females is a contentious area of research. It is generally agreed, however, that boys are superior to girls in mathematical thinking and visual-spatial tasks (e.g. map-reading and tracking), whereas girls are superior in vocabulary, reading comprehension and verbal creativity (Liu and Wilson 2009; Loehlin 2000)—though, certainly, there are individual exceptions to these generalizations. Also, male-female differences are most obvious at extreme levels, a consequence of the small differences in means and SDs of the two populations (Loehlin 2000): for the average male and female, the differences are not very great. Gender stereotyping can prevent males and females from expanding their educational and career potentials. Cheung’s (1996) research found that both primary school Chinese boys and girls in Hong Kong described the typical male as ‘adventurous’, ‘disorderly’, ‘cruel’, ‘boastful’, ‘coarse’, and ‘confident’. In contrast, the typical girl was seen as ‘emotional’, ‘weak’, ‘gentle’, ‘meek’, ‘excitable’, ‘softheaded’, and ‘dependent’. However, by the time children reach secondary schooling, the stereotypes changed. Again, both males and females described the typical male as ‘active’, ‘adventurous’, ‘confident’, ‘courageous’, ‘determined’, ‘enterprising’, ‘humorous’, ‘initiating’ and ‘robust’, but the typical female was viewed as ‘affectionate’, ‘charming’, ‘emotional’, ‘gentle’, ‘kind’, ‘mild’, ‘touchy’ and ‘warm’. Understanding the existence of stereotypes is important for two main reasons. First, boys and girls may accept or reject these stereotypes, leading to a possible rejection of their own natural personalities and the later development of personality disorders. Second, teachers and parents may reinforce these stereotypes through their attitudes and behaviour. Gender-based differences in reading, mathematics, and scientific literacy have been reported (Liu and Wilson, 2009; OECD 2003). In Hong Kong, for example, 15-year-old male students outperform females in both mathematical and scientific literacy, whereas females outperform males in reading literacy. The OECD report suggested that the learning environment in Hong Kong benefits males and females equally in reading literacy. Other gender-based differences among Hong Kong students include engagement in reading, with more females than males reading for pleasure, talking about books and visiting libraries. In terms of learning styles, more females prefer co-operative and competitive environments than do males. Cheung (1996) cited research showing that both male and female secondary students in Hong Kong strongly identify masculine traits as descriptions of the ideal self. The mismatch between the ideal self and one’s sex may lead to decreased self-esteem, particularly for Chinese females. However, self-esteem is a complex

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construct involving four specific domains (i.e. academic, social, physical, and family domains) and one general domain (see Chapter 6). Research has demonstrated a positive relationship between masculinity and self-esteem: the more ‘masculine’ students believe they are, the higher their self-esteem in all four specific domains and the general domain. In investigating the relationship between gender and personality traits, Fan et al. (2008) found that gender plays a central role in the development of other personality traits, such as anti-social behaviour, leadership and depression, and they concluded that gender plays a significant role in understanding changes in patterns related to the development of personality.

Educational Reforms Many teachers and schools are concerned about the nature, pace and extent of educational reforms. The speed and range of reforms form part of the educational context; and, hence, any reform can affect the academic achievement of students. Recently, Hong Kong has experienced educational reforms in a number of areas: the MOI, students with special educational requirements, school-based management, and the development of a new curriculum and assessment related to the introduction of a six-year rather than a seven-year secondary educational curriculum (see Chapter 10). As a result, teacher stress has become a significant problem in Hong Kong (Hung 2009). Teachers have found that reforms in the MOI, for example, are difficult to implement fully in classrooms (Evans 2009; Tam 2009), and changes in assessment policies have produced high stress levels associated with the examination-oriented curriculum (Leung and To 2009). Efforts made at the Hong Kong Institute of Education to help future teachers deal effectively with the pace and scale of the educational reforms have concentrated on assisting students to contextualize these reforms. This has involved focusing on themes related to a range of areas—such as creating a positive classroom climate, management and catering for individual differences, becoming professionally committed teachers and building schools as learning communities—which the students are required to represent visually and then verbalize issues of concern within their cultural context. As the cultural contexts vary from student to student, the responses show a high degree of variability. For example, students concerned with the education of children with special needs through a WSA still view learning as a ‘race’, but the hurdles they face have become different (Figure 9.1); and through the support of their parents and teachers, they can still reach the ‘finishing line’. The following figures show other examples of students’ responses to the tasks.2



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Figure 9.1 The athletes The athletes represent an integrated school within the Hong Kong context. This school caters for students with diverse needs and abilities. Students are surrounded by support from appropriate teaching and educational resources. Every child needs to finish his/her own race, crossing difficult hurdles to reach his/her desired and stipulated goals. Children with special needs face relatively more difficulties along the way. Their hurdles include the government-driven educational system, the cultural mindset, and other parental beliefs that fail to understand their special needs. Within this integrated setting, teachers and their assistants are seen as supportive and encouraging. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are used to provide psychological and social support to all children. Peer support, which includes love and respect, is also encouraged within this WSA. (Work completed by Vivian, Koo Shuk Yi and Erica, Chau Po Chun, PGDE(S) 2009–10.)

Figure 9.2 The flutist’s secret garden and the crystal ball The flutist’s secret garden is seen as a positive and conducive school environment for students of different capabilities and needs. The flutist is a teacher skilled in building good relationships with students by meeting their needs and by providing a safe, comfortable and motivating environment. The musical notes are seen as the tools and skills embedded in the teaching and learning processes. The crystal ball, on the other hand, is a representation of the past practices where students’ talents and potentials were not nurtured but were rather constrained by negative student-teacher relationships. (Work completed by Sara Huang Yudan and Julia Quan Qiuju, PGDE(S) 2009–10.

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Figure 9.3 The gentle farmer and the animal trainer The dual role of a teacher is represented through the metaphor of a gentle farmer and animal trainer. The gentle farmer is a nurturer who waters his growing plants, representing a teacher who uses proactive strategies that include preventive measures and positive reinforcements to encourage desired behaviours. The animal trainer is a controller who uses harsh measures, such as whipping, to force his animals to behave, representing a teacher who uses reactive strategies in addressing student misbehaviour. Teachers are encouraged to use more proactive, as opposed to reactive, strategies to ensure positive behaviour and the completion of tasks. (Work completed by Yolanda Yeung Yu Ling and Karen Chung Wing Kar, PGDE(S) 2009–10.)

Figure 9.4 The dragon boat race This drawing depicts a sociocultural environment of schooling where teachers, parents, and the school work together for the betterment of students’ welfare and performance. The river represents Hong Kong’s competitive educational system, which is beset by continuous reforms. The dragon boats are public and private schools, catering for students of diverse backgrounds and implementing a curriculum influenced by various countries. The drummers are principals who are supposed to provide the appropriate leadership towards effective schooling. Principals who fail to synchronize their drumming create less conducive school environments in the face of the strong currents of educational reforms, public examinations and competition. Teachers (those who are balancing books on their heads) and parents have to co-operate to help principals in their quest to build good school environments for students. (Work completed by Sharon Fan Chin Kwan and Yoyo Kwan Man Yiu, PGDE(S) 2009–10.)



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Conclusion Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological system model provides a useful way to understand various external influences that affect learning. This chapter has explored some of these influences and the ways in which they interact. All these influences must be understood within broad cultural contexts. In the case of Chinese Hong Kong students, this context is broadly Confucian, although other significant religious and social subcultures exist. Other important influences on a child’s learning include gender, parents, peers and teachers, some of which contribute positively to academic achievement, while others inhibit it. However, the picture is far from complete, and more research modelling the complex relationships among these and other influences is likely in the future.

Notes 1. The Hong Kong Census in 2006 did not distinguish between these three ethnic groups. 2. The assistance of Dr. Sivanes Phillipson and her students in the description of this activity is greatly appreciated. (See Phillipson and Forlin [2011] for more information.)

Learning Activities 1. Focusing on a student you know, describe all the possible influences affecting his/her learning, following Bronfenbrenner’s levels. Identify whether these influences enhance or inhibit the child’s learning and categorize them according to their importance. What can you conclude about the child’s overall social context? Does the social context inhibit or encourage the child’s learning? 2. Think about the place where you live. From the broadest cultural group possible, identify as many subcultures as you can. Characterize each subculture according to its patterns of behaviour, attitudes, values and customs. 3. Consider a friend of yours. To how many subcultures does your friend belong? Do any of these subcultures have patterns of behaviour, attitudes, values and customs that may be in conflict with others? What are the consequences of any such conflict? 4. The relationship between achievement (A), potential (P) and environment (E) can be modelled easily using a spreadsheet. What is the effect of values of E ranging from –1 to 1 and a value of P = 100 on achievement (A)? What do negative E values mean? What do positive E values mean?

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5. Obtain the test scores of a group of students in the same class. Use a spreadsheet to convert the scores to standardized (z) scores using the formula x-x is x the mean score of the group, and is the standard deviation of Zn = SD the group. Using the graphing function of your spreadsheet, display the scores as a frequency distribution. What do you notice about the shape of the two distributions? 6. Read three articles from one of the four themes shown in Appendix 1. Demonstrate your understanding of the ideas expressed in the articles using a conceptual map/drawing/chart, showing both originality and a synthesis of the concepts related to the theme. Fully elaborate your understanding through a caption. 7. A new student in your class has a record of low achievement in English. On a scale of 1 to 3 (1 = never, 2 = sometimes, 3 = always), predict her behaviour in terms of the following: attention-seeking, disruptive, willing to work hard, obedient, intelligent, good-looking, friendly, good memory, poor concentration, trustworthy, respectful, withdrawn, unpopular and from a rich family. Ask half of your classmates to rate the student as if she has a record of high achievement, and the other half as if she has a record of low achievement. Compute the mean score and compare your results. 8. Using a digital camera, record your journey as you leave your home or school and travel to a particular place (e.g. a market). Pretend that you are in a wheelchair (or are blind or deaf) and thus cannot access the stairs or open doors (or read or hear). Record how you are usually able to progress and the physical access problems you encounter (from Forlin 2007, 117).

Appendix 1 Classroom Contexts in Hong Kong: Four Themes and Associated Readings (References compiled by Sivanes Phillipson)

Theme 1: Constructing a positive classroom climate (Classroom management) Beaman, R., and Wheldall, K. (2000). Teachers’ use of approval and disapproval in the classroom. Educational Psychology, 20(4), 431–446. Burnett, P. C. (2002). Teacher praise and feedback and students’perceptions of the classroom environment. Educational Psychology, 22(1), 5–16.

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Hue, M.-t. (2007). Classroom management for children with diverse needs. In S. N. Phillipson, (Ed.), Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom: Contexts and practice for students with special needs (pp. 459–486). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Leung, C.-m., and Lam, S.-f. (2003). The effects of regulatory focus on teachers’ classroom management strategies and emotional consequences. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(1), 114–125. Moore, K. D. 著，陳曉霞等譯（2005）：《中學教學方法》。北京：中國輕工業出版 社，頁 537–577。（第十五章：課堂管理） Neito, S.   (2003). What keeps teachers going? Educational Leadership, 60(8), pp. 14–19. Norris, J. A. (2003). Looking at classroom management through a social and emotional learning lens. Theory into Practice, 42(4), Autumn, 2003, pp. 314– 317. O’Flynn, S., Kennedy, H., and MacGrath, M. (2003). Get their attention: How to gain the respect of students and thrive as a teacher. London: David Fulton Publishers, pp.133–145. (Part 4: Teaching as a Career) Parkay, F. W. and Stanford, B. H. (2004). Becoming a teacher. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, pp. 36–51. (Chapter 2: Learning to teach) Watkins, C. and Wagner, P. (2000). Improving school behaviour. London: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. pp. 92–122. (Chapter 4: Individuals and behaviour) 成向榮（主編） （2001）：《走向實踐：小學綜合實踐活動案例解讀》。南京：江蘇教 育出版社，頁 126–144。（第六章：教是為了不教） 李巧玲（2003）：《教室環境佈置》。台北市：美工科技有限公司。 林志中（2000）：《如此也可教》。香港：進一步多媒體有限公司。 金樹人 （1990） ： 《教室裡的春天：談教室管理的科學與藝術》 。台北：張老師出版社。 教育學院畢業同學會（主編） （1983）：《師生關係問題資料滙編》。香港：廣角鏡出 版社，頁 51–56。（師生關係剖析） 許慧玲（1988） 《教室管理》。台北市：心理出版社有限公司。 陳漢森（1996）。《失控教室：教室管理心法與技巧》。香港：香港教育圖書公司。 趙志成（2005） 《有效學習的探索》。香港：香港中文大學教育學院，香港教育教究 所。

Theme 2: Constructing a positive classroom climate (individual differences) Armstrong, F., and Barton, L. (Ed.) (1999). Disability, human rights and education: Cross-cultural perspectives. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Armstrong, F., and Moore, M. (Ed.) (2004). Action research for inclusive education: Changing places, changing practice, changing minds. London: Routledge Falmer.

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Chan, D. W. (Ed.) (1998). Helping children with learning difficulties. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. Edwards, C. H. (2004). Classroom discipline and management. New York: Wiley. Hartas, D. (2004). Special education needs and inclusive schooling. In V. Brooks, I. Abbott, and L. Bills (Eds.) Preparing to teach in secondary schools: A student teacher’s guide to professional issues in secondary education. Maidenhead: Open University Press, pp. 257–269. (Chapter 20) Lorenz, S. (2002). First steps in inclusion. London: David Fulton. Mittler, P. (2000). Working towards inclusive education: Social contexts. London: David Fulton Publishers. Norris, J. A. (2003). Looking at classroom management through a social and emotional learning lens. Theory into Practice, 42(4), Autumn, pp. 314–317. Phillipson, S. N. (2007). Understanding and teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders. In S. N. Phillipson (Ed.), Learning diversity in the Chinese Classroom: Contexts and practice for children with special needs. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, pp. 307–358. Phillipson, S. N. (Ed.). (2007). Learning diversity in the Chinese classroom: Challenges and practice. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Rogers, B. (1998). You know the fair rule: Strategies for making the hard job of discipline and behaviour management in school easier. London: Pitman. (Chapter 6, LB3013.R64 1998.) Tang, S. (1998). Students with learning difficulties in China. In D. W. Chan (Ed.), Helping students with learning difficulties. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, pp. 101–106. 教育學院畢業同學會（主編） （1983）：《師生關係問題資料滙編》。香港：廣角鏡出 版社，頁 51–56。（師生關係剖析） 歐用生（1999）：《新世紀的學校》。台北：台灣書店。

Theme 3: Becoming professionally committed teachers Cain, M. (2001). Ten qualities of the renewed teacher. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(9), pp. 702–705. Fullan, M., and Hargreaves, A. (1991). What’s worth fighting for in your school? Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. Goldblatt, P. F., and Smith, D. (Eds.) (2005). Cases for teacher development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Hargreaves, A. (1999). Reinventing professionalism: Teacher education and teacher development for a changing world. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education and Development, 2(1), 65–74.



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Jegede, O., Taplin, M., and Chan, S.-L. (2000). Trainee teachers’ perception of their knowledge about expert teaching. Educational Research, 42(3), 287–308. Lasky, S. (2005). A sociocultural approach to understanding teacher identity, agency and professional vulnerability in a context of secondary school reform. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(8), 899–916. Miller, P. C. (Ed.). (2005). Narratives from the classroom: An introduction to teaching. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Reio, J., and Thomas G. (2005). Emotions as a lens to explore teacher identity and change: A commentary. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(8), 985–993. So, W. W. M., and Watkins, D. A. (2005). From beginning teacher education to professional teaching: A study of the thinking of Hong Kong primary science teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 525–541. Tang, S. Y. F. (2003). Challenge and support: The dynamics of student teachers’ professional learning in the field experience in initial teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19(5), 483–498. Wiseman, D. L., Knight, S. L., and Cooner, D. D. (2005). Becoming a teacher in a field-based setting: An introduction to education and classrooms. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. 余惠冰（2003）：〈從成立專業公會的政策議論系譜看香港教師專業化〉，載於黃顯 華、孔繁盛（編）：《課程發展與教師專業發展的夥伴協作》。香港：中文大學 出版社，頁 263–283。 林碧霞（2004）：〈教師專業發展的理念及趨向〉。載於羅厚輝、林碧霞編：《學校課 程領導的發展》。香港：優質教育基金，頁 42–59。 素子（1987）：《教書生涯滄桑錄》。香港：山邊社。 梁紀昌（2004） ：《校長爸爸：一個關於殺校、護校的故事》。香港：經要文化出版。 黃燕（編） （2005）：《中國教師缺甚麼》。杭州：浙江大學出版社，頁 123–149。（第 四部分：缺乏理想與激情） 學教團（編） （1991）：《永不言倦：一群老師的十年教學經驗談》。香港：現代教育 出版社。 Heck, S. F., and Williams, C. R. (1984/1999)。《教師角色》。桂冠前瞻教育叢書編 譯組（譯）。台北：桂冠，頁 1–37; 231–266。

Theme 4: Building the school as a professional learning community Cheng, Y.-c., and Chan, M.-t. (2000). Implementation of school-based management: A multi-perspective analysis of the case of Hong Kong. International Review of Education, 46(3/4), 205–232. Cheng, Y.-c., and Cheung, W.-m. (2004). Four types of school environment: Multilevel self-management and educational quality. Educational Research and Evaluation, 10(1), 71–100.

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Choi, P. L., and Tang, S.Y.F. (2005). Role management strategies of beginning teachers in Hong Kong. Teacher Development, 9(3), 369–387. Lieberman, A., and Miller, L. (1999). Teachers: Transforming their world and their work. New York: Teachers College Press, pp. 1–17. (Chapter 1: Transforming schooling and teaching: What matters and what works) McLaughlin, T. H. (2003). Schools, parents and the community. In J. Beck and M. Earl (Eds.), Key Issues in secondary education. London: Continuum, pp. 113– 122. (Chapter 11) Ng, S.-W. (1999). Home-school relations in Hong Kong: Separation or partnership. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(4), 551–560. Ng, S.-W. (2000). The impact of social class difference on parent involvement in school education in Hong Kong. Education Journal, 28(2), 35–59. Ng, S.-W. (2003). Are parents and teachers psychologically prepared for cooperation in Hong Kong? Pacific-Asian Education Journal, 15(1), 60–76. Ng, S.-W. (2004). Teacher’s value orientations toward parent involvement in schoolbased management in Hong Kong. International Journal of Educational Reform, 13(4), 28–39. Ng, S.-W. (2007). The chronological development of parent empowerment in children’s education in Hong Kong. Asia Pacific Education Review, 8(3), 487– 499. Ng, S.-W. (2007). Development of parent-school partnerships in times of educational reform in Hong Kong. International Journal of Educational Reform, 16(4), 411–435. Pang, I. W. (2004). School-family-community partnership in Hong Kong: Perspectives and challenges. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 3, 109–125. Pang, K.-c. (2005). Philosophy of school planning. In A. S.-y. Law and K.-c. Pang (Eds.), Planning a school: Beyond architectural concerns (pp. 7–20). Hong Kong: Quality Education Fund: The Hong Kong Institute of Education. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1994). Building community in schools. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, pp. 154–168. Sivan, A., and Chan, D. W.-k. (2003). Supervised teaching practice as a partnership process: Novice and experienced student-teachers’ perceptions. Mentoring and tutoring, 11(2), 183–193. Watkins, C. (2005). Classrooms as learning communities. London, New York: Routledge. 何瑞珠（2002）：《家庭學校與社區協作：從理念研究到實踐香港》。香港：香港中 文大學出版社。 吳迅榮（2003）：〈教師在推行「家長參與」的教育變革時期的價值取向〉，《基礎教育 學報》12（1）, 45–67。



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張永明、鄭燕祥、譚偉明（1995）：《家長參與學校教育：理念、實踐和管理》，《初 等教育學報》，第 5 卷第 2 期，頁 57–66。 程介明（1995） ：《政治變動中的香港教育》。香港：牛津大學出版社，頁 86–93。（家 長在教育發展中的角色） 魏惠娟（2002） 《學習型學校：從概念到實踐》。台北市：五南。

10 Teachers as Researchers and Teacher Development Bick-har Lam

This chapter, which outlines the roles of teachers in the twenty-first century, will help readers develop a personal orientation towards teacher development and lead them to understand the professional capacity of teachers in these challenging times. The chapter focuses on professional teachers in East Asia, particularly in countries with a Confucian culture, such as Hong Kong. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to: • recognize the role of teachers in the contemporary classroom; • appreciate reflective practice as an important process in the professionalization of teachers; • comprehend various reflective practices that support teacher development; • understand the concept of a teacher as a researcher; • appreciate the techniques involved in conducting action research; • understand teacher development as an important ongoing process in the professionalization of teachers; and • develop a clear orientation towards teacher development.

Educational Reforms and the Changing Role of Teachers During the nineteenth century, when Hong Kong was still a British colony, education aimed at meeting the needs of the workforce—needs that were focused on trade with China. As the society developed and nine-year compulsory education was introduced in 1978, Hong Kong moved towards a more egalitarian system of education which brought comprehensive education to young people. Although pre-vocational schools were established in the late 1970s to introduce a vocational orientation towards education, academically oriented schools remained the norm and enjoyed a superior status. Hong Kong’s educational system was modelled on that of Britain and so, since colonial times, achievement in academic subjects has been highly valued in Hong Kong. The early educational system was made more complex by a Chinese

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orientation that reinforces elitism, relying on examinations as the means for producing government officials and high-ranking professionals, thereby screening out ‘the mediocre’. However, in the 1970s, educational reforms were introduced which questioned the role of elitist education. In 1976, the separate disciplines of science and humanities were first integrated into the junior secondary curriculum. Specific science subjects, such as physics, chemistry and biology, formed a single subject called ‘Integrated Science’; and humanities subjects, such as economics, history and geography, were integrated into one Social Studies subject. These changes emphasized the need to change the focus of education to suit the needs of the general population, promote the idea that all subjects are connected, enhance the application of knowledge and eliminate the academic practice of separating knowledge disciplines. In addition, in the early 1970s, primary education put a heavy emphasis on ‘learning by doing’ as a way of implementing a learner-centred approach to pedagogy. Also, the Target Oriented Curriculum reform in the early 1990s was developed based on the theories of constructivism. These efforts called for a paradigm shift in learning and teaching in schools. In July 2000, the Hong Kong government released a blueprint for education in the twenty-first century which was a major educational reform that sought to engineer Hong Kong’s future in the globalized world. It included the following statements: To prepare our younger generation to meet the challenges of an ever advancing knowledge-based society and the dynamically changing environment, it is not enough to impart them with mere ‘knowledge.’ Instead, we have to help them develop a global outlook, equip them with a repertoire of skills and the positive attitudes to respect knowledge and to learn how to learn. (message from the Chairman of the Curriculum Development Council 2000) In the tide of changes, everyone has to meet new challenges. Adaptability, creativity and abilities for communication, self-learning, and cooperation are now the prerequisites for anyone to succeed, while a person’s character, emotional qualities, horizons, and learning are important factors in achieving excellence. (Education Commission 2000, 3) (emphasis added)

Instead of serving only the most able in society, education now expects everyone to be ‘the able’. The idea of cultivating a ‘neo-elitist’ educational system was publicized in 2000 by Tung Chee Hwa, then chief executive of Hong Kong, in a document that explains exactly what is to be expected from the system (Figure 10.1). The new curriculum, which is known by its catchphrase ‘learning to learn’, signifies that the purpose of schooling is to help young people to acquire skills that will enable them to become independent learners (Curriculum Development Council 2001). To achieve this, subjects were replaced by Key Learning Areas (KLAs), which were conceived as broad knowledge dimensions for learners to explore



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instead of authoritative knowledge to be transmitted to students. The KLAs include Chinese Education, English Education, Mathematics Education, Science Education, Technology Education, Physical Education, Personal Education and Social and Humanities Education. Another significant goal of the curriculum blueprint involves the development of generic skills—including collaborative skills, information technology skills, numeracy skills, problem-solving skills, self-management skills and study skills—which are considered essential in the process of becoming successful lifelong learners. Values and attitude development is another major component of the new curriculum. In this domain, both personal and social values are emphasized to guide students in the process of socialization, helping them to develop sound judgement, refined personalities and social skills. Such skills are considered important because decision making is a regular daily occurrence, and socialization allows for opportunities and success. Generally, the new curriculum brings together the classical values of education, along with personal development, through culture and humanism. It also emphasizes the abilities needed to survive in a highly competitive and information-driven society.

Figure 10.1 Framework of the twenty-first-century Hong Kong school curriculum The new curriculum emphasizes the better integration of knowledge. Instead of having unrelated subjects, the Key Learning Areas are conceived as interrelated knowledge dimensions. The new curriculum is designed to achieve the holistic development of individuals and to prepare students for life-wide learning. Adapted with permission from the Curriculum Development Council (2002), Basic education curriculum guide: Building on strengths (Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council).

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This new curriculum has brought major changes to formal education, particularly in the areas of curriculum construction, content, pedagogy and assessment. Teachers now play the role of facilitators who assist learners in exploring, creating and innovating through meaningful and enjoyable learning experiences. Today, learning must realize the personal potentials and interests of learners; and, therefore, it is the responsibility of teachers to develop curricular materials that suit diverse learners and enable all students to learn, be recognized and gain satisfaction from schooling. Authentic learning experiences through contextualized and life-wide learning are given a particularly strong emphasis. In direct contrast to the previous examination-oriented culture of Confucian societies (Biggs and Watkins 2001; Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996a; Lam 2008; Lam and Phillipson 2009), projects, case studies and other authentic tasks are now the recommended forms of homework, instead of pencil-and-paper exercises. This new philosophy, which requires assessment to be comprehensive and valid, is based on talent development and is designed to improve society. The school curriculum now requires teachers to select and organize teaching content and materials through a dynamic and reflective pedagogical process—a conception which differs greatly from the traditional product model that conceives learning as a reproduction of knowledge and ignores pedagogical sensitivity and the psychology of learners. Also, with the educational reforms, teachers are now expected to take on the additional roles of ‘resource persons, facilitators, consultants, counsellors, and assessors’ (Curriculum Development Council 2001, 78–80) initially at the classroom level. Table 10.1 highlights the major changes in the roles of teachers in the present century. Table 10.1 Teachers’ role changes in the current curricular reform DOs • • • • • • • •

appreciate efforts made by students and provide a supportive environment encourage students to explore and enquire structure the discussion so that students can express themselves listen to students’ views and respond patiently show respect, concern, and appreciation when interacting with students stimulate students’ thinking by using openended question and answer techniques give appropriate guidance and encouragement to students according to individual needs cultivate moral values in students by setting a good example

DON’Ts • • • • • •

don’t always give one-way instruction don’t pose questions to which there is only one answer don’t ignore students who need special help and guidance don’t force students to do excessive mechanical drills don’t assess students’ performance solely by paper-pencil tests and formal examinations don’t plan for a tight curriculum schedule

Adapted with permission from the Curriculum Development Council (2001), Learning to learn: The way forward in curriculum development (Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council), 68–69.



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If you are currently employed as a teacher in Hong Kong, you are probably well aware of the changes that have taken place in the educational system since 2000; and if you are a prospective teacher, you may have heard about the changes resulting from the educational reforms. A substantial pool of research has recently promoted a pessimistic view on the implementation of the reforms because of several barriers, which include: teachers’ beliefs that contradict the tenets of the new reforms, and reluctance to change them; pedagogical dilemmas as teachers do not understand the new teaching approaches; and cultural and political constraints, such as the resistance of parents and the other stakeholders to the changes (Windschitl 2002). When reforms, such as the curricular reform in 2000, are launched, there will always be a gap between the aims of the reforms and actual practice. A fundamental question that has not yet been seriously addressed in research is the capacity of teachers to adapt to the changes brought about by reforms. Without doubt, in the new curriculum reform, Hong Kong teachers must be experts in both disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge to bring the reforms to life; and the government is trying to promote this through continuing professional development and the provision of a competency framework, which help teachers to learn continuously throughout their careers (Curriculum Development Council 2001, 2002; Education Commission 2000). However, regarding the knowledge and competencies of teachers, it is vital that they possess the capacity for reflective practice: learning and teaching should be carried out through a process of enquiry. The new demand for Hong Kong teachers to be involved in a process of enquiry to generate the best teaching methodology—in a constructivist and learner-centred approach—has presented them with a major challenge as it is in conflict with the traditional role perception of teachers and students in Chinese classrooms, where teachers are authorities and students receive book knowledge passively (Ho 1996). The elitist culture in Hong Kong’s schools may also reject the idea of catering for diversity because mixed-ability grouping and integration are considered to disadvantage bright children. Education is situated within a cultural context and is bound by specific cultural values. Educational reforms are most difficult to implement in situations where cultural values and reform philosophies are incompatible. One solution in such a situation is to help both experienced and new teachers to become ‘thinking teachers’. The next section discusses the concepts of teachers as reflective practitioners and teachers as researchers, which are two related themes in teacher development.

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Teachers as Reflective Practitioners Reflective teaching evolved from the notion of reflective practice. Since Schön (1983) developed the idea nearly 30 years ago, reflective practice has been conceived as a valuable process in teacher education and professional development. If you are an experienced or a prospective teacher, you may have already experienced real classroom situations, such as fights between students, physically challenged guests visiting your class for a session, students that suddenly cry after returning from recess, emergencies such as snakes slipping into the classroom, and students telling you a secret but bidding you not to tell others. Each of these scenarios demonstrates a multifaceted problem with no ideal solution. How can such situations be handled in a way that it is fair to everyone in the class? Schön (1983) mentioned that the nature of cases and problems tackled by professionals is disorganized, ill-defined or ‘occupying the swampy lowland’. Clearly, the problem must be identified, and it can be defined in more than one way. One teacher may examine a situation and define it in a particular way, while another may see quite different problems in the same case. In reaching a solution through ‘problem framing’, the issues arising in a case to be addressed must be recognized, to enable teachers to take justified action that can be claimed to be professional. An example that illustrates the ill-defined nature of issues in teaching is suggested below. In a senior primary classroom setting, you may encounter a situation where one boy shouts at a well-behaved and quiet boy, blaming him for taking his pencil case. As a teacher, you may handle this situation in many different ways, based on your interpretations. One solution is to ask the student who shouted to stand in front of the class to reduce the chance of further disruptive behaviour. You may also think that the boy is making a wrong accusation and is merely seeking attention, and so you decide to ignore him. However, you may also ask the boy to seek help from you or from his class teacher after class if he really suspects that the quiet boy has taken his property. This will give him a channel to exercise his right to report his case. Another possibility is to think that a dispute really happened between the two boys, and you must try to calm them down and remind them to come to the staffroom to see you and the class teacher. This array of possible actions for tackling the same problem demonstrates that a wide variety of issues can emerge in a single incident. In solving problems, teachers may need to consider many variables that involve different viewpoints. The boy’s shouting in the classroom may be interpreted as a strictly management problem, in which case keeping order in the class is important, or as a bureaucratic problem, which can be handled by referring him to the proper office for additional support. Teachers may also draw on their knowledge of the psychology of young adolescents and use effective communication skills to deal



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with the boy. In fact, there is no one ideal solution to this problem. The best starting point is to frame the problem itself rather than find a solution, as good solutions come from asking good questions. When the teacher faces an angry shouting boy, a strict application of bureaucratic measures, such as referring him to his class teacher, does not help to alleviate the boy’s anger at that moment—in fact, such action may even increase his frustration and anger. Perhaps referring him to his class teacher is needed at some point, but the use of effective communication skills by the teacher may be sufficient to solve this problem. Considering that the welfare of all the students in the class should be the priority and that classroom management is necessary, this latter strategy seems to suit the situation best. In traditional teacher training courses, prospective teachers are often taught a standard set of knowledge, much of it being derived from traditional disciplines, such as psychology, philosophy, curriculum studies and sociology. Professional teaching is often seen as a set of clearly defined procedures, with examples usually artificially prepared or borrowed from some other schools. As a result, graduates of teacher education courses often assert that what they have learned in college is not very useful in classrooms. In fact, events and cases in professional practice are messy in nature, and there is no general formula for resolving particular situations. In his well-known work, Educating the reflective practitioner, Schön (1987) developed an alternative epistemology for practice in which ‘the knowledge inherent in practice is understood as artful doing’ (Usher, Bryant and Johnston 1997) and as the grounding for professional knowledge against ‘technical-rationality’. The technical-rationality paradigm has failed to resolve the dilemma of rigour versus relevance that confronts professionals; it considers only the technical application of educational knowledge and of basic curriculum principles to attain a given end. Although Van Manen (1977) classified this as the lowest level of practice, he considered this rational model to be predominant in professional education programmes. Schön therefore argued that students in teacher training courses should develop the ability for reflective practice.

Reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action and reflective practice Teachers usually handle routine jobs with no formal procedures, which Schön (1983) referred to as ‘knowing-in-action’ (1983). Even if you are not a teacher, you may have experienced ‘knowing-in-action’ in performing some routine jobs in other settings. Schön specified, however, that not all professional practice is governed by knowing-in-action, but requires one to engage in reflection. For example, teachers may ask themselves the following questions: ‘What features do I observe when I become aware of this student?’; ‘What are my assumptions when I make this judgement?’; ‘What procedures do I enact when I perform this skill?’; and ‘How do I frame the problem I am trying to solve?’. These questions

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serve as important cognitive guides that help teachers to become more effective. In answering such questions, teachers place themselves in a situation where they can review their actions and predict some of the possible consequences of different actions. These teachers do not learn how to teach by following scripts; they reflect in a way that creates knowledge-in-use related to themselves and the teaching context. Schön (1983) mentioned that reflection-in-action involves looking at our experiences, connecting with our feelings and addressing our theories. It also entails building new understandings to suit our actions to current situations (Smith 2001). To prepare deliberately for current or future events, experienced teachers may reflect upon the routine aspects of teaching and also upon past events. Using an example from my own experience, last year I initiated a project to bring my student-teachers and a local secondary school in Hong Kong together. This ‘school-institute partnership’ was, of course, aimed at professional teacher training. I arranged for ten student-teachers to participate in the development of the school curriculum. Working with the student-teachers, the teachers demonstrated the process of curriculum planning and they also implemented both planned teaching and assessment. For several months, the school and the student-teachers worked closely in different settings, such as lectures, school events, assessment tasks, class observations, discussions and presentations. While the students were excited to encounter real issues in the workplace, they also felt pressure because of their close relationship with the school teachers. During this time, I considered strengthening the relationship between the student-teachers and the teachers, and encouraging both parties to contribute in a participatory process rather than adhere strictly to the roles of ‘teachers’ and ‘student-teachers’; and I also thought about how I could be involved in the curriculum development meetings without intimidating the participants. I tried to think ‘multi-dimensionally’ to restructure the tone and atmosphere of the collaboration. During my deliberation, I made notes on my reflection on various aspects of the events, on the roles of participants and on their feedback. Using open conversation and structured topics, I also talked with the participants to get a better understanding of the situation. I wrote and organized the ideas, and reflected on the different events in a more organized way. Eventually, to share the lessons I learned, I documented the events in a book. As a teacher, the thought processes I experienced in this event were a way of learning; this becomes the terrain of teacher’s knowledge (Cole and Knowles 2000) through ‘reflective practice’. In Schön’s term (1983), I performed reflection-in-action (reflection on knowing-in-action in the process of the event) and reflection-onaction (reflection on what I have done in idle speculation or in a deliberate effort to prepare for future cases).

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Today, Schön’s reflective practice is applied regularly in teacher training programmes and organizational training workshops. His approach enhances artistry in teaching by allowing teaching to become responsive to individual needs and by enabling teachers to respond to teaching flexibly without using any one particular method (Parsons and Brown 2002). In brief, activities that involve a deliberate pause to examine beliefs, goals or practices to gain a new or deeper understanding leads to actions that can improve student learning and events through which to enhance the reflective capacity of teachers. A simple discussion with colleagues that helps to review a practice can be considered a reflective event. A summary of the features of events that support reflective practice is given in Table 10.2. Table 10.2 Activities to develop reflective practice Reflective Practice

Format

Discussion

Spend time exploring why we act as we do. In so doing, we develop sets of questions and ideas about our activities and practices.

Portfolio/Blogs/ Critical incident writing

Over a period of time, a ‘repertoire’ is built from the collection of images, ideas, examples and actions that participants often draw upon. It can be designed as a marked assignment or as a free professional sharing platform at different career development stages.

Observational analysis Discuss teaching clips and make an analysis based on some identified topics. Coaching/Mentoring

Teachers are closely supported during the teaching practicum or in the working school context, allowing them to share problems and issues related to teaching and to their responsibilities.

Autobiography/ Videotaping/Peer observation/Teacher profiles

Keeping teaching logs and learning logs during teacher professional development courses and teaching events on an individual and selfreflective basis is useful.

Action research

This is an investigation to examine specific problems in teaching. To improve student learning, it runs in continuous cycles of reflect–plan– act–observe.

In reflective events, protocols are usually developed to trigger reflection. Below is an excerpt from Mezirow (1994, 222–32), which can be modified for different situations.

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A disorientating dilemma • Picture the event Self-examination of affect (guilt, shame, etc.) • What are you feeling? Describe it ... (It’s like …) Critical assessment of assumptions • What does it mean to you to feel this? • What advice are you giving yourself in the picture? • How do you interpret what is happening? • What is your intention? Exploration of new roles • How would you prefer this to be different (frame and action)? • When this begins to occur, even a little bit, what will be different about you? Planning a course of action • What are you aware of that keeps this from happening? • Dangers of change • Benefits of staying the same • Does it sometimes happen now? What is different during those times? Acquiring knowledge and skills for implementation • What do you need to know/accomplish/overcome to prevent this from occurring (more often)? Trying out new roles • How will you know that you are more on track?

Teachers as Researchers and Action Research The above example has noted some activities that help to enhance the reflective capacity of teachers at various stages. ‘Reflection’ is not usually systematic, although it can be highly structured in form and shape. Action research increases the value of reflection because it has a systematic structure that guides reflection, thereby encouraging teachers to engage in research. Action research can be used continuously by classroom teachers to help them in the process of systematic reflection. In the 1960s, Elliott pioneered the use of action research in England and, drawing on his experience of it as a teacher in the UK, he noted (1990, 2–3) that action research should start with the premise that teachers should always attempt to use change to effect improvement: I well remember the layout in the staffroom of my school, a large oval arrangement of easy chairs around the gas fire. There, over coffee we sat

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during breaks, discussing and debating our attempts to bring about change with colleagues who regarded our ideas with some skepticism.

As seen below, Elliott (ibid.) demonstrated how reflective discussion is kept lively in the routine of teachers and how these discussions seem very natural for school teachers working with children and adolescents. … the theories of learning, teaching and evaluation we articulated in staffroom gatherings and meetings were derived from our attempts to bring about change in a particular set of circumstances, rather than from our professional training in universities and college of education.



This is exactly the rationale which underlies action research.

What is action research? Action research is a form of investigation that enables teachers to examine their own practice, with the intention of instituting changes and improvements in student learning. Summarizing the views of several writers (e.g. Elliott 2008; Noffke and Somekh 2009), the following four conditions are key to defining action research: • As a social practice, action research is a form of strategic action designed to effect improvements. • It proceeds through a spiral of cycles—planning, acting, observing and reflecting. While these activities are inter-related, each is implemented systematically and self-critically. • It involves the questioning of assumptions and beliefs, and the reconstruction of theories that underpin and shape educational practice. • Action research involves those who are responsible for the practice in each of the activities. Participation in the research is gradually widened to include others who are affected by the practice and to maintain collaborative control in the process. Action research is recommended as a user-friendly tool for reflection among classroom teachers. In using it, teacher-researchers examine actions and strategies to improve their practice. These actions are related to daily learning and teaching, and the theories are derived from the reflection of teachers, which are further tested through their actions. This requires a high level of self-criticism, and so it is important to involve colleagues in the process as in this way the process can be safeguarded by ‘critical friends’ (Kember et al. 1997). Preferably, action research is completed by a team of teachers who are involved in similar events, and it is expected that the outcome will be shared at the school level in the hope that there

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will be a flow-on effect on other teachers. Hui and Grossman (2008) further argued that action research is especially suitable for teachers in the current educational environment of Hong Kong where they are often held accountable for specific standards and benchmarks. Action research provides a tool for teachers to gather data to improve instruction in an informed manner. It is conceptualized as a cycle instead of a one-off piece of research (Parsons and Brown 2002), and it should be carried out through two or more cycles, incorporating lessons from previous cycles, to reach a fine-tuned solution. In effect, the process appears to be cyclical or spiral (Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2 The action research format showing a systematic reflective thinking process Action research should be conceptualized as a cyclical process in which knowledge gained from the first round of research contributes to the research’s development. Adapted with permission from Kember et al. (2000), Action research and action learning: Improving the quality of teaching and learning (London: Kogan Page).

Doing action research Action research involves a series of steps, including planning, acting, observing and reflecting, but the steps in the cycle may not be clear-cut. The steps are presented graphically as interconnected events, and an overlap between some events at certain stages is normal. The sequence reveals how each broad step is guided towards a more consolidated action over a period of time.



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To enable readers to grasp the action research methodology, the following research example is used to illustrate the steps. This example was conducted collaboratively by a local primary school in Hong Kong and the Curriculum Development Council, involving Primary 6 children in an English Language subject (Education and Manpower Bureau 2003). Three teachers participated in the project. The topic of the action research was ‘Gear Up for English’. (An abridged version of the report can be found in Appendix 10.1).

The action research cycle Step 1: Planning Identifying problems At the outset, the following questions should be asked: ‘Why do we want to do this?’; ‘Is it important?’; ‘Is it a practical problem that is worth our time and effort?’; ‘Who will benefit from this—myself, my colleagues, my students, or who else?’; ‘Is the problem clear enough to be presented in question form?’; ‘Is it broad enough to allow for a range of insights and findings?’; ‘Is it narrow enough to be manageable within the timeframe and scope of daily work?’ Similar to other reflective activities, a protocol can be developed to probe ideas for action research. The following are illustrative examples: • I would like to improve ... • I am perplexed by ... • Some people are unhappy about ... • I am really curious about ... • I want to learn more about ... • An idea I would like to try out in my class is ... • What would really make a difference is ... • What I would like to do to change is ... • Right now, some areas I am particularly interested in are ... Referring to the case in Appendix 10.1, the teaching team found that English was weak in Primary 6 classes. The three English teachers came together and discussed the problems they encounter in teaching English. The lack of motivation among students was identified as a common problem. They noticed that most students rely on teachers; students rarely take the initiative to learn on their own. As identified by the teaching team, the main problem was their failure to motivate students to have a genuine interest in English.

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Plan of action After identifying problems through social or solo discourses, action researchers should think of ways to solve the problems or to alleviate the problematic situations. This is important for any research team developing and implementing a new strategy to address a question, either through existing practices and new designs or by consulting experts. The team also needs to devise a particular timeline for action. In our example, the team chose TARGET as the pedagogical strategy because it is suitable for the local context and for English teaching. TARGET stands for: T – Make Tasks meaningful and authentic A – Give students Authority to choose (with ample support and guidelines) R – Recognize effort/attempts made by students G – Group students to work together E – Evaluate students’ work in a positive way, give positive feedback T – Give students sufficient Time to finish the task The team chose a progressive approach in integrating their TARGET strategy. They implemented action research in three cycles: (a) initial attempts; (b) increased complexity, and (c) full-trial. In each stage, pedagogical strategies related to TARGET were in progression (see Appendix 10.1). The three cycles took approximately two semesters to complete, which means that a single cycle took about six weeks. The question in the sample action research can then be further refined as follows: Can the application of TARGET as a pedagogical strategy in Primary 6 classes be an appropriate action to enhance the motivation of students in learning English?

Steps 2 and 3: Acting and observing Data collection While planning, teachers should think about what evidence can be collected to ensure that the action to be implemented is well received by students and whether it is viable in the context of teaching and all other conditions in the classroom. Subsequently, teacher-researchers should ask questions of the following kind: ‘What types of data should be collected to answer the research question’, and ‘How can we ensure that we have multiple perspectives?’ In our example, the teaching team considered the above questions and data were collected by using: • questionnaires for students; • teacher observations and artefacts of lessons, such as student worksheets and homework; and

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•

teacher reflections through interviews, reflective journals and common dialogues.

In the same example, data collection was broadened to collect feedback from teachers and students. Also, there were different interactive discourses among team members, such as on the assignment of observers and the role of the curriculum development officer. These discourses provided a range of perspectives on viewing the effectiveness of the team’s actions.

Data analysis Action research teams need to manage available data to answer the following questions: • What can teachers learn from the data? • What patterns, insights and new understandings can we find? Some basic statistical techniques should be developed or adopted to analyse quantitative data (from questionnaires) and qualitative data (from interviews, observations and reflective journals). Developing protocols for qualitative data is also important. For instance, what should teachers observe in the lessons for gathering useful data for analysis? What questions should be asked for teachers to reflect on aspects that are useful to the research? The example used a combination of methods that could represent well the views and responses of insiders, including teachers, students and curriculum officers. Multiple forms of instruments were used to capture the events comprehensively, including interviews, questionnaires, reflections and artefacts from lessons. Table 10.3 shows an array of data collection methods for action research.

Step 4: Reflecting and future action After analysing the data, the teaching team needs to interpret the lessons learned by considering: • What will we recommend to others? • What will be useful to us and to others? The team may then write responses to these questions, address any further amendments to the actions, and propose the next cycle of action. In the example (Appendix 10.1), the team found their actions to be positive. They suggested TARGET, the inclusion of other motivational strategies, and a closer examination of the learners to observe improvements.

280 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Table 10.3 Common data collection methods for action research Methods

Scope

Interviews

Collect verbal data from participants: students, parents, teachers, and outsiders

Checklists

Students’ work skills, behaviours, abilities, movement, procedures, interactions and resources

Shadowing

Attached to particular students over a period to determine their responses

Portfolios

A range of work around a particular topic from students of different abilities; a representation of a total experience; a collection of documents for analysis

Individual files

Records of comments and thoughts from students

Field notes/ Observation records

Written by observers or participants, such as teachers, students, parents and class groups

Logs

Records of meetings, lessons, excursions, school expectations and material used

Questionnaires

For collecting feedback on attitudes, opinions, preferences and other information

Action research supports learning and teaching As observed from the illustration and explanation above, action research supports school education in many ways. First, by being involved in meaningful actions as team members, teachers are obliged to learn from each other. Teacher-researchers can articulate their viewpoints, helping them to engage in reflective dialogues, which is the most important function of action research. Through increased dialogues on instructional issues and student learning, teachers will understand each other better, and the affection between teachers and students will also be enhanced. This is the cornerstone of educational reform, curriculum development and curriculum innovations. By sharing stories, action research can also enlighten teachers who are less participative and experienced to become more engaged and motivated in making improvements and introducing changes that benefit students. In the example, the teachers developed a strong sense of project ownership and were encouraged to perform their tasks. Furthermore, action research facilitates closer communication between teachers and students and improves student performance. As seen in Appendix 10.1, students became closer to their teachers because of their interest in their lessons, and this helped them to achieve. Finally, action research offers insights for revising practice and, as suggested by Schön, for creating knowledge-in-use. This enhances the professionalism of teachers



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in curriculum reforms and introducing teaching innovations, and promotes the cultivation of a community of learners. Overall, action research serves as a powerful tool that strengthens the conditions for successful educational reform.

Teacher Development Teacher development refers to the professional growth of teachers. In the literature, it is framed in two more restrictive terms: ‘teacher professional development’ and ‘continuing professional development’. In this text, the terms are used interchangeably. Teaching is a demanding career. It has often been pointed out that preservice education and training provide only a foundation for teachers from which they can develop their skills. As the environment is changing at an everincreasing pace, the continuing development of teachers is essential for highquality education, as they need to update their knowledge and skills as well as revitalize their morale and enthusiasm (Ng 2003). Teacher professional development can be conceptualized to include all kinds of learning opportunities that help teachers to strengthen their professional practices. As such, it pertains not only to the professional growth of individual teachers but also to the empowerment of teachers to take active roles in school development and reform. Hence, the continuous professional development of teachers is now conceived as creating opportunities for schools and teachers to engage in professional dialogues that fulfil the specific needs of teachers and schools (Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications 2003, 2006).

Why do teachers need professional development? Globalization has had a significant influence on the development and operation of education all over the world. The Hong Kong government aims to transform Hong Kong into a knowledge-based society and to promote economic development. On the other hand, it also seeks to address personal development and the consummation of individual lives through education. Today, teaching emphasizes ‘learner-centredness’, ‘authentic learning’ and ‘diversity’. In this transition, teachers are bound to face new expectations and challenges of the kinds outlined below, and so they need to obtain relevant qualifications and to tap their special talents to improve the profession. In this light, teacher professional development has become even more important.

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Improving competence and leading the reform Faced with dramatic changes in the teaching environment, teachers must master a diverse range of knowledge and develop the ability to adapt effectively to new types of work in schools. The educational reforms promulgated by the Hong Kong government explain the types of talent, which are deeply influenced by globalization, the society will need to develop. Such a development depends on teachers responding actively in updating their knowledge for making changes and improvements.

Lifelong learning: Adapting to the learning society As society now thrives on advanced information technology, the concept of lifelong education has attracted considerable attention (Cheng and Walker 2008). The rapid changes in information and knowledge render past knowledge too limited or obsolete for people to operate effectively in the fast-changing world (Hirst and Thompson 1996); and, in this context, they need to master metacognitive learning methods and continue to learn throughout their lives. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) pointed out that lifelong education is the ‘basic theory of the knowledge society’ (Dale 2000), and Hong Kong has followed this trend closely. In such a ‘learning society’, teachers have a responsibility to become ‘beacons’ for their students, inspiring in them a positive attitude to learning and the capacity to continue to learn throughout their lives.

Changing roles require knowledge updating Teachers need professional training to cope with changes in the workplace. In Hong Kong’s primary schools, when a teacher is promoted to serve, for example, as a curriculum development leader, he/she needs to undergo curriculum leadership training courses to obtain sufficient knowledge and ensure that he/she is qualified for the new position. Also, when a teacher is promoted to a senior management position, he/she must receive leadership training to cope with the new post. There are also instances when teachers, because of the redistribution of teaching loads, have to handle subjects they have not taught before, a situation which has become more common with the new senior secondary curriculum, as it includes some new subjects and has excluded some previous ones.



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Continuing professional development in Hong Kong From 1960 to 1970, updating academic qualifications was the main teacher professional development activity in Hong Kong, with teacher training provided by the government in including one- and two-year courses. Graduates of the oneyear course could only teach in primary schools, and they had no opportunities for promotion. In the 1970s, the government increased the number of teachers to cope with the expansion of education. College of education graduates could now teach up to Form 3 in secondary schools, while those who wanted to teach at a higher secondary level could study further for a senior teacher certificate; and university graduates could teach up to Form 5. However, these programmes were phased out in the early 2000s. Now, teacher education courses are offered as degrees, and teachers who teach in secondary schools without teacher qualifications need to study parttime courses to obtain the necessary qualifications. In 1982, an international education advisory panel was invited to examine Hong Kong’s education system. The report (Llewellyn 1982) concluded that formal education in Hong Kong was examination-oriented—students studied only for examinations, and teachers were busy giving standard answers—and, in such an educational setting, students were seen as passive recipients of knowledge. At that time, the traditional method of teaching by chalk-and-board was considered the best approach; individualized teaching methods, such as self-discovery and team learning, were not encouraged. The report urged improvements in classroom teaching and also pointed out the need to professionalize teachers. However, the advice was not followed extensively. Since the adoption of the nine-year compulsory education system in 1978, education has been gradually popularized. In the 1980s, the government realized the role of education in the economic boom and predicted that traditional education could not cultivate the talents needed by the society. Since 1970, the government has recommended several reforms, which raised teachers’ awareness of their knowledge in the areas of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment. These included the ‘activity approach’ in primary schools (1973), subject integration (1976), and the Target Oriented Curriculum (1992). To promote these new teaching concepts and methods, seminars, workshops and exhibitions were conducted in pilot schools. The government also offered professional training courses for teachers to prepare them for these reforms. In the 1980s to the 1990s, large-scale professional development programmes to enhance teaching skills were organized mainly by government organizations, such as the Advisory Inspection Team, the Hong Kong Teacher’s Centre and the Curriculum Development Council. Also, refresher courses were offered for language teachers. Teachers usually participated in these courses voluntarily; and some teachers also

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attended hobby courses, which were sometimes related to school work. Despite these developments, continuing professional development courses were not given much attention before the 1990s. The educational sector was not yet fully aware of the notion of a teaching profession. In 1992, the Education Commission issued its fifth report which addressed the issue of teacher qualifications directly: teacher professional development was regarded as an important programme that must be implemented (Education Commission 1992). The establishment of the Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications (ACTEQ) highlighted the government’s concern for teacher education and professional development. In the 1990s, the government promulgated several policies on in-service training. For example, the sixth report, released by the Education Commission in March 1996, mandated that language teachers must meet approved language standards and that English and Mandarin teachers must also meet the standards imposed in 2005 or 2006; they should be on a par with those teachers who joined the profession in the same year (Education Commission 1996). In 1997, the Chief Executive, in his policy address, advanced policies related to teacher professional development, which included the IT competencies of teachers. According to the plan, 75% of teachers must have achieved medium-level IT competencies by 2003 to 2004. Also, an ‘all trained, all graduate’ profession was proposed for full implementation by the academic year 2004–05. In addition, the Quality Education Plan and the Education Reform Blueprint, put forward by the Education Commission in 1997 and 1999 respectively, set requirements for the professional competencies of teachers. With these policies, teachers needed to upgrade their qualifications to survive in the profession. In a study of the continuous professional development of teachers in Hong Kong, Ng (2003) concluded that the government had overemphasized initial teacher education and had not paid enough attention to the professional development of teachers in post. Ng also commented that the government did not have a coherent policy that guided the provision of continuous teacher education, arguing that much of the training offered by the Education Department was policy-led and focused on facilitating the implementation of policies, with relatively little attention being paid to the professional needs of teachers and schools. In 2003, ACTEQ set a Teacher Competencies Framework composed of descriptors specifying the competencies expected from teachers. The competencies cover four domains: teaching and learning, student development, school development and professional relationship and services; and for each domain, the level of achievement is measured by a given rubric. The framework is intended to guide the continuing professional growth of teachers and develop a culture of teacher continuous development in which teachers and schools work together to develop school-based policies. Ultimately, the framework aims to enhance and



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develop the professionalism of teachers in accordance with school development and educational reforms. To achieve this aim, a soft target—teachers should engage in at least 150 hours of activities related to professional development in a three-year cycle—was set. These activities include both structured learning, such as attending courses and workshops, as well as less formal activities, such as developing teaching materials with colleagues and observing classes. Since 2003, many studies have been conducted to monitor the implementation of teacher continuous development (Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications 2006, 2009). Thus far, the outcomes seem promising as the vast majority of teachers have agreed with the principles set out by ACTEQ. According to ACTEQ, teachers are responsible for their own professional development through lifelong learning, and lifelong learning should cater for the needs of both individual teachers and schools. Although teachers and principals have faced difficulties in finding time to participate in activities related to professional development, most have agreed with the 150-hour target and have been able to attain it. Also, school-based development frameworks are increasingly being set in schools as schools and teachers appreciate the benefits of these frameworks to students. In general, teachers have a positive attitude towards engaging in professional development activities, acknowledging that these activities are helpful in strengthening their professional capacity. These are promising signs of the development of a culture of lifelong learning, which can promote and sustain professionalism among teachers in Hong Kong.

Conclusion This chapter has introduced the concepts of teachers as reflective practitioners and teachers as researchers—two important images that guide teachers in considering their own growth and development. It has also considered the kinds of knowledge now required and what must be done to professionalize the teaching profession. Teacher professional development places emphasis on ‘knowledge’, ‘skills’ and ‘abilities’. The evolution of teacher professional development activities in Hong Kong has gradually improved the professional status of teachers and, hopefully, will lead them to adopting a reflective practitioner paradigm. The content of teacher training has gradually shifted from being ‘skill-based’ to emphasizing ‘professional knowledge’. In the past, it aimed to develop skills that allow teachers to impart knowledge effectively to students in a class of over 30 students. This ‘teaching’ style did not place high requirements on teachers, but it had a strong influence on the nature of formal education. Over time, skill-based teaching proved inadequate for meeting the needs of learners, and educational philosophy changed to become child-centred, integrated into a process-oriented

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model of thinking. This new philosophy, which generated pedagogies appropriate for learners and suitable to particular contexts, posed new demands on teachers to equip themselves with broad knowledge and adapt to new roles. It is essential for professional education to cultivate the ability of teachers to learn continuously as reflective practitioners and become sophisticated ‘thinking professionals’. For this purpose, Schön’s paradigm of reflective teaching has been widely adopted and should be given a prominent place in an era of curricular reform. Teachers should participate in curriculum development as leaders. Teaching is a learning profession and teachers need to acquire the capacity for lifelong learning, and engage in reflection and improvement continuously. Finally, this chapter has suggested some activities, in both less structured and more systematic formats (i.e. action research) that teachers can adopt to enhance their professionalism, and practitioners are encouraged to apply them at different stages of their professional careers. Table 10.4 Teacher competency framework TEACHING AND LEARNING DOMAIN • •

• • •

Subject matter knowledge Curriculum and pedagogical content knowledge Teaching strategies and skills Use of language and multimedia Assessment and evaluation

STUDENT DEVELOPMENT DOMAIN • • • •

Students’ diverse needs in schools Rapport with students Pastoral care for students Different learning experiences of students

SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT DOMAIN • • • •

School’s vision and mission, culture, and ethos Policies, procedures, and practices Home-school collaboration Responsiveness to societal values and changes

PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND SERVICES DOMAIN • • • • •

Collaborative relationships within the school Teachers’ professional development Involvement in policies related to education Education-related community Services and voluntary work

SIX CORE VALUES THAT UNDERPIN THE WHOLE FRAMEWORK Belief that all students can learn

Love and care for children

Respect for diversity

Commitment and dedication to the profession

Collaboration, sharing, and team spirit

Passion for continuous learning and excellence

BASIC PREMISE: THE PERSONAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS Adapted with permission from the Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications (2003), Towards a learning profession: The teacher competencies framework and the continuing professional development of teachers (Hong Kong: Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualifications).

Teachers as Researchers and Teacher Development 287



Learning Activities 1. The quotations below were taken from official government documents from 1993 to 2009. They depict clearly the multifaceted jobs of teachers in classrooms, schools and communities. Please read the quotes and outline and explain the changes in the roles of teachers. Good teaching highly depends on the methods used. The effectiveness of teaching is reflected by how much learning the students receive and how well they learn. It can be achieved through sensitive and considerate teaching, with meaningful initiation of students’ self-reference so that the total effect is immediate integration of knowledge and expansion of mind and experience. The choice of teaching and learning technique therefore is to be made by individual teachers with reference to the particular class they teach. The promotion of students’ interest in the subject through organized activities, such as experiments, discussions, quizzes, role-plays, field trips, visits, campaigns, games, and competitions, will also be very helpful to activate the students’ learning process. (Guide to the Secondary 1 to 5 Curriculum, Curriculum Development Council 1993, 7.4.1) The role of teachers should be more than just to teach in the classroom. Teachers should also participate in school management to help develop various school activities in a professional way. Teachers can exert their influence on the educational process by participation in the SMC and the SEC. During their long teaching careers, teachers should be encouraged to attend more in-service training courses and to set good examples to students by striving for continuous improvement. (Education Commission 1996, 7.13) Teachers and senior teachers are likewise equally important in building school ethos and in determining the success of a school. They are key persons who affect pupils’ learning. They should have full commitment to education, maintain high moral standards, and share the mission of the school. They should carry out their teaching duties with enthusiasm and seek opportunities to further professional development. (Board of Education 1997, 10.9) Learning opportunity explains where and why students can learn or cannot learn. All students should be entitled to learning opportunities for wholeperson development. We should optimize the learning opportunities for student and remove practices that constrain them. Teachers can use different learning and teaching strategies to achieve the different purposes of learning and to suit the learning styles, abilities, interests, and needs of students. There is no fixed rule regarding which strategy is the best. Teachers master learning and teaching strategies differently. They can develop the repertoire, which is most effective for them to enhance the independent learning capabilities of

288 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom students for whole-person development. (Curriculum Development Council 2001, 68–69)

2. Schön mentioned problems in professional teaching courses. Do/did you find this to be the case in your own professional teacher training course? 3. How can/could the teacher training course you are currently attending or have attended before be improved? 4. Which types of activities have you attempted to conduct in your teacher training programmes/courses (refer to the list of reflective practices in Table 1.2)? Do you find them useful? 5. Do you agree that reflective practice is an important element of teacher training? Why or why not? 6. How do you plan your own professional development? At this stage, what should you focus on?

Appendix 10.1 An Action Research Example Source: Education and Manpower Bureau, HKSAR (2003). Gear Up for English. Collaborative Action Research Report Series. Retrieved 15 February 2010, from http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/Content_3704/gearup.pdf. Topic: GEAR UP FOR ENGLISH Research Team Three Primary 6 English teachers; one curriculum development officer; three Primary 6 classes Action Research Guiding Question Can the application of TARGET as a pedagogical strategy in Primary 6 classes be an appropriate action to enhance the motivation of students in learning English? Problem Identified We identified the lack of motivation in students as a common problem in the three classes of Primary 6 students. We noticed that most of our students relied on us to ‘teach’ them. They rarely took the initiative to learn on their own. We knew that we had failed, to a certain extent, to motivate our students to have a genuine interest in English learning.

Teachers as Researchers and Teacher Development 289



The Action Our study attempted to apply the TARGET theory in primary school classrooms. We tried to identify its influence on the motivational level of students. TARGET is a manageable and feasible strategy in the Hong Kong context. Indeed, the theory is in accordance with the rationale underlying the current Primary English curriculum where task-based learning is much emphasized. TARGET is an acronym for task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time. The main ideas are as follows: T A R G E T

Make Tasks meaningful and authentic Give students Authority to choose (with ample support and guidelines) Recognize effort/attempts made by students Group students to work together Evaluate students’ work in a positive way, give positive feedback Give students sufficient Time to finish the task

Format/Timeline We took an integrative and progressive approach, by applying TARGET in stages. Stage I: Initial attempts Instructional strategies adopted: (a) make tasks meaningful and authentic and (b) group students to work together. Analysis outcome: Teacher observations Most students did their work promptly and had a genuine interest in sharing their experiences in Ocean Park with others. They were guided by prompts such as the following: When did they go to the Ocean Park? Who went with them? What did they see? Did they enjoy the trip? Students were very interested to find out what their classmates wrote about. Their engagement in the task was reflected in what they wrote in their guided writing. Stage II: Increased complexity Instructional strategies adopted: (a) make tasks meaningful and authentic, (b) give students authority, (c) recognize students’ efforts, and (d) group students to work together. Analysis outcome: Teacher reflection I was a guide. The tasks built up my students’ confidence. I was like a facilitator. I gave students space to think, to question, to make decisions, and to choose. The students were the centre of the whole activity. After the activity, they were more willing to learn. (Teacher B).

290 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Student reflection I asked the Japanese what her English name was. She gave me her name. Her name was Naho. I asked her some questions. She’s only been in Hong Kong for seven months, but her English is very good. I have been living in Hong Kong, but my English is worse than hers. (Reflections: Student 1). Stage III: A full trial TARGET was fully implemented. Instructional strategies adopted: TARGET. Teacher reflections Students changed their attitude towards learning. In the past, they were passive. Now, they take an active role. They are able to relate with what they learned from the tasks. They are no longer exam oriented. In the past, they were concerned with which item in the textbook was tested and which was not but not now (Teacher B). After implementing these instructional practices in the classroom, some students still failed the tests or exams. However, they definitely changed their learning attitude. They tried to do better. It is only that the results were not significant enough to show their efforts (Teacher C). Student response We asked them to complete a questionnaire. The application of TARGET produced positive results. Reflections and Further Action Students perceived the use of authentic and meaningful tasks as the most significant factor affecting their motivational level. Considering the diversity of students’ backgrounds, concluding which particular type of task carries more motivational value is difficult. In the end, we believe that while TARGET is one of the many instructional strategies for enhancing students’ motivation, it may, but should not be, the only one. We understand that the duration of our study is rather short; it lasted for only a year. It would be difficult to expect a drastic increase in the motivational level of students. Our study focused only on the situational level, and we left study at the learner level untouched. The study would surely be more comprehensive if the learner level was also included.

11 Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning Bick-har Lam

This chapter discusses lesson planning, learning and assessment and the impact of educational reforms on classroom teaching and learning. As the central theme of this book is the importance of recognizing the diversity of learners, the chapter therefore focuses on helping teachers to meet society’s expectations as they support the development of students’ potentials. After completing this chapter, readers will be able to understand: • conceptual theories that guide classroom teaching; • the planning phase of lessons, including the different levels of planning, goals of instruction, domains of development, models of organization and assessment; • the implementation phase of lessons, which includes teaching and assessment strategies; and • the impact of educational reforms on classroom teaching and learning.

Purpose of Lesson Planning What is the purpose of lesson planning? Primarily, lesson planning guides teaching. It is included in teacher education courses so that prospective and novice teachers may be more adept at handling complex classroom situations where various problems emerge. A fully detailed lesson plan, which outlines the major teaching points, sequence of activities, and materials to be used, reminds new teachers of the progress of lessons and ensures their smooth delivery. Lesson schedules in schools can be rather full. In Hong Kong, for example, primary school teachers teach for more than 30 periods a week, and secondary school teachers for not less than 25 periods. Developing a habit of systematic lesson planning is therefore essential for the smooth flow of lessons; and, based on a semester and broader scheme of work, lesson planning helps to target certain stages in the learners’ progress. Lesson plans also serve to evaluate teaching. Teachers can use the plans to record their reflections on lessons and to list their recommendations for improving their teaching. For experienced teachers, the procedural content of lesson plans

292 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

is certainly less elaborate. They commonly use them to refine their teaching approaches and organize teaching content. According to Lam (2008), lesson plans • help teachers to focus on the nature of planning, thereby enhancing the quality of teaching plans; • guide classroom teaching; • allow teachers to see problems they may encounter in their lessons and prevent them from occurring; • develop teachers’ confidence the moment they enter their classrooms; • prepare them for explaining difficult topics, such as more abstract concepts and ideas; • provide a framework for understanding or assessing learning outcomes; • make students understand the meaning and purpose of what they are learning; and • document student feedback and teacher reflections to evaluate lessons. Lesson plans are teaching plans. They carry teaching rationales that regulate the behaviour of teachers, acting as blueprints for executing lessons to ensure they are implemented as planned. Today, teachers are viewed as important agents of change and are expected to play a key role in reforming schools and classrooms. In lesson planning, the personal theories, orientations and knowledge of teachers determine the content of learning, how such content will be learned, and how learners will be assessed or evaluated. In lesson planning (i.e. micro-level teaching in the classroom), teachers can refer to various teaching guides which may derive from curriculum reform ideas which focus on young people’s development—an aspect which has been highlighted in this book, especially in Chapters 1 and 2. This does not mean that teachers need to follow such guidelines blindly; rather, they should acquire knowledge of teaching philosophies, trends and teaching models from the education literature. They should be critical in differentiating teaching ideas and methods to reach a consolidated orientation towards teaching that is beneficial for all learners. To do this, however, teachers should possess the ability to contextualize teaching. Before they can develop lesson plans that fit learners’ needs, a clear teaching rationale is essential for enhancing teaching quality and effectiveness. Figure 11.1 presents a consolidated teaching rationale that can guide teachers as they plan their lessons. Table 11.1 (p. 294) contrasts the new orientation towards learning with the traditional orientation. The present teaching philosophy has changed from a teacher-centred to a student-oriented approach. In the 1990s, Prawat (1992) claimed that education was experiencing a paradigm shift. He commented that traditional education predetermines the future of students to certain prescribed ends. Accordingly, teachers teach using a ‘transmission approach’, and students learn through an ‘absorption approach’, approaches which are not beneficial because

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 293



they view learning simply as an inactive event for learners. As Elliot (1990) argued, teaching should not be thought of as a product-oriented design, and teachers should develop themselves by engaging in the process of enquiry (i.e. professional development) to determine the best way to support student learning. This change of beliefs in teaching towards a learner-centred model was also encouraged by extensive developments in psychological theory, especially the emergence of the constructivist family of learning theories that challenged the epistemological assumptions of absolutism (the details of constructivist learning were covered in Chapter 2).

Teacher-Centred

Teacher-Subject-Centred

Teacher-Student Self Development Centred

Learning Knowledge

Self Development

Student-Knowledge Centred

Student-Centred: Learner Self Development

Student-Centred

Figure 11.1: Consolidated Teaching Rationale for Lesson Planning Teaching rationales can be conceptualized as differentiating between two dimensions: (1) to what extent teaching is focused on learners’ development or knowledge acquisition and (2) to what extent teaching is teacher- or student-centred.

Theories that suggest learning through cognitive processing, social interaction, problem solving and discovery have elevated learning from an externally controlled event which modifies behaviour to an internal cognitive activity that requires the active participation of learners. Learning has been reconceptualized as a highly cognitive social process, and rote learning and memorization are no longer encouraged. The emphasis in learning, as claimed in the education reforms in Hong Kong, is on learning by doing— that is learning through the active construction of knowledge by learners themselves. Hence, instead of spoon-feeding students, teachers should provide scaffolding facilitation and support which will enable them to acquire cognitive strategies and generic skills, allowing them to learn independently and to adapt flexibly to the globalized, fastchanging world. Similar reforms are currently taking place in many countries around the

294 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

world, particularly in the Asia-Pacific region (Cheng 2005; Spring 2008). Our discussion on lesson planning is guided by this new orientation to teaching, though it should be noted that more teacher-centred teaching approaches and learning theories still have a place in lesson planning and teaching. Depending on the nature of a lesson, ideas can be drawn from relevant theories (see Chapters 2 and 3). For example, behaviourism can be applied for the delivery of a specific instructional step, such as asking students to observe some rules and basic steps in order to handle a science experiment, and when teachers require students to practise by asking them directly for answers or doing exercises to reinforce the knowledge gained from more student-centred methods. Table 11.1 Teaching rationale: Traditional vs. New Orientation Traditional Teaching Orientation

New Teaching Orientation

Focus

Teacher-directed and teacher-centred

Student-oriented and student-centred

Pedagogical features

Teacher exposition, direct instruction, Active participation, exploration, presentation, delivery, transmission, discovery, learning by doing, measurable units investigation, development of generic skills

Aims of education

Knowledge acquisition

Holistic development and learning to learn

Areas of learning

Content-based, moral ethics, behavioural codes

Multiple intelligences, cognitive and metacognitive skills, values and attitudes

Planning at Different Levels Educational aims guide curriculum planning In lesson planning, in addition to having a clear teaching rationale, teachers should also bear in mind the government’s educational expectations. Teaching and learning are enhanced when they are aligned with the philosophy and educational objectives of a national curriculum. In Hong Kong, the government has promulgated clear educational policies. As set by the Education Bureau (2010), the educational policy aims for primary and secondary education are to: • provide nine years of free and universal primary and junior secondary education to all children attending public sector schools. Starting from the school year 2008–09, senior secondary education will be provided free through public sector schools; and the government will also provide full subvention for full-time courses run by the Vocational Training Council for Secondary 3 leavers, to offer an alternative free avenue for senior secondary students outside mainstream education;



•

• • • • •

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 295

provide a balanced and diverse school education that meets the different needs of our students and helps them to acquire knowledge, values and skills for further study and personal growth; enhance students’ biliterate and trilingual abilities; enhance teaching quality and effectiveness in learning; improve the learning and teaching environment; help newly arrived children from the Mainland to integrate into the local school system as soon as possible; and enhance the quality, flexibility and accountability of school administration.

The educational policy aims for Hong Kong spell out concerns over talent development in the globalized world (Curriculum Development Council 2001; Education Commission 2000). As noted above, there is an emphasis on free education, a heightened concern for the diversity of learners, and strong support for children from the Mainland through their early integration into the local school system. The need to enhance language abilities continues to be a major item on the government’s agenda, and it also expects schools to provide a curriculum that caters for the needs of learners, supporting them in moving towards holistic development. To ensure that these aims are met, a high-quality school environment needs to be built, with the hiring of highly qualified teachers and the creation of pleasant learning environments. Schools are therefore expected to develop good administration systems, which include self-assessment and evaluation, to put the educational agenda into practice. These policy aims serve as basic guides for teachers. They may not give teachers specific rules for planning their lessons, but they offer broad guidance on classroom teaching.

The curriculum framework guides lesson planning The curriculum is generally described as a programme of study, which includes course content, planned learning experiences, school experiences, a structured series of intended learning outcomes and a written plan of action (Kelly 2009; Morris 1996). The term ‘curriculum’ comes from the Greek word curre that means ‘the course of a chariot race’, which can be interpreted metaphorically as a journey towards learning, growing and becoming (Schubert 2000). Today, the curriculum is a document that lays down the plan for the education of learners. In lesson planning, the first concrete source to consult is the relevant curriculum document, which is published either by the government or by the education office of a region. For example, Hong Kong has developed a standard curriculum blueprint, officially released to schools and the public. Entitled ‘Learning to Learn’, it specifies the total learning experiences, where learning does not focus only on discipline knowledge

296 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

(Figure 10.1, see p. 267). As was seen in Chapter 10, the curriculum blueprint keeps the subject disciplines as basic knowledge domains called ‘Key Learning Areas’ (KLAs), and students are also supposed to develop nine generic skills identified as essential in learning and living, and personal and social values that guide decision making and positive personality development. In addition, as they acquire the skills of learning, with support from the curriculum, students are expected to become lifelong learners. The curriculum is aligned with a learner-centred approach, and it recommends progressive methodologies that relate largely to the constructivist model of learning (see Figure 10.1 in Chapter 10 for a summary of the curriculum framework, which is an official educational guide for Primary 1 to Secondary 3). The general curriculum framework specifies the areas of concern in school education. For lesson planning, teachers should refer to the subject curriculum framework to check the boundaries of specific KLAs. In Hong Kong, separate KLA curriculum documents are published to provide guides to lesson planning. In Figure 11.2, the curriculum framework for General Studies (GS) explains the learning experiences in six strands and also states clearly that the nine generic skills and values development are interwoven into these GS learning experiences. This means that while teaching GS topics (e.g. community and citizenship), teachers may also cultivate one or more of the generic skills, such as communication, creativity, critical thinking skills, collaborative skills, information technology skills, numeracy skills, problem-solving skills, self-management skills, and study skills. A diversified mode of teaching, learning and assessment is suggested.

Planning with different types of curriculum organization A ‘diversified mode’ of curriculum planning allows flexibility in organizing a curriculum, provided that such flexibility is oriented towards the achievement of the KLA learning objectives. In the literature, the common types of curriculum organization include textbook-oriented, topical, theme-based and integrative organization. Prior to the educational reforms, schools used to plan the curriculum based on topics. They either referred to topics arranged by textbooks or used broad themes in grouping and sequencing relevant topics. In this situation, curriculum planning is subject-based. Table 11.2 (p. 300) shows the thematic planning of a Primary 1 GS curriculum (entitled ‘Learn with Me!’), indicating the relationships between chapters, strands and learning objectives. In 2000, Hong Kong’s schools started to consider using other modes of curriculum planning. The most common one, especially in primary schools, was curriculum integration. The government suggested that teachers can vary the organization of teaching content, teaching strategies, pace of learning and modes of assessment according to the needs of students (Curriculum Development Council

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 297



2001). Fogarty (1991a, 1991b) suggested ten integrated curriculum organizational models, with the scale of integration ranging from large to small. Different principles of integration, including keeping the boundaries of subjects and planning according to general abilities instead of subjects, were also suggested. To cope with the expanding content of the school curriculum and with possible overlaps between subjects, some subject curricula (e.g. GS in primary school, science, and social studies and humanities subjects) have undergone the process of integration since the 1970s (Curriculum Development Council 1993, 2001, 2002, 2009). The current new senior secondary school curriculum also encourages learning

General Studies

Connecting learning experience in three Key Learning Areas

Personal, Social and Humanities Education

Science Education

Technology Education

Organizing curriculum content into six strands

Global Understanding and the Information Era

National Identity and Chinese Culture

Community and Citizenship

Science and Technology in Everyday Life

People and Environment

Health and Living

Generic Skills

Values and Attitudes

Diversified modes of curriculum planning and effective learning, teaching and assessment

To achieve the aims and learning targets of General Studies

Figure 11.2: Curriculum Framework for GS The curriculum framework for GS lays out how the subject fits into the overall learning experience of students. Adapted with permission from Curriculum Development Council (2002), General studies for primary schools curriculum guide (primary 1–6). Hong Kong: Curriculum Development Council.

298 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

through an integrated curriculum organization and has included Liberal Studies as a core subject because it is believed to be a tool for widening students’ perspectives and increasing their motivation (Curriculum Development Council and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority 2007). An integrated model of learning develops higher-order thinking skills and cognitive and metacognitive skills; and it helps learners to understand the real world (Shoemaker 1989). An integrated model refers largely to a learner-oriented approach, with an emphasis on real-world events and on learners’ active enquiry. However, integrated models are also being challenged. According to their critics, they cause declines in academic knowledge and, hence, many schools are hesitant about adopting them (Lam 2009). Table 11.3 (p. 301) shows how an independent subject approach, a cultural history approach, and an integrated humanities approach are utilized in developing a Chinese History curriculum for a junior secondary school. It also illustrates the assumptions behind learning Chinese history from the perspectives of chronological development, the broader cultural environment and a reconstructed project theme. Figure 11.3 presents a recent example of an integrated curriculum plan for a secondary school in Hong Kong. It shows a webbed model of integration across six subjects, which fits well into the current timetable of secondary schools. As an integrated curriculum involves the planning of a cohesive large-scale activity with close collaboration between subjects and with tight scheduling within and across subjects, it demands high cohesiveness among curriculum team members.

Planning a scheme of work A scheme of work is a yearly or semester plan that targets different key learning stages and guides daily lesson planning closely. Schemes of work may look different according to different curriculum designs (e.g. independent subject models and integrated models). Tables 11.4 (pp. 302–303) and 11.5 (pp. 304–305) show a basic scheme of work produced for the Secondary 2 integrated curriculum illustrated in Figure 11.3 (the curriculum integrates the following subjects: Business, Computing, Physical Education, Integrated Science, Liberal Studies and Visual Art). It stands in contrast to a typical scheme of work, as illustrated in Table 11.2 for Primary 1 GS.

LS

VA

CS

OUR OLYMPICS

Origin of Olympics

VS

Successful Promotion

Business

Solving Olympics’ Problems

PE

IS

IS

BS

LS

PE

LS

Creative PE Artivities

Good Luck Charm

BS

VA

Figure 11.3: An example of curriculum integration

CS serves as a tool in manufacturing, enhancing creativity by integrating with VS in the design of 3-dimensional and 2 dimensional products, and PE in developing creative sports. To conclude, students produce a short film named “our Olympics”.

BS makes use of the commercial aspects of the Olympics in providing an example of a new product, integrating with both VS and CS in promoting the commerical activities of the Olympics. In exploring the commerical benefits associated with organizing the Olympics (BS), it also supports an understanding of the Olympics in terms of social-economic development (LS).

LS, VS and BS maintain a complementary relationship in the curriculum. LS explores the origin, meaning, and cultural characteristics of the host city, providing a foundation for the artistic production (VS) of the good luck charm.

LS joins PE in a group activity of designing creative sports for Olympics. Students design the sport based on PE theories; they make proposals on what they need for including the new sport in the Olympics, thinking about resources, management and other issues.

Based on a self-selected sport, students learn new skills during their PE class (LS). At the same time, IS introduces the the associated principles of physics to help students design new games for PE.

LS

VS includes the design of a graphic logo and poster that can be used to promote the Olympics, thereby integrating Computing and Business.

Based on information describing the background of the Olympics obtained during previous lessons (LS), an analysis of the design of good luck charm used in the Oympics in terms of its cultural bases becomes the outcomes of VA. It leads to a large-scale 3-dimensional art production.

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 299

Health and living

Health and living

Health and living

2. My feelings and needs

3. Being helpful at home

4. My family

5. My roles and duties at home Test 2

6. Happy families

7. I have fun with my family

8. Every family is special

22–26/11

29/11–3/12

6–10/12

13–15/12

16–21/12

3–7/1

10–14/1

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

To learn that different families speak different languages and have different habits

To learn how to build harmonious family relationships through different activities

Skills

Learning Objective

•

•

•

•

•

To learn how to do housework

•

•

To identify diverse customs, practices, and traditions in society

To find ways to build harmonious family relationships

•

•

To learn how to build harmonious • relationships with family members and relatives

To learn how to perform one’s duties and to fulfill one’s role

To know how to address family members and relatives

•

• To use appropriate verbal and nonverbal ways to express feelings and needs

To practise planning one’s use of time

Unit: My family

•

•

•

Unit: Things that I can do

To learn the key towards harmonious • family relationships

To know different roles at home To learn about the responsibilities of sons/daughters and siblings To know that every family member has responsibilities at home

To know one’s nuclear family members To learn about relatives and how the family is interrelated

Theme: Home sweet home

•

To learn about responsibility at home

To learn that people have different feelings and needs To learn different ways of expressing feelings and needs

• •

To learn about the importance of discipline in life

•

Theme: I am getting older

Knowledge

Adapted from Times Editorial Board (2004), Learn with me! General Studies 1B Teacher’s guide (Hong Kong: Times Publishing).

Community and citizenship

Community and citizenship

Health and living

Health and living

Health and living

1. My daily life

15–19/11

Strand

Chapter

Date

Scheme of Work for General Studies (Primary One) Title: Learn With Me!

Table 11.2 A scheme of work for General Studies (primary level)

To respect other people’s habits

To treasure harmonious family relationships

To treasure harmonious relationships with family members

To respect one’s roles at home

To treasure harmonious relationships with family members and relatives

To be willing to share responsibilities at home

To care for others when expressing one’s feelings and needs

To be positive towards healthy living

Values and Attitudes

300 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 301



Table 11.3 Three organization models for Chinese History (junior secondary level) Chinese History as an Independent Subject

Culture and History

Integrated Humanities (Chinese History as Part of the Curriculum)

The development of different dynasties and project learning on cultural aspects

Learning Chinese and world history from the perspective of Chinese history

Using diverse and reconstructed contexts and perspectives to learn Chinese history as a whole

Curriculum outline

Example of school-based learning

Example of school-based learning

Form 1 From Xia Dynasty to Nan-Bei Dynasty (ancient Chinese culture and Chinese characters)

Form 1 From China’s prehistory to the Wei-Jin Dynasty From the world’s prehistory to East–West schism

Form 1 History of Hong Kong

Form 2 From Sui Dynasty to Ming Dynasty (technology and transportation)

Form 2 From Sui Dynasty to the Republic of China vs. From middle ancient times to the twentieth century

Form 2 China The development China’s ancient civilization Diverse cultures in China Landscapes, environments, and resources in China The era of Chinese empires Livelihoods of the Chinese Westernization in China Modern China Contemporary issues in China

Form 3 From Qing Dynasty to modern China (philosophy and religion )

Form 3 From the Republic of China to China’s Reform Period vs. From World War I to the twentieth century

Form 3 Different contemporary issues, and global and Chinese influences

Translated into English by the author, from C. H. Lee (2008), Chinese History education keeps pace with the times (in Chinese). Retrieved 8 March 2010, from www.edb.gov.hk/index. aspx?langno=2&nodeID=6389.

2

1

Stages

IV

III

II

I

Weeks

Themes

Organizing a mini Olympics (1) image design and events

Understanding the Olympics – origin and meaning

Topic: ‘Our Olympics’

7b. Preparation of the new good luck charm (Product 2); – statistical analysis

7a. Preparation of the new good luck charm (Product 1); consumers’ behaviours and marketing investigation

7. Design a good luck charm (ceramics)

2a. The visible and invisible business revenues brought by the Olympics

2b. The process of designing and producing good luck charms

7. Design a good luck charm (cuddly toy)

IS

LS

3. Olympic Games competition

PE

9. Olympics on the moon

10. Create a completely new sports event

(continued on page 303)

11. Which would you support, for the Olympics to be held in Hong Kong or in Beijing? Investigate the successful conditions for organizing the Olympics

10. Create a completely new sports event (to show fairness, creativity, and feasibility)

6. Olympic Quiz as the conclusion of the first stage

3. The scientific 5. Identification of 3. Olympic principle of the athletes’ characteristics Games Olympic Games in all previous sessions competition and all kinds of Olympic sports events

3. The scientific 2. The origin, meaning, principle of the and spirit of the Olympic Games Olympics

1. Introduction to Project Learning

BS

Level: Secondary Level 2

8. The application of multimedia in promoting the Olympics

CS

4. Information searching and conceptual development

2. The relationship between Olympic good luck charm and living culture

VA

Table 11.4: An integrated curriculum plan (horizontal arrangement) (adapted from Lam 2009) The topic of this integrated curriculum is ‘Our Olympics.’ It covers four key stages over a period of seven weeks. The content design of each subject refers largely to the theme of each of the four key learning stages. The topic of learning is shown in the horizontal arrangement; the main contents in each subject are numbered. The same number in each subject indicates the connection as shown in Figure 11.3.

302 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

4

3

Stages

VII

VI

V

Weeks

Mini Olympics opening and exhibition Opening ceremony, celebrating learning outcomes, and evaluation

Organizing a mini Olympics (2) logistics and publicity

Themes

Table 11.4 (continued)

VA

17. Display of the four design (ceramics, cuddly toy, poster, and Chinese print)

16. Chinese print and create souvenirs

12. Promotion poster design

CS

17. Voting for the best promotion short film

12. Create a short film to promote the Olympics

BS

IS

LS

18. Voting for the best product promotion proposal

12b. Investigate effective methods of marketing promotion 19. Assessment of the designed food and drink menu

21. Self-reflection and sharing of conclusions

20. Proposal

15. ‘Solving Olympics Problems’ project learning and group presentation

12a. The influence 13. Design the food 14. Introduction of of common and drink menu problem-solving promotional media for athletes theory and advertisements 15. ‘Solving Olympics Problems’ project learning

PE

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304 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Table 11.5: An integrated curriculum plan (vertical development) (adapted from Lam 2009) Topic: ‘Our Olympics’ Level: Secondary Level 2 Stage 1: Understanding Olympics (origin and meaning) Main study themes (1) Identify the procedures and arrangement of this integrated topic ‘Olympics hosted by Hong Kong’ (GS). (2) Identify the origin, meaning, and spirit of the Olympics, as well as the athletes’ characteristics in all previous sessions and all kinds of Olympic sports events (GS). (3) Identify the Chinese stamp, Beijing Olympic slogan, good luck charm (VA). (4) Identify categories and events in the Olympic games (PE). (5) Identify the visible and invisible business revenues brought by the Olympics (BS). (6) Identify the application of friction, gravity, and energy changes in sports through the Olympic games (IS). Stage 2: Organizing a mini Olympics (1) (image design and events) a. Main study themes (1) Create a completely new sports event in groups (to show fairness, creativity, and feasibility) and extend ideas about the resources, setting, and conditions of organizing this sports event (PE/GS). (2) Understand the Olympics organized in Beijing and Hong Kong; assess the advantages, limitations, and potential of the two cities; objectively analyse the conditions for organizing the Olympics (GS). (3) In groups, design a completely new sports event good luck charm. The teacher helps choose the most meaningful product and makes further improvements on it (VA). (4) In an authentic way, understand how to design products, the way to meet market needs, and the production process. Create the new good luck charm products. Present the products and conduct peer assessment (BS). (5) In groups and with the use of a completely new designed sports event, understand how the moon environment affects and limits sports events. Investigate the scientific principle behind (IS). (6) Identify the concepts of multimedia, the ideas of handling digital multimedia elements, and the differences among all multimedia file formats. Understand how multimedia software and hardware are created. Finally, combine the knowledge learned in business studies to understand the business application of multimedia in promoting the Olympics (CS). b. Parade show and opening match (1) Each class creates a unique way of entering the stadium. Each class shows the audience their newly designed sports event name, logo, and good luck charms. (2) The principal helps the Olympics Committee present the newly designed sports event certificates to each class. Stage 3: Organizing a mini Olympics (2) (logistics and publicity) a. Main study themes (1) Students identify the difficulties in organizing the Olympic games. They revise the levels of difficulties, suggest several feasible solutions, and assess the value and influence of these revisions and suggestions (GS). (2) Choose a project title in groups. Search and analyse information for the selected topic. Provide consultation time in groups during the lesson. Each group is first encouraged to present solutions for its own research topic. Subsequently, the teacher and students will assess and give feedback based on the school-based ‘Oral Presentation Assessment Form’. After receiving feedback, each group has to write a ‘Problem-solving Proposal’ (GS). (3) Design a promotion poster, create Chinese print, and souvenirs (VA). (4) Design an effective marketing method to present the new good luck charm products during the closing ceremony (BS). (5) Identify the main ingredients and functions of a balanced diet. Design an economical, whole-day, and well-balanced menu for athletes (IS) (6) Create and design the promotion short film ‘Our Olympics’ (CS). b. Rehearse opening match (1) Each class designs and rehearses the manner of entering the stadium during the closing ceremony.

(continued on page 305)

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 305

Table 11.5 (continued)

Stage 4: Mini Olympics Opening and Exhibition (opening ceremony, celebrating) a. Opening ceremony match (1) Group students from different classes. Encourage them to design their own styles when entering the stadium, including the way of presenting their slogans, good luck charms, and logos with the use of background music. (2) Each group uses the school-based assessment tools in conducting peer assessments even for different classes (by videotaping the most wonderful part). (3) Invite Secondary 1 students and the parents of Secondary 1 and 2 students to attend the closing ceremony. This will be a good venue for cultural exchange. b. Exhibits Show: Art work and projects through the four stages Assessment contents (1) In the exhibition, show the ‘problem-solving proposal’ of each group. Subject teachers assess and give feedback on the proposal of each group (GS). (2) Vote for the best proposal ‘Cover Design’. All students have the right to vote, but every student gets only one chance. The participation of parents can also be included (GS). (3) Self-reflection article: After the exhibition, all students have to write a piece of self-reflection to summarize what they have learned and how they felt throughout the project learning process (GS). (4) Display the four designs (i.e. ceramics, cuddly toy, poster, and Chinese print) (VA). (5) Vote for the best product promotion proposal (BS). (6) Assess the scientific design of the newly created sports event, as well as the food and drink menu (IS). (7) Vote for the best promotion short film (CS). Note: The assessment of oral presentation has been carried out in the classroom at the third stage. It is regarded as the formative assessment because students can obtain feedback from the oral presentation to make further improvements when writing the proposal (GS).

The basic information necessary in a scheme of work includes the period, class level, subject(s) or KLAs, central theme of the period, and key topics or content coverage. Teachers may also list the resources and the basic text for the study period. The scheme of work should be clear, showing the main learning target content over a period of time, such as a semester. A scheme of work is therefore a guiding map for the learning journey of students. As such, it should provide a meaningful and interconnected sequence of learning experiences, an issue which is explored later in this chapter in discussing planning at the level of lessons. As suggested above, an integrated model of learning can enhance the motivation of learners, an aspect which is in accordance with the curriculum reform orientation. However, this advantage can also be achieved by traditional independent subject planning if school teachers appreciate the sequence and connection of learning experiences. There are still many ways to encourage active learning (e.g. through teaching methods and strategies), which are again discussed later in the chapter.

Lesson Planning The primary purpose of lesson planning was discussed earlier in this chapter. This section focuses on what teachers should consider in planning lessons (e.g. the diversity and holistic development of learners) and how they should organize lessons to highlight the growth and involvement of learners.

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The format of lesson plans is flexible, subject to individual preferences. However, a standard lesson plan includes the subject/KLA, class level, class time, number of period/s, topic, learning objectives in the three domains, teaching steps and corresponding main points, time allocation, teaching activities and teaching materials and resources (refer to Appendix 11.1). In planning a lesson, teachers should think from the perspective of learners. The following steps outline the process of lesson planning: (a) identify the areas of learning; (b) determine the learning goals and objectives; (c) based on the identified objectives, design tasks that can engage learners and enhance their interests and abilities; (d) select the evidence for learning outcomes (i.e. set the criteria) and make a judgement about the extent to which these criteria have been met; and (e) throughout the process, provide students with input and feedback.

Identifying learning content and learning goals In planning lessons, teachers should consider • learning objectives and content focuses; • the prior knowledge of learners; • learning activities; and • teaching materials, aids and resources. The GS lesson plan in Appendix 11.1 suggests the thinking process in lesson planning. The lesson content is in accordance with the GS curriculum framework (Figure 11.2) and, more specifically, it is within the ‘People and environment’ strand. The topic is ‘Entering the Civilization’, which denotes an abstract concept related to culture and the development of society. In lesson planning, the first thing teachers need to do is to identify clearly the content areas from which the goals of the lesson will be derived. In the case of the lesson plan presented in Appendix 11.1, the teacher began typically with the discipline framework and the academic goals of the subject. After developing the focus of the lesson, the teacher reviewed the previous knowledge foundation of students (e.g. students’ knowledge of China’s history from the Stone Age and the Bronze Age to the Tang and Qing Dynasties). The teacher also assumed that from their day-to-day living, students have a basic understanding of Hong Kong and China. The intention was to get the students to conceptualize ‘civilization’ from their own background knowledge and life experiences. The teacher then further delineated the learning areas under ‘civilization’, addressing subtle details, segregating the concepts and refining the learning objectives, which helped to delimit the content and clarify the major teaching points. For example, ‘civilization’ was defined in the context of the ‘living culture of Hong



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Kong’ within a timeframe of ‘a hundred years’ in which some identifiable changes from past to present could be found. The areas of change were also defined (viz. clothing, eating, living and transportation), which would normally be understood by primary students and would be of interest to them. The learning area—the living culture of Hong Kong—has an affective purpose: students can develop their sense of belongingness and increase their awareness of changes in their environment. Appendix 11.2 shows a project learning plan which includes a series of lessons which are designed for learners for English language learning. It relates to the curriculum framework of English language, such as reading, listening and speaking, and it also tries to build into the academic study some generic skills development such as collaboration, creativity and study skills, as well as developing confidence and respect for others that are related to the affective and social aspects. The design of this project learning lesson plan is discussed in a later part of the chapter which considers assessment.

Learning domains While the content and objectives of lessons are initially set, teachers may further check on the nature of learning to consider which types of learning are appropriate for learners and how they can benefit from them. Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) classified learning into three domains, namely, cognitive, affective and psychomotor, and created a framework for classifying learning objectives. This taxonomy can be a good guide for ensuring the design of a balanced curriculum, which covers different domains of learning. The cognitive domain includes six categories of cognitive skills. The six categories—knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—represent hierarchically different cognitive processes in learning. The categories are ordered according to their levels of cognitive complexity. For example, being able to recall specific facts about an event, a skill falling into the category of knowledge, requires less complex cognitive skills than being able to interpret the significance of an event which is in the comprehension category. This taxonomy was revised in 2001 by a group of educators and psychologists (Anderson et al. 2001) who, instead of categorizing the cognitive processes unidimensionally, added an extra dimension (knowledge). The knowledge dimension divides knowledge into four main categories: factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive. Both the old and the revised taxonomy can help teachers to classify curricular objectives and verify whether the objectives can engage students’ complex cognitive skills to a sufficient extent. A common mistake is placing too much emphasis on recalling information and overlooking more complex skills, such as analysing and evaluating (Krathwohl 2002).

308 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

The affective domain is primarily concerned with the development of attitudes and values. It deals with feelings, likes and dislikes. Affective development is important for school students because it may influence how they approach school, their studies and their future lives. The psychomotor domain is concerned with physical movement and with developing co-ordination and motor skills. Its importance has often been underestimated by many teachers. Motor skills must be developed and applied in many learning situations, such as in using a computer mouse and in operating a drilling machine. The three domains can guide teachers in defining the nature of learning objectives. In planning lessons, teachers should avoid placing too much emphasis on only one domain, and a balanced student development should be considered. In the example in Appendix 11.1, for instance, the objectives mainly cover the cognitive and affective domains. Students do not only learn facts (i.e. changes in Hong Kong and the factors which caused them) but also appreciate cultural changes. As citizens of Hong Kong, they will develop positive and respectful attitudes towards their culture, although they may not welcome some old habits embedded in it; and their skills in communication and collaboration are also honed as students work in groups and make presentations on what they have learned. In this way, the lesson largely reflects the spirit of the curriculum suggested by the Curriculum Development Council (2001). Possessing positive attitudes and values, and being able to think critically and to analyse and justify one’s actions, are clearly important aspects of the ‘learning to learn’ agenda.

Learning objectives The ability to write learning objectives is an important issue in lesson planning. Learning objectives guide the integrative and cohesive development of lessons, as well as the choice of appropriate teaching strategies. Objectives are expected to be specific in nature, written in terms of what students will know and be able to do, and the behaviours they are expected to exhibit as reflections of the learning outcomes. Behavioural objectives were commonly adopted by teachers in the last century, when the school curriculum was product-oriented (i.e. the curriculum predetermines what learners should achieve by the end of lessons). Usually, behavioural objectives: • state the intended learning outcomes in terms of observable behaviours; • state the conditions under which these observable behaviours are to be demonstrated; and • state the standards of performance (i.e. how well learners are expected to perform).



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 309

A rigidly stated behavioural objective contains strictly defined conditions. For example, ‘Given a diagram showing the several parts of a flower, students will be able to label each part and to state its functions in a sentence to a criterion of 90% correct’ (Cole and Chan 1994). This objective may not fit well with a learneroriented approach, which is more concerned with the process of learning and with how the process can produce learning outcomes. It is therefore undesirable to write learning objectives in strictly behavioural terms, and it is also unnecessary for teachers to exercise strong control over all learning objectives. Moreover, in view of the educational reforms, many of today’s objectives are by nature nonbehavioural, such as those related to the development of attitudes. Teachers should consider that the realization of objectives in the affective domain takes time as the objectives must first be internalized before they are reflected in individual behaviour. While rigid behavioural objectives should be avoided in exercising strong control over students in a mixed-ability classroom, teachers should be able to make a careful analysis of the content of learning. They should define specific learning objectives, which can serve as useful organizers in directing classroom learning. Moreover, these objectives can also guide meaningful assessment activities. (This topic is revisited in the later section on the nature of assessment.) Based on the delineated areas of learning (i.e. living culture), the teacher in Appendix 10.1 (pp. 288–290) further refined the learning objectives of the lesson to include different learning domains. The objectives are expressed in specific but not rigid terms, as follows: 1. Identify changes in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living and transportation) over the past hundred years. 2. Identify the factors that caused changes in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living and transportation) over the past hundred years. 3. Identify similarities and differences in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living and transportation) over the past hundred years. 4. Understand and respect different generations of living culture. 5. Increase one’s sense of belongingness to Hong Kong. In framing learning objectives, proper action verbs that clarify learning outcomes should be used. In doing so, teachers can also clarify the learning domains targeted by the content of lessons. Table 11.6 presents a taxonomy of verbs used to denote different learning domains, which is a good guide in lesson planning.

Sequencing Once the learning objectives are set, teachers should also consider the learning sequence, that is how teaching and learning events should be ordered. Although there is no strict rule for arranging the sequence of learning, a good sequence

310 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Table 11.6 Action verbs: Cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains Cognitive Domain Knowledge acquire count define draw identify label list match name outline point

Comprehension

quote read recall recite recognize record repeat state tabulate trace write

associate classify compare compute contrast describe differentiate discuss

Analysis analyse construct detect diagram differentiate

distinguish estimate explain extrapolate interpret interpolate predict require translate

Application apply calculate change classify complete demonstrate employ examine illustrate

Synthesis

explain infer outline separate subdivide summarize

arrange categorize combine construct create design develop explain formulate generate generalize

integrate organize plan prepare prescribe produce propose rearrange reconstruct specify summarize

manipulate operate practice prepare produce relate solve use utilize

Evaluation appraise assess compare critique determine evaluate grade judge

justify measure rank rate select support test recommend

Affective Domain Receiving accept accumulate ask choose combine control differentiate

Responding

follow listen (for) reply select separate set apart share

answer approve commend comply conform discuss

ollow help play practice read volunteer

Organization

abstract adhere alter arrange balance combine compare

define discuss formulate integrate organize prepare theorize

Valuing argue assist debate deny help increase measured proficiency

increase numbers in join protest read relinquish select support specify

Characterization

act avoid change complete display manage perform quality rated high by peers

require resist resolve revise serve solve superiors, or subordinate verify (continued on page 311)

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Table 11.6 (continued)

Psychomotor Domain apply assemble build change clear calibrate compose connect construct correct cut

demonstrate design desire to respond discover dismantle draw fabricate fasten feel follow

form hear imitate install knowledge of procedure layout locate maintain make make-up

manipulate manufacture measure mix operate organize perform plan position put together

remove restore see select sense service sharpen stimulate small touch

trace troubleshoot try recognize use visualize willingness to respond

Adapted from J. Ritz (2006), Taxonomy table. Retrieved 4 March 2010, from http:// www.odu. edu/~jritz/oted885/taxonomy.shtml.

enhances learning effectiveness. Usually, a logical sequence can be established in the following ways: by linking the whole to parts; by learning concrete facts prior to abstract concepts; by maintaining a ‘spiral’ sequence that enables learners to revisit some content ideas more deeply in a cyclical manner; by making horizontal and vertical arrangements that consider the expected breadth and depth of the learning content; and by integrating relevant parts across different topics or subjects. As shown in Appendix 11.1 (pp. 325–328), the sequence of the lesson is carefully organized. ‘Cultural living’ is an abstract term, and the lesson expects students to observe changes in it and to analyse the reasons for such changes. The plan therefore uses a story, which indicates generational differences between a grandfather and grandson. The story shows the difference between the two characters in terms of their expectations and perceptions about daily events that touch on clothing, eating, living and transportation. Students are placed within a context where they can observe major cultural differences in Hong Kong over the specified period of time. In addition, the lesson pushes students to analyse the causes of such differences in the following ways. First, there is a question-and-answer activity participated in by the whole class, addressing the four general areas of change; second, there are group discussions on one of the four areas; and finally, a consolidating worksheet is used to gather lesson feedback and to initiate further investigation on the topic. A spiral sequence is used to maintain each KLA. For instance, the concept of living culture is learned by addressing changes in the society, such as modern discoveries in science and technology, and through studying customs and traditional values. The spiral sequence deepens the knowledge of students.

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Teaching Strategies and Assessment Active learning and developing learning strategies After the teaching plan is set, teachers then work on the creative process of designing teaching and learning activities, taking into account the diverse abilities and interests of their students. In Chapter 2 of this book, various methods were recommended, such as co-operative learning, investigative project learning, scaffolding teaching strategies, contextualized experiences, discussion and enquiry learning. Also, as pointed out in Chapter 1, it is important for learners to be able to develop various different learning strategies to achieve learning. Memorization, silent reading and individual work should not be regarded as useless but they should be combined with more active approaches such as project learning, experiments and discussion. However, the teacher’s role in the planning of a lesson is vital in considering the learning aims and outcomes, and how to support learners by introducing appropriate strategies to achieve the learning outcomes in both the cognitive and metacognitive domains. Since teachers should be responsive to learners needs, ability and interests, the differences in these aspects may also be used in deciding on the learning activities and strategies to support learners. The term ‘active learning’ can be used to describe the ideal situation in the learning process. To be actively engaged in learning, students must do more than just listen; they must read, write, discuss and be engaged in solving problems. Also, as argued by many authors (e.g. Bloom 1956; Lowman 1984; Ramsden 1992), students must engage in higher-order thinking tasks, such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, to be actively involved, though it should be noted that memorization and other lower-level intellectual skills are not excluded in the learning process. Active engagement should also not be confined to the classroom, but should be extended to other locations and times. If teachers are able to create a variety of learning opportunities for their students, this is more likely to result in their active involvement and develop their interest in learning. In the process of learning, teacher facilitation, and peer interaction and sharing in groups, are important instructional strategies because they continuously reinforce learning while pushing learners towards their zones of proximal development.

Assessment Assessment is also a useful strategy for teaching and plays an important role in learning. In this section, assessment is discussed with the purpose of highlighting the current trend of using it to support student learning, and the concepts discussed here are



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 313

especially important for teachers in planning lessons. (For a more comprehensive discussion of assessment, readers may refer to Assessment for learning in the Hong Kong Teacher Education Series.) The word ‘assessment’ comes from the Latin verb assidere, which means ‘to sit beside’ (Musial et al. 2009). It implies the process by which people get together to evaluate educational experiences and the ways to make such experiences more meaningful. Broadly defined, assessment is the process of documenting outcomes (i.e. knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs), usually in measurable terms. Assessment may either be summative or formative. The former aims at measurable outcomes of achievement, whereas the latter supports the achievement of outcomes by offering feedback. Formative assessment also serves as a scaffolding tool that supports improvements in learning. In current educational practice, a high value is placed on formative assessment. Teachers should think about the assessment when they start to plan lessons. When launching the new curriculum, the government emphasized the importance of maintaining effective links among learning, teaching and assessment. In a learneroriented learning and teaching environment, formative assessment is embedded in the teaching-learning process and it provides crucial feedback to students about what they have, and have not, learned well. In this way, assessment is not only an end-ofclass exercise but a part of teaching and instruction. This part of the chapter focuses on designing types of formative assessment. In formative assessment, students’ work may be marked (but not graded) as its primary purpose is to improve learning; and so students should not feel threatened by it. It is both a process that informs teachers about how they should proceed and it helps learners to be clear about their progress and develop a sense of responsibility for learning. Formative assessment has the following characteristics: • Feedback is given on the spot. It is direct and immediate. • It takes different forms, provided that structured information can be collected for teachers to plan and improve instruction and for students to improve and further develop themselves. • It is a tool for evaluating teaching. Formative assessment is promoted to eliminate the negative effect of the heavy emphasis on summative assessment, which aims at grading students. Based on the lesson plan in Appendix 11.2 (pp. 328–331), Appendices 11.2a–11.2i (pp. 332–340) show snapshots of an English teaching project organized in a thematic lesson plan entitled ‘Endangered Animals’. The teacher used ‘project learning’ (10 lesson projects) as a pedagogical strategy to build different formative assessment tasks into learning activities. Project learning, as a teaching and learning strategy, originated in the child-centred education stream. It typically involves a process of enquiry through gathering and evaluating data, putting forward and

314 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

testing hypotheses, reaching appropriate conclusions and presenting findings effectively. In this project on ‘Endangered Animals’, students were guided to explore and learn by including assessment as a teaching strategy to support their learning. First, students were told a real story about the dodos of Mauritius. The birds became endangered because they were caught for food by Europeans who migrated and settled there. Next, the students learned about some other endangered animals from the worksheet provided by the teacher, and they were provided with websites where they could find information about these animals (Appendix 11.2a). Following this, students researched and were oriented about endangered animals through the project tasks, and were involved in group discussions (Appendix 11.2b) and individual comprehension tasks (Appendix 11.2c). The students were then taught to use a mind-map to organize information and to develop a writing plan for their selected endangered animals (Appendix 11.2d). They also learned to tabulate the information they had gathered from their own investigations (Appendix 11.2e) and followed a set of guidelines for the completion of a short report on the endangered animals they had chosen (Appendix 11.2f). Finally, all students were required to make a presentation about their selected endangered animals. During this project study, students were involved in a variety of learner-centred activities. They also developed their knowledge about endangered animals, and learned some cognitive skills, such as mind-mapping, gathering information and organizing information. During the class period, they also wrote, read, spoke and listened (in English) to acquire knowledge of the subject-matter. In the process, they were involved in group work, presentations and consultation with teachers, who offered them scaffolding to help them to advance in their studies. In successive events, the students naturally and continuously went through formative assessment, from the elementary study of endangered animals— through comprehension exercises, mind-map drawing, consultation with teachers and exercises on organizing information—to the final writing of presentations. At different stages, they received feedback from teachers or from the tasks they were completing. The exercises in the project actually played the role of formative assessment: they provided formative feedback to ensure effective teaching, diagnosed student learning, consolidated the knowledge of students before they moved to further steps, and developed students’ responsibility for learning.

Design principles for formative assessment In the past, class exercises and homework used to focus just on academic aspects and, unfortunately, they were used to develop in students a habit of recitation because they only repeated what had been taught. Today, designing exercises and homework demands more ideas from teachers. Such exercises have more important



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 315

functions: they support student learning and motivation, and enhance academic and generic abilities. A well-designed assessment can make a difference as it cultivates students’ sense of responsibility for study and can allow them to experience success in learning, thereby strengthening their motivation to learn. Noted below is a checklist that guides the design of exercises. • Do they support higher-order thinking? • Do they provide variety? • Are they interesting? • Are they authentic and close to students’ life experience? • Are they motivating? • Do they accommodate learner diversity? • Do they accommodate different learning styles? • Do they encourage different forms of expression? • Do they enhance the general ability of students, such as reading text, reading diagrams, comprehension and literacy? The project learning design in Appendix 11.2 provides variety to suit the perceptual modalities of young children. The content covers different domains of learning; the students not only learn about some animals, but also learn the skill of independent learning; and, in addition, the topic studied promotes a strong affective objective—an attitude of environmental protection. Appendix 11.3 (p. 341) is an example of a class exercise designed mainly for the purpose of formative assessment. It demonstrates how a mathematical theory can be discovered by students. Through exploration and presentation of measurement findings, the formulas for calculating the circumference and diameter of circles are discovered. The activities arouse students’ interest and help them to develop logical thinking and mathematical concepts.

Criterion-referenced assessment Ideally, all student work should be assessed either by teachers or by students themselves. As noted earlier, feedback on assessment is valuable to teachers as it provides useful information for them to evaluate their teaching, plan for the next instructional step and create long-term lesson plans. It is equally important to learners as it allows them to gauge their own learning outcomes and understand their performance (i.e. how much they have achieved, what their strengths are, and what areas need improvement). There are different approaches to assessing student work. Criterion-referenced assessment (CRA) is used to assess whether a student has met particular task requirements, whether he/she has achieved the pre-set learning objectives, and how well he/she has achieved them. It operates within the assessment

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for learning model. CRA differs from the norm-referenced assessment (NRA) used in summative assessment, which involves ranking for the purpose of grading and selection (e.g. examinations at the end of an academic year). CRA is qualitative in nature. Unlike a quantitative-oriented model that is concerned with the accumulation of knowledge, CRA focuses on the application and analysis of knowledge. It regards teaching as designed to facilitate student learning, not simply to transmit knowledge; and it therefore assumes a holistic understanding of knowledge and concepts instead of broken units of knowledge. Instead of being de-contextualized, CRA is situated. The assessment tasks focus on the application of functional knowledge in the real world. By comparison, NRA is decontextualized, with the assessment focusing on declarative knowledge about artificial activities which may be detached from the real world. In addition, CRA provides evidence that reflects students’ achievement of certain standards. (A driving test is a good illustrative example.) NRA, in contrast, refers to a measurement model that focuses on measuring stable characteristics (e.g. as in an IQ test). CRA is related to performance assessment, with learning outcomes being observed through performance in various forms, including action. Rubrics are usually designed for this kind of assessment, which provide a rating system by which teachers can determine a student’s level of proficiency in performing a task or displaying knowledge of a concept. The ‘Endangered Animal Project’ in Appendix 11.2 shows the powerful impact of CRA as a formative assessment tool. For example, in the final presentation exercise, students learned to evaluate their own speech through a rubric. The teacher asked students to conduct a self-evaluation of their performance based on a set of criteria (Appendix 11.2g) and also assess their peers. Through these assessments, students learned the requirements of the tasks, and tried to check these requirements in the work of their peers. As a teaching strategy, the peer assessment exercise also enhanced the concentration of students in listening to the others’ presentations (Appendix 11.2h). Furthermore, the selection of the best presenter in the peer assessment form increased the motivation of students to do peer assessments and, more important, it created a sense of community among learners in the class. The teacher assessed the essays and presentations, and provided individual comments so that the whole project was completed with formative support from both peers and the teacher (Appendix 11.2i). Student activity number 4 shows a task that requires CRA as a performance assessment. The students were required to work on a GS project, which involved integrated real-world knowledge. They had to report on the project in a verbal presentation and, hence, the assessment of this task requires specific GS knowledge and presentation skills. To assess this task, teachers need a rubric. Table 11.7 (p. 317) shows a rubric that was specifically designed for the task, containing rating domains on subject-matter content, coherence and organization, creativity, materials, speaking skills, audience response, the length of the presentation and the level of proficiency against different domains.

Some mumbling; little eye contact; uneven rate; little or no expression Some related facts but went off topic and lost the audience; mostly presented facts with little or no imagination

Some originality is apparent; good variety and blending of materials/media Use of multimedia not as varied and not as well connected to the thesis

Within four minutes of allotted Within six minutes of allotted time +/time +/-

Balanced use of multimedia materials; properly used to develop thesis; use of media is varied and appropriate

Poised, clear articulation; proper volume; Clear articulation but not as steady rate; good posture and eye contact; polished enthusiasm; confidence Presented facts with some interesting ‘twists’; held the audience’s attention most of the time

Very original presentation of material; uses the unexpected to full advantage; captures audience’s attention

Involved the audience in the presentation; points made in creative way; held the audience’s attention throughout

Within two minutes of allotted time +/-

Creativity

Materials

Speaking skills

Audience response

Length of presentation

Amateur

Presentation is choppy and disjointed; does not flow; development of thesis is vague; no apparent logical order of presentation

Thesis is not clear; included information does not support thesis in any way

Choppy use of multimedia materials; lacks smooth transition from one medium to another; multimedia not clearly connected to the thesis

Too long or too short; 10 or more minutes above or below the allotted time

Incoherent; audience lost interest and could not determine the point of the presentation

Inaudible or too loud; no eye contact; rate too slow/fast; speaker seemed uninterested and monotonous

Little or no multimedia used or ineffective use of multimedia; imbalance in the use of materials—too much of one, not enough of another

Little or no variation; material Repetitive with little or no presented with little originality variety; insufficient use of or interpretation multimedia

Concept and ideas are loosely connected; lacks clear transitions; flow and organization are choppy

Most information presented in logical sequence; generally very well organized, but better transitions from idea to idea and medium to medium are needed

Thesis is clearly stated and developed; specific examples are appropriate and clearly develop the thesis; conclusion is clear; shows control; flows together well; good transitions; succinct but not choppy; well organized

Acceptable

Coherence and organization

Admirable Sufficient information related There is a great deal of to the thesis; many good points information not clearly made, but there is an uneven connected to the thesis balance; there is little variation

An abundance of material clearly related to the thesis; points are clearly made and all evidence supports thesis; varied use of materials

Content

Exceptional

Table 11.7 Rubric for assessing project presentations (General Studies)

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318 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

In the new curriculum, authentic tasks, events and activities are recommended, and students are often required to develop cognitive abilities and generic skills (Curriculum Development Council 2001, 2002). Therefore, teachers need to design rubrics that can inform learners clearly about how much and how well they have achieved. It is also important that students are informed about these rubrics earlier or participate in rubric-based peer or self-assessment. This collaborative process makes student learning more meaningful and, if used effectively, such assessment can play a significant role in encouraging learning. Table 11.8 provides a comprehensive rubric for assessing various cognitive abilities and generic skills promoted in Hong Kong’s school curriculum, and it can be modified for daily formative assessments in the classroom.

Educational Reforms, Learning and Teaching: The Way Forward In discussing lesson planning and assessment, this chapter has outlined the new teaching orientation promoted in the current educational reforms. This new orientation is presented in the belief that the next generation of teachers will become reformers who will improve education. In fact, educational reforms in this century are catalysts for change all over the world. In summarizing the key elements of the present goals of education, this last section draws to a considerable extent on material covered in some earlier chapters. Education in this century is oriented towards the needs, interests and diverse abilities of learners; and students therefore expect that more support will be given to them. The school curriculum should interact with learners to support their development, not constrain it. With the establishment of its new academic structure, Hong Kong has already moved towards this goal, providing opportunities for school-leavers. Comprehensive compulsory education offers school-leavers a more integrative path to life and work, and a good preparation for the future. Under this new system, students are also expected to play an active role in learning, develop lifelong learning attitudes, and become well-rounded persons who possess a range of talents and abilities to face future challenges. Also, as explained in this chapter, an integrated use of learning strategies should help in promoting students’ learning. Teachers are expected to become reflective practitioners, and they are encouraged to ground their teaching on a model that emphasizes the active role of the learner in a variety of contexts and learning activities, which should encourage the development of their intellectual ability and the adoption of appropriate learning strategies. Also, the spirit of the constructivist learning model and the promotion of student-teacher interaction should be integrated into more traditional learning

2. Generic skills

Grading criteria

1. Content of knowledge and language ability

Areas

2.2 Communication

2.1 Collaboration

Domains

1.2 Language ability

1.1. Content of knowledge

Domains

Excellent use of language for either expression or presentation to get the attention of the audience Good intonation Grammatically correct Effective use of introduction and conclusion Show respect for others

•

•

• • •

•

Always listen, share, and support group members Always motivate and help group members to complete the task together

•

A Excellent (4 marks)

Effective use of language Very few grammatical and phonological mistakes

• •

• •

Very suitable for the subject Several important main points Demonstrate analytical thinking Demonstrate creativity Factually correct

• • •

A Excellent (4 pts) •

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

Effective use of language for either expression or presentation to get the attention of the audience Clear pronunciation Generally grammatically correct Appropriate use of introduction and conclusion Show respect for others

Often listen, share, and support group members Sometimes motivate and help group members to complete the task together

B Good (3 marks)

Generally effective use of language Some grammatical and phonological mistakes

•

• • •

•

•

•

•

•

• • • •

•

C Acceptable (2 pts)

• •

• • •

Often show ability for clear expression Unclear pronunciation Grammar is often correct Fair use of introduction and conclusion Show impatience when listening to others

•

• •

•

•

Seldom listen, share, and • support group members Sometimes require others’ • reminders to complete the task

C Satisfactory (2 marks)

Language use is sometimes • inappropriate or ineffective Grammatical and phonological • mistakes affect the transmission of information

Somewhat suitable for the subject Only one or two main points Limited analytical thinking Lacking in creativity Some correct information but with significant errors

Proficiency Level

Generally suitable for the subject Several important main points Demonstrate some analytical thinking and personal opinions Contains some minor errors

B Good (3 pts)

Table 11.8 Rubric for assessing student performance

(continued on page 320)

Do not show ability to use the language for both expression and presentation in an effective way Do not show ability to speak properly Grammar is seldom correct Do not have any introduction or conclusion Do not pay attention to others

Do not listen and support group members Require others’ assistance or get someone else to complete the task

D Unsatisfactory (1 mark)

Language use is generally inappropriate Grammatical and phonological mistakes substantially affect the transmission of information

Not suitable for the subject Unclear main points Lacking in analytical discussion Lacking in creativity Factually incorrect or ambiguous

D Improvement needed (1 pt)

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 319

Areas

Domains

2.6 Problem solving

2.5 Information technology

2.4 Critical thinking

2.3 Creativity

Table 11.8 (continued)

Investigate the issue from a wide variety of angles Use tight logical thinking and multi-proving methods Show ability to inquire through investigation and try to handle the investigation Obviously show ability to criticize and to provide discussion and new ideas

Effectively use various kinds of electronic media tools to search, organize, record, and present the task Effectively use multimedia; share and exchange ideas with classmates

Good at finding and suggesting problem-solving methods

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

Always use various ways to think Use various ways for interpretation and expression in performing the task Show ability to organize knowledge and concepts Very interesting and attractive Always show willingness to try, with much creativity

•

A Excellent (4 pts)

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Actively find and make further • improvements on suggested problem-solving methods

Try to use various kinds of electronic media tools to search, organize, record, and present the task Use multimedia; share and exchange ideas with classmates of various backgrounds

Try to investigate the issue from different angles Use logical thinking and proving methods Show ability to ask questions and express opinions through investigation Show ability to criticize and to provide new ideas

•

•

•

•

•

C Acceptable (2 pts)

Do not have suggestions or do not make further improvements on suggested problem-solving methods but show willingness to help others in problem solving

Use some of electronic media tools to search, organize, record, and present the task with fair effectiveness Use multimedia but are not effective

Investigate the issue from the same angle Try to use logical thinking to investigate questions but are not well-organized Do not show ability to ask questions and express opinions sensibly through investigation Do not show critical thinking skill

Seldom use various ways to think Still use various ways for interpretation and expression in performing the task Show little ability to organize knowledge and concepts Fairly interesting and attractive Seldom show creativity

Proficiency Level

Often use various ways to think Try to use various ways for interpretation and expression in performing the task Show willingness to organize knowledge and concepts but with some mistakes Interesting and attractive Try to innovate, do some tasks with creativity

B Good (3 pts)

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

(continued on page 321)

Do not try or help solve problems, rely on others to solve problems

Do not use any electronic media tools to search, organize, record, and present the task Do not show ability to use multimedia and to share and exchange ideas

Investigate the issue from one angle only Do not have logical thinking, ideas, and examples for evidence Do not show ability to ask questions and to express opinions through investigation Lack of personal opinions and ideas

Never use various ways to think Do not use various ways for interpretation and expression in performing the task Do not show ability to organize knowledge and concepts Not interesting and attractive Do not show creativity

D Improvement needed (1 pt)

320 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Areas

Domains

Management of processing time

2.9 Research



2.8 Self-management: Control of presentation time

2.7 Numeracy

Table 11.8 (continued)

Often complete the task on time Pay attention to the quality of the task, and the whole schedule is not affected by individual delays

Search information in different ways Read and select information based on the main topic Set objective topics to extend research and study Show ability to think critically and to organize ideas Use life experience and social contacts for evidence, interpretation, and integration of ideas

Show good time management • skills and habits; complete the task on time • Can ensure the quality of the task and the whole schedule is not affected by individual delays

Search information through various ways and make use of them effectively Show ability to read extensively and to select information effectively Set clear and precise project title Show strong ability to think critically and to organize ideas

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Show little delay in presentation within the designated time, but still fully express and effectively organize ideas within the designated time

•

•

•

•

Show ability to fully express and effectively organize ideas within the designated time

•

•

Can demonstrate the uses of mathematics (e.g., methods of calculation, charting, statistics, etc.) Show clear numeracy process in work Show ability to apply numeracy skills in daily activities

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

C Acceptable (2 pts)

Search information through limited ways Show ability to select information while reading, but main ideas are lacking Show ability to continuously set objectives and topics throughout the research and study process Need further improvements in critical thinking and organization of ideas

Sometimes delay the task but still complete the task on time Do not pay attention to the quality of the task and to the collaboration among individuals, affecting the schedule of completing the task

Not able to fully express and organize ideas within a period of time

Try to use mathematics (e.g., methods of calculation, charting, statistics, etc.)• Show numeracy process in work Try to apply numeracy skills in daily activities

Proficiency Level

Effectively use mathematics (e.g., methods of calculation, charting, statistics, etc.) Show accurate numeracy process in work Good at applying numeracy skills in daily activities

B Good (3 pts)

•

A Excellent (4 pts)

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

(continued on page 322)

Search information in only one way Do not read enough information Do not show a good understanding and comprehension of the topic Lack of critical thinking skills and of skills in organizing main ideas

Always need reminders from group members or someone else is called to complete the task; have problems in time management and unable to complete the task on time Ignore the quality of the task, affecting the whole schedule of completing the task

Without good time management, affecting the whole effectiveness of the presentation

Do not show ability to use basic math concepts (e.g., methods of calculation, charting, statistics, etc.) Do not show numeracy process in work Do not apply numeracy skills in daily activities

D Improvement needed (1 pt)

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 321

3. Attitudes and values

Areas

Domains

•

3.3 Respect for others

•

•

• • •

•

•

•

•

3.2 Sense of responsibility

3.1 Participation

Table 11.8 (continued)

Show respect for others in attitudes and behaviors Able to respect and accept differences arising from different social and cultural backgrounds

Help team members achieve goals unselfishly

Active participation in all learning activities Help others in learning Confident Approach learning with a positive, rational attitude

•

•

•

•

• •

•

Good at using life experiences • for evidence, interpretation, and integration of ideas • Well-organized project design, attract readers’ attention Completely use reference lists and citation formats correctly

A Excellent (4 pts)

•

Show respect for others in • overall attitudes and behaviors Able to understand and accept • some differences arising from different social and cultural backgrounds

Some efforts in helping team members achieve goals

•

Active participation in most of • the learning activities May help others in learning Demonstrate some self• confidence Approach learning positively •

•

C Acceptable (2 pts)

Somewhat selfish, display limited respect for others Have complaints about differences arising from different social and cultural backgrounds

Limited efforts in helping team members

Somewhat passive in participating in learning activities Fulfill one’s own responsibility Able to face limited challenges Approach learning somewhat positively

Try to use life experiences for evidence, interpretation, and integration of ideas Fair project design, still meet the requirements Show ability to use reference lists and citation formats correctly but have several mistakes

Proficiency Level

Attractive project design, easy • to understand Mostly use reference lists and citation formats correctly •

B Good (3 pts)

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

Disrespect other cultures in attitudes and behaviors Do not accept differences arising from different social and cultural backgrounds

Do not meet team requirements, do not help team members

Approach learning in a passive and detached manner Unable to fulfill own responsibility Limited participation

Do not show effective evidence, interpretation, and integration of ideas Incomplete assignment Do not show ability to use reference lists and citation formats correctly

D Improvement needed (1 pt)

322 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 323

methods to enhance the achievement of learning outcomes. During this period of transition, teachers are given greater flexibility to introduce innovations in pedagogical practices that suit learners’ diverse needs. Teachers should appreciate this move towards greater professional autonomy and should accept the greater challenges in their work as this will benefit them as individuals and the teaching enterprise as a whole. However, aspects of these new trends in education seem problematic in Hong Kong. While the literature has shown that Chinese learners, who use memorization and recitation more than those in the West, do gain from this process in terms of cognitive development, it has also been found that they have not developed a genuine interest in learning. Their motivation for studying is external as they see the school as a place that prepares them for earning money and establishing good careers (Lau and Yeung 1996). Some students even attribute their academic success to a stronger fear that educational failure will have very negative consequences. Students also think that effort is central to performing well (Chen, Lee and Stevenson 1996a). They trust book knowledge and have developed high respect for teachers, making them unable to question their authority (Ho 1996). Due to the impulse control exercised in Chinese classrooms (Hue 2007a), the new approach of active and investigative learning may not be developed effectively in Hong Kong. Chinese teachers hold a ‘cultivating conception of learning’, which is unique to Confucianism. They share the view promoted in the educational reforms that learning should serve the holistic development of students, not only their cognitive development. Paradoxically, however, they still utilize ‘teacher-centred’ and ‘contentbased’ methods of teaching (Dahlin and Watkins 2000; Stevenson and Lee 1995), which stress the need for memorization and repeated practice in the learning process. Since the 1980s, ‘chalk-and-talk’ (Llewellyn 1982) and examination-related pedagogies have characterized teaching in Hong Kong (Chow and Pong 2002). In the 2000s, the government’s school external review reports showed that many teachers fail to use higher-order questions to promote students’ intellectual abilities, which echoes the findings of Llewellyn’s external review committee in 1982. In addition, in managing classroom discipline, teachers exercise tight control over students (Hue 2007b). They are conscious of the ‘stage-setting’ routine that enables them to switch activities smoothly and make teaching efficient (Dahlin and Watkins 2000). Apart from any resistance to change for personal and political reasons (Lam and Nizar 2009), the practices of many teachers raise serious doubts about whether the new learning and teaching orientation can really be promoted in Hong Kong’s classrooms. The central cause of the problem is that Hong Kong’s educational system used to be highly academic, focusing mainly on inculcating knowledge in certain disciplines and on selecting the brightest students for entry to universities (Biggs 1998; Biggs and Watkins 2001)—a development which, as shown in Chapter 2, signified a degeneration

324 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

of the Chinese cultural values in school education. This influence is still so pervasive that the educational system may not be able to accommodate the new ideas in the current educational reforms.. Among teachers, the system has resulted in ‘grading on the curve’ and ‘teaching for examinations’ (Biggs and Watkins 2001; Lam and Nizar 2009). This approach, with its adverse ‘backwash effect’, still governs learning in schools at present, and remains the learning goal of students. As a result, students face enormous pressure which can create problems which in some cases result in depression and even child and youth suicide (Lau, Siu and Chik 1998; Lee, Wong and Chow 2006; The Hong Kong Federation of Youth Groups 2001). As mentioned above, in the early 1980s, the Llewellyn Committee made recommendations for changing Hong Kong’s examination-oriented culture and for improving teaching methods, but after three decades there has been little improvement. We are now at a critical crossroad, with the educational reforms having given the green light for change. This reform project involves a re-culturing of schools and teachers, which inevitably takes time. Nevertheless, education professionals and teachers need to promote this change as it will benefit the future of the profession and society as a whole.

Learning Activities 1. Assume that you are about to teach a lesson. What do you need to consider? 2. Define lesson planning. What are its functions? 3 Figure 11.4 shows an interdisciplinary model for teaching visual art and music in junior secondary schools. Comment on this model.

An interdisciplinary approach to lesson design: -removes boundaries between subjects, -introduces topics or concepts from more than two disciplines, and -brings together complementary subject areas.

Visual Art

Visual impact and effect ．painting/drawing ．architecture

Aesthetics What is beauty?

Music

Audio impact and effect ．song ．melody

Figure 11.4: Interdisciplinary approach in planning art and music lessons The interdisciplinary approach dissolves subject boundaries based on common topics or concepts. It usually involves discipline areas of a similar nature.



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 325

4. Mr. Lau is a Primary 6 teacher who teaches Chinese and integrated humanities. Recently, the class visited an elderly care centre and completed a project about Hong Kong’s elderly. Mr. Lau believes in issue-based learning and curriculum for integrated humanities and thinks that oral presentations benefit students’ holistic development by enabling to learn the subject-matter and handle presentation and related skills. He therefore asks the students to make an oral presentation on the theme ‘Issues for the Elderly in Hong Kong’. The students are asked to include some important findings gathered from their studies and also need to exhibit their oral presentation skills. Consider this task and prepare an instrument that Mr. Lau can use to assess student learning.

Appendix 11.1 A General Studies Lesson Plan (Primary 6) Topic of the lesson: Entering into the Civilization Subject: General Studies Class: Primary 6 No. of Lessons: 1 (50 minutes) Lesson Objectives By the end of the lesson, students are able to 1. identify changes in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living, and transportation) from the past hundred years to the present; 2. identify factors that cause changes in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living, and transportation) from the past hundred years to the present; 3. identify similarities and differences in Hong Kong’s living culture (on clothing, eating, living, and transportation) from the past hundred years to the present; 4. understand and respect different generations of living culture; and 5. increase one’s sense of belongingness to Hong Kong. Previous Knowledge Students have 1. basic knowledge about important dynasties in China (e.g., Tang Dynasty, Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, and Qing Dynasty); 2. basic knowledge about living situations during the Stone Age and Bronze Age; 3. basic concepts about the history of Hong Kong and China through some daily activities; 4. grouping skills; and 5. discussion and presentation skills.

326 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Teaching Procedures Time allocation

Teaching Steps

Teaching Purposes

Teaching Activities

Materials Used

7 min

1. Lead in

1. To investigate living 1. Distribute Worksheet 1. 1. PowerPoint conditions (i.e., food, 2. This allows students to 2. Movie clothing, housing, and draw by imagination and 3. Worksheet 1 transportation) in Hong knowledge how food, Kong a hundred years ago clothing, housing, and 2. To lead students into the transportation are like in story of Siu Cheung Hong Kong a hundred years ago. 3. Selects two students to share their drawings in front of the class. 4. ‘Does anyone want to share what he/she has drawn on the worksheet? If yes, please raise your hands.’ 5. ‘Today, we are going to see what kind of activities Siu Cheung will do on Sunday. Please pay attention to the contents when you are watching the movie to see if there are things that are similar to what you have drawn.’ 6. Show the film.

15 min

2. Storytelling

1. To identify changes in 1. The PowerPoint is shown. 1. PowerPoint living culture during the This is the story: One 2. Different process of civilization and Sunday, Siu Cheung and kinds of the factors behind such his Grandpa went out fabric changes together. Siu Cheung 2. To allow students to is a Primary 6 student. become actively involved Grandpa decided to visit through the use of real his best friend, who is materials (e.g. gunny and a tailor. He asked Siu silk) Cheung to accompany him. Siu Cheung’s aunt is going to get married soon. They set off from home to Kowloon City. They went to the tailor’s shop by bus and tram. The tailor then kindly explained to Siu Cheung how clothes are changing. In the afternoon, Grandpa and Siu Cheung had an argument about where to have lunch. Finally, they went to a traditional Chinese restaurant. After lunch, they went for a walk on Hong Kong Island and viewed the buildings on their way. When night came, they went home together. 2. Students are given the opportunity to feel the past and present clothing materials. They are asked to feel different types of fabric.

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 327

Time allocation

Teaching Steps

Teaching Purposes

Teaching Activities

7 min

3. Lead to the discussion

1. Conclude changes in living culture (clothes) from the past hundred years to the present day. 2. Discuss factors that cause changes in living culture.

16 min

4. Group discussion and presentation

1. Students are allowed to 1. Divide the class into 4 take a look at the living groups. There are 5-6 conditions in Hong students in a group. Kong and the reasons of 2. Ask the groups to discuss their changes through the following topics: discussions. • What are the 2. Students give reasons on differences in the their own and develop eating habits of their thinking skills. Siu Cheung and 3. Develop students’ generic Grandpa? What are skills. the reasons behind them? • Uncle Kwok said that people during his time would wear traditional Chinese clothes, whereas people nowadays always wear T-shirts and jeans. Why? • The buildings nowadays are very different from those in the past. Why? • What kinds of transportation are there in Hong Kong? Why are these kinds of transportation in place? 3. Encourage representatives from each group to present the results of their respective discussions. 4. Conclude what the students have reported. 5. Elaborate on the key points mentioned by students (i.e., economic, political, technological, and cultural aspects of change). Talk about the reasons behind the changes in Hong Kong’s living culture. 6. Start the topic ‘Entering into the Civilization’. This topic has already been discussed by students in the previous activities.

Materials Used

1. Use questions to conclude 1. PowerPoint changes in Hong Kong’s living culture from the past hundred years to the present. ‘According to the movie, can you tell the difference between the living conditions that Grandpa experienced in the past and Siu Cheung’s life at present?’ 2. With reference to the answers to the question above, try to investigate the factors that cause changes in living culture. 3. Discuss the topic together with a PowerPoint presentation. 1. 2. 3. 4.

PowerPoint Pens Magnets Art Papers

328 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom Time allocation 5 min

Teaching Steps 5. Conclusion

Teaching Purposes 1. Conclude changes in living culture and the factors behind such changes. 2. Talk about the assignment. 3. Extend the activity.

Teaching Activities 1. Briefly introduce the contents of Worksheet 2. 2. Extended activity: Visit the Hong Kong History Museum.

Materials Used 1. PowerPoint 2. Worksheet 2

The story included in this lesson plan is adapted from Chau Yim Man, Chau, Hiu Kan, Cheung, Lok Man, Choi Cheung, Kam Chi Ho, and Kwok Yu Tai (2007), Bachelor of Education Primary Programme (2005–09).

Appendix 11.2 Project Learning Lesson Plan Theme-based English Project: Endangered Animals Project Lesson Planning Level: Primary Two Duration: 4 Weeks Lesson Plans General English Overall objectives: – Students acquire the skill to do a research on a topic and present the work through a written information report and an oral presentation. – Students enjoy exploring knowledge. – Students learn to organize information systematically. – Students experience cooperative learning through group discussion and appreciation. – Students develop critical thinking by identifying a problem and working out solutions.

Writing – Writing step by step: From vocabulary, sentences, mind maps, report tables to the final information report. – Gather and share information, ideas and language by using strategies such as mind map and listed information table. – Make changes to incorrect spelling, punctuation and grammar, and add details if necessary.

Generic skills Collaboration: Group discussion and sharing Creativity: Students select their own researched Language skills targets and design their presentation. Listening Numeracy skill: Students learn to use numbers – Listen to different stories and media about to describe the size of an animal. the topic Problem-solving: Students identify problems – Listen to others’ ideas concerning endangered animals and brain-storm Speaking solutions. – Voice out self-opinion through group Study Skill: Students acquire the technique to discussion and group presentation. do a research through the help of the Internet, – Individual presentation: Learn the encyclopedia and books. technique of public speaking through – Students learn to organize information presentation. under different category. Reading – Students learn to organize ideas through a – Read a series of articles related to the topic. mind map and a listed table. – Read different non-fiction books and onConfidence: To build up confidence through line reading materials throughout the group and self-presentation research process.

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 329



Homework/ Remarks

Lesson

Objectives

Materials

Teaching steps

1

– To acknowledge the students the concept of endangered animals and the animals which are extinct – To arouse the interest of the students in the topic

Power point stories of the ‘dodo’ and Yangtze river dolphin

– Teacher tells the stories of two extinct animals through power point. – Introduce the term ‘endangered’ and ‘extinct’. Points to think and discuss: 1. Teacher checks the understanding of the students by asking questions about the stories. 2. Teacher stimulates the thinking of the students by asking general questions about endangered animals. e.g. Do you care whether or not an animal becomes extinct? Why or why not? e.g. Think about ways that people can help endangered animals. Is there anything you can do?

2

– To introduce different sources in carrying out a research.

– Internet – Books about animals – An animal encyclopedia

– Teacher gives out the theme-based – Students English project (TBEP) booklet and choose their explains briefly the purpose and timetable targeted for the project. endangered – Introduce different means to find animals and information about the topic. complete Task (Display some books, an animal 1 and Task 2 encyclopedia and demonstrate the usage of Internet) – Browse through the recommended websites. http://www.kidcyber.com.au/ http://animal.discovery.com/guides/ endangered/endangered-mammalstab-02.html – Teacher explains TBEP P. 1 – Teacher goes to the below website and discuss the list of endangered animals. http://www.enchantedlearning.com/ coloring/endangered.shtml – Teacher guides students to complete Task 3

3

– To study an endangered animal in depth through an article – To enhance exchange of ideas and cooperative learning through group discussion

– Paper for writing notes

– Task 4: Read the article of ‘Miracle – Students read Birds’ on TBEP P.3 aloud the 1. 1st time: silent-reading by students article ‘Miracle 2. 2nd time: reading aloud by teacher Birds’ at Teacher explains some difficult home to their vocabulary parents. 3. 3rd time: students follow teacher to read aloud the article. – Teacher explains the questions. (Teacher encourages students to think under the heading of ‘appearance’, ‘habitat’, ‘problem’, ‘ideas to help’. – Task 5: Teacher arranges the students into 5 groups. Each group has 6 students with one as (1) the leader and one as (2) the writer. – Each member of the group has to discuss all the questions raised in the article. – The leader has to coordinate and assign each member to present each question. – Teacher picks some students to present for the groups. – Teacher has to choose the best presenting group and the most cooperative group. – Teacher comments on the new ideas suggested by the students.

330 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Lesson

Objectives

Materials

Teaching steps

Homework/ Remarks

4

– To accumulate Picture and knowledge sentence cards about the topic – To read and write sentences related to the topic

– Task 6: Read the article of ‘It takes a – Students village’ on TEBP P.4 complete – (1) 1st time: silent-reading by students Task 6 as – (2) 2nd time: reading aloud by teacher homework. – Teacher explains some difficult – Remind vocabulary students to – (3) 3rd time: students follow teacher to bring colouring read aloud the article. pencils for the – Teacher explains the questions. (Teacher next lesson encourages students to think under the heading of ‘appearance’, ‘habitat’, ‘problem’, ‘help’) – Teacher guides students to attempt some questions verbally. – Matching game: – Teacher writes the headings on the board as below. – Pictures – Problems – Results – Helps from people – Teacher places sentence cards randomly on the board. – Teacher places the picture cards under the column of pictures and asks students to match the pictures with the appropriate sentence cards. Example: – Picture of air pollution: Air is polluted – Animals cannot have clean air to breathe – Please use less fossil fuel such as oil and coal. – Teacher highlights the sentence cards: Many animals are endangered. Many animals are extinct as the final consequences.

5

– To understand a mind map – To think and organize information systematically

– Teacher introduces a mind map by drawing one on the board. – e.g. Teacher can use herself as the subject. – Describe teacher under the headings of a. appearance; b. favourite food; c. favourite activities; d. strength; e. weakness, etc. – Task 7: Teacher explains the mind map on TEBP P. 5 about the polar bear. – Teacher asks the students to colour the shapes according to the instructions. (Colouring can enhance the concept of classification) – Teacher asks questions about the information provided in the mind map to check students’ understanding.

Task 9: Students complete the mind map of their chosen endangered animals at home following the example in Task 7.

6

– To understand a listed table – To think and organize information systematically

– Task 8: Teacher introduces a listed report table. (Teacher highlights the questions under each heading.) – Teacher elaborates the list of problems faced by different endangered animals and the suggested helps from the people. – Teacher guides students to complete Task 8 by referring to the mind map on TEBP, p. 5.

Task 10: Students extract information from the mind map on p. 8 to complete the report table of their chosen animals

– colouring pencils

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 331



Lesson

Objectives

Materials

Teaching steps

Homework/ Remarks

7&8

– To write an information report

– Task 11: Read the final report of the polar bear on TEBP P.11 (1) 1st time: silent-reading by students (2) 2nd time: reading aloud by teacher (3) 3rd time: reading after the teacher – Teacher emphasizes (a) the structure of an information report which basically follows the report table; (b) writing in paragraphs; (c) writing in complete sentences. – Task 12: Teacher explains task 12 and gives a piece of blank paper for the student to write the first draft of the report.

9

Prepare a speech

Task 13: Teacher gives the marked version of Prepare the onethe report back to each student and asks him minute speech to write a neat copy for publishing. – Teacher explains Task 14 and 15 and arranges students for the one-minute speech in the next lessons.

10 & 11 Perform a speech

– peer evaluation sheet – teacher’s feedback form – a camera and a video-camera

Task 12: Students complete Task 12 on the blank paper.

Tasks 14 & 15: - Students take turn to perform the oneminute speech and complete Task 15 – Teacher fills in a feedback sheet for each student. (Take photo for each student and videoshoot each performance) – Students who are not performing have to fill in a peer evaluation form. (This can encourage students to listen to others and develop appreciation skills.) – Ask each student to calculate the total score they have given to each classmate and vote for the best-performing student – Teacher summarizes the factors for a good speech.

Adapted from Pang Yuen Shan, Windsor, Ying Wa Primary School (2009).

Appendices 11.2 a-i Here are some snapshots of a Theme-based English Project entitled ‘Endangered Animals’, showing scaffolding instruction and formative assessment strategies (adapted from Pang Yuen Shan, Windsor, Ying Wa Primary School, 2009).

332 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Appendix 11.2a: Using pictures to arouse student interests



Appendix 11.2b: Group discussion

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 333

334 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Appendix 11.2c: Individual comprehension



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 335

Appendix 11.2d: Mind-maps for organizing reports

336 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Appendix 11.2e: Using an information table



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 337

Appendix 11.2f: Reading and writing a report

338 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Appendix 11.2g: Presentation task



Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 339

Appendix 11.2h: Peer evaluation form

340 Learning and Teaching in the Chinese Classroom

Appendix 11.2i: Teacher’s feedback form (a formative assessment)

Lesson Planning, Assessment and Learning 341



Appendix 11.3: Investigating Circles In teaching the formula π=3.1416, teacher can ask students (in groups) to measure the circumference and diameter of several provided ‘cakes’, by using strings or paper strips. They are required to note down the measurements on a worksheet and to divide the circumference by the diameter. Students are asked to present the result in the whiteboard randomly by group, and compared with the teacher’s prepared answer at the end. They then learn the formula and understand the principle of this formula in measuring circles. Below was result of this simulated exercise which presents the process of exploration of π=3.1416. Circumference

Diameter

Circumference / Diameter

A

23.9

7.6

3.1

B

17.8

5.7

3.1

C

23.8

7.6

3.1

D

18.8

9.0

3.1

E

23.9

7.6

3.1

F

17.8

5.7

3.1

G

31.2

9.9

3.1

H

23.8

7.6

3.1

Glossary

Abstractness of titles is the extent of detachment from an overt description when expressing an idea while, at the same time, preserving its essential information. Parents with academic authoritarianism display authoritarian responses to poor and good grades. Accent refers to the characteristic pronunciation of a language that is usually determined by the regional or social backgrounds of speakers. Accommodation is the process by which existing schemas are altered in the light of new information. Achievement goal theory links the goal orientations, cognitive processes and achievements of individuals. Action research generates knowledge from professional practice. It is developed upon reflection and is highly recommended for the teaching profession for solving day-to-day teaching problems. Adaptive thinking is a composite of elaboration, abstractness of titles and creative strengths. The affective domain is primarily concerned with the development of attitudes and values. It deals with feelings, likes and dislikes, and it may affect how students approach school, their studies and their future lives. Analects is a record of the teachings of Confucius and his disciples. It is Confucianism’s central classic. Assimilation is the process by which new information is fitted into pre-existing schemas. Attribution theory focuses on individual explanations for success or failure in different activities. Parents with an authoritarian parenting style stress conformity and an unquestioning adherence to rules. Parents with an authoritative parenting style are firm and caring, explaining rules and having high expectations.

344 Glossary A behavioural perspective on motivation focuses on the outcomes of behaviours to explain human motivation. Behaviourism refers to theories of learning that depend on understanding changes in observable patterns of behaviour. Scientists who study behaviourism are called ‘behaviourists’. Beliefs refer to an individual’s representation of reality that has enough validity, truth or credibility to guide thoughts and behaviour. According to Bronfrenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, the chronosystem is that aspect of the environment influencing the development of a person that changes over time. The civil service examination system was established to recruit virtuous and able men to work in the government. Classical conditioning is a theory of learning that explains how a neutral stimulus comes to be associated with another stimulus and becomes capable of eliciting a similar response. Cognitive architectures are computer simulations of complex cognitive processes, such as language acquisition. Cognitive development refers to the study of the development of a person’s internal mental processes. The cognitive domain originally included six categories of cognitive skills arranged in order of difficulty, namely knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. An advanced version has added an extra dimension to knowledge, including factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive knowledge. A cognitive perspective on motivation explains human motivation through an understanding of complex mental activities. Communicative competency is demonstrated when speakers influence the behaviour of their listeners. Composite social maps show the social networks that exist among students in a classroom. Conceptions are beliefs that govern the way people plan and perceive their role in context. Confirmatory factor analysis is a data analytic technique that reduces the complexity in information by identifying the underlying structure. Confucianism refers to the philosophical and ethical system that evolved from the teachings of Confucius. It is very influential in Chinese thinking, both in China’s history and today. Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans actively construct meaning and understanding from their interactions with the environment.



Glossary 345

Contiguous learning is a type of learning in which the same response follows very closely the occurrence of a given stimulus. A correlation coefficient is a value between 0 and 1 representing the degree of association between two variables. A value of 0 represents no correlation, whereas a value of 1 represents perfect correlation. Creative strengths reflect a number of creative skills, including emotional expressiveness, story-telling articulateness, movement or action, expressiveness of titles, synthesis of incomplete figures, synthesis of lines or circles, unusual visualization, internal visualization, extending or breaking boundaries, humour, richness of imagery, colourfulness of imagery, and/or fantasy. Criterion-referenced assessment is a kind of assessment in which the learning of students is evaluated against a set of pre-specified criteria. Crystallized g (gc) is that part of intellectual ability that depends on one’s learning and experience. It is supposed to increase as people acquire more knowledge and experience. Culture refers to a shared system of learned behaviours, beliefs and attitudes that together help shape perception and future behaviour. Culture-dependent intelligence tests contain items that are biased towards people in a certain culture. For example, a vocabulary test may contain words that are more often encountered by people with a certain lifestyle or background. Culture-fair intelligence tests aim to minimize the influence of culture on a person’s performance. These tests usually include only items considered to be common among different cultures. Curriculum is a structured set of studies, including course content and any planned learning experience, offered by an educational institution. Curriculum framework refers to the structure in each key learning area (subject) that specifies the domains of learning and guides the curriculum design and lesson planning of specific disciplines. De Bono’s six thinking hats are a thinking framework that consists of six different predefined approaches to thinking about a topic. Users are tasked to adopt one of the six thinking ‘hats’, allowing them to look at an issue or a situation from different perspectives. Declarative knowledge is factual information and properties of an entity. This mainly requires memorization in describing such information. Deductive reasoning is a knowledge-formulation method that is based upon a general principle to solve or inform a specific issue.

346 Glossary A deviation IQ score is a person’s score on an intelligence test after the raw score has been standardized using a mean of 100 and standard deviation (SD) of 15. Dialect is a provincial or socially distinct variety of a language that differs from the standard language. Discovery learning is an approach to instruction that emphasizes that learners should discover knowledge and concepts on their own. Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It describes situations in which two stimuli elicit different responses. Ecological perspectives posit that different environmental systems affect a person’s development in an inter-related manner. Effect size is a statistical term that estimates the importance of any difference between two scores. Significance testing estimates whether there is a difference between two scores, whereas effect size measures whether the difference is important. Ego is the reality-oriented aspect of personality structure proposed by Freud. It enables a person to interact effectively with the social world. Egocentrism refers to children’s inability to fully differentiate self and the world. They cannot take another person’s perspective. Elaboration is the amount of detail within a participant’s response to a creativity test such as the Torrance Test of Creativity. Epistemology is concerned with how people think about knowledge and how changes in thinking about knowledge affect people. It is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. Equilibration is the drive to maintain a balance between assimilation and accommodation to obtain an optimal cognitive representation of the environment. Exosystem refers to the larger social system that has an impact on the child’s development but in which the child does not function directly. Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behaviour is consistently not rewarded. It is marked by the non-occurrence of a particular behaviour. Flexibility is the variety of responses a participant’s’ answers contain in answering creativity test questions. Flexible answers come from different categories. Fluency is the number of relevant ideas that participants produce in response to creativity test questions. This captures the idea that being able to give different solutions to problems is an important dimension of creativity.



Glossary 347

Fluid g (gf) is the ability to reason abstractly and to solve problems. This part of intelligence is supposed to be independent of experience, and it starts to decline after adolescence. Formative assessment is a kind of assessment that supports teaching and learning by informing teachers and students about students’ understanding at a particular time, thus allowing adjustments to be made. Four Books and Five Classics are canonical works in Confucianism. The Four Books was selected by a scholar during the Song dynasty to explain Confucianism, while the Five Classics is believed to have been personally compiled by Confucius. Generalization describes the situation in which an unconditioned stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a certain response because of its similarity to a conditioned stimulus. Generative grammar refers to grammar that allows an unlimited number of sentences to be generated from a small number of rules. In the new curriculum for Hong Kong, generic skills are the fundamental skills that help students to acquire, construct and apply knowledge. Genetic epistemology is the study of the origins of knowledge. It explains how knowledge develops from biological and cognitive development. Graphemes are systems of letters that together represent words. Hierarchical power relationships emphasize power differences in the relationship between and among entities. One party has considerable authority over the other, and the higher the position in the hierarchy, the more authority, power and resources they have. This structure determines the relationship among people in society and creates inequalities. Id is the aspect of personality structure proposed by Freud that contains the unconscious, irrational biological drives present at birth. Inductive reasoning is a knowledge-formulation method that is based upon using concrete and specific examples to form a general principle. Information processing describes how information is entered, processed, stored and retrieved in the human mind. Innovative thinking is a composite of fluency, originality and resistance to premature closure. An integrated curriculum is a curriculum that provides an integrative learning experience based on different integrated principles, such as thematic learning, and cross-curricular and multi-intelligence curricula. It is learner-oriented, with an emphasis on real-world events and learners’ active enquiry.

348 Glossary An interval measurement indicates the difference between two variables where a ‘0’ score is not necessarily the least possible value and negative values are allowed. For instance, 0 degree Celsius does not represent the absence of heat and a temperature lower than 0 can be expressed as a negative value. In the new curriculum for Hong Kong, Key Learning Areas (KLAs) refer to the eight knowledge domains that are meant to contain the basic knowledge/concepts needed for the adult world. A language acquisition device was proposed by Noam Chomsky as a hypothetical part of the brain that allows for the rapid development of language. Language refers to a system of rules and symbols used to transmit information from one person to another. A learning society is a society which is adept at learning and aims for continuous improvement. It has been proposed as a necessity for remaining competitive in the accelerating transformation of society. Students with learning-avoidance goals focus on avoiding misunderstanding and not being able to learn when tackling a task. Students with learning-performance goals focus on learning and on truly mastering the task at hand. Lifelong learning stresses that learning is not only important in childhood, but can and should take place throughout one’s entire life. It covers different aspects of life. Linguistic determinism is a view that suggests that human thought is determined absolutely by the language we use. Hence, different languages determine the types of thought that are possible. Linguistic relativism is a weaker view of linguistic determinism which suggests that language helps to influence the way people think but does not determine it. Locus of control is concerned with a person’s beliefs about the causes of successes and failures in life. It can be represented as a continuum, from an internal to an external locus of control. Logit is the unit of measurement in the Rasch measurement model. Long-term memory refers to the system in our brain that stores information for an extended period of time. The macrosystem, according to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, is the outermost system that influences a child’s development. The macrosystem includes the ideologies, values, customs and laws of a particular culture.



Glossary 349

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a strong magnetic field to align molecules in the body. Finely tuned radio waves are then passed through the body, whose molecules give off radio signals that are interpreted by a computer to create 3D images that allow us to differentiate different tissue types. Mentalese is the language of thinking. It is the internal representation of external information. The mesosystem, according to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, refers to the inter-relationships in a persons’ microsystem. Metalinguistic awareness is an ability to think about language as an object. This ability allows for more complex uses of language such as words having double meanings. The microsystem, according to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development, is that aspect of the environment that has direct contact with a person, including family, school and neighbourhood. A model is a representation of something. In science, models are often used to help explain how things work. Because intelligence cannot be directly observed, models are developed to help explain the responses to tests of intelligence. Modelling is a process of assimilation and exhibition of another person’s behaviour or characteristics. In the monarch-subject power relationship in traditional Chinese thought, the monarch is the ‘son of god’ and has a divine right to total power over citizens. Morphemes are combinations of phonemes. Morphology is the study of how combinations of sounds (morphemes) contribute to the development of meaning. Motivation refers to the forces that initiate, direct and sustain a person’s behaviour. Nativist theories of language development focus on the innate ability of children to acquire language. Negative reinforcement is the consequent increase in the likelihood or frequency of a behaviour subsequent to the exclusion of an undesirable stimulus. A nominal (or categorical) measurement scale is used to label different types of scores for the purpose of identification or categorization, e.g. ‘1’ representing boy and ‘2’ representing girl. A norm-referenced test has been taken by a representative sample of people in order to find out the statistical properties of the test, such as the distribution, mean score and standard deviation. This enables anyone taking the test in the future to be compared against the distribution of scores in the sample. Ideally, the person taking the test should be same in relevant respects as those in the representative sample.

350 Glossary A normal curve describes the distribution of different scores of a variable shown as a bellshaped curve. The middle section of the curve represents the most frequently indicated score, while the two ends of the curve represent the least frequently indicated scores on that variable. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the probability of the occurrence of a given behaviour is changed by the consequence of the behaviour. An ordinal measurement scale usually measures a person’s agreement to a statement. For example, agreement can be measured using a five-point scale where 1= totally disagree, 2 = partially disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = partially agree and 5 = totally agree. Orientation refers to the goals, intention and approach of a person in handling a matter. Originality captures the novelty element in creativity. It measures whether the idea is rare, unusual and relevant. Paralinguistic codes refer to the non-verbal elements of speech that contribute to its meaning. Parental control is the pressure exerted by parents on children to get them to think, feel or behave in certain ways. Parenting styles are the different strategies parents employ to control and socialize their children. Patriarchy refers to a social system characterized by male dominance. In such a system, men exercise authority over women and children. Pedagogical content knowledge is the dynamic combination of subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge, such as the ability to organize learning activities and to use proper expressions, metaphors, examples, symbols and images related to the effective delivery of disciplinary knowledge. Percentile is a ranking of a score that compares the position of that score to a larger number of scores, using a scale ranging from 0 to 100. Students with performance-approach goals focus on attaining positive judgements of competence in tackling learning tasks. Students with performance-avoidance goals focus on avoiding negative judgements of ability when tackling learning tasks. Parents with a permissive parenting style do not enforce rules, have limited expectations and demand little from their children. Philosophy is a set of values and attitudes which forms a consistent pattern of thinking that is used to guide one’s behaviour. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound made by the human voice.



Glossary 351

Phonology is the study of the phonemes used in different languages. Piagetian intelligence refers generally to organisms’ ability to adapt to and organize the environment. Positive reinforcement results in an increase in the likelihood or frequency of behaviour subsequent to presenting a desirable stimulus. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a clinical procedure in which a radioactive tracer is injected into a person’s bloodstream, and images of the concentration of the tracer in different parts of the body are created by a computer. If the tracer used is glucose attached to radioactive molecules, then the areas that use more glucose will show a higher concentration of the tracer molecules. The areas of interest can therefore be identified. Pragmatics refers to the social context in which language is understood. Premature closure refers to the reluctance or inability of a person to consider all information. A presentation punisher is an approach to deter a behaviour which involves presenting an undesirable stimulus. Pretence is the figural ability to transform reality, e.g. a banana becoming a telephone. Procedural knowledge is knowledge for executing a learned concept. This involves the application of a general principle to specific situations or problems. Project learning is a strategy of learning and teaching, originating in child-centred education, which involves learners in a process of enquiry through gathering and evaluating data, putting forward and testing hypotheses and reaching appropriate conclusions. It has been recommended as a key task in the school curriculum in Hong Kong since 2000. Proxemics is the study of the personal space people require when using language in different contexts. The psychomotor domain is concerned with physical movement and with developing the co-ordination and motor skills needed in many learning situations, e.g. in using a computer mouse and operating a drilling machine. Psychosexual development refers to Freud’s theory of development, which posits that human growth unfolds in a series of stages, each characterized by a focus on instinctual needs arising from a specific body part. Psychosocial development refers to Erikson’s theory of development, in which human development is viewed as a result of progressive interactions between a person and the environment through stages. A punisher is a consequence of a behaviour that decreases the frequency of such behaviour.

352 Glossary The Rasch measurement model converts scores from ordinal (ordered) measurement scales into interval measurement scales. A ratio measurement scale represents an actual measurement of a variable. In this scale, a ‘0’ value can be present, which indicates the least possible value of a variable. As such, negative values are not permitted. For example, the least number of correct answers in a test is 0 (no correct answer), but it is impossible to have a lower score than this. Receptive grammar refers to the match between syntax and meaning. Reciprocal causation refers to the mutual influence between sets of factors. A reflective practitioner is a professional who possesses the capacity to reflect on practice through individual or team reflection for improving professional practice. A reinforcer is a consequence of a behaviour that increases that frequency of such behaviour. A removal punisher is an approach to deter a behaviour which involves excluding an undesirable stimulus. A response is a consequential action which corresponds to a specific stimulus. Scaffolding refers to assistance given to children in the form of helpful interactions that enable them to do something beyond their independent efforts. Schemas are basic mental structures that the mind uses to organize representations of the world. A scheme of work is a yearly or semester-based plan which guides teaching and learning through listing the expected learning targets, resources and activities. Scientific theories are organized scientific bodies of knowledge that explain complex natural phenomena. A scientific theory can be in the form of a model. The self-concept is a multidimensional construct that refers to the general idea we have of ourselves. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the term ‘self-esteem’. Self-esteem refers to our own evaluation of our self-concept—how we feel about or value ourselves. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the term ‘self-concept’. Semantics is the study of word meanings. A sentence refers to a group of words that consist of a subject and a predicate. Sequencing is the arrangement of the order of teaching and learning events. A good sequence of lesson delivery may enhance the effectiveness of learning. A logical sequence can usually be established by: linking the whole to parts; learning concrete facts before abstract concepts; using a spiral sequence; making horizontal and vertical arrangements; and integrating relevant parts across different topics or subjects.



Glossary 353

Short-term memory is memory that has a limited capacity of about seven chunks of information. Information will be lost quickly if it is not rehearsed repeatedly or stored in the long-term memory. The social-cognitive perspective on motivation focuses on the importance of goals, expectations and self-efficacy in human motivation. Social cognitive theory is a theory that understands human learning as a dynamic process in which environmental, social and personal factors interact and influence one another. Social constructivism focuses on how culture and society, and more generally social interactions, contribute to the development of knowledge. Socialization is process of inheriting the norms, customs and values of a society, which are necessary for individuals to function in the society. Students with special educational needs require changes in a curriculum and/or services in order to achieve academically and socially. Speech is one form of language. Standardized tests are instruments given to a large number of people under uniform conditions, including test conditions and scoring. Giving tests to a large number of people with similar ages, grade levels and backgrounds helps to establish the distribution of scores. A stimulus is a real or perceived entity that can initiate changes in a person’s behaviour. Structural equation modelling (SEM) is a mathematical model that describes causal relationships among three or more variables. Summative assessment is a kind of assessment that assesses what students know or do not know at a particular time—it summarizes the development of learners. Superego refers to the ethical or moral aspect of personality structure proposed by Freud. It contains the rules and ideals of the society that are internalized by the individual. Symbolic modelling is a process in which an influential (fictitious) person inspires a behavioural change in another person. This behavioural change is usually comparable to that of the person who inspired it. Syntax is the study of the relationships between words in a sentence. A taxonomy is a scheme of classification of a particular subject or area, arranged in a hierarchical structure. Teacher professional development refers to the continuous development of teachers in their careers. To support it, schools are required to have continuing professional development plans.

354 Glossary The concept of teachers as researchers aims to improve professional practice by continuously testing knowledge-in-use theories to fine-tune practice through action research or other professional activities. Theories are organized scientific bodies of knowledge that explain complex natural phenomena. A scientific theory can be in the form of a model. The traditionalist stream refers to thinking that is regarded as traditional. It may be viewed as outdated and inappropriate in modern society, but it still has an influence, as seen in content-based learning and teacher-centred pedagogy. A trait is a unique type or pattern of a person’s behaviour. The trait perspective on motivation views human motivation as a characteristic of a person’s personality which is relatively stable across situations and time. An uninvolved parenting style is one in which parents take little interest in their children’s lives and hold few expectations. Values are critical components of belief systems that guide decisions and actions. Vicarious learning is a learning approach that involves assimilating the behaviour of a person or object. The zone of proximal development is the difference between what a child can do with help and what he/she can do without help. A z-score is the score obtained after a transformation of the raw scores from a distribution, such that the mean score is 0 and SD is 1. A z score is computed using x-x the formula Z = , where x is the obtained score, x is the mean score of the SD sample, and SD is the standard deviation of scores in the sample.

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Index

absolutism, knowledge and, 13, 15–16, 293 academic goals, 190–191, 306 academic intelligence, 96 academic performance, 59, 106, 120, 152, 154, 168, 189, 236, 240, 244, 246, 248 academic success parental expectations and, 241 accents, 210 accommodation, 37–38, 45, 52, 55, 217, 343 accountability system, 172 achievement and mastery goals social consequences of, 193 achievement goal theory, 175, 177, 183, 190–191, 193–194 achievement motivation, 155, 176, 180–183 achievement motivation classrooms and, 180, 182, 200 gender and, 182 action research, 28, 259, 265, 273–281, 286, 288 active learning, 48, 67, 161–162, 305, 312 activity approach, 283 activity reinforcers, 75, 94 adaptation, 36–37, 52, 103, 132, 140, 215, 217 adaptive skills, 108 Advisory Committee on Teacher Education and Qualification (ACTEQ), 281, 284–286 affective domains, 308 agents of change, 28, 292 aggressive-disruption, 243 anal stage, 159

Analects, 20, 343 analytic intelligence, 116–117 animism, 42 anxiety, 68–69, 74, 158, 160, 184–185, 188, 192, 195, 201 applied behavioural analysis, 215 arcuate fasciculus, 206 artefacts, 278–279 artful doing, 271 artistry in teaching, 273 authority knowledge and, 11, 13, 59, 167, 323 Assessment Programme for Affective and Social Outcomes (APASO), 172 assimilation, 37–38, 52, 55, 217, 234, 343 attention, 7, 19, 32–35, 42, 45, 53–54, 66, 70–71, 77, 80–81, 85–87, 89, 94, 109, 112, 115, 117, 152–153, 155, 158, 171–172, 184, 214, 217, 242, 251, 258, 270, 282, 284, 317, 319, 321–322, 326 attribution theory, 153, 176, 186–187, 343 auditory cues, 145–146 authentic learning experience, 268 authentic task, 8, 58, 268, 318 authoritarian parents, 168–169, 238, 240 authoritative parents, 168, 238 autonomy vs. shame and doubt, 160–161 axiology, 12 Bandura, A., 88, 90, 92, 151 baseline frequency, 79–80, 85, 94 behaviour, 4–5, 7, 11, 19, 24, 40–42, 45, 53, 64, 70–90, 92–94, 98, 115–116, 128, 133, 138, 147–148, 153, 157–158,

384 Index 160–161, 165–167, 170, 175, 177– 178, 181, 184, 186–188, 190, 193, 199, 204, 214, 218, 232, 237, 239, 242–246, 251–254, 256–258, 270, 292–293, 309 behavioural problems, 212, 238, 243 behaviourism, 5, 15, 63–65, 88, 294 benevolence, 167, 234 bilingual programmes, 220–221, 222 bilingual strategies, 224 bilingual triliterate society, 204 bilingualism, 204, 219, 221, 224 bioecological systems theory of human development, 232, 238 biological influences, 146 boredom, 78, 81 brain glucose metabolism and 112 language and, 32, 50, 53–54, 136, 138, 203–208, 216, 219, 221, 225–229, 234, 241, 250 brain size intelligence and, 108, 111 breakfast clubs, 183 Broca’s area, 205–206, 228 Bruner, J., 5, 31, 48–50, 55, 59–61, 216–217 Buddhism, 234, 239, 247 catering for diversity, 269 Catholicism, 247 Certificate of Good Behaviour, 94 child training, 169 Chinese child-rearing practices, 60 Chinese children, 59 Chinese classroom, 32, 57, 60–64, 80–81, 86, 89–91, 142–143, 177, 179, 198– 199, 231, 247, 249, 251, 269, 323 Chinese culture intelligence and, 120 parenting styles and, 146, 239–240, 370 Chinese Hong Kong parents, 190, 240 Chinese parenting, 168–169, 239 Chinese secondary students in southern China, 179 Chinese society, 1, 167, 239, 251

Chinese students attributional styles and, 189 goal orientations and, 192–193, 197 chronosystem, 157, 232, 344 classical conditioning, 63–70, 77, 92, 214 classroom creativity and, 135–137 classroom behaviour, 72, 76–77, 80, 82–84, 242 classrooms classical conditioning and, 63–64 motivational theories and, 79–89 coaching, 56, 273 cognitive acceleration, 57 cognitive awareness, 53 cognitive constructivist orientation, 246 cognitive development, 5, 8, 10, 15, 25, 34– 36, 38–39, 42, 45–46, 48, 52, 54–57, 61, 76, 147, 165, 203, 206, 217–219, 227, 323 cognitive domain, 307, 310 cognitive processes, 31–32, 34, 37, 45, 54, 115, 128–129, 175, 190–191, 218, 307 cognitive strategies, 26, 34, 168, 293 cognitivism, 5, 8, 17 collective monologue, 41 collectivism, 121, 195 comfort, 78, 133 communication impairments, 250 communicative competence, 205 competitive classroom, 79, 91, 198 comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test, 212 concept of Heaven, 120, 234 concrete operational stage, 38, 43–44 concrete reinforcers, 75 conditioned response, 66–67, 214 conditioned stimulus, 66–67, 69, 214 Confucianism, 1, 17–25, 28–30, 81, 84–86, 92, 120, 146, 154, 166–167, 173, 179, 194, 231, 234–235, 237, 239, 247, 251, 257, 265, 268, 323 Confucian educational thought, 1, 17–19, 22, 24–25, 28, 30

Confucian heritage culture, 120, 234, 239 Confucius, 11, 18–23, 28, 167 conscience, 158, 164 conservation, 41–44, 46 constructivism, 3, 9, 13–17, 31–32, 34–35, 37, 43, 45, 47–48, 50, 52–61, 216– 217, 220, 232, 245–246, 266, 269, 293, 296, 318 constructivist pedagogies, 15, 31, 57 constructivist perspective, 56, 375 content areas, 306 contiguity, 63–64 contiguous learning, 63, 65–66 contiguous relationship, 65 contingency contracts, 79 continuing professional development, 269, 281, 283–284, 286 controllability, 187, 202 correlation studies, 113 creative expression, 137–139 creative intelligence, 116–117, 122 creative invention, 129 creative performance, 137, 140 creative potential, 128, 137 creativity Geneplore model of, 128–130 motivation and, 128, 138, 139 social status and, 134 self-concept and, 134, 145–153, 155, 170, 172, 185, 198 study of, 127–128, 135 crystallized intelligence (gc), 97 culture adult-child relationships and, 234 school achievement and, 101, 106–107, 242 cultured (or educated) man, 234 culture-dependent tests, 103 culture-fair test, 103 curricular reform, 268–269, 286 curriculum blueprint, 267, 295–296 curriculum designs, 298 Curriculum Development Council (CDC), 277, 283 curriculum integration, 296, 299

Index 385 curriculum organization, 296, 298 Daoism, 81, 86, 234, 239 data collection, 278–280 declarative knowledge, 224–225, 316 deductive, 12, 41, 44, 97, 136, 226 deductive abilities, 97 deictic terms, 217 desirable behaviour, 71, 75, 77–82, 86, 94, 201 desirable classroom behaviour, 76 detention, 82, 84 deviation IQ scores, 104, 106 dichotomous reasoning, 151 didactic approach, 25 diligence, 18, 59–60, 81, 121, 154, 168, 195 direct modelling, 89, 91 direct transmission, 246 disabilities, 101, 212, 218, 238, 249–251 discourses, 278–279 discovery learning, 48–49, 55, 61 discrimination, 67, 69, 79, 97, 249 disequilibrium, 45, 186 disruptive talking, 85 doctrine of the mean, 234 domain-specific knowledge, 137–138 ecological model, 156, 172 education intelligence and, 106, 107 Education Bureau (EDB), 221 Education Commission (EC), 3, 284 education policy intelligence and, 124 education reform, 29, 284, 380 EEG patterns and intelligence (IQ), 111 effects of attributions, 187 ego, 157–158, 160, 162, 166, 173, 191, 346 ego integrity vs. despair, 162 egocentric behaviour, 41–42, 243 electroencephalogram (EEG), 111 elitism, 28, 266 emotional and behavioural disorders, 250– 251 emotional intelligence, 96, 119–120

386 Index empiricism, 11, 13 empowerment of teachers, 281 enactive stage, 49 environment behaviour and, 90 classroom, 16, 79, 88, 140, 196 language-rich, 214, 216 learning, 5, 7, 59, 122, 170, 194, 201, 226–227, 253, 295 social, 51, 53, 86, 145, 167, 206, 216 sociocultural, 256 episodic memory, 33 epistemology, 11–14, 31–32, 35, 271 equilibration, 38, 45, 346 Erikson, E. H., 145, 155, 160, 162–163, 172–173 erogenous zones, 159–160 essentialism, 6, 8 ethnic groups, 233, 257 examination-oriented, 27–28, 59, 254, 268, 283, 324 existential self, 147 existentialism, 4, 8, 17 exosystem, 156, 232 expectations cultural, 83, 231 parental, 26, 59, 83, 124, 168, 170, 241– 242, 252 social, 145, 148, 155, 164, 291 student’s, 88, 124, 176, 187, 185 teacher's, 176, 248–249, 252 expectations of success, 124, 176, 187, 195, 197–198, 202 external locus of control, 188 external perception, 148 external reality, 38, 55 externally controlled event, 293 extinction, 67, 69, 80, 346 extrinsic motivation, 138, 176–179, 196–197, 200–201 facilitator, 9, 289 f a i l u r e - o r i e n t e d s t u d e n t s ( l ow - n e e d achievers), 181–182 family involvement, 241–242

family resources, 241–242 fear of failure, 184, 186 feedback, 5, 7, 52, 75–76, 83, 87, 90, 93, 152, 185, 246, 258, 272, 278–280, 289, 292, 304–306, 311, 313–315, 331, 340 filial piety, 121, 167, 239 first language (L1), 208, 213, 221, 223 first language (L1) development of, 203, 208, 227 origins of, 213 five cordial relationships, 234 fluid intelligence (gf), 97 flynn effect, 114 forced relationships, 141 formal education, 268, 283, 285 formal operational, 38, 44 formative, 153, 171, 305, 313–316, 318, 331, 340 Four Books and Five Classics, 16 freedom, 4, 7, 73–74, 77–78, 103, 130, 140, 142, 160–162, 169, 171, 238 Freud, S., 145, 155, 157–160, 172 future problem solving, 140, 142 g model of intelligence education and, 24, 26, 35, 57, 97, 120– 121, 167–168, 194, 204, 249, 252, 260–261, 267, 270, 277, 281, 284– 286, 288 gender roles, 156, 252–253 gender stereotyping, 253 generalization, 67–68, 79, 215 generative grammar, 211 generativity vs. stagnation, 161–163 genital stage, 160 gifted education, 124, 249, 374 giftedness, 108, 121, 124, 131, 231, 234, 238, 249, 252 globalization, 3, 281–282 glucose metabolism, 108, 112 goal orientation, 167, 191–192, 195 goal-directed actions, 40 goal theory, 175, 177, 183, 190–191, 193– 194

Index 387

Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, 212 grammar, 79, 204, 211–215, 220, 222–225, 248, 319, 328 grandma’s rule, see Premack principle group contingencies, 75–76 guidance and counselling, 166, 172, 250 Guilford’s structure of intellect, 115 health impairments, 250 hermeneutic tradition, 21 high-ability students, 179, 195, 246 high-achieving students, 83, 171, 196, 198 high-level models of intelligence, 95–96, 115 high-need achievers, 181 higher focused morality, 164 Homer, 16 homework, 60, 78–79, 83–85, 92, 179, 242, 268, 278, 314, 329–331 Hong Kong classroom creativity and, 2–4, 127–128, 131–133, 135–137, 142, 266, 307 humanity, 20–22, 25, 166 hunger, 75 iconic representation, 49 id, 157–158, 160 ideal child, 239 ideal man, 17, 19, 25, 235 ideal students, 81 identity, 2, 44, 133, 148, 153, 204, 233–234, 248, 250, 261, 297 identity vs. role confusion, 161 imitation, 41, 213–215, 217 immersion programmes, 220–222, 224 in-service training, 284, 287 indicating, 18, 217, 224, 228, 244, 296 individual differences, 33, 74, 81, 96, 101, 108, 115, 117, 121–122, 128, 186, 188, 199, 204, 254, 259 individualism, 195 inductive abilities, 97 inductive approach, 48 industry vs. inferiority, 161 i n f a n t s c o m m u n i c a t ive d eve l o p m e n t inventory, 213

information processing (IP), 32, 35, 56, 108, 207 information-driven society, 267 initiative vs. guilt, 161 in-service teacher, 29 integrated curriculum plan, 298, 302, 304 integrative organization, 296 intellectual development, 38, 56, 135, 219 intellectual disability, 107 intelligence corpus callosum and, 113 creativity and, 96, 127–128, 132–133 crystallized (gc), 97–98 g model of, 96–97, 115, 119, 121 inspection time (it) and, 108, 110 low-level models of, 96, 114–115, 124 multi-factor models of, 97 race and, 97, 114 triarchic theory of, 116–117, 125, 377 intelligence quotient (IQ), 96, 100–108, 110– 114, 117, 122, 224, 241, 246, 316 intended learning outcomes, 295, 308 intentionality, 217–218 intermittent reinforcement, 79 internal cognitive activity, 293 internal cognitive aspect, 56 internal locus of control, 153, 188 internal processes, 55 internal self-perception, 148 International Phonetic Alphabet, 209–210 interval measurement scale, 100–101 interviews, 200, 279–280 intimacy vs. stagnation, 161 intrinsic, 19, 58–59, 75–76, 82, 93, 135, 138–139, 154, 176, 179, 183, 185– 186, 189, 195–200, 202, 235, 255 intrinsic motivation, 76, 135, 138–139, 176, 179, 183, 185–186, 189, 196–197, 200 intrinsic reinforcers, 75–76, 82, 93 intuitive grammarians, 211 intuitive guesses, 49 intuitive thinking, 49, 41–42 jun zi, 167, 234

388 Index Key Learning Area (KLA), 266–267, 296– 297 key learning stages, 298, 302 knowing-in-action, 271–272 knowledge updating, 282 knowledge, reasoning and creativity, 135, 143 knowledge-based society, 2, 266, 281 knowledge-in-action, 271–272 Kohlberg, L., 163–166, 168 language definitions of, 108, 128 development of, 136, 214, 227 knowledge transferred and, 224 learning and, 209, 227, 307 language acquisition device (LAD), 211, 215 language and cognitive development, 203, 206 language development behavioural models of, 214 cognitive constructivist models of, 216– 217 cognitive interactionist models of, 216, 218 latency nativist theories of, 211, 215–216 social interactionist models of, 216–219 lateral thinking, 141 learned helplessness, 189 learner-oriented, 298 learning by doing, 60, 266, 293–294 learning difficulties, 238 learning disabilities, 212, 218, 251 learning experience, 58, 297 learning goals, 154, 191–193, 195–197, 306 learning objectives, 244, 296, 306–309, 315 learning outcomes assessment of student, 199 learning profession, 286 learning society, 282 learning strategies, 78, 94, 124, 179, 190, 192, 195, 198–199, 209, 240, 312, 318 learning to learn, 3, 266, 268, 294–295, 308

learning-approach goals, 191 learning-avoidance goals, 191 legalism, 81 legalist, 86 lesson planning, 291–296, 298, 305–306, 308–309, 318, 324, 328 liberal studies, 298 lifelong learning, 2, 9, 17, 282, 285–286, 318 linguistic determinism, 207–208 linguistic relativism, 208 linguistics, 14, 209, 211 locus of control, 153, 179, 187–188, 202 logical consequences, 77 long-term memory, 32–33, 65, 108, 207, 226 looking glass theory, 148 low achievers, 153–154, 171, 189 low-ability student, 82, 179, 195, 246 low-need achievers, 180–181 loyalty, 23, 60, 167, 173, 234 macrosystem, 156, 232 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 111 male-female differences, 253 mandate, 234 Marxism, 4, 8 Maslow, A. H., 75, 167, 183–185, 201, 371 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 75, 183–185, 201 mastery experience, 90–91 material reinforcers, 178 matrix reasoning, 103 medium of instruction ability grouping and, 194 English and, 57, 69, 107, 209, 212, 226– 227, 237, 248, 284 school context and, 84, 246–248, 273 memory long-term, 32–33, 65, 108, 207, 226 rote, 47, 154 sensory, 32–33 short-term (working), 32–33, 101–103, 108, 117 mental ability, 104–106, 108, 235–237 mental concepts, 53 mental energy, 96

mental function, 54 mental representation, 55 mental retardation, 107–108 mentalese, 207–209 mentoring, 89–90, 273 mesosystem, 156, 232 metacognitive skills development of, 137, 140, 298 metalinguistic awareness, 211, 213 microsystem, 156, 232, 238 misconceptions, 45–46 mixed ability, 269, 309 modelling, 376 moral self, 163 moral socialization, 166 morphemes, 211 mother-tongue teaching, 204 motivation assessment of, 128 commonsense view of, 176 expectancy-value theory of, 176 motivation for learning, 61, 84 motor disabilities, 250 multiple intelligences (MI) theory natural curiosity of children, 138 need for approval, 184, 201 need for autonomy, 185 need for reducing anxiety, 184 need for relatedness, 184, 201 need to achieve, 180, 183, 186 negative perfectionism, 198 negative reinforcement, 72–74, 93, 178 neo-elitism, 266 neo-Piagetian, 45 neutral stimulus, 66 nominal measurement scale, 99 non-competitive classroom, 91 non-verbal communication, 209, 228 number facility, 97 objectivism, 13, 15–16 observable behaviour, 64, 88, 308 observation records, 280 observers, 76, 279–280

Index 389 off-task behaviour, 81, 85 operant conditioning, 63–64, 70–74, 78–80, 86, 93–94, 184, 201, 214 optimal achievement model, 236–237 Oral and Written Language Scales, 213 oral comprehension, 212 oral expression, 212 oral language assessment of, 212 oral stage, 159 ordinal measurement scale, 100 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 241 other-focused morality, 164 over-generalizing, 151 parental attitudes, 237, 242 parental control, 169 parenting, 146, 168–169, 172, 183, 238–240, 242–243, 246 peer influences and, 69, 244, 246 parenting styles, 146, 168–169, 172, 238– 240 parents Chinese, 26, 83, 168–169, 189–190, 238–241 participatory, 272 pedagogical knowledge, 269 pedagogical practices, 154, 323 pedagogy, 9, 21, 61, 266, 268, 283 peer influences, 69, 244, 246 peer mentoring, 89–90 peer preference, 243 peer pressure, 76 peers, 25, 29, 51–53, 55, 58, 122, 133, 150, 153, 159–161, 206, 217, 231–232, 238, 242–246, 248, 257, 310, 316 perceived support, 243 perceptual, 13, 38, 42–43, 50, 103, 250, 315 perennialism, 5, 8 performance-approach goals, 190, 192–193, 197 performance assessment, 316 performance goals, 154, 191–193, 195–197, 200

390 Index performance-avoidance goals, 192, 197 permissive parents, 169, 238 personal and social values, 267, 296 personal growth, 172, 183, 238, 286, 295 personality gender and, 132–133, 158–159 personality development, 160, 166, 296 phallic stage, 159 philosophical foundation, 1, 4 philosophical orientation(s), 4, 7, 10, 16, 17 philosophy, 3–6, 10–11, 14, 17–18, 141, 237, 262, 268, 271, 285–286, 292, 294, 301 phonemes, 209, 211 phonology, 209, 223 physical interactions, 40 physical punishers, 78 physical sensations, 145–147 physiological, 65, 90, 96, 112–113, 115, 145, 176, 183 physiological feedback, 90 Piaget, J., 14, 31–32, 35–36, 38–42, 44–46, 49–50, 52, 54–57, 59–61, 76, 138, 163–164, 168, 186, 206, 217 Pinker, S., 207–208, 215–216 PISA, 194, 235, 241 planned learning experiences, 295 play development and, 54 learning and, 61, 287 portfolios, 280 positive feedback, 75–76, 83, 93, 278, 289 positive perfectionism, 198 positive reinforcement, 72–76, 178 positive reinforcers, 75 positron emission tomography (PET), 112 practical intelligence, 96, 116–117, 119, 122, 125 pragmatics, 209, 212, 228 pragmatism, 6, 13, 17 praise, 7, 58, 70–71, 82–83, 85, 152, 169, 171, 178–179, 196, 201, 214, 258 predicted score, 241 Premack principle, 75 preoperational stage, 38, 39–42, 46

presentation punishment, 72–74, 76, 78, 178 presented reinforcer, 74 primary auditory cortex, 205 primary reinforcers, 75 prior knowledge, 188, 306 procedural knowledge, 138, 225 professional growth, 281, 284 professional practice, 271 professional development of teacher, 284, 286 professionalism, 260, 280, 285–286 proficiency in English, 223 programme of study, 295 progressivism, 6, 8 project learning, 301–302, 305, 307, 312– 313, 315, 328 propriety, 234 psychoanalytic, 128, 145, 155, 157, 166, 172 psychodynamic perspective, 157 psycholinguistics, 207, 209 psychological feedback, 90 psychological punishers, 78 psychomotor domains, 310 psychosexual development, 158–160 psychosocial theories, 155, 172 punishers, 74, 76–78, 80, 82, 88–89, 177– 178, 214 punishment, 5, 71–74, 76–78, 80, 82–84, 86–89, 93–94, 164–165, 169, 178– 179, 245 questionnaires, 189, 198, 200, 278–280 rating system, 316 ratio measurement scale, 99–100 Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (RAPM), 104, 112 Raven’s Coloured Matrices (RCM), 104 Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RPM), 104, 107 reaction-time (RT), 108–109 reasoning, 10, 12, 35, 40–45, 48, 50, 95, 97– 98, 101–103, 110, 116, 128, 135–136, 143, 151, 165, 226, 243 receptive grammar, 213, 352

reciprocal causation, 86–87, 92, 94 recitation, 10, 15, 22, 24, 60, 314, 323 rectification of names, 234 reduce undesirable behaviour, 76 reflection-in-action, 272 reflection-on-action, 272 reflective dialogues, 280 reflective journals, 279 reflective practice, 272, 288 reflective practitioners, 269–270, 285–286, 318 reform, 1–3, 25, 28–29, 59–60, 135, 249, 254, 261–262, 266, 268–269, 280– 282, 284, 286, 292, 301, 305, 324 refresher courses, 283 regression method, 236 reinforcement, 71–80, 82, 85, 87–89, 93–94, 165, 178, 214–215 reinforcer, 74–75, 79, 94, 178, 184, 214 relatedness, 75, 184, 201 Remote Associates Test (RAT), 128, 130 removal punishment, 72–73, 76–78, 178 removed reinforcer, 174 repression, 158 research team, 278, 288 resources, 3, 14, 31, 116, 120, 124, 140, 192, 206, 220, 224, 241–242, 247, 249, 252, 255, 280, 299, 301, 304–306 response, 5, 32, 37, 63–68, 70–71, 77, 85, 92, 95, 101, 165, 175, 214, 242, 244– 245, 249, 290, 316–317 response cost, 77 responses, 11, 41, 64–67, 71, 82, 92, 94–95, 109–110, 131–132, 143, 188, 200– 202, 213–215, 218, 240, 248, 254, 279–280 responsibility, 4, 7, 9, 17, 26, 49, 58–59, 81, 83, 119, 167, 169, 173, 178, 180, 187–188, 218, 268, 282, 300, 313– 315, 322 reward, 5, 73, 75, 82–83, 86, 90, 94, 170– 171, 177, 200 rewards, 58, 81–83, 88, 139, 165, 178–179, 198 righteousness, 234

Index 391 role confusion, 161 rote learning, 2, 24–25, 27, 293 routine, 12, 23, 271–272, 275, 323 rubrics, 316, 318 sage, 19, 21, 25, 167, 172, 260–261 sagehood, 21 salivation, 63, 66–67 satisfied score, 241 scaffolding, 51–52, 58, 61, 223, 293, 312– 314, 331 SCAMPER, 140–141, 362 schemas, 33, 36–38, 40, 43–45, 65, 136, 188, 206–207, 209, 211, 217–218 scheme of work, 291, 298, 300, 305 school achievement parenting and, 168, 183, 242–243 school contexts, 246–247 scolding, 77, 84 second language (L2) development of, 219, 228 grammar and, 211, 213, 215, 220 learning of, 5, 8, 35, 203 support learning of, 203 teaching English and, 203, 222, 277 second language (L2) learning intelligence and, 81, 95–96, 105–108, 111–114, 116, 118–119, 121–122, 124–125, 132, 137, 156, 189, 224, 236 knowledge and, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12–16, 21, 24–25, 29, 31, 34, 49, 55, 59, 64, 67, 117, 135, 147, 154, 167, 188, 209, 224, 266, 268–269, 271, 274, 281–282, 286–287, 298, 306, 316, 319–320, 323 secondary reinforcers, 75 security, 24, 75, 160, 238 self-acceptance, 153 self-actualization, 167, 170, 183, 235 self-approval, 150 self-awareness, 119, 147 self-centred, 41 self-concept, 134, 145–153, 155, 170, 172, 185, 198

392 Index self-control, 82, 119, 162, 169, 238–239 self-development, 7, 60, 145–146, 148– 149, 155, 157, 163, 166–167, 170, 172 self-efficacy, 86–87, 90, 137, 139, 151, 179, 186, 195, 198, 238, 359 self-esteem, 70, 75, 78, 124, 145–147, 150– 155, 161, 166, 168, 170–171, 173, 180–182, 184, 245, 252–254 self-evaluation, 92, 94, 154, 171–172, 316 self-focused morality, 164 self-hypothesized identity, 148 self-image, 148, 153–154, 173 self-indulgent behaviour, 160 self-realization, 8, 167, 170, 179 self-reflection, 82, 152, 171, 303, 305 self-regulation, 53–54, 86, 88, 90–92, 192 self-sufficiency, 167 self-talk, 53, 60 self-worth, 150–151, 153, 169–171 semantic memory, 33 semiotic function, 42 sense of competency, 185, 186 sensorimotor, 36, 38, 40–42 sequencing, 296, 309 sex-based differences, 114, 231 shen ren, 167 short-term goals, 92 significant others, 152 silent inner speech, 53 simple different method, 236 situated learning, 56 six arts, 21 sociability-leadership, 243 social cognitive perspective, 177 social cognitive theory, 64, 86–90, 92–94, 215 social communication, 53, 242 social constructivism, 14, 32, 52 social context of learning, 231–233, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243, 245, 247, 249, 251, 253, 255, 257, 259, 261, 263 social contexts, 63, 205, 228, 260 social inequality, 4, 8 social intelligence, 96, 119

social interaction, 9, 32, 50, 52, 55, 58, 153, 218, 293 social learning theory, 64 social motivation, 176, 180, 200 social norms, 84, 145, 148, 155, 157, 164 social reconstruction, 8, 17 social reinforcers, 75, 178 social relationships, 14, 56, 151, 193 socialization, 59, 83, 145, 149, 155, 157– 158, 163, 166, 170, 172, 252, 267 sociocultural approach, 50, 261 socio-dramatic play, 43 sources of attributions, 188 spatial reasoning, 97 special educational needs, 171, 249 speech, 37, 53, 204–206, 209, 211, 214–215, 218–219, 226, 316, 331 speech-language intervention programmes, 214 spiral of cycles, 275 spoken language, 205, 207, 209, 215 stability, 21, 43, 106, 151, 155, 187, 202 stagnation, 161, 163 Standing Committee on Language Education and Research (SCOLAR), 204 Stanford-Binet (SB) intelligence tests, 101– 103 stimuli, 5, 31, 33, 63–68, 71–72, 206, 214 stimulus-response pair, 65 student diversity, 95 student-teachers, 249, 262, 272 subject disciplines, 296 subject integration, 283 success-oriented (or high-need) achievers, 181 successful intelligence, 122 superego, 157–158, 166 supportive parent-child relationship, 169 symbolic function, 41 symbolic images, 41 symbolic modelling, 89–90 symbolic stage, 50 syntax, 211 synthesized, 89–90 synthesized modelling, 89–90

synthetic programmes, 220, 222 target-oriented curriculum, 60, 266, 283 teacher as a researcher, 265 teacher competencies framework, 284, 286 teacher development, 260, 262, 265, 269, 281 teacher qualification, 284 teacher stress, 254 teacher-centred, 9, 136, 292–294, 323 teacher-researchers, 275, 278, 280 teacher’s belief, 7, 178, 269 teaching and learning, 3, 5, 32, 34, 48, 57, 61, 80, 92, 123, 255 teaching and assessment, 27, 272 teaching approaches, 10, 17, 232, 245, 269, 292, 294 teaching beliefs, 8–10, 17–18, 24, 29 teaching materials, 251, 285, 306 terminal behaviour, 78–79, 94 Test of Adolescent Language, 3, 212 Test of Written Language, 3, 213 Test of Written Spelling, 4, 213 tests of knowledge, 102 thematic planning, 296 thinking language and, 55, 203, 206, 208 thinking hats, 140 thinking professionals, 286 thirst, 75 three-stratum theory, 98 time-out, 77–78 time-out room, 77 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 235 token reinforcers, 178 torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), 130 traditional role, 269 traditional value, 23, 59, 81, 311 transferable skills, 45 transmission approach, 292 trust vs. mistrust, 160

Index 393 unconditioned response, 66 unconditioned stimulus, 347 underachievement, 235–237, 242 undesirable behaviour, 71, 74–78, 80, 85, 178, 201 uninvolved parents, 169, 238 utilitarian, 19, 23, 60 value of task, 198–199 verbal ability, 97 verbal communication, 209, 228 verbal comprehension, 97, 103 verbal language, 205 verbal persuasion, 90 verbal reprimands, 77 verbal scolding, 77 vicarious learning, 90–91 vicarious reinforcement, 89, 94 visual impairments, 250 visual information, 206, 250 Vygotsky, L., 14, 31–32, 50–57, 59–61, 206, 217, 219, 223, 232 Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test (WKCT), 128, 132, 143 webbed model, 298 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), 102 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), 102 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), 102 Wernicke’s area, 205–206, 228 whole-school approach, 249 word association, 141 written comprehension, 212 written expression, 92, 212 written language assessment of, 213 zone of proximal development, 51–54, 218–219