Leadership Strategies for Teachers [2 ed.] 9781483364247, 9781412937085

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Leadership Strategies for Teachers Second econd EEdition dition

Leadership Strategies for Teachers Seco econd nd Edition Edition

E unice M. Merideth CORWIN PRESS

A Sage Publications Company

Thousand Oaks, California

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press All rights reserved. When forms and sample documents are included, their use is authorized only by educators, local school sites, and/or noncommercial or nonprofit entities who have purchased the book. Except for that usage, no part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information: Corwin Press A Sage Publications Company 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 www.corwinpress.com Sage Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box 4109 New Delhi 110 017 India Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Merideth, Eunice M. Leadership strategies for teachers / Eunice M. Merideth.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-4129-3708-6 (cloth)—ISBN 1-4129-3709-4 (pbk.) 1. Teachers—United States. 2. Teacher participation in administration—United States. 3. Educational leadership—United States. I. Title. LB1775.2.M47 2007 371.1′06—dc22 2006002891

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Cathy Hernandez Charline Wu Laureen A. Shea Brenda Weight C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Caryne Brown Nara Wood Michael Dubowe

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Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Author

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1. Teachers as Leaders Who Are Teacher-Leaders? REACH Model for Teacher-Leaders Risk-Taking and Teacher Leadership Effectiveness and Teacher Leadership Autonomy and Teacher Leadership Collegiality and Teacher Leadership Honor and Teacher Leadership Strategies for Increasing Teacher Leadership Potential Setting Goals Managing Conflict Looking Back/REACHing Forward

1 2 3 3 5 7 9 11 13 13 17 19

2. Teacher-Leaders and Change The Change Process Change for Teacher-Leaders School System Change Strategies for Teacher-Leaders as Change Agents Force Field Analysis Change and Control Change and Stress Stress-Reducing Exercises Looking Back/REACHing Forward

21 22 22 24 27 27 29 30 31 33

3. Teacher-Leaders Improving Student Achievement Teachers as Learning Leaders Communication With Students Participation Structures Listening Skills Classroom Dialogue Communication With Families Strategies for Focusing on Student Achievement Case in Point: When Is It Time to Quit? Parent and Teacher Expectations: A Matter of Balance Looking Back/REACHing Forward

35 36 38 39 39 40 40 43 44 44 46

4. Teacher-Leaders Extending Their Own Learning Teacher-Leader as a Professional Reflective Practice and Inquiry The Self-Directed Development Model Self-Directed Development Process Action Research Action Research Process Classroom-Based Development Models Mentoring Peer Coaching Professional Teaching Portfolio Communicating Leadership Obstacles to Continued Learning for Teacher-Leaders Teacher-Leaders and Time Teacher-Leaders and Working Conditions Teacher-Leaders and Isolation Strategies for Teacher-Leaders’ Lifelong Learning Critical Inquiry Map Catching a Creativity Wave Looking Back/REACHing Forward

47 48 48 50 51 51 52 53 53 55 56 57 58 59 59 60 60 62 63 64

5. Teacher-Leaders Collaborating for School Improvement The School Improvement Model Teachers as Situational Leaders Situational Leadership and Relationships Situational Leading for Professional Development Communication With Colleagues Barriers to Collaborative Relationships Using Collaborative Communication Strategies for Leadership Collaboration Situational Leadership Planning Strategy Team Building Through Thinking: Card Storming Looking Back/REACHing Forward

65 66 67 69 71 75 76 77 78 79 80 81

6. Teacher-Leaders Supporting Shared Vision and Values Defining Shared Vision and Values Sustaining and Connecting Teacher-Leaders Professional Organizations Professional Publications Electronic Resources Teacher Exhibits Communicating Vision Strategies to Use When Connecting With Other Teacher-Leaders Herrrrre’s Johnny! Looking Back/REACHing Forward

83 84 86 88 89 90 91 95 97 97 99

Resources

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References

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Index

115

Preface

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ublic education in the United States is an evolutionary phenomenon. For all its problems, in a little more than 350 years, the system has progressed from a meager introduction to scholarship reserved for a few, to a system dedicated to developing the potential of all. This evolution has been shaped by slow, orderly social change and impacted suddenly by crisis. It is also affected by economic, political, and religious forces and by the needs of the individual. It is by no means finished. Learning, in general, reflects changes in knowledge level and behavior. Like a child who grows, stretches, experiments, fails, and succeeds, an effective educational system must also learn. It must continually add new knowledge as well as respond and adapt to its environment, meeting the needs of current students who have never been more diverse, more intelligent, and more socially challenged. The learning and subsequent reform of an entire educational system, however, cannot be mandated or accomplished by a few talented and powerful individuals. An undertaking this broad must involve a school’s entire community in learning, planning, and implementing meaningful change. It follows, then, that leadership among all community members must also be sought, nurtured, valued, and respected. For school systems that have learned the lessons of constructivism and collaboration, teacher leadership is a natural outcome and a hidden strength. It is the key to the professionalism of teaching and the achievement of all students. Leadership Strategies for Teachers is designed for and dedicated to all teachers who are committed to their students’ learning and their own development. These teachers already help advance school improvement efforts and adopt innovative teaching practices, but teachers rarely see themselves as leaders. Developing that leadership for all teachers who aspire to be their best does not mean empty classrooms or even larger administrations. What it does mean is a community sharing leadership within a school in order to energize educational endeavors and improve student achievement. While designed for teachers, this text can also be helpful for professional developers, consultants, administrators, and any student of school improvement. In the second edition of this book, research areas have been updated and materials reorganized and supplemented to strengthen connections to the REACH model for teacher-leaders as well as the roles of a teacherleader: improving student achievement, extending one’s own learning, collaborating for school improvement, and supporting shared vision and values. Additional case studies provide applications of the educational

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and leadership research-based theories, and specific strategies included in each chapter provide activities for planning and practicing REACH leadership skills. Case studies offered in this section and throughout the book involve only fictional characters. Any resemblance of name or situation is coincidental. In its fully developed state, the REACH model for teacher-leaders illustrates how the characteristics that describe the conduct of teacherleaders serve as a base for their roles and professional relationships as well as the communication skills and strategies they pursue. Even as teacherleaders are affected by change, they can also find support and networking through organizations, publications, electronic resources, and teacher exhibits. The model is depicted in Figure 0.1. The book outlines these concepts in the chapters that follow. Chapter 1 explores teacher-leader behaviors through the REACH model: Risk-taking, Effectiveness, Autonomy, Collegiality, and Honor. Specific strategies in goal setting and conflict resolution as well as a case study involving a teacher’s ethical dilemma support these leadership functions. Chapter 2 describes the role of teacher-leaders that evolves from their being change agents within school systems. Strategies examined that bolster dealing with change include force field analysis, developing new capabilities, and managing stress. Chapter 3 discusses the roles of teacher-leaders as learning leaders in their classrooms and in their schools by focusing on improving student achievement. This is not an instructional methodology book, but looks to building relationships and communication with students and parents as basic to empowering both teaching and learning in a knowledge society. Analyzing a case study and the balance in a parent-teacher conference are strategies provided for investigating the role of learning leader. Chapter 4 examines the professional growth and development of teacher-leaders by considering the professional nature of teaching, reflective inquiry and practice, and individual models of professional development. Strategies for encouraging lifelong learning include critical inquiry mapping and provocation as creative thinking. Chapter 5 explains how teacher-leaders can become collaborators for school improvement. Situational leadership, school-based professional

Figure 0.1

REACH Model for Teacher-Leaders

Organizations Publications Electronic Resources Teacher Exhibits

Teacher-Leader

Communication Skills

Change

Roles and Relationships

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PREFACE

development, and collaborative communication all provide opportunities for proactive learning communities. Strategies promote strategic planning and team building. Chapter 6 outlines shared vision and values as well as connecting teacher-leaders beyond their in-school professional relationships through professional organizations, publications, electronic resources, and exhibits. Strategies provide guidelines for staging a teacher exhibit and increasing interest of formal presentations. At the end of each chapter, you will be asked to reflect about the information you have been given and to apply that information to projected experiences in the future. The value of reflective writing is to understand the present and to make decisions for future action. In this way, teacherleaders have the opportunity to pause and consider their own assumptions, gain insight, think about new information, and create future plans for change or application. With a balanced approach to theory and strategies, Leadership Strategies for Teachers reflects the philosophy that leadership is best developed through knowledge and experience that lends confidence to action and satisfaction in defining oneself as a teacher and a leader.

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Acknowledgments

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t is with deep gratitude that I acknowledge the help and encouragement that made this text possible. I would first like to thank those teachers who, in spite of being stereotyped and often criticized, continue to lead and educate their students. In their classrooms, students not only learn, they also grow. I would also like to thank three teachers who have been my heroes and ultimately responsible for my career in education. I would like to recognize my mother, Hazel Marie Grice, who taught me the power of resiliency and the satisfaction of creative work. Jane Abel, my high school speech coach, who taught me to listen for the music in words and to actually enjoy public speaking. She is a model of just how powerful one teacher who cares about students can be. I also thank Dr. Rosanne Potter, my university professor, who was the epitome of a mentor—she inspired and supported me, and she would accept nothing short of excellence. I am fortunate enough to have colleagues who have read this manuscript and offered valuable suggestions: Dr. Pamela Richards, Peggy E. Steinbronn, Heather L. Ludwig, and Hope A. Bossard. I thank them for their patience and insights. My thanks as well to Ayden Ollivier, who checked and rechecked references and page numbers. I am grateful also for the encouragement offered by family: Pam, Suzanne, Jim, Michael, Sarah, and JorgeAnn. Even Owen and Connor, the pets, played their parts by keeping watch. Finally, I would like to thank the teachers who have also been students in the Effective Teaching, Learning, and Leadership Program at Drake University. They are the reasons for and behind the text. Eunice M. Merideth Corwin Press gratefully acknowledges the contributions of the following reviewers: Erika Acklin, Fourth Grade Teacher Rio Vista Elementary, St. Petersburg, FL Alice Hom, Principal Yung Wing Elementary School P.S. 124, New York, NY Larry J. Kelly, Director of Secondary Graduate Certification Department of Teaching, Learning & Culture Texas A&M University, College Station, TX

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LaMoine L. Motz, Director and Coordinator of Science Education Oakland County Schools OSMTech Center, Waterford, MI Brett Piersma, High School Social Studies Teacher Santa Ynez Valley Union High School, Santa Ynez, CA Erin Powers, Middle School English Teacher Paul Revere Charter Middle School, Los Angeles, CA Karen Sakash, Clinical Associate Professor of Education University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL Christina M. Smith, Social Studies Department Chair Algonquin Regional High School, Northborough, MA

About the Author Dr. Eunice M. Merideth is a Levitt Distinguished Professor and Associate Dean of the Drake University School of Education. She has designed and taught leadership courses and has been working with classroom teachers on leadership issues for over ten years. Dr. Merideth is also a University Technology Fellow for Drake University, a position that supports Web-assisted and Web-based instruction at Drake University through professional development. She has written two books, including the first edition of Leadership Strategies for Teachers, and numerous articles concerning teacher leadership, technology integration, and educational equity. Dr. Merideth has a PhD in Curriculum and Instructional Technology from Iowa State University. She has two grown children and two grandchildren, and she resides with her partner in Des Moines, Iowa.

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Dedication For Madeline and Jacob, a new generation of learners who need teacher-leaders.

One can never consent to creep when one feels an impulse to soar. —Helen Keller

1 Teachers as Leaders The only safe ship in a storm is leadership. —Faye Wattleton

I

n early America, when teachers ran their own one-room schools, structured all their own curricula, and recognized their ability to impact the learning of every student, teacher leadership was an imperative, not an option. As one-room schoolhouses became multiroom buildings and then multibuilding school systems, however, the status of the teacher moved from expert to employee. The increasing size of schools and their complexities also led to administrative hierarchies and power structures that placed teachers at the lower end of the order and physically removed them from the administration of the organization, which was moved to a “central office.” Schuman (2004) explains, “as managing school systems has become more complex and jobs more specialized, it is no surprise that these organizations have become increasingly bureaucratic” (p. 250). Unfortunately, educational reform initiatives in the nineteenth century, which were designed to increase professionalism within teaching, only succeeded in increasing school systems’ bureaucracy by standardizing hiring practices, implementing uniform curriculum programs, and applying rigid social policies. As growing educational systems became more centralized and the administrative “step removed” became a “step up,” even the professional development of teachers was removed from their control. Currently, when the emphasis on achievement and accountability is used as a prescription, it can be interpreted as a mandate that threatens teachers and their students. With such a background, it should not be

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surprising that some teachers do not think of themselves as leaders or may be hesitant to embrace a role they believe may remove them from their classrooms or separate them from their peers.

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WHO ARE TEACHER-LEADERS? Despite extensive research in the general area of educational leadership, the definition of teacher leadership remains varied because teachers engage in such a wide range of activities and roles that may involve leadership. For example, Sherrill (1999) submits that teacher-leaders are “clinical faculty, clinical educators, teachers-in-residence, master teachers, lead teachers, and clinical supervisors” (p. 57), while Crowther, Kaagan, Ferguson, and Hann (2002) see teacher-leaders as those “aspiring to lead school reform” (p. 5). Katzenmeyer and Moller (2001) define teacherleaders as those teachers who lead within and beyond the classroom . . . identify with and contribute to a community of teacherlearners and leaders . . . and influence others towards improved educational practice” (pp. 5–8). In addition, teacher-leader definitions are informed by important studies that identify leadership characteristics, emphasize strategic planning, and address moral issues in educational settings, but the connection between these theories and the traditional classroom teacher’s mission—student learning—is not clear. Moreover, the application of leadership theory in the professional development of teachers has not incorporated all teachers, their classroom practice, and their continued learning. In contrast, the REACH teacher leadership model presented in this book approaches the concept of teacher leadership inclusively. Because it is designed for professionals, the REACH model is based in theory and supported by research, but it specifies action. Leadership is not something bestowed upon a teacher to rise above one’s role, but should be considered a necessary step in fulfilling that role in the classroom as a model learner, effective teacher, and participant in continuous school improvement. As early as 1986, a report funded by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching recommended that school systems identify lead teachers who would exhibit outstanding expertise and teaching skills that could then be emulated by other teachers in the school. The notion of influence over peers and with administrators is echoed by Leithwood and Riehl (2003): “At the core of most definitions of leadership are two functions: providing direction and exercising influence” (p. 2). Such an interpretation of leadership would recognize a teacher-leader as someone different from most teachers, someone in a special category. Yet Forster (1997) asserts that teacher leadership is both a right and responsibility of all teaching professionals. “All teachers must be educational leaders in order to optimize the teaching and learning experience for themselves and their students; and, as professionals, they are expected to do whatever it takes to make that happen” (p. 83). The School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative Report (2001) is in accord with the inclusive approach of the REACH model for teacher leadership and advances the claim that leadership from teachers is crucial to educational reform: Mischaracterized though they often are as incompetent knownothings, teachers are, paradoxically, also widely viewed as

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

education’s “franchise players,” its indispensable but unappreciated leaders in the truest meaning of the word. It is unarguable that they instill, mold, and ultimately control much of the learning and intellectual development of the young people in their charge. It would be difficult to find a more authentic but unacknowledged example of leadership in modern life. (p. 1) Teacher-leaders place their students’ learning as their primary goal and work within their own classrooms to improve student achievement. This is and should be one of the most important practices of teacher leadership. Additionally, teacher-leaders collaborate with other educators to extend their own learning, advance successful school improvement efforts through professional development, and support shared vision and values. These four roles of teacher-leaders—improving student achievement, extending their own learning, collaborating for school improvement, and supporting shared vision and values—evolve from knowledge, dedication, and experience. But teacher leadership need not be restricted to “years in service”; it can be developed and nurtured in all teachers. This chapter first discusses those actions that characterize a teacher-leader through the REACH model for teacher-leaders, then provides strategies for strengthening initial leadership steps for any teacher willing to REACH his or her capabilities (see Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1

REACH Model: Behaviors That Together Define a Teacher-Leader

Risk-Taking—Teachers who seek challenges and create new processes Effectiveness—Teachers who model best practice, professional growth, and heart Autonomy—Teachers who display initiative, independent thought, and responsibility Collegiality—Teachers who promote community and interactive communication skills Honor—Teachers who demonstrate integrity, honesty, and professional ethics SOURCE: Merideth, 2000.

REACH MODEL FOR TEACHER-LEADERS When taken together, the sum of the behaviors named in the REACH model equals the type of performance ideal teacher-leaders exemplify in their classrooms, their schools, and their professional learning communities. The sections that follow discuss each element of these behaviors individually for clarity and understanding.

RISK-TAKING AND TEACHER LEADERSHIP Effectiveness Autonomy Collegiality Honor

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Early adapters who are willing to try new things, teacher-leaders are risk-takers who relish challenges and pursue professional growth for their own satisfaction and to increase student achievement. These teachers identify with and help solidify the mission statement of a school even as they contribute to the adoption of new approaches to teaching and school improvement processes. Risk-takers have often been called “movers and shakers” because of their responsiveness to problems and their willingness to participate in decision making, to “shake up” the system, and to tackle the status quo. Of course, classroom teachers solve problems and make decisions every day, but the characteristic that enables teachers to become leaders is a take-charge attitude—an internal locus of control—and the confidence and work ethic to set and accomplish goals. Internal locus of control is the perception of control over outcomes and the belief that one has the competency to perform the behaviors upon which the outcome depends. This is closely related to personal efficacy— an individual’s evaluation of her or his performance capabilities. For example, teachers with a strong internal locus of control are confident of their ability to make accurate, proactive decisions. A teacher’s perception of efficacy involves a judgment about her or his ability to succeed at a task, such as increasing student achievement in mathematics. The important aspect of both internal locus of control and personal efficacy as each relates to leadership is that they are internal; that is, teacher-leaders believe that outcomes are associated with their actions rather than with luck, fate, or external factors. These internal aspects of control are significant to leadership development because they result in enhanced self-esteem and confidence, positive motivators of goal and task attainment. Teachers with a strong internal locus of control are also more inclined to suspend gratification, are more persistent during difficult tasks, and look to the future with more hope. Moreover, Goodard, Wayne, and Hoy (2004) report about teacher efficacy that teachers’ sense of efficacy is a significant predictor of productive teaching practices. . . . The higher the teacher’s sense of efficacy, the more likely they are to tenaciously overcome obstacles and persist in the face of failure. Such resiliency, in turn, tends to foster innovative teaching and student learning. (p. 4) This resiliency is a necessity for risk-takers at all levels. Why would a teacher-leader take risks? What are the benefits of risktaking? Wheatley (2005) maintains, “The capacity to create and adapt is universal. Scientists keep discovering more species; they don’t know if there are ten million or fifty million species. Yet each one is an embodiment of innovations that worked” (p. 75). Taking a managed risk by introducing new teaching/learning strategies that have a research base or participating in new systems within an educational organization supports change and the possibility of new paradigms or adaptations for individuals as well as the whole. As teacher-leaders step up and take risks, however, there are bound to be some mistakes. But mistakes can also be learning experiences, and support given by administration and other teachers to make adjustments and try again can also serve as marks of leadership recognition.

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

Students also benefit when they see their teachers taking risks, extending boundaries, and stretching their capabilities. A teacher who tries new teaching models or uses new technology in her or his classroom takes risks very publicly. However, teachers who are not complacent, but who are excited about learning and expanding their skills through managed risk-taking, provide role models for students venturing into new areas. Wilson (1993) supports the notion that teacher-leaders are risk-takers who challenge processes and seize opportunities: “Teacher-leaders . . . go out of their way to find innovative, exciting programs, both for the benefit of their students as well as themselves” (p. 24). These are the teachers who motivate students by creating meaningful learning experiences wherein students learn from both the process and the outcomes expected. These are also the teachers who are actually energized by teaching; Education is a loan to be who find themselves tired but satisfied after delivering a repaid with the gift of self. well-planned, activity-oriented day. The positive impact of risk-taking for teacher—Lady Bird Johnson leaders must be balanced by the reality that everyone does not value innovation or want to see the status quo upset. The School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative Report asserts, “With some exceptions, the very nature of today’s schools militates against innovation, much less relatively free expression or professional ‘leadership’ by anyone other than statutory supervisors” (p. 7). Teachers in this type of circumstance may face resentment from other teachers who feel that teacher-leaders are breaking ranks with those who would be satisfied with maintenance of current conditions. They may also find it difficult to identify models or mentors who exercise teacher leadership outside of an administrative position. Obviously, teacher leadership is an opportunity for schools to engage in shared leadership and relate closely to students, but schools must also support this leadership by professional development and a network of colleagues who encourage risk-taking.

Risk-Taking EFFECTIVENESS AND TEACHER LEADERSHIP Autonomy Collegiality Honor

Teacher-leaders are also effective teachers who exhibit best practice, professional growth, and “heart” (the affective actions of caring, mentoring, and living one’s values). Obviously, teacher-leaders must have expertise in their subject areas in order to establish credibility, but they also need to be able to effectively carry out the following activities: • Establish connections among disciplines • Know a variety of teaching methodologies in order to deliver the subject to all students

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• Develop curriculum consistent with subject discipline and developmental level • Make informed choices about textbooks and materials • Embrace technology that enhances learning • Establish relevance to students’ lives Teacher-leaders are indeed professional educators as well as intellectual and critical learners in the teaching process. The depth of their disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge empowers teachers as professionals by providing authority and credibility with students and other educational stakeholders. These teachers know that their learning did not end as they began their teaching career, but rather that teaching demands a continued commitment to the interrelationship of subject knowledge and educational practice. The current emphases on teacher expertise and effectiveness in classrooms are strongly linked to the “standards” movement in education. Standards for student achievement may be developed locally, by professional associations, states, or the federal government, but their purpose is to make classroom learning tasks clear and to hold both teachers and students accountable for that learning. To be effective, then, a teacher-leader must understand how to meet standards assigned to or adopted by his or her school district and be evaluated positively. Continuing to learn, refine, and implement content and pedagogical knowledge, as well as knowledge about learners and learning, moves a novice teacher into the effective category. This is a vital step when, research confirms, “teachers make a profound impact on student learning” (Marzano, 2003). In fact, “there are strong empirical grounds for believing that teachers can and do make a difference and that consistent high-quality teaching, supported by strategic professional development, can and does deliver dramatic improvements in student learning” (Rowe, 2003, p. 27). When classroom teachers model best practice and develop professional expertise, they become effective teacher-leaders because they see leadership as their duty and their due. In a world where the most powerful resource is information, continuing to grow intellectually is the only way to sustain professional expertise. To this end, effective teacher-leaders practice the following intellectual behaviors: • • • • • • •

They value their continuing education. They assess their teaching in terms of their students’ achievement. They read and analyze educational research. They conduct action research. They deepen their subject discipline knowledge. They update their technology skills. They develop curricular materials appropriate to their classes’ developmental levels. • They scaffold tasks to allow for student success. • They create authentic activities that promote connections to the work world. • They help students assume a progressive transference to their own responsibility for learning.

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

Leadership, however, is not just a function of the mind. Just as learning does not exist only as a cognitive task, leadership also demands heart. This aspect of leadership provides self-knowledge and the courage to act on that knowledge. The element of “heart” is more than beliefs and values— it is the passion that helps define a person and his or her reality. Teacherleaders who are influenced by heart not only care for their students, but they also seek what is best for them and empathize with their concerns. “The power for authentic leadership,” according to Palmer (2000), “is found not in external arrangements but in the human heart. Authentic leaders in every setting—from families to nation-states—aim at liberating the heart, their own and others’, so that its powers can liberate the world” (p. 76). While this may seem like a tall order, it can begin simply by selfreflection and the courage to make choices that enhance others’ welfare. Teacher-leaders exemplify leadership with heart by being approachable and sharing their ideas, time, and support. They listen closely to what others say and listen as well to nonverbal signals that indicate distress, anxiety, or fear. They also empathize with others and provide some flexibility and accommodations when appropriate. The willingness of teacher-leaders to sincerely care about others enables them to form strong, positive relationYou have to have something ships and to model the values they espouse. Sergiovanni to eat and a little love in your (2005) argues that schools have a “heartbeat,” and, life before you can hold still “when leaders strengthen the heartbeat, their schools for anybody’s sermon on how become stronger and more resilient. . . . Change begins to behave. with us—with our heart, head, and hands that drive our —Billie Holiday leadership practice” (p. 11).

Risk-Taking Effectiveness AUTONOMY AND TEACHER LEADERSHIP Collegiality Honor

Autonomous teacher-leaders are not islands unto themselves, but rather those who display initiative, independent thought, and responsibility. School improvement movements have encouraged teachers to reflect on their own classroom practice. However, teachers have not generally been encouraged to develop and voice individual opinions about curricular and policy matters that affect their students or school as a whole. In the interest of their “service” profession, too many teachers have been made to feel like servants, taking orders from distant administrators, politicians, and special interest groups who have no knowledge of their classrooms or the needs of their students. For example, The MetLife Survey: Educational Leadership (MetLife, 2003) is a recent report in which parents, teachers, and principals were surveyed about the exercise of leadership in their schools.

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Although parents and teachers have different relationships with the principal, the evaluation of the exercise of leadership by the principal was consistent between these two groups, but markedly different from the principal’s self-evaluation, as reported in the figures below: • Twice as many principals as teachers or parents rate themselves (the principal at their school) as excellent at respecting the people in the school (principals: 78%, teachers: 36%, parents: 34%). • One-third of teachers (35%) and parents (34%) say their principal is excellent at encouraging students to achieve, yet six in ten principals (59%) give themselves the highest rating in this area. • More than half of principals (53%) describe themselves as excelling in being a good listener, compared to only three in ten teachers (30%) and parents (27%) who feel this way. • Four in ten teachers (38%) and parents (42%) say their principal is excellent at being a visible presence in the school, compared to twothirds of principals (67%) who rate themselves as excellent in this area. (p. 5) These statistics are unsettling because they reveal that teachers and parents feel their voices are not heard or valued by a principal who feels that she or he is doing fine. The MetLife Survey: Educational Leadership (MetLife, 2003) statistics also communicate a real disconnect between how teachers perceive they are being treated by their principals and principals’ perceptions of how they are relating to staff. The principal’s perceived lack of respect, for example, may affect a teacher’s sense of confidence as well as general staff morale. This lack of self-confidence is antithetical to teacher leadership because it stifles teachers’ responsiveness to problems necessary for risk-taking, it reveals doubts about expertise necessary for effective functioning, and it negates autonomy by discouraging independent thought. Should all teachers simply act as they see fit? Autonomy is not anarchy, and a teacher is still part of a system. Teacher-leaders who show initiative practice independent thought, see school district curriculum outlines as guides and standards as goals. How they choose to design curriculum or meet national or state goals need not be in conflict with the standards movement for school improvement. National and state standards should and do provide goals for student outcomes, but decisions about how to address and assess those standards should lie with professional educators within schools. Lederhouse (2001) stresses the importance of decision making in the next paragraph: It is this decision-making ability, I believe, that defines any profession. . . . We need a teaching position with more imaginative space, more ownership, more room to make a difference. This comes only from having the autonomy to make one’s own educational decisions. (p. 38) When teacher-leaders are given these types of opportunities, they are by extension endowed with the autonomy necessary to effectively carry out initiatives focusing on student achievement.

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

What about teacher accountability? The flip side of autonomy is responsibility. When teachers assume decision-making roles, they assume responsibility for decisions involving collaborative management and their professional work lives. Consequently, teacher-leaders must accept the responsibility of helping with school improvement plans and addressing students’ continuing cognitive and social growth. In addition, they must accept responsibility for reflection, inquiry, and improvement of their own practice. When teacher-leaders are responsible for themselves, they are truly empowered, finding their power in knowledge. Teachers who challenge themselves to undertake action research, for example, enjoy a greater confidence by finding the answers they are looking for in classroom questions. Inquiry into educational issues and learning new instructional methods also promotes this type of self-trust in classroom curriculum decisions, just as sharing results and teaching strategies with teachers builds community. Responsibility, however, does not mean accepting more work indiscriminately or doing others’ work; rather, it means organizing and performing one’s own work as a self-manager and leader.

Risk-Taking Effectiveness Autonomy COLLEGIALITY AND TEACHER LEADERSHIP Honor

Teacher-leaders who promote community and practice interactive communication skills provide the cement needed to secure the foundation of a school culture. The community of a school is closely related to its culture because the success of the community is dependent on organizational factors and the quality of its members. Many teachers feel the isolation of their classrooms acutely and wish this could be changed, yet they are reluctant to give up the privacy of that isolation or to violate the privacy of another teacher. Teacher privacy is the uninformed equalizer of a school, the “don’t-ask, don’t-tell” unwritten policy within schools. It is a way to believe that all classrooms are the same and all teachers are the same without any data to back up this belief. This is a myth, and teachers know it, but it is a safe myth and one that absolves teachers of the responsibility of assessing themselves and other members of their profession. To ensure quality practice in schools, teachers need to have a community that respects them as contributing professionals. Teachers will, however, have to accept their responsibility within this community to ensure quality and give up the sentimental metaphor that calls a school culture a “family.” While the notion of family generally carries a warm connotation, it is an inappropriate metaphor for a community of learners because it reinforces a hierarchical system with the head of the family (the principal) in charge of supervising and directing the actions of the other members. In

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this scenario, teachers are not imagined as the coparents; they are too often considered the kids. This metaphor also fosters dependence on the principal, negating teachers’ own autonomy and putting undue pressure on an administrator to take care of all the problems. When teachers elect to consider themselves a democratic community of learners and act in a collegial manner, an interdependent atmosphere and attitude replace a dependent atmosphere and attitude. Members of such communities find that support and sharing break down barriers and move conversations from problems to possibilities. To be a teacher-leader within such a community requires problem-solving and conflict management skills, the ability to establish trust among members, and an orientation toward the good of the entire organization. While an administrator can encourage the organization of a learning community and even participate in it, its success will depend on the school’s teachers showing leadership by seeking and maintaining collegial relationships. As defined by Sergiovanni (1992), collegiality is reciprocal because it involves both support and cooperation—give and take between professionals. “What makes two people colleagues is common membership in a community, commitment to a common cause, shared professional values, and a shared professional heritage. Without this common base, there can be no meaningful collegiality” (p. 91). Collegiality is different from both a social bond among persons who know one another well and enjoy one another’s company, and the superficial politeness among persons who are simply tolerating one another. True collegiality involves work goals and organizational identity that are shared, so that working together for the common good follows naturally. Clearly, collegial leadership necessitates building professional respect for individual effectiveness and strong, interactive communication. Teachers must be able to trust the competencies and intentions of other members of a collegial learning community. When all teachers see themselves as leaders, however, these competencies and intentions are already part of their professional identities, so they are more easily accessed and shared. As described above, collegiality not only achieves organization goals, but it produces social capital as well. First described by James Coleman (1990), social capital is one of three forms of capital: financial, human, and social. Financial capital is based on money and other assets, while human capital is the sum of a human’s knowledge and skill. Generally, educational institutions focus on human capital. However, Gary Wehlage, as interviewed by Lockwood (1996), explains that social capital is fundamental to finding true colleagues and imperative for creating relationships with all educational stakeholders: Social capital cannot be possessed like financial and human capital can. Social capital adheres in the set of relationships among people—and those relationships are productive to the extent that they are based on a common set of expectations, a set of shared values, and a sense of trust among people. Where social capital is weak, there are conflicting values and a significant lack of trust. (¶ 5) In schools, leadership teams that seek social capital can break through barriers of superficiality and bias to create trust in relationships. Then

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

a teacher-leader can be confident that his or her colleagues are reliable, fundamental values are shared, and collegiality has been established.

Risk-Taking Effectiveness Autonomy Collegiality HONOR AND TEACHER LEADERSHIP

Teacher-leaders demonstrate integrity, honesty, and professional ethics because they understand that teaching and leadership are both linked to intent. Teacher-leaders are not just good teachers; they are good people. Teachers are often uncomfortable when educational conversations turn to values, but the purpose of any academic standard is ethical, centering on the greatest good for students. Moreover, the question so many teachers ask themselves—“Why am I doing this?”—has its base in professional and personal integrity, as they try to offer the best teaching in order to facilitate the best learning. The late Ernest Boyer (1995) pointed out that as schools combat ignorance, they are in the business of teaching values: “Working hard, getting to school on time, completing assignments, and respecting teachers are all values that go to the very heart of education” (p. 179). These same values go to the purpose of teacher leadership. A flashy personality can sometimes masquerade as leadership, but ultimately, people want their leaders to have strong personal character and to treat others with respect and dignity. This perspective refutes control management systems in favor of a relationship-oriented approach. A relationshiporiented approach means moving beyond convivial relationships with peers, students, and administrators to personal ones. Waldron, Collie, and Davies (1999) write about teaching and school as a moral activity, noting that power and authority when used to simply control must be replaced by leadership that “must invite, inspire, and accompany young people in their learning, in their process of becoming” (p. 141). Fullan (2003) echoes these sentiments: Moral purpose of the highest order is having a system where all students learn, the gap between high and low performance becomes greatly reduced, and what people learn enables them to be successful citizens and workers in a morally based knowledge society. (p. 29) While this moral purpose is the business of all educational stakeholders, teacher-leaders who are in direct contact with students and the curriculum with which they are educated are best situated to relate to and lead students in this direction. Discussions about the ethics of teaching professionals are not meant to place one person’s set of personal values above another’s. The ethics of

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teaching are currently based in what is termed a “public ethic”: those values and beliefs appropriate in a liberal democracy such as fairness, integrity, justice, liberty, and so on. However, the application of these ethical considerations also extends to presenting the best scholarly and ethical standards of a teacher’s discipline and educating students’ moral sensibilities. Nel Noddings (2003) finds that moral life is completely relational; “from this perspective, even the self is relational. . . . A relational view weakens and blurs the distinction between egoism and altruism, because much of what we do for others strengthens the relations of which we are part and, thus, our selves” (p. 158). Teacher-leaders who have taken care to establish relationships with their students can teach ethical values and develop their own ethical character at the same time. For example, if a teacher does not download, share, or pirate computer software or music files illegally, he or she teaches about honesty without saying a thing.

Preamble to the Code of Preamble to the Code of Ethics Ethics of the Education Profession of the Education Profession The The educator, educator, believing believing in in the the worth worth and and dignity dignity of of each each human human being, recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of being, recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, truth, devotion devotion to to excellence, excellence, and and the the nurture nurture of of democratic democratic principles. principles. Essential Essential to to these these goals goals isis the the protection protection of of freedom freedom to to learn learn and and to to teach teachand andthe theguarantee guaranteeof ofequal equaleducational educationalopportunity opportunityfor forall. all.The The educator educator accepts accepts the the responsibility responsibility to to adhere adhere to to the the highest highest ethical ethical standards. standards. The educator recognizes recognizesthethe magnitude of responsibility the responsibility The educator magnitude of the inherinherent the teaching process. The desire the respect and conent in theinteaching process. The desire for thefor respect and confidence fidence one’s colleagues, of students, parents, of the of one’sofcolleagues, of students, of parents,ofand of the and members of members of the community provides the incentive to attain the community provides the incentive to attain and maintainand the maintain the highest possible degree of ethical conduct. highest possible degree of ethical conduct. SOURCE: SOURCE: Code Code of of Ethics, Ethics, 1975. 1975. Used Used with with permission permission of of the the National National Education Education Association. Association.

In an ideal world, all schools would be fully equipped and provide exciting and safe learning environments where everyone could learn. Moreover, this magical environment would be managed effortlessly so that everyone’s needs were met and all community members were happy and fulfilled. In the real world of education, however, the challenges often exceed the magic, and it is a real effort for all members of a school to work toward the shared goals of school improvement and student achievement. By recognizing and developing their potential as leaders, however, teachers can become authentic contributors in a collaborative learning environment and change an arduous effort toward school improvement to synergistic energy used for growth. As teacher-leader behaviors are realized through leadership roles and action, the REACH model in Figure 1.2 begins to take form. In this

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

Figure 1.2

REACH Model for Teacher-Leaders

Teacher-Leader

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configuration, the model illustrates how the individual elements of the REACH model for teacher-leaders are both connected and serve as a base or foundation for performance that defines a teacher-leader.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING TEACHER LEADERSHIP POTENTIAL

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True learning is always accompanied by disequilibrium: the discomfort that is experienced by temporarily Why are you going along with inducing an imbalance in the cognitive procedures those people? of perceiving, processing, sorting, and categorizing new I have to, I’m their leader. information. Equilibrium is restored as new information —Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin is acquired and balance is reestablished between what is known and what one needs to know. While this proactive view can be admired, it assumes a tolerance of uncertainty that is easier to write about than wade through. Accordingly, the strategies that follow are designed to balance teacher-leader theory that supports the REACH model of teacher leadership presented in the first part of the chapter with information about how teacher-leaders might deal with the realities of goal setting and peer conflict as they begin to apply that theory.

Setting Goals As teachers consider new learning, new behaviors, or new roles, they consciously or nonconsciously induce disequilibrium. As this disequilibrium is balanced through practice, there are consequences that can occur at tension points or moments of transition. Caine and Caine (1997) predict in such a disequilibrium process that possible transition points are places that induce uncertainty about the process and the behaviors. At these points, “disequilibrium might lead to reverting to traditional practice, disintegration, or evolution” (p. 245). In order to move purposefully toward the change that evolution entails and avoid disintegration or reversion to past practice, you must identify your current comfort levels and envision goals that are achievable, believable, and credible—the ABC’s of goal setting. A goal is achievable if it is possible in terms of task difficulty, skill, and resources. This can be assessed through the following questions: • How difficult is the goal you wish to reach? • Does the goal need to be broken down into smaller tasks?

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• What skills do you have to meet the goal and accomplish the tasks? • What skills do you need to develop to meet the goal and accomplish the tasks? • What types of resources will the goal and/or the skills to meet it require? • How will you obtain and maintain those resources? If these questions can be answered in a positive manner, the goal is possible—it is achievable. A goal is believable if it is feasible in terms of knowledge, time, and values. Reflecting about the feasibility of a goal through the questions below clarifies if one will be able to address the goal with enough skill to be successful. It also helps establish whether one will be willing to reorder personal and professional concerns to work on the goal. • Do you have expertise about the goal you wish to achieve? Remember, knowledge informs practice. • Do you have enough time to plan, implement, and assess the goal? • Does the goal fit within school, community, professional, and personal values? If these questions are answered negatively, you will need to educate yourself and/or others about potential benefits of the goal before proceeding. If the questions are answered positively, the success of the venture may not be assured, but it is at least feasible—it is believable. A goal is credible if it is both desirable and perceived as important. This area of goal setting can be explored with the following focus questions: • Will the goal enhance your teaching and the learning of your students? • Will the goal enrich your life and/or the lives of your students? • Will the goal contribute to the school improvement plan? • Is the goal essential for students to continue to grow academically, socially, emotionally, or morally? • If it is an educational goal, is it grounded in research and educationally sound? • How generalizable are the research results to your classroom? Teachers may be faced with mandated goals that they know are inappropriate for the developmental needs of their students. They may be asked to strive toward some goals they consider a misdirection of energy because their attainment cannot be linked to student achievement. However, when the answers to the foregoing questions indicate that the goal is important and desirable, it is time to take a risk and to pursue it vigorously—it is credible. The strategies that follow employ the key questions central to the ABC’s of Goal Setting within the framework of education-related goals common to teacher-leaders.

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

The ABC’s of Goal Setting What is the goal or outcome that you seek? With that goal in mind, answer the following questions.

The Goal Is Achievable • How difficult is the goal you wish to reach? • Does the goal need to be broken down into smaller tasks? • What skills do you have to meet the goal and accomplish the tasks? • What skills do you need to develop to meet the goal and accomplish the tasks? • What type of resources will the goal and/or the skills to meet it require? • How will you obtain and maintain those resources?

The Goal Is Believable • Do you have expertise about the goal you wish to achieve? • Do you have enough time to plan, implement, and assess the goal? • Does the goal fit within school, community, professional, and personal values?

The Goal Is Credible • Will the goal enhance your teaching and the learning of your students? • Will the goal enrich your life and/or the lives of your students? • Will the goal contribute to the school improvement plan? • Is the goal essential for students to continue to grow academically, socially, emotionally, or morally? • Is the goal grounded in research and educationally sound? • How generalizable are the research results to your classroom?

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Critical Goal Review After answering the questions in the ABC’s of Goal Setting exercise, use the Critical Goal Review chart to (1) identify goals, (2) analyze the goals using the ABC’s of Goal Setting on a scale of 1–5, and (3) predict the amount of risk that achieving your goals would involve on a scale of 1–5. While there are not scores that ensure successful goal setting, the ranking applied within each category can help visualize and balance the elements of setting goals with the risk they require.

Your Goals Student Learning:

Personal Learning and Growth:

Curriculum Development:

Professional Learning Communities:

Achievable

Believable

Credible

Risk Involved

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

Managing Conflict The ideals of collegiality (support and cooperation among colleagues) can be threatened when conflict among colleagues emerges. Conflict occurs when an idea or behavior actively or passively blocks or prevents the effectiveness of another idea or behavior. Conflicts are inevitable because individuals, their ideas, and their interests are different. In fact, the absence of conflict is apathy and indifference—a negative state that does not encourage change and development. Because conflict arises from individual differences, it can be difficult and seem very personal. On the other hand, it can be converted into a constructive experience when both parties seek a win-win situation. For example, when a conflict has been discussed and settled to the satisfaction of all the parties involved, the ability to work cooperatively and manage future conflict is improved. How does constructive conflict happen? Clearly, establishing an atmosphere of trust creates the base for constructive conflict, but Johnson and Johnson (1991) streamline the process with their rules outlining how to be constructive while being critical in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3

Rules for Constructive Criticism

1. I am critical of ideas, not people. I challenge and refute the ideas of the opposition, but I do not indicate that I personally reject them. 2. Remember, we are all in this together. I focus on coming to the best decision possible, not on winning. 3. I encourage everyone to participate and to master all the relevant information. 4. I listen to everyone’s ideas, even if I don’t agree. 5. I restate what someone has said if it is not clear. 6. I first bring out all ideas and facts supporting both sides, and then I try to put them together in a way that makes sense. 7. I try to understand both sides of the issue. 8. I change my mind when the evidence clearly indicates that I should do so. SOURCE: Johnson & Johnson, 1991, p. 7.

If teacher-leaders are to move beyond the status quo, they will have to be critical. Being critical, however, does not need to be destructive. The foregoing Rules for Constructive Criticism establish a way to disagree about ideas without attacking persons who have those ideas. They also stress personal understanding through documented information and analysis of data and experience so that collegial relationships can actually foster risk-taking, improve higher-order thinking, and nurture autonomy—all part of the REACH paradigm.

Making Conflict Constructive Consider the case study that follows and discuss your reactions with a fellow teacher and an administrator.

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Case in Point: Conflict Over Change. Steve Greeley is a fifth-year teacher at Edmonds Senior High School and has been elected to the new faculty/ administration management committee to implement shared decision making. He has always been considered a teacher-leader with a pleasant personality and has attended a leadership training conference at the request of the administration. After this training, Steve was eager to begin work on the school’s goal of shared decision making. But at the very first meeting of his assigned group, differences about the scope and timing of the change that shared decision making would entail divided the group. Discussion deteriorated into personal accusations and put-downs. Even Steve did not escape this criticism. Some group members felt he had been favored because he had been sent to the leadership conference. Steve tried to help by telling the other members what they needed to be doing to succeed with shared decision making. They were not impressed even though he knew the directions were right (he wrote them down at the training session). Frank even shouted, “We have shared decision making right now. They make the decisions and share them with us.” The rest of the group snickered. The meeting was adjourned with little action but lots of hostility. Steve has brought this problem to you, his friend and colleague. • What advice can you give him about handling the conflict he experienced? • Which Rules for Constructive Criticism did the group use? • Which Rules for Constructive Criticism did the group break? • Does Steve exemplify the REACH model of teacher leadership? • What would you do in this situation? Take time to process this case study by using the strategies/theories of teacher leadership you have studied thus far. What did you discover? Perhaps you recognized that, in taking the assignment, Steve was willing to be a risk-taker and interested in adopting a teacher-leader role within the school. However, in his enthusiasm for the task, he forgot to extend professional courtesy and roles to his colleagues. He did not see them as effective and autonomous with ideas of their own, but began giving them orders about what needed to be done. He has also ignored the Rules for Constructive Criticism by not encouraging an active exchange of opinions and information. At this point, he might use e-mail to mend fences, gather information, and share the Rules for Constructive Criticism so that the next meeting might be more productive.

TEACHERS AS LEADERS

LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD Chapter 1 has introduced the REACH model as a means of considering behaviors that together characterize teacher leadership. Many teachers practice some of these leadership behaviors either consciously or nonconsciously. Use this page as a tool to reflect on your own practice during the past sixty days. In what ways have you evidenced the following conduct related to teacher leadership? What about the teacher you would identify as a teacher-leader in your school?

Elements of the REACH Model

Your Leadership Behaviors

Risk-Taking—Teachers who seek challenges and create new processes

Effectiveness—Teachers who model best practice, professional growth, and heart

Autonomy—Teachers who display initiative, independent thought, and responsibility

Collegiality—Teachers who promote community and interactive communication skills

Honor—Teachers who demonstrate integrity, honesty, and professional ethics

What are some ways you can improve or enhance your teacher leadership behaviors?

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2 TeacherLeaders and Change Progress occurs when courageous skillful leaders seize the opportunity to change things for the better. —Harry S. Truman

B

ecause leadership is defined by the interplay of a person, a community, and/or a situation, it has cultural meaning that is unique to time and place. Leadership is not a static concept but evolves to meet goals and fulfill roles that are as complex as teacher-leaders’ dealings in their classrooms and within their schools. In Chapter 1, four roles were identified that result from the interactions of people and situations in educational settings: 1. Improving student achievement 2. Extending their own learning 3. Collaborating for school improvement 4. Supporting shared vision and values The availability and acceptance of these experiences may vary from teacher to teacher and time to time, but all teacher-leaders practice REACH

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Figure 2.1

The REACH Model for Teacher-Leaders

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Change

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behaviors through roles and relationships and are impacted in all those roles and relationships by the prospect of change. The roles outlined in the previous paragraph will be explored in later chapters; this chapter will examine the constant for all roles—change. It is the combination of learning about leadership, overcoming obstacles, and having successful experiences in different leadership roles that lends confidence and vision to action and adds another element to the model of a teacher-leader (see Figure 2.1).

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THE CHANGE PROCESS Change is a process, a predicament, an exciting dance in which participants weave and interact, balancing the movement of the participants as a whole through individual skill and flexibility. However, even exciting and promising educational change is only theory until it has been implemented and sustained. In their professional lives, teachers experience an astonishing amount of change—new students, new knowledge, new technologies, new classroom arrangements, new social responsibilities, new administrators, and new organizational structures. Because of all the emphasis on and excitement about “newness” in change, it is easy to lose sight of the fact that change is a transitional process that also involves loss. When accomplished dancers modify their dance routines to embellish their art, certain steps are changed or even abandoned; the grace and agility with which the group moves together may be temporarily affected, and anxiety and uncertainty may rise. So, too, participants in change experience excitement, energy drain, and apprehension. Consequently, change may be daunting, exhilarating, and involve some grieving—all at the same time.

Change for Teacher-Leaders The change process, then, can be viewed from either a positive or negative perspective. In a positive light, educational change is seen as necessary for schools to continue to evolve academically and socially and is embraced with enthusiasm and good humor. From a negative viewpoint, educational change is seen as a threat to social and cultural patterns of

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

stability and knowledge and is approached in a reactive and defensive manner. One thing is certain—not everyone will be comfortable with any change. Moreover, opinions about the need and value of change will vary. True change isn’t just compliance with a set of directions; it involves rethinking what is done, why it is done, and how it is done. For this reason, it can also cause marked concern of those faced with change. Hall and Hord (2001) describe the difficult process encountered by professionals undergoing educational change as stages of concern. Within this process, an educator may move from uninterested and uninvolved in the change to highly involved and supportive of the change. • Stage 0—Awareness: Little concern about or involvement with the innovation is indicated. • Stage 1—Informational: A general awareness of the innovation and interest in learning more detail about it is indicated. • Stage 2—Personal: Individual is uncertain about the demands of the innovation, his or her inadequacy to meet those demands, and his or her role in the innovation. • Stage 3—Management: Attention is focused on the processes and tasks of using the innovation and the best use of the information and resources. • Stage 4—Consequence: Attention focuses on the impact of the innovation on the student in his or her immediate sphere of influence. • Stage 5—Collaboration: The focus is on coordination and cooperation with others regarding use of the innovation. • Stage 6—Refocusing: The focus is on exploration of more universal benefits from the innovation, including the possibility of major changes or replacement with a more powerful alternative. (p. 63) The levels within these documented concerns illustrate the developmental nature of the change process when concerns are acknowledged and taken seriously. Rodney Bennett, for example, is a middle school teacher who is aware that his district will be focusing on eliminating bullying at all grade levels for the next three years. He is at first curious about the issue, how serious the problem seems to be, and why the governor is issuing a letter supporting this initiative (“Is this an election year?” he wonders). As he travels through the stages, he learns more about the problem and may be a little surprised that behavior he has often thought of as rough “teasing” or “growing pains” is considered painful to many and characteristic of bullies. When teachers in the schools are charged with implementing curricular measures to counteract bullying, he begins to worry about when and how he will be able do this. As a teacher-leader, however, Rodney focuses on the benefits for all students, including potential bullies. He shares his idea of campfire stories that would allow students to talk about the problem without identifying it as their own with other teachers and works with other middle school teachers to try this method. In the following year, he expands his participation by working with the social studies teacher to teach the “pyramid of violence” in a thematic unit on conflict resolution. As a teacher-leader whose concerns have moved beyond the personal to concerns for the benefit of all students, he also volunteers to research antibullying policies that might be implemented so that the

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change can be sustained. He still has concerns, but he no longer questions the governor’s motives; he is involved in fine-tuning the school’s new antibullying policy. The win-loss aspects of change are also prominent within the stages of concern as Rodney must balance change benefits to his students with the potential for personal loss of time, loss of established curriculum, and limited rewards within the system. Consequently, the movement from Stage 0 to Stages 5 and 6 is a slow process and should be planned in years, not weeks or months. Without continuing support and dialogue across this time period, however, a change initiative can break down in several ways: it could be abandoned, relegated to a directed task, or subjected to a confusing array of individual interpretations. The leadership team in Rodney’s school must be sensitive to his concerns and reward him (if only by thanking him) for moving forward. Figure 2.2 illustrates how teachers facing the challenge of change (“Individual Facing Change”) relate to these stages and how teacherleaders, who are helping lead change movements as mentors, peer coaches, professional developers, and curriculum or project directors (“Leading Change”), can use their understanding of these stages and the REACH model to address concerns common to them. Although concerns at all stages are important for teacher-leaders to consider and plan for, Stage 2 (Personal) necessitates thinking about the interrelated personal systems of beliefs, values, knowledge, skills, ethics, and actions that make up the whole person. Discounting an individual’s personal concerns only causes defensiveness and resistance. A teacherleader who is also a change agent respects the difficulty of change and recognizes the need for all the stakeholders affected by change to work through these stages of concern as individuals before they can become fully committed to the management, consequence, collaboration, or refocusing of change at the school level.

School System Change Historically, schools have approached change as a series of independent innovations implemented over time. The change from half-day kindergarten to full-day kindergarten has rarely been planned with consideration of the impact on upper elementary classrooms. Systemic change, on the other hand, is a relatively new paradigm in educational planning and thinking that analyzes the big picture by observing the dynamics of interacting systems. For example, a systemic change perspective views a pattern of behavior problems as a stimulus to activating an examination of classroom management as it is interpreted and implemented throughout a school. A traditional change perspective views the same situation in terms of individual students acting out or reacting to individual teachers—somebody needs to be “fixed.” Systemic thinking that supports change is also a paradigm shift for teacher-leaders, who may be unused to thinking of the teaching/learning in their classrooms as a function of the school as a whole. But this type of holistic thinking is necessary for collaborative relationships and decisions that make educational change a shared process. Johnson (2005) insists that “change in a public school

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

Figure 2.2

Teacher Leadership and Stages of Concern

Stages of Concern

Individual Facing Change

Leading Change

Stage 0: Awareness

• Has little concern about or involvement with information that is not personally relevant • Aware of information about change

• Create sensitivity to the information • Establish relevancy by sharing information about how the change can positively affect student learning

Stage 1: Informational

• Aware of the innovation • Provide information and • Has a general interest in details about the innovation learning more details • Arrange for teachers who are • Has little concern for his currently involved with a or her potential role in similar innovation to share implementing the innovation their perspectives

Stage 2: Personal

• Aware of the possibility of change • Centers her or his concerns on the personal effects of implementation

• Furnish professional development that emphasizes implementation • Outline how the reward structure of the organization will respond to implementation of the innovation • Foster reflective thinking about change

Stage 3: Management

• Attention turns to processes and tasks of using the innovation • Management issues related to organizing, scheduling, and time become the greatest concerns

• Acknowledge that any change in a comfortable routine is difficult • Provide support for new routines • Arrange release time for mentoring and consultation

Stage 4: Consequence

• Attention focuses on the impact of the innovation on students’ academic achievement and attitude

• Furnish support for data gathering and reporting about student achievement • Encourage qualitative methods of analyzing student attitudes about the innovation

Stage 5: Collaboration

• Ready to share concerns • Prepared to collaborate with others to implement change

• Set up study/learning groups to plan and deliver implementation effectively • Include experienced teachers in professional development efforts

Stage 6: Refocusing

• Exploration of universal benefits from the innovation • Consideration of major change or replacement with a more powerful alternative

• Reinforce positive pedagogy that results from the innovation • Disseminate information about the widespread implementation of the innovation • Make provision for all interested voices to be heard • Support the change with appropriate resources

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environment is more about evolution than revolution” (p. 142). Sustainable school improvement and change come from renewal and shared purpose, not from reforms that are pushed into a system. Most teachers would agree that any significant school change is shared (intentionally or unintentionally). A change to full-day kindergarten does affect upper elementary grades because lunchroom and playground times and spaces may have to be reconsidered, the use of the gym may not be the same, technology resources may have to be shared, and the change will affect administrators’ roles. It only makes sense that teachers and administrators work together for educational change, as the best knowledge of community and students lies with teachers, and the teachers will be responsible for implementing the change. In addition, the collaborative control indicative of systemic thinking and change offers teachers decision-making opportunities previously regarded as within the realm of administrators,’ directors,’ or consultants’ control. This shared control requires shared leadership wherein teacher-leaders have not only the possibility but also the The key to changing systems responsibility to become collaborators involved in shapis to produce greater numbers ing change. “Although the appropriateness of collaboraof system thinkers . . . they tive structures depends on the precise nature of the will alter people’s mental school’s or any organization’s environment and tasks,” awareness of the system as a Sims and Sims (2004) contend, “collaborative participawhole, thereby contributing to tion and decision-making structures should be a thread altering the system itself. within all schools” (p. 9). —Michael Fullan Based on the collaborative participation that marks systems thinking, the National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP), in its field handbook Breaking Ranks II (2004), lists four steps for successfully employing change in education: 1. Establish the action-planning team. 2. Use data to identify opportunities for improvement. 3. Assess conditions for change and develop the action plan. 4. Report the results. (p. 22) An action-planning team in this change process would help define or refine the vision of the school and develop mission or belief statements consistent with that vision. Data from inside the school would be collected for understanding the current situation and establishing reasonable expectations. Supporting data from outside the school would be collected through research into best practice and like models. Both types of data would help guide potential action and opportunities for change. While the first two steps are important steps creating a strong foundation for change, the third step is the one that involves reaching out for even more inclusion. If your team includes others in the development of the plan and ties the strategies to the defined problem, the research, the data, and the specific circumstances of the school, the overall plan will be better defined and will more likely be defensible before any challenges. (NASSP, 2004, pp. 32–33)

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

Developing an action plan also means developing plans for any professional development that would be needed for the action part of the plan. Finally, reporting change results shares knowledge learned and potential for further improvement with all educational stakeholders in the school. The leadership behaviors named in the REACH model follow a parallel path to the steps suggested by the NASSP, from the risk-taking step of becoming involved in the action plan, through the effectiveness and honor utilized in collecting and handling data, to the autonomy and collegiality of developing the plan and sharing the data.

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERLEADERS AS CHANGE AGENTS Can schools as organizations learn as well as teach? Learning is generally defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or acquisition of knowledge. From this perspective, the future of education demands that schools learn and, in turn, adopt teaching practices that empower student learning. For this to happen successfully, teacher-leaders within those schools must see themselves as part of an interrelated learning as well as teaching system. Harris (2005) asserts that teachers as leaders are central to the process of establishing learning systems: “The involvement of teachers in the change process is critical and . . . collaborative forms of practice are more conducive to successful implementation” (p. 167).

Force Field Analysis To increase the possibility of success, change agents must analyze all aspects of change, identifying successes and problems as well as possibilities. One way to approach this study of change is with a force field analysis. Designed by Lewin (1951) to analyze the state of balance between actions of opposing forces, a force field analysis can be used by teacherleaders to investigate factors that promote or inhibit change. Teacherleaders can then facilitate a change initiative by supporting helping forces and neutralizing hindering forces. Hindering forces cannot be ignored, for as Schmuck (1997) reports, “They will defeat us, unless we work hard to reduce their power. Strive to create more facilitating forces, yes, but work even harder to put extra effort into decreasing the power of restraints” (p. 11). Before this can happen, both helping and hindering forces must be identified. The worksheet that follows outlines the steps of a force field analysis.

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Force Field Analysis of Change 1. Define the current change situation: _______________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________ 2. List the factors that help or hinder the change process below: Change Situation ________________________________________________________________

Factors That Help This Change

Factors That Hinder This Change

3. Seek consensus about the factors above. 4. Use different types of arrows (color or intensity) to indicate the groups’ consensus about the impact of the factors. 5. Formulate a plan to effectively reinforce helping factors and to diminish hindering factors.

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

CHANGE AND CONTROL While systems thinking and collaborative planning can strengthen educational institutions’ ability to change, it is foolish to believe that all change can be controlled. A crisis in the stock market in Japan can affect the stock market in the United States, which can affect the viability of a pending bond issue of a school in the Midwest the day before a vote. The interrelatedness of the world’s economies, electronic communication, and business networks can give rise to either hope or insecurity. However, Margaret Wheatley (2005) contends that by developing quality relationships, “it is possible to prepare for the future without knowing what it will be” (p. 117). Moreover, she suggests that organizations must develop new capabilities for dealing with change by putting the following principles into practice: • Nourish a clear organizational identity—people find stability and security in purpose. • Focus people on the bigger picture—people who are stressed lose the ability to recognize patterns, to see the bigger picture. • Demand honest, forthright communication—people deal better with uncertainty when they know what is going on. • Prepare for the unknown—develop alternative plans. • Keep meaning at the forefront—meaning is the most powerful motivator of human behavior. • Use rituals and symbols—the use of ritual and symbols is common in all cultures. • Pay attention to individuals—there is no substitute for direct, personal contact with employees. (pp. 118–122)1 These principles are not unique to dealing with educational change, but are applicable in any leadership situation. They are different from most organizational principles, however, in that they are rooted in the power of sincere communication, caring, and relationships—the power of being able to rely on those you have come to trust. At your next school meeting or with a group of educators, try this type of communication and relationship building by simply talking about the following questions: • • • • •

What is your organization’s identity? What are some issues in your school that people care about? What is an issue that you think they should care about? What is an issue that others think you should care about? What do you feel is the most important part of your school’s vision statement? • What motivates people in your school to change? • What rituals or symbols represent the best of your school? • How would human conversations about important educational issues help school personnel change?

1. From Finding Our Way: Leadership for an Uncertain Time © 2005 by Margaret Wheatley. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc., San Francisco, CA. All rights reserved. www.bkconnection .com. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.

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CHANGE AND STRESS It’s just the second week of school, and already Madeline is frazzled. After a summer of creating a “save the environment” classroom, complete with learning stations, visuals, and all-new lesson plans, her second grade students just don’t seem to care about the environment or her efforts. She has tried unsuccessfully to impress upon them the need for clean air and water as well as soil conservation as part of the school improvement plan to focus on science. To make things worse, she is on rotation for performance-based evaluation, and her first visit from the principal is next Wednesday. Her stress is building: a new approach or a whole new theme? What about the university students she had agreed to host for a science methods lesson? Will her first performance assessment form a negative “first impression” with the principal? As the teacher-leader of the school’s learning community studying project-based learning, she had decided to change her established routine to use a more active approach in science, but students’ reactions to this change, unfortunately, have been disappointing. Madeline closes her eyes and leans her head back on her chair to relax her breathing and reestablish calm before considering her alternatives. Teacher-leaders need to be sensitive to both the amount of change undertaken at any one time and how that change can place pressure on their daily schedules and regimens. One can blame the change for the physical sensation of stress (which may lead to more stress and resentment), or learn to deal with stress that is normal in any change situation in order to accomplish change proactively and perform well. Too little stress or stimuli can result in boredom and apathy, while too much stress or stimuli can cause burnout or breakdown. For example, it is just as physiologically stressful for the body to win a million dollars as to lose a million dollars. Moreover, Fogel (2000) affirms the connections between body and mind when he states, “Every aspect of a person, in body and mind, is fundamentally relational” (p. 316). Figure 2.3 illustrates the relationship between stress and performance: some stress moves one to optimal performance, while high stress seems to lower the ability to perform. This relationship also extends to academic achievement. In his study of four hundred students, El-Anzi (2005) found, “There is a certain degree of anxiety Figure 2.3

Relationship Between Stress and Performance

High Performance

Low Performance

−/+Low Stress

−/+Medium Stress

−/+High Stress

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

that increases academic achievement, but if anxiety increases beyond that degree, the opposite happens” (p. 1). The following are both psychological and physiological approaches that are effective in dealing with stress: • You might examine both how you do perceive and how you can perceive events that cause stress. For example, you might envision yourself on a calm beach in the eye of a hurricane instead of being buffeted by a hurricane. • You might detect and release physiological symptoms that are caused by stress. For example, headaches, high blood pressure, indigestion, and so on are common symptoms of stress that can be relieved through relaxation techniques, regular exercise, and a healthful diet. Although individuals differ in the amount of stress they can tolerate, any leader is a whole person—body and mind—and what affects one area affects the other as well. Try the exercises that follow to reduce your stress, increase your personal and academic effectiveness, and take a well-earned break.

Stress-Reducing Exercises Muscles have only two functions: contracting and relaxing. Stress induces contractions within muscles that increase bodily tension. Conscious relaxation is a skill that can be learned through practice. Relaxation techniques control the amount of tension in the muscles by employing the three R’s of relaxation: 1. Reduction of mental activity 2. Recognition of muscular tension 3. Reduction in respiration Two examples of the conscious relaxation exercises are outlined next:

1. Progressive Relaxation Before you can consciously relax a muscle, you must first feel the tension within it. As part of this technique, you contract and relax all the muscles in the body individually, and then progressively relax the muscles: large muscles first, and then the small ones. As you contract each muscle group, hold the contraction and increase the tension before relaxing the muscle group. Gradually reduce the contractions in intensity until no movement is visible. The purpose of this method is not only to reduce tension that is present, but also to note the feeling of tension, so that one can choose to let go of the tension and relax the muscles. Sample Routine: 1. On one leg at a time, pull instep and toes toward shin; relax the leg. 2. Contract abdomen; relax abdomen. 3. Contract shoulders to ears; relax shoulders. 4. Bend elbow and contract the biceps; relax arm.

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5. Contract each hand and make a fist; relax each hand. 6. With teeth apart, press lips together and press tongue to the roof of the mouth; relax. 7. Clench teeth; relax jaw. 8. Make a face; wrinkle your nose and squint; relax the face. 9. Raise eyebrows and wrinkle forehead; relax eyes.

2. Imagery Technique This technique involves consciously reflecting on autogenic phrases that help you visualize feelings. Autogenic refers to a state of attention that centers on a sense of heaviness or warmth for a particular part of the body. For example, imagine you are a limp rag doll with no one to hold you up or hold you in. Another common reflection is to imagine floating on air or in water. Whatever the autogenic visual used, imagery is actually a form of self-hypnosis that removes the tension by taking the mind off anxieties and consciously placing it elsewhere, thereby relaxing the muscles. Imagery techniques celebrate “mind over matter,” allowing easier breathing and relaxation and the performance within the REACH model to occur at the optimum level. For more information about stress-reducing exercises, see “Stress Reducing Tips” at http://www.mckinley.uiuc.edu/handouts/ stress_reducing_tips.html.

TEACHER-LEADERS AND CHANGE

LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD This chapter began by using a dance metaphor for educational change. That metaphor is visualized below. Place yourself in the center of the circle dance and trace your reactions to the words describing change that create interactions with the visualized “you” in the diagram below.

Educational Change as a Circle Dance Predicament

Process

Anxiety

Exciting

Change Agent Flexibility

Balancing

Abandoned

Modify

Do you generally think about change in a positive manner or a negative manner?

How would your present attitude about change be altered if you were participating in the implementation of change as a teacher-leader?

According to Fullan (2002), “The single factor common to successful change is that relationships improve” (p. 18). Educational settings get worse when relationships get worse, but they get better when relationships improve. The chapters following will focus on the relationships inherent in the different roles that teacher-leaders can experience in their application of the REACH model.

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3 TeacherLeaders Improving Student Achievement To be fond of learning is to be near to the knowledge. —Tze-sze

E

ileen Kantner awakens, groans, turns off her alarm clock, and slowly gets out of bed. Time for school! Eileen, a sophomore in high school, begins her learning day by flipping on her computer as she considers her wardrobe choices. The information entering her consciousness begins: her browser loads the morning news flashes as well as the weather forecast and her horoscope, her e-mail beeps to indicate it needs attention, and a fax arrives on the screen from a friend who needs some editing help. Eileen is a member of the information age and the knowledge society. Sims and Sims (2004) report that the amount of information and the kinds of knowledge Eileen will be exposed to in this society are staggering:

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• Every two or three years, the knowledge base doubles. • Every day, more than 7,000 scientific and technical articles are published. • High school graduates have been exposed to more information than their grandparents were in a lifetime. • Only 15 percent of jobs will require a college education, but nearly all jobs will require the equivalent knowledge of a college education. (p. 4) How is Eileen supposed to translate all this information into knowledge: “a clear awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles” (MSN Encarta, 2005, ¶ 1)? Across town, her teacher, Kathleen Welsh, is considering this problem from a teaching perspective. She is remembering Hargreaves’s (2003) admonition that “knowledge economies are stimulated and driven by creativity and ingenuity. Knowledge-society schools have to create these qualities; otherwise, their people and their nations will be left behind” (p. 1). With high-stakes standardized testing a reality for Kathleen and her students, how can she empower this intellectual creativity, meet assigned standards, and still encourage a cooperative and compassionate environment in her classroom?

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TEACHERS AS LEARNING LEADERS

Teaching and learning in a knowledge society is not a career for the faint of heart or mind. By definition, the leaders in the knowledge society schools of today must help their students gain and use knowledge, but they also must keep learning, become We teach what we learn, and more aware, test truths, and stand up for principles. the cycle goes on. Effective teaching research offers a broad base of strate—Joan L. Curcio gies that address instruction and methodology in a variety of ways to meet students’ differing needs (Glasgow & Hicks, 2003; Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2003; Martin-Kniep, 2000; Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004). While presenting a rich variety of methods that create alternatives to instruction, all these research-based sources also find that teachers who impact student achievement most positively share academic commitments to the following elements of teaching: a strong content knowledge base, instructional models that engage different learning styles, equity and social justice within classrooms, authentic assessment, proficient communication skills, and reflective activities for both students and teachers. In short, these teachers are concerned about the interaction with their students, their knowledge and implementation of their academic discipline, their relationships with educational stakeholders, and themselves as professionals. The behaviors within the REACH model (Risk-Taking, Effectiveness, Autonomy, Collegiality, and Honor) are consistent with Hargreaves’s new professionalism as teachers lead the learning in their own classrooms and collaborate in building curriculum for student learning. The Latin root of the word curriculum, currere, means race or “to run.” This is not meant to suggest that curriculum should be instructed at

TEACHER-LEADERS IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

breakneck speed, but rather that it is meant to be circular, with a beginning and an end that leads to a new beginning. The curricular process begins with suppositions about learners, then identifies goals and benchmarks of those goals, organizes concepts within a scope and sequence, outlines procedures and learning environments, performs evaluation or assessment of the outcomes of those procedures, and begins again—learning from reflection and revising to reflect the learning. Inside school classrooms where the teacher is the natural leader, essential curricular questions tend to focus on the following categories: • • • •

What will be taught? In what instructional manner? With what results? With what resources?

The answers to these questions are clearly needed, but answers to questions that go deeper to a philosophical level that informs the essential questions in any curricular area are just as important: • • • • •

Why should this be taught? Who decides what is to be taught? How is this relevant to students’ futures? How can this concept be applied in a creative manner? How will this contribute to and sustain a learning community?

Approaching curricular decisions from both the essential cognitive questions and the philosophical questions that inform them requires teacher-leaders to possess expertise and skill levels (Effectiveness) that are constructed on a firm knowledge base. In addition, teacher-leaders’ curricular decisions should reflect best practice in instruction and assessment within their own classrooms. Finally, these types of decisions also involve Honor, as a teacher-leader’s integrity and professional ethics ensure that performance-based data are accurate, and that assigned standards are essential parts of a classroom’s curriculum. The curricular involvement that results from daily connection with essential curricular questions and experiences also establishes the school unit as the logical unit for curricular improvements and planning. Curricular change is not the type of task relegated to a laborer and managed by an administrator; it is the kind of work that should be shared by professionals who experience the daily activities within a school and are concerned about the future and effectiveness of the school. Snell and Swanson (2000) maintain that the teacherleader with subject and pedagogical expertise is well suited to being a curricular leader because her or his authority stems “from credibility as expert classroom practitioners” (p. 4). What would it take to bring the curricular decisions made within a school to the level of work shared by professionals who have direct experience with it? Moving curricular decisions to this level will require a shared leadership approach within a school system with the following elements: continued learning about curricular content and processes by teachers and administrators in learning communities; open and honest communication among education stakeholders, including teacher-administrator and

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administrator-teacher; collaborative methods of curricular design and instruction that promote meaningful knowledge and connections among concepts; and realistic plans about time, incentives, and connections for teachers as instructional and curricular leaders. Student learning is both a cognitive and social/emotional activity. “Good teachers fully understand that successful teaching and learning occur when teachers have caring relationships with their students and when their students are emotionally engaged with their learning” (Hargreaves, 2003, p. 61). While that learning is happening, however, people, things, and situations within a classroom exist in a fluid state of interaction that creates a classroom climate or culture. The dynamic nature of this interactive experience adds emotion and intensity to the notion of curricular leadership and highlights once again the importance of communication and building relationships.

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COMMUNICATION WITH STUDENTS

Classroom communication presents a teaching and learning paradox that teachers face daily. They are exhorted to construct meaning with each student and meet her or his individual learning needs while managing groups of students at the same time. The Only those having torches will multiple and sometimes overlapping verbal and nonpass them on to others. verbal communication cues that a teacher-leader uses to —Plato organize an experience and support students’ learning constitute one of the distinctions between a novice and an expert teacher. Handling multiple and overlapping verbal and nonverbal cues is not easy, but like all communication skills, this can be learned and always improved. While strong communication skills are important pieces of Effectiveness, they are also interwoven in all aspects of REACH teacher-leaders’ behaviors and are vital to establishing a secure, active, and productive environment. The importance of communication skills is further established through a study of five diverse teacher-leaders. In this study, LeBlanc and Shelton (1997) found that all the teachers listed good communication skills (listening, self-confidence, humor, truthfulness, and reliability) as the most important skills needed in teacher leadership. One teacher stated, “You have to know how to interact with people. You have to be believable. . . . People have to feel that—how do I want to put it—you’re discussing something with them because you really value their opinion” (p. 40). Since the landmark study of Pygmalion in the Classroom by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968), teachers have known that they can influence students’ achievement by communicating to them, verbally or nonverbally, that there is a certain behavior expected of them. Positive expectations can raise the degree of effort, while negative expectations encourage a student to descend into learned helplessness. Moreover, the implications of brain-based learning and constructivist pedagogy encourage teachers to look at relationships as they reflect on the communication patterns found in their classrooms. For example, teacher behavior affects teacher-student interactions that affect student behavior. Student behavior then affects teacher behavior, and the cycle begins again. Communicating high expectations is one step in helping students succeed. But this step must be followed by constructive and

TEACHER-LEADERS IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

corrective feedback so that students can see those expectations translated into achievement and can trust what they have been told.

Participation Structures To proactively encourage achievement in classrooms, teacher-leaders need to understand the relationships embedded in communication, just as students need to know the communication rules a particular teacher-leader uses—when, where, and how to communicate. Communication rules that call for different activities or behaviors are termed participation structures because they determine appropriate ways to participate (when to raise one’s hand, etc.). Students’ perceptions of these participation structures may be confused and become a source of misunderstanding with the teacher. This type of dysfunction can be exacerbated by perceptions and misperceptions due to cultural, racial, socioeconomic status, age, sexual orientation, or even gender differences. For example, Asian students are taught as very young children that lowering one’s eyes is a sign of respect, but American teachers may see this nonverbal signal as avoidance and guilt. If the same language used by teachers and students in a classroom does not ensure communication, what can? The examples below suggest a respectful approach to building relationships by clarifying participation structures for both teachers and students. • • • • • • • • • •

Do not assume students know what you want them to do. Signal students when their participation is required. Teach and model appropriate behavior and positive communication. Use standard and correct English as well as inclusive language. Expect all students to participate at their highest levels. Use consistent participation structures that go beyond tolerance to acceptance. Reward positive communication and use of classroom participation structures. Present explanations and examples that include students’ interests. Exhibit a sense of humor and encourage all students to express their opinions. Practice active listening.

Listening Skills Listening is complicated, but a vital part of communication and building relationships: It involves the filtering of many stimuli (the noise in communication) before some stimuli are selected and decoded into a message. A teacher-leader practicing active listening in the classroom or in a collegial situation pays close attention to what is said, considers the message and the point of view, and shapes appropriate responses. Wheatley (2005) encourages careful listening because listening “always transforms our relationships. The act of listening always brings us closer. We may not like the persons or approve of their behavior, but if we listen, we move past the labels” (p. 82). This connection with relationships is possible because active listening indicates an interest in understanding another’s perspective by considering it carefully.

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Obviously, active listening behaviors should be grounded in sincerity and caring, or they will communicate a message of hypocrisy and deceit. “Did I understand you to say . . . ?” for example, is a more authentic address than “What I hear you saying. . . .” As leaders concerned with maintaining and improving relationships with their students, teacherleaders must use communication skills to go beyond language barriers to the real message of learning and learners.

Classroom Dialogue If a student is recognized as an active participant in working to gain knowledge, she or he has the opportunity to become a member of a classroom learning community. In a classroom learning community, the teacher’s role shifts from the expert to the facilitator or fellow learner. This is not the same as “the guide on the side,” who may be a passive observer, but assumes active participation from both students and teacher in making meaning. As teacher-leaders shift from repeating information to interchanging ideas and constructing meaning, they also shift from one-way communication to dialogue—two-way communication. Dialogue shared by teacher-leaders and students operates best when it not only delivers a message accurately between sender and receiver but also supports and strengthens the interpersonal relationship between them. Teacher-leaders should use this type of communication by practicing the following positive communication actions. • Address classroom problems constructively by directly addressing the problem, not personalities. • Stay in touch and understand your own feelings and how they influence the behavior of others. • Keep nonverbal communication congruent with verbal communication; that is, make sure that a student is receiving the same message verbally and nonverbally. Positive verbal reinforcement should be accompanied by a warm, direct, nonverbal presence so that both types of feedback are consistent with one another. • Accept responsibility for your own attitudes and behavior and encourage students to do likewise. • Validate students’ contributions even if their ideas are discarded. • Treat all students with consistent respect and acceptance. • Listen closely and carefully.

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COMMUNICATION WITH FAMILIES

What families have in common with the world around is that they are the place where people learn who they are and how to be that way. —Jean Illsley Clarke

Families are the first teachers and the longest teachers. However, modern families defy simple classification or a single approach and, in many cases, change frequently. Modern families are complex; one-half of all marriages now end in divorce. Foster families and extended families raise a greater percentage of children every year. Modern families are diverse; single parenthood is common, second marriage families are common, blended

TEACHER-LEADERS IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

families are common, and families with openly gay and lesbian parents are becoming more common. Modern families are busy and stressed for time; over 76 percent of mothers work outside the home. Despite these divergent family combinations, social classes, and financial opportunities, however, modern families generally share some common attributes: they care deeply for their children, and they want their children to do well in school. Yet, the MetLife Survey of 2004–2005 (MetLife, 2005) found that new teachers identified working with parents as their greatest challenge and the area they were least prepared to manage during their first year. • New teachers are most likely to report the biggest challenge that they face as a teacher is communicating with and involving parents. Three in ten (31%) believe that this is the greatest challenge, compared to two in ten (22%) who say that it is getting sufficient resources and two in ten (20%) who say that maintaining order and discipline in the classroom is the greatest challenge. • New teachers are least satisfied with their relationship with their students’ parents. Only one-quarter (25%) of new teachers describe the relationship as very satisfying, and 20% describe it as very or somewhat unsatisfying. • During their first year of teaching, new teachers felt least prepared to engage families in supporting their children’s education. One-quarter (24%) felt they were not prepared for this responsibility. (p. 5) Communicating with families is not always easy, but that communication is absolutely necessary for building a relationship of trust and cooperation among the adults who have the greatest influence over students’ success. Often, communication between teachers and families is marred when teachers feel that troubled students have deficient parents. Moreover, lack of family involvement in school activities is often misread as an indication of such a parental deficit. From parents’ perspectives, Lawrence-Lightfoot (2003) reports communication with teachers can be threatening. Every time parents and teachers come together, their dialogue is to some extent related to their early childhood experiences, which get rehearsed and replayed in the classrooms of their children. As parents and teachers sit facing one another they are drawn back in time, to the time when they felt small and powerless, to the specters from their youth. (p. 218) Negative assumptions about families can make both sending and receiving messages difficult. The opposite, but still challenging, situation occurs when families are intrusive and difficult, when they seem too deeply involved in classroom processes. Nancy Gibbs, writing for Time (2005), documents the problems of teachers being e-mailed by parents who expect immediate responses and constant updates. In addition, Gibbs identifies the concern that teachers have about the nature of teacher-parent communication: “Beneath the ferocious jostling, there is the brutal fact that outside of Lake Wobegon, not all children are above average. Teachers must choose their words carefully” (p. 46).

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Moving beyond these communication inhibitors and reaching families, then, requires understanding social factors that may keep families from having strong school relationships. A student’s parents or caregivers may be reluctant to be involved with or communicate with teachers if there is conflict or abuse in the home. They may be embarrassed about a lack of control or feel that their parenting skills are inadequate. Parents or caregivers who have a personal history of failure in school are also reluctant to communicate with teachers, who represent the institution. In this situation, the teacher is the personification of the system that failed them or that they failed. In either case, the communication is uncomfortable. A language barrier is another factor that can produce a real division between school and home, while parent work hours and teacher work hours may cause connection problems. Add to this growing list of obstacles families’ lack of transportation, lack of understanding of current teaching/learning practices, and reluctance to take on any more responsibility, and the extent of the problem becomes more apparent. Understanding these factors, however, may also suggest alternatives, ways of communicating that reassure, occur at nontraditional times, indicate empathy, and show respect. With communication initiated, what type of family involvement is appropriate and meaningful? Teacher-leaders will find very few parents who really don’t care about their children. What families do need, however, are clear suggestions about how they can help by becoming partners with teachers in their children’s educations. Sometimes this means that a family member will need to speak up for a child or explain circumstances at home that may be affecting the student’s achievement at school. Other times, a teacher-leader will need to initiate contact or ask for help with a student. This type of open communication requires building more than communication skills; it also involves using those communication skills as a teacher-leader either individually or in groups to increase trust between home and school. Communication with families about the opportunities for active involvement in their student’s education can occur through the familiar parent-teacher conference. This idea may be expanded and enriched by having a three-way conference in which the student develops speaking skill and confidence by explaining his or her portfolio materials and progress to the family. This conference option should be supported by child care available at the school to ensure that the child who is speaking has the undivided attention of the adults present. Other communication opportunities include the following: • Open houses in which the teacher invites the parents to speak or take home a survey about their child’s interests, strengths, and needs. • Quarterly or monthly newsletters in which the teacher or students outline the activities of the class and report good news. • Formal reporting of assessments and student progress, and permission forms for special activities. • Parental contributions to the academics of the school through classroom presentations about careers, cultures, experiences, or specialized knowledge. • Family-to-family activities where families can meet one another and celebrate their students’ successes and find common ground for sharing.

TEACHER-LEADERS IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

• Establishment of a volunteer parent-coordinator service where families can seek help through service providers in a nonthreatening atmosphere. Less formal occasions for communication with families arise through phone calls, notes sent home, and extracurricular functions. Many schools are now equipping their classrooms with phones and answering machines. This allows the teacher to leave the day’s objectives and assignments on an answer message that both students and parents can access for clarification. Such a phone messaging system also allows a parent to leave a message for the teacher or to request a telephone call at a specific time of day if the teacher is not in class. E-mail, the forming of listserv groups, or Internet sites for classroom sharing are other electronic formats for communication. These computer-based systems are exciting, but they can be both time-consuming for the teacher-leader and frustrating to the family if they are not current or if the family does not have computer or Internet access. Enlisting the help of students to keep Internet sites up-to-date can help, but this type of student assistance must also be monitored so that any communication presented is appropriate and correct. Communication may also be facilitated in additional creative ways. For example, family members speaking to the class or even taping interviews or stories to be shared with the class communicates both the content of the presentation or story as well as the value of learning. Family members might also lend support by locating resource materials, conversing with students about their experiences at school, serving as chaperons or field trip escorts, or arranging special teaching and learning experiences. Whatever the occasion, communicating in an open, honest manner will make further communication more comfortable. In a series of teacher reflections, Tertell, Klein, and Jewett (1998) present a teacher’s voice sharing how she maintains good relationships with the families of her students: “In my interactions, I always tried to convey three ideas: the value of the child, the family’s important role in the child’s life, and my commitment to both the child and the family” (p. 153). The development of reciprocal relationships with families represents leadership that can truly optimize the learning experiences of students and exemplify both Effectiveness and Honor from the REACH model.

STRATEGIES FOR FOCUSING ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

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As teacher-leaders strive to connect and build relationships with their students, they facilitate, mentor, coach, What is or was is not persuade, and even occasionally discipline. Throughout necessarily what ought to be. these interactions, the teacher-student relationship —B. Edward McClellan stays in place with appropriate boundaries, ethics, and integrity. Moreover, the focus of these connections stays the same: the academic achievement and social growth of the student. Read and review the following case study with the chapter’s emphasis on increasing student achievement in mind.

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Case in Point: When Is It Time to Quit? Ms. Berans looked up to see Jeremy Wilson enter the classroom—late again. It seemed that Jeremy was either tardy or in trouble most of the time. With an inward grimace at her own bad alliteration, Ms. Berans asked, “What’s up, Jeremy?” “I didn’t do it,” Jeremy said, “I was framed.” He flipped the blue slip on Ms. Berans’s desk. “Right,” replied Ms. B. “Take a seat and read quietly, please.” Jeremy moved slowly to his seat and opened his book. Ms. Berans watched him hide behind his copy of Pride and Prejudice and thought, “That title says it all. It must be the day for alliteration.” She actually liked Jeremy and thought he had the potential to be a strong writer. When she had told him that, he had been embarrassed and, she suspected, pleased and proud as well. He wasn’t a popular student; he did have a sullen streak that she suspected was a defense about being poor. She picked up the note that indicated that liquor had been found in Jeremy’s locker, but not with him or on his person. The situation was under investigation. Was it possible that he was framed? In his journal, Jeremy had written about trying to break away from a group of troubled teenagers. To complicate matters even more, this was Jeremy’s fourth tardy, which should result in a two-day suspension. This was truly a difficult situation. Should she turn in the tardy and add the prejudice of a suspension to the investigation? It seemed that Jeremy had turned a corner and was making a real effort in her class to meet and exceed the expectations. With a sigh, Ms. Berans looked once again at Jeremy. Was this the time to cut him a break? After all, he had the note. Should Ms. Berans set the suspension in motion? What is the ethical thing to do? As the bell rang, Ms. Berans said, “Jeremy, we have to talk.” • With another teacher, discuss the implications of the case study as they relate to Jeremy’s growing achievement, the relationship between teacher and student, and communication between teacher and student. • What would you do in this situation? One of the major findings of the 2004–2005 MetLife Survey of 1,073 public school students in Grades 7–12 was that “nearly all secondary school students (95%) have had a teacher who has made a positive difference in their lives. These teachers have helped students do better in school, introduced them to new ideas and helped them to pursue their interests” (MetLife, p. 6). • What would you say to Jeremy now?

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PARENT AND TEACHER EXPECTATIONS: A MATTER OF BALANCE As families and teacher-leaders work together to help students learn, they need to be aware of one another’s expectations and their own attitudes

TEACHER-LEADERS IMPROVING STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

toward those expectations. If either of the parties thinks that the other is unreasonable, then communication will most likely falter. On the other hand, if expectations are discussed and agreement is reached, families and teachers can become partners and balance the needs of the student with the academic expectations of the school. Van Bockem, Wenger, and Ashworth (2004) explain that communication about teacher and parent expectations can lead to an environment of creative tension wherein teachers and parents are focused on meeting the student’s needs and changing the things that don’t seem to work, but remain hopeful, encouraging, and respectful. The most obvious leadership role in these circumstances is the parent-teacher conference. As a teacher-leader, consider the following questions: • How would you create an environment that encourages trust even before a conference begins? • Why is it important to understand the parents’ as well as the student’s perspective about an issue or problem? • How can a collaborative plan for success be constructed that would include input from all the stakeholders? • How can both the teacher and the parents reinforce students’ achievement so that students internalize a sense of accomplishment rather than look for materialistic rewards?

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LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD

If it takes a village to raise a child, it takes a community to educate him or her. The difference between a village It takes a village to raise a and a community is the quality of the relationships that child. are created when interests are shared and communication —Ancient African proverb is trusted. The teacher-leader is a fundamental part of this educational community that shares an interest in the needs of learners. Use the following REACH model behaviors as anchors and connect the concepts discussed throughout this chapter by drawing lines from those concepts to the corresponding REACH behaviors.

Pay Attention Empower Creativity

Gaining Knowledge Risk-Taking

Stand Up for Principles Integrity and Ethics

Equity and Social Justice Effectiveness

Social Factors Be Open to Outcomes

Autonomy

Family Expectations

Treat Parents as Partners Foster Trust

Collegiality

Verbal and Nonverbal Shift in Perspectives

Positive Expectations Tell the Truth

Capacity for Change Authentic Assessment

Test Truths

Fluid Interactions Consistent Structures

Honor

Tolerance of Ambiguity Responsibility

4 TeacherLeaders Extending Their Own Learning Growth itself contains the germ of happiness. —Pearl Buck

T

he accountability movement that has placed a great deal of emphasis on what students should know and be able to do, has also placed pressure on the continued professional growth and development of novice and experienced teachers. Biologically, the concept of growth indicates an increase in size, while development represents an increase or change in function. When this perspective is applied to teachers’ continued learning, growth denotes an increase in knowledge or skills. Development, on the other hand, suggests the internalization and application of knowledge or skills. Both of these elements can be found in Diaz-Maggioli’s (2004) definition of professional development for teacher-leaders: “professional development should be understood as a job-embedded commitment that teachers make in order to further the purposes of the profession while addressing their own particular needs” (p. 5). The REACH model supports this definition through Risk-Taking, Autonomous, and Effective behaviors. Because the knowledge base for teaching is never static, it is not possible

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to stop learning and keep teaching well. Constructed meaning (knowledge), relationships, personal experience, methodology, and beliefs all impact teaching and generate their own needs for learning throughout the life and career of a teacher-leader.

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TEACHER-LEADER AS A PROFESSIONAL Traditionally, a professional person has been defined by the type of work, commitment, rigorous preparation, power, and control she or he exhibits. In other words, a professional engages in work that demands specialized qualifications and practice. Professional qualifications usually translate into advanced, rigorous education (the increase in knowledge and skills) and the development of expertise needed to practice successfully (the application of the knowledge and skills) within that profession. Obviously, the same knowledge society that permeates the student’s world and demands continued learning is also part of a teacher-leader’s world. Professional status has also meant a “calling,” or commitment to one’s work beyond the general parameters of a job. Consequently, a committed professional is able to both profess and defend her or his beliefs and approach, engage in critical reflection, assess the results of his or her work, and revise practice based on this cycle of inquiry. Finally, professionals monitor the quality of their profession by establishing entrance requirements and developing peer review procedures. Since the 1960s, the debate about teachers’ status has focused on measuring their work, education, and responsibilities against that of the legal and medical professions to determine if teachers are professionals, semiprofessionals, or skilled workers. In contrast, current efforts that expect and encourage teachers to develop their own and their students’ capabilities to the fullest as part of their professionalism are aimed at the right target. Education, after all, is not about development as a semiskilled or skilled endeavor on Wednesday afternoons twice a month. Education is the development of the self, and, consequently, the development of one’s community.

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REFLECTIVE PRACTICE AND INQUIRY When I grow up, I want to see The things that I want to be. There would be no smoke for people to choke, And when the snow would fall, it wouldn’t be cold at all. And in summer when leaves are green, there wouldn’t be bees to sting. Instead some ants that didn’t bite would make honey all night. And it would be like it would be, And you would be you, and I would be me. —Mike, Grade 4* *Note: Reprinted with permission.

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

Bill Saavedra smiled as he finished the poem. “Oh, the innocence and wisdom of the young!” He stopped reading his student’s poetry assignment and thought about Mike and the hopeful message of the poem. “When do we lose the magic?” he wondered. As he rose from his dining room table to get a soft drink, he decided that he needed to nurture that optimistic attitude in Mike. He would publish Mike’s poem in the Internet newsletter that he maintained for his students and their families. As Bill resumed his work, he was unable to get the last line out of his mind: “And you would be you, and I would be me.” “What does it mean to be me?” he asked himself. “What does it mean to teach poetry to fourth grade students?” Some of his colleagues suggested that he was wasting precious class time when psychologists say that students that age cannot think abstractly. Bill made a mental note to look into methods for encouraging creativity in young writers. “Mike has certainly written in verse, offered insight, and used his imagination. He has written poetry,” Bill thought, “so it must be possible. Now to bring the others to this level.” Bill started to put the poem in his “finished” pile, but then picked it back up and read it again slowly. “Hmmm, Mike has described his perfect world in concrete terms,” Bill mused, “so maybe what I need to do is give all the students something concrete that they can change with their imaginations by writing a poem. I’ll check into that.” Bill selected the next paper and began to read. Bill has just engaged in reflective practice. Morrison (2006) states, “Self-knowledge and self-assessment are hallmarks of reflective practice. Good teachers are constantly evaluating their own behavior and finding better ways of doing things” (p. 5). In analyzing Mike’s poem with his colleagues’ concerns in mind, Bill considered knowledge about young students’ understanding of abstract language, assessed his own practice, and decided on a different approach. He has also decided he needs more information; he needs to learn. In learning about teaching poetry to fourth grade students, Bill has also learned from his teaching. When using reflective practice, Armstrong and Savage (2002) suggest teachers check the decisions made when implementing instruction through the following questions: • Were my preconceptions about what might be effective correct? If not, why not? • Were there parts of the lesson that worked particularly well? If so, how might I capitalize on these successes in preparing other lessons? • Were there a few weak spots in a generally good lesson? If so, how might I fix them? (p. 77) Such a self-reflective strategy introduces a method of clarifying and solidifying one’s professionalism and classroom practice so that selfdescription and self-direction become routine to a teacher-leader and learner. Moreover, critical reflection about how one defines his or her professional identity through self-knowledge is an important step in addressing the Effectiveness and Autonomy behaviors of the REACH model. Professional development for teacher-leaders should evolve from what those teachers and their students are doing in the classroom, and what

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they need to be doing in the future to both meet standards and develop intellectually, socially, and emotionally. Hargreaves (2003) maintains that teacher-leaders who have developed themselves personally and professionally have also developed a strong sense of self. Their ego boundaries, their sense of identity, are secure enough for them not to feel flooded, invaded, or overwhelmingly vulnerable when they are challenged by, evaluated by, or asked to work with other adults. Well-developed teachers display as much selfconfidence and openness in their professional relationships with adults as they do with children. (p. 63) Learning theories that embrace cognitive and brain-based theories are as appropriate for teachers as the traditional K–12 students they serve. Traditional staff development programs that attempt to “fix” all teachers in all disciplines at all levels with a stand-alone workshop typically ignore what is known about reflective practice and strategies through which learning is accelerated for adult learners that follow: • • • • • • • •

Clarify outcomes based on learner needs Embed professional development in career improvement plans Provide a choice and a variety of teaching models Engage the emotions Provide a sensory-rich environment Connect with previous learning Focus on active learning Use reflective thinking in assessment

From the first to the last of these strategies, teacher-leaders as learners need to be a part of the process because increased student achievement is dependent on the increased knowledge and skills of their teachers (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005; Hargreaves, 2003; Sparks & Hirsh, 1999). Bill has two learning needs: he needs to learn more about developmentally appropriate practice and more about teaching poetry to young students. In the first case, he decides to join a learning community of teachers who are studying that topic. For his second need, however, he decides to use a self-directed model of staff development to increase his knowledge and success in teaching and experiencing poetry with young children.

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THE SELF-DIRECTED DEVELOPMENT MODEL The self-directed development model involves independent study of a teaching skill or area of knowledge directed toward the achievement of students. This does not necessarily mean that a teacher who elects selfdirected development needs to be isolated. Small groups of teachers who are independently studying a topic or trying a new strategy may cluster together periodically to discuss their progress and concerns. Although student achievement is the focus, this model takes full advantage of jobembedded development and respects the adult as a special type of learner. Sparks and Hirsh (1997) report that job-embedded learning links new

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

knowledge to present and authentic problems: “It is based on the assumption that the most powerful learning is that which occurs in response to challenges currently being faced by the learner and that allows for immediate application, experimentation, and adaptation on the job” (p. 52). While independent study can yield experience-based knowledge and practice that enriches cognitive growth and confidence, it also has a positive effect on one’s teaching and problem-solving abilities. When engaged in reflection and problem-solving activities, adults also seem to develop what Hutchings (2005) terms the ethic of inquiry: “Asking the right question can also mean a radical shift from usual practice” (p. 2). Adults who think critically about their teaching and students’ learning have the ability to reason about complex systems that eludes and frustrates students. Through critical reflection, professional teacher-leaders can articulate what they consider effective and meaningful in their teaching and learning. They make informed and data-driven decisions about educational processes and curriculum. They are able to recognize essential questions and to generate their own probing questions as well as to describe their own educational identities—their professional selves. These are teacherleaders who can articulate their goals and design professional development that will help them meet those goals.

Self-Directed Development Process The self-directed development process provides a framework for teacher-leaders to design such a plan: 1. Reflect deeply about your beliefs, values, and pedagogical approaches. Are they consistent with your classroom practice? 2. Prioritize your professional needs with a force field analysis (see Chapter 2). What needs have to be addressed immediately? What educational development do you need to activate your goals? 3. Make a one-year plan outlining your goals for the school year, addressing immediate needs. Then formulate a three-year plan that will extend your professional goal planning into the future. 4. Begin with your strongest interest or need and translate that goal into realistic action steps. 5. Look for support from colleagues, staff, and administrators. Schools often have hidden pockets of expertise among their personnel. Finding and using support from within can also create relationships based on shared interests. 6. Celebrate your success and progress as you continue to grow and develop.

ACTION RESEARCH Classroom teachers do not often think of themselves as educational researchers, but when they develop an ethic of inquiry, it is a short step to becoming a teacher-leader who engages in action research. Morrison (2006) offers the following definition of a teacher-researcher:

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Active, inquiring producers of knowledge and information who contribute to their own learning and their students’ learning by examining how students learn (or don’t learn), how to connect curriculum to students’ lives and interest, and how to make more and better connections with parents and families. (p. 5) These teacher-leaders have a question or interest that evolves from their classroom practice, and they conduct research either alone or with a group of other teachers to find an answer or approach that they then implement, measure, and analyze. Sagor (2000) provides the following seven-step process for action research that becomes an inquiry cycle for teacher-leaders.

Action Research Process 1. Selecting a focus 2. Clarifying theories 3. Identifying research questions 4. Collecting data 5. Analyzing data 6. Reporting results 7. Taking informed action (pp. 3–4) The major benefit of action research to professional growth and development of teacher-leaders is the use of real classroom data to prioritize and help make informed decisions. Results of an action research project are about the particular students in a school setting, the same students whom teachers will take “action” with to implement change. McLeod (2005) defines data-driven decision making as “a system of teaching and management practices that gets better information about students into the hands of classroom teachers” (p. 1). This is a strong argument to support action research. However, most educators will need additional information through professional development about types of data, sources of valid and reliable data, gathering data, and analyzing data before they are ready to begin an actual action research study. That being said, Hubbard and Power (2003) assert, “Teacher-researchers know that when it comes to research, the process needs to be as fulfilling as the final results” (p. 9). Selecting a focus by keeping a teaching journal to identify continuing issues or talking in depth with a colleague about an educational issue in the classroom can help clarify a question, but these processes, undertaken to focus a question, can often generate new questions, new connections, and exciting new pathways to knowledge. Beyond providing answers to authentic classroom problems, action research supports REACH behaviors by strengthening teachers’ intellectual functioning and self-assurance as they actively construct knowledge about teaching and learning. If Bill Saavedra were to decide to undertake an action research study of his theory that young students at ten and eleven years of age could understand the elements of poetry and write poetry that provides insight

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

and affect, he would need to focus the question he was asking and review theories about child and cognitive development, as well as the construction of poetic verse. He would then refine the question even further, design an “action,” collect information, analyze that information, report the results for his colleagues, and create lessons based on his findings. With twenty-six fourth graders to teach, why would Bill choose to do this? Sagor (2000) provides four reasons to make action research part of a personal growth plan or an element of schoolwide improvement: 1. The need to make teaching a more “professional” pursuit 2. The motivational power of data for building teacher efficacy 3. The increased diversity of our student bodies 4. The high-stakes consequences of the standards movement (p. 36) “It’s about the kids” is too simple a justification for action research about the complexity of leading teaching. It is about the kids, but it is also about the professional self of a teacher-leader, the credibility of the instructional method being used by a teacher-leader, and the evidence necessary to tell the story of education and Mike, Grade 4.

CLASSROOM-BASED DEVELOPMENT MODELS Classroom-based development models employ observation and feedback to improve teaching. This type of individual professional development begins with teacher practice, which is best analyzed within its natural setting. Feedback provided by a peer without evaluative weight is a powerful way for teachers to learn and to share. Moreover, the successful exercise of a classroom-based development model helps participants both identify clear goals and enjoy support while working on those goals. Furthermore, when professional development is voluntary and chosen by the individual, it has the dual advantages of having intrinsic motivation and meeting unique needs in specific classrooms. With the responsibility to operate in accordance with one’s professional goals, however, is the necessity that teachers be allowed some autonomy in reaching those goals. Professionalism is denied when mandated methodologies or assessments are incompatible with a teacher’s well-informed curriculum design and the needs of his or her students. Classroom-based development models encompass a number of processes where the relationship is one-on-one. Attainment of a set of individual goals does involve personal change, so it can be threatening. However, mentoring and peer coaching processes allow staff members to work individually and cooperatively toward meeting those goals.

Mentoring One of the most valuable areas in teacher leadership is the movement toward mentoring novice teachers. The word mentor, meaning a trusted counselor or guide, is taken from the name of a friend of Odysseus to

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whom he entrusted the education of his son, Telemachus. An education mentor, like Telemachus’s teacher, Mentor, does more than teach academic lessons or engage in clinical supervision; the teacher-leader who agrees to be a mentor also provides collegial support and motivation for endurance. A teacher-leader/mentor can be assigned as a resource for a new teacher entering a school system, as a partner to a more experienced teacher, or as a guide in a particular skill area such as technology. When working with a new teacher, a mentor would ensure that her or his charge was familiar with the facilities and routines of the school. These orientation activities, however, are surface courtesies and soon finished. A true mentor would offer support and encouragement throughout a school year by following the mentoring process listed next.

Process of Mentoring 1. Administrators seek volunteers from expert teacher-leaders who also champion collegiality. In some school districts, a mentor receives a stipend for working with a novice teacher, but the agreement to do so should be voluntary. 2. Mentors create trust-building experiences so that the relationship between mentor and novice teacher is both professional and personal. 3. Mentors assist in setting short-term goals and follow the implementation of those goals in the classroom. 4. Mentors arrange for the novice teachers to observe them. 5. Mentors offer constructive feedback to novice teachers. 6. Mentors sponsor novice teachers organizationally. 7. Mentors facilitate the setting of long-term goals while coaching novice teachers about daily survival skills. 8. Mentors help novice teachers with time management and securing resources. 9. Mentors and novice teachers move into a collegial relationship of two education professionals. With varying roles and time commitments, mentoring is an individualistic type of collaboration. Crow and Matthews (1998) see the persons involved in mentoring as travelers, guides, and passengers. “Travelers are those wanting and needing assistance. Guides are mentors for the travelers. Passengers are those on the journey who also benefit from the mentoring process” (p. 3). Benefits for the travelers are many: “exposure to new ideas and creativity, visibility with key personnel, protection from damaging situations, opportunities for challenging and risk-taking activities, increased confidence and competence, and improved reflection” (pp. 10–11). There are also benefits to the guides that strengthen Effectiveness, Collegiality, and Honor leadership behaviors. These benefits are grounded in reflection, the occasion to talk about teaching methods and ideas, personal satisfaction, and the possibility of learning from the traveler. The

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

reflective thinking that is a part of mentoring clearly links teaching and learning with knowing and understanding—the intent of professional development for both persons. The passengers are the classroom students in both teachers’ classrooms who profit from effective teaching that is directed toward them. The importance of mentoring as professional development by novice teachers is documented by Darling-Hammond (1998): Beginning teachers who have access to intensive mentoring by expert colleagues are much less likely to leave teaching in the early years. A number of districts, like Cincinnati, Columbus, and Toledo, Ohio and Rochester, New York, have reduced attrition rates of beginning teachers by more than two-thirds (often from levels exceeding 30% to rates of only 5%) by providing expert mentors with released time to coach beginners in their first year on the job. These young teachers not only stay in the profession at higher rates but become competent more quickly than those who must learn by trial-and-error. (¶ 31)

Peer Coaching Peer coaching removes both the isolation of working alone and the perceived threat of having a year’s work evaluated in one or two classroom visits by an administrator. By observing and coaching, team members in a peer coaching situation become sensitized to their own teaching behaviors, they have a chance to discuss general issues of teaching and learning together, and they are able to observe a variety of teaching styles. As team members working toward a goal, these teachers are also active learners who use Collegiality and have taken a large step toward becoming Autonomous. Peer coaching differs from mentoring in that the relationship is one of partnership between or among colleagues. As with the other forms of individual professional development discussed previously, however, there are a number of guidelines that Meadows and Saltzman (2000) offer as strategies for success.

Peer Coaching Process 1. Commit to ongoing personal and professional growth. 2. Block out weekly time to spend with your colleague to give and receive feedback. 3. Develop a high trust level over time. 4. Set goals for the process. 5. Establish ground rules to honor confidentiality. 6. Spend time observing each other in different settings with diverse groups: classrooms, PTA meetings, and faculty meetings. 7. Gain recognition and support from the “official” evaluator and/or boss. 8. Be open and take risks. 9. Don’t be afraid to ask for help.

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10. Be willing to learn from mistakes and use information gained in a constructive way. 11. Share strengths and areas of growth. (p. 137) Ideally, all educators in a school would see themselves as coaches or mentors for one another, providing companionship, sharing knowledge, and participating in decisions and problem solving. After all, all teacher-leaders were at one time novice teachers, and everyone can continue to learn. The effectiveness of peer coaching is affirmed by Joyce and Showers (2002) as they report, “We expect that 90 percent or more of the participants will reach a good level of skill if training includes theory presentation, demonstration, and practice—and the workplace enables regular peer coaching to take place” (p. 77).

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PROFESSIONAL TEACHING PORTFOLIO Professional growth and development can also be documented through a teaching portfolio. As a development activity, assembling a portfolio and writing reflections to include in it is both a process and a product. The relationship between scholarship and teaching can be strongly reciprocal when teacher-leaders use the areas of teaching as springboards for inquiry, and the products of that inquiry to add to concepts and knowledge shared through teaching. A teaching portfolio can do just that. When a teacherleader organizes his or her work according to standards adopted by the state and/or district, the portfolio can also serve as documentation that the teacher is contributing to the school improvement plan. Decisions about artifacts and the analysis of those artifacts also create authentic assessment opportunities for teachers that do not occur in scattered and short classroom observations. A portfolio also creates a record for benchmarking from year to year and documentation of continued learning. The contents of a teaching portfolio differ from school to school, but the following components are generally included: current résumé, statement of philosophy of education, list of subjects/classes taught during the time span of the portfolio, goals for the time covered by the portfolio, professional development activities, teacher work samples, student work samples, observation records, and reflections about the materials exhibited. Because the point of a professional portfolio is an exhibit and analysis of work, it should not be an exercise in scrapbooking but a serious look into classrooms and a teacher-leader’s best work. Hard copy portfolios are generally developed over a career with the addition of relevant materials and the culling of older materials each year. Recently, the opportunity for electronic portfolios has become available through software created for this purpose. An electronic portfolio may be developed so that it can be printed out and used in hard copy format, but keeping an online portfolio offers some additional benefits: • Electronic portfolios are available anytime and anywhere there is an Internet connection. • Electronic portfolios identify you as a technology literate teacher-leader.

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

• You can send a single copy to many different addresses at the same time. • You can control access to the portfolio. • Electronic portfolios offer you the opportunity to create a paperless storage area for your important documents, images, multimedia files, and other artifacts. In his article “Private Literacies in Academic Settings: The Electronic Portfolio as Prototype,” Joe Wilferth (2003) states, “The greatest value in the completion of an electronic portfolio is the act of personal reflection on the content and the writing process” (p. 1). A reflection about artifacts in a teaching portfolio would indicate why a particular artifact was chosen and its importance in quality teaching and learning. To reflect, however, means to look inward, to discover what you believe and why you believe it. This writing and thinking, then, should establish what a teacher-leader thinks about the activity from which the artifact was derived. The natural progression would be to then consider any changes and look to the future for how the knowledge, skill, or disposition the artifact represents would be applied in teaching and learning.

COMMUNICATING LEADERSHIP

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In explaining his stance that mission, communication, and relationships are the most important elements of educational leadership, Monte C. Moses (2005) states, “Communication that is persuasive and conveys powerful ideas goes a long way toward building the capacity of an organization to adapt positively instead of negatively” (p. 10). Success in the art of teaching and leading cannot occur without communication skills—the ability to analyze, to organize, and to present concepts or ideas well. It is no accident that these are also the skills required in critical thinking, for one complements and advances the other. In order to have understanding, one must have language and the ability to use it well. Communication is not just speaking or writing words, it Language is power. is the creation and naming of meaning. The knowledge base that controls content in educa—Adrienne Rich tional disciplines is often emphasized more than the presentation of that knowledge, because content can be catalogued and classified, norm-referenced and ranked; knowledge of content is measurable. While communication skills are also rooted in content knowledge, the use of those skills involves presentation practices that are judged more subjectively and are presumed to evolve with teaching experience. Yet the practice of weak communication skills in the classroom or in the boardroom only evolves into bad habits and may, in fact, inhibit or negate communication attempts by affecting the perception of a teacherleader’s competence. Strong communication skills, on the other hand, evolve from understanding exactly what communication is and how it works. Teacher-leaders who exhibit positive communication skills are perceived as more effective: They are seen as more knowledgeable, competent, and empathetic because they speak, write, and listen well. Baldoni (2004) explains how strong communication skills facilitate the leadership process:

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Figure 4.1

The REACH Model for Teacher-Leaders

Teacher-Leader

Communication Skills

Change

Roles and Relationships

R

E

A

C

H

When you set the vision, you articulate it. When you coach, you have a conversation about what’s going right and what needs improvement. . . . In short, all of leadership comes back in one form or another to communication up, down and across every level of the organization. (¶ 8) Teacher-leaders’ superior communication habits and skills are simply a part of who they are and evidence of their leadership potential. As the REACH model expands in Figure 4.1, it reflects the developing capabilities of a teacher-leader. The placement of communication skills indicates that communication skills may be renewed and enhanced through professional development as well as the integral part communication plays in successfully employing all the REACH teacher leadership behaviors. Communication without language is possible only on the most primitive level, because understanding is necessarily dependent on language use just as skill in language aids understanding. From this perspective, skillful communication is not only necessary for effectiveness in teaching, learning, and leadership; skillful communication is also a learning tool for heightening and refining one’s own thinking.

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OBSTACLES TO CONTINUED LEARNING FOR TEACHER-LEADERS Professional development for the complex set of individuals who make up a school community has many levels that require a variety of strategies. Traditionally, this development has been organized by administrators and often conducted by experts who visited the school to provide training. Advances in cognitive and adult learning theory, as well as the growing realization of the importance of teachers as leaders, have led to a different concept of professional development—one in which the responsibility for development has been spread throughout the school system to include administrators, curriculum directors, and teacher-leaders. However, there are obstacles that keep teacher-leaders from assuming leadership roles in this area.

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

Teacher-Leaders and Time Time on task, allocated time, audited time, meeting time, mandated time, planning time, lunch time, release time—teachers are surrounded by issues of time. Yet there just doesn’t seem to be enough. Beyond time actually spent in classroom instruction, teachers struggle with the lack of time to reflect, learn, and plan. How, then, can time be arranged to plan, design, implement, and assess curriculum? Lambert (2003) states, “The development of leadership capacity—or indeed any worthwhile endeavor— cannot be achieved without time” (p. 78). There is no way to add more time to a day, so educators must employ creative measures to free time for curricular development and collaboration as teacher-leaders. Time might be arranged so that teachers can be released for one teaching period on a series of days or so that there is a period within the schedule for teams of teachers to meet at least twice per week. Block scheduling, for example, can provide 90 minutes of team time on alternate days for collaborative groups or instructional teams. Team planning time can actually save individual teachers’ planning time when the team uses its collaborative team time to talk about ideas, coordinate interdisciplinary curricular teaching/projects, and share technical skills among the group. Faculty meeting and professional development times can also include curricular issues if routine business items and announcements are taken care of through electronic communication.

Teacher-Leaders and Working Conditions Teacher attrition data documents the real concern that teachers feel about their working conditions (support from administration, inferior facilities, classroom resources, and salaries). Almost one-third of new teachers leave their initial school in the first five years, either leaving the profession or moving to another school or district. “Since the early 1990’s, the annual number of exits from teaching has surpassed the number of entrants by an increasing number” (Darling-Hammond, 2003, p. 7). Add to these statistics the results from the National Center for Education Statistics Survey published in 2004 about teacher attrition and mobility: “Among the reasons that public school teachers gave in 2000-01 for moving to a new school were an opportunity for a better teaching assignment (40%), dissatisfaction with support from administrators (38%), and dissatisfaction with workplace conditions (32%)” (p. 4). Teacher salaries have made some strides in the last ten years but are still below those of other college graduates. Standardized testing, lack of technology, large class sizes, and lack of textbooks all add their own pressures to the anxiety of novice teachers and the frustration of experienced teachers. When these pressures escalate, teachers are less likely to be interested in leadership roles. Yet it is precisely at these pressure points that administrators need help with translating a school’s mission and vision into action. Keeping effective teachers and moving them into shared leadership positions will involve improved communication, mentoring and induction programs, learning communities within the school, and the supplies necessary for a classroom to function well. Improving working conditions within a school should be part of a school improvement plan. Professional

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growth and development programs that are shaped with teacher input add ownership and are a step in that direction.

Teacher-Leaders and Isolation Teacher isolation is often referred to as the “closed door syndrome”: the notion that each teacher is in her or his own school when the door is closed. This notion hearkens back to the concept of a one-room school, but any true similarity is confined to the four walls of the classroom and that door. As the Industrial Age began in the United States, schools became larger, and functioning within the school took on the industrial or factory mind-set. The teacher was no longer the leader; the teacher became another cog in the wheel. But a school is not a factory and not just a building. Every school has a culture that stems from the philosophy, values, and practice of the social body within that school. Teacher isolation contributes to an unhealthy or constricted culture because teachers are not able to collaborate, assessment is aimed at the individual, blaming becomes the norm (“When didn’t they teach that in 7th grade?”), and teachers become defensive about their actions. In addition, Troen and Boles (2005) indicate that teacher isolation has an evil twin—egalitarianism. Egalitarianism is the belief system that supports the preposterous premise that each teacher is the “equal” of any other teacher. Should any teacher try too hard or attract too much attention outside her classroom, she is likely to be subjected to the silently expressed “Who does she think she is?” put-down. No cultural value is more highly enforced than maintaining the status quo. (¶ 5) Teachers caught in this type of culture find themselves swimming upstream and may be covertly discouraged from assuming leadership roles. Overcoming this obstacle takes support from the administration and commitment to the success of all the teachers in the school. This can be accomplished through learning communities, team teaching, shared decision making, professional development tied to school improvement plans, and career paths for teachers. Many of these strategies will be discussed in the next chapter, which moves to situational leadership for teachers.

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Job-embedded and teacher-led professional growth and development encourage individual ownership of conLet us, each to the other, be a tinued learning and acceptance of change. This type of Gift as is the Buffalo. Let us development also encourages collegiality and cooperateach each other. tion by acknowledging that teachers are also resources —Hyemeyohsts Storm for one another. One of the most important ways of extending and expanding those human resources is through the critical thinking skills central to inquiry and discovery. All the

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

models for professional development described in this chapter benefit from critical inquiry; most require it. This strategy builds on the professional development models outlined in the chapter. Although this inquiry process strategy for leadership development can be completed individually, it does not have to be undertaken alone. Teachers’ minds and their classroom questions do not exist in a social vacuum. Sharing ideas, perceptions, interpretations, and tentative solutions makes everyone stronger. The end result of critical inquiry is problem solving and decision making, two important tools of leadership. The strategy provided here, however, looks at the entire inquiry cycle. The inquiry cycle basically revolves around generating ideas, designing ways to test those ideas, evaluating and analyzing the results of the testing, and making adjustments as the cycle begins again (the scientific method). That cycle would not be possible, however, without using the critical thinking skills involved at the various stages of the process: interpretative thinking, hypothesizing, documenting, and classifying. The Inquiry Cycle Map in Figure 4.2 on the next page identifies the type of thinking that should be used at each stage. Use this diagram to trace your own thinking as you consider an issue or problem in your classroom or school.

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Critical Inquiry Map In the center of the map, place the subject of an inquiry or the question you are investigating. Process the appropriate critical thinking skills and their application you might use at each stage. For example, if you are investigating gender differences in science learning, you might write, “Explaining why I think it is important to study gender differences in science learning” in the map area for Stage 1.

Stage 1: Generating ideas Thinking skills: Interpretative Explaining why I think it is important to study gender differences in science learning.

Stage 2: Designing ways to test ideas Thinking skills: Hypothesizing

Critical Inquiry Gender differences in science learning

Stage 4: Interpreting the results Thinking skills: Classifying

Stage 3: Testing the idea Thinking skills: Documenting

TEACHER-LEADERS EXTENDING THEIR OWN LEARNING

Catching a Creativity Wave The previous strategy used the logical scientific method to discuss problems and investigate critical issues. While this is an essential part of continued learning and leadership, teacher-leaders must also develop their own creativity and ability to see multiple perspectives. The next activity, then, reaches outside “rational” thought to irrational possibilities through provocation. Presented as a means of “practical creativity” by Mind Tools, Inc., provocation is a strategy for suspending judgment and using a provocative statement that is in opposition to a situation we take for granted as a starting point for letting creative thinking flow. For example, the statement, “All sports should be removed from schools and be reorganized into community leagues,” would certainly be considered provocative. Once the statement has been made, creative thought is then used to examine the following concepts: • • • • • •

The consequences of the statement What the benefits would be What special circumstances would make it a sensible solution The principles needed to support it and make it work How it would work moment-to-moment What would happen if a sequence of events was changed (Mind Tools, 2005, ¶ 6)

Put your creativity to use by examining the following provocative statement: Teachers should teach four periods each day and have three periods each day for collaboration and curriculum leadership activities. • What would be the consequences of the statement? • What would the benefits be? • What special circumstances would have to occur to make it a sensible alternative to teachers’ lack of time? • What principles would have to change to support this idea? • How would this work in elementary schools? How would this work in secondary schools? • What would happen in your school system if this systemic change were initiated in stages? What would happen in your school system if this systemic change were initiated all at once?

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LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD “Teachers who become leaders experience personal and professional satisfaction, a reduction in isolation, a sense of instrumentality, and new learnings—all of which spill over into their teaching” (Barth, 2001, p. 443). Consider your current learning environment and professional development programs as you complete the following reflective statements. My learning environment is like . . .

I didn’t know that . . .

Professionalism is a vital part of teacher leadership because . . .

The possibility of doing action research sounds like . . .

What does it mean to be me?

5 TeacherLeaders Collaborating for School Improvement It is still true no matter how old you are—when you go out into the world, it is best to hold hands and stick together. —Robert Fulghum

O

ver seventy years ago, Lev S. Vygotsky (1986) introduced the concept of sociocultural learning; that is, cognitive development and understanding are influenced by the social, historical, cultural, and political context of the learner. When faced with a new concept or problem, teachers often seek advice from other teachers, administrators, or educational experts. They do so because educators want to know what other educators think and what they have experienced. Moreover, the classroom or school has its own context that is best understood by those who share it. The social nature of learning also means that academic initiatives should involve talk and collegial relationships among different types of educators

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in a school or district so that multiple perspectives are available before a major educational change is undertaken that involves the whole school. When educators undertake academic change and innovation, they must also recognize the community and region in which they reside by responding to the issues and history of the area. Leadership from the school level should be a part of forming state policies, encouraging community participation, and seeking advice from both inside and outside the school. This wider view of school involvement in leadership roles and decision making enables more ownership and support for continuous school improvement.

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THE SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT MODEL The school improvement plan model for educational change is a multilayered model that provides the framework for teachers to collaborate as partners with administrative staff and/or consultants to establish programs that produce improved student outcomes, organizational development, and professional development of the participants. While efforts may take the form of grant writing, curriculum, or work with other teachers/ consultants in classroom practice, teachers’ development within this model falls under the umbrella of improvement goals that are set at the school level. The school improvement plan model invites teachers within a particular school to share their common interests and needs in the context of their own school setting. This collaboration provides the opportunity for all staff members to engage in reflective teaching, goal setting, creative problem solving, and assessment of a school improvement plan that is designed to move the mission of the school forward through strategic schoolwide goals. Because the development needs are cross-curricular with a schoolwide impact, the context of this model is inclusive, building community and combating isolation. However, building community should not mean promoting mindless or forced thinking as a group. While the emphasis on learning communities encourages collaboration, collaboration itself is not always inherently good and an individual’s ideas inherently bad. Individual and group The job of an educator is to views need to be respected and pondered teach students to see vitality simultaneously so that decisions may reflect in themselves. attention to the largest number of alternatives available. —Joseph Campbell The school improvement plan model has student achievement as its major outcome, so each outcome accomplished is a step toward a larger plan of improvement. The sequential nature of a long-term improvement plan, however, requires a time commitment that spans one to three years—time to study needs assessment data and research relevant to subsequent school improvement goals, time to discuss application in a specific school setting, time to implement and document outcomes, and time to assess outcomes and to adapt or refine the model. This type of model also needs situational leadership as it involves vision, research, analysis, curriculum development, application, assessment, and adaptation skills—too many skills and multiple systems for one leader acting alone.

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

TEACHERS AS SITUATIONAL LEADERS Erlene Howard looked at the flight of steps leading to her second-floor math classroom. She was sure she had created some of those worn depressions in the twenty years that she had been climbing those stairs. Two days before the fall semester start, she still experienced a few butterflies, but by this time, she knew what to expect. Stifling a sigh, Erlene shifted her box of green plants and started up the stairs. Once in her classroom, Erlene arranged the plants, checked the colorful bulletin boards that she had prepared, and started to look over the names of students she had picked up in her mailbox. This is when her identity as “teacher” became prominent—when she considered the students and the issues they would bring with them. The intercom startled her as the school secretary requested her presence in the office. “Whoa! Now I know how the students feel when they’re called in,” she thought. Alex Johnson, the principal, met her at the door. “Come in, Erlene; how was your summer?” Once settled, Alex got right to the point. “Erlene, I’ve been thinking about the social class concerns you brought to the attention of the faculty at our last meeting in May.” Erlene tensed as Alex paused. “I’ve also gotten feedback from other teachers that they agree it is becoming a problem here,” he continued. “What does that mean?” Erlene asked. “Well,” Alex answered, “it means that others share your concerns, but needed you to raise the issue. So I’m asking you now if you would lead a collaborative study group to gather some data and research so we could all learn about the implications of an economic divide among the students and think about some solutions so that all students are comfortable here.” “Me? Lead the group for the entire school?” Erlene asked. “Of course,” Alex replied. “I know you care deeply about the issue, and the other teachers respect your abilities and experience. I consider you a teacher-leader.” As Erlene left the office, her mind was filled with ideas. She couldn’t wait to meet with her group and hear their thoughts as well. “This will be more than just an interesting exercise; it will be useful for everyone here,” she assured herself as she hurried up the stairs to get started. Do teachers really want to be leaders and make their own decisions? According to Lambert (2003), “All people yearn for vitality and purpose. . . . Teachers become fully alive when their schools and districts provide them with opportunities for skillful participation, inquiry, dialogue, and reflection. Such environments foster leadership” (p. 32). There is a type of folk wisdom in schools that teachers do not want to be leaders even in their own classrooms; they simply wish to be told what to do. This type of “wisdom” has at its root the myth that there are natural leaders, born leaders, who are more fit to make decisions than the followers they command. But every person may be a leader in some situations and a follower in others. Cooperative learning strategies have demonstrated the strength of a leadership approach where leadership roles vary according to the task, and leaders vary their approaches according to the group and the situation. A situational leader, then, is any member of a group who furthers the goals of the group and contributes to its growth, influencing task performance and satisfaction of the group members. For example, an active

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member of a textbook selection committee or a teacher who chairs an interview team for new faculty is a situational leader. This type of leadership is systemic in nature and circular in practice because all members of a group have the potential for leadership in any given situation, and the situational leader’s style varies with the circumstances and the group. While this may sound like “anything goes,” situational leadership requires advanced analysis skills. In order to be effective, for instance, a situational leader must choose to emphasize an assigned task, deal with group members’ concerns, or both. It all depends on what the group needs to be successful. Because situational leadership is usually earned by task expertise and directed toward the function of the group, it is generally more accepted by the group as long as it is appropriate. A facilitative leadership style may be appropriate with experienced Teaching and leading are teachers who know one another, but a more direct, distinguishable occupations, problem-solving leader may be needed with a group that but every great leader is has never worked together. clearly teaching—and every The problem-solving type of situational leadership is great teacher is leading. an adaptation of a democratic style wherein the leader —John Gardner assumes a “team leader” position. Besides working cooperatively with the group to form goals and solve problems collaboratively, this situational leader works hard to create a humanistic environment of mutual respect, responsibility, and reciprocal influence. This situational leader does not ignore personalities, but tries to meet both the needs of the group and its individual members. He or she also encourages ownership and pride in a project, which, in turn, ensures the support of the team for the implementation of the project. The path-goal theory of situational leadership, published by House (1971) over thirty years ago, is still a valid application for schools. This theory implements situational leadership by matching the interpersonal or situational variables of group characteristics and task difficulty with four types of leadership approaches: directive, supportive, achievementoriented, and participative. These approaches are illustrated with group characteristics and task difficulty that are most compatible with the approach in Figure 5.1. A teacher-leader following House’s theory would choose the type of leadership behavior that best fit the group members

Figure 5.1

Path-Goal Theory of Situational Leadership

Leadership Approach

Group Characteristics

Task Difficulty

Directive

Members like directions

Task is unstructured

Supportive

Members like freedom

Task is already structured

Achievement-Oriented

Members clearly understand paths to the goal

Task is motivational and satisfying

Participative

Members like an interpersonal approach

Tasks are tied to rewards

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

and their outcome behavior and changing leadership behaviors as the situation warranted.

Situational Leadership and Relationships While working with groups within a school (students, administrators, teachers, staff) or with those groups that bring pressure externally (parents, community groups, state departments of education, etc.) may demand different leadership approaches, they all involve personal relationships. In order to put structure into situational leadership and make wise decisions about relationships with a variety of groups, Bolman and Deal (2002) suggest that teacher-leaders use the perceptions by which they define and frame reality inside and outside the classroom. These perceptions, or frames of reality, are ways of viewing a situation that, in turn, determine the type of leadership action one will take in that particular situation. Reframing is a conscious effort to size up a situation from multiple perspectives and then find a new way to handle it. In times of crisis and overload, you will inevitably feel confused and overwhelmed if you are stuck with only one option. (p. 3) Multiple frames of leadership function like a variety of instructional models for teachers. Each frame is used for a particular type of approach, but having multiple frames gives one a choice of approaches and allows reframing or reorganizing if the first approach doesn’t seem to be productive. Bolman and Deal (2002) have outlined four frames of leadership that are helpful in responding to school situations: 1. Human resource frame—highlights the importance of needs and motives 2. Political frame—points out the limits of authority and the scarcity of resources 3. Structural frame—emphasizes productivity, coordinated authority, policies, and clear rules 4. Symbolic frame—centers attention on symbols, meaning, belief, and faith (pp. 3–4) The human resource frame concentrates on relationship building and satisfying needs in a caring, trusting work environment. This frame supports leadership activities by opening up communications, sharing a sense of caring and respect, asking questions and listening, seeking feedback, and stressing honesty in communication and relationships. This is the frame to use when one needs to build relationships among the group or with other groups and involves Collegiality strategies. The political frame maps the politics of the situation for a leader. Within this frame, key questions emerge: Who are the key players? What are their interests? How much power does each player have? Based on answers to these questions, you would be able to clarify agendas, build

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alliances, deal openly with conflict, and negotiate a solution. Goals and strategies for meeting those goals emerge from bargaining and compromise among different interests. While political divisions within a school can be troublesome, they can also be a source of energy and renewal and require some Risk-Taking strategies. The structural frame works best when rules are explicit and are followed by everyone. Within this frame, one would clarify one’s role within the group, refine policy to avoid conflict, establish deadlines for action, and design groups for success by making sure that the goal and processes for reaching it are absolutely clear. This frame would need Effective strategies. The symbolic frame celebrates values and common culture among the group. Symbols can govern informally through implicit rules, shared values, and understandings. In order to be effective within this frame, a leader would need to learn the history of the group, diagnose the strength of the existing culture, identify the cultural players, and reinforce and celebrate the culture’s strength. Celebration among teachers and administrators about their common educational experiences does not happen frequently. It must be planned in order to create a shared sense of meaning and commitment. This frame calls for Autonomous strategies, but also involves Effectiveness and Honor. The sharing of meaning and intelligence through situational leadership is what makes whole school improvement possible. Schmoker (1999) explains, “The kind of significant, sustained improvement that we need in schools will not occur in an isolated, free-lance culture, where no one knows what anyone else is doing or what each other’s operative goals are” (p. 111). Situational leadership is a natural fit for a teacher-leader because it provides for transitions between roles, creating opportunities for using the experience of teachers without forcing a change of career. Situational leadership also has numerous benefits for teacher-leaders themselves because it fosters the behaviors that are characteristic of teacher-leader conduct: R = Creativity as part of Risk-Taking E = Participation and communication as part of Effectiveness A = Trust, recognition, and support as part of Autonomy C = Collaboration as part of Collegiality H = Ethical modeling as part of Honor Situational leadership does, however, take time and may not produce a clear, consistent direction. For example, as Erlene begins to study the educational impact of students’ socioeconomic status with her colleagues, she does not know the specifics of what they might find or what they will be able to do. But that does not stop her concern or willingness to seek equity for all students. As educators move toward the goal of shared leadership, another question to be considered is not only what type of leader is best for the group in a given situation but also what level of situational leadership is needed from all the group members to best complete the task.

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

SITUATIONAL LEADING FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

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One new model for schoolwide or districtwide inquiry Good company and good and learning that uses the strengths of situational leaddiscourse are the very sinews ing as well as the school improvement model is the of virtue. collaborative learning group. A collaborative learning group often replaces professional development models —Izaak Walton that are dependent on outside experts. These expert training models do offer information and instruction, but they also leave a participant with only the knowledge he or she has been able to glean as an individual, without a true understanding of how this knowledge can be applied and without an on-site person who can answer questions. In contrast, collaborative learning groups concentrate on the needs or issues within a whole school so that professional development efforts explore common themes or questions on common ground. These groups also provide a forum for sharing different ideas and viewpoints by persons actively engaged in finding solutions. Like all highquality professional development, collaborative learning groups go beyond an individual learning activity to a learning process that involves all the members of a group. For those engaged in a school improvement initiative with systemic change, the collaborative learning group is a professional development model that makes good sense: The group most closely impacted by an educaEducation has for its object tional change studies the change and then uses teacherthe formation of character. led training to gain the skill needed to implement it. The great aim of education is The formation of collaborative learning groups can not knowledge but action. be initiated by teacher-leaders or by an administrator. The size of the group should be limited to six so that all —Herbert Spencer participants have the ability to speak and a common meeting time is possible. Membership in the group, however, should be voluntary. The purpose of a study group is collaboration and learning—both professional activities that are violated by mandating participation. As seen in Figure 5.2, once the group has been formed, the following functioning steps help secure proactive results. 1. Investigate the sociocultural variables—the social, historical, cultural, and political context of the situation 2. Review rules for constructive criticism 3. Engage in critical inquiry 4. Assume responsibility for one’s own learning 5. Practice problem solving that focuses on student outcomes 6. Plan for the implementation of decisions 7. Implement decisions on a pilot basis 8. Evaluate student outcomes The circle of participants in a collaborative learning group all perform an important role because an individual is changed by a group, just as a

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Figure 5.2

Collaborative Learning Groups—Forming and Functioning Forming Outside the Group 1. Identify a school goal or focus on a schoolwide problem 2. Recruit members with a common interest or need

Functioning

Inside the Group 1. Investigate the sociocultural variables; i.e., the social, historical, cultural, and political contexts of the situation 2. Review rules for constructive criticism 3. Engage in critical inquiry 4. Assume responsibility for one’s own learning 5. Practice problem solving that focuses on student outcomes 6. Plan for the implementation of decisions 7. Implement decisions on a pilot basis 8. Evaluate the student outcomes

SOURCE: Merideth, 1999a.

group is changed by its individual members. All stakeholders in the group have something to offer one another as they work through common learning and problem-solving efforts. As collaborative learning groups begin their work, the emphasis first must be on collaboration. Collaboration does not mean automatic or enforced consensus or “groupthink.” Collaboration occurs when two or more people within a group exchange information or resources while working together to achieve a shared goal. While this view of collaboration sustains the sociocultural aspect of collaborative learning groups, it also introduces the notion of resources that go beyond opinions or ideas of people. Like any organization, schools have many layers of resources and the systems that control them that, by their abundance or scarcity, impact any type of change effort. For instance, the categories of personnel, information technology, physical facilities, and finance identify both systems and the resources within those systems in educational institutions. Ideally, a collaborative learning group would include among its members persons with knowledge of the types of systemic resources that would be

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

needed, so that resource availability could be part of the group’s decisions. For example, teachers with knowledge of content areas are important in setting benchmarks for district science standards, but such teachers must also have input from others who know about the technology and physical facilities required to meet those standards successfully. Even collaborative learning groups for novice teachers studying developmentally appropriate practice should include representation from experienced teachers, so that discussions are not limited to one level of knowledge or experience. Collaborative learning groups, then, focus on a schoolwide problem in order to study, learn, and seek a solution. But they also build community and challenge the thinking of their members. Birchak et al. (1998) clarify these additional benefits experienced by collaborative learning groups with whom they worked: “We gradually came to understand that the two purposes were not in opposition to each other but were both essential to the study group process” (p. 16). The sense of trust advanced by really knowing other group members can actually make discussing and thinking critically about one’s practice easier. The template on the next page offers an advanced organizer for a collaborative learning group as it is formed, begins to function, and makes plans for action.

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Collaborative Learning Group Action Plan 1. Goal or Problem of the Group __________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Membership of the Group _____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Meeting Day and Meeting Length ______________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Beginning Date of Group ____________________ Ending Date of Group _____________________ 5. Questions to Be Explored _____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Review of Ground Rules ______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Sociocultural Variables ________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Desired Outcomes ___________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. Assessment of Outcomes _____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. Resources Needed ___________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. Information Needed __________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 12. Team Role for This Session ___________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________ 13. Action for Next Session __________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________________

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

COMMUNICATION WITH COLLEAGUES The notion of communicating with colleagues as a situational leader or member of a team assumes connections among individuals that go beyond a nod and “mornin’,” to sharing ideas and finding collective wisdom and strength. This is not an easy transition from the teacher isolation that often permeates current schools. “The culture of today’s traditional schools reinforces the practice of solo teaching in isolated classrooms. Good teachers have little opportunity and few incentives to share their expertise with their colleagues. Classroom doors are closed” (Fulton, Yoon, & Lee, 2005, p. 4). Working groups of teachers need some time in common, a supportive organization, and trusting, positive relationships among themselves to function well. The element of time is straightforward—teachers need time to meet, to think, to plan, and to collaborate. However, to function well as a group, teachers also need a school culture that encourages them to risk collaboration and rewards them for developing the positive relationships that empower groups that make up a school culture. The culture of a school refers to its dominant patterns, its visions and missions, and the experiences of the common community. Whatever its nature, it is deeply felt as a positive or negative factor in teacher satisfaction and performance as well as student achievement (Fullan, 2003; Hord, 2004; Reeves, 2005). Leading in a culture of change means creating a culture (not just a structure) of change. It does not mean adopting innovations, one after another; it does mean producing the capacity to seek, critically assess, and selectively incorporate new ideas and practices— all the time, inside the organization as well as outside it. (Fullan, 2001, p. 44) While teacher-leaders are dependent on a supportive school culture for success, they also help create that culture through collaboration. In this way, Collegiality contributes to the environment in which leadership for all teachers may thrive. Why seek collaboration? Don’t teachers have enough to do? Certainly building positive interpersonal relationships with others takes energy and interpersonal communication skills, but the rewards justify the efforts and enhance REACH behaviors and strategies in the following ways: 1. Collaboration can create professional, personal, and moral support as teachers engage in risking new things. 2. Collaboration can encourage shared learning and improved teaching as teacher-leaders explore new ideas and empower one another’s efforts, thereby becoming more effective and time-efficient. 3. Collaboration can actually increase a teacher-leader’s confidence in her or his autonomous initiatives and decisions by providing a support group to inform those initiatives and decisions. 4. Collaboration allows new types of relationships and communication among teachers-leaders and administrators, counselors, and other stakeholders, reflecting collegiality.

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5. Collaboration provides the strength of numbers for supporting behaviors that model honor and the integrity to speak up for what is right when the politics of a situation might encourage silence and conformity.

Barriers to Collaborative Relationships Unfortunately, the road to collaborative relationships is not always a smooth one. There are barriers to collaboration that, as hindering forces, must be considered and removed. Welch (1998) summarizes these barriers into four categories: conceptual barriers, pragmatic barriers, attitudinal barriers, and professional barriers (pp. 31–32). Conceptual barriers occur when the conception of roles and traditions within a school culture have become rigid and reinforced by notions of “the way things are” or “the way things are done around here.” Pragmatic barriers, on the other hand, occur when systemic and logistic factors interfere. Bureaucratic organization and lack of time are two very common pragmatic barriers to collaboration. Because organizations are composed of humans, emotions and attitudes can create barriers. Sometimes those attitudes are based in fear and uncertainty; other times they can end in disappointment and disillusionment following unrealistic attitudes about how easy collaboration will be. Finally, the education profession itself can be a barrier to collaboration when colleagues lack background in conflict resolution or effective communication, or lack a philosophical commitment to its importance. When educators engage in team-building exercises, however, they are really building interpersonal relationships and exploring collaborative communication skills. As team members seek to achieve effective collaborative communication, they need to give and take. They need to give their ideas and best efforts to the group while taking seriously the adoption and use of Building Collaborative Communication as illustrated in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3

Building Collaborative Communication Collaborative Communicative Processes

6. Reflecting about action and outcomes 5. Practicing critical inquiry

Mature Collaborative Communication

4. Employing collegial communication that reinforces the positive and deals honestly with conflict 3. Using listening behaviors that show respect and interest 2. Seeking and honoring contributions by all members 1. Clarifying the goal/purpose of the collaborative group

SOURCE: Merideth, 1999b.

Early Stages of Collaborative Communication

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

Within Stage 1 of building collaborative communication, a group needs to spend some time developing consensus about the goal, objectives, processes, and individuals’ roles for the group. Consensual decision making requires both opportunities to share and compromise: Each member of a group has an equal opportunity to share his or her views and make contributions, and, when necessary, group members should compromise their views to have a working consensus within the group that is acceptable to all members. Crawford, Kydd, and Riches (1997) explain that consensual decision making is a strong strategy because a “unified commitment to implementation of the decision may be expected since implementation follows agreement reached before the decision was made” (p. 137). For example, a minority of members who have been outvoted in a democratic decision could block implementation of a decision by refusing to participate. With consensual decision making, however, the group has agreed at the outset to come to consensus and hence to implement a compromise that is acceptable to the group. Obviously, every decision a group makes may not be consensual, but the goals, objectives, processes, and individuals’ roles within a group should have consensual parameters while encouraging expression of individual viewpoints. The keys to developing collaborative communication through Stages 2, 3, and 4 are respect and acceptance. This is not an acceptance that is synonymous with polite tolerance but a commitment to sharing personal experiences, ideas, and alternatives with an open mind. When conflict occurs, group members deal with it openly and honestly. Crowther et al. (2002) report, “Collective processes that serve to obscure individuality are more likely to contribute to the perpetuation of questionable practices on the part of both principals and teachers than are processes that recognize individual action and the legitimacy of dissent” (p. 42). Working through conflict can be healthy and play a significant role in personal and professional growth; if there is unanimous agreement, there is nothing to discuss. The mature stages of collaborative communication are inclusive of earlier stages, but add the inquiry and reflective characteristics of problem solving that are necessary to finish the work of the group. Reflection is also appropriate so that group members might consider the influence of membership upon their own practice and the impact of the group’s work on the culture of the school. Individual reflection after collaborative experiences is important because communication processes may follow general rules, but they still require individual decisions and strategies.

Using Collaborative Communication Moving from the early stages to the mature stages of collaborative communication requires knowledge and experience. It also involves a conscious choice to remain strong and focused while using courtesy and restraint—to persist, but in a collegial manner. The case study that follows poses a problem not just for the individuals involved in the highlighted conflict but for the entire group as well.

A Case in Point: Strategic Planning Session Even though the temperature was cool, the atmosphere inside the library conference room was heated. Members of the task force for strategic

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planning shifted uneasily in their seats as Jonathon, one of the most outspoken members, insisted that the social justice curriculum under discussion would simply divide the student population into ethnic cliques. “If they are citizens, they are Americans,” he declared. “We should be about finishing the melting pot that our ancestors started and building one culture, not multiple ones. It will only confuse the students.” Kate responded that the melting pot theory never did work; that’s why it was left unfinished: “People aren’t crayons that you can throw into a pot and melt.” “Nonsense!” Jonathon exclaimed. “I don’t think of myself as German; I think of myself as an American. This is the way it should be. This is the attitude we all need to have if we are going to be one country! Next thing you know, we’ll be talking about oppression, and you know where that leads.” Fran, the elected teacher-leader of the task force, mentally reminded herself of the stages of collaborative communication as she glanced around at the group members who had turned to her. What she said next would have to address the conflict itself, but how she said it would set the tone for the rest of the meeting and perhaps the work of the group for the entire year. • What should a situational leader do to invoke collaborative communication strategies and foster team member respect at all meetings? • How might Fran lead the group from Stage 1 to Stage 5 of building collaborative communication?

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STRATEGIES FOR LEADERSHIP COLLABORATION This chapter has examined the benefits of collaboration and the communication skills necessary for making collaboration work. The next two strategies apply those concepts through planning and team-building activities.

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

Situational Leadership Planning Strategy Imagine yourself as a teacher-leader who has been chosen to work with administrators to implement a new Crisis Response Program. First, review Bolman and Deal’s frames of leadership earlier in the chapter. Then identify the type of crisis for which you are preparing a plan. List strategies appropriate to Bolman and Deal’s (2002) frames below to project how you might approach teachers and staff about this plan. .

Human Resource Frame

Structural Frame

Political Frame

Symbolic Frame

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Team Building Through Thinking: Card Storming 1. Divide the group into subgroups of three to five participants seated so that everyone can see, hear, and speak together. 2. Distribute plenty of index cards to each group. 3. Elect a facilitator/speaker for each group. 4. Begin discussing the topic in small groups. Everyone in the group writes down five different ideas on a separate index card. 5. Individual group members each order the ideas given from most important to least important. 6. Discuss the ordering of cards as a group and negotiate your group’s order of only six cards after all the cards from the group have been combined. Keep talking until consensus is reached. 7. Using a long strip of masking tape, order the six cards that represent the group’s consensus. 8. Attach each group’s taped cards to a wall and begin the process again with the large group coming to consensus about only seven cards total, listing ideas from most important to least important. 9. Reflection: How close are the seven cards to your original five? How difficult was it to come to consensus? Thinking together creatively is another way to facilitate the development of a learning community, a real team. Card storming supplies a strategy with which teachers can build consensus and practice an alternative to traditional brainstorming activities. This card storming technique allows ideas to be ordered and reordered easily in any type of planning or problem-solving session. The cards also allow a clear view of the relationships among the ideas on the cards, a dimension not always possible when dealing with lists on easel paper or ideas written on boards.

TEACHER-LEADERS COLLABORATING FOR SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT

LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD

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All people have zones of comfort—different areas or activities about which they have knowledge and skill. Staying inside that zone ensures feelings of security and control, but it also means we are learning nothing new. However, moving too far outside this comfort zone too quickly often triggers resistance to information or action. This reflection asks you to consider your leadership comfort zone and readiness to move outside that zone, within the REACH model framework. Risk-Taking: • How supportive of teacher leadership is the culture within your school system? • What kind of personal support do you give the group of educators with whom you work? Effective: • What effective teaching strategies do you contribute to collaborative learning groups in your school system? • How aware are you of the interrelated systems that organize your school? Autonomous: • How much reflection have you done about your own beliefs and feelings about educational issues and the leadership needed to address these issues? • How prepared do you feel to assume leadership within a group? Collegiality: • Are you comfortable disclosing your own beliefs and feelings about educational issues? • Do you possess communication skills that foster leadership? Honor: • Do your words and actions indicate respect and value for all the students in your school? • How do you feel about the quotation in the box to the right?

Managers do things right. Leaders do the right things. —Warren Bennis

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6 TeacherLeaders Supporting Shared Vision and Values The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams. —Eleanor Roosevelt

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ducational leadership in action should be just that: leadership that moves a group to action and that action toward a goal. Such movements may be subtle, effecting small changes by working toward a goal slowly. Other movements, however, may call for more drastic measures; those movements may even seek to transform an entire organizational culture. Such transformational movements require the combined, extraordinary effort of teachers and administrators who are willing to build capacity and commitment as well as to transform educational leadership together. Members of such a leadership team then come to share a vision and values that bind them in a moral commitment to proactive change and distributed leadership. Leithwood and Jantzi (2005) affirm, however, that this does not mean that a transformational leader need be superhuman.

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Transformation Fingers digging blindly in the dirt out back, Jack hides his treasure and prays for rain. Soon enough, Jack counts the sprouts, Pale shoots tender in the red clay soil. His mother starts the water boiling. But Jack has more than dinner on his mind. The vines keep growing, twisting and looping To the cumulus above. Jack raises green and leafy fingers. Everywhere, the sweet and musty smell, And Jack, too, twining above the clouds, Reaching for radiance, heading up. —Suzanne M. Merideth Note: Reprinted with permission.

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All transformational approaches to leadership emphasize emotions and values, and share in common the fundamental aim of fostering capacity development and higher levels of personal commitment to organizational goals on the part of leaders’ colleagues. . . . Power is attributed by organizational members to whomever is able to inspire their commitments to collective aspirations, and the desire for personal and collective mastery over the capacities needed to accomplish such aspirations. (pp. 31–32) Transformational leadership, like situational leadership, recognizes the need to see purpose and significance in individual and group action. But this level of leadership distributes leadership to build capacity and motivation beyond general expectations for continued school improvement. The first step in continuing school improvement endeavors is defining a shared vision that provides a point of focus for the entire school. “At the school level, the heart of leadership is much like a school’s repository of values, assumptions, and beliefs that are widely shared and that serve as a source of authority for what people do” (Sergiovanni, 2005, p. 23). Within transformational leadership, these values, assumptions, and beliefs are the sources for the school vision or goals that unify administration, teachers, students, and parents who collaborate to meet those goals. Consider the power of a vision in the poem “Transformation.”

DEFINING SHARED VISION AND VALUES In ancient Greece, pilgrims traveled great distances to the southern slopes of Mount Parnassus to consult the famous Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle, housed at the Temple of Apollo, which Greeks designated as the center of the earth, was thought to have great powers of divine prophecy. The visions imparted by the Oracle were given in such ambiguous ways that they could generally be interpreted as true and could seldom be proved wrong. Transformational teacher-leaders today are certainly not expected to be divine, but they, too, should be able to help define the educational vision or destination for the future of their schools. Within an organization, Senge (2000) reports, “The practice of shared vision involves the skills of unearthing shared ‘pictures of the future’ that foster genuine commitment and enrollment rather than compliance” (p. 19). From this perspective, a vision is not some fuzzy, ambiguous prophecy delivered annually to the school board, but a concrete statement of purpose that requires analysis of a school’s values. All schools share the value of student learning, and it is at this center that vision statements must begin. What is the school’s vision of a graduate? What should students know and be able to do when they graduate? The values of the

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

school community are clearly a part of the hypothetical The principal goal of education student graduate who is the embodiment of the vision. in the schools should be For example, a graduate who is able to think critically, creating men and women who act responsibly, appreciate diverse cultures, work colare capable of doing new laboratively, communicate effectively, seek and use things, not simply repeating knowledge well, solve problems efficiently, and model what other generations have technological literacy is truly a student exemplar. done. Making a school vision realistic, credible, and part of an attractive future, however, requires commitment of —Jean Piaget the entire learning community to visionary student outcomes and involvement in the further analysis of the school organization and its operation. What is the learning community’s vision of an excellent teaching/learning environment? What is the school’s approach to teaching/learning? What would it take to produce the “visionary” student? What specifically is most pleasing about this vision of a student? What is a possible and desirable future state of the school? How can the desirable state of the school be attained? What has worked well in the past? What needs to be different? How can leadership be distributed so that it builds capacity and momentum? What is the desirable future state for education in general? Clearly formulating a school vision for transformation is no longer the responsibility of a single administrator, who then sends a memo to all educational stakeholders announcing it. Creating a school vision from shared values is a collaborative process that depends on teacher-leaders to use the REACH characteristics of conduct while contributing to and implementing a school vision for transformation through distributed leadership, as illustrated in Figure 6.1. With a hierarchical administrative structure so firmly entrenched in public education, can transformational leadership really work? Such restructuring may be viewed through the experience of businesses that began a shift from Type A organizations to Type Z organizations in the 1980s. A Type A organization is one based on competition and top-down power. This type of power controls decisions about personnel, resources,

Figure 6.1

Sharing a School Vision and Values for Transformation

REACH Strategies

Process of Contributing to and Implementing a School Vision

Risk-Taking

Think futuristic and advocate values that will improve capacity and performance

Effective

Be concrete and knowledgeable in defining high-quality outcomes for a graduate who embodies the vision

Autonomous

Act out the vision in your own classroom

Collegial

Communicate with others about the vision and share the excitement of the vision

Honorable

Choose outcomes with worthy values that speak to the education of the mind as well as the social responsibility of future citizens

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and professional development. A Type Z organization, on the other hand, uses members of the organization as much as possible for decision making. The type of power exercised in an ideal Type Z organization is facilitative power—power activated through other people, not over other people. Substantial research confirms that businesses that have shifted to Type Z organization, power, and leadership have experienced greater productivity. Studies involving transformational leadership in educational settings have been limited, but those that have been completed indicate a positive influence on teacher collaboration and teacher change in attitude and practice (Feiler, Heritage, & Gallimore, 2000; Fullan, 2003; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). During their investigation of the effect of transformational leadership in education, Leithwood and Jantzi (2005) found school cultures that were responsive to this type of leadership and offer a model of transformational leadership with three broad categories: Setting directions—the practice of developing shared understandings about the school, activities, and goals that constitute a sense of purpose or vision. Developing people—the practice of contributing to the capacity of and motivation of the members of the organization. Redesigning the organization—the practice of supporting and sustaining the performance of all members of the organizations, strengthening school cultures, and fostering shared decision making. (pp. 38–39) If leadership were only defined as the ability to take swift action and get results, then the notion of sharing a vision and moving from authoritarian strategies that are quick mandates to collaborative ones that take more time would seem to be counterproductive. However, change within schools is not quick, results take years to achieve, and that change needs to be valid. Changing thinking about the roles that educators perform in the light of the larger notion of an educational vision makes cooperative participation among all members of an educational culture possible and expands the cumulative power of the organization.

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SUSTAINING AND CONNECTING TEACHER-LEADERS Throughout this text, the idea of helping all students and teachers succeed all the time has been stressed. In order to accomplish this, personal and community learning must take place. “Because success breeds success,” Johnson (2005) urges school leaders to “provide multiple pathways for all stakeholders to become successful” (p. 145). Learning should be accompanied by sharing that knowledge. Sharing knowledge and learning experiences outside the classroom or school certainly requires support for developing capacity as well as the REACH strategies (Risk-Taking, Effectiveness, Autonomy, Collegiality, and Honor). As a result of their study of

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

teachers leading teachers, Feiler, Heritage, and Gallimore (2000) have formulated the following recommendations for how schools enable this sharing by launching a successful teacher leadership program. • • • •

Select the leader roles that meet the greatest need. Choose teachers who have credible expertise and leadership skills. Clarify the leader role early on. Have teacher-leaders spend a majority of their time in classrooms or working directly with other teachers. • Focus on student learning. • Ensure that the principal supports the leader. (pp. 67–68) Sustaining teacher leadership requires adequate time, professional development, and administrative support, but this effort also involves professional interaction with others who are functioning at the same level. The key to a professional exchange among teacher-leaders is sharing ideas that challenge and affirm critical thinking and inquiry, resulting in the establishment of human networks that not only seek answers but also ask hard questions. Entering into these types of networks is a type of constructivist activity: Knowledge is actively constructed in terms of prior learning, attitude, personal experiences, and social/cultural environments. Human networks also offer experientially rich learning contexts as well as opportunities for promoting Collegiality, Risk-Taking, and Effectiveness with a group of professional educators. These networks can be realized through the following professional connections: organizations, publications, electronic resources, and teacher exhibits. The addition of human networks that connect theory with practice, teacher-leaders with other teacher-leaders, and individuals with their own potential in a two-way interaction is illustrated in Figure 6.2. The teacherleader reaches out to professional organizations and publications for new knowledge and extends his or her teaching and learning through electronic resources and teacher exhibits. These outreach activities are opportunities for teaching, learning, and exercising leadership—strategies for strengthening all REACH behaviors.

Figure 6.2

The REACH Model

Organizations Publications Electronic Resources Teacher Exhibits

Teacher-Leader

Communication Skills

Change

Roles and Relationships

R

E

A

C

H

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Professional Organizations Professional organizations in education have increasingly seen themselves as learning communities, disseminating information and sponsoring preparation, renewal, and enhancement activities for their members. Indeed, Gene Glass (1998), former president of the AERA (American Educational Research Association), affirms that AERA is dedicated to the concept of a professional learning community when he asserts, “It exists to communicate knowledge and ideas . . .” (p. 35). Active membership contributes to the professional development of teacher-leaders when they take advantage of the educational opportunities and collegial connections offered through professional organizations. Consider the chance of a teacher finding someone in the same hall of her or his school who shares the same interests, experiences the same problems. The probability would be rather small. Now consider that same teacher finding someone in a state or national organization with the same interests and problems. The probability would be increased significantly. As teachers move through their careers, the new information and research about teaching and leading supplied by professional organizations are important support systems for teacher-leaders. Professional organizations may also supply criteria for professional advancement when members obtain specialized certification through them. For example, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards offers advanced certification nationwide for teachers who meet its standards, just as the National Strength and Conditioning Association offers a CECS certificate (Certified Strength and Condition Specialist) for professionals in health education.

Professional Organization Support Professional organizations offer different types of support for educators: 1. Subject specific—focusing on a particular subject matter or a particular type of students (National Science Institute) 2. Pedagogical—focusing on new methods, curricular design and innovation, school reform, and the advancement of teaching/learning (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, American Federation of Teachers) 3. Specialized functions—focusing on research, assessment, or other specific issues (American Educational Research Association) Although membership is usually just a matter of paying dues, the involvement with these organizations varies with the opportunities they offer and the needs of an individual. Membership in teacher unions (NEA, AFT) also offers professional connections, but this membership is obtained through employment with public school districts that affiliate with one or the other. Originally formed to engage in collective bargaining for teachers, these unions are now also concerned with professional development and educational reform at the local, state, and national levels. National and state organizations also have Internet sites that simplify learning about them and getting involved. The easiest way to find these

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

sites is typing their names into a search engine and then going to the home page ending in “.org” that will be listed among the search results. Limiting an electronic search to the organization’s initials only (such as AEA) can lead to frustration and enormous lists of sites that contain those letters in their home page titles. Seeking certification from professional organizations certainly marks leadership among teachers who are willing to demonstrate their proficiencies. The goal of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, for example, establishes “high and rigorous standards for what teachers should know and be able to do and to certify teachers who meet those standards” (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1989, p. iii). Teachers who wish to be certified by this organization must videotape and analyze their lessons, write reflectively, prepare a professional portfolio, and take written exams. Is all this work worth it? The authentic nature of the assessment activities for National Board certification verifies the connections between teachers, students and teachers, and subject content and pedagogy. Linda Darling-Hammond (1999) explains, “The participatory nature of the accompanying assessment systems supports wide development of knowledge throughout the profession, enhancing the establishment of shared norms by making teaching public and collegial” (p. 39). While this type of public documentation risks public failure, the rewards, which include a nationally certified teacher and an Effective teacher-leader, benefit all the human networks.

Professional Publications For teacher-leaders with unique ideas or research to share, a professional periodical or journal offers the opportunity to reach a wide audience while the idea or research is fresh. Both professional journals and periodicals are published regularly, but they differ in what they publish. Scholarly journals generally contain formal research, while periodicals may include some research but also accept thought pieces, historical reviews, editorials, or field reports. Before submitting any article to a professional publication, there are a number of considerations that increase the likelihood of acceptance and publication: • Match the topic, the audience you are trying to reach, and your personal goals with a journal or periodical. • Research the acceptance rate and response time of the publications you are considering. • Include some research data to support your position or theory. However, consider the audience when reporting research and avoid a mini-thesis approach. • Investigate the theme issues that publications are planning to see if your manuscript falls within a theme. • Polish your writing by making the text neat, free of misspelling and grammatical errors. • Conform to the length specified by the publisher. • Follow stylistic requirements particular to a publication.

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A potential author generally can find style and format information as well as the address for submission and the editor’s name from the front inside panel of a professional publication. Moreover, looking at circulation numbers can provide data about how many possible readers a publication has. However, actually reading several issues of the targeted journal best lends insight into what type of writing style and subject matter the editors prefer. When the manuscript is polished, printed, and presented, authors settle into a period of waiting not unlike expectant parents while the work is reviewed. Positive reviews are gratifying, just as negative ones are unsettling, but they both produce learning and reflection. Reviews and rejections should be used to clarify and adapt the material, not as reasons to discard it. Checking the acceptance rate of journals can also be discouraging for an unpublished author. But rejection, although painful, is not fatal. It is often a step in the writing-rewriting cycle that leads to a stronger work and the satisfaction of seeing one’s ideas in print.

Electronic Resources Electronic communication within professional organizations provides specialized resources and connections for their members through research reports, e-mail, listservs, chat rooms, and forums. Subject-specific organizations also serve their members by supplementing communication with lesson plans, photographs, sound bytes, and other resource materials. In addition, many professional organizations are now offering listings of jobs and hints about finding a position in education. Some examples of helpful World Wide Web sites for educators follow. Teacher Leaders Network—a Web site featuring resources, conversations, news diaries, NBCTs, and other links http://www.teacherleader.org/ Teacher Leadership Development—this Web site is designed to provide teachers with professional development and support as leaders http://www.k-12.state.tn.us/tpd/teacher.htm Academic Leadership—a Web site with online journal, resources, training, and store http://www.academicleadership.org/tips/tip-345_05.html Council of Exceptional Children—a Web site dedicated to better understanding of needs of students who are disabled or gifted http://www.cec.sped.org/ Education Systemic Change Tools—a Web site offering tools for educators practicing systemic change http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/edsctls.html National Staff Development Council—a Web site with free e-mail newsletter, staff development resources, publications, and conferences http://www.nsdc.org/index.cfm

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

WINGS–Resources for Mentoring—a Web site that functions as a one-on-one mentoring program for teaching http://wings.utexas.org/mentoring.html A Quality Teacher in Every Classroom—this Web site presents the details of the “quality teacher” legislation http://www.whitehouse.gov/infocus/education/teachers/back ground.html Kathy Shrock’s Guide for Educators—a Web site for curriculum and professional development resources http://school.discovery.com/schrockguide/ The Library of Congress—this Web site is a connection to the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States and the largest library in the world http://loc.gov/homepage/lchp.html

Teacher Exhibits The locations in which teachers traditionally share Make no little plans; they have their ideas—the school parking lot or the teachers’ no magic to stir people’s blood lounge—are less than ideal for interaction and reflecand probably themselves tion. Consequently, teachers’ searches for the live prewill not be realized. sentation of new knowledge and ideas lead them to exhibits by other teachers and professional development —Daniel H. Burnham sessions at educational conferences. A teaching exhibit provides a situation in which teaching, learning, and sharing about a variety of topics can take place quickly. Moreover, exhibits are seen as opportunities for showcasing the work of a particular learning community. This learning community could be a group of teachers going through a master’s degree course about teacher leadership or a group of teachers undertaking professional development through their schools. In both scenarios, exhibits are ways to display and celebrate professional growth. Although all teacher exhibits do offer the opportunity to show what is known or showcase learning, the format of exhibits may be of three types: 1. Individual exhibits such as teaching portfolios 2. Exhibits of discovery within a specific subject or topic by a learning community 3. Thematic exhibits, which provide educational information by a number of different individuals, but related by theme While teacher-leaders may be most familiar with the format and value of teaching portfolios, this type of exhibit does not often serve to establish outreach and human networks. The evolving practice of teacher exhibits of discovery and thematic exhibits, however, provides exciting possibilities for the creation of empowering contexts for sharing. Von Krogh, Ichijo, and Nonaka (2000) emphasize the responsibility to share information, “From our standpoint, a ‘caring expert’ is an organizational member who reaches

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her level of personal mastery in tacit to explicit knowledge and understands that she is responsible for sharing the process” (p. 52). An exhibit of discovery takes the critical inquiry of a learning community to the next level, applying the classroom experiences of the group to discovered knowledge and sharing the result as part of professional development or school reform. The discovery of a learning community may be shared through a report, an electronic presentation by representatives of the group, a panel presentation by the entire group, or a case study of the issue—all collaborative products that can be used by other educators. An example of this type of teacher exhibition would be a report that proposes an innovative approach to at-risk programming researched and compiled by a district-level learning community. A thematic exhibit, on the other hand, is also a group event, but it is focused about a topic of broad interest with individual exhibits that address the theme or investigate different parts of a districtwide issue or problem. This type of exhibit reflects how teacher-leaders perform in the classroom—they plan, prepare materials, teach, assess, and reflect so they may also learn. This type of exhibit also offers an educationally useful product or series of products related by theme, prepared by individuals or small groups. Examples of this type of exhibit would be poster sessions of a number of applied research projects, presentation of classroom-based field studies, teaching modules or activities to be shared, learning center kits, resource directories, a collection of writings, or even a video illustrating different applications of a teaching model. The thematic exhibit opens windows of commonalities across grade levels and disciplines while extending leadership opportunities for participants in planning, organizing, and presenting. Planning and executing a teacher-led conference is a significant exercise in REACH teacher leadership behaviors, challenging teachers to be creative, organized, and professional, while encompassing all the strong design and positive communication skills that they can muster. This type of leadership can also encourage teachers attending to learn new strategies, share successful methodologies, and connect with others in the school district interested in the same issues. Classroom teachers sharing information about their own action research findings or innovations in exhibitions or conferences provides recognition of their leadership activities and adds the voice of the teacher to the fund of knowledge about effective educational practice. While endorsing the concept of teacher exhibits or learning fairs, Fullan (2001) states, “We are finding that teachers and principals, once they experience knowledge sharing, are thirsting for more. They literally can’t get enough of it” (p. 68). Other benefits include the enhancement of organization and communication skills that provide confidence in the exercise of teacher leadership, the opportunity to practice self-reflection and obtain feedback, and activities that support school goals. Exhibits led by teacher-leaders promote renewal and a new spirit of inquiry that advance professionalism and leadership through reflection, performance, research, and a collegial sharing of expertise.

Staging a Teaching Exhibit How does one go about staging an exhibition? Obviously, the organization of the exhibition depends upon the number of participants and its

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

purpose. Strategies for forming collaborative learning groups (see Chapter 5) will get the group moving in a proactive manner. The purpose of the exhibition will govern arrangements for facilities and resources. Will this be a panel presentation to the school board or a full day of professional development mounted districtwide? What useful educational products will result from the exhibit? Despite the wide range of possibilities, all teaching exhibits share an emphasis on reflection as teacher-leaders consider what to present and how to present it. Accordingly, teacher exhibits should include evidence of the following elements: • Mastery of a specialized skill or expertise in a subject or issue • Impact on student performance • Decision making shaped by analysis, evaluation, and execution of possible change • An explicit application of professional values • A pilot plan for transformation • An effective use of presentation materials and resources Whatever the final product of a teacher exhibit, the process of staging the exhibit gives teachers roles, responsibilities, and rewards that are real. This strategy for teaching and learning offers an alternative to the sideways motion of many teachers’ careers by helping them build upward, practicing leadership and establishing their own authentic identity.

Organizing People and Tasks The coordination of a large exhibit is a time-consuming but rewarding task for a person comfortable with situational leadership. It is not possible to attend to all the details of a large exhibit personally, so the coordinator will oversee a number of committees that function independently of one another, but in cooperation with all. The coordinator is the center, or core, of communication, ensuring that each committee is aware of the progress of the others. He or she must be a person with strong organizational skills, a feel for the audience, and awareness of connections or willingness to form connections to obtain resources—a teacher-leader who exemplifies the REACH model. The election of an exhibit coordinator and determination of a theme are usually completed before the “committee of the whole” breaks into specific committees with specialized tasks. Because the theme of the exhibit is a type of template for all the committees, general endorsement of the theme is a necessary step. Figure R.1 in the Resources section presents an initial planning sheet in which each member of the committee of the whole is assigned an important part in designing and executing the master plan. This establishes what needs to be done and by whom. Committee functions then determine the details of “how” the exhibit will operate. Initial planning makes an event happen. Individual committees then assume the task of turning the exhibit scheduled into a “happening.” No one special committee is more important than the others—all committees are needed to reach the common goal—but the sequence of work may be different depending on the tasks performed.

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The Design Committee The design committee develops ideas for the theme of the exhibit, establishes the general outline of presentations, and then coordinates decorations and program design to reinforce the theme with style. Style is hard to define; it means different things to different people. Generally, however, it reflects polish and sophistication but still manages to generate excitement and fun. The conference program, also produced by this committee, presents the theme of the exhibit, lists all participants, and clearly identifies the place, time, and topic of teacher presentations. Figure R.2 in the Resources section provides a committee worksheet for all committees to register tasks, while Figure R.3 in Resources can help in determining appropriate deadlines for internal committee use.

The Development Committee Once a date, time, site, and theme have been chosen, the development committee moves forward to make concrete arrangements for the exhibit—to develop the design through the following tasks: • Examining the facility and making a detailed floor plan available to the media committee • Assigning rooms for all the sessions • Determining refreshments and seating arrangements • Assuming the responsibility for directional signs • Preparing rooms and signs the day of the conference. The actual seating and equipment arrangements within a function room (the setup) depend on the needs of the presenter, the number of participants expected, the room size, and the resources available. Other considerations germane to room assignment are fixed platforms, acoustics in the room, the location of electrical outlets, availability of sound systems, carpeting, types of chairs, natural light and/or controlled lighting, controlled heating/cooling, fixed screens or boards, light fixtures, mirrors, pictures, and even the location of phones and water for the presenters.

Technology Committee Lights, cameras, action! The visual and audiovisual part of exhibition presentations cannot take place without the accurate investigation and painstaking checking of the technology committee. This group also needs to visit the site of the conference or carefully consult floor plans for the location of electrical outlets and the availability of equipment at the site. If there is a display room, the technology committee will need to contact presenters and find out what type of equipment the presenters anticipate needing both in a function room and in the display hall. Other essential efforts when using media include the following actions: • Tape down all electrical wires that cross traffic aisles with safety tape or duct tape so that they are not inadvertently disconnected or do not trip someone. • Use surge protectors to create a number of outlets for equipment.

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

• Locate emergency numbers of technicians who can be called upon to help in an emergency (preferably at the site). • Notify security and traffic control at a site about the conference so that parking, delivery, and pickup of equipment can be handled smoothly. Figure R.4 in the Resources section provides a technology checklist for each presenter. Completed checklists are then tallied to identify all technology equipment needed and where it should be placed.

Publicity Committee Imagine giving a party that no one attends. It is the primary job of the publicity committee to see that this does not happen, to see that the exhibition that other committees have designed and planned so carefully is well attended. To that end, the publicity committee collects information about the presenters for local, district, and state release through various media. As the public relations connection for the conference, this committee also acts as hosts for the exhibit itself, attending to the personal needs of the presenters (supplying them with name tags, programs, packets, etc.) and making sure that the participants are comfortable and enjoying themselves. An effective news release should be limited to one page of clearly organized information. Figure R.5 in the Resources section provides news release information for committee use.

Processing Committee The processing committee is one of operations that influence the tone of the conference. This committee obtains name tags, prepares assessment forms for the exhibit, and collects them at the close of the exhibition. Figure R.6 in Resources provides such a form. The day of the teacher exhibition, the processing committee conducts the registration with skill and a smile. The registration table or tables continue to function even after the conference has begun for late arrivals, to answer questions, to handle messages that may need to be conveyed, and to arrange for the collection of any evaluation that is to take place. Whatever the format, the form is always one of graciousness and welcome, so that those who arrive as participants will leave as friends.

COMMUNICATING VISION Language use is a human construction that reflects thinking and creates perceptions. Just as the arrangement of a classroom illustrates a pedagogical philosophy and approach, sound communication skills depict social sensibility, model intelligence, and represent an openness to others’ messages. Slick communication skills may look impressive and effective, but if they do not encourage independent thought or are dishonorable in intent, they are counterfeit. Whether sharing knowledge with students, collaborating with colleagues, interacting with administrators, or collaborating on

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a larger scale, teacher-leaders need to develop communication strategies that carry their messages convincingly and mark them as capable. The communication skills necessary for formal presentations that teacher-leaders may give are the same skills used in informal presentations, group work, or communication with an individual student, parent, or colleague. Only the situation is different; the point or the end goal is the same—making connections. Educators who wish to share their ideas are sensitive to the complex variables that impact the total communication act and change strategies accordingly. As a sender, a teacher-leader has the responsibility to see that the message is encoded as competently and sent as clearly as possible. This means that a sender must use audience analysis to know the characteristics of her or his audience and the possible impact of the message on that audience. When using audience analysis, a sender considers three major areas of concern to the receiver: 1. Psychology—the sender heeds selective perception—the tendency of receivers to respond to a message not as it is, but as they are. Receivers are also generally egocentric—they listen and respond best to messages that are meaningful to them personally. 2. Demographics—the sender reflects about the impact of demographics on receivers. The comfort level and vocabulary required in a message is related to the age of individual receivers and/or the composite age of a group of receivers. The use of inclusive language and careful analysis of the message avoids inadvertent gender stereotypes. Attention to cultural background also necessitates a careful use of vocabulary and inclusion of group interests and references. Even the physical location of the receivers can affect their capability to understand and empathize with a message. 3. Situation—the sender observes any situation that influences receivers’ acceptance of a message. The size of the group controls a sender’s volume of voice and strength of gesture, the type of media he or she can use, and the relative formality of the delivery. The receivers’ disposition to a topic indicates their collective interest in, knowledge about, and attitude toward a message. The receivers’ disposition to a speaker pertains to the degree of approval the sender inspires through competence and credibility. On the other hand, the receivers’ disposition to the occasion conforms to their understanding of an assignment, agreement with the taste or decorum of the sender, and acceptance of the time involved in the presentation. The delivery of a message or presentation itself is not staged as a “performance,” but always undertaken with the idea that the sender is communicating with a receiver or group of receivers, not at them. The effectiveness of oral delivery, developed through knowledge and practice, is limited only by the speaking ability and creativity of the sender. In order to perform most successfully, the sender needs to analyze his or her own speaking abilities in the following categories:

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

• • • • •

Pitch—the highness or lowness of the voice Rate—the pace at which one speaks Inflection—the change or lack of change in a person’s voice Volume—the loudness or softness of the voice Enunciation—the pronunciation and articulation of the sounds of the words • Paralanguage—the use of specific sounds and silences • Nonverbal cues—the body language of the sender in general and gestures used specifically to stress or reinforce parts of the message All strategies that connect and strengthen teacher-leaders’ REACH behaviors strengthen the teaching profession because individuals do transform the larger group. The need for teacher-leaders networking together for transformation is real and immediate as the evolution of education continues. Teacher-leaders, who see themselves as professionals, know that they must claim their heritage with pride, undertake their teaching and continued learning with responsibility, and envision their future with hope and the confidence of leaders—reaching for radiance, heading up.

STRATEGIES TO USE WHEN CONNECTING WITH OTHER TEACHER-LEADERS

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Herrrrre’s Johnny! The opening statement of any presentation sets the A word is dead tone of the communication and appeals to the audiWhen it is said, ence’s interest. Such a statement may be a quotation, staSome say. tistics, a profile, a question, a startling statement, a story, I say it just a demonstration, or a humorous anecdote. For example, Begins to live the opening statement of the education report A Nation That day. at Risk used war rhetoric to startle the reader and emphasize the seriousness of the message. “If an un—Emily Dickinson friendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war” (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983, p. 1). Whatever the device chosen, the opening statement strives to catch attention and/or creatively introduce the subject. The arrangement and style of a presentation allows it to flow instead of sputter and falter. Language, the medium of the message, is shaped by environment, general culture, education, training, beliefs, attitudes, and even moods. Naturally, presenters should model grammatically correct, inclusive language, but their language should also be creative, compelling, and even fun. Creative “markers” that make presentations exciting and memorable follow in Figure 6.3, Creative Communication. Teacher-leaders can use the examples on the left side of the figure as models of language strategies for applying creative communication in their classrooms and collegial or formal presentations.

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Figure 6.3

Creative Communication

Creative Markers and Their Effects 1. Repetition Repetition, repetition, repetition acts as a stimulus response. The same signal reinforces the same response, as in slogans and jingles. The effect of repetition is relatively short-lived and can get annoying if overused. Example: We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and success of liberty. (John F. Kennedy) 2. Involvement Involvement acts as a personal response that usually involves a call to action. As the demand of the personal involvement increases, the skill of the presenter must also increase. Example: Uncle Sam needs YOU. 3. Fear Fear acts on the need of people to feel safe. This strategy can backfire if the fear induced causes the receiver to “tune out” the rest of the message or to feel hostile toward the person creating the atmosphere of fear. When used effectively, fear can raise the consciousness of a receiver. Example: Problem—nuclear weapons. At ground level, a nuclear bomb would convert all people and property in a three-quarter-mile radius to radioactive particles. Six miles from the site, all would be killed. Twenty miles from the site, all would be killed. Property damage would be complete. Solution—eliminate the threat of nuclear war by eliminating nuclear weapons. 4. Joy Joy acts as happiness discovered or remembered. Joy creates “warm fuzzies” for the receiver to feel good about. Example: _____ ranks first in the nation in ACT scores! 5. Emulation Emulation acts as a call to follow a leader who is respected. The leader chosen for emulation should fit the audience and purpose of the presentation. Examples: Peace Corps Volunteer, Mother Teresa, Tiger Woods 6. Humor Humor acts as a device to provide enjoyment or entertainment through the clever use of language or situations. Example: Restaurant prices at the nation’s House of Representatives Dining Room are 25 percent higher than last year. This proves that the House is truly like a home. 7. Metaphor Metaphor acts as a device to relate the unfamiliar with the familiar. An extended metaphor can act as an advance organizer with parallel points of structure presented in figurative language so that it is the controlling image in a presentation. Examples: In a Station of the Metro The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough. (Ezra Pound)

Your Turn . . .

TEACHER-LEADERS SUPPORTING SHARED VISION AND VALUES

LOOKING BACK/REACHING FORWARD In this last reflection, offer your ideas for change and progress in an ideal educational system. Like a professional philosophy, outlining a vision is the first step in making it happen. How might one envision the ideal graduate?

List below what students should know and be able to do when they graduate:

How might one envision an excellent teaching/learning environment?

What role do you see for yourself in such an environment?

What is the desirable future state for education in general?

What roles would you be interested in exploring now?

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Resources

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Teaching Exhibit Initial Planning Sheet Name or Theme of Exhibit ______________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Supporting Details ___________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Conference Chairperson(s) ________________________________________________________________________________

Telephone (Day) ________________________

(Evening) _______________________

Date of Event __________________________

Time __________________________

Committee Assignment _____________________________________________________________________________________

Responsibilities ____________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________

Conference Chairperson(s) ___________________________________________________________________________

Telephone (Day) ________________________

(Evening) _______________________

Meeting Dates _________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure R.1

Initial Planning Sheet

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

RESOURCES

Committee Plan Worksheet Committee Name _____________________________________________________________ Committee Responsibilities _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________ Committee Chairperson(s) _______________________________________________________ Members ____________________________________________________________________

Goal

Figure R.2

Task

Who Is Responsible?

Deadline Date

Committee Plan Worksheet

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

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Committee Planning Schedule Exhibit:

Date of Exhibit:

Assignment

Figure R.3

Person Responsible

Date to Be Completed

Comments

Committee Planning Schedule—Internal Use

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

RESOURCES

Technology Equipment Requested PC Computer: Cite specifications needed (RAM, CD, disc, zip drive, Internet) ___________________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Macintosh Computer: Cite specifications needed (RAM, CD, disc, zip drive, Internet) ______________

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Projector (type, hookup) ___________________________________________________________

Slide Projector (sync, remote) ________________________________________________________

VCR/TV/DVD (large-screen, portables, remote) __________________________________________

Overhead Projector (high-intensity, regular) _____________________________________________

Screen ______________________________________________________________________

Easel/Flip Charts _______________________________________________________________

Display Tables (number, size) ______________________________________________________

Miscellaneous: __ Cords

__ Carts, Stands

__ Outlets, Strips

__ Podium

__ Patch Cords

__ Light for Podium

Figure R.4

Technology Checklist

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

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News Release Information (To be completed by each presenter) Return to ________________________________

Due Date ____________________________

Name of Presenter _____________________________________________________________

Topic of Presentation __________________________________________________________

Exhibit Name and Theme _______________________________________________________

Date of Presentation ___________________________________________________________

Time of Presentation ___________________________________________________________

For Further Information Contact ___________________________________________________

Business/Institution/School District Complete Address:

Local Newspaper Complete Address:

Other Related Publications:

Figure R.5

News Release Information

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

107

RESOURCES

Exhibit Evaluation Form Exhibit Name ______________________________________________________________________ Exhibit Site ___________________________

Exhibit Date ___________________________

Thank you for attending the ________________ Exhibit. We are interested in your responses to the events you have attended and invite you to fill out this evaluation to aid in future planning. Please circle a number that reflects your opinion of the following statements: Disagree

Agree

1. The exhibit was well planned. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

2. The presentations were effective. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

3. The displays were valuable and informative. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

4. Room arrangements were appropriate. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

5. Use of technology was effective. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

6. Parking was convenient. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

7. The registration process was efficient. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

8. Overall, the exhibit was valuable. Comments:

1

2

3

4

5

Other Remarks: What do you feel was the strength of the exhibit?

Is there anything you would like to suggest for future exhibits?

Figure R.6

Exhibit Evaluation Form

Copyright © 2007 by Corwin Press. All rights reserved. Reprinted from Leadership Strategies for Teachers (Second Edition), by Eunice M. Merideth. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, www.corwinpress.com. Reproduction authorized only for the local school site or nonprofit organization that has purchased this book.

References Armstrong, D. G., & Savage, T. V. (2002). Teaching in the secondary school: An introduction (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Baldoni, J. (2004, January). On leadership communication: Let your people know. Darwin. Retrieved July 28, 2002, from www.darwinmag.com/read/010104/ know.html Barth, R. S. (2001). Teacher leader. Phi Delta Kappan, 82(6), 443–449. Birchak, B., Connor, C., Crawford, K. M., Kahn, L. H., Kaser, S., Turner, S., et al. (1998). Teacher study groups: Building community through dialogue and reflection. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (2002). Reframing the path to school leadership: A guide for teachers and principals. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Boyer, E. L. (1995). The basic school: A community for learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1997). Education on the edge of possibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Code of ethics of the education profession. (1975). In J. Johnson, V. Dufuis, D. Musial, G. Hall, & D. Gollnick (Eds.), Introduction to the foundations of American education (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Coleman, J. (1990). Foundations of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Crawford, M., Kydd, L., & Riches, C. (Eds.). (1997). Leadership and teams in educational management. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Crow, G. M., & Matthews, L. J. (1998). Finding one’s way: How mentoring can lead to dynamic leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Crowther, F., Kaagan, S. S., Ferguson, M., & Hann, L. (2002). Developing teacher leaders: How teacher leadership enhances school success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Darling-Hammond, L. (1998, September 26). How can we ensure a caring, competent, qualified teacher for every child? Paper prepared for “Shaping the Profession that Shapes the Future,” an AFT/NEA Conference on Teacher Quality, Washington, DC. Retrieved August 25, 2005, from http://www.middleweb.com/TchRcrt LDH.html Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Reshaping teaching policy, preparation, and practice: Influence of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Washington, DC: AACTE. Darling-Hammond, L. (2003). Keeping good teachers: Why it matters, what leaders can do. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 6–13.

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Darling-Hammond, L. & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Diaz-Maggioli, G. (2004). Teacher-centered professional development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. El-Anzi, F. O. (2005). Academic achievement and its relationship with anxiety, self-esteem, optimism, and pessimism in Kuwaiti students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal. Retrieved August 15, 2005, from http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3852/is_200501/ai_n9520814 Feiler, R., Heritage, M., & Gallimore, R. (2000). Teachers leading teachers. Educational Leadership, 57(7), 66–69. Fogel, A. (2000). Systems, attachment, and relationships. Human Development, 43, 314–320. Forster, E. M. (1997). Teacher leadership: Professional right and responsibility. Action in Teacher Education, 19(3), 82–94. Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fullan, M. (2002). The change leader. Educational Leadership, 59(8), 16–20. Fullan, M. (2003). The moral imperative of school leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Fulton, K., Yoon, I., & Lee, C. (2005). Induction into learning communities. Washington, DC: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. Retrieved September 1, 2005, from http://www.nctaf.org/documents/nctaf/ NCTAF_Induction_Paper_2005.pdf Gibbs, N. (2005, February 21). Parents behaving badly. Time Education, pp. 40–49. Glasgow, N. A., & Hicks, C. D. (2003). What successful teachers do: 91 research-based classroom strategies for new and veteran teachers. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Glass, G. V. (1998). “The vision thing”: Educational research and AERA in the 21st century, part 4. The future of scholarly communications. Educational Researcher, 27(8), 35–37. Goodard, R. D., Wayne, K. H., & Hoy, A. W. (2004). Collective efficacy beliefs: Theoretical developments, empirical evidence, and future directions. Educational Researcher, 33(3), 3–13. Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2001). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Hargreaves, A. (2003). Teaching in the knowledge society: Education in the age of insecurity. New York: Teachers College Press. Harris, A. (2005). Distributed leadership. In B. Davies (Ed.), The essentials of school leadership (pp. 160–172). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hord, S. M. (Ed.). (2004). Learning together: Leading together. New York: Teachers College Press. House, R. J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 321–338. Hubbard, R. S., & Power, B. M. (2003). The art of classroom inquiry: A handbook for teacher/researchers (rev. ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Hutchings, P. (2005). Approaching the scholarship of teaching and learning. Stanford, CA: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Retrieved

REFERENCES

September 2, 2005, from http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/elibrary/docs/ approaching.htm Johnson, D. P. (2005). Sustaining change in schools: How to overcome differences and focus on quality. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1991). Creative conflict. Paper presented at Drake University, Des Moines, IA. Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Joyce, B. R., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2003). Models of teaching (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Katzenmeyer, M., & Moller, G. (2001). Awakening the sleeping giant: Helping teachers develop as leaders. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Lambert, L. (2003). Leadership capacity for lasting school improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Lawrence-Lightfoot, S. (2003). The essential conversation: What parents and teachers need to learn from each other. Westminster, MD: Random House. LeBlanc, P. E., & Shelton, M. M. (1997). Teacher leadership: The needs of teachers. Action in Teacher Education, 19(3), 32–45. Lederhouse, J. N. (2001). Show me the power. Education Week, 20(40), 38. Leithwood, K. A., & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38(2), 112–129. Leithwood, K. A., & Jantzi, D. (2005). Transformational leadership. In B. Davies (Ed.), The essentials of school leadership (pp. 31–43). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Leithwood, K. A., & Riehl, C. (2003). What we know about successful school leadership. Philadelphia: Laboratory for Student Success, Temple University. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social psychology. New York: Harpers. Lockwood, A. T. (1996, January). Community collaboration and social capital: An interview with Gary G. Wehlage. New Leaders for Tomorrow’s Schools, 2(1). Retrieved August 10, 2005, from http://www.ncrel.org/cscd/pubs/lead21/ 2-1m.htm Martin-Kniep, G. O. (2000). Becoming a better teacher: Eight innovations that work. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Marzano, R. (2003). What works in schools. Alexandria VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. McLeod, S. (2005). Data driven teachers. Retrieved July 28, 2005, from http://www .microsoft.com/Education/ThoughtLeadersDDDM.mspx Meadows, B. J., & Saltzman, M. (2000). Building school communities: Strategies for leaders. Golden, CO: Fulcrum. Merideth, E. M. (1999a, April). Teacher leaders as learners. Seminar presented at Drake University, Des Moines, IA. Merideth, E. M. (1999b, Oct). Building collaboration. Workshop presented at West DesMoines Community School District for the Teachers as Partners Program, West DesMoines, IA.

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Merideth, E. M. (2000). Leadership strategies for teachers. Arlington Heights, IL: SkyLight Professional Development. MetLife. (2003). The MetLife survey of the American teacher, 2003: An examination of school leadership. Long Island City, NY: MetLife. MetLife. (2005). The MetLife survey of the American teacher: Transitions and the role of supportive relationships. Long Island City, NY: MetLife. Mind Tools. (2005). Provocation: Carrying out thought experiments. Retrieved November 4, 2005, from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/ newCT_08.htm Morrison, G. S. (2006). Teaching in America (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2004). Designing effective instruction (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Moses, M. C. (2005, Summer). Leaders on leadership [Electronic Version]. Threshold, 10. Retrieved July 28, 2005, from http://www.ciconline.org/threshold MSN Encarta. (2005). Retrieved August 15, 2005, from http://encarta.msn.com/ dictionary_/knowledge.html National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2004). Breaking ranks II. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. (1989). Toward high and rigorous standards for the teaching profession. Detroit, MI: National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. National Center for Education Statistics. (2004). Teacher attrition and mobility. Jessup, MD: U.S. Department of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Noddings, N. (2003). Happiness and education. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Palmer, P. J. (2000). Let your life speak: Listening for the voice of vocation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Reeves, D. B. (2005). Accountability for learning: How teachers and school leaders can take charge. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom: Teacher expectation and pupils’ intellectual development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Rowe, K. J. (2003, February). The importance of teacher quality as a key determinant of students’ experiences and outcomes of schooling. Paper prepared for the Interim Committee for a NSW Institute of Teachers, Camberwell, Victoria, Australia. Sagor, R. (2000). Guiding school improvement with action research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Schmoker, M. (1999). Results (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Schmuck, R. A. (1997). Practical action research for change. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training & Publishing. School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative. (2001, April). Leadership for student learning: Redefining the teacher as leader. Washington, DC: Institute for Educational Leadership.

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Schuman, D. (2004). American schools, American teachers: Issues and perspectives. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Senge, P. M. (2000). Give me a lever long enough . . . and single-handed I can move the world. In Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership (pp. 13–25). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school improvement. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Sergiovanni, T. J. (2005). Strengthening the heartbeat: Leading and learning together in schools. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Sherrill, J. A. (1999). Preparing teachers for leadership roles in the 21st century. Theory Into Practice, 38, 56–61. Sims, S. J., & Sims, R. R. (2004). Managing school system change: Charting a course for renewal. Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Snell, J., & Swanson, J. (2000, April). The essential knowledge and skills of teacher leaders: A search for a conceptual framework. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (1997). A new vision for staff development. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Sparks, D., & Hirsh, S. (1999). A national plan for improving professional development. Oxford, OH: National Staff Development Council. Retrieved August 20, 2005, from http://www.nsdc.org/library/authors/NSDCPlan.cfm Tertell, E. A., Klein, S. M., & Jewett, J. L. (Eds.). (1998). When teachers reflect: Journeys toward effective, inclusive practice. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Troen, V., & Boles, K. (2005). The curse of teacher isolation, and a possible cure. Retrieved September 5, 2005, from the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education (ENC) Web site, http://www.enc .org/features/focus/archive/isolation/document.shtm?input=FOC-003703index Van Bockem, S., Wenger, L., & Ashworth, J. (2004). Pathways from discouragement to courage. Reclaiming Children & Youth, 13(3), 149–154. Von Krogh, G., Ichijo, K., & Nonaka, I. (2000). Enabling knowledge creation: How to unlock the mystery of tacit knowledge and release the power of innovation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language (rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Waldron, P. W., Collie, T. R., & Davies, C. M. W. (1999). Telling stories about school. Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall. Welch, M. (1998). Collaboration: Staying on the bandwagon. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(1), 26–37. Wheatley, M. J. (2005). Finding our way: Leadership for an uncertain time. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Wilferth, J. (2003). Private literacies in academic settings: The electronic portfolio as prototype. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED473058) Wilson, M. (1993). The search for teacher leaders. Educational Leadership, 50(6), 24–27.

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Index Achievable goal, 13–14, 15 Achievement. See Student achievement Action plan, 26–27, 74 Action research, 9, 51–53 American Educational Research Association (AERA), 88 Armstrong, D. G., 49 Ashworth, J., 45 Attrition, teacher, 59 Audience analysis, 96 Author, 89–90 Autogenic phrases, 32 Autonomy, 7–9 Baldoni, J., 57–58 Barth, R. S., 64 Believable goal, 14, 15 Bennett, R., 23–24 Bennis, W., 81 Birchak, B., 73 Block scheduling, 59 Body, 30 Boles, K., 60 Bolman, L. G., 69–70, 79 Boyer, E., 11 Bransford, J., 50 Breaking Ranks II (National Association of Secondary School Principals), 26 Buck, P., 47 Bullying, 23–24 Burnham, D. H., 91 Caine, G., 13 Caine, R. N., 13 Calhoun, E., 36 Campbell, J., 66 Card storming, 80 Caring, 7 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2 Certification, 88, 89 Change: as circle dance, 33 control and, 29 force field analysis, 27–28 REACH model, 21–22

school system change, 24, 26–27 stages of concern, 23–24, 25 stress and, 30–32 Change agents, 27–28 Clarke, J. I., 40 Classroom dialogue, 40 Classroom-based development models: mentoring, 53–55 overview of, 53 peer coaching, 55–56 “Closed door syndrome,” 60 Coaching, peer, 55–56 Code of Ethics of the Education Profession, 12 Coleman, J., 10 Collaboration: Collaborative Learning Group Action Plan, 74 communication with colleagues, 75–78 leadership comfort zone, 81 mentoring as, 54 school improvement and, 65–66 school improvement model, 66 for school system change, 26 situational leadership for development, 71–73 strategies for leadership collaboration, 78–80 by teacher-leaders, 3 teachers as situational leaders, 67–70 Collaborative learning group: action plan, 74 formation of, 71 functioning steps, 71–73 Collaborative Learning Group Action Plan, 74 Collegiality: communication with colleagues, 75–78 conflict and, 17 of teacher-leader, 9–11 Collie, T. R., 11 Comfort zone, 81 Committee Plan Worksheet, 103 Committee Planning Schedule, 104 Committees, 94–95

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Communication: with colleagues, 75–78 for collegiality, 10 connection strategies, 97–98 with families, 40–43 of leadership, 57–58 with students, 38–40 of vision, 95–97 Community: with collaborative learning group, 73 school improvement model and, 66 teacher collegiality for, 9–10 See also Learning community Conceptual barriers, 76 Concern, stages of, 23–24, 25 Conflict management, 17–18 Connections, teacher, 86–87 Connor, C., 73 Consensual decision making, 77 Constructive conflict, 17–18 Constructive criticism, 17 Control, 4, 29 Crawford, K. M., 73 Crawford, M., 77 Creative markers, 97–98 Creativity, 63 Credibility, of goal, 14, 15 Critical Goal Review chart, 16 Critical inquiry, 60–62 Critical Inquiry Map, 61–62 Critical reflection, 51 Criticism, 17 Crow, G. M., 54 Crowther, F., 2, 77 Culture, school: collegiality and, 9 communication with colleagues, 75–78 transformational leadership and, 86 Curcio, J. L., 36 Curriculum: decisions about, 37–38 meaning of, 36–37 Darling-Hammond, L.: on mentoring, 55 on teacher assessment, 89 on teacher attrition, 59 on teacher learning, 50 Data: action research process, 52–53 for change, 26 Davies, C. M. W., 11 Deal, T. E., 69–70, 79 Decision making: change and, 26 consensual, 77 by teachers, 8–9 Demographics, 96 Design committee, 94

Development: committee, 94 of teacher-leader, 47–48 See also Professional development Dialogue, classroom, 40 Diaz-Maggioli, G., 47 Dickinson, E., 97 Discovery exhibits, 91–92 Disequilibrium, 13 Educational change, 22–23, 33 See also Change Effectiveness, teacher-leader, 5–7 Egalitarianism, 60 El-Anzi, F. O.., 30–31 Electronic portfolio, 56–57 Electronic resources, 90–91 Emulation, 98 Equilibrium, 13 Equipment, 94–95, 105 Ethics: of inquiry, 51 of teaching, 11–12 Exercises: card storming, 80 creativity wave, catching, 63 Critical Inquiry Map, 61–62 reflective statements, 64 situational leadership planning strategy, 79 stress-reducing, 31–32 vision outline, 99 zones of comfort, 81 Exhibit coordinator, 93 Exhibit Evaluation Form, 107 Exhibits. See Teacher exhibits Expectations: learning and, 38 parent/teacher, balance of, 44–45 Facilitative leadership style, 68 Family: communication with, 40–43 evaluation of principals, 7–8 parent/teacher expectations, 44–45 Fear, 98 Feedback, 53 Feiler, R., 86, 87 Ferguson, M., 2, 77 Financial capital, 10 Focus, 43–44 Fogel, A., 30 Force field analysis, 27–28 Forster, E. M., 2 Frames of leadership, 69–70 Fulghum, R., 65 Fullan, M.: on change, 26, 33 on moral purpose, 11 on school culture, 75

INDEX

on teacher exhibit, 92 transformational leadership studies, 86 Fulton, K., 75 Gallimore, R., 86, 87 Gardner, J., 68 Gibbs, N., 41 Glasgow, N. A., 36 Glass, G., 88 Goals: Critical Goal Review chart, 16 setting, 13–15 Goodard, R. D., 4 Greeley, S., 17–18 Group, collaborative learning, 71–74 Growth, of teacher-leader, 47–48 Hall, G. E., 23 Hann, L., 2, 77 Hargreaves, A.: on knowledge society, 36 on sense of self, 50 on student learning, 38 on teacher learning, 50 Harris, A., 27 Heart, 7 Heritage, M., 86, 87 Hicks, C. D., 36 Hirsh, S., 50–51 Holiday, B., 7 Honor, 11–12 Hord, S. M., 23, 75 House, R. J., 68–69 Howard, E., 67 Hoy, A. W., 4 Hubbard, R. S., 52 Human capital, 10 Human resource frame, 69 Humor, 98 Hutchings, P., 51 Ichijo, K., 91–92 Imagery technique, 32 Independence, 7–9 Influence, 2 Information age, 35–36 Inquiry: Critical Inquiry Map, 61–62 ethic of, 51 for teacher learning, 60–61 Intellectual growth, 6 Internal locus of control, 4 Internet: electronic resources for teacher-leaders, 90–91 professional organizations on, 88–89 Involvement, 98 Isolation: communication with colleagues and, 75

peer coaching and, 55 school improvement model and, 66 teacher privacy, 9 teacher-leader and, 60 Jacobson, L., 38 Jantzi, D., 83–84, 86 Jewett, J. L., 43 Job-embedded learning: professional development as, 47 self-directed development model, 50–51 Johnson, D., 17 Johnson, D. P.: on school system change, 24, 26 on success pathways, 86 Johnson, L. B., 5 Johnson, R., 17 Journal, 89–90 Joy, 98 Joyce, B., 56 Joyce, B. R., 36 Kaagan, S. S., 2, 77 Kahn, L. H., 73 Kantner, E., 35–36 Kaser, S., 73 Katzenmeyer, M., 2 Kemp, J. E., 36 Klein, S. M., 43 Knowledge: communication skills and, 57 exposure of students, 35–36 sharing, 86, 87 teacher effectiveness and, 6 Knowledge society, 35–38 Kydd, L., 77 Lambert, L., 59, 67 Language barrier, 42 Lawrence-Lightfoot, S., 41 Leaders. See Teacher-leaders Leadership: communication of, 57–58 cultural meaning of, 21 school improvement and, 66 situational, 66, 71–73 situational leadership planning strategy, 79 strategies for leadership collaboration, 78–80 teacher leadership program, 87 teachers as learning leaders, 36–38 teachers as situational leaders, 67–70 transformational, 83–86 Learning: collaborative learning group, 71–74 effectiveness of teacher and, 6 obstacles to, 58–60 sociocultural, 65–66

117

118

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS

strategies for lifelong, 60–63 teacher-leader as professional and, 48 teachers as learning leaders, 36–38 Learning community: classroom dialogue, 40 professional organization as, 88 school vision and, 85 teacher exhibits of, 91, 92 teacher leadership and, 10 team building, 80 LeBlanc, P. E., 38 Lederhouse, J. N., 8 Ledru-Rollin, A. A., 13 Lee, C., 75 Leithwood, K. A.: on teacher leaders, 2 on transformational leadership, 83–84, 86 Lewin, K., 27 Listening skills, 39–40 Lockwood, A. T., 10 Martin-Kniep, G. O., 36 Marzano, R., 6 Matthews, L. J., 54 McClellan, B. E., 43 McLeod, S., 52 Meadows, B. J., 55–56 Mentoring, 53–55 Merideth, S. M., 84 Metaphor, 98 The MetLife Survey: Educational Leadership (MetLife), 7–8 MetLife Survey (MetLife 2005), 41, 44 Mind, 30 Mind Tools, Inc., 63 Mission, of teacher-leaders, 3 Moller, G., 2 Morals, 11–12 Morrison, G. R., 36 Morrison, G. S., 49, 51–52 Moses, M. C., 57 MSN Encarta, 36 National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP), 26 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 88, 89 National Center for Education Statistics Survey, 59 National Commission on Excellence in Education, 97 National Strength and Conditioning Association, 88 News release, 95, 106 Noddings, N., 12 Nonaka, I., 91–92

Opening statement, 97 Oracle at Delphi, 84 Organizations, professional, 88–89 Palmer, P. J., 7 Parents: evaluation of principals, 7–8 parent/teacher expectations, 44–45 teacher communication with, 40–43 Parent-teacher conference, 42, 45 Participation structures, 39 Path-goal theory, 68–69 Peer coaching, 55–56 Perception, 31 Performance, 30 Periodical, 89–90 Personal concerns, 24 Piaget, J., 85 Planning: action plan, 26–27, 74 Committee Plan Worksheet, 103 Committee Planning Schedule, 104 situational leadership planning strategy, 79 for teacher exhibit, 93–94 Teaching Exhibit Initial Planning Sheet, 93, 102 Plato, 38 Political frame, 69–70 Portfolio: professional teaching portfolio, 56–57 as teacher exhibit, 91 Power, B. M., 52 Pragmatic barriers, 76 Presentation: communication of vision, 95–97 connection strategies, 97–98 teacher exhibit, 91–95 Press release, 95, 106 Principal, 7–8 Privacy, 9 “Private Literacies in Academic Settings: The Electronic Portfolio as Prototype” (Wilferth), 57 Problem-solving leadership style, 68 Processing committee, 95 Professional, teacher-leader as, 48 Professional development: classroom-based development models, 53–56 collaborative learning group for, 71–74 obstacles to, 58–60 self-directed development model, 50–51 strategies for lifelong learning, 60–63 See also Teacher-leaders, extending learning Professional growth, 47–48 Professional learning community, 88 Professional organizations, 88–89

INDEX

Professional publications, 89–90 Professional teaching portfolio, 56–57 Professionalism: classroom-based development models and, 53 of teacher-leaders, 48 Progressive relaxation exercise, 31–32 Psychology, 96 Publications, professional, 89–90 Publicity committee, 95 Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson), 38 REACH model: autonomy, 7–9 change and, 21–22 collegiality, 9–11 communication and, 43 communication skills in, 58 communication with colleagues and, 75–76 effectiveness, 5–7 formation of, 12–13 honor, 11–12 leadership behavior reflection, 19 professional development and, 47–48 reflective practice and, 49–50 risk-taking, 3–5 situational leadership and, 70 student achievement exercise with, 46 teacher leadership and, 86, 87 teacher leadership approach of, 2 teachers as learners and, 36–37 Receiver, 96 Reeves, D. B., 75 Reflection: collaborative communication and, 77 critical inquiry, 60–62 learning exercise, 64 for professional teaching portfolio, 56, 57 reflective statements exercise, 64 vision outline, 99 on zones of comfort, 81 Reflective practice: ethic of inquiry, 51 example of, 48–49 of mentoring, 54–55 strategies for, 49–50 Reframing, 69 Relationship-oriented approach, 11 Relationships: barriers to collaborative, 76–77 change and, 29, 33 classroom dialogue, 40 communication with families, 40–43 listening skills for, 39–40 situational leadership and, 69–70 Relaxation exercise, 31–32 Repetition, 98

Reporting, 27 Research: action research by teacher-leader, 9, 51–53 learning by teachers, 36 of professional organization, 88 professional publications for, 89–90 teacher exhibit of, 92 Resources: Collaborative Learning Group Action Plan, 74 Committee Plan Worksheet, 103 Committee Planning Schedule, 104 electronic, 90–91 Exhibit Evaluation Form, 107 News Release Information, 106 professional organizations, 88–89 professional publications, 89–90 Teaching Exhibit Initial Planning Sheet, 102 Technology Equipment Requested, 105 Responsibility, 9 Rich, A., 57 Riches, C., 77 Riehl, C., 2 Risk-taking, 3–5 Roosevelt, E., 83 Rosenthal, R., 38 Ross, S. M., 36 Rowe, K. J., 6 Rules, 39 Saavadra, B., 49, 50, 52–53 Safety, 94–95 Sagor, R., 52, 53 Saltzman, M., 55–56 Samples. See Resources Savage, T. V., 49 Schedule: Committee Planning Schedule, 104 time for learning, 59 Schmoker, M., 70 Schmuck, R. A., 27 School culture. See Culture, school School improvement: change in school system, 24, 26–27 sociocultural learning and, 65–66 transformational leadership for, 84 School improvement model, 66 School Leadership for the 21st Century Initiative Report (Institute for Educational Leadership), 2–3, 5 Schools: changes in, 1–2 communication with colleagues and, 75–78 shared vision/values of, 84–86 situational leadership for, 70 support of teacher leadership, 5

119

120

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS

teacher isolation, 60 working conditions of teachers, 59–60 Schuman, D., 1 Self, 49–50 Self-directed development model, 50–51 Sender, 96–97 Senge, P. M., 84 Sergiovanni, T. J.: on collegiality, 10 on heartbeat of school, 7 on leadership, 84 Shared vision/values, 84–86 See also Vision/values Sharing: information, 91–92 teacher leadership program, 86–87 See also Collaboration Shelton, M. M., 38 Sherrill, J. A., 2 Showers, B., 56 Sims, R. R., 26, 35–36 Sims, S. J., 26, 35–36 Situational leadership: planning strategy, 79 for professional development, 71–73 relationships and, 69–70 for school improvement model, 66 teachers as situational leaders, 67–70 Snell, J., 38 Social capital, 10 Society, knowledge, 35–38 Sociocultural learning, 65–66 Sparks, D., 50–51 Speech, 40 Spencer, H., 71 Stages of concern, 23–24, 25 Standards: teacher decisions about, 8 teacher effectiveness and, 6 Storm, H., 60 Stress, 30–32 Stress-reducing exercises, 31–32 Structural frame, 69, 70 Student achievement: communication with families, 40–43 communication with students, 38–40 exercise for, 46 goal of teacher-leaders, 3 knowledge exposure, 35–36 parent/teacher expectations, 44–45 professional development for, 49–50 school improvement model and, 66 strategies for focusing on, 43–44 teachers as learning leaders, 36–38 Students: communication with, 38–40 risk-taking by teachers and, 5 school’s vision of, 84–85 Success, 86

Support, 88–89 Swanson, J., 38 Symbolic frame, 69, 70 Systemic change, 24 Teacher attrition, 59 Teacher conference, 92 Teacher exhibits: Committee Plan Worksheet, 103 Committee Planning Schedule, 104 Exhibit Evaluation Form, 107 News Release Information, 106 people, tasks, 93–95 staging, 92–93 Teaching Exhibit Initial Planning Sheet, 102 Technology Equipment Requested, 105 types of, 91–92 Teacher isolation. See Isolation Teacher leadership: program, 86–87 strategies for increasing, 13–18 See also Leadership Teacher unions, 88 Teacher-leaders: description of, 2–3 leadership potentials, increasing, 13–18 REACH model for, 3–13 reflection exercise, 19 status of teacher, 1–2 sustaining, connecting, 86–95 See also Student achievement Teacher-leaders, change and: circle dance of change, 33 control and, 29 force field analysis, 27–28 REACH model, 21–22 school system change, 24, 26–27 stages of concern, 23–24, 25 stress and, 30–32 Teacher-leaders, collaboration of: Collaborative Learning Group Action Plan, 74 communication with colleagues, 75–78 leadership comfort zone, 81 school improvement and, 65–66 school improvement model, 66 situational leadership for development, 71–73 strategies for leadership collaboration, 78–80 teachers as situational leaders, 67–70 Teacher-leaders, extending learning: action research, 51–53 classroom-based development models, 53–56 communication of leadership, 57–58 obstacles to, 58–60 professional growth/development, 47–48

INDEX

professional teaching portfolio, 56–57 professionalism, 48 reflective exercise, 64 reflective practice, inquiry, 48–50 self-directed development model, 50–51 strategies for, 60–63 Teacher-leaders, shared vision/values: communication of vision, 95–97 definition of shared, 84–86 reflection exercise, 99 strategies for connecting with teacherleaders, 97–98 sustaining, connecting teacher-leaders, 86–95 transformational leadership for, 83–84 Teacher-researcher, 51–52 Teachers: communication with colleagues, 75–78 communication with families, 40–43 communication with students, 38–40 connection strategies, 97–98 electronic resources for, 90–91 evaluation of principals, 7–8 as learning leaders, 36–38 mentoring, 53–55 parent/teacher expectations, 44–45 professional organizations, 88–89 professional publications, 89–90 as situational leaders, 67–73 teacher exhibits, 91–95 teacher leadership program, 87 Teaching Exhibit Initial Planning Sheet, 102 Teaching portfolio, professional, 56–57, 91 Team, 68, 80 Technology committee, 94–95 Technology Equipment Requested, 105 Telephone messaging system, 43 Templates. See Resources Tertell, E. A., 43 Thematic exhibits, 91–92 Thinking, 80 Time, 59 Time magazine, 41 “Transformation” (Merideth), 84

Transformational leadership: description of, 83–84 shared vision/values and, 84–86 Troen, V., 60 Truman, H. S., 21 Turner, S., 73 Unions, teacher, 88 Values, 11–12 See also Vision/values Van Bockem, S., 45 Vision/values: communication of vision, 95–97 connecting teacher-leaders, strategies for, 97–98 definition of shared, 84–86 outline of, 99 sustaining, connecting teacher-leaders, 86–95 of teacher-leaders, 3 transformational leadership for, 83–84 Von Krogh, G., 91–92 Vygotsky, L. S., 65 Waldron, P. W., 11 Walton, I., 71 Wattleton, F., 1 Wayne, K. H., 4 Web sites, 90–91 Wehlage, G., 10 Weil, M., 36 Welch, M., 76 Welsh, K., 36 Wenger, L., 45 Wheatley, M. J.: on change, 29 on listening, 39 on risk-taking, 4 Wilferth, Joe, 57 Wilson, M., 5 Win-loss aspects of change, 24 Working conditions, 59–60 Writing, 89–90 Yoon, I., 75 Zones of comfort, 81

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