Leadership for Learning : How to Bring Out the Best in Every Teacher [2 ed.] 9781416629245, 9781416629238

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Praise for Leadership for Learning True school transformation happens when we move beyond the idea of a “super principal” as instructional leader to a school full of instructional leaders aligned around a common vision and working together to solve problems that will lead to improved outcomes for all students. Carl Glickman and Rebecca West Burns capture the importance of collaboration, job-embedded professional learning, and observation and feedback as levers for improving professional practice across a school. I recommend this book for all aspiring and current principals, assistant principals, teachers, and teacher leaders who want to create schoolwide ownership of teaching and learning in order to drive sustained success for students and entire school communities.—Tricia McManus, deputy superintendent, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, Winston-Salem, NC; former assistant superintendent of professional development, leadership, and school transformation, Hillsborough County Public Schools, Tampa, FL Supervision and mentoring have long been a one-way street where mentors inform their mentees about their observations and put forth suggestions for improvement. This book reintroduces the importance of mutual learning and reflection. It brings to the forefront a wide variety of formats to accomplish professional growth. I believe this book should be in the hands of every program that provides supervision and support for educators at all stages of the profession.—Michael Cosenza, EdD, president, National Association for Professional Development Schools; director, professional development schools for California Lutheran University An excellent book! It’s a practical and comprehensive guide for supervisory practices and interactional skills, including the often-overlooked social-emotional support for teachers. Helps leaders reinvent classroom learning opportunities for teachers and students. Should be required reading for all teachers and leaders in the school community to help those around them be the best leaders of learning they can be.—Faye Snodgress, executive director, Kappa Delta Pi, Indianapolis, IN Glickman and Burns provide numerous detailed and complementary approaches for working with and among teachers to make classroom learning interesting and meaningful. This enjoyable, collegial, and reflective book is of value to all who help teachers succeed. —Renée Clift, professor, University of Arizona; 2015 recipient of the Hans Olsen Distinguished Teacher Educator Award I loved the examples woven throughout. Leadership for Learning: How to Bring Out the Best in Every Teacher is a must-have for anyone interested in supporting teacher and educational leaders’ learning. The pages within the book help us think differently about improving teaching and learning, share powerful professional learning structures, and provide insights into how to differentiate teacher professional learning to improve outcomes for students.—Diane Yendol-Hoppey, PhD, dean, college of Education and Human Services, University of North Florida You won’t want to miss this book! It has something for all of us teachers striving to be intentional, relevant, and emerging leaders.—Danielle Dee Biggs, teacher, Veterans Elementary School, Wesley Chapel, FL I give thanks for this book. It’s a real-life teacher brain on paper!—Megan Smith, teacher, New River Elementary School, Wesley Chapel, FL

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FOR 2nd Edition

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How To Bring Out The BEST In Every Teacher

FOR 2nd Edition

CARL GLICKMAN

REBECCA WEST BURNS

Alexandria, Virginia USA

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1703 N. Beauregard St. • Alexandria, VA 22311-1714 USA Phone: 800-933-2723 or 703-578-9600 • Fax: 703-575-5400 Website: www.ascd.org • E-mail: [email protected] Author guidelines: www.ascd.org/write Ranjit Sidhu, CEO & Executive Director; Stefani Roth, Publisher; Genny Ostertag, Director, Content Acquisitions; Susan Hills, Acquisitions Editor; Julie Houtz, Director, Book Editing & Production; Joy Scott Ressler, Editor; Judi Connelly, Senior Art Director; Jose Coll, Graphic Designer; Cynthia Stock, Production Designer; Kelly Marshall, Manager, Production Services; Trinay Blake, E-Publishing Specialist Copyright © 2020 Carl Glickman and Rebecca West Burns. All rights reserved. It is illegal to reproduce copies of this work in print or electronic format (including reproductions displayed on a secure intranet or stored in a retrieval system or other electronic storage device from which copies can be made or displayed) without the prior written permission of the publisher. By purchasing only authorized electronic or print editions and not participating in or encouraging piracy of copyrighted materials, you support the rights of authors and publishers. Readers who wish to reproduce or republish excerpts of this work in print or electronic format may do so for a small fee by contacting the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923, USA (phone: 978750-8400; fax: 978-646-8600; web: www.copyright.com). To inquire about site licensing options or any other reuse, contact ASCD Permissions at www.ascd.org/permissions or [email protected]. For a list of vendors authorized to license ASCD e-books to institutions, see www.ascd.org/epubs. Send translation inquiries to [email protected]. ASCD® and ASCD LEARN. TEACH. LEAD.® are registered trademarks of ASCD. All other trademarks contained in this book are the property of, and reserved by, their respective owners, and are used for editorial and informational purposes only. No such use should be construed to imply sponsorship or endorsement of the book by the respective owners. All web links in this book are correct as of the publication date below but may have become inactive or otherwise modified since that time. If you notice a deactivated or changed link, please e-mail [email protected] with the words “Link Update” in the subject line. In your message, please specify the web link, the book title, and the page number on which the link appears. PAPERBACK ISBN: 978-1-4166-2923-8 ASCD product #121007 n8/20 PDF E-BOOK ISBN: 978-1-4166-2924-5; see Books in Print for other formats. Quantity discounts are available: e-mail [email protected] or call 800-933-2723, ext. 5773, or 703-575-5773. For desk copies, go to www.ascd.org/deskcopy. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Glickman, Carl D., author. | Burns, Rebecca West, author. Title: Leadership for learning: how to bring out the best in every   teacher / by Carl Glickman and Rebecca West Burns. Description: 2nd edition. | Alexandria, Virginia USA: ASCD, [2020] |   Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020002027 (print) | LCCN 2020002028 (ebook) | ISBN   9781416629238 (paperback) | ISBN 9781416629245 (pdf) Subjects: LCSH: School supervision—United States. | Teacher   effectiveness—United States. | Effective teaching—United States. Classification: LCC LB2806.4.G45 2020 (print) | LCC LB2806.4 (ebook) |   DDC 371.2/03—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002027 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020002028 _______________________________________________________________ 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Dedicated to all those educators in our schools who every day inspire their students to imagine new worlds of opportunities.

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Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi 1. Looking at Classroom Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2. Structures for Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 3. Observing, Assessing, and Evaluating Instruction: Technical and Procedural Skills for Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 4. Talking With Teachers: Interpersonal Skills for Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 5. Differentiating Your Approach to Meet Teachers’ Developmental Needs . . . .85 6. Immediate Response Skills: Making the Most of Teachable Moments . . . . .106 7. Social-Emotional Wellness and the Drive to Improve Practice in a Bewildering Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 Appendix A: Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Appendix B: Modified Consultancy Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

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PROLOGUE by Carl Glickman

This book is intended to be a one-stop shop for busy educators seeking the most current knowledge, skills, approaches, methods, and examples for successfully supporting teacher growth and classroom improvement. How did this book come to be? This delightful venture began with my making two phone calls—one to ASCD acquisitions editor Susan Hills, to inquire about a revision of a previous ASCD book, and the other to prominent educator and scholar Rebecca West Burns, known for her work in classroom supervision, mentoring, and coaching, with the hope that she would serve as my coauthor. The world of supervisory practice in this book is far greater than that of my previous work. The book that you are about to read—Leadership for Learning: How to Bring Out the Best in Every Teacher—is a complete revision of the 2002 ASCD Member book, Leadership for Learning: How to Help Teachers Succeed. Rebecca has years of experience as both a classroom teacher and a university professor designing award-winning school partnerships and applying her innovative research on interactional skills for supervisors, administrators, lead teachers, department- and grade-level heads, master and mentor teachers, and collegial coaches. When Rebecca agreed to serve as my coauthor, we both sensed that a more comprehensive, practical, and imaginative book might emerge, and it has. I am grateful for this growth-inducing collaboration and hope that you, the reader, will find the writing immediately applicable to your work as an educator and as a leader. Before you plunge into the cool, mild, and sometimes hot waters of the chapters that follow, please know that this book is relevant to all who work directly with preK to 12th grade teachers to improve classroom teaching and learning. Whether ix

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you have an official school leadership role or instead remain in the most significant role of an always-striving, always-curious classroom teacher, the scenarios and case studies will equip you with comprehensive knowledge, understandings, and skills for educating yourself, your peers, and your school community members in powerful and purposeful ways. Okay, time to jump in.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special gratitude to Susan Hills, for her enthusiasm and steady guidance, and to Joy Scott Ressler, for assisting us with great care through the final editing and production of this ASCD book. Carl wishes to note the major contribution from his late colleague, Edward Pajak, in developing the initial thoughts about supervision, and to thank Steve Gordon and Jovita Ross-Gordon, who have been of immense help to him in all ways throughout his career. And he sends a big hurrah to his spouse and best friend, Sara, who provides him with wisdom and love through their lifelong journey together. Rebecca would like to thank her husband, Jake, her children, Kensi and Warner, and her mother, Rebecca Koch, for their unconditional love and support during the writing process. She would like to acknowledge her scholarly community of colleagues around the globe and the teachers and principals locally who inspire her to be better each and every day. We are better together. Finally, the two of us wish to thank each other for joining together in this writing endeavor, which has been full of delight, enlightenment, and friendship.

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1 Looking at Classroom Teaching and Learning

After catching up on text messages at the start of the day, look around you and notice what is happening. Listen to the bustle of students shuffling down the hallways. Some are talking; others are sneaking glances at their cell phones, engrossed in multiple group chats that dominate their social lives. Slowly students enter classrooms and find their seats as the bell rings. The teachers follow, closing the doors behind them as they enter their classrooms. What’s happening behind those closed doors? How are teachers teaching? How are they engaging students as they compete with the social media and other distractions that consume students’ interests? What are students learning? How do you discover what is really going on between students and teachers in the processes we call teaching and learning? So many questions fill your mind: How can you get to know every teacher and every student when there are so many in your school? How can you help support teachers’ professional growth? How much time should you spend with each teacher? How do you balance your desire to spend time in classrooms working with teachers and students with the mounds of paperwork on your desk and the e-mail messages that clutter your inbox? How can you recognize teachers who are excelling? What assistance can you provide those who are struggling or simply trying to make it through the year? How can you uplift and energize your

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staff as testing season looms closer and the cloud of accountability hangs over all of your heads, knowing that low test scores have such dire consequences (loss of funding, removal of staff or administration, school takeover or closure)? What can you, one person with responsibilities for numerous and varied teachers and staff, do? As a school leader, you are so bombarded with student needs, parent and teacher concerns, and district and state requirements and paperwork that it seems futile to think of improving the teaching of every teacher. What, indeed, can you as only one person do? This scenario depicts common concerns of those with schoolwide responsibilities for a vast array of classrooms and teachers when they contemplate frequent visits to every classroom for the purpose of improving learning for all students. While it may seem like a pipe dream for many in supervisory and instructional leadership roles, in the most successful schools in the United States, this level of support is the day-to-day reality (Glickman, 1993; Glickman, Gordon, & Ross-Gordon, 2018). The most successful schools typically do not have greater amounts of time or resources than those for which that ideal is a pipe dream. The difference is in how time, focus, and structure are used; how professional learning, school improvement, personnel evaluation, and classroom support are used together; and how instructional leadership is defined and employed. Whenever one person identifies as the sole leader, provider, and catalyst for improved classroom learning, any school with more than 15 teaching faculty immediately confronts a lack of schoolwide instructional focus and assistance. In successful schools, the direct improvement of teaching and learning in every classroom comes via a constellation of individuals and groups who undertake myriad activities and initiatives that provide continual reflection and changing of classroom practices guided by the educational aspirations within the school. Much has happened in education since the publication of the first edition of this book. We probably don’t need to tell experienced educators that there have been and continue to be new standards and assessments of learning; new accountability schemes; new roles and responsibilities for teachers; new forms of observations, feedback, and evaluation; and new pressures to increase student achievement. Today, much more knowledge about powerful teaching and learning is available than was the case in the past. We have additional knowledge about teaching and learning for the continuous improvement of schools in varying geographic and community contexts. We have new knowledge about both how to develop partnerships with universities and community organizations to support school improvement and good instructional leaders who can bring out the best in their teachers.

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So, What Does Every Teacher Deserve from a Good Leader? In this era of accountability, you, as an educator and leader, feel constant pressure to be effective—produce better test scores, raise graduation rates, ensure that standards are being met, and so on. Does being effective make one a good leader? Not necessarily. While there are many ways to get results, most important are the consequences of the manner in which the results were achieved. Although effective leaders are not necessarily good, good leaders are generally effective. Good leaders achieve results while preserving their moral responsibility to their students and staff (Glickman, 1987; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007); evaluate the consequences of their decisions and advocate for policy and practices that are aligned with research; and recognize, respond to, and redress inequities in education to ensure all students and all teachers can learn and grow (Gorski, 2013). To be a good leader, you must know who you are as a leader and what you believe about the nature of teaching and learning. Who is the person in the opening paragraph of this chapter? Who are you as a professional and as a person? Are you a principal, beginning teacher, an experienced teacher, a teacher leader, grade or department head, mentor, team leader, an instructional coach, assistant principal, a central office supervisor, curriculum or staff development director, an associate superintendent, or a superintendent? You may have one role or a combination of roles. For now, let’s just say that your role has degrees of expectations, assumptions, status, influence, and authority that may be helpful or harmful in finding out what really is going on behind the classroom door. Another way of asking who you are is a question of personal identity: What is your gender identity? Do you identify as female, male, nonbinary, cisgender, transgender, or another gender? What is your sexual orientation? Do you identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual, straight, pansexual, or another sexual orientation? What is your spiritual/religious identity? Do you identify as Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian, agnostic, atheist, or another spiritual/religious persuasion? What is your racial identity? Do you identify as Hispanic, Latinx, Asian, Native American, white, black, biracial, multiracial, or another race? How do you identify your ethnicity? Do you identify as Mexican, Cuban, Korean, Japanese, Italian, Scottish, German, or another ethnicity? What do you consider to be your socioeconomic status? Do you consider yourself working class, upper class, poor, lower-middle class, or upper-middle class? Are you the first generation in your family to graduate high school or college? Did you grow up in an urban, a rural, or a suburban community? Are you from the South, North, Midwest, Southwest, Pacific, Southeast, or Northeast? Although people identify themselves in many ways, identities are not

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absolutes. They can intersect and overlap in many ways. Although an examination of identity may seem irrelevant for a book on leadership for improving classroom teaching, identities of self and how they influence the perspectives of others can have a powerful impact on your efforts to open classroom doors. It’s natural for all of us to be more comfortable and trusting when first meeting those who share our heritage, life experiences, and ways of communicating. We are all shaped by the intersection of their various identities and influenced by our experiences, values, attitudes, and assumptions. These personal theories guide our everyday actions (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007); they are the lens through which we view our leadership. It is this lens that influences our ability to successfully work with all teachers to improve practice and create equitable educational opportunities for all students (Jacobs & Casciola, 2015). To be a good leader, your personal theories must be explicit. Take a moment and ask yourself: What do I believe about teachers? Can all teachers learn or are only some capable of improving? What do I value in instructional improvement? To what extent is teacher professional learning a priority within both my school and the district? What do I assume about teaching? What does “good” teaching look like? Is teaching a complex, problem-solving, co-generative activity or a technical skill that can be standardized and efficiently mastered? These questions and those in Figure 1.1 help make transparent the underlying assumptions, values, attitudes, and beliefs that undergird your actions and, ultimately, affect your ability to work with teachers to improve educational experiences for children.

Figure 1.1 Personal Theory Questionnaire • Why did you enter education? Why did you want to be a leader? • When your students have left your school and graduated high school, technical school, or college, what do you want them to say about their time and experiences at your school? What do you want them to remember most? What do you want them to say about their teachers? • What are the most important needs of teachers with whom you work? What goals do you have for them? At the end of their time working with you, what do you want them to say about you, your time together, and your leadership? • What metaphor would you use to describe a teacher? What metaphor would you use to describe your role as a leader? • What are the three most important things you want teachers to learn from your time together? Why should they learn those things? • How would you respond if a new teacher in your building asked you, “What do you expect from me?” Adapted from Badiali, Grove, and Kamin, 2006, Nolan and Hoover, 2010, and Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon, 2018.

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Finally, who are you as a knower, practitioner, and communicator of excellent classroom learning? Are you certain about what good teaching is and looks like in action and how students should interact, respond, and shine? While certainty can become arrogance and dogmatism, uncertainty can become permissiveness and the acceptance of all teaching as having equal merit. Understanding your beliefs about good teaching and learning—inductive or deductive, individual or group, collaborative or competitive, criterion-referenced or performance-based—is key as they can lower or raise barriers between you and what teachers do in the privacy of their classrooms. So, as we begin to look at ways of structuring, observing, and improving individual teaching, think about who you are. “Know thyself,” said Socrates. Through the ages, knowing oneself has served as a prelude to and a foundation for relating well to others. What you read here will be useful to your immediate school world and should raise new possibilities about what every student deserves: an intellectually challenging, relevant education from teachers, the greatest learners of their own practice.

How Do Teaching and Learning Improve? Consider the following If, as a teacher, • I present the same lessons in the same manner that I have in the past; • I do not seek feedback from students; • I do not visit or observe other teachers as they teach; • I do not seek feedback, suggestions, and critique from colleagues on students’ work; • I do not visit other schools, attend particular workshops or seminars, or read professional literature on aspects of my teaching; • I do not invite visitors with experience and expertise to observe and provide feedback on my classroom practice; • I do not have a yearly individualized professional development plan focused on classroom changes to improve student learning; and • I do not have a systemic evaluation of my teaching tied to individual, grade/department, and schoolwide goals, then I have absolutely no way to become a better teacher.

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Teachers cannot improve their practice in isolation. To improve, they must have formats, structures, plans, and data for reflecting on, changing, and assessing their practice. Research has found that faculty in successful schools always question existing instructional practice and do not attribute lack of student achievement to external causes. Faculty in schools that have high intellectual standards and educate virtually all their students well work in collegial, critical ways with each other, clearly know what they want of all students, and strive to close the gap between the rhetoric of education aims and the hard, professional

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work of practice. Successful schools stand in great contrast to mediocre schools where faculty work apart from each other, do not share common purpose, and have self-centered beliefs that they are doing the best they can. The “source of the problem” in ordinary schools is always someone else: the students, the parents/ caretakers, the school board, and so on (see Glickman, 1993, pp. 16–18). In extraordinary schools, successful teachers and leaders view “problems” as opportunities to improve their practice and leadership. They work with colleagues to ask questions, and develop and analyze data and make evidence-based claims about interventions (repeating this cycle almost intuitively as they go about their daily responsibilities) (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2020).

Now consider the following (and notice the italicized words) If, as a leader, • I approach my work with teachers in the same manner that I have in the past; • I do not seek feedback from teachers and their students; • I do not visit or observe teachers as they teach; • I do not ask questions about my leadership and use data to understand its impact on teachers; • I do not seek feedback, suggestions, and critique from colleagues on the work that I am doing with teachers; • I do not visit other schools, attend particular workshops or seminars, seek additional degrees or credentials, or read professional literature and research on aspects of my leadership; • I do not invite visitors with experience and expertise to observe and provide feedback on my leadership; • I do not have a yearly individualized professional development plan focused on schoolwide changes to improve student and teacher learning; and • I do not have a systematic evaluation of my leadership tied to student, teacher, and schoolwide goals, then I have absolutely no way to become a better leader.

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Leaders cannot improve their practice in isolation. As a leader, to improve your practice, you must have formats, structures, plans, and data for reflecting on, changing, and assessing your practice. This new era of teaching and learning—where collaboration, data, and inquiry drive instruction—will require a new kind of leader to support successful and extraordinary schools. The typical and infrequent drop-in visit by an evaluator a few times a year without continuous discussion, questioning, and planning with others deadens the practice, makes it routine, and diminishes the teaching profession. By definition, a profession is the work of persons who possess a body of knowledge, skills, and practices that must be continually tested and upgraded with colleagues. A professional field, as opposed to a technical one, is one that prizes constant dissatisfaction with one’s own practice with current clients as the core to better service to clients in the future.

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Therefore, all professionals should constantly question their own practice and seek continuous improvement to better serve students. Likewise, educational leaders should continually seek to improve leadership to improve schools as learning organizations for the students, families, and teachers we serve. There now exists a substantial knowledge base on how schools succeed, how great teaching is accomplished, and how students learn well. The challenge is to more fully use what we have learned from this knowledge base. Without the cultivation of dissatisfaction as a catalyst for improvement, clarity about our purposes, and the need to use a knowledge base in practice, we have no education and no profession.

Organizing the Quest Student learning is the focus of all that we do in classrooms and schools—the standards we set, the expectations we have, and the common mastery we expect of students. Student learning is directly influenced by the content or curriculum of what is taught, the teaching methods or pedagogy used, and the diagnostic assessments or evaluation of student learning employed. To have a powerful schoolwide effect, this work has to be embedded in an overall vision—a SuperVision—that reflects the goals and priorities of the school; the professional development plans, resources, and time provided by the school and the district; and the evaluation of how and what students are learning and how to use the resulting data to guide further school priorities. We will examine the following topics with both explanations and practical applications: structures for professional learning (Chapter 2); observations with technical skills (Chapter 3); interpersonal skills and different approaches to working with teachers (Chapter 4); differentiating one’s approach through understandings of teacher development (Chapter 5); and immediate response skills (Chapter 6). We will conclude with a look at how social-emotional wellness helps leaders work with teachers to improve practice (Chapter 7). As well, the chapters and the appendixes provide examples and further connections to promising practices.

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2 Structures for Professional Learning

“There’s so much to do. Teachers are at so many different places in their careers and have so many differing needs. I’m just one person, and I just don’t have the time. There’s too much pressure . . . . This is an impossible task.” You—as a principal, an assistant principal, a teacher leader, department head, supervisor, an instructional coach, a curriculum director, or one in another formal leadership capacity—may feel completely overwhelmed by the task of supporting the professional learning of all of your teachers, particularly as teachers are not all the same. You are not alone. Supporting teacher professional learning should not fall on one person’s shoulders; it should be an endeavor shared among instructional leaders and teachers. So let’s embrace the challenge and gather the team. It’s time to think differently about improving teaching and learning by being open to new ideas and incorporating different professional learning structures to differentiate teacher professional learning to improve outcomes for students.

Differentiating Teacher Professional Learning Bringing out the best in teachers involves understanding teachers as adult learners and designing professional learning to meet their diverse needs. You might be thinking, “Wait a second! That’s impossible! I work with too many teachers! I can’t 8

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possibly meet the individual needs of all of my teachers.” However, meeting teachers’ needs is possible—through differentiation and distributed leadership. A great way to get started is to develop a schoolwide differentiated professional development plan. Take, for example, Mort Elementary School, a community partnership school in Tampa, Florida. This turnaround urban elementary school serves more than 850 students and 100 instructional staff. The school uses a three-tiered professional development structure. Tier 1 teachers are highly functioning teachers who become teacher leaders by earning advanced degrees and credentials taught on-site at the school by faculty from the local university. Tier 2 teachers take online courses to earn a certificate in teacher leadership from the local university. Tier 3 teachers are new and experienced teachers who are building the fundamentals of practice. Tier 1 teachers and Tier 2 teachers meet monthly to design and lead monthly trainings for Tier 3 teachers. Another way to differentiate teacher professional learning is to be knowledgeable about the kinds of job-embedded professional learning structures that can enhance instructional practice and facilitate continuous improvement and to consider how these different structures could be used as a part of a schoolwide professional development plan. In this chapter, we highlight five structures (one or more of which you may have experience with) for supporting teacher professional learning that are most useful in schools: • • • • •

Clinical supervision Peer coaching Co-teaching Critical Friends Groups and the use of protocols Practitioner research

Clinical Supervision The best known, oldest, and most widely used structure for working directly with classroom teachers is clinical supervision (see Cogan, 1973; Costa & Garmston, 1994; Glickman et al., 2018; Goldhammer, 1969; Pajak, 2000). It most often is used in some type of line relationship (e.g., supervisor to supervisee, principal to assistant principal, department head to teacher, mentor teacher to mentee, cooperating teacher to student teacher, master teacher to intern). The structure of clinical supervision can be reduced to five steps. Our explanation of clinical supervision is derived mainly from Glickman and colleagues (2018, pp. 268–274). Step 1: Preconference with teacher. Sit with the teacher and determine (1) the reason for and purpose of the observation; (2) the focus of the observation;

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(3) the method and form of observation to be used, including the type of data that will be collected; (4) the time of the observation; and (5) the time of the postconference. It’s important to make these determinations before the actual observation, so that you and the teacher are clear about what will transpire. The purpose of the observation is to provide criteria for the rest of the decisions that need to be made regarding focus, method, and time of observation. Step 2: Observation of classroom instruction. This is the time to follow through with what was agreed on in the preconference. When you observe, you might use one observation tool or a combination of observation tools to help gather data. While scripting a lesson is perhaps the most common practice for recording observations of classroom teaching, there are many different types of data collection tools that you can use to target specific aspects of practice (e.g., tools that examine teacher verbal behavior, student–teacher interaction, higher-order questioning, student engagement, use of space, and student feedback). There are also tools that focus on content (e.g., guided reading, read alouds, argumentation). Sullivan and Glanz (2013) have identified more than 50 quantitative and qualitative tools in addition to scripting that you can use (and adapt to your teachers’ needs) to observe instruction. During an observation, keep in mind the difference between descriptions of events and interpretations. Descriptions are the actual events that occurred. Interpretations are the meanings inferred from those events. For example, let’s say you recorded, “Ten students were looking around the room while the teacher gave directions,” you have written a description. It is an actual event that occurred, as it is possible to count 10 children and see them looking around the classroom. However, if you recorded, “Ten students were completely indifferent to the teacher’s directions,” you have written an interpretation. Indifference is an inference. You are assuming that the students were indifferent although they may not have been. Perhaps the students were listening and cared about the teacher’s directions although they weren’t looking directly at the teacher. When gathering data during an observation, record descriptions and leave the interpretations for later. Step 3: Postobservation conference preparation. When preparing for the postobservation conference (1) determine the interpersonal approach and (2) analyze and interpret the data. If the ultimate goal of clinical supervision is to empower teachers to become reflective practitioners who can make evidence-based claims about the impact of their performance on student learning, aligning your interpersonal approach with the teacher’s developmental level in the postobservation preparation and conference is imperative. Determining the interpersonal approach involves your ability

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to assess teachers’ developmental readiness for examining practice. Should you use a directive approach by analyzing and interpreting the data ahead of time and presenting observations and interpretations, asking for teacher input, setting a goal, and either telling teachers what actions to take (directive-control) or providing teachers with alternative actions to choose from (directive-informational)? Should you be collaborative by sharing the observations, allowing teachers to present their interpretations and negotiating mutual contracts for future improvement? Or maybe you should be nondirective by explaining the observations and encouraging teachers to analyze, interpret, and make plans? In Chapter 4, we elaborate more on how to select an interpersonal approach that aligns with teachers’ development readiness. For now, the most important takeaway is that the first task in Step 3 is to select an interpersonal approach. The second task is to analyze and interpret the data, as recorded descriptions. If you have selected one of the directive approaches, you will leave the classroom with the recorded descriptions and study the information. Regardless of the instrument, questionnaire, or open-ended form used, you will make sense of a large mass of information before sharing it with the teacher. Figure 2.1 is a worksheet that can be used to organize this task. In contrast, if you have selected a collaborative or a nondirective approach, you should make a copy of the recorded observations and give one copy to the teacher to examine. Both of you should then independently review the data to make interpretations by looking for patterns; identifying trends; and outlining questions, ideas, and possible solutions to discuss in the postconference. Afterward, both of you should meet during the scheduled postobservation conference to share your individual interpretations and come to consensus about next steps. Step 4: Postconference with teacher. Now that you have the recorded data, selected an interpersonal approach aligned to the teacher’s developmental readiness, and completed the postobservation conference preparation as necessary, you are ready to meet with the teacher in a postconference. You should hold a postobservation conference to discuss the analysis of the observation, determine next steps, and develop a plan for instructional improvement. The first order of business is to let the teacher in on the recorded notes and impressions from the observation—to inform the teacher what was seen. Then you can follow the chosen approach—directive-control, directive-informational, collaborative, or nondirective. The responsibility for developing a future plan may reside with you as the leader, be shared equally, or reside with the teacher. The conference concludes with a plan for further improvement. Figure 2.2 presents a form that can be used to develop an instructional improvement plan.

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Figure 2.1 Worksheet for Analysis and Interpretations of Observation Data Directions for Analysis: Look at the data. What patterns do you see? Write the major findings of your observations and include the evidence you used to determine those findings. (Write down only what has been taken directly from the recorded descriptions.) Findings

Supporting Evidence

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Directions for Interpretations: Consider these questions: What do the findings tell you? What do they mean for your practice? How can you use in the future what you have learned from this observation? (Write down what you believe is desirable or undesirable about the major findings.) 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Step 5: Evaluation of steps one through four. Evaluate the first four steps to determine whether the format and procedures from preconference through postconference were satisfactory and whether revisions might be needed before repeating the sequence. The evaluation might be held at the end of the postconference or in a separate conference a few days later. It need not be a formal session. Instead, it can be a brief discussion, consisting of questions such as: What was valuable in what we have been doing? What was of little value? What changes could be suggested? What else do you need from me? The evaluation has both symbolic and

Figure 2.2 Plan for Instructional Improvement Postconference date: Time: Observed teacher: Clinical supervisor: What was the focus of the observation, and what was learned from the observation?

What objective(s) will be worked on next? The objective(s) can remain the same if the previous objective was/objectives were not met.

What activities are to be undertaken to achieve the objective(s)?

What resources are needed?

What is the date and time of the next preconference?

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functional value. It indicates that you are involved in an improvement effort in the same way as the teacher. Furthermore, the feedback from the teacher gives you a chance to decide on what practices to continue, revise, or change when working with the teacher in the future. After completing the five steps, the teacher has a tangible plan of action. You should be prepared to review the plan in the next preconference and reestablish focus and method of observation as the five-step cycle repeats itself. Even though we have simplified clinical supervision to a five-step process, enacting clinical supervision effectively is more about the mindset that you, as the leader, bring to the experience. The supervisory lens that we mentioned in Chapter 1 plays a key role in how you see and facilitate the process of clinical supervision.

Peer Coaching Peer coaching is a structure whereby fellow teachers, as each other’s colleagues, conduct cycles of clinical supervision with each other with the overall coordination of a facilitator or leader (see Glickman et al., 2018, pp. 274–278). If you want to implement peer coaching, you should first meet with teachers to discuss how a proposed peer coaching program would fit into the instructional goals of the school or district and then work with teachers to decide on the specific purposes of the peer coaching. For example, if the purpose is simply to acquaint teachers with each other’s teaching strategies, less preparation is needed than if the purpose is to provide teachers with feedback on their teaching of a particular subject, set of methods, or progress toward learning standards—then help them develop congruent action plans. Before implementing peer coaching, teachers need some preparation that focuses on (1) understanding the purpose and procedures of peer coaching; (2) conducting a preconference to determine the focus of observations; (3) conducting and analyzing an observation to distinguish between observing and interpreting classroom events; and (4) conducting two postconferences with different approaches for developing action plans, such as using a nondirective and a collaborative approach. To facilitate the learning of their peers, teachers need to develop their knowledge and skills for working with adults, which differ from the knowledge and skills required for working with children (Galbraith, 2004; Knowles, 1984). To prepare for peer coaching, you can work with teachers to develop a standard form for writing instructional improvement plans in the postconference (see Figure 2.2 for a sample form). The form should be simple and easy to fill out. Each peer member should understand that a completed plan is the object of the first four steps of clinical supervision, as described previously, and the basis for beginning the next round of coaching.

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When implementing peer coaching, you will need to consider some logistical challenges, such as scheduling and grouping. As regards scheduling, teachers will participate unenthusiastically if participation means increasing the amount of personal time and energy expended beyond an already full day. Teachers are more likely to participate if time for peer coaching can be scheduled during the school day (e.g., having teachers place themselves together in teams that share the same planning or lunch periods allows for pre- and postconferences during the school day). Hiring a few substitutes for two days twice a year relieves teachers of class duties so that they can observe their peers (noting that one substitute can relieve six classroom teachers for one period each during a six-period schedule). You could occasionally substitute in classrooms so that your teachers can coach each other for one class period. This strategy can be helpful because it provides relief and shows support for peer coaching. For example, some schools in Florida have designated teacher leader roles. These individuals serve as full-time instructional coaches who coach other teachers and cover teachers’ classes so that teachers can peer coach each other. Another way of freeing time for peer observations is for teachers to release each other by periodically scheduling a video, lecture, or some other large-group instruction so that one teacher can teach two classes while the other teacher engages in peer coaching with another teacher. Whatever the actual schedule used to release teachers for peer coaching, you will need to preplan with teachers to ensure that they can participate in peer coaching without great personal sacrifice. In addition to scheduling, you will also need to consider grouping. Generally, teachers should be grouped so that they are comfortable together but not necessarily at identical levels of experience or competence. It may be useful to group experienced teachers with new ones, exceptional teachers with adequate ones, or adequate teachers with struggling ones. Team members should share some degree of understanding and comfort, at least at the beginning. Hence, it is undesirable to group together teachers who think very much alike or who think very differently. The goal is to group together teachers who are different and can respect and communicate easily with one another. In numerous schools, teachers present to the facilitator or leader a confidential list of teachers with whom they would like to work. The facilitator or leader then matches up preferences and creates the teams, a practical approach. An ideal approach would match teachers based on cognitive growth. For example, a teacher with great expertise in classroom management who needs help with assessments would be matched with a teacher with recent experience with student assessments who could use some help with classroom management. Each teacher would have greater cognitive skills in an area that would match the needs of the other. The

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choice in creating teams is between the ideal—matching teachers based on cognitive concerns—and the practical—matching teachers based on their need for security with a new program. (The practical match might be best when starting the program. When peer coaching becomes a familiar, ongoing activity, you could rearrange teams with the goal of greater cognitive matching.) A key component of any peer coaching program is the close monitoring of peer progress. As the leader, you should be available to peer teams as a resource person. For example, what happens when the preconference concludes with an agreement to observe a teacher’s verbal interaction in the classroom and the peer coach is at a loss about where to find such an observation instrument? Your peer coaching preparation program should answer such questions, but initial trainings and orientation meetings cannot cover all possible needs. You have to monitor the needs of peer teams, answer questions, provide resources, and step in to help, as needed. In our work with schools, we have found that an elaborate monitoring system is not always necessary. (In some cases, facilitators or leaders check with peer coaches every few weeks and, in others, at periodic faculty meetings, peer coaches might be asked to write a note on their team’s progress.) Facilitators or leaders should be sure that books, videos, instruments on clinical supervision, and methods and instruments for data collection and observation are cataloged and available to teachers either in the professional library or digitally. (In one school in Florida, the teacher leader who supports peer coaching checks in with each of the peer coaching teams, keeps track of their progress, addresses issues and concerns, and shares the teams’ progress with the school’s administrative team.)

Co-Teaching Co-teaching is a structure for professional learning in which two or more educators are working together to co-plan, co-teach, and co-assess a lesson. Co-teaching can be used among peers and effectively with teacher candidates, novice teachers, or struggling teachers. For example, instructional coaches could co-teach with teachers to support student learning or to model effective instruction; teachers could co-teach with specialist teachers to support English language learners or students who are struggling to find success; and mentor teachers (formerly called cooperating teachers) could co-teach with teacher candidates to give teacher candidates opportunities to implement a lesson in a small-group instructional format before moving to a whole-group instruction lesson, while simultaneously maximizing student learning. St. Cloud University in Minnesota has done some of the most influential work on the understanding of co-teaching. Using financial support from a Teacher Quality Enhancement Grant, they have developed seven strategies to illustrate co-teaching

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in action: (1) One Teach, One Observe; (2) One Teach, One Assist; (3) Team Teaching; (4) Station Teaching; (5) Parallel Teaching; (6) Supplemental Teaching; and (7) Alternative or Differentiated Teaching (St. Cloud University, 2011). The first three strategies—One Teach, One Observe; One Teach, One Assist; and Team Teaching—are implemented as a part of whole-group instruction. Figure 2.3 illustrates each whole-group co-teaching strategy. Although classroom environments take many shapes and teachers are not always placed in the front of the classroom, for illustrative purposes, the classrooms have been set up in table groups and the lead teacher is positioned in the front of the classroom. The figure is designed to provide a visual to help you compare the teaching strategies. In One Teach, One Observe, one teacher teaches the whole group, while the other teacher observes a specific aspect of practice or student behavior. Paramount in this strategy is having a preplanned focus for the observation and a mechanism for capturing data about what is observed to discuss after the lesson is finished. The strategy could be used as a way to reconceptualize the observation component in clinical supervision, referred to as Step 2 (observation of classroom instruction)

Figure 2.3 Whole-Group Co-Teaching Strategies One Teach, One Observe

One Teach, One Assist

T1

T1 T2

T2 Team Teaching

T1

T2

Key: X represents students. T1 represents Teacher One. T2 represents Teacher Two. Arrows represent movement.

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earlier in this chapter. The second strategy, One Teach, One Assist, is similar to One Teach, One Observe as one teacher serves as the primary instructor for the whole group while the other teacher, rather than observe, assists the primary instructor by monitoring student behavior, assisting students with misconceptions, answering student questions, or correcting assignments. The third strategy, Team Teaching, differs from the first two strategies in that it is a synchronous form of whole-group instruction in which both teachers lead the instruction simultaneously, interjecting and building on each other’s words and actions as they seamlessly move about the classroom, teaching and assisting students together. Effective team teaching requires sophistication and collaboration; teachers are so in tune with each other that they appear to be reading each other’s thoughts and sending invisible signals through the words and the body language they use. Whereas the first three co-teaching strategies are implemented in wholegroup instruction, the remaining four co-teaching strategies are used to facilitate small-group instruction (see Figure 2.4). The fourth strategy, Station Teaching, involves designing multiple instructional activities under the same instructional goal although usually with different objectives. Each teacher leads one of the stations and students rotate among the stations. In addition to the teacher-led

Figure 2.4 Small-Group Co-Teaching Strategies Station Teaching

T1

Parallel Teaching

T1

T2

T2

(independent station)

Supplemental Teaching

T1

T2 (enrichment or remedial activity with different objectives)

Alternative or Differentiated Teaching

T1

T2 (same objective, but means to achieving the objective are different)

Key: X represents students. T1 represents Teacher One. T2 represents Teacher Two.

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stations, there are usually one or more independent stations where students work by themselves without the teachers’ guidance on an activity. The fifth strategy, Parallel Teaching, involves the whole class being divided in half, with each teacher leading half of the class in identical lessons. In Parallel Teaching, the student-toteacher ratio is divided in half, allowing each teacher to work with fewer students on the same lesson. In the sixth strategy, Supplemental Teaching, the class is divided in two groups, which may or may not be the same size, and one teacher works with one of the groups on grade level while the other teacher remediates, enriches, or extends the content for the second group of students. The last strategy, Alternative or Differentiated Teaching, though very similar to Supplemental Teaching, differs in that the class is divided based on an instructional need other than intervention or enrichment. In this strategy, while the teachers work with separate groups teaching the same content, the means by which that content is learned and mastered is different for each group. Co-teaching has two benefits. The first is that co-teaching lowers the student-toteacher ratio to maximize instruction to support student learning. Since the class is divided into smaller groups, each teacher is working with fewer students and, depending on the co-teaching strategy implemented, targeted instruction is used to meet students’ instructional needs. The second is that co-teaching can be a powerful professional learning opportunity for teachers. It can be a great way to scaffold instructional opportunities for teacher candidates who are learning to teach, for novice teachers who are developing their fundamentals of practice, or for any teachers who want to refine their practice. In this way, teachers or leaders could model teaching strategies for others, teachers could build confidence, or teachers could test or refine an instructional strategy with a few students before worrying about managing a large number of students. No matter how co-teaching is designed, it requires collaboration, time, and a willingness of all parties involved to negotiate, plan, implement, and reflect on the teaching experience to improve practice and meet students’ needs. (For more resources on co-teaching, visit St. Cloud’s Academy for Co-Teaching and Collaboration at https://www.stcloudstate.edu/soe /coteaching/.)

Critical Friends Groups and the Use of Protocols Critical Friends Groups were developed by the Annenberg Institute for School Reform at Brown University in conjunction with school-based renewal efforts in preK–12 schools throughout the United States. The structure was first derived from the Coalition of Essential Schools and then added to by other school

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networks, such as Accelerated Schools, the Georgia League of Professional Schools, the Southern Maine Partnership, and the Annenberg Challenge urban and rural school initiatives. Critical Friends Groups offer ways to build a purposeful group of teachers (generally five to eight) who, with a facilitator (internal or external), look at samples of student work or instructional problems or concerns together over the course of a school year or longer. For example, each teacher might bring samples of student work (as indicators of high-, average-, or low-quality work) to a prearranged meeting, explain the concern with the work, and listen carefully as colleagues analyze and suggest possible improvements. Critical Friends Groups typically include a peer coaching component for teachers to become familiar with each other’s classrooms and to follow up on particular classroom changes individual teachers have committed to accomplish. A signature pedagogy of Critical Friends Groups is the use of protocols to provide a structure for facilitating meaningful and productive conversations about practice. Joseph McDonald and colleagues (2013) developed several protocols. For example, their “tuning protocol,” later revised by David Allen (2017), is often used to keep the group meetings focused and within a specific time limit (see Figure 2.5). A tuning protocol is a pre-established, structured agenda with time limits and specific roles for participants to follow to organize discussions involving information, feedback, and learning about ways to improve instruction. “Tuning” (as in tuning a piano or a tuning fork) may be thought of as a way to work through a sequence of conversations thoroughly and efficiently to find ways to help put teachers’ instruction into harmony and congruence with their purposes and concerns. The idea behind the protocol is that when everyone understands the structured guide to be used, the facilitator and the members will keep the conversation from straying from the instructional goal, and the conversation will provide both “warm” feedback (suggestions about what the teacher is doing well and should continue) and “cool” feedback (ideas and critiques about teacher inconsistencies and areas for change). By determining who speaks when (see, for example, Step 2 in Figure 2.5), the protocol ensures that only the teacher who is seeking feedback on their instruction and student work is allowed to speak, providing all the necessary background information and specifying questions that they want the group to answer. During the time for feedback (Step 6 in Figure 2.5), group members speak and the teacher listens (to prevent entanglements, tangents, defensiveness, and confusion). Everyone in the group knows that if the group stays within the directions and timelines, the meeting will be completed in 90 minutes, and results will be accomplished. While schools that use such protocols—or adjust the model to create their own—might find initial meetings somewhat awkward (often, people are accustomed to jumping into conversations whenever they wish or straying into

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Figure 2.5 Tuning Protocol Description: The tuning protocol was originally developed as a means for the five high schools in the Coalition of Essential School’s Exhibitions Project to receive feedback and fine-tune their developing student assessment systems, including exhibitions, portfolios, and design projects. Recognizing the complexities involved in developing new forms of assessment, the project staff developed a facilitated process to support educators in sharing their students’ work (sometimes students shared their own work) and, with colleagues, to reflect on the lessons embedded in the work. This collaborative reflection helps educators design and refine their assessment systems and supports higher-quality student performance. Since its trial run in 1992, the tuning protocol has been widely used and adapted for looking at both student and adult work in and among schools across the country. Note: If adult work (such as an adult-developed document like a lesson plan, rubric, newsletter, etc.) is the focus and there are no student work samples, you may want to consider the tuning protocol for examining adult work (visit https://www.schoolreforminitiative.org/download/ tuning-protocol-examining-adult-work/). Process:

Steps Step 1: Introduction Facilitator briefly introduces protocol goals, guidelines, and schedule. Step 2: Presentation The presenter has the opportunity to share both the context for their work and any supporting documents as warranted, while participants are silent. Examples include the following: • Information about the students or the class—what the students tend to be like, where they are in school, where they are in the year. • Assignment or prompt that generated the student work. • Student learning goals or standards that inform the work. • Samples of student work (e.g., photocopies of work, video clips) with student names removed. • Evaluation format—scoring rubric or assessment criteria. • Focusing question for feedback is shared and posted for all to see (e.g., To what extent does the student work reflect the learning standards? or How might the rubric be in closer alignment to the skills and knowledge present in the student work?). Step 3: Clarifying Questions Participants have an opportunity to ask clarifying questions (matter-of-fact questions that usually elicit a Yes or No or short-answer response) to get information that may have been omitted during the presentation and that would help them better understand the work.

Suggested Time 5 min.

10–15 min.

3–5 min.

The Facilitator is responsible for ensuring that questions are truly clarifying and not warm or cool feedback or suggestions (see Step 6). (continued)

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Figure 2.5 (continued) Steps Step 4: Examining the Work Participants look closely at the work, making notes on where it seems to be “in tune” or aligned with the stated goals and, guided by the presenter’s focusing question and goals, where there might be a potential disconnect.

Suggested Time 10–15 min.

Note: It’s possible that participants could have an additional clarifying question or two during this time. If so, the facilitator might offer an additional moment for these to be asked by participants and answered by the presenter. Step 5: Pause to Silently Reflect on Examination of the Work Participants individually review their notes and decide what they would like to contribute to the feedback session. The presenter is silent. Participants do this work silently.

2–3 min.

Step 6: Warm and Cool Feedback Participants share feedback with each other while the presenter is silent and takes notes. The feedback generally begins with a few minutes of warm feedback, moves on to a few minutes of cool feedback (sometimes phrased in the form of reflective questions), and then moves back and forth between warm and cool feedback.

10–15 min.

Warm feedback may include comments about how the work presented seems to align with the desired goals. Cool feedback may include possible disconnects, gaps, or problems. Often participants offer ideas or suggestions for strengthening the work presented, so long as the suggestions are guided by the presenter’s goals and question. It might be helpful for the facilitator to offer prompts for the feedback, such as the following: • Warm feedback —“It seems important . . . .” —“Considering the goal, I appreciate . . . .” —“I want to make sure to keep . . . .” • Cool feedback —“I wonder if . . . .” —“One way to more closely align the goal/purpose is . . . .” The facilitator may need to remind participants of the presenter’s focusing question. The presenter is silent, listening in on the conversation and taking notes. Step 7: Reflection The presenter rejoins the group and shares their new thinking about what they learned from the participants’ feedback. Rather than being a time for the presenter to offer a defense, it is a time for the presenter to reflect aloud on anything that seemed particularly interesting.

3–5 min.

The facilitator may need to remind participants that once the work has been returned to the presenter, no more feedback will be offered. Step 8: Debrief The facilitator leads a discussion about this tuning experience.

3–5 min.

Note: Protocols are most powerful and effective when used within an ongoing professional learning community and facilitated by a skilled facilitator. To learn more about professional learning communities and seminars for facilitation, please visit the School Reform Initiative website at www.schoolreforminitiative.org. Developed by Joseph McDonald, Coalition of Essential Schools, and revised by David Allen.

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noninstructional areas), after a few instances of using such a format, they find that it becomes comfortable and extremely helpful. The key is to use a prescribed set of group tuning protocol steps monitored by a group facilitator or gatekeeper to ensure that there is time for the teacher to explain the instructional issue, time for colleagues to ask questions and gather more information about the issue, and time for the teacher to listen carefully rather than to defend or react to suggestions from colleagues before a plan of action is made. A favorite protocol of ours is the Consultancy Protocol (see Appendix B). We regularly modify that protocol and use it with teams of teachers to address problems of practice. We have even seen teachers, once they experience the protocols, modify them and use them with their students to facilitate productive conversations and argumentation. Once you become accustomed to using protocols, you may even be inspired to create one. If you’re not ready to create a protocol, don’t worry. You can find additional free protocols and resources on the School Reform Initiative’s website by visiting http://www.schoolreforminitiative.org. The School Reform Initiative is a nonprofit organization dedicated to supporting educators around the globe in promoting educational excellence and equity. If you are curious about Critical Friends Groups in action, a quick search of YouTube offers many examples, tutorials, and resources to help you get started.

Practitioner Research Practitioner research is gaining momentum as one of the most powerful forms of professional learning. Traditionally the word research has been associated with universities and something that was conducted on schools, teachers, and children. And, unfortunately, the concept of conducting research can be quite intimidating. Don’t let the “r” word scare you! Unlike traditional research, practitioner research is meant to empower teachers and educational leaders to ask meaningful questions about their practice or school to solve real dilemmas they face as professionals. Educators can engage in practitioner research by themselves or with a group of colleagues who have a similar passion or dilemma they want to address. Three common types of practitioner research—teacher inquiry, action research, appreciative inquiry—though similar in that they involve a similar problem-solving process and are aimed at transformation, differ in subtle ways. Teacher inquiry. The term teacher inquiry, coined by Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1993), refers to teachers’ systematic study of their own practice (Dana & Yendol-Hoppey, 2020). Teacher inquiry involves teachers asking questions that usually stem from a dilemma, challenge, issue, or felt difficulty they are experiencing when working with preK–12 students. These questions can be about an

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individual child, the teachers’ beliefs, a desire to improve or enrich the curriculum, a desire to deepen content knowledge, or a need to advocate for equity or social justice. Several resources are available to support educators in conducting teacher inquiry, such as Nancy Dana and Diane Yendol-Hoppey’s book, The Reflective Educator’s Guide to Classroom Research: Learning to Teach and Teaching to Learn Through Practitioner Inquiry (2020). In addition, Penn State University has compiled more than two decades’ worth of teacher inquiries that teachers, teacher candidates, and teacher educators have conducted in their award-winning professional development school. If you visit https://ed.psu.edu/pds/teacher-inquiry, you can find some great exemplars of teachers systematically studying their own practice. Action research. Action research is a form of practitioner research that addresses a schoolwide need or educational problem (Glanz, 2014). In many ways, teacher inquiry and action research are similar. However, they differ in that teacher inquiry focuses more on educators studying themselves and their practice, whereas through action research teachers focus on something other than themselves by studying issues and problems in their school or district. Teacher inquiry focuses on the improvement of self and one’s practice, whereas action research focuses on taking action by solving dilemmas that do not necessarily involve the self. Action research also tends to have a critical perspective. Coleman (2019) explained, “[Action research] asks fundamental questions about what research is for, and what use can be made of the opportunity to conduct research that is really worthwhile for the researcher—to explore topics that are not just academically interesting, but of personal, practical, or political concern” (p. 151). Appreciative inquiry. Appreciative inquiry has similarities to both teacher inquiry and action research. Like teacher inquiry, it involves educators and educational leaders asking questions to improve practice. However, instead of using a problem or challenge as the catalyst for change (as in teacher inquiry), appreciative inquiry starts with assets to drive the research process. Educators identify their strengths and build on those strengths to improve individual practice, student achievement, or schoolwide initiatives. Appreciative inquiry is also similar to action research in that it seeks to create schoolwide or systemic transformational change. For example, with teacher inquiry, a teacher might be struggling with implementing the five Es as a research-based model of science instruction in a middle school classroom. Previous observations and feedback might have noted that the teacher was struggling with planning, with the five Es of instruction in mind. The teacher might pursue an inquiry like, “How can I implement the five Es in my fifth period science class?” This question resulted from a struggle the teacher was having. Appreciative inquiry, in contrast, would stem from a strength. For example,

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another teacher might have taken the CliftonStrengths assessment and determined that harmony is one of their strengths. Harmony is the ability to resolve conflict in others to keep the peace and develop consensus. The teacher builds on their harmony strength by asking a question such as, “How can I utilize my conflict resolution skills to improve the interpersonal dynamics of my professional learning community to foster more productive, data-based conversations?” The distinction between the teacher inquiry question and the appreciative inquiry question is subtle—one stems from a felt difficulty, the other from an area of strength. Rather than teasing out the nuances of each, the ability to ask a question about a practice that you want to enhance is of most importance.

Conducting Practitioner Research Although the nuances of teacher inquiry, action research, and appreciative inquiry differ slightly, all three have an overall similar structure that we have compiled into a five-phase cycle: • • • • •

Phase 1: Identifying a question Phase 2: Developing a research plan Phase 3: Collecting and analyzing data Phase 4: Making evidence-based claims Phase 5: Evaluation, reflection, and sharing results

Phase 1: Identifying a Question In this phase, practitioner researchers identify a question they want to explore. This question can come from a problem, a felt difficulty, a call to action, or a desire to build on a strength. The question can also come from school or student data connected to instructional priorities or a school improvement plan. Usually, practitioner research questions are more open-ended, such as, “How can I . . . ?” or “In what ways . . . ?” and they are typically not designed to measure the effect of something or address a yes-or-no question. Of most importance is that the question is not something to which the inquirer already knows the answer or that has been answered by research. Questions such as, “Does guided reading support early literacy for primary students?”, “Does the Socratic method facilitate critical thinking for high school students?”, and “Are restorative practices effective for students with exceptionalities?” are answered with either a yes or a no, and they are all strategies for which a wealth of literature has already been written about their outcomes for students. If a practitioner researcher is curious about implementing

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guided reading, the Socratic method, or restorative practices, a better way to ask these questions could be, “What strategies can I use to effectively implement guided reading in my literacy instruction to improve fluency for my 1st grade students?” or “In what ways can I integrate the Socratic method into my remedial English class to improve my students’ critical thinking?” or “How can I motivate teachers to integrate restorative practices into their regular instruction so that it becomes a common practice in our school?” In the last three questions, the use of “What strategies . . . ,” “In what ways . . . ,” or “How can I . . . ” permits a more open exploration into the incorporation of a research-based strategy into practice rather than answering a question about whether something did or did not happen or whether something was or was not effective. Ultimately, the research question should be genuine; come from a place of curiosity; and be connected to student, teacher, or schoolwide data. In our experience, novice practitioner researchers struggle to find good research questions; to assist them, we’ve captured the criteria explained in this section in a checklist that they can use (see Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6 Research Questions Litmus Test Directions: To help teachers identify a good research question, ask them to fill out this form completely. If a teacher answers No to any of the first five questions, a new research question should be found. If a teacher answers Yes to the sixth question, a new research question should be found. Criteria

Yes

No

1. Do I love it? 2. Is it applicable to my life and teaching career? 3. Does it fit into my day-to-day teaching routine? 4. Do I have access to the resources I need? 5. Can I gather information about my question? 6. Do I already know the answer to it?

Phase 2: Developing a Research Plan In this phase, practitioner researchers develop a plan. This plan usually includes sections such as “Working Question,” “Rationale,” “Possible Interventions or Actions,” “Potential Data Sources,” “Detailed Timeline,” and “Ideas for Sharing.” The working question (working as the question can, and usually does, evolve over time) is the question identified in Phase 1. The rationale should include why practitioner researchers want to explore the question. Why is this question of need or

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meaningful to them? The possible interventions or actions involve brainstorming a list of ideas that the researchers want to try in order to address the question. These interventions usually come from reading articles, blogs, or books; participating in trainings about current district initiatives; or watching others or hearing about a strategy that they tried in their classroom or school. When developing the research plan (see Figure 2.7 for a template), it is important to take some time to do some background reading. Look into what has already

Figure 2.7 Research Plan Template Directions: Fill out this form to help you develop a plan for your practitioner research. What is my working research question?

Why is this question worth pursuing? (rationale)

What possible interventions or actions can I take to solve my research question?

What types of data could I collect?

How do those data help to answer my research question?

Detailed Week-by-Week Timeline Weeks

I will accomplish…

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 How will I share my findings?

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been written about the topic or idea. Think about how others have tried or implemented something, and use that to generate ideas and possibilities of what you could do in a classroom or school. The potential data sources are a list of present and possible data sources that already exist or need to be designed to address the working question. The detailed timeline is a week-by-week or month-by-month list of tasks that can be checked off to help stay on track and complete the research in a timely manner. Finally, the ideas for dissemination are a brainstormed list of people or events with whom or where the results of the practitioner research can be shared.

Phase 3: Collecting and Analyzing Data In this phase, practitioner researchers gather and analyze data using the possible data sources identified in the research plan as a guide. Collection. Data collection can include quantitative data, such as student scores on assessments or perception surveys. Data collection can also include qualitative data, such as student, parent, or teacher interviews; student work; lesson plans; curriculum materials; or videos of practice or student interactions. Or data collection can (and probably should) be a combination of both kinds of data. It is most important to make sure that the kinds of data you want to collect are aligned with your research question. For example, let’s consider the question about guided reading: “What strategies can I use to effectively implement guided reading in my literacy instruction to improve fluency for my first grade students?” A teacher exploring this question might use running records as data to determine fluency. The teacher might also keep a class list handy during each of the guided reading stations and record observations on that class list of students. In addition, the teacher might interview or even observe other teachers and the district reading coach to gather additional strategies and to see alternative strategies for guided reading. In this example, the teacher had three sources of data: quantitative data as measured through the running records, and observations and interviews as qualitative data sources. Literature can also be a form of data, so reading about strategies for guided reading could serve as a fourth data source. Analysis. Often, practitioner researchers focus so much on collecting data that they forget to build in time to analyze the data, which should occur when it’s collected. Waiting until the end to analyze data can result in piles of data that can paralyze a practitioner researcher. It is easy to become overwhelmed, so help teachers stay focused, keep data collection manageable, and make sure that data collection and analysis occur in tandem! When analyzing data, practitioner researchers often have the most experience with analyzing surveys, test scores, and other data that involve numbers. These kinds

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of data are analyzed through tallying or by calculating percentages, mean, median, mode, and the like. Practitioner researchers usually have much less experience analyzing qualitative data such as interviews, documents, videos, open-ended survey questions, and so on. To begin the analysis process, it is helpful to have data in written form. For audio recordings of interviews, meetings, or conversations, transcribing recordings is a common practice. Unfortunately, verbatim transcription is time intensive and costly if you want to pay someone else to transcribe. Technology programs such as Dragon voice recognition software or apps like Temi can transcribe recordings at a minimal cost. An alternative to verbatim transcription is to selectively or partially transcribe the data by listening to the audio recording and pausing every so often to jot down a few sentences that capture what you just heard. Either way, the most important part to remember is to get your data into written form. Coding. Once the data are recorded on paper, practitioner researchers are ready to move to the next phase of analysis. Although there are several strategies for analyzing qualitative data, coding can be a particularly helpful strategy. Coding is the process of assigning a label to a specific piece of data that captures the meaning of that datum (Saldaña, 2015). To begin coding, read the data. When there is a natural pause, usually at the end of a sentence, a few sentences, or perhaps a short paragraph, write a word or short phrase that summarizes that section in the margin. Repeat this step until all data have been read and coded. For analyzing video, analysis software programs such as V-Note, GoReact, or Edthena are available to assist with transcription and coding. Categorizing. Once the data are coded, the next step is to examine the codes to group them into similar ideas or concepts through categorizing. Some practitioner researchers have found it helpful to rewrite all of their codes onto index cards or sticky notes, one code per card or note, so that they can easily group and regroup codes. Others have actually used scissors and cut the data with the code so that the key ideas and quotations stay connected to the code during the categorizing process. If practitioner researchers choose to cut the data, they should make a copy of the data first so that if they feel like they have made a mistake, they can go back to the original data and try again. Make sure that practitioner researchers choose a strategy that works best for them and that allows them the most freedom to play with the data. Organizing. Once the data are categorized, its best to keep the data organized. Some practitioner researchers will write a category on a piece of paper or on an index card, place all of the other codes and their corresponding data underneath, and take a picture to capture their thinking. Others have used data notebooks in which they either write the category at the top of a page and list or paste the coded data underneath. There are many ways to organize the data. Help practitioner researchers choose a strategy that works for them and that easily stores and organizes the

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analyzed data. (In our experience conducting collaborative practitioner research, we have found using the data notebook to be one of the most effective ways to organize data because it helps to keep all of the data together and provides easy access and continuity to the data since analysis usually happens in spurts given the limited time teachers have [before or after school or during planning periods].) ***** Repeat the coding, categorizing, and organizing processes for all of the qualitative data sources. Once the data go through these processes, practitioner researchers are ready to move to next phase.

Phase 4: Making Evidence-Based Claims In this phase, practitioner researchers look across all of the organized data to identify patterns or trends. The process for making claims can be similar to categorizing. However, instead of developing categories, practitioner researchers are grouping data from across all of the data sources. This means they are bringing together and coupling different kinds of data—such as surveys, interviews, and artifacts—to look for themes or larger trends across the data. Having organized data is really beneficial for making evidence-based claims, as it saves time and allows teachers to think more clearly across multiple data sources. Some practitioner researchers have found it helpful to block out a chunk of time (usually one to three hours) for this process because making evidence-based claims requires mental thought. Knowing the time involved, you, as a leader, can help teachers by creating blocks of time for them to engage in data analysis. It can be frustrating at first to hear, “What does all of this mean?” However, once they start moving data around through grouping and regrouping, the moment they see the trend or pattern, the feeling can be exhilarating. We have even met with teachers at a location off school grounds (e.g., at a coffee shop or restaurant after school or on the weekends) to give them a longer period of time to process the data and to eliminate the distractions and interruptions that are common parts of teachers’ days. The Rule of More and the Rule of Multiple. The strength of the claim depends on the strength of the data. There are two rules you can use to determine the strength of your or others’ claims: (1) the Rule of More and (2) the Rule of Multiple. The Rule of More refers to the amount of data used to support a particular claim. The more data per claim, the stronger and more believable it will be. However, having multiple kinds of data that support a claim can also strengthen it. We call this the Rule of Multiple, meaning the more variety of data sources used to support a claim, the stronger it will be. For example, if the claim is supported by several examples of interview quotations, then it is stronger than a claim that

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has just one example from one interviewee. However, if the claim has multiple interview quotations coupled with examples from students’ reflective essays, it is stronger than just having interview data alone. The Rule of the Outlier. The Rule of More and the Rule of Multiple generally hold true except when the Rule of the Outlier applies. Usually as practitioner researchers analyze their data and make evidence-based claims, they come across some data that do not fit neatly into one of the categories or claims. When this happens, although it is tempting to ignore those data, don’t let them fall into that trap! When practitioner researchers encounter disconfirming data, they should embrace the data rather than ignore them. First, ask, “Why could this be?” “What is this telling us?” Have practitioner researchers critically reflect on the analysis process by asking themselves, “Did I miss something here?” If, however, practitioner researchers have critically reflected on the analysis process and they still feel that the evidence does not fit elsewhere, then it can be considered an outlier, and outliers need to be recognized. In fact, outlier data can be compelling for creating a claim of their own, and they also add credibility to the practitioner research.

Phase 5: Evaluation, Reflection, and Sharing Results In this phase, practitioner researchers critically analyze their practitioner research, reflect on the process, and share what they have found with others. It is tempting to stop the process after making evidence-based claims. Perhaps this is because practitioner researchers can have self-doubt, thinking, “What do I really have to offer to others?” Perhaps it is because the time-consuming nature of teaching or leading trumps the sharing process: “I just don’t have time to write about that or present that to the faculty right now.” Or perhaps they are afraid to share what they have learned with others. We see this fear particularly with elementary teachers who say, “I’m really good at talking with children, but talking to adults? That scares me. I’m terrible at that.” Don’t let those feelings or fears get the best of your teachers! As a leader, you need to encourage them, reminding them that they have worth and their hard work needs to be shared with others to help improve their practice and to show them that conducting practitioner research is possible and feasible for all reflective educators and educational leaders. Evaluation and reflection. The first part of Phase 5 involves evaluating the practitioner research process by critically reflecting on the research process. Practitioner researchers ask themselves questions such as, “How strong are my claims? Do they follow the Rule of More, the Rule of Multiple, and the Rule of the Outlier?” or “If I could conduct this research again, what would I do differently? How can I strengthen this process?” Being a practitioner researcher means being reflective; it involves continually asking questions. One outcome of all practitioner research is

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the generation of more questions. Practitioner researchers usually find themselves with more questions than answers. While this can be unsettling, it is a normal outcome of the research process. Generating more questions begins the reflective practitioner research cycle again, exploring a new question that helps educators improve their practice. Practitioner research never ends! Rather, it is an ongoing reflective cycle to improve practice. Sharing. The second part of Phase 5 is to share the results with others. The purpose of practitioner research is not grandiose generalization; it is not meant to generate testable, new knowledge for the field of education. Practitioner research is not meant to be generalized to all teachers or all instructional leaders. Instead, the intention is to improve practice—to evoke transformation and change. Other educators can learn from practitioner researchers’ stories by listening to them and thinking about what they did, what they learned, and how they could build on the ideas shared in their classrooms. Sharing can come in many forms. It can mean sharing during a team planning meeting, a professional learning community session, a department meeting, or some other small-group meeting time. It could also mean sharing what you learned with a larger audience at a faculty meeting; with district leaders at a districtwide event; or even with other educators at a local, state, or national conference. Several state and national organizations are supportive of practitioner research. The National Association for Professional Development Schools (www.napds.org), an organization dedicated to the support of school-university collaboration, is very supportive of practitioner research and encourages school and university faculty to engage in collaborative inquiry. The Southern California Professional Development School Consortium holds an annual conference where they encourage educators to present their practitioner research to improve practice. Maryland does the same with their Professional Development School Conference. At one point, practitioner research was so embedded across teacher preparation and educational leader programs in the College of Education at the University of South Florida that the College of Education held an annual Practitioner Research Conference where teacher candidates, teachers, principals, university faculty, and doctoral students shared their practitioner research by giving poster sessions, facilitating roundtable discussions, or lecturing during a 45-minute concurrent session. The College of Education even gave out awards for exemplary practitioner research to those currently enrolled in university programs, alumni, and friends and advocates of practitioner research. In addition to presenting, sharing can also be done in print. Several digital and print outlets encourage practitioner research. Edutopia (www.edutopia.org) is an online platform that is educator friendly and publishes “practitioner-based learning strategies.” Most national organizations encourage educators to share their work

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through outlets such as the National Council for Teachers of Mathematics blog, the Writers Who Care blog, or the National Association for Professional Development Schools’s Stories from the Field blog. Other practitioner researchers have used social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Pinterest, YouTube, or TeacherTube to share what they have learned. Check out different organizations in your area of interest and see what digital publishing opportunities they may have. In terms of print outlets, some journals are showcasing practitioner research. The Journal of Practitioner Research (https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jpr/), out of the University of South Florida, is an online, open-access, peer-reviewed journal that actively seeks all types of practitioner research from educators and educational leaders. Networks (https://newprairiespress.org/networks/) is an online journal out of Kansas State University that publishes teacher research and action research. Your state may also encourage educators to write about their practitioner research. In Florida, for example, the Florida Journal of Educational Research (https://fera online.org/journal) has an inquiry strand in the journal and its annual conference encourages practitioner research. In State College, Pennsylvania, a group of teacher writers called Centre Teacher Writers publishes a monthly column in the local newspaper to share research and editorials to advocate for education. Now, more than ever, there are many outlets for educators and educational leaders to share their practitioner research. Encourage sharing because you never know how you may influence another’s practice or inspire someone else to take the leap into conducting practitioner research.

Conclusion This chapter presented some promising structures for fostering meaningful professional learning to address teachers’ developmental needs as adult learners. Differentiating teacher learning doesn’t need to be a daunting task, although it may seem like one. You are now equipped with some knowledge and understanding of user-friendly structures, such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, co-teaching, Critical Friends Groups, and practitioner research. When considering your differentiated professional learning plan, remember to build in the needed time. All of these structures require time for teachers to plan and reflect on teaching, so set them up for success by allocating ample time, minimizing interruptions, and providing adequate resources. Subsequent chapters provide more examples, case studies, and illustrations of the structures. For now, simply think about what structures for continuous instructional improvement are in place in your school and what further needs and possibilities you might contemplate. We now turn to leadership skills for observing classroom teaching and learning and student work.

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3 Observing, Assessing, and Evaluating Instruction: Technical and Procedural Skills for Leaders

We have seen that when leaders observe instruction to help teachers succeed, they draw on a set of technical skills, which are the skills necessary to identify, plan, and enact procedures, such as focused observations, to support teacher learning. Leaders develop the skills to effectively identify instructional goals for professional learning, organize pre- and postconference conversations, observe instruction, gather and analyze data, develop action plans, and maintain documentation to support teachers in attaining their professional goals. When leaders observe teaching, they may have a tendency to compare it to their preferred style. That’s natural. “Why is this teacher doing that? That’s not right. They should do it like this.” As leaders, although we may not realize it, we have a narcissistic tendency to want to make others act like us—to have them do it like we would do it (Pajak, 2012). This temptation is dangerous because different does not necessarily mean bad. Bobby Ann Starnes (2001) used a great analogy for helping leaders see this narcissistic tendency in themselves. Starnes shared how she loved her mother’s gravy. It was the best gravy in the whole wide world, and Starnes wanted to make 34

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her mother’s gravy for her own family dinner. One year, she asked her mom to tell her how to make her delicious gravy. “Tell me, Mom! Tell me how to make your gravy. I want to learn. I want to do it exactly like you,” to which her mother replied, “Oh, I just add a pinch of this and a smidge of that.” Starnes thought, “Ah! What’s a pinch?!? How much is a smidge?!? This is not helping me.” No matter how hard or how closely she tried to follow her mother’s recipe, her gravy was never exactly like her mother’s gravy. What did Starnes learn from this frustrating experience? That she will never be able to duplicate her mother’s gravy. And, she shouldn’t try to duplicate her mother’s gravy because her gravy, although different, was just as good—it was tasty and her family liked it even if her gravy wasn’t exactly like her mother’s. So what does making gravy have to do with being an educational leader? Well, you were probably an excellent or fair-to-middling teacher before you assumed your leadership role. In fact, you may have been so masterful that you made teaching look easy. Just like Starnes’s mother, you probably made excellent teaching “gravy.” However, as you work with teachers to help them make teaching “gravy,” your teachers, no matter how hard they try, will never be exactly like you. Instead, they have to make their own teaching “gravy,” which will differ from yours. So, when you observe classroom practice that may look different from how you would have done it, ask first, “Are students attentive and learning?” If the answer is yes, then embrace this difference. Bring out the best in teachers by creating space for them to take risks, and challenge them to make an even better “gravy” than you did as a teacher.

The Observation Cycle Although Starnes’s mother didn’t support her much in the gravy-making process, you can and should work with teachers using focused observations by collaboratively engaging in a process of question generation, experimentation, observation, conversation, and reflection to help teachers make their own teaching “gravy.” One of the challenges that most leaders face when they think about observing practice is time. Many scholars have written about observing practice as a cycle that includes preplanning, observing, postconferencing, reflection, and evaluation. Because there never seems to be enough time, it may be tempting to skip aspects of the cycle, like the preconference or even evaluation. However, those aspects, in particular, create opportunities for dialogue and conversation. They are critical for developing the collegial environment that is essential to improving practice. In Chapter 2, we described clinical supervision as a structure for differentiated professional learning and, within that description, we detailed the steps in the

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observation cycle. Interestingly, it is this same cycle that is often used in teacher evaluation. If a leader is not knowledgeable or skilled in knowing and distinguishing types of observations (those for growth and those for teacher evaluation), the results can be disastrous.

Types of Observations There are two types of observations: (1) focused observations for supervision to foster risk taking and growth, and (2) observations for evaluation to determine teaching competence, assess teachers’ strengths and areas for growth, and administer merit pay. Focused classroom observations are one way to help teachers take risks so that they can make excellent teaching “gravy.” Unfortunately, focused classroom observations are often not focused. When this happens, observation becomes associated with high-stakes teacher evaluation, which encourages teachers to put on a “show” rather than take risks to solve educational dilemmas and improve instructional practice. How can you encourage risk taking and authenticity? One way is to know the difference between supervision and evaluation and to differentiate when you are conducting focused observations for supervision purposes and when you are conducting comprehensive observations for teacher evaluation purposes. To help you distinguish between the two types of observation, we are going to draw on research that has identified eight dimensions that distinguish supervision from evaluation: purpose, rationale, scope, data focus, relationship, expertise, degree of action, and perspective (Burns & Badiali, 2015; Nolan & Hoover, 2010). To determine whether your observation is being used for supervision or for evaluation, consider your responses as regards each dimension (see Figure 3.1).

Dimension 1: Purpose When conducting a focused observation, it is important to know the purpose of the focused observation and how the focused observation is connected to the larger plan for differentiated professional learning. The purpose of supervision is to foster growth, whereas the purpose of evaluation is to determine levels of competence. Many aspects of classroom teaching and learning can be observed and discussed—teacher plans and behaviors, teacher-student interactions, diagnoses of student achievement, disaggregated test score data, samples of student performances and achievements, and teaching demonstrations (Good & Lavigne, 2018; Sullivan & Glanz, 2013). The process for determining what to look for, with the teacher, is as important as the structures and formats for communicating feedback and making plans for further improvements. What is essential is that both parties

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Figure 3.1 Distinguishing Types of Observations Directions: For each dimension, circle the response (1 or 2) that best describes your thinking about that dimension. Dimension

Response 1

Response 2

Purpose

The intent of this observation is to help the teacher grow in their instructional purpose.

The intent of this observation is to determine whether the teacher is meeting certain criteria to ensure competence.

Rationale

I am conducting this observation to understand the complexity of a problem of practice in teaching.

I am conducting this observation to protect students from poor teaching.

Scope

The data I am collecting are narrow, focusing on one or perhaps two very specific aspects of teaching.

The data I’m collecting cover many topics or large domains about teaching.

Data Focus

The tool I am using for this observation is specific to this teacher.

The tool I am using is a mandated observation tool or rubric that is used with everyone.

Relationship

Even though we may have different roles, I see the teacher as my colleague—both of us have input into this focused observation.

The teacher and I have different roles, and it is my responsibility to determine the focus for this observation; the teacher’s input is irrelevant.

Expertise

The teacher knows their classroom and students best, so I really look for their input and contribution during the focused observation.

I bring a lot of expertise and experience to the table, so I am very capable of determining the process for this focused observation.

Degree of Action

The teacher needs to be very involved in this process. I want their input on the focus of the observation and the data analysis and interpretation.

It is my responsibility to conduct this focused observation, so I will let the teacher know what they did well and where improvement can be made.

Perspective

I realize that the teacher may struggle a bit because they are trying to improve.

The teacher really did not do well today, and that will result in a low score.

Note: If all your responses fall into the “Response 1” column, then your observation is a focused observation for supervision purposes—to foster professional growth. If all your responses fall into the “Response 2” column, then your observation is for evaluation purposes—which is to ensure minimal competence. If your answers fall into both columns, you are conflating the two kinds of observations and likely confusing your teachers. Even if you do not intend for the observation to be an evaluation, your actions are giving that impression to the teachers with whom you are working, which could result in unintended or undesirable outcomes that disempower or discourage teachers. It may even stifle conversation between the two of you or put a strain on your relationship, moving it further from collegiality. Make sure that when you head out to conduct an observation, you know which kind of observation you are intending to conduct and ensure that your actions align with all respective dimensions.

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understand the purpose of the observation, how this purpose fits into a larger year-long or multiyear plan for continuous individual improvement for all faculty, how the observation will be conducted, and what data will be collected at each particular phase.

Dimension 2: Rationale In addition to knowing the purpose, it is equally important that you and your teachers understand the rationale for the observation. Is the goal of the observation to illuminate the complex nature of teaching by understanding more deeply a specific problem of practice? Or is the goal to protect students from harm by ensuring that there are highly qualified teachers working with students? Focused observations in supervision recognize that teaching is very difficult and extremely complex, so the goal of a focused observation should be to refine specific aspects of teaching. Focused observations in supervision work with teachers to investigate and solve real problems of practice. Observations for evaluation are not problemsolving opportunities; rather, they are experiences for rating competence against a predetermined set of criteria. Rubrics are usually associated with observations for evaluation because they are comparing a particular teaching performance to standardized criteria that are used for rating teachers and teaching.

Dimension 3: Scope One of the most telling dimensions to distinguish the type of observation is the scope of the tool used to gather data. In focused observations for supervision, the scope of the data tool is very narrow, targeting in on a specific aspect of practice. To do that, you may use numerous methods to collect evidence about classroom teaching and student learning, ranging from descriptive note-taking of classroom events, student–student interactions, and teacher–student interactions; to timeon-task student seating charts; diagrams of space use; video- or audiotaping; and collections of student works. (For observation tools, see Glickman et al., 2018, pp. 193–219, and Sullivan & Glanz, 2013, pp. 63–114.) In contrast, the scope of the data tools for observations for evaluation are vast and comprehensive. When conducting an observation for evaluation, the amount of teaching that you see and attempt to capture is extensive and conducting this kind of observation can sometimes feel overwhelming. To illustrate, let’s use Charlotte Danielson’s (1996, 2013) well-developed Framework for Teaching to distinguish between focused observations for supervision and observations for evaluation. According to the Danielson Group (2019), the Framework for Teaching is considered “the gold standard and most widely used definition of teaching practice in the United States.” The framework was developed from research on classroom

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performance assessments for teacher licensure; state performance assessment systems; the standards of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards; and ways to assess student learning according to local, state, and national learning standards. Although the framework has been revised over the years, it generally incorporates various teaching styles, particular learning goals, and the context of particular teachers with their classes of students in a specific subject or field of learning. In the most recent version, the framework comprises four domains: (1) Planning and Preparation, (2) Classroom Environment, (3) Instruction, and (4) Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is divided into components. For example, the domain of Instruction has five components: (a) Communicating with Students, (b) Using Questioning and Discussion Techniques, (c) Engaging Students in Learning, (d) Using Assessment in Instruction, and (e) Demonstrating Flexibility and Responsiveness (Danielson, 2013). For each component, the framework defines the components, identifies elements and indicators of the component, and offers a four-level rubric from Unsatisfactory (Level 1) to Distinguished (Level 4). The framework offers what is, in effect, a comprehensive definition or classification system of the domains, components, elements, and indicators of the art and science of teaching. Although originally intended as a tool for growth, the framework has also been used in observations for evaluation. However, the framework could be used for risk-taking and growth purposes if leaders who use it for evaluation reconceptualize how they use the framework. For example, instead of using the rubrics under a component, you could narrow your focus to either an element or, better yet, a specific indicator under a component. Then you could design a tool to use or modify one of the other observation data tools (such as observation tools from Glickman et al., 2018, pp. 193–219, or Sullivan & Glanz, 2013, pp. 63–114) that corresponds to a specific indicator. To illustrate, let’s look at Domain 3 (Instruction) and specifically Component 3d: Using Assessment in Instruction, which has four elements: (1) Assessment Criteria, (2) Monitoring of Student Learning, (3) Feedback to Students, and (4) Student Self-Assessment and Monitoring of Progress. The indicators include the following: • The teacher pays close attention to evidence of student understanding. • The teacher poses specifically created questions to elicit evidence of student understanding. • The teacher circulates to monitor student learning and offer feedback. • Students assess their own work against established criteria. (Danielson, 2013, p. 73) When focusing an observation, the first question to ask yourself, or even to pose to the teacher, is, “What does [insert the indicator] look like or sound like?”

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For example, what does paying close attention to evidence of student learning look like or sound like? What are the specific teacher nonverbal and verbal behaviors that would show a teacher is paying attention to student learning? Once the teacher and you have agreed on the observable behaviors, then you need to use a tool to capture those data. For instance, you could use or modify Glickman and colleagues’ Teacher Verbal Behavior Chart (Glickman et al., 2018), as shown in Figure 3.2, as a data collection device for 3d: Using Assessment in Instruction. With this tool, you would note the date and time of the observation and the focus of the observation, and then for each minute during the observation you would put check marks in the chart noting the verbal behaviors you observed: Was the teacher giving directions? Was the teacher asking a clarifying question? Was the teacher giving information? Was the teacher summarizing what was said? Was the teacher correcting behavior? Over the course of the observation, this tool would provide quantitative data about the kinds of verbal behaviors the teacher used during a lesson. These data could be analyzed to determine teacher patterns of behavior, which then could be used to set goals for monitoring student understanding. If the teacher and you wanted to refine a teacher’s questioning techniques to elicit evidence of student learning, you could also use or modify other tools like Teacher Questions Using Bloom’s Taxonomy or Teacher Questions Using Webb’s Depth of Knowledge. If the teacher and you wanted to refine circulating as a means to monitor student learning, you could draw a diagram of the room and map the teacher’s movements, noting which student(s) the teacher visited, counting how long the teacher stayed with the student(s), and if close enough, perhaps even noting the purpose of the interaction or conversation. While all of these tools are used to gather data, which are then analyzed for patterns, they are not intended to be used with a rubric to evaluate performance. The Framework for Teaching is just one example of a mechanism for defining and classifying teacher practice. The Marzano Instructional Framework is another model for evaluating teaching. In fact, the home page of the Marzano Center’s website includes a page for observation and evaluation (Marzano, 2019). While both the Danielson Framework for Teaching and the Marzano Instructional Framework are geared toward evaluation, you can draw from these frameworks to create focused observations if you narrow the scope of the observation and use data collection tools to capture teaching rather than rubrics to evaluate teaching.

Dimension 4: Data Focus Another way you can determine if your observations are geared toward supervision or toward evaluation is to determine the data focus. In focused observations, the data focus is individualized, whereas in observations for evaluation, the

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Figure 3.2 Modified Teacher Verbal Behavior Chart Teacher’s name:

Date of observation: Grade/Class subject:

Start time:

Minute

End time:

Giving Directions

Clarifying Question

Probing Question

Summarizing

Redirecting

Correcting Behavior Praising

Giving Info.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Leader’s notes (not for sharing):

Source: Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon (2018).

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data focus is standardized. In other words, the tools you use to observe teaching are specific and tailored to individuals rather than the same for every teacher. To illustrate, let’s draw again on the examples from the Danielson Framework for Teaching. The rubrics that are listed under each component in each domain of the framework are meant to be used with all teachers; thus, the data focus would be standardized and used for evaluation purposes. The data collection tools, like the Verbal Teaching Behavior chart or the diagram of physical movement, are individualized; they are tailored to specific teachers to capture a specific focus of teaching practice during a given moment in time. Thus, those tools are geared toward supervision. When identifying the data focus, it also is important to be aware of issues of equity. For whom is the teaching and learning experience working and why? Be sure to dissect data and examine it through different lenses, as data can be great for unearthing unconscious bias. When you are developing a data collection tool, be aware of the kinds of data you are gathering and analyze the tool to see if it captures data about gender, race, culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, ability, and more. If not, have conversations with the teacher about how those kinds of data could be captured and analyzed. For example, a simple modification to the Verbal Teaching Behavior tool could include initials of students or a coding scheme for gender, race, or ethnicity. When those data are analyzed, the teacher and you would be looking for patterns in verbal behavior and you would also be looking for patterns in verbal behavior with certain students or groups of students. Addressing issues of equity and unconscious bias are important for educating all students, so when gathering data, be sure to look at data in multiple ways and through different lenses. When considering the data focus, reflect on whether the tool you are using is being enacted universally across all of the teachers with whom you are working (which would be an observation for evaluation) or if you are identifying, selecting, and modifying different tools for different teachers based on their individual goals to improve their practice (which would be a focused observation for supervision).

Dimension 5: Relationship The relationship dimension is connected to the mindset that teachers and you bring to the observation. In a focused observation, the relationship is collegial, which means that both of you see your relationship during the observation as flat. You are colleagues working together to improve specific aspects of teaching to improve student learning. In an observation for evaluation, the relationship is hierarchical. One or both of you see the relationship during the observation as

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vertical because you, as the leader, are positioned as superior to the teacher. A collegial relationship may be difficult to achieve, especially since observations are often performed when you are in formalized roles (i.e., principal, assistant principal, instructional coach, teacher leader, supervisor) distinct from being a classroom teacher. Don’t let these formalized structures create barriers between you and the teachers with whom you are working. Great leaders, even if distinguished by separate roles from teachers, diminish power and positionality by the mindset they bring to the focused observation. By positioning themselves as co-learners, working hand-in-hand with teachers to solve instructional problems through refining or improving practice, leaders can minimize the inherent power created through formalized roles. In Chapter 4, we will share some interpersonal skills that can help you foster a collegial relationship. For now, think about the different teachers with whom you work. How might you describe your relationship with them during an observation? How might they see you? It’s sometimes difficult to know how teachers might see their relationship with you, especially if it is hierarchical, because they may not want to disclose the feelings that come along with being in a subordinate position. There are many ways to diminish power and positionality to promote collegiality. We have seen great leaders use two strategies successfully to understand teachers’ perceptions and to get feedback to flatten the relationship. The first strategy is to create an anonymous survey for your teachers to take that can ask them about their comfort in sharing and participating in observations with you. Once you collect that survey, analyze the data and critically reflect on what you learn. You might ask yourself questions like, What are my teachers telling me? Why might they think that? What might I be doing that is giving them this perception of me? Is this the perception I want my teachers to have when working with me? Why or why not? After reflecting, you might be more aware of your language and your nonverbal cues that also can affect teachers’ perceptions of you and your relationship with them so that you can work toward developing collegial relationships. The second strategy is to ask teachers the same question at that end of every postobservation conference—What else can I do to help? By asking what more can be done and then doing what is asked, if possible, you are showing teachers that you care and that you are vested in them and their growth and development. You are conveying to teachers that they are in the driver’s seat, having more control of their professional learning, and that you are there to support them. These strategies can be very useful in helping to understand how teachers may perceive your relationship and also how you can work to distinguish your relationship when you are conducting different kinds of observations.

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Dimension 6: Expertise This dimension is connected to the relationship dimension. In a focused observation for supervision, the expertise is shared. Both the teacher and you realize that each one of you has something to contribute and that you each bring valuable expertise to the focused observation. For instance, you may bring the experience of seeing many different classrooms and many different teaching styles, or perhaps you have formally studied teacher professional learning and have obtained advanced degrees and credentials. However, that expertise should not negate the valuable expertise that the teacher brings to the focused observation. The teacher may have more years of teaching experience than you, or the teacher may have attended trainings or workshops or even just earned a teaching certificate at a university, having access to cutting-edge research-based instruction. If not, the teacher will most likely have intimate knowledge of the students, families, and communities, as well as critical knowledge about the classroom and the school environment that you may not have. Either way, in a focused observation, both of you recognize and value the knowledge and expertise that each one of you brings to the experience. In contrast, the expertise in an observation for evaluation is very different. In an observation for evaluation, the expertise is situated with the evaluator as the knowledgeable other—the only one whose knowledge matters, as the evaluator is the determinant of what constitutes effective teaching according to rubrics, standards, and frameworks for teaching. The knowledge that the teacher may or may not have is irrelevant, as the evaluator knows best. A common mistake when leaders conflate focused observations with observations for evaluation is when the leader, during the postconference, uses strategies like “three to glow on, three to grow on” or “stars and wishes.” Both of these strategies involve the observer telling teachers what they did well (“three to glow on” or “stars”) and what they did wrong (“three to grow on” or “wishes”). The moment leaders engage in these behaviors, they have automatically corrupted an observation into an evaluation experience, even if the data focus was individualized and the scope of the data narrow. So don’t fall into this trap! In Chapter 4, we will explore in more detail another set of skills, called interpersonal skills, that you can use to help teachers succeed. For now, if you are trying to help teachers make excellent teaching “gravy” through risk taking and experimentation, resist the urge to tell them what they did well and where they need to improve.

Dimension 7: Degree of Action The level of involvement or engagement of participants can best describe the degree of action dimension. In a focused observation for supervision, the degree of

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action is equally active—both the teacher and you are actively involved in many, if not all, aspects of the focused observation process. In an observation for evaluation, one person, the observer as evaluator, is the primary actor, whereas the other, the teacher as evaluatee, is the passive recipient. Perhaps the degree of action is most distinguished in the use of the prepositions with and to—a focused observation for supervision is done with teachers, whereas an observation for evaluation is done to teachers. While you may often think that you are actively involving teachers, in reality you might not be. One common indicator is the amount of time you spend talking during the pre- or postconference. It is tempting, as you give feedback, to tell teachers everything you want them to know and learn from this experience. However, telling is often overused. Some leaders think that if they just tell teachers what to do, the teachers will be “fixed.” Teachers, however, aren’t empty vessels waiting for someone else to dump knowledge into them. Teachers are intelligent, capable individuals who can, when supported, examine data about their teaching, identify patterns, make evidence-based claims about their teaching performance, and ask new questions to improve their practice. Great leaders recognize teachers as thinking, capable individuals, and in their practice, they listen and ask questions first. If you are committed to helping teachers improve their practice, then you need to support teachers in being active participants in their own learning, helping them to construct meaning from experience. Be mindful of your talking time and make sure that your teachers’ voices are heard and valued throughout the observation experience by asking questions, talking less, and listening more.

Dimension 8: Perspective This dimension refers to how the participants view or perceive the observation experience. In a focused observation for supervision, both of you would perceive the observation as an opportunity to take risks—to try something new—to refine or improve instructional practice. In contrast, the perspective of an observation for evaluation is about giving the best performance in the presence of critics. The strongest indicator of perspective is the teacher’s point of view. Although leaders may say that they are encouraging risk taking, their actions do not align with that perspective. Instead, their behaviors may be more aligned with evaluation even if they intended to enact a focused observation for supervision. Gathering teachers’ perceptions of their time spent with you is key to knowing whether your intended desires to focus an observation for supervision are truly enacted with fidelity. Risk taking also involves vulnerability, especially on the teacher’s part. One way you can ascertain teachers’ perspectives is to be vulnerable yourself by seeking feedback on your leadership practices. In the relationship dimension, we gave

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some examples of ways to solicit feedback from teachers about your relationship with them. Those same strategies can also be effective here to help you determine teachers’ perspectives of their time spent with you during observations. For example, at the end of a postconference, you could ask the teacher, “What else do you need from me now or before our next time together to help you be successful?” Or “What else would you like me to know or do that I didn’t think to do?” If you are working with multiple teachers, you could create an anonymous survey for teachers to complete seeking feedback connected to the different dimensions outlined in this chapter. It might be best to create a survey that includes questions about the comfort level from the relationship dimension as well as questions geared toward risk taking so that you are getting teachers’ feedback in one shot rather than bombarding them with multiple surveys. By being vulnerable and soliciting feedback to improve your leadership practices, you are showing teachers that you walk the walk—that you, too, are committed to improving your leadership practices in addition to helping them improve their instructional practices.

Description Versus Interpretation A key skill in focused observations is the ability to distinguish description (the actual happenings that have been recorded) from interpretation (the judgments made about the happenings). If you want to test your skills, practice distinguishing between the two by completing the exercise in Figure 3.3. In focused observations, leaders should record descriptions and leave the interpretations to the postconference. While in upcoming chapters we will talk about different ways to approach the conferences, it is generally best to begin any discussions about practice with teachers by sharing descriptions rather than making any judgments about their effectiveness or the lack thereof. Teachers may try, unknowingly, to get you to give your interpretations, usually by asking you questions like, “What did you think?” or “How do you think it went?” following a focused observation. These questions are evidence that the teacher potentially sees you in an evaluative role because they are prioritizing your perspective over theirs. It is also important for you to resist beginning conversations with teachers by saying, “So, what do you think went well?” as this common opening question is asking for interpretations that are grounded in intuition rather than descriptive data. Opening a conversation with this question also can set the stage for evaluation. Remember, the goal of focused observations should be to help teachers develop the data-literacy skills needed to analyze descriptions of practice that you record for them to make evidence-based interpretations to determine what went well, how student learning needs and goals were met, what questions this observation generated for them, and what the

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Figure 3.3 Description Versus Interpretation Directions: Label each of the following statements as a description (D) or an interpretation (I). _____ 1. The teacher called on the student, who did not raise her hand, to answer the question. _____ 2. The opening exercise was displayed on the screen when students entered the classroom. All but three students took out their digital devices and answered the prompt. _____ 3. Marco was in rare form today. He ignored every request you asked of him. _____ 4. I really liked your response to Andreas. You did this very naturally, and it was warranted considering his behavior! _____ 5. You asked six questions to check for understanding and redirected behavior only twice. _____ 6. The bell rang and six students were still talking. They weren’t ready for your instruction. _____ 7. After asking a question, you instructed the students to do a think-pair-share using the question on the board as a discussion prompt. _____ 8. You scaffolded this part of the lesson very well. I could tell that you had thought deeply about how to introduce the content and build on it throughout the lesson. _____ 9. Nice job of reinforcing positive behaviors in an authentic way! _____ 10. You told the students to quickly whisper the answer to a partner. This is another great way of getting them involved and sharing, and you are encouraging accountable talk. Answers: 1. D, 2. D, 3. I, 4. I, 5. D, 6. I, 7. D, 8. I, 9. I, 10. I

Explanations of interpretation (I) answers: 3. The words rare form make this statement an interpretation. What does “rare form” look like? What does it sound like? What are the actual behaviors the student was doing that led the leader to determine it was “rare form”? 4. The words liked and warranted are judgments. They are the leader evaluating, meaning determining worth of what occurred. While what the leader likes and what the leader feels was good or bad could be recorded in the leader’s notes (see Figure 3.1), they aren’t descriptions of the behavior. The other problematic word in this statement is naturally because “naturally” is the leader’s interpretation of a variety of behaviors. What does “naturally” mean? What does it look like? What does it sound like? 6. The first sentence is a description. It is quantifiable. You can actually count students, and you can see and hear them talking. The second part is an interpretation. The words weren’t ready are problematic and are the leader’s interpretation of the continuous talking. That interpretation should be left for the postconference and the analysis. 8. The words very well are judgmental. They are the leader’s evaluation of behaviors that were seen. 9. The words nice job again are judgmental. The word authentic is also problematic because what does “authentic” look like or sound like? 10. The first statement is a description because you can see students whispering and hear the actual directions the teacher gave to the students. It’s the words great way in the second sentence that are a judgment and not a description of the behavior. Determining the worth of the turn-and-talk strategy at that given moment should be left to the analysis part of the postobservation conference.

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focuses of future observations should be. So, if teachers ask you how you think the lesson went, instead of telling them your perspective, you could say, “Well, let’s look at the data I gathered, and let’s figure it out together.”

Why Such an Emphasis on Focused Observation Individuals involved in observations should discuss and act on only what they agreed to focus on. It certainly is appropriate to do a few general observations to gain an overall feel for a classroom and for a teacher. General observations also help students become comfortable with another adult in the classroom. However, after a point, if the teacher and you don’t know what is being looked at together, then discussions predictably will move away from issues of teaching and learning to issues outside the classroom (such as individual misbehavior of students, parent needs, school politics, personal issues, and so on). It is not that the latter issues are unimportant. People do need time to talk about noninstructional issues. The cultural norms and routines of many schools simply reflect an unspoken expectation that teachers will be instructionally private and isolated from each other, without collegial support or a frame for talking openly about teaching and learning. To talk deeply, wisely, and practically about teaching and learning means that leadership, force, structure, and focus must permeate the entire school environment.

Teacher Evaluation, Continuous Improvement, and Separating the Two We’ve spent the bulk of this chapter explaining the differences between two types of observation: focused observation for growth purposes and comprehensive observation for evaluation purposes. Distinguishing between the two kinds of observations, especially in practice, is probably one of the most difficult skills to master. Leaders often conflate the two. Teachers are keenly aware when this conflation happens, and the outcomes for teachers when this happens are not good. In fact, teachers become disempowered and distressed, and their teaching suffers (Burns & Badiali, 2015; Bullough & Draper, 2004; Ochieng’ Ong’ondo & Borg, 2011). Understanding the differences between the two types of observations and being able to successfully distinguish between them in practice is imperative for bringing out the best in your teachers. It’s possible that one of the reasons for leaders’ struggle with distinguishing types of observations is that the current era of high-stakes accountability places

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greater emphasis on teacher evaluation, relegating leaders’ time to completing and managing extensive paperwork to meet mandates and other accountability requirements rather than spending time with teachers to improve specific aspects of instructional practice. For this reason, we think it’s an important point to consider two different types of evaluation: the evaluation of teaching and teacher evaluation. Teacher evaluation is much more comprehensive than the evaluation of teaching because it involves assessing the myriad responsibilities that teachers have in their role as teacher. Consider all four domains in the Danielson Framework for Teaching as an example. Teacher evaluation includes assessing all of the responsibilities that fall under planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities (Danielson Group, 2019). The evaluation of teaching, in contrast, is much narrower, focusing on assessing the outcome of the instruction of a particular lesson for students. A helpful way to distinguish between the two is that the evaluation of teaching is a formative assessment that occurs within and as a part of observations for growth, whereas teacher evaluation is the summative assessment of all of the teacher’s responsibilities and competence. To bring out the best in teachers, you need to help them develop essential dataliteracy skills to successfully and accurately evaluate their own teaching, a key component of conducting focused observations for growth purposes and conducting comprehensive observations for evaluation purposes to rate teachers (Goldsberry, Burns, Kelehear, Nolan, & Badiali, 2017). A matter of great importance is the formal evaluation process required by states and districts for the assessment of the professional performance of teachers. As already mentioned, it is best to separate the direct assistance for continuous improvement from the formal summative school district or state evaluations for tenure, contract continuation, and contract renewal (known as teacher evaluation). It is easier for teachers to open up about the real struggles and difficulties of their own classroom teaching to a person who has no role in the formal summative teacher evaluation. For these reasons, we suggest that formal teacher evaluation and the evaluation of teaching as a professional development process be separated by using some of the following strategies: • Annually separate competent teachers from marginal teachers through teacher evaluations completed by late Fall. The evaluator, who may or may not be you, uses a standard, uniform evaluation instrument to make an initial judgment, after one full cycle of observations for evaluation, as to which teachers are competent and which are questionable. The questionable teachers are placed on

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a “needs improvement” plan that details what changes they need to make to reach satisfactory performance in the next evaluation cycle. Experienced teachers or specialists are assigned to work with the teachers on their improvement efforts. Teachers judged as competent after the first cycle are asked to establish instructional classroom goals and professional growth plans. Further cycles of observations and conferences, as opposed to being tied to evaluation, are tied to feedback about their growth plans. The observations transition from observations for evaluation to observations for growth (supervision). • Divide the process so that the teacher evaluation procedures and the professional development process can occur simultaneously but are viewed as discrete from each other. One method for an instructional improvement sequence is to have teachers choose an instructional improvement goal and select the sources of assistance they believe will be most helpful in achieving the goal—such as clinical supervision, peer coaching, mentoring, a Critical Friends Group, or practitioner research. The teacher discusses the year’s professional growth plan with a designated coordinator (school principal, department head, or team leader) and arranges visiting schedules. The normal contract evaluation process conducted by the designated evaluator continues throughout the year, separate from the instructional improvement process. • Establish separate roles for evaluators and professional development facilitators. In some rare school districts, central office supervisors conduct all formal evaluations, and the principals provide instructional improvement assistance. More often, it is the other way around: principals conduct evaluations, and central office or school-based personnel (master teachers, lead teachers, department heads, assistant principals, or peers) provide assistance. In either case, one position is clearly delineated as a staff position, concerned with assisting teachers; the other is designated as a line position, concerned with evaluating teachers. If your school or district is not able to have two different individuals to separate these roles, it is possible for one person to assume both roles. However, it is challenging and requires sophistication and skill. In schools that we have partnered with over the years, we have found leaders who established trust and credibility with teachers and then clearly distinguished in their practice which observations were being conducted for growth purposes and which were being conducted for teacher evaluation purposes. If you find yourself in this challenging position, it will be incredibly important to be keenly aware of which “hat” you are wearing when, how you are communicating these differences with your teachers, and how you are differentiating your practice by ensuring that the observation you are conducting is aligned

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with its appropriate dimension (purpose, rationale, scope, data focus, relationship, expertise, degree of action, or perspective). One way to start could be to explain in faculty meetings the two different yet simultaneous processes that will go on during the year. Then, in confidential conferences with each teacher, you would explain which type of observation is being done and for what purpose on that given day. • Redefine teacher evaluation between evaluators and teachers. Many states and districts require an annual evaluation and summarized report on each teacher, completed by an officially designated school-based evaluator. Yet some states or districts do not define the content or purpose of the evaluation. In such cases, a district committee, a school council, or an individual evaluator and teacher can define at the outset the types of evaluation to be done. Will it be a summative evaluation to determine competence or a formative observation to promote professional growth? In all cases, involvement in continuous improvement of classroom teaching and learning through opening up one’s classroom and reviewing student work with others should be an essential component of the formal summative evaluation process. In other words, participation in continuous improvement is part of the evaluation; the particular nature of the interactions, discussions, and specific plans is not. • Work with teachers who struggle. Sometimes teachers struggle, and some struggles are a normal and important part of teaching. After all, teaching is complex, and teachers encounter problems of practice every single day. However, this section is not about competent teachers who are wrestling with improving their practice. This section is about how to work with teachers who are marginal. These teachers must improve their teaching practices to meet the minimum standard of competence to retain their jobs. Their competence is in question, and they have received less-than-satisfactory ratings on their formal evaluations (Nolan & Hoover, 2010). How do you identify a marginal teacher? While an unsatisfactory rating on a formal evaluation is a strong and easily recognizable indicator, there are other signs that a teacher might be heading down that path. We call these red flags, and we draw on the work of Lynn Sanders (2006), a retired principal and veteran university supervisor who identified indicators of teacher candidates. We see many parallels between Sanders’s work with those who are learning to teach and approaches that may be taken with those who are struggling to teach. To help you determine whether a teacher might be marginal, take the quiz in Figure 3.4.

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Figure 3.4 Red Flag Litmus Test If you are working with a teacher who is struggling, ask yourself the following questions about the teacher: 1. Is the teacher dependable? 2. Is the teacher reliable? 3. Is the teacher sincere? 4. Is the teacher trustworthy? 5. Does the teacher focus and follow through on tasks? 6. Is the teacher energetic? 7. Is the teacher engaged with students and peers? 8. Is the teacher positive? 9. Is the teacher punctual? 10. Does the teacher accept responsibility for mistakes? 11. Does the teacher build relationships with students? 12. Does the teacher build relationships with peers? 13. Does the teacher build relationships with parents? 14. Does the teacher put students first? 15. Is the teacher confident? 16. Does the teacher ask questions and exude a natural curiosity? 17. Is the teacher a lifelong learner? 18. Does the teacher seek opportunities for professional development? 19. Does the teacher make connections across the curriculum to help students learn? 20. Does the teacher reflect on their practice? 21. Does the teacher have adequate background knowledge to understand the curriculum? 22. Does the teacher write lesson plans? 23. Does the teacher focus on student learning? Note: Every question for which the answer is No is a red flag and could indicate that a teacher is a marginal teacher or is heading toward marginality.

If you answered No to any of the questions in Figure 3.4, then the teacher in question is exhibiting some of the indicators of marginality. A teacher whose competence is in question needs intensive assistance. First, talk with the teacher to identify the struggle. Look at data together and find out if the teacher feels the same way and recognizes they are struggling. If the teacher recognizes that they are struggling, at least you are both in agreement and can move forward. If the teacher doesn’t recognize the struggle, or at least doesn’t want to admit it, then the situation becomes more difficult. Sometimes it’s a matter of different perspectives (see Figure 3.5).

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Figure 3.5 A Tale of Two Perspectives Consider the way the leader and the teacher may have two different perspectives on the same situation: Leader: The teacher doesn’t ask for help. Teacher: I don’t know what questions to ask. Leader: The teacher takes my suggestions as criticisms. Teacher: I take criticisms as criticisms, and they hurt no matter how they are couched. Leader: The teacher is very uncomfortable when anyone observes. Teacher: It feels like I always have people watching me and judging me, and it makes me nervous. Leader: The teacher does not take risks and won’t try anything new. Teacher: I don’t want to make a mistake, especially since I’m always being watched. Leader: The teacher seems tired. Teacher: I have a lot going on outside of teaching, so balancing both is exhausting. Leader: The teacher has difficulty with ambiguity. Teacher: I’m not sure what they want. Leader: The teacher is easily overwhelmed. Teacher: The burden of planning and teaching is overwhelming. Leader: The teacher doesn’t understand why the lesson didn’t go well. Teacher: Did I do something wrong? Adapted from Sanders, 2006, pp. 11–12.

Next, it’s important to develop an action plan. Your school or district may already have a required action plan. If not, a sample is presented in Figure 3.6. When developing an action plan, it’s helpful to start with the teacher’s strengths before outlining the issues or concerns. Once you have identified both, it’s also helpful to document what past actions have been done to support the teacher with this particular issue. Have you both already met? How many times has the teacher been observed with this specific issue as the focus of the observation? Has the teacher observed anyone else? The answers to these kinds of questions should be recorded in the Past Actions section. Next, it’s important to identify specific and concrete recommendations. These statements should be action-oriented and clear so that both of you know what the teacher will do, what you will do, and when those actions should be accomplished. After that, it’s critical to establish a date for the next meeting and document that date and time in the

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Figure 3.6 Sample Action Plan for Teachers Who Struggle Action Plan Date:

Teacher’s name:

Leader’s name:

Strengths:

Issues/concerns:

Past actions:

Current actions:

Date of next meeting:

Teacher’s signature:

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action plan. Finally, both of you should sign the action plan, indicating that you both understand the issue and what is to be accomplished before the next time you meet. When working with teachers who struggle, it can be tempting to change your practice to focus primarily on evaluation. The observations that should be for growth can quickly warp into observations for evaluation. The problem is that when that happens, the teacher is continually being judged and doesn’t have ample opportunity to practice, take risks, and change to try to meet the action plan. As the leader, you also face a challenge: on the one hand, you want the teacher to be successful, and on the other hand, you have a responsibility to the students. Make sure that you are coupling cycles of observations for growth and regular observations for evaluation while clearly distinguishing between the two to give the teacher the intensive, direct assistance that is required for improvement. If, after repeated formal evaluations, cycles of observations for growth, and additional resources a teacher is still unable to meet students’ learning needs, then the evaluator must consider moving toward termination of the teacher’s contract. The evaluator must ensure that this judgment is not influenced by personal bias toward the individual and must be able to secure corroborating, documented evidence from others. Under such circumstances, the following information for proceeding toward termination of the teacher’s contract is useful. John Dayton, a scholar of constitutional law related to public education, explains (personal communication, May 23, 2000): Related to teacher evaluation, the primary concern is one of due process. The 5th Amendment and the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution require adequate due process whenever government actions significantly impinge on “life, liberty, or property.” Liberty and property may be significantly impinged upon by the actions of government officials (public school employees in the evaluation process). In regard to liberty, the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Board of Regents v. Roth, 408 U.S. 564 (1972), when government actions “might seriously damage (a teacher’s) standing and associations in (the teacher’s) community: that individual is entitled to adequate due process.” Due process includes at a minimum notice of the proposed action, a presentation of the evidence this action is based on, and the opportunity for a hearing on the proposed action. (The Court has noted that: “Where a person’s good name, reputation, honor, or integrity is at stake because of what the government is doing to him, notice and an opportunity to be heard are essential.” The other protected interest is a property interest: Untenured teachers only

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have a property interest in the defined term of their current contract—from August to May, for example. Nonetheless, if nontenured teachers are fired or demoted prior to the expiration of that contract period, the government has impinged on a protected property right. Further, if officials make stigmatizing comments about the employee in the dismissal process, they may impinge on a protected liberty interest. This is why school board attorneys typically instruct school administrators to simply send a notice of nonrenewal and to avoid any further comment on the matter. Note, though, that making negative comments in formative evaluations that are not publicly circulated generally does not impinge on a protected liberty interest. However, when school officials repeat these same charges later in a summative and public nonrenewal context, this may constitute an impingement on protected liberty interests.) The difference between tenure and nontenure is that tenured persons have a continuing contractual right rather than a periodic one. Therefore, any time tenured persons are dismissed, the government is impinging on a property right, and due process is required (notice and hearing). Although these due process protections are required by the federal Constitution, state law governs the specific procedures concerning due process and teacher dismissal.

A school leader should always exhibit empathy and care throughout a dismissal process. Although the personal toil is burdensome, the task of removing, or counseling out of the field, an uncaring, unmotivated, or ineffective person is important for the future of the students and the other professionals in the school.

Summary This chapter described the technical and procedural skills of observing, assessing, and evaluating practice. Technical skills help leaders identify, plan for, and conduct focused observations to improve practice. By knowing the different types of observations, leaders can adjust their practice to support teachers’ growth in improving practice. Now that you know the different dimensions of supervision and evaluation, you can become aware of structures and roles that may position you to observe practice through an evaluative lens rather than conducting focused observations for growth purposes. You can be empowered to resist such structures and roles to adjust your practice so that you position yourself in ways that bring out the best in teachers—in collegial relationships with the teachers with whom you are working. In Chapter 4, we will examine various interpersonal approaches and applications to working with individuals to build on your technical competence and help you support teachers in making excellent teaching “gravy.”

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4 Talking With Teachers: Interpersonal Skills for Leaders

In addition to technical skills, bringing out the best in teachers also involves a set of interpersonal skills—the relational skills needed to communicate and work closely with teachers. These skills include listening, clarifying, encouraging, reflecting, presenting, problem solving, negotiating, directing, setting parameters, and reinforcing.

Defining the Interpersonal Skills Following are the interpersonal skills and their definitions: • Listening. The leader sits quietly and looks at the speaker to show understanding. Nodding and guttural utterances (“uh-huh,” “ummm,” and so on) can also indicate listening. • Clarifying. The leader asks questions and statements to clarify the speaker’s point of view. Examples include “Do you mean that...?” “Would you explain this further?” “I’m confused about this,” “I lost you on…,” and “You lost me… .” • Encouraging. The leader provides acknowledging responses that help the teacher continue to explain their positions. Examples include, “Yes, I’m following you,” “Continue on,” and “Ah, I see what you’re saying—tell me more.” 57

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• Reflecting. The leader summarizes and paraphrases the teacher’s message for verification of accuracy. Examples include “I understand that you mean…,” “So, the issue is…,” and “I hear you saying….” • Presenting. The leader presents their ideas about the issue being discussed. Examples include “This is how I see it…,” “What can be done is…,” “I’d like us to consider…,” and “I believe that….” • Problem solving. The leader takes the initiative, usually after a preliminary discussion of the issue or problem, in pressing all those involved to generate a list of possible solutions. This is usually done through statements such as “Let’s stop and each write down what can be done,” “What ideas do we have to solve this problem?” and “Let’s think of all possible actions we can take.” • Negotiating. The leader moves the discussion from possible to probable solutions by discussing the consequences of each proposed action, exploring conflict or priorities, and narrowing down choices with questions such as these: “Where do we agree?” “How can we change that action to be acceptable to all?” and “Can we find a compromise that will give each of us part of what we want?” • Directing. The leader tells teachers either what the choices are or what is to be done. To explain the choices, the leader can say such things as this: “As I see it, these are the alternatives: You could do A, B, or C. Which of these makes the most sense to you, and which will you use?” When telling teachers what is to be done, the leader may say the following: “I’ve decided that we will do…,” “I want you to do…,” “The policy will be…,” or “We will then proceed as follows.” • Setting parameters. The leader sets the expected criteria and the timeline or time frame for the decision to be implemented. Target objectives are set. Expectations are conveyed with statements such as these: “By next Monday, we want to see…,” “Report back to me on this change by…,” “Have the first two activities carried out by…,” or “We have agreed that all tasks will be done before the next observation.” • Reinforcing. The leader strengthens the directive and the criteria to be met by telling of possible consequences. Possible consequences can be positive, in the form of praise: “I know you can do it!” “I have confidence in your ability!” or “I want to show others what you’ve done!” Consequences also can be negative: “If it’s not done on time, we’ll lose the support of…,” or “It must be understood that failure to get this done on time will result in….”

Developing Interpersonal Approaches When you conference with teachers, you can combine these different interpersonal skills to form different approaches and produce different outcomes to support your

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teachers’ growth and improve their instruction. Some combinations place more responsibility on teachers to make the decision; others place more responsibility on you, as the instructional leader, to make the decision; and still others indicate a shared responsibility for decision making. The categories of skills are listed in a sequence on the instructional leader behavior continuum shown in Figure 4.1 to reflect the scale of control or power. The resulting four interpersonal approaches are (1) directivecontrol, (2) directive-informational, (3) collaborative, and (4) nondirective.

Figure 4.1 The Instructional Leader Behavior Continuum

T

6 9 1 2 3 4 5 Prob7 8 Setting 10 Listen- Clarify- Encour- Reflect- Prelem Negoti- Direct- param- Reining ing aging ing senting solving ating ing eters forcing

l

t

L

Categories of behaviors: Nondirective

Collaborative

Key: T = Maximum teacher responsibility t = Minimum teacher responsibility

Directive-Informational

Directive-Control

l = Minimum instructional leader responsibility L = Maximum instructional leader responsibility

Adapted from Glickman, 1981.

Directive-Control If you direct the teacher in what will be done, set the parameters of the timeline and of the criteria for expected results, and reinforce the consequences of action or inaction, then you have taken responsibility for the decision (small t for teacher, big L for leader). You are clearly determining the actions for the teacher to follow. These behaviors are called a directive-control interpersonal approach. Another way to clarify the distinctions among approaches is to look at the outcomes of leader-teacher conferences and determine who controls the final decision for instructional improvement. Using the nondirective approach, the leader facilitates the teacher’s thinking in developing a self-plan. In the collaborative approach, both leader and teacher share information and possible practices as equals in arriving at a mutual plan. In the directive-informational approach, the leader provides the focus and the parameters of possible actions, and the teacher is asked to choose from among the leader’s suggestions. In the directive-control approach, the leader tells the teacher what to do. Nondirective provides maximum teacher choice; collaborative, mutual choice; directive-informational, selected choice; and directivecontrol, no choice in the outcome of the conference (see Figure 4.2).

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Figure 4.2 Interpersonal Approaches, Outcomes, and Levels of Choice Approach

Outcome

Choice

Directive-control

Leader-assigned plan

No teacher choice

Directive-informational

Leader-suggested plan

Restricted teacher choice

Collaborative

Mutual plan

Mutual choice

Nondirective

Teacher self-plan

Maximum teacher choice

Directive-Informational If you direct the teacher on the alternatives the teacher may choose from and, after the teacher selects, you set parameters for the timeline and criteria of expected results, then you are the major source of information, providing the teacher with restricted choice (small t, big L). This is viewed as a directive-informational interpersonal approach.

Collaborative If you use nondirective behaviors to understand your teacher’s point of view yet participate in the discussion by presenting your ideas, problem solving by asking everyone to propose possible actions, and then negotiating to find a common course of action satisfactory to the teacher and to you, the control over the decision is shared by all. This is viewed as a collaborative interpersonal approach.

Nondirective When an instructional leader listens to the teacher, clarifies what the teacher says, encourages the teacher to speak more about the concern, and reflects by verifying the teacher’s perceptions, then clearly the teacher participates in making the decisions about professional practice. Your role when using this approach is that of an active prober or a sounding board for the teacher to make their own decisions. The teacher has high control, and you have low control, over the actual decision (big T, small l). This is seen as a nondirective interpersonal approach.

Clarifying Your Approach So how do you decide which approach to use? In making this decision, you should take into account the commitment, expertise, and needs of individual teachers. The goal is always to use an interpersonal approach that strengthens a teacher’s

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capacity for greater reflection and self-reliance in making improvements in classroom teaching and learning. However, you should first understand yourself, your predominant ways of interacting, and your core beliefs about working with others. Every leader—like every human being—has a preferred style for communicating with others, whether it be assertive and bold, calm and conversational, or quiet and reassuring. This does not mean that leaders are static and fixed in their interpersonal approaches. However, when they resort to a different approach, others may note that they are “acting out of character.” What is your predominant approach: directive-control, directive-informational, collaborative, or nondirective? How do you know what it is? Often people think of themselves differently than do those who work with them. We have known a few autocratic, directive-control leaders who sincerely believe that they are purely collaborative. When they state this belief, those who know them well roll their eyes. These leaders are not being knowingly deceptive; they really do think they exhibit one approach while practicing another. You can use either of two simple methods to help you clarify your understanding of your approach to working with teachers on classroom issues. The first method is to ask those you work with to simply identify which of the four overall approaches you most often use with them in matters of individual classroom assistance. The second method is to fill out the Instructional Leadership Beliefs Inventory (Figures 4.3 and 4.4) on yourself and, at the same time, ask those you work with to anonymously fill out the survey as well, to reveal how they see you in action. The survey has no great scientific validity; it is simply a way to open up awareness of your own practices. The inventory is designed for leaders—referred to as supervisors in the inventory—to assess their own beliefs. It assumes that leaders believe and act according to all four of the orientations but that one usually dominates. The inventory is designed to be self-administered and self-scored. The second part lists items for which leaders must choose one of two options. A scoring key follows, which can be used to compare the predictions of Part I with the actual beliefs indicated by the forced-choice items of Part II.

The Approaches in Action Now that you know about the different interpersonal skills and how you can put them together to create different approaches, we will share illustrations of them in action. Each approach is presented within the clinical supervision structure for consistency. However, the approaches also apply within the other structures of peer coaching, Critical Friends Groups, and practitioner research teams. The approaches are equally appropriate for working with individuals or groups of

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Figure 4.3 Instructional Leadership Beliefs Inventory Part I: Predictions Directions: Check one answer for each question.

Questions How often do you use a directive-control or directiveinformational approach (rather than the other approaches) in supervising teachers? How often do you use a collaborative approach (rather than the other approaches) in supervising teachers? How often do you use a nondirective approach (rather than the other approaches) in supervising teachers?

About 100 percent of the time

About 75 percent of the time

About 50 percent of the time

About 25 percent of the time

About 0 percent of the time

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

______

Note: This is a slight modification of an instrument originally developed by Roy T. Tamashiro and Carl Glickman (Glickman, 1980).

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Figure 4.4 Instructional Leadership Beliefs Inventory Part II: Forced Choices Directions: Circle either A. or B. for each item. Although you may not completely agree with either choice, you must choose the one that is closest to how you feel. 1. A. Leaders should give teachers a large degree of autonomy and initiative within broadly defined limits. B. Leaders should give teachers directions about methods that will help them improve their teaching. 2. A. It is important for teachers to set their own goals and objectives for professional growth. B. It is important for leaders to help teachers reconcile their personalities and teaching styles with the philosophy and direction of the school. 3. A. Teachers are likely to feel uncomfortable and anxious if the objectives on which they will be evaluated are not clearly defined by the leader. B. Evaluations of teachers are meaningless if teachers are not able to define with their leaders the objectives for evaluation. 4. A. An open, trusting, warm, and personal relationship with teachers is the most important ingredient in supervising teachers. B. A leader who is too informal and friendly with teachers risks being less effective and less respected than a leader who keeps a certain degree of professional distance from teachers. 5. A. My role during conferences is to make the interaction positive, to share realistic information, and to help teachers plan their own solutions to problems. B. The methods and strategies I use with teachers in a conference are aimed at our reaching agreement over the needs for future improvement. 6. In the initial phase of working with a teacher . . . A. I develop objectives with each teacher that will help accomplish school goals. B. I try to identify the talents and goals of individual teachers so they can work on their own improvement. 7. When several teachers have a similar classroom problem, I prefer to . . . A. Have the teachers form an ad hoc group and help them work together to solve the problem. B. Help teachers on an individual basis find their strengths, abilities, and resources so that each one finds his own solution to the problem. 8. The most important clue that an in-service workshop is needed is when . . . A. The leader perceives that several teachers lack knowledge or skill in a specific area that is resulting in low morale, undue stress, and less effective teaching. B. Several teachers perceive the need to strengthen their abilities in the same instructional area. 9. A. The formal leadership staff should decide the objectives of an in-service workshop because they have a broad perspective of the teachers’ abilities and the school’s needs. B. Teachers and the formal leadership staff should reach consensus about the objectives of an in-service workshop before the workshop is held. 10. A. Teachers who feel they are growing personally will be more effective in the classroom than teachers who are not experiencing personal growth. B. The knowledge and ability of teaching strategies and methods that have been proven over the years should be taught and practiced by all teachers to be effective in their classrooms. 11. When I perceive that a teacher might be scolding a student unnecessarily . . . A. I explain, during a conference with the teacher, why the scolding was excessive. B. I ask the teacher about the incident without interjecting my judgments. 12. A. One effective way to improve teacher performance is to formulate clear behavioral objectives and create meaningful incentives for achieving them. B. Behavioral objectives are rewarding and helpful to some teachers and stifling to others; also, some teachers benefit from behavioral objectives in some situations but not in others. (continued)

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Figure 4.4 (continued) 13. During a preobservation conference . . . A. I suggest to the teacher what I could observe, but I let the teacher make the final decision about the objectives and methods of observation. B. The teacher and I mutually decide the objectives and methods of observation. 14. A. Improvement occurs very slowly if teachers are left on their own. However, when a group of teachers work together on a specific problem, they learn rapidly and their morale remains high. B. Group activities may be enjoyable, but I find that individual, open discussion with a teacher about a problem and its possible solutions leads to more sustained results. 15. When an in-service or staff development workshop is scheduled . . . A. All teachers who participated in the decision to hold the workshop should be expected to attend it. B. Teachers, regardless of their role in forming a workshop, should be able to decide if the workshop is relevant to their personal or professional growth and, if not, should not be expected to attend. Scoring Key Step 1: Circle your answer from Part II of the inventory in the columns below. Column I 1B 3A 4B

Column II 1A 2B 3B 5B

6A 7A 8A 9A 10B 11A 12A 14B

Column III 2A 4A 5A 6B 7B 8B

9B 10A 11B 12B 13B 14A 15A

13A 15B

Step 2: Tally the number of circled items in each column and multiply by 6.7. 2.1 Total responses in Column I _____× 6.7 = _____ 2.2 Total responses in Column II _____× 6.7 = _____ 2.3 Total responses in Column III _____× 6.7 = _____ Step 3: Interpret The product you obtained in Step 2.1 is an approximate percentage of how often you take a directive approach (informational or control) with teachers, rather than either of the other two approaches. The product you obtained in Step 2.2 is an approximate percentage of how often you take a collaborative approach, and Step 2.3 is an approximate percentage of how often you take a nondirective approach. The approach on which you spend the greatest percentage of time is the leadership model that dominates your beliefs. If the percentage values are equal or nearly equal, you take an eclectic approach. You can also compare these results with your predictions in Part I (Figure 4.3 on page 62).

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teachers. The illustrations show leaders’ efforts with teachers of various grade levels and subject areas and include additional ways of observing and planning not mentioned in previous chapters. We will examine the work of Bob Finer, a middle school science teacher; Susan Valdes, a 4th grade teacher; and Keith Klunger, a high school English teacher. The clinical format will be the same so that you can focus on the applications of the particular approaches—directive-control, directive-informational, collaborative, and nondirective.

The Directive-Control Approach The directive-control approach includes the major interpersonal skills of clarifying, presenting, directing, setting parameters, and reinforcing. The final outcome is an assignment for the teacher to carry out over a specified period of time. Bob Finer, a middle school science teacher, is encountering a great deal of trouble with three students in his class. These students are constantly talking out of turn, starting fights, and taunting other classmates. Mr. Finer finds their behavior disturbing and sees that other students, who would normally ignore those behaviors, are now joining in. Science class is rapidly deteriorating into wasted time. The leader has made a few random visits to Mr. Finer’s classroom to deliver messages and materials. She has discussed informally this increasingly out-ofcontrol classroom with him several times. Now, based on those observations and often hearing Mr. Finer’s angry voice and seeing a steady procession of students sent to the school office, the leader has determined that Mr. Finer is experiencing serious classroom management problems. With this in mind, she arranges a meeting with him. The leader has analyzed what the teacher needs and is proceeding on the basis that Mr. Finer needs definite, immediate, and concrete help to get the class “turned around.” Time is being wasted, and Mr. Finer needs to be told what to do. Standards of performance need to be determined, and a timeline of specific teacher actions must be assigned. A directive leader might engage Mr. Finer in the following manner: Preconference. The leader is seated behind her desk as Mr. Finer walks in. She asks him to be seated in a chair directly across from her. The leader begins by presenting her thoughts. Leader: Bob, I detect that you are having problems with some of your students in your 5th period class. I would like to help you in making that class more productive.

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Mr. Finer (shrugging): It’s not too bad. I’ll get them under control. Leader: I’m sure you will, but time is moving on, and I’d like to help. I’m planning to visit the class tomorrow for the entire period. Mr. Finer (again shrugs his shoulders): Well, I’m streaming a video tomorrow, so I don’t know how much you’ll get to see. Leader: All right, I’ll be in the next day. Listen, I’m going to closely observe the students during the class and see how attentive they are. Perhaps I can get some clues as to why they lose attention. Mr. Finer: I can give you a clue. Watch Trevor, Carlos, and Renee. Watch how they get everyone going. Leader: Fine. I’ll use an instrument to record the behavior of those three students. If they are the source of the problem, we can come up with a plan for keeping them under control. See you in two days. The leader has clearly been in charge of this preconference. She has classified the problem, checked it out with the teacher, and outlined how she will observe the class. While she has listened to the teacher to verify or revise her own thinking, she has not encouraged the teacher to talk on. The leader wants immediate, direct action and deflects any teacher hesitancies. The leader is not hostile or intimidating; instead, she is businesslike, serious, and task-oriented. Classroom observation. During the observation, the leader uses a checklist at five-minute intervals (see Figure 4.5). Each time she observes one of the students

Figure 4.5 Checklist for an Observation of Student Behavior Attentive to Task

Inattentive/Passive

Inattentive/Active

1:10 1:15 1:20 1:25 1:30 1:35 1:40 1:45 1:50 1:55

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listening to the teacher, engaging in classroom discussion, or doing assigned work, she puts a check in the “Attentive to Task” box. When she sees one of the students vacantly staring into space or sitting with her head on the desk, she puts a check in the “Inattentive/Passive” box. Each time one of the three students is out of her seat, wandering around, talking with others about nonschool matters, fighting, or displaying other disruptive behavior, the leader puts a check in the “Inattentive/Active” box. Each student is given an initial observation and nine additional five-minute observations during the class period. At the end of the class, the leader asks Mr. Finer to meet with her to discuss the observation. Analysis and interpretation. Back in her office, the leader reviews the completed form (see Figure 4.6) and prepares for the postconference. She quickly concludes that the three students were attentive for only 6 observations out of 30, or 20 percent of the time. On further analysis, she notices that the students began as attentive, moved to passive inattention, and then to active inattention. After that point, the best that Mr. Finer could do was to yell at them to get passive inattention. Only once did a student get back to “Attentive to Task.” The leader concludes that Mr. Finer must stop their disruptive behavior (Inattentive/Active) and get them back to the task more frequently. If not, the leader concludes, Mr. Finer is fighting a losing battle with the three students. The leader concurs with Mr. Finer’s previous judgment that the three students do appear to instigate trouble with the rest of the students. The leader sits back to consider thoughtfully what she will tell Mr. Finer.

Figure 4.6 Completed Checklist for an Observation of Student Behavior Attentive to Task 1:10

XXX

1:15

XX

Inattentive/Passive

Inattentive/Active

X

1:20

XXX

1:25

XX

1:30

X XXX (entire class noisy)

1:35

XXX

1:40

XX

X

X

X

1:50

X

XX

1:55

XXX

1:45

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X

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Postconference. The following dialogue takes place after the leader has reviewed the completed observation instrument with the teacher: Leader: So, Bob, you can see that you’re fighting a holding action. When you get Trevor, Carlos, and Renee to stop their misbehavior, you have to get them actively engaged in learning, or else they are soon clowning around again. Mr. Finer: Well, yeah, but when I tell them to do something, they don’t. Leader: That may be true, but when I was observing, you were telling them to stop and not telling them what to do. Mr. Finer: But they don’t want to do their work. Leader: Then I think you need a threefold attack. First, get them away from each other. Second, give them each an individual project they will enjoy doing. Use it as a reward for finishing their assigned work. Third, remind them of what they are to do, not what not to do. At times, you might even move over to one of them, open the e-book, and show them what should be done. Mr. Finer: Well, okay, but I’m not sure I can find a special project for them. Leader: Tomorrow I’ll take over your class. For the first half hour, observe how I correct the behavior and see if it works. For the second half of the period, visit Mrs. Ramirez’s class and see what kinds of individual science projects she has. Mr. Finer: Okay, I’ll do what you say, but I’m still not sure if it will work. Leader: We don’t know unless we try; you can do it. So here’s your assignment. Tomorrow you are to, first, observe me teaching a demonstration lesson and, second, observe Mrs. Ramirez’s science class and the various projects. Then, for the next two weeks, you are to try three techniques. Start by giving Trevor, Carlos, and Renee a special project to do when they finish their work. Then, when you correct them, tell them what to do, even show them. Last, change their seating pattern so they are more than two seats away from each other. Put some distance between them. I’ll be back in your classroom for a follow-up observation two weeks from today, same period, and I want to see if you have increased their attentive time to at least 50 percent. Any questions? Mr. Finer: No, I don’t think so. What if I don’t get 50 percent of attentive time? Leader: I think that you can. Let me see if I can get you those hands-on dissection kits that you’ve been wanting.

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Postanalysis. The following morning, the leader and the teacher converse in the hall: Leader: “What do you think about what we’ve done up to now?” Mr. Finer: “I’m still not sure if all this will help, but at least I have directions to follow. I was really floundering before.” Leader: “If it doesn’t work, I have some other ideas to try later on. But I think it will.” Discussion: The directive-control approach. The directive leader took control, and after thinking carefully about Bob Finer’s situation, she collected data, presented it, and gave the teacher a two-week action assignment. She carefully detailed what the teacher was to do and what the criteria for improvement were. The leader engaged primarily in the behaviors of clarifying and presenting her thinking, directing what should happen, and setting parameters for a target level of student progress. The leader used praise and rewards as an incentive and as reinforcement for carrying out the plan. The directive-control approach should not be confused with arbitrary, capricious, or totalitarian behavior. The directive leader has judged that the most effective way to improve instruction is by making standards clear and by tangibly showing teachers how to attain such standards. It is a thoughtful, businesslike, and unilateral approach based on a careful collection of data. The approach presumes that the leader knows more about the context of teaching and learning than the teacher does. Therefore, the leader’s decisions are likely to be more effective than if the teacher is left to her own devices. The leader employs directive behaviors to develop a detailed assignment for the teacher. Although the sequence may vary, the leader’s dominant behaviors are the following: • Clarifying. The leader clarifies the teacher’s problem and perhaps asks the teacher for confirmation or revision. • Presenting. The leader presents their ideas on what information should be collected and how it will be collected. • Directing. The leader directs the teacher, after data collection and analysis, on the actions that need to be taken. • Setting parameters. The leader sets the standard for improvement based on the preliminary baseline information. • Reinforcing. The leader reinforces teacher behavior by using material or social incentives.

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The Directive-Informational Approach The directive-informational approach is similar to the directive-control approach in that the leader recognizes that the teacher needs specific and concrete suggestions. However, the directive-informational approach allows the teacher to deliberate and choose from a list of suggestions that the leader identified rather than being told explicitly which strategies to use. The use of interpersonal skills in the directive-informational approach would be similar to the previous scenario with Mr. Finer—up to the postconference. In the postconference, a leader using the directive-informational approach, rather than telling Mr. Finer what to do, would lay out the suggestions in a manner such as this: Leader: Here are your options as I see them. First, you could use a threefold attack on these three students by getting them away from each other, giving them individual projects with rewards for work completion, and reminding them what to do. Or you could have conferences with them and their parents or guardians, followed by a daily phone call or a report on their behavior sent home each day. Third, you could schedule a personal attention plan to meet with them individually, and apart from each other, where you might gather commitments from each of them as to how they can improve their behavior during class discussion time and what could be done to remind them of their commitment. Fourth, you could make a visit to each student’s home, so that a new personal relationship is forged between you and the student and family. Fifth, . . . . After presenting the options, the leader would ask Mr. Finer to tell her, either then or a day or two later, which of the options (singly, in combination, or in modified form) he will use, and to put in writing the action plan to be implemented. What is of great importance here in distinguishing between the directivecontrol and the directive-informational approaches is that in the former the leader determines what the action plan will be. In the latter, the teacher determines within the leader’s recommendations what will be done. This difference between control and information is a fundamental difference in the degree of choice that the teacher has.

The Collaborative Approach The collaborative approach includes the major interpersonal skills of presenting, clarifying, listening, problem solving, and negotiating. The end result is a mutually agreed upon contract by leader and teacher that delineates the structure, process, and criteria for subsequent instructional improvement.

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Susan Valdes, a 4th grade teacher in a self-contained classroom in a K–8 STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) public magnet school, is the personification of energy. She is constantly moving around the classroom, talking, listening, and observing. Her classroom is filled with materials, many of which she or her students have created. The classroom has an incessant hum of activity. This fall she has added a new program of technology infusion in literacy instruction. By February, Ms. Valdes appears tired. Twice in one week she has uncharacteristically lost her temper with students. At recess, she stays in her classroom rather than joining others in the staff room. The collaborative leader might decide to speak casually with Ms. Valdes to see if she would like help, or the leader could wait for Ms. Valdes to initiate a conversation. In this particular case, the leader is concerned about Ms. Valdes’ physical condition. The leader decides that an exhausted teacher in an activity-centered room portends trouble. Therefore, the leader decides to take the initiative and meet with the teacher. Preconference. The preconference meeting is set for the lunch period. Susan and Dwight Graham, the leader, bring their lunches and sit casually at a table in the classroom. Susan: Hey, Dwight! What’s going on? Dwight: Not too much. The curriculum study and the technology infusion are taking a lot out of me, but they’re progressing. You? Susan: Okay. Things are fine, but I can’t wait until spring vacation. Dwight: You look a little tired to me; you don’t seem to have your usual energy. Susan: Well, maybe I am a bit tired, but I’ll get over it. Dwight: What is making you tired? How can I help? Susan: I think it’s just the move into a new home and, you know, with unpacking boxes, painting walls, getting my kids adjusted, and trying to keep up with all my classroom activities. It gets to be a bit much. The iReady testing and focus on district assessments are really consuming my instructional time. Dwight: I’m not sure I can help with home renovation, but maybe I can help here at school. I wonder if you are making things too difficult for yourself. Your planning has always been a full-time job, and now with all of the stress at home, maybe you just can’t keep up the same pace with planning.

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Susan: I don’t feel right about doing less for my students because of my personal life. I’ll be fine. Dwight: Yeah, you might be fine, or the stress could really start affecting your health. How about if I come into your class over the next few days, just to see what’s going on? Maybe we could discuss some ways to do the same for the students in less time. Susan: You’re always welcome to come in. Don’t just observe, though. If you see some students who need help with their activities, please work with them. Dwight: Okay. For the next week, I’ll be part-time observer and part-time tutor. Throughout this preconference, friendly negotiation is going on. First, the leader has to gain entry into the teacher’s problem. If the teacher did not want help, the leader would have to decide either to back off and try to find access later or to press more forcefully with words such as, “I am concerned and feel that as a leader I need to get involved. You appear tired and I want to help.” If the teacher still refused, the leader as a negotiator might attempt to counter with a proposal and then look for a counterproposal with words such as, “I’m going to come in and take a closer look at your classroom. What do you want me to look at, and how do you want to use me in the classroom?” When encountering an unwilling teacher, the leader, who tries to negotiate to the effect that the leader’s involvement is imperative, asks the teacher to state the conditions for involvement. At this point, they can both consider each other’s proposals and come to an agreement. Classroom observation. As agreed, Dwight comes into Susan’s classroom over the next four days. He visits for 20 minutes twice each day and is careful to select different times of day. During each observation, he keeps a notebook in his hands and moves about the classroom, noting the teacher’s instruction, checking on students’ activities, discussing with students their assignments, and helping individual students who have questions. He jots down notes and, on leaving the classroom, hurriedly writes down general observations. Here is an example of his notes:

Observation #3, Tuesday, February 15, 10–10:20 a.m. Students are at three different learning stations. Susan is at the literacy and technology station having individual conferences with children on the latest books they have read. She spends a few minutes asking questions about the books and how students will present a commercial review for a simulated website. In the math station, three students are using manipulatives to create geometric figures; two other students are

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estimating the height of the school building. They asked me to guess, and we talked about different ways to mathematically arrive at a good estimate. While talking, we couldn’t help noticing the students over in the construction area who were trying to build a miniature lunar craft. The hammer-banging and arguing were quite loud. Susan had to stop her conferences three times to tell the construction group to stop. Finally, she told them to leave the area. General Impressions Susan must have an enormous amount of record keeping and assignments to correct each night. There is a bin for collected daily assignments. Also, it seems distracting to students to have noisy activities going on next to quiet activities. Analysis. After the four days of observations, Dwight rereads his notes and jots down questions to ask Susan at the postconference: • • • • •

How many assignments do you personally correct each day? Can you give fewer assignments, or are there alternative ways to correct them? What is the reason for three centers? Why have so many individual plans? Is there another way for students to get feedback?

Dwight, in analyzing his observations, believes that Susan has too much to oversee and coordinate at school—regardless of what she has going on at home. She is doing too much for students and not letting them take more responsibility for their classwork. He decides to ask the questions he has written down, listen to Susan’s responses, ask her what she thinks could be done, propose what he thinks should be done, and then find mutual solutions to write in a contract form. Postconference. At the postconference, Dwight presents the questions all at once. After listening to the questions, Susan answers that she (1) normally corrects three assignments per student each day (a total of 81); (2) is unsure if fewer assignments could be given because she needs to monitor each student’s progress; (3) had considered eliminating the construction center but wanted to keep the art and music centers, which were noisy though not troublesome; (4) did not believe in ability groups and would rather keep the work as individualized as possible; and (5) was frustrated and unsure about how to do that. As the leader, Dwight then carefully begins problem solving by saying, “I think we should take some time to consider what changes you can make to reduce the amount of teacher work and generally streamline your class operation. I have always admired the excitement and interest

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that you generate in your classroom. Let’s not lose that. Tonight, why don’t we each make a list of two or three possible changes that could be made immediately? Can you meet with me before school tomorrow to share our lists? Say about 7:30?” That night Dwight writes down these ideas: • Allow selected students to correct simple assignments. • Conduct more small-group, rather than individual, sessions with students in developing rubrics and guides for how they can critique each other’s work. The same evening, Susan jots down these ideas: • Ask Sonya Jerdel (the 6th grade teacher) if I may use some of her top students as paper checkers and recorders. See if Natasha’s grandmother would be interested in helping; she expressed interest in helping at the beginning of the year. • Eliminate the construction center for every day and instead have an all-class construction period on Friday afternoon. • Let the home renovations wait until spring vacation; unpacking boxes is enough for now. Stop being so compulsive! The following morning, the postconference continues, and Susan and Dwight share their ideas. Then they revise and choose activities that they both agree will solve the problem of “teacher overload.” Let’s pick up the conversation after they have read their suggestions to each other: Dwight: I don’t know about using a parent volunteer or an older student to help correct papers. I think most of your students, if given detailed instructions and a master sheet, could correct spelling assignments. Why don’t you let them try it? Or how about group critiques of student work? Susan: It’s worth a try for a week or two. Could you help me develop self-guided rubrics for group assessments to get started? Dwight: Sure. I’ll help by getting your students started. Now what about the idea of silent and active periods and small groups? Susan: No, I don’t think so. I want them to learn how to work independently, and they progress so much more quickly when I individualize their assignments. I don’t want to mess with the basic classroom arrangement right now. I will eliminate the construction center as a daily activity and have it on Friday only. Dwight: If you don’t want to change the basic plan, why eliminate the construction center? Instead, why don’t you go over the rules for the center and revoke the privilege to use it if students don’t obey the rules? Susan: Well, that would be one less change to think about. Dwight: We seem to have come up with a contract. Let’s write it down.

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Dwight writes down what they have agreed to. Susan asks him to also include her promise to herself that she will drop the home renovation until spring break. Dwight agrees, and they sign and date the paper (see Figure 4.7). Postanalysis. During the next week, Susan and Dwight review this process. Susan explains that the procedures have been helpful because she was truly being pulled in too many directions. She is happy that Dwight did not persist with his suggestion for basic classroom reorganization because she would have felt that her personal life had compromised her professional life. Dwight mentions that he is satisfied and hopes that Susan has not closed her mind to further changes in the classroom. Discussion: The collaborative approach. The leader and the teacher have actively negotiated the plan for action. Neither leader nor teacher has presented a final plan that excludes the other’s view. Instead, they have reviewed, revised, rejected, proposed, and counterproposed until they could reach agreement. Such a collaborative orientation presupposes that a leader’s or a teacher’s individual ideas about instructional improvement are not as effective as mutually derived ideas.

Figure 4.7 Sample Instruction Contract Instruction Contract Between Ms. Susan Valdez, Teacher Mr. Dwight Graham, Instructional Lead Teacher March 18, 2020 Objective: To reduce the amount of teacher work. Teacher activities: 1. Review portfolios every other week; have students do group reviews of each other on alternate weeks. 2. Stress construction center rules and penalize violators. 3. Postpone home redecorating until spring. Instructional lead teacher activities: 1. Help develop the self-guided rubrics for group feedback on individual student technology portfolios. 2. Visit classroom and meet with students on the use of the rubrics twice before next meeting. Follow-up meeting scheduled for April 3, 2020. Teacher signature: _______________________________________________________ Instructional lead teacher signature: _________________________________________

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Although each might advocate for their ideas, in the end, each must accept modifications and adaptations and agree on the necessary actions. The pragmatic reader might question what would happen if the leader and the teacher could not reach agreement. In a truly collaborative context, a third person—a mediator agreeable to both parties (such as a master teacher or central office consultant)—would have to step in with the authority to “break the vote,” if it came to that. However, more realistically, out of all the options brainstormed, the leader and the teacher should be able to agree on at least a few actions, and the teacher could do whatever additional ones they prefer. The final product of the collaboration is a contract, agreed to by both and carried out as a joint responsibility, in the following manner: • Presenting. The leader presents their perceptions of the instructional area needing improvement. • Clarifying. The leader asks for the teacher’s perceptions of the instructional area in question. • Listening. The leader listens to the teacher’s perceptions. • Problem solving. The leader and the teacher propose alternative actions for improvement. • Negotiating. The leader and the teacher discuss the options and alter proposed actions until a joint plan is agreed on.

The Nondirective Approach The nondirective approach includes the major interpersonal skills of listening, clarifying, encouraging, and reflecting.

Keith Klunger walks over to his desk and sits down. He mulls over the English class that has just ended. Members of the class have given oral reports on their interpretation of Shakespeare’s Othello. The reports were uninspiring and remarkably uniform in tone and content. Mr. Klunger thinks that many students had either “borrowed” ideas from one student or had bought a summary of Othello and used the main ideas from that publication. Regardless, none of the reports indicated any excitement for the character or for plot development. Mr. Klunger reflects on previous classes and thinks that students haven’t always been this way. He remembers one class in particular: “How they argued and analyzed Shakespeare! If only I could recreate some of that enthusiasm.” Later that day Ms. Garcia, his department leader, stops by.

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The nondirective orientation rests on the major premise that teachers are capable of analyzing and solving their own instructional problems. When the teacher sees the need for change and takes major responsibility for it, instructional improvement is likely to be meaningful and lasting. Therefore, Ms. Garcia wishes to act as a facilitator for the teacher by imposing little formal structure or direction. This does not mean she is passive, allowing the teacher complete autonomy. Instead, she actively uses the behaviors of listening, clarifying, encouraging, presenting, and problem solving to channel Mr. Klunger toward self-discovery. Although she leaves the discovery to the teacher, she takes the initiative to see that the necessary self-awareness does develop. A nondirective leader, more than a collaborative, directive-informational, or directive-control leader, might not use a standard format such as the five steps of clinical supervision when working with a teacher. Instead, depending on the teacher’s needs, the leader might simply observe the teacher without analyzing and interpreting, listen without making observations, or arrange in-service training and provide requested materials and resources. For the sake of consistency, however, we will follow the leader-teacher relationship according to the clinical model, noting how the model is altered after the preconference. In a nondirective orientation, the teacher determines the steps that will follow the preconference. Preconference. Ms. Garcia enters Mr. Klunger’s room. Mr. Klunger: Welcome, Ms. Garcia. Have a seat. What a class. Ms. Garcia: Thank you. Is life treating you all right? Mr. Klunger: Well, I have my ups and downs. At times I think that teaching just isn’t for me. The kids have changed so much. Even though state standards say that students must know Shakespeare, the kids don’t care. It just doesn’t seem relevant to their lives; why should they care!? Ms. Garcia: Teaching is not for you? I didn’t know you felt that way. Mr. Klunger: Yeah, at times I really wonder if I’m accomplishing anything. Just today that 5th period class made Shakespeare appear as exciting as a rotting elm tree. If they can’t see the wonder of his writing, I don’t know how to help them appreciate his literature. Ms. Garcia (nodding her head): It’s frustrating. Mr. Klunger: Yes, it is! Ms. Garcia (pauses, waits for Mr. Klunger to say more; when it appears that Mr. Klunger is not going to speak, she looks attentively at him): Go on; tell me more about what’s so frustrating.

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Mr. Klunger: The students show no initiative. Teaching just isn’t exciting anymore. Oh, some of the other classes are tolerable, but that 5th period class is a disaster! Ms. Garcia: What goes on during 5th period? Mr. Klunger: Nothing! That’s the problem. Ms. Garcia: Nothing? Mr. Klunger: I read them passages of Shakespeare. Ask for their interpretations and try to get a discussion going. They don’t identify in any way with this. They think it is all “old white man” stuff. I’m sorry, I’m just at a loss. The conversation continues for 10 more minutes with Mr. Klunger doing most of the talking and Ms. Garcia listening attentively. Finally, after another prolonged pause, Ms. Garcia feels it’s time to ask Mr. Klunger for his analysis of what can be done. Ms. Garcia: It sounds as though both your students and you are less than happy. What do you think might be done? Mr. Klunger: Obviously what I have always done isn’t working. I’m going to have to change my approach. Ms. Garcia: Do you want to try something different now? Mr. Klunger: Yes, now that I’ve heard myself whine, I’ll stop feeling sorry for myself. Starting tomorrow, I’m going to have a class discussion with them. I’m going to tell them about my dissatisfaction with them and my teaching and see if we can begin Macbeth with a fresh approach. Why don’t you come into class and listen to what goes on? You might give me some information that I’m missing. Ms. Garcia: Okay. See you tomorrow. The preconference is the “go or no-go” point. If Mr. Klunger did not ask for Ms. Garcia to observe, the process would stop and Ms. Garcia might need to follow up with another conference to discuss what had transpired since their last talk. However, in this case she has been asked to observe informally. Classroom observation. For the observation, Ms. Garcia enters the classroom, sits in the back, and listens to the class discussion. However, she doesn’t take notes. She notices that Mr. Klunger spends most of the time expressing his disappointment to the students over their lack of interest in Shakespeare. At the end, he does ask them what might be done to improve the class. After much student humor and put-downs, one student says, “The reading is real difficult.” Basically,

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the discussion, while it gets some teacher and student feelings out in the open, fails to solve the problems of either side. Analysis and interpretation. Ms. Garcia, returning to her office, thinks Mr. Klunger has not handled the class discussion effectively. Such an approach would never get honest student feedback. She pledges to herself to “bite her lip” and not give advice or suggestions unless Mr. Klunger asks for them. If he asks for her observations, she will merely tell him, without judgments, what she saw. Then she might ask him what he could do to change the content and methods of the lesson to bring Shakespeare to life. If asked for her ideas, she will suggest another classroom discussion to get more student ideas or allowing students to pick out passages of Macbeth and rewrite them as a modern playwright might. Regardless, at the conclusion of the meeting, she will ask Mr. Klunger what he plans to do and what assistance she might offer. Postconference. Ms. Garcia enters Mr. Klunger’s room during his planning period. Mr. Klunger (looks up): Well, didn’t I tell you how disinterested those students are? You saw how much response I got—one coherent student reply. Ms. Garcia: There was one reply, and the group did seem pretty down. Mr. Klunger: They need to get motivated. Ms. Garcia (jumping on the opening): How could you get them motivated? Mr. Klunger: Just the question that I was going to ask you. Ms. Garcia: You tell me first; then, if you wish, I’ll give you my thoughts. Mr. Klunger: I think I’m going to have only one class lecture, next week. Instead, I’ll introduce Macbeth, have them read parts of the entire play, and have them choose one of four scenarios to act out according to their experiences. I’ll spend time with each group and then on Friday let them give mini-dramas. What do you think? Ms. Garcia (being asked, she responds forthrightly): Sounds fine, but I wonder if all the students would want to act in front of the class. Some of them might feel foolish. Maybe you should ask them for ideas on how to make the content more relevant to their lives and cultures so that they can start to identify with it more—or, if that idea’s not appealing, I thought they might be assigned different activities, such as drawing a scene, rewriting a section of the play according to modern times, verifying historical circumstances, or putting particular verses to music.

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Mr. Klunger: I like that idea. I’ll have four groups focus on the same section of the play, but the groups will be assigned different tasks. Ms. Garcia: This certainly will be a change. Maybe you should go slow in doing this, perhaps only two groups to begin with. Mr. Klunger: No, I’ve about had it, but I’m not quitting. I want to get them excited. It’s all or nothing! I’m going to start Wednesday when we begin Macbeth. Ms. Garcia: Can I help you in any way? Mr. Klunger: No, thanks—I’m all set. Ms. Garcia: Okay, I’ll stop by and see how it goes. Good luck! Postanalysis. The next week, Ms. Garcia stops by the room, and the teacher and she have the following exchange: Mr. Klunger: Thanks for talking with me last week. I needed someone to unload my woes on and help me figure out what I was going to do. I’m almost excited again. Ms. Garcia: That’s fantastic! I’m so glad you are feeling better. I thought you were troubled about something. I am happy to listen and help. So, how did it go last week? Mr. Klunger: Soooo much better! The students were much more engaged, and I think it was because they were able to make a connection between Shakespeare and their lives. Even though he’s “an ol’ dead white guy,” by allowing them to take his ideas and make them relevant through different activities, it connected more with who they are and what they experience here in school and in the community. Ms. Garcia: That’s wonderful! It sounds like you all are feeling better. Mr. Klunger: Yes, absolutely! I think you were right, though, about taking on all of the groups. It was a little chaotic at first. I probably should have only done two groups. I wish I had taken that suggestion. Now, though, that I’ve been through it, I’ve been thinking about how I could organize the groups better to minimize the chaos. Ms. Garcia: Great! So what did you determine you are going to do? Mr. Klunger: I’m thinking that I need to prepare the activities with better directions. I should have written them down and had them posted in different areas of the room. I’m also thinking of incorporating some technology for the different choices as well. I’m a little nervous about that.

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Ms. Garcia: That’s understandable. Why are you nervous? Mr. Klunger: I always seem to have problems with it. It never works when I want it to, and I don’t know enough how to troubleshoot it. Ms. Garcia: Are there resources you could use? Mr. Klunger: I’m not sure. Do you have ideas? Ms. Garcia: We could reach out to Ms. Reyes (the instructional technology teacher) for help. I also have found the students to be great sources of knowledge. They know so much more than I do about the technology and definitely have more of a comfort level fixing things when they go wrong. I’m also happy to help if you want. We could sit down during your next planning period if you want to discuss the planning, or I’m happy to come back in. Just let me know what I can do. I’m here to help you. Mr. Klunger: Thanks. I think I’m good for now. Ms. Garcia: Okay, sounds good. Well, let me know if I can help in any way. Mr. Klunger: Will do! Discussion: The nondirective approach. Throughout the clinical steps, the teacher (Mr. Klunger) was respected as the ultimate determiner of his future course of action. The leader (Ms. Garcia) actively listened, rephrased statements, asked questions, and kept the teacher’s discourse on track toward resolution. If the teacher had not wanted to change, then the “pure” nondirective leader would have dropped the discussion but would have continued actively at other times to stimulate the teacher to think about what he was doing. In Ms. Garcia’s case, her active role turned Mr. Klunger’s initial response, “I don’t think teaching is for me” into “I’m going to have to change my approach” and eventually to “I’m going to break them into groups and then . . . .” The leader never loses sight of working toward a teacher’s self-plan, which might result from borrowed ideas or from teacher insight alone. Nevertheless, the leader accepts the teacher’s right and responsibility to make the final decision. The pragmatic reader might ask, “What if the teacher’s plan is downright bad, cruel, or harmful? Does the leader simply acquiesce?” In such a case, the nondirective leader has every right to explain their misgivings about the teacher’s plan and ask for reconsideration. However, a nondirective orientation assumes that the teacher ultimately makes the wisest and most responsible decisions for their classroom; thus, the final determination is still left with the teacher. The nondirective leader engages in listening, clarifying, encouraging, and problem solving to help

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the teacher arrive at a self-plan. The following steps represent the simplified proceedings of such actions: • Listening. The leader listens to the teacher’s problem by facing and showing attention to the teacher. The leader shows empathy with the teacher by nodding their head and restating emotions by saying, for example, “It is frustrating.” • Clarifying. The leader clarifies the teacher’s problem by paraphrasing and questioning: “You mean the students are bored with the topic?” “Do they like anything about the lesson?” or “What feedback do you get from them?” • Encouraging. The leader encourages the teacher to analyze the problem further: “Tell me more,” “Please continue on,” or “Explain that further.” • Presenting. If the teacher asks for suggestions, the leader offers alternatives: “The students could be reorganized, or the topic could be changed to include their interests.” • Problem solving. Finally, at the moment of truth, the leader asks the teacher to decide on a plan: “What are you going to do?” Then, the teacher offers assistance: “How can I be of help?”

Understanding the Goals of Each Approach to Foster Autonomy and Competency Fostering intellectual and self-motivated growth on the part of teachers means that the instructional leader, whenever possible, uses an approach that demands greater choice and thought on the part of the teacher.

Directive-Control A directive-control approach, in which the source of thoughts and actions to be taken comes unilaterally from the leader, should be used only in an emergency situation in which a teacher is overwhelmed, paralyzed, totally inexperienced, or incompetent in the current classroom situation. In essence, such controlled assignments have as their goal to protect the students by keeping the teacher from drowning in a sea of ineffectual practice. This approach is very leader-directed, and because leaders are the primary participants determining the course of action and assigning a plan, teachers take little, if any, ownership over the outcome and can blame the leader should the desired outcome not be achieved.

Directive-Informational A directive-informational approach is used in a minimal way to begin to push initiative from the leader to the teacher by asking the teacher to choose among

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specific alternatives. The generation of observations and ideas from the teacher can come quickly after a successful round or rounds of directive-informational interventions. For this approach to be successful, teachers need to believe that the leader has expertise or at least enough expertise to provide useful suggestions. Differentiating between directive-control and directive-informational can also be seen in the language leaders use (Pajak & Glickman 1989). Consider the differences, which we have bolded and underlined, in the statements in Figure 4.8. The language in directive-control is stronger, leaving no room for choice on the teacher’s part. The directive-informational approach, although guided by the leader, allows the teacher to have some voice by selecting among choices.

Figure 4.8 Comparing Language of Directive-Control and Directive-Informational Approaches Directive-Control

Directive-Informational

It is essential that you improve your classroom management during your 1st period math class.

I suggest the goal of improving your classroom management during your 1st period math class.

One of my expectations is that you attend the district’s training on classroom management.

One alternative is that you attend the district’s training on classroom management.

You need to have a written lesson plan that includes the following elements for each of your reading lessons.

You could prepare more detailed lesson plans. Each lesson plan might include . . . .

Do you have questions concerning these new expectations?

Do you have any questions regarding these possible actions?

You will be required to make these changes we’ve discussed in accordance with this timeline.

Which of the alternatives that we discussed do you wish to try out?

Source: Pajak and Glickman (1989).

Collaborative A collaborative approach is most often the desired choice in schools that promote learning as social and collegial. Both leader and teacher approach the tasks of instructional improvement as a meeting of equals, trying to generate together the best course of future actions. This approach is deceptively simple. However, in reality, it requires tremendous time and vulnerability as well as extensive facilitation and negotiation skills on both the leader’s and the teacher’s part. It demands a respectful, egalitarian relationship in which both leader and teacher are willing to share, disclose, and negotiate.

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Nondirective A nondirective approach is best used when teachers themselves clearly have greater knowledge and understanding of their teaching than does the leader. The leader’s critical role, rather than to leave such masterful teachers alone, is to facilitate their own thinking and improvement plans and to provide resources that assist in the attainment of the plans. While this approach may seem laissez-faire, in reality, the leader is actively involved in the process. This approach is on the opposite end of the continuum from directive-control in that the nondirective approach is actually teacher-directed, with the teacher serving as the leader and the leader serving as a support, taking direction from the teacher and offering guidance and support when needed.

Summary The goal to bringing out the best in teachers is to move toward a collaborative approach and, at times, a nondirective approach as quickly as possible. Both of the directive approaches (directive-control and directive-informational) can make teachers dependent on leaders to make decisions; however, the intention should be for every teacher to be autonomous and competent. Fostering autonomy and competency means using a directive approach when necessary while moving toward a collaborative approach as soon as possible. In this chapter, we defined the interpersonal skills of listening, clarifying, encouraging, reflecting, presenting, problem solving, negotiating, directing, setting parameters, and reinforcing, and we illustrated, through four examples, how those skills could be put together to create different interpersonal approaches. In the directive-control approach, the leader emphasizes the behaviors of clarifying, presenting, directing, setting parameters, and reinforcing in developing an assignment for the teacher. In the directive-informational approach, the leader emphasizes clarifying, presenting, directing, setting parameters, and reinforcing in recommending options for the teacher to choose and commit to. In the collaborative approach, the behaviors of presenting, clarifying, listening, problem solving, and negotiating are used to develop a contract between teacher and leader. In the nondirective approach, the behaviors of listening, clarifying, encouraging, presenting, and problem solving are used to create a teacher self-plan. In Chapter 5, we will explore how to differentiate your approach for different teachers.

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5 Differentiating Your Approach to Meet Teachers’ Developmental Needs

At the heart of student learning is the need for competent, caring, qualified professionals who should be in every classroom in every school around the world. These are teachers who know well their subjects and content fields; use a variety of appropriate teaching methods and strategies to assess high-quality student learning; understand the developmental needs of their students; and are active and reflective in the ongoing strengthening of the professional skills of teaching and learning. Such competent and caring persons can best be attracted to and retained by schools organized to promote continuous learning for all, especially when their developmental needs are met. So how might instructional leaders apply the four interpersonal approaches (outlined in Chapter 4) to working with classroom teachers to stretch each individual so that every student will have a competent, caring, qualified professional? First and foremost, great leaders know their teachers well. They also know themselves well, but most importantly, they are so sophisticated in their practice that they know how to adapt their approach to align with teachers’ developmental needs to foster teacher professional growth. 85

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As teachers work with students to support their learning, they are enacting pedagogy, or the art and science of teaching children. As a leader, your role and responsibility is to support your teachers’ learning of pedagogy and the intersection of pedagogy with content knowledge, often referred to as pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986). While working with adult learners has parallels to working with children, some observers have argued that it is distinct (Knowles, 1984). Adults, and especially teachers, have different developmental characteristics and life circumstances that affect their learning. Therefore, you, as the leader, must develop your knowledge of teachers as adult learners and your skill in fostering their learning about pedagogy. This ability to meet teachers where they are to foster their learning is called andragogy, more commonly defined as the art and science of teaching adult learners (Galbraith, 2004; Knowles, 1984). Bringing out the best in teachers means recognizing the complexity of teachers as adult learners, meeting them where they are developmentally, and using your knowledge of them as learners to guide the leadership decisions you make. Being an exemplary teacher of teachers means bringing enthusiasm to your leadership. It means being knowledgeable about pedagogy and andragogy, expressing an interest in your teachers as learners, connecting theory and practice in your own practice and in teachers’ practice, being open to a variety of teaching strategies and approaches, and cultivating an environment that is positive and conducive to learning for your teachers (Galbraith, 2004). By being responsive to your teachers’ needs; encouraging high standards and setting high expectations; and having honesty, integrity, and authenticity in your leadership, you are well on your way to helping your teachers succeed! This chapter builds on the interpersonal skills and approaches outlined in Chapter 4 to help you in making judgments for when and how to use particular approaches according to teachers’ stages of development, interpersonal identities, and competence levels. As we review criteria for determining the approach to use when working with teachers, please keep in mind that nothing is static about teachers or teaching. The thinking and problem-solving skills of teachers, like those of any individual, are not fixed. People’s attitudes and enthusiasm toward their work can and do ebb and flow depending on immediate work conditions and personal concerns. The rhythms, pleasures, and conflicts of adults working with each other are not invariably smooth or rough. What we are soon to delve into are deeper ways of understanding each other and ways to act with each other in a focused and supportive manner with the overall goal of creating the sense of true teaching—the eternal and fascinating mystery of how to reach all students.

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Teachers’ growth can be viewed in multiple ways. It can be considered in terms of cognition; experience; commitment; identity; and the circumstances of particular students, subject areas, and classrooms. The issue of determining the best ways to work with individual teachers is complex, always an experiment, and grounded in an overall purpose and direction.

Teachers’ Developmental Dimensions There are six dimensions of adult and teacher development: (1) cognitive development, (2) conceptual development, (3) levels of consciousness, (4) moral development, (5) ego development, and (6) stages of concern (Glickman et al., 2018). Teachers’ development in each of these dimensions can be described on a continuum from low to moderate to high functioning.

Cognitive Development You can think about cognitive development in terms of how a teacher sees their role as a teacher, how they describe the nature of teaching and learning, and how they explain student behavior (see Figure 5.1). A lower-functioning teacher would explain that their job is to impart knowledge, compared to a higher-functioning teacher, who would describe their job as facilitating learning. A lower-functioning teacher would describe teaching as showing and telling, and learning as passive and receptive, compared to a higher-functioning teacher, who would describe teaching as fostering a learning environment and learning as an active construction. A lower-functioning teacher would have very simple, if any, explanations for student behavior—such as “Sandra just doesn’t like math” or “Maurice is so apathetic and lazy”—compared to a higher-functioning teacher, who would have more complex explanations of student behavior, such as, “Sandra struggles to focus during math instruction. Although she participates more when she works with a partner, she has trouble staying on task during independent work. It seems that Sandra needs to build her confidence and stamina during independent work, and I need to examine the independent tasks to see if they are developmentally appropriate for her. It would make sense that she struggles with independent work if the task is too challenging or if the assignment includes word problems, because Sandra is reading at a 2nd grade level even though she is in 5th grade” or “Maurice has trouble staying awake during my 1st period English class and seldom has his homework with him. It’s not that he’s lazy. His dad has recently picked up another job working second and third shifts because his mom was deployed overseas. Maurice is the oldest of four children, and his dad relies on him to help with the younger

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Figure 5.1 Cognitive Development Characteristics Lower-Functioning Simple explanations of student behavior Teaching as showing and telling Learning as passive and receptive Job is to impart knowledge

Higher-Functioning More complex explanations of student behavior Fostering a learning environment Learning as active construction Job is to facilitate learning

kids while he is at work.” Highly functioning teachers understand that student behavior is complex and interconnected with students’ lives. To understand where teachers are in terms of their cognitive development, listen to how they talk about students. Ask them questions about their role and responsibility in teaching and learning (e.g., “What is your role as the teacher?” or “What one word or phrase would you use to describe the role of a teacher?”). Answers such as “the sage on the stage” or “my job is to help them learn this content” could be indicative of a lower-functioning teacher, whereas answers such as “a facilitator,” “a conductor,” “to help them become better citizens,” or the like could be more indicative of a higher-functioning teacher. Listen to how teachers talk about themselves and about students. Those statements will be your biggest clues as to their cognitive development.

Conceptual Development You can think about conceptual development as how teachers approach problems in their practice and their comfort level with problem solving (see Figure 5.2). A lower-functioning teacher would have very concrete thinking. They would see problems and solutions as black and white—that is, there is a right answer and a wrong answer. Lower-functioning teachers often struggle to define a problem, and they generally use the same approach to respond to similar problems. They like rules because they are rule followers and are often punitive in their approach to classroom management. They also can be very anxious or highly stressed. They have a limited range of instructional methods, and they become overwhelmed very easily. Lower-functioning teachers can be very negative and complain often. They are the teachers who are always complaining about students, about the school, about parents, and so on. You name it, and they are most likely unhappy about it. They really don’t like change because uncertainty makes them uncomfortable. Lower-functioning teachers need lots of help and support, even though they may not ask for it or even want it.

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Figure 5.2 Conceptual Development Characteristics Lower-Functioning Concrete thinking Views issues in black and white Difficulty defining problems Responds to similar problems in same ways Needs to be shown how to solve problems Rule oriented, punitive, and anxious Limited range of instructional methods More susceptible to stress

Higher-Functioning Highly abstract thinking Sees many alternative explanations Can define and see complexity in problems Innovative and ingenious Capable of solving problems Warm, perceptive, empathetic, flexible Variety of instructional methods Less susceptible to stress

Higher-functioning teachers, in contrast, are highly abstract thinkers. They see problems as complex and having many sides. When you talk with them, they can define a problem and give you many alternative explanations. Higher-functioning teachers are innovative and ingenious; they are always trying something new and aren’t afraid to take risks. Change doesn’t bother them as much. In fact, they thrive on change because it’s exciting and something new. Routine becomes monotonous for higher-functioning teachers, and they usually question rules and policies. They may even rebel against them at times. Higher-functioning teachers are flexible and may be “rule benders.” They rarely take no for an answer because they are passionate and are always striving to make things better. These teachers use a variety of instructional strategies and are always adding to their toolbox. They are capable of solving problems independently, though they are not opposed to working collaboratively. Higher-functioning teachers are warm, perceptive, and empathetic.

Levels of Consciousness You can think about levels of consciousness by considering teachers’ ability to reflect on practice (see Figure 5.3). Lower-functioning teachers struggle with reflection and abstract thinking. They focus on their needs and struggle with seeing their role and responsibility in the teaching and learning processes. They may not accept responsibility for their actions and tend to blame others, like the students or the parents. They may also blame factors that they perceive to be out of their control, such as time. Higher-functioning teachers thrive on reflection. In fact, they are continuously thinking and reflecting. These are the teachers who talk about ideas coming to them “on their drive home” or “in the shower.” They might even keep a notebook by their bedside because they are always thinking

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Figure 5.3 Levels of Consciousness Characteristics Lower-Functioning Struggles with reflection and abstract thinking Focuses on self and blames others

Higher-Functioning Can reflect and think abstractly Objectively examines self-perspectives

and reflecting, which may even keep them up or wake them up at night. Higherfunctioning teachers have a strong awareness about their role and responsibility in teaching and learning processes. They can objectively examine their perspectives. They are abstract thinkers who are guided by shared norms and values and by their responsibility to students and to the profession.

Moral Development You can think about teachers’ moral development in terms of what guides their decision making (see Figure 5.4). Lower-functioning teachers are very selfcentered. They make decisions because it will benefit them. They have very narrow conceptions of teaching and of student behavior. Higher-functioning teachers exude an ethic of care for others. They make decisions because of what’s in the best interest of kids. They really consider student perspectives. Their understanding of teaching and learning is broad and highly complex. They “do the right thing” and make decisions to uphold individual rights. Their decisions are connected to a larger purpose or “for the greater good.” When you talk with these teachers, they are always thinking about what’s in the best interest of students and their families, even if that means more work for them.

Figure 5.4 Moral Development Characteristics Lower-Functioning Self-centered perspective Makes decisions to benefit self Rarely, if ever, considers student perspectives Narrow conceptions of teaching and learning Makes decisions based on own needs

Higher-Functioning Ethic of care for others Does the “right” thing Considers students’ perspectives Sees teaching and learning as complex Makes decisions to uphold individual rights

Ego Development You can think about ego development in teachers by watching how they interact with students and their peers (see Figure 5.5). Lower-functioning teachers are fearful and conforming, whereas higher-functioning teachers are confident

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Figure 5.5 Ego Development Characteristics Lower-Functioning Fearful and conforming Impulsive and self-protective Depends on others for solutions Role of teacher is disseminator and caregiver Struggles with complexity of relationships

Higher-Functioning Autonomous Thoughtful and interconnected with others Able to synthesize unrelated or opposing concepts Role of teacher is helping students to learn Ability to cope with complexity of relationships

and autonomous. Lower-functioning teachers are impulsive and self-protective, whereas higher-functioning teachers are thoughtful and interconnected with others. Lower-functioning teachers struggle to identify solutions to problems and often look to others, like you as their leader, to solve the problems for them, whereas higher-functioning teachers can synthesize unrelated or opposing concepts. Higher-functioning teachers generate possible solutions and often discuss ideas with others, seeking a variety of perspectives in solving problems. However, they ultimately determine a solution and accept responsibility for their actions. Lowerfunctioning teachers see themselves as a provider, a disseminator of knowledge, or as a caregiver to students, whereas higher-functioning teachers see their role as helping students to learn. Lower-functioning teachers may have few relationships with others because building relationships is too emotional and requires too much energy for them, whereas higher-functioning teachers are able to see the complexity and necessity of relationships with students, parents, administrators, and their peers in enacting effective teaching and fostering student learning.

Stages of Concern You can think about a teacher’s stages of concern by watching how they approach their teaching (see Figure 5.6). Lower-functioning teachers focus on themselves and their adequacy. They talk mostly about what their responsibility is and all the tasks they are required to complete. They may even be extremely efficient because they are hyper-focused on checking items off their to-do list. They are often in survival mode and care about pleasing their principal or other person of authority. They regularly talk about “I” rather than focusing on students. Teachers who are higher functioning turn their gaze toward the impact of their teaching. They have an awareness and mastery of routines that emphasize how they are reaching students. When they talk, you most likely will not hear them referring to

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Figure 5.6 Stages of Concern Characteristics Lower-Functioning Self-adequacy and teaching tasks Survival; focused on teaching responsibilities Wants to please superiors Uses “I”

Higher-Functioning Teaching impact Concerned with impacting student learning Concerned about what’s in the best interest of students Talks about “my group of students” or “all students”

“I”; rather, they will talk about their students. They may even recognize their role and responsibility in supporting all students in their classroom and within the grade level or even across the entire school. Teachers with a higher-functioning stage of concern are mostly focused on the impact of their actions on student learning. Determining where your teachers are on each of these developmental characteristic continuums can seem overwhelming. Our descriptions, though somewhat generalized and simplified, are meant to help you see the complex nature of teachers and consider all the dimensions that guide their decision making and how they approach teaching and learning. To assist you, we have compiled the characteristics into one figure to help you see all the traits together (see Figure 5.7).

Factors in a Teacher’s Development Given this complexity, we believe it is helpful to think about the optimal level of two factors in a teacher’s development: (1) the teacher’s commitment to their teaching and to student learning and (2) the teacher’s level of abstraction.

Commitment Some teachers make a tremendous commitment to teaching, in terms of time and emotion, and some make little or no commitment. Teachers who have no commitment are viewed as simply going through the motions to keep a job, not caring about improving or being willing to give time and energy to look at possible ways of improving. Teachers of moderate commitment might work in spurts, or they might single out a particular academic area to work hard on while neglecting others, or they might work diligently with a particular group of students and spend less time with others. Teachers of high commitment have a thirst for learning and constantly want to do more for their students and other students and to help colleagues far beyond the contracted hours of the job.

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Figure 5.7 Continuum of Teachers’ Developmental Characteristics Low-Functioning

Moderate-Functioning

High-Functioning

• Is impulsive and self-protective • Makes decisions to benefit self and has little concern for students • Is concerned primarily with keeping their job • Has little to no interest in learning or improving • Is confused about or has difficulty defining the problem; doesn’t know what can be done • Has one or two habitual responses to problems, or depends on others for solutions; “show me” or “tell me” • Has a limited range of instructional methods • Sees learning as passive and receptive • Gives simple explanations of student behavior • Sees teaching as showing and telling; believes their job is to impart knowledge to others • Struggles to identify or define problems and needs to be shown how to solve them • Is very literal and concrete in thinking • Struggles with reflection and abstract thinking • Is rule-oriented, punitive, and anxious • Is very susceptible to stress • Struggles with complexity of relationships • Is in survival mode • Focuses on pleasing leaders

• Expends energy sporadically or in only certain areas • Works diligently with a particular group of students while spending less time with others • Expresses some interest in learning • Can define problems and can identify one or two possible solutions • Has trouble thinking through a comprehensive plan • Can see the complexity in some issues and moderately engage in abstract thinking • Needs assistance in solving a complex problem • Is able to reflect and objectively examine self-perspectives • Does “the right thing” • Focuses predominantly on teaching responsibilities and “my group of students”

• Demonstrates an ethic of care for others • Is warm, perceptive, empathetic, and flexible • Is able to cope with complexity of relationships • Is guided by shared norms and values and makes decisions to uphold individual rights • Spends extra time and energy • Is autonomous and has a thirst for learning • Understands problems are multifaceted • Uses dialectical thinking to generate many alternative plans, think through each step, and solve problems • Considers students’ perspectives and the complexity of learning • Has more complex explanations of student behavior • Fosters a learning environment • Uses a variety of instructional methods to facilitate learning; sees learning as an active construction • Is able to synthesize unrelated or opposing concepts • Concerned with impacting learning for “all students” • Is minimally susceptible to stress

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Abstraction Teachers who are functioning with low abstract-thinking skills may not be sure whether they have a classroom problem or, if they are aware of a problem, they are confused about it. They aren’t sure what can be done, and they typically need to be shown what can be done. They typically exhibit a limited repertoire of one or two solutions, such as “be tougher” or “give more homework,” regardless of whether the problem involves student behavior, academic performance, or inappropriate curricular materials. Teachers with moderate abstract-thinking skills can usually define the problem according to how they see it. While they can think of one or two possible actions, they have difficulty coordinating an overall plan. For example, if many students in a chemistry class are failing, teachers of moderate abstract-thinking skills might think of creating remedial packets written at a lower reading level. They might then implement the packets with students but fail to plan ahead for such matters as monitoring progress, allotting enough class time, providing other work for the more advanced students, explaining the rules for using the packets, and clarifying the need for more individualized work. The moderately abstract teacher might face these additional issues as they occur without having planned preventive measures. Teachers with high abstract-thinking skills can view the problem from many perspectives (theirs, students’, parents’, aides’, administrators’) and can generate many alternative solutions. They can think through the advantages and disadvantages of each plan and select the most promising one. They are willing to change that plan if the predicted consequences do not materialize. When planning, they can anticipate additional problems that might arise and systematically implement preventive measures before trouble occurs.

An Illustration of Four Types of Teachers: Intersecting Variables to Establish Criteria You can assess an individual teacher’s status and use that information to select an effective interpersonal approach. We suggest using a simple figure showing two intersecting lines—a horizontal line of commitment (ranging from “low” at the left to “high” at the right) and a vertical line of abstraction (ranging from “low” at the bottom to “high” at the top)—to assess a teacher’s general developmental characteristics. As seen in Figure 5.8, the resulting four quadrants define “types” of teachers.

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Figure 5.8 Four “Types” of Teachers

Quadrant III Thoughtful yet Slow-to-Change Teachers

Abstraction

High

Quadrant IV Consummate Professional Teachers

Low

High

Quadrant I Apathetic and Routinized Teachers

Level of

Level of Commitment

Quadrant II Eager but Easily Distracted Teachers

Low

Quadrant I: Apathetic and Routinized Teachers These teachers have both a low level of commitment and a low level of abstraction. They simply go through the minimal motions to keep their jobs. They have little motivation to improve their competencies. Furthermore, they cannot think about what changes could be made and are quite satisfied to keep the same routine day after day. They do not see any reasons for improvement. They blame causes of any difficulties on others. In their view, it is the students or the administration or the community that need help, never the teacher. They come to work exactly on time and leave school as soon as officially permissible.

Quadrant II: Eager but Easily Distracted Teachers Although these teachers have a high level of commitment, their level of abstraction is low. They are enthusiastic, energetic, and full of good intentions. They want to become better teachers and make their classes more exciting and relevant to students. They work very hard and usually leave school staggering under the weight

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of materials to be worked on at home. Unfortunately, though, their good intentions are thwarted by their lack of ability to think through problems and then to act fully and realistically. Although they usually get involved in multiple projects and activities, they become easily confused, discouraged, and swamped by self-imposed and unrealistic tasks. As a result, rarely do these teachers complete any particular instructional improvement effort before undertaking a new one.

Quadrant III: Thoughtful yet Slow-to-Change Teachers Although these teachers have a low level of commitment, their level of abstraction is high. These teachers are the intelligent, highly verbal people who are always full of great ideas about what can be done in their classrooms, in other classrooms, and in the school as a whole. They can discuss the issues clearly and think through the steps necessary for successful implementation. These teachers are labeled “Thoughtful yet Slow to Change” because their ideas often do not result in any action. While they know what needs to be done, they are unwilling to commit the time, energy, and care necessary to carry out the plan.

Quadrant IV: Consummate Professional Teachers These teachers have both a high level of commitment and a high level of abstraction. They are the true professionals in every sense of the word, committed to continually improving themselves, their students, and their fellow faculty members. They can think about the task at hand, consider alternatives, make a rational choice, and develop and carry out an appropriate plan of action. They can do this for their classrooms and with the faculty as a whole. Others regard them as informal leaders, people to whom others go willingly for help. These teachers provide ideas, activities, and resources, and become actively involved in seeing any proposed plan through to completion. They are both thinkers and doers.

Using the Two Dimensions to Select an Approach By focusing on the two variables of level of commitment and level of abstraction that are related to teacher effectiveness, you can think about individual teachers as developmentally different. Then you can work with teachers to help them develop higher levels of abstraction and higher levels of commitment. First, you must begin to work with teachers at their current developmental stage on each of the continuums. As gains are made, you can provide less direction and foster more teacher autonomy. With such a scheme, you can determine a starting point for using the different interpersonal leadership approaches with individual teachers. The Apathetic and

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Routinized Teacher is matched with the directive-control approach, the Eager but Easily Distracted Teacher is matched with the directive-informational approach with an emphasis on presenting leader ideas, the Thoughtful but Slow-to-Change Teacher is matched with the collaborative approach with emphasis on negotiating, and the Consummate Professional Teacher is best matched with mostly collaborative and nondirective approaches.

The Complexity of Determining Your Approach Aligning your interpersonal approach with teachers’ developmental levels is challenging, and it requires a great deal of knowledge and skill to get it right. Figure 5.9 situates the four approaches on a continuum from leader directed to teacher directed, and it summarizes the key points, issues and concerns, appropriate use, and outcomes of each approach. Now that you understand each interpersonal approach, determining whether a teacher is best served by a particular approach can be accomplished by (1) seeing how much initiative, thought, and action the teacher already takes in looking at their teaching and learning (teachers’ developmental characteristics) and (2) reviewing the different approaches with the teacher, clarifying which one will be used and why, and then later reviewing with the teacher how useful the chosen approach was and which alternative might be more appropriate for the next cycle of work. By taking into consideration teachers’ developmental characteristics to align your leadership approach, you can be successful in fostering teachers’ autonomy and competency.

Decision-Making Assistance To help you with the decision-making process of determining which approach to use when and with whom, we have also created a flowchart (see Figure 5.10). The first question to ask yourself is: Is the situation critical enough? Is it an emergency? If the answer is yes, then you should use a directive-control approach. If the answer is no (the situation is not an emergency), then you need to ask yourself: What is the teacher’s developmental level? If the answer is low (the teacher is an Apathetic and Routinized Teacher), then you should use a directive-control approach. If the teacher is at a moderately low developmental level, falling somewhere between an Apathetic and Routinized Teacher and an Eager but Easily Distracted Teacher, then you should use a directive-informational approach. However, if the answer is moderate or high, then you need to ask yourself: How strong is your professional relationship with the teacher in terms of trust and openness? If you do not have a strong relationship with the teacher, then you should use a directive-informational

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Figure 5.9 A Summary of the Interpersonal Approaches LEADER teacher DirectiveControl

leader TEACHER DirectiveInformational

Collaborative

Nondirective

Key Points

Very leaderdirected

Involves suggestions with teacher choice

Equality in input, suggestions, and decision making

Teacher knows what’s best; teacher-directed

Issues and Concerns

Controlling behaviors

Leader must be knowledgeable and confident

Deceptively simple

Easy to succumb to laissez-faire leadership; leader should be involved in every step

Can seem manipulative If it fails, it’s the leader’s fault

Teacher must believe the leader is the expert

Relies on strong relationships, trust, vulnerability, and shared expertise Both the leader and the teacher must be willing to share, disclose, and negotiate

Eager but easily distracted teacher

Thoughtful yet slow-to-change teacher

Consummate professional teacher

Teacher is functioning at a low developmental level

Teacher is functioning at a fairly low developmental level

Teacher is functioning at a high developmental level

When decisions don’t concern teachers

When teacher feels confused, inexperienced, or at a loss

Teacher is functioning at a moderate or mixed developmental level

Apathetic and routinized teacher Appropriate Use

Use only in an emergency or as a last resort

Outcomes

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Impossible to remove judgment completely

Leader determines plan

Time is short; quick, concrete actions are needed Plan is suggested, and teacher choice is involved

Both the leader and the teacher are committed to solving the problem

Mutual plan is constructed

Teacher is very knowledgeable Suggestions are given only when asked for

Teacher determines plan

Both the leader and the teacher have input

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Figure 5.10 Interpersonal Approach Decision-Making Flowchart Is the situation critical enough? Is it an emergency? Yes

No

What is the teacher’s developmental level? Directive-Control

Low Moderately Low

Moderate High

How strong is your professional relationship in terms of trust and openness? Directive-Informational

Weak

Emerging

Solid

Strong

Who holds the expertise?

Leader

Both

Teacher

Does the outcome matter to me?

Collaborative

Yes

No

Nondirective

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approach. If your relationship with the teacher is emerging, solid, or strong, then you should ask yourself: Who holds the expertise? If only you, as the leader, hold the expertise, then you should use a directive-informational approach. If both of you have expertise in the situation, or the teacher has more expertise in this particular area or situation than you do, then you should ask yourself: Does the outcome matter to me? If the answer is yes, then you should use a collaborative approach. If the answer is no, then you should use a nondirective approach.

Limitations of Decision-Making Tools Remember, the abstract-commitment intersectionality chart (Figure 5.9) and the decision-making flowchart (Figure 5.10) are merely tools to assist leaders; they were intended to simplify the complex process of aligning your interpersonal approach with teachers’ developmental needs to support teachers’ autonomy and competency. Although tools can be very helpful, they have limitations. For instance, people don’t fall neatly into simple categories. Even within the same teacher there is complexity—they may be an Eager but Easily Distracted Teacher when teaching one subject or working with one group of students and a Consummate Professional Teacher when teaching a different subject or working with another group of students. This means that using the same approach with the same teacher all the time will most likely be ineffective. The approach you use will need to be situationally dependent. In addition, many subjective and interpersonal factors cloud or clarify assessments of one person by another. For instance, you may classify a teacher one way, and that classification may be different from how someone else classifies that teacher or even how teachers classify themselves. The teacher may be withholding information from you; perhaps some personal concerns are causing additional emotional stress, so the teacher, who would typically be a Consummate Professional Teacher, may be operating as an Eager but Easily Distracted Teacher or even as an Apathetic and Routinized Teacher. The bottom line is that you need to be concerned with how well students are being served and use that information to drive how you align your approach with teachers’ developmental characteristics to foster teacher autonomy and competency for student success. Perhaps of most importance is recognizing the cultural, social, economic, and political factors that influence interactions between teachers and leaders (Delpit, 1994; Robinson & Howard-Hamilton, 2000). Suppose a young, female, lesbian, 5th generation Latinx American instructional leader with a doctorate who is in her second year of teaching is working with an older, male, heterosexual, firstgeneration Asian American with 42 years of teaching experience in the same school. Does it make sense that she might face a different set of complexities than

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if she were working with someone of her background, lifestyle, and culture? This is not to say that differences will necessarily predict the development of more difficult—or more congenial—reciprocal relations. Awareness of ethnic, cultural, and age-related differences is an important consideration in determining entry points for discussions about observations of teaching and learning. At the beginning of this book, we mentioned that you need to know yourself to work effectively with teachers. Knowing oneself means analyzing your personal theories—or the values, beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions you bring to your practice as a leader on a daily basis (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). Leaders bring an often-tacit platform of personal theories to their practice. However, to meet all teachers’ developmental needs so that they can reach all students, leaders need to raise consciousness about those platforms and develop a leadership lens of social justice (Jacobs & Casciola, 2015). For instance, a young, white, male instructional leader might inadvertently be seen as disrespectful by an older teacher of color if he refers to that teacher on a casual first-name basis or gives out directives that may be interpreted as asserting superiority. The same may be true of a leader who inadvertently slips into informal, judgmental comments about the poor or the “rednecks” to a teacher who grew up in a poor, rural, working-class region. Or the leader who begins school faculty celebrations with public prayers in the name of Jesus or plans elaborate Christmas celebrations at which the individual Muslim, Jew, Hindu, or agnostic feels diminished. To apply this discussion to the analysis made possible by Figure 5.8, a leader might conclude that a teacher has a low level of abstraction because they do not verbally analyze a situation, when in actuality they are exhibiting cultural values that emphasize the need to remain quiet and respectful. Similarly, what might appear to be a low level of school commitment may have nothing to do with caring about one’s students; it could stem from a teacher’s feelings of rejection and disrespect generated within the school. While the idea is not that you must be self-conscious or politically correct about everything you say or do, it is important to realize that an honest, reciprocal, professional relation means finding out more about the lives, aspirations, and hopes of others (Robinson & Howard-Hamilton, 2000; Young & Laible, 2000). It means seeing the differences in others as assets or strengths rather than as deficits and recognizing the cultural biases that you bring to your own practice. All in all, if you have concerns or are still confused about which interpersonal approach to use when, it’s best to err on the side of giving teachers more responsibility. For example, if you used a directive-informational approach with a Consummate Professional Teacher, you will likely have a frustrated teacher, and you will most likely not get the outcome that either of you desire—the improvement

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of practice for students. It also could jeopardize any professional relationship you may have or want to have with the teacher as a colleague. Likewise, imagine trying to use a nondirective approach with an Apathetic and Routinized Teacher. Both of you will likely struggle. The teacher who is functioning at a low developmental level may struggle because they may not be able to identify a problem or generate possible solutions. You may struggle because no matter how much you use questioning techniques to assist the teacher, they may still not be able to identify a problem or generate possible solutions. Aligning the interpersonal approach with the teacher is critical to bringing out the best in teachers. When in doubt, start with collegiality and make adjustments from there.

Let’s Practice Now that you’ve learned about the interpersonal skills and approaches and you have some tools for aligning your approach to meet teachers’ needs, let’s see how you would approach working with two different teachers, Ms. Horvback and Mr. Apanka. As you read the descriptions that follow, consider the different interpersonal approaches, the teachers’ developmental characteristics, and the social, political, economic, and culture factors at play. Think about how you might approach working with each teacher. You might even practice by drafting out a short script or by role-playing with a colleague, taking turns between who would be the leader and who would be the teacher. Let’s get started.

Shirley Horvback is an English teacher in her 12th year at New Castle High School. She is married, has no children, and lives in a highsocioeconomic neighborhood 20 miles from the low-socioeconomic neighborhood of her school. She is a middle-aged white woman from a well-established family in the community. A major reason that Ms. Horvback teaches at New Castle is her desire “to help students from such impoverished surroundings to acquire an appreciation for literature.” She is an avid reader of both contemporary and classic literature and occasionally writes short stories. Ms. Horvback generally is regarded as a competent teacher. She has a rather bombastic manner of speaking, and her large, robust, and rangy physical stature creates an imposing presence. Many of her students are afraid of her, and the word is passed around quickly to new students that “you don’t mess with Ol’ Lady Horvback.” Most students grudgingly believe that her classes are worthwhile. When the hard work

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and teacher pressure are over, students seem to emerge from her class as better readers and writers. Ms. Horvback, except for one close friend, is not liked by the other teachers at New Castle. They complain of her arrogant, elitist attitude. She conveys the impression that New Castle High is privileged to have such a literate person as herself on its staff. She lets it be known that she was once accepted as a doctoral student in English at a prestigious university and turned down the opportunity so that she could teach at New Castle. At faculty meetings, Ms. Horvback’s sense of superiority is evident. She has an answer to every problem, she is insightful, she analyzes and proposes thorough solutions, and she can easily suggest what others should do to make New Castle a better school. However, when it comes to action, she backs off. Ms. Horvback is usually the last teacher to arrive at school in the morning and the first to leave in the afternoon. If you were working with Ms. Horvback, what else would you like to know about her? What else do you need to know about yourself in relation to her? How might you approach her? What might you say? How would you start a conversation with her? What kind of approach would you use to help Ms. Horvback improve her classroom instruction and the learning climate of the school? Now consider the following, very different, scenario: Frank Apanka is a young Caribbean American, raised in poverty in the urban Midwest, a cum laude graduate from a city college. After four years as an associate at a major investment firm, he decided to take a major cut in pay and pursue a teaching career in a rural elementary school with an increasing second-language and migrant population of students. He is a specialist in upper-level mathematics and science. Although he has vim, vigor, and passion, he has run up against students he literally can’t understand, a set of high-stakes state standards and tests that he finds overwhelming and intrusive, and a faculty that is predominantly mature, experienced, white, and middle class. Mr. Apanka is one of the alternatively certified teachers—degreed individuals who were not education majors who are entering the teaching profession. He cares quite deeply about students and believes in the importance of science and mathematics in their later lives. Although he is still completing the requirements for provisional certification, he continually volunteers for extra duties, such as to head the student science

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fair, to serve on the school climate committee, and to staff the tutorial program three mornings a week before school. Other faculty see him as a joiner, a leader, and an idealist who always verges on the edge of being overcommitted. How do you—as principal, supervisor, colleague, coach, teacher leader, department chair, or mentor—work with Mr. Apanka? What else do you need to know about him, his classroom, his subject, his concerns, and his relations with students, parents, faculty, and others? How might you approach and work with him?

What to Do with the Approaches Let’s discuss Ms. Horvback and Mr. Apanka. Which approach did you decide was best for each of them? What knowledge about each as individuals and professionals did you consider in selecting your approach? Did you treat them alike or differently? They differ in age, position, experience, subject, race/ethnicity, and teaching level. Reading descriptions on pieces of paper, we really don’t know either one as a person, just that they are different people, have different roles in their schools, and are in different career phases. Even if you feel that you have a rudimentary understanding of the interpersonal skills and approaches to working with individual teachers, you can still put this understanding into practice. The idea is that a leader needs to understand the teacher (their needs, experiences, identity, culture, and development), the instructional focus under consideration and the related student learning, and the context of the classroom in determining which approach might both meet the immediate learning need and facilitate, over time, the teacher’s progress toward reflective, more autonomous practice. Let’s now, in a general sense, apply some approaches to the concerns and needs of these teachers. The way to work with either one is to begin in a collegial manner—whether in clinical supervision, peer coaching, Critical Friends Groups, or practitioner research structures. It is also important to assume that each teacher is committed, is thoughtful, and has aspirations and ideas about improving learning for students. A collaborative approach—in sharing and articulating learning goals, in determining the focus of observation and student work, in sharing feedback and brainstorming ideas and actions, and in jointly creating an action plan—should be the first concern. If Mr. Apanka turns out to have much more expertise and enthusiasm for teaching than many beginners, the leader might, over time, move toward a nondirective approach. If, in a collaborative conference, Ms. Horvback uses her age and experience to resist the suggestion that she needs to work on learning

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goals compatible with the school and the learning standards expected of all students, the leader might, over time, move to a directive-informational approach. If she still shows no initiative, and with further documentation of a lack of progress in adapting to children’s needs, a directive-control approach might be appropriate. Each teacher in each classroom is unique. Talent, energy, thought, and knowledge are not the purview of any one group. This explanation is meant to convey that working with teachers to improve instruction is always an experiment, a trialand-error research and inquiry cycle of finding out what structures, formats, and observations best support the growth of individual competence, improved student learning, and overall school success. In Chapter 6, we add to what we know about different approaches to working with teachers by explaining a new set of leadership skills that you can use to capitalize on teachable moments when you work with teachers to develop their practice to improve student learning.

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6 Immediate Response Skills: Making the Most of Teachable Moments

In Chapters 3–5, we talked about technical and interpersonal skills and approaches. Recent research has uncovered a new set of leadership skills that you can use to improve instructional practice during the act of teaching. Leaders use these skills to break down the complexity of teaching for others by capitalizing on teachable moments for teachers to improve their practice. In this chapter, we define these immediate response skills, and we illustrate how you can use them while working with teachers in classrooms or during conferences to foster instructional improvement and develop teachers’ professional vision.

Immediate Response Skills The six immediate response skills—noticing, ignoring, intervening, pointing, unpacking, and processing—can be sequenced to support teacher learning. What we describe in this chapter is derived from research referred to as clinical pedagogical skills (Burns & Badiali, 2016a, 2016b, 2018).

Noticing The first immediate response skill—noticing—is the ability to see an important moment in practice that could be an opportunity for teacher learning. Basically, 106

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noticing is a skill used to identify teachable moments for supporting teacher learning. When you watch a teacher teach, you see, or notice, many opportunities for teacher learning. These are teachable moments for teachers. For example, let’s revisit the example of Susan Valdes and Dwight Graham from Chapter 4. Here are the notes that Dwight took when he was observing Susan’s classroom:

Observation #3, Tuesday, February 15, 10–10:20 a.m. Students are at three different learning stations. Susan is at the literacy and technology station having individual conferences with children on the latest books they have read. She spends a few minutes asking questions about the books and how students will present a commercial review for a simulated website. In the math station, three students are using manipulatives to create geometric figures; two other students are estimating the height of the school building. They asked me to guess, and we talked about different ways to mathematically arrive at a good estimate. While talking, we couldn’t help noticing the students over in the construction area who were trying to build a miniature lunar craft. The hammer banging and arguing were quite loud. Susan had to stop her conferences three times to tell the construction group to stop. Finally, she told them to leave the area. General Impressions Susan must have an enormous amount of record keeping and assignments to correct each night. There is a bin for collected daily assignments. Also, it seems distracting to students to have noisy activities going on next to quiet activities. When Dwight observed Susan, he didn’t have a specific focus, so everything he records is something he notices. Meaning, he notices that there are three different stations happening in the classroom. He notices Susan conducting individual literacy conferences with children. He notices that she asks them questions. Dwight also notices what is happening at the math station. He notices two students measuring the height of a building. He also notices the construction station and students arguing while building a lunar craft. He notices that the loudness has interrupted Susan’s conferences. Finally, he notices a bin that Susan uses for all of the assignments she collects on a daily basis. In just a short paragraph, we have identified seven specific instances of practice that were distinguishable from other moments of practice, and these instances could be learning opportunities for

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Susan. The next time you are in a classroom observing instruction, become aware of what you are noticing. You might even jot down a list of all of the different things you notice to see if there are any patterns or trends in what you notice in a classroom. Soon you will realize the sheer number of teachable moments that you notice in just one class period! The struggle with noticing is deciding what to do with all of the teachable moments that you see. Which ones should you discuss with the teacher? Which ones should you not worry about right now? For example, in Dwight’s notes, which of the seven teachable moments will he address with Susan? Which ones will he not worry about right now and why? We will explore the decisions of what do to with what you notice later in this chapter. For now, what is most important is that you recognize your ability to notice teachable moments in practice.

Ignoring The second immediate response skill—ignoring—is the ability to intentionally decide not to act on something you have noticed. If you wrote down a list of teachable moments during an observation of instruction, star the ones that you think you absolutely must talk with the teacher about, and put an X next to the ones that can wait. For the teachable moments that you put an X next to, ask yourself, “Why can the teacher and I talk about this moment at another time?” Write down a brief reason as to why those teachable moments do not have to be discussed at this time. The teachable moments with an X next to them represent you enacting the skill of ignoring—you are deliberately choosing not to talk about those teachable moments at this time. You might be thinking, “How can ignoring be a skill? Don’t we have an obligation to share what we have noticed with others?” Those are good questions. Ignoring is an essential skill for supporting teacher learning. Think about it— what if you shared with the teacher every teachable moment that you wrote down? The teacher would likely become overwhelmed, and potentially even paralyzed, with so much information. This paralysis is especially likely to occur with novice teachers. If you told a novice teacher everything you saw, the novice teacher most likely would not know what to focus on and, in trying to meet all of your requirements, could become frazzled and ineffective or even overwhelmed and defeated. Ineffectiveness and defeat are not desired outcomes. Use your understanding of teacher development (see Chapter 5) to decide what to share when and what can be ignored for now. If student learning is in jeopardy, then those noticed moments become priorities. However, not every teachable moment needs to be shared every single time. Similar teachable moments will likely arise in the future, and you can address them at a later time. To be an effective leader, you need to use the skill of

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ignoring to decide which teachable moments are critical or important enough to share and which ones can wait. To illustrate, let’s list the seven teachable moments that Dwight uncovered while observing Susan: • • • • • •

There are three different stations happening in the classroom. Susan is conducting individual literacy conferences with children. Susan asks questions of the students with whom she is conferencing. Two students are measuring the height of a building at the math station. Students are arguing while building a lunar craft in the construction station. Susan has to stop her conferences three times to address the issues in the construction station. • Susan has a bin that she uses to store student work she collects on a daily basis. It is tempting to think that Dwight might choose to ignore the bin for collecting student work and instead might address the issue at the construction table because student behavior was interrupting Susan’s ability to conference with her students about the books they were reading. In the example, Dwight doesn’t do that. Instead, he records the following questions to ask Susan in the postconference: • • • • •

How many assignments do you personally correct each day? Can you give fewer assignments or are there alternative ways to correct them? What is the reason for three centers? Why have so many individual plans? Is there another way for students to get feedback?

Looking at Dwight’s questions, it is clear that he chose to ignore the issue at the construction station and instead focus on the fact that Susan has three different stations happening in the classroom and lots of assignments in the storage bin. Although we didn’t ask Dwight why he chose to ignore the altercation at the construction station, it seems reasonable to assume that he ignored it because Susan was able to get the students under control. At the same time, it’s more likely that he ignored the issue at the construction center because Dwight has a keen awareness of Susan’s developmental functioning. He also knows that while Susan currently has a low commitment to teaching because of all the personal issues she has going on right now, she has a strong level of abstraction in her thinking. Susan could be classified as a Thoughtful but Slow-to-Change Teacher. Dwight used a collaborative approach with Susan to address her struggle about her being so tired, and Susan allowed him to come in and observe. If Dwight focused on the construction station, it’s possible that he could break the trust with Susan because that was not the intention of the observation. He also surmises that student learning was not

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compromised enough that it warranted attention. After all, Susan was able to get the students back on track both at the construction center and at her literacy center after her conferences with other students were interrupted. Dwight also knows that relationships matter when trying to bring out the best in teachers, so he chose to ignore certain instances in his observation to stay focused on the issue at hand— helping Susan feel less tired.

Intervening The third immediate response skill—intervening—is the ability to take action in the moment to improve instruction to support student learning. While you can intervene for a variety of reasons, usually you should intervene because student learning is in jeopardy. Meaning, you notice something that needs to be addressed at that very moment and that cannot wait because student learning will be compromised if you wait. Look again at your list of teachable moments. Was student learning being compromised in any of those situations? If so, what did you do at that moment? Did you intervene? Why or why not? Think about Dwight and Susan’s example. Was student learning being compromised? Dwight didn’t seem to think so because he did not intervene at the construction station. One common reason for leaders to intervene is to stop student misbehavior. Have you ever been in a classroom where you notice students not paying attention? What did you do at that moment? Did you ignore the behavior? Did you get up and walk over to the students to see if you could refocus them? If so, you were enacting the skill of intervening. Dwight noticed that the students at the construction table were being loud. They were arguing while building their lunar aircraft. Dwight, though, did not intervene because Susan intervened to address the misbehavior and was able to get the students back on track after a few reminders. As another example, let’s return to Mr. Apanka from Chapter 5. Recall that Mr. Apanka, thouh an experienced professional, is a novice teacher due to his recent career change. While visiting his classroom, you notice that some of his students are incessantly carrying on side conversations. Initially, you ignored the situation, thinking that Mr. Apanka might see it and address it himself. However, the behavior is now becoming increasingly disruptive to other students and is impacting their learning. You decide to intervene by walking over to the students to see if your presence curbs their behavior. In this situation, your intervening has two purposes—the first is to stop student misbehavior to prevent the disruption of other students’ learning, and the second is to model for Mr. Apanka the classroom management strategy of proximity control. In addition to addressing student misbehavior, leaders also intervene when student misunderstanding is at stake. For example, let’s say you returned to

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observe Mr. Apanka’s science lesson the following day. The students were conducting an experiment measuring the solubility of different substances, and Mr. Apanka was having each group input the data into an Excel spreadsheet that was being projected onto the interactive whiteboard at the front of the classroom. Although you notice instantly that the data are not accurate for one of the groups, you don’t do anything yet. You temporarily ignore what you noticed to give Mr. Apanka the opportunity to address the issue. However, as Mr. Apanka continues talking, it becomes apparent that he either doesn’t see the inaccuracy or is glossing over it. His inability to address the inaccuracy is creating student misconceptions about mixtures and solutions, so you now recognize this incident as a teachable moment for Mr. Apanka. You can address students’ developing misconceptions about mixtures and solutions and help them learn more about the nature of science and the scientific process while simultaneously modeling strategies for Mr. Apanka. Since you can no longer ignore what is happening, you decide to raise your hand and say, “Excuse me, Mr. Apanka. Quick question. I was wondering if you or maybe the students could help me out. I noticed the difference in Group Two’s data compared to the rest of the data. Does anyone else see that?” The students look at the board, and suddenly several heads start to nod. You look at Mr. Apanka to see if he wants to ask a question. When he doesn’t, you continue: “What might be possible explanations for these differences?” You now take the lead in facilitating the discussion. Then, when you have finished, you pass the facilitation back to Mr. Apanka. “Wow! What a fantastic discussion!” you say out loud. “What do you think, Mr. Apanka, of the students’ ability to discuss this data discrepancy?” Mr. Apanka nods in agreement and offers his accolades for the students’ discussion. He then continues on with the lesson. Much like in the first example, your intervening has two purposes. The first is to address student misunderstanding, and the second is to model for Mr. Apanka effective discussion facilitation skills. While intervening can be an effective skill for you to use in supporting teacher learning in the act of teaching, it has drawbacks. First, if the teacher is not used to your intervening, or the teacher and you do not have a strong relationship, intervening to point out a mistake in front of students can make the teacher feel insecure. At other times, teachers can feel like the leader is taking over their classroom and can become frustrated and annoyed with the interruption; they can become flustered or unnerved because the leader may be taking the class in a different direction than the teacher had intended. If a teacher struggles to think on their feet, you must help the teacher get back on track in the lesson after intervening for the intervention to be effective.

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In general, you should be judicious in how you use intervening. Be sure to weigh the cost of negatively affecting the teacher’s feelings against the impact on student learning. Student learning should be the priority, so if you intervene and negatively affect the teacher’s feelings, you should address what happened at another time to mend and preserve the relationship.

Pointing The fourth immediate response skill—pointing—is the ability to draw the teacher’s attention to the teachable moment. You can use pointing when you are working with teachers to refine a particular skill. Let’s use Ms. Horvback as an example. As mentioned in Chapter 5, Ms. Horvback has a passion for literature and is perceived as mean by her students. After you have had several conversations with Ms. Horvback, she has agreed to focus on improving her use of language with students in ways that set high expectations and show empathy and compassion to improve her relationships with students. You visit her classroom during 3rd period to observe her teaching, and you capture her language and student responses to that language as accurately as possible. Before the postconference, you both agree that you, as the leader, will use two different color highlighters to code her language. Green will be used for supportive language where students respond positively (e.g., they smile, continue working); yellow will be used for hurtful language where students respond negatively (e.g., roll their eyes, withdraw, make a side comment to peers). You come together in the postconference to look for trends in the highlighted material. When you use highlighting, you are enacting the skill of pointing because you are drawing Ms. Horvback’s attention to what you notice. Pointing can also happen during teaching. Teachers who are refining a particular skill need to see that skill happening in the moment. Thus, to help them notice, you can point to the skill while they are teaching. A great example of pointing is the use of whisper coaching or bug-in-the-ear technology, where the leader makes comments to the teacher while they are teaching to help them notice in the moment what the leader is noticing. These two strategies—whisper coaching and bug-in-the-ear technology—can also be used for intervening. If, when you are talking to the teacher in the moment, you point by drawing attention to a particular teachable moment and also tell the teacher what to do, you are both pointing and intervening. Pointing can also be a great strategy when novice teachers or teacher candidates are observing a master teacher. You can sit next to the novice teacher and point out key teachable moments. By pointing, you are helping the teacher to

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notice what you notice so that they can improve what they see and how they respond to students.

Unpacking The fifth immediate response skill—unpacking—is the ability to break down the teachable moment for the teacher. While you can use unpacking in the moment, it is better used after teaching during an informal conversation or a postobservation conference. To illustrate, let’s return to the Mr. Apanka example where you, as the leader, intervened during the science lesson. Later that day, you decide to visit Mr. Apanka during his planning period to talk about what happened. Your conversation might sound something like this: Leader: Thanks for letting me visit your science lesson today. Do you have a few moments? I wanted to touch base with you about what happened today. Mr. Apanka: Yup. I do. Leader: Do you remember when I stood and walked over to stand near Frances and Maria? Mr. Apanka: Yes, they were talking, I’ve talked to them so much about their disruptive behavior that I’m getting frustrated, and frankly, I don’t know what else to do. Both are pretty good students, and they aren’t the worst of my behavior problems, but they often get talking and then others do the same. Leader: Okay, so let’s talk about that. During the lesson, Frances and Maria were having side conversations. At first, I didn’t do anything because it wasn’t a big deal, a comment here or a comment there. I also wanted to give them a chance to change their behavior. I heard Frances asking Maria a question about your directions, which is fine, but then they kept talking. As soon as I realized their conversations were starting to turn the heads of other students, that’s when I decided to walk over to them. Did you notice how when I got closer, their talking got quieter and then stopped altogether? Mr. Apanka: Yeah, I saw that. Leader: The fancy name of that classroom management strategy is called proximity control. It’s a nonverbal strategy that you use when you notice the beginning of disruptive behavior. It’s useful to try first because you can simply move around without disrupting your lesson. Mr. Apanka: Sounds pretty simple and obvious, but I don’t usually think about where I am located when teaching other than being in front of the room.

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Leader: If Maria and Frances had kept talking even with me standing close to them, then I would have done something else—perhaps talked to them quietly to correct the behavior at the right moment or even, if needed, addressing them publicly. I would use a public redirection as a last resort because it disrupts your teaching, but it also could embarrass them, and it gives them negative attention. Some students respond to a public redirection or reprimand. Others don’t respond well and might even escalate their disruptive behavior. Then you’d have a real challenge because you could get into a standoff with the students. Make sense? Mr. Apanka: Yeah, I guess. It seems so simple now. I had been telling them to close their mouths and be quiet, and that wasn’t working. They would stop momentarily and then keep commenting under their breath, which only made me angry. I pretty much gave up on them. What you say makes sense. Maybe I will talk to them and tell them that in the future I will walk toward them at the first sign of their talking and it means to be quiet. Nothing to lose, and maybe that would be two fewer students to be concerned about. In this example, you pointed to the teacher where you had intervened and modeled the strategy of proximity control. However, rather than stopping there, you explained your decision making. When you explained your decision making, you were enacting the immediate response skill of unpacking. If you are doing most of the talking and telling the teacher, you are using a directive interpersonal approach (described in Chapter 5). If you had asked questions and together figured out what happened and why, you would be using a collaborative or even a nondirective interpersonal approach to unpacking. To illustrate, let’s revisit the example of improving teacher language use with Ms. Horvback. As you read this exchange, notice the use of the interpersonal skills of summarizing, reflecting, and the like as Ms. Horvback and you, as the leader, talk in the postobservation conference: Leader: Okay, so I did my best to capture what you said to students and how they responded using the possible identifiable behaviors we discussed in the preconference. Then I coded the data with green highlighting for language resulting in positive student responses and yellow highlighting for language resulting in negative student responses. (The leader shows Ms. Horvback the precoded data.) Let’s look at this together to see what patterns we notice. (They take a few minutes to look at the data. Even if the leader sees a pattern, the leader uses wait time to allow Ms. Horvback the first opportunity to speak. If she doesn’t speak, then the leader will share first.)

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Ms. Horvback: Well, I notice that there’s a lot more yellow at the beginning and the end of the lesson than in the middle. Leader: I see that too. What was happening during those times? Ms. Horvback (pauses to read the transcription again): It seems that the green highlighting happened when I was leading a literary discussion and the yellow was at the beginning of the lesson when students are coming in the classroom and at the end right before the bell rings. Leader (using reflective language responds): So, what I get from what you are saying is yellow happens during routine aspects of the lesson, and the green happens when students are really into the literature they are reading. Ms. Horvback (laughing): Yes, at least they show interest in the readings! Leader: Why do you think we have this pattern? Ms. Horvback (pauses to consider the question for a moment): You know, I love this book that we are reading, and I love that they enjoy it too. It’s exactly the kind of Socratic exchange that should be happening in class. Leader: I agree. It was neat to see this. Your passion for this text is contagious! Ms. Horvback: Well, that’s why I became an English teacher. It’s just bad manners that annoy me when they start packing up before we are finished. Leader: Is it all of the students? Ms. Horvback: It sure feels like it. Leader: Okay, well let’s look at the data and see what I recorded. Look at this part here. (The leader points to the data.) I documented that only two of them really started packing up. Ms. Horvback: Well, two is too many! It’s so disrespectful. Leader: So, let’s look at what you said to them. (They examine the data again.) Why did you feel you needed to respond at that moment? Ms. Horvback: Because I need them to stop. I need them to realize that kind of behavior is not going to go on in my classroom. Leader: Okay. So, you want to hold them during the discussion and after the discussion, right? Ms. Horvback: Yes! Students should be paying attention right up to the bell. Leader: Can we talk a minute about those two students? What do you know about them? Would they have a reason to start packing up early?

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Ms. Horvback (pauses again to really consider the question): I hadn’t realized this. You know, Starr told me at the beginning of class that she wasn’t feeling very well. She often doesn’t feel well. I heard Starr’s friends spreading a rumor that her grandmother was going to prison. I thought they were simply smack talking. Maybe Starr really wasn’t feeling well, and she was packing up early to go to the nurse. Starr is not the most communicative person with adults. (She pauses again as if she is thinking about what she just said.) Maybe I shouldn’t have reacted to her the way I did. Maybe her grandmother is going to prison. I don’t have a clue. In this exchange, you are using questioning to unpack Ms. Horvback’s decision making. Rather than jumping to conclusions, you were able to unearth Ms. Horvback’s beliefs about student behavior, her desire to set high expectations, and her knowledge, or lack thereof, of her students.

Processing The final immediate response skill—processing—is the ability to lead a reflective conversation to consider what happened and to develop next steps. It also is an opportunity to hypothesize how to handle a similar situation should it arise in the future. To illustrate, let’s continue the conversation between Ms. Horvback and you, as the leader: Leader: If you could go back and replay this situation, what would you do differently? Ms. Horvback: First, I need to let go of the immediate hustling out of class as my primary issue and, instead, I need to talk with Starr and ask her how I might help if she really is not feeling well. I don’t want to pry about the rumor with her grandmother, but perhaps that might come up from her as to why she is behaving this way. Leader (smiling): Dealing with some teenagers is like riding a rollercoaster. Makes life always interesting. Ms. Horvback: Yeah, it’s what makes teaching crazy, but it’s what I do. Despite meager pay and not much time to go to the bathroom, I enjoy it. Maybe I am the one who is crazy. Leader (nodding): Well, I don’t think you are crazy. One of your professional goals for this year was to examine language showing more empathy. So, let’s get into it: Language can be verbal or nonverbal. Since Starr told you how she was feeling, you see that you could show her more compassion. Letting the

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first issue go for now was one idea. The other was to talk with her. Both make sense. Would you have been willing to let her leave to go to the nurse at the beginning of class or maybe develop a plan with her to leave five minutes early at the end of class to go see the nurse? Ms. Horvback (frowning a bit as she reflects on what she just uncovered about herself): I don’t feel great about any of this. I’m going to check in with her to see how she’s doing. Leader: That works for me. Anything else you’d like to do? Ms. Horvback: Let me talk with her, and if nothing improves, I’ll get back to you. I also will have an all-class discussion and negotiation about the start-to-finish time expected of all my students. In this example, Ms. Horvback and you are reflecting on the situation and identifying next steps for this situation and how she might handle a similar situation should it occur in the future. Notice in the exchange how you are using questioning and reflective language to check for understanding. You connect the plan to Ms. Horvback’s professional goals, summarize her suggestions, and even offer another possible solution by asking the question, “Would you have been willing to let her go to the nurse at the beginning of class or maybe develop a plan with her to leave five minutes early at the end of class to go see the nurse?” This exchange illustrates a collaborative approach (see Chapter 5) because you facilitated the conversation. You could have used a more directive approach by giving suggestions or asking Ms. Horvback to choose among the suggestions. However, Ms. Horvback is a moderate to high-functioning teacher, so a collaborative approach was more developmentally appropriate.

Making Decisions About Sequencing the Immediate Response Skills Now that you know and understand the six immediate response skills (noticing, ignoring, intervening, pointing, unpacking, and processing), you might be wondering how to figure out which immediate response skill to use when. To help with this decision making, we have created a flowchart (see Figure 6.1). Once you notice a teachable moment, you need to decide what to do with what you have just seen. If the teachable moment is not important, then you should ignore it. However, if you think the moment is important or potentially important to discuss, then you should make a mental note or jot down what you

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Figure 6.1 Decision-Making Flowchart for Immediate Response Skills NOTICE

the teachable moment Ask yourself . . .

Is the teachable moment important or potentially important to discuss now or in the very near future? No IGNORE

Yes, then ask yourself . . . Is student learning being compromised?

No, then ask yourself . . . No

Yes

Is the teachable moment a then ask yourself . . . skill on which the teacher is working or should be working? Yes then ask yourself . . . POINT

INTERVENE

Does the teacher need to understand the rationale behind what just happened? No

Yes

then ask Have a yourself ... conversation at a later time No

Does the teacher need to understand the rationale behind what just happened? Yes Is the teacher functioning at a moderate to high developmental level? No Yes Use a Collaborative or Nondirective Approach

No

then ask yourself . . .

then ask yourself . . .

Do next steps need to be determined to change future practice?

Use a Collaborative or Nondirective Approach

UNPACK

Use a Directive Approach

Is the teacher functioning at a moderate to high developmental level? Yes No

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Use Whisper Coaching or Modeling

Yes

PROCESS

then ask yourself . . .

Use a Directive Approach

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have seen for later discussion. Next, you should determine if student learning is compromised. If it is, then you should intervene. Once you intervene, you need to determine if the teachable moment is a skill that the teacher is working on or should be working on. If not, ignore what just happened and move on. If the skill is one the teacher is working on or should be working on, then you should point to the incident. If there is time in the moment, you can use whisper coaching. If there isn’t time, then you should have a conversation later. After that, you need to decide if the teacher should understand the rationale behind your intervention. If not, then ignore what happened and move on. If so, then you need to unpack what happened. Determining how to unpack depends on the teacher’s developmental level. If the teacher is moderate to high functioning, then you can use a collaborative or nondirective approach, using questioning to unearth tacit personal theories, to work together to understand what happened. If the teacher is low functioning, then a more directive approach, like explaining the situation, is more appropriate. Finally, you need to decide if you want to work with the teacher to reflect on the situation and develop a plan for changing future practice. If not, then ignore the situation and move on. If so, then you need to process what happened. Just like unpacking, determining how to process an event depends on the teacher’s developmental level. If the teacher is moderate to high functioning, you can use a collaborative or nondirective approach to develop a plan. However, if the teacher is low functioning, then a directive approach where you either identify next steps or allow the teacher to choose among some next steps is more appropriate. Immediate response skills can be incredibly effective in supporting teacher learning during the act of teaching. Deciding which skill to use when requires that you know the different skills and that you know the teacher so that you can best meet their needs.

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7 Social-Emotional Wellness and the Drive to Improve Practice in a Bewildering Time

Let’s end as we began. What is the purpose, the SuperVision, for why you and your colleagues are educators? How does one’s teaching get better? What happens that increases student learning? As we have asked ourselves these questions and looked at teachers, classrooms, and schools, we might now have a better set of knowledge, skills, practices, tools, and understandings. At the beginning, we wrote that the answer was really quite simple. As educators and leaders, we have to step out of the privacy of our work and publicly open ourselves to the thoughts, perspectives, and judgments of others. However, as this is a bewildering time for educators, a simple statement is not enough. Old external regulations are slowly being dropped, while new accountability policies are being implemented. While well-resourced schools are not under any great threat, educators in communities and states in high-poverty areas are underappreciated and underresourced. This explains findings from an annual poll of attitudes toward preK–12 education, as reported by Gewertz (2019): More than half of the country’s teachers say they’d go on strike for better pay if they had the chance, and half are so unhappy that they’ve seriously considered 120

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leaving the profession in the last few years, according to a poll released Monday…. They’re exhausted and resentful. Topping teachers’ list of complaints: low pay and inadequate school funding, issues that ignited a wave of strikes starting last year and boosted by public support for their cause.… More than half would strike to get a bigger say on standards, curriculum, and testing.

It’s clear that these factors of decreased educational funding, limited resources, lower pay, lack of respect, and increased high-stakes accountability, to name a few, are taking their toll on teachers. As a leader, then, what can you do to support teachers in these bewildering times? One solution is to ensure that you are attending to teachers’ social-emotional needs. Providing social wellness, while only one aspect, is an important one to help teachers derive personal, professional, and intellectual satisfaction in their day-to-day work.

Social-Emotional Support for Teachers Just like it is important to attend to students’ well-being, good leaders equally attend to teachers’ well-being. Working with teachers means employing emotional intelligence. It is critical, when you are working so closely with teachers, that you recognize how they are doing emotionally. Teachers need emotional support, which means consoling teachers or diffusing the intensity of emotions a teacher is experiencing (Burns & Badiali, 2016a). You can use several strategies to support teachers’ social-emotional well-being.

Give Statements of Affirmation and Praise Teachers, like all of us, need to hear that they are doing a good job and that others have confidence in them. They especially need to hear those words of support from their peers and their leaders. Emotional support can come in the form of praise, like summarizing and reflective statements (as described in Chapter 4). Teachers who are severely stressed just want to know that somebody—especially those whom they look up to—recognizes what they are going through. Really listening to teachers, offering statements of support like “I have confidence in you…,” “So, what I hear you saying is…,” and “It sounds like…” are all helpful sentence starters that show teachers you hear them. Emotional support comes from the heart; it comes from affirmations that are true and genuine.

Identify Successes In addition to offering statements of affirmation, using data and deliberately pointing to successes in the data can be helpful if teachers are struggling. If a

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teacher is feeling down or shares a problem or dilemma with you, try to find the bright side of the problem and direct the teacher toward the positive potentials within the problem. We have found that using a modified version of the Success Analysis Protocol from the School Reform Initiative can be helpful. The Success Analysis Protocol asks teachers to think about a time when they were successful and to record that success on a piece of paper. They also should note why that undertaking was so successful. The teacher then shares that success with you or with a group of peers. During the conversation, others can ask the teacher clarifying and probing questions to learn more about the success. This time of questioning can be very powerful for teachers, as it helps to unearth tacit practices and ways of being; it can show teachers what they have accomplished and how they have been successful in the past. Focusing on strengths and celebrating successes are critical for providing teachers with emotional support. While it’s helpful to hear it from you as their leader, when teachers come to realize their successes themselves, the experience can be equally powerful and transformative. In addition to the Success Analysis Protocol, you can also use teacher inquiry (described in Chapter 2) as an emotional support strategy. By turning a problem or dilemma into a question, the teacher regains control and becomes the driver to address the issue. Although some leaders find using humor as an effective strategy, we offer a caution about this strategy. Humor that comes out as sarcasm can create misunderstandings and perpetuate the problem (Burns, Jacobs, & Yendol-Hoppey, 2019), so be judicious in how you use humor.

Offer Concrete Suggestions Sometimes when teachers are down emotionally, they do not have much tolerance for ambiguity. If they come to you, they may be seeking practical suggestions as potential solutions to their problems. Although we do not advocate telling teachers what they should do in all situations, giving teachers suggestions is sometimes necessary. An educator, when incredibly frustrated with their practice, might want your advice. Statements that begin with “In my experience, I have found…,” “Have you tried…,” or “If I were in your shoes, I might…” can be useful. Even high-functioning teachers sometimes need a trusted person to whom to turn to help them think straight. A word of caution: Telling teachers what to do is much easier and requires less skill than asking questions to deeply understand a problem, elicit teachers’ beliefs, and empower them to identify potential solutions. If you misdiagnose a teacher’s emotional needs, and you give the teacher concrete suggestions when it was not warranted or wanted, the teacher might find you overbearing or feel that you are imposing your authority. Good leaders want to empower teachers to become

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self-assured, innovative risk-takers who are continually seeking to improve their practice. A good rule of thumb is to offer suggestions only when a teacher asks for it. If a teacher hasn’t explicitly said, “What would you do?,” you could open the door by asking, “May I make a suggestion?” or “Would you like my advice?” Then, if the teacher agrees, you can use one of the other sentence starters, such as, “In my experience….” Otherwise, it’s best not to offer concrete suggestions until the teacher is ready and has specifically asked for that kind of support.

Think Aloud With the Teacher In addition to giving suggestions, you can think aloud with teachers. By thinking aloud, you are modeling an open, problem-solving process. You also are showing that you empathize with the teacher by illustrating how you would feel and respond if you were experiencing the same dilemma. Sometimes teachers need to see images of the possible. Suggesting that a teacher observe another teacher can help the frustrated teacher see an image of possibility, of what it could look like in practice, which can encourage the frustrated teacher to take risks in the future. You could support this suggestion by covering the teacher’s class while they observe another teacher or by arranging for a guest teacher to cover the class while you observe someone else with the teacher. That way you could use some of the immediate response skills (as described in Chapter 6), such as pointing, to help the teacher notice specific actions during the act of teaching to help them develop concrete solutions to improving their practice. Finally, you also can draw on the teacher’s past experiences. Asking the teacher questions such as, “Have you experienced something like this in the past?” or “What have you done in the past when you have encountered…?” can be helpful in reminding the teacher of past successful experiences.

Reenergize Your Teachers Intellectually Sometimes teachers’ frustration is connected to their struggles with improvement. This is especially true with innovative teachers and those identified as Consummate Professionals (see Chapter 4). Teachers who are high functioning thrive on innovation and change, which can become stifled under high-stakes accountability policies. Sometimes high-functioning teachers want to be challenged intellectually—they want to grow and continually improve. In these cases, you can support a teacher’s emotional well-being by stretching the teacher’s thinking to unearth tacit beliefs and rethink practice. Sometimes teachers might become frustrated because they feel they are stagnating professionally. Teaching is not exciting to them anymore. Stretching their thinking can be an effective strategy for reenergizing professional teachers.

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Stretching a teacher’s thinking relies on a trusting relationship between the teacher and you. A collegial, strong relationship is ideal. If there is some trust between the two of you, then you can use this strategy. The best way is to engage in spirited dialogue by asking questions and challenging ideas. Seeking to understand why teachers are doing what they are doing or have always done takes time, yet it can be a powerful, productive dialogue for improving practice. Sentence starters like, “Tell me about…,” “Why do you think that is…,” “How is/are…,” and a question such as, “What would excite you to try as a teacher?” can invite such thinking. Reenergizing teachers can also come from outside experiences. If your budget allows, find ways for teachers to attend conferences or workshops. Suggest a provocative article (or even this book, perhaps) to stimulate thinking. Encourage teachers to network online with other educators involved in stimulating and innovative practices or to join a “best practices” study group. There are many ways to reenergize teachers.

Recap As the leader, you need to have a keen awareness of teachers’ social-emotional well-being. Although it is easy in the current high-stakes accountability environment to feel isolated and defeated, don’t let your teachers go to that mental space. Help them realize that you are there for them. Find ways to move them from a place of frustration and defeat to a place of energy, motivation, and change by giving statements of affirmation and praise, identifying successes, offering concrete suggestions, thinking aloud with them, and reenergizing them intellectually.

Leveraging External Resources Unfortunately, in this bewildering time, educational funding at the federal level and in many states continues to be cut even though one in five children in the United States lives in poverty (Children’s Defense Fund, 2018). The United States has among the highest rates of childhood poverty among developed countries (Ingraham, 2014). This means fewer resources are available for addressing poverty and improving instructional practice to educate all learners. So, what can you do as a leader with an ever-shrinking budget and fewer, more scarce resources? Options include leveraging external resources and developing partnerships with local agencies, businesses, nonprofits, universities, or other industries in your local area. Community schools are a trending model of educational reform across the United States. There are a variety of models. However, the commonality among all of

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them is leveraging resources from the community to support a holistic approach to education by providing students with access to extracurricular activities, health and well-being services, and high-quality academic instruction. In Florida, for example, Community Partnership Schools are an emerging model of school-universitycommunity collaboration spearheaded by the University of Central Florida. In this model, a local education agency, an institution of higher education, a local medical provider, and a local community nonprofit make a long-term (25 years, to be exact) commitment to transforming the local community by making the school the hub of the community. In this model, parents, children, and other community members can obtain access to medical services, dental services, vision services, mental health services, employment training, and more at the school. Students have access to a variety of extracurricular after-school activities—such as music, art, dance, robotics, sports, and tutoring—that are not provided during the regular academic day. In this model, several governance structures are available for managing daily operations while also providing vision, oversight, and accountability to the partnership’s goals. The idea is that working together provides a collective sense of responsibility to the community, to education, and to students and their families. Teachers can’t do it alone. They need support from you as their leader. You can’t do it alone, either. Poverty and the challenges and trauma that it imposes on families and children who come to school every day cannot fall solely on the backs of educators or educational leaders. Providing access to an equitable education for all students requires addressing issues of poverty while improving instruction, and doing so must become a shared, collective responsibility. By learning about local community agencies and partnering with them, you can leverage external resources to support students so that they come to school with their basic needs met. This way, they can focus on learning, and your teachers can focus on teaching. High-quality partnerships can improve teaching and create a true continuum of lifelong learning for teachers (Burns, Yendol-Hoppey, & Jacobs, 2015).

Developing Teachers as Teacher Leaders Just like leveraging external resources is important, developing capacity within your school is equally important to schoolwide change. Teacher leadership is defined as the ability of teachers to positively influence their peers’ instructional practice (Hunzicker, 2018; York-Barr & Duke, 2004). Developing teachers as teacher leaders can assist you with improving school culture and climate as well as instructional practice and can address teachers’ social-emotional well-being by reinvigorating your most professional teachers.

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So how do you cultivate teacher leadership in your building? Some leaders create schoolwide committees that give teachers the opportunity to spearhead different initiatives. In schools with which we have worked, we have seen committees like The Sunshine Committee targeting teacher morale and schoolwide culture, The Professional Development Committee targeting teacher voice in professional learning in the school, and The Advisory Committee targeting instructional and noninstructional staff input regarding the functioning of the school. Other schools have opportunities like team leader, grade-level leader, or department chair. While through formal committees or roles is one way to cultivate teacher leadership, teacher leadership can also be enacted in informal ways. These organic teacher leaders want to improve professionally; they love teaching and don’t want to leave their students or their classrooms. Helping these informal teacher leaders means finding ways to help them fulfill their professional desires while allowing them space to lead from within their classrooms. One way we have seen leaders cultivate informal teacher leadership is by having demonstration classrooms. Other leaders have encouraged teachers to mentor teacher candidates as a way to give back to the profession and lead from within the classroom. One example of robust teacher leadership in the United States is happening at Mort Elementary Community Partnership School in Florida. This school has eight core partners in their community school design; the most robust partnership is with the College of Education at the University of South Florida. The school and the university partnered to create the Mort Teacher Leader Academy, an award-winning model of teacher leadership development through which teachers earn advanced credentials and degrees collaboratively taught onsite at the school by professors-in-residence and school leaders. The model uses the school’s data as the impetus for using a responsive, emergent design curriculum for teacher leadership and schoolwide change. By concentrating on developing a cadre of teacher leaders, the school showed improvements in teacher retention, teacher leadership development, professional development, instructional practice, and student achievement (Burns et al., 2019; Burns, Johnson, & Hardin-Roberts, 2017). The point is that leading must become a collaborative endeavor. Schoolwide change comes from strong leaders, who recognize that they can’t do it alone. They need to build internal capacity to harness the intellectual expertise and the cultural capital of teachers within their buildings to develop a shared sense of responsibility and collective efficacy to bring about change. By seeing the leadership potential in your teachers and intentionally developing that leadership, you can create a powerful school leadership team to become an unstoppable force for instructional improvement.

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Approaches to Schoolwide Changes As this book draws to an end, let us suggest ways to use the structures, formats, and approaches described here in a comprehensive way to move a school forward. Think about the four approaches to working with teachers: nondirective, collaborative, directive-informational, and directive-control. In a school full of faculty who are self-starters, who are resourceful and curious, and who work well professionally, much of what has been outlined in this book probably is already taking place. A nondirective approach by the principal or other formal school leader(s) for letting the faculty lead and develop their formats and structures further would be the appropriate approach. In a school with a history of fragmented efforts to improve and little open and visible collaboration among teachers to see each other at work or to review the work of each other’s students, a collaborative approach would be appropriate. In this case, a brainstorming session for all members could include discussions on ways to provide focus, structure, and time for “up-close” work, followed by a schoolwide decision-making process (see Glickman, 1993; Glickman & Mette, 2020). In a school with a lack of common learning goals across departments or grade levels and teachers working mostly in private, a directive-informational approach would be appropriate. To begin the cross-fertilization of ideas, observations, and actions, the leader could lay out some of the options for continuous improvement as part of everyone’s professional development (e.g., clinical supervision, peer coaching, Critical Friends Groups, or a study/action research group) and then ask faculty members to choose their desired process. Finally, in a school marked by isolation, routine, privacy, stagnation or decline in student achievement, and resistance to individual or collective change, a directive-control orientation, requiring faculty to be in a continuous improvement program, is necessary. Such schools might have high aggregate achievement scores that mask serious inequities in particular subgroups of students by income, ethnicity, race, gender, or disability. Schools where faculty are smugly satisfied with their current teaching (and thus blame students, parents, and external conditions for any low achievement) correlate with stagnation and decline. Competent teachers and powerful schools know that when it comes to education—no matter how well or poorly one is currently doing—one must always learn how to be better.

Every Educator a Leader Throughout this book, we have referred to the various roles of leadership in a school and district. This book is for every educator curious about ways to reach students more successfully than in the past.

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Leadership resides in entry-level and experienced teachers, in grade-level and department heads, in mentors and in mentees, in instructional lead teachers and in principals, and in central office directors and in superintendents (Educational Leadership, 2018). The ongoing quest is the same: to invigorate a school’s collective reach to reimagine new classroom learning opportunities for teachers and students. The work of instructional improvement is not a glory train; disagreements will arise, people will get tired, and unpredictable negatives will occur. However, when all is said and done—when educators work purposefully, within and across classrooms—students, in all their magnificent differences, will learn well and all of us as educators and leaders will stand proud to have ushered in a new and better future for our youth.

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APPENDIX A: Resources Books Costa, A. L., & Garmston, R. J. (2016). Cognitive coaching: Developing self-directed leaders and learners. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Dana, N. F., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2020). The reflective educator’s guide to classroom research: Learning to teach and teaching to learn through practitioner inquiry (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Emdin, C. (2017). For white folks who teach in the hood…and the rest of y’all too: Reality pedagogy and urban education. Boston: Beacon Press. Glanz, J. (2014). Action research (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S. P., Ross-Gordon, J. M. (2018). SuperVision and instructional leadership: A developmental approach (10th ed.). New York: Pearson. Good, T. L., & Lavigne, A. (2018). Looking in classrooms (11th ed.). New York: Routledge. Gorski, P. C. (2013). Reaching and teaching students in poverty: Strategies for erasing the opportunity gap. New York: Teachers College Press. McDonald, J. P., Mohr, N., Dichter, A., & McDonald, E. (2013). The power of protocols: An educator’s guide to better practice (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Nolan, J., & Hoover, L. A. (2010). Teacher supervision and evaluation: Theory into practice (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Sensoy, O., & DiAngelo, R. (2017). Is everyone really equal? An introduction to key concepts in social justice education (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Sweeney, D. (2010). Student-centered coaching: A guide for K–8 coaches and principals. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Sweeney, D. (2103). Student-centered coaching at the secondary level. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. 129

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National Organizations ASCD is dedicated to empowering educators to improve teaching, learning, and leading. Visit www.ascd.org. Kappa Delta Pi is an international educational honors society that promotes excellence in preK–12 education. Visit www.kdp.org. The National Association for Multicultural Education is committed to advancing equity and social justice in education. Visit www.nameorg.org. National Association for Professional Development Schools is dedicated to developing and sustaining high-quality school-university partnerships. They also have a commitment to equity between preK–12 and higher education partners. Visit www.napds.org. National Teachers Hall of Fame is dedicated to recognizing excellence in teaching and honoring exceptional teachers. Visit www.nthf.org. PDK International is committed to supporting teachers and educational leaders in school improvement. Visit www.pdkintl.org.

Digital Resources Danielson Group. Provider of resources to support teacher evaluation. Visit www. danielsongroup.org. Edthena. A video analysis tool for educators. Visit www.edthena.com. Edutopia. A blog that shares instructional strategies and innovative ideas in education. Visit www.edutopia.org. Teach to Lead. An initiative dedicated to developing and supporting teacher leadership. Visit www.teachtolead.org. TeacherTube. A free online space for sharing educational videos. Visit www.teacher tube.com. Temi. An app that educators can use to transcribe audio data for analysis for a reasonable rate. Visit www.temi.com. New Teacher Center. Explores good teaching, effective evaluation, and observation and coaching conferences. Visit www.newteachercenter.org. V-Note. Relatively inexpensive, highly effective video analysis software that educators can use to analyze videos of practice. Visit www.v-note.org. GoReact. Another video analysis tool for educators. Visit www.goreact.com.

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APPENDIX B: Modified Consultancy Protocol Purpose: To assist educators understand, think more deeply about, and address a struggle or dilemma they are experiencing. Dilemmas, puzzles that should raise questions, usually come with tension. Dilemmas, though they may stem from artifacts such as student work, lesson plans, or the like, often stem from experiences that span the educational process. It is important that your dilemma be framed as a question. Steps

Suggested Time

Step 1: Preparation Prior to bringing • Think about your dilemma. Ask yourself: the dilemma to — Is it something that bothers you often and that you can’t stop your group thinking about? — Is it something that you aren’t already on your way to solving? — Is it something that does not depend on others changing? — Basically, is it within your control? Can you affect the dilemma by changing your practice? — Is it something that matters to you? — Is it something you are willing to work on? • Do some reflective writing. Consider: — Why is this a dilemma for you? Why is it important to you? — What (or where) is the tension in the dilemma? — If you could take a snapshot of the dilemma, what would you see? — What have you already done to try to address the dilemma? — What have been the results of those actions? — Who needs to take action to solve this dilemma? (If you are not part of the change, then you need a new dilemma.) • Frame your dilemma as a question that will guide your group. 131

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• Critique your question by asking: — Is this question important to my practice? — Is this question important to student learning? — Is this question important to others in my profession? Step 2: Presentation of the Dilemma 10–15 min. The presenter shares the dilemma with the group and frames it as a question for the group to consider. Give as much detail and history as possible to help the group contextualize the dilemma. Step 3: Clarifying Questions 5 min. The group asks clarifying questions, which will elicit Yes or No or very short answers. Step 4: Probing Questions 10 min. The group asks probing questions to allow the presenter to expand their thinking. These questions should be framed as such; they should not be suggestions. Probing questions usually begin with “how,” “why,” or “in what ways.” Step 5: Dilemma Discussion 15 min. The presenter steps back from the group, sometimes creating distance from the other group members. The group talks about the dilemma while the presenter listens and takes notes. The presenter may not talk during this time. Some questions for the group to consider in framing the discussion include: • What did we hear? • What didn’t we hear that might be relevant? • What assumptions seem to be operating in this dilemma? • What questions does it raise for us? • What do we think about the dilemma? • What might we do if we were faced with this dilemma? Step 6: Presenter Response 5 min. The presenter reflects on what they heard during the group discussion and shares what they are now thinking. The presenter should share key ideas or thoughts that resonated with them. Step 7: Protocol Debrief 5 min. The facilitator leads a brief discussion about the process of this protocol and fine-tunes it for next time. Note: This protocol was modified from the original consultancy protocol developed by Faith Dunne, Paula Evans, and Gene Thompson-Grove as part of their work at the Coalition of Essential Schools and the Annenberg Institute for School Reform (visit https://www.schoolreforminitiative.org/download /consultancy/). For additional resources and protocols, please check out the School Reform Initiative’s website at https://www.schoolreforminitiative.org.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, D. (2017). Tuning protocol. Retrieved from https://www.schoolreforminitiative.org /download/tuning-protocol/ Badiali, B., Grove, D., & Kamin, J. (2006). Shifting educational beliefs: The impact of PDS experience on what interns view as most important classroom practices and student learning. Orlando, FL: Annual Meeting, PDS National Conference. Bullough, R. V., Jr., & Draper, R. J. (2004). Making sense of a failed triad: Mentors, university supervisors, and positioning theory. Journal of Teacher Education, 55(5), 407–420. Burns, R. W., & Badiali, B. (2015). When supervision is conflated with evaluation: Teacher candidates’ perceptions of their novice supervisor. Action in Teacher Education, 37(4), 418–437. Burns, R. W., & Badiali, B. (2016a). Framing conceptual, procedural, and emotional support for supervisors. Teacher Education and Practice, 29(2), 397–421. Burns, R. W., & Badiali, B. (2016b). Unearthing the complexities of clinical pedagogy in supervision: Identifying pedagogical skills of supervisors. Action in Teacher Education, 38(2), 156–174. Burns, R. W., & Badiali, B. (2018). Clinical pedagogy and pathways of clinical pedagogical practice: A conceptual framework. Action in Teacher Education. doi:10.10 80/01626620.2018.1503978 Burns, R. W., Jacobs, J., Allsopp, D., Haraf, S., Baker, W., Johnson, W. W., . . . & Wichinsky, L. (2019). Mort Elementary Community Partnership School: 2019 Exemplary Professional Development School Award Winner. School-University Partnerships. Burns, R. W., Jacobs, J., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2019). A framework for naming the scope and nature of preservice teacher supervision in clinically-based teacher preparation: Tasks, high-leverage practices, and pedagogical routines of practice. The Teacher Educator. doi:10.1080/08878730.2019 Burns, R. W., Johnson, W. W. III, & Hardin-Roberts, S. (2017). The Mort Teacher Leader Academy: Developing teacher leaders for urban schools together. In D. Yendol-Hoppey, D. A. Shanley, D. C. Delane, & D. Hoppey (Eds.), Working together: 133

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Enhancing urban educator quality through school-university partnerships (pp. 129–148). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Burns, R. W., Yendol-Hoppey, D., & Jacobs, J. (2015). High quality teaching requires collaboration: How partnerships can create a true continuum of professional learning for educators. The Educational Forum, 79(1), 53–67. doi:10.1080/00131725.2014.97 1990 Children’s Defense Fund. (2018). Child poverty in America 2017: National analysis. Retrieved from https://www.childrensdefense.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09 /Child-Poverty-in-America-2017-National-Fact-Sheet.pdf Cochran-Smith, M. & Lytle, S. (1993). Inside/outside: Teacher research and knowledge. New York: Teachers College Press. Cogan, M. (1973). Clinical supervision. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Coleman, G. (2019). Action research. In C. Costley & J. Fulton (Eds.), Methodologies for practice research: Approaches for professional doctorates (pp. 151–172). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Costa, A., & Garmston, R. J. (1994). Cognitive coaching: A foundation for renaissance schools. Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers. Dana, N. F., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2020). The reflective educator’s guide to classroom research: Learning to teach and teaching to learn through practitioner inquiry (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Danielson, C. (1996). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Danielson, C. (2013). The Framework for Teaching evaluation instrument. Retrieved from https:// danielsongroup.org/downloads/2013-framework-teaching-evaluation-instrument Danielson Group. (2019). The Framework for Teaching: Our story. Retrieved from https://danielsongroup.org/our-story Delpit, L. (1994). Other people’s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press. Educational Leadership. (2018, November). Special issue: When teachers lead their own learning, 78(3). Galbraith, M. W. (2004). Adult learning methods: A guide for effective instruction (3rd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. Gewertz, C. (2019, August 5). “I am a fool to do this job”: Half of teachers say they’ve considered quitting. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew /articles/2019/08/05/half-of-teachers-considered-quitting.html Glanz, J. (2014). Action research (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Glickman, C. D. (1981). Developmental supervision: Alternative practices for helping teachers improve instruction. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Glickman, C. D. (1987). Instructional improvement and the K–8 principal. National Association of Elementary School Principals. Streamlined Seminar 5(4). Glickman, C. D. (1993). Renewing America’s schools: A guide for school-based action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Glickman, C. D. (2002). Leadership for learning: How to help teachers succeed. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

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Sergiovanni, T. J., & Starratt, R. J. (2007). Supervision: A redefinition (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. Starnes, B. A. (2001, October). My mother’s gravy. The Kappan, 83(2), 110–111. St. Cloud University. (2011). Co-teaching strategies and examples. Retrieved from https:// www.stcloudstate.edu/oce/_files/documents/coteaching/Co-Teachingdefinitionsand examples.pdf Sullivan, S., & Glanz, J. (2013). Supervision that improves teaching and learning: Strategies and techniques (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. York-Barr, J., & Duke, K. (2004). What do we know about teacher leadership? Findings from two decades of scholarship. Review of Educational Research, 74(3), 255–316. Young, M. D., & Laible, J. (2000, September). White racism, antiracism, and school leadership preparation. Journal of School Leadership, 10(5), 374–415.

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INDEX

Note: The letter f following a page number denotes a figure.

bug-in-the-ear technology, 112

collaborative interpersonal approach, 60, 70–76, 83, 98f College of Education at the University of South Florida, 32 commitment, 92, 93f, 95–96 committees, 126 Community Partnership Schools, 125 community schools, 124–125 competency, 82–84 conceptual development, 88–89 concern, 91–92 concrete suggestions, 122–123 consciousness levels, 89–90 Consultancy Protocol, 23, 131–132 co-teaching, 16–19 Critical Friends Groups, 19–23

categorizing data, 29 Centre Teacher Writers, 33 changes, 127 childhood poverty, 124 clarifying skills, 57, 60, 69, 76, 82 classroom instruction, 10–14 clinical supervision, 9–14 coaching, peer, 14–16 Coalition of Essential Schools, 19, 21f coding data, 29 cognitive development, 87–88

Dana, Nancy, 24 Danielson, Charlotte and The Danielson Group, 38–40, 130 data collection and analysis practitioner research and, 28–30 tools for, 10, 12f data focus dimension of observations, 37f, 40–42 Dayton, John, 55–56 degree of action dimension of observations, 37f, 44–45

abstract-thinking skills, 94–96 Accelerated Schools, 20 action plans, 53–55, 70 action research, 24 affirmations, 121 Allen, David, 20 Alternative Teaching co-teaching strategy, 18f, 19 andragogy, 86 Annenberg Institute for School Reform, 19–20, 132 appreciative inquiry, 24–25 ASCD, 130 autonomy, 82–84

137

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descriptions of events vs. interpretations, 10, 46–48 Differentiated Teaching co-teaching strategy, 18f, 19 directing skills, 58, 69 directive-control interpersonal approach, 59, 60f, 65–69, 82, 98f directive-informational interpersonal approach, 60, 70, 82–83, 98f Dunne, Faith, 132 Edthena, 29, 130 educational funding, 124 educators. See teachers Edutopia, 32, 130 ego development, 90–91 encouraging skills, 57, 60, 82 evaluation of teachers, 48–56 Evans, Paula, 132 evidence-based claims, 30–31 expertise dimension of observations, 37f, 44 Facebook, 33 Florida Journal of Educational Research, 33 focused observations, 48 See also observations forced choices, 63f–64f Framework for Teaching, 38–40 frustration, 123–124 funding, 124 Georgia League of Professional Schools, 20 GoReact, 29, 130 identity, personal, 3–5, 100–101 ignoring, 108–110 immediate response skills decision-making for, 117–119 ignoring, 108–110 intervening, 110–112 noticing, 106–108 pointing, 112–113 processing, 116–117 unpacking, 113–116

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Instagram, 33 instructional improvement, 13f instructional leader behavior continuum, 59f Instructional Leadership Beliefs Inventory, 62f–64f instruction contract, 75f interpersonal approaches clarification of, 60–61 collaborative, 60, 70–76, 83, 98f determining, 97–102 development of, 58–60 directive-control, 59, 60f, 65–69, 82, 98f directive-informational, 60, 70, 82–83, 98f goals of, 82–84 nondirective, 60, 76–82, 84, 98f postobservation conferences and, 10–11 skills and, 57–58 summary of, 98f utilization of, 61–82 interpretations vs. descriptions of events, 10, 46–48 worksheet for observation data, 12f intervening, 110–112 Journal of Practitioner Research, 33 Kappa Delta Pi, 130 language use, 83, 114–115 leadership improvement of, 5–7 teachers and, 127–128 levels of consciousness, 89–90 listening skills, 57, 76, 82 Marzano Instructional Framework, 40 McDonald, Joseph, 20 modified consultancy protocol, 131–132 moral development, 90 Mort Elementary Community Partnership School, 9, 126

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Index

National Association for Multicultural Education, 130 National Association for Professional Development Schools, 32–33, 130 National Council for Teachers of Mathematics, 33 National Teachers Hall of Fame, 130 negotiating skills, 58, 60, 76 Networks, 33 New Teacher Center of the University of California-Santa Cruz, 130 nondirective interpersonal approach, 60, 76–82, 84, 98f noticing, 106–108 observations classroom instruction, 10–14 cycle of, 35–36 data focus dimension of, 37f, 40–42 degree of action dimension of, 37f, 44–45 for evaluation, 48–56 expertise dimension of, 37f, 44 focused, 48 focused observations, 48 peer coaching, 14–16 perspective dimension of, 37f, 45–46, 53f postobservation conferences, 10–11, 68, 70, 73–75, 79–80 purpose dimension of, 36–38 rationale dimension of, 37f, 38 relationship dimension of, 37f, 42–43 scope dimension of, 37f, 38–40 student behavior checklists, 66f–67f time for, 15, 35–36 types of, 36–46 worksheet for observation data, 12f One Teach, One Assist co-teaching strategy, 17f, 18 One Teach, One Observe co-teaching strategy, 17 organizing data, 29–30

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139

Parallel Teaching co-teaching strategy, 18f, 19 parameters, 58, 60, 69 PDK International, 130 pedagogy, 86 peer coaching, 14–16 personal identity, 3–5, 100–101 personal theory questionnaire, 4f perspective dimension of observations, 37f, 45–46, 53f Pinterest, 33 pointing, 112–113 postobservation conferences, 10–11, 68, 70, 73–75, 79–80 poverty, 124 practitioner research overview, 23–25 data collection and analysis, 28–30 evaluation and reflection of, 31–32 evidence-based claims, 30–31 plan for, 26–28 questions for, 25–26 results, 32–33 praise, 121 preconferences, 9–10, 65–66, 71–72, 77–78 predictions, 62f presenting skills, 58, 69, 76, 82 problem solving skills, 58, 60, 76, 82 processing, 116–117 Professional Development School Conference, 32 professions and professionals, 6–7, 8–25, 96 proximity control, 110, 113, 114 purpose dimension of observations, 36–38 questions for practitioner research, 25–26 rationale dimension of observations, 37f, 38 red flag litmus test, 52f reflecting skills, 58, 60 The Reflective Educator’s Guide to Classroom Research: Learning to Teach and Teaching to Learn Through Practitioner Inquiry (Dana and Yendol-Hoppey), 24

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reinforcing skills, 58, 69 relationship dimension of observations, 37f, 42–43 research plan for, 26–28 practitioner, 23–33 resources, 129–130 results, 3 Rule of More, Rule of Multiple and Rule of Outlier, 30–31 Sanders, Lynn, 50 School Reform Initiative, 23 schools changes in, 127 committees in, 126 community schools, 124–125 scope dimension of observations, 37f, 38–40 self-motivated growth, 82–84 self-plan, 75f setting parameters, 58, 60, 69 small-group co-teaching strategies, 18f social-emotional support, 121–124 social media platforms, 33 Southern California Professional Development School Consortium, 32 Southern Maine Partnership, 20 stages of concern, 91–92 Starnes, Bobby Ann, 34–35 Station Teaching co-teaching strategy, 18–19 St. Cloud University, 16–17 Stories from the Field blog, 33 students behavior checklists, 66f–67f learning and, 7 substitutes, 15 Success Analysis Protocol, 122 suggestions, 122–123 Supplemental Teaching co-teaching strategy, 18f, 19

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teachable moments, 118f See also immediate response skills teacher development abstract-thinking skills and, 94 characteristics of, 93f dimensions of, 87–92 factors in, 92–94 practice exercise for, 102–105 teachers attitudes of, 120–121 evaluation of, 48–56 improvement of, 4–7 substitutes, 15 support for, 121–124 teacher inquiry, 23–24 teacher leaders, 125–126 types of, 94–97 TeacherTube, 33, 130 Teacher Verbal Behavior Chart, 40, 41f Teach to Lead, 130 Team Teaching co-teaching strategy, 17f, 18 Temi, 130 think aloud, 123 Thompson-Grove, Gene, 132 tuning protocol, 20, 21f–22f Twitter, 33 University of Central Florida, 125 University of South Florida, 32, 126 unpacking, 113–116 video analysis, 29 V-Note, 29, 130 whisper coaching, 112 whole-group co-teaching strategies, 17f Writers Who Care blog, 33 Yendol-Hoppey, Diane, 24 YouTube, 33

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Carl Glickman is professor emeritus of education at the University of Georgia. He is the author of the best-selling ASCD books Leadership for Learning: How to Help Teachers Succeed and Developmental Supervision. Overall, he has written 13 books, three of which were recognized by national education organizations as outstanding education books of the year. His supervision text, coauthored with Steve Gordon and Jovita Ross-Gordon, is in its 10th edition and continues to be the leading text in the field. Glickman, once active in ASCD, has keynoted to audiences in the thousands at various conferences, including five major presentations, and served as a featured general assembly presenter. Rebecca West Burns is an associate professor in the College of Education at the University of South Florida, where she studies supervision, clinically based teacher education, and school-university partnerships. Recently, she was awarded the Shirley S. Schwartz Urban Education Impact Award from the Council of the Great City Schools. She is known for her research and practical applications of verbal and nonverbal supervisory behaviors, practices, and pedagogical skills that promote individual teacher growth. She has published more than 30 journal articles and book chapters and is frequently invited to speak to state, regional, and national audiences. She is the coeditor of the recently published book Clinically Based Teacher Education in Action: Cases from Professional Development Schools and has three other books under contract. Burns has held leadership roles in several national organizations, such as the Council of Professors of Instructional Supervision, the National Association for Professional Development Schools, the American Educational Research Association Supervision and Instructional Leadership Special Interest Group, the Professional Development School Research Special Interest Group, and the Association of Teacher Educators. 141

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Related ASCD Resources At the time of publication, the following resources were available (ASCD stock numbers appear in parentheses): Print Products Connecting Leadership with Learning: A Framework for Reflecting, Planning, and Action by Michael Copland and Michael Knapp (#105003) Leading In Sync: Teacher Leaders and Principals Working Together for Student Learning by Jill Harrison Berg (#118021) Never Underestimate Your Teachers: Instructional Leadership for Excellence in Every Classroom by Robyn R. Jackson (#110028) Instructional Coaching in Action: An Integrated Approach That Transforms Thinking, Practice, and Schools by Ellen B. Eisenberg, Bruce P. Eisenberg, Elliott A. Medrich, and Ivan Charner (#117028) The Principal Influence: A Framework for Developing Leadership Capacity in Principals by Pete Hall, Deborah Childs-Bowen, Ann Cunningham-Morris, Phyllis Pajardo, and Alisa A. Simeral (#116026) Educational Coaching: A Partnership for Problem Solving by Cathy A. Toll (#118027) The Artisan Teaching Model for Instructional Leadership: Working Together to Transform Your School by Kenneth Baum and David Krulwich (#116041) Engaging Teachers in Classrom Walkthroughs by Donald S. Kachur, Judith A. Stout, and Claudia L. Edwards (#113024) Effective Supervision: Supporting the Art and Science of Teaching by Robert J. Marzano, Tony Frontier, and David Livingston (#110019) Focus: Elevating the Essentials to Radically Improve Student Learning, 2nd Edition by Mike Schmoker (#118044) Transforming Professional Development into Student Results by Douglas B. Reeves (#109050) The Coach Approach to School Leadership: Leading Teachers to Higher Livels of Effectiveness by Jessica Johnson, Shira Leibowitz, and Kath Perret (#117025) For up-to-date information about ASCD resources, go to www.ascd.org. You can search the complete archives of Educational Leadership at www.ascd.org/el. ASCD myTeachSource® Download resources from a professional learning platform with hundreds of research-based best practices and tools for your classroom at http://myteachsource. ascd.org/. For more information, send an e-mail to [email protected]; call 1-800-933-2723 or 703-578-9600; send a fax to 703-575-5400; or write to Information Services, ASCD, 1703 N. Beauregard St., Alexandria, VA 22311-1714 USA.

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WHOLE CHILD

TENETS 1

HEALTHY

2

SAFE

3

ENGAGED

4

SUPPORTED

5

CHALLENGED

The ASCD Whole Child approach is an effort to transition

Each student enters school healthy and learns about and practices a healthy lifestyle.

Each student learns in an environment that is physically and emotionally safe for students and adults.

Each student is actively engaged in learning and is connected to the school and broader community.

from a focus on narrowly defined academic achievement to one that promotes the long-term development and success of all children. Through this approach, ASCD supports educators, families, community members, and policymakers as they move from a vision about educating the whole child

Each student has access to personalized learning and is supported by qualified, caring adults.

to sustainable, collaborative actions.

Leadership for Learning, 2nd Edition, relates to the engaged, challenged, and supported tenets. For more about the ASCD Whole Child approach, visit www.ascd.org/wholechild.

Each student is challenged academically and prepared for success in college or further study and for employment and participation in a global environment.

Become an ASCD member today! Go to www.ascd.org/joinascd or call toll-free: 800-933-ASCD (2723)

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D O N ’ T M I S S A S I N G L E I S S U E O F A S C D ’ S AWA R D - W I N N I N G M A G A Z I N E ,

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP If you belong to a Professional Learning Community, you may be b looking for a way to get your fellow educators’ minds around a complex topic. Why not delve into a relevant theme issue of Educational Leadership, the releva journal written by educators for educators. journa Subscribe now, or buy back issues of ASCD’s flagship publication at www.ascd.org/ELbackissues. Single issues cost $7 (for issues dated September 2006–May 2013) or $8.95 (for issues dated September 2013 and later). Buy 10 or more of the same issue, and you’ll save 10 percent. Buy 50 or more of the same issue, and you’ll save 15 percent. For discounts on purchases of 200 or more copies, contact [email protected]; 1-800-933-2723, ext. 5773. To see more details about these and other popular issues of Educational Leadership, visit www.ascd.org/ELarchive.

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Education

2nd Edition

Carl Glickman is professor emeritus of education at the University of Georgia. He is the author of the best-selling ASCD books Leadership for Learning: How to Help Teachers Succeed and Developmental Supervision. Overall, he has written 13 books, three of which were recognized by national education organizations as outstanding education books of the year.

How How To To Bring Bring Out Out The The BEST BEST In In Every Every Teacher Teacher

—Madison Johnson, teacher, Veteran’s School, Wesley Chapel, FL

Carl Glickman and Rebecca West Burns capture the importance of collaboration, job-embedded professional learning, and observation and feedback as levers for improving professional practice across a school. I recommend this book for all aspiring and current principals, assistant principals, teachers, and teacher leaders who want to create schoolwide ownership of teaching and learning in order to drive sustained success for students and entire school communities. —Tricia McManus, deputy superintendent, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, Winston-Salem, NC; former assistant superintendent of professional development, leadership, and school transformation, Hillsborough County Public Schools, Tampa, FL

I believe this book should be in the hands of every program that provides supervision and support for educators at all stages of the profession. —Michael Cosenza, EdD, president, National Association for Professional Development Schools; director, professional development schools for California Lutheran University

An excellent book! Should be required reading for all teachers and leaders in the school community to help those around them be the best leaders of learning they can be. —Faye Snodgress, executive director, Kappa Delta Pi, Indianapolis, IN

I really loved this book. This text provides access to a variety of research and practical strategies for professional growth. It’s a resource I will keep close at hand. —Kelly M. Mark, principal, Corl Street School, State College, PA Alexandria, Virginia USA

The latest research and thoughtfully written, this book is filled with tools, processes, and timely case studies to ensure student success! —Frances Hensley, founding director, School Reform Initiative: A Community of Learners, Denver, CO

Browse exerpts from ASCD books: www.ascd.org/books

GLICKMAN | BURNS

Rebecca West Burns is an associate professor in the College of Education at the University of South Florida, where she studies supervision, clinically based teacher education, and school-university partnerships. Recently, she was awarded the Shirley S. Schwartz Urban Education Impact Award from the Council of the Great City Schools.

This is an incredible book. A rarely written initiative to give voice, purpose, and power to the teachers, leaders, and teacher leaders in every academic building. It unveils the under-spoken truth of teachers and exposes the power that lies within in becoming better at our craft. Think about any professional development we as teachers might need (co-teaching, peer coaching, mentoring, pre-service work, inquiry based work, etc.). This book has it all!

LEADERSHIP FOR LEARNING

FOR

FOR FOR 2nd Edition 2nd Edition