Law and liability of municipal, charitable, and private corporations for conducting recreation camps

434 99 15MB

English Pages 382

Report DMCA / Copyright

DOWNLOAD FILE

Polecaj historie

Law and liability of municipal, charitable, and private corporations for conducting recreation camps

Citation preview

LAW AND LIABILITY OF MUNICIPAL CHARITABLE AND PRIVATE CORPORATIONS FOR CONDUCTING RECREATION CAMPS

BY WILLIAM HENRY FREEBERG

S u b m it t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f R e c r e a t i o n i n th e S c h o o l o f H e a l t h , P h y s i c a l E d u c a t io n and R e c r e a t i o n , I n d ia n a U n i v e r s i t y O cto b er 1 , 1949

ProQuest Number: 10295221

Al! rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is d e p e n d e n t upon th e quality of th e co p y subm itted. In th e unlikely e v e n t th a t th e author did not send a c o m p lete m anuscript a n d th ere are missing p ag e s, th e se will b e noted. Also, if material h ad to b e rem oved, a n o te will indicate th e deletion.

uest ProQuest 10295221 Published by ProQuest LLC (2016). Copyright of th e Dissertation is held by th e Author. All rights reserved. This work is p ro te c te d against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346

A c c e p t e d by t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e S c h o o l o f H e a l t h , P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n and R e c r e a t i o n o f I n d ia n a U n i v e r s i t y as f u l f i l l i n g

th e t h e s i s req u ire m en ts

f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c to r o f R e c r e a t i o n *

DTre c t o r o f T h e s i s

D octorate

C om m ittee:

^ S T Z i ^ h airm an

ACKNOWLEDGEMEKT

The w r i t e r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s

a p p r e c ia tio n

t o Dean W.W. P a t t y whose c o u n s e l and i n s p i r a t i o n was o f tre m en d o u s a s s i s t a n c e To P r o f e s s o r R e y n o ld E.

in t h is

stu d y .

C a r ls o n and o t h e r

members o f t h e A m erican Camping A s s o c i a t i o n who s o g e n e r o u s l y g ave o f t h e i r tim e and e f f o r t

in h e lp in g

t o b r i n g t h i s p r o b le m t o a more c o n s i s t e n t w h o le . In a d d i t i o n , t h e w r i t e r w i s h e s t o a c k n o w le d g e t h e t h o u g h t f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n o f Dean B ern ard C. G-avit and members o f h i s s t a f f o f t h e I n d ia n a Law S c h o o l i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m h e r e p r e s e n t e d . W i l l i a m Henry F r e e b e r g

TABLE OF CONTENTS C h a p te r

Page PART I

I.

II.

INTRODUCTION ...............................................................

1

S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b l e m .....................• . . . • P u r p o se o f t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n • • • » . • • • • • .................. . . D e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e P rob lem M ethods and P r o c e d u r e s ...................... . . . . . . In G eneral •• .............* ....................... ............ Search fo r S t a t u t e s S e a r c h f o r C ourt D e c i s i o n s ....................... S o u r c e s o f D a ta ................... . . . . . < > . • • • . • • * P rim ary Se c o n d a ry ................................................... V a l i d i t y .................................................................... R e lia b ility • « . . . . .................

1 1 2 5 5 5 k

A REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES ..........................

8

6 6 6 6

7

PART I I III.

MEANING OF NEGLIGENCE, CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE, REASONABLE CARE AND NUISANCE ..........................................................

17

N e g lig e n c e D e fin e d • • • • • • *• • Laws o f N e g l i g e n c e • • • « . . . . . . . ............... U n a v o id a b le A c c i d e n t s . . . . c . . . . . . •••. » C o n tr ib u to r y N e g lig e n c e D e fin e d S t a n d a r d s o f C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e •• C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e i n Camps • • • • » • O r d in a r y and R e a s o n a b le Care ................. Conduct o f R e a s o n a b le Care o f C h il d r e n ................... N u is a n c e Summary . ...............................................

17 20 21 22 25 21\. 25 27 27 29

iv

Paee

Chapter

IV .

V.

LEGAL STATUS OP CAMP DIRECTORS AND COUNSELORS ............................................................. D e f i n i t i o n . . . » ..........................• • • • ............... D u ty o f P a r e n t s t o C h ild .......................... P aren ts R e s p o n s ib ilit y f o r C h ild f s T orts ............ D i s c i p l i n e by P e r s o n "In L oco ............................ P a r e n tis" S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l ................. Summary ...............................................................

I4.I Ijlj. lj.6

GENERAL LEGAL SUPERVISORY DUTIES OF GAMP DIRECTORS AND COUNSELORS

I4.8

D u ty o f Care Owed t o C h il d r e n • • • • • • Harm From T h ir d P e r s o n s and A n im a ls ..................................... S t a t e D ep artm en t R e g u l a t i o n s f o r Camp S u p e r v i s i o n . . . . • • • • * • • • » . » . • Care R e q u ir e d o f C h il d r e n • • • • • • • • • • C h ild re n * s R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r W r o n g fu l A c t s t o O t h e r s ............... Employment o f M inors ........................... ••• Sum m ary •••• V I.

LIABILITY OF CHARITABLE CORPORATIONS FOR TORTS ............................................................... D e f i n i t i o n .................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n ...................................... Im m unity D o c t r i n e ................................... L i a b i l i t y o f O f f i c e r s , A g e n ts and S e r v a n t s ................. Summary .........................

V II.

36

MUNICIPAL CORPORATION’ S LIABILITY FOR TORT .................................................................. D e f i n i t i o n ................................................ • • • » • • • S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n • • • • • • • • • • . . . . • • G overn m en tal F u n c t i o n ............... P r o p r ie ta r y F u n ctio n ............. C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and L e g i s l a t i v e C on trol ••••••*. Summary ......................

v

36 38 38

Lj.8 3° 50 51 5U 56

62 62 6)4 66

73 73 81 81

82 83 88 89

93

Chapter

V III.

Page

LEGAL STATUS OP CAMPS, PARKS AFD PI AYGROUNDS ........................................................ S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n .................................... F e e s and Board and R o o m ........................................

99

100 103

P a rk s and P la y g r o u n d s ............................................ D e f i n i t i o n ....................................................................... P e r m i s s i v e Lav, ................................................ S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n ............... N u is a n c e .......................................* ..................... L i a b i l i t y o f O f f i c e r s , A gen ts and S e r v a n t s ................................................ Summary ............. . . ............................................... IX .

LIABILITY OF PRIVATE CORPORATIONS FOR TORT ............................................................... P r i v a t e C o r p o r a t io n D e f in e d ............... D o c t r i n e o f " R esp o n d ea t S u p e r io r " . D o c t r i n e o f " R esp o n d ea t S u p e r io r " ............................... A p p l i e d to Camping Law o f I n n k e e p e r s ........................................ S ta tu to ry R e g u la tio n s o f P r iv a te Camps ................................................................ L ocal R e g u la tio n s o f P r iv a te Camps .................................................................. A c t s and O m is sio n o f A c t s o f S e r v a n t s , A g e n t s and E m p lo yees ............................ Summary ..................................................................

104

104 103 109 112 113 117

122 123 124 124 124 123 123 127 128

PART I I I X.

LEGAL SUPERVISORY DUTIES FOR CAMP PROGRAM ACTIVITIES ......................................

131

B o a tin g

.................................................................

132

S ta tu to r y C on trol o f P le a su r e B o a t s .................................................................. C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s ......................... P r i v a t e C o r p o r a t io n s ................................. Summary ..................................................................

132 134 134 13&

vi

Chapter

Page

C ra fts

...................................................................................

141

M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t i o n s and. S c h o o l s (G o v e r n m e n ta l F u n c t i o n ) ..................................... M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t io n s and S c h o o l s ( P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n ) ........................................ Summary ........................................ * .........................

145

F r e e P la y and Games ......................................

147

M u n ic ip a l Camps and P a rk s P la y g r o u n d A p p a r a tu s (G o v e r n m e n ta l F u n c t i o n ) .................... M u n ic ip a l Camps and P a rk s P la y g r o u n d A p p a r a tu s ( P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n ) ............... .... B a s e b a l l and Badm inton ( P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n ............................ Summary .................................................................... H o r se b a c k R i d i n g

142

143

147 148 149 151

............................................

151

S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l and H e a l t h ........................................ .. R e g u la tio n s P a r k s and Camps ( P r i v a t e C a p a c i t y ) . . P r i v a t e L iv e r y S t a b l e s ............................ Summary .................. ..................................................

151 153 155 162

R ifle r y

168

....................................................................

S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l and S t a t e D epartm ent R e g u l a t i o n s ......................... P u b l i c Amusement P a r k s .............................. R i f l e Range ( P r i v a t e ) ................................. Summary ....................................................................

168 169

170 174

Sw framing .................................................................

1? 6

S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l o f Swimming ............. M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t io n s (G o v e r n m e n ta l F u n c t i o n ) ....................... M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t io n s ( P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n ) ......................... P r i v a t e C o r p o r a t i o n s .............................. .. C h a r ita b le C o r p o r a tio n s ......................... Summary ............................................................

176

vii

177 182 185 196 198

Chapter

X I.

'

Page

'LEO-Ah DUTIES IN MAINTAINING- a CAMP SITE ......................... S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l , S t a t e D epartm ent R e g u l a t i o n s , and L o c a l O r d in a n c e s ................. D e f i n i t i o n or " I n v i t e e '1 ......................... Duty o f Care Owed t o an " I n v i t e e " . .

X III.

209 212

212

G-rounds ......................

,1 4

N a t u r a l T e r r a i n .............................................. T r e e s , S h r u b s , and Stumps .................... R u b b is h P i l e s ............ E x c a v a t i o n s and H o le s ............

2I 4 216 218 219

B u i l d i n g s and Equipm ent .........................

221

B u i l d i n g s D e f in e d ........................................ T e n t s and C a b i n s ............................ I n n k e e p e r s . . ..................................................... ....................... M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t io n s M a in te n a n c e R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f L e s s o r and L e s s e e ........................... Summary ................... X II.

208

221 221

223 223 223 225

HEALTH AND SANITATION ...............................

229

F e d e r a l H e a l t h C o n t r o l ............. . ........... S t a t e H e a l t h C o n t r o l .............. L o c a l H e a l t h C o n t r o l . .............................. H e a l t h and S a n i t a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s . C o n t a g io u s D i s e a s e s .................................... F i r s t A id ............................................... F ood and Food H a n d lin g I n s p e c t i o n and L i c e n s e . . . . . . . . . . . . S a n i t a t i o n .......................................................... Summary ..................................................... . . . .

229 230

TRANSPORTATION

232 233

2^4 236

237 241 241 243

......................

252

C a r rie rs ................. Common C a r r i e r ................... P r iv a t e C a r rie r ............................. S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l ......................

253 253 2 55 256

viii

Chapter

Page

C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s .......................................... M u n i c ip a l C o r p o r a t i o n s (G o v e r n m e n ta l F u n c t i o n ) ........................... P r i v a t e C o r p o r a t io n s .................................................. Summary ...........................................................

26 1 265

26 6

267

PART XV XXV.

CONCLUSION ...............................................................

2 71

GLOSSARY....................................................................

280

TABLE OP CASES, ARRANGED BY STATES . .

285

...........................................

216

APPENDIX A - GENERAL TYPES OP LEGISLATION AFFECTING RECREATION CAMPS.......................................................................

324

APPENDIX B - CAMP STANDARDS ADOPTED BY THE AMERICAN CAMPING ASSOCIATION .......................................................

329

APPENDIX C - KIKIfera: STANDARDS FOR WISCONSIN RECREATION CAIR’S ..................

338

APPENDIX D - REPORT OK HEALTH AND SANITATION NOR RECREATION CAMPS . . .

3 50

APPENDIX E - HEALTH PERMIT POR OPERATING RECREATION Ca MPS ..................

355

APPENDIX P - SAFETY REGULATIONS FOR BOATING..................................................................

357

APPENDIX G - REGULATIONS FOR BATHING BEACHES .........................................................

361

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ix

LIST OF FIGURES F ig u r e 1* 2. 5« II* 5. 6. 7«

Page Age L i m i t s o f C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e And S ta n d a r d o f Care . . . ................ ................. . . R e str ic tio n s

on The Employment o f M inors •

SO

Camping P r o v i s i o n s I n S t a t e E n a b l in g Laws W ith D a te o f F i r s t P a s s a g e

9$

R e g u l a t i o n s G o v er n in g L o c a l Park and R e c r e a t i o n D e p a r tm e n ts

121

A n a l y s i s o f S t a t e Laws C oncerned W ith P l e a s u r e B o a t s ......................................................... S t a t u t e s and S t a t e D ep artm en t R e g u l a t i o n s C on cern ed W ith H o rseb a ck R i d i n g .....................• S t a t u t o r y R e g u l a t i o n s C on cern ed W ith Swimming

9*

S t a t e H e a l t h D ep artm en t R e g u l a t i o n s ..................................... C oncerned W ith Swimming

11.

6l

L i a b i l i t y o f C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t io n s F or o ° , T o r t • • • • • • • • • « ........................

8#

10.

55

S t a t e H e a l t h D ep artm en t R e g u l a t i o n s C on cern ed W ith Camp Grounds and B u ild in g s ....•••••a.... H e a l t h and S a n i t a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s F or R e c r e a t i o n Camps ................................................

x

llpO 167

207

228 2S0

PART I INTRODUCTION

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION S ta te m e n t of th e Problem To d i s c o v e r w h a t t h e l e g a l l i a b i l i t i e s c h arita b le,

and. p r i v a t e

d u ctin g a re c r e a tio n

co rp o ratio n s

are

of m u n ic ip a l,

in reg a rd to

con­

cam p , *

Purpose One o f t h e today i s

the

of d e s i r a b l e

of th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n

prim ary co n ce rn s of th e

i m p r o v e m e n t o f camp p r a c t i c e s

cam ping a u t h o r i t i e s and t h e e x t e n s i o n

cam ping e x p e r i e n c e s t o an i n c r e a s i n g number of

c h i l d r e n and o l d e r y o u t n s . Due t o t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f t h e c a m p i n g movement i n t h e p a s t few d e c a d e s , h e alth ,

safety ,

tected , raise

I t h a s become I m p e r a t i v e t h a t t h e

and w e l f a r e

of campers and c o u n s e l o r s

The besx; mea ns t o i m p r o v e t h e s e

the

camp s t a n d a r d s ,

prom ote d e s i r a b l e

and s t a t e

supreme c o u r t r u l i n g s

The l e g a l r i g h t s

and d u t i e s

c a m p i n g movement I s t o

be i n t e r p r e t e d

and

b ut have n e v e r been

o f t h e camp a d m i n i s t r a t o r s *

c o u n s e lo r s have n o t been c l a r i f i e d

the le g a l r ig h ts

lead ersh ip ,

s ta n d a rd s are in c o rp o ra te d in our s t a t e

brought to th e a tt e n t i o n

I f the

co n d itio n s Is to

h e a l t h and s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s .

Many o f t h e s e sta tu te s

improve th e

be p r o ­

and d u t i e s

of th e

camp d i r e c t o r s

t o a ny d e g r e e

continue

Its

an d

of s a t i s f a c t i o n .

e x te n s iv e grow th,

o f c a m p in g a d m i n i s t r a t o r s n e e d t o

and u n d e r s t o o d .

2 The c h i e f p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y i s t o o b t a i n an u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g o f t h e l e g a l c o n t r o l s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g cam p in g s o t h e cam ping movement may c o n t i n u e i t s

r a p i d g r o w th

w it h a b e t t e r u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s in v o lv e d • The r e s u l t s

o f th e s tu d y sh o u ld a l s o s e r v e as a g u id e

t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s t a n d a r d s a d o p t e d by t h e A m e rica n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n a r e l e g a l l y a s w e l l a s e t h i c a l l y a c c e p ta b le . D e l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e P rob lem The s t u d y i n c l u d e s Supreme C ou rt c a s e s and s t a t u t e s i n a ll sta tes

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s up t o and i n c l u d i n g t h e y e a r

1948. The s t u d y i s

l i m i t e d t o c o u r t c a s e s and s t a t u t e s

th a t

a r e d i r e c t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e c r e a t i o n camps. I t w i l l i n c l u d e a s t u d y o f t h e l i a b i l i t y t o dam ages o f m u n ic ip a l,

c h a r ita b le ,

a g en ts, o f f ic e r s ,

and p r i v a t e

and s e r v a n t s .

S ta tu te s p resen ted w i l l , s p e c ific

c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e i r

i n m ost c a s e s , be l i m i t e d t o

s t a t u t e s d e a lin g w ith th e p a r t ic u la r p r in c ip le o f

la w i n v o l v e d i n r e g a r d t o some p a r t i c u l a r p h a s e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a camp p ro g ra m .

C ases and

s t a t u t e s n o t r e l a t i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e cam ping s i t u a t i o n w i l l be u s e d w h e n e v e r t h e y a r e p e r t i n e n t and h ave a p p l i c a t i o n to th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

3 An a n a l y s i s o f s t a t u t e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f r e c r e a t i o n camps w i l l be i n c l u d e d i n th e a p p en d ix . S t a t e h e a l t h and w e l f a r e r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l be a n a l y z e d t o show how t h e y a f f e c t

cam p ing s i t u a t i o n s .

M ethods and P r o c e d u r e s In G en er a l: lite r a tu r e

An e x t e n s i v e s t u d y was made o f t h e

i n t h e cam ping f i e l d w i t h e m p h a s is i n t h e a r e a s

d e a l i n g w i t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s u p e r v i s i o n , and d e s i r a b l e

camp

stan d ard s• A s e a r c h was t h e n made f o r p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s t h a t m ig h t h ave some b e a r i n g on t h e t o p i c u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

M asters

t h e s e s , d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s , l e g a l and n o n - l e g a l t e x t s and p e r i o d i c a l s , th is

and t h e s t a t e

la w j o u r n a l s w ere r e a d ,

prom

i n f o r m a t i o n n o t e s w ere t a k e n and a b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l l i s t

o f r e f e r e n c e s and c a s e s t h o u g h t t o a f f e c t t h e s t u d y i n one way or a n o t h e r was c o m p i le d . Search fo r S t a t u t e s :

”In any l e g a l r e s e a r c h ,

t o r y la w s h o u l d be l o c a t e d f i r s t

sta tu ­

and t h e n t h e c o u r t

d e c i s i o n s . n^ In th e se a r c h fo r s t a t e

la w t h e l a t e s t g e n e r a l c o l ­

l e c t i o n o f l a w s f o r t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s w ere e x a m in e d . c o n s is t e d o f th e r e v is e d

sta tu tes,

t h e c o m p ile d l a w s ,

1 N o t z , K e b e c c a L . , L e g a l B i b l i o g r a p h y and L e g a l R esearch, p. 91.

T h ese and

th e codes*

The s e s s i o n Xaws w ere a l s o ex a m in ed i n t h o s e

s t a t e s w here t h e g e n e r a l c o l l e c t i o n d a te.

o f la w s was n o t up t o

A n o th e r v e r y h e l p f u l volum e was t h e S t a t e Law I n d e x .

I t was e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l I n l o c a t i n g la w s d e a l i n g w i t h one p a r tic u la r su b ject fo r a l l s t a t e s . S t a t u t e s th a t p e r ta in e d to th e v a r io u s a s p e c ts of th e cam ping program w ere e x a m in e d .

T h ese s t a t u t e s w ere a n a l y z e d

In d e t a i l a c c o r d in g to th e p r i n c ip a l l e g a l p r o v is io n s of each la w .

A k e y code was d e v i s e d t o r e p r e s e n t e a c h one o f t h e

im p o r t a n t l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s .

At t h e end o f e a c h d i s c u s s i o n

con cern ed w ith th e s t a t u t e s ,

is

a f i g u r e w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s

t h e - l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s a s fo u n d i n t h e lib s t a t e s . Some c o u r t c a s e s were u s e d i n t h e f i g u r e s t o d e s i g n a t e a p r in c ip le

o f la w .

T h ese c a s e s may be r e f e r r e d t o i n th e

B i b l i o g r a p h y o f C a se s f o l l o w i n g t h e main body o f t h e t h e s i s . S e a r c h f o r Court D e c i s i o n s :

I t was d i f f i c u l t t o

o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n fr o m Supreme C ourt c a s e s c o n c e r n i n g r e c r e a t i o n cam p s.

In s p it e

s e a r c h i n g , no t o p i c s

of a c o n sid er a b le

or e v e n s u b - t o p i c s w ere fo u n d t h a t

d e a l t s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith them .

T h is made i t

t a k e d i f f e r e n t f a .c t w ord s c l o s e l y in g f i e l d

n e c essa ry to

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e camp­

and make a s e a r c h t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s l e g a l i n d i c e s ,

e n c y c lo p e d ia s, to a to p ic

amount o f

and s p e c i a l v o l u m e s .

When t h e in d e x r e f e r r e d

or s u b j e c t and s e c t i o n or k e y number, a s e a r c h

was c o n t i n u e d by c o n s u l t i n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c i n th e d e sir e d p u b lic a tio n .

5 Moat o f t h e s e a r c h f o r c o u r t d e c i s i o n s t h e u s e o f t h e t o p i c m e th o d . lec ted

c o n siste d

in

The a p p r o p r i a t e t o p i c was s e ­

and v e r i f i e d b y r e a d i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r u n d e r

th e t o p ic

chosen.

I t was t h e n n e c e s s a r y t o r u n t h r o u g h a l l

o f t h e m a in h e a d i n g s t o d e c i d e w h ic h one w ou ld i n c l u d e t h e p o i n t o f la w s o u g h t .

T hen a l l o f t h e m ain s u b - d i v i s i o n s o f

t h e m a in h e a d i n g s s e l e c t e d w ere e x a m in ed and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s u b - d i v i s i o n was s e l e c t e d t h a t was t h o u g h t t o d e a l s p e c i f i ­ c a l l y w i t h t h e p r o b le m . When t h e t h e t o p i c s w ere

r e f e r e n c e u s e d was t h e A m e rica n D i g e s t tr a c e d th rou gh th e d i g e s t sy stem .

c a s e s r e f e r r e d t o w ere t h e n r ea d i n t h e s t a t e R e p o r ter S ystem .

Index,

The c o u r t

or th e N a tio n a l

T h is same p r o c e d u r e was u s e d w i t h t h e h e l p

o f t h e k e y cod e i n t h e l e g a l e n c y c l o p e d i a s and s p e c i a l v o lu m e s.

From t h e s e f i n d i n g s a b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l l i s t

c a s e s and n o t e s was made and f i l e d card f i l e .

of

a c co r d in g t o t o p i c s

in a

A f t e r t h e c a s e s w ere r e c o r d e d u n d e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

t o p i c s , t h e y w ere r e a d and b r i e f e d .

The b r i e f s w ere t y p e d on

f i v e b y e i g h t , c a r d s and f i l e d u n d e r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h e a d i n g s . One s i d e o f t h e

ca rd c o n t a i n e d t h e c i t a t i o n ,

b r i e f a n a ly s is o f th e f a c t s o f th e c a s e .

d a t e , and a

On t h e o t h e r

sid e

was r e c o r d e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f la w w h ic h a p p l i e d t o t h e p a r ­ t i c u la r su b je c t in q u e stio n . C a s e s and s t a t u t e s w ere t r a c e d t h r o u g h S h e p a r d ' s C ita to r to g e t th e l a t e s t o f th e i n v e s t ig a t io n .

c a s e s and t o a f f i r m t h e v a l i d i t y

S o u r c e s o f D a ta P r im a r y : sta te

sta tu tes,

The p r im a r y s o u r c e o f d a t a c o n s i s t e d o f t h e th e s t a t e

suprem e and a p p e l l a t e c o u r t r e p o r t s

A m e r ic a n D i g e s t S y s t e m , t h e N a t i o n a l R e p o r t e r S y s t e m , F e d e r a l R ep o rts, le g a l d i c t io n a r ie s ,

and a n s w e r s t o a c h e c k l i s t

sent

t o t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l s , 2^and s t a t e h e a l t h d e ­ p a r tm e n t h e a d s 3 Secondary: th e s t a t e

The s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e o f d a t a c o n s i s t e d

of

la w j o u r n a l s , l e g a l t e x t b o o k s , A m erica n Law R e p o r t s

Lawyer R e p o r t s A n n o t a t e d , L e g a l E n c y c l o p e d i a s , s p e c i a l l e g a l v o lu m e s o n n e g l i g e n c e , and d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w ith l e g a l r e se a r c h . V a lid ity :

S t a t u t o r y Law t h a t i s n o t c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Lav/ i s t h e la w o f t h e s t a t e .

I t becom es t h e

law o f t h e s t a t e u n t i l t h e c o u r t s p r o v e t h a t t h e la w i s u n ­ c o n stitu tio n a l.

Where t h e r e a r e no s t a t u t e s on a s u b j e c t ,

th e r u lin g s o f th e s t a t e

supreme c o u r t s become t h e law on

th a t su b ject u n t il i t

changed b y s t a t u t e .

is

Many o f t h e

c a s e s e x a m in ed w ere found t o be la w s o r r u l i n g s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e s t a t e suprem e and a p p e l l a t e c o u r t s .

The v a l i d i t y o f

t h e s e c o n d a r y d a t a was t r a c e d t o i t s p r im a r y s o u r c e t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e s made o f c o u r t c a s e s and a n n o t a t i o n s i n v a r i o u s o th er le g a l p u b lic a tio n s .

T hrough t h e u s e o f S h e p a r d Ts

C ita to r th e v a l i d i t y o f each to p ic

^ S e e A p p e n d i x II on P a g e 3 6 5 . ^ S e e A p p e n d i x I on P a g e 3 6 8 *

c o u ld be v e r i f i e d .

7 R e lia b ility ;

S t a t u t e s and c a s e s h ave b e e n t r a c e d up

t o and i n c l u d i n g t h e y e a r 1 9 4 8 . a b le th ro u g h th a t d a t e .

The s t u d y s h o u l d p r o v e r e l i ­

C ases were t r a c e d t h r o u g h S h e p a r d f s

C i t a t o r t o v e r i f y any c h a n g e s i n r u l i n g o r s t a t u t e t h a t m ig h t a f f e c t th e stu d y .

8

CHAPTER I I A REVIEW 01' RELATED STUDIES In the f a l l camp a u t h o r i t i e s ,

o f 19118, a g r o u p o f l e a d i n g r e c r e a t i o n

from v a r i o u s p a r t s

m et a t P o k a g o n S t a t e P a r k , lativ e

aspects

In d ian a,

of cam ping.

of th e U n ite d S t a te s to d isc u ss the

leg is­

T h i s m e e t i n g was i n t h e f o r m o f

a w o r k s h o p a n d wa s s p o n s o r e d by t h e A m e r i c a n Camping A sso ciatio n . Much o f t h e

leg islatio n

a f f e c tin g the

camping p ro g ra m

h a s becom e s o c o n f u s i n g a n d o f t e n e m b a r r a s s i n g t o t h e p eop le t h a t cuss t h i s

a c r i t i c a l n e e d was f e l t

c a m p in g

t o g e t t o g e t h e r and d i s ­

problem .

The w o r k s h o p was d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r c o m m i t t e e s . c o m m i t t e e s t u d i e d t h e p o w e r s and r e g u l a t i o n s

One

o f s c h o o l s and

r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s w h ich p e r m i t t e d camping as a p a r t th e r e g u la r program s.

A nother group a n aly ze d th e g e n e r a l

law s as th e y a f f e c t t h e r e c r e a t i o n s tu d ie d the v a rio u s

state

a f f e c t the r e c r e a tio n its

of

camp.

A th ird

departm ent r e g u la ti o n s

camps.

com m ittee and how t h e y

The f o u r t h g r o u p s p e n t m o st o f

t i m e p l a n n i n g ways o f I m p r o v i n g a n d I m p l e m e n t i n g t h e e x ­

istin g

law s and f u t u r e The w r i t e r

law s c o n c e r n i n g camps.

assisted

in th e p la n s f o r t h i s w orkshop,

a n d c o l l e c t e d much o f t h e d a t a t h a t w e r e u s e d I n f o r m i n g t h e

•^American Camping A s s o c i a t i o n . (lg,500 m e m b e r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y tw o m i l l i o n c a m p e r s . )

9

c o n c l u s i o n s and r e c o m m e n d a tio n s . sh o p a b o o k l e t e n t i t l e d ,

As a r e s u l t

o f t h i s w ork­

" L e g i s l a t i v e A s p e c t s o f Camping"

was p u b l i s h e d , 2 D yer and L i c h t i g , 3 h a v e j u s t c o m p le t e d a s t u d y w h ic h i n c l u d e s some o f t h e fo u n d i n p a r t s is

of t h is

a f r i e f d isc u ssio n

n u isa n c e ,

and s a f e

r e c r e a tio n . th ese th e

same l e g a l c o n c e p t s and c o u r t c a s e s in v e stig a tio n .

In clu d e d i n t h i s

stu d y

o f t o r t , m u n icip a l f u n c t i o n s , n e g lig e n c e ,

c o n d i t i o n s i n r e g a r d t o l o c a l p a r k s and

T here i s

a ls o p resen ted a b r ie f d is c u s s io n of

l e g a l c o n c e p t s f o l l o w e d by c o u r t c a s e s i l l u s t r a t i n g

lia b ility

th e ir a cts

of r e c r e a tio n o f f ic e r s

and s u p e r v i s o r s f o r

or o m i s s i o n o f a c t s w h ic h a r e done n e g l i g e n t l y .

A l s o i n c l u d e d a r e some e x c e l l e n t s u g g e s t i o n s and recommen­ d a t i o n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g an o r g a n i z e d p l a y program b a s e d on th e f in d in g s

of the i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I n I 9 J1 8 , t h e A m erican Camping A s s o c i a t i o n h e l d t h e i r b i - a n n u a l c o n v e n t i o n In Los A n g e i e s ,

C a lifo r n ia ,

At t h i s

m e e t i n g a s e t o f n a t i o n a l camp s t a n d a r d s was p r e s e n t e d f o r p u b lic d is c u s s io n . th e

A fter a f u l l

s t a n d a r d s w ere f u l l y

p u b l i c h e a r i n g was g i v e n ,

a c c e p t e d and a d o p te d as t h e n a t i o n a l

s t a n d a r d s o f t h e A m erican Camping A s s o c i a t i o n , ^ !

^ A m erican Camping A s s o c i a t i o n , C am ping," 58 PP* ^ D y er, D o n a ld B. and L i c h t i g , R e c r e a t i o n , 107 PP* ^A m erican Camping A s s o c i a t i o n , By A . C . A . , " PP* 2l|-—25*

They i n c l u d e

" L e g is la tiv e A sp ects J.G ., L ia b ility

of

in P u b lic

"Camp S t a n d a r d s A d o p t e d

10 t h e alm s and o b j e c t i v e s o f good c a m p in g , and t h e minimum sta n d a r d s f o r program , p e r s o n n e l, h e a l t h , camp s i t e s ,

fa c ilitie s,

sa n ita tio n ,

sa fety ,

e q u ip m e n t, and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

I t w i l l be i n t e r e s t i n g t o s e e how n e a r l y t h e s e s t a n d ­ a r d s compare w i t h t h e l e g a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a s fou n d i n s t a t u t e s and c o u r t c a s e s . The A m e rica n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n i s n o t t h e o n l y grou p concerned w ith th e l e g i s l a t i v e are i n t e r e s t e d

a s p e c t s o f ca m p in g .

E d u c a to r s

i n kn ow in g i f t h e i r s c h o o l la w s a r e broad

e n o u g h t o p e r m it cam p ing as p a r t o f t h e i r r e g u l a r program . T hey w ou ld a l s o l i k e

t o know what many o f t h e o t h e r l e g a l

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t o r s are in c o n d u c tin g a s c h o o l camp p r o g r a m . 5 In 1947, th e N a tio n a l Secondary S ch o o l P r in c ip a ls A s s o c ia t io n p u b lish ed a b u l l e t i n d e a lin g e n t i r e l y w ith Q

“ Camping and O utdoor E d u c a t i o n ."

They showed how many o f

t h e s u b j e c t s now t a u g h t i n t h e c l a s s r o o m c o u ld be much more e f f e c t i v e l y ta u g h t in th e o u t - o f - d o o r s .

V a r io u s e d u c a t o r s

d i s c u s s e d t h e s o c i a l , m e n t a l , and p h y s i c a l v a l u e s t h a t come fro m g r o u p l i v i n g and ca m p in g. V i r g i n i a , New Y ork , and M ic h ig a n now have s p e c i a l s c h o o l la w s w h ic h p e r m it s c h o o l s t o o p e r a t e and c o n d u c t camps a s a p a r t o f t h e r e g u l a r s c h o o l p r o g r a m .

5

N a tio n a l Secondary P r in c ip a ls A s s o c ia t io n , N a tio n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , "Camping and O utdoor E d u c a t i o n , " 194 p p . SIb id .

11 I n 1 9 4 3 , H a r o ld H. Punke p r e s e n t e d a c o m p r e h e n s iv e 7 l e g a l stu d y o f p u p il tr a n s p o r ta tio n in th e s c h o o ls . It in ­ c lu d e d a r e v i e w o f a l l p e r t i n e n t

c a ses concerned w ith p u p il

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w h ic h h a v e come b e f o r e t h e h i g h e r s t a t e

and

F e d e r a l c o u r ts i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Some o f t h e im p o r t a n t p h a s e s o f t h e s t u d y i n c l u d e , t h e a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s

fo r p r o v id in g

tr a n s p o r t a t io n , t h e ir l e g a l lim it a t io n s in p r o v id in g i t ,

th e

l i m i t a t i o n s , r e g u l a t i o n s , t e r m i n a t i o n s , and r e c o v e r y c o n c e r n ­ i n g c o n t r a c t s f o r p u p i l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and a s t u d y o f th e s o c i a l im p lic a t io n s o f j u d i c i a l d e c is io n s d e a lin g w ith th e p r o b le m s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . One o f t h e m o st r e l a t i v e p h a s e s o f t h e s t u d y i s ch a p ter d e a lin g w ith t o r t l i a b i l i t y

a

in p u p il tr a n s p o r ta tio n .

Q

I t d i s c u s s e s th e d egree o f care r e q u ir e d in d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g bus t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f o r p u p i l s . v ie w e d on d r i v e r n e g l i g e n c e as th e y le a v e th e b u s s e s , i s not in u s e . o f a c cid e n ts

Court c a s e s are r e ­

a s p u p i l s a r e r i d i n g on t h e b u s s e s ,

and i n j u r i e s

o c c u r r i n g w h i l e t h e bus

S t a t u t e s and c o u r t c a s e s c o n c e r n i n g m ost k in d s

ca u sin g in ju r y t o p u p ils in sc h o o l tr a n s p o r t a t io n

are d is c u s s e d . One o f t h e b e s t s t u d i e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s f o r s c h o o l a d g m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s was made b y H arry N. R o s e n f i e l d .

^P unke, H a r o ld H . , Law and L i a b i l i t y i n P u p i l T ran sp ort at i o n , 291 pp. oo *

8 Ib id ,

C h a p ter V . , p p . 2 0 9 - 5 6 .

Q R o s e n f i e l d , H arry N . , L i a b i l i t y f o r S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s , 220 pp.

12 A thorough d is c u s s io n is

made c o n c e r n i n g t h e

of s c h o o l b o a rd members,

school a d m in is tra to rs ,

te a c h e rs f o r accid en ts th a t grounds. ground,

leg al lia b ility

o c c u r i n and a b o u t t h e

A c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n g i n t h e gymnasium, on f i e l d

trip s,

and s c h o o l

in a t h l e t i c

events,

school

on t h e

play­

and as a r e s u l t

of h e a l t h and m e d i c a l s e r v i c e a r e d i s c u s s e d q u i t e e x t e n s i v e l y and a re c l o s e l y r e l a t e d The c h i e f v a l u e and c r i t e r i a

of t h i s

of t h i s

in v estig atio n .

s tu d y i s th e recom m endations

p r e s e n t e d w hereby s c h o o l p r o c e d u r e s

proved to reduce th e desirab le

to p a rts

c a n be im­

c h a n c e o f i n j u r y and a c c i d e n t s .

c o n t r i b u t i o n i s t h e method of p r e s e n t a t i o n

leg a l p rin cip le s

in v o lv ed .

of th e

They a r e e a s i l y r e a d and u n d e r ­

s to o d by s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s p rin cip les

A nother

and t e a c h e r s b e c a u s e t h e

a r e p r e s e n t e d i n te r m s of good s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a ­

tio n r a th e r th an in te c h n ic a l le g a lism . I n I 9 I4.O, t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y a n d c o m p i l e d a l l t h e p a r k l a w s I n t h e l|_d s t a t e s

t h a t were

concerned w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t,

conduct,

l o c a l parks

d e s c r i b e s th e powers g r a n t e d

an d r e c r e a t i o n . 10

it

and o p e r a t i o n of

t o l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t o e s t a b l i s h p a rK a n d r e c r e a ­ tio n areas, to create

sta te

conduct program s,

to a cq u ire lands

a n d t o make p r o v i s i o n s f o r l e a d e r s h i p .

and Many o f

p a r k law s g r a n t pow ers t o l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n

departm ents to

Parks

ap p o in t governing b o a rd s, to

and e n f o r c e r e g u l a t i o n s ,

fa c ilitie s, the

to

c o n d u c t r e c r e a t i o n camps.

1 0V e t t e r , Roy A . , D i g e s t a n d R e c r e a t i o n . 5 3 4 PP*

o f Laws R e l a t i n g t o L o c a l

13 A nother d i g e s t concerning th e

of s t a t e

a n d f e d e r a l l a w s was made

org an ized r e c r e a t i o n cam p.H

T h i s s t u d y was

a l s o made b y t h e N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f Roy A* V e t t e r , d irec tly

and c o n s i s t s

of a d ig e s t

of law s most

c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e c r e a t i o n camps u p u n t i l 1938*

was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t very lim ite d

law s r e l a t i n g

i n n um b er a n d s c o p e *

c e r n e d w i t h h e a l t h and s a n i t a r y

It

t o r e c r e a t i o n camps w e r e Most o f t h e

laws a re c o n ­

s t a n d a r d s f o r camps.

There

a r e many o t h e r l a w s w h i c h , b y r e a s o n o f t h e i r w i d e a p p l i c a ­ tio n ,

make i t

necessary to

o p e r a t i o n of c a m p s .

c o n s i d e r them i n th e

c o n d u c t and

These i n c lu d e p a rk la w s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

law s,

s o c i a l s e c u r i t y l a w s , employment of m in o rs l a w s ,

sta te

s a fe ty codes. In th is

and

study, V e tte r s t a t e d : ^

The g r e a t v a r i e t y o f l e g i s l a t i o n a f f e c t i n g c a m p i n g h a s b e e n c o n f u s i n g and s o m e t i m e s e m b a r r a s s i n g t o camp a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . F u rth e rm o re , problem s r e ­ g a r d i n g t h e l e g a l a s p e c t s of cam ping a r e i n c r e a s i n g . Many o f t h e s e a f f e c t a l l camps w h i l e o t h e r s c o n c e r n o n l y camps o p e r a t e d by n o n - p r o f i t a g e n c i e s . Among t h e l a t t e r i s t h e q u e s t i o n of e x e m p tio n of p r o p e r t y f r o m v a r i o u s f o r m s o f f e d e r a l and s t a t e t a x a t i o n and th e p e c u n ia r y l i a b i l i t y of th e s e a g e n c ie s to p e rso n s who may s u f f e r i n j u r y t o p e r s o n and p r o p e r t y t h r o u g h n e g l i g e n c e o f o f f i c e r s and e m p l o y e e s , T h e s e and many o t h e r q u e s t i o n s p o i n t t h e n e e d f o r a s t u d y and c l a r i f i ­ c a t i o n o f t h e la w g o v e r n i n g c a m p i n g t o t h e e n d t h a t i t may e v e n t u a l l y be b r o u g h t t o a more c o n s i s t e n t w n o l e .

I *1

V e t t e r , Roy A . , D i g e s t o f Laws A f f e c t i n g O r g a n i z e a C a m p i n g , 119 p p .

12lbid., p. i i .

14 One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s

in v e stig a tio n is

an

a t t e m p t t o b r i n g t h e cam ping la w s t o a more c o n s i s t e n t w h o le ♦ I n 1 9 3 7 , Edward C. Lindeman made a s t u d y o f s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g la w s and home r u l e c h a r t e r p r o v i s i o n s 13 fo r r e c r e a tio n * He s t r e s s e d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f h a v i n g a d e q u a t e la w s t h a t w ould p e r m it l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t o c o n d u c t r e c r e a t i o n p rogram s t o m eet t h e n e e d s and i n t e r e s t s o f c o m m u n ities.

He d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e i s

a

g r e a t d e a l o f c o n f u s i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e p ow ers g r a n t e d l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t o e s t a b l i s h a d e q u a te r e c r e a t i o n program s.

I n many c a s e s i t

i s n e c e ss a r y fo r th e co u rts to

d e c id e w h eth er or n o t th e a c t s o f th e r e c r e a t i o n boards are l e g a l o r ’' u l t r a v i r e s . "

T h ere i s

th e l e g a l i t y o f m u n i c i p a l i t ie s

still

some q u e s t i o n o f

c o n d u c t i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps

under s t a t e r e c r e a t io n e n a b lin g la w s. Lindem an s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e a r e s i x e l e m e n t s n e c e s s a r y 14 t o h ave a good s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w . I t m ust have p r o v i s i o n s

f o r em p ow ering g o v e r n m e n t a l u n i t s t o a c t ;

i t m ust have p r o v i s i o n s h ave p r o v i s i o n s in g s;

f o r ad eq u ate f in a n c in g ;

fo r a c q u ir in g la n d ,

fa c ilitie s,

i t m ust h a v e p r o v i s i o n s f o r j o i n t

govern m en tal a g e n c ie s ;

i t must and b u i l d ­

con trol o f lo c a l

i t m ust p r o v i d e f o r a r e fe r e n d u m o r

l^ L in d e m a n , Edward C ., S t a t e E n a b lin g L e g i s l a t i o n For L o c a l R e e r e a t i o n 5 67 p p . 14I b i d . , pp. 2 5 -4 0

15 some k in d o f i n i t i a t i o n

fo r r e c r e a t io n by th e p e o p le ,

and

i t m ust h ave p r o v i s i o n s f o r c o n d u c t i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T r u x a l was p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o make a s t u d y 15 o f r e c r e a tio n le g is la tio n * He made a s t u d y o f t h e A m e r ic a n l e g i s l a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n f o r a t w e l v e - y e a r p e r i o d from 19 15 t o 1 9 2 7 .

T h ere w ere few s t a t e

r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g la w s i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s a t t h i s p a r ­ t i c u l a r t im e b u t p a r k la w s w ere q u i t e u n i v e r s a l .

The

au th or d is c u s s e d r e c r e a t io n l e g i s l a t i o n i n regard t o i t s e f f e c t upon c i t y p la n n in g , m u n i c i p a l i t i e s r e c r e a t io n program s, program s,

lia b ilitie s

c o n d u ctin g

w h ile co n d u ctin g su ch

and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t and c o n d u c t o f r e c r e a t i o n

p rogram s by p a r k d e p a r t m e n t s .

Most o f t h e s t u d y c o n s i s t e d

i n an a t t e m p t t o show how t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f r e c r e a t i o n a l a r ea s a f f e c t e d th e in c id e n c e o f j u v e n ile d e lin q u e n c y . A g r e a t d e a l o f i n f o r m a t i o n was a l s o g l e a n e d from t h e l e g a l e n c y c l o p e d i a s , t h e law r e p o r t s , t h e s p e c i a l l e g a l v o lu m e s on n e g l i g e n c e , v a r io u s s t a t e

15

th e l e g a l t e x t s ,

and th e

law j o u r n a l s .

T r u x a l , Andrew G . , Outdoor R e c r e a t i o n L e g i s l a t i o n And I t s E f f e c t i v e n e s s a 2 18 p p .

16

PART I I LEGAL CONCEPTS AFFECTING CAMP PROGRAM

1.7

CHAPTER I I I MEANING- 0 ¥ NEGLIGENCE, CONTRIBUTORY NEGLIGENCE, REASONABLE CARE AND NUISANCE A c c i d e n t s and i n j u r i e s

a r is in g as th e r e s u l t o f

cam ping e x p e r i e n c e s i m m e d i a t e l y r a i s e

th e q u e s tio n o f

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and n e g l i g e n c e o f e i t h e r one o r b o t h o f t h e p a r tie s

concerned.

A n o th e r q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r o r n o t

r e a s o n a b l e c a r e was u s e d t o a v o i d t h e a c c i d e n t . is

A n u isa n ce

a n o t h e r t h i n g w h ic h f r e q u e n t l y c a u s e s a number o f

a c c i d e n t s on t h e camp g r o u n d s . N e g lig e n c e D e fin e d :

N e g lig e n c e i s

a te r m t h a t h a s

b e e n d e f i n e d many t i m e s by b o t h t h e c o u r t s and t e x t w r i t e r s . The d e f i n i t i o n s

a l l seem t o c o n t a i n t h e same g e n e r a l c o n c e p t

a l t h o u g h t h e y d i f f e r somewhat i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h a t c o n cep t.

N e g l i g e n c e o c c u r s many t i m e s and i n many d i f f e r e n t

w ays, but th e c i v i l

c o u rts

a r e c o n c e r n e d o n l y as i t

c o n sti­

t u t e s an a c t i o n a b l e to r t.* ^ I n Eddlemann v . S t . L o u is T r a n s f e r C o .,

2

th e court

sa id : The word !n e g l i g e n c e r i s n o t a mere t e c h n i c a l term . I t i s an E n g l i s h word o f w e l l- k n o w n m ea n in g and t h e f a c t t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o u r t s o f law h a v e t o d e c i d e what c o n s t i t u t e s n e g l i ­ g e n c e , d oes n o t d e s t r o y th e p o p u la r c h a r a c te r o f th e word.

■*■45 C . J . , N e g l i g e n c e , s e c t i o n I . 2 Eddlem ann v . S t . L o u is T r a n s f e r C o ., 3 Mo. App. 5 0 3 ,5 0 7 (1 8 7 7 ).

IB N e g lig e n c e has a l s o been d e fin e d a s: C o n s is tin g in th e f a i lu r e t o observe th a t d e g r e e o f c a r e w h ic h t h e la w r e q u i r e s f o r t h e p r o ­ t e c t i o n o f t h e i n t e r e s t s l i k e l y t o be i n j u r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e w ant o f i t . T h is d e f i n i t i o n was g i v e n b y one o f t h e a b l e s t e l e m e n t a r y w r i t e r s o f m odern t i m e s , and h a s o f t e n r e c e i v e d a p p r o v a l o f t h is co u rt.

to rt,

P r o s s e r , one o f t h e l e a d i n g l e g a l a u t h o r i t i e s 4 sta ted :

on

N e g lig e n c e i s a m a tter o f r i s k — th a t i s to s a y , o f r e c o g n iz a b le danger o f in j u r y . I t has b e e n d e f i n e d a s c o n d u c t w h ic h i n v o l v e s an u n r e a s o n a b l e g r e a t r i s k o f c a u s i n g dam age, o r , more f u l l y , c o n ­ d u c t w h ic h f a l l s b e lo w t h e s ta n d a r d e s t a b l i s h e d by la w f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f o t h e r s a g a i n s t u n r e a s o n a b l e g r e a t r i s k o f harm. . . . N e g l i g e n c e i s c o n d u c t , and n o t a s t a t e o f m in d . I n m ost i n s t a n c e s , I t i s c a u s e d by h e e d l e s s n e s s o r c a r e l e s s n e s s , w h ic h makes t h e n e g l i g e n t p a r t y unaware o f t h e r e s u l t s w h ic h may f o l l o w from h i s a c t . But i t may a l s o e x i s t w h ere he has c o n sid e r e d th e p o s s i b l e consequ en ces c a r e f u l l y , and h a s e x e r c i s e d h i s own b e s t ju d g m e n t. The s t a n d ­ ard im p osed by s o c i e t y i s an e x t e r n a l o n e , w h ic h i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b a s e d u p o n any m o r a l f a u l t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; and a f a i l u r e t o co n fo rm t o i t i s n e g l i ­ g e n c e , e v e n t h o u g h i t may be due t o s t u p i d i t y , f o r J ^ t f u l n e s s , an e x c i t a b l e tem p e r a m e n t, or e v e n s h e e r ig n o r a n c e. The a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l u s e o f t h e p h r a s e ! due c a r e T t o d e s c r i b e c o n d u c t w h ic h i s n o t n e g l i g e n t , s h o u l d n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a l b a s i s o f n e g lig e n c e i s n ot c a r e l e s s n e s s , but b e h a v i o r w h ic h s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d a s i n v o l v i n g u n ­ r e a s o n a b le danger t o o t h e r s .

^H ale v . C oo p er, 271 M ich. 3 4 8 , 3 5 4 , 2 6 1 N.W. 5 4 , 5 7 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; K e n d r ic k v . T o w le , 60 M ich. 3 6 3 , 3 6 7 , 2 7 N.W. 5 6 7 , 568 (1 8 8 6 ). ^ P r o s s e r , W i l l i a m L . , Law o f T o r t s , p p . 1 7 4 - 7 5 .

I n c a s e s w h ere n e g l i g e n c e it

i s th e p o in t i n q u e s t io n ,

i s u s u a l l y a q u e s t i o n f o r t h e j u r y t o d e c i d e as t o t h e

g u i l t o f one o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e p a r t i e s .

T here i s no s e t

r u l e o r y a r d s t i c k t o d e t e r m i n e what c o n s t i t u t e s n e g l i g e n c e and e a c h d e c i s i o n m ust be d e t e r m in e d b y t h e f a c t s o f t h e p a r tic u la r ca se.

5

A summary o f t h i s

c o n c e p t was made by 6 one o f o u r l e g a l s c h o l a r s when he s a i d : I m p o r ta n t a s i t i s e v e r y w h e r e I n our law t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n s f o l l o w s i m p l e and r a t i o n a l l i n e s , t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f t h e la w o f n e g l i g e n c e . In t h a t t o p i c r e f i n e m e n t and c o m p l e x i t y a r e l e a s t e x ­ c u sa b le . Owing t o i t s r e c e n t d e v e lo p m e n t i t i s l i t t l e c o m p l i c a t e d b y o u tg r o w n r u l e s ; and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e i s t h e u s e o f b road and g e n e r a l t e s t s I n w h ic h e v e r y t h i n g d e p e n d s on t h e f a c t s o f th e c a s e . W i t h i n w id e l i m i t s t h e j u r y i s g i v e n pow er t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o p r i e t y o f c o n d u c t . The 1 o r d i n a r y p r u d e n t m anT I s a p a l p a b l e f i c t i o n , d e s i g n e d t o p r e s e n t t o t h e j u r y Ts mind i n c o n c r e t e form t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f an e x t e r n a l a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a p e r s o n a l s t a n d a r d . What t h i s im a g in a r y p e r s o n w ou ld have done r e a l l y means what t h e j u r y t h i n k s was t h e p r o p e r t h i n g t o d o , and s o l o n g as t h e r e i s room f o r a f a i r d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n on t h i s p o i n t t h e j u r y has a f r e e h a n d . H e r e , as o f t e n , t h e common law h a s a d a p te d i t s e l f t o t h e j u r y s y s t e m u s i n g t h a t t r i b u n a l as an in s t r u m e n t f o r s o l v i n g p r o b le m s o f e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e , and a t t h e same t im e f i n d i n g a c h e c k a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y r e s u l t s i n t h e c o u r t ! s s u p e r v i s o r y pow er t o k e e p t h e u n t r a i n e d body w i t h i n t h e bounds o f r e a s o n and i n f o r m u l a t i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s w h ic h a r e t o g o v e r n t h e j u r y f s a c t i o n , t h e s c h o l a r m ust v i g i l a n t l y r e s i s t t e m p t a ­ t i o n t o s p i n h i s own web o f t h e o r y and d i s t i n c t i o n , p l e a s i n g p e r h a p s i n i n g e n u i t y and sym m etry, b u t t o o fin e fo r everyday u s e . I n t h e la w o f n e g l i g e n c e no d o c t r i n e i s u s e f u l o r a p p r o p r i a t e w h ic h ca n n o t be p l a i n l y and s i m p l y s t a t e d , and w h ic h , when s o s t a t e d , d o e s n o t r e s p o n d t o t h e t e s t o f common s e n s e .

^Thayer, "Public Wrong and Private Action," 27 Harv. L. Rev. 317-18 (1914). 6Ibid.

T h ere a r e c e r t a i n la w s or p r i n c i p l e s t h a t m ust e x i s t b e f o r e an a c t i o n a b l e

to rt

o f n e g lig e n c e

c a n be made.

Laws o f N e g l i g e n c e :

c la ss

The p e r s o n i n j u r e d m ust be i n a 7 o f p e r s o n s t o whom a d u t y i s ow ed. A d e f i n i t e d u ty

and o b l i g a t i o n i s when t h e y i n v i t e

im p o sed u p o n camp d i r e c t o r s and c o u n s e l o r s c h i l d r e n t o t h e i r cam ps.

When a p e r s o n

a ss u m e s t h e l e g a l p o s i t i o n o f a p a r e n t , he owes t o t h e c h i l d g a d u t y o f c a r e , p r o t e c t i o n , and e d u c a t i o n . The d u t y owed is

a l e g a l o b l i g a t i o n t o conform t o a c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d o f

c o n d u c t w h ic h i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m in e d b y t h e f a c t s o f e a c h p a r t ic u la r c a se .^ In n e g lig e n c e

c a s e s t h e r e m ust a l s o be a c a u se o f

a c t i o n b e f o r e an a c t i o n a b l e t o r t i s

c o n sid e r e d .

The e l e m e n t s

n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c h a c a u s e o f a c t i o n may be s t a t e d a s f o l l o w s ( 1 ) A l e g a l d u t y t o con form t o a s t a n d a r d o f conduct f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f o th e r s a g a in s t un­ r e a so n a b le r i s k s . ( 2 ) A f a i l u r e t o co n fo rm t o t h e sta n d a rd . (3 ) A r e a s o n a b ly c lo s e c a s u a l c o n n e c tio n b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t and t h e r e s u l t i n g i n j u r y . ( 4 ) A c t u a l l o s s o r dam ages r e s u l t i n g t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o th ers. The a c t s o r t h e o m i s s i o n o f a c t s o f t h e camp l e a d e r p l a y a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n d e t e r m i n i n g i f n e g l i g e n c e was t h e c a u s e o f an a c c i d e n t o r i n j u r y .

7

P rosser,

op. c i t . ,

^See n o t e s , 9

P rosser,

p. 178.

122 A .L .R . 1352

(1 9 2 4 ). lo c . c i t .

10X b id ., p . 177.

P r o s s e r h a s sum m arized

( 1 9 3 9 ) ; 31 A .L .R .

1161

w h at c o n s t i t u t e s n e g l i g e n t a c t s o r o m i s s i o n o f a c t s

as:*^

( 1 ) One who i n j u r e s a n o t h e r by an a f f i r m a t i v e n e g l i g e n t a c t , g e n e r a l ly i s h eld l i a b l e . ( 2 ) For an o m i s s i o n t o a c t , t h e r e i s no l i a b i l i t y u n l e s s t h e r e i s some d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p a r t i e s w h ic h i s r e g a r d e d a s i m p o s i n g a d u t y t o a c t . (3 ) The la w h a s n o t r e c o g n i z e d any g e n e r a l d u t y t o a id a p e r s o n who i s i n p e r i l . But i f t h e d e f e n d a n t e n t e r s u p o n an a f f i r m a t i v e c o u r s e o f c o n d u c t a f f e c t ­ i n g t h e i n t e r e s t s o f a n o t h e r , he i s r e g a r d e d as a s s u m in g a d u t y t o a c t , and w i l l t h e r e a f t e r be l i a b l e fo r n e g lig e n t a c ts or o m is s io n s . (4 ) One who s t a n d s i n s u c h r e l a t i o n t o a t h i r d p e r s o n as t o g i v e him a d e f i n i t e pow er o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h a t p e r s o n ’ s c o n d u c t , may be r e q u i r e d t o e x e r c i s e t h a t c o n tr o l fo r th e p r o t e c t io n o f o th e r s . It

is

l o g i c a l t o assum e t h a t camp d i r e c t o r s and

c o u n s e lo r s are l i a b l e

fo r t h e i r n e g lig e n t a c ts or o m issio n

o f a c ts i n a l l fo u r c ir c u m sta n c e s . an i n s u r e r o f t h e s a f e t y o f t h e

A lt h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t

c h ild r e n ,

12

t h e y owe t o

them s u c h a d e g r e e o f c a r e f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n t h a t t h e r e seem s t o be a f i n e l i n e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g I n s u r a n c e and p r o te c tio n . U n a v o id a b le A c c i d e n t s :

There a r e many u n a v o i d a b l e

a c c i d e n t s i n r e c r e a t i o n camps t h a t o c c u r w i t h o u t n e g l i g e n c e on a n y b o d y 1s p a r t .

It

i s t h e g e n e r a l r u l e , u n d e r our

m odern l a w , t h a t t h e r e I s no l i a b i l i t y H ow ever, I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s ,

f o r su ch a c c i d e n t s .

th ere i s

str ic t

13

lia b ility

f o r u n a v o i d a b l e a c c i d e n t s w here d a n g e r o u s a n im a ls have b e e n

■ ^ P rosser, 12

op>. c i t . , p . 1 9 0 .

45 C.J., Negligence, section 78. 13P r o s s e r , _0 £ . c i t . , p . 1 7 2 .

2&

m a i n t a i n e d o r w here d a n g e r o u s a c t i v i t i e s

have b e e n a l l o w e d . ^

U n a v o id a b l e a c c i d e n t s a r e s a i d t o be " u n in t e n d e d o c c u r r e n c e s w h ic h c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n p r e v e n t e d by t h e e x e r c i s e o f r ea so n a b le c a r e .”

15

P ro sser sa id :

16

No man c a n be e x p e c t e d t o gu ard a g a i n s t e v e n t s w h ic h a r e n o t r e a s o n a b l y t o be a n t i c i p a t e d , o r are s o u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e r i s k w ould commonly be d i s ­ r e g a r d e d , su ch as u n p r ec e d e n ted f r o s t or f l o o d , c h i l d p i c k i n g up a p l a n k w i t h a n a i l i n i t and d r o p p i n g i t on h i s f o o t , o r a p e d e s t r i a n s l i p p i n g on a p i e c e o f g r a v e l i n t h e h ig h w a y . It is d iffic u lt

t o t e l l what w ould d e t e r m in e an u n ­

a v o i d a b l e a c c i d e n t i n a cam ping e x p e r i e n c e .

The c o u r t s

make a l l o w a n c e s f o r them b u t e a c h i n j u r y or a c c i d e n t would h a v e t o be d e t e r m in e d by t h e f a c t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f each p a r t ic u la r c a s e . The c h i l d

is

o fte n n e g lig e n t in p r o te c tin g h im se lf

from i n j u r i e s and a c c i d e n t s w h i l e i n camp. g u ilty

He i s

o ften

o f c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e . C o n trib u to ry N e g lig e n c e D e fin e d :

n e g lig e n c e

C o n trib u to ry

i s u s e d f r e q u e n t l y as a d e f e n s e i n c a s e s o f

i n j u r y and d e a t h s a i d t o be c a u s e d by t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s n e g lig e n c e .

I n d e f i n i n g c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e one

a u th o r ity sa id :

17

^ P rosser, 15 Ib id . , p.

~*~^I b l d . , 17

op.

c it .,

p. 174.

172.

p. 202.

Restatement, Torts, section 463 (1934).

2^ C o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e i s c o n d u c t on t h e p a r t o f t h e p l a i n t i f f w h ic h f a l l s b e lo w t h e s t a n d a r d t o w h ic h he s h o u l d c o n fo rm f o r h i s own p r o t e c t i o n and w h ic h i s a l e g a l l y c o n t r i b u t i n g c a u s e , c o - o p e r a t i n g w it h th e n e g lig e n c e o f th e d efen d a n t i n b r in g in g a b o u t t h e p l a i n t i f f Ts harm. Stan d ard s o f C o n trib u to ry N e g lig e n c e :

When c o n s i d e r ­

in g th e stan d ard o f care r e q u ir e d o f i n f a n t s i n regard t o co n trib u to r y n e g lig e n c e , h ave a d o p t e d . standard*

18

t h e r e a r e tw o s t a n d a r d s t h e c o u r t s

I t may be e i t h e r an o b j e c t i v e

or a s u b j e c t i v e

Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s p r e f e r t h e o b j e c t i v e s t a n d ­

ard w h i l e o t h e r s a d h er e s t r o n g l y t o t h e s u b j e c t i v e . In a p p ly in g th e o b j e c t i v e sta n d a rd o f c a r e , the c o u r ts h o ld t h a t th e c h ild

"must e x e r c i s e o n l y s u c h c a r e

and d i s c r e t i o n a s i s r e a s o n a b l y t o be e x p e c t e d o f one o f lik e

age,

judgm ent and e x p e r i e n c e . "

19

The s u b j e c t i v e s t a n d a r d o f c a r e h o l d s t h a t " th e p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d m ust e x e r c i s e o n l y s u c h c a r e as t h i s c h ild 's

c a p a c i t y , b o t h m e n t a l and p h y s i c a l ,

e x e r c ise

fits

it

to

i n t h e a c t u a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s on t h e o c c a s i o n and

s i t u a t i o n under i n v e s t i g a t io n ."

20

I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c o u r t s , t h e r e i s an a r b i t r a r y age l i m i t b e lo w w h ic h no c h i l d

c a n be h e l d g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y

■^W ilderm an, "The Q u e s t i o n o f An I n f a n t ' s A b i l i t y To Be G u i l t y o f C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e , " 10 I n d . L . J . 4 27 ( 1 9 3 5 ) . 1 9 ^ ., Ib id . 20

Ibid.

n e g lig e n c e .

21

The age l i m i t v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a t e s

and i n many j u r i s d i c t i o n s

age i s

o n l y one f a c t o r t o be

c o n sid e r e d . C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e i n Camps:

A B a p tis t church

s p o n s o r e d a camp f o r s e v e r a l hundred b o y s and g i r l s m ost o f whom w ere o v e r f i f t e e n y e a r s o f a g e .

Four o f t h e cam pers

w e re r e f u s e d p e r m i s s i o n on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s t o t a k e a b o a t o u t f o r a p l e a s u r e r i d e and sw im . th e

I g n o r i n g t h e w a r n in g s o f

c o u n s e l o r s , t h e y t o o k t h e b o a t o u t , and one o f t h e b o y s

was d ro w n ed . In regard t o c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e th e 22 court sa id : Of c o u r s e , t h e encampment was u n d e r an o b l i ­ g a t i o n t o p r o v i d e r e a s o n a b l e r e g u l a t i o n s and p r o ­ t e c t i o n f o r t h o s e who a t t e n d e d and who p a i d a f e e t o t h e encampment f o r i t s s u p p o r t . ...P r a c tic a lly a l l o f t h o s e who a t t e n d e d w ere o f t h e ag e o f d i s ­ c r e t i o n and w ere u n d e r a c e r t a i n d u t y t o l o o k o u t f o r t h e i r own s a f e t y . . . . T h e r e was no d u t y on t h e p a r t o f t h e m an agers o f t h e encampment t o p a t r o l t h e g r o u n d s o r t o p l a c e g u a r d s around t o s e e t h a t no one l e f t w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n . ...A s su m in g th a t no p r e c a u t i o n s w h a t e v e r w ere t a k e n t o p r e v e n t t h e s e y o u n g p e o p l e from g o i n g o u t In t h i s d e e p w a t e r i n t h i s b o a t , yo u n g McGuire was g u i l t y o f s u c h c o n ­ t r i b u t o r y n e g lig e n c e i n g o in g i n t o th e deep w a ter a t an u n s a f e d i s t a n c e from t h e b o a t a s t o p r e c l u d e h is reco v ery . In m o st c a s e s d e a l i n g w i t h n e g l i g e n c e q u e s t io n o f u s in g o r d in a r y or r e a so n a b le or a n tic ip a te

i t becom es a

care to p r e v en t

a c c id e n ts.

^■Hvilderman, supra note 18, at 423; See notes, 174 A.L.R. 1080 (1948); 107 A.L.R. 1 (1937); See Figure 1 at end of chapter. 22

1 st.

MoGuire v . L o u i s i a n a B a p t i s t Encampment, 1 9 4 0 ) 199 S o . 1 9 2 , 1 9 5 .

(L a . C.A.

25 O r d in a r y and R e a s o n a b le C a r e :

The c o u r t s h a v e s a i d

t h a t t h e te r m s " o r d i n a r y c a r e ” and R e a s o n a b l e c a r e IT a r e sy n o n y m o u s,

23

" r e a s o n a b le "

and t h e e x p r e s s i o n s " d u e , 1* " o r d i n a r y , 11 and care are c o n v e r t ib le t e r m s . ^

I n C a n ad ian N o r t h e r n Company v . S e n s k i ,

25

th e court

sa id : The s t a n d a r d o f o r d i n a r y o r r e a s o n a b l e c a r e i s t h a t d e g r e e o f c a r e ( 1 ) w h ic h o r d i n a r i l y p r u d e n t p e r s o n s ( 2 ) e n g a g e d I n t h e same k in d o f b u s i n e s s (3 ) u s u a l l y e x e r c i s e under s im ila r c o n d it io n s . Care was f o r m e r l y c l a s s i f i e d and g r o s s .

as o r d in a r y , s l i g h t ,

Today i n m o st j u r i s d i c t i o n s

it

is

fe lt

t h e s e t h r e e s t a n d a r d s a r e i n a d e q u a t e and i n i t s c l o s e r m easu rem en t i s

d e sir e d .

One c o u r t s a i d :

th at

p la c e a 26

O r d in a r y i s s u c h c a r e a s a p r u d e n t man o f r e q u i s i t e s k i l l ta k e s under th e c ir c u m sta n c e s o f a p a r tic u la r ca se. In t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e and p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e law o f n e g lig e n c e to th e a f f a i r s o f th e p r e se n t tim e, t h e o l d m ethod o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s so m e tim e s found t o be I n c o n v e n i e n t , b e c a u s e we n ee d a

23

Suko v . N o r t h w e s t e r n I c e & Cold S t o r a g e C o ., 166 Or. 5 5 7 , 113 P. 2d 2 0 9 ( 1 9 4 1 ) ; A r c h u l e t a v . J a c o b s , 43 N.M. 4 2 5 , 94 P. 2d 706 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; P l a t t e v . Thomas S g a n f s S o n s , 18 L a. App. 1 1 6 , 134 S o . 4 2 8 ( 1 9 3 1 ) ; C h ic a g o R . I . 8c Ry Co. v . S h e l t o n , 135 O kl. 5 3 , 27 3 P. 9 8 8 ( 1 9 2 9 ) ; K ucera v . G -rigsby, 2 4 Ohio App. 1 9 5 , 15 6 N .E . 249 ( 1 9 2 7 ) ; C a r t e r v . Cape F ear Lumber C o . , 129 N .C . 2 0 3 , 39 S .E . 8 2 8 ( 1 9 0 1 ) . 24 A r c h u l e t a v . J a c o b s , 43 N.M. 4 2 5 , 94 P. 2d 706 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; M i t c h e l l v . L ib b y , 149 1 1 1 . App. 2 0 1 ( 1 9 0 9 ) . 25 C an adian N o r t h e r n R. Co. v . S e n s k i , M in n e s o t a , 201 F ed . 6 3 7 , 642 (C .C .A . 8 t h 1 9 1 2 ) . 26

Gunn v. Ohio River R. Co., 36 W. Va. 165, 14 S.E. 465,467 (1892).

m ea su re w i t h more t h a n t h r e e marks on i t - - a n i n s t r u m e n t w i t h more g r a d u a t i o n s and c a p a b l e o f more a c c u r a t e a d j u s t m e n t t o t h e f a c t s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s , i s t o t a k e o r d i n a r y c a r e as a q u a n t i t y , v a r i a b l e as t h e o c c a s i o n may r e q u i r e , t o m e a su r e t h e d u t y , s l i d i n g i t up and down s o as t o a d j u s t i t as n e a r as may be t o t h e r e a s o n a b l e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f th e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , so t h a t , i n s t e a d o f u s i n g t h e m ea su re w i t h t h r e e marks on i t made b e f o r e h a n d , we go on t h e ground t o make a s p e c i a l m ea su r e f o r t h e o c c a s i o n , b u t s u r r o u n d ­ i n g a p r u d e n t man o f r e q u i s i t e s k i l l w i t h th e f a c t s o f t h e c a s e , and d e t e r m i n i n g w hat he o u g h t t o do u n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . That i s t h e m ea su r e o f o r d i n a r y c a r e ; t h e o r d i n a r y c a r e m e a s u r e s t h e d u t y , and t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e d u t y i s t h e n e g l i g e n c e c o m p la in e d o f . It is

d iffic u lt

t o know what t h e c o u r t s c o n s i d e r

r e a s o n a b le or o r d in a r y care in p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . t h e u s e o f o n e ’ s b e s t judgm ent i s n o t e n o u g h .

S om etim es

I t h as b e e n

sa id : 2 7 The m ere e x e r c i s e o f o n e ’ s b e s t judgm ent i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o r d in a r y c a r e . Men o f a v e r a g e p r u d e n c e so m e tim e s a r r i v e a t e r r o n e o u s c o n c l u s i o n s from h e e d l e s s o r c a r e l e s s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t b e f o r e th e m , o r from want o f o r d i n a r y c a r e i n o th er r e s p e c t s . In a r e c e n t c a s e d e a l i n g w i t h n e g l i g e n c e i n an 28 amusement p l a c e , t h e c o u r t s a i d : ' O r d in a r y o r r e a s o n a b l e c a r e ’ i s a lw a y s a r e l a t i v e t e r m , and no a b s o l u t e t e s t ca n be p o s t u l a t e d f o r t h e g overn m en t o f e a c h and e v e r y s i t u a t i o n or c o n d itio n a f f e c t in g ev ery p la c e o f p u b l i c am usem ent. . . . T h e amount o f c a r e r e q u i r e d i n a g iv e n in s t a n c e n e c e s s a r i l y v a r ie s a c co r d in g t o th e c ir cu m sta n c es o f th e p a r t ic u la r c a s e .

27

C arney v . Concord S t . Ry. C o ., 72 N.H . 3 6 4 , 57 A. 2 1 8 , 222 (1 9 0 3 ) . 28 O ls e n v . John H a r i c k ' s Tacoma T h e a t r e s , 9 Wash. 2d 3 3 2 , 3 8 6 , 11 5 P. 2d 7 1 8 , 721 ( 1 9 4 1 ) .

ZJ A n o th e r q u e s t i o n a r i s e s sid er ed

c o n c e r n i n g what i s

con­

o r d in a r y or r e a so n a b le care o f c h ild r e n fo r th e

p r o t e c t io n o f th e m se lv e s. Conduct o f R e a s o n a b le Care o f C h i l d r e n : i l l u s t r a t i o n o f what i s

c o n s i d e r e d " o r d i n a r y c a r e 11 when

a p p l i e d t o t h e c o n d u c t o f a c h i l d was s t a t e d P a i r H aven W.R. C o . ,

09

An

in R a h la ff v .

when t h e c o u r t s a i d :

The t e r m o r d i n a r y o r r e a s o n a b l e c a r e a p p l i e d t o t h e c o n d u c t o f a c h i l d e i g h t y e a r s o l d , means s u c h c a r e as may r e a s o n a b l y be e x p e c t e d o f c h i l d r e n o f s i m i l a r a g e , ju d g m e n t, and e x p e r i e n c e , u n d e r s im ila r c ir c u m sta n c e s. O ther j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e t h e c h i l d t o e x e r c i s e o n l y s u c h c a r e " a s t h e c h i l d f s c a p a c i t y , b o t h m e n t a l and p h y sic a l,

fits

it

to e x e r c is e

i n th e a c t u a l c ir c u m sta n c e s

on t h e o c c a s i o n and s i t u a t i o n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . N u is a n c e :

30

When camp a u t h o r i t i e s m a i n t a i n o r c r e a t e

a n u i s a n c e t h e y a r e u s u a l l y l i a b l e where i t

h as b r o u g h t

harm t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n . A c c o r d i n g t o one l e g a l s c h o l a r t h e r e a r e t h r e e d i s t i n c t m e a n in g s o f t h e te r m " n u i s a n c e . ”

They a r e :

31

^ R a h l a f f v . P a i r Haven W.R. C o ., 76 Conn. 6 8 9 , 58 A. 5 , 7 , ( 1 9 0 4 ) . 30 31

W ild erm a n , s u p r a n o t e 1 3 .

H a r p e r , P o w le r V . , A T r e a t i s e On The Law o f T o r t s , p p . 3 7 1 -3 9 6 .

28 (1) A s p e c ie s o f o f f e n s e a g a in s t th e p u b lic w h ic h i s p u n i s h a b l e a s a c r i m e , ( 2 ) a d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e u s e and e n jo y m e n t o f p r o p e r t y b y i n t e r ­ f e r e n c e w i t h c e r t a i n e a s e m e n t s and s e r v i t u d e s , ( 3 ) a more o r l e s s c o n t i n u o u s i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e u s e and e n jo y m e n t o f p r o p e r t y b y c a u s i n g or p e r m it tin g th e esca p e o f d e l e t e r i o u s su b sta n c e s o r t h i n g s , s u c h a s sm ok e, o d o r s , n o i s e , e t c . T h er e seem s t o be a f i n e l i n e drawn i n some c a s e s b e t w e e n n e g l i g e n c e and n u i s a n c e . may become a n u i s a n c e .

32

Some t h i n g s by n e g l i g e n c e

A n u i s a n c e may a l s o a r i s e o u t o f

a t y p e o f c o n d u c t w h ic h more c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e s t h a t d e s ­ c r i b e d a s " e x t r a h a z a r d o u s o r a t p e r i l t h a n t h a t w h ic h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as b la m e w o r th y ."

33

One exam p le o f t h i s

t y p e o f n u i s a n c e w ou ld be an o d o r o u s s t a b l e . One o f t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n u isa n ce i s

th a t th e danger i s

a c o n t i n u i n g one r a t h e r th a n

an i s o l a t e d

in v a s io n o f th e p l a i n t i f f ’ s i n t e r e s t s .

A n u is a n c e has a l s o b een d e fin e d

i n one s t a t e

l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r tm e n t s a s :

for

34

A c rim e a g a i n s t t h e o r d e r and economy o f t h e S t a t e , and c o n s i s t s i n u n l a w f u l l y d o i n g an a c t or o m i t t i n g t o p e r fo r m a d u t y , w h ic h a c t o r o m i s s i o n u n la w fu lly in t e r f e r e s w ith , o b s t r u c t s , or ten d s to o b s tr u c t or ren d er dangerous fo r p a ssa g e a p u b lic p a r k , s q u a r e , s t r e e t , a l l e y , o r h ig h w a y ; a n n o y s , i n j u r e s , or endan gers th e s a f e t y , h e a lt h , com fort, o r r e p o s e o f any c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f p e r s o n s ; o r i n any way r e n d e r s a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f p e r so n s in s e c u r e i n l i f e or th e u se o f p ro p erty *

32 33 34

H arper, op.

c it.,

p. 371.

I b id ., p. 374.

Minnesota Statutes, c. 616, section 1 (1945).

Many c o n d i t i o n s and h a z a r d s i n p u b l i c p a r k s have b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t o be a n u i s a n c e .

35

S in ce a g r e a t d e a l o f

c am p in g i s done i n p a r k s o r r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s o f a s i m i l a r n a tu re, i t

is

l o g i c a l t o assum e t h a t t h e same t h e o r y o f

n u i s a n c e w ou ld a p p l y t o b o t h p l a c e s . Summary:

T h ere a p p e a r s t o be u n i v e r s a l a g reem en t by

b o t h j u d g e s and l e g a l s c h o l a r s i n t h e i r c o n c e p t o f t h e ter m " n e g lig e n c e ." fa lls

It

i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s c o n d u c t w h ic h

b e lo w t h a t o f a r e a s o n a b l y p r u d e n t man. Most o f t h e c a s e s i n v o l v i n g l i a b i l i t y

and r e c r e a t i o n l e a d e r s ren i s

th e r e s u l t

o f camping

f o r a c c i d e n t s and i n j u r i e s t o c h i l d ­

o f t h e ir n e g lig e n c e .

The camp d i r e c t o r s and c o u n s e l o r s h ave d e f i n i t e

le g a l

d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s t o p e r fo r m f o r t h e c a r e , p r o t e c t i o n and e d u c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n .

I t u s u a l l y in v o lv e s the u s e o f

" o r d in a r y " o r " r e a s o n a b le "

c a r e i n t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and

s u p e r v i s o r y d u t i e s b u t i n some c a s e s i n v o l v i n g c h i l d r e n i t r e q u ir e s e x tr a o r d in a ry c a r e .

They a r e u s u a l l y n o t l i a b l e

f o r u n a v o i d a b l e a c c i d e n t s o r a c c i d e n t s w h ic h o c c u r t h r o u g h nobody’s n e g lig e n c e . T h ere a r e s t a n d a r d s e s t a b l i s h e d

f o r " o r d i n a r y and

r e a s o n a b l e c a r e " i n r e g a r d t o an a d u l t ’ s a c t i o n tow ard c h i l d r e n and f o r a c h i l d ’ s c o n d u c t f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f h im se lf.

T h is s t a n d a r d o f c o n d u c t c a n o n l y be d e t e r m in e d

by t h e f a c t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f e a c h p a r t i c u l a r c a s e .

35

_ See d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p ter V I I I . S e e n o t e , 153 A .L .R . 573

(1 9 4 4 ).

50 Many c o n d i t i o n s and h a z a r d s i n p u b l i c p a r k s ana r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a n u i s a n c e w here c h i l d r e n h a v e been i n j u r e d by th e m . sou rce of l i a b i l i t y tin g u is h in g is

They a r e a f r e q u e n t

to r e c r e a tio n le a d e r s.

c n a r a c te r istic s

One o f t n e d i s ­

or a n u i s a n c e i s

a c o n t i n u i n g one r a t h e r th a n an i s o l a t e d

t h a t t h e d a n g er i n v a s i o n o f an

in ju r e d p e r so n ’ s i n t e r e s t s . The l e g a l c o n c e p t o f n e g l i g e n c e ana n u i s a n c e be u n d e r s t o o d by r e c r e a t i o n l e a d e r s ,

and e v e r y e f f o r t

s h o u ld sh o u ld

be made t o r e d u c e t h e i r c h a n c e s o f o c c u r r i n g i n p r o g r a m s . When t h e or when t h e r e i s

c h ild i s

g u i l t y of c o n tr io u to r y n e g lig e n c e

m u tu a l wrong and n e g l i g e n c e

o f both p a r t i e s ,

t h e la w i s r e l u c t a n t t o a t t e m p t an a p p o r t io n m e n t or t h e wrong b e tw e e n t h e m . 57

There i s a p r i n c i p l e

o f law w hich

r e q u i r e s e v e r y p e r s o n t o go i n t o c o u r t w i t h c l e a n h a n d s and " w h ich w i l l n o t p e r m it him t o r e c o v e r f o r h i s I n m ost s t a t e s t h e r e i s

own w r o n g . 58

an age b e lo w w h ic n a c h i l d

i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d n o t c a p a b le o f b e in g p e r s o n a l l y n e g lig e n t.

It

is

an a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d r u l e t h a t

a c h i l d u n d e r f o u r y e a r s o f ag e c a n n o t be n e i a r e s p o n s i b l e fo r

b ein g c o n t r i b u t o r i l y n e g l i g e n t .

ages of fo u r to s i x , r u lin g s

th e r e Is a l i t t l e

of th e co u rt in t h i s r e g a r d .

^H arper, 58Ib id .

W ith a c h i l d from t h e

op. c i t . , p. 2 9 7 *

d i s c r e p a n c y i n th e I t appears t h a t th e

m a jo r ity o f s t a t e s regard a c h ild

from t h e age o f s i x t o

s e v e n as n o t b e in g ca p a b le o f b e in g c o n t r i b u t o r i l y n e g l i g e n t : and i n some s t a t e s a c h i l d c o n sid er ed in t h i s c h ild

o f e i g h t y e a r s o f age i s

same c a p a c i t y .

still

As a g e n e r a l r u l e ,

a

o v e r e i g h t y e a r s o f age may be g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y

n e g lig e n c e . T h ere a r e some s t a t e s t h a t have no a r b i t r a r y age lim it

a t w h ic h a c h i l d i s

and i n t h e s e

ca p a b le o f c o n t r ib u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e ,

ju r isd ic tio n s

it

i s u s u a l l y a m a tter fo r th e

j u r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c h i l d ’ s n e g l i g e n c e , d e p e n d in g u p o n t h e fa cts

and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f e a c h p a r t i c u l a r c a s e . A f t e r c h i l d r e n h ave r e a c h e d a c e r t a i n a g e , t h e y a r e

e x p e c t e d t o e x e r c i s e t h e same c a r e and p r e c a u t i o n f o r t h e i r own s a f e t y as an a d u l t . lim its,

T h ere i s

in th e v a r io u s s t a t e s ,

As a g e n e r a l r u l e ,

a c h ild i s

some d i f f e r e n c e o f age

a t w h ic h t h i s tim e o c c u r s . ex p ected to e x e r c is e the

d i s c r e t i o n and p r e c a u t i o n o f an a d u l t when he r e a c h e s t h e ag e o f 1 7 . The f o l l o w i n g Key Code Number 1 , and F ig u r e 1 , in d ic a te

in d e t a i l th e p r in c ip a l l e g a l p r o v is io n s r e l a t i v e

t o c h i ld r e n ’ s c a p a b i l i t y o f c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e in th e 48 s t a t e s .

52 KEY CODE NUMBER 1

Key Number 1000.

Provisions

I n r e g a r d t o a c h i l d b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f t h r e e and fo u r , th e w e ig h t o f a u t h o r it y i s

in fa v o r o f a con­

c l u s i v e p r e s u m p t io n o f i n c a p a c i t y a s t o c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g lig e n c e .

T h ere a r e many c a s e s foun d i n t h e v a r i o u s

s ta te s to su b sta n tia te th ese fin d in g s . 1001.

(3 7 )*

I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f s t a t e s t h e c o u r t s h ave r e g a r d e d a c h i l d b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f f o u r and f i v e y e a r s o f age t o be i n c a p a b l e o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e .

1002.

(3 0 )*

T h ere i s n o t t o o much u n i f o r m i t y i n c o u r t d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f a c h i l d from f i v e t o s i x t o be c o n t r i b u t o r i l y n e g l i g e n t .

Some s t a t e s have

c a s e s i n w h ic h t h e y s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t a c h ild at t h i s n e g lig e n t. 1003.

age I s i n c a p a b l e o f b e i n g p e r s o n a l l y

( 2 0 )*

Some s t a t e s h av e c a s e s w h ic h s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e a u t h o r i t y th a t a c h ild i s n o t in c a p a b le o f c o n tr ib u to r y n e g l i ­ g e n c e from t h e age o f f i v e t o s i x y e a r s o l d .

1004.

T here i s

(4 )*

a w id e d i f f e r e n c e o f o p i n i o n among th e

v a r io u s s t a t e

c o u r ts c o n c er n in g c o n tr ib u to r y n e g l i ­

gence o f th e c h ild r u le th e c h ild i s

from s i x t o s e v e n .

As a g e n e r a l

s t i l l in c a p a b le o f b e in g p e r s o n a lly

n e g l i g e n t i n many s t a t e s .

(14)*1

'‘The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1005.

I n some s t a t e s t h e r e a r e o a s e s w h ic h s u b s t a n t i a t e th e a u t h o r it y t h a t a c h ild s i x t o se v e n y e a r s o ld i s c a p a b le o f b e in g p e r s o n a l l y n e g l i g e n t .

1006.

A few s t a t e s

( 1 2 )*

have c a s e r u l i n g s from t h e h i g h e r c o u r t s

w h ic h s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t a c h i l d i s

still

i n c a p a b l e o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e a t t h e age o f seven to e ig h t . 1007.

( 6 )*

T h ere a r e some s t a t e s w here c a s e s have s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h e a u t h o r i t y t h a t c h i l d r e n from age s e v e n t o e i g h t c a n be g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e and i t u s u a l l y a ca se fo r th e

1008.

ju ry t o d e c id e .

(7 )*

As a g e n e r a l r u l e i t may be s a i d t h a t a c h i l d e ig h t t i l l m a tu r ity i s n e g lig e n c e ,

is

from

ca p a b le o f c o n t r ib u t o r y

and from n i n e y e a r s t i l l m a t u r i t y t h e r e

i s u n i v e r s a l a g r ee m e n t as t o t h e c h i l d b e i n g c a p a b l e o f c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e . 1009.

I n many j u r i s d i c t i o n s

(48)*

c h ild r e n o f t h ir t e e n yea rs o f

age o r u n d e r a r e n o t t o be c h a r g ed w i t h t h e same sta n d a rd o f care as a d u l t s . to su b sta n tia te th is 1010.

Some s t a t e s have c a s e s

a u th o r ity .

( 2 1 )*

The w e i g h t o f a u t h o r i t y i s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o f an i n f a n t f o u r t e e n y e a r s o f age i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o be m easu red by t h e same s t a n d a r d as t h a t o f an a d u l t , b u t a t t h a t age and b eyo n d t h e

“The figure in parenthesis Indicates the number of states having this provision.

e l e m e n t s o f c a p a c i t y , d i s c r e t i o n , k n o w le d g e and e x p e r i e n c e may be t a k e n i n t o

c o n sid e r a tio n in de­

t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r an i n f a n t e x e r c i s e d due c a r e , u n le ss i t

c l e a r l y a p p e a r s t h a t he p o s s e s s e s t h e s e

e l e m e n t s t o t h e same e x t e n t a s an o r d i n a r y a d u l t . T h ere a r e s e v e r a l s t a t e s w h ic h h a v e c a s e s s u b ­ s t a n t i a t i n g a u t h o r i t y t h a t a f o u r t e e n y e a r o ld c h i l d i s n o t t o be c h a r g e d w i t h t h e same s t a n d a r d o f c a r e a s an a d u l t . 1011.

(1 5)*

Some j u r i s d i c t i o n s have c a s e s s u b s t a n t i a t i n g a u t h o r i t y t h a t a f i f t e e n y e a r o ld c h i l d i s n o t t o be c h a r g ed w i t h t h e same s t a n d a r d o f c a r e as an a d u l t .

( 1 1 )*

T h is summary I s n o t t o be c o n s i d e r e d a c o m p le te a n a l y s is o f a l l r e g u la t io n s in th e v a r io u s s t a t e s .

I n some

s t a t e s no c a s e s w ere fo u n d c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a r i o u s age l i m i t s o f c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e .

C ases w ere a l s o l a c k i n g i n some

s t a t e s t o g i v e a c o m p le t e summary o f t h e age a t w h ic h t h e c h i l d was assum ed t o be a m ature i n d i v i d u a l i n r e g a r d t o c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e .

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

35

STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

F ig u r e 1*

c3j r-■i 0 i vi \ H lii c: c 3 c: c 3 C3 C c: c 3 c3 C3 C3 C r

r-

X

X

X

X

i—H

r

X

r-

u c*i a3 0i c 3l r c i3 C 3 C 3 C3 r- r~ c 3 C3 C 3 C3 c c r- r~ r- r- r1-

r-

X

■JT

X

X

■JT x

x

X

T

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

■JT X

X

X

X

X

X

■ 3?

■JT

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X X

x X

X X

TC

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x X

X

x

X

—X — X

X X

X

X

x

X

X

X X

x

x

X

x

X-

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X-

X

X

X

x x

X X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

■JC

X

X

■JT

X

X.

x

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

37 30 20 4 14 12

1

X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

7 4 R 21 15 11

Age L i m i t s o f C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e and S ta n d a r d o f Care

CHAPTER IV LEGAL STATUS OP CAMP DIRECTORS AND COUNSELORS The camp d i r e c t o r and c o u n s e l o r s p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s i n a d e fin ite b ilitie s

l e g a l p o s i t i o n when t h e y assume t h e r e s p o n s i ­

o f ca rin g f o r , p r o t e c t in g ,

and e d u c a t i n g t h e c h i l d .

T h ey a r e a s s u m in g t h e p l a c e o f a p a r e n t , and t h i s

im p o s e s

u p o n them c e r t a i n l e g a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t t h e y m ust f u l f i l l .

Prom a l e g a l s t a n d p o i n t t h e y a r e t!I n Loco

F a r e n tis. ” D e fin itio n :

I n M e is n e r v . U n i t e d S t a t e s , *** t h e c o u r t

sa id : A p e r s o n s t a n d i n g i n Loco P a r e n t i s t o a c h i l d i s one who h a s p u t h i m s e l f i n t h e s i t u a t i o n o f a l a w f u l p a r e n t , by a s s u m in g t h e o b l i g a t i o n s i n c i d e n t t o the p a r e n t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , w ith o u t g o in g th ro u g h th e f o r m a lit ie s n e c e s s a r y to a l e g a l a d o p tio n . The a s s u m p t io n o f t h e r e l a t i o n i s a m a t t e r o f i n t e n t i o n . P r o b a b ly t h e l a r g e s t one g r o u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e c o n s i d e r e d as b e i n g " i n l o c o p a r e n t i s ” a r e t h e s c h o o l tea ch ers. school is

T h ey a r e c o n s i d e r e d ” i n l o c o p a r e n t i s ” w h i l e 2 3 in s e s s io n . One c o u r t s a i d :

When p a r e n t s i n f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r d u t y o f t r a i n ­ i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t o u s e f u l and v i r t u o u s members o f s o c i e t y , p l a c e them i n c h a r g e o f a s c h o o l - t e a c h e r f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a c q u i r i n g c e r t a i n form s o f

X2 9 5 Fted. 3 6 6 , 8 6 8

(W.D. M o.; 1 9 2 4 ) .

2

Regina v. Hopley, 2 Kent. Comm. 203, 2 Post. & F. 202 (1860); Louden v. Seaver, 32 Vt. 114, 76 Am. Dec. 156 (1859). 3

S t a t e v . P e n d e r g r a s s , 19 N .C . 3 4 9 , 31 Am. D e o . 416 ( 1 8 3 7 ) .

(2 D e v . & B . L . ) 3 4 8 ,

ff e d u c a t i o n , b y t h a t f a c t t h e s c h o o l - t e a c h e r becom es i n L oco P a r e n t i s i n r e g a r d t o a l l m a t t e r s p e r t a i n ­ in g t o th a t p a r t i c u l a r phase o f th e c h i l d ' s l i f e w h ic h i s e n t r u s t e d t o h i s g u i d a n c e f o r d e v e l o p m e n t , i n c l u d i n g t h e pow er and d u t y o f c o r r e c t i o n . I n a n o t h e r k in d o f s i t u a t i o n ,

a man o p e r a t e d two

farm s a t w h ic h b e t w e e n 90 and 100 b o y s came t o work f o r t h e summer.

He f u r n i s h e d b o a r d and l o d g i n g f o r t h e b o y s and i n

t h e e v e n i n g had a r e c r e a t i o n program f o r th e m .

The c o u r t

s a i d t h a t t h e man had p l a c e d h i m s e l f " i n l o c o p a r e n t i s " t o t h e b o y s and owed t o them c e r t a i n o b l i g a t i o n s .

4

Ho c a s e was fo u n d i n w h ic h t h e m a t t e r o f " i n l o c o p a r e n t i s " was d i s c u s s e d by t h e c o u r t s i n r e g a r d t o r e c r e a t i o n cam p s.

I n one s i t u a t i o n w here a B a p t i s t c h u r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n

s p o n s o r e d a camp f o r c h i l d r e n , a b o y was d ro w n ed . 5 p a r e n t s o f t h e d e c e a s e d c h i l d c la i m e d t h a t :

The

T hey e n t r u s t e d t h e i r m in o r s o n t o t h e encamp­ m ent on t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h o s e who had c o n t r o l and management o f i t t h a t t h e c h i l d w ould be g i v e n t h e same k in d o f d i s c i p l i n e and be s u b j e c t e d t o t h e k in d o f r e g u l a t i o n s and p r o t e c t i o n t h a t a p a r e n t w ou ld g i v e a c h i l d u n d e r l i k e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h is was n o t was g i v e n

one o f t h e i s s u e s b e f o r e t h e c o u r t

i n a n sw e r t o t h i s p o i n t .

I f a camp d i r e c t o r and h i s the p la c e

s o no r u l i n g

o f p a ren ts,

it

th e l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

is

c o u n s e lo r s are to a c t in

im p o r t a n t t o knoww hat

o f p aren ts

some o f

are.

4 S t a b l e r v . N o r r i s , 1 8 8 W is. 3 6 6 , 2 0 6 N.W. 173 ( 1 9 2 5 ) . 5

McGuire v. Louisiana Baptist Encampment, (La. C.A. 1st 1940) 199 So. 192, 195.

D u ty o f P a r e n t s t o C h i l d : p r o te c t h is

The d u t y o f a p a r e n t t o

c h i l d h as f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n b y t h e common l a w .

A p a r e n t may e v e n j u s t i f y an a s s a u l t o r b a t t e r y i n t h e 6 n e c e s s a r y d e fe n se o f th e p erso n o f h is c h i ld . A lso , i t h a s l o n g b e e n an e s t a b l i s h e d r u l e t h a t t h e p a r e n t s owe t o th e ir

c h ild

c e r ta in le g a l o b lig a tio n s.

ad op ts th e r u l in g o f B la c k sto n e

7

One a u t h o r i t y

and s t a t e s :

8

The d u t y o f p a r e n t s t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e m a i n t e ­ nance o f t h e i r c h ild r e n i s a p r i n c i p l e o f n a tu r a l la w ; an o b l i g a t i o n l a i d on them n o t o n l y b y n a t u r e h e r s e l f , b u t b y t h e i r own p r o p e r a c t , i n b r i n g i n g th em i n t o t h e w o r l d , f o r t h e y w ou ld be i n t h e h i g h ­ e s t m anner i n j u r i o u s t o t h e i r i s s u e , i f t h e y o n l y g a v e t h e i r c h i l d r e n l i f e t h a t t h e y m ig h t a f t e r w a r d s e e them p e r i s h . By b e g e t t i n g them t h e r e f o r e t h e y have e n te r e d i n t o a v o lu n ta r y o b l i g a t i o n t o en d ea v o r, s o f a r a s i n them l i e s , t h a t t h e l i f e w h ic h t h e y h a v e b e s t o w e d s h a l l b e s u p p o r t e d and p r e s e r v e d . ...T h r e e l e g a l d u t ie s o f p a ren ts as to t h e ir l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d r e n a r e r e c o g n i z e d a t t h e common la w ; F i r s t , t o p r o t e c t , s e c o n d , t o e d u c a t e , t h i r d , t o m a i n t a i n th em . T h e se d u t i e s a r e a l l e n j o i n e d b y p o s i t i v e l a w , y e t t h e law o f t h e n a t u r a l a f ­ f e c t i o n i s s t r o n g e r i n u p h o ld in g su ch fu n d am en tal o b lig a t io n s o f th e p a r e n ta l s t a t e . P a r e n t s R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r C h ild * s T o r t s :

I t w ould

a p p e a r from a r e v i e w o f s e v e r a l c a s e s t h a t p a r e n t s are somewhat l i m i t e d w ro n g fu l a c t s .

in r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r t h e ir c h ild r e n 's 9 Madden s a y s :

g Madden, J o s e p h VI, , D o m e s tic R e l a t i o n s , p . 3 9 7 . 7

B l a c k s t o n e s C o m m e n ta r ie s, V o l . I ,

Book I , p . 3 6 8 , 18 42

Rounds Bros. v. McDaniel, 133 Ky. 699, 118 S.W. 956, 957 (1909). 9 Madden, o p .

c it.,

p. 598.

The s t a t u s o f p a r e n t and c h i l d im p o s e s no l i a b i l i t y on t h e p a r e n t f o r t h e t o r t s o f h i s c h i l d n o t c o m m itted w i t h h i s k n o w le d g e , n o r by h i s a u t h o r it y , e x p r e ss or im p lie d . . . . B u t i f th e p a r e n t a u t h o r iz e s th e c h i ld t o a c t as h i s s e r v a n t o r a g e n t i n any m a t t e r , he w i l l be l i a b l e f o r any t o r t s c o m m itted by t h e c h i l d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s e m p lo y m e n t. . . . T h i s l i a b i l i t y d o e s n o t d epend u p on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e p a r t i e s a s p a r e n t and c h i l d , b u t u p o n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p a s p r i n c i p a l and a g e n t , and i s g o v e r n e d by t h e r u l e s g o v e r n i n g o t h e r c a s e s o f agency. The m ost f r e q u e n t form o f p r i n c i p a l and a g e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p a r e n t and c h i l d send s th e c h ild

i s when t h e p a r e n t

on an e r r a n d o r on b u s i n e s s w i t h t h e f a m i l y

A parent i s u s u a lly not c le a r ly lia b le c o m m itte d by t h e i r

f o r th e t o r t s

c h i l d i n t h e n e g l i g e n t h a n d l i n g and t h e

u s e o f t h i n g s t h a t t h e y a r e c o m p e te n t t o h a n d l e . a p a ren t p e r m itted h is gun, a x ,

T h u s, i f

c h ild to u se h is g o l f c lu b s , s h o t­

a u t o m o b i l e , c a n o e , r o w b o a t , bow and a r r o w , r i f l e ,

o r any o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t n o t i n h e r e n t l y d a n g e r o u s , and w h ic h t h e c h i l d was c o m p e te n t t o h a n d l e , he w o u ld n o t be l i a b l e

if

a t one p a r t i c u l a r t im e t h e c h i l d h a n d le d t h e i n s t r u m e n t care' le ssly

and i n j u r e d

so m e o n e .^

When a c h i l d

is

c o m p e te n t t o h a n d le t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s

o f i n s t r u m e n t s , he assu m e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r u s i n g them i n a w rong m an n er. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c h i l d t o p a r e n t d o e s n o t mean t h e

1 0 Madden,

o£.

1 I b id ., p.

c it .,

399.

p. 398.

p a r e n t m ust a n sw e r f o r t h e t o r t s r e g a r d Madden s a y s :

o f h is

c h ild .

In t h i s

12

The r u l e t h a t t h e f a t h e r i s n o t l i a b l e b y v ir t u e o f th e r e l a t io n s h ip , fo r th e t o r t s o f h is c h i l d , a p p l i e s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e n atu re o f th e t o r t , and g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t a f a t h e r i s n o t l i a b l e f o r an u n a u t h o r i z e d a s s a u l t b y h i s s o n , t h o u g h he may h a v e known t h a t t h e s o n was o f a v i c i o u s c h a r a c t e r , t h e v i e w o f t h e c o u r t s se e m in g t o be t h a t t h e s o n was d o l i c a p e x , t h a t i s , o f s u f f i c i e n t age and m e n t a l i t y t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s own t o r t s , h i s f a t h e r i s n o t r e s p o n s i b l e m e r e l y f o r g e n e r a l f a i l u r e t o r e s t r a i n him from c o m m i t t i n g t o r t s , th o u g h he i s aware o f h i s d isp o sitio n . . . . B u t th e r e are r e c e n t d e c is io n s to th e e f f e c t th a t th e parent i s r e s p o n s ib le fo r n o t c u r b i n g t h e known d a n g e r o u s t e n d e n c i e s o f h i s c h ild r e n . Perhaps a r e a s o n a b le e f f o r t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s a l l t h a t ca n be r e q u i r e d , s i n c e t h e p a r e n t c a n n o t , a f t e r a l l , c h a i n up a c h i l d who h as n o t y e t c a u s e d t o r t o u s dam age, t h o u g h he shows te n d e n c ie s in th a t d ir e c t io n . . . . I f a f a t h e r knows t h a t h i s m in o r c h i l d i s c o m m it t in g a t o r t , and makes no e f f o r t t o r e s t r a i n h im , he w i l l be deemed t o h a v e c o n s e n t e d and a u t h o r i z e d i t s c o m m is s io n . S o , t o o , i f t h e p a r e n t knows t h a t t h e c h i l d i s c a r e l e s s and in c o m p e t e n t t o h a n d le a d a n g e r o u s i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y s u c h a s f i r e a r m s , he w i l l be l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s c o m m itted b y t h e c h i l d f o r w r o n g f u l or n e g l i g e n t u s e t h e r e o f , n o t b e c a u s e he i s t h e c h i l d f s f a t h e r , b u t b e c a u s e h i s own n e g l i g e n c e i n g i v i n g th e dan gerous in stru m en t t o th e c h i l d , or in le a v in g i t w h ere t h e c h i l d can g e t i t , o r i n p e r m i t t i n g t h e c h i l d t o k e e p and u s e i t a f t e r t h e p a r e n t knows he h a s i t , i s one o f t h e l e g a l c a u s e s o f t h e i n j u r y . I t h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t i n f a n c y i t s e l f i s no d e f e n s e f o r a t o r t t h a t h a s b e e n c o m m itted b y a m i n o r . ^ a c tio n in to r t w i l l l i e

•^M adden, o £ . 13Ib id . ,

a g a i n s t an i n f a n t f o r an i n j u r y

c it .,

p. 604.

"Thus, an

pp. 401-402.

caused by h i s n e g lig e n c e , a ssa u lt,

or s l a n d e r . ’1^

for

c o n v e rsio n ,

T h ere a r e , h o w e v e r ,

w h ic h t e n d e r n e s s o f ag e may be a v a i l a b l e It

is

some c a s e s i n

a s a d e f e n s e . ^5

n o t t o be assu m ed t h a t a l l o f t h e l e g a l

d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

of a p a ren t are tr a n s fe r r e d to

t h e p e r s o n " in l o c o p a r e n t i s . " g a r d in g d i s c i p l i n i n g th e

tresp a ss,

T here a r e some d u t i e s r e ­

of a c h ild th a t have been r u le d

on by

co u rts. D i s c i p l i n e by P e r s o n uI n L oco P a r e n t i s 11:

To g e t an

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e l e g a l c o n c e p t s r e g a r d i n g th e r i g h t s

of

a person to d i s c i p l i n e

it

a c h ild w h ile

" in l o c o p a r e n t i s , "

w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o v i e w some o f t h e c a s e s i n v o l v i n g s c h o o l t e a c h e r s and o t h e r s a c t i n g i n t h a t c a p a c i t y , foun d t h a t d is c u s s e d t h i s

h o c a s e s w ere

m a t t e r from a cam ping s i t u a t i o n .

I t has been s t a t e d : ^ A s c h o o l t e a c h e r f s a u t h o r it y to u se f o r c e in t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f h i s p u p i l s s p r i n g s from t h e power and d u ty o f r e s t r a i n t and c o r r e c t i o n v e s t e d by law in p a r e n ts. As p a r e n t s a r e bound t o m a i n t a i n and e d u c a t e t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t h e la w h a s g i v e n them a r i g h t t o t h e e x e r c i s e o f su c h d i s c i p l i n e as may be r e q u i s i t e f o r th e d isch a rg e o f t h e i r sacred t r u s t . The t e a c h e r who i s d u t ie s t o ed u cate t h e i r

charged w ith a p art of th e p a r e n t ! s

c h i l d r e n " to become u s e f u l and

^ M adden, op. c i t . , p. 6 0 6 . 15 I b i d . , p p . 6 oLl- 6 o 6 . 202,

^^K egina v . H opley, (i8 6 0 ).

2 K e n t . Comm. 20p» 2 P o s t .

r' P .

i££ v i r t u o u s members o f s o c i e t y , ”

17

is

by la w , " in v e s t e d w it h

t h e p a r e n t Ts pow er t o a d m i n i s t e r m o d e r a te c o r r e c t i o n when it

s h a l l be j u s t and n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o c o n t r o l s t u b b o r n -

n e s s , q u ick en d i l i g e n c e ,

and r e f o r m bad h a b i t s . "

18

T h is

d o es n ot g iv e th e t e a c h e r th e a u t h o r it y t o c h a s t iz e or c o r r e c t th e

c h ild

i n any way t h a t m ig h t be u n r e a s o n a b l e .

The t e a c h e r i s r e q u i r e d t o e x e r c i s e h i s r e a s o n a b l e pow er o f jud gm en t and d i s c r e t i o n as t o t h e mode and s e v e r i t y o f t h e p u n is h m e n t i n f l i c t e d . 20 sa id :

19

I n t h i s r e g a r d , one c o u r t

Words s u c h as f d u e , ' ^ m o d era te , 1 N e c e s s a r y , ’ and R e a s o n a b l e 1 a s a p p l i e d t o c h a s t i s e m e n t a r e e v e r c h a n g in g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i d e a s p r e v a i l i n g i n o u r m in d s d u r in g t h e p e r i o d and c o n d i t i o n s i n w h ic h we l i v e . Where a q u e s t i o n i s r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r p u n is h m e n t h a s b e e n m o d e r a te o r e x c e s s i v e , t h e f a c t i s one f o r t h e j u r y t o d e t e r m in e from t h e a t t e n d i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a g e , s i z e , and c o n ­ duct o f th e c h i ld , th e n atu re o f h is m isc o n d u ct, th e n a t u r e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d f o r p u n is h m e n t , and t h e k in d o f marks o r wounds i n f l i c t e d on t h e body o f th e c h ild . O th er c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s o m e tim e s g i v e n a r e t h e i n ­ f l u e n c e o f h i s exam p le and c o n d u c t upon o t h e r s and t h e d is 21 p o s i t i o n o f th e o ffe n d e r .

349

■ ^ S tate v . P e n d e r g r a ss, (1 8 3 7 ). 18 Madden, l o c . c i t . ■ ^ H a y c r o ft v . 20

19 N.C .

(D e v . & B . L . ) 3 4 8 ,

G -rigsby, 8 8 Mo. App. 3 5 4 ,

(1 9 0 1 ).

C a r p e n te r v . Commonwealth, 186 Va. 8 5 1 , 8 6 3 , 44 S . S . 2d 4 1 9 , 424 ( 1 9 4 7 ) . 21 L an d er v . S e a v e r , 32 V t . 1 1 4 , 76 Am. D e c . 156 ( 1 8 5 9 ) .

I f th e t e a c h e r or p e r so n " in lo c o p a r e n t i s ” i s un ­ r ea so n a b le in h is d i s c i p l i n e ,

he may be l i a b l e

c u t i o n f o r a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y *

22

T h u s, i t

to a p rose-

is

s a i d t o be 23 a u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n iz e d r u le by th e c o u r ts t h a t : A p a r e n t, t e a c h e r , or m a ste r , i s n ot l i a b l e e i t h e r c i v i l l y or c r i m in a ll y , f o r m o d e ra te ly c o r ­ r e c t i n g a c h i l d , p u p i l , or a p p r e n t ic e , but i s o t h e r w i s e , i f t h e c o r r e c t i o n i s im m oderate and un­ r e a so n a b le • W h ile a boy was p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a t h l e t i c games on a p l a y g r o u n d , he s t a r t e d

some m i s c h i e v i o u s n e s s f o r w h ic h t h e

i n s t r u c t o r w a n ted t o p u n i s h h im . assum e a p o s i t i o n t o r e c e i v e

He commanded t h e c h i l d t o

a b lo w on t h e b u t t o c k s .

The

c h i l d was r e q u i r e d t o bend o v e r and g rab b o t h a n k l e s w i t h h is hands.

Then t h e i n s t r u c t o r " n e g l i g e n t l y and w i t h t h e

u s e o f g r e a t and e x c e s s i v e

f o r c e d e l i v e r e d w i t h h i s op en 24 palm a b lo w u p o n t h e c o c c y x bone o f t h e p l a i n t i f f . 11 The c h i l d was f r a i l ,

and t h e c o c c y x bone was b r o k e n .

The i n ­

s t r u c t o r was c h a r g e d w i t h b a t t e r y . The c o u r t r u l i n g t h a t m o st n e a r l y a p p l i e s t o a camp­ i n g s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v e s a summer work farm .

The b o y s came t o

work d u r i n g t h e summer f o r b o a rd and l o d g i n g i n a d d i t i o n t o a r e c r e a t i o n p rog ram f u r n i s h e d a t n i g h t .

The c o u r t r u l e d

^ M o r ro w v . Wood, 35 W is. 5 9 , 17 Am. R ep. 47 1 ( 1 8 7 4 ) . p*z

C la sen v . 24

P r u h s , 69 Neb. 2 7 8 , 95 N.W. 6 4 0 , 642

(1 9 0 5 ).

Serres v. South Santa Anita School Board et a l . , 10 Cal. App. 2d 152, 153, 51 P. 2d 893, 894 (1935).

m

t h a t t h e man was ” i n l o c o p a r e n t i s 1’ t o t h e b o y s and when he was h e l d f o r p u n i s h i n g one o f t h e b o y s u n r e a s o n a b l y , 25 th e court sa id : I t may be s a i d t o be t h e g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t one s t a n d i n g i n l o c o p a r e n t i s h a s t h e r i g h t t o p u n i s h a c h i l d u n d e r h i s c a r e , i f t h e p u n ish m e n t i s m o d e r a te and r e a s o n a b l e , and f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f th e c h ild . N e c e s s a r ily , th e p r o p r ie ty o f i n f l i c t ­ i n g c o r p o r a l p u n is h m e n t t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t r e s t s i n th e d i s c r e t i o n o f th e p erso n h o ld in g such r e la tio n . But w h e t h e r t h e c o r r e c t i o n i s r e a s o n a b l e and p r o p e r , o r w h e t h e r i t i s im m oderate o r e x c e s s i v e , d oes n o t r e s t a b s o l u t e l y i n th e d i s c r e t i o n o f th e t e a c h e r o r o t h e r p e r s o n i n f l i c t i n g t h e p u n is h m e n t . I t i s a m a tter fo r j u d i c i a l i n v e s t i g a t io n . It is n o t t o be assum ed t h a t , a l t h o u g h a t e a c h e r or t h e d efen d an t i n t h i s ca se sta n d s in th e r e l a t i o n o f a p a r e n t , he h a s t h e same r i g h t t o i n f l i c t p u n i s h ­ m ent as a p a r e n t . T h is p a t e r n a l pow er i s l i t t l e l i a b l e to abu se, fo r i t i s c o n tin u a lly r e str a in e d b y n a t u r a l a f f e c t i o n , t h e t e n d e r n e s s w h ic h t h e p a r e n t f e e l s f o r h i s o f f - s p r i n g , an a f f e c t i o n e v e r on t h e a l e r t , and a c t i n g r a t h e r by i n s t i n c t th a n reason . The s c h o o l m a s t e r h a s no s u c h n a t u r a l r e ­ str a in t. H e n c e , he may n o t s a f e l y be t r u s t e d w i t h a l l a p a r e n t f s a u t h o r i t y , f o r he d o e s n o t a c t from th e i n s t i n c t o f p a te r n a l a f f e c t io n . He s h o u l d be g u i d e d and r e s t r a i n e d b y judgm ent and w i s e d i s ­ c r e t i o n , and h e n c e i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r r e a s o n ­ a b le e x e r c i s e . A n o th e r c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r i n d i s c i p l i n i n g a c h i l d a t camp i s

co n ta in ed in th e s t a t e

S ta tu to r y C o n tro l: sta tes

sta tu tes.

S ta tu tes

foun d i n t h e v a r i o u s

a r e u s u a l l y n o t t o o c l e a r on t h e a u t h o r i t y o f

persons ”in lo c o p a r e n t is ” to i n f l i c t

25S t a b l e r 17 5

(1 9 2 5 ).

v . N o r ris,

c o r p o r a l p u n ish m en t

188 W Is. 3 6 6 , 206 N.W. 1 7 3 ,

on c h i l d r e n .

Some s t a t e s a r e d e f i n i t e

in e x p r e s s in g the

pow ers g ra n ted t o t e a c h e r s i n t h i s r e g a r d . t h e s c h o o l law s t a t e s :

I n V erm on t,

26

A t e a c h e r or a p r i n c i p a l o f a s c h o o l , or a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o r a s c h o o l d i r e c t o r on r e q u e s t o f and i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t e a c h e r , may r e s o r t t o an y r e a s o n a b l e form o f p u n i s h m e n t , i n c l u d i n g c o r p o r a l p u n i s h m e n t , and t o any r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s e c u r i n g o b e d i e n c e on t h e p a r t o f any c h i l d e n r o l l e d i n s u c h s c h o o l , o r f o r h i s c o r r e c t io n , or f o r th e pu rp ose o f s e c u r in g or m a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r i n and c o n t r o l o f s u c h s c h o o l . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , some s t a t e s have s t a t u t e s w h ic h p r o h ib it

c o r p o r a l p u n is h m e n t . 27 la w s t a t e s :

T h u s, i n New J e r s e y , t h e

No p r i n c i p a l , t e a c h e r o r o t h e r p e r s o n em­ p lo y e d or engaged i n any c a p a c it y i n any s c h o o l o r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , w h e t h e r p u b l i c or p r i v a t e , s h a l l i n f l i c t o r c a u s e t o be i n f l i c t e d c o r p o r a l p u n is h m e n t u p on any p u p i l a t t e n d i n g s u c h s c h o o l o r i n s t i t u t i o n , and e v e r y r e s o l u t i o n , b y -la w , r u l e , o rd in a n ce or o th e r a c t o f a u t h o r it y h e r e t o fo r e or h e r e a f t e r p a s s e d , ad op ted , approved, made o r g i v e n by any p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s w h o m so ev er, n a t u r a l or a r t i f i c i a l , p e r m it t in g or a u t h o r iz in g c o r p o r a l p u n is h m e n t t o be i n f l i c t e d u p on any p u p i l a t t e n d i n g o r t h a t may a t t e n d any s c h o o l o r ed u ­ c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h a l l be h e n c e f o r t h v o i d and o f no f o r c e o r e f f e c t . It is

t h e d u t y o f camp a u t h o r i t i e s

sta tu to r y p r o v isio n s

in th e ir r e sp e c tiv e

t o be in fo r m e d o f s t a t e s r eg a r d in g

d i s c i p l i n i n g o f c h ild r e n .

2 6 VT. SCHOOL LAWS, S e c t i o n 1 2 6 3

27

(1 9 2 5 ).

N.J. STAT., Art. VIII, section 171 (1S25).

k6 Summary: to h is

When t h e camp d i r e c t o r i n v i t e s

c h ild r e n

cam ps, he t a k e s t h e p l a c e o f t h e p a r e n t i n c a r i n g

fo r , p r o te c tin g ,

and e d u c a t i n g t h e c h i l d *

He a l s o assu m es

many o f t h e l e g a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t a r e im p o sed upon p a r e n ts f o r th e w e lf a r e o f t h e i r c h ild * A parent i s not l ia b le

for th e t o r ts

o f h is

o h ild

when t h e y a r e n o t co m m itted by h i s e x p r e s s o r i m p l i e d k n o w le d g e or a u t h o r i t y *

An a g e n c y i s

p a r e n t when he a u t h o r i z e s h i s or a g e n t, h is

c r e a te d by th e

c h ild t o a c t as h is se r v a n t

and he becom es l i a b l e

fo r th e n e g lig e n t a c ts o f

c h i l d when i n j u r y o r damages r e s u l t t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n . A p a r e n t i s u s u a l l y n o t l i a b l e when he p e r m i t s a

c h i l d t o h a n d le t h i n g s he i s

c o m p e te n t t o h a n d l e .

In t h e

cam p in g s i t u a t i o n t h i s w ou ld c o n s i s t o f a x e s , r i f l e s , k n i v e s , bow and a r r o w s , c a n o e s , r o w b o a t s , and t o o l s . a c h ild

If

I s c o m p e te n t t o h a n d le t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s , he

a s s u m e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r u s i n g them n e g l i g e n t l y . H o w ev er, a p a r e n t I s l i a b l e h is

f o r i n j u r i e s r e s u l t i n g from

c h i l d 1s a c t i o n when he knows a c h i l d i s

c a r e l e s s and

i n c o m p e t e n t t o h a n d l e a d a n g e r o u s i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y and he e it h e r g iv e s i t it,

t o h im , l e a v e i t w here t h e c h i l d

o r p e r m it him t o u s e i t

can o b t a i n

a f t e r he knows t h e c h i l d h as I t .

I n f a n c y i t s e l f i s u s u a l l y no d e f e n s e f o r n e g l i g e n t co n d u ct.

C h i l d r e n have b e e n h e l d l i a b l e

I n many c a s e s .

I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s ,

has b een a bar t o a c t i o n .

fo r t h e ir n e g lig e n c e

ten d ern ess o f years

The c h i l d i s

p r o t e c t e d by t h e c o u r t s from u n r e a s o n ­

a b l e d i s c i p l i n e by p e r s o n s s t a n d i n g 11i n Loco P a r e n t i s . 11 The la w r e q u i r e s a p e r s o n who d i s c i p l i n e s

a c h ild to use

h i s r e a s o n a b l e p o w e r s o f judgm ent and d i s c r e t i o n

as t o t h e

mode and s e v e r i t y o f t h e p u n is h m e n t he i n f l i c t s .

F a ilu r e

t o m eet t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s may c a u s e an a c t i o n f o r a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y .

Some o f t h e n e c e s s a r y t h i n g s t h e cam ping

l e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s i d e r when d i s c i p l i n i n g a c h i l d th e c h i l d f s a g e, h is

s i z e , h is

are:

con d u ct, th e n atu re o f h is

m isc o n d u c t, th e n a tu re o f th e in stru m en t used f o r p u n ish ­ m e n t , and t h e s e v e r i t y and l e n g t h o f t h e p u n is h m e n t .

The

p u n is h m e n t m ust be m o d e r a te and r e a s o n a b l e , and m ust be f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f th e It

is

c h ild .

n o t t o be assum ed t h a t a l l o f t h e l e g a l

r e s p o n s ib ilitie s

and d u t i e s o f t h e p a r e n t a r e t r a n s f e r r e d

t o t h e p e r s o n s t a n d i n g " i n L oco P a r e n t i s . "

N o t h in g can

tak e th e p la c e o f th e f e e l i n g ,

or th e p a t e r n a l i n s t i n c t

th e p a ren t has fo r th e

A llo w a n c e m ust be made f o r

c h ild .

ju d gm en t by p e r s o n s t a k i n g t h e p l a c e o f p a r e n t s f o r t h e la c k o f t h is n a tu r a l i n s t i n c t . It

i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r camp a u t h o r i t i e s t o know

th e s ta tu to r y p r o v is io n s i n g a cam p er.

Some s t a t e

In t h e i r s t a t e r e g a r d in g d i s c i p l i n ­ sta tu tes

a r e n o t t o o c l e a r on t h e

a u t h o r i t y o f one " i n Loco P a r e n t i s " t o d i s c i p l i n e but o th e r s t a t e h ib itin g

a c h ild ,

s t a t u t e s d e f i n i t e l y have p r o v i s i o n s p r o ­

any k in d o f c o r p o r a l p u n is h m e n t .

m

CHAPTER V GENERAL LEGAL SUPERVISORY DUTIES OP CAMP DIRECTORS AND COUNSELORS When a camp d i r e c t o r i s

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e m ind s and

"bodies o f c h i l d r e n t h e r e a r e many s o c i a l , p h y sic a l r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s sid e r a b le

e sth e tic ,

he h a s to w ard t h e c h i l d .

amount o f l i t e r a t u r e

t h e s e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s , and t h e

and A con­

can be fou n d d i s c u s s i n g camp d i r e c t o r i s

c o n tin u a lly

made aware o f them i n many w a y s . One o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s not too fa m ilia r w ith ,

t h e cam ping p e o p l e are

and one t h a t s h o u ld c o n c e r n them , i s

t h e i r l e g a l o b lig a t io n s to th e w ith th e se le g a l o b lig a tio n s

c h ild .

F a i l u r e t o com ply

o ften r e su lts

in c i v i l ,

and

s o m e tim e s c r i m i n a l s u i t s . When t h e y assum e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a number o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e r e c r e a t i o n cam ps, t h e r e i s

a c e r ta in degree

o f c a r e f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t t h e d i r e c t o r s and c o u n s e l o r s m ust p r a c t i c e . D u ty o f Care Owed t o C h i l d r e n :

When a c h i l d i s

v i t e d o r a c c e p t e d i n a r e c r e a t i o n camp he i s in v ite e .

in ­

c o n s i d e r e d an

The d e g r e e o f c a r e owed t o an i n v i t e e

i s much

g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t owed t o a t r e s p a s s e r o r a l i c e n s e e .

1

Many c a s e s h a ve a r i s e n w h ic h i n v o l v e t h e d u t y o f c a r e owed t o c h i l d r e n when t h e y a r e i n v i t e e s .

I n a summary

■^Prosser, William L., Law of Torts, pp. 609-626.

of these cases, one of the legal scholars said: The r u l e t h a t no p e r s o n i s an i n s u r e r o f t h e s a f e t y o f others a p p lie s w ith r esp ect to c h ild re n , and one whose a c t s o r o m i s s i o n s ha s r e s u l t e d i n i n j u r y t o a c h i l d c a n n o t be h e l d l i a b l e t h e r e f o r u n l e s s he h a s b e e n g u i l t y o f n e g l i g e n c e i n v o l v i n g a b r e a c h o f d u t y owed t o t h e c h i l d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c h i l d be s o y o u n g a s n o t t o be c h a r g e a b l e w ith contrib utory n e g lig e n c e . The known c h a r a c t e r ­ i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n s h o u l d h o w e v e r , be t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n d e t e r m in in g w h eth er or n ot s u f ­ f i c i e n t c a r e f o r t h e s a f e t y o f a c h i l d has b e e n exercised in a p a r ticu la r case. A c c o r d in g ly , the f a c t t h a t c h i l d r e n c a n n o t and do n o t o r d i n a r i l y e x e r c i s e t h e same d e g r e e o f p r u d e n c e and c a r e f o r t h e i r own s a f e t y as a d u l t s , i m p o s e s up o n t h o s e by whose a c t s o r o m i s s i o n s a c h i l d may be i n j u r e d t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f e x e r c i s i n g more v i g i l e n c e and c a u t i o n t h a n m i g h t be s u f f i c i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o an a d u l t , and c o n d u c t w h i c h m i g h t r e a c h the standard o f o rd in a ry care w ith r e s p e c t t o an a d u l t , m i g h t , i n t h e c a s e o f a c h i l d , amount t o n e g l i g e n c e , o r e v e n g r o s s n e g l i g e n c e . As i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e a b i l i t y o f a c h i l d t o e x e r c i s e s u f f i c i e n t c a r e and p r u d e n c e f o r h i s own p r o t e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s as he gr ows o l d e r , t h e c a r e t o be e x e r c i s e d to w a r d a c h i l d must be p r o ­ p o r t i o n a t e t o h i s m a t u r i t y and c a p a c i t y . The a ge o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h i l d i s , t h e r e f o r e , a l ­ ways a p r o p e r m a t t e r f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n d e ­ t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r p r o p e r c a r e ha s b e e n e x e r c i s e d t o a v o i d i n j u r i n g him and c o n d u c t may be n e g l i ­ g e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o a v e r y young c h i l d , a lth o u g h i t might r e a c h th e sta n d a rd o f o r d in a r y care w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c h i l d who had r e a c h e d an age w h i c h c h i l d r e n a r e o r d i n a r i l y more a b l e t o e x e r c i s e t h e c a r e and d i s c r e t i o n o f an a d u l t , he i s e n t i t l e d t o no more c a r e t h a n w o u ld c o n s t i t u t e o r d i n a r y c a r e toward an a d u l t . S i n c e t h e camping s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t s more h a z a r d o u s c o n d i t i o n s t h a n m ost p u b l i c p l a c e s ,

the d egree o f care

r e q u i r e d o f camping l e a d e r s w ou ld l i k e w i s e be g r e a t e r .

p

45 C . J . , N e g l i g e n c e ,

s e c t i o n 78.

50 Harm from T h i r d P e r s o n a and A n i m a l s : d e f i n i t e r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e rn in g the a c t s

T h er e are

o f th ir d persons

o r a n i m a l s t o p e r s o n s i n v i t e d on a n o t h e r ! s l a n d f o r b u sin ess purposes.

I n t h e cam ping s i t u a t i o n t h e c h i l d r e n

f r e q u e n t l y come i n c o n t a c t w i t h a n i m a l s i n z o o s , h ik es,

and i n n a t u r e s t u d i e s ,

make f r e q u e n t v i s i t s

and v i s i t o r s

t o t h e camping a r e a .

on t h e i r

and d e l i v e r y m e n One a u t h o r i t y

said :^ A p u b l i c u t i l i t y or o th e r p o s s e s s o r o f land who h o l d s i t o u t t o t h e p u b l i c f o r e n t r y f o r h i s b u s i n e s s p u r p o s e s i s s u b j e c t t o l i a b i l i t y t o mem­ b e r s o f t h e p u b l i c w h i l e up o n t h e l a n d f o r s u c h p u r p o s e f o r b o d i l y harm c a u s e d t o them by a c c i ­ d e n t a l , n e g l i g e n t or i n t e n t i o n a l l y harm ful a c t o f t h i r d p e r s o n s o r a n i m a l s i f t h e p o s s e s s o r by t h e e x e r c i s e o f r e a s o n a b l e c a r e c o u l d have ( a ) d i s ­ c o v e r e d t h a t s u c h a c t s were b e i n g done o r were a b o u t t o be d o n e , and ( b ) p r o t e c t e d t h e members o f th e p u b l i c by ( 1 ) c o n t r o l l i n g t h e conduct o f t h e t h i r d p e r s o n s , or ( 2 ) g i v e n a w a r n i n g a d e q u a t e t o e n a b l e them t o a v o i d t h e h a m w i t h o u t r e ­ l i n q u i s h i n g any o f t h e s e r v i c e s w h i c h t h e y a r e e n t i t l e d t o r e c e i v e from t h e p u b l i c u t i l i t y . S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t R e g u l a t i o n s f o r Camp S u p e r v i s i o n : Most s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camps d e a l c h i e f l y w i t h s a n i t a r y con trol.

How ever,

some s t a t e s have s p e c i a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e

quirem ents f o r a c t i v i t i e s

s u c h as swimming and r i f l e r y .

T h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n a s u c c e e d i n g chapter.

^R estatem ent, T o rts,

s e c t i o n 3 48 ( 1 9 3 4 ) .

51) There a r e g e n e r a l s u p e r v i s o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s i n 4 several states which have been p a s s e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f the th is

field ,

campers.

M ichigan, a p io n e e r in

h a s a d e s i r a b l e r e g u l a t o r y la w w h i c h s t a t e s :

5

T h er e s h a l l be an a d e q u a t e and c o m p e t e n t s t a f f o f d i r e c t o r s , s u p e r v i s o r s , c o u n s e l o r s , and m a i n t e n a n c e p e r s o n n e l o f good c h a r a c t e r and r e p u ­ t a t i o n , and a b i l i t y t o h a n d l e c h i l d r e n . P e r s o n s com ing i n c o n t a c t w i t h c h i l d r e n ( i n c l u d i n g f o o d h a n d l e r s ) s h a l l be i n good h ealth . Pood h a n d l e r s must com p ly w i t h l o c a l ordinan ces. Kahn, X - r a y , smear o r t y p h o i d c h e c k may be r e q u i r e d i f h i s t o r y i n d i c a t e s t h e n e e d . C h i l d r e n s h a l l be s u b j e c t e d t o o n l y k in d and p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t and m o r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s . R e a s o n a b l e m eth o d s o f d i s c i p l i n e s h a l l be em ployed. P l a n n e d r e c r e a t i o n and a s c h e d u l e o f a c t i v i t y c o n d u c i v e t o t h e impr ovem ent o f h e a l t h and i n c r e a s e o f k n o w l e d g e and g r o w t h o f c h a r a c t e r are r e q u ir e d . C a r e f u l and c o n s t a n t s u p e r v i s i o n and r e a s o n a b l e s e g r e g a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o age and s e x s h a l l be c a r r i e d o u t . C h i l d r e n s h a l l be p r o v i d e d w i t h a c o m f o r t ­ a b l e bed and s l e e p a l o n e o r w i t h one o t h e r c h i l d o f t h e same s e x . C h i l d r e n s h a l l u n d e r no c i r ­ cum stances occupy beds w it h a d u l t s . D istance b e t w e e n b e d s s h a l l be n o t l e s s t h a n two f e e t and i f t h e y a r e t h i s c l o s e , h e a d s s h o u l d be a l t e r n a t e d . In order to p r o t e c t th e c h i l d , oth er c h i l d ­ r e n , and t h e camp m a na gem en t, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t a p h y s i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n be made by t h e f a m i l y p h y s i c i a n o r camp p h y s i c i a n o r b o t h , j u s t p r i o r t o a d m i s s i o n , t o i n s u r e t h a t no c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t w h i c h s h o u l d l i m i t t h e c h i l d ' s a c t i v i t i e s and t h a t t h e r e i s no a p p a r e n t c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e o r h i s t o r y o f recen t exposure.

4 0HI0 SANITARY CODE, s e c t i o n 232 ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; WISCONSIN STAT., c . 1 4 1 , s e c t i o n 1 4 1 . 0 1 ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; FLORIDA STAT., c . 2 5 , s e c t i o n 19 ( 1 9 4 6 ) ; RHODE ISLAND GEN. LAWS, c . 2 6 6 , s e c t i o n 4 (1938). 5 MICH. COMP. LAWS, c . 7 2 2 , s e c t i o n 7 2 2 , 1 0 1 ( 1 9 4 8 ) .

52 Any c ha ng e w h i c h m i g h t i n an y way a f f e c t t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e c h i l d r e n s h a l l be r e p o r t e d im m e d ia te ly t o th e S t a t e Department o f S o c i a l W e l f a r e and t o t h e a g e n c y o r p e r s o n from whom t h e c h i l d r e n are r e c e i v e d . Records o f p e r s o n a l d a ta f o r e a c h c h i l d s h a l l be k e p t i n any r e a s o n a b l e form t h e camp d i r e c t o r may c h o o s e . Minimum r e c o r d s s h a l l i n c l u d e t h e c h i l d Ts name, age and a d d r e s s , t h e name, a d d r e s s , and phone number o f p a r e n t s o r g u a r d i a n , and t h e d a t e s o f a d m i s s i o n and d i s c h a r g e . It is d esirab le a l s o t o have a r e c o r d o f t h e c h i l d 1s p h y s i c a l c o n ­ d i t i o n , im m unizations, p r e v io u s co n ta g io u s d i s e a s e s , s c h o o l g r a d e , r e l i g i o n and any s o c i a l o r p h y s i c a l co n d itio n th at req u ires s p e c ia l co n sid er a tio n . A r u n n i n g r e c o r d o f t h e c h i l d * s camp l i f e c o v e r i n g a c t i v i t i e s , behavior, a c c id e n ts , i l l n e s s e s , e t c . , s h o u l d be k e p t and a r e p o r t s e n t t o t h e p a r e n t s a t t h e end o f t h e camp p e r i o d . The camp l e a d e r s

c a n n o t be t o t a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e

e v e r y a c t t h a t c h i l d r e n m ake.

for

The c h i l d h a s a r e s p o n s i ­

b i l i t y t o w a t c h o u t f o r h i s own s a f e t y . Care R e q u i r e d o f C h i l d r e n :

It is

a l o g i c a l assum p­

t i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n n e e d more c a r e and s u p e r v i s i o n t h a n ad u lts. the

One o f t h e q u e s t i o n s t h a t i m m e d i a t e l y c o n c e r n s

camp l e a d e r s i s how much r e s p o n s i b i l i t y must t h e c h i l d

assum e f o r s e l f p r o t e c t i o n .

One a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s :

6

I t i s a w e l l s e t t l e d g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t an i n f a n t , a t l e a s t u n t i l he h a s r e a c h e d t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f i n f a n c y i s n o t bound t o e x e r c i s e t h e c a r e r e q u i r e d o f an a d u l t , and t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d by w h i c h t o m e a s u r e h i s c o n d u c t , as r e g a r d s t h e q u estio n o f con trib u tory n e g lig e n c e , is that o rd i­ n a r i l y e x e r c i s e d by c h i l d r e n o f t h e same a g e , c a p a c i t y , d i s c r e t i o n , k n o w l e d g e , and e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r t h e same or s i m i l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

6See n o t e ,

107 A.L .R .

7 (1937).

Th er e i s

a l e g a l d u ty t h a t r e s t s upon th e c h i l d

to

a v o i d d a n g e r w h i c h he knows and u n d e r s t a n d s o r w h i c h i s p e r f e c t l y o b v i o u s t o one o f h i s a g e .

"They may be d e ­

c l a r e d n e g l i g e n t as a m a t t e r o f l a w f o r f a i l i n g t o a v o i d d a n g ers.”

The fa G t t h a t a c h i l d d o e s n o t have t h e m a ture

ju d gm en t and d i s c r e t i o n o f an a d u l t w i l l n o t e x c u s e him from e x e r c i s i n g t h e d e g r e e o f jud gm ent and d i s c r e t i o n w h i c h he p o s s e s s e s

o r f o r " d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e w a r n i n g and o r d e r o f

h is

and h e e d l e s s l y r u s h i n g i n t o known d a n g e r s . " ^

sen iors,

C h ild r e n are r e q u i r e d t o e x e r c i s e in order to help p r o tec t th em selves.

some p r e c a u t i o n s

The d e g r e e o f c a u t i o n

r e q u i r e d d e p e n d s u p on t h e m a t u r i t y and c a p a c i t y o f t h e ch ild ,

"Thus, w i t h a c h i l d o f t h r e e y e a r s o f a g e ,

c a u t i o n w ou ld be r e q u i r e d t h a n w i t h one o f s e v e n ; a ch ild

of seven, le s s

less and o f

t h a n one o f t w e l v e or f i f t e e n .

J o h a n n e s v . R o o k s , 3 22 M ic h. 6 1 1 , 34 N.W. 2d 4 5 6 , ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; Ackerman v . Advance P e t r o l e u m T r a n s p o r t I n c . , 3 0 4 M ic h . 9 6 , 7 N.W. 2d 2 3 5 , ( 1 9 4 2 ) ; S l a y s m a n v . G-erst, 159 Md. 2 9 2 , 1 50 A. 7 2 8 , ( 1 9 3 0 ) ; T u rn er v . M o b e r l y , 2 2 4 Mo. App. 6 8 3 , 2 6 S.W. 2d 9 9 7 , ( 1 9 3 0 ) ; B e r c h t o l d v . M a r t i n , 3 8 Ohio App. 5 5 6 , 17 7 N .E . 5 7 , ( 1 9 2 9 ) ; K r i s c h v . R i c h t e r , 61 T e x . C i r . App. 5 6 3 , 1 3 0 S.W. 1 8 6 , ( 1 9 1 0 ) ; Young v . S m a l l , 1 8 8 M ass. 4 , 73 N . E . 1 0 1 9 , ( 1 9 0 5 ) ; A n d e r s o n v . C e n t r a l R. C o . , 6 8 N . J . L . 2 6 9 , 53 A. 3 9 1 , ( 1 9 0 2 ) ; ( S e e n o t e , 107 A .L .R . 8 -1 0 ( 1 9 3 7 ) . ^ B a t t l e s v . U n i t e d R.R . S.W. 6 1 4 , 6 2 4 , ( 1 9 1 3 ) .

C o.,

170 Mo. App. 5 9 6 ,

161

^J o h a n n es v . R o o k s , 322 M ic h. 6 1 1 , 6 2 4 , 3 4 N.W. 2d 4 5 6 , 4 6 2 , ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; T w i s t v . W i n o n e , 39 Minn. 1 6 4 , 1 7 0 , 39 N.W. 4 0 2 , 4 0 6 , ( 1 8 8 8 ) .

■^Washington & G.R. Co. v. Gladmon, 15 Wall. (U.S.) 401, 408, 21 L. Ed. 114, 116, (1862).

No d e f i n i t e

a s s u m p t i o n oan be made i n r e g a r d t o t h e

c a r e r e q u i r e d o f c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e d e c i s i o n s w i l l hav e t o be made on t h e f a c t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f e a c h p a r t i c u l a r c a s e • 11 C h i l d r e n 1 s R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r W r o n g f u l A c t s t o O th e rs : Many t i m e s i n j u r i e s and a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e camp as a resu lt

of the

c h i l d ’s n egligen ce

a c c id e n ts occur in s p it e staff*

The c h i l d

j u r i e s he i n f l i c t s

or w i l f u l m isconduct*

These

o f p r o p e r s u p e r v i s i o n by t h e camp

i s qu ite o fte n resp o n sib le on o t h e r s .

fo r the i n ­

One s t u d y r e v e a l e d t h a t : 1 2

For e v e r y t o r t i o u s a c t o f v i o l e n c e o r o t h e r pure t o r t , th e i n f a n t t o r t f e a s o r i s l i a b l e i n a c i v i l a c t i o n t o th e in ju r e d person* C hildren o f t e n , s i x , f i v e , and e v e n f o u r y e a r s o l d hav e b e e n h e l d l i a b l e f o r a c t s o f v i o l e n c e and l i a b i l i t y has o f t e n b e e n im p o se d f o r t h e i n j u r i e s c a u s e d by s u c h a c t s , t h o u g h c o m m i t t e d i n p l a y and w i t h o u t t h e i n ­ t e n t i o n t o i n f l i c t s u b s t a n t i a l in j u r y ; though i t h a s b e e n h e l d t h a t i f i n j u r y was an a c c i d e n t , and the a c ts o f the defendant only the n a tu r a l a c t i v i t y o f f r i e n d l y p l a y , t h e r e i s no l i a b i l i t y . Employment o f M i n o r s : that

There a r e a number o f s t a t u t e s

a r e f r e q u e n t l y v i o l a t e d by cam ping p e o p l e i n t h e i r

su pervisory ta sk s.

One o f t h o s e m ost f r e q u e n t l y v i o l a t e d

i s t h e Employment o f M in ors A c t . Many o f t h e d u t i e s a s s i g n e d t o campers m i g h t p o s s i b l y be c o n s i d e r e d a v i o l a t i o n o f t h i s

act.

I n some camps,

1 1 Supra n o t e 9 . 12^

D y e r , D o n a ld B. and L i c h t i g , P u b lic R e e r e a tio n , p . 79.

J .G ., L i a b i l i t y in

a c tiv itie s

su ch as d i s h w a s h i n g , w a i t i n g t a b l e s ,

b u ild in g s h e lte r s ,

clean in g,

and v a r i o u s t y p e s o f m a i n t e n a n c e work

are c o n s id e r e d a p a r t o f th e

camp p r o g r a m .

It is

very

q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t t h e s e w o u ld be t e r m e d a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e act. I n New Y o r k ,

13

a b o y t w e l v e y e a r s o l d was an i n m a t e

o f a camp i n w h i c h he had p a i d t h e r e g u l a r camp f e e . he was s i t t i n g

at th e supper t a b l e ,

the w a ite r s p i l l e d

so u p down h i s b a c k i n j u r i n g him s e v e r e l y . brought,

i t was d i s c o v e r e d

y e a r s old* him t o w o r k .

W h ile hot

When s u i t was

t h a t t h e w a i t e r was o n l y t h i r t e e n

T h i s was y o u n g e r t h a n t h e l a b o r la w p e r m i t t e d He had v o l u n t e e r e d t o a c t as a w a i t e r when

t h e r e g u l a r l y h i r e d w a i t e r c o u l d n o t be t h e r e .

The c o u r t

s a id :14 One e m p l o y i n g a c h i l d u n d e r 14 y e a r s o l d i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e l a b o r la w i s l i a b l e p e r s e t o p e r s o n s i n j u r e d as a p r o x i m a t e r e s u l t o f s u c h em ploym ent. O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e camp d i r e c t o r may be s h o r t handed on some j o b , and f o r t h e s a k e o f e x p e d i e n c y , may a s k one o f t h e campers t o a s s i s t another person t o do.

i n some t a s k t h a t he h a s employed H erein l i e s

v i o l a t i n g the la b o r law.

th e g r e a t e s t danger o f 15 One a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s :

l 5 Spear v . K o s h e l l e ,

150 M isc . 3 05, 269 U .Y .S. 391

(1934). 14ia .

15

a t 3 0 5 , 269 N . Y . S .

at 393.

■*■^18 R.C.L., Master and Servant, section 83; Dyer, Donald B. and Lichtig, J.G., op. c i t ,, p. 87.

The r u l e i s w e l l s e t t l e d t h a t a p e r s o n who i s p r o c u r e d by an e m p l o y e e t o a c t a s h i s s u b s t i t u t e o r t o a s s i s t him i n h i s d u t i e s , t h e e m p l o y e r a s s e n t ­ i n g t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t , o c c u p i e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f an e m p l o y e e , and t h e d u t y owed him by t h e e m p l o y e r i s t h e same as t h a t owed t o o t h e r e m p l o y e e s . And i t d o e s n o t make a n y d i f f e r e n c e t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t e o r a s s i s t a n t i s p r o m i s e d no c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r h i s s e r ­ v ices. A u t h o r i t y t o employ s u b s t i t u t e s or a s s i s t ­ a n t s may be i m p l i e d from t h e n a t u r e o f t h e work t o be p e r f o r m e d , and a l s o fro m a g e n e r a l c o u r s e o f c o n d u c t i n g t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e e m p l o y e r by t h e em­ p l o y e e f o r s o l o n g a t i m e t h a t c o n s e n t t h e r e t o may be i n f e r r e d . . . W hether t h e e m p lo y e e was o r was n o t a u th o rized in advance, h is act in procurin g a s s i s t ­ a n t s w i l l be deemed b i n d i n g u p o n t h e e m p l o y e r , i f t h e l a t t e r r e c o g n i z e s t h e a r r a n g e m e n t by p a y i n g wages or o t h e r w is e f u l f i l l i n g th e agreement n e g o ­ t i a t e d by him . I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s when a m i n o r i s e m p l o y e d i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e Employment o f M in ors A c t and i n j u r y r e ­ su lts

fro m h i s e m p l o y m e n t ,

a b a r t o an a c t i o n .

c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e i s not 16 One l e g a l s c h o l a r s t a t e d :

A d o p t i n g t h e v i e w o f modern a u t h o r i t y and b e a r i n g i n mind t h e d e s i g n and o b j e c t o f t h e C h i l d Labor Laws i n t h i s f a s t d e v e l o p i n g m a c h i n e a g e , we are o f the o p in io n th a t c o n tr ib u to r y n e g lig e n c e i s not a defense in t h is c la ss o f ca ses. ...T h e courts c o n s id e r e d at l e n g t h the q u e s t i o n whether c o n t r ib u ­ t o r y n e g l i g e n c e would be a b a r t o an a c t i o n u n d e r t h e C h i l d Labor Laws, and d e f i n i t e l y h e l d t h a t i t w ould n o t . Summary:

Camp d i r e c t o r s and c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e i r

s u p e r v i s o r y d u t i e s owe t o t h e c h i l d a d e g r e e o f c a r e com­ m ensurate w ith th e a g e ,

ca p a city , m aturity,

and judgment

• ^ A r m s t r o n g , n C h il d Labor Laws and C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e , " 20 T enn . L. R e v . 3 6 0 ( 1 9 4 8 ) .

$ 73

o f the

ch ild .

Some t i m e s o n l y r e a s o n a b l e c a r e i s

n e c e s s a r y , bu t i n many c a s e s

considered

i n a cam ping s i t u a t i o n t h e

l e a d e r s w i l l be e x p e c t e d t o u s e e x t r a - o r d i n a r y c a r e , e s ­ p e c i a l l y in d e a lin g w ith sm aller c h ild r e n . lead ers

The camping

are a l s o e x p e cted t o g iv e r e a s o n a b le p r o t e c t i o n to

ch ild ren in v ited

on t h e i r p r e m i s e s fro m v i s i t o r s ,

anim als,

o r an y o t h e r o u t s i d e r who may come t o t h e camp. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e common l a w r u l i n g s

o f many c o u r t s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e g r e e o f c a r e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c a r e and p r o ­ t e c t io n o f ch ild ren , ment r e g u l a t i o n s req uired,

some s t a t e s hav e s p e c i f i c

sta te depart­

s e t t i n g standards f o r the degree o f care

o f c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps.

C h ild ren are a l s o r e q u ir e d t o u s e a c e r t a i n degree o f c a r e com m ens urate w i t h t h e i r a g e ,

cap acity ,

and m a t u r i t y f o r t h e i r own p r o t e c t i o n . sp on sib le

judgment,

They a r e a l s o r e ­

for the w rongful in ju r io u s a c ts i n f l i c t e d

on

o t h e r s due t o t h e i r w i l f u l m i s c o n d u c t o r n e g l i g e n c e . Many t i m e s camping a u t h o r i t i e s v i o l a t e

laws t h e y are

n o t aware o f o r hav e n e v e r t a k e n t h e t i m e t o s t u d y . P r o b a b l y t h e l a w m o st o f t e n v i o l a t e d Min ors A c t .

i s t h e Employment o f

The camping p r ogram v e r y o f t e n h a s d u t y a s s i g n ­

m en t s t h a t m i g h t p o s s i b l y be c o n s t r u e d as f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h i s A ct.

The F e d e r a l Government h a s a c h i l d l a b o r la w

r e g u l a t i n g t h e employment o f m i n o r s ,

and e a c h s t a t e has

e n a c t e d a s p e c i a l la w t o r e g u l a t e t h e i r e m p lo y m e n t.

In

m ost c a s e s t h e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s a r e t h e g o v e r n i n g la w s i n

5$ the s t a t e .

T h er e seem s t o be a c o n s i d e r a b l e

d ifferen ce

in the v a r io u s s t a t e s 1 r e g u la t io n s

t h e Employment o f Minors A c t . t o age may be a c c e p t a b l e

amount o f in regard to

A v i o l a t i o n i n one s t a t e

in others.

The l e n g t h o f t i m e and

t h e k i n d s o f work p e r m i t t e d a l s o v a r y i n t h e d i f f e r e n t This a n a l y s i s

I n many s t a t e s

i s h i g h e r f o r c h i l d r e n when s c h o o l i s The minimum age l i m i t s

t h e minimum age l i m i t in se ssio n .

at w hich a c h i l d

i s perm itted

from t e n y e a r s o f a g e t o 17 y e a r s o f a g e .

In the m a jo r ity o f s t a t e s o f m i n o r s i s 14 y e a r s . as t h e minimum age l i m i t

t h e age l i m i t

f o r t h e employment

Many s t a t e s r e g a r d t h e age o f 12 f o r e m p l o y m e n t.

Th ere a r e d i f f e r e n c e s

i n t h e number o f h o u r s t h e

m in o r i s p e r m i t t e d t o work i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s . is

states.

c o n s i d e r s t h e g e n e r a l employment o f m i n o r s i n

perm itted o ccu p a tio n s.

t o work v a r i e s

as

A ch ild

l i m i t e d t o w o r k i n g 40 h o u r s a week i n some s t a t e s w h i l e

i n o t h e r s t h e y are p e r m i t t e d t o w o r k 54 h o u r s a w e e k . s t a t e s have l i m i t a t i o n s

Some

on t h e k i n d s o f employm ent m i n o r s

a r e p e r m i t t e d t o d o , and l i m i t a t i o n s

on t h e t i m e o f day

t h e y may w ork. The f o l l o w i n g Key Code Number 2 , an a n a l y s i s o f t h e

and F i g u r e 2 g i v e s

im portant l e g a l p r o v is io n s reg a rd in g the

employm ent o f m i n o r s i n t h e 48 s t a t e s .

59

KEY CODE NUMBER 2

Key Number 1012.

States

Provisions i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

f o r th e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be s e v e n t e e n y e a r s . 1013.

States

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

f o r t h e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be s i x t e e n y e a r s . 1014.

States

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

( 3 )w

f o r t h e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be f i f t e e n y e a r s . 1015.

States

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

( 2 )*

f o r th e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be f o u r t e e n y e a r s . in G eorgia) 1016.

States

(G irls

( 3 2 )w

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

f o r t h e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be t h i r t e e n y e a r s . 1017.

States

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

1018.

States

States

i n w h i c h t h e minimum age l i m i t

f o r th e employ­

i n w h i c h t h e employm ent o f m i n o r s

b y a maximum o f 54 h o u r s p e r w e e k . 1020.

States

States

i s regu lated

i s regu lated

(29)“

i n w h i c h t h e employment o f m i n o r s

b y a maximum o f 44 h o u r s p e r w e e k .

( 1 )*

(3)'rt‘

i n w h i c h t h e employment o f m i n o r s

b y a maximum o f 48 h o u r s p e r w e e k . 1021.

(Boys

(10)*

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be t e n y e a r s . 1019.

(0 )*

f o r th e employ­

ment o f m i n o r s a p p e a r s t o be t w e l v e y e a r s . i n G eorgia)

(l)w

i s reg u la ted

(6 ) “

“The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1022.

States

i n w h i c h t h e employmen t o f m i n o r s i s r e g u l a t e d

b y a maximum o f 40 h o u r s p e r w e e k . 1023.

States

i n w h i c h t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be no w e e k l y h o u r s

o f r e g u l a t i o n but i n w h ich th e r e i s

1024.

( 6 ) rf

a d a i l y maximum

number o f

h o u r s o f work p e r m i t t e d .

S tates

w h i c h t h e Employment o f M in ors

in

(4)“

c h i l d r e n from any k i n d o f n i g h t w o r k . 1025.

( 3 ) ”“'

S t a t e s i n w h ich t h e r e are s p e c i a l c e r t i f i c a t e s able

s c h o o l hours or States the

ava il­

f o r c h i l d r e n u n d e r s i x t e e n y e a r s o f age t o work

w ith s p e c ia l s t a t e q u a lif ic a t io n s ,

1026.

Act p r o h i b i t s

in

e i t h e r during

during v a c a t io n p e r io d . ( 1 3 ) “

w h i c h t h e e m p l o y e r i s u s u a l l y l i a b l e when

ch ild is

em p lo yed i n a p r o h i b i t e d o c c u p a t i o n ,

b e l o w t h e l e g a l age l i m i t ,

or w i t h o u t a c e r t i f i c a t e .

(48)*

states

or

“The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of having this provision.

61

i— r■i r~c C3 C3 r-■! r r-

STA TE

Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS F ig u r e 2 , '"G -G irls

iri (i r-H rC3 C3 r- r-

\ f-

d

cv

'

r C: r-

r~i

a

i r°*

c3

C

i-

c3 03 c3 f— H

r-

r-1 03 C3 r-H

X

0i 03 C3

r-

:

X

X

X X

x

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X x

X

X x

xB

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

X x X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

x

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X,

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X.

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X 1 X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

R estrictio n s B-Boys

10

1

on t h e

3

£1 9

X X

X

0

X X

X

X

>2

X X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

2

I— H

X

X

xG“

«3 03 C3

r-

X

X

3

a: C3 C3

X X

X

X

X

Sr] 03 C3

r-H r-

X X

1

*3 03 C3

6

6

4

X

xL x[ XI 1

3

13

i^ n p lo y m e n t o f M i n o r s

481

[ . .

CHAPTER VI LIABILITY OP CHARITABLE CORPORATIONS FOR TORTS The s e m i - p u b l i c a g e n c i e s a r e b y f a r t h e m o st a c t i v e g r o u p s i n t h e cam p ing movement t o d a y .

They h a v e t a k e n t h e

l e a d e r s h i p i n an a t t e m p t t o im pr ove camp s t a n d a r d s , o r g a n iz in g b e t t e r programs, perien ce

av a ila b le

in

and i n m a kin g t h e camping e x ­

t o a l a r g e r number o f p e o p l e .

I t h as

b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e b e t w e e n s e v e n and e i g h t t h o u ­ sand camps w i t h w e l l o v e r two m i l l i o n campers b e i n g s p o n s o r e d by se m i-p u b lic a g e n c ie s a n n u a lly .

1

Some o f t h e more a c t i v e s e m i - p u b l i c a g e n c i e s i n t h e camping f i e l d

a r e t h e Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , t h e G i r l S c o u t s

o f A m e r i c a , t h e Young Men’ s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n , Young Women’ s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n ,

the

t h e Camp F i r e G i r l s ,

t h e B o y ’ s Clubs o f A m e r i c a , t h e 4H c l u b s ,

and t h e many

church o r g a n i z a t i o n s . An a t t e m p t w i l l be made h e r e t o p o i n t o u t t h e l e g a l s t a t u s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s D efin itio n ;

o f these p a r ticu la r ag en cies.

S e m i- p u b lic a g e n c ie s are c l a s s i f i e d

l e g a l l y as e l e e m o s y n a r y and c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n s .

2

It

■^Carlson, R e y n o l d E . , P r e s i d e n t o f A m e r ic a n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n , E s t i m a t e f o r t h e summer o f 1 9 4 8 . 2d 4 6 1 Andrews B ianchi 8 A. 2d 15 N .E . 2d 7 0 1

2 Cauble v . Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , 2 5 0 A l a . 1 5 2 , 33 S o , ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; Myers v . Y . M . C . A . , 3 1 6 1 1 1 . App. 1 7 7 ( 1 9 4 2 ) ; v . Y . M . C . A . , 2 2 6 Iowa 3 7 4 , 2 8 4 N.W. 2 0 6 , ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; v . S o u t h Park P r e s b y t e r i a n Church, 12 3 N . J . L . 3 2 5 , 567 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; W a d d e l l v . Y . W . C . A . , 13 3 Ohio S t . 6 0 1 , 2d 140 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ; Eads v . Y . W . C . A . , 325 Mo, 5 7 7 , 29 S.W. (1930).

i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e when we e x a m in e what t h e m e a n i n g o f ch a rity is

i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e c o u r t s .

leg a l sense,

In the

c h a r i t y i s n o t c o n f i n e d t o mere a l m s g i v i n g

o r a s a r e l i e f o f p o v e r t y and d i s t r e s s . broader s i g n i f i c a n c e .

I t h a s a much

It

in clu d es a l l those th in g s that g i m p r o v e and p r o m o t e t h e h a p p i n e s s o f m a n k in d . I n one j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e c o u r t v e r y a b l y d e f i n e d t h e

c h a r i t a b l e work o f t h e Young Men’ s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n 4 when i t s a i d : B e n e v o l e n c e and c h a r i t y do n o t c o n s i s t w h o l l y o f a lm sgivin g. W hile t o r e l i e v e th e wants o f th e h e l p l e s s , th e n eed y, or the in d ig e n t i s c h a r i t y , i t i s n o t t h e o n l y form o f c h a r i t y . To e n g a g e i n t h e work o f i m p r o v i n g t h e s p i r i t u a l , m e n t a l , s o c i a l , and p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n o f youn g men by t h e m a i n t e ­ nance o f l e c t u r e s , g o s p e l s e r v i c e s , l i b r a r i e s , r e a d i n g r o o m s , g y m n a s iu m s , r e c r e a t i o n g r o u n d s , s o c i a l m e e t i n g s , and s u c h o t h e r t h i n g s as may conduce t o t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s so t h a t the b e n e ­ f i c i a r i e s may n o t become h e l p l e s s , n e e d y , o r i n d i g e n t , i s more t o t h e p u r p o s e , and i s , when don e g r a t u i t o u s l y , p e r h a p s t h e p u r e s t form o f ch a rity . But i t i s n o t c h a r i t y , i n t h e l e g a l s e n s e t o do t h e s e t h i n g s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g a i n , p r o f i t , or p r i v a t e a d v a n ta g e , or i n th e a n t i c i ­ p a t i o n o f g a i n , p r o f i t , or p r i v a t e a d v a n ta g e . The c o u r t s and l e g a l s c h o l a r s have b e e n u n i f o r m i n t h e i r o p in io n s t h a t the s e m i - p u b l i c a g e n c ie s are i n th e l e g a l s e n s e e l e e m o s y n a r y and c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n s . T his i s

1032 556

a very sig n ific a n t

concept because th ese

^ L i t t l e v . Newbury P o r t , 2 1 0 M ass. 4 1 4 , 96 N .E . (1912). Susman v . Y . M . C . A . , 101 Wash. 4 8 7 , 172 P. 5 5 4 , (1918)•

c o r p o r a t i o n s have a d e f i n i t e in terp retation s

and p e c u l i a r s t a t u s

i n the

o f the law .

S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n : concerned w ith the c h a r it a b le

From a r e v i e w o f many c a s e s corp oration,

i t was d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f th e m d e a l w i t h h o s p i t a l s .

The c o u r t s

h a v e u n i f o r m l y h e l d t h a t t h e s e m i - p u b l i c a g e n c i e s who a r e c o n d u c t i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e o f t h e same s t a t u s ch a rita b le h o s p ita ls . c a s e was t r i e d A sso cia tio n ,

as

T h u s , i n one j u r i s d i c t i o n where a

c o n c e r n i n g t h e Young Women's C h r i s t i a n

the

court s a id :

Since the defendant a s s o c i a t i o n i s a c h a r i­ t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n , i t s t a n d s on t h e same f o o t i n g , s o f a r as l i a b i l i t y f o r t o r t s by s e r v a n t s i s c o n ­ c e r n e d , as c h a r i t a b l e h o s p i t a l s . And i n a r u l i n g c o n c e r n i n g e l e e m o s y n a r y and c h a r i t a b l e g c o r p o r a t io n s , C h ie f J u s t ic e M arshall d e c la r e d : Almost a l l e le e m o s y n a r y c o r p o r a t i o n s , t h o s e w h ich are c r e a te d f o r t h e prom otion o f r e l i g i o n , o f c h a r i t y , o r o f e d u c a t i o n , a r e o f t h e same character. The c o u r t s a r e v e r y broad i n t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f what t h e f u n c t i o n s

o f ch a rita b le

corp orations are.

t h e y have o f t e n r e c o g n i z e d t h e tr e m e n d o u s a s s i s t a n c e

A lso, given

b y them t o g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s i n c o n d u c t i n g many

5W a d d e l l v . 1 4 0 , 143 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 6_. Branchi v . 3 2 5 , 3 3 1 , 8 A. 2d Dartmouth C o lle g e 4 L. Ed. 6 2 9 , 661

X . W . C . A . , 133 Ohio S t .

6 0 1 , 15 H . 2 . 2d

S o u t h Park P r e s b y t e r i a n Church, 12 3 U . J . L . 5 6 7 , 5 7 0 , 124 A . L . R . 8 1 8 , 81 2 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; v . Woodward, 17 W hea t. U . S . 5 1 8 , 6 4 5 , (1819).

a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h c o u l d e a s i l y be c o n s i d e r e d g o v e r n m e n t a l fu n ctio n s.

I n one j u r i s d i c t i o n t h e c o u r t s a i d :

s e v e r a l ways c h a r i t i e s a r e more e f f i c i e n t p u b l i c go o d t h a n t h e s t a t e

7

"In t h e i r

i n prom oting

c o u l d be a c t i n g w i t h o u t t h e i r a i d

Many c h u r c h e s have e x t e n d e d t h e i r f u n c t i o n s t o i n ­ c l u d e cam p ing p r o g r a m s . g i r l scout troop ,

I n one c h u r c h w h i c h s p o n s o r e d a

i t was a r g u e d t h a t t h e c h u r c h was

" m a i n t a i n e d and c o n t r o l l e d f o r p u r p o s e s u n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o i t s r e lig io u s fu n ctio n ." The c o u r t s a i d : The c h u r c h f u n c t i o n i s n o t s o n a r r o w l y c o n ­ fin ed . I t i s not lim ite d to s e c t a r ia n te a c h in g and w o r s h i p . I n modern v i e w , e x e r c i s e s d e s i g n e d t o a i d i n t h e a d v a n ce m en t o f t h e s p i r i t u a l , m o r a l , e t h i c a l and c u l t u r a l l i f e o f t h e community i n g e n e r a l a r e deemed w i t h i n t h e p u r v i e w o f t h e r elig io u s so ciety . A s o c i a l c e n t e r i s now commonly r e g a r d e d as a p r o p e r a d j u n c t o f t h e l o c a l c h u r c h — c o n d u c i v e t o t h e p u b l i c g ood as w e l l a s a d v a n t a g e o u s to the con g reg a tio n . For e x a m p l e , t h e s c o u t move­ ment h a s i t s g e n e s i s i n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n f o s t e r e d by c h u r c h e s and community g r o u p s i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y whose o b j e c t i v e was t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e y o u t h i n r i g h t l i v i n g and e x e m p l a r y c i t i z e n s h i p , and t h u s t o d e v e l o p and e n o b l e c h a r a c ­ t e r t o t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f s o c i e t y as w e l l as t h e g ood o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . The i m m e d i a t e aim was t h e e li m i n a t i o n o f th e tem p ta tio n s o f l e i s u r e through u sefu l p u rsu its. . . . R a t h e r , such endeavor, having i n v i e w t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , s e r v e s t h e more t o g i v e t h e body th e c h a r a c t e r o f a c h a r i t a b l e in stitu tio n . And i n one j u r i s d i c t i o n where t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a

7

P o r d y c e and McKee v . Women’ s C h r i s t i a n R a t i o n a l L i b r a r y , 79 Ark. 5 5 0 , 96 S.W. 155 ( 1 9 0 6 ) . g

Bianchi v. South Park Presbyterian Church, 123 H.J.L 325, 332, 8 A. 2d 567, 570 (1939).

6& b o y s c o u t o r g a n i z a t i o n w ere q u e s t i o n e d

in regard to o p e r a tg i n g a summer r e c r e a t i o n camp, t h e c o u r t s a i d : The c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t t h e p l a i n t i f f c o r p o r a t i o n i s o r g a n i z e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r e d u c a t i o n a l and c h a r i ­ t a b l e p u r p o s e s and t h a t t h e r e a l p r o p e r t y i n q u e s t i o n i s u sed e x c l u s i v e l y f o r c a r r y in g out t h e s e p u r p o s e s a r e amply s u p p o r t e d by t h e f i n d i n g , which i s n o t s u s c e p t i b l e o f m a t e r i a l c o r r e c t i o n . T h ey a r e n o t i n v a l i d a t e d , o r i m p a i r e d by any o f t h e f a c t s f o u n d c o n c e r n i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e camp, i n c l u d i n g t h e p a y m e n t , by e a c h bo y s c o u t a t t e n d i n g , o f a r e g u l a r c h a r g e tow a r d e x ­ p e n s e s , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a camp s t o r e op e n a b o u t t w e n t y m i n u t e s p e r d a y , t h e s m a l l p r o f i t from w h i c h g o e s i n t o t h e camp f u n d , and t h e p a y m e n t , when i n ­ come p e r m i t s , o f b o n u s e s , t o c e r t a i n o f f i c i a l s and e m p lo y e e s , f o r s e r v i c e s perform ed i n o p e r a t i n g th e camp. One o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t s i n r e g a r d t o t h e

s t a t u s and f u n c t i o n o f t h e c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n i s im m u n it y from t h e t o r t s

th eir

o f t h e i r a g e n t s and s e r v a n t s .

The

so -ca lled

11im m unity d o c t r i n e "

in regard to c h a r ita b le

cor­

porations

i s a much d i s c u s s e d

c o n c e p t i n our c u r r e n t l e g a l

c ir cles. Immunity D o c t r i n e : o f court d e c is io n s

I n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s t h e gamut

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e "im m un it y d o c t r i n e "

r a n g e s from " f u l l im m u n it y t h r o u g h v a r i e d b u t i n c o n s i s t e n t 10 q u a lif ic a t io n s to general r e sp o n s ib ility " for to r t lia b ility

o f ch a rita b le

corp orations.

Another a u t h o r i t y

s t a t e s : in­

9

Boy S c o u t s o f A m e rica v . Town o f New H a r t f o r d , Conn. 4 6 6 , 4 7 4 , 185 A. 5 7 5 , 5 78 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

10

121

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g e t o w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 130 F. 2d 8 1 0 , 812 (App. D .C . 1 9 4 2 ) ,

11

Am. J u r . ,

C h arities,

s e c t i o n 140.

S u b j e c t t o many e x c e p t i o n s , q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , m o d i f i c a t i o n s , and s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , c h a r i t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y e x em p te d from l i a b i l i t y f o r t o r t where t h e i n j u r e d p e r s o n i s a r e c i p i e n t o f t h e b o u n t y o f t h e c h a r i t y and i n some i n s t a n c e s e v e n w h er e t h e i n j u r e d p e r s o n i s n o t a r e c i p i e n t o f the c h a r it y . It

is

true that th ere

is

j u s t as much c o n f u s i o n ,

,fp a r a d o x e s o f p r i n c i p l e , f i c t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n o f f a c t s and 12 c o n s e q u e n c e s '1 and j u d i c i a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i n d e a l i n g w ith ch a rita b le

im m u n it y as t h e r e i s

in d ea lin g w ith

g o v e rn m e n ta l im m unity.

"The c a s e s a r e a l m o s t r i o t o u s w i t h 13 R e a s o n s a r e e v e n more v a r i e d t h a n r e s u l t s . "

d issen t. It

is

a l m o s t an i m p o s s i b i l i t y t o make an e x a c t

summary o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g r u l e r e g a r d i n g c h a r i t a b l e im m unity 14 i n the U n ited S t a t e s . H owever, a number o f c o u r t d e ­ cisio n s

and s t a t e s t a t u t e s d e a l i n g w i t h im m unity may s e r v e

t o g i v e a g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t con cep ts o f the r u l e . tab le

A knowledge o f th e b a s i s f o r c h a r i ­

im m u n it y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s 15 A c c o r d i n g t o one l e g a l s c h o l a r :

of great i n t e r e s t .

Supra n o te 1 0 . 13 IT-U b i*dA. 14

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g eto w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 1 3 0 F. 2d 8 1 0 , 81 7 (App. D.C. 1 9 4 2 ) . 15 Ruback, "Immunity o f C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s For N e g l i g e n c e o f T h e i r S e r v a n t s and A g e n t s , " 12 S t . J o h n Ts L. R e v . 10 0 ( 1 9 3 7 ) .

m

The n o n - l i a b i l i t y o f c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n s to a b e n e f i c i a r y fo r the n e g lig e n c e o f t h e i r s e r ­ v a n t s and a g e n t s , w h i l e a c t i n g w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t, i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n s r e g a r d f o r t h e E n g l i s h j u d i c i a l o p i n i o n s on t h e m atter. S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , n o n e o f t h e more im­ p o r t a n t o f t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , u s u a l l y c i t e d as a u t h o r i t i e s , w e r e r e a l l y i n p o i n t w i t h our p r o b l e m . I t was r a t h e r t h e d i c t a fo u n d i n t h e s e c a s e s t h a t formed t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e r u l i n g s o f many d i s ­ t i n g u i s h e d American j u r i s t s . . . . I t is In terestin g t o n o t e t h a t , w h i l e t h e s e d e c i s i o n s w e re s u b s e ­ q u e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d and i g n o r e d a s l a w b y t h e B r i t i s h c o u r t s t h e m s e l v e s , our t r i b u n a l s c o n t i n u e d , n e v e r ­ t h e l e s s , a lo n g th e i l l - d i r e c t e d highw ay, though t h e i r r u l in g s r e s u l t e d i n obvious i n j u s t i c e s to the injured p a r t ie s . The m i s i n t e r p r e t e d E n g l i s h d e c i s i o n w h i c h foun d i t s way i n t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o u r t s was H o l l i d a y v . S t .

Leonard.

16

The d e c i s i o n o f t h i s

c a s e was e v e n r e v e r s e d i n E n g la n d b e f o r e 17 i t was a c c e p t e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y . M assachusettes was t h e first

state

t o a d o p t t h i s r e p u d i a t e d d e c i s i o n , and t h e S t a t e 18 o f M aryland soon fo llo w e d . The d o c t r i n e o f " s t a r e d e c i s i s " did i t s

work u n t i l p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y s t a t e had a d o p t e d t h e

" im m u n ity d o c t r i n e "

i n one form o r a n o t h e r .

I n t h e i r a t t e m p t t o u p h o l d t h e "im m unity d o c t r i n e , " t h e c o u r t s have swung from one t h e o r y t o a n o t h e r .

"As s o o n

a s one p r o v e d u n so u n d b o t h i n r e a s o n and l a w , a n o t h e r was 19 h u rried ly su b stitu te d for i t ." The g r o u n d s up on w h i c h

1 6 H o l l i d a y v . S t . L e o n a r d , 11 C . B . , N . S . , 192 ( 1 8 6 1 ) . 17 McDonald v . M a s s a c h u s e t t s G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l , 120 M a ss. 4 3 2 , 21 Am. Rep. 529 ( 1 8 7 6 ) . 18

Perry v. House of Refuge, 63 Md. 20, 52 Am. Rep. 495 (1885). 19Ruback, s u p r a n o t e 1 5 , a t 1 0 1 .

69 ch a rities

a r e u s u a l l y h e l d immune a r e :

20

( 1 ) I t i s a g a i n s t p u b l i c p o l i c y t o make c h a r i t i e s l i a b l e ; (2 ) th e funds o f c h a r i t i e s are h e l d i n t r u s t ; and t h e d i v e r s i o n o f w h i c h t h e c o u r t s w i l l n o t p e r m it b e c a u s e (a) i t might r e ­ s u l t i n d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c h a r i t y o r (b) i t i s b e y o n d t h e pow er o f t h e t r u s t e e s t o d i v e r t them d i r e c t l y ; a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y c a n n o t do s o i n ­ d i r e c t l y ; (3) c h a r i t i e s are a g e n c ie s o f the government; and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e y a re e n t i t l e d t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t s im m u n ity from s u i t ; ( 4 ) one a c c e p t i n g c h a r i t y i m p l i e d l y a s s e n t s t o hold the g i v e r immune fro m l i a b i l i t y f o r i n j u r y and w i t h r e sp e c t to l i a b i l i t y fo r the a cts o f t h e i r s e r ­ v a n t s ; (5) the d o c tr in e o f resp ond eat su p e r io r d o e s n o t a p p l y t o them . T h e r e a r e many v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e Immunity code found i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s .

Some s t a t e s g r a n t a l m o s t f u l l

immunity t o c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n s f o r t o r t l i a b i l i t y . I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s t h e im m unity d o c t r i n e d o e s n o t a p p l y t o p a y i n g p e r s o n s e v e n i f t h e y are r e c i p i e n t s b en eficiary.

21

Some s t a t e s

o f managing o f f i c i a l s

20See n o t e , 21

im po se l i a b i l i t y

o f the fo r n egligen ce

bu t n o t f o r t h a t o f l e s s

au th oritative

14 A . L . R . 57 2 ( 1 9 2 1 ) .

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G-eorgetown C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 1 30 E. 2d 8 1 0 , 8 1 8 (App. D.C . 1 9 4 2 ) ; A r k a n s a s V a l l e y C o -o p . R u r a l E l e c t r i c Co. v . E l k i n s , 2 0 0 Ark. 8 8 3 , 1 41 S.W. 2d 538 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; S t a t e v . B a l t i m o r e E y e , Ear and T h r o a t H o s p i t a l , 1 7 7 Md. 5 1 7 , 10 A. 2d 612 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; Sim on v . P e l o u z e , 2 6 3 1 1 1 . App. 177 ( 1 9 3 1 ) ; Webb v . V o u g h t , 1 2 7 Kan. 7 9 9 , 2 7 5 P. 1 70 ( 1 9 2 9 ) ; Bauchman v . Y .W . C . A . , 1 79 W i s . 1 7 8 , 191 U.W. 751 ( 1 9 2 2 ) ; R o o s e n v . P e t e r Bent B r ig h a m H o s p i t a l , 23 5 M a ss. 6 6 , 126 N .E . 392 ( 1 9 2 0 ) .

em p loyees or a g e n t s .

22

I n New Y o r k , where d e c i s i o n s

are

c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h i s b r a n c h o f 23 law , "a c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n w i l l be h e l d l i a b l e f o r the t o r t s

o f i t s mere s e r v a n t s and a g e n t s bu t n o t f o r t h o s e

whom t h e c o u r t

c o n s i d e r s t o be i n d e p e n d e n t c o n t r a c t o r s . "

The i n d e p e n d e n t c o n t r a c t o r s have b e e n l i s t e d as " d o c t o r s , 24 n u rses, p ro fesso rs, in str u c to r s, e tc." S t r a n g e r s , who are not r e c i p i e n t s

o f the b e n e fic ia r y ,

ar e n o t i n c l u d e d i n 25 t h e e x e m p t i o n i n a number o f j u r i s d i c t i o n s . Other s t a t e s a p p l y s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same r u l e 26 27 corp orations which s t a t e s :

as a p p l i e s t o p r o f i t making

The c o r p o r a t i o n w i l l be l i a b l e f o r a l l n e g l i g e n c e i n f l i c t e d by e m p l o y e e s o r o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s whose f u n c t i o n i t i s or r e a s o n a b l y a p p e a r s t o be t o p e r f o r m th e a c t , i n th e course o f d o in g w hich th e n e g l ig e n c e and i n j u r y o c c u r s .

op

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g e t o w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 13 0 F. 2d 8 1 0 , 8 1 8 (App. D .C . 1 9 4 2 ) ; Old F o l k s and Orphan C h i l d r e n ! s Home v . R o b e r t s , 91 I n d . App. 5 3 3 , 171 3ST.E. 10 ( 1 9 2 9 ) ; R o b e r t s v . Ohio V a l l e y G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l , 98 W. Va. 4 7 6 , 1 27 S . E . 3 1 8 ( 1 9 2 5 ) ; c f . Carver C h i r o p r a c t i c C o l l e g e v . A r m s t r o n g , 103 O k la . 1 2 3 , 229 P. 64 1 ( 1 9 2 4 ) . ^Ruback,

supra n o te 15, at 108.

2 4 Ib id.

^ P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g eto w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 13 0 F. 2d 8 1 0 , 920 (App. D .C . 1 9 4 2 ) ; Gable v . S a l v a t i o n Army, 186 Okl. 6 8 7 , 100 P. 2d 244 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; S i l v a v . P r o v i d e n c e H o s p i t a l , 14 C a l . 2d 7 2 6 , 97 P. 2d 798 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; C a r t e r v . Alabama B a p t i s t H o s p i t a l B o a r d , 2 2 7 A l a . 5 6 0 , 151 S o . 62 ( 1 9 3 3 ) . 2 ®Welch v . P r i s b i e M em orial H o s p i t a l , 90 N.H. 3 3 7 , 9 A. 2d 761 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; S h e e h a n v . N o r t h Country Community H o s p i t a l , 2 7 3 N.Y . 1 6 3 , 7 N . E . 2d 28 ( 1 9 3 7 ) ; Borwege v . C i t y o f Owatonna, 19 0 Minn. 3 9 4 , 251 N.W. 915 ( 1 9 3 3 ) . 27

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g e t o w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 1 3 0 F. 2d 8 1 0 , 819 (App. D .C . 1 9 4 2 ) .

71 These s t a t e s

a r e u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d as i m p o s i n g u n ­

q u a lif ie d r e s p o n s ib i li t y for the t o r t s p oration s.

of ch a rita b le cor­

Another group o f s t a t e s

l e a n i n g tow a r d t h e same 28 p o l i c y impose l i a b i l i t y t o p a y i n g b e n e f i c i a r i e s . The f i r s t o f ch a rita b le

state

t o r e p u d i a t e t h e tfim m u n ity d o c t r i n e " 29 c o r p o r a t i o n s was Rhode I s l a n d . T his i s

what p r e c i p i t a t e d

i n t h e American c o u r t s th e g r e a t c o n t r o 30 v e r s y and c o n f u s i o n t h a t now e x i s t . Many s t a t e s a g r e e d w h o l e h e a r t e d l y w i t h t h e t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d by Rhode I s l a n d b u t i n t h e i r a t t e m p t e d d e p a r t u r e from t h e "im m unity code" o n l y b r o u g h t u p o n t h e m s e l v e s more l e g a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s . Some s t a t e s ,

who now im p o se u n q u a l i f i e d l i a b i l i t y on

the c h a r ita b le co rp o ra tio n s,

have c l e a r l y s t a t e d t h e i r

r e a s o n s f o r o p p o sin g immunity.

I n G e i g e r v . S im p so n M e t h o d i s t 31 E p i s c o p a l Church, t h e c o u r t s t a t e d : I t i s a t r i t e s a y in g t h a t c h a r it y b e g in s at h o m e--m en and c o r p o r a t i o n s a l i k e a r e r e q u i r e d t o be ju s t before b eing c h a r ita b le . We do n o t t h i n k i t w o u ld be a good p u b l i c p o l i c y t o r e l i e v e them from l i a b i l i t y f o r t o r t s or n e g l i g e n c e . Where i n n o c e n t p e r so n s s u f f e r through t h e i r f a u l t , th e y should not

B r igh a m Young U n i v e r s i t y v . L i l l y c v h i t e , 118 P. 2d 8 3 6 ( C . C . A . 1 0 t h 1 9 4 1 ) ; S i s t e r o f t h e S o r r o w f u l Mother v . Z e i d l e r , 1 8 3 Okl. 6 8 7 , 82 P. 2d 996 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ; H e n d e r s o n v . Twin C i t y P a l l s C o u n t y , 56 Id a h o 1 2 4 , 50 P. 2d 5 9 7 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; M o rton v . S a v a n n a h H o s p i t a l , 1 4 8 Ga. 4 3 8 , 96 S . E . 8 8 7 , ( 1 9 1 8 ) . ^ G l a v i n v . Hhode I s l a n d H o s p i t a l , 12 H . I . 4 11 ( 1 8 7 9 ) , 30 See n o t e , 21 N .C .C.A. 303 ( 1 9 4 8 ) . 31

Geiger v. Simpson Methodist Episcopal Church, 174 Minn. 389, 396, 219 N.W. 463, 465 (1928).

7Z be e x e m p t e d . That r u l e i n t h e l o n g r u n , w i l l t e n d t o i n c r e a s e d e f f i c i e n c y and b e n e f i t them and t h e p u b l i c , a s w e l l as p e r s o n s s o i n j u r e d . It is a l­ m o s t c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o h o l d t h a t an i n s t i t u t i o n o r g a n i z e d t o d i s p e n s e c h a r i t y s h a l l be c h a r i t a b l e and e x t e n d a i d t o o t h e r s , b u t s h a l l n o t c o m p e n sa t e o r a i d t h o s e i n j u r e d by i t i n c a r r y i n g on i t s a c tiv itie s. A lthough th e re i s crepancy in the ch a rita b le

a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n f l i c t and d i s ­

court d e c is io n s

im m unity, t h e r e

concerning the q u e s tio n o f

i s alm ost com plete u n ifo r m ity i n

the s c h o la r ly treatm ent o f i t

ou tsid e o f the c o u r ts.

32

T here i s g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t o f s u c h o p i n i o n i n s u p p o r t o f l i a b i l i t y and a g a i n s t im m u n it y . Legal s c h o l a r s h i p f i n d s an i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n n o t o n l y I n r e s e a r c h and i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t a s t h e m ost e f f e c t i v e c r i t i c i s m o f j u d i c i a l t h o u g h t and a c t i o n . It

i s a p p a r e n t from r e a d i n g t h e d i c t a o f t h e c o u r t s

and t h e s t a t e m e n t s made b y l e g a l s c h o l a r s i n v a r i o u s p u b l i ­ ca tio n s that there is a d e f in it e lia b ility

for ch a rita b le

apparent because i t

is

tr e n d toward u n q u a l i f i e d

corp orations.

recognized th a t:

T h i s i s made 33

When o p i n i o n among s c h o l a r s who a r e n o t j u d g e s i s u n i f o r m o r n e a r l y s o and t h a t among j u d g e s i s i n h i g h c o n f u s i o n , th e form er g i v e s d i r e c t i o n t o th e la w o f t h e f u t u r e , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r p o i n t s p r e s e n t l y In a l l d i r e c t i o n s . In such c ir c u m sta n c e s , s c h o l a r l y o p i n i o n h a s more t h a n m e r e l y p e r s u a s i v e e f f e c t . It i s t h e s a f e s t g u i d e f o r j u r i s d i c t i o n where t h e q u e s t i o n has n e v e r b e e n d e t e r m i n e d .

32 P r e s i d e n t

and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g eto w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 130 p. 2d 8 1 0 , 812 (App. D .C . 1 9 4 2 ) . 33Ib id.

Some o f t h e r e a s o n s a d v a n c e d by t h e l e g a l s c h o l a r s In support of u n q u a l if i e d l i a b i l i t y f o r c h a r it a b le p o r a t i o n s a r e : 5^-

cor­

( 1 ) Th ere i s no s t a t i s t i c a l e v i d e n c e t h a t

h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d t o show t h a t m o r t a l i t y or c r i p p l i n g o f c h a r i t i e s h a s b e e n g r e a t e r i n s t a t e s w h i c h im pose f u l l p a rtia l lia b ilit y im m u n it y i s

t h a n where c o m p l e t e or s u b s t a n t i a l l y f u l l

given ;

(2 ) there

i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t d e t e r r e n c e

o f d o n a t i o n h a s b e e n g r e a t e r i n s t a t e s where c h a r i t i e s n o t immune;

or

are

( $ ) much o f modern c h a r i t y or p h i l a n t h r o p y i s

"big business'* in i t s

field .

I t th e r e fo r e has a c a p a c ity

f o r a b s o r p t i o n w h i c h d i d n o t e x i s t In t h e t y p i c a l n i n e t e e n t h century sm all i n s t i t u t i o n ; guard a g a i n s t s u i t , protection ; d istrib u tio n

(k) i n s u r a n c e i s

av a ila b le to

and p r u d e n t management w i l l p r o v i d e t h e

($) th e d i r e c t i o n

o f t h e la w i s t o w a r d s o c i a l

of l o s s e s through l i a b i l i t y f o r f a u l t ,

l i a b i l i t y w ithout f a u l t ,

and l e g i s l a t i o n w h ic h g i v e s t h e

p e r s o n d i s a b l e d t o work what I s accu rately c a lle d

" social"

commonly known b u t i n ­

secu rity.

F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s many o f t h e

c o u r ts have of l a t e

"been w h i t t l i n g away a t im m u n ity w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s t h o u g h t proper in view of e x i s t i n g an a c c e p t e d r u l e t h a t i t

p r e c e d e n t.

Is the

"55

it

i s g en era lly

job of the l e g i s l a t u r e

to

^ P r e s i d e n t a n d D i r e c t o r s o f G-eorgetown C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 1 J 0 F . 2d 8 1 0 , 8 2 $ , 82 k (App. D . C . 1 9 ^ 2 ) ; R u b a c k , "Im m unity of C h a r i t a b l e C orpor-ations f o r N e g lig e n c e of T h e ir S e r v a n t s a n d A g e n t s , " 12 S t . J o h n ' s L . R e v . 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 (1957)® 9 u.

^Aikman, "Tort Liability of Charitable Corporations, of P itts. Lo R e v . 26 $ (I9I4.8).

7b 36

make t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s i n t h e " im m un it y d o c t r i n e , 11 Thus i n t h e l a s t

s e s s i o n o f t h e Maryland l e g i s l a t u r e

a t t e m p t was made t o

37

an

" e s t o p any c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n

from p l e a d i n g a s a d e f e n s e t o t o r t c l a i m s t h e f a c t t h a t i t was s u c h an i n s t i t u t i o n , lia b ility ca rried ."

and f u r t h e r p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e

s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d t h e amount o f i n s u r a n c e T his b i l l f a i l e d

o f p a s s a g e but a n o th er l e s s

i m p o s i n g b i l l was s u b s t i t u t e d . I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s ,

38 t h e c o u r t s have r e c e n t l y

t a k e n i t upon t h e m s e l v e s t o make some s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s 39 a g a i n s t im m u n i t y . In C a l i f o r n ia a r e c e n t r u l i n g impose d l i a b i l i t y on c h a r i t a b l e ficia ries,

c o rp o ra tio n s to paying bene-

and i n I l l i n o i s ,

a recent ru lin g stated :

40

We h o l d t h a t where i n s u r a n c e e x i s t s and p r o v i d e s a f un d from w h i c h t o r t l i a b i l i t y may be c o l l e c t e d s o as n o t t o i m p a i r t h e t r u s t f u n d , t h e d e f e n s e o f im m u n ity i s n o t a v a i l a b l e . ...T h e im m u n it y d o c t r i n e was d e v i s e d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n , and i f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n w i s h e s t o w a i v e i m m u n i t y , we know o f no p r i n c i p l e i n law w h i c h w ou ld p r e v e n t i t from d o i n g s o .

^ B o r c h a r d , "Symposium on M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y , " 5 L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Gov*t 3 51 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . 37 Maryland Laws 1 9 4 7 , House B i l l Ho. 9 9 ; Howard v . S o u t h B a l t i m o r e G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l , 62 A. 2d 5 7 4 , 575 (Md. 1 9 4 8 ) . 38 Maryland Laws 1 9 4 7 , c . 9 0 0 , a r t . 4 8 , s e c t i o n 6 8 B. 39

S i l v a v . P r o v i d e n c e H o s p i t a l , 14 C a l . 2d 7 2 6 , 97 P. 2d 7 9 8 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . 40

John Wendt v. Servite Fathers, 332 111. App. 618, 634 (1947).

75

#

The f e e l i n g I s s o s t r o n g a g a i n s t im m u n ity t h a t u n ­ q u a lified

lia b ility

for ch aritab le

c o r p o r a t i o n s se em s t o

be a modern t r e n d . L i a b i l i t y o f O f f i c e r s , A g e n t s and S e r v a n t s :

One o f

th e s tr a n g e t h in g s about c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a tio n s i s lia b ility protects

im p ose d u p o n t h e d o e r s o f t h e

ch a rity .

the

The la w

t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s i n many ways b u t t h e p e r s o n who

h a s t o r e n d e r t h e c h a r i t y ha s l i t t l e In regard t o the l i a b i l i t y and s e r v a n t s ,

o r no p r o t e c t i o n .

o f ch a rita b le o f f i c e r s ,

one a u t h o r i t y s t a t e d :

agents

41

An i n d i v i d u a l i s a b s o l u t e l y bound t o make c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r any i n j u r y n e g l i g e n t l y i n f l i c t e d up o n a s t r a n g e r i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f any a c t w h i c h he u n d e r t a k e s , and t h e f a c t t h a t he i s a c t i v a t e d by a c h a r i t a b l e m o t i v e i s i m m a t e r i a l . He i s bound t o c o m p e n s a t e a r e c i p i e n t o f h i s c h a r i t y f o r any i n j u r y i n f l i c t e d by t h e n e g l i g e n t p e r f o r m a n c e o f a n y s e r v i c e w h i c h he u n d e r t a k e s t o perform , a lth o u g h th e degree o f care req u ired o f him i s l e s s t h a n he owes t o a s t r a n g e r . The f a c t t h a t he a t t e m p t s t o d e l e g a t e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e un d ertak in g to another Is im m aterial, fo r qui f a c i t p e r a l i u m f a c i t p e r s e , and t h e f a c t t h a t he o r g a n i z e s a c o r p o r a t i o n t o p e r f o r m h i s u n d e r ­ t a k i n g c o n f e r s im m u n ity from l i a b i l i t y , n o r d o e s th e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l u n i t e d i n the e n t e r p r i s e . Ho c a s e has b e e n fo und w h i c h q u e s t i o n s t h e s e p r in c ip les. Summary:

Most o f t h e s e m i - p u b l i c a g e n c i e s

d u c t i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e c l a s s i f i e d ch a rita b le

or eleem osyn ary c o r p o r a t io n s .

con­

l e g a l l y as The r u l e s

l a w a p p l y i n g t o b o t h a r e i n m ost c a s e s t h e same.

4 1 S e e N o t e , 14 A . L . R . 5 7 2 , 573 ( 1 9 2 1 ) .

and

76

A l t h o u g h most s t a t e s

a r e i n c l i n e d t o make c h a r i t a b l e

c o r p o r a t i o n s immune f r o m t o r t l i a b i l i t y , agents,

the o f f i c e r s ,

and s e r v a n t s who c o n d u c t t h e a c t i v i t i e s

are l i a b l e

f o r t h e i r n e g l i g e n t a c t s when i n j u r y o c c u r s t o s t r a n g e r s and b e n e f i c i a r i e s . It is

a l m o s t an I m p o s s i b i l i t y t o a n a l y z e t h e l a w s

and c o u r t r u l i n g s

concerning the l e g a l s t a t u s

of c h a r ita b le

c o r p o r a t i o n s w i t h c o m p l e t e a c c u r a c y D eca u se o f t h e c o n ­ fu sio n that e x is t s

in t h i s f i e l d .

Th ere are a number o f

c a s e s f o u n d i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s w h ic h w i l l s u b s t a n t i a t e th e a u t h o r i t y f o r s e v e r a l im portant l e g a l p r i n c i p l e s . is

It

a l m o s t a u n i v e r s a l r u l e t h a t when a p e r s o n r e c e i v e s

c h a r i t y and i s

i n j u r e d due t o t h e n e g l i g e n c e

v a n t s or o f f i c e r s

of the c h a r it a b le

c o r p o r a t i o n , no

r e c o v e r y can be had a g a i n s t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . only f i v e

s t a t e s where t h i s

ju risd ictio n s i t lia b le

ch aritab le

T h ere a r e and In t h e s e

c o r p o r a t i o n s are

t o t h e same e x t e n t f o r t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e i r

o fficers

and a g e n t s as p r i v a t e The l i a b i l i t y

d iffers

i s not the r u l e ,

appears th a t

of th e s e r ­

corp orations.

of c h a r ita b le

corp orations fo r to r t

c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e 1l8 s t a t e s .

In some s t a t e s

e l e e m o s y n a r y c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s wrhen the r e c ip ie n t

of the c h a r it y i s £ paying b e n e f i c i a r y .

Other j u r i s d i c t i o n s

im po se l i a b i l i t y upon s u c h c o r p o r a t i o n s

when I n j u r y o c c u r s t o s t r a n g e r s . i s m aintained fo r

ch a rita b le

When l i a b i l i t y

corp orations,

it

insurance

has v a r io u s

77

le g a l d ifferen ces

i n th e 48 s t a t e s .

I t may be s a f e l y

s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a p p e a r s t o be a t r e n d on a n a t i o n a l s c a l e towards im posing u n q u a l i f i e d l i a b i l i t y

on c h a r i t a b l e

cor­

poration s for t o r t . The f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s o f c o u r t c a s e s as found i n Key Code Number 3 and F i g u r e 3 w i l l show t h e i m p o r t a n t l e g a l p r o v is io n s reg a rd in g the v a r io u s r a m if ic a t io n s o f tort l ia b i li t y

i n t h e 48 s t a t e s . KEY CODE NTJMBER 3

Key Number 1027.

P rovisions

S t a t e s where p e r s o n s r e c e i v i n g i n j u r y due t o t h e n eg lig en ce o f servants corp orations b en efits

or o f f i c e r s

a t t i m e when he i s

o f ch aritab le

a c c e p tin g the

o f th e c h a r it y cannot r e c o v e r f o r such

i n j u r y p r o v i d e d due c a r e was u s e d I n s e l e c t i n g Its 1028.

servants.

(43)*

S t a t e s where c h a r i t a b l e

c o r p o r a t i o n s are l i a b l e

when i n j u r y o c c u r s t o s t r a n g e r o r b e n e f i c i a r y due to the n e g lig e n t s e l e c t i o n o f o f f i c e r s servants. 1029.

or

( 1 2 )w

S t a t e s w h i c h seem t o h a v e imposed u n q u a l i f i e d l i a b i l i t y to ch a rita b le lia b ility .

corporations for to r t

(5)w

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1030.

S ta tes g en era lly lia b le o fficers

f o r the n e g l i g e n t a c t s o f

and s e r v a n t s o f c h a r i t a b l e

corp orations

when i n j u r y o c c u r s t o a p a y i n g b e n e f i c i a r y . 1031.

S ta te s g e n e r a lly not l ia b l e

( 1 0 )w

t o s t r a n g e r s when I n j u r y

o r damages o c c u r t o them due t o t h e n e g l i g e n c e t h e o f f i c e r s and s e r v a n t s o f c h a r i t a b l e

corp orations.

(Not i n c l u d i n g e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e s ;

v io la tio n of

sta tu te .) 1032.

1033.

of

e .g .,

( 1 1 )*

S t a t e s w h er e i t

appears th a t l i a b i l i t y

is

i m pose d on

the c h a r ita b le

c o rp o ra tio n i f the c h a r it y i s p r o te c te d

by i n s u r a n c e .

( 2 )*

States

i n w h i c h t h e la w a p p e a r s t o be t h a t t h e p l a i n ­

t i f f may s u e t h e i n s u r a n c e company d i r e c t l y and t h e d efen se o f c h a r ity i s not a v a i la b l e . 1034.

S t a t e s i n w hich i t ch a rita b le

(3)*

a p p e a r s t o be t h e r u l e t h a t t h e

corp oration i s

lia b le

for the n eg lig en ce

o f managing o f f i c i a l s but n ot f o r t h a t o f l e s s a u t h o r i t a t i v e em ployees or a g e n t s . 1035.

S t a t e s w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y a d h e r e t o f u l l im m unity from lia b ility

o f ch a rita b le corp oration s.

excep tion al c a se s .) 1036.

(3)*

(E xclu ding

( 1 1 )*“'

S t a t e s i n w h i c h t h e r e seems t o be a d e f i n i t e t r e n d to w a r d u n q u a l i f i e d l i a b i l i t y p oration s for to r t l i a b i l i t y .

for ch a rita b le

cor­

( 6 )*

'“'The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

79 '

1037.

S t a t e s i n w h i c h no d e c i s i o n s were found i n v o l v i n g l i a b i l i t y t o s tr a n g e r s fo r the n e g l ig e n c e o f c h a r i ­ tab le

1038.

corp oration ^

torts.

(7)w

o f ch a rita b le

S t a t e s i n which i t

a p p e a r s t o be t h e r u l e t h a t

c o r p o r a tio n s are l i a b l e

of th eir o fficers

i n w hich i t

(20)*""

appears th a t the c h a r it a b le

p o r a tio n s are l i a b l e

cor­

f o r t o r t when t h e y have s e l e c t e d

or m aintained o f f i c e r s incom petent.

fo r the n e g lig e n c e

and s e r v a n t s t o s t r a n g e r s or n o n ­

paying b e n e f i c i a r i e s . States

corp orations for

( 5 ) “*

ch a rita b le

1040.

and s e r v a n t s .

S t a t e s i n w h i c h no d e c i s i o n s w e r e f oun d on t h e s u b ­ ject of lia b ilit y

1039.

o fficers

and s e r v a n t s known t o be

(48)"®*'

*"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

8o

F igure 3 .

1027

STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

0i cv c 1—

a c c r-

ci K

r-i

C

°vi c 1-

c

r-

r-

k

^i c

i

c r-

r-

X

X

X

4

i

1 K

K

C2 r-

C

ai

I-

X

X X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

x X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x x x X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

c rx

X

X

c

i Q r~ x

X

X

ci

c: c 1-. 1

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

......... X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X X

X

TC

X

X,

X

1

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

i

]

X

1 1 1 5 \>0 48 43 1 2 5 :l.o :LI 2 3 3 :LI s 7 ! ! L i a b i l i t y o f C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s For T o r t X

x

X

X

81 CHAPTER V I I MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONf S LIABILITY FOR TORT Many m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e 48 s t a t e s have esta b lish ed

camps as p a r t o f t h e i r r e c r e a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s .

A m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t i o n i s t h e c h i e f p u b l i c agency which now s p o n s o r s r e c r e a t i o n p r o g r a m s . D efin itio n :

The m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n h a s a d e f i n i t e

s t a t u s i n the governm ental s tr u c tu r e o f th e s t a t e .

The

c o u r t s ha ve o f t e n d e f i n e d i t s s t a t u s , f u n c t i o n , and 2 cap acity. There se em s t o be a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a g r e e m e n t as 3 t o what c o n s t i t u t e s a m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n . I t has been sa id to in clu d e

c ities,

and o t h e r s u b d i v i s i o n s

towns,

cou n ties,

taxing d i s t r i c t s ,

of a state

e r e c t e d f o r the purpose 4 5 o f g o v e r n m e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . One c o u r t h e l d :

H a r d in g v . C i t y o f D i c k i n s o n , 33 N.W. 2d 626 ( N o r t h D a k o t a 1 9 4 8 ) ; B l i s s v . P a t h f i n d e r , 122 Neb. 2 0 3 , 2 4 0 N.W. 2 9 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) ; H o l l a n d v . C i t y o f San F r a n c i s c o , 7 C a l . 3 61 (1857). ^ K r an tz v . C i t y o f H u t c h i n s o n , 165 Kan. 4 4 9 , 196 P. 2d 2 2 7 ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; A b e r n a t h y v . C i t y o f C o l u m b i a , 2 1 3 S . C . 6 8 , 48 S . E . 2d 585 ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; C i t y o f C o r s i c a n a , 2 1 3 S.W. 2d 155 ( T e x a s 1 9 4 8 ) ; G u r l e y v . Brown, 1 9 3 P. 2d 693 (N e v . 1 9 4 8 ) ; G r i f f i t h v . C i t y o f B u t t e , 72 Mont. 5 5 2 , 234 P. 82 9 ( 1 9 2 5 ) ; D a v e n p o r t v . E l r o d , 20 S . D . 5 6 7 , 107 N.W. 833 ( 1 9 0 6 ) ; Cab le v . C i t y o f B a l t i m o r e , 66 F. 14 0 (C . C .A . 4 t h 1 8 9 5 ) . ^Words and P h r a s e s , Permanent E d i t i o n ,

750-84

(1940).

^ R e s t a t e m e n t , R e s t i t u t i o n 75b ( 1 9 3 7 ) .

^State, White v. Barker, 116 Iowa 96, 89 N.W, 204, 206 (1902).

82

A m u n ic ip a l c o r p o r a t i o n i s a body p o l i t i c c r e a t e d by o r g a n i z i n g t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f a p r e ­ s c r i b e d area under th e a u t h o r i t y o f th e l e g i s l a t u r e , i n t o a c o r p o r a tio n w ith a l l the u s u a l a t t r i b u t e s o f a c o r p o r a t e e n t i t y , b u t endowed w i t h a p u b l i c c h a r a c t e r by v i r t u e o f h a v i n g b e e n i n v e s t e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t u r e w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e l e g i s l a t i v e p o w er s t o a d m i n i s t e r l o c a l and i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e co m m u n ity, a s w e l l as c r e a t i n g i t as a b r a n c h o f th e s t a t e government t o a s s i s t i n t h e c i v i l g o v ern ­ ment o f t h e s t a t e . S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n ; p oration v a r ie s it

is

The s t a t u s o f t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r ­

i n the d i f f e r e n t

states,

but i n a l l s t a t e s ,

c o n s i d e r e d as a s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t , From a s t u d y o f t h e many d e f i n i t i o n s ,

t h a t t h e r e a r e two d i s t i n c t corp oration s.

fu n ction s vested

One o f t h e f u n c t i o n s

a lo c a l u n it o f self-govern m en t.

con sists

it

is

evid en t

in m unicipal o f t h e i r d u t y as

The o t h e r f u n c t i o n i s

th eir

du ty as a govern m ental agency o f t h e s t a t e . Thus, i n t h e c a se 6 o f G -ian fo rtu n e v* C i t y o f New O r l e a n s , the court sa id : A m u n icip a l c o r p o r a tio n p o s s e s s e s a double c h a r a c t e r — t h e o n e , g o v e r n m e n t a l , l e g i s l a t i v e , or p u b l i c ; t h e o t h e r , i s i n a s e n s e , p r o p r i e t a r y or p r i v a t e - - a n d t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n , th o u g h som etim es d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e , i s h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t , and i s fr e q u e n t ly r e f e r r e d t o , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the ca ses r e l a t i n g t o t h e i m p l i e d o r common law l i a b i l i t y o f m unicipal corp oration s fo r the n e g lig e n c e o f t h e ir s e r v a n t s , a g e n t s and o f f i c e r s i n e x e c u t i o n o f c o r ­ p o r a te d u t i e s or p o w e r s. The most i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s corp orations l i e s

of lia b ilit y

o f m unicipal

i n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t i s made b e t w e e n

t h e s e two f u n c t i o n s .

The a c t i v i t i e s

a d m i n i s t e r e d by t h e

61 P. 6 4 , 70 (C.G. E . D . La. 1 8 9 4 ) .

85

c o r p o r a t i o n are e i t h e r c l a s s i f i e d category.

Some a c t i v i t i e s

i n one o r t h e o t h e r

o f t h e same n a t u r e a r e c l a s s i f i e d

d i f f e r e n t l y in the v ariou s s t a t e s .

A review o f the l e g a l

c o n c e p t s o f t h e two f u n c t i o n s may h e l p t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n them . Governmental R m c t i o n : acts is

in i t s

c a p a c i t y as an a g e n t o f t h e s t a t e

a c t i n g i n what i s

and i t

When t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n

ca lled

its

government, i t

"governm ental c a p a c it y ,"

is

o f t e n s a i d t o be r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e " s o v e r e i g n t y o f 7 8 the s t a t e . " T h u s , i n C ab le v . C i t y o f B a l t i m o r e , the court sa id : In i t s governm ental or p u b lic c h a r a c te r , the c o r p o r a t i o n i s made by t h e s t a t e one o f i t s i n s t r u ­ m e n t s — t h e l o c a l d e p o s i t o r y o f c e r t a i n l i m i t e d and p r e s c r i b e d p o l i t i c a l pow ers t o be e x e r c i s e d f o r t h e p u b l i c good o n b e h a l f o f t h e s t a t e , and n o t f o r i t s e l f . The c h i e f f u n c t i o n s o f a m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n w h i l e a c t i n g In i t s

"governm ental c a p a c it y ,"

o f pu blic peace, h e a lth ,

safety,

in c lu d e the prom otion

and m o r a l s as w e l l as t h e

e x p e n d i t u r e o f m oney, p a r t i c u l a r l y r e l a t i n g t o p u b l i c im provem ent.

9

Where t h e r e a r e no s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s , alm ost u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o g n iz e d r u le th a t th e r e

it

is

an

c a n be no

reco v ery a g a in st a m unicipal corp oration for in j u r ie s

3 8 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

s e c t io n 573.

66 P. 1 4 0 , 1 4 3 , 144 ( C . C . A . 4 t h 1 8 9 5 ) . 9

3 7 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

s e c t io n 114.

o c c a s i o n e d by i t s n e g l i g e n c e o r n o n - f e a s a n c e i n t h e e x e r c i s e o f f u n c t io n s e s s e n t i a l l y governm ental i n n a t u r e . ^ In a 11 r e c e n t s t u d y made by H a rry N. R o s e n f i e l d , he d i s c o v e r e d t h a t i n th e perform ance o f a governm ental f u n c t i o n , n e i t h e r t h e s t a t e n o r any o f i t s it

agen cies i s

has co n sen ted t h e r e t o .

lia b le

He t e r m s t h i s a " common la w r u l e

o f g o v e r n m e n t a l i m m u n i t y 11 and s a i d t h a t i t ap p roxim ately f o r t y - f i v e It is state

in to r t u n less

states

p r e v a ils in

o f the U nited S t a t e s .

s a i d t h a t t h e major p r e m ise o f t h e p r e s e n t

o f la w i n t h i s f i e l d

finds i t s

i m m e d ia t e j u d i c i a l

p a r e n t a g e i n an o l d E n g l i s h c a s e o f R u s s e l v . Men o f 12 Devon. W ithout s u f f i c i e n t u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e l e g a l c o n c e p t s o f t h e l a w i t was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h i s the s t a t e

country in 13 o f M assach u setts through H i l l v . B oston .

B o r c h a r d s a i d t h e “ im m u n it y d o c t r i n e ” r e s t s u p o n a m e d i e v a l E n g l i s h t h e o r y o f " t h e K in g c a n do no wrong" and t h e t h e o r y o f a b s o l u t i s m which kept th e d o c t r i n e a l i v e

i n E ngla nd

^ 3 8 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , s e c t i o n 5 7 2 ; S e e n o t e , 140 A . L . R . 2 6 1 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . n

R o s e n f i e l d , " G o v e r n m e n t a l Immunity From L i a b i l i t y f o r T o r t s i n S c h o o l A c c i d e n t s , " 5 L e g a l H o t e s on L o c a l G o ver n m e n t, 3 8 2 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . ^ 2 Durn. and E a s t 6 6 7 , 100 E ng. Rep. 359 ( 1 7 8 8 ) ; F u l l e r and C a s n e r , " M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y I n O p e r a t i o n , " 54 H ar. L. R e v . 4 3 8 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . •^ H ill v.

Boston,

122 M a ss. 3 4 4 ( 1 8 7 7 ) .

never p rev a iled in t h is

country*

d o c t r i n e was a c c e p t e d i n t h i s doctrin e o f stare d e c is is state

it

14

N ev erth eless,

the

c o u n t r y and t h r o u g h t h e spread to p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y

i n the U nited S t a t e s . Many o f o ur j u d g e s r e c o g n i z e t h e l a c k o f l o g i c

g o v e r n in g th e immunity c o d e , but t h e y are h e s i t a n t t o r e ­ l i n q u i s h im m unity.

Th ey h a v e ad v a n c e d o t h e r t h e o r i e s i n

order to p r o te c t the m u n ic ip a lit ie s

again st l i a b i l i t y .

T o d a y , t h e i m m u n ity o f m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s w h i l e a c t i n g i n t h e i r " g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y ” r e s t s upon t h r e e g r o u n d s : ( 1 ) The K in g c a n do no w r o n g , o r t h e *s o v e r e i g n 1 i s immune fro m s u i t ; ( 2 ) i t i s b e s t t h a t t h e i n d i ­ v id u a l p erso n should s u f f e r fo r th e in c o n v e n ien ce r a th e r than the p u b lic i n g e n e r a l; (3) the a g en ts and o f f i c e r s o f t h e c i t y w o u ld be r e t a r d e d i n t h e perform ance o f t h e i r d u t i e s f o r f e a r o f b e in g su ed . Many o f o u r l e g a l s c h o l a r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e 4 8 s t a t e s hav e i s s u e d s t a t e m e n t s ,

and many j u d g e s have r e c o r d e d d i c t a

c r i t i c i z i n g t h e u n j u s t n e s s o f t h e " im m un it y code" o f 16 governm ental a g e n c ie s . The i n j u s t i c e o f t h e c o u r t r u l i n g s ,

■^Borchard, L .J. 2 (1924).

" G o v e r n m e n t a l L i a b i l i t y I n T o r t , " 34 Y a l e

15

P e t e r s o n , " G o v e r n m e n ta l R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r T o r t s i n M i n n e s o t a , " 26 Minn, L. Rev. 2 9 3 , 3 1 4 ( 1 9 4 2 ) ; D o d d r i d g e , " D i s t i n c t i o n B e t w e e n G o v e r n m e n t a l and P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n s o f M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , " 23 M ic h . L. R e v . 3 2 5 , 3 3 7 ( 1 9 2 5 ) ; S e e n o t e , 120 A . L . R . 1 3 7 7 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . 10

38 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , s e c t i o n 5 7 3 ; P e t e r s o n , s u p r a n o t e 1 5 , a t 2 9 6 - 9 ; F u l l e r and C a s n e r , s u p r a n o t e 1 1 , a t 3 8 2 - 5 ; B o r c h a r d , "Symposium on M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y , " 5 L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Governm ent, 3 5 3 - 5 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; B orchard, supra n o te 14, at 2 -1 0 ; D od d rid ge, supra note 1 5 , at 3 3 7 -8 .

a s e x p l a i n e d by t h e l e g a l s c h o l a r s ,

lie s

in the un reason able

n e s s o f th e t h r e e p r i n c i p l e s mentioned* They c l a i m t h a t t h e f i r s t g r o u n d s f o r im m unity i s relic

a

o f t h e d a y s o f t h e " D i v i n e E i g h t s o f K in g s" and h a s

no p l a c e i n t h e p r e s e n t d a y law o f m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s * The s e c o n d p r i n c i p l e d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o o u r p r e s e n t da y p h i l o s o p h y o f American l i f e lo ss

i n w hich i t

i s now f e l t

that a

s h o u l d be s p r e a d o v e r s o c i e t y as much as p o s s i b l e .

The t h i r d gr ound f o r im m u n ity i s

one t h a t m i g h t p r o d u c e a

c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f a r g u m e n t , b u t t h e l e g a l s c h o l a r s f e e l t h a t th e r e a s o n s advanced are not a v e r y s t r o n g b a s i s f o r t h e l a c k o f p e r f o r m a n c e o f d u t y by m u n i c i p a l o f f i c e r s and a g e n t s . ^ W h ile t h e l e g a l s c h o l a r s a d m o n ish t h e "immun ity d o ctrin e,"

t h e y a t t h e same t i m e d e c l a r e t h a t t h e j o b o f

r e c t i f y i n g the u n ju s tn e s s does not l i e branch but i t

w ith the j u d i c i a l

i s the duty o f the l e g i s l a t i v e

branch o f the

g o v e r n m e n t t o e n a c t s t a t u t e s making m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s lia b le

for the to r ts

of th eir o fficers

and a g e n t s .

13

Edwin M* B o r c h a r d , who i s itie s

on t o r t

one o f t h e l e a d i n g a u t h o r 19 l i a b i l i t y o f m unicipal corporations sta te d :

■ ^ D o d d r i d g e , " D i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n G o v e r n m e n t a l and P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n s o f M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , " 23 M ic h . L. R e v . 3 3 7 - 8 ( 1 9 2 5 ) . 18

B o r c h a r d , "Symposium on M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y , " 5 L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Government 3 5 1 ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

19n>ia.

87 Time and a g a i n our c o u r t s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith the r u l e , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i t s change t o c e p tio n i s the f u n c t i o n of the

have e x p r e ss e d t h e i r b u t most o f them h a v e a more modern c o n ­ leg isla tu re.

A n o t h e r l e g a l s c h o l a r made t h i s

o b s e r v a tio n :

20

A r e v ie w o f r e c e n t d e c i s i o n s i n the f i e l d of m u n ic ip a l t o r t l i a b i l i t y s e r v e s t o em phasize the c o n v ic t io n th a t l e g i s l a t i v e reform is, in o rd er— evid en ce of j u d i c i a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith the p r e s e n t i n e q u i t a b l e sta n d a rd s i s abundantly d i s ­ p l a y e d i n d i c t a , and i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e a t t e m p t s o f many t r i b u n a l s t o a v o i d t h e h a r s h n e s s o f t h e r u l e i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s by a d o p t i n g h a i r - s p l i t t i n g d istin ctio n s• When o p i n i o n s o f l e g a l s c h o l a r s are u n i f o r m and s t r o n g i n o p p o s i t i o n t o p r i n c i p l e s s u c h a s t h e "im mun ity d octrin ,"

it

u s u a l l y g i v e s d i r e c t i o n t o th e laws o f the

f u t u r e .21 Another s i g n i f i c a n t tr e n d toward a b o l i s h i n g th e "im m un ity d o c t r i n e "

is

has taken along th e s e

t h e a c t i o n t h e F e d e r a l Government lin es

i n t h e T o r t Claim A c t . 22

T his

act g ra n ts to the f e d e r a l cou rts j u r i s d i c t i o n over a c t io n s a g a i n s t t h e F e d e r a l Governmnet f o r t h e n e g l i g e n c e em ployees.

A lthough i t

is

lim ite d in scope,

it

is

of i t s a step

toward l i a b i l i t y f o r govern m en tal a g e n c i e s .

^ M u r r a y , "R ec en t Tren ds i n M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y , " 5 L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Government 353 ( 1 9 ^ 0 ) • 21

P r e s i d e n t and D i r e c t o r s o f G eo r g eto w n C o l l e g e v . H u g h e s , 1 3 0 F . 2d 8 1 0 (App. D . C . I 9 I4.2 ) •

^Pub. L« No. 601, 79th Cong., 2d Sess., Title IV (Aug. 2, 19W).

88

A ct,

I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e T o r t C la im 23 one o f o u r l e g a l s c h o l a r s s a i d :

The d o c t r i n e o f iimnunity i n h e r i t e d by t h i s c o u n t r y from e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y E n g l i s h lav/ has b e e n f r e q u e n t l y a t t a c k e d as an a n a r c h i s m u n s u i t e d to dem ocratic s o c i e t y because o f th e u n f a ir n e s s t o in d iv i d u a l s w ith ju s t claim s a g a in st the governm ent— th e a c t i s c l e a r l y a major s t e p i n the p r o c e ss o f la y in g to r e s t the d o c tr in e o f s o v e r e ig n immunity. I n C a l i f o r n i a , where t h e m u n i c i p a l camps are fo und 24 i n t h e g r e a t e s t number, th ey r e c e n t l y enacted a s t a t u t e w h i c h made t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n ‘l i a b l e acts

and n o n - f e a s a n c e o f t h e i r o f f i c e r s ,

servants.

fo r th e wrongful

agents,

and

25

Any c ha ng e r e g a r d i n g t h e im m unity o f m u n i c i p a l c o r ­ porations

f o r t o r t must be c l o s e l y o b s e r v e d by camp a u t h o r ­

itie s,

Changes may r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l i n s u r a n c e , l e a d e r s h i p ,

budget,

and f a c i l i t i e s . P ro p rieta ry F un ction;

is

fu n ctio n in g in i t s

A m unicipal corp o ra tio n th at

p rop rietary cap acity is

g en erally

s a i d t o be s u b j e c t t o t h e same b u r d e n s , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , and l i a b i l i t i e s

L .J.

as a p r i v a t e

^Thompson, 534 ( 1 9 4 7 ) . 24

c o r p o r a t io n or i n d i v i d u a l

"The F e d e r a l T o r t Claims A c t , " 56 Y a l e ft

C a r l s o n , R e y n o l d E . , "Camping and M u n i c i p a l A gen cies," p. 5. pr CAL. GOV'T CODE, s e c t i o n 19 5 6 ( 1 9 4 5 ) .

89

a c t i n g i n t h e same c a p a c i t y * U n ited S t a t e s ,

27

26

I n Town o f N a h a n t , M a ss. v .

the court sa id :

I n i t s p r o p r i e t a r y or p r i v a t e c h a r a c t e r , th e t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e pow ers a r e s u p p o s e d n o t t o be c o n f e r r e d p r i m a r i l y o r c h i e f l y from c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n n e c te d w i t h th e government o f t h e s t a t e at l a r g e , b u t f o r t h e p r i v a t e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e compact community w h i c h i s i n c o r p o r a t e d a s a d i s t i n c t p e r ­ s o n a l i t y o r c o r p o r a t e i n d i v i d u a l ; and as t o s u c h p o w e r s , and t o p r o p e r t y a c q u i r e d t h e r e u n d e r , t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i s t o be r e g a r d e d quo ad ho c a s a p r iv a te corp oration. I n t h o s e s t a t e s where a c t i v i t i e s

are a d m in ister ed

i n a p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y , t h e y have many o f t h e d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s and i n a i 28 v id u a ls. U s u a l l y t h e y are n o t s u b j e c t t o u n q u a l i f i e d lia b ility ,

and i n some i n s t a n c e s t h e o f f i c e r s , 29 s e r v a n t s are in d e m n ifie d f o r t h e i r t o r t s . A d i s c u s s i o n concerning the l i a b i l i t y

agents,

and

of private

c o r p o r a t i o n s w i l l be made i n one o f t h e s u c c e e d i n g c h a p t e r s . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l and L e g i s l a t i v e

C on trol:

T here a r e

v a r i o u s ways i n w h i c h c h a n g e s and a u t h o r i z a t i o n s i n t h e l a w c a n be made.

A change i n t h e s t a t e

p o s s i b l e but i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t

and i s

co n stitu tio n is

seldom a c c o m p lish e d .

The Supreme and A p p e l l a t e c o u r t s i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s o f t e n make c h a n g e s i n t h e l a w .

P Pi

27

28

Most l a w s are e n a c t e d by

3 8 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , 136 F. 2 7 3 , 2 8 1

( C .C .A .

1st 1905).

3 8 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

29 37

s e c t i o n 572.

Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

s e c t io n 574. s e c t i o n 130.

the s t a t e

leg isla tu re

and t h e y u s u a l l y d e f i n e t h e e x t e n t

t o w h i c h t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s h o u l d be s u b j e c t t o 30 variou s r e g u la tio n s . In regard to t o r t p o ssib le

fo r the s t a t e

lia b ility

of m u n icip a lities,

it

is

t o grant com plete immunity, s u b j e c t

t h e m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t o t h e same l i a b i l i t y

as t h a t o f p r i v a t e

corp orations,

o r t h e s t a t e may im p o se c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s on 31 t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f w h i c h l i a b i l i t y i s made t o d e p e n d . Th ree o f t h e m ost common o c c u r e n c e s o f m u n i c i p a l lia b ility

f o r t o r t s under the s t a t u t o r y r e g u la t i o n s

are:

32

( 1 ) Where t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n t o o k p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y f o r p u b l i c u s e w i t h o u t j u s t com­ p e n s a t i o n ; ( 2 ) when t h e r e was n e g l i g e n c e o r n o n ­ f e a s a n c e where t h e d u t i e s o f t h e o f f i c e r s o r a g e n t s a r e o f an a b s o l u t e o r m a n d a to ry n a t u r e ; ( 3 ) and when d e a t h o r p e r s o n a l i n j u r y r e s u l t s from a n u i ­ s a n c e c r e a t e d o r m a i n t a i n e d by t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y . The l a s t two r e g u l a t i o n s a r e t h e o n e s t h a t c h i e f l y c o n c e r n camping a u t h o r i t i e s .

I t I s e s s e n t i a l t o know what

th e mandatory d u t i e s are i n r egard t o s t a t e l o c a l ordinances.

One l e g a l s c h o l a r s t a t e d :

s t a t u t e s and 33

30

P e t e r s o n , "Governmental R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r T o rts I n M i n n e s o t a , " 26 Minn. L. R e v . 700 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . ^ Su p r a n o t e 3 0 . ^ 3 8 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , s e c t i o n 5 7 3 ; S e e n o t e s , 14 0 A . L . R . 10 5 8 ( 1 9 4 2 ) ; 75 A . L . R . 1199 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . ^ F l e m i n g , " A c c i d e n t L i a b i l i t y : Some Wartime D e v e l o p m e n t s , " 55 Y a l e L . J . 3 6 5 , 3 6 7 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .

91 A m a j o r i t y o f A m e rica n c o u r t s h a v e a d o p t e d t h e r u l e t h a t where a s t a t u t e o r o r d i n a n c e p r e ­ s c r ib e d a standard fo r conduct fo r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s a g a i n s t some t y p e s o f d a n g e r , t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h a t s t a t u t e or o r d i n a n c e c o n s t i t u t e d n e g l i g e n c e p er se towards t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s w it h r e f e r e n c e t o d a n g e r o f t h a t t y p e ; t h i s e v e n where t h e s t a t u t e p r o v i d e d c r i m i n a l s a n c t i o n s o n l y and made no r e f e r e n c e t o c i v i l l i a b i l i t y . It

is

a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o know t h e l e g a l t h e o r i e s

concerning nuisances*

The camp g r o u n d s and s t r u c t u r e s ar e

very s u sc e p tib le to these th e o r ie s . w hich s t a t e s :

Ohio has a s t a t u t e

34

M u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s s h a l l have s p e c i a l pow er t o r e g u l a t e t h e u s e o f t h e s t r e e t s , t o be e x e r c i s e d i n t h e manner p r o v i d e d by l a w . The c o u n c i l s h a l l h a v e t h e c a r e , s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l o f p u b lic highw ays, s t r e e t s , avenues, a l l e y s , s id e w a lk s, p u b lic grounds, b r id g e s , a q u e d u c t s , and v i a d u c t s w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , and s h a l l c a u s e them t o be k e p t o p e n , i n r e p a i r and f r e e from n u i s a n c e . Many s t a t e s hav e l a w s c o m p a r a t i v e t o t h i s 36 One a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s :

3 4 0HI0 GEN. CODE, o . 3 ,

statu te.

35

s e c t i o n 3714 (1 9 3 8 ).

ILL. REV. STAT., c . 2 4 , s e c t i o n 65 ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; INDIANA STAT. s e c t i o n 4 8 , 50 3 ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; KY. STAT., s e c t i o n s 2 8 2 5 , 3 0 9 4 , 3 44 9 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; MASS. GEN. LAWS, c . 4 0 , s e c t i o n 3 and c . 8 2 , s e c t i o n 17 ( 1 9 3 2 ) ; MICH. COMP. LAWS, s e c t i o n 2 0 11 e t . s e q . ( 1 9 2 9 ) ; PENNA. STAT., t i t l e 5 3 , s e c t i o n 55 1 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; TENN. CODE, s e c t i o n 3 3 9 4 e t s e q . ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; W. VA. CODE, c . 8 , a r t . 4 , s e c t i o n 14 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . ^ 3 9 Am. J u r . , s e c tio n 41.

P a r k s , S q u a r e s and P l a y g r o u n d s ,

92

A m u n i c i p a l i t y may n o t m a i n t a i n a p u b l i c n u i s a n c e , e v e n where i t i s p e r f o r m i n g a g o v e r n ­ m e n t a l d u t y , and i f i t d o e s and i n j u r i e s r e s u l t therefrom i t i s l i a b l e . A m u n i c i p a l i t y has been h e l d l i a b l e u n d e r t h e n u i s a n c e t h e o r y on many o c c a s i o n s and i n m ost c a s e s i t was i m m a t e r i a l w h e t h e r o r n o t i t was a p r o p r i e t a r y o r g o v e r n ­ m ental fu n c tio n . And i n P r i f t y v . C i t y o f W a t e r b u r y ,

37

the court

sa id : Where a m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n c r e a t e s and m ain­ t a i n s a n u i s a n c e , i t i s l i a b l e f o r damages i r ­ r e s p e c t i v e o f whether m isfe a s a n c e or n o n -fe a s a n c e ca u sin g the nu isan ce a ls o c o n s t it u t e d n e g lig e n c e . Another im portant f i e l d camp a u t h o r i t i e s law s.

of le g isla tiv e

con trol that

s h o u l d be a c q u a i n t e d w i t h i s p e r m i s s i v e

I n t h e cam ping f i e l d ,

t h e y a r e fo und c h i e f l y i n t h e

s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w s and t h e p a r k l a w s . I n a r e c e n t s t u d y made by t h e w r i t e r i n r e g a r d t o s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w s i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t most s t a t e s ha v e r e c r e a t i o n la w s bu t few o f t h e la w s a r e broad enough i n scop e t o perm it o r g a n iz e d cam ping.^8

No c o u r t

c a s e s were foun d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s c o p e o f t h e l a w s s o t h e study i s

b a s e d on A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l o p i n i o n s .

The s t a t e

and l o c a l p a r k l a w s a p p e a r t o be more

f a v o r a b l e f o r camping a c t i v i t i e s .

The s t a t u s

o f camping i n

m u n i c i p a l p a r k s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .

S 7 133 Conn. 6 5 4 , 6 5 7 , 54 A. 2d 2 6 0 , 261 ( 1 9 4 7 ) . S e e F i g u r e 4 a t end o f c h a p t e r .

Summary:

The c o u r t s and t h e s t a t u t e s ha v e d e f i n e d

and d e t e r m i n e d t h e s t a t u s

o f m unicipal corp oration s in t h e i r

f u n c t i o n s as a g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c y o f t h e s t a t e . A state

o f b e w i l d e r m e n t and c o n f l i c t e x i s t s

in de­

t e r m i n i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l and p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n s o f t h e m unicipal co rp o ra tio n .

T here a r e few p l a c e s i n t h e la w where

t h e m a kin g o f a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l and p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n s o f a m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n h as r e s u l t e d i n s o much d i f f i c u l t y

in a p p lic a tio n .

L i t i g a t i o n ha s b e e n

g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d due t o t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s . It

is

39

a g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d r u l e where t h e r e a re no

s t a t u t o r y p r o v isio n s that a m unicipal co rp o ra tio n i s from l i a b i l i t y o fficers

immune

f o r the n e g l ig e n c e or n o n -fe a s a n c e o f i t s

and a g e n t s w h i l e a c t i n g i n a g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y .

W h ile a c t i n g i n i t s p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y , t h e c o r p o r a t i o n is

g e n e r a l l y as r e s p o n s i b l e as o th e r p r i v a t e

corp orations

fo r t h e i r wrongful a c t s . T here i s

a d efin ite

trend In the v a r io u s s t a t e s

t o w a r d s m aking m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s l i a b l e

for t o r t s .

T his tre n d i s

le g a l scholars

su p p o rted i n s e v e r a l ways;

in th e ir th eories

(1)

are u n ifo rm in s t r o n g l y o p p o sin g the

t!im m unity d o c t r i n e 11; ( 2 )

court d e c is io n s

d i c t a opposing the d o c t r in e ;

are r e p l e t e w i t h

( 3 ) some s t a t e s

have t a k e n

t h e l e a d e r s h i p i n p a s s i n g s t a t u t e s making t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s

393 8

Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s , s e c t i o n 5 7 3 .

9k lia b le;

(I4.) p u b l i c l a w and p o l i c y i n A m e rica i s

fa v o r of spreading the l o s s

over s o c i e t y ;

now i n

(5 ) the F ed er a l

Government h a s r e c e n t l y t a k e n s t e p s w h ic h a r e h e l p i n g i n " la y in g to r e s t the d o c tr in e

of so v e r e ig n im m unity"^

by

p a s s a g e o f t h e T o r t C laim A c t . It

is

I m p o r t a n t f o r camp a u t h o r i t i e s t o know what

t h e i r m a n d a to ry d u t i e s a r e b o t h on a s t a t e The t h e o r i e s d irectors

and l o c a l l e v e l .

o f n u i s a n c e s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d by camp

s o t h e y c a n t a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y m ea sure t o i n s p e c t

and e l i m i n a t e t h e m . R e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w s and par k la w s o f t h e s t a t e a r e i m p r o t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t o o l s t h a t must be u n d e r s t o o d and o b e y e d by camp a u t h o r i t i e s .

There a r e o f t e n power s

g r a n t e d i n s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n l a w s w h ic h w i l l p e r m i t v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t o e s t a b l i s h and c o n d u c t an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp. workers t o an a n a l y s i s

It

is

i m p o s s i b l e f o r most r e c r e a t i o n

i n t e r p r e t t h e la w s d e a l i n g w i t h r e c r e a t i o n , b u t o f some o f t h e A t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l o p i n i o n s f r o m

t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s m i g h t be o f some v a l u e t o them# There a r e 5 I4- s t a t e s w i t h s p e c i a l p e r m i s s i v e l e g i s ­ la tio n for recrea tio n ,

and a b o u t h a l f o f t h i s l e g i s l a t i o n

h a s been p a s s e d d u r in g t h e l a s t 15 y e a r s . As a g e n e r a l r u l e t h e a t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l i n t h e v a r i o u s states f e lt

t h a t th e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g laws i n t h e i r

^Thompson, "The Federal L. J. 5^1 (1914-7).

Tort

Claim

Act," 56

Yale

95 J u r i s d i c t i o n s w e re n o t b r o a d e n o u g h t o i n c l u d e p a r t o f th e r e c r e a t i o n program.

camping as

H ow e ver , a t l e a s t

15 s t a t e s

h a v e l a w s w h ic h a r e b r o a d eno ugh t o empower l o c a l b o a r d s o f recrea tio n It

t o e s t a b l i s h a camping pr o g r a m . appears th a t th e r e i s very l i t t l e l e g i s l a t i o n

d i r e c t l y aimed t o r e g u l a t e

p r i v a t e r e c r e a t i o n camps.

The f o l l o w i n g Key Code Humber I}., and F i g u r e Lj., g i v e an a n a l y s i s recrea tio n

of the e x te n t

of l e g i s l a t i o n f o r l o c a l

and c a m p i n g , and an a n a l y s i s

o p in io n s concerning the

of a tto r n e y s g en era l

powers o f p e r m i s s i v e l e g i s l a t i o n

in

r e g a r d t o camping.

KEY CODE NUMBER lj. Key Humber 10l^.l.

P rovision s

States

i n w hich th e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g laws have

the d e s ir a b le to in itia te it. 10l±2.

provision s

a llo w in g the l o c a l people

a r e c r e a t i o n program by v o t i n g f o r

(1 7 )*

States

i n w h i c h a t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l e x p r e s s e d an

o p i n i o n i n r e g a r d t o powers o f s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w s t o e s t a b l i s h and c o n d u c t o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camps. are a r e s u l t

(The f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s

of a t t o r n e y s g e n e r a l o p i n i o n s . )

(I{-2)*

*The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

96

1043*

S t a t e s w hich have g e n e r a l e n a b l i n g laws w hich perm it m u n ic ip a l or county governm ental a g e n c ie s t o o p e r a te an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp.

1044.

(15)**

S t a t e s w h i c h do n o t have g e n e r a l e n a b l i n g l a w s w h i c h p erm it m u n icip a l or county governm ental a g e n c ie s to o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp.

1045.

(22

S t a t e s w h i c h h a v e home r u l e c h a r t e r p r o v i s i o n s w h i c h p erm it m u n ic ip a l or county governm ental a g e n c ie s t o o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp.

1046.

S t a t e s w h i c h do n o t have a home r u l e the p r o v is io n s

(9)*'r c h a r te r i n w hich

a r e broad e n o u g h t o p e r m i t a m u n i c i p a l

o r c o u n t y g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c y t o o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1047.

(24)*

S t a t e s w h i c h have s p e c i a l l a w s a p p l i c a b l e t o a c l a s s of m u n icip a lities

o r c o u n t i e s w h i c h wou ld p e r m i t them

t o o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1048.

(11)*“*

S t a t e s w h i c h do n o t hav e s p e c i a l l a w s w h i c h are ap p licab le to a c la s s o f m u n ic ip a litie s

i n which

p o w er s a r e g r a n t e d t o o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1049.

(26)"'*'

S t a t e s i n which t h e r e i s

a general r ecrea tio n

e n a b l i n g la w w h i c h i s broad enough t o i n c l u d e a u t h o r i t y f o r a m u n i c i p a l or c o u n t y g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c y t o e s t a b l i s h and o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp.

states

(14)"'*'

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of having this provision.

1050.

States

i n w hich t h e r e i s

a general recrea tio n

e n a b l i n g l a w w h i c h i s n o t br oad e n o u g h t o i n c l u d e a u t h o r i t y f o r a m u n i c i p a l i t y or co u n ty govern m en tal a g e n c y t o o p e r a t e an o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1051.

S t a t e s w h i c h h a v e a l a w o r l a w s r e l a t i n g t o camps o p e r a t e d by p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , agen cies,

(1)*

S t a t e s w h i c h do n o t hav e a law o r l a w s r e l a t i n g t o camps o p e r a t e d by p r i v a t e agen cies,

States

in d iv id u a ls,

s o c i a l w elfare

or c o r p o r a t i o n s not i n c l u d i n g s t a t e d e p a r t ­

ment r e g u l a t i o n s . 1053.

s o c i a l w elfare

or c o r p o r a t io n s n ot i n c l u d i n g s t a t e d e ­

partment r e g u l a t i o n s . 1052.

(23)"“

(36)*

i n w h i c h t h e A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l r e s p o n d e d bu t

was u n a b l e t o g i v e an o p i n i o n c h i e f l y b e c a u s e l a w s p r o h ib ite d rendering t h i s

service to o u tsid ers.

(5)'“'

*The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

98

£< r~ a sj STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

F igure 4 .

C

a

r~

>

:i.94f

0i M C

r~

X X X

1944 197SS I93f L91?

>

^

c

c 1-

1—

X X X

1,92? 1921 191 f L94£ 1924 192^

X X. X, X

ITi c c

X X X

r

'

X

X X

X x x

X

X

x

x

X X X X

191S 1934

L94'i 9 4 iL

X X X X X X X X X

193*: 1931 92?i 92 fi 192^

X, X X X

X

X X

X

X X X X X X X

X X

1-

I—

x

X

X

X X

TT TT

x

X x

x

X

x

X

x

x X

X

■>r X X

X

X X X

X

X

X X X

X X

x

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

■5T

X

X X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X X X X

X

X

X X

x x 19 1 r? 91 ,c X 194? x 1 9 11 X 192? X 194*7 X 1921 X

X

X X X X X X

X t

x

X X

X X X X. X X X X X

CVi C'■l Lf ir c c1

rLf c

TT

X X

X X

X X

191 f 191 19 3 r 1 94f

ai ° c ’N Lf 5 c c c c «— r-■ p-■ r-

I—

X X

X X X X

192f 192?

194*7

tf i

X X

X X X X

■JT

X X X

X

X X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

X

X

X

X X X X

X X X X X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X

X X X X X X

34. \ ■4ML2-1 22—2 - 2 A -^ U-J4 3 - 4-4—-23--4-13 3 - 3— Camping P r o v i s i o n s i n S t a t e E n a b l i n g Laws With D ate o f F i r s t P a s s a g e

CHAPTER V I I I LEGAL STATUS OF CAMPS, PARKS, AND PLAYGROUNDS It

i s evid en t th at i f

camping i s

t o be p r o v i d e d t o

a s u b s t a n t i a l p e r c e n t a g e o f American y o u t h , p u b l i c a s s i s t 1 a nce w i l l ha v e t o be p r o v i d e d . P u b l i c a s s i s t a n c e must come c h i e f l y from two s o u r c e s ; r e c r e a t io n departm ents. th is

study i s

It

t h e s c h o o l s and t h e m u n i c i p a l

i s w ith the l a t t e r source that

concerned.

A camp s p o n s o r e d b y t h e m u n i c i p a l r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t ­ ment i s

f a s t b e c o m i n g an a c c e p t e d p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m .

The

m ost r e c e n t p h a s e o f t h e camping pr ogram i s t h e e s t a b l i s h ­ ment o f t h e day camp i n a number o f m u n i c i p a l i t i e s .

No

l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n s w ere f o u n d r e g a r d i n g t h e day camp bu t 2 one cam ping a u t h o r i t y h as d e f i n e d t h e day camp a s : A c a m p - t y p e program o f o u t d o o r l i v i n g and c a r r i e d on f o r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f t i m e w i t h t h e same g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n p a r t i c i p a t i n g t h r o u g h o u t that p eriod . . . . T h e c h i l d r e n r e t u r n home e a c h n i g h t i n s t e a d o f r e m a i n i n g i n camp. The o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camp i s p h a s e o f t h e pr o g r a m . fa cilitie s,

I t i n v o l v e s more l e a d e r s h i p ,

b u d g e t and p l a n n i n g .

Code f o r cam ps, i t

a more c o m p l i c a t e d

I n t h e New York S a n i t a r y

states:

1 G a r l s o n , R e y n o l d E . , "Camping and M u n i c i p a l A gen cies," p. 5. ^ I b id ., p.

8.

3 NEW YORK SANITARY CODE, c . & ( 1 9 3 0 ) .

A camp s h a l l mean one o r more t e m p o r a r y o r permanent t e n t s , b u i l d i n g s , or s t r u c t u r e s , t o ­ g e t h e r w ith the t r a c t o f land a p p e r ta in in g t h e r e t o , e s t a b l i s h e d o r m a i n t a i n e d as l i v i n g q u a r t e r s f o r t e m p o r a r y o c c u p a n c y by t e n o r more p e r s o n s i n c l u d ­ i n g c h i l d r e n e i t h e r f r e e o f c h a r g e o r by payment of a fee. Many l e g a l q u e s t i o n s

arise

concerning the o r g a n iz a tio n

and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f cam p ing p r o g r a m s by m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . In the f i r s t p l a c e ,

th e most f a v o r a b l e

u s u a l l y l o c a t e d beyond t h e or f o r e s t

area.

4

c ity lim its

camp s i t e s

are

i n some s e l e c t e d p a r k

S i n c e t h e campers a r e away from home f o r

lo n g p e r io d s th e d u ty o f care f o r t h e c h i l d r e n r e s t s upon t h e camp d i r e c t o r and c o u n s e l o r s f o r 2 4 h o u r s e a c h d a y . The q u e s t i o n o f t h e l e g a l i t y and l o d g i n g i s

o f charging a fe e

f o r bo a rd

a n o th er problem t h a t f a c e s th e a d m i n is t r a t o r .

Another im portant problem i s

t o d e t e r m i n e what t h e l e g a l

s t a t u s o f t h e c am p ing p r og r a m i s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e o t h e r a c tiv itie s

o f the m u n icip a l r e c r e a t io n departm ent.

I n one

s t a t e where m u n i c i p a l camps a r e f o u n d i n g r e a t num bers, s e v e r a l r u l i n g s ha ve b e e n g i v e n t h a t may h e l p t o an swer some o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s .

5

S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n :

L i t i g a t i o n concerning the

s t a t u s o f m u n i c i p a l r e c r e a t i o n camps i s v e r y s c a r c e . one c a s e c o n c e r n i n g l i a b i l i t y

4

B u t l e r , George D . , R e c r e a t i o n , p. 3 0 5 .

for n egligen ce

Only

in conducting

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Community

5Keller v. City of Los Angeles, 179 Cal. 605, 178 P. 505 (1919).

101 a m u n i c i p a l r e c r e a t i o n camp was f o u n d .

(In t h i s p a r t ic u la r

c a s e a youn g b o y , who b r o k e an arm w h i l e a t camp, was n e g l i g e n t l y c a r e d f o r b y t h e c o u n s e l o r and s t a f f . ) the q u e s tio n o f the s t a t u s

When

o f m u n i c i p a l camps was b r o u g h t

g

up, the

court sa id :

I n s o f a r as any q u e s t i o n h e r e i n v o l v e d i s c o n ­ c e r n e d , t h e r e i s no m a t e r i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a c h i l d r e n 1s p l a y g r o u n d , e s t a b l i s h e d and m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e c i t y w i t h i n t h e c i t y l i m i t s , and t h e summer camp f o r the c h ild r e n o f the c i t y , e s t a b l i s h e d w ithou t t h e c i t y l i m i t s i n t h e m o u n t a i n r e g i o n some d i s t a n c e therefrom . I t i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y in the nature o f a c h i l d r e n 1s p l a y g r o u n d f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e c h i l d ­ r e n o f t h e c i t y , l o c a t e d , as i t i s , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g iv in g the c h ild r e n the advantages o f r e c r e a t io n u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s from t h o s e e x i s t i n g I n the c it y . The c o u r t a l s o s a i d t h a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e m u n i c i p a l camp was a l e g a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e c i t y and t h e y w e re e n t i t l e d

t o c o n d u c t and o p e r a t e r e c r e a t i o n camps 7 t h r o u g h p o w e r s g r a n t e d t o them by t h e l o c a l c h a r t e r .

In a d i s c u s s i o n concerning the fu n c tio n s o f th e 8 gram, t h e c o u r t s a i d :

camp p r o -

C h i l d r e n f s p l a y g r o u n d s and r e c r e a t i o n c e n t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d and m a i n t a i n e d b y a c i t y f o r t h e g e n e r a l u s e o f t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e c i t y , where s o c o n d u c t e d as t o p a r t a k e i n no d e g r e e o f t h e n a t u r e o f a p r i v a t e

6ia .

a t 6 0 5 , 17 8 P.

at 506.

7Ib ld . 505,

SK e l l e r v . 506 ( 1 9 1 9 ) .

C i t y o f Los A n g e l e s , 179 C a l . 6 0 5 ,

17 8 P.

102 b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e , do n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r from a p u b l i c p a r k i n s o f a r as t h e q u e s t i o n h e r e in v o lv e d i s concerned* Like th e p u b l i c p a r k s , t h e y are r e f e r a b l e s o l e l y t o the d u ty o f m ain­ t a i n i n g t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h , and h a v i n g n o t h i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f an o r d i n a r y b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e . The c o u r t s have g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t when a m u n i c i p a l corp oration i s cap acity,

it

ad m in isterin g a c t i v i t i e s

i s not l ia b le

in i t s

for the t o r t s

of it s

governm ental o fficers

when c o n d u c t i n g prog ra m s i n p a r k s and p l a y g r o u n d s beyond 9 10 the m u n icip al l i m i t s . I n C e g e l s k i v . Green B a y , the court sa id : I f a c i t y u s e s l a n d o u t s i d e i t s l i m i t s as a p a r k , i t u s e s i t i n perform ance o f a governm ental f u n c t i o n , j u s t t h e same a s i t w ou ld be s o u s i n g i t i f i t l a y w i t h i n t h e c i t y , and t h e same r e a s o n a p p lie s fo r h o ld in g the c i t y not l i a b l e to persons i n j u r e d t h e r e i n t h a t w o u ld a p p l y i f t h e p a r k were w ith in the c i t y . Use i n a p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y d o e s n o t f o l l o w from mere o w n e r s h i p . I f in using la n d i n s i d e c i t y l i m i t s as a p a rk , a c i t y i s c a rr y ­ i n g on a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n so u s i n g l a n d o u t s id e the c i t y I t i s e x e r c i s i n g a governm ental fu n ction . The mere l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a n d d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f u n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d on i t , a n y more t h a n mere p r o p r i e t o r s h i p a f f e c t s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f u n c t i o n p e r f o r m e d i n a c i t y owned b u ild in g . When c h i l d r e n a r e t a k e n t o t h e s e p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s f o r camping e x p e r i e n c e s i t be c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o ­ v i d e b o a r d and l o d g i n g f o r t h e m .

9See n o t e ,

The q u e s t i o n a r i s e s a s t o

140 A .L .R . 1059 ( 1 9 4 2 ) .

1 0 2 3 1 W i s . 8 9 , 9 2 , 2 8 5 N.W. 3 4 3 , 344

(1939).

ie ^ w hether ch argin g a fee

f o r s u c h s e r v i c e w i l l make any

c h a n g e s i n t h e l e g a l s t a t u s o f t h e cam p ing pr o g r a m . P e e s For Board and Room:

I f t h e camp program i s

c o n sid er ed a governm ental f u n c t io n a rea so n a b le fe e fo r h e l p i n g t o d e f r a y e x p e n s e s u s u a l l y d o e s n o t cha nge i t s governm ental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . ^ slig h t

I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s

inc ome fro m s u c h an a c t i v i t y w i l l change i t s

to a p rop rietary fu n ctio n . reason able fee

12

regarding a fee

one o f t h e p u r ­

t h e im m unity o f t h e m u n i c i p a l

c o r p o r a tio n fo r t o r t does not e x i s t . In K e l l e r v .

nature

I n m o s t s t a t e s when an u n ­

i s c h a r g e d and a p r o f i t i s

poses o f the a c t i v i t y ,

a

13

C i t y o f Los A n g e l e s ,

14

the court sa id

c h a r g e d f o r board and l o d g i n g t h a t :

By r e a s o n o f I t s r e m o t e n e s s from t h e c i t y , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o i t s e n j o y m e n t by t h e c h i l d r e n t h a t b o a r d and l o d g i n g be f u r n i s h e d t o t h o s e e n j o y i n g the p r i v i l e g e s thus a ffo r d e d . T h i s i n no d e g r e e changes i t s n a tu r e . I t r e s t s on p r e c i s e l y t h e same b a s i s as c h i l d r e n ’ s p l a y g r o u n d s and p u b l i c p a r k s w it h in the c i t y l i m i t s . I t i s conducted f o r the s o l e p u r p o s e o f p r o m o t i n g t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t by m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h , and h a s n o t h i n g o f the ch aracter o f a b u sin e ss e n t e r p r is e . That a s m a l l c h a r g e i s made u p o n t h o s e c h i l d r e n g o i n g t o and s t a y i n g a t t h e camp f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a s s i s t ­ in g i n d e f r a y in g th e c o s t o f m aintenance o f such c h i l d r e n w h i l e a t t h e camp d o e s n o t change t h e situ a tio n .

i;LSee n o t e s , 99 A . L . R . 69 5 ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; 29 A . L . R . 87 4 ( 1 9 2 4 ) ; S e e F i g u r e 5 a t end o f c h a p t e r . Ib id . 13Ib id . 14

Keller v. City of Los Angeles, 179 Cal. 605, 178 P. 505, 507 (1919).

Since the l i t i g a t i o n d e a lin g s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith m u n i c i p a l r e c r e a t i o n camps i s v e r y l i m i t e d , p a r k and p l a y g r o u n d s t a t u t e s

a review o f

and c o u r t c a s e s may h e l p t o

a n s w e r some o f t h e l e g a l q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g l i a b i l i t y

of

m u n i c i p a l camp d i r e c t o r s ,

P a r k s and'1 P l a y g r o u n d s It

is

l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t m u n i c i p a l camps, p a r k s ,

and p l a y g r o u n d s a r e i n many ways v i e w e d w i t h t h e same l e g a l r e l a t io n s h ip in regard to l i a b i l i t y

for t o r t .

The camp i s

u s u a l l y r e g a r d e d as an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p l a y g r o u n d and p a r k system .

15

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f some o f t h e p a r k la w s and

c o u r t d e c i s i o n s i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s may h e l p t o show some o f t h e l e g a l d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

o f m u n i c i p a l camp

d irecto rs. D efin itio n :

I n one m u n i c i p a l i t y t h e t e r m " p a r k s 11 16 was d e f i n e d t o i n c l u d e : P u b lic p a rk s, parkways, b o u le v a r d s , b r i d l e ­ p a th s, bath hou ses, bathing b each es, playgrounds, p l a y f i e l d s , swimming p o o l s , a t h l e t i c f i e l d s , community c e n t e r s , t o u r i s t s * camping g r o u n d s , squares, c e n te r s , gardens, n atatorium s, z o o lo g ic a l g a r d e n s , and o t h e r s i m i l a r p u b l i c p r o p e r t y and fu n ction s.

15

S u pra n o t e 1 4 .

■ ^ I n d i a n a Laws 1 9 3 7 ,

c.

155,

s e c tio n 6.

105 The c o u r t s h a v e f r e q u e n t l y d e f i n e d t h e m e a n i n g and p u r p o s e s 17 18 o f m un icipal parks. One c o u r t s a i d : A p a r k i s v a r i o u s l y d e f i n e d t o be a p l e a s u r e g ro und i n o r n e a r a c i t y , s e t a p a r t f o r t h e r e c r e a ­ t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c ; a p i e c e o f gr ound e n c l o s e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f p l e a s u r e , e x e r c i s e , am usement, or o r n a ­ ment; a p l a c e f o r th e r e s o r t o f th e p u b l i c f o r r e c r e a t i o n , a i r , and l i g h t ; a p l a c e open f o r everyone• P e r m i s s i v e Law:

The s t a t e p a r k l a w s a r e much b r o a d e r

and more g e n e r o u s t h a n s t a t e r e c r e a t i o n e n a b l i n g l a w s i n t h e i r p o w e r s g r a n t i n g camping p r i v i l e g e s

t o m u n ic ip a l park

departm ents * I n one r e c e n t s t u d y

19

i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e

a r e 33 s t a t e s now c o n d u c t i n g camping i n t h e i r m u n i c i p a l parks.

I n 1 9 4 0 t h e r e w e re 3 2 7 , 9 0 4 p a r t i c i p a n t s

d a y and o r g a n i z e d camp p r o g r a m s .

in both

The m a j o r i t y o f t h e p r o ­

grams a r e g o v e r n e d by t h e p a r k d e p a r t m e n t or by c o o p e r a t i v e effort

o f t h e p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t . The s t a t e

perm issive

o f W a s h i n g t o n has p r o b a b l y t h e m ost d e s i r a b l e 20 camping l a w s . T h i s law s t a t e s :

B a t c h l e r v . M a d i s o n Park C o r p . , 25 Wash. 2d 9 0 7 , 172 P. 2d 2 6 8 ( 1 9 4 6 ) ; Kin g v , S h e p p a r d , ( T e x . C i v . A p p . ) , 1 5 7 S.W. 2d 682 ( 1 9 4 1 ) ; L e w is v . C i t y o f F o r t W orth , 89 S.W. 2d 9 7 5 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; W e s l e y a n Grove Camp M e e t i n g A s s n . v . A n d r e s i s , 104 Me. 3 4 2 , 71 A. 10 2 7 ( 1 9 0 8 ) . - ^ H y l a n d v . C i t y o f E u g e n e , 173 P. 2d 4 6 4 , 466 ( O re g on 1 9 4 6 ) ; S t a t e v . S c h w e i k a r d t , 109 Mo. 4 9 6 , 5 1 0 , 19 S.W. 4 7 , 51 ( 1 8 9 2 ) . 19 B u t l e r , George D . , M u n i c i p a l and County Parks i n t h e U nited S t a t e s , p. 173. 2 0WASH. REV. STAT.,

s e c t i o n 9321

(1933).

Any c i t y o r o r g a n i z e d p a r k d i s t r i c t may e s t a b l i s h , care f o r , c o n t r o l , s u p e r v i s e , im prove, o p e r a t e , and m a i n t a i n a p u b l i c camp o r camps anyw here w i t h i n t h e S t a t e , and t o t h a t end may m ake, p r o m u l g a t e , and e n f o r c e r u l e s and r e g u l a ­ t i o n s i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e camps and make s u c h c h a r g e s f o r t h e i r u s e as may be deemed e x p e d i e n t . I n New J e r s e y i s 21 which s t a t e s :

foun d a n o t h e r s p e c i a l camping law

The board o f c h o s e n f r e e h o l d e r s i n c o u n t i e s o f t h e s e c o n d c l a s s may, w h e n e v e r i n i t s judgment th e p u b l i c need r e q u ir e s i t , u se land i n i t s p o s s e s s i o n , o r a c q u i r e l a n d s and b u i l d i n g s b y p u r ­ c h a s e , c o n d e m n a t i o n , g i f t , o r o t h e r w i s e , anywhere i n the county; e r e c t th ereo n s u i t a b l e s t r u c t u r e s and b u i l d i n g s ; f u r n i s h , o p e r a t e , and m a i n t a i n t h e same as a summer camp f o r u n d e r n o u r i s h e d and u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d c h i l d r e n o f t h e c o u n t y whose h e a l t h may be b e n e f i t e d by i t , and f o r a d v a n c i n g p u b l i c r e c r e a t i o n and t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h and w e l f a r e . R u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s may be e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a d ­ m i s s i o n t o s u c h camps. I n M ontana, t h e r e i s

a very d e sir a b le

camping law

w h i c h p e r m i t s c o u n t i e s t o c o n d u c t p u b l i c c a m p in g . states:

It

22

The s e v e r a l c o u n t i e s o f t h i s s t a t e are h e r e b y a u t h o r i z e d and empowered t o a c q u i r e by p u r c h a s e , g r a n t , d e e d , g i f t , d e v i s e or c o n d e m n a t i o n , o r o t h e r w i s e , l a n d s i n one t r a c t , s u i t a b l e f o r p u b l i c camp ing and p u b l i c r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s , o r may l e a s e s u c h l a n d t r a c t s , e a c h o f w h i c h s h a l l be s o s i t u a t e d as t o o f f e r r e a d y a c c e s s t o a p u b l i c highway.

2 1 NEW JERSEY REV. STAT., T i t l e 40 c . 23 a r t . 22

Montana Laws 1 9 4 5 ,

c.

115,

s e c tio n 44442.

6 .1

(1937).

A l l t r a c t s o f land a cqu ired under t h i s act s h a l l be s e t a s i d e and u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y f o r p u b l i c camping and r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s , and e a c h p a r k s o e s t a b l i s h e d s h a l l be g i v e n an a p p r o p r i a t e name and number. The m a j o r i t y o f s t a t e s

c o n d u c t i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps

i n t h e i r l o c a l p a r k s do n o t h a v e s p e c i f i c

camping l a w s bu t

ha v e l a w s w h i c h a r e bro a d e n ou gh t o p e r m i t them.

In 23 c o n d u c t e d t h e la w s t a t e s :

T e n n e s s e e when camping i s

The g o v e r n i n g body o f any c i t y , t o w n , c o u n ty , t o w n s h ip , s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , or o t h e r p o l i t i c a l s u b - d i v i s i o n may d e d i c a t e and s e t a p a r t f o r u s e as p l a y g r o u n d s , r e c r e a t i o n c e n t e r s , and o t h e r r e c r e a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s any l a n d s or b u i l d i n g s , o r b o t h , owned and l e a s e d by i t , and n o t d e d i c a t e d o r d e v o t e d t o a n o t h e r and i n c o n ­ s is t e n t pu blic u se . Lands and b u i l d i n g s may a l s o be a c q u i r e d f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s by g i f t , p u r c h a s e , c o n d e m n a t i o n , or l e a s e . Another d e s i r a b l e

f e a t u r e o f t h e p a r k la w s i s t h e

cooperative e ff o r t

th a t i s perm itted fo r variou s ag en cies

t o work t o g e t h e r .

This

states.

con d ition p r e v a ils 24 I n M i c h i g a n t h e law s t a t e s :

i n most o f t h e

The s y s t e m may be o p e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , or s u c h m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s may c o ­ o p e r a t e i n I t s c o n d u c t i n a n y manner I n w h i c h t h e y m u t u a l l y a g r e e ; o r t h e y may d e l e g a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n t o a r e c r e a t i o n b o a r d c r e a t e d by any o r a l l o f them , and a p p r o p r i a t e money t o s u c h b o a r d .

23TEM.

CODE, o . 4C, s e c t i o n 3 7 0 8 ( 8 )

2 4 MICH. COMP. LAWS,

c

.

53 ( 1 9 2 9 ) .

(1938).

In s e v e r a l o th e r s t a t e s

it

is p o ssib le

f o r two

o r more m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t o j o i n t l y c o n d u c t r e c r e a t i o n 25 26 programs. I n N o r t h C a r o l i n a , t h e law s t a t e s : Any two o r more o f s u c h m u n i c i p a l c o r ­ p o r a t i o n s may j o i n t l y p r o v i d e , e s t a b l i s h , m a i n t a i n , and c o n d u c t s u p e r v i s e d r e c r e a t i o n s y s t e m s and a c ­ q u i r e p r o p e r t y f o r and e s t a b l i s h and m a i n t a i n p l a y ­ g r o u n d s , r e c r e a t i o n c e n t e r s , and o t h e r r e c r e a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s and a c t i v i t i e s . S i n c e m ost r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e c o n d u c t e d I n a r e a s and p a r k s o u t s i d e t h e m u n i c i p a l l i m i t s , m ost s t a t e s

are f a v o r a b l e f o r camps.

th e park laws i n

The law s p e r m i t

m u n i c i p a l i t i e s t o e s t a b l i s h parks e i t h e r w i t h i n or w ith ou t . . 27 the c i t y l i m i t s . I n some s t a t e s , t h e y a r e p e r m i t t e d t o 28 e s t a b l i s h parks i n o th er s t a t e s . Some s t a t e s r e s t r i c t pc:

COLO. ANN. STAT., c . 1 6 3 , a r t . 2 1 , s e c t i o n 379 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; CONN. GEN. STAT., T i t l e 5 , c . 3 2 , s e c t i o n 475 ( 1 9 3 0 ) ; FLORIDA LAWS, c . 1 9 5 8 9 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; GEORGIA CODE, T i t l e 6 9 , s e c t i o n 6 ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; I n d i a n a Laws 1 9 3 7 , c . 7 4 , P a r t I , a r t . 7; NEW JERSEY REV. STAT., T i t l e 4 0 , c . 2 3 , a r t 6 ( 1 9 3 7 ) ; Tenn. A cts 1 9 3 7 , c . 3 0 7 , s e c t i o n 5 a. 2 6 N0RTH CAROLINA GEN. STAT., c .

160, a r t .

12 ( 1 9 4 3 ) .

^ A r i z o n a Laws 1 9 3 9 , c . 7 8 , s e c t i o n 2 ; KANSAS GEN. STAT., c . 1 3 , a r t . 2 5 , s e c t i o n 2 5 0 1 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; ILL. REV. STAT., c . 2 4 , a r t . 5 7 , s e c t i o n 1 - 1 0 ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; NORTH DAKOTA REV. CODE, c . 4 0 , s e c t i o n s 4 9 1 0 - 4 9 1 8 ( 1 9 4 3 ) . 2 8ARK. DIG. STAT., c . NEB. REV. STAT., c . 1 8 , a r t .

153, s e c t i o n 12018 (1 9 3 7 ); 9 (1943).

109

t h e i r p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s w i t h i n t h e m u n i c i p a l 29 lim its, o r a d e s i g n a t e d d i s t a n c e from t h e m u n i c i p a l T

l i m 4i4t- s • 3 0 A m a j o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e p a r k l a w s make p r o v i s i o n s 31 f o r adequate s u p e r v i s i o n o f park a c t i v i t i e s . Powers a r e v e s t e d i n t h e p a r k o r r e c r e a t i o n bo a rd t o "em ploy p l a y l e a d e r s , playground d i r e c t o r s , su perin tend en ts, it

deems p r o p e r . "

su p ervisors, recrea tio n

or su ch o th e r o f f i c e r s

o r e m p l o y e e s as

32

I n m o st s t a t e s ,

t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

o f m u n i c i p a l r e c r e a t i o n camps seem t o have t h e b e s t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r g r o w t h and e x p a n s i o n u n d e r t h e p a r k l a w s . S t a t u s and F u n c t i o n : o p e r a tio n o f parks i s

The e s t a b l i s h m e n t and

a perm issible

m u n i c i p a l i t i e s i n Am erica.

33

f u n c t i o n o f m ost

Th er e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s ­

a g r e e m e n t and l a c k o f u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e v a r i o u s d ictio n s

ju ris­

i n c l a s s i f y i n g them as e i t h e r g o v e r n m e n t a l or

proprietary fu n ctio n s.

T his c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s

^®C0NN. GEN. STAT., T i t l e 5 2 ,

c. 273,

very

s e c t i o n 5070

(1930). MISSOURI REV. STAT., c . 1 2 9 , a r t . 1 , s e c t i o n 1 4 2 3 8 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; NEBRASKA REV. STAT., c . 1 8 , a r t . 9 , s e c t i o n 902 ( 1 9 4 3 ) . 3 ^ V e t t e r , Roy A . , D i g e s t o f Laws f o r L o c a l Parks and R ecrea tio n , p. 534. 3 2 GE0RGIA CODE, T i t l e 3^V etter,

lo c. c it .

69, c.

69 ( 1 9 3 3 ) .

im portant i n regard t o the l i a b i l i t y o r g a n i z i n g and c o n d u c t i n g t h e i r

o f camp d i r e c t o r s i n

camps.

I t has been s a i d :

34

The v i e w t a k e n I n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s i s th a t a m u n ic ip a lit y In m a in ta in in g a p u b lic park, s q u a r e , or playgroun d i s engaged i n a g o v e r n ­ m e n t a l a c t i v i t y , and t h e r e f o r e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f s t a t u t e , except in c e r ta in in s t a n c e s , i s not l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f i t s o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s , or e m p l o y e e s . A l m o s t h a l f o f t h e s t a t e s have d e c l a r e d t h e o p e r a t i o n 35 o f p a r k s and p l a y g r o u n d s t o be a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n . I n m ost o f t h e s e s t a t e s t h i s ha s b e e n t h e r e s u l t o f j u d i c i a l r u l in g s o f the h ig h er courts o f the s t a t e . Several sta tes 36 have s t a t u t e s a l l o w i n g immunity. I n M i n n e s o t a , one o f th e park laws s t a t e s No c i t y i s t o be l i a b l e f o r a n y damage r e s u l t ­ i n g fro m any want o f r e p a i r o r i n s u f f i c i e n c y i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f any s u c h p r o p e r t i e s . The c o r p o r a t i o n , i t s o f f i c e r s , a g e n t s , or s e r v a n t s a r e l i k e w i s e f r e e d from l i a b i l i t y . Th er e must be p la ced at conspicuous p o in t s along th e d r i v e s , o u t­ s id e the c i t y l i m i t s , at i n t e r v a l s o f not ex ceed in g one m i l e , a n o t i c e i n l a r g e p l a i n l e t t e r s r e a d i n g fAny p e r s o n u s i n g t h i s d r i v e d o e s s o a t h i s own r i s k as t o d e f e c t s t h e r e i n . 1

‘X A

u

39 Am. J u r . , P a r k s , S q u a r e s and P l a y g r o u n d s , s e c t i o n 3 5 ; S e e n o t e , 120 A . L . R . 1 380 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . rz c

S e e F i g u r e 5 a t end o f c h a p t e r .

rzQ

1939, c. 3,

Alabama A c t s 1 9 2 3 , c . 5 2 9 , s e c t i o n 10; Id a h o Laws c . 2 1 4 , s e c t i o n 2 ; NEW JERSEY REV. STAT., T i t l e 5 , a r t 5 ( 1 9 3 7 ) ; TEXAS STAT., T i t l e 1 0 3 , a r t . 6 0 8 1 b ( 1 9 3 6 ) . 3 7 MINN. ANN. STAT., c . 4 4 8 , s e c t i o n 54 ( 1 9 4 5 ) .

I ll T h e r e a r e some e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e s when t h e c o d e 11 d o e s n o t a p p l y t o g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s . o fficers,

agents,

o r e m p l o y e e s hav e v i o l a t e d

t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p a r k s and p l a y g r o u n d s , lo se

t h e i r im m unity from l i a b i l i t y .

common s t a t u t e s v i o l a t e d a r e : statu tes,

n u isan ce,

im m unity When t h e

a statu te

in

they u s u a lly

Some o f t h e more

b u ild in g codes,

sa fe place

l a c k o f p erfo rm in g mandatory d u t i e s ,

and i n some c a s e s c h a r g i n g a f e e f o r s e r v i c e s e i t h e r r e a s o n 38 39 able o r one f o r p r o f i t . When t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n o p e r a t e s i t s p a r k s and p l a y g r o u n d s i n a p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y ,

it

to ex ercise

e q u i p p i n g , and

ordinary care in e s t a b l i s h i n g ,

c a r in g fo r the area.

i s required

They must make them r e a s o n a b l y s a f e

f o r p e o p l e f r e q u e n t i n g t h e g r o u n d s and u s i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t , 40 and t h e y w i l l be l i a b l e f o r f a i l u r e t o do s o . In M ille r 41 e t a l v . C ity o f P h ila d e lp h ia , the court sa id :

^ % i g g i n s v . C i t y o f F o r t Worth, 299 S.W. 4 6 8 ( 1 9 2 7 ) .

( T e x . C i v . A p p .)

3 9 S e e n o t e s , 99 A . L . R . 695 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; 29 A . L . R . 8 7 4 ( 1 9 2 4 ) ; S e e F i g u r e 5 a t end o f c h a p t e r . 4-0

Cohen v . B o r oug h o f B r a d l e y B e a c h , 50 A. 2d 882 (New J e r s e y 1 9 4 7 ) ; B o n c z e k v . C i t y o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , 3 3 8 Pa. 4 8 4 , 13 A. 2d 41 4 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; S h e r f y v . C i t y o f B r a z i l , 2 1 3 I n d . 4 9 3 , 13 N . E . 2d 568 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ; P a r a s k a v . C i t y o f S c r a n t o n , 3 1 3 Pa. 2 2 7 , 169 A. 434 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; Edmondson v . Kansas C i t y , 2 2 7 Mo. App. 8 1 7 , 57 S.W. 2d 690 ( 1 9 3 3 ) . ^ M i l l e r v . C ity o f P h ila d e lp h ia , 25 A. 2d 1 8 5 , 189 ( 1 9 4 2 ) .

34 5 P a. 1 , 8 ,

iia I n t h i s Commonwealth, t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a p u b l i c p a r k i s r e g a r d e d as a p e r f o r m a n c e o f a p r o p r i e t a r y and n o t a g o v e r n m e n t a l d u t y , w i t h t h e r e s u i t t h a t th e m u n i c i p a l i t y becomes l i a b l e f o r th e i m p r o p e r management and u s e o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y . At l e a s t

f o u r t e e n s t a t e s have a c c e p t e d t h i s r e s p o n s i ­

b i l i t y e i t h e r b y c o u r t a c t i o n o r by s t a t u t e s o f t h e s t a t e leg isla tu re N u isan ce;

W hether a m u n i c i p a l i t y i s

operatin g i t s

parks i n a govern m en tal or a p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n , t h e y are not perm itted to m ain ta in a p u b lic n u isa n ce. tain s

a n u i s a n c e and i n j u r y r e s u l t s ,

damages.

43

Many j u r i s d i c t i o n s 44 one c o u r t when t h e y s a i d :

I f i t m ain­

t h e y w i l l be l i a b l e

for

fo llo w the r u l in g g iv e n in

The same la w t h a t r e q u i r e s a m u n i c i p a l c o r ­ p o r a t i o n t o k e e p i t s s t r e e t s f r e e from n u i s a n c e s and r e a s o n a b l y s a f e f o r t h o s e who l a w f u l l y u s e th e m , i m p o s e s on i t t h e d u t y t o k e e p i t s p u b l i c parks i n a r e a s o n a b ly s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r a l l law ­ f u l l y f r e q u e n t i n g and u s i n g t h e m . From t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n C h a p t e r I I I , d ifficu lt

t o d e t e r m i n e what wou ld c o n s t i t u t e

a camp, p a r k o r p l a y g r o u n d .

42

a nuisan ce.

is

a nuisance in

No hard and f a s t r u l e

l a i d down a s t o what c o n s t i t u t e s

it

can be

Each c a s e

S e e F i g u r e 5 a t end o f c h a p t e r .

43

39 Am. J u r . , P a r k s , S q u a r e s and P l a y g r o u n d s , 4 1 ; S e e n o t e , 142 A . L . R . 1376 ( 1 9 4 3 ) . 44

L e w is v . K ansas C i t y , 2 3 3 Mo. App. 3 4 1 , 3 5 1 , S.W. 2d 8 5 2 , 856 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . ^See

C hapter I I I ,

p.

16.

section 122

115

depends upon i t s is

own s t a t e

of facts.

As a g e n e r a l r u l e i t

a q u e s t i o n f o r th e ju r y t o determ ine whether th e circum -

stances

create a n u isan ce.

46

Some o f t h e c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e

m u n i c i p a l i t i e s were h e ld l i a b l e

f o r n u i s a n c e w i l l show t h e

k i n d s o f t h i n g s t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o be c o n s i d e r e d a n u i s a n c e . A c i t y was l i a b l e

f o r t h e d e a t h o f a c h i l d when one

o f s e v e r a l c o r r u g a t e d p i p e s on w h i c h s h e was p l a y i n g was 47 r o l l e d o v e r by o t h e r c h i l d r e n p l a y i n g I n s i d e o f i t . A c h i l d r e n 1s s l i d i n g bo ard i n n e e d o f r e p a i r on w h i c h a c h i l d 48 was i n j u r e d was d e c l a r e d a n u i s a n c e . A ca nnon t h a t had n o t b e e n s e c u r e l y f a s t e n e d t o t h e ground and i n w h i c h t h e b a r r e l c r u s h e d a b o y f s head when i t f e l l t o t h e ground was 49 a n u isan ce. A c i t y was a l s o h e l d l i a b l e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a d i v i n g bo ard o v e r s h a l l o w w a t e r w i t h o u t any w a r n i n g and 50 i n w h i c h a p e r s o n was I n j u r e d . Where a c i t y m a i n t a i n e d a c o n c r e t e p i l l a r w i t h c annon b a l l s

l o o s e l y r e s t i n g on I t 51 and a c h i l d was i n j u r e d i t was h e l d l i a b l e . A c i t y was

4 6 Bauman v . C i t y and County o f San F r a n c i s c o , 42 C a l . App. 2d 1 4 4 , 1 0 8 P. 2d 989 ( 1 9 4 0 ) ; C o s t e l l o v . C i t y o f A u r o r a , 2 9 5 1 1 1 . App. 5 1 0 , 15 N .E . 2d 38 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 47 G o t t e sm a n v . C i t y o f C l e v e l a n d , 142 Ohio S t . 4 1 0 , 52 N .E . 2d 64 4 ( 1 9 4 4 ) . 48 S c h m i t t v . C h e v i o t , 31 O h io , N . P . N . S . 12 ( 1 9 3 3 ) . 49P r if t y v . 2d 2 6 0 ( 1 9 4 7 ) .

C i t y o f W a t e r b u r y , 133 Conn. 6 5 4 , 54 A.

5 0 Huffman v . B r i s t o l ,

113 Conn. 3 8 6 , 155 A. 499 ( 1 9 3 1 ) .

5 1 C o s t e l l o v . C i t y o f A u r o r a , 295 1 1 1 . App. 5 1 0 , 15 N .E . 2d 38 ( 1 9 3 8 ) .

held l i a b l e

f o r k e e p in g w ild anim als i n a park i n such

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t t h e a n i m a l c o u l d r e a c h o u t and i n j u r e 52 p eop le. Where a t h r e e y e a r o l d c h i l d was s a i d t o h a v e d i e d as a r e s u l t

o f d r i n k i n g p o l l u t e d w e l l w a t e r from a w e l l

m a in t a in e d by a c i t y i n t h e i r p a rk , t h e e v id e n c e p r e s e n t e d a f a c t u a l q u e s t i o n f o r t h e j u r y t o d e c i d e as t o w h e t h e r or not i t

c o n stitu te d a n u isan ce.

53

A p ar k b e n c h i n a r a t h e r

d ilap id ated

c o n d i t i o n on w h i c h a c h i l d was i n j u r e d w h i l e 54 p l a y i n g was c o n s i d e r e d a n u i s a n c e . Many t h i n g s have b e e n d e c l a r e d n o t t o c o n s t i t u t e n u i s a n c e , and i n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s t h e r e i s ment as t o what i s a n u i s a n c e .

a

some d i s a g r e e ­

T h u s , i n O hio, where a c i t y

m a i n t a i n e d a d i v i n g bo a r d o v e r s h a l l o w w a t e r and no w a r n i n g a s t o t h e d e p t h o f t h e w a t e r was g i v e n ,

the court sa id i t

was n o t a n u i s a n c e when a p e r s o n was i n j u r e d i n d i v i n g .

55

The m a i n t e n a n c e o f an a r t i f i c i a l l a k e f o r b o a t i n g was n o t a nu isan ce,

56

and an u n g u a r d e d o u t l e t p i p e i n a b a t h i n g 5 7

l a g o o n was a l s o n o t a n u i s a n c e .

The h a z a r d o u s c o n d i t i o n

52

W i g g i n s v . F o r t W orth , ( T e x . C i v . A p p . ) , 299 S.W. 468 (1 9 2 7 ) . 53 Claycomb v . Y o u n g s t o w n , 2 8 Ohio L. A b s. 2 5 7 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 2d 4 1 4 976

Bonczek v . (1940).

Seldon v . (1937). ^6 S a i l o r v .

C i t y o f P h i l a d e l p h i a , 3 3 8 Pa. 4 8 4 , 13 A. Cuyahoga F a l l s ,

132 Ohio S t . 2 2 3 ,

6 N .E .

Columbus, 23 Ohio L. A b s . 4 1 7 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

Mola v . M e t r o p o l i t a n Park D i s t r i c t , 42 P. 2d 435 ( 1 9 3 5 ) .

181 Wash. 1 7 7 ,

of ice

on a pond i n a p u b l i c p a r k r e s u l t i n g fro m a r i s e

tem perature i n w hich a c h ild

f e l l through the i c e

drowned was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a n u i s a n c e . k illed

58

in

and was

When a c h i l d was

from a f a l l o f f a s w i n g w h i c h b r o k e b e c a u s e t h e p o s t

w h i c h h e l d t h e s w i n g was d e c a y e d a t t h e b a s e i t was d e c l a r e d not a nu isan ce.

59

A s l i d i n g b o ar d w h i c h l a y on t h e p l a y ­

ground u p s i d e down w a i t i n g f o r r e p a i r on w h i c h a c h i l d was i n j u r e d was n o t c o n s i d e r e d

a nu isan ce.

I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o know what c o n s t i t u t e s as h a s b e e n shown by t h e abov e c a s e s .

a nuisance,

Camp d i r e c t o r s s h o u l d

make n e c e s s a r y i n s p e c t i o n s and r e p a i r s t o e l i m i n a t e a l l nuisance p o s s i b i l i t i e s . L i a b i l i t y o f O f f ic e r s , A gents,

and S e r v a n t s ;

l a w a f f o r d s some p r o t e c t i o n t o o f f i c e r s , v a n ts w h ile t h e y are p erfo rm in g d u t i e s

agents,

The

and s e r ­

o f a governm ental

nature,

bu t when t h e y p e r f o r m d u t i e s

nature,

t h e y assume t h e same l e g a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s

as t h e o f f i c e r s ,

agents,

One a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s :

of a proprietary

and s e r v a n t s o f p r i v a t e

corp orations.

61

^ C l e v e l a n d v . W a l k e r , 52 Ohio App. 4 7 7 , 3 N .E . 2d 99 0 ( 1 9 3 6 ) . 59 R o y s t o n v . C h a r l o t t e , 2 7 8 Mich. 2 5 5 , 2 70 I\T.W. 288 (1936). ^ G r i n d e v . W a t e r t o w n , 232 W i s . 5 5 1 , 2 8 8 R.W. 196 (1939). 6 1 39 Am. J u r . , P a r k s , S q u a r e s and P l a y g r o u n d s , s e c t io n 38.

116 In s t a t e s a d h er in g t o the r u l e t h a t th e m ain­ ten ance o f parks i s a governm ental f u n c t io n , n e g l i g e n c e o f p a r k c o m m i s s i o n e r s , e m p l o y e e s , or a g e n ts i n the d is c h a r g e o f d u t i e s connected w ith th e m aintenance o f parks does not g iv e r i s e to i n d i v i d u a l or p e r s o n a l l i a b i l i t y , i n th e absence o f any n e g l e c t o f d u t y t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n j u r e d , A l i k e r e s u l t h as b e e n a r r i v e d a t i n s t a t e s r e c o g ­ n i z i n g the l i a b i l i t y o f th e c i t y fo r f a i l u r e to e x e r c i s e proper care i n the m aintenance o f p a rk s. In r eg a r d t o f u n c t i o n s perform ed i n a p r o p r i e t a r y 62 c a p a c i t y , i t h as b e e n s t a t e d : I f a m u n i c i p a l o f f i c e r i s e n g a g e d i n work f o r t h e m u n i c i p a l i t y i n i t s p r i v a t e or p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y , he i s l i a b l e f o r t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f h i s s u b o r d i n a t e s i n t h e same manner as a p r i v a t e em­ p loyer. He i s l i a b l e i f he i n t e n t i o n a l l y e m p loys an i n c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n . When an o f f i c e r ,

a g e n t , or s e r v a n t o f l o c a l park

and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s i s n e g l i g e n t and d o e s n o t t a k e th e n e c e s s a r y care r e q u ir e d fo r the p r o t e c t i o n o f o t h e r s , he i s

l i a b l e w h e t h e r t h e f u n c t i o n p e r fo r m e d i s e i t h e r

gov ern m en ta l or p r o p r i e t a r y . 63 that:

It is

a w ell se ttle d

rule

I n t h e d i s c h a r g e o f an o f f i c i a l d u t y , a m u n i c i p a l o f f i c e r f a l l s t o t a k e t h a t c a r e w h ic h due r e g a r d f o r o t h e r s r e q u i r e s , and h i s a c t r e ­ s u l t s In i n j u r y , h i s conduct c o n s t i t u t e s m is ­ f e a s a n c e f o r w h i c h he i s l i a b l e .

cp

37 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

s e c t io n 265.

^ 3 7 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

s e c t io n 264.

Summary:

When l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s

c o n d u c t camps a s p a r t o f t h e i r pr o g r a m , i t

i s u s u a l l y con­

s i d e r e d as b e i n g an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p l a y g r o u n d a c t i v i t i e s . The same l a w s and r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g r e c r e a t i o n program s i n p a r k s and on p l a y g r o u n d s g e n e r a l l y a p p l y t o t h o s e i n t h e camp. A l l 48 s t a t e s ha v e l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n l a w s . They v a r y from e x t e n s i v e

and c o m p r e h e n s i v e l a w s g r a n t i n g

many p o w er s t o l o c a l g o v e r n i n g a g e n c i e s t o v e r y s p e c i f i c and l i m i t e d l a w s g r a n t i n g t o l o c a l a g e n c i e s v e r y few p o w e r s . Most o f t h e s t a t e p a r k l a w s p e r m i t l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s t o e s t a b l i s h and c o n d u c t camping p r o g r a m s . One o f t h e i m p o r t a n t l e g a l c o n c e p t s i n r e g a r d t o l i a b i l i t y o f l o c a l r e c r e a t i o n departm ents f o r t o r t s w h e t h e r t h e camping pr ogram i s

is

co n sid ered a governm ental

f u n c t i o n or a p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n .

T h i s f u n c t i o n some­

t i m e s c h a n g e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e manner i n w h i c h t h e program is

conducted.

A c h a r g e o f a s m a l l f e e i n some s t a t e s may

change th e f u n c t i o n . an u n r e a s o n a b l e

More s t a t e s r e g a r d t h e c h a r g i n g o f

fee for c e r ta in r e c r e a tio n a c t i v i t i e s

as a

cause f o r changing a governm ental f u n c t io n t o a p r o p r ie t a r y fu n ction . A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f th e im portant l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s regard in g the t o r t

lia b ility

o f l o c a l r e c r e a t i o n departm ents

f o r c o n d u c t i n g camps w i l l be f o u n d i n Key Code Humber 5 and F igure 5.

US KEY CODE NUMBER 5

Key Number 1054.

States

Provisions i n w h i c h p a r k l a w s g r a n t b r o a d po w er s t o l o c a l

p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g and co n d u ctin g r e c r e a t i o n programs. 1055.

(48)'*

S t a t e s w h i c h a r e now c o n d u c t i n g camping progr ams from pow ers g r a n t e d t o l o c a l p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t ­ m en t s by t h e s t a t e p a r k l a w s .

1056.

States

(32)*

i n w hich th e c o u r ts or the l e g i s l a t u r e

have

d e c l a r e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n t o be a governm ental f u n c t io n . 1057.

States

(26)*

i n w h ich th e c o u r t s or the l e g i s l a t u r e

have

d e c l a r e d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n t o be a proprietary fu n ctio n . 1058.

States

(15)*

i n w h i c h c o u r t c a s e s o r s t a t u t e s were u n o b t a i n ­

a b l e t o make a r e l i a b l e

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as t o w h e t h e r

or n o t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n was a g o v e r n m e n t a l or a p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n . 1059.

States

i n which i t

(7)*

i s the g e n e r a l r u l e th a t l o c a l

p a r k and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s a r e l i a b l e

for

c r e a t i n g o r m a i n t a i n i n g a n u i s a n c e o r an a t t r a c t i v e n u i s a n c e when i n j u r y or damages o c c u r t o an in d iv id u a l.

(48)“

wThe f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s t h e number o f s t a t e s having t h i s p r o v is io n .

11? 1060.

S t a t e s i n w h i c h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n departm ent i s

co n sid ered a governm ental

f u n c t i o n and i s n o t ch anged by r e a s o n o f c h a r g i n g an i n c i d e n t a l o r r e a s o n a b l e f e e rendered. 1061.

S tates

for se r v ic e s

( 2 6 ) ‘'r

i n which i t

a p p e a r s t o be t h e r u l e

f o r park

and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s o p e r a t i n g i n a g o v e r n ­ m e n t a l c a p a c i t y t h a t c h a r g i n g a f e e o f any k in d f o r s e r v i c e s w i l l c ha ng e t h e f u n c t i o n t o a p r o p r i e t a r y one,

and w i l l make t h e d e p a r t m e n t l i a b l e

comm itted. 1062.

for to r ts

(16)*

S t a t e s o p e r a t i n g t h e i r p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n pr ograms i n a g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y w i l l be l i a b l e

for

c h a r g i n g an u n r e a s o n a b l e f e e o r one f o r p r o f i t w i l l g e n e r a l l y make them l i a b l e

or change t h e s t a t u s

t h e pr ogram t o a p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n .

(O nly s t a t e s

where c a s e s w e re found t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s w ere sh ow n. states

of

T h i s may be t h e g e n e r a l r u l e

auth ority

for a l l

o p e r a tin g in a governmental c a p a c it y .

States

i n w h i c h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n p r o ­ grams i s check ed .)

states

c o n s id e r e d a p r o p r i e t a r y f u n c t i o n are a l s o (21)w

^The f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s having t h i s p r o v i s i o n .

in d ica tes

t h e number o f

1063.

States

i n w h i c h t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n

program s ha s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n b u t due t o r e c e n t l e g i s l a t i o n t h e d e p a r t m e n t s a r e now lia b le

f o r the n e g l ig e n t

acts o f th e ir o f f i c e r s ,

and s e r v a n t s when i n j u r y o c c u r s t o o t h e r s .

sta te s

*The f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s hav in g t h i s p r o v is io n .

agents

(2)w

i n d i c a t e s t h e number o f

121

c STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

F igure 5 .

I—

X X X X X

c r-

X

Cl:

t-

c

c

X

X

x X,

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

y

X

X

X X

X

X

■JT

X

y

y

x X X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

y

X

x

X

X

X

X

X

X

y

x

X

X

y

X

y

y y

x x x x x y

x X

X

y

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X X X

X

X

x

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X,

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

26

X

i - 12

12

12'

5

rH

F ig u re

C

ci

1—1

STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

Cli

Cli

7

4

9

X

X

X

X

X

X

10

19 7 44

A n a l y s i s o f S t a t e Laws Concerned With P l e a s u r e Boats

(Craft'S nThe u s u a l i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h e A m e r i c a n summer camp pr ogram i n c l u d e s a r t s

and e r a f t s . S o m e

kinds o f c r a f t a c t i v i t i e s

o f t h e more common

foun d i n t h e camping p r ogram i n ­

c l u d e p o t t e r y , w h i t t l i n g , wood c a r v i n g ,

silver-sm ith in g,

l e a t h e r t o o l i n g , b u i l d i n g o f s h e l t e r s and h u t s , kinds o f k n if e

and ax s k i l l s .

and o t h e r

Many o f t h e forms o f a r t s and

c r a f t s now c o n d u c t e d i n camps a r e more a d a p t e d t o s c h o o l and r e c r e a t io n c en te rs in the c i t i e s .

Camp a u t h o r i t i e s

a r e more

in terested

i n c r a f t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t have a f u n d a m e n t a l 15 r e l a t i o n s h i p t o camp l i f e . A c t i v i t i e s t h a t are in d ig e n o u s t o t h e camp s e t t i n g a r e t h e t y p e s o f a c t i v i t y fo und i n t h e b e t t e r camps.

Many camps h a v e , as an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f

t h e i r pr o g r a m ,

craft

a c tiv itie s

m a c h i n e r y and e q u ip m e n t as i s

a l m o s t i n v o l v i n g as much

found i n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l

m a nu a l t r a i n i n g r o o m s . No c a s e s d e a l i n g w i t h i n j u r i e s r e s u l t i n g from c r a f t a ctiv ities

i n t h e camp program w ere f o u n d .

The o n l y c a s e s

fo un d were t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r i n g as a r e s u l t o f n e g l i g e n c e o f o f f i c e r s and a g e n t s i n t h e s c h o o l . A r e v i e w o f some o f t h e r u l i n g s o f t h e h i g h e r c o u r t s may s e r v e t o g u i d e camping a u t h o r i t i e s plan n in g o f c r a ft a c t i v i t i e s

^D rought, 15I b id ., p.

op. 98.

c i t .,

i n more i n t e l l i g e n t

i n t h e i r programs.

p. 97.

Municipal Corporations and Schools (Governmental F u n ction:

The same "im m un it y code" f o r t o r t s

co rp o ra tio n s w h ile a c tin g in i t s

o f m unicipal

governm ental c a p a c it y

a p p e a r s t o ha v e a l i k e sch ools.

It

is

a p p lic a t io n in the m a jo r ity o f p u b lic 16 the g e n e r a l ru le th a t:

School d i s t r i c t s , sch o o l boards, m unicipal cor­ p o r a t i o n s , o r o t h e r a g e n c i e s or a u t h o r i t i e s i n c h a r g e o f p u b l i c s c h o o l s , i n m a i n t a i n i n g c o u r s e s i n m anual t r a i n i n g , w o o d w o r k i n g , shop w o r k i n g , o r t h e l i k e , a r e e n g a g e d i n g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n s , in a s m u c h as s u c h c o u r s e s c o n s t i t u t e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f p u b l i c e d u ­ c a t i o n , and t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f l e g i s l a t i v e enactm ent t o the c o n t r a r y , su ch a g e n c ie s o r a u t h o r i t i e s a r e immune from l i a b i l i t y f o r t h e p e r ­ s o n a l i n j u r i e s or d e a t h o f p u p i l s s u s t a i n e d i n c o n ­ n e c t i o n t h e r e w i t h , a t l e a s t when c a u s e d by mere n eg lig en ce. And t h e r u l e o f im m unity i n t h i s c o n ­ n e c t i o n has b een a p p l ie d n o t w it h s t a n d i n g t h a t the n e g l i g e n c e i n q u e s t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f f a i l u r e by a board o f e d u c a t i o n t o perform a m andatory, s t a t u t o r y d u t y , and e v e n t h o u g h t h e members o f t h e b o a r d or o t h e r o f f i c e r s were made c r i m i n a l l y l i a b l e by s t a t u t e f o r f a i l u r e t o do s o . Th er e have b e e n s e v e r a l c a s e s i n v o l v i n g i n j u r y t o p u p i l s as t h e r e s u l t

o f n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e s c h o o l board t o

f u r n i s h s a f e equipm ent,

and as a r e s u l t o f t h e n e g l i g e n c e

o f t h e i n s t r u c t o r t o warn o f t h e d a n g e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o p e r a tin g the m achines.

I n t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s , no

r e c o v e r y was g r a n t e d b e c a u s e t h e s c h o o l s were c o n d u c t i n g 17 m anual t r a i n i n g c l a s s e s as a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n .

1 6S e e n o t e s , 160 A . L . H . 170 ( 1 9 4 6 ) . 17 Conrad v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 29 Ohio App. 3 1 7 , 163 N . E . 567 ( 1 9 2 8 ) ; N a b e l l v . A t l a n t a , 33 Ga. App. 5 4 5 , 126 S . E . 9 05 ( 1 9 2 5 ) ; K r u t i l i v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 99 W. Va. 4 6 6 , 129 S . E . 486 ( 1 9 2 5 ) ; S u l l i v a n v . S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 179 W i s . 5 0 2 , 1 9 1 N.W. 1020 ( 1 9 2 3 ) ; S e e n o t e , 160 A . L . R . 172 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .

The ’’im m u n ity d o c t r i n e ’* was e v e n u p h e l d when s t a t u t e s

im­

p o s e d a d u t y up on t h e s c h o o l boar d t o p r o t e c t t h e p u p i l s by 18 p r o v i d i n g s a f e t y equipment f o r th e m a c h in e s . M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s and S c h o o l s F u n ction ):

(P rop rietary

In s o m e ' s t a t e s the s c h o o l d i s t r i c t

b o a r d s are l i a b l e as a r e s u l t

for the n eg lig en ce o f o f f i c e r s

of statu tory p rovision s.

In t h e s e

when t h e s c h o o l board p u r c h a s e s and i n s t a l l s is

and s c h o o l and a g e n t s

ju risd ictio n s,

e q u ip m e n t t h a t

o b v i o u s l y d a n g e r o u s and no p r o v i s i o n s a r e made t o s a f e ­

gua rd t h e p u p i l s

from a c c i d e n t s

and i n j u r y ,

the s c h o o l

b o a r d be comes l i a b l e . sta n tia te th is

There a r e a number o f c a s e s t o s u b 19 20 ru lin g . I n Thomas v . New Y o r k , a scrib er

w h i c h had b e e n i n s e r t e d speed l a t h e , eye.

i n a c h u c k , w h i c h was p a r t o f a

f l e w from i t s

f a s t e n i n g s and i n j u r e d a p u p i l Ts

I t was a m a t t e r f o r t h e j u r y t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r due

c a r e was e x e r c i s e d i n p r o v i d i n g a r e a s o n a b l y s a f e m a ch in e fo r the s tu d e n ts . w hich caught h i s sev erely ,

And, where a boy was w o r k i n g a t a l a t h e s w e a t e r i n t h e m a c h i n e r y i n j u r i n g him

t h e s c h o o l board was h e l d l i a b l e

for n egligen ce

•^C onrad v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 29 Ohio App. 3 1 7 , 163 N .E . 5 67 ( 1 9 2 8 ) ; N a b e l l v . A t l a n t a , 33 Ga. App. 5 4 5 , 126 S . E . 905 ( 1 9 2 5 ) . 19 R i d g e v . B o u l d e r Creek U n i o n J r . H ig h S c h o o l D i s t . , 60 C a l . App. 2d 4 5 3 , 140 P. 2d 99 0 ( 1 9 4 3 ) ; Ahern v . L i v e r m o r e U n i o n H ig h S c h o o l D i s t . , 208 C a l . 7 7 0 , 284 P. 1 10 5 ( 1 9 3 0 ) ; Herman v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 23 4 N.Y . 1 9 6 , 1 37 N . E . 24 ( 1 9 2 2 ) ; S ee n o t e , 160 A . L . R . 1 7 2 , 173 ( 1 9 4 6 ) . 20

28 5 N.Y . 4 9 6 , 35 N .E . 2d 617 ( 1 9 4 1 ) .

in not p r o v id in g p r o t e c t iv e

c lo t h in g fo r the p u p i l s .

It

was a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a v i o l a t i o n o f a s t a t u t e w h i c h r e q u i r e d t h e Board o f E d u c a t i o n o f New York t o f u r n i s h p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g t o t h e same e x t e n t a s p r i v a t e

i n d u s t r i e s were r e ­

q u i r e d by l a b o r l a w t o f u r n i s h s p e c i a l p r o t e c t i v e e q u ip m e n t 21 whenever n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . When n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u t i o n s are t a k e n f o r t h e s a f e t y o f the p u p ils

s u c h as p r o v i d i n g g u a r d s f o r m a c h i n e s , p r o ­

viding p r o tec tiv e su p ervision ,

cloth es for p u p ils,

p r o v id in g adequate

and g i v i n g w a r n i n g s as t o d a n g e r s o f t h e a c ­

tiv itie s,

t h e r e c a n u s u a l l y be no r e c o v e r y f o r i n j u r i e s 22 su stain ed thereby. T h u s, where t h e n e c e s s a r y g u a r d s were furnished

f o r a bu z z saw , and t h e p u p i l s were warned o f

t h e d a n g e r s i n o p e r a t i n g t h e m a c h i n e , no r e c o v e r y was g r a n t e d t o a p u p i l when h i s And i n Goodman v .

f i n g e r was c u t on t h e m a c h i n e . 24 P a s a d e n a C i t y H ig h S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ,

23

a t h i r t e e n year old ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l stu d en t su s ta in e d in ju ries

i n t h e m a c h i n e sh op w h i l e w a t c h i n g o t h e r p u p i l s

at a v i s e , court sa id :

a b ou t t w e l v e f e e t 25

away, pound aluminum, t h e

^ E d k i n s v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 2 8 7 N.Y. 5 0 5 , 41 N . E . 2d 75 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . pp S e e n o t e , 1 6 0 A . L . R . 174 ( 1 9 4 6 ) . p^ K l e n z e n d o r f v . S h a s t a U n ion H ig h S c h o o l D i s t . , 4 G al. App. 1 6 4 , 40 P. 2d 878 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; J o h n s o n v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 2 1 0 App. D i v . 7 2 3 , 206 N . Y . S . 610 ( 1 9 2 4 ) . P4

25

4 Gal. App. 2d 65, 40 P. 2d 854 (1935).

There was no p r o o f t h a t a n y s c h o o l a u t h o r i t y o f t h e d i s t r i c t knew t h a t aluminum s h a t t e r e d when p o u n d e d , a l t h o u g h p u p i l s had b e e n i n s t r u c t e d t o w e a r g o g g l e s when w o r k i n g around an emery w h e e l , i t was n o t deemed a d v a n t a g e o u s t o w e a r g o g g l e s a t o t h e r wor k i n t h e s h o p ; and t h a t i t was n o t shown t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t o r s h o u l d hav e known t h a t g o g g l e s were n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s a f e t y o f s p e c t a t o r s w i t h i n the shop. Summary:

As a g e n e r a l r u l e , when a m u n i c i p a l c o r ­

p o r a t i o n i s c o n d u c t i n g a c r a f t s pr ogram i n i t s actin g in i t s

governm ental c a p a c ity ,

for n eg lig en ce o f o f f i c e r s ,

camps w h i l e

i t w i l l n o t be l i a b l e

a g e n t s and e m p l o y e e s .

When c o n d u c t i n g t h e c r a f t s program i n i t s p r o p r i e t a r y fu n ction , p rivate

it

ass u m e s t h e same d u t i e s and l i a b i l i t i e s

as

I n d i v i d u a l s or c o r p o r a t i o n s . It is

t h e d u t y o f t h e camp d i r e c t o r t o f u r n i s h a l l

n e c e s s a r y s a f e t y e q u ip m e n t and p r o t e c t i v e p o ssib le

i n j u r i e s t o t h e c a m p e r s.

iro n s, pottery k iln s ,

em ery w h e e l s ,

equipment are f u r n i s h e d , make them as s a f e

the

as p o s s i b l e

c lo t h in g to avoid

When b u z z s a w s , w e l d i n g and o t h e r k i n d s o f c r a f t

camp d i r e c t o r i s

ob ligated to

fo r the p r o t e c t io n o f the

campers• The camp c r a f t p r ogram r e q u i r e s t h e u s e o f a x e s , hatchets,

k n ives,

and o t h e r s u c h t o o l s .

When t h e s e

in stru ­

m en t s are p l a c e d i n t h e hands o f p e r s o n s who a r e n o t c a p a b l e o f h a n d l i n g them p r o p e r l y ,

o r i f t h e camper i s

knowingly

p e r m i t t e d t o u s e t h e m , t h e camp d i r e c t o r may be l i a b l e the i n j u r i e s

for

t h a t o c c u r i n t h e n e g l i g e n t or w r o n g f u l u s e o f

t h e s e t o o l s by t h e c a m p er .

The c a m p c r a f t prog ram demands

t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f s u p e r v i s i o n by t h e c o u n s e l o r s e s ­ p e c i a l l y when t h e u s e o f p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g e r o u s i n s t r u m e n t s Is being learn ed .

26

^ M a d d e n , J o s e p h W ., D o m e s t i c R e l a t i o n s , p p . 4 0 1 - 2 .

Free- Pl-ay and G&me'S A l t h o u g h camping a u t h o r i t i e s do n o t recommend i n c l u d ­ i n g h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d games and p l a y g r o u n d a p p a r a t u s as p a r t o f the

camp p r o g r a m , t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s

are s t i l l

a s a l a r g e p a r t o f t h e progr am i n some camps.

conducted

27

Vi/hen camps

are conducted i n c i t y p a r k s , playground apparatus i s u s u a l l y one o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n s

for the sm aller c h ild r e n .

I n camping a r e a s t h a t hav e e n o u g h f l a t

acreage fo r b a l l

diam on ds and c o u r t g a m es , t h e y a u t o m a t i c a l l y f i n d a p l a c e i n t h e program e s p e c i a l l y where i n t e r e s t

in such a c t i v i t i e s

among t h e campers i s h i g h . The camp d i r e c t o r h a s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s a f e e q u ip m e n t and t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e a c tiv itie s. M u n i c i p a l Camps and Parks P l a y g r o u n d A p p a r a t u s (Governmental F u n c t i o n ) : absence o f s t a t u t e s

It is

the g e n e ra l r u l e ,

to the c o n tr a r y , th a t m u n icip a l c o r ­

p o r a t i o n s w i l l n o t be l i a b l e

for th e n eg lig en ce o f o f f i c e r s

and a g e n t s i n c o n d u c t i n g r e c r e a t i o n p r o g r a m s . a u th o rity finds

its

in

This

support in the fo llo w in g c a se s i n v o l v ­

i n g a c c i d e n t s t o c h i l d r e n on p a r k s w i n g s .

A t h ir t e e n year

o l d c h i l d was k i l l e d when t h e s u p p o r t o f one o f t h e s w i n g s broke.

28

A b o y was s e v e r e l y i n j u r e d when a s u p p o r t from

p 17

^ ' B u t l e r , George D . , R e c r e a t i o n , pp. 3 0 5 -6 . 28

E pstein v. 467 ( 1 9 2 6 ) .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Community

C i t y o f New H aven ,

104 Conn, 2 8 3 , 132 A.

h is

sw ing b r o k e .

The p o s t s on one s w i n g s u p p o r t became

so decayed th a t i t

caused a s t e e l

c r o s s p i e c e t o f a l l on 30 an e l e v e n y e a r o l d b o y and k i l l him . A f i f t e e n year old

g irl fe ll

o u t o f a d e f e c t i v e s w i n g and i n j u r e d h e r s e l f 31 severely. The nim m unity d o c t r i n e ” a l s o a p p l i e d t o t h e

f o l l o w i n g a c c i d e n t s on p l a y g r o u n d e q u i p m e n t .

A youn g c h i l d

was s e r i o u s l y i n j u r e d when sh e f e l l o f f a d e f e c t i v e t e e t e r 32 b o ar d and m e r r y - g o - r o u n d c o m b i n a t i o n . A n o t h e r c h i l d was i n j u r e d when he f e l l o f f o f a d e f e c t i v e s e e - s a w m a i n t a i n e d b y t h e c i t y . 33 M u n i c i p a l Gamps and Parks P l a y g r o u n d A p p a r a t u s (P roprietary F u n ction ): conducting i t s it

When t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n i s

r e c r e a t i o n program i n a p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y

a ss u m e s t h e same l e g a l d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s

corp orations.

I n p r o v i d i n g some a c t i v i t i e s

as p r i v a t e

s u c h as m a ch in e

r u n m e r r y - g o - r o u n d s , t h e p r o p r i e t o r owes t o t h e c h i l d r e n a h ig h degree o f c a r e .

^ C la r k v. 2d 6 1 4 ( 1 9 3 8 ) .

W hite v . (1937).

When p l a y g r o u n d a p p a r a t u s i s

C i t y o f L o u i s v i l l e , 2 7 3 Ky. 6 4 5 ,

3^Royston v . N.W. 2 8 8 ( 1 9 3 6 ) . 492

34

117 S.W.

C i t y o f C h a r l o t t e , 2 78 M ic h. 2 5 5 , 27 0

C i t y o f C h a r l o t t e , 211 JT.C. 1 8 6 , 189 S . E .

•*p

Smith v .

C i t y o f Io w a , 2 1 3 Iow a, 3 9 1 ,

239 I'T.W. 29

(1931). S3

P iasecn y v. 357 (1 9 2 6 ). 3 ^See n o t e ,

C i t y o f M a n c h e s t e r , 82 N.H. 4 5 8 , 136 A

98 A . L . R . 565

(1935).

m a i n t a i n e d f o r c h i l d r e n i n p a r k s , r e a s o n a b l e c a r e must be u s e d t o k e e p them I n good r e p a i r and t o make them r e a s o n a b l y safe

f o r c h i l d r e n t o p la y on.

fa ilu re

to use reason able

a p p a r a t u s when t h e y f a i l e d a sw ing. the le g s

A c i t y was h e l d l i a b l e

for

care i n m a in ta in in g playground t o remove stumps i n t h e p a t h o f

The stu m ps s t o o d two f e e t h i g h ,

and c a u g h t one o f

o f a young g i r l i n j u r i n g her s e v e r e l y .

35

The c i t y

was a l s o h e l d l i a b l e when a g i r l c u t h e r knee on a r o c k w h i c h p r o j e c t e d f o u r i n c h e s above t h e ground i n t h e p a t h o f 36 37 a sw ing. And i n G-wartney v . C i t y o f S p r i n g f i e l d , the c i t y was h e l d l i a b l e

for n e g lig e n t ly m aintaining a s l i d i n g

b o a r d when a s e v e n y e a r o l d c h i l d was I n j u r e d w h i l e u s i n g i t . The c i t y was a l s o h e l d l i a b l e

fo r a c c id e n ts occu rrin g in

o t h e r t y p e s o f g am es. B a s e b a l l and Bad m in to n ( P r o p r i e t a r y F u n c t i o n ) : c h i l d r e n had b e e n u s i n g a l a r g e r o c k f o r f i r s t p l a y i n g b a s e b a l l on one o f t h e th e boys broke h i s rounding f i r s t

Some

base w hile

c i t y playgrounds.

One o f

a n k l e as he s t e p p e d on t h e s t o n e w h i l e

base.

The i n s t r u c t o r had e x p r e s s l y f o r b a d e

3 3 C i t y o f S a p u l a v . Young, 147 O k la. 1 7 9 , 296 P. 418 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . •Z. R

Paraska v . 184 A. 276 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

C ity o f S eren to ,

172 Pa. S u p . C t . 1 ,

3 7 2 3 0 Mo . App. 1 1 8 5 , 93 S.W. 2d 62 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

1-50 t h e u s e o f t h e r o c k f o r a b a s e s o t h e c i t y was n o t h e l d lia b le

for n eg lig en ce.

The c o u r t s a i d :

38

The d e f e n d a n t w ou ld be l i a b l e i f i t a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e r e had b e e n n e g l i g e n c e on t h e p a r t o f i t s a g en t i n charge o f t h e park p r o x im a t e ly c a u sin g th e i n j u r y com plained o f . In S t y e r v .

C ity o f Reading,

39

a g i r l l o s t her eye

w h i l e p l a y i n g b a d m i n t o n w i t h h e r p l a y m a t e s i n a b a s em e n t b u i l d i n g l o c a t e d on t h e p l a y g r o u n d . poorly lig h te d feet

long.

The room was v e r y

and was o n l y t w e l v e f e e t w i d e and f i f t e e n

The g i r l had n e v e r p l a y e d b a d m i n t o n b e f o r e ,

b u t s h e p i c k e d up t h e r a c k e t and s t a r t e d b a t t i n g t h e s h u t t l e c o c k b a c k and f o r t h w i t h h e r p l a y m a t e .

The i n ­

s t r u c t o r was i n t h e room and f a i l e d t o f u r n i s h a n e t or t o g iv e adequate s u p e r v i s i o n .

I n g i v i n g t h e s h u t t l e c o c k one

la st v o lley ,

t h e s h u t t l e c o c k was d r i v e n i n t o t h e g i r l * s 40 eye cau sin g her to l o s e her s i g h t . The c o u r t s a i d : Where a c i t y u n d e r t a k e s t o manage and s u p e r ­ v i s e p r o p e r t y , s u c h a s p u b l i c p a r k s and p l a y g r o u n d s , i t must t a k e c a r e t o ke e p t h a t p r o p e r t y i n a r e a s o n ­ a b l y s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h o s e i n v i t e d t o come upon I t , and t h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f c h ild r e n in playgrounds. . . . N o r do we a g r e e w i t h

326,

3 ® C it y o f I n d i a n a p o l i s v . B a k e r , 72 I n d . App. 3 2 3 , 125 N .E . 5 2 , 53 ( 1 9 1 9 ) . 39 360 Pa. 2 1 2 , 40Id.

61 A. 2d 382

(1948).

a t 2 1 2 , 61 A. 2d a t 3 8 4 , 3 8 5 .

d e f e n d a n t s f i n a l c o n t e n t i o n t h a t m inor p l a i n t i f f was g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e as a m a t t e r o f la v /. She had n e v e r p l a y e d b a d m i n t o n n o r had sh e s e e n t h e s h u t t l e c o c k u s e d i n t h e b a s e m e n t room. She d i d n o t r e a l i z e t h e r e was d a n g e r i n t h e manner and u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s sh e was p l a y ­ in g w i t h Richard* Summary:

The u s e o f p l a y g r o u n d a p p a r a t u s i s

t i m e s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f camping p r o g r a m s . p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e o f camp s i t e s

located

some­

T his i s

in c it y parks.

When c i t y r e c r e a t i o n and p a r k d e p a r t m e n t s s p o n s o r camps w h i l e a c t i n g i n a g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y not l i a b l e as a r e s u l t a c tiv itie s

f o r a c c i d e n t s and i n j u r i e s t h a t o c c u r

o f n e g l i g e n c e i n s u p e r v i s i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g on p l a y g r o u n d a p p a r a t u s .

B ut,

th e y are u s u a l l y

l i a b l e to the

same e x t e n t as p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s when t h e y

conduct t h e s e

a c tiv itie s

in a p rop rietary cap acity.

C h ild re n are u s u a l l y not l i a b l e in ju ries play.

41

for a c cid e n ts

t h a t o c c u r t o p l a y m a t e s as t h e r e s u l t

and

of frien d ly

Many t i m e s u n a v o i d a b l e a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n p l a y i n g

t a g , p l a y i n g on a p p a r a t u s , or c o m p e t i n g i n h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d games.

H o w ever, t h e camp d i r e c t o r may be l i a b l e f o r

a c c i d e n t s t h a t occur t o c h i l d r e n as a r e s u l t o f n e g l ig e n c e in s u p e r v is in g such a c t i v i t i e s , ment,

in fu r n ish in g sa fe equip­

and i n f u r n i s h i n g a s a f e p l a c e t o p l a y .

41See n o t e ,

173 A . L . R . 8 9 0 ( 1 9 4 8 )

H o f selxabk:' E i d l n § Camp program s a r e u s u a l l y p l a n n e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t and a f f o r d a c hang e from t h e a c t i v i t i e s r e g u l a r l y e n g a g e d i n a t home* rid in g is

42

Horseback

a v e r y p o p u l a r s p o r t i n many camps e s p e c i a l l y i n

t h e W e s t e r n s t a t e s where t h e r e i s p l e n t y o f a c r e a g e and b e a u t i f u l m ountain t r a i l s .

43

I n r e c r e a t i o n camps, h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g i s u s u a l l y c o n d u c t e d i n one o f two w a y s .

The p r o p r i e t o r e i t h e r owns

t h e h o r s e s and s t a b l e s and h i r e s a c o u n s e l o r t o g i v e i n ­ stru ctio n s,

o r some o u t s i d e

a g e n c y p r o v i d e s t h e h o r s e s and

g iv es in s tr u c tio n for a fixed

sum o f money.

S t a t u t e s and s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s

for h o rse­

b a c k r i d i n g or l i v e r y s t a b l e s i n r e c r e a t i o n camps are n o t too p l e n t i f u l . S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l and H e a l t h R e g u l a t i o n s :

In m ost

s t a t e s t h e r e a r e p r o v i s i o n s f o r a l i e n on t h e h o r s e f o r b o a r d i n g or p a s t u r i n g i t .

Other s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s

found i n the v a r i o u s s t a t e s

in clu d e,

a p e n a lt y fo r m isuse

o f t h e h o r s e o r an a t t e m p t t o d e f r a u d t h e b a i l o r ,

a licen se

t a x im po sed on l i v e r y s t a b l e s , pow ers g r a n t e d t o m u n i c i p a l corp orations to r e g u la t e ,

4-2

B u tler,

43Ib id.

op.

c it .,

t a x , or l i c e n s e l i v e r y s t a b l e s ,

p. 305.

155 and a p e n a l t y im p o se d f o r v i o l a t i n g any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s 44 o f the acts* The s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s f o r r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e c h i e f l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n o f t h e 45 stab les* I n some s t a t e s t h e r e a r e r e g u l a t i o n s as t o t h e d istan ce

a s t a b l e may be l o c a t e d from s l e e p i n g and e a t i n g

quarters.

Other r e g u l a t i o n s

i n c l u d e , th e l e n g t h o f time

manure may r e m a i n a t t h e s t a b l e , d r a i n a g e r e g u l a t i o n s the s t a b l e ,

of

and m a i n t e n a n c e o f s t a b l e b a r n s t o p r e v e n t them

from b e c o m i n g a n u i s a n c e .

A number o f r u l i n g s

from t h e

h i g h e r c o u r t s i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s may h e l p t h e camp d i r e c t o r p l a n h i s program i n h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g more e ffic ie n tly . P a rk s and Camps ( P r i v a t e C a p a c i t y ) :

A young g i r l

was i n j u r e d w h i l e r i d i n g a h o r s e i n a p r i v a t e

camp.

The

i n j u r y was c a u s e d by t h e i n s t r u c t o r k i c k i n g and w h i p p i n g the horse u n t i l i t lia b le

th r e w t h e g i r l o f f .

fo r the n e g lig e n c e

The p r o p r i e t o r was

o f th e i n s t r u c t o r even though th e

h o r s e s were owned and o p e r a t e d by t h e i n s t r u c t o r .

The

court s a id : The p l a i n t i f f Ts p r o o f showed t h a t t h e s t a b l e s were on t h e d e f e n d a n t s g r o u n d s , t h a t t h e r i d i n g m a s t e r l i v e d a t t h e camp, t h a t t h e h o r s e s were u s e d

^ S e e F i g u r e 7 a t end o f t h i s 45

d iscu ssion .

Supra n o t e 4 4 .

4GGetler v. Rubinstein, 171 Misc. 40, 11 N.Y.S. 2d 943, 944 (1939).

151 ;

b y t h e d e f e n d a n t f s campers u n d e r an e x p r e s s a r ­ rangement w it h P f i s t e r , t h a t th e b o o k l e t i s s u e d b y t h e d e f e n d a n t and r e c e i v e d by t h e i n f a n t p l a i n t i f f b e f o r e he a r r i v e d r e p r e s e n t e d h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g as one o f t h e maj or a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e camp and c a r r i e d a p i c t u r e o f a gro up o f r i d e r s , t h e r e was a s i g n on t h e g r o u n d s a n n o u n c i n g t h a t t h e r e was h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g t h e r e u n d e r c o m p e t e n t i n ­ s t r u c t i o n , t h a t t h e camp d i r e c t o r t o l d s u c h p l a i n ­ t i f f t h a t t h e y had a v e r y c a p a b l e i n s t r u c t o r whose c h a r g e f o r r i d i n g was two d o l l a r s an hour t o be added t o h e r w e e k l y b i l l , and f i n a l l y , t h a t s u c h p l a i n t i f f b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r i d i n g m a s t e r was i n t h e e m p l o y o f t h e d e f e n d a n t and r e l i e d upon I t . The d o c t r i n e in a sim ila r

o f " r b s p o n d e a t s u p e r i o r 1' was f o l l o w e d

c a s e where an o p e r a t o r o f an amusement park

s o l d t o a n o t h e r t h e r i g h t t o c a r r y on t h e b u s i n e s s rid es

on p o n i e s *

of s e l l i n g

The p r o p r i e t o r d e s i g n a t e d t h e p a t h w a y s

t h a t were t o be u s e d w i t h i n t h e park f o r t h e p o n i e s t o tra v el.

W h i l e a l a d y was w a l k i n g a l o n g t h e path w ay b e s i d e

h e r c h i l d on t h e p o n y ,

a n o t h e r r i d e r came fro m t h e o t h e r

d i r e c t i o n r a c i n g h i s pony and r a n I n t o h e r i n j u r i n g h e r sev erely .

A v e r d i c t was r e n d e r e d a g a i n s t t h e par k owner

on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t he v i o l a t e d h i s d u t y t o k e e p t h e p r e ­ m ises in a rea so n a b ly sa fe

c o n d i t i o n . V7

Colum bia County A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y , ^

B ut,

i n Oles v .

t h e S o c i e t y was n o t

h e l d l i a b l e when t h e y r e n t e d g round t o a c o n c e s s i o n n a i r e and p e r m i t t e d him t o l e t p o n i e s f o r h i r e

In a r o p e d o f f a r e a .

W h i l e r i d i n g t h e pony w i t h i n t h e r o p e d o f f a r e a , t h e

ch ild

s o n v . N o ru m b eg a P a r k C o . , 275 M a s s . 1|22, 176

M.S. 511+ (1951) • ^•8 25 6 App. D i v . 5 6 9 , 2 6 0 H . Y . S . 8 6 3 .

was t h r o w n t o t h e ground and i n j u r e d .

The c o u r t s a i d t h a t

a l t h o u g h t h e c o r p o r a t i o n owed t h e p a t r o n s t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o keep the grounds i n a r e a s o n a b ly s a f e lia b le

con d ition ,

i t was n o t

f o r i n j u r i e s due t o r i d i n g on t h e p o n i e s .

It also

s a i d t h e d o c t r i n e o f " r e s p o n d e a t s u p e r i o r 1* was n o t a p p l i c a b l e b e c a u s e t h e c o n c e s s i o n n a i r e was n o t i t s

em ployee.

In another

p a r k owned and o p e r a t e d by t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n a v e r y y o u n g b o y was p l a c e d on a pon y i n an i n c l o s u r e f o r r i d i n g and t h e n was l e f t u n a t t e n d e d .

The po ny became un m a na g e a ble

and t h r e w t h e b o y t o t h e ground c a u s i n g i n j u r y .

The c i t y

was h e l d l i a b l e

employees

f o r t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f one o f i t s

In f a i l i n g t o f u r n i s h a r e a s o n a b l y s a f e 49 court a ls o said :

con d ition .

The

We t h i n k t h a t t h e u s e o f a p a r k f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f p r o v id in g Shetland p o n ies o f rea so n a b le g e n t l e ­ n e s s upon w h i c h c h i l d r e n may r i d e , p r o p e r l y a t t e n d e d , e i t h e r f o r a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o r g r a t i s , a f f o r d s beyond d o u b t , e x e r c i s e , amusement, r e c r e a t i o n , and p l e a s u r e f o r s u c h c h i l d r e n , and i s n o t f o r e i g n t o t h e o b j e c t f o r w h i c h p u b l i c p a r k s a r e m a i n t a i n e d , and t h a t t h e c i t y , h a v i n g u n d e r t a k e n t o do t h e s e t h i n g s , i s l i a b l e f o r n e g l i g e n c e i n s o d o i n g them . P riv a te L ivery S t a b l e s : accidents

and i n j u r i e s

A number o f c a s e s

o c c u r r i n g as t h e r e s u l t

concerning

of n egligen ce

o f p r i v a t e l i v e r y s t a b l e own ers s h o u l d be o f some v a l u e i n p l a n n i n g a d e q u a t e s u p e r v i s i o n f o r t h e camp d i r e c t o r ^ pr o g r a m .

49Longwell v. Kansas City, 199 Mo. App. 480, 203 S.W. 657, 659 (1918).

A y o un g g i r l e n t e r e d a l i v e r y s t a b l e and p a i d a sum o f money t o r i d e a s u i t a b l e h o r s e .

While r i d i n g th e h o r s e ,

s h e was t h r o w n v i o l e n t l y t o t h e ground and was i n j u r e d severely.

The p r o p r i e t o r was d e c l a r e d g u i l t y o f n e g l i g e n c e

f o r not warning the g i r l o f th e n a t u r a l p r o p e n s i t i e s h o r s e and f o r f u r n i s h i n g h e r w i t h an i l l 50 The c o u r t s a i d :

o f the

t e m p er ed h o r s e .

A p e r s o n who o c c u p i e s t h e r o l e o f i n s t r u c t o r and c o n d u c t o r o f r i d i n g c l a s s e s f o r g i r l s , i m p l i e d l y w a r r a n t s t h a t a h o r s e , h i r e d t o a c u s t o m e r who i s a g i r l p u p i l r i d i n g i n a c l a s s under the s t a b l e k eep ­ e r ' s i n s t r u c t i o n and c o n t r o l , i s s u i t a b l e f o r t h e purpose f o r which i t i s h i r e d . The s o c a l l e d im­ p l i e d w a r r a n t y i s n o t a w a r r a n t y i n t h a t s e n s e w h ic h i n s u r e s t h e s u i t a b l e n e s s o f t h e h o r s e , bu t i t i s o n l y a c o n t r a c t u a l o b l i g a t i o n assumed a g a i n s t r e c k ­ l e s s or h e e d l e s s h i r i n g out o f a ho rse w ith o u t r e a so n a b le care t o a s c e r t a i n the h a b it s o f the a n i m a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s s a f e t y and s u i t a b i l i t y f o r th e purp ose f o r which i t i s h i r e d . I n a s i m i l a r c a s e a f o u r t e e n y e a r o l d g i r l was t a k i n g l e s s o n s a t a r i d i n g academy and t h e h o r s e br oke i n t o a ru n and headed f o r two t r e e s .

The g i r l c l o s e d h e r e y e s and was

e i t h e r b r u s h e d o f f by t h e t r e e s f e ll off.

or s h e l o s t h e r b a l a n c e and

S i n c e t h e g i r l had r i d d e n t h i s

same h o r s e on

p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s and t h e h o r s e had a l w a y s b e e n g e n t l e , no . 51 r e c o v e r y was g r a n t e d . The c o u r t s a i d :

^ E v e l y n Dam et_ _al v . Lake A l i s o R i d i n g S c h o o l , 2d 3 9 5 , 48 P. 2d 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 101 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

6 Gal.

51Smith v. Pabst, 233 Wis. 489, 496, 288 N.W. 780, 783 (1939).

I t i s g e n e r a l l y h e l d and t h e la w may be s a i d t o be w e l l s e t t l e d , t h a t when a l i v e r y s t a b l e k e e p e r or o t h e r s i m i l a r b a i l o r l e t s out a horse f o r h i r e , he i s u n d e r an o b l i g a t i o n , s o m e t i m e s s p o k e n o f as an I m p l i e d w a r r a n t y t o f u r n i s h a r e a s o n a b l y s a f e a n i m a l f o r t h e p u r p o s e made known t o him and t h a t a f a i l u r e t o u s e due c a r e t o d i s ­ c o v e r d a n g e r o u s p r o p e n s i t i e s i n s u c h an a n i m a l or t o d i s c l o s e them t o t h e h i r e r , he may be h e l d l i a b l e f o r damages f o r t h e f a i l u r e t o e x e r c i s e such c a re . T h u s , a man went t o a l i v e r y s t a b l e and a sk e d f o r three h o r se s, to r id e .

s p e c i f y i n g two g e n t l e h o r s e s f o r t h e l a d i e s

The p r o p r i e t o r f u r n i s h e d one o f t h e l a d i e s w i t h

a h o r s e t h a t he knew n o t h i n g a bout and he had n e v e r l e t for r id in g before.

out

The h o r s e was i l l - t e m p e r e d and t h r e w

t h e l a d y t o t h e ground c a u s i n g g r e a t i n j u r y t o h e r . p r o p r i e t o r was d e c l a r e d l i a b l e

for n eg lig en ce

co v er in g the e v i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The

in not d i s ­

o f t h e h o r s e and i n

f u r n i s h i n g t h e i n j u r e d l a d y w i t h an i l l - t e m p e r e d h o r s e .

52

When t h e p r o p r i e t o r has d i s c o v e r e d t h e h a b i t s and p ro p en sities

o f t h e h o r s e and has u s e d r e a s o n a b l e p r e ­

c a u t i o n s t o warn h i s p a t r o n s , t o be g e n t l e ,

d o cile

and when t h e h o r s e has p r o v e n

and a t no t i m e e x h i b i t e d v i c i o u s t r a i t s ,

the p r o p r ie to r i s u s u a l l y not l i a b l e s u it a b le horse fo r h i r e . a g en tle,

d o c ile ,

e a sily

f o r f u r n i s h i n g an u n ­

In r e n t i n g a h o r s e ,

a g i r l w a n ted

c o n t r o lle d horse t o r id e because

sh e was i n e x p e r i e n c e d I n r i d i n g .

The i n s t r u c t o r f u r n i s h e d

h e r w i t h t h e same h o r s e s h e had u s e d on p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s

^ V a n i n g a n v . M u e l l e r , 20 8 W i s . 5 2 7 , 24 3 N.W. 419

(1932).

158 and w h i c h had a l w a y s b e e n s a t i s f a c t o r y . mounted t h e h o r s e i t her to the ground. reason able

A fter the g i r l

d a s h e d o f f and became u n r u l y t h r o w i n g The c o u r t s a i d t h e p r o p r i e t o r had u s e d

c a r e and d i l i g e n c e

i n p r o v i d i n g an a n i m a l s u i t -

a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h i t was h i r e d . Hahn v . Rockingham S t a b l e s e t

a l,

54

53

And i n

a woman was r i d i n g a

h o r s e t h a t s h e had r i d d e n on s e v e r a l p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s when t h e h o r s e c o l l a p s e d and i n j u r e d h e r s e v e r e l y . c o u r t s a i d t h e p r o p r i e t o r had u s e d r e a s o n a b l e n is h in g the lady w ith a s u i t a b l e h o rse.

The

care in f u r ­

A man and h i s

d a u g h t e r w ent t o h i r e some h o r s e s t o r i d e from a l i v e r y sta b le.

The man had r i d d e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

f o r s e v e n y e a r s and was a v e r y good r i d e r .

Cavalry

He a s k e d f o r

a s p e c i a l h o r s e c a l l e d " B l a c k A c e 11 w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d a good h o r s e f o r an e x p e r i e n c e d r i d e r .

The p r o p r i e t o r warned

t h e man t h a t t h e h o r s e was o n l y t o be r i d d e n by e x p e r i e n c e d rid ers. rid in g ,

The man a c c e p t e d t h e h o r s e t o r i d e and w h i l e t h e h o r s e r e a r e d up and f e l l b a c k on t h e man i n j u r i n g

him s e v e r e l y .

The c o u r t s a i d :

55

Troop A. R i d i n g Academy v . S t e v e r d i n g , 29 Ohio S t . 5 6 0 , 1 7 7 N . E . 601 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . 5 4 126 N . J . L . 3 2 4 , 19 A. 2d 191 ( 1 9 4 1 ) . 5 5 0 ' D o n n e l l v . H o l d o r f , 304 1 1 1 . App. 4 4 2 , 4 5 6 , 26 N . E . 2d 6 5 3 , 659 ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

He a c c e p t e d t h e h o r s e on t h i s c o n d i t i o n and t h e mere f a c t t h a t t h e h o r s e r e a r e d and showed some s p i r i t and l i f e was n o t a s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n why t h e h o r s e s h o u l d be term ed a v i c i o u s h o r s e . An e x p e r i e n c e d r i d e r , s u c h as p l a i n t i f f c l a i m s he i s , s h o u l d ha ve i n s t a n t l y known how t o h a n d l e t h e h o r s e i n s t e a d o f d o i n g a s he d i d , p u l l i n g him t o t h e l e f t , c a u s i n g t h e h o r s e t o become o v e r b a la n c e d which caused the a c c i d e n t . We t h i n k p u l l i n g t h e r e i n s , as p l a i n t i f f s a y s he d i d , more n e a r ly accou nts f o r the a c tio n s o f the horse than any i n n a t e v i c i o u s n e s s on t h e p a r t o f t h e h o r s e . I n Evan s v . U m p ie r,

56

two men were r i d i n g h o r s e b a c k

t o g e t h e r on h o r s e s r e n t e d from t h e same l i v e r y s t a b l e . When t h e y a p p r o a c h e d t h e o p e n i n g i n t h e f e n c e t o t h e s t a b l e s one o f t h e h o r s e s s w i f t l y sw e r v e d t o t h e r i g h t and bumped t h e o t h e r r i d e r o f f h i s h o r s e and i n t o a t r e e .

The p r o p r i e t o r

was n o t n e g l i g e n t as t h e same h o r s e was p r o v e n t o be g e n t l e and e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d ,

and t h e p r o p r i e t o r had u s e d r e a s o n a b l e

care in p r o v id in g a s u it a b le h o r se .

A p h y s i c i a n 1s w i f e was

r i d i n g a h o r s e from t h e same s t a b l e .

W h ile r i d i n g around

t h e a r e n a , t h e h o r s e br o ke i n t o a r u n c a u s i n g t h e woman t o f a l l and become s e v e r e l y i n j u r e d .

The c o u r t s a i d :

57

One who e n g a g e s i n an e n t e r p r i s e f o r amusement o r e x e r c i s e o r s p o r t , s u c h as h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g , must be t a k e n t o have i n c u r r e d t h e nor m al r i s k s . Ho e v i d e n c e t o d i s c l o s e t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t o r had p r e v i o u s k n o w le d g e o f a n y t h i n g about t h e h o r s e w h i c h w o u ld r e n d e r t h e r i s k s h e t o o k g r e a t e r t h a n

^235 545,

Iowa 3 5 ,

16 N.W* 2d 6 ( 1 9 4 4 ) .

^ T r o o p A. R i d i n g Academy v . M i l l e r , 189 N . E . 6 4 7 , 649 ( 1 9 3 4 ) .

127 Ohio S t .

16® ordinary, A horse o f ordinary s p i r i t th at w i l l n o t r u n away u n d e r any c i r c u m s t a n c e s would be a r a r e a n i m a l , and t o h o l d t h a t , s i m p l y b e c a u s e one d i d r u n o f f on one o c c a s i o n , a j u r y w o u ld be j u s t i f i e d i n f i n d i n g t h a t he was v i c i o u s , w i l d , or p r o n e t o r u n , would e n a b l e j u r o r s t o f i n d v e r d i c t s on mere s p e c u l a t i o n and g u e s s e s i n s t e a d o f e v i d e n c e . In W i l l i s v . S c h u s t e r e t a l ,

a g i r l and a s o l d i e r

r e n t e d h o r s e s from a l i v e r y s t a b l e .

W h ile on t h e i r r i d e

th e y stop ped t o w atch a parade o f s o l d i e r s . sta rted to p lay,

the g i r l ' s

As t h e band

h o r s e broke o f f i n t o a f o o t

t r o t and r a n f o r two b l o c k s when i t

t r i p p e d and f e l l t h r o w ­

i n g the g i r l v i o l e n t l y t o the ground.

No n e g l i g e n c e was

c h a r g e d t o t h e p r o p r i e t o r when i t was p r o v e n t h a t t h e h o r s e had a l w a y s b e e n g e n t l e and d o c i l e on p r e v i o u s o c c a s i o n s . 59 H o w ever, t h e c o u r t s a i d : I f t h e f a c t s showed t h a t t h e a c c i d e n t o c c u r r e d as t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t o f any te n d e n c y or t r a i t o f v i c i o u s n e s s , w i l d n e s s , f r a c t i o u s n e s s , or bad t e m p e r , and i f t h e e v i d e n c e showed t h e owner t o have know­ l e d g e , o r e v e n t h a t he s h o u l d have had k n o w led g e o f s u c h t r a i t s or t e n d e n c i e s , t h e n we w o u ld be I n c l i n e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e c a s e as f a l l i n g u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l r u l e s l a i d down and d i s c u s s e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o i n ­ j u r i e s c a u s e d by d o g s . The p r o p r i e t o r i s u s u a l l y l i a b l e

for fa ilu r e

to fu r­

n i s h a d e q u a t e l y s a f e e q u ip m e n t on t h e h o r s e s u c h as b r i d l e s , 60 s a d d l e s , and r e i n s . I n Ogan v . P e r k i n s , f o u r young men

5 8 ( C .C . A . La. 1 s t 1 9 4 6 ) 28 S o . 2d 518 59I d .,

2 8 S o . 2d a t 5 2 2 .

1 9 1 S.W. 2d 666 (E o. 1 9 4 5 ) .

ren ted horses

from a s t a b l e .

They mounted t h e h o r s e s and

s t a r t e d r i d i n g down t h e b r i d l e p a t h i n t h e p a r k f u r n i s h e d fo r that purpose. cig a rette

and dropp ed t h e e n t i r e p a c k a g e .

the horse around, a run. sid e.

One o f t h e b o y s a t t e m p t e d t o l i g h t

When he t u r n e d

i t went a few y a r d s and t h e n b r o k e i n t o

W hile r u n n in g ,

the saddle s t a r t e d

s l i p p i n g t o the

The b o y a t t e m p t e d t o a v o i d a t r e e he was n e a r i n g and

released h is rig h t f o o t . tree,

a

The s a d d l e f l e w o f f ,

he h i t t h e

and t h e h o r s e s t e p p e d on him i n j u r i n g him s e v e r e l y .

When t h e p r o p r i e t o r was c h a r g ed w i t h n e g l i g e n c e 61 t o t i g h t e n th e sa d d le g i r t h the c o u r t s a i d :

in fa ilu r e

I t was t h e d e f e n d a n t s d u t y t o e x e r c i s e o r d in a r y care t o a s c e r t a i n i f the g i r t h needed t i g h t e n i n g i n o r d e r t o be r e a s o n a b l y s a f e , and t o t i g h t e n i t i f s u c h was fo u n d t o be n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o make i t r e a s o n a b l y s a f e . The p l a i n t i f f s a i d t h e r e was no c o m p l a i n t by him t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t was n e g l i g e n t

i n f u r n i s h i n g t h e r i d i n g e q u ip m e n t

known as t h e s a d d l e , bu t t h e n e g l i g e n c e was t h e f a i l u r e t o 62 t i g h t e n the sad dle g i r t h . The c o u r t s a i d : The g i r t h i n c l u d e s t h e s a d d l e and n e i t h e r exclud es the o th er. So i f no c o m p l a i n t was r e g i s ­ t e r e d a g a i n s t t h e s a d d l e , t h e r e was no n e g l i g e n c e in volved •

6 1 I d . , 1 9 1 S.W. 2d a t 6 6 7 . 62Id . ,

191 S.W. 2d a t 6 6 8 .

1&Z> When p a t r o n s r e n t

a h o r s e from l i v e r y s t a b l e s

and go

t o p a r t s o f t h e p a r k or g r o u n d s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e n o t p e r ­ m itted to go,

t h e p r o p r i e t o r may n o t be l i a b l e

t h a t o c c u r as a r e s u l t t h e r e f r o m . County,

63

for in ju r ie s

I n Q m stott v . A l l e g h e n y

a man r e n t e d a h o r s e from t h e s t a b l e

and t o o k i t

i n t o an a r e a t h a t was l o c k e d f o r r e g u l a r p a r k p a t r o n s . had p e r s u a d e d a man t o open t h e g a t e and l e t him i n .

He The

h o r s e on w h i c h t h e p l a i n t i f f was r i d i n g p l u n g e d i n t o a f e n c e t h r o w i n g him o f f and i n j u r i n g him .

The c o u r t s a i d ,

"the

p l a i n t i f f a t b e s t was a g r a t u i t o u s l i c e n s e e upon a r e s t r i c t e d part o f d e fe n d a n ts p a rk .” Summary;

When p r o p r i e t o r s o f r e c r e a t i o n camps own

and o p e r a t e r i d i n g s t a b l e s t h e y are l i a b l e d u c t in g them. sp on sib le

as p a r t o f t h e i r camp pr o g r a m ,

f o r the n e g l ig e n c e o f the i n s t r u c t o r i n con­ I f an o u t s i d e i n d i v i d u a l or company i s r e ­

f o r g i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e c a m p e r s , and t h e

campers a r e l e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e ing the i n s t r u c t i o n s

camp d i r e c t o r i s

sponsor­

as p a r t o f h i s p r o g r a m , an a g e n c y may

be c r e a t e d and t h e camp d i r e c t o r w i l l become l i a b l e ,

and t h e

d o c t r i n e o f " r e s p o n d e a t s u p e r i o r ” may a p p l y . When a p e r s o n e n g a g e s i n t h e s p o r t o f h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g he must assume some o f t h e nor m a l r i s k s i n v o l v e d . 64 In Conn v . H u n s b e r g e r , i s f o un d a summary o f t h e d u ties

and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

of liv e r y sta b le keepers.

court sa id :

6 3 338 P a . 2 0 6 , 12 A. 2d 785 64

(1940).

2 2 4 Pa. 1 5 4 , 73 A. 3 2 4 , 32 5 ( 1 9 0 9 ) .

The

I t i s th e duty o f the l i v e r y s t a b l e keeper to i n f o r m h i m s e l f o f t h e h a b i t s and d i s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e h o r s e s w h i c h he k e e p s i n h i s s t a b l e f o r h i r e , and i f he knows t h a t t h e y a r e d a n g e r o u s and u n s u i t a b l e , o r by t h e e x e r c i s e o f r e a s o n a b l e c a r e c o u l d a s c e r t a i n t h e f a c t , he i s l i a b l e f o r any i n j u r i e s t o h i s c u s ­ t o m e r s r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r v i c i o u s p r o p e n s i t i e s * The law w i l l n o t p e r m i t him t o c l o s e h i s e y e s and e a r s , th e re b y rem aining ignorant o f the v ic io u s h a b its o f h i s h o r s e s , and r e l i e v e him from l i a b i l i t y f o r i n ­ j u r i e s t o a c u s t o m e r r e s u l t i n g from s u c h h a b i t s . In h i s c o n t r a c t o f h i r i n g he i m p l i e d l y e n g a g e s t h a t he knows or h a s e x e r c i s e d r e a s o n a b l e c a r e t o a s c e r t a i n , t h e h a b i t s o f h i s h o r s e s , and s a y s t o h i s c u s t o m e r s t h a t t h e h o r s e w h i c h he l e t s i s s a f e and s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h he has h i r e d i t . H is w a r r a n t y i s a g a i n s t d e f e c t s o r v i c i o u s h a b i t s , w h i c h he kn ows, o r by t h e e x e r c i s e o f p r o p e r c a r e c o u l d know; and i f he f a i l s t o e x e r c i s e s u c h c a r e , and i t o c c a s i o n s i n ­ j u r y t o h i s c u s t o m e r s , he w i l l n o t be r e l i e v e d o f l i a b i l i t y , t h o u g h he d i d n o t a c t u a l l y know t h e h o r s e was u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e s e r v i c e . It i s true that a l i v e r y m a n i s n o t an I n s u r e r o f t h e s u i t a b l e n e s s o f a h o r s e or a c a r r i a g e l e t t o a c u s t o m e r , b u t he i s bound t o e x e r c i s e t h e c a r e o f a r e a s o n a b l y p r u d e n t man t o f u r n i s h a h o r s e or c a r r i a g e t h a t i s f i t and s u i t a b l e f o r the purpose contem plated i n th e h i r i n g . There a r e some s t a t u t e s foun d i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s w h i c h im pose c e r t a i n d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s sta b le keepers.

on l i v e r y

I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e a r e v e r y few t h a t

e x p r e s s l y a p p l y t o t h e r e c r e a t i o n camp. The l a w s c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g ar e v e r y l i m i t e d i n t h e 48 s t a t e s .

E i g h t s t a t e s have la w s r e g u l a t i n g

h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g i n r e c r e a t i o n camps.

Most o f t h e la w s on

h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g are c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r o v i d i n g income f o r v a r i o u s s t a t e and l o c a l a g e n c i e s .

Other s t a t e s have l a w s

r e g u l a t i n g t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y o f l i v e r y s t a b l e s . the p r o v is io n s

Most o f

i n t h e la w s c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g

w e re foun d i n a v e r y few s t a t e s .

How ever, i t

a p p e a r s t o be

a u n i v e r s a l r u l e t h a t a l l s t a t e s empower some a g e n c y t o reg u la te

and c o n t r o l t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s

of

liv e r y sta b les. The f o l l o w i n g Key Code Number 7 , an a n a l y s i s

o f the

and F i g u r e 7 , g i v e

im portant l e g a l p r o v i s i o n s r e l a t i v e

to

h o r s e b a c k r i d i n g as foun d i n t h e 48 s t a t e s . KEY CODE NUMBER 7 Key Number 1078.

States

P rovisions i n which t h e r e i s

boarding i t . 1079.

States

a l i e n on a h o r s e f o r

(15)w

i n w hich th e r e i s

a p e n a l t y imposed on a

p a t r o n who m i s u s e s t h e h o r s e or a t t e m p t s t o d e f r a u d

1080.

the l i v e r y s t a b le keeper.

(4)'''

States

have power t o t a x ,

i n which th e c i t i e s

and r e g u l a t e 1081.

liv ery sta b le s.

lic en se ,

(7)“

S t a t e s i n w h i c h n o t i c e must be p o s t e d o f r e g u l a t i o n s concerning use o f h orses fo r h ir e b efore r ec o v er y w i l l be g r a n t e d t o l i v e r y s t a b l e k e e p e r s .

1082.

S t a t e s w h i c h im p o se a p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y a s s e s s m e n t on l i v e r y s t a b l e s .

1083.

( l ) ,v

(l)w

S t a t e s w h i c h im pose a l i c e n s e

or t a x on s t a b l e s .

(3)w

^The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1084.

S t a t e s w h i c h exempt l i v e r y s t a b l e s

from t a x .

(3)*'

In a d d i t i o n t o th e s t a t u t o r y r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e rn in g liv ery sta b les,

t h e r e are c e r t a i n s t a t e h e a l t h department

r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e as f o l l o w s : 1085.

S t a t e s i n w h i c h t h e r e w ere fo und s p e c i f i c h e a l t h department r e g u l a t i o n s

concerned w ith horseb ack

r i d i n g i n r e c r e a t i o n cam ps. 1086.

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e h o r s e s t o be h o u s e d a t l e a s t 500 f e e t h a lls.

1087.

from l i v i n g q u a r t e r s , k i t c h e n s and d i n i n g (2)*

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e h o r s e s t o be h o u se d a t l e a s t 100 f e e t t o 15 0 f e e t and d i n i n g h a l l s .

1088.

( 8 ) “'

from l i v i n g q u a r t e r s , k i t c h e n

(2)**

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e t h a t manure must be removed from t h e p r e m i s e s a t s t a t e d i n t e r v a l s and w h i c h s h o u l d be p r e v e n t e d from f l y - b r e e d i n g and b e c o m i n g a nuisan ce.

1089.

S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g a f l y r e p e l l a n t t o be u s e d i n t h e sta b les.

1090.

(6)^

( 1 ) ’""

S t a t e s i n w h ich h o r se s are r e s t r i c t e d bath ing beaches.

from t h e

(l)w

“The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1091.

S t a t e s w h i c h g r a n t p o w er s t o some g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c y o f t h e s t a t e t o r e g u l a t e and c o n t r o l t h e h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n o f l i v e r y s t a b l e s w h i c h r e n t horses to the p u b lic .

(Even t h o u g h a s t a t e

d e p a r t m e n t d o e s n o t have s p e c i f i c r e g u l a t i o n s govern in g horseback r id in g s t a b le s

f o r camps, t h e y

may s t i l l r e g u l a t e and c o n t r o l t h e s a m e . )

( 4 8 ) ’“'

^The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

167

STATE Alabama X Arizona x Arkansas X California ,_ x Colorado X Connecticut X Delaware X Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan X Minnesota Mississippi X Missouri Montana X Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York X North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee | Texas Utah X Vermont Virginia X Washington West Virginia Wisconsin X Wyoming X TOTALS 15

Figure 7.

a S c ri- cc*■ a c 3 C: c i rr“ r~

5: cr-:

0J t/i a3 a: c3 c3 r-“ r-

\\ c^ 3 C3 r-H

Lfi a: C: r~

i

a3 r- a a: a: ai: c 3 c3 C i" r~

c3 o^ c3 r-

co: c:

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X x

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X

4

r7

L

1

5

5

8

X

8

8

8

1

1

rc>

C r-

X x X X X X X X X x X X x x x x x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

48

S t a t u t e s and S t a t e Departm en t R e g u l a t i o n s Concerned Y/ith H o r s e b a c k R i d i n g

" R iflery p r a c tic e i t s e l f e i t h e r b o y s or g i r l s , o f p ercep tion ,

as i t

is

a good camp a c t i v i t y f o r

teach es coord in ation ,

keenness

s t e a d i n e s s o f n e r v e and m u s c l e

R iflery is

one a c t i v i t y t h a t i s e n j o y e d by m ost c h i l d ­

r e n , b u t due t o crowded c i t y c o n d i t i o n s ,

the m u n icip al

r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s are u n a b l e t o o f f e r r i f l e r y as a p a r t o f t h e i r r e g u l a r p r o gr a m . A g e n c i e s t h a t t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e N a t i o n a l and S t a t e p a r k s f o r cam ping s i t e s , conducting r i f l e r y

a r e u s u a l l y p r o h i b i t e d from

as p a r t o f t h e camp p r og r a m .

N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e has d e f i n i t e r e g u l a t i o n s

The forb idd in g

t h e u s e o f f i r e a r m s i n camps,

and i n many o f t h e s t a t e 67 and l o c a l p a r k s t h e same r e g u l a t i o n s p r e v a i l . S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l and S t a t e De par tm en t R e g u l a t i o n s : T h er e h a s b e e n a c o n s i d e r a b l e

amount o f l e g i s l a t i o n p a s s e d

con cern in g the use o f fir e a r m s, it

ap p lies to r i f l e r y

o f the s t a t u t e s

c o n d u c t e d i n a r e c r e a t i o n camp.

i n c l u d e r e g u l a t i o n s on c a r r y i n g g u n s ;

who may c a r r y g u n s ;

65

but c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i t t l e

of

Some on

on r e g i s t r a t i o n o f g u n s ; on l i c e n s i n g o f

D r o u g h t , A l i c e R , , A Camping M a n u a l, p . 4 3 .

66

V e t t e r , Roy A . , D i g e s t o f Laws A f f e c t i n g O r g a n iz e d Camping, A p p e n d i x , p . 1 .

^Vetter, Roy A., Digest of Laws Relating to Local Parks and Recreation, pp. 511, 530.

16? guns;

on u n i f o r m oocles f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f f i r e a r m s ;

and r e g u l a t i o n s p r o h i b i t i n g t h e u s e o f guns i n c e r t a i n d e s i g ' nated a r e a s I n

W i s c o n s i n t h e p a r k la w s t a t e s : ^

Any p e r s o n who d i s c h a r g e s or c a u s e s t h e d i s ­ c h a r g e o f any m i s s l e from any f i r e a r m , s l i n g s h o t , bow and a r r o w , o r o t h e r w e apo n , w i t h i n 40 r o d s o f any p u b l i c p a r k , s q u a r e , or e n c l o s u r e owned and c o n t r o l l e d by and w i t h i n t h e c o r p o r a t e l i m i t s o f any m u n i c i p a l i t y and r e s o r t e d t o f o r r e c r e a t i o n or p l e a s u r e , s h a l l be p u n i s h e d by i m p r is o n m e n t i n t h e c o u n t y j a i l n o t e x c e e d i n g 60 d a y s , o r by f i n e o f n o t more t h a n $25 o r l e s s t h a n | l . W i s c o n s i n was one o f t h e few s t a t e s

i n w hich th ere

was f oun d s p e c i f i c r iflery

s t a t e department r e g u l a t i o n concerned w i t h 70 i n r e c r e a t i o n camps. T heir r e g u la t io n s t a t e s :

F i r e a r m s must n o t be p e r m i t t e d i n camp e x c e p t s u c h as a r e u s e d u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n and i n o r g a n i z e d a c tiv itie s. ...M arksm anship r a n g e s, i f m a in ta in e d , must be c o n s t r u c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o N a t i o n a l R i f l e A s s o c ia t io n Standards. A l t h o u g h r i f l e r y i s p r o h i b i t e d i n many l o c a l p a r k s , t h e r e a r e some p a r k s w h ic h s t i l l p e r m i t t h e u s e o f f i r e a r m s . P u b l i c Amusement P a r k s : C o.,

71

I n D i e t z v . R i v e r v i e w Park

a p a t r o n was i n j u r e d by a p i e c e o f m e t a l and wad ding

®®Laws n o t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i f l e r y r e e r e a t i o n c amps• ^ W I S . STAT., T i t l e

32,

c. 340,

s e c t i o n 61 ( 1 9 4 7 ) .

^ W i s c o n s i n S t a t e D ep a r tm en t o f H e a l t h , S t a n d a r d s For R e c r e a t i o n Camps," p . 3 . 7 1 181 1 1 1 . App. 3 5 7 ( 1 9 1 3 ) .

in

“Minimum

disch arged

from a f i r e a r m u s e d d u r i n g t h e s t a g i n g o f a show 72 o r sham b a t t l e i n t h e p a r k . The c o u r t s a i d : The p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e amusement p a r k was o b l i g e d t o keep th e p r e m is e s i n a r e a s o n a b ly s a f e c o n d i t i o n and t o u s e r e a s o n a b l e c a r e t o s e e t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d be no f i r i n g o f d a n g e r o u s we apons upon i t s g r o u n d s by w h i c h t h e l i f e o r l i m b s o f any p e r s o n m i g h t be endangered.

The p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e amusement p a r k was h e l d l i a b l e

fo r the

i n j u r y e v e n t h o u g h t h e show was b e i n g s t a g e d by some o u t s i d e company. R i f l e R a n ges held

lia b le

(P riv a te):

An a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y was

f o r t h e d e a t h o f a man when a s h o t t r a v e l e d

t h r o u g h a t a r g e t m a i n t a i n e d by them a t a f a i r e x h i b i t i o n . The man was s t a n d i n g on a r a i l r o a d p l a t f o r m j u s t o u t s i d e the

f a i r g r o u n d s when t h e b u l l e t

s t r u c k h im .

The c o u r t s a i d

t h a t t h e n e g l i g e n c e m i g h t c o n s i s t e i t h e r tfi n t h e im p r op e r s e l e c t i o n o f a l o c a t i o n f o r a s h o o t i n g g a l l e r y or i n th e f a i l u r e t o e x e r c i s e r e a s o n a b l e c a r e i n t h e s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e sam e." so ciety fa iled tim e

73

t o e x am in e or i n v e s t i g a t e

The d e f e n d a n t th e g a l l e r y at the

i t was b u i l t . The p r o p r i e t o r m e r e l y a sk ed t h e man i n

c h a r g e i f t h e g a l l e r y was s a f e , a ffirm ative.

72 73

Id.

and t h e man r e p l i e d

i n the

T h i s was n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o be u s i n g r e a s o n a b l e

at 363.

T h o r n t o n v . Main S t . Ag. S o c . , 1 2 0 , 53 A. 9 7 9 , 984 ( 1 9 0 2 ) .

97 Me. 1 0 8 ,

119,

l? l care.

In a s im ila r case a b u l l e t t r a v e le d through a ta r g e t

a t a f a i r g r o u n d s and k i l l e d b e h i n d t h e t a r g e t . 7^

a h o r s e s t a n d i n g some d i s t a n c e

The A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y was l i a b l e

on

two g r o u n d s ,

one o f w h i c h was t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n u i s a n c e

by l i c e n s i n g

and p e r m i t t i n g s u c h a d a n g e r o u s p r a c t i c e as

target

s h o o t i n g t o be p e r f o r m e d i n a p u b l i c p l a c e w i t h o u t

proper p r e c a u tio n s . l i n g the

The o t h e r was i n n o t p r o p e r l y c o n t r o l ­

c o n d u c t and management o f t h i s

the p r e m ises.

p a r tic u la r part of

The c o u r t s a i d : 75

The p r a c t i c e i n t a r g e t s h o o t i n g a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a p a r t o f t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t c a r r i e d on a t t h e f a i r , and as t h e d e f e n d a n t s were t h e owners o f t h e p r e m i s e s , and t h e m anagers and c o n t r o l l e r s o f t h e f a i r , t h e p r a c t i c e i n t a r g e t s h o o t i n g was a p a r t o f t h e i r e x h i b i t i o n , and u n d e r t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l as much as any o t h e r p a r t o f t h e f a i r . And t h o s e h a v i n g c h a r g e o f t h e p r a c t i c e , as w e l l as t h o s e e n g a g e d i n i t , w h i l e , p e r h a p s , n o t s t r i c t l y a g e n t s or s e r v a n t s o f t h e d e f e n d a n t s , were a c t i n g u n d e r t h e l i c e n s e and p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t s ; and s u c h a r e l a t i o n e x i s t e d b e tw e en them as w i l l h o l d t h e d e ­ f e n d a n t s l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e i r n e g l i g e n c e in n o t p r o p e r ly c o n t r o l l i n g the conduct and management o f t h i s p a r t of t h e e x h i b i t i o n . And i n P l a s k e t v . B e n to n ,7 & an A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y was h e l d l i a b l e f o r t h e d e a t h o f a f i f t e e n was k i l l e d

y e a r o l d b o y who

at a s h o o tin g g a l l e r y operated at a fa ir g r o u n d s .

onradt v.

C l a u v e , 95 I n d . 1+76, I4.7 Anu R e p . 388

(X8 8 I4.) • 75ld.

a t 3 7 8 , 1+7 Am. R e p . a t 38 b .

7 6 l+5 I n d . App.

358, 89 N .E . 968

(1909).

W h i l e t h e b o y was s t a n d i n g a t t h e s h o o t i n g g a l l e r y ,

another

p a t r o n c a u s e d t h e gun t o be d i s c h a r g e d , m o r t a l l y w o u nd in g 77 h im . The c o u r t s a i d : A p p e l l e e owed t h e b o y a d u t y o f e x e r c i s i n g o r d i n a r y c a r e t o p r o t e c t him a g a i n s t d a n g e r o u s a g e n c i e s known by i t t o e x i s t and p e r m i t t e d on i t s ground s, s e t apart fo r th e use o f the p u b l i c . . . . T h e u s e o f f i r e a r m s i n t h e im m ed ia te p r e s e n c e o f many p e r s o n s g a t h e r e d around t h e s i d e s o f a g a l l e r y w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i o n from t h e guns t h e r e i n u s e , i f d isch arged w h ile p o in tin g o u tsid e the range, t h e p l a c e w ould be c o n s i d e r e d u n s a f e and d a n g e r o u s and t h e p r o p r i e t o r w ould be h e l d f o r n e g l i g e n t op eration . Another a u t h o r i t y s t a t e d :

78

A v e r y h i g h d e g r e e o f c a r e i s r e q u i r e d from a l l p e r s o n s u s i n g f i r e a r m s i n t h e im m e d ia t e v i c i n i t y o f o t h e r p e o p l e no m a t t e r how l a w f u l o r e v e n n e c e s s a r y s u c h u s e may b e . W h ile an e l e v e n y e a r o l d b o y was u s i n g a r i f l e sh ootin g g a lle r y ,

a b u llet

lodged i n the b a r r e l .

manager o f t h e g a l l e r y was c a r e l e s s lo d g e the b u l l e t , the boy.

The c o u r t s a i d :

7 7 Id.

78 V ol. 3,

The

in attem p tin g to d i s ­

a c c id e n t ly fir e d the r i f l e 79

k illin g

a t 3 6 4 , 89 N .E . a t 9 7 1 .

Shearman and R e d f i e l d , N e g l i g e n c e , p. 1786.

section 686,

G raffam v . S a c o , 112 Me. 5 0 8 , 5 1 1 ,

92 A. 6 4 9 ,

6th e d .,

79

(1914).

and i t

in a

650

175

I n t h e c a s e a t ba r t h e manner and means u s e d b y t h e owner o f t h e s h o o t i n g g a l l e r y t o remedy t h e d e f e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e r i f l e seems t o u s t o be c l e a r l y c a r e l e s s and n e g l i g e n t . To a l l o w s u c h n e g l i g e n c e , or t o l e t gr o u n d s t o s u c h a c a r e l e s s p e r s o n , w i t h no c a r e f u l s u p e r v i s i o n , o v e r s i g h t , or p r e c a u t i o n a r y s t e p s h a v i n g b e e n t a k e n w o u ld seem t o c l e a r l y f i x t h e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e d e f e n d a n t so f a r as t h i s b r a n c h o f t h e c a s e g o e s . In Basye v .

G r a f t s G olden S t a t e S h o w s , a

patron

was I n j u r e d f r o m f r a g m e n t s fro m a b u l l e t w h ic h had r e b o u n d e d off

of the s t e e l b a ck sto p .

The p r o p r i e t o r had t a k e n t h e

n e c e s s a r y s a f e t y m e a s u r e s f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e p a t r o n s by p la c in g a beaver-board in f r o n t of the t a r g e t t o prevent th e gragm ents from f l y i n g b a c k .

At t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t i m e ,

t h e b e a v e r - b o a r d was i n v e r y bad c o n d i t i o n .

The p r o p r i e t o r

o f t h e s h o o t i n g g a l l e r y was h e l d l i a b l e f o r t h e i n j u r y on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t he f a i l e d sp ection

to m aintain a reason ab le i n ­

of the g a l l e r y to see th a t i t s

ap p lian ces

m eth o d s o f o p e r a t i o n were r e a s o n a b l y s a f e . ju risd ictio n ,

In anoth er

a n i n e t e e n y e a r o l d boy o p e r a t e d a s p r i n g

t a r g e t a t a gun c l u b . lo a d i n g h i s gun,

W h i l e one o f t h e c l u b members was

and b e f o r e he g a ve t h e command " p u l l , "

h i s gun d i s c h a r g e d and wounded t h e t a r g e t o p e r a t o r . court sa id ;

The

Rl

8 oij.3 C a l . App.

605,

and

2d 7 8 2 , 11 P . 2d 7 I4.6 ( I 9I4. I ) .

S k i n n e r v . O c h i l t r e e , l i +8 F l a . 6 0 6 , lLpO A . L . R . 1+1 0 , 1+12 (191+1).

705> 7 0 8 , 5 S o . 2d

I t i s s e t t l e d law i n many j u r i s d i c t i o n s t h a t the h ig h e s t degree o f care i s e x a cted o f th o se han dling firea rm s. They a r e c l a s s i f i e d as d a n g e r ­ ous i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s and t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e o f care i s n e c e s s a r y i n th e m a n ip u la t io n or u s e o f f i r e a r m s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f , or I n t h e v i c i n i t y o f , o t h e r s , and i f i n j u r y r e s u l t s from t h e n e g l i g e n t d i s c h a r g e o f f i r e a r m s u s e d or h a n d l e d by a n o t h e r , alth ou gh the d isch a rg e t h e r e o f i s a c c id e n t a l in t h e s e n s e i t was n o t i n t e n t i o n a l , t h e law makes t h e person causin g the in ju r y l i a b l e . Summary; i n many camp s. rifler y

R iflery is

H ow ev er, t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of o fferin g

i n many p l a c e s i s p r o h i b i t e d by s t a t u t e ,

partment r e g u l a t i o n s , h ib ited

one o f t h e more p o p u l a r s p o r t s

or c i t y o r d i n a n c e .

s ta te de­

R ifle r y is pro­

as a s p o r t i n t h e R a t i o n a l P a r k s , most s t a t e p a r k s ,

and m ost c i t y p a r k s . When a c h i l d

is

capable o f h an d lin g a r i f l e

s h e m a l i c i o u s l y and w i l f u l l y c h i l d w i l l be r e s p o n s i b l e

and he or

causes In ju ry to an oth er, the

f o r h i s w rong.

not capable o f h a n d lin g the r i f l e

I f the c h ild i s

as i s t h e c a s e i n many

camps, t h e p r o p r i e t o r i s r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r t h e c h i l d Ts

n e g l i g e n c e i n h a n d lin g th e gun.

A h ig h degree o f super­

v i s i o n i s n e c e s s a r y when r i f l e r y 82 gram. One a u t h o r i t y s a i d :

i s a p a r t o f t h e camp p r o -

One who c o n d u c t s a p u b l i c s h o o t i n g g a l l e r y i s bound t o e x e r c i s e r e a s o n a b l e c a r e f o r t h e s a f e t y o f p a t r o n s and i n v i t e e s , and i s l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d by a p a t r o n f o r r e a s o n o f a n y b r e a c h o f

82 52

Am, J u r . , T h e a t r e s , Shows, E x h i b i t i o n s , E t c . , s e c t i o n 6 4; S e e n o t e , 140 A . L . R . 41 6 ( 1 9 4 2 ) .

t h i s d u t y , e i t h e r as t o c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p r e m i s e s o r a p p l i a n c e s o r t h e manner o f o p e r a t i n g t h e p l a c e . The r e a s o n a b l e c a r e i n s u c h a c a s e i s c a r e commen­ s u r a t e w i t h th e danger i n c i d e n t t o th e use o f firearm s• A l t h o u g h t h e r e h a v e b e e n a number o f s t a t u t e s p a s s e d i n the v a rio u s s t a t e s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e c a r e and u s e o f g u n s ,

t h e r e has been c o m p a r a tiv e ly l i t t l e w i t h r e c r e a t i o n camps.

e x p r e s s l y concerned

Swimming i s

an a c t i v i t y w h i c h i s

c o n s i d e r e d b y many

a u t h o r i t i e s t o be t h e f i n e s t a l l - r o u n d t y p e o f a c t i v i t y f o r 83 people o f a l l a g es. No o t h e r s p o r t h a s as h i g h an a t t e n d ­ a n c e e a c h y e a r as t h e p o o l s and b e a c h e s .

I n one s u r v e y c o n ­

d u c t e d i n 1 9 3 8 i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n v i s i t s were r e c o r d e d i n 1 , 0 7 0 swimming c e n t e r s .

84

Swimming i s

also

one o f t h e m ost p o p u l a r s p o r t s and t y p e s o f r e c r e a t i o n i n t h e camps.

Many camps u s e t h e w a t e r f r o n t a c t i v i t i e s

b i g g e s t p a r t o f t h e i r pr o g r a m . w aterfront i s

85

as t h e

S in ce the o p e r a tio n o f the

s u c h an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e program, i t

de­

mands i n t e l l i g e n t p l a n n i n g i n o r d e r t h a t t h e campers may g e t t h e m o st e d u c a t i o n a l and r e c r e a t i o n a l v a l u e from t h e a c ­ tiv ities

w ith the l e a s t p o s s i b i l i t y o f in ju r y .

Most s t a t e s

h a v e s t a t u t e s w h i c h g r a n t pow ers t o v a r i o u s g o v e r n m e n t a l agen cies to c o n str u c t,

operate,

and r e g u l a t e p u b l i c swimming

p la ces. S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l o f Swimming:

In a d d i t io n to g r a n t ­

i n g po w ers t o g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s t o e s t a b l i s h and r e g u l a t e p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s ,

there

are o t h e r s t a t u t e s w h i c h

au th orize variou s s t a t e

a g e n c i e s t o guard t h e h e a l t h ,

83

B u t l e r , George D . , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Community R e c r e a tio n , p. 203. 84 Ib id . ^ D r o u g h t , A l i c e R . , A Camping M a nua l, p . 1 0 0 .

and

177 safety

of the sw im m e r s.^

There a r e a number o f s t a t e s

w h i c h g r a n t po w ers t o s t a t e h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e g u l a t e the c o n s t r u c t io n , to r e g u la t e the s a n i t a t i o n , the s a f e t y ,

t o make f r e q u e n t i n s p e c t i o n s ,

to reg u la te

and t o e n f o r c e

t h e r e g u l a t i o n s f o r p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

O ther s t a t e s

have s t a t u t o r y p r o v is io n s r e q u ir in g l i f e g u a r d s , first

aid k i t s ,

life

boats,

and o t h e r k i n d s o f s a f e t y e q u ip m e n t a v a i l a b l e

a t t h e w a t e r f r o n t a t a l l t i m e s p e o p l e are i n swimming#^7 Some s t a t e s r e q u i r e a l i c e n s e others require a lic e n s e

on t h e swimming p o o l w h i l e

on a d m i s s i o n s .

In a f e w s t a t e s

a r e s t a t u t e s p r o h i b i t i n g r a c i a l ana r e l i g i o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . I n m ost c a s e s t h e s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s r e c r e a t i o n camps.

are a p p l i c a b l e t o th e

However, t h e r e are some s t a t e h e a l t h d e ­

p a r t m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t a r e a d a p t e d t o t h e camping s i t u a t i o n .

90

T her e a r e a l s o many common la w r u l i n g s f o u n d

i n c o u r t c a s e s which have a p p l i c a t i o n t o th e

o p e r a t i o n or

p o o l s and b e a c h e s by v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s . M unicipal C orporation s It

is

(G ov e r n m e n t a l F u n c t i o n ) t

e a s y t o s e e wny t h e l e g a l s c h o l a r s

so v e h e m e n t l y

p r o t e s t t h e 11im m unity code" f o r m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s w h i l e q/

S e e F i g u r e 0 a t end o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n .

^Supra n o t e b 6 # 8 8 I b ic U 8 9 l L L . RliV. STAT., c . s e c t i o n 125 (1^4-7); IOhA COJJh, C . 7 3 5 , s e c t i o n 1 ( 19 L1-6 ) ; Rev/ York Laws 1 9 ^ - 2 , c . 7 6 5 , s e c t i o n 1; F e n n a . Laws 1959* Act 375> a r t . V, s e c t i o n 653* Q0 y S ee F i g u r e b a t end o f t h i s

d iscu ssio n .

178 c o n d u c t i n g an a c t i v i t y l i k e

swimming as p a r t o f t h e i r

governm ental f u n c t io n . A t w e l v e y e a r o l d boy drowned w h i l e swimming i n a p o o l m a i n t a i n e d by t h e c i t y i n one o f i t s

parks.

The c i t y

v/as e n g a g e d i n a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p o o l and was n o t l i a b l e

f o r t h e dr o w n in g o f t h e boy when

I t w a s : 91

A l l e g e d t o h a v e b e e n c a u s e d by i t s im pro per c o n s t r u c t i o n and d a n g e r o u s and u n s a f e c o n d i t i o n , i n s u f f i c i e n c y of l i g h t i n g , f a i l u r e to take p r e ­ c a u tio n a r y measures to p r o t e c t th o s e u s in g the p o o l , f a i l u r e t o f u r n i s h g u a r d s , e r e c t n o t i c e s of d e p t h s o f t h e w a t e r , and t o p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t l o o k o u t f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e swimmers. I n C a l i f o r n i a , when t h e c i t y

o p e r a t e d a swimming p o o l

d u r i n g t h e summer months f o r t h e p l e a s u r e o f i t s boy drowned i n t h e p o o l .

citizen s,

a

The c i t y em p loyed one l i f e g u a r d

who was c a r e t a k e r and a l s o a t i c k e t

c o llecto r.

Yihen he was

n o t t a k i n g t i c k e t s , he was on d u t y as a l i f e g u a r d .

The p o o l

was w e l l marked as t o d e p t h o f w a t e r and s a f e t y h a z a r d s i n and a b o u t t h e w a t e r .

When a s u i t was b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e

c i t y f o r th e drowning, th e

court s a i d : 92

The c i t y was n o t r e q u i r e d t o i n s u r e t h e s a f e t y o f t h e b a t h e r s In i t s p o o l ; i t was o n l y r e q u i r e d t o f u r n i s h a p o o l t h a t was n o t d a n g e r o u s or In a d e ­ f e c tiv e con d ition .

9 * ^ H en d ric k s v . Urbana Park D i s t . , 106 ( 1 9 3 2 )* ^crone v.

2 d 81+6, 81+8 ( 1 9 3 3 ) o

2 6 5 1 1 1 . App.

102,

C i t y o f E l C a j o n , 13 3 G a l. App. 6 2 I1 , 2k P.

179

I n a n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a s i x y e a r o l d c h i l d was drowned i n a p o o l o p e r a t e d by t h e c i t y w h i l e he was a t t e n d ­ i n g a Sunday S c h o o l p i c n i c . but th e

There was no l i f e

guard on d u t y 93 c i t y was n o t c o n s i d e r e d l i a b l e when t h e c o u r t s a i d :

The d e f e n d a n t c i t y i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e swimming p o o l i n t h e p a r k was p e r f o r m i n g a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n and was n o t l i a b l e i n damages f o r any n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e i r s e r v a n t s and a g e n t s i n o p e r a t i n g t h e same. I n t h e same j u r i s d i c t i o n a n o t h e r c a s e r e c e i v e d t h e same r u l i n g when a t w e l v e y e a r o l d g i r l drowned un de r t h e same con d ition s

in a sim ila r pool.

94

Another boy t e n y e a r s old

was drowned i n a c i t y p a r k i n a d a n g e r o u s s p o t where t h e r e had b e e n t h r e e p r e v i o u s d r o w n i n g s .

N o t h i n g had b e e n done by

t h e p a r k bo a rd t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r l o s s

of lif e

a t an o b v i o u s l y

d a n g e r o u s p o i n t i n t h e swimming p o o l . 95 l i a b l e when t h e c o u r t s a i d :

The c i t y was n o t h e l d

In a w o r d, t o h o l d m u n i c i p a l i t i e s l i a b l e i n d a m a g e s, u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u c h as a r e r e v e a l e d i n t h e i n s t a n t c a s e , would be a g a i n s t p u b l i c p o l i c y , b e c a u s e i t would r e t a r d t h e e x p a n s i o n and d e v e l o p ­ ment o f p a r k i n g s y s t e m s , i n and around our g r o w i n g c i t i e s , and s t i f l e a g r a t i t u o u s g o v e r n m e n t a l a c t i v i t y v i t a l l y n e c e s s a r y t o t h e h e a l t h , c o n t e n t m e n t , and happiness o f t h e ir in h a b ita n ts .

9 o G i l l i l a n d v . C i t y o f T o p e k a , 124 Kan. 7 2 6 , 262 P. 493 ( 1 9 2 8 ) . 94 Warren v . C i t y o f T o p ek a, 125 Kan. 5 2 4 , 265 P. 78 (1928). ^ M a y o r and C i t y C o u n c i l o f B a l t i m o r e v . A h r e n s , 16 8 Md. 6 1 9 , 6 2 8 , 179 A. 1 6 9 , 173 ( 1 9 3 5 ) .

An e i g h t y e a r o l d c h i l d was a t t e n d i n g a swimming p o o l and drowned when t h e l i f e g u a r d was away w a t c h i n g a b a l l game. T h er e were no r o p e s o r m a rk er s i n d i c a t i n g t h e d e p t h or dangerous hazards o f the w a te r. the p o o l in i t s

S i n c e t h e c i t y was o p e r a t i n g

g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y i t was n o t h e l d l i a b l e

for the n eg lig en ce

of the life g u a r d .

And where a b o y was

drowned w h i l e b a t h i n g i n a c i t y swimming p o o l w h i c h was o f u n e v e n d e p t h and c o n t a i n e d l a r g e s t e p o f f s and no p r o v i s i o n s were made t o p r o t e c t t h e swimmers, t h e c i t y was n o t h e l d lia b le

b e c a u s e o f t h e same r e a s o n .

97

t a i n e d a b a t h i n g b e a c h as one o f i t s

I n Iow a , a c i t y m a i n ­ governmental f u n c t i o n s .

The b o t t o m o f t h e b e a c h was known t o be h a z a r d o u s b e c a u s e o f i t s u n e v e n n e s s and h o l e s .

A t w e l v e y e a r o l d boy who c o u l d

n o t swim f e l l i n one o f t h e h o l e s

and l o s t h i s

life .

The

c o u r t r u l e d t h a t t h e c i t y was a u t h o r i z e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e b e a c h by s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s and s i n c e i t was o p e r a t i n g t h e swimming p l a c e

in i t s

governmental c a p a c it y ,

it

could

n o t be h e l d l i a b l e f o r t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f i t s o f f i c e r s or 98 em ployees. When a p a t r o n o f a swimming p o o l o p e r a t e d by t h e c i t y was l e a v i n g t h e p o o l f o r t h e d r e s s i n g room, s h e

96

N.W. 512 97

H ein o v . (1918).

C i t y o f Grand R a p i d s , 202 h i c h . 3 6 3 , 168

V i r o v a t z v . C i t y o f Cudahy, 211 W i s . 3 5 7 , 2 4 7 II.W. (1933). 98 Mocha v . C i t y o f Cedar R a p i d s , 204 Iowa 5 1 , 2 14 N.W. 587 ( 1 9 2 7 ) . 341

181 s l i p p e d on a wooden bo a rd w a l k and f e l l down b r e a k i n g h e r 99 arm* The p o o l was o p e r a t e d i n a g o v e r n m e n t a l c a p a c i t y . A b o y a t t e n d e d a p o o l m a i n t a i n e d by t h e c i t y and was p l a y i n g around a d r a i n p i p e w h i c h was u n g u a r d e d .

The s u c t i o n was

g r e a t e n o u g h t o h o l d him u n d e r w a t e r and c a u s e him t o drown. I n a s i m i l a r c a s e a b o y was p l a y i n g around a d r a i n p i p e and w i t h o u t w a r n i n g t h e c i t y op ened an un guarded o u t l e t p i p e w h i c h was f o u r f e e t

in diam eter.

The s u c t i o n drev/ t h e swimmer

i n t o t h e p i p e c a u s i n g him t o d r o w n . A n o t h e r

b o y dove o f f

a h i g h d i v i n g board and t h e s u c t i o n from a m i s p l a c e d d r a i n p i p e drew him down w i t h s o much f o r c e t h a t i t br o ke h i s n e c k .

10!

I t was i m p o s s i b l e t o r e c o v e r i n a n y o f t h e s e c a s e s b e c a u s e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e p o o l s was a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n . Where an e l e v e n y e a r o l d g i r l drowned i n a c i t y p o o l i n w h i c h t h e r e v/ere two l i f e g u a r d s p r e s e n t and t h e p o o l was a d e q u a t e l y m a rk ed , t h e c o u r t e x p r e s s e d an o p i n i o n on what t h e y t h o u g h t was an e q u i t a b l e

a nsw e r t o t h e p r o b l e m o f g o v e r n m e n t a l im m unity

i n r e g a r d t o swimming when t h e y s t a t e d : ' * ’^

99

Godeau v . I n d e m n i t y Co. o f N . A . , La. App. 1 9 4 1 , 2 0 0 S o . 493 ( 1 9 4 1 ) . "^ ^ S ro u fe v . (1941).

Garden C i t y ,

148 Kan. 8 7 4 , 84 P. 2d 845

^"HlOla v . M e t r o p o l i t a n Park D i s t . , 42 P. 2d 4 3 5 ( 1 9 3 5 ) . 1 OP

Shoemaker v . 2d 508 ( 1 9 4 1 ) .

C ity o f Parsons,

103B a ltim o r e v . S t a t e , 576 ( 1 9 3 7 ) .

181 Wash. 1 7 7 ,

154 Kan. 3 8 7 ,

118 P.

173 Md. 2 6 7 , 2 7 6 , 195 A. 5 7 1 ,

132 I t i s b e t t e r t h a t the adequate perform ance o f s u c h an a c t be s e c u r e d by p u b l i c p r o s e c u t i o n and p u n i s h m e n t o f o f f i c i a l s who v i o l a t e t h e d u t i e s im­ p o s e d up on them i n r e s p e c t t o i t t h a n t o d i s b u r s e p u b l i c funds d e d i c a t e d t o the m ainten an ce o f su c h p u b l i c c o n v e n i e n c e s as p u b l i c p a r k s , swimming p o o l s , h o s p i t a l s , p l a y g r o u n d s , and b e a c h e s m a i n t a i n e d a t p u b l i c e x p e n s e t o p r i v a t e p e r s o n s who have s u f f e r e d l o s s t h r o u g h t h e n e g l i g e n c e or d e f a u l t o f m u n i c i p a l e m p l o y e e s or a g e n t s c h a r g e d w i t h t h e i r management* When t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n o p e r a t e s i t s p o o l s and b e a c h e s i n i t s

proprietary ca p a city ,

same d u t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

as p r i v a t e

swimming

I t a ssum e s t h e

corporations*

104

M unicipal C orporation (P r o p r ie ta r y F u n c t io n ) : A m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n was h e l d l i a b l e

t o a p l a i n t i f f when

h i s s o n was drowned i n a p o o l due t o l a c k o f a d e q u a t e s u p e r ­ v i s i o n and l a c k o f p r o m p t n e s s and c o m p e t e n c y on t h e p a r t o f 105 th e lif e g u a r d in perform ing a r e s c u e . The c o u r t s a i d t h a t t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n was o b l i g a t e d t o p r o v i d e „ 106 "an a d e q u a t e d e g r e e o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e 1' in the operation of it s p ools.

T h i s r u l i n g was f o l l o w e d i n a n o t h e r j u r i s ­

d i c t i o n when a y o u n g g i r l drowned due t o t h e n e g l i g e n t m a i n t e n a n c e and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e swimming p o o l by t h e c i t y .

107

And where a boy s i x t e e n y e a r s o f age droY/ned i n a p o o l

1 04

Hoggard v . C i t y o f Richmond, 172 Va. 1 4 5 , 2 00 S . E . 6 10 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . ] 05 P i e r c e v . V i l l a g e o f R av e na , 174 N.Y. M i s c . 7 7 4 , 22 N . Y . S . 2d 32 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . 106Id.

at 7 7 4 , 22 H . Y . S . 2d a t 3 6 .

F elton v . P. 2d 2 2 9 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .

C i t y o f Great P a l l s ,

118 Mont. 5 8 6 , 169

185

m a in ta in e d by th e

c i t y when t h e l i f e g u a r d f a i l e d

t o show up

f o r w o r k , t h e c i t y was h e l d l i a b l e f o r t h e n o n f e a s a n c e one o f i t s

of

The c o u r t s a i d : l °8

em ployees.

W h i l e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e was n o d i r e c t e v id e n ce t h a t , i f a l i f e g u a r d had been p r e s e n t , d e a t h w o u l d n o t h a v e r e s u l t e d , y e t we t h i n k t h e f a c t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s p ro v e n were s u f f i c i e n t , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n f e r e n c e w h i c h may l o g i c a l l y be draw n f ro m t h e e v i d e n c e , t o j u s t i f y t h e f i n d ­ i n g t h a t a f a i l u r e t o h a v e a l i f e g u a r d , was t h e p r o x im a te c a u s e of d e a t h . An a t t e n d a n t

a t one swimming p o o l r e q u i r e d a c h a p e r o n e

o f a s m a l l b o y t o l e a v e t h e b o y go u n a t t e n d e d t o t h e m e n ’ s d r e s s i n g room.

The a t t e n d a n t a s s u r e d t h e

would l o o k a f t e r t h e

s a f e t y of th e c h ild

d i d n o t go n e a r t h e w a t e r i n t h e p o o l , have t h e boy a t a p o i n t where th e t a k e him t o h e r c u s t o d y .

c h a p e ro n e t h a t he a n d s e e t h a t he

and t h a t he w o u l d

chaperone could again

The b o y somehow g o t a w a y , an d t h e

n e x t t i m e t h e y saw h i m was when t h e y p u l l e d h i m f r o m t h e w a te r drowned. I n one c i t y

A j u d g e m e n t f o r t h e p l a i n t i f f was a f f i r m e d . 9

swimming p o o l t h e r e was a b a r b e d w i r e f e n c e

e r e c t e d above and below t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e . h e r hand s e v e r e l y w h ile was h e l d l i a b l e

A g irl

swimming i n t h e p o o l ,

in ju red

and t h e

c ity

f o r n e g lig e n tly m aintaining the p o o l. ^ 0

■ ^ ^ C i t y o f Longman v . S w e a r i n g t o n , 81 C o l o . 2I4.6 , 2 5 J1 P . 1 0 0 0 , 1 0 0 2 ( 1 9 2 7 ) . 109T hayer v . C ity of S t . 5ll S.Vti. 2d Lt42 ( 1 9 5 2 ) . ^ ^ S u p r a note

10 ij-o

Joseph,

227

A pp. 6 2 3 ,

l§k In Ide v .

C ity o f S t ,

C l o u d , a

man and h i s

s o n were

drowned i n a h o l e w h i c h t h e c i t y k n o w i n g l y a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n in i t s

lake unguarded.

reason able

The c o u r t s a i d t h e c i t y d i d n o t u s e

care fo r the s a f e t y o f th e p u b l i c .

C ity o f Sioux F a l l s ,

112

I n C-lirbas v .

t h e c o u r t r u l e d t h e r e was a c a u s e

o f a c t i o n when a b o y drowned , and i t was a l l e g e d t h a t t h e p o o l was p o o r l y g u a r d e d , t h e w a t e r was t o o c o l d , w a t e r was t o o d e e p .

and t h e

I t was a d e c i s i o n f o r t h e j u r y i n

a n o t h e r c a s e when l a c k o f a d e q u a t e s u p e r v i s i o n was c h a r g e d a g a i n s t a c i t y who m a i n t a i n e d a swimming p o o l w i t h two a t t e n d a n t s f o r 2 5 0 p e o p l e and a boy drowned .

113

In t h i s

p a r t i c u l a r case the court said:"^^ Where a p a r t y m a i n t a i n s a b a t h h o u s e o r a d i v i n g or swimming p l a c e f o r t h e u s e o f t h e p u b l i c f o r h i r e , and n e g l i g e n t l y p e r m i t s any p o r t i o n o f t h e same or i t s a p p u r t e n a n c e s , w h e t h e r i n t h e h o u se o r o f t h e d e p t h o f w a t e r , or i n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b o t t o m or i n t h e t h i n g s t h e r e o n , t o be i n an u n s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r i t s u s e I n t h e manner i n w h i c h i t i s a p p a r e n t l y d e s i g n e d t o be u s e d , a d u t y imposed by la w i s t h e r e b y v i o l a t e d ; an d , I f an I n j u r y t o a n o t h e r p r o x i m a t e l y r e s u l t s from a p r o p e r u s e o f t h e same w i t h o u t c o n ­ t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e , a r e c o v e r y o f compensatory damages may be h a d .

li:L150 F l a . 8 0 6 , 8 S o . 2d 924 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . lip

64 S . D . 4 5 , 2 6 4 N.W. 196 ( 1 9 3 5 ) .

^ ^ P i c k e t t v . C ity o f J a c k s o n v ille , 20 S o . 2d 484 ( 1 9 4 5 ) . 114Id.

a t 4 4 2 , 20 S o . 2d a t 4 8 5 .

155 F l a . 4 3 9 ,

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g many c a s e s c o n c e r n i n g s u p e r v i s i o n i n sw imming, when done by a m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n i n a p r o p r i e ta ry ca p acity,

one c o u r t s t a t e d :

115

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e r u l e s f o r t h e d e t e r m i ­ n a t i o n o f l i a b i l i t y w i l l s u f f i c i e n t l y sa feg u a rd the m u n i c i p a l i t y and w i l l have a t e n d e n c y t o i n d u c e g r e a t ­ e r c a u t i o n i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f swimming p o o l s f o r the s a f e t y o f in v it e d g u e s t s . Some o f t h e same r u l e s porations w i l l lik ew ise

ap p lica b le to p r iv a te

cor­

concern the m un icipal c o r p o r a tio n in

c o n d u c t i n g swimming p o o l s i n i t s p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y . number o f c a s e s were found w h i c h s t a t e fo r variou s s i t u a t io n s

A

t h e common la w r u l e

c o n c e r n i n g swimming I n p r i v a t e l y

owned p o o l s . P rivate

C orporation s:

A t w e l v e y e a r o l d b o y who

c o u l d n o t swim was drowned i n a swimming p o o l t h a t was g u a r d e d by two l i f e g u a r d s . disappearance. present,

No p e r s o n w i t n e s s e d t h e b o y l s

Th ere were b e t w e e n 150 and 200 p e o p l e

and t h e p o o l was w e l l marked as t o w a t e r d e p t h and

s a f e t y hazards.

The p o o l was 200 f e e t l o n g and 80 f e e t

w i d e , and i t r a n g e d i n d e p t h from two t o f i f t e e n f e e t w i t h a gradual slo p e.

I t was c h a r g e d t h a t t h e r e was an i n ­

s u f f i c i e n t number o f l i f e g u a r d s p r e s e n t and t h e y were n egligen t

in th e ir su p ervision .

115 2 00 S . E .

When one w i t n e s s

Koggard v . C i t y o f Richmond, 172 Va. 1 4 5 , 1 5 7 , 6 1 0 , 616 ( 1 9 3 9 ) .

testifie d

th a t for proper su p e r v isio n ,

lifeg u a rd

t h e r e s h o u l d be one 116 t o e v e r y 50 swimmers t h e c o u r t s a i d :

I t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f two or t h r e e more g u a r d s would have b e e n o f any a v a i l i f non e o f t h e l a r g e number o f p e o p l e around him saw th e l i t t l e b o y ’ s danger, i t i s not l i k e l y th a t h i s d a n g e r wou ld have b e e n p e r c e i v e d by g u a r d s on t h e s i d e o f t h e p o o l w h e t h e r t h e i r number were two or f o u r , b u t t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f a b a t h i n g r e s o r t or swimming p o o l s h o u l d p r o v i d e a s u f f i c i e n t number o f competent a t t e n d a n t s to s u p e r v i s e the b a th e r s and r e s c u e any a p p a r e n t l y i n d a n g e r or d i s t r e s s . Su ch i s d o u b t l e s s t h e l a w . One swimming p o o l p r o p r i e t o r a d v e r t i s e d q u i t e e x ­ t e n s iv e ly that

c h i l d r e n who went i n swimming would be l o o k e d

a f t e r and c a r e d f o r .

A youn g boy was p l a y i n g on t h e s i d e o f

t h e p o o l when he c r a c k e d h i s head on t h e c o n c r e t e e d g e knock' i n g him u n c o n s c i o u s i n t o t h e p o o l where he drowned. p r o p r i e t o r was n o t l i a b l e guards,

The

fo r the n e g lig e n c e o f the l i f e -

and t h e c o u r t s t a t e d :

1 17

The p r o p r i e t o r o f a b a t h i n g r e s o r t i s n o t u n d e r the a b s o lu t e duty o f p r o v id in g s k i l l e d a tten d a n ts in s u f f i c i e n t number t o I n s u r e t h e s a f e t y o f p a t r o n s e n ­ g ag e d i n b a t h i n g ; t h e d u t y i s o n l y t o e x e r c i s e o r d i n a r y c a r e t o p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y s u f f i c i e n t number o f com­ p e te n t a tte n d a n ts fo r such a purpose. A b o y drowned from an unknown c a u s e i n a swimming p o o l 60 f e e t

l o n g b y 20 f e e t w ide w i t h two w e l l q u a l i f i e d

^■^Mullen v . Russworm, 169 Tenn. 6 5 0 , 6 5 5 , 2d 5 3 0 , 532 ( 1 9 3 6 ) . ] ]7

962

L evin sk i v. (1912).

Cooper,

(Tex.

90 S.W•

C i v . A p p .) 142 S.W. 9 5 9 ,

18? lifeg u a rd s presen t.

The p r o p r i e t o r was n o t h e l d f o r t h e 118 n e g l i g e n c e o f t h e l i f e g u a r d s when t h e c o u r t s t a t e d : When many swimmers a r e e n g a g e d i n a c q u a t i c s p o r t s i n t h e same p o o l , i t i s common k n ow led ge t h a t d i v e r s d i s a p p e a r and r e t u r n a t o t h e r p l a c e s w i t h o u t g i v i n g o c c a s i o n f o r ala rm o r r e s c u e . . . . W i t h o u t r e s o r t i n g t o s p e c u l a t i o n or c o n j e c t u r e , th e ju ry could not p r o p e r ly fin d t h a t , ex ce p t fo r a f a i l u r e o f t h e guard t o m i s s t h e b a t h e r and t o n o t i c e t h a t he d i d n o t p r o m p t l y r e a p p e a r , t h e r e would h a v e b e e n no l o s s o f l i f e . The D e n i s o n F i r e D ep a r tm en t p r o v i d e d a f r e e swimming p e r i o d w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o a number o f c h i l d r e n i n s m a l l to w n s i n t h e i r v i c i n i t y .

T h i s p a r t i c u l a r m o rn in g t h e r e were

4 8 c h i l d r e n r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n from one l i f e g u a r d . little

One

g i r l who c o u l d n o t swim t o o w e l l made a fe w t r i p s

a c r o s s t h e r o p e s e p a r a t i n g t h e deep and s h a l l o w w a t e r .

The

l i f e g u a r d warned h e r t w i c e t o s t a y i n t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r . Her bo d y was foun d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p o o l u n d e r t h e r o p e when t h e c h i l d r e n g o t r e a d y t o go home.

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

c a s e t h e p o o l was 144 f e e t l o n g and 60 f e e t w i d e .

It

r a n g e d i n d e p t h g r a d u a l l y from s i x i n c h e s t o n i n e f e e t . 119 The c o u r t s t a t e d :

1]% o l a n v . Y.M.C.A. 12 3 Feb . 64 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) . 386,

5 4 9 , 2 4 3 I'I.W. 6 3 9 ,

Langheim v . D e n i s o n F i r e D e p a r t m e n t , 2 3 7 Iowa 3 9 3 , 21 F.W. 2d 2 9 5 , 2 9 8 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .

IBS D e f e n d a n t i n f u r n i s h i n g o n l y one a t t e n d a n t or l i f e g u a r d w h ose e f f o r t s were d e v o t e d l a r g e l y t o i n s t r u c t i n g g r o u p s o f c h i l d r e n i n swimming r a t h e r than t o the d u t ie s o f a lif e g u a r d , defendant f a i l e d t o e x e r c i s e o r d in a r y care t o p r o v id e a r e a s o n a b l y s u f f i c i e n t number o f c o m p e t e n t l i f e ­ g u a r d s t o s u p e r v i s e s a i d c h i l d r e n and r e s c u e any ap p aren tly in danger. A n o t h e r c h i l d d e m o n s t r a t e d t o t h e l i f e g u a r d t h a t he c o u l d swim b y swimming one and a h a l f w i d t h s o f t h e p o o l . The b o y was l a t e r foun d drowned i n w a t e r s l i g h t l y o v e r h i s head.

The l i f e g u a r d was n o t found n e g l i g e n t when i t was

c h a r g e d t h a t he was n e g l i g e n t

i n c a r i n g f o r a non -sw im m er.

The c o u r t s t a t e d t h e d u t y o f c a r e owed t o non-swim m ers when t h e y s a i d : ' 1’20 O r d in a r y c a r e i s c a r e p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e r i s k t o be a p p re h e n d ed and guarded a g a i n s t . . . . O t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , t h e d e f e n d a n t would owe a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f c a r e t o t h e b o y whom i t knew c o u l d n o t swim, and who was p e r m i t t e d i n t h e p o o l , t h a n t o one whom i t knew c o u l d swim. In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e a b i l i t y t o swim o r t h e l a c k o f i t would be an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e sum o f a l l t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e what i s and what i s n o t o r d i n a r y c a r e on t h e p a r t o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r . And when a s i x t e e n y e a r o l d b o y was foun d drowned i n t h e m i d d l e o f a p o o l t h a t was a t t e n d e d by two l i f e g u a r d s

and was

w e l l m arked, t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e p o o l was n o t h e l d f o r n e g l i g e n c e b e c a u s e t h i s was c o n s i d e r e d a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e b a t h e r s and t h e l i f e g u a r d s w e r e prompt i n a t t e m p t i n g

■^^Henroid v . G re g so n Hot S p r i n g s C o . , 52 Mont. 4 4 7 , 1 58 P. 8 2 4 , 825 ( 1 9 1 6 ) .

to r e v iv e the boy.

121

B u t , where a p a t r o n o f a b a t h i n g

b e a c h was drowned w h i l e no a t t e n d a n t was on d u t y and t h e p r o p r i e t o r made no e f f o r t was h e l d f o r n e g l i g e n c e

t o make a r e s c u e ,

the p r o p r ie t o r

and t h e c o u r t s a i d t h a t i t was t h e

d u t y o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r t o k e e p some one on d u t y and t h e y must be prompt i n i n s t i t u t i n g a r e s c u e .

122

t e e n y e a r o l d b o y drowned i n a pond l o c a t e d

And when a f o u r ­ i n an amusement

park i n w hich t h e y charged a sm a ll fe e f o r e n tr y the court * :1 2 3 s a 4i d

The mere f a i l u r e o f t h e d e f e n d a n t t o f u r n i s h an e x p e r i e n c e d swimmer and d i v e r would n o t a l o n e c o n ­ s t i t u t e n eg lig en ce. When a y o u n g b o y r a n away from h i s p a r e n t s a t t h e b e a c h and was l a t e r f oun d drowned i n t h e d e e p p a r t o f t h e lak e,

t h e r e was no r e c o v e r y g r a n t e d b e c a u s e t h e r e were two

c o m p e t e n t l i f e g u a r d s i n a t t e n d a n c e and t h e w a t e r was w e l l m a rk ed .

124

. n n j. • — i . 125 I n L a r k i n v . S a l t a i r e Beach C o . , the court

s t a t e d a t l e n g t h what t h e d u t i e s bath ing r eso r t are.

1 21

o f the p r o p r ie to r o f a

The wind d r i f t e d t h r e e youn g c h i l d r e n

Lyman v . H a l l ,

11 7 Neb. 1 4 0 , 209 N.W. 902 ( 1 9 2 8 ) .

122

B r o t h e r t o n v . M anhattan B ea ch C o . , 48 Neb. 4 6 3 , 67 N.W. 479 ( 1 8 9 6 ) . 123 D e c a t u r Amusement Co. v . P o r t e r , 1 3 7 1 1 1 . App. 4 4 8 , 4 5 2 , 453 ( 1 9 0 7 ) . 1 P 4

Hahn v . P e r k i n s , 228 l i . C . 7 2 7 , 46 S . E . 2d 854

(1948). IPS

30 U t a h 8 6 , 83 P. 68 6 ( 1 9 0 5 ) .

190 u n k n o w i n g l y i n t o d e e p w a t e r w h i l e t h e y were f l o a t i n g on t h e w ater.

C a l l s f o r r e s c u e w ent u n h e e d e d , and when t h e

p r o p r i e t o r was f i n a l l y n o t i f i e d

o f the c h ild r e n in p e r i l ,

ignored the p le a s o f the p l a i n t i f f to i n s t i g a t e

a search.

One o f t h e b o d i e s was f o un d on s h o r e t h e n e x t d a y . 1 26 court sta te d :

The

I t c a n n o t be h e l d t h a t t h e d e c e a s e d was g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e so l o n g as he and h i s co m p a n ion s r e m a i n e d w i t h i n t h e t e r r i t o r y t o w h i c h t h e y and t h e p e o p l e g e n e r a l l y , were i n v i t e d t o b a t h e , u n l e s s t h e y , w i t h k n o w le d g e or n o t i c e o f t h e d a n g e r , put th em selves in a p o s i t i o n o f p e r i l . . . . A n d when t h e b u s i n e s s i s t h a t o f k e e p i n g o r c a r r y i n g on a b a th in g r e s o r t , the a u t h o r i t i e s hold t h a t the pro­ p r i e t o r s o r owners t h e r e o f are n o t o n l y r e q u i r e d t o e x e r c i s e t h a t same d e g r e e o f c a r e and p r u d e n c e w h i c h t h e la w i m p o s e s up on k e e p e r s o f p u b l i c r e s o r t s g e n e r ­ a l l y f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e i r p a t r o n s , b u t t h e law i m p o s e s upon them t h e a d d i t i o n a l d u t y , when t h e c h a r a c t e r and c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e r e s o r t a r e s u c h t h a t , b e c a u s e o f d e e p w a t e r , o r t h e r i s i n g o f su d d e n s t o r m s , o r o t h e r c a u s e s , t h e b a t h e r s may g e t i n t o d a n g e r , o f h a v i n g i n a t t e n d a n c e some s u i t a b l e p e r s o n w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y a p p l i a n c e s t o e f f e c t r e s c u e s and s a v e t h o s e who may m eet w i t h a c c i d e n t . Not o n l y i s I t t h e d u t y o f t h e owners o f b a t h i n g r e s o r t s t o be p r e p a r e d t o r e s c u e t h o s e who may g e t i n t o d a n g e r w h i l e b a t h i n g , b u t i t i s t h e i r d u t y t o a c t w i t h p r o m p t n e s s , and make e v e r y r e a s o n a b l e e f f o r t t o s e a r c h f o r and i f p o s s i b l e r e c o v e r t h o s e known t o be m i s s i n g . . . . T h e owner or p r o p r i e t o r o f a p u b l i c b a t h i n g r e s o r t may be found t o be n e g l i g e n t i n f a i l i n g t o p l a c e or p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n s i g n s as t o t h e d a n g e r o u s d e p t h s o f t h e w a t e r , or marks t o i n d i c a t e d a n g e r t o h i s p a t r o n s .

126Id.

a t 8 6 , 83 P. a t 6 9 0 ,

691.

he

19£ A l i f e g u a r d has a number o f o t h e r j o b s b e s i d e s r e s c u e work when a p e r s o n i s d r o w n in g * d i c t i o n the court sa id :

127

Thus i n one j u r i s -

nA l i f e g u a r d who o b s e r v e s a

b a th er i n p e r i l should e f f e c t a r e s c u e , may n o t y e t be d r o w n i n g . "

though th e b a th er

T h i s c a s e had r e f e r e n c e t o a s m a l l

g i r l who c o u l d n o t swim y e t went beyond t h e r o p e m a r k i n g o f f th e deep w a te r .

The l i f e g u a r d was o b l i g a t e d t o send t h e g i r l

b a c k b e c a u s e he knew o f h e r a p p a r e n t d a n g e r .

Where a l i f e ­

guard u s e d what was c o n s i d e r e d an a c c e p t a b l e meth od o f r e s ­ cuing a p erson In d i s t r e s s ,

t h e p r o p r i e t o r was c h a r g e d w i t h

h i s n e g l i g e n c e when he b r o u g h t a b o u t s e v e r e i n j u r y i n e f f e c t 128 in g the r e s c u e . The v e r y h e a v y l a d y had h e r b a c k t o t h e p o o l and t h e l i f e g u a r d

c r o s s e d h e r arms i n f r o n t o f h e r ,

d u n k i n g h e r o n c e or t w i c e ,

and t h e n p u l l e d h e r out g i v i n g a

s l i g h t t w i s t t o s e t h e r r i g h t on t h e e d g e o f t h e p o o l . 129 court sa id :

The

P r o p r i e t o r s o f b a t h i n g r e s o r t s or p o o l s i n d i s ­ c h a r g i n g t h e i r d u t y to w ar d t h e i r p a t r o n s and g u e s t s a r e n o t o n l y u n d e r o b l i g a t i o n t o k e e p an a t t e n d a n t o r l i f e g u a r d on hand t o s u p e r v i s e and p r o t e c t b a t h e r s i n case o f a c c i d e n t , but are l i a b l e f o r o r d in a r y n e g l i g e n c e o f th e a t t e n d a n t i n th e perform ance o f h is duty. A l i f e g u a r d who g o e s t o t h e r e s c u e o f a p a t r o n or g u e s t owes t h e d u t y o f e x e r c i s i n g o r d i n a r y c a r e ; t h a t i s , s u c h c a r e as w o u ld be u s e d b y an o r d i n a r i l y c a u t i o u s l i f e g u a r d under l i k e circum ­ s t a n c e s , and f o r a f a i l u r e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , w i t h r e s u l t i n g i n j u r y , an a c t i o n f o r damages w i l l l i e .

Langheim v . D e n i s o n F i r e D e p a r t m e n t , 2 3 7 Iowa 3 8 6 , 3 9 4 , 21 N.W. 2d 2 9 5 , 299 ( 1 9 4 6 ) .

128B l a c k w e l l 242 N.W. 664

129 I d .

v.

Omaha A t h l e t i c

(1932). a t 3 3 2 , 24 2 N.W. a t 6 6 6 .

C lu b ,

123 Neb. 3 3 2 ,

I n Maehlman v . Reuben R e a l t y C o . ,

the court sa id

i t was an e r r o r t o d i r e c t a v e r d i c t i n f a v o r o f t h e R e a l t y Company when one o f t h e b a t h e r s broken g la s s

in the la k e .

cut h i s

f o o t on a p i e c e o f

The c o u r t a l s o s t a t e d t h a t

the

Company was u n d e r a d u t y t o i n s p e c t t h e b e a c h u n d e r t h e w a t e r and remove h i d d e n and d a n g e r o u s o b s t r u c t i o n s when i t was shown t h a t a number o f b r o k e n b o t t l e s

t h a t were foun d

on t h e b e a c h by t h e w a t e r had b e e n r a k e d u p .

T h i s was c o n ­

s i d e r e d as t h e u s e o f o r d i n a r y c a r e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f the b a th e r s .

Where a bo y was k i l l e d when he dove i n t o a

w a t e r s o a k e d r a f t t h a t had su b m e r g e d ,

i t was a q u e s t i o n f o r

the

ju ry t o determ ine the n e g lig e n c e o f the p r o p r ie t o r o f a 131 p r iv a te bathing r e s o r t . And when a man i n j u r e d h i s f o o t on a subm erged c o n c r e t e b l o c k u s e d t o a n c h o r a f l o a t sw imming, t h e p r o p r i e t o r was h e l d f o r n e g l i g e n c e . 132 court sta te d :

for

The

One v/ho a s s u m e s t o o f f e r t h e u s e o f p u b l i c w aters fo r b ath in g in co n n e c tio n w ith bathhouses and o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l i a n c e s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e owner o f t h e s h o r e , owes t h e d u t y t o e x e r c i s e r e a s o n a b l e c a r e t o p r e v e n t i n j u r y t o p a t r o n s who u s e t h e w a t e r s i n t h e o r d i n a r y and u s u a l way and c o n s is te n t w ith the i n v i t a t io n extended.

1 3 0 32 Ohio App. 5 4 , 1 6 6 N .E . 92 0 ( 1 9 2 8 ) .

(1934).

1 3 1 M i k u l s k i v . Morgan, 2 6 8 M ic h. 3 1 4 , 2 5 6 N.W. 339

132 S k e l l y

92,

v . P l e a s u r e B e a c h Park C o r p . , 1 6 0 A. 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) .

115 Conn.

A n o t h e r p a t r o n o f a p r i v a t e swimming p o o l was i n j u r e d when s h e was s t r u c k by a p e r s o n d i v i n g from a s p r i n g b o a r d i n a d i a g o n a l and u n u s u a l d i r e c t i o n .

When i t was p r o v e n

t h a t t h e l i f e g u a r d d i d n o t a l l o w t h a t k i n d o f d i v i n g t o be a c u s t o m a r y p r a c t i c e , a n o n s u i t was g r a n t e d t o t h e 133 p rop rietor. H o w e v er , i n a n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a s i m i l a r a c c i d e n t o c c u r r e d i n an i n d o o r swimming p o o l .

The p r o ­

p r i e t o r was h e l d t o be u n d e r a d u t y t o t a k e some p r e ­ c a u tio n s t o avoid such o c c u r r e n c e s.

He was o b l i g a t e d t o

t a k e "some m e a s u r e s t o p r e v e n t a p a t r o n from d i v i n g u n t i l t h e p r e v i o u s d i v e r had had t i m e t o emerge from b e n e a t h t h e w ater o f th e p o o l."

134

Where a p a t r o n o f a b a t h i n g b e a c h

dove o f f a s w i n g p r o v i d e d b y t h e p r o p r i e t o r , he was k i l l e d when he s t r u c k an o b j e c t i n t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r o v e r t h e sw ing.

The c o u r t s a i d i t was t h e d u t y o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r

o f a p o o l u s e d f o r d i v i n g t o s e e t h a t t h e w a t e r i n i t was reason ably sa fe

for that purpose,

warn o r c a u t i o n them o f t h a t

and, i f

fact.

135

i t was n o t ,

to

A water c a r n iv a l

was g o i n g on a t a p o o l when a g i r l e n t e r e d t h e p o o l f o r a s h o r t swim.

A g r o u p o f swimmers s t a r t e d

t h e p l a t f o r m sh e was s t a n d i n g o n .

153S p itz k o p f v. M it c h e ll, 186 ( 1 9 3 5 ) . M isc.

" h o r s e p l a y " on

They were w r e s t l i n g

114 N . J . L .

1 6 0 , 176 A.

E s p o s i t a v . S t . George Swimming C lu b , 143 N.Y. 1 5 , 25 5 N . Y . S . 7 9 4 , 797 ( 1 9 3 2 ) . ■^^Waddel v .

(1934).

B r a s h e a r , 2 5 7 Ky. 3 9 0 ,

78 S.W. 2d 31

and p u s h i n g e a c h o t h e r a r o u n d , and s u d d e n l y one u n i d e n t i f i e d p e r s o n v i o l e n t l y pushed th e g i r l i n t o th e p o o l c a u s i n g her great in ju ry. the l i a b i l i t y lifeg u a rd ,

T h i s c a s e was f o r t h e

j u r y t o d e c i d e as t o

o f the p r o p r ie to r fo r the n e g lig e n c e

but th e court s a id :

o f the

136

The o p e r a t o r o f a b a t h i n g p o o l was u n d e r a d u t y t o e x e r c i s e due c a r e i n p o l i c i n g and s u p e r ­ v i s i n g t h e p o o l t o p r o t e c t p a t r o n s from t h e b o i s t e r o u s and i n j u r i o u s c o n d u c t o f o t h e r s ; and t h a t i t m i g h t be l i a b l e t o a p a t r o n who was throw n i n t o t h e p o o l by t h o s e who were p u t t i n g on a w a t e r c a rn iv a l. E s p e c i a l l y i s the d u ty l a i d upon p r o ­ p r i e t o r s w i t h r e g a r d t o women and c h i l d r e n , t o p r o t e c t them fro m r u d e , b o i s t e r o u s , and u n p r o v o k e d a t t a c k s and a s s a u l t s . A n o t h e r g i r l was p u s h e d o f f a h i g h d i v i n g board by some m i s c h i e v i o u s

c h i l d r e n and s h e f e l l t o t h e

edge o f th e p o o l b e lo w .

She was c r i t i c a l l y

concrete

i n j u r e d from

the f a l l

and t h e p r o p r i e t o r was h e l d l i a b l e f o r t h e n e g l i 137 gence o f the l i f e g u a r d . The c o u r t s a i d : For t h e d e f e n d a n t t o f a i l t o u s e r e a s o n a b l e care i n fu r n is h in g a r e a so n a b ly s a f e c o n d it io n o f t h e p o o l and h i g h d i v e b y p e r m i t t i n g c h i l d r e n t o romp and p l a y on t h e s t e p s and p l a t f o r m o f t h e h i g h d i v e was n e g l i g e n c e . . . . I t was t h e d u t y o f t h e d e ­ fendant to use r ea so n a b le care in s u p e r in te n d in g t h e p o o l s o as t o f u r n i s h r e a s o n a b l y s a f e c o n d i t i o n s . The p l a i n t i f f assumed t h e n a t u r a l r i s k o f d i v i n g from t h e h i g h d i v e i n t o t h e w a t e r , bu t d i d n o t assume n e g l i g e n c e on t h e p a r t o f d e f e n d a n t i n p e r ­ m i t t i n g c h i l d r e n t o j o s t l e or push her o f f th e h ig h dive •

1 3 6 Quinn v . (C.C .A. 5 t h 1 9 3 2 ) . 1 37

(1934).

Sm ith,

(F la .)

57 F. 2d 7 8 4 , 785

H i l l v . M e r r i c k , 1 4 7 Or. 2 4 4 , 31 P. 2d 6 6 3 , 665

And when a man was i n j u r e d when he dov e from a d i v i n g board and s t r u c k a r o c k a few f e e t u n d e r t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e w a t e r , t h e p r o p r i e t o r was g u i l t y o f n e g l i g e n c e grounds i n a r e a so n a b ly sa fe

i n not k e e p in g the 138 con d ition . The c o u r t s a i d :

I t was t h e d u t y o f t h e d e f e n d a n t t o u s e r e a s o n ­ able care fo r the s a f e t y o f h is patron s in view o f t h e u s e o f t h e p r e m i s e s t h a t m i g h t be r e a s o n a b l y a n ticip a ted . The p l a i n t i f f had t h e r i g h t t o assume t h a t d e f e n d a n t had d i s c h a r g e d h i s d u t y and had p r o ­ v i d e d a p l a c e w h i c h was r e a s o n a b l y s a f e . Th ere a r e a number o f o t h e r c a s e s w h i c h s u b s t a n t i a t e the fin d in g th a t i t

is

the d u ty o f the p r o p r ie to r o f a

b a th in g beach to provid e water th a t and s a f e o v e r a d i v i n g b o a r d , and i f

is it

s u f f i c i e n t l y deep i s not p o s s i b l e ,

t h e a r e a must be p r o p e r l y marked s h o w i n g t h e d a n g e r s and 139 hazards under the w a te r. There a r e some c a s e s i n w h ic h a p r o p r i e t o r was n o t h e l d l i a b l e

for in ju r ie s

swimmers due t o c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p o o l .

or damages t o

T h u s , when an e x ­

p e r t swimmer w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e p o o l d i v e d i n t o t h e s h a l l o w w a t e r and was i n j u r e d t h e p r o p r i e t o r was 140 not l i a b l e . And i n two c a s e s where d i v e r s u s e d a p p a r a t u s t h a t was n o t b u i l t

f o r d i v i n g and w h i c h wou ld r e a s o n a b l y be

1 3 8 G a t e s v . G a u t i e r , 29 C a l . App. 2d 5 2 4 , 85 P. 2d 142 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 139 L o u i s v i l l e Water Co. v . B o w e r s , 2 5 1 Ky. 7 1 , 64 S.W. 2d 4 4 4 ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; Gray v . B r i g g s , 2 5 9 Mich. 4 4 0 , 24-3 N.W. 254 ( 1 9 3 2 ) ; Lake Brady Co. v . K r u t e l , 123 Ohio S t . 5 7 0 , 176 N .E . 226 ( 1 9 3 1 ) . 140 W a l l o c h v . H e i d e n , 18 0 Ark. 8 4 4 , 22 S.W. 2d 1020 141,

(1930).

c o n s id e r e d as not s u i t a b l e not lia b le

for d iv in g ,

for th e ir in ju r ie s .

t h e p r o p r i e t o r was

141

The d o c t r i n e o f " r e s p o n d e a t s u p e r i o r " illu stra ted

i n th e c a s e s i n which a p r i v a t e

d u c t s a swimming p o o l . resp o n sib ilities

c o r p o r a tio n con­

I n m o st i n s t a n c e s t h e d u t i e s

o f p rivate

corporations

enforced than those o f c h a r ita b le C haritable C orp oration s:

and

a r e more s t r i c t l y

corp oration s. V e r y few c a s e s have r e a c h e d

th e h ig h e r c o u r ts i n which the c h a r i t a b l e g u i l t y o f n eg lig en ce

is very w ell

c o r p o r a t i o n was

i n c o n d u c t i n g t h e i r swimming p o o l s .

Where a g i r l a t t e n d e d a swimming c l a s s s p o n s o r e d by t h e Young WomenTs C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n ,

sh e was I n j u r e d w h i l e

w a l k i n g t h r o u g h t h e h a l l b e t w e e n t h e s h o w e r and l o c k e r 142 room. I n t h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n s are Immune from t o r t

lia b ility

s o no r e c o v e r y was g r a n t e d . In 14 3 Waldman v . Young Menf s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n , a group o f b o y s w e r e swimming i n t h e Y.M .C .A . p o o l when one o f t h e b o y s was s e v e r e l y i n j u r e d .

The r e g u l a r d i v i n g board was

b e i n g r e p a i r e d and i n i t s p l a c e , b lea ch er board. one t o d i v e

t h e b o y s had p l a c e d a

The i n s t r u c t o r g a v e i n s t r u c t i o n s

sidew ays

from t h e b o a r d .

f o r no

One b o y d i s o b e y e d

and when he d o v e s i d e w a y s , t h e bo a rd was p r o p e l l e d t o t h e

141

S t u r g i s v . W a v e c r e s t R e a l t y C o . , 124 Neb. 7 6 9 , 2 4 8 N.W. 78 ( 1 9 3 3 ) ; P i n e h u r s t Co. v . P h e l p s , 163 Md. 6 8 , 160 A. 736 ( 1 9 3 2 ) . 142 Herndon v . M a s s e y , 2 1 7 N.C. 6 1 0 , 8 S . E . 2d 914 143 2 2 7 W i s . 4 3 , 2 7 7 N.W. 632 ( 1 9 3 8 ) .

(1940).

s i d e o f t h e p o o l and s t r u c k t h e Waldman b o y .

I t was a l l e g e d

t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e b l e a c h e r b o a r d was a v i o l a t i o n o f t h e S a fe P lace S t a t u t e . a p p lic a b le to the

The c o u r t s a i d t h a t t h i s r u l e was n o t

c a s e and s i n c e

p o r a t i o n i t was n o t l i a b l e 1 44 stated:

i t was a c h a r i t a b l e

f o r d a m a g e s.

cor­

The c o u r t a l s o

The b o y s w e r e n e g l i g e n t l y p e r m i t t e d t o u s e e q u i p m e n t f o r d i v i n g t h a t was n o t b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d b y d e f e n d a n t as p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h a t p u r p o s e , and t h e i n j u r y t o p l a i n t i f f was t h e r e s u l t o f n e g l i g e n c e r a t h e r than a f a i l u r e t o keep a s a f e p la ce. A t r o o p o f boy s c o u t s was i n v i t e d w e e k l y t o a t t e n d t h e Y .M .C .A . swimming p o o l . t h e i r own l i f e g u a r d s ,

They were r e q u i r e d t o f u r n i s h

and t h e y had two w e l l q u a l i f i e d

b o t h h a v i n g Red Cross s e n i o r l i f e

guards

saving c e r t i f i c a t e s .

When t h e b o y s c o u t t r o o p was l e a v i n g , t h e y n o t i c e d one o f t h e i r members was m i s s i n g . bottom o f th e p o o l ,

The boy was d i s c o v e r e d on t h e

and he had b e e n i n t h e w a t e r t o o l o n g

t o r e v i v e him t h r o u g h a r t i f i c i a l r e s p i r a t i o n .

No n e g l i g e n c e

was p r o v e n ,

s o t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e im m unity o f c h a r i t a b l e 145 c o r p o r a t i o n s from t o r t d i d n o t a r i s e . In another case

w hich In v o lv ed a c h a r i t a b l e

c o r p o r a t i o n d e a t h from swimming,

t h e q u e s t i o n o f im m unity d i d n o t come up when no n e g l i g e n c e was p r o v e d on t h e p a r t o f t h e d e f e n d a n t c i t y .

144Id. 145

Neb.

A 4H camp

a t 4 7 , 2 7 7 N.W. a t 6 3 4 .

N o l a n v . Young MenTs C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n , 5 4 9 , 2 4 3 N.W. 639 ( 1 9 3 2 ) .

123

was p e r m i t t e d t o u s e a swimming p o o l owned and o p e r a t e d by t h e c i t y i n one o f t h e i r p a r k s .

The campers were t o go

swimming a t e l e v e n o ' c l o c k and w e re t o f u r n i s h t h e i r own lifeg u a rd .

The p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e swimming p o o l a l s o m a i n ­

ta in e d a lif e g u a r d fo r the r e g u la r p a tr o n s.

One o f t h e

campers w e n t i n t o t h e p o o l t e n m i n u t e s e a r l y and f a i l e d

to

o b s e r v e t h e m a r k i n g s and w a r n i n g s on t h e s i d e o f t h e p o o l as t o t h e d e p t h and h a z a r d s i n t h e w a t e r .

When t h e b o y

drowned i t was a l l e g e d t h a t t h e l i f e g u a r d s

fa iled

to n o tify

him p e r s o n a l l y o f t h e d e p t h o f t h e w a t e r and t h e r e f o r e p o o l was b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d n e g l i g e n t l y . t h e r e was no n e g l i g e n c e ,

the

The c o u r t s a i d

and t h e p r o p r i e t o r u s e d r e a s o n a b l e

care f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f the competent l i f e g u a r d Summary: tiv ities also

swimmers by p r o v i d i n g a 146 and h a v i n g t h e p o o l w e l l m ark ed .

Swimming i s

one o f t h e m o st p o p u l a r a c ­

i n t h e progr am i n m o st r e c r e a t i o n camps.

one o f t h e most h a z a r d o u s s p o r t s .

It

T his c a l l s

is

for in ­

t e l l i g e n t p l a n n i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e swimming program.

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e la w s c o n c e r n i n g swimming

and t h e common law r u l i n g s the e s s e n t i a l s

in the variou s s t a t e s

one o f

for i n t e l l i g e n t planning.

When t h e m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n i s o p e r a t i n g t h e i r swimming p o o l s th e y are u s u a l l y not l i a b l e o fficers

is

c o n d u c t i n g and

in a governmental c a p a c it y ,

fo r the n e g lig e n c e o f t h e i r

and e m p l o y e e s .

146-K ec h t A sso cia tio n ,

v . Des Moines P l a y g r o u n d and R e c r e a t i o n 2 2 7 Iowa 8 1 , 2 8 7 N.W. 259 ( 1 9 3 9 ) .

19? A m unicipal co rp o ra tio n th a t its

c o n d u c t s and o p e r a t e s

swimming p o o l s i n a p r o p r i e t a r y c a p a c i t y i s u s u a l l y

just

as l i a b l e

p loyees

fo r the n e g lig e n c e

as p r i v a t e

of its

l i f e g u a r d s and em­

corp oration s.

I t has been s t a t e d t h a t the o b l i g a t i o n t o e x e r c i s e due c a r e f o r t h e

s a f e t y o f h i s p a t r o n s i m p o s e s upon t h e

p r iv a t e p r o p r ie t o r o f a b a th in g r e s o r t the duty o f doing one o r more o f t h e

fo llow in g th in gs:

147

( 1 ) To e x e r c i s e o r d i n a r y c a r e t o p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y s u f f i c i e n t number o f c o m p e t e n t a t t e n d ­ a n t s t o s u p e r v i s e b a t h e r s and t o r e s c u e any I n a p p a r e n t d a n g e r ; ( 2 ) t o i n s t a l l and m a i n t a i n I n p r o p e r p o s i t i o n s i g n s warning p a tr o n s o f dangerous d e p t h o f w a t e r ; and ( 3 ) t o i n s t i t u t e a t i m e l y s e a r c h i n t h e w a t e r f o r a m i s s i n g b a t h e r on a s c e r ­ t a i n i n g t h a t s u c h b a t h e r may have b e e n l o s t i n the w ater. P r o p r i e t o r s o f b a t h i n g r e s o r t s and swimming p o o l s h a ve b e e n h e l d l i a b l e p a t r o n s from t h e

for th e ir fa ilu r e to p rotect th e ir

conduct o f o t h e r s ,

for fa ilu r e to place

s i g n s to i n d i c a t e w ater d e p t h s , hidden dangers or o th er needed w arnings.

They h a v e a l s o b e e n h e l d l i a b l e

for f a i l ­

u r e t o u s e r e a s o n a b l e and a c t i v e v i g i l a n c e t o guar d u s e r s o f t h e p l a c e a g a i n s t submerged o b j e c t s or d a n g e r s , t o make prompt r e s c u e e f f o r t s , good sw immers ,

t o g u a r d non -sw im m ers c l o s e r t h a n

and t o k e e p t h e i r equip m en t i n good c o n d i t i o n .

1 4 7 Hahn v . P e r k i n s , 2 2 8 N.C. 7 2 7 , 7 3 0 , 2d 8 5 4 , 8 5 7 ( 1 9 4 8 ) .

7 3 1 , 46 S . E .

zoo The d o c t r i n e o f " r e s p o n d e a t s u p e r i o r " h a s f u l l a p p l i c a t i o n i n the r e l a t i o n o f lif e g u a r d s to p r o p r ie t o r s . I n j u r i s d i c t i o n s where c h a r i t a b l e immune from t o r t

lia b ility ,

it

o f swimming p o o l s and b e a c h e s . be l i a b l e

a ls o extends to t h e i r o p e r a tio n The c h a r i t a b l e

for n eg lig en t s e le c t io n o f i t s

c a s e s hav e r e a c h e d t h e h i g h e r s t a t e lia b ility

c o r p o r a t i o n s are

c o r p o r a t i o n can

life g u a r d s.

Hew

courts in regard to

o f c h a r ita b le corp orations

fo r n e g l i g e n t l y con­

d u c t i n g t h e i r swimming p l a c e s . There a r e many s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s and s t a t e d e p a r t ­ ment r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e c o n d u c t and o p e r a t i o n o f swimming p o o l s t h a t c o n c e r n a l l a g e n c i e s . the s t a t u t e s

and s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s ,

In a d d i t i o n t o

each l o c a l governm ental

a g e n c y h a s pow ers t o r e g u l a t e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p u b l i c swimming p o o l s and b e a c h e s , p eo p le's

h ealth ,

safety,

Most s t a t e s

fo r the p r o t e c t i o n o f the

and w e l f a r e .

have some g e n e r a l s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s

f o r r e g u l a t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g swimming and b a t h i n g b e a c h e s . The s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t o f h e a l t h i s u s u a l l y g r a n t e d t h e power to regu late

and s u p e r v i s e t h e s e a r e a s .

Several sta te s r e ­

q u i r e h e a l t h p e r m i t s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e o f swimming p l a c e s .

Those p o o l s and b a t h i n g b e a c h e s w h ic h

a r e n o t o p e r a t e d p r o p e r l y a r e c o n s i d e r e d as h e a l t h n u i s a n c e s , and t h e swimming p l a c e s may be c l o s e d . ment o f l a w i n a few s t a t e s

It is

the r e q u ir e ­

t h a t a t r a i n e d l i f e g u a r d be

p resen t at a l l p u b lic bath ing p la c e s .

A few s t a t e s r e q u i r e

t h e swimming a r e a t o be w e l l marked as t o t h e d e p t h o f

w a t e r and t h e known h a z a r d s ,

and a f i r s t

a t t h e w a t e r f r o n t i n some s t a t e s .

aid k i t

is

required

A t a x on a d m i s s i o n

c h a r g e s a t swimming p l a c e s o r a g e n e r a l t a x on s u c h p l a c e s is

f oun d i n s e v e r a l s t a t e s .

fin e, late

im prisonm ent,

In the m a j o r it y o f p l a c e s a

or b o th i s

t h e swimming s t a t u t e s .

im p o se d upon t h o s e who v i o ­

The f o l l o w i n g Key Code 8 , and

F i g u r e 8 g i v e s an a n a l y s i s o f t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e swimming s t a t u t e s

as found i n t h e 4 8 s t a t e s .

KEY CODE NUMBER 8 Key Number 1092.

P rovisions

S t a t e s w h i c h have s p e c i a l s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s and regu lation s

1093.

ness,

and s u p e r v i s e t h e s a n i t a t i o n ,

(13)^’

S t a t e s w hich r e q u ir e a h e a l t h perm it w it h r e g u l a t i o n s co n stru ctio n , r e p a ir ,

and t h e m a i n t e ­

n a n c e o f p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

(15 )w

S t a t e s w h i c h ha ve a s t a t e

or a s t a t e

p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s . 1096.

h ea lth fu l­

and s a f e t y o f p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

govern in g the

1095.

(37)w

S t a t e s w h i c h g r a n t po w ers t o s t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t s to regu late

1094.

f o r p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

licen se

t a x on

(10)**

S t a t e s g r a n t i n g t h e s t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r t m en t p o w er s t o i n s p e c t p u b l i c swimming p o o l s .

(15)'''*

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

202

1097.

States

In which p o o l s n o t f u l f i l l i n g

o f the s t a t e

department r e g u l a t i o n s

n u i s a n c e and c a n be c l o s e d down. 1098.

States

the requirem ents ar e d e c l a r e d a

(15)~'c

i n w hich t h e r e are s p e c i a l s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s

granted to l o c a l governm ental a g e n c ie s fo r c o n s t r u c t ­ ing,

operatin g,

and r e g u l a t i n g p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

(P a rk and r e c r e a t i o n l a w s , 1099.

and s p e c i a l s t a t u t e s . )

(23)"

S t a t e s w hich r e q u i r e a h i g h l y t r a i n e d l i f e g u a r d t o be p r e s e n t w h i l e swimmers a r e i n a t t e n d a n c e a t t h e p u b lic bathing p la c e s .

1100 .

(6)w

S t a t e s which r e q u ir e l i f e

s a v i n g equipment su ch as

buoys, r o p e s, gra p p lin g hooks, im m ed iately a v a ila b le t ime s .

1101.

and row b o a t s t o be

at th e w a t e r f r o n t at a l l

(8)"

S t a t e s w hich r e q u ir e

a first

a i d k i t t o be a v a i l a b l e

a t t h e w a t e r f r o n t w h i l e swimmers a r e I n a t t e n d a n c e . (6)* 1102 .

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e d a n g e r o u s a r e a s and swimming d e p t h s t o be w e l l m arked,

and w h i c h r e q u i r e swimming

a r e a s t o be r o p e d o f f w i t h s i g n s p o s t e d t o warn o f a l l known d a n g e r s i n and around t h e w a t e r . 1103.

S t a t e s w h ic h have a t a x on a d m i s s i o n c h a r g e s t o p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s .

1104.

(3)'“'

S t a t e s w h i c h im p o se a f i n e

o r im p r is o n m e n t o r b o t h

f o r v i o l a t i n g any o f t h e swimming l a w s .

states

( 6 ) ”"'

(18)"“'

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of having this provision.

1105*

S t a t e s w h i c h g r a n t m u n i c i p a l i t i e s p o w er s t o r e g u l a t e and c o n t r o l p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s t o p r o t e c t t h e h ealth ,

1106.

safety,

and w e l f a r e

(48)“

S t a t e s w h i c h have some p r o v i s i o n s t h a t a r e n o t a p p l ic a b l e t o the e n t i r e camps.

1107.

o f th e p e o p l e .

state

or t o r e c r e a t i o n

(2)“

S t a t e s w h ich r e q u ir e th e p r o p r ie t o r o f a p u b lic swimming p l a c e t o p o s t a l l h e a l t h ,

sa n ita tio n ,

and

s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s s o t h e p a t r o n s may r e a d th em . 1108.

(l)w

S t a t e s w h i c h have swimming la w s a g a i n s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n for color,

creed or r a c e .

t h e F e d e r a l C i v i l Code.

p laces,

( A l l s t a t e s must a d h e r e t o Most s t a t e s have la w s p r o -

h ib itin g d iscrim in ation o f

one k in d o r

an oth er.)

In a d d i t i o n t o th e g e n e r a l

s t a t u t e s on

swimming

( 4 ) ’“*

t h e r e a r e s t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r tm en t r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n ­

i n g p o o l s and b e a c h e s w h i c h ha ve t h e pow er o f l a w .

Every

s t a t e has d e f i n i t e h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t and o p e r a t i o n o f p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s . S everal s ta t e s require a train ed life g u a r d w h i l e swimmers a r e i n a t t e n d a n c e .

to

be on d u t y

I t i s a requirem ent i n a

few s t a t e s t o e s t a b l i s h a s y s t e m o f c h e c k i n g p e r s o n s i n and out o f the w a t e r ,

and o f u s i n g a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f swimmers

a ccord in g to t h e i r a b i l i t y w h ile reg u la tio n s

in the w a ter.

fo u n d i n t h e g e n e r a l s t a t u t e s

Many o f t h e

on swimming a r e

’“"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

20l|

C C )l 0i c i 1- cJ t< x H u i i cc^3 03 0) 03 C3 C3 C c i3 C ; c3 C3 C3 C3 C r- 1- r~ 1— r~ 1— r- r-H r~ rr~ rr~- r-

F i g u r e Q.

General S t a t u t o r y R e g u la tio n s Swimming

1108

STATE Alabama X X Arizona Arkansas California X X X X X X X X Colorado Connecticut Delaware X X X X X Florida X X X X X X X X X Georgia X X X X x x Idaho X X Illinois X X X X X X Indiana X X Iowa X X Kansas X X Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland X Massachusetts X Michigan X X X Minnesota X X Mississippi X X Missouri Montana Nebraska X X Nevada X X X X X New Hampshire X X New Jersey X X X X X X X X X X New Mexico X X X X X New York X X X X X X X X X X North Carolina X X North Dakota X Ohio X X Oklahoma X X Oregon X X X X X X X X X Pennsylvania X X X X X X X Rhode Island X X X X X X South Carolina X X X X X X X X X South Dakota X X Tennessee X X Texas X X X X X X Utah X X X X X X X Vermont Virginia X X Washington X X West Virginia X X Wisconsin X X X X X X X X X Wyoming X X TOTALS 37 18 If) 10 13 15 23 6 8 6 6

«]l tC ; c r- r~ r-

f

1/ Ci) C3 r~

— I-----LW

0^ v 2 "s\\ 03 03 03 c 3 C3 C3 r* r- r-

X X X

X

X

X X X

X

X

X

X

X X

x X

x x

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

x

X x

x

X

X X X

X,

X X

X

X X

X X

X

x

X

X X X X

X X X

X

X X X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X X X X X

X X X

3 :L8 48 2

1

Concerned With

4

also

fo u n d i n t h e

s t a t e H e a l t h Department r e g u l a t i o n s .

The f o l l o w i n g Hey Code 9 , o f the

and F i g u r e 9 , g i v e an a n a l y s i s

i m p o r t a n t p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e s t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r tm en t

r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g swimming. KEY CODE NUMBER 9 Key Humber 1109.

P rovisions

S t a t e s having d e f i n i t e

s a n it a r y requirem ents in the

e s t a b l i s h m e n t and t h e o p e r a t i o n o f p u b l i c p laces. 1110.

(48)*'

S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g a t r a i n e d l i f e g u a r d t o be on d u t y w h e n e v e r swimmers a r e i n t h e w a t e r .

1111.

S ta tes req u irin g a d e f in it e front d ir e c to r .

1112.

swimming

age l i m i t

(8)“ fo r a w ater-

(2)'v

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f swimmers a c c o r d i n g t o a b i l i t y t o swim i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e swimming p r o gr a m .

1113.

(3)'“’

S t a t e s which r e q u ir e a sy stem o f c h eck in g p e r so n s i n and out o f t h e w a t e r i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e swimming program.

1114.

(3)^

S t a t e s w h i c h p r o h i b i t swimming a f t e r d a r k u n l e s s adequate a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t i n g i s p r o v id e d .

1115.

[2)'n

S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g a d e q u a t e l i f e s a v i n g e q u i p m e n t t o be a v a ila b le use.

a t a l l t i m e s i n good o r d e r f o r im m e d ia t e

(4)"'r

"The f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s t h e number o f s t a t e s having t h is p r o v is io n .

1116.

S ta tes req u irin g a f i r s t

a i d k i t t o be a v a i l a b l e

at

t h e w a t e r f r o n t a t a l l t i m e s swimmers a r e i n attendance. 1117.

(2)*'

S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g t h a t swimming r e g u l a t i o n s must be posted in conspicuous p la c e s at th e w a te r fr o n t.

1118.

(3)w

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e swimming a r e a t o be a d e q u a t e l y marked as t o known h a z a r d s , d e p t h o f w a t e r and o t h e r d a n g e r s .

1119.

States

i n w h i c h t h e swimming r e g u l a t i o n s f o r campers

a l s o apply t o the g u e s t s . 1120.

(1)"

(2)**'"

S ta te s r eq u irin g a h ea lth in s p e c tio n o f bathers b e f o r e t h e y a r e p e r m i t t e d t o swim i n a p u b l i c p l a c e . (4)*

1121 .

S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g a l l swimmers t o t a k e a so a p sh ow e r b e f o r e e n t e r i n g a p u b l i c swimming p l a c e .

(2)'‘

1122 . S t a t e s r e q u i r i n g a l l swimmers t o t a k e a f o o t b a t h b e f o r e e n t e r i n g a p u b l i c swimming p o o l . 1123.

States

i n which s t a t e

estab lish ed apply to the

(1)*“’

department r e g u l a t i o n s

f o r a l l p u b l i c swimming p l a c e s a l s o camping s i t u a t i o n .

(6)"''’

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

F igure 9.

cv

1rrr—

1110

STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

1109

207

rri—

to

If

1—

r— rr-

1— H

ii— r-

r~

t— r—

f—

\—

a

c

c

r~ r~

r~

rr-

cv cv

r-

cv

CV

to

cv 1— p—

1—

rr-

X

X

X

X

X X X X X

X

X

X

X

X X

■Jr

x

X

X-

X

X

X X X X X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X X X T X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X ..

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

a a

2

4

2

a

1

2

4

2

S t a t e H e a l t h D e p a r tm en t R e g u l a t i o n s W ith Swimming

1

6

Concerned

CHAPTER XI LEGAL DUTIES IN MAINTAINING CAMP SITE The v e r y n a t u r e o f t h e s i t e and t h e pr ogram o f a c t i v i t i e s

r e q u i r e d f o r c a m p in g ,

th a t are in d ig en o u s to r e a l

camping makes t h e p r o b l e m o f m a i n t e n a n c e one t h a t must be s k i l l f u l l y h a n d l e d i n o r d e r t o have a s u c c e s s f u l camping 1 season. A camp s i t e s h o u l d : Meet t h e t e s t s o f a d e q u a t e a c r e a g e ; good d r a i n ­ age; p r o v i s i o n f o r adequate waste d i s p o s a l ; a s a f e s u p p l y o f w a t e r f o r d r i n k i n g and c u l i n a r y p u r p o s e s and an a d e q u a t e s u p p l y o f w a t e r f o r b a t h i n g p u r p o s e s ; t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f as many n a t u r a l h a z a r d s as p o s s i b l e ; varyin g n a tu r a l r e so u r c e s ; s c e n ic beauty; rem oten ess, e i t h e r r e a l or a p p a r e n t , from c e n t e r s o f p o p u l a t i o n ; and s u i t a b i l i t y t o p u r p o s e . A camp l a y o u t on a d e c e n t r a l i z e d

camping p l a n

u s u a lly in clu d es:^ A c e n tr a l area that p rovid es f a c i l i t i e s fo r g e n e r a l a d m in is t r a t io n , d in in g , m ed ica l exam in ation and t r e a t m e n t , and f o r t h e gr o u p r e c r e a t i o n a l and e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f the campers. O utlyin g, a s h o r t w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e from t h i s c e n t r a l a r e a , are the l i v i n g u n i t s , e a ch o f which c o n s i s t s o f a g r o u p o f s l e e p i n g c a b i n s o r t e n t s f o r campers and th e ir lead ers. T h e se c e n t e r around a u n i t l o d g e w h i c h i s t h e i n d o o r r e c r e a t i o n a l and s o c i a l r a l l y ­ ing p o in t o f the group. Washroom, t o i l e t , and showers com plete the u n i t l a y o u t .

^ D r o u g h t , A l i c e R . , A Camping M a nua l, p . 2

DImock, H e d l e y S . , Camp, p . 2 4 4 .

13.

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f The Modern

209 U su ally,

a camp s i t e

fa c ilitie s

represents

o f m oney.

It

is

w ith a l l

b u i l d i n g s and

an i n v e s t m e n t o f a c o n s i d e r a o l e

sum

o n l y sound e c o n o m i c s t h a t a p e r s o n s h o u l d

want t o m a i n t a i n t h e s i t e

i n a b u s i n e s s l i k e m ann er.

r e a so n f o r h avin g a w e l l m aintained camp s p i r i t

of i t s

camp s i t e

and. m o r a l e a t a h e a l t h y l e v e l .

is

Another

t o keep th e

N o t h i n g seem s t o

be more d e p r e s s i n g t o campers and s t a f f a l i k e t h a n u n c l e a n grounds, unclean b u ild in g s ,

and u n n e c e s s a r y h a z a r d s a b o u t

the p l a c e . 3 The most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h e camp site

I s t o k e e p t h e g r o u n d s , b u ! 3 ; d i n g s , and o t h e r camp

fa c ilitie s

i n such r e p a ir th a t th e y w i l l n ever j e o p a r d iz e

the h e a lt h , w e lfa r e ,

or s a f e t y

im poses c e r t a i n d u t i e s

reg u la tio n s,

The law

and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s up on camp

a u t h o r i t i e s t o keep t h e i r con d ition .

of th e campers.

camp s i t e

in a reasonably safe

The law i s f o u n d i n s t a t u t e s ,

s t a t e department

l o c a l o r d i n a n c e s , and c o u r t r u l i n g s

o f common

law . S t a t u t o r y C o n t r o l, S t a t e Department R e g u l a t i o n s , L ocal O rd in ances:

It'is

^D imock, _op. c i t . ,

an a c c e p t e d f a i s t t h a t :b

p. 1 9 5 *

^*52 Am. J u r . , T h e a t r e s , Shows, E x h i b i t i o n s , e t c . , s e c t i o n 5°5 See n o t e , 126 A*L.R* 121+5, 1 2 5 1 ( 1 9 ^ 0 ) *

S t a t u t e s , o r d i n a n c e s , and p u b l i c r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h c o n t r o l , r e g u l a t e , or r e s t r i c t b u i l d i n g s and o th e r s t r u c t u r e s i n the i n t e r e s t o f the p u b lic w e l ­ f a r e and s a f e t y e x i s t i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l l s t a t e s and m u n i c i p a l i t i e s . Many s u c h s t a t u t e s e x i s t w h i c h c h a r g e owners and p r o p r i e t o r s o f p l a c e s o f p u b l i c amusement w i t h s t r i c t d u t i e s and l i a b i l i t i e s as t o t h e s a f e t y o f p l a c e s , b u i l d i n g s , and s t r u c t u r e s u s e d f o r amusement p u r p o s e s , and s u c h a s t a t u t e may be s o b r o a d and c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n i t s t e r m s and a p p l i ­ c a t i o n a s t o i n c l u d e a l m o s t any k in d o f s t r u c t u r e u s e d i n w h o l e or i n p a r t a s a p l a c e o f r e s o r t , or u s e d by t h e p u b l i c f o r am usem ent. For c i v i l v i o l a t i o n o f s t a t u t e s and o r d i n a n c e s r e ­ g a r d i n g s a f e b u i l d i n g s and p r e m i s e s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f j u r i s ­ d ictio n s

a b i d e by t h e

s t r i c t ru le that a v i o la t i o n

s t i t u t e s n e g lig e n c e per s e .

I n a few j u r i s d i c t i o n s

t r e a t e d as m e r e l y some e v i d e n c e o f n e g l i g e n c e , ju risd ictio n s

a v io la tio n of a statu te

con­ it

is

and i n o t h e r

i s n e g l i g e n c e per se 5

and a v i o l a t i o n o f an o r d i n a n c e i s e v i d e n c e o f n e g l i g e n c e . It

i s proper e x e r c is e

o f t h e p o l i c e power t o c l o s e

p l a c e s o f p u b l i c assem blage b ecau se o f u n s a n i t a r y c o n d it io n s or b e c a u se

such p la c e s c o n s t i t u t e

f ir e hazards.

The p r o p e r t y

owner i s e n t i t l e d

t o n o t i c e o f s u c h c o n d i t i o n s and t o be 6 g i v e n an o p p o r t u n i t y t o remedy t h e d e f e c t s . The s t a t u t e s in clu d e grounds,

5S e e n o t e ,

and o r d i n a n c e s have b e e n broad e n o u g h t o 7 i n c l i n e s , p l a t f o r m s , w a l k s , and p a t h s .

13S A . L . R . 864

(1941).

6S e e n o t e , 140 A . L . R . 1048 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . 7 52 Am. J u r . , T h e a t r e s , Sh ows, E x h i b i t i o n s , s e c t i o n 4 9 ; S e e n o t e , 98 A . L . R . 1 2 5 1 ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

e tc .,

211 I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s

the s t a t u t e s r e q u ir in g p u b lic b u i l d ­

i n g s t o be m a i n t a i n e d i n a s a f e c o n d i t i o n h a v e b e e n h e l d a p p lica b le to b u ild in gs

i n p a r k s , b u t i n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s Q t h e y w ere n o t a p p l i c a b l e . S t a t u t e s which r e g u l a t e the m aintenance o f p u b l i c g r o u n d s and b u i l d i n g s

i n c l u d e , r e g u l a t i o n s on c o n s t r u c t i o n

m a terial;

regu lation s

on v e n t i l a t i o n ;

furniture

and e q u i p m e n t ; r e g u l a t i o n s on p l u m b i n g and w i r i n g ;

regu lation s la tio n s

i n good c o n d i t i o n ;

on f i r e p r e v e n t i o n and e s c a p e ;

and p r o v i s i o n s

reg u la tio n s

for in sp e ctio n s

or l o c a l a g e n c i e s .

S t a t e department r e g u l a t i o n s f o r l o c a t i o n and d r a i n a g e ; rep air;

on

on d r a i n a g e and l o c a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s ; r e g u ­

on k e e p i n g b u i l d i n g s

by s t a t e

reg u la tio n s

reg u la tio n s

in clu d e,

reg u la tio n s

for w irin g;

9

f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and

regu lation s

a g a in s t main­

t a i n i n g n a tu r a l hazards; r e g u la tio n s for f i r e and p r o v i s i o n s

for s t a t e

reg u la tio n s

equipm ent;

o r l o c a l I n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l .

Ther e a r e many l o c a l o r d i n a n c e s w h i c h im pose many o f t h e same r e g u l a t i o n s a s a r e f o u n d on t h e s t a t e l e v e l . o r d i n a n c e s a l s o make p r o v i s i o n s

The

f o r i n s p e c t i o n and c o n t r o l

by l o c a l govern m ental a g e n c i e s . ^ The common la w r u l i n g s

concerned w ith l i a b i l i t y

for

o

35;

39 Am. J u r . , P a r k s , S q u a r e s and P l a y g r o u n d s , S e e n o t e 126 A . L . R . 1 2 51 ( 1 9 4 0 ) . 9 See F i g u r e 10 a t end o f c h a p t e r . ^ 3 7 Am. J u r . , M u n i c i p a l C o r p o r a t i o n s ,

section

s e c tio n 95-101.

212 m aintenance o f b u i l d i n g s , a p p e a r s t o have i t s

grounds,

b a s i s in the d u t ie s

D e f i n i t i o n o f " I n v i t e e *1: l!i n v i t e e ,! i s ,

and o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s owed t o an Mi n v i t e e ."

I n r e g a r d t o who an

one a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s

The c l a s s o f p e r s o n s d e s i g n a t e d as i n v i t e e s i n c l u d e s t h o s e who have come up on t h e l a n d a t t h e e x p r e s s or im p lie d i n v i t a t i o n o f t h e p o s s e s s o r , f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t r a n s a c t i n g some b u s i n e s s w i t h ­ in the scope o f th e i n v i t a t i o n . . . . T h e common e x ­ ample, o f c o u r s e , i s . . . p e r s o n s a t t e n d i n g f a i r s , p a r k s , p u b l i c e x h i b i t i o n s , b a t h i n g b e a c h e s , and t h e l i k e come w i t h i n t h i s c l a s s . D u t y o f Care Owed t o an " I n v i t e e ” :

The p r o p r i e t o r

o f a camp owes c e r t a i n d u t i e s t o campers i n r e g a r d t o m a i n ­ t a i n i n g t h e camp.

The p r o p r i e t o r o f t h e

camp would owe t o

s u c hv, p e r s o n s : 1 2 A d u t y t o ha ve h i s p r e m i s e s i n a r e a s o n a b l y s a f e c o n d i t i o n and t o g i v e w a r n i n g o f l a t e n t or concealed p e r i l s . One who m a i n t a i n s a p u b l i c r e s o r t or p l a c e o f amusement i s r e q u i r e d b y law t o k e e p i t i n r e a s o n a b l y s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h o s e who p r o p e r ly frequ en t the p l a c e . Where t h e p u b l i c I s i n v i t e d t o a t t e n d , i t i s t h e d u t y o f t h e one who so I n v i t e s t o e x e r c i s e a l l p r o p e r p r e c a u t i o n , s k i l l and c a r e com mensurate w i t h t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o p u t and m a i n t a i n t h e p l a c e and e v e r y p a r t o f i t i n a r e a s o n ­ a b l y s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e u s e s t o w h i c h i t may r i g h t l y be d e v o t e d . A f a i l u r e t o co m p ly w i t h t h i s d u t y may be n e g l i g e n c e , t h e n e g l i g e n t p a r t y may be l i a b l e In damages, i f t h e p a r t y in j u r e d i s not g u ilt y o f con trib u tory n e g lig e n c e . I f the p r o p r ie t o r n e g l e c t s h i s d u t y t o keep the p r e m is e s i n a s a f e con­ d i t i o n , so th a t the p r o p e r ty in f a c t i s u n s a f e , h i s knowledge or Ig n o ra n ce o f t h e d e f e c t i s I m m a te r ia l.

11

12

Harper,

F o w l e r , A Tre a t i s e

26 H . C . L . , T h e a t r e s , s e c t io n 14.

on T o r t s , p . 2 2 7 .

Sh o w s, E x h i b i t i o n s ,

e tc .,

213 It

a p p e a r s t h a t a camp d i r e c t o r would n o t be r e q u i r e d

t o e x e r c i s e t h e same d e g r e e o f c a r e i n m a i n t a i n i n g p l a c e s on h i s p r e m i s e s where t h e c h i l d r e n a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o be o r t h a t a r e m a i n t a i n e d f o r s c e n i c b e a u t y and f o r n a t u r a l r e so u r c e s.^

In C ity o f T u lsa v . H a m o n / ^ th e court s a i d :

The d u t y t o k e e p p r e m i s e s r e a s o n a b l y s a f e f o r I n v i t e e s a p p l i e s o n ly t o d e f e c t s or c o n d i t i o n s which are i n the n a tu re o f hid d en d a n g er s, t r a p s , s n a r e s , p i t f a l l s , and t h e l i k e , I n t h a t t h e y are n o t known t o t h e i n v i t e e and w o u ld n o t be o b s e r v e d b y him i n the e x e r c i s e o f ordinary ca re. The i n v i t e e assum es a l l nor m a l o r o r d i n a r y r i s k s a t t e n d a n t upon t h e u s e o f t h e p r e m i s e s , and t h e owner o r o c c u p a n t i s u n d e r no d u t y t o r e c o n s t r u c t o r a l t e r t h e p r e m i s e s s o as t o o b v i a t e known and o b v i o u s d a n g e r s , n o r i s he l i a b l e f o r i n j u r y t o an i n v i t e e r e s u l t i n g from a d a n g e r w h i c h was o b v i o u s o r s h o u l d have b e e n o b ­ se r v e d i n th e e x e r c i s e o f o r d in a r y care* The m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n i s for to r ts

c om m itte d by i t s

governm ental c a p a c it y .

o f f i c e r s w h ile a c tin g in a

The same r u l e a p p l i e s I n r e g a r d t o

m a in ta in in g parks, playgroun ds, t h e r e are s t a t u t e s

immune from l i a b i l i t y

and camp gr o u n d s e x c e p t when

to the co n tra ry .

C haritable corp oration s

a r e a l s o immune from l i a b i l i t y e x c e p t i n t h o s e s t a t e s w h i c h im po se u n q u a l i f i e d

l i a b i l i t y or make o t h e r e x c e p t i o n s and

q u a lifica tio n s. The m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s

co n cern in g the care r eq u ire d i n

m a i n t a i n i n g g r o u n d s and b u i l d i n g s i n v o l v e d p r i v a t e

13

Howard v . C i t y o f F r e s n o , 22 C a l . App. 2d 4 1 , 70 P. 2d 502 ( 1 9 3 7 ) ; Bagby v . K ansas C i t y , 333 Llo. 7 7 1 , 92 S.W. 2d 142 ( 1 9 3 6 ) . 1 4 14 8 Okl. 1 1 7 , 1 2 3 , 299 P. 4 6 2 , 468 ( 1 9 3 1 )

c o r p o r a t i o n s or m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ca p a city .

operatin g in a p ro p rieta ry

The c a s e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a s t h e y a p p l y t o t h e

care req u ired in m a in ta in in g v a rio u s

conditions

on t h e ground

and i n t h e b u i l d i n g s .

Grounds N atural T e r r a in :

A group o f t e n and e l e v e n y e a r o l d

b o y s were p l a y i n g " f o l l o w t h e l e a d e r ” i n a p a r k when one o f t h e b o y s was i n j u r e d by a l a r g e r o c k w h i c h he had p u l l e d loose

from t h e s i d e o f t h e c l i f f .

a g a i n s t the c i t y f o r n e g l i g e n c e I t was c h a r g e d t h a t t h e r o c k s on t h e c l i f f ,

danger i n c lim b in g the large

i n m a in ta in in g the park a r ea .

c ity fa iled

and f a i l e d c liffs.

An a c t i o n was b r o u g h t

t o remove t h e d a n g e r o u s

t o p o s t s i g n s warning o f the The c i t y had p r o v i d e d a

f e n c e around t h e a r e a u s e d f o r o r g a n i z e d games and

free p lay,

and none o f t h e p a t h s i n t h e p a r k l e d t o t h e 15 dangerous p a r ts o f the c l i f f . The c o u r t s a i d : A m u n i c i p a l i t y Is r e q u ir e d , under th e law, to e x e r c i s e o r d in a r y care i n m a i n t a i n i n g p u b l i c parks in a reason ably sa fe c o n d itio n . That d o e s n o t mean t h a t a c i t y must e l i m i n a t e e v e r y d a n g e r . I t would be i m p r a c t i c a b l e f o r t h e c i t y t o p l a c e f e n c e s or b a r r i e r s around e v e r y o b j e c t o r p l a c e , p o s s i b l y or im agin ably dangerous t o you th . . . . I t w ou ld l i k e w i s e be i m p r a c t i c a b l e and a h e a v y b u r d e n u p on a m u n i c i p a l ­ i t y t o keep p o r t i o n s o f a p a rk , not in te n d e d f o r a playground, In a s a fe c o n d i t i o n . No a u t h o r i t y ha s b e e n c i t e d c a s t i n g u p o n a c i t y any s u c h b u r d e n .

142,

^ B a g b y v . K ansas C i t y , 3 5 3 Mo. 7 7 1 , 14 7 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

7 7 9 , 92 S.W. 2d

I t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h a t p a r t o f t h e p a r k was i n t e n d e d t o rem ain in i t s beauty. the

n a t u r a l s t a t e as an o b j e c t o f s c e n i c

I t was a l s o c o n t e n d e d t h a t i t was n o t t h e d u t y o f

c i t y t o remove t h e r o c k s from t h e

c l i f f when t h e c o u r t

sa id : The r e m o v a l o f r o c k wou ld n o t r e n d e r a c l i f f , s u c h as h e r e I n q u e s t i o n , s a f e as a p l a y g r o u n d . I t wou ld o n l y remove one o f t h e many d a n g e r s l u r k ­ ing th e r e . To h o l d t h a t a c i t y was n e g l i g e n t i n n o t making a r o c k c l i f f r e a s o n a b l y s a f e f o r a c h i l d r e n ' s p l a y g r o u n d would mean t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f the c l i f f . The c i t y was n o t o b l i g a t e d t o p o s t s i g n s on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c l i f f when t h e

court sa id :

We a r e n o t o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e c i t y was n e g l i g e n t i n f a i l i n g t o p o s t warning s i g n s a d v i s ­ i n g t h e p u b l i c o f t h e d a n g e r o f c l i m b i n g up or alo n g the rock c l i f f . The r o c k c l i f f i t s e l f was n o t i c e o f d a n g e r , more i m p r e s s i v e t h a n any w a r n i n g s i g n t h a t c o u l d have b e e n p l a c e d t h e r e by t h e c i t y . Any c h i l d o f r e s p o n d e n t ' s age would know t h a t c l i m b ­ i n g a b o u t s u c h r o c k c l i f f s i s a t t e n d e d by a c e r t a i n degree o f danger. T h i s same p o i n t was b r o u g h t out i n a s i m i l a r c a s e w here a b oy was drowned i n a pond m a i n t a i n e d by t h e c i t y i n one o f i t s p a r k s .

I t was a l l e g e d t h a t t h e c i t y was n e g l i ­

g e n t f o r n o t p o s t i n g s i g n s t e l l i n g t h e boy o f t h e d a n g e r o u s c o n d i t i o n o f a pond c o v e r e d w i t h i c e .

When t h e t e e n age bo y

f e l l t h r o u g h t h e i c e and d r o w n ed , no r e c o v e r y was g r a n t e d when t h e couru s a i-d. : 1 6

■^Volz v. City of St. Louis, 326 Mo. 362, 368, 32 S.W. 2d 72, 74 (1930).

I t r e s u l t s , the f a i l u r e o f th e c i t y to p la c e s i g n s i n p r o x i m i t y t o t h e p o n d , as a w a r n i n g t h a t t h e i c e was d a n g e r o u s , was n o t t h e p r o x i m a t e c a u s e o f L e s l i e ' s d e a t h , f o r w a r n i n g s i g n s c o u l d n o t have g i v e n t h e b o y s more k n o w l e d g e t h a n t h e y had o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s c o n f r o n t i n g th e m . T r e e s , S h r u b s , and S t u m p s : I n S m i t h v . San Mateo 17 County, a Young M en 's C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n s p o n s o r e d a r e c r e a t i o n camp l o c a t e d county.

i n a p a r k owned and o p e r a t e d b y t h e

The p a r k c o n s i s t e d

was l o c a t e d

o f o v e r t h r e e hu ndred a c r e s and

i n a h e a v i l y wooded a r e a .

s l e e p i n g i n one o f t h e c a b i n s , across the

W h ile t h e bo ys were

a l a r g e redwood t r e e f e l l

cabin c a u sin g the d e a th o f a t e n year old boy.

Some o f t h e o f f i c e r s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p a r k , knew t h a t t h e t r e e was d e c a y e d and t h a t t h e r e w ere many t r e e s t h a t w e re i n t h e same c o n d i t i o n .

i n the area

S e v e r a l y ears p r io r t o the

a c c i d e n t t h e r e had b e e n a cre w o f men w o r k i n g t o c l e a r o u t t h e dead t r e e s and b r a n c h e s i n t h e p a r k . h eld l i a b l e

for n egligen ce

The c o u n t y was

i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e camp g r o und s

and t h e c o u r t s a i d : The l i a b i l i t y im po sed i s p r e d i c a t e d s o l e l y upon: (1) the e x i s t e n c e o f a dangerous or d e f e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n ; (2) th e k n o w led g e, a c t u a l or c o n s t r u c t i v e , o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h c o n d i t i o n ; and ( 3 ) t h e f a i l ­ u r e t o remedy s u c h c o n d i t i o n w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e tim e a f t e r a c q u ir in g such know ledge. The c o u n t y was n o t r e l i e v e d

from l i a b i l i t y

fo r th e death o f

1 7 62 C a l . App. 1 2 2 , 144 P. 2d 33 ( 1 9 4 3 ) .

217 t h e b o y on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e I n j u r y was c a u s e d by "an act

o f God," o r b y a n a t u r a l W h ile a

con d ition .

n i n e t e e n y e a r o l d g i r l was s t a n d i n g i n a

owned and o p e r a t e d by t h e c i t y , o f a pa lm t r e e

f e l l on h e r .

a f f e c t e d w ith dry r o t

park

s h e was k i l l e d when t h e t o p

The t r u n k o f t h e t r e e was

and was b a d l y d e c a y e d , but t h e t o p

a p p e a r e d t o be g r e e n and n a t u r a l

l i k e the oth er t r e e s .

It

was a calm da y

w i t h no w i n d , and t h e c i t y was h e l d l i a b l e 18 fo r the a c c id e n t. The c o u r t s a i d : A h i g h e r d e g r e e o f c a r e and d i l i g e n c e and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y s h o r t e r t i m e m i g h t w e l l be r e q u i r e d I n d i s c o v e r i n g and r e m e d y i n g a d a n g e r o u s c o n d i t i o n i n a sm a ll park i n the c e n te r o f a populous c i t y , l a r g e l y u s e d by t h e p u b l i c and w i t h few t r e e s t o i n s p e c t , t h a n m ig h t be r e q u i r e d i n a more i s o l a t e d s p o t f r e q u e n t e d by f e w e r p e o p l e and w i t h a l a r g e r number o f t r e e s . I n an E n g l i s h c a s e t h a t has o f t e n b e e n c i t e d

American c o u r t s ,

a c h i l d d i e d as t h e r e s u l t

in

o f eatin g

p o i s o n o u s b e r r i e s on s h r u b b e r y t h a t was p l a n t e d on a p l a y ­ ground.

The c i t y was h e l d l i a b l e

f o r p l a n t i n g such a bush,

b u t i t was b r o u g h t out I n t h e c a s e t h a t s u c h a bu sh i n I t s 19 w i l d o r n a t u r a l s t a t e m i g h t n o t be a c a u s e f o r l i a b i l i t y . W hile a t t e n d i n g a t o u r i s t

camp, a l a d y s t u m b l e d o v e r

a j a g g e d t r e e stump one n i g h t on h e r way t o an o u t s i d e to ile t

some 125 y a r d s from h e r c a b i n .

th e p r o p r ie t o r o f the t o u r i s t

■^Edwards v . 2d 1 1 9 , 120 ( 1 9 3 2 ) . 19

I t was a l l e g e d t h a t

camp was n e g l i g e n t

C i t y o f San D i e g o ,

in

126 C a l . App.

1,

14 P.

Glasgow v. Taylor, 1 A.C. 44, 29 A.L.R. 846 (1922).

218

m a i n t a i n i n g t h e camp s i t e lig h tin g a v a ila b le.

t o hav e s u f f i c i e n t

The l a d y a d m i t t e d t h a t s h e knew t h e

stump was i n t h e p a t h , trip s

for fa ilu r e

as sh e had made s e v e r a l p r e v i o u s

a l o n g t h e same p a t h .

tory n eg lig en ce,

The l a d y was g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u 20 and t h e c o u r t s a i d :

T her e c a n be no l i a b i l i t y f o r an i n j u r y from a d a n g e r t h a t i s as o b v i o u s and as w e l l known t o t h e p e r s o n i n j u r e d as t o t h e owner. The t e s t i m o n y o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t i n t h i s c a s e c o n c l u s i v e l y shows t h a t s h e had f u l l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e grounds. She knew t h e p r e c i s e l o c a t i o n o f t h e stu m p. She v o l u n t a r i l y a t t e m p t e d t o t r a v e l to w a r d and o v e r i t when s h e c o u l d have a v o i d e d I t by g o i n g around or t a k i n g a s a f e way . . . . S h e was c o n t r i b u t o r i l y n e g l i ­ g e n t as a m a t t e r o f l a w . When t r e e s

are trimmed and t h e b r a n c h e s are b u r n e d ,

and when o t h e r r i i b b i s h i s p r i e t o r may be l i a b l e

allow ed to a ccu m u late, the p ro ­

f o r a c c i d e n t s t h a t o c c u r as a r e s u l t

o f h i s n e g l i g e n c e i n m a i n t a i n i n g them . R u b b is h F i l e s ; left

I n Howard v .

21

a bo y

t h e p l a y g r o u n d a r e a and went t o a p l a c e i n t h e p a r k

wh ere r u b b i s h was b u r n e d . boys,

C ity o f Fresno,

On a d a r e from some o f t h e o t h e r

th e t e n y ea r old c h i ld

burning h i s

feet.

c l i m b e d on t h e a s h p i l e

severely

No r e c o v e r y was a l l o w e d when t h e c o u r t

said:

90

N.W. 3 9 7 ,

H a r r i s v . Midwest O i l C o . , 400 ( 1 9 4 0 ) .

67 S . D . 3 0 0 , 3 0 6 , 292

2 l 22 C a l . App. 2d 4 1 , 70 P. 2d 5 0 2 ,

(1937).

The b u r n i n g a r e a was s a f e f o r t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h i t was i n t e n d e d , t h e b u r n i n g o f t r a s h by p a r k em ployees. I t s u s e a s a p l a y g r o u n d by c h i l d r e n was n o t r e a s o n a b l y t o be a n t i c i p a t e d u n d e r t h e e v i d e n c e . B u t , when a n i n e y e a r o l d b o y r a n i n t o a bed o f c o n c e a l e d rubbish f i r e

i n a p u b l i c p a r k , t h a t was n e g l i g e n t l y p l a c e d ,

t h e c i t y was l i a b l e 22 court sa id :

f o r t h e bu rn s s u f f e r e d by t h e b o y .

The

To k n o w i n g l y s u f f e r a p i t o r d e p r e s s i o n i n t h e gr ound c o n t a i n i n g l i v e c o a l s o f f i r e , t h e p r e s e n c e o f w h i c h i s c o n c e a l e d or u n d i s c l o s e d , t o e x i s t i n a p l a c e where c h i l d r e n o f immature y e a r s may be e x ­ p e c t e d t o a s s e m b l e and p l a y , w i t h o u t t a k i n g r e a s o n ­ a b l e s t e p s t o warn or p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e d a n g e r s t h e r e o f may be a c t i o n a b l e u n d e r t h e common la w o f the s t a t e . O c c a s i o n a l l y o t h e r h o l e s or e x c a v a t i o n s a r e f o un d i n v a r i o u s s p o t s on t h e camp g r o u n d . spots

o f danger,

Where t h e y a r e n o t o b v i o u s

or where t h e y have n o t b e e n p r o p e r l y g u a r d e d ,

t h e p r o p r i e t o r may be l i a b l e

fo r a c c i d e n t s th a t occur

therefrom . E x c a v a t i o n s and H o l e s : playin g ten n is

i n a p r i v a t e l y owned camp when sh e s l i p p e d

i n t o a d e p r e s s i o n on t h e t e n n i s knee.

A f i f t e e n y e a r o l d g i r l was

c o u r t and f e l l

in ju r in g her

Th ere was no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e d e p r e s s i o n was i n t h e

n a t u r e o f a t r a p e v e n t h o u g h t h e r e were a number o f w eed s and b u n c h e s o f g r a s s on t h e c o u r t .

22

S h erfy v. C ity o f B r a z i l, 2d 5 6 8 , 572 ( 1 9 3 8 ) .

The p r o p r i e t o r was n o t

2 1 3 In d .

493, 502,

13 N.E .

22§ held l ia b l e

fo r the a c c i d e n t .

The c o u r t s a i d t h a t t h e g i r l

was g u i l t y o f c o n t r i b u t o r y n e g l i g e n c e b e c a u s e sh e knew o f th e dangerous c o n d it io n s

and r e a l i z e d t h e r i s k s

involved*

I n a c i t y p a r k owned and m a i n t a i n e d by t h e c i t y ,

23

a

f o u r t e e n y e a r o l d boy was i n j u r e d when he s t e p p e d and f e l l in to a hole

j u s t a few f e e t

from a d r i n k i n g f o u n t a i n .

The

h o l e had a one i n c h p i p e coming up t o about ground l e v e l w h i c h was one o f t h e

causes o f the in ju r y .

The a c c i d e n t

o c c u r r e d as t h e b oy a p p r o a c h e d t h e d r i n k i n g f o u n t a i n t o g e t a drink .

The c i t y was l i a b l e 24 court said :

fo r the a c c id e n t,

and t h e

I i n s t r u c t y o u t h a t a c i t y and m u n i c i p a l c o r ­ p o r a t i o n m ust e x e r c i s e o r d i n a r y c a r e i n m a i n t a i n i n g , e q u i p p i n g and c a r i n g f o r i t s p u b l i c p a r k s , t o make them r e a s o n a b l y s a f e f o r p e r s o n s r i g h t f u l l y f r e q u e n t ­ i n g and u s i n g t h e p a r k e q u i p m e n t ; and f o r f a i l u r e t o u s e o r d i n a r y c a r e i n s a i d r e g a r d , a c i t y or m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s o f a i l i n g w i l l be l i a b l e f o r i n j u r i e s s o l e l y and p r o x i m a t e l y c a u s e d by s u c h f a i l u r e . When a c h i l d

fell

i n t o the w e l l o f a water c l o s e t

t h a t was a l l e g e d t o be d a n g e r o u s and d e f e c t i v e , not l ia b l e

t h e c i t y was

f o r t h e damages b e c a u s e t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e

p a r k and i t s

a c c e s s o r i e s was a g o v e r n m e n t a l f u n c t i o n .

25

There a r e a number o f a c c i d e n t s t h a t o c c u r due t o t h e

prz

2d 8 4 8

L ob se n z v . R u b i n s t e i n , 25 8 App. D I v . (1939).

1 6 4 , 15 N . Y . S .

“^ C i t y o f T e r r e Haute v . W e b s t e r , 112 I n d . App. 1 0 1 , 1 0 7 , 40 N .E . 2d 9 7 2 , 97 4 ( 1 9 4 2 ) . on,

Pennell v. City of Wilmington, 7 Pe. (Del.) 229, 78 A. 915 (1906).

n eg lig en ce

i n th e m aintenance o f b u i l d i n g s .

S t a t u t e s and

common lav/ r u l i n g s o f t e n make p r o p r i e t o r s o f b u i l d i n g s lia b le

for in ju r ie s that

o c c u r as a r e s u l t

of th eir

n eg lig en ce,

B u ild in g s D e fin e d :

It is

i m p o r t a n t t o know what i s

c o n s i d e r e d a b u i l d i n g as d e f i n e d by t h e c o u r t s and s t a t u t e s . One a u t h o r i t y s t a t e s : 2 ^ A b u i l d i n g i n t h e u s u a l and o r d i n a r y a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e word i s a s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d and s u i t a b l e f o r h a b i t a t i o n o r s h e l t e r i n g human b e i n g s and a n i m a l s , s h e l t e r i n g o r s t o r i n g p r o p e r t y , o r f o r u s e and o c c u ­ p a t i o n f o r tr a d e or m a n u fa ctu re. ...S p e c ific a lly , a b u i l d i n g w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f an a c t p r e s c r i b i n g c o n d i t i o n s or p r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t f i r e i s h e ld to i n ­ c l u d e any s t r u c t u r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i z e w h i c h s e r v e s t h e p u r p o s e o f a per m a n en t e r e c t i o n . T e n t s and C a b i n s :

A t e n t w h i c h was f i t t e d up w i t h a

stove

and o t h e r f u r n i t u r e , and u s e d by i t s owner v/as h e l d t o 27 . 28 be a b u i l d i n g . In G o ld s te in v . H ealy, a t e n t was u s e d a s l i v i n g q u a r t e r s f o r g u e s t s a t a summer r e s o r t .

The t e n t

was a t t a c h e d t o an e l e v a t e d wooden p l a t f o r m and had a p r o ­ t e c t i v e r a i l i n g around t h e o u t s i d e .

The r a i l i n g v/as i n bad

c o n d i t i o n and one o f t h e g u e s t s t um b le d t w e n t y f e e t t o t h e ground when he l e a n e d a g a i n s t i t .

26 9

Am. J u r . , B u i l d i n g s ,

27Blakem ore

v.

Stan ley,

The c o u r t s a i d :

sectio n 2. 159 Mass.

2 8 187 C a l . 2 0 6 , 2 0 1 P. 462

(1921).

6 , 53 11.h . 689

(1893).

The i n n k e e p e r owes t h e d u t y o f a t a l l t i m e s m a in ta in in g h is h o t e l prem ises in a rea so n a b ly s a f e c o n d i t i o n , and o f e x e r c i s i n g r e a s o n a b l e c a r e t o p r o t e c t them w h i l e i n t h e h o t e l and t h e p a r t s t h e r e o f o p e n t o t h e p u b l i c , fro m p e r s o n a l i n j u r y through h is n e g lig e n c e . The same r u l i n g was a p p l i e d i n r e g a r d t o a t o u r i s t 29 c a b i n when a g a s s t o v e b l e w up and i n j u r e d a l a d y . And 30 i n A r t z v . Todd, a s i x t e e n y e a r o l d j u n i o r was i n j u r e d when sh e f e l l t h r o u g h a t r a p d o o r i n t h e c a r e t a k e r Ts c a b i n . The Cam pfire g i r l s w ere camping on p r e m i s e s t h a t were l e a s e d by t h e Home B u reau A s s o c i a t i o n from C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y . When t h e g i r l s w ere coming from t h e b a t h i n g b e a c h , c o u n s e l o r n o t i c e d one o f t h e g i r l s was m i s s i n g .

the s e n io r

She s e n t

t h e j u n i o r c o u n s e l o r t o make an im m e d ia t e phone c a l l a t t h e c a r e t a k e r ! s c a b in t o see i f main l o d g e . phone, It

t h e g i r l had gone b a c k t o t h e

A t r a p d o o r was l o c a t e d

below t h e t e l e ­

and on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d a y , t h e c a r e t a k e r had l e f t

open f o r v e n t i l a t i o n p u r p o s e s .

He had p l a c e d

c h a ir over the hole fo r p r o t e c t i o n . or^

just

haste,

an o l d

In the j u n io r c o u n s e l ­

sh e d i d n o t n o t i c e t h e h o l e and sh e p l u n g e d t o

the c e l l a r below .

The g i r l s e v e r e l y i n j u r e d h e r b a c k , and

s h e r e c o v e r e d § 1 2 , 0 0 0 I n damages b e c a u s e t h e d e f e n d a n t a s s o c i a t i o n did n ot u se r e a s o n a b le

care i n m a in ta in in g the

prem ises.

29

1012

C rock ett v . Troyk, (1935). ° 191 M i s c . 4 9 7 ,

(Tex.

Civ. A p p .) ,

77 N . Y . S . 2d 836

78 S.W. 2d

(1948).

Innkeepers: con d ition s

The r u l e i m p o s i n g l i a b i l i t y

or u n s a f e p l a c e s

a p p l i e d i n many c a s e s .

for d e fe c tiv e

i n reg a rd to in n k e e p e r s has been

Not a l l o f t h e c a s e s would be a p p l i ­

c a b l e t o a camping s i t u a t i o n .

Some o f t h e

circu m stances

u n d e r w h i c h i n n k e e p e r s have b e e n h e l d l i a b l e were due t o d efectiv e

conditions

in h allw ays,

c eilin g s,

p l u m b i n g and t o i l e t s ,

windows, p a th w a y s, r a i l i n g s .

.

w irin g .

stairw ays,

elev a to rs,

e n t r a n c e s and e x i t s ,

on s t a i r s

and p o r c h e s ,

screened

and

31 M unicipal C o r p o r a tio n s:

The r u l e I m p o s i n g l i a b i l i t y

fo r m u n icip al c o rp o ra tio n s w h ile a c tin g i n a p r o p r ie ta r y c a p a c i t y h a s b e e n a p p l i e d i n a w id e v a r i e t y o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I t has been a p p lie d i n th e case o f i n j u r i e s sw in gs, trees,

gates,

amusement d e v i c e s , m e r r y - g o - r o u n d s , d e c a y e d

excavation s,

cond ition s

embank ments, p u b l i c s t a n d s , d e f e c t i v e

i n r e s t rooms, b en ch es,

M aintenance R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s At common l a w , or t e n a n t ,

and e l e c t r i c w i r i n g .

subject to certa in ex cep tio n s,

and n o t t h e l a n d l o r d ,

is

32

o f L e s s o r and L e s s e e :

lia b le

a t h i r d p e r s o n on o r o f f t h e p r e m i s e s

31

c a u s e d by s l i d e s ,

"the o c c u p i e r

for in ju r ie s

to

c a u s e d by t h e c o n d i t i o n

14 R . C . L . , I n n k e e p e r s , s e c t i o n 14; S ee n o t e s , 153 A . L . R . 5 77 ( 1 9 4 4 ) ; 118 A . L . R . 1103 ( 1 9 3 9 ) ; 41 A . L . R . 967 (1926). 32 39 Am. J u r . , P a r k s , S q u a r e s , and P l a y g r o u n d s , s e c t i o n 3 9 ; 20 R . C . L . , Parks and S q u a r e s , s e c t i o n 14; See n o t e s , 142 A . L . R . 1340 ( 1 9 4 3 ) ; 99 A . L . R . 686 ( 1 9 3 5 ) ; 42 A . L . R . 26 3 ( 1 9 2 6 ) 29 A . L . R . 2 6 3 ( 1 9 2 2 ) .

or u se

o f t h e demised p r e m i s e s . ” °

s e t t l e d r u l e t h a t where t h e l e a s e

It is is

a ls o a^w ell

fo r a p u b lic purpose,

s u c h a s f o r a r e c r e a t i o n camp, t h e l i a b i l i t y lord fo r in j u r ie s m ises i s

from d e f e c t s

o f the lan d ­

in the c o n d itio n o f the p r e ­

n o t g o v e r n e d by a l l o f t h e r u l e s a p p l y i n g t o l e a s e s

g e n e r anl l y . 3 4 T h er e a r e a number o f d e c i s i o n s w h i c h h o l d t h a t :

35

Where t h e p r o p e r t y I s l e a s e d f o r p u b l i c or s e m i - p u b l i c p u r p o s e s , and a t t h e t i m e i s n o t s a f e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s i n t e n d e d , and t h e owner knew, or b y t h e e x e r c i s e o f r e a s o n a b l e d i l i g e n c e w ou ld have known, o f s u c h c o n d i t i o n , he i s l i a b l e t o t h e p a t r o n s o f s u c h p r e m i s e s f o r damages r e s u l t i n g fro m s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , f o r i t i s h i s d u t y t o make su ch p r o p e r ty r e a s o n a b ly s a f e f o r the purpose i n ­ t e n d e d , o r t o d i s c o n t i n u e t h e c o n d i t i o n s , as t h e c a s e may b e . The v i e w i n many c a s e s is

a p p e a r s t o be t h a t t h e p u b l i c

i n v i t e d by t h e owners a s w e l l as by t h e t e n a n t ,

and

t h a t : 36

'Z .’Z

32 Am. J u r . , L a n d l o r d and T e n a n t , s e c t i o n 6 6 5 . 34

32 Am. J u r . , L a n d lo r d and T e n a n t , s e c t i o n 6 6 7 .

3 5 0 1 i n v . H om stead , 60 Id aho 2 1 1 , 91 P. 2d 38 0 ( 1 9 3 9 ) S t a n d a r d O i l C o . , v . D e c e l l , 175 M i s s . 2 5 1 , 166 S o . 379 ( 1 9 3 6 ) ; B o o t h b y v . Yreka C i t y , 117 C a l . App. 6 4 3 , 4 P. 2d 589 ( 1 9 3 1 ) ; Beaman v . Grooms, 138 T enn. 3 2 0 , 19 7 S.W. 1 0 9 0 ( 1 9 1 7 ) ; Junkerman v . J a n k e l s o n , 213 R.Y . 4 0 4 , 108 R.E. 190 ( 1 9 1 5 ) ; S m i t h v . S t a t e , 92 Md. 5 1 8 , 48 A. 92 ( 1 9 0 1 ) ; Campbe ll v . P o r t l a n d Sugar C o . , 62 Me. 5 5 2 , 16 A. Rep. 503 ( 1 8 7 3 ) ; 32 Am. J u r . , L a n d l o r d and T e n a n t , s e c t i o n 6 6 7; S e e n o t e , 123 A . L . R . 870 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . *7* 32 Am, J u r . , L a n d l o r d and T e n a n t , s e c t i o n 6 6 7 . r*

225’ Th ey c a n n o t r e c e i v e r e n t f o r s u c h u s e s , and p e r m i t t h e i r t e n a n t s t o b r i n g , i n l a r g e nu m b e rs , u p o n t h e i r p r o p e r t y t h o s e who do n o t ha v e t h e o p p o r t u n it y to i n s p e c t the p r o p e r ty , u n l e s s the o w n ers h a v e e x e r c i s e d due c a r e t o s e e t h a t i t i s safe. I n many s t a t e s lessee

is

d e term in ed by s t a t u t e .

Summary: reg u la tio n s strict

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l e s s o r and

T h ere a r e s t a t u t e s ,

ordinances,

i n e v e r y s t a t e which c o n t r o l ,

reg u la te,

b u i l d i n g s and p r e m i s e s i n t h e i n t e r e s t

s a f e t y and w e l f a r e .

and p u b l i c

I n many o f t h e s t a t e s

or r e ­

o f th e camper! s

a v io la tio n of

th e law c o n s t i t u t e s n e g l i g e n c e per se w h il e i n o t h e r s i t

is

o n ly evid en ce o f n e g lig e n c e . The common la w r u l i n g o f l i a b i l i t y t h e camp s i t e

a p p e a r s t o have i t s

t o an 11i n v i t e e . ” ties

T here i s

basis

for m aintaining

i n t h e d u t i e s owed

a d u t y im pose d up on camp a u t h o r i ­

t o keep t h e i r p r e m is e s i n a r e a s o n a b l y s a f e

This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y tru e o f p la c e s use.

To m a i n t a i n t h e

camp s i t e

e l i m i n a t i n g dangerous p l a c e s ,

in te n d ed f o r th e camper's

reasonably w e ll in v o lv es

or g i v i n g a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n

t o t h e campers o f h i d d e n d a n g e r s , t r a p s , and o t h e r d e f e c t i v e

condition.

snares, p i t f a l l s ,

structures.

Campers are e x p e c t e d t o assume many o f t h e r i s k s t h a t a r e i n d i g e n o u s t o camp l i f e . in i t s

natural sta te

s t r e a m s , and c a n y o n s ,

Much o f t h e t e r r a i n e

is

left

f o r s c e n i c b e a u t y s u c h as c l i f f s , and t h e s e

o f f e r s u f f i c i e n t warning o f

t h e i n h e r e n t d a n g e r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th em .

226

I n m o st j u r i s d i c t i o n s when an owner o f l a n d l e a s e s h is

g r o u n d s f o r a p u b l i c p u r p o s e , he i s

ordinary care along w ith the l e s s e e

o b lig a te d t o use

t o keep the grounds i n

a r e a s o n a b ly s a f e c o n d i t i o n f o r the campers. The s t a t e h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t s i n most j u r i s d i c t i o n s h a v e r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g camp g r o u n d s and b u i l d i n g s w h i c h p r o t e c t t h e h e a l t h and s a f e t y have s p e c i f i c nance, It

of campers.

r e g u la t i o n s governing the c o n s t r u c t io n ,

and l o c a t i o n o f l a t r i n e s ,

t o conform t o th e b m ild in g

concerning s le e p in g quarter s i z e s

m ents, b u ild in g o p en in g s, e l e c t r i c a l w ir in g , I n many s t a t e s ,

provision s

m ainte­

k i t c h e n s and d i n i n g h a l l s .

I s n e c e s s a r y f o r camp d i r e c t o r s

reg u la tio n s

A number o f s t a t e s

and a r r a n g e ­ and p l u m b i n g .

a re made f o r e n f o r c i n g t h e s e

r e g u l a t i o n s by a S t a t e H e a l t h D ep a r tm en t i n s p e c t i o n s e r v i c e . The f o l l o w i n g Key Code 1 0 , of the im portant p r o v is io n s reg u la tio n s

and F i g u r e 1 0 , g i v e an a n a l y s i s of the s t a t e h e a l t h departm ent

c o n c e r n i n g camp g r o u n d s and b u i l d i n g s f o r t h e

ip8 s t a t e s .

KEY CODE ilUfLbEH 10 Key Number 112l|..

P rovisions

S t a t e s w h ich have s t a t u t e s , which c o n t r o l , r e g u l a t e prem ises in the i n t e r e s t

ordinances,

and r e g u l a t i o n s

or r e s t r i c t b u i l d i n g s

and

of th e camper's s a f e t y

and

w elfard .

"‘The f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s t h e numoer o f s t a t e s having t h i s p r o v is io n .

1125.

S t a t e s w hich r e q u ir e th a t

camp k i t c h e n s and d i n i n g

rooms s h o u l d be a d e q u a t e l y s c r e e n e d . 1126.

S t a t e s w h ich r e q u ir e th a t l a t r i n e s be b u i l t

1127.

(19

and t o i l e t s must

a c c o r d i n g t o good h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s .

S t a t e s w hich r e q u ir e adequate f i r e

( 2 2 ) ’“

e q u ip m e n t t o be

p r o v i d e d and m a i n t a i n e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e s on t h e camp g r o u n d . 1128.

(5)'“'

S t a t e s which r e q u ir e s ta te b u ild in g codes.

1129.

camp b u i l d i n g s t o confo rm t o t h e (ll)w

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g on t h e camp ground t o c o n fo rm t o s t a t e

1130.

or l o c a l s t a n d a r d s .

S t a t e s which r e q u i r e t h a t a l l o p en in g s i n b u i l d i n g s s h o u l d be a d e q u a t e l y s c r e e n e d .

1131.

( 1 2 ) ’“"

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e n a t u r a l h a z a r d s t o be e l i m i n a t e d o r g ua r de d t o i n s u r e t h e c a m p e r ' s s a f e t y .

1132.

S t a t e s which r e q u ir e t h a t of a d efin ite

size

l o c a l requirem ents. 1133.

( 1 ) ’“

States

(14

s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s must be

and a r r a n g e d t o meet s t a t e

or

( 1 5 ) ’“"

i n w h i c h r e c r e a t i o n camps a re s u b j e c t t o

r e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n by t h e g o v e r n i n g S t a t e H e a l t h D ep a r tm en t*

( 2 0 ) ’“

’“The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

228

..

F ig u r e 10

1124

STATE Alabama X Arizona X Arkansas X California JS. Colorado x Connecticut X Delaware X Florida X Georgia X Idaho X Illinois X Indiana X Iowa X Kansas X Kentucky X Louisiana X Maine X Maryland X Massachusetts X Michigan X Minnesota X Mississippi X Missouri X Montana X Nebraska X Nevada X New Hampshire X New Jersey X New Mexico X New York X North Carolina X North Dakota X Ohio X Oklahoma X Oregon X Pennsylvania X Rhode Island X South Carolina X South Dakota X Tennessee X Texas X Utah X Vermont X Virginia X Washington X West Virginia X Wisconsin X Wyoming X TOTALS 48

u 21 02 r~ f-

U31 c\3 r~ r-

fc-1 03 I1-

CCy 03 f-1 r-i

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

c>

o> 0 fr-

I-1 V

1—

0 31 tf f— r-

r-

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

XX

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

_

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

K K 1I-

X

X

X

x

X X

X

x

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

1

;

I 1 1 1

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

1

X i

i1 2 5 11 i :L2 14 16 2 0 S t a t e H e a l t h De pa r tm en t R e g u l a t i o n s Concern ed With Camp Grounds and B u i l d i n g s 1.9

1

229

CHAPTER X I I HEALTH AND SANITATION

tratio n

One o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

phases

is

an d s a f e

planning fo r a h e a lth y

o f camp a d m i n i s ­ camp e n v i r o n m e n t .

I - I e a l t n a n d s a n i t a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n s m u s t be r e a s o n a b l y s t r i c t to prevent d isease

and a c c i d e n t s .

Many camp s i t e s

are lo c a te d

i n a r e a s where I m p r o v is e d

w a t e r and sewage s y s te m s a re f o u n d .

G r e a t c a r e m u s t he e x e r ­

c i s e d t o p r e v e n t p o l l u t i o n o f w a t e r and o t h e r h e a l t h h a z a r d s . The camp s i t e

s h o u l d be p l a n n e d a n d b u i l t

w i l l be a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e , sewage and g a r b a g e , for

safe

caring fo r illn e s s

safe w ater,

p ro p e r d i s p o s a l of

and h e a l t h f u l s h e l t e r ,

and f a c i l i t i e s

and a c c i d e n t s . 1

The l a w I m p o s e s c e r t a i n d u t i e s

a nd o b l i g a t i o n s

a u t h o r i t i e s t o p r o t e c t th e h e a l t h of th e cam pers. a r e many an d v a r i e d , in cluding fe d e ra l,

sta te ,

ana l o c a l g o v e rn m e n ts . d irec te d

o f t h e camp p r o g r a m ,

F e d era l H ealth C o n tro l: t h e h e a l t h laws a f f e c t i n g p o llu tio n

of w a te r w a y s ,

and r e g u l a t i o n s

on camp

The l a w s

a n d a r e f o u n d on a l l g o v e r n m e n t a l l e v e l s

law s a re n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y the n a tu re

so t i ^ r e

at

Many o f t h e

cam ping, b u i b e c a u s e

of

t h e y become e f f e c t i v e . / On t h e f e d e r a l

camps a r e t h o s e

co ntam ination

con cern in g th e use

lev el,

some o f

concerned w ith

of f o o d ,

la b o r law s,

of d r u g s .

■^■Dimock, Hediey S., Administration of tne Modern Camp, pp. I3b-15!?«

I n some i n s t a n c e s th e

s t a t e ’ s powers t o

F e d e r a l governm ent r e s t r i c t s

c o n t r o l and r e g u l a t e

m a tte r s w ith in the s t a t e . concerning q u a ra n tin e

the

T his

is

p u b lic h e a lth

u su a lly tru e w ith m atters

a n d o t h e r s u c h r e g u l a t i o n s wh en t h e y

in te r f e r e w ith i n te r s t a t e

o r f o r e i g n commerce. 2 I t has a l s o b e en contended t h a t :

In th e e x e r c i s e o f th e h e a l t h pow er, Congress may s o c o m p l e t e l y c o v e r t h e s u b j e c t o f h e a l t h and q u a r a n t i n e r e g u l a t i o n s as t o l e a v e t h e s t a t e s no o p p o r t u n i t y f o r f u r t h e r a c t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y may e n t i r e l y e x c l u d e t h e sta te au th o rity . W hether t h i s

is

true

o r n o t d o e s n o t se em t o o i m p o r t a n t a t

th e p r e s e n t tim e b ecau se: C ongress, in s te a d of p r o h i b itin g s t a t e a c tio n h a s s t i m u l a t e d and a d o p t e d i t , a n d h a s f o r i t s e l f d i s c l a i m e d a l l w i s h t o a c t , e x c e p t when t h e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n and a c t i o n p r o v e i n a d e q u a t e . But th e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o some e x t e n t l i m i t e d by t h e F e d e r a l C o n s t i t u t i o n . The s t a t e s latio n

have b e e n v e ry a c t i v e

in passin g l e g i s ­

fo r the p r o t e c ti o n of th e p u b lic h e a lth . S ta te H ealth C o n tro l:

Among a l l o f t h e o b j e c t s

h o p e d t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d b y g o v e r n m e n t a l l a w s , n o n e i s m ore im p o rta n t th a n the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p u b lic h e a l t h . state

is

2

3

o b lig ated ,

25 Am. J u r . , Ibid .

through i t s

H ealth,

The

p ro p e r governm ental a g e n c ie s ,

s e c t i o n 7.

to take

a ll

o b jec tiv e s. latio n s

is

o f t h e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s t o prom ote t h e s e 4

The e n a c t m e n t a nd e n f o r c e m e n t o f h e a l t h r e g u ­

a le g a l fu n c tio n in the e x e rc is e

powers o f th e s t a t e . su b o rd in ate v ested

of th e p o lic e

T h e s e p o w e r s may be d e l e g a t e d t o

g o v e r n m e n ta l a g e n c i e s , and t h e y a r e u s u a l l y

i n a board o f h e a l t h . H e a l t h b o a r d s may be c r e a t e d b y d i r e c t l e g i s l a t i v e

a c t w i t h p ow ers c o n f e r r e d upon them by th e

leg islatu re.

5

The s t a t e u s u a l l y i n v e s t s b o a r d s o f h e a l t h w i t h t h e p o w e r s to adopt o rd in an ces, to secure

bylaw s, r u l e s

a nd r e g u l a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y Q of th e ir org an izatio n . When t h e

the o b je c tiv e s

h e a l t h board adopts th e s e r u l e s leg islativ e

a u th o rity ,

nsuch r u l e s

resp ectiv e

ju risd ic tio n s,

lav/ o f t h e

leg islatu re ,

and r e g u l a t i o n s

o f the b o ard . boards

is

t o be i n f o r c e

g en erally l e f t

to the d i s c r e t io n

adopted by s t a t e

h e alth

and c o n t r o l o f

an exam ple o f t h e k i n d s o f r u l e s

by law s e n f o r c e d by s t a t e

h e a lth boards.

^ 2 5 Am. J u r . , H e a l t h , 5 I b i d . , s e c t i o n 9. 6 I b i d . , s e c t i o n 5. 7Ib id .

of a

The f o r m u l a t i o n o f s u c h

concerned w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t

r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e

and e f f e c t

and t h e y may be s a i d

The r e g u l a t i o n s

of

and b y l a w s , w i t h i n t h e

have th e f o r c e

by th e a u t h o r i t y o f the s t a t e . ” ru les

o r b y la w s , by v i r t u e

s e c t i o n 3.

and

It

is

s a i d t o be a g e n e r a l r u l e

th at

boards o f h e a l th Q

h a v e o n l y s u c h p o w e r s a s a r e c o n f e r r e d u p o n t h e m by s t a t u t e . It

is a lso p o ssib le

fo r the

leg islatu re

a u t h o r i t y on m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n s t o o th er a u th o ritie s

create

to

confer

l o c a l boards or

f o r th e purpose o f p r o t e c ti n g the p u b lic

h e alth . Local H e alth C o n tro l: regard to

is

e n tirely

im m aterial,

in

the d u t i e s d e v o lv in g upon a board o f h e a l t h ,

w h e th er the state

It

leg islatu re

and a u t h o r i z e s

a lo ca l or a

a nd b y l a w s c o n c e r n e d 9 w ith th e p r o te c tio n of p u b lic h e a lth . I n many j u r i s d i c t i o n s the

agency t o

d irec ts

a d m in ister the ru le s

l o c a l h e a l t h b o a r d m em bers a r e n o t

o ffice rs, sidered

considered m u n icip al

and w h i l e a c t i n g u n d e r a g e n e r a l s t a t u t e

as r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s

are

of the s t a t e .

When p o w e r s a r e c o n f e r r e d b y t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , l o c a l h e a l t h board has law s, r u le s , h e alth .

It

a u th o rity to

an d r e g u l a t i o n s is

adopt o rd in a n c e s ,

a g e n e ra lly accepted ru le t h a t th e

The v i e w h a s a l s o b e e n t a k e n t h a t In the e x e rc is e

such re g u la tio n s te c tio n of its

■ ^ Ib id .,

of its

as a r e r e a s o n a b l e ,,10 in h a b ita n ts.”

Q 25 Am. J u r . , H e a l t h , 9 I b i d . , s e c tio n 9. se c tio n 4.

the by­

fo r the p r o t e c ti o n o f p u b lic

h e a l t h b o a rd h a s o n l y s u c h pow ers as t h e s t a t u t e s

has th e r i g h t ,

con­

lo cal confer.

,Ta m u n i c i p a l i t y

p o l i c e power, t o adopt

and n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e p r o -

s e c t i o n 11.

Many o f t h e p o w e r s g r a n t e d t o h e a l t h b o a r d s , b o t h sta te

and l o c a l ,

o t h e r powers a re

are s p e c i f i c a l l y

im p lie d by g e n e r a l s t a t u t e s .

t h a t many o f t h e r u l e s , w ith re c re a tio n

bylaw s,

camps a r e t h e

lo ca l or a sta te

e x p r e s s e d by s t a t u t e , 11

It

and r e g u l a t i o n s

concerned

h e a lth board. The h e a l t h b o a r d

has power to e n fo rc e r e g u l a t i o n s upon r e c r e a t i o n and b y l a w s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d

o rg an izatio n s. estab lish ed

Some o f t h e m o re

fo r various

r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e :

those

s a n ita tio n reg u latio n s 12

day care

an d s a n i t a t i o n s t a n d a r d s n o t have th e s t a t u s

for to u rist

centers

for

sta te s

ch ild ren ,

in g en eral.

have s p e c i f i c

h e a l t h and

organized r e c r e a t io n

for re c re a tio n

c a m p s , b u t t h e y do

h ealth ru le s

a nd b y l a w s w h i c h

i n t h e r e c r e a t i o n camps c o n s i s t

g o v e r n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n and d r a i n a g e

12

8.

S e e F i g u r e 10 a t e n d o f c h a p t e r

of,

of site ,

s l e e p i n g and l i v i n g q u a r t e r s , m i l k and w a t e r s u p p l y ,

S u p ra , note

reso rts,

o f law .

c o n tro l th ese m a tte rs

1T

camps,

h a v e p u b l i s h e d re c o m m e n d e d h e a l t h

Some o f t h e s p e c i f i c

reg u la tio n s

ap ply to

am u s em en t c e n t e r s ,

governing the

S everal s ta te s

fo r sim ilar

also

and p u b l i c g a t h e r i n g p l a c e s

At l e a s t t w e n t y - t h r e e

camps.

th at

estab lish ed

in n k eep ers, p u b lic e a tin g p la c e s ,

camps b y

common h e a l t h r e g u l a t i o n s

in stitu tio n s

b o a r d i n g homes f o r c h i l d r e n ,

b ath in g beaches,

appears

same w h e t h e r a d m i n i s t e r e d b y a

H e a l t h and S a n i t a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s :

ap plying r u le s

an d

food

sto rag e

and h a n d l i n g , m e d i c a l a n d n u r s i n g c a r e ,

garbage d is p o s a l, board is

a nd we ed an d p e s t

i n most c a se s

c o n tro l.

s e w a g e and

The h e a l t h

a u t h o r i z e d t o make i n s p e c t i o n s ,

q u ire p erm its to o p e ra te ,

and c h a r g e a l i c e n s e

fee

re­

fo r the

serv ice. In a d d itio n to s ta te camp a u t h o r i t i e s

a nd l o c a l h e a l t h r e g u l a t i o n s ,

have o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s

f o u n d i n common la w r u l i n g s . th in g s

first

aid

are

apply to such

treatm en t,

food

a nd s a n i t a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s .

C ontagious D i s e a s e s : rule

These r u l i n g s

as c o n ta g io u s d i s e a s e s ,

serv in g ,

t o campers t h a t

th at,

It

is

a w ell e sta b lis h e d

general

" a p e r s o n who n e g l i g e n t l y e x p o s e s a n o t h e r t o a n

in fectio u s

o r c o n ta g io u s d i s e a s e , w hich su c h o t h e r t h e r e b y 13 c o n t r a c t s , I s l i a b l e I n damages t h e r e f o r . " In M isso u ri, 14 K a nd T Ry. Co. v . Mood e t a l , a r a i l r o a d company f u r n i s h e d m edical a t t e n t i o n man b e c a m e i l l

fo r w orkers i f

w ith sm allpox,

t h e y became s i c k .

the

When a

compa ny s e n t h im t o a t e n t

camp w h e r e o t h e r s i c k p e o p l e w e r e i s o l a t e d . g u a r d were f u r n i s h e d by t h e r a i l r o a d

A n u r s e and

company t o

One o f t h e p a t i e n t s

camp s i t e ,

and w a n d e r e d I n t o t o w n e x p o s i n g h i m s e l f t o o t h e r

The r a i l r o a d

su it

a g a i n s t them .

said :

■^25 Am. J u r . ,

14

95 T e x . , 2 2 3 ,

the

company was h e l d l i a b l e when a p e r s o n

who h a d c a u g h t t h e d i s e a s e b r o u g h t court

left

fo r the

p a tien ts.

p eo p le.

be ca m e d e l i r i o u s ,

care

H ealth ,

s e c tio n 45.

66 S . 17. 4 4 9 ,

4 50, 451

(1902).

The

235' Vihen t h e d u t y t o p r e v e n t t h e s p r e a d o f c o n ­ ta g io u s d is e a s e r e s t s upon a p r i v a t e c o rp o ra tio n o r p e r s o n , an o b l i g a t i o n a r i s e s i n fa v o r o f each m em ber o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , and a r i g h t o f a c t i o n e x i s t s i n f a v o r o f h i m who s u f f e r s f r o m i t s b r e a c h . A lthough the r a ilr o a d to i s o l a t e

company t o o k t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c a u t i o n s

the p a t i e n t ,

t h e r e were o t h e r o b l i g a t i o n s

company t o p e r f o r m as t h e

fo r the

court sa id :

I t assumed t h e d u t y o f u s i n g o r d i n a r y c a r e t o p r e v e n t D ic k so n from e x p o s in g h i m s e l f i n d e l i r i u m , o r fro m b e i n g e x p o se d o t h e r w i s e , so as t o comm unicate th e d is e a s e to o th e r p e rs o n s; and, having f a i l e d , th ro u g h th e n e g lig e n c e o f i t s em ployees, to use such c a r e , an d b y r e a s o n o f i t s n e g l i g e n c e , D i c k s o n h a v i n g e s c a p e d and c o m m u n i c a t e d t h e d i s e a s e t o t h e a p p e l l e e r s f a m i l y , t h e r a i l r o a d company was l i a b l e f o r t h e damage caused th e r e b y . I f a p e r s o n knows t h a t con tag io u s d ise a s e

an o th er under h is

care has a

and h e k n o w i n g l y a l l o w s o t h e r s

t o be com e

in fected th ereb y ,

he may be c r i m i n a l l y l i a b l e . Such a c t s 15 h a v e b e e n made c r i m e s b y s t a t u t e . I t a ls o appears t h a t one may be i n d i c t e d ju rio u sly ,

a t common l a w ” f o r u n l a w f u l l y ,

a nd w i t h f u l l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e

a p u b lic place

exposing in 16 a p e rso n having a co n ta g io u s d i s e a s e . ”

An i n n k e e p e r w i l l a l s o b e l i a b l e who c o n t r a c t s

in ­

a d is e a s e w hich is

fact,

i n d a m a g e s t o one

co ntagious

or in fe c tio u s ,

” i f he k n o w i n g l y p e r m i t s h im t o become a g u e s t a t h i s h o u s e

15

Supra n o te 13.

16Ib id .

when t h e r e

is

such a d is e a s e

o r w arning of such f a c t . "

th e r e in , w ithout g iv in g n o tic e

17 "I Q

I n W isco n sin th e h e a l t h r u l e

sta te s:

An i n f i r m a r y ( t e n t a g e o r o t h e r s h e l t e r ) w i t h p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e i s o l a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s m u s t be p r o v i d e d , o r a r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t b e made f o r t h e im m ed iate re m o v a l o f s i c k o r i n j u r e d cam pers o r s t a f f m em bers f r o m camp. A nother r e s p o n s i b i l i t y r e g a r d t o h e a l t h and s a f e t y i s aid

and h e a l t h s e r v i c e F ir s t A id:

first

a i d equipm ent

n ecessity

It

i m p o s e d u p o n camp d i r e c t o r s t h e i r duty to provide f i r s t

f o r c a m p e r s who a r e is

in

s ic k or in ju r e d .

l o g i c a l t o assume t h a t p r o v i d i n g

and g i v i n g e m e r g e n c y t r e a t m e n t

is a le g a l

i n camp p r o g r a m s ,

A r e v i e w o f many c a s e s i n w h i c h 19 20 a c c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d on t h e p l a y g r o u n d s , on t h e b e a c h e s , 21 and on t h e s c h o o l g ro u n d s would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c o u r t s i n m ost j u r i s d i c t i o n s

a re i n agreem ent w ith t h i s

The h e a l t h r e g u l a t i o n s

co n tro llin g f i r s t

co n ten tio n . aid p r a c tic e s

i n camp u s u a l l y r e q u i r e r e a s o n a b l y a d e q u a t e f i r s t supplies

17

t o be p r o v i d e d ;

2 8 Am, J u r . ,

first

aid s u p p lie s

Innkeepers,

aid

t o be c a r r i e d

on

s e c t i o n 63.

18

W i s c o n s i n S t a t e B o a r d o f H e a l t h , "Minimum S t a n d a r d s f o r W i s c o n s i n R e c r e a t i o n Gamps"; s e e APPENDIX C, p . ■ ^ D e y e r , D o n a l d B. and L i c h t i g , P u b lic R e c r e a tio n , p. 91. 20 21 200 pp.

S e e C h a p t e r X, Sw imming, p .

J.G -., L i a b i l i t y

in

174.

R o s e n f ie ld , H arry H ., L i a b i l i t y

fo r School A c c id e n ts,

a ll

o u t - o f - c a m p h i k e s and t r i p s ;

em ergency m e d ic a l c a r e ; m e n t s t o be a v a i l a b l e

pre-cam p arran g em en ts

for

em ergency t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a r r a n g e ­

i n case o f i n ju r y or i l l n e s s ;

and 22 p r o v i s i o n s made f o r a h e a l t h s u p e r v i s o r o f some k i n d . A n o t h e r p r o b l e m c o n f r o n t i n g camp a u t h o r i t i e s the

legal re s p o n sib ilitie s

in v o lv ed f o r fe e d in g the

concerns campers

an d s t a f f . Food and Food H a n d l i n g : food s t a t u t e s a re the

It

appears th a t

and common l a w r u l i n g s

f o r r e c r e a t i o n camps

same a s f o r o t h e r p u b l i c e a t i n g p l a c e s .

d e c i s i o n s h a v e b e e n made w h i c h i n d i c a t e se ttled

h e a l t h and

th at

it

Many c o u r t is

a w ell

ru le th at:^ ^

Innkeepers, p ro p rie to rs of re s ta u ra n ts , . . . o r b o a r d i n g h o u s e s , . . . a n d a l l o t h e r p e r s o n s who u n d e r t a k e t o f u r n i s h th e p u b l i c w i t h fo o d a r e bound t o u s e due c a r e t o s e e t h a t s u c h food i s f i t f o r human c o n s u m p t i o n a n d c a n be p a r t a k e n o f w i t h o u t c a u s i n g s i c k n e s s o r e n d a n g e r i n g human l i f e b e c a u s e o f i t s u n w h o l e s o m e and d e l e t e r i o u s c o n d i t i o n ; and f o r any n e g lig e n c e i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r w hich p r o x i m a t e l y r e s u l t s i n i n j u r y t o a p a t r o n , t h e y w i l l be resp o n sib le. One e n g a g e d i n s u c h a b u s i n e s s m u s t u s e I n th e p r e p a r a t i o n o f h i s food t h a t d e g re e of c a r e w h i c h t h e l a w e x a c t s f r o m t h o s e who f o l l o w h i s o ccu p atio n fo r a liv e lih o o d . He m u s t , i n t h e s e ­ l e c t i o n a n d 'c o o k in g o f food f o r h is c u sto m e rs, e x e r c i s e th e d e g re e o f c a re w hich a r e a s o n a b ly p r u d e n t m a n , s k i l l e d i n t h e a r t o f s e l e c t i n g and p r e p a r i n g f o o d f o r human c o n s u m p t i o n , w o u ld b e e x ­ p e c t e d t o e x e r c i s e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n and p r e p a r a t i o n o f f o o d f o r h i s own p r i v a t e t a b l e .

^ S u p r a note

18.

2 ^ 2 2 Am. J u r . ,

Food,

s e c t i o n 102.

H is l i a b i l i t y

i s u s u a l l y b a s e d on h i s

failu re

to use o rd in a ry

c a r e i n d e t e c t i n g any c o n ta m in a tio n o r f o r e i g n p a r t i c l e s before

se rv in g the food.

th a t the

There i s

a u th o rity to the e ff e c t

k e e p e r s o f p u b l i c p l a c e s where food i s

b o u n d t o know t h a t

the

f o r human c o n s u m p t i o n , due t o t h e i r v i t i a t e d

a rticles and a r e

furnished lia b le

an d d e l e t e r i o u s

served "are

a r e f r e s h an d f i t

i n damages f o r i n j u r y c o n d itio n ."

24

A p e r s o n o r c o r p o r a t i o n s e r v i n g food t o th e p u b l i c c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o be a n i n s u r e r o f t h e f o o d n o r c a n he be e x p e c t e d t o be l i a b l e w a r r a n t y t h a t t h e food i s w holesom e. pared at

fitn ess

on a n i m p l i e d

Much o f t h e

camps and o t h e r p u b l i c e a t i n g p l a c e s

cans and i m m e d ia te ly s e r v e d .

of the

is

food p r e ­ t a k e n from

I t w o u l d be u n r e a s o n a b l e t o

a s k t h e p r o p r i e t o r s o f camps t o be i n s u r e r s o f t h e s u i t a b i l i t y 25 of the food. They a re u s u a l l y l i a b l e f o r b e in g n e g l i g e n t i n n o t d e t e c t i n g b a d f o o d a s o t h e r p r u d e n t men i n t h e same b u s i n e s s m ight do. In B .J . H einz

Go. e t a l v . D u k e ,

26

food p o is o n in g w h ile d i n in g a t a t o u r i s t sisted

o f a b ow l o f c h i l i

d e te c t the d e le te r io u s

94

22 Am. J u r . ,

5 A .L .R .

PR196

180,

A rk.

The f o o d c o n ­

The man d i d n o t

f o o d u n t i l he had

The p r o p r i e t o r was n o t h e l d l i a b l e

Pood,

2 5 See n o t e

camp.

from a H einz c a n .

c o n d itio n of the

e a t e n most o f t h e c h i l i .

a man r e c e i v e d

187,

s e c t i o n 102. 1115. 116 S.W. 2d 1 0 3 9 ,

1042

(1938).

239* when i t was shown t h e the

fo od*

c o o k had u s e d o r d i n a r y c a r e i n s e r v i n g

The c o u r t s a i d :

The r e t a i l e r owes t o t h e consu m er t h e d u t y t o s u p p l y g o o d s pa c k e d by r e l i a b l e m a n u f a c t u r e r s , and s u c h as a r e w i t h o u t i m p e r f e c t i o n s t h a t may be d i s ­ c o v e r e d b y an e x e r c i s e o f t h e c a r e , s k i l l and e x ­ p e r ie n c e o f d e a le r s in such produ cts g e n e r a l ly . T h i s i s t h e m e a s u r e o f t h e r e t a i l e r ’ s d u t y and i f he ha s d i s c h a r g e d i t he s h o u l d n o t be m u l c t e d i n damages b e c a u s e i n j u r i e s may be p r o d u c e d by u n ­ w h o l e s o m e n e s s o f t h e goods* As t o h i d d e n im p e r ­ f e c t i o n s , t h e consu m er must be deemed t o have r e l i e d on t h e c a r e o f t h e p a c k e r or m a n u f a c t u r e r o r t h e w a r r a n t y w h i c h i s h e l d t o be i m p l i e d b y t h e la tter. . . . U n l e s s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e c h i l i was s u c h as t o p u t t h e s e r v a n t s o f a p p e l l a n t Luck on n o t i c e t h a t t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g wrong w i t h i t , no e x t r a p r e c a u t i o n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e same were required. The r u l e t h a t r e t a i l e r s are e n t i t l e d t o r e l y upon t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p r o p e r c a r e was u s e d b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r i n m aking and c a n n i n g c h i l i a p p lies. Th ere a r e a number o f c a s e s was h e l d l i a b l e

i n w hich th e p r o p r i e t o r

fo r the em p loyee's n e g lig e n c e

contam inated fo o d .

in servin g

R e c o v e r y o f damages was had by r e a s o n

27 o f p t o m a i n e p o i s o n i n g c a u s e d by i c e cream and c a k e , 28 29 30 t a i n t e d m eat, sp o ile d ro a st chick en , and s p o i l e d f i s h . In many c a s e s t h e r e i s or n e g l ig e n c e

is

a m atter fo r th e

97

9 06

an i n f e r e n c e o f n e g l i g e n c e , j u r y t o d e c i d e , when

D o y l e v . P u e r s t and Kraemer, 129 La. 8 3 8 , (1911), 2 8 Bar k v . D i x s o n ,

56 S o .

1X5 Minn. 1 7 2 , 131 H.W. 1 0 7 8 ( 1 9 1 1 )

Greenwood Cafe v . L o v i n g g o o d , 197 A l a . 3 4 , 72 S o . (1916). 30 S t e l l v . Townsend C a l . G la c e P r u i t , C a l . App. ( 1 9 5 4 ) 2 8 P. 2d 1 0 7 7 ( 1 9 3 4 ) ; G e o r g e ' s R e s t a u r a n t v . D u k e s , 2 1 6 A l a . 2 3 9 , 113 S o . 53 ( 1 9 2 7 ) . 354

foreign a r tic le s a woman b i t d ifferen t

are found i n f o o d .

a p iece of g la ss

kind th a n th e bow l;

T h i s was t h e c a s e where

i n h e r s o u p and t h e g l a s s was a 31

where a man chewed some w i r e 32 fo u n d i n b e e f s t e w and c o l e s l a w ; where a p a t r o n chewed 33 some g l a s s i n c o l e s l a w s e r v e d a t a r e s t a u r a n t ; where a 34 c e n t i p e d e was s e r v e d w i t h g r a v y on r o a s t b e e f and p o t a t o e s ; and w h ere a mouse was foun d embedded i n r o a s t 35 d ressin g.

chicken

Some o f t h e h e a l t h c o n t r o l s f o r r e c r e a t i o n camps c o n ­ c e r n e d w i t h f o o d s e r v i c e and f o od h a n d l i n g c o n s i s t la tio n s

on r e f r i g e r a t i o n o f p e r i s h a b l e

f o r h ig h grade m i l k , m eat,

in regu­

fo o d s , requirem ents

and o t h e r f o o d s ,

and r e q u i r e m e n t s

g o v e r n i n g t h e p e r s o n s who may s e r v e and h a n d l e t h e f o o d . The r u l e s

and b y l a w s u s u a l l y make t h e

fo llo w in g p r o v isio n s:

36

A l l l o c a l h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t o r d i n a n c e s and r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e s a n i t a t i o n o f e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s h a l l a p p l y t o camps.

B ell v.

S . S . K r e s g e C o .,

(Mo. App. 1 9 3 9 ) 129 S.W.

2d 9 3 2 . 32

C h is h o lm v . S . S . K r e s g e C o . ,

55 R . I .

422,

132 A. 4 ,

(1935). 291

^ C o r i n v . S . S . Kresge C o., (1933).

110 N . J . L . 3 7 8 , 166 A.

3 ^ F r a n k l i n v . A r g y r o , 211 A l a . 33

506,

100 S o . 81 1 ( 1 9 2 4 ) .

Kenny v . Wong L en, 81 N.H. 4 2 7 , 128 A. 34 3

36 ° OHIO SANITARY CODE. R e g . 2 3 2 - 2 3 5

(1925).

(1925).

One o f t h e m ajor r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ment i s

o f the h e a lth d e p a r t­

e n f o r c i n g t h e many r u l e s and b y l a w s e s t a b l i s h e d

for

p r o t e c t i n g the p u b lic h e a l t h . I n s p e c t i o n and L i c e n s e :

The s t a t u t e s

and o r d i n a n c e s

w h i c h p r o v i d e f o r t h e o f f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n o f " i n n s and p l a c e s of a lik e

c h a r a c t e r to in s u r e com pliance w i t h req u ire m en ts

h a v e b e e n s u s t a i n e d as a v a l i d e x e r c i s e o f t h e p o l i c e p o w e r . ”

37

H e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t s ha v e b e e n a u t h o r i z e d t o i n s p e c t r e c r e a t i o n camps f o r h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s t o s e e t h a t t h e y meet s t a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s . An i n s p e c t i o n f e e ,

licen se

fee,

and r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r

h e a l t h p e r m i t s have a l s o b e e n u p h e l d as a l e g a l f u n c t i o n o f the h e a lth board. The s a n i t a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s

impose d by t h e h e a l t h d e ­

p a r t m e n t are r e a s o n a b l y s t r i c t as t h e y a p p l y t o t h e r e c r e a t i o n c amp. S a n ita tio n :

When t h e p r o p r i e t o r o f a r e c r e a t i o n camp

a l l o w s h i s p l a c e t o be o p e n and r e c e i v e s he r e p r e s e n t s

in e ffe c t

that

it

is

campers as g u e s t s ,

a reasonably safe p lace to

sta y , w ith resp ec t to con d ition s w ith in h is c o n tro l r e la t in g 38 t o h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n . For f a i l u r e t o m a i n t a i n h i s p r e m i s e s and b u i l d i n g s regard to s a n i t a t i o n , ness

in a reason ably safe

t h e p r o p r i e t o r may be l i a b l e

or a c c i d e n t t h a t r e s u l t t h e r e f r o m .

37

28 Am. J u r . ,

^ Ib id .,

c o n d itio n in

Innkeepers,

s e c t i o n 63.

for s ic k ­

I n n k e e p e r s and h o t e l

se ctio n 33.

k e e p e r s have been h e ld l i a b l e

i n a number o f c a s e s

fo r not

p r o t e c t in g the p u b lic ag a in st u n sa n ita ry c o n d itio n s , court

c a s e s w e re fo u n d t h a t d i r e c t l y

b u t few

ap p lied to th e r e c r e a t io n

camp. I n Mann v . W i l l e y ,

59

a summer r e s o r t

owner dumped t h e

se w a g e from h i s h o t e l i n t o a s t r e a m t h a t r a n n e a r b y . r i p a r i a n owner b r o u g h t s u i t p o l l u t i n g the w ater.

A

a g a in st the h o t e l keeper fo r

I t was a l l e g e d

th at the s t a t e

boar d o f

h e a l t h had c o m p e l l e d t h e h o t e l owner t o d i s c h a r g e t h e se w a g e i n t h i s m anner.

The h o t e l k e e p e r was h e l d l i a b l e

f o r damages

f o r n e g l i g e n t l y p o l l u t i n g the stream at the expense o f the o th e r r ip a r i a n owners.

The c o u r t s a i d t h a t t h e s t a t e board

o f h e a l t h c a n n o t a u t h o r i z e one c i t i z e n t o m a i n t a i n a n u i s a n c e to the in ju ry o f another. I n B r o o k h a v e n Garden I n c . v . K a t z ,

40

the p r o p r i e t o r o f

a r e c r e a t i o n camp c o u l d n o t r e c o v e r on a c o n t r a c t when i t was d i s c l o s e d

t h a t he was o p e r a t i n g h i s

m i t w h i c h was r e q u i r e d by t h e s t a t e The s t a t e

camp w i t h o u t a p e r ­

sa n ita r y code.

and l o c a l h e a l t h r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g

s a n i t a t i o n i n m ost j u r i s d i c t i o n s r e q u i r e provide s a fe w ater, m ilk ,

camp a u t h o r i t i e s t o

and fo o d s u p p l y ;

t o p r o v i d e f o r an

a d e q u a t e camp l o c a t i o n w i t h p r o p e r d r a i n a g e , h e a lth nu isance;

(S u p.

free

t o p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e number o f s a n i t a r y

C. App. D i v .

3 r d . D e p t . N.Y. ) 64 N . Y . S .

(1900). 40

from any

1 90 M i s c .

4 4 3 , 75 N . Y . S . 2d 748 ( 1 9 4 7 ) .

589

21+3 to ile ts;

to provide fo r proper d is p o s a l o f sewage, garbage,

and manure; and t o p r o v i d e f o r p r o p e r e l i m i n a t i o n o f p e s t s and r o d e n t s . Summary:

The l a w s g o v e r n i n g t h e h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n

o f r e c r e a t i o n camps a r e many and v a r i e d . state,

T h er e are F e d e r a l ,

and l o c a l r e g u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e e i t h e r s p e c i f i c a l l y

d irected

a t r e c r e a t i o n camps o r a p p l y t o t h e

o f the natu re o f the a c t i v i t i e s

camps b e c a u s e

conducted t h e r e i n .

S t a t e and l o c a l b o a r d s o f h e a l t h are i n m ost c a s e s creatu res o f s t a t u t e ,

and a r e u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g an

agency o f s t a t e governm ent. The r u l e s ,

bylaw s,

and r e g u l a t i o n s

im po sed on r e c r e a t i o n

camps by h e a l t h boards are a l e g a l e x e r c i s e

o f the p o l i c e

p o w e r s o f t h e s t a t e when t h e y a r e r e a s o n a b l y c o n t r o l l e d . The r e g u l a t i o n s may e i t h e r be a d m i n i s t e r e d by l o c a l o r s t a t e health a u th o r itie s , But, th eir

state

and i n many c a s e s b o t h have a p p l i c a t i o n .

and l o c a l b o a r d s o f h e a l t h are b o t h l i m i t e d

in

c o n t r o l o v e r r e c r e a t i o n camps by e x p r e s s o r i m p l i e d

statu te. Under common l a w , protect

camp a u t h o r i t i e s a r e o b l i g a t e d t o

campers and t h e p u b l i c i n g e n e r a l from c o n t a g i o u s

d isea ses.

I f t h e camp d i r e c t o r k n o w i n g l y e x p o s e s o t h e r s t o

c o n t a g i o u s or I n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , lia b le.

he may be c r i m i n a l l y

I n m o st j u r i s d i c t i o n s he i s

ob ligated to report

c o n ta g io u s d i s e a s e s t o the l o c a l h e a l t h a u t h o r i t y . is

any d o u bt as t o w h e t h e r i t

i s best to i s o l a t e

I f there

or t o send

t h e camper home, i t would he d e s i r a b l e t o have a w r i t t e n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n from t h e l o c a l h e a l t h a u t h o r i t y . It

is

a l s o a common l a w r u l e t h a t

a r e l e g a l l y bound t o u s e r e a s o n a b l e

camp a u t h o r i t i e s

care to s e r v e

fo o d t h a t

i s n e i t h e r d e l e t e r i o u s or c o n ta m in a ted .

He must a l s o u s e

reason able

care t o see th at food i s f r e e

from f o r e i g n

a r tic le s.

F ailure to

c o n fo rm t o t h e s e

t h e camp d i r e c t o r l i a b l e resu lts

s t a n d a r d s may make

f o r any s i c k n e s s or i n j u r y t h a t

therefrom . I t w o u ld a p p e a r from a r e v i e w o f many c a s e s t h a t

first

aid i s

a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r r e c r e a t i o n camps.

The t r e a t ­

ment g i v e n by u n p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o emergency c a r e . aid k i t s

Some h e a l t h board r e g u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e

t o be a v a i l a b l e on h i k e s ,

the w a te r fr o n t.

overn igh t t r i p s ,

first

and a t

Other r u l e s r e q u i r e a n u r s e t o be on t h e

camp g r o u n d s a t a l l t i m e s w i t h a d d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l h e l p a v a i l a b l e when e m e r g e n c i e s a r i s e . Gamp a u t h o r i t i e s

a r e a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e u n d e r common

l a w t o k e e p t h e camp p r e m i s e s and b u i l d i n g s

in a reasonably

s a n ita r y c o n d itio n at a l l tim e s.

This i n v o l v e s su ch t h i n g s

as p r o v i d i n g s a f e d r i n k i n g w a t e r ,

adequate d i s p o s a l o f

sewage, garbage, of site ,

and manure, a d e q u a t e l o c a t i o n and d r a i n a g e

and a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l o f p e s t s and w e e d s .

S t a t e h e a l t h b o a r d s a r e be c o m in g more c o n s c i o u s o f t h e n e e d f o r impr oved h e a l t h and s a f e t y c o n d i t i o n s r e c r e a t i o n camps,

in

c h i e f l y b eca u se o f the rapid growth o f

the

camping movem ent.

Many s t a t e h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t s a p p l y

t h e same r e g u l a t i o n s t o r e c r e a t i o n camps t h a t a r e d e s i g n e d for to u r is t

camps, b o a r d i n g h o u s e s ,

inn k eep ers.

There i s

ch ild

care c e n t e r s ,

and

a f e e l i n g among t h e h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s

t h a t t h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s do n o t a d e q u a t e l y m ee t t h e n e e d s o f t h e r e c r e a t i o n camp s. sp ecific

T w e n t y - f o u r s t a t e s have d e s i g n e d

r e g u l a t i o n s t o m eet t h e s e n e e d s .

In a check l i s t

se n t to the h e a lt h d i r e c t o r s in the

v a r i o u s s t a t e s r e g a r d i n g h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n c o n t r o l s o v e r r e c r e a t i o n camps, a r e s p o n s e was o b t a i n e d from 41 a u t h o r i t i e s . The h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n code w as c h e c k e d i n t h e o t h e r ju risd ictio n s

to o b t a in the d e s ir e d in fo r m a tio n .

The f o l l o w i n g Key Code 1 1 ,

and F i g u r e 1 1 ,

give a

further an aly sis

o f t h e i m p o r t a n t o p i n i o n s w h i c h were e x ­

p r e s s e d by s t a t e

h ealth a u th o r itie s ,

im portant p r o v is io n s

o f the s t a t e

and an a n a l y s i s

o f the

h e a l t h department r e g u ­

l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g r e c r e a t i o n camps as found i n t h e 48 s t a t e s , KEY CODE NUMBER 11 Key Number 1134.

P rovision s

S t a t e s w h i c h have s p e c i f i c r e g u l a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g h ealth ,

sa n ita tio n ,

and s a f e t y f o r r e c r e a t i o n camps.

(24)*

“'‘The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1135.

S t a t e s w h i c h have g e n e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n o r r e g u l a t i o n s for to u r is t

camps, h o t e l r e s o r t s ,

and h o a r d i n g h o u s e s

t h a t a l s o c o n c e r n t h e r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1136.

(34)'"'

S t a t e s w h i c h p r o v i d e an i n s p e c t i o n s y s t e m f o r r e c r e ­ a t i o n camps w i t h i n t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n .

1137.

S t a t e s w h i c h have p u b l i c a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o camp d irectors

concerned w ith h e a l t h ,

sa fe ty p ractices 1138.

(28)'"'

sa n ita tio n ,

i n r e c r e a t i o n camps.

(24)"'

S t a t e s which r e q u i r e a perm it or l i c e n s e o r c o n s t r u c t a r e c r e a t i o n camp. The h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s

expressed

the

to organize

(13)"

i n the v a r io u s s t a t e s

fo llo w in g op in ion s.

and

(36 s t a t e

also

d irectors r e ­

turned check l i s t s . ) 1139.

States

i n w hich th e d i r e c t o r s

felt

t h e r e was a ne e d

f o r s e p a r a t i n g th e problems o f th e o r g a n ize d r e c r e a t i o n camps from t h e t o u r i s t

or h o t e l type o f developm ent i n

r e g a r d t o h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n r e g u l a t i o n s . 1140.

States

In w hich the d i r e c t o r s

felt

(25)'"*

t h e r e was n o t a

need f o r s e p a r a t i n g t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e o r g a n i z e d r e c r e a t i o n camps from t h e t o u r i s t

or h o t e l t y p e o f

d e v e l o p m e n t i n r e g a r d t o h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n reg u la tio n s.

( 1 1 ) ’"

’""The figure In parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1141.

S t a t e s w hich f e l t h ealth ,

1142.

t h e r e g u l a t i o n s t h e y now h a v e on

sa n ita tio n ,

and s a f e t y a r e a d e q u a t e f o r t h e

r e c r e a t i o n camp.

( 1 5 ) “'

S t a t e s which f e l t

the r e g u la t i o n s

h ealth ,

sa n ita tio n ,

and s a f e t y a r e n o t a d e q u a t e f o r

t h e r e c r e a t i o n camp. 1143.

S t a t e s w hich f e l t p e r m i t or l i c e n s e c amps.

1144.

t h e y now have on

(19)"'

there

s h o u l d be some k i n d o f h e a l t h

t o o r g a n i z e and e s t a b l i s h r e c r e a t i o n

(25)'"'

S t a t e s which f e l t

t h e r e s h o u l d n o t be some k in d o f

h e a l t h perm it or l i c e n s e r e c r e a t i o n camps.

t o o r g a n i z e and e s t a b l i s h

(7)'"'

A study o f the s p e c i f i c r e g u la tio n s camps c o n c e r n i n g h e a l t h , follow in g fin d in g s. 1145.

san itation ,

(21 s t a t e s

and s a f e t y r e v e a l e d t h e

in clu d ed .)

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n and d r a i n a g e o f t h e camp s i t e .

1146.

S t a t e s w h i c h hav e d e f i n i t e i n g and l i v i n g q u a r t e r s .

1147.

(2 1 ) "

r e g u la t i o n s governing s l e e p ­ (17)"

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , lo cation ,

1148.

for r ec r e a tio n

and s a n i t a t i o n o f t o i l e t

fa c ilitie s.

(21)'"

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e m eth o d s u s e d f o r se w a g e d i s p o s a l .

(21)"

"''The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of states having this provision.

1149.

S t a t e s w hich have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n in g th e d i s p o s a l o f g a r b a g e and t h e h a n d l i n g and s t o r a g e o f w a s t e m a teria l.

1150.

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g f o o d h a n d l i n g , storage,

1151.

(20)*

and r e f r i g e r a t i o n .

S t a t e s which have d e f i n i t e

(19)""" r e g u la t io n s governing the

s o u r c e and u s e o f t h e m i l k s u p p l y . 1152 •

S t a t e s which have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n in g the so u rc e and u s e

1153.

o f the water supply.

(20)*

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g d i s h w a s h i n g m ethods.

1154.

(11)*"*

(9)'"'

S t a t e s w h i c h hav e r e g u l a t i o n s

governing the m ed ica l

and n u r s i n g c a r e t o be u s e d i n camp. 1155.

S t a t e s w h i c h have s p e c i f i c r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g f i r e p r o t e c t i o n m ethods.

1156.

(12)'"'

(7)'"'

S t a t e s w h i c h have r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g h e a l t h and s a n i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s r e g a r d in g the k eep in g o f anim als on t h e

1157.

camp g r o u n d s .

(5)'"'

S t a t e s w h i c h ha ve r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g t h e c o n t r o l o f p e s t s , w e e d s , and r o d e n t s .

1158.

S t a t e s w h i c h r e q u i r e t h e manager o f t h e camp t o be r e ­ sp on sib le

f o r m a i n t a i n i n g t h e camp s i t e

the h e a l t h ,

states

( 1 2 ) “'

san itation ,

according to

and s a f e t y r e g u l a t i o n s .

(16)*

"The figure in parenthesis indicates the number of having this provision.

1159.

S t a t e s w hich r e q u i r e a p e r m i t ,

licen se,

o r some k in d

o f r e g i s t r a t i o n w i t h the S t a t e H e a lt h Department b e f o r e e s t a b l i s h i n g or o p e r a t i n g a r e c r e a t i o n camp.

states

(17)w

"The f i g u r e i n p a r e n t h e s i s having t h i s p r o v i s i o n .

i n d i c a t e s t h e number o f

250

Figure 11.

X

t-1 : r-H r--

ai c d cd r - CVi * k: v: nr 's r-• t~ r- r~ r~ rr- r- r~ r~ rx

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

,x X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X

X

x

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

x

X

X X

X

c ^ rr-

x

X X

a) ^t< r~H 1—H

X

X X X

X X

X

x

X

X

X

X

x

X

X X

h 1r-

X

X

X

C£i 'si (— H T~

X

X X

X

i s Ir~ r1— r-

.1.150.

STATE Alabama X Arizona X Arkansas X X California X Colorado Connecticut X X Delaware Florida x Georgia X Idaho Illinois X Indiana X X Iowa X Kansas X Kentucky X Louisiana X X Maine X X Maryland X Massachusetts X X Michigan X Minnesota X Mississippi X X Missouri X X Montana X Nebraska Nevada [ X New Hampshire X New Jersey X X New Mexico New York X X North Carolina X X North Dakota Ohio X X Oklahoma X X Oregon Pennsylvania X X Rhode Island X X South Carolina X South Dakota X Tennessee X Texas X Utah Vermont X X Virginia X X Washington X X West Virginia Wisconsin X X Wyoming X TOTALS 24 *3 4

if5 «i v) t' r-H i~H r- r-

1 1— t-.J

NH V: r~J r-'

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

1 X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X

X

2£ _ 2 4

X

13

25

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

11 15

19

25 7

£

17 21 21 20 19

H e a l t h and S a n i t a t i o n R e g u l a t i o n s f o r R e c r e a t i o n Camps

STATE Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming TOTALS

11

Figure 11,

(Continued)

t> Lf.

Lr. rr-

X

r—

r—

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

x

X

X

X X

X

■JC

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X,

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

9

12 7 5

20

X

X

X

X

X

r1-

X

X

X

X

X

X

c If.

1158

LC r—

1155

K' If 1— r-

h 1 52

1151

251

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

12 16 1^

CHAPTER X I I I TRANSPORTATION On© o f t h e m a j o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g camp a u t h o r i t i e s

i s p r o v id in g the v a r io u s kinds o f t r a n s ­

p o r t a t i o n in d ig en o u s to the

camp program .

Some o f t h e more common p r o b l e m s i n c l u d e ,

conveying

camp ers t o and from camp, and p r o v i d i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n on the

camp gr ound f o r e m e r g e n c y t r i p s , p l a n n e d t r i p s t o town

or ch u rc h ,

and c o n v e y a n c e about t h e camp s i t e .

It is the p r a c tic e

i n many p l a c e s t o p r o v i d e t r a n s ­

p o r t a t i o n f o r camp ers b o t h t o and fro m t h e camp.

Some

o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o v i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n from a d e s i g n a t e d m eeting p la c e , the

and o t h e r camps r e l y on t h e p a r e n t s t o g e t

campers t o and fro m t h e s i t e .

m o st camps i s trip s

The g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e

t o have t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e

in

for sp e c ia l

and r e g u l a r camp a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d u t i e s . ^ * From t h e

s t a n d p o i n t o f la w and l i a b i l i t y i n p r o v i d i n g

camp t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , sid era tio n s

it

appears t h a t the major l e g a l con­

a r e w h e t h e r o r n o t t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s made by a

common c a r r i e r o r a p r i v a t e cla ssified

ca rrier;

as a g u e s t or a p a s s e n g e r ;

w h e t h e r t h e camper i s and w h e t h e r or n o t

t h e r e are s t a t u t e s w hich s p e c i f i c a l l y r e g u l a t e the p a r t i c u l a r kinds o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p ro v id ed .

^ B u t l e r , George D . , R e c r e a t i o n , pp. 3 0 5 -6 .

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Community

C arriers:

A ccording to l e g a l u sa g e,

a carrier is

one who u n d e r t a k e s t o t r a n s p o r t p e r s o n s o r p r o p e r t y from 2 place to p la c e . They h a v e b e e n c l a s s i f i e d : ( 1 ) W ith r e s p e c t t o t h e i r n a t u r e o r c h a r a c t e r and c o n s e q u e n t r i g h t s , d u t i e s , and l i a b i l i t i e s , as ( a ) p r i v a t e c a r r i e r s , and (b ) common c a r r i e r s , and ( 2 ) w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u b j e c t s o f c a r r i a g e , as ( a ) c a r r i e r s o f p r o p e r t y and ( b ) c a r r i e r s o f passengers• It

is

a l m o s t I m p o s s i b l e t o make any g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s

c o n cer n in g the

l e g a l s t a t u s o f r e c r e a t i o n camps who p r o v i d e

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e s o many d i s c r e p a n c i e s the c la s s i f i c a t i o n s

f o un d i n t h e v a r i o u s

A lth ou gh t h e r e are d i s c r e p a n c i e s p o r t a t i o n as p r i v a t e

ca rriers

in

ju risd ictio n s.

in c la s s ify in g

camp t r a n s ­

or common c a r r i e r s , m ost

j u r i s d i c t i o n s have a common d e f i n i t i o n f o r t h e two t y p e s . Common C a r r i e r :

A common c a r r i e r o f p a s s e n g e r s has

been d efin e d as: Common c a r r i e r s o f p a s s e n g e r s a r e s u c h as u n d e r ­ t a k e f o r h i r e t o c a r r y a l l p e r s o n s i n d e f i n i t e l y who may a p p l y f o r p a s s a g e s o l o n g as t h e r e I s room and th e r e i s not l e g a l excuse for r e f u s in g . The q u e s t i o n as t o w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n o r a p a r t i c u la r agency i s

o r i s n o t a common c a r r i e r i s

q u e s t i o n o f law and f a c t .

p

9 Am. J u r . ,

a m ixed

"What c o n s t i t u t e s a common c a r r i e r

C arriers,

s e c t i o n 2.

^People v. Stolzoff, 71 Cal, App. 2d Supp. 849, 162 P. 2d 743, 745 (1945).

is

a q u e s t i o n o f l a w , b u t whether* one c h a r g e d w i t h b e i n g a

common c a r r i e r h a s by h i s d efin itio n is evid en ce

conduct brought h i m s e l f w i t h i n th a t

a q u e s t i o n o f f a c t t o be d e t e r m i n e d from t h e

i n e a c h c a s e as i t

arises.'*

Some o f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e

4

ch aracteristics

o f a common

c a r r i e r are t h a t th e y u n d erta k e t o c a rr y a l l p e o p le i n d ifferen tly ;

they r e c e iv e

c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e i r work;

5 g

t h e y a r e h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d by a d e s i g n a t e d p u b l i c c o m m i s s i o n ; and t h e d u t y o f c a r e owed t o p a s s e n g e r s has b e e n l i s t e d 7 the h ig h e s t degree o f ca re .

as

I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s t h e d o c t r i n e o f r e s i p s a l o q u i t u r a p p l i e s when a c c i d e n t s o c c u r t o common c a r r i e r s . 8 t h e s is of th is doctrin e is th a t:

The h y p o -

The p l a i n t i f f ha s no k n o w le d g e o f j u s t what c a u s e d t h e a c c i d e n t , and t h a t , s i n c e t h e i n s t r u ­ m e n t a l i t y by means o f w h i c h t h e a c c i d e n t o c c u r r e d i s s o l e l y w i t h i n t h e c o n t r o l o f the d e f e n d a n t , n e g l i g e n c e w i l l be i n f e r r e d up on p r o o f o f a prima f a c i e c a s e , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f an a d e q u a t e e x p l a ­ n a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e d e f e n d a n t e x e m p t i n g him fro m l i a b i l i t y . The d o c t r i n e has b e e n a p p l i e d when common c a r r i e r s hav e r u n o f f t h e h i g h w a y , o v e r t u r n e d ,

^9 Am. J u r . , 5

C arriers,

and i n j u r e d p a s s e n g e r s ,

s e c t i o n 37.

3 7 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Ib id .,

s e c t i o n 1; See n o t e ,

s e c t i o n 3.

87 A . L . R . 551

(1933).

^Teche Lines v. Keyes, 187 Miss. 780, 193 So. 620 (1940); Hinds v. Steere, 209 Mass. 442, 95 N.E. 844 (1911), 8

37 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

s e c t io n 141.

and when p e r s o n s were i n j u r e d fro m s k i d d i n g o f t h e v e h i c l e . H o w e v e r , t h e mere o c c u r e n c e o f an a c c i d e n t i s u s u a l l y n o t i t s e l f evid en ce o f n e g lig e n c e . w hich th e d r i v e r o f th e

Many a c c i d e n t s o c c u r i n

common c a r r i e r h a s no c o n t r o l ,

i t may be g e n e r a l l y s a i d t h a t :

and

9

The p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s o n l y when t h e d i r e c t c a u s e o f t h e a c c i d e n t , and s o many o f t h e s u r r o u n d ­ i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s as were e s s e n t i a l t o i t s o c c u r e n c e , were w i t h i n t h e s o l e c o n t r o l and management o f t h e d e f e n d a n t s , or t h e i r s e r v a n t s , s o t h a t i t i s n o t u n ­ f a i r t o a t t r i b u t e t o them a pr im a f a c i e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r what h a p p e n e d . An a c c i d e n t i n t h e c a s e o f t r a f f i c on a h i g h w a y i s i n marked c o n t r a s t t o s u c h a c o n d i t i o n of th in gs. E v e r y v e h i c l e h a s t o a dap t i t s own b e ­ h a v io r t o the b e h a v io r o f o th e r p erson s u s in g the road, and o v e r t h e i r a c t i o n s t h o s e i n c h a r g e o f t h e v e h i c l e have no c o n t r o l . I n some s t a t e s as b e i n g o f t h e

camp t r a n s p o r t a t i o n may be d e s i g n a t e d

common c a r r i e r t y p e by l e g i s l a t i v e

and i n some c a s e s i t may be a m a t t e r f o r t h e

enactm ent,

courts to d e c id e .

In o t h e r s t a t e s

camp t r a n s p o r t a t i o n has b e e n c o n s i d e r e d as a 10 p r i v a t e type o f c a r r i e r . P rivate p r i. v a t. e

C arrier:

It is

a g e n e r a lly accepted r u le th at

c a r r .i e r s : 11

Are t h o s e who, w i t h o u t b e i n g e n g a g e d i n s u c h b u s i n e s s as a p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t, u n d e r t a k e t o d e l i v e r g o o d s or p a s s e n g e r s i n a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e f o r h ir e or rew ard.

9 37 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , 1 0 S t a t e e x reJL v . H e i l s o n ,

s e c t i o n 141.

65 Utah 4 5 7 , 25 3 P. 23 7 ( 1 9 2 5 ) .

■^Rathbun v. Ocean Accident and Guarantee Co., 299 111. 562, 566, 132 N.E. 754, 755 (1921).

One o f t h e b i g d i f f e r e n c e s and a p r i v a t e

ca rrier is

that i t

b e t w e e n a common c a r r i e r is

th e duty o f t h e former

to receiv e

a l l p e r s o n s who a p p l y f o r p a s s a g e w h i l e t h e l a t t e r 12 i s not o b lig a ted to that duty. Another d i f f e r e n c e i s i n

the

c o n tr o l th a t variou s s t a t e

kinds o f c a r r i e r s . lim ited

in th e ir

The s t a t e

c o m m i s s i o n s have o v e r t h e two c o m m i s s i o n s a r e u s u a l l y more

co n tro l over p r iv a te

c a r r i e r s t h a n common

ca rr ie rs. Contrary t o s t a t u t o r y p r o v i s i o n s ,

a p rivate

carrier

owes t o h i s p a s s e n g e r s r e a s o n a b l e

c a r e o r c a r e com mensurate 13 w i t h t h e kind o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o v i d e d . B o t h common c a r r i e r s tro lled

and p r i v a t e

somewhat by s t a t u t e s S ta tu to ry C ontrol:

c a r r i e r s are con­

and o r d i n a n c e s .

S t a t u t e s have b e e n e n a c t e d f o r

v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s r e l a t i n g t o m o to r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f p e r s o n s o r p r o p e r t y upon t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y s f o r h i r e or c o m p e n s a t i o n . One p u r p o s e c o n s i s t s o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e b u s i n e s s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n by m o to r v e h i c l e s com pensation. tran sp ortation .

o f p e r s o n s or p r o p e r t y f o r

Another purpose i s t o r e g u l a t e the a c t o f The o t h e r p u r p o s e i s t o o b t a i n f o r t h e s t a t e

a f a i r r e tu r n fo r the use o f the p u b lic highw ays. p o s e s are f r e q u e n t l y u n i t e d i n a s i n g l e en a c tm e n t.

Ip 13

14 S ee n o t e ,

3 7 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , Ib id .,

T h e se p u r 14

s e c tio n 3.

s e c t i o n 158.

37 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , 109 A . L . R . 552 ( 1 9 3 7 ) .

s e c t i o n 17;

m

The power o f t h e s t a t e may be d e l e g a t e d by t h e l e g i s ­ latu re

to the governing b o d ies o f m u n icip a l c o r p o r a tio n s ,

or t o p u b l i c s e r v i c e , p u b l i c u t i l i t y ,

s t a t e h i g h w a y , or

o t h e r c o m m i s s i o n s t o im p o se r e a s o n a b l e and i m p a r t i a l r e g u ­ l a t i o n s upon t h e u s e o f t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y s f o r t h e b u s i n e s s o f carryin g p a ssen g ers.

15

The v a r i o u s p u b l i c c o m m i s s i o n s

u s u a l l y c o n t r o l s u c h t h i n g s as s c h e d u l e s , s p e e d , l i c e n s e s , 16 i n s u r a n c e , b o n d s , and r a t e s . Some o f t h e more common kinds o f c a r r ie r s are r a i l r o a d s ,

c o n t r o l l e d by t h e g o v e r n i n g c o m m i s s i o n s

busses,

jitn ey s,

tru ck s,

taxicab s,

and i n

many c a s e s b o a t s . I 7 The j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s c o m m i s s i o n s was c o n ­ f i n e d at f i r s t

t o common c a r r i e r s .

d ea l o f j u r i s d i c t io n over p riv a te

Now t h e y have a g r e a t 10 ca rriers. A statute

may im p o se on p r i v a t e

ca rriers reg u la tio n s

or c o n t r a c t

of

t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e f r e q u e n t l y im p o se d on common c a r r i e r s , "so l o n g as i t

does not r eq u ire the p r iv a te

19 of the p u b l i c .M

v o te h is p r o p er ty t o the s e r v i c e

15

37 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , S ee n o t e , 87 A . L . R . 551 ( 1 9 3 3 ) .

17 section s 18

S ee n o t e ,

c a rr ie r to deThe

s e c t i o n 19;

37 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

s e c tio n s 170-251.

Ib id ., 17-36.

C arriers,

section s 3 ,5 ,6 ;

9 Am. J u r . ,

3 7 Am. J u r . , Motor T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , 103 A . L . R . 269 ( 1 9 3 6 ) .

19See n o t e ,

109 A . L . R . 556

(1937).

s e c t i o n 24;

o n ly q u e s t i o n s o r d i n a r i l y r a i s e d are t h e e x t e n t o f the c o m m iss io n 's j u r i s d i c t i o n over th e c a r r i e r under th e s t a t u t e . T h e r e a r e some s p e c i f i c

statutes

o r a c t s t h a t may

g o v e r n t h e k i n d s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p r o v i d e d by r e c r e a t i o n camps, It

is p ossib le

t h a t a camp owner may be s u b j e c t t o

t h e F e d e r a l Motor C a r r i e r A c t tran sp ortation .

H is r i g h t s ,

20

i f he e n g a g e s i n i n t e r s t a t e

d u ties,

and l i a b i l i t i e s u n d e r

t h i s a c t w i l l v a r y d e p e n d i n g up on w h e t h e r he i s a contract

ca rrier,

a p rivate

ca rrier,

considered

or a c a s u a l or o c ­

c a s i o n a l t r a n s p o r t e r o f p a s s e n g e r s f o r com p en sation or h i r e . The G u e st S t a t u t e s i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s may have a p p l i c a t i o n t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n camps. t r u e i n camps s p o n s o r e d by c h a r i t a b l e s t a t e s have g u e st la w s , o f the s t a t u t e s

This i s

esp ecia lly 21 corp orations. Most

and i t

appears th a t the p r o v is io n s 22 a re c o m p a r a b l e . T h u s, i n C a l i f o r n i a , t h e

law s t a t e s : * ^ Ho p e r s o n who as a g u e s t a c c e p t s a r i d e i n any v e h i c l e up on a h i g h w a y w i t h o u t g i v i n g c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r s u c h r i d e , n o r any o t h e r p e r s o n , has a n y r i g h t o f a c t i o n f o r c i v i l damages a g a i n s t t h e d r i v e r o f s u c h v e h i c l e o r a g a i n s t any o t h e r p e r s o n l e g a l l y

2 0 49 U . S . C . A . t i t l e 4 9 , s e c t i o n 302 ( 1 9 3 5 ) . 21 Humphreys v . San F r a n c i s c o Area C o u n c i l , Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , 22 C a l . 2d 4 3 6 , 139 P. 2d 941 ( 1 9 4 3 ) . 22

A s s o c i a t i o n o f C a s u a l t y and S u r e t y E x e c u t i v e s , S t a t u t e s A f f e c t i n g L i a b i l i t y I n s u r a n c e , 1 0 7 pp . ^ C a lifo r n ia Stat.

1935, c. 27,

s e c t io n 403.

l i a b l e f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f s u c h d r i v e r on a c c o u n t o f p e r s o n a l i n j u r y t o or th e d e a th o f su ch g u e s t d u rin g s u c h r i d e , u n l e s s t h e p l a i n t i f f i n any s u c h a c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e s t h a t s u c h i n j u r y or d e a t h p r o x i m a t e l y r e s u l t e d from t h e i n t o x i c a t i o n or w i l f u l m i s c o n d u c t o f said d riv er . A r k a n s a s h a s two g u e s t l a w s . C a lifo rn ia 's, in vited

guests

One i s

c o m p a r a b le t o

and t h e o t h e r d e f i n e s g u e s t s t o mean s e l f or g u e s t s at s u f f r a n c e .

I n some j u r i s d i c t i o n s

24

t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s p a s s e n g e r and

g u e s t have been adopted f o r th e purpose o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a p e r s o n who has g i v e n c o m p e n s a t i o n w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f 25 t h e s t a t u t e from one c a r r i e d g r a t u i t o u s l y . I t has f u r t h e r been s ta te d

that:

A lth ou gh b e n e f i t s or c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o t h e r than c a s h o r i t s e q u i v a l e n t may be c o m p e n s a t i o n , t h e r e i s no c o m p e n s a t i o n i f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s i n t e n d e d and r e c e i v e d as a mere g r a t u i t y . . . A b e n e f i t would be r e c e i v e d i f : The t r a n s p o r t a t i o n was w i t h i n t h e t e r m s o f t h e e m p l o y m e n t, or p a r t o f t h e a g r e e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e work, o r was d i r e c t e d by t h e e m p l o y e r d u r i n g w o r k i n g h o u r s , o r was f u r n i s h e d t o f a c i l i t a t e or s p e e d a t a s k t h e e m p lo y ee was t o p e r f o r m . . . . I t is t r u e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t i n some s i t u a t i o n s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p r a c t i c e or c u s t o m o f f u r n i s h i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o em p loyees m ight perm it or e v e n r e q u i r e th e drawing o f an i n f e r e n c e t h a t a l l r i d e s were g i v e n n o t as a mere g r a t u i t y b u t w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f i n d u c i n g em­ p l o y e e s t o a c c e p t or r e t a i n e m p lo y m en t.

915

2 4 ARK. ANN. STAT., T i t l e 7 5 , (1947). 25

e.

9, se c tio n s

913, 914,

Humphreys v . San F r a n c i s c o Ar ea C o u n c i l , Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , 22 C a l . 2d 4 3 6 , 4 4 2 , 139 P. 2d 9 4 1 , 944 ( 1 9 4 3 ) .

To d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n a p a s s e n g e r and a g u e s t i n many s i t u a t i o n s

is

"a q u e s t i o n f o r t h e t r i e r o f t h e

fact

26

u p o n p r o p e r e v i d e n c e . . . 11

T h ere a r e a l s o a number o f d i s c r e p a n c i e s , v ariou s

states,

lia b ility . lim its

in the

c o n c e r n i n g t h e la w s r e l a t i n g t o v i c a r i o u s

The d i f f e r e n c e s

are u s u a l l y found i n t h e age

a t w h i c h a p e r s o n may l e g a l l y o p e r a t e a m o t o r v e h i c l e

the age l i m i t s licen ses;

and o t h e r r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g c h a u f f e u r s '

t h e l e g a l m eth o d s o f o b t a i n i n g t h e v a r i o u s

licen ses;

and t h e e x t e n t o f l i a b i l i t y 27 owner o f t h e v e h i c l e . 28 I n A r i z o n a t h e law s t a t e s :

o f t h e d r i v e r and

A p p l i c a t i o n o f a m i n o r u n d e r t h e age o f 18 f o r o p e r a t o r ' s o r c h a u f f e u r ' s l i c e n s e s h a l l n o t be g r a n t e d u n l e s s s i g n e d by h i s f a t h e r , or i n c e r t a i n c a s e s , by h i s m o t h e r or e m p l o y e r . Any n e g l i g e n c e o f m i n o r when d r i v i n g a m o to r v e h i c l e s h a l l be im pu ted t o t h e p e r s o n s i g n i n g s u c h a p p l i c a t i o n and l a t t e r s h a l l be j o i n t l y and s e v e r a l l y l i a b l e w i t h m in o r f o r any damage c a u s e d by s u c h n e g l i g e n c e . . . . E v e r y owner o f m o t o r v e h i c l e c a u s i n g o r p e r m i t t i n g m i n o r t o d r i v e v e h i c l e u p on a h i g h w a y and any p e r s o n g i v i n g o r f u r n i s h i n g a m o to r v e h i c l e t o m i n o r , s h a l l be j o i n t l y and s e v e r a l l y l i a b l e w i t h him f o r a n y damages c a u s e d by h i s n e g l i ­ gence i n d r i v in g such v e h i c l e . Other s t a t u t e s

concerned w it h l i a b i l i t y

for tr a n s­

p o r t i n g p a s s e n g e r s i n w h i c h camp a u t h o r i t i e s s h o u l d be

^ H u m p h r e y s v . San F r a n c i s c o Area C o u n c i l , Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , 22 C a l . 2d 4 3 6 , 4 4 2 , 139 P. 2d 9 4 1 , 944 ( 1 9 4 3 ) .

27 (1939).

Supra n o t e 2 2 .

2 8 ARIZ. CODE.,

c

.

6 6 ,

art.

2,

s e c t i o n s 2 4 2 , 2 5 4 , 255

acquainted in clu d e th o se treatm ent; those

concerned w ith l i e n s

th o se concerned w it h a c t i o n s

fo r m edical

for w rongful death;

c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n s u r a n c e p o l i c y r e q u i r e m e n t s and

in su rers' lia b ility ; action s;

those

concerned w ith s u r v i v a l o f

and t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e v e n u e o f t o r t a c t i o n s .

Some c o u r t c a s e s

c o n c e r n i n g camp t r a n s p o r t a t i o n have

a p p e a r e d w h i c h may c l a r i f y some o f t h e p r o b l e m s c o n f r o n t i n g camp a u t h o r i t i e s . C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s : I n Humphreys v . Boy S c o u t s 30 o f Am erica, a j u n i o r c o u n s e l o r was k i l l e d w h i l e r i d i n g i n a camp t r u c k .

The j u n i o r c o u n s e l o r s a c t e d as a s s i s t a n t s t o

the s e n io r c o u n selo r s

i n v a r i o u s t a s k s a bo u t t h e

camp s i t e .

They w ere g i v e n boar d and room f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . The camp t r u c k was u s e d f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g b a g g a g e t o and fr o m t h e s t a t i o n ; su p p lies.

fo r running errand s;

and f o r h a u l i n g

The t r u c k was n o t f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f t r a n s p o r t i n g

c o u n s e l o r s t o t o w n , bu t i t was u s e d I n t h i s sev era l o cca sio n s.

On one o f t h e s e

trip s,

c a p a c i t y on Humphreys, t h e

j u n i o r c o u n s e l o r , was k i l l e d when t h e d r i v e r l o s t the

c a r and i t

control of

p l u n g e d down an embankment.

When an a c t i o n was b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e Boy S c o u t s o f Am erica, guest

t h e q u e s t i o n seemed t o be w h e t h e r Humphreys was a

or a p a s s e n g e r .

Humphreys a c c e p t e d t h e

2 ^Supra n o t e 2 2 . ^ S u p r a n o te 25.

I t was arg ued t h a t one o f t h e r e a s o n s cou n selor's

j o b was b e c a u s e he knew

262

he c o u l d g e t t o town o c c a s i o n a l l y on t h e camp t r u c k . s e n i o r c o u n s e l o r s u sed the t r u c k q u i t e purpose.

The u s e o f t h e

t h e em ploym en t b e n e f i t s , passenger in stead But,

The

f r e e l y fo r such a

t r u c k may be c o n s i d e r e d as p a r t o f and Humphreys may be c o n s i d e r e d a

of a guest.

t h e c o u r t r u l e d t h a t Humphreys was a g u e s t and

sa id : I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n we must keep i n mind t h a t , as s t i p u l a t e d at t h e t r i a l , th e d efen d a n t c o u n c i l i s a c h a r i t a b l e c o r p o r a t i o n n o t c o n d u c t e d f o r any p r o f i t w h a t s o e v e r and t h a t i n none o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s i s i t i n anyw ise a k in t o a b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e . T his o r ­ g a n i z a t i o n i s e n g a g e d i n t h e s p i r i t u a l , p h y s i c a l and m en ta l developm ent o f th e y o u th o f Am erica. W hile a t t e n d i n g t h i s encampment R o b e r t was n o t j u s t an em­ p loyee. He was a boy s c o u t e n j o y i n g a v a c a t i o n p a i d f o r i n p a r t by s e r v i c e s p e r f o r m e d and r e c e i v i n g a t t h e same t i m e t r a i n i n g as a member o f t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . And no d o u bt j u n i o r s t a f f members, l i k e c e r t a i n o t h e r s c o u t s , were t o some e x t e n t r e c i p i e n t s o f c h a r i t a b l e b en efits. The c h a r i t a b l e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e d e f e n d a n t c o u n c i l ar e c o n s i d e r e d , o f c o u r s e , o n l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w ith th e nature o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g between i t and t h e s c o u t s a t t e n d i n g Gamp L i l i e n t h a l as one o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t e n d i n g t o show t h a t t h e p r i v i l e g e s a c c o r d e d s t a f f members m i g h t r e a s o n a b l y be r e g a r d e d as g r a t u i t i e s r a t h e r t h a n s o m e t h i n g b o u g h t and p a i d f o r . . . . T h e s e a d v a n t a g e s m ig h t more p r o p e r l y be c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t o f s c o u t t r a i n i n g and a reward f o r f a i t h f u l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s t h e y had b e e n t a u g h t i n t h e i r bo y s c o u t work r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t o f a b u s i n e s s rela tio n sh ip . T h er e was one d i s s e n t i n g o p i n i o n i n t h i s J u stice

case.

Garter s a i d :

I d issen t. I n my o p i n i o n t h e f a c t s o f t h i s c a s e as foun d by t h e t r i a l c o u r t do n o t b r i n g t h e d e c e a s e d , R o b e r t Humphreys, J r . , w i t h i n t h e p u r v i e w o f t h e g u e s t s t a t u t e and p l a i n t i f f i s t h e r e f o r e e n t i t l e d t o r e c o v e r damages f o r h i s w r o n g f u l d e a t h w h i c h was a d m i t t e d l y c a u s e d as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e n e g l i g e n c e o f an e m p lo y e e o f th e defendant c o rp o ra tio n .

A n o t h e r c a s e i n w h i c h t h e Boy S c o u t s o f A m e rica were t h e d e f e n d a n t s i n v o l v e d a q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r or n o t t h e i n s u r a n c e p u r c h a s e d f o r camp a c t i v i t i e s p o r t a t i o n t o t h e camp s i t e . t o a camp s i t e

31

A s c o u t was i n j u r e d en r o u t e

i n an a d j o i n i n g

state.

S c o u t s , had l o a d e d t h e camping o u t f i t tr u c k at P o r tla n d ,

Oregon.

fit

He, w i t h o t h e r Boy o f t h e gr ou p i n t o a

They were p r o c e e d i n g w i t h t h e

ca m ping o u t f i t t o a s e l e c t e d W ashington.

inclu ded t r a n s -

camp s i t e

in the s t a t e o f

Here t h e y i n t e n d e d t o p i t c h camp w i t h t h e o u t ­

f o r t h e n i g h t and t h e day f o l l o w i n g .

The t r u c k was

d r i v e n by a V o l u n t e e r L e a d e r who was i n s u r e d by t h e p o l i c y . I n t u r n i n g o u t t o p a s s a n o t h e r c a r on t h e h i g h w a y ,

abo u t

f o u r o r f i v e m i l e s b e f o r e r e a c h i n g t h e i n t e n d e d camp s i t e , t h e t r u c k o v e r t u r n e d and i n j u r e d a number o f t h e s c o u t s , clu d in g S c o t t ,

in ­

the p l a i n t i f f .

Some o f t h e p e r t i n e n t p r o v i s i o n s

in the p o l i c y are:

To pay a l l sums w h i c h t h e A s s u r e d s h a l l become l i a b l e t o p a y as damages impose d by law f o r b o d i l y i n j u r i e s (or d e a t h , l o s s o f s e r v i c e or e x p e n se r e ­ s u l t i n g t h e r e f r o m ) a c c i d e n t a l l y s u f f e r e d or a l l e g e d t o ha v e b e e n s u f f e r e d . . . b y any p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s n o t h e r e i n a f t e r e x c l u d e d , w h i l e w i t h i n or upon t h e p r e ­ m ises d e sc rib ed in S p e c ia l C ondition 4. ...N am e o f A s s u r e d . . . P o r t l a n d Area C o u n c i l , Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a , and Oregon C o r p o r a t i o n a n d / o r i t s p a i d s t a f f a n d / o r E x e c u t i v e O f f i c e r s and E x e c u t i v e Committee Members a n d / o r V o l u n t e e r L e a d e r s .

^1

596,

O c c id e n t a l In dem nity C o., 5 9 7 (C . C . A . 9 t h . 1 9 3 7 ) .

Oregon v .

Scott,

91 P. 2d

P r o b a b l y t h e m o st p e r t i n e n t p r o v i s i o n i n t h e p o l i c y i n r e ­ g ar d t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e was t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a u s e : I t i s u n d e r s t o o d and a g r e e d t h a t t h i s p o l i c y i s e x t e n d e d t o c o v e r a l l camping a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e A s s u r e d l o c a t e d i n t h e S t a t e s o f Oregon and W a s h i n g t o n , i n c l u d i n g h i k i n g and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s n o t a c t u a l l y c o n d u c t e d on t h e camp s i t e . I t was on t h e

b a s i s o f t h e a bo v e c l a u s e t h a t t h e c o u r t r u l e d

th at: The p h r a s e a l l camping a c t i v i t i e s . . . i n c l u d i n g h i k i n g and o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n c l u d e s t h e u s e o f t h e camp t r u c k by t h e i n j u r e d Boy S c o u t i n r e c e i v i n g from him and t h e o t h e r Boy S c o u t s t h e camping o u t ­ f i t and c a r r y i n g him and t h e o u t f i t t o t h e p l a c e wh ere t h e camp was t o be p i t c h e d . I n Young e t a l v .

Boy S c o u t s o f A m e r i c a ,

was i n j u r e d w h i l e r i d i n g a b i c y c l e W ebster, the Scout M aster, to a se le c te d

32

a scout

on t h e p u b l i c h i g h w a y .

t o o k s e v e r a l members o f h i s t r o o p

s p o t some t w e l v e m i l e s

from t h e c i t y .

The

s c o u t s were t o t a k e some t e s t s w h i c h were p a r t o f t h e i r p r o ­ gram.

The t r i p was made by b i c y c l e .

On t h e way home i t

became d a r k b e f o r e t h e gr ou p r e a c h e d t h e c i t y

lim its,

and

none o f t h e b i k e s were e q u i p p e d w i t h l i g h t s .

A car approach

i n g from t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n c r o s s e d o v e r t h e b l a c k l i n e and h i t

one o f t h e

scouts.

b e e n c a u s e d by t h e n e g l i g e n t

The a c c i d e n t was a l l e g e d t o have s u p e r v i s i o n o f th e Scout Master

I t was a l s o a l l e g e d t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n was n e g l i g e n t i n » Code ( 1 0 2 7 ) ( 1 0 3 2 ) .

80

W/alkup v . C o v i n g t o n , l b Tenn. App. 2 d 7 1 8 ( 1 9 3 U)? Code ( 1 0 0 0 ) .

35

117?

73

S.W.

W e l l s v . McNutt, 136 Tenn. 2 7 I1 ? 1 89 S.W. 3 6 5 ( 1 9 1 6 ) , Code ( 1 0 0 5 ) .

35

TEXAS C ity of C o rsic an a ,

213 S.Yv. 2 d 1 5 5

( T e x a s 191+8).

C rockett v. tro y k , 2d 1012.

( T e x . C i v . App. 1 9 3 5 ) ? 78 S.v;. 222

H o t e l D i e u v . A r m e n d a r i z , 167 S . V . l 8 l Code ( 1 0 3 9 ) ( 1 0 2 7 ) . King v . S h e p p a rd , 2d 6 8 2 .

81

(Tex,

(1911i), 80

C i v . App. 1 9 U l ) * 157 S.V/-. 105

r-Ov

1— 1 1— 1

K risch v . R ic h te r , 186 ( 1 9 1 0 ). L evin sk i v.

6 i T e x . C i r . App. 5 6 3 , 130 S.W.

55

C oo p er ,

( T e x . C i r . App. 1 9 1 2 ) l i i 2 S.W.

959.

186

L e w i s v . C i t y o f P o r t W orth , 8 9 S.W. 2d 9 7 3 , (T e x a s 1 9 3 6 ) . Ligon v . Orien, 2d 6 2 9 , Code

105

(T e x . C i v . App. I 9 I4.7 ) 2 0 6 S.W. (1003).

55

M i s s o u r i K and T R y . Co* v . Wood, 95 T e x . 223? 66 s.w . 1^9 ( 1 9 0 2 ).

25^

San A n t o n i o h A . P . R. Co. v . J a z o , (T e x . App. 189U) 25 S.Yf. 7 1 2 , Code ( 1 0 0 9 ) .

Civ.

55

S c r o g g i n s v . Ear l i n g e r , 131 T e x . 237? H 2 S.W* 2d 8 5 3 ( 1 9 3 8 ) ? Code ( 1 0 6 2 ) .

121

S o r r e n t i n o v . L'lcUeill, ( T e x . C i r . App. 1 9 3 8 ) 1 22 S.W. 2d 7 2 3 , Code ( 1 0 0 5 ) .

55

Temple Lumber Co, v . L i v i n g , (T ex . C i v . App. 1 9 2 6 ) 289 S.W. 7 I4.6 , Code ( 1 0 0 1 ) .

55

W i g g i n s v . F o r t Worth, (Tex C i v . App. 1 9 2 7 ) 299 S.W. 14.6 b , Code ( 1 0 6 1 ) . Ill,

ill ) . , 1 2 1

UTAH B righam Young U n i v e r s i t y v . L i l l y w h . i t e , 118 F . 2 d 8 3 6 (C .C . A . 1 0 t h 1914-1 ) .

71

Husband v . S a i t Lake C i t y , 92 Utah 1414.9 * 69 P. 2d I4.9 I ( 1 9 3 7 ) 5 Code ( 1 0 5 6 ) .

121

L a r k i n v . S a l t a i r e Beach C o . , 30 U ta h 8 6 , 8 3 P. 686 (1 9 0 5 ) .

189

S t a t e ex r e l v . N e i l s o n , (1925).

63 Utah lj-57* 238 P.

237 2 5 5 , 266

YKRIviOri T Lander v .

(1859).

Seaver,

32 V t . H ip , 7 6 Am* Dec* 1 5 6 ^2

VIRGINIA A m e rica n To b a cco Co. v . P o l i s c o , lolf. V a . 777* 52 S . E . 5 6 3 ( 1 9 0 6 ) , Code ( 1 0 0 5 ) . A t l a n t i c C o a s t L i n e R. Co. v . C l e m e n t s , I 8 I4. Va. 6 5 6 , 36 S . E . 2d 3 5 3 ( I 9 I4.6 ) , Code ( 1 0 0 6 ) . C a r p e n t e r v . Commonwealth, 186 Va. 8 5 1 , J+I4. S . E . 2d 14.214. (19^-7) * Hoggard v . C i t y o f Richm ond , 1 7 2 Va. llj-5, 200 S . E . 61 0 ( 1 9 3 9 ) .

182

H o s p i t a l o f S t . V i n c e n t v . Thompson, 116 Va. 1 0 1 , 81 S . E . 13 ( 1 9 l i | ) , Code ( 1 0 3 9 ) . M o r r is v . P e y t o n , II 4.8 Va. 8 1 2 , 139 S . E . 5^0 ( 1 9 2 7 ) , Code ( I 0 0 i | ) . S h e c k l e r v . A n d e r s o n , 182 Va. 7°1> 29 S . E . 2 d 8 6 7 ( I 9 I4J4. ) , Code ( 1 0 0 1 ) . W e s t o n v . H o s p i t a l o f S t . V i n c e n t , 1 3 1 Va. 5 8 7 * 1 07 S . E . 7 8 5 ( 1 9 2 1 ) , Code ( 1 0 2 7 ) . W i l l i a m s v . X y n c h b e r g T r a c t i o n 5s L i g h t C o . , llj.2 Va. Il2 5 , 128 S . E . 732 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , Code ( 1 0 0 0 ) . WASHINGTON B a t c h e l e r v . Madison ParK C o r p ., 17 2 P. 2 d 268 ( I 9 I4.6 ) .

23 Wash. 2d 9 0 7 ,

B o g g e s s v . King C o u n t y , 1 5 0 Wash. 3 7 8 , 2 7 U( 1 9 2 9 ) , Code ( 1 0 0 6 ) .

188

C l e v e l a n d v . Grays Harbor D a i r y C o . , 193 Wash. 1 2 2 , 71+ P . 2d 909 ( 1 9 3 8 ) , Code ( l O u u ) . E sk ild sen v. S e a t t le , Code ( 1 0 0 1 ) . K e l l u m v . Ro u nd s, Coae ( 1 0 1 0 ) •

29 Wash. 5 ^ 3 , 7C P. 61g ( 1 9 0 2 ) ,

195 Wash. 5 1 8 , 3 l P. 2d 7 8 3

(1958),

M a s t e r s o n v . M cG oid rick Lumber C o . , 128 Wash. 1 , 221 P . 990 (1921-0, Coae ( l u u 9 ) . Moia v . M e t r o p o l i t a n Park D i s t r i c t , £4 . 2 P . 2 d I1 5 5 ( 1 9 5 5 ) •

181 Wash. 1 7 7 , '

H il

O l s e n v . John H a r i c k ’ s Tacoma T h e a t r e s , 2d 3 8 2 , 115 P. 2d 72 1 (191+1). R I c n a r d s o n v . Carbon H i l l Coal C o . , 3 2 P . 1 0 1 2 ( 1 8 9 3 ) , Coae ( l u 2 7 ) .

9 Wash*

6 Rash. 52,

R ose v . N o r t h e r n P. R 0 C o . , 8 l Wash. 681;, II4.3 1I+5 ( 1 9 1 U , Cods ( 1 0 J.X) • S t u v e r s v . Auburn, I 7 X Wash. 7 6 , 17 ( 1 9 3 2 ) , Code ( 1 0 5 6 ) .

2d 6 IJ4-

Susmann v . Y . M . C . A . , 101 Wash, lj.07, 1 7 2 P. 55U. ( 1 9 i b ) , Coae ( l u 3 9 ) . Van Saxe v . B a r n e t t , 125 Wash. 639» 217 P» 62 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , Coae (lOuli-). WEST VIRGINIA Gunn v . Ohio R i v e r R. C o . , 3 6 Vi. Va. 1 6 5 , lip S . E . I+6 5 , 32 Am. S t . R e p . bl+2 ( 1 « 9 2 ) . Gunn v . Ohio R i v e r R. C o . , Ip2 W. V a . , 6 7 6 , 26 S .E 5 4 6 ( I 8 9 6 ) , Coae ( 1 0 0 1 ) . K r u t l l x v . Board o f E d u c a t i o n , 99 129 S . B . Ipb6 ( 1 9 2 5 ) . P a r r i s h v . H u n t i n g t o n , 57 1|16 ( 1 9 0 5 ) , Code XlOolp).

V a . , Ip6 6 ,

V a * 2 b 6 , 50 S . E .

R o b e r t s v . Ohio V a l x e y G e n e r a l H o s p i t a l , 98 W. Va L1.7 6 , 127 S . E . 3x8 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , Code (IO 3 I4. ) . hi S COM 8 IN

Bauchman v . Y . W . C . A . , 179 W I s . 1 7 8 , 191 7 5 1 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , Coae ( 1 0 3 1 ) ( 1 U 2 7 ) . B l a k e v . M a d i s o n , 237 M i s . 6-98, 297 N *Wr• Ll22 ( 19 L l i ) , Coae ( 1 0 6 2 ) . C e g e l s k I v . G r e e n B a y , 231 M i s . 8 9 , 285 N.W. 3^5 ( 1 9 3 9 ) . D e G r o o t v . Van A k e r e n , 2^5 M i s . I u 5 , 725 ( 1 9 3 7 ) , Coae ( 1 U 0 3 ) , t l u u 5 ) . G rinde v. W atertow n, (1939)-

232 Mi s .

273 N.M.

5 5 1 , 288 N.W. 1 9 6

31i+ Le May v . O c o n t o , 229 M s . ( 1 9 3 8 ) , Code ( l u u O ) . Morrow v . l o u d , (1871+) •

6 5 , 231 H . S .

638 35

35 M s . 5 9 , 17 Am. R e p . a 7 1 1+3

Q ,uinn v . R o s s M o t o r Car C o . , 157 M s . li|-7 N .h • lOuU, Code ( 1 0 u 9 ) .

51+3 (

J-Il) 35

S m i o h v • P a b s t , 233 M s . I+8 9 , 280 N . « . 78u d95y). S tab ler v. N o rris, (■*■925).

I 8b M s .

3 6 6 , 2u6 H . l . 173 3 7 , 1+1+

S u l l i v a n v . School. D i s t r i c t , 191 N . I . 1 0 2 0 ( l y 2 3 ) . V anigan v . M u e lle r, (1952).

156

179 M s .

502,

11+2

208 V i i s . 5 2 7 , 2l+3 I J 3 . I4. I 9

V i r o v a t z v . C i t y o f C ud a hy , N.W. 314-X ( 1 9 5 3 ) .

157 211 M s .

3 5 7 , 2i(.7 180

l a l d m a n v . Young M e n 's C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n , 227 M s . 1+3, 277 N . I . 632 ( 1 9 3 8 ) .

196

1Y0MXNG B i s h o p R a n d a l l H o s p i t a l v . H a r t l e y , 2!+ W-yo. 1+08 , 1 6 0 P . 385 ( 1 9 1 6 ) , Code ( 1 0 2 7 ) ( 1 0 2 8 ) . R a m i r e z v . C h e y e n n e , 2 lil P . 7 10 Code ( 1 0 5 7 ) .

80

(hyo. I 925) ,

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL REFERENCES Books A llen ,

H a z e l K . , Camps and T h e i r M o d e rn A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The Women's P r e s s , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 3 0 . 120 p p .

A s s o c i a t i o n o f C a s u a l t y and S u r e t y E x e c u t i v e s , S t a t u t e s A f f e c t i n g L i a b i l i t y I n s u r a n c e , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 4 2 . 107 p p . ~ B u tler,

G e o r g e D . , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Community R e c r e a t i o n . I I c G r a w - H i l l Book C o . , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 4 0 , 547 p p . M u n i c i p a l and C o u n t y P a r k s i n t h e U nited S t a t e s . R a tio n a l R e c r e a tio n A s s o c ia tio n , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 4 0 . 173 p p .

D e y e r , D .B . and L i c h t i g , J . D . , L i a b i l i t y i n P u b l i c R ecreatio n . C.C. N e l s o n P u b l i s h i n g C o . , M i l w a u k e e , W is c o n s in , 1949, 107 p p . D i m o c k , H e d l e y S . , A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e M od ern Camp. A s s o c i a t i o n p r e s s , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 4 3 . 285 p p . D r o u g h t , A l i c e R . , A Camping M a n u a l . Hew Y o r k , 1 9 4 3 . 167 p p .

A . S . B a r n e s and C o . ,

G i b s o n , H . H . , Camp M a n a g e m e n t . G r e e n b e r g P u b l i s h i n g C o . , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 3 9 . 304 p p . H arper,

F o w l e r V . , A T r e a t i s e on t h e Law o f T o r t . The B o b b s - M e r r i l l C o ., I n d i a n a p o l i s , I n d i a n a , 1933. 714 p p .

M a d d en , J o s e p h W., D o m e s t i c R e l a t i o n s . C o., S t . P a u l, M in n eso ta, 1931.

The L e s t P u b l i s h i n g 748 p p .

H a s h , J a y B . , The O r g a n i z a t i o n and A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f P l a y g r o u n d s and R e c r e a t i o n . A . S . B a r n e s and C o . , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 2 7 . 547 p p . M eu m ey er, M.H. and H e u m e y e r , M . S . , L e i s u r e and R e c r e a t i o n . A . S . B a r n e s and C o . , Hew Y o r k , 1 9 3 6 . 405 p p . H o t z , R e b e c c a L . , L e g a l B i b l i o g r a p h y and L e g a l R e s e a r c h , n a t i o n a l Law Book C o . , . . a s h i n g t o n , D . O . , 1 9 4 7 . 234 p p .

P a t t y , W i l l a r d W ., Leg a l B a s i s o f t h e P u b l i c S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n Program o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . G.E. W i l l i a m s and S o n , A l b a n y , Pew Y o r k , 1 9 2 7 . 259 p p . P r o s s e r , W i l l i a m L . , Law o f T o r t s . The 7 /e s t P u b l i s h i n g C o . , S t . P a u l, M in n e so ta, 1941. 1509 p p . P u n k e , H a r o l d H . , Law and L i a b i l i t y i n P u p i l T r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 4 3 . 291 p p . The C o u r t s and P u b l i c S c h o o l P r o p e r t 3~. The U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , C h i c a g o , 1 9 3 6 . 31 5 p p . H o s e n fie ld , H arry P ., L i a b i l i t y f o r School A c c id e n ts . H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s P u b l i s h i n g C o . , Iiew Y o r k , 1 9 4 0 . 220 p p . S h e a r m a n , Thomas G. and R e d f i e l d , Amasa A . , A T r e a t i s e t h e Law o f N e g l i g e n c e . B a k e r and V o o r h i s C o . , Hew Y o r k , 194-1. 1542 p p .

on

T r u x a l , Andrew G . , O u t d o o r Re c r e a t i o n L e g i s l a t i o n and I t s E f f e c t i v e n e s s . The C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Y o r k , 1 9 2 9 . 218 p p . V etter,

Roy A . , D i g e s t o f Laws R e l a t i n g t o L o c a l P a r k s and R e c r e a t i o n . The U n i t e d S t a t e s P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W ashington, D .C ., 1941. 534 p p . D i g e s t o f Laws A f f e c t i n g Orga n i zed C a m p in g . The U n i t e d S t a t e s P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1941. 119 p p .

W e . l t z i n , F r e d e r i c k J . , The L e g a l A u t h o r i t y o f t h e A m e r i c a n P u b lic School. The U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h D a k o t a P r e s " s , Grand F o r k s , N o r t h D a k o t a , 1 9 5 0 . 239 p p . B u lletin s A m e r i c a n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n , " L e g i s l a t I v e A s p e c t s o f C a m p i n g . ' 1 343 S o u t h D e a r b o r n S t r e e t , C h i c a g o , 1 9 4 9 . L i n d e m a n , Edward C . , " S t a t e E n a b l i n g L e g i s l a t i o n f o r L o c a l R ecreatio n ." R e c r e a t i o n C i r c u l a r No. 5 , The U n i t e d S t a t e s P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1 S 3 7 . 67 p p . N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , "The L e g a l S t a t u s o f t h e P u b lic School P u p il." R esearch B u l l e t i n, v o l. 36, no. 1, W ashington, D .C ., F e b ru a ry , 1948. 38 p p .

N a tio n a l Secondary School P r in c ip a ls A s s o c ia t i o n . N ational E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , "Camping and Outdoor E d u c a t i o n . The B u l l e t i n , v o l . 3 1 , n o . 1 4 7 , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1947, 194 pp . Law J o u r n a l s Aikman, John E . , "Tort L i a b i l i t y o f C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s . " U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g Law Re v i e w 9: 2 5 3 - 2 6 5 , U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g Lav/ R e view A s s o c i a t i o n , P i t t s b u r g , May, 1 9 4 8 . A r m s t r o n g , W a l t e r P . , " C h ild Labor Laws and C o n t r i b u t o r y N egligen ce." T e n n e s s e e Lav/ R ev iew 20: 3 6 0 - 3 6 9 , T e n n e s s e e Law R e view A s s o c i a t i o n , B r o o k l y n , New Y or k, June, 1948. B o r c h a r d , Edwin K . , "Symposium on M u n i c i p a l T o r t L i a b i l i t y . " L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Government 5: 3 5 1 - 3 5 2 , A m erica n Bar A s s o c i a t i o n , C h i c a g o , A u g u s t , 1 9 4 0 . "G o vernm enta l L i a b i l i t y i n T o r t . " Y a l e Law J o u r n a l 3 4 : 1-4-5, The Y a l e Lav; J o u r n a l New Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t , November, 1 9 2 4 . D o d d r i d g e , Delmar W., " D i s t i n c t i o n B e t w e e n G o v er n m e n ta l and P r o p r ie t a r y F un ctions o f M unicipal C orp oratio n s." M i c h i g a n Law Review 2 3 : 3 2 5 - 3 3 8 , U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n Law S c h o o l , Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n , F e b r u a r y , 1925. F l e m i n g , James R . , " A c c i d e n t L i a b i l i t y : Some Wartime D evelopm ents." Y a le Law J o u r n a l 55: 3 6 5 - 4 0 0 , The Y a l e Law J o u r n a l Company, New Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t , February, 1946. F u l l e r , Edgar and C a s n e r , James A . , " M u n ic i p a l T o rt L i a b i l i t y in O peration." Harvard Law R eview 54: 4 3 7 - 4 6 2 , The Harvard Law Re view A s s o c i a t i o n , Cambridge M a ssa c h u se tts, January, 1941. Murray, J o s e p h F. J r . , "Recen t Trends i n M u n i c i p a l T o r t L ia b ility ." L e g a l N o t e s on L o c a l Government 5: 3 5 3 - 3 5 8 , A m e rica n Bar A s s o c i a t i o n , C h i c a g o , A u g u s t , 1940. P e t e r s o n , O r v i l l e C . , "G overnm ental R e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r T o r t s i n M i n n e s o t a ." M in n e s o t a Law R e view 26 : 7 0 0 - 7 2 9 , Law S c h o o l o f U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a , M in n e a p o lis, February, 1942.

R o s e n f i e l d , H a r r y N . , " G o v e r n m e n t a l I m m u n i t y From L i a b i l i t y fo r T o rts in School A ccidents*" L e g a l H o t e s on L o c a l Government 5: 3 5 8 - 3 8 6 , A m erican B ar A s s o c i a t i o n , C hicago, A u g u s t, 1940. R uback, R o b e rt I . , "Im m unity o f C h a r i t a b l e C o r p o r a t i o n s f o r H e g l i g e n c e o f T h e i r S e r v a n t s and A g e n t s . " S t. John’s Law R e v i e w 1 2 : 9 9 - 1 0 8 , Law R e v ie w A s s o c i a t i o n , B r o o k l y n , New Y o r k , N o v e m b e r, 1 9 3 7 . T h a y e r , E z r a R . , " P u b l i c Wrong and P r i v a t e A c t i o n . " H a r v a r d Law R e v ie w 2 7 : 3 1 7 - 3 4 3 , The H a r v a r d Law R e v ie w A s s o c i a t i o n , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , F e b r u a r y 1914, T h o m p s o n , J o h n R. , "The F e d e r a l T o r t C l a i m s A c t . " Y a l e Lav/ J o u r n a l 5 6 : 5 3 4 - 5 6 1 , Y a l e Law J o u r n a l Company, New H a v e n , C o n n e c t i c u t , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 7 . W i l d e r m a n , L o u i s H . , "The Q u e s t i o n o f An I n f a n t ’ s A b i l i t y t o be G u i l t y o f C o n t r i b u t o r y N e g l i g e n c e . " Indiana Law J o u r n a l 1 0 : 3 2 9 - 3 4 2 , I n d i a n a S t a t e B a r A s s o c i a t i o n I n d i a n a p o l i s , May, 1 9 3 5 .

N a t i o n a l R e p o r te r System The N a t i o n a l R e p o r t e r S y s t e m c o n t a i n s r e p o r t s i n f u l l o f d e c is io n s of the c o u rts of reco rd of th e v a rio u s s t a t e s , and o f t h e F e d e r a l c o u r t s . West P u b l i s h i n g Company, S t . P a u l , M i n n e s o t a , 1879 and p u b l i s h e d t o d a te w ith w eekly advance s h e e t s . The S y s t e m c o n s i s t s of the follow ing " r e p o r te r s ." (1)

The A t l a n t i c R e p o r t e r . R eports c o m p letely d e c isio n s of co u rts of l a s t r e p o r t of: M aine, New H a m p s h i r e , V e r m o n t , C o n n e c t i c u t , Rhode I s l a n d New J e r s e y , P e n n s y l v a n i a , D e l a w a r e , and M a r y l a n d . E s t a b l i s h e d 1885.

(2)

The F e d e r a l R e p o r t e r . R eports f u l l y a l l d e c is io n s o f the U nited S ta te s C i r c u i t , D i s t r i c t , and C i r c u i t C o u r t o f A p p e a l s . E s t a b l i s h e d 1888.

(3)

The New Y o r k S u p p l e m e n t . R eports f u l l y d e c is io n s o f t h e Sup re m e C o u r t and l o w e r c o u r t s o f r e c o r d o f New Y o r k S t a t e . E s t a b l i s h e d 1888,

(4)

The N o r t h w e s t e r n R e p o r t e r , R eports co m p letely d e c i s i o n s o f c o u r ts o f l a s t r e p o r t o f : M ichigan, W is c o n s in , M in n e s o ta , Iowa, N e b ra s k a , N o r th D a k o t a , a nd S o u t h D a k o t a . E s t a b l i s h e d 1879.

(5)

The N o r t h e a s t e r n R e p o r t e r . R eports co m p letely d e c isio n s o f co urts of l a s t re p o rt of: New Y o r k , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , O h i o , I l l i n o i s , and I n d i a n a . E s t a b l i s h e d 1885.

(6 )

The P a c i f i c R e p o r t e r . R eports f u l l y d e c is io n s o f c o u rts o f l a s t r e p o r t o f: C a li f o r n ia , C olorado, I d a h o , O r e g o n , M o n t a n a , N e v a d a , New M e x i c o , K a n s a s , O k la h o m a , A r i z o n a , U t a h , W a s h i n g t o n , and Wyoming. E s t a b l i s h e d 1883.

(7)

The S o u t h e a s t e r n R e p o r t e r . R eports co m pletely d e cisio n s of courts of la s t re p o rt of: V irg in ia , W est V i r g i n i a , N o r t h C a r o l i n a , and G e o r g i a , and in te r m e d ia te c o u rt o f ap p eals o f G eorgia. E s t a b l i s h e d 1887.

(8)

The S o u t h e r n R e p o r t e r . R eports com p letely d e c i s i o n s o f c o u r t s o f l a s t r e p o r t o f : Alabam a, F l o r i d a , L o u i s i a n a , and M i s s i s s i p p i . E stablished 1887.

(9)

The S o u t h w e s t e r n R e p o r t e r . R eports co m p letely d e c isio n s of co u rts of l a s t r e p o r t of: M isso u ri, A r k a n s a s , I n d i a n T e r r i t o r y , T e x a s , K e n t u c k y , and T e n n e s s e e , and i n t e r m e d i a t e c o u r t s i n M i s s o u r i and T e x a s . E s t a b l i s h e d 1886.

(10)

The Su pre m e C o u r t R e p o r t e r . R eports co m p letely t h e d e c i s i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Suprem e C o u r t .

S t a te R eports The S t a t e R e p o r t s a r e t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t s o f e a c h c a s e w i t h d e c i s i o n s r e c o r d e d o f t h e i r own c o u r t s o f l a s t r e s o r t , and s o m e t i m e s l o w e r c o u r t s o f r e c o r d . Law E n c y c l o p e d i a s A m e r i c a n Lav: R e p o r t s . The L a w y e r s 1 C o o p e r a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g Company, N o r t h p o r t , L . I . , New Y o r k . F o l l o w s Ann. C a s e s 1918E t o p r e s e n t t i m e , and L . R . A . 1 9 1 8 F t o p re s e n t tim e. (A .L .R .).

52X A m erican J u r i s p r u d e n c e . The L a w y e r s ' Company, R o c h e s t e r , New Y o r k . Case Laws) 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 4 8 .

C ooperative P u b lis h in g (S u p ersed in g R uling

Com plete D i g e s t o f a l l Lawyers R e p o r ts A n n o t a t e d . West P u b l i s h i n g Company, S t . P a u l , M i n n e s o t a . The L a w y e r s ' C o o p e r a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g Company, R o c h e s t e r , New Y o r k . I n c l u d e s d a t e s f r o m 1888 t o 1 9 1 0 . Corpus J u r i s . A m e r i c a n Law Book Company, New Y o r k . p u b l i c a t i o n s f r o m 1914 t o 1 9 4 8 .

Includes

Lawyers R e p o r ts A n n o t a te d . The L a w y e r s ' C o o p e r a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g Company, R o c h e s t e r , New Y o r k . D a te s from 1 88 7 t o 1 9 0 6 , and New S e r i e s f r o m 1906 t o 1 9 1 8 . (L .R .A .). N e g l i g e n c e and C o m p e n s a t i o n C a s e s . C a l l a g h a n and Company, C hicago. C a s e s f r o m 1912 t o 1948 c o n c e r n e d w i t h N egligence. (N .C .C .A .). N e g l ig e n c e C ases ( O th e r Than A u t o m o b i l e ) . Commerce C l e a r i n g House I n c . , New Y o r k . C a se s f r o m 1939 t o 1 9 4 8 . R u l i n g Case Laws. Lavijyers' C o o p e r a t i v e P u b l i s h i n g Company, R o c h e s t e r , New Y o r k . C a s e s and p r i n c i p l e s o f law f r o m 1914 t o 1 9 4 8 . Law I n d i c e s A m erican D ig e s t System . C e n t u r y E d i t i o n , 1658 t o 1 8 9 6 , V o l . 4 3 : D e c e n n i a l E d i t i o n , 189 7 t o 1 9 0 6 , V o l . 17: S e c o n d D e c e n n i a l E d i t i o n , 1907 t o 1 9 1 6 , V o l . 2 0 : T h i r d D e c e n n i a l E d i t i o n , 1916 t o 1 9 2 6 , V o l . 2 4 : F o u r t h D e c e n n i a l E d i t i o n , 1926 t o 1 9 3 6 , V o l . 3 4 : F i f t h D e c e n n i a l E d i t i o n , 1936 t o 1 9 4 6 , p a r t i a l l y com pleted w ith a d d i t i o n a l su p p le m e n ts. B l u e Book o f N a t i o n a l R e p o r t e r S y s t e m . L est P ublishing Company, S t . P a u l , M i n n e s o t a . (Com plete t a b l e s s h o w i n g t h e v o lu m e and p a g e o f t h e R e p o r t e r f o r e v e ry case found i n th e c o rre s p o n d in g S t a te R e p o r ts .) D e s c r i p t i v e Lord In d e x t o th e F i r s t t h r o u g h th e F o u r th D ecennial D ig e sts (w ith F if th D ecennial S upplem ents). W est P u b l i s h i n g Company, S t . P a u l , . . i i n n e s o t a . .From 1924 t h r o u g h 1 9 4 8 . I n d e x t o L e g a l P e r i o d i c a l s and Law L i b r a r y J o u r n a l s . The H.W. W i l s o n Company, New Y o r k . I n d i c e s t h r o u g h 1948.

R e a d e r ' s Guide t o P e r i o d i c a l L i t e r a t u r e . The I-i.L'. ’W i l s o n Company, New Y o r k . I n d i c e s th ro u g h 1948. S h e p a rd 's C i ta t io n s . A tla n tic R eporter C ita tio n s : N orth­ e a s te r n R ep o rter C ita tio n s : N orthw estern R ep o rter C ita tio n s : P a c ific R ep o rter C ita tio n s : S o u th e a ste rn R e p o rte r C ita tio n s : Southern R ep o rter C ita tio n s : S o u t h w e s t e r n R e p o r t e r C i t a t i o n s : New Y o r k S u p p l e m e n t C itatio n s. A lso S h e p a r d 's C i t a t i o n s f o r th e v a r i o u s sta te s. The F r a n k S h e p a r d Company, New Y o r k .

APPENDIX

325 APPEiTDIX

A

L i s t i n g o f G e n e r a l T y p e s ox L e g i s l a t i o n A f f e c t i n g O r g a n i z e d C a m p in g , O t h e r T h a n P e r m i s s i v e and R e g u l a t o r y The t e r m ’’g e n e r a l L e g i s l a t i o n , ” a s u s e d h e r e , to the v a rio u s w hich, it.

law s o r r u l i n g s - n a t i o n a l ,

although not s p e c i f i c a l l y d ire c te d

sta te , at

refers

or lo c a l,

cam ping,

affect

Camps s o m e t i m e s h a v e n o t known and o b s e r v e d l a w s r e l a t i v e

t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , w i t h h o l d i n g t a x e s , workmen’ s c o m p e n s a tio n , etc .

The f o l l o w i n g l i s t s

w hich th e these

in d ic a te the v a rio u s

camp d i r e c t o r s h o u l d be i n f o r m e d .

d iffer

from s t a t e t o s t a t e

field s

B e c a u s e some o f

and c o m m u n i ty t o c o m m u n i t y ,

it

i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o go i n t o d e t a i l a s t o p r o v i s i o n s .

is

th e hope, however,

th at

camp p e r s o n n e l may f i n d t h i s

u s e f u l as a ch eck l i s t . L a b o r and I n d u s t r y 1.

Work p e r m i t s a nd c e r t i f i c a t i o n

2.

Employm ent o f m i n o r s and c h i l d a.

labor reg u la tio n s

F e d e r a l F a i r L a b o r S t a n d a r d A c t s o f 1938

3.

H azardous o c c u p a tio n r e g u l a t i o n s

4.

Minimum wage a nd h o u r r e g u l a t i o n s

5.

E mpl oyme nt o f f e m a l e s

6.

I n s p e c t i o n s by s t a t e

agencies

S o c i a l I n s u r a n c e s and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s 1.

U n em plo ym ent C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t s a.

about

P o stin g or n o t i f i c a t i o n of r ig h ts

It

$25 2.

Y'/orkman's C o m p e n s a t i o n A c t s a.

P o stin g or n o t i f i c a t i o n of r i g h ts

3.

S o c i a l S e c u r i t y Act

4.

Old Age and. S u r v i v o r f s I n s u r a n c e T ranspo rt a t i o n

1*

M o t o r C a r r i e r Act

2.

C h a u ffe u r’s L icense

3.

D r i v e r 's L icense

4.

Com pulsory L i a b i l i t y

5.

S t a t e M otor C a r r i e r A cts

6.

In tersta te

7*

S tate

3.

R u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g m o t o r v e h i c l e s ,

Insurance

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f campers

commerce r e g u l a t i o n s

a nd b o a t s Taxes 1.

Income

2.

P r o p e r t y , r e a l and p e r s o n a l

3.

S ales

4.

Tax and t a x e x e m p t i o n r u l e s

5.

M iscellaneous

tax es,

I.e .,

L icense 1.

D i s h and game

2.

C o n se rv a tio n m easures

3.

F ire

and s a f e t y

and r e g u l a t i o n s bed, m otor, h o rse s

and P e r m i t s

traile rs,

O utdoor c r a f t

a c tiv itie s

B u i l d i n g and p r o p e r t y p e r m i t s F a r m i n g and m a r k e t i n g l i c e n s e s F e d e r a l , S t a t e , and L o c a l Laws A f f e c t i n g t h e Use o f P u b l i c Lan ds and P r o p e r t i e s U nited S ta te s

F o r e s t S e r v i c e , U .S. D epartm ent o f

A g ric u ltu re E xtension S ervices

o f t h e U .S. D epartm ent

of A griculture N a tio n a l Park S e rv ic e ,

D epartm ent o f I n t e r i o r

F i s h and W i l d l i f e S e r v i c e , D e p a r t m e n t o f I n t e r i o r B u r e a u o f R e c l a m a t i o n and L a n d s , D e p a r t m e n t o f I n t e r i o r I.E .,

perm it to

of f ir e s ,

cut tim b er, b la z in g of t r a i l s ,

overnight

alco h o l re g u la tio n s ,

cam ping,

b u ild in g

emergency a s s i s t a n c e ,

entrance

fees

and o t h e r p e r m i t s t o

e n te r p a rk s , perm its f o r organized groups. Mis c e l l a n e o u s S c h o o l l u n c h and s u r p l u s

com m o d ity

H ealth a.

Legal a sp ec ts pu b lic

o f h o s p i t a l and m e d i c a l c a r e , u n d e r

and p r i v a t e

h o sp ital

auspices,

fo r treatm en t:

i.e .,

entrance

in to

l e g a l o r assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

fo r m edical trea tm e n t in clu d in g surgery b.

A ssistance

in the p re v e n tio n ,

o f comm unicable d i s e a s e s county,

co n tro l,

and r e p o r t i n g

and e p i d e m i c s t o s t a t e ,

and c i t y h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s

c.

P r o te c tio n in the event o f f lo o d , h u rrican e, and w e l f a r e

e tc .,

fire,

storm ,

from r e s p o n s i b l e p u b l i c h e a l t h

ag en cies,

v o l u n t a r y a g e n c i e s s u c h as

t h e A m e r i c a n Red G r o s s , e t c . S ervices

f r o m la w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c i e s

for p ro tec tio n

camp p e r s o n n e l and p r o p e r t y F ire p r o te c tio n a.

S ervices

of lo c a l,

H arbors, r i v e r ,

sta te ,

and n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s

and s t r e a m

C o n stitu tio n al r ig h ts ,

sta tu tes,

affectin g

such as c i v i l r i g h t s

in d iv id u als,

and r e g u l a t i o n s

P u r e Food and D ru g A ct L ia b ility

law s a f f e c t i n g

camp d i r e c t o r s

APPENDIX

APPENDIX

B

GAMP STANDARDS ADOPTED BY ACA O b j e c t i v e s o f Camping:

n Camping s h o u l d be a n o u t - o f -

d o o r s e x p e r i e n c e w h e r e e m p h a s i s i s p l a c e d on t h e e n j o y m e n t o f s i m p l e l i v i n g and virhere t h e take

campers have an o p p o r t u n i t y t o

co n sid erab le r e s p o n s ib ility

t h e i r day-by-day l i f e . elem en ts

Camping i n c l u d e s

- o u t-o f-d o o rs, re c re a tio n ,

and s o c i a l a d j u s t m e n t ; p erien ce tu n ity

f o r th e b a s i c problem s of

i n the

f o r camping i s

at le a st

group l i v i n g ,

five ed u catio n

a re c re a tio n a l ex­

o u t - o f - d o o r s which p r o v id e s s p e c i a l o p p o r­

f o r e d u c a t i o n and f o r s o c i a l a d j u s t m e n t t h r o u g h g r o u p

liv in g ."

( Q u o t e d f r o m " C a m p i n g , What i s i t ? "

p u b lish ed

b y ACA) . The o b j e c t i v e s sp ecific.

It

to p resen t

its

camp s t a f f ,

is

the

o f e v e r y camp s h o u l d be c l e a r and camp a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

o b jectiv es

so t h a t

p a r e n t s and c a m p e r s .

In o rd er to assu re t h i s camper,

the

type o f e x p erien c e

fo r every

camp s h o u l d be g u i d e d by h i g h s t a n d a r d s r e l a t i n g

to program , p e rs o n n e l, h e a l t h , and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . featu res

t h e y may be u n d e r s t o o d by

san itatio n ,

safety ,

The f o l l o w i n g s t a n d a r d s

o f cam ping a re a p p l i c a b l e

to

fa c ilitie s

for these

camps h a v i n g v a r i o u s

obje ct i v e s . Program : fo r the

The camp p r o g r a m s h o u l d a f f o r d

campers t o p a r t i c i p a t e

in a creativ e

an o p p o r t u n i t y

o u t-d o o r group

experience

In a dem ocratic s e t t i n g

velopm ent o f each i n d i v i d u a l . include

o p p o rtu n ities A.

and p r o v i d e

T herefore,

fo r the de­

th e program should

f o r e a c h camper t o -

Be e n c o u r a g e d ,

at his

p a te w ith the s t a f f

lev el of a b ility ,

to p a r t i c i ­

i n m a k i n g and e v a l u a t i n g h i s

g r o u p 's program . B.

Have a c h o i c e o f a c t i v i t i e s sp iritu a l, b ein g .

p h y sical,

th at

co n trib u te

to h is

I n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l w e l l ­

These a c t i v i t i e s

s h o u ld g iv e e a c h camper

an o p p o r tu n ity to develop s k i l l s ,

in te rests

and

knowledge p r o g r e s s i v e l y a c c o r d i n g t o h i s a b i l i t y . C.

The p r o g r a m s h o u l d be p l a n n e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n for s ite ,

clim ate,

h e a l t h and s a f e t y p r a c t i c e s

and

l e n g t h o f s t a y o f t h e camper. P erso n n el:

A camp m u s t h a v e q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l .

d i r e c t o r and s t a f f s h o u l d h a v e t h e i n t e r e s t w i t h c h i l d r e n I n a camp e n v i r o n m e n t , a b ility sk ills

clu siv e

of asso ciatin g

em otional m a tu rity ,

to u n d erstan d th e in d iv id u a l needs of th e n e e d e d i n c a m p i n g , h e a l t h and v i t a l i t y .

be a r a t i o

of not over e ig h t

guide i n s e l e c t i n g ,

p ractices

ex­

train in g ,

fo r a de­

s u p e r v i s i n g and p e r s o n n e l

f o r camp e m p l o y e e s .

Camp S i t e , A.

There should

s t a f f and j u n i o r c o u n s e l o r s .

S e e " H a r k s o f Good C a m p i n g , " C h a p t e r I I I , sira b le

cam pers,

c a m p e r s t o one c o u n s e l o r ,

o f the a d m in is tr a tiv e

The

F ac ilities

The camp s i t e populated

and E q u i p m e n t :

s h o u l d be l o c a t e d

areas

away f r o m d e n s e l y

and u n d e s i r a b l e r e s o r t s ,

be f r e e

3£E from u n n e c e s s a r y h a z a r d s

and be p r o p e r l y d r a i n e d .

N a t u r a l b e a u t y and r e s o u r c e s

are a g r e a t a s s e t

to

the program . B.

T h e r e s h o u l d be s m a l l s l e e p i n g u n i t s

f o r campers

p r o v i d i n g f o r t y o r more s q u a r e f e e t

G.

cam per.

Beds s h o u l d be p l a c e d

sleepers

are s i x f e e t a p a r t .

A ll b u ild in g s in safe

so t h a t h ead s o f

s h o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d

and m a i n t a i n e d

c o n d i t i o n and i n a c c o r d w i t h a n y b u i l d i n g

co d e a p p l i c a b l e D.

fo r each

to a given l o c a l i t y .

T h e r e s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t

e q u i p m e n t and f a c i l i t i e s

i n good o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n t o c a r r y o u t t h e o b jectiv es E.

and t h e p r o g r a m o f t h e

A l l e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d

A d m in istratio n : s h o u l d be a c c u r a t e .

stated

camp. in safe

c o n d itio n .

A l l p u b l i s h e d s t a t e m e n t s o f camps

The camp s h o u l d h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g r e c o r d s :

A.

F in a n cial statem en t,

food r e c o r d s

and i n v e n t o r i e s .

B.

A l l p e r m i t s r e q u i r e d b y l o c a l and s t a t e

C.

W r itte n consent of p a re n ts f o r cam per!s a tte n d a n c e

a u th o rities.

and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a c t i v i t i e s . D.

R e g i s t r a t i o n c a r d f o r e a c h camper p r o v i d i n g t h e im portant

E.

in fo rm atio n .

R e c o r d o f h e a l t h e x a m i n a t i o n and t r e a t m e n t

of

c a m p e r s and s t a f f . F.

W r i t t e n agreem ent w ith a l l

G-.

P rovisions in su ran ce.

camp s t a f f .

s h o u l d be made f o r a l l l e g a l l y r e q u i r e d

352 H ealth: A.

P h y s ic a l ex am inations

and m e d i c a l h i s t o r y b y a

p h y s i c i a n s h a l l be r e q u i r e d

for a l l

s t a f f and

c a m p e r s w i t h i n a m o n t h b e f o r e t h e y go t o

camp.

Campers and s t a f f s h a l l h a v e p h y s i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n a nd m e d i c a l h i s t o r y by a p h y s i c i a n u p o n a r r i v a l a t camp.

P reventive

in o c u la tio n req u ired

mende d by p u b l i c h e a l t h a u t h o r i t i e s s im ila rly required before

arriv a l.

c ertifica tes

or recom ­

s h o u l d be

o r r ec o m m e n d ed by t h e

camp

Food h a n d l e r s s h o u l d h a v e a n y

n eed ed t o comply w i t h p u b l i c h e a l t h

req u irem en ts. B.

T h e r e s h o u l d be a d e f i n i t e v is io n of the

C.

system o f h e a l t h s u p e r ­

cam pers.

A r e g i s t e r e d n u r s e o r p h y s i c i a n s h o u l d be on t h e camp s t a f f .

A rrangem ents

s h o u l d be made w i t h a

n e a r b y p h y s i c i a n t o s e r v e t h e camp i f one i s n o t in residence. D.

The camp s h o u l d f o l l o w t h e " S u g g e s t e d P o l i c i e s

and

S t a n d i n g O r d e r s f o r Camp N u r s i n g S e r v i c e s ” r e p r i n t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n . E.

T h e r e s h o u l d be p r o v i s i o n s f o r a w e l l - e q u i p p e d i n f i r m a r y and i s o l a t i o n q u a r t e r s .

F.

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e c ase o f an em ergency. have a c c e s s to a phone.

If p o ssib le,

at a l l tim es the

in

camp s h o u l d

G-.

T h e r e s h o u l d be f a c i l i t i e s

fo r hot w ater b a th s .

Sh ow er h e a d s ,

s h o u l d be a t l e a s t

i f provided,

one

f o r e a c h 20 c a m p e r s . S a n ita tio n : A.

I f the

camp d o e s n o t o p e r a t e u n d e r a p e r m i t w h i c h

in c lu d e s th e a p p ro v a l of the w ater su p p ly , th e n a s p e c i a l w r i t t e n a p p ro v a l o f the w ater supply should be o b t a i n e d e a c h y e a r .

The w a t e r s u p p l y s h o u l d be

o f a d e q u a t e v o l u m e and s a f e B.

san itary q u ality .

Swimming p o o l s and w a t e r f r o n t co nstructed,

a r e a s m u s t be l o c a t e d ,

e q u i p p e d and o p e r a t e d I n c o m p l i a n c e

w i t h any a p p l i c a b l e the sta n d ard s

law s.

In absence o f such law s,

of accepted n a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s

s h o u l d be u s e d . C.

M i l k s h o u l d be p a s t e u r i z e d

or c e r t if i e d

according

to s ta te

r e g u l a t i o n a nd p r o v i d e d by a n a c c r e d i t e d

source.

D ried,

e v a p o r a t e d o r c o n d e n s e d m i l k may be

su b stitu ted . D.

R e f r i g e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e w i t h p ro v isio n for p reserving perish ab le tem perature

o f n o t o v e r 5 0 ° P.

H e a l t h R e p o r t s , Volume 5 8 , p . 1943,

foods in a

See The P u b l i c 1 8 0 4 , D ecem b er 1 0 ,

on E m e r g e n c y Minimum S a n i t a t i o n S t a n d a r d s ,

U . S . G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Y J a s h i n g t o n , D .C . fo r a d d itio n a l standards. E.

A l l f o o d s t o r a g e , p r e p a r a t i o n and s e r v i c e and e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d

space

c l e a n and f r e e

f r o m d u s t and i n s e c t s d isin fected

and t h e e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d he

a f t e r each u se .

See " O r d i n a n c e and

Code R e g u l a t i n g E a t i n g and D r i n k i n g M e t h o d , " pages 7-9, S ervice,

1 7 - 3 1 , p u b l i s h e d by P u b l i c H e a l t h

June 1940, F e d e r a l S e c u r i t y Agency, U.S.

P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C . F.

L i q u i d w a s t e s s h o u l d be d i s p o s e d constructed lo catio n s

to ile t

Privy p i t s

seat

camps o c c u p i e d

vided G.

s h o u l d be f l y p r o o f .

camp.

One

f o r e v e r y 10

I n camps o r u n i t s

of

s o l e l y b y m a l e s and w h e r e u r i n a l s

one t o i l e t

or priv y seat

s h o u l d be p r o ­

f o r e v e r y 15 o c c u p a n t s .

L avatory f a c i l i t i e s to t o i l e t s ,

H.

supervising h e a lth

s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e

occupants o f th e

are u se d ,

fac ilitie s

and o p e r a t e d a s r e q u i r e d by and a t

a p p r o v e d by t h e

o fficial.

o f by

p riv ies

s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d

in proxim ity

and u r i n a l s .

G a r b a g e and r u b b i s h c a n s s h o u l d be w a t e r - t i g h t , c a p a b l e o f b e i n g made f l y - p r o o f , c l e a n e d a t l e a s t e v e r y two d a y s .

e m p t i e d and G a r b a g e and

r u b b i s h s h o u l d be h a u l e d away f r o m camp f o r d i s ­ p o sal.

I f d is p o s a l is w ith in the

camp,

it

should

be by c o m p l e t e i n c i n e r a t i o n o r by b u r i a l u n d e r s i x in ch es of w ell-tam ped d i r t .

The s u r r o u n d i n g s

s t o r e d g a r b a g e and r u b b i s h c o n t a i n e r s m aintained

c l e a n and d r y .

of

s h o u l d be

I.

T h e r e s h o u l d be a p l a n f o r c o n t r o l o f i n s e c t s , rodents

S afety ; in the

and p o i s o n o u s w e e d s .

S afety fa c to rs

are

fundam ental c o n s id e r a tio n s

c o n d u c t o f a n y camp and s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n a l l

p receding to p ic s .

N a t u r a l h a z a rd s to s a f e t y such as c l i f f s ,

sw am ps, m in e s h a f t s , elim in ated

dead t r e e s ,

e tc .,

s h o u l d be s t r u c t u r a l l y

o r r e d u c e d t o a minimum b e f o r e t h e

camp i s

o ccupied. A.

The p e r s o n i n c h a r g e o f t h e w a t e r f r o n t s h o u l d h a v e a current in s tr u c to r 's

c ertifica te

from the

A m e r i c a n Red C r o s s o r o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n o f e q u i ­ v alen t B.

standards.

P ractices should

and e q u i p m e n t f o r w a t e r f r o n t and b o a t i n g

c o m p ly w i t h Red C r o s s s t a n d a r d s o r t h o s e o f

o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s w ith e q u iv a le n t

standards.

See " C a n o e i n g S t a n d a r d s o f t h e A m e r i c a n Camping A sso c ia tio n .” C.

F i r e a r m s and a r c h e r y e q u i p m e n t m u s t be u s e d and stored under q u a lifie d

su p ervision.

Recommended -

"N atio n al R ifle A s so c ia tio n S ta n d a rd s," S cott C i r c l e , W a s h i n g t o n , B .C . D.

One q u a l i f i e d

a d u l t p e r s o n s h o u ld accompany

groups le a v in g th e E.

camp.

Fire p r o te c tio n . 1.

C ontainers fo r g aso lin e

and e x p l o s i v e s m u s t be

p l a i n l y m a r k e d and s t o r e d

i n a locked b u i l d i n g

n o t o c c u p i e d by c a m p e r s o r s t a f f and a t a s a f e

d istance

from p ro g ra m b u i l d i n g s

and s l e e p i n g

q u arters. A l l camps s h o u l d p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e hose f o r f i r e is

a v ailab le.

of

f ig h tin g i f w ater under p re s su re F ire e x tin g u ish e rs

h a n d pumps s h o u l d be p l a c e d easily -accessib le B arrels

len g th s

p o in ts

or In d ian

i n c o n v e n i e n t and

and r e g u l a r l y i n s p e c t e d .

of w ater w ith p a i l s ,

p ro tected

against

m o s q u i t o b r e e d i n g , p r o p e r l y l o c a t e d may s u p p l e ­ m en t t h e f i r e F irep laces b u ilt B efore

ex tin g u ish ers.

and c h i m n e y s s h o u l d be p r o p e r l y

and i n s p e c t e d r e g u l a r l y . camp o p e n s ,

a r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t be made

w ith p u b lic o f f i c i a l s , i n case o f a f i r e .

if

any,

for p ro tectio n

Any p e r m i t s r e q u i r e d

o p eratio n of in c in e ra to rs

for

or f o r open f i r e s

m ust be s e c u r e d . A l l e l e c t r i c w i r i n g and l i g h t be i n s t a l l e d E le ctric

fix tu res

should

in accordance w ith the N a tio n a l

Code and I n s p e c t e d r e g u l a r l y .

APPENDIX

■338 APPENDIX

C

MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR WISCONSIN RECREATIONAL CAMPS The f o l l o w i n g minimum s t a n d a r d s tio n a l

camps

on M arch 7 , March 2 9 ,

fo r W isconsin r e c r e a ­

( p a s s e d by t h e W is c o n s in S t a t e Board o f H e a l t h 1 9 4 7 and p u b l i s h e d

1947) have t h e

in the s t a t e

force

o f law .

n e w s p a p e r on

These s t a n d a r d s were

d r a w n u p b y t h e W i s c o n s i n Camping A s s o c i a t i o n i n c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e W is c o n s in S t a t e Board o f H e a l t h . D e f i n i t i o n o f a Camp: an d i n c l u d e ten ts

the

site

a nd t e m p o r a r y o r p e r m a n e n t b u i l d i n g s ,

or oth er s tr u c tu r e s ,

e stab lish ed

A camp f o r c h i l d r e n s h a l l m ean

to g e th e r w ith appurtenances th e re o n ,

o r m a i n t a i n e d as l i v i n g q u a r t e r s where b o t h food

an d l o d g i n g o r t h e

fa c ilitie s

t h e r e f o r are p rovided

o r m o re c h i l d r e n a n d / o r y o u t h s , le g a l g u ardians,

operated

free

u n a t t e n d e d by p a r e n t s

or

co n tin u o u sly fo r a period of fiv e

d a y s o r m o re f o r r e c r e a t i o n , and o f f e r e d

fo r five

e d u c a tio n a l or v a c a tio n p u rp o ses,

o f ch arg e o r f o r payment o f a f e e . HEALTH

H ealth C e r t i f i c a t e s : ( in c lu d in g the a c e rtific a te

Campers and a l l

o p e r a t i n g and k i t c h e n s t a f f )

must e a c h s e c u r e

o f h e a l t h from a l i c e n s e d d o c t o r o f m e d ic in e

w i t h i n se v e n days b e f o r e e n t e r i n g must c o v e r h e a r t , ears.

s t a f f members

lungs,

th ro at,

A h ealth c e rtific a te

camp. scalp ,

The h e a l t h e x a m i n a t i o n skin,

b ased upon t h i s

feet,

e y e s and

e x a m i n a t i o n and

i n c l u d i n g a h e a l t h h i s t o r y m u s t be p r e s e n t e d su p erv iso r at

camp.

R ecom m endations: 1.

to the h e a lth

That

It

is

r e c o m m e n d ed

c a m p e r s an d s t a f f m em bers be r e q u i r e d

to

s a t i s f a c t o r i l y pass a h e a lth ex am ination b efore adm ission to a h e alth

camp, e x c e p t when t h e

camp, and t h a t

the d e sig n ated 2.

That

th is

i t e m s on t h e

a rr iv a l at

th ereafter, In firm ary :

appended form . on

camp, and w h e n e v e r n e c e s s a r y

by t h e r e s i d e n t h e a l t h d i r e c t o r .

An i n f i r m a r y

w ith p ro v isio n fo r th e

(tentage

or o th er s h e lte r)

i s o l a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s m u s t be p r o v i d e d ,

o r a r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t be made f o r t h e

im m ediate rem o v al o f

c a m p e r s o r s t a f f members f r o m camp.

F i r s t Aid S u p p l i e s : s u p p l i e s m u s t be p r o v i d e d . (fo r a b asic u n it 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 ■ir 5 1 1 1 J 1 1

ex am in atio n in clu d e

c a m p e r s a n d s t a f f m em bers be i n s p e c t e d

th eir

sic k or Inju red

camp i s p r i m a r i l y

R easonably adequate f i r s t Suggested f i r s t

o f 20 c a m p e r s )

include

aid

aid

supplies

the fo llo w in g :

package b a n d -a id s g a u z e b a n d a g e s , 1" g a u z e b a n d a g e s , 2" g a u z e b a n d a g e , 3" p a c k a g e g a u z e p a d s , 3" x 3" t r i a n g u l a r m u s l i n b a n d a g e , 40" s q u a r e , r o l l a d h e s i v e t a p e , 2" box a p p l i c a t o r s lb . absorbent co tto n dozen tongue d e p re s s o r s ounce b o r i c a c i d powder o u n c e a r o m a t i c s p i r i t s o f ammonia ounce t r . m e r t h i o l a t e o f t r . m etap h e n g a llo n ta n n ic acid b a r y e llo w soap package baking soda

cut d ia g o n a lly

%.0 tw eezers p a p e r d r i n k i n g cups c l i n i c a l therm om eters F irst hikes

a i d s u p p l i e s m u s t be c a r r i e d

and t r i p s ,

and i t

is

on a l l o u t - o f - c a m p

rec o m m e n d ed t h a t t h e

fo llo w in g

minim um b e i n c l u d e d : s m a ll gauze bandages b and-aids an tisep tic b u rn o in tm ent or baking soda halazone t a b l e t s fo r w ater p u r i f i c a t i o n , H e a l t h and T r e a t m e n t R e c o r d s : v i s o r must keep t h r o u g h o u t th e cates

and h e a l t h h i s t o r i e s

to g e th e r w ith d e ta ile d aid

cases,

In ju rie s,

The camp h e a l t h s u p e r ­

camp s e a s o n t h e h e a l t h c e r t i f i ­

of a l l

records

or e q u iv a le n t

c a m p e r s and s t a f f m e m b e r s ,

of a l l

and i l l n e s s e s

at

treatm en ts

for a ll

first

camp and on o u t - o f -

camp t r i p s . Recom m endation: 1.

T hat, kept

It

i s r ec o m m e n d ed

f o r p e r m a n e n t c a m p s , t h e h e a l t h r e c o r d s be for fiv e

years

M edical S e r v i c e s :

for le g a l p ro te c tio n .

Pre-cam p a rra n g e m e n ts f o r emergency

m e d i c a l c a r e m u s t be m a d e . E m e r g e n c y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t be a v a i l a b l e in

case o f I n j u r y or i l l n e s s . R ecom m endation: 1.

It

I s recom m ended

T hat p a r e n t s 1 or g u a r d i a n s 1 c o n sen t f o r em ergency c a r e be s e c u r e d by t h e b e fo re the

2.

camp d i r e c t o r i n w r i t i n g

opening o f th e

That a d o c to r o f m edicine nurse

( R . H . ) be a r e s i d e n t

camp s e a s o n . (M .D .) o r a r e g i s t e r e d s t a f f m em ber.

3.

That arran gem en ts

f o r em ergency a d m issio n t o a

d e s i g n a t e d h o s p i t a l he made i n w r i t i n g p r i o r t o e a c h cam ping s e a s o n . S leeping Q u a rte rs : ficien t

size

H ead -to -to e

S l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s m u s t be o f s u f ­

to a ffo rd th ree

f e e t betw een s i d e s

s l e e p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s m u s t be f o l l o w e d .

m ust s l e e p i n i n d i v i d u a l b e d s , S eparate sex.

of beds.

one c a m p e r t o a b e d .

s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s m u s t be p r o v i d e d

S a n ita r y envelope type m a ttre s s

m u s t be p r o v i d e d

for a ll m attresses,

b e t w e e n e a c h camp p e r i o d ,

Ca mpers

covers,

fo r each

or m atress pads,

and m u s t e i t h e r be l a u n d e r e d

o r c h a n g e d f o r e a c h new c a m p e r o r

s t a f f m em ber. Re c o m m e n d a t i o n : 1.

It

and s u n n e d a t

once a w eek, w e a t h e r p e r m i t t i n g .

P e r s o n a l Eygi e n e :

R ecom m endations: I t

i s r ec om m e n ded

T h a t e a c h c a m p e r and c o u n s e l o r h a v e one h o u r o f rest

2.

r ec o m m e nd ed

T h a t b e d d i n g be t h o r o u g h l y a i r e d least

1.

is

d u rin g the day,

p r e f e r a b l y a f t e r th e noon m e a l.

T h a t p r o v i s i o n be made f o r some f o r m o f h o t w a t e r soap b a th a t

l e a s t w eekly f o r a l l

c a m p e r s and camp

personnel. 3.

That

frequent

changes of c lo th in g - e s p e c i a l l y of

u n d e r w e a r and s o c k s - be e n c o u r a g e d among a l l perso n n el;

th at

tw ic e -d a ily brushing of te e th ,

h a n d w a s h i n g b e f o r e m e a l s be e n c o u r a g e d .

camp and

M ilk S u p p ly : p asteu rized ,

A l l m i l k m u s t e i t h e r be a d e q u a t e l y

evaporated,

o r powdered.

R e f r i g e r a t ion and S to r a g e : m eats, m ilk ,

b u tter,

frig eratio n .

e g g s and s a l a d s m u s t be k e p t u n d e r r e ­

o r h o t w a t e r and w a s h i n g s o d a ,

cam ping s e a s o n b e g i n s .

sto red

in dry,

fo o d s su c h as

R e f r i g e r a t o r s m u s t be t h o r o u g h l y w a s h e d w i t h

h o t w a t e r and s o a p , the

P erish ab le

N o n-perishable

clean , w e ll- v e n tila te d ,

ju s t before

f o o d s m u s t be

rodent p ro o f,

screened

storeroom s. R ecom m endations: 1.

i s recom m ended

That r e f r i g e r a t o r s at le a s t

2.

It

be Yirashed p r e f e r a b l y d a i l y ,

onc e a we e k d u r i n g t h e

That r e f r i g e r a t o r s

be k e p t a t

and

camping s e a s o n .

a tem perature not to

e x c e e d 5 0 ° F.

S anitatio n W ater S u p p ly :

The w a t e r s u p p l y u s e d

c u l i n a r y and p e r s o n a l

for d rin k in g ,

c l e a n l i n e s s , m u s t be c e r t i f i e d

by th e

W i s c o n s i n S t a t e Board o f H e a l t h o r by an a p p ro v e d l a b o r a t o r y before

t h e o p e n i n g o f camp.

The s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n s

of th e

s o u r c e s o f w a t e r s u p p ly m ust conform t o th e r e q u i r e m e n t s th e S t a t e Board o f H e a l t h . e a r l y enough so t h a t the

of

The w a t e r s u p p l y s h o u l d be t e s t e d

any n e c e s s a r y changes

c a n be made b e f o r e

o p e n i n g o f camp. Common d r i n k i n g c u p s a r e p r o h i b i t e d .

fountains

of a type

D rinking

a p p r o v e d by t h e W i s c o n s i n S t a t e

Board o f

H e a l t h must be p r o v i d e d and k e p t i n a s a n i t a r y c o n d i t i o n ,

or

i n d i v i d u a l d r i n k i n g cups must be p r o v i d e d . D r in k in g w a te r from s o u r c e s

o th e r th an those at the

b a s e cam p , u s e d o n h i k e s a n d t r i p s

aw ay f r o m camp, m u s t be

known t o b e s a f e ,

o r made s a f e b e f o r e u s i n g .

Any o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g may be u s e d f o r w a t e r p u r i f i c a t i o n : a. b. c. d.

H alazone t a b l e t s , or e q u i v a l e n t C h lo r in a te d lim e Any h y p o - c h l o r i t e p r e p a r a t i o n B o ilin g th e w a te r f o r tw en ty m inutes

W ater p u r i f i e d

by any o f t h e s e m ethods must s t a n d

f o r 30

m inutes b e fo re b e in g u sed . K i t c h e n and D i n i n g H a l l :

The c e n t r a l k i t c h e n and

d i n i n g h a l l m u s t be s c r e e n e d w i t h 16 m e s h o r s m a l l e r s c r e e n i n g . The k i t c h e n an d d i n i n g h a l l m u s t be s w e p t d a i l y ,

p referab ly

w i t h s w e e p i n g compound t o l a y t h e d u s t . D i s h e s m u s t be s c r a p e d , or d is in f e c te d .

t h o r o u g h l y w a s h e d and s c a l d e d ,

A i r d r y i n g i s recommended.

D i n i n g t a b l e s m u s t be w a s h e d w i t h s o a p and w a t e r a f t e r each meal. Hand w a s h i n g f a c i l i t i e s m u s t be p r o v i d e d to

i n c l u d e warm w a t e r ,

soap,

in k itc h e n s ,

and i n d i v i d u a l t o w e l i n g f o r u s e

by k i t c h e n p e r s o n n e l o n l y . R ecom m endation: 1.

It

is

recom m ended

T h a t d i n i n g h a l l and k i t c h e n be s c r u b b e d w i t h hot soap su d s, at le a s t

o r by o t h e r a c c e p t a b l e p r o c e d u r e ,

o nc e a w e e k ,

during a ra in y season.

an d p r e f e r a b l y more o f t e n

3t& L iv e sto ck : less

L iv esto ck ,

t h a n 500 f e e t

from a l l

if

a n y , m u s t be q u a r t e r e d n o t

c e n t r a l and u n i t

cooking,

d in in g

and s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s . G a r b a g e and R e f u s e : leak proof co n tain ers,

G a r b a g e m u s t be k e p t i n f l y - t i g h t ,

and be d i s p o s e d o f d a i l y b y r e m o v a l

f r o m cam p, o r b y i n c i n e r a t i o n ,

o r by b u r y i n g d e e p e n o u g h t o

p r e v e n t a n im a ls from d i g g in g i t u p . d isp o sal,

if

on t h e

The p l a c e

of the

garbage

camp s i t e , m u s t be k e p t s a n i t a r y .

B urial

Is th e bes^ p ro c e d u re . R ecom m endations: 1.

That t i n

It

i s r ec o m m e n d ed

c a n s be w a s h e d ,

flatten ed ,

o f a t r e g u l a r and f r e q u e n t

and d i s p o s e d

in te rv als,

and n o t be

allow ed to acc u m u late . L atrin es tan k s,

and T o i l e t s :

cesspools,

L atrin es

and o t h e r p l a c e s

ap proved by th e W is c o n s in S t a t e

or t o i l e t s ,

se p tic

o f w a s t e d i s p o s a l m u s t be

Board o f H e a l t h ,

lo cated

t h a t underground w ater s u p p lie s

are not

co ntam inated.

and be so

and l a k e s o r s t r e a m s

T h e r e m u s t be a minimum o f one l a t r i n e

unit

or t o i l e t

f o r e a c h 15 c a m p e r s and s t a f f . Separate t o i l e t s

o r l a t r i n e s mu s t be p r o v i d e d

fo r each

sex. L atrines lighted;

latrine

L atrines

and t o i l e t s

m u s t be w e l l - v e n t i l a t e d

and w e l l

p i t s m u s t be f l y - t i g h t . and t o i l e t s m u s t h a v e some p r o v i s i o n f o r

privacy. Hand w a s h i n g f a c i l i t i e s m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d an d t o i l e t s .

at la tr in e s

3^5 R ecom m endations: 1.

That n ig h t

It

i s r ec o m m e n d ed

lig h ts

be p r o v i d e d

at la tr in e s

and

to ile ts. 2.

That se p a ra te provided

to ile t

and b a t h i n g f a c i l i t i e s

be

fo r k itc h e n h elp . SAFETY

L eadership: old er, vided

One s t a f f m e m b e r , 18 y e a r s

o f a ge o r

e x c l u d i n g k i t c h e n an d m a i n t e n a n c e s t a f f , fo r every eig h t C hem icals:

p l a i n l y m arked,

m u s t be p r o ­

cam pers.

C h e m i c a l s and I n f l a m m a b l e l i q u i d s m u s t be

an d s t o r e d

in a locked b u ild in g not occupied

by cam pers or s t a f f . F irearm s: except

F i r e a r m s m u s t n o t be p e r m i t t e d

s u c h a s a r e u s e d u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n and i n o r g a n i z e d

a c tiv itie s. stru cted

M arksm anship r a n g e s ,

i f m a i n t a i n e d , m u s t be c o n ­

according to N atio n al R ifle A sso c ia tio n sta n d a rd s.

F ire

F ig h tin g E quipm ent:

e q u i p m e n t m u s t be p l a c e d b arrels

i n camp

or buckets

A dequate f i r e

fig h tin g

in or near a l l b u ild in g s .

are u s e d ,

If fire

t h e y m u s t be p a i n t e d r e d and

p l a i n l y m a r k e d and k e p t f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r . S t a f f m u s t be i n s t r u c t e d fam iliarized

at

the b e g in n in g o f the

c e d u r e t o be f o l l o w e d

in case

Recommendation: 1.

That

in f i r e

It

camping p e r i o d w i t h p r o ­

of f ir e .

i s r e c omme nde d

c a m p e r s be i n s t r u c t e d

fam iliarized

p r e v e n t i o n and

in fire

p r e v e n t i o n and

a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f cam ping p e r i o d s

w i t h p r o c e d u r e t o be f o l l o w e d

In case o f f i r e .

B u i l d i n g s an d G r o u n d s : the req u irem en ts

o f the S ta te

A l l camp b u i l d i n g s m u s t m e e t In d u strial

Commission.

A l l e l e c t r i c a l w i r i n g m u s t be a p p r o v e d b y t h e U n d e r w r i t e r s Code. R ecom m endations: 1.

It

i s r ec o m m e n ded

T h a t b u i l d i n g s be k e p t step s,

to rn screens,

i n good r e p a i r ;

loose b oards,

th at

e tc .,

broken

be mended

prom ptly. 2.

That a l l openings t o th e o nly w ith not le s s a ll

3.

o u t e r a i r be s c r e e n e d

t h a n 16 m esh s c r e e n ,

and t h a t

s c r e e n d o o r s be s e l f - c l o s i n g .

T h a t n a t u r a l h a z a r d s be e l i m i n a t e d , p ro tected ag ain st

W aterfro n t:

o r campers

them .

The s a n i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f b a t h i n g

f a c i l i t i e s m ust conform t o r e q u i r e m e n t s

of th e W isconsin

S t a t e Board o f H e a l t h . A w a t e r f r o n t d i r e c t o r who i s who i s

a t l e a s t 21 y e a r s

a n a c t i v e A m e r i c a n Red C r o s s s e n i o r l i f e

safety in stru c to r,

sav er or w ater

o r who h a s h a d e q u i v a l e n t t r a i n i n g

s a f e t y , m u s t be i n c h a r g e o f a l l

of age,

sw im m in g, b o a t i n g ,

in w ater

and

canoeing. Each p e r s o n - cam per,

s t a f f m em b er,

w i s h e s t o go swimming m u s t be c l a s s i f i e d a b ility

and g u e s t - who

according to h is

i n sw im m in g , and m u s t k e e p w i t h i n a d e f i n i t e l y m a r k e d

area according to h is c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A system o f c h ec k in g p e rso n s m u s t be u s e d .

i n and o u t o f t h e w a t e r

The b u a d y p l a n , group o f p e rso n s w hile

w hich p r o v i d e s

in to p a irs

f o r th e d i v i s i o n o f the

so t h a t e v e r y p e r s o n has a p a r t n e r

i n t h e w a t e r , m u s t be e n f o r c e d . Swimming a f t e r d a r k m u s t b e p r o h i b i t e d u n l e s s

a rtific ia l L ife

lig h tin g

is provided.

s a v i n g equipm ent t h a t

sw imming, b o a t i n g ,

adequate

is

adequate

fo r th e type

of

and c a n o e i n g a r e a s u s e d m u s t be p r o v i d e d ,

m ust be k e p t i n p e r f e c t o r d e r a t a l l t i m e s ,

and m u s t be so

placed

good l i f e

as t o be I m m e d i a t e l y a v a i l a b l e .

One

saving

b o a t w i t h p r o p e r e q u i p m e n t m u s t be on h a n d a t a l l t i m e s . A first

a i d k i t m u s t be o n h a n d a t t h e w a t e r f r o n t ,

and

m u s t be e q u i p p e d and r e a d y f o r i m m e d i a t e u s e . Swimming r e g u l a t i o n s m u s t be p o s t e d on t h e w a t e r f r o n t , and m u s t be o b e y e d by a l l , Recom m endations: reg u latio n s

It

in clu d in g g u ests. i s re c o m m e n d ed t h a t t h e

follow ing

be i n c l u d e d :

1.

Swim d u r i n g swimming p e r i o d s

only.

2.

Do n o t e n t e r t h e w a t e r u n t i l t h e

s ig n a l Is given

by th e w a t e r f r o n t d i r e c t o r . 3.

A l w a y s swim w i t h a b u d d y .

4.

S t a y I n y o u r own swimming a r e a .

5.

D i v e o n l y i n w a t e r o f known and a p p r o v e d d e p t h .

6.

G et o u t o f t h e w a t e r when c h i l l e d

or t i r e d .

7*

Swimming a f t e r d a r k i s p r o h i b i t e d

(unless

a rtific ia l 8,

ad equate

lig h tin g is p ro v id ed .)

No g u e s t s h a l l be a l l o w e d I n swimming u n t i l he h a s presented

a h ealth

c ertifica te

swimming c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t e s t .

and h a s t a k e n a

Re T e r e n c e s : 1.

A m e r i c a n Red C r o s s F i r s t Aid T e x t Book

2.

W i s c o n s i n W e l l C o n s t r u c t i o n Code,

(W isconsin S ta te

Board

of H ealth) 3.

P riv ate S tate

4.

Sewage D i s p o s a l S y s t e m s i n W i s c o n s i n

(W isconsin

Board o f H e a l t h )

The S a n i t a r y P r i v y - S u p p l e m e n t Ho. 1 0 8 , U . S .

Public

H ealth S ervice 5.

M a n u a l o f Range C o n s t r u c t i o n - N a t i o n a l R i f l e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica, S c o tt

6.

' W i s c o n s i n Swimming P o o l and R e c r e a t i o n a l B a t h i n g Code (W isconsin S ta te

7.

C i r c l e , W a s h i n g t o n 6 , D .C .

Board o f H e a l t h )

A m e r i c a n Red C r o s s L i f e S a v i n g and W a t e r S a f e t y .

3k9

APPENDIX

D

350

(S u g g ested Check S h e e t)

p ile DISTRICT HEALTH DEPARII,IENT

,

::o.

OHIO

REPORT Oil HEALTH, SANITATION A I ID SAFETY AT ORGANIZED CAII?S‘ Name o f Camp____________________C o u n t y ___________ T o w n s h i p

_________

O r g a n i z a t i o n / Owner____________ _______ A d d r e s s ____________ _______________ Camp D i r e c t o r Max.

A ddress

Camp P o p u l a t i o n ______ P o p u l a t i o n a t

tim e

of in sp ectio n

Note:

[ } in d ic ate s s a tis f a c to r y (x ) not s a tis f a c to r y ( - ) does not a p p ly . ( Se e " H e a l t h , S a n i t a t i o n and S a f e t y S t a n d a r d s f o r O r g a n i z e d Camps" p u b l i s h e d b y Ohi o D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a 1 t h . J _____________

~ ~ CAMP SITE - T o t a l A r e a Good D r a i n a g e

acres.

( ) Removed n o t l e s s

and o t h e r i n s e c t b r e e d i n g p l a c e s grossly polluted II

streams

and l a k e s

A r e a p e r Camper

than y mile

f r o m swamps, dumps

( ) Removed o r i s o l a t e d f r o m ( )

- FACILITIES AND EQUIPMENT - No. B l d g s .

& Tents

No. S l e e p i n g U n i t s ______ S l e e p i n g Q u a r t e r s n o t damp a t Have f l o o r a r e a o f n o t aver,

c e ilin g height

sep arated not than 2 f t .

less

less than

40 s q . f t .

of not le s s

t h a n Vf t .

than 5 f t .

w i t h in A mile III

( ) Bunk r a i l s

( ) I n f i r m a r y a s r e q u i r e d by S e c .

T ransportation available

acres.

f o r emergencies

per

any tim e

camper

( )

( ) Have

( ) S le e p e r s heads separated

net

less

I I 2 of Standards

( )

( ) Access t o t e l e p h o n e

o f camp ( )

- RECORDS - Have r e c o r d s

In s p e c tio n Reports

on p r o p e r t y and S u p p l i e s

( ) Parents

Consent

( )

( ) R egistration,

p h y s i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n and h e a l t h i n s p e c t i o n r e c o r d s

including

( )

" i n c l u d e s y o u t h , r e c r e a t i o n a l , h e a l t h , s e c t a r i a n , w o r k an d r e s o r t camps o p e r a t e d b y o r g a n i z e d g r o u p s a n d p r i v a t e I n t e r e s t s . (S ee R e g . 2 5 2 o f O h io S a n i t a r y C o d e . )

( S u g g e s t e d Check S h e e t - 2 C o n tin u ed ) IV - HEALTH - P h y s i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f s t a f f and c a m p e r s b e f o r e e n terin g

camp ( ) H e a l t h i n s p e c t i o n s

camp an d a t l e a s t n atio n of a ll n i n g work season

o f campers upon a r r i v a l a t

once e a c h week t h e r e a f t e r ( ) P h y s i c a l e x a m i­

f o o d h a n d l e r s n o t more t h a n one w e e k b e f o r e b e g i n ­

( ) R eg istered nurse

( ) P hysician a v a ila b le

on d u t y d u r i n g r e g u l a r c a m p i n g on c a l l

( )

V - 1 - LATER SbPPnY - D e s c r i b e S o u r c e s a nd T r e a t m e n t

Sources S a t i s f a c t o r y

( ) Developments S a t i s f a c t o r y

Adequate

( ) D i s t r i b u t i n g Systems S a t i s f a c t o r y

( ) Potable

B a c t e r i a l Analyses S a t i s .

( ) Supply ( )

( )

R e ma r k s

V - 2 - LATRINES AND WASTE DISPOSAL - D e s c r i b e

Latrine buildings

l o c a t e d w i t h i n 200 f t .

a n d p r i n c i p a l camp b u i l d i n g s construction units

campers

of sleeping quarters

( ) Latrine buildings

( ) L atrine buildings

f o r e a c h 10 c a m p e r s

facilities

clean

of s a tis fa c to ry

( ) One o r more t o i l e t

( ) One o r more s h o w e r s f o r e a c h 20

( ) One o r mo r e l a v a t o r i e s

f o r e a c h 10 (2 ) c a m p e r s ( ) P l u m b i n g and P l u m b i n g F i x t u r e s S a t i s f a c t o r y 1 ( ) (2 ) S e w e r a g e and Sewage D i s p o s a l S a t i s f a c t o r y ( ) Privy Vaults fly-tight

and r o d e n t - p r o o f

R egularly

( )

or eq u iv a le n t

( ) P rivy Vaults

C l e a n e d and T r e a t e d

Remarks _____________________________________________________________________

( S u g g e s t e d Che ck S h e e t - 3 Continued) V - 3 - GARBAGE AND REFUSE - A d e q u a t e n u m b e r o f g a r b a g e tain ers

in convenient lo c a tio n s

an d w a t e r - t i g h t in fected v en ien t proof

d aily

( ) Garbage

( ) Garbage c o n t a i n e r s

c o n ta in e rs em ptied,

( ) A d eq u ate number o f r e f u s e

lo catio n s

( ) Refuse

co n tain ers

con­ fly -tig h t

c l e a n e d a nd d i s ­

co n tain ers

fly -tig h t

i n con­

and r o d e n t -

( ) D e s c r i b e d i s p o s a l o f g a r b a g e and r e f u s e _______________

_____________________________

S a tisfac to ry

( )

Remarks

V - 4 - SWIMMING PLACES - D e s c r i b e

S atisfactorily

c o m p l i e s w i t h APHA s t a n d a r d s

( ) Re ma r ks

V - 5 - POOD - M i l k S u p p l y f r o m ___________________ _____________________ M i l k S u p p l y I n s p e c t e d & A p p r o v e d by ____________________________________ Meats

f r o m ___________________________ F e d e r a l o r L o c a l l y I n s p e c t e d

( )

Food p r e p a r a t i o n and h a n d l i n g m e e t s USPHS G r a d e MB" r e s t a u r a n t standards

(S )

( ) R e m a r k s ______ __________________________ _______

VI - INSECT AND RODENT CONTROL - A d e q u a t e p l o y e d on a l l

i n s e c t b r e e d i n g p l a c e s w i t h i n J m i l e o f camp ( )

A l l camp b u i l d i n g s approved r e s i d u a l rodent-proof

c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s em­

e f f e c t i v e l y s p r a y e d r e g u l a r l y w i t h DDT o r o t h e r spray

( ) B u i ld i n g s used f o r s t o r a g e

o f foods

( ) R e m a r k s __________________ ________________________________

( S u g g e s t e d Check S h e e t - 4 C ontinued) V I I - SAFETY - C e r t i f i e d at

(ARC o r e q u i v a l e n t )

a l l t i m e s d u r i n g swi mmi ng p e r i o d s

p r o p e r l y handled on o u t p o s t specified

and s t o r e d

g u a r d on d u t y

( ) G a s o l i n e and e x p l o s i v e s

( ) Only a p p r o v e d w a t e r s u p p l i e s u s e d

c a m p i n g a nd d a y t r i p s in standards

life

( ) Fire p r o te c tio n provided

as

( )

Remarks

V I I I - IvlAINTERAITCE - Camp D i r e c t o r o r a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r c a r e t a k e r on d u t y i n camp a t litter

a l l times

( ) F r e e o f we eds a nd h i g h g r a s s

B uildings

c l e a n and i n good r e p a i r

( ) Gr o u n d s

free

i n camping a r e a

from

( )

( )

RECOMMENDATIONS

Date

I n s p e c t i o n _ ________ i n s p e c t e d b y ___________ T i t l e ____________________

(1) A l l d e t a i l s o f w a t e r s u p p l y i n c l u d i n g a p p ro v e d p l a n s , l o g s o f w e l l s , r e c o r d o f a n a l y s e s s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e i n camp and l o c a l h e a l th department f i l e s . ( 2 ) A p p r o v e d p l a n s f o r p l u m b i n g , s e w e r a g e and s e wa g e d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s s h o u l d be a v a i l a b l e i n camp and l o c a l h e a l t h d e p a r t m e n t files. ( 3 ) A t t a c h c o m p l e t e d " I n s p e c t i o n Form f o r E a t i n g and D r i n k i n g E s t a b l i s h m e n t s " r e c o mme n d e d b y USPHS o r e q u i v a l e n t .

APPENDIX

STATE

OF NEW

JE R S E Y — DEPARTMENT

OF HEALTH

d

__

d

.2 "o•3