Later Mesolithic Fishing Strategies and Practices in Denmark 9781841713281, 9781407325170

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Plates
PART 1: Fishing in Prehistory
Chapter 1: A modern approach to an ancient activity
Chapter 2: A brief history of the discoveries and initial interpretations of the material evidence from Mesolithic marine/coastal sites in various places in NW Europe
Chapter 3: Analogy and ethnography in archaeology: aids for the interpretation of the material evidence and human behaviour patterns in relation to fishing practices
Chapter 4: Sea-level change and the effect on fish, shellfish and fishing practices
Chapter 5: Standardisation of calibrated dates for material associated with fish/shellfish and fishing practices
PART 2: Prehistoric Fishing in Late Mesolithic Denmark
Chapter 6: The stratigraphy of the Danish shell middens. Interpretation using 'standard-dates' graphics and/or Harris Matrix diagrams
Chapter 7: The material evidence: fish bones and otoliths. Problems with the evidence when constructing an overview of fishing strategies and practices
Chapter 8, Part 1: The paleodiet. Mesolithic bones, isotopic and elemental analysis and interpretations. Bone pathology and the implications for dietary explanations
Chapter 8, Part 2: Problems with identifying shellfish meat consumption: an experimental proposal
Chapter 9, Part 1: Preparing to fish: strategies, methods and practice and the special case of freshwater eels
Chapter 9, Part 2: Summary of the archaeological evidence for fishing, including a catalogue of sites with distribution maps and their interpretation
Chapter 10, Part 1: Analogy: Using ethnohistory and ethnoarchaeology
Chapter 10, Part 2: The Great Bait Debate: fish-catching devices
Chapter 11: Integration: Late Mesolithic fishing strategies and the 'arrival' of agriculture
Chapter 12: Conclusions
Table 7
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Bibliography

Citation preview

Later Mesolithic Fishing Strategies and Practices in Denmark

David J. Quill Smart

BAR International Series 1119 2003

BAR

PUBLISHING

L a ter Me so l i th ic f i sh ing s t ra teg ie s a nd p rac t ices i n D enmark . Two p ar t si no ne v o lume

A cknow ledgemen t s A dv ice a nd a s s i s tance f r om t h e f o l low ing h a s b een i n va luab le . J an H e ineme ier a nd K aren S kov , A arhu s AMS l a bora tory ;K aare R a smu s sen , C openhagen R ad iocarbon L abora tor y ; P ia B enn ike ; C hr i s Me ike l John : A nd er s F i scher ; L i sbe th P ed erse n ; D r . C hr i s R amsey , O x ford AMS l a bora tory ;P ro f e ssor B ryony C o /e sa nd D r L inda H urcombe , E xe ter U n iver s i ty ; M ike R ou i l lard a nd S haun G oddard ,A rchaeo logy D raw ing Of f i ce ,E xe ter U n iver s i ty , D e iyck H ubv , N ige l Mo t t , J ohn W a l ter s , P e te S t eed a nd o t her sf r om t h e f i sh ing c ommun i t ie si nt h eS ou th W e s t .T hank s a l so t om yw i f ea nd f t im i lyj br h e lp ing a nd p u t t ing u pw i th m ym ood s w ing sd ur ing t h e c omp i la t ion q i th i s w ork .

I

Abs trac t

T here a re n ow many w ay s o fc on f irm ing t h es t ra teg ie sa nd p rac t ice s i n vo lved i nf i sh ing d ur ing t h e Me so l i th ic i n Denmark . W id e l ys ca t tered h i s tor ica l infhr mation o n t h e s ub jec tt i r s t iv n eed ed c o l la t ing , t og ive ag ood s t ar t ing p o in tf b rf I ir ther i n ves t iga t ion . T he d i ff icu l tp rob lem o ft h ec hrono log yh a s b een o vercome b yu nd er s tand ing av a r ie ty o fm od ern c a l ibra t ion m e thod s . T o a ch ieve t h i s , i ti sn ece s sary t ou nd er s tand t h e r e servo ir e t jc t ,p ecu l iar t o mar ine s amp le s . U s ing t wo c o mnpu ter i sed r ad iocarbon d a t ing p rogramme s h a sp roduced c ons id erab le i mprovemen ti nt h ep re sen ta t ion o ft he Dan i sh m ar ine s amp le d a ta . S tandard i sa t ion o ft h er e su l t s , v a l ida te s m ak ing c ompar i sons b e tween s i te s . R epre sen t ing s ea leve lc hange s i nt h eg raph ics d iag rams c / ar / fI e s t h eg enera ls cenar io . T he m a ter ia le v id ence , i np ar t icu lar s he l l s , f i sh b one sa nd f i sh -ca tch ing a ppara tu s , n eed ed r e -exam in ing . W id e ly d i sper sed e t hnograph ic e v id ence a nd s ome v er yc onv inc ing m od ern f i sh ing p rac t ice sa re e xa mined . R emarkab le s i mi lar i t ie sh e lp w i th a n i n terpre ta t ion . Ar ange o ff i sh s pec ie s h a s n ow b een i d en t if ied . T he e e li s e xam ined i nd e ta i la s t h ee v id ence c l ear ly i nd ica te s i t si mpor tance . A n i n t ima te k now ledge o ft h i s a nd o ther f i sh , c / ar / f le s t h es t ra teg ie sa nd p rac t ice s t h a tt ook p lace t o c a tch t h em . C urren tk now ledge a nd s pec ie sa va i lab i l i ty i nd ica te s l i t t le h as c hanged o ver t h e l a s ts i xm i l lenn ia . D i scus s ion o ft h ed i e to f Me so l i th ic p eop le i sr e s tr ic ted , a s t h ee xper imen ta la nd a na ly t ica le v id ence c anno t , a sy e t , d i f f eren t ia te b e tween m ar ine s pec ie s . H i s tor ica l ly , l i t t le h a s b een d i scu ssed c oncern ing b a i t . T he s ub jec ti se xp lored h ere , s ugge s t ing e xamp le sa nd u se s . S ome e xper imen ta t ion w ou ld b en ecessary t o c onf i rm t h e se s ugge s t ions . F ina lh ' , t h e ' a r r iva l 'o fa g r icu l ture i nD enmark i sd i scu s sed . T he c ompu ter g raph ic sd iagrams c l ear ly s how f i sh ing p rac t ice s c on t inued l o ng a f t er w ha th a s b een p rev iou s ly d e scr ibed a s t h e ' c hange t of a rm ing ' . R ecen tw ork o n t h i sa spec to fl i f ei n t h e Me so l i th ic h a s n ow / bcused o n t h e ' s oc ia lr e la t ion so fproduc t ion ' T h i s i sd i scu ssed i nd e ta i lw i th p ar t icu lar r e / Cr ence t ot h ep ar tt ha tf i sh ing p layed i nt h es oc ia l r e la t ionsh ip s b e tween d if f Cren tg roup s . I nt h i s r egard , d e term ina t ions o fh i erarchy a nd p ower a re e xam ined w i th av i ew t os ee ing h ow t h i sa f f ec ted t h eg radua li mp lemen ta t ion o ff 2 i rm ing p rac t ice s . T he c on s truc t ion o fn umerous m ap s h e lp w i th t h e i n terpre ta t ion s .

2

C on ten t s L i s t o ft ab le s L i s t o ff i gure s

8 9

L i s t o fp la te s

1 3

P ar t I F ish ing i n p reh istory C hap ter 1

A modern a pproach t oa n a nc ien t a c t iv i ty .

1 4

1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3

I n t roduc t ion Wha te v idence c an b e f ound f o rf i sh ing a c t iv i t ies? O the re v idence .. d ugou t s , h ea r th s a nd c ook ing p o t s

1 5 1 8 1 9

1 . 4

U s ing mode rn a nd e t hnog raph ic e xamp les

2 0

1. 5

E v idence f o ri n d iv idua l s pec ie s c augh t

2 0

1 . 6 1 . 7

S he l l e v idence : u se a sf ood o rb a i t T he i mpo r tance o fs e a l e ve l c hange ( i so s ta sy a nd e u s ta sy )

2 0 2 1

1 . 8

R ad ioca rbon d a te s , c a l ib ra t ion a nd c h rono logy

2 1

1 . 9

T he ' a r r iva l ' o fa g r icu l tu re

2 2

C hap ter 2

Ab r ief h i s tory o ft he d i scover ie s a nd i n i t ia l i n terpre ta t ions o ft he ma ter ia l e v idence . 2 3

2 . 1

E a r ly w o rk o n t h e Me so l i th ic i nD enma rk

2 3

2 . 2

I d en t if y ing t h e Me so l i th ic

2 3

2 . 21

I nS cand inav ia a nd F rance

2 3

2 . 3

2 . 22 I nB r i ta in ( b ef o re 1 900 ) 2 . 23 T he w o rk o fG rahame C la rk E a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry v i ew s o n l i f e a tc oa s ti nt h e Me so l i th ic

2 4 2 4 2 4

2 . 4

L ook ing a tt h e l a nd scape : d e te rm in ing Me so l i th ic s i te s

2 4

2 . 4 1 2 . 42 2 . 5

2 . 6 2 . 7 2 . 8

2 7 2 8

2 . 52

2 9

F ocu s ing o nt h e s i tua t ion i nB r i ta in

F i sh ing i np r eh is to ry : t h e e v idence 2 . 6 1 F i sh b one e v idence

3 0 3 0

R ecen te xcava t ion s : n ew m e thod s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s P rob lems w i th d a t ing

3 5 3 5 3 9

S ea leve l c hange a nd t he e f f ec to n f i sh , s he l lf i sh

a nd f i sh ing p rac t ice s S ea leve l c hange : s ome d ef in i t ion s 4 . 11

3 0 3 1

E thnograph ic c o mpar i sons a nd t he v a lue o fe thnoh i s tor ic

a nd e t hnoarchaeo log ica l s t ud ie s T e rm ino logy : u se o fa na logy o rc ompa r ison T he u se o fe t hnog raphy

C hap ter 4 4 . 1

2 4 2 5

S he l l mound s : g ene ra l ( h is to r ica l ) c ommen t s 2 . 51 F ocus ing o n mound s i nD enma rk

C hap ter 3 3 . 1 3 . 2

E xamp les f r om m a in land E u rope B r i t ish e xamp le s

4 2 4 2

I s o s ta sy

4 3

3

4 . 12 4 . 13

E us ta sy T ransg re ss ion a nd r eg ress ion

4 6 4 6

4 . 14 T i l t ing S ho re l ines a nd a r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s : Na nd

4 9

4 . 2

5 0 5 0

4 . 3

NE D enma rk 4 . 21 S he l l mound s S a l in i ty , t empe ra tu re , d ep th , f ood s upp l ies , a nd g eo log ica l c ond i t ion s f o r ma r ine s he l lf i sh c o lon isa t ion : s ome i mpo r tan t i s sue s

5 1

4 . 31

S a l in i ty

5 1

4 . 32 4 . 33

T empe ra tu re D ep th o fw a te r

5 3 5 4

4 . 34 4 . 35

O y s te ra nd c ock le l i f e -h is to r ies S he l lf i sh m ea t a sb a i t

5 5 5 5

4 . 4

F i sh ing s t ruc tu res

5 5

4 . 5

F ind s f r om b e low p resen ts e a leve l

5 8

C hap ter 5 5 . 1 5 . 2

5 . 3

D a t ing .T he i mpor tance o ft he s t andard i sa t ion o fc a l ibra ted

d a tes . H is to ry a nd b ackg round

6 3 6 3

5 . 11 S t ra tegy f o rn ew s t anda rd isa t ion p rocedu re s P rob lem s w i th r ad ioca rbon d a te s

6 4 6 7

5 . 2 1

6 7

Ma r ine s amp le s

5 . 22 P rob lems w i th t h e d a t ing o fm a r ine s amp le s C a l ib ra t ion

6 7 6 8

5 . 4

S t anda rd isa t ion o fc a l ib ra ted r a d ioca rbon d a tes

6 9

5 . 5

P re sen ta t ion o fr e su l t s

6 9

5 . 6

5 . 51

Ma thema t ica l p r e sen ta t ion

6 9

5 . 52

U s ing g r aph ics t op r esen tr e su l t s

7 0

I n te rp re ta t ion

7 8

P ar t I P reh is tor ic F ish ing i n L a te Me so l i th ic D enmark C hap ter 6

D at ing a nd t he s t rat igraphy o f k ey s i tes i n D enmark . I n terpre ta t ion u s ing ' s tandard -da te s ' g raph ics a nd H arr is

6 . 1 6 . 2

Ma tr ix d iagrams H is tory a nd d ef in i t ions P rob lem sw i th i d en t if ica t ion o fl a ye r s o rs t ra ta

8 0 8 0 8 0

6 . 3

S i te d e ta i ls a nd s t ra t ig raphy

8 1

6 . 4

6 . 31

T he E r tebo l le s he l l m idden

8 1

6 . 32

T he B jø rnsho lm s i te

8 4

D a te -o rde ra nd t h e i mp l ica t ions f o ra na b so lu te c h rono logy 6 . 4 1 6 . 42

6 . 5

C h rono logy S t ra t if ica t ion , s t ra t ig raphy a nd c h rono log ica l c ons truc t s

H a r r is d i ag rams a nd m idden s t ra t ig raphy

8 4 8 4 8 8 8 8

C hap ter 7 T he ma ter ia l e v idence ; f i sh b one s a nd o to l i ths 7 . 1 F i sh s pec ie s ' a va i lab i l i ty : t h ep a s ta nd p r esen ts i tua t ion

1 01 1 0 1

7 . 2

1 02

F i sh b one s a ta r chaeo log ica l s i tes

4

7 . 3

O to l i ths 7 . 31 E a r ly w o rk o n o t o l i th s

1 04 1 04

7 . 32

B io logy

1 05

7 . 33

S ea sona l i ty

1 06

7 . 4

R ecen tf i nd sa nd r e po r t s

1 07

7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7

I n terp re ta t ion a nd d i scu s s ion P rob lem s w i th t h e e v idence O to l i ths a nd s e a sona l i ty

12 13 16

C hap ter 8 P ar t 1 T he p a leod ie t ; Me so l i th ic b one s , i s o top ic 8 . 1

a nd e l emen ta l a na ly s i s a nd i n terpre ta t ions H i s to r ica l a pp roaches

18 18

8 . 2

T he s c ien t if ic a pp roach : T aube ra nd d i e tary d e te rm ina t ion s

1 20

8 . 3

D eve lopmen to fT aube r 's i d ea s ; w o rk o fP r ice a nd o t he r s

1 2 1

8 . 4

H ea l th a nd b one p a tho logy : d i e ta nd p opu la t ion l e ve ls

1 23

C hap ter 8 P ar t2 P rob lems w i th i d en t ify ing s he l lf i sh mea t c onsump t ion ; a n e xper imen ta l p ropo sa l

1 27

8 . 5

E l emen ta l c on ten to fo y s te ra nd o t he rm a r ine mo l lu sc s

1 27

8 . 6

E l emen ta l t r ansf e rt h rough t h e f ood c ha in

1 27

8 . 7 8 . 8

E lemen ta l c on ten to f Me so l i th ic h uman b ones ( Denma rk ) S ugge s ted e xpe r imen t s : a na ly se s a nd e r ro r s

1 27 1 28

8 . 9

I n te rp re t ing e xpe r imen ta l i n f o r ma t ion

1 29

8 . 10

C ommen t s o n a na lyses

1 29

C hap ter 9 P ar t I P repar ing t of i sh ; s t ra teg ie s , me thods a nd 9 . 1

p rac t ice a nd t he s pec ia l c ase o ff r e shwa ter e l s T he t h ink ing b eh ind s t ra teg ie s f o rc a tch ing f i sh

1 32 1 32

9 . 2

E e l f i sh ing

1 33

9 . 3

9 . 2 1

B a i ted t r ap s

1 33

9 . 22

E e l t r ap c on s t ruc t ion a nd u se

1 33

E e l s : t h e ir b i o logy a nd l i f e -h is tory 9 . 31 E lve r s

1 34 1 37

C hap ter 9 P ar t2 S ummary o ft he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence 9 . 4 9 . 5

f o rf i sh ing , i n c lud ing c a ta logue

1 42

A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o re ls a nd e l f i sh ing F i sh t r ap s a nd b a ske t s : ab r ief s umma ry o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l

1 42

e v idence

1 45

9 . 51

W icke rs c reens a nd w e i r s

1 46

9 . 6

H ook s a nd b a i t : ab r ief s ummary

1 49

9 . 7 9 . 8

L e i s te r s a nd h a rpoon s F l e sh o fd ead a n ima ls : s ome p o ss ib i l i t ie s

1 52 1 53

9 . 9

CATALOGUE o ff i nd s i te s a nd m ap s ( e xp lana t ion ) Map 1S he l l m idden s

1 54 1 55

S i te l i s t Map 2F i sh ing f e nces e t c . S i te l i s t

1 56 1 57 1 58

Map 3D ugou t s / logboa t s a nd p add le s

1 59

S i te l i s t

1 60

Map 4L e is te r s , h ook s , f l oa t s e t c . S i te l i s t 9 . 10

I n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l f i nd s a nd m ap s

1 6 1 1 62 1 63

9 . 11

S he l l m idden s

1 63

9 . 12

F i sh ing w e ir s /f ences a nd b a ske tt r ap s

1 64

9 . 13 9 . 14

D ugou t s / logboa t s a nd p add le s L e is te r s , h ook s , f l oa t s s i nke r s a nd n e t s

1 65 1 66

9 . 15

F i sh b one s , s c a les a nd s k in

1 67

Chap ter 1 0

P ar t I Ana logy : U s ing e thnoh is tory a nd

1 0 .1

e thnoarchaeo logy P rocedu res f o ru s ing e xamp le s i nt h is s ub jec t

1 68 1 68

1 0 .2 1 0 .3

H is to ry o ft h e u se o fe t hnog raph ic p a ra l le ls o rc ompa r ison s T owa rd s ar e app ra isa l o ft h e l i t e ra tu r e

1 68 1 69

1 0 .4

F i sh ing : ma te r ia l e v idence . U se o fa na log ies o rc ompa r isons

1 7 1

1 0 .5 1 0 .6

H ook s a nd l i nes N e t s

1 74 1 76

1 0 .7

W icker a nd s t one t r ap s

1 79

1 0 .8

O the rE u ropean f i sh t r ap f i nd s : mo re e xamp les

1 90

1 0 .9

P o t te ry e v idence . P rob lem s

1 97

1 0 .10 1 0 .11

F ind ing c ompa r isons : o r ig ins o fs he l l mound s O the rE u ropean a r t if ac t s

1 97 1 98

1 0 .12

A pp l ica t ion o fn ew i d ea s : ' c ompa r ison s ' a nd ' p a ra l le ls

1 98

Chap ter 1 0 P ar t2 T he G rea t B a i t D eba te ; f i sh -ca tch ing d ev ice s 1 0 .13 T he G rea t B a i t D eba te :

2 02 2 02

1 0 .14

I d en t if y ing b a i t -dependen tf i sh -ca tch ing d ev ice s

2 03

1 0 . 15

T he D an ish s i tua t ion

2 07

1 0 .16 1 0 .17

U se o ff i sh ing h ook s S ou rces o fb a i t

2 07 2 09

1 0 .18

1 0 .1 7 .1 B a i ta s al u r ing d ev ice 1 0 .1 7 .2 T ob a i to rn o tt ob a i t? U se o fi n ne r -f unne l led t r ap s

2 10 2 10 2 11

1 0 .19

B a i ta nd t h e q ues t ion o fs e a sona l i ty

2 11

1 0 .20

G a the r ing , a pp l ica t ion a nd u se o fb a i t

2 12

1 0 .2 1

P rob lems w i th t h e i n terp re ta t ions : t h e c oncep to fh ermeneu t ics 2 13

C hap ter 1

I n tegra t ion : L a te Me so l i th ic f i sh ing s t ra teg ie s

a nd t he ' a rr iva l ' o fa gr icu l ture .

2 15

III

F i sh ing a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p rac t ice s : c oa s tv - i n land i s sue s

2 15

1 .2 1 .3 1 .4

H is to r ica l v i ewpo in t sa nd i n terp re ta t ion s E a r l ie r mode ls f o rd i f f u s ion o ff a rm ing i nn o r the rn E u rope B r i t ish v i ew s a nd i n terp re ta t ions

2 16 2 17 2 19

1 .5

D an ish v i ew sa nd i n terp re ta t ions

2 22

1 .6 1 .7

V a r ia t ions o n at h eme : n ew p e r spec t ive s r e : r e sou r ces A g r icu l ture : e a r l ie rv i ewpo in t s

2 23 2 30

1 .8 1 .9

S e t t lemen ta nd d i e t : r e cen tr e su l t s R e la t ionsh ips : s e t t lemen t , s ubs is tence , s oc ia l r e la t ions

2 32 2 38

1 1 0

P owe ra nd h i e ra rchy r e : Meso l i th ic f i she r s

2 44

1 1

E s tab l ish ing h i e ra rchy : g r ave e v idence

2 44

.

.

.

1 .12

D eve lopmen to fa g r icu l tu ra l w ay o fl i f e

C hap ter 1 2 1 2 .1

C onc lus ions .

2 49 2 51

E s tab l ish ing t h eb ounda r ie s

2 51

1 2 .2

F i sh ing s t ra t eg ie s a nd p rac t ice s

2 51

1 2 .3 1 2 .4

E thnoh is to r ic a nd e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l e v idence S t anda rd is ing c a l ib ra ted r a d ioca rbon d a te i n f orma t ion

2 52 2 52

1 2 .5

O y s te r s a nd o t he r mo l lu scs a sf ood a nd /o rb a i t

2 53

1 2 .6

U se o fd ugou t s

2 54

1 2 .7 1 2 .8 1 2 .9

H uman b one a na ly s is a nd d i e t W ide ri mp l ica t ions S oc ia l r e la t ions o fp roduc t ion

2 54 2 58 2 58

1 2 .10

F arm ing a nd i n d igenou s p opu la t ion

2 59

T ab le 7 ( O ther t ab le s l i s ted o n p age 8 )

2 61

A ppend ix 1

2 69

A ppend ix 2

3 07

B ib l iography

3 18

L is t o fT ab les

T ab le I

Me so l i th ic f i sh b one f i nds : s pec ie s l i s t

1 08

T ab le 2

F i sh s pec ie s : s c ien t if ic a nd c o mmon n ame s

1 09

T ab le 3

F i sh b one f i nds : s i te r ef erence s

10

T ab le 4

F i sh b one f i nds : s i te s I 3 7 . Ana ly se s

17

T ab le 4 a

P oro t ic h ypero s to s i s a nd e name l h ypop las ia

1 24

T ab le S

R a t a nd d i e te xper imen t s

1 28

T ab le 6

E lemen ta l a na ly s is

1 30

T ab le 7

C a l ibra t ion a na ly s i s o fr ad iocarbon d a te s

2 61

-

L i s to fF igure s F ir s td ig i t s i nd ica te c hap ter l o ca t ion , e gF ig 4 . 2 i si nc hap ter 4 . F i g 1 . 1 F i g 1 . 2

D ep ic t ion o f am a le s a lmon C a rved s i lhoue t te o ff l a tf ish

1 5 1 5

F i g 1 . 3

Mode l o fe ng rav ing o ff i sh

1 6

F i g 2 . 1 F i g 2 . 2

Map s how ing a r ea o fs ub s idence i ns ou the rn N or th S ea E a r ly m ap s how ing c oa s t l ines t oc 5000bc

2 5 2 6

F i g 2 . 3 F i g 2 . 4

R ecen t map s how ing c oa s t l ine s a round 6 700bc S he l l m idden s i te s o n O ron say

2 6 2 7

F i g 2 . 5 F i g 2 . 6

C a l ib ra t ion c u rve s how ing ' w igg le s ' Map o fW . E u rope : s ubma r ine c ou r se s o fr i ver s

3 2 3

F i g 2 . 7 F i g 3 . 1

Map o fW . E u rope : s ubma r ine c on tou r s H a ls skov f e nce a nd e l s

3 4 3 7

F i g 3 . 2

P add le d e s ign : T yb r ind V ig

3 8

F i g 3 . 3

S ymbo ls o n r ow ing b l ade

3 8

F i g4 . 1

U p l if ta nd s ub s idence a r ound D enma rk

4 3

F i g4 . 2 F i g 4 . 3

Map s how ing a r ea s o fw a te r , p o s t -g lac ia l E f f ec to fi c e m a s s o n l a nd s u rf ace

4 4 4 4

F i g 4 . 4

D eve lopmen to fr a ised s ho re l ine

4 5

F i g4 . 5 F i g4 . 6

l s oba se s s how ing a bso lu te u p l if t T yb r ind V ig a nd p re sen tc oa s t l ine s

4 5 4 6

F i g4 . 7 F i g4 . 8

E us ta t ic c urve R e so lved e u s ta t ic c urve f o rS cand inav ian s ho re l ines

4 6 4 7

F i g4 . 9

N .W . E u ropean e u s ta t ic c urve

4 7

F i g4 . 10

C en t re so fu p l if t , e t c . N .W . E u rope

4 7

F i g4 . 11

L i t to r ina t r ansg re s s ion s

4 8

F i g4 . 12

C on tou r s f o rt h e L i t to r ina S ea

4 8

F i g4 . 13 F i g4 . 14 F i g4 . 15

S ho re l ine d i sp lacemen tc urve , V edb k f j o rd I regu la ru p l if t sa r ound D enma rk V us tb o reho le a na ly s is

4 9 4 9 5 0

F i g4 . 16

G rea tt r ansg re s s ion a nd r a d ioca rbon d a te s , V us t

5 1

F i g4 . 17

Map s how ing b ank s o fo y s te r s L imf jo rd

5 2

F i g4 . 18 F i g4 . 19

C har t s how ing s u rf ace t empe ra tu re s , L imf jo rd E x tens ion o fE r tebo l le s he l l m idden

5 3 5

F i g4 . 20

F i sh t r ap f r agmen t , T yb r ind V ig

5 6

F i g4 . 21

Two s t ake -bu i l ts t ruc tu re s

5 6

F i g4 . 22 F i g4 . 23 F i g4 . 24

F i sh ing s t ruc tu r e f i nd spo t s D a ted f i sh ing s t ruc tu res , e t c . T ran sg res s ion s t age s

5 7 5 8 5 8

F i g4 . 25

C oa s ta l s i tes , D enma rk

5 9

F i g4 . 26

E e l w e i ra tl ow t i de

6 0

F i g4 . 27 F i g4 . 28 F i g4 . 29

B u i ld ing a' p u tche r ' r a nk R emov ing f i sh f r om p u tche rb a ske t R ank o fs t a in le s s s t ee l p u tcher s

6 0 6 1 6 1

F i g4 . 30

P os t -ho le e v idence , f i sh ing f e nces

6 2

F i g 5 . 1

T he G rön ingen ( 1993 ) c a l ib ra t ion c urve

6 5

F i g 5 . 2 F i g 5 . 3 F i g 5 . 4

C a l ib ra t ion o fs amp le d a te ( 1 ) C a l ib ra t ion o fs amp le d a te ( 2 ) C a l ib ra t ion p l o t( 1 )

6 5 6 6 6 6

9

F ig 5 . 5 F ig 5 . 6

C a l ibra t ion p lo t( 2 ) C a l ib ra t ion p lo t( 3 )

7 0 7 1

F ig 5 . 7

C a l ib ra t ion p l o t( 4 )

7 1

F ig 5 . 8

Mu l t i -p lo t( l)

7 2

F ig 5 . 9

Mu l t i -p lo t ( 2 )

7 2

F ig 5 . 9a F ig 5 . 10

S ec t ion o fB jo rn sho lm m idden Mu l t i -p lo t s , E r tebo l le m idden

7 3 7 4

F i g 5 . 11

Mu l t i -p lo t s , B jornsho lm m idden

7 5

F i g 5 . 12

Mu l t i -p lo t s , d a te -o rde r , E r tebo l le a nd B jo rn sho lm

7 6

F ig 5 . 13

Two p lo t s s how ing c a l ib ra t ion d i f f e rence s

7 7

F ig 6 . 1 F i g 6 . 2

P l o t ted s amp le d a tes , E r tebo l le m idden B jornsho lm m idden , p l o t ted d a tes

8 2 8 3

F ig 6 . 3

S ec t ion E -W B jornsho lm m idden

8 5

F i g 6 . 4

S ec t ion B jo rn sho lm m idden ( 2 )

8 5

F ig 6 . 5

S ec t ion E r tebo l le m idden ( 1 )

8 6

F ig 6 . 6 F ig 6 . 7

S ec t ion E r tebo l le m idden ( 2 ) R e -p lo t ted s amp le d a te s , B jo rnsho lm m idden

8 6 8 7

F ig 6 . 8 F i g 6 . 9

S t anda rd -da te s g r aph ics d i ag ram , E r tebo l le S t anda rd -da te s g r aph ics d i ag ram , B jo rn sho lm

8 9 9 0

F ig 6 .1 0

G raph ics d i ag ram , E r tebo l le t r ansg re ss ions e t c .

9 1

F i g 6 . 11 F ig 6 . 12

G raph ic s d i ag ram , B jo rnsho lm , t r ansg re ss ion s e t c . D a te -o rde rs e quence g r aph ics d i ag ram , E r tebo l le

9 2 9 3

F ig 6 . 13

D a te -o rde rs equence g r aph ic s d i ag ram , B jo rnsho lm

9 4

F ig 6 . 14

H ar r is m a t r ices

9 6

F i g 6 . 15

S ou th s e c t ion , E r tebo l le m idden

9 6

F ig 6 . 16

S ec t ion B jo rnsho lm m idden

9 6

F ig 6 . 17

G raph ics d i ag ram , E r tebo l le : m is loca t ion o fs h e l l s

9 7

F i g 6 . 18 F ig 7 . 1 F ig 7 . 2 (1)

G raph ics d i ag ram , B jo rn sho lm : m is loca t ion o fs he l ls D o r sa l v i ew o fl a by r in th o fb ony f i sh , s how ing o t o l i ths L and a nd s e ar e la t ion sh ip s ( l2000bp )

9 8 1 05 11

F ig 7 . 2 (2 )

L and a nd s e ar e la t ion sh ip s ( 6000bp )

11

F ig 8 . 1 F ig 9 . 1

C a rbon i s o tope r a t io s : Me so l i th ic b u r ia ls L oca t ion o fS a rga s so S ea

1 22 1 35

F ig 9 . 2

P re lep tocepha lu s l a rva o fe l

1 35

F ig 9 . 3 F ig 9 . 4

A rea o fm e tamo rpho s is D eve lopmen to ft h e e l

1 36 1 36

F ig 9 . 5 F ig 9 . 6

E lve rf i she rman , G louce s te r sh ire F i sh ing f o re l ve r s , S ome r se t

1 38 1 39

F ig 9 . 7 F ig 9 . 8

F ragmen to fk no t le ss n e t Ma ss o fe l ve r s

1 39 1 40

F i g9 . 9

F i r s tt h ree v er teb rae , m a tu re e l

1 42

F i g9 . 10

3b ones t od e term ine e l l e ng th

1 44

F i g9 . 11

S i ze -f requency d i ag ram s

1 44

F i g9 . 12

P l a i ted f i sh t r ap

1 45

F i g9 . 13 F i g 9 . 14

F i sh t r ap , N oyen , F rance O lde s t f i sh t r ap f ound , D enma rk

1 45 1 47

F i g 9 . 15 F i g 9 . 16

F ragmen t s o fw ooden t r ap F ragmen to ff i sh t r ap

1 47 1 48

F i g 9 . 17

R econs truc t ion o ff i sh t r ap

1 48

F i g 9 . 18

H a lsskov f i sh t r ap

1 48 1 0

F ig 9 . 19 F ig 9 . 20

R econ s t ruc t ion , O le s ly s tw e ir E r tebo l le f i sh h ook s

1 49 1 5 1

F ig 9 . 21

H ank o fw o rm s f o r ' n a r ing ' e ls

1 5 1

F ig 9 . 22

F ragmen ta ry l e is te r

1 52

F ig 9 . 23

Wooden p rong s f r om l e is te r , T yb r ind V ig

1 52

F i g 1 0 .1 F i g 1 0 .2

P reh is to r ic f i sh h ook s Mo r e f i sh h ook s f r om W E u rope

1 70 1 70

F ig 1 0 .3

Me so l i th ic s pea r sa nd a r row s

1 72

F i g 1 0 .4

R ema in s o fp i ke w i th b a rbed p o in t

1 72

F i g 1 0 .5

R ep l ica h af t ing o n a r row s haf t s

1 74

F i g 1 0 .6 F ig 1 0 .7

V a r ie t ie so ff i sh h ook s S im i la r i t ies o ff o rm a nd f unc t ion i nf i sh h ook s

1 75 1 75

F i g 1 0 .8 F ig 1 0 .9

S amp le o f Me so l i th ic n e t V a r ie ty o fh and -he ld n e t s

1 76 1 79

F i g 1 0 .10 ( l)

T he O le s ly s tp ane l

1 80

F i g 1 0 .10 (2 ) F ig 1 0 .11( l)

R econ s t ruc t ion o ft h e O le s ly s tw e ir F i sh t r ap s o f fB r i t tany c oa s t

1 80 1 8 1

F i g 1 0 .11(2 )

D raw ing s o ff i sh w e i r

1 8 1

F ig 1 0 .11(3 )

A l ter na t ive u se o ff i sh w e ir

1 82

F i g 1 0 .11(4 ) F ig 1 0 .12 F ig 1 0 .13 ( 1)

E v idence f o rw icke rf e nce s R econ s t ruc t ion o fA ng lo -Saxon w e ir E r tebø l le f i sh t r ap

1 82 1 83 1 85

F i g 1 0 .13 (2 )

R econ s t r uc t ion d raw ing o fe l t r ap

1 85

F i g 1 0 .13 (3 )

J apane se f i sh t r ap

1 86

F i g 1 0 .13 (4 )

Ma s s ive f i sh t r ap f r om N ew G u inea

1 86

F ig 1 0 .13 (5 )

2 0 th c en tury f i sh t r ap

1 87

F i g 1 0 .14 ( l)

Sma l l p o r tab le t r ap , c 500AD

1 88

F i g 1 0 .14 (2 ) F i g 1 0 .15 ( 1)

F i sh t r ap f r om t h e 1 6 th c en tury U se o ft o rches f o rf i sh ing i nS co t land

1 88 1 89

F i g 1 0 .15 (2 )

T o r che s f o rf i sh ing , U SA

1 89

F ig 1 0 .15 (3 ) F ig 1 0 .16 F i g 1 0 .17

U se o ff i re t oa t t rac tf i sh R ema in s o ff i sh b a ske t Woven f i sh ing b a ske t

1 89 1 9 1 1 9 1

F i g 1 0 .18

B e rg schenhoek f i sh t r ap

1 92

F i g 1 0 .19

V laa rd ingen f i sh t r ap

1 92

F ig 1 0 .20 ( 1) F ig 1 0 .20 (2 ) F i g 1 0 .21(1)

T emp la te t oo l f o re l t r ap S e t t ing w i l low i nt emp la te E e l t r ap ,w h i te w i l low

1 93 1 93 1 95

F i g 1 0 .21(2 )

E e lp o t , G ermany

1 95

F i g 1 0 .21(3 )

W icke re l p o t , I r e land

1 95

F i g 1 0 .22

E e l p o t , G louce s te r sh i re

1 96

F i g 1 0 .23 F i g 1 0 .24

S im i la r i t ies o ff o rm a nd f unc t ion i nt o o ls Mode rn e l t r ap , R ive rS eve rn

1 99 2 04

F i g 1 0 .25

E e l p o t , G ermany

2 04

F i g 1 0 .26

S ke tch o fe l t r ap

2 04

F i g 1 0 .27

Mu l t i -hook d es ign

2 05

F i g 1 0 .28 F i g 1 0 .29

U se o fs qu id j igg ing h ook s D enma rk a nd r e la t ionsh ip t os e a leve l s

2 05 2 06

F i g 1 0 .30

S ea l e ve l s , p r e sen t -day D enma rk

2 06

F i g 1 0 .31

B a rb le s s f i sh h ook s

2 08

1

F ig 1 0 .32 F ig 1 .1

S ec t ion o fa nus o fa dvanced e l E a r ly f a rm ing s e t t lemen t s

2 12 2 16

F ig 1 .2 F ig 1 .3

G raph s how ing mu l t ip le ' w igg le s ' C a tch ing s i tes , H o r sens f j o rd

2 20 2 23

F ig . KEY

G raph ics , T h ree s i tes : r e f . e a r l ie s t f a rm ing d a te s

2 24

F ig 1 .4 F ig 1 .5 F ig 1 .6

G raph ics , E r tebo l le : r e f . e a r l ies t f a rm ing d a te s G raph ics , B jo rn sho lm : r e f . e a r l ie s tf a rm ing d a te s G raph ics , N o r sm inde : r e f . e a r l ie s tf a rm ing d a te s

2 25 2 26 2 27

F ig 1 .7

Map l o ca t ion f i r s t f ar m ing d a ted s i te s

2 28

F ig 1 .8

Map d i s t r ibu t ion h uman b one ' 3C v a lue s

2 29

F ig 1 .9 F i g 1 1 0

S t anda rd -da te s g raph ics d i ag ram , w ood f r om d ugou t s S t anda rd -da te s g r aph ics d i ag rams , w ood : O le s ly s t

2 32 2 33

F ig 1 .11 F ig 1 .12

C omb ined s t anda rd -da te s g r aph ics d i ag ram C hrono log ica l c ha r tf o r Meso l i th ic /Neo l i th ic

2 34 2 36

F ig 1 .13

T aube r 's c ha r to f 1 3C h uman b one : 1 98 1

2 37

F i g 1 .14 F ig 1 .15

T aube r 's c ha r to f 1 3C h uman b one 1 993 D is t r ibu t ion 1 3C h uman b one , D enma rk e t c

2 38 2 38

F ig 1 .16

Map P owha ten s e t t lemen t s

2 4 1

F ig 1 . 17

Map i n land D y rho lm s e t t lemen t s i te s

2 45

F i g 1 .18

Map d e ta i led l o ca t ion E r tebo l le s i te s

2 45

F ig 1 .19 F ig 1 .20

Ma le s ke le ton , S ka teho lm Ma le s ke le ton , B ogcbakken , V edbek

2 47 2 48

F ig 1 .2 1

F ema le s ke le ton , B ogebakken , V edb k

2 49

Map I

L oca t ion m ap , l o ca t ion o f moveab le f i sh t r ap

1 65

Map 2

D ie ta ry i n d ica to r s f o rt h ree Mag lemo se s i te s e t c

2 55

.

Map s

Map 3

D ie ta ry i n d ica to r s f o rt wo E r tebo l le s i te s e t c

2 56

Map 4

D ie ta ry i n d ica to r s f o rt wo E r tebo l le s i te s ( 2 )e t c

2 57

1 2

L i s t o fP la te s

P l a te

4 . 1

P u sh -ne tf i sh ing , D enma rk

4 2

P l a te P l a t e

4 . 2 4 . 3

S ec t ion o fO le s ly s tw e i r R ank o fp u tche r s

5 7 6 2

P l a te P l a te

7 . 1 9 . 1

N a tu ra l s he l l a ccumu la t ion s T he l e p tocepha lu s l a rva

13 1 35

P l a te P l a te P l a te

9 . 2 9 . 3 9 . 4

Ma tu re e l Meso l i th ic b a ske t C a r ry ing p u tche r s

1 37 1 40 1 47

P l a te

9 . 5

D eb r is o n f i sh ing f e nce

1 50

P l a te

9 . 6

E e ls i nh o r se 's h ead

1 53

Au s t ra l ian a bo r ig ine u s ing t h ree -p ronged s pea r Ma rd i f i sherman o n t h eN i le A u s t ra l ian a bo r ig ine u s ing l o ng s pea r

1 73 1 73 1 73

P l a te 1 0 .1 P l a te 1 0 .2 P l a te 1 0 .3 P l a te 1 0 .4

R oman mo sa ic d ep ic t ing f i sh ing

1 77

P l a te 1 0 .5

F i she rman u s ing v e ry l a rge n e t

1 77

P l a te 1 0 .6

P a in t ing s how ing h and -he ld n e t

1 78

P l a te 1 0 .7 P l a te 1 0 .8

S ec t ion o fw a t t le p ane l P o s t -ho le e v idence f o rf i sh ing f e nce

1 80 1 83

P l a te 1 0 .9

R ema in s o ff i sh ing f e nce , R ive rS eve rn

1 84

P l a te 1 0 .10

Med iaeva l f i sh t r ap

1 87

P l a te 1 0 .11

R emov ing f i sh f r om moder nf i sh t r ap

1 87

P l a te 1 0 .12 P l a te 1 0 .13 P l a te 1 0 .14

F i sh ing u s ing b r igh t l i gh t , E quado r S tone f i sh t r ap , A us t ra l ia Two f i sh ing f e nces , R ive r S ever n

1 90 2 00 2 08

P l a te 1 1

P repa r ing ah ook w i th b a i t

2 2 1

P l a te 1 .2 P l a te 1 .3

F i sh b a i ts e cu red B a i ted h ook s r e ady

2 21 2 21

P l a te 1 .4 P l a te 1 .5

N e t s a nd p o t s , S ennen , C o rnwa l l F i she rman o n mudf la t s , S ome r se t

2 35 2 35

P l a te 1 .6 P l a te 1 .7

L ave n e tf i she rman , G louce s te r sh ire F i sh ing f l oa t s , S ennen , C o rnwa l l

2 35 2 35

P l a te 1 .8

Man f r om N ew G u inea

2 42

.

1 3

PART 1 F i sh ing i nP reh i s to ry **

C hap ter A modern a pproach t oa n a nc ien t a c t iv i ty

" Angry F i sh" ( Or ig inaly ap o s tcard b y W i l low & C lay C o l labora t ions )

1 4

I F i sh ing i np reh i s tory : amodern a pproach t oa n a nc ien t a c t iv i ty 1 . 1

I n troduc t ion t ot he s ub jec ta rea .

D u r ing P a laeo l i th ic t ime s , f i sh w e re d ep ic ted i nc aves ( Le ro i -Gou rhan 1 968 ,408 f i g 2 85}) ( F ig 1 . 1) a nd o n o b jec t s t h a t c ou ld b e w orn o n t h e b ody o r c a r r ied a r ound ( mob i l ia ry a r t ) ( Le ro i -Gou rhan 1 968 ,402

f i g 2 34 } ( F ig 1 . 2 ) ; Ma r shack 1 99 1 .26 1 { f ig

1 39a }) ( F ig 1 . 3 ) .H av ing d i scove red a nd r e co rded t h e se f i nd s ,t h ep rob lem f o ra r chaeo log is t s

F igure 1 . 1

D ep ic t ion

0 1ainn/c s a l m on ?( 4 1

i n ) , i nt h eA br id uP o i s son , i nt h e

G orge D ' E n/ e m ' , P rance . ( P rom L ero i G ourhan 1 968 ,408 1 1 / I g2 85 / ) .

h a sb een t od ec ide i ft h is m ean tp eop le i nP a laeo l i th ic t imes u sed f i sh a sp a r to ft h e i rd i e t . C lea r ly ad ep ic t ion o n ac ave w a l li sn o tp rov id ing s uff ic ien te v idence f o r av a l id s t a temen t t ob e made a bou tt h ed i e to ft h o se w ho e xecu ted t h ei mage o nt h ec ave w a l lo ro nt h es ma l l p i ece o fb one . I ti sc l ea r ly d e s i rab le t h e ref o re ,t os t udy i ng r ea te rd ep th t h ea r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o ft h o se w ho l i ved i na r ea sw he re f i sh w e re a va i lab le .T he c a r ef u lr e cove ry a nd i d en t if ica t ion o ff i sh b one s c ou ld r e vea l t h e s pec ie s e xp lo i ted a nd p os s ib ly t h e s i ze s c ho sen f o re a t ing . T h is may a l so l e ad t os ome d e term ina t ions o ft h e s e a son o fc ap tu re . T he i r m e thod o f

F igure 1 . 2

Ac arved s i lhoue t te o ft h eu nd er s id e

o faf la t t l . sh

o n apendan t ( 1Y i n . l o ng ) ( n ioh i l iar i '

a m ' ! ) . F ound a tLe spugue ,F rance i n ac ave m ore t h an 1 50 m i le si n land . ( F rom L ero i -Gourhan , 1 968 ,402 , / f ig 2 34 ) ) .

1 5

F igure 1 . 3

Mod e lo fa ne ngra l ' ing c / l ow ing / l ch t r o l i ,

a baton

/ bu i îd at

Lor te t , France

a nd d a t ed t o

t h e U pper Magda len ian . ( F ron , Mar shack ,1 991 ,261 ‚ ' / lg 1 3 9a 1 ) .

c ap tu re i sd e te rm ined a sa ccu ra te ly a sp o s s ib le , f r om t h eo rgan ic r ema in so fs uch i t em sa s f i sh t r ap s o rs c reen s , f i sh h ook s a nd n e t s . T he e f f ec t o fe xce ss ive s he l lf i sh g a the r ing a nd t h ep re ssu re o nf i sh s t ock si sl o oked a ti nr e la t ion t op o ss ib le c hanges i np opu la t ion l e ve ls . B u t ,a sC la rk h a ss a id " . . . the e x ten tt ow h ich t h is v a s tr e se rvo i r( t he s e a ) ,o ff ood a nd r aw m a te r ia l sw a sd r awn u pon w a sr e la ted d i r ec t ly t ot h ep r e s su r eo fp opu la t ion o nt h er e sou r ce s o ft h ed ry l a nd . . ." P e rhap si ti sp o ss ib le t ot e s tC la rk 's s t a temen tt h a t" So l o ng a ss ub s i s tence w a s b a sed m a in ly o n h un t ing a nd g a the r ing a nd t h e p opu la t ion r ema ined s pa r se , t h e s e a w a sc ompa ra t ive ly n eg lec ted e xcep tf o rw ha tc ou ld e a s i ly b eg a the red o nt h es ho re" ( C la rk 1 952b ,62 ) . T he se s t a temen t s c an a l so b e mo re a ccu ra te ly t e s ted , n ow t h a tt h e a moun t o f a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r f i sh a nd f i sh ing r ema in s h a s i n c rea sed s o d r ama t ica l ly o ve r t h e l a s t f i f ty y ea r s ( s ee e spec ia l ly E nghof f1 994 ) . K nown c hanges i ns e a l e ve ls m ay a l so h ave a f f ec ted t h e a va i lab i l i ty o fs h e l lf i sh , f i sh a nd t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion . T h is i sl o oked a ti nd e ta i l h e re b y i n -dep th r e sea r ch , r e e xam in ing t h ea va i lab le r a d ioca rbon d a te sf r om mo re t h an o ne l a bo ra to ry . F o rt h is , an ew g r aph ics c ompu te rp rog ramme f r om t h e AMS l a bo ra tory i nO xf o rd i su sed . T he r e su l t ing g r aph ic r ep resen ta t ions s hou ld t h en e nab le a b e t te r o p in ion t ob e g i ven r ega rd ing t h e c h rono logy o ff i sh ing a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e a r ea o fs t udy . F u r the r s t a temen t s s hou ld t h en b e a b le t ob em ade r ega rd ing t h e ' a r r iva l ' o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h is a r ea . T h is c an o n ly b ed one i f s ugge s ted d a te sf o rf a rm ing o ra gr icu l tu ra lp r ac t ice sa r ei n co rpo ra ted i n to t h er ep r e sen ta t ions o ft h e n ew g r aph ics p rog ramme . T h is i sa t temp ted h e re . T he l e ve l o ft e chno logy r e qu ired t op rac t ice t h e s t ra teg ie s s ugges ted f o rt h e f i sh ing c ommun i t ie so ft h is a r ea , c an b ed ef ined b yt h ea r chaeo log ica lr ema in sd i scove r ed s of a r . T h is w i l l b e c ompa red w i th e t hnoh is to r ic k now ledge a nd p o s s ib ly e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l o bserva t ions b efore a n e ven tua l o verv iew i sp resen ted . M is takes a nd e ven o ver i n terp re ta t ion n eed s c a ref u l a t ten t ion a s Whee le rh a s p o in ted o u t , mo re p ar t icu la r ly w i th r e f e rence t ot h en onappea rance i nt h em a te r ia le v idence o fc e r ta in f i sh b one ss uch a st h ose o ft h e h ead o f as a lmon . T hese b one s b ecome d eca lc if ied a nd t h e ref o re d o n o t s u rv ive . E a r ly i n terp re ta t ion so ft h e i ra b sence a ts ome s e t t lemen ts i te sl e ad a r chaeo log is t st os ugges t 1 6

t h a tt h eh ead sw e re r emoved a nd l e f ta tt h ep l ace o fc ap tu re (Whee le r1 978 ,74 ) .H is c au t ion a nd a dv ice i nr e la t ion t o t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ff i sh b one r ema in s , i ss t i l l p er t inen t . My p e r sona lk now ledge o ff i sh ,a nd p re sen ta nd h i s to r ica lf i sh ing p rac t ice s ,i sa l so i n va luab le i nh e lp ing t oe xp la in t h e a c t iv i t ies o fp r eh is to r ic f i sh ing c ommun i t ies a nd t h e i r f i sh ing s t ra teg ies . l ti si n ev i tab le t h a ti ns t udy ing p r eh i s to ry , ag ood p ropo r t ion o fe v idence f o rt h eu se o f f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh w i l l b e f ound i n e i the r c oas ta l ( ma r ine ) , l a cu s t r ine o r r i ve r ine e nv ironmen t s . I no t he ra r ea s , o t he rf ood r e sou r ce s wou ld b eu sed , t hough i ns ome c a se s , n o tt ot h ee xc lu s ion o fa qua t ic r e sou rce s . T o i n i t ia te as t udy o ft h is k ind , o ne c an l o ok f o r b o th d i rec ta nd i n d i rec te v idence f o rt h e c onsump t ion o ff i sh a nd s he l lf i sh . D i rec t e v idence w ou ld f i r s t ly c once rn e i the r t h e f i nd ing o ft h e r ema in s o ff i sh o r s h e l lf i sh m ea ls i nh uman b u r ia ls o rh uman c op ro l i tes . F ur the rd i rec tc onf i rma t ion o ft h is k i nd wou ld a l so i n vo lve t h ef i nd ing ,b ys c ien t if ic a na lys is ,o fe v idence f o r ad i e to fm a r ine f i sh o r s he l lf i sh i nh uman b one r ema in s . I tw i l l b e made c l ea r t h a t t h e a moun t o fd i rec t e v idence t h a t i sa va i lab le i s much l e s s t h an t h e a moun t o fi n d irec t e v idence t h a t c an b e d i sce rned f r om a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion . F o ri n d irec t e v idence , i n f e rences c an b e m ade , f o r e xamp le , f r om t h e d i scove ry o f d ugou t s o r l o gboa t s ( McG ra i l 1 978 ) , f r om h ea r th s a s soc ia ted w i th d ugou t s ( Ande r sen 1 9 87a ) , f r om w a te r s ide s i te s g ene ra l ly o rf r om h uge q uan t i t ies o fs he l ls i ns he l l m idden s ( Ander son 1 898 , A nde r sen 1 989 , D e i th 1 985 ;1986 , J ones ,D .A .1985 , Me ighan 1 969 , M e l la r s 1 978 , Owen & Me r r ick 1 994a ,P e te r sen ,K .S .1 986 ,S hack le ton J . C .1 988 ,S hack le ton N . J .1 969 ,V an N ee r & Muñ iz 1 992 ) . I n d i r ec te v idence i sa l so a va i lab le f r om t h ed i scove r ie s o ff i sh w e i r s ,b a ske tt r aps a nd a s soc ia ted g ea ro f af i sh -ca tch ing n a tu re .O ne w ou ld a s sume f r om t h is e v idence t h a tf i sh c augh t i nt h is w ay w ou ld b e c onsumed b y h uman s . A l l t h e se a s sump t ion s a nd i n f e rence s a r e r e a sonab ly v a l id , b u tn ever the le s s c anno t b e s hown t oi lu s t ra te f o r c e r ta in ty t h e d i e t o fp r eh is to r ic p eop le s . A r chaeo log is t s h ave a l so ,f o rs ome t ime n ow ,u sed e t hnog raph ic p a ra l le l st os uppor ts t a temen t sb a sed o nf i nd ing e v idence w h ich c ou ld i n f e r s pec if ic a c t iv i t ie s i np reh is to ry ( Crawf o rd 1 927 ,34 ; C la rk 1 9 51,49 -65 ; 1 952a , 15 ;F lood 1 995 , 16 ,51-54 ) .F o re xamp le ,i fac e r ta in f o rm o fp r eh is to r ic b a ske tt r ap i sf ound i n aw a te r logged e nv i ronmen ts omewhe re ,t h en b ya na logy w i th a lmo s t i d en t ica l ' moder n ' t r ap s , ar e a sonab le s t a temen t c an b e m ade a bou t t h e ir p r eh is to r ic u se a nd p oss ib le c a tch ing c apab i l i ty ( Ma t su i 1 992 , 11 ; Mo rdan t & Mo rdan t 1 992 ,61 ;N euf v i l le T ay lo r 1 949 ,3 ; &S t ewa r t 1 982 , 111117 ) . Mo re a bou t t h e u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie s w i l l b e e xp la ined ( c hap te r s 3& 1 0 ) . R ecen ta r chaeo log ica lm e thod sf o rt h er e covery o fd e l ica te f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh r ema ins a r ea l so v e ry i mpor tan t .T h is i sb ecau se s ma l lb one s ,s ca le s ,d en t ic les a nd e ven v ery s ma l l s e c t ion s o fs he l ls c an t e l l u s mo re a bou t s pec ie s p r esen t a nd p o s s ib ly t h e ir a ges a td ea th . T he u se o f av a r ie ty o fg raded s i eve s (Whee le r &J ones 1 989 ) , u sed e i the r w e t o rd ry i s e s sen t ia l . T he se h ave n o ta lway sb een u sed i nt h er e cen tp a s t( C la rk 1 954 ,v i i -xx i ) ,t hough P ayne s howed t h a ts i eves w e re i mpor tan ti np roduc ing g r ea te rq uan t i t ie so fs ma l la r t if ac t s f o rs ubsequen ta na ly s i s( Payne 1 972 ,49 -64 ) . H is e xpe r imen t st hough ,d id n o ti n vo lve f i sh b ones . T h is c ou ld b e b ecau se s ma l l f i shbone r e covery h ad n o tb een s e r iou s ly c on s ide red a tt h a tt ime . S i ev ing o n al a rge s c a le f o rt h er e cove ry o ff i sh b one s d oe sn o ts e em t oh ave t a ken p lace u n t i l t h e 1 980 s . T h is a pp l ies p ar t icu la r ly t ow o rk d one i nD enma rk ( Enghof f 1 9 86 ;1989 ;1 99 1 ) . F ind ing f i sh b ones , s c a le s , o t o l i th s a nd s he l ls c an p rov ide e v idence f o r i n te re s t ing a s pec ts o fh uman d i e t . F o r i n s tance i tm igh t i n d ica te t h a t e i the r o n ly l a rge o r s ma l l f i sh w e re c augh t . l tm igh ta l so i n d ica te t h a tc e r ta in s pec ies w e re c augh ti nt h ep a s tt h a ta r en o t f o und t oday . T he a b sence o f ap ar t icu la r s pec ie s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd d oes n o t n e cessa r i ly i mp ly t h e r e ve r se h oweve r . T h is i sb ecau se s ome f i sh t h a t l i ve v ery d eep o f f 1 7

t h ec oa s ta nd n eve rv en tu r ei n sho r ec ou ld n o th ave b een c augh tw i th t h ea va i lab le e qu ipmen t i nt h e p a s t . D e te rm ina t ion s o fs e a son o fd ea th ( Ca s tee l 1 976 ; D e i th 1 983a ;1985 ; 1990 ; P ane l la 1 97 1) , t h e s i ze o ff i sh ing g ea r u sed a nd t h e s p ec ie s c augh t ( ? cho sen ) a r e a l so i mpo r tan t .T h is m igh tt e l l f i sh b ehav iou r . S econd ly e qu ipmen t u sed t o c a t ch r e cove red ,t h en i ti sl i ke ly

u sf i r s t ly w he the rs e a sona lv a r ia t ion sa r es im i la rt op r e sen t -day b one s ize s t a t is t ic s c an g i ve i n f o r ma t ion a bou t t h e s p ec ia l is t p a r t icu la r s p ec ie s . F o r e xamp le , i fo n ly l a rge c od b one s a r e t h a th ook so ro t he rg ea ru sed t oc a t ch t h em ,w ou ld h av eb een o f

ap a r t icu la rs i ze .C o r r e spond ing ly ,t h eb a i tu s ed w ou ld b es u i tab le f o rl a rge mou th s .S im i la r d educ t ion sc an b em ade r e ga rd ing t h es i ze o ft h eo pen ing si nf i sh t r ap s .T rap ss p e c if i ca l ly f o r e l s h ave d ev ice s i n co rpo ra ted w i th in t h em w h ich d i c ta te m ax imum b ody -w id th f o r e n t ry . T he m a te r ia l s a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e c a tch ing d ev ice s w i l l a l so b e i mpo r t an t f o r m ax imum e ff ic iency . A l l t h e se a spec t s h e lp w i th t h ed e ta i led s t udy o ft h e i mpo r t ance o f f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh i nt h ep r eh is to r ic d i e t . R ecen ts c ien t if ic a dvance si nt h ed e tec t ion o fm inu te q uan t i t ie so fc e r ta in e l emen ta l r e s idue s i nt h e b one s o fp r eh is to r ic h uman s c an n ow h e lp w i th f o rme r a s sump t ion s a nd s t a temen t s a bou td i e t( Bu r ton & P r ice 1 990 ; C lu t ton -B rock & N oe -Nygaa rd 1 990 ) . T h i s c ou ld b e r e ga rded a s d i r ec t e v idence . T h i s w ou ld c e r ta in ly b e t r ue i ft h e e xp e r imen ta l r e su l t sc onf i rm am a r ine p ro te in d i e t , r a the rt h an am ixed d i e to f av a r ie ty o fa n ima l s a nd v ege tab le s . O n ly i fh uman b one f r om s e t t led w a te r s ide e nv i ronmen t s h a s s u rv ived a nd b een r e cove r ed a r chaeo log ica l ly ,c an w em ak ef i rme rs t a temen t sa bou td i e t( J on s son 1 986 ) . T he a na ly s i so fd og b one f r om t h en o r th o fE ng land s howed t h a ti tw a sp o s s ib le t od e t e rm ine t h a tp a r t icu la ra n ima l 's d i e t . I tw a s mo s t ly o fm a r ine o r ig in . l tw ou ld a l so h ave b een p ro te in i nn a tu r ea sd og sd on o te a tc a rbohyd ra te -ba sed v ege tab le s .T he i rs t omach sc anno td i ges t c a rbohyd ra te s ( C lu t ton B rock & N oe -Nygaa rd 1 990 ) . F ur the re xpe r imen t so nh uman b one m ay g i ve t h es ame k i nd o fd e te rm ina t ion s .O ne c ou ld a r gue o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e d og e xpe r imen t d e t erm ina t ion s , t h a t t h is w a s af or m o f d i r ec tp roof .H oweve r ,a tp r e sen t ,w es t i l lc anno ti d en t if yf r e shwa te rf i sh r e s idue si nb one . We s t i l l c anno t d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween m a r ine f i sh a nd m a r ine s he l lf i sh r e s idue s i nb one . T he re i ss t i l l mo re r e sea r ch t ob ed one i nt h i sf i e ld . 1 . 2 Wha te v idence c an b ef ound f o rf i sh ing a c t iv i t ie s? S ome b a s ic a s sump t ion s h ave b een m ade r e ga rd ing p r eh is to r ic d i e t s . O ne i st h a t i n f o rma t ion o n f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh d i e t s i sf a r mo re l i ke ly t o b e a va i lab le a tw a te r s ide e nv i ronmen t st h an a nywhe re e l se . C onve r se ly ,a so ne move si n to t h eh i s to r ic p e r iod ,t h is s t a temen tb ecome sl e s sv a l id d ue t oi mp rovemen t si nt h et r an spo r to fr aw ma te r ia l s .T he r e w ou ld t h en b e aw id e ra va i lab i l i ty o ft h er e sou r ce .i n te rp r e t ing t h ee v idence f r om p r eh i s to r ic w a te r s ide e nv i ronmen t si sa l so i n d i rec ta nd i n f e ren t ia l : i fb one so f ac e r ta in s pec ie so ff i sh a r ef ound a t af o rme rp r eh is to r ic c oa s ta ls i te ,o ne c anno ti mmed ia te ly f i rm ly s t a t et h a tt h a t p a r t icu la rf i sh w a se a ten b yh uman s .I tc ou ld h ave d i ed n a tu ra l ly a nd h ave b een w a shed u p o n t h e s ho re . I t s b one s c ou ld t h en h ave b een p r e se rved b y as e t o ff o r tuna te b u tu nu sua l c i r cum s tance s . P a r to ft h a tf i sh c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o rb a i ta nd t h er e s tt h rown a way .O n af i sh ing e xped i t ion ,o ne s pec ie sm ay n o th ave b een r e qu i r ed . I tm ay h ave b een t o os ma l l o ra tt h a tt ime m ay n o th ave b een c on s ide r ed ad e l icacy .T he re a r en ume rous r e a son sw hy t h ei n i t ia lf i sh b one f i nd ss hou ld n o ti n voke a ni n s tan ts t a t emen ta bou tt h ed i e to fp r eh i s to r ic p eop le . T he se d i lemma s e ven t ua l ly b ecome r e conc i led w i th o t he ri n d i r ec t e v idence w h ich h e lp sw i th t h ea s se s smen to ft h ep r eh is to r ic d i e t . A l though t h ed imen s ion so ft h i si n d i rec t e v idence a r e c on s ide r ab le , w e m ay s t i l l r e qu i re s ome f u r the r , mo r e d i rec t e v idence t o c omp le te t h e p i c tu r e . T h is w i l l b e c on s ide red l a te ra nd c once rn s r e cen td eve lopmen t s i n t h es c ien t if i c a na ly s i s o fb one . O ne m e thod f o r t h e s t udy o f f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh i np r eh is to r ic d i e t c once rn s t h e 1 8

i d en t if ica t ion o fv a r iou s m ean s b y w h ich p eop le c ou ld h ave c augh t t h em . E v idence f o r h ook s , n e t s , f l oa t s , h a rpoons a nd s pea r s i st h e ' mob i l ia ry e v idence ' . I n t h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod i nE u rope , h ooks h ave b een f ound a tv a r ious s i te s , e spec ia l ly t h ose i nN o rway a t J a e ren a nd S k ipshe l le r en ( Hu rum 1 977 ,26 -27 ) ,b u ta l so i nD enma rk a tS v rdbo rg ,ø gaa rde a nd Mu l le rup ( C la rk 1 975 ,143 ) . Mo re r e cen t f i nd s o f Me so l i th ic f i sh h ook s h ave b een f o und a t/ E ro i nD enma rk ( G ron & S kaa rup 1 995 ,3 1 ) . Hook s a r e u se spec if ic , b u t n eve r the le ss s t i l l r ep re sen t o n ly i n d irec t e v idence f o r d i e ta ry i n take . S ome p os s ib i l i ty s t i l l e x is t st h a tt h e f i sh c augh t , c ou ld b e u sed f o rb a i tf o r c a tch ing o t he r ,p o ss ib ly l a rge r , f i sh o rs he l lf i sh . T he i d en t if ica t ion o fw ood o rb a rk f l oa t s ( t hough t h e se a r e o f t en N eo l i th ic ) , f r om R obenhausen a nd Wauwy l i nl a kes ide l o ca t ion s i n Sw i tze r land ,m ay i n d ica te a no r ig in i nt h e Me so l i th ic o re ven b ef o re ( Ke l le r I8 78 ,P la tes X & XX ) . R emnan t so fn e t sa l so p o in tt o as pec if ic f i sh ing p r ac t ice ,b u tt h ea bove c au t ion c oncern ing d i e ts t i l la pp l ie sw hen i n terp re t ing t h e i rp resence a t as i te .T he n e t sc ou ld e ven h ave b een u sed t oc over h uman h a i r . T hey c ou ld a l so h ave b een u sed f o rc a r ry ing f i sh o r f o rt h ec o l lec t ion o ff r u i t so rn u t s . Ac oa s ta lc on tex tw ou ld ,h oweve r ,r e duce t h is p o ss ib i l i ty . l ti sa l so p o s s ib le t om ake as t udy o ft h ed ep ic t ion so ff i sh o rs he l lf i sh i nt h ep a r ie ta l a r t o fp reh i s to r ic p eop le t h a t u sed c ave s f o r s he l te r . T hough s ome o ft h ese h ave b een d e te rm ined t ob eP a laeo l i th ic ,o t he r sm ay w e l ld a te f r om e a r ly Meso l i th ic t imes ( S ievek ing , A& G 1 962 , 118 , 187 ; S i evek ing , A .199 1 ,39 ,46 ; B ahn & V er tu t 1 988 , 132 ; Ma r schack 1 991,170 -17 1,177 179 ,200 -201 ,274 ) . O nce a ga in , ad ep ic t ion d oes n o t m ean t ha t a p a r t icu la rf i sh w a se a ten . I tc ou ld ,i nf a c t ,h ave m ean tt h eo ppo s i te .T he d ep ic t ion i n ac ave c ou ld h ave m ean tt h ef i sh w a sr e ve red f o rs a c red w o r sh ip o n ly ,n eve rt ob ep ar to ft h ed i e t . We may n eve rk now a bou tt h is , b u tw e c an a r gue f o rt h a tp o ss ib i l i ty . T he s t a t ic , i n d i rec te v idence f o rt h ec a tch ing o ff i sh ,c oncerns t h ep re sence o ft r ap s , w h ich c an b eo ft h ew oven b a ske tt y pe ( s ee f o re xamp le : P ede r sen 1 995 , { f i g 1 0 &f i g 1 71 a nd f o r ar e cons truc t ion s e e My rhø j 1 998 , 1f i g sA -H } ) .A lso ,t h es t one w a l lo rw e ir t y pe o f t r ap , wou ld h ave b een s t ra teg ica l ly p l aced u sua l ly n ea r t h e e s tua ry o f ar i ver . T he i d en t if ica t ion o ft h ese w e i r s o fs t one m ay b e d i ff icu l t u n le s s t h ey h ad b ecome b u r ied f o r c ons ide rab le l e ng th so ft ime a nd h ad r e cen t ly b een r ed iscove red a t as ubme rged s i te .T h is h a s b een p o s s ib le i nA us t ra l ia a tR ocky C ape ( d a ted t o at ime p e r iod e qu iva len t t ot h e E u ropean Meso l i th ic ) ( F lood 1 995 ,20 1) . T he re i s ,h oweve r , h i s to r ica l e v idence f o rt h em ( S tewa r t 1 982 ,119 -123 ) a nd mode rn e t hnog raph ic e v idence t o o , w h ich c an b eu sed when s t udy ing t h e ir f o rm , f unc t ion a nd u l t ima te s ucces s ( F lood , 1 995 ,232 ,243 ) . C er ta in ly t h e s t reng th o ft h e a r gumen t f o r a ccep t ing t h ese s t ruc tu re s a nd t h e ir c a tch ing c apac i ty i s i mp roved w hen t h ee t hnog raph ic e v idence i sc on s ide red w o r ldw ide .O ne s hou ld b ec a ref u l , h owever ,w hen r e la t ing t h ee t hnog raph ic e v idence f o rs t one w e ir st ot h e i ru se i np r eh i s to ry i nE u rope . O n ly c e r ta in e s tua r ies a nd r i ve r sw ou ld h ave b een s u i tab le f o rt h e ir u se w he re t i da l f l ow w a s a dequa te . 1 . 3

O ther e v idence : d ugou t s , h ear ths a nd c ook ing p o t s . O ne p a r t icu la ra s pec to ft h ee v idence f r om w ooden l o gboa t so rd ugou t si sa l so r e levan t

t of i sh a nd d i e t . S ome b u rn ing h a s b een i d en t if ied i nt h e i n te r io r o fs ome o ft h e se b oa t s ( Ander sen 1 987a ,94 -95 , f i g s1 0 ,11) w h ich A nde r sen r e f e r st oa s a' f i rep lace ' . H ed oe sn o t d i scuss t h ep oss ib le r e a sons f o rs uch a' f i rep lace ' . I ti sn o t c on s ide red b yA nde r sen t ob e f r om t h ei n i t ia ls hap ing o rc u t t ing d own o ft h eb oa t . As im i la r' f i rep lace 'w a sf ound i nt wo d ugou t sf r om L y s t rup ,J u t land ( Ande r sen 1 994a , 18 ,23 , 1 , f i g s8 b , 14 }) .T he q ue s t ion r ema in s a st o whe the r a ny f i sh -cook ing t o ok p l ace i n s ide t h e d ugou t s . I ts e ems t om e t h a t t h e l i ke l ihood i st h a t af i re w a sk ep tg o ing i nt h ed ugou ts ot h a tt o rche so fs ome k i nd c ou ld b e k ep t l i tf o rh o ld ing o ve rt h e e dge o ft h e b oa tt oa t t rac t p ar t icu la r s pec ie s o ff i sh a tn igh t . E t hnog raph ic e xamp le sm igh t i n d ica te t h is t ob e ad i s t inc tp o s s ib i l i ty ( Seve r in 1 973 ,128 ; C u sh ing 1 988 ,43 ; S t ewar t 1 982 ,74 ; F lood 1 995 ,207 ) . T he h ear th s i d en t if ied o n l a nd a t

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s ome s i te sm ay i nd ica te a n e x ten s ion o ft h is p r ac t ice s ot h a tt h e re w a s a lways ab a se a r ea o ff i re f r om w h ich o t he r f i res c ou ld b e l i t( G röenend i jk 1 987 ,93 , f i g 5 ) . N a tu ra l ly o ne c ou ld a l so a r gue f o rt h e p r esence o f ah ear th b e ing w he re f i sh o ro t he rf ood w a s c ooked b ef o re c onsump t ion . O ne c anno ta r gue a ga in s tt h is e i the r . 1 . 4

U s ing modern a nd e thnograph ic e xamp le s .

R e sea rch i n t h is s ub jec t a r ea h a s s hown t h a t i ti si mpo r tan t t o u se moder n a nd e t hnog raph ic e xamp le s t o c ompa re w i th Me so l i th ic m a te r ia l s u sed i na s soc ia t ion w i th f i sh ing . l ti sb o th t h em a te r ia l u se a nd t h ef o rm a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h ef i sh ing g ea rt h a ti s e xam ined i nd e ta i l i nc hap te r s 3& 1 0 . Mo re t h an o ne v i s i th a s b een m ade t ot h ea r ea s i n B r i ta in w he re t h e manuf ac tu re a nd u se o fs im i la re qu ipmen tc an b es e en . D iscu s s ion w i th t h o se i n vo lved i nt h es t ra teg ie so fs pec if ic k i nd so ff i sh ing ,h a sa l so b een r ewa rd ing .T he se d i scus s ion s h ave e nab led ak i nd o fe mpa the t ic a pp roach t ob e a pp l ied t owa rd s ab e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep r eh is to r ic s i tua t ion . I tm us tb ee mpha s i sed t h a ti ti sb o th t h em a te r ia ls a nd t h e ir a pp l ica t ion t h a tc an b e c ompa red i nt h is w o rk . 1 . 5

E v idence f or i nd iv idua l s pec ie s c augh t .

A dd i t iona le v idence f o rt h is s t udy i sd e r ived f r om t h ea c tua lf i sh a nd s he l lf ish r ema ins . T he b ody p ar t o fa ny f i sh i ss of t a nd d oe s n o tp r e se rve . O ne n eed s , t h e refo re , t or e cove r t ho se p a r t so ft h ea n ima lw h ich h ave b een w e l lp r e served ,t h a ti s ,w he re t h ere i sl i t t le o rn o t a phonom ic l o ss .T he h a rdes tp ar t so ft e leo s tf i sh a r et h eb one s ,s c a le sa nd o to l i th s . S he l ls , d ue t ot h e ir h i gh c a lc ium c on ten t , w i l l p r ese rve w e l l i nm any l o ca t ion s . T he m a jo r i ty o f f i sh s ke le tons d i sa r t icu la te o ve rt ime . Sma l l f i sh h ave e x t reme ly s ma l l , d e l ica te b ones . I f t h eh a rdened , c a lc if ied p ar ti ss u i tab ly p r ese rved ,t h en i tw i l l s t i l l r e qu i re as e r ie so fs ma l l s i eve st or e cove rt h e s ma l l d i sar t icu la ted b one s ,e spec ia l ly v er teb rae w h ich o f ten g i ve t h e b es t c l ue s t oi n d iv idua l s pec ie s . O nce r e cove red , t h e b one s c an b e i d en t if ied t os p ec ies , p rov id ing as u i tab le r e f e rence c o l lec t ion i sa va i lab le (Whee le r &J ones 1 989 ) . S i ev ing a nd s ubsequen ti d en t if ica t ion m e thod s a r e n ow mo r e a dvanced a nd d e ta i led s pec ie s ' l i s t s c an b ed rawn u pf r om mu seum r e f e rence c o l lec t ion so ff i sh b one s .T h is c ou ld t h en b ef a r mo re i n d ica t ive o ft h e l i ke ly d i e t a tt h e t ime . T h is h a s b een r e cen t ly d i scu s sed i ns ome d e ta i l ( Enghof f1 989 ,48 -49 ; 1 991 ,106 112 ; Me l la r s &W i lk inson 1 980 ,19 -44 ) . I ns ome c a ses , i t m ay b eu sef u lt oc ompa r es pec ie s ' l i s t sf r om p r eh is to r ic t ime sw i th amode rn l i s to fs pec ies a va i lab le f r om t h es ame l o ca l i ty .T h is s hou ld p e rhap sn ow b ed one b y mo re a r chaeo log is t s i n vo lved i ni c h thyo log ica l e xcava t ion s . C lose e xam ina t ion o fo to l i th s r e cove r ed f r om c e r ta in s i te s h a s r e vea led i mpor tan t i n forma t ion a bou tt h es e a son i nw h ich f i sh d i ed a nd w e re p re sumab ly e a ten ( Ca s t ee l 1 976 ; Me l la r s &W i lk inson 1 980 ; C o l ley 1 983 ) . T h i s w o rk i st ime -con sum ing a nd i n vo lve s a d eg ree o fb i o log ica lk now ledge a nd c a ref u lu se o ft h em ic ro scope i nt h el a bo ra to ry .O to l i th s n eed s e c t ion ing b ef o re t h e a bove d e term ina t ion s c an b em ade . 1 . 6 S he l l e v idence : u se a sf ood o r b a i t . S he l ls f r om m iddens h ave b een k nown f o r s ome c ons ide rab le t ime , a s e xp la ined a bove . Wha t h a s n o t b een f u l ly d i scu ssed i st h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h e a n ima ls f r om t h ese s he l ls w e re u sed f o rb a i t ( De i th 1 990 ,77 ) . E a r ly w r i te r s m ade ag ene ra l a s sump t ion t h a t p eop le a t e t housands o fs he l lf i sh i nt h e i r d i e t . T h is i sn o t ac onv inc ing a rgumen t . T he re h a s a l so b een t h e a r gumen t t h a t s t rong w ind s c an w a sh u p t h ou sand s o f emp ty s h e l ls o n o ne t i de ( I b id 1 990 ,77 ) . O the r i lus t ra t ions i nt h e l i t e ra tu re c onf i rm t h i s . T he a n ima ls d i e n a tu ra l ly o n t h e s ea -bed c l o se t ot h e f o re sho r e a nd a r e p hy s ica l ly w a shed u p ( Muench 1 993 ) . S t udy o f s he l l m idden s i sn ever the le s s v ery i mpo r tan t a nd u sua l ly s how s c l ea r i n d ica t ion o fl a ye r s i n term ixed w i th o t he r a r t if ac t s a s soc ia ted w i th h uman a c t iv i ty . T h is c l ea r ly s how s t h e mound s o rm iddens o fs he l ls h ave n o t b een p roduced n a tu ra l ly . C lue s r e la t ing t o s easona l i ty o f g a the r ing c an b e d e term ined a nd t h e refo re , t he ir a l ka l ine e nv i ronmen ta t as pec if ic s t ra tum c an h e lp t op r e serve f i sh b one sg ene ra l ly . Wo rk c on t inue s 2 0

t ob e d one o n t h e se m idden s , much o fi ti n vo lv ing r e -excava t ion . T h is h a s r e cen t ly b een d one b yA nde r sen a nd J ohan sen ( Ande r sen & J ohan sen 1 986 ) . T he b es td i rec t e v idence f o rd i e tw ou ld c ome f r om t h e h uman b ody i t se lf . I ns ome c a ses ,t h eg u tc on ten to fb od ie s f ound i nb og sh a sp rov ided i nd ica t ions o fd i e t( S tead e ta ! 1 986 ) , t h ough m any o ft h ese a r e f r om l a te rp e r iod s . T he se s t ud ie s a r e r e la t ive ly n ew a nd w i l lh opef u l ly c on t inue t op rov ide a ne ven c l ea re re v idence o ft h ed i e to fp r eh is to r ic p eop le . S o f a r , t h eg u tc on ten to fb og b od ie s i nt h is c oun t ry h a sn o tr evea led a ny e v idence o ff i sh i nt he d i e t . B u t a b road , i n ve s t iga t ion s c on t inue a nd i ti sh oped t h i s i n f o rma t ion m ay s oon b ea va i lab le . I tw a sm en t ioned a bove t h a tt h e re i so ne o t he rc onc lu s ive m eans o fi d en t if y ing f i sh o rs he l lf i sh a s ap a r t o ft h e p r eh is to r ic d i e t . T h is i n vo lve s i nve s t iga t ions o n t h e b one s o f h uman s f r om b u r ia ls a t av a r ie ty o f s i tes w he re m a r ine r e sou rce s w ere e i the r r e ad i ly a va i lab le , o r n o t e a s i ly a va i lab le . T h is e nab led ' c on t ro ls ' t o b e u sed t o h e lp w i th t h e v a l ida t ion o ft h e r e su l t s ( Bu r ton & P r ice 1 990 , C lu t ton -Brock & N oe -Nygaa rd 1 990 ) . I t h a s b een s hown i n Ame r ica , t h a t t h e B a r ium /S t ron t ium r a t io i d en t if ied i nb one s i sq u i te s pec if ic w hen t h e d i e t i so f am a r ine n a tu re . T h is h ad p rev ious ly b een s hown i nt h e e xam ina t ion o ft h eb one so f aMe so l i th ic d og f ound i nY o rk sh ire . I n ves t iga t ion sc on t inue i nt h is f i e ld a nd a n e xpe r imen t i sp l anned s ot h a ti n ve s t iga t ions w i l l p e rhap s d i f f e ren t ia te b e tween m a r ine mo l lu scs a nd m a r ine s pec ie s o ff i sh i nt h e d i e t . T he re w i l l a lway s b e s ome l im i ta t ions w i th r e ga rd t os t a temen t s t h a t c an b e m ade a bou t p r eh is to r ic d i e t s . C onc lu s ions w i l l n ever the less , b e i n c rea s ing ly mo re a ccep tab le o nce mo re h uman b one s a nd g u t c on ten t s a r e e xam ined f r om b u r ia ls ( o r s a c r if ice s ) a t w a ter s ide s i te s . O ne s hou ld r emembe rt h a tt h is i st h e ' d irec te v idence ' . O ne c on t inue s t ob e l im i ted b y t h e a va i lab le n umbe r o fh uman b one s f r om t h e se s i tes a nd f r om t h e i n ev i tab le d ecay o fs of t t i ssue s a nd o t he r m a te r ia ls f r om w i th in b og b od ies .O ne i sa l so l i m i ted b o th l o g is t ica l ly a nd f i nanc ia l ly b yt h el a bo ra to r ie sa nd n umbe r s o fs u i tab ly q ua l if ied p eop le a b le t od evo te t ime t ot ho se e xpe r imen t s w h ich p rov ide t h e d i rec tp roof o ft h en a tu re o ft h e h uman p reh is to r ic d i e t . 1 . 7 T he i mpor tance o fs ea leve l c hange ( i sos ta sy a nd e us ta sy ) . T h is r e sea r ch h a s h ad t oe mb race a n u nde r s tand ing o fs ea leve l c hange w h ich m ay h ave a f f ec ted p eop le i nt h eD an ish p en in su la rd u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic . G eog raph ica l ly , t h e s i tua t ion i nt h is r e g ion i sc omp lex . Me l ted i c e -wa te rf r om g l ac ie r sa nd t i l t ing o ft h el a nd i n a n i r regu la rf a sh ion , h ave a l so a f f ec ted c oa s ta l a c t iv i t ie s . Ab r ief i n t roduc t ion t ot h ew ay i n wh ich i s o s ta sy a nd e us ta sy h ave a f f ec ted c oa s ta l a c t iv i t ie s i sr e sea rched , t h ough n o d e ta i ls o fr e sea rch i n to a c tua ls e t t lemen t st h a t may h ave o ccur red a ts pec if ic p o in t s o nt h e c oas t a r er e sea rched . R e sea rch b yo t he r so n t h is s ub jec tc on t inue s , h oweve r . 1 . 8 R ad iocarbon d a te s , c a l ibra t ion a nd c hrono logy . I tw ou ld b e u sef u l t oh ave s ome c l ea r c h rono logy f o r f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie s d u r ing t h e Meso l i th ic . T h is w ou ld s how , p e rhap s , w hen f i sh ing s t ar ted i nt h e a r ea o fs t udy a nd h ow i td eve loped . I mp rovemen t s , i fa ny , i nc a tch ing m e thods c ou ld t h en b e v i ewed o ve r a p e r iod o ft ime . I ft h e r ew a s am a rked c hange i nc a tch ing c apac i ty , k now ing w hen o rw hy t h is h appened w ou ld i n c rea se o u rk now ledge o ft h e s ub jec t . O ve rt h el a s tt wo d ecades ,m any ma r ine s he l ls f r om ar ange o fs i te s ,h ave b een d a ted b y t wo l a bo ra to r ie s i nD enma rk . S t r ic t r e t r ieva l f r om c a ref u l ly i d en t if ied s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ions a ts pec if ic s i t e si sr e qu i red .T h is k i nd o fc o r rec t ly r e co rded d a ta i sv i ta lt of u r the r t h ea na ly s i so f ma r ine s h e l ld a te s .C a l ib ra t ion o ft h e se d a te ss hou ld n ow a l so b es t anda rd ised . T h is h a s n o t a lway s b een d one i n t h e r e cen t p a s t , b u t h as b een c ar r ied o u t h e re . I f c ompa r i son s a r e t ob e m ade b e tween t h e D an ish d a ta a nd d a ta f r om o the r s i te s , t h en t h e s t anda rd isa t ion p rocedu res t h a th ave b een f o l lowed h e re ,s hou ld b eu sed .T h is w ou ld b eo f c on t inu ing v a lue t ot h o se r e sea r ch ing o t he ra r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . As pec if ic c a l ib ra t ion

2 1

c urve s hou ld b e c ho sen t ow o rk w i th , f o l lowed b y as pec if ic g r aph ics p rog ramme f o rt h e p r e sen ta t ion o ft h er e su l t s . F o rt h ef u tu re ,n ew d a te sc an b ec a l ib ra ted a nd r e p re sen ted g r aph ica l ly i ne xac t ly t h e s ame w ay a sd esc r ibed h e re . A much c l ea re rp i c tu re o ft h ec h rono logy f o rw ha teve rp e r iod b e ing r e sea rched w ou ld e me rge . W i th r ega rd t ot h er e sea r ch c a r r ied o u th e re , ad a te -o rde r g r aph f o r t h e d epo s i t ion o fo y s te r s he l ls a nd o t he r o rgan ic m a te r ia l , i ss hown ( c hap te r 5 a nd A ppend ice s ) .U se o fo t he rm a ter ia la nd a r t if ac t sf ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e se s h e l ls t h en f i t s i nw i th t h e g ene ra l c h rono logy p ropo sed . T h is i sa l so s hown g r aph ica l ly , u s ing t h es t anda rd ised p rocedu res . I ti s made c l ea ri nc hap te r 5t h a tt h e re i s ad i f f e rence b e tween t h e ' a r t if ic ia l d a te -order ' o ft h e c a l ib ra ted d a te s a nd t h e a c tua l c hrono logy f o r t h e d epo s i t ion o fo y s te rs he l l s i nm iddens , f o re xamp le . 1 . 9 T he ' a rr iva l ' o fa gr icu l ture . I d en t if y ing t h ee f f ec to ft h e ' a r r iva l ' o fa g r icu l tu ra lp r ac t ices i sa l so i n c luded i nt h is r e sea rch ( chap te r 1 ) . Much o ft h e h i s to r ica l i n f o rma t ion o n t h is s ub jec t c once rn s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ff a rm ing p rac t ice s a tt h e e nd o ft h e 4 t h m i l lenn ium B C . T h is h ad b een c h ief ly d one t h rough g ra in a nd p o t te ry r ema in s . D u r ing t h is r e sea rch , i th a sb ecome c l ea r t h a ta l though a g r icu l tu ra lp rac t ice sc an b ei d en t if ied ,f i sh ing d i dn o tc ea se . W i thou tg o ing i n to t h ed e ta i ls o fN eo l i th ic w ay so fl i f e g ene ra l ly , i d en t if y ing f i sh ing s t ra teg ies h a sb een p o ss ib le a s ar e su l to f many r e cen ta r chaeo log ica l d i scove r ie s i nD enma rk . I ti si mpo r tan t i nt h is w o rk t o i d en t if y p os t -Meso l i th ic f i sh ing t h rough g r aph ic r ep r esen ta t ion s o ft h e s t anda rd ised r a d ioca rbon d a te s . F i sh ing a s as pec ia l ised a c t iv i ty i sc ompa red w i th v e ry s im i la r moder ns i tua t ions . T h is h as p roved u sef u la nd c l a r if ies w ha th appened a tt h ec oas t d u r ing a nd a f te rt h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod i nD enma rk .

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2 Ab r ief h i s tory o ft he d i scover ie s a nd i n i t ia l i n terpre ta t ions o ft he ma ter ia l e v idence f r om Me so l i th ic mar ine /coas ta l s i te s i nv ar ious p lace s i n NW E urope . 2 . 1

E ar ly w ork o n t he Me so l i th ic i nD enmark .

T he m id 1 9 th c en tury w o rk i nD enma rk o n s he l l mound s h e lped t oe s tab l ish t h e ' Meso l i th ic ' a sp a r to ft h ep reh is to r ic p e r iod . S im i la rc oa s ta l s i tes i nB r i ta in , p ar t icu la r ly i nS co t land ,w e re a l so e xcava ted b ef o re 1 900 ,t hough n od ef in i t ive s t a temen t sw e re made a tt h a t t ime a bou t t h e i r a ge . N o o ve rv iew o ft h e l i f e s ty le o ft h e p eop le o ft h e Meso l i th ic w a s a b le t ob e g i ven . S ome a r chaeo log is t s t r ied t oi d en t ify t h e p eop le a nd t h e m a te r ia l w i th k nown E u ropean ' c u l tu re s ' b y c ompa r ing t h e l i t h ic a s semb lage s . E a r ly e xam ina t ion o ft h e r e cove red ma te r ia l f r om t h e se s i te s l e d t o g ene ra l ised i n terp re ta t ion sc oncern ing t h es he l lf i sh e a t ing h ab i t so ft h ep eop le . A tt h a tt ime , l i t t le e l se w a s d i scu ssed , b u t i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h e m a ter ia l c on t inued t ob e e xp re ssed b y v a r iou s a u tho r s . Mo re mound s , p ar t icu la r ly i nS co t land , b u t a l so i nD enma rk , c on t inued t o b e e x cava ted t h rough t h e e a r ly d ecade s o ft h e 2 0 th c en tu ry . As ma l l a moun t o ff i sh b one m a ter ia l w a s r e t r ieved . R ecen t d eve lopmen t s i ns i ev ing m e thod s h ave p rov ided mo re m a te r ia l , e spec ia l ly f i sh b ones ,t h an w a sa va i lab le f r om t h ee a r ly e xcava t ion s . S i tes a r ea l so b e ing d i scove red i nc oa s ta l a nd m a r ine a r ea s i no t he r c oun t r ies . L ook ing a tt h e se a nd u nde r s tand ing t h e c h ang ing m e thodo logy f o rt h er e covery a nd a na ly s i s o fm a te r ia ls a nd t h er e in terp re ta t ion o fo ld d a ta , i sn ow h e lp ing t oc l a r if yt h ew ay o fl i f e o ft h e Meso l i th ic i n hab i tan t s a tt h ese c o as ta l s i tes . Moder n e t hnog raph ic a na logy h a s a l so p l ayed i t s p a r t . L ook ing a t moder n f i sh ing s t ra teg ies a nd p r ac t ice s c e r ta in ly h e lp s t ou nde r s tand t h ep reh is to r ic s i tua t ion . 2 . 2

I den t ify ing t he Me so l i th ic . 2 . 21

I n S cand inav ia a nd F rance .

I n terp re ta t ion so ft h em a te r ia l f r om e a r ly ma r ine o rc oa s ta l s i te s i nv a r iou sp l aces i n n or th w es t E u rope h ad o r ig ina l ly b een c l ouded b yi n dec is ions c oncern ing t h ep e r iod n ow k nown a st h e Meso l i th ic . l ti sc l ea rf r om t h e l i t e ra tu re ,t h a td u r ing t h e l a s tc en tury , i tw a s c ons idered a nd w ide ly a ccep ted t h a tt h ep e r iod f o l low ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic w a sr e f er red t o a st h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . T he h i s tory o ft h is s ub jec ta r ea c on t inued t ob ed eba ted b ya r chaeo log is t s ,n a tu ra l is t s a nd g eo log is t sa nd t h e ref o re d e se rve ss ome f u r the ra na lys is .T he c o re a r ea sf o rt h is d eba te s e em t oh ave b een S cand inav ia ,F rance a nd B r i ta in . I n te res t ing ly , i nC openhagen a se a r ly a s 1 848 , J . J .A . Wo r saae w a s i n vo lved i n ac omm is s ion s e t u p t o i n ve s t iga te t h e s he l l m ound si nZ ea land ,D enma rk ( K l ind t Jen sen 1 975 ,7 1) . Wo r saae t hough tt h em a te r ia lf r om t h em idden sw a se a r l ie rt h an t h e( Neo l i th ic )m ega l i th so fD enma rk .S t een s t rup , az oo log i s t , d i sag reed . N ea r ly t wo d ecade sl a te r ,f odde r We s t ropp a dd re s sed t h eR oya lA n th ropo log ica l I n s t i tu te ( 1866 ) a nd s ugges ted t h e Me so l i th ic a nd K a ino l i th ic a s p e r iod s f o l low ing t h e P a laeo l i th ic , b u t b ef o r e t h e N eo l i th ic . T h i s i d ea w a s e l abo ra ted u pon i n ap ub l ica t ion o f 1 8 72 ( Dan ie l 1 98 1‚ 1 02 ) .E ven tua l ly ,i tw a s aSwed ish g eo log i s t ,O t to T o re l lw ho p e r s is ted w i th t h et e rm ' Me so l i th ic ' a tt h eI n te rna t iona lC ong re s so fA rchaeo logy a nd A n th ropo logy a tS tockho lm i n1 874 . T owa rd st h ee nd o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ,E doua rd P i e t te 's e xcava t ions a tt h e Ma sd 'Az i l i nF rance p rov ided f u r the ri n d ica t ion st h a tt h e re w a sn ol a rge ' g ap 'o ra nden h i a tu sb e tween t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e N eo l i th ic ( P ie t te 1 895 ) . S t ra t ig raph ic a r t if ac t e v idence i nt h e se c a ves r e su l ted i na na c cep tance t h a tt h e re w a si n deed a ni n terven ing p e r iod ,t h e Me so l i th ic . T h is t e rm ' Meso l i th ic ' a ppea red t oh ave b een f i na l ly a ccep ted . 2 3

B y 1 900 , s ome d e ta i ls w e re r evea led a tt h e ( now )c l a s s ic E r tebo l le s i te i nD enma rk a s ar e su l to ft h e s e cond D an ish c omm is s ion , f o rmed t oe xam ine a nd r e po r tf u r the ro nt h e k i tchen m iddens . Much s he l lf i sh a nd o t he r ma te r ia l w a s r e cove red . T he r e su l t s w e re p ub l ished i n amonog raph :A ! ja ld sd vnger f r aS t ena ld eren iD anmark {Wa s te h eap s f r om t h e S tone A ge i nD enma rk ( Mad sen e ia ! 1 900 ) . 2 . 22 I n B r i ta in ( bef ore 1 900 ) . T he f i nd ing s a nd i n te rp re ta t ions i nD enma rk s e em t oh ave b een n o ted b y c e r ta in a r chaeo log i s t s i nB r i ta in d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e 1 9 th c en tury . J ohn L ubbock h ad w r i t ten a bou t t h e D an ish ' k jökkenmödd ing s ' a se a r ly a s 1 86 1 ( Lubbock 1 86 1 , 489 -504 ) . S oon a f t e r ,h ew ro te a ga in a bou ts im i la rS co t t ish e xamp le s ,i nh i sb ook P reh i s tor ic T imes , ( Lubbock 1 9 13 ,244 -249 ) .T h is i sa ni n te re s t ing p o in t ,a so t he rw r i te r sa tt h et ime ( Ande r son 1 898 ) ,m ade n or e f e rence t ot h e S cand inav ian w r i te r s ,t h e i rw o rk , o rt h e ir d e l ibe ra t ions a t v a r iou s c ong re sses ( s ee a bove ) . I nS co t land , n eve r the les s , e xcava t ion s d id t ake p l a ce o n O ronsay w he r e n ume rou s s he l l -mound s w e re f ound . T he se a ppea r v ery s im i la r i nf o rm a nd m a te r ia l c on ten t t ot h e D an ish e xamp les . T he ir s he l l , b one a nd f i sh -bone c on ten t s w e re r e por ted i nr e a sonab le d e ta i l ( G r ieve 1 885 ; A nde r son 1 898 ) , b u tt h e re a ppea rt ob e n or e f e rence st ot h eD an ish a r chaeo log is t s ' wo rk i nt h eS co t t i sh j ou rna l so ft h et ime .S ome i n i t ia l c ompa r ison o ft h is S co t t ish m a ter ia l w a sa l so m ade w i th t h e ma te r ia l f r om t h e Ma s d 'Az i l i nF rance ( Breu i l 1 921 ,275 -28 1) ,t h ough t h is w a s n o t af o rme rc oa s ta l s i t e . 2 . 23 T he w ork o fG rahame C lark . When G rahame C la rk c ame t oC amb r idge , t h e w o rk o n t h is p e r iod i n p r eh i s tory c on t inued . H is p ub l ica t ions ,o nt h e Me so l i th ic a nd o nt h ee conomy o ft h ep eop le l i v ing i n c oa s ta l a r ea s , i n c luded h i s b ooks : T he Me so l i th ic A ge i nB r i ta in ( C la rk 1 932 ) a nd T he Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen to fN or thern E urope ( C la rk 1 936 ) . Ar e sumé o ft h ee a r ly d i scover ies o n O ron say i n i t ia l ly a ppea red i nh i s f i r s tb ook o nt h e Me so l i th ic ( I b id 1 932 ,14 16 ) . T hereaf te r , p os twa r p ub l ica t ions c on t inued t o c on ta in f u r the r d e ta i ls o f c on t inu ing e xcava t ion so fp robab le Me so l i th ic s i te s ,b o th i nB r i ta in a nd D enma rk i np ar t icu la r( S he te l ig &F a lk 1 937 ;C la rk 1 948 ;1 952b ; Sm i th 1 952 ;T homp son 1 954 ;A nde r sen 1 985 ;1 987b ;1 989 ; A nde r sen & J ohan sen 1 986 ; E nghof f 1 986 ;1989 ;1991) . T hough t s o n t h e a c t iv i t ie s a nd e conomy o ft h e p eop le w ho o ccup ied t h e se s i tes a l so c on t inued t ob e p ub l ished , w h ich h e lped t o g i ve amuch mo re u nde r s tandab le o ve rv iew o f l i f e i ng ene ra l ( Ch i lde 1 935 ; C la rk 1 953 ) . 2 . 3

E ar ly 2 0 th C en tury v i ew s o n l i f e a tt he c oas ti nt he Me so l i th ic . D ur ing t h e n ex t t h ree d ecades ( a f ter 1 900 ) , t h ere w as f u r the r d i scu s s ion a nd

a s se s smen to ft h e Me so l i th ic ,v i ewed p a r t icu la r ly f r om B r i ta in ( Bu rk i t t 1 925a ;1 925b ;C la rk 1 932 ;1 936 ) .G rahame C la rk 's wo rk ,T he Me so l i th ic A ge i nB r i ta in ,w a sp ub l ished i n1 932 a nd i n1 936 T he Me so l i th ic S e t t lemen to fN or thern E urope w a sp ub l ished . Much f u r the r w o rk h a ss i nce b een d one ,p a r t icu la r ly i nS cand inav ia ,b u ta l so i no t he rE u ropean c oun t r ies , o n t h e s ub jec t o f Meso l i th ic ma te r ia l f r om c oa s ta l , m a r ine a nd i n land s i tes w h ich w e re f o rme r ly o n t h e c oas t i n Me so l i th ic t ime s . Many o ft h e se s i te s c on ta ined l a rge q uan t i t ies o fs he l ls a nd i ns ome p l ace ss uch a sa t Mo r ton ,F i f e ,S co t land ,l a rge a moun t so ff i sh -bone s a nd o t he rf i sh ing m a te r ia ls h ad b een f ound ( Co les 1 971 ,35 1-353 ) . O ve r t h e l a s t 5 0 y ea r s o r s o , c l a ss ic s i te s , s uch a st h o se a tE r tebo l le a nd O ronsay , h ave b een r e -exam ined ( Ande r sen & J ohan sen 1 986 ; E nghof f1 986 ; Me l la r s 1 978 ;1 987 ) . T he m a te r ia lh a sn ow b een mo re c l o se ly d a ted u s ing mode rn m e thod sa nd ac l ea r e rp i c tu re o fl i f e i nt h e Me so l i th ic a tm any s i te s i nN o r thern E u rope i sn ow e me rg ing . 2 . 4

L ook ing a tt he l andscape : d e term in ing Me so l i th ic s i te s . 2 . 41 E xamp le s f r om ma in land E urope . Many mo re Me so l i th ic c oa s ta l s i tes h ave b een e xcava ted i nD enma rk ( Ander sen

1 985 ;1987b ; 1989 ;1990 ; A nde r sen & J ohansen 1 986 ; E nghof f 1 986 ;1989 ;199 1) . O the r

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c oun t r ie sp roduc ing m a ter ia lo fi n te re s th e re i n c lude P o r tuga l( F e r r ie ra B icho 1 993 ) , No rway ( O lsen 1 967 ; R enouf 1 989 ) a nd H o l land ( B r inkhu izen 1 979 ) , t hough t h e e v idence f r om H o l land o n ly a ppea r st od a te f r om t h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic ( c . 3 500bc u nca l ib ra ted ) . T he mo s t l i ke ly r e a son f o rt h is i st h a t l a rge a r ea s o fl a nd i nt h ea r ea o ft h e s ou thern No r th S ea ,

F igure 2 . 1

Map s how ing t h ea rea o /s ubs id ence ( s ince t he e nd o ft h el a s tI c eA ge ) , i nt h e s ou thern Nor th

S ea . T h i s i si nc ontras t t o Denmark w here m i tch o ft h e l a nd h a s r i sen .

A / icr S park s & W e s t 1 972 ,125 .

s ub s ided , c oncom i tan tw i th t h ep os t -g lac ia l s e a leve lr i se ( F ig 2 . 1) . I ns ome p l aces , Meso l i th ic s i te s h ave h ad t ob e e xcava ted o n t h e s e a f l oo r , a ga in a st h e r e su l to fc hang ing c oa s t l ine so ve rt h es ame p e r iod o ft ime ( La r s son 1 983 ;A nde r sen 1 985 ; A nde r sen & J ohan sen 1 986 : G rön & S kaa rup 1 995 ) . I tc an b e s e en f r om t h e r e f e rence s a l r eady m en t ioned t h a ts i te s a nd ma te r ia l e v idence c on t inue t ob e f ound u pt ot h ep resen t ( 1 998 )a nd f i nance sa nd l a bou rp e rm i t t ing , mo re e v idence m ay c on t inue t ob ef o r thcom ing . 2 . 42 B r i t ish e xamp le s . I nve s t iga t ing p o ss ib le s i te s whe re Me so l i th ic p eop le s l i ved a nd w ere i n vo lved i n f i sh ing p rac t ice si sf i r s t ly d ependen to na pp rec ia t ing t h a tc oa s t l ines h ave c hanged .I ns ome c a se s ,o ve rt h el a s tt e nm i l lenn ia a tl e a s t ,t h is h a sb een q u i te d r ama t ic .T he b a s ic r e a son f o r t h is w a st h e me l t ing o ft h eg l ac ie r st h a tc ove red v a s ta r ea so f NW E u rope a nd w h ich w e re o r ig ina l ly m any m e t re st h ick .B u tt h er e su l tan tc hange si ns e a leve lw e re a l so c omp l ica ted b yt h e f a c tt h a tt h e re w a s i s o s ta t ic c hange ( up l if to ft h e l a nd ) c au sed b yt h e r e lea se o f w e igh to ft h ei c e .T i l t ing o ft h el a nd i nD enma rk ,f o re xamp le h a sa l so f u r the rc omp l ica ted t h is s ea leve l c hange i s sue . A n e a r ly map ( Lau r ing 1 957 ,20 ) s ugges t ing Meso l i th ic c oa s t l ine so fB r i ta in a nd D enma rk , f o re xamp le ,i lus t ra te st h i s ,t hough i ns imp l if ied f o rm ( F ig 2 . 2 ) . Al a te r m ap ( Krog 1 979 ) ( F ig 2 . 3 ) , s hou ld a l so b e c ompa red w i th t h e se a nd s hou ld p e rhaps n ow b e u sed i np ref e rence t oe a r l ie ro ne s . I fw e a r e t ot r ya nd u nde r s tand a nd a pp rec ia te t h is p henomenon ,t h ew e l l -known s he l lm idden s i te so n O ronsay a nd t h e i r

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F M

N ORTH S EA AND B ALT IC D UR ING P RE-ßOR5AL T IMES T HE C OAST -L INE O F MODERN T IME S

F igure 2 . 2 o f

A ne ar ly m ap ( 1 957 )s how ing s ugg es t ed c oa s t l ine su pt oa bou t5 000B ( ' . T he p os i t ion

f ormer c oa s t l ines h a sn ow b een r e -d rawn i nl i ne w i th d e t erm ina t ion so ft h em a jor t r an sgr e s s ion

o fa pprox ima te ly 6 400BC ( Chr i s tensen 1 995a ,1 5 ) .

F igure 2 . 3

A f ter . L aur ing 1 957 ,20 .

R ecen tm ap ( 1979 )s how ing s ugg e s tedf ormer c oas t l ine sa round 6 700BC .

T h i s i sm or e i nl i ne w i th t h e g r ea t t r ansgr ess ion d e t erm ina t ion o fa round 6 400 1 3C . A f t er : K rog 1 979 ( a ppend ix ) .

2 6

F igure 2 . 4 S he l lm idd en s i te so nO ron sa i 'a nd the ir r e la t ion sh ip t op re sen ta ndto i 'n ier c oa s t l ine s , A / Icr . Me l lar s 1 987 ,27 .

p o s i t ions i nr e la t ion t ot h e p robab le f o rme r c oa s t l ine a r e o ne g ood e xamp le ( F ig 2 . 4 ) . T he se p a r t icu la rs i tes h ave b een n o ted ,e xcava ted a nd r e por ted o n ,o nm any o cca s ion sa nd t h e d escr ip t ions a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s i nt h e l i t e ra tu re a r e t h e ref o re e x tens ive : ( Ander son 1 898 ; Mun ro 1 908 ; B reu i l 1 921; H ende r son B i shop 1 9 13 ; C la rk 1 948 ; Me l la r s &P ayne 1 9 7 1; J a rd ine 1 977 ; Me l la r s 1 978 ;1987 ; J ones , D .A . 1985 ; M i then & F in layson 1 99 1 ; M i then e i 'a ! 1 992 ) . A l though t h e se s i te s a r e e x ten s ive ly r e por ted , t h e re a r e s t i l l n o f i rm c onc lus ions g i v ing a n o verv iew o ff i sh ing p r ac t ice s i nt h is a r ea i nt h e Me so l i th ic . B y t h ink ing t h rough a l p o ss ib le s c ena r io s f o rf i sh ing t h e re , i ts hou ld n ow b e p o s s ib le t os ay r a the r mo re a bou tt h e se s i te s ,t h ep o s s ib le f i sh c augh ta nd t h em e thod su sed t oc a tch t h em . O the rs i te sc on ta in ing m a te r ia lo f ap i sca to r ia ln a tu re i n c lude Mor ton ,F i f e ,S co t land ( Co le s 1 97 1 )a nd p o ss ib ly G o ldc l if f ,S eve rn E s tua ry ,t h ough much o ft h is i ss t i l lb e ing f ound a nd e xam ined ( Be l l 1 993 ,9 -13 ) .T he s i te a t Mor ton i si n te re s t ing a sd e term ina t ions w e re made i nt h er epor t , a bou tt h ef i sh ing e conomy , f r om s t a t is t ica l a na lys is o ft h ef i sh b one sf ound . A l though i tm ay h ave s e emed n a tu ra l t oc a r ry o u t s uch a n a na ly s is , s pec if ic t a phonom ic f a c to r s may h ave t a ken p l ace w h ich c ou ld h ave d i sgu ised amuch m o re c omp lex f i sh ing s c ena r io wh ich h a sn o tb een a luded t oi nt h e o r ig ina l r e por t . T h is c once rns t h ed e ta i ls o f t h ep rec ise f i sh ing m e thod s u sed a nd t h ed i s t inc tp o ss ib i l i ty t h a tm any o t he rf i sh , s uch a s e l a smobranchs ( s ka te s a nd r a ys ) a nd c epha lopod s ( s qu id , o c topus a nd c u t t lef i sh ) , c ou ld h ave e qua l ly w e l l b een c augh t . U nf or tuna te ly , e v idence f o rt h ese h ad n o t b een f ound a t t h et ime . O the r Me so l i th ic s i te so rp u ta t ive Me so l i th ic s i te sa r ound B r i ta in h ave n o tp roduced s u ff ic ien ts he l lo ro rgan ic m a te r ia lf o rt h em t ob ec on s ide red i nd e ta i li nt h is p i ece o fw o rk ( s ee f o re xamp le , R ober t s 1 987 ) . 2 . 5 S he l l mound s : g enera l ( h is tor ica l ) c ommen t s . T he i n i t ia l i n terp re ta t ion o ft h ep r esence o fv a s tq uan t i t ie s o fs h e l ls i n mound s w a s v a r ied b u ti tw a s g ene ra l ly a g reed t h a tt h e c r ea tu re s i n s ide t h em h ad b een e a ten . . . .

2 7

"W e h ave s een t ha t h e a t e s ome o fh i s I bod r aw , e . g .

. ( )1IC

o f t h e v hdl f i sh ; b u t r oa s t ing

a ppear s t o h ave b een t h e p r inc ipa l m e thod h i ' w h ic h i tw a s p i 'epared / br c onsump t ion . ( Hende r son B ishop 1 9 13 ,104 ) , a nd " T he q uan t i ty o fs he l l -f i sh c on sumed h i ' t h e se p r im i t ive t b /k , w ho s eem t oh ave l a rge /v s ub s i s ted o n t h i s d i e t , i sprod ig ious

"

( Bu rk i t t 1 926 ,40 ) .

T he e a r l ie rc ommen t s o fA nde r son , h oweve r , m ay c on ta in s ome o t her t r u th s a bou t t h e s he l lf ish . . . " Some o f ' the v ery l a rge l i mpe t s h ave h o le s i nt h e s id e o /the s he l l w h ich s eem t oh ave b een p roduced h i ' ab l ow , a nd

i t

i s kno wn t ha t e ven a t ar ecen tp er iod t h e b a i tg a the i 'er s o n t h e

W e s t C oa s t h ave b een i n t h e h ab i t o f d i s lodg ing t h e l impe t s 1 898 ,312 ) .

/ i 'on l

t h e r ock s .

''

( Ande r son

I fo ne c an s e et h ef o l low ing s t a temen ta s amode rn e t hnog raph ic a na logy ,t h i sw ou ld a g ree w i th t h eo bse rva t ion sa nd w r i t ing so fF en ton c once rn ing t h e mo re r e cen tu s eo fb a i t i nS co t land . . . . " A t t h e E a s ter R o s s v i l lage s o fH i l ton , B a / in iore a nd S handw ick , l i mpe t s w ere u sed a l l t h e v ea l '‚ ' ound a nd w e , 'e i ' egard ed a s ag ood i t ' in ter b a i ifb i 'c a tch ing c od . ' (Fen ton 1 984 , 128 ) .

F en ton w a s a l so m ak ing i tc l ea rt h a ts he l lf i sh g ene ra l ly w e re a l so e a ten . . . . " No d oub t t h e e a t ing o fs he / I fl s h r ema ined i ' id e sp i 'ead a mong s t t h ep oorer p eop le o n t h e c oa s t s , t h ough l i t t le p o s i t ive e v id ence c ome s r ead i /v t oh and . . . .' ' ( I b id 1 984 ,124 ) .

T he se c ommen t sc once rn ing s he l lf i sh m ea tb e ing u sed a sb a i td on o ta ppea rt oh ave b een r e cen t ly r e cons ide red .T h is v i ew i so ne o ft h e mo s ti mpor tan tp o in t st ob ec on s ide red i nt h is p i ece o fw o rk . 2 . 51 F ocus ing o n mounds i nD enmark . I nD enma rk , i tw a s J . J .A . Wo r saae w ho w a s i n s t rumen ta l i ni n ve s t iga t ing t h e s he l l mound sw h ich w e re s on ume rou sa r ound c e r ta in p a r t so ft h e( f orme r )D an ish c oa s t l ine . 1 le w a s a t tached t o ac omm iss ion w h ich w a s f o rmed i n 1 848 s p ec ia l ly t oi nve s t iga te t h em ( K l ind t Jen sen 1 975 ,7 1 ) .T he s i gn if icance o ft h ese s he l l mound sw a ss uff ic ien tf o rs p ec if i c p ape r sa nd b ook st ob ew r i t ten b y Wo r saae . O ft h ese ,o ne w a ss pec if ic :O ver s ig ttorm Id er /V id enskaberne s s e i skab ( on t h e S tone A ge o ft h e ' k i tchen m iddens ' ) (Wo r saae 1 849 ) . O the rp ape r sa ppea red i nt h ej ou rna l ' Aarboger ' f r om 1 877 o nwa rd s ,w he re t h es ub jec to f t h e p ro tec t ion o f a nc ien t monumen t s g ene ra l ly , w a s o f ten d i scussed . O the r s , s uch a s S t eens t rup , Mü l ler , N ee rgaa rd , P e te r sen a nd Madsen ( a n a r t is t ) , c on t inued w i th t h e e xcava t ion si ns he l l m idden si nJ u t land a nd Z ea land i nD enma rk , f o l low ing t h es e t t ing u p o f as e cond c omm iss ion ( K l ind t Jen sen 1 975 ,94 ) .T he r e su l t sw e r ep ub l i shed i nt h eD an ish p ub l ica t ion A j jz /d sc I vnge i ' f ra S tena ld eren iDanmark ( Mad sen e i 'a / 1 900 ) a nd i n U n ter söge l ser Ig eo log i sk -an t iquar i sk R e tn ing b yF o rchhamme r ,S t een s t rup a nd Wo r saae ( quo ted i n : L ubbock 1 9 13 ,228n ) . l ts e em s c l ea r , t h e ref o re , t h a t much w o rk w a s d one i nD enma rk d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h el a s tc en tury .H oweve r ,t h er e su l t sa nd d esc r ip t ion so ft h es he l lm idden sm ay n o t h ave b een r e ad i ly a cce s s ib le t oB r i t ish a r chaeo log is t s . T he re w a s o ne n o tab le e xcep t ion . J ohn L ubbock p roduced t h e f i r s t e d i t ion o fh i s c l a ss ic w o rk o n p reh is tory ' P reh i s tor ic T ime s ' ,i n1 865 .T he w o rk c on ta ined v a luab le c ommen t so nt h ek j ökkenmödd ing s ,a st h ey h ad b een c a l led . L ubbock v i s i ted D enma rk i n 1 86 1 a nd 1 863 , w i th t h e s pec if i c i n ten t ion o fs e e ing t h e s he l l mound s f o rh im se lf a nd v i ew ing t h ec o l lec t ion s o fm a ter ia l r e cove red . H is b ook c on ta ined n op l an s , map s ,p ho tog raphs o rd raw ing so ft h em iddens o rt h em a te r ia l s f o und .T he r ew a s ,t h ough ,s ome d i scu s s ion o nt h ep o s i t ion o ft h em i nr e la t ion t ot h ep r esen t c oa s t l ine . H e n o ted t h a t t h ey w e re , i ns ome c a se s , q u i te s ome d i s tance i n land . B u t h i s d i scu ss ion s t opped h e r e .T he Me so l i th ic a s ad i s t inc tp e r iod o fp r eh i s to ry w a sn o tm en t ioned , b u tt h ed a te so ft h em idden sw e re d i scussed i nr e la t ion t oo t he rp r eh is to r ic ma te r ia l . F l in t s , f o r e xamp le , w e re f ound a tt h e s ame t ime a nd i na s soc ia t ion w i th s ome o ft h e m idden s

2 8

( Lubbock 1 9 13 ,240 -249 ) . 2 . 52 F ocus ing o n v i ewpo in t s i nB r i ta in . L ubbock r epo r ted o n t h e d i lemma a bou t d a t ing t h a t h ad t r oub led Wo r saae a nd S t eens t rup . Wo r saae b e l ieved t h a tt h em idden m a ter ia lw a so l de rt h an S t eens t rup c on s ide red i tt ob e . A tt h a tt ime , t h e a r gumen t c en t red a r ound S t een s trup 's i d ea t h a tt h e f l in t s o ft h e t umu l ia nd o t he ra nc ien t monumen t sw e re c on tempo ra ry w i th t h em idden m a ter ia l( Lubbock 1 9 13 ,244 -5 ) . L ubbock d oe s n o t s e em t oh ave f o rmed h i s o wn o p in ion , s ot h e d eba te w as t o c on t inue i n t h is c oun t ry f o r s evera l d ecades t o c ome . D emand f r om r e ader s f o r i n f orma t ion , mus t h ave b een c on s ide rab le o ve r t h is t ime , a s L ubbock 's b ook w en t i n to s e ven e d i t ion sb e tween 1 865 a nd 1 9 13 . T he j ou rna ls a nd o t he rp ub l ica t ion s f r om C openhagen w e re i nD an ish , al a nguage q u i te u nf am i l ia rt ot h eB r i t ish a nd p robab ly t oo t he ra r chaeo log is t si no t he rp a r t so fE u rope t o o . One e xcep t ion t ot h is w a st h ew o rk b y Wo r saae : Danmark sO ld t idop lv s tv edO id sager o g G ravhø ie ( 1 843 ) , o r ' T he P r imeva lA n t iqu i t ie s o fD enmark ' , t r an s la ted i n 1 849 i n to E ng l ish ( Wo r saae 1 849 ) .B u tt h i sb ook ,d ue t oi t sp ub l ica t ion d a te ,w ou ld n o th ave c on ta ined a lt h e wo rk t h a tw a sd one b y Wo r saae a nd o t he r s ,o nt h es ub jec to ft h es he l lm iddens .T he o t he r e xcep t ion t ot h e f o re ign l a nguage p rob lem w a s t h e p ub l ica t ion o fN i lsson 's ' T he P r im i t ive I nhab i tan t s o fS cand inav ia ' i n 1 868 ( N i ls son 1 868 ) . O nce a ga in t h e p rob lem w a st h a tt h eo r ig ina le d i t ion o ft h is b ook a ppea red i nS cand inav ia i n1 843 ,2 5y ea r se a r l ie r . T hese l a nguage a nd p ub l ica t ion p rob lem sh ave a l so b een d i scus sed b yG rä s lund ( Grä s lund 1 987 ,2 ) . S o ,w hen A nde r son ( 1 898 ) , Mun ro ( 1908 )a nd H ende r son B ishop ( 19 13 )f o re xamp le , w ro te a bou tt h ee xcava t ions o nO ronsay ,l i t t le r e f e rence w a sm ade t ot h eD an ish l i t e ra tu re , t h ough t h es ub jec to ft h eD an ish m iddens d id f e a tu re i ns pec if ic p ape r s( e spec ia l ly Mun ro 1 908 ,240 1) . T he d i scovery o fm iddens n ea r t h e c oa s t i nP o r tuga l a l so t ook p l ace q u i te e a r ly a nd w a sr epor ted o nb y Mun ro ( Mun ro 1 908 ) . B u tt h ed e ta i ls o ft h e se s i te sa nd t h e i r c h rono log ica l a nd t y po log ica l r e la t ion sh ip w i th o t he r s i te s i nE u rope w a s n o t d i scus sed u n t i l much l a te r( Fe r r ie ra B icho 1 993 ) ,( a tl e a s ti nt h eE ng l i sh l a nguage ) . D e ta i ls o fs im i la r f i nd s t ot h o se f r om D enma rk w e re a l so r evea led i nN o rway ( O lsen 1 967 ; R enouf 1 989 ) a nd Ho l land ( Br inkhu izen 1 979 )a nd t h ese ,t o o ,h ave h e lped w i th t h eo ve ra l lp i c tu re o ft h e l i f ea nd a c t iv i t ie s o fp eop les a tc oa s ta l s i te s . When s i te s c on ta in ing s he l ls a nd o t he r ma r ine m a ter ia l w e re f ound , t h e r e por t ing w a s a ccep ted f o r p ub l ica t ion b y e i the r t h e l o ca l a r chaeo log ica l j ou rna l o r an a t iona l a n t iqua r ian j ou rna l .I nt h ec a se o ft h eO ron say e xcava t ions c a r r ied o u tb yS ym ing ton G r ieve a nd W i l l iam G a l loway ,s ome r e por t ing w a sm ade b yG r ieve ( G r ieve 1 883 ,483 -4 ;1 885 ,52 3 ) . T he m anu sc r ip t s d esc r ib ing t h e w o rk d one b y G a l loway s e em t oh ave d i sappea r ed w i thou t t r ace ( Me l la r s 1 987 ,118 ) . T he r epor t ing o fG r ieve 's wo rk w a s o r ig ina l ly i nt h e J ou rna l o ft h e L innaean S oc ie ty ( s ee a bove ) . T he r e por t ing o f A nde r son 's w o rk w as o r ig ina l ly i nt h e P roceed ing s o ft h e S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ie s o fS co t land ( Ande r son 1 898 ) . I tw a s ag r ea t p i ty t h a t s ome o ft h e o r ig ina l m a te r ia l f r om t h ese e xcava t ion s w a s l o s t . A ccu ra te r e por t ing a sw e l l a s a ccu ra te o bse rva t ion a nd c a re w i th t h e r e su l t s i se qua l ly i mpor tan t . P romp t p ub l ica t ion o f f i nd ing s i sv i ta l i ff u tu re a r chaeo log is t s a r e t o f u l ly u nde r s tand t h eh i s to ry o fa r chaeo log ica lp rocedu re s .T he i n terp re ta t ion o rr e in te rp re ta t ion o ft h e r e su l t s o fo the r sc an t h en p roceed mo re s moo th ly . T he l a te r d i scu s s ion o ft h e t r ans i t ion b e tween t h e P a laeo l i th ic a nd t h e N eo l i th ic , w h ich i nvo lved t h e m a te r ia l f r om O ron say , w a s r epor ted i nt h e A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l ( Munro 1 908 ) . l ti sn ever the le s s ,q u i te r ema rkab le t h a ti nt h is p ape rt h e re i sn om en t ion o f t h e ' Meso l i th ic ' .T h is i se ven mo re s u rp r is ing w hen ,a sh a sb een n o ted ,t h ew o rd h ad b een u s ed t h ree d ecades e a r l ie ri nD enma rk ( s ee s e c t ion 2 . 2 1) . F o l low ing t h e se i n i t ia l p ub l ica t ion s , o t he r a r chaeo log is t s c on t inued t od eba te a nd

2 9

p ub l ish wo rk o n t h e s ub jec t s o ft h e Me so l i th ic a nd s he l l m idden s ( Bu rk i t t 1 926 , 4 5 ) . I n B r i ta in , a ta ny r a te , t h e a ccep tance o ft h e p o s s ib le c onnec t ion b e tween t h e d i scove r ies i n S co t land a nd t h e Me so l i th ic , w a s s l ow . B u rk i t t , a s al e c tu r e r i nC amb r idge , w a s n o t s o s u re . . . . i t s ee ins p robab le t h a t t h e s o -ca l led a z i l ian f i nd s a t O han a re t i me . . . . " (Bu rk i t t 1 925a , 154 ) .

c onsiderahl i

l a ter

i n

T he re w a s c l ea r ly s ome d oub tc once rn ing t h e t r ue d a te s o ft h e f i nds . 2 . 6

F i sh ing i np reh is tory : t he e v idence . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r f i sh ing h av ing t a ken p l ace i so ft wo t ype s . I ff i sh

t r ap s h ave b een r e cover ed t h en f i sh ing c e r ta in ly t ook p l ace . I ff i sh b one s a r e r e cove red , t h en a cco rd ing t ot h e c on tex t , ad e term ina t ion o fa c tua l f i sh ing i s mo re d iff icu l t . F i sh b one sc an b ee v idence f o ro t he rn on -human a c t iv i t ie ss uch a st h a to fb i rd s ,o the rm amma ls . R ema ins o ff i sh b one s c an a l so b e d epo s i ted a sho re a st h e r e su l t o fc a ta s t roph ic n a tu ra l c au ses . T he v a r iou sw ay s i nw h ich t h er e cove ry o ff i sh b one sh ave b een i n terp r e ted i nt h e p a s t ,a r er e v iewed . I mpo r tan tc ommen t sa r em ade a s ar e su l to fr e sea r ch ing c ur ren ta c t iv i t ie s w i th in moder nf i sh ing c ommun i t ies .T h is h a sh opef u l ly e nab led amo re c or rec ta s se s smen t o ft h e s i gn if icance o ff i sh b one s i na r chaeo log ica l c on tex t st on ow b em ade . 2 . 61

F i sh b one e v idence .

A nde r son 's e a r ly l i s t o ff i shbone s , i n c lud ing t h o se o fw ra sse , g r ey mu l le t , d ogf i sh a nd s ka te , i sp rec ise . Wha ti sn o tc l ea ri nh i sd esc r ip t ion i sw he the rh et h ough tt h em t ob e t h er ema ins o f ap e r son 's m ea lo rn o t ,f o rt h e re i sn of u r the rd i scuss ion o nt h is p o in t .( They c ou ld p o ss ib ly h ave b een w ashed u p o n ab each w i th o t he rs he l ls ) . H e a l so t hough tt h ey c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r an eck lace , t hough t h is p os s ib i l i ty i sn eve r r epea ted b y l a te r a u tho r s ( Ande r son 1 898 ,312 ) . F ur the r wo rk o n t h e f i shbone c on ten t o ft h e m idden s w a s d one b y Me l la r s a nd W i lk inson d u r ing t h e 1 970s ( Me l la r s &W i lk inson 1 980 )T h i sw o rk f o cuse sp ar t icu la r ly o n o t o l i th a na ly s is a nd t h e s e a sona l n a tu re o ft h eu se o ft h e s i t e s . R ecen tw o rk i nD enma rk , o n t h e m iddens a nd f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh r ema in s , h a sb een a pp roached i n av ery a na ly t ica l w ay b yE nghof f , u s ing s i eves , m ic ro scopes a nd f i sh b one r e f e rence c o l lec t ions ( Enghof f 1 986 ;1989 ;199 1) . l ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e w ay i nw h ich t h ese e xcava t ions h ave b een t a k ing p l ace i sd e te rm ined b y t h e a bove -men t ioned e qu ipmen t , w h ich i sd i scu ssed i nt h e n ex t s e c t ion o n r e in terp re ta t ions . 2 . 7

R ecen t e xcava t ions ; n ew me thods a nd i n terpre ta t ions . I ti si mpor tan tt ou nde r s tand w hy s ome o ft h ew e l l -known s i te s b o th i nB r i ta in a nd

a b road c on t inue t ob ee xcava ted . I th a sa l ready b een s a id t h a tp oor c u ra t ion o ft h em a te r ia l r e cove red d u r ing t h el a s tc en tury f r om S co t t ish s i tes r e qu ir ed n ew ma te r ia lf r om c o r rec t ly p rovenanced ,b u ts im i la rl o ca t ion s ,t ob ea na ly sed b y moder nm e thod s . R ecove ry o fs ma l l , o rgan ic a nd d e l ica te m a te r ia l h a s n ow b een a ch ieved b y u s ing s i eves o f med ium t ov ery f i ne me shes .T he se s i eve sa r eu sed w e ta nd p rove t ob eq u icke ra nd mo re e ff ic ien tt h an d ry s i eves ( Payne 1 972 ) . U s ing w e ts i eve sw i th f i ne a nd v ery f i ne m eshes a l so e nab le s amuch g r ea te rq uan t i ty o ft h e s ma l le rb one s o ff i sh t ob e r e t r ieved . T h is t ype o fr e t r ieva l w ou ld t h e refo re p rov ide t h ee xcava to r sa nd t ho se a na ly s ing t h em a te r ia ls i nt h el a bo ra to ry w i th a g r ea te rn umbe ro fb ones . Q uan t i ta t ive s t a temen t sa bou tu se c ou ld t h en b e made . S pec ies s pec if ic b one sc ou ld a l so g i ve f u r the ra nswe r st ot h eq ue s t ion o fp re sence a nd p r ef e rence . O to l i th r e covery w ou ld d o t h e s ame , a nd s t a temen t s a bou t s easona l i ty c ou ld a l so b e p o s tu la ted ( Me l la r s &W i lk in son 1 980 ) . T he s i ev ing o f s o i ls f r om t h e D an ish m idden s h a s r e cen t ly p rov ided e ven mo re i n f orma t ion a bou t s pec ies o f f i sh , p resumab ly u sed b y Meso l i th ic p eop le ( Enghof f 1 989 ;199 1) . H e re , w e t -s iev ing h a s a l so t a ken p l ace , u s ing s i eves d own t o am esh o f 0 . 5mm . (Enghof f 1 989 ,42 ) . N umbe r s o f b one s h ave r e vea led t h e p redom inance o fe l , w ho se s ma l l v er teb rae m ay w e l l h ave b een c omp le te ly m is sed a tt h e e a r l ie re xcava t ion s , 3 0

w hen s i ev ing w a s n o ti nu se ( I b id 1 989 ,42 ) . R ad ioca rbon d a tes h ave a l so b een d e term ined f r om t h e ma te r ia lo nO ron say ( Me l la r s 1 987 , 140 1) . S ome o ft h e m a te r ia l e xam ined w a s c ha rcoa l a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r ema ins i n s ide t h e m idden s . O the r m a te r ia l s u ch a sb ones f ound i nt h e m idden s h a s g iven mo re d a te s ,a l f a l l ing w i th in t h e l a te Me so l i th ic f o rt h is p a r to fE u rope ( I b id 1 987 , 14 1) . ( These d a te sm ay n ow n eed t ob eq ue s t ioned i nt h e l i gh to fr e cen tw o rk o nt h er e se rvo i re f f ec ta s a pp l ied t om a r ine s amp les s e e c hap te r5 }) . I ti sc l ea r n eve r the le ss , t h a t w i th n ew w e t -s iev ing m e thod s a nd e x t reme ly c a ref u l e xcava t ion a nd r e tr ieva l , much mo re i n f o r ma t ion a bou tf i sh ing ,s pec ie sc augh ta nd p o s s ib le s e a sona l i ty c an b ed e term ined .T h is h e lp st oc omp le te t h ep i c tu re o fl i f eo nt h ec oa s ti nt h e Me so l i th ic . F u r the ra nd mo re c omp lex m e thod so fs c ien t if ic a na ly s is c on t inue t ob ep rac t i sed i n v a r iou s p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld . T he c on t inued a na ly s is o f Me so l i th ic b one u s ing C iso tope e v idence h a sh e lped t od e term ine t h ed i e t so fh uman s a nd o t her m amma ls ( dog s )( Taube r 1 98 1 : C lu t ton -Brock & N oe -Nygaa rd 1 990 ) . T hese i n ve s t iga t ions i n d ica te t h e h i gh l e ve l o fm a r ine f ood s i nt h ed i e t s o fb o th h umans a nd d og s . O the r wo rk i n Ame r ica h a s s hown t h e s ame r e su l t s b u t u s ing t h e r a t io o f B a r ium t o S t ron t ium a s a n i nd ica to r f o r t h e c onsump t ion o fm a r ine r e sou rces i nt h e p a laeod ie t( Bu r ton & P r ice 1 990 ) . O u t s ide t h e s h e l l mound s , o t he r e v idence c on t inues t ob e f o r thcom ing t oi n d ica te t h ec a tch ing o rt r app ing o ff i sh d u r ing t h el a te Me so l i th ic a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic . F i sh -hook s , w icke r t r ap s a nd n e t m a te r ia l h a s b een d i scove red a tv a r iou s s i te s i nn or thern E u rope p ar t icu la r ly ( Br inkhu izen 1 983 ) . E v idence o fs im i la rm a te r ia l i sa l so b e ing f ound o n t h e S eve rn E s tua ry i nB r i ta in ( Be l l 1 993 ) . As ma l l n umbe r o ft h e se a r t if ac t s b e long t ot h e Meso l i th ic , t h ough m any a r e f r om l a te rp e r iod s , b u t s how r ema rkab le s im i la r i ty t ot ho se f r om t h e Me so l i th ic .T he d esc r ip t ion o ft h ew ickerwo rk f i sh t raps i sd e ta i led ( Br inkhu izen 1 983 ,46 -7 ) a nd d a te s f o r t h e n e t s a r e , a cco rd ing t oB r inkhu izen , o fe a r ly N eo l i th ic d a te t h ough d e ta i ls a r en o tg i ven ( I b id 1 983 ,48 ) . Meso l i th ic d ugou t sh ave a l so b een d i scove red a ts i te s i nD enma rk , s u ch a sT yb r ind V ig ( Ande r sen 1 985 ) . S ome a r eo f Me so l i th ic d a te , b u t e t hnog raph ic a na logy i n d ica te s t h a t t h e se b oa t s c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r f i sh ing t h roughou tp r eh is to ry a sw e l l a sd u r ing t h eh i s to r ic p e r iod . A lso o fi n te r es t f r om Sweden a r e t h e f i shbone s t h a t h ave b een r e cove red f r om a b r ack ish l a goon n ex tt ot h e s ou the rn c oa s to fS can ia ( J on sson 1 986 ,6 2 ) . T hese h ave b een e xcava ted i na s soc ia t ion w i th Me so l i th ic g rave s . T he m a te r ia l w a s s i eved u s ing am esh d own t o1 mm . Aga in t h is t ype a nd m e thod o fr e t r ieva lo f ma te r ia l , e spec ia l ly f r om g r ave s i su nu sua l .J on sson s ugge s t st h e ma te r ia lw a sf r om t h es t omach so ft h ep eop le a nd i n d ica te s al a rge r a nge o ff i sh s p ec ie s c on sumed . T h is k i nd o fs t a temen t c ou ld n o t p os s ib ly h ave b een m ade b y t h e e a r ly e xcava to r s , i nd ica t ing t h e h i gh l e ve l t ow h ich t h e s ub jec t h a s p rog re ssed o ve rt h e l a s tf ew d ecade s . 2 . 8 P rob lems w i th d a t ing . I nt h e f i r s ti n s tance ,t h ea na logy m ade b e tween t h ev a r ious s i te s i nE u rope f r om t h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod h ad c once rned t h ep r esence o fv a s tq uan t i t ies o fm a r ine s he l ls .A l though t h es pec ie sf ound w e r es im i la r ,o f ten i d en t ica la nd i nw ide ly d i spe r sed l o ca t ion s ,t h e re h ad s ome t imes b een m isunde r s tand ing a nd c onf us ion o ve rd a t ing ( Bu rk i t t 1 925a ) .T he v a r iou s l a ye r so fs he l la nd b one m a te r ia lt h a th ad b een f ound i nt h e O ronsay a nd D an ish m iddens d i dn o tg i ve i mmed ia te c onf irma t ion o fd a tes b a sed o n s t ra t if ica t ion l e ve ls o rt y po log ica l c on ten t .T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ei n term ixed w o rked b one a nd s t one i mp lemen t sw a s i n i t ia l ly c ompa red w i th s im i la r , t e n ta t ive ly d a ted f i nd s f r om t h e Ma s d 'Az i l c ave s o ft h e D o rdogne i nF rance ( P ie t te 1 895 ,235 ) .O the ra u tho r sc oncu r red w i th t h et ypo log ica ld a t ing m e thodo logy ( Breu i l 1 922 ,279 -281; B urk i t t 1 925a ,142 -3 ) . Much l a ter , t h e u se o f r a d ioca rbon m ay h ave h e lped d a te i n d iv idua l o b jec t s ,b u tu n le s st h ee a r l ie rf i nds h ad b een

3 1

s e cu re ly l a be l led , w i th t h eu se o fp l ans , s e c t ion s a nd a ccu ra te r e co rd ing , e ven t h is w ou ld b e i n secu re . T h is i sw hy p a r t icu la r s i te s , s uch a s O ron say a nd E r tebo l le h ave b een r e v i s i ted a nd e xcava ted i n amodem w ay s ot h a t , a tl e as tf o rt h is r e a son , mo re s e cu re d a t ing c ou ld b e a pp l ied t ot h em a te r ia l e v idence ( Me l la r s 1 987 ; E nghof f1 986 ) . P rob lems w i th t h e r ad ioca rbon d a t ing i n c reased w hen c a l ib ra t ion c u rves w e re p ub l ished a nd c onsu l ted . E xces s ive n umbe r s o f w igg le s ' i nt h ese c u rve s a r ound t h e e nd o ft h e 5 th m i l lenn ium i ns ome r e spec t sp reven t a ccu ra te d a te d e te rm ina t ions ( c hap te r 5 ) . T he r ange o fp robab i l i t ie s i sw ide a r ound t h is t ime o n t h e c u rve ( F ig 2 . 5 ) . D u r ing t h e 1 960 s a nd 1 970 s i tw a sb ecom ing c l ea re rj u s th ow much t h ec hanges i n c oa s t l ine p o s i t ion s may h ave a f f ec ted t h ep os i t ion a nd p roduc t ion o ft h es he l l mound s . A s

M S lu r , A . L ong a n d R .S . K s

1 .

1 993 R ad iocar b on 3 5 .1)

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4 600BC

4 400BC

4 200BC

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3 800BC

C a l ibra ted d a te F igure 2 . 5

C a l ibra t ion c urve

sho win g

m any w igg le s' / ör t h ep er iod t oward s t h e e nd o /the

5 t h m i l lenn iun , BC w hen m au i 'o ft h eD an i sh s he l lm idd en s ' i ' eretbr ,ned . C a l cu la ted u s ing t h e O xCa ld a taba se a nd i n f orma t ion i nR ad iocarbon 3 5 (1 ) , 1 993 .

S pa rk sa nd We s th ad s hown ,t h e re h ad b een n o to n ly i s o s ta t ic u p l if to ft h e l a nd i np a r t so f S cand inav ia b u t a n a c tua l a r ea o fs ubs idence i nt h e s ou the rn N or th S ea a nd i np a r t s o f D enma rk ( Spa rk s & We s t 1 972 ,125 )( r ef e rt oF i g2 . 1) .T he p robab le c oa s t l ine i mmed ia te ly p os t -g lac ia l h ad a l ready b een e xp la ined b y L ubbock ( Lubbock 1 9 13 ,415 ) ( F ig 2 . 6 ) . L ubbock 's p l an s howed t h ef o rme rc ou r ses o fr i ve r s ; t h is i sn o ts hown i n as im i la rp l an o f S pa rk s & Wes t ( Spa rk s & Wes t 1 972 , 163 ( F ig 2 . 7 ) . ( I n f a c t , L ubbock 's d r aw ing s m ay h ave b een c ons ide red e r roneous b yo t he ra u tho r sa tt h et ime ) . I ft h ep o s i t ion o ft h ef o rme r r i ve rc ou r se sc an n ow b ev e r if ied ,s ubma r ine e xcava t ion a tt h e i re dges c ou ld p e rhaps r e vea l a r t if ac t sa s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing . S ome s ubma r ine w o rk h a sa l ready t a ken p l ace i nD enma rk ( Skaarup 1 993 ) . I nve s t iga t ing t h e r e su l t s o ft h is wo rk h a s b een p a r t o f t h is r e sea rch ( c hap te r7 ) . T he h i s to ry o ft h ev a r iou sd i scove r ie s b o th i ns he l l mound sa nd o t he rp l aces i sn ow b ecom ing c l ea r . E a r ly e xcava to r s i nB r i ta in a nd a broad h ad r e a son t os u spec t t h a t s he l l mounds w e re

3 2

F igure 2 . 6

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s ubmar ine c our se s o ft h er i ver s .

A l ler : L ubbock ( ' Lord A vehurv )

1 913 ,315 .

a nc ien t . T hey d id n o t k now f o r s eve ra l d ecades h ow o l d t h ey r e a l ly w e re . Much o ft h e e a r ly i n te rp re ta t ion d epended o n t h e a s soc ia t ion o f s he l l s w i th r e cogn isab le f l in t f r om p e r iod sw h ich h ad p r ev iou s ly b een e s tab l ished ( Pa laeo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic ) .U nde r s tand ing t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween a r t if ac t s i nt h e s t ra t ig raphy a nd t h e i rd a tes , h ad b een u p se tb y a m isunde r s tand ing c once rn ing t h e i s o s ta t ic movemen t o ft h e l a nd a nd t h e c o r respond ing s h if t o fc oa s t l ines . I na ny c a se , r e t r ieva l , r e po r t ing a nd c u ra t ion w e re p oo r . B ook s o n t h e s ub jec tw e re f ew .T he l a nguage b a r r ie rb e tween E u ropean n a t ion sw a se ve rp r e sen t . S ome w r i te r s m ay h ave i g no red t h e d e l ibe ra t ion s o fo t he r s w hen w r i t ing o n s im i la r s ub jec t s . A l te rna t ive ly ,t h es c a t te red l o ca t ion so fp ape r s ,p a r t icu la r ly i nf o re ign j ourna ls ,w ou ld n o t h ave made t h is a ny e a s ie r . R ecen t ly , h oweve r , much i mp roved r e t r ieva l t e chn ique s , s uch a sw e t -s iev ing h ave b een u sed .T he h and l ing a nd s t or ing o fm a te r ia lh a si mp roved ,a sh ave l a bo ra to ry t e chn ique s . T he p rob lem o fr ad ioca rbon d a t ing a nd c a l ib ra t ion r ema in s .I ti se xpens ive a nd c an p roduce a noma l ie s . F ur the rs c ien t if ic w o rk o n t h e o rgan ic m a te r ia l t oe s tab l ish e xac t ly o ve rw ha t p e r iod o ft ime f i sh a nd s he l lf i sh w e re e a ten o ru sed f o rb a i tw i l l h opef u l ly c on t inue . T he c omp lex i s o top ic a nd e l emen ta la na lys is o fb one w i l la l so p re sumab ly c on t inue . 3 3

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1 972 ,163 .

T h is w i l l a l so b e e xpen s ive a nd t ime -con sum ing . S pec ia l c on se rva t ion me thod s w i l l b e n eeded i no rde rt op r e se rve t h er e levan to rgan ic m a ter ia ln eed ed f o ra na ly s i s .O the rp r ob lem s o fi d en t if ica t ion (Whee le r 1 978 ) ,c h rono logy ( S loan 1 984 )a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o fp r eh i s to r ic s ub s is tence e conom ies c on t inue ( Beg le r&K ea t inge 1 979 ) . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a ts ma l le r a nd s ma l le rq uan t i t ie so fo rgan ic m a te r ia lw i l lb eu sed i nt h ef u tu re f o rt h ec o mp lex a na lys is t ob ec a r r ied o u t . T he u se o f AMS f o rt h ed a t ing o fo rgan ic m a te r ia la nd t h ei n c r ea sed u se o f DNA t e chn ique s f o ra na ly s ing v er teb ra te s pec ies ' r e la t ion sh ip sa nd c hange si ng ene t ic m ake -up ,m ay y e tp rove t ob eu sef u l i nt h is f i e ld . T h is k i nd o fw o rk m ay , f o re xamp le ,b e u sed t o a s se ss h ow f i sh s pec ie s m ay h ave c hanged o ve r t h e m i l lenn ia . T h is w ou ld b e i mpor tan t i fa na logy w a s b e ing u sed t oa s cer ta in o re va lua te t h e i mpo r tance o fp a r t icu la r s pec ie s o ff i sh a ppea r ing i ns pec ia l a r ea s i nr e la t ion t os ub s is tence a c t iv i t ies . N o te : T hroughou t t h i s

paper ,

t h e s pe l l ing s o ft h re ign w ord s , p ar t icu lar /v t h o se f r om

D enmark h ave b een w r i t ten i nt h e w ay t h ey h ave b een o r ig ina l ly s pe l led b y t h ea u thor s , w i th a ppropr ia te a ccen t s .

3 4

3 Ana logy a nd e t hnography i na rchaeo logy : a i ds f or t he i n terpre ta t ion o ft h e ma ter ia l e v idence a nd h uman b ehav iour p a t terns i nr e la t ion t of i sh ing p rac t ice s . 3 . 1

T erm ino logy : U se o fa na logy o r c ompar i son .

T o a vo id c onfu s ion a nd t oc l a r if y t h e u se o ft h e w o rd ' a na logy ' , i ti sb e s t t os t a r t w i th ad ef in i t ion . A na logy i s : ac ompar i son b e tween o ne t h ing a nd a no ther , t y p ica l /v f b r t h e p urpose o fe xp lana t ion o rc l ar i f ica t ion ," a cco rd ing t ot h e N ew O xf o rd D ic t iona ry o fE ng l ish ( Pea r sa l l 1 998 ,58 ) . L og ica l ly , i ti sa l so : ap roce s so fa rgu ing f r om s im i lar i ty i nk nown r e spec t st os im i lar i ty i no t her r e spec t s" ( I b id . 5 8 ) . T he re m ay w e l lb ep rob lems w i th t h e se d ef in i t ion sh oweve r ,w hen a r chaeo log is t st r y t oi n te rp re tp r eh is to r ic ma te r ia l s , s oc ia l b ehav iou r ,s ubs is tence a c t iv i t ie so ra ny o t he rp a s t w ay s o fl i f e f o r wh ich t h e re i sn ow r i t ten r e co rd . F ur the rmo re , s ome a r chaeo log is t s h ave b een v ery s c ep t ica l o ft h eu se o fa na logy i ni n terp re t ing t h e p as tb ecause a na log ie s c ome f r om p re sen to rc u r ren tu nde r s tand ing a nd s om ay c onf u se w ha tt h ep a s tr e a l ly i s . . ." ( Shank s 1 992 ,82 ) . N ever the les s , a na log ie s m ay . . . " p er f orm ac ommun ica t ing r o le o tp re sen ta t ion o ri l u s tra t ion" ( I h id ,8 3 ) . I no rde rt ot r y a nd d i sen tang le t h is d i lemma , i ti sn ece s sary t od e sc r ibe t h e v a r ious f o rms o fa na logy b ef o re d ec id ing w he the ra ny a r e s u i tab le t ou se f o rt h is s ub jec t . D irec t h i s to r ica l a na logy i ss e lf -exp lana tory a nd c once rns r e f e rence s t ot h e w r i t ten w o rd a nd i lu s t ra t ive m a te r ia l a bou t t h e s ub jec t m a t te rb e ing r e sea rched . A s f odde rh a s s a id : " a rchaeo log i s t sh ave g rea ter c on f id ence i nd i rec th i s tor ica la na log ie s w here t h e s pa t ia l c on tex t i sc ons tan t a nd t h e t empora lg ap i ss l igh t" ( fodde r 1 99 1 ,149 ) . I nt h is r e sea rch ,c l ea r ly i th a so n ly b een p o s s ib le t og a the r as ma l la moun to fh i s to r ica l i n f orma t ion f r om a s soc ia ted s pa t ia l ( Dan ish ) c on tex t s . T h is i sp a r t ly d ue t ot h e l a nguage p r ob lem a nd t h e t ime f a c to ra s soc ia ted w i th i n f orma t ion -ga the r ing f o rt h is r e sea r ch . T he t o pog raphy a nd c l ima te h ave b een l o oked a ti ns ome d e ta i lh oweve ra nd o t he rc ompa rab le E u ropean l o ca t ions h ave b een u sed f o r a na logy h e re . B u t t h e t empo ra l g ap i sh uge s o s ome a na log ie s mu s t c a r ry g r ea te rw e igh t i fo ne i st oa dhe re s t r ic t ly t oH odde r 's a bove s t a temen t . A s f a ra sa na log ie sw i th t h ep re sen ta r e c once rned , s ome a dhe rence t ot h em i s m o s t c er ta in ly s ough ti nt h is r e sea rch , i nl i ne w i th f u r the rc ommen t s b y H odde r : " Ana logy w i th t h ep re sen tc l ear ly i si mpor tan ti nb road en ing a nd e xc i t ing t h eh i s tor ica li mag ina t ion" ( Hodde r 1 991 ,99 ) . I ti so n ly o ne f u r the r s t ep b ack t o t h e p reh is to r ic i mag ina t ion , w h ich i sw ha t i s c on s tan t ly r e qu ired b ya r chaeo log is t s t oday . H odde rc on t inue s t oe xp la in t h a t : " An i n s igh ti n to t h ep a s ti s

s uppor ted o r ' v a l ida ted 'i n an umber o f

w ay s . . ,n o c er ta in ty c an b ea ch ieved i nt h i s w ay , b u t k now ledge o ft h e p a s t c an b e a ccumu la ted t h rough c r i t ica l a pp l ica t ion o ft h e m e thod" -

( o fu s ing a na logy ) ( Hodde r 1 99 1‚ 1 00 ) . W i th t h e a bove a r gumen t s i nm ind , h i s to r ica l a na logy c e r ta in ly h a s s ome v a l id i ty f o rt h is r e sea rch . S t ruc tu ra l a na logy r e f e r st ot h ep hy s ica l f o rm o ft h em a te r ia ls b e ing s t ud ied . F o rt h is r e sea rch t h ef o rm o rs t ruc tu re o ff i sh t r ap s ,b a ske t s ,h ook sa nd f i sh f e nces o rw e i r sa r et h e 3 5

b e s t e xamp le s . T he m e thod o fc on s truc t ion o ft h e f e nce s a nd e ven t h e s t ruc tu r e o ft h e w a s te s he l l h eap s o r m idden s m ay h ave a na log ie s w i th e xamp les e l sewhe re i nw e s te rn E u rope . T hese e xamp le s w i l l n eed t or e f e r t ot h e c on tex t a nd a sn ea r a sp oss ib le , t ot h e e xac tp o s i t ion o ft h e s t ruc tu re si nt h e l a nd scape . We t land a r chaeo log is t s f o re xamp le , a r e a wa re o fw icke rf e nces i nv a r ious l o ca t ions b u tt h ey may w e l l h ave c omp le te ly d i f f er en t u se st of e nces f ound i nD an ish l o ca t ion s . S ome h ave b een i n terp re ted a sh av ing b een u sed a sp a th so rt r ackways ( s ee C o le s&C o le s 1 986 :1989 ;1 996 f o re xamp le s ) .O ther p r eh i s to r ic e xamp le s a r e i n terp re ted a sf i sh f e nce s f o rg u id ing f i sh t owa rd s a n e nc lo sed w icke rt r ap s i tua ted a tt h e f a re nd o f af e nce . S t ruc tu ra l ly , t h e f e nces o fs ome t r ackways f r om B r i ta in a r ev e ry s im i la rt ot ho se r e cen t ly f ound i nD enma rk ( s ee P ede r sen 1 997 ,124 ,f o re xamp le ) , t h ough t h eD an ish o nes ,d ue t ot h e i ro r ig ina lp o s i t ion a l ong t h ec oa s ti nw ha tw a so r ig ina l ly s ha l low w a te r , i n d ica te t h e ir f o rme r u se a s f i sh f e nces . S ubsequen t ly t h ey c an t h en b e c ompa red w i th e t hnoa rchaeo log ica le xamp les f r om o the rl o ca t ions i nB r i ta in ,w he r eo t he r f ac tors h ave c ommon p henomena w ith D an ish o nes ( f or a n e xp lana t ion o f ' e thnoa rchaeo log ica l ' , s e e s e c t ion 3 . 2 , t h is c hap te r ) . S t ruc tu ra l a na log ies c an t h e ref o re b e o f s ome u se b u t c au t ion i sn eces sa ry w i th i n terp re ta t ion s a s c on tex t o r l o ca t ion i se qua l ly i mpo r tan t . F o r s ma l le r o b jec t s , b a s ic s t ruc tu re o rf o rm m ay n o th ave c hanged a ta l l , a sw i th f i sh h ook s . T hey n eed l i t t le f u r the r i n terp re ta t ion .H oweve r ,i r on ica l ly ,f u tu re a r chaeo log is t sa l so n eed t ob ea wa re o fc on t inu ing c hang ing h uman h ab i t sa nd c u s tom s .O ne s hou ld b em indf u lo ft h ee xamp le o ft h es t anda rd s a f e ty p i n . T he c hange o fu se f r om n appy p in t op unk e a rd eco ra t ion i sb i zar re b u tw ou ld b ev ery r e levan ti nt h ef u tu re i na t temp t ing ac l ea ri n te rp re ta t ion o fu se i fn ow r i t ten r e co rd w a s a va i lab le ( Bahn 1 992 ,479 ) . S t r uc tu ra l ly t h ey a r e i d en t ica l . T he ref o re , a l though s t r uc tu ra l a na log ie s m ay b e v ery u sefu l w hen a t temp t ing a n o ve rv iew o f t h e u se o f m a te r ia l t h ing s , a l l p os s ib le s c ena r io s s hou ld n ever the le ss b e c on s ide red . C h rono logy i sa l so i mpor tan ti fa na log ie sa r eb e ing c on s ide red .H odde r 's c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e ' t empo ra lg ap ' ( s ee q uo te a bove ) ,m ay n o ta lways b es oi mpo r tan t . i fs t ruc tu ra l a nd e t hnoa r chaeo log ica l a na log ie s a r e v ery c l ose , e ven i d en t ica l , t h en t h e t empo ra l g ap m ay n o ta lways m a t te r . T he e xamp les o ft h e f i sh h ook a nd t h e moveab le f i sh t r aps w i th i n ne r f unne l s i n d ica te t h a t6 000 y ea r sh a sn o tc hanged t h e f o rm o rf unc t ion o ft h ese a r t if ac t st o a ny m ea su rab le d eg ree . A mo re d i ff icu l t f o rm o fa na logy t ou se i na r chaeo logy i st h e c ogn i t ive symbo l ic . T he c i r cum s tance s o ft h e l o ca t ion o ff i sh ing s t ruc tu re s a low s ac e r ta in amoun t o ft h e c ogn i t ive a b i l i ty o f f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s t o b e d i scerned . T he a na logy i sw i th c ur ren t p rac t ice su s ing s im i la rs t ruc tu re si ns im i la rl o ca t ions t oday a nd p r ac t ice su sed i nt h eh i s to r ic p e r iod . A b i l i ty t ou nde r s tand t h e movemen to ff i sh b e tween t h es e ason s ,b e tween t h et i des a nd a td i f f e ren tt ime p er iod si nt h e2 4 -hou rd ay ,i sp robab ly l e arned i nt wo w ay s .I n f o rma t ion i sp a s sed d own t h rough t h e g ene ra t ion s b u t i ti sa l so l e ar ned b y n ew g enera t ion s , f r om c a refu lo bserva t ion o ve r ac on s ide rab le l e ng th o ft ime . Wha ta r chaeo log is t sn eed t og r a sp i sw he the r t h e ma te r ia l e v idence g ives c l ue s t owa rd s t h is i n terp re ta t ion . T he re mus t i n ev i tab ly b es ome a r gumen tf o ra nd a ga ins tt h eu se o fa na log ica lr e f e rences t oc u r r en to r h i s to r ic a spec t so ft h ec ogn i t ive a b i l i ty o ff i sh ing p eop le .T h i si sp robab ly t h e mo s td i ff icu l t a na logy t om ake , i nt h e s t udy o fp a s tf i sh ing s t ra teg ie s a nd p rac t ice s . We a r e much mo re a ccus tomed t o u nde r s tand ing t h e r e a son s f o r p r esen t p rac t ices , b u t m ak ing s t a temen t s a bou tt h er e a son sb eh ind p r eh is to r ic p rac t ice s i s much mo r ed i ff icu l t . O ne mu s tt h e ref o re a sk t h e q ues t ion .l si tp o s s ib le t os e a rch i n s ide t h e m inds o fp r eh is to r ic f i sh ing p eop le? I ti sh e lpf u l t ou se o ne s pec if ic e xamp le o n t h is s ub jec t . F o rp reh is tory , i th a s b een s ugge s ted b y o t he r r e sea r che r s t h a t t h e c a tch ing o fe ls w a s c oncen t ra ted i nt h e a u tumn ( Enghof f 1 986 ,74 : 1 994 ,82 ) . T h is h a s a l so b een v e r if ied b y o to l i th e xam ina t ion a nd 3 6

m ea su remen t( Enghof f1 99 1 , 11 4 ) .F u r thermo re , s t a temen t sh ave b een made t h a tt h em a in m e thod o f c ap tu re w a s t h e l e ng thy f i sh ing f e nce w h ich s t re tched o u t f r om t h e s ho re , e spec ia l ly n ea rt h e mou th o fa n e s tua ry ( Pede r sen 1 992 ) ( F ig 3 . 1) ; ( Pede r sen 1 997 , 14 1 ) . C ogn i t ive ly , w a st h e ir a b i l i ty t oc a tch e ls i nt h is f a sh ion d u r ing t h e a u tumn m ig ra t ion , a

F igure 3 . 1

D raw ing t os how h ow t h ef i sh ing f r n ce f r om H a l s skov h a sb een i n terpre ted a s ad ev ice

f i n -g u id ing e l st oward s at r ap ( more e spec ia l ly i nt h ea u tumn ( s ee t e x tf o re xp lana t ion a nd r e f e rence s ) . F rom P ede r sen 1 992 , 1) .

d e l ibe ra te s t ra tegy o r w a s i tp u re ly o ppo r tun is t ic w i th , c on sequen t ia l ly , v ery a dequa te n umbe r so fe ls b e ing c augh t? A g radua ll e a rn ing p roce ss i nt h is s i tua t ion w ou ld p robab ly t e l l p eop le t h a t mo re l a rge r e ls w e re c augh t a tt h is t ime o ft h e y ea r a nd e spec ia l ly a t n i gh t . T h is h a s b een d e te rm ined b y e xam in ing t h e p r esen t m ig ra t ion h ab i t s o ft h e e l , t h ough m ig ra t ion t ob r eed ing g round s o n t h e o t he r s i de o ft h e A t lan t ic o cean wou ld n o t h ave b een u nde r s tood ( f o r mo re d e ta i ls s e eT esch 1 77 ,190 a nd c hap ter 9p t .1 ) . I ti sa l so a f a c tt h a tn o ta l l a rge e l s o ft h es ame y ea r -c la ss m ig ra te a te xac t ly t h es ame t ime ,o re ven i nt he s ame y ea r . Much t hough ts hou ld t h e ref o re g o i n to t h ec ogn i t ive a spec t sn o to n ly o f t h e c a tch ing o ft h i s s p ec ies o ff i sh a nd o t he rs pec ies ,b u ta l so o ft h e s t ra teg ie s a pp l ied b y p r eh is to r ic f i sh ing p eop le t of i sh ing g ene ra l ly . F ina l ly , a na log ie s o fs ymbo l ic r ep resen ta t ion h ave b een s hown t ob e i mpor tan t i n d ec iphe r ing t h ea c t iv i t ies o fp reh is to r ic p eop le . T he re a ppea rt ob ef ew r ep re sen ta t ions o f t h is t ype i nt h is a r ea o fs t udy f o r t h is s pec if ic p e r iod i np reh is to ry . T he s i gn if icance o f B ronze A ge r o ck c a rv ing s f r om S cand inav ia , s ome w i th f i sh ing r ep resen ta t ion s , c anno t b ep a r to ft h is r e sea r ch . T he b e s te xamp le s o f Me so l i th ic s ymbo l ism i n ap u ta t ive f i sh ing c on tex t ,c ome sf r om t h eT yb r ind V ig e xcava t ion s ,w he re p add le su sed i nb oa t sh ave b een f ound . T he re a r ew ha ta ppea rt ob es ymbo l ic r e p resen ta t ions o nt h eb road w ooden s e c t ion o ft h e p add les ( Ande r sen 1 987 ,279 ) ( F ig 3 . 2 ) . T he re c ou ld b e s a id t ob e a n a na logy h e re w i th t h e s ymbo l ic r e p re sen ta t ions s e en o nt h e ' b lade s ' ( o a r s o rp add les ) ,b e long ing t ot h e r ow ing b oa t s o ft h e U n ive r s i ty C o l lege s i nt h e UK ( F ig 3 . 3 ) . T he q ue s t ion o fw he the r t h ere w a sa ny i n ten t iona l s ymbo l ism i nt h ef o rma t ion o fh uge o y s te r -she l l mound sd u r ing t h e E r tebø l le p e r iod , wou ld b e t h e s ub jec t o fd eba te e l sewhe re a nd i sn o t p rov ided f o r h e re . 3 7

F igure 3 . 2

D raw ing t os how t h ed e s ign o no ne o f

t h el a rger d ecora ted p add le so fa sh ,f ound a tT ybr ind V ig , F yn i s land . F rom :A nd er sen 1 987 ,279 .

Keb le Co l lege B .C .

;

= Lady Margaret Hal l B .C .

L inacre B .C .

L inco ln Co l lege B .C .

F igure 3 . 3

C o loured s ymbo l st oh ef ound o n as e lec t ion o ft h e b l ad es b e long ing t o/ our o ft h e '

O xf ord U n iver s i ty c o l leges . R ecogn i t ion o fo ne s pec if ic p a t t ern o rs ymbo l i d en t if ie s o ne s pec if ic c o l leg e . ( WWW .l i nacr e .o x .a c .u kp age 2 ) .

3 8

3 . 2

T he u se o fe thnography . E thnog raphy i s . . . . " t he d e scr ip t ion a nd a na ly s i s o /i nd iv idua lc on temporar y c u l ture s . . . . ( Bahn 1 992 , 163 ) . A r chaeo log is t s h ave u sed e t hnog raph ic d a ta f o rs ome c on s ide rab le t ime t oi n te rp re t

t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o fp a s ts oc ie t ies . Ab r ief l o ok a th ow t h is w a sd one i sn ow n ece s sa ry , a si ti sp o ss ib le t h a tt h ew ay e t hnog raph ic d a ta i su sed t o day h a sc hanged s l igh t ly . D e ta i ls o ft h ese c hanges w i l lb eo u t l ined b e low ,f o l low ing a na pp ra i sa lo ft h eh i s to r ica lu se o ft h is d a ta . I th a s b een s a id t h a t : " perhap st h em o s ti mpor tan tw ay i nw h ich e t hnog raph i 'i n f luenced a n t iquar ian s t ud ie si nt h e1 7 th a nd 1 8 th c en tur ie sw a si nt h ei n terpre ta t ion o f s tone t o o l s b u t e t hnog raphy w a s a l so c ons id ered u se f ul/ 6r t h e c omprehen s ion 0 /d eve lopmen t i nh uman c u l ture . . . . " (Orme 1 98 1 ,12 13 ) .

U cko a l so i n i t ia ted much o ft h er e newed i n te re s ti ne t hnog raphy i nB r i ta in , s ay ing . . . . t he p r imary u se o fe t hnograph ic p ara l le l s . . . ,i st ow iden t h eh or izon o f t h e i n terpre ter" ( Ucko 1 969 ,262 i nO rme 1 98 1 , 18 ) . H e f u r the rq ua l if ied t h is b y s ay ing . . . " T he m ore v ar ied a nd t h e m ore n umerou s t h e a na log ie s t h a t c an h e a d vanced , t h e more l i ke ly o ne i st o.f i nd ac onv inc ing i n terpre ta t ion/ br a na rchaeo log i ca l/a c t" ( Ucko 1 967 ,157 ) . I nm any w ay st h i s i sw ha tp a r to ft h is r e sea r ch h a ss e to u tt od emons t ra te . T he a bove q uo ta t ion s a l so s how t h e i n te rwoven n a tu re o ft h e u se o ft h ree o ft h e w o rd s t h a t h ave c ommon ly a nd c on s i s ten t ly b een u sed i na r chaeo log ica l c i rcum s tance s , ' e thnog raph ic p a ra l le l ' a nd ' a na logy ' . A l though t h e se w o rd sa r es t i l l i nu se t oday , i ti st ime t oa t temp ta d i f f eren t ia t ion b e tween t h ese a nd o t he rw o rd s u sed i nc onnec t ion w i th b o th e t hnog raphy a nd a na logy . O the r w o rd s u sed , w h ich s e em t o h ave e qua l v a l id i ty f o r u se i nt h ese c i rcum s tance s a r e ' s im i la r i ty ' a nd ' c ompa r ison ' . I fs ome o ra l o ft h ese wo rd s a r e t ob e u s ed i na r chaeo log ica lr e cons t ruc t ion sa nd i n te rp re ta t ions o ft h ep a s t ,t h en n ow i st h et ime t od if f e ren t ia te b e tween t h em i fp o ss ib le . l ti sc l ea rt h a t t h e wo rd ' a na logy ' i si nc ommon u sage i na r chaeo logy . I tm ean s ' a c ompa r i son w i th ' .T h i si ss u re ly t h es ame a ss ay ing t h a t' s ome th ing i ss im i la rt o ' s ome th ing e l se . Wha t i sm ean t i st h a t t h e re a r e q ua l i t ie s o r a spec t s o fs ome th ing w h ich r e semb le s ome th ing e l se ,o f t en q u i te c l o se ly . I th a sn eve rb een s ugge s ted t h a tt wo o b jec t so rs i tua t ion s a r e ' e qua l ' t oo ne a no the r . B ahn h a s , f u r the rmo re , d ef ined a na logy a s . . . . " t he a rgumen t t ha t i ft wo o b jec t s o rp henomena a re s im i lar i ns ome a t tr ibu te s , t h ey s hou ld b es im i lar i no t her s" ( Bahn 1 992 ,21) . T herefo re , i tw ou ld a ppea r c l ea r t h a t a na logy c an o n ly r e f e r t o r e semb lances , s im i la r i t ie s o r c ompa r isons , w i th t h a t p ar t icu la r w o rd ( a na logy ) , b e ing t h e o ne i n mo s t c ommon u se w i th in a r chaeo log ica l c i rc le s a tl e a s t . B u ti ti se v iden tf r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re , a sf i r s t ly p o in ted o u ta bove w i th t h e q uo ta t ion f r om U cko , t h a t e t hnog raph ic ' p a ra l le l ' w a s u sed a s as t ronge r e xp re s s ion f o r ac ompa r ison , r a the r t h an ' a na logy ' . T h is w a s a l so made c l ea r b y O rme w hen s he s umma r ised h e rp o in tt h a t . . . . " preh i s tory h a s n ever e x i s ted w i thou te t hnog raphy

" .. .

a nd s ugges t ing t h a t . . . " wh i l s t s pec if ic p ara l le l s , s uch a s w as o fw ork ing w ood o r m ak ing p o t tery o rc l ear ing f o re s t , w i l lc on t inue t ob eu sef u l . . . " (O rme 1 973 ,490 ) . I f my a r gumen t a bove f o r ar e th ink o n wo rd -u sage i nt h e se c on tex t s i sv a l id , t h en 3 9

t h e re mus t a l so b e ar e th ink o n t h e u se o ft h e s pec if ic w o rd p a ra l le l ' . H is to r ica l ly a nd c on tempo raneou s ly ,a se xp la ined a bove ,t h eu se o ft h e wo rd ' p a r a l le l ' i n d ica te ss ynonym i ty w i th a na logy o rc ompa r ison .A rchaeo log ica l ly ,o ne c an d if f e ren t ia te b e tween t h e se w o rd s i f' p a ra l le l ' i st a ken t oh ave as t ronge r s en se o fc ompa rab i l i ty . F o r e xamp le , i ts hou ld p e rhaps b es e en a sm ean ing ' e qua l ' t or a the rt h an s imp ly b e ing ' s im i lar t o ' . S ome s ou rce sh ave d ef ined ' p a ra l le l 'i nt h is w ay ,v i z ' a na na logue ,o rl i ke ,o re qua l . . . ( Chambe r sD ic t iona ry )( K i rkpa t r ick 1 983 ,92 1) a nd v i z ' c omp lemen t ,c oun terpa r t ,e qua l , e qu iva len t e t c . . . ' ( F rom t h e T he sauru s i nt h e wo rd -p roce ss ing p rog ramme ' No ta B ene ') ( No ta B ene 1 988 ) . O ne s hou ld s t i l l , n ever the les s , b e m indf u l o ft h e w ay i nw h ich ' p a ra l le l ' h a s b een u sed i nt h e r e cen t p a s t b y a r chaeo log is t s w h i ls t s imu l taneou s ly t a k ing o n b oa rd an ew a pp rec ia t ion o ft h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h e f ou r w o rd s p a ra l le l , a na logy , s im i la r i ty -

a nd c ompa r ison . I ti ss t i l lp o s s ib le t h a tt h is d i f f e ren t ia t ion m ay o n ly a pp ly t ot h ed i sc ip l ines o fa r chaeo log ica lt h eory a nd i n terp re ta t ion .A rgumen t sf o ra pp ly ing i tt oo t he rd i s c ip l ines a r e n o td i scus sed h e re . T he u se o fe t hnog raphy i nc on junc t ion w i th t h is n ew w o rd u sage a nd i n terp r e ta t ion , s hou ld n ow b e c on s ide red . I ti sp er t inen t t h a t t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f p r eh is tory w i thou t e t hnog raphy i sn o t ac ons ide ra t ion . T h i s u se t a ke s v a r iou s f o rm s . T he mos t c ommon ly u sed e xp res s ion w a st h e ' e thnog raph ic p a ra l le l ' , t hough t h is i sw he re c au t ion s hou ld n ow b e a pp l ied . I n a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t , w hen a n o b jec t w a s f ound t h a t c ou ld n o t b e c ompa red w i th a ny th ing p r ev iou s ly f ound , a' p a ra l le l ' w a s s e a rched f o r . T hese p u ta t ive p a ra l le ls may n o tn ece ssa r i ly h ave h ad a ny s pa t ia lo rt empo ra lr e la t ion sh ip w i th t h eo b jec t f ound .U n le s st h e re i se nough i n f o rma t ion a bou tt h en ew ly f o und o b jec tf o ri tt ob ed e c la red ' e qua l ' t os ome th ing e l se , i ti sn o t ap a ra l le l . ' E thnog raph ic c ompa r ison s ' o r ' a na log ies ' , wou ld b e ab e t te rd e scr ip t ion . T he n ex tc hap ter w i l l g ive n ume rou s e xamp les o ft h e se i n r e la t ion t ot h e s ub jec tm a t te ro ft h is t h e s is , i ng rea te rd e ta i l . E thnoh is to r ic s t ud ie s m ay a l so b e i mpor tan t i nt h e f i e ld o fe t hnog raphy g ene ra l ly , t hough f o r a ny g iven c oun t ry t oday , t h is may p rove d i ff icu l t t o r e sea rch f r om o ne 's r e sea rch ing c oun try o f o r ig in . H ere o ne wou ld h oweve r , b e s e ek ing t o c ompa r e a nd a ma lgama te t h e c u r ren t a r chaeo log is t s ' f i e ldwo rk w i th t h e e a r l ie s t e t hnog raph ic r e por ts f r om t h a ts ame a r ea ( o ft h ec oun try ) . T he v a l id i ty a nd r e l iab i l i ty o ft h ese w ou ld i n ev i tab ly d epend o nt h ec o r rec ta nd s c r upu lou sr e co rd ing o ft hose w ho m ade t h eo bserva t ion si nt h e p a s t ,h oweve rd i s tan tt h a tw a s .T h is t ype o fw o rk h a sa l ready b een t os ome e x ten td i scus sed i nt h e s e c t ion ( 3 .1) a bove , a sh i s to r ica l a na logy . L a s t ly , t h e s ub jec t o f e t hnoa rchaeo logy n eed s e xp lo ra t ion a nd e xp lana t ion . One d i c t ionary d ef in i t ion make s i tc l ea rw ha ti sb e ing d i scu ssed . I ti s . . . ' t he s t ud y o fh uman b ehav iour a nd o ft h e ma ter ia l c u l ture o fl i v ing s oc ie t ie s , i no rd er t os ee h ow ma ter ia l se n ter t h ea rchaeo log ica lr ecord , a nd h ence t op rov id e k vpo the se s e xp la in ing t h e p roduc t ion , u se a nd d i sposa lp a t tern s 0 /anc ien tm a ter ia lc u l ture ' ( Bahn 1 992 , 162 ) . T he s ub jec th a sb een u sed a s a' t oo l ' f o rs ome t ime a nd t h e re i sn or e s t r ic t ion o nt h e s ub jec t ma t te ra sl o ng a st h eh uman a c t iv i t ie s l e ave am a te r ia lr e s idue ( O rme 1 98 1 ,23 ) .A s O rme h a s a l ready m ade c l ea r . . . " bo th e t hnoarchaeo log ica l a nd e t hnoh i s tor ica ls t ud ie s d epend o n t h e e x i s tence o fl i v ing o r r ecen t p r im i t ive ( my e mpha s i s ) , c ommun i t ie s i n t h er eg ion o fa rchaeo log ica l/ i e ldwork" ( l b id ,2 3 ) . O the rd ef in i t ions a bound i nt h e l i t e ra tu re w he re i ti sd ec la red t h a t . . . . " e thnoarchaeo logv i sn o t at h eory , b u t r a ther a r e search s t ra tegy/br a n swer ing a rchaeo log ica lq ue s t ions i nl i v ing s oc ie t ie s" (S ta rk 1 993 ,84 ) . T he r e sea r ch a l so . . . 4 0

" a id s i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fh ypo the se s r egard ing t h e a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , a nd i nt h er ef inemen to f ap ar t icu lar f ocu so nr e levan tr e search t o p ic s" ( I b id ,9 4 ) . I ti s my b e l ief t h a tb o th e t hnoh is to ry a nd e t hnoa rchaeo logy h ave av i ta l r o le t op l ay i nt h e i n terp re ta t ion s t h a t c an b e m ade c once rn ing f i sh ing p rac t ices a nd s t ra teg ie s t h a t t o ok p l ace i nt h e l a te r Meso l i th ic i nD enma rk . B u t o ne i sa lways m indf u l o ft h e c au t ion t h a ts hou ld b ea pp l ied b ef o re f i rm s t a temen t sc an b em ade a bou tt h em a te r ia lt h a tp r eh is to r ic p eop le u sed a nd t h e s i tua t ions t ha t c ommun i t ies f ound t h emse lves i n , i n c oas ta l e nv ironmen ts . T he f o rego ing r e sea rch c an b e e n l igh tened b y e thnoh is tor ic a nd e t hnoa rchaeo log ica l e xamp le s , s ome o fw h ich a r e o u t l ined i nt h e n ex tc hap te r .

4 1

4 S ea leve l c hange a nd t he e f f ec t o n f i sh , s he l lf i sh a nd f i sh ing p rac t ice s .

P la te 4 .1

G l ib!I s kere iV e s t l i inf jord en h r Hans S nud th . ( Pushne t/ lsh ing i nt he W e s tL i in / jord ( c l9 ]7 ) .

Cour tesy o tt / ic S k ive Kuns tmuseum , Denmark . ( Pub l ished i nc 1998 a s ' Hans Sm id th / 1839 -1917 ' ) ) .

S ea leve lc hange a nd t h e refo re s ho re l ine d i sp lacemen tw i l lc l ea r ly a f f ec t ma r ine l i f ei nc oa s ta l e nv i ronmen t s . H e re t oo ,h uman a c t iv i t ie s ,e spec ia l ly t ho se a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing w i l lb ea f f ec ted . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o ft h e r e s idue s o fm a r ine l i f e , f i sh ing p r ac t ice s a nd h uman a c t iv i ty w i l lv a ry a cco rd ing t os pec if ic p o s t -depo s i t iona lf a c to r s .O nt h ec oa s to ri nm a r ine f j o rd si nD enma rk , t h e se f a c to r sw i l ld epend o ns peed o fb u r ia la nd t h ep Hv a lue o ft h es ub s t ra te .S ubsequen tp e rmanen t i mme r s ion i ns e a -wa te ro ru p l if t ing t od ry l a nd w i l la l so d e term ine t h es peed o ft aphonom ic c hange a nd s u rv iva l . T h is c hap te re xam ine s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s e a leve l c hanges , f i sh ing p rac t ice s a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . 4 . 1

S ea leve lc hange : s ome d ef in i t ions . T he s ho re l ine o bv ious ly c hange sw i th t h et i de s ,i ft h ey e x i s ti nt h eg eog raph ica la r ea o fs t udy .

I nD enma rk ,t h es ho re l ine h a sa l so c hanged a s ar e su l to fo t he rf a c to r s . Movemen to ft h es e ac au sed b ya dd i t ion o fg l ac ia lm e l twa te rm ay c ause ar i se i ns e a leve l .T he g l ac ia ls i tua t ion a r ound D enma rk h a sb een p lo t ted ( F ig 4 . 1) . A st h eg l ac ie r sm e l ted ,n ew a r ea so fw a te rw e r ec r ea ted .T he se d eve loped o ve rs e ve ra lm i l lenn ia ( F ig 4 . 2 ) . T he s i tua t ion t o day i sa pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame a s i tw a s a bou t 5 000 -5500 y ea r s a go ( Ch r is ten sen 1 993 ,23) . T he re h ave b een , n eve r the le s s , s eve ra l t r ansg ress ion s wh ich a r ee xp la ined h e re . S ea leve l c hange r e su l t ing f r om t h e a moun t o fw a te ri nt h e o ceans i sr e f er red t oa se us ta t ic . T he p rocess b e ing e us tasy . H oweve r , i ti sn o t g l oba l ly u n if orm o rr e gu la r o ver t ime . A s w i l l b e e xp la ined , t h e s i tua t ion i nD enma rk i sp a r t icu la r ly c omp lex . U p l if to rs ubs idence o ft h e l a nd p o s t -g lac ia l ly w i l l a l so c hange t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e s ho re l ine . S ome l a nd movemen t sa r el o ng term ,a s soc ia ted w i th t h em ig ra t ion o ft h ec on t inen ta lp l a te sa c ro s s 4 2

F igure 4 .1 .

P re sen tp a t tern o f uplif t a nd s ub s id ence a round D enmark . I ti sc l ear

Den m ark i si na n a rea o fi n s tab i l i ty . F rom B e l l & Wa lker 1 992 ,93 .

t h e s u rf ace o ft h e g l obe ( Lowe & Wa lke r 1 995 ,56 ) . O the r m ovemen t s c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th e xce s s ive l o ad so fi c ed u r ing g l ac ia l c ove r . T he p os t -g lac ia lm e l t ing c au se s ar e bound e f f ec to ft h e l a nd . I tr i ses .T hese movemen t sa r ei s o s ta t ic .T he re m ay b e ac o r respond ing f a l li nt h el a nd b enea th t h e s e a , a s i nt h e c en t ra l N or th S ea a r ea . T he s t a te o fb a lance t h a te x is t s w i th in t h e e a r th 's c ru s t i s i s o s ta sy . A bso lu te s e a leve lc hange sa r ev e ry d i ff icu l tt od e term ine .T hey v a ry c on s ide rab ly d epend ing o n t h e a r ea o fs t udy . T he s e a leve l c hange r e su l t ing f r om g l ac ia l a c t iv i ty i sr e f e r red t oa s g l ac io e u s ta t ic . l ti sc omp lex f o rt h ea r ea a r ound S ou thern S cand inav ia , i n c lud ing D enma rk . I fs e a -wa te r h a s i n g ressed c ons ide rab ly i n to d ry l a nd , t h e re h a s b een at r ansgre ss ion . L a te r , i ft h is s ea -wa te r d r a in sa way c r ea t ing al owe rs ho re l e ve l ,t h e re h a sb een ar egre s s ion . G eo log is t sc an f i nd e v idence f o rt h e se d i s t inc t movemen t sb ye xam ina t ion o fb o reho le c o re s amp les . F ina l ly ,t h ei s o s ta t ic l a nd movemen t sc an b ec omp l ica ted b yt i l t ing .T h is i sap roce s sw he reby t h e u p l if t o ft h e l a nd p os t -g lac ia l ly , i si regu la r . l tc an a l so b e i regu la r i n mo re t h an o ne p l a in r e la t ive t o f l a t l a nd a r ound t h e c en t ra l p o in t o fu p l if t a nd t i l t . T h is i sa l so r e levan t f o r s ea leve l c hange s i nv a r ious p l aces a r ound t h e D an i sh c oa s t . 4 . 11 I s os tasy . A s e xp la ined ,t h es i tua t ion w i th r e ga rd t os e a leve ls , l a nd movemen t s a nd s ho re l ine c hange s i sc omp lex a r ound D enma rk . E ach p henomenon , h oweve r , n eed s f u r the r e xp lana t ion i no rde r t o r e la te t h em t of i sh ing s t ra teg ie s .T h is w i l lb ep a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tw hen t h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence i sc on s ide red i nd e ta i l . T he e f f ec t t h a t g l ac ie r s h ave o n t h e l a nd c an b e s hown d i ag ramma t ica l ly ( F ig 4 . 3 ) . A tt h e max imum g l ac ia lp o s i t ion o ft h el a s ti c eA ge ,t h is s i tua t ion w ou ld h ave a pp l ied t ot h e ma jo r i ty

4 3

F igure 4 . 2 .

L arge n ew a reas o fw a ter h ad b een c rea ted t b / /ow ing t he n i e / f ing o ft h e

F enno scand ian i c e s hee t . T he p en insu la o /D enmark b ecame l a rge / l ,s urround ed h i ' w a ter h i ' t h e t i me o /t h eL i t tor ina t r an sg re s s ion s . F ron i B e l l& W a l ker 1 992 ,1 03 .

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o fS cand inav ia i n c lud ing mo s t o fw ha t i sn ow D enma rk . O n ly t h e S ou th We s tern e dge o fp resen t D enma rk w a sn o tc ove red c omp le te ly b yi c e( s ee a ga in F ig 4 . 2 ) . G radua l ly a st h e i c em e l ted , mo r e l a nd w a s a va i lab le f o r c o lon isa t ion . L a te r , t h e l a nd r o se a nd s o d i d t h e l e ve l o f t h e s e a . Mo s t i mpo r tan t ly t h is c hanged t h ea c tua lp o s i t ion o ft h e s ho re l ine ( F ig 4 . 4 ,m a rked ML

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4 5

wha t i sn ow T ybr ind V ig ( Ma im 1 995 ,387 ) ( F ig 4 . 6 ) . T h is t oo , w i l l h ave a b ea r ing o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o rf i sh ing p rac t ices f r om t h e se d i f f e ren t a r ea s . 4 . 12 E us ta sy . T he a bove e xp lana t ion f o r e us ta t ic s e a leve l c hange i ss imp l if ied . E a r ly c a lcu la t ions u s ing t h e a va i lab le r e la t ive s e a leve l d a ta a tt h e t ime , s howed as udden r i se a ta bou t 7 000 1 3P . T h is h a s a l so b een s hown g raph ica l ly b y Mö rne r( Mö rne r 1 976 ,66 ) ( F ig 4 . 7 ) . I ti si mpo r tan tt os e e t h a tt h e 1 3

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c u rve w a s e ven tua l ly c hanged f r om i t s u nca l ibra ted p o s i t ion t ot h e c a l ib ra ted o ne ( d o t ted & s o l id l i nes ) . S ubsequen t c urve s a r e c a l ib ra ted d a te s . T h is p o s i t ion h a s a l so b een d emons t ra ted w i th my s t anda rd ised c a l ib ra ted d a te sf o rt h es he l l mound o y s te rs he l l s( c hap te r5 ) .B ys epa ra t ing t h ei s os ta t ic a nd e u s ta t ic f a c to r s ,t h e f i na l c u rve f o rt h e s ou th S cand inav ian s ho re l ine h a sn ow b een r e a sonab ly s a t isf ac to r i ly e s tab l ished ( F ig 4 . 8 ) . M ino r d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e i mpor tan t p e r iod w hen t h e s he l l mound sa tE r tebo l le w e re f o rmed ,m ay h ave o ccu r red . When t h is c urve i sc ompa red w i th t h eg ene ra l s i tua t ion f o rn or thwe s te rn E u rope t h ep a t te rn i ss im i la r( F ig 4 . 9 ) .T h is n eed st ob eu nde r s tood w hen t a lk ing a bou ta nd r e la t ing t of i sh ing p r ac t ice si nD enma rk c ompa r ed w i th t h er e s to fn o r the rn E u rope . I ti sn ow b ecom ing c l ea re r t h a t t h e s i tua t ion a r ound t h e D an ish c oa s t w a s mo re c omp lex t h an o r ig ina l ly t hough t . Am ap o fn or thwe s tern E u rope s how st h a tD enma rk i sa tt h ec en t r eo fs ea leve l u pheava l a nd s ho re l ine c hange ( F ig 4 . 10 ) . T he m ap s how s f i r s t ly h ow D enma rk w a s s p l i t r e la t ive t oi c e c ove r . S econd ly i ts hows h ow t h eu p l if to fl a nd ( i so s ta sy )w a si regu la r . T h ird ly ,t i l t ing o n ly a f f ec ted t h e n or thern a nd e a s te rn p ar to ft h e c oun t ry ( s hown b y d o t ted l i ne s i nf i gu r e4 . 10 ) . T he se p o in t s a ga in s how h ow c omp lex t h e g eo log ica l s i tua t ion w a s . I ti sv i ta l , h oweve r , t o u se t h i s k now ledge when r e cons truc t ing Meso l i th ic f i sh ing p rac t ice s . 4 . 13 T ransgre ss ion a nd R egre s s ion . Much o ft h e d e ta i l o ft h e c hange s i ns e a leve l h a s o n ly r e cen t ly b een a ch ieved ( Pe te r sen 1 98 l : Ch r is tensen 1 993 ,1995b ) . D isp lacemen t o ft h e s ho re l ine w a sc ons ide rab le a tt h et ime o ft h e

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c urve ( Ka i /ega l , Dan i sh d a ta RH c i uve ) . c o m pared

NW Europe s how ing c en tres o fu p l i t i

a nd t he a ng le o ft i l t ing . F rom Mörner 1 980 ,282 .

4 7

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a nd s ubs idence ( )

g rea t t r ansg ress ion w h ich b egan a t a mo re r e cen t ly c a lcu la ted d a te o f a bou t 6 400BC CAL . ( Ch r is ten sen 1 995a ,15 ) . A t ten t ion i sd r awn t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h is a pp rox ima te d a te mus t b e s e en a se a r l ier t h an t h e a bove men t ioned d a te o f7 000BP w h ich w a sg i ven i nt h e e a r l ie rl i t e ra tu re w e l lb ef o re c a l ib ra t ion . M ino r t r an sg re s s ion sf o l lowed .T he se a r en ow r e f e r red t oa st h eL i t to r ina f l uc tua t ion s( Ch r is ten sen 1 993 ,2 1 ) . T he se t r ansg res s ion s a nd t h e i r c omp lemen ta ry r eg re ss ions w e r e n o t r e gu la r . T h is a pp l ie s b o th i n t ime a nd s pace a sf i gu re 4 . 11 s how sa tv a r iou sp l aces ( F ig .4 .I ) .T h is h a sa l so b een r e p r e sen ted b y c on tou rl i ne s a cco rd ing t ot h e c hanges i ns e a leve l a c ro s s t h e w ho le o fD enma rk ( F ig 4 . 12 ) .

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I fo ne s i te , s uch a s V edbek i n NE Z ea land i sl o oked a t , t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween i t s t r an sg re s s ion sa nd r eg re ss ions c an b es e en i nr e la t ion t oo t he rp e r iod sa nd s i te s( F ig 4 . 13 ) .D if f e ren t s i te sw e re i nu se a td i f f e ren tt ime sa cco rd ing t ot h ep o s i t ion o ft h ea c tua ls ho r e l ine . Ano the re xamp le make s t h is c l ea re r ; t h e s e cond p ha se o fo ccupa t ion o fS t a t ion sve j 1 7 19 , w h ich i l u s t ra tes w ha t h appenned n ea r t h e s ho re l ine ( Chr is ten sen 1 993 ,22 ) . T he l e ve l c hanged f r om 4 m e t r e s , d own t o a bou t3 . 25 me t res a nd b ack u p t o a bou t 4 . 4 me t res . T h is t ook p l ace o ve r a bou t 4 00 y ea r s . A t t h a t t ime i np r eh is to ry , t h is wou ld r ep re sen tt h eo ccupa t ion o fa bou ts i xt oe i gh tg ene ra t ion s .T he ref o re d u r ing a ny o ne g ene ra t ion ,t h e n o t iceab le s h if t i ns e a leve l d u r ing o ne 's a c t ive l i f e w a sn eg l ig ib le , c e r ta in ly l e ss t h an o ne me t re . H av ing e s tab l ished t h is , t h e e f f ec to nt h em a r ine f l o ra a nd f a una d u r ing o ne p a r t icu la rg enera t ion , wou ld a l so p robab ly b e n eg l ig ib le . D e ta i l s o ft h is a r e g i ven i nt h e s e c t ion o n t h e f a una o ft h e H o locene a nd t h e e v idence f r om t h e V us tb o reho le ( s ee s e c t ion 4 . 2 1) . l th a s b een c a lcu la ted t h a tt h e g r ea tt r an sg re s s ion d u r ing t h e 7 t h m i l lenn ium B C a l tered t h e o ve ra l l s e a leve l g ene ra l ly , b y a bou t3 0 m e t re s o ve r6 00 y ea r s ( Ch r is tensen 1 993 ,2 1) . I t s e f f ec ta t t h e s ho re l ine m ay n o th ave p roved t ob et o od r ama t ic f o rt ho se f i sh ing t h e re . T he r i se e qua tes t o5 me t re s p e r 1 00 y ea r s . A l though t h is s e em s c ons ide rab le , i to n ly r e p re sen t s ar i se o fj u s t o ve r o ne m e t re p e rg ene ra t ion . E ven o n f a ir ly f l a tl a nd t h e re w ou ld s t i l l b et ime t o move f i sh ing g ea rb ef o re i tw a s d amaged o rb ecame u nu sab le . U n les s o ccupa t ion w a s r i gh t o n t h e s ho re l ine , b a se s wou ld t h e ref o re p robab ly o n ly n eed t ob e moved o nce o rt w ice i n al i f e t ime .T he o rgan ic ma te r ia ls o fd a i ly l i f ew ou ld n o tb e d i ff icu l t t o move i nt h e se c i rcums tances . T he p o r tab le m a te r ia ls a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing c ou ld a l so b ee a s i ly moved . D u r ing o ne 's wo rk ing l i f e , i ti st h es t a t ic s t ruc tu r e s ,i fa ny ,t h a t wou ld b e d i s tu rbed b y s ho re l ine c hange o fg r ea te rt h an o ne m e t re . I ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h e o rgan ic

4 8

m a te r ia l o fs t a t ic s t ruc tu re s w ou ld l a s t l o nge rt h an a l i f e t ime a nyway .

V EOB /EK ,N E •SEALAND S HORE -L INE D IPLACEMEt TA ND S ET 1Lf l 1ENT I

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I ti sr e p resen ted a sa ni regu la re l l ip se . D enma rk i sa f f ec ted o n ly i nt h en o r th a nd n or th e a s t .B e low t h ee dge o ft h is i regu la re l ip se i nD enma rk a nd i nt h en o r th e a s tern p ar to ft h eN or th S ea , t h e re w a s ar e bound e f f ec t . T h i s m ean t t h a t t h e l a nd a c tua l ly s ank a nd t h e N o r th S ea s ou th o ft h is a r ea a c tua l ly b ecame d eepe r . F o r a r chaeo logy t h i s i sv e ry i mpor tan t . S i te s i d en t if ied f r om t h e E r tebo l le p e r iod a bove t h is l i ne a r e n ow s t i l l a bove g round a nd a bove t h ef o rme rs e a leve lo f t h e m id -5 th m i l lenn ium BC . S i tes i d en t if ied b e low o r v e ry n ea r t ot h i s l i ne f r om t h e s ame p e r iod i n t ime , a re n ow s ubmerged . T hey t h e ref o re n eed t ob e e xcava ted u nderwa te r . I n s ome p l ace st h is h a sa l r eady b een d one ( Skaa rup

F igure 4 . 14

Map s how ing ho w D enmark i sa / / ' cted

b y t he t hree i r regu lar u p l if ts i n t he A rea o f S cand inav ia g enera l /v . S ca le i n h undred s o f k i lome t re s . F rom Morner 1 980 ,258 .

1 993 , 1995 ; Ma im 1 995 ;G røn 1 995 ) . Wo rk w i l l c on t inue i n t hese a r eas a s more s i tes a re d i scove red i nt h e f u tu re .

4 9

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t h e s udden g r ea t t r ansg res s ion a ta r ound 6 400 1 3C . ( s ec t ion 4 . 13 ) , o y s te r s w e re k nown t oe x is t ( Pe te r sen 1 981) . E xam ina t ion o ft h e c on ten t s o f t h e b o reho le s amp le f r om V u s t c onf i rms t h is s t a temen t( F ig 4 . 15 ) .T he g r aph ic r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h eg r ea tt r an sg r e s s ion a l so s how st h es t ra t ig raph ic

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F rom P e ter sen 1 98 1501 .

p o s i t ion o fd a ted s he l ls ( no tn ece ssa r i ly a l o ys te r s ) ( F ig 4 . 16 ) . T he se d a te sw ou ld n ow n eed t ob e s t anda rd ised b y my m e thod , i no rde rt op l ace t h em mo re c o r rec t ly w i th in t h is g raph a sc a l ib ra ted d a te s BC . O the r s h ave r e po r ted t h e e a r l ie s t k nown o ccur rence o ft h e o ys te ra sb e ing f r om B rov s t d a ted t oa bou t 5 500BC CAL . ( Row ley -Conwy 1 984 ,302 ) ( my r e -ca l ib ra t ion ) . T he re a r e , h oweve r n o s he l l mounds v i s ib le f r om t h ese e a r ly d a te s i nt h e s ou th a nd s ou th -ea s t , a st h ey w ou ld n ow b e u nde rwa te r , e r oded a way o rd epo s i ted e l sewhe re b y w a te ra c t ion . T he b u lk o ft h e s he l l m ound s i n N a nd NE D enma rk d a te f r om 5 000 -3800 1 3C . a pp rox ima te ly . T o b e mo re s pec if ic , o ne s hou ld

5 0

a lway s l o ok a t my r e v ised , s t anda rd ised d a tes f r om o ne o ft h e mo re w e l l -known s i tes s uch a s E r tebø l le ( s ec t ion 5 . 4 ) . A l lt h eo y s te rd a te sa r e p l aced w i th in t h e 4 500 -4000BC p e r iod , e ven a l low ing f o rt h es t anda rd e r ro ra nd 1& 2s i gma () p robab i l i t ies . H ear ths , p i ts a nd o ther e v idence w i th in a nd a d jacen tt ot h e se mounds i n d ica te c ons ide rab le h uman a c t iv i ty . W i thou t at r an sg re ss ion c u rve f o rt h e L imf jo rd r eg ion , h oweve r , amo re a c cu ra te p i c tu re o ft h ee x ten t o ft h ee xp lo i ta t ion o ft h eo y s te ri sn o tp oss ib le . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t od e te rm ine h ow i n d iv idua l g ene ra t ion s e xp lo i ted t h is r e sou r ce . T he r a nge o f d a tes o ver 5 00 y ears s imp ly i nd ica tes v i r tua l ly c on t inuou s e xp lo i ta t ion . T housands mo re s he l l s amp le sw ou ld n eed t ob ed a ted f o r c omp le te v e r if ica t ion o fa na ccu ra te d a te r a nge . A tt wo s pec if ic s i te s ,t h ec hange f r om o y s te r s he l l d om ina ted l ayers t o c ock le-she l l d om ina ted l a ye r s , i sc l ea r a r chaeo log ica l ly . Andersen h as p o in ted o u t t ha t t he e ar ly N eo l i th ic l a yer s a t Norsm inde s how t h is d iv is ion ( Ande r sen 1 989 ,23 ) . A t B jorn sho lm F igure 4 . 16

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T he m a in p o in t t o make c l ea r i st ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica le v idence s e ems t ob ei nd ica t ing c on t inu i ty . C on t inu i ty i nt h is c on tex t , m ean s

t h a t w ha teve r s e a leve l c hange s w e re t a k ing p l ace , t h e re w a s l i t t le i n ter rup t ion i nt h e s he l lf i sh g a the r ing a c t iv i t ie so ve rt h ec en tu r ie s . E ach c en tu ry w ou ld r e p re sen tt h ree o rf ou rg ene ra t ion s a nd t h e r ef o re d i srup t ion t ot h e i rd a i ly l i f ec aused b ys ho re l ine v a r ia t ions ,w a sm in ima l .C er ta in ly i nt h e l i f eo fa no ys te rf o re xamp le ,c hanges i nt h ed ep th o fw a te ri nw h ich i th ad s e t t led w ou ld n eed t ob e much g r ea ter t h an t h e c hange i nn o rma l t i da l movemen t f o ra l l o ft h em t od i e . U nde r s tand ing t h e d e ta i l s c oncern ing t h e mo s t s u i tab le c ond i t ions f o r o y s te r c o lon isa t ion i sv i ta l , b ef o r e s t a temen t s c an b em ade a bou tt h e s i tua t ion i nt h e L imf jo rd o re l sewhe re i nD enma rk i np r eh is to ry . 4 . 3 S a l in i ty , t empera ture , d ep th ,f ood s upp l ie s a nd g eo log ica l c ond i t ion s f o r mar ine s he l lf i sh c o lon i sa t ion : s ome i mpor tan t i s sue s . T he a bove s t a temen tc once rn ing t h ed ep th a tw h ich o y s te r sa r ef ound ,n eed sf u r the re xp lana t ion p ar t icu la r ly i nr e la t ion t ot h e s a l in i ty o ft h ew a te rb u t a l so i nr e la t ion t ot empe ra tu re . 4 . 31 S a l in i ty . G ene ra l ly , o y s te r s a r e s u scep t ib le t o ma rked c hanges i ns a l in i ty ( Pe te r sen 1 907 ,2 1 ; R u sse l l 1 923 ,4 ; Y onge 1 960 ,92 ; R ow ley -Conwy 1 984 ,313 ) . T he re i se nough e v idence i nt h e se r e f e rences t os how t h a t c o lon ies o ft h e E u ropean o y s te r d o n o t e x is t i na r ea s o fw a te r t h a t r e co rd as a l in i ty l owe r t h an a pp rox ima te ly 2 . 3% . A s a n e xamp le , f r om e x tens ive s amp le s t a ken i nt h e L imf jo rd e a r l ie rt h is c en tury ,o ne c an s e et h a to y s te r sh ave s u rv ived t om a tu r i ty w he re t h es a l in i ty h a sv a r ied f r om 2 . 4% t o3 . 2% ( Pe te r sen 1 907 ,21) . Y onge a l so q uo te s al owe rl im i to f2 . 3% f o rt h e i rs u rv iva l ( Yonge 1 960 ,93 ) . ( The s a l in i ty o ft h e o pen o cean i s3 . 5% { h t tp : / / seag ran t ,1

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5 1

much l owe rl im i t s o fs a l in i ty . C a ssos trea v irg in ica a ppea r sa b le t ow i ths tand l o ng p e r iod s i nw ha t i sa lmo s t f r esh w a te r . T he p i c ture i sn o t as imp le o r g enera l o ne , h owever . T he e xhaus t ive i nves t iga t ion sm ade i nt h eL imf jo rd i nt h ee a r ly 2 0 th c en tury m ake t h is c l ea r( s ee map ,f i gu re 4 . 17 ) .

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e n te r ed f r om t h ew es tern ( No r th S ea )s ho r e .T he r e su l to ft h is ' m ix tu re 'o ft h e ' r aces ' o ft h es pec ie s , Os trea ed i t/ is c ou ld a ccoun tf o rt h ed i f f e rence i nt h er a nge o ft o le rance st os a l in i ty t h a ta r ee v iden t f r om t h e e a r ly o bserva t ion s o fP e te r sen ( 1907 ) . T h is m ay b e v e ry r e levan t w hen d i scu ss ing t h e i s sue o fs a l in i ty i np reh i s to ry , a nd w ha th a sb een r e cen t ly r e f e r red t oa st h e ' d ec l ine o ft h eo ys te r ' , s a l in i ty c hange s a nd t h e ' a ppea rance ' o fa g r icu l tu re ( Row ley -Conwy 1 984 ) . T h is p o in t w i l l b e s umma r ised a tt h ee nd o ft h is s e c t ion , f o l low ing d i scu s s ion o ft h ei mpor tance o fw a te rt empe ra tu re a nd d ep th o fo y s te rc o lon ies i nt h e f j o rd . 4 . 32 T empera ture . T he a mb ien tt empe ra tu re o ft h es u r round ing w a te ri sa l so i mpo r tan tf o ro ys te rs u rv iva l ,f r om t h el a r va ls t age t h rough t ot h ea du l ts t age a nd i t ss ub sequen tg row th t oa ne d ib le s i ze .( s ee p a r t icu la r ly P e te r sen 1 907 , A ppend ix 1 ; Yonge 1 960 ,88 -89 ; H odge s 1 997 , p e r s . c omm . ) . Al a rge n umbe r o f t empe ra ture r e ad ing sw e re t a ken f o rt h eO y s te rF i she r ie sR epor to f1 907 . A l though t h is i sj u s to ve r 1 00 y ea r s a go , t h e t ho roughnes s o ft h is r e po r t a nd t h e l a rge n umbe r s o fr e ad ing s g i ven o n t h e t empe ra ture g r aph i n P e te r sen 1 907 { Append ix I }) ( F ig 4 . 18 ) , r ema in v a l id f o r t h e p reh is to r ic Sur faco

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F igure 4 . 18 . C har tt os how s ur face t empera ture st a ken o ve r3 vear sa tt wo l o ca t ion si nt h eb i n / ord b e tween 1 893 a nd 1 895 . l ti sa pprec ia ted t h a t s ur face t empera ture s i nt h e

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m ay,n o t h ave c orre spond ed

e xac t /v t ot h e se d ur ing t h el a te Me so l i th ic .H owever , t h e se t empera ture sa re w e l lw i th in t h ose t h a ta re t oday s t i l ls u i tab le f o rt h eg row ing o fo y s ter sa nd o t her s he l l f i sh ,s o ac ompar i son/or t h ep u #p o se so ft h i sr e search r ema ins v a l id . ( F rom P e ter sen 1 907 , [ Append ix 2 1) .

s i tua t ion . T he r e por ta l so m akes i tv ery c l ea rt h a tt h e re w e re c ons ide rab le n umber so fo y s te r si nt h e L imf jo rd a tt h a tt ime .T he t empe ra tu re o ft h ew a te ri nt h eL imf jo rd r a nged f r om 5 °C t on ea r ly 2 2°C . T he r e w as , t h e ref o re , ac on s ide rab le r a nge b e ing t o le ra ted b y t h e o y s te r s . T h is s i tua t ion a pp l ies t o day f o rc u l t iva ted o y s te r s , i n c lud ing t ho se s t i l l t ob e f ound i nt h e L imf jo rd ( T roe ls S onne 1 997 , p e r s .comm . ) . P rob lem s a r ise w i th t empe ra tu re , o n ly w hen t h e o y s te r s m ay b e e xpo sed a te x t reme l ow w a te ri n at i da le s tua ry o ra tt h ee dge so f ar i ve r ,w hen c omb ined w i th e xpo su re t os now o ri c e w h ich t h en m e l t s o n o r a r ound t h e s he l l . T h is r e ad i ly k i l ls t h e o y s te r ( Len H odges 1 997 , p e r s . c omm . ) . S o , f o rt h e o y s te r s o ft h e L imf jo rd ( a s sum ing b io log ica l a nd p hy s io log ica l s im i la r i ty ) i n p r eh i s to ry , i ti ss a f e t o s a y t h a t o n ly i fn umbe r s o f o y s te r s w e re e xpo sed u nde r t h ese e x t r eme c ond i t ions , wou ld t h e ir g ene ra l a va i lab i l i ty t ot h e f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s b e a dve r se ly a f f ec ted . I n t h eo ry , i nt he m idd le o fw in te r , a dve r se c ond i t ions c ou ld h appen a ta ny t ime , e spec ia l ly i fb ank so f o y s t e r sv ery n ea rt h es ho re l ine w e re e xpo sed d ue t oe x t r eme l ow w a te r ,a nd s now o ri c e .C onve r se ly , i ti sh a rd ly c once ivab le t h a ta ny i n d iv idua l o cean ic r e g re s s ion o fs e awa te rg ene ra l ly ( r a the rt h an a c y c l ica ll ow t i de ) ,w ou ld r e su l ti nl a rge q uan t i t ie so fo y s te r sp e r ish ing .T he m a jo rm a r ine r e g re ss ion s

5 3

o fs e awa te r f r om t h e L imf jo rd , w ou ld t a ke l o nge r t h an t h e l i f e t ime o ft h e o y s ter . T he r ef ore i ti s h igh ly u n l ike ly t h a ta ny t empo ra ry e x t reme o ft empe ra tu re wou ld a f f ec te n t i re s t ock so fo ys te r s i n t h e L imf jo rd r eg ion . 4 . 33 D ep th o fw a ter . R ega rd ing d ep th ,i ft h em ean w a te r leve lc hanged b y ame t r eo rs oo ve r ag ene ra t ion o fh uman l i f e , a s e xp la ined i tm igh t h ave d one ( s ee a bove , t h is s e c t ion ) , t h en n ew o y s ter l a rvae a nd s pa t ( young o y s te r s ) w ou ld f i nd as ubs t ra te t os e t t le o nw i th in t h e ir a ccep tab le d ep th -range . T h is c ou ld b e f r om l e s s t h an 1m e t re d own , t o s eve ra l me t re s , b u t o n ly d own a s f a r a s f ood i sa va i lab le , c u r ren t s a r e n o tt oo s t rong a nd t h e s e abed s ubs t ra te i ss u i tab le . O nce a ga in , h av ing d one t h is , t h ey w ou ld s u rv ive t o ma tu r i ty p rov id ing a l l o t he r c ond i t ions r ema ined c ons tan t o r w e r e w i th in t h e r ange sq uo ted a bove f o rs a l in i ty ,t empe ra tu re a nd d ep th . A na dequa te s upp ly o ff ood f o rt h e l a rvae wou ld b er e qu i red a sw e l l a sf ood f o rt h eg row ing m a tu re o ys te r .T he d ep th a nd f l ow o fr i ver wa te r a nd s e aw a te ro ver t h ey oung o y s te r s wou ld a l so d e te rm ine t h ev i ab i l i ty o ft h el o ca t ion f o rg row ing o y s te r s . T he g eo logy o ft h e s e abed a l so n eed s t ob e s u i tab le f o rt h e l a rvae t os e t t le o n . B o th mud a nd s and a nd u nsu i tab le b u t s t one s a nd g rave l p a r t ic le s o fv a r iou s s i ze s a r e a ccep tab le . T os umma r ise ,o ne s hou ld b em indf u lo ft h ec ommen t so fo t he r sr ega rd ing t h ei s sue o fs a l in i ty w i th r e f e rence t ot h e s ugges ted o y s te rd ec l ine a tt h e e nd o ft h e s he l l -mound b u i ld ing p hase o ft h e l a te Me so l i th ic i nD enma rk . A s R ow ley -Conwy h a s a l ready d ec la r ed . . . " Con te m porary w i th t h e i ni n tcn s i l i

s tar t

a rgu ing t h a t . .

ot t/ ic

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t h i s w a sd ue t o ad ec l ine i n m arine

salinity

s w i tched s pec ie s a nd d ec l ined "

( Row ley -Conwy 1 9 84 ,3 13 ) .

R ow ley -Conwy d oe s a dm i t t h a t t h is d i d n o t m ean t o ta l e r ad ica t ion o ft h e o y s te r h oweve r ( I b id ,3 15 ) . T he re a r es eve ra lp rob lem sw i th t h e a bove d ec la ra t ion . F i r s t ly ,t empera tu r ec ou ld h ave a f f ec ted t h e o ys te r s a nd k i l led many t hou sands , e spec ia l ly , a s a l ready m en t ioned , i ft h e re w e r e s eve re w in te r s w i th a ccompany ing s now a nd i c e . S econd ly , w i th ma rked d rops i nt h e d ep th o f w a te r n ea r t h e a l ready e s tab l ished m idden s , t h e r ema in ing o y s te r s w ou ld b e v ery e a sy t og a the r , p o ss ib ly i nv ery l a rge q uan t i t ies . T h is wou ld s oon l e ad t oo ve r -exp lo i ta t ion i nt h e m o s t s ha l low a r ea s a nd p os s ib ly e ven t o at empo rary e r ad ica t ion i ns pec if ic l o ca t ion s . T h i rd ly , a sd e sc r ibed i n d e ta i l a bove ,t h e re m ay h ave b een m any o t he rb ank s o fo y s ter sw h ich t h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence h a s n o t a tp r e sen t r evea led . S o , a l though t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence s how s c l ear c hange s ( i n t h e m idden s ) , i nt h e p a t te rn o fs he l l w a s te a nd t h e ref o re o fo ys te r -ga the r ing , t h e s ugge s t ed s a l in i ty c hange sm ay w e l ln o th ave b een t h em a in r e a son f o rt h is . C er ta in ly , o ys te r sp robab ly c on t inued t o s urv ive i n aw ho le r ange o fl o ca t ions i na nd a r ound t h e L imf jo rd a nd a l so a r ound t h e s hore s a nd o t he rs ma l l i n le t s o ft h e e n t ire c oa s t l ine , p rov id ing t h e s ubs t ra te f o rt h e l a rvae w as s u i tab le . O n ly l a nd locked w a te rs y s tem sc on ta in ing f r esh o rb rack ish w a te rw ou ld b et o ta l ly u nsu i tab le f o ro ys te r s o ro t he rm a r ine s he l lf ish . T he m ean s e a leve lc on t inued t of l uc tua te f o rt h en ex t2 -3000 y ea r sa nd c er ta in ly b y2 000 1 3C , i th a s b een d e te rm ined t h a t t h e L imf jo rd w a s s t i l l v e ry much o pen t ot h e N o r th S ea ( Ksog 1 979 ) . T he g ap t ot h e Nor th S ea w a sn o tc l o sed u n t i la bou tb e tween S OOBC a nd 0AD ,o n ly t ob ep e r iod ica l ly b r eached d u r ing t h eV ik ing e r a .T he g ap sc l o sed a ga in a r ound 1 O OAD o n ly t ob e f i na l ly b reached o nce mo re i n1 825 ( www .b io logy .au .dk , Ia nd P e te r sen 1 907 ,14 ) . Af u l ls t udy o ft h ea va i lab i l i ty o f o y s te r si nt h eL imf jo rd f r om 3 000BC t o 1O OAD h a sn o tb een a t temp ted h e re . I tc an b es a f e ly s a id t h a t o nce t h e L imf jo rd w a s o pen a ga in t oe i the r t h e N or th S ea i nt h e w e s t , o rt he K a t t ega t a tt h e e a s te rn e nd ,t h en a tl e a s to ne r a ce ' o fo ys te r sw ou ld h ave b een a b le t oc o lon ise t hese w a ter s , a st h e D an ish R epor t s s how ( Pe te r sen 1 907 , s e e a bove ) . T he re i ss t i l lo ne mo re s c ena r io t h a tm ay h ave c au sed d i s rup t ion t om a r ine s he l lf i sh g a ther ing a mong t h e f i sh ing c ommun i t ie s . T h is c once rn s t h e ir o wn p o l lu t ion o ft h e s ha l low w a te r s i n wh ich t h ey g a the red s he l lf i sh a nd w en tf i sh ing . B yt h is i ti sm ean tt h a ti ft h ep opu la t ion i n c r ea sed a ta l l i n t h is a r ea ,t h en a na ccumu la t ion o fb i o log ica lw a s te s uch a sf a eca lm a t ter , c ou ld w e l lh ave u pse tt h e i d ea l w a te rc ond i t ion s i nw h ich t h eo y s te ra nd o the rs he l lf i sh l i ved . T he c on tam ina t ion o fw a te ra t t h e s ho r e l ine w ou ld s oon r e ach t h e s ha l low d ep th s i nt h e L imf jo rd w he re t h e o ys te rb anks w e r e . 5 4

T h i sm ay n o th ave a f f ec ted a l t h ei n d iv idua lc o lon ie so fo y s te r st h a th a sb een s ugge s ted c ou ld h ave o ccup ied v a r iou sl o ca t ions i nt h ef j o rd .T he e t hnog raph ic e v idence s how st h a t as c ena r io o fh uman w a s t ec on tam ina t ion a nd e ven v a r iou st y pes o fp a r a s i t ic i n f e s ta t ions i sw e l l k nown a mong c e r ta in o the r h un te r -ga the re r s s uch a s t h e E sk imaux o r ma r ine -dependen t C a l iforn ian I nd ians ( Ken t 1 986 ,625 ) . B u tf u r the rd i scu s s ion o ft h es ub jec to ft h ep a laeod ie ta nd p a ra s i t ic i n f e s ta t ion si sr e se rved f o rc h ap ter 8 . 4 . 34 Oy s ter a nd c ock le l i f e -h i s tor ie s . F rom a n a r chaeo log ica l v i ewpo in t , r e cove ry o fm a te r ia l a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s he l l -mounds i s c on s ide rab le .S ome f u r the rd i scu s s ion o ft h eb i o log ica la spec t s ,t i ed i nw i th s p ec if ic f i sh ing s t ra teg ie s i sn ece s sa ry . S ome e xp lana t ion c an b ef ound b yu nde r s tand ing mo re o ft h el i f eh i s to ry o ft h eo y s te r a nd c o ck le . A par tf r om t h el a rva l s t age ,t h eo y s te r 's l i f ei so t he rw ise c omp le te ly s e s s i le . l td oe sn o t move o fi t s own v o l i t ion o nce t h es pa th a ss e t t led o n as u i tab le s ubs t ra te . l tm ay s h if ts l igh t ly u nde r a dve r se w ea the r c ond i t ion s o rv ery s t rong t i de s . E v idence f o r t h is i sn o t c l ea r . T he c ock le i sn o t s e s s i le ,i tc an move a r ound o ni t so wn . l tw i l la l so b ee a s i ly moved b yv ery s l igh tw a te r movemen t s . U nde r s tand ing t h e se s imp le b i o log ica ld i f f e rence si sr e levan tt ot h eg a the r ing a nd s ub sequen t u se o ft h ese t wo mo l luscs . O nce i tw a sr e a l ised t h a to y s te r se x is ted i np rof us ion i na n a r ea l i ke t h e L imf jo rd , t h ey w e re g a the red i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s . T he m idden e v idence p rove s t h is . L a rge o ys te r s he l l sc on ta ined t h el a rges ta moun to fm ea t .T hey c ou ld w e l lh ave b een o pened b yf i r e .t h ee v idence f o rh ea r ths o fv a r ious t y pes i sc l ea r( Ande r sen 1 989 ,2 1-25 )( F ig 4 . 19 ) . B u ta st h ed ep th o fw a te ri n w h ich t h ey w e re g a the red i n c rea sed d u r ing t r ansg re ss ions ,s ot h eg a the r ing m ay h ave b ecome mo re d i ff icu l t . T h is w ou ld , a s a l r eady e xp la ined , n o t a f f ec t t h e l i f e o f t h e o y s te r u n les s t h e t r an sg re ss ion w a ss udden a nd t o os eve re . F o r t h ec ock le ,h oweve r ,i tw ou ld n o tm a t te rh ow s eve re t h et r ansg re s s ion w a s .T he c ock le c an move a r ound o nt h es e abed w ha teve rt h et i da l movemen t . l tw ou ld t h en b ee a s ie rt og a the r c ock le s . I fe a ten ,h oweve r ,t h e i rm ea tc on ten t wou ld b e much l e s s t h an t h e o y s te r s ' . I ti s a l so p oss ib le t ha t t h e o ys te r w as a lmos t t o ta l ly o ve r -exp lo i ted , a sa l ready e xp la ined , t hough t h is w ou ld b e d i ff icu l tt op rove . 4 . 35 S he l lf i sh mea t a sb a i t . O ne o t he rm a jo rf a c to rc ou ld h ave h ad ab ea r ing o n t h e c hange i nt h e s t ruc tu re o f F igur e4 . 19

Max imum e x tens ion o f t he E r tebo l le s he l l

m idd en .H ear th sa r ei nd i ca ted ( No . 3 ) .F rom A nd er sen 1 989 ,21 .

t h e s he l l m iddens , r e la t ive t o t h e v a r ious t r an sg res s ions . T h is c once rn s t h e u se o ft h e mo l lu sc m ea t . I fa ny o fi tw a s u sed f o r b a i t

( c hap te r 1 0 p t .2 ) , t h en e xces s g a the r ing i n i d ea l c ond i t ions c ou ld w e l l l e ad t o a n e xhau s t ion o f t h e r e source . O ne c an s u re ly d oub t w i th c onf id ence t ha tt h e re h ad b een a ny t h ough to fc on serva t ion o fi nd iv idua ls pec ies . G a the r ing w ou ld b eo ppo r tun is t ic .I fa ta ny t ime t h eo y s te r sh ad b een o ve r -ga the red ,a nd t h ei mmens i ty o ft h em idden s s ugg e s t s t h is , t h en o t he r s pec ie s c ou ld a l so b e g a the red . O the r s he l l m ea t w ou ld e qua l ly s e rve a s b a i to rb e e a ten . 4 . 4 F i sh ing s t ruc ture s . Wh i ls td i scuss ing f i sh ing s t ruc tu re s , o ne s hou ld c on t inue t ob e a wa re o fp o s s ib le c hanges i n s ho r e l ines a s o u t l ined a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h is c hap te r . N ever the le ss , t h e b a s ic s t ra tegy r e ga rd ing a ny f i sh ing m e thod u s ing mob i le o r s t a t ic s t ruc tu re s , w i l l a l so b e o ppor tun is t ic . I no t he r w o rd s , o nce t h es t ruc tu res h ave b een m ade u s ing o rgan ic m a te r ia ls ,t h ey a r ep l aced i nw a te ri nt h e ' h ope ' o fc a t ch ing f i sh . T h is m ay n o ta pp ly t ot h e mo re s pec if ic s t a t iona ry e l t r ap .

5 5

Moveab le s t ruc tures , s uch a s f i sh ( e e l) t r aps ( Ande r sen 1 995 ,55 )( F ig 4 . 20 ) ,w ou ld n o tb ed ependan t o n c hang ing s e a leve ls . A s l o ng a se l ve r s c ou ld r e ach l a ke so rt h eu ppe rp a r t so ff j o rd s ,r i ver so rs t r eams ,t h ey c ou ld d eve lop i n to e ls . When m a tu re ,t h ey w ou ld a l so n eed t of i nd t h e ir w ay b ack t ot h e o pen s e a , w ha teve r i t sl e ve la tt h a tt ime .T hey c ou ld a l so i fn ece s sa ry ,t r ave l o ve r land a sr e sp ira t ion c an b et h rough t h e i r mo is ts k in . T ran sg re ss ions a nd r e g re ss ion sw e re n o t ap r ob lem f o r t h e e l . P eop le w ou ld s imp ly p lace t h e i r t r ap i na s u i tab ly p ro tec ted p o s i t ion i nw a te ra way f r om t h ec oa s t , r ega rd le s s o ft h e s e a leve l s t a te . S ta t ic s t ruc tu re s o n t h e c oa s t w e re n a tu ra l ly mo re v u lne rab le t o a dve r se w ea the r c ond i t ion s a nd d ras t ic c hange s i ns e a leve l . T hey c ou ld h ave b een m ade i n av a r ie ty o fw ays . Two t y pe sa r ei l u s t ra ted h e r e( Pede r sen 1 995 ,75 )( F ig 4 . 2 1) . T he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence r evea ls s eve ra l e xamp les o f f ence s u sed t o f unne l f i sh i n to f i xed u nba i ted b a ske t s ( Pede r sen 1 997 ,115 ) ( P la te 4 . 2 ) . A F igure 4 . 20

F ragmen t

0/

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T vhr ind J ' 1 g . F rom A nd er sen 1 995 ,55 .

F igure 4 . 21 .

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0/

m ap o ft h e l o ca t ion o ft h ese f i nd s s how s m os t a r e o n e xpo sed c oa s t s ( Pede r sen 1 995 ,80 ) ( F ig 4 . 22 ) . T he se

s t ake -bu i l ts t ruc ture s u sed i nh i s tor ica lt i me s i n

D enmark . E ach h ad ab a ske to rn e tt oc o l lec t/ i s / i . F rom A nd er sen 1 995 ,7 5 .

w ou ld c er ta in ly n eed t ob ep l aced i np rec ise p o s i t ion st oa ch ieve m ax imum s ucce s s i ng u id ing f i sh i n to t h eb a ske t s .B u to ne s hou ld b e mo re p r ec ise i nt h is r e ga rd . I ft h es e a leve lc hanged d r ama t ica l ly d u r ing o ne s e a son o fo ne p a r t icu la ry ea r ,c a tch ing o rr e covery o fc augh tf i sh c ou ld b ei mposs ib le .I f t h e s e a leve l r o se s o h i gh t h a t t h e b aske t s c ou ld n o t p hy s ica l ly b e r e ached o r emp t ied , t h e f e nce w ou ld b eu se les s . L ikew ise ,i ft h es e a leve l f e l l s ot h a tt h et i de h a rd ly r e ached t h el owe rl e ve lo ft h e f e nce , t h en n o f i sh c ou ld b ed i rec ted i n to t h e b aske t . I ns ha l low -wa te rf j o rd a r ea s , s u ch a sp ar t so f t h e L imf jo rd , f i sh ing w i th h and -he ld b a ske t s o rn e t s ( Ma lm 1 995 ,392 ) , ( t hough t h e e xamp le s a r e f r om T yb r ind V ig ) ,c ou ld h ave t a ken p l ace . T h is p rac t ice c ou ld s t i l lb es e en a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i s c en tu ry ( a ga in P l a te 4 . 1) . I ft h es e a leve l c hanged i nt h ew ay j u s td e sc r ibed ,b u to n ly d u r ing o ne g ene ra t ion ,t h en t h e re w ou ld h ave b een t ime t o move a nd r e s i te t h e f e nce a nd b a ske t . I t may w e l l b e t h a tt h i s w a s o ne

5 6

P la te 4 .2

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o rt ence

w i th s t ake s ( ' N eo l i th ic ) .

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ee l b aske t, Me S o li t h ,cu ,n

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Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic f i sh ing s t ruc ture s a nd t r aps . F ron ,

A nd er sen 1 995 ,80 ,

r e a son w hy , a tt h e e nd o ft h e Me so l i th ic , t h e re w a s ad i ve rgence i ns ubs is tence s t ra teg ies . S ome p eop le c hanged t oa g r icu l tu ra lp rac t ice s : o t he r sm ay h ave c on t inued l i v ing n ea rt h ec oa s tp rac t is ing t h e ir f i sh ing s k i l ls . A rchaeo log ica l f i nd s a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing , b u t f r om t h e N eo l i th ic , c on t inue t ob ef o und ( Pede r sen 1 995 ,83 )( F ig 4 . 23 ) . I td oe sn o tm ean t h a te ve ryone c on t inued f i sh ing . S ome h ave s a id t ha tt h eo ld h un t ing a nd f i sh ing s i te sc on t inued t ob eu sed b yt h ee a r ly f a rm ing p opu la t ion ( N ie lsen 1 993 ,84 ) . O the r sh ave c onf i rmed t h a tt h e re i sn ow p l en ty o fe v idence f o rc e rea l -g row ing i nt h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic ( Ander sen .S .T . 1 993 ,88 ) .A sy e t ,n e i the re xp lana t ion d e term ine s e xac t ly wh ich p eop le d i dw ha t . l ts hou ld b ea pp rec ia ted t h a ts ome o ft h ep opu la t ion p r ef e r red t oc on t inue w i th t h e i rk now ledge a nd p r ac t ice o ff i sh ing . T he f r us t ra t ing s i tua t ion w i th r e ga rd t os e a leve l c hange s a nd f l uc tua t ing r e su l t s f r om av a r ie ty o ff i sh ing p r ac t ice s , m ay h ave r e su l ted i nf i sh ing s pec ia l ism a mong s t t h e

5 7

br n

p opu la t ion .T he a b i l i ty t oa dap ta nd c ope w i th c on t inua l ly h av ing t o move f i xed f i sh ing s t ruc tu res m ay h ave b een

Cl*dolc0 1 1.0

t o o much f o rs ome . F u r the rt e s t so ns ke le ta lr ema ins m ay 9 1 4 L O I IO •

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-

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r e vea l d i f f e rence s i nt h e d i e t b e tween p opu la t ions . B u t w i th i n c rea sed t r anspo r t( whee l sa r ek nown f r om t h el a t te r

I c l od

C itO lyo l • y l ,f l j l l Jeh , ly U c ybtl S inakirru, 4 0,0 • p la id

P &a 0.t ' 1 1 O.y U

t o d .,

p a r t o ft h e N eo l i th ic ) ( N ie lsen 1 993 ,87 ) , p eop le i n land c ou ld s t i l lh ave e a ten m a r ine f ood s .T h is w ou ld c omp l ica te

&. Ic J lyo p U l uk.

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.

d 1nkn ,,ye • l uk.

a ny s ke le ta l a na ly s is a nd d i e t i n ve s t iga t ion s .

r u ly ind 0 ,4 • U L ,0 y

U

4 . 5

r o n o

l ia looku. L ot U e llt , t 0041 . 0

S I I t0tt 'o l, , ot •

Ha i ruca • t o lyy t

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I l o lr .;ky

SOUL I 1

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F inds f r om b e low p re sen ts ea leve l . A s a l ready s hown i nf i gu re 4 . 5 , D enma rk b e low

04 0

t h e z ero c on tour l i ne o f i s os ta t ic u p l if t a nd t i l t , h a s s ubs ided . T he s ubs idence h a s n o t b een u n if orm e i the r

‚ 1ju 11

g eog raph ica l ly o r o ve r t ime . Many f o rme r c oas t l ine s h owever , r ema in u nderwa ter . T he d iagramma t ic

L i l l aL leblek U l r ,nd

C i I In I c • 100

H

• 0 1,1 4 0 ,0 10 L IW .t l I,.

r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h is s i tua t ion h a sb een s hown ( F ig 4 . 4 ) . I nt h is d i ag ram ,p a r t s o ft h e l a nd s hown a t ML I ML 3 w ou ld n ow b e u nde rwa te r . A rchaeo log ica l r e cove ry o f -

F igure 4 .23 Da ted / i sh iig S tr I lC tUreS c t # id h a ske t ,i 't r ap s/ i ' o ,n t h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th i c . Da te s a re u nca l ibra ted h ; , . 1 995 8 3

F rom An der sen

a r t if ac t sf r om s ome o ft h e se a r ea sh a so n ly r e cen t ly t a ken p l ace ( Ander sen S .H . 1 9931995 ; S kaarup 1 993 , 1995 ; F i sche r 1 995 ; Ma lm 1 995 ) . O the rr e p re sen ta t ion s o ft h e r e su l t o f t r ansgress ions h ave a l so b e s hown ( Ma lm 1 995 ,386 )( F ig 4 . 24 ) . I mpor tan ts e t t lemen t sf r om f or me r

c oa s t l ines o ft h e Meso l i th ic p e r iod h ave a l so n ow b een p i npo in ted ( Ander sen 1 993 ,65 )( F ig 4 . 25 ) . T yb r ind V ig a nd Mø l legabe ta r ew e l l k nown a nd h ave p roduced much o rgan ic ma te r ia la s soc ia ted

F igure 4 .24 Diagra m m at ic r epresentat ion s ho w ing t hree

s t age s

0 / o ccurences dur ing

at r an sg r e s s ion a t

ac oa s ta ls e t t lemen to ra c t iv i ty a rea . O r ig ina l / i, a bove t he s hore l ine , t he a c t iv i ty a rea i s i nunda ted a nd w ave a c t ion d i sp lace s m a ter ia l a nd d epos i t s i ti n ar e/ i lse l a yer l ower d own t h e s hore l ine .

Even tual / i ' ,

s on n ich w a te rc over st h e

j orn ier a c t iv i ty l a yer a nd t h el ower r e / i l se l a yer , t ha ta rchaeo log i s t sn eed t oe xcava te a nd r ecover ma ter ia l u s ing d i ver s a nd u nderwa ter m e t hod s ( ?t recove m :v .

5 8

F ron , Mahn 1 995 ,386 .

w i th f i sh ing ( f loa t s ,p add le s ,d ugou t s , f i sh -hook s ,f i sh ing -we ir s t ake s ,e t c . )( Ande r sen 1 995 ,56 -57 ; S kaa rup 1 993 ,70 -7 1) . P o in t st os t re ss h e re a r ea sf o l low s . F i r s t ly ,a sf o rd ry l a nd a r chaeo log ica ls i tes i nt h en o r the rn

F igure 4 .25

A reas s how ing Me so l i th ic c oas ta l s i tes r esearched g enera l /

Denmark . T he 1me tre c on tour s S. H .

q ii s os ta t ic up/u t a re superi mposed .

-i n

A t ierAnd er sen

1 99365 .

p a r to fD enma rk ,f i nd sa ts ubme rged s i tes a r ev e ry s im i la r .T hey c an a l so b es hown t ob eo fs im i la r a ge . T ybr ind V ig d a te s a r ea va i lab le f r om t h e l a te E r tebo l le p er iod ( App rox .4250 -4000 BC CAL ) a nd f r om Mø ! legebe t I( App rox .4800 -4700 BC CAL ) ( s ee s t anda rd ised d a te l is t s : T ab le 7 ) . T he T yb r ind V ig s i te i so n ly 2 3 me te r su nde rp re sen t s e a leve l . S econd ly , m a te r ia l o f as im i la rn a tu re h a s b een f ound a bove t h e p re sen t s e a leve l a tO le s ly s t n ea r H a lsskov a nd a tN ek se lø ( Pede r sen 1 995 7 6 -81) .B u tt h ed a te sf o rt h e se f i sh ing w e ir s t ruc tu re sa nd t r ap sa r e much l a te r( O le s lys t3 500 2 690 B C CAL ; N ek se lo 3 500 -3400 BC CAL ) ( See s t anda rd ised d a te l is t s : T ab le 7 ) . T he d a te s e quenc ing c an a l so b ev e r if ied i nF igu r e4 . 23 ,a bove .R ega rd le s so ft h et r an sg r e s s ion sa nd c on sequen t i n unda t ions f o r t h e p eop le f o rme r ly a c t ive h e re , t h e re i sc on t inu i ty o f a c t iv i ty . We c anno t s e e s ubme rged m iddens b u tw e c an s e e e v idence o f mo re t h an o ne f i sh ing p rac t ice . F i sh w e re g u ided b yw e i r si n to f unne l led t r ap sf r om w h ich t h ey c ou ld n o te s cape . T hey w e re c augh to nh ook sw he re b a i tm u s th ave b een a pp l ied .T hey w e re t r i cked a nd g u ided i n to s ma l l -f unne l led ,i n d iv idua l ly b a i ted t r ap s . A l l t h e c a tch ing d ev ice s f o r a pp ly ing t h e s t ra teg ies f o r c a tch ing f i sh c ou ld b e moved a nd r ep laced i nb e tween s e a leve l c hange s a lmo s to n aw eek ly o rd a i ly b a s is . T h ird ly ,t ov a l ida te t h ese c l a im so ne c an l o ok a ts im i la rs i tua t ion se l sewhe re . I ti sp o ss ib le t o s e e a na na log ica l , h i s to r ica l s i tua t ion i nD enma rk a nd o t he rp a r t s o fN or thern E u rope . Ad r aw ing f r om t h e e nd o ft h e l a s t c en tu ry f r om D enma rk i n d ica te s t h e u se o fs im i la r s t ruc tu re s ( Pede r sen 1 992 ,7 ) ( F ig 4 . 26 ) . W i th c u r ren t ly a va i lab le e v idence ,t h es i tua t ion f o rt h eR ive rS eve rn i nE ng land , i sc ompa rab le .T o c a t ch ar ange o ff i sh , c h ief ly s a lmon ,f i she r men u sed s im i la rs t ruc tu re st ot r ap f i sh o nt h eo u tgo ing

5 9

F igure 4 . 26 century) .

E nc I egôrd i ' edlavvand e

Fro m

( an

e lw e ir a tl ow t i d e ) . ( F rom ad raw ing m ad ea tt h ee ndo tt h el a s t

P ed er sen 1 992 ,7 .

a nd i n com ing t i des ( G reen 1 992 ,70 ; G e ra in tJ enk in s 1 974 ,48 ) ( F ig s 4 . 27 -4 .29 & P l a t e 4 . 3 ) . E ven d u r ing t h ep re sen t , a nd l a s td ecade o ft h e2 0 th c en tu ry , s im i la rr a nk s a r ep l aced f r om t h es ho re l ine t oc a tch s im i la rf i sh . B u ts ho re l ine sh ave c hanged h e re t o o . E v idence i sn ow a va i lab le t os how t h a t i nh i s to r ica lt imes ,t h e l i ne so fs t ake st oh o ld b a ske t so rr e ta in f e nce sw e re f u r ther o u ti nt h ee s tua ry o ft h e R ive r S evern ( Nay l ing 1 997 ,89 ) ( F ig 4 . 30 ) . T he se a r e n ow 4 50m f r om t h e p r e sen t Mean H igh Wa te rl i ne ( I b id , 8 8 ) . l ti sc l ea rt h e re a r en ow s eve ra le xamp le s a nd n od oub tm o re w i l l c ome t ol i gh t , t os how t h a t a dap ta t ion t os e a leve l c hange w a sp o s s ib le , w i thou tt o o many p r ob lem s .

F igure 4 . 27

B u i ld ing a p i i tcher r ank o fb a ske t sn earAu s tc / i / f ,S evern e s tuary ( /965 ) . T he se b a ske t s

a re o n l y/ o rt h el a rger f i sh s uch a ss a lmon .

F ro in G era in tJ enk in s 1 974 ,48 .

6 0

F igure 4 . 28

R emov ing

l a rge .f i sh( sa lmon )f r om a

p u tcher

b aske t ,

G o /d c / i t ! ;S evern e s tuary ( 1938 ) . I f b aske ts o f s im i lar t ype w ere J )U1 a bove g round l e ve l s t ake s i np reh i s tor i

on

t h e

e v id ence i t ' o i , /d b e v ery d if i cu l t t od e term ine a s o n ly s t ake h o /e s re m ain at

1 v( )

u ld

g round l e ve l .

F rom G reen 1 992 ,7 0 .

F igure 4 .29

R ank o /s t a in le ss s t ee lp u tcher s , B each /cy , R iver S evern , n ear t h eS evern Br idge . Photo b y

k i nd p erm i s s ion R od S t ra t ton , C ard i f f ( 1990 ) .

6 1

P la te 4 . 3 . se as o n

on t he

R ank

o / put c 'hers

R iver

Severn ,

o fs t a i j i le ss s t ee l s e t

l ip r each

n ear C heps tow , M onmou th sh ire .

/r t h e b eg inn ing

0/

t h e

s al mon

P ho to D ave Smar t ( 1 997 ) .

T ransg ress ion s n eed n o t c ause d i scon t inu i ty o f f i sh ing a c t iv i t ies i n a reas s uscep tab le t o s ea leve l c hanges . R a t iona l is ing t h ep rob lem i nt e rm so fi n d iv idua lg ene ra t ion s r evea ls l i t t le d i s turbance t o d a i ly l i f e . P rob lems f o r D ond , dL d

Af l

i n d iv idua ls pec ies i ns pec if ic e nv i ronmen t sm ay h ave b een

l7G ' AD

mo re s eve re . O ys te r s n eed s pec if ic s a l ine c ond i t ion s b u t

1 I

o n ly s udden c hange w ou ld k i l lt h em .O ve r -exp lo i ta t ion m ay h ave p l ayed ag r ea te rp a r ti nt h e ir s ugges ted d em ise . T he p o r tab i l i ty a nd o rgan ic n a tu re o fc a tch ing e qu ipmen t i si mpor tan tw i th r e ga rd t os ho re l ine c hange s . B a ske two rk c an b e moved w i thou tt o o much d i ff icu l ty . T h is a pp l ies t o n o rma l ly s t a t ic o r t o ta l ly mob i le a ppara tu s . I n t h e l a te E r tebo l le p e r iod , t h e i nf luence o f a g r icu l tu re m ay h ave r e su l ted i ns pec ia l isa t ion a mong s t t h e c oa s ta l p opu la t ion 0

( c hap te r 1 ) .S ome c ou ld h ave r ema ined a to rn ea rt h ec oa s t , o t he r sm ay h ave moved mo re p e rmanen ts e t t lemen t sf u r the r

2D m

i n land . Af t e ro ne o rt wo g ene ra t ions , s pec ia l f i sh ing s k i l ls F igure 4 . 30 4 . 3 0P os t -hole ev i d ence . lot -t he Magor f i sh t r ap I ,S evern e s tuary . N av l ing 1 997 ,89 .

Fron t

w ou ld o n ly b ep rac t iced b yt ho se r ema in ing a to rn ea rt h e c oa s t . T he k ey t o f i sh ing p rac t ice a c t iv i t ies d u r ing s ea leve l

c hange s , l i e sw i th a dap tab i l i ty . T h is d epend so nt h e s p eed o ft h es e a leve lc hange w i th in g ene ra t ions . F o rc on t inu i ty o ff i sh ing p rac t ices t h ere mu s ta l so b et h e p a s s ing o no fs p ec ia ls k i l ls .T he re w ou ld a l so b e an eed f o r ac on t inua t ion i nd emand f o rt h ea va i lab le r e sou rces .T h is i nt u rn d epend so nt h ea b i l i ty t oa vo id o ve r -exp lo i ta t ion .T h i s wou ld a lmo s tc e r ta in ly b eu n -p lanned .

6 2

5 S tandard i sa t ion o fc a l ibra ted d a te s f or ma ter ia l a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh / she l lf i sh a nd f i sh ing p rac t ices . N ew d a ta l i s t s w i th g raph ic r epre senta t ions . N .B . I n t h i s c hap ter , b o th J .G .D . C lark a nd R .M . C lark p ub l i shed p aper s i n 1 975 . T heref ore C lark i sa lway s C lark J .G .D . u n less g iven a s C lark R .M . 5 . 1

H istory a nd b ackground .

E ar ly w o rk o nt h e Meso l i th ic p er iod i ng ene ra l w a sp ub l ished i nC ambr idge b yG rahame C la rk ( C la rk 1 932 ) . W i thou t r ad ioca rbon , t h e a r chaeo log is t w a s , a sC la rk d ec lared . . . " a t t h er n erc i '

q t

t he g eo log is ta nd t h ec l ima to log i s t—

.

( C la rk 1 9 32 ,5 ) .

A r t if ac t s a nd c hanges i nt h e ir m anuf ac ture , s t ruc ture a nd s t y le w ere d i f f icu l t t op lace i n a ny c o r rec tc h rono log ica l s equence . B y 19 52 , C la rk a dm i t ted t h a td e term in ing t h e mode o fl i f e o fp eop le i np reh is tory f r om t h e ir m a te r ia l c u l ture w as l im i ted . T h is w as p ar t icu la r ly s o , a sh e e xp la ined , f o rt h e m a te r ia ls c h ief ly u sed w ere o f ap er ishab le n a ture ( I b id 1 952b ,1) . S ince t h e 1 950s h owever , much p o ten t ia l ly p e r ishab le m a ter ia l h as b een r e cove red , r ad iocarbon d a ted a nd p r eserved b y mode rn m e thod s . B y 1 960 i nB r i ta in a nd 1 959 i n D enmark , s ome o ft h ese m a te r ia ls w e re b eg inn ing t ob e s en t t or ad ioca rbon l a bo ra to r ies o ft hose c oun t r ies f o r d a t ing . B y 1 975 , h oweve r , C la rk d ec la red t ha t : " i / ic t a sk q tsvnchron i smg l o ca ls equence s h ad b een g rea t /

,a id ed

h i ' r ad iocarbon a j ia lv s / s . . . . ' a nd

t ha td a te sq // I nd sc ou ld n ow b ek eyed i n to d i / fe r en ta spec t so fe nv ironmen ta lc hange . . . . ' (C la rk 1 975 ,3 1) ,

l ti si mpor tan tt or e a l ise t h a te ven a sr e cen t ly a sC la rk 's p ub l ica t ion ( 1975 ) , h e s t a tes t h a t . . . " no a t temp ti s made t oc a l ibra te r ad iocarbon dates w i th s o la , 'c hrono log t ' by t ak ing a ccoun to fc or r e la t ion s " ( Ib id .3 1 ) .

w i th b r is t lecone P i l le g row th r ings . . .

H e r i gh t ly w a rned a tt h a t t ime t h a t u n t i l af o rmu la f o r c a l ibra t ion h ad b een v a l ida ted a nd i n te rna t iona l ly a g reed , c onf us ion w ou ld b e wo r se , c ompounded b y c onve r t ing t h e r aw d a tes p r ema ture ly i n to s o la rd a te so nt h eb a s is o fi n comp le te e xpe r imen ts . D ive rgenc ie sf r om ar egu la r c u rve w ere a l ready r e cogn ised b y 1 970 ( L ibby 1 970 ,7 ) , u pt o amax imum e x ten t o fa s much a s 6 00 -700 y ea r s b e tween 5 000 -3000 y ea r s BC . A ga in r i gh t ly , C la rk w a rned a tt h is t ime t h a t i t w a s a no ther r e ason f o r c au t ion , t r ea t ing i nd iv idua l d a tes s o f a r c a lcu la ted , w i th s cep t ic ism ( C la rk 1 975 ,32 ) . Work i nN o rway , h owever , r a ised av e ry i mpor tan t i s sue . A s e a r ly a s 1 972 , Mange rud h ad d i scussed r ad ioca rbon d a t ing o f m ar ine s he l ls a nd r e la ted t h is p rocedu re t o t h e a ge o f r e cen t s he l ls f r om t h e s ame a r ea ( Mangerud 1 972 ) . T h is w ork w a s e x t reme ly i mpor tan t . l t d emons tra ted a nd e xp la ined wha t h a s s i nce b een r e f er red t oa s t h e r e servo ir e f f ec t ' o fa ged c a rbon i n ma r ine s he l ls . T h is c hanged t h ew ho le a spec to fd a t ing ma r ine s amp le s , e spec ia l ly i n S cand inav ia . T he a ppa ren t a ge w as r e a l ised , t h en c or rec ted when t h ese s amp les w ere d a ted . T he re wou ld b e f ewer c omp l ica t ions e spec ia l ly w hen c ompa r isons w e re m ade w i th o the rn on m a r ine ma te r ia ls f ound i ns t ra t ig raph ie a s soc ia t ion w i th o ther d a ted m a r ine s amp les . P ub l ica t ion o ft h ew o rk o f Mange rud c o inc ided w i th a ni mpor tan tp ape ro nt h er ad ioca rbon c h rono logy o f t h e D an ish Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic , b y t h e H ead o f t h e I T l a bo ra tory i n C openhagen , H en r ik T aube r . A s b o th p aper s w e re p ub l ished i nt h e s ame y ea r ( 1972 ) , i ti sn o t s u rp r is ing t ha tT auber m akes n om en t ion o ft h ea ppa ren ta ge o f mar ine s he l ls ( Taube r 1 972 ) . l t i sa tl e as t a no ther d ecade b efore t h ere i sc l ea r i n f orma t ion i nt h e p ub l ished d a tes f r om t h e t wo l a bo ra tor ies i nD enma rk , t h a t t h e d a tes o f ma r ine m a te r ia l a r e c or rec ted f o rt h is a pparen t a ge e f f ec t ( J an H e ineme ier a nd K a ren S cov , p er s . c omms . ) .

6 3

P ub l ica t ion o f r ad ioca rbon d a tes i sn ow g iven b y t h e C openhagen l a bora to ry a nd t h e A rhus l a bora to ry i nA rchaeo log i ske u dgravn inger iDanmark . T h is i sa n a nnua l p ub l ica t ion , t hough d a tes p r ior t o 1 986 a r e n o tn ow s upp l ied i nr e t rospec t , a si th as n ow b een a ccep ted t ha t s ome d i screpanc ies a nd p rob lems o ccu red w i th t h ese e a r l ier d a tes ( Ka ren S cov , p e r s . c omm . ) . 5 . 11 S tra tegy f or n ew s t andard isa t ion p rocedure s . O ve rt h e l a s td ecade o rs o , t h e l i t e ra tu re o n D an ish m a r ine m a te r ia l a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing h a s n o t iceab ly i n crea sed . T he s ub jec ti n ev i tab ly i nvo lve s d i scu s s ion o fd a te s a nd ac h rono logy f o rt h e Me so l i th ic p e r iod g ene ra l ly . D a t ing o fa ny m a r ine m a te r ia l i s ac omp lex ma t te r . I nt h e r e cen tp a s t , i th a s n o t a lway sb een s t anda rd p r ac t ice t ou se o n ly o ne f o rm o fd a te p re sen ta t ion , i e : b pu nca l ib ra ted o rB P c a l ib ra ted ; b c u nca l ib ra ted o r BC c a l ib ra ted . S ome t ime s , h oweve r , t h e p o in t i sm ade c l ea ra tt h e s t a r to f ap ape r( Ande r sen 1 994b ,I ) . H e re , t h e f i r s ts en tence d e c la res t h a t. " I n t h e Me so l i th ic p er iod ( 8700 -4000B( ' ) , a l ld a t ing s a re i nc a l ibra ted ' 4C rear s"

T h is i sh e lpfu l a sn o t a l l p aper s a r e s o e xp l ic i t . T o make t h eb es ts ense o f as e lec t ion a nd r ange o fr ad iocarbon d a tes f o r ma r ine m a ter ia l , p a r t icu la r ly s he l ls f r om t h e D an ish Meso l i th ic , i ti sv i ta l t o s t anda rd ise t he f o rma t o f t h e p resen ta t ion o ft h ec a l ibra ted d a tes . T h is s hou ld a lways i nvo lve q uo t ing t h e l a bo ra to ry n umbe r ( eg K -4547 ) , a nd t h e

3C c oncen t ra t ion

r a t io t o' C ( e xpressed i np ar t s p e r 1 000 o r% o ) . T h is i s

t ob e a b le t og ive d i e tary d e term ina t ions b ased o n t h e p a r t s p er t housand f i gures . F o rD an ish r ad iocarbon -da ted m a r ine ma ter ia l , a l lowance h as a l ready b een m ade f o rt h e ma r ine r e servo ir e f f ec t . B y t h is i ti sm ean t t ha t a l l r aw d a tes f r om t h e C openhagen l a bora tory h ave 4 00 y ea r s s ub t rac ted f o r t he r e servo ir e f f ec t b ef o re t h e d a tes a r e i nt he p ub l ished f o rm . F or t h e A a rhus l a bo ra tory , t h e r aw d a tes a r e p ub l ished , s o 4 00 y ea r s i ss ub t rac ted f r om t hese b efo re t h e c a l ib ra t ion a nd s t anda rd ised p rocedures a r ee xecu ted i nt h is r e sea rch . O the rr e sea rch w o rke r sc ou ld d ot h es ame o ra pp ly ad e l ta c or rec t ion f a c to rt ot h er aw d a tes , b u tt h is p rocedure i sv e ry l a bor ious a nd ma thema t ica l ly c omp lex . F or s imp l ic i ty , t h e f o rme ro p t ion i sp erformed h e re . T he d a tes s hou ld t h en b ec a l ib ra ted ,a so ne r aw d a te d oes n o tg ive o ne t r ue c a lendar d a te , d ue t o' w igg les ' i nt h e d a t ing c urves . O ne s pec if ic p rog ramme a nd c a l ibra t ion c urve i su sua l ly u sed f o r s imp l ic i ty ( s ee e xamp les , F ig s 5 . 1

-

5 . 4 ) . I ft h is i sn o t d one i nt h e f i rs t i n s tance , t hen

i tw i l l s t i l l b e n ecessary t or e -ca l ibra te u s ing t he p rog ramme p roposed h e re . T h is s t andard ised f o rma t f o r c a l ibra ted d a te p resen ta t ion c ou ld c er ta in ly b e u sed b y o t he r r e searche r s . I n t h is r e sea rch t he refore , t h e 2 0 y ea r a tmospher ic c a l ibra t ion c urve f o r e i ther S ea t t le o rG rön ingen a r e u sed f o r a ccu racy a nd d a te -range c ompa t ib i l i ty ( Ca l 2 0 d t a o r A tm 2 0 1 4C r e spec t ive ly ) ( s ee s ma l l p r in t a tt op o fa ny d a te c a l ib ra t ion c urve g raph ic p r in t -ou t ) . I ti sa l so n ecessary t o c r ea te a d a ta l i s t wh ich c an b e c on t inua l ly u pda ted , wh ich i s s t anda rd ised ( t he mos ti mpo r tan t i s sue ) a nd wh ich i se a s i ly a ccess ib le u s ing as pec if ied ( l a tes t v er s ion ) c ompu te r p rog ramme . T he r e su l t s c an t h en b e made a ccess ib le t oo ther s t uden ts a nd r e sea rcher s . C ompu te rp rog rammes f o rt h ec a l ibra t ion o fr ad ioca rbon d a te sm ay b ec on t inua l ly u pda ted , s o c a l ib ra ted d a tes n eed t ob et oo . O ne r e ason f o rb e ing s o s pec if ic a bou tt h e p rog ramme u sed , i st h a t v a r ious l a bora to r ies t h roughou t t h e wor ld h ave i nt h e r e cen t p a s t u sed d if f e ren t c urve s a nd t a bu la t ions t oo b ta in t h e ir c a l ib ra ted d a tes f r om t h el a bo ra tory r aw d a te s .T here a r ei n d iv idua l r e a sons f o rt h is w h ich w en eed n o tb ec oncerned w i th h e re . U se o fd i f f eren tc urves o n ly b ecome s p rob lema t ica l w hen c ompar isons o f d a tes a nd s amp les a r e r equ ired w i th in a r e searcher 's i nd iv idua l wo rk p ro jec t . T he i s igma ( la ) o r 2s i gma ( 2) p robab i l i ty p e rcen tages s hou ld a l so b e g i ven when p resen t ing r e su l t s o fc a l ibra ted f i gures . T o make c ompar isons i nt h is r e search t h e I c y o p t ion , u s ing t h e n ar rower o ft h e t wo p robab i l i t ies , i sc hosen ; b o th a r e n ever the less p re sen ted h ere .

6 4

U S tu lnp r , A , L ong a nd R .S . Km a ds , 193 R&d im wbon 3 5 (I ) :

5 800BP

5 600BP

5 400BP

5 200BP

Ox a Iv 2 1 8 n u

r , 4 0:12 p rob ( hro r i 1

-

-

-

-

4 8008C

4 600BC

4 400BC

4 200BC

4 000BC

3 800BC

Ca l ib ra ted d a te F igure 5 . 1

T he G rön ingen 1 993 ( ' 20vr ) c a l ibra t ion

a rc many ' w igg le s

'

cur i e /or an i m

a gin ary

d a te ( ? 1 '5 500 ± 75BP . T here

i nt h ec ur ve e spec ia l / i 'b e tween 5 200BP a nd 5 400BP . Am ' r au '( l a te a round t h e se BP

U . S k i lner a nd F .S K ra et h 1B

Rd i at n 2 5 (2 ) . 4 3 OSID3e : O xCk I Q 1a c ub r : 4 0 :I2 p eob iciran i

D ATE K4793: 5 380± 90 13P

5 SOOBP

6 8 .2 'Y c onf id ence 4 350BC ( 0 ,6 1) 4 220BC

5 GOOBP

4 200BC ( 025 ) 4 140BC 4 1 1 03C ( 0 1 4 )4 040BC 9 5 .4% c onfdence 4 4506C ( 0 .01) 4 430BC

5 400BP

4 3706C ( 099 ) 3 990BC

5 200BP 5 000BP

_

_ 1L J L

J

U

4 8008C

4 600BC

4 400BC

4 200BC

4 000BC

3 800BC

3 600BC

C a l ib ra ted d a te F igure 5 .2

C a l ibra t ion ( ? /' as amp le d a te f r om t h e C openhagen l abora tory u s ing t h e o ld er G rön ingen

c urve

( 10vr ) . T h i si st ob ec ompared w i th f igur es 5 . 3a nd 5 . 4 w here t h el a ter G rön ingen a nd S ea t t le

0 11986

c urve s ( ? / '] 9 93 a re u sed .

6 5

W S tu lve r , A . L ong an d R S K ra e ds . 1 993 R

d ,nn 3 517

OxCa l

2 . 1 6CU bF ' 4sd ,1 2 pobchro r 1 ]

DATE K -4793: 5 380±90BP

5 800BP

68 29 / . c onf idence 4 3408C ( 0 8 5 ) 4 140BC

5 600BP

4 120BC ( 0 1 5 ) 4 080BC 95 .4 % c on f idence 4360BC ( 1 ,00 ) 3 980BC

5 400BP

5 200BP

5 000BP

IL J

I

I

4 800BC

4 600BC

4 400BC

4 200BC

4 000 13C

3 800BC

3 600BC

Ca l ibra ted date F igure 5 . 3

C a l ibra t ion p lo to ft h es ame sa mple date as

o f1 993 ( 20 1, 1 ) . T here i sl i t t le

d i f feren ce

C : ,TM20 .l4C Q Ca I V 21 1 1c ub r A 9 d 1 2

b u t

i ts eems

5 . 2 , b u tu s ing t h e

i nf lgure

p rud en t . / i n -t h i sr e sear ch t ou se

l a ter t he

G rön ingen c urve

l a ter c ur ve .

b (c rwnn ]

DATE K4793: 5 380190BP

5 BOOBP

6 8 2% c onf idence 4 3503C ( 0 .60 ) 4 2208C 4 200BC ( 0 .25 ) 4 140BC

5 60 OBP

4 l1 0BC ( 0 .15 ) 4 040BC 9 5 .4 % c onf id ence 4 4608C ( 0 .01) 4 430BC

5 4008P

4 370 13C ( 0 .99 ) 3 990BC

5 200BP

5 000BP

4 800BC

4 600BC

4 400BC

4 200BC

4 000BC

3 800BC

3 600BC

Ca l ibrat ed da te F igure 5 . 4

C a l ibra t ion p lo t/or t h es ame d a te a s i nf i gure s 5 . 2

-

5 . 3 , b u tu s ing t h el a ter S ea t t le c ur ve o f

1 993 ( 2 0vr. T here a re i mpercep t ib le d i f ference s b e tween t h i sp lo ta nd t h eo ne a bove u s ing t h eG rön ingen c urve . T h i sS ea t t le c urve i st h eo ne t h a tw i l lh eu sed i nt h i s

6 6

r esearch .

T he C a l ib . 3 . 0 .3 p rog ramme w as i n i t ia l ly c hosen , a va i lab le ( on 5¼" d i sc ) , f r om t h ej ourna l R ad iocarbon , w i th n o tes ( Vo lume 3 5 ,215 -230 ) . T he p rog ramme h as b een t r ansf er red t o a3 /2 '

"

d i sc a nd i sq u i te d i f f e ren t f r om t h e e a r l ier v er s ion ( Ve r s ion 2 . 0 ) f r om t h e s ame l a bora tory ( Un ivers i ty o f Wash ing ton ) (S tu iver & R e imer 1 993) . F o r t h e g raph ic r ep resen ta t ion , wh ich m akes t he v i sua l i n terp re ta t ion o ft h ese r e su l t s c l ea re r , t h e O xCa l p rog ramme i su sed ( Bronk R am sey 1 995) . 5 . 2 P rob lems w i th r ad iocarbon d a tes : 5 . 21 Mar ine s a mp les . T he m a in p rob lem w i th d a t ing m ar ine s amp les i st ha tt h e re i s ar e se rvo ir e f f ec tc aused b y t h e p r esence o fa ged c a rbon i ns ea w a ter ( and s ome t imes a l so i nl imes tone -r ich f r esh w a ter ) . A ged c arbon w i l l n a tu ra l ly g ive a ' f a lse ' r e ad ing mak ing m ar ine s amp le d a tes , e spec ia l ly o f s he l ls , a ppea rt ob e o lde rt h an t h ey r e a l ly a r e . T h is i sb ecause a ged c a rbon h as l o s t mo re o fi t s I T o ver t ime a nd s o t h e c omb ined e f f ec t o fi t s p resence m ixed w i th more r e cen t c a rbon i st o d i lu te 'a nd t h e ref o re p u sh b ack t h ec a lenda rd a te . D e ta i ls o ft h is e f f ec ta nd t h ew ay a r chaeo log is t s c an a low f o ri ta r e d escr ibed b e low . Af u r ther p rob lem c an b e c aused b y t h e w ay l a bora to r ies r epo r t t h e ir ' r aw ' d a tes . D a tes o fm a r ine s amp les f r om t h e C openhagen l a bora tory , f o r e xamp le , a r e g iven h av ing a l ready a l lowed f o r t h e r e servo ir e f f ec t . T he AMS l a bora tory i n A rhus , h owever , p resen ts i t s ' r aw ' m a r ine d a tes w i thou t t h is c or rec t ion . Ad escr ip t ion o ft h e c o r rec t ion f a c to r f o l lows , h owever , i nt h e d escr ip t ion o ft h e s amp les t e s ted . Added t ot h ese d if f e rences f o r a ny l a bo ra to ry , i st h e p rob lem t ha t t h e r e se rvo i r e f f ec t v a r ies a ccord ing t o e xac t ly w he re t h e s amp le c ame f r om . D if f e rences c an o ccur e ven w i th in af ew h und red m e t res a l ong ac oa s ta l s i te , f o re xamp le . T h is i sb ecause t h ea ged ' 4C i sn o te ven ly d i s t r ibu ted i nt h e ma r ine e nv ironmen t , p ar t ly a s ar e su l to f f l uc tua t ing a moun t s o ft h e a ged I T b e ing w ashed d owns t ream t h rough s t reams a nd r i ver s . T og ive t h ec l ea re s tp o ss ib le p i c ture o fc oa s ta l a c t iv i t ies a r ound D enma rk i nt h e Meso l i th ic , o t he r e v idence i sc onsu l ted . T h is i sd one b y l ook ing a tt h e f i sh b ones ( no r ad ioca rbon d a tes ) f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s he l ls , o the ra r t if ac ts ( s ome r ad ioca rbon d a tes ) a nd h uman b ones ( s ome r ad iocarbon d a tes ) f ound a ts pec if ied c oas ta l s i tes i nvo lv ing t h ese m a ter ia ls . 5 . 22 P rob lems w i th t he d a t ing o f mar ine s a mp les . A s a l ready s t a ted t h e re a r e p rob lems w i th t h e r ad ioca rbon d a t ing o f ma r ine s amp les . D e ta i ls o fs ome o ft h ese m ay n o t n ecessar i ly c oncern a r chaeo log is ts b u t i ti su sefu l t o k now w hy t h ere a r e p rob lems a nd w hy t hey r ef er t o mar ine s amp les . O ne s hou ld a l so b e a wa re t h a t n o t a l mar ine s amp les w ou ld b e o fi n teres t t oa r chaeo log is ts a nyway . C er ta in f i sh b ones a nd s he l l s , f o r e xamp le , m ay h ave n o s t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ionsh ip t o a r chaeo log ica l a r t if ac ts . T hey m ay h ave b een w ashed a shore many h und reds o fy ea r s l a ter t h an w hen t h ey w e re o r ig ina l ly d epo s i ted , p o ss ib ly much d eepe r i nt h e o cean . Where i tc an b e s hown t h a t s he l ls a nd b ones h ave b een d epos i ted i nt h e ir o r ig ina l p os i t ion w i th in as he l l mound , f o r e xamp le f o l low ing a c ons iderab le u p l if t o ft h e l a nd , t h en d a t ing wou ld b e r e levan t . E ven i nt hose c i rcums tances , o ne w ou ld n eed t os how t h a t t h ere h ad n o t b een a ny l a te r e ros ion a tt h e s he l l mound . T h is i s o n ly o ne o ft h e p rob lems . T he s ou rce o f t h e c a rbon i n t h e s he l l i sa l so i mpor tan t . T he e xchange r a te b e tween a tmo spher ic c a rbon d iox ide ( CO ,) a nd t h e o cean b i ca rbona te a nd t h ed i lu t ion e f f ec tc aused b y t h em ix ing o fs u rf ace a nd d eep o cean w a ter s a f f ec t s t h e 1 4C m easured i ns he l l . I ti ss l ow i nt h e d eep o cean s o ar e servo ir c or rec t ion mus t b e a pp l ied t o a ny c onven t iona l d a tes g iven b y t h e l a bo ra tory . T h is means t h a t o nce t h e ' r aw ' l a bora tory d a te h as b een p ub l ished , s ome 3 00 -500 y ea r sf o rt he a r ea a round D enma rk , mus tb es ub t rac ted f r om t h a td a te t oc o r rec tf o rt h er e servo ir e f f ec t . T hese f i gu res h ave b een f u r the rc a lcu la ted mo re r e cen t ly a f ter e xper imen ta l w ork a tt h e A rhu s l a bora to ry ( He ie r -N ie lsen e ta !1 995) . I np rac t ice , i nt h ed escr ip t ion o ft h ed a ted s amp le , t h e A rhus l a bo ra to ry g ive s t h e f o l low ing b a s ic d a ta :

6 7

T h is i s ar e a l e xamp le f r om t h e 1 992 p ub l ica t ion } . S amp le r e f erence : AAR 8 18 R eservo ir c or rec t ion ( 400y r .)

6 710±100 ' 4Cbp . 6 310± 100 ' 4C b p . 5 290 -5240 BC CAL .

+ 1 s t and d ev . :

5 350 -5220 BC CAL .

R ef erence f o r AMS C -14 d a tes : J an H e ineme ie r e ia ! , 1 992 . ( Ark c eo log i ske Udgravn inger IDanmark 1 992 ) . A no the r p rob lem c oncern ing a nc ien t s he l ls i st h a t t h ey a r e c omposed o f av ar ie ty o f c a lc ium c ompounds ( a l l c on ta in ing c a rbon i nv ar ious f o rms ) . O ys ter sb as ica l ly c on ta in c a lc i te , wh ich means t h ere i sl i t t le o rn or e -crys ta l l isa t ion a sw i th o the rs he l ls . W i th o ther s he l ls t he r e c rys ta l l isa t ion i t se lf c omp l ica tes t h e ma thema t ica l c a lcu la t ions f o r mea su r ing t he 1 4C . L as t ly , a s a l ready s t a ted i n t h e i n troduc t ion t o t h is c hap te r , t h e e xac t p o s i t ion i n t h e mar ine e nv ironmen t i np reh is to ry w ou ld a l so a f f ec t t h e a c tua l a moun t o fa nc ien t c a rbon t h a t t h e a n ima l a bsorbed i n to i t s s he l l . B ecause w e c an n eve rr ea l ly k now e xac t ly whe re e ach s he l l w a s g row ing i np reh is tory ,t h ea verage f i gure o f4 00 y ea r s i sg enera l ly u sed i na r chaeo logy f o r mar ine g row ing s he l ls ( i n D an ish w a ter s ) . T h is f i gu re i ss ub t rac ted f r om t h e r aw d a tes b efo re c a l ib ra t ion . R ad iocarbon worke r s a tp resen t q uan t ify i n t h is m anne r b y a s sum ing t h ere h a s b een n o c hange i nt h e ma r ine e f f ec t w i th t ime . T hey d o t h is b y d a t ing k nown -age s h e l ls f r om t he p re -bomb t ime ( 1950 )o ft h e s ame s pec ies f r om e xac t ly t h es ame l o ca l i ty ( Bowman 1 990 ,25 H e ie r -N ie lsen e t a l1 995 ) .T he o t he ra s sump t ion i st h a tt h eg eo log ica ls i tua t ion h as n o tc hanged . I ft he s a l in i ty c hanged d rama t ica l ly , t h en t h e s pec ies wou ld p robab ly n o th ave s u rv ived i na ny c ase S ome t imes ar e se rvo ir c o r rec t ion f i gure o fl e ss t h an t h is ( 400 y ea r s ) , i su sed f o ra nc ien t b one f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th as he l l m idden . F or e xamp le , s amp le AAR 832 ( Append ix 1 ) , i sh uman b one whe re i ti sb e l ieved t h e d ie t w ou ld h ave b een p ar t ly o fm a r ine o r ig in ( t h is i s d i agnosed f r om t h e 1 3C p ar t s p er t housand ) . T he r e servo ir c or rec t ion h a s b een a s se s sed a t3 00 y ear s b r ing ing t h e r aw d a te o f 6 680±140 b p f o rward t o 6 380±140 b p . , b o th d a tes b efore c a l ibra t ion . More a ccura te a s sessmen ts o f t he r e servo ir c or rec t ions a r e a t p resen t b e ing c ons idered i n t h e l i gh t o f v ery r e cen t e xper imen ts c onduc ted b y t h e A rhus l a bo ra to ry ( J an H e ineme ier ,p er s . c omm .) . D e ta i ls a r en o ty e ta va i lab le b u tw hen t h ey a r e ,t hey c ou ld e as i ly b e i ncorpora ted i n to t he c a l ibra t ion p rogramme u sed h ere . T hey c ou ld t hen b e p ar t o f t h e s t anda rd isa t ion p rocedures e xp la ined i mmed ia te ly b e low . 5 . 3 C a l ibra t ion . S ince t h e v ery e a r ly work b y D e V r ie s e ta ] ( 1958 ) a nd W i l l is e ta ] ( 1960 ) , c o r rec t ing o r c a l ibra t ing l a bo ra tory d a tes w a s i n i t ia l ly p e rformed b y S uess ( 1955) a nd l a ter b y D r Ma lco lm C lark ( C lark R .M . 1 975 ) . F o rt h ev e ry e ar ly d a tes g iven b yt h eC openhagen l abo ra to ry ,a tl e a s t f o r t hose s umma r ised i n 1 973 , n o c o r rec t ion o rc a l ibra t ion f i gu res w e re g iven ( Taube r 1 973 ) . B y 1 986 when t h e C openhagen a nd A rhus l a bo ra to r ies w ere p ub l ish ing w i th c onf idence t h e ir d a te l i s t s , t h e c a l ibra t ion c urve a nd t a b les p roduced b y C la rk ( C lark R .M . 1 975) , w e re a l ready i nu se . T he a bove p rob lems f o r s amp les w i th d a tes f o r t h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly p r io r t o 1 986 , h ave a l ready b een a l luded t o( Ka ren S kov p er s . c omm . ) . T he d a tes f o rs he l ls s amp led b e tween 1 980 a nd 1 984 , f r om t h e s i te a tE r tebo l le ( s amp le s K -4523 K -4529 ) h ad a l l b een c a l ibra ted u s ing R .M . C la rk 's c urve a nd were p ub l ished i n -

A r chc eo log i ske Udgravn inger /Danmark ( 1986 ) . B u t f r om 1 987 o nwa rds i nt he s ame j ourna l , t h e d a tes o f mo l luscan s amp les f r om v a r ious s i tes , w e re c a l ib ra ted u s ing t h e c urve o fP ea r son e ia ! 1 986 ( Append ix I& T ab le 7 ) . T h is c hange i nt h e u se o fc a l ibra t ion c urves h a s c on t inued u p t oa nd i n c lud ing t h e 1 996 i s sue . T he o ther c urves u sed s i nce 1 987 c an b e c l ea r ly s e en f r om

6 8

t h e l i s t o fd a tes a nd t h e ir c a l ibra t ions g iven i nt h e Append ices a nd T ab le 7 . T he f a c tt h a td if f eren tc u rves a nd c a l ib ra t ions h ave b een u sed o ver t he l a s td ecade m eans t h e re wou ld b e s ome d i f f icu l ty i fv a l id c ompa r isons n eed t ob e made c oncern ing t h e a c t iv i t ies a tt h e v a r ious s i tes b e ing r e searched h ere . T h is w i l l b e p a r t icu lar ly t r ue when t h e s he l l d a tes a r e c ompa red w i th t h e h uman b one d a tes a nd o t he ra r t if ac td a tes s uch a st hose f o rd ugou t s , f o r e xamp le . I tw i l lb ee spec ia l ly t r ue , i ft h a t ma te r ia l i sf ound i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t h em iddens f r om w h ich s he l ls w ere f ound a nd d a ted . 5 . 4

S tandard isa t ion o fc a l ibra ted d a tes . A s e xp la ined i nt h e i n t roduc t ion t ot h is c hap te r , i fc ompa r isons o f ar ange o fd a tes a r et o

b e m ade , i ti sn ecessa ry t o s t anda rd ise c a l ibra ted d a tes o b ta ined f r om r aw d a tes f r om mo re t h an o ne l a bo ra tory . Ac l ea rer p i c tu re o ft h e a c t iv i t ies o fp reh is tor ic p eop le w i l l o n ly b ecome a ppa ren t when s t anda rd ised c a l ibra ted d a tes f o r s he l ls a r e c ompa red w i th t h e s t anda rd ised c a l ib ra ted d a tes f o ro the rm a ter ia ls f ound i ns t ra t ig raph ic a s soc ia t ion w i th t h ese s he l ls . A l though t h is a spec to ft h e r e sea rch i s emphas ised , i tm ay a l so b ep oss ib le t ol ook a tt h e s ame s he l ld a tes a nd c ompa re t h em w i th o t her ma te r ia l n o t f ound a tt h e s ame s i te . O b jec t s s uch a sd ugou t s a nd w icke r o r o the r p l an t -ba sed o b jec t s wh ich m ay i ns ome w ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m iddens a nd s he l ls , a r e n umerous i nD enma rk . S amp le s m ay w e l l n eed t ob e t aken a ga in f r om t h ese s t ruc tu res o r o b jec ts . T h is i ss o t h a t t h e r e -ca l ibra t ion c an b e m ade f r om an ew s amp le n o t p e rhaps s ub jec t t oa ny a noma l ies t h a t may h ave o ccu red p r io r t o 1 986 , a s a l ready e xp la ined . Ma te r ia ls f ound n ear o r a tf o rmer c oa s t l ines , m ay e nab le u s t o s ay s ome th ing a bou t f i sh ing a c t iv i t ies . S ta temen ts w i l l h ave mo re v a l id i ty i fd a tes o b ta ined f o r s he l ls w h ich w ere d a ted ( a t l e a s tt hose s i nce 1 986 ) ,a r es t anda rd ised ( s ee a bove a nd A ppend ice s ) .A t l e as ti ti st h ep rec is ion w i th w h ich w e c an d ot h is t h a ti si mpor tan ta r chaeo log ica l ly . R easons f o rn o t i n c lud ing e a r l ier d a te s h ave b een g iven i nc hap ter 2 . T he c a l ibra t ion p rog ramme C a l ib . 3 . 0 .3 . ( 1993) , i s ar e cen ta nd i mpo r tan tp rogramme f o r a r chaeo log is t s t o u se f o r t h e s t anda rd isa t ion o fd a tes ( S tu iver a nd R e imer 1 993 ) . U s ing t h is p rog ramme i se s sen t ia l i fc ompar isons a r e t o b e made b e tween d a tes f r om mo re t h an o ne l a bo ra tory a nd w i th m a te r ia ls o fv a r ious t ypes . F or g raph ic r ep resen ta t ions , t h e O xCa l ( Ve r 2 . 18 ) p rog ramme c ou ld a l so b e u sed f o r s im i la r p rocedu res . T h is p rog ramme , h oweve r , i s b a sed o n av a r ie ty o fc u rves p ub l ished i n 1 986 ( S tu iver & K ra 1 986 ,805-1050 ) a nd t wo l a te r o nes p ub l ished i n as pec ia l c a l ibra t ion i s sue o fR ad iocarbon ( S tu iver , L ong & K ra 1 993) . B o th p rog rammes h ave g raph ics , w h ich c an b e u sed i fo ne c ons idered u s ing v i sua l i lus t ra t ions t o h e lp m ake p a r t icu lar p o in t s ( Bronk R amsey 1 995) . T he O xCa l p rog ramme i sa va i lab le f r om t h e R esearch L abora to ry f o r A rchaeo logy i nO xfo rd . 5 . 5

P resen ta t ion o fr e su l t s . 5 . 51

Ma thema t ica l p resen ta t ion .

T he r e su l ts o fr e -ca l ibra t ions t o s t anda rd ised f o rma t s hou ld b e t a bu la ted i na n e asy to v i ew w ay . U n less t h ey a r e l a se r -pr in ted , t h e p resen ta t ion a s i ta ppear s w i th in t h e p rog ramme o n c ompu te r , c an a ppea r al i t t le u n t idy a nd u nc lea r . T he f o rma t o ft h ese r e su l t s h a s t h erefo re , b een s l igh t ly mod if ied s o t h a t t h ey a r e a s c l ea r a sp oss ib le w hen l a ser -pr in ted . T here a r e t wo r e su l t s p er p age ( Append ix 1 ) , w i th af u l l t a bu la t ion o ft h e r e su l t s a tt h e e nd o ft h e s amp le l i s t ing s ( Tab le 7 ) . A l though a s s t a ted a bove , b o th t h e l a nd 2 r e su l ts a r e p r in ted . When a na lys ing a nd c ompa r ing t h ese , o n ly t he f i gures f r om t h e g rea tes t a r ea u nder p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ions a r e u sed , f o r s imp l ic i ty , e . g . f o r K -4524 , t h e . 8 0 f i gu res (jly . ) 4 369 -4228 a nd t h e . 8 2 f i gures

(@2 ( 5 . )

4 469 -4211 , a r e l i s ted i n T ab le 7 . T here i sn o a r chaeo log ica l o r

m a thema t ica l r e ason f o r m ak ing t h is c ho ice . T hese f i gu res a r e c hosen i n t h e a ppend ix f o r s imp l ic i ty a nd t oi mpo se as t anda rd f o r c ompa ra t ive p urposes . I n T ab le 7 , t h erefo re , t h e e s sen t ia l f i gu res f o r c ompa r ison a r e t a bu la ted c l ear ly w i th u nca l ibra ted a nd c a l ib ra ted d a tes a ppear ing t oge ther .

6 9

5 . 52 U s ing g raph ics t o d i sp lay r e su l t s . A s e xp la ined a bove , a no the rw ay t op resen tt he r e su l ts i sw i th t h eu se o fg raph ics p r in ted f r om t h e c ompu ter . I n i t ia l ly t h e r e su l t s o ft wo E r tebo l le s i te d a tes w e re p r in ted g r aph ica l ly u s ing t h e C a l ib . 3 . 0 .3 v er s ion a nd p r in t ing u s ing t he d o t ma t r ix p r in ter . ( Th is was n ecessa ry a s t he re w as n o c ompu te r i n s t ruc t ion f o r t h ese g raph ics t o b e p r in ted o n t h e l a ser p r in te r ) ( F ig

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C a l ibra t ion p lo t

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u s ing t h eg raph ic s o lC AL/B 3 . 0 .3 ,p r in ted o n t h e d or ma tr ix p r in ter . T he p re sen ta t ion i sn o tc l ea r .

5 . 5 ) . A l though o ne c an r ead t h e 1 c r e su l ts b y f o l low ing t h e v e r t ica l l i nes d own f r om t h e c urve i n t h e g raph , i ti sn o t p ar t icu la ry c l ea r . When t h e s ame c a l ibra t ion i sp resen ted g r aph ica l ly u s ing t h e O xCa l g raph ics , t h ere i s am a rked i mp rovemen t i n c l ar i ty . T he f i gu re s s how t h e g raph ics f o r ONE s amp le u s ing TWO d i f f eren tc urves f o rc ompa r ison ( F ig s 5 .6 & 5 . 7 ) . F or t h e p urpose o f t h is r e search ,

s amp les w i l l b e c a l ibra ted u s ing o n ly ONE c a l ibra t ion c urve a s

d if f e rences i n t h e g raph ics f o r e ach o f t he t wo c a l ibra t ion c urves t r ied h ere , a r e a lmos t i mpe rcep t ib le . T es t ing t h is w i th o ther s amp les a l so p roduced i mpercep t ib le d if f e rences . N o t o n ly i st h e d a te r ange c l ea r f r om t h e b o t tom a x is a nd t h e h or izon ta l l i ne s a bove i t ,b u t t h e B P ( Gauss ian ) r ange c urve a nd c a l ibra t ion c u rve ' w igg les ' a r e a l so i n c luded . T he b l ock ing in o f t h e a ge -range p robab i l i ty c u rves i sv i sua l ly more a ccep tab le . T he p robab i l i ty p e rcen tages a r e r epresen ted w i th b racke ted l i nes b enea th t he g raph . F ur thermore w hen s eve ra l d a tes a r e c a l ibra ted t oge ther a nd c onver ted t o a' mu l t i -p lo t ' f o r o ne p a r t icu la r s i te , c ompa r ing d a te r anges b ecomes much c l ea re r . Two e xamp les u s ing al a rge s e lec t ion o fs amp les o fd a tes f r om b o th t h eE r tebø l le a nd B jornsho lm s i tes ( F igs 5 . 8 &5 . 9 )a r ei lus t ra ted h e re . I ti sn ow a l so v ery i mpor tan tt h a tt h ese d a tes o nt h e mu l t i -p lo t sa r ec ompa red w i th in t h es t ra t ig raphy ,i fd i scernab le , a tt h et ime o ft h eo r ig ina l e xcava t ion . T he re c ou ld w e l l b e s ome a noma l ies i nt he w ay t h ed a tes a r e r ep resen ted g raph ica l ly , i n t h is r egard . T he g raph ica l ly d i sp layed p lo ts c an b e u sed i n

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f ro m t he B jornshol m midden .

O n t h eI c / i , t h ed a te s

a r ee n tered j r on i t h et o pt ob o t tom o f t / ic m idd en a s/or t h eE r tebo l le m idd en LHS d i agra m

( F ig 5 . 10 ) . O n

t h er i gh t , t i m ed a te sa re e n tered a ccord ing t ot h e ir p os i t ion r e la t ive t oa ni mag inar yl i ne a t 9010 t h es l ope o f t h em idd en i t se l f( s ee t e x ta nd F ig 5 . 9a ) . T h i s RHS d i ag ram c l ear /v s how s t h e y ounger d a te sn earer t ot h e t o po ft h em u l t i -p lo t . T h i sm av n o th ew ho / l' s a t i s /c ton 'a ccord ing t os t andard a r ch aeo log ica lp rocedure s , h u t

i ti sd i f f icu l tt os how am ore u nd er s tandab le p ic ture o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ev ar iou ss t ra t ig raph ie

l a yer s w hen t h em idd en i so ns uch as l ope .

7 5

E ach r epresen ta t ive g raph ic p lo ti si lus t ra ted h ere ,t os how t h e se d i f f e rences i nd i sp lay me thod . P lo t sa r ea l so i lus t ra ted s how ing t h ed a te -o rde ro fs amp les ( mo s t ly s he l ls ) ,a tt wo s i te s ,E r tebo l le a nd B jornsho lm ( F igs 5 . 12 ) . T he l a t te r t wo p lo ts m ay b e mo re i mpor tan t t o t h is r e search i n r e la t ion t o s ee ing h ow d a tes f o r t h e a r r iva l o fa gr icu l tu re ( chap te r 1 ) f i t i n to t h e p i c ture o f Meso l i th ic f i sh ing a c t iv i t ies a tt h e e nd o ft h e 5 th m i l lenn ium BC . I ti si mpor tan t t or ea l ise t h a t t h ese a r e n o t n ecessar i ly t h e c hrono log ica l o rde r i n wh ich s he l ls w ere o r ig ina l ly d epos i ted i n t h e r e spec t ive m idden . Wave a c t ion a nd l a te r h uman d i s tu rbance wou ld h ave a f f ec ted t h e s he l l d epos i t s i nt h e s t ra t igraphy . T here was s ome a t temp t b y t h e o r ig ina l e xcava tor s t o i d en t ify s t ra t ig raph ic l a yer s o fi n dependan t d epos i t ion o fs he l ls a s e xp la ined a bove a nd i nc hap ter 1 . T hese c anno t b e e xpec ted t ob e a bso lu te ly c or rec t f o r e ach m idden . T here r ema ins o ne s l igh t d i lemma i nu s ing o ne p rog ramme f o r t h e p resen ta t ion o ft h e s t a t is t ics a nd as epara te o ne f o rt h eg raph ics . Ac omb ina t ion o fd i f f e ren ta u tho rs a r er e spons ib le

T

W

CVl I ,4 S d

E r t e b c H e( 1 9 8 0 19M )

AND W X44 1

D a t e o r d e r s e q u e n c e .

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D a t e o r d e r s e qu e n c e .

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ß j e r n s ho tm 1 9 8 5 . 19 9 2 )

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1 < 4 5 2 2 4 8 O9 5BP

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— e :

-.

6 5 0 08C 6 0 0 0 BC 5 0 0 8C 5 0 0 0 8C 4 5 0 0 8C 4 0 0 0 BC 3 5 0 0 8C 3 0 0 0 BC

6 5 O OC 6 0 0 0BC 5 0 0BC 5 0 0 0BC 4 5 0 0 BC 4 0 0 08C 3 5 0 0 8 C 3 0 0 0 BC

C a l i b r a t e dd a t e

C a l i b r a t e dd a t e

F igure 5 . 12

Mu l t ip lot s t o s how t he d a te -ord er o f t h e s amp le s f rom E r teho l le a nd B /ørnshohn

m iddens . I ti sc l ear t ha t t he se d o NOT c orrec t ly s how t h ec hrono logy/or t he t wo m idd ens . O n ly r e la t ive / i ' s ma l l n umber s o / 's amp les h ave b een t aken a nd t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd

/t he

u se ( ? /these m idd ens i sn o t

n ece ssar i ly o bv ious f r om t hese s amp le s . I ti s , h owever , c l ear t ha t t h ere w a s c on t inu i ty o f u se , e ven f rom l ook ing a t t h e se d a tes . I ti sa l so c l ear t ha t t he p ro b ah i l i t i ' t ha t i nan i ' s amp les a re f ron , t he p er iod 4 500 4 000BC i sh igh/or b o th s i tes . T h i sg ives a n i nd ica t ion o /the mos t l i ke /v p er iod o fi n tense u se .

7 6

f o r e ach p rogramme a nd t he ir c urves a r e n o t i d en t ica l ( S tu iver & R e imer 1 993 f or t he Wa sh ing ton p rogramme a nd S tu ive r &K ra 1 986 a nd v ar ious a u thor s i nS tu ive r , L ong & K ra 1 993 , f o r t he O xford p rog ramme ) . B u t when o ne c ompa res t h e r e su l t s g raph ica l ly f o rt he t wo s i tes m en t ioned a bove ,t h e re i sn eve r the less av e ry c l ose r e semb lance ,a se xp la ined a bove . T he g ene ra l s hape o ft he h i s tog rams a nd t h e r e su l tan t a ge r anges s een a tt h e b ase o fe ach g raph a r e v e ry c l ose i ndeed . F rom a n a r chaeo log ica l p o in to fv i ew ,b ea r ing i nm ind a ny a s sump t ions t ha t h ave t o b e made i n m ak ing t hese c a lcu la t ions , af ew y ear s d i f f erence i n t h e e nd r e su l ts r ep re sen ted h ere , a r e i re levan t ( s ee a ga in f i gures 5 . 6 &5 . 7 ) . T he Wash ing ton p rogramme , C a l ib . v3 . 0 .3 . h as t h erefore b een u sed h e re f o rt h es t a t is t ics a nd t h e Oxfo rd p rog ramme , O xCa l v2 . 18 i su sed f o rt h e g raph ics , p a r t icu la r ly f o r mu l t i -p lo t s . I ts hou ld b e s t res sed a tt h is j unc ture t h a tt h e Mar ine c urve f o rt h ese D an ish s he l l d a tes i s NOT u sed , a st h e r e se rvo ir e f f ec t h as a l ready b een a l lowed f o rb y t h e l a bo ra tor ies i nD enma rk ( i nt h ee xamp les u sed h ere ,t h ea pp rox ima t ion o f4 00 y ea r sh a s a l ready b een s ub trac ted f r om t h e C openhagen l a bora to ry p ub l ished d a te s . T h is i s made c l ea r i nT ab le 7 ) . I ft h e Ma r ine c u rve w as u sed , a n e ven mo re r e cen t d a te wou ld b e g iven , wh ich wou ld b e i n co r r ec t b y a bou t a no the r4 00 y ea r s ( s ee e xamp le f r om O xfo rd l a b . p r in t -ou t ) ( F ig 5 .1 3 ) .

5 300± OEV i.2t

o tiO

cc . 2

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(5.41)

3 27B

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3 500C l%C ' nr.t . . , s I r 3 i .t

R D ate 5 300i9OBF 6 8.2% c onfidence 3 814EC ( 68 _2 %1 3 6162C 9 5.49 ,, c . nfid f lc 3 926BC ( 95.4%) 2 7B ' 5 00Bp

-

I t Data

5 00±90

p

6 E

-

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0 45%EP

4 800BP

.

-

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37 F ,

-

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4 000C 12C

R b ate : 5 300i9OEP 6 8.2% c onfidence 4 2 .. 1 68C ( 64.6%) 4 037Fc 4 017B0 ( 3 .6%) 4 004BC 9 5.4% c onfidence 3 44Bc ( 9S 4 ) 3 79BC

F igure 5 . 13

T I /u p lo t s/ br t h es ame r ad iocarbon d a te t os how

t h ed i f f e rence b e tween c a l ibra ted d a te su s ing t h e Mar ine c ur ve ( above ) a nd o ne o /t h ea tmo spher ic c urve s . l ti sn o tn ece s sar yt ou se t h e mar ine c urve/ br t h e mar ine s amp le sq uo ted i nt h i sr e search a st h er e servo ir e Jc th a s b een a l lowed/or h e /ore t h ec a l ibra t ion c ommence s .

7 7

A ny o ft h e a tmosphe r ic c u rve s c an t h e ref o re b e u sed f o rt h ese s he l l d a tes ( JH e ineme ie rp e r s . c omm . ) 5 . 6

I n terpre ta t ion . T he m a jo r i ty o fd a te sc a l ib r a ted h e re a nd p r e sen ted i ng raph ic f o rm a r eo fs he l l s ,e spec ia l ly

o f o y s te r . P rov id ing e nough c a re i st a ken n o t t o i n c lude n a tu ra l ly d epos i ted s h e l ls i n t h e c h rono logy o f as i te , t h e r e c an b e s ome d eg ree o fc e r ta in ty a st ot h e a c t iv i t ies a tt h e se s i te s w i th in s pec if ic a ge r ange s . T he p o in t o ft h is c a l ib ra t ion a nd s t anda rd isa t ion e xe r c i se h as b een t os how h ow t op roceed o nc ompu te r ,w i th t h e ' r aw ' d a te s . T he re a r e s t i l l many p rob lems w i th i n terp re ta t ion o fo the rm a te r ia l . F i sh b one s ,f o ri n s tance ,e ven t h ough f ound i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s he l ls o ft h em iddens , h ave n o tb een d a ted . O ne n eed st ou nde r s tand t ha tt h i si sd ue t o t h e f a c tt h a tf i sh a r en o ts eden ta ry , l i ke t h e o y s te r . B ecau se t h e ir d i e tm ay t heref o r e c ons is to f f ood t h a ti sc ompo sed o f aw ide r ange o fa nc ien ta nd mo re r e cen tc a rbon f r om v a r iou sl a ye r si n t h e o cean , a ny m ea su remen t s o ft h e ' 4C w ou ld n o t g ive a s en s ib le r e a l d a te r a nge f o r t h e i r c a lenda ra ge . A tl e as tf o rt h e o y s ter s he l ls , o nce t h e l a rvae h ave s e t t led i n ap a r t icu la rp lace o n t h e s e a o r e s tua ry b ed , t h ey c anno t move , a nd t h e i r d i e t a nd i t s c a rbon c on ten t i sr ef lec ted much mo re t r u ly i nt h e ' 4C m ea su remen t s . I no t he rw o rd s ,t h er e se rvo ir e f f ec to fa nc ien tc a rbon i s mo s tu n l ike ly t oc hange d u r ing t h el i f eo ft h eo ys te ri nt h ep a r t icu la rs po t whe re i tl i ved . O ne s t i l l h a st oa s sume t h a tt h e s he l l s f r om t h e m iddens c ame f r om v e ry n ea rby i nt h es e at o whe r e t h ey w e re f ound . T h is i s af a ir a s sump t ion . I tm ay a l so b e d i ff icu l t t o d a te f i sh h ook s , e spec ia l ly i ft h e se a r e made f r om a ny s e a m amma l b one s w he re t h e ' 4C r e servo i re f f ec tp rob lem i st h e s ame a sf o rf i sh b one s . C er ta in ly n one a ppea rt oh ave b een r a d ioca rbon d a ted f r om D enma rk s of a r . T hey a r e g ene r a l ly d a ted b y a s soc ia t ion w i th t ypo log ica l ly -da ted a r t if ac t s i nt h e s t ra t ig raphy . D u r ing t h el a t te rp a r to ft h is c en tu ry , mo re a nd mo re f i nd so fw ood a s soc ia ted w i th f i sh ing s t ruc tu re s h ave b een a nd a r e s t i l l b e ing f ound , s ome q u i te n ea rt os ome o ft he s h e l l m idden s . O the r s a r e f ound w e l l a way f r om m idden s . T he r ema in ing p rob lem i st os ee i f , f r om ac l o se e xam ina t ion o ft h e g raph ic d a ta , t h e re i sa ny c onnec t ion b e tween t h e s he l l ma te r ia l a nd t h e s i tua t ion a nd u se i np reh is to ry o ft he se f i sh ing s t ruc tu res .T h is i se xp lo red i nc hap te r s 9a nd 1 0 p t .2 . I th a sn o tb een t h e i n ten t ion h e re t od esc r ibe h ow r ad ioca rbon d a te sa r e c a lcu la ted i nt h e f i r s ti n s tance . I ti sa bou tr e -ca l ib ra t ion , s t anda rd isa t ion a nd g raph ic r ep re sen ta t ion . I th as b een s hown t h a t i ti sf i r s t ly q u i te d i ff icu l t t og a the rt oge the r ar ange o fd a te s o n wh ich t ob ase t h is r e sea rch . l tw a s e s sen t ia l t ol o ca te t h e r e levan tj ou rna l c on ta in ing r ad ioca rbon d a te s f r om t h e t wo D an ish l a bo ra to r ie s . S ome o ft h e e a r l ie rd a tes g iven i nt h e E ng l ish l i t e ra tu re o ve rt he p a s t f ew y ea r s ,m ay n ow b eo fl i t t le u se a se xp la ined . O ne o ft h eb igge s tp rob lem st ha tn eeded t ob e o vercome w a s t h e r e se rvo ir e f f ec t c aused b y a nc ien t c a rbon i n ma r ine a nd c e r ta in o the r f r e shwa te re nv i ronmen t s . F o r mo s ta r chaeo log is t sw o rk ing o nm a r ine s amp les ,t h i sh a sg ene ra l ly b een o ve rcome . Wo rk c on t inues t o b e d one , h oweve r , i n D enma rk o n t he r e se rvo i r e f f ec t p a r t icu la r ly i nt h eL imf jo rd a r ea i nn or the rn J y l land ( J u t land )( He ie r -N ie l sen e ta l1 995) .R ecen t r e se rvo ir a ges f o r D an ish f j o rd s a nd ma r ine w a te r s h ave b een c a lcu la ted b y s t af fa tt he AMS l a bo ra to ry a t A rhu s a s r e cen t ly a s 1 995 . T hese a ge s h ave n o t b een i n corpo r a ted i n to my c a lcu la t ions a nd g raph ics f o r Meso l i th ic m a te r ia l h e re , h oweve r . T h is c ou ld b e a n o ngo ing p ro jec t a s soc ia ted w i th t h is r e sea rch i nt h e f u tu re . F o rd a tes p ub l ished a f te r 1 986 ,t h e re i s much u sef u lw o rk t h a tc an b ed one ,t ob r ing t h e se d a te s t oge the r a nd t o s t anda rd ise t h e c a l ib ra ted r e su l t s . T he s t anda rd isa t ion h a s o n ly b een n ece s sa ry , a sd i f f e ren t c u rves a nd t a bu la t ion s h ave b een u sed b y d i f f e ren t a u tho r s . T h is c an b e i d en t if ied o nce t h e l i s t s o f d a tes h ave b een l o ca ted . O the rw ise , f i na l u nca l ib ra ted o rc a l ib ra ted d a te sq uo ted i nt h e l i t e ra tu re g ene ra l ly ,a r eo fl i t t le u se i ft h ey d on o t m en t ion d e ta i ls o fc u rve s u sed a nd l a bo ra to ry r e f e rence n umbe r s f o rr aw d a tes .

7 8

T he p u rpo se o fs t anda rd isa t ion i ss ot h a t av a r ie ty o fc a l ib ra ted r e su l t s c an e ven tua l ly b e l i s ted a nd t h en g raph ica l ly r ep re sen ted a nd c ompa red . I n my p a r t icu la ra r ea o fs t udy , t h is h a s b een d one s ot h a tt h e c h rono logy f o rs he l l -ga the r ing a nd f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie s i nt h e Me so l i th ic i n D enma rk c an p e rhaps b em uch mo re p rec i se . I ti sa l so s ot h a ta l ld a te sc ou ld t h en t h eo re t ica l ly b eg i ven i nf u tu re l i t e ra tu r e ,w i th t h es ame s t anda rd r e f e r ence c u rve a nd p robab i l i ty d i s t r ibu t ion . T he me thod f o rt h is s t anda rd isa t ion r e qu i re sf am i l ia r i ty w i th t wo c a l ib ra t ion p rog ramme s . T he se h ave b een d e sc r ibed a nd t h e d a te l i s t s , t a bu la t ion s a nd t h e a pp rop r ia te g raph ics h ave b een d emons t ra ted . O ne i n ten t ion i nt h is c hap te r h a s b een t od emon s t ra te t h e a r chaeo log ica l i mpo r tance o f b e ing mo re p rec ise a bou t d a te s . U s ing t h e t wo d i f f e r en t r ad ioca rbon d a t ing p rog r ammes a nd t h e i rg r aph ics h a s e nab led t h is t oh appen . T he me thod s u sed h e re c ou ld a l so a pp ly t oo the ra r ea s o fa r chaeo log ica l s t udy . A s a l ready s t a ted , t h e p r in ted g r aph ics r e su l t ing f r om t h is wo rk w i l l n ow b e u sed a nd c o r re la ted w i th o the r d a te s f o r o t he rm a te r ia l . S ome o ft h is m a ter ia l i sf r om m idden s o rf r om t h e i r i mmed ia te v i c in i ty ; s ome i sf r om o t he r c oa s ta l a r ea s . T he r e levance o fo t he r n on -da ted ma te r ia l , s uch a sf i sh b one s , w i l l n ow h ave t ob e c on s ide red . T he re m ay w e l l b e ac onnec t ion b e tween t he r a nge o fs he l l d a tes a nd t h e p resence o fl a rge q uan t i t ie s o ff i sh b ones t h a t h ave b een f ound , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e l a s t d ecade o rs o .

7 9

P a r tT I P reh i s to r ic F i sh ing i nL a te Meso l i th ic D enma rk 6 T he s t ra t igraphy o ft he D an i sh s he l l m iddens . I n terpre ta t ion u s ing ' s tandard -da te s g raph ic s a nd /or H arr i s Ma tr ix d iagram s . 6 . 1

H i s tory a nd d ef in i t ions . T he S co t t ish g eo log is tJ ame sH u t ton h ad s t ud ied t h es t ra t if ica t ion o fr o ck si nh i sb ook T heory

of

t h e E ar th ( 1785 ) , e s tab l ish ing p r inc ip le s w h ich w e re l a te r t ob e t h e b a s is o f a r chaeo log ica l

e xcava t ion ( Renf rew & B ahn 1 99 1 ,22 ) .L a te r ,t hough s t i l li ng eo log ica lt e rm s ,C ha r le sL ye l ld ef ined t h e c oncep to f s t ra ta ' : ' The d epos i t ion

0 /success ive

l a yer s

o/

s and a nd g i 'a i 'e li nt h e b ed o /a

r iver ,

or

i n ac ana l , a / /brd s a

p er /ee li lu s t ra t ion b o th o /the/or ,n a nd o r ig in 0 /s tra t if ica t ion" ( Lye l l 1 853 ,814 ) .

T he a r chaeo log ica l r e cove ry o fa r t if ac t s w i th in i d en t if ied l a ye r s o r s t ra ta , r e qu i red an ew d ef in i t ion . T h is w a sp rov ided o ve r ac en tu ry l a te rb y H a r r is w ho r e def ined t h e a bove d ef in i t ion : " S tra t if ica t ion

i s

a ny

nu m ber of r e la tab le

' s ucce ss ive o pera t ion s e i ther

o/

na ture

d epo s i t s o fa m 'chaeo log ica ls t ra ta w h ich a r e t h e r e su l to f

o r mank ind ' . . ' (Ha r r i s 1 975 , 110 ) .

T h is r e def in i t ion r e qu i red f u r the rc l a r if ica t ion i no rde rt h a tt h em e thod f o rd e sc r ib ing a nd i lus t ra t ing a r chaeo log ica l s t ra ta c ou ld b e s a t isf ac to r i ly c a r r ied o u t : t , 'a t i/ Ica t ion n ecess i ta tes t he u se ( ? /the ' s t ra t ig raph ie s equence c hronolog i ' of a s i te a s d educed / rom i t ss tra t if ica t ion

"

',

w h ich i s an ame t or t h e m e /a l ive

( I b id , 10 ) .

F ina l ly ,h av ing u sed t h ep h ra se ' s t ra t ig raph ic s equence ' ,s t ra t ig raphy i t se lf w a sd e scr ibed a s : t h ed e scr ip t ive s t / i c / vo fa rchaeo log ica ls t ra ta

' (

I b id . 10 ) .

F o r s he l l m iddens a to r n ea r t h e m a r ine s ho re l ine , t h is d ef in i t ion i sd i ff icu l t a nd p re sen t s p rob lem sw hen d a te s a r e o b ta ined f o rm a te r ia l f ound w i th in t h em . 6 . 2

P rob lems w i th i den t i f ica t ion o fl a yer s o r s t ra ta . O ne p rob lem a r ise sw hen ,d ue t ow ave a c t ion p ar t icu la r ly a tt r an sg res s ion s ,d epo s i ted ma te r ia l

m ay b ec a r r ied t o ah ighe rp o in to nt h es ho re . T h is m a te r ia l i sl i ke ly t or ema in t h e re a nd b ec ove red b y l a te rd epos i t s p rov id ing t h e re a r e n o s ubsequen t t r an sg res s ions . H oweve r , i fo ne t r ansg re ss ion w a sf o l lowed b ya no the r( e ven i ft h e re w a sa ni n te r med ia te r eg re ss ion ) ,t h en t h e re m ay b e af u r the r movemen to ft h em a te r ia l , i nt h e c a se o fm iddens o fw ho le o rd amaged s he l ls . R eg r e s s ions w ou ld a l so a f f ec tt h e s t ab i l i ty o ft h e s he l l w a s te d epos i ted e a r l ie rb yt e nd ing t ow a sh d own s lope s ome o f t h is m a ter ia l , b u t n o t n ece ssa r i ly a l o f i t( s ee a ga in f i gu re 4 . 24 , c hap te r 4 ) . T h is w i l l m ake i n terp re ta t ion o ft h e r evea led s t ra t ig raphy a ta ny o ft h e e xcava ted s he l l -m idden s i te s e ven mo re d i ff icu l t . T he n ex t f ew s e c t ions o ft h is c hap te r w i l l a t temp t t od i sen tang le t h is p rob lem i nm o re d e ta i l . A rchaeo log ica l ly e xcava ted s e c t ions o fa ny b u i ld -up o fm a te r ia li n am idden ,a bove t h en orma l h i gh -wa te r l i ne w i l l t h e ref o re n o t s how as moo th r e co rd o fd epos i t ion o fs o i l / sand , s h e l l o ro t he r a r t if ac t s amp le s c h rono log ica l ly o rs pac ia l ly . P iggo t t h ad r e a l i sed t h a t t h is s i tua t ion m igh t o ccu r g ene ra l ly i np a s td epos i t ion sw hen h ed ec la red b y a na logy , t h a t : " ( un le ss i ou s t ir t h em u p ) , t h ed i scard ed l e t ter s i nv ow ' w a s te -paper b a ske t w i l lh ave e ar l ier d a te s

8 0

n ear t h eb o t tom a nd l a te rd a te sa tt h e

l op . . .

"

( P iggo t t 1 966 ,46 ) .

I n as he l lm idden ,i fp i t so rs e c t ion sa r ed ug t or evea la ny p o ss ib le s t ra t if ica t ion ,o ne n eed st o i d en t if y p os t -depos i t iona l d i s tu rbance . T h is m ay n o t a tf i r s t s i gh t b e e a sy w he re al a rge m a ss o f s h e l l s a nd i n term ixed s ub so i ls a r e i n vo lved . T he i n i t ia l i mp re ss ion may b e t h a t t h e d epo s i t ions h ave b een u n ifo rm ly l a id d own . C hanges i nt h e s and , g r ave l o r s o i l l e nse s m ay i n d ica te l a te r d i s tu rbance . I n term ixed a r t if ac t s , i fp re sen t , m ay g i ve s ome t y po log ica l i n d ica t ion o ft h e t ime o f d epo s i t ion , b u tt h e ir p o s i t ion may n o tb e c l ea r ly s t ra t if ied . A s S tuck i h as s a id ( r ef e rence t h e s he l l m iddens a tt h e H oko R ive r R ock she l te r ) : " S ince t h ere a re l i ke l i 't oh en i an i 'm ore l a yer s t h an a r t if rc t s i nt h e se m idd en s , i ti s i mpor tan tt ot a ke , / I t / /a dvan tage o /the d e ta i led s tra t igraphie r ecord o fs i te / i . rn ia t ion w hen s t ud y ing t h es pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion 0 /pa s tl n , ,nan b ehav iour" ( S tuck i 1 993 , 136 ) .

O ne xcava t ing as e c t ion i n am idden ,i fa ny s t ra t if ica t ion i sa ppa ren t ,i d en t if y ing t h es equence o fd epo s i t ion o f s he l ls o ve r t ime , w i l l b e d i ff icu l t p ar t icu la r ly d ue t o t h e d i s loca t ing e f f ec t o f t r an sg re ss ions a nd r eg re s s ions . I d ea l ly , t oa t temp tt h is , al a rge n umbe ro fs he l l s amp les s hou ld b e t a ken . T hey s hou ld b et a ken f r om a l p o ss ib le i d en t if iab le ' l aye r s ' . As c ien t if ic a na ly s is b yd a t ing s hou ld h e lp w i th t h ep rob lem o fw hen a nd h ow t h es he l ld epo s i t ions h ave b een m ade i nt h em idden . E ach s amp le s hou ld t h en b ed a ted a to ne o ft h er a d ioca rbon d a t ing l a bo ra to r ie s . T he re h ave a lway s b een p rob lem s w i th t h e d a t ing o fm a r ine m a te r ia l d ue t ot h e a moun t o fa nc ien t 1C a bso rbed . T he c onven t iona lr a d ioca rbon -da t ing l a bo ra to ry i nC openhagen a nd t h e AMS l a bo ra to ry a tA a rhu sh ave b o th a lowed f o r t h is i nt h e ir c a lcu la t ions , a tl e a s t s i nce 1 986 . D e ta i ls r ega rd ing a ny p o ss ib le c h rono logy a r ed i scu ssed u nde rt h a ts ub -head ing . I ft h ec h rono log ica ls t ra t if ica t ion i ss t i l lu nc lea r , as t ra tegy f o rd i sp lay ing t h ed a te sg r aph ica l ly m ay h e lp .T h is h a sb een a t temp ted h e r e .B yl o ok ing a tt h el a rge s t n umbe ro ft h e se p o s s ib le ,s ugge s ted a r ea so rp u ta t ive l a ye r sw h ich c ou ld i n d ica te p e r iods o rp ha se so fd epos i t ion a r ei n d ica ted . C lea r ly , i ft i me a nd f i nance s p erm i t ted i t ,t h en a tl e a s tt w ice o re ven t h ree t ime s a sm any s amp les a sh ave a l r eady b een t a ken , m igh th e lp w i th a n u nde r s tand ing o ft h e s t ra t ig raphy . A no ther p rob lem c once rns t h ee s tab l ishmen to f ab a se l ine t ow o rk t od u r ing e xcava t ion o fa m idden o n an o t iceab le s l ope . Norma l ly t h en a tu ra l o ld l a nd s u rf ace w ou ld b eu sed . I n ad i s tu rbed , d i f f u se a nd s l op ing s he l lm idden t h is i sn o ts oe a sy .T he b a se l ine e s tab l ishmen tw ou ld a pp ly t oo n s i te a r chaeo log is t sa nd t ot h o se p roduc ing p o s t -excava t ion s e c t iona ld raw ing s .H e re ,t h e ref o re ,t wo m e thod sa r eu sed . O ne i d en t if ies s amp le sa st h ey a r er e co rded u s ing t h e ir p o s i t ion i nt h em idden o n ah o r izon ta l t ot h e g round b a se l ine . T he o t he rm e thod a nd g r aphs u se t h ep o s i t ion o ft h e s amp les r e la t ive t o al i ne p a ra l le lt ot h ea c tua ls l ope o ft h em idden g ene ra l ly ( s l igh t ly a r b i t ra ry b u tu sef u lf o r t h ep u rposes o ft r y ing t oi d en t if yh ow a nd w he re t h es amp le sm ay h ave b ecome d i s loca ted e i the rb y s u cce s s ive w ave a c t ions o rb y o t he rp o ss ib ly h uman a c t ion s . 6 . 3 S i te d e ta i l s a nd s t ra t igraphy . 6 . 31 T he E r tebo l le s he l l m idden . T he p os s ib le ' l aye r s ' a tt h e E r tebo l le s i te w e re i n i t ia l ly d ef ined i nt h e s e c t ion d i ag ram o f A nde r sen & J ohan sen ( Ande r sen & J ohan sen 1 986 ,44 ) , u s ing d o t ted l i nes ( no tp ar t icu la r ly c l ea r ) a nd s h ad ing . T he o r ig ina l ' k ey s ' t ot h ese d i ag rams i n d ica te t h a tt h e re a ppea rt ob et wo m a in s he l l l a ye r sb u tt hese a r en o ts oc l ea r ly d ef ined b yt h ed a te l i s t sf o rt h eo ys te rs he l ls .T h is i sag ood r e a son f o rd i sp lay ing t h ec a l ib ra ted d a te -samp le sg r aph ica l ly a nd c ompa r ing t h em w i th t h eo r ig ina ld i ag ram o ft h e e xcava ted s e c t ion . T he re c er ta in ly a ppea r s t o b e i d en t if iab le a noma l ie s r e la t ing t o t h e s t ra t ig raphy /da te s equenc ing ( F ig 6 . 1) . F o rt h ep urpose o fi d en t if y ing t h es ugge s ted a r ea so rl a ye r s f r om w here s he l ls w e re r e covered a nd s ub sequen t ly s en t f o r d a t ing , h o r izon ta l l i ne s a r e d r awn b e tween s he l l -da te s . F o rt h eE r tebo l le m idden a nd t h eg r aph ic d i sp lay o ft h ed a te s ,t h es t ra t if ica t ion r ema in su nc lea r . L ikew ise , a st h eg r aph ics d i ag ram sf o rt h ec a l ib ra ted d a te samp les s how f o rb o th t h e E r tebo l le a nd B jø rn sho lm s i te s ,s moo th c u rve so ft h ed a te s amp le sp l o t ted a c co rd ing t of i nd -spo t ,a r en o tp roduced . Af u r the rp rob lem w i th t h em idden si st h a tt h e i rc r o s s sec t iona ls hape ,a ss hown i nt h ep o s t -excava t ion 8 1

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