Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World 9783110883091, 9783110127867

Table of contents :
List of contributors
Introduction
The classification of the Tamanic languages
Language change on Umboi Island
The Polynesian Outliers as a locus of language contact
Old Javanese influence in Balinese: Balinese speech styles
Motu-Koiarian contact in Papua New Guinea
Linguistic evidence for the Tongan Empire
Cloves and nutmeg, traders and wars: Language contact in the Spice Islands
Named speech registers in Austronesian languages
Linguistic evidence for Polynesian influence in the Gilbert Islands
The mechanisms of language change in Labu
Contact-induced language change in present-day Indonesian
The relationship between the languages of the Barrier Islands and the Sulawesi-Philippine languages
Manado Malay: Product and agent of language change
Unravelling the linguistic histories of Philippine Negritos
Early European influence on the languages of Polynesia: The Gambier Islands
Contact-induced phonological complexification in New Caledonia
Iaai loanwords and phonemic changes in Fagauvea
Areal phonological features in north central New Ireland
Renovation and innovation in the languages of north-western New Britain
Language contact and contact-induced language change in the Eastern Outer Islands, Solomon Islands
Contact-induced change in the non-Austronesian languages in the north Moluccas, Indonesia
Index

Citation preview

Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World

W DE

G

Trends in Linguistics Studies and Monographs 77

Editor Werner Winter

Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York

Language Contact and Change in the Austronesian World

edited by

Tom Dutton Darrell T. Tryon

Mouton de Gruyter Berlin · New York

1994

Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague) is a Division of Walter de Gruyter & Co., Berlin.

© Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Language contact and change in the Austronesian world / edited by Tom Dutton, Darrell Tryon. p. cm. - (Trends in linguistics. Studies and monographs ; 77) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 3-11-012786-5 (cloth : alk. paper) : 1. Languages in contact - Pacific Area. 2. Languages in contact - Asia, Southeastern. 3. Austronesian language History. I. Dutton, Tom, 1935. II. Tryon, D. T. (Darrell T.) III. Series. P130.52.P16L36 1994 306.4'4'091923-dc20 94-30245 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek — Cataloging-in-Publication-Data Language contact and change in the Austronesian world / ed. by Tom Dutton ; Darrell T. Tryon. - Berlin ; New York : Mouton de Gruyter, 1994 (Trends in linguistics : Studies and monographs ; 77) ISBN 3-11-012786-5 NE: Dutton, Tom [Hrsg.]; Trends in linguistics / Studies and monographs

© Copyright 1994 by Walter de Gruyter & Co., D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printing: Gerike GmbH, Berlin. Binding: Lüderitz & Bauer, Berlin. Printed in Germany.

Contents List of contributors

vii

Introduction Tom Dutton and Darrell Tryon

ix

The classification of the Tamanic languages K. Alexander Adelaar Language change on Umboi Island Robert D. Bugenhagen

1 43

The Polynesian Outliers as a locus of language contact Ross Clark

109

Old Javanese influence in Balinese: Balinese speech styles Adrian Clynes

141

Motu-Koiarian contact in Papua New Guinea Tom Dutton

181

Linguistic evidence for the Tongan Empire Paul Geraghty

233

Cloves and nutmeg, traders and wars: Language contact in the Spice Islands Barbara Dix Grimes

251

Named speech registers in Austronesian languages Charles E. Grimes and Kenneth R. Maryott

275

Linguistic evidence for Polynesian influence in the Gilbert Islands 5. P. Harrison

321

The mechanisms of language change in Labu Susanne Holzknecht

351

Contact-induced language change in present-day Indonesian Anton M. Moeliono

377

The relationship between the languages of the Barrier Islands and the Sulawesi-Philippine languages Bernd Nothof er

389

vi

Contents

Manado Malay: Product and agent of language change Jack Prentice

411

Unravelling the linguistic histories of Philippine Negritos Lawrence A. Reid

443

Early European influence on the languages of Polynesia: The Gambier Islands Karl Rensch

477

Contact-induced phonological complexification in New Caledonia Jean-Claude Rivierre

497

laai loanwords and phonemic changes in Fagauvea Franfoise Ozanne-Rivierre

523

Areal phonological features in north central New Ireland Malcolm Ross

551

Renovation and innovation in the languages of north-western New Britain William R. Thurston

573

Language contact and contact-induced language change in the Eastern Outer Islands, Solomon Islands Darrell T. Tryon

611

Contact-induced change in the non-Austronesian languages in the north Moluccas, Indonesia C. L. Voorhoeve

649

Index

675

List of Contributors K. Alexander Adelaar Department of Indonesian Studies University of Melbourne Melbourne, Australia

Charles E. Grimes Summer Institute of Linguistics Waxhaw North Carolina, United States

Robert D. Bugenhagen Summer Institute of Linguistics Ukarumpa Eastern Highlands Province Papua New Guinea

S. P. Harrison Department of Anthropology University of Western Australia Nedlands, Western Australia

Ross Clark Department of Anthropology University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand Adrian Clynes Department of Indonesian Curtin University Perth, Western Australia Barbara Dix Grimes Summer Institute of Linguistics Waxhaw North Carolina, United States Tom Dutton Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra, Australia Paul Geraghty Institute of Fijian Language and Culture Office of the Prime Minister Government Buildings Suva, Fiji

Susanne Holzknecht National Centre for Development Studies Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra, Australia Kenneth R. Maryott Summer Institute of Linguistics Maluku, Indonesia Anton M. Moeliono Department of Linguistics University of Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia Berndt Nothofer Institut für Orientalilsche und Ostasiatische Philologien Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany Franqoise Ozanne-Rivierre Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Laboratoire de Langues et Civilisations ä Tradition Orale Paris, France

viii

List of Contributors

Jack Prentice Department of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania State University of Leiden Leiden, The Netherlands

Malcolm Ross Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra, Australia

Lawrence A. Reid Department of Linguistics University of Hawai'i Honolulu, Hawai'i, United States

William R. Thurston Department of Anthropology McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

Karl Rensch Department of Linguistics The Faculties The Australian National University Canberra, Australia

Darrell T. Tryon Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra, Australia

Jean-Claude Rivierre Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Laboratoire de Langues et Civilisations ä Tradition Orale Paris, France

C. L.Voorhoeve Department of Languages and Cultures of Southeast Asia and Oceania State University of Leiden Leiden, The Netherlands

Introduction Language contact and contact-induced language change is widespread throughout the languages of the world, but perhaps nowhere more so than in island Southeast Asia and the Pacific. This area is largely occupied by peoples speaking languages belonging to the Austronesian family, the most widespread language family in the world. It stretches from Madagascar in the west to Easter Island in the east and includes the geographical areas of Indonesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, the Philippines, and Taiwan. The only part of this area not occupied by speakers of Austronesian languages is the large island of New Guinea where non-Austronesian or Papuan languages are widely distributed. For several reasons the Austronesian area provides excellent opportunities for studying language contact and change. Firstly, it is linguistically one of the most diverse areas in the world (in terms of numbers of languages spoken per head of population) — the area is estimated to contain approximately onequarter of the world's languages. Being an area composed of communities living on islands where generally more than one language is spoken, sometimes of opposing types, where extensive trading systems have developed and where there have been numerous movements of populations, there is more than ample opportunity for languages to have been, and to be, in contact. Indeed, contrary to popular belief, populations in this area are not so isolated that their languages have developed without any contact with other languages. Another advantage of studying language contact in this area is that the history of contact with Europeans and their languages is relatively shallow and well documented. In the Indian and Pacific Oceans this contact only dates back to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Of perhaps greatest importance is the contact between Austronesian languages and Papuan languages. The nature and effects of this contact have hitherto not been well documented, largely because most of the Papuan languages surrounding Austronesian ones have not been studied in depth. At the same time there has been and continues to be considerable and varied contact between speakers of Austronesian languages. Where this contact is not simply the result of neighbourly intercourse, it involves trade and trading networks. In some cases a particular Austronesian language has been imposed on others as a church or administrative lingua franca. Thus, for example Mota, a language from the Banks Islands in northern Vanuatu was selected and used as the lingua franca of the Anglican Church for nearly one hundred years. In French Polynesia, Tahitian is mandatory for employment in

the public service and as a result has strongly influenced and still influences the other indigenous languages in the area. More spectacularly Bahasa Indonesia, the national language of Indonesia, is now spoken largely as a second language by nearly two-thirds of the population of 175 million, with significant impact on the regional Austronesian languages of that country. The contributions to this volume cover the effects of contact between almost every possible combination of types and sub-types of languages in the area: (a) Austronesian with European, and within that Malay/Indonesian with European (Dix-Grimes, Moeliono) and Polynesian with European (Rensch); (b) Austronesian with non-Austronesian or Papuan (Bugenhagen, Dutton, Ross, Thurston, Tryon, Voorhoeve); (c) Austronesian with Austronesian, and within that Indonesian languages with Indonesian languages (Adelaar, Clynes, Grimes, Nothofer, Prentice), Micronesian with Polynesian (Harrison), Negrito with other Philippine languages (Reid), Polynesian with Melanesian (Clark, Ozanne-Rivierre, Tryon), Melanesian with Melanesian (Rivierre, Holzknecht). Many of these contributions reinforce much of what is already well known about the linguistic outcomes of language contacts — that the socio-linguistic circumstances of contacts are the primary determinants of those outcomes, that predicting the nature and effect of such contacts is extremely difficult given the many influencing factors involved. Others challenge accepted beliefs and assumptions, for example, the resistance of various parts of a language to borrowing (Bugenhagen, Voorhoeve) and the value and use of quantitative versus qualitative evidence in sub-grouping and classifying languages, especially where that evidence is very restricted and suspect of being contaminated by language contact (Adelaar, Holzknecht, Nothofer, Thurston). Most studies fall into what Thomason and Kaufman (1988: 37-45) class as "borrowing within language maintenance" in their categorisation of language contact induced changes.1 A few (Ross, Thurston, Dix-Grimes), however, fall into their other major category, "interference through shift". All demonstrate, however, the continuing need for good descriptions and reliable data upon which to base any kind of worthwhile generalisations. Tom Dutton Darrell Tryon 1. Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1988). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics (Los Angeles: University of California Press).

The classification of the Tamanic languages K. Alexander Adelaar 1. Introduction Tamanic is spoken in the Northeast part of the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan (on the island of Borneo) in the Hulu Kapuas Regency near the head of the Kapuas river and its tributaries thereabout (see Map 1). Tamanic consists of a number of dialects, which are Embaloh (or Maloh),1 Kalis and Taman. Embaloh is spoken along the Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau and Mandai tributaries. Kalis is spoken along the Kalis tributary. Taman is spoken along the Mendalam and Sibau tributaries, and along the Kapuas river in the area directly upriver from Putussibau, the administrative centre of Kapuas Hulu. Some scholars agree in sub-grouping Tamanic with Malay (using Embaloh as an example), whereas others on partly intuitive grounds tend to classify them with members of the South Sulawesi group. I will show that the Tamanic and South Sulawesi languages (see Map 1) are a separate sub-group within the West Malayo-Polynesian language group. The evidence that I am presenting is of a qualitative nature. It consists of shared innovations in the phonology (Section 3), in the lexicon(Section 4) and in the pronominal system (Section 5). Following this evidence, I discuss (Section 6) some morphological similarities between Tamanic and South Sulawesi languages, and I make (Section 7) a critical evaluation of Blust and Nothofer's evidence for an inclusion of Tamanic in the Malayic sub-group. In Section 8 I make some concluding remarks concerning the classification of Tamanic and its cultural-historical consequences, and I furthermore offer some criticism on the methods used in language classification. Most of my data are on Embaloh, and my material on Taman and Kalis is limited to lists of 450 lexical items. As a consequence, the Tamanic examples in this paper are primarily from Embaloh. (The latter has a more conservative phonology than the other Tamanic dialects.) The distinction between ProtoAustronesian and Proto-Malayo Polynesian is not relevant in this paper. 1.

In scientific literature, the term "Maloh" is more often used for the isolect in question and for its speakers. However, this is an Iban exonym, and the Embaloh themselves insist on being called "Embaloh" or "Ambalo".

2

K. Alexander Adelaar

Since Proto-Malayo Polynesian reconstructions are closer to Tamanic and Proto-South Sulawesi and since their notation is more transparent, I use, where possible, Proto-Malayo Polynesian reconstructions instead of ProtoAustronesian ones. I use the term "cognate" in reference to words for which it can be established with reasonable certainty that they have a common origin through inheritance. I use the terms "correspondence" and "correspond" in reference to words with a common origin, when it is uncertain whether agreement is due to inheritance or borrowing. Mindanao

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South Sulawesi

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