Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead: The location of chambered cairns of Northern Scotland 9781841712918, 9781407319650

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Plates
List of Tables
Preface and Acknowledgements
Introduction
PART 1. THE BACKGROUND
PART 2. THE FIRTHLANDS
PART 3. THE STRATHS
PART 4. CAITHNESS
PART 5. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
PART 6. SETTLEMENT
PART 7. CONCLUSIONS
APPENDICES
REFERENCES

Citation preview

BAR  328  2002   PHILLIPS   LANDSCAPES OF THE LIVING, LANDSCAPES OF THE DEAD

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead The location of chambered cairns of Northern Scotland

Tim Phillips

BAR British Series 328 9 781841 712918

B A R

2002

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead The location of chambered cairns of Northern Scotland

Tim Phillips

BAR British Series 328 2002

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 328 Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead © T Phillips and the Publisher 2002 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841712918 paperback ISBN 9781407319650 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841712918 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2002. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

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For the memory of my parents

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Contents List of Figures List of Plates List of Tables Preface & Acknowledgements

V

Introduction

1

5.13. Chambers in Cairns 5.14. Cairn Size Long Homed Cairns 5.15. 5.16. Discussion Typology and Topography 5.17. 6. The Landscape Geology 6.1. Topographical Zones 6.2. Analyses 6.3. Conclusions 6.4. 7. The Environment Environmental Evidence 7.1. 7.2. Discussion Analyses 7.3. Conclusions 7.4. 8. Field Methodology Research Questions 8.1. The Sample Used in the Study 8.2. Location and Micro-Topography 8.3. Visibility 8.4. Inter-visibility 8.5. Orientations and Alignments 8.6. Control Samples 8.7. Geographical Groups 8.8.

vii viii xi

Part 1 The Background 1. Monument Morphology 1.1. Cairns 1.2. Chambers 1.3. Raw Materials 1.4. Cairns and Chambers 1.5. Multi-Phasing 1.6. Cairn Size 2. History of Research 2.1. The Nineteenth Century 2.2. The Early Twentieth Century 2.3. Syntheses 2.4. Survey and Modem Excavation 2.5. Recent Research 2.6. Discussion 3. Dating the Cairns 3.1. Artefactual Evidence 3.2. Radiocarbon Dates From the Cairns 3.3. Discussion 3.4. Radiocarbon Dates From the Orkney Cairns 3.5. Conclusions 4. The Burial Evidence 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Inverness-shire and Ross-shire 4.3. Sutherland 4.4. Caithness 4.5. Evidence From Neighbouring Traditions 4.6. Interpretations of the Orkney Evidence 4.7. Interpretations of the Mainland Evidence 4.8. Conclusions 5. Typology, Seriation and Chronology 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Anderson - Typology 5.3. Curle - Typology 5.4. Childe -Typology 5.5. The Royal Commission Typology 5.6. Piggott - Seriation 5.7. Henshall - Typology and Seriation Renfrew - Chronology 5.8. 5.9. Fraser - Statistical Typology Muller - Typology 5.10. 5.11. Henshall - Typological Reassessment 5.12. Mercer - Cumulative Construction

3 3 3 6 6 7 7 9 9 10 10 11 12 12 14 14

38 39 40 40 41 42 42 42 56 56 51 51 54 56 56 58 58

58 58

58 59 59 60 61

Part 2 The Firthlands 15 16

9. Inverness-shire The Landscape 9.1. 9.2. The Cairns Cairns and Chambers 9.3. 9.4. Location Visibility 9.5. Inter-visibility 9.6. Orientations and Alignments 9.7. Control Samples 9.8. 10. The Black Isle The Landscape 10.1. The Cairns 10.2. 10.3. Uncertain Sites Cairns and Chambers 10.4. Location 10.5. Visibility 10.6. Inter-visibility 10.7. Orientations and Alignments 10.8. Alignment of Long Cairns 10.9. 10.10. Control Samples 11. South Ross The Landscape 11.1. 11.2. The Cairns Cairns and Chambers 11.3. Location 11.4. Visibility 11.5. Inter-visibility 11.6. Orientations and Alignments 11.7. Control Samples 11.8. 12. Easter Ross The Landscape 12.1.

16 18 19 19 20 21 23 27 29 29 30 32 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 37 37 37 37 38 i

62 62 62 63 64 64 64 64 64 67 67 67

68 69 69 69 69 69 69 69 74 74 75 78 78 78 78 78 78 80 80

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

12.2. The Cairns 12.3. Cairns and Chambers 12.4. Location 12.5. Visibility 12.6. Inter-visibility 12.7. Orientations and Alignments 12.8. Alignment of Long Cairns 12.9. Control Samples 13. The Domoch Firth 13.1. The Landscape 13.2. The Cairns 13.3. Uncertain Site 13.4. Cairns and Chambers 13.5. Location 13.6. Visibility 13.7. Inter-visibility 13.8. Orientations and Alignments 13.9. Control Samples 14. Overview of the Firthlands Zone 14.1. Cairns and Chambers 14.2. Location 14.3. Visibility 14.4. Inter-visibility 14.5. Orientations and Alignments 14.6. Alignment of Long Cairns 14.7. Groups ofMonuments

81 84 84 84 84 84 85 85 88 88 88 90 91 91 91 91 91 91 93 93 93 93 94 94 94 94

18.5. Location 18.6. Visibility Inter-visibility 18.7. 18.8. Alignment of Long Cairns 18.9. Control Samples 19. Kinbrace 19.1. The Landscape 19.2. The Cairns 19.3. Cairns and Chambers 19.4. Location 19.5. Visibility 19.6. Inter-visibility 19.7. Orientations and Alignments 19.8. Control Samples 20. Dunbeath 20.1. The Landscape 20.2. The Cairns 20.3. Uncertain Site 20.4. Cairns and Chambers 20.5. Location Visibility 20.6. Inter-visibility 20.7. 20.8. Orientations and Alignments 20.9. Control Samples 21. Loch Assynt 21.1. The L~dscape 21.2. The Cairns 21.3. Uncertain Sites 21.4. Cairns and Chambers 21.5. Location Visibility 21.6. Inter-visibility 21.7. Orientations and Alignments 21.8. 21.9. Control Samples 22. North-West Sutherland 22.1. The Landscape 22.2. The Cairns 22.3. Uncertain Sites 22.4. Cairns and Chambers Location 22.5. Visibility 22.6. Orientations and Alignments 22.7. Control Samples 22.8. 23. Strathnaver The Landscape 23.1. 23.2. The Cairns Uncertain Sites 23.3. Cairns and Chambers 23.4. 23.5. Location Visibility 23.6. Inter-visibility 23.7. Orientations and Alignments 23.8. 23.9. Control Samples 24. Overview of the Straths Zone 24.1. Cairns and Chambers 24.2. Location 24.3. Visibility 24.4. Inter-visibility Orientations and Alignments 24.5. 24.6. Alignment of Long Cairns 24.7. Groups of Monuments

Part 3 The Straths 15. Strath Fleet 15.1. The Landscape 15.2. The Cairns 15.3. Uncertain Site 15.4. Cairns and Chambers 15.5. Location 15.6. Visibility 15.7. Inter-visibility 15.8. Orientations and Alignments 15.9. Control Samples 16.Lairg 16.1. The Landscape 16.2. The Cairns 16.3. Uncertain Sites 16.4. Cairns and Chambers 16.5. Location 16.6. Visibility 16.7. Inter-visibility 16.8. Orientations and Alignments 16.9. Control Samples 17. Strath Brora 17.1. The Landscape 17.2. The Cairns 17.3. Cairns and Chambers 17.4. Location 17.5. Visibility 17.6. Orientations and Alignments 17.7. Control Samples 18. The Strath ofKildonan 18.1. The Landscape 18.2. The Cairns 18.3. Uncertain Site 18.4. Cairns

103 103 104 106 106 107 107 107 107 107 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 109 ll0 ll6 ll6 ll6 ll7 117 117 ll7 ll7 120 120 120 122 123

ii

123 123 123 123 123 125 125 126 128 129 129 129 129 129 131 131 131 133 133 133 133 133 133 133 138 138 138 143 143 143 143 143 143 143 148 148 148 150 150 151 151 151 151 153 153 153 155 155 155 155 155 155 155 159 159 160 161 163 163 164 165

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Part 4 Caithness 25. Cnoc Freiceadain 25.1. The Landscape 25.2. The Cairns 25.3. Cairns and Chambers 25.4. Location 25.5. Visibility 25.6. Inter-visibility 25.7. Orientations and Alignments 25.8. Control Samples 26. Beinn Freiceadain 26.1. The Landscape 26.2. The Cairns 26.3. Uncertain Site 26.4. Cairns and Chambers 26.5. Location 26.6. Visibility 26.7. Inter-visibility 26.8. Orientations and Alignments 26.9. Alignment of Long Cairns 26.10. Control Samples 27. Sord.ale Hill 27.1. The Landscape 27.2. The Cairns 27.3. Uncertain Site 27.4. Cairns and Chambers 27.5. Location 27.6. Visibility 27.7. Inter-visibility 27.8. Orientations and Alignments 27.9. Orientation of long Cairns 27.10. Control Samples 28. North-East Caithness 28.1. The Landscape 28.2. The Cairns 28.3. Uncertain Site 28.4. Cairns and Chambers 28.5. Location 28.6. Visibility 28.7. Inter-visibility 28.8. Orientations and Alignments 28.9. Alignment of Long Cairns 28.10. Control Samples 29. Loch Watten 29.1. The Landscape 29.2. The Cairns 29.3. Cairns and Chambers 29.4. Location 29.5. Visibility 29.6. Orientations and Alignments 29.7. Control Samples 30. Yarrows 30.1. The Landscape 30.2. The Cairns 30.3. Cairns and Chambers 30.4. Location Visibility 30.5. 30.6. Inter-visibility 30.7. Orientations and Alignments 30.8. Alignment of Long Cairns 30.9. Control samples

31. Overview of the Caithness Zone 31.1. Cairns and Chambers 31.2. Location Visibility 31.3. 31.4. Inter-visibility Orientations and Alignments 31.5. 31.6. Alignment of Long Cairns Groups of Monuments 31.7.

168 168 169 171 171 171 172 172 172 175 175 175 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 179 185 185 185 187 187

214 214 214 214 219 227 227 227

Part 5 Analysis of the Data 32. Location 32.1. 32.2.

Location of the Cairns Survival of Monuments - Brochs And Cairns Analyses Problems Field Observations Discussion

32.3. 32.3. 32.4. 32.5. 33. Visibility Visibility From Cairns 33.1. 33.2. Visibility of Cairns Location Types 33.3. 33.4. Discussion 34. Inter-visibility Inter-visible Sites 34.1. 34.2. Marker Hills 34.3. Discussion 35. Orientations and Alignments Direction of orientation 35.1. Astronomical Associations 35.2. Astronomical Alignments 35.3. Discussion 35.4. 36. Alignment of Long Cairns 36.1. Direction of Alignments Alignments and Topography 36.2. Discussion 36.3. 37. Relationships With Natural Features Chambered Cairns and the Natural 37.1. World 37.2. Discussion 38. Groups of Monuments 38.1. Megalithic Cemeteries Megalithic Cemeteries in Northern 38.2. Scotland 38.3. Discussion

188 188 188 188 188 188 194 194 194 197 197 198 198 198 198 198 198 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 205 205 205 211 211 211 211 211 211 211

231 231 231 231 233 234 235 236 236 236 236 239 240 240 241 242 243 243 244 246 247 248 248 248 250 251 251 253 254 254 255 256

Part 6 Settlement 39. Chambered Cairns and Settlement 40. Find Spots Find Spots and Settlement 40.1. Find Spots and Chambered Cairns 40.2. 40.3. Discussion 41. Brochs Brochs and Settlement 41.1. Brochs and Chambered Cairns 41.2. 42. Orkney Chambered Cairns and Settlement 42.1. on Orkney Environment and Sea Levels 42.2. 42.3. Discussion

iii

257 258 258 258 258 260 260 260 262 262 262 266

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

43. Fieldwalking 43.1. Rationale 43.2. Previous Work 43.3. The Sample for Fieldwalking

270 270 270 270

Appendices

I II III

44. The Black Isle Fieldwalking Project 272 44.1. The Black Isle 272 44.2. Research Design and Methodology 272 44.3. The Topographical Zones 272 44.4. The Transects 275 44.5. Results ofFieldwalking 279 44.6. Raw Materials 279 44.7. Density of All Material 283 44.8. Density of Flint and Quartz 285 44.9. Density of Retouched Material 285 44.10. Lithic Material and Chambered Cairns 292 44.11. Artefacts 292 44.12. Conclusions 292

IV

V VI

VII Part 7 Conclusions

45. Interpretations 45.1. Territoriality 45.2. Post-Processual Objections 45.3. Movement 45.4. Cosmology and Architecture 45.5. The Living and the Dead in Northern Scotland 45.6. Summary and Conclusions

295 295 296 296 298

Sites Used in the Analysis Sites Not Used in the Analysis Uncertain Sites Brochs Used in the Analysis Find Spots in FIG 161 Fieldwalking in Strath Tay, Perthshire 1994 (T. Phillips, A. Watson & R. Bradley) VI. I. Introduction Vl.2. Strath Tay Vl.3. Background to the Project Vl.4. Methodology Vl.5. Results of the Fieldwork VI.6. Analysis of the Results VI.7. Discussion Vl.8. Strath Tay in Relation to Other Scottish Lithic Assemblages Vl.9. Conclusion The Black Isle Shell Middens (Stephen C. Appleby) VII.I. Analysis of the Assemblages VII.2. Ecological Preferences VIl.3. Discussion

References

298 300

iv

301 333 334 336 342 346 346 346 347 347 347 347 348 348 351 352 352 352 352 355

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

List of Figures 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53.

Location of the study area Distribution of sites used in the study Simplified cairn plans Simplified long cairn plans Basic chamber types Ogive of cumulative cairn sizes Sites with radiocarbon dates Excavations and other burial evidence Possible regional foci in Caithness Plans of Orkney chambers Plans of Caithness chambers Plans of Sutherland and Ross-shire chambers Geology of the study area The topographical zones The Firtblands Zone The Straths Zone The Caithness Zone Distribution of chamber forms Location of pollen studies Woodland types in northern Scotland, c.3000BC The geographical groups The Inverness-shire group Inverness-shire - visibility Inverness-shire - inter-visibility Inverness-shire - orientations Inverness-shire - orientations and alignments The Black Isle group The Black Isle - visibility The Black Isle - inter-visibility The Black Isle - orientations The Black Isle - orientations and alignments The Black Isle - long cairn alignments The South Ross group South Ross - visibility South Ross - inter-visibility South Ross - orientations South Ross - orientations and alignments The Easter Ross group Easter Ross - visibility Easter Ross - inter-visibility Easter Ross - orientations Easter Ross - orientations and alignments Easter Ross - long cairn alignments The Domoch Firth group Domoch Firth - visibility Domoch Firth - orientations Domoch Firth - orientations and alignments Firthlands - cairn forms Firthlands - chamber forms Firthlands - cumulative visibility Firtblands - location types Firthlands - inter-visibility Firthlands - orientations

1 2 4

54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92.

5 6 8 14 19 31 34 35 36 43 44 45 46 47 50 51

55 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 70 71 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 79 80 81 82 83 86 87 88 89 90

93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110.

92 95 96 97 98 99 100 V

Firtblands - orientations and alignments Firtblands - long cairn alignments The Strath Fleet group Strath Fleet - yisibility Strath Fleet - inter-visibility Strath Fleet - orientations Strath Fleet - orientations and alignments The Lairg group Lairg - visibility Lairg - inter-visibility Lairg - orientations Lairg - orientations and alignments The Strath Brora group Strath Brora - visibility · Strath Brora - orientations Strath Brora - orientations and alignments The Kildonan group Kildonan - visibility Kildonan - inter-visibility Kildonan - long cairn alignments The Kinbrace group Kinbrace - visibility Kinbrace- inter-visibility Kinbrace - orientations Kinbrace - orientations and alignments The Dunbeath group Dunbeath - visibility Dunbeath - inter-visibility Dunbeath - orientations Dunbeath - orientations and alignments The Loch Assynt group Loch Assynt - visibility Loch Assynt - inter-visibility Loch Assynt - orientations Loch Assynt - orientations and alignments The North-West Sutherland group North-West Sutherland - visibility North-West Sutherland - orientations North-West Sutherland- orientations and alignments The Strathnaver group Strathnaver - visibility Strathnaver- inter-visibility Strathnaver - orientations Strathnaver - orientations and alignments Straths - cairn forms Straths - chamber forms I Straths - chamber forms II Straths - cumulative visibility Straths - location types Straths - inter-visibility Straths - orientations Straths - orientations and alignments Straths - long cairn alignments The Cnoc Freiceadain group Cnoc Freiceadain - visibility Cnoc Freiceadain - inter-visibility Cnoc Freiceadain - orientations

101 102 103 104 105 106 108 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 125 126 127 128 130 132 134 135 136 137 139 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 152 154 154 156 156 157 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128.

129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153.

Cnoc Freiceadain - orientations and alignments 174 The Beinn Freiceadain group 176 Beinn Freiceadain - visibility 180 Beinn Freiceadain - inter-visibility 181 Beinn Freiceadain - orientations 182 Beinn Freiceadain - orientations and alignments 183 Beinn Freiceadain - long cairn alignments 184 The Sordale Hill group 186 Sordale Hill - visibility 189 Sordale Hill - inter-visibility 190 Sordale Hill - orientations 191 Sordale Hill - orientations and alignments 192 Sordale Hill - long cairn alignments 193 The North-East Caithness group 195 North-East Caithness- visibility 196 North-East Caithness- orientations 197 North-East Caithness - orientations and alignments 199 North-East Caithness- long cairn alignments 200 The Loch Watten group 202 Loch Watten -visibility 202 Loch Watten - orientations 203 Loch Watten - orientations and alignments 204 The Yarrows group 205 Yarrows - visibility 208 Yarrows - inter-visibility 209 Yarrows - orientations 210 Yarrows - orientations and alignments 212 Yarrows - long cairn alignments 213 Caithness - cairn forms 215 Caithness - chamber forms 216 Caithness - visibility 217 Caithness - location types 218 Visibility of Cnoc Freiceadain 220 Visibility of Sordale Hill 221 Visibility of Stemster Hill 222 Visibility ofBeinn Freiceadain 223 Visibility of the Hill of Yarrows 224 Visibility of Spittal Hill 225 Visibility of Orkney 226 Caithness - orientations 228 Caithness - orientations and alignments 229 Caithness - long cairn alignments 230 Distribution ofbrochs and chambered cairns in northern Scotland 232

154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183. 184. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. 193. 194.

vi

Orientations Distribution of astronomical associations Distribution of astronomical alignments Alignment of long cairns Distribution of long cairn alignments Relationships with natural features Megalithic cemeteries in northern Scotland Find spots and chambered cairns Brochs and cairn visibility in Caithness Neolithic cairns and settlement sites on Orkney Visibility ofMaeshowe Visibility of Cuween Hill Visibility ofWideford Hill Visibility of Quanterness Orkney - 2m marine contours Orkney - Sm marine contours Fieldwalking in Caithness Geology of the Black Isle Coastline of the Black Isle at c.3000 BC Fields walked on the Black Isle Transects walked on the Black Isle Topographical zones on the Black Isle I Topographical zones on the Black Isle II Mean weight of flint Reduction of flint Mean weight of quartz Reduction of quartz Density of all material/ha Density of flint/ha Density of quartz/ha Ratio of flint to quartz Areas of highest lithic densities I Areas of highest lithic densities II Density of retouched material/ha Lithic material and chambered cairns Neolithic and EBA artefacts recovered by Fieldwalking Major drove roads in Scotland Fields walked in Strath Tay Density of material/ha in the topographical zones Lithic types recovered in each of the projects Density of all material/ha in each of the projects

244 245 246 249 250 251 255 259 261 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 271 273 273 274 276 277 278 280 281 282 283 284 286 287 288 289 290 291 293 294 297 346 348 349 350

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

List of Plates 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

The Firthlands-view up the Domoch Firth (Sue Seright) The Straths -view down the Kyle ofDurness (Sue Seright) Caithness - view south eastwards from central Caithness (Sue Seright) The Black Isle - view from the Temple, Tore down towards Munlochy Bay (Sue Seright) Easter Ross - the alignment ofBoath Long on Boath Short Lairg-the cresting of the Ord Hill cairns (Sue Seright) Strath Brora - Carrol Rock (Sue Seright) Strath of Kildonan - the view from Cam Laggie (Sue Seright) View westwards across the Kinbrace basin (Sue Seright) Loch Assynt- view over the Loch Awe basin from the Loch Awe cairn (Sue Seright) Loch Assynt - Loch Borralan East with Cul Mor in the background (Sue Seright) Loch Assynt - the reverse alignment on Canisp at the Lyne cairn (Sue Seright) Loch Assynt - the Knockan basin (Sue Seright) Strathnaver - the alignment of Coille na Borgie South on Beinn Rifa-gil (Sue Seright) Cnoc Freiceadain- the alignment of the Cnoc Freiceadain cairn on Orkney (Sue Seright) Cnoc Freiceadain- the alignment of the Na Tri Sithean cairn on Dounreay (Sue Seright) The Cnoc Freiceadain cairns, as seen from the coastal plain (Sue Seright) Beinn Freiceadain - the location of the Loch Calder cairns (Sue Seright) Sordale Hill-the crested location of the Sordale Hill cairns (Sue Seright) North-East Caithness- slab inscribed the date '1928' found within the cairn at Sgarbach Yarrows - the reverse alignment on Small Mount at Achkinloch (Sue Seright) Yarrows- Camster Long with Beinn Freiceadain in the horizon (Sue Seright) Yarrows - natural moraine as seen from Camster Round Kinbrace - the backdrop location of Creag nan Caorach West (Sue Seright)

vii

44 46

48 70 85 110 118 124 129 140 140 142 142 158 172 173 173 178 187 194 206 206 207 237

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

List of Tables I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45.

Relative sizes of long and round cairns Radiocarbon dates from the Ord North Radiocarbon dates from Embo Radiocarbon dates from Camster Long Radiocarbon dates from Tulach an t'Sionnaich Radiocarbon dates from Tulloch of Assery A Radiocarbon dates from Tulloch of AsseryB Selected radiocarbon dates from Orkney Anderson's typology Curle's typology Childe's typology RCAMS typology Piggott's typological seriation Henshall's chamber typology Henshall's chamber typology on Orkney Henshall's typology oflong cairns Henshall's typology ofCaithness chambers Henshall's typology of Sutherland chambers Henshall's typology ofCaithness cairns Henshall's typology of Sutherland cairns Chamber forms in cairn types Chamber complexity in cairn types Chambers in cairns, full chamber typology Chamber forms in long cairns Chamber complexity in long cairns Full chamber typology in long cairn forms Full chamber typology in homed long cairns Size of short-horn and heel cairns Size of long cairn types Chamber forms and cairn size Chamber complexity and cairn size Full chamber typology and cairn size Complex long cairn forms Cairn types in the topographical zones Long cairn forms in the topographical zones Homed long cairns in the topographical zones Chamber forms in the topographical zones Chamber complexity in the topographical zones Full chamber typology in the topographical zones Round cairn sizes in the topographical zones Long cairn sizes in the topographical zones Cairn types in the environmental zones Long cairn forms in the environmental zones Homed long cairns in the environmental zones Chamber forms in the environmental zones

7 15 15 15

46. 47. 48.

15 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

15 16 17 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 34

55. 56. 57. 58.

59. 60.

38

61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

38

38 38 38 39 39 39 39 39

66. 67. 68.

69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74.

39 39 39 40 40 40 40

75. 76. 77. 78. 79.

48 48

48 49

80.

49

81. 82. 83.

49

84.

49 49 56

85.

56

87.

56 56

88.

86.

viii

Chamber complexity in the environmental zones 56 Full chamber typology in the environmental 56 zones Round cairn sizes in the environmental 56 zones Long cairn sizes in the environmental zones 56 The geographical groups 61 Firthlands - location types, all sites 93 94 Firthlands - location types, cairn forms Firthlands - location types, chamber forms 94 Firthlands - location types, chamber 94 complexity Firthlands - chamber orientations 94 Firthlands - astronomical associations 94 162 Straths - location types, all sites 162 Straths - location types, cairn forms 162 Straths - location types, chamber forms Straths - location types, chamber 162 complexity 163 Straths - chamber orientations 163 Straths - astronomical associations 214 Caithness - location types, all sites Caithness - location types, cairn forms 219 Caithness - location types, chamber 219 complexity 227 Caithness - chamber orientations 227 Caithness - astronomical associations 232 Physical limitations to land use 232 Brochs and cairns - land capability 1 233 Land capability for crops and grassland 233 Brochs and cairns - land capability 2 233 Land capability - climatic constraints 233 Brochs and cairns - land capability 3 Distances between sites and modem 234 settlements 234 Brochs and cairns and modem settlement 235 Land types 235 Brochs and cairns and land types 235 Topographical locations Brochs and cairns and topographical 235 locations 236 Location types - all sites Location types - short-horn and heel cairns 236 236 Location types - round and long cairns Location types - all sites in the topographical 236 zones Location types - round cairns in the 237 topographical zones Location types - long cairns in the 237 topographical zones Location types - all sites in the environmental 237 zones Location types - round cairns in the 238 environmental zones Location types - long cairns in the 238 environmental zones

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121.

Location types - long cairn forms 238 Location types - homed long cairns 238 Location types - round cairn sizes 238 Location types - long cairn sizes 238 Location types - chamber forms 238 Location types - chamber complexity 238 Location types - full chamber typology 239 Crested and backdrop locations and the control samples 239 Crested and backdrop locations and the extra control samples 239 Inter-visibility- all sites 240 Inter-visible sites in the topographical zones 240 Inter-visible sites in the environmental zones 240 No. of sites visible from cairns in the topographical zones 240 Sites inter-visible with round and long cairns 240 No. of sites visible from cairns in the 241 environmental zones Visibility of Cnoc Freiceadain 241 Visibility of Stemster Hill 241 Visibility of Sordale Hill 241 Visibility ofBeinn Freiceadain 241 Visibility of the Hill of Yarrows 241 241 Visibility of Spittal Hill Visibility of Orkney 241 Direction of orientation - all sites 243 243 Orientation of round and long cairns Orientation of short-horn and heel cairns 243 Orientations in the topographical zones 243 Orientation of chamber forms 243 Orientation of chamber complexity 243 Orientation of full chamber typology 243 Astronomical associations 244 Astronomical associations in the topographical zones 244 Astronomical associations of round and long cairns 244 Astronomical associations of short-horn and heel cairns 244

122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145.

ix

Astronomical associations of chamber forms Astronomical associations of chamber complexity Astronomical associations in the full chamber typology Astronomical alignments Alignment of long cairns - all sites Long cairn alignments in the topographical zones Long cairn alignments in the environmental zones Alignment of long cairn forms Alignment of homed long cairns References to the natural world Criteria for a megalithic cemetery in Ireland Sizes of megalithic cemeteries in northern Scotland Sizes of megalithic cemeteries in the environmental zones Sizes of megalithic cemeteries in the topographical zones Results of the fieldwalking Land capability - simple and complex cairn forms Land capability - simple and complex Chamber forms Strath Tay - the topographical zones Results of the fieldwalking Reduction of quartz in each topographical zone Reduction of material in the different regions Proportions of retouched material in the different regions Proportions of artefacts in the different regions Aspects of the two different types of lithic assemblages identified in the comparisons

245 245 245 247 248 248 248 248 248 252 254 255 256 256 279 295 295 347 347 348 351 351 351

351

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

X

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Preface and Acknowledgements This monograph is the result of a three year PhD thesis which was based in Department of Archaeology, University of Reading. The fieldwork on the cairns was carried out during the summer of 1997, and on cairns and brochs during the summer of 1998. The fieldwalking on the Black Isle took place over a four week period at Easter 1998, and for one and a half weeks at Easter 1999. Orkney was visited in August 1998, and again in July 1999. The PhD was funded by a 'Partnership Award' between the British Academy and the Faculty of Letters and Social Sciences, University of Reading. The Black Isle fieldwalking was sponsored by the Groam House Museum, Rosemarkie, the Black Isle, and an anonymous donation. The major acknowledgement is to Richard Bradley who conceived of and supervised the project. He remained supportive and enthusiastic throughout, finding the time to visit the study area on several occasions. He facilitated the trips to Orkney, offered the fieldwalking project to be an integral part of the study, suggested looking at the brochs and allowed me to re-analyse the material from and to write up our 1994 fieldwalking project in Strath Tay, Perthshire. He also read, re-read and proof read the text. Despite his enthusiasm for the project, he allowed it to develop and be written in its own way. Steve Appleby for analysing and writing the report on the Black Isle shell middens. Stefan Bergh for sending the text of the paper he gave in Santiago de Compestela. Alistair Cameron of the Black Isle Farmers' Association for support and local knowledge. Steven Carter for supplying the Kinbeachie radiocarbon dates. Bob Chapman and John Creighton who remained interested, supportive and provided much welcome advice. Sue Dawson for permission to use her PhD thesis. Anne de la Vega Leinert for spending a whole day explaining the problems of the Orkney sea levels, and permission to use her PhD thesis. Shannon Fraser for introducing me to the monuments on the Black Isle. Cole Henley for permission to use his drawings of the Black Isle artefacts and for the two weeks that he spent walking fields. ' Annette Jack who walked most of the 84 fields on the Black Isle before we got there, and then proceeded to work on the fieldwalking full time. Andy Jones for permission to use his unpublished Caithness fieldwalking report. Prof. Alek Kenyon-Smith for identifying the geology of the

polished stone axe. Sturt Manning for calibrating the radiocarbon dates. Margaret Mathews for her advice with the illustrations. Peter McKeague (RCAHMS) for providing the data on brochs and find spots. Robbie Meiklejohn of Thurso who helped me find many of the sites in Caithness and for sharing his thoughts on brochs. Amelia Pannett for allowing me to quote the results of her fieldwalking in Caithness. Colin Richards for his enthusiasm and our discussions on Orkney. Sue Seright and Hugh Fearn for their support, hospitality and superb food. Sue also took the majority of the photographs at her own expense. Dougie Scott ofTain for advice on archaeoastronomy. Eland Stuart for permission to use the results of his fieldwalking in Caithness. Emitia Thomason for providing the car. Aaron Watson for his advice on fieldwalking, allowing full access to the Clava assemblage and all our discussions and, especially, our disagreements on interpretation. The farmers and landowners who, without fail, allowed access to their property, especially on the Black Isle where they let us walk over their fields. The Groam House Museum, Rosemarkie, and the anonymous benefactor who enabled the fieldwalking to take place. The Warden, management and staff of Wantage Hall for their encouragement and support. The Black Isle lithic assemblage was catalogued with the help of Richard Bradley, Andy Jones, Hannah Sackett and Aaron Watson. The Black Isle fieldwalkers: Jaqueline and Leoma Aitkin, Caroline Bowes, Sally Brashaw, John Brierley, Liz Budge, Nick Chapman, John Cheadle, Harry and Joan Clyne, Kathleen Dallas, Laurence and Pam Draper, Hugh Fearn, Aileen Fraser, Anne Green, Jenny Heath, Cole Henley, Annette Jack, Andy Jones, Naomi Lloyd, Sally Lloyd, Ian McHardy, Catriona Murray, Thelma Paviland, Anne Robb, Hannah Sackett, Ronnie Scott, Sue Seright, Ron and Sarah Thomas, Hillary, Linda and Mandy. The fieldwork in Strath Tay was funded by grants from the British Academy, Reading University, the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and the Prehistoric Society. It was supervised by Tess Durden, Nigel Spencer and Martin Tingle. We would like to thank H. Fotheringham, A. McDiarmid and J. McDiarmid for allowing the work to take place on their property, and the Breadalbane Heritage Society and Sonia Yellowlees for their help.

xi

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Introduction The three counties of mainland northern Scotland (Rossshire, Sutherland and Caithness; FIG 1) have some of the most dramatic, varied and isolated landscapes in Britain. The southern part of the area is composed mainly of mountains and heather moorland cut through by, sometimes, fertile valleys. Across northern Sutherland and the western part of Caithness a 400,000 hectare spread of blanket peat and boggy mires makes up the uninhabited 'Flow Country'. Much of the coastline consists of cliffs with dramatic sea stacks and rocky inlets. To the southeast large tidal inlets, or Firths, penetrate the coastline. The isolated moors, valleys and lochs are the domains of the fisherman and the hunter. This is a marginal area with a small and dispersed population. In contrast to much of the terrain, the east coast of the mainland and the central broad valleys of Caithness provide relatively fertile land. These are the areas where most of the modern population is located. It is also the main area of distribution of the Neolithic Orkney-Cromarty chambered cairns. This tradition is found from Orkney spreading to the south of Inverness (FIG 2). A similar monument tradition is distributed over a wide geographical area. To the north are the Orkney Islands with some similar monuments, but also a thriving indigenous tradition in the Maeshowe type cairns. To the south are the Early Bronze Age Clava Cairns. Both of these regions have now seen intensive research and excavation (Renfrew 1979, Fraser 1983, Hedges 1983, Davidson & Henshall 1989, Bradley 2000a). In contrast, the vast zone between these two areas represents a massive gap in knowledge and research. The sites have been identified and surveyed (RCAHMS 191 la, 191 lb, Henshall 1963, 1972, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995), although there have been few modern excavations. We know where the monuments are and what they look like, but little else. Even the Neolithic settlement pattern is unknown. There are also vast areas in the region without monuments. As the first systematic research project on the mainland Orkney-Cromarty cairns after the original surveys, it was decided to investigate their location within their local and wider landscapes. This was a continuation of the locational work on the Clava Cairns (Phillips 1996, 2000). The methods and approaches used on that project could be developed and refined. By investigating the location of the monuments within their particular landscapes, we can perhaps begin to understand the lives and concerns of the people who built them. Why were they living and th.'i.ving in such an apparently forbidding landscape? Indeed, where in this landscape were they living? What did they consider important, and what aspects of their world view can be recovered? By looking at the location of the monuments it may be possible to approach these questions.

Orkney Islands

~

J

~~

\Soo

FIGURE 1 Location of the study area

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

0

•

Chambered

o

Uncertain site

0

25

KM

FIGURE 2 Distribution of sites used in the study

2

cairn

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

PARTl The Background 1. Monument Morphology This section briefly describes the monuments and their method of construction. This is discussed in greater depth elsewhere by Henshall (1963, 1972, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995). Relevant distribution maps can be found in the chapter on Typology (Chapter 5).

Most of the cairns were round or long in shape, but there were a number of variations to these basic types (FIG 3) There may have been a flattened and widened frontage forming a heel-shaped cairn. With slippage of cairn material, this may be difficult to identify (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 39). Homworks of low protruding rubble formed impressive forecourts at some sites. These are called short-homed cairns. Variations on long cairns tended to be more complex (FIG 4). There were simple long cairns with parallel or trapezoidal sides and either square or rounded ends. The proximal end containing the chamber often formed an impressive mound with only an area of low rubble forming the distal cairn. There was sometimes a mound and/or chamber at both ends. Between a proximal mound and a distal cairn there could be a gap or low section of cairn material. In the body of some long cairns large slabs, some vertically and haphazardly arranged, are visible (ibid, 48). These could represent disturbed elements of 'voided box' construction rather than destroyed chambers. All of these forms could have had fa1yades,crescentic or homed forecourts at one or both ends.

1.1. Cairns

The cairns were composed of a mixture of materials including small boulders, scree, shattered rocks and slabs or cobbles. Occasionally there was a deliberate mixing with earth as at Na Tri Sithean (CAT 41). Today, many appear as untidy piles of rubble, but at a few sites a complex internal structure can be observed. At the centre was an inner core cairn, usually consisting of horizontal slabs. These were closely packed together to support the chamber inside. In its tum, the core was supported by a roughly built wall. This method of construction has been fully examined at the excavated sites of Embo (SUT 63) (Henshall & Wallace 1963); Tulach an t'Sionnach, Tulloch of Assery A and B (CAT 58, 69, 70) (Corcoran 1966); and Camster Long (CAT 12) (Masters 1997). The inner core was enclosed by layers of material, almost like an 'onion-skin' (Barber 1992, 28). In some cases, these were built up over a large foundation slab or 'grounder' as at Camster Long (Masters 1997, Illus 12). In some long cairns rough transverse walls with simple lintels across them formed 'voided boxes', which may have reduced the effort in construction and facilitated any later changes (Barber 1992, 28). This has been demonstrated at the Point of Cott (ORK 41) on Orkney (ibid, 63) and it may also have been the construction method at Brawlbin Long, Tulach Buaile Assery and Warehouse South (CAT 6, 59, 64) (Mercer 1992, 51).

There is evidence for a platform of material around the cairn at only four sites. At the Ord North (SUT 48) this may have related to the blocking of the chamber (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 39). At Fiscary (SUT 29) the platform that is visible today consists of a misshapen spread of rubble connecting two round cairns. 1.2. Chambers

As with the cairns, there was a wide variety in chamber type and construction. At the simplest level there appear to have been three basic types: rectangular and polygonal shapes constructed from upright boulders or split slabs, and the more complex types which occur only in the northern part of the study area (FIG 5). For the purposes of this present description, this last group will be called the Caithness type.

The outer cairn may have been three metres or more in height in order to cover the chamber (Henshall 1963, 72). The cairns were steep sided with the material held in place by an outer boulder edge or low facing walls. At Camster Long double facing walls of horizontal slabs with a stepped appearance may have been constructed around the monument, but the exact reconstruction of this site is disputed (see discussion in Masters 1997). In areas where the cairns were constructed from slab-like rubble, facing walls may be difficult to distinguish. This is particularly the case if any outer walls have collapsed and cairn material has spread over them (Henshall 1963, 72).

Rectangular chambers are distributed, in the main, across the southern part of the study area. They had an angular plan and consisted of one or two compartments divided by transverse slabs. The chamber walls were made up of large stones set closely together with a minimum of dry stonewalling between them. The end stone at the back of the chamber was often the largest and pointed at the top. At Cam Glas (ROS 12) Fraser (1996, 171) noted that the pointed backstone was 3

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead substantially weathered in comparison to the other chamber stones. This may suggest that it stood alone as a standing stone before the construction of the cairn, either at the site or elsewhere (ibid). However, this differential weathering has only been observed at one other site, Allt a'Chaoruinn (SUT 74). The passages to the chambers tended to be short and constructed in a similar fashion (Henshall 1963, 62). How the chambers were roofed is uncertain. Flat lintels have been proposed (ibid), but the evidence is meagre. At Carn Glas a large triangular slab across the north east comer of the antechamber may have been displaced from a position across the transverse stones (Woodham & Woodham 1957, 111). At Woodhead Round (ROS 42) a large slab lay at the outer end of the chamber with one end on top of two courses of corbelling (Childe 1944, 34). However, if the walling and transverse slabs did support a flat lintel roof, this would leave a pointed backstone standing proud of the chamber at some sites (Henshall 1963, 62).

Warehouse South (CAT 64) - Round Cairn

Generally, polygonal chambers are distributed through Sutherland and Ross-shire. They had one, two or three compartments. As the name suggests, the main compartment varied in shape and also the number of slabs incorporated into the structure. These could be set apart from each other with dry stone walling between them. Some of the wall stones were pointed, but were not always placed at the back of the chamber in line with the passage. The passages were roofed with lintels and generally short being 0.6 to 1.2 metres long. The main chamber appears to have been corbelled, as can be seen at Boath Short (ROS 11), and may have been topped with a capstone. Rectangular antechambers may have had lintel roofs.

Houstry (CAT 29) - Heel Shaped Cairn

The Camster-type chambers are found in the northern part of the study area, especially in Caithness. They consisted of one, two or three compartments divided by transverse slabs. Local high quality quarried flagstone was used to construct the chambers. This splits easily into thin slabs. Large stones of this material were used to wall the chamber, the largest often in the rear compartment leaning into the chamber wall. They were set apart with considerable areas of dry stone walling between them. In some cases they were not supported by the walling at all, but set in sockets with packing stones, as at Tulloch of Assery B (Corcoran 1966). In plan the chambers appear almost polygonal or subrectangular. The passages tended to be longer than in the rectangular or polygonal chambers, at three metres or more. The roofing method would have been a mixture of some lintels in antechambers and high corbelling in the main compartments. In some cases the whole chamber may have been enclosed under a single vaulted ceiling.

Ormiegill North (CAT 42) - Short Horned Cairn Side cells are in evidence at four sites. At Kilcoy South (ROS 24), Kyleoag and Loch Borralan East (SUT 37, 43) they were located in the back right hand comer of the chamber. At Kenny's Cairn (CAT 31) the cell was_set in the left-hand wall of the chamber. Slab floors have also been found at some sites in both chambers and passages. The orientations were, in the main, towards the eastern half of the sky.

FIGURE 3 Simplified cairn plans (not to scale) (after Davidson & Henshall 1991)

4

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Kilournan (SUT 32)

Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58) Caen Burn South (SUT 15)

Kinbrace Hill Long (SUT 34)

Na Tri Sithean (CAT 41) Brawlbin Long (CAT 6)

FIGURE 4 Simplified long cairn plans (not to scale) (after Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995) 5

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead 1.3. Raw Materials Henshall (1963, 61, Davidson & Henshall 1991, 3) noted the use of locally available raw materials in the construction of the monuments. Indeed, it was often the most abundant material available in the immediate locality (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 37). In looking around the sites of the cairns during the fieldwork, this pattern appears to be confirmed. It was not always possible to identify the local raw materials, but in cases where they could be observed they seem to have been used. At Lyne (SUT 46) the large backstone is of white quartzite. Although most of the cairn material has been removed, enough remains to identify similar material as a major constituent. At about 150 metres to the east of the site there is a natural outcrop of this stone. The Caen Bum long cairns (SUT 13, 14, 15, 16, 17) above Helmsdale are composed almost entirely of red stones which are locally available. The same is true of the Ormiegill cairns (CAT 42, 43) which are located at the base of the red sandstone Hill of Ulbster. At the Yarrows long cairns (CAT 54, 55) the cairn material is almost entirely made up of broken pieces of the local flagstone. Much has been made of the qualities and properties of the Caithness flagstone as a building material (Henshall 1963, 69, Davidson & Henshall 1991, 3); however, it was not used to construct monuments outside of its area of availability.

Achany (SlT 3l - Rectangular

The Ord North (SlT 48) - Polygonal

From the observable evidence it would appear that materials close to hand were being used for monument construction. Raw materials were not being transported over any great distance.

/~ro ______ _

1.4. Cairns and Chambers There is no correlation between cairn and chamber types (Henshall 1972, 199). Although a certain amount of geographical distinction in chamber types and the complexity of long cairns can be demonstrated, this apparent lack of pattern holds true in each area.

to_/_~--------

There may be two chambers in a cairn. They are side-byside at Camster long and Sithean Dubh, Shurrery (CAT 12, 48) and back-to-back at Langwell, Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 34, 69) and Embo (SUT 63). Indeed, the chamber may not be central to the cairn, as can be seen at Cam Liath, Loedebest, Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 15, 70) and perhaps also at Evelix (SUT 28). The passages and chambers may not follow the same axis as the long cairns in which they are contained, as in the South Yarrows long cairns (CAT 54, 55), Coille na Borgie South (SUT 23) and possibly also the Cairn ofHeathercro (CAT 11).

Ormiegill North (CAT 42)- Camster

Many of the cairns have been robbed of material, although this may have been intentional at some long cairns (Henshall 1963, 76). A large proximal mound covering the chamber can remain relatively intact, whilst the distal long cairn is robbed almost down to ground level as at Warehouse South (CAT 64). The 'robbing' of the long cairn may be represented by a systematic series of hollows along its length as if 'voided boxes' have been dug out. This can be seen at Cnoc Freiceadain and South Yarrows North (CAT 14, 54) (see discussion in Mercer

FIGURE 5 Basic chamber types (not to scale) (after Henshall 1963) 6

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead 1992). This has led to the suggestion that some, or even many, of the cairns are multi-phased (Henshall 1972, 195ft). However, these hollows may represent the robbing of easily accessible slabs used for voided box construction, rather than the purposeful and systematic alteration of a cairn.

North. At Camster Long and Camster Round the whole of the interiors had been intentionally filled with rubble (Anderson 1868). To achieve this in a high corbelled chamber would necessitate the removal of the roof and infilling from the top, as Colin Richards (pers comm) has pointed out with reference to the cairns on Orkney.

1.5. Multi-Phasing

1.6. Cairn Size

Henshall ( 1970, 31, 1972, 198ft) pioneered the idea of multi-phase monuments in Scotland, a line of research followed at a wider level by Corcoran (1972). A multiphase sequence has been demonstrated by excavation at only a few sites in the study area: Tulach an t'Sionnach (Corcoran 1966), Camster Long (Masters 1997) and perhaps also at Embo (Henshall & Wallace 1963) and Kilcoy South (McGregor & Loney 1997). Moreover, Henshall (1972, 204) saw this as rationalising the disparity between chamber and cairn plans. The general sequence was seen as simple round or oval cairns being enlarged and elaborated at a later date. This was possible because of the stable internal structure of the core cairn (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 3). However, Henshall has recently commented (ibid, 56) that the number of multiphased monuments may be less than initially proposed.

Commentators have often referred to the sizes of the monuments as large, medium or small (Henshall 1963, 1972, Mercer 1980, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995), but without defining the relative dimensions. The terms large, medium and small can be given a more relevant meaning by employing a simple Quartile Test using the cumulative diameters and lengths of the cairns. By this method, the full sample of monuments can be incorporated in a comparable fashion and three basic 'sizes' defined. The central range of cairn sizes is described as medium, and the extremes as large and small. Two types can be proposed: round cairns and long cairns, as these are basic definable shapes. For round cairns, the average diameter has been used and this group also includes oval, heel shaped and short horn cairns. The measurement of this last type has been taken across the centre of the monument, not including the length of the horns. Given their small size, the oval cairns have been grouped with the round cairns. The length of long cairns has been used, also not including the horns. The cumulative range of sizes for each type can be seen in FIG 6. The resulting sizes are detailed in TABLE 1.

Concentrating on the complex long cairn forms in Caithness, and relating this to the evidence on Orkney, Mercer (1992, 51-52) has suggested a different sequence. The consistent and orderly quarrying of long cairns is seen as evidence for the construction of large proximal round cairns superimposed on the original monument. This was a long-term sequence of construction, deconstruction and reconstruction. These 'cumulative' monuments form a long/round cairn composite (ibid, 53). However, this interpretation relies to a great extent on the orderly robbing of long cairns. This may represent later disturbances targeting and removing specific materials used in voided box construction. As a final phase of internal use the passages of some of the cairns were blocked, effectively sealing the monuments. This can be seen at Kilcoy South and the Ord

Round

Long

Small

62.9m

TABLE 1 Relative sizes of long and round cairns

7

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Round Cairns n = 137

120

100

80

"' 2:

iii

60 ""' 0 0 z: 40

20

0

15

10

5

25

20

30

35

Diameter (m)

Long Cairns n = 48 40

30 ~

,'.: ~ '-

0

20

0

z 10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Length (m)

FIGURE 6 Ogive of cumulative cairn sizes

8

70

80

90

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

2. History of Research 2.1. The Nineteenth Century

few drawings of them exist. This is a great loss as these excavations recovered the largest amount of artefactual and skeletal material from the Orkney-Cromarty cairns. The best pieces were sent to London and subsequently destroyed in the Blitz. The cairns themselves were recognised as complex structures with outer double-faced walls and roughly built walls around the chamber cores (ibid, 242), not just simple piles of stones.

Early antiquarian interest in northern Scotland concentrated mainly on the Maeshowe type cairns on Orkney to the north east of the study area and the Clava Cairns to the south. Most of the Orkney-Cromarty cairns on the mainland were ruinous by the nineteenth century and, unless the chamber was visible, they were seen as unspectacular in comparison with the other two types (Henshall 1963, 45). Little note was made of the mainland cairns until the mid-nineteenth century when David Wilson (1851, 65) identified them as a particular class of monuments, assigning them to the Stone Age in the Three Age System.

In his synthesis, Anderson (1886) related the evidence to other monument traditions. The long cairns were compared with examples from England, Ireland and Denmark, and the chambers with the rest of Britain and Continental Europe. This was a much wider analysis than that attempted by Rhind. The structure of the cairns was seen as being designed to instil an impression of power and energy. The stratigraphy of depositions in the chambers was interpreted as a multiple cremation rite followed by inhumation at a later date. The incorporation of animal remains was also noted. A long period of use of the monuments was identified, as well as their complexity. This included integrating the work on the cairns with Anderson's interest in brochs (1878, 1890). The cairns were initially seen as the burial tombs of the broch dwellers (1866a, 227).

The first recorded excavations were conducted by Henry Rhind (1854) on four round cairns on Warehouse Hill in south eastern Caithness: Warehouse East, North and South, and M'Cole's Castle (CAT 62, 63, 64, 39). His technique involved opening the cairns from the top and digging downwards in a similar fashion to the 'Barrow Diggers' of southern England (see Marsden 1974). The primary objective was to recover skulls for comparative ethnological comparison, and also artefacts (Rhind 1854, 104). Only brief descriptions of the excavations were provided, but accurate small-scale plans were drawn and the location of the few artefacts noted (ibid, opp 100). Both cremations and inhumations were recognised in the chambers, but an interpretation of the burial rite was not developed. No other tripartite tombs were known in northern Scotland at this time, so they were compared with Newgrange and Dowth in the Boyne Valley, Ireland (ibid, 100). However, seeing the Scottish examples as "radically cruciform" (ibid, 101) may be an overstatement (see Henshall 1963, 45). As far as dating was concerned, the monuments were tentatively assigned to the Pictish period (Rhind 1854, 107).

In contrast to the integrated and concentrated nature of Rhind's and Anderson's excavations in Caithness, work on the Sutherland cairns in the nineteenth century was patchy. The Rev. J.M. Joass (1864), as minister of Golspie, was an active antiquarian and collector, acquiring finds for the Dunrobin Museum. He described several chambered cairns in Strathnaver, although he did not always recognise them as such. He opened the chambers of Allt nam Ban and Kinbrace Bum (SUT 6, 33), but did not publish his results. James Horsburgh (1868) visited northern Sutherland in 1866 and described a number of chambered cairns. He partially investigated Skelpick Long (SUT 53), but no finds were recovered (ibid, 273-274). The chamber of the Tongue House cairn (SUT 57) was also cleared (ibid, 277), but there is at present some confusion as to the exact location and nature of this site (see discussion in Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 132). In 1867, William McKay investigated the Coille na Borgie cairns (SUT 22, 23) and the unexcavated parts of Skelpick Long. His report has been lost, although a few sketches and plans survive (ibid, Fig 18). The Coille na Borgie monuments were described as three separate cairns by the Rev. R. Munro (1884). He compared them to the homed cairns of Caithness (ibid, 232-233). Cathel Kerr (1892) opened the disturbed Fiscary cairn (SUT 29) and published a short description.

ln the 1860s, following on from Rhind's work, Joseph Anderson and Robert Shearer investigated seven cairns in south eastern Caithness: Camster Long and Camster Round, Garrywhin, Kenny's Cairn, Ormiegill North, and the South Yarrows long cairns (CAT 12, 13, 26, 31, 42, 54, 55). The cairns opened by Rhind were also re-investigated. The sample included round cairns and long cairns, with and without homed· forecourts. The monuments had both bipartite and tripartite chambers. Anderson published their results promptly (1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869a, 1869b, 1872) and in later years produced a synthesis of his own interpretations (1886). He was greatly influenced by evolutionary theory and the Three Age System. He worked on the principle of organising and analysing the evidence by comparative scientific methods. Any interpretations were to be related to wider knowledge (see Graham 1976, 287).

Ross-shire was even more poorly served than Sutherland. The only survey was Angus Beaton's (1882) description of antiquaries on the Black Isle peninsula to the north of Inverness, but the denuded chambers of the cairns were not properly recognised.

Excavation and its recording were conscientiously carried out and were systematic surveys (see Anderson 1866a, opp. 226). However, the description of the finds was limited and 9

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

The middle of the nineteenth century had seen a promising start with the concentrated work of Rhind and Anderson in southeastern Caithness and an attempt at systematic interpretation and analysis (Anderson 1886). Rhind had left a sum of four hundred pound to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland to fund archaeological investigations in northern Scotland (Stuart 1868, 289), but the research moved away from the chambered cairns to the brochs (Anderson 1878, 1890). Subsequent work on the chambered cairns involved individual descriptions and occasional excavations. There was no attempt to build on Rhind's and Anderson's directed research to create an overall picture of the chambered cairns of northern Scotland.

After this second burst of energetic activity, little else was achieved. In Sutherland J.E. Cree excavated the chamber at Ardvreck (SUT 9) showing that it was unlike the other Orkney-Cromarty cairns, but he did not publish his results. W.D. Simpson (1928) provided descriptions of Allt nam Ban and Badnabay (SUT 6, 10), but did not excavate. In Caithness Sir Frances Tress Barry conducted four apparently inept excavations with John Nicholson. Earl's Cairn (CAT 23) was shown to possess a tripartite chamber, but no plans are known for the Cairn of Heathercro, Shean Stemster and Sgarbach (CAT 11, 46, 76) as these were covered over. There were few finds and no excavation reports. In 1997 at Sgarbach the author observed a red sandstone slab with the date '1928' inscribed on one side of it. Arthur Edwards (1929) conducted a well-recorded excavation on the chamber of the enigmatic Lower Dounreay cairn (CAT 38) which was promptly published. Little work appears to have been done in Ross-shire.

2.2. The Early Twentieth Century

The next burst of activity came in 1909-1910 with Alexander Curie's survey for the Royal Commission (RCAHMS 1911a, 191lb). These volumes covered all of the ancient and historical monuments in Sutherland and Caithness, and the whole survey was conducted on bicycle and pony. Forty five chambered cairns were recognised in Sutherland (RCAHMS 191la, xxxiv) and sixty in Caithness (RCAHMS 191lb, xii ff). Subsequently, only a limited number of sites have been added to this list, which demonstrates the completeness of Curie's work. The 1871 6" Ordnance Survey maps aided him, in part. The map makers had been instructed to mark all antiquities. They had no antiquarian training and had to rely on the knowledge of local people. Although there are many errors, these maps contain a wealth of information (see Davidson 1986).

As in the mid nineteenth century, the twentieth century started with comprehensive fieldwork and an attempt at interpretation. Again, little integrated work followed, only occasional and isolated investigations based on the curiosity of individuals. 2.3. Synthesis

Vere Gordon Childe (1935, 1940) was the first to attempt to place the cairns within an integrated and wider theoretical framework. This was based on the diffusion and migration of people and ideas from the Mediterranean. Because of apparent architectural similarities, he suggested that their origins lay in southern Spain and Portugal. Indeed, the Camster type cairns with homed forecourts were seen as so closely related to the Iberian corbelled tombs that they were termed 'primary' monuments, perhaps representing some of the earliest megaliths in Britain (Childe 1935, 58). He also identified the clusters of monuments as "cemeteries" (ibid, 34), one of the few researchers to apply this term in the region. These were compared to the Iberian cemeteries (ibid, 58). The groupings of long cairns at the lower ends of two major valleys were interpreted as evidence of initial settlement at each end of a route between the natural harbours of Wick and the Reay/Thurso area (ibid, 35). They perhaps represented colonies established to promote and control trade between Iberia and Denmark (ibid, 60). The unhomed round cairns and short homed cairns represented the later spread of settlement and a 'degeneration' in monument design, as did the stalled cairns of Orkney (ibid, 35). These were the family tombs of small-scale pastoral/agricultural communities (Childe 1942, 142). There was little discussion of the contents of the chambers, although it was suggested that fires were lit in the chambers to cremate human remains. The presence of Beaker material at some sites was also noted (Childe 1935, 38).

Curle recognised four types of sepulchral cairns: long cairns and round cairns, both with and without homed forecourts (RCAHMS 191la, xxxiii). Of the nineteen chambers that were exposed, the majority were tripartite, but bipartite and single chambers were also observed. It was noted that there was no correlation between cairn and chamber types (ibid, xxxiv-xxxv). Some general comments were made about the widespread distribution and apparent groupings of the monuments. In Sutherland the long cairns clustered at the lower ends of two major valleys: Strathnaver and the Strath of Kildonan. The round cairns showed a more scattered distribution (ibid, xxxiv). The close association with hut circles and smaller cairns, apparently without chambers (ibid, xxxvi), and with brochs (ibid, xxxiii) was also noted. Curle did not attempt a systematic interpretation; only general inferences were made. It was suggested that the cairn builders originated from the Mediterranean and that there was a typological sequence from long cairns, through round cairns, to round cairns with cists (ibid, xxxv-xxxvi). Only one site was excavated (Curle 1910): Achaidh (SUT 2) above the northern shore of the Domoch Firth. A passage leading to a single chamber was exposed. The extent and quality of Curie's surveys was a remarkable achievement (see Graham I 956). For the chambered cairns a brief description was provided, although few were surveyed or planned. Not only were the sites visited, but also the descriptions of the history and folklore attached to particular monuments show that Curle had access to local knowledge. His surveys form the basis of all later syntheses.

In a later work, ChiIde (1940, 71) described the OrkneyCromarty and Maeshowe type cairns as expressions of a 'Pentland Culture'. He split this into three typological groups: the Camster type cairns of Caithness, the Orkney cairns entered from the side such as Unstan (ORK 51) and the long stalled cairns on Rousay. They represented a combination of two traditions: the southwest Scottish gallery 10

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead graves and the passage tombs of the Boyne Valley in Ireland. It was as if a "Boyne/Carlingford hybrid had been transported from Sligo to Caithness and Orkney" (ibid). At the grand scale, the cairns were the physical expression of the spread of a pan-European 'Megalithic religion' (ibid).

2.4. Survey and Modern Excavation

The next important survey to be conducted was by Audrey Henshall (1963, 1972). This was a major work listing all of the chambered tombs of Scotland with detailed plans and descriptions of sites. It remains an unparalleled work of reference. In her assessment of the Scottish cairns, Henshall (1972, 198ft) suggested that they were multi-period monuments. This accounted for similar chambers occurring within different cairns and rationalised the range of differing site plans. A simple typology of rectangular, polygonal and Camster type chambers was proposed for the OrkneyCromarty cairns (1963, 61ft). The different cairn types were also classified by their morphology (ibid, 207ft). It was suggested that the long cairns and the addition of homed forecourts represented an elaboration of what were originally simple round cairns (ibid, 202). The distribution and location of the cairns was considered only at a general level. In the south and east of the region it was noted that, generally, the cairns were sited within a few miles of the coast at the present upper limit of arable land (ibid, 49). In the highland area around Assynt a correlation with limestone outcrops was observed (ibid, 52). Four major clusters were identified in Caithness (ibid, 54), with a general siting on marginal land and hillsides close to arable and pasture (ibid, 56). However, no detailed analysis of the location of the monuments was conducted, as this was not the purpose of the survey.

Glyn Daniel (1941, 44) also identified a fusion of gallery graves and passage graves. However, none of the monuments were entirely comparable to examples from Iberia and Brittany (Daniel & Powell 1949, 177). The Clyde-Solway and Clava groups most accurately reproduced these (Daniel 1941, 46). The northern cairns were therefore a secondary and local development (Daniel & Powell 1949, 177). This occurred with little influence from other megalithic areas (Daniel 1941, 45). Using identified typological series and relative dating, the British primary passage graves were assigned to between 1800 and 1200 BC. The secondary passage graves, including the Pentland group, were later and continued in use until around 1000 BC (Daniel & Powell 1949, 181). Working within the same theoretical framework of diffusion, Stuart Piggott (1954) was the first to describe the northern chambered cairns as the 'Orkney-Cromarty' tradition based on their distribution. He identified three distinct groups: the Maeshowe type, Camster round cairns and the Yarrows homed cairns. The last type were seen as a fusion between the Clyde-Carlingford culture, and to a lesser extent the Severn-Cotswold tombs, with the local Camster type passage graves (ibid, 240). These in turn were earlier and derived directly from northern France and Iberia. This indicated colonisation up the Great Glen route (ibid, 254).

It was also at this time that the first modem excavations were carried out in Sutherland and Caithness, providing radiocarbon dates for the Orkney-Cromarty cairns. The small coastal site of Embo (SUT 63) was investigated as a rescue excavation and shown to possess two chambers placed backto-back (Henshall & Wallace I 963). It was suggested that there were two phases of construction at this site (ibid, 19).

The nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had seen a consideration of the monuments at the level of the site, the local area and the region. The work of the synthesisers moved away from the site and the local scale, and analysed the cairns at the regional and global level. The attempt was to place them within a wider chronological and cultural framework. This was to be achieved within the overall theoretical framework of the diffusion of traits from an origin in the Mediterranean reflecting the migration to, and colonisation of, northern latitudes.

Tulach an t'Sionnach and the two Tulloch of Assery cairns (CAT 58, 69, 70) at the northern end of Loch Calder were in danger of destruction by rising water levels and were excavated by J.X.W.P. Corcoran (1966). Insufficient time and resources severely limited investigations, although it was demonstrated that Tulach an t'Sionnach was a multi-phase monument as had been suggested by Henshall (1972, 198). Artefactual and skeletal material was recovered and the radiocarbon dates appear to suggest that, despite their typological differences, all three monuments were in use at around the same time (Sharples 1986, 9).

This period also saw the first systematic investigation of the chambered cairns of Ross-shire. Childe (1944) conducted an emergency survey identifying and describing the monuments. Woodham (1956a) conducted a more detailed survey of all the prehistoric monuments of the Black Isle identifying more sites. He also excavated the cairns of Kilcoy South (ROS 24) (Woodham 1956b, Woodham & Woodham 1957), Carn Glas (ROS 12) (Woodham 1955, 1956c) and Tomfat Plantation (INV 52) (Woodham & Woodham 1964). There was little fieldwork further north. S.T. Calder (1951) re-assessed the Coille na Borgie cairns (SUT 22, 23) as two long cairns, rather than the three cairns suggested by Munro (1884). A.J. Boyd (1952) provided an account of the Badnabay cairn (SUT I 0), but did not excavate. These surveys, and the excavation reports in Ross-shire, were essentially descriptive; there was no attempt to incorporate the evidence within a wider interpretative framework.

In another rescue excavation Corcoran (1965, 1967) excavated the chamber and part of the cairn at the Ord North (SUT 48). It was shown to have been constructed on a platform and, although much Neolithic pottery was recovered, the only burial evidence was a secondary cremation. Radiocarbon dates suggested the monument was in use between 3600 and 3000 BC (Sharples 1981). The Camster cairns had been taken into guardianship in 1959, and in the 1970s there was a programme ofrestoration. The work was started by Corcoran ( 1971) and, after his death, continued by Lionel Masters (1997). Camster Long (CAT 12) was shown to be a multi-phase monument initially composed of one, or perhaps two, round cairns. A large area of the cairn was stripped to ground level and evidence of 11

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Early Neolithic pre-cairn and Mesolithic activity recovered.

response to Mercer's comments (1985, 3ft), but also as an acknowledgement of the complexity of multi-period monuments (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 21 ff, Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 20ft). In Caithness, at the regional level, consideration of the location of the monuments has recognised a correlation between their siting and peaty podzols (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 14ft). At the level of the site, only general comments have been made. The often unspectacular siting of some monuments, and the potential of nearby more prominent locations has been noted (ibid, 16, Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 17-18). Location is seen as perhaps being related to a variety of factors such as visibility from settlements, patches of uncultivated land or unfathomable religious reasons (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 17-18). In Sutherland the inter-visibility between sites was recorded, but this was not deemed to have been important factor and the results have not been published in detail (ibid, 18).

In the 1970s David Fraser (Ralston & Fraser 1978) conducted an unpublished survey of the cairns of eastern Caithness. This involved statistical comparisons of a range of pre-determined factors (Ian Ralston pers comm) and was a 'dry-run' for later work on Orkney (Fraser 1983). Henshall's work (1963, 1972) provides the basic database for the Orkney-Cromarty cairns. The monuments were considered at the scale of the site and the region. Problems of typology and morphology were tackled systematically to give an overall view. The few excavations during this period provided the first radiocarbon dates for the cairns. However, they were related to rescue or presentation priorities. Fieldwork was not conducted within a framework of particular research questions. 2.5. Recent Research

There has been little other work on, or discussion of, the northern chambered cairns in recent years. Colin Richards (1992a) has considered the experience of moving through the interior of the monuments, seeing them as paths with accessible and inaccessible 'doorways' to different worlds. Part of a recent PhD thesis has looked at the location of a sample of monuments on the Black Isle and identified their siting at the boundary of modern land use (Fraser 1996, 223). The suggestion is that they may be markers for places of transition between the physical and a metaphorical world (ibid, 222).

With afforestation in the 1970s and the potential loss of antiquities, two surveys looked at the monuments of all periods. C.E. Batey's survey (1984) was restricted to the coast between Dunnet Head and Ousdale. Roger Mercer's surveys (1980, 1981, 1985) were more wide ranging, as they covered larger areas that were at risk from forestry. Four previously unknown long cairns were identified, Henshall's typological categories were reconsidered and the complex nature of multi-period long cairns discussed (Mercer 1985, 3ft). It was argued that the long cairns were systematically robbed to create later structural elements (Mercer 1992, 51). In considering the chambered cairns, statistical comparisons of the chamber floor area and the maximum corbelled span between the Caithness and Orkney monuments were seen as suggesting marked differences between the cairns in the two areas (Mercer 1985, 49ft). Categories of location were assigned to the cairns (ibid, 8, 12, 24, 25), but these were not analysed systematically.

At present a Glasgow-based study is looking at lithic scatters in Caithness in order to identify settlement patterns (Eland Stuart pers comm), as is the current work of Amelia Pannet (2000). Indeed, this current work contains the results of a fieldwalking project on the Black Isle in Ross-shire. These latter studies are attempting to place people in the landscape along with the chambered cairns. 2.6. Discussion

Hunt (1987) conducted a survey of all the Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments, burials and settlement sites in Scotland. His aim was to provide a corpus of sites at the regional scale and identify the extent of prehistoric settlement (ibid, Vol 1, 1). The analysis was based on altitude, geography, soils, climate, distance from the sea and modem land utilisation (ibid, Vol 2, 1-11).Location was also considered at the general level with categories such as coastal, valley and upland sites (ibid, Vol 2, III). The methods were heavily influenced by Fraser's (1983) locational analysis on Orkney. The local siting of the monuments was neither investigated, nor any possible relationships between sites. However, this was not the stated aim of the study. For northern Scotland the conclusion was that the majority of Neolithic sites (all categories) were located with "a strong bias towards agriculturally more favourable deposits" (Hunt 1987, Vol 2,484).

Archaeological investigation of the mainland OrkneyCromarty cairns started promisingly in the mid-nineteenth century with sustained fieldwork (Rhind, 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869a, 1869b, 1872). However, little was built on these foundations. The twentieth century saw major surveys (RCAHMS 191 la, 191 lb, Henshall 1963, 1972, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995). These were important works establishing the database for the region, but actual excavations were isolated and unconnected. At the global scale, the diffusionists attempted to place the monuments within a pan-European tradition (Childe 1935, 1940, Daniel 1941, Daniel & Powell 1949, Piggott 1954). In comparison to the sustained and integrated investigations on Orkney (see Renfrew 1979, Fraser 1983, Hedges 1983), the mainland remains a poor relation despite the similarities of many of the monuments. Of the fifty six monuments originally listed by Henshall (I 963) on Orkney, sixteen were excavated before 1925 and twenty since. Of the sixty six monuments in Caithness, fourteen were excavated before 1925 and only five in the latter period (figures from Mercer 1985, 6). This apparent lack of interest may not only be due

In recent years, Henshall has conducted a major reassessment of her original work, with volumes for Orkney (Davidson & Henshall 1989); Caithness (Davidson & Henshall 1991) and Sutherland (Henshall & Ritchie 1995) already published. More sites and their plans have been added to the database. The typology of the chambers has been redefined, partly as a 12

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead to the better preserved and more spectacular sites on Orkney (Henshall 1963, 45), but also the fact that islands provide a natural limit to investigations and are attractive to integrated

research projects. Only general comments have been made on monument location (Henshall 1963, 49ff, Hunt 1987, 220ff, Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 17ft).

13

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

3. Dating the Cairns 3.1. Artefactual Evidence

Leaf shaped arrowheads point to the use of the cairns in the earlier Neolithic. Indeed, at Camster Long (CAT 12) one was recovered from the pre-cairn surface immediately preceding the initial construction of the monument (Masters 1997). Grooved Ware arrowheads have been found at Camster Round, Ormiegill North and Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 13, 42, 69). This suggests activity in the later Neolithic. A barbed and tanged arrowhead from Carn Glas (ROS 12) may indicate use of the site in the Early Bronze Age. There is, however, still the problem that many of the artefacts come from insecure contexts within the chambers.

The pottery most commonly recovered from the monuments has been described as a 'rusticated' finger-nail decorated ware reminiscent of the north-eastern Scottish style of Early Neolithic Grimston-Lyles Ware (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 69). There are also two examples of Unstan bowls at Garrywhin (CAT 26) and the Ord North (SUT 48). However, in the confused and disturbed conditions of the interiors of the chambers, this pottery does not come from securely stratified contexts (Henshall 1963, 118). Beaker pottery has been recovered from many sites, as well as a few Food Vessels. In nearly all cases, these were from arguably later contexts. They may be placed within the body of the cairn, often with later cremations or inhumations, or with a secondary cist burial as at Embo (SUT 63).

The sparse artefactual evidence suggests construction and use of the monuments in the Early Neolithic and, in some cases, a continuing use into the later Neolithic and Early Bronze Age.

*

Sites with radiocarbon dates

25

0 h'.m

FIGURE 7 Sites with radiocarbon dates 14

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead 3.2. Radiocarbon Dates From the Cairns

Camster Long (CAT 12)

The dates are taken from Henshall & Ritchie (1995, 75) for Sutherland and Davidson & Henshall (1991, 83) for Caithness. There are only six sites in the study area with radiocarbon determinations (FIG 7).

GU1706-3613±182 Cal BC Charcoal - on ground, south forecourt GU1707 - 3785±112 Cal BC Charcoal - buried soil under south part of cairn GU1708-3747±1ll CalBC Charcoal - buried soil under south part of cairn GU1709-3752±140 Cal BC Charcoal - buried soil under south part of cairn

The Ord North (SUT 48) GUII67 - 1760±120Cal BC Betula, Cory/us, A/nus, Pinus bark - cremation lying in collapsed roofing of main chamber GUII68- 3452±121 Cal BC A/nus, Cory/us, Pinus - silty layer above ante-chamber floor, associated with Unstan bowl GUII69- 3498±118 Cal BC Cory/us, Pinus - silty layer above antechamber floor, associated with Unstan bowl GUI 172 - 3322±148 Cal BC Pinus, Cory/us - on floor of main chamber GUII73-3248+148 Cal BC Cory/us, Pinus ~ main chamber in 'hard soil' pan above west part of 'cist structure', c. 0.23 metres above floor

TABLE 4 Radiocarbon dates from Camster Long All the dates come from deposits of the pre-long cairn phase associated with Early Neolithic pottery. The excavator considered these to be immediately prior to the extension of the monument (Masters 1997). This gives a terminus post quem for the construction of the long cairn in the first half of the 4th millennium BC. Dates for the construction of an earlier round cairn at the site are unknown. Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58) GUIJJ0-2922±153 Cal BC Animal bone - chamber filling GUI331 - 2679±180 Cal BC Animal bone - chamber filling GU1334- 3525±117 Cal BC Human bone - on chamber floor

TABLE 2 Radiocarbon dates from the Ord North The stratigraphic context and nature of the samples do not give a date for the construction of the cairn. They provide a date of use in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. The date associated with the cremation in the collapsed roofing (GUl 167) demonstrates that this is a later insertion.

TABLE 5 Radiocarbon dates from Tulach an t 'Sionnaich The date derived from the human bone on the chamber floor (GU1334) suggests use of the monument in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. The other two dates (GU1330, GU1331) suggest that the sealing of the cairn occurred in the first half of the 3rd millennium BC. However, there are problems with the nature of the materials being sampled. Although the animal bones are stratified within the chamber filling material, they may originally derive from a number of contexts including domestic midden material outside the cairn, or even the chamber floor itself.

Embo (SUT 63) BM442 - 2335±135 Cal BC Collagen from small animal bones - deposit contemporary with construction of south chamber Gr A 770 - 2540±90 Cal BC Infant skull - pocket of clean sand north-east of stone F, under corbel stone of south chamber Gr A 771- 2955±75 Cal BC Part of infant's mandible - behind stone D, under corbel stone of south chamber GrA772-2115+95 Cal BC Two fragmentary adult vertebrae - behind stone D, under corbel stone of south chamber

Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 69)

TABLE 3 Radiocarbon dates from Embo

GU1329- 1392±137Cal BC Human bone - burial deposits on slabs in north chamber GU1338-3635±106 Cal BC Human bone - burial deposit on bench in north chamber

Given the stratigraphic context of the samples, they should be contemporary with the construction of the south chamber (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 75). However, a range of dates is presented spanning the 3rd millennium BC. The materials that have been sampled do not give a date for the construction for the whole of the monument. Moreover, they say little about the period of use and activity within the chamber. The skeletal material may already have been 'old' when it was incorporated into the monument and could pre-date the construction of, and activity within, the chamber. The dates can only provide a general terminus post quem for the use of the south chamber in its first phase. Indeed, given the apparently late date for its construction and the stratigraphic evidence (Henshall & Wallace 1963, 21), the south chamber may be a later addition to the monument. This can be compared to the modifications of the main chamber at Kilcoy South (ROS 24) to allow the construction of a rear cell (McGregor & Loney 1997, 11).

TABLE 6 Radiocarbon dates from Tulloch of Assery A There are no dates associated with the construction of the monument. The human bone from the bench (GU1338) can only provide a terminus post quem for the use of the north chamber. It may be 'old' material, rather than a deposit introduced soon after death. The date from the bones on the slabs (GU1329) demonstrates that this is a later insertion, possibly into the roof of the cairn. The slabs themselves may be collapsed roofing material (Davidson & Henshall I 991, 67). Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 70) The date from the charcoal layer under the chamber (GU1339) is seen as immediately pre-dating the construction of the monument, as it spread under the cairn and contained 15

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

the Ord North (GU1168, GU1169) cluster in the middle of the 4th millennium. This indicates a contemporary period of intensive use. The two slightly later dates at the Ord North (GU1172, GU1173) are not of a magnitude to compromise this pattern. However, this does suggest the use of typologically and morphologically different monuments at the same time (see Sharples 1986, 9). This may upset tidy morphological sequences of monument typology. Indeed, in comparison to the other monuments, Tulloch of Assery B is typologically 'late' (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 84).

GU1332- 3800±112 Cal BC Animal bone - on chamber floor GU1333- 3500±122 Cal BC Animal bone - on chamber floor GU1335 - 2746±257 Cal BC Animal bone - below 'paving' forming chamber floor GU1336-3490±118 Cal BC Animal bone - below 'paving' forming chamber floor GU1337 -2029±146 Cal BC Animal bone - chamber filling GU1339-3675±113 Cal BC Charcoal - occupation surface underlying chamber

TABLE 7 Radiocarbon dates from Tulloch of Assery B

Some patterning may also be observed in the sealing of two of the cairns. At Tulach an t'Sionnaich this appears to happen in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC (GU1330, GU1331) and in the second half of the millennium at Tulloch of Assery B (GU1337).

pottery sherds and fragmentary bones. It was interpreted as a pre-cairn occupation level (Corcoran 1966, 50). This would suggest construction in the first half of the 4th millennium BC. Two dates fall in the middle of the millennium, but they are from different contexts: on the chamber floor (GU1333) and beneath the 'paving' on the floor (GU1336). A sample taken from the filling of the chamber (GU1337) gives a much later date. At a very general level this would suggest a chronological sequence (see Davidson & Henshall 1991, 84). The monument was constructed in the early 4th millennium BC, was used intensively in the middle of the millennium and then finally blocked in the early 3rd millennium BC. However, GU1332 from the chamber floor gives an earlier date and GU1335, from under the 'paving', a later date. Most of the sampled material is fragmentary animal bone. As has already been suggested for human skeletal material, this may have already been 'old' when it was introduced into the chamber. The stratigraphic context~ may be secure, but the material sampled may not provide a true reflection of the dates of different activity phases in the monument.

A broad chronology can be inferred from these dates. The monuments were initially constructed in the first half of the 4th millennium BC and continued in use from then, this use being especially intensive around the middle of the millennium. The monuments went out of use and were sealed in the 3rd millennium. However, there remain the anomalous early (GU1332) and late (GU1335) dates from Tulloch of Assery B which do not fit the proposed sequence. The range of 3rd millennium dates from Embo also appears to be anomalous. This may be a multi-period site with the south chamber being a later addition to the cairn (see Henshall & Wallace 1963, 21). Comparing this to the dates for sealing at Tulach an t'Sionnaich (GU1330, GU1331) and Tulloch of Assery B (GU1337) suggests a continuity at Embo when the chambers at these other cairns go out of use. This interpretation of the mainland dates is very generalised, and probably flawed given the few available dates and the nature of the material sampled. There are no dates at all from any site south of the Dornoch Firth. The evidence can only be supplemented by further excavation of typologically different cairns across the study area providing radiocarbon dates on suitable materials from secure contexts. However, the existing dates do demonstrate that the monuments were used over long periods of time. The artefactual evidence corroborates this. Indeed, the blocking of the passage at the Ord North contained a possibly later cremation, and at Kilcoy South (ROS 24) a Beaker sherd. The sealing of these two monuments may have taken place as late as the Early Bronze Age. At Camster Round (CAT 13) the whole of the passage and chamber had been filled with rubble, and yet an iron knife was found on the floor of the main chamber. Rather than having percolated through the cairn material (Henshall 1963, 98), the monument may not have been sealed until as late as the Iron Age (Barber I 997, 8).

3.3. Discussion The evidence from the radiocarbon dates is limited and, to a certain extent, inconclusive. There are some serious anomalies within the sites themselves. Dates are only available from six monuments (FIG 7). Two of these are in Sutherland, one in southeastern Caithness and three around Loch Calder in northeastern Caithness. No dates are available from the Ross-shire cairns. The nature of much of the material that has been sampled makes it potentially insecure. The dates derived from skeletal material represent the time of death, not when the material was incorporated into the monuments. It can only provide a general date after which the chambers were used. The dates also show wide standard deviations with a variable of ±257 years for one date at Tulloch of Assery B (GU1335). This represents several generations in real terms. These criticisms are necessarily harsh, but by comparing the evidence from several sites some broad patterns may emerge.

3.4. Radiocarbon Dates From the Orkney Cairns Radiocarbon dates are available from five Orkney-Cromarty cairns, three Maeshowe type cairns (and material associated with one site) and five settlement sites (see Davidson & Henshall 1989, 95-98, Barber 1997, 59). However, at only three sites are the samples from secure contexts: the stalled cairns at Isbister and the Point of Cott (ORK 25, 41) and the Maeshowe type cairn ofQuanterness (ORK 43).

The dates of the immediate pre-cairn levels at both Camster Long (Gut 706, Gut 707, Gut 708, Gut 709) and Tulloch of Assery B (GU1339) are all in the first half of the 4 th millennium BC. This suggests contemporary initial construction. It should be noted that at Camster Long this date probably relates to just before its extension into a long cairn (Masters 1997). Dates from within Tulloch of Assery A (GU1333, GU1336), Tulach an t'Sionnaich (GU1334) and 16

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Cairns:

Isbister is seen as being built in the second half of the 4 th millennium BC and closed in the middle of the 3rd millennium (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 86). All of the dates come from skeletal material, most of it human. Dates on animal bones from Knowe of Ramsay, Knowe of Rowiegar and Knowe of Yarso (ORK 30, 31, 32), stalled cairns on Rousay, cluster in the late 4th millennium BC. This suggests that the chambers were in use at around the same time as Isbister. However, the contexts of the Rousay material are unknown. This can only reflect the use or the sealing of the monuments, not their construction (ibid, 87). The earliest known interments at the Point of Cott stalled cairn (ORK 41) were earlier, in the middle of the 4th millennium BC. Burials continued, possibly, into the early 3rd millennium BC when the monument was already collapsing (Barber 1997, 60). The passage was blocked a few hundred years later.

Isbister (ORK 25) GU1179-3215±110 Cal BC Human bone - foundation deposit Q3017-2640±110 Cal BC Human bone - stone infilling sealing tomb

Knowe of Ramsay (ORK 30) Ql224-3030±110 Cal BC Deer bone - no context Knowe ofRowiegar (ORK31) Ql221-3035±110 Cal BC Cattle bone - no context Knowe ofYarso (ORK32) Q1225 - 2940±110 Cal BC Animal bone - no context Maeshowe (ORK 36) SRR505 - 2820± I 10 Cal BC Silty peat - above bedrock in ditch, north section

At Quanterness, one date came from organically rich soil which was seen as being contemporary with the construction of the cairn (Ql294). The rest came from skeletal material. Renfrew (1979a, 68-69) interpreted these dates as representing the construction of the monument before the middle of the 4th millennium, with the cairn finally being sealed in the middle of the 3rd millennium. This gives a one thousand year period of activity, with about half this time representing intensive use.

Point of Cott (ORK 41) ut1660- 3428±72 Cal BC Human bone - floor deposit GU2940 - 2965±53 Cal BC Human bone - floor deposit GU2941- 2712±118 Cal BC Sheep bone - lower level of passage blocking Quanterness (ORK 43) Q1294 - 3420±110 Cal BC Organically rich soil - main chamber, Stratum I Q1480-2460±1 IO Cal BC Human bone - main chamber, Stratum 5 SRR754-3110±110 Cal BC Human bone - main chamber, Stratum 2

Two dates on stratified bone from the Maeshowe type cairn of Quoyness (ORK 44) fall in the early 3rd millennium BC (SRR752, SRR753). These appear to be contemporary with the use of Quanterness. The only date from the actual site of Maeshowe (ORK 36) is from the ditch deposits and falls in the first half of the 3rd millennium. Renfrew (1979b, 37, 1979c, 203-205) interpreted this as representing the construction of the monument at the beginning of the millennium. However, dates on animal bones from contexts within secondary structures beside the Maeshowe type cairn of Pierowell Quarry (ORK 72) suggest that this monument was already in a state of dilapidation by this time (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 87).

Quoyness (ORK 44) SRR752-2900±110 Cal BC Human bone - no context SRR753- 2990±110 Cal BC Human bone - no context

Pierowell Quarry (ORK 72) GU1582- Bone of Bos - construction of secondary structure Settlement Sites: Rinyo Q1226- 2385±110 Cal BC Probably bone of Bos - no context

The dates from the settlement sites are all on stratified animal bone, except for a single date from Rinyo that has no context (Q1226). The earliest date comes from the Unstan Ware settlement of Knap of Howar, in the middle of the 4th millennium (Birm816). The settlement appears to have continued in use until the early 3rd millennium. This is earlier than the Grooved Ware settlements, although there is some overlap with the early phases at Skara Brae and at the Links of Noltland. Barnhouse was settled between 3400 and 2900 BC (Ashmore 1998, see also Richards 1992b, 446). This is contemporary with the early phase and overlaps with the late phase at Skara Brae, and is also contemporary with the Links ofNoltland (Ashmore 1998, Fig 11.2).

Knap of Howar Birm815-2970±145 Cal BC Mixed animal bone - lower midden Birm816 - 3600± 190 Cal BC Mixed animal bone - lower midden Skara Brae Birm795- 3270±135 Cal BC Mixed animal bone - old land surface Links of Noltland GU1429-2930±110 Cal BC Bone of Bos - plough soil preceding midden

There is again the problem that dates from skeletal material, despite secure contexts, may not reflect particular activities. They only represent the date of the death of an individual person or animal. All these dates can do is provide a general terminus post quern for a particular event. Indeed, Richards ( 1988, 50) has argued that skeletal material was taken from other tombs and re-deposited in Quanterness.

TABLE 8 Selected radiocarbon dates from Orkney cairns and settlement sites At Isbister, the dates for the sealing of the chamber come from one sample of human bone within the filling (Q3017). Given the confused and miscellaneous collection of bones within the interior of the chamber, this date may well reflect 17

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead other activities. The final context may be the result of the mixing of skeletal material. Indeed, on this basis it has been argued that the date for the sealing of the chamber at Isbister is uncertain (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 86).

3.5. Conclusions

The radiocarbon dates from the cairns of northern Scotland are unsatisfactory. They are few in number, biased in location and there are problems with the contexts and types of material sampled. Only broad and general sequences can be constructed, and these rely on what may be flawed typological schemes.

The early construction date for Quanterness comes from one sample of rich organic soil beneath the main chamber (Q1294). However, the date on an inhumation in Pit A in the main chamber (SRR754) is at the end of the millennium. If, as suggested (ibid, 87), the first phase at this site is relatively short, then the date beneath the chamber may be deceptively early. This interpretation is strengthened by the fact that the sample does not appear to have been associated with any artefactual material. The later date for the construction of Quanterness may well be accurate (ibid). Dates obtained from the layer of disarticulated bones above the pits may indicate that this is re-deposited earlier Neolithic material (see Richards 1988, 50).

The earliest sites appeared in the far northern mainland in the first half of the 4tli millennium BC. There are no dates from further south. Some of the monuments went out of use and were sealed in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, although there may be later activity at some sites such as Embo. Tripartite Orkney-Cromarty cairns were constructed on Orkney towards the end of the 4th millennium. The typologically later stalled cairns followed these a little later. Their date of abandonment is uncertain. The Maeshowe type cairns were built in the early 3rd millennium and, for a few centuries, were in contemporaneous use with some of the earlier monuments. Indeed, a chronological overlap is indicated at the Unstan Ware and later Grooved Ware settlements.

There appear to be a wide range of dates from Orkney, but many of these have no context. There are also samples that could arguably be older than the deposits from which they were recovered. They also display wide standard deviations: over ±100 years in many cases. There are no dates from the typologically earlier tripartite cairns. However, the dates from the Loch Calder cairns (CAT 58, 69, 70) in Caithness demonstrate the contemporary use of typologically early and late monuments, a factor to consider when constructing a chronology for Orkney. A simple chronology would see the tripartite cairns as earliest, followed by the stalled cairns and then the Maeshowe monuments. However, there are inconsistencies, such as at the Point of Cott. There was probably a great deal of overlap and contemporaneous use of different tomb types.

The main point that can be drawn from this limited dating evidence is that it demonstrates that the cairns were used over long periods of time. The artefactual evidence also supports this. The implications are that, after initial construction and activity, the use and perhaps even the perceived meaning and importance of the monuments changed through time. This may be reflected in a range of different deposition rites and later alterations to the external structures. The monuments were not only structurally multiphased, but also multi-phased in how they were used and perceived.

18

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

4. The Burial Evidence destroying the material deposited beneath. With the integrity of the chamber breached, natural elements enter the equation. Rainwater trickling down onto skeletal and other organic materials increases the rate of decay.

4.1. Introduction

In comparison to the material from Orkney, the burial and artefactual material from the monuments of the OrkneyCromarty tradition on the mainland is sparse (FIG 8). This is due to three factors: preservation, disturbance, and the paucity and nature of excavations.

Disturbance of the cairns has taken many forms since prehistory. Indeed, the Neolithic depositions themselves represent the culmination of many events, what are recovered are the residues of a variety of activities. The most archaeologically visible of these is most likely to be the last. It may be uncertain that this is representative of the 'usual' rite or use of the chambers. Moreover, disturbance in the form of the later use of the monuments can be seen in the Early Bronze Age with the insertion of individual burials and

In the environmental conditions of northern Scotland, the preservation of material is poor. The acid nature of the soil means that any organic material rapidly decays. The structures of the cairns themselves have been steadily decaying for over five thousand years. As a major structural element, the chamber roof is liable to collapse, damaging or

* *

Modern excavations

•

Other evidence

Early excavations

0

25 Km

FIGURE 8 Excavations and other burial evidence 19

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Mains of Ardross (ROS 52) The chamber was opened in 1876 and two bodies were discovered c.0.6 metres below the surface in graves measuring 2.1 X 0.6 metres. One grave was at the foot of the other. It is uncertain whether this refers to beneath the chamber floor or under rubble within the chamber. The description of the position of the two graves may refer to a bipartite chamber divided by transverse stones (see Henshall 1972, 572).

diagnostic artefacts at many sites. This may involve the placing of a cist ·in the body of the cairn as at Embo (SUT 63) and Camster Long (CAT 12), or even in the chamber itself as at South Yarrows North (CAT 54). Secondary burials may be inserted in the roof, as recorded at Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 69). These later burials in the cairns are often associated with Beaker pottery. Indeed, the Beaker sherds, in comparison to the sparse amounts of Neolithic material, from Carn Glas and Kilcoy South (ROS 12, 24) on the Black Isle may indicate the clearing out of the chambers for reuse at a later date (Fraser 1996, 162). It has been suggested (McGregor & Loney 1997, 11) that the main chamber at Kilcoy South was remodelled in the Early Bronze Age to allow the construction of a rear cell. Post-prehistoric disturbance has mainly involved the plundering of cairn material for building stone, especially for walls and road metalling. Roofing slabs, corbel stones and lintels also seem to have been attractive. At many sites all that remain are the orthostats of the chamber. They may have been used in house construction as door and fireplace lintels. As part of this process, and other 'informal' investigations, holes have been dug into the cairns and many of the chambers have been breached, their contents robbed or disturbed.

Modern Excavations Carn Glas (ROS 12) Excavated by Woodham 1955-56 Stratigraphy Beneath a layer of stony debris, the floor of the chamber and passage consisted of a sand layer c.0.05 metres thick. This overlay a clay layer. Within this layer in the chamber, some charcoal was found, and pieces of broken quartz in the passage. Artefacts Barbed and tanged arrowhead - provenance unknown Leaf-shaped arrowhead, flint pebble chip, Beaker sherds - in sandy layer in chamber Wall sherds, possibly rusticated ware - in the sandy layer, some pressed into underlying clay Skeletal Material (in NMS) Unidentified fragment of burnt bone - in the sandy layer, northwest comer of outer chamber References Woodham 1955, 1956c, Woodham & Woodham 1957 Kilcoy South (ROS 24) Excavated by Woodham 1956-58, GUARD 1997 Stratigraphy The floor was covered by a layer of clean sand 0.15-0.23 metres thick. The division between the outer and central compartments had been blocked. Artefacts (in NMS) Beaker sherds from c.6 pots - floor of central compartment, entrance to central compartment, one sherd in blocking Wall sherd of rusticated ware - provenance unknown Saddle quern - amongst fallen slabs in central compartment Pieces of white quartz, flint flake - between entrance portal stones Skeletal Material Patches of burnt bones - outer compartment, centre of middle compartment 'Pockets' of burnt bones - in blocking References Woodham 1956b, McGregor & Loney 1997

In comparison to investigations on Orkney, excavations on the mainland have been minimal. A group of seven sites around the Loch of Yarrows and Warehouse Hill in southeastern Caithness were excavated in the nineteenth century, but most of the material has now been lost. Although the reports of these excavations are excellent by nineteenth century standards (Rhind 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869a, 1869b, 1872), they do not compare with the expectations of a modem excavation report. Apart from sporadic investigations at individual sites, there have only been ten modem excavations. Of these, five were in Caithness, two in Sutherland, two on the Black Isle in Rossshire and one in Inverness-shire. These were conducted in response to immediate threats to sites, or the perceived needs of presentation. There have been no modem excavations within an overall framework of directed research questions.

Tomfat Plantation (INV 52) Excavated by Woodham 1963 Stratigraphy The floor of the chamber consisted of a fine layer of sand. Artefacts 6 undecorated Beaker sherds, small pieces of charcoal - in the sand layer Reference Woodham & Woodham 1964

The finds from these excavations form the main corpus of skeletal and artefactual evidence. The sample is incomplete and much of the material from earlier excavations has been lost. It is biased in content, quality and location. However, if the evidence is reviewed, in comparison to areas with more substantial and certain material, it is possible to propose a series of interpretations.

Other Evidence The Priest's Sepulchre (ROS 35) An eighteenth century description suggests a polygonal chamber from which human bones were recovered: "in a cell made with five stones, they found some bones""(Pococke 1887,177).

A brief resume is given of the evidence from individual sites. More detailed information can be found in the relevant excavation reports.

Red Burn (ROS 36) "stone cist containing an um found here" (6" OS map).

4.2. Ross-shire and Inverness-shire

Lower Leachanich South (ROS 30) "human remains found here 1839" (6" OS map). May relate to Lower Leachanich North (ROS 29).

Early Excavations

Milcraig (ROS 32) "human remains found here 1854" (6" OS map).

Woodhead Round (ROS 42) Excavated by Sir Alexander M'Kenzie c.1816 "in the centre of it, was a rude sarcophagus made up of large flags, containing a quantity of human bone of immense size" (see Henshall 1963, 357).

Boath Short (ROS 11) "stone cist containing human remains found here A.D.1863" (6" OS map).

20

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Baldoon (ROS 44)

The wall sherds of 'rusticated ware', from this site and Kilcoy South, are reminiscent of the north-east Scottish style of Early Neolithic Grimston-Lyles Ware found associated with chambered cairns in Caithness (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 69) and Sutherland (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 64). Beaker sherds at both these sites and at Tomfat Plantation (INV 52) demonstrate later use of the monuments. The saddle quern amongst the fallen slabs in the central compartment at Kilcoy South has raised the suggestion that it was originally incorporated into the structure of the chamber and may have been of symbolic importance (Close-Brooks 1983, 284). Pieces of quartz scattered on the floor at Carn Glas, and around the entrance at Kilcoy South, can be compared to quartz associated with some of the Clava Cairns in Inverness-shire. At the Corrimony and Druidtemple passage graves (INV 17, 30), white quartz was scattered during construction (Piggott 1956) and, to a lesser extent, at the Newton of Petty ring cairn (INV 45) (Bradley & Matthews 2000). Indeed, both Carn Glas· and Kilcoy South are located close to the Carn Uman passage grave (ROS 13), an outlier of the Clava tradition on the Black Isle. However, this is as far as the association can be taken.

"stone cist containing human bones found here A.D.1883 (6" OS map).

Roath Long (ROS 10) Leaf-shaped arrowhead and other relics - lost (Donations 1890, 414) these may have come from Boath Short (ROS 11).

King's Head Cairn (ROS 25) A Bronze Age cist had been set into the body of the cairn, 2.1 metres northwest of the back of the chamber.

Kinrive East (ROS 26) "human bones have often been found" (Watson 1899, 363).

Kinrive West (ROS 27) "human bones have often been found" (ibid). A human skull in Inverness Museum may have come from this site or the King's Head Cairn or Kinrive East (ROS 25, 26). Stittenham(ROS 49) "three fine arrowheads" are said to have been found in this cairn (Watson 1924, 79).

The Temple, Tore (ROS 37) A whetstone, measuring 5 X 1 cm and perforated at the wider end recovered during an unrecorded excavation before 1954. It is uncertain whether it was associated with any burial deposit (Woodham 1956a, 72, 93).

Discussion The main feature to note is the fragmentary nature of the evidence in this area. The cairns have been much disturbed, which probably reflects the greater agricultural activity and denser population in this region compared with further north. This is especially true on the fertile Black Isle. In the "afterlife of the monuments" (see Bradley 1993) there has been a much greater interaction between nineteenth and twentieth century peoples and the cairns.

In Inverness-shire and Ross-shire there may be evidence for inhumation in the Neolithic, but cremation cannot be shown. The artefactual evidence suggests activity and use of the monuments from the earlier Neolithic and into the Early Bronze Age. The amount of Neolithic material is small and, unless artefacts have removed or destroyed, the deposition of quantities of grave goods does not appear to have been an important practice. The amount and quality of the evidence in this area is poor, with bad preservation and greatly disturbed monuments. Modem excavations are limited to three sites nearly forty years ago and there are no radiocarbon determinations.

Inhumation appears to have been the main burial rite. There are eight references to human bones being found. The description of some of them being contained in 'stone cists' does not necessarily relate to Bronze Age interments, as a stone cist can be defined as a square or rectangular setting of slabs. This is how a rectangular chamber in a chambered cairn would appear if opened and viewed from above.

4.3. Sutherland Early Excavations

The evidence for cremations is more problematic. They have been found at only one site, Kilcoy South (ROS 24), in the sandy layer that formed the floor of the central chamber. On the floor were also the remains of about six Beaker pots. The division between the outer and central chambers had been blocked and 'pockets' of cremated bone and a Beaker sherd placed in crevices in the blocking (see Henshall 1963, 349). This gives a terminus post quem for the blocking, and the associated cremations, in the Beaker period. Without dating, there is no sure evidence that the cremations in the main chamber are Neolithic. The stratigraphy would indicate that they date to the Beaker period. Indeed, it has been suggested that the main chamber was remodelled at this time (McGregor & Loney 1997, 11). Moreover, the Neolithic levels at this site may have been cleared out in a later period ofreuse (Fraser 1996, 162).

Kinbrace Burn (SUT 33) Excavated by Joass 1863 "a pierced heart-shaped amulet of polished serpentine, with a diameter of some 3/4in, now in Dunrobin Museum" (RCAHMS 1911a, 129). This was not found in the museum in 1957 (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 109).

Allt nam Ban (SUT 6) Excavated by Joass 1863, Simpson 1928 No finds recorded.

References Joass 1864, Simpson 1928

Coille na Borgie South (SUT 23) Excavated by McKay 1867 In the chamber were "several pieces of charred wood and fragments of animal bone" (Munro 1884, 231). Anderson (1886, 263) noted that "the floors still afford indications of the presence of charcoal and burnt bones".

Coille na Borgie North (SUT 22) Excavated by McKay 1867 "it is reported that it...contained what looked like the remains of calcined bones" (MacKay 1914, 6)

Nearly all the artefactual evidence comes from Woodham's excavations on the Black Isle (1955, 1956b, 1956c, Woodham & Woodham 1957, 1964). At Carn Glas (ROS 12) leaf-shaped and barbed and tanged arrowheads suggest activity from the earlier Neolithic into the Early Bronze Age.

Skelpick Long (SUT 53) Excavated by Horsburgh 1867, McKay 1868 The chamber and passage were filled with rubble (blocking?). No finds were recorded.

21

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Reference Horsburgh 1868

Human Remains (in RMS) There were no complete skeletons or articulated burials. The number, age and sex of individuals have been reconstructed from the fragmentary remains recovered. Most of the bones were broken, but two skulls were found intact, one protected by an overhanging stone. 3 adults (over 30 years)-floor of the main south chamber, 1st phase 3 children (one I 0-11 years) - floor of the south ante-chamber, I st phase 3 adults (two males c. 30 years and one female), I adolescent (15 to 20 years), 4 children (three c.10 years, one 3 to 4 years), 1 new-born infant, I possible child- floor of the main south chamber, 2nd phase I adult, I child (c. l 0 years), I child (3 to 4 years), I infant (a few months), I infant/foetus - three small deposits outside the south chamber* I adult (c.25 years), tooth of I individual, I cremated individual - north chamber I adult female, 1 new-born infant - cist in the south chamber I child (c.6 months), I new-born infant-cist between chambers I cremated female (15 to 17 years)- 1.5 metres east ofthe south chamber I cremated female (20 to 26 years) - 2.2 metres east of the south chamber 6 cremated individuals (details unknown) - found in the cairn after excavation Animal Remains (in RMS) All these were in a broken or fragmentary state. Bird, mollusc shell, fish bones, dog, limpet- main south chamber, I st phase Dog, pole-cat tooth, fish fin ray - south ante-chamber Pig, adult and juvenile sheep, ox, red squirrel, dog, bird, fish and amphibian bones - main south chamber, 2nd phase Dog, duck, cod, land snail, winkle, dog whelk - south chamber, phase uncertain Dog, horse, sheep, ox, otter, land and sea birds, fish and amphibian bones, shellfish - redeposited over south chamber Sheep, dog, otter, seabirds, fish and amphibian bones - deposited outside the south chamber* *The material outside the south chamber has been interpreted as a 'foundation deposit'. Reference Henshall & Wallace 1963

Tongue House (SUT 57) Excavated by Horsburgh 1868 No finds recorded. Reference Horsburgh 1868 Fiscary (CAT 29) Excavated by Kerr 1891 Stratigraphy "a mixture of ashes and earth, with numerous pieces of charred wood, but no charred bones" (Kerr 1892, 67) Skeletal Material Fragments of bone in centre and inner compartments, not thought to be old Reference Kerr 1892

Early Excavations Achaidh (SUT 2) Excavated by Curle 1909 Stratigraphy Only the chamber was excavated. Beneath a stratum of stony debris and dark peaty soil, there was a layer of grey sand containing particles of quartz and some uncomminuted bone which was unburnt. Beneath this was a thin layer of black soil containing fine fragments of charcoal. This overlay a pavement of stone flags. Artefacts (in NMS) Flint scraper, Medieval rim sherd, modem button - in the sand layer Human Remains (lost) Badly damaged unburnt adult skeleton with feet to the south: one part each of femur, tibia, fibula. and radius; no skull parts recovered - against the back of the chamber Unburnt comminuted bone, partly burnt bone fragments (?human) - in the sand layer Animal Remains (lost) Mussel shell, sheep tooth (?modem) - provenance unrecorded Reference Curle 1910

The Ord North (SUT 48) Excavated by Corcoran 1965-67 Stratigraphy The floor consisted of a clayey soil layer. In the main chamber this was uneven and had hollows in it. In the main chamber it contained unidentified organic remains and in the antechamber scatters of charcoal. Above this in the main chamber was a layer of light sandy soil with much charcoal and organic remains in the upper part. The filling in the antechamber was a slab construction that was much damaged, probably by a roof fall. This may have been a 'bench' like those found in Orkney stalled tombs and at Tulloch of Assery (CAT 69) in Caithness. Artefacts (in RMS) Neolithic pottery sherds, flint blades and flakes - sandy layer in main chamber Neolithic pottery sherds, half an Unstan bowl, quartz flakes and lump, grooved pumice lump - gravely layer in ante-chamber Beaker sherds - above sandy layer in main chamber Part of Food Vessel bowl, flint and quartz flakes, bone mount- in collapsed roofing main chamber Neolithic pottery sherds, quartz flakes - below blocking, outside passage entrance Neolithic sherd, flint and pitchstone flakes - outside cairn kerb Human Remains - all cremations (in RMS) I adult female, I child 12 years, I child/adolescent (?), indeterminate cremation - in collapsed roofing, main chamber I child under 6 years - above passage blocking Reference Corcoran 1965, 1967, Sharples 1981

Ardvreck (SUT 9) Excavated by Cree 1925 An articulated skeleton (now lost) in a good state of preservation was found in the inner compartment. It was lying on its right side, crouching and with its head to the west and facing south. The skull was dolicocephillic and the lower jaw was near the pelvis. No artefacts were recovered.

Modern Excavations Embo (SUT 63) Excavated by Henshall and Wallace 1960 Stratigraphy North Chamber - greatly ruined with modem debris in the western sector. A matrix of rounded cairn stones and sand overlay a dark earthy layer, intact on the eastern and southern sides, between 0.05 and 0.08 metres thick. South Chamber - a layer of reddish sand, probably wind blown into the chamber, overlay a dark gravely soil 0.15 to 0.7 metres deep. This also spread underneath the cairn, thinning towards the edge, and has been interpreted as a deliberate device to consolidate the base of the cairn (Henshall & Wallace 1963, 21). A later cist had been placed in the chamber above the dark layer, and another cist in the space between the two chambers. There were two phases of burials separated by a dark earth and stone layer c.0.3 metres thick and compacted by trampling. At the base, a number of large slabs suggest paving with a spread of charcoal. Much damage had been done with insertion of the cist in antiquity and unrecorded digging and disturbance in 1956. Artefacts (in RMS) Beaker sherds - south chamber above dark layer, in the cist in the body of the cairn Food Vessel sherds, jet bead, caunel coal bead, flint knife - cist in the south chamber Food Vessel- cist in the body of the cairn Half of a bronze razor - cremation 1.2 metres northeast of the south chamber Broken bronze razor - cremation south-east of the south chamber Flat piece of pumice - floor of the south chamber Flat sandstone whorl - unstratified in the body of the cairn

Other Evidence Torboll (SUT 58) In 1860 a stone lamp (or cup?) with a perforated handle was recovered, possibly Iron Age, now in Dunrobin Museum (Henshall 1963, 332). Cnoc Odhar (SUT 21) "Human remains found here A.D.1868" (6" OS map). Loch Borralon West (SUT 43) Small fragments of a single vessel of coarse fabric (RCAHMS 191 la, 5). This may have been Bronze Age, rather than Neolithic (ibid, xxxv). In

22

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Dunrobin Museum, but not identified in 1957 (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 116).

Wallace 1963, 23-25). At the Ord North a collection of flint and quartz scrapers and half an Unstan bowl were found (Sharples 1981, 32ft). However, this does not represent a great amount of material. It would appear that the deposition of a quantity of artefacts was not seen as important to the rite, unless material had been cleared out at a later date.

Skail (SUT 52) "A steatite cup with _aside handle is said to have been found" (RCAHMS 191 la, 80). In Dunrobin Museum, but not identified in 1957 (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 127). Lothbeg (SUT 45) A stone axe with a square butt and rounded cutting edge, 180mm long and oval in cross-section. In Dunrobin Museum.

Animal bones have been recovered from Embo, they are only reported at the Coille na Borgie cairns in Strathnaver (MacKay 1914, 6). The possible domestic species represented at Embo were sheep, ox and dog. There was also a selection of sea bird, fish and amphibian bones (Clarke 1963, 35-36). Interestingly, the 'foundation deposits' outside the south chamber consisted of a similar range of species to those recovered from the chamber (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 50). This may suggest that the animal bones in the chamber were a deliberate deposit, rather than the result of natural processes.

Discussion Again the evidence is fragmentary and limited with only two modem excavations. Embo (SUT 63) was a hurried rescue excavation (Henshall & Wallace 1963) and many of the deposits had been disturbed in prehistory and later. The excavator of the Ord North (SUT 48) died prematurely and the site was written up from his notes (Sharples 1981). Many original and individual insights may have been lost. lnhumation appears to have been the preferred rite. However, there is only one fully articulated skeleton represented. This is from Ardvreck (SUT 9) on the west coast, and this site may be an outlier of the Clyde tomb tradition. At Achaidh (SUT 2), the unburnt bones seemed to suggest a skeleton lying against the back of the chamber. The preservation was poor and only a few body parts were represented and no skull pieces were recovered (Curle 1910, 110). It is difficult to demonstrate that this was an articulated skeleton. At Embo, the Neolithic depositions were all of unburnt and mostly broken bone. Given the later disturbance at this site, it is uncertain whether these were originally articulated. The special protection seemingly afforded to one of the skulls suggests disarticulated body parts. From the fragmentary remains it was possible to identify individuals with ages ranging from newborn infants to adults of both sexes in their prime (Inkster 1963, 29ft).

There appears to be no consistent pattern in the stratigraphy at the different sites. At the Ord North the filling of the chamber consisted of a light sandy layer with charcoal (Sharples 1981, 30). Most of the artefacts came from this layer. At Achaidh a pavement of stone flags was overlain by a thin layer of black soil, with a sandy layer above. A flint scraper and some comminuted bone came from the sandy layer, but also more recent material (Curle 1910, 110-111 ). At Embo two phases of burial were recognised, separated by an earth and stone layer (Henshall & Wallace 1963, 21). This may have represented a symbolic 'cleansing' or sealing of chamber deposits part way through the monument's history ofuse (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 58). As in Ross-shire, the fragmentary evidence from Sutherland suggests that unburnt human bones were deposited in the cairns, although it is uncertain whether these were articulated skeletons. There are also indications from some sites for the presence of burnt bones. The artefactual evidence is also slight. At Embo there is a case for the deliberate deposition of animal remains along with human material.

The case for a cremation rite is difficult to demonstrate. At Achaidh some partially burnt bone fragments were recovered, but it was not possible to identify them as human (Curle 1910, 110). At Embo all the cremations had been deposited in the body of the cairn and appear to have been associated with Bronze Age material (Lisowski 1963, 33ft). At the Ord North the cremations had been placed in the collapsed roofing and were associated with Bronze Age material (Denston 1981, 48ft). One cremation appears to have been associated with the blocking of the chamber, but this is an undated event. There is a suggestion of burnt material at Coille na Borgie South (SUT 23) (Munro 1884, 231, Anderson 1886, 263 ). On the floor of the innermost cell "there lay upon the original gravel soil over six inches of unctuous clay, plentifully sprinkled with the remains of human and animal bone, together with some flints" (MacKay 1914, 6). At Coille na Borgie North (SUT 22) "it is reported that it, too, contained what looked like the remains of calcined bones" (ibid). There was also burnt material in the nearby Fiscary cairn (SUT 29) (Kerr 1892, 67). However, this material no longer exists and it is difficult to make a full assessment from these brief descriptions alone.

4.4. Caithness Early Excavations M'Cole's Castle (CAT 39) Excavated by Rhind 1853, Anderson 1865 Stratigraphy . . The two inner compartments had been dug out for use as an illegal still. The outer compartment was intact under the stony debris of the fallen roof. The artefacts and human remains came from a layer of dark soil m the outer compartment that also contained wood ashes. Artefacts (lost) Pottery sherds-similar to those found at Warehouse South (CAT 64) Human Remains (lost) 2 articulated skeletons - in outer compartment, one to the east and the other to the west, heads resting on a stone Burnt bones - in the dark soil layer References Rhind 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b Warehouse East (CAT 62) Excavated by Rhind 1853, Anderson 1865 . . The crushed remains of three skulls (now lost) were found m the mam chamber with "vestiges of other bones" (Rhind 1854, 103). It was suggest~d that articulated skeletons had "probably stretched along m opposite directions" (ibid). Part of an upper jaw was recovered from the passage.

The artefactual evidence from the Neolithic is even poorer. Indeed, most of the material recovered from Embo reflects later activity at the site in the Early Bronze Age (Henshall & 23

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead References Rhind 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b

Animal Remains (lost) Burnt and unburnt bones, possibly animal - in the dark layer Small amount of unburnt bones - on top of the dark layer References Anderson 1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869b Camster Round (CAT 13) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1865, Ritchie 1966 Stratigraphy The chamber floor was covered by a very dark earthy layer between 0.23 and 0.3 metres thick. In the centre of the chamber, and between the divisional slabs, this layer was particularly thick with ashes and charcoal. The passage had been blocked with stones. Artefacts (RMS, but pottery lost) Sherds of 4 or 5 urns with finger nail decoration, flint knife and chisel arrowhead, flint flakes - main chamber, in the dark layer Iron knife blade - main chamber, on top of the dark layer Unidentified rim sherd - in the antechamber Unidentified pottery crumbs - in the passage Human Remains (lost) Fragmentary bones, some bones - main chamber, in the dark layer Broken unburnt bones, mainly upper body parts and skull pieces - main chamber, on top of the dark layer Unburnt bones ofupper body parts and 2 skulls - in the passage blocking Animal Remains (lost) Fragmentary bones, some burnt - main chamber, in the dark layer Broken unburnt bones - main chamber, on top of the dark layer References Anderson 1866a, 1866b

Warehouse North (CAT 63) Excavated by Rhind 1853, Anderson 1865 Two skulls (now lost) were reportedly found in the chamber prior to excavation (Rhind 1854, 103). References Rhind 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b Warehouse South (CAT 64) Excavated by Rhind 1853, Anderson 1865 Stratigraphy A hard clay layer formed the chamber floor, and a fine sandy loam c.0.15 metres thick the floor of the antechamber. The skeletal material was found amongst ashes on the chamber floor. Artefacts (lost) Fragments of, possibly, 3 urns of rusticated ware with fingernail decoration., each one was resting on a slab on the floor of the main chamber. Human Remains (lost) Burnt bones, part of an unburnt skull - in the main chamber Part of a femur, traces of decaying bones - between portal stones in antechamber References Rhind 1854, Anderson 1866a, 1866b Ormiegill North (CAT 42) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1865 Stratigraphy The chamber floor was covered by a layer between 0.15 and 0.3 metres thick composed of ashes, charcoal and bones. Within was a rough slab 'pavement' and areas of'greasy clay'. Beneath this layer, shallow pits had been dug into the floor. Artefacts (in RMS) Undecorated pottery of 'various make', stone macehead, oblique and chisel flint arrowheads, end of a flint knife and flint scrapers, chips and flakes (some scorched)- main chamber, in ash layer Oblique flint arrowhead - in the ante-chamber Human Remains (lost) Broken, burnt, scorched and unburnt bones, long bones only half burnt - in the ash layer Smaller quantity of greatly damaged unburnt bone - on top of the ash layer Animal Remains (lost) Unburnt bones of horse, cattle, deer, dog, pig, birds - in and on top of the ash layer Burnt bones (possibly animal) - in the ash layer References Anderson 1866a, 1866b, 1868

Garrywhin (CAT 26) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1866, Gibson 1985 Stratigraphy The floors of the chamber and antechamber were covered by a dark layer consisting of a mass of charred wood, including some large pieces, and also some ashes and charcoal. This was inter-mixed with stones and earth and was up to 0.45 metres thick, being deepest in the centre of the main chamber. Artefacts (in RMS) Pottery sherds with finger nail decoration, 2 leaf-shaped arrowheads - main chamber, in the dark layer Various pottery sherds including finger nail decoration and Unstan bowl, flint flake - main chamber, disturbed infill Human Remains (lost) Fragmented burnt and unburnt bone, variety of ages - in the dark layer Unburnt and broken bones of 7 or 8 individuals, 4 almost entire skulls and fragments of 3 or 4 more (one identified as male c. 50 years) - on top of the dark layer in the antechamber Animal Remains (lost) Broken burnt and partly burnt bones of horse, dog/fox, cattle, deer, pig, sheep/goat, large bird species - on top of, and in, the dark layer Concentration of rat or vole bones - in the dark layer References Anderson 1868, 1869a, 1869b, Gibson 1985

South Yarrows North (CAT 54) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1865 Stratigraphy In the main chamber the floor consisted of a dark compacted layer of clay over 0.15 metres deep containing large amounts of charcoal. On the south side of the antechamber, a secondary cist had been constructed on top of this layer. Artefacts (lost) Broken pot with cord decoration, c.70 lignite beads - in the secondary cist Human Remains (lost) Burnt and unburnt broken bones - in the dark layer Unburnt broken bones - on top of the dark layer Animal Remains (lost) Burnt and unburnt broken bones - in the dark layer Small amount of unburnt broken bones - on top of the dark layer References Anderson 1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869b

Kenny's Cairn (CAT 31) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1866 Stratigraphy A compacted layer of ashes 0.3 metres deep overlay a clay floor into which several shallow pits had been scraped. The cell was floored by two slabs, one on top of the other, and overlying a clay floor 0.07 to 0.1 metres thick with charcoal and ashes on top of a third flagstone. Artefacts (in RMS, but pottery lost) Rusticated pottery sherds, flint scrapers and flakes, sherds of 3 Iron Age pots - pressed into the clay floor and in the ash layer Split long bone chisel, smoothed pebble - in the passage Human Remains (lost) Badly preserved burnt bones - in and on top of the ash layer and in the clay layer in the cell Animal Remains (lost) Burnt and broken bones of horse, cattle, red deer, pig, sheep/goat, dog/fox in the ash layer References Anderson 1869a, 1872

South Yarrows South (CAT 55) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1865 Stratigraphy On top of undisturbed clay was a dark layer compacted to about 0.13 metres thick. This consisted of dark clay mixed with ashes and bone. It also contained a rough paving of small slabs. Artefacts (lost) 2 undecorated sherds, 12 flint chips, flint core - in the dark layer Human Remains (lost) Broken and fragmented burnt and unburnt bone - in the dark layer Fragments of unburnt bone - on top of the dark layer

Cairn ofHeathercro (CAT 11) Excavated by Barry c.1900 Artefacts (lost) Fragments of an um - in north comer of the chamber, replaced (RCAHMS 19llb,3)

24

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Stone or clay jug - in 'stone coffin' Human Remains (lost) Teeth, part ofa skull, thigh bones-in the 'stone coffin' Animal Remains (lost) 4 horse teeth - in south comer of the chamber (ibid)

Articulated and tightly flexed adult (over 20 years) - on central slabs, north chamber Teeth of young adolescent, femur of male adult-north antechamber Reference Corcoran 1966

Earl's Cairo (CAT 23) Excavated by Barry 1903 Stratigraphy "Burned wood and ashes in the chamber" (ibid, 26) Artefacts (lost) "Two urns of dark blue clay, highly ornamented but in fragments" (ibid)

Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 70) Excavated by Corcoran 1961 Stratigraphy There was a discontinuous layer of slabs over the floor of the chamber. Beneath was a layer of burnt material that spread further than the chamber and may well have pre-dated it. Between paired orthostats on the south side of the chamber were narrow 'benches' of dry-walling, but these may have been designed to give structural support to the orthostats (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 161). Artefacts (in RMS) Various Neolithic pottery sherds from c.13 pots, flint points, scorched base of flint leaf-shaped arrowhead, split flint pebble, scorched flint flakes - in burnt layer under the chamber Tip of chert arrowhead - in vertebrae of one of the burials Wall sherds - under fallen passage orthostats Flint scraper - foot of outer wall on south side of chamber Flint flakes - in body of the cairn Scoop made from a long bone, flint flakes - in outer compartment Human Remains (in RMS) Incomplete and disarticulated skeletal remains - heaped on slabs, centre of inner compartment 2 adults (48 to 54 years and 36 to 38 years) - scattered bone in the passage and chamber Remains of a child - central compartment Young adult - outer compartment Foetus/new born child - in passage Few bones including femur and small fragments of burnt bone - beneath chamber slabs Animal Remains (in RMS) Small amounts of fragmentary bone: dog, red deer, cattle, sheep, pig, birds and fox (intrusive?) - on the slabs in the chamber, and a few below them Reference Corcoran 1966

Shean Stemster (CAT 46) Excavated by Barry 1904 Stratigraphy The clay floor was covered by a layer of broken stones c.0.1 metres deep. Immediately on top of the clay the passage floor was paved. In the southwest comer was a semi-circular setting of five stones and a low slab. Artefacts (lost) Pieces ofunidentified pottery - from near the top of the cairn Human Remains (lost) Crouched inhumation, head to the south - in the semi-circular stone setting Remains of an inhumation - from near the top of the cairn Sgarbach (CAT 76) Excavated by Nicholson c.1928 No details known, but a stone engraved with the date '1928' was found by the author on the site. Lower Dounreay (CAT 38) Excavated by Edwards 1928 Stratigraphy The passage and outer third of the chamber floors were of clay. The rest of the chamber was paved, except for a small hollow on the north east side that was filled with ashes. There was a layer of clay c.0.07 metres thick on top of the paving. About 0.9 metres above ground level, and across the inner part of the chamber, was a secondary long cist. Artefacts (in RMS) Carinated pottery sherd, ox phalange with transverse perforation, micaceous sandstone axe - in clay layer in the chamber Beaker sherds - in the cist and below the turf on top of the cairn Human Remains (lost) The excavator recognised five individuals in the chamber. Unburnt, broken and crushed bones - in clay layer in the chamber Crouched skeleton on its left side - by south west wall in the chamber Parts of 2 skeletons, one possibly crouched - north west comer of the chamber 2 skulls and some long bones - in centre of the chamber Male 20 to 25 years - in the secondary cist Animal Remains (lost) Fragmentary pieces of unburnt bone of mostly cattle; but also young deer, squirrel, water-vole, otter, gannet, grebe, sheep and dog teeth, and an oyster shell - in clay layer in the chamber Reference Edwards 1929

Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58) Excavated by Corcoran 1961, 1963 Stratigraphy On the floor of the chamber was a deliberate infilling of small stones with packed deposits of charcoal and mollusc shells in the south part. In the northern area were intensely burnt animal bones, charcoal and burnt earth. Below this a 0.45 metre thick layer of thin flat stones contained human and animal bones and limpet shells. Beneath this was a level of paving. Artefacts (in RMS) Tiny wall sherd - lowest level of chamber Various pottery sherds - between heel cairn fai;:adeand long cairn wall Beaker sherds - in disturbed upper chamber levels Cinerary um sherd, scorched flint chips and flakes - outside south wall of longcaim Medieval or later pot- on top of south wall oflong cairn Flint chips and flakes-in chamber, passage, forecourt and body of the cairn Pitchstone flake - above chamber floor Human Remains (in RMS) Male (early 30s), young adult female, fragments of an old individual, individual (uncertain age/sex), young child- lowest level in the chamber Secondary cremation - in cinerary um, slip of heel cairn Animal Remains (in RMS) Fragmentary bones and teeth of red deer, cattle, old and young dogs, bird and fish bones, limpet shells - with human remains Unidentified fragmentary bones (some burnt), molluscs - deliberate infilling of chamber Reference Corcoran 1966

Modern Excavations Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 69) Excavated by Corcoran 1961 Stratigraphy . North Chamber - an unpaved floor with two stone 'benches' in the south west comer, some large slabs in the centre of the floor South Chamber - greatly ruined, but some paving Artefacts (in RMS) Oblique flint arrowhead, flint blade and flakes - floor level, south chamber Flint chip - orthostat socket, south chamber Flint chip - north chamber Flint blade - surface find Human Remains (in RMS) The excavator recognised 9 to 11 individuals, all except one were fragmentary and disarticulated. There were two heaps of bones, one with a crushed cranium on top, on each of the stone 'benches'. Elderly male, adolescent, female (38 to 40 years) deliberately(?) encased in clay, scorching on 2 bones - on the south west bench, north chamber Adult male (36 to 38 years), unidentified individual, teeth of an adolescent, tooth of one individual - on north west bench, north chamber

Rattar East (CAT 74) Excavated by Nicolson 1907, Unpublished Investigation 1968 Artefacts (lost) Stone pounder - in passage Human Remains (in RMS) Bone parts from a number of individuals - in the chamber Female (40-45 years), male (over 30 years), 2 adults, child (1-5 years) from skulls

25

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead 2 adults (35-45 years), adult (30-33 years), adult (25-33 years) - from mandibles and incomplete skulls Animal Remains (lost) 2 unidentified split bones - in passage

but mentioned a "dark layer'' at M'Cole's Castle and ashes at Warehouse South (CAT 39, 64) (ibid, 102). This layer of burnt, partly burnt and unburnt material must have been introduced into the monuments in this condition as it would not be possible to generate high enough temperatures to cremate bone within the chambers (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 64).

Camster Long (CAT 12) Excavated by Anderson and Shearer 1866, Ritchie 1967-68, Corcoran 197173, Masters 1976-80

Stratigraphy North Chamber - paved with two large overlapping slabs South Chamber - the floor was covered by a compact layer of unknown depth containing ashes, charcoal and bone. Investigations of the pre-cairn soil revealed a number of burnt areas and stake and postholes. Two later cist burials had been inserted into the body of the cairn. Artefacts (some lost, rest in RMS) Various Early Neolithic pottery sherds, leaf-shaped arrowhead, flint points, flakes and scrapers, quartz flake, chalcedony scraper, 8 microliths pebble rubber - pre-cairn surface ' Featureless sherds, pebble anvil, grooved flat pieces of broken sandstone in North forecourt blocking Rim sherd, flint scraper - below South forecourt blocking Leaf-shaped arrowhead, flint scrapers - below collapsed cairn wall face 2 leaf-shaped arrowheads, flint and quartz flakes - South chamber Rim sherd - North chamber Flint scraper, microlith, quartz pebble - beyond the cairn Human Remains (lost) Small amount of broken burnt bones - in ash layer, South chamber Broken unburnt bones - on top of ash layer, South chamber Unidentified fragmentary bones - on floors of both chambers Animal Remains (lost) Bone fragment of large animal - floor of North chamber Broken and burnt bones - in ash layer, South chamber Broken and unburnt bones - on top of ash layer, South chamber Species identified- horse, cattle, deer, pig

On top of this layer there were invariably unburnt human and animal bones in a poor state of preservation. These could be broken and fragmentary as at South Yarrows North and South (CAT 54, 55), or consist of whole bones and skulls at Garrywhin and Warehouse North (CAT 26, 63). Rhind (1854, 103) saw these as the remains of articulated interments. This was also Anderson's interpretation (1869b, 271), especially in relation to the skulls at Garrywhin (1868, 500). Moreover, Anderson conjectured (1866a, 249, 1866b, 450) that the occurrence of two skulls and only the upper body parts in the passage blocking at Camster Round (CAT 13) was the result of the lower body parts decaying in the wet conditions of the passage floor. However, in the mass of decaying bone and cairn debris within the sites, this need not be the only interpretation. Indeed, the date of the blocking at Camster Round is uncertain (see Barber 1997, 8). The artefacts in the chambers all came from within the dark layer, except for the iron knife found on top of the chamber floor in Camster Round. Most of the pottery has been lost but, from descriptions and occasional survivals, it has been suggested that they were mostly undecorated Early Neolithic wares including rusticated Grimston-Lyles Hill Ware (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 74). There may be two examples of Unstan Bowls from Garrywhin and Kenny's Cairn (ibid, 75). Indeed, these two sites are located close to each other. The lithic artefacts are a miscellaneous collection of knapping debris and occasional implements. Grooved Ware arrowheads were recovered from Camster Round and Ormiegill North (CAT 13, 42). However, these fine pieces represent occasional finds in comparison to the rest of the material.

References Anderson 1868, 1869a, 1869b, Masters 1997

Other Evidence Brekigoe (CAT 8) Granite battleaxe, sandstone pounder and cup (Donations 1870, 232) provenance unknown

Cnoc na Ciste (CAT 19) Several cists were found in the top of the cairn prior to 1871 (Henshall 1963 269). ' Yorkshire vase-type food vessel, in RMS - said to be from the passage (RCAHMS 191lb, 121).

Stemster (CAT 68) "human remains and a stone coffin found in 1840" (6" OS map).

Master's excavation (1997) at Camster Long (CAT 12) is unique in that a substantial area of the pre-cairn levels was investigated. Most of the recovered artefacts, including Early Neolithic pottery and flint artefacts, came from this context. It was suggested that these, and various post and stake holes, relate to the original construction of the cairn. A number of microliths were also recovered. There may be a continuity in the use of 'place' from the Mesolithic as suggested by Tilley ( 1994) for the monuments of the Pembrokeshire coast and Black Mountains. However, in northern Scotland this type of evidence comes from only this one site.

Discussion A much richer and varied body of evidence is available from Caithness, although much of it relates to nineteenth century excavations from which many of the finds are lost. The evidence can be split into two major groups, both geographically and by its nature. There are Rhind and Anderson's excavations around the Loch of Yarrows and Warehouse Hill in the southeast of the county, and other investigations further north.

In the southeast there is a repeated pattern of a fairly thick dark layer on the chamber floors. This matrix contained varying quantities of broken and fragmentary burnt and unburnt animal and human bone, as well as ash and charcoal. Artefacts were also found in this layer. It had been well consolidated as "it rose to the pick like cakes" (Anderson 1872, 293). This could have been the result of repeated trampling. Anderson (1866a, 1866b, 1868, 1869a, 1869b, 1872) noted this layer at six sites. Rhind (1854, 104) did not record the stratigraphy of the Warehouse Hill cairns in detail,

In the Loch of Yarrows and Warehouse Hill area both inhumation and cremation appears to have been practised. Individuals of both sexes and a wide range of ages were being interred in the cairns. There were up to eight individual inhumations, and possibly more than one hundred individuals represented in the cremations at Garrywhin (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 64). Large amounts of pottery were recovered from such sites as Ormiegill North, Garrywhin and Kenny's Cairn, but only a few stone artefacts. It is impossible to relate these to individual interments. As in 26

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Ross-shire and Sutherland, there does not appear to have been a strong tradition of depositing quantities of valuable grave goods, although the fine flint artefacts and Unstan Bowls may have been prestige items.

Assery B contained flint artefacts and the sherds of about twelve pots. The pre-cairn levels here, and at Camster Long, have been interpreted as occupation debris (ibid, 73). There is no evidence for the deposition of burnt human skeletal material in northern Caithness. The remains were deposited unburnt in the chambers, although the evidence for articulated skeletons is limited to only a few sites. Again there is no visible emphasis on grave goods; indeed, the number of artefacts, especially ceramics, is much less than in the southeast.

An aspect only glimpsed further south at Embo is the inclusion of animal bones mixed with, and in a similar condition to, the human remains. In the dark layers they are both fragmentary, burnt and unburnt. On top of the dark layers they are both unburnt. In contrast to the southeastern cairns, the human depositions in the excavated sites in the north are all of unburnt bones. At the three Loch Calder cairns excavated by Corcoran ( 1966), the chamber floors were paved and collections of bones placed on top of them. At Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58) the bones were relatively intact within a thin layer of stones, but not articulated. At Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 69) the bones were placed in piles on stone 'benches' with a crushed cranium on top of one pile. An articulated skeleton on top of slabs in the centre of the chamber was a later interment as it has yielded a radiocarbon determination of 1392±137 Cal BC (GU1329). It was probably placed in the top of the cairn, the slabs on which it lay being the collapsed roof (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 67). At Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 70) the bones were heaped in the centre of the chamber floor with a shattered cranium on top. Some other bones were scattered around the chamber and the passage. Immediately below the slabs were a human femur and some animal bones. This has been interpreted as a 'foundation deposit' (ibid, 62). In the pre-cairn level beneath this were small and intensely burnt bone fragments. It is uncertain whether these were animal or human (Corcoran 1966, 42, 65).

The animal bones from Tulach an t'Sionnaich and Tulloch of Assery B reveal a similar range of species to those found in the southeast. At Tulach an t'Sionnaich the bones mixed with the human remains were fragmented and unburnt, but some of those from the deliberate infilling were intensely burnt. At Tulloch of Assery B fragmented and unburnt animal bones were mixed with the human remains. This is reminiscent of the limited evidence from Embo in Sutherland. There is evidence for the later use of the cairns with Beaker burials. In all cases these are stratified above the Neolithic levels. 4.5. Evidence From Neighbouring Traditions The Clava Cairns The immediate neighbours of the Orkney-Cromarty tombs are the Clava Cairns to the south in Inverness-shire. However, these have now been securely dated to the Early Bronze Age (Bradley et al 2000). They are noted for their lack of grave goods (Henshall 1963, Walker 1963) and limited evidence for burials. Only one possible inhumation is known from a 'body stain' at the Corrimony passage grave (INV 17) (Piggott 1956). Cremated bone has been recovered from the passage graves at Balnuaran South-West, Druidtemple and Kinchyle of Dores (INV 10, 30, 37) (ibid). Cremations only are known from the ring cairns: Newton of Petty (INV 45) (Bradley & Matthews 2000), Balnuaran Centre and Culdoich (INV 8, 21) (Piggott 1956). These were all individual interments, except at Culdoich where two bodies were deposited (ibid). Cremations were also found in pits below Newton of Petty (Bradley & Matthews 2000) and the Raigmore ring cairn (INV 4 7) (Wilkinson 1996).

A similar picture can be seen at Lower Dounreay (CAT 38). The floor of the chamber was paved and bones piled towards the centre, although one, and possibly two, articulated skeletons were . recognised (Edwards 1929, 144). The information from the partial and unpublished excavation at Rattar East (CAT 74) is uncertain, but the unburnt bones of at least six individuals were recovered (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 64). The skeleton from Shean Stemster may have been a later deposition (ibid). The stratigraphy of the chambers in northern Caithness appears to have been totally different to the dark layers of burnt and unburnt material found in the southeast. However, there was a deliberate infilling of the chamber floor with small stones, some charcoal and burnt material at Tulach an t'Sionnaich. At Lower Dounreay there was a layer of clay and at Shean Stemster a layer of broken stones covered the chamber floor. At Tulloch of Assery B a layer of charcoal and burnt material spread under the cairn. These may be indications that layers of material were introduced into, and spread over, the chamber floors as in the southeastern cairns. If this was the case, it was of a different nature and there may only be a limited similarity in any possible ritual practice (ibid). Small amounts of worked Early Neolithic tradition Calder cairns. There were Assery A. The burnt layer

As with the Orkney-Cromarty cairns, the evidence is limited. However, it does point to a cremation rite, with very few individuals being deposited in the monuments. The Hebridean Cairns Again, the burial evidence is limited. Inhumations were recovered from Rudh'an Dunain (SKY 7). At Unival (UST 34) Scott (1948, 13-14) suggested that inhumations were burnt at a later stage after they had de-fleshed. This was a ritual 'cleansing' before new interments were made. However, this may have related to an Early Bronze Age phase at the site (ibid). There is little other evidence from this group: reported inhumations at Cnoc na Oreana and Coir Fhin (HRS 2, 3) and cremated bone at Barpa Langass (UST 6) (Henshall 1972, 144-145). As with the Orkney-Cromarty group and the Clava Cairns, few grave goods are known. There are only the occasional finds of pottery sherds and flint

flint, flint debris and pottery of an were recovered from the Loch no ceramics at all from Tulloch of in the pre-cairn level at Tulloch of 27

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead artefacts (ibid, 145-147). The only animal bones are a possible foundation deposit at Rudh'an Dunain.

A black layer containing charcoal, pottery sherds and flints lay across the chamber floor at Calf of Eday Long. At Knowe of Carie a dark ash layer was partly covered by a clay floor. Charcoal was mixed in with the human bones at Hoxa Hill (ORK 67) (ibid, 57). This stratigraphy of layers of material mixed with bones and artefacts being introduced into the chambers is reminiscent of the dark layers in the chambers in southeastern Caithness, although the bones in the Orkney cairns were unburnt.

The Hebridean group of cairns has suffered from poor preservation, disturbance and a lack of proper excavation. There is little that can be concluded as to the use of the cairns or the burial rite.

The Orkney-Cromarty Cairns on Orkney There has been little excavation of the tripartite cairns of the Caithness type on Orkney, so much of this discussion relates to the great stalled cairns.

Evidence for animal remains comes mainly from Isbister. In the main, the assemblage consisted of young sheep, cattle and red deer (Barker 1983, 133). They appear to have been fleshed joints when placed in the cairn (ibid, 135). Other species represented were otter, pig, seal, white-tailed eagle and other bird bones (ibid, 133). The animal bones tended to be mixed with the human remains (Hedges & Simison 1983, 20). Fish were represented in their thousands in a sample area of the floor that was sieved (Colley 1983, 151). At Unstan the animal bone assemblage was similar, except that horse was present. At Burray the skeletons of seven dogs were recovered. In the stalled cairns on the island of Rousay the three main food animals of cattle, sheep and red deer dominate the assemblages (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 56).

Possible 'foundation deposits' have been discovered beneath the slab floor at Isbister (ORK 25) consisting of the fragmentary remains of up to fifteen individuals (Hedges & Simison 1983, 20). Other claimed foundation deposits were found at Bigland Round and Knowe of Craie (ORK 2, 27). Small hollows outside the entrances contained ash, fragmentary bone (?human), flint chips and pottery sherds (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 52). At Holm of Papa Westray North (ORK 21) a cell at the rear of the chamber had been sealed early in the monument's history. It contained a layer of small stones intermixed with animal bones. On top of this were fragmentary animal and human bones (ibid).

At a general level, the animal species represented in the Orkney cairns are similar to the evidence from the mainland. However, these latter assemblages tend to consist of more broken and fragmented material.

Crouched articulated skeletons were recovered from Holm of Papa Westray North, Korquoy, Taversoe Tuick and Unstan (ORK 21, 34, 49, 51). At other sites the bones were spread around the chambers often in a broken and fragmentary condition as at Isbister and Knowe of Yarso (ORK 25, 32), or were partial skeletons as at Calf of Eday Long (ORK 8). At the Point of Cott (ORK 41) a minimum of thirteen individuals were identified amongst the disarticulated bones on the chamber floor (Barber 1997, 44). There appears to have been a marked interest in skulls (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 54). At Knowe of Yarso the skulls had been placed along the wall, and they were deposited in the cells at Burray (ORK 7). The detailed work at Isbister has revealed some evidence for patterning. Skulls were placed along the wall, each one associated with a pile of bones (Hedges & Simison 1983, 21). In the stalled chamber at Midhowe (ORK 37) crouched skeletons were placed on some of the stone built 'benches'. On other benches lay piles of bones, each one with a skull on top (Henshall 1985, 100). At Isbister it has been calculated that over three hundred individuals were represented, from the foetal stage up to fifty years old (Chesterman 1983, 77). There were twice as many males as females (ibid, 78).

The artefacts from the cairns do not appear to have been associated with particular burials (ibid). The majority were pottery sherds of Unstan Ware and flints. At Bookan, Calf of Eday Long and Sandhill Smithy (ORK 4, 8, 47) the pottery sherds had been piled into heaps in the centre of the chambers (ibid). Although fires were lit in some of the chambers, and many of the artefacts are burnt or scorched, Hedges (1983, 245) has shown that at Isbister a high enough temperature could not have been generated inside the chamber to oxidise the pottery sherds. This means that burning must have taken place elsewhere. The types of artefacts recovered from the Orkney cairns show a similar range to that from the mainland, although there is more material on the islands.

The Maeshowe Cairns on Orkney The burial evidence from the Maeshowe cairns is sparse, although the deposition of unburnt skeletons and body parts appears to have been the norm (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 57). The main body of evidence comes from Quanterness (ORK 43). In the earliest phase fires had been lit in the chamber and there was a small scatter of unburnt human bone. Later, pits with crouched inhumations were dug into the floor (Renfrew 1979a, 53). In the final phases a layer of soil and stones about 0.3 metres deep had been introduced and spread through the chamber and cells. Within, and on top of, this layer was a jumbled and confused mass of unburnt human bone (ibid, 52) representing up to four hundred individuals (Renfrew 1979d, 165). The animal bones were mixed with the human remains in the main chamber, but were not present in the cells (Renfrew 1979a, 52). The main species represented were sheep, cattle, deer and a number of piglets (Clutton-Brock 1979, 112). The main artefacts that

The evidence shows some parallels with the mainland, especially northern Caithness: the deposition of many individuals and some articulated inhumations, but also large amounts of disarticulated bones within the chambers, some of them heaped in piles. There was a concern with skulls, which is hinted at in Caithness, and perhaps also at Embo in Sutherland. There was the use of stone 'benches' as seen at Tulloch of Assery A. In the two southern compartments at Unstan there was a dark peat and charcoal layer containing fragmentary bone (?human), flints and pottery sherds. Contracted burials had been placed on top of this (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 55). 28

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead were recovered were pottery sherds, mostly Grooved Ware (Henshall 1979, 75). Flint and bone tools were also present (ibid, 79-83). The introduction of a layer of material into the chamber mixed with bones and artefacts is again reminiscent of some of the cairns on the mainland.

Jones (I 998), by linking the evidence from the cairns with the settlement sites, has argued for the structured deposition of animal bones. The animal parts 'missing' from the settlements were often found in the tombs. This can be seen with the white-tailed eagles at Isbister and red deer in the Knowe of Ramsay and Knowe of Yarso stalled cairns (ibid, 314-315). Structure is seen in the animal species and different skeletal parts being deposited in different contexts (ibid, 315). Amongst the stalled cairns on the terraces on the south side of Rousay another correlation is seen between topography and the human body. Articulated bodies were deposited in the tombs on the lowest terraces, disarticulated remains part way up the slope and skulls within the monuments on the highest terraces (ibid, 318).

4.6. Interpretations of the Orkney Evidence

It has been argued that at Isbister the excarnation of bodies outside the chambers and their subsequent inclusion in the monuments was the practice (Chesterman 1983, 124). This explained missing body parts in that they had been lost or not chosen for interment (Hedges 1983, 216-217). However, an alternative interpretation has seen the evidence from Isbister and Midhowe as different stages in the same ritual cycle (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 54-55). Intact bodies were brought into the chamber and slowly de-fleshed there. Over time, the remains were collected into piles and the body parts from different individuals became mixed (Richards 1988, 46). These were moved around the chamber, in the course of which bones became broken and fragmented. Special treatment was accorded to skulls. At the Point of Cott there was no evidence for the exposure of the bones, but post mortem fractures indicated that the remains had been repeatedly disturbed (Barber 1997, 44). Body parts also appear to have been removed from the cairns for burial or use elsewhere. These may have been circulated through society or deposited in other cairns. The skulls from the Knowe of Yarso were in various conditions and stages of preservation suggesting that they came from different contexts and had been re-deposited in this particular site (Richards 1988, 49). Indeed, on the Knoll of Skulzie hill, Westray, it has been reported that many buried skulls and two polished stone axes have been unearthed (RCAMS 1946, 360). External ritual was as important as, if not more so than, the deposition of material in the cairns. However, only slight traces of this can be glimpsed. The animal bones, pottery and other artefacts were probably part of this process. They may have been introduced with particular depositions and later became part of the confused matrix of several events within the chambers.

In relation to the Orkney evidence, 'burial' is probably the wrong word to use as it implies the permanent disposal of the dead. The term 'mortuary ritual' is perhaps more appropriate as the dead of Neolithic Orkney did not 'rest in peace'. The remains were moved around within, and between, monuments. Indeed, the architecture of the tombs allowed for repeated access to the dead, although this was restricted. Ancestral remains appear to have played an important role amongst and between the living in reiterating, or even changing, social relationships (Richards 1988) and structure can also be seen in relation to the local landscape and the use of animals (Jones 1997). 4.7. Interpretations of the Mainland Evidence

Because of the lack of excavation and information from much of the mainland, this discussion by necessity relates mainly to the monuments of Caithness, especially the cairns in the southeast of the county. Cremations and Inhumations Rhind (1854, 106) did not develop a detailed interpretation of the burial evidence. He saw the cairns of southeastern Caithness as family tombs with inhumations and cremations occurring at the same time. Anderson (1868, 509) recognised the complexity of the evidence in this area with the varying amounts of material from different sites. Depositions were of a lesser quantity in the long cairns. He suggested a simple chronological sequence, which reflected a changing tradition through time (ibid, 508-509). The matrix of dark material across the chamber floors represented the poorly preserved remains of an inhumation rite as unburnt bones lay under and within this layer and there were unburnt teeth in the comers of the chambers. This was followed by cremations over a long period, given the thickness of the dark layers. Finally, inhumations were placed on top of this. In suggesting that the different rites could reflect different races, Anderson ( 1869b, 271) saw them as having a long history of use.

At Quantemess the picture appears to be more complex as a confused mass of bones spread both horizontally and vertically across the chamber floor. This has been shown by the different positions of bone parts from one individual dog and sherds from the same pot (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 58). Excarnation has again been proposed (Chesterman 1979, 106-107). However, if the bodies were de-fleshed in the chamber, then activities were less structured than in the Orkney-Cromarty tombs. The de-fleshed skeletal material would have been spread across the chamber with no apparent pattern. Richards ( 1988, 50) has seen the confused deposits in Quantemess as evidence of the concentration of bones from other tombs in this one site. There are few human remains known from the apparently earlier tripartite tombs of the Caithness type (ibid, 46). He has related this to the later monopolisation of the dead by particular factions of the living (ibid, 50). Indeed, the long passages of the Maeshowe type cairns restrict access and keep the contents and activities in the chambers at a distance from the outside world (ibid, 54).

The dark layers have been alternatively interpreted as midden material (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 64). This was brought into the chambers at various intervals over long periods of time to cover layers of burnt and unburnt bones. Trampled and consolidated, the bones became broken and fragmented and incorporated into the matrix. This interpretation would account for random finds such as small pottery sherds, miscellaneous flint debris and the variety of animal remains.

29

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Moreover, at Tulach an t'Sionnaich in northern Caithness the human skeletal remains were found in a stony matrix, which may suggest a similar rite (ibid) in that layers of material were introduced into the chamber.

chambered cairn. The unburnt skeletal material did not lie in peace, but was re-circulated. The permanent burial remains appear to have been the burnt material as this had been consolidated beneath later activities. The vast amounts of charcoal and thick pieces of burnt wood recovered from Garrywhin (Anderson 1869a, 220) has been seen as a possible indication of more woodland in Caithness than is suggested by the available palaeoenvironmental evidence (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 13-14). However, if tracts of large trees were rare (Birks 1993a, 98), then it can be expected that its use may have been mainly restricted to special activities and any remains would be found in special contexts.

Excarnation As has been suggested for the Orkney monuments (Chesterman 1979, 106-107, 1983, 124, Hedges 1983, 216217), Corcoran (1966, 49) put forward the excarnation hypothesis for the Loch Calder cairns. Bodies were exposed and de-fleshed in another place and the skeletal material brought to the cairns which acted as ossuaries. This accounted for the missing body parts that had either been lost or purposefully excluded. It may also explain the random collection of skeletal material at Embo in Sutherland. Moreover, the incomplete skeletons in the cairns of southeastern Caithness may not have been the badly preserved remains of articulated bodies, but could have represented the deposition of already de-fleshed body parts.

At Lower Dounreay broken, but unburnt, bones were mixed in a layer of clay with a collection of unburnt bones on top. At Tulach an t'Sionnaich the bones were found in a stony layer which had been introduced into the chamber. This may suggest that these layers of special material resulted from ritual activities outside the monuments and were eventually incorporated into the special context that the cairns represented. This may indicate a similar process in northern Caithness, but without the material being burnt. Indeed, many of the chambers may have been cleared out.

De-Fleshing in the Chambers As in Orkney (Richards 1988, 46), it has been suggested that complete bodies were brought into the chambers on the mainland and left to de-flesh there (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 56). This was only one part of a much longer and complex procedure with skeletal parts being moved around the chambers or removed for use elsewhere. The piles of bones on the 'benches' at Tulloch of Assery A, one surmounted by a crushed cranium, are reminiscent of the assemblage from Midhowe. The complex sequence at Embo may have represented the culmination of many such activities. The apparently articulated skeletons at Rattar East and M'Cole's Castle may have reflected just one stage of this process. There were indications of a special interest in skulls, as on Orkney, with the skull on top of a pile of bones at Tulloch of Assery A and their apparent protection at Embo. The skulls along the wall of the antechamber at Garrywhin may have been specially placed there, rather than representing the positions of articulated skeletons as suggested by Anderson (1869a, 219).

This interpretation attempts to fit the use of the cairns into the wider context of daily life and tradition. The monuments were not totally separated from the living. The contents of the chambers perhaps provide a glimpse of outside activities with which the cairns were fully integrated. As in Orkney, the dead did not 'rest in peace'. However, the mainland evidence is too sparse and incomplete to reconstruct specific roles in social discourse or changing relationships (cf Richards 1988). Neither can structuring principles of symbolic behaviour be identified ( cf Jones 1998). Despite these problems, a general pattern can be seen at the regional scale. In southeastern Caithness there appears to have been intense activity with reference to the dead. Skeletal material was found in a variety of burnt and unburnt states, with the inclusion of animal remains and large amounts of broken pottery. Similar deposits were hinted at in the Coille na Borgie cairns in Strathnaver (MacKay 1914, 6). In northern Caithness there was very little burnt material, if any at all, and few artefacts. The number of individuals represented was also fewer than in the southern cairns. The mortuary rituals in the north may have been less intense, or much of the material has been removed, leaving the southern area as an apparent regional focus for mortuary ritual (FIG 9).

This interpretation can be extended to cover the apparent cremations in southeastern Caithness. Complete bodies may well have been brought into the chambers for de-fleshing, as seen by the unburnt bones lying on top of the dark layers. These need not always have been the poorly preserved remains of articulated skeletons as suggested by Anderson {1868, 509). They may have represented the disturbed remnants of de-fleshed bodies, with some bones removed and others moved around within the chambers. Periodically, this unburnt material was removed, perhaps as a means of 'cleansing' the chamber. It was used in activities and ritual elsewhere, which included cremation and mixing with other materials such as artefacts and animal bones. Because of its association with these activities, this 'special' material was then re-introduced into the chambers and formed the dark layers that were consolidated by trampling. Later interments were placed on top of this. The dark layers may not have been midden material composed of domestic material as previously suggested (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 64), but special material charged with memories and associated rituals including specific artefacts and animal bones. This is why it would be incorporated into the special context of a

4.8. Conclusions

The burial evidence from the mainland is incomplete and inconclusive. Of necessity, most of the interpretations relate to the excavated sites in Caithness. However, if the material is related to the richer evidence from Orkney and its accompanying interpretations, a range of suggestions can be proposed. In the confusing and apparently conflicting evidence in the cairns, each site may represent different stages of complex activities. This relates to the use of the cairns, the remains of the dead and a range of ritual activities outside the monuments. The different stages of these have been caught in time with the final act of use at each individual site. There is no paradox in the differing evidence 30

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead if the life history of the monuments did include the regular deposition of material, its movement within and outside of the chambers and periodic clearance or 'cleansing' phases.

However, there may have been a regional focus of intensive mortuary activity in southeastern Caithness.

()

*

Layers of burnt material and many pots

•

Unburnt material and few pots

5

0

Km

FIGURE 9 Possible regional foci in Caithness

31

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

5. Typology, Seriation and Chronology more concerned to widen the discussion comparisons with the rest of Britain (ibid, 267).

5.1. Introduction

From the beginnings of the investigations into the OrkneyCromarty cairns in the nineteenth century, there have been attempts to classify the monuments systematically. These systems have been based on the morphological characteristics of the chambers and/or the cairns. Because of observed similarities and geographical proximity, these typologies have often included the cairns on Orkney. By emphasising the physical structure of the monuments, and the relationships of the constituent parts, these typologies are flexible in that newly discovered monuments can be incorporated into existing systems (Fraser 1983, 217), or the typologies expanded to include them. They are usually based on the appearance of the monuments in plan. Whether these categories would be meaningful to the builders of the cairns is debatable, but they do provide a framework within which the monuments can be described and discussed, rather than a mass of confusing data. Three types of classificatory systems have been applied (see discussion in Fraser 1983, 185).

through

Type l. Long-horned cairn - South Yarrows South (CAT 55) Elongated mounds with an east-west orientation, usually higher and wider at the eastern end where the chamber was located. Each corner possessed a horn forming forecourts at each end. Type 2. Short-horned cairn - Ormiegill North (CAT 42) Similar to Type I, but the cairn was as long as it was wide. Chambers and their contents were usually similar to Type I. Type 3. Round cairn with a tripartite chamber Camster Round (CAT 13) Circular cairns that were surrounded by a single or double retaining wall. The chambers were similar to Types I and 2. Type 4. Round cairn with bipartite chamber and side cell Kenny's Cairn (CAT 31) There was one example in this category, but it was seen as a link between the Caithness and Orkney types. Type 5. Multiple chambered cairn Coille na Borgie North and South (SUT 22, 23) Type 6. Round cairn and large chamber with side cells Maeshowe (ORK 36) This form was restricted to Orkney. Type 7. Round cairn and chamber with side cells demarcated by sills Bookan (ORK 4) This form was seen as transitional between Type 3 in Caithness and Type 6 on Orkney. Type 8. Round cairn with multi-partite chamber - Unstan (ORK 51)

Typology

A multi-attribute system of classification that attempts to place the material into separate and distinctive classes. This is basically a descriptive way of ordering the data.

TABLE 9 Anderson's typology ( 1886)

Seriation

5.3. Curle - Typology

The identified typological classes are arranged in a sequence that represents change through time.

Curle recognised four categories of cairns (TABLE 10). Tripartite, bipartite and some single chambers were also observed, but only from a total of nineteen sites (RCAHMS 191la, xxxiv, RCAHMS 191lb, xii). Curle only excavated one cairn, Achaidh (SUT 2) (1910), and did not have Anderson's 'hands-on' experience. The essentially exterior nature of this typology relates to Curie's extensive survey of monuments. There was no further elaboration or attempt at a detailed classification, although a sequence from long cairns through round cairns to round cairns with cists was suggested (RCAHMS 191la, xxxv-xxxvi).

Chronology

Absolute dates are imposed on a system of seriation. 5.2. Anderson - Typology

Anderson's approach to archaeology was one of systematic scientific logic (Graham 1976, 287). It was only natural that he would want to arrange and classify his material (Anderson 1868). His investigations were restricted to Caithness, northern Sutherland and Orkney. The typology was based on the variety of cairns and chambers as seen in plan. Two basic chamber forms were identified: tripartite and occasionally bipartite chambers, mainly in Caithness; and central chambers with side cells restricted to Orkney. With this as a basis, and using type examples, eight categories were listed (TABLE 9) (ibid, 258). Two of these (Types 4 and 7) were seen as transitional between Caithness and Orkney.

Type Type Type Type

l. 2. 3. 4.

Horned long cairns Horned round cairns Unhorned long cairns Unhorned round cairns

TABLE 10 Curle 's typology (RCAHMS 1911a, xxxiii) 5.4. Childe - Typology

Anderson's typology was essentially descriptive. It only included the sites he had excavated or visited, not the full range of monuments in the region. The differences between Caithness and Orkney, and links through 'transitional' sites, were stressed. Chronological succession was not proposed and the material culture within the different forms in Caithness and Orkney hardly considered. Anderson was

Childe (1958, 124) was working within a global theoretical framework of the diffusion of cultural traits from the south and east of Europe. He set this against the background of the spread of a suggested 'megalithic religion'. Three forms of monuments were recognised in Britain: gallery graves, passage graves and unchambered long barrows (1940, 47). In his northern Scottish 'Pentland Culture' there were three 32

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead types of passage graves as seen in plan (TABLE 11). Childe's main concern was to identify cultural affinities in the forms of the monuments and material culture. He did suggest a general chronological succession, with the cairns on Orkney being later variants of the Caithness type. Small cemetery groups of two to four monuments were noted on the mainland (ibid, 71), compared to the isolated siting of the cairns on Orkney (ibid, 74). However, there was no discussion of the Orkney Maeshowe cairns.

Caithness cairns were seen as precursors of Types 3 and 7. A single tradition had evolved into two traditions on Orkney (ibid, 17). 5.6. Piggott - Seriation Piggott (1954, 232) recognised an apparently homogenous and coherent group of monuments distributed northwards from the head of Glen Mor to Orkney. He called this the 'Orkney-Cromarty' group. Like Childe, he was working within a theoretical framework of diffusion and was concerned with the origins and routes of migration (ibid, 233-234). It was on this basis that he defined three types of monuments within this group in northern Scotland (TABLE 13). Morphological similarities between the Camster type and the stalled cairns on Orkney were noted with the elaboration of chamber construction. This indicated colonisation from the mainland (ibid, 242). Many of the differences were the result of local developments arising in isolation from outside contacts (ibid, 243). The similar chambers in the Camster and Yarrows types was also commented on, the Camster round cairns being earlier (ibid, 241 ). Maeshowe was "unquestionably the most accomplished as a work of architecture, executed to a scale and with a sophistication difficult to parallel in Britain" (ibid, 243). Because of its excellence, it was seen as the 'type site' with two later monument styles being derived from it (ibid, 244-245). It was recognised that Unstan Ware on Orkney was only found in the Camster type cairns (ibid, 249).

Type I. Caithness These were mostly on the mainland, but three or four sites were known on Orkney. Most were round cairns, but long- and short-homed cairns were also recognised. The chambers were described as oval, corbelled and commonly tripartite, being sub-divided by divisional slabs. At a couple of sites with bipartite chambers, a lateral cell replaced the rear compartment. The monuments were seen as a Boyne-Carlingford hybrid. The material culture of flint and pottery was assigned to the Windmill Hill family, with the presence of Beakers indicating a later phase of use of the monuments. Type 2. Unstan These were distributed on Mainland Orkney, Eday and Rousay. They were described as elongated chambers sub-divided into stalls and benched with stone flags. The entrance was from the long side. The Unstan Ware found in the chambers was compared to examples from the Hebrides, Brittany and Ireland. Type 3. Long stalled cairns These were located on Rousay and Eday. An elongated chamber, subdivided into between four and twelve benched stalls, was entered by a passage from one end, or occasionally from the side. It was noted that the long stalled cairns looked like 'exaggerated' versions of the Caithness type, but similarities with rock-hewn tombs on the Balearic Islands were also stressed. The material culture of axes, arrowheads and pottery was compared to the Windmill Hill Culture.

TABLE 11 Childe'stypology(1940, 70-74)

Piggott's system was a synthesis based on the royal Commission's inventories (RCAHMS, 191 la, 191 lb, RCAMS 1946), not actual fieldwork. Only the northern tombs were fully discussed, and he may have been swayed by what was perceived as the structural excellence of Maeshowe. In comparison to it, all the other monuments of this type must have been 'degenerations' of this 'type site' (see critique in Fraser 1983, 194).

5.5. The Royal Commission - Typology Type I. Long-homed cairn with a tripartite chamber, cfAnderson's Type l. Head of Work, Knowe ofLairo (ORK 18, 28) Type 2. Short-homed cairn with a tripartite chamber, cfAnderson's Type 2. Burray (ORK 7) Type 3. A long chamber of up to twelve compartments demarcated by divisional slabs, the cairn conforms to the shape of the chamber. Knowe ofRowiegar, Midhowe (ORK 31, 37) Type 4. This was a development of Type 3, with side cells off a central corridor replacing the divisional slabs, cf Anderson's Type 6. Holm of Papa Westray South (ORK 22) Type 5. Entered from the side, five compartments were separated by upright slabs and a small lateral cell opened out of one of them. This type was seen as transitional between Types 3 and 5, cfAnderson's Type 8. Unstan (ORK 51) . Type 6. Cells off the main chamber and other cells to the left and right were sub-divided by partitions of upright slabs. This type was also seen as transitional between Types 3 and 7, cf Anderson's Type 7. Type 7. A large central chamber with lateral cells, cf Anderson's Type 6. Maeshowe, Quantemess (ORK 36, 43)

Type I. Chambered long cairns of the Yarrows type These had affinities with the Clyde-Carlingford group. Type 2. Chambered round cairns of the Camster type The stalled cairns on Orkney were derived from this group. Because of their extensive distribution along the east coast, they were seen as evidence for migration up the Great Glen route. Type 3. Chambered cairns of the Maeshowe type These were restricted to Orkney, and their suggested affinities with the Boyne Valley monuments in Ireland indicated a route through the western approaches.

TABLE 13 Piggott's typological seriation (1954, 234-236)

TABLE 12 RCAMS typology (1946, 17-19)

5.7. Henshall-Typology

The Royal Commission survey (RCAMS 1946) was concerned with the monuments of Orkney and Shetland. However, it did contain a typological classification that, in some parts, is relevant to Caithness. In many ways it reiterated Anderson's categories, but added the new types recognised on Rousay in the 1930s (Type 3). It did not attempt a rigid classification, but tried to identify general 'classes', of which any particular site might fit into more than one (ibid, 15). This was essentially a description and classification of the evidence as observed, up-dating Anderson's typology so as to incorporate new types. The

and Seriation

Henshall (1963, 1972) surveyed all of the known chambered cairns of Scotland. She argued that many of the sites were multi-phase monuments. This accounted for the apparently confused mixture of chamber and cairn plans and sometimes off-centre chambers (1972, 128-129). As the cairn shapes were dynamic and changing, it was argued that the monuments should be classified by their chambers as these represent the only stable structural element (ibid, 198-199). Three chamber types were proposed that also revealed broad geographical groupings (TABLE 14, see also FIGS 5, 18).

33

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Again, the typology was based on the monuments as seen in plan.

elaboration of what were originally simple round cairns in many cases (ibid, 202).

Type 1. Rectangular Chamber - Ross-shire

In northern Scotland the heel cairns were also seen as an elaboration of earlier monuments (ibid, 240). Their similar distribution to the long cairns was noted (ibid, 242), perhaps suggesting a close connection (ibid, 244). The multi-period nature of short-homed cairns was difficult to demonstrate as the only fully excavated example at Tulloch of Assery A (CAT 69) appeared to be a unitary structure (ibid, 242).

Either single or bipartite. Type 2. Polygonal Chamber - Ross-shire and Sutherland Variety A- both chamber and antechamber polygonal/circular Variety B- polygonal main chamber and rectangular antechamber Variety C- large polygonal main chamber and no antechamber Type 3. Camster Chamber - Sutherland and Caithness

Many tripartite, but there were also some bipartite examples. An oval main chamber was sub-divided by divisional stones. A mixture of roofing techniques were used, with the inner compartment corbelled and the outer compartments covered by lintels.

Henshall's was an overview based on field survey at the regional scale. The typology proposed for the chambers was simple, workable and revealed geographical patterning and a suggested chronological progression. The cairns were identified as multi-period structures and a complex, if somewhat over-heavy, typology was developed for them.

TABLE 14 Hensha/l's chamber typology (1963, 64ff; FIG 5) No polygonal or rectangular chambers were known on Orkney. However, four different chamber types were recognised (ibid, 77ff, TABLE 15, FIG 10). Type 1. Camster Type 2. Stalled Type 3. Bookan Type 4. Maeshowe

TABLE 15 Henshall's chamber types on Orkney (1963, 77ff; FIG 10) A simple seriation was proposed (ibid 113ft). This was based on diffusion from the south to the north and the observed geographical groupings of the chamber types. The rectangular chambers to the south were primary, and perhaps related to the gallery grave tradition. The polygonal types were similar in form, but transitional. Of the Camster types, bipartite chambers were the earliest as at Garrywhin and Kenny's Cairn (CAT 26, 31). This form became elongated to form the tripartite chambers. This process of elongation reached its climax with the stalled cairns on Orkney (Henshall 1985, 87).

Braeside (ORK 5) - Tripartite, cf CAT 70

Midhowe (ORK 37) - Stalled

6t v-----

Type 1. Single period cairn Variety A - rounded ends Variety B-square ends Variety C - miscellaneous Variety D - chambers accessible from east end (hypothetical) Type 2. Long cairn added to an earlier structure Variety A - added to a heel cairn, some homed at front Variety B- added to a round cairn, some homed at front Variety C- added to a trapezoidal or small elongated cairn (hypothetical) Variety D- long cairn appearing as a unitary structure and incorporating

i Taversoe Tuick, lower chamber (ORK 49) - Bookan

an earlier chamber accessible from the eastern end; horned at front, some also at rear Sub-Variety i - parallel sided cairn Sub-Variety ii -trapezoidal cairn Sub-Variety iii - splayed horns at each end Type 3. Long cairn incorporating two or more earlier structures Variety A- mound at each end, some horned Variety B - three linked cairns in a row Variety C - two or more chambers, does not affect cairn plan

TABLE 16 Henshall 's typology of long cairns (1972, 223; FIG 4)

Maeshowe (ORK 36) - Maeshowe

Henshall (1972, 207ft) also classified the different cairn types for all of the Scottish monuments (TABLE 16, see also FIGS 3, 4). As this element was seen as multi-period, no defined chronological series could be proposed. It was suggested that the variety of forms may have been an

FIGURE 10 Plans of Orkney chambers (not to scale) (after Davidson & Henshall 1989)

34

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Tulach an t'Sionnach (CAT 58) - Single, cf. SUT 63 Garrywhin (CAT 26)- Bipartite, cf. SUT 10

c:J===iC:lc:Ja

South Yarrows South (CAT 55)- Yarrows, cf. SUT 33 Camster Round (CAT 13) - Camster

Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 70) - Assery

Hill of Shebster (CAT 28) - Stalled

FIGURE 11 Plans ofCaithness chambers (not to scale) (after Davidson & Henshall 1991) 35

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

c::::::::JU ~Do

o

~

O=oc::=>'t:?=o 0

Embo, north chamber (SUT 63) - Single, cf. CAT 58

Carn Glas (ROS 12) - Rectangular

Badnabay (SUT 10)- Caithness (bipartite), cf. CAT 26

Skelpick Long (SOT 53)- Skelpick (bipartite)

Kinbrace Burn (SUT 33) -Tripartite, cf. CAT 55

FIGURE 12 Plans of Sutherland and Ross-shire chambers (not to scale) (after Henshall 1963, Hanshall & Ritchie 1995) 36

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead However, the wide range of proposed cairn types could not encompass the complex structures of the short-homed cairns. These appeared to be single-phase unitary monuments.

were also seen as distinct (ibid, 219). Statistically, this was seen as emphasising a possible typological division between the Orkney-Cromarty cairns and the Maeshowe group.

5.8. Renfrew - Chronology

5.10. Miiller - Typology

Renfrew's work (1979c) was concerned chiefly with Orkney, but associations with Caithness were also recognised. The stalled cairns were seen as evolving from the tripartite chambers of Caithness (ibid, 201). Following on from Piggott (1954) and Henshall (1963), Maeshowe was seen as part of a separate group. However, its uniqueness as an individual monument was stressed. The other cairns assigned to this type by Henshall were classified as a separate group called the Quantemess-Quoyness cairns (Renfrew 1979c, 201 ). As radiocarbon dates were made available by his investigations, Renfrew was concerned with constructing a typology based on an absolute chronology. The theoretical basis for this was an evolutionary framework stressing internal developments (ibid, 208ft).

Drawing on the work of Henshall (1963, 1972), Renfrew (1979) and Fraser (1983), Muller (1988, 11) followed the basic Orkney typology and only made a few detailed alterations. The typological groups of stalled, Bookan and Quantemess-Quoyness cairns remained. However, monuments with only four or five chamber compartments were classified with the earlier tripartite forms, rather than with the stalled chambers. Maeshowe was seen as a monument in a group of its own, separate from the other Quantemess-Quoyness cairns.

5.11. Henshall -Typological Reassessment In recent years, Henshall (Davidson & Henshall 1989, 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995) has compiled a full reassessment of her earlier work, although information on Ross-shire and Inverness-shire is as yet unpublished. The suggestion that many of the cairns were multi-phased was toned down. In Caithness at least half the cairns were now seen as single period constructions (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 56). However, it was still argued that many of the larger and more complex monuments, especially the long cairns, were composite structures (ibid, 56ft).

Cairns of the Orkney-Cromarty type with tripartite chambers, such as Bigland Round and Sandhill Smithy (ORK 2, 47), were part of a tomb building tradition brought to Orkney from Caithness, or even the Hebrides (ibid, 210). These evolved into simple stalled cairns, like Unstan (ORK 51), and the great stalled cairns on Rousay. This evolution was seen in the extension of the chamber and the creation of a barrel vault to cover it (ibid). Indeed, only four possible small stalled cairns are known in northern Caithness (Davidson & Henshall 1991), but this plan was fully exploited on Orkney (Henshall I 985, 87). The roofing method of the stalled cairns appears to have been unstable and liable to collapse, therefore a more stable and compact structure with side cells was developed as seen in the Quanterness-Quoyness cairns. Maeshowe itself was a descendent of this latter group in both form and style (Renfrew I 979c, 210 ). Associated with these internal developments, it was tentatively suggested that Grooved Ware pottery evolved locally on Orkney from Unstan Ware (ibid, 212). However, dates obtained later from Isbister (ORK 25) may indicate that Unstan Ware continued in use much later than originally thought (Hedges 1983, 265). Renfrew was concerned with identifying internal evolutionary developments and with placing these within a chronological framework supported by radiocarbon dates. Even in this, the earliest monuments had to come from somewhere, stressing that the mainland cairns must be earlier. The main problems were the numbers of available dates from Orkney, their reliability and their restriction to particular monument types. There were no radiocarbon dates from the tripartite cairns (Davidson & Henshall I 989, 85ft).

Until the publication of the Ross-shire material this can only be seen as a partial typology of the Orkney-Cromarty cairns. Compared to the earlier chamber classification (Henshall 1963, 64), the elevations and roofing methods were taken into account, rather than an emphasis simply on the ground plans (TABLES 17, 18; FIGS 11, 12). This was a classification that considered the monuments in three dimensions. The range of chamber forms was extended and a less rigid and more flexible classification applied. This allowed for aberrant and unusual features and partially observed structures to be included, but without introducing too much complexity (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 21). The range of cairn types was simplified, especially the long cairns, although three basic long cairn types were still identified (TABLES 19, 20). This flexibility allowed for the variations in morphology of what may have been complex composite monuments. The division between the OrkneyCromarty and Maeshowe type cairns on Orkney was still stressed (Davidson & Henshall 1989). No new overview of the typology of the Orkney-Cromarty cairns has been provided, or any wide chronological discussion, as the monuments were only considered by county. The definition of Caithness and Skelpick bipartite chambers in Sutherland may be applicable to the bipartite chambers in Ross-shire and Caithness. The description of the Yarrows type chambers in Caithness was similar to the tripartite chambers in Sutherland. However, the rectangular chambers in Sutherland were now described as "unclassified" (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 31-32).

5.9. Fraser - Statistical Typology Like Renfrew, Fraser's work (1983) was concentrated on Orkney. Using cluster analysis, based on a series of attributes of both the chambers and the cairns (ibid, 125ft), a comparative conformity was observed amongst the OrkneyCromarty cairns and a relative diversity amongst the Maeshowe type monuments. Some of the larger stalled cairns 37

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Type 1. Single compartment-Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58) With a corbelled roof. Type 2. Bipartite- Garrywhin (CAT 26) A low antechamber roofed by lintels and a large polygonal main chamber with a corbelled roof. Type 3. Yarrows type (tripartite)-South Yarrows South (CAT 55) A low antechamber roofed by lintels, a corbelled main chamber and a low back cell with a lintel roof. Type 4. Camster type (tripartite)- Camster Round (CAT 13) A low antechamber roofed by lintels and a main chamber sub-divided into two by divisional slabs, but under one corbelled roof. Type 4. Assery type (tripartite)- Tulloch of Assery B (CAT 70) Chamber sub-divided into three by divisional slabs, all under one corbelled roof. Type 4. Stalled - Hill of Shebster (CAT 28) Similar to Type 5, but more than three compartments.

original long cairns (ibid, 53). Noting that a long cairn had been built over an earlier heel cairn at Tulach an t'Sionnaich (CAT 58), and possibly also at Sordale Hill Long (CAT 52), Mercer (ibid, 56ft) suggested a chronological sequence. Heel cairns represented the earliest monuments and the long cairns a secondary type, sometimes imposed on earlier structures. Some of these were, in turn, altered by the construction of large proximal and distal mounds. These later monuments contained the typologically late tripartite chambers. This distinctive chamber type was seen at its most developed and largest in the short homed cairns. The sequence was extended with these monument types spreading to Orkney at a later date.

TABLE 17 Henshall 's typology of Caithness chambers (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 2lff; FIG 11)

Neolithic settlement (as defined by cairn location and type) was initially in the north around the Thurso and Forss rivers, spreading into the Wick and Dunbeath basins later. It was noted that the long cairns east of the Thurso River lay on a northwest/southeast axis, and those to the west and in the southern area tended to have a northeast/southwest axis (ibid, 59-60). The implications of this are a spread of settlement from the north to the south, at least in Caithness.

Type 1. Single compartment- Embo, north chamber (SUT 63) With a corbelled roof. Type 2. Caithness type (bipartite)- Badnabay (SUT 10) A small low antechamber with a lintel roof and a corbelled main chamber. Type 3. Skelpick type (bipartite)- Skelpick Long (SUT 53) Antechamber as large as the main chamber, each with a separate corbelled roof. Type 4. Tripartite - Kinbrace Bum (SUT 33) A low antechamber roofed with a lintel, a corbelled main chamber and a rear cell with a lintel roof. There are many varieties on this plan.

5.13. Chambers in Cairns

Three typological systems of chamber forms can be plotted against cairn types. Henshall's old system (1963, 64ff; TABLE 14; FIG 5) of rectangular, polygonal and Camster forms, and her new more complex classification (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 21ff' Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 20ff; TABLES 17, 18; FIGS 11,12). A third system is to consider the complexity of chamber forms at a simple level with one, two and three compartments. Following Muller (1988, 11), stalled chambers are classified as Camster and tripartite as they appear only to have had four compartments. The aberrant form at Lower Dounreay (CAT 38) has also been classified as Camster and tripartite for the purposes of analysis. The chi-squared values in these and other analyses have been calculated using the tables in Fletcher and Lock (1983, 185). The chi-squared values printed in bold emphasise where there is a significant difference statistically. The second numbers in brackets in the tables represent the expected values calculated by the chi-squared test.

TABLE 18 Henshall's typology of Sutherland chambers (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 20ff; FIG 12) Type 1. Round and oval Type 2. Heel shaped Type 3. Short-homed Type 4. Long (many are seen as composite structures) Variety A- proximal mound and rectangular cairn Variety B- small and almost oval in shape (simple long cairn) Variety C - proximal and distal mounds (all these long cairn types may have fa~ades, crescentic forecourts or horns)

TABLE 19 Henshall's typology ofCaithness cairns (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 39ff; FIGS 3, 4) Type 1. Round Type 2. Heel shaped Type 4. Short-homed Types.Long

Chamber Forms Relatively more Camster type chambers are present in long cairns, and polygonal chambers in round cairns (TABLE 21 ). There is a significant difference between the ranges of round and long cairns at the 95% confidence level (x2 = 9.05, 2dt). No rectangular chambers are known in short horn or heel cairns.

TABLE 20 Henshall's typology of Sutherland cairns (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 37ff; FIGS 3, 4)

5.12. Mercer - Cumulative Construction

Rather than a pattern of round cairns being enlarged into long cairns, Mercer (1992) saw some of the long cairns in Caithness being purposefully quarried to construct proximal and distal mounds. It was as if a large round cairn had been imposed on the monument to form a round/long cairn composite (ibid, 53). This sequence was identified at Brawlbin Long, Con Freiceadain, Na Tri Sithean, Tulach Buaile Assery and Warehouse South (CAT 6, 14, 41, 59, 64) (ibid, 51). It was also observed that tripartite chambers only occurred in these super-imposed round cairns, not in the

Round Long Shorthorn Heel

Rectangular

Polygonal

Camster

11 (14) 5 (2) 0 0

46 (41) 2 (7)

29 (31) 8 (6) 7 2

3 2

x2 = 9.05 (2df), significant difference- 95%

TABLE 21 Chamber forms in cairn types 38

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Chamber Complexity There are more tripartite and single chambers in long cairns, and more bipartite chambers in round cairns (TABLE 22). There is a significant difference between the ranges of round and long cairns at the 95% confidence level (x 2 = 7.98, 2df).

Round Long Shorthorn Heel

Single

Bipartite

Tripartite

12 (14) 4 (2) 3 1

47 (42) 2 (7) 3 1

19 (22) 6 (3) 4 2

Simple Proximal Proximal/Distal

Rect. Single Rect. Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

2

I I 3

8 IO 20 15 2 3 4

3 3

2 I

6

1

Bipartite

Tripartite

1 1

Rect. Single Rect. Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

2

2

I

TABLE 26 Full chamber typology in long cairn forms No Horns

1 Horn

2 Horns

Rect. Single Rect. Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

Heel

3 3

I 3 2

8

2

Single

Full Chamber Typology All chamber types were constructed in round cairns, and most in long cairns (TABLE 23). Polygonal/single and Yarrows chambers occur in all cairn types, but Assery chambers (three examples) were only built in round cairns. The stalled chamber in a short-homed cairn is the aberrant form at Lower Dounreay. Shorthorn

3

Tripartite

TABLE 25 Chamber complexity in long cairns

TABLE 22 Chamber complexity in cairn types

Long

Bipartite

I

No Horns 1 Horn 2 Horns

x2 = 7:98 (2df), significant difference- 90%

Round

Single

3

1 3 2

TABLE 27 Full chamber typology in horned long cairns

TABLE 23 Chambers in cairns, full chamber typology

5.14. Cairn Size Cairn Types The short-homed and heel cairns tend to be medium sized (TABLE 28). Simple long cairns and those with no horns are generally small, and the more complex forms with horns are larger (TABLE 29).

Chambers in Long Cairns The typology for the Caithness long cairns has been used for this analysis (see TABLE 19). The sample of recognisable chambers in long cairns is small, and no chamber types have been recognised in simple long cairns (TABLES 24, 25). Given the small numbers involved, little can be said except that, as noted by Mercer (1992, 53), complex tripartite chambers tend to be found in long cairns with proximal and distal mounds, especially those with homed forecourts (TABLES 26, 27). However, these chambers were also constructed in other cairn forms, including a supposedly early heel cairn (see TABLE 23)

Rectangular

Polygonal

Simple Proximal Proximal/Distal

2 3

2

No Horns 1 Horn 2 Horns

1 1 3

Shorthorn Heel

Large

Medium

Small

2

7

2

1

6

TABLE 28 Size of short-horned and heel cairns

Camster Simple Proximal Proximal/Distal

5 4

No Horns 1 Horn 2 Horns

1

I 7

Large

Medium

Small

7 7

7 15 2

7 3

14 5 5

10

3

5 6

TABLE 29 Size of long cairn types

TABLE 24 Chamber forms in long cairns 39

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

stands out: the more complex chambers (Camster and tripartite) tend to be found in the more complex long cairn forms and short-homed cairns. The other visible trends, but without statistical significant differences, are listed below.

Chambers and Cairn Size Rectangular chambers tend to have been constructed in the larger cairns, but there is no statistical difference between the ranges of chamber forms (x2 = 6.20, 4dt) {TABLE 30) or complexity (x2 = 3.84, 4dt) {TABLE 31). In the more complex typology there are few observable patterns, except that the Assery and stalled chambers tend to be found in the larger cairns {TABLE 32).

Rectangular Polygonal Camster

Large

Medium

Small

7 (5) 15 (15) 9 (12)

8 (8)

24 (28) 26 (22)

1 (3) 14 (10) 7 (8)

1. Rectangular chambers are not found in short-homed and heel cairns, although they tend to have been constructed in the larger monuments. 2.

Stalled and Assery chambers were built under the larger round cairns. They probably consisted of a large vaulted chamber and have been seen as the precursors of the great stalled cairns on Orkney (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 33, Mercer 1992, 57). However, they are not found in the long cairns on the mainland.

3.

The simple long cairns are relatively small. The more complex forms, especially with homed forecourts, are larger.

4.

The more complex forms of long cairns (with proximal or proximal and distal mounds) tend to have homed forecourts.

x2 = 6.20 (4df), no significant difference

TABLE 30 Chamber forms and cairn size

Single Bipartite Tripartite

Large

Medium

Small

5 (5)

10 (11)

5 (4)

14 (14) 9 (8)

26 (28)

12 (10) 2 (5)

18 (16)

x2 = 3.84 (4df), no significant difference

5.17. Conclusions

TABLE 31 Chamber complexity and cairn size

Rect. Single Rect. Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

Large

Medium

2 2 3 4 6 4

1 6

1

9 11

5 8

8

3 3 1

Small

8

4 2 1

1 4

The generally standardised forms of the chamber and cairn types within the Orkney-Cromarty group have long been recognised (Piggott 1954, 232). However, typological problems have arisen in attempting to balance the fact that similar chambers may occur within different cairn forms. This is highlighted in the current analysis. Henshall (1972, 198-199) tried to rationalise this paradox by suggesting that many of the cairns were multi-phase structures. The extent to which this is the case can only be demonstrated by excavation. None of the classification systems adequately incorporates a chronology of development. The typological seriation of Piggott (1954) was biased by his view of Maeshowe, a lack of consideration of the monuments outside the far northern area and a preoccupation with tracing the sources and routes of migration. Henshall's original typology (1963) was also hampered by the assumption that there was a spread of settlement from the south to the north. Renfrew's chronology ( 1979c) could only be partially successful as it was based on a limited number of radiocarbon dates, many of which may be unreliable. Mercer's sequence (1992) managed to match some cairn and chamber forms within a chronology of development. However, there was a concentration on the more complex forms and little consideration of other simple types.

TABLE 32 Full chamber typology and cairn size

5.15 Long Horned Cairns

No homed forecourts are known in the simple long cairns. About half the long cairns with a proximal mound have one or two homed forecourts. Long cairns with both a proximal and a distal mound tend to have a homed forecourt at each end of the monument (TABLE 33). No Horns Simple Proximal Proximal/Distal

14 12

I

I Horn

2 Horns

8 2

6

As pure typology, many of these classificatory systems do provide a flexible framework within which the monuments can be described and analysed. There is no absolute chronology available, but the commentators are unanimous in seeing the mainland cairns as earlier, and the Orkney monuments as derivatives of these. Although the various systems may appear to indicate wide variation, the original typology proposed by Anderson {1886) remains at the core. As pointed out by Fraser (1983, 201), this suggests that there may be some order in the data. Indeed, typology has defined

5

TABLE 33 Complex long cairn forms

5.16. Discussion

There appear to be few observable relationships between the cairn and the chamber typologies. There is one pattern that 40

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

analysing the material. A different framework is required within which to analyse and describe the monuments. A starting point may be to identify the basic architectural components and relate these to the context within which the cairns are found: their local topographical setting. There are two major elements in the monuments, the chamber and the cairn. Indeed these are two totally different and almost opposed aspects that, as the previous analyses have shown, appear to have little typological relation to each other. The chamber was internal, hidden and secret, and was probably only accessible to the select few. The cairn was the public face of the monument that reflected the statements being made to the outside world. It did this, not only through its architecture, but also through its siting in, and relationship with, local and wider landscapes. Looking at the cairns within their surroundings returns them to their original context. It also liberates them from typological abstractions. It may be that topography is the missing element in an equation that the classification of the monuments on its own cannot resolve.

the Orkney-Cromarty cairns and has been at the heart of past investigations. 5.17. Typology and Topography

There are few overall patterns visible in the typologies discussed in this section. Similar monument types are distributed across a vast swathe of northern Scotland. The only significant pattern is that the more complex chambers tend to be found in the complex cairn forms. Typology does not appear to be able to explain the variation observed in the evidence: a similar monument tradition, of varying architectural form, distributed over a wide geographical area. The complex typological systems considered here can be described as abstract modem constructs. It is doubtful that they would be intelligible to Neolithic people who were working to a totally different agenda in prehistory. Typology is a system that is used to classify observed variations logically and thereby it can render the material more comprehensible. It cannot be used as the sole basis for

41

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

6. The Landscape Today, the study area is one of the remotest and wildest parts of country. In mainland Britain it is at the greatest distance away from the administrative and commercial centres in southern England. Indeed, it is even remote from the central Scottish administration based in Edinburgh (see FIG 1). Inverness is the most northerly city in Britain and this is at the southern extreme of the study area. The region is marginal, thinly populated and little known. Much of the landscape is made up of mountains and wild moorlands. The topography is very much a constraining factor on land use and the distribution of settlement. It is this that gives the region its fascination. Although much of this area is deserted now, the presence and numbers of megalithic monuments indicate a thriving population in prehistory.

Firths (PLATE 1). The shoreline is composed of long stretches of sand and shingle. In places, there is a relatively wide strip of fertile land along the coast. To the west, the land rises steeply to a bare hinterland of heather moors. The cairns range along the edges of the Firths, but in most cases are set back from the coast. A few sites penetrate a short way inland up minor valleys. The flatlands in eastern Ross-shire appear to be devoid of monuments.

The Straths This zone covers most of Sutherland and part of southeastern Caithness (FIG 16). It stretches across the centre of the study area. The west coast is rugged with many small inlets and beaches, an almost Norwegian landscape of fjords. Inland lies a barren area of rocky ridges covered with bare vegetation or peat. This stark topography is punctuated by many small lochans. There are a few isolated peaks such as Suilven, Canisp and Quinag. These are prominent and distinctive within their locality. The central area is composed of mountains and wide expanses of peat covered moorland. The narrow eastern coastal strip lies in rain shadow and the interior is accessible through three major glacial valleys: the Strath of Kildonan, Strath Brora and Strath Fleet. There are also a number of smaller valleys further north. These rivers drain northwest to southeast, and relatively fertile land spreads several kilometres into the hinterland. However, this better land is constrained within the straths. To the north, the coastline is made up of cliffs, often with impressive sea stacks. This coast is cut by three large inlets: the Kyle of Durness, Loch Eriboll and the Kyle of Tongue (PLATE 2). There are two relatively fertile valleys draining from south to north: Strathnaver and Strath Halladale.

6.1. Geology On the western side of the study area metamorphic Lewisian Gneiss forms the underlying rock. This is one of the oldest rock formations in Britain (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 13). Across the central area lies a Moine series of schists and granulites. These were sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to intense heat and pressure forming a metamorphic series (Sharpe & Saxon 1972, 4). Between these two series of metamorphic rocks lies a band of CambroOrdovician sediments. On the eastern edge of the Moine series there are outcrops of granite. New Caledonian granites outcrop in the area of Helmsdale and western Caithness. The eastern coastal strip and much of Caithness are made up of Old Red Sandstone (FIG 13). There is a strong correlation between cairn location and the Old Red Sandstone. In western Sutherland, cairn location corresponds with the presence of Cambro-Ordovician sediments. However, many inland sites are located in areas of an underlying geology of hard metamorphic rocks (see Hunt 1987 for a more detailed analysis of cairn location compared to geology and soil type).

The topography of the study area presents a wide variety of landscape types. These can be split into three major groups that almost follow the modern county boundaries: Firthlands, Straths and Caithness (FIG 14).

The cairns are located along most of the major straths: Fleet, Brora, Kildonan and Naver; but not Halladale. In the north, there are a few isolated sites around the Kyles ofDurness and Tongue, but not Loch Eriboll. In the west, a large group is associated with a series of valley basins running down from Loch Assynt. Along the eastern coast, there is an association with small coastal river valleys and a few sites are located along the coast. Some cairns penetrate further inland along the Straths. Henshall (Henshall & Ritchie 1995, 14) has noted a correlation between cairn location and brown forest soils.

The Firthlands This zone at the southern end of the study area covers Easter Ross and the southeastern part of Sutherland around the Dornoch Firth (FIG 15). The eastern coast is penetrated by three long tidal inlets: the Moray, Cromarty and Dornoch

Caithness After the mountains, moorlands and straths of Sutherland, the major part of Caithness in the northeast forms a total contrast. Bounded by granite mountains to the west and the Morven Range of quartzite/conglomerate mountains to the

6.2. Topographical Zones

42

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead south (FIG 17), much of the landscape is low and undulating. To the west is a vast wasteland of blanket peat and lochs: the Flow Country. The northeastern comer is composed of low hills and bogland. In between these two areas lies a wide and shallow fertile flatland (PLATE 3) with three major rivers. The River Thurso and Forss Water drain south to north and the Wick River northwest to southeast. Low rounded hills border the northern and southeastern edges of this low-lying and gently undulating landscape. Although mostly less than 110 metres in height, wide views are available from the hill summits, sometimes right across the county, and even as far as Orkney (Davidson & Henshall 1991, 12). Most of the

coastline is composed of sheer cliffs and rocky inlets. However, at each end of the central lowlands this almost continuous cliff-face is interrupted by wide sandy bays around Wick and a coastal strip to each side ofThurso. In this zone there appears to be a greater clustering of sites. Groups of cairns are located at either end of the broad valleys running between Wick and Thurso, with a few more sites scattered to the northeast. As in Sutherland, Henshall (ibid, 14) has noted a correlation between cairn location and brown forest soils.

Lewisian Gneiss Moine-Series Schists and Granulites Cambro-Ordovician Sediments Caledonian Granites Old Red Sandstone Jurassic Sediments

40

0

Km

FIGURE 13 Geology of the study area (after Sharpe & Saxon 1972, Fig. 2)

43

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

• Chambered cairn A - Firthlands B - Straths C - Caithness

25

0 Km

FIGURE 14 The topographical zones PLATE I The Firth/ands: view up the Dornoch Firth

44

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead ....... _

''

;'' , __----- --- - -- '

,, \

,/

.,~_,,.. , .. I

,,

,,,.,,,.",/

__,

•...---... ~-------... } _______ /'

1_.,.,

,, ,,.

,-, I

I

0

5

KM

FIGURE 15 The Firth/ands Zone

45

•

Chambered cairn

0

Uncertain site

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

1','i

' ,

:. :'

:'.,-)~ ,

Chambered 0

'

cairn

Uncertain site

20

0

Km

FIGURE 16 The Straths Zone PLATE 2 The Straths: view down the Kyle of Durness with Allt a'Chaoruinn (SUT 74)

46

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

(TABLE 34). There is a significant difference between the ranges at the 95% confidence level (x2 = 6.83, 2df). Of the long cairns, the more complex types, especially with homed forecourts, are more prevalent in Caithness. The simpler long cairns show a higher density in the Straths and Firthlands zones (TABLE 35). There are relatively more long homed cairns in Caithness (TABLE 36).

6.3. Analyses Cairn Types For this and other analyses, short horn and heel cairns have been classified as round cairns. Amongst the cairn types there is a greater number of long cairns and fewer round cairns in Caithness, with a contrasting pattern visible in the Straths

•...-,

,,--., __, e/. ..... ,,; • f.

'

I

I

",

'' '

'

•

' :·\..,,✓-,--, ,, ,

•

Chambered cairn

0

Uncertain site

,

I

0

5

Km

FIGURE 17 The Caithness Zone

47

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Firthlands Straths Caithness

Round

Long

40 (38) 60 (55) 37 (44)

12 (14) 14 (19) 23 (16)

Chamber Types There is a clear pattern in the distribution of the different chamber types. In the Firthlands, the chambers tend to be rectangular or polygonal, and no tripartite forms are known. In the Straths, the chambers tend to be polygonal in shape, but there is no significant pattern in the number of compartments present. The Camster type forms are located in the northeastern part of this zone (FIG 18). There is a significant difference between the ranges at the 99.9% confidence level (TABLE 37) (x2 = 79.26, 4df). In Caithness, there are significantly more Camster type chambers, mainly with three compartments (TABLE 38). There is a significant difference between the ranges of chamber complexity at the 99.9% confidence level (x2 = 37.66, 4df). In the full chamber typology (TABLE 39), only the simpler forms occur in the Firthlands. Camster type and stalled chambers are found only in Caithness. Single polygonal and Caithness bipartite chambers are found in all three zones.

x2 = 6.83 (2df), significant difference - 95%

TABLE 34 Cairn types in the topographical zones Simple Firthlands Straths Caithness

Proximal

Proximal/Distal

6

5 7

6

2

14

0 7

TABLE 3 5 Long cairn forms in the topographical zones I Horn

· No Horns Firthlands Straths Caithness

2 Horns 2

9

10

2

2

9

6

7

Cairn Size The larger round cairns tend to be in the Firthlands zone and the medium sized ones in the Straths (TABLE 40). However,

TABLE 36 Horned long cairns in the topographical zones

PLATE 3 Caithness: view south eastwards from central Caithness towards the Morven range

48

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

there is no significant difference between the ranges (x2 = 7.3, 4df). The larger long cairns are concentrated in Caithness, with smaller monuments in the Firthlands

6.4. Conclusions

The study area can be divided into three zones based on the regional topography. Within these zones, strong significant differences in cairn and chamber forms can be observed.

(TABLE 41). Rectangular Firtblands Straths Caitbness

17 (7) 2 (7) O(4)

Polygonal

Camster

25 (21) 30 (23) 2 (14)

0 (14) 14 (16) 26 (10)

1. In Caithness there are more long cairns, and they tend to be the larger and more complex types.

x2 = 79.26 (4df), significant difference - 99.9%

TABLE 3 7 Chamber forms in the topographical zones

Firtblands Straths Caitbness

Single

Bipartite

Tripartite

12 (9)

26 (17) 26 (21) 5 (13)

0 (12) l l (13) 18 (8)

7 {IO)

4 (6)

2.

Simple and less complex long cairns are found in the Straths and Firthlands.

3.

Rectangular and polygonal chambers, with either one or two compartments, are located in the southern and central zones.

4.

The Camster type chambers, especially those with three compartments, are located in the northern area across Caithness.

5.

Camster type chambers in the Straths area tend to be located in the northeastern part of that zone.

x• = 37.66 (4df), significant difference - 99.9%

TABLE 38 Chamber complexity in the topographical zones Firthlands 3 8 7

Rect. Single Rect. Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

8 8

Stratbs

Caitbness

Despite the lack of correlation between chamber and cairn types as shown in the previous section, geographically there are strong patterns of chamber and cairn forms in different topographical regions of the study area.

l 4 4

6

IO 9 9

6 5 2 5

TABLE 39 Full chamber typology in the topographical zones

Firthlands Straths Caithness

Large

Medium

Small

16 (IO) ll (15) 8 (9)

18 (21) 34 (31) 18 (19)

6 (9) 15 (14) l l (9)

x2 = 7.30 (4df), no significant difference

FIGURE 40 Round cairn sizes in the topographical zones

Firth lands Straths Caitbness

Large

Medium

3

3

3

8

6 3

7

13

2

Small

TABLE 41 Long cairn sizes in the topographical zones

49

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

•

Rectangular

* *

Polygonal Camster

0

25 Km

FIGURE 18 Distribution of chamber forms

50

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

7. The Environment 7.1. Environmental Evidence

INTCAL 98 radiocarbon curve (Stuiver et al 1998).

The marginal nature of the study area today is emphasised by the paucity of environmental research. Pollen sequences are only available from a few sites (FIG 19), and not all of these have accompanying radiocarbon determinations. The radiocarbon dates in this section have been calibrated using the OxCal computer programme (Ramsey 1995) and the

The site is an extensive peat bog located at around 260 metres OD and about four and a half kilometres south west of the Domoch Firth. Pine stumps were recorded in the area in the early twentieth century (Birks 1975, 197). A pine stump was dated to 5830±90 Cal BC. A visible layer of charcoal

1. Coire Bog (NH 592 857)

•

Pollen Sites

0

25 Km

FIGURE 19 Location of pollen studies ( see text for key)

51

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead and carbonised peat lay above this and it was suggested that the tree had been killed by fire (ibid, 199). In the sequence, Pinus did not regenerate, but it was uncertain if this was because of the absence of a nearby seed source, or competition from spreading blanket peat vegetation (ibid, 202). There was no evidence for a direct anthropogenic cause for the destruction of the trees (ibid, 221). The general sequence represented trees being replaced by an horizon of Calluna and Plantago /anceo/ata (ibid, 202). Pollen from weeds of cultivation may have blown over from the nearby Domoch Firth into an area that was becoming dominated by peat formation (ibid, 200). However, Betula was still present as was seen by a Birch stump dated to 5575±95 Cal BC (ibid, 199) and Birch twigs dated to 3725±85 Cal BC (ibid, 200).

later clearance cairn and yielded dates in the mid 4th Millennium BC (Carter 1998, 156). 3. Kildonan (NC 918 193) The pollen sequence in the Strath of Kildonan was related directly to layers of tephra. This was argued to be the fall-out from the volcanic eruption of Hekla on Iceland at c.2000 BC (Charman et al 1995, 801). Only the general rise or decline of particular taxa were described. At 6395±45 Cal BC, there was a general rise in Pinus pollen followed by A/nus at 4670±60 Cal BC (ibid, 804). There was a second horizon of an increase in local Pinus pollen at 2755±65 Cal BC followed by a general decline at 2375±85 Cal BC (ibid, 805). 4. Suisgill (NC 897 251) The site is located in the Strath of Kildonan. There are a group of chambered cairns four kilometres to the north at Kinbrace. Peat formation commenced at around 4700 BC. The sequence showed open woodland dominated by pine and birch with alder, and also areas of open heather moorland with wet acid bog. Before 3100 BC, the forest cover declined and more bogland taxa began to appear. Whether this was due to an anthropogenic cause or a wetter climate is uncertain. This was followed by the regeneration of pine and birch woodland (Andrews et al 1985, 191).

2. Achany Glen (NC 567 013, NC 583 018, NC 592 023) Achany Glen is the valley draining southwards from Loch Shin to the Domoch Firth. Three areas were sampled in the Glen: the valley floor, the valley side and the nearby upland outside of the valley (Smith 1998, 177). At the upland site, Pinus peaked at around 5200 BC (Smith 1996, 137). After 3800 BC, Pinus declined as the proportion of A/nus pollen increased (ibid, 138). It became the dominant species for over 300 years after 3000 BC along with Betula, Salix, Quercus and Cory/us (ibid, 145). From 2200 BC, there was a general decline in arboreal pollen (ibid, 146). Blanket mire was forming from 3500 BC and dominated the area by 2000 BC (Smith 1998, 197).

5. Loch Craggie (NC 324 055) This small loch lies at 154 metres OD in western Sutherland and about three and a half kilometres southeast of a group of chambered cairns. It is close to the main east/west watershed in northern Scotland. The post-glacial sequence showed a dominance of Pinus pollen, but also local Salix and A/nus with some Quercus and A/nus. An event dated to c.3700 BC, by analogy with the nearby Loch Sionascaig sequence, saw a decline in Salix and A/nus pollen. At the same time, there was an increase in bogland taxa along with Calluna and Graminae pollen (Pennington et al 1972, 241). From about 3400 BC, Calluna increased and the frequency of Pinus fell off sharply, Plantago lanceolata appeared and a single grain of cereal pollen. It was uncertain whether this represented a clearance horizon as there was no change in the frequency of Betula and Quercus pollen. The decline in Pinus pollen may reflect the spread of blanket peat (ibid, 243).

The sequence from the valley side showed that Pinus was dominant by 5000 BC, with A/nus increasing between 4100 and 3800 BC. After this, there was an increased frequency of ground herbs and charcoal with a limited in-washing of mineral sediment. This may have been due to an anthropogenic impact with initial clearance and grazing followed by some crop growing after 3250 BC (ibid, 189). It was only after 2200 BC that Sphagnum and Calluna increased in frequency (ibid, 190). On the valley floor, the present woodland represents regeneration over the last 1000 years. Pinus dominated the area after 5500 BC. This was superseded by A/nus as the major species after 4800 BC forming a mixed woodland with Betula, Ulmus and Cory/us. There then followed a series of apparent clearance episodes. At 4500 BC there was an increase in herbaceous taxa and charcoal followed by a short period of woodland regeneration. A second major disturbance occured for 500 years after 3800 BC. From 3500 BC, Betula was the dominant tree species, although there was regular disturbance of the woodland. Plantago /anceolata was much in evidence between 2500 and 2200 BC (ibid, 188). Small amounts of cereal pollen of the Avena-Triticum group (oats-wheat) were present at about 4270 BC. This is early for domesticated cereals, but may represent the cultivation of small plots (ibid, 199). Carbonised Emmer wheat and naked barley grain with chaff were found in a truncated pit with a coarse sandy ware ceramic. This does raise questions of storage and has been dated to the late 4th millennium BC (Mccullagh 1998, 95).

6. Loch Borralan (NC 262 108) Loch Borralan is situated seven kilometres to the northwest of Loch Craggie. Three chambered cairns are located on its north shore. The loch is shallow and the upper post-glacial deposits had been disturbed by wind. Only the early and late post-glacial levels remained intact (ibid, 240). These revealed a zone of birch and alder with some Salix (ibid, 242). 7. Strath Oykell (NC 329 129) A peat core was taken in the upper part of Strath Oykell in western Sutherland above the Loch Ailsh basin. Pine stumps in the peat were common in the area (ibid, 246). The base of the peat was dated to around 5200 BC by comparison with the Loch Sionascaig sequence. Below the peat was a mineral soil with abundant Cory/us and fem spores with birch, willow and Graminae pollen. This may have represented a valley fen (ibid, 247). Pinus pollen appeared to reach its maximum at

A small area of cultivated soil was found sealed beneath a

52

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead between 3100 and 2800 BC, when compared to the trees in the Badentarbat sequence. After this horizon, there was a steep decline in arboreal pollen and a rise in Plantago lanceolata (ibid, 248).

11. Duartbeg (NC 166 384) The site is a partially infilled lake two and a half kilometres inland from the west coast of Sutherland (Moar 1969, 209). At 4595±135 Cal BC, Betula dominated the arboreal pollen. At 3920±130 Cal BC the frequency of Pinus pollen increased, and Betula decreased. The percentage of pine rapidly dropped off before 2330±140 Cal BC. There was a temporary increase in A/nus pollen at this point (ibid, Fig. 4). It was only at 2040±160 Cal BC that there was a dramatic reduction in the frequency of all arboreal pollen (ibid, 213).

8. Loch Sionascaig (NC 120 135) Loch Sionascaig is a relatively large expanse of water in western Sutherland located about ten kilometres to the west of a major group of chambered cairns. Before 5185±185 Cal BC, pine-birch tree cover was indicated with a lower percentage of Quercus, Ulmus, Salix and some Calluna (ibid, 223). At about 3700 BC, Alnus appeared at a low frequency, but did not establish a firm foothold in the area. Salix was discontinuous and the amount of oak and elm reduced (ibid, 224). Chemical analysis of the soluble iron and manganese content suggested waterlogging. Sodium and potassium levels, as indicators of erosion, pointed to increased rainfall and a rising water table (ibid, 227). From about 3400 BC, the frequency of pine pollen decreased and Calluna, Graminae and sedges rose, with some Plantago lanceolata (ibid, 224). Diatom analysis indicated peat formation and an increasing soil acidity (ibid, 238). The decline in Pinus accelerated after c.2500 BC coinciding with a further rise in Calluna (ibid, 224 ). From 1780± 140 Cal BC, charcoal was present in significant amounts indicating regular burning. It was only found in small quantities below this horizon (ibid, 244).

12. Lochan an Druim (NC 435 568) This site is located on the eastern side of Loch Eriboll on the north coast of Sutherland. Despite a few pine stumps occurring locally, pine and oak never made a significant contribution to the natural woodland. This was composed of, primarily, birch and hazel. This died out from 3700 BC as grasslands and some heaths expanded. No arable cultivation was in evidence until c.800 BC (Birks 1993c, 143). 13. Lochstrathy (NC 796 491) Pine stumps are known in peat bogs from across northern Scotland, except the extreme northwest and most of the north eastern comer. Radiocarbon determinations on a sample of twenty two stumps gave a range of dates between 2405 BC and 1815 BC. At Loch Strathy, between Strathnaver and Strath Halladale, dendrochronological data was collected from forty two stumps (Gear & Huntley 1991, 544). These showed a brief period of the expansion of pine woodland into the extreme northern areas of Scotland for a 400 year period centred around 2000 BC (ibid, 545). It was suggested that a period of drying of the blanket mire surface allowed for pine colonisation. This was followed by a return to wetter conditions and the pine forests retreated altitudinally and latitudinally (ibid, 546).

In summary, blanket bog was forming just before c.4800 BC. This process accelerated after 3700 BC (ibid, 248). From about 2500 BC, the frequency of Pinus pollen dropped off dramatically as Calluna increased (Birks 1993b, 138). From c.1900 BC anthropogenic activity with woodland clearance may be indicated by charcoal in the sequence. After this, there was no regeneration of the trees (Pennington et al 1972, 249). 9. Druim Bad a'Ghail (NC 072 117) In western Sutherland, a peat core was taken from a flattopped ridge between Loch Osgaig and the River Polly, the western outflow from Loch Sionascaig (ibid, 246). The mineral soil at the base of the peat was under the local water table and could not be sampled. Pine trees were growing on the peat just before 2525±175 Cal BC, but declined rapidly as the taxa of blanket peat increased. There was some Plantago lanceolata in this later zone, perhaps indicating some local anthropogenic presence, but it did not increase through time (ibid).

14. Cross Lochs (NC 87 46) This watershed mire of blanket peat and lochs is located in the centre of the Sutherland/Caithness Flow Country, three kilometres west of Strath Halladale. Basin fen peat formation began between 8350±110 Cal BC and 7900±300 Cal BC (Charman 1992, 57). From around 6000 BC there was a decline in open birch woods associated with burning, but there was no firm evidence of an anthropogenic cause. The regeneration of woodland was hampered by wetter conditions with more peat growth after 5610±130 Cal BC and further burning after 5500 BC (ibid, 69). A generally open landscape was indicated from 4300 BC (Charman 1994, 166).

10. Badentarbat (NC 013 101) This site is located about 500 metres from the coast in western Sutherland. Pine wood was dated to between 3015±105 Cal BC and 2770±150 Cal BC (Lamb 1964). A peat core indicated pine declining from around 3700 BC as blanket peat spread (Pennington et al 1972, 245). There was some drying of the peat surface and limited colonisation by pine from the late 4th millennium BC. This was followed by more waterlogging and the final decline of Pinus. Only two isolated grains of Plantago lanceolata pollen were identified suggesting little anthropogenic influence (ibid, 246).

15. Loch of Winless (ND 293 545) The site is a small loch filled with fen peat north of the Wick River and four kilometres east of Loch Watten. Betula, Cory/us, Calluna, Graminae and Cyperaceae pollen were found throughout the sequence (Peglar 1979, 254). Pine and oak were never major components (Birks 1993a, 96). It was only from 2500 BC that Plantago lanceolata, Artemesia, Rumex acetosella and Ranunculus acris suggested possible pasture nearby (ibid, 259). Throughout the sequence, values of arboreal pollen were low making this one of the least forested areas during the Flandrian (ibid, 261 ). The reconstruction was one of birch, hazel and some willow scrub

53

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead in locally sheltered areas amidst widespread grassland, with fems and tall herbs, on well-drained soils (Birks 1993a, 96). The causes of this may have been severe wind exposure, low summer temperatures and overall sunshine levels, a short growing season with frequent storms and the continual presence of sea salt spray (Peglar 1979, 262). The human impact on vegetation in the sequence was never intense, but the site is in an isolated and exposed location and perhaps not a good reflection of human influence (Birks 1993a, 98).

chambered cairns. The sequence in the profile was dominated by birch that was superseded by pine and, later, hazel. Oak and elm were scarce, although there was an intermittent presence. The dominance of pine ended suddenly as the amount ofEricaceous pollen rose (Dumo 1958, 128). 20. Cnoc a Bhroillich (NC 811 452) This site is located between the Strathy and Halladale rivers in the Flow Country of eastern Sutherland. Birch was the most abundant tree, with subsidiary alder (ibid). Birch declined as Ericaceous pollen rose. The amounts of arboreal pollen within the sequence remained low throughout (ibid, Fig 3).

16. Aukhorn (ND 326 636) On the edge of the Moss of Quintfall, in an area of blanket peat, are a series of peat mounds. With an apparent surrounding ditch, they appear to be man-made burial mounds (Robinson 1987, 187). Excavation has shown them to be a natural phenomenon (ibid, 188). A series of cores through the mounds revealed a sequence similar to the Loch of Winless ten kilometres to the south (Peglar 1979). Blanket peat initiation began at around 7300 BC (Robinson 1987, 192), although it was between 6300 and 5800 BC at Mound 3 (ibid, 195). Throughout the sequence, arboreal pollen values were low with Betula and Cory/us being the main species represented (ibid, 193-194). Weeds of pasture and cultivation only appeared in the later part of the sequence dated between 2765±70 Cal BC and c.1400 BC (ibid, 194). There was a substantial amount of charcoal at the soil/peat interface (ibid, 195) and throughout the sequence in Mound I (ibid, 196).

21. Braehour (ND 092 530) Braehour Farm is situated in a basin of deep peat called the Allt-na-Breac Moss to the west of the River Thurso. It is overlooked by Cnoc Freiceadain to the northwest. Birch was the dominant tree in the early part of the sequence, but declined as Ericaceous and varied herbaceous pollen rose in numbers. Oak and elm were scarce (ibid, 130). 22. Flows of Leanas (ND 26 48) The site is located within Achain Moss, four kilometres north of the Camster cairns. The sequence at Cnoc a Bhroillich and Braehour was repeated with abundant birch declining as Ericaceous pollen rose. There were also low counts of mixed oakwood (ibid).

17. The Wick River (ND 35 51) In a study looking at relative sea levels (Dawson & Smith 1997), a pollen sequence was recovered from the valley to the east of Wick. Basal peat began accumulating at c.7500 BC, and slightly later further up the valley (ibid, 63). As at the Loch of Winless (Peglar 1979), the amounts of arboreal pollen were limited (Dawson & Smith I 997, 71). From c.3200 BC, there was an expansion of bogland plants indicating wetter conditions (ibid, 72). Similar sequences with limited amounts of arboreal pollen have also been recovered from Strath Halladale (NC 89 62) (No 24) and Sandwood Bay (NC 22 65) (No 25) (Dawson 1999, Figs 7. I, 7.9).

23. Quintfall (ND 312 632) The samples were taken from beside the Black Loch within the Moss of Quintfall four kilometres northwest of Freswick Bay on the east coast of Caithness. Birch again dominated the sequence, only declining in the face of rising Ericaceous pollen (ibid). 7.2. Discussion

The evidence from across a wide area is limited; however, a number of patterns can be discerned. Blanket peat in the Flow Country of Sutherland and Caithness was forming from the 7th Millennium BC, long before the construction of chambered cairns. A vast swathe of land across the northern part of the study area, including most ofCaithness, appears to have been devoid of dense tree cover. There were only local stands of birch and hazel in sheltered areas (Peglar 1979, 261, Birks 1993a, 96). Further south, the tree cover was denser comprising a mixture of pine and birch and, in some areas, a greater amount of hazel and oak. In the northern area, pine stumps preserved in peat bogs appear to have represented a temporary spread of Pinus into this region for a period of 400 years around 2000 BC (Gear & Huntley 1991).

18. Hill of Harley (ND 365 667) The site is located one and a half kilometres inland from the Freswick Links on the east coast of Caithness. The sequence was similar to that from the Loch of Winless twenty kilometres to the southwest (Peglar 1979). Peat formation commenced at around 5500 BC (Huntley 1995, 8). Throughout the sequence, up until c.2000 BC, levels of arboreal pollen remained low and open grasslands were suggested (ibid, 13). At 2000 BC, conditions appear to have become wetter and the amount of Sphagnum increased (ibid, 15).

Anthropogenic effects on vegetation are difficult to identify. Charcoal found at the basal layers of peat formation (Pennington et al 1972, 244, Charman 1992, 60, Robinson 1987, 195, Smith 1998, 198) may have represented Mesolithic clearance, but this is a richly debated topic (Edwards 1990, see also references in Tipping 1994, 1518).At Achany Glen, it can be argued that small amounts of cereal pollen were present in the levels dated to 4270 Cal BC

The following five sequences from the northeast of the study area had no associated radio carbon dates. They were based on pollen counts rather than frequencies. 19. Loch na Moine (NC 813 321) Loch na Moine is located about four kilometres northwest of the Kinbrace basin, which is itself associated with a group of

54

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

(Smith 1998, 199). This is interestingly early, but wheat and barley do appear to have been cultivated in the valley intermittently between 3700 and 2900 BC (ibid). There was a general decline in arboreal pollen and an increase in bogland taxa from just before 2000 BC across much of the study area. It is uncertain whether this represented clearance or a shift to wetter conditions. Weeds of pasture and cultivation did not appear or increase to any appreciable extent until after 2500 BC in many of the sequences. However, much of the evidence comes from isolated and exposed areas that may not have been intensively occupied in the Neolithic.

Based on this evidence, Tipping (1994, Fig 3) has produced a summary of the major woodland cover across Scotland at about 3000 BC (FIG 20). For northern Scotland, he identified four major zones: open birch/hazel woodland across the north, a birch/hazel/oak zone running down the east coast, a central wooded area of pine/birch and unwooded mountain areas. The cairns show a strong correlation with the first two zones. Only three groups of monuments penetrate further inland into the pine/birch area. Although this may mask sequences at the local level, it does provide a general picture of the major woodland type in different areas and can be used as the basis for analysis.

...

• ~~

A

•

\•:•. • •

•

• . £!• .

•

❖-

Chambered Cairn

A - open birch/hazel B - birch/hazel/oak C - pine/birch

,,,,,..--

7 /

C

/

FIGURE 20 Woodland types in northern Scotland, c. 3000 BC (after Tipping 1994, Fig 3)

55

D- unwooded

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead Wooded

7.3. Analyses Rect. Single Rect Bipartite Polyg. Single Caithness Skelpick Yarrows Camster Assery Stalled

Two basic zones can be identified: areas of relatively high tree cover with pine/birch or birch/hazel/oak and the open woodland with stands of birch and hazel across the north. Cairn Types

Wooded Open Woodland

Round

Long

80 (75) 57 (62)

21 (26) 28 (23)

Open Woodland

3 9 12 14 14 5

5 8 3 10 5 3 6

TABLE 47 Full chamber typology in the environmental zones

x2 = 3.09 (ldt), significant difference - 90%

There is a distinct pattern of chamber types in the two zones (TABLES 45, 46). Rectangular chambers are only found in the wooded zone, along with most of the polygonal forms and chambers with one or two compartments. In the open woodland zone, most of the chambers are of the Camster type with a greater number with three compartments. There is a significant difference between the ranges of chamber forms at the 99.9% confidence level (x2 = 61.77, 2df) and also chamber complexity (x2 = 29.32, 2df). In the full chamber typology (TABLE 47), the single and bipartite rectangular chambers are only found in the wooded zone, and tripartite Camster, Assery and larger stalled chambers in the open woodland zone.

TABLE 42 Cairn types in the environmental zones

Wooded Open Woodland

Simple

Proximal

12 (6) 2 (8)

8 (11) 18 (15)

Proximal/Distal 1 (4)

7 (4)

x2 = 14.97 (2dt), significant difference - 99.9%

TABLE 43 Long cairn forms in the environmental zones

Wooded Open Woodland

No Horns

1 Horn

2 Horns

17 (12) 11 (16)

2 (4) 8 (6)

2 (5) 9 (6)

Cairn Size

x2 = 7.89 (2dt), significant difference - 95%

Large

Medium

Small

25 (20) 10 (15)

42 (41) 28 (29)

13 (19) 19 (13)

TABLE 44 Horned long cairns in the environmental zones Wooded Open Woodland

There are more long cairns in the open woodland zone and round cairns in the wooded zone (TABLE 42)). There is a significant difference between the two ranges at the 90% confidence level (x2 = 3.09, ldf). The more complex proximal and proximal/distal long cairns show a strong pattern in that they tend to be distributed through the open woodland zone (TABLE 43). There is a significant difference between the ranges at the 99.9% confidence level (x2 = 14.97, 2df). A similar pattern can be seen with homed long cairns (TABLE 44) at the 95% confidence level (x2 = 7.89, 2df).

x2 = 6.68 (2dt), significant difference - 90%

TABLE 48 Round cairn sizes in the environmental zones

Wooded Open Woodland

Medium

Small

4 (6)

8 (10) 16 (14)

9 (5) 2 (6)

9 (7)

x2 = 8.43 (2dt), significant difference - 95%

TABLE 49 Long cairn sizes in the environmental zones

Chamber Types

Wooded Open Woodland

Large

Rectangular

Polygonal

Camster

19 (12) 0 (7)

47 (35) 10 (22)

5 (24) 35 (16)

There is a clear pattern between the cairn sizes in the two areas (TABLES 48, 49). The round cairns in the wooded zone and the long cairns in the open woodland zone tend to be larger. There is a significant difference at the 90% confidence level for round cairns (x2 = 6.68, 2df) and 95% for long cairns (x 2 = 8.43, 2df).

x2 = 61.77 (2dt), significant difference- 99.9%

TABLE 45 Chamber forms in the environmental zones 7.4. Conclusions Wooded Open Woodland

Single

Bipartite

Tripartite

16 (14)

43 (33) 14 (24)

5 (17) 24 (12)

7 (9)

Although the environmental evidence in the study area is limited, three areas of major woodland cover can be identified (Tipping 1994, Fig 3). Two basic environmental zones have been identified for analysis. The wooded zone covers the Firthlands and most of the Straths area. A zone with relatively little tree cover spreads across Caithness and through the northern part of the Straths area. There are some

x2 = 29.32 (2dt), significant difference - 99.9%

TABLE 46 Chamber complexity in the environmental zones

56

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead significant differences in the cairn and chamber types between these two areas.

I.

with homed forecourts, are located in the open woodland zone.

The more complex and larger chamber types, and the larger long cairns that have proximal and distal mounds

2.

57

In the wooded areas, the chamber types and long cairns are simpler, but the round cairns tend to be larger.

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

8. Field Methodology 8.1. Research Questions

of this is being grown for paper pulp and consequently the trees are not thinned-out. This can make the woodland almost totally inaccessible. Cairns that could not be reached because of forestry, or other reasons, were not visited, but assessed from a distance. Out of the 198 sites used in the analysis, 16 were assessed from nearby and 2 could not be located. A total of 180 sites, or 91 % of the sample, were physically visited. A further 13 possible sites were visited and 5 more of these assessed from a distance.

In the wider landscape, some regional patterns have emerged in relation to typology. If topography is the missing element in the equation, then the answer may be to investigate the monuments' relationship with the landscape at the local level. Amongst the Orkney-Cromarty cairns, typology alone does not appear to explain the variation in the archaeological record. The analyses in the previous sections indicate that topography, and perhaps also the environment, were important at the regional scale.

8.4. Visibility

At a general level, the monuments are not randomly distributed across the study area. There are some patterns in relation to monument types in the different topographical and environmental zones. There are also areas devoid of monuments. Given the nature of previous research and the questions being asked, the method adopted was to visit the sites and investigate their location within the local setting.

Visibility from monuments forms an important aspect of many locational studies (Fraser 1983, 1988, Bradley et al 1993, Bradley 1994, Tilley 1993, 1994, Fraser 1996, Phillips 1996, 2000). Visual experience makes the greatest impact on the individual in comparison to the other senses. It is through what is visible that information is organised for understanding (Tuan 1977, 10). It can therefore be argued that it is an important factor in monument location. Many studies have concentrated on the visibility from monuments (Fraser 1983, 1988, Bradley et al 1993, Bradley 1994, Tilley 1993, 1994, Phillips 1996, 2000). This has often taken the form of measuring the direction and width of visibility in distance bands in sections around the points of the compass. The data are then presented graphically, either as histograms (Bradley et al 1993, Phillips 1996) or as a pictorial graph of the horizon (Fraser 1988). An individual pattern can be compared against the overall pattern or control samples. Alternatively, visibility can be described and recorded as experience (Tilley 1993, 1994, Fraser 1996). The former method is abstraction in the pursuit of objectivity. It does produce results and reveal patterns, but can distance the monuments from the data making it difficult to conceptualise and qualify visibility. Description alone takes the method to the other extreme: subjectivity. It becomes difficult to quantify the observations and demonstrate significant patterns.

8.2. The Sample.Used in the Study

The majority of the data about the chambered cairns in this region has been gathered from Henshall's surveys (1963, 1972, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995) as these remain the seminal works in this area. The volumes on Caithness (Davidson & Henshall 1991) and Sutherland (Henshall & Ritchie 1995) provide the most up to date information on these counties. The surveys for Ross-shire (Henshall 1963, 1972) have been supplemented by the sites recorded in Royal Commission surveys (RCAHMS 1979a, 1979b) and Woodham's survey of the Black Isle (1956a). The sample covers all the cairns that are thought to have chambers and includes some simple long cairns in which chambers are not known. 8.3.Location and Micro-Topography

Each site was visited individually and aspects of its location recorded. Three basic attributes of location in relation to the local topography were observed: a location on a valley floor, a position on a valley side or a siting on the summit of a ridge or hill. Each monument was walked around at a convenient distance away to assess the nature of its location and any observable associations with natural features. The records consisted of description and sketch maps of the local setting made at the site. The nature of the raw materials used to construct the monuments was also recorded.

The visibility from monuments is only one side of the coin and may not be the only consideration in the choice of location. Richards (1992a, 70-71) has stressed the special social context and consequences of visiting monuments. It may have been a heavily sanctioned activity and perhaps only allowed at specific times or for specific individuals. Bergh (1997, 3), has emphasised one aspect of mortuary architecture in making the dead visible in the everyday landscape. He argued that the visibility of monuments is "an important means by which it was possible to manipulate peoples (sic) apprehension of the surrounding landscape,

Some monuments are located within areas of forestry. Much

58

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead and thereby of their world in both a physical and mental sense" (ibid). Only a few studies have attempted to quantify the visibility of monuments without the use of computer generated GIS systems as, potentially; this involves an impractical amount of field observation. Many of the Cuil Irra passage graves of Ireland are located on hilltops and are visible from great distances. Bergh (1995, 130ft) concerned himself with establishing the areas at close range from where the monuments could not be seen because of the ground slope below the cairns and the length of the views involved. He followed a simple procedure that involved walking towards the cairns from an accessible point of good visibility and noting where visual contact was lost. From these recordings, polygons of areas where the monument could not be seen from around each site were produced (ibid, Fig 17.7). A study in Norway (Gansum et al 1997), although concerned with mapping the view from sites (ibid, 15), actually produced plots of where monuments are visible from (ibid, Fig 7). This was related to a hierarchy of 'landscape rooms' delimited by natural features such as hills and ridges, or even smaller terrain elements if standing at a low viewpoint (ibid, 50). On Rousay, Davidson (1979) mapped the areas visible from each cairn by standing at the sites and recording the visible landscape on 1:63 630 scale map overlays (ibid, 14).

8.5. Inter-visibility With the environmental evidence indicating that there was limited tree cover in a large part of the study area, this was seen as an important aspect. Inter-visibility between monuments and prominent landscape features has been considered in other studies (Tilley 1993, 1994), but demonstrating it has been hampered by not fully taking into account the limitations of local vegetation. Where views were blocked by modem forestry or buildings, the possibilities of inter-visibility have been reconstructed with maps using the method outlined by Burl (1981, 257)

8.6. Orientations and Alignments Orientations could only be recorded at sites with an identifiable chamber and/or passage. It was measured using a prismatic compass along the centre of the passage and the target of orientation was also noted. With a good prismatic compass, it has been estimated that an accuracy of ±2° is possible (Bergh 1995, 123). At some monuments, the passage could not be identified because of rubble infilling. An orientation was established on site using the plans in Henshall (1963, 1972, Davidson & Henshall 1991, Henshall & Ritchie 1995). This method was also used for the sites that were not visited. The axes of long cairns and any orientations on natural features were also recorded.

Given the restrictions on time and resources, Davidson's method (ibid) was used in the field, with map overlays and a prismatic compass. Although his project was concerned with the areas visible from the cairns, plots of the visibility of the monuments can also be produced. The method is not exact (ibid) and relies on a degree of judgement, especially where long distances are involved. However, it does provide an amount of quantitative visibility data with a qualitative element in the form of polygons when reproduced on a map. These differ from the Renfrew's Thiessen polygons (1973, 1976) in that they are not theoretical constructs based solely on maps, but relate to what can actually be observed in the landscape. 1:50 000 OS maps were used because of the amount of visibility in many cases. At sites where visibility was partially or totally blocked by forestry or other obstructions, the visibility was estimated by looking around the area of the individual site. Incidences of this are detailed in Appendix 1. How the monuments appear in the landscape was also noted, especially the cresting and false cresting of cairns. This was achieved by viewing the sites from accessible points within the area of visibility.

Very little is known of any possible astronomical alignments amongst the Orkney-Cromarty tradition on the mainland. Only the monument on the summit of Cnoc na Maranaich (CAT 20) has been examined (Thom & Thom 1978, 171, Thom et al 1990, 302) where a single standing stone is set six metres in front of the cairn. An orientation on an horizon notch towards the northwest and the midsummer setting sun has been calculated (ibid). As all the monuments in the tradition were being investigated, it was decided to conduct a preliminary survey of any possible astronomical alignments using simple methods. If any significant patterns were observed, other researchers using a more accurate methodology could further investigate these. Indeed, it has been argued (Burl 1982, 147) that many monuments may only make general references to celestial events, rather than incorporating exact alignments. At this general level, summer and winter solar alignments can be considered along with orientations on specific events. The angle to the horizon along the passage orientation was measured from the entrance, or the estimated entrance in the case of damaged sites, using a hand held Clinometer. At sites where the horizon could not be seen because of forestry or other obstructions, the angle has been calculated from maps following Burl's method used for the Clava Cairns (1981, 257). This was also done at the sites that were not visited. Burl used 1:50 000 maps for his calculations (ibid), for this project 1:25 000 maps were used. The declinations have been calculated using the tables in Thom (1967, 18) allowing for a ±2° margin of error. The methodology using hand held instruments is reflected in the scale of these analyses. This includes not only general alignments and the extremes of the solar and lunar cycles, but also a consideration of the direction. It should be noted that all solar alignments have the

GIS was not used for two major reasons. Northern Scotland is a glacial landscape. It is littered with drumlins, kames and other glacial mounds. Some of the monuments are located within areas of these features such as Bilbster, Camster Long, Camster Round and Garrywhin (CAT 5, 12, 13, 26). GIS relies on a database of maps and many of these glacial features are too slight to be recorded on them. However, they do affect visibility. The second reason relates to the lack of research in northern Scotland where very little is known or recorded about the monuments' location and visibility. GIS works best where a body of information exists and it can be directed towards specific questions (Vince Gaffney pers comm) such as recent work on Orkney (Woodman 2000).

59

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

potential to be lunar as well, and the extremes of the minor southern and northern moon are within the solar range.

The control samples would have to relate to the immediate area around the monuments. One method at this scale is to choose points at a set distance away around each site (Bradley et al 1993, 271, Bradley 1994, 380, Phillips 1996, 30). This has the advantage that an element of randomness is retained. However, it can lead to situations that do not relate to the actual location chosen or may even present totally illogical sitings. This was found when the method was used for the Clava project (Phillips 1996). The Avielochan Clava passage grave (INV 5) is placed on one of a series of glacial mounds (ibid, 54). According to the methodology, the control samples were taken at four points 100 metres away around the site. As the cairn is sited prominently on a glacial mound, it would have been more revealing to investigate why this one was chosen instead of the other mounds available as potential locations. Illogical locations can arise when the methodology

8.7. Control Samples

In arguing that the location of a monument was related to particular choices, it is important to investigate other possible sites. Looking at a range of available possibilities may reveal what is important about the site that was chosen, shedding light on the purposefulness of location. There are various methods to determine the location of control samples. Randomly selected points, weighted to avoid woodland and large bodies of water, can be calculated (see Shennan 1988). This was deemed impractical given the size of the study area and the time and resources available.

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60

Cairn

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

the groups, such as North-West Sutherland and North-East Caithness, are only a series of mostly unrelated sites; they have been grouped together for ease of description and analysis.

demands that a random control sample be placed on a steep slope, in a river or even over a cliff. These would never have been seen as potential locations. With this experience in mind, it was decided to choose up to four similar locations within the vicinity of each site where it would be practical to construct a chambered cairn that would stand. These were based on the basic attributes of location: valley floor, valley side and ridge or hilltop. Although the element of randomness is lost to some extent, these locations relate more to logical choices. Problems can still arise where there are no similar locations available such as an isolated hilltop and, in many cases, less than four suitable control sample sites were available. The observations recorded at the control samples were aspects of the location and microtopography, visibility and inter-visibility. A full record of the control samples is contained in Appendix 1.

The Firthlands Zone 1. Inverness-shire 2. The Black Isle 3. South Ross 4. Easter Ross 5. The Domoch Firth The Straths Zone 6. Strath Fleet 7. Lairg 8. Strath Brora 9. Strath ofKildonan IO. Kinbrace l I. Dunbeath 12. Loch Assynt 13. North-West Sutherland I 4. Strathnaver

8.8. Geographical Groups

The Caithness Zone 15. Cnoc Freiceadain 16. Beinn Freiceadain l 7. Sordale Hill 18. North-East Caithness 19. Loch Watten 20. Yarrows

The monuments are spread across a wide area. To aid description and analysis, they can be split into a series of geographical groups (TABLE 50 and FIG 2 I). Many of the monuments appear to fall naturally into groups such as Loch Assynt, Lairg, the Strath of Kildonan and Kinbrace. Although the division of the Caithness cairns may seem complex, this is based on the local topography. Some of

TABLE 50 The geographical groups (see FIG 21)

61

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Part2 The Firthlands 9. Inverness-shire 9.1. The Landscape

9.2. The Cairns

At the heads of the Moray and Beauly Firths, a series of river valleys drain from south-west to north-east including Strathnaim, the River Ness (running out of the Loch Ness and the Great Glen) and the River Beauly (FIG 22). In between are a series of high ridges covered in rough pasture and heather moorland, with some modem forestry. This is towards the western extreme of the distribution of the Early Bronze Age Clava Cairns which have their main concentration in Strathnairn to the southeast. There are five isolated Orkney-Cromarty cairns in the area, which appear to be the southern most outliers of the tradition.

Belladrum South (INV 12) No cairn is known at this site, but the remains of a single compartment polygonal chamber are located in a field above the Belladrum Bum, a tributary of the Beauly River. On the three occasions that the site was visited the field was in crop, so it was assessed from a distance. The remains are located on the eastern side of a slight ridge between two stream valleys and overlooking the Belladrum Bum. Visibility is difficult to reconstruct because of extensive woodland in the area. It appears to dominate the area to the east and north along the Belladrum Bum. Essicb Moor (INV 31) Although for the purposes of analysis this site has been classified as a double homed long cairn which has both proximal and distal mounds, it is

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Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead actually three large oval cairns connected by low sections of rubble. There is a rectangular chamber of uncertain complexity in each oval cairn. The site is located on a small linear knoll, crested on the ridge between the River Ness and Strathnaim. Locally, it overlooks the upper course of a stream and relatively level upland pasture to the south and east. There are wide views of the Black Isle to the northwest and distant mountains to the southwest. To the north and west, the site is only visible locally as the ground level drops off in these directions. There are extensive views to the northeast towards Inverness, the mouth of the River Ness and the Black Isle. The cairn is placed at the most prominent point in the local vicinity. From a location to the south, views to the north are constrained. To the north, east and west the ground level drops off and prominence and cresting from the opposite directions are lost. Leachkin is visible to the north and Tomfat Plantation would have been visible to the south.

Reelig (INV 46) The site is located within the remnants of a formal garden. On one side it backs onto an overgrown yew tree grove, and neglected woodland on the other side. A large cairn was destroyed in about 1780 when the garden was laid out (Ross 1925, 199). The chamber stones were rearranged at the same time to form a rectangular "Giant's Grave" (Barron 1880, 168). However, the three slabs at the back of the chamber may be in situ (Henshall 1963, 384). The siting is at the base of the break of slope close to where the Moniack Bum emerges from the higher ground. The estimated views appear to be to the north across part of the Moniack Valley before it joins the Beauty Firth. The orientation is slightly south of east onto the valley side, with a calculated alignment on the rising sun. Tomfat Plantation (INV 52) This site is located within a large tract of modem forestry and was not visited. When this was planted, a rescue excavation was conducted (Woodham & Woodham 1964). The cairn material had been removed, but the monument appears to have been a medium-sized round cairn. The chamber is rectangular in form with two compartments. It is crested on the northern side of the summit of the ridge between Strathnaim and the River Ness. Views appear to be both to the north over Inverness and the head of the Moray Firth, and to the south over part of Strathnaim. The Essich Moor long cairn would have been visible 3 km to the west and Leachkin 8 km to the northwest. The passage is orientated north of east with a calculated solar rising alignment.

The cairn axis is slightly east of north and points in the general direction of a prominent summit on the southern horizon called Stac na Cathaig. The southern chamber is also orientated towards, but not directly onto, this hill. The central chamber is aligned towards the southeast. When viewed from the stream valley on this side, the cairn appears as a series of three mounds. Indeed, the slightly curved shape of the outcrop on which the monument is located appears to form a wide forecourt with a chamber entrance at the centre. The northern chamber points to the northeast on no specific target. This chamber appears to be aligned on the rising major northern moon. Leachkin (INV 38) This large round cairn is located on the southern side of the saddle of a ridge between the River Ness and the Beauly Firth. Although the cairn material has been removed, a few stones of a possible boulder kerb can be traced around the remains of a large polygonal bipartite chamber. To the southwest rises the summit ofDunain Hill and the Craig Phadric Iron Age vitrified fort to the southeast. They restrict the visibility in these directions. This part of the ridge is cloaked in gorse and birch wood and visibility could only be directly observed to the southeast. However, the mountains of Ross-shire would have been visible to the north over the Beauty Firth. The cairn is very visible from the Ness Valley and even the centre of the city of Inverness. Essich Moor and possibly Tomfat Plantation are visible to the south and east. The passage is aligned slightly south of east onto no observable target and has a rising solar alignment.

9.3. Cairns and Chambers

Where cairns can be observed, these are either large or medium sized. Essich Moor is unique in form having triple mounds and three chambers, as well as two homed forecourts. From the southeast, the cairn shape appears to form a third forecourt. Both rectangular and polygonal chambers are present. The bipartite polygonal chamber at Leachkin is of the Skelpick type.

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Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead south beach of Transect 1. Given its high quality, this may have been imported from Arran (Andy Jones pers comm). A farmer who found a polished stone axe in Field 180 approximately twenty years ago donated it to the project. Because of its special nature it was added to the assemblage. It was composed of an Amygdaloidal Basalt that outcrops on the west coast of Scotland (Alec Kenyon-Smith pers comm). However, two pieces of similar material were found in the study area, so it may be a locally worked glacial erratic. A hammer stone was recovered in the beach area of Munlochy Bay in Transect 3 (Field 259). 44. 7. Density of All Material The areas of densest concentration tended to be on the coast (FIG 181). There were also concentrations in the Killen Valley in Transect 3 and around the excavated Neolithic house in Transect 2. Areas with a lesser concentration of material tended to be inland. These were the fields sampled on the ridge; the upper reaches of the stream valleys running down into Munlochy Bay; the fields above Munlochy Bay; the area above the Easter Alnessferry cairn in Transect 3; and the ridge in Transect 5. Transect 1 The density of material was highest on the southern raised beach and the south coastal plain. Moving northwards, this dropped off as the land rises up to the ridge. On the north slope there was a concentration around the Alcaig Manse Clava Cairn, but then the density dropped off again on the coastal plain and raised beach.

Transect2 There was a relatively low density on the south beach. The slope inland from this could not be sampled. A low density was also evident through the upper reaches of the stream valleys running down into Munlochy Bay and on the ridge. The amount of material increased in the Kinbeachie Valley and around the excavated house. The highest density of material can be seen on the north beach. Transect3 Although it was not possible to sample the ridge in this transect, a consistent pattern can be seen. Higher densities of material on the beaches dropped off when moving inland and up slope. The density increased again within both the north and south valleys. Transect 4 It was not possible to sample the ridge in this transect, but there was an appreciable difference between the northern and southern sides, with higher densities to the south. Transect 5 There .was a consistent pattern with the density of material dropping off inland from the coast. The greatest concentration of material was to the south side of the peninsula. Discussion The pattern revealed by this analysis appears to suggest that the greatest presence and activity was on the raised beaches, in the Killen and Kinbeachie valleys and to the south in Transects 4 and 5. Orkney-Cromarty cairns overlook many of these areas. There was also an appreciable presence on the

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appreciable quantities further inland. There was less quartz on the northern side of the ridge.

Transect 5 There was a similar pattern in the decreasing density of both flint and quartz away from the coast. However, the density of quartz was greater than flint, except on the north coast.

The areas of lesser activity were the ridge, the north coast in Transects 1 and 4 and the southern stream valleys and beach in Transect 2. On this south beach there may have been a sampling problem due to the micro-topography. The only fields available were in what would have been a small bay with higher sea levels in prehistory. To each side of this were raised level areas, but these were under pasture.

Discussion A different pattern can be seen in each transect, but there are similar aspects that can be observed, especially between Transects 1 and 2. The density on the ridge was relatively low, and in areas with little flint there was a greater amount of quartz. There was also an overall greater density of flint, except in Transect 5. This can also be seen when the ratio between flint and quartz in each zone is considered (FIG 184).

44.8. Density of Flint and Quartz The highest densities of flint were essentially coastal, except on the north coast in Transects 1 and 3. Other areas with a high density were on the north slope in Transect 1 close to the Alcaig Manse Clava ring cairn, around the Kinbeachie house and parts of the Killen Valley. Low concentrations were apparent on the Millbuie Ridge and the upper reaches of the southern stream valleys in Transect 2 (FIG 182).

The overall pattern in relation to the location of the cairns is that the areas overlooked by the monuments had higher densities of material, especially flint, and the areas around the cairns less (FIGS 185, 186). In Transect 5, where there are no associated cairns, there was a greater use of quartz. Areas around the Early Bronze Age Clava type cairns showed a reasonable density of flint.

The presence and density of quartz followed an almost opposite pattern being found in areas where the density of flint was low. A major exception to this was the southern beach and coastal plain in Transect 1 (FIG 183).

44.9. Density of Retouched Material

Transect 1 The density of flint decreased moving northwards from the southern raised beach, across the coastal plain and up the south slope of the ridge. It increased on the ridge and the north slope, was not found on the northern coastal plain and only occurred at a low density on the north beach.

The higher densities of retouched material tended to be in coastal and valley areas (FIG 187).

Transect 1 The density of it declined with distance from the south coast, but increased again on the ridge and north slope. Transect 2 Retouched material peaked in the north valley and on the north coast; there was no such material present on the ridge.

The density of quartz decreased northwards from the south beach and only increased again on the northern coastal plain and beach. The density of flint was generally greater, except in this northern section.

Transect3 Retouched material was most in evidence on the south beach and in the valleys.

Transect 2 The density of flint decreased dramatically from the south beach up to the ridge. It increased across the north valley and down to the north beach.

Transect 4 It was present in most zones, but peaked in the south valley.

No quartz was found on the south beach and it showed low densities in the other zones in this transect. It was found in greater quantities than flint in the south valley and on the ridge.

Transect 3 The pattern in Transect 3 follows very closely that of all material (c/FIG 181). The density was greater on the beaches and in the valley zones, and in each case the flint density was greater than that of quartz. Transect 4 The density of flint dropped off steadily from the south coast and in all zones it was greater than that of quartz. There was little quartz on the south beach, although it was present in

Transect 5 Small amounts were found on the north beach. Discussion The density of retouched pieces follows closely the pattern seen for the density of all material. There was an appreciable amount around the Clava Cairns in Transect l, but the highest densities occurred in areas overlooked by the OrkneyCromarty cairns: the south beach and coastal plain in Transect 1; the north valley in Transect 2; and the south beach and valleys in. Transect 3. Very little retouched material was found in Transect 5 which has no associated cairns.

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D

C

A

N

FIGURE 183 Density of quartz/ha

287

A

Landscapes of the Living, Landscapes of the Dead

Transect I Flint

s

2 N

0

Quartz 2 4

A

B

C

D

C

B

A

Transect 2 Flint

s_D_

*

"C

=

2

~

;:

N

0

0 0

Quartz

:;;

2 4

A

Flint Quartz

*

s [] A

C

□ C

E

*

D

•

[] ...E

c "' ... "' 0

D

E

*

C

A

Transect 3

•

□ D□ E

*

C

t:

N

A

Transect 4 6 4

Flint Quartz

*

s

• £

"' ... "'

... 0

A

C

E

D

2

[] []

N

0 2

C

A

Transect 5 2

Flint

0

Quartz

2 4

A

C

D

C

A

FIGURE 184 Ratio of flint to quartz

288

Beach

I I Coastal Plain

I

Slope

Ridge

Slope

Coastal Plain

I Beach

.,..?"~---~ 2001

C

0-+--"~z.._"""-..£...,"""-"""-..L.l'--,~--~~

'T1 C)

.....

50

1

2

I

3

4

~

-

I

KM

5

6

7

>r9

8

A

Kilcoy S

B

Kiko)' N

C

Carn Urnan (Clava Type)

D

Akaig Manse (Clava Type)

N

Transect I

t--.

§

00

~

V,

::i...

~

i

~ ;:s,.

~~

~

-