Land of Strangers: The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia 0231197551, 9780231197557

Table of contents :
Contents
Acknowledgments
A Note on Conventions
Introduction
One. The Chinese Law: The Origins of the Civilizing Project
Two. Xinjiang as Exception: The Transformation of the Civilizing Project
Three. Frontier Mediation: The Rise of the Interpreters
Four. Bad Women and Lost Children: The Sexual Economy of Confucian Colonialism
Five. Recollecting Bones: The Muslim Uprisings as Historical Trauma
Six. Historical Estrangement and the End of Empire
Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

Land of Strangers

LAND STRANGERS The Civilizing Project in Qing Central Asia

ERIC SCHLUESSEL

COLUM IA UNI ERSITY PRESS NEW YORK

Columbia University Press Publishers Since 1893 New York C i ester est Susse u olumbia e u Co yri t Columbia University Press All ri ts reserve Library of Con ress Catalo in in Publi ation Data Names: S luessel Eri aut or Title: Lan of stran ers : t e ivili in ro e t in in Central Asia Eri S luessel Des ri tion: New York : Columbia University Press In lu es biblio ra i al referen es an in e I enti ers: LCCN rint LCCN ebook IS N ar over IS N a erba k IS N ebook Sub e ts: LCSH: in ian Uy ur i i u C ina History in ian Uy ur i i u C ina Et ni relations in ian Uy ur i i u C ina Politi s an overnment Ui ur Turki eo le History C ina Colonies C ina in ian Uy ur i i u Asia Central Relations C ina C ina Relations Asia Central C ina History in ynasty Classi ation: LCC DS S S rint LCC DS S ebook DDC LC re or available at tt s: l n lo ov LC ebook re or available at tt s: l n lo ov Columbia University Press books are rinte on ermanent an urable a i free a er Printe in t e Unite States of Ameri a Cover esi n: Milen a Nan Ok Lee Cover ima e: ilin ual C a atay C inese o ument ate P oto by aut or

To Gwen olyn w o revels in t e mar inalia

Contents

A knowle

ments i

A Note on Conventions

iii

Intro u tion T e C inese Law: T e Ori ins of t e Civili in Pro e t in ian as E e tion: T e Transformation of t e Civili in Pro e t rontier Me iation: T e Rise of t e Inter reters a

omen an Lost C il ren: T e Se ual E onomy of Confu ian Colonialism Re olle tin ones: T e Muslim U risin s as Histori al Trauma

Histori al Estran ement an t e En of Em ire Con lusion [ vii ]

Notes iblio ra In e

[ viii ]

y

A knowle

ments

To my ollea ues w o ave isa eare or are im risone or silen e : I wis t at I oul name you ere an elebrate your s olars i I o e t at some ay you will rea t is book an t at w en you o it leases you You nurture me you were atient w en I was ea stron subtle w en I was bras You tau t me ili en e e i ation an ommitment to istori al an s ienti trut T ank you for wel omin me in T ank you to Gwen olyn Colla o wit out w om none of t is is wort it You us me to be better as a s olar an as a erson an to seek out moments of oy T ank you for your ers i a ious eye an ui k min an for insistin t at I take breaks T is book is t e ro u t of many years of ot er eo le s kin ness Members of t e ori inal issertation ommittee tolerate t e moun s of a er t at I o asionally wa e u an lobbe a a ar ly in t eir ire tions T ank you to Mark Elliott for takin me on as a stu ent us in me to onsi er t e osition an im a t of s olarly work an insist in on ilolo i al ri or You were t ere for me urin some of t e ar est times in t is ro ess an I will never for et it T ank you to Mi ael S onyi w o s owe me ow to buil an ar ument t at mi t wit stan is vi orous uestionin el e en less ueries about u lin t rou lo al ar ives an mo ele a oyful an umane rofessionalism Il ik ell r Hann was resent in t is work from its very on e tion Her insi tful met o olo i al an em iri al riti ues enri e t e ar ument [i ]

reatly ensurin t at it remaine roun e in et no ra y an te tual s olars i w ile en a in wisely wit t eory illiam Alfor w o is a rofoun ly benevolent in ivi ual saw t e value in t is work s un erlyin ro e t an en oura e me to ursue a more is i line om arison rom t e a e before Harvar t e umi ays of In iana I must t ank Gar ner ovin on w o tau t me in ian istory an oliti s but ust as im ortantly let me lay in t e reat san bo of so ial t eory Mu of t is book is a workin out of uestions t at I be an to ask be ause of Gar ner Devin De eese not only tau t me C a atay an all sorts of t in s about Na s ban s but was kin enou to rea a raft of a ter all of fourteen years after I rst walke into is lassroom It as been a reat leasure to re onne t wit C risto er Atwoo w o un er stan s w at kin of book t is is Many ot er establis e s olars ave iven t eir time an e ort to su ort my ma a er amon t em P r Cassel Cemal afa ar Ablet amalov ames Millwar Carla Na i A me Ra ab Davi Ro bur ir it S lyter un Su awara Donal Sutton Onuma Taka iro an iu Yuanyuan Yet s e ial t anks surely o to eeler T a kston on w ose sofa I learne not only to u le t rou a te t in C a atay but to ras it I o e sin erely to ay t eir eneros ity forwar T ere is no reativity wit out a ommunity an I am fortunate to be art of a enerous one So many ours of intelle tual ferment were s ent in t e om any of ot er true believers in t is ui oti enter rise not least amon t em Gre ory A no enov at erine Ale an er Elise An erson Sara ramao Ramos Davi ro y Darren yler elle C eves Sakura C ristmas rian Cwiek Maura Dykstra Devin it eral os ua reeman illy ren elly Hammon ustin a obs Ma abe eli er Ni olas on tovas en Levey Eve M Glynn Aysima Mirsultan Anne So ie Pratte Davi Porter Ma Oi tmann Gul ana Salim an Rune Steenber Davi Strou Hanna T eaker Rian T um ei ie Tsai Noriko Unno Ni o las almsley an in en S e ial t anks to Mira enia S wer a w o volunteere to rea t is s ambles of a book t e weeken before it was ue Many of us met un er a ur osefully va ue rallyin ry New Dire tions an t e romise of sna ks or else be ause of our uestionable e ision to stu y Inner Asian istory an ulture e seem re eate ly to emonstrate t e ower of ommunity of enerosity an olle iality to raise all of us u an el us a ieve t e im ossible w i is re isely ow some [ ]

ori inally ara teri e t e on e t of t is book T ank you for rea in t e rafty a ters t at emer e over t e years but t ank you also as times ave rown arker for stan in u for w at you know to be ri t T at is t e kin of s olarly ommunity I want to be art of rien s an ollea ues at t e University of Montana in t e De artments of History an Politi al S ien e an beyon lent time an atien e to t is ro e t T ank you es e ially to Claire Ar enas Ab is ek C atter ee ra Clou o n E lin Robert Greene Tobin Miller S earer an o y Pavila k for un erstan in T ank you to t e ore members of t e Montana East Asia orks o or MEA : rian Dow le Ma ie Greene an Rob Tu k I am la t at we value one anot er as s olars an as uman bein s Time s ent wit you over Rob s unfairly oo ookin rian s ba kyar in ners or eein into t e mountains to meet Ma ie alfway as meant t e worl to me Mu of t e t inkin be in t is book laye out in onversa tion wit my stu ents at Montana as we tra ke atterns of an e a ross t e broa swee of C inese istory talke t rou Neo Confu ian iloso y or riti ue t eories of nationalism If you rea t is lease un er stan t at it is a sin ular rivile e to know you an work wit you Take a moment to look east alon t e Clark ork River into t e s a e between t e mountains an onsi er t e mystery T e nal raft of t is book was om lete urin resear leave un er a Mellon ellows i at t e Institute for A van e Stu y w ere onversations wit Ni ola i Cosmo arl Gert an Ly ia Liu es e ially in uen e its om osition Resear an writin ave been ai for in various ways by numerous rants an fellows i s: a ellows i for Assistant Professors from t e An rew Mellon oun ation resear an works o rants from t e Ameri an Coun il of Learne So ieties an Henry Lu e oun ation a So ial S ien e Resear Coun il International Dissertation Resear ellows i a fa ulty evelo ment rant from t e De artment of History at t e Univer sity of Montana a Yama u i un rant from t e Mans el Center at t e University of Montana a one mont resi en e at t e Yuelu A a emy at Hunan University travelin fellows i s from Harvar University t e eat er ea Center for International A airs t e airbank Center for C i nese Stu ies an t e Asia Center an a fellows i from t e National En ow ment for t e Humanities e i ate to translatin t e 7čUҸNKL ҇DPҸGҸ T e last few weeks of writin were s ent as a s olar in resi en e at t e Man ester C ina Institute [ i]

T ank you to Caelyn Cobb an Moni ue riones at Columbia University Press w o us ere t is book to rint wit t e utmost s ee an rofes sionalism Two anonymous rea ers enri e t e te t by rovi in two ra i ally i erent ers e tives on it I take full res onsibility for any errors t at remain an ask ot ers to take t em u as rom ts for furt er resear T ank you nally to my fat er Ri ar S luessel my mot er Cynt ia Conti an my brot er E mun S luessel w o tau t me to are to work ar an to remain true to my rin i les T is as been su a lon our ney an I am la t at you are ere to s are it Of ourse I woul be remiss not to a knowle e t e sin ular ontributions of an P our ouse ol a ents of aos T e sour es for t is work are ra e t ey are a e s rat es on mouse eaten s ra s of rusti a er t at smell like s ee an eat No neatly sorte ase les reet t e istorian of Tur an An in ivi ual o ument mi t be torn in alf intentionally or t rou some uman error an tu ke in t e fol of anot er a or in to some obs ure lo i Stories be in or en or i k u in t e mi le of t e a tion an t e istorian is lu ky to n a w ole narrative a ka e an waitin Even t en alf of t e story may be a e e tion Su is life: a olla e of letters ut o alfway t rou wit lines on every olor of a er interse tin at o an les an it is beautiful T ank you all for s arin t is loak of ra s wit me May ot ers ull at t e t rea s until everyt in omes un one a ain

[ ii ]

A Note on Conventions

T is book works between several lan ua es an tra itions some of w i may be obs ure to t e rea er C inese rei n ates an Hi ri ates ave bot been onverte to t eir e uivalents in t e Gre orian alen ar Most of t is story takes la e urin t e Ton i abbreviate in t is book s en notes as T Guan u or G an uanton or T rei ns an in t e years of t e Hi ri It ontinues in t e era of t e Re ubli of C ina Min uo or MG omen in in o uments were fre uently i enti e only by t eir sur name followe by t e wor shi ei shi t en is rou ly e uivalent to Ms ei or t e woman ei A e as re or e in C inese sour es is re kone in sui A erson is one sui ol at t e moment of birt an onse uently may be one or two years ol er in estern years ol t an t ey woul be in sui Yamen was t e term use for t e o e of any in o ial Terminolo y for in ranks an titles in eneral follows t at rovi e by runnert an Ha elstrom w i alt ou somew at anti uate is om re ensive enou to in lu e t e terms of lo al a ministration an re e ts a ertain un erstan in of t e in overnment aroun t e time t is story took la e In t e late in Tur an was a ire tly a ministere refe ture zhili ting an its i est o ial a rst lass sub refe t I t erefore refer to im as t e refe t Un er t e Tur an refe t was t e subor inate [ iii ]

o e of t e Pi an sub istri t ma istrate xunjian In Pi an was elevate to t e level of a ounty xian formin S ans an County an t e sub istri t ma istrate was ma e a full ounty ma istrate After t e in ai Revolution of an t e fall of t e in Tur an was ma e a ounty e ual to S ans an an its refe t a ma istrate Tur an was lo ate in one of four a ministrative units alle ir uits dao ea le by an inten ant daotai Tur an was in t e en i Cir uit of in ian rovin e an t e ot ers were t e Aksu as ar an Ili Tarba atai Cir uits T ose inten ants re orte to a rovin ial overn ment in t e a ital of Di ua mo ern r m i ea e by a overnor xunfu T e overnor s imme iate subor inates in lu e a nan ial om missioner buzhengshi an a u i ial ommissioner anchashi I ave osen to resent names an wor s in t e various lan ua es in t is book in ways t at rea ers will o efully not n alienatin C inese is transliterate a or in to t e Pinyin system or Arabi Persian an C a atay I use a mo i e version of t e system of t e International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies for Man u M llen or an a anese He burn Dia riti s ave been minimi e as mu as ossible As minority eo le in C ina know well usin C inese to ren er lon names t at in lu e soun s not en ountere in Man arin often yiel s even lon er an unwiel ier results T is was true in late in in ian as well w ere t e Turki an Islami names t at we en ounter in C inese in t e ar ive sometimes barely resemble w at eo le alle t emselves Hel fully I ave foun o uments in t e Tur an ar ive t at resent Tur o Islami names an t eir C inese e uivalents si e by si e rovi in a rela tively systemati un erstan in of ow Turki s ee soun s were ren ere into C inese On t at basis I resent t e most likely Turko Islami name if it an be e i ere alon si e its C inese transliteration in t e rst instan e for e am le Raw alla Ruo an le I follow a similar sys tem for la e names in w i ase I favor t e name as it was ren ere in C a atay over t at use in C inese

[ iv ]

Intro u tion

AT THE END of t e nineteent entury a rou of elite men from C ina aine ontrol over a Muslim ma ority re ion of Central Asia an attem te to transform it a or in to t eir own vision of an i eal Confu ian so iety T is book es ribes t e rami ations of t is ro e t for or inary eo le It ar ues t at t is e ort to transform Muslims into Confu ians s a e t e so ial relations i s between eo le w o arti i ate in i erent reli ious tra itions an w o s oke i erent lan ua es Instea of t e assimilation t at t is ivili in ro e t s en ineers inten e it ro u e estran ement as t e ro e t simultaneously intensi e t e ine ualities an every ay violen e t at ty i e t e new era imbue t em wit new meanin s an rovi e a owerful new lan ua e wit w i to navi ate t em Peo le use its i eolo y an institutions to oli e new so ial boun aries an arti ulate ommunal i entities in ways t at bot resiste C inese omina tion an were s a e by it New or reima ine myt s of ommon es ent re e ne t e boun aries of t e Muslim ommunity T e settin of t is istory of so io ultural an e an t e every ay is a la e t at istory writin an t e o ular ons iousness un erstan mainly t rou ran oliti al narratives: in ian in ian or East Turkestan is a re ion t at is ulturally lin uisti ally an istori ally tie to t e so ieties an states of Central Asia As of t e turn of t e last en tury t e ma ority of its eo le s oke an wrote in Turki lan ua es an ra ti e a form of Sunni Islam eavily in uen e by Su sm Yet t ese [ ]

Turki Muslim eo le a ome un er t e ontrol of a C ina base state t e in em ire ile in territory later e ne t e boun aries of t e mo ern C inese nation state t e em ire was rule not by et ni ally C inese Han eo le but by a Man u royal ouse wit Inner Asian ori ins In t is multiet ni em ire on uere in ian an a en e it to t e realm as one of several istin t territories ke t se arate from C ina ro er an rule t rou lo al institutions an aristo rats mu as Mon olia was A military overnor ensure t e territory s se urity but by an lar e lo al Turki Muslims rule on be alf of t e in an wit in t e boun s of Islami law T e mi nineteent entury owever saw a series of wars break out a ross t e in an t e em ire lost ontrol of nearly a t ir of its territory in ian s eo le rebelle in an a series of Islami states emer e in t e va uum forme by t e wit rawal of in ower In t e em ire returne but in a new form: T e ian Army w i was foun e in in t e rovin e of Hunan a fou t an efeate many of t e em ire s internal enemies an now it rea e in ian on a mission of re on uest However t e ian Army was le by a rou of Confu ian intelle tuals w ose iloso y eman e t at t ey brin or er to C ina by im osin w at t ey un erstoo to be t e foun ation of a ar monious so iety: t e atriar al Confu ian family T erefore t eir oal was not to restore t e ol re ime of in ire t rule but instea to assimilate t e Muslim eo le of in ian an t us ensure t eir omelan s er etual in lusion wit in t e C inese ultural an oliti al e umene T ey attem te to o so by transformin t e Muslim family an see in Muslim so iety wit t eir own elite norms t rou e u ation an resettlement A s e ial le al re ime elevate t eir s ri tural i ea of t e Confu ian rites li above even t e o i e law of t e em ire Ultimately t e ian Army s oal was to re reate in ian not as a territory but as a rovin e like its own Hunan or any ot er in C ina ro er ile t at oal was formally a ieve in w en in ian rovin e was e lare t e ian Army s ivili in ro e t ersiste nearly until t e fall of t e in em ire in as t ey ontinue to stru le to establis ontrol an assimilate t e Muslims Many ironies resulte C ief amon t em was t at instea of atta in in ian an its eo le forever to C ina t e ro e t rovi e a means to

[ ]

arti ulate a sense of et ni ity t at bot o ose C inese ower an a ro riate it Put i erently t e e erien e of a istori ally s e i form of omination s a e t e is ourses an ra ti es of self e nition t at emer e amon t e ominate eo le T is was in art be ause eo le use t e resour es an lan ua e of t e ominatin ower to arti ulate an resolve t eir own laims an rievan es but also be ause t e form an i e olo y of omination ui kly be ame naturali e Mu as ren est Afri an or ritis In ian sub e ts turne t eir oloni ers laims of iti en s i an res e t for uman i nity a ainst t eir e loitation so i Turki Muslims in in ian learn to mani ulate t e i eolo y an institutions of t e ivili in ro e t to a van e t eir own interests as im erial sub e ts However s olars i on olonial is ourses of i entity remin s us to atten to t e role t at lass lays in arti ulatin anti olonial ositions on t e art of a ominate ommunity: it is usually t ose members of t e ol oni e rou w o ave learne su essfully to mani ulate t e is ourses of t e oloni er w o t en laim to s eak on be alf of t e w ole rou T is book s ows ow relatively owerful Turki Muslim eo le use t e resour es of t e state to oli e boun aries wit in w at t ey were omin to see as t eir own ommunity to ur e t e internal Ot ers w om t e ivi li in ro e t reate New arti ulations of i entity emer e from new ine ualities an forms of violen e At t e same time t e relations i between t e Muslim eri ery an t e im erial metro ole ame to seem natural as t ou events in in ian were intimately boun to t e istory of C ina itself in ian is to ay known for an on oin an seemin ly intra table on i t between t e Turki Muslim Uy ur eo le w o om rise t e re ion s ma ority an a C inese Communist Party an state attem tin to eliminate t eir lan ua e an ulture T e on i t is often analy e as emer in from a set of on i tin nationalist im eratives: Uy ur nationalism w i re ates t e Party state s ontrol of t e re ion laims in ian as a ome lan for t e Uy ur eo le ile t e Party state formally re o ni es t e Uy ur laim to ultural autonomy w i is ens rine in t e mo ern C inese onstitution C inese nationalism s own eman for ultural omo eneity wit in t e bor ers of t e state now takes re e en e over le al rote tions for t e Uy ur minority lea in to resentment T e ar a teristi s an ori ins of Uy ur nationalism ave t erefore be ome t e

[ ]

Leitmotif of s olars i on in ian It woul be tem tin to raw a strai t line from t e every ay ne otiations of ommunal boun aries in late in in ian as es ribe in t is book to ontem orary on i ts However t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity is om le Classi ally s olars ave em asi e t e elite intelle tual or oliti al imensions of Uy ur nationalism an attribute its arti ulation to t e oin i en e of transnational Turki nationalism an t e et ni i in re imes of Soviet later C inese Communist overnment Su a ers e tive ives t e im ression t at et ni i entities were ma i ke into e is ten e in t e s More re ently Uy ur nationalism s roots ave been lo ate instea in t e om li ate transnational environment of Central Asia an its interse tion wit subtler forms of reli ious an lin uisti if ferentiation in t e in realm None of t ese analyses is ne essarily e lu sive of t e ot ers However I t ink it is lear t at ertain stran s of t is enealo y ten to obs ure t e ot ers in arti ular romanti Uy ur nationalisms w i arti ulate t e a ealin i ea t at Uy ur ness is an an ient s irit unfol in in time or a ure line of Turki evelo ment iverte from its natural at by C inese omination T e formulai Stalinism of t e C inese Party state s o ial istories of et ni forma tion minzu xingcheng resses u a similar story in seu os ienti lot in alt ou a romanti narrative fre uently s ows t rou Re ar less of t e at t ey take tra in t e enealo y of Uy ur et nonational i entity ine orably lea s s olars ba k to t e erio e amine in t is book w i as nevert eless remaine un ere lore : t e late in Several books ave etaile t e istory of rovin ial in ian in terms of its elite oliti s t e oli ies a van e by t e re ional overn ment an t e intelle tual ba k roun s of its rulers T e i level a roa is valuable but it rarely analy es t e erio of ian Army omi nation from to rou ly in more t an s emati terms Re ent works on t e istory of mo ern in ian ten to be in at least two e a es after t e re on uest at t e time w en a nan ial risis for e t e ian Army rulin ommunity to onsi er reative lans to enerate revenue t at followe t e resour e ma imi ation im eratives ty i al of mo ern states Per a s t e fa t t at t e late in was tem orally wit in t e s o e of t e lobal mo ern as ire te s olars to seek t e roots of mo ern e nomena However as t is book s ows t e in ian overnment before re e te t e riorities an te ni ues of tra itional im erial rovin ial [ ]

a ministration more t an it i t e mo ern state In ee t e e uliar so ial formation t at sustaine Hunanese ominan e also reserve in i an as an out ost of onservative reformism t at by t e last years of t e in alrea y a eare to be a fossil It was not a nationali in re ime in ontrast to t e Soviet an C inese overnments t at el sway in in ian from onwar An yet somet in took la e in t is a arently re mo ern settin su t at a new sense of rou ness emer e t e arti ula tion of a Muslim self in et ni terms a ainst similarly et ni i e Ot ers T e resent book ontributes to t e un erstan in of i entity in in i an by illuminatin its ro essual ne otiate every ay nature as it was urin t is erio T at is it is on erne wit i enti ation ow eo le un erstan arti ulate an a t on or erform belon in It e lores t at on oin ro ess in t e onte t of every ay on i t in one art of in ian Tur an At t e en of t e in Tur an was a ire tly a ministere refe ture zhili ting wit in t e rovin ial system T e refe ture s survivin ar ive tells t ousan s of stories t at w en rea t rou t e oliti s of translation an re resentation illuminate ow eo le ne otiate relation s i s an resolve on i ts in a multilin ual multi onfessional so iety In t at so iety a C inese s eakin non Muslim minority ominate a Turki s eakin Muslim ma ority but t ere were many ra ations in t e ierar y of ower Class was as si ni ant as lan ua e or reli ion alt ou t e on i ts of every ay life w en arti ulate in t e lan ua e of t e ivili in ro e t ro u e a is ourse of belon in t at s olars to ay woul re o ni e as et ni ity On t e w ole t e ivili in ro e t an its e e ts resemble t ose t at ave istori ally ara teri e s e i forms of Euro Ameri an olonial ism an so om arative olonial istory ui es t e analysis erein How ever olonialism as been invoke wit re ar to t e in em ire many times an often wit i erin meanin s onnotations an assum tions so it is ne essary to state re isely w at I mean by it Colonialism ere is e ne as a system of omination aime at territorial a uisition t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation It is inter onne te wit im erialism a ro ess in w i eo le from one re ion of t e worl ominate t ose from anot er for t e rimary ur ose of resour e e tra tion or territorial se u rity but intervene less ire tly in so ial evelo ment for e am le by rulin t rou a lo al aristo ra y I t us istin uis olonialism as a form of omination aime at assimilatin t e eo le of t e ominate territory [ ]

from im erialism as a form of rimarily e onomi omination t at main tains ontrol of lural onstituen ies t rou iverse vo abularies of rule Generally s eakin a transition from lural im erialism to assimilatory olonialism often o urs as a rea tion to a risis of im erial ontrol an t e in em ire in t e mi nineteent entury was in re isely su a re arious osition In broa om arative terms we may see t e ian Army as a ents of t at an e in on e tions of soverei nty as its lea ers sou t an e an sion of normal institutions into t e reviously se arate bor erlan s Generally s eakin e an in em ires ten to refrain from me iatin between multi le le al an oliti al systems but instea maintain boun aries between t em Over time slowe e ansion or ot er re u tions in t e rate of resour e a uisition as well as t e ten en y of eri eral eo les to learn to make use of t e institutions of t e state ombine to en oura e omo eni ation Lo al elites in in ian s ase t e Turki Muslim begs are re la e wit fun tionaries from t e metro olitan or er ere C inese ma istrates T at omo eni ation is base on a laim to universality but takes a olonial Ot er as its ob e t T e ian Army s e orts in in ian om rise ust su a ivili in ro e t an e ort on t e art of a omi nant rou to im art t eir norms an institutions to a subor inate rou by for e if ne essary Des ite t e loseness of t e ritis an Russian em ires an t e in ursions of Euro Ameri an im erialists alon t e C i nese oast t is ivili in ro e t was of C inese ori in It a its intelle tual an institutional roots in a s e i ommunity of Confu ian t ou t entere on t e ity of C an s a in t e rovin e of Hunan an t e lea ers of t e ian Army were art of t is ommunity T is book emonstrates ow olonialism emer es in a non Euro Ameri an onte t However my rimary oal is not to ro u e some ran ty olo i al statement but to use t e om arison ro u tively as a roun s for is ourse an e loration: If we a e t t e ro osition t at t e omination of in ian an its eo le was in some way olonial w at o we learn In t is ase t inkin of in ian as olonial turns my met o olo i al em a sis to t e tensions an an ieties t at omination t rou so io oliti al reor ani ation en en ers amon its sub e ts et er a olonial ower im oses a ertain oliti al or er reates a system of e onomi e loita tion or re on ures stru tures of en er an se uality it is t e ro u tion of i eren e t at enables it to o so an t at re isters its ee er [ ]

e e ts Di eren e is not a mere intelle tual u le or sim ly a tool of ower as t is stu y s ows it is an on oin ro ess of i enti ation t at relates to formal ate ories in om le ways As mu as been reveale by s olars of im erial ulture an t e institutions of knowle e in Sout C ina an Taiwan w ose works are a entral in uen e on t is book S olars i on lobal frontiers e ually informs t is stu y of t e C inese Nort west T ere is no sin le analo y for in ian but t ere are nevert e less many arallels an e lorin t em will reveal a lar ely une lore istory from below as resente in t e wor s of or inary eo le owever me iate instea of t e minority of ower ol ers y re ar in im erialism an olonialism as so io ultural ro esses we an e ten t e el of is ourse an om arison between e ansive states an t e so iet ies at t eir mar ins it in t e el of C inese istory t is book re resents an e ort to brin t e met o olo ies of istori al ant ro olo y familiar from stu ies of Sout C ina to bear on t e uestions ose by t e New in History T e New in History is an amor ous an e ansive el t e ief intervention of w i is t e illumination of eri eral voi es of various kin s In t e min s of most observers owever t is sub el is rimarily on erne wit et ni i eren e in t e onte t of in em ire S olars of t e New in History ave s own for e am le ow Tibetan reli ious lea ers an Mon ol aristo rats relate to t e in ourt an earlier seminal works a ress t e ro u tion of et ni ity t rou in institutions Generally s eakin ea of t e em ire s onstituen ies saw a i erent fa e of in ower t at was relevant an le itimate in t eir own onte t Yet in ian as remaine somew at of a mystery in t is re ar : w ile Mon ols an Tibetans mi t ave seen t e em eror as a warrior k an or an in arnate bo isattva t e in a eare to ave no Muslim uise T e uestion remains o en as to ow t e in s Turki Muslim sub e ts un er stoo t e em ire I ar ue t at an i ea of t e in emer e not from areful im erial ro a an a but rat er in t e ro ess of routine en ounters wit C inese ower in t e last e a es of t e em ire Yet all of t ese re resentations of self em ire an t e relations i between sub e t an soverei n only be ome lear w en we rea a ross t e lo al ar ive an la e it into ialo ue wit t e Turki lan ua e manu s ri t tra ition S olars i on in ian s mo ern istory as often relie on C inese lan ua e sour es ro u e at t e i est levels of overnment [ ]

w i tell us little about ow oli ies laye out on t e roun Meanw ile anot er bran of resear fo uses on manus ri t sour es in C a atay t e Turki literary lan ua e use in Central Asia into t e s Alt ou t ese latter sour es illuminate ri worl s of iety e onomy an every ay life t ey say relatively little about t e e erien e of C inese rule T e Tur an ar ive owever was forme in a multilin ual onte t t rou t e a umulation of re or s of on i t between for t e most art or inary eo le Alt ou only a minority of t e o uments in t e ar ive are urely in C a atay w ile t e ma ority are in C inese almost all are none t eless ro u ts of translation T is book reveals t e oliti s of Turki C inese translation in late in in ian an brin s t at oliti s to bear on its rea in of sour es a ross an beyon t at ar ive s owin ow on e ts from wit in t e s a es e ne by C inese ower nevert eless olo ni e t e is ourses beyon t em y rea in t e ar ive riti ally as a site of ne otiation an om etition I seek to em asi e t e a en y of or inary eo le over t at of i level o ials Or inary eo le in t is ase sim ly in i ates t ose w o el no o e an w ose a tivities were lar ely meant to remain uiet beyon t e si t of t e a ministration T ese in lu e farmers artisans mer ants rostitutes ervis es an but ers amon a w ole ost of eo le w o were in no osition to ir umvent t e u i ial system At its ore t is book is a stu y of every ay oliti s : t e ebates on i ts e isions an oo eration amon in ivi uals rou s an or ani ations re ar in t e ontrol allo ation an use of resour es an t e values an i eas un erlyin t ose a tivities Every ay oliti s is t e uiet subtle an ra ual a ustment an ontestation of norms an institutions T is book is about ow eo le en a e in t at kin of mun ane oliti s ow t ey resiste ower an ow t ey a ro riate it for t emselves T eir on i ts oul be about very mun ane t in s su as lan in eritan e an nevert eless re e t ran er uestions of im ort to ontem orary s olars su as t e e nition of et ni ity Certain issues are raise fre uently in t e ar ive t e is osal of t e ea for e marria e an t e unis ment of se workers amon t em Alt ou we annot ave ire t a ess to t e is ourses an ra ti es sur roun in su oints of tension as t ey manifeste in t e every ay t ey are re e te imly in t e orners of t e ar ive Let us turn now to t e etails of t e ase fo usin on ow eo le in Tur an t emselves es ribe t eir la e in istory an eo ra y irst I will [ ]

lo ate Tur an in t e istory of t e u risin s t at re e e t e stu y at an T en we will onsi er ow eo le es ribe Tur an s lo ation in in ian an its ost u risin s so iety ot oint to a sense t at t is was a broken la e a s attere so iety of estran e eo le

Prelu e: After t e

orl S attere

T e so alle Muslim u risin s be an in not in in ian but in t e nei borin Muslim ma ority re ions of Nort west C ina Lon stan in rievan es on t e art of lo al Muslims in lu in C inese violations of Muslim sa re s a es an overta ation interse te wit a set of on oin feu s wit in t e ommunities of C inese s eakin Muslims or Hui Two years later in une rumors s rea t at t e military overnor of in i an a or ere t e reem tive slau ter of Hui eo le in or er to re vent t e rebellion from omin to t e bor erlan Instea t at rumor rom te Hui military o ers an reli ious lea ers to atta k in arri sons an C inese mer ants ust t en t e on oin rebellions in C ina ro er lose t e lines of ommuni ation wit ei in an t e eo le of in ian foun t emselves in a va uum of ower T e initial violen e a ainst C inese .KLࠃč\ eo le w i in lu e Man u s eakers an ot er non Muslims soon broke into a stru le amon Muslims as lea ers of i erent Su linea es former in omman ers an ot er laimants to ower stoo oise to lun er on uer an emonstrate t eir own ability to establis a le itimate Islami state y t e en of t e year a o en fa tions a built om etin ower bases a ross t e re ion In t e wor s of one man t e worl s attere T e lines rawn in t is on i t were ui an o en to inter retation E onomi fa tors laye a role in t e rebellion as i o ortunism but so i t e ability of Su lea ers to mobili e t eir a erents an ot ers w o esire an Islami state T eir followin s ten e to orres on rou ly to i eren es in lan ua e as C inese s eakers relate to tren s in Islami iety amon Hui in C ina ro er w ile Turki s eakers orien tation aroun ertain te ts an s rine il rima e onne te t em more to Central an Sout Asia Nevert eless allian es a ross boun aries of lin uisti an se tarian i eren e were as fre uent as enmities T at is w ile oly war JKD]čW ame to ara teri e t e rebellion t e ob e t of [ ]

oly war oul be ambi uous as it oul be turne a ainst internal or e ternal enemies As mu is illustrate by t e istory of t e rebellions in Tur an On Au ust a Su lea er name Ma m an wa a le t e u risin t ere an ire te a series of atta ks on C inese settlements He was soon oine by for es from t e Su lea ers or NKZčMDs of t e nearby oasis of u a w o were t en in an allian e wit Hui military o ers from t e ol arrison town of r m i To et er t ey besie e t e C inese arrison an ommunity at Tur an for nine mont s In Mar after a ty i ally lon an bleak winter t ey o ere t e besie e C inese an es ort ba k to C ina in e an e for t eir surren er Instea w en t e C inese o ene t e ates t e Muslims let t em travel some istan e from t e ity an t en slau tere t em T ose t at remaine were enslave Soon as t e allie rebel for es attem te to e an t eir territory eastwar a lo al NKZčMD rou base in t e town of L k n attem te to sei e ower T e Hui s e i ally were vi timi e as t e L k n for es burne un re s of Hui omes to t e roun in an attem t to anta oni e t e r m i om man ers er a s in retaliation for t e r m i for es enslavement of Turki Muslims in umul Hami T e r m i omman ers retaliation was swift an evastatin but remnants of t e L k n fa tion eventually rose to su rema y in Tur an an e elle t e u a NKZčMDs Su s fou t Su s a ainst an alon si e Hui Later in t e o er Ya b e arrive in as ar from t e anate of o an an soon bot t e battle lines an t e is ourse of on i t an e T e violen e be an to be re resente as a on i t between boun e ommunities of eo le t at were i enti e rimarily by lan ua e an la e of ori in albeit o e in reli ious terms As t e roni lers of t is erio re resente it t e rimary rou of anta onists a been t e C inese s eakin non Muslims T at t ese C inese in fa t in lu e Man u s eakin eo le was lost in re olle tion t ey were nev ert eless obvious i olaters an in els an t eir i ol tem les C a a tay EXWNKčQD burne all t e same Yet as t e C inese e ie or on verte an t rou t e on i ts t at ra ually emer e between C inese s eakin an Turki s eakin Muslims Turki Muslim writers ame to onstrue t e Hui as t e enemy After all w ile t e o an is an Ya b e ori inally a eare as outsi ers t ey nevert eless s oke a lan ua e very lose to t at of East Turkestan were ulturally similar an [

]

es ite t eir inte ration of Hui an onverte C inese into t e state oul laim to un ertake oly war on be alf of t e Muslim 0XVXOPčQ eo le T at laim was es e ially im ortant as Ya b e a initially ome to as ar wit or ers to establis o an i in uen e t ere by installin an su ortin a Su as its lea er However Ya b e a betraye t e Su w ile o an fell to Russian on uest an now e en e on is mil itary rowess an i entity as a oly warrior for le itima y T e Turki Muslim roni lers of t is erio an after a or in ly referre to t emselves as 0XVXOPčQ literally meanin Muslim w ile e lu in t e Hui C a atay 'ࡃQJčQ from t is ate ory T erefore I use t e term 0XVXOPčQ t rou out t is book to in i ate Turki s eakin Muslims S e i ally it in i ates t ose Turki Muslims w o i enti e wit oasis a ri ulture an life as istin t from a ak s or yr y w o es ite bein Turki s eakin Muslims were e i te as livin stri tly by er in in t e mountains To ay most of t ese 0XVXOPčQs woul retros e tively be labele Uy ur a or in to mo ern et nonational ate ories 0XVXOPčQ owever retains t e label s istori ally s e i ambi uity wit its reli ious enotation lin uisti onnotations an im li it re e tion of ot er Muslims es ite its su er ial in lusivity T e story in t is book unfol s in a worl before t e e emony of t e nation state an it is a ro riate to use t e ate ories t at were a tive in it Moreover as Ro ers rubaker ar ues lan ua e an reli ion resemble et ni ity but are not e uivalent to it Rat er t ese are all embo ie i enti ations ways of a tin an erformin rou belon in T ese more ui erformative or situational i enti ations be ame in reasin ly naturali e t rou t e late in by emer in is ourses of ommon es ent an t e violen e of t e u risin s was an im ortant atalyst for t at naturali ation Ya b e s state rose to su rema y swee in t e fa tions before it Musulman an Hui alike en is armies rea e Tur an in t ey vis ite yet more violen e u on Hui eo le T ey a roa e from t e west an t e town of To sun killin nearly all of t e Hui sol iers statione t ere At t e ates of Tur an ro er t ey met an efeate several t ousan more or es from r m i attem te to tra Ya b e s sol iers in a in er movement but faile L k n fell an t e as ar army e e ute t ose t ey took risoner Tur an was un er sie e a ain but now it was full of an ious Hui rat er t an C inese eo le or nine mont s Ya b e s armies besie e t e ity an bombar e it wit annon re Hui i in t e lo es of [

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Su or ers until nally some ose to sue for ea e Mulla M sa Sayr m t e elebrate istorian from u a later re or e ow Ya b e visite tyranny এXOP a ainst t e Hui in is am ai ns by massa rin inno ent Muslims C inese s eakers an se tarians t ou t ey mi t ave been However anot er roni ler w o was an eyewitness to Tur an an a loyal o er in Ya b e s army ro u e a i erent a ount T is writer As r Ak un ara teri es Ya b e as an instrument of Go s usti e ૛DGčODK He es ribes t e Hui emissary sent to ne otiate ea e as a trea er ous Su w o istra te t e o ers w ile a Hui army re are for a sneak atta k After t e battle a vi torious Ya b e for e t e Hui to sell t eir own belon in s to ay for foo an t en mar e t ousan s of t em towar as ar an into slavery Su As r k n asserts are t e wa es of sin w at Hui eo le eserve for bein a ostates T ese two writers Mulla M sa Sayr m an As r Ak un were art of a oo of istori al writin t at emer e as Muslims re e te on t eir own i entities an la e in istory an t e worl T ey also re resent two ositions on i eren e t at were in tension urin t e u risin s an after ile t e lines of on i t were rawn r etori ally between Muslims an non Muslims in fa t t e violen e was fre uently between C inese s eakers an non C inese s eakers Sayr m resents Ya b e s vio len e a ainst Hui as tyranny w ile As r laims it was usti e A ontem orary t e oet Mu amma G ar b S y r similarly oses a istin tion between Musulmans like imself an non Muslims Qč0XVXOPčQ w o ave betraye t e fait namely t e C inese s eakin Muslims of r m i T e nature of Hui eo le s alle e sin was obs ure but as we will see it oul later be as ribe to t eir myt i al ori ins as eo le between C ina an t e Muslim worl To G ar b Ya b e s estru tion of t e Hui was t erefore a means to men t is broken buzuq lan to ur e t e internal t reat wit in t e Muslim ommunity an make it w ole a ain ile Musulmans ara teri e t eir lan as s attere or broken none of t em woul see it men e in t e way t at t ey o e In Au ust t e ian Army mar e a ross Nort in ian uttin Ya b e s for es to i t In May as Ya b e strate i e from is ala e in u a e ie su enly T e ause of eat in retros e t was a stroke but Musul man aut ors be an ointin n ers tryin to i entify some reason w y t e Islami state fell: Sayr m for is art inter rete Ya b e s su en assin as a onse uen e of t e same wrat JKDঋDE t at a le im to [

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massa re inno ent Hui Pro Ya b e roni lers insiste t at e a been oisone er a s by a Hui omman er w o a visite a C inese i ol tem le an rank lt in t e im erial manner .KDTDQ UDVPLFKl čQ LFKWL violatin Muslim ietary rules before le in oat s to t e C inese Ot ers sus e te a former in o ial w o a serve many masters Niy e of swit in si es on e a ain an ons irin wit t e ian Army to betray Ya b e In t e ensuin aos Ya b e s sons turne a ainst ea ot er w ile is armies fell ba k In Sayr m s wor s T e eo le s atien e was e auste so t ey turne t eir fa es to t e Court of t e Creator t eir eyes brimmin wit tears an wis e for t e Em eror of C ina t eir ries an leas rowin ever lou er or better or worse t eir rayers were answere It was t e mornin of A ril w en t e ian Army arrive in Tur an T e army move ui kly east to west a ross t e valley an its swift mar set eo le in motion At t is moment we oul i entify t ree of t em all of w om were travelin in i erent ire tions: Ab l Ma a youn Musulman man was runnin for t e ills wit is brot ers T ey o e to avoi t e violen e entirely Instea t ey wan ere in un er for several years unable to survive easily in t e new so ial or er A ommon sol ier name Yan en en a C inese s eaker an non Muslim mar e wit t e army He soon settle in t e same town t at Ab l Ma e an t ere e trie an faile to remake imself on t e frontier ei shi a Hui woman was a refu ee s e e t e same army westwar in sear of free om for erself an er family Yet ei shi foun only bon a e an a tivity Tur an fell wit ar ly a t an a new era of re onstru tion be an an era marke by subtler kin s of violen e Over t e ne t t irty years a new kin of C inese ower transforme t e lives of t e eo le of Tur an an of in ian e will revisit Yan en en ei shi an Ab l Ma later in t is book However un erstan in t e ar s of t eir lives will re uire us rst to illuminate a set of istori al ro esses t at transforme in ian s so iety an ulture

Tur an t e Lan of Stran ers ourteen years later on uly sat own wit a man name Ma

a Russian et nolo ist visitin Tur an Ak un an aske im to es ribe is [

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omelan In res onse Ma ounte o t e Si Cities one by one be innin wit t e most istant T ese Si Cities altä shahar by tra itional re konin om rise t e lan of t e Musulmans alt ou some ounte seven or even ei t Ma es ribe t em by t eir o ular ni knames ar to t e west was as ar lan of saints w ere t ose w o rst brou t Islam to t is lan were burie Yarkan lan of masters was known for its Su or ers otan lan of martyrs was t e last to ol out a ainst any invasion in lu in t e C inese re on uest Movin to t e nort Aksu was t e lan of oly warriors an its nei bor u a t e lan of Go s el ers See ma s an inally Ma ame to is ome: Tur an t e lan of stran ers JKDUҸEčQD ࠦXU‫ݥ‬čQ T ere is no river in Tur an e e laine T ere is not mu lan nor water but t ere are many s rines Conse uently t ere are many stran ers t ere y stran ers e lari e I mean wan er ers T e terms e use stran er JKDUҸE an wan erer PXVčϮU a or in to is own e lanation in i ate travelers refu ees il rims an va abon s riftin in wret e isolation T ese wor s es ribe Tur an s two fa es well: Pil rims ame from as ar an beyon to visit t e Cave of t e Seven Slee ers a oly s rine believe to be t e la e w ere a

MAP Ma or settlements of in ian Lo ation ata from CHGIS

ir a

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Ma by Evan eline M Glynn

MAP Towns of Tur an ase on a ma in Tulufan zhiliting xiangtuzhi in XTZG Ma by Evan eline M Glynn

rou of believers a taken refu e from a tyranni al ruler an sle t for enturies un er Go s rote tion Ot ers rifte t rou many of t em mi rant laborers or mer ants on t eir way to or from C ina Many more survive as ay laborers Tur an a no reat river an t e weat er oul be evastatin ly ot in t e summer an so a ri ulture an t e liveli oo s of farm laborers e en e on mountain runo Every s rin water tum ble own from t e mountains an into tunnels u ee un er roun to rote t it from eva oration in t e sun s rays T at water fe Tur an s fame vineyar s an t e small farms t at lustere aroun t e tunnels Life was re arious but tena ious T ere is anot er sense in w i Tur an is JKDUҸEčQD solitary One oul travel t rou t e rest of t e Si Cities wit out rossin mountains as t ey forme a semi ir le of oases aroun t e e anse of esert in t e eart of Sout ern in ian Tur an owever was se arate from t e rest: to et t ere from u a one woul nee to take a lon ourney eastwar a ross t e territory of a non Muslim Tor ut Mon ol rin e T en one woul ross t e Desert Mountains Chöl Tagh an es en into t e se on ee est eolo i al e ression in t e worl As tra itional wis om [

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a it in u a t e roa to Tur an was a es erate one To make it a abit meant ermanent se aration from one s family a or in to one sayin for lon enou t at a man s wife oul ivor e im in absentia T e ara teri ation is somew at y erboli but it s eaks to t e sense of Tur an as a subre ion t at was simultaneously isolate from an intimately onne te wit its nei bors In ee Tur an was well travele as it lay on one of t e few assable routes from C ina ro er As t e row ies Tur an was not far from t e in arrison town at r m i w i was later ma e t e rovin ial a i tal an rename Di ua rom t ere one oul travel to t e small mostly C inese tra in settlements t at otte t e Nort T is fa t ma e Tur an a riti al un ture between Nort an Sout an between C ina an Cen tral Asia However to travel to Di ua an beyon re uire traversin t e mountain ass at Dawan in T e Tur an De ression was t us a annel but also an im e iment a oke oint in t e movement of oo s eo le an i eas Tur an s eo ra i al betweenness makes it interestin for t is stu y as a la e w ere eo le w o s oke i erent lan ua es an ra ti e i erent reli ions en ountere ea ot er fre uently T e ar ive makes it lear t at even as Tur an re overe from t e re on uest C i nese Hui an Musulmans were livin in t e same ourtyar s suin ea ot er for t e ri ts to ro erty an as we will see s arin omes an be s as well Yet Tur an was no multi ultural uto ia As of t e valley a a o ulation of rou ly forty t ousan an it rose only to seventy t ousan or so by as eo le returne settle an re ro u e T e ian Army t at went beyon t e Pass onsiste of some si ty t ousan sol iers er a s alf of w om staye in Tur an for a year or more ile t e army was meant to sustain itself by farmin t is was not ossible in mu of in i an an arti ularly i ult in Tur an T ey t erefore relie on mostly Tian inese mer ants to su ly t em wit rain from C ina ro er an Russia Grain ri es remaine i for a few years but ra ually fell on e o ials im lemente t e system of ranaries an ri e re ulations famil iar from C ina ro er Grain ri es a ear to ave stabili e by w en t e rovin e a to lower its own ri es to mat t ose on t e mar ket In t e meantime owever t e s ar ity an e ense of foo for e eo le to seek alternate means of survival C inese s eakin mer ants an former sol iers w ile not ri ten e to be mu wealt ier t an [

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Turki s eakin Muslims an ossess reater a ess to t e ower of t e state T ose Musulmans w o were not bilin ual foun t emselves e lu e from key se tors of t e new e onomy as well as from t e rovin ial oliti o uri i al system of a ministration le by C inese s eakers w i was im ose on t eir omelan Hui often ste e in as interme iaries an el e C inese eo le se ure e onomi ominan e over Musulmans Pre atory mer ants an len ers usually C inese el Musulman farm ers an laborers in ebt Demobili e ian Army sol iers ur ase es erate Musulman women as wives to serve t em an bear t em il ren A Musulman w o oul a a t to C inese settler ulture an en a e wit t e rovin ial overnment was t erefore at a reat a vanta e in t is envi ronment an t e ivili in ro e t establis e institutions of e u ation t at rovi e a ess to lan ua e skills to some eo le Yet t e C inese s eakin Musulman inter reters w o emer e from t ese s ools were also re ar e wit sus i ion alt ou less so t an t e Musulman women w o a intimate relations i s wit C inese men w o were ostra i e from t e ommunity Musulman writers ame to label t ese trans ressors of boun aries Chantou Chantou is a C inese wor meanin wra e ea w i C inese o ials an settlers alike use to refer to Turki s eakin Muslims In Musulman is ourse a Chantou erson o u ie an unt ink able la e wit in t e ya s of reli ion an lan ua e t rou w i Musulmans an C inese alike were omin to un erstan in ian so i ety: C inese s eakin non Muslims C inese or Han C inese s eakin Muslims Hui an Turki s eakin Muslims Musulmans were now oine by Turki s eakin eo le w o a eare to ave be ome non Muslims ere t e ian Army inten e for Turki Muslims to assimilate lin uisti ally an ulturally be omin C inese s eakin non Muslims t e ivili in ro e t instea fostere t e Chantou w o be ame t e internal Ot er a ainst w om Musulmans arti ulate an oli e rmer ommunal boun aries Here a ain t e om arison wit Euro Ameri an olonialisms su ests avenues for e lorin t e istory of rou ness beyon t e sear for t e nation state In ren est Afri a a iti en of t e Re ubli w o was nev ert eless enie t eir ri ts on a ount of ra e oul use t e i eolo y of oloni ation t e Euro ean laim to ivili e to e tra t ertain on essions from t e relu tant oloni er T rou out t is book Musulman sub e ts make laims on t e basis of t eir im erial sub e t oo as it oul be [

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arti ulate un er t e ivili in ro e t t rou areful a ts of re resenta tion T e rovin ial a ministration s lan ua e of belon in was owerful A erson oul ain ower by invokin t e is ourse of im erial sub e t oo an Confu ian atriar y or be ome a sub e t of ower w en ma e to s eak in t at same lan ua e Conse uently eo le inverte t e ivili in ro e t by usin its is ourses to oli e ommunal boun aries an unis trans ressions T ose trans ressions t emselves were intimately relate to t e roblem of e onomi ine uality t e is ossession of Musul mans from t eir lan an ro erty t rou ebt an t e ob e ti ation of Musulman bo ies I t erefore seek to emonstrate in t is book t at rou ness in late in in ian arose rst from a sort of estran ement alienation from t e self from so iety an seemin ly from one s la e in istory an t e osmos an se on from t e naturali ation of t at estran ement t rou t e mobili ation of is ourses about self sub e t oo an istory T ose is ourses about self emer e from an entan lement of elite an i eties about lass wit ulturalist i eas of i eren e in a arti ular intelle tual an so ial onte t in C ina ro er s e i ally in t e rovin e of Hunan urin an after t e ivil wars of t e mi nineteent entury T e Tai in ar was a ru ible for a new kin of oliti s as elites forme new mo ern armies roote in lo al so ial institutions an i entities Amon t em was t e ian Army w ose lea ers i was intimately on ne te to t e s e i Neo Confu ian iloso ies e oun e at t e Yuelu A a emy in t e rovin ial a ital of C an s a T e ian Army not only was re ite wit t e efeat of t e in em ire s internal enemies but also was also a ief a ent of ostbellum re onstru tion shanhou Re on stru tion was a ro e t not sim ly of ysi al rebuil in but of so ial an moral re ti ation re i ate on t e i ea t at C ina was in aos be ause its eo le a straye from t e ort o o be aviors of t e ast T ese new lea ers were arti ularly sus i ious of lower lass men s otential for vio len e an t e se ual mores of lower lass women bot of w i t ey attem te to ontrol Later w en t e ian Army mar e nort west towar in ian its lea ers were alrea y rime wit i eas about Muslims as eo le on t e e e of ivili ation similar to t e une u ate men an women w om t ey sou t to save in C ina ro er T e beliefs surroun in i eren e an ivili ation t at motivate t e ian Army s members an t at t ey use to om re en w at t ey fa e in in ian ombine an [

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intelle tual ro ram t at emer e in t e a a emy wit a o ular sense of millennial isaster an t e nee for onservative Neo Confu ian revival C ina s re onstru tion from t e oast of t e Sout C ina Sea to as ar on t e t res ol of t e Pamirs was t us a ro ess in w i new elites attem te a transformation of t e em ire an its eo le T e so io ultural le a y of re onstru tion in C ina ro er not unlike t at of Ameri an Re onstru tion ontinue to s a e lives memories an i entities lon after ust as C inese elites saw t e so alle Muslim u risin s of t e Nort west an in ian as art an ar el of t e same isor er t at brou t about t e Tai in war so i in ian s re onstru tion follow t e met o s t ey a establis e in C ina ro er However t e ian Army s te ni ues of moral re ti ation ori inally ire te a ross ori ontal boun aries of lass arti ulate wit lin uisti an reli ious i eren e in ways t at rei e verti al boun aries between rou s In t is sense Land of Strangers seeks to isentan le ertain establis e i eas about et nonational i entity an t e bor erlan s t at ave been ose at a more abstra t level of analysis w ile onne tin et ni ity an rou ness instea to every ay ro esses of ne otiation t at were never t eless onne te to t e broa er reima inin of t e ommunity T is is a subtle istin tion but im ortant for ow we un erstan t e late in : T e ian Army an t e Hunanese intelle tual ommunity t at onstitute an surroun e it ave been ara teri e as key a tors in t e reation of a rotonational C inese i entity To be lear it woul be a mistake to ara teri e t e ian Army in in ian as strai tforwar ly national rat er t eir arti ulations of i entity an ro e t of transformation belon e more to t e is ourse of C ineseness or elite Confu ian i entity t at some s olars all ivili ational T ese mo es of is ourse were an remain in tension in mo ern C ina an late in in ian s ows one way t at t is tension was reali e in ra ti e Civili ational is ourses on t e level of oli y an i eolo y informe re o ni ably et nonational mo es of i enti ation on t e level of o ular ra ti e

On Namin I must t erefore ask t e rea er to bear in min t at all of t e labels use in t is book were un er ne otiation T e lines of estran ement were unstable [

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as terms aine new so ial meanin s w ile s e in ot ers T e im li it meanin of Musulman in was I woul ar ue i erent from w at it meant in an t e same was true of Hui an C inese However t e fa t t at t e relations i s between wor s an t eir referents was un er onstant ne otiation oses ertain roblems for writin istory es e ially w en eo le s ifte between ate ories often out of a resear er s si t e mi t onsi er t e ase of Mu amma Na m alias Lin S en tian Mu amma Na m was e en in on t e onte t a Hui mer ant a lo al Musulman lea er or a re resentative of t e ritis Ra from In ia In anot er uise e oul easily ave been onsi ere a non Muslim C inese All e en e on is self resentation an ability to take a vanta e of im e rial interests T erefore t is book is areful to use t e labels t at eo le ave t emselves an ot ers an to fo us on t e relational imensions of namin rat er t an seekin stable i entities T is is to say not in of t e multi le terms for rou s of eo le use in i erent lan ua es Take for e am le t e term Hui use in En lis an C i nese to esi nate C inese s eakin Muslims alt ou it was on e use in C inese to in i ate Muslims in eneral an now refers to an et ni rou wit in C ina s formal lassi ation an institutionali ation of et ni ities as of in in ian in C inese o uments it usually referre to C inese s eakin Muslims In C a atay meanw ile writers alle su eo le 'ࡃQJčQ All of t ese labels t erefore ointe not to a e ob e t in t e worl but to t e same onteste on e t Hui was not an et ni ity so mu as a s iftin osition in a el of relations i s T e same is true of C inese or in late in o uments Han C a atay te ts referre to .KLࠃč\ an alt ou t e term lon before erive from a eo ra i al an et ni label for t e itans of Nort C ina it learly refers in t is erio to a s iftin osition of C inese or t at matter C inese s eakin non Muslims were fre uently labele sim ly ommoner min in i atin t eir er eive status as normative im erial sub e ts To refer se arately to .KLࠃč\ ness an C ineseness an Han ness or Hui ness an 'ࡃQJčQ ness as se arate on e ts woul intro u e a false istin tion T ere were myria ways of onstruin C ineseness an Hui ness t at were in ne otiation a ross lan ua es e may say t e same about Musulman ness ren ere in C a atay as 0XVXOPčQFKLOLT in ontrast to Chantou ness or Chantoluq Musulman ness was e ne in art ositively t rou a set of ra ti es an ara teristi s [

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but it was most mobili e in ya i relations i s over an a ainst Hui ness an C ineseness formin a relational tria Chantou was an e li itly trans lin ual term: in C inese it ointe to t e osition of Turki Muslim but in C a atay to a Turki Muslim be omin a ostate Nevert eless we later n eo le a o tin t is seemin ly erisive label for t emselves an t eir own ommunity T is relations i was art of an on oin ro ess of is tin tion an it is to t at ro ess t at we must atten T is book is also inevitably boun u in a oliti s of namin an sim ly referrin to t e re ion in uestion by name im lies a oliti al stan e So far I ave alle t is la e in ian be ause t at is t e name by w i most eo le know it However to many Uy urs an ot er Turki Muslims t e name in ian is la en wit t e wei t of olonial o ression in i an after all means new frontier an to all it as su means i entify in it rimarily as C ina s bor erlan Instea East Turkestan as be ome many Uy urs referre to onym T e term as a vanta es: it a tures t e eo ra i al istin tiveness of t e re ion simultaneously wit its inter onne tion wit t e est Turkestan of Central Asia T e C inese Party state of ourse o oses t e term on t e roun s t at usin it romotes et nonational se aratism In t is book I use bot terms Xinjiang an (DVW 7XUNHVWDQ but not uite inter an eably T is is be ause rst t e istin t a ministrative stru ture an territorial boun aries t at ave ma e u in ian in t e eyes of C ina base states alon wit t e o ular an o ial ima inations of t at la e were istori ally si ni ant T e reation an maintenan e of a t in alle in ian a a rofoun im a t on t e lives of eo le in t e la e is usse in t is book T erefore w en I refer to in ian I mean in ian as an assembla e of i eas an ra ti es a overnmental a ara tus e ten in over a ertain territory an t e ways t at eo le t ou t about it an a ro ess of estru tion an reation in ian is t e to own formation of t is la e its reterritoriali ation as a C inese s a e Moreover writers in C a atay fre uently use t is name ren ere 6KҸQJ -čQJ to label t e re ion arti ularly w en referrin to C inese a minis tration an eo ra y In ontrast I use East Turkestan to em asi e a Turki Muslim ers e tive an envisionin an onstitution of t is la e from t e roun u East Turkestan oints to t e ra ti es t at were often invisible to t e rovin ial overnment yet boun eo le to et er in a territorial formation t at was overla in wit but not e uivalent to t e [

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C inese a ministration T e issonan e between in ian an East Turkestan is near t e eart of t is story Moreover I am obli e in t is book to s eak about Islam an Confu ianism neit er of w i in its so ial an ultural onte ts was or is a sin le stable t in I efer to t e istori al a tors en ountere in t is book on t eir own e nitions of t emselves an t eir tra itions In t e onte t of East Turkestan Islam enerally in i ate Sunni Islam followin t e Hana madhhab ombine wit a number of ra ti es t at ten to be asso iate more wit S ia Islam but entere on a iolatry an a io ra y il rima e to t e s rines of Islami saints an en a ement wit t eir sa re bio ra ies Confu ianism similarly ointe to a set of intelle tual tra itions an ritual ra ti es t at were base on tea in s set own in s ri ture be innin wit Confu ius S olars to ay woul i entify t e kin of Confu ianism a tive in in ian as Neo Confu ianism w i bot ur orte to re is over t e i eals of t e lassi Confu ian t inkers an rovi e a set of rules of life t at be ame e emoni in t e late im e rial erio Of ourse a erents of eit er woul sim ly es ribe t eir own ra ti e as Islam or Confu ianism Ru or in even more essential terms T is is a book not about e nin w at Islam is or was or w at Confu ian ism is or was but about e lorin t e ui ity of eo le s i enti ations wit eit er one

T e Stru ture of t e ook T is book is e e tively in t ree arts: art onsistin of a ters an is a istory of t e so ial intelle tual an oliti al ori ins an a tivities of t e re onstru tion overnment C a ters an e lore t e so io ultural e e ts of t e ian Army s oli ies an t eir im lementation s owin ow t e institutions of assimilation instea rei e boun aries between rou s C a ters an illuminate t e an es t at followe in istori al ima inations an on e ts of i eren e in C inese an Islami is ourses C a ter resents t e so io iloso i al ori ins of a ivili in ro e t t at sou t to ameliorate i eren e but instea rei e it I ar ue t at t e ian Army s oli ies in in ian ori inate in t e t ou t of t e so alle state raft jingshi ommunity of a tivists in C an s a Hunan in t e early nineteent entury T eir i eolo y was s a e in turn by t e [

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ommunity s e erien es urin an after t e Tai in war e ause mem bers of t is ommunity le t e re on uest an re onstru tion of in ian an C ina s Nort west t ey a t e o ortunity means an motives to ena t t eir onservative reformist oli ies on a ulturally non C inese o ulation T e entral oal was so iomoral transformation base on an inter retation of t e notion of rites or ritual li be innin wit t e at tern of familial relations i s C a ter ontinues t at narrative to retell t e story of in ian s oliti al istory in t e late in t rou t e ian Army ominate overn ment s a li ations of jingshi solutions to emer in rises I ar ue t at t e overnment onstrue an treate in ian as a one of e e tion an t at t e nature of t e e e tion an e alon wit t e ommunity as it re ro u e itself over time Ea allen e eli ite an ine e tive oli y res onse t at reate new institutional stru tures but i not se ure ontrol of t em allowin Musulman an Hui sub e ts to take a vanta e of t e state s low a a ity an enetration Eventually wit t e intervention of t e ei in ourt in ian s jingshi re ime ave way to an e li itly olonialist a roa t at was still am ere by a la k of fun tionin institutions C a ter moves more ee ly into t e Tur an ar ive an intro u es skille mani ulators of ultural an lin uisti i eren e t e inter reters C inese tongshi C a atay tongchi T e ian Army inten e to see Mus lim so iety wit Confu ian values as t ey inter rete t em by trainin a eneration of youn Musulman men in C inese lan ua e an t e Classi s Instea I ar ue t is ro e t of transformation t rou e u ation jiao hua reate a lass of bi uent interme iaries w o mani ulate t e state to t eir own en s T e inter reters be ame in is ensable: C inese ma is trates were almost totally in a able of o eratin in an environment t at was so ulturally an lin uisti ally i erent from t eir la es of ori in an t ey stru le to lo ate loyal interme iaries T e inter reters be ame not moral atriar s but fun tionaries an some even limbe t e la er i er T e inter reters su ess ause resentment amon Musulmans w o e en e on t em for ommuni ation wit C inese aut orities T at resentment was re e te in a istin t so ial ersona t at emer e in Musulman is ourse aintin t e tongchi as a sus i ious ivisive ure an a kin of C antou C a ter turns to t e ot er si e of t e ivili in ro e t s en ere e e ts T e ian Army in its e orts to transform t e Muslim family [

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for ibly resettle women into new marria es an romote C inese family norms arti ularly t rou t e ult of wi ow astity I ar ue t at t e ivili in ro e t s ultural an se ual violen e interse te wit e onomi ine ualities between C inese sol iers Hui mer ants an or inary Musul mans an so en oura e bot tra kin in women an its i eolo i al us ti ation T e e an e of one s own an ot ers omesti se ual an re ro u tive labor was a strate y for survival urin a time of u eaval an one t at a a te ree istin ustoms in East Turkestan but it was also a ve tor of on i t between ommunities C inese an Musulman elites bot use t e institutions of t e ivili in ro e t to oli e ommunal boun aries by unis in women w o rosse t em omen s se uality t e ontrol of w i was riti al to t e maintenan e of atriar y be ame entral to an emer in meta or of es ent use to e ne t e Musulman ommunity C a ter on erns t e oliti s of olle tive memory in t e wake of war I ar ue t at t e Muslim u risin s an re on uest were e erien e a ross ommunities as istori al trauma C inese lan ua e an C a atay lan ua e te ts ran in from e ositions to oems to roni les ure an t e events t at followe as a isaster tribulation or s atterin a time w en an ima ine ea eful a e was lost forever T e ruins of war an uman remains an ust as si ni antly t e absen e t ereof be ame owerful sites for is ourses of loss an re overy t rou w i eo le arti ulate new olle tive rievan es an i entities entere on ommon es ent C a ter s ifts more fully into t e C a atay lan ua e manus ri t tra ition an t e oliti s of Islami istory writin I ar ue t at an es in t e narrative of t e ori ins of t e worl s eo les an t e arrival of Islam in C ina re e te t e s e i on erns of Musulmans un er ian Army rule in t e wake of on i t T at is myt o istori al te ts were rewritten in ways t at naturali e t e im erial or er as it was ima ine to ave e iste before t e Muslim u risin s In istory writin t e em eror of C ina be ame a ust ruler in t e Perso Islami mo e an rote tor of t e S aria T rou t e is ourse of a lost ol en a e an t e stru le to re over it Muslim writers re ure t e relations i between eo les an soverei n as one of lost family Musulmans internal Ot ers boun ary rossin women an inter reters be ame si ns of a s attere an un ust worl interme iaries w ere none a e iste or been ne essary before

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ONE

T e C inese Law The Origins of the Civilizing Project

ON ULY Ney Elias was in Yarkan on a mission of re onnaissan e for t e ritis Ra Elias o ine in a re ort to is su eriors t at t e C inese o u ation alt ou e ee in ly a ri ious me le some an evoi of rin i le at least from t e ers e tive of t is areer ritis a ent was e i e ly not a bloo y rule not even a ruel one Nev ert eless Elias observe some stran e intera tions t at to im e oe ritis rule in In ia T e lowest of C inese sol iers e observe ri es own t e Mussulman or las es im wit is w i if e n s im in t e way in t e street e a resses im by inferior ronouns in onversation or swa ers into is ouse or Yamen an a ro riates t e most onourable seat wit out a wor of remonstran e T at is t e rule of t e C inese over Musulmans a eare arbitrary an Elias note wit on ern t at t ese abuses resemble t ose of w i In ians a use t e ritis Moreover Elias e laine su arbitrariness was loake in t e mantle of law One s e i ra ti e stoo out: women w o overe t eir fa es are liable to ave t e veil torn from t eir fa es by t e rst C inese sol ier w o a ens to ass wit t e remark t at t e ustom is not in a or an e wit t e C i nese li T is li t is sim le but eni mati syllable aunte t e Musulman un er stan in of t e C inese state in t e late in re isely be ause it in i ate a set of i eas an ra ti es at t e ore of t e ian Army s ivili in ro e t T is a ter establis es t e intelle tual an so ial onte t of t at [

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ro e t by e lorin t e meanin s t at li took on over t e ourse of its evo lution In t e Neo Confu ian iloso y t at t e army s lea ers a stu ie li ⿞ ointe to t e rites t e om le of normative so ial relations an ritual ra ti es t at an e uman bein s an t e osmos for t e better T is on e t was arti ulate as art of a t eory of ivili ational an e Yet it also aine a o ular meanin as a kin of essential C ine seness e ne over an a ainst t e in s internal enemies in t e mi nineteent entury To Musulman observers li t erefore a eare to stan for a law like system erive from s ri ture t at s e i ally on erne matters of family ritual an tea in a C inese S aria T is a ter tra es t e enealo y of t e ian Army s ro e t ba k to t e iloso i al an oliti al milieu of t e Min in transition in w i t ere emer e an antile al moralisti stan e alon si e a vision roote in t e Classi s of C ina as ivili ation an territory Over t e ne t two enturies t at osition aine institutional su ort an substan e as a s olarly ommunity in Hunan evelo e t ose i eas into t e main stream of so alle state raft jingshi t ou t e will see ow t e army s lans for in ian rew out of a s e i ali nment of interests an i eas wit in jingshi t ou t arti ularly wit re ar to Muslims family an law T ose i eas rystalli e in t e i eolo i al statements of uo on tan t e ar ite t of in ian s re onstru tion uo s t eories an e in t e ourse of ra ti e an t e ian Army s mana ement of Muslims in S aan i an Gansu s a e t e lea ers i s i eas about ivili ation T ere is a istorio ra i al ten en y to frame uo s a tivities an t ose of is om atriots in terms of C ina s mo erni ation an t e emer en e of nationalism After all uo imself was res onsible for a number of innova tions in t e in em ire s military infrastru ture His a tivities on t e w ole seem mo ern in t e sense of intro u in new te nolo ies to ma imi e resour e e tra tion as in Gansu w ere e e an e minin o erations an establis e amon ot er fa ilities an arsenal an a woolen mill T e view from ust beyon t e Great all owever looks very i er ent In in ian uo s te nolo i al interventions were fo use on makin t e re ion e onomi ally in e en ent an a able of su ortin an i eal a ri ultural so iety t at woul foster oo family morality In ee to Musulmans rovin ial re onstru tion looke less like mo erni ation an nationalism an more like a reli ious ivili in ro e t e will t erefore

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be in wit t e insi ts of Musulman observers w ose e i tions of li reveal often overlooke as e ts of ian Army i eolo y

Law

it out Law: T e Mystery of Li

estern observer of various ba k roun s w o learne about li in in ian t rou Musulman interlo utors all ara teri e it as a form of law Even t e lin uist Denison Ross translate t e wor li as law es ite av in written besi e it in is own an t e C inese ara ter for rites Ort o o Confu ians woul ob e t to su a ara teri ation as woul Denison s Sinolo i al ontem oraries After all Confu ius imself on traste o i e law w i re els eo le from oo ness t rou unis ment wit t e rites w i subtly brin eo le to o oo by evelo in t eir sense of ri t an wron In ee t e on e t of t e rites is so ubi uitous an entral to Confu ian t ou t as to be almost unnoti eable in t e C inese onte t an it as taken on a broa s e trum of meanin s over time w i oul be ren ere in En lis as anyt in from ro ri ety to om ortment to oliteness or t e late in An ela ito s ef inition of li is a t: ways of bein uman t at are onsi ere ne essary to t e workin s of t e osmos as well as its embe e so ial or er in lu in everyt in from ow to ress to ow to venerate an estors Li unite osmi rin i le wit ra ti al be avior by means of rules t at were on si ere riti al to t e maintenan e of a oo an or ere so iety Never t eless t e ways in w i t e ian Army attem te to in ul ate t e Musulmans wit li reveale a si e of li t at normative iloso y obs ures its law like uality: its arti ulation of a set of abstra t ate ories an restri tions on be avior t at eman e im osition on t e aoti reality of life t rou systemati san tions Early in t e army s o u ation all Muslims were ma e to bow to a er tain la ar ra e wit w ite silk t at was la e at re ular intervals alon t e i way T is la ar was a ubli is lay of t e an i em er or s ro lamation 6KHQJ\X VKLOLX WLDR from w i uo on tan or ere in to be istribute a ross t e re ion ust as e a in Gansu T e ro lamation was to be oste alon every ma or roa an on t e walls of every ity an rea alou in every s ool an by every villa e ea man

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T is te t blen s e ortations t at su er ially enfor e t e aut ority of o i e law wit t ose t at s eak to a more fun amental set of Confu ian values: brin ea e to t e villa e fa tions to ut an en to lawsuits e an s ools to brin about s olarly stu y e lain t e law to a mon is t e i norant an stubborn illuminate oo manners to ee en oo ustoms en false a usations to brin about t e oo an so on In fa t w at t e an i e i t ro e ts is t e foun ational Confu ian belief t at in a well or ere an moral so iety law is unne essary an even armful T e C a atay translation of t e e i t owever was resente as t e essen e of an untranslate syllable li ointin to an ot erwise un e ne abstra t on e t to w i Musulmans were nonet eless re uire to atten T e e erien e of t e enfor ement of li emonstrate t at t is on e t was boun u wit normative C inese be aviors To return to Elias s obser vation t e li t at t e ian Army enfor e a no obvious onne tion to t e in Co e t e e tensive olle tion of statues an substatutes t at s e i e infra tions an unis ments In as ar t e ra ti al enfor e ment of li meant t at sol iers tore t e veils from Muslim women s fa es an ot erwise im ose an arbitrary re ime of C inese su eriority over Muslim sub e ts None of t e be aviors t at Elias es ribe was omman e by any known or er from t e ian Army lea ers i nor were t ey to be foun amon t e myria statutes of t e in Co e However t ey emon strate ow or inary sol iers inter rete t eir ominion over t e Muslims as one of for in Muslims to res e t im li it an e li it norms an rules of be avior It a eare t at w atever a C inese erson believe to be ro er was im li itly also li e mi t all t is Sino normativity : a so io oliti al stan e t at romotes an e li it or ommonsensi al i ea of essential C ineseness even as t at i ea is un er ne otiation Li foun furt er arti ulation in one of t e ian Army s rst ubli a tions in in ian a translation of a moral rimer written in An ui in T is rimer was meant to e li ate t e an i e i t an illustrate its moral rin i les t rou arables e er te from t e o ular 7ZHQW\)RXU )LOLDO Exemplars Ershisi xiao T ose arables in turn were s own to be manifeste in sele te non onse utive statutes an substatutes from t e in Co e fo use on family relations In C inese t e e e t was to emonstrate t at fun amental moral rin i les erive from t e rites foun e ression in o i e law T e ori inal C inese te t t at a be ome t e %RRN RI /L was a [

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arti ular favorite of t e ian Army ommunity w i romote its usa e amon ommoners in Hunan w ere it oine ot er Confu ian reviv alist te ts in romotin an austere new morality fo use on family an salvation en t e te t was translate into C a atay owever several t in s an e about its resentation: irst t e translators re a te se tions of t e rimer in or er to fo us t e te t even more narrowly on family values Se on in t e C a atay version t e alternation between enres be omes totally un lear as stories an statutes blen into one T e intermin lin of narrative an o e is enfor e by t e lunky un rammati al translation as t e translator attem te to s oe orn C a atay wor s into t e onven tions of Literary C inese writin an t e e uliar synta of t e le al o e Naturally a Musulman rea er or listener unfamiliar wit t e intri a ies of t e in Co e woul take it to be a sin le te t an ins rutable s ri ture In ee t e title was ren ere as /Ҹ NLWčEL w i sim ly meant %RRN RI /L leavin t e meanin of t is riti al syllable obs ure en urb n Al li t e er e tive an roli s olar w o was t en t e ief Islami u e of Tarba atai was aske about t e meanin of li e re lie t at li bot ivi e eo le into istin t lasses an s e i e or oral an ar eral unis ments for various infra tions In ot er wor s it was law like as emonstrate by t e new overnment s lear em asis on morality base on s ri ture an willin ness to enfor e it t rou violen e li was not alone in t is un erstan in His ontem orary an interlo utor Mulla M sa Sayr m e an e on su observa tions t rou a more t orou oin om arison of li wit S aria t rou w i e lent te tual evi en e in su ort of a o ular un erstan in He resents li as t e rules Tč૛LGD of t e new re ime of t e ian Army in on trast to t e re ulations of t e Lifanyuan t e in o e t at mana e t e em ire s non rovin ial territories in in ian Mon olia Man uria an Tibet T e Lifanyuan belon e to t e im erial ast w ile li marke t e rovin ial resent T e Lifanyuan is e i te as a rational sour e of us ti e as it rovi es bot an institutional me anism for ommon eo le to seek usti e a ainst o ials w o wron t em an a onsistent set of rules t rou w i t e em eror isburses t at usti e Li in ontrast a ears in Sayr m s te t as a set of moral rules for life akin to t e S aria It is re sente as a system of aternalisti are t e norms t at bin t e a tions of C inese o ials as well as a moral for e e uivalent to t e S aria [

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Sayr m attem ts to emonstrate as mu t rou is a ount of an ient C inese istory in w i e re ounts t at t e C inese eo le say t at t ey believe in t e S aria of L n He refers to L an ian iya w o laye a key role in foun in t e estern ou ynasty onsi ere t e ol en a e an mo el for all ynas ties t at followe rom t is ers e tive L an s an ient C inese S a ria is a orru te revelation a system of rules an ate ories t at is S aria like in its basis in awe s ri ture Sayr m e an s u on t is om arison by emonstratin t rou enealo y t at t e le en ary ures of t e an ient C inese ast were likewise t ose w o were sai to ave live after t e loo in Islami istory Et no ra i evi en e su orts t e i ea t at ot ers onsi ere li to be akin to S aria Su a ara teri a tion in t e onte t of Islami le en s of t e ori ins of eo les an of sa re knowle e oses C inese law as an earlier revelation t at re e e t at of Mu amma er a s a orru tion of Mosai law T e om arison of li an S aria invites us to leave Euro entri on e tions of law asi e an onsi er ow a Muslim intelle tual stee e in Cen tral Asian tra itions woul ave seen t e in state an its late in muta tion To be lear S aria is not re isely law in t e normative Continental or An lo Ameri an sense Rat er we may un erstan it to be Go s will on Eart as is erne t rou s ri ture t is an be many t in s amon t em a ve i le to t e reater un erstan in of ivine Trut as well as a ui e to livin a or in to Go s wis es In t e an s of a u e TčঋҸ or an e ert in uris ru en e PXIWҸ it is ertainly a means to establis an enfor e abstra t an eneral ate ories u on t e messiness of life Yet S aria an also be ontraste wit ot er law like systems o eratin alon si e it: In t ose la es w ere Muslims ave live un er non Muslim rule arti ularly in Asia after t e Mon ol on uests S aria ame to be istin uis e from ynasti law Dynasti law or sultani law often alle TčQࡃQ enerally onsiste of royal e rees an mi t in lu e a for mal le al o e an w ile ynasti law notionally nee e to be in a or an e wit S aria t e fri tion between t e systems was wi ely a knowl e e A or in to Sayr m s analo y if t e re ulations of t e Lifanyuan onstitute t e o i e law of t e in em ire by w i t e em eror oul ro u e rational usti e t en li was akin to t e S aria wit in t e C inese onte t In ee in Sayr m s a ount t e Lifanyuan re ulations are alle TčQࡃQ w ile t e li om rises rules Tč૛LGD re e tin a lassi al [

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istin tion between t e two systems Sayr m su ests t at w ereas t e earlier in re ime ossesse t e or inary tension between S aria an TčQࡃQ t e new in re ime instea ose a om etition between S aria an a orru te revelation e will see t rou out t e followin a ters t at Sayr m s analo y was er e tive as t e ian Army sus en e t e in Co e in favor of enfor in t eir inter retation of t e rites as an alternative law like system Pre isely su a on e t of li un erlay t e ian Army s ivili in mission t eir renewe belief in t e Confu ian elite s res onsibility to transmit t eir norms an institutions to ot ers ile Confu ians a ar uably os sesse t is rive for as lon as t ere a been Confu ianism for t e ian Army t ese ra ti es an beliefs now took on a new ur en y as it was ose as t e ief means to restore t e rima y of a C inese ivili ation t at t ese Confu ians felt to be fa in an e istential t reat not ust from wit out but from wit in T is mission was ire te not only towar t e une u ate t e oor an t ose members of t e family w om elite men onsi ere subor inate to t e atriar but also outwar ly beyon t e eo ra i al boun aries of C inese ivili ation

T e Intelle tual Ori ins of t e Civili in Mission T e ian Army s em asis on li an t e ne essity of so iomoral transfor mation rior to ot er forms of evelo ment was ar ly innovative in itself Alt ou many self es ribe Confu ians el e reate t e aut or itarian i eolo ies of im erial C ina t e i ea t at or erin t e worl be an wit t e in ivi ual an t e family t e basi buil in blo k of lo al so iety an not wit t e em eror a lon been entral to Confu ian t ou t Yet t e s e i form of i eolo y t at t e ian Army a lie in in ian arose from t e ebates of t e late Min T e is or er an tyranny t at literati er eive t en an urin t e violent Min in transition t at followe an t e solutions t ey a van e for t e ills of t eir time ire tly informe evelo ments in t e nineteent entury In t e followin a es we will outline t ose in uen es t at were most si ni ant for t e ian Army s rule of in ian T e relevan e of late Min t ou t to t e e orts of C ina s onservative reformers to save t e em ire in t e nineteent entury is well o umente [

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Min military writin s rofoun ly in uen e t e or ani ation of t e ian Army arti ularly t rou an em asis on stron inter ersonal relation s i s between members of units an t e nee for militias to maintain lo al roots At t e same time t e militia or ani ations t emselves re e te institutional ontinuities t at a survive t e Min in transition T e revival of lo al militias an t eir transformation into t e new armies t at won t e in ivil wars in lu in t e ian Army are t us often e i te as a trium of a uni uely C inese tra ition of ra ti al t ou t over t e ossi e institutions of t e Man u ourt T is a arent ra ti ality is on si ere a allmark of t e so alle state raft jingshi s ool of t ou t in w i t e ian Army s lea ers i was ee ly en a e Some elements ersiste t rou e u ational institutions w ile ot ers were revive t rou t e stu y of te ts atin to t e Min in transition T ose i eas lent jingshi t ou t a set of ore beliefs t at were not ra ti al in t e sense of ra ti al learnin shixue w i t e movement also em asi e Here we will fo us on t ose i eas t at rovi e t e jingshi ommunity wit a sense of mission a mission to or er t e worl as we may more literally translate jingshi an of t eir own role as literati in t at uest T e late Min witnesse renewe iloso i al ebates about t e nature of law t e nee for e u ation an t e role of Confu ian s olars in or er in t e worl Dominant urrents of Confu ian t ou t el t at one oul erform orre t a tion an is over meta ysi al trut t rou nature an ontem lation alone but many blame t is i ea for t e rise of tyranni al em erors an orru t ministers At t e same time many t inkers on lu e t at t e Min was foun e on a ras in auto ra y maske by an in reasin ly om li ate le al o e inally t e visible ominan e of or ru t eunu s at t e Min ourt rom te literati to oin reformist fa tions base at a a emies amon t em t e Don lin A a emy w ose artisans sou t to restore t e moral aut ority of s olars an t e tra ition t ey u el en t e Man u in inva e t e Min owever many Don lin reformists an t eir intelle tual kin foun t emselves in a i ult osi tion: avin been re e te by t e orru t Min ourt t ey now fou t a ainst t e in inva ers as well It seeme as t ou no monar oul brin ea e to all un er Heaven an t at t is res onsibility lay instea in t e an s of e u ate men Two s olars Huan on i an an u i stan out in t is erio for t eir systemati ation of t e anti statist moralisti [

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i eas t at su reformists enerally el an t at in uen e t e jingshi rou an ian Army lea ers i later on Mo ern s olars i owever as often mis onstrue Huan an an s entral laims arti ularly by la in t em in a enealo y of rotonationalist t ou t T is is ue in art to nationalist intelle tuals own a ro riation of Huan an an s writin s at t e turn of t e twentiet entury but also to an unfortunate ten en y on t e art of estern s olars sear in for t e ori ins of nationalism to a e t t ose laims Ot ers in Mainlan C ina an Taiwan ave ro e te roto Mar ist or rotoliberal inter retations into t eir writin s T erefore in or er to emonstrate t e si ni an e of Min in t ou t for t e ian Army s i eolo y it is ne essary to lear away a moun of assum tions about t ese t inkers an t e i eas t ey synt e si e If as Ste en Platt ar ues uo on tan s onne tion wit an u i s writin s was riti al to is i eolo i al evelo ment an t at of is omra es it is ne essary to un erstan ow uo mi t ave rea im not ow uo s mo ern a mirers o e e woul ave A te tually roun e rea in of Huan reveals a ure t at a mo ern observer woul onsi er onservative even rea tionary an ertainly elit ist Huan an is ontem oraries e li itly arti ulate t e nee for e u ate men su as t emselves to re ain ontrol of overnment not only by assertin t emselves as t e e uals of kin s instea of t eir servants but t rou e u ation Confu ian reformists at t is time believe t at in t e ol en a e of t e estern ou s oolin a been universal an t e otential for sa e oo o en to all If su a system were in la e in t e resent ay t ey reasone literati oul ontrol bot t e urri ulum an t e ro ess by w i bureau rats were sele te So io oliti al an e woul t erefore be riven not by t e em eror above or by is ontente farmers below but by t e ure w o me iate between state an so iety t e s olar bureau rat S olar bureau rats a t e le itimate aut ority to lea from t e mi le Huan an is ollea ues reasone be ause t ey un erstoo t e rites To Huan t ere a been no enuine law fa in C ina sin e t e ou be ause avari ious rin es a use overnment to t eir own a van ta e s un ever more elaborate le al o es to om ensate for t e resultin orru tion an so erverte t e very on e t of law T ese unlawful laws fei fa zhi fa brou t about aos an so ial isturban e Conversely looser laws law wit out laws ZX ID ]KL ID ermitte eo le to reali e t e [

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rin i le of law un erlyin t e te t of t e o e His work s ows t at t e e u ate man s res onsibility is to awaken eo le to t e fun amental trut t at informs bot Confu ian so iomoral i eolo y an t e im erial le al o e It is akin to t e intent of t e %RRN RI /L w i asserts t at t is fun amental trut is embo ie in t e relations i s between members of t e family rior to t ose between rulers an sub e ts an u i our se on re resentative t inker looms lar e in t e isto rio ra y of mo ern C ina an of Hunan in arti ular an was a s olar from Hen yan Hunan w o be ame involve in reformism on t e eve of t e in on uest Like many ot ers e fo use is riti ue on orru t o ials an re eive is ins iration from t e Don lin movement Later w en t e Min ourt was retreatin sout war un er assault from t e in an le a s ort live uerrilla war a ainst t e inva ers S olars ave ma e mu of an s resistan e to t e Man us an t e romanti ima e of a lone literatus stan in a ainst t e ti e of barbarism later a ture t e ima inations of turn of t e entury nationalists w o tra e t e ori ins of t eir own anti Man uism ba k to an u i T e inter re tation of an u i as a rotonationalist as some roun in in is work as ertain assa es in is