Knitwear [Second revised] 9781474251747, 1474251749

Table of contents :
Contents
Approach to knit
Creative development
Construction through pattern
and texture
Construction through shape
Details and trims
Practitioners in context:menswear
Conclusion
Glossary
Index
Acknowledgements and picture credits

Citation preview

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BLOOMSBURY VISUAL ARTS Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY VISUAL ARTS and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published by AVA Publishing SA, 2010 This 2nd edition is published by Bloomsbury Visual Arts, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc © Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2018 Juliana Sissons has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work. For legal purposes the Acknowledgements on p. 195 constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover Design: Louise Dugdale Cover image © Alice Hoyle All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any thirdparty websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sissons, Juliana, 1959- author. Knitwear: an introduction to contemporary design / Juliana Sissons. Second edition. | New York: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2018. | Series: Basics fashion design | Includes bibliographical references and index. LCCN 2017040185 | ISBN 9781474251730 (pbk. : alk. paper) LCSH: Knit goods—Design. | Fashion design. LCC TT680 .S58 2018 | DDC 746.43/2--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov /2017040185 ISBN:

PB: 978-1-4742-5173-0 ePDF: 978-1-4742-5174-7

Series: Basics Fashion Design Typeset by Lachina

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0.1 Rebecca Swan’s oversized knitwear in cream, grey and black. Woven techniques in silk, wool and leather.

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Contents

Foreword: Sandy Black  vi Introduction  ix

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Reinventing traditional knitting  2 Yarns and fibres  7 Construction of knit  15 Developments in design and technology  23 Interview: Freddie Robins, senior tutor, knitted textiles, the Royal College of Art, London  24

The tension swatch  56 Basic techniques  60 Lace  67 Surface texture  70 Patterned knits  80 Interview: Sophie Steller, designer and director of the Sophie Steller studio  83

Approach to knit 1

Construction through pattern and texture  55

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The brief  30 Research  33 Interview: Shelley Fox, Donna Karan professor of fashion, director of MFA Fashion Design and Society at Parsons, New York  38 Design development  41 Colour  45 Sculptural form  46 Presentation and evaluation  50

Partial knitting: three-dimensional effects 92 Creating flared shapes  96 Increasing and decreasing  98 Interview: Katherine Mavridis, knitwear designer, Ralph Lauren  102 Draping and shaping  105 Creating a knitting pattern  111

Creative development  29

Construction through shape  91

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Details and trims  123 Collars and neckbands  124 Hems and edges  128 Pockets  133 Interview: Hannah Jenkinson, knitwear designer, HJK, own label  134 Buttonholes and fastenings  137 Hand-finishing techniques  140 Embellishment  143

Conclusion 186 Glossary 187 Index 192 Acknowledgements and picture credits 195

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Practitioners in context: menswear  149 Historical contexts  150 Androgynous contexts  150 Interview: Cozette McCreery  152 Designer case study: Pa Byrne  158 Designer case study: Ella Nisbett  162 Designer case study: Ben McKernan  165 Designer case study: Latasha Hammond  169 Designer case study: Matilda Draper  171 Designer case study: Kendall Baker  174 Designer case study: Carlo Volpi  177 Block patterns for menswear  179 Pattern construction for easy fitting dropped shoulder block with V-neck shape   181 Knitting pattern for easy fitting dropped shoulder block with sleeves  183 Pattern construction for sleeve development  184

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Foreword

Perceptions of knitwear and knitting span a very wide spectrum from the domestic hand-knitting on needles to the commercial products of today’s sophisticated industrial technology. Knit technology was mechanized more than 150 years before the Industrial Revolution, and it continues to be at the forefront of innovation in the digital era. Once associated with wartime thrift and knitting for victory, hand-knitting is again seen in public, with people learning to knit in cafes and social gatherings, and creating mildly subversive artworks. For those wanting to make a career in the fashion and knitwear industry, however, this public image is far removed from the complex, soft engineering that takes two-dimensional knitted fabric into three-dimensional form – and from the requirements and understanding of knit structures, and the consideration of garment form, whether in loose volume for drape from the shoulders, or knitted to shape for a body conscious silhouette. This second edition of Juliana Sissons’ Knitwear Basics book provides new inspiration from both professional designers and students graduating

from fashion and textile courses in UK universities and arts colleges, and for the first time, from the United States. In the intervening years since the first edition, the development of menswear with its own independent fashion weeks has grown, and is reflected here with a complete chapter on menswear, including an interview from Cozette McCreery, designer of former men’s fashion knitwear label, SIBLING. Juliana Sissons, herself a designer and pattern maker working in higher education, conveys the excitement and endless potential of the medium of knitwear in a fashion context, beyond the classics that have become ubiquitous yet essential pieces. The techniques, designs and insights contained here provide the basis of knowledge for endless experimentations with yarn, knit structure, pattern, texture, form and colour that will inspire a new generation of fashion and textile designers to go forth and create, either within the industry or as designer/makers. Professor Sandy Black, London College of Fashion

0.2 Menswear made from silk, wool and monofilament yarns. Extreme scale of proportions were achieved through weaving yarns into knit on the domestic knitting machine. Abigail Coop, runner up of Graduate Fashion Week, Knitwear and Gold Award 2017.

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Introduction

‘Missoni’s aesthetic is inside me, my mother, grandmother and I all have different styles, but we share the same taste.’ Margherita Missoni 

The machine-knitting industry dates back to the early sixteenth century, but it could not be more exciting and alive than it is today. Knitting provides endless creative outcomes, enabling an independent and experimental approach to design. Modern developments in technology and manufacturing, coupled with contemporary treatments and spinning technology are constantly reviving the knitwear industry. Knitwear can be found at all levels of the fashion market, from the industrial mass production of hosiery, underwear and sportswear to the use of its sculptural qualities in high fashion and accessories, such as bags, shoes and jewellery. The medium also provides an astounding range of possibilities for art, interior design and architecture. Knitwear: An Introduction to Contemporary Design, second edition begins with a brief history of knitting and knitwear design, with an introduction to yarns, fibres, machinery and tools. The book then leads you through the essential stages of creative design development, 0.3 Katherine Mavridis’ oversized knitwear design from a collection of handcrafted designs, with three-dimensional coiling techniques.

offering a range of exercises to hone your practical skills: how to knit a tension swatch, basic techniques on domestic machines and how to create knitting patterns. It looks at the differences between two- and three-dimensional design, exploring the textural and sculptural qualities of knit. The important considerations of the finer details, trims, embellishment and fastenings are explored before the final chapter, which examines the exciting possibilities in knitwear for men. This new addition takes a different approach to the previous chapters by showcasing exemplary international practitioners in menswear, in order to demonstrate how the knitting techniques that have been explored throughout the book can be applied in contemporary knitwear design. Menswear design is an emerging area within the fashion industry, designers are pushing more boundaries than ever before. Students are playing with unique themes, concepts and influences, leading to valuable sources of research for innovative design outcomes, thus giving men the freedom to explore more adventurous colour combinations, flamboyant textures and exciting developments in garment scale. Interviews with fashion/knitwear designers and knitted textile specialists serve to illustrate the different ways you can work with knitted textiles, offering inspiration and insight into the range of careers within the knitwear industry. I hope that this book will provide you with the fundamental skills, knowledge and inspiration to design and create your own innovative knitted textiles.

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Approach to knit

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In order to take a fresh look at knitting, and at ideas that are normally taken for granted, we should first understand historically how these techniques came about and consider the classic, timeless designs as significant and creative starting points for further design development. Hand-knitting skills and patterns have long been passed from generation to generation, allowing a greater understanding and acknowledgement of knitting as an intellectual, artistic tradition. A growing number of new and exciting designers are graduating each year from fashion and textile courses, and by comparing their designs with the work from the early knitters, a story starts to emerge. This chapter offers an introduction to knit and knitwear design, comparing traditional knitting techniques with their modern reinventions. It looks at the characteristics and behaviour of different yarns and fibres, from the traditional to the contemporary, such as metallic, steel and plastic. It offers an overview of knitting machines and tools and the different aspects of work that can be produced. Finally, it looks at how developments in design and technology are radically reinventing this traditional craft.

1.1 Knitwear design embellished with Swarovski crystals by Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir.

‘It is a freedom to be able to make your own fabric while working. For me it is the absolute challenge.’ Sandra Backlund

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CHAPTER 1: APPROACH TO KNIT

Reinventing traditional knitting Developments in technology enable new ways of creating knitwear and knitted textiles, but many students and designers are looking to traditional techniques for inspiration to merge with contemporary ideas. Designers are capitalizing on the unique qualities that knit has to offer, pushing boundaries with unusual yarns and materials and playing with scale. There is a natural interplay between craft, design and new technology. We will look at some of these traditional knits – fishermen’s ganseys or guernseys, Aran cables, Fair Isle and lace – and explore their modern reinventions.

A brief history

peg frames, similar to French bobbin knitting, were also probably practised alongside hand pin knitting. There are various European paintings that portray the Virgin Mary knitting, providing evidence that knitting was practised as early as the fourteenth century. Shown here is Master Bertram’s painting of the Madonna, who is seen knitting Christ’s seamless garment on four needles. Handknitting was commonplace in medieval Europe, and the production of caps, gloves and socks was an important industry. In 1589, the Reverend William Lee invented the stocking knitting frame, which was to revolutionize the knitwear

Wool fabric has protected us since the very early days, and people may well have knitted, using only the fingers, as long ago as 1000 BCE. Techniques using circular

1.2 Visit of the Angel, known more commonly as the Knitting Madonna, by Master Bertram of Minden, 1400–10.

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1.3 The framework knitting machine was invented by William Lee in 1589.

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REINVENTING TRADITIONAL KNITTING

trade. Initially created for use with the short, fine sheep’s wool from Sherwood Forest, this first machine produced coarse knitting for peasant hose. Lee was unsuccessful in promoting the frame; Queen Elizabeth refused the patent because she feared that it would jeopardize the hand-knitting industry. Lee then developed the frame to be used with silk: the original machines had eight needles per inch; this new machine was thought to have twenty needles per inch, and it was perfect for making expensive, fancy stockings. The English were still not interested, and Lee took the frame to France, where the machine eventually proved to be successful. By the end of the seventeenth century, it was in increasingly extensive use across Europe. Knitting had become faster, because now, instead of knitting one stitch at a time, whole rows could be knitted at once. The machine was gradually refined further, and by the eighteenth century, the idea of knitting holes opened up new scope for design. By the late nineteenth century, the knitwear industry was huge; new innovations in technology paved the way for the straight bar, flat frame.

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textures between the bands. Thanks to the opening up of trade routes in the seventeenth century, these garments soon became the fisherman’s staple around the UK, where they were adapted with new patterns and textures (and are often referred to elsewhere as ‘ganseys’). Stitches were passed down from generation to generation. The wealth of pattern in the stitches gave great scope for individual design. These garments were cherished, looked after, mended and often handed down. It is thought that a fisherman who died at sea could be identified by the handiwork of his guernsey.

Jerseys and guernseys Jerseys and guernseys originate from the Channel Islands, just off the north coast of France. These fishermen’s garments were hard-wearing, comfortable and warm; they were knitted in oiled wool with a tight stitch and could resist rain and sea spray. Original jerseys and guernseys were dark blue, almost black in colour, and were knitted in the round, using four or more needles, in order to secure a seamless garment. Designs were often knitted in banded patterns, sometimes displaying different

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1.4 Shetland fishermen wearing individually patterned hand-knitted ganseys in worsted yarn, circa 1900.

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CHAPTER 1: APPROACH TO KNIT

knitted cables, honeycombs, diamonds and lattice effects; it quite often displays different patterning on the front and back. The basis of many Aran patterns is the simple cable, a twisted rope design, which consists of a certain number of stitches that are divided so they can be twisted around each other. A typical Aran design consists of a centre panel with two side panels and cable stitches. The knitter uses tools to move one stitch or a group of stitches over or behind another.

1.5 Knitwear design by Graduate Fashion Week Winner 2016, Kendall Baker. Knitwear collection explored a variety of cable designs for menswear.

Aran The Aran Islands are located off the west coast of Ireland. Most historians agree that the Aran jumper is a relatively recent invention. The Irish government set up an initiative in the 1890s to encourage poorer families to weave and knit garments to sell. The garments were originally knitted in thick, untreated wool, which retained its natural oils; they were mostly cream, but sometimes black, in colour. An Aran knit is heavily patterned with closely

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1.6 Modern interpretation of the traditional Aran knit by Alexander McQueen, A/W 2006.

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REINVENTING TRADITIONAL KNITTING

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Fair Isle Fair Isle knitwear is known for its multicoloured, specialized patterns. Fair Isle, a tiny island south of the Shetlands, was a frequently visited trading centre for fleets coming from the north and Baltic seas. Influences from places such as Scandinavia and Spain can be seen in the Fair Isle knit. Cottage industries flourished and continued to thrive until a decline in the early 1800s. By 1910 Fair Isle knitting had become popular again; knitters continued to experiment with patterns and colours, and by the 1920s, the style had become a distinctive fashion for the wealthy and the middle classes. While Aran knitting combines textured effects, Fair Isle knitting concentrates on pattern and colour. Fair Isle knitting is a combination of design repeats and motifs, which tend to be broken up into vertical or horizontal bands or blocks. Knitting instructions are taken from charts, which give a visual impression of how the design will look when finished. There is great design potential with the different combinations of border patterns and motifs. See more about Fair Isle patterns on page 80. 1.7 Fair Isle knit by Hannah Taylor.

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Argyle-patterned hose Originating in Scotland, argyle stockings were traditionally worn with kilts, particularly by military regiments. The pattern was worked either in a large check – showing light, dark and a half-toned area between – or check-like tartan. Rather than being knitted in the round with four needles, these stockings were knitted on two needles with separate lengths of yarn for each colour.

1.8 Modern interpretation of argyle stockings by Vivienne Westwood, A/W07.

1.9–1.10 Modern take on traditional tartan, knitted swatch from Catherine Brown at the University of Brighton, from a project set by the Liberation Kilt Company and Ethical Fashion Forum, to draw awareness to human trafficking.

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1.11–1.12 Rachel Wells’ knitted swatches designed for the Rebel Tartan Project, in collaboration with the Liberation Kilt Company (Blue-Heart Tartan) and Ethical Fashion Forum, to draw awareness to human trafficking.

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YARNS AND FIBRES

Lace knitting The Shetland Islands are also famous for their lace patterns, knitted in very fine, soft yarns. Lace shawls were worked from the outside edges in. Designs varied from quite simple mesh patterns, based on garter stitch, to intricate lace patterns, based on stocking stitch. Different lace patterns were given names to describe the stitch. Some had meanings, such as ‘Old Shale’, which depicted waves on the beach. Others were more descriptive, such as ‘Feather and fan’, ‘Crest of the wave’, ‘Cat’s paw’ and ‘Horseshoe’. Lace patterns were capable of numerous modifications and combinations. This enabled the production of lace pieces that were luxurious to wear and individual in design. Lace knitting has never died out completely; many crafts people are still enjoying the challenge today. See page 67 for more on lace.

machine knitters and try to unravel some of the confusion over yarn thickness, the spinning process and the different types of fibre content. All yarns are made from natural or man-made fibres, which come in various lengths known as filament and staple. Filaments are very long fibres, which are made in one continuous length. Synthetic fibres are produced in a filament form. They are often then cut into shorter staple lengths before being spun into yarn. The only natural filament fibre is silk. Staple fibres are much shorter in length: lots of separate pieces are twisted and spun together to make a staple yarn. Sometimes, for reasons of strength, design or economy, yarns can be made from a blend of staple and filament fibres.

Yarns and fibres Your choice of yarns is very important, and there are lots of factors to take into consideration; the most important being quality and suitability for the end result. Here we take a brief look at some of the many different yarns available to

1.13 Shetland women knitting lace (left) and Fair Isle (right), early twentieth century.

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1.14 Cassie Green’s richly ornate garments made with luxurious materials: fine wool and silk.

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Spinning Spinning involves the twisting together of staple fibres to form lengths of yarn. A process called carding is first used to separate the entangled fibres. Carding machines, which consist of large rollers covered with sharp wires, create a thin blanket of fibres, and these are divided into narrow strips, known as slubbings. The slubbings are then drawn out and spun. Yarn may be twisted in a clockwise or anticlockwise direction, resulting in an s or z twist. The yarn may be tightly twisted, producing a hard, strong yarn; it can also be lightly twisted, giving a bulky, soft yarn with less strength, but good insulating properties.

Hand-spun yarns can be machine knitted but are usually best suited to a chunky machine due to the uneven texture of the yarn. Single strand or ‘ply’ yarns are produced through the spinning process. These strands can be twisted together with other strands to produce thicker yarns. These yarns are known as two-ply, three-ply and so on. Plying also prevents yarn from twisting back on itself and makes the final knitting lie straighter. According to the number of single ends that have been combined, and the way the yarns are doubled, many different effects can be achieved. Fancy yarns have a variety of textures and colour blends applied at the spinning stage.

1.15 Selection of hand-spun yarns by Jennifer Dalby.

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Natural yarns Natural yarns may be derived from animal or vegetable sources. The main three animal-based yarns are wool, hair and silk. The most common vegetable-based yarns are linen and cotton.

1.16 Alison Tsai’s oversized organic garment in luxury yarns combines techniques of macramé, beading and crochet stitches with knit. Her sketchbook displays sketches of monochrome knitwear development with beads, fringes and tassels to create organic shapes. A strong mathematical approach to complex designs is seen in pattern construction.

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Wool

Linen

Taken from the fleece of a sheep, wool is by far the most common type of yarn used in knitting. It has a natural elasticity, which makes it easy to work with. It can be chunky or fine, depending on the way it is spun, and the quality can vary depending on the type of sheep. Some wool has a longer and thinner staple length; for example, merino wool, from the merino sheep, has a finer fibre than other wools. Shetland yarn has a shorter staple length; it is sometimes itchy because the shorter, thicker fibres poke out of the spun yarn. Worsted wool is spun with a mix of varying length fibres, making it smoother, stronger and more lustrous than Shetland wool.

Linen’s long staple fibres are taken from the stem of the flax plant. This strong yarn is lacking in elasticity and is often blended with other fibres, such as cotton, to make it easier to work with. Yarns are usually slubbed.

Hair Hair is taken from the coats of animals other than sheep, although hair fibres are often blended with sheep’s wool. Examples include mohair, which comes from the angora goat. This is a luxury yarn with a unique hairy surface; when blended with wool or silk, the appearance becomes more refined. Angora, which comes from the angora rabbit, is a soft, fluffy yarn. It is usually blended with wool to give it strength. Cashmere is another luxury yarn. Taken from the cashmere goat, this is a soft, warm and lightweight yarn.

Silk Harvested from silkworms, silk is the only natural filament fibre, and it is expensive. It is strong, with a smooth, shiny appearance and is often blended with other fibres to make it more versatile. Spun silk is cheaper, as it is made from the broken pieces of waste filament spun together. Wild silk, which is harvested from undomesticated silkworms, is coarse and uneven.

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Cotton Cotton is made from staple fibres of the cotton plant. This is also a strong, non-elastic yarn with a soft finish. Untreated cottons are more difficult to knit than mercerized cottons, which have a treatment added at the production stage.

Man-made yarns The development of manufactured fibres and their texturing processes have inspired the knitting industry, and they have been beneficial in many ways: they are easy and inexpensive to produce and can be blended with natural fibres that are too fragile to use alone. However, there are environmental drawbacks as the entire production of these yarns involves the chemical treatment of raw materials and the use of coal and oil. Definitions between natural and man-made fibres are becoming blurred as many natural fibres, such as cotton, wool and flax, are regularly subjected to chemical treatments. Manufactured fibres fall into one of two categories: regenerated and synthetic. Regenerated fibres are derived from natural substances, such as wood pulp cellulose or milk. Rayon, the best known of these, is usually characterized by its sheen and often used as a substitute for silk. Viscose and acetate are both products of the rayon family and are all

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YARNS AND FIBRES

liable to melt under a hot iron. Synthetic fibres, such as acrylic, are made from petroleum-based chemicals, plastic and/ or coal. Acrylic crimped fibre yarn is often used as a wool substitute, but it is less durable, not as warm and has a tendency to stretch. Nylon is another synthetic yarn: it is very strong, non-absorbent and best blended with wool. Polyester is similar to nylon but with less shine. Other man-made yarns include metallic threads, such as Lurex, which are made

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from aluminium and coated in plastic. Manufacturing of man-made yarns continues to evolve, and a great number of refined, sophisticated yarns are available today. There are now extremely fine microfibres, which have opened up new possibilities in the design of yarns; stretch yarns are increasingly being used in seamless garments, and new blends and textures are continually being developed.

1.17–1.20 Selection of swatches by Victoria Hill, constructed using unusual, man-made yarns, such as rubber, acrylic and wire.

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Innovative yarns

Tip

Unusual effects in yarns are achieved by playing with colour, texture and heat settings. These effects can be added at the fibre, spinning or doubling stage. For example, a blend yarn has had different colours mixed together at fibre stage. A marl yarn is made up of two woollen spun-single ends, in different colours, twisted together. It can also be called a twist or a granderelle yarn. Nepp yarn has flecks of colour along its length, like tiny coloured balls of wool.

Buying yarns Many companies specialize in selling yarns to the machine knitter. Industrial coned yarns are more commonly used by machine knitters; balled yarns are usually too expensive, tangle more often and do not go as far. However, it is a good idea to have a variety of unusual yarns for experimentation, and small amounts of thicker yarns are useful for weaving in by hand.

The boundaries of yarn technology are constantly being pushed through student and designer research and through the many collaborative and interdisciplinary links. Knit designers are working with sports scientists, producing high performance fabrics, which have in turn stimulated new ideas for super stretch yarns. Collaborative research with knit designers and engineers are forging the way with ‘smart textiles’, creating yarns for medical purposes that have movement and can emit heat and light.

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1.21–1.23 Sam Bartys; knitted swatches, developed on the industrial knitting machine, displaying a combination of innovative yarns to explore texture and stretch fabric combinations.

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YARNS AND FIBRES

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Dyeing yarns

Acid dyes

Exploring different effects with dye can give your work a unique feel and open up new design possibilities. Original base colours will affect the look of the final dyed colours, so use natural and light shades of yarn for the best results. Before dyeing, the yarn needs to be unravelled from the cone and wound into a skein (do this by winding it round the back of a chair) and tied together loosely, to avoid tangling. The yarn should also be washed to remove coatings.

These chemical dyes are strong and bright and have excellent colour fastness. They come in a powder form and require a similar dyeing process to the Dylon dyes. Only a few base colours are needed to create a whole range of colours. Two or more colours can be mixed and many shades can be created from one colour by varying the amount of dye used. When experimenting with these mixtures, it is important to keep records of the amounts used in combination, together with a sample of the yarn before and after; for example, 30 grams wool yarn, red 40 millilitres/blue 60 millilitres. This information will serve as a useful starting point for new variations on the shade.

Dylon dyes Available from most hardware stores, Dylon dyes come in a wide range of colours. Each tin contains enough powder to dye approximately 227 grams (8 oz) of yarn, although you can vary the amount of dye depending on the depth of shade required. It is a good idea to make a note of the amount of dye added to the weight of yarn and keep it with the yarn sample. These dyes are easy to use and come with full instructions. However, they do not work well with some synthetic yarns. 1.24 Dye tests by Georgia Northcoombs.

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Vegetable dyes Vegetable dyes can produce a beautiful range of colours, but they tend not to be very strong and are also more likely to fade when washed. However, this is a cheaper way of dyeing yarns, and the colours have inspired many soft, vintagestyle collections. Dyes from gathered plant materials can provide interesting colour projects. They can also present a challenge when trying to replicate exact colours.

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Space dyes Space-dyed yarns are made up of a range of colours in one strand. This partial dyeing technique involves one skein being dipped in separate coloured dyes. Knitting

these yarns in stripes and patterns creates unusual rainbow effects. Multicoloured Fair Isle patterns can also be created without having to change yarns.

1.25 Jacket and mini-dress by Jessica Gaydon, dress (underneath) by Orla Savage.

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CONSTRUCTION OF KNIT

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Construction of knit The basic structure of knit is a series of loops created using one of two very different techniques: weft knitting and warp knitting. Weft knitting, the more common of the two, is the formation of loops using one continuous yarn, over successive courses throughout the

length; the wales are perpendicular to the courses (see Figure 1.28). Warp knitting requires different machinery and involves lots of different yarns, one yarn per wale. This fabric has less stretch and is more difficult to unravel than weft knitting. 1.26 The simple wooden knitting wheel has provided many children with a basic knitting frame and an introduction to knit. Known as French knitting, the technique involves wrapping a narrow circular cord around the nails, to make a row, then passing the yarn behind the nails, forming two rows. By lifting the first row over the top of the second, a stitch is formed, leaving one row on the nails. The knitting begins to form a tube through the centre of the reel.

1.27 A domestic knitting machine showing a knitted piece in progress.

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Stitch formation

wale

On a knitting machine, the needles consist of three parts: the latch, hook and butt (see Figure 1.29). The stitch is in the hook; when the hook slides forward, the existing stitch moves behind the latch. The yarn is then placed over the hook, and as the needle slides back, the latch closes. A new stitch is formed when the existing stitch is pushed over the latch (see Figure 1.30).

course

1.28 The diagram illustrates the structure of knit, showing the course (row) and the wale (stitch). butt

latch hook

1.29 Machine needles feature a latch, a hook and a butt.

1.30 Series of diagrams showing how stitches are formed on a knitting machine.

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CONSTRUCTION OF KNIT

Machine basics Domestic knitting machines fall into two categories: single bed, with one set of needles, and double bed, with two sets of opposing needles. Most beginners buy a standard-gauge, single-bed machine, which produces a basic, stocking-stitch single fabric. It is simpler to start with a single-bed machine, as the needle positions are easier to understand, and as the knitting is visible, it is easier to repair mistakes. Single beds can also be used to produce mock ribs, but these are not as professional as ribs made on a double bed. Most domestic machines have a punch-card facility for patterning. Once you have got used to the single bed, you can use a ribber attachment to convert it into a double-bed machine. Having two needle beds offers more flexibility.

The double bed can be used to produce a double knit or rib fabric, and there are a huge number of stitch variations. Most manufacturers supply ribbers as accessories for their different models.

Tension The yarn flow is controlled by a mast, tension spring and tension disc. As the tension is controlled mechanically the fabric quantity becomes more regular.

Machine bed The bed holds the machine needles; these are latch hook needles, which enable the machine to swiftly pick up new stitches and drop off old ones.

1.31 A standard-gauge, single-bed knitting machine, such as this one, is best for beginners.

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The carriage The carriage is moved across the bed and simply slides the needles forward in order to knit. Levers on top of the carriage control cams and can be used to select needles for a variety of stitches, such as tuck and slip. Stitch size can be fine-tuned by adjusting the yarn tension in combination with the stitch size dial on the carriage.

Needle size/stitch gauge The stitch gauge refers to the number of needles per inch across the needle bed. Different thicknesses of yarn can

be used depending on the gauge of machine. Fine-gauge machines (7 g) hold 250 needles and are suitable for knitting fine- to medium-weight yarns. Standardgauge (5 g) machines hold 200 needles and are suitable for medium-weight yarns. Chunky-gauge (3 g) machines hold 100 needles and can accommodate thick, chunky yarns. It is possible to explore different yarn thicknesses on each of these gauges by knitting on every other needle (half-gauging the machine).

1.32 A standard carriage for the Knitmaster knitting machine. A different carriage is needed for a double bed and is provided with the ribber. There are also many special carriages available for making lace and intarsia.

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CONSTRUCTION OF KNIT

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Machine types

Electronic machines

The following is an overview of the three main types of knitting machine. Secondhand domestic machines are ideal for students and are widely available, either from dealers or from auction sites. Most models (e.g. Knitmaster, Silver Reed or Brother) are equally reliable and roughly the same in price, except fine-gauge machines, which are sought after and usually more expensive.

Electronic domestic machines have a built-in programming capacity. Some machines use Mylar sheets to create the patterns, which can be repeated, reversed, knitted upside down, mirror imaged or doubled in length and width. If you are buying an electronic machine, it is a good idea to consider a model that is compatible with a CAD/CAM program for knitwear, such as DesignaKnit.

1.33 Brother double-bed, punch-card, domestic knitting machine.

1.34 Brother electronic domestic knitting machine.

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Hand-operated industrial machines

Electronic industrial machines

Hand-operated industrial machines are incredibly versatile; these machines have two fixed beds and are known as V-beds (from the side view they look like an inverted V). The beds are equally positioned in angle, which allows the knit to be equally weighted. They also have a greater range of gauges, offering the opportunity to experiment with very fine knit on gauges of 10 and 12. Tension can be altered for different parts of a garment, such as a rib border, full cardigan stitch knit and jersey stitch knit.

Today’s automatic, electronically programmed machines are highly sophisticated. Some have four needle beds, allowing greater possibilities with shape. They can be used to knit different weights of yarn without having to change needle sizes. The latest machines produce complete garments without seams and with only one thread to sew in at the end, eliminating hand-finishing costs. The body and sleeves can be knitted at the same time, via a tubular knitting technique. Ribs, cuffs and hems can be knitted at the start, necklines at the end. The complete garment machines and programming systems are extremely expensive, having taken years of research and development to perfect; highly skilled sample technicians are required to operate them. The two main models offering the complete garment system are Shima Seiki of Japan and Stoll of Germany (although China is fast developing its machinebuilding industry).

1.35 Dubied hand-operated industrial knitting machine.

1.36 Stoll electronic industrial knitting machine.

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CONSTRUCTION OF KNIT

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Tools Most machines will come with a selection of basic tools that are compatible with the gauge of the machine. These tools can be used on different machines as long as the gauges are the same. The most useful tools are those used for selecting, moving, holding and repairing stitches. Using the right tools for manoeuvres such as creating lace holes and manual stitch patterns, increasing and decreasing stitches, and casting off, will not only save time but will also make the task easier.

1.38 Machine needles feature a latch, a hook and butt. There are more needles to a fine-gauge machine and fewer needles to a chunky-gauge machine. 1.39 Latch tools are used for casting off and picking up dropped stitches. 1.40 Transfer tools (with eyelet) for moving stitches from one needle to another. Two- and threeprong tools are useful for handling two groups of stitches simultaneously, such as cables. Adjustable pronged tools enable you to set some prongs in nonworking positions; these can be as big as fifteen prongs to a tool. 1.37 Punch cards for making patterned knits. Prepunched patterns are available, which can be used with other stitch settings, such as lace, tuck and slip.

1.41 Plastic needle pushers. To speed up the needle selection, these enable you to select a number of needles at once, depending on the arrangement of their teeth; for example, you can push or pull every second, third or fourth needle.

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1.42 Mylar sheet for making patterned knits on an electronic machine. No hole punch is required as patterns are drawn onto the sheet with a soft pencil that reflects the light.

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1.43 Ribber combs and weights, supplied with the ribber, are used for casting on (for domestic machines with a double bed). The weights can be added to the comb as needed. 1.44 Open-hooked combs are used for single-bed casting on and as additional weights with larger pieces of knit. 1.45 Nylon cord is useful for casting on when an unfinished edge of knitting is required.

1.48 Industrial machine weights are suspended from either end of the comb. These are circular and can be mounted on top of each other. The amount of weight depends principally on the width of the knitting: less weight is used for fine, delicate materials.

Not pictured: Garter bar. Used for turning knitting over to produce a garter stitch. Ridges of reversed knit can be made.

1.46 Wire-edge hangers are useful tools for weighting small groups of stitches on double-bed knitting. They are handy for edges to prevent unwanted loops at the end of rows. 1.47 Claw weights help keep stitches firmly in place on the needles. These can be moved easily as the knitting grows. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes; some weights have holes, allowing additional weights to be hung from them.

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Stitch holders. Some hand-manipulated techniques require stitches to be temporarily moved away from the needles while other knitting continues; these stitches are placed on holding tools. A capped stitch holder is designed to hold multiple stitches, and stitches can be easily replaced. Flexible circular hand-knitting needles also make useful stitch holders, as do large safety pins. Linkers. Used for sewing seams or attaching edges, frills and collars. They can also be used to produce an edge-to-edge finish; linkers are available as hand and motorized models and also as machine accessories.

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DEVELOPMENTS IN DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

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Developments in design and technology Knitting machines have come a long way since William Lee’s knitting frame in 1589. Today’s streamlined systems and knitted fabrics have advanced in design and quality as a result of evolving technologies in computers and yarn manufacture.

innovative designs are being merged with old, traditional techniques. In response to the success of mass production there has been an increasing appreciation of ‘slow clothes’ and desirable, one-off garments that are more personal to the wearer.

As we have discovered, hand-knitted seamless garments date back to medieval times, and the fisherman’s gansey was a highly technical, seamless garment; however, it was the introduction of the Shima Seiki machine in the 1970s that brought the concept of seamless (whole) garments to the industry. By the 1980s Shima Seiki had computerized its machines. Another important development in knitwear manufacturing was the Japanese designer Issey Miyake’s A-poc clothing concept in the 1990s. A-poc (which literally means a piece of cloth) is warpknitted and uses a different technology to the weft-knitted, whole garment concept of Shima Seiki. A-poc consists of a knitted tubular roll of cloth, which incorporates the outlines of garment shapes. Cutting lines are provided within the pattern of the knit, and the customer can cut through the patterned shapes releasing a collection of garments from the same piece of cloth. This revolutionary clothing requires no seaming or finishing processes; because of the warp knit structure, the cut edges do not unravel. There are many contrasts within knitwear design and production, and although design and developments are indeed linked to technological advancements, luxury fashion garments have always been associated with the handmade. New,

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1.49 ‘A Piece of Cloth’ is innovative clothing developed by Issey Miyake and presented in 1999. It displays a manufacturing method that uses computer technology to create clothing from a single piece of thread in a single process.

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Interview Freddie Robins, senior tutor, knitted textiles, the Royal College of Art, London Freddie Robins graduated from Middlesex University and the Royal College of Art, London. She has been working as an artist using knitted textiles as her primary medium since 1997.

What is your design background and why are you attracted to knitwear? I was taught to knit at a young age and fell in love with it. When I was seventeen, I entered a knitwear design competition in a national craft magazine and, after winning, went on to study knitted textiles at both Middlesex Polytechnic (now Middlesex University) and the Royal College of Art in London. I have been working as an artist using knitted textiles as my primary medium since 1997. Can you talk us through your design process? Over the years my process has developed and changed. Initially it broke down into three distinct parts: the conception of an idea and ensuing research (the very pleasurable part that could take years); the planning of the final work, which involved pattern writing (the more difficult part that required a lot of concentration); and then the knitting of the work (another pleasurable part, where if I had written the pattern correctly, I could simply put the radio on

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and knit). I have now adopted a much lessstructured process where I might simply start making with what is around me and just see what happens. I am enjoying the release from my pre-planned method and trying to embrace serendipity and failure. How does your work take new direction and what are your inspirations? The body of work, The Perfect, deals with the constant drive for perfection. It is made using technology developed for mass production, to make garment multiples that are exactly the same as each other: garments that do not require any hand finishing, garments whose manufacture does not produce any waste, garments whose production does not require the human touch. Garments that are, in fact, perfect. I produced these knitted multiples through the use of a Shima Seiki WholeGarment® machine. These multiples take the form of life size, three-dimensional human bodies.

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INTERVIEW

Research and Conceptual development is an integral part of your work, could you tell us more about this and a little about another recent project, ‘Out on a Limb’? The process of converting a sixteenth century barn into a home and studio has radically shifted my approach to making and materials. I have developed a new expedient approach to making. I have to make and resolve the work with what is to hand. My materials are all my samples and surpluses, things donated, inherited and found. In 2007 I completed a research project (funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council), which also left me with a large quantity of waste material in the form of knitted bodies. My new body of work makes use of this excess. I am working with what I already have instead of deciding what I want to make and then choosing and buying new materials. Taking this “stuff” as my starting point and holding current concepts and themes in mind – ideas about what it is to be human, loss, death, grief and mourning – I am working spontaneously with my materials. Enjoying the release from pre-planned, designed work, I am knitting, crocheting, embroidering, sewing and pinning onto the knitted bodies and body parts. The bodies and body parts are made three-dimensional by filling them with expanding foam. A process that gives them form, enabling them to stand, but adds little weight. They remain visually light contrasting with the dark themes that I am exploring.

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My visual research has come from my fascination with ossuaries, charnel houses and the jewelled skeletons contained within them. I have experienced the Paris Catacombs, Sedlac Ossuary in the Czech Republic and the Capuchin Cemetery in Rome. Other references have been the work of outsider artists, particularly Katharina Detzel and Marie Lieb, whose work I witnessed in ‘Madness is Female’, Museum Dr. Guislain, Ghent, and the work of Judith Scott, who was exhibited at the Museum of Everything in London last year. The finished pieces evolve from the process as opposed to being designed and made. I work on the pieces until they are right, working on more than one piece at a time. At times I undo work or cut it up. At times I abandon a piece, and start afresh. Each piece informs the next. None of the works are made in isolation. The shapes, materials, processes and colours used in the first piece inform how I approach the second piece, and so on, until I have a full range of objects that work together to complete the whole installation. I am collaging together building materials and textiles; whatever needs to be done to make the works work, to make the work stand up, physically and conceptually. These works challenge traditional concepts and preconceived ideas of what craft is, how it might be made and how it might look.

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The creative industries today offer designers many opportunities to collaborate with projects in styling, fashion, film, music and textiles. Have you collaborated with any other artists? And if so, how does working in collaboration enhance creativity? I struggle with collaborative practice. It requires a creative confidence that I can only achieve alone in my studio. I don’t like to expose myself, or my ideas, too early. Having said that I have enjoyed the relationships that I have built through collaborative work; it has brought me into contact with people that I might not otherwise have met and exposed me to different skills and experiences.

technically challenging and usually made from wool using a strong, idiosyncratic colour palette. I often employ a dark humour, producing subversive and subtly disturbing works. What advice could you give to graduates starting out in the industry? You need skill and good ideas that are well communicated, not just through the physical work that you produce but also through the way you present and talk about them. You also need confidence and self-belief, and most importantly of all you need determination and staying power.

How would you describe your signature work? My signature work is best described as knitted objects or sculpture. It is

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INTERVIEW

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1.50 Freddie Robins produced these knitted multiples through the use of a Shima Seiki WholeGarment® machine.

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Creative development

2

As a knitwear student, you will be expected to work independently from set project briefs. You will develop concept ideas through the use of personal research, the exploration of technical skills and design development. A good body of work and a series of design outcomes should be produced for assessment. The brief outlines the aims and learning outcomes for the project. It details the work required and explains the assessment method and criteria. Projects have to be completed within a timescale, and these deadlines are important for assessment. Research projects are usually given to students to complete over the summer break, which allows them to draw from different sources and gather a good variety of inspiration for development in the new term. Sometimes projects are linked together in order to push research and design development in different directions for separate outcomes, such as textiles for fashion or interiors. This chapter guides you through the design process, from a knitwear project brief through to research and analysis skills and design development. You will need to have market awareness, as well as technical ability and good presentation skills, in order to achieve design realization.

2.1 Dress by Shao Yen Chen from the collection, Waver, using nylon, cashmere and Lycra yarns on a domestic knit machine. Each nylon fibre was put on the needles by hand to create volume.

‘Design development allows you to make mistakes; without screwing up once in a while you can’t ever move forward.’ Alexander McQueen

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The brief At college or university you will respond to briefs that are written and set by tutors. In your final year, however, you will be working towards your final degree collection, and you will be expected to set your own project brief. Occasionally, competition briefs are set by companies within the industry, which offer a valuable insight into the commercial world. The aims of these projects are specific to the company brand and consumer market,

making the costs and price range of design an important, additional, factor. Those students who successfully meet these briefs can win sponsorship, placement awards and travel bursaries. Examine the following criteria, based on a brief that was given to year-one knitwear students at Nottingham Trent University in the UK.

2.2 Mood board by Tsao Chin Ke with architectural inspiration (primary and secondary research).

2.3 Tsao Chin Ke mood board showing an oriental traditional costume and T-shape and rectangle pattern cutting by Max Tilk, as well as layers of distinctive decorative styles of Mao costume (primary and secondary research).

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THE BRIEF

2.4 Design development collage of garment shapes made up from knit swatches by Tsao Chin Ke.

Design workshop Sample brief

This project aims to encourage:

n

n



Students to gain a better understanding of the knitting machine A personal response to design development



Exploration of varied knit techniques



Use of experimentation using a broad range of media and techniques

n



Production of an imaginative and exciting range of design ideas

n



Investigation into 3D form and the development of silhouette (working with a mannequin)

n



Development of skills in fashion knitwear design

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Skills in recording and understanding the design process

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n

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n



Students to develop a professional range of fashion swatches

n



A demonstration of market awareness

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Students to thoroughly research a given theme

n



Development of creative project presentation

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Students to develop the concept of self-evaluation

Select one of the following themes (texture, embellishment, properties of stripe) to produce a collection of six to eight swatches. The swatches should be approximately 30 × 40 centimetres (12 × 16 in). Direct your design ideas towards fashion garment outcomes, showing an indication of end use, with

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shaped swatches and design illustrations. Your final collection of swatches should be supported by a sketchbook filled with drawings, textural developments, magazine tears and developmental trials on the knitting machine. Two mood boards, approximately 30 × 58 centimetres (16 × 23 in) are required, explaining colour, mood and theme. These can change as the project progresses, but making decisions at the beginning will keep you focused. You will also need to carry out a comparative survey of current knitted trends. This will involve a brief written analysis (250 words) of new trends in knitted fabrics at one chain store, one department store and one brand-led retailer. This will be invaluable research in helping you to understand the fashion market better. Students will merge their own personal research with the given themes to develop the mood of the project. Personal research can come from varied sources such as architecture, plant life, natural forms or technology. Themes Texture Look at edges and extremes of surfaces; consider contrast in yarns, such as hairy and smooth or shiny and matt. Explore yarns with texture, such as mohair, bouclé, rayon and lambswool. Personal research could look to the natural environment for inspiration. Embellishment Include embroidery, beading, sequins, floral structures, lace and geometrics.

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Consider appliqué, overprinting and foiling. Personal research could look at the circus or at vintage pieces for inspiration. Properties of stripe Explore variation of scale, repeat, engineered designs, diagonals, flashes of colour, trimmings and multiples. Personal research could take inspiration from urban environments and also include the investigation of shirting fabrics or traditional woven techniques, such as tartan or herringbone. Learning outcomes and work required The learning outcomes enable the student to demonstrate a development in technical knowledge and skills in knitted textiles and the ability to produce self-initiated research. The criteria used to assess the work include research analysis, creative development, technical skills, market awareness, design realization, self-management, presentation and evaluation. The work required for assessment is as follows: One sketchbook, recording your design process, filled with textural developments and imaginative research exploring a variety of media and colour development. Two mood boards explaining colour, mood and theme. Six to eight final knitted swatches. Fashion drawings to indicate use of knitted fabrics. A 250-word market research analysis. An updated technical file, recording technical development (the mistakes as well as the successes).

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RESEARCH

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Research Designers are constantly seeking and collecting new ideas and sources of inspiration. Good designers need enquiring minds in order to continually produce fresh, contemporary work. A sketchbook is, in many ways, a visual diary. It offers an insight into the designer’s personal creative journey. Designers develop an identity through the way they collect and process research; this is a skill that should become second nature over time. Many interesting starting points for design can be found through the ongoing investigation and individual approach to a concept or theme. Every newly found piece of knowledge feeds the imagination and brings up new questions and pathways to follow. Specialist libraries are great starting points for research. Colleges and universities will have libraries that cater for fashion and textile courses, offering a variety of costume history, craft technique, fashion and textile books. Look out, too,

for intriguing out-of-print books, new and vintage magazines and newspaper clippings. The internet is also a huge resource for research and images. Some designers arrange their inspiration and research ideas on a wall, assembling visual pathways through interesting connections and the juxtaposition of images, fabric samples and sketches. Other designers develop research books and sketchbooks that reflect the thought process behind the project from start to finish. However a designer chooses to work, the ingredients remain the same: all research should include silhouettes, colours, textures, patterns, fabrics, trimmings and yarns, as well as found objects, photos, sketches and notes. Research becomes more personal when it is manipulated in some way; working into an image with collage, pen or ink can make the inspiration unique.

2.5 Tsao Chin Ke’s silhouette development.

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2.6 Tsao Chin Ke’s knit swatch development.

2.7 Tsao Chin Ke’s ripples of knit inspired by edges of architecture.

2.8 Tsao Chin Ke’s garment collection line-up with the use of collage.

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RESEARCH

Primary sources Drawing from a primary source will help you to understand details of shape and form. It is important that you seek original sources to draw from in order to record the image in a personal way. Drawing is a valuable tool; it not only allows you to communicate ideas to others but it can also be used to record personal choices. Smaller elements of the image can be examined; parts of an image can be enlarged or repeated. Drawing helps to record and document the process of development. Take photographs, make sketches and highlight elements through the use of paint, crayon, ink or collage.

Market research Market research involves collecting a range of visual trend information, which should be used to inform and inspire your work, while reflecting the season and target market. You need to know who the consumers of your designs are; where they will be found; how many there are and whether or not it is a growing market. You should also research the kind of price they would be prepared to pay for a product; whether they have a preference for one brand above another and, if so, what and why. It is also worth considering furnishings and fashion accessories when assessing the market.

Concepts and themes A designer will often focus on a particular concept or theme to enable the design process and give focus to a project. A narrative theme forms the basis of many collections; a theme will convey a mood and tell a story. The designer will often use a subject of personal interest – one that can stimulate ideas and help to give a visual impact to a final collection.

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Design workshop Written analysis

Produce a written analysis of new trends in knitted fabrics. Visit a number of different retail outlets, such as chain stores, department stores and brand-led retailers: 1. Consider the store layout – what is the overall feel? 2. Is there a strong colour mood? Does the mood occur in all stores? 3. What is the quality of the knit? What is the finish? 4. Are there any strong embellishment trends, such as beading? 5. Do the goods look like they are value for money; what is the price point?

A concept or theme helps to hold the work together, giving it continuity and coherence. A good example of a strong narrative theme is seen in Alexander McQueen’s Autumn/Winter 2009 ‘Horn of Plenty’ collection. A witty commentary on consumerism, he presented womanhood as the old Hollywood siren in combination with the late performance artist, Leigh Bowery. Models walked around a catwalk littered with piles of rubbish and scrap metal. The collection drew awareness to the absurdity of

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capitalism in the year following the collapse of the Lehman Brothers investment banking company. The show captured the ugliness of human nature, transformed into extraordinary beauty.

her business diaries were assembled to develop a compositional print. The collection was a mixture of evening sweat shirting, cashmere, diary-scribble graphic prints and oversized cable knitwear.

Another way of processing your work is through the use of an abstract concept, such as the connotation of a single word. Words such as cocoon, wrap or layer can be used to sustain a whole project and trigger interesting starting points for development. Designer Shelley Fox is known for her abstract concepts and thought-provoking collections. For her Autumn/Winter 2001 collection, she used her diaries as inspiration. The pages of

The colours were a natural palette of black, putty and highlights of mint green, bright reds and primrose yellows. For her Autumn/Winter 1998 collection, she used the concept of Braille, which inspired a development into the use of Braille markings on wool (felted knit). This fabric was then transformed into threedimensional geometric shapes, which were drafted on the body.

2.9 Grey wool felt Braille top by Shelley Fox, A/W98.

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2.10 Knitwear from the A/W09 ‘Horn of Plenty’ collection by Alexander McQueen.

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RESEARCH

Project work can also be developed from a combination of unrelated images or a contrast of ideas such as ‘natural/ man-made’, ‘urban/orchard’ or ‘food/ fiction’. The quality of your final outcomes will be determined by the breadth, quality and individuality of your initial and ongoing research. Costume houses, museums, exhibitions, markets and antique fairs, charity shops and holidays abroad can all provide great sources of inspiration. You need to be able to fully explore the concept in order to create a collection of experimental and innovative knitted samples, which in turn will inspire ideas for a final fashion collection.

Design workshop Research

Select a theme and consider who your target customer might be. Gather together all your research material and start to arrange the strongest images onto a board. Build a mood that reflects the essence of your project. These ideas will start to spill into your sketchbook. 1. Edit and prioritize your selection. 2. Are the images telling a story? 3. Look for the connections in these images. 4. What colour combinations are emerging? 5. Does the board reflect your target customer?

2.11 Diary print skirt by Shelley Fox, A/W01.

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Interview Shelley Fox, Donna Karan professor of fashion, director of MFA Fashion Design and Society at Parsons, New York Shelley Fox is known for her conceptual, directional work. She designed for her own label between 1996 and 2006, producing seasonal collections and collaboration with practitioners outside the fashion industry, before moving to Parsons, New York.

What is your design background and why did you go into knitwear? Why are you attracted to knitwear? My education was never a straight line. Before I attended my foundation course, I was always making clothes for myself, and so fabrics were always central to that process. From there I attended a Higher National Certificate course, which was very technical, which provided me with important pattern-cutting skills. I was then accepted onto the BA Textiles course at Central St Martins. I didn’t want to do a fashion course as I had previously dropped out of a BA fashion course in London. During the BA Textiles course, I explored knitwear, print and weaving but in the end swayed towards knitwear. I loved building my own fabrics, and it gave me an appreciation of fabric making and the time it took to develop. Knitwear provides an open source of how to build fabrics: yarns, twist, tension, learning new techniques and endless possibilities of what a fabric can be, and also you cannot buy it – you create your own – it forms part of your identity as a designer. After graduating with my BA in textiles, and six months of working for designer Joe Casely-Hayford, I went on to do an MA in fashion at Central St Martins. Can you talk us through your design process? As a designer, the felting process has always been a big part of my collections.

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During my BA, the felting came about because the fine-gauge machines were always broken, and there were too many students on them. I would spend hours trying to make a fine-knit dress on the knitting machine, and then it would always mess up at the last minute, so I began felting out the mistakes. I suppose I was designing around necessity and obstacles that I couldn’t control. I created scorching effects by leaving the fabric too long in the heat press – another accident that became a design process. This was my introduction to felt and heat transfer. When I could see the fabrics coming together during the actual making process, I could see the collection or at least the feeling and possibilities of what it could be. An integral part of my design process was working in 3D and building with fabric. How does your work take new direction, and what are your inspirations? There have been so many ideas as starting points for my collections. Elastoplast finger plasters and bandages were the source materials for my A/W97 collection: intrigued by the plasters I had for a cut on my leg, I came up with the idea of using plasters and bandaging fabrics. I contacted a pharmaceutical company Smith & Nephew, who sent me their fabric archive, and I began to use Elastoplast fabric. In my A/ W98 collection, I used the concept of Braille: the simplicity of the alphabet shapes and codes. It was the method of touch

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INTERVIEW

reading that inspired my development into the use of Braille markings on wool (felted knit). This fabric was then transformed into three-dimensional geometric shapes, which were drafted on the body. Collections have featured felted wools where I had put too much fabric in the washing machine and it came out scarred and rippled. It was another accident, but once I had printed on it, it became the signature for the collection. The ripples and scars were a happy accident, in turn a further development on the medical theme. Other inspirations have been Morse code, where it was developed into sound for the show and visual for the cloth. For my Autumn/ Winter 2001 collection I used my diaries as inspiration. The diary print was taken from a series of business diaries; certain pages were selected based on their composition and assembled to make a print. Sometimes I collected too much information and not everything can be used for one collection, so a lot had to be edited out; ideas would take a back seat and then picked up several collections later when it became apparent that the timing was relevant. Research and design development is an integral part of your work; could you tell us more about this and explain how you instil the importance of research into your students at Parsons School of Design in New York? Research and design development is crucial to even develop as a designer and build an identity. Designers change and develop throughout their careers, but they need a bank of information and need to know how to translate and articulate those ideas into 3D garments. Without in-depth research, you don’t have anything to draw upon, and if a student tries to shorten the research phase, they are just prolonging the process of design and limiting themselves. We also try and get them to be open – take risks and get out of their comfort zone. I

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have learnt from my own experience, and I share with them the consequences of not going outside of your comfort zone. I focus on the importance of trusting your gut and following your instinct when you reach a block and difficult decision making scenarios. My role within an educational environment is that of a mentor in that it’s a more of a dialogue around them and their working process. I don’t believe you can teach them to be a designer, but it is more about drawing out what they already have and getting them to recognize that talent and then push it forward. How much emphasis do you want your students to place on conceptual approaches to knitwear design? I think the word ‘conceptual’ has been so misused and misunderstood in the same way the word ‘commercial’ has. I like to think of a design as relevant and desirable within a certain time frame, and sometimes that time frame is ongoing as some designers’ work transcends trends. I think I like to emphasise experimentation coupled with their technical skill set and how to bring those two worlds together. The Comme des Garcons ‘holes sweater’ from 1982 – it was breaking down the rules through interrupting the mechanisms and knitwear machinery which produce perfection. I suppose it’s similar to throwing a spanner in the works or a curveball with students when they are not expecting it – to interrupt the preconceived notion of how things are designed. Experimentation is important in order to achieve innovation; how does the students’ drawing and mark making contribute to an increased knowledge and understanding of their concept and shape making? The important thing to remember is that students are not all the same so cannot be taught the same. It’s about finding

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methods to help them articulate their vision, which does require a skill set even if they have to find it for themselves. We try and give them the confidence to find their own methods and make their own decisions that work for their way of thinking and designing. There are some students who can draw well, but it’s very important for them to also understand 3D and how fabric moves around the body. I think you can use a combination of many processes to experiment, whether it’s mark making, collage, drawing with fabric, photography, etc. – they all inform each other. Knitting can be constructed in a 3D way, which provides endless possibilities for conceptual approaches to garment silhouette; do you believe that modelling on the stand is the best way forward for your students to develop their garment shapes? A designer should be able to develop the sensibility and confidence to select the most appropriate approach in order to achieve the three-dimensional shape. This may be a combination of approaches that breaks all the rules and challenges the designing of new fabrics. As knitwear designers, they need to develop fabrics beyond a small swatch because of how the weight and drape will change once the fabric is scaled up. They need to know the fabric’s possibilities, limitations and move past the form and get their work onto a real body, otherwise it’s all a theory. Modelling forms are not moving bodies, so they need to understand the movement of fabrics and how they respond.

What advice could you give to fashion knitwear design graduates starting out in the industry? The MFA Fashion Design and Society program at Parsons has achieved much success in a short space of time, but it’s interesting that our knitwear designers are hired quickly and sometimes before they have even finished their collections. One of the reasons is that we push the students to go beyond swatching, and they have to work towards a collection of clothing. By going through this process, they become technically skilled in fabric making, toile making, technical analysis of patterns, as well as collaborating with high-end knitwear factories with the latest innovative machinery. They need to understand how knitwear is technically built, and that it is complicated, but it’s always through a creative process.

2.12 For this collection, blow-torched sequins and cascading felt frills were combined with geometric cutting techniques. The felt frills were handmade, becoming the main part of the fabric and almost coming out of the fabric. A/W00.

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DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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Design development Your research drawings will be developed into design ideas for patterns and textures. These ideas should then inspire your knitted fabrics and fashion collections. Put together mood boards from selected elements of your research, to help you organize your thoughts and collate ideas. Mood boards are an essential tool in industry for selling projects and gaining commissions. A mood board is a way for you to visually introduce your project; it should demonstrate to your client the theme, colour and feel of a project without your having to be there to elaborate, and it should be visually stimulating. Be very selective about the images you pick to use on your board – every photo, picture and fabric should be perfect; if it isn’t, you should make it so. Try to include original art. If using found images, such as other people’s photos and magazine tears, then manipulate them – change the colour, paint over them, layer and distort them. As a general rule, less is more, so try not to clutter your board. There are no rules

on layout for mood boards, but they tend to look better with a plain border. Begin to explore a variety of creative possibilities by translating your research images into knitted sample trials. For example, a piece of woven fabric could be the inspiration for a pattern; a plastic tablecloth might inspire a knitted lace. Make the project as personal as possible. Using your research, you will be expected to construct and experiment using a variety of techniques. Along with traditional drawing styles and experimental mark making, consider paper/fabric manipulations; collect and create a variety of textures through machine stitching, cut work, layering and folding. Work in both two-dimensional and three-dimensional ways to produce different design outcomes. Consider silhouette and try playing with scale: for example, a folded doily could inspire the shape of a sleeve. Review and evaluate your research work, extract the most successful outcomes and develop these further into a range of knitted samples. 2.13 Transforming flat floor plans into 3D ideas by Alice Hoyle.

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2.14 Sketchbook work showing paper folds develop into pattern and sample development by Alice Hoyle.

2.15 Shape development, taking a perfect floor plan around the body by Alice Hoyle.

Knitted samples The next stage is to begin sampling, using a combination of coloured and textured yarns with stitch construction to take your research forward into fabrics. Use your mood boards and research to extract textures, patterns and silhouettes. A paper-cut experiment might now become

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the template for a knitted punch-card pattern. A stitched fabric experiment could inform a knitted stripe or weave. A drawing of an air vent in the Metro can become the start of a knitted transfer or partial-knit lace pattern. In order to create a range of interesting samples,

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you will need to gather a good mixture of yarns in different colours, textures and thicknesses. Experiment with knitting one stitch construction or pattern at a time, using a variety of different yarns and tensions. Try mixtures of yarns, in stripes or blocks of colour; contrasting textures, such as thick yarn with thin; or translucent with matt, shiny or both. Spend time sampling, sorting and trying out ideas; it is not just about simply knitting different colourways. When you have a good idea of which yarns work well with which techniques, you can begin to explore a mixture of stitch constructions. You might want to mix lace holes with partial knit or tuck stitch with a weave or add a partial stripe. The tension on the machine will need to be changed in order to accommodate different yarns; this takes patience, and a lot of practice, in the beginning. When you have explored all the options, you will need to decide which ideas to develop further into your final outcomes. As you edit and prioritize a selection from your first samples, you may find that a number of samples already sit well together as a collection and translate well into garment ideas. Any developments of first samples that will be used for your final collections should be added to your research book as you go. Although knitwear is versatile, keep in mind the quality of the fabrics when designing your fashion collection. Soft, draping fabrics, for example, are suitable for dresses; thicker, heavier weights can be used for jackets. Above all, the fabrics and designs should capture the mood of the project. Your collection should reflect the customer and market and suit the season for which it is intended.

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Design workshop Technical file

Build up a technical file, containing notes of the different tensions, yarns and techniques explored. First samples should also be kept in the technical file as a useful source of reference. Knitted samples should be approximately 50 stitches wide and 10 centimetres (4 in) long. Consider the following: 1. Pick a stitch construction, such as tuck, weave, Fair Isle, transfer lace or partial knit. 2. Play with extremes of tension. 3. Try variations in repetition. 4. Use different colours. Try different textures. 5. Explore a combination of stitch constructions.

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2.16 Feng shui study of the chosen floor plan, improving elements of the home, by Alice Hoyle.

2.17 Final pattern piece layouts by Alice Hoyle.

2.18 Colour balance decisions and pattern piece layouts by Alice Hoyle. These examples clearly illustrate how the designer has used research and initial inspiration of interior floor plan to develop a colour range and how, through 3D development of cutting and folding, zero waste garment shapes have been designed.

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COLOUR

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Colour At the beginning of a project, you should establish a colour mood and create a colour mood board. To allow for some adjustments, it is a good idea to have a working board at the beginning and a final finished board towards the end of the project. Colours are essential tools for anyone working in the fashion industry. You will need to develop a good colour sense and be aware of colour trends. Sampling and swatch making are great ways of developing colour awareness. It gives you the opportunity to learn about colour in relation to proportion and to gain an understanding of how colours react when placed next to each other. Try out colour combinations for stripes by winding differently coloured yarns around narrow pieces of card. This will enable you to see the overall final look at a glance; it not only helps you to decide the width of stripe, but also the number of colours to use in a repeat pattern. Similar effects can

be achieved with paint and with different widths of cut or stitched strips of coloured paper laid next to each other. Views on the use of colour and pattern will vary from person to person, but most people agree that certain colours have common associations. We tend to associate some colours with urban life and others with rural; some we think of as warm colours, others as cool. These assumptions will affect our response to the work, just as likes and dislikes of colours can make or break a design. Many historical pieces of knit are appealing because of the complicated hand techniques, but colour is just as important: the colours of a Fair Isle knit, for example, must be a visually appealing combination. There are many ways to combine colour: you may prefer colours with a lived-in quality about them, such as muted tones of black to grey and shades of brown to beige; alternatively, you may prefer strong, vivid colours with patterns to emphasize harsh contrasts. Sometimes it is valuable to challenge your preferences. Try to move outside your comfort zone by choosing to work with colour ranges you do not personally prefer.

2.19–2.21 Sketchbook work by Charlotte Yates, displaying colour development techniques in the form of painted stripes and collage. Fine-line drawings go on to explore ideas for embroidery stitch and texture.

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Colour trend forecasting There are many colour trend forecast companies that predict colours every season for different aspects of the fashion industry, such as lingerie, leather, shoes, accessories and so on. Designers and product buyers are also often responsible for predicting colour choices. Larger companies employ teams of people to produce colour mood prediction boards. The process of colour trend forecasting involves predicting groups of colours and dividing them into themed categories, with colour and mood descriptions for promotion. Fibre and yarn manufacturers purchase colour forecasting information to assist them in the making of their shade cards, which in turn also serve as prediction packages. Fabric and knitwear manufacturers then choose their colours from both the colour forecasting companies and the fibre and yarn shade cards. This information is usually available at trade exhibitions, such as Pitti Filati in Florence and Première Vision in Paris. The consumer may be influenced by colour trends advertised in magazines, but in the end, colour predictions are only effective if the consumer buys the product.

Sculptural form A three-dimensional approach to your work considers shape and form, proportion, volume and weight. It takes your fabric design into garment ideas. This is an extremely important research and design process and should be documented in sketchbooks throughout the project with the use of notes, sketches and photographs. Using your research, start to translate shapes into quarter-scale or part-garment ideas and manipulate dress pattern pieces to inspire shapes for possible sleeves, collars and so on. Many ideas for shape and structure can be tried out with a mannequin, some stretch jersey toile fabric and knitted trial samples, pattern-cutting paper and a box of pins. As a designer, you will need to understand the behaviour of knitted fabric on the body, so experiment with various stretch jersey fabrics in order to find a similar weight to the final knit. Shape making and fabric development should happen simultaneously; each one affects the other. If your starting point is a range of knitted swatches, already produced, then the construction of your garments will be determined by the weight and structure of your knit. 2.22 Colour trend information is displayed at trade fairs such as Pitti Filati and Première Vision (pictured).

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SCULPTURAL FORM

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Design workshop Colours

Try mixing unusual colour combinations. Look at art, fabric, wallpaper samples and gift wrap. Work out the colour combinations used and decide if you think the combinations work or not, and why. 1. Experiment with contrasting pairs; these can be subtle or dramatic. Create combinations using three, four, five and six colours.

shades of one colour and then add a single row of contrast. 3. Explore patterns in neutral colours, whites, off-whites, beiges and greys. 4. Produce a colour concept; for example, you could try combining delicate old rose, gold and ivory for a vintage palette.

2. Try combinations of similar tones and shades. You could try several

2.23 Experimental shapes on the mannequin by Tsao Chin Ke.

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Design process

2.24 Waxed cord design by Derek Lawlor. Derek adapts techniques such as weaving to create his sculptural pieces.

You can incorporate interesting structural aspects of your knitting techniques to direct design ideas. For example, a knitted piece that has a placement of increased elasticity may be used where it could help the design, such as in the waist or the small of the back. Knitting techniques and pattern placement should work for you, to help the fit of the garment. Large knitted samples can be wrapped around the mannequin to create sections of garments; this method of creating shape is particularly effective when the fabric features a partial-knit technique. Many unexpected folds and drapes can be achieved through an asymmetric wrap and drape. The missing parts of the

2.25–2.26 Series of pages, from portfolio by Rebecca Swann, showing the development of sculptural designs on the stand. Draped jersey explored further through illustration.

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SCULPTURAL FORM

garment can then be filled in with jersey toile fabric and turned into pattern pieces, which in turn will be knitted. Each stage provides important information for you to develop into your designs. Look at how the fabric behaves when it is shaped on the body and design your pieces accordingly. You will achieve the best results when you become totally engaged in the process, continually working between 3D modelling on the mannequin and sampling on the machine; trying out elements of fit and drape, altering and correcting pieces, to realize the desired size, scale, weight or shape.

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effect and silhouette. This method offers a more immediate look at the proportions and design details of a garment (you can pencil onto the toile any alterations of seam lines, placement of pockets, neck openings and so on) before starting to develop the weight and drape of the knit.

Creating volume All knit can be moulded around the body, but consider the weight of the fabric when creating volume. Lightweight jerseys can drape into soft folds, but bulky knitted fabric can be solid and heavy. Large structures can be quickly built with thick yarns and large needles on a chunkygauge machine. Volume and shape can also be achieved through the use of repetition: layer upon layer of fine knit can be used to create large silhouettes of light, feathery bulk. Draping, frills and pleating techniques are other ways to add volume and shape to lightweight knits. Designing garments and making patterns come about through a combination of procedures and starting points. You may prefer, as a sculptor does, to start with an illustration of a garment or a sketch of an idea, or you may prefer to work directly on a mannequin with a stretch jersey fabric, modelling and pinning together various sections to achieve the desired

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2.27 Sculptural collar by Juliana Sissons.

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2.28–2.30 Designs by Rebecca Swann using multiple layering techniques to create volume.

Presentation and evaluation At the end of a project, you will be expected to display and present your work for a group discussion and evaluation. This will provide the opportunity to develop presentation skills, engage in critical self-reflection, comment on and learn from the work of your peers, share experiences, receive constructive criticism (and offer it to others) and develop the ability to articulate your design intentions. A written self-evaluation offers you a chance to write down your thoughts on the project process (your performance and development) and your work.

can also be mounted on display sheets, made from mid-weight card or mount board. Swatches can be kept separate from the design illustrations, but in many cases, finished illustrations are drawn onto these boards, showing final design ideas.

Display of samples and swatches

Knitted sample trials can be mounted on design development boards, which act as visual extensions to your sketchbooks. A design development board should document the different stages of work, including sketches, diagrams and photos of your threedimensional work, to illustrate your process while allowing interaction with your design vision.

Knitted swatches can be attached to display headers, which are narrow pieces of card that fold over the top of the swatch, allowing the fabric to hang free. Swatches

Choose the best samples for presentation; any additional samples can be put in your technical file or sketchbook. A selection of knitted

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2.31 Sketchbook work by Charlotte Yates, displaying garment design development and image of final garment. Inspired by ski wear, the sketch depicts a finely knitted padded jacket with hand-smocked yoke.

2.32 Charlotte Yates’s sketchbook work, displaying final collection illustration, with commercial flat drawings illustrating individual garments, inspired by ski wear.

2.33 Charlotte Yates’s line-up of a ski-wear-inspired collection, with use of smocking, dyed fabrics and embroidered embellishment.

samples looks good attached to your mood boards, as both theme and colour can be communicated through intensity of stitch. For example, a closely knitted thick yarn, with vivid blocks of colour, would suggest a different mood and colour theme to an open lace knit of fine yarn in delicate pastel shades.

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Remember not to stick swatches down on all sides – the knit needs to be handled for evaluation.

Fashion drawings You need to be able to communicate your design ideas effectively, choosing the most appropriate illustration style for

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2.34 Swatch by Annabel Scopes, designed on an electronic machine with the DesignaKnit package.

your work. Front and back views are often necessary to get a complete picture. Your design illustrations, which will be added to presentation boards, need to be clear but also convey texture and design detail. Inspirational material may often be included on a presentation board, which serves to reinforce the mood of the collection. Scale and proportion is important: the illustrations should represent correct sizing and the silhouette should be accurate. Flat working drawings can be added to the presentation board alongside more creative illustrations. These flat drawings are usually referred to as specification or technical drawings and are used in the fashion industry to communicate to the pattern cutter, machinist or knitter. These drawings accurately describe how garments are constructed, showing precise proportions, measurements, positioning of seams, pockets, fastenings and neckline details. These technical or working drawings should also be kept in your technical file, along with measurements, yarn details, costs, sample swatches and pattern instructions.

Self-evaluation The purpose of self-evaluation is to learn from experience. This will help you to

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adapt, modify and develop strategies for future action, in order to improve your working methods and design outcomes. If you evaluate and plan in this manner, it will not only improve your overall performance, but you will also become more independent and begin to take responsibility for your own learning. Your sketchbook is a good place to start. Sketchbooks that have been developed throughout the project should provide a reflective commentary alongside the design work. One page should relate to another, telling a story and documenting your exploration. It should be a highly personal piece of work, individual to you, your inspirations and methods of working. Each stage of research and design development is important, from two-dimensional drawings and patterns to three-dimensional textiles; from the knitted sample trials to the finished shaped swatches. The combination of these different elements will give you clearer focus on the design concept, helping you to form a good working method and a format that can be developed for all conceptual projects. As you continue on your course, you will be expected to show increasing self-awareness and to develop an understanding of your work and working methods. You will be expected to direct your own progress and to identify your strengths and areas to develop.

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PRESENTATION AND EVALUATION

Design workshop Reflection

At the end of a project, ask yourself the following questions: 1. Did your research inspire you? 2. Did you have enough primary research? 3. Did you explore the most interesting parts of your research?

9. Did your fashion collection represent the season specified? 10. Did the collection fit the target market? 11. What did you learn? 12. What would you have done differently? 13. What will you do next? 14. What ideas have you now developed that you would like to push further?

4. Did you exhaust each creative pathway and make the most of your ideas? 5. Were you happy with your colourways? 6. Were you inspired by your choice of yarns? 7. Did you push the processes and techniques chosen and explore new ground? 8. Were your final fabric swatches suitable for your design ideas?

2.35 Talia Shuvalon’s graduate collection displayed a leaning towards graphic, modern fashion.

2.36 This garment from Talia Shuvalon emphasizes her clean, minimal, architectural approach to design, with layered textile knit in fine wools of clinical green, marl grey and black.

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Construction through pattern and texture

3

Three-dimensional effects in surface texture can be created through a combination of knit stitch techniques and different weight yarns. Once you have mastered basic stitch variations and pattern techniques you can really begin to experiment with knit. In Chapter 3 we look at the use of pattern and texture in construction, with basic knitting techniques on domestic machines. There are exercises in stripes and tension changes, patterns, modern lace and textural effects, such as cables and weave. It is important to keep a technical file, which will be of constant aid throughout your studies. Collate and record all your knitted tension swatches, along with notes of the fabric qualities and suitability for design. You should be able to use your technical file to reproduce samples if necessary. The file will be an ongoing personal resource, and you should keep adding to it for every project.

3.1 SIBLING show piece, AW10. Scare Isle Knit Monster polo neck, joggers and gloves knitted in Scotland using Scottish lambswool. Exclusive graphic worked on in-house using designer knit programs. Knit, padded gilet, hand–screen printed for shine. Hand-caught knitted raffia Mohawk attached to a balaclava.

‘The essence and beauty of knit lies in the fact that the designer invents everything from scratch; he creates the stitch, the handle, the weight and chooses the colour, deciding on texture and shape at the same time, mastering his own finishings and detailing.’ Li Edelkoort

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The tension swatch It is very important to achieve the correct tension when knitting a garment. A tension swatch is vital for knitting a garment to the correct size and fabric quality; it enables you to calculate how many stitches to cast on, how many rows to knit and how many needles are needed to increase or decrease during shaping. If your garment involves lacework or changes of technique within the fabric, these details will need to be knitted into the tension swatch; quite often, many tension swatches are knitted for one garment.

When using an existing knitting pattern, the tension measurement will be provided with the pattern instruction. A set of measurements such as 30 stitches and 40 rows to 10 centimetres (4 in), for example, means that you will need to cast on thirty needles and knit forty rows to achieve a 10 centimetre (4 in) square. If you do not match the tension measurement with a correct tension swatch, your work may not fit correctly, and you will need to vary the tension settings. It is important to keep a record of these tension swatches, alongside yarn and machine gauge details, in your technical file for future reference.

3.2 Knitted tension swatches featuring ladders and open spaces.

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THE TENSION SWATCH

3.3 Knitted tension swatch by Tsao Chin Ke, domestic knit machine, three-dimensional construction.

3.5 CAD patterning by Tsao Chin Ke; power-knit machine, synthetic mixed yarns and elastic.

3.4 CAD patterns by Tsao Chin Ke; power-knit machine, wool and elastic. 3.6 Weaving technique by Tsao Chin Ke; industrial hand-flat machine, wool and cotton.

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Making tension swatches

Tip

There are various ways of making tension swatches, and most knitters find a way that best suits their needs. Here are two of the most common ways: measuring tension and calculating a tension square.

Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in. Calculating rows per centimetre 50 rows = 13.5 cm 100 rows = 27 cm 100/27 = 3.7 rows 3.7 rows = 1 cm Calculating stitches per centimetre 50 stitches = 15 cm 100 stitches = 30 cm 100/30 = 3.3 stitches 3.3 stitches = 1 cm

3.7 Tension swatches by Annabel Scopes showing a combination of stitch techniques.

3.8 Swatch by Annabel Scopes, made on a chunky-gauge Dubied machine. Needles from the front bed have been transferred to the back bed to create the pattern.

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THE TENSION SWATCH

Measuring tension 1. Knit a swatch that is approximately 80 needles wide and approximately 20 centimetres long, using the yarn you have selected for the garment. Make a note of how many rows you have knitted. (Note: if you are matching a set of tension measurements, you will need to cast on a further 20 or so needles and knit approximately 30 more rows, so that the swatch is wider and longer than the tension measurements provided; this is because the edge stitches can be distorted.) 2. Take the swatch off the machine, wash or steam it and place it on a flat surface. Finish it in the same way you will finish your final garments. 3. Choose an area on the sample where the knitting looks fairly even; not close to an edge where it may be distorted. 4. Measure 10 centimetres widthways, and mark the stitches with pins. Count the number of stitches between the pins. To calculate the number of stitches per centimetre, divide the total by 10. 5. Measure 10 centimetres lengthways, and mark the rows

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with pins. Count the number of rows between the pins. To calculate the numbers of rows per centimetre, divide the total by 10. 6. Note the gauge of the machine, along with the type, thickness, colour and brand of yarn. (It is good practice to write this on a label and attach it to the swatch.) This will enable you to match tension swatches at a later stage. Many knitted samples from your trials could also work as tension swatches for patterns in different textures. But remember, when matching your tension swatch to tension measurements provided (such as 30 stitches and 40 rows to 10 centimetres), the measurements must be correct. If the 30 stitches measure less than 10 centimetres, then the knitting is too tight and will need to be knitted again on a looser tension or on a larger gauge machine. If the 30 stitches measure more than 10 centimetres, the knitting is too loose and will need to be knitted on a tighter tension or a finer gauge machine. Similarly, if the 40 rows measure more or less than 10 centimetres, then the tension will need to be adjusted accordingly.

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Calculating a tension square Another way of tension swatching is to measure from a square of 50 needles and 50 rows to calculate the number of stitches and rows per centimetre. This information is used when drafting knitting patterns. 1. Thread the machine with waste yarn; this can be the same type or weight as the yarn intended for the garment, but in a contrasting colour. 2. Cast on approximately 80 needles. This allows the finished width to be wider than the 50 needles needed, thus avoiding any distorted edge stitches. 3. Knit 15 or 20 rows in waste yarn. 4. Change to the same yarn that you will be using for the garment. Knit 50 rows. It is a good idea to pause at 25 rows and put markers in the middle of the swatch to indicate where the 50 stitches are. Markers can be made by hooking a contrast colour yarn onto needles 1 and 50.

5. Change back to waste yarn and knit 15 or 20 rows before binding off. 6. Wash or steam the tension swatch and allow the knit to settle. 7. Place your tension swatch on a flat surface, ready for measuring and calculation. If, for example, 50 rows measures 13.5 centimetres, we can assume that 100 rows would measure 27 centimetres. To calculate the number of rows in 1 centimetre, we divide 100 by 27, which equals 3.7 rows per centimetre. Then, if 50 stitches measures 15 centimetres, we can assume 100 stitches would measure 30 centimetres. To calculate the number of stitches in 1 centimetre, we divide 100 by 30, giving 3.3 stitches per centimetre. Note: as it is not possible to knit 3.7 rows or 3.3 stitches, the final measurement should be rounded up or down.

Basic techniques There are a number of basic techniques that you will need to learn as a beginner. Casting on, binding off and picking up dropped stitches are all hand-manipulated effects that appear in one way or another; they can also be used in combination with other techniques for interesting results. It is a good idea to spend some time practising these fundamental skills so that you can confidently use them in your knitting.

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There are many ways of casting on and binding off, each of which creates individual edges and visual finish detail. Casting-on and binding-off techniques are not only used at the beginning and end of a knit, they are also used for shaping, lace techniques and buttonholes.

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Casting on Two useful casting-on techniques include the ‘closed-edge cast-on’ by hand, which will not unravel as it creates a firm, solid edge, and the ‘open-edge cast-on,’ which produces an open edge of loops that can either be knitted onto at a later time or turned up to make a hem.

Closed-edge cast-on 1. Thread the yarn through the tension spring and disc. Pull yarn down to the left side of the machine. 2. Move the required number of needles to holding position (when the needles are pushed forward in the bed as far as they will go). 3. Make a slip knot and place it on the end of the left-hand needle. With the carriage on the right, work from left to right, winding the yarn anticlockwise (this is known as an e-wrap). 4. After wrapping the last needle on the right, thread the yarn into the carriage.

Open-edge cast-on 1. Thread yarn through the tension spring, disc and carriage on the right side of the machine. 2. Move the required number of needles to working position. 3. Knit one row with waste yarn. Hold onto the end of the yarn while moving the carriage across the needles. This will look like a row of loops. 4. Place a length of nylon cord across the loops, between the needles and the sinker gate pegs (the row of pegs along the front of the needle bed). Holding both ends of the cord firmly in one hand, pull down. 5. Keeping the cord firmly in place, knit 10 rows or until the knit is long enough to hang weights on. 6. Remove the cord, gently pulling at one end. Continue knitting or change to intended yarn.

5. Take the carriage across to knit. Move needles out again and repeat until there are enough rows on which to hang weights. Knit the required length.

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Tip

Binding off (casting off)

Needle positions There are four needle positions on most domestic knitting machines (although the Passap has two). On either end of the needle bed, you will find a set of engraved letters: A, B, C and D on a Knitmaster; A, B, D and E on a Brother. To operate the needles, you will need to align their butts with the letters. The positions are as follows:

When finishing a piece of knitting, all stitches should be secured with a firm, neat edge. As with casting on, there are various ways of binding off. The following method requires the use of a transfer tool. It may be easier to remove the yarn from the carriage and tension unit but, if not, pull enough yarn down through the feeder to take away the tension. Always cast off from the same side as the carriage.

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A: needles are in nonworking position and do not knit (NWP) B: needles are in working position (WP) C (D for Brother): needles are in upper working position (UWP) D (E for Brother): needles are in holding position (HP) and do not knit when holding cam levers are on.

NWP WP UWP

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HP

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Cast-off technique 1. Place the transfer tool onto the first needle. Pull out and push back so that the stitch moves onto the transfer tool. 2. Place the stitch onto the next needle (either behind or in front of the sinker gate pegs). Pull this needle out so that the two stitches fall behind the needle latch.

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3. Take the yarn from the feeder and lay it across the needle hook, but in front of the latch. Pull the needle back to knit a new stitch. Two stitches have been knitted into one, and one stitch has been cast off. 4. Repeat this process until the end of the knitting. Cast off the last stitch by pulling the end of the cut yarn through the stitch.

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Reforming stitches

Tip

To repair a dropped stitch, you need to use a latch tool to reform the stitch by hand. If a stitch has dropped through several rows it can be picked up and reknitted.

Technical file Once you have mastered the basic casting-on and plain knitting techniques you will start to become familiar with the machine and its workings. Keep all your findings in your technical file. Ideally, the file should contain the following:

Reforming a dropped stitch 1. Insert a latch tool from behind the knitting, directly into the stitch below the one that needs reforming. 2. Push the latch tool forward, allowing the stitch to fall behind the latch. Catch the next floating thread in the hook and pull the latch tool back, closing the latch with the thread inside. 3. Pull the latch tool further back, so that the stitch slides down over the closed latch, forming a new stitch in the hook. 4. Continue to pick up any more floats, always taking the one directly above the stitch. 5. When reaching the top, use a single transfer tool to place the stitch back onto the needle (see illustration below).

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How the knitting machine works, the function of the carriage, and so on. Care and maintenance of the machine. Knitted samples of manually produced patterns: tension testing, stripes, lace holes, ladders and finishing details, such as hemming and buttonholes. Knitted samples of punch-card or Mylar sheet patterns, such as Fair Isle or slip-and-tuck stitch. Knitted samples of ribbed fabrics, such as different-size ribs made on the double-bed machine and mock ribs made on the single-bed machine. Design-related patterns and samples; for example, part-garment ideas, such as a cuff or a collar. Illustrations and diagrams related to samples. Graph patterns used for Fair Isle designs or stitch construction. Notes and knitting patterns for making garments, such as fully fashioned shaping. CAD information and any related work, such as pattern printouts, samples and notes. Samples of yarn – write to manufacturers for shade cards. Keep cuttings of the latest knitwear trends in magazines and newspapers.

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Stitch dial: tension stripes Always ensure that the correct stitch dial number is selected for the yarn being used. The stitch dial regulates the size of the stitch. Setting the stitch dial to 0 creates the tightest (smallest) stitch. Setting the stitch dial to 10 creates the loosest (largest) stitch. If the tension is too tight it will be difficult to knit, and the garment will be hard and uncomfortable to wear. If the tension is too loose, your garment will have no shape.

stitch dial are generally better for use with fine yarns and higher numbers are best suited to the thicker yarns. After you have become accustomed to creating the correct weight and handle in your knitted fabrics, you can experiment by creating striped samples with contrasting tensions and varying thicknesses, weight, fibre content, colour and texture.

Practise knitting with a variety of yarns on different tensions. Lower numbers on the

Design workshop Making stripes

1. Cast on in the normal manner and knit the required number of rows. 2. Break the yarn and thread up the second colour in the second feeder on the tension unit. 3. Pull the new and broken threads away from the direction to be knitted, to avoid loops. Knit required number of rows and repeat. 4. Try repeating numbers of rows for each colourway, then try changing numbers of rows for each colour group.

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5. Exhaust all options, test different textured yarns with different stitch sizes. When using horizontal stripes on a garment, remember that the pieces will need to be matched up carefully when sewn together. Vertical or diagonal stripes can be made using a punch card or Mylar sheet, by designing in CAD, or by using the partial knitting technique (holding needles).

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3.9–3.11 Knitting for a purpose, these striped swatch variations were developed by Catherine Brown for a project called Rebel Tartan. They were designed to sit alongside the Blue-Heart Tartan, designed by Liberation Kilt Company, USA, to highlight the plight of human trafficking.

3.12–3.13 A selection of double-bed samples by Talia Shuvalov, with a mixture of plain stripe and more complex patterned stripes, displaying a variety of yarn weights and textures with the use of tuck stitch, weave and ladder technique.

3.14 Fashion design image displaying proportion of stripe within fitted garments, by Talia Shuvalov.

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LACE

Lace Modern lace is a combination of translucent nets and loose floats, patterned eyelets and irregular dropped stitches. It is usually knitted in lightweight, fine yarns. The use of fine yarn on a chunky-gauge machine will result in a soft, transparent, pliable net. Giant stitches can be made by only casting on every second or third needle. Plain lace involves placing one stitch onto an adjacent one, to make a hole immediately next to it.

3.15 Lace stitch formation: a basic transfer stitch technique.

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3.16 The sample chart shows an eyelet hole pattern for lace.

3.17 Lace design by knitwear designer Mark Fast, LFW February 2017.

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Transfer stitches Lace knits are made using the basic transfer stitch technique, which involves transferring stitches from one set of needles to another, with the use of multipoint transfer tools. It is possible to transfer many stitches in one move. Stitches may either be transferred to other needles on the bed or allowed to drop and ladder the full length of the fabric. Automatic lace carriages are available for some single-bed domestic machines. Selected stitches are transferred automatically to adjacent needles. Several stitches can be transferred to a single needle, either to reposition stitches for patterning or to alter the shape of a ladder. A variety of eyelet designs and small buttonholes are based on the transfer stitch technique.

When working on a double-bed machine, transfers can be made with a ‘bodkin’, a tool that has an eyelet at each end. After removing a stitch with one end of the bodkin, it can be tilted so that the stitch slides to the other end, making it easier to replace the stitch on the opposite bed.

Ladders Ladders create a lacy effect, made by an exaggerated version of the transfer stitch technique. Ladders can be made into shapes, or they can be built up horizontally by transferring a stitch on one side of the ladder and putting an empty needle back into action on the other side of the ladder; this action is repeated after every row or every second row of knit.

Design workshop Lace technique / eyelet holes

1. Cast on as normal. Knit the required number of rows. 2. Using the transfer tool, transfer one stitch to an adjacent needle and return the empty needle to position B (working position). 3. Knit two rows to close the holes. 4. More complex lace patterns can be achieved by experimenting with this basic stitch structure. Try transferring more than one stitch at a time and take them in different directions.

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3.18 Sample chart shows a ladder that is two needles wide.

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3.19 Shaped ladder knit, with eyelet hole detail, by Juliana Sissons.

3.21 Juliana Sissons, designer in residence, V&A Museum, London. Black and gold cotton and black wire, stripe, tucking, ladder and transfer stitch techniques. Domestic knitting machine, image by Sarah Hodges.

3.20 Lace design by Rodarte, A/W08.

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Design workshop Ladder technique

1. Transfer one stitch at required intervals, leaving empty needles out of action (position A). For example, you could leave every fourth needle in the nonworking position. This forms a ladder while knitting. Bring back the empty needles to working position (position B) to continue plain knitting. This technique can be used to form decorative patterns, such as threading contrasting yarn or ribbon through the ladders. 2. Alternatively, for a ribbed effect, use a latch tool on the wrong side (purl) of the fabric and reform the stitches by picking up the floats, two at a time; continue pulling one through the other until you reach the top. This is more effective when leaving two needles out of action at regular intervals.

3. Experiment with wide ladders using multiple needles. You can create an interesting lace effect by randomly picking up floats with the latch tool and hooking them onto the nearest working needles. 4. To create a shaped ladder, try transferring stitches out from each side of the existing ladder, in between rows of knit. Leave the empty needles out of action (position A) until you reach the desired width of the ladder. Then, one by one from each side, bring back the empty needles into working position (position B). Explore variations of this technique. Note: if two adjacent needles are brought back into action at the same time, one enlarged stitch is formed, instead of two.

Surface texture Basic stitch variations will add a decorative element to your knitting and considerably change the appearance and suitability of the fabric. A fine-yarn knit, for example, can be made to look heavier by the use of fancy stitches. The three main techniques for adding surface texture are weave, tuck stitch and

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slip stitch. Woven (also known as inlay) fabrics that have an all-over pattern have very little stretch widthways; these fabrics are more solid and may be cut with little damage of unravelling. Tuck stitch produces a warm bulky fabric, with lots of stretch. It is a non-curling fabric with solid edges, making it easier to make up into garments. Slip stitch creates an opaque

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fabric with little stretch; the all-over float patterns may be used decoratively or to create lightweight, textured fabrics with good insulating properties. Techniques such as lifting stitches and making cables are also effective ways of adding surface texture to your knit. Tuck and slip stitches use a similar selection technique. Both types of stitch can be produced automatically, with either a punch card or Mylar sheet. Both tuck and slip stitches must be used in combination with knit stitches; each tuck needle should have a needle knitting plain either side of it. It is also possible to set the carriage to tuck or slip when moving in one direction and to plain knit in the other direction. Both tuck and slip stitches can be combined with colour striping, for colour-texture effects.

Selecting needles manually allows you to override the carriage and the information on the punch card or Mylar sheet, enabling you to experiment with more patterns. Tucks can also be created manually, without the use of punch cards and Mylar sheets, by taking the selected needles out of action, and setting the holding cam levers in action on the carriage. After several rows of tucking, the holding cam levers are then taken out of action and a row of plain knit is knitted. You can vary the number of rows in hold or knit position. Tip On a punch card, the blank spaces tuck and the punched holes knit. If you are using an electronic machine, you can mark the tuck stitches on the Mylar sheet. The result will be reversed on the machine if you select the negative option button.

Tuck stitch Tuck stitch can produce textured pattern on both sides of the fabric; however, the purl side is most common. A small-scale pattern will produce a honeycomb effect, and a larger-scale pattern will produce wider, raised pattern areas. The stitch is held in the hook of the needle until it is knitted in. The tuck loops distort the knit by pushing the stitches out of line, creating interesting patterned textures. A bumpy texture can be made by collecting loops in the needle head through tucking several rows at a time, on the same needles, before knitting in. Bear in mind that there is a limit to the number of rows that can be held on any one stitch. This depends on the tension and the type of yarn you are using. Most domestic machines are capable of holding six to eight loops of yarn. Using extra weight and a tighter tension may help.

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3.22 Tuck stitch formation.

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Design workshop Manual tuck stitch

1. Bring every third needle out into holding position. Put the holding cam levers into action on the carriage.

2. Knit two rows in the second colour, tucking on odd needles and knitting on even needles.

2. Knit three rows. Take the holding cam levers out of action. Knit one plain row.

3. Repeat the process to create a spotted pattern.

3. Repeat the procedure. This gives you the freedom to experiment with a variety of tuck patterns.

There are many variations to the basic stitch, with some interesting techniques to explore: set a punch-card pattern on hold and return to plain knit every third or fourth row; this works well with vertical patterns. For a lace effect, try tucking on spaced-out needles over several rows with a tight tension and knitting plain rows in a contrasting, loose tension.

The carriage can also be set to knit two colours at once. You can create coloured patterns by combining tuck with stripes. 1. Knit two rows in one colour, after selecting odd needles to tuck and even needles to knit.

3.23–3.24 Images of fashion garments by Pa Byrne, displaying transfer stitch and tuck technique in wool, with slight felted procedure after knitting.

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Slip stitch Slip stitch misses the non-selected needles, allowing the yarn to lie in front of them and form ‘floats’. The purl side of the work shows the texture of the pattern, with all the floats. The strands of yarns lying over the knit tend to be quite compressed, narrowing the width of the fabric and allowing very little stretch. On punch-card machines, the punched holes knit and the blank spaces slip. On electronic machines, you can mark the

slip stitches on the Mylar sheet, and the result will be reversed if you select the negative option button. Slip stitch is also the basis of a two-colour or Fair Isle patterning. The pattern can be knitted in two rows of each colour. If you use slip stitch in conjunction with striping, you can achieve intricate, mosaiclike patterns on the technical side of the fabric.

Design workshop Slip stitch

1. Select odd needles to knit and even needles to slip. Knit two rows of slip stitch in one colour. Note: always select the first needle in the row to knit to ensure that the floats on the purl side of the fabric are caught into the edge of the knit. 2. Reverse the needles selected for knitting and slipping. Knit two rows of slip stitch in the second colour. The

slipped stitch will rise up, elongating through the row above, forming a pattern on the technical face-side of the fabric. 3. A ripple effect can be created when the same needles are selected to slip over several rows (with a punch card set on hold), followed by a row of plain knit and then repeated.

3.25–3.26 Slip stitch produces floats on the purl side (3.25) and can be used to make two-colour patterning on the reverse, technical side (3.26).

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3.27 Swatch by Ruth Carpenter, which uses plating technique. Drawing inspiration from slip stitch, fabrics such as this can be created on industrial double-bed machines.

3.28 Additional yarn is passed under and over alternate needles and then knitted in to create a weave.

Weave Weave, also known as inlay, is probably the most versatile technique for producing different textured surfaces, but it is not strictly a stitch variation. Inlays are usually made on the purl side of the knit, making full use of the weaving. These knits have similar characteristics to woven textiles and have little stretch. Knitting is carried out in the normal way, but at the point when the additional yarn is woven in, the yarn is taken across the needle bed first, passing under and over alternate needles. It is then knitted into the fabric, catching under alternate stitches. Yarn can be

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wrapped around the needles and stitches; it can be woven through the knit; it can make overall patterning and stripes and it can be used to create pile loops and fringing. A basic punch-card method can be used for yarns, such as fine bouclé and mohair. The punch card is set and the weaving brushes lowered. The secondary yarn is placed in the weaving yarn guides, and the carriage is moved across the machine. If the yarn is very thick or knobbly, a manual weaving method can be used.

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3.29 Weave pattern chart, showing a repeating 1 × 1 interlacement (top) and alternating 1 × 1 interlacement (bottom).

3.30–3.31 Knitted garment designs by Alison Tsai, displaying complex weaving and fringing techniques.

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Design workshop Manual weave

1. Pull out all the needles to holding position. Do not put the holding cam levers into action, but lower the weaving brushes. 2. Select a textured yarn or strips of fabric for the woven effect. 3. Weave the yarn over and under the needles. This can also be done in pairs, over two needles and under two needles, or in any combination. 4. Push the woven threads back, close to the sinker gate pegs (so that they do not become tangled around the brushes). 5. Take the carriage across. Knit one or two rows; the yarn will be woven in. Repeat. Long floats can be knitted and then cut through to produce tufts. Slip stitch can be used as an alternative to weaving. After knitting several rows of plain knit, one row of slip stitch can be knitted in a different yarn. The needles for this row would need to be set up to alternate between one needle knitting and five or six needles slipping.

Weaving yarns can be worked horizontally or even vertically. The secondary yarn can be e-wrapped around individual needles within the body of the knit; it can also be used to create decorative effects and fringes. Manual weave development: pile loops/ fringing 1. Pull out the required needles to holding position (do not put the holding cam levers into action). 2. Use a knitting needle, pencil or thin rod. Hold the rod underneath the needles in holding position. 3. Take the secondary yarn over one needle, under the rod, then over the next needle. Repeat over as many needles as required. Take the carriage across, keeping the loops firmly pressed against the machine. 4. Finally, cut the loops to make the fringing.

Lifting stitches Stitches can be lifted from previously knitted rows and hung again on the needles; then, when the carriage is taken across the bed, the lifted stitches will be knitted into the fabric, resulting in a gathered effect. This technique can be used to lift single or multiple stitches as well as floats and ladders.

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To lift stitches, a transfer tool is inserted into the stitch. The tool is lifted upwards, and the stitch is deposited onto a needle. This will cause the technical face-side of the fabric to pucker.

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Tip When you are starting out, wool is the easiest yarn to work with, because it has more stretch than cotton, linen or silk.

3.32–3.35 Bag designs by Justin Smith. A lifting stitch technique has been used to create different textural effects.

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3.36–3.37 Knitted jacket design by Alison Tsai, displaying hooking-up stitches technique, with stripes and slight felting. Sketchbook page displays design development for pattern and form.

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Cables Design workshop Random hooking up

1. Cast on as usual and knit 10 rows in the first colour. 2. Change the colour and knit 10 rows.

Cables are created by crossing two groups of stitches between knitting rows. Two transfer tools are used to remove the two groups of stitches from their needles; the stitches are crossed as they are returned and then knitted as normal. Try experimenting with the number of stitches crossed and the amount of rows knitted in between.

3. Hook up the stitches from row 10 (row 1 of the different colour) and place on the needles at random. 4. Change the colour and knit 10 rows. Repeat in different colours, hooking up where required. Variations can include: single colour hooking up, hooking up at regular intervals to form patterns, and hooking up all the needles in a row to create horizontal ripples. Experiment with the following techniques: 1. Knit between the lifted stitches and the needles on which they are placed for a more exaggerated textural effect. 2. Create a draped effect by lifting fewer stitches and spacing them out. 3. Many more interesting textures can be made by repeating lifted stitch patterns, from carefully balanced groups of lifted stitches to irregular, distorted tucks. 4. Create a honeycomb design by alternating groups of lifted stitches with non-lifted stitches throughout the knit. 5. Lift groups of stitches to the right for a few repeats, then lift the same groups of stitches to the left for a few repeats; the result is an interesting, ruched zigzag effect.

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3.38 Kenzo Menswear Fall/Winter 2017-2018

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Patterned knits Learning how to create patterns for knit will open up a whole range of new possibilities. Patterns such as Fair Isle and jacquard can be designed and made with a pattern card, such as a punch card or a Mylar sheet, or by using CAD. Intarsia patterns are slightly different – they can be knitted without a pattern card; they are used to create large shapes, with many colours in one row. All pattern designs are usually drawn out on graph paper first and new colour combinations worked out through trial and error on the machine. Being able to make your own pattern cards means that you are not restricted to existing designs; it will also enable you to alter existing patterns with an experimental approach. Try exploring colours alongside different stitch designs, such as tuck, slip and lace. Create elongated patterns by knitting each row twice, or by knitting a number of rows with the card locked (on hold). Alter a design by taping over selected holes, or combine sections from different cards by cutting and clipping them together. Pattern needles can be manually selected by bringing them forward before knitting each row. (Needle pushers are useful to push needles forward in sequence, such as 1 × 1 for an every-other-needle stitch pattern.)

3.39 Fair Isle design by Alexander McQueen, forming part of his A/W05 collection, entitled ‘The Man Who Knew Too Much’.

Fair Isle and jacquard

Jacquard is a double jersey knit made using a punch card or electronic machine to create a pattern. Up to four colours in a row may be used. This technique allows the floats to be knitted in at the back, creating a reversible fabric.

Fair Isle knitting is known for its traditional, two-colour patterns. The face side has a patterned surface; the reverse side has floats of yarn, each colour passing over the other when not being knitted into the pattern. The two yarns are knitted simultaneously to produce the design on the pattern card. The reverse side of the card becomes the face side of the knit. The blank areas of the card knit

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the main colour; the punched areas of the card knit the contrast colour. Traditional Fair Isles are separated by narrow borders and feature a frequent change of colour. An all-over Fair Isle design is a continual repeating pattern, with no obvious start or end; these work well with many colour combinations. Fair Isle motifs are simple designs with clean outlines and bold colours; patterns consist of lots of enclosed shapes of colour and small floats. These designs are suited to textures and tones of the same colour.

Punch cards Punch cards provide a fast method of selecting needles, but patterns with repeats need to be worked out on paper

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before knitting. This is done by sketching out a rough drawing first, and then putting a stitch plan onto squared paper. Decide on the stitch repeat size for the design; this is limited by the size of the punch card. A width of 24 needles is usual for a standard-gauge machine and 30 needles for a fine-gauge machine. If using a chunky-gauge machine, a width of 12 needles is usual. A design can be repeated in a number of ways to form an overall pattern, such as a drop repeat, half-drop or step repeat. The pattern being repeated should be the correct number of stitches wide; so for example, if you are using a standard-gauge machine, the width of the motif should be a number of stitches that will divide into 24 exactly – the patterns can be 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 stitches wide. The length of the repeat can be the number of rows you choose for the design; this can be as long as the punch card will allow, or longer, if the punch cards are joined together. Work out the repeat pattern first, before filling in the whole design. Draw the

3.40 A series of punch cards with pattern designs.

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design in the middle of the graph paper using the required number of needles for a repeat pattern, then fill in the surrounding area, making sure that the repeats match up as they should. This will give you a good idea of how the overall pattern will look. Curved lines will need to be drawn as steps on the graph paper, which may alter the design slightly, but alterations can be made after the sample has been knitted. Once you have drawn the design, the graph paper template may be transferred to a punch card or a Mylar sheet. Electronic machines that use Mylar sheets are more flexible than the standard punch card machines; they are capable of producing much larger motifs and pattern repeats.

Pattern grids For a square of knitting there are always more rows than stitches, which can make the pattern on the card seem elongated. There is special graph paper available for knitters, which consists of shorter squares to enable you to see what the finished design will look like.

3.41–3.42 Images showing pattern development on a CAD power machine, five-gauge Stoll. Preppy folk-inspired jacquard and Celtic textured Fair Isle by Sophie Steller.

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Design workshop Using a punch card

The position of the punch card on the needle bed is important. This is predetermined by the type and gauge of machine (standard, fine or chunky). When the card is in the machine it will automatically move one row at a time. Cards can be joined together at top and bottom with plastic clips in order to make one continuous pattern. 1. On a standard-gauge Brother machine, start the pattern seven rows down. On a standard-gauge Knitmaster machine, start the pattern one row down. 2. Start with the carriage to the left. Insert the card and lock it. On the carriage, change the knob to KC (knit card). 3. Thread up the main colour yarn in feeder A, on a Brother machine, or feeder 1, on a Knitmaster machine. 4. Knit to the right. Release the card from being locked. 5. Select cam button(s): tuck buttons for tuck stitch; part/slip buttons for slip

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stitch; multicoloured/MC buttons for Fair Isle (T, S and F on a Knitmaster). Thread up the second colour in feeder B, on a Brother machine, or feeder 2, on a Knitmaster. For weaving, select plain or no buttons pressed, and put weaving brushes to WT. 6. Set the row counter to 000. Carry on knitting. 7. You can investigate pattern, texture and colour combinations through the use of punch cards. Once you have gained confidence, you could try more complex repeat patterns. Experiment with different levels of contrasting colour, for example through gradual change of colour shades or by creating impact through working with contrasting colours. 8. Try a break in the pattern with plain knitting, for example, temporarily putting the card out of action and knitting stripes or lace and then continuing with the card, by bringing it back into action.

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INTERVIEW

Interview Sophie Steller, designer and director of the Sophie Steller studio Sophie Steller has over twenty years’ experience in yarn, colour and trend research specializing in all aspects of knitwear design and selling one-off copyright swatch designs to the worldwide fashion industry.

What is a swatch? (2D/3D) A swatch in context to knitwear is a sample of fabric that is a one-off original design for sale to b2b customers within the industry to use to inspire or put into production. It can take on any form from stitch, pattern, stripe, print and can be a square of fabric all the way through to a mini mock up of a garment with garment detailing etc. What is a typical day for you? Due to the nature of our business being multifaceted on the work we do, there really is no typical day, as we find our schedules can change all the time. But always a great deal of my day is spent sending emails, communicating with clients, following up with factories and spinners. Constantly communicating with the team and reviewing designs and projects. My day also needs to have my own research, designing and trend work built into it, but often this comes after I have all the administrative work done and out of the way. How do you begin the design approach? Is it with the yarn decisions or the technical construction? (2D/3D) This really depends on what the project is about. Some of our clients are spinners, so yarn leads the design, but normally we will sketch and plan our designs first, program what we are thinking and then

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work the yarn into the designs to find yarns that will be suitable to bring the best out in the design. Then if the yarn does not work we then need to revisit these decisions. How important is research in the design process? Where do you get your inspiration? Essential and all designing for us starts with research and trend analysis. Inspiration comes from everywhere, magazines, social media such as Instagram and Pinterest, exhibitions, films, trend services, trade shows, stores and shopping, markets. You never really stop researching and looking because there is no beginning and end to the design process, it is simply a continually evolving process. Do you work to a brief? Yes, always, either a client brief if they have something very specific in mind, or we create our own brief, so we have an outline of what is needed to work into. But we do need to have focussed goals on a project to make it successful and efficient. Where/how do you sell your knitted swatches? We sell at trade shows and through a sales person and an agent. We sell globally with the focus on Europe and the USA.

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Do factors such as sales figures impact your design decisions? Yes, in the swatch range, you keep an eye on what is selling and replenish or move in the direction of what is popular or trending so you can maximize your sales to be relevant to what the market is looking for. Do you design for a specific customer in mind? What kind of customer wears your designs? We work our trends to suit different customer profiles, so we can cover as wide a range of a customer base as possible. With knitwear it is possible to design for most markets, so it can be relevant for mens, womens, and kids. We are known for colour and trends, so our handwriting is quite trend forward and youth driven and also very strong in the casualwear market. However now we have power machinery in-house of a Stoll and Shima, we are able to create an even wider range of fabrics and therefore can cater for a larger audience. This means we now design for more contemporary and dressy markets too. That is the beauty of knitwear that it is such a versatile design category. What is your favourite aspect of the job? I love to work with colour, making a colour palette and conceptualizing new ideas and trends is definitely the most fun and creative part of the job. It is always very exciting to start a new concept or trend and it doesn’t matter how many years you have worked, that process is always exciting because it is starting afresh every time. I also love to work with my team and with young designers and see what they come up with. It is so refreshing to work with talented designers and see their

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perspective. Though I set the directions and the trends, to see where my team take that and the ideas they come up with is always a pleasure and inspiring to be part of their design journey too. What advice can you give to aspiring knitwear designers? Don’t be afraid of trying, whether it is being adventurous or experimental with colour; learning as many techniques as you can; continually re-evaluating what you are doing. Work hard to give as much as you can to learn from jobs, tutors or opportunities around you, even if they are not the best paid, nothing can help you more than experience. Be keen, enthusiastic and be prepared to work hard giving above and beyond what you are asked for. It is a hugely competitive industry, but hard work, enthusiasm and gaining experience will take you a very long way.

3.43 Sophie Steller, the knitting workshop floor of the studio

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3.44 Desert inspired fabric mixing a hybrid of tribal and rustic layered yarns.

3.47 Fresh tape yarns adding dimension to textured ladder and lace on Stoll.

3.45 Elaborate lace jacquard, playing with scales of pointelle and holes. 12 gauge stitch size on the Shima knitting machine.

3.48 Lush botanical inspired textures using e-wrapping, weaving and fringing combinations.

3.46 Free-form crochet mixing scales and colours for a modern traditional craft.

3.49 Mixing yarns to create dimension and textures in reverse knit.

3.44–3.49 A selection of swatches by Sophie Steller, displaying a wide variety of techniques, with the use of hand domestic knitting through to power knitting on the Stoll and Shima Seiki machines.

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Electronic machine patterning Domestic punch-card machines have evolved from the earlier ‘push button patterning’ machines. Today’s computerized machines have a built-in programming capacity and offer huge flexibility in patterns. Mylar sheets can be used to make patterns with larger repeats than can be achieved with the punch-card method; these patterns can be repeated, reversed, turned upside down, mirror imaged, elongated in length or doubled in width. Newer models of electronic machines, from the Brother 950i and 965i onwards, are compatible with DesignaKnit for Windows, a CAD/CAM program for knitwear design. The program covers garment pattern drafting and stitch transfer designs, and it includes a graphics studio for interactive knitting and for manipulating graphics files, photographs and scanned images. The program can also be used to produce templates for punch cards and Mylar sheets, as well as charts for manual machines and hand knitters. Designers can draw stitch patterns in colour, symbols or both, and there is a range of textured-stitch types to give a more realistic impression of the finished piece.

Industrial machine patterning Hand-operated industrial machines are incredibly versatile, offering great possibilities for structure and pattern. They feature a patterning system that uses a high- and low-butt needle selection in combination with tuck and slip cam levers. Depending on the position of the levers, all needles might

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knit as normal; or low-butt needles will tuck while high-butt needles knit as normal. A similar procedure is applied to the slip technique. Patterns can be changed with each row, although the butts are not interchangeable mid-knitting; colours can be changed halfway through a row. High- and low-butt needles can be placed on the front bed only, leaving one side of the fabric plain while creating ripples and stripes on the other. These machines also have a ‘plating’ facility, which allows a yarn to be invisible on the exterior of rib fabrics; they can be used to create fancy effects when needles are out of action or in stitch. Today in industry modern machines, such as Shima Seiki and Stoll, do everything automatically. Individual needle selection is electronically controlled to knit coloured and textural patterns and to shape knitwear. The Shima Seiki SDS-One design system is a Windowsbased system that uses three programs for knitting: one is for pattern drafting; plotting specific measurements from the paper pattern to form the silhouette of the garment (pgm). Another is for drawing or scanning the design for the fabric surface pattern, such as jacquard (paint). The third is for creating the knit pattern; the instructions to make the structure, such as tuck, and the garment shaping information (knit paint). This package offers a visualization of the fabric on the body; it can also illustrate the various colourways and be used to create yarn designs.

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3.50–3.51 Series of designs by Amy Dyer, using the Shima Seiki design system.

3.52 From left to right: a spec drawing, a knit paint image, and a pgm image.

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Intarsia Design workshop Intarsia technique

1. A ball of yarn is required for each pattern shape; place them on the floor in front of the machine. 2. Place the end of each coloured yarn across the open latches of the groups of needles in the pattern order for the row, with the short end nearest to the carriage and yarns crossing under needles.

Intarsia is a technique used for colour patterning in which there are no floats, as each colour is separately knitted into its own shape. Many colours can be knitted into one row, and because there are no floats, large, bold pattern shapes can be made. Special intarsia carriages are available for the more sophisticated machines. Always start with needles at intarsia position: latches open and needles forward about 1 centimetre (2/5 in). This is usually achieved by a pass of the empty intarsia carriage.

3. Take the intarsia carriage across the needles to knit the row; each separate colour will knit with its own needles. 4. Repeat the procedure, manually placing the yarns back across the needles in the order required for each row, crossing under needles as before. 5. Knit one row and continue. 6. When planning your intarsia pattern, sketch your design and then transfer this onto graph paper. One square represents one stitch.

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3.53–3.55 Intarsia designs by Hannah Taylor.

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Construction through shape

4

In Chapter 4 the knitted swatch is transformed into a three-dimensional piece. There are a number of different shaping methods, such as draping and shaping on a mannequin to create silhouettes. There are exercises to show you how to plan shapes on paper (pattern cutting) and how to transfer these outlines into knit patterns. You will be guided through the shaping of a basic bodice and sleeve pattern, with detailed instructions for stitches and rows. Finally, there is a detailed section that explains how to create three-dimensional effects, such as frills and flared pieces, straight from the machine.

4.1 ‘Elizabeth’ dress by Jemma Sykes for ethical label Butcher Couture, handknitted in organic wool.

‘Fashion is a lot closer to the body, not just the form, but also the movement.’ Hussein Chalayan

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Partial knitting: three-dimensional effects Partial knitting can be used to create a variety of three-dimensional effects: fabric texture, sculptural surfaces and unusual silhouettes; diagonal blocks of colour, flared skirt panels and even slanting shoulder shapes; as well as interesting edges, such as looped or scalloped effects. The holding cam controls are set on hold. Needles on the opposite side of the bed from the carriage are manually put into holding position. Groups of needles can be put into holding position all at once, or needles can be held one at a time. This technique allows the carriage to pass over these needles without knitting the stitches in; however, when these needles are put back into working position, the stitches will resume knitting as normal. Other needles that are not in holding position will continue to knit rows, accumulating length. It is important to keep your weights under the working needles and move them up the fabric as it grows.

Short-row patterning Designs based on diagonal and horizontal lines can enable a change of stitch size or colour within a single row. You can create a slanting edge by putting needles on hold, gradually. A line of small lace holes will appear between the two sections, which can enhance the look of the design. However, this can be avoided by wrapping the free yarn under the first held needle each time the carriage arrives at the point where the working needles meet the holding needles and before knitting the next row.

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4.2 Partial knitting/holding technique was used in these swatches by Natalie Osborne.

4.3 Chart showing knitting a diagonal join between two colours using holding technique.

4.4 Holding technique used in combination with different weights of yarn. Design by Juliana Sissons.

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Design workshop Knitting a diagonal join

1. Always start with the carriage at the opposite end of the needles that are going to be brought into hold. Thread up the first colour and cast on approximately 60 stitches. 2. Knit several rows in plain knitting, finishing with the carriage on the left. 3. Set the holding cam levers on hold. Bring the first needle on the righthand side to holding position and knit one row. Take the free yarn under the held needle and knit the next row. Bring the second needle on the right to holding position and knit a row. Take the free yarn under the second held needle and over the first. Knit the next row. Repeat the process until there is only one needle still knitting. Bring this needle to holding position. 4. Unthread the yarn from the feeder and take the empty carriage across to the other side. (The carriage has to be moved to the side of the bed on which the first needle was brought out of hold.)

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5. Thread up the second colour. The next section is knitted by pushing the needles back into working position. Using a transfer tool, return the first needle on the right-hand side to working position and knit two rows. Bring the second needle on the right to working position and knit two rows. Repeat the process until there is only one needle still in holding position. Bring this needle to working position. Note: when bringing needles into holding position, lace holes will form along the diagonal line if you do not take the free yarn under the held needle each time. To achieve variation in the depth of angle, experiment by bringing two or more needles out at a time or by knitting more rows between these held needles. Also try striping with different coloured yarns to clearly show the short-row patterning.

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Three-dimensional effects You can knit separate sections of fabric by putting groups of needles into holding position at various times, which allows you to change the colour, stitch size and so on.

Design workshop Knitting a raised pattern

1. Hold the groups of needles, and then put them back into working position, either all at once or gradually, one at a time. Repeat the pattern to create three-dimensional, sculptured surfaces. 2. Two halves of a knitted piece can be worked separately, resulting in a vertical slit between the two, which can either be sewn together later or left open for design purposes (such as for buttonholes). 4.5 This chart illustrates knitting a raised pattern within the fabric, using groups of needles in holding position. The knitted sections are worked individually, with all other needles on hold. The held needles change as each separate section is knitted.

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3. Try holding all needles on the left while knitting 30 rows on the right; then hold all needles on the right while knitting 30 rows on the left. Both sets of needles will have knitted 30 rows and knitting can resume as normal with all needles in working position. If one group of needles is held longer than the other group, allowing more rows to occur on one side, you will create an interesting loop of knitting. Try knitting and holding alternate blocks of needles to form an overall looped fabric, which will provide exciting new starting points for design developments. The longer the needles are held, the bigger the raised sections tend to be.

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4.6–4.9 Swatches of three-dimensional knit by Victoria Hill.

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Creating flared shapes Fullness in shaped garments, such as those with frills or flare, is often achieved by inserting triangular godets. These godets can be knitted horizontally at any length or width required. Tiny ruffles can be achieved just as easily as a full-length flare. These can be knitted in continuously with the use of the partial-knitting technique.

4.10 Felt wool frill top by Shelley Fox, A/W 2000.

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4.11–4.14 Swatches by Natalie Osborne showing flared shapes achieved using partial knitting.

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CREATING FLARED SHAPES

Design workshop Making a frilled edge

1. Start with the carriage on the righthand side. The frill will be made on the left-hand edge. Thread up the yarn and cast on the required amount of stitches. Knit 21 rows of plain knitting, finishing with the carriage on the left. 2. Set the holding cam levers to hold. Bring all needles on the right-hand side to hold, apart from 20 needles on the left. (This will form the length of frill.) 3. Knit two rows. Bring the first needle on the right-hand side to holding position and knit two rows. Bring the second needle on the right-hand side to holding position and knit two rows. Repeat the process until there is only one needle still knitting. Bring this needle to hold position. 4. Take the holding cam levers off hold to resume normal knitting. Knit two rows, ending with the carriage on the left-hand side.

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5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 to produce a triangular godet, which will have lace holes outlining the edges. 6. Take the holding cam levers off hold to resume normal knitting. Knit 20 rows of plain knitting, finishing with the carriage on the left. 7. Repeat the entire process from the beginning until you have created enough godets to result in a frilly edge along the left-hand side of the knit. Experiment with the length and width of the godets by changing the number of stitches and rows. A singular spiral frill can be made in the same way. Knit only the length of the godet and repeat the process to create a circular shape; if you continue further, a spiral frill will be made.

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Flared skirts Flared skirts can be knitted sideways using the frilled edge technique (on the previous page). It can be knitted in one continuous piece; for example, to make a skirt to fit a 66 centimetre waist, you would need to divide this measurement into the number of panels required. If six panels are required (66 cm divided by 6 = 11 cm), each panel will need to measure 11 centimetres at the waist edge (to convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in). 1. Knit a tension swatch to calculate the number of rows in an 11 centimetre length. 2. Cast on the number of stitches for the required length of skirt (this can be calculated from the tension swatch). The length of the skirt will be restricted by the length of the machine bed; remember that you are knitting sideways. Knit enough rows to measure 5.5 centimetres (half a panel). 3. Set the holding cam levers to hold. Add a godet the full length of the skirt. The width of the godet will depend on how many needles you put on holding position each time and how many rows you knit in between. For example, holding one needle every two rows will give you a fuller godet than holding five needles every two rows; knitting five rows between each hold will give you a fuller godet than knitting two rows between each hold.

4.15 Illustration showing panel of skirt with two inserted godets.

Increasing and decreasing A single stitch or many stitches can be transferred in one move by using a transfer tool. This movement increases or decreases the total number of stitches being knitted. Shaping can be used on an outside edge or to form darts within the body of the knit.

4. Take the holding cam levers off hold to resume normal knitting. Knit the other half of the panel, enough rows to measure 5.5 centimetres. This completes one panel.

Shaping by ‘fully fashioning’ involves transferring groups of stitches at the edge of the fabric. When decreasing or narrowing the shape, a group of stitches is moved in one go; the inner-most stitch of the group is placed on top of the stitch adjacent to it, thus losing one needle at the edge. You must remember to push this edge needle into nonworking position to avoid it knitting back in with the next row. It is also possible to move the stitches two or three needle spaces across, losing two or three needles at the edge. Repeating this action along the outer edge of a knit creates a wale line, a neat characteristic of fully fashioning.

5. Repeat the process another five times. The waist edge will end up measuring 66 centimetres and the hem edge will have flare.

When increasing stitches outwards (making the knitted piece wider), a space is created adjacent to the inner-most needle of the group being moved, which

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leaves an eyelet hole in the knit. Knitting in this way will form a line of eyelets on the edge; these can form a decorative trim as part of the design or eyelets can be filled in by moving a stitch up onto the empty needle from the previous row. To increase by more than one stitch at a time, put the required number of needles into working position and cast on using the e-wrap method in the normal way. These transfers are also used to create eyelet designs for decorative trims. When a single-stitch transfer is used, the stitch can be placed on top of the stitch of its adjacent needle, to be knitted together in the next row; or it can be placed onto the empty needle on the outside of the knit, forming an eyelet when the next two rows are knitted. Note: if the empty needle is put into nonworking position, a ladder will form. On a double-bed machine it is possible to transfer stitches from one bed to the other using a bodkin, which has an eyelet at each end, making it easier to transfer a stitch from one bed to the other.

4.16 The fully fashioned shaping technique, showing decreasing (top) and increasing (bottom).

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4.17 Asymmetrical dress by Juliana Sissons, which has been made using the partial knit technique and displays a fully fashioned silhouette.

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Decreasing by holding stitches Shoulders and other shallow angles can be shaped by using the holding technique (partial knitting). The holding cam levers are set on hold and each shoulder is shaped in turn. The carriage should be on the opposite side to the shoulder being shaped. The needles are brought into holding position gradually, working in from the outside edge (for example, two needles every second row) until the shaping is finished. Each shoulder can then be cast off separately in the normal way.

Design workshop Shaping a vertical dart

Vertical darts can be found within the body of a garment, such as on a shaped neckline or skirt. 1. Thread up the machine and cast on the desired number of stitches. Knit several rows. 2. Transfer the centre stitch onto its adjacent left needle, leaving an empty needle in the middle. 3. Use a transfer tool to move the next three stitches on the right by one space to the left. Repeat this action

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until all the stitches on the right are transferred to the left. This will leave an empty needle on the far right. Put the needle into nonworking position. 4. Repeat the process every four or five rows, until you have completed the required amount of shaping. More than one dart can be manoeuvred at the same time, within the body of knit. An adjustable multi-head transfer tool is useful for this or a garter bar can be used.

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Design workshop Shaping a horizontal dart

1. Thread up the machine and cast on the desired number of stitches. Knit several rows, finishing with the carriage on the right. 2. Set the holding cam levers on to hold. Bring the first two needles on the left to holding position and knit two rows. Bring the next two needles on the left to holding position and knit two rows. Continue until 20 needles are held and the carriage is on the right-hand side. 3. Take the holding cam levers off hold and resume normal knitting. The width and length of the resulting dart is dependent on the number of needles put on hold and the number of rows knitted. 4.18 Knitwear design by Juliana Sissons. The shaped bodice panels have been darted and fully fashioned. A holding technique has been used to create different length slashes and circular hip panels.

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Interview Katherine Mavridis, knitwear designer, Ralph Lauren Katherine Mavridis graduated from The New School, Parsons, New York, in 2015. Her graduate collection was bought by Dover Street Market, New York, and she is now a knitwear designer at Ralph Lauren Collections (for Runway).

What is your design background, and why did you want to become a designer? I graduated from Sydney’s University of Technology in December 2012. Here I majored in knitwear in my graduating year. Realizing I had only just begun to explore the craft of knitwear, I realized I wanted to pursue my masters. Soon after graduating, I was accepted to the MFA Fashion Design and Society program at Parsons in New York.

fixated on this forgotten existence of garments when they are not performing their primary function – clothing a body – their unexpected yet majority existence as unused hanging objects, lifeless forms of cloth, waiting to be filled by a body.

I never grew up dreaming that I would become a designer, I guess I kind of fell into it, since I was always making my own clothes, and altering/repurposing old vintage pieces. Knitwear came naturally to me, as I fell in love with creating my own sculptural fabrics.

Due to the handmade nature of construction of these pieces, each piece has a slight nuance to the next piece; each piece essentially one of a kind.

Your graduate collection gave you the opportunity to develop a sculptural approach to knitwear construction. How would you describe your signature work? During my time on the MFA program, I developed a technique of coiling cord into fully fashioned, three-dimensional, seamless sculptural garments; construction of these pieces stemming from my knowledge of knitwear circular construction and full-fashioned shaping techniques. I approach these garments as abstract, three-dimensional structures, which can exist with or without the body. I am

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Through this initial process, I then work directly from collage – breaking down subject matter, then recontextualizing materials; translating a singular entity into an entirely new form.

How does your work take new direction, and what are your inspirations? My work is reinvented each season through accidental exploration through shape and form. I find inspiration through creation, therefore I literally play with my signature techniques and find new realizations and sculptural forms. I think New York City also influences me mostly on a subconscious level. When I consider New York, I think of it in terms of space, three-dimensional structures, and the way an enormous amount of bodies move within this realm. I get an overwhelming need for reduction – to reduce the amount of elements around me.

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INTERVIEW

You now work as a designer for Ralph Lauren Collection; how does working for this label differ creatively from working on your own collections, and how has this experience helped you in your own development as a designer? This experience is completely different for me, which is why I enjoy this dynamic so much. Working for such a historic, classic house is really an eye opener and its great being immersed in a more corporate job in a brand which has successfully been running for almost 50 years. I am learning about how to design the most high-quality luxury goods in the world which is an amazing experience and something I will always be able to take forward with me in my career. Working in two opposing ways really helps me to reflect upon my own business, how it is functioning, and in which ways I am making it grow. It gives me time to completely switch off from one job and concentrate on the other, which I find helpful in keeping a balance as a designer.

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The creative industries today offer designers many opportunities to collaborate with projects in styling, fashion, film, music and textiles. Have you collaborated with any other artists? And if so, how does working in collaboration enhance creativity? I am currently working on a collaborative space, which involves a more artistic approach and realization of my design aesthetic. I cannot elaborate on this any further, but I am very excited to have the opportunity to announce this soon. What advice could you give to fashion knitwear design graduates starting out in the industry? Work very hard, do not pass up opportunities as they arise, and trust your instincts. It’s OK not to follow the pack and find your own way of developing yourself as a designer – as new generations of designers – it is important that we innovate the design process in itself!

4.19–4.21 Katherine Mavridis, MFA Fashion Design and Society, graduate collection from The New School, Parsons, New York; garments displaying coiling cord technique developed into fully fashioned, three-dimensional, seamless sculptural garments.

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4.22–4.23 Katherine Mavridis, MFA Fashion Design and Society, graduate collection from The New School, Parsons, New York; close-up image of garment displaying coiling cord technique and worksheet of design development.

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DRAPING AND SHAPING

Draping and shaping The mannequin plays an important role in the shape-making process. Blocks, patterns and knitted pieces can all be checked and fitted on the form. Blocks can also be moulded straight onto the mannequin, without the use of paper drafts, for quicker visual results; this is often a preferred method of pattern cutting for the beginner. However, the best results are gained through a combination of flat pattern cutting and modelling on the stand, and it is important to have a knowledge and understanding of both.

Block patterns In flat pattern cutting, a basic-block pattern is first drafted to fit a standardsize figure. The block is used by designers as a foundation for new styles, pleats, tucks, godets and gathers; it can be adapted into many design variations while still retaining the original size and fit. Different types of garments require specific basic blocks, so for example, the dartless bodice block and the overgarment block, both of which have more ease than a basic fitted bodice block, are more suitable for jacket or coat designs and can be adapted to have an even easier fit. Dress blocks can have the ease reduced to make them suitable for lingerie styles. Stretch blocks have a tighter fit and can be a good starting point for certain knitwear designs. See how to make a block pattern on page 112 and 114.

Patterns for knit Bodice blocks used for knit fabrics are different from those used for woven

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materials. They have no darts, are slightly tighter and, due to the nature of the stretch fabric, they have no seam allowances added. Each designer or company will use blocks that they have personally adapted to suit their particular style of knitwear. After the block has been developed into a designed pattern, the knitting pattern can be calculated. The pattern contains the number of stitches and rows in each section, calculated by taking all the horizontal and vertical measurements in the pattern, as well as using the knitted tension swatch. Knitted samples and part-garment trials can be made to test the stretch of the knit against the stretch of the toile. The knitted pieces are likely to vary from the toile pieces and will need to be adjusted, usually through trial and error, until a perfect fit is achieved. See how to make a knitting pattern on page 114.

Toiles and knitted sample garments Finished patterns are often made up as jersey toiles for knitted fabric designs. The toile is used to check the design lines, proportion and fit before the design is made up into the final fabric or developed into a pattern for knit. After the first sample garment is complete, the design is ready to show to buyers, and if orders are received, the pattern is graded up into the sizes required. The British Standards Institution publishes tables of sizes, which are used by manufacturers as a guide when grading up or down from their standard size.

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4.24 Basic bodice blocks in card.

Using a mannequin Modelling on the stand opens up a certain freedom and spontaneity with three-dimensional design. Fluid jerseys can be pinned at strategic points to produce fullness in the form of cowls and drapes. Large knitted shapes can be wrapped around the mannequin to create interesting grain and seam lines, with jersey toile fabrics then moulded into the negative spaces, in order to create pattern shapes for the missing parts. It is important to be able to make your design readable so that it can be transferred to a pattern. All the vertical and horizontal markings from the mannequin should be drawn onto the toile fabric, such as centre front, centre back and side seams, as well as the chest, bust, armhole, waist- and hip-lines. All darts, tucks, pleats and fold lines should also be carefully marked, along with balance points; matching instruction notes, such as ‘point A to A’ and ‘B to B’, are particularly useful when working on complicated draped designs. After the design has been completed on the stand, measurements have to be checked and made accurate. All side

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4.25 Jersey toiles can be pinned at points on the stand to produce a draped neckline.

seams and joining style lines, whether they are straight or curved, need to match in length. This is difficult to achieve by pinning to the stand alone. Note: only drape with a toile fabric that has a similar weight and thickness as the fabric in which the final design will be made.

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DRAPING AND SHAPING

Padding the stand Stands can be padded to obtain different measurements; this is useful when making for individual clients, especially if figures are uneven in any way. A small deficiency is made up with wadding and held in place with strips of calico. For a larger alteration, a calico bodice block is made from a drafted pattern to the required size. The stand is padded with small layers of wadding and built up gradually to fit the toile. The thickness is graded around the bust, calico strips are used to keep the wadding in place, and then the toile is fitted over the top.

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4.26 Draped design by Juliana Sissons, using ladder technique. Fine-linen yarn was used in combination with soft, bouncy acrylic.

Draped necklines Draped necklines are created by inserting a triangle shape, similar to a godet. A V-shaped neckline can be drafted on the basic bodice block pattern, about 1 to 3 centimetres away from the neck edge. The triangular shape is drafted on paper separately; its outside edges should be the same length as the neckline edge. The centre line of the triangle is slashed down to the point and pivoted open. The pattern is then redrawn along the top edge to include the fuller shape; this top edge width will give you the depth of the front drape on the neckline. Experiment with this basic technique to achieve different lengths and fullness of drape. You can also drape jersey toile fabric directly on the stand for a quicker visual result. Another way to achieve a draped neckline effect is to knit the body vertically, using partial knitting (see page 92). Decide on the depth and width of the top of the triangle first (to achieve the shape and size of the drape), and then calculate the pattern by holding the required number of needles over the required number of rows.

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4.27 Design with draped neckline in fine-knitted wool by Natalia Pilpenka.

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Design workshop Basic bodice form

Only one side of the stand is used, unless developing asymmetrical designs, in which case both sides of the mannequin are used. 1. Prepare a piece of toile fabric 10 centimetres longer than the back length (nape-to-waist measurement) and wide enough to cover half of the back. 2. Pin the straight grain down the centre back, with about 5 centimetres above the neckline and 5 centimetres below the waistline. 3. Hold the fabric straight across the width of the back to the armhole and pin in place at the underarm (make sure the grain of the fabric is straight). 4. Work from the centre back neck, a little at a time, cutting and marking the fitting lines of the neck, shoulder and armhole. 5. If using a stretch toile fabric, work outwards from the centre back to smooth the fullness in the back waist. Mark in the side lines and waistline. Pin to stand and cut off surplus fabric, leaving about 2 centimetres for turning. If using calico toile fabric, keep the grain straight, mark in the side lines and pin to stand. Pin and mark the dart from the waistline where the fold of fabric appears. Pin and mark waistline and cut off surplus fabric, leaving about 2 centimetres for turning. 6. For the front, prepare the toile fabric in the same way as for the back. Pin the

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straight grain down the centre front, with about 5 centimetres above the neckline and 5 centimetres below the waistline. 7. Hold the fabric straight across the bust line, pin to hold at the underarm point, keeping the grain of the fabric straight. 8. Working round the neck and shoulder, pin, mark and cut off excess fabric, matching to the back shoulder. If using a stretch toile fabric, work from the centre front outwards to smooth the fullness in the shoulder and armhole; mark and pin. If using calico toile fabric, keep the grain straight, mark and pin a dart in the centre of the shoulder down to the bust point. Smooth out at the armhole, mark and pin. 9. Adjust and pin under the arm to the back side seam. If using stretch toile fabric, work from the centre front to smooth out as much fullness as possible into the side seam in order to avoid creating a waist dart; mark and pin the side seam and waist line. Cut off surplus fabric, leaving about 2 centimetres for turning. If using calico toile fabric, pin under the arm to back side seam, pin and mark dart at waistline, where the fold of fabric appears. Pin and mark waistline. Cut off surplus fabric, leaving about 2 centimetres for turning. Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in.

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4.28 Here, jersey has been pinned to the stand through the centre-front line. It has been smoothed over the shoulder and pinned under the armhole. The neck and armhole have then been cut away to form a bodice shape.

4.29 A series of images, draping of the knitted piece directly on the stand, allowing the knitting to dictate the garment shape, by Anna Maria Gruber.

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4.30–4.31 A series of images, draping the knitted structure directly onto the stand and working with jersey toiles on the stand to develop silhouette, by Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir.

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Creating a knitting pattern There are a number of things to consider before commencing a pattern. For your first attempt, it would be best to work on a simple garment that requires little shaping. Ribbed bands, such as hems, cuffs and neck bands and so on, must be able to stretch and fit close to the body. To calculate the number of stitches needed to make the rib, calculate the width of the part of garment it is being attached to. When the rib is knitted onto this edge, it will automatically pull in the fabric to fit close to the body.

knitting technique used. The starting point is the tension swatch. Knit a number of tension swatches until you have achieved the desired look and feel of the fabric. A swatch should be made for each yarn and pattern technique used. Sketch the garment to help you calculate the knitting pattern; this drawing need not be to scale but should give all width and length measurements. Add an extra 5 centimetres (2 in) in the width to allow for ease (unless the design is close-fitting, in which case less ease is needed).

Stretch will differ in each knitted piece, depending on the yarn, tension and

Design workshop Measurements

Whenever possible, take the actual body measurements of the person you are knitting for, unless you are making garments to a standard size. The following measurements are required for a basic bodice block.

•

Shoulder: measure from the base of the neck to the shoulder point (standard size: 12.5 cm).

•

Back width: measure across the back from the point of underarm to underarm (standard size: 34.5 cm).

•

Bust: measure around the fullest part of the bust (standard size: 88 cm).

•

•

Nape to waist: measure from the bone at the back of the neck to the natural waistline. Extra length can be added as desired (standard size: 40 cm).

Arm length: measure from the shoulder point to the wrist, over a slightly bent arm (standard size: 58.5 cm).

•

Top arm: measure around the fullest part of the upper arm. This measurement can vary depending on desired effect (standard size: 28.5 cm).

•

Wrist: make sure the wrist measurement allows for stretch over a clenched fist (standard size: 18 cm).

•

•

Armhole depth: measure from the shoulder point to the underarm point at the side seam. This measurement can vary depending on the desired length (standard size: 21 cm). Neck size: measure around the base of the neck (standard size: 37 cm).

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Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in.

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Basic block with classic set-in sleeve Draft a standard stretch block from the measurements on page 111. You can add more ease in the bust and armhole depth as required and 5 centimetres or more to the top arm measurement. To create a closer-fitting, higher armhole, reduce the armhole depth by around 2 or 3 centimetres. The length of the bodice and sleeve can also be varied.

4.32–4.34 Selection of vintage knitting patterns.

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Design workshop Front and back bodice block

1. 1–2 Nape to waist. Square across from 1 and 2. 2. 1–3 One-fifth of neck measurement. 3. 1–4 Armhole depth plus depth of shoulder slope (for example, 3 cm). 4. 4–5 Square across by quarter bust measurement. 5. 5–6 Square down to 6, to meet line from 2. 6. 4–7 Half of the back width measurement. 7. 7–8 Square up from 7 to meet line from 1. 8. 8–9 Shoulder slope depth (for example, 3 cm). Join 3 to 9. 9. 5–10 Draw curve touching the line from 4, for approximately 3 centimetres. You now have half a back bodice. 10. Draw in front neckline on top of the drafted back bodice, from 3 as required. (Make sure that the combined front and back neck measurements are not less than half the neck size.) 11. Trace off bodice with front neckline to achieve two separate pattern pieces: the half front and the half back bodice. Set-in sleeve 1. 1–2 Sleeve length. Square across from 1 and 2.

3. 1–5 Draw a line from 1, which is the measurement of the armhole depth, to touch the line from 3 to 4. 4. 5–6 Square across from 5 to 6 on the line from 1 to 2. 5. 5–7 One-third of length of 5 to 1; use this point to direct sleeve head curve. 6. 5–1 Draw in curve touching the line from 6 for approximately 3 centimetres, through point 7 to finish at 1. Make sure that the length of the sleeve head is the same measurement as the armhole on the bodice. (You may need to adjust the curve in order to get the correct measurement.) 7. 2–8 Cuff depth. This can be any measurement you choose, depending on the design. Square across (from 8–9) by half the cuff width, bearing in mind the wrist measurement. 8. 9–10 Square down to the line from 2 to 4. Join 9 to 5. 9. This gives you half the sleeve. The other half is mirrored from the centre sleeve-length line. 10. Once the bodice and sleeve blocks have been drafted, a 1-centimetre seam allowance can be added to all outside edges. Make a stretch jersey toile to check size and proportions. At this point, the width of the waist can be narrowed and fitted along the side seams.

2. 1–3 Half top arm measurement. Square down to meet the line from 2.

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3

8

1

6

10 4

7

3

5

5

Bodice

Bodice

8 2

6

2

9 10

4

4.35 Simple pattern guide for basic block with classic set-in sleeve.

Knitting pattern for a basic block This simple body pattern is intended to illustrate the general principle of calculating a knitting pattern; the shape is just a starting point and can be adapted to alter the style. Shoulders may be sloped, the sleeve head and armhole may be shaped and necklines may be varied. All the width and length measurements are written on the drawing of the garment. This simple shape shows front and back body and a square sleeve. The sleeve head is double the armhole depth measurement (for example, 19 × 2 = 38 cm). This example uses an estimated front neck depth of 10 centimetres. The back neck is straight across the back.

tension measurement of 3 stitches and 4 rows to 1 centimetre. Note: all the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in. Tip Abbreviation Stitch(es) = st(s)

The next stage is to work out the knitting pattern using the tension square measurements. This example uses a

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12.5cm (37sts)

15cm (45sts)

115

12.5cm (37sts)

10cm (40 rows)

19cm (37 rows) 40cm (120sts)

58cm (232 rows)

Sleeve

43cm (127 rows)

62cm (248rows)

46cm (138sts)

38cm (114 sts)

Bodice

4.36–4.37 A simple, basic bodice knit block and sleeve, which have allowances for ease. Both include measurements as well as the calculated stitches and rows.

9 sts

1

1

1

1

1

1

9 sts

1

1

1

2

2

2

9 sts

2 1

9

9 sts

1

2

2

2

9 sts

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4.38 This illustration of the front neckline shows stitches and rows using a tension sample of 3 stitches and 4 rows to 1 centimetre.

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Design workshop Knitting the pattern

1. Cast on 138 stitches. 2. Knit 172 rows. 3. Cast off 9 stitches on each side. 4. Knit 36 rows. The front neckline will begin to be knitted from this row. If knitting the back, continue for another 40 rows and cast off. 5. Front neckline: divide the neck width (45 sts) into 5 equal parts (9 sts). 6. Put the carriage at the right-hand side (120 sts on the bed). 7. Put 61 left-hand needles on hold. 8. Hold 5 right-hand side centre needles. Knit 2 rows. 9. Hold 2 right-hand side centre needles. Knit 2 rows. Repeat 3 times. 10. Hold 1 right-hand side centre needle. Knit 2 rows. Repeat 8 times. 11. For the next 12 rows knit straight. 12. Cast off the right shoulder. The shoulder should have 37.5 stitches, but as a half stitch is not possible, the number is either rounded up to

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38 stitches or down to 37 stitches per shoulder. This can be adjusted at the neck edge and, because the fabric is stretchy, one stitch will make very little difference to the fit of the neckline. 13. Put the 61 stitches on the left-hand side back into action using a transfer tool. 14. Rethread yarn and put the carriage to the left-hand side of bed. 15. Hold 6 left-hand side centre needles. Knit 2 rows. 16. Hold 2 left-hand side centre needles. Knit 2 rows. Repeat three more times. 17. Hold 1 left-hand side centre needle. Knit 2 rows. Repeat eight times. 18. Knit 12 rows straight. 19. Cast off the left shoulder. 20. Put all needles back into working position with a transfer tool and cast off remaining stitches. 21. Sleeve: cast on 114 stitches and knit 232 rows. Cast off.

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Calculation of stitches and rows Calculating stitches and rows is very important for making up a garment; you will often need to shape diagonal or slanting style lines, such as for necklines, shoulders, armholes and sleeves. All shaped pieces are basically calculated in the same way: divide the number of stitches that need to be decreased by the number of rows you need to knit them in; this will give you the number of rows to be knitted between each decrease action.

needles into hold every alternate row (or according to the pattern calculations). Continue in this way until only the required number of stitches for the shoulder is left in working position. After completing one side and casting off the shoulder, the other side can be worked.

Neckline shaping Most necklines are worked in a similar way, often part-working in the middle and then knitting both sides separately according to shape; while working on one side, the other side is put on hold. Alternatively, waste yarn can be knitted onto the side that is not being shaped first: this takes the knitting off the machine for a while and can be useful when working in particularly fine yarns, as it avoids the carriage having to go many times over the held needles. One of the simplest styles is the square neckline, where the centre stitches are simply cast off, then each side is separately knitted straight up. For a round neckline, you will need to check that the overall measurement is correct; if not, the shape will need to be adjusted to fit. The back neck can often be knitted straight, but for finer knitting, it is better to have a slight curve. The round neck can be easily converted to a V-neck by drawing in the style line down from the neck point to the centre-front line. Both of these neckline styles are suitable for a variety of collar designs to be attached. (See collars and neckbands on page 124.) When knitting a V-neck, you will need to bring out half of the needles on the opposite side to the carriage into holding position, so they do not knit. Shape the ‘V’ by bringing the required number of

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4.39–4.41 Neckline designs by Sam Bartys, graduate from Nottingham Trent University and designer for Nike.

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Shoulder shaping A set-in sleeve must have a sloping shoulder line. Shoulders are shaped by putting needles into holding position on alternate rows, from the armhole edge on the opposite side to the carriage. To calculate the shoulder slant, draw a horizontal line on the paper pattern, from the outside, lower shoulder point, inwards towards the neck; then draw a vertical line up from here to touch the neck edge. The vertical line will give you the measurement for the height of the slant and the number of rows that need to be knitted. The horizontal line will give you the length of the shoulder and the number of stitches that need to be put on hold. Divide the number of rows into the number of stitches to calculate the number of needles to be held on alternate rows. When the shaping is complete, the holding needles are put back into working position with a transfer tool. One row can be knitted before casting off (if the seam is to be grafted later, you will need to knit off with waste yarn). A straight or dropped shoulder requires no shaping. Often the neck and shoulder lines are knitted all in one with the back. If a slash neckline is required, the front neckline can also be knitted in one with the shoulder line.

Armhole shaping To knit an armhole, you will need to calculate how many stitches are to be decreased and how many rows it will take to decrease this number of stitches.

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To decrease inwards 5 centimetres over a height of 8 centimetres, first refer to your tension swatch. This example is 3.7 rows and 3.3 stitches in a 1 centimetre square: 8 cm × 3.7 = 29.6 (approximately 30 rows) 5 cm × 3.3 = 16.5 (approximately 16 stitches) 30 divide by 16 = 1.87 (approximately 2) 16 stitches need to be decreased over 30 rows. Therefore, one stitch can be decreased/fully fashioned inwards every 2 rows for 30 rows, before continuing to knit straight. Remember to shape both sides at the same time in order to achieve symmetrical shaping, but also remember that knitting is extensible, so rounding the calculations up or down makes it easier for you without altering the desired shape. For a rounder armhole shape, try casting off a number of stitches at the start of the shaping. You will need to alternate the start of shaping from one armhole to the other as the carriage must begin on the same side as the armhole being decreased. So, the right-hand side armhole will be started on one row of knitting and the left-hand side armhole will be started on the next row of knitting. Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in.

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Design workshop Simple armhole

1. Cast off 5 stitches at armhole side. 2. Knit 2 rows and decrease 2 stitches at armhole side. 3. Knit 2 more rows and decrease 2 stitches at armhole side. 4. Knit 2 rows and decrease 1 stitch at armhole side. Repeat three times. 4.42 Illustration showing straight bodice and armhole shaping, and round or square neckline placement.

5. Knit 6 rows and decrease 1 stitch. Repeat. 6. This gives you armhole shaping of approximately 5 centimetres (2/5 in) (15 stitches and 24 rows). Knit straight to the shoulder point and cast off.

4.43 Talia Shuvalon design, displaying round neck and armhole with flat-tape trim on neck, armhole and side seam.

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Sleeve pattern

9cm (27 sts)

13cm (52 sts)

The crown of the sleeve must correspond with the armhole shape in order to fit correctly: a square or slit-style armhole will require a rectangular shaped sleeve; a shaped armhole will require a shaped sleeve head. All sleeve patterns can be adapted to be straight, narrow or flared.

32cm (96 sts)

45cm (180 sts) 22cm (66 sts)

4.44 Sleeve pattern with example tension of 4 rows and 3 stitches per 1-centimetre square.

3cm (12 rows)

4.45 Sleeve crown with example tension of 4 rows and 3 stitches per 1 centimetre square.

4.5cm (13.5 sts) 2cm (6 sts)

5cm (20 rows) 3.5cm (10 sts) 5cm (20 rows) 5cm (15 sts)

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Design workshop Sleeve pattern

The sample tension for this exercise is 4 rows and 3 stitches per 1 centimetre square – refer to illustrations 4.44 and 4.45.

divided by 10 = 2). This allows you to simply decrease 1 stitch every 2 rows.

1. Draw a line down the centre of the sleeve pattern and mark the horizontal and vertical measurements.

7. The final part of the sleeve crown is divided into three 1-centimetre sections. For section one, decrease 3 stitches over 4 rows (knit 1 row, then decrease 1 stitch every row for 3 rows).

2. Divide the sleeve head into sections, according to the curve of the crown – this will make shaping easier (see illustration 1). 3. Calculate the number of rows and stitches for each measurement (see illustration 2). 4. Cast on 66 stitches. Knit 180 rows, increasing 1 stitch on each side every 12 rows (calculated as follows: 30 extra stitches needed, 15 on each side; 180 divided by 15 = 12). 5. The following instructions apply to both sides of the sleeve. To begin the sleeve crown we have to decrease 15 stitches over 20 rows (20 divided by 15 = 1.3). We cannot decrease every 1.3 rows so, in this case, you could cast off 5 stitches and then decrease 1 stitch every 2 rows. Alternatively, decrease 1 stitch every row for the first 10 rows, then decrease 1 stitch every 2 rows for the final 10 rows.

8. For section two, decrease 6 stitches over 4 rows. (You could decrease 1 stitch each row for 2 rows and then 2 stitches each row for 2 rows.) 9. For section three, decrease 13 stitches over 4 rows. One way of doing this is to decrease 3 stitches every row for 3 rows, then leave the final 4 stitches to be cast off. The final part of shaping can be achieved by holding needles and then casting off. If you are decreasing more than two stitches at once, you may find it easier if you cast off these stitches instead of decreasing them. Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in.

6. For the next part of the sleeve crown, decrease 10 stitches over 20 rows (20

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Details and trims

5

The finishing of a knitted piece is an important consideration and can make or break the look of a garment. Details such as trims, edges and fastenings should be considered at the design stage and not left as an afterthought. This chapter examines collars and neckbands, hems and edges, pockets and fastenings. It also looks at hand-finishing techniques, such as blocking, pressing and seams. Finally, it looks at embroidery and embellishment, with a handy section on beading and beading stitches. An interview with fashion knitwear designer, Hannah Jenkinson, serves to illustrate the different ways you can work with knitted textiles and offers insight into her career within the knitwear industry.

‘With all the stripes of pink and blue, Hold sweet thoughts to weave in, too; Over and under, through and through, Hold them fast and weave them true.’ L. Glaiser Foster 5.1 Black knitted collar displaying embellishment of beading and fringing by Alison Tsai.

123

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Collars and neckbands Collars generally extend the line of the garment neck; neckbands follow the line of the neck edge. Both collars and neckbands may be knitted directly onto a garment or knitted and attached

separately. Depending on the shape and style of the design, they can be knitted horizontally or vertically and can be plain knit, ribbed, lace, patterned or have a fancy style edging, such as picot.

5.2 Knitted garment with extended neck shaping (collar in one with garment) by Natalia Pilpenka.

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Neckbands Polo necks and crew necks are common styles based on the neckband principle. A polo neck is a simple rectangle of ribbed knit, turned over at the top. In order to sit correctly, the under part (the part nearest to the neck edge) can be knitted at a slightly tighter tension than the outer part (the part folded over). Polo necks fit round the neck better if they are of rib construction; therefore the tension must be established separately from the body. The crew neck is also a ribbed piece, but this is not turned over and sits lower around the neck, as the back and front necklines have the same shape. These bands stretch to fit and are joined at one shoulder seam.

Neckbands for V-necks are sometimes shaped at the centre front so that the ends meet in the middle. Bands for square necklines are made in several pieces and joined by overlapping the ends, which is an easier method of finishing.

5.3 Garment in felted wool, with large white shawl collar and classic revere-shape cut work, by Natalia Pilpenka.

5.4 Knitted oversized garment with extended neck shaping (collar in one with garment) by Natalia Pilpenka.

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Ribbed neckbands and collars need to be elastic enough to go over the head but still fit correctly at the neck edge. Measure the neck edge and calculate the number of stitches required based on the tension swatches for the garment. The neckband can be knitted with a slightly smaller stitch size for a tighter fit. If the neckline was knitted off on waste yarn, the stitches can be hooked back onto the machine in order to make the collar.

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Collars There are three main types of collar: flat collars, which include the Peter Pan, Eton and sailor; stand collars, such as the mandarin, polo and shirt collar; and grown-on collars (which are knitted in one with the garment), such as revere, roll and reefer styles. All these shapes can be developed into a variety of frilled collars, using a simple pattern-cutting technique. Collars may be knitted in various ways. One method is to knit the collar horizontally, in plain or patterned knit, on a single-bed machine. The collar can be folded in half to make a double thickness, and it can be shaped into the fold line and back out to the neck edge, or vice-versa, depending on the style. Another way is to knit the collar horizontally on a double-bed machine and keep it as a single thickness; this method lends itself well to shaping possibilities. Either of these collar types can be knitted onto the neckline by picking up the neck edge of the garment, or they can be cast onto the

5.5 Garment with large ribbed, wrap-over shawl collar by Alison Tsai.

machine separately. The cast-on edge is usually neater than the cast-off edge and looks better as the outer edge of the collar.

5.6 Large frilled collar by Juliana Sissons.

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Design workshop Ruffled collar pattern

Divide the pattern into equal sections (see Figure 5.7). Open up these sections from the outside edge, keeping the neck edge the original size. (This will make a curved edge.)

On a piece of pattern paper draw a rectangle: the length should be the measurement of the neckline from centre front to centre back; the width should be the required depth of frill. This can be a shaped outside edge if you wish.

Keeping the paper pattern flat, draw around the new shape to include the opened sections. The wider these sections are, the fuller your frills will be. When you come to knit it, partial knitting can be used to shape the areas that are added.

A third method is to knit the collar vertically; it is knitted separately on a single- or double-bed machine and attached later. Paper patterns are used to draft these collars; so for instance, flat collars can be drawn straight onto the neck edge of the body pattern and then

traced off and adjusted. Alternatively, the neck measurements can be used to draft a variety of straight-edged collars. Shaping can be knitted into a basic collar, with partial knitting used to create darts around the neck (useful for an Eton collar style), or to add flare and create ruffles and frills.

CB

CB

Ruffled collars are knitted on a singlebed machine and can be attached to any type of neckline. They can vary in shape, fullness and depth. Multiples of lace knit can be layered to build large frilled collars.

CF

neckline measurement CF

width of frill

5.7 Illustration showing pattern-cutting technique for frilled collar.

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Hems and edges Hems and edges can be shaped, scalloped, fringed or laced. Hand-knitted trim can be transferred onto the needle bed to be knitted in, and open stitches can be picked up from the machine to be continued on needles. A normal cast-on edge will curl, but by hooking up the first row of knitting and knitting in with the body of the garment, you will create a far neater, tubular hem. The partial knitting technique also provides great possibilities for both hems and trims. A double-bed machine can be used to produce a variety of ribbed edges. Mock ribs can be made on single beds; these are less elastic, but they can give a good finish to a hem or cuff.

Weighted hems Weights can be used in more formal knits to help the hang of a garment; they are usually enclosed inside the hem. There are many types, such as separate round or square lead weights, which are usually spaced out along the hem; weighted tapes, which have small lead pellets enclosed inside a cotton tube; various chain effects, which can be used as decorative weights; or ordinary self fabric/knit tape can be used to help give lightweight structure to a hem or edge.

Design workshop Picot edge

1. Cast on in waste yarn, using a different colour to main knitting. (This yarn will be unravelled and taken away later.) 2. Change to main colour yarn and knit 10 rows. 3. Transfer every other stitch to the adjacent needle (to form eyelets). Knit 10 rows. 4. Hook up the first row of loops from the main colour to form a hem. Knit as required. 5. Unravel the cast-on yarn. The trim will have a smoother join, without the cast-on edge.

5.8 Translucent, rubberized garment with large, knitted-rib, hem edge by Hannah Jenkinson.

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5.9 Detail of picot trim.

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5.10 Detail of single-bed mock rib.

Design workshop Single-bed mock rib (1 × 1)

1. Make the tension slightly tighter than the main knitting tension. 2. Cast on the needle selection with every other needle out of action. 3. Knit 10 rows. Knit 1 row on a slacker tension (for fold line). Knit 10 rows.

5. Bring nonworking needles forward to working position. Loosen the tension to the original main knitting tension. Knit as required. 6. A mock rib is quicker to do than a true rib (on a double-bed machine), but it is not so elastic.

4. Hook up the first row of knitting onto the needles to form a hem.

Design workshop Basic double-bed rib (1 × 1)

1. Set the needles as shown in the diagram; the needles out of action on one bed should be opposite the needles in working position on the other bed. Rack the beds so that the empty needles are lined up with the working needles on the opposite bed. (On domestic machines, this is done by moving the pitch lever to P.) 2. Take the carriage from left to right to form a zigzag row. Insert the cast-on comb and wire.

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3. Hang the weights onto the comb and set the cam levers to knit circular. Knitting alternate beds each row, knit 2 circular rows. 4. Reset the cam levers to knit normal (both beds together) and continue to knit. 5. If changing to all needles after the rib, rack the bed so that the needles being brought into action do not crash into working ones. (H on a domestic machine.)

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5.11 Illustration showing double-bed needle set-up.

5.12 Detail of double-bed rib.

5.13 Hannah Jenkinson’s translucent, rubberized garment, displaying knitted flat-tape trim, hiding seams.

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5.14 Hannah Jenkinson’s translucent, rubberized garment worn as top layer for oversized knitted sweater, both garments displaying knitted trims.

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Design workshop Scalloped hem

1. Thread up the machine with waste yarn and cast on 30 needles (each scallop will be 10 stitches wide). 2. Knit several rows in waste yarn and then 2 rows in the main yarn, ending with the carriage on the right-hand side. 3. Set holding cam levers to hold and bring 20 needles on the left to holding position. Knit 1 row. 4. Pull out the first right-hand needle to holding position and knit 1 row. Pull out the next needle on the left to holding position and knit 1 row. Continue to knit in this way, holding 1 needle after every row (alternating sides).

5. When only 1 needle is knitting, continue to knit by returning 1 needle after every row (alternating sides). When all needles are knitting again, stop and repeat this process on the middle 10 needles and then on the left 10 needles – when each scallop is being made, the other 2 scallops are on hold. 6. When all scallops have been made, take the holding cam levers off hold and knit 2 rows. 7. Pick up the first row in the main yarn and hook onto the needles to form a hem. Continue knitting.

5.15 Example of a scalloped hem on original Victorian wool petticoat (hand-knitted).

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Design workshop Fringed trim

A braid with fringing can be knitted and then applied to the main body of a knitted piece at the edge, or it can be hung onto the needles at any time during the knitting process. 1. Set the needles as for a large ladder, so for example, 5 needles in knitting position on either side of 40 out-ofaction needles. 2. Cast on, leaving the 40 needles out of action between the two groups of needles in knitting position. 3. Knit the required number of rows and cut through the middle of the floats to make two lengths of fringing.

5.16 Graph showing partial-knit technique/holding position on looped trim.

Design workshop Looped trim

1. This trim can be made by using the partial knitting technique. Thread up the machine and cast on 6 needles. 2. Knit 2 rows, finishing with the carriage on the right. 3. Set the holding cam levers to hold. Bring the first 2 needles on the lefthand side to holding position. Knit 8 rows.

5. Set the holding cam levers to hold. Repeat as before by holding the first 2 needles on the left for 8 rows before knitting 2 normal rows. 6. Continue in this way until the required length of braid has been knitted; the resulting braid will be looped. Explore this idea by varying the length and width of loops and by creating loops on either side of the central braid.

4. Take the holding cam levers off hold and knit 2 rows.

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Pockets There are three main styles of pocket, all of which are made in different ways. One style is the patch pocket, which is knitted separately (in any shape or size). Patch pockets are knitted upside down. A rib or hem edge is made first, for the pocket mouth. The rest of the patch is then knitted and sewn on by hand. The second type is pockets made with horizontal slits. These have an opening in the main fabric and a pocket bag hanging inside. The pocket bag is most usually made in woven fabric. The third type is the vertical slit pocket, which can be put in a side seam. If a pocket has a slanting top edge or a vertical opening, edging for the pocket mouth is knitted separately. Alternatively, the pocket may be knitted all in one with the garment using the partial knitting technique. The width of the pocket is knitted while all other needles are held. The length of the pocket bag will need to be twice the depth measurement, so that it can be folded up to meet the pocket mouth. Knitting is then continued as normal, and the sides of the pocket bag are hand-sewn later. The inside pocket bag could be knitted long enough for part of it to be pulled to the outside to form a flap.

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5.17–5.18 Pocket designs by Missoni, A/W10.

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Interview Hannah Jenkinson, knitwear designer, HJK, own label Hannah Jenkinson graduated with a knitwear degree from the University of Brighton, UK, before going on to the MFA Fashion Design and Society program at Parsons, New York. After graduation from Parsons in 2013, she has continued working for her own label, as well as working as a designer for a more commercial brand, in California.

What is your design background/training, and why did you go into knitwear? Why are you attracted to knitwear? I was initially attracted to knitwear by the scope of design potential it offered – being able to design a garment from fibre, to yarn, to textile, to pattern, to garment. I loved the concept of being able to knit something with no seams – the potential of shaping at the same time as making, something you just can’t do with a woven fabric. Being inspired by the technology and allowing that to inform the design rather than drawing a sketch and trying to work out how to achieve it. The reverse engineering approach made sense, and I loved the process from the get-go. I started off knitting, crocheting and hand-embroidering with my grandparents when I was really young. I was lucky that at school they offered art textiles, and that is what I loved doing the most. I followed that through to an art foundation course and then to a degree from the University of Brighton doing fashion textiles design with business studies, specializing in knitwear. I had a full work-placement year in industry, which was a great opportunity to work for a wide range of companies and really see what I might like to do once I graduated. After the University of Brighton, I worked for a small knitwear swatch design studio developing knitted fabrics in London. It was

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a great first job, and I got to travel to New York and Paris on sales trips a few times per year. I applied to the MFA program in Fashion Design and Society at Parsons after three years of working in London and was lucky enough to get a full scholarship to fund my studies. Parsons allowed me to explore and develop my own design process and establish my personal identity as a designer. It also opened up a number of great opportunities for work in New York and, following that, in California. You currently work with the latest knitwear technology for a large company, but also find time to continue working on your own label; how do you manage this? Please tell us more about your work developing fabrics for a bigger brand? I have worked in the design and development department of a Southern California-based knitwear company for a number of years, creating new knitted fabrics for multiple divisions. Nearly every style has a unique fabric designed and developed to work with the colours/ textures/inspiration of the season. I collaborate with a team of programmers and machinists who utilize the latest knitwear technology (Stoll and Shima Machinery) in a facility dedicated to the creation of new fabrics. It is a unique in-house facility that uses a huge selection of yarns, sourced from all over the world.

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INTERVIEW

There is also a spinning facility to develop and twist yarns, giving a lot of control over the entire process. Working for a large company is very different from doing my own work; a lot of the designing is taking into account cost, knitting speed, yarn availability, colour balance, hand and, of course, aesthetic. The consideration of many elements is necessary to get the perfect fabric that works with the whole collection but is also unique. I continue to do my own work under my label HJK – Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear. I always have ideas and things I want to try out: a constant stream of inspirations that either get tried, listed, or forgotten about in place of something else. Personally, I am most inspired when making things myself – experimenting with knitting, hand-embroidery and crochet, then mixing those traditional techniques with unexpected fabrics, such as a plastic or mesh. I am also inspired by concepts that touch the heart or are challenges that humans face individually that can serve to unite. Images of the aftermaths of the San Francisco earthquakes of 1906 and 1989 were an element of inspiration for the latest collection – what that must have been like to face; being left in a position with no other option than to come together and rebuild. The words, ‘What happens when you leap? Does the world catch you, or do you fall?’ were embroidered into pieces of the collection as a reflection on courage and faith. Can you talk us through your design process for HJK? How does your work take new direction, and what are your inspirations? I am very inspired by the process of making – starting off with a technique

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and letting that lead to one idea and then another. I also try to get absorbed into my own world and not look at anyone else’s work. There is a lot of appropriation out there, made easy by the accessibility of people’s work online and through social media. I really believe in establishing one’s own design techniques and doing thorough development to create something new and unique. If you know what you are going to make when you start a project, then you are not really getting into the process. You have to be totally open to what might happen when you start experimenting. I sometimes get a bit overwhelmed with ideas and options, so it is good to have some visual references to come back to. I like quite a minimal look, so I usually try to pare it down. How would you describe your signature work? An oversize sweater embroidered with graphic wording or a floral motif, using soft, luxurious Italian wool and mesh. What advice could you give to graduates starting out in the industry? I would advise new graduates to really focus on whatever opportunity is in front of them at the time. You never know how something you learn now will inform your career or life later, so don’t dismiss the chance to learn something when you can. I really appreciate the year in industry I had at university and the work that I did in London before applying for an MFA. It was so valuable to have the experience of working in the real world and then going back to study. It meant that I made the most of my education and knew what I wanted to get out of it.

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5.19 Image of oversized sweater by Hannah Jenkinson, from her graduate collection entitled ‘Inside My Heart’. The sweater shows incredible close-up stitch detail and embroidery.

5.20–5.22 Catwalk images of New York Fashion Week, SS14, displaying Hannah Jenkinson’s collection of oversized translucent knit sweaters with embroidery in text and geometric patterns. Outfits of layered pieces, including rubberized, protective outer layers.

5.23 Hannah Jenkinson’s graduate static exhibition stand, displaying the whole collection.

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Buttonholes and fastenings There is a great variety of fastenings that can be used on knitwear and facings can be placed on knitted openings in much the same way as for openings on woven garments. For example, you could place a zip between the facing and the front edge or behind a knitted hem. Ties, cords, buttons, buckles and belts; hooks-and-eyes or fancy frogs and even crocheted bobbles and loops could all be considered as fastenings. Buttonholes, which could be the main design feature on a garment, can be made in a number of ways: horizontally or vertically, tiny or large. Vertical buttonholes are often made by partial knitting, whereas horizontal holes are made by casting off and casting on the required length (see the methods described on page 137 and 138). You could keep the buttonholes discreet or make a feature of them by embroidering with various stitches. You can also create buttonholes by leaving gaps when attaching a front band to a garment edge. More formal buttonholes may be made using the buttonhole attachment on a sewing machine.

5.24 Design by Simone Shailes, which features an unusual metal fastening.

Design workshop Large buttonhole

Design workshop Small buttonhole

1. Choose two adjacent needles. 2. Transfer 1 stitch to the left and 1 to the right. Knit 1 row. 3. Take the yarn out of the hooks of the two chosen needles and wind around each needle (as for an e-wrap cast-on). 4. Pull needles forward and knit 1 row. Pull needles forward and continue knitting.

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1. Cast off the required number of stitches using a contrast or same colour yarn. The ends of the cast-off yarn are left hanging on either side of the buttonhole and will need to be sewn in later. 2. Cast on to the empty needles using the e-wrap method. Pull these needles fully forward and continue knitting. 3. Use a latch tool to neatly weave in the ends of yarn. A hand-sewn buttonhole stitch can be used to neaten the opening (see page 138).

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Design workshop Vertical buttonhole

1. Put the carriage to the right. Set the holding cam levers to hold. 2. Put all needles on the left of the buttonhole to holding position. Knit 6 rows.

5. Push all needles on the left of the buttonhole back into working position with a latch tool. Knit 6 rows. 6. Pull all needles on the left of the buttonhole to holding position.

3. Pull all the needles on the right of the buttonhole to holding position.

7. Break the yarn and take carriage across to the right. Rethread the yarn.

4. Break the yarn and take the carriage across to the left. Rethread the yarn.

8. Take the holding cam levers off hold and continue to knit.

Design workshop

Design workshop

Rouleau loops

Buttonhole stitch

Knitted rouleau loops can be used as button loops or can be pressed flat and used as an edging. The button loops can be set either individually or a whole row of loops can be made in a continuous strip and stitched between an outer edge and facing or sewn along a folded edge. 1. Cast on approximately 4 stitches. 2. Press one part button and knit as required. Alternatively, set all needles to slip when knitting every other row. If the tension is tight the cord will close to form a circular tube.

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Buttonhole stitch is used to strengthen a button loop (which should be large enough for the button to go through). Contrasting or matching threads can be used, as can decorative cords and narrow braids. 1. Take a length of sewing thread and stitch an arch with a loop of the thread. 2. Starting on the left, thread the needle in and behind the arch of the thread, but in front of the new loop being formed with the stitch. 3. Continue making stitches tightly together, until the arch is covered, then secure the last stitch with a knot.

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Buttons Buttons can be modern, plastic, glass or vintage, they can be covered in contrast fabrics or fine knits; they can be bobbles or toggles or made from crochet. Whichever you choose, the garment should be finished and steamed before the buttons are sewn on. If the button is for decoration only, it can be sewn flat against the knit; otherwise it will need a stem.

Design workshop Sewing on a button

The length of the stem should allow the button to sit in the buttonhole comfortably but it should not be so long that the button flops to one side when not buttoned up. 1. Hold the button just above the surface of the knit to make the stem. 2. Make approximately 6 stitches through the holes of the button, holding the button and adjusting the stitches to make them the same length. 3. Sew a buttonhole stitch around the group of threads, from the button down to the base of the stem. 4. Finish with several small stitches to fasten the thread.

5.25 Rouleau loop braid on a Victorian wool jacket.

5.26 Illustration showing buttonhole stitch.

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Hand-finishing techniques Making up a garment is one of the most important parts of production. The knitted pieces may look even, but incorrect blocking, pressing and making-up can ruin an otherwise well-knitted garment. When knitting a long length of fabric, it is a good idea to put yarn markers along the edges of the knit, at regular intervals – for example, every 100 rows or so. These can be matched at the making-up stage to keep the edges straight and in line. The knitted fabric tends to be very stretched when it first comes off the machine, so it is important to block out the size and press each garment piece before making up.

Blocking and pressing Blocking involves pinning out the garment pieces to the required shape and measurements and then steaming them. It is possible to pin the knit over the paper pattern, but this may ruin the paper, which would make it difficult to reuse. Another method of blocking is to mark the pattern shape onto a cotton calico fabric and pin the knitted piece over that. When steaming, gently move the iron above the surface and release the steam. (Do not press down on the fabric at all.) Let the fabric rest on a flat surface

(a blocking board) to set. Special care should be applied to the edges, as some yarns curl more than others. Wool and natural fibres can be steamed or, if you do not have a steam iron, cover the knit with a damp cloth. Ribs can be steamed if they are made of natural fibres, but keep them closed up: if they are steamed when extended, they will stay extended. Synthetic fibres should not be steamed at all because it makes them less elastic. It is possible to iron the fabric from the wrong side, with no pressure applied.

Seams Seams on knitted garments should be invisible; they should be sewn together using a similar tension to the pieces that are being joined. If the seam is sewn too tight it will gather and the stitches will break; if too loose, it will gape and the stitches will be visible. Knitted pieces can be sewn together by hand, with a sewing machine or by using a linker (see Linkers). For hand-sewing, use a blunt knitwear needle with a thinner version of the main thread. If the knitting yarn is textured, a matching plain yarn can be used. Fine or weak yarns will need to be doubled.

5.27–5.28 Blocked and pressed samples by Annabel Scopes. These were made on a Dubied machine with alternative needles transferred to the back bed and then mattress-stitched together.

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Tip

Tip

Linkers Linkers are used to join knitted fabrics together. Smaller versions of industrial linkers are available, which are either electronic or hand-operated. A linker allows any length of knitting to be joined, because the work is pushed onto a ring of circular needles, right sides together. As the machine is operated, a chain stitch is formed, joining the two fabrics together. After the first part of the work is linked it can be removed, to make room for the other end of the knitting to be placed on the needles.

Sewing machines Making up on a sewing machine is a very quick and efficient way of stitching garment pieces together. Many massproduced garments are made from a cut-and-sew method, and the edges are overlocked to stop the knit from unravelling. Some makes of machine have a special stitch foot for sewing up knitwear. It is a good idea to baste the edges of the garment pieces together and use a polyester thread in the machine and bobbin case.

Design workshop

Design workshop

Mattress stitch

Backstitch

Mattress stitch is used to make an invisible join or when a strong seam is required, without bulk. It is worked from the right side, making it a useful stitch for matching patterns and stripes. 1. Hold the two pieces edge to edge and work from right to left. Pass the needle under two bars, one stitch in from the edge, on both pieces. 2. Continue stitching; after every few stitches, gently pull the thread to close the seam. 3. Finish with the end of the thread down the inside of the seam.

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Backstitch can be used to sew an open edge onto a closed edge. It is useful for casting off ribs and can be used for seams without stretch. 1. Overlap the two pieces by one or two rows. 2. Push the needle into the first stitch, through the under layer and then up through the second stitch. 3. Take the needle back into the first stitch and under layer again and up through the third stitch, then back into the second stitch and up through the fourth. Repeat along the row of stitches.

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Tip Waste yarn Waste yarn is also used when a piece of knitting needs to be returned to the needles on the machine, at a later stage. The waste yarn is unravelled to the last row and then unravelled a stitch at a time while the main knitting is placed back onto the needles with a transfer tool. Alternatively, the main colour stitches can be picked up while the waste is still attached (either above the bed or tucked below) and then unravelled before knitting starts. Waste knitting can also be used for shaping. If part of a garment is cast on or finished off in waste, it can be temporarily taken off the machine to allow the remainder to be shaped.

Design workshop Hemming stitch

Design workshop Grafting

Grafting is used to join two sections of knit together to give the appearance of a continuous piece of knitting. The knitted stitches are held on waste yarn, which is unravelled during the grafting procedure. If done neatly, it is an invisible join because it imitates a row of knitting. 1. Hold the two pieces of knitting edge to edge and face up. Start from the right side. 2. Push the needle through the first and second stitches on the top edge, through the first and second stitches on the bottom edge, then through the second and the third stitches on the top edge and continue along the row. 3. Do not pull the sewn stitches any tighter than the knitted stitches.

Hemming stitch can be used to attach top edges, bands and hems. If sewing open edges, remember to sew each stitch separately. 1. Turn the hem or collar and baste or pin in place. 2. Starting on the right, push the needle into the first open stitch and up through the corresponding stitch of the main knitting. The stitch should be invisible from the right side.

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EMBELLISHMENT

Embellishment

Appliqué

Embroidery, appliqué and beading are all forms of embellishment often used on couture garments, whether they are woven or knitted. Knitted swatch makers often employ a dedicated embellisher, whose job is to embroider or bead swatches before they are put on headers, ready to be sold. There are specialized embroidery firms that offer a variety of embellishment services.

Appliqué is one of the most versatile embellishments, formed by applying decorative fabrics to the surface of the main fabric. These can be contrasting silks, cottons, linens or leather, they can be knitted, woven or felted shapes, cut or fully fashioned. Appliquéd fabrics can be hemmed and hand-sewn or left raw-edged and embroidered. For thicker materials, such as leather, it is easier to punch holes through the edges and embroider them onto the garment. Larger motifs are easier to sew if they are basted onto the garment with large tacking threads, to keep them in place while sewing. Bear in mind that non-stretch appliqué fabrics will restrict the stretch of the garment.

Consider the scale and size of the garment before designing any embellishments. Paper patterns can be made to check the size of a motif. Embroidery frames are helpful for appliqué, embroidery and beading because they hold the fabric tight, making it easier to work with. Most embellishments are worked from the right side of the fabric, apart from some beading techniques, which are worked from the wrong side.

5.29–5.30 A series of images displaying black knitted dress by Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir, with Swarovski crystal embellishment.

Tip Waste knitting techniques There are various useful techniques that involve knitting in waste yarn. If two edges are to be joined by grafting, the edges need to have open stitches. Waste yarn is knitted onto the row of the main knitting instead of casting off in the normal way, which holds the stitches together until the grafting process; the waste yarn is unravelled during this process or at the end.

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5.31 1950s cream lambswool and pearl button cardigan with ribbon and silk thread floral embroidery; provided by Cosprop.

Embroidery The art of embroidery can add colour and durability to a knitted garment. Stitches can be used to transform plain knits into creative pieces of art. Decorative stitches can be made in silk, wool, linen threads or with unusual materials, such as leather and ribbons. Consider colour proportion and weight of yarn along with texture, stitches, lines and masses. Many rich or light and dainty designs in embroidery can be produced. When designing for embroidery, it is better to keep the shapes simple because of the intricacy of the pattern formed by the stitches. In many instances, it is possible to produce good embroidery design without drawing first. The simplest form of design is based on repetition, when stitches are placed together to form decorative borders.

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5.32 Selection of machine-embroidered trims.

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Simple stitches A line of stitches with a coloured thread on a contrast background fabric is a simple form of decoration in itself. There are a variety of simple, well-known stitches, which may form the basis of more advanced embroidery design, if required.

5.35 Running stitch.

5.36 Double tracking.

5.37 Upright row of stitches between running stitch.

5.38 Double rows.

5.33–5.34 Hand-embroidered knitted swatches by Zuzana Fierro-Castro.

5.39 Slanting stitch.

5.40 Cross stitch with running stitch.

5.41 Vertical upright stitches with cross stitch.

5.42 Combination of cross stitch and tacking stitch. 5.43 Hannah Jenkinson’s translucent, knitted garment, with chunky, threaded, floral embroidered detail and ribbed stand collar

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Beading Beading is another form of embroidery, which may be used to cover the whole of the knitted piece or to decorate edges, trims and motifs. Beads may be attached at the knitting stage, by weaving in beaded lengths of thread, or else by threading onto the stitch with a special tool. Beaded embellishments can be worked with gold or silver thread, using a variety of beads, from cultured pearls to steel, glass and wood. Lengths of sequins and fancy braids may also be attached in similar ways. The process is timeconsuming, which adds considerable cost to the end design. If sewing beads onto the knit, you will need to use a sewing needle that is large enough for the thread to fit through the eye but small enough to go through the hole in the bead. There are various different stitching methods, such as backstitch, parallel stitch, couching stitch and running stitch, as shown in Figures 5.44 to 5.51. In specialist workrooms a tambour hook is usually used for beading. This tool is similar to a crochet hook, and it is used to attach strings of beads with chain stitch. This method allows for finer work with small beads: the tambour hook makes chain stitches around the thread holding the beads and, as such, does not need to fit through the beads. However, if the thread breaks, the beads will soon fall off. Beads that are individually sewn with a needle are more secure (although this is, of course, very time-consuming).

5.44 Fringes.

5.45 Finishing stitch.

5.46 Picot-edge stitch.

5.47 Backstitch.

5.48 Three-bead backstitch.

5.49 Parallel stitch.

5.50 Couching stitch.

5.51 Running stitch.

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5.52 Beads knitted in with the garment by Cassie Green; additional straw beads embellished on sleeves.

5.53–5.54 Images displaying rectangular, translucent beads knitted in with the garment, and beads strung together before being knitted in; work by Cassie Green.

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Practitioners in context: menswear

6

This chapter offers a visually stimulating fresh perspective on knitwear design for menswear. It is different in content and style to the other chapters in the book, as it focuses on examples of work from contemporary knitwear design practitioners. This subtly complex area in fashion is examined through a number of designer case studies, each specializing in menswear and exploring totally different aesthetics. These case studies demonstrate how the knit techniques, explored in previous chapters, can be easily utilized in menswear design. A brief overview from historical context to technological advances introduces the reader to the concept of menswear design, and an interview with Cozette McCreery, of the former SIBLING clothing brand, gives insight into the business. Through detailed images, this chapter looks at the design process and at how themes, concepts and influences can be translated into valuable sources of research for menswear design. All knit techniques utilized within this chapter are based on continual exploration from previous chapters. Design and technical skills are developed through the consideration of menswear sizes, proportions and garment silhouette. An example of a basic pattern block with a dropped shoulder has been provided to give you an understanding of menswear measurements and a starting point for further pattern drafting. Menswear is an emerging area in knitwear design, with exciting developments in scale, texture and colour. The variety of inspirational imagery, together with insightful information about the application of various knit techniques, means this chapter should stimulate your interest and enhance your appreciation in the fascinating area of menswear design. 6.1 Abigail Coop, graduate of Nottingham Trent University; runner-up for Graduate Fashion Week’s ‘Gold Award’ and ‘Knitwear Award’, 2017. Her research looks at dolls and teddy bears as initial reference points, and her oversized jumpers are a representation of the stuffing inside teddy bears and the idea of ‘bursting at the seams’.

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Historical contexts

Androgynous contexts

Knitwear has been seen as a staple garment in a man’s wardrobe for a long time, from the original fisherman’s jumpers, Aran knits and guernseys displaying personalized knit patterns, to the thick woollen fabrics worn by the military throughout the many wars to the traditional Fair Isles vests, as worn and made popular in 1930s by the Duke of Windsor who abdicated the throne to marry Wallis Simpson; he was known for his impeccable taste, making him a menswear trendsetter.

Androgyny is a recurring theme in fashion design, and knitwear adapts to this concept with great success. The current trend for oversized silhouettes lends itself to knit and designs for extra-large jumpers can be worn by men and women alike. Womenswear designers have popularized the term ‘boyfriend jumper’, which draws to mind the famous image of Marilyn Monroe wearing a large, hand-knitted jumper and not much else, interestingly, using a masculine garment to promote feminine sexuality.

Classic knit garments were also worn in the 1960s and made popular by the Mods (the term is derived from modernist). They typically wore slim-fitting suits in mohair and two-tone fabrics, with button-down shirts and fine-knitted sweaters.

The term androgyny has given designers the opportunity to push boundaries over the years, inspiring the blurring of lines between what is traditionally thought of as masculine or feminine. Punk Rockers from the 1970s often wore large dishevelled jumpers, with purposely laddered stitches, along with the spiky hair and graphic makeup trends for both boys and girls; these jumpers helped to blur the lines between the genders.

Many tailors in Savile Row have adopted the classic staple knit vest, sweater and cardigan to sell with shirtings, ties and suits. Classic brands, such as Burberry, traditionally known for the trench coat, have also developed the staple knit garment for each menswear collection. Designer Paul Smith started his business in 1970s selling menswear from a small shop in Nottingham, England; he is now one of the most influential British menswear and womenswear designers, developing his brand and signature style to include distinct ranges of print and knitwear.

‘You can find inspiration in everything. If you can’t, then you’re not looking properly.’ Paul Smith

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Androgyny was also popularized in the early 1970s through the emergence of Glam Rock artists, such as Mark Bolan and David Bowie, who questioned stereotypical masculine attire through musical influences. The Japanese designer Kansai Yamamoto designed the iconic knitted one piece suit, influenced by the Kabuki Theatre, for Bowie, which further influenced the style of other artists such as 1980s singer Boy George and also the style of the New Romantic trend. Today designers are still drawing upon influences from everywhere. There is scope for different trends to emerge and coexist within menswear design, and the designer case studies within this chapter

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display a wide range of styles, from Pa Byrne’s traditional, but urban-inspired, menswear knits to Kendall Baker’s brightly coloured lace and crochet androgynous knits; if the design and quality is good, there is a space on the market for it.

6.2 David Bowie in asymmetric knitted bodysuit, 1973, designed by Kansai Yamamoto for the Aladdin Sane tour.

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Interview Cozette McCreery Cozette McCreery works as a consultant designer for a number of brands; she is particularly known for being a founding member of the former SIBLING brand. This label was known for its vibrant, youthful and directional work, pushing boundaries and producing diverse seasonal collections from 2008, when it was founded, until 2017, when like many other smaller businesses at that time, it was adversely affected by the crunch and had to close shop. Cozette talks candidly about how the label started and gives insight into the business.

What are your design backgrounds? How did you meet Sid Bryan, and why did you want to become designers? Sid and I met at Bella Freud’s. Bella was a guest at the RCA graduate show and came back with the brochure, and Sid’s work stood out. She was working on a short film (the first of three) with John Malkovich and needed her ideas for some knitted showpieces made, so we got Sid in for an interview. He made me a cup of tea, and that was the start of our working relationship. Neither of us really set out thinking that we’d be designers, although yes, both of us wanted to do something or be part of something creative. We are both very good at going into businesses and interpreting the designer’s own signature without distorting their work, vision or brand image. We’d like to think that it’s quite a skill. SIBLING came about as it was an itch we wanted to scratch. It really started out as a project and just grew naturally from there.

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You are known for your experimental approach to knitwear construction. How would you describe your signature work? Bold, knitted and fun. When we first started we put a lot of onus on technique. Sid is very much obsessed with technique and structure and that knowledge and passion rubs off. However, I look after sales, and it became apparent rather quickly that the buyers, and therefore the consumer, although intrigued by the backstory, kind of didn’t care. It made us rethink how we worked, if the end result could be the same but simpler, we did that. This didn’t apply to everything though as our showpieces are a true labour of love and are both timeconsuming and very much hands-on with their starting point or references always coming from knit. How does your work take new direction and what are your inspirations? It’s really dependent on the season for one and what excites us for two. Constant themes though are reportage imagery, youth tribes, club culture, and music. It might come across as a bit Smash Hits/ teenager’s bedroom, but that’s what we

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like. We are very social, always have been, and friends and groups of like-minded people are very ‘us’. It’s good to get your character into your brand; we like to think that it makes it feel more authentic. I understand that Sid has also worked as a freelance designer for other labels, such as Alexander McQueen. How does working on your label differ creatively from working with other designers; do you enjoy working in a variety of ways? McQueen, Giles, Jonathan Saunders, Hiller Bartley, Victoria Beckham, yes, he worked on their showpieces very much in the way he worked with Bella. I, too, still consult, but it’s more range planning, research, branding and thematic, so perhaps less glamorous [laughs]. To be honest it’s not that different from how we worked at SIBLING. Whether we are consulting at catwalk or high-street level, we always work for the brand. We were always asking, ‘but is this SIBLING? Is this SIBLING enough?’ and sometimes although it feels a bit heart-breaking because we may love the piece or idea, the answer can be ‘no’. The creative industries today offer likeminded designers many opportunities to collaborate with projects, such as fashion, film, music and textiles. You have collaborated with Judy Blame in the styling of your collections; how does working in collaboration enhance creativity? SIBLING was named because we wanted to work with other creatives; that was our ethos. It’s the idea of taking your friendships and pushing it further. It’s also bloody good fun to bounce ideas around with your mates. Judy, I’ve known since I was nineteen, through the DJ Fat Tony and the design directors Michael Nash

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Associates, and Sid (who is younger than me) met him independently. SIBLING has worked with artists Nobel & Webster, Pure Evil, Jim Lambie to name just a few, and stylists Katie Grand and Matthew Josephs. We’ve produced art knits, short films, animations, all kinds of collateral. What are the overriding challenges of running a small creative Fashion business and what are your plans for the future? SIBLING combined mens- and womenswear and held coed shows. To be honest we’d been doing this since our AW12 presentation at Somerset House styled by Katie Grand but soon moved to the more traditional show schedule due to press and buyers still working to this calendar. Full coed afforded us a lot of freedom and I still believe that it makes sense. Look at the others who followed: Vetements, Westwood, Gucci – it was a collective eureka moment. It also importantly cut costs in sampling and shows. Shows cost a fortune and presentations are often just as expensive. Things have got to change there I think; designers and brands have to be a bit more creative in how they present new collections, especially when starting out or if you are relatively small. You don’t have to do catwalk if it doesn’t suit you to do so. It’s almost feeling old-fashioned as a way of showcasing. OK, yeah, there’s charm in that, but coupled with the fashion calendar seeming completely out of sync with the consumer, and I feel that it’s time for something new. Maybe it’s time to take a breather and be more aware of what we are offering. Even this see-now-buy-now is problematic, and I think both Thakoon and Tom Ford are questioning it going forward as a business model.

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Other difficulties for small manufacturing business would be the additional stresses of Brexit and all the uncertainty in the world today. Our overseas buyers have become very wary, hitting our already narrow bottom line, and the factories, paid in dollars or euros, are now more expensive. How are you supposed to grow your business without profit? In fact it means that you aren’t running a business; it’s an expensive hobby masquerading as a business. In addition, tax on the self-employed has increased, and businesses in East London are looking at a potential 300 per cent rate increase. Everyone is being hit and who’s going to cover those costs? The consumer? Doubtful when we’ve all become so discount and internet search savvy. I hate to say it, but I don’t think that we will be the first brand to take the step to step off the fashion hamster wheel over the next year. Our archive is being housed at Kingston University. We have an agreement with Elinor Renfrew and her team headed up by Samantha Elliott. Potentially once catalogued, garments or looks could head to Bath and Westminster. Three full catwalk looks are already at a museum in Hamburg, and one full look is with The Met. However having SIBLING at Kingston means that pieces will be available to students as well as museums. It’s basically keeping the brand alive, and we are incredibly grateful to Elinor for her foresight. It also importantly and legally remains ours.

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What advice could you give to fashion knitwear design graduates starting out in the industry? Get experience. There is this huge push for people to graduate and become stars and do catwalk. Our suggestion is that you don’t, that you get some experience, learn from someone else’s mistakes and triumphs, watch and learn and make contacts. OK, yes, so some people seem to come straight from college and are international superstars, but in all honesty, they are a rarity. There is a long and quite depressing list of ‘this season’s hot thing’ that have fallen off the face of the Earth. The industry has changed, once you could do a show and it was your public CV, and a big design house would snap you up. More and more it’s the less flamboyant graduate who perhaps wasn’t feted by the press or their course head who quietly gets into a job and makes their mark there. It’s something to think about. Catwalk shows and films and even presentations are costly, don’t let someone tell you otherwise, especially with regards to presentations, which are often more expensive than catwalks. Get some experience, make a name for yourself working for someone else, get a backstory. Those who last often are ex-design assistants. If you want to burn fast and bright though: go for it. In the end, it’s up to you, isn’t it?

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6.3 Sad Teddy, AW15 finale.

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6.4 SIBLINGsquad, AW15.

6.5 Look 1: Showpiece made in-house. Machine-knit engineered Baruffa yarn frills, hand-stitched to oversized Pinori yarn knit base. Lurex machine-knit Blame cycling shorts with tux frill. Look 2: Gaudi’s zebra hand-knit crew using Pinori yarns. Made in EU. Gaudi’s zebra mosaic, Lurex, jacquard knit shorts. Made in China. Baruffa yarn engineered Lady Di Collar. Made in-house. Look 3: Gaudi’s hand-crocheted sweater using Baruffa yarns. Made in EU. Lurex machine-knit, Blame cycling shorts. Made in-house.

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6.6 Look 1. California Leaf Doodle jacquard cardigan. California Leaf Doodle jacquard shorts. Made in China. Look 2: Showpiece made in-house. Towelling onesie, machine-knit base using Baruffa yarns, with hand-tufted appliqué leaves and handsequined flashes. Made in-house. Look 3: Showpiece made in-house. Towelling pool wrap, machine-knit base using Baruffa yarns with hand-tufted appliqué leaves. SIBLINGsquad monogramed towel, machine-knit base using Baruffa yarns with hand-printed logo. Made in-house. Look 4: Showpiece made in-house. Net oversized jacket with hand-tufted appliqué leaves and hand-sequined flashes. Cable cricket dress. Made in China. Linda Farrow for SIBLING, zigzag sunglasses.

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Designer case study Pa Byrne Pa Byrne is a graduate from MA Fashion Knitwear, Nottingham Trent University, England. He now works as a menswear knitwear designer for the company Garcia Jeans in the Netherlands.

His MA collection, entitled HOME, is an exploration of knitwear processes, testing the combination of traditional and technological applications to produce a contemporary, menswear collection for commercial production. The inspiration came from examining original photography exploring social identity and youth culture in Ireland in the 1970s and 80s, combined with his own personal knit heritage passed from his mother and grandmother.

learned how to hand-knit at a young age, he has combined his traditional techniques with technology within knitwear, using handcraft but exploring replication on machinery. He feels that in order to reinvigorate the knitting industry in Ireland, there needs to be a level of openness to adapt to change and embrace new technology in order to move forward. Hopefully with more students choosing knitwear as a specialism, this will start to gain more traction.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology

Techniques used/machines

Byrne has researched the social identity of the occupants living in a notorious housing estate on the outskirts of Dublin, Ireland, comprising seven towers. It has housed families from the 1960s onwards, and original images have provided a wealth of inspiration for a knitted menswear collection. He also explored how this research mirrored the ideal of Shakespeare’s ‘The Seven Ages of Man’; he used this research to inform the design process, exploring how knitting techniques can reinforce or deconstruct, depending on which stage of the ‘Seven Ages’ it represented.

This collection was produced with a combination of power industrial machinery (Stoll and Shima Seiki), handflat industrial machinery (Dubied) and hand-knitting. He gained sponsorship from Knoll Yarns in the UK, a renowned supplier of beautiful traditional wool yarns. He used 70 per cent wool across the collection, the other 30 per cent was made up of British alpaca and Italian cotton yarn. The only synthetic material used was a vinyl, which he bonded to a lambswool jacquard to make it a reversible fabric. Techniques utilized throughout this collection are felting, striping, tuck stitch, and transfer stitch.

Irish knitwear heritage is something that is sadly in decline, and although Byrne

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6.7 Pa Byrne’s fashion photo shoot with knitwear, displaying an urban theme.

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6.8-6.11 Pa Byrne’s design development boards, displaying the concept, mood of collection, colour palette, knit and hand stitch development, and garment design ideas.

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6.12 Pa Byrne’s design development board, displaying geometric knit pattern technique investigation.

6.13 Pa Byrne’s fashion photo shoot with knitwear, displaying an urban theme.

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Designer case study Ella Nisbett Ella Nisbett is a graduate from BA Fashion Knitwear with Knitted Textiles, Nottingham Trent University, England, and the winner of two awards: Best Knitwear Award and Best Menswear Award, 2015, Graduate Fashion Week, London.

Her graduation collection, entitled ‘Papa Wemba’, named after the Congolese musician, won two awards at Graduate Fashion Week 2015, the success of this collection was credited for the combination of its creativity and high impact on the catwalk while also holding the potential to be easily transferred into a commercial, sellable product. Artsthread. com describes the collection:

Concept/inspiration/design methodology

Papa Wemba is a celebration of the male body and its decoration. . .the reassertion of the decorated man. Inspired by subculture it fuses a rebellious attitude with a decadent aesthetic, capturing the contemporary zeitgeist and confident return to expression in modern menswear. A rich [colour] palette, oversized silhouettes contrasting with slim pieces and luxurious fabrics create a distinct look evocative of extravagant zoot suits, elegant gentlemen’s wear and traditional African dress. Ornament and decoration are integral, confronting traditional ideologies of masculinity in society. Whilst a meticulous consideration of proportion, placement, scale and detail maintain a formality and refinement. Reconciling the traditional and the revolutionary, the micro and massive, the vibrant and monochrome, the celebratory and refined.

The eclectic styling, strong colours and beautiful tailoring captured Nisbett’s attention and imagination; their distinctive use of clothing to convey deeper statements and aspirations prompted her to think further about the way in which men use their dress as a means to express themselves and their identities. Dress has power as a symbolic visual code through which individuals can communicate and, more importantly, mark social and political allegiances in society. Post-war subculture in particular served to convey rebellion, political statement, aspiration, masculinity and belonging – rejecting historically prescribed sartorial codes.

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The collection was influenced primarily by two subcultural groups: the 1940s Zooties and the Congolese Sapeurs, both of whom used extravagant styles of dress as a badge of success over adversity and as a signal of defiance to the establishment in the face of extreme poverty and political upheaval.

One of the most important aims for Nisbett’s collection was to recreate the sense of men dressing beautifully, in a seemingly dandyish manner, but with a tough, rebellious attitude and stark circumstances underpinning their sartorial choices.

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Techniques used/machines High-quality fine-gauge yarns have been utilized in this collection. Merino wool from the Italian spinner Biella and 100 per cent silks and fine cashmere yarns have been knitted mostly on the fine 12- and 14-gauge hand-flat industrial machines. Slip stich and tucking techniques have been explored to create intricate stitches and patterns to emulate beautiful woven silk tailoring fabrics. When these fine-knitted fabrics were steam ironed, the yarn properties became very smooth and flat in quality, with a handle more akin to that of a woven; from these fabrics Nisbett was able to drape beautifully to create the voluminous silhouettes of her zoot-style trousers.

Jacquard and stripe were also particularly important in this collection: the stripe rapport often worked along the entire length of the outfit. This was a luxury afforded by being able to construct the fabric from scratch, where she could carefully calculate stripe placement and proportion up the body – something seen in luxury bespoke and tailor-made garments. Her signature style can be seen as decorative and ornamental, making use of striking colour combinations and pattern, placement, proportion and balance are imperative. Other textile approaches explored within this collection, are flock printing, bonding and dying of yarns to complement and enhance the knits. 6.14 Ella Nisbett: graduate fashion show collection.

6.15 Ella Nisbett: trousers, striping and flock-printing techniques.

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6.16 Ella Nisbett: oversize garment, striping and flockprinting techniques.

6.18 Ella Nisbett: matching garments, striping and flock-printing techniques.

6.17 Ella Nisbett: matching oversized scarf, striping and flock printing.

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Designer case study Ben McKernan Ben McKernan is a graduate from MA Fashion Knitwear, Nottingham Trent University, England. He now works as a freelance, technical knitwear designer and consultant.

McKernan is attempting to bridge the gap in the knitwear design market, as a technical designer; knitwear designers tend to collaborate with technologists when it comes to working with Stoll or Shima industrial machines, and this can often result in miscommunication of the designers’ intentions. McKernan is a designer who has an understanding of these highly technological machines and can therefore draw on this knowledge when designing or communicating with colleagues. His work is an investigation into how technical knitting can be applied to sportsinspired menswear through alternative use of materials, yarns and technical applications. The combination of yarns and techniques are examined to explore the effects of how they wear and how they feel on the skin.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology McKernan is inspired by the technical leaps in classic knitting-machine technology and the changes in the industrial machine-knitting industry, as seen in recent years, so that it no longer just produces for fashion but also for medical applications, sportswear and architecture, as well as homeware and furnishings.

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He feels that even with the new advances in technology, there is still not a comprehensive understanding of what is possible in the realm of design and in what can be achieved with this new technology. Breakthroughs in the market have occurred in both Stoll and Shima Seiki industries, and the leading fashion brands have been quick with this technology to develop their own signature knitwear style. Sportswear brands, such as Nike and Adidas, have spent significant time and money pioneering technical flatbed knitting for sportswear trainers, a fourbed fully fashioning technique that allows them to eliminate cut and sew from the process. McKernan believes that there is a knowledge gap between the designer and the technician. While it is unnecessary for the designer to understand perfectly the technical complexity of a shoe like the Flyknit, it is necessary to understand the advancements of technology to be able to design effectively and innovatively. To try to be truly innovative, McKernan has familiarized himself with the latest technology on the power-knitting machines, through developing and producing work on the industrial Dubied hand-knitting machines first; it was important for him to use the old technology as well as the new technology.

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His aims are to translate craftsmanship into a high technological machine; bringing the zeitgeist of the old and the new together to create something different but that remains universally knit. His MA menswear collection of contemporary engineered knitwear design was fully fashioned (shaped on the machine) and sportswear inspired, but it adopted a broader, more eclectic aesthetic that was influenced by his own cultural heritage as well as a number of contemporary artists working with geometric prints and shapes. The title of his collection is Ceremony, and it takes inspiration from vintage sportswear, as well as the ceremonial act of fashion in competitive sports. A celebratory aesthetic to imbue confidence as well as instilling fear in the opponent.

Techniques used/machines McKernan prioritized the technical research and development of knitting skills for this collection. Techniques were first developed on the industrial hand-flat Dubied machine, and then ideas progressed in computer-aided design to utilize the Stoll and Shima Seiki power machines. His aims are to continue increasing his knowledge of pattern cutting for garment shapes and in programming on the power machines to gain a good functional understanding of this technology, in order to work as a designer/knitwear programmer and developer. His combination of different machinery and diverse knitting techniques has given him the opportunity to push boundaries in knit structure. Sportswear applications in knitwear are often incorporated with a weave technique or knitted with Lycra on circular knitting machines; he is more

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interested in creating men’s leisure wear with a looser, more comfortable fit. His work explores travelling ribs, interlocked to create wavelike effects, sports mesh, and fully fashioning, partial knit with goring and double-faced fabrics with jacquard designs. His primary sketchbook investigation, includes sourcing patterns, such as geometric shapes in different visual forms and then using them in collage to inform design process. There is an emphasis on collecting materials and again using them to create collaged shapes to inform the details of garment design, such as collars, necklines and ribs.

Materials and resources Durability and sustainability were considerations for McKernan, when researching yarns to work with for this collection. Tencel yarn is a widely used lyocell fibre. It is a natural, biodegradable man-made yarn from purified wood pulp cellulose and is 100 per cent plant-based fibre. It possesses a breathable feel for clothing and so good for both sportswear and fashion. This was one of McKernan’s primary yarns. Another chosen yarn was mixed merino wool with polyester, for durability and stretch. Merino wool is soft, naturally breathable and warm even when wet; merino wool regulates your body temperature, has a great warmth-toweight ratio, naturally controls odour and stretches as you move. It is widely used in outdoor wear that is environmentally conscious and interested in quality fabrication. He also used specific worsted wool yarns that are designed for being waterproof. The technology for treatment of these

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yarns is somewhat similar to the one used in Burberry trench coats, except these yarns are woven, which means they are much tighter and will function

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differently. McKernan has explored the idea of bonding these knitted fabrics for outerwear garments.

6.19–6.22 A series of images displaying the complexity of technical programming on the industrial power-knitting machine (colour, striping and yarn allocation is displayed) by Ben McKernan.

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6.23 Asymmetrically striped garment design by Ben McKernan, with the use of technical yarns.

6.24–6.25 Images display Ben McKernan’s signature stripes, in garments made from a variety of technical yarns, including monofilament.

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Designer case study Latasha Hammond Latasha Hammond is a graduate from BA Fashion Knitwear with Knitted Textiles, Nottingham Trent University, England, now working as a freelance knitwear designer.

This collection takes inspiration from the community of the Kuba Kingdom, based in central Africa; the Kuba Art and the Shoowa Textiles. The Kuba King provides inspiration through his display of bold pattern and texture. Many aspects of the theme directed design towards handcrafted elements and heavily ornate graphic clashes. Direct connections can be seen in her collection through the use of cowrie shells and woven inspired knits. In addition, modern influences, such as the work of Joseph Francis Sumegne, have inspired the use of more unconventional materials and tones of colour.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology The collection, entitled KUBA TRAIT, conjures up a number of key words to feed into the design research and development of knit techniques and garment outcomes: assortment, ancestral, bold, fanciful, folk, decorative, reformative. These words allowed a more concentrated focus for research and pushed the direction of the concept further to create heavily textured, as well as graphic, elements within the work. A traditional and ornate colour palette is rendered within the collection, along with a number of extreme contrasts of beaded

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embellishment, graphic patterns and textured surfaces. Trends of confluence and graphic mash have also influenced her approach to drawing, sampling and pattern making. Silhouettes designed in the garmentcreating process are oversized and boxlike, featuring angled, staggered hem lines inspired by African geometric patterns. Her aims for this collection are to draw awareness to the native tribes overseas and, in doing so, highlight the value of their community, morals and craftsmanship of original hand-rendered techniques of weaving and beading, as well as an appreciation of ornate crafts. Her approach to design development through sketchbook work encompasses the use of a number of unconventional mark-making tools to gain a quality that cannot be produced by man-made objects. Fine liner pens form the base of the intricate details, along with the use of acrylic paint and collage. Additional key inspirations are found within the work of contemporary African artists, Joseph Francis Sumegne and Moshewa Langa. Through identifying past and present influences together with the African origin, a unique menswear collection has emerged.

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Techniques used/machines Yarn choice was considered to reflect a conscious responsibility in design, aiming to promote natural fibres, such as cotton and lambswool. The use of mixed weights and textures has given the opportunity to achieve dramatic contrasts within the collection. A sustainable approach to the construction of the collection is reflected in the garments produced on the domestic machine. Garments were shaped as knitted, disregarding any unnecessary overlocking or cutting of excess fabrics. A variety of machinery was utilized in the construction of this collection, in order to

develop the different techniques used. Domestic machine and Dubied hand industrial knitting machinery, together with power knitting on the Stoll, gave the opportunity to explore the different weights and gauges of yarns used. Knitted techniques of stripes, Fair Isles and jacquards were used in contrast to the exploration of weaving, fringing and laying in surfaces, with the resulting fabrics ranging from 2.5- to 10-gauge knit. Embellishment was focused upon scarves and leggings and side seams, in order to display decoration but still allow ease in movement. 6.26–6.29 Catwalk images displaying layered garments by Latasha Hammond, with striping in different colourways; terra-cotta, blue, black and white, and red. A number of knitting techniques have been explored, including striping, weaving, fringing and power-knit jacquard patterning.

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Designer case study Matilda Draper Matilda Draper is a graduate from BA Fashion Knitwear with Knitted Textiles, Nottingham Trent University, England, now working for Paul Smith.

What passing-bells for these who die as cattle? Only the monstrous anger of the guns. Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle Can patter out their hasty orisons. No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells; Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, The shrill demented choirs of wailing shells; And bugles calling for them from sad shires. Wilfred Owen, ‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’, 1917 The collection, entitled ‘No Man’s Land’, is inspired by the First World War and brings together historical and psychological contexts to push the boundaries of menswear and the capabilities of knitted textiles. A dark palette evokes a brooding message, and juxtapositions can be drawn, from the masculinity that is carried with the concept of war, in contrast to feminine associations with knitting, The main investigation is in the frenzied, shell-shocked mind, in contrast with the therapeutic qualities of knit, and how this can be portrayed through knitted textiles. Artist Maggi Hambling’s series of paintings – Victim (2014) – have provided further inspiration, as her work studies victims of war and her painterly style

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evokes the frenzied mind. The military uniform has also been an important area for exploration, with the resulting garments taking inspiration from shape, detailing and the multifunctional aspects, in terms of keeping soldiers warm and protected when in combat, but also being worn as a more formal outfit to intimidate the enemy and give the wearer identity.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology Draper’s primary research for this collection began within her own family history, having accessed many photographs, letters and diaries from ancestors who fought in the First World War. This has provided an initial understanding of what it was like to be fighting and living in those times. She also visited the Imperial War Museum in Manchester and was particularly inspired by the uniforms and being able to see the fabric qualities close up, which cannot be fully understood and analysed through photographs. Documentaries, literature and the works of the war poets provided a greater understanding of the meaning of shellshock; what it was and how soldiers were affected by it. Draper is fascinated by the inner turmoil, the psychological damage endured by the soldiers and has investigated the therapeutic qualities of knitting in terms of the focus on rhythm and the calm, soothing feel of

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the action in order for soldiers to regain psychological and physical restoration. Her garment silhouettes reflect the functionality and formality of uniform dress, and her colour palette plays an important role in reinforcing the idea of discord. The varying grey tones, from dark to light, look quite monotone alongside accents of whites and oranges to lift the palette.

Techniques used/machines Draper has focused on fabric manipulation techniques, such as felting, flocking, print

and needle punch, to explore further the capabilities of knitted fabrics other than what can be produced on the machine. These techniques are evocative of her painterly styles of primary research and mark making; she is interested in exploring how materials can reflect and communicate meaning. She uses predominantly natural fibres, such as untreated merino and lambswool, which lend themselves to boiling and felting; these fabrics have a luxury handle to them. 6.30 Matilda Baker’s felted wool coat design from her graduation collection, inspired by her thoughtprovoking research into the First World War. Jacquard knitting techniques explored.

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6.31 Matilda Baker’s graduation collection of oversized, layered garments in felted jacquards, with plaiting and striping techniques.

6.32–6.35 Images display Matilda Baker’s sketchbook pages and a concept board with poetry and design illustrations, conveying the darker mood of her oversized garments.

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Designer case study Kendall Baker Kendall Baker is a graduate from BA Fashion Knitwear with Knitted Textiles, Nottingham Trent University, England. She was the winner of the Best Knitwear Design Award, 2016, Graduate Fashion Week, London.

Kendall Baker, winner of the Graduate Fashion Week Knitwear Award 2016, created a collection entirely made on the domestic knitting machines and by hand-knit and crochet. Her androgynous menswear collection was made up from bright coloured cotton and wool yarns in a variety of handcrafted textile fabrics. Her casual collection included garments such as fitted, transparent jumpers, bomber jackets and oversized coats in plastic and crochet combinations. Detailed finelace fabrics merged with intricate cable techniques, and knitted oversized yarns made from stuffed tubes provided her with the unusual textured fabric to create huge slouchy bags.

stitches, with many techniques executed to the highest standard.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology

A combination of cotton, rayon viscous, monofilament and wool yarns were used to explore a variety of knit techniques. Ladders and lace holes (pointell/lace technique) were used for jumpers, trousers and jackets. Cables, crochet and partialknit techniques added further structure and detail. Bonded knit to plastic provided opulent fabrics for coats; rib structure was used for trimming, and further detail was added through the ornate techniques of embroidery and appliqué. All knitting was developed on a standard-gauge domestic knitting machine, and crochet was worked on a variety of crochet hook sizes, from size 2.5 to 7.

The inspiration behind her work has always involved nature, and this collection looked closely at the life cycle and movement of butterflies. Baker wanted to capture the fluidity of their movements, the delicateness of their wings and the vibrancy of their lives. The strong colour palette of acid green, lemons and peachy pinks, mixed with greys, jewelled greens, purples and black, helped to push this collection into an androgynous theme, which was further cemented by the strong use of lace and transparency in fabric construction. The collection is also highly technical in the development of domestic machine-lace

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Designers, such as SIBLING and Julien MacDonald, have inspired her to push the boundaries of knit and crochet within menswear and dare to be different.

Techniques used/machines All lace work has been produced by hand and on the Brother and Silver Read domestic knitting machines. Power-knit jacquards have been developed on the Shima Seiki machine. Crochet pieces (Amanda Whirl) were embroidered together, connected to knit and trapped between plastic, bringing another material quality into the collection.

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6.36 Androgynous menswear from Kendall Baker’s graduation collection. Yellow lace knit and crochet techniques with transparent plastic layer.

6.37 Oversized garments from Kendall Baker’s graduate collection. Purple lace knit and crochet techniques with oversized yellow crochet bag.

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6.38–6.39 Kendall Baker’s display artwork, exploring colour palette and design proportion through cut work and mark-making techniques.

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Designer case study Carlo Volpi Carlo Volpi is a graduate with an MA in knit design at the Royal College of Art, England. He now designs for his own fashion label.

Carlo Volpi’s website says: Carlo has had a life long affair with knitting. Born in a small town near Florence, he grew up amongst cones of yarn and knitting machines: both of his grandmothers worked for a very small knit factory in the village and from them he inherited the passion for his craft. After completing his BA in Textiles at Goldsmiths College and a few years later his MA at The Royal College of Art, Carlo was selected as one of the 12 Texprint finalists and was awarded one of their prestigious prizes at Premiere Vision in Paris. A genuine passion for all things hand crafted and new innovative technologies, Carlo regularly collaborates as a consultant for various brands and the Research Area at Pitti Filati, developing fabrics and garments for their shows in Florence twice a year. In 2014 Carlo founded his eponymous label: the same year he received an award sponsored by the Haberdashers’ and Framework Knitters companies that enabled him to set up a studio at Cockpit Arts. In 2015 Carlo was selected by Sara Maino, senior editor of Vogue Italia, to show his collection during Milan Fashion Week. . . Carlo’s work is characterised by a vibrant clash of colours and an eclectic mix of stitches and textures. Traditional hand crafted techniques are reinvented,

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updated and joyfully mixed with the latest fashion manufacturing technologies, creating exclusive and limited pieces. All of his work is produced in Italy.

Concept/inspiration/design methodology His collection for S/S17 is an explosion of colour and oversized sweaters. The collection, called Domestic Queen, takes its name from the figure of the housewife of the 1950s, a woman often defined by narrowing stereotypes dictated by men. These elements, like cooking, cleaning and doing the washing, become the source of inspiration for innovative intarsia motifs realized with thermal welding technologies by Bond Factory. The atomic bomb that concluded World War II was also a significant moment that shocked the world but that enabled society to rebuild peace and economic stability a few years later. This idea of explosion (the atomic bomb but also the economic boom) is central to the collection: Lichtenstein’s paintings, which were a great source of inspiration, are translated into knitted garments that portray explosions with intarsia patterns. Colour, geometry and stitches are also trademarks of Carlo Volpi: the vivid colours of Pop Art and adverts from the 50s and the 60s become the inspiration for subtle stripes and knitted structures.

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Techniques used/machines Volpi has pushed the boundaries of knitwear, updating traditional techniques with advanced manufacturing technology, but he has a love of the domestic knitting machine. His designs come about through the tactile, hands-on methodology

of making. He enjoys pushing the boundaries with domestic knit techniques, from striping, punch-card patterning, lace and ladders, partial knit, and weave to name a few.

6.40–6.43 Carlo Volpi displays a graphic, colourful, Pop Art– inspired collection with subtle stripes and knitted structures.

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BLOCK PATTERNS FOR MENSWEAR

Block patterns for menswear The flat, basic-block pattern is first drafted to fit a standard-size figure. The block is then used by designers as a foundation for new styles and a number of design adaptions can be made to this block, without affecting the original size and fit. As with the women’s basic blocks, seen in Chapter 4, different types of garments require specific basic blocks, so for example, the easy fitting block or the over-garment block, which both have more ease than a basic, fitted T-shirt block, are more suitable for oversized jumpers, jackets or coat designs and can be adapted to have an even easier fit. See how to make an easy fitting block with dropped shoulders on page 181.

Patterns for knit After the block has been developed into a designed pattern, for example, the required adjustments made to the length, width and neck style, the knitting pattern can be calculated. The pattern contains the number of stitches and rows in each section, calculated by taking all the horizontal and vertical measurements in the pattern, as well as using the knitted tension swatch. A jersey fabric toile can be made of the silhouette to check the proportions of the design, however, the knitted pieces are likely to vary from the toile pieces and will need to be adjusted, usually through trial and error, until a perfect fit is achieved. See how to make a knitting pattern for the easy fitting block with dropped shoulders on page 181.

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Creating a knitting pattern The example draft shown, is for a simple, easy fitting, dropped shoulder block with a V-shaped neckline. This block can easily be turned into a flat kimono shape if required. Ribbed bands, such as hems, cuffs and neck bands, must be able to stretch and fit close to the body. To calculate the number of stitches needed to make the rib, calculate the width of the part of garment it is being attached to. When the rib is knitted onto this edge, it will automatically pull in the fabric to fit close to the body. Stretch will differ in each knitted piece, depending on the yarn, tension and knitting technique used. The starting point is the tension swatch. Knit a number of tension swatches until you have achieved the desired look and feel of the fabric. A swatch should be made for each yarn and pattern technique used. Sketch the garment to help you calculate the knitting pattern; this drawing need not be to scale, but it should give all width and length measurements. An extra 5 centimetres (2 in) is usually added in the width of a standard fitting garment in order to allow for ease, more ease has been added to the easy fitting, dropped shoulder block to create an oversized silhouette.

Measurements Whenever possible, take the actual body measurements of the person you are knitting for, unless you are making garments to a standard size. The following measurements are required for constructing a basic e-block. (The example measurements are given is to fit a standard size 100 cm chest.)

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Taking measurements form existing garments can assist your design choice measurements, such as length and width on an oversized garment. ●●

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Chest: measure around the fullest part of the chest (standard size: 100 cm; measurement used for example easy fitting block: 124 cm; 1/4 chest measurement: 31 cm). Back neck to waist: measure from the bone at the back of the neck to the natural waistline. Extra length can be added as desired (standard size: 44 cm; measurement used for example easy fitting block: 46.5 cm).

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Length of garment: Designers choice (measurement used for easy fitting block: 80 cm). Half back width: measure across the back from the point of underarm to underarm and then half this measurement (standard size: 25 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block: 31 cm). Armhole depth: measure from the shoulder point to the underarm point at the side seam. This measurement can vary depending on the desired length (standard size: 25 cm; measurement for easy fitting block size: 29 cm). Neck size: measure around the base of the neck (standard size: 40 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block: 40 cm). Back neck width: measure from shoulder seam to shoulder seam at back neck points (standard size: 18 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block: 18 cm; 1/2 back neck width measurement: 9 cm).

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Front neck measurement: measure around the base of the neck from shoulder seam to shoulder seam at front neck points (standard size: 22 cm; measurement used for V-shaped neck is a design choice). Front neck drop: measure from centre-front neck point, in a straight line to a point on the centre-front body (standard: approximately 23 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block: 23 cm; measurement when applied to the construction of the block: 29 cm). Shoulder seam: measure from the base of neck to the shoulder point (standard size: 17.5 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block with dropped shoulder: 22.5 cm). This measurement will be affected by the width of the block and can vary depending on desired length. Sleeve overarm length: measure from the shoulder point to the wrist, over a slightly bent arm (standard size: 60 cm; measurement used for easy fitting, dropped shoulder block size: 55 cm). Closed wrist measurement: measure around the wrist, making sure the wrist measurement allows for stretch over a clenched fist (standard size: 18 cm; measurement used for easy fitting block size: 28 cm). A ribbed cuff can be added to the wrist, to bring it in closer to the body.

Note: the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in.

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PATTERN CONSTRUCTION FOR EASY FITTING DROPPED SHOULDER BLOCK WITH V-NECK SHAPE

Pattern construction for easy fitting dropped shoulder block with V-neck shape Draft an easy fitting, dropped shoulder block from the measurements on page 180. You can add more ease in the chest and armhole depth as required. To create a closer-fitting block with higher armhole, reduce the chest measurement and the armhole depth by around 2 to 3 centimetres. The length of the body and sleeve can also be varied. Front and back bodice 1. 1–2 Fold pattern-cutting paper in half. From the fold line, square across 1/4 of the chest measurement (example: 31 cm). 2. 2–3 Square down the finished garment length (example: 80 cm) and form a rectangle of 1/4 chest width x garment length measurements. 3. 1–4 Measure across the 1/2 back neck width (example: 9 cm). Square down 2.5 cm, then square across to meet the fold line. Draw in back neck curve, as seen in illustration, as dotted line. 4. 5–6 Measure the front neck drop, from the back neck drop, along the centre-front fold line (example: 29 cm). 5. 4–6 draw a diagonal line from the beginning of the shoulder point to the front neck drop measurement. This forms the V-neck shape, as seen in illustration as dotted line. 6. 2–7 Measure down 4.5 cm, from the shoulder edge. Join with a straight line to the neck point, to form the

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shoulder slope, as seen in illustration as dotted line. 7. 7–8 Measure the armhole depth (example: 29 cm) and square across to meet the fold line, as seen in illustration as dotted line. 8. Add rib-depth line to the block pattern, if required (depending on design). 9. Trace off block with front neckline to achieve two separate pattern pieces: the half front and the half back body. (Designs can be developed on half body blocks and then mirror imaged.) 10. Unfold pattern-cutting paper to construct full body block pattern, if an asymmetric design is required. Sleeve for dropped shoulder 1. 1–2 Fold pattern-cutting paper in half. From the fold line, square across 1/2 sleeve width measurement (example: taken from armhole depth measurement: 29 cm). 2. 2–3 Square down to finished sleevelength measurement (example: 55 cm) and form a rectangle of 1/2 sleeve width x sleeve-length measurements. 3. 4–5 Measure across the cuff width (example: 15 cm). 4. 5–6 Square up approximately 4 centimetres and then square across to centre fold line, to add rib/ cuff depth line to block pattern, if required (depending on design). This can be any measurement you choose, depending on the design. Consideration of wrist measurement will be taken into account.

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5. 5–2 From the bottom of the cuff width, draw a diagonal line to touch the sleeve width and form the underarm measurement. (The sleeve-length measurements can be checked at this stage; remember that the dropped shoulder affects the measurement of the sleeve length.)

6. This gives you half the sleeve. The other half is mirrored from the centre sleeve-length line. 7. Once the bodice and sleeve blocks have been drafted, a 1 centimetre seam allowance can be added to all outside edges. Make a stretch jersey toile to check size and proportions.

Back Pattern

Front Pattern

Centre back

Centre front

Pattern pieces required for a V neck block with a drop shoulder

Sleeve Pattern

Fold for centre

Cut straight

6.44 Simple pattern guide showing pattern pieces required for basic body block with dropped shoulder.

4

1

5

6

3

Centre fold line

6.45 Simple pattern guide for basic easy fitting body block with dropped shoulder.

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2

3

Arm hole

8

Hem line

7

underarm line

2

1

6

Centre fold line

5

4

6.46 Simple pattern guide for basic sleeve block to go with easy fitting body block with dropped shoulder.

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KNITTING PATTERN FOR EASY FITTING DROPPED SHOULDER BLOCK WITH SLEEVES

Knitting pattern for easy fitting dropped shoulder block with sleeves The next stage is to work out the knitting pattern using the tension square measurements. Please refer to the example knitting pattern for basic block on pages 112 to 114. This simple block pattern is intended to illustrate the general principle of calculating a knitting pattern; the shape is just a starting point, and measurements can be altered to suit individual designs. This example uses a tension measurement of 3 stitches and 4 rows to 1 centimetre; so, with this tension measurement, the easy fitting dropped shoulder block would require you to cast on 186 stiches for each of the front and back body pattern pieces. The sleeve would require you to cast on 75 stitches for each sleeve, starting at the cuff edge and then increasing stitches evenly over the 220 rows in the length of the sleeve to gain the required amount of 87 stitches at the armhole. (Increase one stitch approximately every 18 rows.) Note: all the measurements here are in metric. To convert to imperial, 1 cm = 0.39 in. Tip Calculation of stitches and rows (As referred to on page 115.) Calculating stitches and rows is very important for making up a garment; you will often need to shape diagonal or slanting style lines, such as for necklines, shoulders, armholes and sleeves. All shaped pieces are basically calculated in the same way: divide the number of stitches that need to be decreased by the number of rows you need to knit them in; this will give you the number of rows to be knitted between each decrease action.

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Tip Reminder note: neckline shaping (As referred to on page 117) Most necklines are worked in a similar way, often part-working in the middle and then knitting both sides separately according to shape (for example, as with a square neckline shape); while working on one side, the other side is put on hold. Alternatively, waste yarn can be knitted onto the side that is not being shaped first; this takes the knitting off the machine for a while and can be useful when working in particularly fine yarns, as it avoids the carriage having to go many times over the held needles. The V-neck is knitted in this way, working on one side at a time, decreasing the required number of stitches until reaching the neck point. For a round neckline, you will need to check that the overall measurement is correct; if not, the shape will need to be adjusted to fit. The back neck can often be knitted straight, but for finer knitting it is better to have a slight curve. A variety of collar designs are suitable to be attached (see collars and neckbands on page 124). When knitting a V-neck, you will need to bring out half of the needles on the opposite side to the carriage into holding position, so they do not knit. Shape the V by bringing the required number of needles into hold every alternate row (or according to the pattern calculations). Continue in this way until only the required number of stitches for the shoulder is left in working position. After completing one side and casting off the shoulder, the other side can be worked.

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Tip Reminder note: shoulder shaping (As referred to on page 118.) Shoulders are shaped by putting needles into holding position on alternate rows, from the armhole edge on the opposite side to the carriage. To calculate the shoulder slant, draw a horizontal line on the paper pattern, from the outside lower shoulder point, inwards, towards the neck; then draw a vertical line up from here to touch the neck edge. The vertical line will give you the measurement for the height of the slant and the number of rows that need to be knitted. The horizontal line will give you the length of the shoulder and the number of stitches that need to be put on hold. Divide the number of rows into the number of stitches to calculate the number of needles to be held on alternate rows. When the shaping is complete, the holding needles are put back into working position with a transfer tool. One row can be knitted before casting off. (If the seam is to be grafted later, you will need to knit off with waste yarn.) A dropped shoulder design often requires no shaping and can be knitted straight. Often the neck and shoulder lines are knitted all in one with the back. If a slash neckline is required, the front neckline can also be knitted in one with the shoulder line.

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Pattern construction for sleeve development The easy fitting dropped shoulder block has a versatile silhouette and lends itself well to a variety of developments, such as bomber jackets, workwear-inspired designs, smock shapes and coats. This block translates easily into the batwing sleeve block, which then opens up further garment design possibilities. (For more androgynous styles, see batwing sleeve illustration for a sample construction.) 1. Trace around the easy fitting dropped shoulder body block and sleeve. 2. Place the flat sleeve head against the dropped armhole. 3. Trace around the two pieces to make them one shape. 4. Draw in desired style lines from sleeve wrist to body hem. 5. The cuff width might need to be increased to allow for a separate trim to be attached. 6. Consideration must be given to the pattern width as a long-sleeved batwing could be too wide to knit on the knitting machine. Alternative methods could be to change the direction of the knit.

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B

A C D

6.47 Simple pattern guide for basic batwing block (body with integral sleeve).

Fold of pattern

E

185

Centre front and centre back

PATTERN CONSTRUCTION FOR SLEEVE DEVELOPMENT

6.48 Carlo Volpi, illustration of batwing-sleeve design with block colour detail.

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Conclusion

The aim of this book has been to offer inspiration and insight into the different elements of knitwear design and to introduce you to as many basic machine techniques as possible. I hope that the knitting techniques have inspired you to play with yarns, scale and different sequences. Remember, only a few techniques need to be mastered at the beginning – one technique can be used in numerous ways. The insightful designer interviews within this book have highlighted the broad and diverse opportunities for design within the knit industry. A designer may pursue a career within a large company, as Katherine Mavridis has with Ralph Lauren, or as a designer/ maker in a small business, taking advantage of knit’s unique bespoke factor, as seen in design companies HJK and SIBLING. Some designers work for, or set up, swatch studios, such as Sophie Steller’s studio, creating knit concepts to be sold to the fashion and interior design industries; others go on to work in trend forecasting, styling or costume design. London-based textile artist and educator, Freddie Robins, has used Shima Seiki knit technology, normally associated with large scale manufacturing, to produce works, therefore merging industrial technology with art. Contrary to popular perceptions, the relationship between knitting and pushing the boundaries of technology is extremely close. The technology behind the industry and contemporary creative knitting practice, is not always visible in outcomes, but it is fundamental to knitting and a source of incredible innovation. Graduates with a good technical expertise may wish to work

as consultants on collaborative research projects, within medical textiles, geo-textiles or architecture. Recently, there has been significant interest in fashion and well-being. Researcher Vikki Haffenden, from the University of Brighton, for example, has applied knit technology to large-size women’s body shapes; with the use of three-dimensional body scans and specialist software, she has developed better-fit knitwear for the larger lady ‘Knit to Fit’. In 2004, researchers Tilak Dias and Will Hurley, from Nottingham Trent University, developed a three-dimensionally knitted upper for Nike Flyknit shoe concept. ‘Scan to Knit’ technology, also developed by Tilak Dias, enables precision fit and correct graduated pressures for compression garments. His latest research is exploring the potential of knitted conductive fabrics for communication systems. All of these developments place knitting at the forefront of technical innovation unlimited by traditional concepts of fashion. The career opportunities are hugely varied, so take time to consider the ways in which you can take your knitwear design when you finish your course. It is hoped that the contents of this book will encourage you to become more curious about different aspects of knit and to start your own investigations. Remember to learn the basics first and then start experimenting. Hopefully this book will help you feel confident in making your own patterns and further your interests in knitted textiles and fashion.

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Glossary

Acetate  Semisynthetic yarn made from cellulose pulp and acetic acid. Acrylic  Synthetic version of wool, developed by DuPont in the 1940s. Agent  Person authorised to act on your behalf to sell your garments. Alpaca  Soft, fine hair from the alpaca goat. Angora  Fine, light hair combed from the angora rabbit. Appliqué  Fabric, beads or stitches sewn on to a fabric/knit as embellishment. Aran  A textured knit that incorporates cables; it is made using transfer tools. Asymmetrical  A garment that has two different sides. Beaded knitting  The beads are threaded on to the yarn; they can then be knitted into the work using the knit weave method. Bind off  The technique of finishing and taking the knit off the machine (cast off). Block  Primary pattern used as the starting point for garment patterns. Bodice  The upper body of a garment. Bouclé  Fancy yarn containing loops. Brief  Set of instructions directed at a designer to outline project aims, objectives and final outcomes. Cable stitch  The crossings of groups of stitches, repeated at intervals in the same wales (ornamental twisting of wales). Cam  Part of the mechanics found under the carriage of a knitting machine; when put in position, these determine the needle movement and therefore the stitch effect. Carriage  The principal part of a knitting machine, the carriage carries the cams across the bed. Cashmere  Hair from the fine, soft undercoat of the cashmere goat; a luxury yarn. Cast on  Various ways of initiating stitches on empty needles. Chainette  Fancy yarn consisting of chainlooped stitches or a tube of stitches. Chart  A knitted pattern plotted on graph paper. Chenille  Fancy yarn with a velvet-like texture.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD)  The use of computers in fashion and knitwear design. Conceptual  A design vision based on ideas and principles. Cone  Support for yarn. Cord  Small tube of knitting. Cottage industry  The garments are usually produced in the home of the maker. Cotton  Fibre from the cotton plant. Versatile and soft. Crepe  Yarn or fabric with a crinkled texture, often with an element of stretch. Dart  Shaped area of knit, tapered at one end or both ends to enable a better fit. Decrease  Way of reducing the width of fabric by knitting two or more stitches together. Design swatch  Finished design for sale through an agent. Double bed  Knitting machines that have two beds, hence two rows of needles facing each other. Double jersey  Plain, double-faced, reversible knit, made on a double-bed machine. Ideal for jackets and heavier garments. Drape  The way a fabric hangs. Embellishment  Decoration stitched or appliquéd onto a fabric/knit. Embroidery  Decorative stitches sewn onto knit as an embellishment. Eyelet  A hole formed by transferring a stitch and leaving the empty needle in action, so that it casts on in the next row knitted (one of the basic techniques for lace knitting). Face/right side  The most interesting side of a fabric/knit. Fair Isle  A single jersey knit with small patterns using two colours at a time; creates floats at the back of the fabric. Fashion forecasting  The process of predicting forthcoming trends. Felt  A thick fabric made from wool. The fibres are matted and fused together during a process involving water and heat. There is no grain to these fabrics, and they are ideal for cutting as they do not unravel. Float  Threads that pass the needles and are not knitted in.

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Fully fashioned  The shaping of a knitwear garment so each edge has a wale travelling along the line of the selvedge. Garter stitch  Alternate rows of knit and purl. Gauge  The number of needles in one inch of the bed. The resulting fabric is knitted in a certain gauge, depending on the size of the machine. Gimp  Fancy yarn with a wavy structure. Grafting  A sewing technique that creates an invisible join. Guernsey/gansey  A traditional fisherman’s jumper. Hank/skein  Quantity of yarn that has not been wound onto a cone. Haute couture  Exclusive garments individually designed for private clients. High end  Expensive garments, below haute couture, usually produced in limited numbers. Holding stitches  Stitches that are held on non-knitting needles over a series of courses when other needles are knitting. Increase  Methods for increasing the width of the knit by adding new stitches. Inlay technique for holding an inlay yarn in place between or over the needles; it is then woven in when knitted. Intarsia  A method of knitting single, nonrepeating motifs or large areas of contrasting colour. A more timeconsuming technique than Fair Isle and jacquard. Jacquard  A double jersey knit using a punch card or electronic machine to create a pattern. This technique allows the floats to be knitted in at the back. Knit pattern  Instructions for knitting up a garment; it will indicate how many stitches and rows to knit for each section of the silhouette, as well as the gauge, yarn and stitch types to use. Knitted lace  A single jersey fabric with eyelet hole patterns; made with a lace carriage or by hand-tooling techniques. Knit weave  This involves placing a thick yarn across a fine one while it is knitted.

The thick yarn is then knitted in with the fine knitting, giving one side of the work a woven appearance. Knop  Fancy yarn with small lumps along its length. Lace  Fabric with transparent and opaque areas, which can be made using a lace carriage or transfer tools. Ladders  Technique in which stitches are dropped and left to unravel; this can be achieved accidentally or by design. Lambswool  A 100 per cent virgin wool. Latch up  The use of a latch tool to reform dropped stitches or to pick up floats of a ladder. Linen  Fibre from the flax plant. Lurex  Fancy yarn made from laminate or plasticized metal. Lycra  Synthetic elastic fibre, developed by DuPont. Market  The business or trade of a particular type of product. Marl/twist yarn  Yarn made from two or more yarns twisted together. Mass-market fashion  Ready-to-wear clothes produced in large quantities and standard sizes. Merino  High-quality wool from the merino sheep. Mohair  Yarn made from the hair of the angora goat. Moss stitch technique of single plain and purl stitches that alternate both vertically and horizontally. Niche  Specialized product group targeting a specific area of the market. Nylon  Synthetic, polyamide yarn. Partial row knitting (holding technique)  Working with part of a row at one time. Over a series of rows, the knitter can decrease the number of stitches to create a three-dimensional texture or shaped blocks of colour. Pattern pieces  Paper templates used to inform the silhouette of a garment; these shapes can be the starting points for creating knit patterns (see Knit pattern).

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Picot hem  A lace-patterned hem made with eyelet holes. Plating  The knitting of two yarns simultaneously; when knitting a single jersey, one yarn is visible on the face and the other on the reverse; when knitting a double jersey the second yarn is hidden in the centre of the knit and is only revealed when stitches are taken out of action to show the interior. Racking  Technique used when knitting on two beds; one needle bed can be moved, so that it is not lined up with the other, crossing stitches over each other in a lateral direction. Rayon  Regenerated cellulose yarn made from wood pulp. Rib  Wales of plain and purl stitches forming a stretchy fabric. Ideal for trims on garments at the waist, neck or wrists. Row count  The number of passes of the carriage as counted by the row counter on the machine. Sample swatch  First versions of a design to trial technique and colour. Selvedge  Closed side edges of the knit. Short row  Technique for changing direction of knitting before the end of a row. Silhouette  The outline shape of a garment or collection. Single jersey  A lightweight fabric made on a single-bed machine. Ideal for T-shirts and lingerie. Sinker gate  A row of pins along the front of the needle bed. Stand  A dress-making mannequin or dummy; also known as form. Stitch  A single loop of yarn within the knit. Target market  The group of customers that a retailer aims to sell to.

Tension swatch  A knitted swatch used to calculate stitches and rows for knitting final designs. Toile  First version of a garment in cheap fabric. Transfer stitch  Moving a stitch loop to a nearby needle. Tuck stitch  The yarn is collected and held on a needle without being knitted in. Wale  Column of knit stitches. Warp knitting  Consisting of vertical chains of loops, these loops connect with each other across the entire width of the knit. Ideal for summer wear, sportswear and lingerie. Waste knitting  Knitting worked with waste or scrap yarn; when casting on it provides an area of knit to hang weights on and can act as a stitch holder for knitting that needs to be put back onto the needles. Weft knitting  Consisting of a succession of loops repeated across the width of the knitting, one row of loops connects with the next row of loops, forming a length of knit. Woollen-spun yarn  Yarn that is soft, bulky and light, which has been spun from fibres that have been carded but not combed. Does not necessarily have to contain wool. Worsted  Tightly spun, smooth wool yarn. The fibres are combed parallel, which makes the yarn smooth and strong. Yarn count  Information on the thickness of yarn, in relation to the length and weight. There are a number of systems: in the metric system, the finer the yarn, the higher the number; for example, 2/32s is finer than 2/28s.

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Reading basic symbols Symbols and charts are the easiest way to explain step-by-step instructions for a knitting technique. Simple machine-knitting charts are usually written to show the reverse face side of the fabric, as the knitter would see it hanging off the machine. More complex, fashioned charts may be written to be read from the front and will not have the purl symbols. This is because in fashioned work it is necessary to indicate the final sloping direction of the stitches.

Tuck stitch. Alternating pattern produced by tucking every other needle. This pattern can be knitted by selecting the tucking cams on the carriage or by using holding position to accumulate tucks.

A diagram will illustrate the needle set-up, and it should indicate which stitches to move, which direction to move them in and how many stitches to transfer in one move. It will also indicate how many rows to knit. The symbols shown here are for simple charts. Slip stitch. This shows on the purl side of the fabric; it can be formed by selecting slip stitch on the carriage or can be formed manually.

Lifted stitch. An arrow indicates where to lift and hang a stitch. The base of the arrow shows the stitch being lifted, and the point of the arrow shows the needle and row on which the stitch is being hung.

Purl or reverse stitch. When work is hung on the machine, this is the side that faces the knitter.

Holding position. This sample shows needles 2 and 4 being held. Tuck stitches are formed over rows 2, 3 and 4.

Holding position. Needles are held to form short rows. The holding needles are gradually increased with each row.

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Useful resources Yarn counts Yarn counts are systems that indicate the thickness and relative weight of yarn. These systems can provide a way of working out the length of yarn needed. A traditional system uses two figures, such as 2/6s (pronounced two sixes). The first figure relates to how many single ply/strands make up the yarn. The second figure points to the weight of each single strand. In most traditional systems, it refers to the number of hanks to the pound of yarn. The higher the number of hanks to the pound, the thinner the yarn is likely to be. In order to work out the length and weight of yarn required, you would first need to know the standard length of yarn in a hank. This will vary, depending on the type of yarn. For cotton, the standard length is 840 yards. For worsted wool it is 560 yards. If, for example, you wanted to use a worsted wool yarn at 560 yards per hank, which is

labelled 2/6s, you would first multiply 560 by the number of hanks (6) and divide by the ply number (2). Two-ply worsted wool would have 1680 yards to a pound in weight. Coned yarns tend to be sold in multiples of 500g (approximately one pound); knowing the length of yarn on the cone can give you an indication of the thickness of yarn. The metric system uses the same hank length of 1000 metres for all fibres and is concerned with the number of hanks to a kilogram in weight. Other systems include the Denier system, used for man-made filament yarns, and the International Tex system, both of which are based on units of weight by grams. This is a good resource for learning about yarn counts: www.offtree.co.uk/converter/ index.html.

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Index

A acetate, 10, 187 acid dyes, 13 acrylic, 11, 187 agent, 83, 187 alpaca, 7, 158, 187 androgyny, 150–51, 174–75, 184 angora, 10, 187 appliqué, 143, 187 Aran knitwear, 2, 4, 5, 150, 187 argyle-patterned hose, 6 armhole shaping, 118, 119 asymmetrical, 99, 108, 168, 187 B Backlund, Sandra, 1 backstitch, 141, 146 bag designs, 77 Baker, Kendall, 4, 151, 174–76 Bartys, Sam, 12, 117 beaded knitting, 187 beading, 122, 123, 146–47 bed of machine, 17 binding off, 60, 62–63, 187 blend yarn, 12 block patterns, 105, 114–15, 179, 187 blocking, 140 bodice block, 105, 106, 113, 181, 187 Bolan, Mark, 150 bouclé, 32, 74, 187 Bowery, Leigh, 35 Bowie, David, 150, 151 boyfriend jumper, 150 Braille, 36, 38–39 brief, 30, 31–32, 187 British Standards Institution, 105 Brother machines, 19 Brown, Catherine, 6, 66 Bryan, Sid, 152 Butcher Couture, 91 buttonhole stitch, 137–39 buttonholes, 137–38 buttons, 82, 137, 139 Byrne, Pa, 72, 151, 158–61 C cable stitch, 4, 79, 187 CAD patterning, 57, 80, 81 cam, 18, 82, 92, 187, 190 cam levers, 62, 71–72, 76, 86, 93, 97–98, 100–101, 129, 131–32, 138

Carpenter, Ruth, 74 carriage, 18, 187, 190 cashmere, 10, 28, 187 casting off, 60, 62–63 casting on, 60, 61, 187 chainette, 187 Chalayan, Hussein, 91 Channel Islands, 3 chart, 187, 190 chenille, 187 closed-edge cast-on, 61 collar, 122, 123, 124–27 colour, 44, 45–46, 47 Computer-Aided Design (CAD), 19, 57, 64–65, 80–81, 86, 187 concepts, 35–37, 158, 162, 165, 169, 171, 174, 177 conceptual, 24, 38–40, 52, 187 cone, 12, 13, 177, 187 Coop, Abigail, 149 cord, 15, 22, 48, 61, 102–4, 137, 187 cottage industry, 5, 187 cotton, 10, 187 crepe, 187 D Dalby, Jennifer, 8 darts, 100, 101, 187 design development, 23, 29, 41–44 design methodology, 158, 162, 165, 169, 171, 174, 177 design process, 48–49 design swatch, 187. See also swatches design workshop, 31–32, 35, 43, 47, 53, 65, 68, 72–73, 76, 79, 82, 88, 93–94, 97, 100, 101, 108, 111, 113, 116, 119, 121, 127–29, 131–32, 137–39, 141–42 DesignaKnit, 19, 52, 86 designer case study Baker, Kendall, 174–76 Byrne, Pa, 158–61 Draper, Matilda, 171–73 Hammond, Latasha, 169–70 McKernan, Ben, 165–68 Nisbett, Ella, 162–64 Volpi, Carlo, 177–78 Dias, Tilak, 186 domestic knit machine, 57

double-bed machines, 17, 18, 19, 22, 64, 66, 68, 74, 99, 126–29, 187 double jersey, 80, 187 drape, 49, 105–10, 187 Draper, Matilda, designer case study, 171–73 drawings, 51–52 dropped stitches, 64 dyeing yarns, 13 Dyer, Amy, 87 Dylon dyes, 13 E Edelkoort, Li, 55 electronic machines, 19, 20, 86 ‘Elizabeth’ dress, 90 embellishment, 32, 122, 123, 143–47, 169–70, 187 embroidery, 144–45, 187 eyelet, 21, 67–69, 99, 128, 187 F Fair Isle, 5, 7, 14, 73, 80, 81, 187 Farrow, Linda, 157 fashion forecasting, 187 Fast, Mark, 67 fastenings, 137–38 felt, 36, 38–40, 72, 78, 96, 125, 143, 158, 172–73, 187 feng shui, 44 fibres, 7 Fierro-Castro, Zuzana, 145 flared shapes, 96–98 float, 64, 67, 70–71, 73, 76, 80, 88, 132, 187 Foster, L. Glaiser, 123 Fox, Shelley, 36, 37, 38–40, 96 frilled collar, 126, 127 fringed trim, 132 fringing, 76 fully fashioned, 64, 98–99, 101–3, 118, 143, 165–66, 188 G ganseys, 3 garter stitch, 7, 22, 188 gauge, 17–21, 188 Gaydon, Jessica, 14 gimp, 188 grafting, 142–43, 188 granderelle yarn, 12 Green, Cassie, 147

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Gruber, Anna Maria, 109 guernseys, 2, 3, 150, 188 H Haffenden, Vikki, 186 hair, 10 Hammond, Latasha, designer case study, 169–70 hand-finishing techniques, 140–42 hand-knitting, 1–3, 22–23, 150, 158, 165 hand-operated machines, 20, 86, 141 hank/skein, 188 Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, 135, 186 haute couture, 188 hemming stitch, 142 hems, 128–31 high end, 40, 188 Hill, Victoria, 11, 95 holding techniques, 92–94, 100, 188, 190 holes sweater, 39 horizontal darts, 101 Hoyle, Alice, 41, 42, 44 Hurley, Will, 186 I industrial hand-flat machine, 57 industrial machines, 20, 86–87 inlay, 74–76 inspiration, 158, 162, 165, 169, 171, 174, 177 intarsia, 80, 88–89, 188 interviews Fox, Shelley, 38–40 Jenkinson, Hannah, 134–36 McCreery, Cozette, 152–54 Mavridis, Katherine, 102–4 Robins, Freddie, 24–26 Steller, Sophie, 83–85 J jacquard knitwear, 80–81, 85–86, 156–58, 163, 166, 170–74, 188 Jenkinson, Hannah, 123, 128, 130, 134–36, 145 jersey toiles, 105, 106, 109, 110, 179 jerseys, 3, 49, 106

K Kenzo, 79 Knitmaster machine, 18, 19, 62, 82 knitted lace. See lace knitted samples. See samples knitting basic techniques, 60–66 binding off, 60, 62–63 brief history of, 2–3 casting off, 60, 62–63 casting on, 60, 61 construction of, 15 jerseys and guernseys, 3 measurements, 52, 58–60, 108, 111, 113–15, 179–84 needle positions, 62 pattern creation, 111–21, 179–80, 183–85, 188 reinventing traditional, 2 knitting machines, 15, 17–20, 23 stitch formation, 16 tools for, 21–22 Knitting Madonna, Master Bertram of Minden, 2 L lace, 7, 67–69, 151, 174–75, 178, 188 ladders, 68–69, 70, 107, 188 latch tools, 16, 21, 188 Lawlor, Derek, 48 Lee, Rev. William, 2, 23 lifting stitches, 76, 79, 190 linen, 10, 188 linkers, 22, 141 looped trim, 132 Lurex, 11, 188 Lycra yarns, 28, 188 M machines, designers, 158, 163, 166, 170, 172, 174, 178 Malkovich, John, 152 McCreery, Cozette, 149, 152–54 McKernan, Ben, 165–68 McQueen, Alexander, 4, 29, 35, 36, 80, 153 man-made yarns, 10–11 mannequin, 106–10 market research, 35, 188 marl yarn, 12, 188 mass-market fashion, 188 mattress stitch, 140, 141 Mavridis, Katherine, ix, 102–4, 186

measurements, 52, 58–60, 108, 111, 113–15, 179–84 merino, 10, 163, 166, 172, 188 Missoni, Margherita, ix, 133 Miyake, Issey, 23 mohair, 10, 32, 74, 150, 188 Monroe, Marilyn, 150 mood boards, 30, 32, 41 Mylar sheets, 19, 21, 64–65, 71, 73, 80, 81, 86 N natural yarns, 9–10 neckbands, 124, 125 necklines, 107, 117, 183 needles, 18, 21, 62 nepp yarn, 12 niche, 188 Nike, 117, 165, 186 Nisbett, Ella, designer case study, 162–64 nylon, 11, 28, 188 O open-edge cast-on, 61 Osborne, Natalie, 92, 96 P partial knitting, 92–95, 99, 188 pattern grids, 81 pattern pieces, 44, 46, 49, 113, 181–83, 188 patterned knits, 80–81 picot edge, 128, 129, 146, 189 pile loops, 74, 76 Pilpenka, Natalia, 107, 124, 125 Pitti Filati fair, 46 plating technique, 74, 86, 189 plying yarns, 8 pockets, 133 polyester, 11, 141, 166 power-knit machine, 57 Première Vision, 46 presentation, 50–52 pressing, 140 primary sources research, 35 punch cards, 21, 71, 73, 74, 80–81, 82 purl stitch, 70, 71, 73, 74, 190 R racking, 189 raised pattern, 94

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Ralph Lauren Collections, 102–3, 186 rayon, 10, 189 Rebel Tartan, 66 reforming stitches, 64 research, 33–37 reverse (purl) stitch, 70, 71, 73, 74, 190 rib, 17–18, 20, 64, 86, 111, 124–26, 128–30, 133, 140, 166, 174, 179, 181, 189 Robins, Freddie, 24–26, 27, 186 Rodarte, 69 rouleau loops, 138, 139 rows, 117, 183, 189 ruffled collar, 127 S Sad Teddy, 155 samples, 42–43, 50–51, 189 Savage, Orla, 14 scalloped hem, 131 Scare Isle Knit Monster, 54, 55 Scopes, Annabel, 52, 58, 140 sculptural form, 46–49, 102 seams, 140 self-evaluation, 52 selvedge, 189 set-in sleeves, 112, 114, 118 sewing machines, 141 Shailes, Simone, 137 Shao Yen Chen, 28, 29 shaping, 46, 47, 96–98, 105–10, 117–19, 181–84 Shima Seiki machines, 20, 23–24, 27, 84–87, 134, 158, 165–66, 174, 186 short row, 92–93, 189, 190 Shuvalon, Talia, 53, 66, 119 SIBLING clothing brand, 55, 149, 152–54, 156–57, 174, 186 silhouette, 31, 33, 40–42, 49, 52, 86, 92, 110, 150, 179, 189 silk, 3, 7, 9, 10, 77, 143, 144, 163 Silver Reed machine, 19 Simpson, Wallis, 150 single-bed knitting machine, 17, 64, 126, 189 single jersey, 189 sinker gate, 61, 63, 76, 189

Sissons, Juliana, 49, 69, 92, 99, 107, 126 Skarphéðinsdóttir, Björg, 1, 110, 143 sketchbooks, 9, 32, 33, 37, 42, 45, 46, 50–52, 78, 173 sleeve patterns, 112, 114, 118, 120, 121 sleeves, 181–82, 183–85 slip stitch, 73–74, 190 smart textiles, 12 Smith, Justin, 77 Smith, Paul, 149, 150, 171 space dyes, 14 spinning yarn, 8 stands, 189. See also mannequin Steller, Sophie, 81, 83–85, 186 stitch dial, 65 stitch gauge, 18 stitches, 117, 183, 189 embroidery, 144–45 formation, 16 increasing and decreasing, 98–99 Stoll machines, 20, 81, 84–85, 86, 134, 158, 165–66, 170 stripes, 32, 42–43, 45, 65, 66, 168 surface texture, 70–79 cables, 79 lifting stitches, 76, 79 slip stitch, 73–74 tuck stitch, 71–72 weave, 74–76 Swann, Rebecca, 48, 50 Swarovski crystal embellishment, x, 143 swatches, 34, 50–51, 74, 95, 96 colour, 45 Steller, Sophie, 83–85 tension, 56–60 Sykes, Jemma, 90, 91 symbols, 190 T target market, 35, 53, 189 Taylor, Hannah, 5, 89 technical file, 43 techniques, designers, 158, 163, 166, 170, 172, 174, 178 technology development, 23 tension, 17, 59, 60, 65

tension swatch, 56–60, 189 texture, 32, 42–43, 70–79 themes, 35–37 three-dimensional effects, 92–95 toiles, 105, 106, 108–10, 189 tools, 21–22 transfer stitches, 68–69, 72, 99, 158, 189 transfer tools, 21, 62–64, 68, 79, 93, 98, 100, 116, 118, 142, 184 trend forecasting, 46 Tsai, Alison, 7, 9, 75, 78, 122, 123, 126 Tsao Chin Ke, 30, 31, 33, 34, 47, 57 tuck stitch, 43, 64, 66, 70–72, 158, 189, 190 twist yarn, 12, 188 V vegetable dyes, 13 vertical darts, 100 Volpi, Carlo, designer case study, 177–78, 185 volume creation, 49 W wale, 15–16, 98, 189 warp knitting, 15, 189 waste knitting, 142, 143, 189 waste yarn, 142 weave, 57, 74–76 weft knitting, 15, 23, 189 weighted hems, 128 weights for machines, 22 Wells, Rachel, 6 Westwood, Vivienne, 6 wool, 2–4, 7, 10–13, 36, 39, 57, 77, 140, 144, 150, 174 woolen-spun yarn, 189 worsted yarn, 3, 10, 166, 189 Y Yamamoto, Kansai, 150, 151 yarn count, 189, 191 yarns, 7–14 Yates, Charlotte, 45, 51

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Acknowledgements and picture credits

I would like to thank everyone who has supported me during this project, in particular to all the talented designers and to the students who have graduated from Nottingham Trent University, The University of Brighton, London College of Fashion, The Royal College of Art, St Martins College of Art, and Parsons, The New School, New York; your contributions of fantastic design and portfolio work have made this book what it is.

Prelims 0.1  Rebecca Swan

Thank you also to the designers who have kindly contributed to the book with inspirational interviews and amazing images: Freddie Robins, Shelley Fox, Sophie Steller, Katherine Mavridis, Hannah Jenkinson and Cozette McCreery, designer of the former label SIBLING. Special thanks to Carlo Volpi for contributing to the menswear chapter at the last minute.

1.2  Visit of the Angel, Wikipedia/public domain

Thank you to Sandy Black for her continuing support and for the inspiring and insightful words of wisdom in the foreword introduction to the book. I would particularly like to thank Shelley Fox, Donna Karan professor and head of MFA Fashion Design and Society at Parsons, The New School, New York, for her very generous help and support and for introducing me to some very talented designers. A special thank you also to my dear friends Elizabeth Owen and Gina Ferri at Cosprop Ltd costumiers, London, who tirelessly helped source historical knitted garments when I was initially researching styles of knit and trim.

1.8  Photo by Michelle Leung/WireImage/Getty Images

Thank you to Janet Sischgrund at Alexander McQueen for sourcing some beautiful images; thank you to Sarah Hodges at the V&A Museum for her wonderful images of my knitted swatches, and thank you to Jo-Jo Ma for her beautiful images also.

1.21–1.23  Sam Bartys

Of course, a very big thank you to everyone at Bloomsbury, especially to my editor Lucy Tipton for her vital contribution and organization; I would like to thank her again for putting up with my endless requests for more time and for her amazing ability to keep patient. Thank you for a great learning curve.

0.2  Abigail Coop, photography Isabel Woodrow-Young 0.3  Katherine Mavridis, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design Chapter 1 1.1  Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 1.3  Photo by The Print Collector/Print Collector/ Getty Images 1.4  Shetland Museum and Archives 1.5  Kendall Baker 1.6  Photo by Antonio de Moraes Barros Filho/ WireImage 1.7  Hannah Taylor, photograph by Jo-Jo Ma

1.9 to 1.10  © 2016 Catherine Brown all rights reserved 1.11 to 1.12  Rachel Wells 1.13  Shetland Museum and Archives 1.14  Cassandra Verity Green www.cassandra veritygreen.com Photographer: Jarek Kotomski 1.15  Andrew Perris Photography 1.16  Alison Tsai, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Paul Jung 1.17–1.20  Andrew Perris Photography 1.24–1.25  Courtesy of Jo-Jo Ma 1.26–1.27  Andrew Perris 1.28–1.30  Penny Brown 1.31–1.34  Juliana Sissons 1.35–1.48  Andrew Perris 1.49  Photo by Siemoneit/Sygma via Getty Images 1.50  Courtesy of Freddie Robins, photography by Ben Coode-Adams

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Chapter 2 2.1  Shao Yen Chen, photo by Christopher Moore 2.2–2.8  © Tsao Chin Ke 2.9  Shelley Fox, photography by Lon Van Keulen 2.10  Photo by Stephane Cardinale/Corbis via Getty Images

3.19  Juliana Sissons, Andrew Perris Photography 3.20  Photo by Carlo Buscemi/WireImage/Getty Images 3.21  Juliana Sissons, designer in residence, V&A Museum London 3.22  Penny Brown

2.12  Shelley Fox, photography by Chris Moore

3.23–3.24  Dorje De Burgh/Brian Teeling/ forget.rip

2.13–2.18  Alice Hoyle

3.25–3.26  Penny Brown

2.19–2.21  Charlotte Yates

3.27  Andrew Perris Photography

2.22  Photo by Kristy Sparow/Getty Images for Première Vision

3.28–3.29  Penny Brown

2.11  Shelley Fox, photography by Chris Moore

2.23  © Tsao Chin Ke 2.24  Courtesy of Derek Lawlor (www .dereklawlor.com), photography by Squiz Hamilton 2.25–2.26  Rebecca Swann 2.27  Juliana Sissons, photography by Mitchell Sams 2.28–2.30  Rebecca Swann 2.31–2.33  Charlotte Yates, photography Tchad Findlay, model Freya Butler 2.34  Andrew Perris Photography 2.35–2.36  Talia Shuvalov, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design

3.30–3.31  Alison Tsai, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Paul Jung 3.32–3.35  Justin Smith 3.36–3.37  Alison Tsai, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Paul Jung 3.38  Photo by Antonio de Moraes Barros Filho/ WireImage/Getty Images 3.39  Photo by Stephane Cardinale/Corbis via Getty Images 3.40  Andrew Perris Photography 3.41–3.49  Sophie Steller 3.50–3.52  Andrew Perris Photography 3.53–3.55  Courtesy of Jo-Jo Ma

Chapter 3 3.1  Knit monster; Photographer: Thomas Giddings; stylist: Santi Rodriguez; Model: Benoni Loos

Chapter 4 4.1  Jemma Sykes and Butcher Couture

3.2  Andrew Perris

4.3  Penny Brown

3.3–3.6  Tsao Chin Ke

4.4  Andrew Perris Photography

3.7–3.8  Andrew Perris Photography a–f Annabel Scopes

4.5  Penny Brown

3.9–3.11  © 2016 Catherine Brown all rights reserved 3.12–3.14  Talia Shuvalov, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 3.15–3.16  Penny Brown 3.17  Photo by Rob Ball/WireImage/Getty Images 3.18  Penny Brown

4.2  Andrew Perris Photography

4.6–4.9  Andrew Perris Photography 4.10  Courtesy of Shelley Fox, photography by Chris Moore 4.11–4.14  Andrew Perris Photography 4.15–4.16  Penny Brown 4.17  Courtesy of David Wilsdon 4.18  Andrew Perris Photography

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4.19–4.23  Katherine Mavridis, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 4.24–4.26  Andrew Perris Photography 4.27  Natalia Pilpenka, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Monica Feudi/Feudiguaineri.co 4.28  Andrew Perris Photography 4.29  Anna-Marie Grüber 4.30–4.31  Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 4.32–4.34  Andrew Perris Photography 4.35–4.38  Penny Brown 4.39–4.41  Samuel Bartys 4.42  Penny Brown 4.43  Talia Shuvalov, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 4.44–4.45  Penny Brown Chapter 5 5.1  Alison Tsai, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography Paul Jung 5.2  Natalia Pilpenka, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Monica Feudi/Feudiguaineri.co 5.3  Natalia Pilpenka, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Monica Feudi/Feudiguaineri.co 5.4  Natalia Pilpenka, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Monica Feudi/Feudiguaineri.co 5.5  Alison Tsai, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography Paul Jung 5.6  Juliana Sissons, photography by Jo-Jo Ma 5.7  Penny Brown 5.8  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.9  Andrew Perris Photography 5.10  Andrew Perris Photography

5.12  Andrew Perris Photography 5.13  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.14  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.15  John Bright archives at Cosprop Ltd, London, photography by Juliana Sissons 5.16  Penny Brown 5.17  Photo by Vittorio Zunino Celotto/Getty Images 5.18  Photo by Vittorio Zunino Celotto/Getty Images 5.19  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.20–5.22  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design, photography by Monica Feudi 5.23  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.24  Simone Shailes 5.25  John Bright archive at Cosprop Ltd, London, photography by Juliana Sissons 5.26  Penny Brown 5.27–5.28  Andrew Perris Photography 5.29–5.30  Björg Skarphéðinsdóttir, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.31  John Bright archives at Cosprop Ltd, London, photography by Juliana Sissons 5.32–5.34  Andrew Perris Photography 5.35–5.42  Penny Brown 5.43  HJK: Hannah Jenkinson Knitwear, MFA Fashion Design & Society, Parsons School of Design 5.44–5.51  Penny Brown 5.52–5.54  Cassandra Verity Green, www .cassandraveritygreen.com, photography by Jarek Kotomski

5.11  Penny Brown

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Chapter 6 6.1  Abigail Coop, photography by Perry Alexander Gibson 6.2  Photo by Keystone-France/GammaKeystone via Getty Images 6.3  Sad Teddy Aw15 Finale; photographer: Christopher Dadey; stylist: Matthew Josephs; model: Matt Rodwell 6.4  Siblingsquad AW15; photographer: Christopher Dadey; stylist: Matthew Josephs 6.5  Siblingsquad Backstage Aw17; photographer: Portia Hunt; stylist: Judy Blame 6.6  Siblingsquad Backstage Ss17; photographer: Portia Hunt; stylists: Matthew Josephs & Phoebe Arnold 6.7–6.13  Dorje De Burgh/Brian Teeling/forget.rip 6.14–6.18  Ella Nisbett 6.19–6.25  Ben McKernan 6.26–6.29  Latasha Hammond, www.artsthread.com/profile/latashahammond/ 6.30–6.35  Matilda Draper 6.36–6.39  Kendall Baker 6.40–6.43  Carlo Volpi, www.carlovolpi.co.uk 6.48  Carlo Volpi

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