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Khajuraho: The first thousand years
 0670891908, 9780670891900

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Khajuraho The First Thousand Years

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By the same author NON-FICTION

Museums of India Divine Ecstasy: The Story of Khajuraho Great Monuments of India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan & Sri Lanka Khajuraho and its Historic Surroundings Daughters of the Ocean: Discovering the Goddess Within This is India

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CHIIDREN S BOOKS

Listen to the Animals Stories about This and That

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Khajuraho The First Thousand Years Shobita Punja -::7'

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·1 qc�110017, enguin Books India (P) Lid., 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Parle, New Delhi India Penguin Books Lid., 27 Wrights Lane, London W8 STZ, UK Penguin Putnam Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New Yoric, N.Y. 100014 USA Penguin Books Australia Lid., Ringwood, Victoria, Australia Penguin Books Canada Lid., 10 Alcorn Avenue, Suite 300, Toronto, Ontario M4V 3B2,Canada Penguin Books (NZ) Lid., Cnr Rosedale & Airborne Roads, Albany, Auckland, New Zealand First published in Viking as DivineEcstasy: '/be Story ofKbajurabo by Penguin Books India 1992 Revised Edition published in Viking by Penguin Books India 1999

Text copyright e Shobita Punja 1999 Photographs copyright C Kamal Sahai 1999 Plans copyright © Adit Pal I999 Maps copyright C Development Alternatives, New Delhi Layout by Ajay Verma All rights reserved

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Typesening by Eleven Alts, Lawrence Road, Delhi-110035 Printed at Rekha Printers Pvt. Lid., New Delhi-110020 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall llOI, by way of trade or O!herwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or Olherwise circulated without the publisher's prior wrinen consent in any fonn of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, phO!ocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior wrinen permission of both the copyright owners and the above mentioned publisher of this book.

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To Myfriend Kamal

who begins every conversaJion wilh 'Can /tellyou a story?' and My daugbter Samiha

who stillloves a good story

May the laughter of Shiva, while jesting with his beloved wife Parvati, be for your welfare Inscription ofCbandella King Dbangadeva, AD 1002

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Dancing Ganesh

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Contents Preface MYTIIlCAL LANDSCAPE

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Rediscovery of Khajuraho Fascination with Inscriptions 'Wonders of This Place ...' 'Agreeable Novelties ... ' 'A Light Still Bums ... '

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25 47

59 69

THE DMNE MARRIAGE

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Maha-Shivratri Birth of Desire Betrothal of Shiva to Parvati Preparations for the Divine Wedding Arrival of Shiva's Marriage Procession Eager to See the Divine Bridegroom The Night of the Wedding

71 83 97 109

EPILOGUE: THE MAKING OF KHAJURAHO

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13. The Legacy of Khajuraho 14. The Future of Khajuraho's Past

183 201

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143

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Appendix: The Cbandella Genealogical Table Bibliography

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Preface Khajuraho, a village in central India, is today a World Heritage Site with over twenty-five magnificent, tenth-twelfth century temples. Some temples are adorned with hundreds of sensuous sculptures only fe'?' of which are explicitly erotic, and this is why Khajuraho has been the subject of so many books. This little picturesque village in central India is a photographer's paradise and its exquisite architecture and erotic sculpture have been the focus of many academic debates. Since the mid-nineteenth century, when the site was first documented by European scholars, many theories have been advanced to account for the apparent incongruity of religious structures being adorned with sculptures with frankly erotic themes. The sculptures were documented and described as 'indecent', 'offensive' and indicative of 'the depths of decadence that Hindu society had falien to' before the arrival of Islamic and then, British.rulers. Later gener.1tions of scholars took it upon themselves to explain the use of erotic art in Hindu religious architecture by implying that it was part of some esoteric cult or tradition. Some said that the sculptures depicted permissible ritualistic sexual practices, notably of the tantric cult. Others are of the view that at Khajuraho the artists had given visual expression to the teachings and practices propagated in the Kamasutra, the Sanskrit text on the art of love making. It was explained that Indian religious philosophy gave sex, love, and physical pleasure their rightful place in human

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existence. Other theories had it that temples were seats of learning and that Khajuraho provided free 'sex education' to all devotees who visited the temples and admired their sculptures. Such speculations were coupled with arguments suggesting that Indians were highly superstitious and that the erotic sculptures were positioned on the buildings in that manner to protect them against lightning and earthquakes. More scholarly works followed in the twentieth century when art historians attempted to describe the symbolic significance of some of the erotic sculptures. These theories too, like the earlier ones, tended to explain only the erotic element. This is interesting as the erotic figures form only a small part of the entire sculptural scheme of the temple decoration at Khajuraho. In 1990 I was reading a translation of the Shiva Purana and, quite by accident, opened the book to a glorious poetic passage narrating Shiva's marriage to Parvati. My spontaneous reaction was to associate this passage with Khajuraho. At that point I began to realize that the divine marriage of Shiva, a pivotal metaphor in Hindu philosophy, was perhaps the key to understanding the art of Khajuraho. After that brief moment of inspiration, it was hard work all the way to relearn art history, history, and the Puranas; to seek. to verify my ideas and concepts for, in effect, I was questioning the current theories and existing approaches to the study of art history. I undertook several trips to Khajuraho to study the temples and to speak to the villagers, and had the good fortune to witness the celebration of Maha-S hivratri for the first time X Digiti zed by

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in 1991. It was then that I realized that one of the many problems of art history is its isolation from other disciplines. Culture is a complex subject and in India there is an urgent need to develop a multifaceted, holistic approach to understand its deep significance. The framework for cultural understanding draws together aspects of environmental science and aesthetics, myth and philosophy, plastic arts and rituals and so on. The present book is an abridged version of my Divtne IJcstasy. 1be Story ofKhajurabo published in 1992 by Viking/ Penguin. Here I have anempted to study Khajuraho to understand the motivation of those who created these magnificent monuments. I have sought to present Khajuraho from several points of view, including those of architecture, literature, mythology, and living traditions. This book is presented in three parts. F.ach takes a different perspective and offers another 'way of looking' at the art of Khajuraho. The first deals with Khajuraho from the perspective of the British officer Captain T.S. Burt who rediscovered the site; Cunningham's documentation of the archaeological reports; and the comments of later historians concerning the temples of Khajuraho and their sculptures. The second part of the book is devoted to the Puranic description of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati and explains how this metaphor is relived in the contemporary Maha­ Shivratri festival at Khajuraho. I have attempted to keep the strands of philosophy, myth, reality, and art in distinct sections, but myth often becomes reality and lines of poetry merge into sculptural art. While keeping these disciplines separate, I would like to stress that sculpture is not merely xi Digiti zed by

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a 'translation' of poetry into stone, but that poetry can, in the hands of a master, achieve new heights not attained in any other medium. There is something exhilarating in studying great art and everyone has their own reasons for doing so. For me, it was the joy of communication across centuries; an endeavour to understand the teachings, the humour, even the playfulness of the artists a thousand years ago. In the mature expression of these temples and sculptures, one can see motifs and symbols that have evolved over several centuries. Ancient symbols that had acquired currency in early Buddhist and Hindu art were used again at Khajuraho, infused and charged with renewed meaning. I have used my 'historical imagination' to piece together the facts obtained from the inscriptions, and to reconstruct the pattern of relationship between patron and artist credited with the construction of temples. I have raised many questions in this book that remain unanswered and wish to suggest that much has yet to be accomplished. This updated version of Divine Ecstasy has a third part, the Epilogue, in which I have sought to describe the most exciting part of Khajuraho's story. Though it was by accident that I chanced upon my interpretation of Khajuraho, I have been so inspired by the temples that the conservation of this site is of utmost significance to me. This part of the book discusses the urgent need to preserve the site and also elucidates the unique plan we have evolved for its preservation and development. Again I am indebted to so many unusual people: I am xii Digiti zed by

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extremely fortunate to have had some of the best teachers in my field of study and several very good friends who I have thanked in my fll'St book on Khajuraho. I wish to acknowledge my parents Naomi Meadows and Ramesh Punja, both of whom have passed away recently. They gave me everything especially Tlllle, the most convincing of all teachers. Lady Helen Hamlyn, I thank for having faith in me, for guiding and encouraging me through these last twelve years. She has supported two projects on Khajuraho and now wges me to assist in the implementation of the conservation measures. Marland Singh, Vice-Chairman of the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), for playing the invaluable role of guru and friend, and giving me an opportunity to learn, to grow and to give. The present chief minister of Ma-dhya Pradesh, Shri Digvijay Singh, for his wisdom in initiating this project for the development of Khajuraho. In the first project The Reconstruction of the Legacy of Kbajuraho, my thanks go to very special people: Amar Kak, Gurang Khemka, and many others who brought to my house the wonder and magic of youthful brilliance. In the second project, Conservation and Sustainable Strategyfor tbe WorldHeritage Region ofKbajurabo, I thank George Varughese and Ashok Khosla of Development Alternatives for their professional input and the humour with which they have taught me about working in a team. Nalini Thakur, Head of the Department of Conservation, School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, and the young genius Adit Pal who prepared the Landscape Master Plan for Khajuraho, and many

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others who contributed greatly to this project. I thank Kamal Sahai for his photographs that have been used in this edition of the book and for his companionship through difficult times. My gratitude to Adil Tyabji for editing this book with such humour and skill; Hank Heifetz for generously allowing me to quote from his poetic translation of Kumarasambbava; David Davidar, V.K. Karthika, Anjana Ramakrishnan and Bena Sareen at Penguin India for their encouragement and faith. My love to my young daughter Samiha for her patience, without which none of this would have been pos.sible. In these days of religious strife when one hangs one's head in shame for humankind, I was fortunate to find at Khajuraho humour and creativity, and something so intrinsically human and playful that, I believe, it needs to be shared.

Sbobtta Punja

New Delhi November 1999

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Mythical Landscape

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Kandariya Mahadev, 1862

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Rediscovery of Khajuraho The year was 1838, the month February. A young British officer of the Bengal Engineers was sent on official duty to central India. While returning from Eran to Saguar his pa/kt (palanquin) bearer told him of the ·wonders of the place called Khajrao'. Captain T.S. Burt could not resist the temptation of an unscheduled stop to see for himself if this was true. Burt travelled all night in his palanquin to reach the small village now called Khajuraho. It was sunrise when he arrived and after breakfast he proceeded to explore lhe village. Burt soon realized that he had discovered something of unusual imponance and decided to spend the entire day investigating Khajuraho. A year later, his report of this historic visit appeared in the Journal ofthe Asiatic Society ofBengal in which he categorically states that at Khajuraho he had found, Probably the.finest aggrrgalt! �r oftemples congregated in on.e place to be mer wilh in all India. and all are within a sloM's throw ofont another.

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Khajuraho ®

will tell you, few images or sculptures on the temples have escaped damage, not necessarily at the hands of vandals, but due to weathering by the elements. The artists of the region had the benefit of several generations of experience of working with sandstone. At Sanchi, near Bhopal, the state capital of Madhya Pradesh, there are the second century sc remains of Buddhist stupas and gateways that are acclaimed for their refined sandstone sculptures. Then came the Gupta and Pratihara temples in the region, of which the temples of Khajuraho are natural descendants. Similarly, a delicate yellow sandstone was used in central India for Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu art for several centuries. Like the mountains, Indian rivers too have myths associated with them. All the major waterways that rise in the Vindhyas, such as the Betwa, Chambal, Sind, Parbati, Tons, and Ken, follow a northerly course where they eventually join the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, the holiest of all rivers in India. In central India the Narmada is considered to be the most sacred, second only to the Ganga and her tributaries. To bathe in the Narmada is to wash away one's sins, and to visit the holy shrines on her banks an act of devotion. Some say the Narmada is the beautiful daughter of Shiva and Parvati. Its source is at Amarkantak, the 'throat of Shiva'. The myth has it that after Shiva had drunk the deadly poison from the ocean of creation, he conjured up the Narmada river to soothe his fiery throat. So it is believed that those who bathe in her holy waters also receive relief, as did the mighty Shiva. Amarkantak is a serene, calm, sacred pilgrimage site 8 Digiti zed by

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Keo river, near Khajuraho

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surrounded by dense jungle. Temples having a style closely resembling those at Khajuraho are found there. Others, in varied styles, are found all along the course of the river from Amarkantak to the Arabian Sea, and each temple celebrates the worship of Shiva and the beautiful river goddess. So powerful is the myth that i t inspired a lengthy and strenuous annual pilgrimage. Nearest to Khajuraho is the river Ken or Kiyen, or in ancient times-the Karnavati. Like several other rivers in the state, it springs in the Vindhyas and flows in a north-easterly direction till it meets the great river Yamuna, a major tributary of the holy Ganga. The Ken is a perennial river, no longer navigable because it has been dammed at several points. Apart from the river, innumerable tanks and natural lakes once watered the region of Khajuraho. The Gazetteers describe them: Many of these tanks are of considerable antiquity and are held up by fine massive dams. Though some are used for irrigation, examination shows that they were not originally made for that purpose, but merely as an adjunct to the temples and places.

Khajuraho boasts of several tanks though Burt remarked that they were almost dry after a long spell of winter. When Burt visited Khajuraho 'a quantity of jungle' interrupted his view of the temples. Today, the forests around the village have been denuded and the land is either being cultivated or has been reduced to scrub. The nearest deciduous 10 Digiti zed by

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forest is to be found on the east bank of the Ken river, approximately 20 miles (32 kilometres) away. This protected forest forms a part of the Panna National Park. It consists largely of teak (Tectona grandis), a tree of great economic value. It was the flowering trees of central India that captured the imagination of both poets and artists. Kalidas, who wrote in the early years of the Christian era, eulogized the beauty of the central Indian landscape with which he was so familiar. The two outstanding flowering trees in the region are the flame of the forest (Butea latifolia) and the mahua (Bassia lattfolia). The former is a short tree with a crooked trunk and irregular branches. During December and January it is seen in all its ugliness, but come spring and it is awash with vibrant, flame-like, orange-red flowers. All around Kimshuka groves blazefiery red, Trees swaying in the breeze bend low flower-laden; Instantly trans/ormed by Spring, the earth glows Like a radian/ young bride in her robe of red silk.

The villagers of Khajuraho still claim that it was the mahua tree that once grew in abundance around their village. The mahua is the most important tree in the forests of central India. It is a large shady tree that is rarely cut for wood; the flowers are a source of food for the local inhabitants. The dried flower is likened to pressed figs in taste and is cooked in a variety of ways. The most popular use is to ferment and distill the flower to brew an extremely intoxicating drink. There are several humorous local tales of drunken bears, 11 Digiti zed by

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not refer to the Visvanath temple because in actuality the tallest extant temple in Khajuraho today is the Kandariya Mahadev. Perhaps Dhanga built two temples, one with an emerald linga called Markatesvar or Pramathanath as mentioned in the inscription. Not surprisingly, the emerald linga has disappeared and there is no temple of that name in Khajuraho today. Perhaps the jewel linga referred to the quartz of the Dantla hills that in varying light sparkled like a gigantic gem 'brought down from heaven to earth'. The inscription that Burt discovered proved to be of exceptional importance, providing as it does a clue to the identity of the builders of some of the temples of Khajuraho and the lineage of the rulers. The inscription bears the date, 'the year 1059 of the Hindu Vikrama era which corresponds to the Christian calendar year 1001-1002 AD'. It can be assumed that one of the large temples dedicated to Shiva at Khajuraho was completed by AD 1002. Several Jain images found in Khajuraho along with numerous inscriptions fall within the reign of the seventeenth Chandella ruler Madanavannan who ruled around AD 1128-65. This sudden concentration of inscriptions would imply the settlement of Jain communities in the region, either due to war and immigration, or trade developments during this period. Inscriptional evidence also informs us that this king constructed temples of Shiva and Vishnu in the Mahoba region, the capital of the Chandellas during his period. Inscriptions also confirm that the kings were not the only patrons of art and architecture. There are Chandella inscriptions which record that ministers, hereditary officials, and important

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Brahmins of Chandella society also contributed to temple construction. Copper-plates register grants given to Brahmin families. The grants refer to families of various gotras, such as the Kashyapa, Gautama, Kaustsa, and Bharadvaja. It may not be coincidental that many of these gotras still live in Khajuraho today. By giving these Brahrnin families land it appears that the kings were trying to settle them in their kingdom. The grants of land are attractive, tax free, gifted to the family for eternity, with fields, mining and water rights. Such generous grants may have served many purposes in addition to the settlement of Brahrnin communities in the Chandella kingdom: a process of colonization by Sanskrit-speaking families, and ensuring allegiance for several generations and sufficient wealth to support temple-building activity and religious practice. The inscription found by Burt also records the name of the place where the temple was consecrated, though this portion of the stone is slightly damaged. Kielhom read the name of the site as 'Sri Khajuravahaka'. Sri is a.prefix used in Sanskrit to denote good fortune, vabaka may refer to an administrative division and Khajura may be the actual name of the place. Tradition ascribes the name to two ornamental golden kbajur (date-palm) trees at the city gates. There is no other reference to Khajuravahaka in later Chandella inscriptions. This is surprising, for the rulers seem to have invested large sums of money in the construction of so many magnificent temples at Khajuraho. Was Khajura the name of this temple town or was it known by some other name in ancient times?

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Plan of Khajuraho, 1999

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'Wonders of This Place ... Burt's report of 1839 is short, with neither a plan of Khajuraho nor a sketch of any of the temples. Apparently he had wanted to make a few drawings at 1hc site but, at the critical moment, lost his pencil. After sending t\\'o or 1lrru mtn 10 tll'o or lhru places 10 hum for it. I \\'as obligtd to depart without making lht intended dro\\'ing. 011d after I had progrrsstd a milefrom Khajrao. when ii \\'as too late to rerum, lo and behold. Ifound the pe11cil upo,r my palanquin drawer.

Burt jokes alx>ut the loss of his pencil not realizing that with it the world also Jo.5t the opJX>rtunity of SC.."Cing what Khajur.iho looked like on the day of iL'i rediscovery. Although Bun failed 10 provide details of 1he village and its environs, :1ll was not lost Four1ccn years later, Khajur.1ho was well documented and a drawing of its plan was provided by Major-Gener.ii Sir Alexander Cunningham. When compared with a receni one (plans on pages 24 and 27), this plan serves 10 show the changes that have occurred over the past hundred

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years. The layout of Khajuraho is quite simple unlike the complexity of other towns that evolved over the centuries, such as those at Varanasi (Banaras) in Uttar Pradesh and Bhubaneshwar in the state of Orissa. In Cunningham's map Khajuraho is divided into three blocks each named by its location: The village is surrounded on all sides by temples and ruins, but these are more thickly grouped in three separate spots on the west, on the nonh, and on the south-east. The western group, which consists entirely ofBrahmanical temples, is situated on the banks of the Sib-Sagar ...

Cunningham's terms, 'western and eastern group of temples', are still in use and has led to the fragmentation of the site and seclusion of one group of temples from another, the lakes and the complex as a whole. He did not attempt to reconstruct the original plan of the complex or the layout of the twenty-odd temples that were still standing or specify in what order pilgrims moved from one temple to another. Today, the most significant feature in the village is the tanks. The Shiv Sagar tank lies to the south-west and the Ninora or Khajur Sagar to the north-west of the village. The Shiv Sagar, the Ocean of Shiva, which serves as the ceremonial bathing area for the western group of temples has changed its appearance since Cunningham's visit. His map and description suggests that an arm of the tank ran due north through the centre of the western group, dividing it into two sections. The Shiv Sagar was, he wrote, 26 Digiti zed by

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Cunningham's plan of Khajuraho, 1864

a narrow sheet ofwaler. about three quarters ofa mile in length from north to south inthe rainy st:ason, but no/ morethan(j()(} fee1 squarein1hedryseason.

Today the western group is enclosed within a single compound and there is no tank in front of any of the temples; only beautiful manicured lawns and gardens maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. lhe ann of water that once divided the western group into two parallel lines of temples may have sctved as a sacred nonh flowing stream in which devO{ees could have a ceremonial bath before they entered the shrines. The waters would also have reflected the temples in all thei_r splendour. 27

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However, with the new boundary wall the ancient layout, water channels, and jungle have disappeared. In the original plan of Khajuraho, the temple town may have been designed like many other cities in northern India, especially the holy city of Varanasi where the 'crossing over' of the waters by the devotees is a physical manifestation of the spiritual concept oftirth, which is the very purpose of pilgrimage. If the Shiv Sagar was the original temple tank, then the devotees would, on arrival, first bathe in its waters. Then, walking in a clockwise direction, they would circumambulate the tank from east to south and move towards the Ganesh temple where respects have first to be paid to the Lord Who Removes All Obstacles. Cunningham observed, a small ruined temple of Ganesa, which is situated on a lower level of the rocky ridge in front of the entrance ofthe Chaosat Jogini. The figure of the god, which is 6feet (1.8 metres)faces the Jogini temple. ... The figure ofGanesa is also elaborately carved . ..

Unfortunately, nothing remains of this temple. However, at the Archaeological Survey Museum of Khajuraho you can see a beautiful statue of a dancing elephant-headed Ganesh which was found at this location. Perhaps a temple with this image stood near the Shiv Sagar to mark the entrance to the temple complex. Images of Ganesh are also to be found in the niches of the south-facing outer walls of almost all the large temples of the western group at Khajuraho. Indeed, Ganesh is the first deity to be encountered as one performs a clockwise pradaksbina or circumambulation of the sacred temple.

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The dancing Ganesh in the museum surpasses all the other images of this deity in Khajuraho. He has, in Hindu iconography, been given an elephant head as he is said to remove all obstacles, large or small, in the same manner that an elephant does with his trunk. The deity is shown dancing in imitation of his father Shiva, who, when manifest as Nataraja (King of Dance) creates the universe through his cosmic dance. Ganesh is shown with four arms to convey his supernatural powers, and his ability to do many things simultaneously. In his hands he holds several symbols of his attributes. In one hand he holds a bowl of round laddus (sweetmeats), to satisfy his sweet tooth. In this sculpture, even when dancing, his trunk has found its way to the laddus and it looks as if he is going to sustain his vigorous performance with a surreptitious bite. It is no wonder then that he has such an adorable round belly for he is, after all, the deity of good fortune, and he is also the deity who presides over learning and the intellect. As the fearless son, born of Parvati and Shiva, he is named Ganesh, the Lord of the Ganas, the army of Shiva. In this manifestation, with an elephant head, he protects the devotee in all ventures and it is therefore appropriate that he is encountered at the beginning of a pilgrimage. Beside the ruined temple of Ganesh, on the south-west corner of the Shiv Sagar tank, Cunnigham found 'one of the most curious buildings' that he had seen in all his travels. The Chausat Yogini shrine is a massive roofless quadrangular structure built on a high base and unlike any other temple in Khajuraho. Running along the courtyard are sixty-four shrines dedicated to the Chausat (or sixty-four) Yogini or female assistants of the goddess Shakti.

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So far, fourteen other Yogini temples have been identified in northern India. The most important ones are at Dudhai in Jhansi district, not far from Khajuraho, Bheraghat in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh and Hirapur near Bhubaneshwar in Orissa. All these are circular in plan, while the one in Khajuraho is rectangular. The simple but massive proportions of the Chausat Yogini shrine convinced Cunningham that this was the oldest building in Khajuraho and suggested that it was built prior to AD 900. It is possible to conjecture that this shrine of Shakti was believed to have brought power and glory to the early kings and gave Khajuraho its religious sanctity. The Chandellas later wished to crown this already sacred site with the construction of a temple town.

Western group of temples From the Chausat Yogini temple there is no longer any direct route to the temples of the western group, though it is probable that a path ran along the granite ridge and connected it to the temples now enclosed in the World Heritage Site complex. This complex actually consists of five large temples and five smaller ones, not seven (large and small ones) as Burt recorded. With the new enclosure the original layout of the temples, if there was one, has been lost, and therefore the essential relationships between the temples is now even more difficult to reconstruct. Anotijer mystery we have inherited from Burt's time concerns the original names of the temples. Both Burt and Cunningham talked to the villagers about this and were given 30 Digiti zed by

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contradiclory information. One of the largest and mos! impres.sive temples of the western group at Khajuraho which Cunningham wrote aOOut was 'called Ramachandra'. /1/n 1852, al 1ht timt of my first vi1it, fit/ wa5 known a1 labhmanji, and in 1838, al 1ht timt of Burt'J visit, as Cha1urbhuj.

Therefore, with the loss of the original names of temples, one more key to the mys1ery of Khajuraho vanished. The western group of temples can now be approached only from 1he main rood. This rectangular enclosure is aligned east to west and all the major temples in this group face east

Visvanath temple, AO 1002, Khajuraho

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e:> Khajuraho c.e At the western end of the compound is the tallest and finest temple of the group, now referred to as K.andariya Mahadev. Kandariya alludes to an aspect of Shiva as the Ascetic One. Maha means great; while dev or deo means god. This temple shares its platform with the small Mahadev shrine and the Devi Jagadambi temple. A hundred yards to the north is the Chitragupt temple dedicated to Surya, the Sun God. Chitragupt is said to be an assistant of Surya, who maintains records of everyone's life. This temple resembles the Devi Jagadambi temple in both plan and proportions and is smaller than the Kandariya Mahadev. On the granite ridge parallel and to the east of this row of temples is another row with two large temples and some smaller shrines. The grand Visvanath temple has a Nandi pavilion in front and is positioned in the north-eastern corner of the new compound. The southern end is dominated by the Lakshman temple and facing it are the remains of what may have been a pavilion for Garuda and the Varaha mandap. Beside the Lakshman temple, though outside the compound, is Matangeshvar temple. The Visvanath temple is dedicated to Shiva, the Lord of the World, and in the pavilion in front of it is a huge image of the bull called Nandi or Nandin, the vahana (vehicle) of Shiva. The term Lakshman for this Vishnu temple is incongruous as it suggests the brother of Ram, the hero of the epic poem Ramayana, and there is no explanation as to why a temple to him should have been included in this group. Lakshman temple is now believed to be dedicated to Vishnu Vaikuntha, a term that refers to his celestial mountain abode, as Kailash is for Shiva.

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The general style of the temples The temples in the western group fall into duce broad groups based on their ground plan, elevation, and treatment of the wall surfaces. The simplest temple plan is a single square shrine with ·1he image in the centre. The Nandi and Vara ha open pavilions conform to this simple design. Built on a platfonn, they are accessible by a night of stairs. The pyramidal roof is held up by pillars, which allows light .ind ventilation to re-Jch the idol, while providing some protection to the image within. This uncomplicated design grows more elaborate with the addition of rooms 10 the inner square sanctum. In essence, however, the temple plan retains the

Double cross plan of the largest temple of Khajuraho

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square base design and merely multiplies itself as it gets larger. As the temple ground plan expands, the wall surface of the temple becomes proportionately more intricate. The temples of Khajuraho are all elevated on high individual platforms, often over 10 feet (3 metres) high, with broad bases forpradakshina, the ritual walk around the temple. The larger temples have narrow passages around the inner sanctum for a similar purpose. The body of the temple rises out of the platform on a solid ornamental base, while the walls above are richly catved. The vertical walls of the building support theshikhara, the tapering tower of the temple, which reaches upward to the sky, as though fixing the position of the heavens in relation to the earth. The towering shikhara is positioned directly over the sanctum where the sacred image of the deity is housed and marks the presence of the god to whom the temple is dedicated. The shikhara is the most prominent feature of the structure, and each region in India has evolved a distinctive style for its construction. The contour of the shtkhara at Khajuraho is conical, with each temple exhibiting the different variations possible within the basic structure. The tallest shikharas of the western group are those of the Kandariya Mahadev, the. Visvanath, and the Lakshman temples. Elegant, and often rising 100 feet (30 metres) above the platform, the shikharas have a gentle curvilinear form made up of several replicas of themselves that buttress the central column. There are temples with many such miniature shikhara designs like Kandariya Mahadev, and some with only a few like the Chitragupt temple. The Adinath temple of the eastern group has no mini-shikharas on the tower.

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The roofs of the halls in front of the principal shrines, in contrast, have a pyramidal shape, with layers of stones placed in diminishing horizontal tiers. The larger temples of Khajuraho, when seen in profile, resemble a mountain range with the smaller peaks of the hall roofs reaching up to the sweep of the shikbaras. It was the simile of the mountains, the Himalayas where the gods reside, that served to inspire the artists of Khajuraho. In a inscription that Burt discovered, the temple is described as being so high that it resembles the snowy peaks of the Himalayas, thus hindering the movement of the sun and moon on their daily journey. . . . its summit, bright like th£ autumnal cloud illumined by th£

golden sun, humbles the great Mount Meru by its radiant beauty.

The ground plan of the temples at Khajuraho range from single-roomed shrines with small porticoes to temples with several congregational halls, mandaps and passages. The larger temples, like the Kandariya Mahadev, the Visvanath, and the Lakshman, have basic _rectangular ground plans comprising an inner sanctum, a great mandap, a smaller hall and a porch. In the plan of the Kandariya Mahadev temple the entrance is at one end and the sanctum at the other. Branching out from the halls are two projections that end in balconies that brighten and ventilate the chambers within the building. These projections of the double cross plan create an outer wall surface that is not straight but almost star-shaped, with angles and planes on which light can play, casting shadowy ripples along the temple wall. Burt was intrigued by the sculptures and the 'beauty of 35 Digiti zed by

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the inner roofs of the temples, carved in the most elaborate style'. Being an engineer, he was also amazed by the Hindu art of temple construction. There was no masonry, I mean no plaster of any kind. used for the purpose of cementing these slabs to one another, their own weight and position alone being sufficient to give them permanence-a permanence which has lasted for ages, and would, unless disturbed by the growing of trees or other disturbing causes, sempiternally exist.

Traditional architecture in India did not employ cement or mortar, the entire structure being built up of stone blocks perfectly balanced, with the occasional use of metal clamps. Today, at Khajuraho, there are a number of places where traces of cement and mortar can be seen. It appears that in early twentieth century, the Raja of Chhatarpur, in an excess of zeal, undertook a large-scale clean-up operation. The horrors of that unscientific restoration have not wholly been remedied even to this day. Early photographs of Khajuraho show ruined stone halls replaced by brick edifices with sculptures placed at random wherever there was an empty niche. Many of the sculptures found scattered around were taken to the palace or put in an open-a ir graveyard of sculptures called Jardine's garden, where the priceless images are eroded by the rains and bleached by the sun. The villagers at Khajuraho tell you that they have seen images from the temples lying in nearby tanks, or supporting roofs of village houses. They will also narrate how, during their childhood, they have heard about images being stolen and replaced by

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fakes. The Lakshman and the Parsvanath temples (in the eastern group) appear to have been the worst affected by this vandalism. For the art historian, the problem of reconstruction can become a nightmare since the extent of the damage wreaked by 'renovation' is not completely known. However, the objects that appear to have captured Burt's imagination were not the temples nor their state of ruin but two massive figures seen in the Nandi and Varaha pavilions or mandaps in the western group. The description of the image in the Varaha mandap is worth reproducing as it records Burt's spontaneous nature and his wry sense of humour: . . . and the sevenJh [temple is dedicated] (whaJ think.ye of thaJ

reader) to our founhfriend of the Hog species-lo Barao, and in which there is without exception, thefinest, ( and last) but not largest, specimen of this animal I have yet seen . . . The dimensions of this interesting object are asfollows-his height isfive and three quaners feet, his length eight feet, breadlh three and a half feet; all these dimensions are approximations, made by means ofmy walking stick, which measures rather more than a yard in length . . . his weight will be, according to our method, ninety tons, or about 2461 maunds. This is pretty well for the weight of the genJleman just after brealifast. What the deuce would it be after luncheon?

According to a Puranic myth, Varaha is the boar incarnation of Lord Vishnu who appeared in order to protect the world from devastation by primeval floods. After creating the earth, Lord Vishnu reclined on his serpent bed and slept till the end of the cycle of time. He awoke to find

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Monolithic image of Varaha

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that the entire region of the earth was submerged in water, waves danced and leapt up, swallowing the trees and animals and all things created. The Lord then took the shape of a magnificent boar. He plunged into the waters with his tusks and emerged holding the delicate frame of the earth above the threatening floods. This tale of the flood is narrated in different ways !fl _the literature of many of the religions of the world and may, like the story of Noah's Ark, refer to the..g_eological history of the Ice Ages and the great flood. In Hindu mythology, the earth is personified as a beautiful goddess and Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu, as the one who saved her from the floods. In art, especially in painting and sculpture, Varaha appears in two fonns: either as a gigantic boar or a hybrid creature with the head of a boar on a human body. In the form of a gigantic half-man and half-boar, Varaha is usually shown carrying the tiny earth goddess nestled in his anns while she rests against his massive frame. At Khajuraho both fonns of the Varaha are to be found, but the one described by Burt is a monolithic figure of a boar with no human attributes. In this sculpture the earth goddess is standing beside her saviour. On Varaha's body are 674 figures of gods and goddesses carved in low relief in neat rows on the glossy surface of the image. These represent the major deities of the Hindu pantheon, all of whom the gigantic boar had saved. The Chandellas appear to have been quite catholic in their outlook and built temples for several major Hindu deities at this one site. The plan of Khajuraho indicates the distribution of the temples and the gods to whom they are. dedicated. In

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the western group there is a concentration of temples dedicated to Shiva; these include the Matangeshvar, the Kandariya Mahadev, the Visvanath, and other small shrines. The temples assigned to Vishnu in the western group include the Devi Jagadambi, the Lakshman, and the Garuda and Varaha mandaps. In the south-eastern group the temples are devoted principally to Vishnu, although amongst the ruins Cunningham appears to have also found some remains of Shiva temples. According to local legend there were eighty-five, or the sacred number eighty-four, temples at Khajuraho at the height of Chandella power. Further proof that there were more than twenty-five temples in Khajuraho is available from the numerous large-sized sculptures found there. There is an incredibly beautiful image of VtShnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the large figure of the dancing Ganesh mentioned earlier, and several others preserved in the Archaeological Museum at Khajuraho. We have no idea where these images were originally placed. Some of the temples at Khajuraho had monolithic images of the gods in the centre of the sanctum, as in the Chaturbhuj temple. Such images, now found in the museum suggest that there were once many more temples and shrines in this temple town complex.

Khajuraho village Cunningham saw the village near the temples and described it in terms of habitation and population. It still remains one of the most charming places in the region. The basti or village of Khajuraho, lies less than a mile (1 kilometre) away 40 Digiti zed by

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from the western group, and in the days of Cunningham consisted of 162 houses, containing rather less than 1,000 inhabitants; amongst these there al'f! single houses ofseven di.ffeTf!fll divisions ofJajhotiya Brahmans, and eleven houses ofChondel Rajputs, the chiefofwhom claim descentfrom Raja Paratnal Deo ...

In 1961 the number of inhabitants recorded was 2,140 and in 1971 the number had risen to 2,7'113, and by 1998 to about 6,000. The village has grown around the Khajur tank and consists of small mud houses with clay tile roofs. The villages of Madhya Pradesh, and especially those of the Bundelkhand region, are exceptionally attractive. Domestic or vernacular architecture is a discipline that has only recently begun to receive due credit and appreciation in India. From the plan of a house, one can discern that additions have been made to accommodate new members of the joint family as brothers and sons marry and raise families in the ancestral home. The houses are built of locally available materials: wood, bamboo, mud bricks, and clay tiles. The sloping roofs constructed on bamboo and wood frames serve several functions, including the creation of shelters appropriate to the environment, offering protection from the heat of summer and the biting cold winds of winter. The houses are often whitewashed with liquid lime, which is applied every season to mark the celebration of the accompanying festivals, such as Holi in spring and Diwali which heralds in the winter months. The whitewash serves to brighten the home and is a natural disinfectant that protects the building from ants and termites.

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Each house has a small courtyard or open enclosure where clothes are hung, spices or grain are ground and sun­ dried. The houses are kept spotlessly clean. It is only in the little seivice lanes and open plots that civic amenities fail to keep abreast with the growing population and accumulation of waste. Near the east bank of the Khajur tank are three well­ preseived Hindu temples that form the eastern group of temples. The single-roomed shrine, now called Brahma temple, was once dedicated to Vishnu and, to further confuse matters, it has a Shivalinga in the sanctum. The names of these temples, as in the case of those in the western group, are difficult to ascertain because there are no contemporary records of their original names. Both Burt and Cunningham had to rely on the memories of villagers. About the 'javari temple' Cunningham writes: At myfirst visit in 1852 it was called Thakurji and Lakshmanji, but in the preunl year, 1865, 1 found that no one knew it by any other name than Jabar, which is probably the name of the field, or the land in which it stands, and has no connection whatever with the temple.

The Yamana and Javari temples are much smaller than most of the others in the western group, though similar in style and essential detail. Both the temples are built on a high platform and consist of a sanctum, a hall, and an entrance porch. In some ways these temples are miniature, daintier versions of the grand temples of the western group.

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The Jain group

This group is enclosed within a compound wall maintained jointly by the Archaeological Survey of India and the Jain community, as some of these temples are still places of worship. The most important buildings in the complex are the Parsvanath and the Adinath temples which are superb examples of central Indian architecture, and retain their beauty notwithstanding renovations that somewhat mar their appearance. There are several reconstructed temples in the group and other more modem ones built from the remains of older temples. Many of these changes have occurred during the last century. Cunningham explains how this happened: At the time of myfirst visit, in January 1852, it {the templeJ was fortunately deserted, and I was thus able to examine the inside with leisure. It was repairedfive years ago by a Jain banker; and at my last visit in February, 1865, I was notpermitted to enter it. From the doorway, however; 1 could see that the whole of the statues, both large and small, which cover the entrance to the sanctum, had been. elaboratelypainted in blue, green, red, and yellow, and were still glistening as ifrecently varnished

Both the temples, Parsvanath and Adinath, may belong to the same period as that of the western group and are consistent, in some respects, in style and content with other Hindu temples. The Adinath temple is dedicated to the first of the twenty-four Tirthankars and the Parsvanath is dedicated to the twenty­ third deified Jain saint. Some art historians have suggested that the Chandella kings gave equal patronage to both the Hindu

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Adinath temple, Jain group, J Birth of Desire ce that 'Khajuraho is regarded as the home at once of Kama, the god of love, and of Shiva, his enemy.' The notion that Khajuraho is giving due honour to Desire would be the antithesis of Indian philosophy, for even in its most extreme traditions it has not done so. One of the central principles of Hinduism is that Desire is to be conquered, not adored possessed. That is why there are no temples to Kama in India. Unlike Cupid, Kama's Western counterpart, this deity is not supposed to be worshipped. Indeed, it is Shiva who is worshipped as the destroyer of Kama, which is why the festival of Maha-Shivratri is celebrated with such fervour. According to some accounts the festival of Holi (which RQusselet informed us was once popular in Khajuraho) commemorates the fulfilment of Brahma's curse and the annihilation of Kama by Shiva. The Matangeshvar linga at Khajuraho therefore cannot glorify the birth of Kama but the subjugation of Desire by Shiva. This is narrated in the story of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. Perhaps it is the story of Shiva rather than the one of Kama's birth or death that has some significance for Khajuraho.

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The temples of Khajuraho at Maha-Shivratri

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Betrothal of Shiva to Parvati The story of Shiva's marriage to Parvati is perhaps the most celebrated in Hindu scriptures, replete with symbolic meaning and philosophic content. The Shiva Purana from which this story of the betrOlhal is drawn was part of our oral heritage for hundreds of years before it was wrinen down, around the eighth century AD. The text is suffused with dramatic humour alongside passages of serious philosophical discourse. The traditional storyteUers would have explained the complexity of the philosophy during the narration, adding to the text their own personal observations and homilies. Brahma having created his mind·bom children, as we have seen, immediately fell prey to Kama's arrows, and was ridiculed by Shiva for lusting after his own daugh1er. Still smarting from the insult, Brahma plotted to see that Shiva was forced into a similar situation. Shiva is said to have retreated to the Himalayas 1a meditate and regain his original equilibrium af1er the loss of his wife, Sati. Seated cross-legged, wi1h his eyes closed, his long hair flowing down IO the ground and his lxx:ly covered in ashes, he meditated

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in silence. Snakes, the ornaments of the underworld, of Time and Death, coiled around his frame as he sat undisturbed, for he was immune to the threat they represented. The story moves to the northern region where there lived a great mountain range called Himavat, the abcxle of snow. The mountain Himavat was indeed beautiful: the storehouse of gems, covered with trees, and adorned with stately peaks. Animals of noble frame lived in his forests, and many happy people resided there forever. Himavat wanted to marry and the gods arranged a union with Mena, and to this couple the Great Goddess appeared as their daughter Parvati. Shiva had requested Himavat's permission to perform his penance on the Gangavatara ridge so that he might be close to the source of the river Ganga, and appealed to Himavat not to let anyone disturb him. The Lord of the Mountains paid his respects to Shiva and asked him for a favour in return. He wished that Parvati, his daughter, should be allowed to serve Shiva during his penance. Shiva opened his eyes and saw Parvati radiant as the moon, her bcxly beautiful, her breasts frrm and taut. She was so appealing to look at that Shiva immediately realized that her mere presence had the power to disturb the most dedicated and resolute of sages. Shiva closed his eyes and continued his contemplation. He was determined to maintain an undisturbed atmosphere. In the meanwhile, the universe was in the grip of a reign of terror. An indestructible demon called Taraka was intimidating the gods. The gods consulted Brahma about how they could combat the menacing power of Taraka for none other than a son of Shiva could be capable of killing him. The problem now was to get Shiva, so adamant in his meditation, to agree to father a child. Once that mighty obstacle was surmounted, they would be faced with another impossible

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task: to find an suitable wife for the unconquerable Shiva. Brahma explained to the gods that the Great Goddess had manifested herself as Parvati, the daughter of the Immovable Mountain, and that she alone in all the three worlds could serve as an invincible match for Shiva. Jubilant that they had found a bride for Shiva, the gods now pondered over how they could make the Great Ascetic contemplate the thought of marriage and attachment. The gods then decided to employ the skills of Kama to entice Shiva into marrying Parvati.

The subjugation of desire Kama entered the tapovan, Shiva's grove of penance, where he found the Great Ascetic seated on the ground, deep in meditation and oblivious to the world around. As Kama, Rati, and their constant companion, Vasanta, the season of spring, wafted through the grove it was filled with the fll'St signs of spring and lovely flowers began to appear. The fragrance of mango blossoms suffused the air. Dazzling red and bright orange bunches of the ashoka flower burst through the green canopies. Water lilies with hungry bees hovering above them manifested the urgency of the mood of love, while the invisible cuckoo filled the grove with its persistent love-song. The other sages of the forest were perturbed by the signs of Vasanta and grew restless in their prayers. Shiva too noticed the untimely signs of spring but continued his penance impervious to the calls of Love. Kama, anned with his sweet bow of attachment, and flower-tipped arrows, stationed himself behind a screen of trees. He spied Shiva seated cross-legged on a tigerskin, wholly absorbed in meditation. His lap lay open like a full-blown lotus 99 Digiti zed by

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the tongue are the first indication of the tender bud of love. Desire springs forth with no warning but when the first ideas of possession and appreciation stir the mind, one knows that the mind-born one Kama, is born again. Shiva reached out and embraced Parvati, his hand explored her body beneath her garments. Parvati responded to his touch and glanced up to see his face. Shiva thought co himself, 'If I feel such great pleasure in seeing her, what ecstasy could be in store when we embrace completely?' It was o�y then that Shiva began to wonder how his penance had been disturbed, for he had been in complete control until Parvati's appearance before him. Shiva then looked around and saw Kama stationed to his left with his bow drawn up, his arrows poised and aimed at him. On seeing Kama, a terrible rage engulfed Shiva; a rage that could annihilate the entire world. That moment a tremendous frre shot out from Shiva's third eye in the-centre of his forehead; its flame flashed in the sky and then rolled over the earth. Before the gods had time to prevent the inevitable, the fire from Shiva's third eye of wisdom reduced the handsome Lord of Desire to ashes. Desire was dead, burnt by the frre of Shiva's wisdom. At that moment, an immense linga exploded from the earth to establish Shiva's omnipotence and the conquest of desire. The linga of Khajuraho

The pundit of the Matangeshvar temple believes that the gigantic linga of the temple at Khajuraho received its

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significance from this story. The emergence of the eight-foot linga of its own accord is believed to establish the dominance of Shiva over death and desire. By subjugating Desire, Shiva is freed from its power and i s able to protect his devotees from the suffering that stems from it. According to the Skanda Purana, a great linga emerged to mark this crucial event of the conquest of Kama. The linga was called Kritasmara in memory of Kama. The gods sent Kama to arouseShiva. Shiva ran away and after many years of wandering opened his third eye and burnt Kama to ashes. Rati lamented the death of her husband and made Shiva promise that he would be revived. The other gods too begged Shiva, reminding him that without Kama all creation would come to a halt. Shiva then said, 'Kama will remain bodyless, but even without a body he will continue to be powerful.' WhenShiva thought of Kama his eternal linga arose from the earth. Because of himShiva married Parvati andSkanda was born, and because Shiva remembered Kama he is known in the world as the Rememberer of Kama, Kritasmara. No one seeing this linga of Shiva is impotent, blind, or sick. The consequence of this episode is fivefold: the death of Kama, the emergence of the linga at Khajuraho, the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, the revival of Kama and the birth of Kartikkeya who would ultimately destroy Taraka. This would serve.to explain why the linga at Khajuraho is venerated by thousands of people to this day; why so many pilgrims go to Khajuraho during Maha-Shivratri to worship the Matangeshvar linga. Finally, this myth clarifies why the devotees kept

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referring to the wedding of Shiva. The association of Kama's death and his revival is dependent on Shiva's union with Parvati. Therefore, the rest of the myth must also be essential for a n understanding of the art and architecture of Khajuraho. When Kama died, Shiva returned to his meditation and refused to harbour desire or think of marriage. Narada advised Parvati to undertake a tapas, a penance so great that it would win back Shiva as her husband. Hearing that this indeed was Parvati's resolution, her family became inconsolable. Mena, her mother, refused to grant permission, shocked that her delicate young daughter wished to take upon herself the rigours of tapas. She cried out, 'Uma, oh no!' to forbid her daughter from undergoing such austerities. From that time on Parvati was also called Uma. Parvati was insistent and sorrowfully her parents watched her leave her jewels, wealth, and the luxury of her home, the comfort of friends and family and retire to the forest to meditate. Wearing only tree bark woven into cloth, a girdle of grass, and a deerskin cloak she went forth. The place where she conducted her tapas became renowned throughout the world as Gauri Shikhara. Building a fire altar she performed all the rites. In summer she sat amidst blazing fires, and in the rain she sat on the bare earth drenched by the downpour. In winter she submerged herself in water and slowly she lost all sense of her individuality and became at one with the elements. In the first year she lived on fruits and leaves, then ate nothing, which is why Parvati is also called Apama. Standing straight on one leg and uttering the holy mantras she meditated 104 Digiti zed by

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on Lord Shiva. According to the Puranas her penance lasted for 6,000 years. Shiva then employed seven sages to test Parvati. He hinted that they might employ any play or stratagem or even utter critical remarks about him to establish the depth of her understanding of him. They visited Parvati and asked her the purpose of her penance. When she explained to them that Narada had advised her on this course to win over Shiva as her husband, the sages feigned horror. They denigrated Narada, calling him a trouble­ maker and quibbler. Regarding Shiva they warned her that she appeared unaware of his unsavoury reputation. But she did not waver from her penance. The sages, impressed by her determination, returned to Shiva to inform him of their approval of Parvati as his bride. Then Shiva, unable to resist the opportunity for a good joke, went on to test the tenacity of Parvati's will himself. Dressed as al} old man with the affectations of a Brahrnin-matted hair, umbrella and staffhe visited Parvati's tapovan. The Shiva Purana then simulates the discussion between Shiva and Parvati in these two roles. Shiva disguised as a Brabmin: I know this Shiva about whom you speak. He is the bull-bannered god, his hair is maned, and his body is smeared with ashes of the dead. Clad in tigerskin, he also often covers his body with coarse elephant hide. He holds a skull in his hand, serpents twine around his body, poison has left a mark on his neck, and they call him Nilkanth. He has an odd number of eyes, three instead of two. Paroati: I know that Shiva the Auspicious One often appears in

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e:, Khajuraho cethis guise, but this is the form he has taken up in sport. He i s everything that is auspicious and also all that seems its antithesis. The ash that he smears over himself is inauspicious but once worn by him the gods use it to adorn themselves. He is the conqueror of death and as Mrityunjaya the whole world worships him for he causes life (hence death). He is the creator, sustainer, and annihilator of the world. That is why he wears death as an unguent fbr his body. Shiva disguised as a Brahmin: Shiva's birth and pedigree cannot be traced. He does not enjoy the pleasures of attachments, home, or family. He roams around naked and is accompanied by goblins and ghosts of the cremation grounds. Paroati: How can the Creator of Time be measured? He i s primordial to everything and cosmic nature is born of him; how can he have parents? Inertia, action and knowledge spring from him, what does he need parents for? People can improve themselves in his company. He is invariably seen in the company of the 'dead'. Because who other than Shiva can befriend our souls? Shiva disguised as a Brahmin: Why do you want this awful, ugly being to be your spouse? You know that he took Sati as his wife; Daksha his father-in-lav, despised him and Shiva discarded Sati. Why do you, the rich daughter of the greatest of mountains, crave a husband like this? Paroati: 0 wicked one, you have no idea of what you say. Neither Vishnu nor Brahma can equal that noble soul of Shiva. I adore him who blesses those in distress. Shiva disguised as a Brahmin: You are more foolish than words can express. You wish to give up sunlight for the light of a

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glow-wonn. You wish to discard your home for a life in the forest. You have lovely lotus-shaped eyes and you desire someone with three eyes. You have glossy lustrous hair, his is unkempt, uncared for, maned and unruly. Your body cooled by sweet-smelling sandal paste will be covered with burning ash when you embrace Shiva. You will inherit the gems of the world from your father, the Lord of the Mountains, and you wish to exchange these for snakes? Shiva has no money, which is why he roams around naked. When you embrace Shiva his blue neck will be wound around with snakes. The world is filled with beautiful music; how could you wish to hear the sound of Shiva's peculiar drum, the damru? There is nothing desirable or attractive about Shiva. He has killed Kama and is a solitary man. Paroatt: You have criticized the immeasurable splendour of Shiva and having paid you respect I am liable to lose my purity. I know and understand the greatness of Shiva. I do not wish to discuss him with you who are ignorant of his Reality. Then Shiva transformed himself and, in his handsome fonn, reached out and embraced Parvati: 'Where will you go without me? I will never leave you again. And why this show of bashfulness at my embrace?' asked Shiva provokingly. 'You are my wife and I am your bridegroom.' Parvati was delighted to be united with Shiva again. She requested him to ask Himavat for her hand in marriage. Himavat announced his consent to the marriage of his daughter to Shiva. The gods were delighted and gave Parvati their blessings. The whole earth then prepared itself for the divine wedding and because of their union the planets roll, the sun shines and creation continues ceaselessly.

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Pilgrims at the temples during Maha-Shivratri

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Preparations for the Divine Wedding The story of the preparations for the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, as related in the Shiua Purana, is enacted every year at Khajuraho. The purpose of this chapter is to show how closely entwined the two strands of myth and reality are arid how they form a single thread of experience. The past becomes the present and the myth a reality. Himavat, the father of Parvati, composes the leuer of betrochal to Shiva, which Ls delivered by his emissaries. Shiva is delighted to read the leuer and longs for Parvati. /Shiva Purana, Parva1iklwnd, Chap. 37, vs. 10-15/

The Brahmin family that looked after the Matangeshvar temple was in charge of the Maha-Shivralri celebrations at Khajuraho. Nanhey Maharaj, the eldest son of Gautamji (the temple priest), was the master of the ceremonies and he sent out invitations to Shiva's devotees for the forthcoming wedding of Shiva. A month before Maha-Shivratri, he went around on his motorcycle to neighbouring villages to request

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devotees to attend the fes ti val. The procedure was similar to that followed for ordinary weddings in the locality, marked with offering of gifts and tokens of blessing made to the guests and family members. The invitations went out from Nanheyji's house, and in this way he played the part of Himavat, Parvati's father. Himavat galvanizes his entire kingdom into action to make arrangements for the wedding ceremony. He calls upon his kinsmen to assist him. They begin by collecting food for the festivities. Mountains of rice and jaggery, brown uncrystallized molasses, sugar candies and salt are heaped up. Dishes that would delight Shiva and the gods are ordered . . [Shiva Purana, Parvatikhand, Chap. 37, vs. 10-15}

On the eve of Maha-Shivratri peasants arrived at Khajuraho from nearby villages with their wares. The streets were lined with open-air stalls with piles of sweets, white sugar candies, and brown lumps of jaggery. Thousands of pilgrims who visited the Matangeshvar temple that day bought these sweets to offer to the Shivalinga, the bridegroom, in the temple. On the auspicious day rites to celebrate the occasion were· perfonned. The womenfolk of the region of Himavat adorn themselves and do everything in accordance with tradition and custom. Great festivities and auspicious rituals are conducted in the city. [Shiva Purana, Panatikhand, Chap. 37, vs. 16-19} 110 Digiti zed by

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The residents of Khajuraho, especially the Brahmin family that served at the Matangeshvar temple, were extremely busy before Shivratri. Their homes were cleaned in preparation for the event. The women spent weeks collecting items for the marriage ceremony. The work was distributed between several families. Exactly 110,021 grains of rice were counted, the magic number required to be showered over the bridal couple after the marriage. Villagers who owned flower gardens offered their choicest blooms to decorate the streets and temples with. Contributions from families were collected to purchase the oil and other ingredients for the rituals. In Khajuraho every family-men, women, and children-was involved with the wedding preparations. They worked for weeks as though they were part of Himavat's immediate family and as if i t was their own daughter who was marrying Shiva. Himavat, the Lord of the Mountains, then invited his kinsmen to attend the wedding. All the great mountains of the world and heaven that constituted Himavat's immediate family of assembled there. All the mountains from several continents congregated at the abode of Himavat.

[Shiva Purana, Parvatiklumd, Chap. 37, vs. 20-40]

From an aerial point the view of Khajuraho is an amazing sight. A circle of hills surrounds the village of Khajuraho, almost as if to create the mythical scene so poetically described in the Puranas. The ridge of the Vindhyachal mountains runs alongside the steep protrusions of the Dantla hills. On the south-western 111 Digiti zed by

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outskirts of Khajuraho rises a longer, fish-shaped hill, now called Lavanya or the long one. At the foot of its gentle slopes once stood the ancient village of Khajuraho. There are similar hillocks on the northern and western sides of this site which form a circle of hills. Perhaps the Chandellas noticed the unusual formation of hills and its resemblance to the congregation of the mountains who were Himavat's guests in the story of Parvati's wedding and decided it was an ideal site for the celebration of the myth. Along with the mountains came the holy rivers of India to attend the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. While Ganga and Yamuna, bedecked in fine jewels, came with Shiva as part of the wedding party, the other holy rivers-Sonabhadra, Godavari from south­ eastern India, Brahmastri identified as Sarasvati, and Vengi­ came at the behest of Himavat. Narmada, the holiest one from central India, the daughter of Rudra, also came joyfully to attend the festivities. The guests and relatives were duly received with honour and pomp. {Shiva Purana, Parvatikhand, Chap. 37, vs. 4 250) -

The river closest to the village of Khajuraho is the Ken which, like several other rivers in central India, flows north to meet the Yamuna river. The Narmada flows south of Khajuraho and is considered one of the most sacred rivers in India. The symbolism of the representation of the rivers at the wedding at Khajuraho must be appreciated. Every temple at Khajuraho has sculptures of the two river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna, at the base of the doorway to 112 Digiti zed by

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Dantla hills, Khajuraho 113

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the sanctum. They have been personified in Indian art since the Gupta period as two beautifully bejewelled female fonns who ride on their respective vahanas: the crocodile and makara or the turtle. Just as immersion in these rivers is considered powerful enough to wash away one's sins, so also the passage between the portals of the temple's doorways, past these figures of the river goddesses, serves to cleanse the soul. According to Nanhey Maharaj of the Matangeshvar temple, each year he requests Brahmins planning to attend the Maha­ Shivratri festival to bring with them holy waters from these rivers. The waters of five rivers are necessary for the ritual of bathing of the Shivlinga and anoinment of the bridal couple. A large pot above the linga of the Matangeshvar temple was ftlled that day with the sacred waters of the seven holy rivers and allowed to trickle over the image. Shiva, who loves water, was thus bathed and honoured by the holy rivers. Therefore, while the presence of these rivers appears as sculptures on the temple walls, the actual holy water from the rivers is preserved in clay pots in the temple to be used for the wedding rituals. Here again, sculpture, myth, and reality blend into a single experience. The entire city of Himavat resonated with of excitement and fervour when the invitees and their families arrived. Love seemed to unite everyone in the city of Himalaya. Banners and festoons shed their brilliance everywhere, while the canopies hid the sunlight, offering much needed shade. [Shiva Purana, Parvatikhand, Chap. 37, vs. 47-49] 114 Digiti zed by

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Nanhey Maharaj is an honoured and highly respected priest of a Brahmin family that has served the Matangeshvar temple for generations. That week his portly figure and gentle smiling countenance was ever-present in the village. Clad in a pure white dhoti and cotton shirt he was easily identifiable there as he gathered families together to assist in the organization. In the role of Himavat, it was his responsibility to make the necessary arrangements. He had ordered twenty long bamboo poles from a neighbouring village neart the Ken river. He had designed several flags, each about 20 feet (6 metres) long, to decorate the temple. The flags and festoons were in three colours, earth red, saffron orange, and butter yellow. These are the colours of fertility, sacrifice, and rejuvenation. Once placed on the pyramidal roof of the Matangeshvar temple the flags billowed in the breeze like standards announcing Shiva's wedding to the skies. A cloth flag fluttering over a temple is an indication that it is in worship. On the triangular flags the words Om, and Shivay Namah were printed in silver letters, so that this beacon heralding the forthcoming events could be seen from afar. Himavat then called upon Vishvakanna and 1requested him to create a city for the Divine Marriage, a large spacious dais and altars for the marriage rituals. The dais, was ten thousand yojans wide and was constructed with all the conventional features. [Shiva Purana, Parvalikhand, Chap. 38, vs. 6-7) Vishvakanna, the Maker of All, is designated the divine architect of the gods. He is acclaimed as the inventor of innumerable handicrafts and is the patron god of artisans. He is said to have 115 Digiti zed by

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built the homes of Brahma and Yama and also Varuna's underwater palace. He also made the first clay pot or kalash which was used to collect amrit, the ambrosia of immortality. A symbolic kalash is placed at the very top of every temple sbikbam. In Vishvakarma's name, a number of manuals on architecture and sculpture, such as the Vishvakarmaprakasha, have been written and compiled from memory by succeeding generations of artists. The Chandella inscription of Dhangadeva, found at Khajuraho records the construction of a Shiva temple that was built by the architect Chhichchha who was 'as versatile as Vishvakarma' in knowledge. Even in the historical inscriptions the reference to VJShvakarma building the temples of Khajuraho resounds in metaphors similar to that of the Shiva Purana, for the association of artists with VJShvakarma, the divine architect, was popular at that time. The beautiful things that Vishvakarma built at the behest of Himavat were numerous. All immobile and mobile things were presented there and were given a realistic appearance. The areas of water excelled the solid ground, and even the best amongst them could not distinguish water from land.

{Shiva Purana, Parvatilchand, Chap. 38, vs. 8-11J

The Shiva Purana goes on to describe the wonderful city that Vishvakarma built for Himavat on the occasion of his daughter's wedding. The plan of this divine city was designed with pools and tanks, and no one could differentiate between the water and the earth, for both were adorned with buildings. Khajuraho, according to Burt and Cunningham, was a village 116 Digiti zed by

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of many tanks built in ancient times for irrigation, bathing and ritual purposes. There are today three large tanks in the village but once Khajuraho had eighty-four temples, eighty­ four lakes, and eighty-four wells. The Shiv Sagar tank, which adjoins the western group of temples, serves as a bathing area for pilgrims during festivals. The tanks have suffered from years of drought and neglect and have lost their original splendour. It however appears that at one time Khajuraho may have been completely surrounded by water, thus giving the illusion of floating temples. Some have argued that, because a large portion of the village is low lying, these areas may have filled with rainwater during the monsoons. Others have suggested that the temples of Khajuraho were all built on platforms, often 10 feet (3 metres) high, so that the buildings remained above the level of the surrounding waters. What a spectacular sight it must have been to see the reflections of these temples in the still, clear waters of the ancient tanks. Vishvakarma made artificial lions, rows of water birds, stone peacocks, which were very beautiful in appearance. Elephants with their mahouts, horses with their riders, accompanied by foot soliders, were so naturally portrayed that none could say that they were contrived creations.

[Shiva Purana, Parvatikluuul, Chap. 38, vs. II-13J

It is truly remarkable how appropriate this description is of the art of Khajuraho. The Lakshman temple is one of the largest of the western group and has a line of parading 117 Digiti zed by

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-en Khajuraho ce horsemen and elephants on the platform mouldings. The procession is very realistically portrayed, with some of the horses prancing and others with their riders in regal attire. The elephants are depicted with natural humour, some with riders on a howdah and fashionable trappings. The foot soldiers carry swords and shields; some are shown in battle postures and others wrestling with one another. There are instances of elephants depicted in combat, grasping a man by the trunk and flinging him, trampling the enemy beneath their powerful feet, or fighting one another, their trunks entwined while their riders goad them on. There are several examples of large free-standing elephant figures, some over 4 feet (a metre and more) high. As if in

Monolithic stone lion 118

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response to the Puranic description, the animals are portrayed in a stately manner, bedecked in finery: ornamental chains with bells clanging at the back, embroidered saddle-cloths, and heavy jewellery around the neck. Some of these elephants also wear ankle bells. These almost realistic depictions of elephant figures may have been inspired by the royal animals used by the Chandellas in battle and for ceremonial purposes. Persian accounts record that in battle the Islamic rulers of the north had to confront these royal elephants during the capture of Kalanjar, the mighty fort of the Chandellas. There are two large elephant statues in front of the stairway entrance to the Visvanath and Chitragupta temples, and a few in the compound of the eastern groµp of temples. At Mahoba, another Chandella centre 35 miles (55 kilometres) north of K.hajuraho, these magnificent monolithic stone elephants lie forgotten and submerged in the waters. Vishvakanna is said to have also sculpted many 'artificial lions.'. that were 'beautiful in appearance'. There are so many monolithic stone lions to be found at Khajuraho that it is believed that this image was perhaps the emblem of the Chandella rulers. The lions are carved out of sandstone and are often 3-4 feet (a metre or more) high. They are stylized in form, one has its grimacing face reared over the kneeling figure of a warrior who is defending himself with a sword. Several of the lions are depicted resting on their hind legs and raising the front ones to strike the warrior. The local explanation for the rampant lion and warrior emblem is linked to a legend of the founder of the Chandella dynasty who, as a young boy, was believed to have killed a

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Y-JShvakanna erected an altar. He created abodes for the residence of all the gcxls for the wedding of Himavat's daughter. {Shiva Purana, Parvatikharu:l, Chap. 38, vs. 28-29) The Hindu temple is referred to as the devalaya, the abode of the gods. In the Sbtva Purana they are ref erred to as mandaps or halls and residences. Unlike the churches and mosques of Christians and Muslims, the Hindu temple is not a place designed specifically for congregational worship. In fonn, it is specifically the abode of the god to whom the temple is dedicated and there is often little place to accommodate the devotees within the building. It is believed that at Khajuraho there were over eighty-four temples within a relatively small area. The legend of the numerous temples is recorded in a local ballad of a later period and excavations have confinned this figure. Today there are no more than twenty-five standing temples as Burt noted 'at a stone's throw from one another', which is the extraordinary feature of Khajuraho. These temples may well have been conceived as worthy residences for the gods to celebrate the theme of Shiva's wedding. For the residence of Brahma seven magnificent abodes were created in a trice, endowed with all riches. Mansions for the other gcxls were also built by Y-JShvakarma. A brilliant abode called Vaikuntha with wonderful fea tures was also built in a trice. Similarly, Vishvakarma built everything for the propitiation of Shiva. He erected the mansion of Shiva in various shapes and

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of great splendour, bearing the symbol of Shiva. It was designated Shivaloka. It was admired by all the gods. [Shiva Purana, Parvatikhand, Chap. 38, vs. 3 037] -

Either temples to Brahma were never built or they no longer exist at Khajuraho. Tilis is not unusual as, according to the myth of the fiery linga of Shiva, Brahma having told a lie regarding his superiority over Shiva was cursed never to have any temples built in his name. Nonetheles.s, his name is evoked in all temple worship, and his image appears with great frequency at Khajuraho, both on the lintels and the wall sculptures.. The temple of Vishnu, identified as Lakshman, in the western group is especially significant. From the ruins at the base of the temple was found a Chandella inscription dated to AD 954 which quite clearly records the construction of a temple dedicated to Vishnu referred to as Vaikuntha, as has been mentioned above. Within the sanctum now there is a standing image identified as the Vaikuntha fonn of Vishnu with three heads. The central one is human while the other two are of the lion (Narasimha) and boar (Varaha) incarnations of the same deity. There are other temples dedicated to Vishnu at Khajuraho. The so-called Devi Jagadambi temple stands on the same platfonn, and to the left of the Kandariya Mahadev temple, and is proportionately smaller in dimensions. There are other shrines, such as the Vamana and the Chaturbhuj temples outside the western group, also dedicated to Vishnu in consonance with the Shiva Purana s pronouncement that several abodes for each god were built by Vishvakarrna. The tenn Vaikuntha refers to the abode of Vishnu just as Kailash refers to the mountain peak of the Himalayas where

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Shiva is said to reside. Kailash is also used as a name for Shiva temples such as the rock-cut shrine at Ellora in Maharashtra and _the Kailashnatha temple in Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. VJShvakarma is also said to have 'built a complex of mansions for Shiva of various shapes and sizes', and that it was known as Shivaloka, the region of Shiva. Khajuraho is also referred to as Shivpuri, the city of Shiva, by pilgrims. Shivaloka has a similar meaning and there are several temples dedicated to Shiva still to be seen at Khajuraho. The largest surviving temple is the Kandariya Mahadev, the next is the VJSvanath temple within the western group. The Kandariya Mahadev temple is over 116 feet (35 metres) in height and is as profusely decorated with sc.ulptures as the others. The Matangeshvar shrine with its gigantic linga, the centre of worship during the Maha-Shivratri festival, stands beside the Lakshman temple. According to the historical inscription, there was also a temple to Vaidyanatha or Shiva, the Lord of the Physicians. Cunningham's records speak of the ruins of a Nilkantha temple, another manifestation of Shiva, but this shrine now no longer exists. The similarity between the textual reference and the layout of the temples of Khajuraho only serves to heighten the significance of the site. The linga of the Matangeshvar temple carries the 'sign' of Shiva associated with the destruction of Kama that led to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. That the Chandellas attempted to emulate Vishvakarma is a matter of conjecture, yet it cannot be denied that the parallels between the description of Himavat's wedding arrangements in the Shiva Purana and the layout of the temples at Khajuraho are extraordinary.

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Vishnu and his wife and the barat of Shiva, Parsvanath temple

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Arrival of Shiva's Marriage Procession While Himavat was organizing the wedding, Shiva prepared himself for the festivities. Shiva reque5'ed Narada to invite, on his behalf, all the gods and sent out a warning that anyone, even a god, who did not cake part in the celebrations would no longer be considered one of Shiva's people. Narada took his duty very seriously and invited all the gods and their consorts 10 form Shiva's barat, the wedding party. Vishnu was the first to appear, suitably dressed for the occasion, along with his wife. Brahma came with hi.s wife and his full retinue, as did all the others. There was great celebration at Kailash. Celestial maidens danced and filled the sky with their music, showering flowers over the assembly of gods and their wives. I Shiva Purana, Chap. 39 I There is one temple at Khajuraho thal appears to have taken this verse of 1he Shiva Purana as the source of inspiration for the sculptural decoration on its walls. The Parsvanath temple in the eastern group may have been one of the first to have been buil! at Khajuraho. Its outer walls are divided into rwo

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bridegroom. On the temple wall their images in the niches are depicted in a dramatic style, with each goddess carrying the emblems by which she is identified. The figures are large, with fine delicate stone carvings which throw into clear relief both their grimacing faces and the dainty jewellery and costumes that adorn them. Small figures of their vabanas have also been depicted for easy identification. In the Kandariya Mahadev temple these images have, unfortunately, suffered the most damage. Nevertheless it is evident that the niche figures constitute some of the best sculptures at Khajuraho. The next passage of this myth of Shiva is perhaps the most beautiful and is replete with philosophic content. The Shiva Purana describes how the Sapta Matrikas assisted Shiva and how Shiva converted himself from a hideous form into that of a bridegroom of great splendour. Shiva's serpents, so often scoffed at, turned into exquisite jewellery, the ash into white unguent, the animal hide dripping with blood became a silken garment, the matted locks were swept into a regal headpiece and crown, while the strange third eye appeared like a precious ornament on his forehead. Never before had Shiva appeared in this manifestation, and the whole assembly of gods were delighted at his glorious transf01JI13tion, because he had condescended to emanate in this way in observance of 'worldly conventions'. At Khajuraho, in the month Ashvina (September-October), a special puja is performed for the Matangeshvar linga on the full-moon night. The giant linga is bathed, dressed and adorned in the manner of a human groom. The ceremony takes place in the temple and lasts for the better part of three days.

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In Khajuraho there are literally thousands of sculptures of Shiva, not with the usual matted locks and snake jewellery, but in the gracious fonn of a bridegroom bedecked with heavenly ornaments, silken gannents and a crown on his head. To identify this beautiful image as that of Shiva's, the characteristic symbol of the trident and serpent companion are held in his two rear hands. While one front arm is in the basta, the hand gesture signifying reassurance or abbaya (protection) and varada, the boo ngiving posture, in most of these figures Shiva is shown carrying in his lower left hand a ceremonial pot necessary for the wedding. Statues of Shiva standing in this attitude are to be found also on. the Lakshman temple and other Vishnu shrines. The image of Shiva, the bridegroom, appears to be the central theme of Khajuraho and that is why the image is depicted so prolifically. The temple walls have been designed such that on each projecting wall there are images of Shiva the bridegroom along with Vishnu his best man, and Brahma the chief priest at the wedding ceremony. The artist is clearly trying to depict that frozen moment in time when Shiva transfonned his fonn to become acceptable to his devotees. The sculptures of Shiva are so positioned that they anticipate the occasion when the divine wedding party sets off for the marriage along with the gods and their consorts while the gandbarvas herald their arrival with showers of flowers and joyful music. 'O Lord let us commence the wedding procession, to marry the great goddess, the daughter of the mountain,' says Vishnu.

{Shiva Purana, Parvatilchand, Chap. 39, vs. 44J 134

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The Shiva Purana narrates that before setting off for the divine wedding the gods, playing the role of Shiva's family, performed the rites appropriate for the departure of a bridegroom. Once the rites were performed, Shiva's barat was ready to leave for the wedding ceremony. The barat consisted of all the gods, the flying nymphs above and the large army of Shiva's devoted followers. Shiva called upon Nandin, who was suitably adorned for the greatest event of all times, his master's wedding and finally the signal to leave for the city of the Mountain Lord was given. The Shiva Purana describes the millions and trillions of ganas who had assembled to form part of the barat. Many of them were dressed like Shiva devotees, with matted hair and ash, others with garlands and jewels. On the temple walls there are several figures that are not, strictly speaking, of Shiva but may be identified as the leaders of the ganas of the army of Shiva. Theganas came from all quarters of the world to participate in this joyous happening. Chamunda, the terrifying female aspect of Shiva with her skeleton frame, pranced with gay abandon at the head of the group. The sculptures of this deity amidst the Sapta Matrikas' group in the niches of the major temples are portrayed in exactly the same manner. Her body is a mere skeleton, her. withered breasts hanging low, she is shown dancing with her attendants, the annihilators of evil. In the Puranic narration, the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna walk beside the Divine Bridegroom waving whisks, their gorgeous figures bejewelled with the finest sea gems. Leading the procession of the gods were Vishnu and Brahma. Shiva requested Vishnu to go on ahead and see that

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all arrangements to receive them had been made by Himavat. An entire chapter of the Shiva Purana is devoted to narrating the amazement of Vishnu and the other gods at seeing the mountains of the world gathered in one place and the fantastic creations of V1Shvakarrna. They were astounded too by the realistic portrayals of themselves created by the divine artist and began to suspect trickery or magic. So perfect were the depictions of themselves that the gods were rendered speechless, overwhelmed by the beauty of the city of Himavat. For the architects of Khajuraho this chapter of the Shiva Purana must have served as a challenging inspiration to construct a temple city for the celebration of Shiva's marriage-­ a temple city that would astonish the most cynical of gods. At Himavat's palace the preparations continued in earnest. The bride was bathed, anointed with rich oils and perfumes and dressed in a most exquisite garment. Kalidas in Kumarasambhava explains how Parvati's damp hair was dried in the fragrant smoke of burning incense and then twisted into an elegant knot. Pure and clean after the bath of blessing, then Dressed in clothes with which she would go to her husband, She was as radiant as the earth bathed in falling rain, Itsflowers white with open kasa blossoms.

At Khajuraho during Maha-Shivratri this ceremony of dressing the bride was undertaken by the women of the priest's family. Nanhey Maharaj's wife shyly admitted to the details of the ritual; how she had prepared the clothes, the earrings, nose 136 Digiti zed by

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ring and other jewels for the image of Parvati that t hey worshipped. This tiny bronze image was to play the role of bride in the wedding ceremony. What does Shiva look like?

At this point in the myth, Shiva decided to play one last prank on his in-laws before the wedding. Parvati's mother, Mena, was truly excited and could not resist the temptation of taking a peek at her glorious son-in-law-to-be. Shiva, aware of her false pride, spoke in secret to Vishnu and Brahma and made them accomplices in his prank. Asking them to go on ahead, he promised to follow. Mena was on the terrace of her palace when the retinue arrived with much fanfare. The banners were flying, the flutes and drums playing. Looking down at the procession she saw Shiva's attendants, each one more splendid than the other. As she saw each glorious god she asked, 'Is this Shiva? Surely this must be the beautiful bridegroom that everyone is talking about?' She was told that Shiva was more stupendous than all the other gods. Her curiosity now ran wild. As Brahma's entourage approached she was truly delighted. 'This must finally be Shiva,' she _said, only to be told that the divine person was no other than Brahma, the chief priest who was to conduct the wedding ceremony. She could not believe her eyes as the magnificent procession went on and on. Then, when Vishnu's parade passed under her terrace she was convinced that she had never seen anyone as brilliant and dazzling. Surely this must be her 137 Digiti zed by

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daughter's bridegroom but, to her utter amazement, she was informed that the heavenly man below was Vishnu, the bridegroom's best man and a great favourite of Shiva's. Hearing this, Mena was deeply impressed and thought how fortunate Parvati was to many so well-connect� a person. Her mind was filled with love, hope and avid anticipation. If this is Shiva's retinue, then surely he will surpass them aII, she thought. Then Shiva revealed himself before her. There he was seated on a bull. He had five faces, three eyes on each face and he had ash smeared aII over his body. On his matted untidy jatas the crescent moon shone shyly. He had ten hands and held a human skull in one of them. He wore nothing except a tigerskin around his waist and a blood-dripping raw hide of an elephant around his shoulders. In his hands he held up a bow and his trident. He came with his army of the most awful-looking ghosts, bbutas, goblins, corpses and ganas. Some came as violent gusts of wind, others with contorted faces, some lame, others deformed in other ways. Mena was stupefied, bewildered and repulsed. She fainted, falling to the ground like a young creeper blown over by a strong gale. The description of Shiva's revolting and loathsome army in several versions of Shiva's wedding story is humorous and symbolic. The irresistible temptation is to draw an analogy between Shiva's deformed army of attendants and the human race. Indeed, Shiva's motley human army was there to attend the marriage ceremony on that Maha-Shivratri day. On that day there were about 20,000 pilgrims at Khajuraho: Shiva's devotees with all their inherent physical and mental limitations, representing a cross-section of the human race: the blind, 138 Digiti zed by

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deaf, dumb, lame, defonned; an odd assortment of shapes and colours. There was nothing remotely heavenly about any one of us, but every pilgrim at Khajuraho on that morning of Shivratri believed that they had come to celebrate the wedding of Shiva. As if to obey Shiva's command, or Himavat's invitation the pilgrims travelled from distant parts of what mus( have once been the Chandella empire, to set up camp at Khajuraho on the morning of Maha-Shivratri. After bathing in the Shiv Sagar tank they went to the Matangeshvar temple and worshipped the linga there. Then dressed in their best and wearing the finest of their humble jewellery they celebrated the marriage of Shiva in the streets of Khajuraho. 'We are the baraf of Shiva, ' they kept saying, 'we have come to attend bis marriage.' The ultimate pun and the subtleness of Shiva's prank ensured that we, mortal beings, would be part of the Divine Wedding in the story of the Shiva Purana. Mena regained consciousness and screamed at everyone including her daughter for having brought about this mismatch. She cursed the gods and her fate for having ruined her family and threatened to kill Parvati. She ridiculed Shiva, laughing hysterically at the old bull that he rode on, his awful clothes, the fact that he had no jewellery. She belittled Shiva's lack of education, social graces, lineage and pedigree. He was neither rich nor young, nor had he any virtue that would persuade her to give him the hand of her only daughter. Vishnu was the last one to try to calm Mena at the crucial juncture of the marriage celebrations. He explained the inexplicable nature of Shiva: his hideosity as well as his beauty,

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the fact that primordial nature was created by him, that he is everything and more than the sum of all the parts; that whatever is seen or felt in the universe comes from him. Mena was slightly mollified by Vishnu's gentle but persuasive urgings. She relented but on the condition that she would allow the marriage only if Shiva assumed a more lovable form. The gods rushed to Shiva and beseeched him to do something to salvage what seemed to be an impossible situation. Shiva, delighted that his prank has been successful, gladly transformed himself from his ugly, replusive form back to that of the glorious, radiant bridegroom. His magnificent procession then burst through the city gates in full splendour, like a mighty river rushing past the floodgates. Mena then saw before her a most spectacular scene: Shiva riding at the head of the procession looking as brilliant as a million suns, his exotic garments of many hues adorned with priceless jewels, the crescent moon resting majestically on his wonderful headdress. There are no words, to describe the beauty of Shiva's body, his complexion and his glorious smile. The sun acted as his royal umbrella, the moon embellished him, Ganga and Yamuna, the mighty river goddesses, waved fly whisks by his side. Vishnu, Brahma and Indra rode beside him. The lesser gods, the ganas shouted 'Shankerji kijaf. Mena was overjoyed to see the splendour of Shiva and blessed her fate. She sought her daughter's pardon for the cruelty of her words. While the heavenly dancers and musicians filled the sky with divine music, there was a rain of sweet fragrant flowers and soon the city streets were knee-deep in petals. There, at the head of the procession, the trustworthy and honourable Nandin proudly carried his master through the streets of the city.

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Women engaged in various activities as Shiva's barar arrives

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Eager to See the Divine Bridegroom The metaphor of Shiva's bamJ arriving at Khajuraho for the marriage celebrations finds visual expression in the sculptures on the temple walls. The temple adornment vividly poruays the wonder and awe of the onlookers when they see Shiva for the first time in this magnificen1 form, as the Bridegroom of the Universe. Al that time the women of the city left whatever they were doing and came out to see the procession pass by

(Shi\l(J Purana, Parvatiihand, Chap.45, vs. 25/

Most temples in Khajuraho have two or three bands of sculprure depicting women in various poses. In the Kandariya Mahadev temple alone there are over 800 such figures, each exquisitely carved in high relief. There are sculptures of women engaged in various activities when the wedding procession of Shiva passed by. Beside many of these ladies is the figure of Shiva, the prince ofprinces, divine and splendid. The people of Himavat's city had witnessed a unique event

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that transformed them, making their lives fruitful and meaningful. Indeed, every visitor to Khajuraho looking at the temple-wall decoration is symbolically drawn into the myth of the wedding of Shiva. A certain woman was in the midst of her bath and toilet, when she was oveiwhelmed with the desire to see Shiva, Parvati's bridegroom. She rushed out of her bath clutching her wet shampooed hair.

[Shiva Purana, Parvatilchand, Chap. 45, vs. 26/

Though this verse is short, it conjures up a great deal of graphic detail and, perhaps, it was such sensuous verses that inspired the artists of Khajuraho. The Lakshman temple has some of the finest sculptural portrayals of women bathing: the figure of a woman emerging from her bath with wet hair, the figure of another gently soaping her breasts, as she looks up and hears the sounds of the approaching procession of Shiva's wedding party. There is one woman on the western wall of this temple who is wearing the customary loose undergarment that women wear when they bathe in public places like the village tank or a river. The cloth is merely wrapped around her waist and does not hang far below her knees, the wet fabric clinging to her body and exposing more than it means to conceal. Her arm is stretched as she scrubs the small of her back with a brush handed up to her by an attendant. The artists have cleverly used the walls to depict terraces and windows, with figures of women peering out eagerly, seeming almost to lean out to catch a better glimpse of Shiva. The figure of Shiva is often sculpted beside them, on a

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Woman bathing, Lakshman temple

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projecting part of the building. The Visvanath temple has two particularly gorgeous representations of a lady with shampooed hair running out to greet Shiva. There are several more on the northern wall, near the balcony. The sculptures of women are clearly depicted with wet hair, for a small goose seated alongside one of them is straining its long neck to catch the falling drops. There are a number of representations of women engaged in applying make-up. Each temple must have over a dozen such sculptures of standing women, a mirror in one hand; some applying sindur on the forehead; others hesitating in the midst of their toilet, the mirror unconsciously slipping to the waist or breast, as they strain to hear the sounds of the procession announcing the arrival of Shiva. The Devi temple next to Kandaryia Mahadev has on the northern side an exquisite example of a woman with her back turned to the onlooker. She is completely absorbed in gazing into the mirror she holds up to her face. This old-fashioned mirror is a convex piece of burnished metal with a handle at the back which gives it the appearance of a small shield. The artist has taken the trouble to correct the figure for any distortion that would occur from the optical illusion of viewing it from the platform 10 feet below. This beautiful woman has an alluring figure, the gentle curves of which are revealed under her delicate garment. Her bare firm breasts are exposed as a flimsy wrap hangs loosely over her shoulders. The profile of her face, the line of her arm to her elbow, down to the curve of her hip are beautifully crafted. To add to her beauty, with which she is preoccupied, she has adorned herself with dainty jewellery:

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a necklace which follows the nape of her neck and the curve of her bosom, and a belt around her slender waist. One woman was breastfeeding her baby and had to leave him unsatisfied, in her eagerness to see the lord. {Shiva Purana, Parvatikhand, Chap. 45, vs. 28] The mother-and-child image seems to have been a popular one with the artists of Khajuraho. In the Parsvanath temple one mother is holding a little child squarely on her hip as she gazes out for a glimpse of the lord. In another example, from the Lakshman temple, the mother is putting the child down so as to free herself to run out and look. The figure on the Parsvanath temple has been identified as that of Ambika, but there are so many similar mother-a n d -c hild figures at Khajuraho that perhaps this one also falls in place with the general schemata. The problem of identification of such images of adornment arises when they are viewed individually and not as a part of a general cohesive scheme for wall decoration. It must be stressed that images of women are quite common in temple decoration. The classic artists' manual suggests that a temple must be adorned with female figures just as a home is enriched by the presence of a woman. In Khajuraho these ancient symbols have been infused with new meaning by their association with the wedding of Shiva which is celebrated here. The artist's attempt was to record the great event of the Divine Wedding by using the metaphors of the verses of the text in the stone sculptures. To reflect wonder and surprise

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the artist took such examples as would convey the impression of suspended animation, surprise and forgetful wonderment. There are several scenes of a woman playing with a ball which she holds in her hand or throws in the air; often two balls are shown to depict movement. There are figures of women writing leners, others applying perfume from a tiny bowl, or women painting and decorating the walls of their homes with their backs completely turned to the viewer. An important aspect of Indian aesthetics primarily used in literature, drama, dance and music is the concept of rasa and bbava. Rasa means the essence, the flavour, the taste obtained during the artistic experience. There are nine principal rasas and several transitional flavours or moods that expand the meaning of an idea. The rasas are: sbrlngar or the sentiment of love, basya or humour, karnna or pathos, raudra or anger, vira or heroism, bbaynkara or terror, bibbasta or disgust, adbbuta or wonderment and finally peace. The evocation of a rasa may be through music, the story or character, an episode, a hand or facial gesture. A myth like that of Shiva's marriage to Parvati takes the listener through a journey of experiences and emotions that encompasses almost all the rasas, while the predominant mood is one of love. There is a humorous scene of Shiva teasing Parvati, the tranquil scene of Shiva in meditation, the angry scene and the burning of Kama, the pathos of Rati, the scene of Mena's disgust at seeing the terrifying form of Shiva and finally the scene of joy at Shiva's agreement to marry Parvati. In the arrival of the wedding party at Himavat's court we have the wonder and amazement of the citizens at the sight

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of Shiva. The artists of Khajuraho wished to evoke the mood of wonder in all those who gazed upon the temple. The adbhuta rasa or wonder is derived from the experience of seeing a divine being or celestial event or participating in it. The divine presence of the gods evoked in the ladies of the city the bbava of astonishment, vtsmaya being depicted by their sudden abrupt movements and hasty actions like forgetting to put on their garments. Divyadarshana, or, seeing a heavenly being, is the cause of the wonderment of the celestial women who adorn the temple walls of Khajuraho. The artists were guided by the descriptions in the text and also added other portrayals of wonder to convey the drama of the central event. Certainly the underlying idea is 'seeing the Lord': it is that wondrous moment of revelation, of being forgetful, unself-conscious of everything else when one comes face to face with the Absolute. One woman was tying her waist girdle while another emerged with her garments worn inside out. {Shiva Purana, ParvatilcJuuui, Chap. 45, vs. 29)

No other woman has been so misunderstood and no other sculpture at Khajuraho has been so maligned as the one described in this verse. The unfortunate lady is depicted in the sculptures as fastening her dhoti around her waist like a sarong. However, in her haste and eagerness to see Shiva's wedding entourage, she appears with the garment still untied, the two ends in her hands, unaware that she is revealing her sensuous stomach all the way down to her thighs. When

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woman hastily tying her clothes, to see the Divine Bridegroom 151

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Cunningham saw the numerous depictions of this lady, his well-tutored sensibilities suffered a shock: Everywhere there are numbers offemale figures who are represented dropping theirclothes, and thus purposely exposing their persons.

The question that tormented these early scholars was why these temples had been chosen at all for the depictions of such 'indecent' figures. However, in the context of the myth of Shiva's wedding and the story of how the women of the city of Himavat abruptly left everything they were doing to see Shiva, this sculpture is one of many that capture the essential wonder and astonishment of the scene. The figure of this woman among others reveals the intensity of the amazement; of uninhibited and un-selfconscious joy. The artists of Khajuraho having chosen to interpret the theatrical text of the Puranas were faced with the problem of conveying drama in sculpture. The drama gets frozen in stone and unless the sequence of events in time is known, the sculpture may not convey the direct impression. The text says that one of the women had in her haste worn her clothes inside out. In traditional Indian society it was considered proper to wear only unstitched garments, wrapped around the waist, by both men and women; bare breasts were not considered as being vulgar or offensive, but just frankly sensuous and attractive as the human body is. To show an unstitched piece of cloth worn inside out demands imagination. The artist resolved the problem by showing the woman still in the act of tying her

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lintel and pillars are catved the entire story of Shiva's wedding as it is narrated in the Puranas. Apart from sculptural representations of this scene, the festival of the marriage of Shiva as Sundaresvara and his wife Meenakshi is also celebrated every year with great pomp and splendour at Madurai in Tamil Nadu. Here too, large portions of the myth are enacted as part of the ritual and each year the divine couple is symbolically reunited. It must be understood that the symbol of union has such a powerful connotation in ideology that it is simulated in almost every ritual that is conducted in this country, even though i n most cases the expression of it may not be as overt. As the mythical wedding ceremony got underway, a terrible calamity took place that almost devastated the festive occasion. Brahma, officiating as the chief priest, was seated on the ground in front of the bavan. Shiva and Parvati were standing with right hands clasped to walk around the sacred fire, when Brahma's eyes fell on Parvati's elegant feet and he was consumed with sexual desire. Unable to contain himself his semen fell to the ground where he was sitting. Shiva saw what had happened, as did the other gods and they quaked in anticipation of Shiva's well-known rage. The gods in unison praised Shiva, calling upon his compassion and mercy to forgive Brahma's impropriety. Shiva unperturbed and silent, overlooked the incident and Brahma sighed with relief.

Back in Khajuraho, the rites over, the chief priest recited the 108 names of Shiva, eulogizing his many manifestations. The bavan was now ablaze, the flames leaping up to consume 169 Digiti zed by

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The Khajuraho Heritage Region The Khajuraho Heritage Region forms the cultural environment for the World Heritage Site. Satellite data revealed that nearly half the total land of the Khajuraho Region had, over the years degenerated into wasteland. Over 13,000 hectares of the 38,000hectare Region had been reduced to stony waste and land devoid of scrub and vegetation. The hill slopes, shorn of their tree cover because of overgrazing by cattle and goats, had suffered soil erosion and led to siltation of lakes and village ponds. Approximately 9,000 hectares of the Khajuraho Region is protected and managed by the Forest Department and has some excellent patches of thick deciduous forest cover, especially around the Ken river valley. Farmers have however encroached upon more than 700 hectares of this protected land With the health of the land in jeopardy, it is difficult to imagine how the local community survives on such barren decimated soil. In the Action Plan we outlined several urgent afforestation measures that need to be undertaken with the help of the local people to return the green cover to the land and restore it to health. Systematic soil and moisture conservation activities, planting and protection from grazing will have to be the focus of land management strategies in the Region. One-third of the land of the Heritage Region of Khajuraho is being cultivated. Most areas are single cropped, and with low level outputs and limited water supply the marginal farmer is unable to make both ends meet or to subsist on farming alone. There is a sorry inequity in the distribution of the

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land, with 6 per cent of lhe farmers owning 30 per cent of lhe land and 9 per cent of lhe farmers who till only 3 per cent of it The immediate solution to lhis would be to train farmers in new sustainable farming patterns, double cropping, and agro-forestry practices. After discussion in village groups wilh panchayat leaders, detailed plans and programmes were outlined in lhe repon to initiate work in lhis area and to provide ideas and suggestions for economically viable livelihood options to lhe people. In lhis Region each village is still fairly self-sufficient and has craftsmen who provide lhem with stone, metal, wocxi and bamlxx> and clay ware. Weekly village markets bring other prcxiuce to lhe village, along wilh machine-made products

Restoring the health and well being of the local people

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Present Landcover of Khajuraho Region: 45% of land is now wasteland.

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that severely threaten the meagre local crafts. The craftsmen can barely sustain themselves and are in urgent need of training and financial assistance to bring them back into the mainstream of village life to enable them to participate in the pilgrimage-visitor industry. For example, there are traditional vegetable growers in this region bound by caste and occupation. However, the vegetable supply for the luxury hotels of Khajuraho comes from great distances and even by the daily flights. The project suggests how these local farmers can link up with the hotels for the supply of their produce. Water is probably the single limiting factor that will detennine the development pattern of this region. Satellite photography reveals that the region with its granite bedrock has a good repository of water and adequate groundwater potential. However, scarcity of water is being felt by many due to inequitable distribution of this precious natural resource. Khajuraho has over five hotels with hot and cold running water and artificially blue swimming pools, but in the villages around Khajuraho the traditional tanks are dry, the village ponds are silted up and the children do not have adequate drinking water. Under our project we have detailed almost fifty water management schemes-for instance, the lining of canals, desilting of lakes, especially the historic Khajur Sagar within Khajuraho. A majority of these schemes will have to be undertaken by the government, sponsors and friends of Khajuraho. Schemes for recharging groundwater supply and revitalizing the existing traditional water harvesting systems, if implemented, will transform the landscape within a few years. 212 Digiti zed by

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It is tragic that while the temples celebrate life and the sculptures of Khajuraho abound with animal and bird life, the natural environment has been devastated in the last 100 years. The legendary eighty-four temples, eighty-four lakes, eighty-four wells fonnula of Khajuraho has been lost, and today the temples stand against a naked landscape. Therefore, appropriate water management techniques coupled with traditional sustainable water harvesting methods will ensure reforestation and the return of greenery to the area, greatly enhancing the well being of both human and animal life in the region. The relationship and balance of human beings, water, land, and art must be maintained if the cultural character of the region is to be preserved. Studying the cultural character of the Region and Zone brought to light the critical limitation of our understanding of Khajuraho. Today Khajuraho is infamous for its so-called erotic sculptures, while in reality it has so much else to offer to the visitor and scholar. The conservation team surveyed the region and zone around Khajuraho and has rediscovered several layers of history. The first and foremost is the natural heritage layer with hills, river and lakes that need to be preserved as the authentic landscape setting for the temples. Added to this is a pre-Chandella layer with unprotected ruins and disregarded structures that were constructed in this region prior to the eleventh century. The well-known Chandella temples make up the third layer, and these monuments are the only ones in the region that are accorded government protection. Next are all the buildings, gateways, historic gardens, waterbodies, tombs and temples built during the 213 Digiti zed by

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Chhatarpur period during the seventeenth 10 nine1eenlh cenruries. In the next layer are lhe traditional villages, in which we find some oflhe loveliest examples of lhe local architecture of the region. Bui these houses with courtyards, wilh walls painted by the women, and traditional community skills are gradually be'.ng replaced by hideous concrete structures. One of 1he first programmes tha1 needs to be ini1iated is 1he proper documentation of all the culrural componenis of the region and 10 house ii in a Khajuraho Heritage Centre. Detailed research and documentation will explain the true richness of the Khajuraho region. The Heritage Centre in Khajuraho will help the local community to share·· knowledge and learn how to use their own traditional sk.ilis

Traditional house, Khajuraho village 214

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to maintain the unique character of their villages and homes and culture. Tourism is the next most important economic activity in the region after agriculture. Each year 2,30,000 tourists come to Khajuraho, of these, only 30 per cent of them are international visitors. However, facilities catering to the tourists-like a luxury hotel accommodation-are clearly oriented to the latter category while there is a noticeable shortage of modest boarding facilities for the domestic tourist. The general population does not benefit from luxury tourists who spend most of their money in the hotels. The nightly occupancy rate in Khajuraho is as low as 33 per cent per year. The tourism industry has sold Khajuraho basically on a single slogan: the erotic sculpture. This has harmed Khajuraho more than any other factor as it has had the effect of limiting tourists to only those who dare to venture here. Our study has highlighted that Khajuraho has many layers of cultural history; a unique natural heritage that is still vastly unexplored and provides visitors an unpolluted, industry-free, clean environment in which to relax. The average luxury tourist stays no more than a day, this reveals how limited their knowledge of the Khajuraho region really is. The report proposes, in the first phase of implementation, to increase the number of days of stay and to maximize the utilization of the existing facilities. Heavy infrastructural expenditure is not necessary until Khajuraho is properly perceived by the world. The study also undertook a house-to-house survey to ascertain the well being of the people, the availability of

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drinking water, schools, health and social security. It was found that in 50 per cent of the villages less than 20 per cent of the population is literate. Female literacy is so low that it has adversely affected child and human development in the region. The Chhatarpur district, in which the Khajuraho Heritage Region falls, has the dubious distinction of ranking third in the state for its high mortality rate. The principal cause is poor maternal care and nutrition. Suggestions for a proper hospital in Rajnagar, the tebsil headquarters and the upgradation of local roads has been recommended so that people living and working in the region have easy access to health and educational facilities. Surely upgradation of the airport and bringing a railway line to Khajuraho for the benefit of a meagre number of tourists is not the most urgent requirement. The report stressed the need to rationalize priorities: to save the temple town of Khajuraho and assist the local people and only then to consider the need of the occasional tourist. W hat is the point of Khajuraho having an airport, hotels, tourist bonanzas and festivals if the local people do not have the facilities to lead a normal, healthy life? The health of the land and the well being of the people, therefore, are an integral part of the conservation and development Action Plan for the future.

Khaju.raho Landscape Master Plan The saddest outcome of rapid development in this area is the destruction of the original landscape setting of the World

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Heritage Site. The British during their colonial rule set up the Archaeological Survey of India and introduced conservation techniques that were often quite alien to India. The twenty­ five extant temples of Khajuraho once formed part of a large complex of smaU and large shrines set amidst lakes and rural habitation. Today the temples have been isolated into the western group which is fenced off in one compound with an English garden setting, complete with English lawns and flower beds with non-Indian flowers. The main Bamita-Rajnagar highway runs 8 metres in front of the Visvanath temple and the western group. The visitor has no conception of how a temple should be viewed or why the temples look so inappropriate in this garden setting.

Western group of temples today: existing landscape

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The once auspicious north-flowing stream that offered water to pilgrims for their rituals and reflected the majestic reflections of the Kandariya Mahadev temple is dry and the Shiv Sagar lake has been cordoned off from this important temple complex by a wall. The other temples still standing in and around the village have been fenced off with barbed wire, and the ruins and the remaining fragile evidence o f other shrines lie unattended. Armed with the study of other temple complexes in India, and the traditional architectural texts, a landscape master plan was designed. There was no way we could suggest that the original landscape be restored, for the damage was already far too extensive. However in the plan a new pathway to the western group was suggested to restore the relationship of the temples·with the Shiv Sagar lake, the Dantla hills and the rising sun. The master plan suggests the gradual replacement of flower beds with temple forest groves and new pathways so that one sees the temples not as an aggressive, but poorly informed tourist does but with the reverence of a pilgrim. The Landscape master plan designed in this project suggests that with intensive tree planting and desilting of the traditional ponds the environment around Khajuraho would be dramatically transformed (compare pages 218-19 with 220-21). Pedestrianization of the road in front of the western group to provide the temples adequate protection from the vibration of luxury coaches and pollution, a new bus stop and car park are some of the plans that were made for easy implementation and permanent conservation.

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tts' o]lndia. Vof I. Vtkirlg:;'·Gre�t Britain,

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Mil1�; Barba\-a s101et ttians:):'Bhamihart -ahdaithana:' r&ifiirm,, . . . and the'Low-TbiefPenguin tkx,�·; 'New Delhi; 1990_'.

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