Jewish Life in Arabic Language and Jerusalem Arabic in Communal Perspective: A Lexico-Semantic Study 9004117628, 9789004117624

Table of contents :
JEWISH LIFE IN
ARABIC LANGUAGE AND
JERUSALEM ARABIC IN
COMMUNAL PERSPECTIVE
CONTENTS
List of Transcription Signs
Abbreviations
Preface
Introduction
A. WALKS OF LIFE OF THE SPEAKER OF
JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC
Chapter One Love and Reverence for God: Prayer
1. Love and Reverence for God
2. The Names of God
3. Sanctification, Consecration, and Praise of God
4. Prayer
5. Sacred Books
God’s Presence
6. The Synagogue
The Congregation
7. Reading the Torah
Jewish Liturgy
Chapter Two halăxā and məṣvōt
8. Jewish Law
God’s Commandments
9. Sanctity of the Jew
Dietary Laws
10. Blessings
Chapter Three The Sabbath
11. The Jewish Sabbath throughout
Chapter Four The Calendar Cycle of Jewish Holidays
12. Celebrating Jewish Holidays
13. The Days of Penitence and Awe
14. Major Festivals
The Feast of Tabernacles
15. Passover
16. Pentecost
17. Post-Biblical Holidays
18. Fast Days
Chapter Five The Life Cycle
19. Birth
Coming of Age
Marriage
Divorce
Death
B. LEXICO-SEMANTICS OF THE ARABIC DIALECT
OF JERUSALEM
Chapter Six References and Referents
20. Synopsis: The Hebrew Substratum in JJ
The Ladino Element in JJ
The Impact of Foreign Loanwords on JJ and
J
Loanwords in JJ and J Surveyed
Loanword
Sources
Substituting Arabic Neologisms in J for
Foreign Loanwords
Deterioration of JJ to -JJ
Reflexed by Modern Hebrew
Chapter Seven Semantic Reality: The Traditional
H.r. in JJ
21. Filling Voids in JJ/J in Religious Contexts by H.r.
22.Merging and Integrating H.r. Loanwords and Loan
Translations in JJ
Portmanteau Morphemes and
their Referents
Divergence of JJ Verbs from J in
Grammatical Structure
Emotive Load
23. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J
Vernaculars in Contact—Religion and Culture
Bound
24. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J
Vernaculars in Contact—Secular
Chapter Eight Emotive Exclamations
25. Emotive Exclamations
26. Conferring with Demons
Chapter Nine Taboo Terms
27. Relating to God and Jewish Faith
to an Intruder
to Death
to Diseases
Euphemisms for Old Age
28. Vulgarisms and Taboo Terms
Sexual Organs
The
Sexual Act
Prostitution
Impure Excretions
the Toilet
Vulgarisms
Chapter Ten Hyperbole
29. Exaggerating Feelings and Emotions
Rage
Exasperation
Fear
Alarm
Joy
Love
Desire
Relish
Shame
Disgrace
Annoyance
Friendship
Oath of Divorce
Laughter
Pain
Shuddering from Extreme Coldness
Emotional Coldness
Physical
Exhaustion Expressing Break-down; Other
Exaggerations: Leading to Extremes
in Names and Adjectives
Utter Poverty
Intensity
Abundance
Total Denial
in Time
in Space
in Quantity
in
Emphasis
C. JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC AND JERUSALEM
ARABIC IN CONCORD AND CONTRAST
SUBJECT DIVISION
Chapter Eleven JJ and J in Concord and Contrast
30. Intercourse
General Affections
Sympathetic
Affections
Moral Affections
Personal Affections
Individual Volition
Personal Dissociation
Inter-personal Communication
31. The House and its Contents
32. Foods and Refreshments
33. Dress and Footwear
34. Health
35. Occupations
36. Entertainment
37. Arts and Crafts
38. Traffic and Communication
Wireless
Oral and
Written
Formalization
Documents
39. Nature
Organic: Flora and Fauna
Inorganic
Chapter Twelve Register—A Multilateral Semantic Factor in Jerusalem Arabic Speech
40. Register Classified
41. Bad Style
Filling Voids of J with Hebrew Words
Using Hebrew Terms for accruing aspects of Life
Choosing Wrong Allosemes of Ambiguous Hebrew
Words for J
Incompatible Loan Translations from
Hebrew
Queer Improvised Fabrications
Paraphrasing
Emendation in J of Hebrew
Aberrations
Explicating in J while Slipping away Hebrew Words
Concluding in Hebrew -JJ Arabic
Sentences
Using Homophonic Hebrew Words out
of Place
42. JJ Speakers Relinquishing JJ for J
43. Conclusion
Dictionary-Index
About the Dictionary-Index
Arabic Section (A.)
Hebrew Section (H.)
Bibliography
STUDIES IN SEMITIC
LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS

Citation preview

JEWISH LIFE IN ARABIC LANGUAGE AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN COMMUNAL PERSPECTIVE

STUDIES IN SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LINGUISTICS EDITED BY

T. MURAOKA AND C.H.M. VERSTEEGH

VOLUME XXX JEWISH LIFE IN ARABIC LANGUAGE AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN COMMUNAL PERSPECTIVE

JEWISH LIFE IN ARABIC LANGUAGE AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN COMMUNAL PERSPECTIVE A Lexico-Semantic Study BY

MOSHE PIAMENTA

BRILL LEIDEN BOSTON • KÖLN 2000 •

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Piamenta, M. (Moshe) Jewish life in Arabic language and Jerusalem Arabic in communal perspective : a lexico-semantic study / by Moshe Piamenta. p. cm. — (Studies in Semitic languages and linguistics, ISSN 0081-8461 ; v. 30) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 9004117628 (alk. paper) 1. Arabic language—Dialects—Jerusalem. 2. Arabic language—Social aspects—Jerusalem. 3. Hebrew language—Influence on Arabic. 4.Languages in contact—Jerusalem. 5. Language and culture—Jerusalem. I. Title. II. Studies in Semitic languages and linguistics ; 30. PJ6809.J4 P53 2000 492.7’709569442—dc21

00-020629 CIP

Die Deutsche Bibliothek-CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Piamenta, Moshe : Jewish life in Arabic language and Jerusalem Arabic in communal perspective : a lexico-semantic study / by Moshe Piamenta - Leiden ; Boston ; Köln : Brill, 2000 (Studies in Semitic languages and linguistics ; Vol 30) ISBN 90-04-11762-8

ISSN 0081-8461 ISBN 90 04 11762 8 © Copyright 2000 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands

CONTENTS

List of Transcription Signs .......................................................... Abbreviations ................................................................................ Preface .......................................................................................... Introduction ..................................................................................

ix xi xv 1

A. WALKS OF LIFE OF THE SPEAKER OF JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC Chapter One

Love and Reverence for God: Prayer ..............

12

Love and Reverence for God .......................................... The Names of God .......................................................... Sanctification, Consecration, and Praise of God ............ Prayer ................................................................................ Sacred Books—God’s Presence ........................................ The Synagogue—The Congregation .............................. Reading the Torah—Jewish Liturgy ................................

12 13 14 14 15 16 19

Chapter Two hal>xà and m6ßvòt ................................................

22

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. Jewish Law—God’s Commandments .............................. 22 9. Sanctity of the Jew—Dietary Laws .................................. 23 10. Blessings .............................................................................. 25 Chapter Three

The Sabbath ....................................................

27

11. The Jewish Sabbath throughout ......................................

27

Chapter Four 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

The Calendar Cycle of Jewish Holidays ........

33

Celebrating Jewish Holidays ............................................ The Days of Penitence and Awe .................................... Major Festivals—The Feast of Tabernacles .................... Passover .............................................................................. Pentecost ............................................................................

33 33 36 39 45



vi

17. Post-Biblical Holidays ...................................................... 18. Fast Days .......................................................................... Chapter Five

46 48

The Life Cycle ..................................................

50

19. Birth—Coming of Age—Marriage—Divorce— Death ..............................................................................

50

B. LEXICO-SEMANTICS OF THE ARABIC DIALECT OF JERUSALEM Chapter Six

References and Referents ..................................

69

20. Synopsis: The Hebrew Substratum in JJ—Ladino in JJ—The Impact of Foreign Loanwords on JJ and J—Loanwords in JJ and J Surveyed—Loanword Sources—Substituting Arabic Neologisms in J for Foreign Loanwords—Deterioration of JJ to -JJ Reflexed by Modern Hebrew ........................................

69

Chapter Seven Semantic Reality: The Traditional H.r. in JJ ......................................................................................

77

21. Filling Voids in JJ/J in Religious Contexts by H.r. .... 22. Merging and Integrating H.r. Loanwords and Loan Translations in JJ—Portmanteau Morphemes and their Referents—Divergence of JJ Verbs from J in Grammatical Structure—Emotive Load ........................ 23. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J Vernaculars in Contact—Religion and Culture Bound .............................................................................. 24. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J Vernaculars in Contact—Secular ..................................

77

79

84 97

Chapter Eight Emotive Exclamations 25. Emotive Exclamations .................................................... 26. Conferring with Demons ................................................

104 109

 Chapter Nine

vii

Taboo Terms

27. Relating to God and Jewish Faith—to an Intruder— to Death—to Diseases—Euphemisms for Old Age ...... 110 28. Vulgarisms and Taboo Terms—Sexual Organs—The Sexual Act—Prostitution—Impure Excretions—the Toilet—Vulgarisms .......................................................... 116 Chapter Ten Hyperbole ..........................................................

121

29. Exaggerating Feelings and Emotions—Rage— Exasperation—Fear—Alarm—Joy—Love—Desire— Relish—Shame—Disgrace—Annoyance—Friendship— Oath of Divorce—Laughter—Pain—Shuddering from Extreme Weather—Emotional Coldness—Physical Exhaustion Expressing Break-down; Other Exaggerations: Leading to Extremes—in Names and Adjectives—Utter Poverty—Intensity—Abundance— Total Denial—in Time—in Space—in Quantity—in Emphasis ..........................................................................

121

C. JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN CONCORD AND CONTRAST SUBJECT DIVISION Chapter Eleven JJ and J in Concord and Contrast ............

131

30. Intercourse—General Affections—Sympathetic Affections—Moral Affections—Personal Affections— Individual Volition—Personal Dissociation— Inter-personal Communication ...................................... 31. The House and its Contents .......................................... 32. Foods and Refreshments ................................................ 33. Dress and Footwear ........................................................ 34. Health .............................................................................. 35. Occupations ...................................................................... 36. Entertainment .................................................................. 37. Arts and Crafts ................................................................ 38. Traffic and Communication—Wireless—Oral and Written—Formalization—Documents ............................ 39. Nature—Organic: Flora and Fauna—Inorganic ..........

131 143 150 156 160 163 165 167 169 173

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Chapter Twelve Register—A Multilateral Semantic Factor in Jerusalem Arabic Speech ......................................................

176

40. Register Classified ............................................................ 176 41. Bad Style—Filling Voids of J with Hebrew Words— Using Hebrew Terms for Accruing Aspects of Life— Choosing Wrong Allosemes of Ambiguous Hebrew Words for J—Incompatible Loan Translations from Hebrew—Queer Improvised Fabrications— Paraphrasing—Emendation in J of Hebrew Aberrations—Explicating in J while Slipping away Hebrew Words—Concluding in Hebrew -JJ Arabic Sentences—Using Homophonic Hebrew Words out of Place ............................................................................ 177 42. JJ Speakers Relinquishing JJ for J ................................ 182 43. Conclusion ........................................................................ 183 Dictionary-Index ........................................................................ About the Dictionary-Index .................................................. Arabic Section (A.) .................................................................. Hebrew Section (H.) .............................................................. Bibliography ................................................................................

185 187 190 247 275

TRANSCRIPTION SIGNS

For easy reference the list is arranged according to the English alphabet. Consonants ‘ (voiceless affricate for Turkish and Persian), ≈ (]) (rare), ∂ (w), © (q), ˙ (\) (j), q (c) (q), “ (=) (ç), ≤ (c), ß (v) (x), ∆ (-) (rare), † (;) (f), x ( ') (k), Ω (?, emphatic z), " (hamza ˘ glottal stop, or a variant of literary c) , a] (or a variant of literary q), ' ( e) ([). A subscript dot marks emphatization, excluding ˙: Vowels Long vowels have superscript dashes. Stressed vowels have the superscript -´. 6 (central vowel) replaces i in an emphatic environment; frequent in the Syrian dialect. Symbols | < > /

denotes denotes denotes denotes

gender dichotomy, e.g., kbìr|e: kbìr, m. vs. kbìre, f. originating from the origin of option.

ABBREVIATIONS

a A. adj. adv. Aram. b B. B.C.E. c. C.E. cf. Chr. coll. d. D. Dam. decl. def. denom. dim. d.m. E. e.g., El. Enc. Eng. esp. etc. euphem. f. F. ff. Ger. Gr.

left column, see b (Classical) Arabic adjective adverb Aramaic right column, see a Barthélemy Before common era, i.e., B.C. century Common Era, i.e., A.D. confer ‘compare’ Christian collective died Denizeau Damascus declension definite denominative diminutive double meaning Egyptian Arabic exempli gratia ‘for example’ Eli˙ay Encyclopedia English especially et cetera ‘and so forth’ euphemism, euphemistic feminine, and the following (page) Fray˙a and the following German Greek

xii H. ibid. i.e., inf. invar. It. J JJ -JJ JJ/J JJ-J L. Lad. Lat. lit. loc. cit. m. med. Musl. n. no. orig. o.s. p. pass. passim Pers. pl. pp. prep. pron. q.v. r. rep. S. sg. SJ s.m. s.o.

 Hebrew, Hegira (a year of the Muslim era) ibidem ‘in the same place’ id est ‘that is’ infra ‘below’ invariant, having no declension Italian Jerusalem Arabic vernacular vs. JJ Judaeo-Jerusalem Arabic vernacular vs. J sub-standard JJ either JJ or J, intercommunal Jerusalem Arabic dialect JJ communicating with a speaker of J Lebanese Arabic Ladino (common name for Judézmo, spoken Judaeo-Spanish) Latin literally loco citato, in the place (passage) cited, i.e., referred to in a recent note (before ibid.) male medical Muslim note, noun number origin oneself page passive throughout the work, here and there Persian plural pages preposition pronoun which see religion, religious reply Spiro singular Standard Jerusalem Arabic same meaning someone

 Sp. spec. s.th. suff. sup. Syr. T. tech. tr. v. var. v.i. v.n. vs. v.t. W.

Spanish specifically something suffix supra ‘above’ Syrian Arabic, Syrian dialectal area Arabic Turkish technical translation verb variant verb intransitive, see v.t. verbal noun versus ‘against’ verb transitive, see v.i. Wehr

xiii

PREFACE

The study elaborates on the lexico-semantic evolution of Jerusalem Arabic throughout the first half of the twentieth century. A communal urban Arabic dialect spoken by Muslims, Christians, and Jews, it has undergone a cleavage in the wake of conflicting religious and nationalistic aspirations for Palestine of Arabs and Jews, leading in time to the formation of a semi-literary higher standard Jerusalem Arabic vernacular, a linguistic process narrowing differences between modern urban Arabic dialects on one hand, and on the other hand, a Judaeo-Jerusalem Arabic vernacular tinged with traditional religious Hebrew vocabulary gradually eroded from within by the younger generation greeting the revival of Hebrew as a national Jewish revolutionary language of modern European social and cultural standards. The lexical inter-relatedness in its formative stage of the three coexisting varieties: Jerusalem Arabic, Judaeo-Jerusalem Arabic, and Hebrew is documented as the main object of our study. In filling the need for a clear insight into Judaeo-Jerusalem Arabic by the reader who is not familiar with the community speaking this variety, a description at length of many aspects of the community’s life is presented, especially those that have to do with religious observation as reflected in its social life. This part ‘introducing’ the study is a pragmatic specimen of Jewish life in Arabic language, a presumable lacuna of many of those who work in Arabic dialectology. A categorized lexicon describing the semantic fields of most aspects of life in the Jerusalem communities is followed by linguistic processes of code-switching and borrowing. Moreover, lexical integrating and discharging of foreign loanwords over the years in the total make-up of both varieties of Arabic spoken in Jerusalem is analyzed with reference to their origins. On the other hand, lexical parallels in Syrian, Lebanese, northern Palestinian, and Cairene dialects functioning as references to the environmental make-up of Jerusalem Arabic are documented as well. An exclusive Arabic and Hebrew dictionary-like index to which are annexed foreign (origins of ) borrowings winds up the study, making

xvi

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materials easier to use by those who work in Arabic dialectology and Semitics. Indeed, the book is an authorized reference work for professional readership. the Author

INTRODUCTION

0. The present study aims at investigating systematically the Arabic dialect of Jerusalem on the level of lexico-semantics from an ethnolinguistic perspective, communal and historical, covering the first half of the twentieth century (1900–1950), the rationale being an identification of the nature of the dialect as a mothertongue of two communities, Arabs and Jews, living side by side under the impact of constant ups and downs, under adverse circumstances caused by communal tensions and contradicting national aspirations. In order to identify and contrast trends and developments of the communal vernaculars on a dynamic basis of events, it is fit to sever the contiguous Judaeo-Jerusalem vernacular (hereafter: JJ) from mainstream Jerusalem Arabic (hereafter: J) in order to follow up their synonymity or diversity, the extent of acceptability and rejection of foreign loanwords and phrases, their various levels of speech called ‘registers’, the upgrading of J and its standardization as SJ vs. the deterioration of JJ to the level of -JJ ending in a linguistic split: (S) J for the Arab community vs. Hebrew for the third generation of the Jewish community, a language shattering JJ from within. The words and phrases of the Arabic dialect of Jerusalem included in our study are matched wherever necessary with their Palestinian, Syrian, Lebanese and Egyptian counterparts geographically peripheral to the Jerusalem Arabic dialect, cited from authorized dictionaries. 0.1. Highlights in the History of Jerusalem King David, a descendant of the largest and the most powerful tribe in Israel, the tribe of Juda conquered Jebus in 1005 B.C.E., called it the City of David, and made it the capital of his kingdom. In 969 B.C.E. his son, King Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem. In 586 B.C.E. Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon destroyed the city and burnt the Temple. In 515 B.C.E. the Second Temple was inaugurated. In 70 C.E. Titus (later the Roman Emperor) conquered Jerusalem, destroyed it, and burnt the Second Temple. In 324 C.E. the Byzantine Christians ruled Jerusalem. In 638 C.E. the Muslim Caliph Omar captured the city from the Byzantines, and turned it

2

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into one of the centers of Islam under the name of al-quds ‘the Holy City’. In 1099 C.E. the Crusaders captured the city, establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1187 C.E. Saladdin recaptured the city, and was followed by the Mameluke dynasty which ruled Jerusalem in 1263 C.E. In 1516 C.E. the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Selim I conquered the Mamelukes, and in 1536–1541 C.E. the Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent built the walls around Jerusalem on remnants of ruined walls . . . In 1917 C.E. the British army conquered Jerusalem and established the British Mandate over Palestine which was partitioned in 1947 C.E. into a Jewish and an Arab State, declaring Jerusalem international. Following a hard battle between Arabs and Jews in 1948 C.E., the old city was severed from the new, and the State of Israel was established in 15.5.1948, ruling the new city, whereas the old city to the east, few Arab neighborhoods in the north-east, and the Mount of Olives fell into the hands of Jordan. In 13.12.49 the Israeli Knesset (Parliament) declared Jerusalem the capital of Israel. 0.2. The Sanctity of Jerusalem Jerusalem, the Holy City, is sanctioned by adherents to the three monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. For them, religion designates ‘the quest for the values of the ideal life, involving three phases: the ideal, the practices for attaining the values of the ideal, and the theology or world view relating the quest to the environing universe’. In the case of Jerusalem, ‘relating the quest to the environing universe’ cannot disrupt religion from permanent interreligious political controversy and struggle for preoccupying the mundane focus of spiritual attachment, expressed by perpetual political unrest and turmoil throughout history in a universal center of monotheistic religions and civilizations. One is at a loss considering whether religion is the cause or the expedient to religious politics. 0.3. The Jerusalem Arabic Dialect In keeping with the trend of our forthcoming study, the Jerusalem Arabic dialect is divided into a mainstream Jerusalem Arabic vernacular, J, spoken by indigenous Muslim and Christian communities, and a Jerusalem Judaeo-Arabic vernacular, JJ, spoken by an indigenous Jewish community whose mothertongue is the local Arabic dialect because of its day-to-day contact in trade with its Arab neigh-



3

bors in the 19th and 20th centuries, specifically in the Old City, assimilating in language, manners, and customs, excepting its religious adherence expressed by the Jewish calendar and its life cycle domestic traditions. This earlier phase of indigenous communal contact prevailed in the old city of Jerusalem prior to the unprecedented overcrowdedness and spreading chiefly of the Jewish population to its outskirts in new neighborhoods, accelerated by mass Jewish immigration and large settlement. 0.3.1. Peripheries of J and JJ In addition to indigenous speakers of J proper, the Jerusalem Arab population includes Muslim speakers of other urban and rural Arabic dialects tinged with J by relative adaptation or otherwise. Indigenous Christians whose domestic language is foreign to Arabic, e.g., Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, and speakers of other European languages might be fully or partly proficient in the J vernacular, while others maintain their foreign mothertongue throughout. Yet, intermarriages with Christian speakers of J might turn the trend towards acquiring J as a domestic language. On the other hand, indigenous speakers of JJ proper might intermarry with Jews immigrating either from Arabic-speaking countries where they had been speaking their specific Judaeo-Arabic vernaculars, or originating from Spain and living in Mediterranean countries, or with limitations, originating from eastern European countries where Yiddish was their common mothertongue. Intermarriage with indigenous speakers of JJ was not the unique channel for Jewish immigrants to adopt JJ and J over the last few centuries. Their day-to-day contact with speakers of the Jerusalem Arabic dialect stimulated their relative proficiency as is the case with Christians whose domestic language is foreign to Arabic. 0.3.2. Eastern and Western Loanwords in the Jerusalem Arabic Dialect Over the centuries, the Jerusalem Arabic vernaculars, J and JJ, adopted a host of foreign loanwords and phrases from Eastern, TurcoPersian Islamic languages, and from Western, European Christian languages by direct and indirect contacts insinuating gradual Western acculturation.

4

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0.3.2.1. Ladino an Indirect Channel for Transmitting Additional Foreign Loanwords to JJ In the old city of Jerusalem, thence in the new city, the indigenous speakers of JJ had a closer affinity with the Sephardim (H. for ‘Spanish’) than with the Ashkenazim (H. for ‘German’). The domestic language of the latter was Yiddish (German for ‘Jewish’), and being more pious—kept aloof. The Sephardim were expelled from Spain in 1492 C.E. for declining to embrace Christianity by order of the new regime which had overturned Andalusian rule of Muslim Spain. The Sephardim wrote Ladino, their Judaeo-Spanish language in Hebrew characters, into which they translated Hebrew Scriptures and exegeses, etc. Their common Spanish-Hebrew vernacular after 1492 C.E. abroad, termed Judézmo ‹ Sp. ‘Judaism’ includes loanwords and phrases from the Diaspora: Holland, North Africa, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, and the Arab Near East. As subjects of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries, they absorbed a bulk of Turkish loanwords and phrases in Judézmo. They intermarried among others with the indigenous JJ speakers, the musta'ribìn, whose JJ was more ‘Arabicized’, approaching J, and learnt each other’s vernacular, thereby creating a dichotomy within JJ to the extent that part of the speakers of JJ were more adapted to Ladino (hereafter standing for Judézmo as an erratic common form) loanwords in their vernacular than others who coincided with J. Before modern Hebrew took the lead as the Jewish lingua franca (see inf.) in Palestine, it was Ladino which dominated the Jewish community as its ‘overall’ vernacular as a whole. 0.3.3. Masoretic Hebrew as a Substratum of JJ. The main distinctness of JJ from J is the Jewish element inlaid in the local JJ vernacular expressed in Masoretic, i.e., traditional Biblical, Mishnaic, and Rabbinic Hebrew words and phrases centering Jewish religion, partly with a shift of meaning caused by handing down by word of mouth from generation to generation. We shall refer to it hereafter as H.r., i.e., ‘Hebrew religion’, and to its sparse counterpart as Aram.r., i.e., ‘Aramaic in religious texts’. From the point of view of the speakers of JJ, the Jewish elements inlaid in JJ as H.r. are not considered on a par with other elements foreign to JJ and J categorized as ‘loanwords and phrases’ (see §0.3.2. sup.). On the contrary. For them this is the core of their JJ vernac-

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5

ular based on a a sweeping language spread with the conquest of Jerusalem by the Caliph Omar in 637 C.E. under the banner of jihàd, carried on by Muslims for the extension of Islam. Moreover, this same core is a universal Jewish substratum, a common denominator of all Judaeo-X spoken languages, explicitly Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Persian, Yiddish, and Ladino vernaculars. It is the linguistic cement that holds on a popular basis the spiritual life in Judaism, the remembrance of the Temple in Jerusalem, the longing for Zion for two millenia, and the dream of gathering again in Israel. This Hebrew core is also part and parcel of the languages of the universe, of nations among whom Jews have been living and with whom they have been communicating for two millenia as a result of the tragic dispersion of the Jewish nation for the second time, following the destruction of the Second Temple ending the Second Commonwealth in Jerusalem in 70 C.E. It follows that a contrastive analysis of JJ vs. J on the lexicological level clarifies and sharpens their dichotomy: JJ partakes of H.r. elements totally void in J, or elements which do have counterparts in the semantic fields of J void of Jewish sanctity or including connotations untranslatable, wholly or partly in a JJ—J dialogue. 0.3.4. Standardization of J as a Cultural Nationalistic Trend The progression of J towards ‘Standard Jerusalem’ (hereafter: SJ) under the British Mandate over Palestine is a feature of a general pan-Arabic trend driven by cultural nationalistic factors and enhanced by higher standards of living and education, spreading of media, propagation of neo-classical Arabic literature, social and economic organization and, last but not least, the consolidation of Palestinian Arab political awareness laying the foundation for the Palestinian Arab movement and its political institutions to struggle for freedom from colonialism and from the threat of the Zionist movement. In quest for Arab unification in the Arab world, it seemed likely to get urban Arabic dialects closer to one another to be followed by gradual simultaneous assimilation of rural dialects with urban ones, the more educated the population the closer the affinity in verbal expression by way of ‘filing’ phonemic and lexical ‘edges’ towards a more elaborate mutual understanding. The tendentious policy was derived from practical socio-political connections rather than being

6

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a planned linguistic policy. As far as the J (urban) vernacular is concerned, the pronounced linguistic changes took place by a gradual shedding of a bulk of inherited Eastern, Persian-Turkish loanwords and successive Western European loanwords and phrases to a point where they were being replaced by parallel loan-translations, or calques, in Arabic coined in neo-classical vocabulary, gradually blurring the ‘specific’ J vernacular. The process gained momentum to the extent that its new formal garb, SJ, partakes of oral Arabic of intellectuals haphazardly mixed with traditional dialectal elements, or to put it otherwise—of semi-neo-classical polished oral Arabic transcending the local dialect, functioning as ‘standardizer’, thereby creating a closer affinity with other modern Arabic ‘dialects’ simultaneously experiencing similar linguistic processes to meet the demands of ‘reality’ in a modern Arab world. Standardization of J as SJ was therefore a trend centripetal with other modern Arabic dialects as a national trait and a marker of cultural progress. 0.4. Modern Hebrew Words and Phrases as a Superstratum of JJ, gradually shuttering it from within The ingathering of Jewish exiles from the Diaspora in the Land of Israel, the revival of Hebrew as the spoken language meant to unify them as a reborn nation in their fatherland, a language concomitant with modern humanistic, scientific, and technological terminologies following their massive loan translations from European languages, and the establishment of national, religious, cultural, and economic institutions were the dream of the Zionist movement realized, following diligent efforts in the maintenance of objective, after two millenia by establishing the State of Israel. How did these events affect JJ? At the turn of the 20th century, modern Hebrew as a spoken language and the language of formal education presented itself in schools and outdoors mainly among youngsters including speakers of JJ, as a domestic language when contacting their Jewish peers whose domestic language was different. After Ladino in the Sephardic community, Hebrew took the lead as the lingua franca of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic communities despite their different accents at the beginning. For speakers of JJ and otherwise who became aware of their new national identity, Hebrew as a spoken language began as



7

an accruing colloquial gradually separating them from speakers of J maintaining a Palestinian Arab national identity. The gradual influx of modern Hebrew loanwords and loan translations of Western and Eastern languages in addition to an influx of European loanwords adapted to Hebrew pronunciation in the vocabulary of JJ gradually shattered the Arabic element of JJ from within. In time, speakers of JJ had neither the urge nor the pretense to develop their vernacular along Arab national, literary, or cultural lines. The Arabic element in their vocabulary was not reinforced, as was the case with J, by Muslim or literary Arabic heritage, nor did they partake in the standardization of J, i.e., in SJ, its mutually exclusive counterpart as JJ deteriorated (hereafter: -JJ). Hence, the trend of JJ deteriorating to -JJ was obviously centrifugal, in opposition to the centripetal trend of SJ. The transition of JJ to Hebrew took place in the mid-thirties of the 20th. century following these steps: (a) JJ tinged with Hebrew elements; (b) inversely, Hebrew becoming dominant, yet tinged with JJ elements; (c) overlapping merger of Hebrew and JJ; (d) active bilingualism (final shift to Hebrew, the spoken language of the following generation, or the mothertongue of the third generation, depending on the competence in JJ of the parents); (e) passive bilingualism of the young generation fluent in Hebrew; (f ) zero competence of the young generation in JJ by dint of total influx of Hebrew; (g) deterioration of JJ enhanced by political divergence, and growing hostilities between the rival Arab and Jewish communities on one hand, and increasing linguistic, cultural, and political affinities with one’s coreligionists and conationals; (h) shattering of JJ and shifting to Hebrew, thereby forming a linguistic cleavage between both communities and letting JJ lag behind to decline with no recurrence following the death of the older generation (see Piamenta [1992]).

A. WALKS OF LIFE OF THE SPEAKER OF JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC

PRELIMINARY

Assuming that the walks of life of an Arab is an exhausted topic for the student of Arabic and Islam, we shall hereafter elaborate on the walks of life of the speaker of JJ by shedding light on the integrating features common with Jews especially Sephardim the world throughout over many years on one hand, and the features common with his or her Arab neighbors in Jerusalem sharing with them his or her mothertongue and most of their manners and customs excepting religion on the other hand. Introducing, we shall set to depicting the Jewish heritage of this community by surveying its religious beliefs and observances, its rituals and precepts, its liturgy and public worship services, its traditional hierarchies, its religious scrolls and books, its blessings, rites, and ceremonies, its dietary laws, its transition from weekdays to the sanctified Sabbath and vice versa, and its traditional customs relating to the Sabbath and the Biblical holidays, the days of penitence and awe, the New Year and Yom Kippur and its binding rites and rituals, the major festivals of the Tabernacles, Passover, and Pentecost and their binding rites and rituals, the counting of the Omer and its token. We shall further relate to the post-Biblical holidays, Hanukka, Tu bi-Shbat, Purim, Lag ba-Omer and the community’s customs and rituals. Then we shall turn to the major and minor fast days including the fasting on the ninth of Ab, and the mourning of the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem, and the downfall of the first and second Jewish Commonwealths. As we go along, we shall elaborate on the life cycle of the individual, relating to the Jewish ceremonies and observances governing birth, puberty, marriage, and death. The rationale of our approach in surveying the above-mentioned religious background of the speakers of JJ is not so much to give a synopsis of what it means to be Jewish as mainly to organizing their Hebrew religious (H.r.) lexicon in a circumstantial context in situ, as part and parcel of their intuitive linguistic performance in JJ, ‘religion’ being essential to their entity and the main factor for establishing their residence in Jerusalem.

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  CHAPTER ONE

LOVE AND REVERENCE FOR GOD: PRAYER

1. The twice-daily affirmation of God’s unity in morning and evening prayers: “6mà' yi≤r>"èl adonày elohènu adonày e˙àd H.r. “Hear O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (Deut. 6:4) is immediately followed by the reminder: v6-"ahavtà . . . u-vi“6'>rèxa ‘And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart. And thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, and they shall be as frontlets between thine eyes (see [a] inf.). And thou shalt write them upon the posts (see [ b] inf.) of thy house, and on thy gates’ (ibid.: 5–9;11:18–20). The call to love God, in prayer, is almost as pervasive as the command to obey him. The rituals of t6fillìn H.r., ‘phylacteries’, m6z5zà H.r., ‘door-post’, and ß6ßßìt H.r., ‘fringes’ (see [c] inf.) are all intended to serve as signs, as reminders of the Lord’s ‘Presence’ “6x“nà H.r., of all His ‘commandments’ m6ßvòt (sg. m6ßvà) H.r., and the duties to Him in order to be Holy for Him by reflecting the love and reverence for Him. Turning to the signs reminding God’s commandments, we indicate that (a) The ritual of t6fillìn consisting of two small black cubic boxes containing small scrolls of parchment worn by an adult male above thirteen, a bar-m6ßvà H.r., ‘ritually under obligation’ on his arm and head on weekday morning prayers and never on Sabbaths and festivals is a symbol of Jewish faith and devotion binding one’s heart and eyes to God. The small scrolls of parchment are written by a scribe and they include four Biblical passages: “6mà' . . . “Hear, O Israel . . .” (Deut. 6:4–9; ibid. 11:13–21); “Sanctify unto me all the first born . . .” (Exod. 13:1–10), and “. . . every firstling that cometh of a beast which thou hast, the males shall be the Lord’s . . .” (ibid. ibid. 11–16); (b) The ritual of m6z5zà consisting of a small scroll of parchment on which two Biblical passages, Deut. 6:4–9, and ibid. 11:13–21 are

    : 

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written by a scribe, rolled up, and inserted into a cavity hollowed up in the right-hand ‘door post’ at the entrance and in the interior door posts of the house, bathroom excepted. The scroll is referred to as m6z5zà metaphorically after the place where it is put. In modern times, the scroll is fixed to the door post, slightly tilted in a designed case of wood or metal, with the divine Name “addày H.r. (see §2. inf.) or its initial “ [ç] only inscribed on. Thus the dwelling is designated as Jewish in character; (c) The observance of the m6ßvà ‘commandment’ of ß6ßßìt, lit. ‘fringe’ (Num. 15:37–41) is designated by wearing a fringed four-cornered white garment called ß6ßßìt, (as a synecdoche) under the shirt during the day only, otherwise called †allìt q>†àn H.r., ‘small shawl’. The fringe attached to each of the four corners of the garment has successive 10, 5, 6, and 5 separated wound rings of the thread, symbolizing YHWH (in numerical symbols), the ineffable Name of God, erroneously rendered as ‘Jehovah’. On the other hand, the same symbol is designated by the †allìt H.r., ‘shawl’, a fringed four-cornered white shawl worn by men above one’s clothes, rather wrapping oneself with during morning prayers. †all“tòt ‘prayer shawls’ and t6fillìn ( JJ pl. t6fill“mòt) H.r. are available in synagogues for the sake of non-regular visiting worshippers. 2. The Names of God YHWH, the ineffable Name of God that must not be uttered, and its taboo ADONAY H.r., ‘the Lord’ are never uttered in JJ. The latter name is expressed also when reciting benedictions, in formal worship services, blessings for various foods and drinks, and on various occasions so that God’s Name is not used in vain. However, when reference is made to God in the course of conversation, even when quoting religious passages, the terms elohìm H.r., ‘God’ (Gen. 1:1), ha“-“èm H.r., ‘the Name’, ha“-“èm yitb>ràx H.r., ‘bless the Name!’, or the compound term ado-“èm is used instead. Other commonly used terms referring to God are haq-q>dò“ b>rùx hù H.r., ‘the Holy One, bless him!’, or in the context of JJ, the following terms may be used: ribbönò “el 'ölàm, or ribbòn ha-'öl>mìm H.r., ‘Master of the Universe’, or börè-'ölàm H.r., ‘Creator of the Universe’, or “addày H.r., ‘the Almighty’, “èm-“addày H.r., ‘the Name of the Almighty’, or more frequently JJ/J a¬¬a ‘God’, or a¬¬a!, synonymous with yà rabb(i)! ‘O God!’ in common usage.

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3. Sanctification, Consecration, and Praise of God God is sanctified in prayer under the item of q6du““à H.r., ‘hallowing’, the third of ‘the Eighteen Benedictions’, so called because it contains the words h>-"èl haq-q>dò“ H.r., ‘the Holy God’, and in the recital by the congregation of the words q>dò“, q>dò“, q>dò“ adonay s6v>"òt ! H.r., ‘Holy, Holy, Holy is God, the Lord of Hosts!’. God is consecrated in prayer under the item of qaddì“ Aram.r., ‘consecration’, originally recited only at the conclusion of a session of a Torah study. It is still said on this occasion, including prayer, labelled as q. d6-rabb>nàn Aram.r., ‘the q. of our Sages’ as an alternative to q. y>tòm H.r., ‘orphan’s q.’ when during the post-Talmudic period it also became identified with mourners Donin 306. Although it makes no reference to the dead, the qaddì“ is a prayer in praise of God. A son, even q>†àn H.r., ‘underage’ (under 13) is duty bound to recite the qaddì“ as an act of reverence for the deceased parent (or sibling) at daily religious services in the presence of a minyàn H.r., ‘(religious) quorum of a minimum of ten’ representing the congregation, for eleven months only. Again, the qaddì“ is recited on the day of the first year according to the Hebrew calendar, and annually on the anniversary of the day of death. God is praised in morning prayers of New Moon and festivals under the item of hallèl H.r., ‘Song of Praise’ adduced in Psalms 113–118, viewing that the Psalms are part and parcel of prayer. Generally speaking, ‘the Book of Psalms’, t6hillìm H.r., including 150 mizmörìm (sg. mizmòr) H.r., ‘psalms’ is the most common Holy Book after the Torah, traditionally related to King David. The Psalms are chanted, or read quietly in private, between prayers during the day, for divine love and mercy, in supplication against Heavenly decrees, for good health, well being and gaining a livelihood, against sickness, persecutions, and evil. Finally, all prayers end with the proclamation 'alènu l6“abbè ya˙, etc. ‘It is our duty to praise (the Master of all . . . The Lord shall be King over all the earth; on that day the Lord shall be One, and his Name-One)’ (Zech. 14:9). 4. Prayer Public worship services, or ‘prayers’ t6fillòt (sg. t6fillà) H.r., or JJ ßal>wàt (sg. ßalàye or ßlà) are conducted daily in synagogues each morning

    : 

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and evening with a minyàn H.r., ‘minimal quorum of at least ten male worshippers of age’ each of whom is called y>˙ìd, lit. ‘single’, (pl. y6˙“dìm) H.r., ‘worshippers’, above thirteen years of age, a barm6ßvà H.r., ‘ritually under obligation’. The "a≤“rì H.r., ‘tenth (worshipper)’ complements the minyàn. The congregation may include more than one minyàn, especially on Sabbaths and holidays. q6†annìm (sg. q>†àn) H.r., ‘boys under age (under 13)’, lit. ‘small ones’, and JJ/J niswàn u-banàt ‘women and girls’ (sg. mára w-bint) are excluded and ritually exempted. Men and women may not mix in prayer. Following the pattern established in the ancient Temple of Jerusalem Donin 194, an ancient and distinctive feature of the traditional ‘synagogue’ JJ knìs (pl. kanàyes), lit. ‘house of gathering’ is the 'ezrát-n>“ìm H.r., ‘women’s section’ to the rear of the mens’ section behind a semi-transparent curtain, at times in the form of a balcony where married women, like male worshippers, wear a head covering. Services include “a˙arìt H.r., ‘morning prayer’ < ‘morning offering in the Temple Mount’, min˙à H.r., ‘afternoon prayer’ < ‘afternoon offering on the Temple Mount’, lit. ‘offering’, and 'arvìt, or ma' arìv H.r., ‘evening prayer’ with no corresponding evening offering on the Temple Mount (see m5sàf inf.). The services are reiterated in the following ritual time-cycles: (a) ˙ol H.r., ‘weekday’, (b) “abbàt H.r., ‘Sabbath’ (Saturday), (c) rö“- ˙òde“ H.r., ‘New Moon’ falling on any day of the week, (d) r6g>lìm H.r., pl., ‘festivals’ including sukkòt H.r., pl., ‘the feast of Tabernacles’, pèsa˙ H.r., ‘Passover’, and “>v5'òt H.r., pl., ‘Pentecost’, (e) rö“ ha“-“>nà H.r., ‘New Year’, and (f ) yöm-kippùr ‘the Day of Atonement’ (Yom Kippur). The ‘prayer book’, JJ maß˙af (pl. maßà˙ef ) for services (a-c) is called in H. siddùr (pl. -ìm), lit. ‘setting in order [of prayers]’, short for siddùr-t6fillà, whereas for services (d-e) it is called ma˙azòr (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘High holiday prayer book’, lit. ‘periodic’. 5. As a place of worship, a synagogue comprises copies of various prayer books (a-e) and the Torah scroll for the use of worshippers, referred to technically in print as ˙ummà“ H.r., ‘the Pentateuch’ mìm H.r., ‘Sages’. Mishnah and Gemara together make up the Talmud ibid. 25f. Other books in the synagogue’s library are the “ul˙àn '>rùx H.r., lit. ‘the Prepared Table’, an authoritative code of Jewish laws written by Joseph Caro (1488–1575 C.E.), the Zohar H.r., lit. ‘Brilliance’—the Book of Cabbala H.r., lit. ‘Tradition’—a system of esoteric theosophy based on a mystical interpretation of the Scripture, written in Aramaic, presumably in the 13th. century C.E. by Rabbi Moshe de Leon. In addition, one finds pirqè->vòt H.r., lit. ‘Ethics of the Fathers’, and pòs6qìm H.r., lit. ‘Deciders’, i.e., a literature on Halachic questions relating to Jewish law, ‘decided by Rabbinic authorities’, and finally, ˙oq l6-yi≤r>"èl H.r.—a weekday chrestomathy from sources mentioned above for daily perusal following morning prayers. Thus the ‘student’ abides by the commandment of ‘fixing regular times for the study of the Law’. 5.1. God’s “6x“nà H.r., ‘Presence’ in synagogues is attested in Psalms 82:1, “God standeth in the congregation of the Mighty”, and bètha“-“6x“na, H.r., lit. ‘The Abode of [God’s] Presence’ is an appellation for the Temple in Jerusalem Bam-midbar Rabba 7. 6. Prior to highlighting specific topics of Jewish liturgy, it is appropriate to elaborate upon basic ritual items contained in a Sephardic synagogue in Jerusalem, its personnel and congregation. 6.1. The h^xàl H.r., ‘Ark of the Law’, otherwise called >ròn-haq-qòde“ H.r., ‘The Holy Ark’ is a recess in the wall set toward the Temple of Jerusalem, in the shape of a crafted cupboard with ornate woodwork of Biblical text, leaves and flowers, covered with a patterned and decorated ‘curtain’ called p>ròxet H.r., in which are kept the ‘Scrolls of the Torah’ sifrè-törà H.r., in short, the s6f>rìm (sg. sèfer) H.r., made of parchment and written unblemished by a ‘scribe’ söfèr (pl. -ìm) H.r., (yet, a defective scroll is p>sùl H.r., ‘unfit’ for reading before correction). Note that p>sùl applies also to a ‘defective/unfit’ t6fillìn, m6z5zà, or †allìt (see §1. sup.), contrary to k>“èr ‘fit’. A similar but smaller scroll of parchment kept in the h^xàl is the small scroll of haf†>ròt (sg. haf†>rà) H.r., i.e., weekly portions of the ‘Prophets’ read by readers of the final 'aliyyà H.r.,—after the conclusion of ‘the reading of the Law’—designated as maf†ìr H.r., lit. ‘concluding . . .’.

    : 

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The parchment Scrolls are bound in protecting round (octagonal) wooden boxes closed by metal hooks and topped by two cylindrical pegs to hold silver rimmönìm (sg. rimmòn) H.r., ‘finials’, lit. ‘pomegranates’ with tiny brass bells and decorative patterns. Scarves are used to cover part of the Holy script while reading from the Torah in order not to stain the Scroll. The t^và H.r., ‘Reader’s/cantor’s desk’ is an occasionally elevated platform, or occasionally railed spot in the center of the synagogue on which the Torah and haf†>rà Scrolls are placed for reading. The qörè H.r., ‘Reader’ reads the Torah expressively with a communally varying system of ‘intonations’ †6'>mìm H.r. while standing, literally pointing to the Holy text with a fingerlike ‘indicator’ 6ßba' H.r., lit. ‘finger’ (silver or copper). From the t^và, the ‘cantor’ too, called “alì ya˙ß6bbùr H.r., ‘deputy of the public’, otherwise called ˙azzàn (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘leader’ leads the prayer standing as he sweetens his voice while praying and chanting melodies for the benefit of the congregation. In addition to illumination by kerosene lamps and later by electric lamps, traditional ritual lamps are used in a synagogue as memorial candles suspended from the ceiling. These lamps called in JJ "arr>yàt (sg. "arràye) consist of glass bowls partly filled with water and partly with olive oil contributed by kinsmen and kinswomen, with kindling cotton wicks wound on flax fibre and stuck in floating paper clippings to prevent them from dipping. Dilapidated, disused sacred books and ritual articles are stored in a synagogue in the g6n“zà H.r., ‘chest’, ‘archives’. 6.2. The synagogue personnel includes in addition to the Reader and the cantor, the gabbày (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘treasurer’ of the synagogue, lit. ‘collector of dues’ responsible for its financial maintenance, and the “ammà“ (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘sexton’, a functionary who attends to various duties in the synagogue such as being charged with the care and maintenance of ritual items, lighting lamps, cleaning, disciplining children in the synagogue, inviting worshippers to the reading of the Law, and managing men’s and women’s sections. 6.3. The Congregation Ritually speaking, the Jewish congregation is subject to traditional hierarchy since biblical times: kohèn ‘priest’, l^vì ‘Levite’, and yi≤r>"èl ‘Israelite’ of the commons. A kohèn H.r., or a Jew whose surname is Cohen, is a descendant

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of ah>ròn ‘Aaron’, the brother of mo“è ‘Moses’ from the tribe of l^vì, to whom the religious leadership and supervision of worship in the Tabernacle and Temple was entrusted in ancient Israel handed down from father to son. With the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E., the role and function of the kohèn became obsolete. Still, the kohèn is bound by the commandment of the Torah to redeem the first-born, and to perform the ceremony of the Priestly Benedictions (see inf.). A male kohèn is forbidden to be defiled for the dead but for his kin, forbidden to enter a cemetery, and to take a widow or a divorcée as a wife (Lev. 21:1–14). pidyòn hab-bèn H.r., lit. ‘redemption of the son’, specifically the redemption from the kohèn of an Israelite first-born son of his Israelite mother whose parent is neither a kohèn nor a l^vì is a prerogative of the kohèn. Though formal over the ages, it was originally intended that the first-born sons constitute the priesthood and be consecrated to the service of the Lord (Num. 18:15–17), and the Levites were chosen to replace the first-born in the service of the sanctuary, with Aharon and his descendants (all Levites) becoming the koh>nìm (ibid. 8:14–18). The ceremony takes place to this very day. The redemption money, originally five silver shekels was turned over by the father to the kohèn. It is customary in the period under study to use five JJ/J majìdiyyàt, Turkish silver coins of 20 piastres coined under the Sultan Abdul-Majid, current in Jerusalem since Ottoman times, to symbolize the five biblical silver shekels. A ‘ritual meal’, s6'5dátm6ßvà H.r., is held on the occasion. The child’s father blesses “6(he)˙eyyànu H.r., (see §10 inf.) for having lived to see this day. Another prerogative of the kohèn is to bless the children of Israel (ibid. 6:22–27) by performing the rite of ‘the Priestly Benedictions’ birkát-hak-koh>nìm H.r., in the morning prayers of Sabbaths and festivals, standing in front of the h^x>l H.r., ‘the Ark of the Law’, facing the congregation after having removed his shoes and having water poured over his hands by a l^vì ‘Levite’ for purification. In lack of a l^vì to minister him, he pours water by himself (ibid. 18:2). He covers the upper part of his body with his †allìt to prevent distraction, lifting his hands to shoulder height and spreading his fingers in a formation of five pairs. The ˙azzàn calls out each word of the blessing to the kohèn (or koh>nìm) who recite(s) the blessing word for word, and the Israelite congregation asserts saying amèn ‘Amen’.

    : 

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The kohèn is also given the honor of being the first to be called to ‘the reading of the Torah’, 'aliyyà lat-törà H.r., specifically p>r>“átha“-“avùwa' H.r., ‘the weekly portion’, a central feature of the Sabbath service. The “ammà“ H.r., ‘synagogue beadle’ invites him solemnly: b6-xàvod H., (penultimate stress), lit. ‘with due respect!’, and he ‘ascends to the [reading of the Torah] Scroll’, JJ bi†la'-'as-sèfer. A Jew whose surname is l^vì H. ‘Levite’ [Levy, or Halevi] is a descendant of the tribe of Levi. The Levites were elected by Moses to carry the Tabernacle and assist the koh>nìm in the ‘sacred work’. They pour water on the hands of the koh>nìm prior to the deliverance of the Priestly Benedictions, and are second in rank after the koh>nìm, being invited second in turn to read the Torah before the Israelites who are the commons, the third in rank. 7.1. Prior to the ‘concluding’ maf†ìr (see §6.1. sup.), the weekly portion of the Torah is divided into seven sections for the Reader to read, accompanied by seven 'ölìm (sg. 'ölè) H.r., ‘persons called to the Torah’ in succession, for it is customary that when reading a section of the Torah, a Reader is joined by the 'ölè who follows up the reading, perusing the Torah Scroll and listening attentively to the Reader. Sometimes, the 'ölè himself is apt to read independently, as in ancient times, the unpunctuated Scroll, unblemished, with the specific †6'>mìm H.r., ‘intonations’, it being an up-to-date custom with the Judaeo-Yemeni community which also adheres to the tradition of reading the scriptural portion of the week in targùm H.r., ‘the Onkelos’ Aramaic Translation’. When the reading of the section is concluded, the Reader is requested by the 'ölè JJ inno ysawwì-lo [mì “eb-b^ràx . . . H.r.] ‘to bless him, saying: “May He who blessed”’ [. . . Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, bless So-and-So (indicating the name of the 'ölè [and his kin])], who ‘donates’ mitnaddèv H.r. the sum of such-and-such, b6lì nèder H.r., ‘God willing’ for the Torah (to the synagogue). If the 'ölè wishes the Reader ‘to pray for the dead’ JJ yitra˙˙am 'ala-l-mar˙ùm|e ‘to ask God to have mercy upon his dead kin’, he asks the Reader JJ inno ysawwì-lo (f. -la) a“k>và H.r., ‘to pray for the repose of his/her soul (a requiem)’, indicating his or her first name, adding: ‘the son/daughter of So-and-So’ (mother’s [!] name only) [unlike the Ashkenazim who add the father’s name]. A worshipper who has escaped from danger, a car accident, etc.,

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asks to be called to the Torah as a 'ölè in this context. Having concluded, he asks the Reader to allow him to read the benediction called birkát-hag-gömèl H.r., ‘the benediction for deliverance’ in which he blesses God ‘the Deliverer’ for having delivered him from the deadly accident. Concluding, the 'ölè makes way for his follower, backing him as long as the Reader reads the next section. He then shakes hands with his follower and walking back to his seat, he is blessed by the congregation with the words: ˙azzàq u-b>rùx ‘be strong and blessed!’ replying: kull6xèm b6r5xìm ‘be blessed, all of you!’. His younger kin standing on their feet respectfully while the Torah was being read by the Reader, approach him kissing his hand in favour of him. 7.2. Highlighting the remaining topics of Jewish liturgy, we refer in short to birkòt-ha“-“à˙ar H.r., ‘Morning blessings’, ba"">“òt H.r., ‘hymns of supplication’, z6m“ròt H.r., ‘hymns’, extracts from the Torah, Mishnah, and Psalms, and t6fillát-“6monè-'e≤rè H.r., ‘the Eighteen Benedictions’, otherwise called 'am“dà H.r., lit. ‘standing up/still’, a prayer said quietly while standing at attention, facing the direction of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem from all the world over. Some worshippers though, move the upper part of their body back and forth while praying extatically. The 'am“dà is repeated loudly in morning and afternoon prayers by the ˙azzàn (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘cantor’, and the ‘repetition’ called ˙az>rà H., is affirmed benediction by benediction by the congregation saying >mèn ‘Amen’. No repetition is required for the Eighteen Benedictions in 'arvìt / ma' arìv ‘evening prayers’. Following the 'am“dà and reading the Torah on Mondays’ and Thursdays’ morning prayers, ta˙an5nìm H.r., ‘supplications’ are recited. All morning prayers excepting ‘weekdays’ (working days) ˙ol H.r., include m5sàf H.r., ‘an additional (service)’ following the haf†>rà H.r. ‘concluding’ the reading of the Torah (see §6.1. sup.). The m5sàf is a reminiscence of the additional offering presented to God on the Temple Mount in ancient Israel. ‘Afternoon and evening prayers’, min˙à and 'arvìt/ma' arìv follow the “a˙arìt ‘morning prayers’ in a more or less similar pattern, skipping some liturgical topics; they are much shorter and do not require wearing †allìt and t6fillìn (see §1[c] and [a] sup.).

    : 

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7.3. tiqq5nìm as Liturgy We shall now refer to special prayers called tiqq5nìm (sg. tiqqùn) H.r., ‘night liturgies’, lit. ‘corrections, reparations’ of a Cabbalistic nature: liturgical hymns, readings and recitations from religious sources in which one is engaged with the intention of purifying the soul, cancelling a decree, etc. Specifically, (a) tiqqùn-˙aßßòt H.r., ‘midnight prayer’ laments the destruction of the Temple and the disappearance of the “6x“nà H.r., ‘divine Presence or Inspiration’ as a result of Israel’s captivity in Babylon and Rome; (b) tiqq5nè-“abbàt H.r., ‘liturgical hymns and Tractate of the Sabbath’ (included in the Mishnah, etc.) were prescribed by the Jerusalem born Rabbi Isaac Ashkenazi Lurya (1534–1572 C.E.), known as ha-"Arì, the founder of mythical Cabbala to be read on Sabbath eve and the Sabbath; (c) tiqqùn-hò“a'na rabbà H.r., ‘night liturgy of the seventh day of the feast of Tabernacles’ (readings from the Books of Deuteronomy and Psalms, Talmud, Midrashim, and Zohar); (d) tiqqùn-lèl-“>v5'òt H.r., ‘night liturgy of the night of Pentecost’ (readings from the Torah, Mishnah, Talmud, Midrashim, Zohar, and a number of m6ßvòt); (e) tiqqùn-k>rèt H.r., ‘canceling a divine decree by premature death by means of “correction”’ (anomalous). 7.4. Biblical Old Testament Books in Prayer Biblical Books read in prayer in synagogues are not restricted to the Torah (the Five Books of Moses), the Prophets in haf†>ròt, and the Book of Psalms. The scope is wider. It includes also the following Books of Hagiography read in public from beginning to end with specific intonations in different seasons of the year: the Book of Esther on Purim; the Book of the Song of Songs during the Omer period on every Sabbath eve prior to the evening prayer in the synagogue for seven weeks between Passover and Pentecost, and the Book of Lamentations on the ninth day of Ab, the anniversary of the destruction of the first and second Temples in Jerusalem.

CHAPTER TWO

HAL†AXÀ AND M%ÍVÒT

8. Judaism is deed, not just faith; it is life itself. The hal>xà H.r., ‘Jewish law’, lit. ‘the way on which one goes’ is concerned with the proper application of God’s m6ßvòt (sg. m6ßvà) H.r., ‘commandments’ to every situation. The m6ßvòt of biblical origin are in essence unchangeable, whereas those of rabbinic origin, of a later date may be modified under certain circumstances by authoritative scholars. The corpus of 613 biblical m6ßvòt, 248 positive vs. 365 negative commandments includes in a different proportion interlocked ‘reasonable’ vs. ‘unreasonable’ ones, the latter enjoying a status of biblical decrees. In applying the m6ßvòt, the hal>xà deals with every aspect of life, establishing, maintaining, and sanctifying that which is otherwise in the realm of the mundane. The Bible commentator Rashi (11th. c. C.E.) explains ‘sanctifying’ vaguely as ‘separating’. Separating from what? from idolatry, secularism, the vulgar and the profane; undoubtedly from the process of assimilation with non-Jews (Gentiles) (cf. Donin 37). The three inseparable realms of sanctity concern (a) the person, his or her eating habits and sex life, personal hygiene, proprieties of dress, business ethics, family relationships, social activities, entertainment, etc. (b) time, emphasized by laws relating to the Sabbath and the festivals, and (c) place, reflected in the commandments relating to the Temple of Jerusalem. Anyhow, we shall not relate to the sphere of hal>xà beyond the scope and purpose of our study. Judaism has developed rites and ceremonies, rules and procedures for special occasions in individual and family life that call for celebration as well as grief and mourning. Torah laws, guidelines set down by the rabbis, and mystical sources have contributed to the halaxic framework in addition to Jewish local customs that have developed and emerged during the centuries, susceptible to environmental influences ibid. 270.

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9. Sanctity of the Jew. Dietary Laws regarding Food and Drink Food and drink are termed k>“èr H.r., ‘fit and proper’ if subject to the hal>xà they are in accordance with ka“rùt H.r., ‘Jewish dietary law’. On the other hand, ‘forbidden’ food is termed †>rèf H.r., (adj.). Accordingly, some foods are forbidden to eat, because they are ritually unclean/defiled/impure’, sg. †>mè H.r., JJ-J níjes. (see beasts, fish, fowls, and insects listed under Lev. 11 and Deut. 14). Other creatures are permitted by themselves, yet they must undergo a certain procedure ‘to become k>“èr’, JJ yitká““arú, e.g., through “6˙“†à H.r., ‘ritual slaughter’ (Deut. 12:21) by a “ö˙è† H.r., a pious Jewish ‘slaughterman’ certified by the rabbinic authorities, possessing a thorough knowledge of rules and regulations of “6˙“†à and the condition of the animal’s organs which might render it †6r^fà H.r., (n.) = JJ †>rèf ‘forbidden to eat’. Slaughterhouses and religious institutions appoint ma“g“˙ìm (sg. ma“gì ya˙) H.r., ‘superintendents for matters of ka“rùt, i.e., in keeping with Jewish dietary laws’. A m6naqqèr H.r., is a ‘remover of vein’ who purges or excises certain blood vessels and fat sinews that may not be eaten. He follows up to prepare the meat for hax“>rà H.r. = JJ tak“ìr (see inf.), Jews being forbidden to eat veins and blood of fowl or animals (Lev. 7:10–14) though k>“èr. Like any thing that has died a natural death, n6v^là H.r., ‘carcass’ (ibid. 14:21), a fowl or animal not ritually slaughtered, or slaughtered with a notched knife, or discovered as having a seemingly mortal defect when being lawfully slaughtered is a †6r^fà. Mixed foods of dairy and meat of fowl or animal based on the precept ‘Thou shalt not seethe (i.e., boil) a kid in his mother’s milk’ (ibid.), or k>“èr food cooked in non- k>“èr utensils, or milk from nonk>“èr animals, or eggs from non-k>“èr birds are also †6r^fà. 9.1. hax“>rà H.r./JJ tak“ìr ‘Making Meat k>“èr’ Having learnt that eating blood of fowl or animals is forbidden even if they are k>“èr, it must be removed from the meat by hax“>rà/JJ tak“ìr ‘koshering’ the meat: (a) by ‘soaking’, JJ ná"e', and ‘salting’, JJ tamlì˙. As soon as possible, the meat must first be thoroughly washed down under running cold water, then entirely immersed in a vessel of cool water which should not be used for any other purpose and allowed to soak, JJ tint"e'-il- la˙me, i.e., the meat, for half an hour to soften, then removed

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and placed on a slanting drain board, or in a strainer ‘to be salted’, JJ titmálla˙ thoroughly on all sides, with medium coarse salt (not table salt) for one hour to absorb blood from the meat. Under emergency conditions, a male Jew may ‘salt’, JJ ymálle˙ the meat when half an hour would do before rinsing the salt off thoroughly under running cold water, if any. Otherwise, rain water collected in yard cisterns would do, even for koshering by women, in which case the salt would be thoroughly rinsed off the meat by soaking it thrice in water. To quote a lady informant: JJ kunna n†abbel-il-la˙me tlat xa†ràt bi-láayye ‘we’d soak (lit. ‘dip, immerse’) the meat three times in water’ ( JJ II †abbal ‘to soak’ < †6b“là H.r., ‘dipping, immersion’). The meat or fowl was then ready for boiling, cooking, frying, or baking; (b) by broiling, JJ “áwi, on a grill or spit, to allow for blood to drain off after having thoroughly washed down the raw meat, and slightly salted it while broiling. Liver can be prepared only by broiling, not by cooking since it contains much blood. 9.2. Meat and Milk Mixtures Neutral food products such as fish and eggs that are k>“èr, products growing on soil, or manufactured from chemicals may be eaten, cooked, or served in the same vessels with either dairy or meat products. JJ mà bi'áwwe" ‘no obstruction’. Meat and dairy products may not be cooked or served in the same vessels, not necessarily at the same time . . . Otherwise, they are †>rèf, i.e., non-k>“èr. Hence, separate cooking and eating utensils for meat and dairy dishes should be maintained. Moreover, a specific time period of six hours must elapse after one has eaten meat, and four hours after having eaten fowl before one may eat a dairy product. The reverse has no restrictions. 9.3. Grape Wine Grape wine that used to be poured out in honor of a deity in connection with idolatry, called ( y^yn-)nèsex H.r., is forbidden by Jewish Law, the prohibition being extended by rabbinic ordinances to common non-Jewish grape-wine unless it is preboiled. 9.4. Dough, Setting apart of a Portion as an Offering As soon as she puts water into flour when baking, a Jewish lady must remove her portion of a dough offering and ‘set it apart’ hafr>“át-

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˙allà H.r., for the sacred purpose. According to Mishnah, Agriculture, ˙allà(h) 3:1, ‘On account of not being meticulous in the laws of the dough offering and two other transgressions (see §§11.1. and 19.6.3. inf.), a [ Jewish] woman dies in childbirth’ (ibid., Sabbath 2:6). 10. Blessings b6r>xòt H.r. The general H.r., formula of a blessing is: b>rùx attà adonày elohènu mèlex ha-'ölàm . . . ‘Blessed art Thou, Lord our God, King of the universe . . .’ to be continued by a specific attributive [relative] clause translated as ‘who does, or did Y (= such and such), or by whom, or by whose X (= divine action) Y was done’. Accordingly, blessings for food and drink are recited daily in connection with daily meals and otherwise. (1) The blessing for bread, or the Jewish Grace is: b>rùx, etc., hammößì lè˙em min ha-"àreß ‘Blessed art Thou, etc., who brings forth bread from the earth’. The blessing is highlighted, or referred to in brief as ham-mößì, lit. ‘who brings forth’, e.g., (included in a JJ sentence) bàrak, bibàrek, or bàrek ham-mößì! H.r., ‘he blessed, blesses, or bless ham-mößì!’. As a most common blessing for one’s staple food, the JJ sentence is reduced to a single word, an arabicized denom. H. verb, JJ hammaß, bihammeß, or hammeß! s.m.; (2) Subsequently, the blessing for a fruit which grows on a tree is referred to as ha-'èß ‘the tree’, short for . . . börè p6rì ha-'èß H.r., ‘. . . who creates the fruit of the tree’; (3) The blessing for a fruit or a vegetable which grows from the land is referred to as ha-"ad>mà ‘the land’, short for . . . börè p6rì ha"ad>mà H.r., ‘. . . who creates the fruit of the land’; (4) The blessing for eating food (not bread) prepared from any of the five cereals wheat, barley, rye, oats, spelt, including rice and cakes, sums up the category of m6zönòt, ‘various kinds of food’, short for . . . börè m“nè m6zönòt H.r., ‘. . . who creates various kinds of food’; (5) The blessing over/for wine is referred to as hag-gèfen ‘the vine’, short for . . . börè p6rì hag-gèfen H.r., ‘. . . who creates the fruit of the vine’; (6) The blessing for beverages other than wine, and for foods which do not grow is referred to as “6hakkól ‘all things’, short for . . . “6hakkól nihyà bi-d6v>rò H.r., ‘. . . by whose will all things exist’ (see [9] inf.); (7) The blessing for a new fruit since the last season is referred to as “6(he)˙eyyànu ‘who has kept us in life’, short for . . . “6he˙eyyànu

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v6-qiyy6mànu v6-higg“'ànu laz-z6màn haz-zè H.r., ‘who has kept us in life and sustained us and enabled us to reach this season’. What about blessing after. (8) The blessing/Grace after meals is referred to as birkát-hamm>zòn H.r., lit. ‘blessing for food’. It is a long blessing. When partaken by a company of three or more male diners, one of the participants, the host, summons to grace after the meal by a zimmùn ‘summons’; (9) The blessing after having eaten any food requiring the blessing “6hakkól (see [6] sup.) is referred to as birkát-han-neh^nìn H.r., ‘benediction of enjoyments’; (10) The blessing after having eaten a cake, or local fruits (of the Holy Land), e.g., grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates is referred to as 'al ham-mi˙yà . . . H.r., ‘on the sustenance . . .’, a highlighting phrase included in the blessing. All blessings must be answered by >mèn H.r., ‘Amen’ as an affirmation by all those present.

CHAPTER THREE

THE SABBATH

11. The Lord sanctified the ‘Sabbath’ “abbàt H.r., JJ-J is-sabt, in His Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:8–11), the only one dealing with a ritual observance. Experienced from within, it is not restrictive as might appear. As a matter of fact, it serves as a glorious release from weekday concerns, routine pressures, and even secular recreation. It is a day of peaceful tranquility, inner joy and spiritual uplift, accompanied by song and cheer Donin 62. 'òneg “abbàt H.r., is ‘Sabbath entertainment’ with receptions devoted to the study of the Torah, chanting Psalms and hymns (Is. 58:13–14). 11.1. Preparing for the Sabbath In accordance with God’s commandment ‘. . . on the seventh day there shall be to you an holy day, a Sabbath of rest to the Lord . . .’ (Exod. 35:2). All members of the family prepare for the Sabbath in advance on ‘Sabbath eve’, 'èrev-“abbàt H.r. taking care of the most pressing chores, buying foodstuffs for cooking, house cleaning, floor wiping, bathing, etc. The housewife is the busiest member whose task is to prepare meals for the Sabbath, to kindle fire (see inf.), and last but not least to usher in the Sabbath for the household members. Preparing meals for the Sabbath begins with (a) the festive meal for Friday evening called s6'5dát-“abbàt H.r., (or s. avr>hàm ‘the meal named after Abraham [the Patriarch]’) whose menu is fish, meat, stuffed vegetables, soup, salad, and fruit, then (b) the ˙ammìn H.r., ‘hot Sabbath food’ placed in a casserole. Its ingredients are usually fried meat, potatoes, eggs (which turn hard-boiled, overcooked, brownish, delicious, termed JJ ˙amm“nàdos < Lad. ‘˙amminated’), JJ kùklas (sg. kùkla) < T. (via Lad.), lit. ‘dolls’, designating walnut-size minced meat mixed with beaten egg and paste of bread, minced onions and parsley, spiced with salt and pepper, fried in deep fat, beans or stuffed vegetables such as eggplants, zucchini, large green peppers, etc. Another element in the ˙ammìn is the JJ bòlsa < Sp., lit. ‘bag, pouch’. It consists in a small cloth bag including spiced rice fried

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with mincemeat, onions, and tomatoes, and placed in the casserole. Water is then added up to the brim of the casserole which is later placed semi-cooked on a double broad-wick kerosene-cooking-stove, JJ ftìle throughout the night, kept warm by covering the lid with a heavy woven fabric until the next forenoon. Otherwise, it may be taken raw to the public oven to overcook and keep warm until recovered for the Sabbath meal the next forenoon called s6'5dát-y6ß˙àq after Isaac the Patriarch , following the morning prayers; (c) ‘a light Sabbath afternoon meal’ s6'5dát-min˙à H.r.; (d) a ‘third meal’ s6'5dà “6l““ìt H.r., or s6'5dát-ya' aqòv ‘the meal named after Jacob the Patriarch’ eaten towards the conclusion of the Sabbath; (e) strict observants prepare in advance a fourth meal s6'5dát-m6lavvè-malkà H.r., lit. ‘the meal of the prince consort to the queen (i.e., the Sabbath)’ eaten after the habd>là (see §11.3.2. inf.). with ‘accompanying’ singing of hymns. The dining table for s6'5dát-“abbàt must be set in advance on Friday late afternoon. By virtue of the commandment ‘Ye shall kindle no fire throughout your habitations upon the Sabbath day’ (ibid. ibid.: 3), all Sabbath food must be kept warm from Friday. Having cooked the meals, the housewife (a) lights the JJ ftìle (see sup.) to lay on the casserole of the ˙ammìn; (b) prepares the JJ viladèra < Lad. < Sp. valedóra, lit. ‘protector, defender’, a protector of a kerosene lamplight (generally used for illuminating) from flaming or extinguishing. The lamplight is laid under a ‘protecting’ kerosene tin clipped on one side to allow checking the light, and on top of the tin in the center to allow the heat keep the casserole warm throughout the Sabbath. The lid of the casserole, or the kettle of boiling water, must ‘be wrapped/covered all over’ JJ yitjállal [cf. J yínikmer] with a heavy woven fabric to keep the contents hot or warm; (c) lights illuminating lamps in the house to keep them lighting throughout the Sabbath. In the meantime, a regular Jewish crier walks about the neighborhood’s lanes late Friday afternoon crying loudly: (d) JJ asindèr! asindèr! < Lad. < Sp. encender ‘(it’s time for) kindling/lighting’ the JJ "arràye ‘ritual lamp’ (see §6.1. sup). It is kindled approximately twenty minutes before sundown. By so doing, the housewife fulfills this religious duty of hers, formally ushering in the Sabbath for the household members. She recites the blessing called hadlaqáthan-n^ròt H.r., ‘lighting of candles’, since the "arràye is impractical any more, the prevailing custom being lighting Sabbath wax candles in metal candlesticks instead. On account of not being meticulous in the laws of kindling a lamp

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for the Sabbath and two other transgressions (see §9.4. sup. and §19.6.3. inf.), a woman dies in childbirth (Mishnah, Sabbath 2:6). To sum up: moving a lit lamp, putting lights on or off, raising up or lowering down a lit wick sooting a kerosene lamp, putting electric light on or off, etc., in order to alleviate danger of fire on the Sabbath is forbidden by Law for a Jew. In cases of emergency, a passing-by Gentile (non-Jew), or ‘a Gentile who does chores forbidden for a Jew on the Sabbath in the neighborhood’, gòy “el “abbàt H.r., must be called immediately. Otherwise, the Jew gets entangled in ˙illùl “abbàt H.r., ‘desecration/profanation of the Sabbath’. 11.2. The Sabbath Table (Friday Night) The Sabbath Table should contain two loaves of unsliced bread, covered by an embroidered cloth, qiddù“ H.r. cup, ‘the sanctification cup’ of the ceremonial blessing over wine recited on Sabbaths (and Festivals), a bottle of wine, a jug of water, some salt for the blessing of ham-mößì (see §10[1] sup.), and table utensils set on the tablecloth long before kindling the "arràye. As the Sabbath is ushered in by the housewife’s blessing, the male members of the household attend the synagogue for the Friday evening service known as qabb>lát-“abbàt H.r., ‘welcoming the Sabbath’, and 'arvìt ‘evening prayer’. Upon returning home, the male members greet the female members with “abbàt “>lòm! H.r., ‘good Sabbath!’ followed by an echoing answer. Then the family gathers about the table, and standing, they chant traditional Sabbath songs. The Sabbath qiddù“ H.r., (Gen. 2:1–3) JJ "addùs ‘blessing over wine’ is then recited in a melody by the male head of the household (the father) while holding a full cup of wine, the traditional symbol of joy and festive occasions. A pause for permission requested by the head to his household in a trilling voice follows: sàvri m>r>nàn Aram.r., ‘with your permission!’. Then he blesses over the wine, hag-gèfen (see §10 [5] sup.) trilling, and hallows the Sabbath. Each member sips from the winecup and Sabbath greetings with shaking hands are exchanged: “>bbàt “>lòm! ‘good Sabbath!’. Children kiss their parents’ hands, and the parents bless them saying: JJ a¬¬a yir∂a 'alèk|i ! ‘may God be pleased with you!’, or JJ 'arìs! ‘(I wish to see you a) bridegroom’ (to a son), or 'arùse! ‘(I wish to see you a) bride’ (to a daughter). The meal follows the qiddù“ H.r., JJ "addùs after having washed hands ritually for the meal. When wiping hands, the benediction of n6†“lát-yadàyim H.r.,

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‘washing hands’ is said. Then everybody sits around the table. The father uncovers the bread, recites ham-mößì, crumbles a slice of bread or a break of crust, dips ends in a grain of salt, and distributes among the diners who eat the sanctioned bread. Then the festive meal is served and partaken with pleasure. Whoever drinks wine, toasts saying l6-˙àyim! H. (penultimate stress) ‘cheers!’ (cf. [l6-˙ayyìm] (ultimate stress), lit. ‘to life!’). If an acquaintance or a relative is missed by a diner, he or she says: JJ min ©èr “arr min flàn|e ‘we miss So-and-So’, lit. ‘may no evil befall So-and -So!’, responded by JJ mà t“ùf |i “arr ! ‘may no evil befall you!’. After chanting birkát-ham-m>zòn ‘the grace after meals’ (see §10 [8] sup.), the dining table is cleared up, and fruits, refreshments, almonds and nuts are served on the table. Visiting relatives or friends may take part in the entertainment, chatting and chanting pizmönìm H.r., ‘hymns’ late. It is customary, though not obligatory, to congregate before dawn on the Sabbath in Sephardi synagogues of JJ speakers to chant medieval ba"">“òt (sg. ba"">“à) H.r., ‘hymns of supplication’ and ba"">“òt of a later period based on Ottoman and Syrian melodies. 11.3.1. The Sabbath Day On Sabbath morning, a light meal is taken before attending services. All members of the household wear their festive attire when heading to the synagogue. The male members precede the housewife and the older girls who join later to attend the reading of the Torah when seated in the 'ezrát-n>“ìm behind the curtain or on the balcony (see §4 sup.). On the other hand, they arrive home earlier in order to set the festive Sabbath table and wait on the male members. Upon returning from the synagogue, the family exchanges Sabbath greetings: “abbàt-“>lòm! and gathers about the Sabbath table. The head of the family holds high the wine cup for reciting the qiddù“ including its H.r. text referring to the Covenant of the children of Israel to keep the Sabbath according to the divine Commandment (Exod. 31:16–17), and ibid. 20:11, followed by the blessing over the wine. However, if the goblet contains arrack instead, as permissible for the morning qiddù“ of the Sabbath, it is concluded with the blessing “6hakkól (see §10. sup.). Note that the Sabbath morning festive meal includes ˙ammìn for its main course. Around †ù bi-“6bà† ‘the New Year for trees’ (see § 17.2. inf.), when the weekly portion of the Torah read on the Sabbath in the syna-

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gogue is titled b6-“allà˙ H.r. (Exod. 13:17): ‘(It came to pass that) when (Pharaoh) had let the people go . . .’, terminating in ibid. 17:16, and including ““rát-hay-yàm ‘the Song on crossing the [Red] sea’ ibid. 15, it is customary with speakers of JJ, following the morning services to partake in a festive meal called by them ˙ammìn-b6“allà˙ H.r., including a specific ingredient, wheat, together with other ingredients, meat, etc., commemorating the verse of ibid. 16:4 ‘Then said the Lord unto Moses. Behold, I will rain bread (!) from heaven for you . . .’. The same procedures preceding and following the Sabbath day meals, washing hands, breaking bread, grace before and after, pizmönìm H.r., ‘Sabbath hymns’ etc. that have been followed at the Friday evening festive meal are followed at other Sabbath meals. Psalms are chanted and religious texts are studied on the Sabbath at intervals between Sabbatical rest and visits. 11.3.2. The Ending of the Sabbath Day The Sabbath day ends at nightfall when at least three stars are available. The recitation of the habd>là H.r., ‘separation (between the sacred and the secular)’ is required to mark the conclusion of the Sabbath. It follows the 'arvìt ‘evening service’ on möß>"è-“abbàt H.r., ‘the termination of the Sabbath’ in the synagogue, and should also be recited at home for the benefit of household members who have not been present in the synagogue. The habd>là is said over a cup of wine (blessing for hag-gèfen) with an additional blessing for ‘fragrant spices’ b6≤>mìm H. (blessing börèm“nè-b6≤>mìm H.r., . . . ‘who creates diverse spices’), otherwise split between the blessing börè-'>ßè-b6≤>mìm H.r., . . . ‘who creates fragrant plants with a woody stalk’, e.g., rosemary, and the blessing börè-'i≤bèb6≤>mìm H.r., . . . ‘who creates fragrant grass’, e.g., rue or citronella, and . . . finally for ‘light’ (blessing börè-m6"öròt-ha-"è“ H.r., . . . ‘who creates the lights of the fire’). For the observance of the last blessing, a habd>là candle is lit and held by someone in hand. Having prepared the wine cup and the bottle of wine, and having collected beforehand from a garden rosemary stalks, and rue or citronella herbs, the most commonly used for the purpose in Jerusalem, the “ammà“ ‘synagogue beadle’ distributes the fragrant stalks and grass among the worshippers who follow up the various blessings of the habd>là chanted by the cantor, answering amèn after each blessing, smelling the fragrance when the specific blessing is recited, and finally

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examining their right hand by the light of the flame of the habd>la candle, bending their fingers to a certain extent to observe its reflection and the fingers’ shade on the bent palm of their hands, thus deriving some immediate use from the light. The habd>là recitation concludes with the blessing ham-mabdìl bèn qòde“ l6-˙ol H.r., ‘. . . who makes a distinction between the sacred and the secular’. At the conclusion of the Sabbath, one turns from the sacred to the secular, and before departing from the synagogue, the congregation as well as the members of the household at home who haven’t heard the recitation of the habd>là at the synagogue congratulate one another following the recitation, saying: “avùwa' †òv u-m6vöràx ‘good and blessed week (to you)!’, the answer being 'al^xèm v6-'alènu ‘to you and to us’. Cairene Jews exchange the following greeting at this point in Cairene Arabic: gum'ítak xá∂ra, ‘may your week be green!’ (metaphor). 11.3.3. birkát-hal-l6v>nà H.r., ‘Blessing for the Moon’ It is customary to bless for the moon once a month between the seventh and the fourteenth, i.e., up to full moon (in the month of Ab after the ninth, and in Tishre after Yom Kippur, both major fasts). The blessing takes place usually after evening prayers in the synagogue at the conclusion of the Sabbath before dispersion. The congregation walks out to the neighboring yard where they can face the moon, looking up, reciting Psalms 148, blessing the Creator of the moon, wishing it to be a favorable sign for the children of Israel, leaping as they face the moon symbolizing their incapacity to harm it, wishing the nations likewise to be incapable of harming Israel, crying out the slogan ‘David, the King of Israel is alive and enduring!’, concluding with reading Psalms 121 and 150 as they leap on the spot, facing the moon, and finally reciting the qaddì“ before dispersion.

CHAPTER FOUR

THE CALENDAR CYCLE OF JEWISH HOLIDAYS

12. In addition to the daily way of life with its recurring spiritual highpoint—the Sabbath—every seventh day, there are festivals and appointed sacred seasons which add color to Jewish life, and by which the Jew is aware of God’s role in nature and history, and by which he identifies with the land of Israel and Jerusalem, the Holy city. They embody the deepest yearnings and values of the Jewish people. The holidays provide opportunities for the Jew to celebrate and rejoice in the historical spiritual events which made them a nation and a faith, to provide the Jew with the opportunity to identify with the happy and the sad historical occasions that are religiously significant and need to be commemorated forever. Some festivals are designated by the Torah as ‘sacred seasons’ when ‘no manner of servile work’ may be performed. They are Sabbath-like in spirit and sanctity. Others, including the Intermediate days of the festivals and the post-Biblical holidays do not possess the same level of Sabbath-like sanctity, yet they contribute to making even those days distinctive in the life of the Jew Donin 208. 13. The Days of Penitence and Awe At the dawn of an emerging year, on the second day of Elul, the final month of the closing year, Sephardi Jews initiate their ‘penitential liturgies’, s6l“˙òt H.r., before daybreak in synagogues, prior to morning services which last forty days until yòm kippùr H.r., ‘the Day of Atonement’. Before daybreak each and every day, a person walks around waking up the neighborhood, calling s6l“˙òt, s6l“˙òt, JJ ya¬¬a yà flàn, s6l“˙òt! ‘to penitential liturgies, come on, wake up, you . . .!’ . . . and they follow to the synagogue (cf. the Muslim J msá˙˙er who, walking around the neighborhood before daybreak cries out beating his drum and calling for J s˙ùr ‘the last meal before break’ in the month of Ramadan).

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13.1. rò“-ha“-“>nà H.r., ‘the New Year’ rò“-ha“-“>nà is celebrated on the first and second days of Tishre, the first month of the year. It is a sacred day, yòm-had-dìn H.r., ‘Day of Judgment’, the day on which God’s decree of man for the new year is written. It starts the ‘ten Days of Awe’, y>mìm nör>"ìm H.r., otherwise called 'a≤èret-y6mè-t6“5và H.r., ‘the ten Days of Repentance’ (and the Sabbath falling within this period “abbàt-t6“5và, or “abbàt-“ùva H.r., ‘the Sabbath of Repentance’), days of supplication, of pedantry in fulfilling God’s commandments, of charitable deeds, days culminating in yòm kippùr, the holiest day of the year, a day of fasting and atonement when man is judged by God and his decree signed finally for the new year for good or for evil. To begin with, rò“ ha“-“>nà H.r., is a day of prayer and a day of ‘rest’ “abb>tòn H., a memorial proclaimed with the blast of the ‘horn’ “öfàr H.r. (commemorating the revelation of Sinai. Exod. 34), a holy convocation . . . (Lev. 23:24–25). The sounding of the “öfàr takes place in its morning service after the reading of the Torah and prior to m5sàf H.r (omitting the sounding on “abbàt ‘Sabbath’). It is introduced by the specific blessing for the “öfàr followed by the blessing of “6(he)˙eyyànu (cf. §10 [7] sup.). It is a religious duty to listen to the “öfàr sounds and to respond with amèn ‘Amen’. After the min˙à H.r., service of the first day of rò“ ha“-“>nà, or the second when the Sabbath starts the festival, the custom of processions of ta“lìx H.r., (see inf.) are formed to the banks of a river, a seashore, or a reservoir, or to cisterns with open lids in Jerusalem yards where everybody shakes out his empty pockets symbolizing the casting of one’s sins, reciting v6-ta“lìx bi-m6ß5lòt-yam kol ˙a††ötàm ‘and you will cast all their sins into the depths of the sea’ (Micah 7:19), as a sign of repentance. The proper greeting to extend during the period following rö“-ha““>nà H. is tizkù l6-“>nìm rabbòt! H., ‘many happy returns! may you live long!’ to be responded by tizkè v6-ti˙yè ! (f. tizkì v6-ti˙yì!; pl. tizkù v6-ti˙yù!) H., ‘may you merit and live [long]!’, or l6-“>nìm rabbòt tikk>tèvu v6-te˙>tèmu! H., ‘may you be registered [in the Book of life], signed, and sealed for many many years!’. 13.2.1. The Eve of Yom Kippur On the eve of yòm kippùr, in the morning service before sunrise, a ritual called hatt>rà, short for hatt>rát-n6d>rìm H.r., ‘annulling of vows’ takes place, n6d>rìm ‘Vows’ being the name of a treatise of the Order

     

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of n>“ ìm H. ‘Women’ in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud. The annulling of vows refers to vows relating to rituals, to charity, and to one’s personal vows forbidding oneself as far as private observances are concerned. (see also kal nidrè in the service introducing yòm kippùr inf.). A rabbinic custom elaborated upon in the Talmud and codified in the “ul˙àn '>rùx H.r., referring to the law of ka“rùt H.r. is the offering of kapp>ròt H.r. (pl.), ‘expiatory sacrifices’ on the eve of yöm kippùr (known in J as 'ìd-ij-jàj ‘the chicken festival’) designated by ritually slaughtering of fowls by a “ö˙è† (pl. -ìm) ‘ritual slaughterer’ who before slaughtering must examine the fowls lest they be †>rèf H.r., i.e., non-k>“èr. How do fowls get to the “ö˙è†. The head of the family encircles threefold a male’s head of his household with a cock, and a female’s head with a hen, or in exchange for both with eggs, or with charity money. The encircling is done at the entrance to one’s house by the door-post under the m6z5zà. The procedure may be repeated as many times as there are members in the family joined by a threefold recitation of the following: zè (f. zòt) kapp>ratxà (f. kapp>r>tèx), etc., H.r., ‘this is your expiation, . . . [this is your substitution, . . . this is your compensation (designating that) this cock (or hen), or its substitute is meant to be an expiatory sacrifice of your (m. or f.) decreed death (in the hope of canceling the decree), and you shall live a good, long life, Amen]’. The expiation is done also for oneself. The fowls are then taken to the “ö˙è† for ritual slaughtering . . . Having cooked the fowls, they (or their substitutes) are distributed among the poor, if the household can afford. The meal in the late afternoon prior to the fast should be a festive, nutritious meal including fowl, meat, etc., as the Friday evening meal of the Sabbath. A meal before a fast is called s6'5dà mafsèqet H.r. The proper greeting to extend on the eve of yòm kippùr is ˙at“mà †övà! H.r., ‘may you be signed [and sealed] well!’ with an echoing response. 13.2.2. yòm kippùr H.r., ‘The Day of Atonement’ yòm kippùr is the Day of Atonement, of complete fasting for whomever is a bar-m6ßvà [females from the age of twelve on are designated as bat-m6ßvà H.r.] beginning on the ninth of Tishre before sundown at

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daylight, and concluding the next day at nightfall (25 hours) when at least three stars appear. It is also called ‘the Day of complete incumbent Rest’ “abbàt “abb>tòn H.r. (Lev. 23:26–32). The service introducing yòm kippùr on the ninth day after rò“-ha““>nà in the synagogue is called kal nidrè Aram.r. It is a prayer in Aramaic for the dispensation of vows assumed by an individual for himself alone, where no other persons or their interests are involved. A distinguishing feature of prayer on yòm kippùr is wearing the †allìt throughout the day in all services including the night before (!), and the cultic practice of ‘kneeling down’ and ‘prostrating oneself ’ like in the Temple period (cf. JMusl. rukù' and sujùd, s.m.) in the m5sàf prayer of the morning service when recited vocally by the cantor. In the Temple days in Jerusalem, ‘the High Priest’, hak-kohèn hag-g>dòl H.r. would enter ‘the Holy of Holies’ qòde“ haq-qod>“ìm H.r. in this sacred day to pray for the people. Following the morning service, the service of min˙à H.r. takes place. Then follows the concluding service of the Holy Day, called n6'“là H.r., ‘Closing (of the Gates of Heaven)’ toward sundown. This is the most solemn ceremony of the Day, when the physically weak worshipper who has fasted completely for twenty-four hours stands humbly before God with awe, entreating Him (with tearful eyes) to atone for all his sins. The conclusion of yòm kippùr is marked by a single long blast of the “öfàr . . . Then comes the ‘evening service’ of 'arvìt, concluding with the habd>là H.r., which ‘separates’ between the sacred day and the secular before dispersion and returning home to break the fast. After nightfall, following the meal of breaking the fast, the members of a family pay a short visit to their elders to be confident regarding their good health at the end of this weakening day, to greet them and to have their blessing. Following the visit, zealous individuals go on fulfilling their religious duty of constructing the sukkà H.r., ‘Tabernacle’ without interruption, for the festival of sukkòt H.r. (pl.) four days later. 14. mö'>dìm H.r., ‘Major Festivals’ The three ‘major Jewish festivals’ called mö'>dìm (sg. mö'èd ) H.r., are pèsa˙ H.r., ‘Passover’, “>v5'òt H.r., ‘Pentecost’, and sukkòt H.r.,

     

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‘Tabernacles’, the third in order according to the Torah (Exod. 14:16–36), but the first in the modern calendar, celebrated in the first month of Tishre for seven days, 15 through 21 following yòm kippùr. Only the first and seventh day of pèsa˙ and sukkòt are sacred festival days (ibid. 12:16); the rest are ‘intermediary, semisacred’ days, ˙ol-ham-mö'èd H.r. The ‘eve of a mö'èd’ is 'èrev-˙ag H.r., and ‘the day following the feast’ is ísr5 ˙ag H.r. In ancient times, the children of Israel were commanded to go on a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem with a seasonal offering to celebrate the mö'èd. 14.1. sukkòt H.r., ‘The Feast of Tabernacles’ God commanded the children of Israel to commemorate the period in which He brought them out of the land of Egypt by dwelling in sukkòt ‘booths, temporary huts’ (Lev. 23:39–42), which is the unique feature of the festival. The blessing in the qiddù“ to this effect is said before the blessing of “e(he)˙eyyànu for the first festive meal in the sukkà, after returning from the synagogue. The proper greeting to extend in the mö'>dìm is mö'>dìm l6-≤im˙à H.r., ‘happy feasts!’ to be responded with ˙aggìm u-z6m>nìm l6-≤>≤òn H.r., ‘festivals and fixed seasons for gladness!’, i.e., happy returns!. The sukkà (sg.) may not be constructed under a tree or some permanent roof; it is meant to be temporary. It is covered with branches cut off from trees. The walls of the sukkà standing beside one’s house, or on one’s balcony on the upper floors are made of poles and panels, covered from within with white bed sheets decorated with tapestries and colorful hanging pictures of the Temple and biblical figures, and decorations of colored paper in various shapes and forms, with overhanging bunches of fruits of the season, traditional posters and crisscrossing colorful chains of paper, paper lamps, and kerosene or electric lamps. One can imagine large families in the neighborhood all over, in their festive clothes, gathering around tables heavily set with a festive meal, in fully lighted and decorated sukkòt ‘temporary booths’ in the feast of sukkòt (metaphor) blessing God, eating and drinking, chatting, rejoicing, and chanting seasonal religious hymns late. Actually, the sukkà is no more a place for temporary dwelling, for lack of space and inconvenience. Yet, it still is a place where familial meals are partaken in throughout the feast of sukkòt known in J as 'ìd-il-'ur“ ‘the festival of booths’ in its material, not spiritual sense.

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14.1.1. arb>'át-ham-mìnìm. H.r., ‘The Four Species’ Another distinctive observance related to sukkòt is to take the four species of plants: etròg H., ‘a citron’, l5làv H., ‘a young (compact) palm branch’, h>dàs H., ‘a myrtle branch’, and 'ar>và H., ‘a willow branch (or twig)’, and with them to rejoice before the Lord. The etròg held in the left hand is separate, while the rest bound together as a unit are held in the right hand. The l5làv being the largest of the four, the unit of arb>'át-ham-mìnìm is called wholly by its name when blessing, both hands held together. On the first day of sukkòt, the blessing “e(he)˙eyyànu is added Donin 254f. On every day of sukkòt, Sabbath excepted, one blesses for the “l5làv” in the synagogue (a) during the recitation of the hallèl ‘Song of Praise’ (Psalms 113–118), in the morning service, and (b) during the hö“a'nòt H.r. (originally prayers dealing with water) ancient ‘liturgical hymns’, piyy5†ìm (sg. piyyù†) H.r., with the couplet hò“a' na H.r., (sg.), lit. ‘save, I pray!’, an exclamatory appeal to God for deliverance, in praise of God, cf. hosanna!. While holding arb>'át-ham-mìnìm, everyone in the synagogue joins in a haqq>fà H.r., ‘a procession around’ [the t^và/b“mà] on intermediary days, reciting one ‘liturgical hymn’, piyyù† of hò“a' na, but never on the Sabbath. On the seventh day of sukkòt, the hò“a' na rabbà Aram.r., lit. ‘major hò“a' na’ takes place. It comprises seven haqq>fòt ‘processions’ and seven piyy5†ìm (pl.) of hò“a' na severally, commemorating similar processions around the altar of the Temple in Jerusalem during the festival of sukkòt, striking willow branches. 14.2. “6mı˘ nì 'aßèret H.r., ‘the Eighth Day of Solemn Assembly’, and ≤im˙át-törà H.r., ‘the Rejoicing of the Law’ Immediately following sukkòt, on Tishre 22, independent of it and its specific rituals, ‘the Eighth Day following the seven days of offering made by fire to the Lord [in the Temple of Jerusalem] shall be a holy convocation . . ., a day of solemn assembly and no servile work should be done’ (Lev. 23:36). This day coincides with the celebration of ≤im˙át-törà ‘the Rejoicing of the Law’, the festival of completion of the annual cycle of the weekly reading of the Torah in the synagogue. Digressing, in the morning service of ≤im˙át-törà a prayer for rain is introduced initiating a ‘winter supplication’ included in the

     

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second of ‘the Eighteen Benedictions’ (see §7.2. sup.) of each and every following service until the morning service of the seventh day of pèsa˙ when the ‘summer supplication’ is annually initiated. Highlighting, the 'ölìm called to read the Torah are: ˙>tan-törà H.r., ‘the Groom of the Law’ who reads the final portion of it, ˙>tanm6'önà H.r., ‘the Groom of [God’s] Abode’, and ˙>tan-b6r^“ìt H.r., ‘the Groom of Genesis’ called to initiate the reading of the portion of Genesis, as a linkage with the forthcoming Sabbath called “abbátb6r^“ìt H.r., ‘the Sabbath of Genesis’, when the annual cycle of the weekly reading of the Torah is renewed. ≤im˙át-törà ‘the Rejoicing of the Law’ is probably the most joyously celebrated festival day of the year. It is marked by seven processions of the worshippers with all the Scrolls of the Torah around the t^và/b“mà H.r. of the synagogue who raise them up to make them conspicuous, passing them to others, clapping hands, singing, and dancing with ecstasy. These processions take place at the conclusion of the three services of the Day: evening, morning, and following evening services. Children too take part in rejoicing, on their fathers’ shoulders, or standing on chairs, holding cardboard flags on wooden sticks with colored pictures of the open h^x>l and two Torah Scrolls peeping from behind, decorated with religious slogans. Following the morning processions, the congregation accompanies the three ‘Grooms’ to their homes, from one home to another, chanting hymns on their way. On arriving, the congregation congratulates the ‘Grooms’ and their households in the living room, chanting and having refreshments, shaking hands and taking leave. 15. pèsa˙ H.r., ‘Passover’, the ‘Feast of Liberation’ The mö'èd ‘major festival’ next to sukkòt in the Hebrew calendar is pèsa˙, celebrated for seven days too in the seventh month of Nisan, 15 through 21. According to the Torah (Exod. 14:16–36), it is the first mö'èd. Only the first and seventh day are sacred festival days (ibid. 12:16); the remaining days are ˙ol-ham-mö'èd H.r., ‘intermediary, semisacred’. In ancient times, pèsa˙ was celebrated by pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem with a seasonal offering. God commanded the children of Israel to commemorate their deliverance from Egyptian bondage, and recall their mass exodus from there (ibid. 1–15), to ‘remove/destroy leaven’ bi'ùr ˙>mèß H.r. on the night before Passover, to eat maßßà

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H.r., ‘unleavened bread’ seven days in ˙ag ham-maßßòt H.r., ‘the Feast of unleavened bread’ (ibid. 12–15.), JJ-J 'ìd l-if†ìr, s.m., to eat nothing ‘leavened’ (ibid. ibid.: 20), and bring the first of their early harvest to the Temple (ibid. 23:19). Nowadays, the main ceremony of the festival is conducting in one’s residence when returning from evening services in the synagogue the sèder H.r., lit. ‘order (of service)’ referring to the religious service which includes the festive meal on the first night of pèsa˙, included in the hagg>dà H.r., lit. ‘the Tale/recounting the Israelite servitude and exodus from Egypt included in a booklet containing the sèder “order of the service” (in Hebrew including some Aramaic, and in various Jewish colloquials and versions) comprising also blessings and prayers to be recited by members of the household and their guests at table’. 15.1. Preparations for pèsa˙ 15.1.1. ˙>mèß ‘Leaven’ In preparation for pèsa˙, a thorough house-cleaning is undertaken. Copper utensils and cutlery are handed over to ‘a chemical cleanser’, JJ/J mbáyye∂-n˙às. Other vessels are cleansed, rinsed three times in hot water over kerosene primuses in large tubs to ensure removal of ˙>mèß, then lifted from the hot water with tongs, and laid on a clean cloth, rendering them ‘ritually fit for Passover’ k>“èr l6-pèsa˙ H.r. This ritual is termed hag'>là H.r. One should not possess ˙>mèß ‘leavened (food)’ during pèsa˙, including grains and flour that have come in resting contact with water for at least eighteen minutes, and food and drink made of them or mixed with them. Sephardi Jews including speakers of JJ may eat rice, corn, and the pea family throughout pèsa˙. 15.1.2. b6dı˘qát-˙>mèß H.r., ‘Search/Inspection for ˙>mèß’ b6d“qát-˙>mèß, formal, intensive, ritual ‘search or inspection for ˙>mèß’ must take place on the day before the eve of the 14th of Nisan soon after nightfall to check for thorough cleaning from ˙>mèß, as required by the Mishnah. The head of the household says the blessing of bi'ùr ˙>mèß H.r., ‘the burning and destruction of ˙>mèß’, holding a lighted candle in hand, and searching in darkened rooms for traces of ˙>mèß

     

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in corners, under beds, sofas, cupboards, etc., and laying them bare, including an exact number of wrapped small quantities of crumbs of leavened bread, wrapping the whole bunch well in order to burn it the next morning, on the eve of pèsa˙ (ibid. 12:15) until 11.00 a.m., an hour after the deadline for eating ˙>mèß. 15.1.3. m6xı˘rát-˙>mèß H.r., ‘The Sale of ˙>mèß’ m6x“rát-˙>mèß refers to selling large, private or commercial quantities of ˙>mèß, if any, by having a bona fide bill of sale (transaction) drawn up with a ‘non-Jew’ gòy H.r. involving a token sale until the end of pèsa˙. 15.2. maßßà H.r., ‘Cake of Unleavened bread’ maßßà is an unleavened, dry, crunchy wafer made from water and grains which must have been carefully watched to avoid premature contact with water. It is baked instantly by hand, or since the 1930s in Jerusalem by machine. Care should be taken that the entire baking process from the time of mixing the flour and the water into a dough does not exceed eighteen minutes. Various ingredients are added to the maßßà when frying or cooking, otherwise it may be slightly soaked in water before eating, for a better digestion. On the day before pèsa˙ it is not permissible to eat maßßà, in order to honor the blessing for it at the sèder. For the sèder night only, a cake of maßßà “6m5rà H.r., is eaten ritually as commanded by the hal>xà (ibid. ibid.:17). It is ‘a “guarded” unleavened bread’ baked of grain protected against damp from the time of reaping (!) lest it become ˙>mèß. During the sèder it is broken off by the head of the household, and distributed among the celebrators for them to eat. It is a compact, unsalted lump of hardly chewable, indigestible bread. 15.3. The sèder and the hagg>dà 15.3.1. At nightfall, immediately upon returning from evening services at the synagogue, the household and the guests gather around the festive Paschal table in a joyful atmosphere, while a large ‘ceremonial plate’ q6'>rà H.r. stands in the midst of the table set with symbolic items of the feast for the conductor to start the sèder ritual:

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(a) maßßà and maßßà “6m5rà (see sup.) representing the ‘unleavened bread’ which the Israelites ate in the exodus from Egypt. It commemorates the Paschal offering in the Temple of Jerusalem; (b) The z6rò wa' H.r., roasted ‘shank-bone’ representing the Paschal offering; (c) An egg representing the festive offering; (d) ˙aròset H.r. (see inf.) representing the mortar used by the Israelites in building the cities in Egypt; (e) karpàs H., ‘celery’, a sign of fruitfulness; (f ) Salt water symbolizing the tears shed by the Israelites in their bondage in Egypt; (g) m>ròr H.r., ‘bitter herbs’ represented by lettuce, symbolizing the bitterness endured by the Israelites in bondage; (h) Wine symbolizing joy. Other than table linen, dishes, cutlery, and glasses on the table, each literate participant is supplied with a hagg>dà H.r., a booklet including ‘the Tale of pèsa˙’, being a metaphor of the ‘Tale’ itself recounting the Israelite bondage, the exodus from Egypt, and Hebrew national freedom. 15.3.2. The traditional ritual sèder is conducted as follows – The conductor recites the Paschal qiddù“ (or habd>là, if the ceremony coincides with möß>"è-“abbàt H.r., ‘termination of the Sabbath’), then the blessing “6(he)˙eyyànu (cf. 14.1. sup.), holding up his ‘Cup’ kòs H.r., of wine while standing. He drinks up and sits down. The participants follow suit drinking their first cup of wine then sitting down. Congratulations follow; – Ritual hand washing and blessing; – Eating celery dipped in salt water; – The conductor breaks the middle of three maßßòt into halves, keeping one half for >f“qömàn (see inf.) – Choral chanting of the Aramaic Introduction of the hagg>dà: hà la˙mà 'anyà d“ ax>lù abh>tàna b6-"ar'à d6-m6ßràyim . . . ‘This poor bread which our forefathers ate in Egypt . . .’, followed by individual reciting in turn, regardless of age: ‘the Four Questions’; ‘Father’s Reply’ (‘We were Pharaoh’s slaves in Egypt’); ‘the Midrash on the Four Sons’ (differing in personal character); ‘the Story of Israel’s bondage and redemption’; ‘Declaration of the Ten Plagues which God smote

     

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the Egyptians with’ (Exod. 7:17—ibid. 12:30) by the conductor who pours some wine from his full cup into a bowl held by the housewife in one hand, while with the other she pours some water from a jug as the conductor names the Ten Plagues, one by one; the housewife continues to pour water into the bowl intermittently following his slow pouring of wine—a ritual exploited to curse the names of Israel’s traditional usurpers with a burst of passion and a kind of relief; obligatory declaration of the three mottos: pèsa˙, maßßà, and m>ròr in chorus, in fulfillment of the Paschal celebration; – Chanting the first and second psalms of hallèl; – Blessing for redemption; – Drinking the second cup of wine. * * * – Ritual hand washing and blessing; – Grace before festival meal. Blessings: ham-mößì for bread, and for eating maßßà; – Winding a leaf of ‘lettuce’, m>ròr H.r., around a morsel of maßßà, and dipping it in the ˙aròset H.r., pursuant to Rabbi Hillel, commemorating the Temple and the yearning for its renewal. The ˙aròset according to the Judaeo-Bagdadi version is a thick mixture of ˙6llèq > JJ ˙illè" ‘carob honey’, cf. JJ-J dibs-xarrùb, s.m., mixed with ground walnuts; the more common ˙aròset according to the Syrian and Ashkenazi version is a thick mixture of ground apples and walnuts with wine, spiced with cinnamon (see Donin 230), used to sweeten the bitter herbs; – Families accustomed to apportion a boiled egg for each participant eat the egg before the Paschal meal; – Partaking in the Paschal meal; – Dramatizing the Exodus: The af“qömàn, a half maßßà symbolic of the Paschal offering is kept to be eaten when the sèder is over. The word af“qömàn < epikomon Gr. ‘aftermeal entertainment’ had undergone a shift of meaning in the Hebrew of the Middle Ages to mean ‘ fruits, sweetmeats, etc.’ Jastrow 104a. The other half is wrapped in a napkin like a bundle, and being tied around a child’s shoulder, he is asked to head for the entrance door of the room and knock it, thereby dramatizing the Exodus for the participants. The child is then asked in JJ: A—mnèn jàye? ‘where have you come from?’ B—min m6ßràyim. H., ‘from Egypt’.

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A—la-wèn ràye˙? ‘where to?’ B—la-y6r5“>làyim. H., ‘to Jerusalem’, (in a wider sense:) ‘to the Land of Israel’ (synecdoche). Bits of the af“qömàn are distributed among the participants, symbolic of the Paschal offering when it was the last thing eaten at the sèder. – ‘Grace after the festive meal’ birkát-ham-m>zòn H.r., a long blessing; – Drinking the third cup of wine; – Filling kòs-"eliyyàhu ‘the (large) Cup of Elijah’ (the fifth cup) to overflowing and keeping it aside overnight never to be drunk. According to tradition, ‘Elijah’, eliyyàhu han- n>vì H.r., is the forerunner of the ‘Messiah’ ma“ìya˙ H.r. whose coming symbolizes the ingathering of the exiles and the establishment of Jewish sovereignty over Israel. He is traditionally believed to visit Jewish homes on ‘the Paschal night’ lèl-has-sèder H.r., and taste the wine; – Concluding the hallèl, two prayers, and ‘liturgical hymns’ pizmönìm H.r.; – Drinking the fourth and last cup of wine; – Rejoicing; The final chant of the evening is: la“-“>nà hab-b>"à bi-y6r5“>làyim hab-b6n5yà H.r., ‘Next year in Jerusalem rebuilt!’. 15.3.3. For prayers in the synagogue in mö'èd and ˙ol-ham-mö'èd of pèsa˙, see §14. sup. 15.4. In the morning service of the seventh day of pèsa˙, a prayer for dew is introduced, initiating a ‘summer supplication’ included in the second of ‘the Eighteen Benedictions’ of each and every following service until the morning service of ≤im˙át-törà when the ‘winter supplication’ is annually initiated. On the termination of the last day of pèsa˙ following the habd>là, speakers of JJ are accustomed to strike one another joyfully with a green sheaf of wheat or barley uprooted from neighboring fields, blessing one another in JJ: sántak (f. -ek) xá∂ra ‘may your year be green!’, i.e., blessed. On the other hand, it is customary that Muslim friends, especially of the countryside, pay visits to their Jewish hosts at this hour to greet them on the termination of the feast, carrying along a large, round, twenty-cms.-high basket of fresh homemade J †>bùn ‘oven’ whole-wheat bread, butter, honey, olive oil, and olives. The hosts welcome, accomodate, and entertain the guests with kind hospitality,

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thanking them for the gift they have loaded. In return, the hosts supply them with a package-load of maßßà, presents and sweets, and after a while they bid them farewell, promising to pay them a visit. 15.5. Counting the 'òmer H.r., lit. ‘the Sheaf ’ It is a religious duty to count the days of the 'òmer for seven full weeks (i.e., forty-nine days) beginning with the second night of pèsa˙, Nisan 16th, the day the 'òmer H.r., ‘sheaf of wave offering (of barley)’ was being brought to the Temple, ending on the fiftieth day, the night of the feast of “>v5'òt H.r., ‘Pentecost’ (lit. ‘[seven] weeks’) on Sivan 6th. (Lev. 23:5–16). “>v5'òt is the second Biblical mö'èd H.r., ‘festival’. It is the feast of ‘early harvesting’ and of ‘the acceptance of the Torah’ (see §16. inf.), while the 'òmer links between them both. The counting on each evening is preceded by the blessing for the 'òmer. Strict observers of the 'òmer do not wear new clothes, nor do they shave or take haircuts. Moreover, no Jewish weddings are conducted before the thirty-third day, lag ba-'òmer H.r., (lg = 33 in numerology) which takes place on Iyyar 18th. On this occasion, a highlighting JJ hill5là Aram.r., ‘festivity’ of dancing, of playing popular music and lighting bonfires in memory of Rabbi Shim'òn BarYo˙ày is celebrated, and a JJ ziyàra, lit. ‘[ritual] visit’, i.e., pilgrimage to the Rabbi’s tomb takes place in Meron on Mt. Galilee. The rationale for the above-mentioned restrictions is the mourning observed on account of the death of 24,000 disciples of Rabbi 'Aqìva by a plague occurring in that period of the year. 16. “>v5'òt H.r., ‘Pentecost’ “>v5'òt, the second Biblical, and the third chronological mö'èd ‘major festival’ is celebrated on a single day, Sivan 6th., the fiftieth day of the counting of the 'òmer. It is essentially an agricultural feast, of harvesting wheat and fruit firstlings (Exod. 34:22), as well as the feast of the declaration of the Ten Commandments on Mt. Sinai, commemorating the revelation of God’s will. On the first night of “>v5'òt, following the evening service of the mö'èd at the synagogue and the celebration of the festive meal at home, the worshippers go back to the synagogue in order to pass the night till dawn, reading sacred texts in groups, praying, and awaiting the Hour decreed by God to arrive. We may mention in passing that an old custom in “>v5'òt is eating

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dairy food and honey insinuating the Biblical verse ‘honey and milk under thy (f.) tongue’ (Song of Songs 4:11). 17. Post-biblical Holidays Following are post-biblical holidays: ˙anukkà, †ù bi-“6bà†, p5rìm, and lag ba-'òmer H.r., prescribed by the Rabbis, yet requiring religious observances, not as binding as the sanctified holidays mö'>dìm prescribed by Biblical Law (see §14. sup.). 17.1. ˙anukkà H.r., ‘The Feast of the Maccabeans’ or ‘The Feast of Lights’ ˙anukkà is observed for eight days between Kislev 25th and Tevet 2nd, commemorating the historic victory of the Maccabeans following their rebellion and recapture of the Temple in Jerusalem in 164 B.C.E. from the hands of the Greeks who conspired to impose restrictions against Jewish religious practices and values, and tried to enforce their own beliefs and Hellenism on them. When the Maccabeans (Hasmonians) recaptured the Temple, they wished to light the Menorah, m6nörà H.r., ‘the candelabrum of the Temple’ but pure oil was scarcely enough for one day. Miraculously, it lasted for eight (!) days. Hence, the major religious observance consists in lighting the eight lights of a ˙anukkà lamp, ˙anukkiyyà H.r., known in JJ as ˙anukkà (!) by metaphor. It consists in eight wicks in a setting of tiny oil containers in addition to the “ammà“ H.r., the ‘service light’. Starting from the far right, the first wick is lighted on the first nightfall, gradually increasing every nightfall through the eighth. The “ammà“ is lighted first. Then, with a candle in hand, the relevant wicks are lighted increasingly night after night, while the “ammà“ lights throughout. A blessing for lighting the JJ ˙anukkà is recited, followed by the blessing for the miracle. The blessing of “e(he)˙eyyànu is added for initial lighting the first nightfall. A special hymn is sung in Hebrew on the occasion, and the tale of the historic victory of the Maccabeans is told every night. A traditional custom in ˙anukkà is to enjoy eating JJ/J zúngol Pers. ‘pancakes sprinkled with sugar syrup, or with sugar powder and cinnamon’ as a treat, later known in Hebrew as l6v“vòt with the younger generation. Children play with JJ/J furr^ràt (sg. furrèra) ‘spinning tops’ in ˙anukkà.

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17.2. †ù bi-“6bà† H.r., ‘New Year for Trees’ †ù bi-“6bà†, the New Year for trees celebrated on Shevat 15th. (†w = 15 in numerology) is mentioned in the Mishnah. It used to commemorate the annual payment of tithes for tree fruits in the days of the Second Commonwealth. Nowadays, a traditional celebration after nightfall of the preceding day takes place in a happy familial gathering around the table where the participants enjoy partaking of all kinds of local fruits, almonds and nuts, fresh and salted, and children are presented with small, personal cloth bags sewn by their mothers, containing samples of fruit, almonds and nuts for the day of †ù bi-“6bà†, samples which they may exchange with one another, having fun. It is on this ‘New Year for Trees’ that processions of Hebrew school children on a national level are arranged in class groups annually, starting from school yards through general meeting spots wherefrom the solemn processions walk in pace to the tunes of music bands through the streets of Jerusalem, with cheering onlookers, banners and shoots of trees in hand, heading for the outskirts in order to plant trees and increase the expanding green plots at the expense of desolate, rocky or sandy landscapes. 17.3. p5rìm H.r. p5rìm is a day of rejoicing. It is observed on Adar 15th., one month before pèsa˙ in Jerusalem being a walled town in the days of Joshua, and on the previous day, the 14th, in unwalled towns. It commemorates the saving of Jewish communities living under Persian rule in the days of king Xerxes, a˙a“v^rò“ from his viceroy’s, Haman’s evil designs to exterminate them by ‘lotteries’ p5rìm H.r., (pl.), referring to his method of selecting the date for a general massacre of them. Miraculously, it was owing to a Jewish girl named Esther, a certain Mordecai’s uncle’s daughter whom he reared, and whom king Xerxes married instead of his insubordinate wife Vashti that the Jews were saved. Haman’s plot having failed, he was hanged upon the gallows as well as his ten sons, and the Jews rejoiced and sent ‘portions’ mi“lò wa˙-m>nòt H. to one another, giving ‘charity’, ß6d>qà H. to the poor, as attested in the biblical Book of Esther, popularly called m6gillát-estèr ‘the Scroll of Esther’ which is since read annually in synagogues at nightfall preceding the festival as commanded.

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The custom of celebrating p5rìm in a festive familial dinner including wine, of sending portions to one another and giving charity to the poor still prevails. Children wear masquerades, karatònia < Lad.Sp. ‘hideous masks’, while adults make carnivals and merry making. Sephardi children, including speakers of JJ, are presented by their parents and kin with ‘Purim money’, p5r“mlìk (H.+T. suffix -lık denoting Arabic nisba ‘relation’), lit. ‘relating to Purim’, a custom since Ottoman times, in contrast with the custom of presenting xán6ka-gelt, Yiddish for ‘˙anukkà coins/money’ to children by their Ashkenazi parents and kin in ˙anukkà (see §17.1. sup.). 17.4. lag ba-'òmer (see §15.5. sup.) 18. Fast Days Major fast days are yòm kippùr and ti“ 'à b6-"àb, requiring total fasting for over twenty-four hours, before sundown on the eighth of Ab till nightfall of the following day. The minor ones require fasting from sunrise till sunset. All fast days are attested in the Bible, except the Fast of Esther: (a) ßòm-g6d>lyà H.r., ‘the Fast of Gedalya’ is observed on Tishre 3rd following the day of rò“-ha“-“>nà. It commemorates the assassination of Gedalya, the appointed Governor of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar, following the destruction of the First Temple ( Jer. 40–41); (b) yòm kippùr (see §13.2.2. sup.); (c) ßòm-'a≤>rà b6-†^bèt H.r., ‘the Fast on Tebet 10th’ marking the beginning of the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (ibid. 32:2); (d) ta' anìt estèr H.r., ‘the Fast of Esther’ is observed on Adar 13th, the day before p5rìm (see §17.3. sup.) in commemoration of the days of fasting and prayer requested by Esther; (e) ßòm-“iv'à 'a≤àr b6-tammùz H.r., ‘the Fast on Tammuz 17th’ which according to tradition, marks the first breach in the walls of Jerusalem made by the attacking Babylonian forces after a siege of three years (occurring in Tammuz 9th, attested in II Kings 25:3–4); (f ) ßòm-ti“'à b6-"àb H.r., ‘the Fast on the ninth of Ab’, a day of fasting and mourning commemorating the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E., and the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., the downfall of the First and the Second Jewish Commonwealths, and the exile of most of the Jewish people from their land.

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Between the first and the tenth of Ab one should abstain from eating meat, drinking wine, and putting on new clothing. Following the services on the eve of the ninth of Ab in the synagogue, mourning customs require reading the Book of Lamentations, popularly known as m6gillát-"èxa H.r., ‘the Scroll of Lamentations’, in a mournful chant and wailing ‘lamentations’, q“nòt H.r., while squatting on the ground with brows smeared with wood ashes in a dim light of candles. The gloomy atmosphere is at its utmost when the Jewish mourners mourn the destruction of the Temple at the remnant of their splendour wailing at the Western Wall of the Temple in Jerusalem for generations.

CHAPTER FIVE

THE LIFE CYCLE

19. As in the calendar cycle of Jewish holidays discussed above, ceremonial and ritual observances in happenings of happy and sad events in one’s life cycle such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death do require the usage of a Hebrew vocabulary relating to religion, labeled as H.r. in the JJ vernacular. 19.1. Birth 19.1.1. Birth of a Girl When a daughter is born, her parents are congratulated with b6mázz>l †òb H.r., ‘good luck!’ in a still voice, in comparison with the ritual ceremony which takes place on the occasion of the birth of a son whose parents are congratulated with b6-s“m>n †òb! H.r., ‘augury!’, lit. ‘good omen!’. As far as the girl is concerned, a relatively modest ritual ceremony takes place in the synagogue on the Sabbath following her birth. Having read the weekly portion of the Torah, her father is blessed mì “ebb^ràx (see §7.1. sup.) by the Reader, who is asked to announce the girl’s name in public. The Reader blesses her, declares her name, wishes her ‘good luck’ b6-mázz>l †òb! adding that she be wed in the lifetime of her parents whom he wishes to bear sons after her and live a long life. A ritual hymn is then chanted merrily, while her mother and female kin from the 'ezrát-n>“ìm H.r., ‘women’s section in a synagogue’ ‘shower’ the men’s section with sweets (bonbons) and the children around crouch down to the ground, snatch the sweets as they push themselves filling their pockets with satisfaction. According to Biblical Law, a woman in childbed is in a state of ‘impurity’ †um"à H.r., for fourteen days after giving birth to a daughter. In addition, seven clean days are then counted, followed by the proper ‘immersion’ †6b“là H.r. (see 19.6.3. inf.).

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19.1.2. Birth of a Son When a son is born, his parents are congratulated with b6-s“m>n †òb! H.r., ‘good omen!’. This is a happy occasion for the family to celebrate the ‘Covenant of circumcision’, brìt-m“là H.r. (Gen. 17:10–14), in brief—m“là H.r., ‘circumcision’ in JJ, at the age of eight days if the child is healthy. In case he is the first son born to an Israelite mother who is not a descendant of a kohèn or l^vì, a ‘Redemption of the first-born (son)’, pidyòn-hab-bèn H.r. celebration (see §6.3. sup.) should take place on the thirty first day following his birth unless it falls on a Sabbath, a festival, or a fast when it is postponed. 19.2. brìt-mı˘ là ‘Covenant of Circumcision’ 19.2.1. The Night of Elijah the Prophet’, JJ lèlt-"eliyyàhu han-n>bì known also as JJ lèlt-il- m“là ‘the nightfall preceding the day of circumcision’ falling on the seventh night of the birth of a son, ‘Rabbis’, ˙ax>mìm H.r., and pious men are invited by the child’s kin to read excerpts from the Zohar, the source of the Cabbala, in reception of Elijah, and chant pizmönìm ‘ritual hymns’ when relatives and friends join in to take part in the rite of kindling ‘wick oil-lamps in cups’ JJ "arr>yàt in honor of Elijah, about twenty in number, radiating from a large, round copper tray on which they are laid. The illuminating formation is called JJ †àra < tiára Gr., or †àr(ah) A. ‘hoop’ Dozy 2:66b. Coins are charitably laid by the lighters on the †àra for the poor. The ceremony develops into an evening of entertainment and fun, singing and merrymaking with the JJ/J >l>tíyye ‘oriental music band’ composed of a violin-, a lute-, and a tambourine-player. Refreshments and cigarettes are offered as fun continues late. 19.2.2. The Day of the mı˘là On the next day, the eighth since childbirth, the ceremony of the m“là takes place beginning with pizmönìm chanted by the assembly with the following theme: ‘Remember, O God, your mercy and the blood of your Covenant, and send us the Prophet Elijah! Peace be on Israel! A male child has come to us “in good omen”’ b6-s“m>n †òb. In his lifetime the Redeemer (Messiah) will come. Then we’ll mount the Temple Mount [to offer sacrifices] on the three major festivals’.

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The attending men (ladies aside) then gather solemnly with baled breath around kissè eliyyàhu han-n>bì H.r., ‘the Chair of Elijah the Prophet’ to which the infant to be circumcized is carried from the women’s section dressed and decorated, swaddled on a cushion, his head covered with a cap fastened with a safety pin to a JJ xamsìka ‘golden ornament in the shape of a hand’ (< xamse ‘five [fingers]’ A. + -ìka Lad. dim. f. suff.) and a stem of JJ rùda ‘rue’ ( < Lad. < Lat. ruta) as a talisman against the evil eye. The m“là ritual is a sign of entering the ‘Covenant’, b6rìt H.r. between God and Abraham the Patriarch and his progeny forever (see Gen. loc. cit.). In this ritual the infant is formally named. Beside the ornamented kissè-"eliyyàhu, ‘the Godfather’ JJ ßandà" H.r., (cf. H.r. sandàq), who is either a grandfather of the infant or a distinguished guest wearing a †allìt sits on an armchair where the infant is carried to, for him to hold on his lap. According to tradition, Elijah is believed to appear here and now to testify for the Israelites as keepers of God’s Covenant. By so doing, he withdraws his accusation attested in I Kings 19:10. The möhèl ‘circumcizer’, an observant Jew who has been carefully trained to perform the circumcision equipped with his operational apparatus, and wearing a †allìt, approaches the ßandà", unswaddles the infant and examines him. Given the infant, the father also wearing a †allìt first blesses God who commanded to bring the child into the Covenant of Abraham the Patriarch, then blesses “e(he)˙eyyànu. Answering amèn, the attendants respond aloud with their own prayer. The möhèl then takes the infant, puts him on the lap of the ßandà", and unswaddling him again, straddles his legs as the ßandà" holds fast the bent leg while the möhèl recites the blessing for the circumcision and fulfills his task carefully. As the infant yells with pain, the möhèl dips his finger into a cup of wine, then into the wide-open mouth of the aching infant over and over to divert him from suffering and alleviate his pain as he sucks the finger of the möhèl, calming down. Meanwhile, a cup of wine is filled and the möhèl blesses God for making the Covenant with Abraham, and formally declares the name given the infant. Psalms 128 and the qaddì“ are finally recited. Seldom does the father of an infant circumcise his own son, naturally following the blessing. Invitation to the m“là ritual is not customary, fearing harm to the child if the invitation is turned down. Accordingly, passers-by may partake in the ritual on account of the fact that by so doing they are fulfilling ‘a divine commandment’, a m6ßvà. Whosoever attends

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the ritual is not expected to donate a present, and it is common in Jerusalem to see attendants to a m“là ritual, acquaintances or passersby, each blessing three ritual blessings when offered after the circumcision is over: one for pa(n) spunjàdo Lad. ‘sponge cake’ (blessing for m6zönòt), another for a hand-cup of wine (no cups in common circles!) (blessing for hag-gèfen), and a third for smelling a twig of some fragrant herb: rue, rosemary, or citronella (blessing for b6≤>mìm), (see §10. sup.). Concluding the ritual, it is customary in family circles to offer cakes, candy, and refreshments too. The usual congratulation, as stated above, is b6-s“m>n †òb! H.r., or JJ "dùmo xèr! ‘may his advent be a blessing!’, or JJ 'u"bà l-t6fillìmo ‘I hope to congratulate you when he comes of age on bar-m6ßvà!’ The response to married persons, especially to women of bearing age is JJ ßábi 'ándkom/'ándek! ‘may you (pl./f.) have a boy! (no mention of girls). As with all religious ceremonies performed with joy, it is proper to celebrate the m“là with s6'udát-m6ßvà H.r., ‘a ritual meal’ called s6'udát-"eliyyàhu han-n>bì H.r., ‘Elijah the Prophet’s meal’ which takes place after the ritual in the infant’s home. All rituals of the meal are fulfilled, and pizmönìm are chanted joyfully. 19.2.3. Reading the Torah in the Synagogue On the Sabbath following the circumcision of a boy, the father together with other members of kin are invited in succession to read the Torah in the morning service in his synagogue. He is alluded to with avì-hab-bèn H.r., ‘the infant’s father’. Whenever a new 'ölè is invited to read the Torah, the worshippers chant pizmönìm in the honor of avì-hab-bèn, and the “ammà“ goes around among the worshippers sprinkling rose water or perfume from a silver sprinkler, JJ mra““ on their hands which they rub and smell. Bonbons and sugarcoated almonds and peanuts are offered, and the children are showered between readings with bonbons and toffees. 19.3. pidyòn hab-bèn H.r., ‘Redemption of the First Born’ (see §6.3. sup.). 19.4. bar-m6ßvà H.r., ‘Coming of Age’ (religionwise) 19.4.1. Prior to the age of religious majority (maturity), a parent should teach his children (sons) Torah [and skills] (Deut. 11:19). A

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boy reaches this age on his thirteenth birthday according to the Hebrew calendar. In other words, he becomes an ‘adult coming of age’, responsible for the observance of all the m6ßvòt, ‘the divine commandments’ (Mishnah, Avòt 5:25). On this day, he becomes a barm6ßvà H.r., ‘ritually under obligation’ or ‘subject to [observance of divine] commandments’. Henceforth, he is called upon to be a member of a minyàn (see §4. sup.), to put on t6fillìn ‘phylacteries’ (see 11[a]. sup.), to read the Torah and recite the appropriate benedictions, even to lead a prayer in the synagogue (see §7.1. sup.). Because women do not participate in conducting synagogue services, a girl is exempt from all but three m6ßvòt relevant to women (see §19.6.3. inf.) and no formal traditional ceremony marks for her the time of reaching the age of religious majority. Immediately after his thirteenth birthday, on a Monday’s or a Thursday’s morning prayer when the Torah is read from a Scroll in the synagogue (see §4. sup.), the bar-m6ßvà heads for the synagogue accompanied by his family, carrying along his new †allìt and t6fillìn consisting of a hand t6fillìn and a head t6fillìn kept in a decorated ‘bag’ for this purpose called JJ korà‘a Lad. (H.r.). After the first blessing, he wraps himself with a †allìt, and after the second, he puts the hand t6fillìn (a small leather box) on his left arm if his right hand is dextrous, and wraps the connected leather straps on his forearm and hand. He then turns to the head t6fillìn and wears it like a crown on his forehead bordering on the hair, letting down its two leather straps on his back like two locks of hair, while his father checks him up step by step. From now on he is a member of a minyàn H.r., ‘praying quorum’, an adult. When it comes to reading the Torah from the Scroll, the new bar-m6ßvà is called to read by himself, standing beside the Reader who follows up. Having concluded the morning prayer, the congregation of worshippers is offered refreshments in the yard of the synagogue where the young man is congratulated, and kissed by his kinswomen. 19.4.2. On the following Sabbath festive morning prayer, the synagogue personnel welcomes the celebrant and his kin. When reading the Torah Scroll, he is called up for reading the maf†ìr H.r., ‘the final 'aliyyà’ and the haf†>rà H.r., ‘a section from the Prophets relating to the specific weekly portion of the Law’, thus providing him with a greater role in the service. His father who is also called to read

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the Torah, refers to him publicly in a ritual, exclaiming: b>rùx “ep6†>ràni me'on“ò “el zè H.r., ‘Bless Him who rid me of the sins of this one!’. The blessing mì “ebb^ràx (see §7.1. sup.) follows suit before quitting. Late afternoon, a ceremony called in JJ fara˙ lubs t6fillìm (!) (rhyming with t6hillìm ‘Psalms’) ‘the ceremony of donning phylacteries’ takes place at his home where relatives and friends are invited to take part. The celebrant is called to deliver in Masoretic Hebrew a d>rù“ H.r., ‘sermon’, a learned address on some Biblical or Talmudic theme which his ˙>xàm ‘Rabbi’ has prepared for him to deliver as part of his private course in hal>xà, which he has thoroughly learnt by heart. The celebrant is warmly applauded, and refreshments or rather a s6'5dà H.r., ‘ritual meal’ follows. Loaded with presents, the young man and his parents are congratulated with JJ 'u"bà l-'ursak/-'urso! ‘I hope to congratulate you/him on your/his wedding day’. 19.5. t6n>"ìm H.r., ‘Engagement Betrothal’ In ‘an engagement betrothal’, t6n>"ìm, lit. ‘stipulations of [ betrothal] agreement’, or JJ/J xu†be [er5sìn H., s.m.], the suitor and his parent(s), or the next of kin in the absence of parents, make an appointment with the parents of the betrothed girl who is usually an acquaintance of the suitor to visit them in order to ask her hand for the suitor. If she consents, the parties discuss the stipulations in her absence: her ‘dowry’, JJ/JChr. dòta/dò†a < It. dote, Fr. dot, i.e., her money which she brings with her at marriage, and her ‘trousseau’, JJ “uwàr < Lad. = JJ/J jhàz, i.e., her outfit of clothes, linen, etc., which she brings along the dòta. An oral agreement is made, or a written one signed by both parties for them to abide by in order to consummate the marriage around a date agreed upon. Occasionally, the groom’s party may accept the stipulation JJ k6-fì k6bödò H., lit. ‘according to his [the girl’s father’s] wealth’, i.e., the groom’s party may content itself with whatever the other party can afford. If the girl’s party is incapable of paying a dowry, the groom’s party may forego. (Sometimes a dowry is collected for a poor bride JJ/J la-ssutra ‘for chastity’). Having concluded, they shake hands. Then the fiancée is admitted and acquainted with her future in-law(s) whose hand she kisses. Refreshments are served and congratulations exchanged. mázz>l †òb, or JJ/J mabrùk ‘good luck!’.

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During the interim period between betrothal and wedding, the fiancée, her mother and sisters prepare with her the trousseau mostly hand-made in full swing. 19.6.1. Preparations Some time before the wedding ceremony, it is customary to invite female relatives with their children and female friends of the fiancée’s and the groom’s parties to her parents’ residence to celebrate the exhibition of her ‘trousseau’ JJ “uwàr Lad. = JJ/J jhàz in detail. The celebration takes place in a joyous atmosphere, the fiancée being solemnly dressed and painted with make-up, and JJ/J za©>lì† ‘joyous shrills’ uttered by the women, praising her beauty and chastity, singing songs, clapping hands, and merrymaking with a tambourine in hand. Refreshments and sweetmeat are offered, congratulations and kisses exchanged. 19.6.2. Haircut Festival for the Groom On the evening preceding the wedding ceremony, it is customary to call a barber to the residence of the groom for a ‘haircut’, JJ ˙là"a gathering of the groom and his closest friends. Entertainment goes on as the barber cuts the hair of the groom, perfumes and combs it, singing and applauding while refreshments are being served, until the last guest has had his haircut on the house. 19.6.3. †6bççılà H.r., ‘Ritual Immersion’ of the Bride The Biblical precept: ‘You shall not come near a woman while she is impure by her uncleanness to uncover her nakedness’ (Lev. 18:19) is the basis for the sexual discipline and rules that govern the Jewish marriage relationship Donin 136. The first time that a woman is obliged to immerse herself in the miqvè H.r., ‘a ritual body of water’, thereby removing herself from a state of niddà H.r., ‘separation’ is prior to her wedding. Every effort should therefore be made to plan a wedding during that period of the month when it is permissible for the bride and groom to have marital relations ibid. 138. While the haircut festival for the groom is going on in the abovementioned case, his bride is accompanied by her kinswomen to her ritual of †6b“là in one of four JJ/J ˙ammàms, ‘[ Turkish] public baths’ in the old city of Jerusalem including a miqvè under the supervision

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of a Sephardi woman Kosover 310, no. 524, otherwise called JJ ma†bal < bèt-ha†-†6b“là H.r., ‘plunge bath, immersion bath’, a stone bathtub filled up with water which is not renewed, reserved by the Muslim owners of the ˙ammàm for Jewish women (cf. B. 577). The most frequented ˙ammàm for †6b“là is JJ/J ˙ammàm-il-'èn, lit. ‘the Spring bath’, some centuries old in the precincts of the Holy Place area, to which water was being supplied by an aqueduct from a spring in Solomon’s pools to the south of Jerusalem. JJ bú"jet-il-˙ammàm, ‘the bath package’ of the bride including her robe, her bathing articles, perfumery, and make-up is carried along with those of her kinswomen attending her with a tambourine in hand for the immersion ceremony. After taking off her clothes, the bride is guided by the lady-superviser to bless for the †6b“là, after which, quoting a JJ woman speaker in 1943: binázzlu-l-'arùs 'a-†-†6b“là, il-'arùs btín†bel sábi' ©a†ßàt u-bi†all'úwwa ‘the bride is taken down by the hand for ritual immersion, immersed seven times, and got out’, wiped up, dressed, perfumed, put on face, combed, and decorated amidst Palestinian and Syrian folk and romantic songs, dances, joyous shrills, clapping of hands, and ‘drumming on’ the tambourine, while refreshments are being served with JJ masapàn Lad. < Fr. massepain, ‘marzipan’ decorated with thin gold leaves on top. With the constant increase of Jewish population by immigration to the new city of Jerusalem, miqvès have been increasingly constructed since for women of all Jewish communities, gradually abandoning the old Turkish baths in the old city and renouncing old customs due to social divergence under the impact of political tensions. In general, a Jewish wife is forbidden to her husband each month during a total period of about twelve days covering (a) her monthly menstrual period of five days for the average woman, when she is in a state of ‘ritual uncleanness’, JJ †um"à H.r., otherwise termed JJ niddà H.r., a state of ‘separation’ extended in the Talmud by a rabbinic edict to (b) seven ‘clean’ days following the menstrual period. Past this period, she should immerse herself in a miqvè in order to ‘cleanse herself ritually’, †ah>rà H.r., the proper time for the †6b“là, ‘immersion’ being after nightfall. Supervised by a strict woman attendant, the woman prepares herself for the immersion by first cleaning herself thoroughly in a hot bath, after having cut her nails and removed all articles, the hair being washed and combed. After the woman has immersed herself completely in an upright position, the blessing for the †6b“là is recited.

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Then she totally immerses herself once again, the proper time being after nightfall loc. cit. Then and only then is the woman allowed marital relations. †6b“là is incumbent on the married woman as long as she menstruates. On account of not being meticulous in the laws of ‘menstrual separation’ niddà H.r., and two other transgressions (see §§9.4. and 11.1. sup.), a woman dies in childbirth (Mishnah, Sabbath 2:6). For †6b“là of a mother after childbirth, see §19.1.1. sup. Preceding their wedding ceremony on the same day, the groom and the bride should ‘fast’, JJ ta' anìt H.r. and not meet altogether for fear of bad luck. 19.7. “èva' b6r>xòt H.r., ‘the Wedding Ceremony’, lit. ‘the Seven [Nuptial] Benedictions’ A Jewish marriage should be a public ritual held in the presence of one JJ minyàn H.r., ‘ten adult men’ at least, regardless of the presence of women for they do not count ritually. The consummation of betrothal in the wedding ceremony establishing a new entity is symbolized by the groom and his bride standing under a ‘canopy’, ˙uppà H.r. = JJ tálamo Lad.-Sp., supported by four poles. Flanked by their parents, the couple is sheltered by a †allìt held up by its four corners under cover of the decorated tálamo. The ceremony is conducted in the following manner: (a) Over a Cup of wine, the Rabbi facing the couple JJ bi"áddes, ‘betrothes’ them by reciting the qiddù“ H.r., = JJ "addùs, blessing for hag-gèfen H.r. extended with the following blessing: . . . ‘Blessed art Thou, Lord our God, King of the universe who sanctifies his people, Israel, by ˙uppà and qidd5“ìn H.r., ‘canopy’ and ‘marriage’. lit. ‘nuptial benediction’. He then drinks of the wine, offers the cup to the groom for him to drink, who in turn passes it to his bride for her to drink; (b) The Rabbi asks the groom whether he is carrying a ring (with no precious stone) which he has paid for with his own money. Having declared ‘I do’, the groom should display the ring, and by the Rabbi’s instruction should turn to the bride and declare: harè at m6quddè“et lì b6-†abbà'at zò k6-dat-mo“è v6-yi≤r>"èl ‘You are sanctified (betrothed) to me with this ring in accordance with the Law of Moses and Israel’. While declaring the betrothal, he fits the [golden] ring on her forefinger. With her consent in public and the ring placed upon her finger, the bride is thus betrothed as a wife, lit. ‘sanctified’ to

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her husband; (c) The Rabbi proceeds to recite the JJ “èva' b6r>xòt over a cup of wine. The highlights of the blessing are the creation of man, the rejoicing of Zion, and the husband and his wife. The Rabbi drinks of the wine and offers to the groom who then ritually breaks with his foot a wrapped thin drinking glass placed in front of him, symbolizing the destruction of the ancient Temple in Jerusalem in 70 C.E. by the Romans (see §18 [f ] ti“ 'à b6-àb sup.) thus recalling the most disastrous historical event of the nation at the summit of one’s rejoicing. All participants cry out instantly: mázzal †òb ‘good luck!’, ‘congratulations!’; (d) The Rabbi reads out in public the contents of the JJ k6tubbà H.r., ‘Jewish marriage contract’, a bond specifying the obligations of the husband towards his wife, undertaking to maintain her for life, providing her with suitable dress, keeping regular marital relations with her, caring for her health and wellbeing. Moreover, the k6tubbà protects the wife against arbitrary divorce and neglect in widowhood. Having signed it, the groom’s signature is endorsed by the signatures of two qualified witnesses out of kin, after which the k6tubbà is handed over to the father of the bride for him to keep in custody for life. The traditional version of the k6tubbà is styled in Aramaic, the spoken language of the Jews in the Babylonian exile period instead of Hebrew, effective for this purpose until the present day. Formally, the k6tubbà is also a subject for illustrative, colorful decoration and elegant styles of calligraphy exhibitive in museums worldwide. 19.7.1 s6'5dát-˙>tàn v6-kallà H.r., ‘Ritual Meal for the Groom and the Bride’ Generally, a modest ritual meal is held after the “èva' b6r>xòt in the residence of the groom’s parents with the participation of a number of relatives and friends of both parties, with blessings over wine and Grace before and after. Others can afford to hold the “èva' b6r>xòt ceremony by card invitation to a decorated hall, including the hall of a hotel in the new city where off duty members of the Palestine Police orchestra, or the band of the Home for the Blind play European and Hebrew music, otherwise a trio or a quartet of an Oriental orchestra including players of JJ/J kamánje ‘violin’, 'ùd ‘lute’, ">nùn ‘zither-like instrument’, or san†ùr ‘dulcimer’ and a daff ‘tambourine’ delight the guests with popular Oriental pieces, concluding the ceremony with a ritual

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meal attended by the guests, blessings over wine and Grace before and after. Wealthy families on the other hand, of traditional stock, celebrate weddings for seven days in the residence of the groom’s parents with extravagance. Receptions, meals, refreshments, entertainments, chanting of Hebrew ‘ritual and liturgical hymns’ pizmönìm and piyy5†ìm, as well as singing songs accompanied by music playing of tunes of popular Oriental-Arabic stock, and separate dancing of males and females are held throughout at a large scale as many Jewish and Arab guests arrive to congratulate the newly-married couple and their kin, offering gifts and partaking in the rejoicing. In the large kitchen, busy hands are cooking and cleansing utensils, while a company of children fills the yard, yelling and playing. 19.7.2. “abbàt di nòvyo ‘the Sabbath of the Groom Celebration’ During the morning service, on the Sabbath following the marriage ceremony known by Sephardim including speakers of JJ as “abbàt di nòvyo < Lad., the groom and his kinsmen and the kinsmen of the bride are all invited to the synagogue to the reading of the Torah as a celebration where a specific piyyù† H.r., ‘liturgical hymn’ is chanted by the worshippers honoring the ‘groom’, ˙>tàn H.r.

19.8. gè† [ gèt] H.r., ‘Divorce’ The fifth tractate of Women, the third division of the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Talmud deals with gi††ìn H.r. (pl.), ‘divorce (matters)’, and the procedure of divorce is strictly governed by the hal>xà H.r. When the bonds of marriage are dissolved, a man gives his divorcée a gè†, i.e., ‘he divorces her’ according to Lev. 21–22; Num. 30:10 in bètdìn H.r., ‘the Rabbinic court’ which induces him to pay her ‘alimony’, m6zönòt H.r. 19.9. Death 19.9.1. Preparations When struggling with death on a deathbed, “6mà' . . . H.r. (Deut. 6:4–9, see §1 [a] sup.) is read as a ritual to repose the ‘dying’ nif†àr (f. nif†èret) H.r. The sad news is spread orally in a dated mourning

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poster referring to the (untimely) loss of the dead and the address for consoling the bereaved. The bereaved family contacts the ˙evrà qadd““à Aram.r., ‘communal burial society’, lit. ‘holy society’ whose business is undertaking, i.e., to care for providing the rö˙èß|et H.r., ‘corpse washer’, the JJ káfan, ‘shroud’, the JJ mi††à H.r., ‘bier’, the JJ "abb>rìn (sg. "abbàr), ‘grave diggers’ and the plot for digging the grave in bèt-ha-˙ayyìm H.r., lit. ‘the source of life’ euphemistic for ‘graveyard’ on the Mount of Olives, to the east of the old city. One may opt to purchase a plot in the graveyard in his lifetime and have it dug and covered with stone slabs for his own (and his spouse’s) burial when time comes. Another may prepare a shroud of his own choice as a good omen for longevity. After having carefully ‘washed and cleansed the dead ritually’, †aharà H.r., and after having clothed him or her with a white shroud of muslin, the firstborn son, if any, or the son following the firstborn daughter, or else, is solemnly called in to scatter some earth in the eyes of the dead symbolizing the vanity of mundane delights before they are closed forever. A male dead is wrapped also in his own †allìt H.r., (see 1 [c] sup.), whose ß6ßßìt H.r., ‘fringes’ are made invalid. The dead is then laid on the floor with a lit candle in the midst of an unfurnished room for the women to squat around eulogizing with heartbreaking lamentations in JJ. After setting the lamenting women aside, the dead is ritually mourned by ‘a pious man’, ˙>xàm H.r. who casually leads the ceremony in the presence of at least one minyàn H.r. ready for participating in the funeral procession. On behalf of the gathering he asks the dead ‘forgiveness’ m6˙“là and bids him/her farewell. Then he guides the son(s) of the dead to recite the qaddì“-y>tòm H.r. (see 3. sup.). When the funeral procession is ready to start off, a clay jar is smashed on the ground or the stairs, symbolizing ‘the ruination of the house’, JJ/J xaràb-il-bèt, whereas the women mourners burst in cries and tears, scratching their cheeks to bleeding. A dead man’s son (sons) is (are) prohibited from participating in his funeral, as against his (their) mother’s. 19.9.2. l6v>yà H.r., Funeral A team of eight men carry the bier solemnly, forearms down, led by the leader of the procession who starts moving, reciting verse by verse Psalms 91 for a dead man, and Proverbs 31:10 to the end for a dead woman, followed by the reciting participants in the funeral

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procession. The relevant Biblical chapters are recited over and over without intermission until the grave is reached. Burial must take place as soon as possible following death, by day and by night, it being forbidden on the Sabbath. When halting, a ‘justification prayer’, ßiddùq had-dìn H.r. is recited acknowledging the rightness of divine judgment. The corpse is laid down carefully in the grave (without the †allìt for the man), stone slabs are adjusted within the grave above the shroud, then covered with earth filling the grave. The mourners recite qaddì“-y>tòm by the grave, and each participant, man and woman lays a little stone on the filled grave, symbolizing one’s presence. No flowers or wreathes are laid. The graveyard is totally bare throughout. It is not a memorial park. When the funeral is over, the participants express their sympathies with the mourners who return to the former residence of the deceased. On returning from the graveyard, all participants and mourners alike should ritually wash their hands and let them dry without wiping. 19.9.3. “iv'à H.r., ‘Ceremony of Mourning’ On arrival to the residence of the deceased, the mourners, men and women are allocated a section of the large room ‘to sit’ JJ yú"'udu “iv'à, lit. ‘to sit seven (days) [mourning]’ on the floor covered with quilts, the Oriental way, observing the ritual and receiving consolers coming ‘to pay their condolences’, JJ/J yàxdu b-xà†ron, sitting on chairs and benches facing them. The mourners should pray, eat together, etc., for a whole week until yòm-is-sbù' ‘the seventh day’, when they JJ/J/Syr./E. bi"ùmu min-il-'áza ‘leave the ceremony of mourning’ [Bauer 324a, Piamenta (1979a):245, B. 528, S. 396b, cf. J 'idàd, s.m. Bauer 324a, Syr. ˙edàd B. 147], and go back home and to routine business. 19.9.3.1. To go into details: As they settle down following the funeral procession, the mourners are approached by the leader of the ceremony who severs with a blade then tears off borders of men’s shirts and women’s dresses, which ritual is called JJ q6r“'à H.r., ‘tearing off ’. The garment that is torn should be worn throughout the “iv'à or JJ/J il-'áza except on the Sabbath.

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After the q6r“'à, the mourners should partake in s6'5dát-havr>"à H.r., ‘the Meal of Comfort’ prepared by others and not intended for visitors, containing a break of bread, a hard-boiled egg, and a glass of water enough for saying mourners’ Grace including birkát-av^lìm H.r., ‘prayer for consolation’. Then the pious man recites the a“k>và H.r., ‘Requiem’ for the soul of the dead (see §7.1. sup.). Throughout the “iv'à, JJ "arr>yàt ‘oil lamps’ (see §6.1. sup.) keep kindling in the house of mourning for the soul of the dead. Male mourners refrain from bathing. Throughout thirty days of mourning they refrain from haircutting, nail cutting and shaving, and the female mourners avoid using cosmetics. Wearing a black dress is not customary. 19.9.3.2. Consoling Upon entering a house of mourning, one does not extend greetings nor does he open a conversation, but solemnly keeps silent until the virtues of the deceased are counted to which he, or she may add. The closest lady friends of the mourners and their lady in-laws cook for the mourners, do the chores, clean the house, and supply the table laid in front of the mourners with b6r>xòt H.r., (seasonal) ‘ritual refreshments’, lit. ‘benedictions’ (metaphor), i.e., refreshments consumed by the consolers (in symbolic quantities) as a means for blessing God for them. They consist in the following kinds with seasonal choices: (a) m6zönòt H.r., lit. baked ‘commodities’ (except bread) (see §10.4. sup.), e.g., JJ/J ká'ek ‘cakes or pretzels’; (b) ha-'èß H.r., lit. ‘the tree’ (fruits), e.g., JJ/J tuffà˙ ‘apples’, JJ burt"àn ‘oranges’, 'únob ‘grapes’, or JJ/J zbìb ‘raisins’, and tìn ‘(dried) figs’; (c) ha-"ad>mà H.r., lit. ‘the land’ (fruits), e.g., JJ banànes < Lad. ‘bananas’, melòn ‘melons’, JJ/J ba††ìx ‘watermelons’, ˙úmmoß ‘(roasted) chickpeas’, fústo" ‘peanuts’, and (d) “ehakkòl H.r., lit. ‘assorted’, e.g., bè∂ maslù" ‘hard-boiled eggs’, 'ára" ‘arrack’ (hag-gèfen H.r., i.e., ‘wines’ are not included), JJ limönàda < Lad. ‘lemonade’, etc. The consolers partake of the b6r>xòt and bless God for the above mentioned kinds. Coffee and tea are also served to the consolers. These fall under the category of “ehakkòl, though they are not included in the ritual. On the table, copies of prayer books and Psalms and other religious books are placed for perusal. When it is time to pray, the consolers join the mourners to fill the ‘quorum’ of a minyàn H.r. The mourners keep reciting qaddì“ in every prayer in the “iv'à period at

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home, and each day thereafter in the synagogue for eleven months as an act of reverence for the deceased parent. By the end of the eleventh month the grave is visited and qaddì“ is recited. Following the evening prayer in the “iv'à, it is customary for a pious man among the consolers to deliver a moral sermon, adducing the Scriptures after which the mourners recite the qaddì“ and b6r>xòt are served. Upon taking leave, the consolers use traditional formulas of sympathy: ham-m>qòm y6na˙èm etxèm! . . . H.r., ‘may the Lord comfort you!’ . . ., or bi-y(6)r5“>làyim t6n5˙àmu! H.r., ‘may you find comfort in [the construction of ] the Temple!’ H.r., lit. ‘in Jerusalem’ (a synonym of the Temple), or ni“m>tò (f. -à) b6-gan 'èden! H.r., ‘may his /her soul rest in peace!’, lit. ‘in the Garden of Eden’, or JJ t'ì“u w-titrá˙˙amu! ‘may you live long and continue to invoke the divine mercy on the soul of the dead!’, cf. JJ/J/E. il-'umr-i†-†awìl ilak! ‘I wish you a long life’ S. 413a. 19.9.3.3. Having concluded the “iv'à ritual, the mourners JJ bi"ùmu ‘rise’, i.e., leave, and bi†la'u ‘go out’ to the graveyard. A memorial prayer and qaddì“ are recited, and a small stone is laid by each participant on the grave, symbolizing the ‘visit’ JJ/J ziyàra (to the grave) before returning home. 19.9.4. The Thirtieth Day On the nightfall preceding the thirtieth day after burial, starting the thirtieth Jewish calendar day, a mourning celebration takes place in the former residence of the deceased. Following the evening prayer at the gathering, the mourning family and their closest friends read idra rabba Aram.r., lit. ‘large gathering’ parts of the Zohar as an ‘efficacy’, s6gullà H.r., for the spiritual exaltation of the deceased. A religious sermon is then delivered, counting the virtues and good deeds of the deceased and referring to his or her agony. The qaddì“ by the mourners follows, and tables are set for s6'5dát-av^lìm H.r., ‘a ritual mourning meal’ consisting of meat or fowl, fish, vegetables, soup, and cold beverages. Grace is recited before and after the meal. Following the morning prayer of the thirtieth day, the grave of the deceased is revisited, rituals observed (see sup.). On returning home, male mourners shave and have a haircut.

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19.9.5. The Eleventh Month On the eve of the first day of the eleventh month the practice of reciting the qaddì“ by mourners in the context of prayer comes to an end, but see the following paragraph. 19.9.6. The Death Anniversary On the first death anniversary it is forbidden to continue practices or restraints that openly indicate the continuation of grief. Following the nightfall prayer preceding the anniversary, b6r>xòt are offered to worshippers in the synagogue by the mourners after limmùd H.r., JJ "ràye H.r., ‘reading’ of parts of the Zohar, reciting the qaddì“, and exalting the soul of the deceased in this ‘ceremony of commemoration’, azk>rà H.r., which from then on takes place annually following evening prayers in the synagogue. It is not customary to visit graves on death anniversaries. Instead, visits take place twice a year: on the first days of Nisan (prior to Easter) and Elul (the last month of the Jewish year). Such a visit is called mi“m>rà H.r., by Sephardi Jews including speakers of JJ, lit. ‘watch’, i.e., a time for keeping guard (not to forget the dead).

B. LEXICO-SEMANTICS OF THE ARABIC DIALECT OF JERUSALEM

PRELIMINARY

Having dwelt in the preceding chapters on the average speaker of JJ and his walks of life under the impact of religious practices and traditional culture expressed to a large extent in H.r., an integral part of his vernacular, we shall turn hereafter to the contact between JJ and its counterpart J of the common Jerusalem Arabic dialect throughout the first half of the twentieth century by means of which direct communication was held intercommunally. Consequently, we shall forward an introductory sketch of the traditional Hebrew substratum in JJ, the Ladino element in JJ, the impact of foreign loanwords on JJ and J, substituting Arabic neologisms in J prompted by cognitive loan-translations, calques, for foreign loanwords absorbed by long accumulation, and the deterioration of JJ to -JJ (substandard) reflexed by modern Hebrew, followed by a lexico-semantic study not detached from ethnological considerations, aiming at revealing the intricate processes of contact and cleavage between JJ and J, of flourishing and shrinking, and last but not least, of approach and withdrawal from foreign loanwords.

CHAPTER SIX

REFERENCES AND REFERENTS SYNOPSIS

20.1. The Traditional Hebrew Substratum in JJ As a linguistic religious substratum of JJ, H.r., and to a lesser extent Aram.r., is Masoretic ‘traditional’ Hebrew whose lexemes, i.e., words and phrases, or put in semantic terms, ‘references’, designate meaning or ‘referents’ to which they ‘refer to’, bound to a world view based on observant Jewish life, sacred texts, divine commandments, rituals, manners and customs common to all Jewish communities everywhere over the ages, not shared with the J Muslim and Christian communities living along in the city of Jerusalem. H.r. is the symbol of the non-full-fledged assimilation of JJ into the framework of

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J symbolizing Arab culture. Yet, the large bulk of JJ references is identical with J, though influenced by the ‘Syrian dialectal area’ considering the fact that under four centuries of Ottoman rule over Palestine it was alluded to as ‘Southern Syria’, and the indigenous speakers of JJ as well as speakers of J were Ottoman citizens. The JJ/J (Arabic) ‘references’ being wider in usage than H.r. by speakers of JJ designate general referents unless otherwise stated. When H.r. (or Aram.r.) is resorted to in JJ, it may or may not have a parallel ‘reference’ in JJ/J. If any, the H.r. (or Aram.r.) ‘reference’ would ‘refer to’ a certain limited section of the wide range ‘referent’ of the parallel ‘reference’ in JJ/J, which section would be designated by a specific ‘connotative referential’ or more. The connotative differentials would be revealed when analyzing the ‘referents’ under relevant categories such as religious, historical, emotional, etc. On the other hand, when a H.r. (or Aram.r.) ‘reference’ has no parallel in J, it would be translated to, paraphrased, or explained in short by speakers of JJ for the sake of perceptivity by their J peers. If any, only the ‘denotations’ (i.e., the meanings of the terms when they identify something by naming them) of the ‘referent’ would be communicated, as distinguished from ‘connotations’ (i.e., the secondary implied or associated meanings) which might remain unknown or vague, unless the speakers of J are versed with the ‘connotative differentials’. Such translations or paraphrases of JJ H.r., (or Aram.r.) for the benefit of speakers of J are not improvised but institutionalized of old times in communicating JJ with speakers of J, symbolized as JJ-J. 20.2. The Ladino Element in JJ In addition to H.r., a linguistic element enriching JJ on the lexical level and widening its scope from various aspects of daily life is Ladino, a mediæval Judaeo-Spanish vernacular scientifically termed Judézmo including H.r. too, spoken by the Sephardim, the descendants of the Iberian diaspora who were expelled in toto from Spain in 1492 C.E., and from Portugal in 1497 C.E., because of their adherence to Judaism and their opposition to conversion by order of the Christian conquerors of the country. They dispersed in Holland, North Africa, Greece, Turkey, and Greater Syria, held high official ranks in the Ottoman government and were prominent in the liberal professions. In Jerusalem, the Sephardim who were Ottoman

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citizens were the dominant Jewish group up to the 1880s C.E. Their Near Eastern Ladino vernacular got interspersed in due time with a bulk of spoken Arabic and Turkish loanwords. Together with the Oriental Jewish groups they had long lived under Islam, and their familial ties with the indigenous speakers of JJ were tightened by intermarriage, thereby increasing the influx of reciprocal H.r., Ladino, and Arabic loanwords in both communities. It was through Ladino that many mediæval Spanish (Western) and Ottoman Turkish (Eastern) loanwords became part and parcel of JJ. 20.3. The Impact of Foreign Loanwords on JJ and J The direct or indirect impact of foreign cultures and languages has left its traces on J as well as on JJ. A large stock of foreign loanwords whether of Turkish-Persian, Romance, or English origin entered the dialect. Under the Ottoman regime, foreign nationals were protected by European powers. The growing impact of Western acculturation in all walks of life toward the turn of the twentieth century, the termination of the first World war in 1918 C.E., and the transition of power it brought from Turkish rule over ‘Southern Syria’ to the British Mandate over ‘Palestine’, and the accelerated socioeconomic, cultural, and political developments resulted in a tangible change in the vocabulary of Jerusalem Arabic with the concomitant influx of modern European, especially English and French loanwords, in particular where science and technology were concerned Piamenta (1992), passim. On Turkish, Italian, and French loanwords in the colloquial Arabic of Palestine and Jordan, see Butros A., (1973); on English loanwords in the colloquial Arabic of Palestine (1917–1948) and Jordan (1948–1962), see in ibid. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University (1963). 20.4. Loanwords in JJ and J Surveyed Direct and indirect socio-cultural, political, and economic contacts in history between speakers of JJ/J and the East and West brought about the fluctuating import of mainly Eastern (Turco-Persian) and Western (Romance and English) articles, consumer goods and technologies, whose ‘references’, the borrowed words and phrases which in due time integratad in JJ and J, varieties of the same dialect led to a semantic extension of the dialect, enriching the socio-cultural

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and economic context by languages in contact. Cultural traits were diffused and standards of living improved. Yet, seeing their language invaded by foreign elements threatening their purity, and being under the impact of western colonialism, Arab national and linguistic purists expressed their resistance by converting foreign loanwords to Arabic loan translations for the same referents, turning their J vernacular now studded with Standard Jerusalem Arabic, SJ, to a local panArabic popular, cultural and highly technical means of oral communication, narrowing the spaces among modern Arabic dialects. Speakers of JJ on the other hand, treated the Ladino vehicle of earlier Spanish and later Turkish as an integrated part of it tinged with a religious, folkloristic character. They had no qualms whatsoever with loanwords. However, growing political and cultural divergence in later history between speakers of JJ and J, especially with the younger generation of JJ who inclined more than ever to European walks of life on account of growing integration with modern Hebrew and new Jewish immigrants from Europe with whom they intermarried, first with reserve on both sides, and later willingly—led to an increasing abandonment of and accelerated deterioration in expressing themselves in JJ, their parents’ mother tongue in favor of competence in Hebrew, their new lingua franca. By then they tended to relish more Hebrew neologisms and Hebrew loan translations of excessive European and North American loanwords and phrases, tearing asunder and forsaking their former relatively stagnant local JJ vernacular, under the impact of modern acculturation. On their decaying -JJ vernacular we shall elaborate later. Turning to the period under study (1900–1950 C.E.) we shall now relate to groups of Western and Eastern references in loanwords used severally and jointly in JJ and J before JJ turned into a decaying vernacular (-JJ), and J into a standardized J (SJ). For a matter of convenience, Ladino references fall here under Western (hereafter: Wt.) vs. Eastern (hereafter Et.) loanwords by dint of their grammatical forms. Moreover, the dichotomy between JJ and J loanword references is not due only to different origins and referents, e.g., JJ fa“adùra < Lad. ‘swaddling clothes’ vs J “òrt < Eng. ‘shorts’, but also to variable pronunciations of references designating identical referents, e.g., JJ bizèlya < Lad. vs J bazélla < It. piselli, ‘beans’, or JJ berèt < Lad. vs. J birè < Fr. béret, ‘beret’. Consequently, the total number of occurrences of loanword references is larger than would be if variant pronunciations were ignored.

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Of the total 329 occurrences of references in loanwords, we have listed 164 in JJ, 72 in J, and 93 in J/JJ (joint vernaculars). The following seven major items count between 50 and 20 total occurrences of references each, and the remaining items including a miscellany of scanty items, less than 20 total occurrences each, down to four. Following is a diagram of the main seven items of loanwords in descending order. The items include food commodities, room furnishing, kitchen utensils and cooking, dress and footwear, medical items, communication and traffic, and outdoor games and recreation.

ITEMS

JJ

J

JJ /J

Wt. Et. Wt. Et. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Wt. Et. Wt. Et.

Food commodities Room furnishing Kitchen utensils and cooking Dress and footwear Medical Communication and traffic Outdoor games and recreation

23 12 12 10 16 7 8

10 6 1 2 – – 1

7 3 3 3 2 6 3

6 6 3 1 – – 1

2 2 3 4 3 9 4

Total items

88

20 27

17

27

Total of vernaculars

108

44

Total

2 3 3 2 1 – 3 41

Total

32 18 17 15 18 7 17 5 21 1 22 – 15 5

50 32 25 22 22 22 20

14 142 51

193

193

/

Diagram of Main Loanwords in JJ and J The remaining items comprise total occurrences of references for flora, fauna, and metals (18), tailoring and sewing (16), characterization and attribution (13), house and family (11), occupations (8), administration and industry (8), music (7), Jewish religious items in Ladino (5), exclamations (4), and a miscellany of scanty items. The following denominative loan verbs close the lot: JJ I pastam ‘to depress’ < Lad. pustéma, n.; JJ I safrat ‘to cook fried meat with gravy’ < Lad. sofríto, n.; JJ/J I pòdar/bòdar ‘to powder’ < Fr. poudre, and JJ/J I angaj ‘to join arms with someone’ < Fr. engager, lit. ‘to bind’. 20.5. Loanword Sources Analyzing the usage of loanwords in JJ and J, we deduce that (a) in addition to Hebrew, JJ is freer than J in using loanwords; (b) Christian

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speakers of J adapting European culture are open to using Western loanwords though relating to J, e.g., J Chr. mersì! < Fr. mercí!, ‘thanks!’ in addition to J “úkran, s.m., etc.; (c) JJ and J rarely relate to identical sources of loanwords, and when they do, the symbol JJ/J designates alternative vernaculars, e.g., JJ/J bisiklèt (optionally J busuklèt) < Fr. bicyclette, ‘bicycle’; (d) JJ wavers between using a loanword most frequently Ladino relating to Spanish though including ‘references’ of Turkish origin, and a local vernacular reference symbolized as JJ/J, e.g., JJ embùdo < Lad.-Sp. ‘funnel’ vs. JJ/J ma˙"an, s.m.; JJ ma“ìna < Lad. ‘wick stove’ vs. JJ/J fatàyel (or sg. ftìle), s.m., lit. ‘wick(s)’. JJ speakers preferring JJ/J to Lad.-Sp. loanwords are actually more rooted in the local vernacular having stronger social ties with speakers of J. Following is a sketch of contrastive vs. alternative usage of loanwords according to their sources by speakers of JJ vs. J, or JJ/J (citations in loco). 20.5.1. JJ/J may use an ‘Eastern’ loanword as a counterpart, e.g., JJ ku‘aròn < Lad.-Sp. ‘ladle’ vs. JJ/J kafkìr < Pers. kefgìr, s.m., or a ‘Western’ one, e.g., JJ biskwìt < Old Fr. biscuit, ‘biscuit’ vs. JJ/J baskòt < It. biscotto, s.m. 20.5.2. JJ may use a ‘Western’ loanword via Hebrew, e.g., margarìna < Sp.-It. (via H.), ‘margarine’ vs. J marjarìn < Eng. margarine; JJ galantèrya < It. (via H. pronunciation), ‘fancy goods’ vs. J galanterìya < It. galantería, s.m.; JJ plàtfus < Germ. (via H.) Plattfuss, ‘flat foot’ vs. J flàt < Eng. flat; JJ ótobus Germ. (via H.) Autobus, ‘bus’ vs. J bàß/baßß < Eng. bus; JJ vanìl < Fr. (via H.) vanille, ‘vanilla’ vs. J vanílla < Sp. vainilla, It. vaniglia, s.m.; JJ bílyard < Eng. (via H.) billyard(s) vs. J bilyàrdo < It., s.m. 20.5.3. JJ using a Ladino, Spanish, or Italian loanword has a J counterpart using French or Italian, e.g., JJ sìrko < Sp. circo, ‘circus’ vs. J sirk < Fr. cirque, s.m.; JJ blùza < Sp.-It. blusa, ‘blouse’ vs. J blùz < Fr. blouse, s.m.; JJ bànko < Lad.-Sp.-It. banco, ‘bench’ vs. J bánk < Fr. banc, s.m.; JJ sar‘ì‘a < Sp. salchícha, ‘sausage’ vs. J salsìsyo < It. salsíccia, s.m.; JJ ròpa vyèja < Lad. ‘junk’, ‘junk dealer’ vs. J/E. rubabèkya < It. roba vecchia, s.m.; JJ resèfta (dissimilation) < Lad.Sp. receta, ‘doctor’s prescription’ vs. J ru“etta < It. ricetta, s.m.

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20.5.4. The J counterpart may use a Persian loanword, e.g., JJ sávana < Lad. < Sp. sábana, ‘bedsheet’ vs. J “ár“af < Pers., s.m.; JJ mayoràna < Lad. < Sp. mejorána, ‘sweet marjoram’ vs. J búrd"o“ < Pers. mardagò“, s.m., whereas JJ may use, in addition, a Turkish counterpart vs. Arabic J, e.g., JJ devantàr < Lad. < Sp. devantál, delantál, ‘apron’, and JJ prostèla < T. prostéla, s.m. vs. J maryùl A., s.m. 20.5.5. JJ using an Italian loanword has a J counterpart using French, e.g., JJ vàza < It. vasa, ‘vase’ vs. J vàz < Fr. vase, s.m.; JJ k(a)ravàt(t)a < It. cravátta, ‘necktie’ vs. J gravàt < Fr. cravatte, s.m. 20.5.6. JJ using an English loanword has a J counterpart using French or Italian, e.g., JJ rapòrt < Eng. report vs. J rabòr < Fr. rappórt, s.m. 20.6. Substituting Arabic Neologisms in J for Foreign Loanwords Unlike J Christians who adopted modernism and Western culture through European educational institutions and who in many cases had familial relations with coreligionists of European descent, J Muslims in general looked at Western culture with reserve by virtue of their Muslim Arab heritage. During the British Mandate, mass education and increasing literacy among wider circles of Arab society in Jerusalem enhanced the usage of written Arabic, the language from which they derived their sense of identity and their awareness of common cultural heritage and nationalism. Purists made considerable efforts in replacing many of the foreign loanwords with purely Arabic lexemes reflecting them as loan translations, ‘calque’ neologisms in writing and in speech. It was higher education, the media, modern science and technology that transformed J in its oral phase into a semi-literary Standard Jerusalem Arabic (symbolized as SJ) with national prestige Piamenta (1992) passim. In course of time, J Chr. and JMusl. joined together in considering SJ lexemes as expressive of their cultural and national aspirations. 20.7. Deterioration of JJ to -JJ reflexed by Modern Hebrew Westernization and modernism resulted in divergence, thence in cleavage between JJ and J. Speakers of JJ retained the old J in their

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vernacular, but had neither the urge nor the pretense to develop their vernacular along Arab literary, cultural, or national lines. They would write their Arabic vernacular like all Jews since pre-Islamic times in Hebrew characters, using the prevalent Sephardi script and mixing Arabic with Masoretic Hebrew and foreign loanwords. By the end of the Ottoman rule, their vernacular began to deviate from J (although the Jerusalem Arabic dialect was not a homogeneous, monolithic system ever) under the impact of the emergence of modern Hebrew, both as a literary national language and an accruing colloquial, prior to which JJ deteriorated to the level of a substandard JJ (symbolized as -JJ) due to the influx of direct European loanwords and modern Hebrew loan translations, calques of European words that gradually shattered JJ from within. The older generation who spoke JJ fluently could not hold back this evolutionary trend of language displacement. Thus JJ deteriorated to -JJ reflexed by modern Hebrew, gaining momentum in performance by the younger generation around mid-century when the State of Israel emerged amidst bloodshed in the year 1948 C.E. ibid. passim.

CHAPTER SEVEN

SEMANTIC REALITY. TRADITIONAL H.R. IN JJ 21.1. Hebrew references may fill the voids JJ/J when being indispensable for ‘sanctified’ referents restricted to religious contexts labeled below as JJH.r. These referents undergo a semantic shift as metaphors. 21.1.1. God: ha“-“èm H. ‘the name’ > ‘God’, ‘the Lord’ JJH.r.; “>màyim H. ‘heaven, sky’ > ‘Heaven, God’ JJH.r. When initiating a task, a project, or an enterprise, one invokes b6-“èm-ha“-“èm na' a≤è v6-naßlì ya˙ JJH.r. ‘In the Name of God we’re (or I’m) initiating [such and such], wishing success’, cf. JMusl. bi-smi-llàh, s.m.; l6-“èm-“amàyim JJH.r. ‘[I’ve done such and such] for Heaven’s sake’. When secularized, this means ‘. . . for altruistic reasons’, cf. JMusl. li-llàh/lí-lla, or li-wajhi-llàh, d.m. 21.1.2. In the synagogue. sèfer H. ‘book’ < ‘a parchment Scroll of the Torah’ JJH.r.; m6gillà H. ‘scroll’ > m6gillát-(estèr : ellipsis) ‘the Book [of Esther]’ (read from printed scrolls in Purim) JJH.r.; siddùr H. ‘setting in order’ > ‘a prayer book’, ‘order [of prayers]’ JJH.r.; ma˙azòr H. ‘cycle’ > ma˙azòr-(t6fillòt : ellipsis) ‘a prayer book for holidays’ JJH.r., lit. ‘a [yearly] cycle of prayers’; maf†ìr H. ‘concluding’ > ‘a reader of the portion of the Prophets after the “conclusion” of the reading of the Law’, which portion is called haf†>rà JJH.r.; baqq>“à (pl. -òt) H. ‘request’ > pl. ba"">“òt ‘supplicatory hymns’ JJH.r.; Study. y6““và H. ‘sitting’, ‘residence’ > ‘a Talmudical college, yeshiva’ JJH.r.; talmùd-törà H. ‘the study of the Torah’ > ‘a religious school’ JJH.r.; mitsvà H. ‘command, commandment’, ‘duty’ > m6ßvà ‘a divine commandment’, ‘religious duty’ JJH.r. 21.1.3. †6b“la H. ‘dipping’, ‘immersion’ > ‘a ritual immersion of a Jewish woman to purify herself from uncleanness’ JJH.r. 21.1.4. Meals. “ul˙àn H. ‘table’ > ‘a set table for festive meals on the Sabbath and festivals’ JJH.r.; s6'5dà ‘meal’ > ‘a festive meal’, ‘a meal at a religious ceremony’, ‘a ritual meal accompanied by a

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specific ‘order of service’, sèder on the night of Passover’ JJH.r.; z6rò wa ' H. ‘shankbone’ > ‘a shankbone laid on the ceremonial plate of the sèder (see sup.) as a symbol that Israel’s redemption was with “an outstretched arm”’ JJH.r.; kòs H. ‘cup’ > ‘a wine cup used for ritual blessings’ JJH.r.; habd>là H. ‘separation’ > ‘a benediction over wine at the conclusion of the Sabbath and festivals ‘separating’ the sacred from the secular’ JJH.r. 21.1.5. Death. mi††à H. ‘bed’ > ‘bier’ JJH.r.; q6r“'à H. ‘tearing’ > ‘tearing the garment in mourning’ JJH.r.; ha“k>và H. ‘putting to bed’, ‘couching’ > ‘requiem, a prayer for the repose of the dead’ JJH.r.; limmùd H. ‘study’ > ‘a reading in the synagogue customary with the Sephardi community on the anniversary of the day of death according to the Hebrew calendar’ HHJ.r.; mi“m>rà H. ‘vigilant guard, as for protection’ > ‘a periodic visiting of Sephardi family graves on the seventh of Nisan and the first of Elul’. 21.1.6. Other. JJ y6r5“>làyim H. ‘Jerusalem’ (history-bound geographic site) > ‘Celestial Jerusalem’ H.r. (Ps. 137:5) (spiritual, endless in time and space, Jewish vision: end of Diaspora); gòy, (pl. -ìm) H. ‘nation’ ( Jews included) > ‘Gentile’, ‘non-Jew’, (see also §32.4. inf.). 21.2. Unless context-bound, JJH.r. references may designate ambiguous referents due to semantic shifts forming metaphors. “addày H. (a) ‘Almighty God’ > (b) ‘a necklace of a woman with a pendant amulet including the Name of the “Almighty God”’ JJH.r.; kèter H. (a) ‘crown’ > (b) kèter (arám-ßöbà : ellipsis), lit. ‘the (Aleppo) kèter’, an appellation of the oldest (known) manuscript of the Bible (Old Testament) of the early 9th. cent. C.E. . . . kept in Aleppo’s ancient synagogue from the end of the 14th. cent. through 1947 C.E. when it was damaged by a Syrian mob which attacked the synagogue on the U.N.’s declaration of the establishment of Israel . . ., and smuggled via Turkey to Jerusalem in 1958 C.E. Alas! no more than 295 pages have been saved; (c) ‘a laudatory hymn included in the morning prayer on the Sabbath and festivals, praising the Lord “crowned” by a multitude of angels together with the people of Israel’; sukkòt H. (a) ‘tabernacles’ > (b) (˙ag : ellipsis)-sukkòt ‘(the feast of ) Tabernacles’ (see §14.1. sup.); ˙anukkà H. ‘dedication’ (a) ˙anukkát(ham-mizbè ya˙ : ellipsis) ‘dedication (of the altar)’ referring to Hanukkah, a festival lasting eight days in commemoration of the victory of the Maccabees who “rededicated” the Temple to the service of God

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after having been defiled by the Greeks with pagan images and practices’ > (b) ˙anukkà lamp JJH.r. vs. ˙anukkiyyà H., s.m.; hagg>dà H. ‘tale’ (a) hagg>dà (“el pèsa˙ : ellipsis) ‘the tale (of [the Exodus read on the night of ] Passover)’ > (b) ‘the booklet of the hagg>dà’ JJH.r.; k>“èr H. (a) ‘fit, proper’ > (b) ‘ritually permitted according to Jewish Law’, ambiguous as a coalescent vs. its clarified split antonyms JJH.r. (1) ˙>mèß H. ‘leaven (mainly bread)’; (2) †>rèf H. ‘ritually forbidden (food and vessels)’, cf. the JJH.r. antonyms †>hòr H. vs. †>mè H. (see § 9. sup.); t6fillìn H.r., (a) ‘phylacteries’ > (b) JJ ‘the celebration of wearing the phylacteries for a boy who has reached the adult age of a bar-m6ßvà’; “alì ya˙ H. ‘emmissary’ > ‘an emissary sent on a mission to raise money from Jews in the Diaspora (a) for the needy Jews in Palestine > (b) for Zionist institutions’; èxa H.r. (a) ‘[the Book of ] Lamentations’ > (b) ti“ 'à b6-àb [t“6'bàb] H. ‘the ninth of Ab’ (around August), the date of the destruction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem recounted in Lamentations > (c) ‘low spirits’, or ‘ugly woman’; “e(he)˙eyyànu H.r., (a) ‘the highlight word in the Jewish blessing for tasting for the first time a new fruit, etc. of the season, or for a new important event relating to rituals’, lit. ‘[Bless God . . .] “who has kept us alive”’ [to reach this season or event] (see §10 [7]. sup.) > (b) ‘an appellation for the new fruit of the season’. 22.1. Merging and Integrating H.r. Loanwords and Loan Translations in JJ H.(r). loan translations, ‘calques’ including partial loanwords functioning as ‘syntactic objects’ may integrate in JJ as follows: bìji-l-möhèl H., byàxod-il-walad-u-bi˙u††o 'ala kissè eliyyàhu-n-nabì H.r. ‘the circumciser approaches, takes the baby-boy [on his hands] and lays him on the Chair of Elijah the prophet (see §19.2.2. sup.); bilbes, or bi“la˙ t6fillìn [t6fillìm] / †allìt / ß6ßßìt H.r., ‘he dons, or doffs phylacteries/ a praying shawl/ a fringed garment’ (Num. 15:37–41); bilabbsù-lo (!) t6ffillìn, ‘they don him phylacteries’; w-hàda-l-fara˙ kàn lubes-t6fillìm, ‘and that ceremony was a donning of phylacteries’; bi'mal-il-k6tubbà H.r., ‘he arranges the marriage contract’; il-'arùs btinzel 'a-†- †6b“là/. . . bti†la' min-i†-†6b“là H.r., ‘the bride goes down/ into the ritual immersion bath/. . . goes up/ out from, i.e., leaves . . .’; bi"ra qaddì“ H.r., ‘he recites the qaddì“ [on the soul of the dead]’; bi"ra bi-s-sèfer H.r., ‘he reads the Torah Scroll’; bi†la' 'a-s-sèfer ‘he is called up to the reading of the Law’; xa¬¬aß-it-t6fillà H.r., ‘he finished

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praying’, or xa¬¬aß yißalli, s.m., cf. J xa¬¬aß-iß-ßa¬ày / ßalà (SJ), s.m. Note that a speaker of JJ of Bagdadi origin may say xa¬¬aß l-iknìs, s.m., lit. ‘he finished the synagogue’. In Judaeo-Bagdadi ßlà means (a) ‘prayer’ > (b) ‘synagogue’ (compare ‘no school today’ in English). The following referent is expressed in various forms: (a) JJ bi'mal / bisawwi-l-qiddù“ / -l-habd>là H.r. 'a-l-imbìd ‘he recites ‘the declaration of Sanctification’ over wine before Grace’ / ‘. . . at the conclusion of the Sabbath and festivals over wine’; (b) bibàrek-il-"addùs, etc., s.m. (analytic expression, no H.r.), or (c) JJ/J simply bi"áddes 'a-l-imbìd, s.m. (synthetic, no H.r.), likewise JJ bibàrek ham-mößì H.r., ‘he recites the blessing over bread’; with a cognate object: bibàrek-il-b6r>xà H.r. “et lèlt-is-sabt, ‘he recites the blessing of Friday night’; bi©ánni ba"">“òt H.r., ‘he chants supplicatory hymns’; bi©ánni pizmönìm H.r., ‘he chants liturgical hymns’ (analytic) vs. bipázmen, s.m. (synthetic) (see §22.2.2. inf.); with a cognate object: bi©ánni ©anàni taba'id-dayàne, ‘he chants religious hymns’; bi˙állel-i“-“abbàt H.r., ‘he desecrated (breaks) the Sabbath’ (see §22.2.1. inf.); bisáwwi ta' anìt H.r., ‘he fasts by ritual commandment’ (analytic) vs. JJ/J bißùm ‘he fasts, abstains from food and drink including dieting’ (synthetic), cf. J bißùm, ‘he fasts in general’; il-˙ax>mìm H. †álla'u-d- dìn H. tába'o (analytic) ‘the Rabbis [of the Jewish law-court] “delivered their judgment in his case”’, being a loan translation from H. hößì"u et-d“nò vs. the JJ/J idiom . . . †álla'u dìno (synthetic), ‘they served him out (!), cf. E., s.m. S. 190a, contrary to the preceding analytic structure of JJ; bisawwì-lo k>vòd / na˙at-rùwa˙ H., ‘he treats him with respect/gives him satisfaction’; hàdi btíswa-l-'avòn / btistàhal-il-'avòn H. ‘this [irresistible lady] is worthy of sin’; rijjàl k>“èr H.r., (a) ‘a pious, righteous, God fearing Jew’ (noun phrase) < (b) k>“èr H.r., ‘ritually fit, proper’ (see §9. sup.). 22.2. Portmanteau Morphemes and their Referents: Inflected (denominative) verbs based on Hebrew root morphemes clad in JJ vernacular patterns Such portmanteau coinages are symptoms of Hebrew lexical interference in JJ Arabic for intra-communal, not inter-communal JJ-J usage. They were invented out of necessity, viz., to yield flexibility to H.r. in the Arabic vernacular by means of verbal conjugation of

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basic and derived stems, and as such to express among other portmanteau morphemes the Jewish emotive load by JJ references used in new designative functions on the model of H.r. references with whose contents they identify. Yet, how does the lexical interference of these ‘(denominative) verbs based on Hebrew root morphemes clad in JJ vernacular patterns’ eventually affect J Arabic semantics on the reference-referent lexical level on account of the affinity between Arabic and Hebrew as Semitic languages. JJ portmanteau (denominative) Hebrew verbs and nouns coined as references differ in their referents from J. As loan translations not in vogue in J, these JJ verbs and nouns seem to be semantically irregular if not nonsensical to the J ear, the more so when they are out of context. Moreover, they may diverge from J in their grammatical structure. Some such JJ verbs and nouns are homophonic with J, while others are not. 22.2.1. JJ Verbs and Nouns Homophonic with J (a) Verbs: JJ I xátam, y,6xtom, v.t., v.i. < ˙>tám H., ‘to sign’ (metonymy) vs. J I xátam, yúxtom, v.t., ‘to seal, stamp’; JJ II amman, v.i. < he"emìn H., ‘to believe’, cf. JJ/J II sadda" (!), v.t., v.i., s.m.; JJ II 1. amman, v.i. fi . . ., ‘to trust s.o.’ vs. J II 1. amman, v.t., s.m., e.g., J ana mu“ m"ammen haz-zalame ‘I don’t trust this man’ Bauer (1926) 154, §34; JJ II 2. amman, v.i., fi . . ., ‘to intrust, confide in’ vs. J/E. II 2. amman, v.t. (1) s.m. Bauer 364b., El. 70a, S. 20; (2) ‘to reassure’, ‘to set s.o.’s mind in rest’, Syr. also II amman, v.i., la . . ., s.m. of J 2. B.15; JJ II 3. amman, v.i., fi . . ., ‘to believe in (God/faith) vs. J/Syr./E. 3. III àman, v.i., bi-/fi- . . ., s.m., El. 49a, loc. cit., S.20a; JJ II abbad, v.t. < ibbèd H., ‘to annihilate’, i.e., ‘to kill’ (antonym of J) vs. J II ‘to make lasting’; JJ II ˙azzan, v.i. < ˙izzèn H.r., ‘to serve as a ˙azzàn H.r., “cantor” in a synagogue’ vs. J/Syr. II ˙azzan, v.t., ‘to sadden, grieve’ (event) B.156; JJ II ˙allal, v.t. < ˙illèl H.r., ‘to desecrate (break) the Sabbath’ (antonym of J) vs. J II ˙allal, ‘to sanction’, ‘to declare permissible or lawful’, ‘to allow, permit’; JJ II zakka, v.t. < zikkà H.r., ‘to cause s.o. to win a z6xùt H. “merit”, i.e., a m6ßvà “religious act”’ (metonymy) vs. JMusl. II zakka, v.t., ‘to give alms for purifying o.s.’ ibid. 316;

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JJ II “a˙˙ad, v.t. < “i˙èd H. ‘to bribe’, ‘to give “ò˙ad H., “a bribe”’ (metonymy) vs. J II “a˙˙ad, v.t., ‘to give “i˙de, “alimony”’ ibid. 379; JJ II †abbal, v.t. < hi†bìl, v.t., H.r. (a) ‘to soak, dip, immerse’ (meat in water as part of a ritual) (see §9.1[a]. sup.); (b) ‘to immerse (a bride, a woman) in †6b“là H.r., ‘ritual bath’ vs. J II †abbal, v. i., ‘to drum on a †abel “drum”’; JJ "addas, v.i., ‘to recite the "addùs < qiddù“ H.r., ‘blessing for wine’ on various ritual occasions including the qidd5“ìm H.r., “nuptial benediction”’ (metonymy) vs. JChr. II "addas, v.t., ‘to marry’, lit. ‘to sanctify’ a marrying couple at a wedding, cf. Roman-Catholic Chr. (a) ‘to consecrate a host, consecrated wafer’; (b) ‘to celebrate mass’ ibid. 642; JJ II ka““ar, v.t. < ‘to make’ k>“èr H.r., i.e., ritually fit (meat, vessels) (see §9.1. sup.) vs. J II ka““ar, v.i., ‘to frown’, ‘to bear a grim expression’. (b) Nouns: JJ †ayyàr < tayyàr H., ‘tourist’, e.g., wà˙ad †ayyàr min hadòli-s-suwwà˙ ‘a tourist, one of those tourists’ (paraphrase), cf. JJ/J sàye˙, pl. suwwà˙, s.m. vs. J/SJ †ayyàr (pl. -ìn) ‘pilot’, cf. JJ/J †ayy>rji (pl. -iyye) < T. tayyareci [tayyarejí], s.m. 22.2.2. JJ Verbs and Nouns non-Homophonic with J (a) Verbs: JJ I “ámar, y-6“mor, v.t., “>már H., ‘to protect’, e.g., a¬¬a y6“muro ‘God protect him!’ (referring to a Jew) vs. J I ˙afaz, yi˙faΩ, v.t., s.m. (not used in JJ), cf. JJ/J a¬¬a yxallì(h), s.m.; JJ II ˙annaf v.i., li- . . . < ˙anuppà H. ‘flattery’. ‘to flatter’ vs. J I mása˙, yímsa˙ jùx, s.m., lit. ‘to clean cloth by wiping with linen’. mase˙ jùx ‘flattering’ El. 164b, cf. SJ V tmalla", s.m.; JJ II “atta", v.i. < “>táq H., v.i., ‘to keep silent’, e.g., “atte", ‘hold your tongue!’ (silencing s.o. when conferring a secret as another one passes by, or in the presence of ‘little pitchers have long ears’); JJ II hammaß, v.i. < ham-mößì H.r., lit. ‘the One who brings forth (bread from the earth)’, ham-mößì being an appellation of God highlighting the Grace before eating bread (see §10.1. sup.), ‘to invoke Grace before eating bread’ vs. JMusl. II samma, v.i. < ‘to invoke the Name of God, bismi-llàh . . . over the bread before eating’; JJ V tka““ar H.r., v.i. , ‘to become k>“èr H.r., “ritually fit”’ (meat, vessels), pass. of JJ II ka““ar (see sup.), void in J;

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JJ VI tßà'ar, v.i. < ßà'ar H., ‘suffering, distress’, ‘to suffer’, ‘to be in distress’ (person, community), cf. JJ/J V t'azzab, v.i., s.m. (relatively milder); JJ VII in†abal, v.i. < (a) ‘to be immersed in a bowl as a ritual, for an exact period before salting—a ka“èring (koshering) process before cooking’ (meat); (b) f. in†ablat, v.i. < JJ †6b“là H.r., ‘ritual bath for purifying o.s.’ (woman), ‘to be plunged, be dipped, be immersed . . .’ (bride) (see §19.6.3. sup.), pass. of JJ †abbal (see sup.); JJ I habdal, v.i. < ‘to recite the habd>là H.r., a benediction over wine at the conclusion of the Sabbath and festivals “setting apart” the holiday and the following secular weekday’ (see §11.3.2. sup.), void in J; JJ I pazman, v.i. < ‘to chant’ pizmönìm (sg. pizmòn) H.r., ‘liturgical hymns’; JJ I bazyat, v.t. < bizz>yòn H. ‘disgrace’, i.e., ‘to shame, disgrace s.o.’, cf. JJ/J I bahdal, v.t., báhdale, v.n., ‘exposing to ridicule’; JJ II tbazyat, v.i., pass. of bazyat; tbahdal, v.i., pass. of bahdal, s.m., ‘to be exposed to ridicule, etc.’; JJ II t'ò“ar, v.i. < ‘to become “rich, wealthy”’, 'a“ìr H. (said with a picking connotation) vs. JJ/J I ©íni, yí©na, v.i., s.m. (neutral); (b) Nouns: JJ ma†bal (pl. ma†àbel ) < †6b“là H.r., ‘ritual bath’, see II †abbal and VII in†abal (§19.6.3. sup.). 22.3. Divergence of JJ Verbs from J in Grammatical Structure. (v.t. vs. v.i. + prep., and vice versa) (a) JJ III bàrak, v.t., ‘to invoke a ritual blessing’, e.g., bàrek ham-mößì! H.r., ‘say the Grace before meals!’ vs. JJ/J III bàrak, v.i., 'ala, ‘to bless [God] for s.th.’, e.g., bàrek 'a-l-xubez! ‘bless for the bread!’; (b) JJ III bàrak, v.t., ‘to congratulate s.o. on a happy occasion’, e.g., bàrko! ‘congratulate him! (the groom) (+Human) vs. JJ/J III bàrak, v.i., li-, e.g., b>rík-lo! s.m. El. 81b (+Human), whereas (c) JJ/JChr. III bàrak, v.t., ‘to bless a person, a congregation in church’ ibid. (+Human); Vice versa: JJ I rá˙am, yír˙am, v.i., 'ala < ri˙èm 'al H., ‘to pity s.o.’, e.g., ir˙am 'aleyyi! ‘pity me!’ vs. J rí˙em, yír˙am, v.t., s.m., e.g., ir˙amni! ‘pity me!’ like J I “ífe", yí“fa", v.i., 'ala, e.g., i“fa" 'alayy! ‘pity me!’, ‘have mercy on me!’ ibid. 479a. Note (1) JJ I †,6le', y,6†la', v.i., 'ala is understood by a speaker of J as ‘to mount, ascend’ incompatible with the ‘object’ sèfer H.r., ‘the

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Torah Scroll’ in the following context, whereas JJ †6le' 'a-s-sèfer designates ‘he ascended to the rostrum of the synagogue, b“mà/t^và, to read the Torah Scroll’ < 'alà lat-törà H.r., s.m.; (2) JJ I sábat, yísbet, v.i. < “>bát, yi“bòt, H.r., ‘to keep the Sabbath’ B. 329, also ‘to enter on the Sabbath’, cf. JJ/J II 'ayyad, yi'ayyed, ‘to celebrate a feast’. sábatu 'ando ‘they spent the Sabbath with him, at his home’ void in J; JJ “ömèr “abbàt H.r., ‘one who keeps the Sabbath’. 22.4. Emotive Load An emotive load may ensue subjective attitudes whether favourable or adverse, towards religious conversion. A gòy H.r., ‘Gentile’ (non-Jew) converting to Judaism is a JJ gèr|a H.r., ‘a proselyte’, designating a favourable connotation in spite of the aphorism ‘Proselytes are hard for Israel like a sore on the skin, sappà˙at H.’ (Y6b>mòt 47); JJ II gayyar, v.t. < giyyèr H.r., ‘to convert to Judaism’, pass. V tgayyar, v.i. < hitgayyèr H.r. ‘to be converted to Judaism’, and giyyùr H.r., ‘conversion to Judaism’, v.n. the adverse connotation of the same process in non-Jewish J/Syr./E. mitháwwed (pl. -ìn), ‘Judaised’ W. 1037b; II hawwad, v.t., ‘to Judaise, to convert to Judaism’ ibid.; pass. V thawwad, v.i., ‘to be converted to Judaism’ ibid., El. 92b, and tahwìd ‘Judaization’, v.n. On the other hand, a Jew converting from Judaism is JJ m6“ummàd (f. m6“ummèdet) (pl. -ìm, f.pl. -òt) H.r., ‘an apostate’, designating an adverse connotation; II “ammad, v.t. < “immèd H. ‘to convert from Judaism’, pass. V t“ammad, v.i. < hi“tammèd H.r., ‘to be converted from Judaism’ (no v.n. in JJ) vs. the favourable connotation of the same process in JMusl./Syr. Musl. muhtadi|ye, ‘one who embraces Islam’; VIII (i)htáda, v.i., ‘to be converted to Islam’, ‘to embrace Islam’, lit. ‘to walk in the right path’. Last but not least, an exceptional denominative H. verb coined by J (not used in JJ) is J I xèxam, yixèxem, v.i. < ˙>xàm H. ‘rabbi’, designating ‘to rock ecstatically in prayer ( Jew)’, cf. Piamenta (1979a): 242. 23. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J Vernaculars in Contact. Religion and Culture Bound 23.1. Identical JJ and J References 23.1.1. Designating identical referents, e.g., JJ nèder (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘vow’, ‘solemn pledge’, b6lì nèder, ‘please God!’, ‘Deo volente!’, lit. ‘[I

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take] no vow [on it]’, cf. J nider (pl. nudùr), s.m. El. 313b. ( J rural/A. ni≈r [pl. nu≈ùr], s.m. Bauer 138b, Syr. n6≈ er B. 820; JJ ß6d>qà (pl. -òt) H., and J ßa∂a"a < ßadaqa A., (pl. -àt), ‘alms’, ‘charity’ (see n6d>và H. in §23.2.1. inf.). 23.1.2.1. Designating identical referents with connotative differentials, e.g., JJ minh>g-yi≤r>"èl-Törà, i.e., ‘a custom usage accepted in Jewish communities is valid as strict Jewish Law’ vs. JJ/J 'àde (pl. -àt) ‘ordinary custom or usage’; JJ II zaffar [Ωaffar], v.t., 1. ‘to cook or lay in a utensil [cf. V tzaffar [tΩaffar], v.i., to be cooked or laid etc.] meat, animal fat, or fowl, making it ritually unlawful for holding dairy food or drink’ Piamenta (1979a):251; 2. ‘to make a Jew eat’ [V, v.i., ‘to eat or to have eaten, etc.] meat, . . . thereby prohibiting him [being prohibited] from eating or drinking a dairy product in less than six hours for meat or animal fat (. . . four hours for fowl) to ensure full digestion’, cf. J/Syr./E. ‘to soil [V pass.] with grease’ B. 502, S. 252a [with greasy food Hava 291a]. 3. ‘to serve food with [animal] fat ibid., F. 73a [V ‘to eat fatty food’] loc. cit. JChr./Syr./L. ‘to make a Christian eat’ [V ‘for a Christian to eat] meat, [fatty food] in Shrovetide’ ibid., B. 502. 4. E. ‘to give solid food to a convalescent’ S. 252a; JJ/J zafar [Ωafar] and zafra [Ωafra] ‘grease, fat’, ‘greasy or fatty food’, ‘meat diet’ F. 73a, Hava 291a, S. 252a; JChr. Ωafar ‘. . . forbidden to eat in Shrovetide’ Bauer 119b, cf. ∆alà∆a-az-zafar A. ‘Shrove Tuesday’ W. 379a; JJ/J zifer ‘greasy’, zafir A. s.m., ‘stinking, rancid’, ibid., Hava 291a; JJ 1. mzaffar|a [mΩaffar|a] (pl. -ìn), ‘ritually unlawful for holding dairy food or drink (utensil) Piamenta (1979a):251 vs. J 1. ‘fatty, greasy’ Bauer 119a. JJ 2/J 2. ‘one who ate or was fed with meat’ B. 502 ( JJ . . . and is therefore prohibited from eating or drinking a dairy product). 23.1.2.2. JJH.r. references may have identical JJ and J counterparts designating identical referents. The JJH.r. referents include connotative differentials lacking elsewhere, to be designated if necessary by paraphrasing, e.g., JJ n6†“là, short for n6†“lát-y>dàyim, H.r., ‘ritual pouring water over one’s hands for purification’, ‘washing hands before and after meals, prior to Grace, before prayer, after leaving the W.C., etc.’ vs. JJ/J ©as el-"“dèn ‘hand washing’; JJ kòs (pl. -òt) H.r., ‘a cup of wine over which God is blessed and Grace is said’, JJ kòs eliyyàhu han-n>vì H.r., lit. ‘Elijah the prophet’s Cup’, ‘the cup of wine reserved in honour of Elijah, as part of the

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ritual on the first night of Passover’ vs. JJ kubbàye, J kubbày (pl. -àt) ‘cup’; JJ kissè H.r., kissè "eliyyàhu han-n>vì H.r., lit. ‘Elijah the prophet’s Chair’, ‘the chair to which an infant to be circumcised is carried and beside which the ßandà", “Godfather” sits’ (see §19.2.2. sup.) vs. JJ/J kursi (pl. karàsi), ‘chair’; JJ nès (pl. nissìm) H., ‘miracle’, i.e., nès mi“-“amàyim ‘divine miracle’, cf. JJ/J 'ajàyeb-a¬¬a (pl.) (sg. 'ajìbe), s.m., lit. ‘God’s wonders’ vs. J karàme (pl. -àt), ‘a miracle worked by a saint’ Bauer 394a, cf. mu'jize (pl. -àt) ‘a miracle worked by a prophet’; JJ n6“>mà (pl. -òt), ‘soul’ (in a Jewish context): ni“m>tò fi gan-'èden H.r. (an Arabic sentence in a Hebrew context) ‘may he rest in peace!’, lit. ‘may his soul be in Paradise! be eternal!’, cf. JJ/J rò˙ (pl. (a)rwà˙), s.m., fig. ya rò˙i! ‘my beloved!’, lit. ‘soul!’, †,6l'at rò˙i ‘I strived to the last breath’, lit. ‘my soul left me’; JJ mazzàl H. ‘luck’, ‘fate, destiny’, e.g., abki 'ala mazzàli ‘I’m unfortunate’, lit. ‘I lament my luck/fate’, cf. JJ/J baxt < Pers. B.30, s.m., baxti aswad, lit. ‘my luck is black’. J ˙aΩΩ, s.m.; JJ mazzàl †òb! ‘congratulations!’, lit. ‘good luck!’, cf. JJ/J mabrùk! ‘my blessings!’, lit. ‘be blessed! bless you!’; JJ b>rùx hab-bà! ‘welcome!’, lit. ‘bless the comer!’, cf. JJ/J ahla(n)u-sahla(n)! s.m. JJ b>rùx adonày yòm yòm! H.r., ‘bless God day by day!’, cf. JJ/J l-˙amd (l)illa wi-“-“úkor! ‘praise God and bless Him!’ s.m. 23.1.2.3. JJH.r. references may have JJ and J identical and parallel (see inf.) counterparts designating identical referents, e.g., JJ mal">xham-màvet H. ‘the angel of death’ and JJ/J malàk-il-mòt, s.m., otherwise JJ/J/E. 'uzr>yìn ‘Azrael’, 'uzr>"ìl A. Bauer 321b, S.395b < 'azr“"èl H., JJ “èd (pl. -ìm) H. ‘devil’, ‘demon’, ‘evil spirit’ vs. JJ/J/E. 'afrìt (pl. 'af>rìt), s.m. ibid. 403a, loc. cit. 76b, El. 496b; JJ ˙>†àti! H.r., ‘I confess my guilt’ (quoting a penitential prayer used in JJ when repenting a deed or a misdeed) vs. JJ/J x†ìna (ma'ak), s.m., ‘we (or I) repent what we (or I) have done to you’; JJ ˙ayyìm †öbìm! H. ‘God bless you!’ (to a person sneezing), cf. JJ/J t'ì“ ! s.m. (to the same person) Piamenta (1983):48; g6z^rà min ha“-“>màyim H.r., ‘(it’s) a decree from Heaven’, JJ/J ˙ukm-a¬¬a ‘(it’s) God’s decree, s.m. When things go wrong, one hopes, saying: JJ g6z^ròt †öbòt ! ‘good decrees!’. 23.1.3. Both designating a referent and its synecdoche, e.g., JJ/J ziyàra ‘visit’ > ‘visiting a grave of the dead’ (see §19.9.3. sup.).

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23.1.4. Designating a JJ referent vs. its synecdoche, e.g., JJ maß˙af, (pl. maßà˙ef ), ‘book’ vs. JMusl. ‘a copy of the Koran’, il-maß˙af, ‘the Koran’ B. 428. 23.1.5. Designating different referents, e.g., JJ "arràye, [E. "arràya] (pl. -àt), ‘a bowl used as a lamp’ Piamenta (1979a):255, S. 481, JJ ‘a glass bowl used as a traditional Sephardi Jewish ritual lamp, containing water covered with olive oil, in which a pair of cotton wicks stuck in paper clippings to keep them floating is dipped’ to be lighted by married women on Sabbath eve (i.e., late afternoon on Fridays, see asindèr in §23.3.6.1. inf.), being one of God’s three ritual commandments to Jewish women. Olive oil is traditionally dedicated for ‘lighting lamps in synagogues in memory of the dead’ loc. cit. vs. JChr. sràj (pl. súroj ), ‘lighted wick’ Hava 317a, "andìl (pl. "an>dìl ), ‘a lamp lighted by a sexton’, cf. JChr./Syr. Chr. "arràye [L. "6rràye] ‘music lectern, or a reading desk in a church’ B. 655, Bustànì 1704b, Dozy 2:321a, Syr. ‘pulpit’ Hava 596a; JJ bèt-dìn H.r., ‘Jewish religious law court (of matrimony)’ vs. JJ/J má˙kame (pl. ma˙àkem) ‘law court’ El. 73b, "adlíyye ‘civil law court’ Bauer 141b; JChr. ma˙kame kanasíyye ‘ecclestiastic(al) law court’; JMusl. ma˙kame “ar'íyye ‘Muslim religious law court’; JJ ep“köròs H. < Gr. Epicurus (342?–270 B.C.E.) > ‘Epicurean’ (‘sceptic’, ‘atheist’, ‘heretic’, ‘agnostic’), commonly known in JJ as kàfer ‘atheist’ (H. köfèr) vs. JChr./Musl. ‘infidel’ referring to the other’s faith. JMusl. includes under kàfer the Jewish believer too epiköròs H. < Gr. is paraphrased in J as wà˙ad bala dìn, or SJ là dìnì ‘irreligious’ El. 54a. 23.2. Parallel JJ and J References 23.2.1. Designating identical referents, e.g., JJ k6tubbà (pl. -òt) H.r. vs. JChr. 'a"d-zawàj B. 763, JMusl. ktàb (pl. kútob), or 'aqd- nikà˙ A. Bauer 88b. ‘marriage contract’; JJ qamì ya' (pl. -òt) vs. J ˙jàb (pl. -àt, ˙újub) El. 455a, loc. cit. 14b, ˙irz (pl. ˙ràz) ibid., ‘amulet (worn on one’s neck)’; JJ kippà H.r., ‘skullcap’ (worn by a religious Jew), cf. JChr. "a¬¬ùse (pl. a¬>¬ìs), s.m. (worn by an East. Chr. priest) < "alnùse < qalansuwa A. B.676, JChr./ Syr. Chr. 'ar(a)"íyye [ J. 'ir"íyye] (pl. 'arà"i ) 1. ‘black scullcap’ (worn by a priest officiating at a divine service) ibid. 524; 2. JMusl. ‘white cotton skullcap (worn under the †arbù“ [and the

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kaffíyye, the square kerchief diagonally folded and held in place by the 'igàl/'iqàl ‘headband’ as an Arab headdress]) ibid., synonym of †a"íyye in Syr. ibid. 492; JJ ˙èrem (pl. -òt) H.r. vs. JChr. ˙irm, ˙irmàn El. 170a [˙urm A. Hava 120b] ‘religious ban’, ‘excommunication’; JJ n6d>và (pl. -òt) H. vs. J ßáda"a < ßádaqa (pl. -àt) A., or ˙ásane (pl. -àt) ‘alms and charity’, d.m.; JJ m>“àl! vs. J ya"ni! ‘I’ve mentioned it casually as an example’; JJ/Syr. 'èna †àl'a, or JJ/J 'èna la-barra, ‘she has a roving eye’; JJ 'àyin/'èn-ha-rà' H., ‘the evil eye’, cf. J el-'èn, s.m., loc. cit. 375a, 'èn-il'ádu/'adúww, s.m., lit. ‘the enemy’s eye’ Bauer 67a, cf. JJ 'èn-il-'ad(uw)wìn, s.m.; JJ l6-˙áyim! H. (penultimate stress) ‘to your health! lit. ‘to [your] life!’ (toasting) vs. JChr. ßa˙˙a! s.m., lit. ‘[to your] health!’. 23.2.2.1. Designating identical referents with connotative differentials emphasizing spirituality, e.g., JJ “6x“nà H.r., ‘Shekinah’, i.e., ‘the divine Presence’, ‘a radiance forming the visible manifestation of the divine Presence’, lit. ‘dwelling’ permanently at the Western (Wailing) Wall in Jerusalem, contiguous to the Temple; never appearing beyond the Holy Land, nor dwelling where idols stay, cf. J sakìna < “6x“nà H.r., ‘immanence of God’, ‘presence of God’ W. 418b (see §5.1. sup.); JJ il-"emèt H., ‘the truth’ vs. J il-˙a""/il-˙a"ì"a/il-maΩbù†, s.m.; JJ 1. b6-"emèt! H.r., ‘[I swear] by God’, lit. ‘truly’, JJ/J wi-˙yàt-a¬¬a! s.m., lit. ‘by the life of God!’, J wa-¬¬a, JMusl. wa-¬¬àhi! ‘by God!’ B.14. JJ 2. b6-"emèt ! H. vs. J 'an jadd! ‘serious(ly)!’ Bauer 108b; JJ 1. em5nà H., 1. ‘belief ’, ‘creed’ vs. J 1. ìmàn, s.m. El. 48b; JJ 2. ‘faithfulness’, ‘fidelity’, ‘trust’, ‘honesty’ vs. J 2. amàne, s.m., e.g., (conjuring in a bargain or transaction): JJ Reply JJ-J or J Reply

– – – – –

b6-"em5nà? (H.) b6-"em5nà! (i)l-"amàne! (A.) (i)l-"amàne! amànt-a¬¬àh!

‘honest?’ ‘honest!’ ‘be true/trustful!’ ‘I’m true’, or JMusl.: ‘by [my] trust in God!;

JJ m6ßvà (pl. -òt) H.r., ‘divine commandment’, ‘religious precept, law, duty’ vs. JChr. waßiyye (pl. waßàya) El 288a, il-waßàya-l-'a“r A. ‘the Ten Commandments’ ibid. 102b, cf. JMusl. far∂ (pl. furù∂ ) and farì∂a (pl. faràye∂ ), s.m. W.706a; JJ “abbàt (pl. -òt) H.r., ‘Sabbath’, ‘Saturday’, loc. cit. 496a, Bauer

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267b; JJ mö'èd (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘major Jewish festival’ (see §14. sup.) vs. JJ/J 'ìd (pl. JJ 'yàd, J a'yàd) ‘festival’; JJ kohèn (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘High priest’, ‘priest’, cf. JChr. kàhen (pl. káhane) < kohèn H., ‘priest’; JJ il-nif†àr H. ‘the deceased ( Jew)’ (mild expression) vs. JJ/J il-miyyet ‘the dead person’ (denotation), cf., JJ/J il-mar˙ùm|e ‘the late So-andSo’ (mild expression coalescing the vernaculars). Its synonym hammanò wa˙ H. is not in JJ usage. 23.2.2.2. The following examples have no spiritual connotations: The identical referents are idiomatic: JJ ba-'ölàm hab-bà H. ‘in the hereafter’, lit. ‘in the world to come’, or ba-˙>lòm (bal-làyla) H. ‘you’re dreaming’, lit. ‘in the night dream’, cf. JJ/J bukra fi-l-mi“mi“ ‘wait for the next year!’, lit. ‘tomorrow in the apricot [season which is short and gone], all metaphors meaning ‘it’s a far-fetched wish’; JJ m>ròr H.r. ‘bitter herbs eaten on the night of Passover at the festive ritual dinner’, ‘horse radish’ (including lettuce), cf. J murrèr ‘bitter herb’, il-'u“b-il-murr, s.m.; murrèr, ‘centaury with yellow and lilaccolored flowers’ D. 490, cf. muràr A. Bustànì 1965; JJ ßörèr (pl. -ìm) H. ‘oppressor against Jews as a community’, ‘Jewbaiter’ vs. JJ/J Ωàlem (pl. -ìn), ‘oppressor’, ‘tyrant’. 23.2.3. Designating referents with split communal connotations, e.g., JJ ma“ì ya˙ H.r., ‘Messiah’, il-ma“ì ya˙ ‘the Messiah’ vs. JChr. is-sayyedil-masì˙, ‘Messiah, the Lord’, Jesus Christ’ El. 299a; JJ eliyyàhu-n-n>bì H.r., ‘Elijah the prophet’ (I Kings 17, II Kings 2) the immortal who ascended to heaven in a storm (see also kissè H. §19.2.2. and kòs H. §15.3.2. sup.), and who will be sent before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord (Malachi 3: 23). When exclaiming in JJ eliyyàhu-n-nabì! or asserting eliyyàhu-n-n>bì ˙à∂er! ‘Elijah the prophet is present! one invokes for protection from an imminent risk, danger, or from evil spirits. The invocation may be a reflex evoked by a falling child, or a child scared of a nightmare (see “èm-“addày in §2. sup.), cf. J il-xa∂er (A.), lit. ‘evergreen’, the appellation of the prophet Elias (or St. George) Hava 172a, known in L. as x6∂r abu-l-'abbàs and x6∂r elyàs B. 206. It is believed in all creeds that Elijah’s cave on Mt. Carmel, Haifa, is a resort for barren women, for the mentally and physically ill. The cave is known in JJ

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as m6'>rát- "eliyyàhu H., cf. J m©àrt-il-xa∂er, otherwise called ilyàs, ‘Elias’ ( JChr. ilì < Fr. Elie. Butros 101), the Greek ‘reference’ for Elijah attested in the Koran 37:123, as well as el-y>sìn ibid. ibid: 130 (-ìn being annexed to keep up the rhyme or cadence at the close of the verse Sale’s tr. 440 n.3.); JJ z6x5tò t>gèn 'alènu! H.r., ‘may His virtue stand us in good stead!’ (wishing God’s protection), cf. J a¬¬a yjìrna! ‘God protect us!’ Piamenta (1979):46; JJ pizmòn (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘Jewish liturgical hymn’, cf. JChr. tartìle (pl. tar>tìl), and tarnìme (pl. tar>nìm) ‘hymn’ vs. JMusl. tartìl, v.n.,‘to slowly (!) recite the Koran’ W. 325b; JJ m“là H.r., ‘circumcision’, v.n., and ‘a ceremony of circumcision’, n. vs. J/Syr. †hùr ‘circumcision’ B. 489, El. 257b bottom, and ta†hìr, s.m. Bauer 58a, cf. xitàn A., s.m., zaffet-e†-†uhùr ‘the ceremony of circumcision’ ibid., loc.cit.; JJ möhèl (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘circumciser’ vs. J/Syr. m†áhher (pl. -ìn), s.m., Bauer 58a, D. 335; JJ “èva' b6r>xòt H.r., ‘Jewish marriage ceremony’, lit. ‘seven [nuptial] benedictions’ vs. JChr. (i)klìl (pl. ak>lìl ), ‘a marriage ceremony in the church’, lit. ‘wreath (crowning the groom and the bride)’ El. 174b; JJ má†bal (pl. ma†àbel ), ‘Jewish ritual bath’ < bèt-†6b“là H.r. > (bèt: ellipsis) †6b“là (see §19.6.3. sup.), s.m., cf. Syr. mᩆas (pl. ma©à†es) ‘a stone bathtub in a ˙ammàm, “public bath”, filled up with water which is not renewed, reserved for Jewish women’ B. 577; J ma©†as (pl. ma©à†es) ‘plunge bath’, birke (pl. birak), s.m.; JChr. ©†às ‘baptism’; JJ m6zönòt (pl.) H.r., ‘alimony’ (for a Jewish divorcée) vs. J/Syr./E. náfa"a < náfaqa A., s.m. El. 248b, loc.cit., S. 610a; JJ ha“k>và [a“k>và] H.r., ‘requiem’, cf. JChr. "uddàs la-rà˙at-nafs-ilmiyyet, s.m., J ßalà 'an-il-mawta, lit. ‘prayer for the dead’ Bauer 250a, JChr. junnàz, ‘requiem in church’ El. 122b; JJ p>sùq (-ìm) H.r., ‘biblical verse’, cf. JChr. 'ádad (pl. a'dàd), s.m., JMusl. àye (pl. -àt), ‘Koranic verse’; JJ “alìya˙-ß6bbùr H.r., ‘a leader in Jewish prayer in a synagogue’ vs. JMusl. imàm (pl. a"ímme), ‘a Muslim prayer leader in a mosque’; JJ “ammà“ (pl. -ìm), H.r., 1. ‘a sexton in a synagogue’ (see §6.2. sup.); 2. ‘a service light of the ˙anukkà lamp’ (see §17.1. sup.) vs. JChr. qandaláft (pl. -iyye) < Byzantine Gr. kandilaftes, lit. ‘oil candle or sacred lamp lighter in a church’ B. 684 vs. JMusl. sàden (pl. sádane), ‘keeper of a mosque’; JJ ma' a≤èr (pl. -òt) H.r., ‘one tenth paid for charity’ < ‘a tithe which the Levites gave to the priests’ (Lev. 27:30–32), cf. JChr. 'u“r (pl. a'“àr), s.m., due or paid as a tax for the support of the priesthood,

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religious institutions, etc.’ Bauer 397b, E. 'u“r (pl. 'u“ùr), s.m., arà∂i 'u“ùríyya ‘lands which pay the tithe’ S. 397b. In Islam, 'u“rì lands subject to tithe are lands the proprietors of which become Muslims, or which the Imam divides among the troops’ T.P. Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam, London, repr. 1935, ‘Taxation’, p. 630b; JJ yèßer- ha-rà' H., ‘the Evil Inclination’, ‘the Tempter’ (referring to worldly desires), cf. J i“-““†àn ‘Satan, the Tempter’. 23.3. Different JJ and J References 23.3.1. Designating identical referents with connotative differentials. (a) variable epithets, e.g., JJ mö“è rabbènu, ‘Moses, our master’ vs. JMusl. in-nábi mùsa, ‘Moses, the prophet’ (for being a major biblical character); (b) variable agents, e.g., JJ b6-'ezrát-ha“-“èm H.r., ‘with God’s help’ vs. JJ/J twakkálna 'alá-¬¬a ‘I (lit. we) trust in God’ Piamenta (1979):26–30, ibid. (1983):176. 23.3.1.1. References of Jewish Religious Festivals and their Rendition in J Regardless whether they are literal translations of JJH.r. references or their appellations, their loan renditions in J fail to render their spiritual values and connotations. JJ sukkòt H.r., ‘Sukkoth’ (see §14.1. sup.), lit. ‘[the feast of ] Tabernacles’, i.e., booths, cf. J 'ìd-il-'ur“, s.m.; JJ “>v5'òt H.r., ‘Pentecost’, (see §16. sup.) > '>ßèret H. (Talmudical), s.m., cf. J 'ìd-il-'ánßara < '>ßèret H., lit. ‘a gathering for celebrating a religious festival’ B. 558; JJ pèsa˙ H.r., ‘Easter’, (see §15. sup.) > ˙ag-ham-maßßòt H.r., or J 'ìd lif†ìr, lit. ‘the feast of the unleavened bread’ Bauer 71b and 216a; JJ ˙anukkà H.r. (see §17.1. sup.) > ˙ag-ha-"5rìm H. or J 'ìd-il-"anwar, lit. ‘festival of lights’. Other loan renditions in J may be perceived as defaced, apparently funny denotations, e.g., ( yòm) kippùr H.r., ‘Yom Kippur’, (see §13.2.2. sup.) > J 'ìd-ij-jàj, lit. ‘the festival of chickens’, i.e., for whose sake chickens are slaughtered’; p5rìm H.r., ‘Purim’, (see §17.3. sup.) > J 'ìd-il-masàxer, lit. ‘the festival of masquerades’. 23.3.2. Designating Referents with Semantic Shifts 23.3.2.1. Narrowing: i.e., focussing the reference of JJH.r. when addressing J, e.g., JJ ittörà H.r., ‘the Torah’, i.e., the Pentateuch, in wi-˙yàt-it-törà! ‘[I swear]

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by the Torah!’ (said to a Jew) > JJ-J wi-˙yàt-il-'a“ir kilmàt ‘[I swear] by the Decalogue’ < Gr. déka ‘ten’ + lógos ‘word’, spoken by God to Israel (Exod. 20:2–17; Deut. 10), or delivered on Mt. Sinai to Moses (Exod. 24:12 and 34) Piamenta (1979a):258, Hava 663b. 23.3.2.2. Other semantic shifts: A metal necklace called in JJ/J m“axla' (pl. -àt), because it shakes when the wearer moves, may carry one of the following amulets or ornamental plates dropping from the neck on the breast, including (a) JJ “addày H.r. (see §21.2. sup.), ‘God’s Name’; (b) JChr. ßalìb ‘the Cross’; or (c) JMusl. maß˙af ‘the Koran’; JJ m6'>rát-ham-maxp^là H.r., ‘the Cave of Machpela’ (Gen. 23:9), ‘the Tomb of the Patriarchs’ in Hebron > JMusl. il-˙áram-il-"ibr>hìmi ‘Abraham’s Sanctuary’; JJ rà˙èl immènu H.r., ‘(Biblical) Rachel, our mother’ (referring to qèber r>˙èl H. ‘the Tomb of Rachel’), ‘her sanctuary on the Jerusalem-Bethlehem road’, cf. J "úbbet-ra˙ìl, lit. ‘the dome [of the Sanctuary] of Rachel’; Semantic shift of two Biblical figures to an identical referent: JJ 'og mèlex-hab-b>“àn H.r., ‘Og king of Bashan’ (Deut. 3:11) . . . ‘remained of the remnant of giants’ ibid. > ‘giant’, ‘gigantic’, ‘a person of high stature’ vs. JJ 'am>lèq H.r., ‘Amalek’ (Exod. 17:8–13) > J 'imlàq ‘Amalekite’ > ‘giant’, ‘gigantic’ W. 646b; JJ ßaddì" “im'òn H.r., ‘Simon the Just’, a member of the Supreme council during the Second Commonwealth, buried in a cave in “èx jarrà˙, a neighborhood on the northern border of Jerusalem > his JJ/J ma"àm ‘sacred tomb’ visited on his memorial day, lag ba-'òmer (see §15.5. sup.) in spring when Muslims and Christians partake in the picnic taking place with the Jews all around the cave on what they call in J 'ìd-il-yah5diyye, ‘the festivity on the Jewish site’. 23.3.3. Conflicting JJ and J references designating identical or shifting referents due to historical, religious, political, and emotional factors affecting intercommunal relations. Highlights on the history of Jerusalem, its sanctity for Jews, Christians, and Muslims have been outlined elsewhere (see §0.1. sup.). However, we would like to add that JJ/J "údsi [Syr. ,6dsi B. 642], (pl. ma"àdse) is ‘a native or an inhabitant of the city’ El. 195a, D. 408. Moreover, JJ y6r5“alàyim H. refers to 1. ‘Jerusalem’. 2. ‘Zion’. Strictly speaking, this reference in H. has an ‘elastic’ context-bound referent, geo-

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graphically ranging between the Holy Land and the Holy Temple in the city (see §§15.3.2. and 19.9.3.2. sup.). Jerusalem’s counterpart in traditional JChr, is ùru“alìm, referring to the Biblical name. Bauer 178. The H. reference is linked with the JMusl. reference il-"úds < al-quds, lit. ‘the Holy city’, by the phrase qòde“-haq-qod>“ìm H.r., ‘Holy of Holies’, Lat. sanctum sanctorum. This is the H. appellation for the core of the Temple/Sanctuary on Mt. Moriah > quds-al-"aqdàs A., the full Islamic name for al-quds (see “qibla”, E.I.2), which is otherwise called al-quds a“-“arìf, lit. ‘the exalted Holy city’. The ‘Holy Land’ is mentioned in the Koran: wa-"i≈ qàla mùsà li-qawmihi yà qawmì (u)dxúlu (a)l-"ar∂a (a)l-muqaddasata (a)llatì kataba (a)¬¬àhu lakum ‘Moses said unto his people . . . “O my people, enter the holy land, which God hath decreed you”’ (Koran 5:21), Sale’s tr. Considering Jerusalem its capital, Israel has officially retained the Biblical name ùru“alìm for the city in its official A. translation, respecting the name al-quds. When the old city and its northern and northeastern precincts were annexed in 1967 following Jordan’s retreat in war, Israel gave the city its official name ùru“alìm al-quds, though the common name il-"uds < al-quds A. in JJ/J prevails, being the only name in J/SJ usage. Narrowing, we turn to JJ bèt-ham-miqdà“ H.r., ‘the Holy Temple’ > J Musl. bayt- al-maqdis referring to Jerusalem as a whole. On the site of the Holy Temple stands JMusl. il-˙aram [-il-"udsi-] i“-“arìf, ‘the Sublime Sanctuary’ Bauer 118a, referring to the Compound including al-"aqßà mosque (Koran 17) and "úbbet-iß-ßaxra ‘the Dome of the Rock’. Our next subject is kòtel H., ‘wall’ in JJ il-kòtel H.r., ‘the Wall’, referring to kòtel ma' ar>vì H.r., ‘the Western Wall’ of the ancient Temple in Jerusalem, known in J as il-mábka ‘the Wailing Wall’ vs. its JMusl. counterpart reference li-brà" < al-buràq A., ‘Alborak’, lit. ‘the bright one’, after the name of the white animal on which the prophet Muhammad performed his nocturnal journey called al-mi"ràj A. from this point where Alborak had been tied to the Wall Piamenta (1979a):235. On the other hand, by extension, we turn to ‘the Holy Land’ covering ‘Palestine’ under the British Mandate up to 1948, whose common A. name is J falas†ìn < filas†ìn commonly used in JJ/J, whereas its H. counterpart reference was translated by the British government as pale≤tìna (e.y.), initialling (èreß-yi≤r>"èl H., ‘the Land of Israel’). The State of ‘Israel’ was officially named yi≤r>"èl H., isrà"ìl A.

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23.3.4.1. Split JJ references vis-à-vis a coalescent J reference designating different referents, e.g., 1. JJ maß˙af, ‘book’, and 2. JJ k6tubbà H.r., ‘[ Jewish] marriage contract’ coalesce in one J reference ktàb, d.m. of JJ1, and JJ2 ‘[Muslim] marriage contract’. 23.3.4.2. Split JJ references vs. JJ/J coalescent ones, e.g., 1. JJ “iv'à H., ‘seven’ > 2. ‘seven days [“a week”] of mourning’ H.r., > in JJ yòm-is-sbù', ‘the seventh day of [“the week”] of mourning’ coalescing in JJ/J jum'a, ‘week’, SJ usbù', s.m., identical reference with JJ2. 23.3.5. Preference in JJ of a Chr. reference to another designating identical referents in JChr. JJ/J nußràni|yye, (pl. naßàra) < nößrì (pl. -ìm) H., ‘Christian’, lit. ‘Nazarene’ vs. J mas“˙i|yye (pl. mas“˙iyye) and (pl. -ìn, f.pl. -àt), s.m., lit. ‘Messianic’ El. 316a, disregarded in the Koran (see ibid. 9:30). 23.3.6. JJ References Void in J due to their Jewish Entity Examples of JJ references void in J due to their Jewish entity are legion, and a few instances would suffice: JJ I sábat, yísbet, v.i., ‘to observe/to spend the Sabbath’; yòm ˙òl H. ‘workday/weekday between Sabbaths’, was†-ij-jum'a, s.m. Piamenta (1979):263; ma“gì ya˙, short for ma“gì ya˙-ka“rùt H.r., ‘inspector / overseer of ritual lawfulness of food, esp. meat’; “alì ya˙ H. ‘a Jewish emissary from the Holy Land sent abroad on a mission to raise money for the benefit of communal institutions (19th. and early 20th. cent.), > ‘a Zionist delegate of the Jewish Agency sent abroad, assigned to activate Jewish mass immigration from the Diaspora’; kölèl H. ‘a community of Jewish immigrants from (a particular country, region, or town in) Eastern Europe to the Holy Land’ Kosover 360 no. 170; ma“'àle ‘a bonfire burnt in centers of Jewish neighborhoods on lag ba-'òmer H., on the 18th. of Iyyar in memory of Rabbi Shim'on BarYo˙ay celebrating the Anniversary of Bar Kochba’s victory over the Romans (see §23.3.2.2. sup.); Jewish felicitations on the following events: sántak (f. sántek) xá∂ra! (see 15.3.3. sup.) at the last night ending Easter in Jerusalem, lit. ‘green year!’, cf. gum'ítak (f. gum'ítek) xa∂ra! following the Sabbath in Cairene Jewish circles, lit. ‘green week!’, ‘green’ insinuating sprightly vigor.

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23.3.6.1. The Ladino Element in JJ The following Ladino references used by Sephardim including speakers of JJ would do under the present item: asindér ! < Lad. < Sp. encendér, v.t., ‘to light’, to kindle’ the "arràye, ‘oil lamp’ on Sabbath eve (see §23.1.5. inf.). A crier going round in the neighborhood cries loudly: asindér! asindér ! ‘[it’s time for] lighting/kindling [the "arràye]’ (by the same token Ashkenazim light/kindle wax candles simultaneously ibid. 356 no. 29); viladèra (pl. -as) < Lad. ‘protector of a lamplight from flaming or extinguishing’ < Sp. valedóra, lit. ‘protector’, ‘defender’. The device consists in a wick kerosene lamp laid under a ‘protecting’ clipped, baseless kerosene tin with a clipped vaulted side to allow controlling the fire, while its top is circularly clipped in its midst to allow the heat of the lamp keeping warm a cooked meal, or water boiled on Friday before nightfall (Sabbath eve) throughout the Sabbath when kindling fire or lighting is ritually forbidden by Jewish Law; it is likewise forbidden to move the device over the Sabbath. In order to keep the utensils warm throughout, they are JJ mjállale ( J makmùra), ‘heavily wrapped’ with a woollen blanket, an old jacket, or otherwise. Care should be taken that the wrappings do not catch fire. For alleviating danger, a gòy-“el-“abbàt H., ‘a non-Jew doing sabbatical services’ in the vicinity is rushed in; JJ bè∂a ˙amm“nàdo (not declined for gender) (pl. bè∂ ˙amm“nàdos) < ˙ammìn (see inf.) +-do past part. Lad. suff. ‘˙ammìnated egg’ is an overcooked, hard-boiled, light brown egg contained in the ˙ammìn casserole; it is delicious, spiced with black pepper and salt. The ˙ammìn (pl. -ìn), ‘a Sabbath hot dish’ consists of fried meat, eggs, potatoes, patties, beans or stuffed fried vegetables such as eggplants, zucchini, and large green peppers, carried on Friday noon to the public oven for it to overcook and keep warm until recovered on the morrow for the Sabbath meal when coming back from the synagogue; korà‘a (pl. -as) < Lad. ‘a bag for the †allìt, H.r., “wrapping shawl in prayer”’ < Sp. corácha, ‘leather bag’, cf. JJ secular/J kìs (pl. kyàs), ‘bag’; karatònya < Lad.-Sp. caratòña, ‘hideous mask’. In JJ ‘a mask worn by Jewish children jesting outdoors on Purim, and by adults in masquerade on the occasion’ (see §23.3.1.1. sup.).

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23.3.7. J References void in JJ due to their non-Jewish Entity Following are examples of J references void in JJ due to their nonJewish entity, being culturally void in JJ: JChr. bur“àn [bur“àm] (pl. -àt) < Syriac pur“ànà ‘bread’, ‘sacrifice’, ‘offering’. Roman Catholic ‘host, consecrated wafer’ B. 37; ßòmi, or ßiyàmi [W. 531b] ‘Lenten fare’; JMusl. àye (pl. -àt), ‘Koranic verse’; JMusl. V twá∂∂a v.i., ‘to perform the ritual ablution before prayer’; wú∂u ‘ritual ablution before prayer’ loc. cit. 899; When thanked for giving s.o. water to drink, one wishes, saying: min bìr zamzam!’, ‘[I wish you drink water] from the Well of Zamzam [in Mecca]!’ i.e., ‘I wish you make the pilgrimage and be a J ˙ajj, “Muslim pilgrim”’; A man not a next of kin to a Muslim woman at home is customarily forbidden to approach and knock on the door or ring the bell at the entrance for her to open without him being accompanied by a male next of kin of hers. He may leave his formal message loudly behind doors. However, when accompanied by a male next of kin, he may not approach but stay at a distance until her next of kin announces his presence accompanied by a stranger. The visitor begs the host, saying xòd †arì"!, ‘take the lead!’, and the host responds: stánna la-"axúd lak †arì"! ‘let me take the lead!’, i.e., ‘let me inform the household to stay in the inner room . . .!’, after which the visitor is led into the reception room. Many speakers of J are accustomed to take an afternoon snack called 'aßr5níyye El. 57a, derived from 'aßer ‘afternoon’, the denom. verb being J II t'áßran. Examples of dialectal variants of J not used in JJ: I †à˙, yi†ì˙, v.i., ‘to descend, go down’ B.496; †àl, yi†ùl, v.t., ‘to reach s.th. with one’s hand’, ‘to draw/pull water from a cistern’, e.g., inzal †5l-ílna áayy! ‘go down [the well] and fetch us some water!’ ibid. 493, ma ba†5l“ ‘I can’t reach [it]’. Note also that all specific SJ references are mutually exclusive with JJ, e.g., SJ qàrra (pl. -àt), ‘continent’ W. 753a is a ‘sophisticated technical word’ having no notion in JJ/J (!). Yet, its H. synonym yabbè“et is used by the younger generation of the speakers of JJ/-JJ.

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24. Inference of Referents from References of JJ and J Vernaculars in Contact. Secular 24.1. Parallel JJ and J References 24.1.1. Designating identical referents, e.g., JJ bèt-z6q^nìm H., ‘home for the aged’ vs. SJ dàr-'ájaze, s.m.; JJ ma“gìya˙ (pl. -ìm) H., 1. ‘(class) monitor’ vs. J 'arìf (-iß-ßaff ) (pl. 'úrafa), s.m. 2. ‘inspector, overseer’ (exams) vs. SJ mu“ref (pl. ìn), s.m. El. 298; JJ y>tòm (pl. -ìm) H., ‘orphan’ vs. J yatìm (pl. aytàm, yútama), s.m.; JJ bèt-y6tömìm H., ‘orphanage’ vs. J dàr aytàm, SJ máytam, s.m. W. 1105b; JJ maß˙af (pl. maßà˙ef ), ‘book’ vs. ktàb (pl. kútob), s.m.; JJ/Syr. fayyàle, ‘shade’ B. 629, cf. JJ/J/Syr. fay(y) < fay" A., s.m. ibid. 630, Bauer 272a, El. 431b vs. J Ω6ll, s.m. ibid., loc. cit.; JJ/J (a starting count in a game) wà˙ad, tnèn, tlàte, ‘one, two, three’ vs. J 'ala ùno, 'ala duwwe, 'ala trè < It. uno, due tre, s.m. (a starting count in an auction sale) Butros 95; JJ má'na, ‘meaning’. mi'nàto (invar.) 1. ‘namely, that is to say, to wit, i.e.’, lit. ‘its meaning is . . .’, e.g., salle (f.), mi'nàto (m.) (!) m“tèn, talat-mìt bè∂a, ‘a basket, namely (I mean/that is) [containing] 200–300 eggs’. JJ/J 2. ‘hence’, ‘it follows that . . .’, e.g., mi'nàto biddon yiwaffru min“àn-il-'ìd ‘hence, they (the Food Control dept.) wish to save [eggs] for the holidays’, mi'nàto inno “aher wà˙ad bidna n∂all min dùn bè∂ ‘it follows that we’ll stay a whole month without eggs’. JJ/J 3. “ù mi'nàto? lè“ bᆆalu? ‘for what reason? why did they stop?’, cf. E. i“ mí'na? ‘why?’, ‘what for?’. JJ/J yá'ni (invar.), s.m. of mi'nàto (invar.) in JJ 1 to 3, sup. 24.1.2. Split JJ references designate synonymity within J, e.g., JJ/J zàt . . . ‘the same . . .’, e.g., zàt-il-bèt ‘the same house’ [or il-bèt (b-)zàto] s.m. Bauer 292, B. 306, S.242 vs. J nafs . . ., s.m., e.g., nafs-il-bèt, ‘the same house’ [or il-bèt nafso] s.m. ibid., loc. cit., Bauer 292a, El. 35b; JJ †ab'a (pl. -àt), ‘stain, spot’, cf. J †ub'a (pl. †uba' ), s.m. ibid. 218b, J/E. bu"'a (pl. bu"a' ), s.m., ibid., Bauer 121b, S. 54a, cf. Syr. b6"a' (pl. b6"a'), s.m. B 55; JJ/J1. aywa ‘yes’ vs. J2. ná'am, s.m. (polite), cf. à, s.m. (impolite), and J rural à ‘yes’ Bauer 177a;

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JJ babbu, cf. J bubbu, ‘baby’, ‘infant’, Syr. babbu and b6bbu, s.m. B. 27 vs. J/SJ †6f el (pl. a†fàl ), s.m. ibid. 481; JJ/J/Syr. yòm-il-˙add, ‘Sunday’ ibid. 147, loc. cit. 298b, El. 187a, cf. J/SJ yòm-il-"á˙ad, s.m., ibid.; JJ “wayye, ‘a little’, cf. J1. “wayy ibid. 281a. J2. nitfe, s.m., Syr. n6tfe B. 815, E. nitfa, s.m., lit. ‘piece’ S. 592b; J3. ˙abbe, ‘a little, very little’, e.g., ma bi"ì“ 'a-l-'ìd illa ˙abbe, lit. ‘it’s very little up to the holiday, i.e., the holiday was (or is) imminent’ loc. cit. 141, cf. E. iddìni ˙abbet áayya! ‘give me some water!’ S. 121a; JJ/J1. mbáyyen [cf. il-mbáyyen Bauer 21a], ‘it seems that . . .’ El. 469a, cf. J2. iΩ-Ωàher, s.m. loc. cit., e.g., iΩ-Ωàher innek "umti ‘it seems that you got up’ Bauer (1926):249. J3. kunno (invar.) or kunn- + inflected pron. suff., s.m., e.g., kunno/kunnak mu“ sàme' ‘it seems you’re not listening’ El. 469a. 24.1.3. Various references designating an identical referent, e.g., JJ l>“òn (!)-ha-rà' (cf. H. l6“òn-) H., ‘slander’, ‘calumny’, lit. ‘bad language’ vs. JJ/J ˙aki-n-nàs,‘what people say’ ibid. 482b, or ˙aki wara∂-∂áher, s.m., lit. ‘speaking behind someone(‘s back)’ Bauer 357b, or ˙aki b-"afa-flàn, s.m., cf. SJ/Syr. < A. namìme, s.m. ibid., B. 851. 24.2. Identical JJ and J References 24.2.1. Designating identical referents with a semantic shift, e.g., JJ/J/Syr. I xòza", yixòze", v.t., lit. ‘to impale’, denom. of x>zù", ‘stake’, ‘pole’, fig. ‘to cheat or “fix” s.o.’ ibid. 221, L. ‘to involve s.o. in a bad situation’ F. 49a, D. 157; JJ/J I fàt, yifùt, v.i., ‘to occupy, conquer’ (army), e.g., lamma fàtul-"inglìz, ‘when the British occupied/conquered [Palestine]’ vs. J/SJ VIII ˙tall, v.t., s.m. El. 203b. 24.2.2. Designating identical and different references, e.g., JJ/J1. II damma', v.i., ‘to water’ (eyes) vs. J2. ‘to have watering eyes’, d.m. B. 250, e.g., damma'at-u-"àlat, ‘she had watering eyes, saying’, cf. JJ version: damma'at 'yùna w-"àlat ‘her eyes watered, saying’, cf. E. ‘to shed tears’ S. 205b; 24.2.3. Designating different referents, e.g., JJ II 'ayya†, v.i., 'ala, ‘to shout, yell, scream, cry out (at, on, to)’ [vs. E. ‘to mourn’, e.g., bi'ayya† 'ala ummoh, ‘he mourns his mother’, ‘he cries for his mother’ (child)

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ibid. 421a] vs. J/Syr./E. ‘to cry, weep’ ibid., Bauer 381b, B.566; JJ/J1. II ßawwat, v.i., ‘to shriek, shout painfully (women), cf. J2. ‘to vote’ ibid. 450, S. 345b. 24.2.4. Identical JJ references and multiple J references designating identical referents and manifesting the variety of J’s vocabulary, e.g., JJ/J/Syr. I fà", yifì", v.i., ‘to wake up, awake’ B. 626; JJ/J1. II fayya", v.t. 1. ‘to awaken, rouse’ ibid. Bauer 379a; J2. fig. ‘to call s.o.’s attention to’; J/E. I ßi˙i, yiß˙a, v.i., s.m. of I fà", yifì" S. 334b; J/E. II ßa˙˙a, v.t., ‘to awaken, rouse’ ibid.; J/SJ II nabbah, v.t., d.m. of II fayya" loc. cit., W. 940b; JJ/J/Syr. fàye" (pl. -ìn), ‘awake’ Bauer 374a, B. 626, cf. J/E. ßà˙i (pl. ìn), s.m. S. 334b; JJ/J1. I fàt, yifùt, v.i., 'a-, to enter, go in’, e.g., futt 'a-l-"ò∂a, ‘I entered the room’ El. 212a vs. J2. I dáxal, yúdxol, v.i. 'a-, s.m. ibid. 212b, or J3. I 'ábar, yú'bor, v.i., 'ala, s.m. Bauer (1926):174. J4. I xa““, yixú““, [E. yuxú““, v.t., v.i., e.g., xa““-el-"òda, xa““ fi-l-"òda, ‘he entered the room S. 171a], s.m. El. 212b [cf. E. I fàt, yufùt, v.t., ‘to pass, leave’ loc. cit. 438b; JJ/J1. III lá"a (!), 2. lí"i (!), ylà"i, v.t., ‘to find’ Bauer 120a, El. 286b, cf. Syr. III là"a B.763, s.m. vs. SJ wájad, yùjad, v.t., s.m. E. I wágad, yùgad, v.t., S. 633a, Syr. I wájad, yùjed, v.t., 1. s.m.; 2. ‘to find s.o. or s.th. lost’ loc. cit. 883; JJ/J/Syr./E. II ná""a, v.t., 1. ‘to choose, select’; 2. ‘to pick up, sort’ Bauer 41b, El. 69a, B. 847, S. 613a. JJ3. ‘to opt’ vs. J/E3. VIII ixtàr, v.t., s.m. Bauer 375a, El. 69a, S. 158b, cf. Syr.3 X staxàr, v.t., s.m. B. 224. JJ tin"àye, v.n., ‘picking’, choosing’, ‘sorting’, ‘selecting’, cf. J tin"ày, Syr. t6n"ày, s.m., ibid. 847, E. tán"iya, s.m. S. 613b, e.g., JJ bála tin"àye! ‘no picking, choosing, sorting, or selecting!’ vs. J 'an jamb! ‘at random!’ (said by a vegetable or fruit vendor to a buyer in a market) Piamenta (1979a):238; JJ/J1. III nàda, v.t., 1. ‘to call s.o.’ El. 461. 2. ‘to cry out for s.o.’ Bauer 264a, cf. J2. nàda, v.i., li-, ‘to call s.o. ibid., loc. cit., E. ‘to call s.o. in a loud voice’ S. 597a. J3/E. nàda, v.i., 'ala 1. s.m. ibid. J4/Syr. 2. ‘to announce in a loud voice (public sale of merchandise, loss, etc.) B. 821; J1/E. I nádah, yíndah, v.t., ‘to call s.o.’ Bauer 264a, S. 597. J2/Syr./E. I nádah, yíndah, v.i., 'ala, s.m., e.g., nadáht 'a(la) márati ‘I called my wife’ D. 515; JJ/J/L. I fárja, yfárji, v.t. < Syriac ‘to show’, loc. cit. 598, F. 127b, cf. L./E. II farraj/farrag, v.i., 'ala, s.m., ibid., S. 447b; JJ/J/Syr. I wárja, ywárji, v.t., s.m. loc. cit. 192b, B. 598, cf. J I árja, y"árji, v.t., s.m., Syr.

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y6rji ibid.; J II arra, y"árri, v.t., s.m.; J/L./E. II warra, ywárri, v.t., s.m. F. 193a, S. 639b, metathesis of Syr. II rawwa, yráwwi, v.t., s.m. B. 302, cf. Syr./E. IV awra, yùri, v.t., s.m. ibid. 892, S. 214a; JJ/Syr. I 'á†a, yá'†i, v.t., v.i., ‘to give’, loc. cit. 536 vs. J IV a'†a, ya'†i (!), s.m. Bauer 132a, El. 335a, E. imp. yi'†i S. 401b, cf. J II adda, y"addi, v.t., v.i., s.m. Bauer 132a, Syr. imp. yiddi B.6, E. perf. idda, s.m. S. 401b; JJ/J/Syr./E. I fára", yífre" [ yúfru" Bauer 345b], v.i., bèn u-bèn . . . ‘to distinguish between . . .’, ‘to discern between . . .’ B. 603, S. 451b vs. J/SJ/E. II mayyaz, v.i., bèn u-bèn . . ., s.m. Bauer 345b, El. 64b. E. II mayyiz, v.t., 1. s.m. 2. ‘to prefer’ S. 586b; JJ/J/Syr. II zakkar, v.t., ‘to remind’ loc. cit. 142, B. 315, Bauer 106b, and II fakkar, v.t., s.m. ibid., loc. cit. 618, E. s.m. S. 463a vs. J/Syr. II fa††an, v.t., s.m. B. 615, El. 142, Bauer 106b; JJ/J/Syr. V tzakkar, v.t., v.i., fi, ‘to remember’, Syr. V tfakkar, v.i., fi, ‘trying to recall to one’s mind’ B. 618 vs. J/Syr. I fí†en, yíf†an, v.t., v.i., bi-, ‘to remember’ ibid. 614, El. 142a, Bauer 106b, V tfa††an, v.i., bi- or fi, s.m. ibid., loc. cit., B.615; JJ/J I ˙a††, yi˙ú††, v.t., 6ß-ßufra, e.g., ˙a††-6ß-ßufra ‘to lay/set the table’ Bauer 78b, cf. J I ßaff, yißúff, v.t., . . ., s.m. ibid., cf. JJ II ˙a∂∂ar, v.t., . . ., s.m., and I 'ímel, yí'mal, v.t., . . ., s.m.; antonyms: JJ/J IV "àm (!), yi"ìm, v.t., eß-ßufra, e.g., "àm-eß-ßufra, ‘to clear the table’ ibid. 1b., or J I “àl, yi“ìl, v.t., “àl-eß-ßufra, s.m. ibid., or J I ∂abb, yi∂ubb, v.t., . . ., El. 509a, cf. A. I ráfa'a, yárfa'u, v.t., al-xiwàn, s.m. Hava 262b; JJ/J/Syr. II xalla, v.t., and II fallat, v.t., ‘to release, let go, set free’ loc. cit. 502a, B. 619; J I tárak, yítrek, v.t., s.m., J/Syr. I fálat, yíflet, v.t., s.m. ibid., and J/E. I sàb, yisìb, v.t., s.m. S. 262a, [cf. E. I fálat, yíflit, v.i., and VII infalat, v.i., ‘to escape, be let loose, be free’ ibid. 464a; E. I. sàb, yisìb, v.t., ‘to give up, relinquish, neglect’ ibid. 262a]; J/Syr. I sàb, yisìb, v.t., ‘to release, let go, let an animal graze freely’ B. 369; JJ1/J1/L. II ∂awwa', v.t., ‘to lose’ (antonym of ‘to find’) ibid. 464, Bauer 357b vs. J2. II ∂ayya', v.t., s.m. ibid. JJ2. II ∂awwa', v.t., ‘to squander, waste, throw away’ (money), e.g., ∂awwa' kull maßriyyàto, ‘he squandered away all his money’ vs. J I bá'tar, v.t., s.m. ibid. 362a, El. 68a, I ba'za", v.t., s.m. ibid. 354a and 361a; JJ II tnaf†ar, v.i., 'ala, (orig. unknown). 1. ‘to assume a haughty attitude towards s.o.’, ‘to be arrogant’ Piamenta (1979a):262. 2. ‘to upbraid’ vs. J I za'bar, v.i., 'ala, s.m. of JJ2. [vs. Syr. ‘to deceive, dupe’ F. 72a, D. 219]. JJ tn-6f†or, v.n. of II tnaf†ar, d.m. vs. J zá'bara, v.n. of I za'bar, ‘upbraiding’, cf. Syr. ‘deceit, dupe’ loc. cit.;

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JJ I dá'as, yíd'as, v.t. 1. ‘to run over s.o.’ (car) W. 282a; JJ/J/Syr., dá'as, yíd'as, v.i., 'ala 2. ‘to tread, trample on’ Bauer 325a, El. 111b, B. 240, JJ VII indá'as, v.i., pass. of JJ1. W. 282a; cf. J/L./E. I dáhas, yídhas, v.t., ‘to run over s.o.’ (car) ibid. 295b, Bauer 330b, El. 112a, D. 179, S. 207a, J/L./E. VII indáhas, v.i., pass. of I ibid., loc. cit., El. 112a; JJ/J II txòza", yitxòza", v.i., lit. ‘to be impaled’, fig. 1. ‘to be swindled, be had, be cheated’, denom. of x>zù", ‘pole’. 2. ‘to become involved in a bad situation or adversity’ ibid., loc. cit. 3. ‘to sit quietly by order of a nervous or an impatient parent’: txòza"! (said to a restless child running indoors back and forth ); JJ VII injá†al, yinjí†el, v.i., denom. of T. çátal [‘átal] ‘fork’. Hence, injí†el ! s.m. of txòza"!, lit. ‘be forked!’ ; JJ II tbásmar, yitbásmar, v.i., denom. of busmàr < musmàr, ‘nail’, lit. ‘to be nailed’, e.g., tbásmar! / tmásmar! s.m. of txöza"! (see sup.), lit. ‘be nailed [on the spot]!’ B. 48, a milder order being JJ ú''od 'à"el ! cf. J hú"'od 'à"el ! ‘be composed!’, ‘calm down!’. JJ/J 1. I hárab, yúhrob, v.i., ‘to escape’, harìbe, v.n., ‘flight’. A maxim defending flight when one is in danger, goes: il-harìbe tultèn maràjel, ‘flight equals two thirds of bravery’; J2/E. I fall, yifíll, v.i., s.m. S. 463b; J3/Syr. I fílet, yíflat, v.i., s.m. Bauer 101 and 102b, B. 619, cf. E. I fálat, yíflit, v.i., s.m. S. 464; J4/Syr. I fáka˙, yífka˙, v.i., ‘to escape secretly, to steal away, to slip, to make off ’ loc. cit. 618; J5/E. I málaß, yúmloß, v.i., s.m. Bauer 101 and 102b, S. 579; J6. I máza†, yúmzo†, v.i., s.m. loc. cit. 101, cf. Syr. I záma†, y-6zmo†, v.i., s.m. (metathesis) B. 503, Hava 296a, W. 382a. Idioms: JJ I mazz, yimízz, v.t., il-xè†, ‘to steal away, to bolt, to make off, to give the slip’, lit. ‘to relish the thread’, cf. J/Syr. II “amma', v.t., il-xè†, s.m., lit. ‘to wax the thread’ Bauer 101a, B 408, cf. E II “amma', v.t., il-fatla, s.m., lit. ‘to wax the needleful of thread’ S. 444b. 24.2.4.1. Following are JJ and J references relating to the semantic field of ‘expulsion’ focussing its referents: JJ/J ráma, yírmi, v.t., 1. ‘to throw, throw down, knock down’ Bauer 385a, El. 146b, B. 295, S. 337b. 2. ‘to throw out, throw away’, ‘to cast off, drop’ Bauer 380a vs. J/Syr.-L. I zatt, yzítt [ yz6tt], v.t., < Phoenician orig. (?) F. 70a, d.m. El. 146b, B. 307, Hava 284, e.g., záttet ˙àla f6j-j6bb, ‘she threw herself in the well’ loc. cit.; J/Syr.-L. I dabb, ydibb, v.t., ‘to throw, throw away, drop’ El. 327, B. 229, Hava 194b, ‘to let fall’ F. 50a. e.g., J dabb ˙àlo min-6ß-߆ù˙ ‘he dropped himself from the roof ’ [cf. L. v.i., ‘to fall down from a high position’

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ibid., D. 160]; J/Syr. I kárat, yíkret, v.t., 1. ‘to drive away, expel’, loc. cit. 150. 2. ‘to dismiss, fire, relieve’, e.g., karatù [mn-i“-“ú©ol ] ‘they fired him’, ‘he was fired’; J/Syr. I †á˙a, yí†˙i, v.t., s.m. B. 473, D. 325, Bauer 365a; J I ká˙at, yík˙at, v.t., s.m., ibid.; JJ/J/E./Syr. II "alla', v.t., ‘to expel, drive out’ B. 677, E. "allá'o min héna! ‘hustle him away!’, ‘get rid of him!’ S. 499a; J/SJ I †árad, yú†rod, v.t., s.m. El. 99a; JJ II kassa˙, v.t., 1. ‘to discharge, get rid of ’. 2. ‘not to bother about s.o.’, cf. E. I kása˙, yíksa˙, v.t., ‘to drive away’ S. 518b, Syr. ‘to prune, lop (a tree)’ B. 716 [cf. k>sá˙ H. ‘to cut down (seeds, thorns, etc.)’, ‘to mow’]; JJ kás˙a! ‘the hell with him or her!’, ‘don’t make a fuss of it!’, ‘I couldn’t care less’, cf. E. kás˙a (pl. -àt), ‘a discharge’ loc. cit.; JJ/J/Syr. I ka““, yikí““, v.t., 1. ‘to drive away (flies, poultry, or dogs from one’s house)’ Bauer 122a, B. 719, s.m., ‘to chase away a hen/fowl, saying ki“! ki“! ’ Dozy 2:469a. 2. When unemployed, or when one’s business is stagnant, selling badly, one complains figuratively, saying: 'am-minkí““ dubbàn, ‘I’m [lit. we’re] driving away flies’, i.e., doing nothing but that. A ka““à“e (pl. -àt) is ‘a fly-swatter’ B. 719. Hence, J/Syr./E. I na““, yiní““, v.t., ‘to drive flies and mosquitoes away with a J mná““e (pl. -àt) “fan”’ ibid. 827, S. 600a, attested in 1001 Nights Dozy 2:669. 24.2.5. No correlation between JJ and J References in designating Referents Contrary to the general agreement between JJ and J references in designating referents as in the following example: JJ1/J1 II za˙˙al, yiza˙˙el, v.t., ‘to slip (table, cupboard, etc.)’ B. 308, one finds instances of no correlation on the background of Syr., L., or E. dialects which are inconsistent in taking sides with JJ or J, e.g., JJ2. II za˙˙al, yiza˙˙el, v.i., ‘to move, make place’ (on a crowded bench, in a car, etc.) Piamenta (1979a):244 vs. J2. I bá˙az, yíb˙ez, v.i., s.m. of JJ2, cf. J I bá˙az, yíb˙ez, v.i., 'an . . . ‘to leave, abandon, evade’ loc. cit. 30, El. 140b; JJ/L. X + V (portmanteau form) istmánna, yistmánna, v.t., ‘to desire, aspire, wish for, ask for (a favor)’, ‘to be eager for’ D. 505, cf. J/Syr. V tmánna, v.t., s.m. Bauer 395a, B. 804; JJ/Syr. I ∂í˙ek, yí∂˙ak, v.i., ma'(a) . . . ‘to jest, joke with s.o.’ ibid. 456 vs. J I máza˙, yímza˙, v.i., ma'(a) . . ., s.m. ibid. 785. JJ/J II ∂a˙˙ak, v.t., v.i., ‘to crack jokes’ vs. J II nakkat, denom. of nukte, ‘joke’, v.i., s.m. El. 64b; JJ ∂ú˙ok, v.n., ‘joking’, ‘jesting’ vs. J maze˙, v.n., s.m.

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ibid. 123b, maz˙ Bauer 299b; JJ1./J ∂u˙ke (pl. -àt) 1. ‘laugh’ loc. cit. 429, e.g., ∂ú˙ket-sill! ‘(I wish you [il-b(a)'ìd! “far from the reader!”]) a phthisical laugh’ (wickedly cursing a child laughing out of place); JJ2. ‘joke’ vs. J/SJ núkte (pl. núkat), s.m. El. 64b; JJ/J/Syr. I †a'ma, yi†a'mi, v.t., ‘to feed’ B. 479, F. 113a vs. J IV a†'am, yi†'am (!), v.t., cf. L. I †á'am, yí†'am, v.t. ibid. D. 330, E. I †á'am, yí†'em, v.t., or II †a''am, v.t., s.m. S. 367a.

CHAPTER EIGHT

EMOTIVE EXCLAMATIONS

25. Emotive exclamations are stereotyped, culture-bound expressions and clichés in JJ and J that have gradually lost their referential meaning turning into mere expressions of emotion stimulated by circumstances triggering oneself. They range from sudden fear-evoking stimuli producing defense mechanisms such as seeking divine protection, to apprehension, to reservation, to dispelling and exculpation, to wonder and admiration, to intolerance, etc., including exclamations referring to the names of God, of Christ, of the Madonna, of the prophet Muhammad, of miracle makers and saints. 25.1. When struck by horror, one invokes in JJ “6mà' yi≤r>"èl !, H.r., proclaiming the Jewish belief in the unity of God: ‘Hear, O Israel, [the Lord our Lord is One Lord]!’ (Deut. 6:4) (see §1. sup.), cf. JMusl. bi-smi-llàhi (a)r-ra˙màni (a)r-ra˙ìm! ‘in the Name of God the Beneficient, the Merciful!’ (Koran 1:1). 25.2. When feeling the threat to one’s life by a sudden event, one invokes in JJ eliyyàhu -n -n>bì!, H.r., ‘Elijah the Prophet!’, or ribbi meyyìr bà'al-han-nès!, H.r., ‘O Rabbi Meir, the miracle maker!’ implying the popular Jewish belief that God responds to the appeal in prayer: ‘O God of Meir, hear me!’, cf. J yà sàter ! or yà sattàr !, lit. ‘O Protector!’ Piamenta (1979):104. 25.3. When being apprehensive for one’s safety, or for the safety of one’s baby stirred up while asleep or turned in bed from one position to another, one invokes in JJ eliyyàhu-n-n>bì! H.r., ‘Elijah the prophet!’, or for the safety of the baby: JJ/J ism-a¬¬a ['alèk|i ]!, lit. ‘the Name of God guard you! ibid. 66, or JJ “èm “addày!, H.r., ‘the Name of the Almighty!’ (see §2. sup.), cf. E.Musl. ism-in-nabi ˙>rsak ! ‘may the name of the Prophet [Muhammad] guard you!’ invoked when holding a baby for the first time to obstruct the evil eye ibid. 120. 25.4. The traditional blessing current among Sephardi (non-Ashkenazi) Jews for obstructing the evil eye in JJ is bèn pöràt yösèf, H.r., ‘Joseph

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is a fruitful bough’ (Gen. 49:22) quoting the Biblical blessing of Jacob the Patriarch for his son meant to protect a large family or a boy who has grown up and gratified his parents, and the like. The evil eye may be excluded literally in negative form in JJ b6lì 'èn-ha-rà', or b6lì 'àyin r>'à, H. ‘may the evil eye have no power [on So-andSo/such and such]!’, said in praise of s.o., or when fearing the impact of harm, jealousy or bad luck, or when obstructing the coveting of someone’s property, cf. J yixzi-l-'èn!, lit. ‘may He put the [evil] eye to shame!’ for the same referents loc. cit. 121. 25.5. Seeking safety for oneself, one says in JJ/J ib'ed 'an-i“-“arr u-©annì-lo! ‘keep away from injury and sing [a serenade] for it !’, yet by definition the following situations trigger the exclamations below. 25.6. When intending not to establish a comparison between a person or persons or an occasion talked about in a conversation and the interlocutors, one says in JJ/J bála ta“bìh!, cf. Syr. bála t-6“ 6bha! ‘no [offensive] comparison!’ B. 377, because it is inappropriate. Similarly, when wishing an unfortunate event never to be brought forward again, one says in JJ/JSyr. min ©èr-il-yòm! ‘never again!’. lit. ‘excluding our days’ ibid. 919. 25.7. When reserving oneself dispelling untoward spectacles and sad tidings, JJ say bar minnàn! Aram. > H., lit. ‘far from us!’, i.e., ‘excluding ourselves’, ‘God forbid!’, ‘the Lord save us!’, a¬¬a là ywarjìna! cf. J a¬¬a là ywarrìna! ‘God forbid witnessing [such a spectacle]!’, otherwise JJ ha“-“èm yi“m6rènu!, H.r., cf. J yà rabb-i˙mìna!, ‘God protect us!’, s.m., Piamenta (1979):120, or JJ/J 'aduwwìnak! ‘[may it befall] your enemies!’. 25.8. When dispelling someone’s complaint about his or her bodily pain or ailment, JJ says i“-“ákwe la-l-xála!, ‘may the complaint fade in space [and not hit me]!’. 25.9. When mentioning disease or misfortune, J says: yikfìna “arrha! ‘God protect us against its evil!’, JChr. care for the reporter: ism-6ßßalìb ˙aw>lèk|i ! ‘may the name of the Cross surround you!’. 25.10. When struck by the sight of a deformed or mutilated person, when apprehending a reported affliction of someone by disease, or when driving away a bad omen, one exclaims in JJ lè“os! < Lad.

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< Sp. lejos ‘far off !’, cf. JJ/J a¬¬a yústor ! or yústur a¬¬a! or yà sàter ! ‘God protect [me/us]!’ ibid. 101, or J a¬¬a yi˙mìna!, s.m. loc. cit. 25.11. When talking to someone about what might happen after his or her death, it is customary to add the phrase JJ/J/Syr. ba'dil-'umr [Syr. '6mr B.551]-6†-†awìl !, lit. ‘after your long life!’ in order to attenuate the ominous talk. 25.12. When driving away, dismissing, or warding off sad tidings such as someone’s death, a bad omen, or a curse, one exclaims in JJ/J ki““ barra u-b'ìd !’, lit. ‘drive away out and far!’, ki“ being a Pers. cry (onomatopœia) for chasing away poultry and flies ibid. 719, Piamenta (1979):70. 25.13. When passing by a cemetery of one’s community, one invokes in JJ, blessing: b>rùx dayyàn ha-"emèt !, H.r., ‘bless the true Judge!’, i.e., God, cf. JMusl. yà sàtir ! ‘O Protector [ protect me]!’ ibid. 105. 25.14. When apprehending misfortune or impending danger, one exclaims in JJ bar minnàn! (see sup.), ‘God forbid!’, or invokes in JJ/J a¬¬a là y"ádder !, s.m., lit. ‘may God not decree [it]!’ ibid. (1983):148f. When apprehending misfortune, one may also exclaim in J là sama˙a¬¬a!, s.m. loc. cit. 71. 25.15. When dispelling a wicked thought, or dismissing one’s merit out of modesty, one exclaims in JJ ˙as v6-“>lòm!, H.r., ‘God forbid!’, ‘Heaven forefend!’, cf. JMusl. astá©firu-¬¬àh! [astáxfer/istáxfar . . .], lit. ‘I seek God’s forgiveness and pardon’ ibid. 135. 25.16. When repelling a criminal suggestion, one exclaims in JJ bar minnàn! (see sup.) ‘far from it’, lit. ‘far from us!’, cf. JMusl. asta©firu¬¬àh! (see sup.). 25.17. When denying a false accusation, one declares an oath of abstinence or refrain from it, saying: JJ/Syr. yí˙ram 'aleyyi (iza . . .) B. 173 / J yí˙ram 'alayy (iza . . .), ‘may it be illicit for me (if . . .)!’. 25.18. When exculpating and clearing oneself from a charge of guilt or fault, or when offered a reward for having done a good deed,

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one exclaims in JJ ˙as v6-“>lòm! H.r., (see sup.), cf. in J a'ùzu bi-llàh!, lit. ‘I seek refuge in God’ Piamenta (1979): 99, Bauer 50b, El. 164b. 25.19. To express wonder, one invokes in JJ yi“tabbà˙ “6mò [la-'àd ]!, H.r., ‘praise His Name [forever]!’, cf. JJ/J sub˙àn a¬¬a!, s.m. ibid. (1983):21. 25.20. To express admiration, JJ speakers pronounce the invocation mà “a-¬¬a! stressing the initial syllable as in Lad. and T. vs. J ma “ବa! stressing the second one, or JMusl. mà “à"a -¬¬àh! A., lit. ‘[it is] God’s will’. Skipping the invocation might incur the risk of the evil eye harming the admired person or his object. J allows for an ironic connotation of the invocation to express contempt, derision, and disapproval loc. cit. 199 and 201 (included there in pp. 198–202). See also ibid. (1983):215b. 25.21. When requesting or entreating one’s son or daughter, or expressing endearment to one’s beloved baby or child, one says: JJ kappàra (note the emphasis on penultimate vs. kapp>rà, on ultimate, see inf.) 'alèk|i! ‘I’m your ransom’, or JJ/J ana fadàk|i!, s.m., i.e., ‘I’m ready to lay down my life for you’. 25.22. When losing one’s temper in a dissent, one’s intolerance is expressed in JJ by the invocation ribbönò “el 'ölàm! (see §2. sup.), or ribbòn ha-'öl>mìm!, H.r., lit. ‘Master of the universe!’, ‘gush!’, cf. J ( yà) ßaber-"ayyùb! lit. ‘I call for Job’s patience’, s.m. Note that JJ börè-'ölàm, ‘Creator of the universe’ as a mere divine appellation retains its referential meaning. 25.23. To digress, when urging someone to forego what has been lost or damaged, or cannot be refunded, one soothes saying JJ kapp>rà H. ['alèk|i ], ‘may it be [your] ransom!’, or JJ/J fadàk|i, s.m., or jhánnam! or 'umro!, ‘the hell with it!’. 25.24. When one is at a loss or searching something one has lost, being in a hurry, one invokes in JJ kapp>rát-ha-'avönòt! ‘be it an atonement for [my] sins!’, cf. JMusl. yà a¬¬a! ‘O God! Piamenta (1979):137 n. 4, in pursuance of Koran 18:25 wa-(u)≈kur rabbaka i≈à nasìta ‘And remember thy Lord when thou forgettest’, or là ˙awla wa-là! short

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for . . . wa-là qúwwata illà bi-llàh ‘there is no power and no strength save in God’ loc. cit. 157, J a¬¬a yil'an-i“-““†àn! ‘God curse Satan!’ ibid. (1983):183. 25.25. Emotive exclamations referring to ‘divine Mercy’ in JJ and J (see inf.) do not retain the referential meaning in context: JJ y6ra˙èm ha“-“èm!, H.r., lit. ‘God have mercy!’, ‘God have pity!’ is invoked (a) when swinging between hope and despair to express hope, cf. JJ/J 'ala a¬¬a! ibid. (1979):7, and J 'alá-¬¬a!, s.m. ibid. 31, or a¬¬a karìm!, s.m., lit. ‘God is Bountiful, Gracious’, also meaning ‘time will tell’ ibid. 207, ibid. (1983):10 and 52; (b) when declining a promise or commitment, cf. JJ-J in a¬¬a ràd ‘God willing’, or J a¬¬a karìm! (see sup.). However, JJ ha“-“èm y6ra˙èm!, H.r. in inverted order is invoked to dismiss a beggar with a flimsy excuse, cf. JJ-J a¬¬a ya'†ìk!, lit. ‘God give you!’, ‘God is the donor’ ibid. 137. 25.26. When feeling sympathy with a suffering person, animal, or bird, one exclaims in JJ ra˙am>nùt!, H. ‘what a pity!’, cf. JJ/J yà ˙aràm!, s.m. vs. yà xsàra! ‘too bad!’ when referring to a loss, or to a cause or reason for pity Bauer 269b, El. 148. 25.27. To express contentment with one’s lot, one exclaims in JJ b>rùx ha“-“èm!, H.r., ‘bless His Name!’, or JJ/J nú“kor a¬¬a! ‘thank God!’, or J ni'me (min a¬¬a)! ‘God’s Grace!’, cf. frugality JJ/J ra˙me!, lit. ‘[it’s God’s] Mercy, Grace’. 25.28. When mentioning the dead, the following blessing is attached in JJ for a Jew: 'alàv (f. 'alèha) ha“-“>lòm!, lit. ‘upon him (her) be peace!’, ‘may (s)he rest in peace!’, or ni“m>tò fi gan-'èden, H.r., ‘his soul is resting in the Garden of Eden’ vs. the intercommunal a¬¬a yír˙amo (f. yir˙am[h]a)!, lit. ‘God have mercy upon him/her!’. Note that the JMusl. blessing 'alèh-is-salàm!, lit. ‘upon him be peace!’ unlike JJ is used parenthetically after the names of angels and pre-Mohammedan prophets W. 425b. 25.29. Following is an intercommunal condolence: t'ì“u-w-titrá˙˙amu! (to mourmers) ‘may you live [long] and continue to invoke the divine Mercy on the soul (or souls) of the dead!’, Chr.: ‘. . . on the souls (inhabitants), arwà˙, of Purgatory!’ B. 565. trá˙˙am 'ala is a prepositional verb D. 194.

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25.30. Turning to the verb I rá˙am, yír˙am, we find that its usage leads to a dichotomy in its referential meaning between J and JJ. Whereas it refers to God’s Mercy sought for the living and the dead in J (see Piamenta [1979]:77–82, §3.6.2.), it is used in JJ as a v.t. for the dead only (see sup.), never for the living. Instead, JJ uses the H. calque ri˙èm, y6ra˙èm 'al . . . > JJ I rá˙am, yír˙am 'ala . . ., v.i., ('ala being the differential) for the living, e.g., JJ ir˙am 'alèna! ‘pity us!’. Hence J yír˙am abùk! a blessing for a living father turns to be a curse in JJ: ‘may your father die!’. 25.31. ‘Amen’ used after a prayer or creed is >mèn!, H.r., ‘certainty’, ‘truth’ in JJ, cf. J àmìn! < H. via Gr. amìn!, s.m. 26. Conferring with Demons Demons, JJ “^dìm (sg. “èd) H., J jinn (sg. jinni) are invisible beings attributed with human qualities. They may be harmful or helpful. They are believed to interfere with the lives of mortals. They live underground whence they come out. A widespread superstition is to ask their permission before pouring out liquids like (dirty) water or urine from a basin, etc., mainly by night lest they be troubled or hurt, otherwise one might be physically or mentally hurt. Hence one entreats the demons saying: dastùr! ‘by your leave!’ and JJ may address them saying: . . . yà xwàtna! ‘. . . bretheren!’ [ JJ/J/Syr./E. dastùr, ‘permission’ < T.-Pers. destùr, s.m. Bauer 107b, B. 239, S. 198.]. At this point I would like to narrate a connected event that took place in 1942, as I attended a “seance” of a Jewish fattà˙et-fàl, ‘woman fortuneteller’ who was asked ‘to tell the fortune’ tifta˙ fàl of a phobic girl to her anxious father. Squatting by a casserole with some water, she asked him to drop a coin in the water and watch. Thence she began concentrating on the casserole, whispering and inquiring for relevant details about the girl, while turning her hand over and over above the brim, entreating the demons euphemistically: kull 'azìz t'arrfùna 'an flàne . . . yà sul†ànkom -il-'azìz t˙innu 'alèha ! là txabbu 'alèna!, ‘I entreat every dear one [of you], do inform us about So-and-So . . . By your mighty power I entreat you! have mercy on her! do not conceal from us!’ which application turned out to be futile . . .

CHAPTER NINE

TABOO TERMS

27.1. Taboo is used by Jews when refraining from mentioning the ineffable Name of God, YHWH ‘Jehovah’ in the Bible (the Old Testament) even in prayer (see §2. sup.). When invoking, JJ speakers use the word ha“-“èm H.r., lit. ‘the Name’ instead. Otherwise, the intercommunal name of the deity, a¬¬a is used in JJ/J (see Piamenta [1979] and [1983] passim). To digress, when quoting someone who curses the faith of another, one abstains from literal quotation, omitting the initial inappropriate word yíl'an [ yín'al: JJ metathesis] . . ., ‘damn . . .’ out of reverence, thereby resorting to taboo, e.g., a Jew witnessing a Muslim vendor in the Old city market who was enraged by the behavior of a Jewish lady cursing her “unjustly”, refrained from quoting the vendor’s initial word yíl'an, saying: ( yíl'an) dìnek u-dìn-xixàmek!, ‘(damn) your faith and the faith of your (Chief ) Rabbi!’, cf. other interfaith curses in the same vein (my apology!): ( yíl'an) abu-ßalìbak !, ‘(damn) the father of your Cross!’ (‘father’ for emphasis), and ( yíl'an) abu-m˙ammadak!’, (damn) the father of your Muhammad!’. 27.2. Taboo terms in JJ relating to the Jewish faith are: (a) †>mè H.r., ‘ritually unclean’, cf. JJ/J níjes, s.m. El. 180a; (b) †>rèf H.r., ‘nonk>“èr’ (non-kosher), i.e., ritually forbidden’ (food esp. meat, and vessels); (c) ˙>mèß H.r., ‘non-k>“èr’ for pèsa˙, ‘Passover’ (food, esp. leavened bread, and vessels). 27.3. (a) When a vigilant confiding interlocutor is taken by surprise by an intruder, he warns his counterpart saying: JJ li-m˙èdi! < almu˙à≈i! A. ‘(watch) the one facing (us)!’; (b) when warning the unaware interlocutor not to elaborate upon the theme in the presence of a stranger, one says: J [stanna] la-"aßrof ha“-“ílen!, ‘[ just a minute!] let me “spend/change” this shilling!’, using the verb I ßáraf, yúßrof ambiguously as a pun, meaning ‘let me “dispose of ” this person!’. The JJ counterpart of (a) and (b) is using the H. verb “tq, ‘to be silent’ in A. form II “atta" in the imperative “atte"! (f. “att"i!), ‘silent!’, cf. Judaeo-

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Bagdadi wa-yiddòm! (erroneously pronounced in JJ áayyet-dòm! ‘the water of [some enigma (!)]’, which is actually a Biblical H. word, meaning ‘and keepeth silence’, attested in Lam. 3:28 < the H. verb d>màm ‘to be silent’, said by a vigilant interlocutor warning his prattling coreligionist against a standing-by or an approaching stranger who understands the language. Taboo terms may also include euphemisms and terms softening reality relating to death, disease, etc. 27.4. Death (see §19.9. sup.) The reality of death ranges between delivering the sad news, funeral and mourning rituals including condolences. A variety of clichés or ‘references’ is expressed on this occasion where the deceased is alluded to in various appellations, terms expressed by the party announcing the death, simultaneously dissociating the receiver from the untoward event, and the terms expressed by the mourners in response to condolences. JJ speakers are accustomed to using H.(r). ‘references’ in addition to intercommunal JJ/J ones to express ‘referents’ with religious or intimate connotations. 27.4.1. Instead of bluntly announcing the bad news JJ/J flàn|e màt|at, ‘So-and-So has died’, propriety requires the euphemism J/Syr./E. (i)twáffa|t Piamenta (1983):25, B. 902, S. 647b, cf. A. pass. form tuwúffiya|t, ‘to die’ W. 1086b < tawaffàhu (f. -ha)-¬¬àh, ‘God has taken him/her unto Him’, lit. ‘God received him/her [ back] in full’ . . . The announcement may be softened by euphemistic indirect taboo expressions of reserve towards the receiver: JJ 'a†àk ( J a'†àk) 'umro B. 551, lit. ‘He [i.e., God] gave you his [of the deceased] life [of long expectancy], otherwise JJ/J il-'úmor ílak (f. ílek), lit. ‘the life[(s)he ought to have lived is given] to you’, cf. JJ t'ì“ inte, or t'ì“ minno (f. minna/ minha)! s.m., E. abùh, ti'ì“ enta! ‘his father died’ S. 378b. 27.4.2. When wishing to know about someone who happens to have died, the informant answers: JJ/J yíslam ràsak min [ jihat-] flàn!, lit. ‘may your head (i.e., you) be healthy and safe, speaking of So-and-So!’, cf. Syr. tíslam fì!, lit. ‘be healthy and safe, speaking of him!’ ibid. 354. Returning to the instant announcements of bad news, one says: J a¬¬a jàb ajalo, ‘God has brought his appointed time’ (cf. ‘. . . his instant of death’ W. 6a) vs. E. rabbína áxad ágalo, ‘God has taken (!) him

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along’, ‘he died’, ‘he kicked the bucket’ S. 4b. JJ irtá˙am, lit. ‘he has God’s mercy’ , a metaphor used by the announcer of s.o.’s death’ Piamenta (1983):71, responded by the Jewish receiver in JJ b>rùx dayyàn ha-"emèt! H.r., ‘blessed be the true Judge!’ (see §19.9.3.1. sup.). 27.4.3. The deceased is alluded to as JJ/J/Syr./E. il-mar˙ùm|e, ‘the deceased, the late . . .’ B. 273, S. 220b, or JJ taboos il-nif†àr (f. ilnif†èret) H., s.m. (see §19.9.1. sup.), short for han-nif†àr min ha-'ölàm H., lit. ‘one who departed this life’, or il-bar minnàn Aram., lit. ‘the one excluding ourselves’. A euphemistic usage in Arabic dialects and traditional Hebrew is the replacement of the word ˙ayàt, lit. ‘life’ for its antonym ‘dead’ in the phrase J ˙ayàt-abùy/ wàldi, lit. ‘the life (!) of my father’ for the phrase il-mar˙ùm abùy/ wàldi, ‘my late father’ El. 272a, cf. Yemeni A. ˙ayàt-ubùy, s.m., and ba'd ˙ayàt-wàlidoh, ‘following his father’s death’ Piamenta, Dict. of Post-Classical Yemeni Arabic (1990):118. Yemenis announce the death of s.o., saying: ˙ayàt-flàn (explicit name) ibid. (1979):83, cf. JJ bèt-ha-˙ayyìm H. (§ 27.4.7. inf.). 27.4.4. When alluding in a conversation to the acquaintance with or resemblance to a dead person (regardless whether the news has reached the interlocutor or not), it is customary to dissociate oneself from the dead: JJ/J

J

JJ

A – bti'raf-il-mar˙ùm flàn? ‘do you know So-and-So who has passed away?’. B – kunt a'rafo (or 'rifto), yí'raf ˙àlo! ‘I knew him. May he know himself [not me]!’. * * * A – kàn li bint, a¬¬a yir˙ámha! ‘I had a daughter. God’s mercy on her!’. B – t'ì“i ya xàlti! ‘may you live [long], aunty!’. A – btí“bahek tamàm ‘she resembles you completely’ vs. (dissociating the interlocutor from the deceased): A – kànat tí“bahek. tí“bah ˙àla! ‘she used to resemble you. May she resemble herself !’, i.e., not any more.

27.4.5. In a conversation, one may take precautions by dissociating one’s interlocutor(s) from the context of bad news including death, adding the relevant term from the following list: JJ/J/Syr./E. il-ba'ìd, b'ìd minnak or 'annak (f. -ek), pl. il-bú'ada, b'ìd minkom or 'ankom! ‘far be it from you, excluding you!’, or b'ìd min or 'an-is-s>m'ìn!, s.m. Bauer 118a, [il-ba'ìd is attested in 1001 Nights B. 53], cf. E. el-bi'ìd or el-

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"ab'ad, s.m. S. 51b; JJ also lò 'al^xèm! H.r. < lò 'al^xèm! H.r., ‘let it not come unto you!’ (Lam. 1:12), s.m. For dissociating oneself from the context of bad news including death on hearing, JJ say bar minnàn! Aram. > H. ‘the Lord save us!’, or lè“os! < Lad. ‘far off !’. 27.4.6. When a talk about death or the dead is interrupted by calling someone, a parenthetical clause is usually inserted before the name of the person called, in JJ id-da'w(e) barra . . . ‘no connection with the subject . . .’ supposed to dissociate insinuations Piamenta (1979):65. 27.4.7. Taboo and Softening Terms for Funeral Rituals A taboo form for ‘cemetery’ in JJ is bèt-ha-˙ayyìm H. (see §19.9.1. sup.), lit. ‘abode for the live’, a euphemistic form for bèt-ham-m^tìm H., lit. ‘abode for the dead’. The euphemism ‘live’ for ‘dead’ is used here by Sephardi Jews including JJ vs. Ashkenazi H. usage. Intercommunal JJ/J ‘references’ are má"bara (pl. ma"àber), and turbe, (pl. túrab), s.m. El. 73a. In JJ, H. ‘references’ refer to ‘referents’ relating to Jewish rituals. The specific referent is defined by the syntactic structure of the H. reference. Following are three examples: (a) The referent of rö˙èß|et H. as ‘corpse-washer’ relating to a Jewish funeral ritual, i.e., to H.r., is defined by the reference being a constituent functioning as ‘nomen rectum’, mu∂àf A. of a construct with elliptic ‘nomen regens’, mu∂àf ilayhi A. to be reconstructed as rö˙èß|etm^tìm, lit. ‘washer of corpses’ refrained from usage for the sake of propriety. Its J/Syr. counterpart is mxássel (f. mxássle), lit. ‘(human) washer’ B. 203, cf. E. mu©ássil (f. mu©assíla), s.m. S. 430 included in the intercommunal JJ/J list of referents of the same reference; (b) In JJ the referent of mi††à H. is ‘bier’ [lit. ‘bed’] (see §19.9.1. sup.) vs. J na'“ (pl. n'ù“e), s.m. Bauer 43a and 323a. It is short for the construct mi††át-ham-mèt|a, lit. ‘the bed of the corpse’, with elliptic ‘nomen regens’ ham-mèt|a H. which one refrains from usage; (c) l6v>yà H. ‘escort, accompanying, retinue; funeral’ is used in JJ as the reference designating the referent ‘funeral (procession)’ H.r., (see §19.9.2. sup.), other H. referents excluded. It is short for livyát-ham-mèt|a, lit. ‘the accompanying of the dead’. Its J counterparts are junnàz (pl. jan>nìz), or janàze (pl. janàyez), s.m. El. 122b, jnàze (pl. -àt, janànìz), s.m., Bauer 205b.

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To sum up: the H. reference specifies the referent as relating to H.r., thus forming a divergence between JJ and J. 27.4.8. Taboo Terms and Others Relating to Mourning Rituals In JJ the ‘reference’ èvel H. refers to intracommunal mourning, whereas the inter-communal JJ/J counterpart is JJ ˙ízen [Syr. ˙6zen B. 156], J ˙úzon [˙úzn as in A., Bauer 324a], E. ˙izn/˙uzn S. 134a, or J ˙idàd as in A. loc. cit., ˙dàd El. 30a, J/Syr. ˙6dàd, s.m. B. 147. The ‘mourning ritual’ is JJ “iv'à H.r., lit. ‘seven [days of mourning], or its lit. A. counterpart usbù' > sbù', s.m., or JJ-J and J/Syr./E. 'áza, s.m. ibid. 528, Bauer 324a, S. 396b. In JJ/J 'áza! is a curse. ‘A person in mourning’ in JJ is >bèl|a H. vs. J ˙aznàn|e B. 156, or ˙àdid (f. ˙àdde), s.m. Bauer 324b, El. 30b., cf. J/Syr./E. ˙azìn with an additional connotation of ‘sad’ B. 156, S. 134. In JJ the context-bound verbs I "á'ad, ‘to sit’ (performing a mourning ritual) vs. I "àm ‘to rise’ (see §19.9.3. sup.) and I †íle' (see §19.9.3.3. sup.) are taboo terms relating to mourning, e.g., wèn ">'dìn? ‘where are [the mourners] staying?’; èmta bi"ùmu? ‘when is the last day of mourning?’; bukra †>l'ìn, or bukra yòm- 6† -†al'a ‘tomorrow they are going to the cemetery to pay their visit’. JJ yòm-is-sbù', lit. ‘the day of the week’ is the taboo term for the final day of the week of mourning. In JJ context bound z(i)yàra, lit. ‘visit’ connotes ‘visiting the grave(s) of the dead and the holy Rabbis of all times’, and in JChr., ‘visiting (the tombs of ) Saints, and pilgrimage’ B. 506, E. ‘pilgrimage’ S. 243a. Following evening prayers, the daily JJ mourning ritual is the JJ/J "ràye ‘reading’ of excerpts of the Zohar in Aramaic meant to exalting the soul of the deceased (see §19.9.5 sup.). Only in this community does the simple word JJ "ràye bear an additional connotation relating to mourning when context bound, thus implying a taboo term, being a loan translation of the Hebrew word limmùd where in Sephardic circles it has, when context-bound, a connotation relating to mourning in addition to its referents of mere ‘learning and study, instruction and teaching’. 27.5. Diseases Taboo terms relating to disease are the following: (a) JJ il-'áya-l-bùm (adj. sg; pl. búwam B. 71), lit. ‘the bad, ugly disease’, related to the ominous bird bùme (n., f.sg., coll. bùm) ‘owl’

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standing in this idiom, (not interchangeable with its synonym 'à†el, ‘bad’ [Bauer 277a, El. 484a]) for J/SJ sara†àn [ J var. sala†àn loc. cit. 195b], var. ßara†àn Piamenta (1979a):248 ‘cancer’ (med.). (b) JJ/J sè 'a [ J var. sà'a], lit. ‘hour’, i.e., ‘epilepsy’, ‘seizure’ is so termed metaphorically, because according to popular belief the fit lasts an hour B. 367, Bauer 103a, otherwise called no"†a, s.m. ibid., loc. cit. 845, lit. ‘drop’. E. dà en-nu"†a, lit. ‘drop disease’, i.e., ‘epilepsy’ S. 612a, dà" al-nuq†a ‘a kind of ßudà', “headache” (!) allegedly caused by a “drop” of blood attacking the heart’ Bustànì 2120b, attested in Dozy 2:715a as ‘apoplexy, catalepsy, and epilepsy’ substituting ßar' for ßudà', as meaning ‘epilepsy’. By nu"†a JJ means ‘heart attack’ (not epilepsy). A curse in JJ goes: ijatak nu"†a 'ala "albak, il-ba'ìd! ‘may you be struck by a drop on your heart! [reader] excluded’. Note that ßar' ‘epilepsy’, and maßrù'|a ‘epileptic’ A. W. 512a do not signify in JJ/J a human disease; these describe a ‘rabid’ dog attacked by kálab A. ‘rabies’. JJ/J/Syr. I ßára', y-6ßra', v.t., ßár', v.n., ‘to split s.o.’s head by screaming or a stirring noise B. 430, VII inßára', pass. of I., e.g., nßará'et or inßára' ràßi, ‘my head split’. 27.6. Physical Defect A ‘blind’ person a'ma (f. 'amya) is referred to in JJ/J/Syr./E. as ∂arìr|e, lit. ‘harmed’ B. 458, S. 350b. Its euphemistic counterpart is baßìr|a in common A. usage, lit. ‘endowed with eyesight’ W. 61. A softening term in J/SJ/A. is kafìf|e/a, short for k. al-baßar, lit. ‘restricted from sight’ ibid. 832 A., El.371b. 27.7. Euphemisms for Old Age The attitude towards old age ranges between positive-sociological and negative-physical concepts and phenomena: JJ/Syr. x6tyàr|a, ‘old person’, lit. ‘chosen, i.e., ‘venerable person’ B. 209f. through J x6tyàr < A. ixtiyàr Bauer 13b, El. 145a, E. ràgil ixtiyàr ‘old man’ S. 159a, lit. ‘chosen’, i.e., ‘venerable man’ vs. J 'ajùz (!), ‘old woman’, lit. ‘weak, disabled (woman)’, loc. cit. Bauer 13b. (A grammatical rule in A. ‘bestows’ a ‘male’ form on females for physical traits not shared with males), cf. E. 'agùz ‘aged, old [ person]’ S. 386a. The common neutral attribute for an ‘old person’ as an understatement in JJ/J/Syr. is kbìr|e, lit. ‘big’, which attribute may be specified by the phrase JJ/J fi-l-'úmor[ J var. fi-s-sinn], ‘in age’: rijjàl [ J var. rujjàl ] kbìr, ‘old man’, and mara kbìre, ‘old woman’.

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28. Vulgarisms and Taboo Terms Vulgarisms are socially prohibited. Their harshness is softened by taboo, euphemistic terms, or foreign synonyms. Following are JJ and J terms relating to sexual organs, the sexual act, impure body excretions, and toilets. 28.1. Sexual Organs 28.1.1. JJ abu “>lòm (bilingual A. + H. term), lit. ‘peacemaker [between couples]’, or JJ/J “èto, lit. ‘his . . .’ (inflected m.), or J ©ára∂, lit. ‘object’, or bá“ar, lit. ‘man’ (synecdoche), stand for vulgar J èr, zibb, or zúbor, ‘penis’ Piamenta (1979a):251, cf. Syr. Ωaber B. 499, E. zibb, zubr S. 244b, whereas JJ < JAleppo jèje, lit. ‘chicken’, or JJ/J 'aßfùra, lit. ‘small bird’, or búlbol loc. cit. 236, cf. Syr. balbùle, lit. ‘spout of a goglet’ loc. cit. 59, or JJ pa“arìko < Lad. [cf. J bá“ar sup.], lit. ‘small bird’ all stand for J zubb, zibb, ‘tiny (child’s) penis’. 28.1.2.1. J mannù“, cf. Syr. mammù“ ibid. 800, or †a“†abàn ibid., or xúzo", lit. ‘hole’, or “èta, lit. ‘her . . .’ (inflected f.) stand for the vulgar kuss, ‘vulva’ (Pace: mannù“, ‘vagina’[!] loc. cit. 260) and JJ/J/Syr. “i˙wàr (see §28.2. inf.). 28.1.2.2. J/Syr. f6ls, ‘bottom’ B. 620, JJ/J/Syr. "afa, lit. ‘behind’ ibid. 673, El. 37b, or J warr>niyye ‘backside’ Bauer 142b, cf. Syr. wurrèniyye, s.m. B. 889, or the foreign synonyms in JJ >˙òr H., and JChr. diryèr < Fr. derrière Butros 100f., or JJ "à', lit. ‘bottom’, all stand for JJ/J/Syr./E. †ìz, or pl. †yàz ‘buttocks’ loc. cit. 497, S. 375b. 28.2. The Sexual Act In keeping with behavioral standards, the vulgar expression for the sexual act I nàk, yinìk, ‘to f––’ is substituted by metaphoric taboos based on words rendered as ‘soot’ and ‘blackening with soot’ of a girl’s or a woman’s ‘honor’ metaphorically rendered as bayà∂-il-wu““ /wi““ [wu‘‘ B.337], lit. ‘the whiteness, i.e., clearness, stainlessness of her face’ when deflowering or dishonoring her: JJ/J sxàm, ‘soot’, E. suxàm, s.m. S. 273a, Syr. s6xxàm, s.m. loc. cit., or “6˙wàr < “6˙˙àr, s.m. ibid. 381, Dam. “˙àr, s.m. D. 271, JJ/E. “i˙wàr, s.m. S. 305a, J “u˙wàr, s.m. El. 403b, and “u˙bàr, s.m. ibid., Bauer 265b.

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Metaphors: JJ “i˙wàr, ‘pudenda (f.)’, lit. ‘smeared with black soot’ symbolizes ‘disgrace’, cf. E. suxàm ‘an ugly thing’, ‘sexual organ of the male or the female’ S. 273a. Verbs: JJ/J/Syr./E. II saxxam, ‘to blacken with soot’, fig. ‘to dishonor, disgrace, deflower’ (a girl, or a woman), JJ I “a˙war, s.m. [SJ III jàma' ‘to have sexual intercourse with a woman’ W. 135a]; pass. forms JJ/J V tsáxxamat (f.), ‘to be disgraced, be dishonored, be deflowered’, JJ also II t“á˙warat [ J t“á˙˙arat (f ).], s.m.; pass. part. msáxxame, JJ m“á˙wara, J m“á˙˙ara (f.) ‘disgraced, dishonored, deflowered’. Following are related metaphors insinuating the sexual act expressed in J, not common in JJ: (a) III jàma' < A. ‘to copulate’ B. 120, cf. VI tjàma', s.m. Bauer 48b, and E.; II 'a““ar, ‘to impregnate’, ‘to copulate’ S. 397a; (b) I ná"ar, yún"or, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):262, ‘to break through’ B. 843 < A. ‘to pierce, make a hole’ Lane 2838a; (c) I da©©, yidu©©, ‘to prick’ loc. cit. 242; (d) II ba©©a, ‘to make a woman commit fornicaton, adultery’ Koran 24:33. Hence ba©iyy A. ‘whore, prostitute’ Bustànì 110a, and ba©©à", ‘seducer’ Dozy 1:101b; (e) I saff, yisiff, ‘to copulate’ Piamenta (1979):245 < A. IV asáffa, to put into, e.g., asáffa-l-farasa-l-lijàma, ‘he put the bit into the mouth of the horse’; asáffa-l-jur˙a dawà"an ‘he put a medicament into the wound’ Lane 1368a, Bustànì 964a; (f ) I ˙a††ha 'a-l-"àleb ‘He copulated her’, lit. ‘he put her on the mould’ Piamenta (1979a):256. 28.3. Prostitution Syr./E. “armù†a (pl. “ar>mì†), originally ‘rag’, ‘shred’ B. 389, S. 312b, cf. JJ/J “rì†a (pl. “aràye†), s.m. El. 353a, e.g., “rì†et-6l-©ábara, ‘furniture duster’ B. 387; E. I “ara†, yú“ru†, ‘to tear’ S. 309b, Syr. II “arra†, ‘to tear to pieces (cloth)’ > I “arma† (by dissimilation), s.m.; II pass. t“árma†, ‘to be torn to pieces (cloth)’ loc. cit. 386. Hence JJ/J/Syr./ E. fig. “armù†a (pl. “ar>mì†), ‘prostitute, whore, slut’ Bauer 173b, B. 389, S. 312b, allegedly a taboo term for "á˙be < qá˙ba A., s.m. loc. cit. 638, Bauer 173b; II t“árma†at, bit“árme†, or simply I bitrù˙ (f.), lit. ‘she goes’ is the taboo form for ‘to prostitute’, i.e., ‘to go astray’; I btírxi, s.m., lit. ‘she sags, becomes loose’. Similarly, JJ/J “lukke (pl. -àt), ‘prostitute, whore, slut’ ibid., Syr. “l-6kke, s.m. B. 405, [“l6kk, ‘delicate’ ibid.], “lúkka Dozy 1:783 < “alùqa, s.m. ibid. 782b, cf. “illík T. ‘loose woman’, and I “álaq, yá“liq A. ‘to have sexual intercourse with a woman’ Bustànì 1116b.

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Other taboo terms in JJ/J for ‘prostitute’ are: 'à†le (pl. -àt), lit. ‘bad woman’, 'àybe (pl. -àt), lit. ‘disgraceful woman’, and fàlte (pl. -àt), lit. ‘libertine, debauchée, licentious woman’. Uniquely, JJ uses ni“k>˙à (pl. -òt) in biblical H., lit. ‘forgotten’ as a euphemism for ‘harlot’, attested in the phrase zönà ni“k>˙à, lit. ‘forgotten harlot’ ( Jes. 23:16), the attributed n. zönà, ‘harlot’ being suppressed for propriety, thus creating a shift of meaning in context. 28.4. Impure Excretions 28.4.1. JJ/J wásax, lit. ‘dirt’, and SJ buràz ‘excrement’ stand for [˙>“àk (f. ˙>“àki), ‘excepting you’, i.e., ‘excuse the offense!] xára, ‘feces’. JJ may use a foreign, Lad. euphemism for ‘diarrhœa’: salìda, cf. Sp. ‘exit’ vs. J/SJ ishàl, lit. ‘easing’, s.m. El. 511b. Functionally, JJ/J ba†nak mà“ye? (Pace: . . . mà“i? [m.] ibid.), lit. ‘are your bowels moving?’, ‘are you suffering from diarrhœa?’. Verbs: JJ tsayyar, lit. ‘to move one’s bowels’, or ‘to promenade’, ‘to take a walk’ vs. J tma““a, d.m. Piamenta (1979a):260 [ JJ tma““a ‘to promenade, take a walk’ only!], cf. lit. ‘to keep one’s distance from home’ [in order to ease one’s bowels, when and where toilet facilities are not existent in one’s abode] B. 200, or “axx (see inf.), ‘to ease nature’, cf. L. in D. 272, and E. in S. 305a, stand for [˙>“àkom (pl.) ‘excuse the offense!’] JJ/J xiri ‘to defecate’, the vulgar form. 28.4.2. J/SJ bòl ‘urine’, or JChr. pippi < Fr. pipi Butros 100f., stand for vulgar JJ/J “xàx, s.m., cf. JMusl. xòd 'ala ìdak áayy! ‘go ahead!’, said when making room for s.o. to urinate, ‘to pass water’, lit. ‘wash your hand[s]!’ (for purification when performing one’s ablution, said as a euphemism, anteceding the process). Verbs: JJ/J †ayyar áayye ( J var. áayy), lit. ‘to fly “water”’ (euphemism), or J/SJ bawwal, ‘to urinate’ El. 527a stand for JJ/J/Syr. “axx, s.m. B. 381, not ambiguous (see sup.) for JJ. 28.4.3. JJ/J l-'àde, like ‘period’ is the taboo word for ‘menstruation, menses’, loan translation in J/SJ il-'àde-“-“ahriyye, lit. ‘monthly habit’. The sentence ‘she has the menses’ is expressed as JJ íjata-l-'àde, J ajátha-l-'àde El. 137a, or ßàr ma'ha-l-'àde ibid., and E. 'alèha-l-'àda S. 377b. 28.4.4. ‘Breaking wind’ is either JJ II ˙azza", lit. ‘to hiccup’, cf. Syr. I ˙áza", y-6˙zo", s.m., B. 155 stands for JJ/J [˙>“àkom ‘excuse me!’—

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the author] I ∂ára†, yú∂ro†, ‘to fart’ (for which phenomenon one might be rebuked with the word wátad !, ‘[you deserve] a peg!’ Piamenta [1979]:139, ibid. [1983]:124). ‘Breaking wind noiselessly with a bad smell’ in JJ is I baxxar ‘to perfume with incense’ (euphemism), standing for JJ/J I físi, yífsi. Vomiting is expressed by J X (i)stáfra©, lit. ‘to empty’ El. 451a, standing for JJ/J I náta", yúnto", ‘to vomit’ ibid. 28.4.5. A toilet is referred to in taboo forms. Instead of the vulgar word, H. words would be occasionally used as euphemisms in JJ: bèt-k>vòd H., lit. ‘decency closet’, or bèt-kissè H., lit. ‘seat closet’ stand for the old JJ/J word for ‘toilet’: “í“me [ JJ var. tá“me] < T. çé“me [‘é“me] < Pers. ‘á“me, lit. ‘fountain, spring’ < Pers. ‘á“m, ‘eye’, cf. A. 'ayn, JJ/J 'èn, d.m. Piamenta (1979a):247, Syr. “á“me B. 391. J euphemisms are bèt-áayy, lit. ‘water closet, W.C.’ El. 73b, bèt-"ádab, lit. ‘decency closet’ (see bèt-k>vòd sup.) loc. cit. 236, bèt-xála, lit. ‘private closet’ W. 84b, bèt-xàrej, lit. ‘excretion closet’ El. 73b, bèt-rà˙a, lit. ‘rest room’, or mustarà˙, lit. ‘rest place’ Bauer 188a, SJ mirhà∂, ‘lavatory’ W. 331, ‘public lavatory’ El. 73b, Piamenta (1979a):243, and lately also ˙ammàm, ‘bathroom’; loanword: twalèt < Fr. toilette, ‘toilet’ Butros 98. 28.5. Vulgarisms Notwithstanding, cacophemisms are introduced when vulgarisms are not shunned as in the following exemplary situations: 28.5.1. Reacting to someone who is boasting, showing off, or bragging, one exclaims: JJ ˙anni †yàzak! (f. -ek), lit. ‘(go ahead) dye your buttocks with henna!’. 28.5.2. Reacting with resentment to commending someone or his assets, one exclaims: JJ “ì bixarri’, lit. ‘(gush!) it’s voiding excrement [out of my excitement]’. 28.5.3. When utterly disregarding in his absence someone of high status, one may say: JJ/J mà 'indi kbìr illa-j-jamal, lit. ‘I don’t consider anyone’s stature but the camel’s’, i.e., ‘I don’t count any person’. 28.5.4. When one is commended for apathy towards the trouble of someone else, the following vulgar rhymed expression may be used:

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J èrak fi †ìz ©èrak, lit. ‘your penis is in the ass of someone else’, ‘what do you care?’. 28.5.5. When turned down, one may react scornfully saying: JJ/J la-†ìzi! ‘kiss my ass!’. 28.5.6. Disdain is expressed in the following vulgar idiom: JJ/J xara, xarayèn, talàte ! i.e., ‘shit!’, ‘I don’t give a hoot’. 28.5.7. Disparaging someone, one may reproach saying: JJ/J le“ mìn ha-l-xirye? mà bastán∂ef a˙ki ma'o/ma'àh (f. má'a/ma'àha, J var. ma˙˙a), ‘I wonder who does (s)he think (s)he is? , lit. ‘what the hell is this shit?’, ‘it does’nt serve me right to speak to him/her’, daxlak min bi˙síb-lo (f. -la, J var. -lha) ˙sàb? ‘who the hell cares for him/her?’. 28.5.8. When in a conversation one denigrates a lawyer, an advocate, or reproaches someone acting like one, a JJ speaker substitutes the corrupt form abu-kòto for the common word abu-kàto < Sp. abogado, It. avvocato, ‘advocate’ Butros 96, B. 2, S. 2b. The corrupt form abu-kòto is a mocking (bilingual A. + Lad.) term meaning ‘the one with the night pot’. Relating alternatives: J/SJ mu˙àmi, ‘lawyer’ Bauer 11a, El. 372a; J/Syr. ar∂íyye, ‘night pot’ loc. cit. 228b, B. 6, or "aßríyye, s.m. ibid. 662, Bauer 228b, cf. E. "aßríyya S. 490b.

CHAPTER TEN

HYPERBOLE 29. Under hyperbole we shall first elaborate on common ways for exaggerating the range of feelings and emotions in JJ/J adducing parallel instances available in Syr./E. such as rage, exasperation, fear, alarm, joy, love, desire, relish, shame, disgrace, annoyance, friendship, oath of divorce, laughter, pain, shuddering from extreme weather, emotional coldness, and physical exhaustion expressing breakdown. The annexed literal translation is expressly meant to give the reader a vivid picture of the feelings and emotions. 29.1. The expression †àr 'a"lo In late eighteenth century post-classical Arabic narrative attested in the Cairene stories which were appended to the ‘original composition’ of the Thousand and One Nights as evidenced by the studded Egyptian colloquialisms, an ‘impassioned’ person, regardless of the cause of passion is described as someone ‘who has lost his mind, who has gone crazy’ W. 578b, lit. ‘whose mind has flown off ’: †àr 'aqluh. Following are five adduced instances: †àr 'aqluh min-al-fara˙, ‘he was overjoyed’; ˙azant 'alayhimà wa-†àr 'aqlì min ràsi, ‘I grieved over the loss of them both, and I lost my mind’; tabassamat fì wajhihi, †àr 'aqluh, ‘she smiled at him, [and] he was driven out of his mind’; †àr 'aqluh min “iddat-al-©ayΩ, ‘his mind became confused out of fury’; faza' wa-†àr 'aqluh, ‘he was terrified, losing his mind’. Dozy adduces †àr 'aqluh min-al-©a∂ab aw-is-surùr, ‘he was overcome by anger or joy’; †àr 'aqluh, ‘to go wild with joy, indignation, etc.’, ‘to flare up’, ‘to be carried off with ecstasy’. Synonymously, †àr qalbuh/fu"àduh, lit. ‘his heart has flown off ’ is adduced in ibid. 2:78b. JJ/J/Syr./E. †àr 'a"lo (see sup.), var. JJ/J kàn 'a"el fi ràso w-†àr, lit. ‘there was a mind in his head and it flew off ’; J bi†ìr 'an ˙bàl 'a"lo, ‘he flares up’, lit. ‘he flies off the reins of his mind’ B. 496, E. 'a"lu †àr, ‘he flew into rage’ S. 406a; “ì bi†ayyer-il-'a"el, ‘it’s a matter that makes you crazy, that upsets your mind’ loc. cit. Other expressions:

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29.2. Rage JJ/J II walla', v.i., e.g., lamma sa"altni has-su"àl walla'et, ‘when you asked me that question, I flared up’. walla', v.i., ‘to be enraged, be infuriated, be inflamed’, lit. ‘to be combustible’ El.107b vs. v.t., e.g., 'am bitwalli'ni b-su">làtak, ‘you’re inflaming me with your questions’; JJ/J/Syr. I fàr, v.i., damm . . ., e.g., fàr dammi, ‘I was or became infuriated, enraged’ Bauer 403, B. 625, lit. ‘my blood boiled [of rage], vs. JJ/J/Syr./E. II fawwar, v.t., e.g., fawwar dammi, ‘he irritated, provoked me’ S. 440a, lit. ‘he stirred my blood’. 29.3. Exasperation JJ/J/Syr./E. I ˙ara", v.t., "alb . . ., e.g., ˙ara" "albi, ‘he grieved me’, lit. ‘he burnt my heart’ loc. cit. 675, cf. E. ‘he made me suffer much’ S. 130b; albi ma˙rù", ‘I’m grieved, vexed, exasperated’, lit. ‘my heart burns’ loc. cit. 29.4. Fear JJ/J VII n"a†a', v.i., "alb . . ., e.g., n"a†a' "albi mn-il-xòf, ‘I was frightened to death’, lit. ‘my heartbeat stopped out of fear’ vs. JJ/J/E. I "a†a', v.t., e.g., "a†a' "albi mn-il-xòf, ‘he frightened me to death’ S. 493, lit. ‘he stopped my heartbeat . . .’; JJ/J/Syr./E. VII (i)nfalaj, v.i., ‘to be frightened’, lit. ‘to be paralyzed’ Piamenta (1979a):255, B. 619, [infalag S. 464a] vs. JJ I falaj, v.t., ‘to frighten, terrify’, lit. ‘to paralyze’ Piamenta (1979a):255; JJ/J I màt, v.i., xòf, e.g., màt xòf, ‘to shudder of fear’. 29.5. Alarm Of a supposed (car-)accident one exclaims in real time: JJ/J ru˙na! ‘we’re (or I’m) dead!’, lit. ‘gone’; when one’s head is knocked by a hard blow, one exclaims; rà˙ ràsi ! ‘ouch!’, lit. ‘my head is blown off ’. JJ may instantly add: kapp>rát-ha-'avönòt ! H.r., ‘(hope) it’s expiatory for [my] sins’, or ˙a†àti ! H.r., ‘I’ve sinned!’. 29.6. Joy JJ/J I †àr, v.i., min-il-fara˙, e.g., †6rt min-il-fara˙, ‘I was overjoyed’, lit. ‘I flew out of joy’.

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29.7. Love JJ/J/Syr. I màt, v.i., 'ala . . ., e.g., bimùt 'alèha, ‘he loves her to distraction’, lit. ‘he dies for love of her’, cf. bimùt 'aléya m˙abbe, s.m., loc. cit. 805, cf. E. huwa yumùt fìha, ‘he is passionately fond of her’ S. 550b vs. JJ/J II †ayyarat 'a"lo, ‘she made him crazy by seduction’. 29.8. Desire J/Syr. I xala', v.i., ‘to lose one’s wits’, lit. ‘to cast off [one’s wits]’ B. 213, e.g., awwal-ma “àfa xala', ‘the instant he saw her he lost his wits’, lit. ‘. . . he shaked’. 29.9. Relish Relishing a certain dish is expressed as follows: JJ/J I màt, v.i., 'ala . . . (see §29.7. sup.), e.g., bamùt 'a-l-bàmye, ‘I relish okra’, lit. ‘I die for okra’; I la˙as, v.t., 6†-†anjara la˙es, e.g., bal˙as-6†-†anjara la˙es, s.m., lit. ‘I can lick up the casserole [of okra]’, cf. E. I akal, v.t., ßawàbe' . . ., e.g., bàkul ßaw>b'i wara-l-b>mya, s.m., lit. ‘I eat my fingers following the okra’ (abiding with the custom of eating with one’s fingers). 29.10. Shame JJ/J/Syr. VII n“awa, v.i., damm . . ., e.g., n“awa dammi, ‘I felt shame’, ‘I was put to the blush’, lit. ‘my blood was broiled’. 29.11. Disgrace A non-observant Jew is disgraced by his coreligionists with the appellation JJ gòy! H. ‘Gentile!’; people who do not observe etiquette in urban society are looked upon as JJ nawar (sg. nawari|yye) ‘gypsies’, never as badw (sg. badawi|yye) ‘Bedouins’; a girl or a young woman wearing a transparent dress, decolleté, or a short dress is looked upon with disgrace in a modest society considering her JJ/J mza¬¬a†a, lit. ‘stripped, naked’; a person chastising himself for having committed a disgrace repents, crying: wèn arù˙? a†umm ˙àli ! ‘where shall I go to? I’d rather bury myself !’. 29.12. Annoyance When loathing oneself in an unbearable situation, one exclaims: J 'àyef samày, or 'àyef dìni, lit. ‘I loathe my religion, my faith’ Piamenta

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(1979a):253. I 'àf, v.t., sama . . ./dìn . . . ‘to be annoyed, be upset, be vexed’, ‘to be fed up with something’ D. 369, cf. bi˙ubbik 'uft dìni, ‘for the love of you I’ve quitted my religion’ ibid. 367. Other J idioms are 'àyef-it-tákane < T. teknè, lit. ‘I loathe the trough’, s.m., and 'àyefi†- †urbà“ ( J rural var. of †arbù“ ), lit. ‘I loathe the fez’, s.m. 29.13. Friendship Two very close friends of the same gender (not necessarily homos!) who never separate in public are designated as †“zèn fi lbàs, lit. ‘[like] two asses in a pair of drawers’ (metaphor) loc. cit. 251. Not considered dirty, the expression rather evokes a smile; J/Syr. ß˙àb 'a-l-'a∂6m, ‘intimate friends’ B. 534, lit. ‘friends to the bones’; earlier usage JJ/J/Syr.: xò“ bò“, s.m. < T. xò“ bè“, corrupted as xò“ u-bò“ ibid. 221. xò“ bè“, lit. ‘good (agreeable) five’. It may be surmised that bè“ ‘five’ refers to the xamsa A., a talisman against the evil eye. 29.14. Oath of Divorce J Musl. common threat is the oath ˙alaft b6-†-†alà" illa asawwi . . ., ‘I solemnly swear to divorce my wife that I shall do such and such’; otherwise 'alayy-6† -†alà" [bit-talàte] in mà sawwèt . . ., ‘I solemnly swear [threefold] to divorce my wife that if you don’t do such and such, . . . cf. Syr. 'aléya b6†-†alà" / b6t- talàte . . ., s.m. ibid. 171. Such an oath binds the speaker legally, yet it is outspoken outdoors as ineffective. 29.15. Laughter JJ/J I màt, v.i., min-i∂-∂u˙ok, ‘to be exhausted by laughing’, lit. ‘to die from laughing’, or e.g., “axxèt ta˙ti min-i∂-∂u˙ok, ‘I was exhausted by laughing’, lit. ‘I couldn’t stop wetting my drawers (underpants) when laughing’. 29.16. Pain JJ/J I màt / hílek, v.i., min-il-waja', e.g., mutt / hlíkt min-il-waja', ‘I can’t, or I couldn’t bear the pain’, lit. ‘I’m dying from pain’. 29.17. Shuddering from Extreme Coldness JJ/J I màt, v.i., min-il-bard / min-i“ “òb, e.g., mutt min il-bard / -i“-“òb, ‘I shudder, I can’t or couldn’t bear the cold or hot weather’, lit.

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‘I’m dying / perishing of cold or hot weather’; JJ/J/E. bard mòt, ‘severe cold’ ibid. 550b. 29.18. Emotional Coldness A commonplace answer with probable emotional coldness to someone asking kìf ˙àlak? ‘how are you?’ is JJ/J 'ày“ìn min "illet-il-mòt, ‘I’m more dead than alive’. 29.19. Physical Exhaustion expressing Breakdown The following verbs lead to situations expressing breakdown: JJ VIII ntáha, v.i., ‘to be exhausted’, lit. ‘to see one’s end’ < nahyàn|e, ‘exhausted’; JJ/J/Syr./E. VIII stáwa, v.i., s.m., lit. ‘ to be or become ripe [to the extent of falling off the tree]’, or ‘to be properly cooked, well done’ B. 369, D. 263 > mistwi|yye El. 345a [E. ‘worn out’ (man) S. 296b]; I tílif, v.i., s.m., lit. ‘to be annihilated, be destroyed, be damaged’ Bauer 109b > talfàn|e, ‘worn out’ [ J also ‘blunt’ (knife, blade) B. 91; E. ‘good for nothing’ (boy) S. 83a]; I hilik, v.i., s.m. loc. cit. 871, El. 345a, S. 627b, lit. ‘to die’, ‘to perish’ > halkàn|e, ‘worn out’, ‘exhausted’ . . . ibid., loc. cit. To express extreme weariness, one adds the JJ/J phrase la-"a¬¬a, to mean ‘very’, lit. [up] to Heaven’, e.g., ta'bàn|e or mistwi|yye la"a¬¬a, ‘[I’m] falling off my legs, very tired’, zah"àn|e la-"a¬¬a, ‘[I’m] very weary, extremely disgusted’ Piamenta (1979):31 n. 2., Syr. mayyet la-"a¬¬a, ‘dead-beat’, ‘harassed’ B. 806. Turning to ways for exaggerating on the physical level principally, we shall elaborate on leading to extremes, total denial, exaggeration in (length of ) time and space, in multiplication of number in courtesies and when exaggerating in quantity and emphasis. 29.20. Leading to Extremes JJ/J/Syr. Verbs. I "atal, v.t., ‘to beat (harshly)’, lit. ‘to kill’; I akal, v.t., "atle, ‘to be beaten’ ibid. 637, lit. ‘to eat a killing’, "atle, ‘a thrashing’ Bauer 276a ["atla S. 476b]; II “alla˙, v.t., ‘to charge high prices (merchant)’, lit. ‘to denude, lay bare, strip, rob’ B. 404; exaggerating by including the ‘vessel’ with its ‘content’, e.g., nata"u ˙atta nata"u maß>rìnom, ‘they vomited until they poured out their guts’; ∂arabo kaff lazza"o bi-l-˙è†, ‘he smacked him smartly’, lit. ‘he hit him with the palm of his hand, sticking him to the wall’; when a person sent on

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an errand returns empty handed, the frustrated sender sneers: hàda inte bitná““ef-il-ba˙er, ‘you’re apt to wipe the sea dry’. 29.21. Names and Adjectives Referring to the character of a person, ‘a stingy, miser’ is designated in JJ as "amßàn|a H., to express one’s abomination. Otherwise, the common JJ/J/Syr. appellation is abu- (f. imm- [omm- D. 460]) kammùne, lit. ‘anxious about a seed of cumin (!)’, the neutral ‘reference’ in JJ being †ammà'|a, s.m., digressing from J/Syr./E. ‘greedy’, ‘covetous’ El. 161b, B. 487, S. 373a, W. 569b, whereas the comon baxìl|e, uncommon in JJ, designates ‘stingy’, ‘miser’. 29.22. To express utter poverty, one adds the JJ/J phrase la-a¬¬a, ‘utterly’ (cf. §29.19. sup.), lit. ‘[up] to Heaven’, e.g., †afràn la-a¬¬a, ‘[I’m] a pauper, a have-not’, ‘[I] don’t own a nickel’ Piamenta (1979):31 n. 2, otherwise †afràn 'a-†-†ambùra, lit. ‘all I own is a small longnecked, small-bellied guitar’. 29.23. Intensity J la"a màl mà tàklo [tòklo]-n-n“ràn, ‘he found an inexhaustible fortune’, lit. ‘. . . a fortune fire cannot consume’. JJ/J/Syr. “òb »àr, ‘very hot’, lit. ‘fiery hot’, and E. ©àli »àr, ‘very expensive, ‘very dear’ S. 588b (metaphors). 29.24. Abundance JJ/J 'asàker, or maßàri mitl-it-tràb, ‘innumerable army’, or ‘fabulous wealth’, lit. ‘soldiers, or money, as dust or earth’, cf. ‘I will multiply thy seed . . . as the sand which is upon the sea shore’ (Gen. 22:17) (simile). 29.25. Total Denial In the absence of a true call for confidence and sympathy expressed by a¬¬a wakìl[ak], ‘God vouchsafes [for my following declaration]’ B. 906, one may exaggerate in declaring allegedly one’s empty-handedness, saying: mà ˙ìlti . . ., ‘I don’t have . . . at all’, ibid. 186, JJ mà ma'i [ J (mà) ma'ì“ ] , ‘I have nothing on me’ ibid. 793, or mà 'andi [ J m> 'indì“ ] wála mallìn [ J mallìm], ‘I don’t have a nickel’ when dismissing someone’s request; a fashionable lady with a bursting closet nags her husband, saying: JJ mà 'andi [ J m> 'indì“ ] è“ albes [ J var. albas], ‘I’ve got nothing to wear’;

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The father of a marriageable daughter bluntly dismissing a suitor asking for her hand in marriage, declares: m> 'indnà“ banàt la-j-jìze, ‘we have no daughters / girls to wed (v.t.)’; When the fulfillment of one’s hopes by someone does not lead to one’s expectations, one belittles the results saying: mà “ufna i“i, ‘I (or we) haven’t seen anything yet’; Expressing total lack of physical fitness though one can manage, one says: II ba††alt [-a"dar] a“ùf /asma'/ am“i / a˙mel, etc., ‘I have lost my sight/ my power of hearing; I can’t walk any more/ . . . carry, etc.’; In a rhetorical question insinuating negation one asks an anxious person nagging: J ay stánna! hì †àrat -id-dinya?, lit. ‘wait a minute! [ patience!]. Do you think the universe has blown off ?!’ Piamenta (1979a):251. 29.26. Exaggeration in (Length of ) Time JJ/J stretching the duration of a period, or of performance, e.g., tamm yibki bi†la' s>'tèn, ‘he kept crying for about two hours’; mu“ tirja' ba'd jum'a. biddi-yyàk bukra. ‘I warn you not to come back a week later. I need you badly tomorrow’; stretching time to a late hour/date: I "a'ad, v.i., la- + late hour, e.g., "a'ad la-nußß-il-lèl / la-ß-ßubo˙, ‘he stayed till midnight / morning; I "àm, v.i., +late hour, e.g., "àm-6∂-∂uhor, ‘he woke up at noon’; bidd- . . . + long time, e.g., biddi or biddak sane, ‘it will take me, or you, a whole year; 'à“ , v.i., la- +long time, e.g., t'ì“ la-l-miyye!, ‘I wish you live a hundred years’. 29.27. Exaggeration in Space Exaggeration in space is resorted to when insinuating a claustrophobia, e.g., J ˙ill ('anna)! ‘make yourself scarce!’, biddna n“ùf wi““ a¬¬a/ rabbna, ‘I (or we) wish to see space’, lit. ‘we wish to see the face of God/our Lord’. Maximum extent is referred to in JJ/J/Syr. as . . . la-"àxer dáraje, ‘to the extreme’, lit. ‘to the last degree’ B. 235, cf. E. kuwáyyis li-"àxir dáraga, ‘extremely nice’ S. 196a. 29.28. Multiplication of Numbers in Courtesies for Intensification J doubling: ahlèn! designates intensification of áhlan!, ‘welcome!’, mar˙abtèn intensifies már˙aba, s.m.; mabrùk u-"alf mabrùk! ‘God bless you!’, lit. ‘bless you (and) thousandfold!’.

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29.29. Exaggeration in Quantity and Emphasis 29.29.1. In quantity Adding a fraction to an integer as an exaggeration: . . . wi-ksùr, e.g., axad ˙a""o wi-ksùr, ‘he got his due alright’, lit. ‘. . . and a fraction’. Other variables are: . . . u-nußß, lit. ‘. . . and a half ’, or . . . u-fatte, lit. ‘. . . and a crumb’ e.g., ßa˙ì˙-u-fatte, ‘it is definitely true’, or . . . u-“a"fe, lit. ‘and a piece’ . The ‘integer’ refers to character with respect to the grade of excellence, fitness, etc., or of their exaggerated antonyms. 29.29.2. In emphasis By annexing the phrase . . . w-"abùha, lit. ‘and its father’, adding the ‘progenitor’ to a verb in JJ/J, emphasis through assertion is designated. The pron. suff. -ha (f. sg.) is invariable, e.g., A – abùk bidu"" (SJ bi'zef ) 'a-l-'ùd ? ‘does your father play the lute?’ B – bidu"" 'a-l-'ùd-u-"abùha! ‘he plays the lute, and how!’ in short: w-"abùha! A – flàn bitbár†al ? ‘does So-and-So take bribes?’ B – w-"abùha! ‘he does alright’.

C. JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN CONCORD AND CONTRAST SUBJECT DIVISION

PRELIMINARY

Inasmuch as there are similarities or dissimilarities between JJ and J references designating their mutual referents, with or without semantic differentials, we shall hereunder elaborate on various topics starting with ‘Intercourse’, a topic relating to persons as members of society expressing their affections—sympathetic, moral, and personal—when lauding (praising) or disparaging (depreciating) individuals or otherwise, their individual behavior and dissociation, and their interpersonal communication.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

JUDAEO-JERUSALEM ARABIC AND JERUSALEM ARABIC IN CONCORD AND CONTRAST

30.1. Affections in General 30.1.1. Character JJ/J jins, ‘type, kind, character’ (person), cf. SJ naw'iyye, s.m., e.g., “ù naw'ìyt-il-bint-u-“ù naw'iyyet-áhilha? ‘how do you characterize the girl and her folks?’. 30.1.2. Feeling JJ/J1. I ˙ass, yi˙íss, v.t., v.i. 1. ‘to feel, sense’. 2. ‘to have a presentiment’. 3. ‘to feel by touching’ Bauer 128a, El. 305b and 474b, B. 157, S. 134a vs. J2. I “á'ar, yú“ 'or, v.i., d.m. of 1. and 2. (sup.) ibid., loc. cit. 393, Bauer 128a, El. 305b; JJ/E. kèfak, 'ala kèfak, ‘as you wish, like, please’ S. 531a. J/Syr. 'a-kèfak, 'ala kèfak, s.m. B. 735; J 'a-xà†rak, 'ala xà†rak, s.m. loc. cit., El. 487b, Syr. b-xà†rak, s.m. B. 208, E. bx>†rak, s.m. S. 175b, b-ixtiyàrak s.m. ibid. 158b, JJ/J zayy ma biddak, s.m., zayy ma bitrìd, s.m. Bauer 393a, J 'ala rà˙tak, s.m., lit. ‘feel at ease!’;

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JJ/J V thanna bi-, v.i., ˙ayàto / 'ì“to, ‘to enjoy happiness in one’s life’, ‘to prosper’; mithánni (pl. -ìn) [mithannyìn], ‘happy’ B. 874, S. 630a vs. J sa'ìd (pl. sú'ada), s.m. loc. cit. 343; JJ/Syr. hanàwe, v.n., ‘pleasure, enjoyment, bliss, happiness, felicity’ vs. sa'àde, v.n., s.m. ibid.; JJ I áxad, yàxod, v.t., rò˙, ‘to be refreshed, be invigorated’ vs. J VIII (i)ntá'a“, s.m.; JJ nà˙at-rùwa˙ H. ‘satisfaction (fulfilling of parents’ expectations from their child or children)’ vs. rí∂a (-l-wàldèn), s.m.; E. also ‘pleasure, contentment’ S. 228a; JJ VII (í )nfálaj, ‘to become frightened, alarmed’, Syr. ‘to be semiparalyzed’ B. 619, E. VII infálag, ‘to be frightened, paralyzed’ loc. cit. 464a, cf. JJ/J VIII irtá'ab, ‘to become frightened, alarmed’ El. 65b; JJ/J mahmùm (pl. -ìn), ‘worried’ Bauer 299a, ma“©ùl-il-bàl, s.m. loc. cit. 239b, cf. J/Syr./E. "al"àn (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid., B. 678, cf. E. ‘uneasy’, ‘anxious’; ‘sleepless’ S. 499b; J VI t∂àya" [∂∂àya"], v.i., ‘to grieve’ Bauer 235a; JJ m∂àya" (pl. -ìn), ‘grieved’, ‘fretful’, ‘weary’, ‘gloomy’ vs. JJ/J/Syr. mdàya" (pl. -ìn) 1. ‘annoyed’, ‘oppressed’. 2. ‘short of cash’ B. 261, cf. J/Syr. m6ddàye" (pl. -ìn), ‘annoyed’, ‘oppressed’ vs. E. ‘teased’ S. 348b; JJ VI tßà'ar, yitßà'ar, v.i., denom. of ßà'ar H. (see inf.), ‘to grieve [v.i. in Eng.]’, ‘be distressed, be saddened, be agonized, be upset’ vs. JJ/Syr. VII n©amm, v.i., [and J VIII i©tamm, v. i., s.m. Bauer 152a], s.m. B. 584, JJ VII nhamm, v.i., s.m. vs. J VIII ihtamm, v.i., ‘to care’ loc. cit.; or VI t∂àya", v.i., (see sup.), or J/Syr. I zí'el, yíz'al, v.i., 'ala . . ., ‘to be sorry for s.o.’, ‘to be annoyed about s.th.’ ibid. 313, cf. I zí'el, yíz'al, v.i., min . . ., ‘to be offended by s.o.’, ‘to be upset, be grieved about s.o. or s.th. ibid., e.g., z'ílt ktìr lamma smí't innak marì∂, ‘I was grieved/upset on hearing that you were ill’ El. 436a; JJ III ßà'ar, yißà'er, v.t., denom. of ßà'ar, ‘to grieve [v.t. in Eng.], distress, sadden, pain (morally), agonize, anguish’ vs. J II ˙azzan, v.t., s.m., e.g., il-xabar ˙azzánni, ‘the news grieved me’ Bauer 279b, IV az'al, v.t., s.m. loc. cit. 436b; JJ ßà'ar H., v.n., ‘grief, distress, sorrow, sadness, pain of mind, agony, anguish’ vs. J 'azàb [Syr. 'adàb], v.n. 1. s.m. B 515, Bauer 252a, or ©amm, v.n., s.m. ibid. 327b, loc. cit. 584. 2. ‘physical pain, torment, torture, agony, suffering’ W. 600a; JJ mßà'ar (pl. -ìn), ‘grieved, distressed, painful of mind, anguished’ vs. J za'làn (pl. -ìn), s.m., J/Syr. ma©mùm "albo, s.m. B. 584; JJ "albo má'mi / mí'mi, "albo má†fi / mí†fi, ‘he is depressed’, ‘he is in a bad mood’, lit. ‘his heart is blinded / extinguished’ vs. Syr. "albo a'ma, ‘he is stupid’ ibid. 556.

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30.2. Sympathetic Affections 30.2.1. When despite one’s stand one is overpowered, one says: JJ zèt-u-zitùn! fig. ‘like balm to my bones’, ‘so be it!’, lit. ‘olive oil and olives’ [what can be better?]. 30.2.2. When feeling gratitude to someone in his absence, one sympathizes saying, e.g., J waddàna ˙azìn lal-bèt-ib-balà“, ‘he (the driver) took us home gratis, what a fellow!’, lit. ‘poor fellow!’; when pitying a miserable woman, one sympathizes with her, saying: maskìne, J msáxxame, JJ ˙azì†a!, ‘pity! mercy!’, lit. ‘poor woman!, J ‘blackened with soot!’, JJ ‘agonized!’. 30.2.3. When fearing God’s punishment for committing a sin, one says, e.g., JJ mà agzeb 'alèk, ilna mòte!, ‘let me not lie to you, [after all] I’m (lit. we are) mortal!’ (insinuating honesty). 30.2.4. Courtesy. Greeting outdoors JJ “>lòm! (reply: “>lòm! H.), ‘Hi!’, lit. ‘peace!’ vs. J már˙aba! (rep.: már˙aba!), s.m., lit. ‘welcome!’, or sa'ìde! (rep.: sa'ìde mbàrake!), s.m. El. 508a, lit. ‘happy and blessed!’; greeting throughout the day: JJ “>lòm! H. vs. J sa'ìde! or nhàrak (f. -ek) sa'ìd!, ‘good day!’, lit. ‘happy day!’ (rep.: sa'ìd-u-mbàrak!, lit. ‘happy and blessed!’). 30.2.5. Courtesy. Welcoming Home JJ b>rùx hab-bà! H. ‘welcome!’, lit. ‘bless the comer!’ (rep.: b>rùx hannimßà! H. ‘thank you!, lit. ‘bless the attending!’), i.e., the host. Jewish women do not exchange this courtesy in H. Variants: (a) JJ men and women/J ahla w-sahla!, J var. ahlan wa-sahlan! A. ‘welcome!’ (rep.: JJ/J fìk|i, J var. ahlan fìk|i ‘you’re welcome’ ibid. 80a, or J ahlan fi-l-mit"áhhil! ‘the wish is for the host’) Bauer 389a. (b) J ahlèn!, ‘welcome!’ (dual for intensification), cf. Syr. ahlèn w-sahlèn!, s.m. (rep.: ahlèn b6kon / fìkon!, ‘you [pl.] are welcome!) B. 18. (c) már˙aba! or mar˙abtèn!, ‘welcome!’ loc. cit., El. 508, or (d) ˙állat-il-bárake!, s.m., lit. ‘it’s a blessing’, i.e., your visit (rep.: a¬¬a ybàrek fìk|i! or simply fìk|i!, ‘God bless you!’) Bauer (1926):225, §2. 30.2.6. Offering a seat to a visitor. tfá∂∂al|i!, ‘please!’, or “árref ! (f. “árrfi!), s.m., lit. ‘honor [me/us]!’.

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30.2.7. When meeting someone who hasn’t been seen for long, one says: JJ/J wèn [ha-l-©èbe], min ©èr “arr?, ‘where have you been? Hope it’s not because of an unfavourable reason’ B. 385, or wí““ak wá-la wi““-il-"ámar, s.m., lit. ‘your face has been being seen less frequently than the “face” of the [full] moon’, or J (rhyming) zamàn ha-l-"ámar mà bàn, lit. ‘it’s long since this moon (i.e., your face [metaphor]) has been being seen’, or 'à“ min “àfak! (f. -ek)!, s.m., lit. ‘long live whoever sees you!’ (rep.: “àfatak [f. -ek] -il-'àfye!, ‘thank you!’, lit. ‘may good health [always] see you!’) El. 468b. 30.2.8. Timing of Greetings (a) Morning: J ßabà˙-il-xèr! or ( y)ßább˙ak (f. -ek) bi-l-xèr! (decl. [ y]ßábbe˙ + 2 pron. suff.), ‘good morning!’ (rep.: ßabà˙-in-nùr!, s.m., lit. ‘morning of light [to you]!’, or yizìd ßabà˙ak [f. -ek]!, s.m., lit. ‘may He (God) increase [the light of ] your morning!)’; (b) Afternoon: J mása-l-xèr ! or ( y)massìk|i bi-l-xèr! ‘good afternoon!’ (extended to a late hour); (c) Departing at night: [ JJ “>lòm! H. +] J tíßba˙|i 'ala xèr!, ‘good night!’, lit. ‘[sleep well and] rise well in the morning!’ (rep.: JJ “>lòm! a¬¬a má'ak [or ma'àk] (f. má'ek or ma'àki )!, ‘goodbye!’, ‘good night!’. ‘God be with you!’) vs. (rep.: J tlà"i-l-xèr! [rhyming], ma'a-s-salàme!, ‘be well!’, ‘goodbye!’). 30.2.9. Begging Pardon JJ/J pardòn! < Fr. pardón, ‘pardon!’ [and J bardòn!, s.m. Butros 100]; JJ1. ‘sorry!’ vs. J1. mit"ássef (f. mit"ássfe) (pl. -ìn), s.m., SJ àsef (f. àsfe), s.m. El. 351. JJ2. pardòn!, ‘allow me!’, ‘with your permission!’ vs. J2. bastá"zen, s.m., or 'an "iznak (f. -ek), s.m. ibid. 489a, cf. Syr. b-"6znak, s.m. B. 7 (rep.: iznak má'ak [f. iznek má'ek], ‘you have it’), JMusl. dastùrak (f. -ek), s.m. ibid. 239. 30.2.10. Thanking JJ/JChr. mersì < Fr. mercí!, ‘thanks!’, ‘thank you!’ vs. J/JChr./SJ “úkran! W. 482a, s.m. (rep.: 'áfwan, ‘I beg God’s pardon against haughtiness’); JJ/J káttar xèrak! (f. -ek), s.m., lit. ‘may He (God) increase your wealth!’ (rep.: u-xèrak [f. -ek], ‘and yours’, or J mit“ákker (f. mit“ákkre) / mamnùn|e, s.m. (rep. of initiator: 'afwan, see sup.). (General reply in gratitude: JJ/J a¬¬a yxallìk|i! ‘thank you!’, lit. ‘God preserve you!’

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i.e., ‘may you live long!’, or J a¬¬a yí˙faΩak ! [f. -ek]), s.m. Ridiculing: a¬¬a yi˙fáΩni minnak! (f. -ek!) ,‘may God keep me from you[r evil]!’. 30.2.11. Departing from the Sick JJ r6f5"à “6l^mà! H. ‘I wish you complete recovery’, cf. JJ/J rà˙-i“-“arr!, s.m., lit. ‘may the troublesome cause fade away!’ (rep.: JJ/J mà t“ùf |i “arr!, ‘thank you!’, lit. ‘may you see no evil!’. J var. wá la tira! (f. tíri ), s.m., lit. ‘may you not see!’). 30.2.12. Congratulating at a Meal JJ/J ßa˙˙a w-'àfye! ‘in health!’. JChr. when toasting: ßa˙˙a!, s.m. B. 427 vs. JJ l6-˙àyim!, s.m., lit. ‘to [your] life!’. 30.2.13. Congratulating a person sneezing A person sneezing is wished in JJ/J ßa˙˙a!, ‘in health!’, ‘be healthy!’ ibid. JJ var. ˙ayyìm †öbìm! H., ‘have a good life!’. 30.2.14. Thanking for alms, charity, or donation for the poor, or for fulfilling the Law for someone’s benefit: JJ tizkè (f. tizkì; pl. tizkù) lam-m6ßvòt! H.r., ‘may you be worthy of fulfilling God’s commandments!’ (rep.: tizkè [mutatis mutandis] la' a≤òt !, ‘may you be worthy of fulfilling!’), cf. J a¬¬a ya'†ìk|i! or a¬¬a ywaff "ak! (f. -ek!), or a¬¬a yúnßurak! (f. -ek!), ‘God repay you, or give you success, or help you!’ Piamenta (1983):137. 30.2.15. When wishing to fulfill, simultaneously fearing to promise by dint of divine decree, one invokes: JJ a¬¬a yzakkìna! < denom. H. verb. zikkà, v.t. < z6xùt, H. n., ‘may God grant me (lit. us) the right [to fulfill such and such]!’, or nizkè v6- ni˙yè! H. ‘may I (lit. we) attain the merit and live up to it!’, cf. J in 'i“na bi "údret-a¬¬a, or a¬¬a y"addírna!, s.m. 30.3. Moral Affections 30.3.1. Laudating JJ/J àdami|yye, (pl. awàdem), ‘humane’ with connotations of courtesy and refinement, ibin-nàs (f. bint-nàs; pl. wlàd-nàs), s.m., lit. ‘a descendant of [decent] people. In common language one says: zayy-in-nàs

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1. ‘decently, properly’, ‘appropriately’, ‘mannerly’, ‘politely’, ‘like one ought to behave’, lit. ‘like [decent] people’. 2. ‘normally’, ‘according to general custom’, ‘like [ordinary] people’, otherwise zayy-il-'àlam, s.m. of 2., e.g., zayyna zayy-in-nàs / il-'àlam, ‘[we behave, or deserve] like anyone else’, ‘all men are equal’, cf. the rhetorical question l^“ i˙na awwal-in-nàs (in a yes-or-no intonation) w-illa >xírhom? ‘why, are we forerunners or perhaps rearguards?’ (insinuating the first alternative). A chaste Jewish woman is praised as è“et-˙àyil H. in JJ ‘a virtuous woman’ (Prov. 31:10). 30.3.2. Honoring JJ k>vòd H. ‘honor’, ‘respect’, ‘esteem, ‘dignity’, ‘valor’, otherwise onòr < Lad.-Sp. honór, s.m. T. onúr < Fr. honneur, s.m. JJ/J/Syr. 1. "ìme, s.m., e.g., mà li "ìme 'andak / 'indak, ‘you don’t esteem me’, byá'raf "ìmtak, ‘he knows your valor’, ‘he esteems you’ B. 692, cf. E. ràgil 'alèh-il-"ìma, ‘a respectable looking man’ S. 472b; JJ/J/E. ma"àm, ‘rank’, ‘dignity’, ‘position’ ibid. JJ/J ‘standing’, n. W. 800b. J/SJ i˙tiràm, ‘respect’, ‘regard’, ‘esteem’, ‘reverence’ ibid. 172b. Syr. onòr (pl. -àt), ‘honors done to a host or to a guest’ B. 20, ‘hospitality’, ‘hospitable reception’ vs. J ikràm loc. cit. 822, e.g., JJ sawwà-lo / 'imíl-lo onòr or k>vòd H. < Sp. acérle honór, ‘to give him a hospitable reception’ vs. J ákramo, or sawwà-lo ikràm, s.m.; JJ ˙>“ùb (pl. -ìm) H., ‘dignitary’, ‘notable’, ‘distinguished’ (person), cf. Judaeo-Syr. ˙a“òb, ‘respectful’, ‘of good reputation’ B. 141 vs. JJ/J t"ìl (pl. ta""àle), ‘important’, ‘V.I.P.’, ‘eminent’, ‘rich’ (person), lit. ‘heavy’; J/SJ mú'tabar (pl. -ìn), ‘V.I.P.’ loc. cit. 508, or J mú˙taram (pl. -ìn), s.m., ‘respected’ (person) El. 320b; JJ yahùdi k>“èr H.r., ‘an observant Jew’, màsek dayàne, s.m. [màsek-iddayàne min dánaba, ‘a pretender’, lit. ‘one who holds religion by its tail’], JJ/J middáyyen (pl. -ìn), ‘pious’, ‘religious’, cf. JJ ˙>xàm (pl. ìm), H.r. 1. ‘a revered Sephardic rabbi’, lit. ‘a wise man, sage’. 2. ‘title of a pious Sephardic Jew who like the rabbi is marked by wearing on his head a black silken scarf wound around his †arbù“, “fez”, a long robe to his ankles, a wide girdle about his waist, and a long, wide-sleeved black coat, symbolizing a revered religious observant’. 30.3.3. Modernism praised JJ modèrni (pl. -im) H. adj., ‘modern’, ‘up-to date’ cf. J modèrn (invar. adj.) < Fr. modérne, s.m. Butros 100, e.g., nàs modèrn, ‘modern people’, ‘people wearing Western clothes and adapting Western man-

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ners and customs’ Piamenta (1979a):260, cf. JJ/J 'a-l-mò∂a < Fr. à la mode, ‘fashionable’, e.g., bar>nì† 'a-l-mò∂a, ‘fashionable hats’ Bauer 222b. J/SJ 'aßri, or ˙adìs, ‘modern’ El. 244b, cf. JJ/J fránji (pl. fránj ), n., ‘Frank’ < Lat. ‘a native or an inhabitant of western Europe’, adj. ‘frank’, ‘European’. 30.3.4. Metaphors praising the Fair Sex Following are metaphors praising the fair sex: JJ/J "ámar, ‘moon, full moon’; za©lùl (pl. za©>lìl), ‘chick, young bird’; JJ pastèl < Lad.-Sp. ‘pie’; kùkla < T. ‘doll’. An irresistible beauty is designated as btíswal-'avòn H., ‘she’s worth sinning’. 30.4. Personal Affections 30.4.1. Positive JJ VII n˙áfal, v.i., fi, ‘to concern o.s. with’, ‘to give one’s mind to’ vs. J VIII ihtamm, v.i., l-, s.m. loc. cit. 197b; JJ I rá˙am, yír˙am, v.i., 'ala, H. loan phrase: ‘to pity s.o.’, ‘to have compassion for s.o.’ vs. J I “ífe", yí“fa", v.i., 'ala, s.m. ibid. 221b, El. 479, D. 283, cf. Syr. I “áfa", y-6“fo", v.i., 'ala, s.m. B. 396, E. I “áfa", yí“fa", v.i., 'ala, s.m. S. 316b; JJ/J jábar, yújbor, v.i., b-xà†er . . ., ‘to console s.o.’, e.g., jabárna b-xà†ro, ‘we consoled him condoling with him’; JJ/J/Syr. I áxad, yàxod, v.t., xà†er, s.m. ibid. 5, e.g., axádna xà†ro, s.m. (sup.). 30.4.2. Negative Following is a range of culture-bound terms of abuse referring to physical and moral personal characteristics. 30.4.3. Physical Characteristics J xinta < xun∆à A. ‘bisexual’, e.g., rù˙ milla xínta!, ‘go away, you “bisexual”!’; JJ/J inte mu“ xarj ˙ubb, ‘you’re not a match for love, you can’t cope with it’; Ugliness. JJ/J wu““o bi"†a'-6r-ríze", ‘he has an ugly, frowning face’, lit. ‘his face (i.e., looking at him) cuts off one’s living’ Piamenta (1979a): 256; JJ ˙arßubbòt H. pl., ‘an ugly, repulsive woman’ (metaphor), lit. ‘fetters, shackles, chains, bands’ (Is. 58:6), cf. ˙á†be, s.m., lit. ‘a piece of firewood’ vs. J/Dam. "urmíyye, ‘a stumpy, old woman’, lit. ‘stump of a tree’ Bauer 313b; JJ èxa H. ‘ugly woman’, lit. ‘the Book

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of Lamentations’, or t“6'bàb < H. ti“ 'à b6-"àb, ‘the ninth of Ab, the date of the fall of the First and Second Temples of Jerusalem’, s.m., cf. J èxa, an appellation for ‘a fat person’ Butros 101; Stature. JJ/J †awìl|e w-habìl|e, ‘tall and stupid’ (a common belief ) [rhyming] vs. JJ az'ar (pl. zu'ràn), ‘dwarfish’ B. 313, lit./J ‘rascal’, ‘brigand’ El. 416a, Hava 289a, W. 377a; fasfùs (pl. fas>fìs), ‘a worthless fellow’ (metaphor), lit. ‘a tiny fellow, very small’ Piamenta (1979a):254; Weakness: JJ/J xára, xírye, xarà"i, ‘a physically and morally weak person’ (metaphor), lit. ‘shit’ ibid. 241; fáswe, s.m. (metaphor), lit. ‘wind broken noiselessly’; bal'ùß, ‘mean’, ‘worthless’ B. 61; ßurmàye (not kúndara), ‘mean’, ‘humiliated’ (metaphor), lit. ‘old shoe’. 30.4.4. Moral Characteristics Types of persons: JJ/J “ù ha“-“íkel!, ‘what a “type”’!, “ù ha“-“í“ne!, s.m., Syr. “á“ne (pl. “-6“an), or t-6“ne (pl. t-6“an and -àt), ‘sort, kind, manner’, ‘sample’ < T. çe{ní [‘e“ní] -Pers. ‘à“ne, ‘sample’, ‘taste’; t-6“ne jdìde, ‘an original, singular person’, e.g., t-6“ 6nto ©èr “6k 6l, ‘he’s a queer fellow’ ibid. 85 and 391. JJ/J abki 'alè búka!, ‘I refute him’, lit. ‘I bewail him’, abki 'alè fòrma!, s.m., lit. ‘I bewail his character’ < Sp.-It. ‘form’; JJ 'ám-ha-"àr6ß H., ‘illiterate’,’ ignorant’, lit. ‘[of ] the natives’, fig. ‘one of the masses ignorant of the Torah’; JJ b6xòr-il-bòvo (f. b6xòra la bòva) (a compound H.-Lad. phrase) ‘[no doubt, as] a first-born, [he or she must be] a fool, an idiot, a simpleton, easily cheated’ (a common belief among the Sephardim regarding the first-born); JJ pustèma (pl. -as), ‘an unpleasant, intolerable, unbearable, antipathetic, stifling, tormenting, nuisance (person)’ < Lad.-Sp. postéma, ‘apostem, apostume, external suppurating abscess’ < Gr. apostémai, lit. “separation of purulent matter into abscess”, cf. JJ/J 'ílle 'a-l-"alb, ‘a disease dwelling in one’s heart’, I 'all, yi'íll, v.t., -il-"alb, ‘to sicken one’s heart’; JJ/J/Syr./E. t"ìl-[E. ti"ìl-] damm, or dammo t"ìl [E. ti"ìl], ‘antipathetic’, lit. ‘heavy-blooded’ [vs. xafìf damm, or dammo xafìf, ‘sympathetic, lit. ‘light-blooded’] B. 88, S. 205a; JJ/J zayy-id-dúmmale 'a-l-"alb, ‘antipathetic’, ‘unbearable’ (person), lit. ‘like a boil on one’s entrails’, also ‘an incurable situation, or an insoluble problem’ (a woman referring to her daughter, an old maid living with her, embittering her life); JJ/Syr. jádbe (m./f.), ‘stupid’, ‘idiot’, ‘simple-minded’ loc. cit. 104,

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F. 25, JJ/J majdùb|e (pl. -ìn, maj>dìb), ‘possessed by evil spirits’, ‘maniac’, ‘idiot’, ‘lunatic’ W. 116; JJ/J 'èno fàr©a, ‘avid’, ‘covetous’, ‘greedy’, lit. ‘his eye is empty’ [mà bi'abbìha ©èr-it-tràb, ‘nothing fills it but earth’, i.e., at burial], farà©etil-'èn, v.n., ‘avidity’, ‘covetousness’, ‘greed’ loc. cit. 388, cf. E. 'èno fìh, or 'èno minnoh, ‘he covets it’ S. 422b; JJ/J bi˙úbb-il-kábra wa-law 'ala x>zù", ‘he likes haughtiness [lit. elevation] though on a sharpened stake’, cf. E. yi˙íbb-el-'úlu wa-law 'ala xazù", ‘he likes elevation though on a gallows’ ibid. 184b. 30.4.5. Nonpersonal Terms of Abuse Belittling a gift cherished by the receiver, a person exclaims, offending: JJ eh, kilipùr syègo! < T. + Lad. (compound phrase) ‘useless thing’, lit. ‘a blind, i.e., bad bargain’. Another way of expressing such derision is by hyperbole: J/Syr. tájra!, lit. ‘an expedition of goods by caravan, a foreign trade!’ B. 81. 30.4.6. Communal Disparaging ‘Antisemitism’ is not a local term. Yet, J wlàd-il-miyte, lit. ‘born to corpses’, i.e., ‘dreading’ was a nickname for Jews used by vulgar Gentiles (non-Jews) before the emergence of Israel Piamenta (1979a): 263. J xaxàmi (var. xixàmi) (pl. -iyye) < H. ˙>xàm, ‘Jewish sage, rabbi’ is an appellation for a Jew Bauer 253a, B. 190. Anarchic Arab children under the mandatory regime in Palestine would cry on the streets (of the old city) of Jerusalem the following humiliating rhyme: yahùdi xaxàmi, bayyà'-6ß-ßaràmi!, ‘you rabbinical Jew, seller of old shoe(s)!’ Piamenta (1979a):240. J I xèxam, yixèxem < denom. of x>xàm < ˙>xàm H. (see sup.) is a verb mocking the formality of Jewish prayer: moving one’s head and bust back and forth while praying in a standing or sitting position, or turning sideways in ecstasy ibid. 242. A Christian male is referred to in JJ as '>rèl (pl. -ìm), ‘uncircumcized’ < 'orlà H. (pl. -òt), ‘foreskin’, ‘prepuce’, cf. J mu“-im†áhhar (pl. -ìn), s.m. by negation. JJ 'avödà z>rà H., in ancient times meant ‘idol’, ‘idolatry’; ‘paganism’, ‘heathenism’. A Talmudic tractate goes by this name. Cf. J 'ibàdet-"aßnàm, ‘idolatry’, ßánam (pl. aßnàm), ‘idol’. In time, the term 'avödà z>rà, lit. ‘strange worship’ shifted in meaning to iconolatry in Eastern churches. JJ ra“à' H. (pl. -ìm), might relate to a Gentile ‘wicked’ to Jews.

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30.5. Individual Volition Behavior To get a true picture of someone’s behavior, one asks in JJ kìf ˙arakàto? ‘how does he behave? what is his disposition, his physical inclination or tendency, his conduct?’ vs. J kìf slùko? ‘how does he behave?’, or kìf taßárrufo (pl. taßarrufàto)? s.m. Bauer 28b and 61b. 30.5.1. Positive JJ/Syr. m'állam (pl. -ìn), ‘used’, ‘accustomed’, habituated’ B. 546, cf. JJ/J/Syr. m'áwwad (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid. 560, El. 473a, J rural ‘intimate’, ‘familiar’ D. 366; J/SJ/E. mit'áwwed (pl. -ìn), ‘used’, ‘accustomed’, ‘habituated’ loc. cit., B. 560, S. 377, or mu'tàd (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid., loc. cit. 561; JJ 'ando dèrex-"èreß H. ‘courteous’, ‘polite’, ‘well-mannered’, ‘man of propriety’, cf. JJ/J m"áddab (pl. -ìn), ‘well-mannered’, ‘well-bred’ El. 273a; JJ a“rè yò“6vè b^tèxa H.r., lit. ‘Blessed are they that dwell in Thy house . . .’ (Ps. 84:5) is a Biblical verse designating ‘a stay-at-home person’ not meddling with other people’s affairs, cf. JJ sal>màtek ya ràsi! s.m., lit. ‘peace on you, my head!’; JJ/J/Syr./E. V t˙ámmal, v.t., ‘to bear, stand, tolerate’ loc. cit. 338a, B. 177, S. 153a > byit˙ámmal, ‘tolerant’, ‘forbearing’; JJ/J mu“ "alìle uxti. hàdi "add JJ ˙àla / J ˙àlha, ‘my sister is not disabled; she is competent, sufficient’. JJ/J hàdi uxti b†6†la' ràs ma'ek, or hàdi b†6†la' min xárjek, ‘my sister can cope with you; she is commensurate’. 30.5.2. Negative JJ/J 1. xàyen (pl. -ìn), ‘treacherous’. 2 ‘unfaithful’. JJ 3. ‘ungrateful’, ‘unthankful’ vs. J nàker (pl. -ìn)-il-jamìl, s.m.; JJ r>“à' (pl. -ìm) H.r., ‘evil’, ‘sinful’, ‘wicked’, ‘malignant’, ‘cruel’. cf. JJ/J “arràni (pl. -yye), s.m.; JJ m6˙ar˙èr (pl. -ìm) H., ‘instigator’ vs. J m˙árre“ (pl. -ìn), and JJ/J mháwwe“ (pl. -ìn), s.m., J/SJ m˙árr6∂ (pl. -ìn) s.m. El. 275a; JJ/J/Syr. mdábbes (pl. -ìn), ‘an undesirably overstaying guest’ < II dabbas, v.i., denom. of dibs [Syr. d6bs] ‘carob syrup’ > tadbìs, v.n., fig. ‘undesirably overstaying’ B. 230.

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30.5.3. Cunning Characteristics designated by metaphors for Satan, bastard, and monkey: (a) JJ ≤a†àn H., ‘Satan’, ‘devil’, JJ/J “ì†àn (pl. “ay>†ìn), fig. ‘mischievous’, ‘energetic’ Bauer 268a; JJ 'afrìt (pl. 'af>rìt), ‘cunning’, ‘crafty’, ‘wily’, lit. ‘demon’, ‘devil’ W. 624b. (b) JJ mamzèr (pl. -ìm, mam>zìr) (f. mamzertà Aram., pl. -òt), ‘bastard’, fig. ‘a “devil”’, ‘skillful’, ‘shrewd’, ‘cunning’, ‘tricky’ vs. JJ/J bandù" (pl. ban>dì"), ‘bastard’. bandù"-imßáffa, fig. ‘a “devil”’, etc. lit. ‘a pure bastard, filtered, strained’, [mà tirxì min "ìdak! ‘lay fast hold on him!’]; (c) JJ/J "ird (pl. "rùd ), ‘monkey’, zayy-il-"ird, ‘energetic’, ‘agile’, ‘smart’, lit. ‘like a monkey’ (simile), "irdimzá˙la", s.m., lit. ‘slipped monkey’ Piamenta (1979a):255, wa-ba'∂-al'àmma yastá'mil al-qird bi-ma'nà al-“ay†àn, ‘some common people use the word “monkey” meaning “devil”’ (see sup.) Bustànì 1686b. 30.5.4. Dullness JJ b6h^mà H., ‘beast’, fig. ‘dull witted’, ‘stupid’, ‘dumb’, cf. JJ/J áhbal, JJ pl. hiblìn, J pl. húbol, s.m., El. 181b; tès (pl. tyùs), s.m. ibid., lit. ‘billy goat’; JJ/J tayàse, táysane, v.n., e.g., it-tayàse / it-táysane minni, ‘it was I who acted like a fool’ i.e., ‘I regret it, I’m to blame’; JJ/J ˙màr (pl. ˙amìr), ‘fool’, lit. ‘ass’; JJ/J tambal, tanbal (pl. tanàbel), s.m. Bauer 85b < T. tembél ‘lazy’, ‘lazy man’; JJ/J ájdab ( JJ pl. jidbìn; J pl. júdob), ‘dull’, ‘stupid’, ‘silly’, ‘idiot’ B. 105; JJ/J áhbal ( JJ pl. hiblìn; J pl. húbol), ‘idiot’ D. 537. 30.6. Personal Dissociation Personal dissociation is sought (a) by asking God’s protection as a refuge against physical, mental, and spiritual oddities, bad actions, adversities and misfortunes, demonic and evil forces (see Piamenta [1979] §§4.0–4.1., pp. 92–100). It is designated in JJ/J by a'ùzu billàh!, lit. ‘I seek God’s protection’; (b) by seeking God’s forgiveness and pardon ibid. §5.1.2., pp. 134–140, designated by J stá©far-a¬¬àh < A. astá©firu-¬¬àh, cf. JJ ˙as v6-“>lòm! H., ‘God forbid!’ s.m. of (a) and (b). To dissociate oneself from an untoward subject, one says: lè“os! < Lad., lit. ‘far be it [from me]!’, ‘I dissociate myself ’; When confessing in truth and fairness having done, or not done an act, one adds: JJ ili mòte [I truly and fairly swear . . . by the fact that] ‘I’m mortal’, i.e., ‘I’ll be judged in the hereafter’ (reservation);

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another reservation is asking for an excuse: JJ/J bála mu"àxaze!, ‘excuse me!’ El. 351, cf. (ma) t"àxiznì“ ! , s.m., Syr. là tw>x-6dni! lit. ‘don’t blame me!’ B. 887; dissociating oneself from boasting, one says, e.g., JJ axátt, bála minníyye, zèt 'a-li-knìs, ‘I took oil to the synagogue [to light an oil lamp for the soul of the dead]—not boasting of having done a benignity’ cf. ibid. 804. 30.7. Interpersonal Communication We shall herewith relate to three items: mediation, bribing, and antagonism. 30.7.1. Mediation / Intercession J/Syr./E. II wassa† [waßßa†], v.t., ‘to charge s.o. with intercession’ ibid. 896, S. 641; V itwassa† [twaßßa†], v.i., ‘to mediate’, ‘to intercede’ ibid., loc. cit., Bauer 358b; wisà†a / tawsì†, v.n., ‘mediation’, ‘intercession’ ibid., tawassu†, d.m. ibid., Syr. tawasso†, d.m. B. 896, E. tawassu†, ‘intervention’ S. 641; JJ/J/E. wàs†a, ‘means’, ‘intermediary’ ibid.; JJ muwàsa†a, v.n., ‘mediation’, ‘intervention’, e.g., biddak afùt muwàsa†a?, ‘do you wish I mediated / interceded?’ vs. J biddak-iyyàni atwassᆠlak? s.m. 30.7.2. Bribing JJ “ò˙ad H. ‘bribe’, JJ/J/Syr./E. bar†ìl (pl. bar>†ìl ) [Syr. br^†ìl], s.m. ibid. 38, Bauer 60b, S. 41 < A. bir†ìl Hava 29b, W. 53a, J/Syr./E. ra“we (pl. ra“àwi), s.m. [Syr. var. ra“wa B. 281], S. 226b < A. s.m., ‘bribery’ Hava 253b, JJ II “a˙˙ad < H. “i˙èd, v.t., ‘to bribe’, homonym of JJ/J/Syr./E. II “a˙˙ad, v.t., ‘to give alms’ [both referents relating to the semantic field of giving-paying (!)] B. 379. (I “a˙ád, yi“˙ád H., v.t., ‘to hire’, i.e., ‘to bribe’ [Ezek. 16:33; Job 6:22] vs. JJ/J/Syr. I “á˙ad, yí“˙ad, v.t. ‘to beg alms’ B. 379); JJ/J/Syr./E. I bár†al, yibár†el, v.t., ‘to bribe’ ibid. 38, Bauer 60b, El. 500b, S. 41 < A. Hava 29b, W. 53a; E. I rá“a, yír“i, v.t., s.m. S. 226b. < A. yar“ù Hava 253b, cf. J IV a'†a rá“we, s.m. El. 500b; JJ II záyyat, v.t., fig. s.m., lit. ‘to grease’, cf. Eng. fig. ‘to grease, grease the palm’, s.m.; JJ II lá""am, v.t., s.m., lit. ‘to feed bit by bit’; JJ I áxad, yàxod “ò˙ad H., ‘to receive/take a bribe, be venal’, cf. J áxad rá“we, s.m. ibid.; JJ/J/Syr./E. II tbár†al, yitbár†al, v.i., s.m., ‘to be bribed’ Bauer 60b, B. 38, S. 41; J/Syr./E. VIII (i )rtá“a, v.i., s.m., ibid. 226b, loc. cit. 281.

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30.7.3. Antagonism JJ VI 6††àwa“, v.i., ‘to quarrel, fight’, ‘to dispute’ vs. J VI txàna" [E. VI itxàni", yitxàne" S. 183b], v.i., s.m. El. 480b [ JJ/J I xána", yúxno", v.t., ‘to choke s.o.’, ‘to choke to death’, ‘to strangle’ W. 263b]; JJ/J/Syr. †ò“e (pl. -àt), ‘quarrel’, ‘fight, ‘row’ loc. cit., ‘tumult’, ‘deafening row’ B. 490, cf. E. †ò“a and †a““a (pl. -àt), ‘noise’, ‘row’ S. 356b vs. J xnà" / xnà"a [E. xinà" / xinà"a ibid. 183b], (pl. -àt ), s.m. El. 450b, W. 264a; JJ m"àtal (pl. -ìn), ‘at odds with s.o.’, ‘not on speaking or friendly terms with s.o.’, e.g., ana m"'àtal ma'o, or ni˙na m"àtalìn, ‘we are at odds, not on speaking or friendly terms’ vs. J ana m˙àrbo, or ana ˙aràbe ma'o, or ni˙na ˙úrob, or ni˙na m˙àrbìn ba'e∂, or ana w-iyyà ˙úrob, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):239. [ J III ˙àrab, v.t., ‘to be at odds with s.o.’, ‘to be not on speaking or friendly terms with s.o.’]; i˙na/ni˙na mitx>n"ìn, ana mitxàne" ma'o, s.m. Bauer 159a, ‘I broke off my friendship with him’; JJ/J mà ba˙ki ma'o, ‘I’m not on talking terms with him’, cf. I ba˙kì“ ma'o, or J ba˙>k“hò“, s.m. loc. cit. 302b, or J ana m"à†'o, s.m., lit. ‘I have severed relations with him’; JJ I zí'el, yíz'al, v.i., 'ala . . ., loan translation of k>'ás, v.i., 'al . . . H., ‘to be angry with s.o. vs. J/Syr. I zí'el, yíz'al, v.i., min . . ., s.m. [whereas zí'el 'ala, ‘to be angry for s.th. or sorry for s.o.] B. 313, JJ/J/Syr. VI tz>'álna, ‘we are angry with each other or with one another’ ibid., ‘we are at odds’, fì zá'al b^nàtna, s.m.; zá'al, ‘anger’, ‘irritation’, annoyance’ S. 250a. 31. The House and its Contents 31.1 The House JJ/J bèt (pl. byùt), 1. ‘house’, ‘building’. 2. ‘home’ El. 72b; J dàr [∂àr] (pl. dùr [∂ùr]), d.m. ibid., B. 256; ‘kin’, ‘family’, e.g., dar¯-6l-'arùs, ‘the kinswomen of the bride’, ibid., ana min ∂àr-il-˙usèni, I’m of the Husseini family’ vs. JJ bèt, e.g., bèt-il-'arùse, bèt-lèvi, ‘the kinswomen of the bride, the Levis’; J ∂àr, ‘flat’, ‘apartment’, e.g., kánnes-i∂-∂àr kullayàta!, ‘sweep the whole flat/apartment!’ > SJ/E. “a""a (pl. “ú"a"), d.m. loc. cit. 107a, S. 317b vs. JJ dìre, d.m. J bèt (pl. byùt), ‘a single-room residence’ Bauer 401b, JJ/J ò∂a (pl. úwa∂) < T. odá [Pers. u†àq (u†ò©)] ‘room’ ibid., El. 150a, cf. Syr. ò∂a / ù∂a [ J pl. awà∂i (!)], s.m. B. 19, E. ò∂a and òda (pl. úwa∂ / úwad ), s.m. S. 23b vs. J/SJ ©urfe (pl. ©úraf ), s.m.; JJ varánda (pl. -àt) < Old Sp. < Indian ‘veranda, glass-enclosed

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porch’ El. 137a, cf. J baránda, s.m. ibid. Piamenta (1979a):235; JJ/J balkòn (pl. -àt), cf. J pl. bal>kìn < Fr. balcón, ‘balcony’ loc. cit. 91a, B. 61, S. 58a vs. SJ “úrfe (pl. -àt) Piamenta (1979a):247, and “úraf, s.m. W. 467a; JJ derredòr (pl. -es) < Lad.-Sp., lit. ‘circumference’, ‘house enclosure’, ‘wall borders all round’, cf. JJ/J dàyer, e.g, dàyer-il-˙ò“ / il-˙“†àn, ‘all round the yard/walls around’; In old houses of the old generation, JJ "yès (pl. -àt), ‘oriental divan’, a cushioned stone-seat against a wall (orig. unknown), cf. J má߆abe (pl. maßà†eb), ‘outdoor stone-(or mud-)bench against a wall, built into the side of a house’, or ‘stone platform in a house or a public bath, as large as a room or as narrow as a bench’ B. 434, cf. d6kke, s.m. (orig. bedouin?) ibid., A. ßuffa (pl. -àt, ßúfaf, ßífaf ) 1. ‘part of a floor made higher for use as a seat’ (orig. of the word sofa). 2. ‘stonebench’. 3. ‘saddle pad’ Hava 398a; JJ mindèr (pl. -àt) < T. (1. ‘cushion’. 2. ‘mattress’, cf. káryola minderi T., ‘bed-mattress’, and dó“ak T., s.m., see dú“ak inf.) ‘large, flat cushions, or small, flat mattresses or quilts placed on a wide stone window sill, or on a double stone window sill for sitting [and watching the passers-by], or on an "yès—a stone built-in seat below the window sill in a room’. 31.2. The Bed JJ n>m5síyye (pl. -àt), ‘iron bed’ < J/L. ‘mosquito net or curtain’ El. 208b, B. 851 < namùse, coll. n>mùs, ‘mosquito’, Syr. ‘the bed with the mosquito net’ ibid., cf. J taxt (pl. txùt) < Pers. taxte, ‘board’, hence Pers. taxte xòb, ‘sleeping board’. Syr. ‘bed’, ‘bedstead’ B. 81, cf. ‘bed’, ‘sofa bed’ Hava 57a (for E. see inf.); JJ kùna < Sp. cúna, ‘cradle’ vs. J/Syr. srìr (pl. saràyer), s.m., Bauer 388a, El. 391, B. 341, cf. E. sirìr (pl. saràyer), ‘bedstead’ S. 277b; A. sarìr (pl. asírra, súrur), s.m., ‘bed’ Hava 316a, and pl. saràyir, s.m. W. 405a; JJ 1. kavesàl (pl. -àt), ‘long pillow’ < Lad. ‘pillow’, cf. Sp. cabezál, ‘small square pillow’ < Sp. cabéza, ‘head’ vs. JJ2. mxádde (pl. -àt), ‘square pillow’, J1. ‘pillow’ Bauer 192b, El. 216a, mxáddet-nòm, s.m. B. 194. JJ3/J2. mxádde, ‘cushion of a divan’ ibid., cf. E. maxádda (pl. -àt), ‘pillow’, ‘cushion’ S. 163a; JJ sávana (pl. -as) < Lad. < Sp. sábana, ‘bedsheet’ (Pace: ‘quilt cover’ Kosover 353 no. 7), or jillàye (pl. -àt), s.m. (see jallàye inf.) vs. J/SJ/E. “ár“af (pl. “arà“ef ) < T. çar{af [‘ar“af ], s.m. El. 340b, Piamenta (1979a):247, S. 309b;

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JJ/J ˙ràm (pl. -àt), ‘blanket’, ‘woollen blanket’ Bauer 78b, El. 514a, cf. Syr. ‘thin motley blanket’, ‘“Algerian” blanket’ B. 154 vs. J/L./E. ba††>níyye (pl. -àt), ‘blanket’, ‘woollen blanket’ loc. cit., F. 12a, and pl. ba†>†ìn, ‘blanket’ S. 50b. 31.3. Storing JJ ßándra < T. musándra. 1. ‘large wardrobe for storing mattresses, etc.’. 2. ‘sideboard’ > ‘kitchen attic used as a sideboard’ (Tiberias Judaeo-Arabic musándara, ‘kitchen sideboard about the washing stand’), cf. Syr. ßán∂ara or ßamán∂ara (metathesis of T.), ‘a kind of hiding place [usually in a wall] made of planks open nearly level with the ground, on which a wardrobe of mattresses and beddings is stored during daytime’, cf. E. ‘attic’ B. 446 and mlamm-far“àt, s.m., ibid. 766 vs. sidde (pl. sídad ), ‘attic’, ‘garret’ Piamenta (1979a):245; JJ †à"a (pl. -àt), ‘cupboard’ vs. JJ/J xazàne (pl. xazàyen), s.m. El. 57a, Bauer 282b, Syr. xzène (pl. -àt, x6z 6n), s.m., ‘wardrobe’ B. 201, cf. in Syrian old-fashioned houses †à"a (pl. -àt, †úwa"), ‘a small recess in the form of a niche in a wall, as a small cupboard with or without a door’ ibid. 492. (see also ventilation inf.).; JJ ka“òn (pl. -àt) < Lad. < Sp. cajón, ‘drawer (of a cupboard, a desk, etc.)’ vs. J/Syr. jarràr (-àt), s.m. El. 239b, or j>rùr (pl. jaw>rìr), s.m. ibid., cf. L. pl. jw>rìr, s.m. F. 26a, D. 77; JJ ta'lù"a (pl. -àt), ‘coat hanger’, cf. L. ta'lì"a (pl. -àt), s.m. loc. cit. 121a, pl. ta'àle", ‘iron coat stand’ D. 361 vs. J/Syr. 'allà"a (pl. -àt), ‘coat stand’ B. 545, J (!) ma'là"-et-tyàb loc. cit., cf. E. 'illà"a (pl. -àt) ‘a thing with which an article is suspended’ S. 408b; JJ valì≥a (pl. -àt) < Sp. valija, ‘valise’, ‘suitcase’; ‘ánta [or ‘antàye] (pl. -àt) < Pers. ‘ánta / T. çanta [‘ánta], 1. ‘bag, knapsack’. 2. ‘case’, ‘valise’ as original referents. In JJ ‘bag’, ‘handbag’, ‘postbag’, ‘satchel’, ‘briefcase’, ‘small valise’, Syr. ‘traveling bag for documents’, ‘knapsack’, ‘satchel’, ‘postbag’, ‘small valise’, ‘large portfolio’ B. 138 vs. J “anta, “ante (pl. “únat) [and “anàti El. 248b], “antày (pl. -àt), ‘traveling bag’, ‘haversack’, ‘suitcase’, ‘valise’ Bauer 259a, loc. cit. 191a, Piamenta (1979a):248, cf. E. “an†a (pl. -àt, “una†), ‘traveling bag’, ‘valise’, ‘haversack’ S. 324a. 31.4. Seats JJ kanapé (pl. kanapayàt), ‘sofa’, ‘couch’ < T. kanapé < Fr. canapé vs. J kanabè, s.m. Butros 93, kanabày (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 216b, cf. Syr.

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kanabàye (pl. -èt), s.m. D. 461, E. kánaba (pl. -àt), or kanabè (pl. kanabehàt), s.m. S. 527b, cf. E. taxt (pl. tuxùt), ‘bench’ ibid. 70a; bankèta (pl. -àt) < Lad.-Sp. banqueta, ‘stool’ vs. J bank wà†i (pl. bnùk[e] wà†ye or w>†yìn), s.m., lit. ‘low bench’ (paraphrase); bànko (pl. bankoyàt) < Lad.-Sp.-It. banco, ‘bench’ vs. J bank (pl. b unùk) < Fr. banc Bauer 44a, and pl. bnùke El. 356a; JJ siyyìka (pl. -àt) < Lad. siyy(a) + íka, dim. f. < Sp. sill(a) [siyy(a)] + íka, lit. ‘small chair’. In JJ ‘baby’s [high toilet] chair [with a circular aperture beneath for excretion]’ vs. J kursi-l-béybi < Eng. loan translation ‘baby’s chair’. 31.5. The Table JJ/J ßúfra (pl. ßúfar), 1. ‘table’ loc. cit. 321. 2. ‘dining table’ El. 509a, cf. Syr. s-6fra (pl. s-6far), and ß-6fra (pl. ß-6far), s.m., ‘serving table’, ‘table furnished with food’ B. 344, ò∂(i )t-eß-ßúfra, ‘dining room’ Bauer 300b, bèt-eß-ßúfra, s.m. ibid.; J †àwla / †àwle (pl. -àt) < It. távola, ‘table’ El. 509, ‘a table lower than a ßúfra loc. cit. 321, e.g., †àwlet-ákel la-bèt-eßßúfra, ‘a dining table for the dining room’, cf. E. tarabèza / †arabèza (pl. -àt) < Gr. trapézion, ‘table’ S. 71b; JJ mantèl (pl. -àt), ‘tablecloth’ < Sp., s.m. < Lat. mantéllum, ‘cloak’ B. 820 vs. JJ ©á†a-ß-ßúfra, s.m. El. 284b, Bauer 321a, Dam. “er“af, ‘tablecloth’ D. 276; JJ1. servìs (pl. -àt) < Fr. service. In JJ ‘a set of tea, coffee, etc.’, ‘service’, cf. JJ2./J1. †á"em (pl. †"ùme) < Gr. tagma, s.m. loc. cit. 293a, El. 284a, B. 482, cf. E. pl. †u"ùm(a), s.m. S. 369a; JJ vàza (pl. -as) < It. vasa, Sp. vaso ‘flower vase’ vs. J1. vàz < Fr. vase, s.m. Butros 98 vs. J2./Syr. mazharíyye (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 348a, El. 31b, ‘flower pot’ D. 229, W. 384, cf. E. zuhríyya (pl. -àt), ‘flower vase’ S. 258b. 31.6. Kitchenware JJ kafetèra < Sp. cafetéra, ‘coffee pot’. In JJ, ‘a kettle of moderate depth for boiling liquids, with spout and ear handle, whose base is larger in diameter than the deeper kettle brì" (see inf.) vs. J ©allàye (pl. -àt), ‘kettle (for “boiling” liquids)’, cf. Syr. ‘large copper coffee pot with a simple handle’ B. 582, E. ©allàya (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 434a, W. 683a; JJ/J brì" (pl. ab>rì"), ‘coffee or tea pot’, specifically brì"-il"áhwe, ‘coffee pot’ Bauer 180a, brì"-i“-“ày, ‘tea pot’ El. 449a, cf. Syr. ‘small copper or tin coffee pot with spout and handle and no lid, like a saucepan’ B. 39; E. abrì", ‘jug’, ‘pitcher’ S. 1b;

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JJ ma†ba"íyye (pl. -àt), ‘food pyramid’, ‘food container with several (three to four) superposed metal or enameled cylindrical dishes fastened together vertically by a side fork and a side spoon (one on each side) and hooked by a handle’, cf. ‘food container’ vs. J sáfar †às [sáfar †àß] (pl. -àt) < T. sefértası, ‘a traveling food box with several metal dishes fastened together’ B. 471, cf. Dam. ‘mess tin’ D. 248; JJ ku‘aròn (pl. àt) < Sp. cucharón, ‘ladle’. JJ/J1. kafkìr(e) (pl. kaf>kìr), s.m. El. 289b < Pers. kefgìr, s.m., ‘skimmer’—T. kefgìr / kevgìr, s.m. B. 722, cf. kefkàra, ‘large scoop for whipping and stirring’ D. 457 vs. J2/SJ má©rafe (pl. ma©àref ), ‘ladle, scoop, large spoon’ Bauer 282b, cf. E. ma©ráfa, A. mí©rafa (pl. ma©àrif ), s.m. W. 670b; JJ flè‘a (pl. -as) < Lad. flécha, ‘rolling pin’ vs. Sp. ‘arrow’, cf. JJ na““àbe (pl. -àt), ‘rolling pin’ vs. Syr. n6““àbe (pl. -àt) 1. ‘wooden arrow’. 2. ‘arrow-shaped wooden rod for a screen or cradle’ B. 826, cf. E. na““àb (pl. -àt), ‘arrow’ S. 600b vs. J/Syr. “òbak (pl. “awàbek) < Pers. “òbak, ‘rolling pin’ Bauer 383b, El. 283b, B. 415, D. 294; JJ tabsìn [tavsìn] (pl. tab>sìn), ‘rectangular metal tray for baking in the oven’ < T. tepsí, ‘small tray’ < Ottoman T. ‘plate’, ‘dish’ vs. J †ár˙a (pl. -àt, †úra˙), Syr. pl. †-6ra˙, ‘a board or a plank of wood used by boys of a public oven when carrying bread to bread sellers’ loc. cit. 474; JJ lá"en-'ajìn, ‘large, shallow copper basin used for kneading, ritually pure for this matter’ (see inf.) vs. J †u“t-'ajìn, ‘dough basin’ ibid. 478. 31.7. Cooking and Heating Appliances JJ prìmos (pl. -àt) < Lat. primus, ‘first (class)’, ‘best’ > ‘primus’, ‘pumpoperated kerosene cooker of “best” [first class] Swedish brand’, cf. J brìmos / brìmus (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 417a; JJ/J/L. babòr (pl. baw>bìr) < T. vapúr < Fr. vapeur. In JJ ‘kerosene cooker’, ‘burner’ F. 4a, Piamenta (1979a):234, e.g., walle' / i†fi-l-babòr!, ‘light / put out the cooker!, babbòr, s.m. El. 417a. JJ ma“ìna (pl. -àt), ‘wick kerosene cooking-stove’ < Fr. machine, ‘appliance’, cf. JJ/J fatàyel (pl.), s.m. (sg. ftìle, ‘wick’), e.g., mnú†box 'al-fatàyel, ‘we cook with the wick stove’; JJ viladèra, ‘Sabbath lamp, heater’ (see §23.3.6.1. sup.); JJ/J/Syr. †abbàxa (pl. -àt), ‘old-fashioned portable terra cotta or iron stove on embers’ B. 468. JJ ßòpa or ßòba, J ßòbba (pl. -àt) < T. sóba, ‘stove’ ibid. 449, cf. Syr. ßòba, s.m. D. 313, ßòbe, s.m. W. 529, ‘kerosene heater’; JJ embùdo < Sp. ‘funnel’ vs. JJ/J má˙"an (pl. ma˙à"en), s.m. Bauer 325b, El. 304b,

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B. 167; J/SJ daffày(e) (pl. -àt), or midfày (pl. madàfi), ‘kerosene heater’ Piamenta (1979a):242, midfày 'a-l-káhraba, ‘electric heater’, cf. E. daffàya (pl. -àt), ‘stove’ W. 284b, ‘fireplace, native heating stove, hearth’ S. 201b; JJ gàz, SJ ©àz < Eng. gas > ‘gas stove’. Consequently, JJ balòn (pl. -àt)-gàz vs. SJ balòn (pl. -àt )-©àz, ‘gas container (cylinder)’; JJ ‘òtra (pl. -àt), ‘rubber hot water bottle’ (semantic shift of T. ‘otrá, ‘flat wooden bottle or mug’) vs. J/SJ saxxàne (pl. -àt), s.m. W. 402a, cf. L. ‘copper kettle’ B. 337; JJ/J "írbe (pl. "írab)), ‘large leather bottle’, Palmyre qerbe (pl. eqreb), s.m. D. 410, Syr. "-6rbe (pl. "-6rab) ‘water bottle’ loc. cit. 644. 31.8. Ventilation JJ/J1. †à"a (pl. -àt), ‘small window’ El. 59b, without lattice work vs. “ubbàk (pl. “ab>bìk), ‘window’. In earlier times, only with lattice work literally; 2. †à"a ‘(small) window’ ibid. 337, B. 492, S. 355b; 3. Syr./L. ‘loophole’, ‘air hole’ Hava 442a; L. (var. pl. †ì"àn) ‘a small square hole in a wall above the window’, ‘a hole for the passage of a domestic cat’ F. 110; Syr. 4. ‘garret (or attic) window, arched, in the upper part of a wall’ B. 492, cf. "amaríyye (pl. -àt), ‘loophole’, ‘garret window’ ibid. 627; JJ/J/Syr. hawwàye (pl. -àt), ‘fan’, ‘fire fan’ ibid. 878, Hava 842a, ‘ventilator’ J var. hawwày (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 233b, W. 1040b, and J márwa˙a, [mírwa˙a Bauer 349a], s.m., cf. E. marwá˙a (pl. maràwe˙) ‘fan’ S. 563b, cf. SJ ‘propeller’ W. 365b. Note that JJ splits ventilator H. < Eng. ventilator from JJ propèlor H. < Eng. propeller. 31.9. Lighting JJ lustra (pl. -àt) < Fr. lustre, ‘chandelier’ (suspending from a ceiling) vs. J/Syr. tráyya (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 310b, B. 84, cf. E. turáyya (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 74a. SJ ∆uráyya (pl. -àt), s.m. W. 103a vs. J rural ∆ráyyit-“ámi' ‘candlestick’ Bauer 26a; J2. “andilìr < Fr. chandelier, ‘chandelier’ Butros 98; JJ làmpa (pl. -àt), ‘kerosene lamp for illumination covered with a lamp glass’ (most common nos. 3 and 4) < Germ. Lampe (via T. lámba) ‘lamp’ vs. J ¬àmüa (pl. -àt), s.m. loc. cit. 200, El. 272b, var. lamüa Butros 93; JJ làmpat-il-káhraba vs. J ¬àmb6t-il-káhraba, ‘electric bulb’; JJ/J/Syr. ∂aww (pl. á∂wiye [-6∂uye B. 405]) 1. ‘lamp’, ‘light’, n. Bauer 207a, El. 34b. JJ/Syr. 2. ‘kerosene lamp’ B. 405, D. 321; JJ2. gàz (pl. g“zàn) < Gr. chaos, ‘chaos’ > ‘gas’, ‘petroleum’, ‘kerosene’ shifting in meaning to ‘kerosene lamp’.

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31.10. Shading JJ/J1. abajùr (pl. -àt) < Fr. abat-jour, 1. ‘lamp shade’, cf. J abajùr-illàmba, s.m. Bauer 200b, ©á†a lamba, s.m. El. 33a, cf. E. burnè†et-ellamba, s.m., lit. ‘the cap of the lamp’ S. 657a. J2. ‘shutters’ Butros 93, Bauer 118a, El. 548a, D 1.; JJ purdàye (pl. -àt) < Pers.-T. perdé, ‘curtain’, Syr. bardàye (pl. -àt), ‘(door-) curtain’ B. 36 vs. J burdày(e) (pl. -àt, baràdi ), ‘curtain’ Bauer 370b, El. 136b, cf. J/SJ stàra [E. sitàra S. 269b], pl. satàyer, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):245. 31.11. Washing Basin JJ †u“t (pl. †“ùt) < Pers. †a“t, ‘basin’. In JJ ‘a tin or enameled round basin whose brim has a diameter larger than its base, used for ritually “unclean” purposes such as washing, holding water for house cleaning and floor wiping where the rag is dipped before wringing’. Contrary to J (see J †u“t- 'ajìn in §31.6. sup.), it is never used as a food utensil, cf. Syr. †6“t (pl. †“ùt[a]), ‘copper basin’, L. †a“t (pl. †“ùt), s.m. F. 112b, E. †i“t (pl. †u“ùt), s.m. S. 367a; JJ/J lágan (pl. lgùn, l ugùne) < Pers. lágan, ‘basin’. ‘washing basin used for other domestic purposes’, ‘oval or round, deep [copper] washing basin’ Bauer 378a; Syr./L. lákan (pl. alkàn [L. lkèn F. 163]), ‘copper (brass Hava 695) basin’ W. 877a, ‘. . . used for washing or kneading’ D. 481; JJ/Syr. lá"en (pl. l"ùne), ‘a large, shallow copper basin used for kneading, washing, bathing, and other domestic purposes’ B. 763. In JJ a separate lá"en called la"n-il-'ajìn is used for kneading; it is k>“èr H.r., ‘ritually pure’, while others are †>mè H.r., ‘ritually impure’, JJ-J níjes. Syr. Musl. use a lágan (pl. -àt), ‘a copper ewer/pitcher with a spout for ablutions in a ˙ammàm, “public bath”’ ibid. 765; JJ pàyla (pl. -àt) < Sp. paila. In JJ ‘a round copper washtub / bathtub’. In Jerusalem, Arab tinners go round in Jewish neighborhoods when Easter is imminent, crying: mbáyye∂ n˙às, . . . †anàjer, . . . pàyla!, ‘tinner of copper (utensils) . . . casseroles . . . pàyla!’; J/SJ ©assàle (pl. -àt), ‘washing machine’, ‘washer’ (metaphor of JJ/J ‘washer-woman’, ‘laundress’) El. 204b, W. 673b. 31.12. Wiping JJ tovàja (pl. -àt) < Lad. < Sp. toalla, ‘towel’; JJ/J ba“kìr (pl. ba“>kìr) < T. pe{kìr [ pe“kìr] (see 2. inf.). 1. s.m. El. 238 vs. J mán“afe (pl.

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manà“ef ), s.m. ibid., Bauer 159b. 2. ‘napkin’ < T. [s.m.] ibid., cf. J mán“afe (pl. manà“ef ), s.m. ibid., Syr. ba“kìre (pl. b“^kìr), s.m. B. 45, E. ba“kìr (ba“>kìr), d.m. (1. and 2.) S. 47b vs. JJ/J fù†a (pl. fúwa†) < Pers. ‘napkin’, JJ/J/Syr. ‘a napkin used for covering the lower half of one’s body, like a loincloth, in a public bath’ loc. cit. 626, cf. Ottoman T. sófra pe“kerí, ‘tablecloth’ vs. el sófra pe“kerí, ‘serviette’, ‘small napkin’. 31.13. Pumping Water JJ pompa (pl. -àt) < Lad.-It. ‘pump’ vs. JJ/J †rúmba (var. †rómba, †lúmba) (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 251b, El. 297a < T. tulúmba, s.m., cf. Syr. †r-6mbe, s.m. B. 477, L. †rúmbe / †rúnbe, s.m. F. 112a, E. †ulumba / †urumba, s.m. S. 372a, Algiers †runba, s.m. Dozy 2:42b. 31.14. Dust Collecting JJ naffà∂a (pl. -àt), ‘dustpan’, cf. JJ/J/Syr./E. mánfa∂a (pl. manàfe∂ ), ‘ash tray’ B. 841, S. 609b, Bauer 26a [or mtákke, (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid.] vs. J/Dam. majrùd (pl. maj>rìd ), ‘dustpan’ B.108, El. 214a [ J also farà“ (!), s.m. ibid.], and a J var. ajrùd. 31.15. Toilet JJ/J1. twalèt < Fr. toilette, 1. ‘the act or process of dressing, arranging one’s hair, etc.’. 2. ‘the articles used in dressing, etc., as a mirror, brush, comb, etc.’, ‘a toilet set’. 3. ‘a lady’s dressing table’; J2. ‘water closet’ (see §28.4.5. sup.). 32. Foods and Refreshments 32.1. Bread and Pastry Goods JJ/J franjèla / franzèla (invar.) < Modern Gr. frantzóla, ‘long loaf of white flour’, ‘French bread’, ‘(twisted) European fine white bread’, cf. Kosover 244 no. 294, J xúbz-ifránji, s.m. (paraphrase), JJ ˙allà (pl. -òt) H. (Ashkenazi/European xá¬6), s.m.; ‘a piece of bread’ in JJ/J is xúbze (pl. -àt), paraphrased as “á"fit-xúbez Bauer 313a, El. 415b. J II “a""a˙, ‘to cut (bread)’, and “á"˙a (pl. “ú"a˙), ‘slice’ vs. JJ revanàda (pl. -as) < Lad. < Sp. rebanáda, s.m.; JJ fìno (invar.) < Lad.-Sp. ‘fine’, e.g., xúbez fìno, ‘fine bread’; JJ/J zàki (pl. z>kyìn), ‘delicious’, ‘tasteful’, ‘palatable’ ibid. 180a, loc. cit. 279a [Syr. z}6ki, s.m. B. 316], †áyyeb (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid. 496, El.

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180a, e.g., †á'mto †áyyibe, ‘it is palatable’ Bauer 392a, cf. J/Syr./E. lazìz (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid. 279a, S. 538a, B. 751f. (includes ladìd). 32.2. Sweet Pastry JJ biskwìte (pl. -àt), coll. biskwìt < Old Fr. biscuit, ‘biscuit’, cf. Syr. coll. b6skwìt ibid. 44, E. baskawìta (pl. -àt), coll. baskawìt, s.m. S. 46a vs. JJ/J baskòte (pl. -àt), coll. baskòt < It. biscotto El. 72a, coll. bäskòt, bäskùt, s.m. Bauer 65b; JJ 'ug(g)à (pl. -òt) H., ‘(European) cake’ vs. J gatò [ g÷†o D. 467] (invar.) < Fr. gâteau, s.m. Butros 99, or kèkse (f.sg.), pl./coll. kèks < Eng. cake El. 368a, cf. Germ. Keks, ‘biscuit’; JJ pa(n) spunjàdo (pl. -os) < Lad. pan esponjádo, ‘sponge cake’ vs. J kèks (or kèk) < Eng. cake; JJ masayìka (pl. -as) < Sp. mása, ‘dough’ + íca f. dim. suff., ‘semisweet, hard, flat, round cake’ (3" in diameter); JJ fijuèla (pl. as) < Lad. ‘leaflike rolled fried pastry sprinkled with sugar or coated with honey’, cf. Sp. hojuéla, ‘thin cake’; JJ/J zúngol ( JJ var. z-6ngol, zángule) coll. (invar.) < Pers. zan, ‘lady’ + gulé, ‘ball’, lit. ‘lady’s ball’ > 1. ‘ball-shaped honey-dipped puffed paste’. 2. ‘a pancake sprinkled with sugar, or dipped in honey [sugar syrup]’ (a Hanukka treat), Syr. z6nglèye, (f.), coll. z-6ngol, ‘a pancake sprinkled with sugar [powder] and cinnamon’ B. 321. 3. zúngula, ‘pancake’, ‘fritter’, ‘dough, batter’ Dozy 1:608a. 32.3. Salted Pastry JJ bòyo (pl. -oz) < Lad. ‘a fried wet mass of stale bread mixed with chopped onions and spiced with salt and pepper, dim. boyìko (pl. -oz), cf. Sp. bollo, ‘sponge cake’; JJ bogà‘a (pl. -as) < Lad. ‘flaky, rectangular patties stuffed with cheese or spinach’; E. ‘Turkish patties’ S. 63a < T. ‘dish of pastry, onions, minced meat, etc.’; JJ burèka (pl. -as), coll. burèk 1. ‘patty stuffed with cheese, or minced meat (severally [otherwise prohibited by Jewish law]), or JJ/J sil e" (see §32.4. inf.)’ < T. börék, ‘pie’, cf. J burèk a name given to various kinds of pastry. Syr. ‘pie’ B. 40, E. ‘meat patties’ S. 62b. JJ2. ‘flaky, triangular or spiral patties stuffed with cheese or spinach’, cf. brak, ‘flaky pie’ D. 28; JJ bumwèlo / brumwèlo (pl. -oz) < Lad. bimuélo, ‘deep-fried, puffed dough seasoned with salt and pepper, and stuffed with minced meat,

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onions, and potatoes’. On Passover, a deep-fried or baked maßßàmeal, [unleavened] dough, including beaten eggs for puffing, stuffed with cheese and mashed potatoes, or sweetened with honey’; JJ pastèl (pl. -es), ‘cylinder-shaped patty on a round base with pinched round top crust, stuffed with fried, spiced, minced meat, chopped onions, walnuts, and pine nuts baked in the oven’ < Sp. ‘pie’; JJ makaròn coll. < It. maccaróni > maccheróni, ‘macaroni’ vs. J ma'karòne (dissimilation), s.m. El. 39b, cf. L. ma'karùn, s.m. D. 500, and E. ma'karùna, s.m. W. 915b; JJ semolàda < Lad. < Sp. sémola + da pass. part. f.sg. suff., ‘a dish of boiled semolina including garlic, [optional grated cheese], and a grain of salt’. 32.4. Vegetables JJ/J ba†à†a coll. < Sp.-It. patáta, ‘white potato(es)’ Butros 94, El. 544a, Bauer 182b vs. ba†à†a ˙ilwe < Sp. batáta, ‘sweet potato(es)’, and JJ ba†à†a y6r5“alàyim coll. (hybrid A + H.), lit. Jerusalem potato(es), ‘Jerusalem artichoke’; JJ/J/E. "arnabì†a, coll. "arnabì†, ‘cauliflower’ ibid. 67b, S. 485a < T. karnabít < Gr. xrámbi [xrámbi ] B. 654, J záhret-"arnabì†, or simply záhra, coll. záher, ‘lit. ‘flower’, s.m. El. 215b, Bauer 68a; JJ pazí < T. ‘chard beet’, cf. JJ/J síle", sil e " ‘Cicla-silver beet, Swiss chard, Germ. Mangold’ ibid. 213a, J rural sílqa, cf. Syr. s-6l" B. 353, E. sál", s.m. S. 286b; JJ pràsa < T.; Gr. práson, ‘leek’, ‘Allium porrum’, cf. Syr. br>ßßa, s.m. loc. cit. 33, J rural and Dam. bràßia, s.m. Bauer 248b, D. 22 vs. J/E. kurràt, s.m. S. 514b, J rural kurrà∆, s.m. Bauer 203a, Syr. k6rrète (pl. -àt), coll. k6rrèt, s.m. B. 708 < A. kurrà∆ / karrà∆ Hava 649b; JJ àvaz coll. < Lad. áva (sg.), (pl. -az) < Sp. hába > fáva, Fr. fève, ‘dry beans’ vs. JJ/J faßùlya / faßùlye coll., s.m. Bauer 68b, El. 519b, E. ‘French beans’ S. 458b, E./ Syr. f>ßùliyà, ‘common European beans’, ‘kidney beans’, ‘Phaseolus vulgaris Lat.’ W. 692 and 716, Syr. fàßùliyye, s.m. B. 591; JJ fàwle coll., ‘green beans’ ibid. < fabula Lat., dim. of [It.] faba, ‘bean’, cf. JJ/J faßùlya xá∂ra s.m.; JJ bizèlya coll., ‘green peas’ < T. bezélye < It. piselli, s.m., Pisum sativum Lat., cf. bèzèlya, s.m. ibid. 73, Dam. bazàlya D. 31 vs. J bazélla < It. piselli, s.m. ibid., loc. cit. 934, El. 54a, bizle, s.m. (Druze) D. 31; JJ/Syr. tùm coll, ‘garlic’, ràs tùm, ‘a bulb (head) of garlic’, tùme or

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sinn tùm, ‘a clove of garlic’ B. 97, cf. J tòme, ‘garlic’, ràs tòme, ‘a bulb of garlic’, sinn tòme ‘a clove of garlic’, cf. E. tòm, ‘garlic’ S. 87b; ∆ùm A., s.m. Hava 74b, ∆ùma, ‘a head of garlic’ ibid.; JJ/Syr. xar“ùfe, coll. xar“ùf, ‘artichoke’ B. 198; [L. also ‘cardoon’, ‘edible thistle’ ibid.], E. xar“ùfa (pl. -àt), coll. xar“ùf, ‘artichoke’ S. 166b, xur“ùf (pl. xar>“ìf ), s.m. Hava 162b; JJ/J xurfè“e (pl. -àt), coll. xurfè“, 1. ‘artichoke’, cf. xurfè“-il-˙amìr, ‘wild artichoke with violet flowers’ D. 141; 2. ‘thorn’, ‘briar’ ibid., El. 83b; JJ "ò"a (pl. -àt), coll. "ò" (orig. ˙ò wa˙ H. [?] ‘thistle’, ‘thorn’), ‘flower head of an artichoke’ vs. J/Syr. ar∂i“òkiyye (pl. -àt), coll. ar∂i“òki, or in short, “òki, lit. ‘thorny’, s.m. ibid. 456b, B. 7, Hava 7a. J coll. ar∂i“òke < It. articiocco, s.m. The false etymology < ar∂ + “òke ‘the thorn of the earth’ (!) is noted by Butros 102 n. 9 adding a reference to its unruly syntax. Its scientific term Cynara Scolymus Lat. suggests E. < Gr. ginàra, s.m. Bustànì 18a, cf. anjinàra Lad., s.m. 32.5. Fruits JJ banànes coll. < Sp.-Germ. pl. of banána Bauer 44a, sg. banànse (back formation from pl.) (pl. -àt), ‘banana’ vs. J mòze (pl. -àt), coll. mòz s.m.; JJ/Syr. durrà"ne (pl. -àt), coll. durrà"en, ‘peach’ < Gr. doraxiòn B. 236, D. 168 vs. J durrà"a [d6rrà"a loc. cit.] (pl. -àt), coll. durrà", s.m. El. 55a, W. 275b; JJ/J/E. xòxa (pl. -àt), coll. xòx 1. ‘peach’ loc. cit., B. 221, S. 184a, W. 264b; 2. Syr. ‘plum’ ibid., B. 221; JJ pinyòn (pl. -es) < Lad.-Sp. piñon, Fr. pignon 1. ‘kernel / fruit/ seed / nut of the pine / fir tree (Pinus Pinea Lat.)’ vs. JJ/J ßnòbara, coll. ßnòbar, ‘fir’, ‘pine tree’, ‘fruit of the pine tree’ Bauer 247a, cf. Syr. ßnawbar, ßan(n)òbar, s.m. B. 446, E. ßinòbar / ßinèbar, s.m. S. 345a. 32.6. Soups JJ/J már"a, ‘bouillon, broth’, ‘chicken soup’ El. 296b, cf. J/Syr. mára"a, s.m. B. 784, Bauer 72b, e.g., már(a)"at-la˙m, ‘meat soup’ ibid. 121b, E. mára"(a), ‘broth’, ‘sauce’, ‘gravy’ S. 562b; A JJ már"a ‘soup’ may be pure or may contain kùklas in the shape of balls of walnut size mass of meal mixed with beaten egg, spiced with salt and pepper, fried in deep fat, soaked in cold water to stay mushy, and dropped into the rapidly boiling soup. JJ/E./Syr. “òrba (pl. -àt) < T. çorbá [‘orbà], ‘soup’ ibid. 308a, and pl. “wèreb, s.m. B. 416. JJ 1. ‘vegetable soup’. 2. ‘pottage’, e.g., “òrbit-

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'adas, ‘pottage of lentils’, “òrbit-ruzz-ib-ban∂òra, ‘pottage of rice and tomato sauce’, cf. J “òraba (pl. -àt), 1. ‘soup’ Bauer 315a, El. 296b, Butros 92. 2. ‘pottage’, e.g., “òrabat-'ádas ‘pottage of lentils’. 32.7. Dishes JJ ˙ammìn, the main hot Sabbath dish is detailed under §11.1[b]. sup.; JJ sofrìto < Lad.-Sp. ‘braised’. In JJ it is ‘braised beef ’, pot roast vs. J (paraphrase) lá˙em má"li nußß- "ali byithádda 'a-n-nàr, ‘sautéed meat in fat, cooked slowly in very little moisture’; JJ keftèse / kuftèse (pl. -àt), coll. keftès / kuftès < Lad. keftés (pl. of kefté) < T. köfté-Pers. kùfte, ‘meat rissole’, ‘hamburger’, cf. J kúfta, s.m., ‘[fried] round meat balls’ W. 832b, E. ‘balls or cakes of mashed meat fried in butter’ S. 522a, Syr. k-6fta, ‘minced and fried forcedmeat balls’ B. 721; JJ albondìga (pl. -as) < Sp. albóndiga, ‘forced-meat ball in sauce’ < A. al-búnduqa, ‘hazelnut’, fig. ‘pellet’ vs. kúbbet-la˙em z©ìre, Syr. k-6bbet-la˙6m, ‘meat ball’ ibid. 698; JJ mèdyas coll. < Lad., lit. ‘halves’, referring to ‘a dish containing hollowed-out “halves” of vegetables: tomatoes, potatoes, zucchini, onions, carrots, eggplants, stuffed with a mixture of minced meat, parsley, and beaten egg, fried in fat and cooked’. 32.8. Sausages JJ sar‘ì‘a < Sp. salchícha, ‘sausage’, ‘salami’, ‘hotdog’ vs. J1. salsìsyo < It. salsíccia, ‘sausage’ El. 331, Butros 94, Piamenta (1979a):246, salsìsu, s.m. D. 254, sarsìsu / sursìsu, s.m. Bauer 395, salsìs (pl. salàsìs) loc. cit., cf. sarsìs (pl. sar>sìs), s.m. B. 341 and ßalßìjo coll., ‘mutton sausage’, cf. It. salsiciotto ibid. 423. J2. súju" < T. sucúk [sujúk], ‘[a kind of Turkish] sausage’, ‘salami’ D. 238, E. sugú"", ‘Turkish sausage’ S. 270a. 32.9. Puddings JJ mhallabíyye, ‘sweet rice-pudding with milk’ Bustànì 2186a, B. 871, cf. JJ/J/Dam. ruzz-ib-˙alìb, s.m.; JJ su†làj, s.m. < T. sütláç [sütlà‘], ‘rice-pudding’; J hè†alíyye, ‘a gruel made by boiling starch and sugar in water, refreshing in summer’ ibid. 164, El. 107a; ‘a pudding made of wheat starch, milk, and sugar’ Bauer 251b.

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32.10. Cheese JJ ka“kavàn / ka“kavàl < It. cacio-cavallo, ‘oblong cheese of southern Italy’ lit. ‘horse cheese’ via T. ka“kavál, ‘Balkan cheese in round cakes’. In JJ ‘yellow-greenish, fat, piquant, dry cheese in round cakes’ vs. J ka“kawàn, s.m., ‘a kind of cheese’ Butros 94; Syr. ‘a kind of round cheese, flat and very dry’ B. 720. 32.11. Dessert JJ frùta, ‘a dessert of various seeds and dried fruits: peanuts, candied or salted almonds, watermelon seeds, roasted chickpeas, pistachios, and pine seeds’ < Lad.-Sp. ‘fruit’ vs. J nú"ol, s.m., [Syr. n6q 6l loc. cit. 846], A. naql or nuql, lit. ‘bringing dessert to a guest’ Hava 795B, W. 995b; JJ bámbalik, ‘licorice (liquorice) gum’ cf. T. pembelík, lit. ‘rose color, rosiness’ vs. J libb-is-sùs < r6bb-6s-sùs ‘rob (conserve) of licorice’, ‘licorice paste’ B. 266 and 366. 32.12. Sweets JJ ˙íluw coll., ‘confiture, marmalade’, lit. ‘sweet’ (adj.) vs. J †á†li / †á†le (pl. †a†àli), s.m. < T. tatlı, ‘sweet’ Bauer 214a, Butros 92, El. 471b, B. 478, †a†àle ‘fruit marmalade’ ibid. E. †a†li, ‘sweets’ S. 367a, cf. E. mirábba (pl mirabbayàt) / mirábbi (pl. mirabbiyàt), ‘jam’, ‘marmalade’ ibid. 217a; J/SJ mrábba (pl. mrabb>yàt), ‘jam’, ‘preserves’ W. 324b; JJ mlábbase (pl. -àt), coll. mlábbas, ‘sweets, candy’ El. 350b vs. J/Syr. ‘dragée’ B. 745, D. 469, E. milabbísa, coll. milábbis, ‘confits’, ‘bonbons’ S. 534b, J ‘sugar-coated almonds or other nut kernels’ vs. ˙ám(o)∂-u-˙ilu, ‘sour sweet candy’, lit. ‘sour and sweet (colored)’; Ice-cream: JJ glìda H., ‘ice-cream’, lit. ‘freezing’ vs. JJ-J bùΩa, s.m. loc. cit. 97, El. 94a, Butros 92, F. 180 < T. búz, lit. ‘ice’, ‘very cold’; JJ/J dondúrma, ‘ice-cream’ D. 178, Bauer 97, E. dandúrma, s.m. S. 206b < T. dondurmak, lit. ‘to freeze’. 32.13. Other JJ/J m-6ßtka, ‘mastic, resin of the mastic tree’ < Lat. mastichum, Gr. mastixè [mastixè] W. 912a, El. 275a, cf. Syr. m6stke, s.m. B. 786, E. mistika / mi߆ika, ‘gum mastic’ S. 571; JJ màstik coll. < Eng.-Fr. mastic, ‘chewing gum’ vs. J 'ilke loc. cit. 546, 'ilk, ‘chewing substance’ W. 635a;

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JJ/J xárdale (pl. -àt), ‘mustard seed’, xárdal coll., ‘mustard’ B. 197, S. 165b; J1. s.m. (kind) vs. J2. mustàrda [mu߆àr∂a Butros 94] < It. mostárda, s.m. (manufactured) ibid., Bauer 292b. 32.14. Meals JJ prànso < It. pranzo, ‘dinner’ (main meal) vs. J (paraphrase) ©áda fránji kàmel, or 'á“a fránji kàmel, ‘full menu European dinner’; J 'aßr5níyye [var. 'aßrùne] (pl. -àt), ‘a snack taken between lunch and dinner’ D. 354 < 'aß6r, ‘afternoon’. 33. Dress and Footwear Cultural traits can be traced in the following items of dress and footwear listed from head to foot followed by a miscellany. 33.1. Head J 'ara"íyye ['ar"ìye B. 492] (pl. 'arà"i ) < 'ara", ‘sweat’. 1. ‘skullcup’ of white cotton worn under the ˙a††a / kaffiyye < A. kùfiyya, ‘Arab man’s square kerchief diagonally folded and worn under the 'iqàl, “headband” holding it in place’ W. 630, . . . as a headdress ibid. 846b; J/Syr. The 'ara"íyye ['ar"ìye, †a"iyye, s.m. B. 492] is worn under the †arbò“, ‘fez’ ibid. 524, (see †a"iyye inf.). 2. ‘baby’s cap’. 3. Syr. Chr. ‘black skullcap worn by the priest at divine service’ loc. cit., cf. E. 'arra"íyya (pl. -àt), ‘skullcap’ S. 393b; J "allùse (pl. "al>lìs) < qalnùsa < A. qalánsuwa B. 676. 1. ‘cap’, ‘skullcap’ Bauer (1926):66 II; JChr. 2. ‘cardinal’s hat’, ‘priest’s cap’ ibid., ‘Eastern (Greek) priest’s cap’ El. 205a. Syr. Chr. "allùse and "6llèse (pl. -àt), s.m., ‘clergyman’s cap’ B. 676, ‘rounded cap worn by Greek priests’ Hava 624b, ‘cap’, ‘nightcap’ Dozy 2:401a, cf. E. "allùsa (pl. "al>lìs) 1. ‘clergyman’s hat’ S. 500a. 2. ‘cowl’, ‘hood’ loc. cit. 395a; JJ/J1. †a"iyye (pl. †awà"i ), ‘headcover’, ‘cap’ [including kippà H., ‘an observant Jew’s skullcap’] El. 204b, without a crown and brim vs. burnè†a (pl. bar>nì†), ‘European hat’ Bauer 222b; J2. ‘nightcap’, Syr. (pl. -àt), ‘cap’, ‘skullcap of white cotton worn under the †arbò“ [ J †arbù“], “fez”’ B. 492, E. pl. †awà"i, ‘skullcap’, ‘lining of a fez’ S. 357b; JJ berèt (pl. -àt) < Fr. béret [‘beret, tam-o’-shanter’ (worn by the French Alpine regiments)] vs. J birè, s.m. Butros 98; JJ kakùla (pl. -àt) < Lad. < Sp. casulla < Lat. casula, ‘cloak’, by

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metaphor ‘hood’, esp. of a ‘burnoose’ < JJ/J/A. búrnus (pl. barànis), ‘hooded cloak’, cf. ‘chasuble’ < Lat. casula, ‘a sleeveless outer vestment worn by the celebrant at Mass’, or ‘. . . by a Coptic priest’ W. 55b, cf. ‘old-fashioned jacket’ S. 507a vs. J/Syr. "abbù'a, ‘hood’ Bauer 182a, B. 634, "úbu', s.m. loc. cit., "-6b 6' (pl. "bà' ), ‘knitted woollen or lace made hood’, dim. "abbù', ‘baby hood’ < Syriac qub'a, ‘hood’ B. 634; JJ/Syr. mandìle vs. J mandìl (pl. man>dìl ) [Syr. pl. mnèdìl], ‘a small, square veil of muslin [in printed pattern] with which Muslim [urban] women veil their faces, and Christian [and Jewish] women cover their heads’ ibid. 820, El. 435b, Bauer 193a, Piamenta (1979a):261 < Fr. mantílle, ‘woman’s kerchief ’ < Lat. mantéle / mantíle > ‘woman’s head kerchief ’ B. 820 vs. E. mandìl (pl. manàdìl ), ‘handkerchief ’ S. 582. 33.2. Body JJ blùza (pl. -àt) < Sp.-It. blusa, ‘blouse’, cf. blùza / blùzya, ‘loose robe’ loc. cit. 62 vs. J blùz (pl. -àt) < Fr. blouse, s.m. El. 159, Butros 98, cf. blùse (pl. -àt) < Germ. Bluse, s.m. Bauer 68a; JJ ©làle (pl. -àt), ‘bib’ vs. J/L. máryala / máryale (pl. mar>yìl), s.m. ibid. 203a, D. 213, maryùl, s.m. W. 371b. (see devantàr inf.); JJ karavàt(t)a (pl. -àt), It. cravatta, ‘necktie’ Piamenta (1979a):257, cf. J gravᆆa / garavᆆa / garafᆆa, s.m. Butros 94, gravát / grafàt (pl. -àt) < Fr. cravatte, s.m. El. 382a, J rural krawàt (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 195b, cf. E. kirwàta, s.m. S. 517b vs. J rab†a (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 382a, Piamenta (1979a):243, or ráb†at- (pl. -àt-) rá"abe Bauer 195b, Syr. ráb†et-rá"be D. 190, E. rubà†-rá"aba, s.m. S. 215b; JJ swèder (pl. -àt) < Eng. (via H. svèder), ‘sweater’ vs. J jèrse (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 177a, jèrze (pl. -àt) < Eng. jérsey, cf. jarsè (pl. -àt), s.m. Butros 98, jurzày (pl. jaràzi), s.m., El. 343a < Fr. jerséy, or kánze (pl. -àt), s.m.; JJ/Syr. sàco / sakòye (pl. -àt) < Sp. saco, It. sago < Lat. ‘tunic of Roman soldiers’ > ‘coat’, ‘short jacket or tunic of European cut’ B. 328 vs. J sútra (pl. sútar), ‘jacket’ Piamenta (1979a):245, Palmyre ‘jacket’, ‘military tunic’ D. 237, cf. Syr. satra, ‘jacket’, ‘frock coat’ B. 334 < A. ‘covering’ Hava 309a, cf. JJ/J1. jakèt (pl. -àt) < Fr. jaquette, ‘jacket’; J2 jakkèt (pl. -àt), s.m. Butros 94. J3. jakkétta < It. giacchetta, s.m. ibid.; JJ/J lbàs (pl. -àt), ‘a pair of drawers’ El. 535b, ‘oriental short drawers of urban women’ Bauer 345a, E. libàs (pl. -àt, albisa), ‘a pair of

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drawers’ S. 534b, Syr. lbès / lbèse (pl. -àt) 1. s.m., . . . of white linen cloth. 2. ‘baggy trousers’ B. 745 vs. J kalsòn (pl. -àt) < Fr. caleçon, ‘pants’, ‘drawers’ ibid. 725, El. 535b, Butros 94; ‘men’s European drawers’ Bauer 345a; JJ/J/E. ban†alòn (pl. -àt), ‘(a pair of ) trousers’ B. 64, J var. pl. bana†lìn, s.m. El. 264 < Fr. pantalon, s.m. S. 60a; JJ/J ban†alòn "aßìr (pl. ban†alönàt "ßàr), ‘short trousers’ vs. J “òrt < Eng. short, ‘shorts’, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):248; JJ/J1. ˙zàm (pl. -àt), ‘belt’, ‘girdle’; J2. ‘girth’, ‘belly band’ Bauer 155a, pl. ˙uzm / ˙zùme, ‘horse girth’ B. 156, ˙izàm (pl. -àt, a˙zima), ‘belt’, ‘sash’ S. 133b vs. J3. "“à† (pl. -àt, "ú“o†), ‘leather belt’ El. 149b, ‘leather strap’ ibid. 487b, Bauer 155a, B. 659, E. "u“à† (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 488a; JJ/Syr. “add>dàt pl. (sg. “addàde), ‘suspenders’ for holding up trousers loc. cit. 383 vs. J “ayy>làt pl. (sg. “ayyàle), s.m. El. 219a, L. “eyy>làt pl., s.m. D. 299; JJ sayyòla (pl. -àt) < Lad. ‘underskirt, slip’, ‘petticoat’ < Sp. sayuela, ‘woollen shift’, i.e., ‘woman’s chemise’ vs. J/Syr./E. tannùra (pl. tan>nìr) [and -àt ibid. 85b], s.m., ‘skirt’ El. 167a, Piamenta (1979a):237, Syr.L. ‘lady’s skirt’ W. 98b < Pers. ‘dervish’es skirt’ B. 94; JJ devantàr (pl. -àt) Lad. < Sp. devantál / delantál, ‘apron’ vs. J/L./E. maryùl (pl. mar>yìl ), s.m., ibid. 305, El. 353b, F. 69b, S. 242b, cf. L. máryale, ‘pinafore’ D. 213, and E. maryála (pl. mar>yìl ), s.m., ‘apron’ loc. cit.; JJ prostèla < T. prostéla, ‘apron’; JJ/J jurbàn, fárdet-jurbàn (pl. jar>bìn), ‘stocking’ El. 97b, D. 78, J jurbàne f., (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 106, jràbe, f., (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid., cf. E. guràb (pl. -àt), “uràb (pl. -àt), “urràb (pl. “ar>rìb), ‘sock’, ‘stocking’ S. 307b; J kálse, f., (pl. -àt), s.m. < It. calza El. 97b, Butros 94, B. 725, cf. Sp. calceta, ‘understocking’; JJ pardesù < Fr. pardessus, ‘overcoat’; JJ/J bଆo (pl. ba¬†oyàt), s.m. loc. cit. 93, Bauer 333a, cf. E. (pl. bal†owàt) S. 31a, Syr. bàl†o, m. / bal†òye, f., (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 27 < T. pálto < Fr. paletot, s.m. < Old Fr. paltoc > Middle Eng. paltock, ‘short coat sleeved doublet or “jack”’; JJ/J kabbùd (pl. kab>bìd ), ‘overcoat’ ibid., Bauer 333a, Butros 94, cf. E. ‘cloak’, ‘great coat’ S. 510 < T. kapút ‘military cloak’ < Fr. capote, ‘capote’, ‘long cloak with a hood’, (soldier’s great coat), dim. of Fr. cape, ‘hood’, Sp. capote, ‘cloak’, It. cappotto, ‘a mantle with or without a hood worn to prevent cold or rain’.

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33.3. Footwear JJ kúndara (pl. kanàder) < T. kundura, ‘shoe’ vs. J ‘a single, or a pair of shoes’ El. 325a, ‘European shoe’ Bauer 284a, var. kundrày, s.m. ibid.; JJ ßurmàye (pl. ßaràmi), ‘shoe’ A. ßarma < Pers. ‘arm, ‘leather’ Bustànì 1183, cf. J ßurmày(e), ‘a single, or a pair of shoes’, (pl. ßaràmi ) El. 325a, ‘home old-fashioned shoe, not European’ Bauer 284a, cf. Syr. ß6rmàye / ßarmàye, ‘a single, or a pair of shoes’ (pl. ßaràmi ) B. 431; J ßubba†, ‘old shoe’ Butros 94’ < It. ciabatta, ‘shabby shoe’, ‘slipper’, cf. Syr. ßabbà† (a pair), (pl. -àt), ‘laced uncovered shoes’ < Sp. zapato, Provençal sabata ibid. 425; JJ/Lad. sapàto (pl. -os), ‘slipper’. 33.4. Miscellany Diapers JJ/J du“ak and J dò“ak (pl. dawà“ek), ‘quilted, secretion proof, baby’s cotton diaper’ < T. dö“ek < Pers. tù“àk, ‘mattress’ [Syr. dò“ak (pl. dwè“ek), ‘a cushion, or a small mattress for a chair, etc. B. 258, L. dáw“>k, s.m., ‘bed mattress’ F. 60a, E. dò“ak (pl. dawà“ik), ‘a small mattress for a chair’ S. 209]; SJ ˙affàΩa (pl. -àt), ‘diaper’; JJ fà“a (pl. -as) < Lad. < Sp. fája, ‘swaddling band’, dim. fa“ìka (pl. -as) vs. J/Syr. "mà† [ J rural qam†a f. Bauer 386a] (pl. -àt), ‘swaddle’, ‘diaper’ B. 682, E. "umà† (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 501b; JJ fa“adùra < Lad. < Sp. fajadúra coll., ‘swaddling clothes’ vs. J pl. "m>†àt [E. "umà†àt ibid.], ‘baby’s swathing clothes’ B. 682. 33.5. Trousseau JJ “uwàr (pl. -àt) < Lad. a“ugàr, ‘trousseau’, ‘bride’s wedding outfit’ [ Judaeo-Sp., Morocco, a“uwár], cf. Sp. ajuar. ‘apparel’, ‘household furniture’ vs. JJ/J jihàz / jhàz (pl. -àt), ‘trousseau’ Bauer 41a, El. 313a, cf. Syr. jhèz, s.m. B. 126, E. gihàz, s.m. S. 113a < A. jihàz / jahàz, s.m. Hava 102b. 33.6. Bridal Veil JJ/JChr. vello (pl. -os), ‘bridal veil’ < Sp.-It. velo, ‘veil’, cf. JMusl. búr"o' (pl. barà"e' ), ‘veil (of a Muslim lady)’, Syr. b-6r"o', s.m. loc. cit. 39, E. búr"u', s.m. S. 41b; J rural xirqa (pl. xíraq), s.m., . . . of embroidered cloth, “ámbar, s.m., †ar˙a (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 70a., †ár˙at-il-'arùs, ‘bridal

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veil’ El. 435b, cf. Syr. Chr. †ar˙a, ‘a piece of tulle or cloth occasionally used as an outdoor head cover of Christian women’ B. 474. 33.7. Wearing Clothes JJ/Syr. V tbaddal, v.i., ‘to change one’s clothes or one’s underwear’ ibid. 32, cf. JJ/J II ©ayyar, v.t., e.g., ©ayyar aw>'ì(h), s.m. Bauer 336b; JJ mbaddal (-ìn) 1.‘wearing changed clothes or underwear’. 2. ‘wearing a badle, “suit, costume”’, cf. JJ/J m©ayyer aw>'ì(h), J var. . . . tyàbo, ‘wearing changed clothes or underwear’. 33.8. Selling Old Clothes JJ ròpa vyèja < Sp. ropa viéja 1. ‘old [second-hand] stuff > 2. ‘junk dealer’ (metaphor) vs. JJ/J bayyà' (pl. -ìn) awà'i 'úta", ‘old clothes ( junk) dealer’, cf. E. ròbabèkiya < It. roba vecchia, ‘old [second-hand] stuff ’, bayyà'-ir-robabèkiya, ‘old clothes ( junk) dealer’ W. 363. 34. Health 34.1. Hospitalization JJ spi†àr (pl. -àt) < Sp. (aphæresis of ) ospetál, ‘hospital’, cf. J ißbi†àr (pl. -àt), s.m. Butros 95, sbìtàr (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 195a vs. J/SJ mustá“fa (pl. musta“fayàt) ibid. J1. muristàn (pl. -àt) < Pers. bimàrestàn, ‘lunatic asylum’ ibid. 176b, Syr. m6rstàn (pl. mrèstìn), s.m. B. 783, E. murustàn (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 561. J2. 'aßf5ríyye s.m., Syr. 'ußfùrìya ['ußf5ríyye], ‘insane asylum, madhouse’ W. 617a; JJ spi†àr/ J3. sbi†àr-il-maj>nìn, s.m. Bauer 176b. J4/SJ mustá“fa-l-maj>nìn, s.m., mustá“fa-l-"amrà∂-il'a"líyye, lit. ‘mental (illness) hospital’ El. 73a, cf. E. isbitàlyet-el-mag>zìb, s.m. S. 10a. isbitálya < It. ospedale, ‘hospital’; JJ klínika < Sp.-It. clinica, ‘clinic’ vs. J 'iyàde (pl. -àt), s.m. loc. cit. 296a, Bauer 188a; JJ vi≥ìta < Lad. < Sp. visíta, 1. ‘visit, call’. 2. ‘doctor’s visit/fee’ (metaphor); J/E. vízita < It. vísita, lit. ‘visit’, d.m. Butros 95. JJ resèfta (pl. -àt) < Lad. < Sp. receta, ‘doctor’s prescription’ vs. J ru“ètta (pl. -àt), It. ricetta, s.m. loc. cit. 260b, Piamenta (1979a):244, El. 226b, Syr. rè‘étta, s.m. B. 303; JJ >˙òt (pl. a˙>yòt) H. calque < Germ. Kranken-Schwester, Eng. sister, ‘sick-nurse’ vs. JJ-J nèrs [nörs] (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 195a, Galilee nárse (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 38a; SJ/L. mumárri∂a (pl. -àt), s.m. D. 491;

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JJ gràdo (pl. -os), ‘thermometer’ < Lad., lit. ‘grade’, cf. JJ/J m“zànsxùne, s.m., J/SJ m“zàn-˙aràra, s.m. loc. cit. 240b, Bauer 320b; JJ/J bandàj (pl. -àt) < Fr. bandáge, ‘bándage’ Butros 99, cf. J rab†a or laffàfe (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 534a, cf. Syr. lfèfe (pl. -àt, lfèyef ), s.m. B. 760, E. lifàfa, s.m. S. 542; JJ pláster (pl. -àt) < Eng. (via H.), ‘adhesive plaster’, ‘plaster strip’ vs. JJ/J1./Syr./E. láz"a (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 244b, B. 752, W. 864b, E. (pl. -àt, luza"), s.m. S. 538b; J2. luzzè"a (pl. -àt), s.m. 34.2. Diseases A cause for disease is JJ mikròb coll. (pl. -àt) < Gr. ‘microbe’ > Fr. microbe, cf. J makròb (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 155b, Butros 99 vs. J/SJ jar∆ùme (A. jur∆ùma) (pl. jar>∆ìm), s.m. loc. cit.; JJ aba“àda < Lad.-Sp. ‘catarrh’, e.g. 'ando aba“àda, ‘he’s suffering from catarrh, cold’. Sp. lit., abájo, ‘down’, cf. Lat. catarrhus, Gr. katarrhous, lit. ‘running down’; JJ/J/Syr./E. rá“e˙, ‘cold’ loc. cit. 317a, B. 280, ra“˙, ‘a cold in the head’, [lit. ‘oozing’, ‘leakage’] S. 226a, J/Syr./E./SJ näzle, s.m. Bauer 183a, názla, s.m. loc. cit. 598a, L. nazle ß6dríyye (pl. nzùlàt), ‘catarrh’ D. 516, ‘bronchitis’, ‘influenza’ B. 823, W. 957b vs. nazla “u'abiyya, ‘bronchial catarrh’ ibid. JJ/J mrá““e˙ (pl. -ìn), ‘suffering from catarrh, cold’; JJ puntàda < Lad. ‘pneumonia’, cf. It. punta, ‘pleurisy’ [pleuropneumonia (?)] vs. J iltihàb-ir-riyye (1. iltihàb-ar-riya Bauer 210b. 2. bón†a ibid. 211a < It. punta, see sup., s.m.); Syr. zàt-6r-riyye, or zàtiyye B. 265, cf. SJ ≈àt-il-janb, ‘pleurisy’; JJ trombòza, ‘thrombosis’ < Gr. ‘curdling, clotting’ (via H.) vs. J ja¬†a, ‘lump’, ‘clot’ El. 547b < Gr. thrómbos; JJ úlkus, ‘ulcer’ < Lat. (via H.) ulcus, Gr. hèlkos vs. JJ/J dúmmale (pl. damâmìl ), s.m. Bauer 97a and 143b, SJ pl. damàmìl W. 293, cf. Syr. d6m(ma)le, ‘furuncle’ B. 250, E. dimmil (pl. damàmil), ‘boil’, ‘blain’, ‘sore’ S. 206a; SJ qur˙a (pl. qura˙), s.m. El. 34b, cf. A. qar˙a (pl. qira˙), ‘ulcer’, ‘sore’; abscess’, ‘boil’ W. 755b. JJ pustèma < Sp.-Lad. postéma, ‘apostem, apostume, external suppurating tumor, abscess’ < Gr. apostémai, lit. ‘separation of purulent matter into abscess’, cf. JJ du˙ès, E. du˙às < A. dà˙is > J. ‘whitlow, felon, abscess under the nail, paronichia’ loc. cit. 208b, W. 272b; JJ matèrya < Lad.-Sp. matéria, ‘matter, pus, purulence’ vs. JJ/J/Syr./E. "è˙, s.m. El. 238b, B. 694, S. 505b, J màdde, J rural midde, s.m. Bauer 97a, Syr. 'amal, s.m. B. 554, Hava 501a;

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JJ kólika < It. colica < Gr. colicos, ‘colic’ vs. J/E. má©aß [ma©ß Bauer 190a], s.m. S. 575a, Hava 728a, cf. Syr. m©àß, Beirut m©ìß < A. ma©ß, s.m. B. 794; JJ plátfus < Germ. (via H.) Plattfuss, ‘flat-foot’ vs. J ijr mas˙, s.m., loan tr., calque Bauer 247b, El. 405b, or flàt < Eng. flat (foot) ibid.; JJ sefanyòn (pl. -es) < Lad. < Sp. sabañon, ‘chilblain’ vs. J tatlìj [ J rural ti∆lìj], or wáram-il-bard, s.m. loc. cit. 127b; JJ kàyo (pl. -os) < Lad. < Sp. callo < Lat. callus, ‘corn (on the foot)’ vs. J1. musmàr (pl. mas>mìr), s.m., lit. ‘nail (metal) ibid. 172b. J2. 'èn-sámake, s.m., lit. ‘eye of a fish’ S. 422a, W. 663a (metaphors), cf. Germ. Hühnerauge, s.m., lit. ‘eye of a chicken/hen’ (metaphor); JJ l-'áya-l-bùm, lit. ‘the bad, i.e., the terrible disease’, a taboo phrase for J/SJ sara†àn / ßara†àn El. 359b, cf. sala†àn Bauer 195b. 34.3. Operation JJ kurtàj < Lad. ‘artificial (surgical) abortion’, cf. Sp. abortimiento, s.m. < Sp. cortar, ‘to cut off, separate’ vs. J1. tas"ì† / taß"ì†, s.m. of kurtàj ibid. 117a, B. 439, S. 281b. J2. ta†rì˙, s.m. loc. cit. 474, El. 127b, W. 555b; SJ ijhà∂, s.m. ibid. 144, loc. cit. 34.4. Morbid Conditions JJ gàna < Lad.-Sp. 1. ‘appetite’. 2. ‘desire, wish, inclination, mind’, e.g., mà 'andi gàna àkol wá-la biddi a“ùf ˙áda, ‘I have no appetite, nor do I desire to see/meet anybody’, cf. JJ/J/Syr./E. nafs, d.m. of gàna El. 528a and 173, e.g., ilak nafs la-l-"ákel?, ‘do you have appetite?’ or jày 'a-bàlak tàkul ? s.m. Bauer 25a, ili nafs á∂urbo ‘I feel like, or I wish to hit him’, mà li nafs àkol, ‘I have no appetite’, màli nafs a“ùf, ‘I have no desire to see’ B. 839, ma lì“, or ma 'indì“ nafs, ‘I have no appetite’ S. 608b; J/SJ “áhwe / "àblíyye, ‘appetite’; JJ/Syr. m©áyyar (pl. -ìn), ‘not looking as usual, not looking well, looking ill’ loc. cit. 589 vs. J mit©áyyer (pl. -ìn), E. mit©áyyar (pl. -ìn), s.m. S. 437b; JJ (curse:) yú''od ruzz 'ala "albak!, ‘may rice stay [like a cramping chunk] in your stomach!’; JJ/Syr. biddo y-6nto", v.i., ‘he feels like vomiting’ B. 602 vs. J biddo yistáfre©, v.i., s.m., cf. E. 'àyiz yistafri©, s.m. loc. cit. 451a; JJ m‘a'maß (pl. -ìn), ‘blear-eyed’, ‘rheumy-eyed’, ‘dim-sighted’, cf. Syr. mba'baß (pl. -ìn), corruption of m'ammaß (pl. ìn), s.m. B. 51 and 553, F. 121b vs. J/L./E.1 a'ma“ (pl. 'um“ ) < A., s.m. ibid., Hava 500b,

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S. 413b, [E.2. ‘blind’ ibid.]; J/Syr. a'maß ('umß), ‘blear-eyed’, Bauer 325b, B. 553, J m'amm6ß (pl. -ìn), s.m. loc. cit.; JJ/J a˙dab (pl. ˙udob), ‘hunchback’, otherwise abu ˙adbe, s.m., lit. ‘one who has a hunch/hump’, J var. abu ˙urdábbe, s.m. Bauer 171a, El. 155a, B. 150; JJ/J maflùj (-ìn), ‘semi-paralytic’ loc. cit. 306a, J/SJ nußß jismo ma“lùl, s.m. ibid.; J/SJ ma“l5l (-ìn), ‘paralytic’ ibid., cf. E. maflùg (-ìn), s.m. S. 464a; JJ/J ßá"a† (invar.) < T. sakát, ‘invalid, crippled, disabled’ (person); JJ/J ijrè(h) mtalljìn, ‘he suffers from chilblain’, Syr. tállajet 6jrèh, s.m. D. 66; tatlìj or wáram-il-bard, ‘chilblain’ Bauer 127b; JJ/J ∂ahri ma"ßù', ‘I feel a brisk pain in my back’, cf. ∂ahri mabrù", ‘I feel a sudden brisk pain in my back’, otherwise VII n"áßa' / mbára" [B. 38] ∂ahri, s.m. as above. 35. Occupations The following exemplary list of occupations includes simple Arabic words combined with the Turkish suffix denoting ‘occupation’: “-ci [-ji] /-çi [-‘i ]”, or foreign loanwords adapted to Arabic. JJ/J/Syr./E. abukàto [abukàtu Bauer 11a] (pl. abuk>tíyye) < Sp. abogado, It. avvocato, ‘advocate’ Butros 96, B. 2, S. 2b (see §28.5.8. sup.) vs. J/Syr./E. mu˙àmi [Syr. var. m˙àmi D. 125] (pl. mu˙>míyye) [Syr./E. pl. -ìn ibid., loc. cit. 154a], s.m. Bauer 11a, El. 372; JJ/J m'állem (pl. -ìn) 1. ‘teacher’; 2. ‘foreman’ ibid. 247b and 272a, loc. cit. 205a, B. 547, E. mu'állim, (pl. -ìn), d.m. S. 409; 3. ‘master’ (of apprentice, of domestics) loc. cit.; J ú߆a (pl. u߆awàt) < T. ustá [Dam. -6sta D. 7], ‘master of trade or craft’, ‘master workman’, ‘craftsman’, ‘foreman’, ‘overseer’ Butros 92, cf. Syr. 6|stàd, ‘master’ B. 8 vs. S/SJ ustàz (pl. asàtze) < Pers. ustàd, 1. ‘professor’, ustà≈ (pl. asàti≈e) Bauer 250b, Hava 308b. 2. ‘teacher’. 3. ‘master’ W. 15b; JJ/Syr. sammàn (pl. -e), ‘shopkeeper, grocer’ El. 264a, B. 359, Bustànì 1002b, Hava 337b vs. J/Syr./E., ‘butter merchant, seller of butter’ ibid., Bauer 74b, El. 264a [pl. smèmne B. 359]; E. ‘seller of samn, “melted butter”’ S. 291a, cf. J dukkánji (pl. -íyye), ‘shopkeeper, one who owns a shop’ El. 163b, Butros 93, Bauer 200a, and ßà˙ib-dukkàn, s.m. ibid. Syr. d6kkánji / d6kkèni B. 247, E. dak>kni (pl. -íyya), s.m. S. 203, cf. J ba""àl (pl. -e), s.m. El. 163b and 264a, Bustànì 113b. [ JJ smàne 1. ‘groceries’, n. 2. ‘grocery business, v.n.]’, J b"àle, d.m., e.g., dukkànt-b"àle, ‘grocery’ loc. cit. 264a;

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JJ/J/ Syr./E. ta˙ßìl-dàr [Bauer 308b] / ta˙ß6ldàr (pl. -íyye), [E. pl. -íyya] < T. tahsildár, ‘collector, tax collector’ B. 162 [E. ‘debt collector’ S. 139a], cf. E. ta˙ßílgi, (pl. -íyya), s.m. ibid. W. 182; SJ mu˙áßßil (pl. -ìn) ibid., or [min] qism-il-jibàye, ‘[of ] the tax-collecting department’ El. 87; JJ/J/Syr. mßáwwer (pl. -ìn), ‘photographer’ ibid. 432b, B. 450. Syr. var. mßáwwer- “ams, s.m. ibid., cf. JJ (of Bagdadi orig.) mßawwír‘i (pl. -íyye), s.m. cf. T. fotografçi [ fotograf ‘i ], s.m.; E. mußawwiràti (pl. -íyya), s.m. S. 346b; JJ/J/Syr. m“áxxeß (pl. -ìn), ‘actor’ B. 382 vs. J/SJ mmássel (pl. -ìn), s.m. < A. mumá∆∆il. [ JJ/J ta“xìß, v.n., ‘acting on stage’ ibid., ‘act of personating, performance, play’ loc. cit. 305f. vs. J/SJ tamsìl, s.m. < A. tam∆ìl ]; JJ/J/Syr. m©ánni|yye [m©anníyye], [ JJ/SJ mu©ánni|ye El. 144b], (pl.: m. -ìn; f. -àt), ‘singer; songstress’ Bauer 268a, B. 586, cf. E. mi©ánni|ya (pl.: m. -ìn; f. -àt), s.m. S. 437a vs. J mú†rib|e (pl.: m. -ìn; f. -àt), s.m. El. 144b, cf. Syr. m-6†reb, f. m-6† 6rbe (pl.: m. -ìn; f. -àt), s.m., or ‘musical instrument player’ B. 473; JJ/J 'àlme (pl. 'awàlem), originally an Egyptian ‘professional female singer’, cf. Syr. 'èlme (pl. -àt, '(a)wèlem), s.m. ibid. 547, E. 'álma (pl. 'awàlim), ‘chanteuse’, s.m. S. 409, W. 637a; JJ/J jinkíyye (pl. janàki), [and jingíyye (pl. janàgi )] < T. çengí [‘engí ], ‘public dancing girl’. In JJ/J/1. s.m. 2. ‘public actress: female dancer and singer’ [ jankíyye, s.m. of 2. D. 91] Bauer 301b, paraphrased as ra""àßa u-m©ánniye; JJ/J garsòn (pl. -àt) < Fr. garçon, ‘waiter’, lit. ‘lad’ El. 269b, Bauer 184b vs. J súfraji (pl. -íyye), s.m. ibid., Syr. s-6fraji, s.m. B. 344; JJ/Syr. 'arabánji < 'arabàna + T. suff. (pl. -íyye), ‘coachman’ ibid. 519 vs. J/Syr. 'árbaji < T. árabaci [árabaji: áraba + T. suff. of profession], (pl. -íyye), s.m. ibid., cf. Dam. 'árabi (!), s.m. D. 347; E. 'arbági (pl. -íyya), 1. s.m. 2. ‘driver’ S. 390b; JJ/J/Syr. “ufèr [Syr. “uf}6r] (pl. -íyye) < Fr. chauffeur, ‘driver, engine driver, cab driver’ Butros 99, El. 314a, D. 283 vs. J/Syr./E. sawwà" (pl. -ìn), s.m. ibid. 263 loc. cit. S. 264b < ‘driver of a beast of burden’ Bauer 128, cf. ‘one who drives a horse in a mill’ B. 369; JJ/J 'áskari (pl. 'áskar, 'asàker), ‘soldier’ loc. cit. 298a, El. 156b, B. 529 vs. J/SJ jundi (pl. junùd), s.m. Bauer 298a. JJ 'áskar, ‘army’ vs. J/SJ jè“ (pl. juyù“ ), s.m. ibid. 162a, B. 424a; JJ/J 'askaríyye, ‘military service’, E. 'askaríyya, s.m. S. 397a; JJ/J ©assàle (pl. -àt), ‘washer woman, laundress’ El. 204b, W. 673b; J/Syr./E. bahlawàn (pl. -àt), ‘acrobat’, ‘rope dancer’, ‘tumbler’ B.

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66, S. 61b < T. pehliván, ‘wrestler’, ‘athletic’, ‘hero’, Pers. pahlavàn, ‘brave warrior’, ‘athlete’ loc. cit. vs. JJ ba˙lawánji (pl. -íyye), ‘tumbler’ Piamenta (1979a):236 < ba˙lawàn. 1. v.n., ‘tumbling, rolling, turning over’. 2. n. ‘an acrobatic wheel turn’, cf. SJ ˙arakàt bahlawàniyye, ‘capers of a tumbler’ W. 79b. 36. Entertainment 36.1. Vacation JJ ˙òfe“ H., lit. ‘freedom’ vs. J fòrßa, ‘vacation’, furßa (pl. fúraß), s.m. Bauer 118a and 348b, El. 167a, cf. Syr. f-6rßa (pl. f-6raß), s.m. B. 601, SJ 'u†le (pl. 'ú†al), s.m., ‘school vacation’, ‘holiday’, ‘free day’, ‘recess’ loc. cit., W. 622a, cf. J ízin, ‘leave of absence’ Bauer (1926):170, §6, ma"z5níyye (pl. -àt), s.m., ijàze (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 348b; JJ 'ando ˙òfe“, ‘he’s on vacation, on leave’, J mfòr6ß (f. mfòrßa) (pl. -ìn), s.m. El. 167b, ma"zùn|e, (pl. -ìn), or huwwe (f. hiyye/hì) fi ijàze or fi 'ú†le, ‘he (she) is on leave of absence, or on vacation’. [Verbs: J I fòraß, yifòr6ß, v.i., ‘to take leave’, ‘to be on vacation’ ibid., Bauer 118a, cf. Dam. II farraß, v.i., s.m. D. 387]. 36.2. Theater JJ/E. tiyàtro (pl. -àt) < Sp.-It. teátro, ‘theatre’ S. 88a vs. JJ/J/Syr. mársa˙ (pl. maràse˙), s.m. Bauer 320b, B. 278, Hava 251a; metathesis of J/SJ másra˙ (pl. masàre˙), s.m., El. 536a, W. 406b; JJ sìrko < Sp. circo, ‘circus’ vs. J sirk < Fr. cirque loc. cit. 464a, Butros 99. 36.3. Games JJ “a˙màt H. < Russian “áxmat < A. “àh màt, lit. ‘the king is dead’ > ‘checkmate’. ‘chess’ vs. J “a†ránj / ßa†ránj < T.-Pers., s.m. El. 501a, S. 313b; JJ dàmka < Russian (via H.) ‘king (at draughts)’ (game). In JJ ‘draughts, chequers’ loc. cit. 109 vs. J ∂àma < It. (via T.) dáma, lit. ‘lady’, s.m. B. 455, damma, s.m. Butros 93, cf. Sp. dáma, ‘queen (in draughts)’; Russian ‘queen (in cards)’ < It.; JJ/J/Syr. †àwla / †àwle, ‘dice’, ‘trick-track’, a variety of backgammon loc. cit. 467 < It. (via T. távla), ‘backgammon’ Butros 92, short for J/E. †àwlet-záher, s.m., lit. ‘a set for dice’ < T.-Pers. zàr, ‘dice

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cubes’ B. 505, S. 259a, otherwise J/Syr. ˙ájara (pl. ˙jàr), lit. ‘stone’, s.m., loc. cit. 146, or mká''ab (pl. -àt), ‘die’, n., (pl. ‘dice’), lit. ‘cube’ Bauer 395a, El. 442b. [ JJ dàdo < Sp. ‘die’, pl. dàdos, ‘dice’]; JJ/J “è“ bè“ < T.-Pers. ‘backgammon’, lit. ‘six five [dice]’; JJ kò‘e (pl. -es), ‘cube’ < Lad. cóges < Sp. v. cojer, ‘to catch’. In JJ ‘small stone cubes, origin of dice, five in number, with unmarked sides’ thrown by a player in the air with the palm of one’s hand to be ‘caught’ instantaneously by the back of his/her hand, the more the better (childrens’ game) vs. J ˙ájar (pl. [xams ‘five’] ˙jàr), s.m., cf. ˙ájara, coll. ˙ájar, ‘pawn’ (at chess), ‘piece’ (at draughts)’ B. 146 (see sup.); JJ bílyard < Eng. (via H.), ‘billiards’ vs. J bilyàrdo < It. biliárdo, s.m. loc. cit. 71a, Piamenta (1979a):236, cf. E. 1. s.m.. 2. ‘billiard table’ S. 58b; JJ kàrta, ‘card’, ‘playing cards’ vs. JJ-J “ádde, ‘cards’, ‘deck of cards’ El. 454a, B. 383, wár"et-“adde, [wár"at-“adde Bauer 301b] ‘a playing card’, coll. wára"-“adde ibid., E. coll. wára"-“adda, ‘playing cards’ S. 306b, JJ/J lu'b-i“-“adde ‘cards’ (game) loc. cit. 182b. Toys and children’s games JJ/J lú'be (pl. lú'ab), ‘play, game’ ibid. 301a, El. 298b, Syr. l-6'be (pl. l-6'ab, lá'ab), s.m. B. 757, Dam. lu''èbe (pl. -àt), s.m. D. 475, E. li'ab (pl. al'àb), s.m. S. 541b; JJ lu'bíyye (pl. -àt), ‘plaything’, ‘toy’, ‘doll’ Piamenta (1979a):259; J lu'abíyye (pl. lú'ab), s.m. Bauer 252a, lu'be (pl. lú'ab), s.m. ibid., El. 63b, cf. Syr. l-6'be (pl. -àt, l-6'ab) B. 757, E. lí'ba (pl. lí'ab), s.m. S. 541b; JJ ma˙bö"ìm < ma˙avö "ìm H. pl., ‘hide-and-seek’, ‘blind man’s buff ’ (game) vs. J ©ummày, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):254, El. 250b, cf. E. istu©ummàya, s.m. S. 436a; JJ tofè≤et H., ‘catch’ (children’s game) vs. J zá"†a, s.m. loc. cit. 532a, [Galilee zu""è†a, s.m.]; JJ †ábbe (pl. -àt), ‘ball’, J rural †ubbe Bauer 43b, cf. J †àbe (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid., El. 204a, B. 489; JJ/J marjù˙a (pl. mar>jì˙), ‘see-saw’, ‘swing’ vs. J and Mecca murjè˙a, s.m. ibid. 937, Piamenta (1979a):243, cf. merjà˙a ‘see-saw cradle’ D. 192. 36.4. Sport JJ má“u, v.n., ‘walking’ vs. J má“i < A. ma“y, s.m. Bauer 136a, El. 122; JJ/J má“we (pl. -àt), ‘walk, promenade (on foot)’ B. 789f. Note that there is no JJ/J word for ‘sport’ as a technical term. The specific

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referent is designated either as JJ sport, a modern European loan word, or as SJ riyà∂a, its neo-Arabic loan translation, lit. ‘physical exercise’. 36.5. Playing the Riddle JJ/Syr. ˙azzùra (pl. ˙az>zìr), ‘riddle’, ‘puzzle’ ibid. 155, W. 173b vs. J1. ˙uzzèra (pl. ˙az>zìr), s.m. loc. cit., Bauer 254b, ˙uzzère, s.m. El. 155b, ˙azèra, s.m. D. 108. J2. ˙uzz>ríyye (pl. -àt), loc. cit., Piamenta (1979a):239, and ˙uzzèriyye, s.m. Bauer 254b. 36.6. Smoking J/SJ II daxxan, v.i., 1. ‘to smoke’ (for leisure or releasing distress). 2. ‘to emit smoke’ (of lamp, chimney, etc.).; tadxìn, v.n., ‘smoking’. JJ/J I “íreb, yí“rab, v.t., ‘to smoke’, lit. ‘to drink’ (see inf.): (a) sigàra (pl. sagàyer), (b) túton, (c) duxxàn, (d) (n)argìle. (a) ‘a cigarette’ El. 393b, (b) ‘tobacco’ < T. tütün B. 383. [“urb-duxxàn is a loan translation of T. tütün içmek [i‘mék], lit. “drinking tobacco”, i.e., ‘smoking’], (c) ‘tobacco’ (for smoking), lit. “smoke” (emitted from tobacco) (metaphor) ibid., Bauer 250b, S. 194b and 307b, (d) ‘a hookah’ El. 393b. JJ nargìle (pl. -àt), ‘Turkish water-pipe, hookah, hubble-bubble, narghile’ < T. < Pers. nàrgìl, ‘coconut’ B. 811, D. 515, E. nargìla (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 588b vs. J argìle (pl. ar>gìl ) [and pl. -àt Bauer 378b, B. 7], s.m. El. 331b, Butros 92. 37. Arts and Crafts 37.1. Music JJ ©anníyye (pl. ©anàni ), ‘song’, Syr. ©6nníyye (pl. -àt, ©nèni ) B. 586 vs. J ©unnawíyye / ©innawíyye (pl. ©anàni, ©anàwi), s.m. Bauer 142b, D. 378, Syr. ©enàwìye, ‘popular song’ B. 586, cf. E. ©ínwa (pl. -àt), ‘song’ S. 437a; SJ ú©niye (pl. a©àni), s.m. El. 504b, Hava 538a; JJ1. mòzika < It. música, ‘music’ vs. J/E. mùsì"a, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):261, S. 585b, or E. mùzika, s.m. ibid. JJ2. mòzika vs. J mazzìka (pl. -àt), ‘brass band of European instruments playing in military, official, and nuptial ceremonies’ loc. cit., ["í†'et- (pl. "í†a'-) mazzìka, ‘musical instrument’], cf. Syr. mazzìke (pl. -àt), ‘brass band playing Turkish military music, dominated by a large drum’ B. 786, E. musì"a / mùzika (pl. -àt), ‘band of musicians’ loc. cit. vs. J bànda < It. banda, ‘band’ (musical) Butros 94;

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J1. taxt (pl. txùt), ‘home music band’. J2./L. ‘music choir’ F. 20a, cf. JJ/J >l>tíyye, ‘home music band’, E. taxt-alatiyya, d.m. of J1. and J2. S. 70a, W. 35a; JJ pyàno (pl. pyànowàt) < short for pianoforte or fortepiano, ‘piano’, cf. J byàno (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 187a, El. 410, B. 71; SJ bayàn (pl. -àt) (arabicized as a loan translation, conforming with A. bayàn, ‘eloquence’, ‘rhetoric’, etc.), s.m., e.g., biddek tíl'abi 'ala-l-bayàn? ‘do you feel like playing the piano?’; JJ/J k“wàn (pl. kaw>wìn), ‘phonograph [gramophone] record’ < Pers. kaywàn ‘Saturn’ Piamenta (1979a): 258, Hava 670b, metaphor of Saturn, the planet known for the thin rings surrounding it, having a similar shape vs. J/SJ us†(u)wàne, (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 546a, W. 16b, lit. ‘cylinder’, the older shape of ‘the phonograph record’, L. kwàne, s.m. D. 464, cf. q(e)wàn, s.m. B. 693. 37.2. Ornamentation and Decoration JJ asàwra (pl. asàwer), ‘bracelet’ vs. J íswire (pl. asàwir) Bauer 26a; swàra, íswara, íswar (pl. asàwer), s.m. loc. cit. 366; JJ galanterìya < It. (via H.), ‘haberdashery’, ‘fancy goods (for ladies)’ vs. J1./Syr./E. xurdawàt, pl., s.m. Bauer 199a, B. 197, W. 234a, and ‘half worn-out articles’ S. 166a, pl. of xúrda < Pers., ‘fine thing’. J2. nòvotyè [nuvuté Butros 98] < Fr. nouveauté, ‘novelties’, ‘fancy articles’, ‘ladies’ (fine) clothes’; JJ/Syr. òya (pl. -àt), ‘star-shaped fringe sewn to a mand“le, “lady’s head kerchief ”’, cf. L. ‘lace’, e.g., mnèdìl-"òya, ‘lace handkerchiefs’ D. 13, òya lùlu, ‘lady’s ornamented headdress’ B. 20 < T.1. ‘edging, fringe’. 2. ‘embroidery on the edge of a garment’; JJ tandèla < T. dantéla < Fr. dentelle, ‘lace, lace work’, Dam. dentella, s.m. loc. cit. 178, dantilla, s.m. W. 294a, E. tantilla, s.m. S. 85a. J1. dantèl < Fr. dentelle vs. J2. tántana < T. tentene, s.m. Butros 92; JJ brodrì < Fr. broderie, ‘embroidery’, ‘embroidering’, cf. JJ/J ta†rìz s.m. Bauer 309a, El. 488b, and W. 557, JJ/E. rikàmo < It. ricámo, Sp. recámo, s.m., ‘embroidery of raised work’, ‘embroidered lace’ S. 234a; JJ pùdra, ‘face powder’ < T. pódra < Fr. poudre, ‘powder’, cf. J bùdra / bòdra, s.m. S. 35b; JJ mpòdara, f. (pl. -àt), ‘(face-)powdered lady’, cf. J mbòdara, f. (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 68. Verbs: JJ I pòdar, yipòder, v.t., ‘to powder s.o.’s body or face (lady)’, cf. J I bòdar, yibòder, v.t., s.m. Bauer 251b; JJ II tpòdar, yitpòdar, v.i., ‘to powder one’s own face (lady)’, cf. J II (i )tbòdar, yitbòdar, s.m. ibid.

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B. 68. JJ I bámba", yibámbe", v.t., ‘to adorn s.o. by dress and ornaments’ (orig. unknown), cf. J II zawwa", v.t., ‘to adorn’ B. 323; JJ II tbámba", yitbámba", v.i., ‘to adorn o.s. by dress and ornaments’, ‘to be well-dressed and dandied’, cf. JJ/J II thándaz, yithándaz, v.i., s.m., J I hándaz, yihández ˙àlo, ‘to adorn o.s.’ Bauer 252b and 280, J V dzáwwa", yidzáwwa", v.i., s.m. loc. cit. 37.3. Tailoring JJ/J mòs†ra (pl. masà†er) < Sp. muéstra, ‘sample, specimen’, e.g., 'a†ìni mòs†ra min l-i"mà“ hàda!, ‘hand me a sample of this cloth!’ El. 103a, mös†rat-ib∂à'a, ‘a sample of goods’; mòs† ara (pl. masà†ir), s.m. Bauer 226, Butros 95, Syr. m-6߆ra / m-6߆ara (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 435; J rural 'ìne (pl. -àt, 'íyan), [L. 'iníyye], s.m. Bauer 226b, cf. J/SJ 'áyyine (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 103a, or namùzaj (pl. namàzej ), s.m.; JJ karù‘a (pl. -àt), ‘spool’, ‘wooden thread reel’ < Lad., cf. Sp. carrúcha, garrúcha, dim. of Lat. carrus, ‘pulley’, cf. J bákara (pl. -àt), ‘reel’ loc. cit. 262b, B. 57, S. 55a; JJ gaytàn < T. kaytán, ‘cotton or silken thread’, ‘braid lace’; JJ/J ku“tbàn (pl. ka“atbìn), ‘thimble’ < Pers. angú“t + bàn, lit. ‘finger protector’, or Pers. angu“tàne, ‘thimble’ El. 55b, Bauer 120b, cf. Syr. k6“tbàn (pl. k“etbìn), s.m. B. 718; JJ marèja < Lad. ‘darning’, [cf. H.v. arág, ye"eròg, ‘to plait, braid, weave’, hence ma"arág, n., ‘weave’, ‘web’, ‘fabric’] vs. J ráti, s.m. B. 270, J rural/Syr. r>∆i, s.m. Bauer 310b, Hava 240b, W. 326a; JJ lástik, n. < Eng. elastic, n. < Gr. élastikón, ‘material in the form of a band, made elastic with strips of rubber’ > ‘rubber band’, cf. J lastìk, n. < Fr. élastique, n., s.m. Butros 93; JJ/J/Syr. tánye (pl. -àt), ‘hem of a dress’ Bauer 269a, El. 264b, B. 95 vs. J2. zàf (pl. zyùf ), s.m. loc. cit., Bauer 269a, D. 233, or J3. kinàr (pl. -àt) < T. kenàr, s.m. Butros 92, cf. Syr. kanàr, s.m. B. 728. 38. Traffic and Communication 38.1. Traffic JJ/J tráfik (invar.) < Eng. 1. ‘traffic’. 2. ‘traffic policeman or policemen’ (metaphor) vs. SJ 1. sèr, s.m. of 1. 2. bulìß / “úr†i-s-sèr, s.m. of 2.; JJ/J kàrra (pl. -àt), ‘cart’ (open, low, four-wheeled [tyred], for conveyance of heavy goods)’ (Pace: kàra D. 440) < It. carro, ‘cart load’, cf. E. 'arabíyyet-kàrro, ‘cart’ S. 390b;

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JJ/J karròsa (pl. -àt) < It. carrózza, Sp. carróza, ‘coach (tied to two harnessed horses)’ Bauer 199b, Syr. karròßa / karròze (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 715, cf. karòsa (pl. -àt), ‘state carriage’, ‘coach’ W. 824a; JJ/J1./Syr./E. 'arabíyye (pl. -àt), ‘vehicle, coach, carriage, car, wagon’ loc. cit. 519, S. 390b, 'arabíyyet-rukùba, ‘carriage’ ibid. < A. 'áraba (pl. -àt) Hava 462a, J var. 'arabày (pl. -àt), s.m. D. 347. J2./Syr./E. ‘motor car’, ‘automobile’ B. 519, S. 390b vs. JJ/J otombìl / o†ombìl (pl. -àt) < Eng.-Fr. automobile loc. cit. 194b, JJ/J (rural) trombìl (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid., †rumbìl (pl. -àt), s.m. Butros 98; SJ sayyàra (pl. -àt), s.m. W. 447b; JJ otobùs (pl. -àt) < Fr. autobus, ‘autobus’, ‘bus’, cf. E. otobìs (pl. -àt), s.m. Wehr 30a vs. J bàß (pl. -àt) < Eng. bus El. 33b, baßß (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 42b; JJ/Dam. bisklèt (pl. -àt) < Fr. bicyclette, ‘bicycle’ D. 32, cf. J bisiklèt Butros 99, busuklèt (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 34b vs. Syr. 'arabìt-6“-“è†àn, s.m., lit. ‘the devil’s vehicle’ (an appellation for its swiftness) B. 519; SJ darràje (pl. -àt), s.m. W. 277a; JJ/J mótosayk (pl. -àt) < Eng. motor cycle, cf. mótosàykel (pl. motos>yklàt), s.m. El. 34b, and motosìk < Fr. motocyc(le), or motosiklèt < Fr. moto(r) cyclette, s.m. Bauer 224b, or bisiklèt »àr (pl. bisikl^tàt-»àr), s.m., lit. ‘fire bicycle’, or 'afrìte, s.m., lit. ‘devil/demon’ (see sup.) ibid., cf. SJ darràje nàriyye (pl. darr>jàt nàriyye), s.m., lit. ‘fire bicycle’ W. 277a; JJ1./J1. táksi (pl. taksiyyàt), ‘taxi (cab)’ < Fr. taxe, ‘charge’ < Gr. taxis, ‘arrangement’ vs. JJ2. “erùt H., ‘(collective) taxicab’, lit. ‘service’, loan translation in H., cf. J2. sarvìs / sarwìs < Fr. service, s.m. Butros 99, El. 252. J3/SJ sayyàrat-újra (or in short újra), s.m. W. 447b, lit. ‘hiring car’; JJ/J babòr (pl. baw>bìr) < T. vapúr < Fr. vapeur, 1. ‘train’ B. 27, cf. E. wabùr-sikka ˙adìd, s.m., lit. ‘railway train’ S. 631b vs. trèn (pl. -àt) ibid. 2. ‘steam-ship’, ‘steamer’ ibid. 51b, F. 4a, babòr, bàbùr, wabùr, s.m. Bauer 77a, babbòr (pl. -àt) B. 27, babòr-ba˙er, s.m., cf. E. babùr, wabùr (pl. -àt, baw>bìr), b.-ba˙r, s.m. S. 631b; SJ bàxira (pl. bawàxer), s.m. El. 51b, J/SJ safìne (pl. súfon), ‘ship’ ibid. [ JJ aksidént Fr. accidént, ‘accident’, cf. J aksi∂à, s.m. Butros 99 vs. J/SJ ˙àdes (pl. ˙awàdes), s.m., e.g., ßàr ma'o ˙àdes, ‘he has had an accident’ loc. cit. 529a, cf. J ˙àdse (pl. ˙awàdes), 1. s.m. 2. ‘event’, ‘incident’ S. 126a]. 38.2.1. Communication JJ telegràf < Fr. télégraphe, 1. s.m.; 2. telegràf (pl. -àt), ‘telegram, telegraphic message, cable, wire’, cf. J/Syr./E. talli©ràf (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer

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319b, El. 237b, Syr. tall6©ràf (pl. -àt), s.m. B. 91, E. tili©ràf (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 82b vs. J/SJ barqíyye (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 319b, El. 237b. 38.2.2. Oral JJ lu©©a, lu©©it- (pl. -àt), ‘language’, ‘dialect’, Syr. l6©©a, l6©©et- (pl. -àt), d.m. B. 758 vs. J lu©a, lu©it- (pl. -àt), SJ/E. lu©a, lu©at- (pl. -àt), ‘language’ Bauer 302b, El. 521a, S. 542a vs. J lahje (pl. -àt), ‘dialect’ loc. cit. Bauer 302b, cf. E. la©wa (pl. -àt), s.m. loc. cit.; JJ/J ná˙awi, 1. ‘literary (not spoken in JJ) vs. vernacular Arabic’. J2. ‘grammatical, (too) pedantic Arabic’ S. 595a, Hava 756b, e.g., (a well known Arab female singer who couldn’t cope with the pedantic language of a moderator on the air apologized saying:) arjùk bála ná˙awi. 'am-titná˙˙a, ‘please, don’t be pedantic! You’re speaking according to Arabic grammatical rules’, cf. SJ il-lu©a-l-fúß˙a, or il-'arabi-lfaßì˙, ‘pure, good, classical Arabic’ W. 714f.; Syr. ná˙awi or m6tná˙˙i (pl. -ìn), ‘one who has a predilection for speaking more or less literary Arabic’ B. 818; JJ/J1. ˙aki, v.n., ‘talk, act of talking, speech’. JJ2. n., ‘talk, discussion, conversation’ Piamenta (1979a):239 vs. J2./SJ ˙adìs (pl. a˙>dìs), s.m. El. 503b; JJ/J ˙kàye (pl. -àt), ‘story, tale’ ibid. 355, Syr. ˙kèye (pl. -àt, ˙akàya), s.m. B. 170, E. ˙ikàya (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 147b; JJ/J ˙addùte (pl. ˙ad>wìt), s.m. Bauer 111a, E. ˙addùta (pl. ˙aw>dìt), ‘fable’, ‘story’ loc. cit. 126a. J "úßßa (pl. "úßaß), s.m. El. 355a, and "íßaß, s.m. Bauer 143a, cf. Syr. "-6ßßa (pl. "-6ßaß), s.m. B. 662, E. "íßßa (pl. "ißaß), s.m. S. 489a; JJ/J I 'á†a, yá'†i, v.t., kílme (sg. only), ‘to give one’s word’, ‘to promise’ vs. J I wá'ad, yíw'ed, v.t., [imp. IV yù'id, v.t.], s.m. [Bauer 355b and 363a]. SJ V tkállam, v.i., ‘to talk, speak’; J kalàm, n., ‘speech’, (ßaff-) kalàm, ‘verbosity’; JJ/Syr. lá"wa“e (pl. -àt), ‘chat, talk, prating’; II tlá"wa“, yitlá"wa“, v.i., ‘to chat, talk, prate’ B. 763, cf. Dam. III là"a“, v.t., ‘to chat with s.o.’ D. 479; J/L./E. †a"" ˙ának, v.n., ‘babbling, prattling’, lit. ‘palate cracking’ Bauer 247b, D. 127; I †a"", yi†u"", v.t., ˙ának, ‘to babble, prattle’ ibid., loc. cit., E. ‘to jabber, chat’ S. 368b; JJ/J bárem, v.n., ‘prating’; I báram, yúbrom, v.i., ‘to prate’; barràm (pl. -ìn), ‘prater’ Bauer 287a. 38.2.3.1. Written JJ reklàma < Fr. recláme, Sp. reclámo, ‘publicity’ vs. J i'làn (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid. 259b, cf. J riklàm (pl. -àt), 1. s.m.. 2. ‘sample’, ‘specimen’ Butros 101 [as an object for publicity]; J/SJ di'ày(e), ‘publicity’, etc. El. 418a;

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JJ kartìs H. (pl. -ìm), ‘ticket’ < Gr. xártis [xártis], ‘paper’ vs. JJ/J bilyèt (pl. -àt) < Fr. billet, ‘ticket’ loc. cit. 95, Bauer (1926):251, D. 48, cf. J bulèt (pl. -àt), s.m. Piamenta (1979a):236, El. 216a, e.g., I "á†a', yí"†a', v.t., bilyèt / bulèt, ‘he bought a ticket’, lit. ‘he had a ticket torn off (by a conductor, etc.)’ vs. kárt (pl. krùte) < Fr. carte, s.m. ibid., or tíket (pl. -àt) < Eng. ticket; SJ tázkara (pl. tazàker), s.m. ibid., loc. cit. 237 < E. tazkára (pl. tazàkir), ‘note’, ‘certificate’, ‘ticket’ S. 253a; J kárt, or kárt vizìt < Fr. carte de visite, ‘visiting card’ El. 216a, D. 447, Bauer 368a, Butros 100, kárt “axßi, s.m., lit. ‘personal card’ El. 216a; J/SJ bi†àqa, or bi†àqa “axßíyye, s.m., or bi†àqat-ziyàra, ‘visiting card’ Bauer 368a; JJ 'azìme vs. J kart-'azìme, ‘invitation card’ (including a wedding card) Piamenta (1979a):257; JJ kart postàl < Fr. carte postale, ‘post card’, cf. J kart bos†àl loc. cit. 249a. 38.2.3.2. Formalization JJ/J/Syr. II sajjal [E. saggil] and II "ayyad, v.t., 1. ‘to write/note down’. 2. ‘to register, record’ loc. cit. 73a, El. 489b, B. 335 and 694, W. 803b, S. 270a; J/Syr. II dawwan, d.m. Bauer 73a, B. 694; JJ m"áyyad (pl. -ìn), ‘written down’, ‘noted down’; ‘registered’, ‘recorded’, ‘listed’ W. 804b, cf. J/SJ msájjal (pl. -ìn), ‘registered (letter)’ El. 489a, loc. cit. 398b; JJ/J msògar (pl. -ìn), s.m. El. 489a; JJ/J I má∂a, yím∂i, v.t., ismo, ‘he signed his name’, cf. v.i., 'a(la) . . . ‘to sign a document’, e.g., má∂a 'a-l-kumbyàle, ‘he signed the bill of exchange’; JJ im∂àye (pl. im∂>yàt), ‘signature’ vs. J im∂ày, s.m. J rural/SJ ím∂a (pl. im∂>yàt) Bauer 345b, El. 173b, JJ/J with pron. suff. im∂àyti, f., etc., ‘my signature’, etc., cf. Syr. "-6m∂a, m./f., e.g., 6m∂àk, m., or -6m6∂tak, f., ‘your signature’ B. 791, E. ím∂a, m., (pl. im∂>"àt / im∂>wàt), s.m. S. 572a; JJ kòpya < Sp. copia, It. coppia, ‘copy’, ‘transcript’ vs. J nusxa (pl. núsax), s.m., [nasxa(!), (pl. àt, núsax) Bauer 7b]; JJ kopi < Eng. copy, spec. "álam- (pl. "làm-) kopi, ‘copy pencil’, i.e., ‘a pencil of indelible writing’ vs. J kùbya < Sp. copia, It. coppia, ‘copy’, spec. "álam- (pl. "làm-) kùbya, ‘copy pencil’; wár"it- (pl. wrà"-) JJ kopi / J kùbya, ‘copy paper’ Piamenta (1979a):258; JJ/J1. dòsye (pl. -àt) < T. dósya < Fr. dossier, ‘file of papers’, dòsíyye (pl. -àt), s.m. Butros 100 vs. J2. fàyl (pl. -àt) < Eng. file; SJ maláff (pl. -àt). E. miláff (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 542b; JJ/J/Syr. bùl (pl. bwàl) T. pul, ‘postage stamp’ B. 71, wár"at-bùl, s.m. Bauer 71a, J wár"at-bòl(e), s.m. ibid., El. 67a, bùle < It. bollo,

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‘stamp’ Butros 96, E. wár"it-bòs†a, coll. wára"-bòs†a, s.m. S. 639a; J/SJ †àbe' (pl. †awàbe' ), s.m. El. 67a. 38.2.3.3. Documents JJ/E. gazèta (pl. -àt), ‘gazette’, ‘newspaper’ < It. gazzetta, [Sp. gaceta], var. of Venetian gazeta, orig. a Venetian coin—the price of the gazette S. 424a, cf. J guzzèta (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 398b, D. 467, kuzzè†a, s.m. Butros 96, Syr. gàΩe††a (pl. -àt) B. 737, E. ©azèta (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 424a vs. J/SJ jarìde (pl. jaràyed ), s.m. El. 394b, D. 467; JJ rapòrt (pl. -àt), ‘a fine for misdemeanor’ < Eng. report vs. J rabòr (pl. -àt) < Fr. rapport, s.m. Butros 93; SJ taqrìr (pl. taq>rìr), s.m. W. 752b; JJ diplòma (pl. -àt) < Lat. (via H.), ‘diploma’ vs. J1. diblòma, s.m. Bauer 82a. J2. diblòm < Fr. diplôme, s.m. Butros 100; JJ ‘ek (pl. ‘ekkàt), or “akk (pl. -àt), s.m. El. 523a; SJ ˙awàle (pl. -àt), s.m. ibid. 124. 39. Nature 39.1. Organic 39.1.1. Flora JJ mayoràna, coll. < Lad. < Sp. mejorána, ‘sweet marjoram’ vs. J burd"o“, s.m. < Pers. mardagò“, cf. Syr. mardagù“, s.m. B. 782, E. barda"ò“, s.m. S. 40a, barda"ù“, s.m. Hava 715b, W. 52a; JJ/J mèramíyye / maryamíyye, ‘Salvia officinalis’, ‘S. triloba’ Bauer 267b, cf. J rural miryamíyye, s.m. D. 493, E. maryamíyye, s.m. S. 563b; JJ rùda, coll. < Lad.-Sp. ‘rue’, ‘Ruta graveolens’ vs. J zadàbiye, s.m. loc. cit. 216, J rural sa≈àbye, s.m. Bauer 255a, cf. Syr. zdàbe, s.m. B. 309, E. sadab, s.m. W. 403b; SJ sa≈àb ibid. 404a [cf. Yemen “a≈àb, s.m.]; JJ sajra, ‘tree’ vs. J/Syr. sájara, s.m. B. 335, (pl. of paucity -àt), (pl. sjàr), coll. sájar, s.m. Bauer 45a, El. 384b, cf. SJ “ájara, s.m., (pl. of paucity -àt), (pl. a“jàr), coll. “ájar (see also vegetables and fruits, §32.4– 5. sup.). 39.1.2. Fauna JJ ú††a (invar.), (pl. "†à†), ‘cat’ vs. J/Syr./E. "u††, f. "u††a, (pl. "ú†a†), s.m. El. 173b, S. 492, Syr., "6††, f. "6††a, (pl. "†à†), s.m. B. 667 vs. J/Syr. biss, f. bisse, (pl. bsàs), s.m. El. 173b, (pl. ebsàs) loc. cit. 44, L. biss /

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bisse (both alternatives invar.), s.m. F. 10b, J bisse (invar.), (pl. bsàs), s.m. Bauer 183b; Syr. biss (invar.), (pl. búsus), s.m. D. 32, L. bséine, (pl. -àt), s.m. loc. cit.; JJ lorìto < dim. of Sp. loro, ‘parrot’, cf. JJ/J durra, f., (pl. -àt), s.m. Bauer 241b, Syr. ∂6rra, (pl. -àt), ‘hen parrot’ B. 458, durra, (pl. -àt), dúrar, ‘female parrot’ Hava 200a vs. J báb©a, (pl. bab©>wàt), ‘parrot’, bábba©a, s.m. El. 536b, short for J/Syr./E. baba©àn, (pl. -àt) < It. pappagállo B. 27, Syr. var. baba©àl, s.m. ibid., J/E. ba©ba©àn, (pl. -àt), s.m. S. 31b, Dam. bahbahàn, (pl. -àt), s.m.; JJ/Syr./L. sal†a'àn, corruption of E./A. sara†àn, (pl. -àt), ‘crab’, ‘crawfish’, ‘lobster’ loc. cit. 443, Hava 331b, S. 276b, var. sal†a'ùn [ßal†a'ùn / sal†a'òn Bauer 194a], (pl. sala†'ìn / ßala†'ìn), s.m. El. 359b, B. 443, Hava 331b, e.g., SJ is-sara†àn illi minsammì(h) i˙na J sal†a'ùn . . ., ‘the crab which we call [in J] sal†a'ùn . . .’ (Children’s Corner on the air); JJ/Syr. ˙6ß(ß)6llèye, (pl. -àt), ‘crop/craw of a (garnivorous) bird’ loc. cit. 184 vs. J/Syr. ˙òßale, (pl. ˙awàßil ) ibid., D. 129, Dam. ˙áßale, (pl. ˙awàßil), s.m. ibid. 112, E. ˙ußßàla, (pl. -àt), ‘stomach of a bird’ S. 139a. A. ˙áwßal / ˙áwßala, ‘crop of a bird’ Hava 128a, cf. J nuffèxa, (pl. -àt), ‘an inflated, empty crop of a bird, tied up by its ends, with which children play like a ball’. 39.2. Inorganic JJ alumìnyo < Sp. alumínio, ‘aluminum’, cf. J alumìnyum / alamìnyum, s.m. El. 46b; JJ pòta“ < Germ. (via H.) Pottasche, ‘potassium’ vs. J butàs < Fr. potasse, s.m. Butros 100, El. 59a; bùtàs, or (mil˙ il-)qili, s.m. Bauer 249a; JJ xlòr < Gr. xlór (via Germ.-H.), ‘chlorine’ vs. J klòr < Fr. chlore, s.m. loc. cit. 208b, Butros 100; JJ magnèt < Germ. Magnet (via H.) < Gr. Mágnès, ‘stone of Magnesia (in Thessaly)’, ‘loadstone’ > ‘magnet’ vs. J ma©na†ìs < T. miknatís < Gr. ma©nètis, s.m. B. 795, Bauer 212a, El. 239a, E. 1. s.m.; 2. ‘loadstone’ S. 575a; JJ/J †ìn, ‘slime’, ‘thin mud’ vs. J lábaß, s.m., wá˙el, s.m. loc. cit. 77b, B. 887, E. wá˙la, s.m. S. 635b, A. pl. wu˙ùl / aw˙àl, s.m. Hava 857; JJ/J sinn, pl. snàn-il-'ajùz, ‘hailstones’, Syr. snènàt-il-'ajùz, s.m. B. 362 vs. J/SJ bárad, coll., s.m. El. 80a; JJ gàz, 1. ‘gas’, ‘petroleum’, ‘kerosene’ < Gr. chaos, ‘chaos’ vs. J kàz, s.m. 2. (via H.), ‘volatile gas’ vs. J ©àz (see §31.8. sup.);

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JJ/J háwa, ‘air’, JJ pl. hawayàt, ‘breeze’, ‘fresh air’, bèn hawayèn, ‘current of air, draught’, lit. ‘in between a two-way current of air’ vs. J májra-háwa, s.m., lit. ‘current of air’ ibid. 477a, máßraf-háwa, s.m. Bauer 404a.

CHAPTER TWELVE

REGISTER—A MULTILATERAL SEMANTIC FACTOR IN JERUSALEM ARABIC SPEECH

40. Register Classified Like ‘style’, register connotations are a secondary characteristic mode of speaking attached to the primary meaning of words in context. Following are various aspects of register in Jerusalem Arabic speech: 40.1. A register designating the dichotomy of JJ vs. J as split synchronic vernaculars characterized by religious, cultural, historical, ethnological, and political parameters coalescing in cases symbolized as JJ/J, but mutually exclusive in cases of sub-standard JJ (symbolized as -JJ) vis-à-vis standard Jerusalem Arabic (symbolized as SJ). 40.2. A register designating levels of speech in either vernacular depending on parameters of the relative status of a dyad, the subject matter, and the circumstance of communication. 40.3. A register designating the characteristic vernacular of a party (suppose J) to a dyad in an intercommunal contact (symbolized as JJ-J, or J-JJ) when the other party to the dyad ( JJ) attempts adapting to J’s vernacular different from his or her own ( JJ). Evidently, the dichotomy described under this sub-section creates two registers applicable similarly to instances where dyads symbolized as JJ-SJ and J-SJ, or SJ-JJ and SJ-J communicate reciprocally. 40.4. A register designating the dichotomy of JJ vs. -JJ expressing a vernacular of the younger Jewish generation, partly bilingual with a higher efficiency in Hebrew, hesitatingly speaking a non-indigenous, non-acceptable form of Jerusalem Arabic. These speakers of -JJ misuse the lexicon, grammar, and phonology of Arabic by their mistaken style, or by filling their ‘voids’ of J ensuing from their deficiency, with modern Hebrew words and phrases, sometimes deviating from acceptable Hebrew pronunciation, including common terms for accruing political, cultural, economic, organizational, and

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domestic aspects of everyday life including health; with choosing the wrong allosemes of ambiguous Hebrew words for J, thereby rendering queer meanings out of context, with incompatible loan translations from Hebrew, or queer improvized fabrications. Other characteristic features of -JJ are paraphrasing flipping corrections, explicating their Hebrew words in J, amplifying, or concluding their -JJ sentences in Hebrew for the sake of clearness, or using Hebrew words homophonic with J but deviating in meaning and detrimental to comprehension. Under such frail conditions of intercommunal communication, educated peers of the second generation of JJ and J, i.e., speakers of -JJ and SJ, contact one another through the medium of English rather than holding flimsy dialogues in Arabic, the more so because speakers of SJ do not care to learn Hebrew. Following are -JJ register classified words and extracts of materials relating to life in Jerusalem from 1948 on, taped and transcribed as part of my data for my doctoral dissertation on Jerusalem Arabic verb syntax in the year 1953 through 1954: 41.1. Bad Style rà˙-ibsákte (standing for . . . 'a-s-sáket), ‘he went silently’; †álab minni-lmu"àxaze (s.f., i.e., standing for . . . "ádam-il-mu"àxaze), ‘he begged my pardon’; t'á““a illi kàn fi ha-l-mawjùd (s.f. . . . t'á““a min-ha-l-mawjùd ), ‘he dined of what was available’; ana bi-kull xidàme (s.f. . . . biddi [or biddna] xidàme), ‘I’m at your service’; ßàru yú∂urbu-l-xity>ríyye ma'a-l-baw>rìd (s.f. . . . l-xity>ríyye bi-l-baw>rìd ), ‘they began hitting the old men with rifles’; dáxal fì ta"rìban fàr (s.f. . . . dáxal fì ya'ni fàr), ‘I’d say a mouse got into it’; biddak afùt mwàsa†a? (s.f. . . . bitrìd atwassᆠlak?), ‘shall I act as mediator for you?’; bi˙u†† fìha kull-il-"á“ya “èt-il-xú∂ra, mitil jázar, ba†à†a . . . (s.f. . . . kull anwà'-il-xú∂ra . . .), ‘he puts inside all sorts of vegetables: carrots, potatoes, . . .’; “álabi-w-zàki-l-ma˙áll, ‘the location is magnificent’. The redundant word zàki is not synonymous with “àlabi. It actually means 1. ‘delicious’. 2. ‘suave’ (smell) B. 316, here standing for ˙ílu / ˙ílw, i.e., 1. ‘sweet’. 2. ‘beautiful’ (scene/location) ibid. 174. 41.2. Filling Voids of J with Hebrew Words bi-l-m>lòn H., (s.f. bi-l-lukàn∂a /bi-l-"otèl ), ‘in the hotel’; kàn talmìd H. ma'a-l-málek (s.f. kàn tilmìz . . .), ‘he was the colleague of the king in

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school’; 'indon ˙òfe“ H. (s.f. 'indon 'ú†le or mfòrßìn), ‘they are on vacation’; kànu yitxábbu fiyya-r-rom>"ìm H. (s.f. . . . r-rùmàn), ‘the Romans would hide in it (the cave)’; èfes H. (s.f. ß-6fer), ‘zero’. Contrary to all numbers, the JJ word for ‘zero’, ß-6fer, is not used in JJ and -JJ as an arithmetical term, cipher; it is paraphrased as (-)JJ wála í“i, ‘nothing’; kànu mitkön6nìm H. la-l-˙arb (s.f. JJ/J kànu y˙á∂∂ru ˙àlom . . . J/SJ kànu yist'íddu . . .), ‘they were preparing, or they prepared themselves for war’. 41.3. Using Hebrew terms for accruing aspects of life With mostly no counterparts in J, except as lexical entries in a Hebrew-Arabic dictionary, modern Hebrew terms increased in JJ in time to express accruing modern aspects of life. 41.3.1. Political Institutions: is-soxnùt H., ‘the [ Jewish] Agency’; il-kèren kayyèmet, ‘the [ Jewish] National Fund’; kèren hay-y6sòd H., ‘the [ Jewish] Foundation Fund’; vá'ad haq-q6hillà H., ‘the [ Jewish] Community Council’; Settlement: kibbùts H., ‘collective settlement, kibbutz’; mö“àv H., ‘small holders’ cooperative settlement, moshav’; mo“>và H., ‘settlement’, n.; Self defense organizations established in Palestine before 1948: hag>nà H., ‘[ Jewish] self-defense [organization], known as the “Haganah”’; ètsel H., (abbreviation of initial letters), ‘the IZL’, irgùn ts6v>"ì l6"ummì, ‘the National Military Organization known as the “Irgun”’; lè˙i H., (abbr. of ) lö˙amè ˙^rùt yi≤r>"èl, ‘Fighters for the Freedom of [the people of ] Israel, known as Lè˙i’; British defense in Palestine: 'ótser H., ‘curfew’ vs. J mane ' tajáwwol, s.m. imposed during the intercommunal disturbances by the British Palestine Police (1936 through 1948); az'>qà H., ‘[air raid] alarm’ (in World War II) vs. J/SJ ßuffàrit-inzàr / ß. in≈àr s.m.; ha"af>là H., ‘blackout’ (in defense against air raids in World War II) vs. J/SJ ta'tìm, s.m. Piamenta (1979a):252, El. 113b; In Israel: m6d“nát- yi≤r>"èl H., ‘the State of Israel’, yòm ha-'atsm>"ùt H., ‘the Day of Independence’; ≤àr H., ‘Minister’ vs. J/SJ wazìr, s.m.; ma'b>rà H., ‘transit camp’ (set up in Israel for the absorption of mass immigration at the outset); Military: tsvà hag>nà l6-yi≤r>"èl H., ‘I.D.F., Israel Defense Force’;

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tsvà haq-qèva' H. ,‘regular (standing) [Israel] army’; ˙èl-ha-"avìr H., ‘[Israel] Air Force’; m6faqqèd H., ‘commander’; mafkidà (s.f. mifq>dà H.), ‘headquarters, command’; m6“ury>n H., ‘armoured [car]’. 41.3.2. Cultural muzéon H., ‘museum’ vs. J mat˙af, s.m. El. 244a; bèt-ha-'ám H., ‘community center’ (where public cultural activities take place); mö'adòn H., ‘club’ vs. J nàdi, s.m. ibid. 246b; sifriyyà H., vs. J máktabe, s.m. ibid. 357a; m6˙abbèr H., ‘author’ vs. J mu"állef, s.m. ibid. 250b; ge"ölòg H., ‘geologist’ vs. J 'àlem †abaqàt-il-"ar∂, s.m. or SJ ixtißàßi fi 'ilm †abaqàtil-"ar∂, s.m. ibid. 92a; gofrìt H., ‘sulphur’ (presuming there is no connection with its alloseme JJ/J kibrìt, ‘matches’) vs. J kibrìt, s.m. ibid. 97b; xlòr / klòr H., ‘chlorine’ vs. J klòr, s.m., ibid. 208b; harts>"à H., ‘lecture’ vs. J/SJ mu˙à∂ara, s.m. ibid. 131b; kontsért H., ‘concert’ vs. J kunsèrt or J/SJ ˙afle m5s“qíyye, s.m. ibid. 449b; gannènet H., ‘kindergarden teacher (female)’ vs. J m'állmet-bustàn, or m'állmet-bustàn-il-"a†fàl, s.m. ibid. 96b. 41.3.3. Economic bèt-tav“ìl H., ‘[ Jewish] public kitchen for the poor’ (under the auspices of a charity institution); mas'edà koperatìvit (s.f. mis'>dà ko"operatìvit, H.), ‘[a subsidized] cooperative restaurant [by the Workers’ Organization]’; konsèrvim H. pl., ‘conserves’, ‘preserves, canned (tinned) fruit/ vegetable/meat/fish’ vs. J mu'állabàt, s.m. 41.3.4. Organizational histadrùt H., ‘federation (of labor)’; sadràn H., ‘steward’, ‘usher’, ‘orderly’; maflegà (s.f. mifl>gà H.), ‘political party’ vs. J ˙ízeb, s.m. ibid. 285a; más H., ‘tax’, (pl. missìm), ‘taxes’ vs. ∂arìbe (pl. ∂aràyeb), s.m. ibid. 273b, más-˙>vèr H., ‘member fee’, más-haxn>sà H., ‘income tax’; b6˙“ròt H., pl., ‘elections’ vs. J intix>bàt, s.m. ibid. 69a; bö˙èr H., ‘elector’, ‘voter’ vs. J nàxeb, s.m. ibid. 67a; t6'5dát-z6hùt H., ‘identity card’ vs. J hawíyye, s.m. ibid. 139b; möd>'à H., ‘poster’, ‘advertisement’ vs. J i'làn, s.m. ibid. 244a; madrìx H., ‘guide’ vs. J múr“ed, s.m. ibid. 241b; vá'ad H., ‘committee’ vs. J lújne, s.m. ibid. 137a; kölèl H., ‘community’, esp. a Jewish community of persons from a particular country living in an enclosure of Orthodox Jews in the city.

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41.3.5. Domestic ˙ats>"ìt H., ‘skirt’ vs. J tannùra, s.m. ibid. 167b; m6"avrèr H., ‘ventilator’ vs. J hawwàye, s.m. ibid. 233b. 41.3.6. Health 'ezrà ri“önà H., loan translation of ‘first aid’ as is J is'àf áwwali, in short is'àf, s.m. ibid. 373b; m>gèn d>vìd adòm H., ‘the Red Shield of David’ ( Jewish ‘Red Cross’); zr“kà H., ‘injection’ vs. J ibre, s.m. ibid. 146a. 41.4. Choosing Wrong Allosemes of Ambiguous Hebrew Words for J (a) H. noun: ts˙òq 1. ‘laughter’. 2. ‘jesting’, ‘joking’. mu“ ∂ú˙ok (!), lit. ‘no laughter’, standing for (s.f.) J mi“ máze˙, ‘jesting / joking apart’; (b) H. adjective: n>qì 1. ‘clean’. 2. ‘net’. ma'>“ n∂ìf (!), lit. ‘clean income’, s.f. J ma'à“ ßàfi, ‘net income’; (c) H. verbs: q>rà, v.i., l6- 1. ‘to call, cry out’. 2. ‘to call by name’. jábal bin>dù mats>dà (!), lit. ‘a mountain called, cried out to Massadah (on the western coast of the Dead Sea)’ s.f. J jábal bisammù, or ismo mats>dà, ‘a mountain called M. by name’; ˙>tám H., v.t., 1. ‘to seal’. 2. ‘to sign’. úxtom ísmak! (!), lit. ‘seal your name!’ (!), s.f. J ím∂i ísmak!, ‘sign your name!’; b>˙ár H., v.i., 1. ‘to select, pick out, choose’. 2. ‘to vote’. na""èt (!) lit. ‘I selected, picked out, chose’, s.f. J intaxábt, ‘I voted’; n>tán H., v.i., l6- 1. ‘to give’. 2. ‘to allow, permit’. 'am-bya'†ù lom yí†la'u (!), lit. ‘they are giving them to go out’, s.f. J 'am-byisma˙ù lhom y-6†la'u, ‘they are allowed to go out’; hitslìya˙ H., v.i., 1. ‘to succeed, to come off well’; hitslìya˙ H., v.i., l6-. 2. ‘to succeed, be successful, be lucky’. ni˙na †lí'na wi-njí˙na númro"(!), lit. ‘we left, and it came off well for us to pass through’, s.f. J ni˙na †¬-6'na w-nafádna, ‘we went out and passed through’; siddèr H., v.t., 1. ‘to arrange, adjust properly (like books on a shelf or shirts in a drawer)’. 2. ‘to organize’. 3. ‘to form, draw up in files, in formation’, ßáffa†-id-dukkàn (!), lit. ‘he arranged (see 1.) the store’, s.f. J ráttab-id-dukkàn ‘he organized the store’; kànu kull yòm yißaff†ùna (!) wi-y'iddùna, ya'ni yi"5lù lna tamàm, bisammù tamàm, ‘they would arrange (see 1.) (!) and count us every day, i.e., they would consider our formation complete; they would call the formation tamàm, “complete”’ (Israeli captives in Jordan in 1948–9), s.f. J kànu kull yòm yi˙u††ùna fi †>bùr . . ., ‘they would draw us up in files every day, and would count us . . .’

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(d) H. preposition: a˙arè 1. ‘behind’. 2. ‘after’. wára-lli ßàr ˙arb . . .(!), lit. ‘behind that the war took place . . .’, s.f. J ba'd ma ßàr-il-˙arb . . ., in short: ba'd-il-˙arb . . ., ‘after the war . . .’. 41.5. Incompatible Loan Translations from Hebrew w"í'na yúsara (!), lit. ‘we fell captives’ < H. n>fálnu ba“-“-“èvi, s.f. J axadùna yúsara, ‘we were taken captives, we went into captivity’; bàbis-sbù'a (!), lit. ‘Lions’ Gate’ (in Jerusalem) < H. “á'ar ha-"ar>yòt, s.f. J bàb-is-sbà†, lit. ‘the Gate of the Tribes’, or bàb sittna máryam, lit. ‘the Gate of our Lady Mary’. 41.6. Queer Improvised Fabrications bá'rafo min ràsi (!), ‘I know it by heart’, i.e., by memory vs. J bá'rafo 'an ©èb, s.m. El. 398a; njára˙ ∂'ìf (!), lit. ‘he was wounded weak’, i.e., ‘slightly’ vs. J njára˙ jur˙ baßì†, s.m.; †alla'ùna üa‰‰a (!), lit. ‘they drove us out’, i.e., ‘we were released, freed’ (from the concentration camp) vs. J sarra˙ùna, s.m.; il-bálad làzem y>xúdha-l-jè“ fi-l-"ar∂ (!), lit. ‘the city must be conquered by the army on the land’, i.e., ‘. . . by the infantry’ vs. SJ . . . y>xúdha silà˙ il-mu“àh, s.m. 41.7. Paraphrasing xádam-il-'askaríyye santèn illi luzùmo, lit. ‘he served the army for two years which he was obliged to’, i.e., ‘he served the army two years of compulsory service’ vs. SJ xádam-il-jè“ santèn ilzàmi, s.m. 41.8. Emendation in J of Hebrew Aberrations huwwe m6˙abbèr H., J búktob kútob ya'ni, ‘he’s an author, he writes books I mean’; illi ájat min-†á'am H., J min †áraf-il-jam'íyye, ‘which came on behalf of the organization’; basáwwi ˙ammìn la“-“abbàt H., babàrekil-b6r>xà H., J “èt lèlt-is-sabt, ‘I prepare the hammìn dish for the Sabbath, I bless the blessing for Friday night (ushering the Sabbath)’; hàda-lli kàn megìya' lànu H., il . . . illi ya'ni kull wà˙ad, kull 'askari kàn yàxod, ‘this was what we were entitled to (which was allotted to us [as prisoners of war]), the . . . I mean what everyone, every soldier “was taking”’ (searching for the words: ‘rations assigned to us’), in J: il-muxaßßaßàtilli min ˙á""na, ‘the rations which we were entitled to’.

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41.9. Explicating in J while Slipping away Hebrew Words fi-l-"ótobus, H.—J fi-l-baßß, ‘in the bus’; hàda wà˙ad †ayyàr, (H. tayyàr)— J min hadòl-is-suwwà˙, ‘this was a tourist, one of those tourists’; bibàrekil-b6r>xà H. “et lèlt-i“-sabt, u-hàdi J li-mbàrake mnì˙a, ‘he blesses the blessing for Friday night (ushering the Sabbath), which blessing is good’; bilabbsù lo t6fillìn H.,—J hàdi-l-'a“ [r] kilmàt, í“i 'ala ìdo w-"í“i 'ala ràso, ‘they adjust the phylacteries on him—these Ten Commandments (the Decalogue), on his hand as well as on his head’; u-dòr 'an dòr H., bi"ùlu ha-l-xityàr ß>r-lo mìt-sáne, “àf J jìl u-jìl-u-jìl, ‘and generation after generation it recurs that this old man had lived a hundred years, witnessing a generation after another and another’. Explicating a Hebrew religious (H.r.) word by another: bilabbsù †allìt, ya'ni ß6ßßìt, ‘they wrap him with a praying shawl’. 41.10. Concluding in Hebrew -JJ Arabic Sentences a¬¬a yír˙amo! (-)JJ/J, ni“m>tò fi gan-'èden! H., ‘may God have mercy on him! may his soul rest in Paradise!’, lit. ‘in the garden of Eden’; “ufna bi-l-xalìl J . . . dáfanu-l-miytìn b-˙evròn H., ‘we saw in Hebron . . ., the dead were buried there’, lit. ‘in Hebron’; bikùn-illi bi†áhher J—il-möhèl H.r., . . . ‘the circumciser then . . .’; mní©sila-l-lá˙me talat xa†ràt bi-l-áayye (-)JJ/J—min†abbíla H.r., ‘we rinse the meat three times with water— we purify it (ritually)’. 41.11. Using Homophonic Hebrew Words out of Place kànu yit˙ákkamu ma'àna l-misilmìn, meaning in JJ/J: ‘the Muslims had their medical treatment with us’, but the -JJ speaker has something else in mind using the homophonic Hebrew verb yit˙akk6mu, v.i., 'im . . ., ‘to try to outsmart’, standing for J kànu yit˙àyalu / yi˙tàlu 'alèna . . . ‘the Muslims would try to outsmart us’ in order to annoy us. 42. JJ Speakers Relinquishing JJ for J Digressing, we would like to refer to JJ speakers relinquishing JJ for the benefit of J. In a JJ-J situation (where speakers of JJ converse with speakers of J), or when being taped (considering J an Arabic vernacular of higher prestige than JJ), JJ speakers might consciously (and tensely) replace their fluent and easy JJ references for J references instead. Following are some examples:

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J l-ibrà", ‘the Buràq, the western wall of the Temple’; wa-s-salàm! or wa-s-salàmu 'alaykom!, an epilogue; sáyyidi!, Sir!, ràjel, ‘man’; “è" ‘something’; kull-il-"a“yà" “èt-il-xú∂ra, ‘all sorts of vegetables’ (as a word, a“yà" is O.K., but the expression is what one calls in J, xunfu“àri, “a bubble”); biddi arù˙ 'a-∂-∂à‰, ‘I want to go home’; min blàd-il-xàrej, ‘from overseas’, ‘from foreign lands/countries’; li-"ájl-in-naßìb ijat bint 'ammi, ‘by chance, my female paternal cousin came’; sayyàra, ‘car’; minnàm bi-"amànt-illàh, ‘we lie down to sleep under God’s protection’; stannèt, stanΩáret la-˙itta ija-Ω-Ωàb6†, ‘I waited until the officer came’; hèk sáwwa w-hèk fá'al ma'ày, w-hèk ana fa'ált ma'o, ‘that’s how he treated me, and that’s how I treated him’. 43. In conclusion, the shift from JJ to modern Hebrew took place in a little over thirty years and was completed in the 1960s, a few years following the end of the period of our study. The first stage was characterized by JJ tinged with modern Hebrew elements in addition to the Masoretic Hebrew, symbolized in our study as JJH.r. Through the second stage, Hebrew became predominant though still tinged with JJ elements. The next stage was an overlapping merger with a growing -JJ register with the young generation, who as socalled ‘bilingual’ speakers became equipped with a superfluous language, and their generally low-educated common class could not express itself adequately neither in JJ nor in Hebrew. The transitional period was hard on the elders whose general linguistic performance became even more deficient in the wake of modern needs on one hand, and lack of absorption of Standard Jerusalem Arabic on the other. They frequently suffered from psychological and cultural concussions, such as being stigmatized by fluent speakers of Hebrew, not seldom their offspring on one hand, and having gradually lost their traditional Oriental values on the other Piamenta (1992):86. To sum up: the position of JJ became precarious due to the rivalry of Hebrew which was waging a nationalistic and educational battle to win the young generation, speakers of -JJ, and overwhelm the elders, speakers of JJ who would not, nay could not hold back this evolutionary trend of language replacement ibid. 84.

DICTIONARY-INDEX

ABOUT THE DICTIONARY INDEX

1. Sources Our oral and written sources concentrate on spoken Jerusalem Arabic ( J) and Judaeo-Jerusalem Arabic ( JJ) including their foreign loanwords as part and parcel of these vernaculars in vogue in the first half of the twentieth century. J and JJ marking the speech of indigenous populations include Turco-Persian words relating to the Ottoman period terminating in 1918 and West-European modern words restored below to their origins. Hebrew elements (H.) in JJ are dichotomized into a Hebrew religious (Hr.) (including Aramaic religious) traditional substratum, and a Hebrew secular (H.) modern superstratum including loan translations of former European loanwords in vogue. Only H., Hr. and Aram. r. elements used in JJ speech are included in our entries. J and JJ elements are supported by their comparative and contrastive contemporary peripheral lexical counterparts: the Palestinian, the Syrian dialectal area including Lebanese, and Egyptian (Cairene). Loan translations of foreign loanwords in J, simultaneous with secular modern H., are elements in Standard Jerusalem Arabic (SJ), a modern version of J including neo-classical and Arabic of the media, coping with modern society, science and technology. In general, SJ is mutually exclusive with JJ in aspects differing with J, with the annexes of JJ: H., Hr., and . . . with the deteriorating substandard JJ, marked as -JJ in our study, totally discarded in the dictionary. In addition to identicalness in usage marked as optional JJ/J, the markers of peripheral counterparts of J and JJ are: rural J (Palestinian), Syr(ian dialectal area), L(ebanese), Dam(ascene), and E(gyptian, i.e., Cairene). A finer distinction on the Jerusalem Arabic communal level is marked as Musl(im) J and Chr(istian) J. 2. Arabic and Hebrew Sections Both Arabic (A.) and Hebrew (H.) sections of the dictionary include foreign words. A. holds loanwords basically used in J, while H. holds alternative and other loanwords used in JJ including Aramaic and Ladino, words evolving lately to H. loan translations, and words in

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J. On the other hand, A. includes a host of Jerusalem Arabic stems of denominative verbs of JJHr. fitting into the J/SJ verbal structure, sometimes creating homonymous Arabic verbs void or meaningless in J proper. Words in A. and H. are arranged according to roots in their respective order, acting in either section as props for fitted in-between foreign non-Semitic loanwords, marked with an asterik(*), subjected to the order of and conforming with the Arabic or Hebrew roots, adhering as far as possible to the alphabetical order of their initial consonants and their own long vowels with least possible discordance, adapting Wehr’s system in his Dictionary of Modern Arabic. A uniform phonetical transcription marked in italics is alluded to for all utterances regardless of language according to the following arrangement of headwords: In the Arabic Section (A.): " - b - p - t - ∆ - j - ‘ - g - ˙ - x - d - ≈ - r - z - s - “ - ß - ∂† - Ω - ' - © - f - v - q - k - l - m - n - h - w - y In the Hebrew Section (H.): " / vowel - b - g - d - h - w/v - z - ˙ - † - y - k/x - l - m - n s - ' - p/f - ß/ts - ‘ - q - r - “ - ≤ - t 3. Cross-Reference In order to compare and contrast entries within a Section, crossreferences of the entries are marked at the end by headwords (roots) separated by commas. However, for comparing and contrasting entries of different Sections, cross-references are marked by headwords separated by a semicolon, e.g., ˙rz . . ., see ˙jb (both included in A.); [and] qm' H. 4. Presentation Arabic derived stems II through X are indicated by boldface Roman numerals. Noun forms follow verb forms according to their length and grammatical function. Synonymous definitions are separated by commas. A semicolon marks the beginning of a definition in a different semantic range. A raised2 following a word indicates a homonym in the other language.

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A vertical stroke | marks one of three terminations: (a) of the masculine singular noun forms followed by their feminine singular terminations -e / -iyye / -a in A., and -à in H., (b) of the meanings of original foreign words followed by their shift of meaning in J or JJ, and (c) of initial H. words of entries in H. out of JJ context, yet shown as basic forms for the sake of consistency. Sound plural forms in A. are shown as terminations in -ìn (m.), -iyye (m./f.), and -àt (f.), in H. pl. -ìm (m.) and -òt (f.), yet a deviation from strict transcription needs to be noted: masculine singular noun forms are kept intact before | in discordance with their feminine and plural inflections liable to morphophonemic changes beyond our lexicographic limits. For greater clarity, optional extensions are shown within brackets. For inevitable inconsistencies, incongruities, and redundancies we ask the user’s indulgence. Moshe Piamenta

ARABIC SECTION (A.) " à yes J/rural J, see áywa abajùr* pl. -àt zrk H. "b w-"abùha (invar.) and how! bitbár†alu-"abùha he takes bribes alright JJ/J, ábu-“>lòm (A.+H.) peace maker, i.e. penis JJ, a.-kammùne (f. imm-kammùne) anxious about a seed of cumin, i.e., stingy JJ/J/Syr., see bxl; qmß>"mß H. "bn, see bn abukàto* pl. -iyye "xz III v.t. (ma) t"àxiznì“ or là t">xízni don’t blame me! i.e., excuse me! JJ/J/E., Syr. là tw>x-6dni "xr àxer wà˙ad|e, il-">xràni|yye the last one, the last JJ/J, il-"axìr SJ, see †““ "db ádab decency, propriety; bèt-"a., see byt m"áddab well-mannered, well-bred JJ/J, see drx H. "dy II y"áddi v.t., v.i. to give J, Syr. yíddi, E. ídda, yíddi, see '†w "≈n>"zn X v.i. to ask permission, to take leave J ízin, ízen permission, leave, leave of absence JJ/J, 'an íznak I take leave J, Syr. b-"-6znak, rep. íznak má'ak go ahead! J, see dastùr* ma"zùn on leave of absence, on vacation ma"z5niyye pl. -àt leave of absence J, see jwz, '†l, frß; ˙òfe“ H.

  "rjy árja, y"árji v.t. to show J, Syr. y-6rji, see frjy argìle* pl. ar>gìl, -àt J, see nargíle* "r∂ ar∂íyye pl. -àt night pot J/Syr., see qßr; kòto* H. ar∂i“ökíyye pl. -àt coll. ar∂i“òki* rì" †"", lq“ > l"“ brínji* (invar.) b'tr bá'tar, yibá'ter v.t. to squander, waste, throw away (money) J, to scatter JJ/J II tbá'tar v.i. to be scattered (e.g., a sack of legumes), see b'z", ∂y'>∂w' b'd IV v.i. 'an to be remote from, íb'ed 'an-i“-“arr u-©annì lo keep away from injury and sing for it! (seeking safety for o.s., declaring no intervention) b'ìd pl. b'àd far, il-b(a)'ìd|e pl. ilbú'ada, and b'ìd 'ánnak / mínnak far from you (averting an ominous subject) JJ/J/Syr., E. el-bi'ìd / el- "áb'ad, see lò H. b'z" bá'za", yibá'ze" v.t. to squander, waste, throw away (money) II tbá'za" to be squandered, be wasted, be thrown away (money) J, see b'∆r> b'tr, ∂y'>∂w', wdr ba©ba©àn*, see bab©a* b©y II v.t. to make a woman commit fornication J bu"je* pl. bú"aj wr"

byr, see b"r

byt bèt pl. byùt house, building, a single room, residence; home; family JJ/J; b. ádab n"y

jr∆m jar∆ùme pl. jar>∆ìm microbe J/SJ, see mikròb* H. jrd jarìde pl. jaràyed newspaper J/SJ, see gazèta* H. majrùd pl. maj>rìd dustpan J/Dam., J ajrùd jèrse*/jèrze* pl. -àt ß"†, †r˙; kurtàj* H.

jìze, see zwj jy“ jè“ pl. j(u)yù“ army J/SJ, see 'skr ‘

‘'mß m‘á'maß blear-eyed, rheumy-eyed, dim-sighted JJ, see 'm“, 'mß g gatò* (invar.) ˙r" ˙ára", yí˙re" v.t. to burn, ˙ára" "albi he grieved, exasperated me VII v.i. to burn (v.i.), (i )n˙ára" "albi my heart burns, I’m grieved, exasperated ma˙rù" burnt, álbi m. I’m grieved, exasperated JJ/J/Syr./E. ˙rk ˙árake movement; pl. -àt behavior, conduct; movements JJ/J, see slk, ßrf ˙rm ˙írem, yí˙ram v.i. 'ala to be illicit (for s.o.), be forbidden (to s.o.), yí˙ram 'aláyy J / 'aléyyi JJ (iza . . .) may it be illicit for me (if . . .) (denying a false accusation by declaring an oath of abstinence) ˙irm religious ban, excommunication ChrJ, see ˙rm H. ˙áram sanctuary, il-˙.-il-"ibr>hìmi Abraham’s Sanctuary, the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron, see m'r H., il-˙.-i“-“arìf the Sublime Sanctuary, referring to the Compound including al-"áqßa mosque and "úbbet6ß-ßáxra the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem MuslJ ˙ràm pl. -àt blanket, woollen blanket JJ/J, cf. thin motley blanket, ‘Algerian’ blanket Syr., see b†n ˙aràm, yà ˙aràm! what a pity! (sympathizing with a suffering creature) JJ/J, see r˙m H. ˙irmàn = ˙irm má˙rame pl. ma˙àrem handkerchief JJ/J/Syr., E. mandìl* pl. man>dìl mú˙taram respectable, respectful, venerated J/E., see qwm>"wm; onòr* H. ˙zb ˙izb pl. a˙zàb political party J/SJ, see plg H.

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˙zr ˙uzzèra, ˙uzzère J/ ˙azzùra JJ/Syr. pl. ˙az>zìr riddle, puzzle, J ˙azèra, ˙uzzariyye, ˙uzzèriyye pl. -àt

JJ/J/Syr., E. ta˙ßìldàr / ta˙ßílgi pl. -iyya debt collector mu˙áßß6l = ta˙ßìl-dàr SJ, see jby

˙z† ˙azì†|a pl. ˙azà†a poor fellow, agonized; pity! miserable! JJ/J

˙∂r II v.t. to prepare JJ/J, ˙á∂∂ar-6ßßufra to lay, set the table JJ, see ˙††, ßff, 'ml mu˙à∂ara pl. -àt lecture J, see rßh H.

˙zq>˙z" II v.i. to hiccup; to fart, break wind JJ, Syr. ˙áza", y-6˙zo" to hiccup, E. ˙áza", yí˙za" to press ˙zm ˙zàm pl. -àt belt, girdle JJ/J; J girth, belly band, pl. ˙uzm, ˙zùme horse girth, E. ˙izàm pl. a˙zíma, -àt belt, sash, see q“†>"“† ˙zn II v.t. to sadden, grieve J/Syr., see z'l; ß'r H., cf. ˙ázzan2 v.i. < ˙izzèn H. to serve as a ˙azzàn cantor in a synagogue JJHr, see ˙zn H. ˙ízen JJ/ ˙úzon, ˙uzn mourning J, Syr. ˙-6z 6n, E. ˙izn, ˙uzn, see ˙dd ˙azìn|e pl. ˙azàna mournful, sad J/Syr./E.; poor fellow! (sympathizing) ˙aznàn|e pl. ìn in mourning JJ/J ˙ss ˙ass, yi˙íss v.t., v.i. to feel, sense; to have a presentiment; to feel by touching JJ/J/Syr./E., see “'r ˙sb ˙ásab, yí˙seb v.t. to regard as, consider s.o. as; v.i. la-, mìn bi˙síb lo ˙sàb? who has any regard for him? who cares for him? JJ/J; ˙sàb consideration; 'ala ˙.-il-baròn on the house of the Baron, (you are) a spendthrift at my expense! see baròn* H.

˙†† ˙a††, yi˙ú†† v.t. to put, place, ˙a††6ß-ßufra to set the table, lay the tablecloth, see ˙∂r, ßff, 'ml; v.i. 'ala to lay on JJ/J/Syr. VII v.i. ma'a to pick a quarrel, start a brawl with s.o. JJ, see ˙r“ ˙a††a pl. -àt, see kwf, kaffíyye ˙†b ˙a†be pl. -àt coll. ˙á†ab a piece of firewood; an ugly, bony woman JJ ˙ΩΩ ˙aΩΩ pl. ˙ΩùΩ good luck, good fortune J, see baxt*; mzl H. ˙fΩ ˙áfaΩ, yí˙faΩ v.t. to keep, protect J, see “mr H. ˙affàΩa pl. -àt diaper SJ, see dú“ak* ˙fl VII v.i. fi to concern o.s. with, to give one’s mind to JJ, see hmm ˙afle pl. -àt ceremony, festival, celebration, ˙. m5s“qíyye concert J/SJ, see kontsért* H.

˙“w ˙>“àk|i pl. -kom far from you, excepting you, excuse the offense! J, see ˙wß H.

˙qq>˙"" bi˙í"" v.i. la-, bi˙í""-(íl)li . . . I’m entitled to . . . JJ/J ˙a"", ˙a"ì"a truth, biddna-l-˙a""/ ˙a"ì"a we want the truth, be true! see ∂b†>Ωb†; "mt H.; ˙a"" pl. ˙"ù" right n., l-˙a"" má'ak / l-˙. fi ìdak / 'indak ˙. you are right JJ/J/Syr., E. el-˙. wayyàk ˙a""íyye, A. a˙aqqíyya legal claim, title, right; a better right, ˙a""ìtak tís"al 'anno you have the better right to inquire about him JJ/J/E.

˙ßl ta˙ßìl-dàr / ta˙ß6ldàr pl. -iyye A. collector, tax collector

˙qn>˙"n má˙"an pl. ma˙à"en funnel JJ/J, see embùdo* H.

˙sn ˙ásane pl. -àt alms, charity, see ndv H.

  ˙km ˙ukm-a¬¬a God’s decree! it is predestinated JJ/J, see q∂y; gzr H. má˙kame pl. ma˙àkem lawcourt JJ/J, m. “ar'íyye Muslim religious lawcourt MuslJ, m. kanasíyye ecclesiastic(al) lawcourt ChrJ, see "dl; bèt-dìn H. ˙ky ˙aka, yí˙ki v.i. to talk, speak, ba˙kì“ ma'o I’m not on speaking terms with him III v.t. to talk to, speak to, converse with ˙áki speech, talking, ˙.-n-nàs rumor, ˙. wara ∂áher or ˙. b-"áfa flàn speaking behind So-and-So, slander, calumny, see nmm; talk, discussion, conversation; nonsense ˙kàye pl. -àt story, tale JJ/J, Syr. ˙kèye pl. ˙akàya, -àt, E. ˙ikàya pl. -àt, see ˙d∆>˙dt / ˙ds, qßß>"ßß; l“n H. ˙ll ˙all, yi˙íll v.i. to set in, ˙állat-il-bárake the blessing has set in, i.e., welcome!; ('an), ˙ill 'anni make yourself scarce! II v.t. to sanction, declare permissible or lawful, allow, permit J vs. ˙állal 2 v.t. rt-in-naßà ra the Christian quarter, ˙>rt-il-yahùd the Jewish quarter JJ/J, see koloníyye*, kumpaníyye* H. ˙wßl ˙òßale pl. ˙awàß6l crop of a garnivorous bird J/Syr., Dam. ˙áßale, JJ/Syr. ˙6ß(ß)6llèye pl. -àt = ˙òßale, E. ˙ußßàla stomach of a bird, see nfx ˙wl ˙awl, là ˙awla wa-là there’s no power and no [strength save in God = qúwwata illà bi-llàh] short for the ˙áwqala A. (said when at a loss or when powerless) MuslJ, see kfr H. ˙ìle, mà ˙ìlti . . . I don’t have at all . . . JJ/J/Syr. ˙awàle pl. -àt check, cheque, bill of exchange SJ, see “akk 2; ‘ek* H. ˙yy ˙ayà(t) life, euphemistic for mòt death, ˙.-"abùy = il-mar˙ùm "abùy my late fatherJ, see byt, bèt-ha-˙ayyìm H.

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xbz xúbez bread, xubze pl. -àt, or “á"fitxúbez a piece of bread JJ/J, x. fìno* fine bread JJ, x.-ifránji* French bread J, x. †>bùn, see †bn

xurdawàt* pl. zù" pl. xaw>zì" stake, pile, impalement; ‘fixing’, cf. T. kazık malicious trick against s.o., ákal x. to make a bad business (merchant), to be had, be fooled (loan tr. of T. kazık yemek, lit. to eat a pile [from behind]), ∂arábni / †a'màni x. he drove a stake in me, i.e., he fooled me, he had me, bi˙úbb-il-kabra ( yi˙íbb el-'ulu E.) wa-law 'ala x. he likes elevation (haughtiness) were it even on a gallows JJ/J xzn xazàne pl. xazàyen cupboard JJ/J, Syr. xzène pl. x-6z6n, -àt wardrobe, see †wq>†w" xzy xáza, yíxzi v.t. il-'èn to put to shame the [evil] eye (to obstruct it) JJ/J, see 'yn H.

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xsr xíser, yíxsar v.t. to lose, yà xsàra what a loss! what a pity! JJ/J

xulúww-ríjel key money J/SJ, E. xúlu-rígl purchase of lease

x““ xa““, yixú““ v.t., v.i. to enter, go in, xa““-il-"ò∂a or xa““ fi-l-"ò∂a to enter the room J/E., see dxl, 'br, fwt

xms II v.i. to stretch one’s five fingers on o.s. or on one’s beloved’s face to ward off the evil eye, or to stretch them towards s.o. whose evil eye is feared, repelling it xamse five, x. fi 'ènak I spite your evil eye, see sup. JJ/J; pl. -àt a golden ornament in the shape of a hand, x. referring to the five fingers, used as a talisman against the evil eye J/Syr./E. xamsìka* pl. -àtxn" xána", yúxno" v.t. to choke to death JJ/J VI v.i. to quarrel, fight; to dispute J, E. txàne", see qtl>"tl xnà" / xnà"a quarrel, fight, row J, see †w“ mxánne" choking; dark redxwz" xòza", yixòze" v.t. to cheat, ‘fix’, or involve in a bad situation JJ/J/Syr./L., see xzq>xz" II txòza" v.i. to be impaled | to be swindled, be had, be cheated; to become involved in a bad situation or adversity; to

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sit quietly and stiffly by order (of a parent losing control) x>zù" pl. xaw>zì" pole | ‘fixing’, dupe JJ/J, see j†l, msmr

treacherous J, cf. pl. ìn ungrateful, unthankful JJ, see nkr xèxam, yixèxem v.i. xàm H. rabbi | to rock extatically in prayer ( Jew) J, see xaxàmi; ˙xm H.

xò“ bò“ *n"y xèr wealth, káttar xèrak thank you! JJ/J xityàr|a pl. xity>ríyye old man JJ/J Syr. x6tyàr, E. ixtiyàr, see 'jz, kbr

xwn xàn, yixùn v.t. to be disloyal, be faithless, be treacherous xàyen pl. xáwan disloyal, faithless,

d dbb dabb, yidíbb v.t. to throw away, drop; to let drop; to let fall J/Syr./ L., cf. L. v.i. to fall down from a high position, see rmy

d.zkr II v.t. to remind V v.t., v.i. fi to remember JJ/J/Syr., see f†n, fkr tázkara pl. tazàker ticket SJ, E. tazkára s.m., note, certificate, see bilyèt*, tíket*; kartìs* H.

≈ky>zky zàki|ye pl. -ìn delicious; suave (smell) JJ/J/Syr. ≈ù / ≈àt>zàt the same, z.-il-bèt the same house vs. il-bèt (b)zàto the house itself (emphasis) JJ/J, see nfs r

r"y>wry II v.t. to show, a¬¬a là ywarrìna far from our sight! J/L./E., IV Syr./E. s.m.; >"ry II v.t. s.m. J; >rwy II v.t. s.m. Syr. rbb/rby mrábba pl. -àt jam, preserved fruit J/SJ, E. mirábba / mirábbi pl. -àt jam, marmalade, see ˙lw, †a†li* rubabèkya* old clothes ( junk) J/E., see ròpa vyèja* H. rb† rába†, yúrbo† v.t. to tie ráb†a pl. -àt necktie, ráb†at-rá"abe J, Syr. ráb†et-rá"be, E. rubà†-rá"aba, see bandàj*, gravàt*, lff rabbà†a pl. -àt shoelace JJ/J/Syr. rabòr*, see rapòrt* H. rby, see rbb

rtb II v.t. to put in order, arrange, dispose tartìb order, arrangement JJ/J pl. àt measure, step SJ mráttab arranged, organized, set up; tidy JJ/J rtl II v.i. to sing a hymn ChrJ, cf. to slowly recite the Koran MuslJ tartìl chanting of hymns ChrJ, slow recitation of the Koran MuslJ tartìle pl. tar>tìl hymn ChrJ, see rnm rty ráta, yírti v.t. to darn ráti darning (e.g., stockings) J, rural J/Syr. ráti, see marèja* H. rj˙ marjù˙a pl. mar>jì˙ see-saw, swing JJ/J, J and Mecca murjè˙a merjì˙a see-saw cradle rural J, see kùna* H.

  r˙∂ mir˙à∂ pl. mar>˙ì∂ lavatory, public lavatory SJ r˙m rá˙am, yír˙am v.t. to have mercy (upon), have compassion (for), a¬¬a yír˙amo God’s mercy (upon the dead) JJ/J, cf. J (upon the living); v.i. 'alamà H. rà˙a rest, 'ala rà˙tak feel at ease! bèt-r. water closet márwa˙a pl. maràwe˙ ventilator, fan JJ/J, propeller SJ, see "vrr, propèlor* H. mustarà˙ pl. -àt = bèt-rà˙a J

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rwd IV ràd (!), yirìd v.t. in a¬¬a ràd God willing, see krm; r˙m H., zayy ma bitrìd as you like, wish, please JJ/J, see x†r

ryl II v.i. to slobber, slaver, drivel máryale pl. maràyel bib, pinafore J/L., E. maryála apron, pinafore maryùl pl. mar>yìl apron J/L./E., see devantàr*, prostèla* H.

rw∂ riyà∂a sport J/SJ, see spòrt* H. z zbb zibb, zubb pl. zbàb tiny (child’s) penis J/E. zbìbe pl. -àt coll. zbìb raisin JJ/J

z©zl zá©zal, yizá©zel v.i. to be overpowered by light, zá©zalu 'inè his eyes dazzled JJ/J, see zw©

zbr zúbor, Ωúbor pl. zbàr penis JJ/J, Syr. Ωáber, E. zubr

z©l† zá©la†, yizá©le† v.i. to shrill joyously za©lù†a pl. za©>lì† joyous shrill JJ/J

ztt zatt, yizítt to throw away J/L., Syr. yz-6tt, see rmy

z©ll za©lùl pl. za©>lìl chick, young bird JJ/J/Syr./E.; a girl coming of age JJ/JJ; >za©nùn pl. za©>nìn small, baby JJ/J corruption of zu©lùl pl. za©àlìl child, baby A.

z˙l II v.t. to slip (table, cupboard, etc.) JJ/J; v.i. to move, make place (on a crowded bench, in a car, etc.) JJ, see b˙z zdb zadàbye coll. rue J, rural J sa≈àbye, Syr. zdàbe, E. sádab, SJ sa≈àb, see rùda* H. z'br v.i. 'ala to upbraid J, cf. Syr. to deceive, dupe zá'bara upbraiding J, cf. Syr. deceit, dupe, see nf†r z'r áz'ar, f. zá'ra, pl. zu'ràn dwarfish JJ/Syr., cf. rascal, brigand J z'l zí'el, yíz'al v.i. 'ala to be sorry for s.o., to be annoyed about s.th., (min) to be offended, be angry with s.o., be upset, grieve J/Syr. vs. 'ala to be angry with s.o. 'ás 'al H. JJ IV v.t. to grieve, distress, sadden J VI to be angry with s.o., be at odds JJ/J zá'al anger, irritation, annoyance JJ/J/Syr./E. za'làn grieved, distressed, sad J, JJ angry

z©nn za©nùn pl. za©>nìn, see z©ll sup. z©wl zá©wal, yizá©wel v.i. to dazzle (v.i.) JJ, E. zá©lal, see z©zl zfr/Ωfr II v.t. to cook or lay in a utensil meat, animal fat, or fowl, making it ritually unlawful for holding dairy food or drink; to make a Jew eat meat . . ., thereby prohibiting him from eating or drinking a dairy product (within six hours for meat or animal fat, and within four for fowl) to ensure full digestion JJ, cf. to soil with grease J/Syr./E., Syr./L. to give fatty food, soil with greasy food; to make a Christian eat meat in Shrovetide; E. to give solid food to a convalescent V to eat záfra, to hold záfra (utensil) záfra/Ωáfra grease, fat, greasy or fatty food JJ/J záfar / Ωáfar = záfra / Ωáfra; food forbidden to eat in Shrovetide ChrJ/ Syr., ∆alà∆à"-az-z. Shrove Tuesday Chr. A.

  zífer pl. -ìn greasy; stinking, rancid JJ/J mzáffar / mΩáffar a fatty, greasy utensil JJ/J, cf. ritually unlawful for holding dairy food or drink (utensil for cooking meat or fowl); a Jew who has eaten meat or fowl, forbidden to consume a dairy product within the time limit of ritual prohibition JJ zq†>z"† zá"a†, yúz"o† v.t. jwz jìze marriage JJ/J zwr ziyàra pl. -àt visit JJ/J, ritual visiting to Rabbis’ tombs on fixed days to ask blessings; visiting a grave of the dead JJ, visiting (the tombs of ) Saints and pilgrimage ChrJ/ ChrSyr; pilgrimage E., see †ll; vi≥ìta* H. zw© II v.t. záwwa©-il-'èn to overpower or dim the vision by intense light, to dazzle (v.t.) V to be overpowered or dimmed by intense light (vision), be dazzled JJ/J, see z©zl, z©wl zwq>zw" II v.t. to adorn, embellish, ornament V dzáwwa", yidzáwwa" v.i. to be adorned, be embellished, be ornamented tazwì" / tizwì" adornment, embellishment, ornamentation mzáwwa" adorned, embellished, ornamented JJ/J, see bmb", hndz zyt II v.t. to oil, grease; to bribe, ‘grease’ JJ, see “˙d 2, lqm>l"m zèt-u-zitùn olive oil and olives, i.e., like balm in one’s bones, as well as one could possibly wish JJ zy˙ zà˙, yizì˙ v.i. 'an to move off IV zà˙, yizì˙ v.t. to move off s.o or s.th., zì˙o 'an wi““i drive him/it off my face! J, see qwm>"wm zyf>zàf, zàf pl. zyùf hem of a dress J/ Syr., see ∆ny>tny, kinàr*

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sbt sábat, yísbet v.i. bát, yi“bòt H. to keep Sabbath, to enter on Sabbath, sábatu 'ándo they spent Sabbath in his home JJHr sabt pl. sbùt, ( yòm-) is-s. Sabbath, Saturday JJ-J, see “vt H. sb˙ sub˙àn a¬¬a praise God! I wonder JJ/J, see “v˙ H. sb' usbù' pl. as>bí' week SJ, yòm-is- sbù' the seventh day of mourning JJ, see jm' sbìtàr* / (i)sbi†àr* pl. -àt < Eng. hospital J vs. spi†àr JJ, E. isbitálya sàter O Veiler (God)! (warning before entering the harem, or when passing by a Muslim cemetery MuslJ, or when your door is knocked by surprise) J sattàr = sàter sjq súju"* b"l, dkn smw II v.i. 'ala, sámma 'ala-l-xúbez he invoked the Name of God over bread, saying bi-smi-llàh . . . MuslJ, see yß" H. ism, see "lh, ßlb snn sinn pl. snàn tooth, snàn-il-'ajùz hailstones JJ/J, Syr. snènàt-il-'ajùz, see brd san†ùr* bìk window, grilled window JJ/J, see †wq>†w" “bh “íbeh, yí“bah v.t. to resemble, kàn yí“bahak, yí“bah ˙àlo he (the deceased) resembled you. Not any more (dissociating resemblance) JJ ta“bìh comparison, likeness bála t. no likeness (severing resemblance between one’s interlocutor and a blemished figure), Syr. bála t-6“ 6bha, see ywm “tq>“t" II “átta"“f " “ífe", yí“fa" v.i. 'ala to pity, have mercy on, have compassion for, í“fa" 'aláyy have mercy on me! J/E., Syr. “áfa", y-6“fo" 'ala, see r˙m

“rf II v.t., v.i. “árref ! honor me/us! come in! after you! take your seat! (to a visitor), (said also when showing the door to s.o.!) J/Syr. “úrfe pl. “úraf, -àt balcony SJ, see balkòn* “rm† “árma†, yi“árme† v.i. to fornicate II t“árma† v.i. to prostitute JJ/J, cf. to be torn to pieces Syr. “armù† ‘gay’, ‘bastard’, “armù†a pl. “ar>mì† rag, shred Syr./E.; whore, slut, prostitute JJ/J/Syr./E. “í“me* pl. “í“am “ "˙ II v.t. to cut (bread) “á"˙a pl. “ú"a˙ slice J, see revanàda* H. “qf >“ "f “á"fe pl. “ú"af a piece; a stunner (girl) JJ/J “kk “akk pl. “ukùk doubt; “akk 2 pl. -àt < check, cheque, bill of exchange JJ/J, see ˙wl

  “kr “ákar, yú“kor v.t. to thank, be grateful, nú“kor a¬¬a I/we praise God, i.e., thank God! (contented) JJ/J, see brk H. “úkran thanks! thank you! J, see mersì* H. mit“ákker = “úkran, see mnn “kw>“ky “aka, yi“ki v.t., v.i. to complain “akwe pl. “akàwi, i“-“. la-l-xala may [my] complaint fade in space [and not hit us]! JJ “ll “álal paralysis ma“lùl paralytic, nußß-jísmo m. semiparalytic J/SJ/E., see flj “álabi* pl. -iyye "wm “ayy>làt pl. suspenders for holding trousers J, see “dd

“è“ bè“* qà H. ßf† II v.t. to arrange, adjust properly (books on a shelf, shirts in a drawer) JJ/J, see rtb ßfq>s"f II v.i. to clap hands tas"ìf clapping JJ, see z"f, sqf >s"f ßfw ßàfi clear, pure, ma'à“ ß. net income JJ/J

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ßlb ßalìb pl. ßulbàn Cross, ism-6ß-ß. ˙aw>lèk may the Name of the Cross surround you! (caring for s.o. reporting a disease or misfortune) ChrJ, 6ß-ß.-il-"á˙mar the Red Cross, see hll; gnn H. ßlw ßalàye, ßlà pl. ßal>wàt prayer JJ; J ßalày, ßalà 'an-il-mawta prayer for the dead SJ ßándra* kitchen attic used as a sideboard, cf. ßán∂ara/ßamán∂ara a niche in the wall used for storing mattresses and beddings during daytime Syr., E. attic ßnòbara coll. ßnòbar fir, pine tree, fruit of the pine tree JJ/J, Syr. ßnáwbar, ßan(n)òbar, E. ßinàbar, ßinèbar, see pinyòn* H. ßòba, ßòbba JJ/ ßòpa J pl. -àt ∂w' II ∂áyya' v.t. to lose (not find) J, ∂áwwa' v.t., s.m. JJ/J/L.; to squander, waste, throw away (money) JJ, see b'∆r>b'tr, b'z", wdr ∂è'a pl. ∂-6ya' a village including cultivated land, a country estate JJ/ J/Syr.; early Jewish colonies: kibbùts, mö“àv, and mö“avà H. JJ, see y“v, qvß>kvts H.

∂bb ∂abb, yi∂úbb v.t., ∂abb-6ß-ßúfra to clear the table J, see “yl, qwm>"wm ∂b†>Ωb† maΩbù† exact, exactly, il-m. the truth JJ, see ˙qq>˙""; "mt H. ∂˙k ∂í˙ek, yí∂˙ak v.i. ma'(a) to jest, joke with s.o. JJ/Syr. II v.t., v.i., to crack jokes JJ/J ∂ú˙ok laugh(ing), laughter JJ/J; joking jesting JJ ∂ú˙ke pl. -àt laugh JJ/J, ∂ú˙ket-sill! I wish you a phthisical laugh (to a child laughing out of place) JJ

∂yq>∂y"-dy" III ∂àya" v.t. to oppress, inconvenience, grieve JJ, J. dàya" VI (6)∂∂àya" to become annoyed, irritated JJ, J (i )ddàya" m∂àya" oppressed, inconvenienced, grieved JJ, J mdàya"; short of cash JJ/J/Syr. m6∂∂àye" annoyed, irritated J/Syr.; J middàye"

∂rb ∂árab, yú∂rob v.t., v.i. to beat, hit, ∂árab kaff to slap ∂arbe pl. -àt blow, stroke, knock JJ/J/Syr./E. † †àbe, see †bb †àra* lgn †a“†abàn* l"“ †qm>†"m †á"em* pl. †"ùme †"y †a"íyye pl. †awà"i headcover, a cap without a crown and brim including a kippà (an observant Jew’s skullcap) JJ/J, nightcap J, Syr. pl. -àt cap, a white cotton skullcap worn under the †arbò“ [†arbù“* J], E. pl. †awà"i skullcap, lining of a fez, see burnè†a* †ll †all, y6†úll v.i. 'ala to appear; to look down upon; to pay a flying visit to s.o.

†alle pl. a flying visit J, see zwr, “qq >“ "" †l' †-6le', y-6†la' v.i. to go out or up; b-6†la' (invar.) about, around, e.g., tamm yíbki b-6†la' s>'tèn he kept crying for about two hours JJ/J/Syr.; ('ala) to mount, ascend JJ/J, †-6le' 'a-s-sèfer H. he ascended [to the rostrum of the synagogue] to [read] the Torah Scroll, a loan translation of 'alà lattörà H. JJHr; †-6le' ràs to cope, hàdi bt-6†la' ràs má'ek this woman can cope with you, see xrj II v.t. †álla' dìno he served him out JJ/J, cf. †álla'-id-dìn2 tába'o (!) he delivered his judgment in his case, a loan tr. of hóßì et-d“nò H. JJHr. †ál'a ascent, ascendingJJ/J, búkra yòm-6†-†al'a, búkra †>l'ìn tomorrow is the day of ascent, tomorrow we’ll be leaving [for the Mt. of Olives to visit the grave(s) of the dead] JJ †lq>†l" †alà" divorce, ˙aláft b-6†-†. illa asáwwi . . . I solemnly swear by divorce that I will do . . ., 'aláyy-6†-†. [bi-t- talà te] in mà sawwèt . . . I solemnly swear [threefold] by divorcing my wife that if you don’t do . . . MuslJ, cf. 'aleyyi-†-†alà" b6t-talàte Musl Syr., see ˙lf †mm †amm, y6†úmm v.t. to bury, a†úmm ˙àli I’d rather bury myself (repenting disgrace) JJ/J †ambùra* bìr a long necked, small bellied mandoline, †afràn 'a-†-†. [I’m] a pauper, [I] don’t own a nickel JJ/J †m' †ammà'|a pl. ìn greedy, covetous J/ Syr./E. vs. stingy, miser JJ †ánjara* pl. †anàjer t"l; ˙“v H.

'r“ 'arì“ pl. 'ur“, 'aràye“ booth, 'ìd-il-'ur“ the feast of booths, the feast of Tabernacles J, see sxx H.

'tm ta'tìm blackout J, see ha"af>là H. 'jz 'ajùz old woman J, 'ajùze JJ, pl. 'ajàyez, E. 'agùz aged, old person, see xyr, kbr 'dd 'ádad pl. a'dàd number; biblical verse ChrJ, see "wy; psq H. 'dl 'adlíyye civil law court JJ/J 'dw 'ádu pl. ìn JJ/J, pl. a'dà" SJ enemy, 'adúwwak [may it befall] your enemy! (reserving interlocutor from untoward spectacles and sad tidings) JJ/J '≈b>'zb V v.i. to suffer, see ß'r H. 'azàb pain, suffering, agony, torment, torture, physical pain JJ/J, Syr. 'adàb, see ©mm 'rb 'arabíyye pl. -àt>'áraba A. vehicle, coach, carriage, car, waggon JJ/J/ Syr./E., motor car, automobile J/ Syr./E., see otombìl, †rumbìl, syr, E. 'arabíyyet-rukùba carriage 'a.-sikka ˙adìd railway carriage, trunk, waggon, Syr. 'arabìt-6“-“è†àn the devil’s vehicle, i.e., bicycle 'árbaji* pl. -iyye yìn'"d 'a"d-zaw>j marriage contract ChrJ, 'aqd-nikà˙ s.m. MuslJ, see ktb; ktb H.

'ßrn II t'áßran to have an afternoon snack 'aßrùne/'aßr5níyye pl. -àt afternoon snack J/Dam.

'ql>'"l 'á"el pl. '"ùl mind, see †yr 'igàlrìt demon, devil, Syr. 'afrìd|e pl. 'af>rìd see “èd H.; cunning, crafty, wily JJ/J/E.; motorcycle J 'fw il-'áfuw / 'áfwan you’re welcome! don’t mention it! (rep. for “úkran thanks!) J/SJ/Syr./E. 'àfye pl. 'awàfi good health, wellbeing JJ/J/Syr., E. 'áfya

'àl excellent, 'àl-il-'àl most excellent JJ/J 'll 'all, yi'íll v.t., il-"alb to sicken one’s heart, i.e., to annoy 'ílle pl. 'ílal disease, 'i. 'a-l-"alb a disease dwelling in one’s heart | annoying nuisance JJ/J 'lb 'úlbe pl. 'úlab box, case; can, tin JJ/J mu'állabàt pl. conserves, preserves, canned food J, see konsèrvim* pl. H. 'lq>'l" to hang 'allà"a pl. -àt coat stand J/Syr., E. 'illà"a a thing with which an article is suspended má'la"-et-tyàb coat hanger J má' il"a JJ, J/Syr. má'la"a pl. ma'àle" spoon, m. z©ìre small spoon JJ = má'la"at-“ày tea spoon JJ/Syr ta'lù"a pl. -àt coat hanger JJ, L. ta'lì"a pl. ta'àle", -àt iron coat stand 'lk 'ílke chewing substance J, see màstik* H. 'lm 'ílm, 'ílem knowledge JJ/J, pl. 'ulùm science, ixtißàßi fi 'i.-†abaqàt-il-"ar∂ geologist (paraphrase) J/SJ 'àlam world, people, zayy-il-'à., see "ns JJ/J/Syr./E.

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ta'lùm learning JJ 'àlem pl. 'úlama scientist, 'à. -†abaqàtil-"ar∂ geologist J, see ge"ològ* H.; f. 'àlme pl. 'awàlem originally an Egyptian ‘professional female singer’ JJ/J, Syr. 'èlme pl. '(a)wèlem, -àt, E. 'álma pl. 'awàlim chanteuse, see †rb, ©ny m'àllem|e pl. ìn, f. pl -àt teacher; foreman; master of apprentice, of domestics JJ/J/Syr., see u߆a; m'àllmet-bustàn (-a†fàl) kindergarden female teacher J, see gnn H. m'állam used, accustomed, habituated JJ/Syr., see 'wd 'ln IV v.t. to announce, advertize i'làn notice, publicity, advertizing, pl. -àt ads J/SJ, see d'w; reklàma* H.; poster, advertizement J, see yd' H. 'lw 'àl look up alphabetically 'mr 'umr, 'úmor pl. a'màr life, age (length of life), il-'u.[--6†-†awìl] ílak I wish you a long life (announcing the death of s.o), ba'd-il-'umr-6†-†awìl after your long life, i.e., when you pass away; 'umro! JJ/J, 'u. w-'àmo! JJ the hell with him/it!, 'a†àk/a'†àk 'umro he has passed to you the life [he ought to have lived], i.e., he has passed away, see '†w, 'y“ 'm“ á'ma“ pl. 'um“ blear-eyed, rheumyeyed, dim-sighted J/L./E.; blind, see ‘'mß, 'mß inf. 'mß á'maß pl. 'umß blear-eyed J/Syr. m'ámm6ß = á'maß, cf. mbá'baß corruption of m'ámmaß / m'ámm6ß Syr., see 'm“ sup. 'ml 'ímel, yí'mal v.t. to do, make JJ/J, bí'mal-6ß-ßufra he sets the table JJ, see ˙∂r, ˙††, ßff; bí'mal qiddù“ 'a-l-imbìd

he recites the declaration of sanctification over wine (before Grace) JJHr. 'ámal abscess, matter, purulence, pus J/Syr., see qy˙>"y˙, mdd; matèrya* H. 'imlàq Amalekite, gigantic, giant J lèq H. 'my a'ma f. 'amya pl. 'imyìn JJ/'umyàn J blind 'nb 'únbe pl. -àt coll. 'únob grape JJ, J 'ínbe pl. -àt coll. 'ínab, rural J 'ínib 'nßr 'ánßara, 'ìd-il-'a. Pentecost JJ/ChrJ “ìr H. rich, to become rich, wealthy (said with a picking connotation) JJ, see ©ny 'wq>'w" II v.i. to obstruct, mà-bi 'áwwe" no (ritual) obstruction JJHr 'wm 'àm pl. a'wàm year, il-'àm last year J, JJ/J/Syr '>m-n-áwwal, see snw 'yb 'àybe f. pl. -àt disgraceful woman, prostitute JJ/J, see “lk 'yd 'ìd pl. 'yàd JJ/J, "a'yàd J/SJ feast, feast day, festival: 'ìd-ràs-is-sáne New Year’s day, see r"“ H., 'ìd-ij-jàj fowls, day, Yom Kippur; 'ìd-il-'ur“ feast of Tabernacles; 'ìd-il-"anwàr lights’ day, Hanukka; 'ìd-il-masàxer festival of masquerades, Purim; 'ìd-l-if†ìr the feast of unleavened bread, pèsa˙, Passover, 'ìd-il-"istiqlàl Independence day, see ywm H.; 'ìd-il-yah5díyye Lag ba-'òmer, see 'mr H. = 'ìd-in-nàr bonfire festival, see “'l; 'ìd-il-'ánßara = “>v5'òt Pentecost JJ-J, J-JJ 'y“ 'à“, yi'ì“ v.i. to live, t'ì“ ! bless you! (to a person sneezing) JJ/J, see ß˙˙; ˙ayyìm H., 'à“ min “àfak! I haven’t seen you for ages, long live whoever sees you! t'ì“ minno! he passed away, may you live far from him! t'ì“u w-titrá˙˙amu! may you live [long] and continue to invoke the divine Mercy on the soul(s) of the dead! JJ/ MuslJ / Syr., cf. . . . on the souls of Purgatory ChrJ/Syr.

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'>y“ìn min "íllet-il-mòt more dead than alive (a grumpy reply to kìf ˙àlak?) 'y† II v.i. to cry with tears, weep J/Syr./E., E. to mourn; to cry out, shout, yell, scream ('ala) at, on, to JJ/J 'yf 'àf, yi'ìf v.t. to loathe, feel disgusted 'àyef samày / dìni I loathe my sky / religion = 'à.-it-tákane* I loathe the trough = 'à.-6†-†urbà“* I loath the fez, i.e., I can’t bear it any more 'yn 'èn pl. 'yùn eye, il-'èn the [evil] eye, see 'yn H., fi 'èn-il-'àdu in the eye of the enemy! i.e., may it not befall you! (when mentioning the number xamse five), see xms, contrariwise x>mse fi 'ènak! I spite your evil eye, 'èno fàr©a his eye is empty, i.e., he is avid, covetous, greedy = 'èno j5'àne = his eye is hungry; 'èno fì he covets it JJ/J/Syr., E. he is mean, ill-bred, 'èno minno he covets it; 'èno “ab'àne his eye is satisfied, i.e., he is sober, not implicated JJ/J/Syr., E. 'èno malyàna his eye is full, i.e., he is well bred; 'èno †àl'a/la-bárra he has a roving eye (chasing after women); 'ènsámake eye of a fish, i.e., corn (on the foot) (med.), cf. Hühnerauge Germ. eye of a chicken JJ/J, see smr; kàyo* H. 'áyyine pl. -àt sample, specimen J/ SJ, rural J 'ìne, L. 'iníyye, see s†r>߆r, namùzaj* 'yy 'íyi, yí'ya v.i. to be sick, be tired, be exhausted 'áya disease, illness, sickness JJ/J, see mr∂, l-'áya-l-bùm the bad, terrible disease (taboo for cancer) (med.) JJ, see sr† 'ayyàn|e pl. ìn ill, sick JJ/J/E.

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©àz* 'ì wearing changed clothes or underwear JJ/J, var. m. tyàbo wearing changed clothes J, see bdl m©áyyar not looking well, looking ill JJ/Syr. mit©áyyerJ = m©áyyar, E. mit©áyyar

©yr II v.t. to change, ©áyyar aw>'ì to change one’s clothes, see twb>twb f fàwle* coll. tì˙ key muft>˙íyye key money, a fee paid by a new tenant to the lessor on delivering the key in addition to rent, in order to protect the occupation by law JJ/J, see xlw ftl ftíle pl. fatàyel wick kerosene cooking stove JJ/J, see ma“ìna* H.

frj II v.i. 'ala to show L., see inf. V to look at s.o. or s.th. with delight JJ/J frjy fárja, yfárji v.t. "ry, rwy>wry fr˙ fára˙ happiness; pl. afrà˙ a happy occasion in one’s life cycle, a ritual happy ceremony JJ/J, f.-lubs-t6fillìn the ceremony of donning phylacteries JJHr. far˙a joy, bi-l-"afrà˙! many happy returns! congratulations! JJ/J frx, see fr© fr∂ farì∂a pl. faràye∂ religious duty, divine precept, ordinance of God; obligatory prayer MuslJ, cf. wßy; ßwh H. frß>fwrß fòraß, yifòreß v.i. to take leave, be on vacation J, cf. II fárraß v.i. Dam. furßa, fòrßa pl. furaß vacation J, Syr. f-6rßa pl. f-6raß, see "≈n>"zn, jwz, '†l; ˙f“ H.

fdy fada ransom, ana fadàk|i I’m your ransom (requesting or entreating), fadàk|i ! it’s your ransom! calm down! take it easy! (soothing s.o. to forego a loss or damage), see kfr H.

fr©>frx X v.i. to vomit J/SJ/E., see n†q>nt" fàrexfr" fára", yífre"/yúfro" v.i. bèn-u-bèn to distinguish between . . ., to discern between . . . JJ/J/Syr./E., see myz

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fránji|yye* coll. fránj fìs tiny fellow, very small | a tiny fellow JJ, cf. a worthless fellow J, Syr. pl. fsèfìs a small pustule, E. fasfùsa a small abscess fsw>fsy fisi, yífsi v.i. to fart, break wind noiselessly fáswe pl. -àt a noiseless fart, fáswe btí'mi-l-"álb a n.f. one can’t stand; a weak, uncountable person JJ/J, see xr">xry faßùlya* / faßùlye* coll. < Phaseolus vulgaris Lat., dry beans JJ/J, Syr. fàßùlíyye common European beans, kidney beans, E. faßùlya French beans, see àvaz* H., f. xá∂ra green beans JJ/J, see fàwle* f∂l V tfá∂∂al! please, come in! go ahead! or have a seat, refreshment, etc.! JJ/J/ Syr./E. f†n fí†en, yíf†an v. t., v.i. bi-/fi to remember II v.t. to remind V v.i. bi-/fi to recall J/Syr., see ≈kr>zkr, fkr fk˙ fáka˙, yífka˙ v.i. to escape secretly, steal away, slip, make off J/Syr., see “m', mzz, mz†, mlß fkr II v.t. to remind JJ/J/Syr./E. V v.i. fi, to try recalling to one’s mind JJ/Syr., see ≈kr, f†n fll fall, yifíll v.i. to escape J/E., see flt inf. flt fálat, yíflet v.t. to release, let go, set free; fílet, yíflat v.i. to exercise freedom from repression JJ/J, E. fálat, yíflit v.i. (and VII v.i.) to escape, be

let loose, be free II v.t. to release, let go, set free JJ/J/Syr., see trk, xlw, syb falte unrestrained (moral) behavior, pl. -àt recurring instances of such restraints JJ/J/Syr.; (invar.) talented, gifted; genius SJ fàlte J / faltàne JJ pl. -àt libertine, debauchée, licentious woman, prostitute JJ/J flàt*fyy fay( y) shade JJ/J/Syr. fyds fáydas, yifáydes v.i. to go on vacation, Syr. fáydas/fèdas faydòs gb'-"b' gába', yígba' v.t., v.i. to swallow liquids, to drink eagerly in hasty gulps JJ, E. "ába', yí"ba', cf. g>má', yigmá' H. to drink, swallow, sip, gulp,

quaff (a liquid) II "ábba' v.i., "ábba'at (invar.) ma'i I lost my patience (idiom) J, L."ábba'et má''e "abbù'a, "úbu' pl. "bà' xn"

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q˙b>"˙b "á˙be pl. "˙àb, -àt prostitute, whore JJ/J/Syr., E. pl. "u˙˙àb, see “lk* qdd>"dd "add extent, quantity, measure, amount, degree, value, hàdi "add ˙àla/ ˙àlha this one (f.) is competent, sufficient, i.e., capable as a person JJ/J qdr>"dr II v.t., v.i. to decree (God), a¬¬a y"addírna! may God decree it! may I/we live up to it! a¬¬a là y"ádder! may God not decree! (apprehending misfortune or impending danger) JJ/J, see sm˙; bar 2 H. "udra, "údret-a¬¬a God’s Omnipotence, in 'í“na b-"údret-a¬¬a if I/ we live, depending on God’s decree (fearing uncertainty of fulfilling a promise) J, see zxh H. qds>"ds II v.t. to sanctify JJ/J; to betrothe, to sanctify a marrying couple at a wedding, to marry (v.t.) JJ/ChrJ; to consecrate a host—a consecrated wafer Roman-Catholic Chr.; to celebrate Mass; to make a Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem; "áddas v.i. 'a(la), "áddas or "addas 'a-limbìd to recite the sanctification, qiddù“ Hr., over wine JJ l-"uds Jerusalem JJ/J, see y6r5 “>làyim H., (il-)quds-i“-“arìf the exalted holy city, quds-il-"aqdàs Holy of Holies, the full Islamic name for alquds, cf. qóde“ haq-qod>“ìm Hr. Holy of Holies, Lat. sanctum sanctorum, the appellation for the core of the Temple—the Sanctuary on Mt. Moriah JJHr. "údsi pl. ma"àdse native or inhabitant of Jerusalem JJ/J, Syr. "-6dsi "uddàs pl. "ad>dìs Mass, "u. la-rà˙atnafs-il-míyyet requiem, prayer for the dead, ChrJ "addùs pl. "ad>dìs sanctification, declaration of sanctification over

wine; nuptial sanctification JJ; qaddùs/ quddùs most Holy, 6l-q. the most Holy, God ChrJ "addìs/"iddìs pl. ìn saint ChrJ, see wly bayt/bèt-il-máqdis Jerusalem J ta"dìs sanctification m"áddas sanctified, holy, sacred JJ/J, see qd“ H. qdm>"dm "dùmo xèr! may his (the new baby-boy’s) advent be a blessing! (congratulating his kin) JJ qrr qàrra pl. -àt continent SJ, see yv“ H. taqrìr pl. taq>rìr report SJ, see rapòrt* H. qr ">"ry "iri, yí"ra v.t. to read (a letter, a book), v.i. to read JJ/J, bí"ra qaddì“ he recites the q., q.v., on the soul of the dead, bí"ra bi-s-sèfer he reads from the Torah scroll JJHr, see qr ">"ry H. "arràye pl. -àt music lectern or a reading desk in a church ChrJ/ ChrSyr., Syr. pulpit, see qr">"ry H. qrb>"rb "írbe pl. "írab large leather bottle (not processed) JJ/J, Syr. -6rbe pl. -6rab, Palmyre q-6rbe pl. éqreb qr˙ qur˙a pl. qúra˙ ulcer J/SJ, see úlkus* H. qrd>"rd "ird pl. "rùd monkey | ‘devil’, zayy-il-"írd energetic, agile, smart JJ/J/Syr./E., "írd-imzá˙la" a slippery monkey, i.e., energetic, agile, smart JJ/J "irdèn-u-˙àres two monkeys and a watchman, referring to an insignificant lonely settlement (expressing negligence) J qir“ >"ir“* pl. "rù“ "rm "urmíyye "arnabì†a* coll. "arnabì† "†† "u††, f. u††a pl. "ú†a† cat J/E.,"u††a (invar.) pl. "†à† JJ, Syr. "6††, f. "6††a pl. "†à†, see bss

233

q†r>"†r "á†er JJ/J, q6†àr SJ pl. -àt train, see babòr*, trèn* q†'>"†' "á†a', yí"†a' v.t. to cut, stop, "á†a' "albi mn-il-xòf he stopped my heart beat out of fear, wu““o bí"†a'-ir-ríze" [looking at] his face cuts off one’s living, his frowning face is ugly JJ/J, "á†a' revanàda he sliced a slice of bread JJ III v.t. to break with s.o. J VII v.i. n"á†a' "albi I was frightened to death JJ/J/E. "í†'a pl. "í†a' piece, "í†'et-"ar∂ a tract of land; "í†'et-mazzìka a musical instrument; pl. "ú†a' coins, money J q†n>"†n "u††ène pl. -àt coll. "u††èn dried fig. J, see tìne q'd>"'d "á'ad, yú"'od v.i. to sit, stay JJ/ J/Syr./E., "á'ad 'à"el to calm down, be composed, (child) JJ/J; yú''od ruzz 'ala "álbak! may rice stay [like a cramping chunk] in your stomach! (curse); "á'ad “iv'à to sit seven [days of mourning on the floor, observing the ritual and receiving consolers] JJHr. qfw>"fw "áfa behind n., buttocks JJ/ J/Syr. qll>"ll "alìl|e pl. "làl insignificant, few, little, mu“ "alìle uxti my sister is not disabled JJ/J qlb>"lb "alb pl. "lùb heart, see ˙rq>˙r", q†'>"†'; "albo ma©mùm he is grieved, "albo má'mi he’s in a bad mood JJ, Syr. "albo á'ma he is stupid qls>"ls / "lß "allùse / "a¬¬ùße pl. "al>lìs/ "a¬>¬ìß lìs clergyman’s hat; night cap, cowl, hood, see 'rq>'r"

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ql'>"l' II v.t. to expel, drive out JJ/J/ Syr./E., see †rd

"ò"a* pl. -àt coll. "ò""l" "al"àn|e pl. ìn worried J/Syr./E.; E. uneasy, anxious, sleepless, see “©l

qwm>"wm "àm, yi"ùm v.i. to stand up, wake up; to rise, "àm or "àm min-il'áza to end the ceremony of mourning JJ IV "àm, yi"ìm v.t. "àm-eß-ßufra to clear the table JJ/J, see “yl, ∂bb; (min) "ìmo min wu““i drive him/it off my face! JJ, see zy˙ "ìme value, valor mà li "ìme 'ándak JJ/Syr, 'índak J you don’t esteem me, cf. ràgil 'alèh-il-"ìma a respectable looking man E. ma"àm pl. -àt dignity, rank, position, standing; tomb of a saint; key, tonality, mode (music) JJ/J/Syr./E.

qlw>qly-"ly "ala, yi"li v.t. to fry "ali frying mil˙ qili potassium J, see butàs; pòta“ H. má"li fried, lá˙em m. nußß "ali sautéed meat in fat JJ/J qmr>"mr "ámar pl. "màr moon, full moon, zamàn ha-l-"á. mà bàn it’s long since this moon (i.e., your face) has been being seen J "amaríyye pl. -àt loophole, garret window Syr., see †wq>†w"

qy˙>"y˙ "è˙ matter, pus, purulence JJ/ J/Syr./E., see 'ml, mdd; matèrya* H.

qm†>"m† "mà† pl. -àt swaddle, diaper J/Syr., rural J qam†a f. pl. -àt, E. "umà† pl. -àt, see fà“a* H.

qyd>"yd II v.t. to write, note down; to register, record m"áyyad written down, registered, recorded, listed JJ/J/Syr./E.

qnn>"nn ">nùn zither-like instrument JJ/J qandaláft* pl. -íyye "ys "yès pl. -àt oriental divan, a cushioned stone-seat against a wall JJ, see ߆b; mindèr* H. qy'>"y' "à' bottom n. JJ/J/Syr./E., buttocks JJ

qandìl>"andìl pl. "anádìl a lamp lighted by a sexton ChrJ, see qr ">"ry H. k kàrra* pl. -àt “èr, i.e., to make ritually fit (meat, vessels), see k“r H. V v.i. to become k>“èr JJHr tak“ìr bearing a grim expression J; tak“ìr 2 making food and vessels k>“èr JJHr ku“tbàn* pl. ka“atbìn “èr, ritually pure JJ, see>lgn inf. >lgn lágan* pl. lgùn, l ugùne l"n sup. lqy>l"y III > I lá"a JJ/J, J lí"i III ylà"i v.t. to find JJ/J; Syr. III là"a, see wjd lhb VIII to be inflamed JJ/J; (med.) J iltihàb-ir-ríyye pneumonia J, see puntàda* H. lhj lahje pl. -àt accent JJ/J, dialect SJ, see l©w lokànda* JJ/ lukàn∂a* J pl. -àt mr" mára", yúmro" v.i. to pass, pass through JJ/J, see nf≈>nfd mrn máren pl. -ìn supple, flexible murùne suppleness, flexibility SJ/ Syr., see lyn maryamíyye sage, Salvia officinalis, S. triloba JJ/J/E., JJ/J mèramíyye, rural J miryamíyye mzz mazz, yimízz v.t., mazz-il-xè† to relish, suck the thread | to steal away, bolt, make off, give the slip JJ, see “m', mz†, mlß mz˙ máza˙, yímza˙ v.i. ma'(a) to jest, joke with s.o., see ∂˙k máz e˙ jesting, joking máz˙a pl. -àt jest, joke J

marjarìn* J, see margarìna* H.

mz† máza†, yúmzo† v.i. to escape secretly, steal away, slip, make off J, Syr. záma†, y-6zmo† v.i., see fk˙, mzz, mlß

mersì*, see H.

mazzìka*, see mòzika* H.

muristàn* pl. -àt bsmr/bßmr JJ/Syr. II tmásmar/ tbásmar/tbaßmar v.i. to be nailed | to stay still and stiff by order, to be shocked JJ/J, Syr. tbaßmar f6l-"ar∂ to be nailed to the ground, i.e., to overstay (visitor) musmàr/busmàr/bußmàr pl. mas>mìr, bas>mìr, baß>mìr nail, see j†l, xwzq >xwz" msw II v.t. (y)massìk bi-l-xèr! or mása-lxèr! good afternoon! (extended till dark) J mí“im“e pl. -àt coll. mí“mi“ apricot, bukra fi-l-mí“mi“ tomorrow in the apricot season (a fleeting season) insinuating a far fetched wish JJ/J, see ˙lm, 'ölàm H. m“y/m“w mí“i, yím“i v.i. to walk, go, mí“yat ba†no his bowels are moving, he is suffering from diarrhœa = ba†no mà“ye JJ/J/E., Syr. m-6' 6dto mà“ye s.m., see shl V v.i. to take a walk; to defecate J/Syr./E., see syr

má“i J "àt / im∂>wàt m'd mi'de stomach JJ/J/Syr., E. mi'da pl. mí'ad, see b†n ma'karòne* lìm J ndr níder pl. ndùra JJ/J, SJ ndùr vow, solemn pledge

nargìle* pl. -àt m5síyye pl. -àt mùs mosquito> mosquito net or curtain J/L. > iron bed JJ, Syr. a bed with a mosquito net, see taxt*

nw' naw'íyye characterization, “ù naw'ìtil-bint? how do you characterize the girl? SJ, see jns

namùzaj* pl. namàzej ߆r, 'yn

nòvotyè* / nuvuté* yàt breeze, fresh air, bèn haw>yèn current of air, draught JJ, J májrahawa = máßraf-hawa s.m. hawwày J / hawwàye JJ pl. -àt fan, fire fan; ventilator JJ/J/Syr., see rw˙; "vrr H. tihwày J / tihwàye JJ fanning, airing, ventilating, SJ táhwiye

hndz hándaz* l"y wjh wíjeh>wi““, wu‘‘ pl. wjùh face, bidna n“ùf wi““-a¬¬a I/we wish to see God’s Countenance (said when chasing away a nuisance), see ˙ll; wí““ak wála wí““-il-"ámar I miss your face more than the moon’s, I haven’t seen you for ages JJ/J, see 'y“, ©yb w˙l wá˙el slime, thin mud JJ/J/Syr., E. wá˙la, see †yn, lbß wdr II v.t. to squander JJ/J, see b'∆r>b'tr, ∂y'>∂w' wr" wára behind (prep.) JJ/J warr>níyye backside, buttocks J, Syr. wurrèníyye wrjy wárja, ywárji v.t. to show JJ/J/Syr., a¬¬a là ywarjìna God forbid witnessing [such a spectacle]! see r"y>wry, frjy

wrq>wr" wár"a JJ/Syr., J/E. wára"a pl. wrà" paper, leaf, wár"at-bùl* / w.bòle* postage stamp J, E. wár"it-bòs†a coll. wára"-bòs†a; wár"it-kopi* JJ, J w.kùbya* copy paper wrm wáram pl. awràm swelling, tumor JJ/J, w.-il-bard chilblain, see safanyòn* H. wzr wazìr|e pl. wúzara, f.pl. -àt (cabinet) minister J/SJ, see ≤àr H. wzn m“zàn pl. maw>zìn scale, m.-sxùne JJ/J, m.-˙aràra J/SJ thermometer, see gràdo* wsx wásax dirt | excrement JJ/J, see brz ws†/w߆ II v.t. to charge with intercession III = II; V v.i. to mediate, intercede JJ/J wa߆-ij-júm'a weekdays, between two Sabbaths JJ, see ywm wißà†a = taws'ì† = muwàßa†a = tawaßßo† mediation, intercession JJ/J/Syr./E.

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wi““, wu‘‘, see wjh

wakìl vouchsafer, a¬¬a wakìlak God vouchsafes for what I say or have said, honest! JJ/J

w߆, see ws† wßy waßíyye pl. waßàya commandment, il-waßàya-l-'a“r the Ten Commandments ChrJ, see m6ßvà H., cf. fr∂

wld wálad pl. wlàd boy, son, wlàd-ilmíyte born to corpses, i.e., dreading (a nickname for Jews) J, wlàd-'árab sg. íbin-'árab f. bint-'árab Arabs and indigenous Arabic speakers, of JJ included JJ/J wàlde pl. -àt woman in childbed, parturient J; mother J/SJ, rural J jàybe pl. -àt one who has brought [a child], see nfs; parìda* H. muwállid pl. -àt generator, m. kahrabà"i = muwálled SJ, see dínamo; generàtor* H.

w'd wá'ad, yíw'ed [IV yù'id] to promise J, see klm w'y awà'i clothes, a. 'úta" old clothes, junk, bayyà' a. 'úta" old clothes dealer JJ/J, see ∆wb>twb, ©yr; ròpa vyèja* H. wfq>wf " II v.t. to give success, a¬¬a ywáff "ak! God give you success! (in achieving s. th.) JJ/J

wl' II v.t. 'am-bitwallí'ni b-su">làtak you’re inflaming me with your questions; v.i. to be enraged, be infuriated, be inflamed, lamma sa"áltni ha-s-su"àl wallá'et when you asked me that question, I flared up JJ/J

wfy V twáffa v.i. to die, euphemistic for màt JJ/J wkl V v.i. 'ala to trust in, twakkálna 'alá -¬¬a we (or I) trust in God, cf. 'zr H. y ytm yatìm|e pl. aytàm, yútama orphan máytam orphanage J, see dwr; byt H. ysr, see "sr yahùdi|yye coll. yahùd Jew JJ/J, y. k>“èr (A.+H.) an observant Jew JJ

ywm yòm pl. iyyàm day, min ©èr-il-yòm I wish you good health (a wish severing your past ill health from the present moment, in a dialogue) JJ/J/Syr., see “bh, yòm-˙òl (A.+H.) workday, week-day between two Sabbaths JJ, see ws†/w߆; yòm-is-sbù' the final day of the week of Jewish mourning JJ.

HEBREW SECTION (H.)

"/vowel àv father, avì-hab-bèn the baby-boy’s father, a ritual appellation JJHr àvaz* coll. mà land, earth, ha-"ad>mà ‘the land’, highlighting the blessing for creating the fruit of the land JJHr

a˙òt H. pl. a˙>yòt sister; sick-nurse JJ, see nèrs* A.

adonáy God, the Lord JJHr

"˙r a˙òr H. back, backside, buttocks JJ

"dr idrà rabbà Aramr large gathering | excerpts of the Zohar (read as an efficacy for the spiritual exaltation of the dead) JJHr

èxa initialing word of the Book of Lamentations; the ninth of Ab; low spirits; an ugly woman; menses (women’s taboo), see t“¥'bàb; a fat person (non-esthetical) J"èl

anjinàra* pl. -as H. far from us! Lord, save us! excluding ourselves! God forbid! (reservation from calumny, untoward spectacles and sad tidings), see “mr; r"y>wry, wrjy A.; (repelling a criminal suggestion), see ©fr A.; (apprehending misfortune or impending danger), see sm˙, qdr>"dr A.; il-bar 2

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minnàn the one excluding ourselves, i.e., the deceased JJ

brx b^ràx v.t. to bless; hitb>rèx v.i. to be blessed, ha“-“èm yitb>ràx bless the Name! (God’s) b6r>xà pl. -òt blessing, b. l6-ba††>là a benediction said in vain; it is a false effort, see t'b A.; “èva' b6r>xòt the seven nuptial benedictions in a wedding ceremony; birkát-"ab^lìm a prayer for the consolation of mourners; birkát-hag-gömèl, see gml; birkát- hakkoh>nìm the Priestly benediction; birkát-ham-m>zòn, see zwn; birkát-hannehenìn the benediction of enjoyment (following eating and drinking “ehakkól assorted items, see kll ); birkát-n6†“látyadàyim see n†l; birkòt-ha“-“á˙ar early morning benedictions b>rùx pl. -ìm blessed, haq-q>dò“ b. hù the Holy One, bless him!, b>rùx ha“-“èm bless His Name! thank God! (contented), see “kr A., b. adonáy yòm yòm bless God day by day! see ˙md A.; ˙azzàq-u-b>rùx, see ˙zq; b. habbà! welcome! (rep. b. han-nimßà bless the host!); b. dayyàn-ha-"emèt bless the True Judge (hearing about a death, or when passing by a Jewish cemetery) JJHr., see brk, str A.

br" börè-'ölàm Creator of the universe JJ b>ròn* pl. -àt "èl, see "rß; ˙sb A. berèt* pl. -àt v'd và'ad pl. -ìm committee JJ, see ljn A. varánda* pl. -àt nf " A., birkát-ham-m>zòn blessing God for food, a Grace after meals JJHr, see zmn zxh z>xà v.i. to merit, tizkù l6-“>nìm rabbòt! many happy returns! (rep. tizkè v6-ti˙yè ! may you merit and live long!) (a greeting extended around New Year’s Day); tizkè lam-m6ßvòt! may you be worthy of fulfilling God’s Commandments! (thanking for alms, charity, donation for the poor, or fulfilling the Law for s.o.’s benefit) (rep. tizkè la'a≤òt! may you be worthy of fulfilling!) JJHr; nizkè v6-ni˙yè ! may I/we attain the merit and live upto it! (hoping for the future) JJ, see qdr>"dr A.; zikkà v.t., see zkw>zky A. z6xùt pl. z6x5yòt merit, virtue z6x5tò tagèn 'alènu! may His virtue stand us in good stead! (wishing God’s pro-

tection), bi-z 6xùt-“6lomò ham-mèlex! for the sake of King Solomon (the just)! (a wish to fulfill) JJHr zxr azk>rà pl. -òt ceremony of commemoration JJ zmn zimmùn summons to Grace by one of the participants after a meal partaken by a company of three or more diners JJHr zmr z6m“ròt hymns mizmòr pl. -ìm one of the 150 songs, hymns, and prayers which form the Book of Psalms JJHr zúngule* coll. zúngol dìm, see y'd, (c) arba'át-ham-m“nìm on sukkòt, see myn, (d) lighting the first light on ˙anukkà, see ˙nx, (e) circumcision), see mwl ˙ayyìm life | ˙. †öbìm/†övìm bless you! (to a person sneezing) JJ, see 'y“ A. mi˙yà sustenance, 'al-ham-m. ‘on the sustenance’, a highlighting phrase in blessing God for having eaten a cake, or a fruit of the Holy Land JJHr

˙gg ˙ag pl. -ìm feast, ˙. ha-"5rìm the festival of lights, ˙anukkà; ˙ ham-maßßòt the feast of unleavened bread, pèsa˙; ˙aggìm u-z6˘ m>nìm l6-≤>≤òn! festivals and fixed seasons for gladness, i.e., happy returns! a reply to mö '>dìm l6-≤im˙à! happy feasts! JJHr, see y'd; 'yd A. ˙ws ˙as v6-“>lòm! God forbid! Heaven forefend! (dispelling a wicked thought, or dismissing one’s merit), see ©fr A.; (exculpating and clearing o.s. from a charge of guilt or fault) JJ, see 'wd>'wz A. ˙zn II ˙ázzan2, see ˙zn A. ˙azzàn pl. -ìm a leader in public prayer, a Jewish cantor, see “l˙, “alì ya˙-ß6bbùr ˙azz>nùt cantorship, cantoral music JJHr ˙zq ˙azzàq pl. -ìm strong, ˙-u-b>rùx! be strong and blessed! congratulations! (to a worshipper walking back to his seat after reading the Torah in the synagogue) JJHr ˙zr ˙az>rà repetition, repetition of the Eighteen Benedictions by the cantor, severally affirmed by the congregation with >mèn ma˙azòr pl. ìm cycle | a prayer book for High holidays JJHr

˙xm ˙>xàm pl. -ìm wise, sage; Sephardic rabbi; pious man, see xaxàmi, xèxam A. ˙ol workdays, working days vs. “abbàt Sabbath, ˙.-ham-mö 'èd intermediary semisacred days within pèsa˙, etc. JJ, see y'd ˙ll ˙allà H. pl. -òt twisted fine white bread, esp. for Sabbath and festivals JJ, see franjèla* ˙illùl desecration, ˙.-ha“-“èm desecration of the Name (God), ˙.-“abbàt desecration of Sabbath JJHr, see ˙ll A. ˙lm ˙>lòm pl. -òt dream, ba-˙. (bal-láyla) in the night dream, you are dream-

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ing, it’s a far fetched wish JJ, see 'ölàm; mí“mi“ A.

˙ßy>˙tsy ˙ats>"ìt H. pl. ˙ats>"iyyòt skirt JJ, see tnr A.

˙ammìn pl. ìn a meal taken on Sabbath eve to a public oven to cook and keep warm for Sabbath forenoon when it is brought back home ˙amm“nàdo* pl. -os (˙.+ -do Lad. suff.) hard-boiled, overcooked, brownish egg (an ingredient of ˙ammìn) = bè∂a (f.) egg ˙. (invar.) JJ

˙qq ˙oq l6-yi≤r>"èl the Law for Israel is the title of a weekday chrestomathy of selected passages from religious sources perused daily following morning prayers JJHr

˙mß ˙>mèß leaven, mainly bread (removed on the eve of pèsa˙, see b'r); non-k>“èr for pèsa˙ (food and vessels) JJHr

˙rm ˙èrem pl. -òt excommunication, religious ban, JJ, see ˙rm A.

˙nx ˙anukkà the feast of Lights commemorating the Maccabean mutiny and victory over the Syro-Greek rulers by purging the Jerusalem Temple of them in 164 B.C.E. It is observed for eight days starting on the 25th. of Kislèv, inaugurated by lighting the first candle on the first night by means of an auxiliary candle “ammà“, see “m“, two candles on the second night, and so forth up to eight on the eighth night, plus the “ammà“. The ceremony is highlighted by singing relevant laudatory songs, and enjoying blintzes and doughnuts JJHr ˙anukiyyà H. pl. -òt a ˙anukkà lamp corrupted in JJ as ˙anukkà ˙nn ta˙anùn pl. -ìm supplication JJHr ˙nf he˙enìf v.i. l6- to flatter, see ˙nf A. ˙anuppà flattery JJ ˙ff ˙uppà pl. -òt wedding canopy, marriage JJHr, see tálamo* ˙f“ ˙òfe“ freedom | vacation, 'ando ˙. he’s on vacation, on leave, see "dn> "zn, jwz,'†l, frß A.

m6˙ar˙èr instigator pl. -ìm JJ, see ˙r“, ˙r∂, hw“ A.

˙rs ˙aròset a thick mixture of carob honey mixed with ground walnuts, or of ground apples, walnuts, and wine spiced with cinnamon to sweeten the m>ròr, see mrr, eaten on the Paschal sèder, q.v., symbolizing mortar used by the Israelites in their bondage in Egypt JJHr ˙arßubbòt pl. fetters, shackles | an ugly, repulsive woman JJ, see èxa; qrm>"rm A. ˙“v ˙>“ùb pl. -ìm important | dignitary, notable, distinguished person JJ, Syr. ˙a“òb respectful, a Jew of good reputation, see tql>t"l, 'br A. ˙tm ne˙etàm v.i. to be sealed, l6-“>nìm rabbòt tikk>tèvu v6-te˙>tèmu! see ktv ˙at“mà †öbà/†övà! may you be signed and sealed well! (a greeting extended on the eve of yòm kippùr) JJ ˙tn ˙>tàn pl. -ìm groom; ˙-b6r^“ ìt the Groom of Genesis who initiates the reading of the portion of Genesis; h. m6'önà the Groom of [God’s] Abode; ˙-törà the Groom of the Law who concludes the reading of the final portion of the Law. All three are called to read the Torah in the synagogue on ≤im˙>t-törà JJHr, see “vt, “abbàt-di-nòvyo, ≤m˙

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- † †. q>†àn a small shawl, see ßwß JJHr

†vl II and VII, see †bl A. †6b“là pl. -òt soaking, dipping; plunging; immersion, bath | a ritual bath for purifying a bride, a woman after menstruating, or a woman in childbed, bèt-†. ritual bath (place) má†bal = b.-†. JJHr, see ©†s A.

†m" †>mè pl. ìm ritually unclean, impure, f. †6m^ "à pl. -òt a woman in a state of impurity: menstruating or in childbed (seven days after having given birth to a son, and fourteen to a daughter) JJHr, see njs A.

†hr †aharà cleansing, purity, cultic purity, cf. †hr, †ahàra A.; washing and cleansing the dead ritually JJHr

†um"à ritual uncleannes, impurity JJHr

†ù bi-“6bà†, see “v†

†'m (†à'am) pl. -ìm the intonation system of sacred texts JJHr

†ll †allìt pl. -òt shawl; a fringed fourcornered white shawl worn above a man’s clothes to wrap with in prayer, see korà‘a*

†rf †>rèf adj. ritually forbidden (food and vessels), non-k>“èr (food) †6r^fà pl. -òt non-k>“èr food (not related to pèsa˙ ritual, see ˙mß) JJHr y

yv“ yabbè“et H. pl. -òt continent (not JJ), see qrr A. yd' möd>'à H. pl. -òt advertisement, poster JJ, see 'ln A. ywm yòm pl. y>mìm day, y.-kippùr the Day of Atonement, see kfr, y.-haddìn the Day of Judgment; y>mìm nör>"ìm Days of Awe = 'a≤èret-y6mèt6“5và the ten days of Repentance JJHr y.-ha-'atsm>"ùt H. Independence Day JJ, see 'yd A. y˙d y>˙ìd pl. -ìm a ‘single’ worshipper composing a quorum, see mnh, ritually under obligation JJHr ysf m5sàf pl. ìm additional | an additional service in holiday prayers,

reminiscing the additional offering presented to God on the Temple Mount JJHr y'd mö 'èd pl. -ìm a major festival: pèsa˙, “>v5'òt, and sukkòt, q.v., mö '>dìm l6≤im˙à! happy feast! JJHr, rep. see ˙gg mö 'adòn pl. -ìm club JJ, see ndw A. yß" mößì lè˙em min ha-"àreß brings forth bread from the earth, ham-mößì . . . He (God) who brings forth . . . (highlighting the blessing for bread), see hmß A. möß>"è-“abbàt the termination of Sabbath JJHr yßr yèßer-ha-rà' the Evil Inclination, the Tempter (worldly desires) JJ, see ≤†n; “ay†àn A.

  yr" y6rè-“>màyim fearing Heaven, God fearing, pious JJHr

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mö“àv H. pl. ìm small holders’ cooperative settlement, moshav mö“>và H. pl. -òt settlement JJ, see ∂y' A.

yrh törà look up alphabetically y6r5“>làyim Jerusalem (terrestrial and celestial); the Temple in Jerusalem; Zion; the Holy Land JJHr/JJ ùru“alìm Jerusalem (the name given by the Christian Church since pre-Islamic times) ChrJ, also the Arabic official name of the city ratified by the government of Israel in 1949 il-"uds JJ/J "ds A.

y“ ' hò“á'na Hosanna, save, I pray! an appeal to God for deliverance used in praise of God; pl. -òt willow branches used on sukkòt in a ritual, q.v., h. rabbà major h., the seventh day of this feast JJHr

y“v y6““và pl. -òt Talmudic college, yeshiva JJHr

ytm y>tòm|à pl. -ìm f.pl. -òt orphan JJ, see byt

yi≤r>"èl Israel (people, land, State), èreßy. the land of Israel, the territorial H. appellation of Mandatory Palestine JJ

k/x kàyo* pl. -os vì the Chair of Elijah the prophet. According to tradition, it is for Elijah to sit on and testify for the Israelites as keepers of God’s brìt Covenant in every circumcision ceremony JJHr, see mwl; kursi A. kfr kippùr pl. ìm atonement, yòm k./yòmhak-kipp5rìm the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur JJHr, see 'yd A. kapp>rà pl. -òt expiatory sacrifice. kapp>rà! it’s an atonement (calming down o.s. or others when searching for s.th. in one’s hands or else’s, soothing the other to forego the loss or damage); kappàra ('alèk|i ) I’m your ransom! (requesting s.th. or endearing s.o.) JJ, see fdy A., kapp>rátha-'avönòt let it be an atonement for my sins! (expressing helplessness, or searching for a loss) JJHr, see "lh A.

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keftèse*/kuftèse* pl. -àt coll. keftès/kuftès rà absolving, canceling, hatt>rátn6d>rìm absolving from vows, canceling of vows JJHr

nqf haqq>fà pl. -òt going round dancing with the scrolls of the Law in

s sávana* pl. -as tàn v6-kallà a ritual meal for the groom and the bride, s. mafsèqet a meal prior to a fasting;

sport* lèq Amalek, gigantic JJ, see 'imlàq A. 'mr 'òmer sheaf | the period of seven weeks between pèsa˙ and “>v5'òt, the 49 days

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being counted every evening after prayer in the synagogue, reminiscing sheaves of wave offering of barley that were being brought to the Temple daily within this period of the year, s6f “rát-ha-'o. the counting of 'ò. is preceded by a blessing for it, lag ba-'ò. the 33rd. day is an occasion for ritual merry-making, celebrating weddings, haircut and shaving (with a machine by religious men) JJHr, see 'yd A. 'ny ta' anìt pl. ta' aniyyòt fast n., t.-estèr the fast of Esther observed on the eve of p5rìm, see fwr, ßwm, bisáwwi t. to fast by ritual commandment JJHr 'èß pl. -ìm tree | . . . ha-'èß ‘. . . the tree’ highlights blessing God for creating the fruit of the tree JJHr 'ßr/ 'tsr 'òtser H. curfew JJ, see mn' A. 'aß(ß)èret solemn assembly | (Tal mudic name) Pentecost, see “>v5'òt; 'nßr A., “6m“nì 'a. the Eighth day of Solemn Assembly immediately following the seventh, last day of sukkòt, see sxx, ≤m˙ 'rv 'èrev pl. -ìm evening; 'è.-˙ag eve of a mö 'èd, see y'd; 'è.-“abbàt Sabbath eve, Friday, Friday evening 'ar>và pl. -òt willow, one of four species of plants used ritually on sukkòt, see sxx 'arbìt/'arvìt evening prayer ma' arìv = 'arbìt JJHr 'rl '>rèl pl. -ìm uncircumcised < 'orlà pl. -òt foreskin, prepuce; Christian male (in general) JJ '“r 'a“ ìr pl. -ìm rich, wealthy JJ '≤r 'a≤“rì tenth, the tenth worshipper complementing a minyàn, see mnh ma'a≤èr pl. -òt one tenth paid for charity r>“à and the haf†>rà JJHr nif†àr, f. nif†èret pl. -ìm f.pl. -òt one who departed the worldly life, a deceased Jew JJ, see mwt A. pyàno* pl. -àt kvts kibbùts H. pl. -ìm collective settlement, kibbutz JJ, see ∂y' A.

q'r q6'>rà pl. -òt plate | a ceremonial plate set with symbolic items of pèsa˙ on the table for the conductor to start the Paschal sèder ritual JJHr, see sdr

qd“ q>dò“ pl. -ìm holy, haq-q. b>rùx hù the Holy One, blessed is He!; saint qiddù“ declaration of sanctification over wine; pl. -ìm/-ìn nuptial benedictions JJHr, see qds>"ds A. qaddì“ Aram. consecration, a prayer in praise of God (originally recited only at the conclusion of a session of a Torah study); q. d6-rabb>nàn the q. of our Sages, alternating with q.y>tòm orphan’s q. identified with mourners JJAramr q6du““à hallowing; the benediction in prayer, containing the words ha"èl (ham-mèlex) haq-q>dò“ the Holy God (King) JJHr

qr ">"ry "ràye reading, reading parts of the Zohar exalting the soul of the dead in a ceremony of commemoration, see lmd "arràye pl. -àt a glass bowl partly filled with water and partly with olive oil. Kindling cotton wicks are wound on a flax fibre and stuck in paper clippings to be suspended in the liquid. The "a. is used as a memorial candle in the synagogue, and Jewish women kindle it at home by a divine Commandment to usher in Sabbath, the day of rest, see asindèr *; qr">"ry A. qörè pl. -ìm Reader of the Torah in the synagogue JJHr

qwh/qvh miqvè pl. -òt reservoir | a ritual body of water JJ, see †vl, bèt-†6b“là; ©†s A. q†n q>†àn pl. -ìm underage, under thirteen, not yet bar-m6ßvà, therefore not consisting a minyàn JJHr, see mnh

qr' q6r“'à tearing the garment in mourning JJHr

q“nà pl. -òt lamentations JJHr, see èxa

r r"“ rò“ pl. r>“ ìm head | r.-˙òde“ New Moon initiating a month; r.-ha“-“>nà New Year’s day JJ b6-r^“ ìt the Book of Genesis, ˙>tánb., see ˙tn, “abbát-b. the Sabbath of Genesis initiating the new annual cycle of reading the weekly por-

tions of the Torah in the synagogue JJHr rbb ràv pl. rabb>nìm rabbi, mö“è rabbènu Moses, our master JJ, see nb" A., ribbi meyyìr bà 'al-han-nès! O Rabbi Meir, the miracle maker! (invoked

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when a miracle is resorted to) JJHr, see str A. ribbòn Master, r.-ha-'öl>mìm! or ribbönò “el-'ölàm! Master of the universe! O God!; gush! (losing one’s temper) JJ, see ßbr A.

ra˙am>nùt! what a pity! (sympathizing with a suffering creature) JJ, see ˙rm, r˙m A. r˙ß rö˙èß|et pl. ìm a Jewish corpse washer according to ritual JJHr, see ©sl> xsl A.

revanàda* pl. -as v5'òt JJHr

reklàma* v5 'òt Feast of [seven] weeks, Pentecost celebrated on the 50th. day of the counting of the 'òmer, q.v., seven weeks after pèsa˙ Passover, commemorating the revelation of the Torah on Mt. Sinai, also a feast of harvesting wheat and firstlings JJHr “vt “abbàt pl. -òt Sabbath, Saturday, “. di nòvyo* lòm! good Sabbath! “.-t6“5và/“ùva Sabbath of Repentance, see ywm, möß>"è-“. the termination of Sabbath, s6'5dát-“. a festive meal for Friday night, 'èrev-“. Sabbath eve, 'òneg-“. a Sabbath entertainment with receptions devoted to the study of the Torah, chanting Psalms and hymns, qabb>lát-“. welcoming Sabbath, a Friday evening service in the synagogue JJHr, see sbt A.

“ehakkòl, see kll “uwàr* pl. -àt nà and yòmkippùr JJHr, see ywm, r"“ “˙d “ò˙ad bribe, byàxod “. he takes/ receives a bribe, he is venal JJ, see br†l, r“w, “˙d A. “˙† “6˙“†à ritual slaughter “ö˙è† pl. -ìm a pious Jewish slaughterman certified by rabbinic authorities, learned in the rules of “6˙“†à and the condition of animal’s organs which might render it †6r^fà JJHr, see †rf “a˙màt* H. Russian “áxmatı checkmate, chess, see “a†ránj* A. “˙r “a˙arìt morning | morning prayer JJHr

“g˙ ma“gì ya˙ pl. -ìm class monitor JJ; superintendent for matters of ka“rùt, q.v., JJHr, see 'rf A.

“xv (h)a“k>và requiem, sawwà lo/la a. to pray for the repose of his/her soul JJHr, see jnz, ßlw, qds>"ds A.

“èd pl. -ìm devil, demon, evil spirit JJ, see jinn, 'afrìt A.

“x˙ ni“k>˙à pl. -òt harlot, prostitute (biblical H.) JJ, see znh

“d(d) “addày the divine Name (its initial “ is inscribed on a m6z5zà, and centers a necklace amulet), see zwz,

“xn “6x“na the Lord’s ‘Presence’ in the congregation (Psalms 82:1), bèt-ha““. the Abode of God’s Presence, an

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appellation for the Temple in Jerusalem JJHr, see skn A.

altruistic reasons, see "lh A., “.-“addày, see “d(d) JJHr

“l˙ “ul˙àn pl. -òt table | a set table for festive meals, “. '>rùx ‘the Prepared Table’, an authoritative code of Jewish laws written by Joseph Caro (1488–1575 C.E.) “alì ya˙ pl. -ìm emissary, a Jewish emissary from the Holy Land sent abroad to raise money (earlier) for communal, and (later) for political Zionist institutions, “. ß6bbùr deputy of the public or congregation, a leader in Jewish prayer in a synagogue JJHr, see ˙zn; "mm A.

“md, see “md A. m6“ummàd pl. -ìm apostate, proselyte JJHr, see hdy A.

“lx ta“lìx . . . ‘Cast all their sins in the depths of the sea’ highlighting Micah 7:19 is included in a traditional ceremony beside a body of water: at the seashore, a river, or an open cistern where empty pockets of one’s dress are shaken following the afternoon prayer of the first day of New Year’s symbolizing release from sin through remitting JJHr “lm “>lòm peace, “alòm! the commonest greeting in H., see s'd, slm A., “abbàt “ ! Sabbath greeting, 'alàv ( f. 'alèha) ha“-“.! upon him (her) be peace! may (s)he rest in peace! JJ, see r˙m A. “em ha“-“èm the Name, God’s Name, b6-“èm-ha“-“èm na'a≤è v6-naßlì ya˙ in the Name of God we’re (or I’m) initiating such and such, wishing success (invocation) JJHr, cf. bismi-llàhi-rra˙màni-r-ra˙ìm In the Name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful! Mus/J; l6-“em-“amàyim for Heaven’s sake, for

“m' “6mà' yi≤r>"èl! Hear, O Israel! . . . proclaiming divine Unity (said in prayers, when struck by horror, and in a dangerous situation), see smw A. “mr “>már v.t. to keep, protect, ha“-“èm yi“m6rènu! God protect us (from untoward spectacles and sad tidings)! see ˙my, “mr A. “ömèr-“abbàt Sabbath keeper mi“m>rà vigilant guard | visiting graves of relatives twice a year (on Nisan 7th. prior to pèsa˙, and Elul 1st.). When falling on Sabbath, the visit is postponed a day JJHr “m“ “ammà“ pl. -ìm a synagogue beadle attending to various duties in a synagogue, see sdn, qandaláft* A.; the auxiliary candle of a ˙anukkà lamp lighted before other candles throughout the eight nights of the festival JJHr, see ˙nx “nh mi“nà pl. mi“n>yòt a collection of oral laws which forms the basis of the talmùd, see lmd JJHr “f˙ mi“p>˙à pl. -òt family, kin, relatives JJ, see "hl A. “rt “^rùt H. service | taxicab, service “t", see A.

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≤ ≤†n ≤>†àn Satan, the Tempter, devil JJ, see yßr; “ay†àn A.

pleting the annual cycle of reading the weekly portions of the Torah in the synagogue JJHr

≤m˙ ≤im˙át-törà the Rejoicing of the Law, a day coinciding with “6m“nì 'aß(ß)èret, see 'ßr; the festival com-

≤àr|à* pl. ìm sìn v5'òt; t.-k>rèt canceling by ‘correction’ a divine decree by premature death JJHr

t^và Reader’s/cantor’s desk in the midst of a synagogue on which the Torah and haf†>rà scrolls are placed for reading JJHr, see p†r

targùm translation | the Onkelos’ Aramaic translation or version of the Scriptures JJHr

telegràf *