Japanese Yokai and Other Supernatural Beings: Authentic Paintings and Prints of 100 Ghosts, Demons, Monsters and Magicians 4805317159, 9784805317150

Table of contents :
Cover
Title Page
Contents
A Parade of the Supernatural
PART 1
Abumikuchi
Aburaname
Akagashira or Keu
Akaguchi or Akashita
Amabiko
Ame-onna
Bakekoi
Bakeneko
Biwa-bokuboku
Daija
Dōjō-ji
Enma
Fukuro-mujina
Furaribi
Gagoze or Gagō
Gaikotsu
Gubin
Hakuzōsu
Han’nya
Hihi
Hitodama
Hyōsube
Ikuchi
Jigoku-dayū
Kamaitachi
Kamikiri
Kappa
Kasha
Kazenbō or Bōka
Koji no Yokai
Kojorō
Koto-furunushi
Kuzunoha
Kyūbi no kitsune
Mehitotsu-bō
Mikoshi-nyūdō
Nari-gama
Nekomata
Nobusuma
Nue
Nuppeppō
Nurarihyon
Nure-onna
Nuri-botoke
Nyoi-jizai
Ōkubi
Ōmukade
Ō-nyūdō
Osakabe-hime
Otoroshi or Otorō
Raigō or Tesso
Rokurokubi
Shōkira
Tamamo-no-mae
Tengu
Tsuchigumo
Tsuzura no bakemono
Umibōzu
Ushi-oni
Uwan or Kenzoku
Waira or Waiu
Waniguchi
Wauwau or Ouni
Yamabiko
Yamauba
Yamawaro
Yarikechō
Yuki-onna
PART 2
Konpaku
Ubume
PART 3
Kamada Matahachi and Kikuno
Kasane
Kohada Koheiji
Oiwa
Okiku
Sakura Sōgo or Asakura Tōgo
Seigen
Takayama-kengyō
Utō Yasukata
PART 4
Gama Sennin
Jiraiya
Orochimaru
Kidōmaru
Kiritarō
Wakana-hime
Shimizu no Kanja Yoshitaka
Tenjiku Tokubei
Takiyasha-hime
Shōgun Tarō Yoshikado
PART 5
Shōki
Oni no kan-nenbutsu
Momiji
Ōtakemaru
Shuten-dōji
Ibaraki-dōji
Rashōmon no oni
PART 6
Yoshihira at the Nunobiki Falls
Kiyomori Seeing Skulls
Yoshitsune at Daimotsu Bay
Iga-no-tsubone and Fujiwara Mototō
Appendix
Bakemono Zukushi
Hyakki Yagyō
About this Book
Bibliography
Copyright

Citation preview

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JAPANESE YŌKAI AND OTHER SUPERNATUR AL BEINGS

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JAPANESE YŌKAI AND OTHER SUPERNATUR AL BEINGS

Authentic Paintings and Prints of 100 Ghosts, Demons, Monsters and Magicians

ANDREAS MARKS

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CONTENTS 006

A Parade of the Supernatural

062

Kappa 河童 Water Sprite

PART 1 YŌKAI 妖怪 DEMONS

065

Kasha 火車 Burning Chariot

066

Kazenbō 火前坊 or Bōka 亡火 Monk Prior to Fire

067

Koji no Yōkai 古寺の妖怪 Demons in Old Temples

071

Kojorō 小女郎

072

Koto-furunushi 琴古主 Old Man Koto

074

Kuzunoha

076

Kyūbi no kitsune 九尾の狐 Nine Tailed Fox

078

Mehitotsu-bō 目一つ坊 One Eyed Priest

080

Mikoshi-nyūdō 見越し入道 Look Over Priest

082

Nari-gama 鳴佂 Chirping Cauldron

083

Nekomata 猫また Nobusuma 野衾 Wild Blanket

014

Abumikuchi 鐙口 Stirrup Mouth Demon

015

Aburaname 油なめ Oil Licker

016

Akagashira 赤頭 or Keu 怪有 Red Head Demon

017

Akaguchi 赤口 or Akashita 赤舌 Red Mouth or Red Tongue Demon

018

Amabiko 海彦 Sea Lad

019

Ame-onna 雨女 Rain Woman

020

Bakekoi 化け鯉 Monster Carps

024

Bakeneko 化け猫 Supernatural Cats

028

Biwa-bokuboku 琵琶牧々 Dancing Lute Head Demon

の葉

030

Daija 大蛇 Monster Snakes

084

034

Dōjō-ji 道成寺 Dōjō-ji Temple

086

Nue 鵺

036

Enma 閻魔 King of Hell

090

Nuppeppō ぬっぺっぽう

039

Fukuro-mujina 袋貉 Badger Bag

091

Nurarihyon ぬらりひょん

041

Furaribi ふらり火 Slowly Swaying Fire

092

Nure-onna ぬれ女 Wet Woman

042

Gagoze 元興寺 or Gagō がごう

093

Nuri-botoke 塗仏 Lacquered Buddha

043

Gaikotsu 骸骨 Skeletons

094

Nyoi-jizai 如意自在 Free Scratcher

046

Gubin 狗瓶 Dog Pot

095

Ōkubi 大首 Giant Head

047

Hakuzōsu 白蔵主

096

Ōmukade 大百足 Colossal Centipede

049

Han’nya 般若 Demoness

098

Ō-nyūdō 大入道 Giant Priest

051

Hihi 狒々

100

Osakabe-hime 長壁姫 Princess Osakabe

055

Hitodama 人魂 Human Soul

102

Otoroshi おとろし or Otorō 化轉 Frightener

056

Hyōsube ひょうすべ

103

Raigō 頼豪 or Tesso 鉄鼠

057

Ikuchi いくち

105

Rokurokubi 轆轤首 Pulley Neck

058

Jigoku-dayū 地獄太夫 Hell Courtesan

106

Shōkira 生鬼羅

060

Kamaitachi 鎌鼬 Sickle Weasel

107

Tamamo-no-mae 玉藻前

061

Kamikiri かみきり Hair Cutter

111

Tengu 天狗

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114

Tsuchigumo 土蜘蛛 Earth Spider

178

Orochimaru 大蛇丸

118

Tsuzura no bakemono the Wicker Hamper

179

Kidōmaru 鬼童丸

182

Umibōzu 海坊主 Sea Priest

Kiritarō 霧太郎

120

184

Ushi-oni 牛鬼 Bovine Demon

Wakana-hime 若菜姫 Princess Wakana

122

188

Uwan うわん or Kenzoku 眷属

Shimizu no Kanja Yoshitaka 清水冠者義高

123

190

Waira わいら or Waiu 和意烏

Tenjiku Tokubei 天竺徳兵衛

124

194

Waniguchi 鰐口 Crocodile Mouth

Takiyasha-hime 滝夜伹姫 Princess Takiyasha

125

198

Wauwau わうわう or Ouni 苧うに

Shōgun Tarō Yoshikado 将軍太郎良門

126 127

Yamabiko 山彦 Mountain Echo

202

Shōki 鍾馗

206

Oni no kan-nenbutsu 鬼の寒念仏 Ogre Reciting Buddhist Prayers in Midwinter

208

Momiji 紅葉

210

Ōtakemaru 大嶽丸

211

Shuten-dōji 酒呑童子

214

Ibaraki-dōji

216

Rashōmon no oni 羅城門の鬼 Rashōmon Ogre

PART 3 KABUKI GHOSTS

218

Yoshihira at the Nunobiki Falls

142

Kamada Matahachi and Kikuno 鎌田又八と菊野

222

Kiyomori Seeing Skulls

146

Kasane 累

226

Yoshitsune at Daimotsu Bay

150

Kohada Koheiji 小幡小平次

230

Oiwa お岩

Iga-no-tsubone 伊賀局 and Fujiwara Mototō

152 156

Okiku お菊

160

Sakura Sōgo 佐倉宗吾 or Asakura Tōgo 浅倉当吾

164

Seigen 清玄

168

Takayama-kengyō 高山検校

172

Utō Yasukata 善知鳥安方

籠の化物 Demons in

128

Yamauba 山姥 Mountain Hag

131

Yamawaro 山童 Mountain Child

132

Yarikechō 槍毛長 Captain Hairy Spear

134

Yuki-onna 雪女 Snow Woman

PART 2 YŪREI 幽霊 GHOSTS AND APPARITIONS 136

Konpaku 魂魄 Souls

140

Ubume 産女／姑獲鳥 Birthing Women

PART 5 ONI 鬼 OGRES

木童子

PART 6 ONRYŌ 怨霊 VENGEFUL SPIRITS

藤原基任 233

Appendix

233

Bakemono Zukushi 化け物尽くし A Collection of Monsters

236

Hyakki Yagyō 百鬼夜行 Night Parade of One Hundred Demons

PART 4 YŌJUTSUSHI 妖術師 MAGICIANS

238

About this Book

174

Gama Sennin 蝦蟇仙人

238

Bibliography

176

Jiraiya 自来也／児雷也

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Introduction

A Parade of the Supernatural

The richness and scale of Japanese demons and ghosts cannot, arguably, be surpassed in the culture of any other country. Much has been written about the role of demons and ghosts in Japanese culture and how deeply embedded these are in many aspects of the arts. The roles that demons and ghosts originally played in folklore and religious traditions have, in some cases, been adapted in modern times in the popular media, providing a continuation of the fascination with these supernatural beings. Many aspects of Japanese culture originated in China from where the foundation for the principle idea of the existence of supernatural beings might also have come. The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), which is assumed to have been written during the late third or second centuries bce, in the late Warring States period (475–221 bce) and early Han dynasty (202 bce–220 ce), contains the earliest text about strange beings. Most of the beings described do not count as demons and have no supernatural abilities but are ideas or visions of what kind of creatures live in

ABOVE Katsushika Hokusai, Stars on a Freezing Night, Modern Ghost Stories (Kinsei kaidan, shimoyo no hoshi), vol. 4, 1808; published by Yamazakiya Heihachi; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm (each); Waseda University Library

Totoya Hokkei, Demon Preparing to Write in an Account Book, from the series Selection of Ancient and Modern Comic Poems (Kokin kyōkasen), 1830s; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, hosoban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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faraway regions and other countries. Hardly any of these, however, make an appearance in Japanese culture, nor do they play a significant role. In ancient Japan, as in many other cultures around the world, some phenomena in life came to be

6

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Yokai Yo Yoka Y ok kai k ai ai ( De Demons) Demons m ns) mo mon ns) s)

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attributed to the work of someone or something supernatural. Unfortunately, in many cases, extant today are only names and visualizations of specific demons but no background information on their nature, habits, behavior, etc. exists. For some demons, however, legends that provide a context stayed alive in specific areas of Japan or even all over the country. A number of old texts make mention of supernatural beings, for example, the eighth-century poetry anthology Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves (Man’yōshū), the twelfth-century Anthology of Stories of Times Now Past (Konjaku monogatari shū), and the historical epics The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari) from the thirteenth century and Chronicle of Great Peace (Taiheiki) from the late fourteenth century. Dating from the twelfth century are painted handscrolls (emaki) that retell stories through a combination of text and picture. Some include one or more supernatural beings, but it is not until the Muromachi period (1336–1573), when handscrolls began to appear, that these offer a pictorial kaleidoscope of demons. As early as the eighth century, however, the term tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) appears in literature, referring to household items, tools, and accessories that can turn into demons once they are over one hundred years old. Records show that a pictorial version of these demons 8

existed by the late fifteenth century but it has not survived. The oldest extant today, Picture Scroll of Tool Spirits (Tsukumogami emaki) by an unknown artist, dates from the sixteenth century. It is in the collection of Sōfuku-ji Temple in Gifu Prefecture. Two principle types of handscrolls portraying demons became popular until the modernization of Japan in the late nineteenth century. One type

Introduction

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Contest of Powerful Magicians (Gōketsu kijutsukurabe), 1869; published by Masadaya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

LEFT

BELOW Utagawa Kunisada II, Actors Nakamura Shikan IV as Sakata Kintoki and Onoe Baikō as Usui Sadamitsu (R); Sawamura Tanosuke III as the Courtesan Usugumo, Actually the Spirit of a Spider (Jitsu wa kumo no sei) (C); Nakamura Chūtarō as Urabe Suetake and Ichikawa Kuzō III as Watanabe no Tsuna (L), 1864; published by Iseya Kanekichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

visualizes a night parade of a horde of one hundred demons (hyakki yagyō), many of them tsukumogami. The number “one hundred,” however, should not be taken literally but merely as an indication that it is a large number of demons. The oldest surviving handscroll showing such a night parade is in the collection of the Shinjuan Temple, a subtemple of the famous Daitoku-ji Temple in Kyoto. The scroll

Utagawa Yoshitora, Konjin Chōgorō, from the series Lives of Brave and Hot-blooded Heroes (Yūretsu kekki den), 1866; published by Izutsuya Shōkichi, carved by Watanabe Eizō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

LEFT

dates from the early sixteenth century and is attributed to the court painter Tosa Mitsunobu (1434–1525). It is registered in Japan as an Important Cultural Property (jūyō bunkazai). This work served as the model for succeeding variations on this topic, and many of the extant handscrolls are in public collections all over the world, including the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the British Museum, the Fukuoka Art Museum, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Minneapolis Institute of Art. The names of the demons are typically not given although the version in the collection of the Chester Beatty Library does include these. Another type of pictorial handscroll features a lineup of assorted monsters that are generally named bakemono zukushi. The painter Kano Motonobu (1476–1559), son-in-law of the aforementioned Mitsunobu, is said to have painted such a scroll but it is not known today. Sawaki Sūshi (1707–72) apparently copied Motonobu’s work in 1737 and this work, Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde (Hyakkai zukan), is today in the collection of the Fukuoka Art Museum. While it is the oldest dated scroll of its type, from around the same time, if not earlier, is the scroll Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, that features thirty-five monsters. Twenty-eight of the monsters correspond with those in Sūshi’s scroll. A Parade of the Supernatural

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The number of monsters portrayed in this type of scroll varies greatly, from just twelve to fifty-eight, as in the handscroll by Oda Gōchō (n.d.) from 1832 in the collection of Matsui Bunko. If monsters overlap between scrolls, the rendition of them is usually extremely similar. That is the case of the ten monsters that are identical in the Minneapolis scroll and the Brigham Young University scroll, of which nine are also featured in Sūshi’s Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde. In general, painted handscrolls were enjoyed by the affluent while the less well to do had to turn to more affordable woodblock-printed books. Books were enormously popular and the subject of demons became accessible to a wide audience in the late eighteenth century through the work of Toriyama Sekien (1712–88), a poet and painter in Edo (today’s Tokyo), who is most famous for being the teacher of several ukiyo-e artists, including Kitagawa Utamaro (1753–1806). Sekien was not a professional painter

at first but belonged to a family of servants to the shogunate. His relatively privileged position allowed him access to painted handscrolls which he consulted to compile supernatural beings. In 1776, his first book was issued in three volumes under the title Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). All the beings are named but only the first is given a brief explanation. For this book, as well as its successors, Sekien was assisted by two or three of his students. One of them, Chōki (Shikō; act. ca. 1771–1809), who is today better known for designing prints that portray beautiful women, assisted in all four titles. Gazu hyakki yagyō must have been a success because three years later Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) was issued, again in three volumes. This time, every single creature was explained. Sekien maintained this practice for Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku

Utagawa Toyokuni, Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), vol. 1.5, 1806; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

LEFT

OPPOSITE TOP Kawanabe

Kyōsai, Buffoonery on a Hundred Stories (Dōke hyaku monogatari), 1868; publisher unknown; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

10

Introduction

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hyakki shūi), released in 1781, as well as for A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) from 1784, each published in three volumes. In total, more than two hundred creatures are featured in Sekien’s four titles. He appears to have invented a number of them since there are no known earlier versions, and in his notes to the fourth book he writes that he “dreamt” about the nature of these creatures. Sekien influenced future generations of writers and artists, and many new fictional books were authored, especially in the nineteenth century. For example, the admired print artists Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) illustrated Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den) in 1806, and Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) illustrated Stars on a Freezing Night, Modern Ghost Stories (Kinsei kaidan, shimoyo no hoshi) in 1808. These two artists and many others went on to sometimes feature demons in the stand-alone prints (ukiyo-e or nishiki-e) they designed that were mass-produced in color and were much larger in size than in the monochrome printed books.

At the same time as prints were being made, a great variety of plays that included ghosts were conceived for the popular Kabuki theater. Ghost plays came to be staged, especially in summer, to provide the audience with a welcoming chill in the hot months. The dramatic scenes inspired motifs for prints that could be designed without the limitations imposed on stage props. Some of the fictional protagonists of the popular serial novels issued over several decades featured magic superpowers that took on a life of their own, becoming motifs for prints. An imaginary contest between nine superpowers was envisioned by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) in a triptych issued in 1869. Yoshitoshi was the most prolific artist of supernatural themes. He continued in the footsteps of his teacher Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861), who was very creative in his time, particularly in portraying courageous warriors. Other Kuniyoshi students, such as Utagawa Yoshitora (act. ca. 1836–82), and especially Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89), a master in portraying demons in comical situations, were also active in this field. A Parade of the Supernatural

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PART ONE

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A CATALOGUE OF 100 GOBLINS, GHOSTS, DEMONS AND SPIRITS

Yōkai (Demons)

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PART 1 YŌKAI 妖怪 DEMONS

Abumikuchi 鐙口 Stirrup Mouth Demon

In his book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) published in 1784, the painter Toriyama Sekien (1712–88) features several tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”), demons that become embedded in 100-yearold tools, household items, and accessories. Among them is the abumiguchi (lit. “stirrup mouth”), a small furry creature formed from the type of stirrup used on a horse’s saddle in premodern Japan.

The poem states that the spirit once belonged to a warrior who was wounded in battle and is waiting for him to return. This might be the samurai Minamoto Tomonaga (1143–60), second son of Yoshitomo (1123–60), a general in the clan wars of the 1150s. According to the war epic The Tale of Heiji (Heiji monogatari), during the Heiji Rebellion of 1159 the Minamoto clan led by Yoshitomo were defeated by the Taira clan and Tomonaga was wounded. An arrow had pierced

his left thigh making it impossible for him to step up into his horse’s stirrup. As Tomonaga’s condition worsened, thus jeopardizing the retreat of the Minamoto clan, he asked his father to kill him. In the early fifteenth century, the playwright Kanze Motomasa (1394?/1401?–32) wrote a Noh play about Tomonaga’s final moments, but he altered the ending of the story so that Tomonaga committed suicide instead.

Eigyō (attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 × 489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

LEFT

FAR LEFT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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PART ONE

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Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 × 684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

LEFT

BELOW Utagawa Yoshikazu, Aburaname, detail from A New Collection of Monsters (Shinpan bakemono zukushi), 1853; published by Fujiokaya Keijirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; International Research Center for Japanese Studies

Aburaname 油なめ Oil Licker The aburaname is a demon seldom seen in Japanese visual arts. It is not featured in any of Toriyama Sekien’s books nor as part of the canon of demons in depictions of night parades (hyakki yagyō). It also does not appear regularly in the handscrolls that show an assortment of demons (bakemono zukushi). However, it is included in A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) by an unknown artist in the archives of the Minneapolis Institute of Art and in Pictures of One Hundred Spirits (Hyakuyō zu) in the collection of Ohya Shobō (Edo-Tokyo Museum et al., 2016, no. 23). The aburaname is characteristically modeled after a woman with long flowing hair, pointy ears, and a long red tongue who is dressed in a simple robe.

In his Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), Sekien included a demon by the name of abura-akago, which takes the form of a boy. When the demon enters a house, it licks the oil of lamps. That behavior is undoubtedly applicable to the aburaname as well since its name literally means “oil licker,” and the few existing portraits show it with a long tongue poking out as if licking something. Oil was a daily necessity in premodern Japan and it is therefore not surprising that demons related to oil would emerge in the pantheon of supernatural creatures.

Yōkai (Demons)

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Akagashira 赤頭 or Keu 怪有 Red Head Demon

The handscroll A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art depicts a wide variety of demons, among them a rare type named keu (lit. “mysterious creature”). The same type of handscroll by Oda Gōchō (n.d.) in the collection of Matsui Bunko in Yatsushiro City, Kumamoto Prefecture, features a very similar-looking demon which is here named akagashira (lit. “red head”). The name akagashira is clearly derived

16

from the demon’s appearance, its dominant feature being long bushy red hair resembling flames. In both portraits, the demon has big eyes, a large nose, a wide red mouth with fangs, and a short stumpy body with clawed feet and hands. On its chest are six parallel horizontal wavy lines. The nature of these lines, as well as the rest of the demon’s physical appearance, is unknown, since it has not yet been determined what this monster does. The names assigned to demons

in these picture handscrolls were regionally influenced, and it is quite likely that the akagashira is included in other demon handscrolls but under different names.

BELOW Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 × 684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

PART ONE

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Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

RIGHT

Akaguchi 赤口 or Akashita 赤舌 Red Mouth or Red Tongue Demon

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

The demon akaguchi (lit. “red mouth”) is also known as aka-shita (lit. “red tongue”). Both names clearly derive from the demon’s red mouth or red tongue, common in demon picture handscrolls (bakemono zukushi) where he is depicted with a wide open mouth. He has sharp fangs and claws as well as a hairy face, but the rest of his body cannot be seen since it is always hidden behind dark clouds. In Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), Toriyama Sekien shows this beast hovering over a floodgate used to irrigate ricefields. It remains unclear as to what exactly the demon akaguchi does, but one explanation is that he could be related to Onmyōdō,

an esoteric cosmological belief system that developed in Japan and was institutionalized in the imperial court until 1870 when it was prohibited as superstition under Emperor Meiji (1852– 1912). Onmyōdō knows of a god written with the same characters but read as Shakuzetsu-jin. Every sixth day (shakuzetsu-nichi), meaning on a day of bad luck, he sends out a demon-god to protect the western gate of Jupiter (Taisai). Other theories connect akaguchi with farming and controlling the water flow through gates, or believe that its name is a metaphor for not being able to keep one’s mouth shut, thereby causing all kinds of trouble.

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Amabiko 海彦 Sea Lad

The amabiko is a sea demon that rarely appears in Japanese folklore, either in texts or images. It seems to be a fairly new demon because the oldest records date from the 1840s. The amabiko was never popular in Japan and was relatively unknown until the Covid-19 pandemic struck and it surfaced on social media in the spring of 2020 because it was believed to be able to ward off plagues. However, all that historic records say about this demon is that while it can predict plagues it cannot prevent or eradicate them. In the few extant portraits, amabiko’s appearance is inconsistent apart from being visualized as a tripod with a head attached to legs but without arms. Portraits of amabiko somewhat resemble an ape with its entire body covered in hair that can sometimes reach the ground. The print from 1846 shows it more like a mermaid with a bird-like face, long hair, and a body covered with scales, terminating in three tails. It is named here amabie, which seems to be a misspelling of amabiko. 18

ABOVE Artist unknown, Amabiko, 1882; published by Hatano Tsunesada; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of the National Museum of Japanese History

BELOW Artist unknown, Amabie, 1846; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink on paper, ca. 28.9 × 23 cm; Courtesy of the Main Library, Kyoto University

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Ame-onna 雨女 Rain Woman

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 2, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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According to Toriyama Sekien’s Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), which dates from 1781, the concept for ame-onna, the “Rain Woman,” originated in China. Sekien refers to the book Rhapsody on Gaotang (Gaotangfu), usually attributed to Song Yu (ca. 290–ca. 223 bce), which retells the amorous affairs of King Huai of Chu (r. 328–299 bce) with female divinities. Asleep on Mount Fuzan, King

Huai dreams of loving a divine maiden who then leaves him with the words “I’ll be a cloud in the morning and rain in the evening.” The four-character idiom “morning-cloud-eveningrain” (Ch. chao-yunmuyu; Jp. chōunbou) became synonymous with a secret affair between a man and a woman. But since there is no indication of King Hsuai’s divine maiden being a demon, Sekien might have just invented this connection to the

ABOVE Utagawa Yoshiiku, Ame-onna, 1890, no. 16 from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari); published by Fukuda Kumajirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (201-0499)

ame-onna or made her up. Compared with yuki-onna, the “Snow Woman” (see page 134), visualizations of ame-onna are very rare. However, one captivating image is by Utagawa Yoshiiku (1833–1904) in his series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), printed in 1890. He modeled it after an earlier painting he had done of a ghost looking through a window (see page 238, Fukuoka City Museum, ed. 2012, no. 27). Yōkai (Demons)

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Bakekoi 化け鯉 Monster Carps

Monster carps or bakekoi appear in Japanese legends in connection with two unnaturally strong boys, Oniwakamaru and Kintarō. Oniwakamaru (lit. “Young Ogre Boy”) later became famous under the name Musashibō Benkei (1155–89). Benkei became a yamabushi, a Buddhist ascetic who worshipped mountains and had enormous strength. He went on to serve the celebrated military genius Minamoto Yoshitsune (1159–89). According to legend, Oniwakamaru was born with long hair and teeth following an extended pregnancy said to have lasted from eighteenth months to three years and three months, depending on the version of the legend referred to. Unable to control his violent behavior, he had to leave the Buddhist monastery Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei, northeast of Kyoto. The episode with the giant carp occurred during Oniwakamaru’s childhood. One day, after his mother had not returned from collecting firewood, he searched everywhere for her and eventually came to the Bishamon Waterfall, which was known to be a place where people often disappeared. After waiting there for three days, Oniwakamaru finally saw something in the water. He 20

RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Kintarō Snaring a Giant Carp, 1885; published by Matsui Eikichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.160a,b)

jumped into the water and struggled fiercely with a giant golden carp. After succeeding in killing it, Oniwakamaru dragged the carp ashore and cut open its belly where he discovered pieces of clothing from his missing

mother. He realized that the giant carp had eaten her. Oniwakamaru’s fight with the carp was a popular motif in woodblock prints of the nineteenth century. The artists Katsukawa Shuntei (1770–1824),

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RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Saitō no Oniwakamaru, from the series Essays by Yoshitoshi (Ikkai zuihitsu), 1872–73; published by Masadaya Heikichi, carved by Shimada Tomekichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.113)

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Totoya Hokkei (1780–1850), Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858), Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861), and Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839– 92) each designed at least one version of Oniwakamaru holding the sword he used to kill the carp. According to legend, the other mythical and exceptionally strong wild-boy, Kintarō or the “Golden Boy,” also had an encounter with a giant carp. Kintarō, who was also known by the name Kaidōmaru, is said to have wrestled a giant carp with his bare hands. He was the son of the imperial officer Sakata Kurando from Kyoto. After Kurando fell from grace, he committed suicide and 22

his wife Yaegiri, who was pregnant, went back to her hometown to give birth. She decided not to return to Kyoto but to raise Kintarō in isolation on Mount Ashigara in today’s Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park where she became a mountain hag (see page 128). Not only was Kintarō’s body red but he became exceptionally strong. He was also able to communicate with animals like boars and bears. He came to the notice of the military commander Minamoto Yorimitsu (948–1021) in the course of a hunting trip, who recruited him into his service where he was renamed Sakata Kintoki (956–

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Oniwakamaru and the Giant Carp, ca. 1844–46; published by Minoya Chūsuke; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

Totoya Hokkei, Oniwakamaru Overpowering the Giant Carp, early 1830s; privately published; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, shikishiban, horizontal diptych; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Francis Lathrop Collection, Purchase, Frederick Ca. Hewitt Fund, 1911 (JP749)

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1012). He became one of Yorimitsu’s closest allies and a member of his Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō).

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Oniwakamura Watching the Carp in the Pool (Oniwakamaru Chichū ni rigyo o ukagau zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1889; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Wada Yūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.232)

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Bakeneko 化け猫 Supernatural Cats

Japanese folklore is replete with supernatural cats or bakeneko that are ill-natured. Cats are naturally suited to superstitious belief because they have sharp claws and teeth, they often have a wild disposition, they can also be soundless, and they are nocturnal. Monster cats can take a human form, lick lamp oil, and kill humans born in the year of the Rat. Across Japan, such beliefs

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, A Play of an Old Legend: Apparition of the Monstrous Cat at the Old Temple, The Ghost Cat of Okazaki (Mukashibanashi no gi nekomata toshi o hetefurudera ni kai o nasu zu), 1847; published by Wakau; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

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are widespread and some were adapted into Kabuki plays. The Nabeshima Cat (Nabeshima no neko) refers to the legend surrounding the second feudal lord of Saga, Nabeshima Mitsushige (1632– 1700), who was angry with an opponent in a board game and ordered him to commit ritual suicide. Broken-hearted at the loss of her son, the mother of

BELOW Utagawa Kuniyoshi, The Story of Nippon Daemon and the Cat (Nippon Daemon neko no koji), 1847; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Okabe, from the series Fifty-three Pairs of the Tōkaidō (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsui), ca. 1845; published by Ibaya Kyūbei, carved by Sugawa Renkichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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the loser shares her grief with her cat and then commits suicide. The cat licks the mother’s blood and becomes a bakeneko who haunts Mitsushige night after night until she gets killed by one of his retainers. In 1853, the playwright Segawa Jokō III (1806–81) incorporated this legend into a Kabuki play, Hanano no Saga nekomata zōshi. The play was very short-lived, however, because the then lord of Saga demanded it be banned. As a result, people became even more interested in this legend. A bakeneko is a popular character in plays categorized as “ghost stories from the fifty-three stations” (gojūsan tsugi no kaidan), which are set along the Tōkaidō, Japan’s most vital road that connected Edo (today’s Tokyo) with Kyoto. The bakeneko first appeared in 1827 in the play Hitori tabi gojūsan tsugi written by Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755– 26

1829). A bakeneko emerges from the Cat Stone (nekoishi), which can be located near several different post stations, depending on the version of the story. Here it is at Mariko, in the play Ume no haru gojūsan tsugi from 1835, and

in Onoe Kikugorō ichidai banashi from 1847 it is at Shirasuka. In Azuma kudari gojūsan tsugi from 1854 it is at Kyoto, and in Tōkaidō iroha nikki from 1861 it is at Okazaki. According to legend, the stone resembles a cat lying down

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Utagawa Yoshitora, Inukai Genpachi Fights a Cat Monster on Mount Kōshin, 1849–50; published by Kojimaya Jūbei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

LEFT

Toyohara Kunichika, The Fifty-three Stations Along the Tōkaidō, Okazaki Station Act (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsugi no uchi, Okazaki eki no ba), 1871; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi, carved by Katada Chōjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Lincoln Kirstein, 1985 (JP3689a–c)

BELOW

and was once a bakeneko that had tormented people. In Kabuki theater, the Cat Stone Ghost (Nekoishi-no-sei) comes back to life and is eventually defeated by a hero. Visualizations of bakeneko tend to show a gigantic, life-

threatening cat in the background. Kabuki prints sometimes also depict the bakeneko in the sky, flying in front of dark clouds.

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Inumura Daikaku, from the series The One and Only Eight Dog History of Old Kyokutei, Best of Refined Authors (Kyokutei-ō seicho hakkenshi zui-ichi), ca. 1835–36; published by Nishimuraya Yohachi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

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Biwa-bokuboku 琵琶牧々 Dancing Lute Head Demon

The biwa-bokuboku belongs to the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”), a special group of demons that are embedded in household items like kitchenware or tools. Toriyama Sekien included this demon in his book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) from 1784 and he may have even invented it. Sekien shows the biwa-bokuboku as an anthropomorphic being with a biwa, a short-necked wooden lute, as its head, wearing an old kimono. It appears in instruments that have not been used in a long time, performing a noisy revenge dance through inhabited houses. In the visual arts it usually appears in depictions of demon night parades (hyakki yagyō) along with other instrument tsukumogami such as the koto-furunushi. ABOVE Eigyō (attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 × 489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki dadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

LEFT

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Daija 大蛇 Monster Snakes

Japanese folklore contains many giant monster snakes called uwabami 蟒蛇 or daija; the latter can also be pronounced orochi. Daija can refer to Yamata-noorochi, the mythical eight-headed serpent that is usually visualized as a dragon and is slayed by the god Susanoo-no-Mikoto. The monster snakes are so huge that it is said they can gulp a man on 30

horseback. Several stories exist about brave warriors killing daija. In 1806, Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei; 1767–1848) wrote Strange Records of the Four Heavenly Kings and a Plundering Thief (Shitennō shōtō iroku), a novel about a group of four courageous warriors, also known as the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō), who assisted

Minamoto Yorimitsu (Raikō; 948–1021). The allies victoriously survive many adventures, among them killing a tsuchigumo (see page 114) and defeating the ogres Shuten-dōji (see page 211) and Kidōmaru (see page 179). They also chase the thief Hakamadare Yasusuke, who possesses a magical scroll that has the power to summon a daija. Yorimitsu

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LEFT Utagawa Yoshitsuya, Yorimitsu Tries to Capture Hakamadare by Destroying His Magic (Kijutsu o yabutte Yorimitsu Hakamadare o karamen to su), 1858; published by Tsutaya Kichizō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

BELOW Utagawa Yoshikazu,

Yoshinaka’s Four Heavenly Kings Subdue a Giant Snake in the Kiso Mountains (Yoshinaka no Shitenno Kiso okuyama ni kore o taiji su), ca. 1849–51; published by Kiya Sōjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, New York

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ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Strange Records of the Four Heavenly Kings and a Plundering Thief (Shitennō shōtō iroku), vol. 8, 1806; published by Kawachiya Mohei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

BELOW Utagawa Yoshitsuya,

BELOW Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Saginoike

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Saginoike

Hakamadare Yasusuke, from the series A Collection of Magic in Great Japan (Dainippon jutsu zukushi), 1861; published by Kameya Iwakichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

Heikurō, from the series One of the Eight Hundred Heroes of the Japanese ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Honchō Suikoden gōyū happyakunin no hitori), ca. 1843–46; published by Ibaya Senzaburō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

Heikurō, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.35)

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ABOVE Katsukawa Shuntei, Imai Shirō

(R), Higuchi Jirō (C), and Tezuka Tarō (L), 1810s; published by Itōya Yohei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

tries to apprehend Yasusuke by destroying his magic. This is captured in an impressive composition by Utagawa Yoshitsuya (1822–66). Katsukawa Shuntei (1770– 1824) depicted Imai Shirō Kanehira (1152–84), Higuchi Jirō Kanemitsu (d. 1184), and Tezuka Tarō Mitsumori (d. 1184) wrestling and slaying a daija at a waterfall in the Kiso Mountains, also called the Central Alps. Kanehira and Kanemitsu are two

of another set of Four Heavenly Kings that are aligned with the general Minamoto Yoshinaka (1154–84). Two very different woodblock prints show Saginoike Heikurō, a fictional character from the 1821 novel Illustrated Battles of Kusunoki Masatsura (Kusunoki Masatsura senkō zue), who encounters a daija at the lake of Sayama. The earlier print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861) shows Heikurō wrestling with

the daija, his bare hands holding open the snake’s mouth with its sharp fangs. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) captured the moment when the unsuspecting Heikurō is sitting by the water fishing, completely unaware what danger is eyeing him from below the water.

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Dōjō-ji 道成寺 Dōjō-ji Temple The story about a woman falling in love with a Buddhist monk who rejects her appears for the first time in eleventh-century texts. It narrates that around the summer of 928, a young woman by the name of Kiyo-hime encounters a beautiful young monk named Anchin who is given lodging during his pilgrimage to a distant temple. The woman falls in love with Anchin and crawls into his bed at night, but he declines to touch her since he is committed to his pilgrimage. Instead, Anchin promises to visit her on his return journey. However, he decides not to stop because he wants to avoid her. She is upset when she learns about this and hastily follows him barefooted. Just before reaching Dōjō-ji Temple in today’s Wakayama Prefecture, Kiyo-hime catches up with Anchin. He lies to her again by acting as if she is mistaken and he is, in fact, another person. He then prays and manages to escape from her again. After regaining consciousness, she realizes that she was deceived by Anchin a second time. Anchin crosses Hidaka River and asks the ferryman not to take her over. Outraged, she begins to swim and turns into a demonic dragon-serpent, crossing the river while breathing fire.

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Kiyo-hime Assuming a Serpent Form at Hidaka River (Kiyo-hime Hidakagawa ni jatai to naru zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.234)

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 1, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Anchin is aware of the transformation and begs the monks at Dōjō-ji to help him. They hide him under the large bronze temple bell but the demon, which can smell him, coils around the bell, bangs it loudly, and then incinerates it. Anchin burns to death and Kiyo-hime later commits suicide. Several elements differ in the various versions of the story that are known. The name Anchin does not appear until the fourteenth century and the name Kiyo-hime is first mentioned in a theater adaptation from 1742. The young monk is sometimes accompanied by an old monk

and the girl is sometimes a young widow or the daughter of the village mayor. There is also a version where both are reborn and ask the abbot of Dōjō-ji to hold a regular religious service. The legend inspired an immensely popular Noh play as well as a Kabuki version of it, known as Musume Dōjō-ji, which premiered in Edo (today’s Tokyo) in 1753. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) illustrated Kiyo-hime twice, with a twentyfive-year gap in between. Each time after crossing the river Kiyo-hime comes out of the water only half transformed into a serpent.

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Enma 閻魔 King of Hell

Enma (Yama in Sanskrit) is the King of Hell (Jp. Jigoku) in Hinduism and Buddhism. Presiding over Hell, he is considered to be the deity who will judge people’s behavior when they die. But Hell is not eternal and if judged favorably, a dead person will be rewarded with a good future life or even with revival in the previous life. Judged unfavorably, the deceased will be sentenced to painful suffering in Hell or to a dismal future life. Like Yan, the Chinese version of Enma, he is visualized in Japan as a large man with a beard who wears the traditional robe of a Chinese judge including a cap or crown bearing the character

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Asahina Saburō Yoshihide, from the series Essays by Yoshitoshi (Ikkai zuihitsu), 1872–73; published by Masadaya Heikichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.114)

RIGHT

for “king” (王). He is usually accompanied by demonic attendants that support him in the judging process or are otherwise of assistance to him. Sometimes he is portrayed courting a beautiful woman who could be Jigoku-dayū (see page 58), a high-ranking courtesan by the name of Hell. In the book Kyōsai’s Treatise on Painting (Kyōsai gadan), Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89), who created several paintings and prints featuring Jigoku, included such an odd couple. Enma holds an umbrella and is trying to provide some sort of shelter from rain to a beautiful young woman. While she wears several layers of

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of the Fever of Taira no Kiyomori (Taira no Kiyomori hi no yamai no zu), 1883; published by Akiyama Buemon; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.150a-c)

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clothing, however, her hair is not adorned with the many hairpins and combs that would identify her as a courtesan of high rank. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) created a powerful image of what Enma’s judging would look like. Taira Kiyomori (1118–81) was the leader of the influential Taira (Heike) clan of samurai after his father’s death and he fought many battles and intrigues at court, at the cost of many lives. At the end of his own life, he was struck down by an inexplicable fever which, in modern medicine, has

been theorized as being caused by a streptococcal infection. Kiyomori suffered from visions, such as seeing the skulls of the dead that he was responsible for in his garden. Yoshitoshi captured an emaciated Kiyomori in the center, identified by his Buddhist name Daijō Nyūdō Jōkai. On the right, his second wife Tokiko (1126–85) and their son Munemori (1147–85) are praying for him. Behind Kiyomori, separated by a layer of flames, is a grimlooking majestic Enma, flanked by a judge and a demon.

A very different view of Enma, one that is not at all majestic, is provided by Yoshitoshi in a rather comical portrait of Asahina Saburō Yoshihide (b. 1176) based on the Kabuki adaptation of this legendary warrior. Asahina, who is said to have had supernatural strength, grabs Enma by the scruff of his neck. Ignoring whatever verdict Enma was about to pronounce, Asahina forces his way out of Hell.

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Treatise on Painting (Kyōsai gadan), vol. 1, 1887; published by Iwamoto Shun; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 25 × 17.5 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.764a–d)

LEFT

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Fukuro-mujina 袋貉 Badger Bag Another demon of the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) type in Toriyama Sekien’s book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) is the fukuro-mujina. The name, which literally means “badger bag,” derives from the extra large bag that is carried by a humanoid badger. The badger, which has long black hair, is dressed like a woman in a kimono, sometimes of several layers, and wears straw sandals. It walks upright. Since the fukuro-mujina usually appears

during the night, it can also carry a lantern in its hand in addition to the bag over its shoulder. Sekien notes that a badger is an allegory for uncertainty because a hunter cannot assess the value of a badger as long as it is hidden in its den. The same applies to a fukuro-mujina, and thus hunters have to blindly accept what is in the bag. Sekien concludes that this is his interpretation and there are no other sources passed down that would shed more light on the nature of a fukuro-mujina.

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

ABOVE

Since the main focus of tsukumogami-type demons is an animated tool or utensil, the emphasis here is on the bag, not the badger, and hence it is called a “badger bag,” not a “bag badger.” Yōkai (Demons)

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BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Kusunoki Tamonmaru Masayuki, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

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Eigyō (attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 × 489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

RIGHT

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Furaribi ふらり火 Slowly Swaying Fire

Some demon picture handscrolls (bakemono zukushi) feature the furaribi (lit. “slowly swaying fire”), a fire demon about which very little is known. Because of its name, it is assumed that the furaribi represents the spirits of the deceased who wander around because they did not receive a proper funeral. Both the Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde (Hyakkai zukan) by Sawaki Sūshi from 1737, at the Fukuoka Art Museum, and Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, show the furaribi as an egret-like bird with a dog-like face that spits fire and is enveloped in rays of fire, all drawn in shades of red and orange. The creature in Toriyama Sekien’s Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) is somewhat different since the face more closely resembles the Garuda in Hindu mythology.

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; University Library, Tokyo University of the Arts

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Gagoze 元興寺 or Gagō がごう

Two Heian-period (794–1185) texts, the Record of Strange Ghostly Happenings in Japan (Nihon ryōiki) and the Literary Essence of Our Court (Honchō monzui), report of a demon that inhabited the bell tower of the Gangō-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture during the Asuka period (592–710). The demon was named after this temple but the pronunciation of the characters was altered to gagoze and gagō among others. Gagoze crawls across the ground wearing a simple robe that covers his head, leaving only his face and hands visible. It is said that he emerged almost every night to kill a child 42

attendant at the temple. The story goes that a boy with superhuman strength, who was given to a farmer by the Thunder God (Raijin) as a token of his gratitude, was apprenticed at the temple to become a monk. He set out to catch the demon. When he finally caught it, he dragged it along by its hair until all the hair had fallen out and the demon ran away. His bloodstains led to the grave of a rascally manservant who had worked at the temple and must have turned into a demon. Gagoze’s hair was enshrined at the temple and the demon never appeared again.

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

ABOVE LEFT

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Gaikotsu 骸骨 Skeletons

Human skeletons (gaikotsu) and skulls (dokuro) are popular motifs in Japanese visual arts. Like normal humans, skeletons and skulls can interact with each other or with humans and can appear alone or in hordes. Toriyama Sekien included a skeleton in his 1779 book Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakkii), along with a poem by the Buddhist monk Keiun (Kyōun; 1293?/1299?–1369), who was considered one of the four greatest poets of his time. Keiun’s “Skeleton Ode” was published in 1689 in the anthology A Collection of Leaves Gathered in Japan (Fusō shūyō shū) and suggests reflecting and thinking about what is in the heart whenever one sees or hears something or someone. In New Kasane Salvation Story (Shin Kasane gedatsu monogatari), written by Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei; 1767–1848) in 1807, Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) depicted the dead character Yamanashi Inba as a half-clad skeleton. Skeletons in motion were a particularly admired theme for which an artist needed great technical skill. Utagawa Toyokuni’s illustration in the

novel Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den) from 1806 of the courageous warrior Ōya Tarō Mitsukuni sitting on a veranda watching battling skeletons, was adapted by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) almost sixty years later when he portrayed Mitsukuni for his series One Hundred Stories from Japan

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Ōya Tarō Mitsukuni, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.443)

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and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari). Yoshitoshi’s contemporary, Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89), featured an army of skeletons, one wearing a suit of armor, in his book Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan). Two extensive comical studies of skeletons are provided by

Kyōsai in his book Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga) from 1881. One shows them in groups of up to seven during evening activities where they are partying, drinking, smoking, and playing games or music. The other offers depictions of one or two skeletons striking poses, such as bending, stretching, doing acrobatics like balancing on one ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 3, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Warrior on a Skull, from the series A Set of Valor in Japan and China (Wakan gōki zoroi), 1868; published by Ōsada, carved by Tanaka Ushinosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.197)

LEFT

leg, and standing or sitting on each other. Kyōsai continues in the tradition of Hokusai’s earlier well-known instruction manual Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Hokusai manga). Published in the same year as Hokusai’s Sketches, Kyōsai’s Idle Drawings (Kyōsai donga) contains more acrobatic skeletons. Skeletons frequently appear in portraits of Jigoku-dayū, the Hell Courtesan (see page 58), when she dreams of Hell, as well as in other depictions of Hell. 44

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Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

LEFT

BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 20 ×24 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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LEFT Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2) BELOW SantōKyōden, Essays in Idleness with Monsters (Bakemono tsurezuregusa), 1792; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Tokyo Metropolitan Library

Gubin 狗瓶 Dog Pot The handscroll A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) at the Minneapolis Institute of Art depicts forty-three demons, some of which are not included in other handscrolls of this type. One of these rare demons is the gubin, which is colorfully portrayed with angel-like wings, a feather and leopard pelt ruff, and a red face. Holding a feather fan in his hands, the gubin is pictured standing on clouds or maybe steam, given its presumed nature, because it is meant to be a hybrid between a tengu (see page 111) and an earthenware teapot (dobin). The characteristics of a teapot, however, are absent in this depiction. The handscroll Pictures of One Hundred Spirits (Hyakuyō zu) in the collection of Ohya Shobō includes a similarlooking creature which is simply called tengu. 46

Rather different looking is the gubin that the author-painter Santō Kyōden (1761–1816) included in his book Essays in Idleness with Monsters (Bakemono tsurezuregusa), published in 1792, which shows a gathering of different kinds of demons with a teapot in their midst that has eyes and a long

nose like those of tengu. Kyōden states in his text that this creature is nothing ordinary: “This is not a teapot (dobin) but a gubin.” The painter of the Minneapolis handscroll seems to have been somewhat unsure as he offered both names in the ascribed label.

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Hakuzōsu 白蔵主 According to legend, in 1381 a Buddhist monk by the name of Hakuzōsu lived at the Shōrin-ji Temple in today’s Osaka Prefecture. Hakuzōsu was also a believer in Inari Daimyōjin, the Shinto deity (kami) of fertility, agriculture, rice, foxes, etc. One day, in a bamboo grove, Hakuzōsu encountered a white fox that had lost a leg. He took it home to care for it. The fox turned out to be spiritual and could foretell luck as well as prevent theft. The descendants of the fox were also three-legged. Hakuzōsu’s nephew was an active hunter and the fox was afraid of him. The fox disguised himself as Hakuzōsu and visited the nephew to evoke remorse in him for his murderous crimes. The nephew, however, noticed that it was the fox masquerading as Hakuzōsu, and he used a mouse as bait and caught the fox. The comical Kyōgen play Tsuri-gitsune, also called Konkai, is derived from this legend, which is retold in Edo-period (1603–1868) guidebooks such as Views of Famous Sights in Izumi (Izumi meisho zue) from 1796. The illustration in this book is by Takehara Shunchōsai (d. 1801). His student Takehara Shunsensai (n.d.), went on to illustrate the Picture Book of a Hundred Stories

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, The Cry of the Fox (Konkai), from the series One Hundred Aspects of the Moon (Tsuki hyakushi), 1886; published by Akiyama Buemon, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art,

Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.168)

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Takehara Shunchōsai, Views of Famous Sights in Izumi (Izumi meisho zue), vol. 4, 1796; published by Takahashi Heisuke; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

LEFT

BELOW Takehara Shunsensai, Picture Book of a Hundred Stories (Ehon hyaku monogatari), vol. 1, 1841; published by Suharaya Sasuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Honolulu Museum of Art

(Ehon hyaku monogatari), which also contains the Hakuzōsu story. The best-known portrait of Hakuzōsu, however, is by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92), who captures Hakuzōsu among tall reeds as he turns his head to look up at the moon, exposing his fox snout.

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Han’nya 般若 Demoness

Prajna is Sanskrit for a Buddhist term that is often translated as “wisdom,” meaning the knowledge and understanding of the true nature of things. The Japanese word for prajna is han’nya, which is also used to describe a female demon. The Han’nya-kyō or Prajnaparamita is a collection of aphorisms (sutra) on the perfection of wisdom that dates to the first century bce. The use of han’nya for a demoness is connected to the Noh theater which is performed by actors wearing wooden masks. In Noh, there are no specific masks for each character but, rather, types of masks which convey a specific meaning and feeling. The mask called han’nya is used for the roles of demonic women who harbor jealousy and resentment. The characteristics of the han’nya mask are two sharp, pointed horns, metallic eyes, and an open smirking mouth. It is unclear how han’nya came to be used as the term for a demoness but there are several theories. One states that the first han’nya mask was created by a Buddhist monk named Han’nya. Another explains that the artist who carves such a mask needs a great deal of knowledge about the role of the demoness in order to

create it. A third says that the name is derived from the play Aoi-no-ue, which is based on the character of Lady Aoi in the novel The Tale of Genji (Genji monogatari). Lady Aoi is possessed by the evil spirit of the jealous Lady Rokujo and Aoi reads the Han’nya-kyō as a rite to expel the demon. Toriyama Sekien refers to this in the text that accompanies the han’nya entry in his book Illustrations of Another Demon

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of

Ōmori Hikoshichi Encountering a Demon on his Path (Ōmori Hikoshichi michi ni kaii ni au zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1889; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Wada Yūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.228)

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Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 1, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

LEFT

Katsushika Hokusai, detail of Laughing Demoness (Warai han’nya), from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), ca. 1831–32; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Louis W. Hill Jr. (56.52.2)

FAR LEFT

ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper; 25.9 × 692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

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Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

ABOVE

Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki). Arguably the most memorable depiction of a han’nya was designed by Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) for his series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), dated to ca. 1831–32. Laughing Demoness (Warai han’nya) portrays a han’nya with a big grin on her face while she points at the severed head of an infant she is holding up. The historical epic Chronicle of Great Peace (Taiheiki) from the late fourteenth century includes a story about Lord Ōmori Hikoshichi Morinaga, a great warrior and military commander. One evening, he comes across a beautiful woman and offers to carry her over a stream. Shortly before reaching the other side, he sees her reflection in the water and realizes she is a demoness. He manages to kill her before she kills him.

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Hihi 狒々

In Chinese and Japanese, the characters for hihi mean “baboon,” but in Japanese folklore a hihi is a large ape-like monster. It is said that any old monkey can become a hihi. Hihi live in the mountains and have supernatural strength. They are dangerous and can kidnap and kill humans. In the book Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), Toriyama Sekien included a hihi that kills a wild boar to feast on it. Stories exist that a hihi was caught in 1683 in Echigo (today’s Niigata Prefecture) that was 4.75 feet (145 cm) tall and one in Izu (today’s Shizuoka Prefecture) that was 7.75 feet (236 cm).

ABOVE Utagawa Yoshitora, Uji Jōetsu, from the series One of the One Hundred Great Swordsmen of Our Country (Honchō kendō tatsujin hyakunin no uchi hitori), 1859; published by Itoya Fukujirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Arnold Weinstein Gift, 2001 (2001.715.10)

Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

LEFT

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ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Iwami Jūtarō Kanesuke, 1865; published by Fukushimaya Tashichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.65a-c)

Utagawa Yoshitsuya, In the Kiso Mountains, Higuchi Kanemitsu Defeats a Giant Ape (Kiso sanchū Higuchi Kanemitsu ōzaru taiji), 1858; published by Tsujiokaya Bunsuke, carved by Koizumi Kanegorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

RIGHT

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Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 3, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

RIGHT

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The military commander Higuchi Kanemitsu (d. 1184), one of the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō) of the general Minamoto Yoshinaka (1154–84), is said to have battled a hihi. In the Kiso Mountains, also called the Central Alps, he chased after it. Utagawa Yoshitsuya (1822–66) reconstructed the scene in a dramatic composition showing the white monster with a red face on the left with three men of the hunting party that it had already killed. Kanemitsu is standing on

the right, facing a strong wind, about to pierce or throw a bamboo pole at the monster. Behind him are Yoshinaka with the other three Shitennō—Imai Kanehira (1152–84), Nenoi Ōyata Yukichika (d. 1184), and Tezuka Tarō Mitsumori (d. 1184). Iwami Jūtarō Kanesuke, who is only known from legends and is believed to have been modeled after the military commander Susukida Kanesuke (d. 1615), is said to have encountered and killed a hihi. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi

ABOVE Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 2, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

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(1839–92) created a chilling picture of a hihi presiding over the nightly killing of a young woman by his demonic henchmen. She is the human sacrifice given by villagers. The Sumiyoshi Shrine in Nozato, Osaka, has a tradition to honor Kanesuke for saving the village from having to sacrifice a girl to a hihi every year on the twentieth day of the first lunar month.

ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Graphic Novel About Long Ago Specters (Ōmukashi bakemono sōshi), 1795; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

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Hitodama 人魂 Human Soul

Japan’s oldest poetry anthology, the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves (Man’yōshū), which dates from the eighth century, makes mention of hitodama (lit. “human soul”). The hitodama illustrated in the handscroll A Collection of Monsters at the Minneapolis Institute of Art is written as “human jewel” 人玉 but retains the same pronunciation. Considered to be souls detached from their bodies, hitodama are commonly seen at nighttime but also sometimes during the day. They have either a short or long tail and fly at low elevations. They are blue, orange or red in color. In Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) by Toriyama Sekien and in Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari) by Ryūsai Masazumi (act. ca. 1822–52), hitodama are shown

as orbs while the Minneapolis handscroll and others depict them as balls of fire flying through the air. Considered common spooks in Japanese folklore and in the arts, hitodama can appear in the company of ghosts and demons or observed floating through cemeteries. Sekien noted that after seeing a hitodama, one should perform the rite of “soul summoning” (shōkon) in order to reinforce ones life-force.

ABOVE Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on

a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 3, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27) ABOVE LEFT Artist unknown, A

Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 2, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

LEFT

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Hyōsube ひょうすべ

In Toriyama Sekien’s Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), as well as in the demon picture handscrolls in Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde (Hyakkai zukan) by Sawaki Sūshi from 1737 at the Fukuoka Art Museum and in Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, the hyōsube is presented as a somewhat ludicrous-looking creature that has an abundance of body hair but a bald head. It is purportedly related to kappa (water sprites) and has sharp teeth, long fingers and toes with sharp claws but minus the webbing. According to folklore, the hyōsube mainly lives in Kyushu where it is known to like taking a bath in private houses and would then leave the bath full of hair. Sekien seems to allude to this since he shows the hyōsube standing on a veranda outside a bathroom. Hyōsube purportedly like eggplants, which is why there is a custom of offering them the first crop of the season. The origin of the name hyōsube is unclear but one theory is that it derives from the hyō-hyō cry that hyōsube emit when they go back and forth between rivers and mountains. Another theory has 56

them originate as battle gods in China, and 兵主部 (Ch. bingzhubu; Jp. hyōsube) means “soldiers of the main division.” A third theory places their origin in the 760s when the Kasuga Grand Shrine (Kasuga-taisha) was built in Nara. The chief craftsman had used a secret spell to awaken a doll to help his workers with the construction of the shrine, but when the work was complete it was tossed in the river and began to attack people. Tachibana Shimadamaru (n.d.), the first assistant to the Minister of War (hyōbu-taifu), appeased it and it thus became known as hyōsube. ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Ikuchi いくち

One type of troublesome demon that is depicted above water is the ikuchi. It is included in Toriyama Sekien’s Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi) where it is mistakenly called akashi. Although the ikuchi is a snakelike creature, Sekien omitted its head, revealing only its body. The ikuchi can wrap itself around ships, causing them to sink, and in this respect it resembles the kraken, the legendary Scandinavian sea monster. In different parts of Japan, Sekien’s ayakashi may refer to ghost lights above the water or to the spirits of those who have died at sea, as well as to monsters not in the shape of snakes nor having tentacles. The unknown painter of the handscroll A Collection of Monsters in the archives of the Minneapolis Institute of Art seems to have also mixed up two water demons. He includes a snake-like demon that resembles Sekien’s portrait but with a head, here named bōzu. The same applies to an identical-looking creature in the handscroll Pictures of One Hundred Spirits (Hyakuyō zu) in the collection of Ohya Shobō. Bōzu refers to a different type of water demon called umibōzu (see page 120).

Another water demon in this scroll could, given its appearance, be umibōzu but has been named ayakase, which seems to be a variation of Sekien’s ayakashi.

ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 2, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Jigoku-dayū 地獄太夫 Hell Courtesan

ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, No. 9, Picture of the Skeletons’ Amusements as Seen by the Hell Courtesan in Her Dream (Dai kyū gō, Jigoku-dayū gaikotsu no yūgi o yume ni miru zu), from the series By Request, Kyōsai’s Drawings for Pleasure (Ōju Kyōsai rakuga), 1874; published by Sawamuraya Seikichi, carved by Asai Ginjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

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The eccentric Zen priest Ikkyū Sōjun (1394–1481), the 47th abbot of the Daitoku-ji Temple in Kyoto, wandered the country for many years to spread the word of Buddhism and to assist believers in their path to achieve enlightenment. According to legend, Ikkyū visited brothels during his lifetime and once entered into a conversation with a courtesan named Jigoku (Hell). The encounter was later singled out by popular writers like Santō Kyōden (1761–1816) in his book Drunken Enlightenment in Japan, Complete (Honchō suibodai zenden) from 1809, as well as playwrights like Kawatake Mokuami (1816–93) who turned the story in 1865 into the Kabuki play Jigoku Ikkyū banashi. Identified as Jigoku-dayū (tayū indicating the highest rank of courtesan), the Hell Courtesan began to appear more frequently in Japanese woodblock prints from the mid-1840s. Characteristic of her rank, she wore many layers of clothing. Her outer robe was decorated in motifs that related to Buddhist Hell, which usually included a portrait of Enma, the King of Hell (see page 36). This is the case in Utagawa Kunisada’s (1786–1865) portrait from 1861 which shows her also with the appropriate extravagant coiffeur

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and holding a fly whisk used to drive away insects when a person is meditating. Kunisada placed her in a chair typical of those used by high-ranking priests. Jigoku-dayū was a subject particularly dear to the artist Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89), who designed a remarkable woodblock print of her in 1874. He depicts her having a nap and dreaming of skeletons that play music, dance, play Go, frolic, carouse, drink, and knock over headstones as they assist one another to climb out of graves. Kyōsai subsequently used this theme in paintings, in which he omitted the many golden hair needles that would indicate the Hell Courtesan’s high rank. Seven paintings that carry Kyōsai’s signature from the second half of the 1880s are known, including his Hell Courtesan, with Jigokudayū dressed in an elaborate robe. A letter from 1890 written by his daughter to the British architect and Kyōsai student Josiah Conder (1852–1920), states that she assisted him with one of the paintings. In contrast to Kyōsai’s style, the portrait of Jigoku-dayū by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) confines the skeletons to conversing among themselves against a pale grey background. Somewhat delicate himself, Yoshitoshi is said to have had a passionate liaison with a high-ranking courtesan named Maboroshi.

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Picture of the Hell Courtesan’s Enlightenment (Jigoku-dayū godō no zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.235)

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ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, detail of Hell Courtesan, second half 1880s; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 144.2 ×67.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art, Kelvin Smith Collection, given by Mrs. Kelvin Smith (1985.268)

ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Hell Courtesan (Yūjo jigoku), from the series Biographies of Famous Women Past and Present (Kokon meifu den), 1861; published by Sakanaya Eikichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

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Kamaitachi 鎌鼬 Sickle Weasel Japanese folklore puts the blame for any inexplicable (or deliberately hidden) scratch on one’s skin on the kamaitachi, the Sickle Weasel. Often there is no pain associated with these scratches, but since they appear instantly and for no reason, the kamaitachi is associated with the phenomenon of a whirlwind (or dust devil) that suddenly whips up. The belief in the kamaitachi is widespread in Japan, especially in the snow country of the main island of Honshu.

Kamaitachi are considered to be Japanese weasels (itachi) with claws as sharp as sickles (kama). Instead of the usual written form 鎌鼬, Toriyama Sekien wrote kamaitachi as kyūki 窮奇 in his Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). But a kyūki is a supernatural being from Chinese folklore which is described in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), compiled in the fourth and third centuries bce, as a bovine that devours humans.

Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

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Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 5, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Kamikiri かみきり Hair Cutter

According to rumors that circulated in urban areas during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, the kamikiri is said to secretly and suddenly cut a person’s hair. It was common for both men and women to keep their hair tied back. While walking home at night it would sometimes get cut at the tie and left in the street, the victim only noticing this after arriving home. While the kamikiri appears in literature, it is fairly rare in the arts, and Toriyama Sekien does not include it in his four books. It is featured, however, in some of the handscrolls that show an assortment of demons (Bakemono zukushi), but not in the one in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art. Both of the handscrolls Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, and Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde (Hyakkai zukan) by Sawaki Sūshi from 1737 at the Fukuoka

Art Museum feature a similarlooking devilish creature in the shape of a bird with big eyes, a long, scissor-like beak, and pincer hands. Next to it is a lock of hair which it has just secretly cut from a person’s head. In Japanese society at that time, long, luxurious female hair conveyed information about a

woman’s social position, wealth, and marital status as well as age, while men’s topknots revealed information on their status and profession. Women and men would only cut their hair when becoming a nun or taking the tonsure. Losing one’s hair would be a symbolic experience and quite a traumatic one.

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Kappa 河童 Water Sprite A kappa (lit. “river child”) is a child-sized humanoid demon that lives in water. Although it bears some resemblance to a frog, it has a water-filled depression on the top of its head. If that is damaged and begins to leak, the kappa is weakened. Kappa have webbed hands and feet, a short beak, three anuses, and sometimes a tortoiseshell back. The kappa is known by other names, such as kawatarō, in other regions of Japan. These

imps or water sprites lurk in murky water, and when they attack humans who are swimming they remove the shirikodama, a mythical organ believed to be the source of life, from the victim’s anus, as illustrated by Kitao Masayoshi (1764–1824) in his book Notes on the Advent of Monsters (Bakemono chakutōchō). Kappa then either eat the shirikodama or hand it over to the Dragon King as tax.

Kappa are known to love eating cucumbers and to engage in sumo wrestling, as depicted by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92), who captured the professional wrestler Shirafuji Genta, a popular character from Kabuki theater, watching them play. They are mischievous troublemakers but can also be dangerous as they can hide beneath the water surface to prey on horses, kidnap children, rape women, and drown people to eat their flesh. Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

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LEFT Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 2, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

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RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Shirafuji Genta,

from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Kitao Masayoshi, Notes on the Advent of Specters (Bakemono chakutōchō), 1788; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; National Diet Library, Japan BELOW

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ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Kasha 火車 Burning Chariot

Kasha (lit. “burning chariot”) refers to a vicious demon that usually pulls a chariot engulfed in flames and wind. It is a well-known demon throughout Japan and appears in many legends. The kasha can also occur in bakemono zukushi handscrolls that illustrate a selection of demons, such as Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University. In such handscrolls, the demon pulling the chariot resembles an ogre. In contrast, Toriyama Sekien in his Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) depicted kasha as a humanoid feline. Sekien also omitted the chariot in his kasha portrait, instead showing the demon carrying a corpse. The general belief is that a kasha appears at funerals and cemeteries, and because of its great strength can make its way through mourners. It can also ferociously open graves and steal corpses. However, it only chooses those who have died after a life full of sin. The kasha serves Hell and deports the corpses there on its chariot.

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863) LEFT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Waseda University Library

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Kazenbō 火前坊 or Bōka 亡火 Monk Prior to Fire

The kazenbō (lit. “monk prior to fire”) rarely appears in the visual arts of Japan. But when he does make an appearance, it is as an emaciated monk with a shaven head who either wears a loincloth or is covered in rags. His body is engulfed in flames, which gives rise to his name. Toriyama Sekien includes the kazenbō in his Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 2, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

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hyakki shūi) and explains in the accompanying text that the kazenbō lives on Mount Toribe, better known as Toribeno, an area in the eastern part of Kyoto that has served as a burial ground since the Heian period (794– 1185). Sekien alludes to the practice of self-immolation common among some Buddhist monks who, because of their insecure life, were convinced that it was the only way to paradise. But the spirit of those who do not achieve this because of underlying regrets becomes a kazenbō. This demon is rarely included in bakemono zukushi handscrolls that feature a variety of demons, but it does make an appearance in the handscroll in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art where it is named bōka (lit. “fire of the deceased”). 66

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Koji no Yokai 古寺の妖怪 Demons in Old Temples

Japanese folklore belief that demons often dwell in old, dilapidated temples (koji no yōkai) is comparable to Western thought about ghosts haunting graveyards. Each temple can either have its own specific demon or demons, or undefined creatures that can still cause a disturbance of some kind. Koji no yōkai became a popular subject matter in Japanese visual arts in the nineteenth century because of the courageous men and women who confronted these demons, unfazed by their wickedness. The serial novel Ghost Stories of Baby Birds in Spring (Kaidan haru no hinadori) written by Hayashiya Shōzō (1781–1842) and published between 1838 and 1841, contains an illustration by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865) of a scene in an old temple on Mount Amagi in central Izu Peninsula (today’s Shizuoka Prefecture). Several different demons threaten the brave Tawara Jirō Hideyoshi who, undeterred, enjoys a pipe. Another example of such brave men are the three warriors of the Mori clan, Fuwa Bansaku (1578– 95), Nagoya Sanza (d. 1603), and Takagi Umanosuke (1656–1746), who have allegedly been sent to investigate the rumors about a

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Fuwa Bansaku, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.58)

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monster living in an ancient temple. While all three are wellknown figures, Umano-suke was born after Bansaku and Sanza had already died, and this visit would thus not have been possible.

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Bansaku is a page of Toyotomi Hidetsugu (1568–95), the nephew and retainer of Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–98), one of the unifiers of Japan in the late sixteenth century. Bansaku and

Sanza were among the three most handsome boys of their time and their rivalry became a favorite subject in Kabuki theater. Umanosuke was a legendary master of martial arts, especially close-

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combat fighting (jujutsu). Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) captured Umanosuke in his series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden). Umanosuke is sitting

calmly at a table, resting his head in his hand, when a gigantic head appears in the dark, which seems to be an ōkubi (see page 95). In the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan

BELOW Toda Shūgetsu, Biographies of the Brave Amako Clan (Amako buyūden), 1885; published by Hon’ami Minokichi, carved by Koizumi Tatsujirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Utagawa Kunisada, Ghost Stories of Baby Birds in Spring (Kaidan haru no hinadori), vol. 3 jō, 1841; published by Kawaguchiya Uhei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Takagi Umanosuke, from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1866; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.367)

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hyaku monogatari), Yoshitoshi portrays Bansaku facing an entirely different-looking demon. Moreover, there are no historical reports of any military achievements by Bansaku. Toda Shūgetsu (act. ca. 1877– 87) illustrates another story related to the ten brave warriors of the Amako clan that was adapted to Kabuki. Shūgetsu portrays a demon disguised as an abbot approaching Princess Kokonoe who is said to be the wife of the samurai Yamanaka Yukimori (1545–78), the leading retainer of the Amako.

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Kojorō 小女郎

Prevalent in Japanese folklore, literature, and theater is a fox (kitsune) that lives among humans disguised as a young girl or prostitute named Kojorō. In one story, Kojorō is married to another fox who gets killed, after which she disappears. In the book Facing the Fox Kojorō from Mikuni (Awasete Mikuni Kojorō-gitsune) from 1819, written by Ryūtei Tanehiko (1783–1842), the charade of the fox is discovered at the end and Kojorō is killed by an arrow. Kojorō-gitsune became a ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 × 684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

RIGHT Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 6, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

character in several Kabuki plays, such as Hikitsurete yagoe taiheiki from 1776, Komachi-mura shibai no shōgatsu from 1789, Meika no tokumimasu no tamagaki from 1801, and Ise Heiji hiiki no kamikaze from 1818. The handscroll A Collection of Monsters at the Minneapolis Institute of Art includes such a fox, labeled as Kojorō, which has long hair like a woman and is dressed in a green outer robe. Yōkai (Demons)

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Koto-furunushi 琴古主 Old Man Koto Appearing in depictions of demon night parades (hyakki yagyō) is a tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) of a koto, a plucked zither instrument, by the name of koto-furunushi (lit. “old man koto”). A dancing lute head spirit, a biwa-bokuboku (see page 28), usually pulls the koto-furunushi by a leash, which looks unhappy and tries to resist. Toriyama Sekien in his book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) shows the koto-furunushi sitting in a room, and explains that it is 72

not just an old, unused instrument that came to life but rather the incarnation of a forgotten type of music, an explanation Sekien maintains he invented. In the visualization by Sekien as well as in the night parades, the koto-furunushi is always shown with long strings for its hair but the rendering of its legs differs. While Sekien’s kotofurunushi bears the standard legs of koto, the parading kotofurunushi is given claws and legs and a tail that might have been inspired by those of a tiger.

ABOVE Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 ×489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

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Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of the Fox-woman Kuzunoha Leaving Her Child (Kuzunoha-gitsune dōji ni wakaruru no zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Kuzunoha

の葉

Kuzunoha (lit. “arrowroot leaf”) is a popular fox character in Japanese folklore. The story is set during the reign of Emperor Murakami (926–67; r. 946–67), when a young nobleman by the name of Abe Yasuna traveled to a shrine in Shinoda (today’s Osaka Prefecture) where he saves a fox that is being hunted for its liver, which was considered medicinal. Abe Yasuna, a fictitious character 74

about whom no historical records exist, gets injured during the rescue. A beautiful woman, Kuzunoha, appears, cares for his wounds, and takes him back to his home. They eventually fall in love, marry, and have a child named Dōjimaru. Dōjimaru turns out to be exceedingly clever, and when he is five years old he learns that his mother Kuzunoha has supernatural powers and is, in

fact, the fox his father had saved. Kuzunoha returns to the forest of Shinoda. Yasuna realizes that Kuzunoha has entered the human world to repay him for saving her life and he takes his son and follows her. In the forest Kuzunoha gives them a golden box and a crystal ball. When Dōjimaru comes of age, he takes the name Seimei and becomes a master in Onmyōdō, an esoteric, cosmological belief system. Abe Seimei (921–1005) is, in fact, a historical person who advised Emperor Murakami in matters of Onmyōdō. This legend was adapted to Japanese theater, and especially the play Ashiya Dōman Ōuchi Kagami, which premiered in 1734 to much acclaim. Dōjimaru realizing the fox in his mother became a popular motif in woodblock prints.

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Tsumagome: Abe Yasuna and the Fox Kuzunoha, from the series The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kisokaidō (Kisokaidō rokujūkyū tsugi no uchi), 1852; published by Minatoya Kohei, carved by Ōtaya Takichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Tokyo Metropolitan Library (062-C3-44)

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Kyūbi no kitsune 九尾の狐 Nine Tailed Fox

The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), compiled in China in the fourth and third centuries bce, reports of the existence of nine-tailed foxes (kyūbi no kitsune), a belief disseminated to Korea and Japan. In East Asian folklore, foxes are highly intelligent, have a devious nature, and can shape-shift into humans. When they age, they grow additional tails, and once the number reaches nine they are at the apex of their supernatural powers. In Japan, the most prominent nine-tail fox is Tamamo-no-mae (see pages 107–10), who is sometimes considered to have first terrorized China and India before coming to Japan. In China, she was Bao Si (Jp. Hōji), concubine of King You (795–71 bce) of the Zhou Dynasty, before she went to India to become Madayanti (Jp. Kayō), the wife of King Kalmashapada of the mythological Ikshvaku Dynasty. The latter was portrayed by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861) in his series Japanese and Chinese Comparisons for the Chapters of Genji (Wakan nazorae Genji) even though the subject is from India and not from Japan or China.

Harukawa Goshichi, detail of Mirror With the Design of a Nine-tailed Fox, 1820s; carved by Tani Seikō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, shikishiban; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, H. O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929 (JP2161)

RIGHT

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, The Maidens (Otome), from the series Japanese and Chinese Comparisons for the Chapters of Genji (Wakan nazorae Genji), 1855; published by Iseyoshi; carved by Tsuka Shōjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

OPPOSITE

ABOVE Artist unknown, A

Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 × 684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

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Mehitotsu-bō 目一つ坊 One Eyed Priest

A one-eyed priest appears in Japanese folklore under several different names. In the handscroll Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, he is called

mehitotsu-bō, while in the one in the scroll in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art he is simply called ichigan 一眼 (lit. “one eye”). In Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), his name is ichime

一目 which also means “one eye,”

and in Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), Toriyama Sekien calls him ao-bōzu 青坊主 (lit. “blue monk”). This name was adopted by Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89) in Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga). While mehitotsu-bō appears like a normal priest clad in a brown robe, albeit with no sandals, his distinct characteristic is his one eye, centered above his long and ugly nose that makes him look like the Cyclopes from Greek and Roman mythology. Another demon by the name of hitotsume-kozō (lit. “one-eyed monk-in-training”) might be the child version of mehitotsu-bō. Generally, mehitotsu-bō appears harmless in the arts, but the Minneapolis scroll pictures him with fangs.

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of

a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of

Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

ABOVE

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Graphic Novel About Long Ago Specters (Ōmukashi bakemono sōshi), 1795; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Onogawa Kisaburō, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.33)

LEFT

Mikoshi-nyūdō 見越し入道 Look Over Priest

There are several related demons based on nyūdō, which is a term applied to someone who is about to enter the Buddhist priesthood, or to someone whose head is shaven in the manner of a Buddhist priest but who remains a layperson. One type of nyūdō 80

demon is the ō-nyūdō, which is basically a gigantic nyūdō (see page 98). The other is a mikoshinyūdō, a form of ō-nyūdō that has such an enormously extended neck that it can “look over” (mikoshi) tall things such as folding screens that were used

by the affluent as room dividers. Both types of nyūdō demon usually have a bald head and sometimes a third eye on their forehead, and both types appear during the night, and although not generally harmless can attack people. Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798– 1861) portrayed Sakata Kintoki (956–1012), one of the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō) who aided Minamoto Yorimitsu (948–1021) in his adventures, wrestling with a mikoshi-nyūdō and grabbing his long neck and head. Kuniyoshi’s student Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) portrayed the famous sumo wrestler Onogawa Kisaburō (1758–1806), who had heard that his master’s castle was being terrorized every night by monsters. The courageous Kisaburō is waiting in the night for the demons when the head of a mikoshi-nyūdō appears from behind a folding screen to laugh at him. Relaxed and visibly unimpressed by the supernatural creature, Kisaburō blows smoke in its face, much to the displeasure of the mikoshi-nyūdō.

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Utagawa Toyokuni, Sodenoume and Dotebushi Moon Song (Sodenoume tsuki no dotebushi), vol. 1, 1817; published by Tsuruya Kinsuke; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 17.5 ×24 cm; Tokyo Metropolitan Library

LEFT

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Sakata Kintoki, 1830s; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

LEFT

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Nari-gama 鳴佂 Chirping Cauldron

The nari-gama or nari-kama is a demon of the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) category which Toriyama Sekien features in A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro). Nari-gama literally means “chirping cauldron” or “crying cauldron,” referring to the call of birds. This demon’s head is an upside-down cauldron from which flames arise. Its body is covered in long hair, but its limbs have short hair. Sekien’s picture shows the narigama praying, holding up a votive tablet (ema) decorated with two birds. However, the location in which Sekien has captured the nari-gama is not a religious one but rather an ordinary kitchen typical of the time. In his commentary, he mentions a demon by the name of renjo 斂女, which is known in China to emit bird-like cries, and that saying his name can put an end to strange happenings. Okayama City is home to the Kibitsu Shrine where the ancient ritual Narukama Shunji is performed. This is meant to reveal if a particular wish will be granted in the future. During the ceremony, a sound emerges from a cauldron (which is actually made from steaming rice grains) and the believer is left to interpret if the outcome is “good” or “bad.” 82

ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 ×489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

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Nekomata 猫また

A nekomata is a type of cat ghost that can either be wild and live in the mountains or be domesticated and live in someone’s house. In China, stories about supernatural cats go as far back as the sixth century, whereas in Japan the earliest appearance is in the book Record of a Bright Moon (Meigetsuki) from 1233. Wild nekomata hiding in mountainous regions can be as large as boars, can eat humans, and can also take on a human form. In demon picture handscrolls (bakemono zukushi) like Illustrated Scroll of a Mysterious Horde (Hyakkai zukan) by Sawaki Sūshi from 1737 at the Fukuoka Art Museum and Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, the nekomata takes on the form of a woman playing the shamisen, a threestringed instrument, the hollow body of which is covered front and back with skin. During the Edo period (1603–1868), cat skin was traditionally used for the covering. It is therefore assumed that this nekomata is singing a sad song about its family. Toriyama Sekien features a nekomata in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) from 1776

that shows how a nekomata transforms into a human by beginning to walk on its hind legs and carrying a towel on its head. The nekomata has a split tail which is meant to distinguish it from other supernatural cats known as bakeneko (see page 24). However, the shamisen-plucking nekomata in the demon picture handscrolls which are labeled as nekomata are not depicted with split tails. Hence, this does not seem to be an indisputable characteristic of nekomata.

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by

Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

BELOW Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Nobusuma 野衾 Wild Blanket

A nobusuma resembles a flying squirrel, and its name, “wild blanket,” literally describes its form when it is flying in the air. When in flight, it looks similar to a bat but it has short limbs and long claws and is covered in a rich fur. Japan is home to the musasabi, the Japanese giant flying squirrel (Petaurista leucogenys), which can grow to a body length of 20 inches (50 cm). Since squirrels able to fly at night were deemed suspicious in premodern times, this species was perfectly qualified to be considered demonic. However, Toriyama Sekien in his book Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) further notes that it eats nuts as well as fire. The Edo-period (1603–1868) book of weird phenomena, Miscellaneous Writings on a Venerable Plum Tree (Baiō zuihitsu), mentions a beast that attacks cats and sucks out their blood and when it is killed it looks like a winged weasel. Another legend says that this demon extinguishes the torches carried by people at night, which would explain why it is believed it can eat fire. The Picture Book of a Hundred Stories (Ehon hyaku monogatari) from 1841 claims 84

BELOW Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Miyamoto Musashi, ca. 1825–30; published by Kawaguchiya Uhei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Miyamoto Musashi, from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1867; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō, carved by Katada Chōjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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that a very old bat eventually becomes a demon. Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798– 1861), as well as his student Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92), portrayed the famous swordsman Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1643) fighting a nobusuma in the mountains, which is an adaptation of the legend about Musashi training in the art of the sword.

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 3, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

LEFT

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Nue 鵺

The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari) from the thirteenth century includes an episode about a monster called nue which is described as having the head of a monkey, the body of a badger, the tail of a snake, and the feet of a tiger. The creature is reported to have tormented Emperor Konoe (1139–55) during the Ninpei era (1151–54). Every night at exactly the same time in the early hours of the morning, dark clouds enveloped the palace from the east and the emperor became possessed by a spirit. The nobles and courtiers decided to call

upon a great warrior to face the monster in the night and protect the emperor. The choice fell on Minamoto Yorimasa (1104–80), head of the Arsenal (hyōgo no kami) and a famed archer. Yorimasa follows the imperial order and takes with him only one of his trusted retainers, I no Hayata (n.d.). Hayata carries eagle-feathered arrows and Yorimasa two pheasant-feathered arrows. Yorimasa takes up his position on the veranda and, as in the nights before, dark clouds envelop the palace from the east. In the clouds, Yorimasa spots a

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, I no Hayata Hironao, from the series One of the Eight Hundred Brave Men of the Japanese ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Honchō Suikoden gōketsu happyakunin no hitori), ca. 1830–36; published by Kagaya Kichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

RIGHT

Utagawa Kunisada, Votive Picture Donated to the Kannon of Asakusa, Painted by Toryūō Kō Sūkoku, Miniature Copy by Kōchōrō Kunisada (Asakusa Kanzeon gaku, Toryūō Kō Sūkoku hitsu, Kōchōrō Kunisada shukuzu), 1830s; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

RIGHT

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Utagawa Yoshikazu, Picture of Minamoto Yorimasa Exterminating a Nue (Minamoto Yorimasa Nue Taiji no zu), 1852; published by Kiya Sōjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (012-1419/20/21)

RIGHT

BELOW Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Watanabe Teishichi Tonau (R), I no Hayata Hironao (C), and Genzanmi Yorimasa (L) Killing a Nue, 1820s; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection OPPOSITE BOTTOM Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 3, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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demon. Knowing very well that his life will be sacrificed if he misses, the determined Yorimasa invokes the god of war and shoots his arrow. Yorimasa is convinced that he has hit the nue and Hayata rushes to the monster, stabbing it with his sword nine times. During the Ōhō era (1161–63), the cry of a nue was heard in the palace and the Emperor Nijō (1143–65) was alarmed. Remembering the bravery of Yorimasa ten years earlier, Yorimasa is called upon once again. A little after twilight, a dark cloud appears above the palace roof and Yorimasa shoots and kills his second nue. The

sword that Yorimasa is rewarded with for killing the first nue is named Shishiō, or King of Lions, and is considered to have survived to this day. It is registered in Japan as an Important Cultural Property (jūyō bunkazai) and is stored in the collection of the Tokyo National Museum. Toriyama Sekien included the chimera-like nue flying above the roof in a dark swirl in Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki). The warriors Yorimasa and Hayata who killed it became a popular motif in woodblock prints. Yōkai (Demons)

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Nuppeppō ぬっぺっぽう

The nuppeppō is a fleshy blob that occasionally appears in demon picture handscrolls (Bakemono zukushi). Its eyes, nose, and mouth, as well as its short extremities, are only hinted at

by fatty folds of flesh. It appears, therefore, as somewhat hapless and lumpy but also cute. Its name is derived from the slang word nupperi, which refers to applying too much make-up, thus making the face appear to be sagging. Toriyama Sekien features the nuppeppō in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), but while he does not provide an explanation, he has captured the nuppeppō outside a building, standing under a bronze bell, which could have been used to summon monks for meals. Details about the nuppeppō are scarce, but the oldest appearance of a similar creature seems to be in a text by the writer Maki

Bokusen (1775–1824), who was also a student of the famous print artist Kitagawa Utamaro (1753– 1806). Bokusen claims in the book One-Night Conversation (Isshōwa/Hitoyobanashi), dated 1810, that such a creature had appeared at the castle of the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543– 1616), who had taken it away into the mountains not knowing that a bite from its flesh could reinvigorate one’s health. BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 ×489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119) LEFT Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Nurarihyon ぬらりひょん

The demon picture handscrolls (Bakemono zukushi), as well as the demon night parades (hyakki yagyō), sometimes feature the nurarihyon as an unshaven old man with a supersized, backwards elongated bald head. While the nurarihyon is usually depicted barefoot with sagging shoulders and loosely fitting kimono and sash, that could point to him being a monk, Toriyama Sekien deviates from this in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). He depicts the nurarihyon as a high-ranking samurai who carries a sword, wears a more sumptuous robe and sandals and enters a house after riding in a comfortable, large, and therefore expensive palanquin. As with so many other images of demons, no explanatory note is given and thus little is known about the nurarihyon. As its name is a composite of the words nurari (“slippery”) and hyon (“bizarre”), this might indicate that it cannot be caught. A plausible explanation could therefore be that the nurarihyon is a bizarre creature that stealthily enters one’s house, drinks one’s tea and smokes and then disappears without a trace.

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

ABOVE

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Nure-onna ぬれ女 Wet Woman The nure-onna (lit. “wet woman”), appears in demon picture handscrolls (bakemono zukushi) as a serpent with the head of a woman with long, wet hair and the long tongue of a snake. In Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), however, Toriyama Sekien adds two arms to the nure-onna. In Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89) renders the nure-onna rather differently, without eyes or the snake-like tongue, but with the long locks turned into snakes. Details about nure-onna are scarce but it is believed that nure-onna are monstrous beings that live in the sea or in rivers to haunt humans and consume them. 92

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

TOP LEFT

TOP RIGHT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga),

1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

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Nuri-botoke 塗仏 Lacquered Buddha

Nuri-botoke (lit. “lacquered buddha”) can appear in demon picture handscrolls (bakemono zukushi) as well as in demon night parades (hyakki yagyō). While their overall appearance resembles a buddha, their eyeballs dangle out of their sockets in front of them and are black, as if they have been lacquered. Some visualizations show nuri-botoke with straight hair falling below their waist, while others depict them with their tongue sticking out. The word botoke can also refer generally to someone who has died, as “fallen eyes” (meotoshi) is an idiom for death. The black color could indicate impurity and also refer to death. Toriyama Sekien captures a nuri-botoke in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) as it emerges from a portable miniature Buddhist altar (butsudan), but the exact context is uncertain.

FROM TOP Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765) Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries FAR LEFT Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Nyoi-jizai 如意自在 Free Scratcher

Toriyama Sekien features in his book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) a demon of the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) category by the name of nyoi-jizai, which he might have invented. It is modeled after a nyoi or ceremonial Buddhist scepter used by monks in sermons. The nyoi is originally from China (ruyi), but here is derived or related to a back scratcher which

Sekien refers to in his description. Since nyoi are meant to reach itchy spots, so can the nyoi-jizai (lit. “free scratcher”) reach any spot with its long claws. In Sekien’s depiction, the nyoi scepter forms the head of the nyoi-jizai, its handle being a tall extension, while the scratching segment replaces the forehead and eyes on the upper part of the head. Its emaciated body mirrors those of Buddhist hermits and he

is shown sitting among clouds. Some depictions of demon night parades (hyakki yagyō) include a nyoi-jizai, such as the handscroll in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art. Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89) also included a nyoi-jizai in his book Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan) from 1890, which captures a night parade as well.

ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

ABOVE Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 ×489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Katsushika Hokusai, Stars on a Freezing Night, Modern Ghost Stories (Kinsei kaidan, shimoyo no hoshi), vol. 4, 1808; published by Yamazakiya Heihachi; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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Ōkubi 大首 Giant Head Apparitions of giant heads are called ōkubi. The heads can be male or female but the bodies of both are never visible. In Japanese folklore, the emergence of an ōkubi in the sky is a foreboding of a natural disaster such as a typhoon. Hence, ōkubi appear and vanish again after sighting. Toriyama Sekien’s explanatory text in his book Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) from 1779 speaks solely of women’s heads and notes that they have blackened teeth. Teeth blackening in Japan, known as ohaguro, was practiced since prehistoric times as a form of beautification. However, when done poorly, the result can look ghastly. Sekien’s depiction was adapted by Katsushika Hokusai

(1760–1849) in his 1808 book Stars on a Freezing Night, Modern Ghost Stories (Kinsei kaidan, shimoyo no hoshi), but here he made the ōkubi appear much more terrifying. The four men encountering it are horrified and try to take flight. Ōkubi is also a term used in the arts when describing large head portraits of Kabuki actors or beautiful women, especially in woodblock prints. However, this genre did not enjoy great popularity until after the publication of Sekien’s book. ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 3, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Toyohara Chikanobu, The Pawnbroker’s Warehouse (Shichiya no kura), from the series Literary Works by Bakin (Bakin chojutsu), 1892; published by Morimoto Junzaburō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of The Art of Japan

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Ōmukade 大百足 Colossal Centipede Fujiwara Hidesato (891?–958?/ 991?), also known as Tawara Tōda, was a nobleman who served the imperial court in Kyoto. His exact year of birth has not been verified, but it is known that in 916 he was asked to resign from his post in Shimotsuke Province (today’s Tochigi Prefecture) although he continued to serve. In 939, the provincial magnate Taira Masakado (d. 940) 96

led a small rebellion against an outpost of the central government and marched on to conquer Shimotsuke. Hidesato was among the men who was asked by the Emperor Suzaku (923–52) for help in subjugating Masakado and his allies. In 940, at the Battle of Kojima, Hidesato and Taira Sadamori (d. 989?) faced Masakado. According to the tenthcentury The Masakado Records

(Shōmonki), it was Hidesato’s arrow that killed Masakado. The two men took Masakado’s head to Kyoto and were awarded with high rank. Hidesato was appointed governor of Shimotsuke and received the military post of chinjufu-shōgun, commander-inchief of the northern region of Japan, charged with the pacification of the Ezo people of northern Honshu and Hokkaido. Hidesato largely disappears from historic records after 940 apart from two conflicting sources that record his year of death as 958 and 991. The Tale of Tawara Tōda (Tawara Tōda monogatari), written in the Muromachi period (1336–1573), is a compilation of the heroic deeds of one Tawara Tōda, who for centuries was believed to be a pseudonym for Hidesato, even though historic records about Hidesato make no mention of that name. In 908, Tōda was purportedly traveling and about to cross the Kara Bridge (Karahashi) over the Seta River, an inlet of Lake Biwa in Ōtsu, when he encountered a majestic dragon. In some

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versions, the dragon transforms into the Dragon King (Ryūjin), in others into a beautiful woman. Tōda is asked for help against a colossal centipede (ōmukade) that is terrorizing the underwater Dragon Palace. It has its lair on Mount Mikami, less than 3 miles

(20 km) from the bridge. In one variation of the story, Tōda is taken to the Dragon Palace to feast and to await yet another attack of the ōmukade. In another, he leaves immediately for Mount Mikami to face the ōmukade. In the event, Tōda, being a

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Tawara Tōda Hidesato and the Dragon Woman of Seta, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.55)

formidable archer, kills the monster with an arrow that he had previously licked because human saliva was toxic to the ōmukade. Tōda was rewarded greatly and received many treasures, such as a bag of rice that never emptied.

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Kusatsu, from the series Fifty-three Pairs of the Tōkaidō (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsui), ca. 1845; published by Ebiya Rinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

BELOW

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Ō-nyūdō 大入道 Giant Priest

Nyūdō is a term used for someone who has not yet been ordained as a Buddhist priest but has the shaven head of a priest and is still a layperson. Several related demons are supernatural nyūdō, such as the ō-nyūdō (lit. “large nyūdō”). A sub-form of the ō-nyūdō is the mikoshi-nyūdō, which has an extensible head that allows it to look over things (see page 80). An ō-nyūdō can be portrayed as a bald-headed demon gigantic in size and several meters tall that resembles a priest, but it can also be depicted as a vague shadow that appears to be a large priest. The shadow version is illustrated by Ryūsai Masazumi (act. ca. 1822–52) in the book Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari). Sometimes the ō-nyūdō has a third eye on its forehead. Many surviving folktales report of people being threatened by them or getting sick after seeing them. Others speak of ō-nyūdō if a priest turns out to be an animal like a fox or badger in disguise. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) captured an instance of an old badger that took the form of an ō-nyūdō which is vanquished by Kusunoki Masatsuru (d. 1348). Masatsuru was a military 98

commander during the Nanbokuchō period (1336–92) when there was a northern and a southern imperial court that fought, along with their allies, for succession to the throne. In the 1340s, Masatsuru was a supporter of the south and led several campaigns against the shogunate in Kyoto that was, in reality, controlling the northern emperors. Yoshitoshi portrays Masatsura on a veranda with drawn sword driving away the ō-nyūdō. He is assisted by Chikudōmaru, the future Togashi Masaie (d. 1387), feudal lord of Kaga in northcentral Japan, who shines a lantern, revealing a large number of demons lurking in the dark.

ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 x 692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Kusunoki Tamonmaru Conquering the Old Badger (Kusunoki Tamonmaru kori taiji no zu), 1860; published by Kakumotoya Kinjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.9a-c)

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ABOVE Tomikawa Fusanobu, Kamada Matahachi’s Extermination of Specters (Kamada Matahachi bakemono taiji), vol. 1, 1769; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

ABOVE Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 8, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

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Osakabe-hime 長壁姫 Princess Osakabe

According to legend, Princess Osakabe (Osakabe-hime) hides in Himeji Castle, which is world famous for its white façade. She appears only once a year to tell the castle owner his fate and is otherwise believed to stay in hiding because she hates people. Her true identity is unclear but she is generally considered to be an old fox. Another theory is that she was the ghost of a previous castle owner. When Osakabe appears in A Hundred Stories from Various Provinces (Shokoku hyaku monogatari) from 1677, no mention is made of her gender. Toriyama Sekien depicts her as a hag in his book Illustrations

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of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) from 1779, appearing from behind some blinds that she lifts up while there are bats flying in front of her. In 1788, Kitao Masayoshi includes her in Notes on the Advent of Monsters (Bakemono chakutōchō). The accompanying text informs us that those who see her will perish instantly. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) portrays her in a very different way in a composition dating from 1863. The legendary swordsman Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1643) had attempted to confront Osakabe in the tower of Himeji Castle but the fox-like demon flees to the top of the

tower. Musashi pursues her and instead finds a beautiful woman. Upon touching Osakabe, humanized foxes dressed in the same way as she is emanate from her. Musashi realizes that Osakabe was possessed by an evil spirit and touching her served as an exorcism that drove out the evil fox spirit.

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Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 1, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

RIGHT

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Miyamoto Musashi and the Exorcism of the Evil Fox of Princess Osakabe, 1863; published by Yamazakiya Seishichi, carved by Tatekawa Hatsue; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.39a-c) OPPOSITE BELOW Kitao Masayoshi, Notes on the Advent of Specters (Bakemono chakutōchō), 1788; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

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Otoroshi おとろし or Otorō 化轉 Frightener

An otoroshi is a type of demon that is often included in the pictorial handscrolls that show an assortment of demons (bakemono zukushi), such as the one in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art. It is also featured in Toriyama Sekien’s Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). The body of the otoroshi is obscured by extremely long black hair with

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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some hanging down over the nose. The visible parts of the otoroshi’s body comprise a face and front legs tipped with three claws. Rendered in yellow, blue, or green, the face resembles the Buaku mask, but with tusks. Buaku is a demon in Kyōgen, a comic skit interspersed in Noh theater, and his sheepish grin conveys the Buaku’s docile character.

What otoroshi do is unclear since no explanatory texts exist, neither do any related folktales. The word otoroshi itself means “frightening” or “terrible” in Kansai dialect, whereas other parts of Japan would say osoroshi. The otoroshi in the Minneapolis handscroll is labeled 化轉 (meaning “transformation”) along with the pronunciation otorō, which would mean “inferior.”

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Priest Raigō of Mii-dera Transforming into a Vengeful Rat (Mii-dera Raigō ajari akunen nezumi to henzuru zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1891; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

LEFT

Raigō 頼豪 or Tesso 鉄鼠 Raigō (1002–84) was a monk of the Tendai school of Buddhism which he had studied at the Mii-dera Temple (Onjō-ji) at the foot of Mount Hiei, northeast of Kyoto. Because he was a disciplinarian, he was charged with keeping order among the acolytes. Since he was also a member of the influential Fujiwara noble family, Raigō became a spiritual adviser to the Emperor Shirakawa

(1053–1129). Shirakawa had been without a male heir and Raigō prayed fervently, which was believed to have aided the pregnancy of the empress and birth of Prince Atsufumi (1075– 77). Filled with gratitude, the emperor asked him what he wished for and Raigō asked for only one thing, to erect at his temple an ordination platform (kaidan), a place where people

who aspired to become Buddhist monks or nuns were given the precepts of Buddhism. However, the neighboring Tendai monastery Enryaku-ji already had such a platform. Moreover, Enryaku-ji was a stronghold of the yamabushi, mountain worshippers who periodically terrorized Kyoto. Because of the deep rivalry between Enryaku-ji and Onjō-ji and Shirakawa’s fear of Enryaku-ji’s yamabushi, he did not grant Raigō’s wish and the platform was not built. Raigō, holding a grudge, fasted and died. According to legend, after his death, Raigō transformed into a tesso (lit. “metal rat”), that led tens of thousands of rats to Enryaku-ji to feast on its sacred texts. In 1808, the novelist Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei; 1767–1848) adopted elements of Raigō’s story for his popular book The Story of the Priest Raigō and Mysterious Rats (Raigō ajari kaiso den). Yōkai (Demons)

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Katsushika Hokusai, The Story of the Priest Raigō and Mysterious Rats (Raigō ajari kaiso den), vol. 4, 1808; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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BELOW Toyohara Chikanobu, The Story of the Priest Raigō and Mysterious Rats (Raigō ajari kaiso den), from the series Literary Works by Bakin (Bakin chojutsu), 1891; published by Morimoto Junzaburō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Yamabosi Shoten

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; University Library, Tokyo University of the Arts

ABOVE

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Rokurokubi 轆轤首 Pulley Neck

A rokuro refers to a “potter’s wheel” while kubi is the word for “neck.” Together the two words describe the appearance of the rokurokubi demon who is an ordinary woman during the day but at night, when asleep, her neck can stretch to enormous lengths and, snake-like, wriggle far away, even out of the sleeping room. Rokurokubi are not evil or harmful to humans. They appear relatively frequently in the arts but can be mistaken for mikoshi-nyūdō who also have a long neck but look like a monk (see page 80). A variation of the rokurokubi, which is believed to predate it in Japanese folklore, is called nukekubi. The nukekubi can detach its head completely so that the head can fly around, although it might still be connected to its body by a string. In contrast to the rokurokubi, there are legends about the nukekubi harming people. In his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), Toriyama Sekien used three characters for rokurokubi, which are usually pronounced hitōban 飛頭蛮, literally “flying-head-barbarian.” They refer to a similar Chinese demon that uses its ears like wings and eats insects.

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863

ABOVE Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 12, 1834; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Private collection

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Waseda University Library

ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

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Shōkira 生鬼羅

The shōkira, also know as shōkera, is a type of demon that appears in pictorial handscrolls containing a wide variety of such creatures (bakemono zukushi). Among them, Toriyama Sekien includes the shōkira in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). However, all such sources lack explanatory text, and thus the nature of this demon is unclear. The handscroll A Collection of Monsters in the archives of the Minneapolis Institute of Art gives the pronunciation shōkira and provides the characters 生鬼羅 (lit. “demon displaying life.”). Japanese folklore is aware of a custom called kōshin-machi, which refers to staying awake in the night to the 57th day of the

sexagenarian cycle to prevent the three worms that live in one’s gut from ascending to the gods for reporting on their host’s wrongdoings. These three worms are referred to as shōkera. However, the visual appearance of the shōkira/shōkera demon in the aforementioned sources is more like an upright-standing humanoid dog with a greenish body. Sekien even portrayed it on the roof of a building, watching the humans below through a skylight.

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

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Tamamo-no-mae 玉藻前 The legend of Tamamo-no-mae is believed to date from before the Muromachi period (1336–1573), but the earliest texts that include her are from the late fourteenth century. She is believed to have been modeled after Empress Bifukumon-in (Fujiwara Nariko; 1117–60), who became a consort of Emperor Toba (1103–56) in 1134. Five years later, she gave birth to Toba’s heir, the future Emperor Konoe (1139–55) and soon surpassed the emperor’s main wife in rank. After both Toba and Konoe died, she continued to try and influence the imperial succession, which ultimately erupted in rebellions. The fictitious Tamamo-no-mae was raised by a couple who could not have children of their own. At the age of eighteen, she began to serve at the imperial palace where her beauty and wisdom attracted the Emperor Toba. He made her his consort, but one day a supernatural light fell on Toba and he became gravely ill. His doctor could not determine the cause and called upon the court astrologer, Abe Yasunari, to investigate. Yasunari discovered Tamamo-no-mae was the cause of the illness. She turns into a nine-tailed fox, flies away, and vanishes. Sometime later, Toba

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Kazusanosuke Hirotsune, from the series One of the Eight Hundred Brave Men of the Japanese ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Honchō Suikoden gōketsu happyakunin no hitori), ca. 1830–36; published by Kagaya Kichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London LEFT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 1, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Yashima Gakutei, Tamamono-Mae and Miura Kuranosuke, ca. 1827; printed by Shūgyokudō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, shikishiban; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, J. A. Bierens de Haan Bequest, Amsterdam (RP-P-1958-436)

LEFT

BELOW Utagawa Kunisada, Picture of Abe no Yasunari Exorcizing Spirits (Abe no Yasunari yōkai chōbuku no zu), ca. 1845–46; published by Kogaya Katsugorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (201-2845/6/7)

learns from the feudal lord of Nasuno (today in Tochigi Prefecture) about cases of kidnapping of women and girls and he sends armed forces under the command of Miura Yoshiaki (1092?/1102?–80), Chiba Tsunetane (1118–1201), and Kazusa Hirotsune (d. 1184), as well as the astrologer Yasunari. They immediately discover Tamamono-mae, now in the shape of a nine-tailed fox, but their attack is unsuccessful against her supernatural powers. Gradually, the men and manage to corner the fox. Miura shoots two arrows that pierce her flank and neck and Kazusa slashes her with his sword, finishing her off. The fox turns into a huge, poisonous

stone that kills anyone that approaches it until the stone is eventually shattered by a Buddhist priest some two hundred years later. During the Edo period (1603– 1868), Tamamo-no-mae became a popular figure in novels as well as in theater adaptations, such as Sangoku yōfu den written by Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755– 1829) in 1807. A triptych by Utagawa Kunisada II (1823–80) related to the performance of this play in 1863 shows the prominent actor Nakamura Shikan IV (1830–99) in a double role as the white nine-tailed fox flying on a cloud in the sky, and as the astrologer Abe Yasunari below her.

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Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 6, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

LEFT

BELOW Utagawa Kunisada II, The Actors Nakamura Shikan IV as Tamamo-no-mae and Abe no Yasunari (L), Nakamura Fukusuke as Nasu Hachirō Muneshige (C), and Bandō Mitsugorō VI as Taikenmon-in (R), 1863; published by Shimizuya Naojirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of The Art of Japan

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Tengu 天狗 In the mountains lives a type of demon that is very popular in Japanese culture: the tengu (lit. “celestial dog”). The earliest mention of a tengu appears in the Chronicles of Japan (Nihon shoki) from 637. The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari), which dates to the thirteenth century, describes tengu in detail: “human, but not human; bird, but not bird; dog, but not dog; they possess feet and hands of a human, the head of a dog, wings on both sides, and can fly as well as walk.” In the Edo period (1603–1868), a distinction began to appear between different types of tengu. The usual form is called konohatengu (foliage tengu) or karasutengu (raven tengu), while the form with an extraordinarily long nose is hanadaka-tengu. The

latter is a more comical form that often appears in humorous depictions. Tengu can use magical feather fans to stir up great winds. Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815) pictured tengu shopping for such fans in the book Novel Idea of a Female Tengu (Chinsetsu onna tengu). Since tengu were considered spiritual guardians of the mountains, they became associated with

Katsukawa ShunshōII, detail of Minamoto Yoshinaka and His Four Retainers Defeat the Tengu in the Deep Mountains of Kiso (Minamoto Yoshinaka Shitennō to tomo ni Kiso no okuyama ni tengu o taiji su), ca. 1840; published by Fujiokaya Hikotarō, carved by Matsushima Fusajirō; wood- block prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

TOP

ABOVE Torii Kiyonaga, Novel Idea of a

Female Tengu (Chinsetsu onna tengu), 1780; published by Okumuraya; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Study of a Tengu Dressed as a Yamabushi, 1860s; ink on paper, 30 ×23 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.249)

LEFT

BELOW Utagawa Kuniyoshi,

Ushiwakamaru, with the Help of the Tengu, Fights Benkei on Gojō Bridge, ca. 1847–50; published by Enshūya Hikobei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

yamabushi, Buddhist mountain worshippers who trained in martial arts. The tengu were credited for having trained one of Japan’s best-known swordsmen, Minamoto Yoshitsune (1159–89). Yoshitsune was a military genius who assisted his half-brother Yoritomo (1147–99) in 112

consolidating power over Japan during the long period of conflict with the Taira clan in the twelfth century. Several woodblock prints capture the young Yoshitsune, then known as Ushiwakamaru, training on Mount Kurama under the tutelage of Sōjōbō, the mythical king of the tengu.

Although Ushiwakamaru had been sent to the Buddhist monastery for training, he spent his nights deeper in the woods learning from other tengu. Legend has it that the good relationship Yoshitsune established with the tengu later paid off because they assisted

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him in the shadows when Musashibō Benkei (1155–89) refused to let Yoshitsune cross the Gojō Bridge unless he fought with him. Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861) captured the scene of Benkei fending off Sōjōbō and seven of his followers as Yoshitsune watched. According to legend, several historical figures experienced encounters with tengu. For example, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) captured the legendary swordsman Miyamoto Musashi (1584–1643) dueling with a yamabushi during his travels. When Musashi defeated him, the yamabushi revealed itself to be a tengu and flew away.

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Picture of Ushiwakamaru’s Training on Mt. Kurama (Ushiwakamaru Kuramasan shugyō no zu), 1858; published by Maruya Kyūshirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Miyamoto Musashi, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

LEFT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

LEFT

Tsuchigumo 土蜘蛛 Earth Spider In ancient Japan, tsuchigumo (lit. “earth spider”), was a term used for renegade clans that did not obey the Yamato emperors. In premodern times, its use was limited to a particular type of legendary demonic spider monster. Large spiders like tarantulas are not native to Japan and thus their name in modern Japanese, ōtsuchigumo, is derived from the mythological use of the term tsuchigumo. The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari), which dates to the thirteenth century, tells of a mountain spider (yamagumo) that was defeated by the demonslayer Minamoto Yorimitsu (Raikō; 948–1021). When Yorimitsu was gravely ill, the prayers of the monks could not cure him. After being tormented by fever for over thirty days, a tall unknown priest approaches Yorimitsu and attempts to tie him 114

to his bed with a rope. But Yorimitsu reaches for his sword Hizamaru and strikes at the priest who disappears. Yorimitsu’s closest allies, the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō), investigate the trail of blood left by the priest and discover that it leads to a mound that is inhabited by a

giant earth spider. Realizing that Yorimitsu’s illness must have been caused by this demonic spider, they impale it. In the aftermath, Yorimitsu renames his sword Kumogiri (“spider-slayer”). A sword in the collection of Hakone Shrine is believed to be Yorimitsu’s Hizamaru/Kumogiri.

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Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 5, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

LEFT

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of an Earth Spider Monster Mentally Tormenting Sakata Kintoki and Others During the Night Guard in the Chambers of Minamoto Yorimitsu in the Fall of 976, from the series Yoshitoshi’s Random Sketches (Yoshitoshi manga), 1886; published by Kobayashi Tetsujirō, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.181a,b)

BELOW Utagawa Yoshikazu, Picture of Yorimitsu’s Brave Retainers, the Four Heavenly Kings, Slaying an Earth Spider (Yorimitsu no shin Shitennō no gōketsu tsuchigumo taiji no zu), 1858; published by Maruya Jinpachi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

LEFT

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Minamoto Yorimitsu and His Retainers Attacking an Earth Spider, early 1860s; preparatory drawing for a print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.240)

LEFT

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The story is more elaborately described and embellished in the narrative picture handscroll Illustrated Story of the Earth Spider (Tsuchigumo sōshi) from the fourteenth century, which is in the collection of the Tokyo National Museum. One autumn day, Yorimitsu and Watanabe Tsuna (953–1025), one of his closest allies among the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō), visit Kitayama just north of Kyoto. Here they encounter a skull floating through the air before entering a crumbling house

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which is haunted. When the two men enter the house, they find many different demons but also a captivating woman. Yorimitsu is taken by her beauty but she throws cloud-like white balls at him. Threatened, he slashes at her with his sword and she vanishes, leaving a trail of blood. When they follow the trail they are taken deep into the mountains to a cave and are suddenly confronted by a colossal spider. A battle ensues during which Yorimitsu manages to decapitate the spider. When the two men cut it open, they

discover numerous skulls and also small spiders that seem to be its children. There are many more variations on the basic story and, later, many adaptations into Japanese theater, such as the Noh play Tsuchigumo which dates from the late Muromachi period (1336–1573). The story also inspired various Kabuki plays. Tsuchigumo became a popular subject in the arts and is sometimes included in handscrolls, such as Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection

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of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University. Many woodblock prints, especially by Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861) and his students, capture the killing of the monster, with varying heroes carrying out the deed. Sometimes it is not Watanabe Tsuna but another of the Four Heavenly Kings. Sometimes it is all four of them, or it is five, with the inclusion of the warrior Hirai Yasumasa (958–1036). Yorimitsu himself is not necessarily involved in the slaying.

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Picture of an Earth Spider Generating Monsters at the Mansion of Lord Minamoto Yorimitsu (Minamoto Yorimitsu kō no yakata ni tsuchigumo yōkai o nasu zu), 1843; published by Ibaya Senzaburō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; National Diet Library, Japan

LEFT

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Minamoto Yorimitsu Cutting at an Earth Spider (Minamoto Yorimitsu Tsuchigumo o kiru zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1892; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.129)

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Tsuzura no bakemono

籠の化物

Demons in the Wicker Hamper

The Tongue-cut Sparrow (Shitakiri suzume) is a Japanese fable about an old couple and their contrasting behavior towards an injured sparrow. The story is an allegory on kindness and friendship versus greed and jealousy. Once upon time, there was a poor old woodcutter and his wife. The man was a kind soul but his wife was greedy. One day the man

came across an injured sparrow in the woods. He took mercy on the little creature and carried it home to help it recover. Every day he fed the sparrow some rice, which annoyed his wife who regarded this as a waste of their scant food. The man eventually had to return to the mountains to cut wood, leaving the sparrow in the care of his wife. His wife, however, did

feed the sparrow, and when she went out to fish the sparrow found some rice-paste in the house and ate it all up. The wife discovered this upon her return and was furious. She grabbed a pair of scissors and cut out the sparrow’s tongue before releasing it into the mountains. Once the man learned about this, he went into the mountains to search for the little sparrow and found the Sparrows’ Inn. His little sparrow invited him in, thanked the old man for his help, and apologized for eating the rice-paste. Together with the

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, The Greedy Old Woman, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.60)

LEFT

Utagawa Yoshimori, The Old Story of the Tongue-cut Sparrow (Mukashi-banashi shita-kiri suzume), 1864; published by Kogaya Katsugorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Private collection

RIGHT

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other sparrows they danced and celebrated. When the man was about to leave, the sparrow offered him a choice between a small and a large wicker hamper (tsuzura) to take home. The old man decided on the smaller one because he doubted he would be able to carry the large one. Warned not to open the hamper until he got home, he opened it only upon his arrival and found all kinds of treasures. His wife, hearing that there was an even larger basket, took off to the Sparrows’ Inn and retrieved the larger hamper. However, not being able to carry it all the way, she disregarded the sparrow’s warning and opened it before she reached home. Instead of treasures, numerous demons and monsters burst out of the hamper.

ABOVE Tsukioka

Yoshitoshi, The Heavy Basket (Omoi tsuzura), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1892; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Kuwana, from the series Fifty-three Pairs of the Tōkaidō (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsui), ca. 1845; published by Kojimaya Jūbei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

LEFT

Umibōzu 海坊主 Sea Priest There are several apparitions that appear in the seas surrounding Japan that are considered to be demons. Among them is the umibōzu (lit. “sea priest”), a name derived from its appearance that somewhat resembles a Buddhist monk with a shaven head. The umibōzu is blamed for sudden high waves, causing sailors and 120

indeed entire ships to disappear. In the arts, there are great differences in the way this demon is portrayed. It is noteworthy that the umibōzu does not appear in any of the four books by Toriyama Sekien issued between 1776 and 1784. In 1788, Kitao Masayoshi included an umibōzu in his book Notes on the Advent of

Specters (Bakemono chakutōchō), which he depicts with scales and fins like a fish but also with a humanoid head. The version in the handscroll Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e) in the collection of the Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, has whiskers and more closely resembles a catfish. The painter of the handscroll A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art includes a demon whose head is emerging from the water. It has a bald red head and face, sharp teeth, and white ears. It could be an umibōzu although it is named ayakase. Sekien made a similar error in his book Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi) that features a demon he calls ayakashi but should, in fact, be ikuchi (see page 57).

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Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

RIGHT

ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 4, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

LEFT

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Ushi-oni 牛鬼 Bovine Demon The ushi-oni is a hybrid demon which is usually depicted in two different ways. Both have the head of a bovine, as the literal translation of the name ushi-oni, “bovine-demon,” indicates, and both crawl along the ground. In contrast, in pictorial handscrolls that feature many types of demons (bakemono zukushi), the body of the ushi-oni resembles that of a large tarantula typespider, although Toriyama Sekien, both in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) as well as in the handscroll he painted which is now in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, portrays it with a more tiger-like body that has a bushy tail. 122

Many legends exist about the ushi-oni, especially in regions of western Japan. It is said to be ferocious and dangerous, and that it enjoys killing and eating humans. Although it can appear in mountains and forests, it is most often found in bodies of water such as swamps, rivers, or lakes. The twelfth-century Anthology of Stories of Times Now Past (Konjaku monogatari shū) mentions this demon, and the historical epic Chronicle of Great Peace (Taiheiki) from the late fourteenth century reports that the courageous warrior Watanabe Tsuna (953–1025), one of the Four Heavenly Kings, faced and killed an ushi-oni in the forest at Uda in today’s Nara Prefecture.

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

ABOVE

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Uwan うわん or Kenzoku 眷属 Handscrolls that picture a variety of demons (bakemono zukushi) often feature the uwan, a large humanoid creature that is always shown with a wide open mouth and arms raised as if it is about to scare someone. Its muscular body has some hair, its teeth are blackened, and its hands are tipped in three claws. But its body below the waisteline is never shown. Toriyama Sekien included it in Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), allowing the uwan to appear under a willow tree and from behind a dilapidated wall. However, Sekien does not include an explanatory note and there are no other known sources about the nature of an uwan. The handscroll in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art also features this demon but it is named kenzoku (lit. “servant” or “underling”), which refers to servants of deities. The reason for the name change is unclear.

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

RIGHT

BELOW Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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Waira わいら or Waiu 和意烏

The waira is another of those demons about which no historic information exists that could shed light on its nature. It somewhat resembles the ushi-oni (see page 122) since it also appears to be crawling along the ground, but its face is more like that of a canine than of a bovine. The book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) by Toriyama Sekien includes the waira set in mountaineous scenery with its rump hidden behind trees. The rump also remains invisible in the portraits of the waira that are included in some handscrolls that illustrate a wide range of demons (bakemono zukushi). In Sekien’s version, the waira has hair whereas it is bald in the handscrolls. Its feet are

always tipped with just one claw. Its mouth is open, revealing sharp fangs. The version in the handscroll A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art also has long whiskers but it is named waiu instead of waira.

TOP Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries ABOVE Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

LEFT

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Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 ×489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

LEFT

Waniguchi 鰐口 Crocodile Mouth

.

A waniguchi is a medal-shaped gong usually made of bronze that hangs from the front eaves of a Buddhist temple or Shinto shrine hall. An attached rope allows the worshipper to ring it to attract the deity’s attention. The oldest dated waniguchi was excavated in Miyabuchi, Matsumoto City, and has the year 1001 inscribed on it. It is in the collection of the Tokyo National Museum and is registered by the Japanese government as an Important Cultural Property (jūyō bunkazai). The name waniguchi (lit. “crocodile mouth”), has been in use at least since 1293 and has lent itself to the creation of a demonic derivative, the waniguchi sprite. This demon belongs to the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) type and is visualized as a (mostly) green reptile with scales, legs tipped with three claws, and a waniguchi gong for its head. It

is unclear when this demon originated but it does not appear in Toriyama Sekien’s book on tsukomogami demons, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro) from 1784. It usually appears in depictions of demon night parades (hyakki yagyō) like the handscroll in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art.

BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Wauwau わうわう or Ouni 苧うに

In his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) Toriyama Sekien features a hag-like demon with a wide mouth that somewhat resembles the demoness han’nya (see page 49), but instead of having two horns, its body is covered in long hair. Sekien calls it ouni, with the first character

referring to hemp or ramie. It is generally believed that his decision was based on the demon’s appearance, its thick hair resembling threads. However, in the pictorial handscrolls that show a variety of demons (bakemono zukushi), this type of demon is not called ouni but wauwau. It has bulging eyes, a

big nose, an open mouth with black teeth, and its skin color can be red or yellow. While Sekien placed it in a mountainous region amid rocks and trees, and between a waterfall and a stream, there is no clear record or folklore of this demon, hence its nature remains unknown.

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

TOP

Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

ABOVE Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 3, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Yamabiko 山彦 Mountain Echo

Japanese folklore contains no reference to a demon called yamabiko, which means “mountain echo.” Although Toriyama Sekien in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) adds a nuance by using characters that translate to “mystical valley echo” 幽谷響, the yamabiko is generally considered to be the cause of the echo in the mountains. Bakemono zukushi handscrolls that feature a wide array of demons usually include the yamabiko. Its body is furry and it can be green, black, or gray, with a peach-colored belly. It somewhat resembles a monkey with a clownish grin, floppy ears, and outstretched arms. Contrary to Sekien’s version, the handscrolls depict the yamabiko’s hands and feet as terminating in a lump, with no fingers or toes. In his book Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan) that illustrates a night parade of demons, Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89) featured the yamabiko as a more dangerouslooking creature with sharp teeth and claws. However, that is an extreme modification of its nature as it was considered to be harmless to humans.

FROM TOP Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 ×684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1) Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Yamauba 山姥 Mountain Hag There are several regions in Japan with legends about a mysterious mountain hag or yamauba (also yamanba) who lives deep in the mountains. Dressed in rags, she is easily identifiable by her long disheveled hair, cape made of leaves, scraggy body, and sharp claws. A mythological figure, yamauba is sometimes considered evil and feared because she eats people who wander in the mountains and get lost. This type of yamauba is captured by Toriyama Sekien in his book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s 128

Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), as well as in the handscrolls that show an assortment of demons (Bakemono zukushi). According to one version, a yamauba lived on Mount Ashigara in today’s Fuji-HakoneIzu National Park where she raised Kaidōmaru, who is better known by the name Kintarō (see pages 20–22). His red or orange skin color is an indicator of his superhuman powers and he is usually depicted among his playmates, the forest animals. This is the version of yamauba

most commonly featured in woodblock prints. It was particularly popular with the woodblock print artist Kitagawa Utamaro (1753–1806), who designed more than thirty variations of the interaction between mother and child filled with humor and parody. Early Meiji-period (1868–1912) versions by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) and Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831–89) render yamauba as a Western woman, influenced by pictorial models of Madonna and Child.

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Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; first of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.7 × 684.9 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1)

LEFT

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Yamauba and Kaidōmaru, from the series Essays by Yoshitoshi (Ikkai zuihitsu), 1873; published by Masadaya Heikichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.111)

ABOVE Kitagawa Utamaro, detail of Yamauba Tying Kaidōmaru’s Top Knot While He Makes Faces in the Mirror, ca. 1795; published by Tsutaya Jūzaburō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Estate of Samuel Isham, 1914 (JP982)

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Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 28.3 × 22 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

LEFT

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

BELOW LEFT

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Yamawaro 山童 Mountain Child The yamawaro is a mountain demon that is based on the Chinese shansao as it appears in the Classic of Gods and Strange Things (Shen yi jing), compiled in the Han Dynasty (202 bce–220 ce). It is believed to live deep in the mountains. It is around 10 feet (3 m) tall, has a hairy body, and likes to eat grilled shrimp and crab. While the Chinese version of the yamawaro has two eyes, the Japanese one usually has only one eye centered above the nose, as seen in the yamawaro featured in the book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō) from 1776 by Toriyama Sekien, as well as in

some of the handscrolls depicting a selection of demons (bakemono zukushi). In the fictional Graphic Novel About Long Ago Specters (Ōmukashi bakemono sōshi), published in 1795, Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) shows a yamawaro with two eyes. There is a theory that the yamawaro is somewhat related to the kappa (see page 62).

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

BELOW

ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Graphic Novel About Long Ago Specters (Ōmukashi bakemono sōshi), 1795; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; National Diet Library, Japan

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 1, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Yarikechō 槍毛長 Captain Hairy Spear

The yarikechō (lit. “Captain Hairy Spear”) is a demon of the tsukumogami (lit. “tool spirit”) type, as portrayed by Toriyama Sekien in the book A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro). Sekien paired him with the koinryō 虎隠良 and the zenfushō 禅佂尚. The koinryō is a tiger-pelt pouch that has come alive and runs very fast to attack its enemies with a rake. The zenfushō is an animated kettle with an overflowing spirit. They team up to attack and steal the money of lone travelers in the mountains. The head of the yarikechō resembles the saya or sheaths that were used for spears, which were highly decorated using bear fur, yak hair, horse hair, feathers, etc. He carries a mallet that he swings high above his head. Sekien notes that he is fearless and ready to strike first. In depictions of demon night parades (hyakki yagyō), the yarikechō invariably appears about to strike at an unidentified creature in the form of a red blob with one eye, two limbs, and some hair. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) in his Night Parade of a Horde of Utensils (Hyakki yagyō) from 1865 shows the yarikechō swinging a spear instead of a mallet.

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ABOVE Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

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Eigyō(attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 23.3 × 489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

RIGHT

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enji, and Sekichō, A Futile Bag of Illustrations of a Horde of Utensils (Gazu hyakki tsurezure bukuro), vol. 2, 1805 (1784); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×30 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

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Yuki-onna 雪女 Snow Woman

In contrast to the relatively rare ame-onna or “Rain Woman” (see page 19), the “Snow Woman” yuki-onna appears more frequently in Japanese art and culture. An early account of yuki-onna is by the monk Sōgi (1421–1502), a famous poet of his time who mentions in Sōgi’s Stories of Many Countries (Sōgi shokoku monogatari) that he encountered a yuki-onna in the mountaineous province of Echigo (today’s Niigata Prefecture). The yukionna appears in the form of a ghost which looks like a beautiful woman with long black hair. In the many parts of Japan that experience winters with lots of snow, differing legends exist about yuki-onna. Many of them describe her as harmless to humans but some blame her for the disappearance of children or for adults freezing to death during winter. She is sometimes included in pictorial handscrolls of selected demons (bakemono zukushi), such as Toriyama Sekien’s book Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō). In 1708, the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653– 1725) was inspired to create an adaptation of yuki-onna for the puppet theater called Yuki-onna gomai hagoita. 134

BELOW Uemura Shōen, The Snow Woman (Yuki-onna), 1923, from the series Dai Chikamatsu zenshū furoko mokuhan; published by Dai Chikamatsu ZenshūKankōkai, carved by Yamagishi Kazue, printed by Nishimura Kumakichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, 45.5 × 28.4 cm; Private Collection, Courtesy of Galerie Mingei, Paris

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BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; University Library, Tokyo University of the Arts

BELOW Artist unknwon, Sōgi’s Stories of Many Countries (Sōgi shokoku monogatari), vol. 5, 1685; published by Sakagami Shōbei et al.; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 26 × 16 cm; Waseda University Library

ABOVE Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 × 152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

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PART 2 YŪREI 幽霊 GHOSTS AND APPARITIONS

Konpaku 魂魄 Souls

Chinese philosophy distinguishes between two different types of soul: hun (Jp. kon), which leaves the body after death, and po (Jp. haku), which remains with the corpse. This concept of a spiritual “soul dual” was first recorded in the Warring States period (475–221 bce), and at some later time made its way into Japanese traditional belief as konpaku. A sudden or violent death can result in funeral rites not being properly performed, which can cause the soul to transform into a ghost (yūrei). A soul can also become a ghost if, at the time of death, the emotions of the deceased were so intense that the path to death was

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blocked. The ghost would then wander around, attempting to find closure. At least since the late eighteenth century, paintings of ghosts have existed in Japan. They are almost always female and are usually portrayed as legless figures wearing white robes typically used for corpses in funeral ceremonies, and with disheveled hair and hideous facial expressions. An increase in the demand for such paintings was discernable in the nineteenth century. Many of them are unsigned and thus information about the painters is unknown. Such paintings were commonly

stored in Buddhist temples, believed to be the best place to secure ghostly imagery. Inagaki Ranpo (1859–1932) painted a ghost with an emaciated chest, revealed because her white kimono has slipped off her left shoulder. The sash of the robe, which hangs loosely, is painted a purple that looms in the dark. She looks over her shoulder and appears to beckon someone, possibly her unfaithful husband who was responsible for her death. Inagaki Motoyoshi, the ninth and last lord of the Yamakami clan in today’s Shiga Prefecture, used the art name Ranpo and is said to have painted this ghost picture at an early age. Around 1883, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) was commissioned to paint a ghost which he created entirely of black ink using the chiaroscuro technique. Only the ghost’s pale blue eyes shine ominously. Another painting of a ghost, unsigned and thus the artist is unknown, is set in a graveyard at night. The ghost appears from the tomb of the Hayashi family, indicated by the vertical line senzo daidai, meaning “generation after generation,” followed by the family’s name horizontally below that.

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Tanaka Tessai, detail of Ghost; ca. 1909; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 114.3 ×33.7 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.32)

ABOVE

Unknown Utagawa school artist, detail of Ghost Story; late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on paper, 116.8 ×56.5 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.24)

RIGHT

Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

OPPOSITE

Yūrei (Ghosts and Apparitions)

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Artist unknown, Ghost; early 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 86.4 ×32.7 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.36)

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Shibata Gitō, Ghost; early 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 87.5 ×32 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.1262)

Artist unknown, Ghost in a Graveyard; late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 111.4 ×39 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.1308)

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Inagaki Ranpo, detail of Ghost; late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 87.5 ×32 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture; formerly given to the Center by Takako and Victor Hauge (2013.29.114)

Artist unknown, Ghost; late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 110 × 36.3 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, John R. Van Derlip Fund, purchase from the collection of Elizabeth and Willard Clark (2013.31.140)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Ghost; ca. 1883; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 111.8 ×31.1 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.153)

Yūrei (Ghosts and Yokai Apparitions) ( Demons)

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Ubume 産女／姑獲鳥 Birthing Women

An ubume is the ghost of a woman who has died in childbirth. High maternal and infant mortality were constant sources of anxiety in premodern Japan, when stillborn babies, premature births, and miscarriages were common. Change did not occur until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries after Japan had entered a period of industrialization and modernization. In the visual arts, ubume can be identified by their bloodstained 140

lower body and an infant they usually carry in their arms. According to legend, an ubume often awaits a passerby at a crossroad or bridge during nightfall. She tries to hand her baby over to a male passerby, and if he takes it, the ubume disappears. The child eventually transforms into a bundle of leaves or a rock. According to the twelfthcentury Anthology of Stories of Times Now Past (Konjaku

monogatari shū), the samurai Urabe Suetake (950?–1022?), one of the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō) who assisted Minamoto Yorimitsu (Raikō; 948– 1021) in his endeavors, met an ubume which Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) has portrayed in One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari). Yoshitoshi depicts the ubume with wings, which was not a common feature.

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Artist unknown, Pictures of Monsters (Bakemono no e), ca. 1700; handscroll, ink and color on paper, 44 ×152.5 cm (total); Ex. coll. Harry F. Bruning, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University (895.63 B17 1863)

LEFT

RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Shumenosuke Urabe Suetake, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Gessa, Illustrations of a Demon Horde’s Night Parade (Gazu hyakki yagyō), vol. 2, 1805 (1776); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; University Library, Tokyo University of the Arts

BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Pictorial Interpretation of a Demon Horde (Kyōsai hyakki gadan), 1889; published by Inoguchi Matsunosuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.767)

BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

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PART 3 KABUKI GHOSTS

Kamada Matahachi and Kikuno 鎌田又八と菊野

It is unclear if Kamada Matahachi was a historical figure although he is first mentioned in a book from 1749 where he is described as having superhuman strength.

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He then resurfaces in the book Kamada Matahachi’s Extermination of Specters (Kamada Matahachi bakemono taiji) from 1769, which is illustrated by

Tomikawa Fusanobu (active ca. 1750–70) who shows Matahachi confronting all kinds of monsters, including an old cat. In 1826, the author Kitagawa Yukimaro

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(1797–1856) makes him the protagonist of the book The Story of the Strong Kamada Matahachi (Kamada Matahachi gōriki banashi). In Kabuki plays, the character Kamada Matahachi does not appear before 1820 when it plays a minor role in Ontoshidama nigaoe zōshi. Its one and only

manifestation as a ghost is in the period drama (jidai sewamono) Na ni takashi mariuta jitsuroku written by Sakurada Jisuke III (1802–77) in 1855. The story is about the historical warrior Ōkubo Hikozaemon (Tadataka; 1560–1639), who was well known at that time as a model samurai because he risked his life to

BELOW Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Banri Kanemitsu (R) and as Kamada Matahachi and Kikuno (C), and Iwai Kumesaburō III as Kyōdai-ni (L), 1855; published by Hayashiya Shōgorō, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

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Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Iwai Kumesaburō III as Kyōdai-ni (R), and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Banri Kanemitsu, Kamada Matahachi, and Kikuno (L), 1855; published by Iseya Kanekichi, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (402-0074/75)

ABOVE

Utagawa Kunisada, Actor Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Kamada Matahachi and Kikuno, 1855; published by Ebisuya Shōshichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, left sheet of an ōban triptych; National Gallery Prague (Vm 6287)

LEFT

rescue the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) from a fire. In a subplot of the play, the affair between the samurai Banri Kanemitsu and Kyōdai, the widow of his brother who is now a nun, was discovered by Matahachi, loyal retainer to the lord, and Kikuno, the lord’s concubine. To conceal the affair, Kanemitsu has Matahachi and Kikuno killed in a river. However, their ghosts emerge to haunt Kanemitsu and Kyōdai who, eventually repentant, admit to the affair and clear Matahachi and Kikuno of any wrongdoing.

Kabuki Ghosts

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Kasane 累

Kasane was a very popular Kabuki character based on the folktale of a farmer drowning his disabled stepson, which was believed to be the reason for his daughter Orui being born lame and with a deformed face. She became known by the name Kasane, an alternative reading of the character rui, which means “repeat” and is meant to evoke karmic retribution. Yoeman, a traveler Kasane had nursed to health, later married her out of pity but he became tired of her and killed her with a sickle in a river. Every new woman in her husband’s life was then killed by her furious ghost. The story of Kasane first appeared in 1690 in Account of the Story of a Dead Spirit’s Salvation (Shiryō gedatsu monogatari kikigaki), written by the monk Zanju (n.d.). A fourteen-year-old girl who was

Katsukawa Shunshō, Actors Matsumoto Kōshirō II as Yoemon and Yoshizawa Sakinosuke III as Kasane, His Wife, ca. 1771; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical hosoban; Art Institute of Chicago, Frederick W. Gookin Collection (1939.578)

RIGHT

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Poem by Fujiwara no Toshiyuki Ason: The Ghost of Kasane (Kasane no bōkon), from the series The Visual Parody of the Thirty-six Selected Poets (Mitate sanjūrokkasen no uchi), 1852; published by Iseya Kanekichi, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Bequest of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (96.146.104.17)

Utagawa Kunisada, Actor Onoe Baikō IV as the Ghost of Kasane, 1836; published by Maruya Seijirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

ABOVE RIGHT

possessed by what was then believed to be Kasane, suffered from what today would be diagnosed as seizures, abnormal postures, mutism, and shortness of breath (see page 239, Komagamine et al., 2019) and was “healed” by Yūten, a Buddhist exorcist, in 1672. The story was first dramatized in Kabuki in 1731 as a thread in the play Ōzumō fujito Genji and then became the main focus in 1739 of the play Kasane gedatsu no hachisuba. Many others were to follow. While the interpretations in the many Kabuki plays vary, they tend to include the dramatic

killing of Kasane by her husband Yoemon using a sickle. In 1807, the writer Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei; 1767–1848) enlarged and reinterpreted the story in New Kasane Salvation Story (Shin Kasane gedatsu monogatari), which was illustrated by Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849). A decade later, Hokusai included a portrait of Kasane’s ghost, along with the priest Yūten who performed the exorcism, in Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Hokusai manga). While Kasane does not appear in any of Toriyama Sekien’s books on demons, she is included in the Kabuki Ghosts

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Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 3, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

RIGHT FROM TOP

BELOW Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kunimichi II, Shimōsa Province: Kasane and Yoemon, from the series The Sixty-odd Provinces of Great Japan (Dainihon rokujūyoshū no uchi), ca. 1845–46; published by Kogaya Katsugorō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection

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Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 10, 1819; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 23 ×16 cm; Princeton University Library (ND1059.K15 A34) Takehara Shunsensai, Picture Book of a Hundred Stories (Ehon hyaku monogatari), vol. 4, 1841; published by Suharaya Sasuke; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; Honolulu Museum of Art

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Unuma: Yoemon and His Wife Kasane, from the series The Sixty-nine Stations of the Kisokaidō (Kisokaidō rokujūkyū tsugi no uchi), 1852; published by Kazusaya Iwazō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

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BELOW RIGHT Katsushika Hokusai, detail of New Kasane Salvation Story (Shin Kasane gedatsumonogatari), vol. 4, 1807; published by Tsuruya Kiemon et al.; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

Picture Book of a Hundred Stories (Ehon hyaku monogatari) from 1841 which was meant to be a follow-up to Sekien. There are many woodblock prints depicting Kasane’s ghost which relate to specific Kabuki performances, and most are drawn in such a way that the actor playing the role is recognizable. One of the most dramatic renderings is part of a series of large head portraits from 1852 showing Ichikawa Kodanji IV (1812–66) as Kasane alongside hitodama (see page 55). Kabuki Ghosts

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ABOVE Katsushika Hokusai, detail of Kohada Koheiji, from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), ca. 1831–32; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; wood-block print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (56.52.3)

Hokuei, Kohada Koheiji, from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), 1832; unidentified publisher (Kichi); woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (016-0607)

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Kohada Koheiji 小幡小平次 Kohada Koheiji is a fictional character invented by the writer Santō Kyōden (1761–1816) in his 1803 novel, Strange Tales of Revenge at Asaka Swamp (Fukushū kidan Asaka no numa), which then reappeared in his 1807 book, The Following Day’s Vengeance at Asaka Swamp (Asaka no numag gonichi no adauchi). Kyōden conceived 150

Koheiji as an actor who specialized in ghost roles until he finally was murdered in a swamp by his wife and her lover. But since Koheiji was so well versed in ghostly matters, he returns from the grave and haunts his murderers until they are dead. By 1808 the playwright Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755–1829) had adapted the story for Kabuki under the title

Iro iri otogizōshi. The premiere at the Ichimura Theater featured the popular actor Onoe Matsusuke II (Kikugorō III; 1784–1849) as both the living and deceased Koheiji. It was not until the 1850s that Koheiji became the main character in two new Kabuki plays, Kaidan Kohada Koheiji in 1853 and Kohada no kaii ame mo furunuma in 1859.

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A number of woodblock prints that directly relate to Kabuki performances and show the murder of Koheiji or his reappearance as a ghost were designed by artists such as Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) and his student Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865). Some of the compositions show both events, others just one. The most striking visualization of Koheiji, however, is not directly related to a play but was conceived by Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) around 1831 for a series of ghost prints. Koheiji is depicted as a skeleton that emerges from his recent burial and is now hovering over the bed of his wife who is lying with her lover. Koheiji emerges from the smoke and pulls aside the mosquito net with his bony hands, staring with bloodshot eyes at his murderers, who are, however, not shown. Hokusai’s portrait inspired other artists, such as his own student Hokuei (d. 1837), who used it for an actor print double in size and with Koheiji’s wife in the center. She is holding a hanging scroll inscribed with the prayer “Namu Amida butsu” that is evoking salvation through Amida Buddha. Some sixty years later, Utagawa Yoshiiku (1833–1904) revisited Hokusai’s designs for his ghost series, and in his Koheiji print now also includes Koheiji’s haunted wife.

ABOVE Utagawa Yoshiiku, Kohada Koheiji, 1890, from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari); published by Fukuda Kumajirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (201-0497)

ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Actor Onoe Matsusuke as Kohada Koheiji and His Wife, 1808; unidentified publisher (Maru-Zen); woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (402-0227)

Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 7, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

ABOVE

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Oiwa お岩

BELOW Hokuei, Oiwa, Iemon’s Wife, from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), 1832; unidentified publisher (Kichi); woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Friends of Asian Art Gifts, in honor of James C. Y. Watt, 2011 (2011.135)

Oiwa is the archetypical ghost in Japan and without doubt the most famous one because she is the protagonist in the popular play Tōkaidō Yotsuya kaidan, written in 1825 by the playwright Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755–1829). Nanboku IV drew from various sources, including historical records like the book Chatter About Yotsuya (Yotsuya sōdan), which reports of a mistreated wife who sought vengeance during the Genroku era (1688–1704). The Oiwa Inari Tamiya Shrine in Yotsuya in Tokyo’s Shinjuku district is said to have been built in memory of an Oiwa who died in 1636. Oiwa’s story briefly appears in books from the 1800s, but it was Nanboku IV who popularized the story. In Nanboku IV’s adaptation for Kabuki, Oiwa is married to Tamiya Iemon, but after giving birth to a child her husband is no longer interested in her. She is tricked into taking poison by a friend of her husband. The bleeding that ensues causes her face to become horribly disfigured. The friend is a neighbor whose granddaughter Iemon plans to marry after getting rid of Oiwa. Oiwa is overcome with rage and loses her hair when combing it, further spoiling her 152

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ABOVE Katsushika Hokusai, Oiwa’s Ghost (Oiwa-san), from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), ca. 1831–32; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (56.52.1)

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Poem by

appearance. To be able to legally claim her assets in a divorce, her philandering husband frames her for adultery. Seeing no other solution to her situation, Oiwa commits suicide, cursing her husband. Iemon returns home to find his dead wife along with the manservant Kohei who witnessed the suicide. Iemon kills Kohei and nails both corpses on either side of a wooden door that he then throws into a canal. Oiwa’s ghost returns to take revenge on her husband. Iemon, looking at his new wife, mistakenly sees Oiwa and kills her. He then sees Kohei in his wife’s grandfather and kills him as well. He flees and while wandering about without any position or

income, he fishes in a river, but all he pulls out is a wooden door with the bodies of Oiwa and Kohei attached to it. Finally, Iemon seeks shelter at the remote and rat-infested Snake Mountain Hermitage. Oiwa’s ghost emerges from a paper lantern and confronts Iemon, affirming that he will be haunted until the end of his days. In the premiere of Nanboku IV’s Kabuki adaptation, Onoe Kikugorō III (1784–1849) played the triple role of Oiwa, her ghost, and Kohei. Since its premiere, Tōkaidō Yotsuya kaidan has been updated with special effects and remains popular today. Later versions of Nanboku IV’s original story include characters that have

Ōnakatomi no Yoshinobu Ason: Kamiya Niemon, from the series Imitations of the Ogura One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each (Ogura nazora-e hyakunin isshu), ca. 1845–46; published by Ibaya Senzaburō, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

ABOVE Hirosada, Actors Ōkawa Hashizō as Oiwa and Ichikawa Sukejūrō as Takuetsu, ca. 1848; published by Meikōdō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

probably received new names, for example, Tamiya Iemon is sometimes called Kamiya Niemon. For his ghost series in the early 1830s, Katsushika Hokusai (1760–1849) adopted the paper lantern motif and depicted it as a skull minus its jaw. His student Hokuei (d. 1837) revisited this motif for an actor print by adding Iemon, who is about to draw his sword in defense. Three dramatic scenes in the play are the most popular subjects of woodblock prints: Oiwa’s ghost appearing from a lantern, the moment when the poison is taking effect, and the dumping of the corpses in the canal.

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LEFT Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Matsumoto Kōshirō V as Kamiya Niemon, and Onoe Kikugorō III as Oiwa’s Ghost and Kohei, 1827; published by Matsumura Tatsuemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (100-8816/17)

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Onoe Eizaburō III as Oyumi (R), Matsumoto Kōshirō V as Naosuke and Onoe Kikugorō III as Oiwa (C), and Ichikawa Ebizō V as Kamiya Iemon (L), 1836; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Ichikawa Ebizō V as Kamiya Iemon (R) and Onoe Kikugorō III as Oiwa (L), 1836; published by Kawaguchiya Chōzō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada II, Tōkaidō Ghost Story at Yotsuya (Tōkaidō Yotsuya kaidan), vol. 3 ge, 1862; published by Tsutaya Kichizō; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada II, Tōkaidō Ghost Story at Yotsuya (Tōkaidō Yotsuya kaidan), vol. 3 ge, 1862; published by Tsutaya Kichizō; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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Okiku お菊

There are many versions in local legends and in theaters of the story of Okiku’s revenge. At the heart of the story that is widely known today, Okiku is a young maid in a samurai mansion during the second half of the seventeenth century. One of a set of ten precious dishes gets broken and Okiku is blamed for it. The mansion owner punishes her by throwing her down a well to her death. Okiku reappears as a vengeful ghost, slowly counting

Katsushika Hokusai, Oiwa’s Ghost (Oiwa-san), from the series One Hundred Stories (Hyaku monogatari), ca. 1831–32; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (56.52.4)

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Toyohara Kunichika, Applying Make-up with a Mirror at the Mansion of the Plates (Sarayashiki keshō no sugatae), 1892; published by Fukuda Kumajirō, carved by Umezawa Minokichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.35)

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to nine and then eerily shrieking. How the dish got broken varies from her breaking it because she was clumsy, to her being innocent because the mistress of the house tried to conceal that she broke it, to the master deliberately removing it in an attempt to force his guilt-ridden servant to become his lover. In some versions, Okiku throws herself down the well to escape both the advances of her master and the possibility of being publicly accused of theft. The story sometimes ends with an exorcist shouting “ten” at the end of Okiku’s counting, appeasing her ghost since it appears that the last dish has been found. Within Kabuki, the history of the story of Okiku’s revenge, better known as Sarayashiki or Dish Mansion, goes as far back as 1720 when there was a performance in Osaka, but the impetus for this and what exactly was performed is unclear. In 1741, Asada Itchō (n.d.) and Tamenaga Tarobei (n.d) wrote the play Banshū sarayashiki for the puppet theater, which premiered in Osaka and continued to be performed there sporadically. In 1765, the playwrights Kanai Sanshō (1731–97) and Okuno Sasuke (n.d.) integrated elements of Banshū sarayashiki into Meoto Kabuki Ghosts

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boshi auyo komachi, which was the premiere of the Okiku ghost story on the Kabuki stage in Edo (today’s Tokyo), but it did not lead to a wave of interest. The puppet play Banshū sarayashiki was adapted to the Kabuki stage in 1824 for a performance in Osaka, which was restaged there and also in Kyoto in 1848. In Edo, it took almost a hundred years until there was another appearance on the Kabuki stage: Minori yoshi kogane no kikuzuki, written by Segawa Jokō III (1806–81) in 1850, and Sarayashiki keshō no sugatami, written by Kawatake Shinshichi II (1816–93) in 1863. From 1758, the storyteller Baba Bunkō (1718–59) had retold the Okiku story in Edo, which he renamed Banchō sarayashiki, but it was not performed in Kabuki theaters under this name until 1916 when the playwright Okamoto Kidō (1872–1939) released his adaptation, which is a psychological relationship drama and significantly different from the original puppet theater version of a supernatural ghost story.

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LEFT Suison, The Ghost of Okiku; late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 124.5 × 33 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.38)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Okiku’s Ghost from ‘Dish Mansion’ (Sarayashiki Okiku no rei), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.236)

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Masazumi Ryūsai, Poems on a Hundred Stories (Kyōka hyaku monogatari), vol. 7, 1853; publisher unknown; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 16 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 (JIB27)

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Kabuki Ghosts Kab

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Sakura Sōgo 佐倉宗吾 or Asakura Tōgo 浅倉当吾 After the Tokugawa shogunate forbade the dramatizing of people who lived during their reign, playwrights were forced to adapt the names of historical figures. For example, the Kabuki character Asakura Tōgo was based on the true story of the peasant farmer Kiuchi Sōgorō (1605–53), who became better known under the name Sakura Sōgo. Historical records reveal that in the eighth 160

lunar month of 1653, Sōgo and his four children were executed for an unspecified crime by order of the local lord, Hotta Masanobu (1631–80), who Sōgo cursed during his execution. Historically unverified is the legend that Sōgo was executed for rebelling against his greedy lord. Taxes were paid in the form of rice, but Sōgo and the other farmers in his village had barely

enough left to survive. What would have been unthinkable at this time, Sōgo is said to have petitioned the shogun directly and secured tax relief for his village. His lord, not able to accept this humiliation, then ordered the execution of Sōgo and his family. While crucified, Sōgo had to witness the killing of his family and vowed to return from the grave to avenge them.

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Bandō Hikosaburō IV as Orikoshi Masatomo and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Ghost of Asakura Tōgo, 1851; published by Hayashiya Shōgorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

LEFT

The story was dramatized for Kabuki in 1851 by the playwright Segawa Jokō III (1806–81) as Higashiyama sakura zōshi and was set in the Muromachi period (1336–1573). His contemporary, Kawatake Shinshichi II (1816– 93), followed in 1861 with the adaptation Sakura sōshi gonichi bundan, better known as Sakura giminden. In both plays, Asakura Tōgo was played by the popular

actor Ichikawa Kodanji IV (1812–66). The evil lord is renamed Orikoshi Tairyō Masatomo. It was the first time that a farmer had become the protagonist in a Kabuki play. The character Sōgo seems to have not become a prominent subject in the visual arts of Japan other than in actor prints that relate to specific Kabuki per-formances. One frequent

motif of these actor prints is the crucifixion of Sōgo, which includes hitodama, the Human Soul (see page 55). The other is how the lord Masatomo, with a drawn sword in his hand, is trying to fend off the ghost of Sōgo that is haunting him.

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Bandō Hikosaburō IV as Orikoshi Masatomo and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Ghost of Asakura Tōgo, 1851; published by Sumiyoshiya Masagorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Courtesy of Scholten Japanese Art

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actor Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Ghost of Kozakura Tōgō and as the Tea Server Inba, actually the Ghost of Tōgō, 1851; published by Kazusaya Iwazō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Robert W. Groth (P.80.92)

LEFT

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Bandō Hikosaburō IV as Orikoshi Masatomo and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Ghost of Asakura Tōgo, 1851; published by Ebiya Rinnosuke; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actor Iwai Kumesaburō III as Katsuragi and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as the Ghost of Kozakura Tōgō and as the Tea Server Inba, actually the Ghost of Tōgō, 1851; published by Jōshūya Kinzō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of The Art of Japan

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Seigen 清玄 The priest Seigen fell in love with the young and pretty page Shiragiku. Humiliated by other priests, the two men resolve to commit double suicide but Seigen accidentally survives and only Shiragiku dies. Seventeen years later, Seigen is now at the Kiyomizu Temple where he performs a ritual for the stunningly beautiful Princess Sakura. He determines that she is the reincarnation of Shiragiku and falls in

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love with her. Seigen then loses his status and honor for being accused of seducing her. He is accidentally stabbed by Princess Sakura and then returns as a restless ghost still seeking love. The origin of this story is unclear, and how it became a topic in Japanese theater is also murky. The appearance in the Kabuki play Isshin Futagawa shiramichi by the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–

1725), which premiered in 1698, could be the first. It was followed in 1727 by Konrei otowa no taki. The story was very popular in Kabuki and the subject of many different plays, but the reappearing ghost is an especially significant in Koigoromo kariganezome, performed in 1852. Not all plots have survived, but it is clear that each offered some sort of variation on the main story. A notable difference is Sumidagawa hana no goshozome, written in 1814 by Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755–1829) in which Nanboku IV swapped the gender of the main characters and Seigen became a nun. An early diptych by Katsukawa Shunshō (1743?–93) is related to a version performed in early 1783 showing the actor Ichikawa Danjūrō V (1741–1806) in a skeleton costume that represents the ghost of Seigen as he is pursuing Princess Sakura. Seigen as a ghost under a willow tree during rain is depicted by Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) in relation to a performance from 1810 in which both this role and Princess Sakura were played by the same actor, Onoe Matsusuke II (Kikugorō III; 1784–1849). Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) contributed three designs related

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ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Actor Onoe Matsusuke II as Seigen, 1810; published by Kamaya Matabei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Bequest of Richard P. Gale (74.1.184)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of the Depravity of Monk Seigen (Seigen daraku no zu), 1889; published by Matsui Eikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Katsukawa Shunshō, Actors Ichikawa Danjūrō V as Seigen and Iwai Hanshirō IV as Princess Sakura, 1783; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, hosoban diptych; Art Institute of Chicago, Clarence Buckingham Collection (1938.491)

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Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 10, 1819; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 23 ×16 cm; Princeton University Library (ND1059. K15 A34)

LEFT

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Snow (Yuki), from the series The Snow, Moon, and Flowers (Setsugekka no uchi), 1890; published by Akiyama Buemon; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

to Seigen within eighteen months, each remarkable in its own right. Picture of the Depravity of Monk Seigen (Seigen daraku no zu) shows the emaciated Seigen at night, tightly holding onto Princess Sakura’s luxurious robe and dreaming of her. In complete

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contrast is Picture of Seigen’s Ghost Yearning for Princess Sakura (Seigen no rei Sakurahime o shitau no zu), another night scene, but this time showing Princess Sakura shielding herself from the ghostly appearance of Seigen’s shadow behind her.

Neither print is related to a Kabuki performance, but the portrait of Onoe Kikugorō V (1844–1903) is, showing him as the priest Sōgen who desires Princess Orikoto, yet another variation on the Seigen theme that first appeared in 1862.

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Poem by Ariwara no Narihira Ason: Seigen, from the series The Visual Parody of the Thirty-six Selected Poets (Mitate sanjūrokkasen no uchi), 1852; published by Iseya Kanekichi, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Bequest of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (96.146.104.16)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Seigen’s Ghost Yearning for Princess Sakura (Seigen no rei Sakurahime o shitau no zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1889; published by Sasaki Toyokichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.229)

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Takayama-kengyō 高山検校

Takayama Tan’ichi, a historic figure who lived around 1600, was a blind monk who narrated tales while singing (heikyoku) and playing the lute (biwa). He is better known as Takayamakengyō, kengyō being the highest title given to a blind official at the court. A major narrative in his repertoire were war tales such as The Tale of the Heike (Heike monogatari) about the twelfthcentury struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for the control of Japan. A student of Matsumoto-kengyō (d. 1592), Takayama is said to have performed, like his master, for the shoguns Tokugawa Ieyasu 168

(1543–1616) and Hidetada (1581–1632), who ruled over Japan. Takayama-kengyō conceived a new style of heikyoku which became known as the Takayama style. The playwright Segawa Jokō III (1806–81) included Takayama in a new play he wrote for Kabuki in 1853 called Hanano no saga nekomata zōshi, which retold a legend about the foundation of the Saga domain in today’s Saga Prefecture on Kyushu. That legend contains a supernatural cat (bakeneko; see page 24) and does not shine a favorable light on the second feudal lord of Saga, Nabeshima Mitsushige

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Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Onoe Baikō IV as Kochō (R), Ichikawa Danjūrō VIII as Naoshima Tairyō (C), Nakayama Ichizō as Yatsushiro Genba, and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Takayama-kengyō (L), 1853; published by Hamadaya Tokubei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (100-9083, 100-9090/91)

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BELOW Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Ichikawa Danjūrō VIII as Itō Sōta (R), Seki Sanjūrō III as Hayabusa Tarō (C), and Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Takayamakengyō (L), 1853; published by Hamadaya Tokubei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (100-9092/93/94)

(1632–1700). The Saga domain under its tenth lord Nabeshima Naomasa (1815–71) filed a complaint about this Kabuki play and the performance was banned. The popular actor Ichikawa Kodanji IV (1812–66) was the main performer in this short-lived production and he played several roles, including the supernatural cat as well as Takayama. The woodblock prints related to this performance, which seem to have been designed by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865) and no other artist,

visualize that the blind Takayama was killed by Yatsushiro Genba who buried his body in a wall from which Takayama’s ghost would emerge to haunt the people responsible. The ban on Hanano no Saga nekomata zōshi remained in place throughout the entire Edo period (1603–1868), and it was not until 1896 that this play was once again produced in Tokyo.

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Ichikawa Kodanji IV as Takayama-kengyō (R), Seki Sanjūrō III as Hayabusa Tarō (C), and Ichikawa Danjūrō VIII as Itō Sōta (L), 1853; published by Hamadaya Tokubei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (402-0133, 006-0601, 100-9082)

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Toyohara Kunichika, The Ghost of Yasukata, from the series The One Hundred Roles of Baikō (Baikō hyakushu no uchi), 1894; published by Fukuda Kumajirō, carved by Watanabe Tsunejirō(EizōII); woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (0073051)

LEFT

Utagawa Kunisada, Poem by Nakatsukasa: The Ghost of Yasukata, from the series The Visual Parody of the Thirty-six Selected Poets (Mitate sanjūrokkasen no uchi), 1852; published by Iseya Kanekichi, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Bequest of Louis W. Hill, Jr. (96.146.104.15)

RIGHT

Utō Yasukata 善知鳥安方 The historical Utō Yasukata (n.d.) was a commander and follower of the provincial magnate Taira Masakado (d. 940), who is known to have led the first recorded rebellion against the imperial government. After Yasukata’s death, he is said to have appeared as a ghost to Masakado’s son Yoshikado to discourage him from revolting. In Kabuki, Yasukata is a character in the 1802 play Toki ni Ōshū tsubo no 172

ishibumi as well as in Chō hanagata koi muko Genji three years later. His story became more widespread through the success of the Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), written by the popular poet Santō Kyōden (1761–1816) and published in 1806 with illustrations by Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825). Portraits of Yasukata as a ghost are rare, but two half-length actor

prints survive. The earlier dates from 1852 and is by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865), who depicted the actor Onoe Kikugorō III (1784–1849) in this role in an imaginary performance since Kikugorō III had died three years earlier. Forty-two years later, Kunisada’s student Toyohara Kunichika (1835–1900) revisited the Yasukata character to portray Kikugorō III’s grandson, Onoe Kikugorō V (1844–1903).

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PART 4 YŌJUTSUSHI 妖術師 MAGICIANS

Gama Sennin 蝦蟇仙人

Gama Sennin, the “Toad Immortal,” is believed to be able to release his spirit from his body and metamorphose. He derives from Chinese mythology where he is of minor importance and was not selected to be one of the Eight Immortals. However, he is especially popular in Japan. According to one theory, he is modeled after Ge Xuan (164– 244), a prominent figure in early Chinese Daoism. The prevailing theory has him modeled after Liu Haichan (also called Liu Hai; 10th cent.), a civil servant and alchemist, who is portrayed in Chinese art with a toad.

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Gama Sennin is accompanied by Seiajin (also called Chinwasen), a supernatural toad that has only three legs (two forefeet and one hind foot, which is attached to the center of the body). Especially worshipped among Daoists, the toad has the power to predict natural disasters. In Chinese mythology, it is said that Gama Sennin lured the toad from its hiding place in a well with gold coins. In Japanese art, Gama Sennin is depicted as an old man in loose robes that reveal his bare chest and large belly. He tends to lean or step on his toad, but the toad

can also be supersized and even bigger than him. He did not become a subject on the Kabuki stage in Edo (today’s Tokyo) other than in 1813 in the play Onoe Shōroku sentaku banashi, written by Tsuruya Nanboku IV (1755– 1829) and Sakurada Jisuke II (1768–1829) in which Gama Sennin, performed by the lead actor of this play, Onoe Shōroku (1744–1815), was confronting Iwami Tarozaemon Yoshitaka, played by Ichikawa Danjūrō VII (1791–1859). Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s (1798– 1861) triptych features Gama Sennin sitting on a mountain

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with rocks shaped like toads. Gama Sennin himself looks like a humanoid toad and he is shielded by a gigantic toad that towers behind and above him. He instructs Yoshikado (see page 198) and his half-sister Princess Takiyasha (see page 194) in toad magic so they can avenge the death of their father, Taira Masakado (d. 940). Gama Sennin’s exhaled breath makes the demon Ibaraki (see page 214) appear in the body of a beautiful woman. The scene is purely fictitious and refers to the Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den) written by the popular poet Santō Kyōden (1761–1816), which was published in 1806 with illustrations by Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825), Kuniyoshi’s teacher.

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Gama Sennin, Ibaraki’s Avatar (R), and Sōma Tarō Yoshikado (C), ca. 1843–46; published by Ezakiya Kichibei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of The Art of Japan

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ABOVE RIGHT Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Gama

Sennin, ca. 1840; published by Kagaya Kichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints Utagawa Toyokuni, Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), vol. 1.1, 1806; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

RIGHT

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Ogata Shūma Hiroyuki, from the series One of the Eight Hundred Brave Men of the Japanese ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Honchō Suikoden gōketsu happyakunin no hitori), ca. 1830–36; published by Kagaya Kichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

LEFT

Jiraiya 自来也／児雷也 The fictitious character Jiraiya first appeared in the 1806–7 novel The Tale of Jiraiya (Jiraiya monogatari) written by Kanwatei Onitake (1760–1818) and illustrated by Katsushika Hokuba (1771–1844). Jiraiya’s real name is Ogata Shuma Hiroyuki and he was both good and evil. On the one hand, he killed people; on the other, he was a thief in the style of Robin Hood, with the significant difference being that Jiraiya becomes a magician because he 176

is able to learn magical arts from an ascetic immortal living on Mount Miyōkō. This immortal can transform into a huge toad, and so toad magic is what Jiraiya learns. Hence, portraits of Jiraiya tend to show him with a toad, or killing a giant snake with a gun. In 1839, the author Mizugaki Egao (1789–1846) picked up the subject of Jiraiya and began to write The Tale of the Gallant Jiraiya (Jiraiya gōketsu monogatari), which turned out to

be an even greater success than its predecessor. The story was serialized in forty-three volumes that were issued between 1839 and 1868. The first eleven were written by Egao, but beginning with volume twelve, Ryūkatei Tanekazu (1807–58) took over the project almost to the end, with the exception of volumes 40 and 42–43 that were authored by Tanekazu’s student, Ryūsuitei Tanekiyo (1823–1907). The serial novel was extensively illustrated, initially by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865). Jiraiya’s opponent is the young swordsman Orochimaru (see page 178; lit. “Son of a Giant Snake”), who is possessed by the spirit of a giant snake that had lived deep in the mountains for a thousand years. At the end, Jiraiya victoriously exorcises the snake spirit from Orochimaru and obtains a pardon for Orochimaru since he was not in control of himself when he committed his evil crimes. After each novel proved to be successful, Kabuki adaptations soon followed, making the character Jiraiya even more popular.

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ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Jiraiya, from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1866; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō, carved by Matsushima Masakichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.364)

ABOVE Utagawa Kunimaro, The Tale of the Gallant Jiraiya (Jiraiya gōketsu monogatari), 1852; published by Daikokuya Heikichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

Utagawa Kunisada, The Tale of the Gallant Jiraiya (Jiraiya gōketsu monogatari), vol. 7, 1847; published by Izumiya Ichibei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

ABOVE

ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Bandit Chief (zokushu) Jiraiya, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1862; published by Hiranoya Shinzō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

ABOVE Katsushika Hokuba, The Tale of Jiraiya (Jiraiya monogatari), vol. 7, 1807; published by Kawachiya Mohei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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Orochimaru 大蛇丸

Orochimaru (lit. “Son of a Giant Snake”) is the enemy of the Robin Hood-like thief Jiraiya (see page 176). They are the main characters of the serial novel The Tale of the Gallant Jiraiya (Jiraiya gōketsu monogatari), which was begun in 1839 by the author Mizugaki Egao (1789– 1846). After forty-three volumes and twenty-nine years later, the story was concluded in 1868. Lavishly illustrated at first by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865), the novel became a great success and was adapted into Kabuki theater in 1852. The story goes that the spirit of a giant snake that had lived deep in the mountains for a thousand years took possession of Orochimaru, a young swordsman, who is now able to perform snake magic. Jiraiya is also no ordinary thief but has magical toad powers which he learned from an ascetic. However, his toad magic has no chance against Orochimaru’s snake power. There is a third magician, Tsunade, who was taught slug magic by the giant slug spirit and also has healing powers. A trilemma and power circle ensues whereby the slug is superior to the snake, which prevails over the toad, which overcomes the slug. The novel 178

RIGHT Utagawa Kunisada, detail of Demonic Thief (yōzoku) Orochimaru, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1862; published by Hiranoya Shinzō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Gordon Brodfuehrer in honor of Dr. Andreas Marks (2016.137.3)

RIGHT Utagawa Kunisada, The Tale of the Gallant Jiraiya (Jiraiya gōketsu monogatari), vol. 12, 1850; published by Izumiya Ichibei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

ends with an exorcism of the snake spirit from Orochimaru. A particularly remarkable portrait of Orochimaru was created by Kunisada for his series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, kijutsu

kurabe), which depicts Orochimaru as a spirit, floating without feet next to a rich floral bouquet with decorative paper balls (kusudama) from which ribbons fall to the ground that transform into snakes.

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Kidōmaru 鬼童丸 Kidōmaru is an ogre whose leader was Shuten-dōji (see page 211), who had his lair on Mount Ōe, northwest of Kyoto. He was defeated by the valiant warrior Minamoto Yorimitsu (Raikō; 948–1021) and his Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō). The Collection of Notable Tales Old and New (Kokon chomonjū), which was completed in 1254, describes how Kidōmaru was caught at the house of Yorimitsu’s brother Yorinobu (968–1048) and put in chains. But Kidōmaru tore them off and went to Yorimitsu’s bed to seek revenge. Yorimitsu noticed that Kidōmaru was watching him and told a servant that he would visit Mount Kurama the next day. Kidōmaru took off to the mountain to set a trap for Yorimitsu. On the way, he killed an ox at the Ichihara field and hid inside its body. When Yorimitsu arrived at the mountain, he ordered Watanabe Tsuna (953–1025), one of his Four Heavenly Kings, to shoot the ox with a bow and arrow. After the arrow struck, Kidōmaru appeared, slashing at Yorimitsu, who was cut down with a single strike. Toriyama Sekien captured Kidōmaru with the ox skin in his book Supplement to a Demon

Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi) in 1781. This theme was also adopted in the mid-nineteenth century by print artists like Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1798–1861), who chose Kidōmaru to represent the zodiac sign of the ox in his series Heroes Representing the Twelve Animals of the Zodiac (Buyū mitate jūnishi). The novelist Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei; 1767–1848) also incorporated Kidōmaru in his book Strange Records of the Four Heavenly Kings and a Plundering Thief (Shitennō shōtō iroku).

Utagawa Kunisada, Ichiharano Kidōmaru, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1863; published by Hiranoya Shinzō, carved by Ōta Tashichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Gordon Brodfuehrer in honor of Dr. Andreas Marks (2019.138.30)

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Kidōmaru meets the thief Hakamadare Yasusuke in a cave in the mountains and the two embark on a magic competition to compare their techniques. Kuniyoshi’s student Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) captured the scene in an impressive composition, with Hakamadare towering in the air, standing on a snake he commands, while Kidōmaru is below him sitting on a rock, wrapped pine-sprigs in his mouth, sending out an attack of his tengu. A much earlier and arguably more dramatic portrait of Kidōmaru is by Kuniyoshi who shows him seated cross-legged on the head of a colossal snake in which a sword has been driven. Again with wrapped pine-sprigs in his mouth, his hands are clasped to perform the ritual gesture (mudra) that accompanies the ceremony of unction (kanjō) in Buddhism. Four tengu (see page 111) can be observed at the bottom of the portrait watching the scene.

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, detail of Kidōmaru, ca. 1840; published by Tsutaya Kichizō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection LEFT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Picture of Hakamadare Yasusuke and Kidōmaru Competing with Magic (Hakamadare Yasusuke Kidōmaru jutsu kurabe zu), 1887; published by Daikokuya Heikichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund estab-lished by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.166a,b) FAR LEFT Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 2, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries ABOVE RIGHT Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Ox (Ushi): Kidōmaru, from the series Heroes Representing the Twelve Animals of the Zodiac (Buyū mitate jūnishi), ca. 1842; published by Minatoya Kohei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, chūtanzaku; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints RIGHT Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 9, 1819; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 23 ×28.3 cm; Princeton University Library (ND1059.K15 A34)

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Kiritarō 霧太郎 Kiritarō is a fictitious character who first appears in the Kabuki play Kiritarō tengu no sakamori written by Namiki Shōzō (1730– 73). The action-filled play, which is set in the Kamakura period (1185–1333), premiered in Osaka in 1761. Kiritarō, himself a tengu (see page 111) and a leader of other tengu, has supernatural powers and tries to overthrow the legitimate Minamoto clan. Almost a hundred years later, 182

in 1854, Kawatake Mokuami (1816–93) added Kiritarō to his new play Miyakodori nagare no shiranami about the theft of the genealogical table of Miyakodori, a treasure of the Yoshida family. Lord Yoshida Matsuwaka has disappeared because he is secretly searching for the genealogical table. In fact, he has become Tengu Kozō Kiritarō, head of a gang of tengu thieves, who has magical powers. Utagawa

Kunisada (1786–1865) included Kiritarō in his series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), holding a tengu mask in his hand while floating on a wisp of incense smoke. Utagawa Yoshitsuya (1822–66) created a dramatic composition showing Kiritarō performing his impressive magic while standing on a giant snake from whose mouth flows a stream of rats.

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ABOVE Utagawa Yoshitsuya, From the Kyokyaku Suikoden: Kogakure Kiritarō Hides Himself Using Magic (Kyokyaku Suikoden no uchi, Kogakure no Kiritarō yō jutsu o motte sugata o kakusu), 1861; published by Kameya Iwakichi, carved by Koizumi Kanegorōand Kobayashi Kokane; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of The Art of Japan ABOVE RIGHT Utagawa Kunisada, Tengu Kozō Kiritarō, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1861; published by Hiranoya Shinzō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Tengu Kozō Kiritarō, from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1866; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.370)

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Wakana-hime 若菜姫 Princess Wakana

The Tale of Shiranui (Shiranui monogatari) is a serial novel that was launched in 1849 with the text of the earlier volumes by Ryūkatei Tanekazu (1807–58) and the illustrations of Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865). Publication ended with the ninetieth volume in 1885. The story takes place in Kyushu, the southernmost largest island of Japan, which is known for the phenomenon of an atmospheric ghost light called shiranui. The main character of the immensely popular novel is Princess Wakana, legendary daughter of Ōtomo Sōrin (1530–87), feudal lord of Bungo Province in eastern Kyushu. The historical Sōrin was one of the few lords who converted to Catholicism. In 1578, he entered into armed conflict with the Shimazu clan over control of

Utagawa Kunisada, Part One, from the series The Tale of Shiranui (Shiranui monogatari), 1853; published by Fujiokaya Keijirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, horizontal ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Bandō Shuka as Shiranui Daijin, actually Wakana-hime (R), and Arashi Rikaku II as Hananomura no Chigusa, actually Toriyama Shūsaku (L), 1853; published by Hamadaya Tokubei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (100-6928/9)

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Kyushu, which was not solved until 1587 when Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–98), regarded as the second “Great Unifier” of Japan, overtook the entire island with Sōrin’s help. In the novel, Sōrin is suspected of rebellion and is killed by henchmen of the rival Kikuchi clan. Wakana escapes Bungo at an early age and is raised,

unaware of her heritage, by the gigantic spider of Nishikigatake, who opposes the leadership of the Kikuchi. She receives a magic scroll that allows her to do spider magic, thus enabling her to avenge her father’s death.

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Utagawa Kunisada, Princess Wakana, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1861; published by Hiranoya Shinzō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Gordon Brodfuehrer in honor of Dr. Andreas Marks (2016.137.1)

RIGHT

Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Arashi Rikan III as Genkai Nadaemon (R), Bandō Takesaburō as Washizu Shichirō and Arashi Rikaku II as Washizu Rokurō (C), and Bandō Shuka as Wakana-hime (L), 1853; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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Shimizu no Kanja Yoshitaka 清水冠者義高

Minamoto Yoshitaka (d. 1184) was the son of Minamoto Yoshinaka (1154–84), a member of the Genji clan and a military commander in Shinano Province, who fought over the leadership of Japan in the twelfth century. Historical data about Yoshinaka

is sparse because existing records include a great deal of fictional information. In 1183, a conflict erupted between Yoshinaka and his cousin Minamoto Yoritomo (1147–99) but a consensus was reached and an armed confrontation was avoided. Although

Yoshitaka was given by his father as hostage to Yoritomo, the conflict continued. After winning over the Taira clan in the summer, Yoshinaka lost the Battles of the Uji River and in Awazu in early 1184 against his cousins. When it was revealed that Yoritomo was going to kill the hostage, Yoshitaka dressed as a woman and managed to escape with the help of loyal supporters of his father. However, Yoritomo sent an army to punish the Shinano for their rebellion and ordered Yoshitaka’s pursuit. He was killed at Iruma River. According to legend, Yoshitaka was helped, albeit ineffectively, by the ghost of a mountain worshipper (yamabushi) who had the ability to transform into a giant rat.

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Shumitsu Kanja Yoshitaka, from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1867; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō, carved by Katada Chōjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.70)

LEFT

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ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Shimizu no Kanja Yoshitaka, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1861; published by Hiranoya Shinzō, carved by Yokogawa Takejirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

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Tenjiku Tokubei 天竺徳兵衛 Tenjiku Tokubei is a historical figure who was born in 1612 in the village of Takasago, located in the northeastern corner of the Seto Inland Sea, over 28 miles (46 km) west of Kobe. It is believed that his father was a salt merchant and Tokubei himself became a merchant as well but, most importantly, also an explorer. At the age of fifteen he was hired by a trading company that regularly sailed to Vietnam and Siam (present-day Thailand). Tokubei also traveled to India, which is why he became known as Tenjiku 天竺 (Ch. tianzhu; ancient Chinese name for India). In the 1630s, the Japanese government issued several edicts to regulate and restrict travel to foreign countries, which put an end to Japanese sailing to Southeast Asia. Tokubei wrote his memoirs, which were published as Stories of Tenjiku Crossing the Sea (Tenjiku tokai monogatari). They became very popular since the isolation policy had greatly limited information about life overseas. However, the credibility of some of his descriptions is questionable. After his death, Tokubei became a legend and eventually also a character in Kabuki plays like Tenjiku Tokubei kikigaki ōrai,

OPPOSITE Utagawa Kunisada, Tenjiku Tokubei, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1862; published by Hiranoya Shinzō, carved by Matsushima Masakichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Tenjiku Tokubei, ca. 1825–30; published by Kawaguchiya Uhei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

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written by Namiki Shōzō (1730– 73) in 1757. In the second half of the eighteenth century, Tenjiku Tokubei kokyō no torikaji was particularly popular, as was Tsuruya Nanboku IV’s (1755– 1829) Tenjiku Tokubei ikoku banashi in the first half of the nineteenth century. In Kabuki, however, Tokubei is significantly altered and becomes a magician connected to toad

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magic, similar to Gama Sennin (see page 174). This explains why a number of woodblock prints depict him standing in front of or balancing on a massive toad that can spit fire. Tokubei is further transformed into an evil character who plots against Japan because his father was a Korean official and he seeks revenge for the invasion attempt in the late sixteenth century.

In the Kabuki version of Tokubei, he is dressed luxuriously and exotically to reflect his connection with the world outside of Japan. He is shown wearing either a Chinese-inspired robe decorated with golden dragons or a robe that resembles the ceremonial garments worn by the Ainu people on Hokkaido or the Sakhalin islands.

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ABOVE Toyohara Kunichika and Utagawa Kuniume, Actor Onoe Kikugorō V as Tenjiku Tokubei, 1891; published by Matsui Eikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, New York

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Actors Bandō Shuka as Morokoshi-hime (R), Onoe Kikugorō III as Tenjiku Tokubei (C), and Sawamura Sōjūrō V as Shiba Saemon (L), 1847; publisher unknown (Yama-Chū); woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (100-9227/28/29)

LEFT

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Takiyasha-hime 滝夜伹姫 Princess Takiyasha

Princess Satsuki is the daughter of Taira Masakado (d. 940), a provincial magistrate who famously rebelled against the imperial government and crowned himself the new emperor. Satsuki survived the death of her father and his retainers who were killed, which marked the end of their rebellion, and became a nun. However, according to legend she was very angry about the killing of her father and visited the Kifune Shrine in Kyoto where the spirit of the shrine entered her and endowed her with magical abilities. She changed her name to Takiyasha and returned to her family home in Sōma County, Shimousa Province to gather followers to exact revenge for her father’s death and overthrow the imperial court. Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s (1798– 1861) dramatic large-scale panoramic composition portrays Takiyasha as an evil sorceress residing in the ruined palace at Sōma. The courageous warrior Ōya Tarō Mitsukuni had been sent there to defeat her, but he first kills Araimaru, her henchman, without even drawing his own sword. Fearing defeat, 194

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Mitsukuni Defies the Skeleton Specter Conjured up by Princess Takiyasha, ca. 1845–46; published by Yahataya Sakujirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Bonhams, New York

Utagawa Toyokuni, Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), vol. 1.1, 1806; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Waseda University Library

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Utagawa Toyokuni, Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), vol. 1.4, 1806; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

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Takiyasha uses a magical scroll and conjures up her supernatural allies. A gigantic skeleton looms up out of the darkness and pulls down the blinds to fight Mitsukuni. For this design, Kuniyoshi was inspired by the serial novel Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), which was illustrated by his teacher Utagawa Toyokuni (1769–1825) and published in six installments in 1806.

ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Princess Takiyasha, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1863; published by Hiranoya Shinzō, carved by Ōta Tashichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

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Utagawa Yoshitsuya, Princess Takiyasha (R), Tarō Yoshikado (C), and Nishikigi and Utō Yasukata (L), ca. 1843–46; published by Tsujiokaya Bunsuke; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

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The poet Santō Kyōden (1761– 1816) describes how Takiyasha, along with her younger halfbrother Yoshikado (see page 198), went into hiding where they met Gama Sennin, the Toad Immortal, who gave them instruction in toad magic. Takiyasha does appear in Kabuki plays categorized as “Masakado and Takiyasha.” Probably the most intriguing actor print of Takiyasha is part

of the imaginative portrait of the popular actor Bandō Mitsugorō VI (1846–73) from 1863 by Utagawa Kunisada (1786–1865), included in his series of magicians, Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), which was produced in a luxury version on thick paper with glitter on each print. Takiyasha is portrayed emerging from a skull with a sword in her right hand and a

bell in her left. Since it is a dark night, she wears an old and primitive form of lantern comprising a metal ring with three candles that is fixed around the top of her head. Clasped between her teeth is another illumination device with a fire on each end. Her sharp gaze leaves no doubt that she is in control of the situation and is not wasting a thought that her beautiful long hair could catch fire.

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Shōgun Tarō Yoshikado 将軍太郎良門

Taira Yoshikado (n.d.) was the eldest son of the provincial magnate and legendary military commander Taira Masakado (d. 940), who is famous for having led the first chronicled rebellion against the imperial government. While there are legends about the historic Yoshikado, his portraits in Japanese visual arts relate to

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the popular story Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), written by the poet Santō Kyōden (1761– 1816). Kyōden made Yoshikado and his half-sister Satsuki/ Takiyasha (see page 194) the protagonists of this fictional book, which he wrote in 1806. In the story, Satsuki narrowly

escapes the fighting together with her half-brother Yoshikado who is still an infant. She becomes a nun and raises Yoshikado in secrecy at the foot of Mount Tsukuba. Yoshikado develops into a strong warrior, much like his father. During an excursion he meets the hermit Nikushisen, who is actually Gama Sennin, the

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Toad Immortal (see page 174). Yoshikado was unaware of his heritage until Nikushisen reveals to him that he is the son of Masakado. Both Yoshikado and Satsuki begin to study toad magic with Nikushisen. Satsuki changes her name to Takiyasha and Yoshikado now calls himself Sōma Tarō Yoshikado because his father was born in Sōma. Yoshikado then takes off to roam the country, searching for supporters to avenge his father’s untimely death.

Utagawa Yoshitora, At Hell Valley on Mount Tate in Etchū Province, Nikushi Dōjin Demonstrates a Battle of Frogs and Teaches Magic to the Two Comrades Yoshikado and Iga Ju, 1864; published by Iseya Kanekichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

LEFT

ABOVE Utagawa Kunisada, Shōgun Tarō Yoshikado, from the series Toyokuni’s Drawings: A Magic Contest (Toyokuni kigō, Kijutsu kurabe), 1862; published by Hiranoya Shinzō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Gordon Brodfuehrer in honor of Dr. Andreas Marks (2016.137.2)

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Utagawa Yoshitora (act. ca. 1836–82) created a masterful triptych that shows Nikushisen in the center sitting in front of a giant toad. He is flanked by Yoshikado on the right, here called Shōgun Tarō Taira Yoshikado, and the warrior Iga Jutarō on the left. Nikushisen conjures up a battle between frogs that fight with sticks and leaves. It is nighttime and the scene has attracted Nikushin’s retainers who are eager to watch. On the left is an eerie earth spider (see page 114) and on the right a troop of ghoulish monsters, including a bat, a skeleton, and an ogre.

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ABOVE LEFT Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Usugumo: Sōma Yoshikado and Utō Yasukata, from the series Genji Clouds Matched with Ukiyo-e Pictures (Genji kumo ukiyo-e awase), ca. 1845–46; published by Iseya Ichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection LEFT Utagawa Kunisada, Actors Kataoka Nizaemon VIII as Utō Jirō Yasukata (R) and Nakamura Fukusuke as Taira Tarō Yoshikado (L), 1859; published by Hayashiya Shōgorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; National Diet Library, Japan

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Kurokumo Ōji (R) and Shōgun Tarō Yoshikado (L), from the series Beauty and Bravery in the ‘Tales of the Water Margin’ (Biyū Suikoden), 1867; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō, carved by Watanabe Eizō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban diptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

ABOVE Utagawa Toyokuni, Biography of the Loyal Utō Yasukata (Utō Yasukata chūgi den), vol. 1.1, 1806; published by Tsuruya Kiemon; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Waseda University Library

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PART 5 ONI 鬼 OGRES

Shōki 鍾馗 Shōki, the slayer of demons, is a very popular figure in Japanese culture. The belief in Shōki originated in China where he is called Zhong Kui, and it is possible that this Daoist deity is based on a historic person who lived during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). According to sources written during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), at some point Emperor Xuanzong (685–762) became seriously ill with a high fever. He dreamt of a small demon who was tormenting him and of a larger demon who 202

captured the smaller one and ate it. Then the large demon introduced himself to the emperor as Zhong Kui, explaining that he had failed the state exams to become a government official during the reign of Emperor Gaozu (618–26) and had thus committed suicide. But since Gaozu had honored him with the burial of a court official, he had pledged to protect the empire against malicious demons. Xuanzong woke up and his fever was gone. He called the painter Wu Daozi (ca. 685–758) to produce a picture of Zhong Kui

according to Xuanzong’s description, which he intended to share with officials so that others could venerate Zhong Kui and find protection from evil. Wu Daozi’s painting did not survive, but records exist that pictures of Zhong Kui were, in fact, distributed during Xuanzong’s reign (712–56) in celebration of the Lunar New Year. Zhong Kui became a popular motif in Chinese painting in succeeding centuries. It is unclear at which point he entered Japan, but the oldest Japanese artwork

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Aoki Toshio, Shōki and Ogres, late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on silk, 50.8 ×121.9 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Elizabeth and Willard Clark (2013.30.30)

LEFT

Kawanabe Kyōsai, detail of Shōki, ca. 1860; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Purchased with the support of the F. G. Waller-Fonds (RP-P-2003-143)

BELOW

that includes an image of Shōki dates from the late Heian period (794–1185). Shōki’s popularity grew and in some regions it became customary to put a roof tile in the form of Shōki on a private home to protect it from evil entering. In the nineteenth century, a custom developed to hang a large flying banner of Shōki outside the house or display a Shōki doll inside in celebration of Boy’s Day on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. While paintings of Shōki were popular with the affluent, others turned to the more affordable woodblock prints of him. These portraits generally depict Shōki in traditional Chinese clothing, wearing boots and the

typical black head wear of Tang dynasty officials, with a flap on either side. Fittingly, Shōki carries a straight Chinese double-edged sword. At some point in time, portraits of Shōki no longer showed him as a lone figure but became more elaborate, capturing him interacting with humanoid oni or ogres that enjoyed devouring human flesh. The ogres are typically depicted with one or more horns growing out of their heads. They have disheveled hair, sharp teeth, muscular bodies, and claws, and wear only a loincloth, which could be either a tiger or leopard pelt. In most scenes of Shōki dealing with ogres, he is portrayed several

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Shōki Gripping an Ogre, ca. 1849–51; published by Ebisuya Shōshichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

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times larger than they are and he thus easily subjugates them. A distinct contrast to this classic depiction of Shōki is shown in a painting by Aoki Toshio (1854–1912), who was born in Yokohama and was among the first Japanese to settle

in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century. Toshio portrays Shōki not as a slayer of ogres but as their overlord, contemptuously surveying feasting ogres in grotto-like spaces that are filled with them quarreling, arm wrestling, and

playing musical instruments. From around the same time as Toshio’s painting is the composition by Kawanabe Kyōsai (1831– 89), which shows Shōki pursuing a group of ogres while riding a ferocious tiger that has already sunk its fangs into one of them.

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Kyōsai’s Random Sketches (Kyōsai manga), 1881; published by Makino Kichibei; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mary and James G. Wallach Foundation Gift, 2013 (2013.765)

LEFT

Kawanabe Kyōsai, Fifth Lunar Month (Gogatsu), from the series From the Twelve Months (Jūnikagetsu no uchi), 1887; published by Fukuda Kumajirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Art Institute of Chicago, Nathalie Gookin Fund in memory of Frederick Gookin (1984.1371)

BELOW

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Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Shōki Capturing a Demon in the Dream (Shōki muchū ni oni o torareru no zu), from the series New Forms of Thirty-six Ghosts (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Ellen and Fred Wells (2002.161.14)

LEFT

Okumura Masanobu, Shōki Striding, 1740s; published by Okumuraya; woodblock print, ink on paper, hashira-e; Library of Congress

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BELOW Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki, Enni, and Enjū, Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki), vol. 1, 1805 (1779); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 3, 1815; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 23 × 28.3 cm; Princeton University Library (ND1059.K15 A34)

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Oni no kan-nenbutsu 鬼の寒念仏 Ogre Reciting Buddhist Prayers in Midwinter

A popular way of depicting oni or ogres in Japan is in the disguise of a Buddhist priest who is chanting to invoke the name of the Buddha (nenbutsu) in midwinter (oni no kan-nenbutsu). The oni is dressed in the typical outfit of a wandering priest, which includes a black robe. He carries a striker in one hand and a gong in the other, along with a hōgachō 奉加帳, a list of donors who supported, for example, the construction or repair of a temple. This practice is carried out in midwinter for a period of thirty days, hence the oni also frequently carries an umbrella on his back. This type of oni is a popular motif of Ōtsu, a kind of inexpensive folk painting or print that became popular in the seventeenth century and was sold in the town of Ōtsu, which is located at important crossroads leading to Kyoto, the imperial capital of Japan. While the origin might have been Buddhist art, Ōtsu-e have a much more humorous nature and, in this case, of an ogre and not a priest, who is soliciting alms from people. It is a caricature of the religious hypocrisy that exists when clerics are not acting as piously as they pretend to be.

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BELOW Kawanabe Kyōsai, Ogre Hitting a Bell, ca. 1860; published by Sawamuraya Seikichi; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

Kikuchi Yōsai, Ogre Accompanying the Wisteria Maiden, late 19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on paper, 118.1 ×35.6 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Willard and Elizabeth Clark (2015.114.19)

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ABOVE Unknown artist, Ogre Reciting Buddhist Prayers, 18th–19th century; hanging scroll, ink and color on paper, 58.6 ×23.2 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of Mrs. Charles B. Meech (91.112.8)

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Momiji 紅葉

Taira Koremochi (n.d.) was a military commander who is believed to have lived in the middle of the Heian period (794–1185), although he is known only through legends. According to the most famous legend, he is sent by the emperor in Kyoto to kill Momiji, an ogress (kijo) who is said to live on Mount Togakushi, a rocky mountain 6,250 feet (1904 m) high northwest of Nagano in the middle of the Japanese Alps. Adaptations for theater embellished this story and allowed Koremochi to travel in autumn when the fall colors are at their

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best in the mountains. He meets a beautiful woman who offers him sake, after which he dozes off. In a dream, the Buddhist deity Hachiman, god of warriors, appears and warns him about a demon. Koremochi wakes up just in time to see how the beautiful woman has turned into an ogress. He quickly draws his sword and slays her. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) was particularly attracted to this subject. For example, he designed a dramatic triptych in which the tense situation is further enhanced by a strong wind that blows over Koremochi’s followers.

In another version, Koremochi discovers the true nature of the beautiful woman in her reflection in the water.

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Clearing Weather of the Togakushi Mountains (Togakushi no seiran), from the series Eight Views of Tales of Warriors (Bidan musha hakkei), 1868; published by Sanoya Tomigorō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.84a-c)

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ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Taira Koremori, from the series Mirror of Famous Generals of Great Japan (Dai nihon meishō kagami), 1879; published by Funatsu Chūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.250)

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Taira Koremochi Vanquishing a Female Demon at Togakushi Mountain (Taira Koremochi Togakushiyama kijo taiji no zu), 1887; published by Matsui Eikichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Mike Lyon Collection

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Ōtakemaru 大嶽丸

Ōtakemaru was a powerful legendary ogre lord who is said to have lived in the Suzuka mountain range in central Japan in the late eighth century. He rarely appears in premodern paintings and prints, especially in comparison with the later appearing ogre, Shuten-dōji (see page 211). Ōtakemaru was believed to be terrorizing a pass that was particularly difficult to maneuver along the Tōkaidō, Japan’s busiest highway that connected Kyoto with Edo (today’s Tokyo). To put an end to the misfortunes that befell travelers, in 810 Emperor Saga (785–842) sent the military commander Sakanoue Tamuramaro (758–811) to subjugate Ōtakemaru. Legend has it that Kannon, the Buddhist bodhisattva associated with compassion, transformed into a beautiful woman and aided Tamuramaro in his task to search for and destroy Ōtakemaru. Tamuramaro eventually succeeded and beheaded Ōtakemaru. The handscroll A Collection of Monsters in the archives of the Minneapolis Institute of Art includes an ogre named yamano-nushi 山の主 (lit. “mountain lord”), which could refer to Ōtakemaru. This story about him is retold in Utagawa Kuniyoshi’s 210

ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Tsuchiyama, from the series Fifty-three Pairs of the Tōkaidō (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsui), ca. 1845; published by Iseya Ichiemon; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; National Diet Library, Japan

(1798–1861) design of the station Tsuchiyama for the series Fiftythree Pairs of the Tōkaidō (Tōkaidō gojūsan tsui) in which Kuniyoshi captures all three protagonists.

LEFT Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; second of two handscrolls, ink and color on paper, 25.9 ×692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.2)

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Shuten-dōji 酒呑童子

Shuten-dōji is a legendary ogre leader who, in one version, dwelled on Mount Ōe, northwest of Kyoto, together with his horde of ogres, including Ibaraki-dōji (see page 214). The picture handscroll Mount Ōe in Pictures and Words (Ōeyama rkotoba) from the fourteenth century in the collection of the Itsuō Art Museum in Ikeda, Osaka, is considered the oldest surviving record of the Shuten-dōji legend. One version of the legend claims that Shuten-dōji was born in Echigo and had been around since the eighth century. He was born with hair and teeth after a sixteen-month pregnancy. Able to immediately walk, he had the strength of a sixteen-year-old and

was considered an ogre-child due to his rough temperament. After his mother abandoned him, he became an ogre. Another version states that Shuten-dōji was born in Ōmi Province and his father was the legendary large serpent/ dragon Yamata-no-orochi from Japanese mythology. Shuten-dōji underwent training as a Buddhist monk but ignored the edict to abstain from alcohol. One day, intoxicated at a religious festival, he dressed like an ogre and, unable to take off the costume, turns into one. Yet another version of the legend has Shutendōji living in Yamato Province as a Buddhist page, and describes him as having fed his priest teacher meat from dead corpses

that he found as well as from people he had killed. After this was revealed, he was abandoned in the mountains and became an ogre. Well known is the legend that Shuten-dōji and his ogre horde abducted young women and terrified Kyoto. The brave warrior Minamoto Yorimitsu (Raikō; 948–1021) and his closest allies, the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō)—Watanabe Tsuna (953–1025), Urabe Suetake (950?–1022?), Sakata Kintoki (956–1012), and Usui Sadamitsu BELOW Utagawa Yoshitsuya, Shuten-dōji of Mount Ōe, 1858; published by Kiya Sōjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

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954–1021?)—disguised themselves as Buddhist monks and traveled to Shuten-dōji’s mountain stronghold to put an end to his terror. After being admitted, the group was forced to watch the ogres feasting on a banquet of human flesh. When the ogres fell asleep from their excessive indulgence, the heroes seized the opportunity to slay the horde, including Shuten-dōji himself,

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Picture of Raikō on Mount Ōe (Raikō Ōeyama iri no zu), 1853; published by Yamamotoya Heikichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

BELOW Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Raikō and his Four Companions Conquering the Demon of Mount Ōe, 1864; published by Kiya Sōjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.51a-c)

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who Yorimitsu decapitated. Nevertheless, the demon’s head still attempted to bite Yorimitsu and in doing so broke off one of the helmet’s ornaments. The teeth were so deeply imbedded in Yorimitsu’s helmet that the demon’s head got stuck to it. Toriyama Sekien in his book Illustrations of Another Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku gazu zoku hyakki) from 1779 portrayed the demon lord in his mountain lair as he is relaxing, using one of his underlings as a pillow. Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) also used this motif in 1865 when he captured Shutendōji at a feast, surrounded by beautiful women, watching one of them, half clad, engaged in a mock tug-of-war with an ogre. Particularly popular in Japanese visual arts is the moment when Yorimitsu and the Four Heavenly

Kings attack Shuten-dōji, who tries to viciously defend himself. In one triptych, Katsukawa Shuntei (1770–1824) has Tsuna and Kintoki stabbing the body in the center while its head is attached to Yorimitsu who is supported by a sixth warrior, Hirai Yasumasa (958–1036). Suetake in the top right corner is chasing some ogres with his sword, while Sadamitsu below him is imperturbably sweeping a few small ogres with a broom. Especially dramatic is the rendition of the attack by Utagawa Yoshitsuya (1822–66), who captures the feline head of Shuten-dōji before it clings to Yorimitsu’s helmet. The center sheet of Yoshitsuya’s composition is entirely taken up by the gigantic red head with yellow-green eyes and horns, surrounded by streaming hair.

ABOVE Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Shuten-dōji, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.53) BELOW Katsukawa Shuntei, Picture of Minamoto Yorimitsu Battling the Demon Shuten-dōji, 1810s; published by Tsutaya Jūzaburō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Gift of N. J. Sargent (16.16.41)

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LEFT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of the demon disguised as an old woman begging to see her arm six days after Watanabe Tsuna had returned with it to Kyoto on the 9th day of the 4th lunar month 976, from the series Yoshitoshi’s Random Sketches (Yoshitoshi manga), 1885; published by Kobayashi Tetsujirō, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban diptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.178)

Ibaraki-dōji

木童子

Ibaraki-dōji (lit. “Ibaraki child”) is a large ogre that features in Heian period (794–1185) tales and legends. He is the most important servant of the ogre leader Shuten-dōji (see page 211) and both are based on Mount Ōe, northwest of Kyoto, from where they sometimes descended to create havoc in Kyoto, kidnapping girls, etc. The warrior Minamoto Yorimitsu (948–1021) and his vassals, the Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō), put an end to that and killed Shuten-dōji, but Ibarakidōji was able to escape. The exact place of Ibaraki-dōji’s birth is unclear, but there are several theories that it could have 214

been Echigo, like Shuten-dōji. Ibaraki-dōji was a beautiful boy and received many love letters. Once he received a letter that was smeared with blood, which he licked and instantly turned into an ogre. Shuten-dōji heard of this story and recruited him to attack surrounding villages, and later shifting to Kyoto. Another theory claims that he came from Settsu where he was born with teeth after an eighteenmonth-long pregnancy. He was already able to walk when he was born and had a glint in his eyes that shocked his mother, who then died. His family abandoned him but he was taken in by the

wife of a barber. After learning the trade, he once injured a customer with his blade and licked his bloody fingers. Liking the taste, he then deliberately cut customers, drank their blood, and became an ogre. A famous story about Ibarakidōji and Watanabe Tsuna (953– 1025), one of the Four Heavenly Kings, exists in several versions. What they have in common is that Ibaraki-dōji attacks Tsuna to take revenge for his fallen master, Shuten-dōji, but Tsuna is able to fend him off. The location where this incident happened changes in the different versions, but one takes place at the Rashōmon Gate

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in Kyoto (see page 216). Ibarakidōji lost his arm in the quarrel, which Tsuna kept as a trophy. Ibaraki-dōji returned to Tsuna but has transformed into Tsuna’s old aunt in order to be able to enter the mansion. He convinced Tsuna to show him the severed arm. Tsuna took out the large box in which he had put the arm and showed it to Ibaraki-dōji. Ibarakidōji managed to grab the arm and disappeared into the night.

LEFT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of the Old Woman Retrieving Her Arm (Rōba kiwan o mochisaru zu o shitau no zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1889; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.227)

Shibata Zeshin, detail of Old Woman Retrieving Her Arm, 1882; two-panel folding screen pair, ink, color, and gold on paper, 167 ×168.9 cm (each); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.170.1-2)

LEFT

Oni (Ogres)

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Rashōmon no oni 羅城門の鬼 Rashōmon Ogre

A variation on the legend of the ogre Ibaraki-dōji (see page 214) takes place at the Rashōmon (or Rajōmon) Gate in Kyoto, which was erected at the city entrance in 789. Minamoto Yorimitsu (948–1021) and his Four Heavenly Kings (Shitennō) were celebrating the defeat of the ogre leader Shuten-dōji (see page 211) at a banquet when they learned that the area around the Rashōmon Gate had been terrorized by an ogre (Rashōmon no oni). The brave warrior Watanabe Tsuna (953–1025), strongly believing that no ogre would dare to enter royal grounds, put on his armor and helmet and rode by himself to the gate to investigate the situation. Suddenly, a gust of wind blows up and Tsuna encounters the evil ogre who, clinging onto the high beams of the gate, reaches down with his arm from behind Tsuna to grab the top-knot on his head. Tsuna quickly reaches for his long straight battle sword (tachi) and strikes at the ogre, cutting off one of his arms. Releasing a terrible scream, the ogre takes flight, leaving his arm behind. The legend continues, disclosing that the ogre was no other than the fierce Ibaraki-dōji who would later make an attempt to reclaim his arm (see page 214).

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi,

Watanabe Tsuna, from the series Mirror of Warriors of Our Country (Honchō musha kagami), 1855; published by Tsujiokaya Bunsuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Mike Lyon Collection LEFT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Picture of Watanabe Tsuna Cutting off the Demon’s Arm at Rashōmon (Rashōmon Watanabe Tsuna oni ude kiru no zu), 1888; published by Matsui Eikichi, carved by Takimoto Chokuzan; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban, upright diptych; Courtesy of Egenolf Gallery Japanese Prints

Toriyama Sekien, assisted by Chōki and Enni, Supplement to a Demon Horde from Past and Present (Konjaku hyakki shūi), vol. 3, 1805 (1781); published by Maekawa Rokuzaemon and Maekawa Yahei; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 ×16 cm; Smithsonian Libraries

ABOVE RIGHT

Katsukawa Shunshō, Watanabe Tsuna Fighting the Demon at Rashōmon, ca. 1770; publisher unknown; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical chūban; Art Institute of Chicago, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harold G. Henderson (1967.642)

RIGHT

Oni (Ogres)

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PART 6 ONRYŌ 怨霊 VENGEFUL SPIRITS

Yoshihira at the Nunobiki Falls Minamoto Yoshihira (1141–60) was the eldest son of Yoshitomo (1123–60), the head of the Minamoto (Genji) samurai clan. In 1155, Yoshihira retaliated against his uncle Yoshikata (d. 1155), who had occupied an area that had been under the command of Yoshihira’s father.

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Yoshihira overpowered and killed Yoshitaka. After this battle, Yoshihira became known as Kamakura Akugenda. While the character aku usually means “evil” or “bad,” in this context it simply means “fierce” or “strong.” Yoshihira had fought alongside his father during the Heiji

Rebellion of 1159, a military attempt to reduce the influence of Taira Kiyomori (1118–81) over the imperial court in Kyoto. At first it seemed as if the insurgence would be victorious, but then the Minamoto were defeated and Yoshitomo was killed. Yoshihira was able to flee but is said to have

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ABOVE Utagawa Yoshifusa, Picture of Yoshihira’s Ghost Attacking Nanba During Kiyomori’s Visit to the Nunobiki Falls (Kiyomori Nunobiki-taki yūran Yoshihira no rei Nanba o utsu zu), 1856; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Arnold Weinstein Gift, 2001 (2001.715.11a–c)

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Akugenda Yoshihira’s Ghost Attacks Nanba Jirō During Kiyomori’s Visit to the Nunobiki Falls (Kiyomori nyūdō Nunobiki no taki yūran Akugenda Yoshihira no rei Nanba Jirō o utsu), ca. 1825; published by Iseya Sanjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

LEFT

Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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returned to the capital to avenge his father’s death by killing Kiyomori. The exact details are historically unclear, but it is certain that Yoshihira did not succeed and was instead captured. In 1160, he was executed at Rokujō-gawara, the execution grounds located on the riverside of the Kamo River. The war epic The Tale of Heiji (Heiji monogatari) greatly embellished the story about Yoshira’s death. According to the epic, Yoshihira was discovered at an inn in Kyoto which was

surrounded by three hundred horsemen under the command of Nanba Jirō Tsunetō (n.d.), a retainer of Kiyomori. Yoshihira was able to escape the search party but was later captured. Tsunetō’s younger brother, Nanba Saburō Tsunefusa (n.d.), was ordered by Kiyomori to decapitate Yoshihira. Before Tsunefusa could make the fatal slash, he was mocked by Yoshihira who, in his last moments, swore to return as a thunderbolt and strike Tsunefusa dead. Eight years later, Tsunefusa accompanied Kiyomori

on a pleasure trip to the Nunobiki Falls in present-day Kobe. Suddenly lightning struck and Nanba was killed. The dramatic moment of the revenge-seeking Yoshihira emerging in dark clouds, sending out lightning bolts, and attacking and killing Tsunefusa became a popular motif in woodblock prints. However, there seems to have been some confusion about the names of the Nanba brothers because on prints Tsunefusa tends to be erroneously labeled as Jirō instead of Saburō.

Ishida Yūtei, Views of Famous Sights in Settsu Province (Settsu meisho zue), vol. 7, 1796; published by Morimoto Tasuke et al.; woodblock printed book, ink on paper, ca. 22 × 28.3 cm; Waseda University Library

LEFT

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Akugenda Yoshihira’s Ghost Attacking Nanba Jirō at the Nunobiki Falls (Nunobiki no taki Akugenda Yoshihira no rei Nanba Jirō o utsu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1889; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Wada Yūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.233)

RIGHT

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Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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Kiyomori Seeing Skulls Taira Kiyomori (1118–81) assumed control of the Taira (Heike) clan of samurai after his father, Tadamori (1096–1159), passed away in 1159. Tadamori had consolidated the influence of his family at the imperial court and fought victoriously in 1156 on the side of the Emperor Go-Shirakawa (1127–92) at the Hōgen Rebellion in Kyoto when an attempt was made to change the course of the imperial succession. Go-Shirakawa formally abdicated in 1158 but continued to rule instead of his eldest son, the new Emperor Nijō (1143–65). At court, the influence of Kiyomori, who had fought alongside his father, increased significantly and a rivalry developed between him and his former ally Minamoto Yoshitomo (1123–60), the head of the rival Minamoto (Genji) samurai clan. The climax came in 1160 when Kiyomori left Kyoto on a personal pilgrimage and Yoshitomo seized the opportunity to rise up and put both the retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa and the current Emperor Nijō under house arrest. While the plan appeared to have succeeded, Kiyomori returned to Kyoto with an army, orchestrated the escape

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Kikuchi Yōsai, Taira Kiyomori Seeing Skulls, 1877; hanging scroll; ink and color on silk, 141.6 ×58.7 cm; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.1303)

OPPOSITE

RIGHT Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Picture of Kiyomori Seeing Hundreds of Skulls at Fukuhara (Kiyomori Fukuhara ni sūhyaku no jintō o miru zu), from the series Collection of Thirty-six Ghosts in New Style (Shinkei sanjūrokkaisen), 1890; published by Sasaki Toyokichi, carved by Wada Yūjirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.1344)

Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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of the emperors, and crushed the insurgence, which came to be known as the Heiji Rebellion. Yoshitomo was killed and Kiyomori emerged as the leader of the sole samurai clan at court. Pursuing even greater political power, Kiyomori was able to climb the ranks of government and reached his zenith in late 1166 when he was appointed Minister of the Interior (naidaijin), and then in early 1167, appointed to Chancellor (daijōdaijin), the highest administrative rank of the imperial government. Until then, this position was only granted to members of the noble families, and they were displeased that a samurai had attained so much power. After just three months, Kiyomori resigned to be free of any duties and just take pleasure in the social and

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Utagawa Hiroshige, Picture of Taira Kiyomori Haunted by Strange Sights (Taira Kiyomori kaii o miru zu), ca. 1843–46; published by Ibaya Kyūbei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Joan Elizabeth Tanney Bequest (M.2006.136.27ca–c) ABOVE

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Taira Kiyomori Seeing Skulls in the Snowy Garden, from the series New Selection of Six Ghosts (Shin’yō rokkaisen), 1882; published by Funazu Chūjirō, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Minneapolis Institute of Art, John R. Van Derlip Fund; purchase from the collection of Elizabeth and Willard Clark (2013.31.202)

LEFT

political prestige he had achieved. However, he continued to fortify the position of his clan by arranging a marriage between his daughter and Emperor Takakura, the fourth son of Go-Shirakawa. After their son was born in 1178, Kiyomori staged a coup d’état to remove his political rivals from their positions and replace them with his allies. He imprisoned Go-Shirakawa and forced Takakura to abdicate and to crown his infant son—Kiyomori’s grandson—as emperor (Antoku; 1178–85). The surviving sons of Minamoto Yoshitomo, who

Kiyomori had not killed, were called upon to help put an end to Kiyomori’s dictatorial moves, which led to the Genpei War between the Taira and Minamoto clans in 1180. In the spring of 1181, Kiyomori died of illness, leaving the leadership of the clan to his son Munemori (1147–85). In his later years, Kiyomori had begun to experience high fevers accompanied by horrific visions in which he saw hundreds of skulls of his slayed enemies in the snowy garden of his villa.

Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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Yoshitsune at Daimotsu Bay

Minamoto Yoshitsune (1159–89) was a celebrated military genius who assisted his half-brother Yoritomo (1147–99) to consolidate power over Japan during the Genpei War (1180–85) between the Minamoto and the Taira clans and their respective allies. On behalf of Yoritomo, who was the head of the Minamoto clan, Yoshitsune won a number of decisive battles, such as the Battle of Ichi-no-tani, west of presentday Kobe, in the spring of 1184, and one year later, the Battle of Dan-no-ura in the Shimonoseki Strait between Japan’s main island of Honshu and its largest southern island of Kyushu. The latter battle was decisive for the final destruction of the Taira. After his victory, Yoshitsune had planned a triumphant return to Kamakura where Yoritomo resided. However, Yoritomo became suspicious of Yoshitsune’s ambitions and knew that he could not control him. Hence he did not allow Yoshitsune to enter Kamakura and prevented him from receiving any official posts as a reward. Yoshitsune began to resent Yoritomo and returned to Kyoto. In the tenth lunar month of 1185, Yoritomo sent troops to attack Yoshitsune who was, however, able to defend himself 226

with the support of his new ally, his uncle Yukiie (1141?/43?– 1186). After Yoritomo’s attack, Yoshitsune and Yukiie secured imperial authorization to move against their aggressor Yoritomo. But Yoritomo’s old allies did not turn against him, and Yoshitsune therefore failed to recruit enough vassals to have a viable chance of winning against his half-brother.

At the end of the tenth lunar month, Yoritomo himself led his army to pursue Yoshitsune, who fled from Kyoto to make his way to Kyushu and regroup there with his few allies. Yoshitsune reached the coast at Daimotsu (presentday Amagasaki City), where he and his men boarded ships. At the beginning of the eleventh lunar month, they set sail for Kyushu

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ABOVE Utagawa Kuniyoshi, The Ghosts of the Taira Attack Yoshitsune in Daimotsu Bay, ca. 1849–51; published by Enshūya Hikobei; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of Christie’s, London

Katsushika Hokui, The Ghosts of the Heike Appear at Daimotsu Bay in Settsu Province (Sesshū Daimotsu no ura Heike onryō arawaruru zu), ca. 1847–50; published by Kazusaya Iwazō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

LEFT

Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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but a powerful storm jeopardized Yoshitsune’s plans and forced him to return to shore, preventing his escape to Kyushu. He had no choice but to continue his flight on land. He managed to escape repeatedly over the next several years until a final standoff at a Buddhist temple in northern Honshu in the spring of 1189. 228

Hopelessly outnumbered by Yoritomo’s men, Yoshitsune committed suicide. According to legend, the storm at Daimotsu that had prevented Yoshitsune from escaping to Kyushu was not caused by natural forces. It was in these waters that Yoshitsune had destroyed the fleet of the Taira and it was the

wrath of the slain warriors that had created the furious storm in revenge. This became a popular motif in woodblock prints, with many impressive designs of a large ship battling high waves and of vengeful spirits.

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Utagawa Kuniyoshi, The Ghosts of the Heike Appear at Daimotsu Bay in Settsu Province (Sesshū Daimotsu no ura ni Heike no onryō arawaruru no zu), ca. 1839–41; published by Nunokichi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Courtesy of The Art of Japan

LEFT

Toyohara Kunichika, The Typhoon at Daimotsu Bay in Settsu Province in 1188 (Bunji yonen Sesshū Daimotsu no ura nanpū no zu), 1860; published by Ōmiya Kyūjirō; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

BELOW LEFT

Utagawa Kuniyoshi, Daimotsu Bay, from the series Mirror of the Life of Yoshitsune, the Favorite of the Minamoto, Three Biographical Sketches (Hodo Yoshitsune koi no Minamoto ichidai kagami, sanryakuden), 1853; published by Jōshūya Jūzō/Jūbei; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam, Gift of E. Both (RP-P-1979-177)

RIGHT

BELOW Utagawa Yoshikazu, The Terrible Storm in Daimotsu Bay (Daimotsu no ura nanpū no zu), 1860; published by Maruya Jinpachi; woodblock prints, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban triptych; Mike Lyon Collection

Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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Iga-no-tsubone 伊賀局 and Fujiwara Mototō 藤原基任

There are several Iga-no-tsubone or Lady Iga in Japanese history. The most famous Iga-no-tsubone (d. 1384) was the daughter of the military commander Shinozuka Shigehiro (1309–42). She was considered very brave and served

as lady-in-waiting to Empress Shintaikenmon-in (Ano Renshi; 1301–59), the wife of Emperor Godaigo (1288–1339). The book Gleanings of Yoshino (Yoshino shūi) from the Muromachi period (1336–1573) describes a meeting

between Iga-no-tsubone and the spirit of Fujiwara Mototō (n.d.) in 1347. Not intimidated by this otherworldly encounter, she listens to Mototō’s grudge. When he served as uemon-no-taifu, Lieutenant of the Right Division of Outer Palace Guards, he gave his life for the empress. But because he did not receive a proper burial, he was now wandering restlessly, resenting the empress. When Iga-no-tsubone Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, detail of Midnight Moon at Mount Yoshino: Iga-no-tsubone (Yoshinoyama yahan tsuki, Iga-no-tsubone), from the series One Hundred Aspects of the Moon (Tsuki hyakushi), 1886; published by Akiyama Buemon, carved by Noguchi Enkatsu; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Endowment Fund established by the Mary Livingston Griggs and Mary Griggs Burke Foundation, gifts of various donors, by exchange, and gift of Edmond Freis in memory of his parents, Rose and Leon Freis (2017.106.169)

LEFT

Tsukioka Yoshitoshi, Iga-notsubone and the Spirit of Fujiwara Nakanari, from the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari), 1865; published by Daikokuya Kinnosuke; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Herbert R. Cole Collection (M.84.31.58)

RIGHT

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Onryō (Vengeful Spirits)

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returns, she reports this to the empress who orders the Lotus Sutra to be read for twenty-one days. Mototō’s ghost never reappeared. The spirit confronting Iga-notsubone in the series One Hundred Stories from Japan and China (Wakan hyaku monogatari) by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839–92) was erroneously labeled Fujiwara Nakanari (764–810), a nobleman who was killed for plotting against Emperor Saga (786–842). This confusion appears to have started with a print by Utagawa Hiroshige (1797–1858) in the series Imitations of the Ogura One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each (Ogura nazora-e hyakunin isshu).

ABOVE Utagawa Hiroshige, Poem by Taira no Kanemori: Iga-notsubone, from the series Imitations of the Ogura One Hundred Poets, One Poem Each (Ogura nazora-e hyakunin isshu), ca. 1845–46; published by Ibaya Senzaburō, carved by Matsushima Fusajirō; woodblock print, ink and color on paper, vertical ōban; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University (012-0543)

Katsushika Hokusai, Transmitting the Spirit and Revealing the Form of Things, Hokusai’s Random Sketches (Denshin kaishu, Hokusai manga), vol. 5, 1816; published by Eirakuya Tōshirō; woodblock printed book, ink and color on paper, ca. 23 ×16 cm; Princeton University Library (ND1059.K15 A34)

LEFT

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APPENDIX

Bakemono Zukushi 化け物尽くし A Collection of Monsters Ichinen 一念

A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi) is a set of two handscrolls in the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art that has never been published in its entirety before. The set contains images of 43 demons, 24 of which are included in the main part of this book. The remaining 19 are shown here in alphabetical order by Japanese pronunciation and not in the order they were painted. Artist unknown, A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi), ca. 1800; two handscrolls, ink and color on paper; 25.7 × 684.9 cm and 25.9 × 692 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Gift of the Clark Center for Japanese Art & Culture (2013.29.125.1, 2) Daiba 大馬

Akujin 悪神

A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi)

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Hinbōgami ひんぼう神

Jama じゃま

Jashin 蛇身

Jōroma 精呂魔

Momonga もゝんくわ

Mugan 無眼

En'ō 猿王

Fūjin 風神

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Ōma 王广

Onryō 怨霊

Tourogi 登宇露鬼

Waa 和阿

Yukibōzu 雪ぼう主

Banmei 蠻名

Mōnen もふ念

Nijikami にじ神

A Collection of Monsters (Bakemono zukushi)

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Hyakki Yagyō 百鬼夜行 Night Parade of One Hundred Demons

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In the collection of the Minneapolis Institute of Art is a handscroll that shows over 110 demons parading in the night, some of which are integrated in the main part of this book. Since this scroll has never been published in its entirety before, it is shown in full here.

Eigyō (attr.), Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, ca. 1830s; handscroll, ink and color on paper; 23.3 × 489.4 cm (total); Minneapolis Institute of Art, Mary Griggs Burke Collection, Gift of the Mary and Jackson Burke Foundation (2015.79.119)

Night Parade of One Hundred Demons (Hyakki Yagyō)

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ABOUT THIS BOOK This publication is not intended to be an academic study of the yōkai phenomenon or tradition. Rather, the aim is to provide a visual feast of yōkai from the rich imagery in paintings, books, and prints, along with accurate information on a select number of them. To maintain the concept of “one hundred,” one hundred supernatural beings or occurrences have been selected and placed in six sections: demons (yōkai), ghosts and apparitions (yūrei), ghosts in Kabuki plays, magicians (yōjutsushi), ogres (oni), and vengeful spirits (onryō). The main source of images has been the remarkable collection of yōkai at the Minneapolis Institute of Art, of which two handscrolls, A Collection of Monsters and Night Parade of One Hundred Demons, are reproduced here for the first time. The remaining images are from the collections of the following institutions and individuals: Art Institute of Chicago; Bonhams, New York; Brigham Young University; Christie’s, London and New York; Cleveland Museum of Art; Egenolf Gallery of Japanese Prints (Veronica Miller); Galerie Mingei, Paris (Philippe Boudin and Zoé Niang); Honolulu Museum of Art; International Research Center for Japanese Studies; Kyoto University; Library of Congress; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Mike Lyon; National Diet Library; National Gallery Prague; National Museum of Japanese History; Princeton University Library; Rijksmuseum Amsterdam; Scholten Japanese Art (Katherine Martin); Smithsonian Libraries; The Art of Japan (Richard Waldman and Douglas Frazer); The Metropolitan Museum of Art; Tokyo Metropolitan Library; Tokyo University of the Arts; Tsubouchi Memorial Theatre Museum, Waseda University; Waseda University Library; and Yamabosi Shoten. I am very grateful for the generosity of these institutions and individuals in allowing me to reproduce their images in this book.

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