Japan and ASEAN: Partnership for a Stable and Prosperous Future 9789812306500

Table of contents :
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. The Fukuda Doctrine
3. Japan’s ODA to ASEAN
4. Japan’s FDI to ASEAN
5. Asian Economic Crisis
6. Human and Cultural Exchange
7. Deepening Regional Cooperation
8. The Koizumi Initiative
9. Conclusions
References
About the Author

Citation preview

JAPAN AND ASEAN Partnership for a Stable and Prosperous Future

The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) was established as an autonomous organization in 1968. It is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia, particularly the many-faceted problems of stability and security, economic development, and political and social change. The Institute’s research programmes are the Regional Economic Studies (RES, including ASEAN and APEC), Regional Strategic and Political Studies (RSPS), and Regional Social and Cultural Studies (RSCS). ISEAS Publications, an established academic press, has issued more than 1,000 books and journals. It is the largest scholarly publisher of research about Southeast Asia from within the region. ISEAS Publications works with many other academic and trade publishers and distributors to disseminate important research and analyses from and about Southeast Asia to the rest of the world.

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Takaaki Kojima JAPAN AND ASEAN Partnership for a Stable and Prosperous Future

Published in Singapore in 2006 by Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace Pasir Panjang Singapore 119614 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. © 2006 Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. The responsibility for facts and opinions in this publication rests exclusively with the author, and his interpretations do not necessarily reflect the views or the policy of the Institute or its supporters. ISEAS Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Kojima, Takaaki. Japan and ASEAN : partnership for a stable and prosperous future. 1. Japan—Foreign relations—Southeast Asia. 2. Southeast Asia—Foreign relations—Japan. 3. Japan—Foreign relations—ASEAN countries. 4. ASEAN countries—Foreign relations—Japan. 5. Economic assistance, Japanese—Southeast Asia. 6. Investments, Japanese—Southeast Asia. 7. Japan—Foreign relations—1945-. 8. East Asia—Economic integration. 9. ASEAN. I. Title DS525.9 J3K81 2006 ISBN 981-230-377-4 Typeset by International Typesetters Pte Ltd Printed and bound in Singapore by PhotoPlates Pte Ltd

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The Monarchy in Contemporary Malaysia

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1 2. The Fukuda Doctrine 3 3. Japan’s ODA to ASEAN 6 4. Japan’s FDI to ASEAN 9 5. Asian Economic Crisis 13 6. Human and Cultural Exchange 17 v

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7. Deepening Regional Cooperation 19 8. The Koizumi Initiative 22 9. Conclusions 29 References 32 About the Author 33

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The Monarchy in Contemporary Malaysia

The lecture was delivered by His Excellency Takaaki Kojima as a Public Lecture organized by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies on 2 December 2005.

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1 Introduction

The first East Asian Summit (EAS) is scheduled to be held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in mid-December. EAS, with the participation of India, Australia and New Zealand, on top of ASEAN, Japan, China, and South Korea, will be a historic meeting. Prior to the EAS, I would like to review how Japan has engaged ASEAN and enhanced regional cooperation, afterwhich I would like to focus on JapanASEAN cooperation for the future. In his speech at the Nomura Singapore Seminar on 8 November, Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong pointed out that China and India are altering the global patterns of trade, investment, production and travel. In his words “the earth shakes when the Chinese 1

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dragon and the Indian elephant move”. Against the emergence of China and India, with a combined population totalling 2.4 billion, or half the global population, how can ASEAN and Japan remain relevant in East Asia?

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2 The Fukuda Doctrine

ASEAN was formed by five countries in 1967. Japan, after recovering from the devastation caused by its defeat in WWII, achieved rapid economic growth through the 1960s and 1970s. This pushed Japan into the position of an economic power. In the meantime, Japan started to provide ODA to Southeast Asian countries. Since the 1950s, Japanese companies have been investing heavily in Southeast Asian countries. This economic advancement sometimes caused strong public backlashes in some countries. “Anti-Japanese riots” took place in 1975 when then Prime Minister Tanaka visited Bangkok and Jakarta. The cause of these riots seemed complex and have not been fully explained. Some claimed 3

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the activities of Japanese companies were a resurgence of the Japanese invasion, this time by economic means. On the other hand, ASEAN, having witnessed the collapse of South Vietnam and the decreased presence of the United States in the region, faced the threat of the advancement of the communist bloc. ASEAN member countries tried to reinforce the initiatives and activities of ASEAN and held the first ASEAN summit in 1976. Against this backdrop, then Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda delivered his famous policy speech in Manila, setting out the vision of a basic philosophical framework for Japan’s relationship with ASEAN, after meeting with ASEAN leaders in Kuala Lumpur in 1977. This is what has come to be known as “the Fukuda Doctrine”. There were three pillars in the doctrine. First, Japan, a nation committed to peace, resolved to contribute to the peace and prosperity of Southeast Asia and the world, and avoid becoming a great military power despite its economic and technological capabilities. Second, Japan, as a true friend of Southeast Asian countries, would do its best to strengthen the relationship of mutual 4

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confidence and trust based on “heart-to-heart” understanding, and become an equal partner of ASEAN and its member countries. Third, Japan aimed to foster a relationship based on mutual understanding with the nations of Indochina, and thus contribute to the building of peace and prosperity throughout the region. Japan was determined to cooperate with them in their own efforts to strengthen their solidarity and resilience.

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3 Japan’s ODA to ASEAN

Now, how has Japan implemented this doctrine? Japan has provided development assistance totaling 221 billion dollars as of 2003. About 60 per cent of this was directed to Asia, and about 51.3 billion dollars, a quarter of the total amount of assistance, went to Southeast Asian countries. Japan has been the top donor to ASEAN countries, having contributed about three times more than the United States. This trend is little changed today. In fiscal year 2003, Japan provided ASEAN countries with about 25 per cent of the total bilateral assistance totaling approximately 6 billion dollars. As for Indonesia, about 70 per cent (9.2 billion dollars) of the total bilateral assistance which 6

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Indonesia received from 1994–2003 came from Japan, while China also received 61 per cent (9.7 billion dollars) of its total bilateral assistance from Japan. In the 1950s, GDP per capita in Southeast Asia had been no higher than that of subSaharan Africa. However, by the second half of the 1990s, despite the Asian Currency and Economic Crisis, Southeast Asia achieved a remarkable increase in GDP per capita. ASEAN, the main recipient of Japan’s ODA, achieved an average GDP per capita annual growth rate of more than 5.9 per cent from 1980 to 1999. Moreover, during 1990 to 2001, the percentage of the total population living on less than one dollar per day, decreased from 19.6 per cent to 10.2 per cent. Japan’s economic cooperation has largely contributed to the economic development of Southeast Asian countries. Certainly, the main factor has been the efforts by the countries of Southeast Asia. However, Japan’s assistance has played a crucial role. The particular features of Japan’s assistance to Southeast Asia are as follows: (1) much of Japan’s bilateral assistance toward the development of economic and social infrastructure including roads, 7

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ports, electric power stations, electric power transmission facilities, and water and sewerage systems, contributed in developing the investment environment of each country and brought out the vitality of the private sector; (2) such assistance was extended in a timely manner to fields that were suited to promoting direct investment and bringing about trade promotion; (3) human resource development, one of the fundamental factors for the economic development of Southeast Asia, received a boost from Japan’s active cooperation in education, human resource development and the training of engineers. On top of the bilateral assistance to ASEAN member countries, Japan-ASEAN regional cooperation such as the Japan-ASEAN Exchange Programme (JAEP), the JapanASEAN General Exchange Fund (JAGEF), ASEAN Promotion Centre on Trade, Investment, and Tourism (ASEAN Japan Centre) were implemented.

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4 Japan’s FDI to ASEAN

ASEAN countries, except Singapore, adopted a policy of import substituting industrialization through the 1970s. But this policy came up against a brick wall because their balance of trade and current balance had worsened due to the saturation of their domestic markets and a slowdown of the primary exports. With this as a turning point, these ASEAN countries switched to an export driven policy of industrial products with high value added and competitive prices. In search of a cheaper workforce, Japanese companies in the textile and consumer-electronics industries started to set up operations in ASEAN in the 1960s. This movement was accelerated after the Plaza Accord in 1985. In tandem with the 9

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new economic policy in ASEAN countries, Japanese investments to the ASEAN-5 (Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Philippines) intensified. Due to the increase in direct investments and expansion of exports, industrialization in the ASEAN countries made rapid progress. While the agriculture, forestry and fisheries industries’ contribution to GDP of these ASEAN countries decreased, that of the manufacturing industry and service industry increased. Direct investment led to the creation of employment and technology transfer. Export expansion promoted domestic demand expansion with an increase in national income. Needless to say, the increase in direct investment encouraged infrastructure construction activities and real estate investments. A middle-income group was formed in urban districts and the consumption of consumer durable goods such as home electronic appliances grew. Motorization also made rapid progress. The ASEAN countries achieved a high annual average economic growth rate of 7.7 per cent in the first half of the 90s. Japan enjoyed remarkable economic growth in the region first, followed by the four NIEs (Singapore, 10

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Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan) which adopted this economic model, and then, followed by other ASEAN countries which introduced the Japanese export promotion model. This is the so-called “Flying-geese economic development model”. Each country had accomplished remarkable economic growth likened to chasing after Japan in a flying formation of wild geese. Japan improved the economic infrastructure in these countries through ODA and its focus on human resource development assistance including education to groom a high-quality workforce. Japanese companies made direct investments, and produced high quality products, which contributed to the export expansion in ASEAN countries. It should be stressed that technology was transferred from Japanese experts and companies to ASEAN countries in this process. Economic development in the ASEAN countries dramatically increased their trade value with Japan. The total trade value of Japan-ASEAN in 1980 was 38.2 billion dollars, by 2003 this figure had tripled. Japan is now ASEAN’s second largest trade partner (14.1 per cent) after United States (14.8 per 11

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cent). ASEAN is the fourth largest trade partner of Japan (14 per cent), after United States (20.7 per cent), China (15.5 per cent), and EU (14.2 per cent).

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5 Asian Economic Crisis

The collapse of the USSR and the end of cold war saw ASEAN membership expand through the 1990s to include CLMV countries, and the regional body enter a new phase. In 1997, however, ASEAN faced a serious crisis. A series of currency or economic crises in Asia started with the sudden decline of the Thai baht in July 1997, and then spread to country after country, including Indonesia and the Republic of Korea, causing an unprecedented economic crisis that affected the entire regional economy. The real economies of these countries, which had been praised as the “East Asian miracle” and had achieved continued high growth, drastically deteriorated. In 1998, most of the ASEAN 13

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countries experienced negative growth (Thailand: minus 10.5 per cent; Indonesia: minus 13.2 per cent; Singapore: minus 0.9 per cent). The crises was a serious challenge to Japan, too, because the effectiveness of Japan’s contribution to Southeast Asian countries was to be tested. Japan responded quickly, and played a leading role in bilateral assistance in the initial response to the crisis. In addition, it not only provided support for liquidity to compensate the temporary lack of funds but also long-term stable funds by using all of its policy financing vehicles, including Yen loans. Under the New Miyazawa Initiative, which was announced at the IMF/World Bank Annual Meeting in October 1998, Japan provided a financial support scheme totalling 30 billion dollars, including medium and longterm financial assistance by Yen loans, the Export-Import Bank loans, etc. to bring about the recovery of the real economies of Southeast Asian countries. This 30 billion dollars contribution was by far the largest and most wide-ranging support package followed by China’s contribution of 4 billion dollars. The provision of such a large credit line made clear Japan’s determination to 14

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provide support to countries in crisis and served as a major backing for the restoration of international confidence in these countries. The Japanese Government extended its hands to those affected by the crisis. In addition to these measures, Japan also implemented emergency assistance for food and medical products, and provided aid for humanitarian, medical care, health measures totalling 1.2 billion dollars in scale. Japanese businesses also contributed greatly to the recovery of the real economies of Southeast Asian countries. While many foreign companies withdrew from Southeast Asia because of the crisis, most Japanese companies retained their operations in Southeast Asia, continuing their business activities while contending with the crisis. This can be shown by the rising membership trend experienced by the Japanese Chambers of Commerce and Industry in ASEAN countries. The total number of registered member in ASEAN countries in 1997 was 3,744 companies. Despite this crisis, the figure increased to 3,770 companies in 1998, and subsequently 3,862 companies in 1999. ASEAN countries which were affected by the crisis were able to overcome it in 15

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a relatively short period. Certainly, the main factor was again the resolute efforts of each government and its people, but the role played by Japan in supporting them was of considerable significance.

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6 Human and Cultural Exchange

The Japan-ASEAN relationship is not only limited to economic cooperation, investment and trade. As economic relations deepened, the human exchange between Japan and ASEAN countries grew. Over 90,000 Japanese reside in ASEAN countries. This figure is about three times as many as twenty years ago. On the other hand, the number of people from ASEAN countries living in Japan is rising more rapidly than the number of Japanese in ASEAN countries. There were only 13,000 people from ASEAN countries residing in Japan in 1980, but now over 300,000 people live there. The number of students from ASEAN countries studying in Japan is also steadily increasing. Only 828 students from 17

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ASEAN countries were in Japan in 1980, but in 2004 the number had increased to 8,488 students, ten times as many as in 1980. Many Japanese travellers also choose ASEAN as their destination. In 2004, over 3.5 million Japanese travellers visited ASEAN countries. About 600,000 Japanese travellers visited Singapore last year. It is not strange to see Japanese enjoy Vietnamese food and Gamelan music in Japan, while Singaporeans listen to J-Pop music and the Thais indulge in Japanese cartoons, otherwise known as anime.

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7 Deepening Regional Cooperation

As I have mentioned, the history of JapanASEAN cooperation dates back to the founding of ASEAN. Since the mid-1970s the relationship has deepened with ASEAN’s development as a regional institution. In recent years, the international environment surrounding Japan and ASEAN has undergone major changes, and a new economic cooperation network has gradually taken shape in this region. The ASEAN+3 Summit, started in 1997 immediately after the Asian Economic Crisis, has been followed by the expansion of regional cooperation by the ASEAN+3 in various fields, including nine ministerial level meetings. After experiencing the Asian crisis, Japan fully realized the 19

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necessity of intensifying regional cooperation, and has been playing a leading role in regional financial and monetary cooperation, in particular the Chiang Mai Initiative. Last month, Japan and Singapore agreed to increase the amount of their currency swap from 1 billion dollars to 4 billion dollars under the Chiang Mai Initiative arrangement. The web of FTA/EPAs that has been woven in the region, was first started by the Japan–Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement of 2002. And now with the remarkable economic growth in China, the share of trade within East Asia (excluding India, Australia, and New Zealand) has increased from 41 per cent in 1990 to 52 per cent in 2003, which surpasses NAFTA’s 44.5 per cent. Economic interdependence in this region has been deepened close to the level of the EU’s 60.3 per cent. In the area of security, we have seen a paradigm shift in security concepts. On top of the threat from the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) including nuclear devices, we are faced with non-conventional threats such as terrorist attacks and piracies. Regional cooperation in the health and sanitation sector to counter diseases such as 20

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SARS and the Avian Flu has also become important. Japan has been making constant diplomatic efforts to achieve peace and prosperity in the Asia-Pacific region to bring about peaceful and stable international order. In this context, Japan has worked to maintain and strengthen its relationship with the United States, which is the linchpin of Japanese foreign policy. Under the concept of the “Japan–United States alliance in the global context”, Japan and the United States have been collaborating closely in dealing with the challenges facing the international community. Therefore, the Japan–U.S. alliance based on the Japan– U.S. Security Arrangements is the optimal strategic and realistic option for protecting Japan’s safety. Moreover, the presence of the United States ensures peace and stability in the Asia-Pacific region including ASEAN.

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8 The Koizumi Initiative

In January 2002, in Singapore, Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi made a policy speech, setting out a new vision of a basic framework for Japan’s relationship with ASEAN. In this speech, Prime Minister Koizumi announced the “Koizumi Initiative”. He proposed that in the twenty-first century, Japan and ASEAN as sincere and open partners, should strengthen their cooperation under the basic concept of “acting together, advancing together”, and introduced the idea of an “East Asian Community” that also includes Australia and New Zealand. 2003 marked the Japan-ASEAN Interchange Year and in December 2003, the Japan-ASEAN Commemorative Summit was held in Tokyo, 22

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where all the leaders of ASEAN countries had a meeting outside ASEAN for the first time. In this Summit, Prime Minister Koizumi clearly reiterated that Japan would continue to regard its relationship with ASEAN as of utmost importance and confirmed that Japan and ASEAN should further develop their relations as sincere and open partners that “act together, advance together”. On that occasion, Japan signed the Declaration on Accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC). As mentioned at the outset, the East Asia Summit will be held for the first time in Kuala Lumpur later this month. This Summit comes as a big step toward the creation of the East Asia Community, proposed by Prime Minister Koizumi in 2002. I believe the Japan-ASEAN relationship should be the engine for the creation of the EAC because we have accumulated, for more than thirty years, a solid foundation of regional cooperation. We should promote East Asia cooperation, utilizing the Japan-ASEAN cooperation model. The rise of China and India has changed the international environment surrounding ASEAN. Professor Wang Gungwu even indicated that “China Fear” has been replaced by 23

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“China Fever” in the eyes of ASEAN. However, the importance of Japan for ASEAN would not be changed inspite of the rise of both powers. Needless to say, Japan is a global economic power second only to the United States and its economy is back on track after more than a decade long recession. Japan’s GDP is three times as large as that of China and nearly seven times that of India. The total trade value of Japan-ASEAN was still twice that of China-ASEAN, and nearly ten times more than India-ASEAN (in 2002). The accumulated FDI from Japan to ASEAN from 1995 to 2003 was approximately 28 billion dollars, which is forty-four times larger than that from China and forty-two times that from India. Above all, Japanese companies which have deep involvement in ASEAN countries including Singapore, have come to be strong engines for economic growth in ASEAN countries. Thus Japan-ASEAN economic relations driven by Japan’s direct investment are one of the main locomotives to substantially strengthen the regional economy. In this regard, let me quote the remarks by three of Singapore’s leaders. In his speech in 2000, then SM Lee Kuan Yew said that 24

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“…with a strong presence in nearly all major sectors of Singaporean’s economy, Japanese companies accounts for about one third of MNCs operating here…. Through these investments, Singaporean learned reliable labor management and productive practices much as Quality Control Circle (QCC) and On-the-job Training (OJT)…”. PM Lee Hsien Loong, during his visit to Japan in May this year, said “…Japan possesses advanced technology and deep capabilities unmatched by any other country in the region. Japanese MNCs can offer ASEAN countries investments, know-how, jobs and access to developed countries’ markets. It will be a long time before Chinese MNCs can do the same…”. SM Goh Chok Tong stressed in the above-mentioned speech that the JapanASEAN relationship will be the most important for ASEAN in the next twenty years, at the very least. It has been pointed out that Japanese manufacturing companies might have shifted the focus of their investment from ASEAN to China. This is not the case. According to Japan’s METI statistics which covers capital expenditure by Japanese local entities whose sources of finance include not only funds 25

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directly sourced from Japan, but also funds sourced locally, such as internal funds and borrowings, and the funds sourced from other countries. The accumulated amount of Japanese foreign direct investment to ASEAN from 1951 to 2003 exceeded 100 billion dollars, four times larger than that to China 28 billion dollars. Japanese investment in the ASEAN-5 stood at 4.6 billion dollars in 2004, still much higher than its investment in China, which amounted to 3.4 billion dollars. The same METI statistics show that in recent years Japanese manufacturing companies in ASEAN invested most heavily in the electrical machinery industry and transportation industry followed by the chemical industry. It is a fact that China’s share of total overseas investment by Japanese manufacturing companies increased, but importantly, the increase in China’s share did not come at the expense of ASEAN’s share. The recent JETRO surveys show that Japanese companies are expanding in ASEAN. For instance, Japanese electronics manufacturers tended to produce a wide range of products in each member nation until recently. However, tariff reductions 26

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on the intra-ASEAN trade of the original six ASEAN members from 1 January 2003 under AFTA consequently deepened the economic integration of ASEAN, and drove Japanese electronics manufacturers to adopt a strategy of concentrating production of similar products in a single country to attain economies of scale. In the case of the automobile industry, Japanese automobile manufacturers are vigorously promoting the complementary use of facilities in ASEAN to raise the local content rate. A network of components suppliers has also been established within ASEAN. Economic development in China has had a new impact on the network. In the electronics industry, it appears that Japanese electronics manufacturers have begun to shift some of their assembly line operations from advanced countries in ASEAN to China or less advanced countries in ASEAN, spurred by the availability of low-cost labour. On the other hand, it seems that at present, Japanese electronics manufacturers tend to concentrate their production in advanced industries in ASEAN, where workers are experienced and skilled especially in areas that require high technology. In this way they have adopted a strategy to further diversify 27

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investment in production facilities both in ASEAN and China through “concentration with specification”. We should consider the architecture of East Asia, based upon the closely established Japan-ASEAN relationship. It should be noted that unlike the case for the European Community, regional cooperation in East Asia has grown more or less on the de facto basis mainly in the economic filed. Furthermore, compared with Europe, East Asian countries have far more divergent historical, cultural, religious backgrounds and there exist a huge disparity in their economic standards. In this regard, it is important to narrow the economic disparity among ASEAN countries. The broader architecture of East Asia should include not only China, but also India, as well as Australia and New Zealand, so that we could make the rise of China and India an important opportunity for the region including Japan and ASEAN, and to strike a proper economic and geopolitical balance. We should aim for EAC to be outward oriented and inclusive.

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9 Conclusions

Many people lost their lives and left behind bereaved families in the tsunami disaster, which was caused by the large-scale earthquake off the coast of Sumatra at the end of 2004. After the disaster, the special ASEAN Leaders’ Meeting on the Aftermath of the Earthquake and Tsunami was held in Jakarta on 6 January 2005. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi stated that the pains felt by Asian countries are our own pains, and a disaster in Asia is nothing but ours as well. As just described, Japan and ASEAN are trustworthy partners “acting together, advancing together” for stability and prosperity in the future. It is not a coincidence that this concept was announced by Prime 29

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Minister Koizumi in Singapore, a country which has common interests in various areas and a strong relationship with Japan. I am convinced that Singapore will continue to be the regional gateway and reliable partner of Japan in the coming years. Japan and ASEAN need each other as interdependent and complementary partners. It is a mission imposed on all of us to reinforce each other’s relationship and mutual trust. If this is achieved, the stability and prosperity of ASEAN will be enhanced. This is desirable for Japan too. Japan continues to be important for ASEAN’s future, and there will be no change in the mutually beneficial relationship established between Japan and ASEAN through decades, even though the international environment surrounding ASEAN has been significantly altered with the emergence of China and India. In regional fora in East Asia such as ASEAN+3 or the East Asia Summit, Japan supports ASEAN’s aspiration to be in the driver’s seat. ASEAN should play the main role in coordinating regional cooperation including balancing the big powers in the region, Japan, China, and India. For this reason, Japan supports the further integration 30

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Conclusions

of ASEAN. In terms of economy and security, the deeper ASEAN is integrated, the better it is for Japan and East Asia as a whole. Japan should on its part ensure the continued engagement of the U.S. as the anchor for regional security and stability. From these observations, close Japan-ASEAN cooperation will be the main pillar for East Asia Community which should aim to be outward oriented and inclusive. Thus Japan and ASEAN are relevant and indispensable for such community building.

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References

Japan-ASEAN Centre. 2005 ASEAN-Japan, Statistical Pocketbook. Tokyo, 2005. The Economic Cooperation Bureau, Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Japan’s ODA White Paper 2003 — Goals of the Revised ODA Charter. Tokyo, 2005. ———. Japan’s ODA White Paper 2004 — Accomplishments and Progress of 50 years. Tokyo, 2005. Tomo, Kinoshita, and Kishida Hideki, and Amemiya Aichi. “Strategy of Japanese manufactures in ASEAN and China in light of emerging FTA initiatives”. Paper in Major Issues for the World Economy Looking to 2005, Macro Economy Research Conference by Tokyo Club Foundation for Global Studies, 8–9 November 2004, Tokyo. http://www.tcf.or.jp/seminars/2004/2004110809.html.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR His Excellency Takaaki Kojima has been Japan’s Ambassador to Singapore since August 2004. He was previously Director-General of the Intelligence and Analysis Bureau (2002). Other portfolios he held in the Government of Japan include: Director of International Agreements Division, Treaties Bureau (1987); Counsellor in the Japanese Embassy in the People’s Republic of China (1989); Minister in the Embassy of Japan in the United Kingdom (1992); Deputy Director-General, Consular and Migration Affairs Department (1995); Deputy Secretary General (International Affairs), Fair Trade Commission 33

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(1997); Consul-General in Sao Paulo (1999); Minister in the Embassy of Japan in the United States (2001). Ambassador Kojima graduated from Tokyo University (1970) and Cambridge University (1974). He also served as a Fellow in the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University (2001–02).

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